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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
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UNIVERSAL
PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY
OF
I O G R A P H Y
AND
MYTHOLOGY
BY J. THOMAS, A.M., M.D.,
AUTHOR OF
THE SYSTEM OF PRONUNCIATION IN " LIPPINCOTT'S PRONOUNCING GAZETTEER OF THE WORLD,
AND OF THE PRONOUNCING VOCABULARIES OF BIOGRAPHICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
NAMES IN "WEBSTER'S UNABRIDGED DICTIONARY."
VOL. II.
PHILADELPHIA:
J. B. LIPPINCOTT AND CO.
1870.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by
J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO.,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
UCCHUS
1237
IBN-KHALLIKAN
I.
I-ac'-ehus, [Gr. "I<z/q;oc,] a surname or synonym of
BACCHUS, which see.
I-am'be, [Gr. 'lu/i;3r/,] a servant-maid of Metanira,
Queen of Eleusis, was said to be a daughter of Pan. By
her jokes or tricks she amused Ceres when the latter
was in distress. Iambic poetry is supposed to have
derived its name from her.
lamblichus. See JAMBI.ICHUS.
I-ap'e-tus, [Gr. 'la-erof; Fr. JAPET, zht'pi',] in classic
mythology, a Titan, and a son of Uranus. He was the
father of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Menoetius.
He is by some considered to be the same as the Japheth
of Scripture. lapetus was regarded by the ancient
Greeks and Romans as the ancestor of the human race,*
and, according to Scripture, the descendants of Japheth
inhabited the "isles of the Gentiles," (Genesis x. 5,)
which would seem to signify the numerous islands along
the coasts of Europe and Asia Minor, and probably
also the adjacent portions of the two continents ; in other
words, all that part of the world with which the early
Greeks were acquainted.
I-a'si-oii [Gr. 'laaiuv} or I-a'si-us, a fabulous son of
Jupiter and Electra, (or of Minos and Corythus.) He
is said to have been beloved by Ceres, who bore him a
son, Plutus, the god of riches.
Ibarra, e-p.ar'ra, (JoAQUix,) a Spanish printer, born
at Saragossa in 1725, carried on business in Madrid.
He was distinguished for the perfection of his publica
tions, especially for his editions of" Don Quixote," (1780,)
and a Spanish version of Sallust, (1772.) Died in 1785.
I'bas, a Syrian priest of the fifth century, acted a
prominent part in the disputes about Nestorianism. He
was chosen Bishop of Edessa in 436 A. D. At the Coun
cil of Ephesus, in 449, he was deposed on the charge of
favouring the Nestoi ians ; but he was reinstated by the
Council of Chalcedony in 451. Died in 457.
Ib'bet-sou, (Mrs. AGNES,) an English botanist, born
in London in 1757. She investigated the structure of
plants, and wrote botanical papers which were inserted
in Nicholson's "Journal" and the " Philosophical Maga
zine," (1809-17.) Died in 1823.
Ibbetson, (JULIUS CAESAR,) an English landscape-
painter, born at Scarborough, copied and imitated with
success the works of Berghem. lie wrote an " Accidence
or Gamut of Oil-Painting for Beginners." Died in 1817.
Ib'bot, (BENJAMIN,) an English divine, born near
Swaffham, in Norfolk, in 1680. lie became chaplain
to George I. in 1716, and prebendary of Westminster
in 1724. He delivered the Boyle lectures in 1713-14.
Died in 1725. Two volumes of his sermons were pub
lished in 1726.
See DR. S. CLARKE, " Life of Benjamin Ibbot."
Iberville, d', de'beR'vel', (LEMOINE or LEMOYNE,)
a Canadian navigator, born at Montreal in 1642, distin
guished himself in many actions against the English.
He commanded a vessel sent by the French government
to explore the mouth of the Mississippi, which he dis
covered in March, 1699. He ascended the river, and
built a fort on its border. Died at Havana in 1706.
Ibi, ee'bee, (SiMBAi.no,) an Italian painter, a pupil
of Perugino, was born at Perugia, and flourished between
1505 and 1528.
JB2\~, ib'n, an Arabic word signifying "son," and
forming a part of many names ; as, IBN-HANBAL, the
"son of Hanbal," etc. It is often written Ben; as, AI.I-
BEN-ABI-TALIB, for ALF.K-!BN-ABEE (-ABi) -TAi.iB.
Ibn-Abeet (-Abi)-Yakoob,(or-Y'akub,) Urn a'bee
ya'koob' (Abool-Faraj, a'hool fdr'aj,) otherwise called
An-Nadeem (-Nadim)-Mohammed-Ibn-Ishak, an
na-deem' mo-ham'med Tb'n is-hak', an Arabian writer,
chiefly known as the author of a valuable catalogue of
books in the Arabic language, with brief and excellent
* See Horace, lib. i., Carmen 3, in which the phrases "Gens liu-
mana" and " lapeti genus" are used almost synonymously.
t See note on page 35.
notices of their authors. Nothing is known of his life,
except that he wrote in the latter part of the tenth century.
Ibn-Al-Atseer, (-Atsyr,) Ib'n al at-seeR', (Abool-
Hassan-Alee, or Aboul.-Abul) -Hassan- All, a'bool
I has'san a'lee,) surnamed Az-ED-DEEN, (AzzEDnYN,) (i.e.
the "Splendour of Religion,") an Arabian historian, borr.
in Mesopotamia about 1160, became a citizen of Mosul.
He excelled in the science of prophetic traditions, and
had great knowledge of history, as appears by his
Complete Chronicle from the origin of the world to
his own time. Died in 1233.
See HAJI-KHALFAH, " Lexicon Bibliographicum ;" VON HAMMER-
PURCSTAI.L, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber."
Ibn-Al-Atseer (or -Al-Atsyr)-Nasr- Allah, Ib'n al-
at-seeR' nas'r al'lah, written also Alatyr and Alatir, an
Arabian writer, a brother of the preceding, was born at
Jezeereh-Benee-Omar, on the Tigris, in 1162. He visited
the court of Saladin, who engaged him as vizier to his
son and heir, Melik-Afdhal. He was eminent for his learn
ing, and wrote a treatise on Prosody, and other works.
See Inx-KnAi.LiKANT, "Biographical Dictionary."
Ibn-Bajah. See AVENPACE.
Ibn-Batuta. See BATOOTAH.
Ibii-Doreid, Ib'n do'racl', (or do'rid',) a celebrated
Arabian poet, born at Bassorah in 838 A.D. He culti
vated various kinds of poetry with distinguished success.
Died at Bagdad in 933.
Ibn-Hanbal, Ib'n han'bal, (Ahmed, an'med,) the
founder of the fourth sect of orthodox Mohammedans,
was born at Bagdad (or, as some say, at Meru) in the
year of the Hejrah 164. He attained a great reputation
for virtue and knowledge of the traditions of Mohammed.
He received many traditions from Shafei, with whom he
was intimate. For his refusal to acknowledge the Koran
to have been created, he was scourged and imprisoned
by the caliph Motassem. He died at Bagdad in A.D.
855. The sect became very numerous after his death.
See SALE'S " Koran."
Ibn-Haukal. See HAUKAL.
Ibn-Ishak, (or -Ishaq,) Ib'n is-hSk', an Arabian his
torian, who, at the request of the caliph Al-Mansoor,
wrote a life of Mohammed the prophet. He is an elo
quent but not a trustworthy writer. Died in 768 A.D.
See SPKENGER, " Life of Mohammad," p. 69 et seg.
Ibn-Khakan, (or -Khacan.) See AI.-FATH.
Ibn-Khaldoon, (-Khaldcun or -Khaldun,) Ib'n
Kal'dooi/ ( Walee-ed-Deen- (or Waly-Eddyn-)
Aboo-Zeid-Abd-er-Rahman, wa'lee ed-deen' a'boo
zTd abd-er-rah'nian,) a celebrated Arabian historian, born
at Tunis in 1332. He removed to Cairo, where he distin
guished himself by his uprightness as a judge, and was
chosen chief of the Cadees (Cadis) of the sect of Malek-
ites in 1384. Afterwards, while on a journey to Syria,
he was made prisoner by Taimoor, (the famous Tamer
lane,) by whom he was treated with great kindness and
respect. His principal work is a valuable "History of
the Arabs, Persians, and Berbers, with Preliminary
Observations,'' which was recently published in Fiance.
"We cannot but conceive, in reading this," says Sil-
vestre de Sacy, " a very high idea of his judgment,
sagacity, and erudition, and of the great variety of his
knowledge." Died in 1406.
See his Autobiography, published in the "Journal Asiatique" of
1844; SILVF.STKK DK S^cv, " Chrestomathie Arabe ;" CASIRI, "Uilli-
otheca Arabico Hispana."
Ibn-Khallikan, Ib'n Kai'le-kSn', written also Ebn-
Khalican or -Khilcan, (Shems-ed-Deen (or-Eddin)
Abool- (Aboul- or Abul-) Abbas-Ahmed, shems
ed-deen' a'bool ab'bls' an'med,) a celebrated Arabian
historian, born at Arbela in 1211. He became grand
Cadee (Cadi) of Damascus about 1261. His chief work
is a " Biographical Dictionary of Famous Moslems,"
which contains over eight hundred articles. An English
translation of it was begun by Mr. Slane, the first volume
of which was published in 1841. Died in 1282.
€as/£;cas.r;g;5arfl';gasy,- G,u,K,guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (Jtj^See Explanations, p. 23.)
1BN-KOTETBAH
1238
IDA
Ibn-Koteybah or Abdallah-Ibn-Koteybah, ab-
dil'Iah Tb'n ko-ta'bah or ko-tl'bah, written also Cotey-
bah and Qotaybali, an Arabian historian and critic, born
at Bagdad in 828 A.D. ; died in 889.
See IBN-KHALLIKAN, "Biographical Dictionary."
Ibn-Maimoon, (-Maimuii or -Maimoun.) See
M. \1MON IDES.
Ibn-Rosched, (or -Roshd.) See AVERROES.
Ibn-Sina. See AVICENNA.
Iba-Tofail, (-Tofayl.) See ABOO-BEKR-IBN-TOFAIL
Ibnul-Abbar. See KODHAEE.
Ibn-Yoonas, (-Younas or -Yunas,) Ib'n yoo'nas,
sometimes spelled Ibn-Youuis, (Alee- (or All-) Ibn-
Abderrahman, a'lee Tb'n abd-er-rah/man,) one of the
most eminent Arabian astronomers, was born in 979 A.D.
He made at Cairo a series of observations, the results of
which he published in a work called the "Table of Ibn-
Yoonas." Died in 1008.
Ibn-Zohr. See AVENZOAR.
Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) written also Ibrahym, the
Arabic name of the patriarch ABRAHAM, which see.
Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,*) ib-ri-heem', thirteenth caliph
of the Omeyyacl dynasty, was the son of Waleed (Walicl)
I. He began to reign in Damascus in 744 A.D., and a
few months after was deposed by Merwan. The Arab
historians disagree respecting his subsequent fate.
Ibraheem "(Ibrahim) I., (Aboo-Abdallah, a'boo
ab-dal'lah,) founder of the dynasty of Aglabides in Africa,
was the son of Aglab, and a native of Arabia. About
800 A.D. he was appointed Governor of Africa by Haroun-
al-Raschid. After the death of the latter, (808,) Ibraheem
assumed the royal power. Died about 813.
Ibraheem (Ibrahim) I., a Turkish Sultan, brother
of Amurath IV., was proclaimed in 1640, at the age of
twenty-three. His cruelty and other vices excited against
him a powerful and successful conspiracy, by which he
was deposed and strangled in 1648 or 1649. He was
succeeded by his son, Mahomet IV.
Ibraheem (Ibrahim) II., Emperor of Hindustan, the
son of Iskander, began to reign in 1517, being the third
of the Afghan dynasty. lie was a very unpopular ruler.
In 1526 the Mogul Baber invaded India, a battle was
fought at Paniput, where Ibraheem was defeated and
killed, and the Mogul dynasty was established in India.
Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) a favourite of Sultan Solyman
II., was a Genoese by birth, and was taken to Constan
tinople by pirates in his infancy. He became grand
vizier about 1523, and signalized his courage in the war
against Hungary in 1527. He was put to death, at the
instigation of the Sultana, in 1535.
Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) born at Aleppo, was the most
eminent among the Ottoman jurists. His fame rests upon
a great work styled the " Confluence of the Seas," (" Mul-
teka al-Abhar,") which is a complete code of laws. Died
in 1549.
Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) Pasha of Egypt, the son of
Mehemet Alee, (Ali,) was born in Rumelia in 1789. He
conquered the Wahabees, in Arabia, about 1818. In
1824 he commanded an army and fleet which Mehemet
Alee sent against the Greeks. Having landed in the
Morea with 10,000 men in 1825, he took several towns
and committed many atrocities. The success of the allies
at Navarino and the French invasion of the Morea forced
him to retire to Egypt in 1828. In a war waged between
the Viceroy of Egypt and the Sultan, Ibraheem took
Aleppo and defeated the Turks in a great battle at
Konieh, in Syria, in 1832. His victorious progress was
arrested by the intervention of the European powers in
1833. Died in 1848.
See LABAT, "L'figypte, ancienne et moderne."
Ibraheem (Ibrahim) Bey, a famous Mameluke
chief, born in Circassia about 1735. He went to Egypt
* The Arabic texts are by no means uniform in regard to the
penultima of this name ; it is often made short, but, if we mistake
not, more frequently long, as given above. It is proper, however, to
remark that a single instance of the insertion of the Alif (the sign of
the long vowel) ought to outweigh several omissions, as the latter
mij;ht more easily be the result of neglect or haste. The frequent
omission of the long vowel in the manuscript of writers who are
generally correct, merely proves that the insertion is not deemed
absolutely indispensable. Its omission may be compared to the
neglecting to dot one's is in writing English, — a fault, undoubtedly, but
a fault often committed by writers otherwise remarkable for accuracy.
iii his youth, and entered the service of Mohammed Bey.
After the death of the latter,Ibraheem shared with Moorad
Bey the sovereignty of Egypt. When Bonaparte invaded
Egypt in 1798 and defeated Moorad, Ibraheem retired
to Syria. In 1800 he took part against the French at
Cairo, etc., and, after they evacuated Egypt, was again
Governor of Cairo, until supplanted by Mehemet Alee.
Died in 1816.
Ibraheem (Ibrahim) Effendi, (cT-fen'dee,) a learned
Turk, who was born about 1640, and filled considerable
offices at Constantinople. He was converted to Chris
tianity, was baptized in 1671, retired to Venice, and as
sumed the name of Paul Antonio Effendi. He translated
several books of the Bible into Arabic. Died in 1697.
Ibraheem (Ibrahim) Khan-Ogli,(o'glee,) was grand
vizier of Turkey when Mahomet I. died, in 1421. He
took measures to secure the succession of Mahomet's
son, Amurath II., who was then absent from the capital.
To reward this service, Amurath gave him the title of
Khan, with hereditary privileges which made his family
the first in the empire.
Ibrahim. See IBRAHEEM.
Ibrahym. See IBRAHEEM.
Ib'jf-cus, ['ISf'KOf,] a Greek lyric poet, born at Rhe-
gium, in Italy, flourished about 560 B.C., and passed part
of his life at Samos. His poems, which were chiefly
love-songs, are lost, except a few fragments. lie was
the fifth lyric poet of the Alexandrian canon, and had
a high reputation. He is said to have been killed by
robbers. His death has furnished the subject of one
of the finest of Schiller's minor poems, "Die Kraniche
des Ibycus."
Iga. See ISA.
Icard, e'kSii', (CHARLES,) a French Protestant min
ister and writer, born in Languedoc in 1636. lie was
driven into exile by persecution in 1682, and settled at
Bremen in 1688.
Icare. See ICARUS.
I-ca'rl-us, [Gr. '[Kuptog,] also called Icarus, an Athe
nian, to whom Bacchus is said to have taught the cultiva
tion of the vine. He was killed by some shepherds, to
whom he had given wine and who suspected that he had
poisoned them. The legend adds that he was changed
into the constellation Bootes.
Icarius, a Lacedaemonian, the father of Penelope.
He urged her to remain at Sparta after she was married
to Ulysses ; but she preferred to follow her husband.
Ic'a-rus, [Gr. 'kapof; Fr. ICARE, e'k^R',] son of Das-
dalus, with whom, according to the Greek mythology,
he was imprisoned in the Labyrinth of Crete. Having
attempted to fly by means of artificial wings made with
wax, they were melted by his approaching too near the
sun, and he fell into the sea, near the island of Samos,
which received from him the name of the Icarian Sea.
Iccius, ik'shej-ns, a Roman philosopher, lived about
30 B.C., and was a friend of Horace, who addressed to
him an epistle and an ode.
Icher, e'shaiii', (PIERRE,) a French physician and
Hellenist, born at Montpellier in 1658; died in 1713.
I-cil'I-us, (Lucius,) a Roman tribune, who was affi
anced to the celebrated Virginia. He was elected tribune
of the people in 456 B.C., and favoured the cause of the
plebeians. He was one of the leaders of the successful
revolt against -the Decemviri about 450 B.C.
See NIEBUHR, "History of Rome."
Ic-ti'iius, ['knvof,] a celebrated Grecian architect,
who flourished about 450 B.C. He built several grand
temples, among which was that of Apollo Epicurius in
Arcadia. The most memorable monument of his genius
is the Parthenon of Athens, built by order of Pericles.
Calibrates was associated with Ictinus as architect of
this edifice, which is probably the most perfect speci
men of Grecian architecture in any age. Its length was
227 feet and its breadth about 100. (See CALLICRATES.)
See PAUSANIAS, book viii.
I9wara. See ISWARA.
Fda, [Fr. IDE, ed,] Countess of Boulogne, born about
1040, was the mother of Godfrey of Bouillon, crusader
and King of Jerusalem. She was eminent for wisdom
and piety. Died in 1113.
See BAILLET, " Vies des Saints."
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged: a, e, !, 6, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
IVACE
1239
IN RE
Idace. See IDACIUS.
Idacius, e-da'sheHis, [Fr. IDACE, e'dSss',] a Spanish
chronicler, born at Lamego about the end of the fourtli
century. He became Bishop of Chaves, (Aquae Flaviae,)
in Portugal. He was author of a " Chromcon" of the
period from 379 to 468 A.D., which was printed in Paris
by Sirmond in 1619.
See N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova."
I'das, [Gr. "Wof,] a son of Aphareus, took part in the
Argonautic expedition, ar.d was renowned for valour.
Idas and his l)rother Lynceus having quarrelled with
the Dioscu'ri, Idas killed Castor, and was in turn killed
by Pollux.
Ide. See IDA.
Ideler, ee'deh-ler, (CHRISTIAN LUDWIG,) a Prussian
astronomer and linguist, born near Perleberg in 1766.
He was appointed in 1816 tutor to the princes William
Frederick and Charles, and in 1821 became professor at
the Berlin University. He was the author of " Historical
Researches on the Astronomical Observations of the
Ancients," (1806,) "On the Calendar of Ptolemy," and
other similar treatises. He was a member of the French
Institute, and the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. Died
in Berlin in 1846.
Ideler, (JULIUS LUDWIG,) a physician, a son of the
preceding, was born at Berlin in 1809. He published
" Meteorology of the Ancient Greeks and Romans,"
(1832,) "Hermapion, or Rudiments of the Hieroglyphic
Literature of Ancient Egypt," (1841,) and other anti
quarian treatises. Died in 1842.
Ideler, (KARL WILHELM,) a Prussian physician, born
in 1 795, lived in Berlin. He is known as a writer on
mental maladies.
Ides, ee'de's, (EVERARD ISKRANTZ,) a German travel
ler, born in Holstein about 1660. He was sent to Pekin
by Peter the Great in 1692 to negotiate a treaty of com
merce, and returned in 1694. A narrative of his journey,
published in 1704, is a work of some merit.
Idmaii, id'man, (XiLS,) a Ssvedish philologist, pub
lished in 1778 "Researches on the Finnish People, and
the Relations between the Finnish Language and the
Greek."
Idomenee. See IDOMENEUS.
I-dom'e-neus, [Gr. 'I6ofj.evd'f ; Fr. IDOMENEE, e'clo'-
ma'na',] King of Crete, a semi-fabulous Greek hero, said
to be a grandson of Minos. According to Homer, he
fought bravely at the siege of Troy. Having been ex
pelled from Crete by his subjects, he went to Italy and
founded a city.
Idomeneus, [Gr. 'l&ftevevf,] a Greek historian, born
at Lampsacus, lived about 300 B.C. He was a friend and
disciple of Epicurus. His works are not extant.
See Vossius, "De Historicis Graecis. "
Iduna, e-doo'na, or Idun, sometimes written Idun-
na, [etymology doubtful,] in the Norse mythology, the
goddess of immortality, who keeps a casket of apples, of
which if the gods partake they never grow old. (See
THIASSI.) Iduna is said to be the wife of Bragi, the god
of poetry, who in one sense may be said to possess the
gift of immortality.
See THORPE'S " Northern Mythology," vol. i.
lefremoff or lefremov. See YEFREMOF.
leuichen. See JENICHEN.
lermak. See Y'ERMAK.
lezdedjerd. See YEZDEJERD.
Ifiland, if'flant, (AUGUST WILHELM,) a celebrated
German actor and dramatist, born at Hanover in 1759.
He became director of the National Theatre at Berlin in
1796, and in 1811 was appointed director-general of the
royal plays. Among his most popular dramas are " The
Hunters," ("Die Jager,") "The Advocates," and "The
Old Bachelors," ("Die Hagestolzen.") He also pub
lished several treatises on the dramatic art. " It is
impossible," says Madame de Stael, "to have more
originality than Iffland; and he is as superior in the
theory as in the practice of his art." Died in 1814.
See his " Autobiography" in the first volume of his Dramas, 18
vols., 1798-1809; J. L. FORMEY, "A. W. Inland's Krankheits-
geschichte," 1814; KUNZ, " Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler :
Inland's mid Devrient's," 1838.
Igdrasil, (Yggdrasil.) See ODIN.
Iglesias de la Casa, e-gla'se-as da la ka'sa, (JosE,)
a Spanish poet, born at Salamanca in 1753 ; died in 1791.
See LONGFELLOW'S "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Ignace. See IGNATIUS.
Ignarra, en-yar'ra, (NiccoiA) an Italian antiquary
and priest, born near Naples in 1728, was a good clas
sical scholar. He became professor of divinity in the
Royal University of Naples in 1771, director of the royal
printing-office in 1782,31x1 preceptor of the prince Fran
cis de Bourbon in 1784. He wrote, besides other works,
an esteemed commentary "De Palaestra Neapolitana,"
|(I770.) Died in 1 808.
SeeCASTALDl, "Ignarrae Vita," prefixed to his " Opuscoli," 1807.
Ignatius, ig-na'she-us, [Gr. 'b/vu-uo^ ; Fr. IGNACE,
en'ytss'; Ger. IGNAZ, ig-nats'; It. IGNAZIO, en-yat'se-o,]
surnamed THEOPH'ORUS, one of the earliest Christian
Fathers, and one of the most eminent among the imme
diate successors of the apostles, is supposed to have
been a native of Syria. About 67 A.n. he became bishop
or minister of the church of Antioch by the appointment
of Saint Peter, or, according to some writers, of Saint
John. He had filled this station acceptably about forty
years, when the emperor Trajan began a persecution
of the Christians. Ignatius was brought before Trajan
at Antioch, and, refusing to renounce his religion, was
condemned, and suffered martyrdom at Rome in 107,
being exposed to wild beasts in the amphitheatre. His
epistles to the Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrneans, and
to Polycarp are extant, and are regarded as precious
memorials of the primitive Church. In one of his last
epistles he wrote, " Now I begin to be a disciple : I weigh
neither visible nor invisible things, that I may win Christ !"
See CAVE, " Historia Literaria ;" PEARSON, " Vindicia; Ignatianas,"
Cambridge, 1672; W. CURETON, " Vindicis Ignatianae, or the Genu
ine Writings of Saint Ignatius vindicated from the Charge of Heresy,"
8vo, 1846; COETI.OSQUET, " Vie de Saint- Ignace, fiveque d' Antioch,"
1857 ; MRS. JAMESON, " History of Sacred and Legendary Art."
Ignatius, Patriarch of Constantinople, born in 799
A.D., was the son of the emperor Michael Curopalates.
When the latter was deposed, Ignatius entered a monas
tery, and became eminent for piety and wisdom. In 846
he was raised to the dignity of patriarch. Eleven years
after, he was banished and cruelly treated for his opposi
tion to Bardas, an uncle of Michael III., who appointed
in his place the ambitious Photius. The schism between
the Greek and Roman Churches began while Photius
was in office, and has continued ever since that time. In
867 the emperor Basilius reinstated Ignatius, who as
sembled in 869 an oecumenical council at Constantinople,
which condemned Photius and his party. Died in 877.
See DAVID NICETAS, "Vita S. Ignatii," 1604.
Ignatius Loyola. See LOYOLA.
Igor (ee'gor) I., third Grand Duke of Russia, a son
of Rurik, was born about 875, and succeeded Oleg in
912 A.D. He led an expedition against Constantinople in
941, and compelled the Greek emperor to sue for peace,
which was granted by a treaty in 945. Igor was killed
in an ambuscade in 945. After his death his widow Olga
was converted to Christianity.
See SOLOVIEF, " Histoire de Russie."
Igor II., or Igor Olgovitch, Grand Prince of Russia,
began to reign at Kief about 1145. His claim was con
tested by Iziaslaf, who defeated him in 1 146. Igor was
confined in a convent, and assassinated in 1147.
See KARAMZIX, "Histoire de Russie."
Hire, ee'reh, (JoHAN,) a Swedish scholar, eminent in
philology, born at Lund in 1707, graduated with the
highest honour at Upsal in 1730. After visiting France,
England, etc., he returned to Upsal and became professor
of poetry and of theology in the university of that place.
In 1 738 he obtained the chair of belles-lettres and political
science, which he occupied about forty years, acquiring
great celebrity as a lecturer and author. In 1769 he
published his " Swedish Glossary," (" Glossarium Suio-
gothicum,") a monument of his immense learning and
critical sagacity, containing a philosophic treatise on the
filiation of languages, besides remarks on the origin
and affinity of Swedish words. He also wrote several
hundred excellent academical dissertations, and is justly
ranked among the best critics of the eighteenth century.
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (SJf^See Explanations, p. 23.)
IHRE
1240
IMPERIAL*
In 1759 he was decorated with the order of the Polar
Star. Died in 1780.
See FLODERUS, " Parentation bfver J. Ihre," 1781 ; GEZELIUS,
" Biographiskt- Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man."
Ihre, (THOMAS,) a Swedish writer, father of the pre
ceding, born at Wisby in 1659; died in 1720.
See T. RUDJ£N, "Trognas Strid och Seger, Likpredikan ofver T.
Hire," 1720.
Iken, ee'ken, (CONRAD,) a German theologian, born
at Bremen in 1689. He became professor of theology at
Bremen, and wrote, besides other works, " Antiquitates
Hebraicse," (1730.) Died in 1753.
Iken, (HEiNRiCH FRIEDRICU,) a German religious
writer, born at Neuenkirchen in 1791; died in 1820.
Ildefonse. See ILDEFONSO.
Il-de-fon'so, [Lat. ILDEFON'SCJS ; Fr. ILDEFONSE,
el-deh-f6NTs',] SAINT, a Spanish prelate, born at Toledo
in 607 A.D., was a pupil of Saint Isidore. He became
Archbishop of Toledo in 658. He wrote, besides several
theological treatises, a continuation of Saint Isidore's
work "De Viris illustribus." Died in 669.
See CIXILA, "Vita Ildefonsi ;" GREGORIO MAYANS, "Vida de S.
Ildefonso," 1727.
Ilepooshin or Ilepouschin, il-e-poo'shen, a Rus
sian poet of the present age, lived near Saint Petersburg.
He wrote pastoral poems.
Ilgen, il'gen, (K.ARL DAVID,) a distinguished philolo
gist, born in Prussian Saxony in 1763. He became in
1794 professor of the Oriental languages at Jena. His
principal works are entitled " Ilymni Homerici," and
"Convivial Songs of the Greeks," (" Scholia sive Car-
mina convivialia Grsecorum.") Died in 1834.
See F. C. KRAFFT, "Vita C. T>. Ilgeni," 1837 ; R. STERN, " Nar-
ratio de C. D. Ilgenio," 1839 ; " Ilgeuiana: Erinnerungen an Dr. C.
D. Ilgen," Leip>ic, 1853.
Ilia. See RHEA SILVIA.
I-lith-y-i'a or Eileithyia, [Gr. Elfaidvia,} written
also Eleithyia and Bleutho, a Greek goddess, who
presided over birth. Though originally distinct from
Diana, (Artemis,) she seems later to have become identi
fied with her. (See LUCINA.)
Hive, I'liv, ? (JACOB,) an English printer, who became
noted by his fictitious " Book of Jasher," (1751,) which he
pretended to have translated from Alcuin. Died in 1763.
Illescas, el-yeVkas, (GONSALVO,) a Spanish monk,
wrote a " History of the Popes," (1570.) Died in 1580.
Illgeii, il'gen, (CHRISTIAN FKIEDRICII,) a German
Protestant divine, born at Chemnitz in 1786, wrote sev
eral works, and edited a journal at Leipsic. Died in 1844.
Illyricus. See FRA.NCOWITZ.
Ilmoni, il-mo'nee, (!MMANUEI.,) a Finnish physician,
born in 1797, wrote "Contributions to the History of the
Nosology of the North," (3 vols., 1846-53.) Died in 1856.
I'lus, [Gr. *I/lor,] the founder of Ilium, (Ilion,) or Troy,
was a son of TROS, (which see.)
Imad-ed-Deen, (-Eddyn or -Eddin,) e-mad' ed-
deen', (i.e. the "Pillar of Religion,") (Mohammed,
mo-han/med, ) surnamed AL-KATEH, was born at Is
pahan in 1125 A.D. He went in 1167 to Damascus,
where he became the secretary of Noor-ed-I)een. Alter
the death of Noor-ed-Deen, he enjoyed the favour of the
famous Saladin, whose victories he celebrated in an ode,
and whom he served as private secretary until the death
of that prince. Imad-ed-Deen wrote a " History of the
Conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin," and "Memoirs of
the Moslem Poets of the Sixth Century of the Hejrah."
Died in 1201.
See IBN-KHALLJKAN, " Biographical Dictionary."
Imad-ed-Dowlah, (or -Eddaulah,) e-mSd'ed-dow'-
lah, (i.e. " Pillar of the State,") (Alee-Abool-Hassan-
Alee-Ibn-Booyah, a'lee a'bool has'san a'leelb'nboo'-
yah,) King of Persia, was the founder of the dynasty of
Bouides, and began to reign in 933 A.D. He conquered
the Caliph of Bagdad, and died in 949, leaving the throne
to his nephew, Adhad-ed-Dowlah.
See IBN-KHALLIKAN, "Biographical Dictionary;" WEIL, " Ge-
schichte des Chalifen."
Irnberdis, aN'beii'dess', (ANDRE,) a French writer,
born at Ambert about 1810, published a " History of the
Religious Wars in Auvergne during the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries," (2 vols., 1841.)
Imbert, aN'baiR', (BARTHELEMY,) a French poet, born
at Nimes in 1747. He produced at the age of twenty
"The Judgment of Paris," a graceful poem, which was
much admired. The plan was ingenious, and the style
natural and elegant. Died in 1790.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire."
Imbert, (GUILLAUME,) a French litterateur, born at
Limoges about 1743 ; died at Paris in 1803.
Imbert, (JEAN,) a French jurist, born at La Rochelle
about 1522, published " Institutiones Forenses," (1542,)
often reprinted. Died about 1600.
Imbert, (JosF.rH GABRIEL,) an eminent French
painter, born in Marseilles in 1654, was a .pupil of Le-
brun and of Van cler Meulen. At the age of thirty-four
he took the monastic vows, after which he painted only
sacred subjects. His chief work is a " Calvary." Died
in 1740.
Imbonati, em-bo-na'tee, (CARLO GIUSEPPE,) an Ital
ian bibliographer, born at Milan, wrote " Bibliotheca
Latino-Hebraica," (2 vols., 1696.) Died after 1696.
Imhof or Imhoff, im'hof, (GusT.vv WILLEM,) born
in Amsterdam in 1705, was appointed Governor of Cey
lon in 1736. Having gained general confidence by his
conduct and capacity, he became about 1742 Governor-
General of the Dutch East Indies. Died in 1750.
Imhof, von, fon im'hdf, (JAKOB WILHELM,) a Ger
man genealogist, born at Nuremberg in 1651. He was
well versed in the history of the royal and noble families
of Europe, and wrote many works on genealogy, among
which is one in 2 vols., (1684.) Died in 1728.
See KOEI.ER, " Lebensgeschichte Inihofs."
Imilcon. See HIMILCON.
Im'i-son, (JoilN,) an English mechanician, wrote a
valuable work entitled "The School of Arts," which
passed through several editions. In 1807 Professor J.
Webster published an improved edition, with the title
of "Elements of Art and Science." Died in 1788.
Immeimann, im'mer-man', (KARL LEBRECHT,) a
German dramatist and poet, born at Magdeburg in 1796,
was the author of a comedy entitled "The Princes of
Syracuse," (1821,) "The Valley of Ronceval," "King
Periander," (1823,) and other tragedies. He also pub
lished a number of tales and lyric poems. Died in 1840.
See KARL IMMERMANN, "Memorabilien," 3 vols., 1840-43; F.
FREILIGRATH, "C. Immermann, Blatter der Erinnerung an ihn,"
1842; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1843.
Imola. See FRANC ucci.
Imparato, em-pa-ra'to, ( FRANCESCO, ) an Italian
painter, born at Naples about 1530, was a pupil of Titian,
whose style he imitated with some success. Died after
I565-
Imperiale, em-pa-re-a'la, (FRANCESCO,) born at
Genoa about 1370, went to Spain, and became attached
to the court of Henry III. of Castile. He was regarded
as one of the best Spanish poets of that time.
Imperial!, em-pa-re-ii'lee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an
Italian physician and author, born at Vicenza in 1568,
graduated at Padua, and practised with success in his
native city. He wrote Latin poems, which were admired,
also a collection of observations entitled " Exotericae
Exercitationcs," (1603.) Died in 1623.
His son GIOVANNI, born at Vicenza in 1602, was also
a physician, and wrote "Muscenm Ilistoricum et Physi-
cum," consisting of eulogies and memoirs of eminent
literary men. Died in 1670.
Imperial!, (GIOVANNI VINCENTE,) an Italian poet,
born at Genoa about 1570, served the state as a diplo
matist, and held a high command in the navy. He wrote,
besides other poems, " Lo Stato rustico," (1611,) which
was received with favour. Died about 1645.
See SOPRANI, "Scrittori Lignri."
Imperial!, (GIUSEPPE RENATO,) an Italian cardinal,
distinguished for his patronage of learning, was born of
a noble family at Genoa in 1651. It is said he would
have been elected pope in 1730, if the court of Spain
had not interposed against him. Many learned men were
recipients of his bounty. Died in 1737. He left a noble
library, which, by his will, was kept open to the public.
See TIPAI.DO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Imperiali-Lercari, em-pa-re-a'lee leR-ka'ree, (FRAN
CESCO MARIO,) was Doge of Genoa when that city was
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6., same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, 'y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nflt; good; rnoon;
IMPET
1241
INES
bombarded by the fleet of Louis XIV. in 1684. Hos
tilities having been suspended by the mediation of the
pope, the Doge went as ambassador to Paris, and a
treaty of peace was signed in 1685.
Im'pey, (Sir ELIJAH,) an infamous judge, who offi
ciated in India during the administration of Warren
Hastings.
See "Memoirs of Sir Elijah Impey," by E. B. IMPEY, 1846;
MACAUI.AY, "Essay on Warren Hastings."
Impiccati, degli, a surname of ANDREA DEL CAS-
TAGNO. (See CASTAGNO.)
I'lia or I'lias, King of the West Saxons, and one of
the chiefs of the Heptarchy, succeeded Ceadwalla in 689
A.D. He appears to have possessed superior talents,
and is regarded as one of the principal legislators among
the ancient Anglo-Saxons. He waged war successfully
against the people of Kent and the Britons about 710.
In 728 he resigned his crown, and died at Rome the
same year.
See WILLIAM OF MAI.MF.SBURY, "Gesta Regum Anglorum."
In'a-ehus, [Gr. 'Iva^of,] a mythical personage, the
son of Oceanus, and father of lo, is said to have been
the first King of Argos. Having been chosen as umpire
by Neptune and Juno when they disputed about the
possession of Argos, he decided in favour of Juno.
Iiica, ing'ka, (plural Iiicas,) a Peruvian or Quichua
word, signifying " chief," and applied to the dynasty reign
ing in Peru on the arrival of the Spaniards in that coun
try in the early part of the sixteenth century. As the
Peruvians did not possess the art of writing, we have no
means of ascertaining, or even forming a satisfactory
conjecture respecting, the earliest date of their power. The
Incas claimed to be the descendants of Manco Capac and
his wife Mama Ocllo, who were the children of the sun.
(See MANGO CAPAC.) The empire of the Incas, at the
period of their greatest power, extended through nearly
forty degrees of longitude, and contained an area of
between one and two million square miles. Their sub
jects, though unacquainted wLth letters, had in many
respects advanced to a high degree of civilization. They
understood the working of the precious metals, archi
tecture, and many other arts, and were especially dis
tinguished for the general liberality and wisdom of their
state policy ; though some of their laws and regulations
were, according to the standard of Christian civilization,
both unjust and inhuman.
See PRESCOTT'S "Conquest of Peru," book i. chap. i.
Inch'bald, (EI.IZAUETH,) a popular English actress,
novelist, and dramatist, born at Stanningfield in 1753,
was the daughter of a farmer named Simpson. At the
age of sixteen she came to London with the intention of
becoming an actress, and was married to Mr. Inchbald,
who had obtained some success on the stage. After
performing with her husband several seasons at Edin
burgh and other towns, she made her dt-but at Covent
Garden in 1780, and was very successful. Her success
is ascribed in a great measure to her personal beauty
and virtuous character. In 1789 she retired from the
stage. She wrote "Such Things Are," "Every One
has his Fault," "To Marry or Not to Marry," and many
other plays. Her greatest productions are two novels,
"A Simple Story," (1791,) and "Nature and Art," (1796,)
which obtained extensive and durable popularity. Her
'"Nature and Art,' " says Hazlitt, "is one of the most
interesting and pathetic stories in the world." The
other work is highly commended by Miss Edgeworth.
Died in 1821.
See her Life, by BOADKN, 1833; MRS. ELWOOD, "Memoirs of
the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement of the
Last Century," vol. i., 1843.
Iiich'i-quin, (MORROGH O'BRIEN,) BARON OK, a
famous Irish soldier, born about 1618. He acted a
prominent part in the civil war, fighting alternately for
Charles I. and against him. I Fe was a royalist from 1640
to 1645, ancl gained several victories. About 1649 he
entered the French service, with the rank of general.
Died in 1674.
See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1814.
Inchofer, ing'Ko'fer, (MEl.CHiou,) a Jesuit, born in
Vienna in 1584, lived in various cities of Italy, and wrote
several learned works, among which is the "Ecclesias
tical History of Hungary," (1644, unfinished.) He had
more learning than critical judgment. Died in 1648.
See BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Incledoii, ink'el-don, (BENJAMIN CHARLES,) an Eng
lish vocalist, born in Cornwall in 1764, served several
years in the royal navy. He first appeared in a London
theatre in 1790, and performed many years with success.
Died in 1826.
Iiidaco, 1', len'cla-ko, (FRANCESCO,) a painter of the
Florentine school, flourished about 1530.
Iiidaco, 1', ([AGOPO DA FIKENZE.) a Florentine painter,
a brother of the preceding, was a pupil of Ghirlandaio,
and worked at Rome.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters."
India, en'de-a, (TiiLLio, ) called THE ELDER, a
painter of the Venetian school, was born at Verona, and
flourished in 1545. He was a skilful painter in fresco,
and an excellent copyist.
His son BERNARDINO, a painter, was born at Verona.
One of his later works is dated 1584.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters."
In-dib'i-lis, a Spanish chief, who flourished during
the first Punic war, in which he fought for and betrayed
both sides. He fought for the Carthaginians in the
battle at which Publius Scipio was killed, in 213 B.C.
His army was defeated by the younger Scipio in 207.
He was killed in battle by the Romans in 205 n.c.
See Livv, " History of Rome," books x.xii. and xxv.-xxix.
Indra, Ti/dua, [etymology doubtful ; possibly related
to the Latin imber, (Gr. o/ujpof,) a "shower" or "rain
storm,"] the regent of the firmament, in the Hindoo
mythology, is the son of Kasyapa ancl Aditi. As the
god of sto'rms and thunder, he may be said to correspond
very nearly to the Roman Jupiter and Greek Zeus. In
the early period of the Hindoo mythology he was (like
Jupiter) regarded as the most powerful of the gods ; but,
after the introduction of the deities of the Hindoo triad,
Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, Indra, Varuna, and Agni
were deposed from their high rank and made to occupy
a far inferior position. Krishna, an avatar ofVishnu, is
represented, while still an infant, as baffling with the
utmost ease the mightiest efforts of the god of thunder.
(See KRISHNA.) Indra is supposed to preside over all
atmospheric changes ; the clouds are his war-elephants,
one of which, represented with three trunks and called
Iravat,* (T-ra'vat,) is his vahan, (or "vehicle,"!) and his
most terrible weapon is his vajra, (pronounced by the
modern Hindoos viij'ra or buj'ra,) or "adamantine thun
derbolt."} The heaven or paradise of Indra is called
Swarga or Swerga, (pronounced swiir'ga.) Here dwell
the Apsaras, the beautiful dancing-girls of his court, who
may be said to correspond to the Hoorees (Houris) of
Mohammed's paradise, and the Gandharvas, or celestial
minstrels. The consort of Indra is named Indrani, (in-
clKa'nee.) His capital city is called Amravati, (lim-ra'-
va-tee,) or the "city of immortality."
See MOOR'S "Hindu Pantheon;" COI.KMAN'S "Mythology of the
Hindus;" SIR WILLIAM JONES'S Works, vol. xiii., (or vol. vi. of
another edition;) H. H. WILSON'S "Translation of the Rig- Veda,'
and " Essays on the Religion of the Hindus."
Induno, en-doo'no, (DOMENICO,) an Italian painter
of history nn<\ ffcnre, born at Milan in 1815. He gained
the grand prize in 1837. ^)^<* ,
Indutiomare. See INDUTIOMARUS.
Indutioniarus or Iiiduciomarus, in-du-she-om'a-
rus, [Fr. INDUTIOMAKK, aN'di.i'se'o'ma'tt',] a chief of the
Treviri, fought against Julius Caesar, and was killed in
54 B-C.
Ifies (en'yc's) or Inez de Castro, en'yeth da kas'tRo,
sometimes Anglicised as AGNES DE CASTRO, a beautiful
Spanish lady, whose tragical fate is commemorated by
Camoens in the " Lusiad," was born of a noble family
in Castile in the fourteenth century. Having been a
maid of honour at the court of Alphonso IV. of Por
tugal, she won the love of his son Don Pedro, who
privately married her. The king, on learning the fact,
* Iravat signifies " watery," " full of rain," (in Latin, plttviosjis.')
t See note under GARUDA.
J This word (vajra) signifies both " thunderbolt" a-.id " adamant,1
or "diamond."
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
INFANT ADO
1242
INGLES
was violently enraged, and, after vain efforts to dissolve
their union, authorized her assassination in 1355. She
was eminent for virtue, grace, and intelligence. Her
story is the subject of numerous dramas, legends, etc.
See MRS. BEHN, "The History of Agnes cle Castro;" LOFE DE
VEGA, "Donna Inez de Castro ;" J. B. GOMEZ, JK., " Nova Castro,"
Lisbon, 1817.
Infantado, de, da en-fan-ta'oo, DUQUE, a Spanish
statesman, born in 1773, was an intimate friend of the
Prince of Asturias, (Ferdinand VII.) In 1808 he ac
companied that prince to Bayonne, and signed the con
stitution which Napoleon imposed on Spain. In 1809
he commanded an army which was defeated by the
French at Saint Sebastian. Ferdinand VII. appointed
him president of Jhe council of Castile in 1814. He
resigned in 1820, and was prime minister for a short
time in 1825. Died in 1841.
Ingalls, ing'galz, (RuEUS,) an American general, born
in Oxford county, Maine, about 1820, graduated at West
Point in 1843, and was appointed a brigadier-general
of volunteers in September, 1862. He served as chief
quartermaster of the army of the Potomac in 1863-65.
Ingeburga, ing'eh-bdoR'ga, sometimes written lug-
elburge or Ingerburga, a Danish princess, was the
sister of Canute VI. In 1192 she became the wife of
Philip Augustus of France, who soon after divorced
her without good reason. She appealed to the pope,
Innocent III., who decided in her favour; and after the
kingdom of Philip had been laid under an interdict,
he was induced to reinstate her. Died in 1236.
See DE THOU, "Histoire universelle."
Ingegneri, en-jen-ya'ree, (ANGIOLO,) an Italian litte
rateur, born in Venice about 1550, was secretary of Car
dinal C. Alclobrandini at Rome, whose service he quitted
in 1598. He xwrote a pastoral called "The Dance of
Venus," (" La Danza di Venere,") " Buon Segretario,"
and a few other works, in prose and verse. He was a
friend of Tasso. Died in 1613.
See GINGUENE, "Histoire Litteraire d' Italic."
Ingegno, L'. See LUIGI, (ANDREA.)
Ingelm*u, ing'el-man', (C. G.,) a Swedish poet, born
in 1788; died in 1845.
In'ge-lo, (NATHANIEL,) D.D., an English clergyman,
wrote " Bentivolio and Urania," a romance, (1660,) also
a few sermons. Died in 1683.
In'ge-16w, (JEAN,) a popular English writer and
poetess, born about 1825, published "Poems," (1863,)
"Studies for Stories," (1865,) "A Story of Doom,"
(1867,) and "Mopsa the Fairy," (1869.)
Ingemanu, ing'eh-man', ( BERNHARD SEVERIN, ) a
popular Danish poet and novelist, was born in the island
of Falster, May 28, 1789. He produced a volume of
lyric poems ("Digte") in 1811, and an epic poem, called
"The Black Knights," (" De sorte Riddere,") in 1814.
His tragedies "Blanca" and " Masaniello" (1815) were
performed with great success. About 1820 he published
an admired dramatic poem, called "The Deliverance of
Tasso." He was chosen professor of Danish at the Acad
emy of Soroe in 1822. He is author of several popular
historical novels, among which are "Waldemar the Vic
tor," (1826,) and "Prince Otho of Denmark," (1835.)
See WILLIAM and MARVHOWITT, "The Literature and Romance
of Northern Europe," vol. ii., 1852 : LONGFELLOW, "Poets aiid Poetry
of Europe ;" ERSLEW, "Almindeiigt Forfatter- Lexicon ;" MOLLER.
"Dansk Pantheon ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1838.
Ingeii or Iiighen, van, vtn ing'gen or ing'nen, (Wii.-
LEM,) a Dutch painter, born in 1651, studied under C.
Maratta at Rome. He worked in Venice and Naples,
and settled in Amsterdam. His works have considera
ble merit. Died about 1710.
Ingenhousz, ing'gen-hows', QAN,) an eminent Dutch
physician and chemist, born at Breda in 1730. About
1767 he visited London, where he became intimate with
Dr. Pringle, president of the Royal Society, by whose
recommendation he became physician to the empress
Maria Theresa in 1772. He was made a member of
the aulic council in Vienna, and received a pension for
life. After remaining in Vienna a number of years, he
travelled in France, Italy, etc., pursuing his scientific
studies and experiments, and at last settled in London,
and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He in
vented an electrophorus, and discovered that growing
plants exposed to the light exhale oxygen gas, (1779.)
His principal works (which are all written in English)
are " Experiments on Vegetables, discovering their Power
of Purifying the Air," (1779,) an " Essay on the Food of
Plants," and "Experiments and Observations on Various
Physical Subjects." The invention of the plate electrical
machine is attributed to him. Died in 1799.
See " Biographic Medicale."
Ingersoll, ing'ger-sol, (CHARLES TARED,) a lawyer
and writer, a son of Jared, noticed below, was born in
Philadelphia in 1782. He was elected to Congress in
1812, and was appointed district attorney for Pennsyl
vania by President Madison in 1815. He was chosen
a Democratic member of Congress in 1840, 1842, and
1844. Among his works are "Chiomara," a poem,
(1800,) and a "Historical Sketch of the Second War
between the United States of America and Great Britain,"
(4 vols., 1845-52.) Died in 1862.
See DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii.
Ingersoll, (JARED,) LL.D., an American jurist, born
in Connecticut in 1749. He graduated at Yale in 1766,
studied law at the Temple in London, and on returning to
America took up his residence in Philadelphia. Though
the son of a royalist, he zealously advocated the rights
of the colonies in the Revolution. He rose to great dis
tinction in his profession, was twice attorney-general of
Pennsylvania, once United States district attorney, and in
the latter part of his life president-judge of the district
court of Philadelphia. He served in the convention that
framed the Federal Constitution in 1787, and in 1812 was
the candidate of the Federal party for the Vice-Presidency
of the United States. Died in 1822.
Ingersoll, (JOSEPH REED,) D.C.L., son of the pre
ceding, was born in Philadelphia, June 14, 1786. He
graduated at Yale College in 1808, and attained to a high
rank in the legal profession in his native city. He was a
representative in Congress from 1835 to 1837, and was
re-elected by the Whig party in 1841, and again in 1843,
1845-, and 1847. He took a prominent part in the debates
on the tariff, and was for some time chairman of the
committee on the judiciary. He was appointed minister
to England by President Fill more in 1852. Died in 1868.
Ing'ham, (CHARLES C.,) an eminent American por
trait-painter, born about 1797. He worked in the city
of New York, where he died in December, 1863. His
pictures are remarkable for their high finish.
See DUNLAP, "Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in
America."
Inghen. See INGEN.
Inghirami, en-ge-ra'mee, (Cavaliere FRANCESCO,)
an eminent Italian antiquary, born at Volterra in 1772,
devoted many years to researches into ancient art, and
acquired a European reputation by his writings. The
most important of these is his "Monument! Etruschi,"
(10 vols., 1821-27,) which is the most complete de
scription of the antiquities of Etruria. He wrote, also,
"Galleria Omerica," (3 vols., 1827-38,) illustrative of
Homer's poems, and " Letters on Etruscan Erudition,
etc.," (1828.) Died in 1846.
See ERSCH und GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Inghirami, (TOMMASO FEDRA,) an eminent Italian
scholar and orator, born at Volterra in 1470, settled at
Rome in early youth, and obtained high preferments.
He acquired the fame of being one of the most eloquent
men of modern Rome ; and Erasmus informs us that he
was styled the Cicero of his age. He was patronized
by Julius II., who appointed him keeper of the Vatican
Library. He left in manuscript a "Commentary on
Horace's Art of Poetry," "An Abstract of Roman His
tory," and other works. Died in 1516.
See ERSCH und GRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" TIRA-
BOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
In'gi-ald, (almost in'jald,) King of Sweden, surnamed
ILLRADA, ("the Bad,") reigned in the seventh century,
and was the last of his dynasty. In consequence of his
crimes, some of his subjects revolted with success, and
he destroyed himself. Iwar, Prince of Scania, succeeded
him.
Ingles, ing-gles', (Master JORGE,) a Spanish painter,
was eminent in history and portraits. He worked at
Granada in 1455.
a, e, i, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
INGLES
INMAN
Ingles, (Don JOSE,) a Spanish fresco-painter, born at
Valencia in 1718; died in 1786.
Inglis, ing'glis, (HENRY DAVID,) a Scottish writer of
travels, born in Edinburgh in 1795. He travelled exten
sively in Europe, and published excellent books of travel,
viz., " Solitary Walks through Many Lands," (3d edition,
1843,) a "Journey through Norway, Sweden, and Den
mark," (1829,) "Tour through Switzerland, the South of
France," etc., (1830,) " Spain in 1830," (from which Lord
Aberdeen said he had derived more information than
from all the state documents he ever perused,) " The
Tyrol, with a Glance at Bavaria," (1834,) and " Rambles
in the Footsteps of Don Quixote." Died in 1835.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement.)
Inglis or English, (Sir JAMES,) a poet, born in Scot
land in the reign of James IV., is supposed to be the
author of a book entitled "The Complaint of Scotland,"
published at Saint Andrew's in 1548, said to be the most
ancient Scottish prose work that is extant. Died in 1530.
Inglis, (Jon.v,) D.D., born in Edinburgh in 1763,
was one of the ministers of the Greyfriars' Church in
that city. He published a " Vindication of the Christian
Faith," (1830,) and a few other works. Died in 1834.
Iiiglis, (JoHN,) an eminent Scottish advocate, a son
of the preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1810. He
became lord advocate in May, 1852, and was elected
dean of the faculty in the same year. Having retired
from office with the Derby ministry in December, 1852,
he was restored to the same in 1858, and became lord
justice clerk in the same year.
In'glis, (Sir JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT,) a British gen
eral, born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, about 1815, was a son
of the Bishop of Nova Scotia. He distinguished himself
in the campaign of the Punjab in 1848-49, and obtained
the rank of lieutenant-colonel. His regiment was at
Ingraham, (JOSEPH H.,) an American writer, born
at Portland, Maine, in 1809. Among his productions
are the romances of " Lafitte," " Captain Kyd," and
"The Dancing Feather." He has also written "The
Prince of the House of David," and other similar works.
Ingrain, ing'gram, (HERBERT,) an English printer,
born at Boston in 1811, founded the " Illustrated Lon
don News" in 1842. He was elected to Parliament in
1856, and visited the United States in 1860. In Sep
tember of that year he was drowned in Lake Michigan,
in consequence of a collision.
Ingram, (JAMES,) D.D., an English clergyman, born
in Wiltshire in 1774, became president of Trinity College,
Oxford, in 1824, and rector of Garsington. He published
an edition of the " Saxon Chronicle," (1823,) " Memorials
of Oxford," (1834-37,) which was favourably received,
and several other works. Died in 1850.
Ingram, (ROBERT,) an English clergyman, born at
Beverley, Yorkshire, in 1727. He became vicar of Orston
and Boxted, and published, besides other works," Isaiah's
Vision," (1784,) and "The Seventh Plague," (1787.) Died
in 1804.
Ingrassia, en-gRas'se-a, written also Ingrassias,
(GIOVANNI FILIPPO,) an eminent Sicilian physician and
anatomist, born at Palermo about 1510, taught anatomy
at Naples. In 1563 he was chosen by Philip II. first
physician of Sicily, and in 1575 he checked the ravages
of the plague at Palermo. He wrote a " Commentary
on the Bones," and other able treatises on anatomy.
Died in 1580.
See £LOV, " Dictionnaire historique de la Medecine."
Ingres, a.vgR, (JEAN AUGUSTS DOMINIQUE,) a cele
brated French historical painter, born at Montauban in
1780 or 1781, was a pupil of David. He gained the first
prize in 1801 for a picture of "Achilles receiving in his
Tent the Envoys of Agamemnon." He worked about
Lucknow when that place was besieged by the Sepoys twenty years (1804-24) in Rome and Florence, choosin
in the summer of 1857. On the death of Sir Henry
Lawrence he succeeded to the command of the garrison.
He received the brevet of major-general for his heroic
defence of Lucknow. Died at Homburg, Germany, in
September, 1862.
Inglis, (Sir ROBERT HARRY,) M.P.,born in 1786, was
the only son of Sir Hugh Inglis, chairman of the East
India Company. He was first elected to Parliament in
1824. From 1829 to 1853 he represented the University
of Oxford, and constantly voted with the Tories against
the Reform bill, the relief of the Catholics, etc. Died
in 1855.
Inglis, (Sir WILLIAM,) a British general, born in 1762,
served with distinction in the Peninsular war. Died
in 1835.
Ingoldsby, ing'golz-be, (THOMAS,) the assumed name
of Richard H. Barham. (See BARHAM.)
Ing'on I., surnamed THE Goon, King of Sweden, was
the son and successor of Stenkil, and began to reign
about 1080. He favoured the propagation of Christianity
among his subjects. Died in 1112.
Ingon n., a nephew of the preceding, was one of his
successors, and shared the royal power with his brother
Philip. Slavery was gradually abolished in his reign.
Died in 1130.
Ingoni, en-go'nee, (GIOVANNI BATTTSTA,) an Italian
painter, born at Modena in 1528 ; died in 1608.
Ingoni, (MATTEO,) a painter of the Venetian school,
born at Ravenna in 1587; died in 1631.
Ingouf, aN'goof',(FRANgois ROBERT,) a skilful French
engraver, born in Paris in 1747. He engraved "The
Nativity," after Raphael, and some of the plates for the
"Musee Fran9ais." Died in 1812. His brother, PIERRE
CHARLES, born in Paris in 1746, was also a successful
engraver. Died in 1800.
Ingraham, ing'gra-am, (DUNCAN NATHANIEL,) a
naval commander, born in Charleston, South Carolina,
in 1802. He gained distinction by his spirited conduct
in procuring the release from an Austrian war-vessel,
at Smyrna, in June, 1853, of Martin Koszta, a Hungarian,
who had legally declared his intention to become a
citizen of the United States. As a mark of its approval,
the general government presented Tngraham with a medal.
He was raised to the rank of captain in 1855.
Raphael as his model. During this period he painted
" CEdipus and the Sphinx," " Raphael and La Fomarina,"
and "Odalisque," (1819.) He returned to Paris in 1824,
became the founder of a school, and exhibited " The
Vow of Louis XIII.," one of his best works, which
opened to him the doors of the Institute in 1825. In
1827 he painted on the ceiling of the Louvre "The
Apotheosis of Homer," which is called his master-piece.
At the Exposition of 185=; A salon was reserved exclu
sively for his works, which are said to have had a wide
influence on the style of French and foreign artists. He
is called the representative of correct design and ideal
composition. Died in January, 1867.
See L. DE LOM^NIE, " M. Ingres, par un Homme de Rien," 1842 ;
FREDERIC MERCEY, " Peintres et Sculpteurs modernes : J. Ingres,"
1846; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Inguimbert, d^da.N'ga.x'baiR', (JOSEPH DOMINIQUE,)
a French bishop, born at Carpentras in 1683, assumed
the name of DOM MALACHIE. He became an intimate
counsellor of Pope Clement XII., who appointed him
domestic prelate, and in 1733 Bishop of Carpentras. He
built a hospital in that town, and founded a large public
library there. He wrote and translated several religious
works. Died in 1757.
See VITALIS, " Notice sur la Vie de Malachie d' Inguimbert," 1812
Ingulf. See INGULPHUS.
In-gul'phus or In'gulf, a monk, born in London
about 1030, became secretary and favourite of William,
Duke of Normandy, in 1051. After that prince had
become King of England, Ingulphus was made abbot of
the monastery of Croyland. He died in 1109. He was
the reputed author of a History of the above monastery,
in Latin, containing much curious and important infor
mation ; but Sir Francis Palgrave has proved that it is a
forgery.
See ORDENCUS VILALIS, " Historia Ecclesiastica."
In'I-go, an English engraver, whose proper name was
JOHN COLLET, was born about 1725. He excelled in
the same line as Hogarth, and displayed an original
genius for humorous design. He left but few works,
among which is a " Monkey pointing to a Very Dark
Picture of Moses striking the Rock." Died in 1780.
In'man, (HENRY,) an American portrait-painter, born
at Utica, New York, in 1801, was a pupil of Jarvis. He
« as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
INMAN
1244
INNOCENT
worked mostly in the city of New York. During a visit
to England, in 1844, he painted portraits of the poet
Wordsworth, Dr. Chalmers, andT. B. Macaulay. Among
his other works are portraits of Chief-Justice Marshall
and Bishop White. He was commissioned by Congress
to adorn the national capitol with historical paintings ;
but before he had finished them he died, in 1846.
See DUNI.AP, " Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in
America;" TUCKBRMAN, " Book of the Artists. "
In man, (fun.\,) a brother of the preceding, born at
Utica, New York, in 1805, was an associate editor of
the " New York Mirror" and "The Commercial Adver
tiser." Died in 1850.
In'nes, (Louis,) a Roman Catholic priest, born of a
Scottish family about 1650. He became secretary to
James II. after he was deposed from the Knglish thr"one.
He is the reputed author of " Memoirs of James II.," part
of which was published by J. Stanier Clarke in 1816.
Innes, (THOMAS,) a brother of the preceding, born
in 1662, studied in Paris, was ordained a priest, and suc
ceeded Louis as principal of the Scottish College. He
wrote a "Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of
the Northern Parts of Britain," (1729,) which is highly
;omtnended for sound learning, judicious criticism, and
valuable information. Died in 1744.
SeeCHAMBEK.s, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
In'no-cent [Lat. INNOCEN'TIUS; It. IXNOCENZO, en-
no-chen'zo ; Ger. IXNOCENZ, in'no-tsents ; Span. [NO-
CENCIO, e-no-///en'//^e-o] I., a native of Albano, chosen
Bishop of Rome in 402 A.D., was contemporary with
Augustine and Jerome. During his pontificate, Rome
was pillaged by Alaric the Goth. Innocent strenuously
asserted the supremacy of the see of Rome, and con
demned the doctrines of Pelagius. Died {11417, and was
succeeded by Zosimus.
See BRUYS, " Histoire des Papes," 5 vols., 1735.
Innocent II., POPE, was elected in 1130 as successor
to Ilonorius II. Another party elected a rival pope,
under the name of Anacletus II., whose partisans drove
Innocent out of Rome. The latter was recognized as pope
by the Kings of France, England, and Germany, and his
rival was supported by Roger of Sicily. In 1138, Inno
cent, assisted by Lotharius of Germany, recovered the
papal power, and, his rival having died in the same year,
the unity of the Church was restored. In 1139 Arnaldo
da Brescia was banished from Rome for preaching doc
trines that were deemed unsound. Innocent died in
1143, and was succeeded by Celestine II.
See PLATINA, " Vite de' snmmi Pontefici." 1613 ; AI.LETZ, "His
toire cles Papes," 1776; J. HARTMANN, "Vita Innocentii II. Pon-
tificis," 1744; ARTAUD DE MONTOR, " Histoire des souverains Pon-
tifes," 1847-49.
Innocent III., whose proper name was Lotharius,
was the son of Trasimund, a Roman count, and was born
in Rome in 1161. He was unanimously elected pope in
January, 1198, as successor to Celestine III. With su
perior abilities, improved by diligent study, he combined
great resolution, industry, and austerity of character, and
availed himself of every opportunity to magnify his office
and to assert the supremacy of the papal power. In 1 199
he placed the kingdom of France under an interdict be
cause the king, Philip Augustus, had repudiated his wife ;
and thus he compelled him to reinstate her. About 1200
he instigated the fourth crusade, the principal result of
which was the capture of Constantinople from the Greeks
by the crusaders. In 1212 he excommunicated and de
posed Otho, Emperor of Germany, and crowned Frede
rick of Sicily in his place. A memorable quarrel occurred
between this pontiff and King John of England, respect
ing the appointment of the Archbishop of Canterbury,
(1207,) the right to appoint being obstinately asserted by
each. England was laid under an interdict, 'which lasted
two years, at the expiration of which, as John was still
refractory, the pope declared him to be deposed, and
authorized Philip Augustus of France to execute the
decree. While the latter was preparing to invade Eng
land, John submitted to the pope, in 1213, and signed a
disgraceful treaty, in which he consented to hold Eng
land and Ireland as fiefs of the Church of Rome, and to
pay an annual tribute of one thousand marks. In 1214
Innocent raised a cruel persecution or crusade against
the Albigenses for heresy. During his pontificate the
papal power attained its greatest height. He was perhaps
the most learned man and the most able statesman of
his age. He wrote " Letters," and other works, which are
highly commended. Died in 1216, and was succeeded by
Honorius III.
See F. HURTHR, " Geschichte Innocenz III.," 2 vols., 1835, (and
French version of the same, 4 vols., 1838-43;) D. LESSMANN, " Pabst
Innocenz III. und Fiirst Michael Glinski," 1830; JORRY, "Histoire
du Pape Innocent III," 1852; ARTAUD DE MONTOR, " Hisloire des
souverains Pontifes," 1847-49; J. H. GURNEY, "Four Ecclesiastical
Biographies," London, 1864.
Innocent IV., (SINIKALDO de' Fieschi — da fe-cV-
kee,) a native of Genoa, was elected pope as successor to
Celestine IV. in 1243. He soon found himself involved
in a quarrel with the emperor Frederick II., (who had
been ex-communicated by Gregory IX.,) and retired for
security to Lyons. Here he summoned a council, in
1245, and renewed the excommunication of Frederick,
who was also formally deposed. The emperor, however,
refused to submit to this assumption, and waged war
against the pope for several years, until his death in 1250.
Innocent then returned to his capital, and proclaimed a
crusade against Conrad, the son of Frederick ; but again
his malignity was baffled. He died in 1254, and was
succeeded by Alexander IV.
See J. HARTMANN, "Vita Innocentii IV.," 1738; PAOLO PANZA,
"Vita del gran Pontefice Innocenzio Quarto," 1601.
Innocent V., ( PETKK OF TARANTASIA, ) born at
Moutier, in Savoy, was elected in 1276 as successor to
Gregory X. After holding office a few months, he died
in the same year.
Innocent VI., ( UTIENNE Aubert — 5'bain', ) a
Frenchman, born near Pompadour, was elected pope
in 1352. He succeeded Clement VI., who had made
him a cardinal and Bishop of Ostia. His court was kept
at Avignon throughout his pontificate. He reformed
some abuses in the Church, and appears to have acted
with more moderation and propriety than most of his
predecessors. Died in 1362.
See BRUYS, "Histoire des Papes," 1735; SISMONDI, "Histoire
des Francais."
Innocent VII., (Cardinal COSMO Migliorati — mcl-
yo-ril'tee,) born at Sulmona about 1338, was elected pope
in 1404, as successor to Boniface IX. At that time there
was an extensive schism in the Church, and Benedict
XIII. held a rival court at Avignon. Died in 1406.
See PI.ATINA, "Vite de' sunimi Pontefici," 1613.
Innocent VIII., (GIOVANNI BATTISTA Cibo — chee'-
bo,) born at Genoa in 1434, was elected pope in 1484, as
successor to Sixtus IV. He laboured without success
to unite the sovereigns of Europe against the Turks,
and was himself engaged in war with Ferdinand, King
of Naples. He died in 1491, and was succeeded by
Alexander VI.
See F. SKRDONATI, "Vita d'lnnocenzo VIII.," 1829; F. M.
VIALARDO, " Istoria della Vita d'lnnocenzo VIII.," 1613.
Innocent IX., (ANTONIO Facchinetti — fak-ke-
net'tee,) born at Bologna, succeeded Gregory XIV. in
October, 1591, but only survived two months after his
election. He left a good reputation for virtue and
wisdom. Clement VIII. was his successor.
See RANKK, " History of the Popes."
Innocent X., (GIOVANNI BATTISTA Panfili — pan-
fee'lee,) elected in place of Urban VIII. in 1644, was
born in Rome about 1570. He owed his promotion to
the Barberini, who soon became his enemies. The Jan-
senist controversy having made a great commotion in
the Church, Innocent appointed a commission of car
dinals to settle it, and in 1653 issued a bull cum occastone,
in which he condemned the five propositions of Jansen.
Historians differ widely as to the character of this pontiff.
He died in 1655, and was succeeded by Alexander VII.
See RANKE, " History of the Popes:" CIACONIUS, " Vita; et Res
geste Pontificnm Romanorum," 4 vols., 1677.
Innocent XI., (Cardinal BENEDICT Odescalchi —
o-deVkal'kee,) born at Como in 161 1, succeeded Clement
X. in 1676. He had been made a cardinal in 1647, and
had sustained a respectable character. He soon mani
fested his zeal to reform abuses and restore strict disci
pline, and his inflexible resolution to maintain the papal
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, !, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
INNOCENT
1245
IPH1TUS
prerogatives. His pontificate was signalized by a re
markable contest with Louis XIV. of France in relation
to the regale and the privileges or exemptions of foreign
ambassadors at Rome. The pope wished to abolish the
usage which rendered the ambassador's palace, with the
adjacent premises, an asylum for malefactors, etc., inac
cessible to the officers of justice. Louis XIV. in 1687
sent his ambassador Lavardin with orders to maintain
his rights, and with an armed retinue of eight hundred
men. The pope persisted, and excommunicated Lavar
din, who returned without effecting his object ; and the
quarrel was not ended until after the death of Innocent,
which occurred in 1689. It seems that his enmity to Louis
induced this pontiff to favour the English in resistance
to James II. ; and some one remarked that the peace of
P^urope would be promoted if James would become a
Protestant, and the pope a Catholic.
See UGHEI.LI, "Italia sacra," 10 vols., 1717-22; RANKE, "His
tory of the Popes;" SISMONDI, " Histoire des t'raiiQais ;" F.
BUONAMICI, " De Vita et Rebus gestis Innocentii XI.," 1776.
Innocent XII., (ANTONIO Pigiiatelli — pen-ya-tel'-
lee,) born in Naples in 1615, became Cardinal and Arch
bishop of Naples during the pontificate of Innocent XI.,
and succeeded Alexander VIII. as pope in July, 1692.
He proposed to take Innocent XL as his model, and
appears to deserve credit for his economy, regular habits,
liberality, and works of utility. In his pontificate a re
conciliation was effected with the French court by mutual
concession. Quietism also received its quietus, in 1699,
by a papal brief condemning Fenelon's " Maximes des
Saints." He died in 1700, and was succeeded by Clem
ent XL
See RANKE, "History of the Popes;" BRUYS, "Histoire des
Papes," 1735.
Innocent XIII., (MICHELANGELO Conti — kon'tee,)
born in Rome in 1655, was the son of the Duke of
Poli, and attained the dignity of cardinal in 1706. He
succeeded Clement XL as pope in 1721, and exercised
his power so prudently that his subjects regretted the
brevity of its duration. He died in 1724, and his place
was supplied by Benedict XIII.
See KRUYS, " Histoire des Papes," 1735 ; " Leben Pabst Innocenz
XIII.," Cologne, 1724.
Innocentius. See INNOCENT.
Innocenz. See INNOCENT.
Iiinocenzo. See INNOCENT.
I'no, [Or. 'Ivw,] a daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia,
was the wife of Athamas, King of Thebes. According
to tradition, she incurred the enmity of Juno, who de
prived Athamas of his reason. In a fit of insanity he
killed a son of Ino, who threw herself into the sea and
was changed into a sea-goddess, named Leucothea. Her
story was dramatized by several Greek poets.
Inocencio. See INNOCENT.
Interiano de Ayala, 6n-ta-re-a'no da I-a'Ia, (JuAN,)
a Spanish author and monk, born in 1656, became
preacher to the king. He published, besides other works,
(mostly in Spanish,) " Pictor Christian us Eruditus,"
(1730,) in which he exposes the prevalent errors of
painters who treat of religious subjects. Llis style is
pure and elegant. Died in 1730.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" MORERI, "Dic-
tionnaire Historique."
Inthiema, in-te-a'ma, (HERO,) a Dutch poet and jurist,
born in 1576; died in 1623.
Intieri, en-te-a'ree, ( BARTOLOMMEO, ) an Italian
economist and mechanician, born at Pistoia about 1674.
He founded a chair of political economy at Naples, and
wrote "On the Conservation of Grain." Died in 1757.
Intorcetta, en-toR-chet'ta, (PROSPERO,) a Jesuit mis
sionary, born in Sicily in 1625, laboured in China, and
published Latin translations of some works of Confu
cius. Died in 1696.
Inveges, en-va'jes, (AUGUSTIN,) a Sicilian historian
and ecclesiastic, born at Sciacca in 1595, published a
"History of Palermo," (3 vols., 1649-51,) which was
much esteemed. Died in 1677.
In'wood, (CHARLES FREDERICK,) son of William
Inwood, noticed below, was born in 1798. He co-operated
with his father as architect of Westminster Hospital and
other edifices. Died in 1840.
Inwood, (HENRY WILLIAM,) an English architect, a
brother of the preceding, was born in 1794. He was
associated in his profession with his father, and pub
lished " Studies of the Architect from Nature," and an
illustrated work on Athenian architecture, called "The
Erechtheion at Athens," (1827.) He perished by ship
wreck in 1843, while making a voyage to Spain.
Inwood, (WILLIAM,) an English architect, born about
1770, was employed on many buildings in London, and
also followed the profession of surveyor. lie was assisted
in his architectural labours by his two sons, noticed
above. Saint Pancras Church, London, finished in 1822,
was erected by him and his son Henry. He published
"Tables for Purchasing Estates," etc. Died in 1843.
I'o, [Gr. MCJ,] a fabulous personage, whom the Greek
poets represent as a daughter of Inachus and a priestess
of Juno. It was said that, having been transformed by
Jupiter into a white cow, she was tormented by a gadfly,
(sent by Juno,) to escape from which she swam across
the Ionian Sea and wandered through various parts of
the world. Her story is related by /Eschylus in his
" Suppliants."
I-o-la'us [Gr. 'loAaoc] or I'o-las, [Gr. 'loAaf,] a per
sonage of classic mythology, was a relative and faithful
companion of Hercules, whom he aided in his contest
against the Lernean Hydra.
I'o-le, [Gr. 'lo/.t],] the daughter of Eurytus, King of
CEchalia, who promised her in marriage to Hercules.
But, Eurytus having afterwards refused to perform his
engagement, lole was forcibly carried off by her lover.
On the death of the latter, caused by Dejanira's jealousy,
(see DEJA.NIRA,) lole was married to Hyllus, the son of
Hercules.
I'on, [Gr. 'Iwv,] the mythical ancestor of the lonians,
was supposed to be the son of Apollo and Creusa. His
story was dramatized by Euripides.
Ion, [~luv,] a Greek tragic poet, who was born at
Chios, (Scio,) and flourished about 450 B.C. He lived
at Athens, where he became a friend of ^Eschylus and
gained a prize for one of his tragedies. He composed,
besides tragedies, elegies, lyric poems, and some prose
works, all of which are lost. He was included in the
canon of the five Athenian tragic poets by the Alexan
drian critics.
See FABRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Graeca ;" KAYSER, " Historia cri-
tica Tragicorum Gracoruin," 1845; KARL NIEBERDING, " De lonis
Chii Vita, Moribus et Studiis," 1836.
I'o-phon, [Gr. '
an Athenian tragic poet, a son
of Sophocles the poet, lived about 420 B.C. He gained
the second prize in 429, when Euripides received the
first prize. Among the titles of his plays are " Achilles,"
" Actaeon," and " Pentheus." His works are not extant.
Died after 405 B.C.
See KAYSER, " Historia critica Tragicorum Graecorum," 1845.
louzef or louzaf. See YOOSEF.
. Iphicrate. See IPHICRATES.
I-phic'ra-te§, [Gr. 'tyiicpunjf ; Fr. IPHICRATE, e'fe'-
kRJtt',] a skilful Athenian general, who rose from a
humble rank in society and obtained the chief command
of the Athenian army. About 392 B.C. he defeated the
Spartans near Corinth, and afterwards gained applause
by his defence of Corcyra against the Spartans and Syra-
cusans. He made important changes in the armour and
tactics of his troops, by exchanging the heavy buckler
for a light target and increasing the length of the spear
and the sword. He was associated with Timotheus and
Chares in the command of an expedition against Byzan
tium about 357 B.C.
See GKOTK, " History of Greece ;" CORNELIUS NEPOS, " Iphi-
crates ;" DIODORUS SICULUS, books xiv., xv., and xvi. ; XEXOPHON,
" Hellenica," books iv. and vi. ; REHUANTZ, " Vitae Iphicratis, Cha-
brije et Timothei," Berlin, 1845.
Iph-I-ge-ni'a or Iph-i-ge-nei'a, [Gr. 'tyiyeveia; Fr.
IPHIGENIE, e'fe'zha'ne',] a daughter of Agamemnon and
Clytemnestra. The ancient poets relate that Diana
detained the Greek fleet at Aulis by a calm, because
Agamemnon had offended her, and that the soothsayer
Calchas declared Diana could be appeased only by the
sacrifice of Iphigenia. When she was on the point of
being immolated, she was rescued, it is said, by Diana,
who carried her to Tauris, where she became a priestess
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Jrrj^See Explanations, p. 23.)
IPHIGENIE
1246
IRETON
in the temple of the goddess. Her story is the subject
of two of the dramas of Euripides.
Iphig^nie. See IPIIIGENIA.
Iph'i-tus, [Gr. 'l<j>irof,] a king of Elis, who revived
the Olympic games about 884 H.C., four hundred and
seventy years after their first institution. They were
celebrated every fifth year, at Olympia, on the banks
of the Alpheus. Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, was
associated with Iphitus in this affair.
Ipparco, the Italian of HIPPARCHUS, which see.
Ippocrate. See HIPPOCRATES.
Ippolito. See HIPPOLYTUS.
Irailh, e'rtl', (AucusriN SIMON,) a French historical
writer, born at Puy-en-Velay in 1719, became canon
of Monistrol. He wrote an interesting work entitled
"Literary Quarrels, or Memoirs of the Revolutions in
the Republic of Letters from the Time of Homer to
the Present," (4 vols^ 1761,) also a "History of the
Reunion of Bretagne with France," (2 vols., 1764.) Died
in 1794.
See QU^RARD, "La France Litteraire."
Irala Yuso, e-ra'la yoo'so, (MATIAS ANTONIO,) a
Spanish painter and engraver, born at Madrid in 1680;
died in 1753.
Ir'bjf, (CHARLES LEONARD,) an English traveller, and
a commander in the royal navy. In conjunction with
James Mangles, he wrote a book entitled " Travels in
Egypt, Nubia, Syria, and the Holy Land," privately
printed in 1823. It has since been published, and is
reputed a valuable work. (See MANGLES, CAPTAIN.)
Irby, (FREDERICK PAUL,) a British naval officer, born
in 1779, commanded the Amelia in an indecisive action
against the French in 1813. Died in 1844.
Ire'dell, (Tr'del,) (JAMES,) a distinguished jurist, born
in England in 1751, settled in North Carolina in 1768.
He was admitted to the bar in 1770, and in 1777 became
judge of the supreme court of North Carolina. This
position he resigned in 1779. He was one of the ablest
and most influential members of the convention called
in 1788 to consider the Federal Constitution, and from
1790 till his death, in 1799, was judge of the supreme
court of the United States. He published, under the
authority of the legislature, the "Laws of North Caro
lina, 1715-1790," (1791.)
See G. J. McREK, "Lite of James Iredell," 1857.
Iredell, (JAMES,) a lawyer, a son of the preceding,
was born at Edenton, North Carolina, in 1788. He was
Governor of North Carolina in 1827, and was a Senator
of the United States from 1828 to 1831. He was sub
sequently reporter to the supreme court of his native
State, and published thirteen volumes of law and eight
of equity reports. Died in 1853.
Ire'land, (JoiiN,) D.D., an English writer, born at
Ashburton in 1761, became prebendary of Westminster
in 1802, and Dean of Westminster and rector of Islip in
1816. He founded a professorship at Oxford, and several
scholarships. He was a contributor to the "London
Quarterly Review," and the author of several approved
works of divinity, among which is " Paganism and Chris
tianity Compared." Died in 1842.
Ireland, (JOHN,) an English writer, born in Shrop
shire, removed to London, where he became a con
noisseur of art and a dealer in pictures. He compiled
"Memoirs of Henderson" the actor, and published
" Hogarth Illustrated," which was favourably received.
Died in 1808.
Ireland, (SAMUEL,) born in London, was a weaver
of Spitalfields in his youth. He became subsequently a
dealer in rare prints, curiosities, etc. Having acquired
some skill in drawing and engraving, he employed it
in illustrating various countries, of which he published
" Picturesque Tours." He was the author of " Graphic
Illustrations of Hogarth," and the publisher of the Shak-
speare Papers forged by his son. (See below.) Died
in 1800.
Ireland, (WILLIAM HENRY,) a son of the preceding,
was born in London in 1777. He acquired notoriety
in 1795 by forging legal documents under the seal of
Shakspeare, and by practising on the public credulity in
relation to dramas which he pretended to have found at
Stratford. One of these, called " Vortigern," was pur
chased by Sheridan, and performed at Drury Lane before
the imposture was detected. The audience were ex
tremely disgusted at the quality of the play, and Ireland,
being required to explain how he had obtained it, con
fessed the forgery to his father, and afterwards published
a written confession, which displays more vanity than
penitence. Died in 1835.
Ireiiseus, e-ra-na/iis, (FALKOVSKI,) a learned Russian
prelate and writer on theology, born in 1762; died in
1823.
Irenaeus, (KLEMKNTIEVSKI,) a Russian theologian,
born in 1753, became Archbishop of Pskof. He wrote
commentaries on Scripture, and translated from the
Greek some works of the Fathers. Died in 1818.
Irenaeus, ?r-e-nee'us, [Gr. Elpr/valof; Fr. IRENEE, e'ra'-
na'; It. IRENEO, e-ra-na'o,] SAINT, a Christian martyr,
born about 130 or 140 A.D., was a Greek by birth, and
was probably a native of Asia Minor, as he was a pupil
of the eminent Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna. About 177
he became Bishop of Lyons, (Lugdunum,) in France, in
place of Pothinus, who was the first that occupied that
see. He ministered to his churches with wisdom and
general acceptance. To counteract the errors of the
Gnostics and others, he wrote a treatise against Heresies,
which is still extant, (in a Latin translation.) He also
wrote several Letters, and other works, which are lost,
except some fragments. It is generally supposed that
he suffered martyrdom under Septimus Severus ; but
the learned are not agreed whether it occurred in 202
or 208. He was well versed in ancient philosophy, as
well as in evangelical doctrine. His book on Heresies
is highly appreciated as a historical monument and a
vindication of the primitive faith. He was a believer in
the Millennium, and entertained opinions on that subject
which some consider extravagant.
See SAINT JEROME, " De Viris illustribus ;" EUSEBIUS, " Historia
Ecclesiastical" HKNRY DODWHLL, " Dissertationes in Irenamm,"
i6Sg; GEKVAISE, " Vie de S. Irenee, second fiveque deLyon." 1723;
J. M. PRAT, " Histoire de Saint-Irenee," 1843; JAMES BEAVEN,
"Account of the Life and Writings of Saint Iieiiajus."
I-re'ne, [Gr. Eipr/vi; ; Fr. IRENE, e'rin',] Empress of
Constantinople, was born at Athens about 752, of very
obscure parentage, and in 769 A.D. became the wife of
Leo IV., Emperor of the East. At his death,jn 780, he
left a son of ten years, named Constantine, during whose
minority Irene acted as regent. She was remarkable for
her beauty, energy, and talents. In order to decide the
quarrel between the Iconoclasts and their opponents, to
whom she was partial, she assembled a council in 787,
which formally sanctioned the worship of images. When
her son attained his majority, her ambition so far pre
vailed over natural affection that she dethroned him and
deprived him of sight. In 802 she was deposed by a
conspiracy of her subjects, and Nicephorus was chosen
emperor. She died in exile in 803.
See LE BEAU, "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" VINCENT MIGNOT,
"Histoire de 1'Impe'ratrice Irene," 1762; GIBBON, "History of the
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Irenee. See IREN^US.
Ireneo. See IREN.'EUS.
Ireton, Tr'ton, (HENRY,) an eminent English repub
lican, born in 1610. He was a student of law when the
civil war began, in which he became an ardent leader
of the popular cause. Entering the army as captain of
cavalry, he was rapidly promoted, and became highly
distinguished for his courage and capacity both in the
battle-field and the council-chamber. At the battle of
Naseby, (1645,) with the rank of commissary-general, he
commanded the left wing, and was wounded and taken
prisoner ; but, his friends having gained the victory, he
recovered his liberty the same day. In 1646 he married
Bridget, daughter of Oliver Cromwell. The latter, as
Hume remarks, "had great deference for the counsels
of Ireton ;" and the republicans generally reposed the
highest confidence in him, as a statesman of incorruptible
honour. About 1646 he was elected to Parliament, where
he projected various wise legal and constitutional re
forms and was eminent for his skill in drafting ordi
nances. While Charles I. was a prisoner at Hampton
Court, he had conferences with Cromwell and Ireton,
who, it is said, were inclined to reinstate him in a limited
royalty, until they intercepted one of his letters which
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
1RIARTE
1247
IRVING
convinced them of his insincerity. Ireton was a member
of the court which tried the king; and he signed the
warrant for his execution, January, 1649. In reference
to this affair, Burnet says, " Ireton was the person that
drove it on ; for Cromwell was all the while in some
suspense about it." In July, 1649, he went to Ireland
as second in command under Cromwell, who, returning
after the lapse of a few months, left to Ireton the chief
command, with the title of lord deputy. After gaining
several victories and taking Limerick, he died there of
the plague in 1651. Hume, who was not partial to his
cause, denominates him " a memorable personage, much
celebrated for his vigilance, industry, capacity even for
the strict execution of justice in that unlimited command
which he possessed in Ireland. It was believed by many
that he was animated by a sincere and passionate love
of liberty." (" History of England.")
See, also, " Biographia Britannica ;" GUIZOT, " Histoire de la
Revolution d Angleierre."
Iriarte or Yriarte, e-re-aR'ta, (BKRNARDO,) nephew
of Don Juan de Iriarte, noticed beiow, was born in Tene-
riffe about 1734. He became a member of the council
of state, and held other important offices under the
Spanish government. Died in 1814.
Iriarte, (DOMINGO,) brother of the preceding, born
in Teneriffe in 1746, was sent as minister plenipotentiary
of Spain to Poland, and employed in other embassies'.
Died in 1795.
Iriarte, (FRANCISCO DIKGO DE Ainsay — In -si',) a
Spanish writer, born at Huesca, published an account
of his native city, entitled " Fundacion, Eccelencias,
Grandezas, etc. de la antiquisima Ciudad de Huesca,"
(1619.)
Iriarte, (iGNACro,) a celebrated Spanish landscape-
painter, born in Guipuscoa in 1620, was a pupil of the
elder Herrera. He worked in -Seville, and became a
friend of Murillo, who painted the figures for some of his
landscapes. He was one of the founders of the Academy
of Seville. Iriarte was regarded as the best landscape-
painter of his country and his time. Connoisseurs admire
in his works the lightness of the foliage, the transparency
of the sky, the limpidity of the water, and the mastery
of chiaroscuro. Died in 1685.
See RAPHAEL MENGS, " Las Obras," etc., 1780; QUILLIET, "Dic-
tionnaire des Peintres Espagnols."
Iriarte, de, da e-re-aR'ta, (Don JUAN,) an eminent
linguist and scholar, born in the island of Teneriffe in
1702. He studied in Paris at the College of Louis le
Grand, and subsequently visited London and Madrid,
where he was appointed in 1732 one of the librarians
in the Royal Library. He became official translator to
the principal secretary of state in 1740, and in 1743 was
elected a member of the Royal Academy. Among his
works may be named a " History of the Canary Islands,"
(in manuscript,) a collection of Spanish proverbs in
Latin verse, and translations from Martial. Iriarte is
said to have added two thousand manuscripts and more
than ten thousand printed volumes to the Royal Library
during the thirty-nine years in which he officiated as
librarian. Died in 1771.
Iriarte, de, (To.\i/\s,) youngest brother of Bernardo,
noticed above, was born in Teneriffe about 1750. He be
came a proficient in the ancient and modern languages
under the tuition of his uncle, and subsequently became
archivist to the principal secretary of state, and editor
of the "Madrid Mercury." He was author of a poem
entitled "La Musica," (1779,) which was received with
great favour and translated into the principal European
languages, and " Literary Fables," (" Fabulas literarias.")
The latter are written in various metres, and are re
markable for their graceful versification. They enjoyed
great popularity at the time, and are still ranked among
the classics of the language. An English version of
these fables, by George H. Devereux, appeared in 1855.
Iriarte also published a comedy entitled "The Spoiled
Child," ("El Senorito mimado,") a number of sonnets
and critical essays, and a metrical translation of Horace's
"Art of Poetry." Died about 1790.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" JOLY, no
tice of the Life of Tomas de Iriarte, in the " Repertoire de Litte'ra-
ture."
Irico, e-ree'ko, (GIOVANNI ANDREA,) an Italian priest
and savant, born at Trino in 1704. He wrote several
religious and antiquarian works. Died in 1782.
I'ris, [Gr. TIpif,] in Greek mythology, the goddess of
the rainbow, said to be a daughter of Thaumas, and
sometimes called Thaumantias. Homer represents her
as the messenger of the gods, employed to carry mes
sages from Ida to Olympus and from gods to men.
Irland, CR'ISN', (BONAVENTURE,) a French jurist, of
Scottish descent, born at Poitiers in 1551 ; died in 1612.
Irnerius, eR-na're-us, sometimes written Warnerius,
a celebrated Italian jurisconsult, born at Bologna in the
eleventh century. He became the renovator or restorer
of the Roman law, which had been neglected, and on
which he wrote commentaries, called "Glossae." He
obtained the office of judge, and was sent by the emperor
to Rome in mS to expedite the election of a pope.
See B. NIHUSIUS, "Irnerius," Cologne, 1642; FANTUZZI, " Scrit-
tori Kolognesi."
Iron Mask. See MASQUE DE FER.
Ir' vine, (WILLIAM,) a general, born near Enniskillen,
Ireland, about 1742, emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1763.
He became a colonel in 1776, and a brigadier-general
in 1779. From 1781 to 1783 he commanded the troops
stationed at Fort Pitt for the defence of the western
frontier. He was chosen a member of Congress in 1787,
and again in 1793. Died in 1804.
Ir'ving, (DAVID,) LL.D., a Scottish biographer and
writer on law. He published " Lives of Scottish Poets,"
(1804,) "Lives of the Scottish Writers," (1839,) and "The
Table-Talk of John Selden," (1854.) He also wrote the
article "Civil Law" in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica."
Irving, (EDWARD,) a celebrated and eloquent Scottish
pulpit orator, born at Annan in 1792, was a graduate of
the University of Edinburgh. Having been employed
as rector of an academy at Kirkaldy about seven years,
he was ordained a Presbyterian minister. From 1819 to
1822 he was engaged as assistant in the pulpit of Dr.
Chalmers, Glasgow, where he acquired a good reputation.
He accepted a call from the Scottish Church, Cross
Street, London, in 1822, and soon became an admired
and fashionable preacher. His original genius and his
extraordinary eloquence attracted crowded audiences,
among whom were found the most eminent authors and
statesmen, and nobles of the highest rank. In 1823 he
published a series of discourses entitled "For the Ora
cles of God, Four Orations," etc. In 1829 he removed
into a larger church built for him in Regent Square. A
charge of heresy having been preferred against him in
the presbytery of London in 1830, he was condemned
by that body, and ejected from the church, in 1832.
After this event he obtained another place, and attracted
crowds by his exhibition of the gift of unknown tongues,
which he ascribed to divine inspiration. He published
" Babylon and Infidelity Foredoomed of God," and other
theological treatises. Died at Glasgow in December,
1834. " He was unquestionably," says De Quincey, "by
many degrees the greatest orator of our times." It is
probable that his devotion was sincere, but not guided
by discretion, and that in the latter part of his career
his mind was affected with insanity. Carlyle, who was
his friend, thinks that "bodily and spiritually, perhaps,
there was not (in that November, 1822) a man more full
of genial, energetic life in these islands." He left three
children. The collected writings of Edward Irving have
been published under the editorship of his nephew, the
Rev. G. Carlyle, London, 1864-65.
See "Life of Irving," by MRS. OLIPHANT, 1862; DE QUINCEY,
" Literary Reminiscences," vol. ii. ; " Edinburgh Review" for Octo
ber, 1862; "Edward Irving, an Ecclesiastical and Literary Biogra
phy," by W. WILKS: CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Emi
nent Scotsmen," (Supplement;) M.ICHAEL HOHL. " Bruchstiicke aus
dem Leben und den Schritten E. Irving's," 1839; LEHMANN, " Ueber
die Irvingianer," 1853; "Westminster Review" for January, 1824;
" Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1858, and June, 1862;
" Eraser's Magazine" for January, 1835; " North British Review"
for August, 1862.
Ir'ving, (JOHN TREAT,) an American judge and writer,
brother of Washington Irving, was born in 1778. He
was a popular contributor, (political,) both in prose and
verse, to the "Morning Chronicle," and from 1821 till
his death, in 1838, was presiding judge of the court
of common pleas in New York.
c as k: c as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural ': N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
IRVING
1248
ISABEL
Irving, (JOHN TREAT,) an American lawyer and writer,
son of the preceding, and a resident of New York, is au
thor of a volume of " Indian Sketches," (1835,) and two
novels, entitled "The Attorney," and "Harry Harson ;
or, The Benevolent Bachelor," which originally appeared
in the "Knickerbocker Magazine."
Irving, (PKTER,) an American journalist, born in 1771.
He became in 1802 the editor and proprietor of the
"Morning Chronicle," a Democratic journal of New
York. In conjunction with his brother Washington, he
projected " Knickerbocker's History of New York." He
wrote "Giovanni Sbogarro, a Venetian Tale," (1820.)
Died in 1838.
Irving, (TiiF.onoRK,)
LL.D., an American author,
and minister in the Protestant Episcopal Church, was
born in New York in 1809. He spent some time in
Europe with his uncle, Washington Irving, was professor
of history and belles-lettres in Geneva College, New
York, from 1836 to 1849, and afterwards filled for several
years
the chair of belles-lettres in the New York Free
Academy. He entered the ministry in 1854. He has
written "The Conquest of Florida by Hernando de
Soto," in 2 vols., (Philadelphia and London, 1835,) and
"The Fountain of Living Waters," (1854.)
Irving, (WASHINGTON,) a distinguished American
author and humourist, born in the city of New York,
April 3, 1783, was a son of William Irving, a native of
Scotland. About 1800 he left school and commenced
the study of the law. For the benefit of his health, he
performed in 1804 a voyage to Europe, visited France,
Italy, Switzerland, and England, and returned in 1806.
Soon after his return he was admitted to the bar ; but
he preferred to devote himself to literary pursuits, and
never practised law. In coniunction with his brother
William and with James K. Paulding, he issued in 1807
a humorous and satirical magazine, entitled " Salma
gundi, or the Whim-Whams and Opinions of Launcelot
Langstaff, P'sq., and others." Of this amusing and popular
work only twenty numbers were issued. lie published
in 1809 another humorous work, "The History of New
York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker," in which he was
assisted by his brother Peter. It was very favourably
received. "I have never," says Sir Walter Scott, "read
anything so closely resembling the style of Dean Swift
as the Annals of Diedrich Knickerbocker." (Letter to
Henry Brevoort, April 23, 1813.)
In 1810 he became a silent partner with his brothers
in an extensive commercial house in New York. He
sailed in 1815 to Europe, where he remained many
years, and in 1817 visited Sir Walter Scott at Abbots-
ford, who became his constant friend.. He was reduced
to poverty by the failure of the firm of which he was a
member, in 1817. His next important work was "The
Sketch-Book, " (1818,) by Geoffrey Crayon, which was
written in England. It enjoyed great popularity, and
raised Irving to the highest rank of American authors.
Lord Jeffrey, in the "Edinburgh Review" for August,
1820, commended "The Sketch-Book" as "written
throughout with the greatest care and accuracy, and
worked up to great purity and beauty of diction on the
model of the most elegant and polished of our native
writers." He published in London, in 1822, "Brace-
bridge Hall, or the Humourists," which was received
with great favour both in England and America. Com
menting on this work, Lord Jeffrey says, "We happen
to be very intense and sensitive admirers of those soft
harmonies of studied speech in which this author is apt
to indulge himself, and have caught ourselves oftener
than we shall confess, neglecting his excellent matter to
lap ourselves in the liquid music of his periods." ("Edin
burgh Review" for November, 1822.) For his "Tales
of a Traveller," (1824,) Murray, the London publisher,
gave him ^"1500 before he saw the manuscript.
Mr. Irving afterwards spent some years in France and
Spain, where he composed his "History of the Life
and Voyages of Christopher Columbus," (4 vols., 1828,)
which was very successful. "This is one of those works,"
says Alexander H. Everett, "which are at the same time
the delight of readers and the despair of critics. It is
as nearly perfect as any work well can be." ("North
American Review" for January, 1829.) In 1829 he pro
duced an imaginative and romantic work entitled "The
Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada, from the Manu
scripts of Fray Antonio Agapida." He was appointed
secretary of legation to the American embassy at London
in 1829, and returned to the United States in 1832. Among
his later works are " The Alhambra," (1832 ;) a "Tour on
the Prairies," (1835;) "Astoria," (3 vols., 1836;) "The
Adventures of Captain Bonneville," (2 vols., 1837;)
"Oliver Goldsmith, a Biography," (1849;) "Mahomet
and his Successors," (1850;) and "The Life of George
Washington," (5 vols., 1855-59.) He was minister to
Spain from 1842 to 1846. He passed the latter part of
his life at Sunnyside, on the Hudson River, where he
died, November 28, 1859. He was never married.
For an easy elegance of style, Irving has no superior,
perhaps no equal, among the prose writers of America.
If I lawthorne excels him in variety, in earnestness, and in
force, he is perhaps inferior to Irving in facility and grace ;
while he can make no claim to that genial, lambent
humour which beams in almost every page of " Geoffrey
Crayon."
See the " Life and Letters of Washington Irving," by PIERRE M.
IRVING, 1863; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Ar
1822, and September, 1828; "London Quarterly Review" for April,
1821, March, 1825, and July, 1863; "North American Review" for
July, 1835, and January, 1837, (both by EDWARD EVERETT,) and
pendium of American Literature;" "Atlantic Monthly" for Novem
ber, 1860, and June, 1864.
Irving, (Wn.uAM,) a brother of the preceding, was
born in New York in 1766. He married a sister of
James K. Paulding in 1793, became a merchant in New
York, and was a member of Congress during three
terms, (1813-19.) He aided his brother and Mr. Pauld
ing in the " Salmagundi," of which he wrote the poetical
parts. Died in 1821.
Ir'win, (Evi.ES,) a poet, born in Calcutta, of Irish
parents, in 1748, was employed in the civil service of
the East India Company. He wrote several odes and
eclogues, and "Adventures during a Voyage up the Red
Sea," (1780.) Died in 1817.
Irwin, VISCOUNTESS. See HOWARD, (ANNE.)
Isa, ee'sa, written also I$a and Islia, one of the names
of SIVA, which see.
Isaac, I'zak, [Heb.pnY' or pn^' ; It. ISACCO, e-sak'-
ko ; Arabian, ISHAK, is'hSk',] a Hebrew patriarch, the
son of Abraham and Sarah, was born about 1890 n.C. He
married Rebecca, and became the father of Esau and
Jacob. " Of all the patriarchs," says Bishop Hall, " none
made so little noise in the world as Isaac." He removed
to Gerar, in the land of the Philistines, and acquired
riches as a planter. He died at the age of one hundred
and eighty.
See Genesis xxi., xxii., xxiv., xxvi., xxvii., xxviii., and xxxv. 29;
Matthew xxii. 32; Luke xx. 37; Galatians iv. 28; Hebrews xi. 17.
Isaac I., or Isaac Coni-ne'nus, [Gr. 'laaumos 6
Ko/j.vr]v6c,] Emperor of Constantinople, was chosen by
the army as successor of Michael VI. in 1057. Two
years later, in consequence of a malady which he sup
posed mortal, he resigned the throne to Constantino
Ducas, and entered a convent. Died in 1061.
Isaac II., or Isaac An'ge-lus, [Gr. 'loauiuof 6 "Ayye-
/toc,] Emperor of Constantinople, was proclaimed in
1185 as successor to Androni'cus, who was dethroned
by a popular revolt. He rendered himself very un
popular by his vices and misgovernment. In 1195 his
brother Alexis usurped the throne and imprisoned Isaac,
who was liberated and restored in 1203 by an army of
crusaders. In 1204 he was again supplanted by Alexius
Ducas, and died or was killed the same year. Constan
tinople was speedily taken by the crusaders, who elected
Baldwin emperor.
Isaac, ee'zak, (HEINRICH,) a German musician, whom
the Italians called ARRIGO TEDESCO, (i.e. the " German
Henry,") was born about 1440. He removed to Italy
about 1475, anc' was patronized by Lorenzo de' Medici.
He composed sacred music.
Isaacson, T'zak-son, (HENRY,) born in London in
1581, wrote a work on Chronology. Died in 1654.
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long-; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, n, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
ISABEL
1249
1SAIE
Isabel, the Spanish of ELIZABETH, which see.
Isabel I. See ISABELLA OF CASTILK.
Is'a-bel [Sp. pron. e-sa-bel'] II., (or, more fully,
Maria Isabel Luisa,) Queen of Spain, born at Madrid
in October, 1830, is a daughter of Ferdinand VII. and
Maria Christina. She succeeded her father on the 29th
of September, 1833, when her mother became regent.
Her claim was disputed by her uncle, Don Carlos, in a
civil war, which ended in the defeat of the Carlists in
1840. The queen-regent having been driven from power
by a popular revolt in October, 1840, Espartero became
regent. Isabel was declared of age in November, 1843,
and in October, 1846, was married to her cousin, Fran
cisco de Assis, a son of Francisco de Paula, who was a
brother of Ferdinand VII. She has a son, Francisco,
born in 1857. Her reign was agitated by many revolu
tions, coups d'etat, and changes of constitution. In Sep
tember, 1868, she was deposed by her revolted subjects
almost without a struggle.
Isabella. See ELIZABETH.
Is-a-bel'la OK AUSTRIA, (CLARA EUGENIA,) the
daughter of Philip II. of Spain and Elizabeth of France,
was born in 1566. As the niece of Henry III. of France,
she claimed the French crown at his death, but was
excluded by the Salic law, though she was favoured by
the chiefs of the League. In 1597 she became the wife
of Archduke Albert, son of the Emperor of Germany.
Died in 1633.
Isabella OF BAVARIA, daughter of Stephen, second
Duke of Bavaria, born in 1371, became Queen of France
in 1385 by marriage with Charles VI. She was remark
able for beauty and for her voluptuous and dissolute
character. When her imbecile consort became incapable
of ruling, she aspired to royal power, and made a coali
tion with the English against the dauphin, her son. Died
in 1435-
Isabella [Span. ISABEL, e-sa-beT; Fr. ISABELI.E, e'zi'-
bel'J OK CASTILK, daughter of John II., King of Cas
tile, was born at Madrigal in 14^1. The malcontent
subjects of her brother, Henry IV., forced him to ac
knowledge her as his heir, after which her hand was
solicited by several princes of Europe, and she became
the wife of Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469. In 1474 she
was proclaimed Queen of Castile and Leon, the sove
reignty of which she did not resign to her husband, but
kept in her own hands. Historians agree in applauding
her beauty, virtue, magnanimity, piety, learning, and
political wisdom. It was under her auspices that Co
lumbus discovered America, after his project had been
treated with neglect by Ferdinand. Died in 1504. (See
FERDINAND V.) Isabella had blue eyes and auburn hair,
and possessed great beauty of features, sweetness of
expression, and dignity of presence.
Pee PKKSCOTT, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella;" JUAN T>K
MOLINA, " Sumario de la Vicla y Heclios tie los catolicos Reyes D.
Fernando \ Dona Isabel," 1587; FERNANDEZ DE PUI.GAU, "Reruni
a Ferdinando et Klisabe Hispaniarmn Regibus Gestarum Decades
II.," 1545; D. CLEMHNCIN, " Elogio de la Reina catolica Doiia
Isabel," 1821; GKORGK ANITA, "Memoirs ot" Queen Isabella of
Castile," London, 1850.
Isabella. Sec ISABELLA.
Isabelle OF FRANCE. See ELIZABETH OF FRANCE.
Isabelle (e'zt'beK) OF FRANCE, Queen of England,
daughter of Philip the Fair, King of France, was born
in 1292, and was married to Edward II. in 1308. The
issue of this union was a son, who became Edward III.
About 1324 she went to Paris to negotiate between her
consort and the French king, where she formed a con
spiracy with malcontent nobles, and returned to England
with the avowed intention to remove from power the
king's unworthy favourite, Spencer. Entering London
without resistance, in 1326, the partisans of the queen de
posed Edward II. and proclaimed his son king. Isabelle
and her favourite, Mortimer, exercised the royal power
a few years during the minority of her son ; and there
seems no reason to doubt that they contrived the murder
of Edward II. She was imprisoned for nearly twenty
years, and died in prison in 1358. She was surnamed,
on account of her cruelty, "the she-wolf of France."
Isabelle OF FRANCE, Queen of England, born in
1389, was a daughter of Charles VI. She was married
to Richard II. of England in 1396. Died in 1409.
to Richard II. of England in 1396. Died m 1409. Isaie. See ISAM
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in
79
Isabelle, e'z&'beT, (CHARLES EDOUARD,) a French
architect, born at Havre in 1800, wrote "The Circular
Edifices and Domes Classed," etc., (1843-56.)
Isabelle d'Angouleme, e'zt'beT d&N'goo'lim', a
French princess, was a daughter of Aymar, Count of
Angouleme. She was married to John, King of Eng
land, in 1201. Died in 1245.
Isabey, e'zt'b.V, (EUGENE Louis GABRIEL,) an emi
nent painter of marine views, born in Paris in 1804. He
obtained a first-class medal in 1824, and produced in
1827 " The Coast of Honfleur," and a "Tempest near
Dieppe." Among his best works are the " Battle of the
Texel," (1839,) "The Departure of Queen Victoria,"
(1845,) and tne "Embarkation of De Ruyter," (1851.)
He received a first-class medal at the Exposition of 1855.
Isabey, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a celebrated French minia
ture-painter, born at Nancy in 1767, was a pupil of
David, and father of the preceding. About 1802 he
became the most fashionable artist of Paris in his depart
ment of the art. He was liberally patronized by the
emperor Napoleon, who had been his friend when both
were obscure citizens. He executed many admired
portraits of the Bonaparte family and of the generals
of the empire. It is said that most of the sovereigns of
Europe have been the subjects of his pencil. Among
his works are the "Table des Marechaux," a picture on
porcelain of Napoleon and his marshals, and "The
Congress of Vienna," (1817.) Died in 1855.
Isacs, ee'zaks. (PlETER,) a skilful Dutch portrait-
painter, born at Helzevor in 1569; died about 1620.
Isaeus, T-see'us, [Gr. 'laaiof ; Fr. ISEE, e'za',] a famous
Greek orator, who flourished about 400 B.C., was a
native of Chalcis, or, according to some authorities, of
Athens. Having been a pupil of Isocrates, he opened
a celebrated school in Athens, and had the honour of
being the preceptor of Demosthenes. Isseus is one of
the ten Athenian orators of the Alexandrian canon. His
style is at once elegant and vehement, but is less natural
than that of Lysias. He had great skill in dialectics
and in the distribution of his arguments. Only eleven
of his orations are now extant ; and these are all forensic.
He is said to have survived the .Accession of King Philip
of Macedon, 348 B.C.
See J. A. LIEBMANN, " De ISJEJ Vila et Scriptis," 1831 ; E. JENIKE,
" Observationes in Isseum," 1838.
Isasus, a Greek sophist" and orator, born in Assyria,
lived in the first century after Christ. His eloquence
is extolled by Pliny.
Isaiah, T-za'yah or e-zi'a, [Heb. 1iT>'fcy ; Gr. "Haaiaf;
Lat. ESAI'AS; Fr. ISAIE, e'zt'e', or fisAlE, a'zt'e' ; It.
ISAIA, e-sa-ee'a; Sp. ISAIAS, e-sa-ee'as,] the first of the
great Hebrew prc^hets, was a contemporary of Hosea,
Joel, Amos, and Micah. He prophesied during a period
of about fitly years, beginning about 760 B.C. He lived
at Jerusalem, and exerted great influence in public affairs.
Little is known of his personal history, except that he
had a wife, who is called a prophetess, and two sons.
There is a doubtful tradition that Isaiah suffered death
by being sawn asunder, at the command of King Ma-
nasseh. As a writer he is remarkable for versatility of
genius, and merits the first rank among the prophets by
the majestic simplicity and sublimity of his compositions.
He declared more amply and clearly than any other
prophet the eternal divinity, vicarious sufferings, and
glorious kingdom of the Messiah, and hence is often
called the evangelical prophet. No other prophet is so
often quoted by Christ and his apostles. (See Matt. i.
22, iii. 3, viii. 17, xii. 18-20, xiii. 14; Luke iv. 17; Acts
xxviii. 25; Rom. ix. 27, and x. 16; Phil. ii. 10.) In our
translation of the New Testament he is always called
ESAIAS. He has been pronounced by some critics not
inferior to Homer in poetical genius ; and all agree that
his book is a master-piece of beauty and sublimity both
in thought and style.
Among the commentators on Isaiah are Saint Jerome,
Vitringa, Lowth, Calmet, Eichhorn, Doderlein, Gesenius,
Gataker, Hitzig, Rosenmuller, and Henderson ; and, in the
United States, Dr. Alexander and Mr. Albert Barnes.
See, also, KIMCHI, "Lexicon Rabbinicum ;" EWALD, "Die Pro-
plieten des alten Bundes," and "Gescbicbte des Volkes Israel bis
Cliristus;" KNOHKI., " Prophetisme des Hebreux."
Isa'ie. See ISAIAH.
this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
ISAMBERT
1250
IS LA
Isambert, e'zfiN'baiR', (filMii.E,) a French physician
and biographer, a son of Franjois Andre, noticed below,
was born at Auteuil in 1828.
Isambert, (FRANC.OIS ANDRE,) a French jurist and
Protestant, born at Aunay (Eure-et-Lo,re) in 1792. He
distinguished himself about 1825 as the defender of the
rights of the free people of colour in Martinique, and
" performed in France," says Taillaiuiier, "a service like
that which Clarkson and \Vilberforce rendered in Eng
land." In 1830 he was appointed a judge (conseiller) of
the court of cassation. lie was a Liberal member of the
Chamber of Deputies from 1830 to 1848, and supported
Cavaignac and the cause of order in the Assembly of
1848. He was secretary of the French Society for the
Abolition of Slavery, of which he is said to have been
the founder. Among his works are a "Manual for the
Publicist and Statesman," (4vols., 1826,) and a "History
of Justinian," (1856.) I le wrote many able articles for
the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." Died in 1857.
See TAII.LANUIER, article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Isam, e'x.ti<n', (SAMUKL,) a French poet, born at Cas-
tres in 1637, wrote "The Speaking I'istole," (" La Pistole
parlante," 1660,) which had great success. Died in 1673.
Isamicus. See LKO III.
Is-ca'm-us or Is-ca'mis, (JOSEPH,) surnamed also
DKVO'MUS, an English poet, born at Exeter, derived his
name from Isca, the place of his education. lie accom
panied Richard I. on a crusade to Palestine, and wrote
a Latin poem "On the Trojan War," and another en
titled " Antiocheis." Died about 1224.
Isee. See Is^us.
Iselin, e/.'la.N', ( ISAAC,) a Swiss writer, born at Bale
in 1728. He was assistant secretary of state from 1756
to his death. He became the enlightened advocate of
reform in morals, education, and legislation, on which
he wrote articles for the journals. His chief work is
entitled "On the History of Mankind," (" Ueber die
Geschichte cler Menschheit." 1764.) Died in 1782.
See J. G. SCHI.OSSER, "Rede auf Iselin," 1783; S. HIRZEL,
"Denkmal I. Iselin gewidmet," 1782.
Iselin, [Lat. ISELI'NUS,] (JACQUES CHRISTOPHF,) an
eminent Swiss philologist and divine, born at Bale in
1681. He spoke Greek with facility, and excelled in
Oriental languages. He became professor of history at
Bale in 1707, and was promoted to the chair of divinity
in 1711. He wrote an admirable Latin poem on "The
Gauls Crossing the Rhine," (1696,) a treatise on the
"Latin Historians of the Classic Period," (" De Histo-
ricis Latinis Melioris /Evi," 1697,) a treatise "On the
Domination of the Magi in Persia," (1707,) and other
minor works. Died in 1737. I
See HECK, "Vita Iselini,'' in the 3d vol. of "Tempe Helvetica;"
J. R. ISELIN, " Laudatio funebris conseciaudae Memoriae Viri iucom-
parabilis J. C. Iselini," 1739.
Iselin, ([KAN KODOLPHE,) a Swiss jurist, born at
Bale in 1705, wrote "On Eminent Domain," ("De Do-
minio Eminente," 1726,) and other works. Died in 1779.
Isembert (e'/fiN'bain') OF XAINTES, a French archi
tect, lived about 1200, and is supposed to have built the
old London Bridge.
Isendooru, van, vtn ee'zen-doRn', or Ysendoorn,
, , , ,
(GlJSBKRT,) a Dutch philosopher, born in Gelderland in
1601, published " Effata Philosophica," (1633,) "Ethica
"
,
history, lived between the fifth and sixth centuries B.C.,
and is said to have been the first convert to the religion
of Zoroaster, in which he was followed by his father
Gushtasp (Darius Hystaspis) and the whole Persian
empire. This change of religion led to the invasion of
Persia by Arjasp, King of Turan, in which Isfendiyar,
by his bravery and heroism, not only saved his father's
kingdom, but conquered India, Arabia, and the West.
He was killed in battle by the celebrated Roostum.
See MALCOLM, "History of Persia;" J.ATKINSON, "Abridg
ent of ihe Shah Namch of Firdousi."
Ish'mael, [Heb. i^'OBr ; Arabic, IsMAEELor ISMAIL,
is-mi-eel'; Fr. ISMAEL, es'mf'el',] the son of Abraham
and Hagar, born about 1900 H.c., was the ancestor of
the Ishmaelites or Arabians. (See Genesis xvi., xxi.)
Ishwara. See ISWARA.
Isi, ee'see, written also Igi and Ishi, (the consort of
Isa or Siva,) one of the many names of PA KVATf, which
see. She is identified by some writers, including Sir W.
Jones, with the Isis of the Egyptians. (See Isis.)
Isiaslaf. See IZIASLAF.
Is'i-dore [Gr. 'Itw'Ajpocv Lat. ISIDO'RUS ; Fr. ISIDORE,
e'ze'doK/; It. ISIDOKO, e-se-do'ro| OF CHAKAX, a Per
sian, who is supposed to have lived in the first century
of our era, wrote a work called " Parthian Itinerary,"
which contains a list of the eighteen provinces of Parthia
and of the chief towns, with the distances of the towns
from each other.
Isidore OF Moscow, a Russian prelate, was chosen
Primate of Russia in 1437. He favoured the reunion of
the Greek and Latin Churches at the Council of Florence,
(1437.) Died at Rome in 1463.
Isidore, SAINT, an eminent Spanish scholar and
bishop, born at Carthagena about 570 A.I)., was a brother
of Leander, Archbishop of Seville. He understood
Greek, Hebrew, and Latin, and was very influential in
the Spanish Church. About 600 he was appointed
Bishop of Seville. The Council of Toledo, held in 650,
denominated him "the glory of the Catholic Church,
and the most learned man of his age." Among his most
important works are, in Latin, "A Chronicle from the
Origin of the World to 626 A. I).," and "Twenty Books
of Etymologies," which, says Dr. Iloefer, "is one of the
most precious monuments for the history of human
knowledge." Died in 636 A.I).
See SAINT ILDBFONSO, ''De Viris illustribus;" TRITIIKIM, " De
Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis ;" KOESI.KK, "Dissertatio; Isidori His-
toria Gothorura, Vandalorum," etc.. 1803.
Isidore, SAINT, OF ALEXANDRIA, born in Egypt about
318 A.D., was a friend of Athanasius, by whom he was
ordained a priest. Died in 404.
Isidore, SAINT, OF PKLUSIUM, is supposed to have
been born between 360 and 390 A. D. He lived as a
hermit in Egypt, and had a high reputation for piety and
wisdom. He wrote, in Greek, a great number of short
letters, of which more than two thousand are now ex
tant. They are said to contain sound doctrine and good
instruction in morals. Died about 450 A.I).
See HERMANN, "Dissertatio de Isidore Pelusiota," 1737 ; NIE-
MEYER, "Dissertatio de Isidore Peiusiota," 1825.
Is'I-dore Mer-ca'tor or Pec-ca'tor, the supposed
name of a person who in the eighth or ninth century
fabricated a famous code of canon law or collection of
decretals, often called the "Collection of the Pseudo-Isi
dore." Some popes availed themselves of this means
to extend their temporal power.
Isidorus. See ISIDORE.
Is-I-do'rus OF MILETUS, a Greek architect of the
sixth century, who was employed by the emperor Jus
tinian to build the magnificent church of Saint Sophia
in Constantinople, which is now used as a mosque.
I'sis, [Gr. 'love,] one of the chief deities of the ancient
Egyptians, was called the wife of Osiris and mother of
Horus. She was worshipped as the goddess of fecun
dity, and appears to have represented nature or the earth.
The cow was sacred to Isis. She had many worshippers
in Greece and Rome. There were famous temples of
Isis at Memphis and Denderah. She has been identified
with the Hindoo Isi, (which see.)
Isla, es'la, (JosE FRANCISCO,) a witty and popular
Spanish author, born at Segovia in 1703. He became a
Jesuit and an eminent preacher. He effected a reform
in the vicious style and bad taste that prevailed among
the Spanish priests, which he ridiculed in his famous
satirical romance "The Life of the Popular Preacher
Fray Gerundio de Campazas," (3 vols., 1758,) which
is called the best picture of Spanish manners of the
eighteenth century. This work was condemned by the
Inquisition. He made a Spanish version of "Gil Bias,"
under this title : "Adventures of Gil Bias, stolen from
Spain, adopted in France by Le Sage, and restored to
his Native Country and Language," (6 vols., 1787.) The
Jesuits having been expelled from Spain in 1767, he
retired to Bologna, where he died in 1781.
See J. I. DE SALAS, "Vida de Juan de Isla," 1803. TICKNOR,
" History of Spanish Literature ;" EVERETT, " Critical and Miscella
neous Essays."
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good: moon;
ISLE IF
ITTIG
Isleif, is'lTf, an Icelandic historian, was ordained a
priest in Rome about 1056, and returned home. He
wrote " Annals of Iceland and of Norway." Died about
1080.
Isocrate. See ISOCRATF.S.
I-soc'ra-tes, [Gr. 'laoK/xirriz ; Fr. ISOCRATE, e'zo'-
kKtt'; It. ISOCRATE, e-sok'ra-ti,] one of the ten great
Athenian orators, born at Athens in 436 B.C., received
lessons from Gorgias, Prodicus, and Theramenes, and
was an intimate friend of Plato. He soon surpassed
these masters in the rhetorical art ; but his insuperable
constitutional timidity defeated his political aspirations,
and disqualified him for a public debater or an oracle
of the "fierce democracy." He opened a school of elo
quence, which numbered among its pupils many eminent
rhen, such as Isaeus, Timotheus, Xenophon, and Hyperi-
des. Cicero compared his school to the wooden horse
of Troy, from which issued the principal Grecian chiefs.
He composed orations and forensic arguments for clients
or others, and discourses on moral and political questions.
His style is extremely polished and harmonious, but
perhaps too artificial and diffuse. His character was
honourable, his political principles were moderate and
sincerely patriotic. He was one of the few who had the
courage to appear in mourning for the death of Socra
tes. It is said that the disastrous battle of Chaeronea
affected him so deeply that he refused to eat afterwards,
and died at the age of ninety-eight. Twenty-one of his
orations are extant.
See PLUTARCH, " Vitae Decem Oratorum ;" BILMARK, "De
Isocrate Oratore Grzco," 1798; PFUND, " De Isocratis Vita et
Scriptis," 1833: LiCHTENAi'ER, " De Isocrate," 1843: O. MUI.LER,
" History of the Literature of Ancient Greece ;" P. EKKRMAN, " Iso-
crates Patre loquentia;," 1743.
Ismaeel or Ismail, is-mt-eel', a Moslem priest, was
Imam of the Sheeites in the second century of the Hejrah.
At his death a division occurred among the Sheeites in
respect to the succession. Those who adhered to the
son of Ismaeel were called Ismaeelites or Ismaeelians,
and became a powerful sect in Egypt and Persia.
Ismaeel, Ismail, or Ismail 6hah, is-mi-eel' shah,
founder of the dynasty of Sofees of Persia, was born in
1487, and assumed royal power about the age of four
teen. He acquired several provinces of Persia by con
quest, and died in 1524, leaving the throne to his son,
Aboo-Modhaffer. Ismaeel is venerated by the Persians,
who call him King of the Sheeites, (a religious sect.)
See MALCOLM, " History of Persia ;" Vox HAMMER-PIIRGSTALL,
"Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs."
Ismaeel (Ismail) II., King of Persia, the son of Aboo-
Modhaffer, began to reign in 1576, and made himself de
tested by his sanguinary temper. After executing many
innocent persons, he died in 1577, and was succeeded by
his brother, Mohammed Meerza, (Mirza.)
See MALCOLM, " History of Persia."
Ismael, the French for ISHMAF.L, which see.
Isnard, es'i.tR', (Acmi.LE NICOLAS,) a French pol;ti-
cal economist and writer, born in Paris ; died about 1803.
Isnard, (MAXIMIN,) a French Girondist, republican,
and orator, born at Grasse, in Provence, in 1751, was
chosen a member of the Legislative Assembly in 17"!.
lie was one of the most able and enthusiastic partisans
of the Revolution, to which he often gave a new impulse
by his brilliant, impetuous, and inflammatory eloquence.
Fie was one of the first members of the committee of
public safety, the formation of which he first proposed,
and was president of the Convention a few days in May,
1793, during the struggle between his party and the fa-
cobins. He was inv< Ived in the fatal proscription of the
Girondists, but escaped death by concealment. In 1795
he was chosen a member of the Council of Five Hun
dred. He retired from political life when Napoleon be
came consul, and published an essay on the " Immortality
of the Soul," (1801,) in which he professes himself aeon-
vert to revealed religion. He maintained a fair reputation
for honour and probity, and died about 1830. Lamartine,
who calls him the Danton of the Gironde, says, "His
speeches were magnificent odes, which exalted discussion
into lyric enthusiasm." (" History of the Girondists.")
"Isnard was the man of the Girondist party," says
Charles Nodier, " who possessed in the highest degree
the gift of those vehement inspirations which burst like
thunder in sudden and terrible explosions."
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" THIERS, " History of the
French Revolution."
Isnardi, es-naR'dee, (GIAMKATTISTA,) an Italian sa
vant, born near Nice in 1749, wrote a "Memoir on the
Monuments of India and Egypt." Died in 1830.
Isolani, e-so-la'nee, (IsinoRO,) an Italian theologian,
born at Milan, lived between 1480 and 1550, and wrote
many works against the doctrines of Luther.
Isolani, e-zo-la'nee, (JOHANN LUDWIG HECTOR,)
COUNT, an Austrian general, born in 1586, served in
the Thirty Years' war. For the part he took in the
betrayal of Wallenstein he received the title of count.
Died in 1640.
Isore, e'zo'ra', (JACQUES,) a French politician, born
at Cauvigny in 1758, was a member of the Convention
in 1792, and voted for the death of Louis XVI. Died
in 1839.
Isourd, d', de'zooR', (JOACHIM JEAN XAVIER,) a
French ecclesiastic, born at Aix in 1766. He became a
cardinal in 1827, and in 1829 was made a peer of France,
with the title of duke. After refusing several archbishop
rics, he accepted that of Lyons in 1839 ; but he died
before the end of that year.
Is'rael, [Heb. /.O^'; Gr. 'lcpar/7.,] a name often given
by the inspired writers to the patriarch Jacob, whose
descendants are called Israelites. (See JACOB.)
Israeli. See DISRAELI.
Is'selt, van, (MICHAEL,) a Dutch historian and Cath
olic priest, born at Dokkum, adhered to the Spanish
party in the civil war. He wrote " Historia Belli Colo-
niensis," (1584,) and other works. Died in 1597.
Is'ter, [Gr. "Icrrpoc,] a Greek historian and poet, lived
about 250 B.C., and was a friend or pupil of Callimachus.
He wrote a history entitled ATTIKU, and other works,
none of which are extant.
Isthvanfi, Isht'vSn-fee, [Lat. ISTHVAN'FIUS,"] (NICHO
LAS,) a Hungarian noble, born about 1535, was rewarded
for his services by the office of Vice-Palatine of Hungary.
He wrote, in Latin, a " History of Hungary from 1490 to
1606," (1622.) Died in 1615.
Isthvanfius. See ISTHVANFI.
Istria, DUKE OK. See KKSSIERES.
Isturiz, de, daes-too-reth', (Don FRANCISCO XAVIER,)
a Spanish politician, born at Cadiz in 1790. He pro
moted the revolution of January, 1820, was elected to
the Cortes in 1822, and became a leader of the Liberal
or democratic party. He was minister of foreign affairs
for a few months in 1836, and was driven into exile by
an emente. Having returned in 1837, he was chosen
president of the Cortes in 1839. He negotiated the
marriage of the queen Isabel, (1846,) was sent as minister
to Eicgland in 1850, and to Russia in 1857. He became
president of the council in February, 1862.
Iswara, ees'wa-ra, or Ishwara, etsh'wa-ra, written
also Ic^wara, one of the thousand names of Siva, though
sometimes applied to other Hindoo deities. He is by
some writers identified with the Osiris of the Egyptians.
See MOOR'S "Hindu Pantheon."
Itale. See ITAI.US.
It/a-lus, |Gr. 'lra/.6f ; Fr. TTALE, e'tSl',] an ancient
king of Italy, from whom that country is supposed to have
derived its name. He married Electra, a daughter of
Latinus. He is considered as fabulous by some authors.
Itard, e'tfr/, (JEAN MAUIK GASPAKP,) a French phy
sician, born at Oraison in 1775, removed to Paris about
1796, and practised with success. In 1799 he was ap
pointed physician to the Institution for Deaf-Mutes, which
position he filled for many years. He wrote a "Treatise
on Diseases of the Ear," (2 vols., 1821.) Died in 1838.
Itb'a-cus, |Gr. *I0a/cof; Fr. ITHAQUE, e'ttk',] a name
of ULYSSES, which see.
Ithaque. See ITHACUS.
Ittig, it'tio, [Lnt. Irnr/irs,] (THOMAS,) a German
theologian, born in 1643 at I.eipsic, where he became
professor of divinity. He wrote numerous works, among
which are one " On the Heresiarchs of the Apostolic
Age," (1600,) and " Bibliotlteca Patrum Apostolicorum
Giaeco-Latina," (2 vols., 1699.) Died in 1710.
See F. KFRN, '' De V'la et Scriptis T. Ittigii," 1710; ERSCH und
GRTBER, " Allgenic tie Eucyklopaedie "
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
ITURBIDE
1252
IZARD
, Iturbide, e-tooR'be-oa, (Don AUGUSTIN,) Emperor
of Mexico, born at Valladolid (Mexico) in 1784, (one ac
count says 1790.) He fought against the insurgents in the
war of independence which began in 1810, and rose to
the rank of general. About the end of 1821 he became
the master-spirit of a successful plot for the liberation
of Mexico from the Spanish rule. He was proclaimed
emperor in May, 1822 ; but his power was resisted by a
large party in the Congress and by many generals, who
preferred a republic. Finding his position untenable,
he abdicated, and was banished in May, 1823. In July,
1824, he returned almost alone, and, just after he landed,
was arrested and shot as a traitor.
See M. J. QUIN, "Memoirs of Iturbide," and French version of
the same, by J. T. PAKISOT, 1824.
lule. See lui.us.
I-u'lus, [Gr. "lovXog; Fr. IULE, e'iil',] a son of /Eneas.
(See ASCANIUS.)
Ivan or Iwaii (e-van') I., a Russian prince, who began
to reign in Moscow at the death of his brother George,
in 1328, and was tributary to the Tartars. His dominions
consisted of Vladimir, Moscow, and Novogorod. His
reign was peaceful, and lasted twenty-two years.
His grandson, Ivan II., son of Simeon, born in 1325,
was recognized by the Tartars as heir to the throne in
1353. The events of his short reign were unimportant.
In his last illness he took, according to usage, the mon
astic vows, and died in 1358.
See KARAMZIN, "Histoire de Russie."
Ivan III., (Vasilievitch,) son of Basil IV., ascended
the Russian throne in 1462, and is sometimes styled
IVAN I., CZAR OF MUSCOVY. He liberated his realm
from the tribute which the Tartars had exacted by right
of conquest from his predecessors, and is regarded as
the founder of the empire. About 1475 ne defeated, in
several actions, the Tartar chief Ahmed, (or Akhmet,)
and extended his dominions by the conquest of various
princes. He embellished Moscow, the capital, with fine
edifices, and patronized the industrial arts. In 1486 he
assumed the title of "Sovereign of all the Russias." He
died in 1505, aged sixty-six, and was succeeded by his
son Basil.
See HEBERSTEIN, "Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii," 1549.
Ivan IV., or Ivan Vasilievitch II., surnamed THE
TERRIBLE, grandson of the preceding, inherited the
throne at the death of Basil, his father, in 1533, when
he was four years of age. He assumed the titles of Czar
and Autocrat about the age of fifteen. He conquered
Kazan and Astrachan from the Tartars, and waged war
against Sweden and Poland without decisive results.
Siberia was discovered and partially subdued in his
reign. About 1582 the first printing-press was estab
lished by him in Russia. He displayed energy and
ability in promoting civilization, but is charged with
excessive cruelty in the exercise of his unrestrained
power. Died in 1584.
See ODERPORN, "Joannis Basilidis Vita," 1600; HEIDENSTEIN,
" De Hello Moscovitico," 1600; S. CIAMPI, " Esaine critico con
Document! inediti della Storia di Ivan Wasiliewitsch," 1827.
Ivan V., (Alexievitch,) born in 1666, was the heir
of the Russian crown at the death of his brother Feodor
III. in 1682 ; but on account of his imbecility his younger
brother Peter (the Great) was proclaimed in his stead.
Ivan was permitted to retain the title of Czar, but had
no ambition to rule. Died in 1696.
Ivan VI., sometimes styled IVAN III., born in 1740,
was the son of Anthony Ulric of Brunswick and Anne of
Russia, (niece of the empress Anne.) The latter, at her
death in 1740, appointed the infant Ivan her successor;
but h'lizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, obtained
the imperial power. Ivan was confined in prison, where,
it is said, he was killed in 1764, when Mirovitch made
a rash attempt to raise him to the throne.
See E. MAUVII.I.ON, " Histoire de la Vie et du Regne d'lwan VI,"
1766; "Gescliichte von dem Leben nnd Req;ieritn!? Ivans III., Kaiser
von Russland," 1766; "Nouvelle Biographic Ganera'e."
Ivanof, e-va'nof, [written in German, IWANOW,]
(FEODOR,) a Russian dramatist, born in 1777, served in
the army, and wrote, besides several successful comedies,
a tragedy called "Martha." Died in 1816.
Ivara. See JUVARA.
Iveruois, d', de'vCR'nwa', (FRANgois,) a Swiss politi
cal writer, born at Geneva in 1757, represented his native
city at the Congress of Vienna in 1814. He wrote a
" History of the Revolutions of Geneva in the Eighteenth
Century," (3 vols., 1791,) and other works. Died in 1842.
See '' Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Iversen, ee'ver-sen, (CHRISTIAN,) a Danish writer,
born at Copenhagen in 1748, published, among other
works, the " Literary Progress of Denmark," (4 vols.,
1781-89.) Died in 1827.
See ERSI.EW, " Forfatter- Lexicon."
Fver-son, (ALFRED,) a Democratic politician, born
in Burke county, Georgia, in 1798, was elected to Con
gress in 1847, succeeded W. C. Dawson as United States
Senator from Georgia in 1855, and was a prominent
advocate of disunion. Having entered the Confederate
army, he was made a brigadier-general in 1862.
Ives, Ivz, (EDWARD,) an English surgeon, who went
with Admiral Watson to the East Indies in 1754, and
published a valuable account of his voyage and of the
operations of the English army in 1755, 1756, and 1757.
Died about 1780.
Ives, Ivz, (ELi,) an American physician, born at New
Haven, Connecticut, in 1779. He was professor of medi
cine at Yale College about twenty years. Died in 1861.
Ives, (JoiiN,) F.R.S., an English antiquary, born at
Yarmouth in 1751, was educated at Cambridge. He
published " Remarks on the Garianonumof the Romans,"
and other antiquarian treatises. Died in 1776.
Ives, (LEVI SILLIMAN,) a theologian, boi n in Meriden,
Connecticut, in 1797. He became an Episcopal clergy
man about 1824, and Bishop of North Carolina in 1831.
In 1852 he joined the Roman Catholic Church. He
wrote, besides other works, "The Trials of a Mind in
its Progress to Catholicism," (1854.)
Ives or Yves, [modern Fr. pron. ev,] written also
I'vo, SAINT, a French theologian, born in 1035, became
Bishop of Chartres. Died in 1115.
Iveteaux. See DES YVETEAUX.
Ivo. See IVES, SAINT.
I'vo-ry, (JAMKS,) F.R.S., an eminent British mathe
matician, born at Dundee in 1765. After he left college,
he engaged in teaching and other pursuits. In 1804 he
obtained the chair of mathematics in the Royal Military
College, Marlow, which he retained about fifteen years.
He contributed numerous able papers on physical as
tronomy and mathematics to the "Transactions" of the
Royal Society. He was a corresponding member of the
Institute of France and of other foreign Academies. In
1831 he received the Gnelphic order of knighthood and
a pension of ^300. Died in 1842.
See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots
men," (Supplement.)
Iwaii. See IVAN.
Ix-i'on, [Gr. 'l^iuv,] a fabulous king of the Lapithns.
The poets feigned that after he had committed a murder,
Jupiter purified him and invited him to his table. Ixion
attempted to seduce Juno, but embraced a cloud instead
of that goddess. To punish him for this crime, he was
chained to a fiery wheel which revolved perpetually.
See VIRGIL, "Georgica," book iv. 484.
Ixtlilxochitl, ikst-lel-Ho-cheetl', ? (FERNANDO DE
ALVA,) a Mexican historian, born at Tezcuco about 1568,
was a descendant of the royal family of Tezcuco. He
wrote "Historia Chichimeca," and other chronicles on
Mexican history. The first-named work has been trans
lated into French by Ternaux-Compans. Died about
1648.
See PRESCOTT, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i.
book i.
Izaacke, T'zak, ? (RICHARD,) an English antiquary,
born at Exeter in 1624; died in 1700.
Iz'ard, (GEORGE,) a general, born in South Carolina
in 1777. He became a colonel in 1812, served in the
war that ensued, and was raised to the rank of major-
general. Died in- 1828.
Izard, (RALPH,) a Senator, born in South Carolina in
1742, settled in London in 1771. Having returned to the
United States in 1780, he was chosen a member of Con-
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a., e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;
IZIASLAF
1253
JACKSON
gress in 1781, and was a United States Senator (for South
Carolina) from 1789 to 1795. He was an able debater,
and a constant supporter of Washington's administra
tion. Died in 1804.
See his " Life and Correspondence," by his daughter, 1844.
Iziaslaf or Isiaslav (e-ze-as-laf) I., written also
Isiaslaw, (DMITRI or DEMETRIUS,) Grand Duke of
Russia, succeeded his father, Yaroslaf, in 1054. His
reign was disturbed by wars with his brothers and other
princes, among whom Russia was divided. He was killed
in battle in 1078, and left the throne to his son.
Iziaslaf or Isiaslav II., Grand Prince of Russia, was
the son of Mstislaf. He began to reign in 1146, as suc
cessor to Igor II., whom he defeated in battle. He was
thrice driven from his throne, but as often recovered it.
He died in 1 154.
Iziaslaf or Isiaslav III., surnamed DAVIDOVITCH,
son of David, became Grand Prince of Russia in 1157.
He was killed in battle about 1161.
Iziocalt, e-se-o-kalt'. King of the Mexicans, ascended
the throne in 1433, and is called the founder of the
Mexican empire. He formed a code of laws, which was
adopted by several adjacent nations. Died in 1445.
Izma'ilof, is-mi'e-lof, (ALEXANDER,) a Russian fabu
list, born at Moscow in 1779. He became a resident of
Saint Petersburg, and edited several reviews or journals.
He published a volume of fables, (1804,) which are highly
commended. Died in 1831.
See GRETCH, " History of Russian Literature," 1819-22.
Izma'ilof, (VLADIMIR VASII.IEVITCH,) a Russian writer,
born at Moscow in 1773. He wrote "Travels in
Southern Russia," (1802,) and translated some works of
Rousseau and Chateaubriand.
Izquierdo de Ribera, eth-ke-eVdo da re-Ba'ra, (Don
EUGENIC,) a Spanish diplomatist, born at Saragossa.
He was sent to Paris as plenipotentiary in 1806, and
negotiated a treaty for the partition of Portugal. Died
in 1813.
J.
Jaafar, Jafar, Djafar, or Giafar, ja'a-far or ja'far,
surnamed SADIK, an eminent Mussulman doctor of
Medina; died in 764 A.M.
Jaafar, Jafar, Jafer, Djafar, or Giafar, a Barmecide,
who became the favourite of Haroun-al-Raschid, and
to whom, it is said, the Caliph g;>ve his own sister Ab-
basa in marriage, on condition th.it the intercourse of the
married pair should be strictly Platonic. Abbasa having
borne a son to Jaafar, Haroun, in his rnge, mercilessly
destroyed both father and son. (See BARMECIDES.)
Jaafar-Ibn-Tofail. See ABOO-BEKR-!BN-TOFAIL.
Jablonowski, ya-blo nov'skee, ( STANISLAUS, ) a
Polish general, born in 1631, commanded the right wing
of the army of Sobieski when he defeated the Turks at
Vienna in 1683. He afterwards had the chief command
during the illness of the king. Died in 1702.
See DE JONSAC, "Histoire de Stanislas Jablonowski," 4 vols.,
Leipsic, 1774.
Jablonowski, von, fon ya-blo-nov'skee, (JOSEPH
ALEXANDER,) a Polish or German prince, born in 1711,
was a patron of science. He founded at Leipsic a sci
entific association which bears his name, and wrote,
besides other works, "Museum Polonicum," (1752.)
Died in 1777.
See ERSCH uurl GRUBER, "Allgeineine Encyklopaedie."
Jabloiiski, ya-blon'skee, (DANIEL ERNST,) an emi
nent German Protestant theologian, born at Dantzic in
1660. He became pastor at Konigsberg in 1690, and
preacher or chaplain to the king at Berlin in 1693. He
published a Hebrew Bible, with notes and a preface,
(1699,) and wrote several works on theology. He la
boured to effect a union of various Protestant sects.
Died in Berlin in 1741.
See ERSCH und GKUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Jabloiiski or Jablonsky, (|OHANN THF.ODOR,) a
brother of Daniel Ernst, noticed above, was born at
Dantzic about 1654. He published a " French-German
and German-French Dictionary," (1711.) Died in 1731.
Jabloiiski, ( PAUL ERNST, ) an eminent Prussian
scholar and divine, a son of Daniel Ernst, noticed above,
was born in Berlin in 1693. He devoted himself par
ticularly to the study of the Coptic and other Oriental
languages. Among his numerous works are " Pantheon
Egyptiorum," (3 vols., 1750-52,) a work relating to the
religion of the Egyptians, and " Of the Memnon of the
Greeks and Egyptians." Died in 1757.
See ERSCH imd GRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Jablonsky, ya-blon'skee, (KARL GUSTAV,) a Prus
sian entomologist, born in 1756, published a "System
of all the Known Insects, arranged according to the
Method of Linnjeus." Died in 1787.
Jacetius. See CATTANI DA DIACETO.
Jachaeus. See JACK.
Jack, [Lat. JACH/E'US,] (GILBERT,) a Scottish meta
physician, born at Aberdeen about 1578. He became
professor of philosophy at Leyden in early life. He
published several works, among which is " Institutiones
Physicae," (1612.) Died in 1628.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Jack, (THOMAS,) a Scottish minister of Eastwood,
wrote "Onomasticon Poeticum," (1592.) Died in 1596.
Jack'son, (ANDREW,) a celebrated American general
and statesman, born in the Waxhaw settlement, North
or South Carolina, on the ijth of March, 1767. Parton
states that he was born in Union county, North Caro
lina, but adds that "General Jackson always supposed
himself to be a native of South Carolina," for in his
proclamation to the nullifiers of South Carolina he thus
addresses them : " Fellow-citizens of my native State."
He was a son of Andrew Jackson, an Irishman, who
emigrated to America in 1765 and died poor in 1767.
The name of his mother was Elizabeth Hutchinson. We
have little definite information about the schools that he
attended. According to Parton, " he learned to read, to
write, and cast accounts ; — little more. . . . He was never
a well-informed man." Having taken arms against the
British in 1781, he was captured, and afterwards wounded
by an officer because he refused to clean his boots.
About 1785 he began to study law at Salisbury, North
Carolina. He was addicted in his youth to gambling,
horse-racing, and other sports. He was an excellent
horseman, " a capital shot," was very dignified in man
ner, and was distinguished for his courage and activity.
His stature was six feet and one inch high.
In 1788 he removed to Nashville, Tennessee, where
he began to practise law. He speedily obtained a large
practice, of which disputed land-claims formed the prin
cipal subject. About 1792 he married Rachel Robards,
originally Rachel Donelson, whose first husband was
living and had taken preliminary measures to obtain
a divorce, which was legally completed in 1793. The
marriage ceremony was again performed in 1794. Jack
son, following a custom then extremely common in the
South and West, fought a number of duels in the early
part of his life. He was a member of the Convention
which framed the Constitution of Tennessee in 1796, and
in the autumn of that year was elected representative to
Congress by the people of Tennessee, which was then
entitled to only one member. He supported Thomas
Jefferson in the Presidential election of 1796. In 1797
he became a Senator of the United States for Tennessee.
He resigned his seat in the Senate in 1798, "partly be
cause he felt himself out of place in so slow and digni
fied a body, but chiefly for pecuniary reasons." He was
a judge of the supreme court of Tennessee from 1798 to
1804. In 1806 he challenged and killed Charles Dick
inson in a duel with pistols, receiving himself a severe
wound. This affair impaired for many years his popu
larity in Tennessee and other parts of the United States.
In 1807, while the trial of Aaron Bnrr was still unde
termined, [ackson "harangued the crowd, [at Richmond,]
defending Burr, and angrily denouncing Jefferson as a
persecutor." (Parton's " Life.") After war had been
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 0; th as in ££«. (Q^='See Explanations, p. 23.)
JACKSON
1254
JACKSON
declared against Great Britain, General Jackson (who
several years before had been appointed major-general
of militia) offered his services, and those of 2500 volun
teers, in June, 1812. He was ordered to New Orleans,
and led a body of 2070 men in that direction ; but at
Natchez he received an order dated February 6, 1813, by
which his troops were dismissed from public service. In
September, 1813, he had an affray with Colonel Thomas
H. Benton at Nashville, and was severely wounded by his
brother, Jesse Benton. In October next he took the field
against the Creek Indians, whom he defeated at Talla-
dega in November. By his services in this Creek war,
which ended in 1814, he acquired great popularity, and
in May, 1814, he was appointed a major-general in the
regular army. He was soon after ordered to the Gulf
of Mexico, to oppose an expected invasion of the British.
In November he seized Pensacola, which belonged to
Spain but was used by the British as a base of operations.
About the 1st of December he moved his army to New
Orleans, which was then ill prepared for defence. The
British fleet, conveying an army of veterans who had
fought under Wellington, entered Lake Borgne Decem
ber 13, and captured several gunboats. General Jackson
proclaimed martial law in the city on the i6th. On the
23d the enemy advanced to a point about nine miles be
low the city, and were attacked in the night by General
Jackson, who had about 2100 men. The result of this
action was favourable to the defenders of the city, who
gained time to fortify their position. On the 251)1 of
December Sir Edward Pakenham arrived and took com
mand of the invaders, whose number was about 12,000.
Jackson, who had a much smaller army, composed partly
of the unerring marksmen of Tennessee and Kentucky,
repulsed an attack on the 1st of January, 1815. On the
8th of January the British made a general assault on the
American lines, but were defeated with great loss by
the deadly fire of the riflemen and artillery. Generals
Pakenham and Gibbs were killed. "Seven hundred
killed," says Parton, "fourteen hundred wounded, and
five hundred prisoners, were the dread result of that
twenty-five minutes' work. Jackson's loss was eight
killed and thirteen wounded." The victory of New
Orleans, which was one of the most brilliant and de
cisive ever gained by an American army, raised Jackson's
reputation as a general to the highest point, and made
him the idol of a large portion of the American people.
This was the last battle of the war, a treaty of peace
having been signed in Europe in December, 1814.
In March, 1815, while that city was still under mar
tial law. Judge Hall, of New Orleans, granted a writ of
habeas corpus for the release of Mr. Lbuaillier, who had
been arrested by order of Jackson, for exciting discontent
among the troops. The latter, instead of obeying the
writ, had the judge arrested and kept in custody. Peace
having been formally proclaimed, Hall was set at liberty.
General Jackson was then summoned to answer for con
tempt of court. He was found guilty, and sentenced to
pay a fine of one thousand dollars. He immediately
paid the fine ; but it was afterwards refunded with the
interest by an act of Congress passed in February, 1844.
In 1817-18 he waged a successful war against the
Seminoles in Florida, seized Pensacola, and executed
Arbuthnot and Ambrister, two British subjects, accused
of inciting the savages to hostile acts against the Ameri
cans. He was appointed Governor of Florida in 1821.
Before this date he had built, near Nashville, a mansion
called the " Hermitage," in which he resided many years.
In 1823 he was elected a Senator of the United States,
and nominated as candidate for the Presidency by the
legislature of Tennessee. His competitors were John
Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and William H. Craw'ford.
Jackson received ninety-nine electoral votes, Adams
eighty-four, Cra.vford forty-one, and Clay thirty-seven.
As no candidate had a majority, the election devolved
on the House of Representatives, voting by States, each
State having one vote. Through the influence of Mr.
Clay, John Quincy Adams was elected, by the vote of
thirteen States. General Jackson, who received the
vote of seven States, became the implacable enemy of
Mr. Clay, whom he stigmatized as "this Judas of the
West." He habitually attributed the conduct of his
political opponents to mean or improper motives, and,
accordingly, hated Crawford, Clay, Adams, and Calhoun.
In 1828 he was elected President, receiving one hun
dred and seventy-eight electoral votes, while Mr. Adams
received eighty-three. Calhoun became Vice- President.
Martin Van Buren was appointed secretary of state.
Jackson was the first President who proscribed public
servants for political opinions. He made more teniovals
in one year than all the other Presidents in forty years
before. At a banquet in April, 1830, the President gave
this famous toast: "Our Federal Union: it must be
preserved." In April, 1831, he reorganized his cabinet,
appointing Edward Livingston secretary of state, Louis
McLane secretary of the treasury, Lewis Cass secretary
of war, Levi Woodbury secretary of the navy, and Roger
B. Taney attorney-general.
Among the principal events of his first term was his
veto of the bill which granted anew charter to the Bank
of the United States, (July, 1832.) This subject became
the chief issue between the partisans of Jackson and his
opponents, who supported Henry Clay in the Presiden
tial election of 1832. General Jackson was re-elected,
receiving two hundred and nineteen electoral votes out
of two hundred and eighty-eight, which was the whole
number, and Martin Van Buren succeeded Calhoun in
the Vice-Presidency. In November, 1832, a Convention
in South Carolina adopted an ordinance of nullification,
by which they ordained that the tariff-law of 1828 "is
null and void." The President electrified the country
by his memorable proclamation against the nullifiers,
December H, 1832, in which he announced his resolu
tion to crush any disunion movement with the strong
hand. He was censured by the Senate for removing
the public deposits from the Bank of the United States,
September, 1833.
He used his influence to procure the election of Mar
tin Van Buren to the Presidency in 1836, and retired
finally from public life March 4, 1837. He afterwards
joined the Presbyterian Church. In his last illness Dr.
Edgar asked "what he would have done with Calhoun
and the other nullifiers if they had kept on." " Hung
them, sir, as high as Hainan," was his reply. He
died, without issue, at the Hermitage, on the 8th of
June, 1845.
See EATON, " Life of Jackson," 1824; WILLIAM COBRKTT, "Life
of Andrew Jackson," 1834; J. S. JENKINS, "Life of General An
drew Jackson," 1850; J. T. HKADLEY, " Life of Andrew Jackson,"
1852; AMOS KKNDALL, Life of Andrew Jackson," 1844; AI.KXANDKR
WALKER, "Jackson and New Orleans," 1856; JAMES PAKTON, " Life
of Andrew Jackson," 3 vols., 1860, (by far the most complete life of
the Hero of New Orleans that has been published ;) " National Por
trait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. ; "New American
Cyclopaedia;" " Hlackwood's Magazine" for May, 1862.
Jack'spn, (ARTHUR,) an English Puritan minister,
born in Suffolk in 1593, preached at Saint Faith's, Lon
don, until 1662, when he was ejected. He wrote "An
notations on the Old Testament," (1643-58.) Died in
1666.
Jackson, (CHARLES,) LL.D., an American jurist,
was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1775. He
graduated at Harvard with the highest honours of his
class in 1793, studied law with Theophilus Parsons, and
obtained an extensive practice in his native town. In
1803 he removed to Boston, where he practised law for
many years. In 1813 he was made judge of the supreme
court of Massachusetts, the duties of which he discharged
for ten years. He was placed at the head of the com
missioners appointed by the State in 1832 to revise her
legislative enactments. Died in Boston in 1855. lie
published a "Treatise on the Pleadings and Practice in
Real Actions, with Precedents," etc., (1828.)
Jackson, (CHARLES THOMAS,) M.D., an American
chemist and geologist, born at Plymouth, Massachusetts,
in June, 1805. He took the degree of M.IO. at Harvard
in 1829, after which he continued his studies in Paris,
and passed several years in visits to various countries
of Europe. In conjunction with Francis Alger, he pub
lished a work called " Mineralogy and Geology of Nova
Scotia," (1832.) He became a resident of Boston about
1833, was appointed State geologist of Maine in 1836,
and produced a " Report on the Geology of the State
of Maine," (1837.) His second and third Reports on
the same subject appeared in 1838 and 1839. He was
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mgt; nflt; good; moon;
J4CKSON
1255
J4CKSON
appointed geologist of the State of New Hampshire in
1840. He claims to be the original discoverer of anaes
thetics, and was involved in a long controversy on this
subject with Dr. W. T. G. Morton.
Jackson, (CONRAD FKGKR,) an American general,
born in Pennsylvania. He served as colonel in the
Union army at Gaines's Mill, June 27, 1862, commanded
a brigade at the battle of Antietam, September 17, and
was killed at Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862.
Jackson, (CYRIL,) DR., a noted English divine, born
at Stamford in 1742. He was offered the primacy of
Ireland and an English bishopric, both of which he de
clined. He was tutor to the Prince of Wales, (George
IV.) Died in 1819.
Jackson, (HENRY R.,) was born in Georgia in 1810.
He served as a colonel in the Mexican war, and was
appointed minister to Austria in 1853. This position he
held till 1858. He published in 1851 "Tallulah, and
other Poems."
Jackson, ([AMES,) a lawyer, born in Devonshire,
England, in 1757, emigrated to America in 1772. He
fought with distinction against the British in Georgia
in 1776-82, was elected to Congress in 1789, and was a
United States Senator for Georgia from 1792 to 1795.
In 1798 he became Governor of Georgia, and in 1801
was again elected a Senator of the United States. Died
in 18034.
See "National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iii.
Jackson, (JAMES S.,) an American lawyer and gene
ral, born in Kentucky about 1822. He was elected a
member of Congress in 1860 by the %'oters of the second
district of Kentucky, but he resigned his seat and joined
the Union army in 1861. He was killed at the battle
of Perryville, October 8, 1862.
Jackson, (JoHN,) a clergyman of the Anglican
Church, born in Yorkshire, England, in 1686. He was a
zealous advocate of the Arian doctrines, which prevented
his advancement in the church. Died in 1763. He wrote
a valuable work entitled "Chronological Antiquities,"
(3 vols., 1752,) and numerous controversial treatises.
See DR. SUTTOK, " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of John
Jackson, ' 1764.
Jackson, (JoHN,) an able English engraver on wood,
flourished about 1725-45.
Jackson, (Jon.\,) an eminent English portrait-painter,
born at Lastingham, Yorkshire, in 1778, became a resi
dent of London about 1797, and was elected a member
of the Royal Academy in 1817. Among his best works
are portraits of Canova and Flaxman. Died in 1831.
See CUNNINGHAM, "Lives of British Painters."
Jackson, (JOSEPH,) an English letter-founder, born
probably in London in 1733 < CMed m J792-
Jackson, (NATHANIEL J.,) born in New England,
became brigadier-general in the Federal army in 1862.
Jackson, (PATRICK TUACY,) a merchant and manu
facturer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1780.
He organized in 1821 the Merrimac Manufacturing
Company, and founded Lowell. Died in 1847.
See J. A. I.owEr.r., " Life of P. T. Jackson," in HUNT'S "Lives
of American Merchants," vol. i., 1858.
Jackson, (Rom-.RT,) an English physician, born in
1751. He served as surgeon in the army, and wrote,
besides other works, a "Treatise on the Fevers of
Jamaica," (1791.) Died in 1827.
Jackson, (SAMUEL,) a distinguished physician and
physiologist, born in Philadelphia March 22, 1787. He
was elected in 1835 to the chair of the institutes of medi
cine in the University of Pennsylvania, which he filled
with great credit to himself and the institution for
twenty-eight years. He resigned in 1863. He wrote,
besides other works, "Principles of Medicine," (1832,)
and an " Introduction to Lehman's Chemical Physi
ology," (1856.)
Jackson, (THOMAS,) a learned English divine, born
in Durham in 1579. He was the author of a "Com
mentary on the Apostles' Creed," and of several devo
tional treatises. He became Dean of Peterborough in
1638. His works are highly praised by Southey. Died
in 1640.
See E. VAUGHAN, "Life of Thomas Jackson," 1673.
Jackson, (THOMAS JONATHAN,) commonly known by
the name of STONEWALL JACKSON, a distinguished Amer
ican general, born in Lewis county, Virginia, January 21,
1824, graduated at West Point in 1846, standing seven
teenth in a class of fifty-nine. He was considered at
West Point to be rather a dull and slow student. In the
Mexican war (1846-47) he served as first lieutenant with
distinction. Having resigned his commission in 1852,
he became a professor in the Military Institute at Lex
ington, Virginia. About 1853 he married Miss Junkin,
a daughter of Dr. Junkin, of Lexington. He was ap
pointed a colonel ot the Virginian troops in April, 1861,
and commanded the force that was attacked by the Union
army at Martinsburg, July 2. He served as brigadier-
general at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861, and was
promoted to the rank of major-general in the following
September. It has been currently stated that he received
his surname from the fact that he and his men " stood like
a stone wall" at the battle of Bull Run ; but, according to
one of his biographers, the name "Stonewall" was first
applied to his brigade because it was recruited in a stone
wall country, — the counties of Jefferson, Page, Frederick,
etc. He was defeated by General Shields near Win
chester, March 23, 1862, and retreated up the valley to
Harrisonburg, pursued by General Banks. Having been
reinforced, he resumed the offensive with about twenty
thousand men, attacked General Banks near Strasburg,
May 23, and drove him back to the Potomac. On the
approach of General Fremont from the west, General
fackson moved hastily up the valley to Harrisonburg.
His army was overtaken by General Fremont at Cross
Keys, where an indecisive battle was fought on the 8th
| of June. Before the end of June he moved his army
! to Richmond and joined that of General Lee. He
commanded a corps at the battle of Gaines's Mill, June
27, and at that of Malvern Hill, July I, 1862. On the
9th of August he defeated a small army under General
Banks at Cedar Mountain, Virginia. He captured
Harper's Ferry, with eleven thousand Union prisoners,
on the 1 5th of September, and joined General Lee in
time to take part in the battle of Antietam, September
17. He contributed to the victory at Fredericksburg,
December 13, 1862, for which service he was promoted
to the rank of lieutenant-general. He remained inactive
j for several months, (January— April, 1863,) employed
i partly in preparing official reports. On the 1st of May
i he was ordered by General Lee to execute a flank move-
I ment on the right wing of General Hooker's army. He
surprised and routed the eleventh corps, near Chancel-
lorsville, on the evening of the 2d of May. As he was
riding with his staff from the front towards the rear
during that battle, he received a volley from his own
men, who in the darkness mistook the staff for a party
of Federal cavalry. General Jackson received three
wounds, of which he died at Guinea's Station on the
loth of May, 1863. " His loss," says Mr. Greeley, " was
the greatest yet sustained by either party in the tall of a
single man ; though Sidney Johnston had probably mili
tary talents of a higher order. But Jackson's power over
his men was unequalled; and it was justified by the
soundness of his judgment, as well as the intrepidity of
his character. Contrary to the vulgar notion, his attacks
were all well considered, and based on a careful cal
culation of forces; and he showed as high qualities in
refusing to squander his men at Antietam, and again at
Fredericksburg, as he did in his most brilliant charges.
... It is doubtful if all the advantages, including pres
tige, which the rebels gained around Chancellorsville,
were not dearly purchased by the loss of Thomas J.
Jackson." ("American Conflict," vol. ii. pp. 359-60.)
Stonewall Jackson was a man of deep and earnest re
ligious convictions ; and in his general character, as well
as in his serene, indomitable courage and the extraor
dinary influence which he exerted over the minds of his
soldiers, he reminds us of the great Puritan leaders who
fought under Cromwell.
See DABNEY, " Life of General T. J. Jackson," and a "Life of
General T. J. Jackson," in "Southern Generals," 1865.
Jackson, (THOMAS K.,) born in South Carolina about
1829, was made a brigadier-general in the Confederate
army in 1861.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^J^See Explanations, p. 23.)
JACKSON
1256
JACOBI
Jackson, (WILLIAM,) a clergyman of the Anglican
Church, born in Ireland about 1737. In 1794 he was
detected in a treasonable correspondence with France,
in which he recommended the invasion of Ireland. lie
was tried and found guilty of high treason, but died
from the effects of poison, before sentence was passed
upon him, in 1795.
Jackson, (WILLIAM,) an eminent English musician
and landscape-painter, was born at Exeter in 1730.
Among his musical compositions are "Twelve Popular
Songs," " Six Sonatas for the Harpsichord," and " Twelve
Canzonets for Two Voices." He published "Thirty
Letters upon Various Subjects," (1782,) and "The Eour
Ages," (1798.) Died in 1803.
See FETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens."
Jackson, (Dr. WILLIAM,) Bishop of Oxford, and
brother to Dr. Cyril Jackson, noticed above, was born
at Stamford in 1750. He published several sermons.
Died in 1815.
Ja'cob, [Heb. 3n>>'*; Gr. 'la.Ku:3,] a celebrated Hebrew
patriarch, a son of Isaac, and the great progenitor of the
Israelitish nation. He was also called ISRAEL.
See Genesis xxv., xxvii., xxviii., xxix., xxx.
Ja'cob, a Hungarian adventurer, and chief of the
Pastoiireaux. About 1250)16 incited the common people
to enlist in a crusade for the liberation of Saint Louis,
who was then a captive. He mustered a vast multitude
of French peasants, who massacred priests and com
mitted other outrages in France. Jacob was killed, and
his dupes were dispersed.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Francais."
Ja'cob, (EDWARD,) a topographical and antiquarian
writer of Kent, England. Died in 1788.
Jacob, (GILES,) an English author, born in Hamp
shire in 1686. Among his works are "The Poetical
Register,'' (1723,) composed of memoirs of the English
dramatic poets, and a "Law Dictionary," (1729,) which
has passed through many editions. Died in 1744.
Jacob, (HENRY,) an English Puritan and Independ
ent minister, born in Kent about 1562. He founded in
London the first Independent Congregational church
that existed in England, and published several works.
In 1624 he removed to Virginia, where he died about
1626.
Jacob, (HKNRY,) a philologist and Orientalist, born
in 1606 or 1607, was a son of the preceding. He became
a Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and published
"Gnecu et Latina Poemata." Died in 1652.
Ja'cob, (jEiiui)AH LHON,) a Jew of the seventeenth
century, born in Spain, resided in Holland. He wrote
a "Description of the Temple of Solomon," also a
description of the Tabernacle, and an "Exposition of
the Psalms."
Jacob, (JOHN,) a British general, born in 1812 or
1813. He distinguished himself in India in 1843 as
commander of the Sinde Horse. Died in India in 1858.
Jacob, (JoiiN,) an Armenian carpenter, lived about
1650. He is distinguished for having introduced the art
of printing into Persia.
Jacob OF EDKSSA. See BARAD^EUS.
Jacob or James |Gr. 'Itkufioc; Lat. JACO'BUS] OF
NISIHIS, sur named THK GRKAT, a Christian bishop, who
was regarded as a prophet and was distinguished for his
ascetic life. He became Bishop of Nisibis, and attended,
in 325 A.D., the Council of Nice, where he advocated the
orthodox creed. He is said to have delivered Nisibis
from the besieging Persians by his prayers. His death
is variously dated from about 340 to 350 A.D.
See SAINT JEROMK, "De Viris illustribus;" FABRICIUS, " Bibli-
othecn GrjEca:" CAVE, " Historia Literaria."
Ja'cob Ben Ash'er, a learned Jew, born in Ger
many, wrote a work called " Arba Thourim." Died at
Toledo about 1340.
Ja'cob Ben Haj'im or Chajim, a Jewish rabbi
of the sixteenth century, distinguished for his learning,
was born at Tunis. He' edited the Masora and Hebrew
Bible, with commentaries, and a Chaldean paraphrase,
"Biblia Rabbinica Bombergiana," (4 vols., 1525.)
Ja'cob Ben Naph'ta-li, a learned Jewish rabbi of
the fifth century, educated at Tiberias. To him is chiefiv
attributed the invention of the Masoretic points used in
distinguishing the Hebrew vowels.
Jacob de Saint-Charles, zhS'kob' deh saN shf Rl,
(Louis,) a French author and bibliographer, born at
Chalons-sur-Saone in 1608. He became a monk of the
order of Carmelites. Among his works are a "Treatise
upon the Finest Libraries of the World," (1644,) "The
Parisian Library," and "The French Universal Library,"
(1646.) Died in 1670.
Jacob-Kolb, zha'kob' kolb, (GERARD,) a French
antiquary, born at Rheims in 1775. He made valuable
collections of Greek and Roman medals, autographs,
and books. He wrote " Historical Researches on the
Crusades and the Templars." Died in 1830.
Jacob le Bibliophile. See LACROIX, (PAUL.)
Jacobaa or Jacobaea. See JACQUELINE.
Jacobaeus, ya-ko-ba'us, or Jacobi, ya-ko'bee, (Oi,i-
GER,) a distinguished physician and philosopher, born
at Aarhuus, in Jutland, in 1650, became professor of
medicine and natural philosophy in the University of
Copenhagen. He wrote several works on natural
history, and elegant Latin poems. Died in 1701.
See NICERON, "Memoires ;" KRAFT og NYEROP, " Litteratur-
lexicon."
Jacobazzi, ya-ko-bat'see, (DOMENICO,) an Italian
cardinal, born at Rome about 1443, wrote a "Treatise
on Councils," (1538.) Died in 1527.
Jacobi. See JACOHAEUS. , ^
Jacobi, ya-ko'bee, (HEINRICH FRIEDRTCH,) an emi
nent German writer and thinker, born at Dusseldorf in
1743. His father was a merchant, and young Jacobi
was destined to the same calling, although his tastes led
him to other pursuits. At the age of sixteen he was
sent to school at Frankfort. He afterwards went to
Geneva, where he remained three years, applying him
self to literary studies. During this period he acquired
such a mastery of the French language as has rarely
been equalled by any of his countrymen. On returning
to Dusseldorf, he conducted his father's business for
several years, without, however, abandoning his favourite
pursuits. Afterwards, through the influence of his friend
and patron the Count of Goltstein, he received an ap
pointment under the government, and was thus enabled
to devote his principal attention to philosophy and lite
rature. About this time he married Betty von Clermont,
of Aix-la-Chapelle, a lady of considerable wealth as well
as of great accomplishments and personal attractions.
In 1779 Jacobi was invited to Munich, where he became
privy councillor. But, having exposed the abuses of the
Bavarian system of customs, he fell into disfavour with
the government, and withdrew to his estate near Dus
seldorf. In 1804 he was again called to Munich, to aid
in the establishment of the new Academy of Sciences
in that city, of which institution he became president
in 1807. He resigned this position in 1813, and died
in 1819.
Among the works of Jacobi may be named "Edward
AHwill's Correspondence," ("Eduard Allwill's Brief-
sammlung," 1781,) "On the Doctrine of Spinoza,"
(" Ueber die Lehre des Spinoza," 1785,) in a series of
letters to Mendelssohn, "David Hume on Faith, or
Idealism and Realism," ("David Hume tiber den Glau-
ben, oder Idealismus und Realismus," 1787,) " Wolde-
mar," (2 vols., 1799,) and "Of Divine Things and their
Revelation," ("Von gottlichen Dingen und ihrer Offen-
barung," 181 1.)
"As a writer of fiction," observes Mrs. Austin, "Ja
cobi is distinguished for vigorous painting, admirable
delineation of nature and the human heart, warmth and
depth of feeling, and a lively, bold, yet correct turn of
expression. As a philosopher, he is admired for his
rare depth of thought, for the fervour of his religious
feelings, and for the originality and beauty of his style."
Again she says, " His character is rich in all that can
attract the wise and good." "Jacobi is ranked, and
justly," says Dr. Hedge, "among the philosophers of
modern Germany, although his philosophy, far from
shaping itself into a system, denies, — and that denial
may be regarded as one of its leading characteristics, —
on philosophical grounds, the possibility of a system,
and maintains that any system of philosophy, carried to
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
JACOBI
1257
JACQUELINE
its legitimate results, must lead to fanaticism. He vin
dicated the 'affective' part of man's nature, which the
Kantian exaltation of pure reason had seemed to dis
parage, at least to neglect, and gave to feeling its due
place and authority as a medium and interpreter of truth.
. . . He differed from contemporary philosophers in being
a devout believer in revelation, — in the Christian revela
tion. The gospel was to him the test and criterion of all
truth. For the rest, he was an eclectic, and welcomed light
from whatever quarter it came. In philosophical insight
he is surpassed by none ; and, though his fixed idea of
the impossibility of a systematic philosophy may have
somewhat vitiated his view of existing philosophies, his
criticisms on some of them are among the best that
have been essayed."
See J. KUHN, "Jacob! und die Philosophic seiner Zeit," 1834;
" F. H. Jacobi, nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken," 1819;
F. HERBST, "J. G. Hamann ; F. H. Jacobi," 1830; EKSCH und
GRUKER, " Allgemeine E.icyklopaedie ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale'" %_ /
Jacobi, (JoiIANN GKORG,) brother of the preceding,
was born at Dusseldorf in 1740. He became professor
of philosophy and eloquence at Halle, and in 1784
professor of belles-lettres at Freiburg. He published
a collection of poems. Died in 1814.
See ROTTECK, "Gerlachtnissrede auf Jacobi," 1814; ERSCH und
GRTBEK, "Ail^eineine Encyklopaedie."
Jacobi, (KAKL GUSTAV JAKOB,) an eminent German
mathematician, born at Potsdam in 1804, became in 1829
professor of mathematics at Konigsberg. He wrote
"Foundations of the New Theory of Elliptical Func
tions," (1829,) and "Canon Arithmeticus," and contrib
uted a number of able treatises to the Academy of
Sciences, of which he was a member. Died in Berlin
in 1851.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Jacobi, (MouiTx HKRMANN,) brother of the preceding,
born about 1790, was the inventor of Galvanoplastic,
(1840,) on which he published a treatise, and the appli
cation of electro-magnetism to the moving of machinery.
Ja'cobs, [Ger. pron. ya'kops,](FRiKi>uicH CHRISTIAN
WILHKI.M,) an eminent German scholar and writer, born
at Gotha in 1764. He studied at Gottingen under Heyne
in 1784, and in 1807 became a teacher of ancient literature '
in the Lyceum at Munich, and member of the Academy j
of Sciences of that city. In 1810 he was appointed \
chief librarian and director of the cabinet of coins at i
Gotha. Among his numerous critical writings, which j
are distinguished for profound learning and elegance of I
style, are "Animadversions on Euripides," ("Animad-i
versiones in Eunpidem," 1790,) " Critical Emendations
on Ancient Writers," ("Emendationes criticas in Scrip-
tores veteres," 1796,) and "Emendations on Greek
Anthology," (" Emendationes in Anthologiam Graecam.")
He also prepared editions of Achilles Tatius, Bion and
Moschus, and other classics. He made translations from j
the Orations of Demosthenes, the Greek Anthology, and j
Velleius, and contributed a number of excellent treatises j
to Wieland's "Attic Museum" and to the "Library of I
Ancient Literature and Art." He also wrote "Glean-'
ings from the Journal of the Pastor of Mainau," (1823.)
Died in 1847.
See his Auiobiotrrarhy, (" Per«onalien,") in the eighth volume of
his " Verniischte Schritten," 8 vols., 1829-44; "Nouvelle Biogr.iphie
Generale."
Jacobs, ya'kops, (JURIEN,) a distinguished Swiss
painter of animals and hunting-scenes, born in 1610; died
in 1664.
Jacobs, (LUCAS.) See LUCAS VAN LEYDEN.
Jacobs, (PAUL EMIL,) a German painter, son of
Friedrich Christian \Vilhelm, noticed above, was born
at Leipsic about 1800.
Jacobs, ya'kops, (SiMON,) a Dutch painter, born at
Gouda, was killed at the siege of Haarlem in 1572.
Jacobsen, ya'kop-sen, (LEVIN,) a Danish surgeon,
born at Copenhagen in 1783. He invented an instru
ment called the "lithoclaste," and wrote several works.
Died in 1843.
See H. C. OERSTED, "Tale ved Jacobsens Liigfard."
Jacobsen or Jacopseu, ya'kop-sen, (MICHAEL,) a
naval commander, born at Dunkirk. He served in the
famous Spanish Armada sent against England in 1588,
and, by his skilful management, saved several vessels.
Died in 1633.
Jacobson, ya'kop-son, (JOHANN KARL GOTTFRIED,)
a Prussian technologist, born at Elbingen in 1726, pub
lished a "Technological Dictionary of Useful Trades,
Arts," etc. Died in 1789.
Jacometti, ya-ko-met'tee, (PIETRO PAULO,) a sculp
tor, founder, and painter of the Roman school, born at
Ricanati in 1580; died in 1655.
Jacomb, jak'om, ? (THOMAS,) an English dissenting
minister, born in Leicestershire in 1622. He wrote a
"Commentary on the Eighth Chapter of Romans," a
" Treatise of Holy Dedication," and other works. Died
in 1687.
Jacopo di Pietro, ya'ko-po de pe-a'tRO, an Italian
sculptor, born in Tuscany, was a pupil of Andrea Or-
cagna. He died after 1368.
Jacopo Tedesco, (architect.) See LAPO.
Jacopone da Todi, ya-ko-po'na d5 to'dee, or Ja
copo, ya'ko-po, sometimes called Benedetto, an Italian
monk and poet, born at Todi. He wrote poems which
were approved by the Academy della Crusca. The
" Stabat Mater Dolorosa" is ascribed to him by some
writers. Died in 1306.
See G. MODIO, "Vita di Jacopone," 1558; GINGUENE, "Histoire
litteraire d'ltalie."
Jacopsen. See JACOBSEN.
Jacotin, zhfko'taN', (PIERRE,) a French officer of
engineers, born near Langres in 1765, was distinguished
for his knowledge of topography. He drew a map of
Egypt and Syria which was taken from actual survey.
Died in 1827.
Jacotot, zht'ko'to', (JOSEPH,) a French teacher, born
at Dijon in 1770. Under Napoleon I. he was a member
of the Chamber during the Hundred Days. He gained
distinction by his earnest efforts in the cause of national
education, for which he advocated a new and improved
system and on which subject he wrote several works.
Died in 1840.
See A. GUYARD, "Jacotot et sa Methode," 1840; C. F. WURM,
" Hamilton und Jacotot," 1831 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Jacquand, zhi'k6.\', (CLAUDIUS,) a French historical
painter, born at Lyons in 1805, settled in Paris in 1833,
and obtained a medal of the first class in 1836.
Jacquard, zht'ka'R', (JOSEPH MARIE,) a Frenchman,
celebrated for his inventions in the art of weaving, was
born in Lyons, July 7, 1752. At an early age, being
employed as a type-founder, and afterwards as a cutler,
he exhibited an uncommon mechanical genius. In 1793
he assisted in the defence of his native city against the
army of the Convention. He subsequently served for a
short period in the army of the Rhine. In 1801 he com
pleted his great invention for weaving the finest and
richest kinds of figured cloth. This apparatus, which
bears his name, — the Jacquard loom, — though at first
strongly opposed by the weavers of France, has been
brought into general use both in Europe and in America,
and, instead of destroying the occupation of labourers, it
has greatly increased the number of operatives employed
in the manufacture of figured stuffs. Jacquard also in
vented a machine for weaving nets. For this invention
he received a gold medal in 1804 from the inspectors of
Paris. While in that city, he was introduced to Napo
leon I. Died in 1834. In 1840 a public statue was
raised to his memory by the citizens of Lyons.
See DE FORTIS, " £"loge historique de Jacquard," 1838; " Nou
velle Biographic Generale ;" LAMARTINE, "Memoirs of Celebrated
Characters," 1856.
Jacquelin, zhtk'laN', (JACQUES ANDRE,) a French
dramatist, born in Paris in 1776; died in 1827.
Jacqueline, zhtk'len', Jac-o-bae'a or Jac-o-ba'a,
[Ger. pron. ya-ko-ba'a,] of Bavaria, Countess of Holland,
and heiress of William VI. of Bavaria, was born in 1400.
She was married successively to John the Dauphin of
France and son of Charles VI., to her cousin John of
Brabant, and to Humphrey Duke of Gloucester and
brother of Henry V. After a long contest with her
cousin Philip the Good of Burgundy, she was compelled
to give up to him her possessions. Died in 1436.
See PETIT, " Chronique ancienne et moderne de la Hollande ;"
A. VAN OVERSTRATKN, " Jacoba van Beijeren, in V. Boeken," 1790;
MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
JACQUELOT
1258
JAL
Jacquelot or Jaquelot, zhtk'lo', (ISAAC,) a learned
Protestant theologian, born in Champagne, France, in
1647. He wrote "On the Existence ol" God," (1697,)
a "Dissertation on the Messiah," (1699,) and on "The
Inspiration of the Old and New Testaments," (1715.)
Died in Berlin in 1708.
See DAVID D'JRAND, "La Vie de Jaquelot," 1785; NIC^RON,
" Memoires."
Jacquemard, zhik'mtR', (fi'riENNE,) a grammarian,
born in Paris in 1772, wrote a valuable "Elements of
French Grammar." Died in 1830.
Jacquemont, zhtk'mOx', (VICTOR,) a distinguished
naturalist, born in Paris in 1801. After making scientific
excursions through France and Switzerland, he sailed
in 1826 for America, and visited Canada, the United
States, and Hayti. He returned to France in 1827, with
a choice collection of plants and minerals. In 1828 he
went to the East Indies, and explored thegreater part of
Ilindostan and Thibet. He was author of a "Geological
Treat.se on the Alps," "Correspondence of Victor Jacque
mont with his Family and many of his Friends during his
Journey in India," and "Travels in India from the Year
1828 to the Year 1832." Died at Bombay in 1832.
See fiooUARD UE WARREN, "La Vie et les GEuvres de Jacque
mont," 1852; " Nnuvelle Biographie Generale;" "Foreign Quar
terly Review" for February, 1834.
Jacques, zhtk, (AMEDEE,) born in Paris in 1813,
wrote several works on philosophy, and edited the
works of Leibnitz.
Jacques, FKEKE. See BAULOT.
Jacques, (MATHIEU JOSEPH,) a French ecclesiastic,
and professor of theology at Lyons, was born in 1736.
He wrote " Convincing Proofs of the Christian Religion,"
and other theological works. Died in 1821.
Jacques, ( NICOLAS,) a French miniature-painter, born
near Nancy in 1780; died in 1844.
Jacques de Chison, zhtk cleh she'ziN"', a French
poet, who lived about 1250, was highly esteemed by his
contemporaries.
See LON(;FEI.I.«W, " Po<"ts and Poetry of Europe."
Jacquet, zht'ki', (Eunfc.\K VINCENT STANISLAS,) a
distinguished Orientalist, born at Brussels in 1811, was
particularly skilled in the Sanscrit. In 1829 he was
admitted a member of the Asiatic Society of Paris, and
soon became known by his writings. Died in 1838.
See FEI.IX NEVE, " Memoire sin la Vie d' Eugene Jai_quet," 1856;
"Nouvehe Biographic Generale."
Jacquet, (Louis,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Lyons
in 1732, wrote a " Parallel between the Greek and French
Tragic Writers," and a pri/.e essay upon the Discovery
of America. Died in 1794.
Jacquier, zhS' e-i', ( FRANC.OIS, ) a distinguished
French mathematician, born at Vitry-le-Frati9ais in 1711,
was appointed professor of philosophy at the Roman
College by Pope Benedict XIV. He edited the " Prin-
cipia" of Newton, and wrote, with Le Sueur, a "Treatise
on Algebra," and other scientific works. Died in 1788.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire."
Jacquin, zhS'kax', (ARMAND PIERRE,) a French
writer, born at Amiens in 1721 ; died about 1780.
Jacquin, rtifkiN',? (JOSEPH FRANZ,) a German bota
nist and chemist, son of Nikolaas Joseph, noticed below,
was born about 1766. He was professor in the University
of Vienna, and wrote on natural history. Died in 1839.
Jacquiii, (NIKOLAAS JOSEPH,) a celebrated botanist,
born at Leyden in 1727. Having removed to Vienna,
he was sent by Francis I. to the West Indies, whence he
returned at the end of six years, with a choice collection
of plants. He was subsequently appointed professor
of chemistry and botany in the University of Vienna,
and created baron and councillor of mines and coinage.
He wrote numerous works on botany, among which may
be mentioned his magnificent" Florae Austriacae," which
contained five hundred coloured engravings, (1771-77.)
T^* 1 • XT' • o O*\lf*tllr
Died m Vienna in 1817.
See ERSCH und CRUDER, "Allgememe Encyklopaedie ;" MEUSEI.,
"Gelehrtes Deutschland :" " Nouvcile Biographic Generale;" RAI-
MANN, " Rede zur Gedachtnissfeier des N. J. Jacquin," 1818.
Jacquiiiot, zht'ke'no', (CHARLES CLAUDE,) a French
general, born at Melun in 1772, commanded two divisions
of cavalry at Waterloo. Died in 1848.
Jacquiiiot - Pampeluiie, zht'ke'no' pSMp'liin',
(CLAUDE FRANC.OIS JOSEPH,) a French advocate and
politician, born at Dijon in 1771 ; died in 1835.
Jacquot, zhi'ko', (GEORGES,) a French statuary, born
at Nancy in 1794, gained the grand prize in 1820, and
went to Rome with a pension.
Jadelot, zhjtd'lo', (NICOLAS,) a learned French phy
sician, born at Pont-a-Mousson in 1738, became professor
of anatomy and physiology at Nancy. He wrote nume
rous professional works, among which are a "Treatise
upon the Causes of the Pulsation of the Arteries," and
a "Complete Course of Anatomy." Died in 1793.
Jadiii, zht'daN', (Louis EMM'ANUEL,) a French com
poser of dramatic music, born at Versailles in 1 768 ; died
in 1853.
Jadin, (Louis GODEFROY,) a French landscape-painter,
a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1805.
Jadwige. See HEDWIG.
Jaeger. See JAGER.
Jaerta, (Jon AN or HANS.) See JARTA.
Jagellon, ya-gel'lon, Duke of Lithuania, born about
1354. He embraced Christianity, and married Heel wig,
Queen of Poland, thus uniting the two territories under
one government. He also caused Christianity to be
established in Lithuania. Died in 1434.
See ROEPELL, "Geschichte Polens."
Jagemann, ya'geh-man'', (CHRISTIAN JOSEPH,) a Ger
man litterateur, born at Dingelstadt in 17^5, spent many
years in Italy. He translated several Italian works into
German. Died in 1804.
Jager or Jaeger, ya'ger, (GusTAV,) a German histor
ical painter, born at Leipsic in 1808, painted some frescos
in the royal palace of Munich. His works (among
which are oil-paintings) are highly commended.
Jager or Jaeger, (JoHANN WOLFGANG,) a German
Lutheran divine and theological writer, born at Stuttgart
in 1647 ; died in 1720.
Ja'go, ( RICHARD,) an English clergyman and poet,
born in Warwickshire in 1715. Among his poems may
be mentioned an "Elegy on the Death of a Blackbird,"
"Edgehill," and "Labour and Genius." Died in 1781.
Jahan-Geer or Jahaiiguire. See JEHAN-GEER.
Jahii, van, (FERDINAND HENDKIK,) a Danish histo
rian, born at Neumiinster in 1789. He wrote on Danish
history. Died in 1828.
Jahii, van, (FRIEDRICH,) a German medical writer,
born at Meiningen in 1766; died in 1813.
Jahn, (FKIEDRICH LUDWIG,) a German writer, born
at Lanz in 1778, published several treatises on gym
nastics, an essay "On German Nationality," (1810,) and
other works. Died in 1852.
Jahn, (JoHANN,) a German Orientalist and Roman
Catholic priest, born in Moravia in 17^0. He was
professor of Oriental languages at Vienna from 1789 to
1806. He wrote, besides other works, an " Introduction
to the Old Testament," (1793,) and " Biblical Antiquities,"
(1805,) both of which were censured as unsound and put
in the " Index" by the court of Rome. Died in 1816.
See " Vindiciae J. Jahn," Leipsic, 1822; ERSCH und GIUJBER,
" Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;"
MEUSEL, "Gelehrtes Deutschland," vols. iii., x., xi., xiv., nnd xviii.
Jahn, (OTTO,) a German archaeologist, born at Kiel
in 1813. He became professor of philology at Leipsic
in 1847, and published a "Life of Mozart," (1856,) and
other works.
Jaillot, xht'yo', (CHARLES HUBERT,) a French geog
rapher and engraver, published some accurate maps of
France. Died in 1712.
Jaillot, (JEAN BAPTLSTE RF.NOU,) a French geogra
pher, published " Researches in the City of Paris," (5
vols., 1772.) Died in 1780.
Jaime. See JAMES I. OF ARAGON.
Jaina and Jains. See JINA.
Jakob, von, fon ya'kop, (LUDWIG HEINRICH,) a
learned German writer, born at Wettin in 1759, became
professor of political economy at Halle in 1816. He
published a "Manual of National Economy," (1805,)
and other esteemed works. Died in 1827.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale."
Jal, zhtl, (AuGUSTE,) a French litterateur and archae
ologist, was born at Lyons about 1791. He published,
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n5t; good; moon;
JALABERT
1259
JAMES
besides criticisms on art, " De Paris a Naples ; Etudes
de Mceurs, de Marine et d'Art," (2 vols., 1835,) and
" Archeologie navale," (2 vols., 1839.) The latter is an
important work on ancient ship-building, published by
order of the king.
See " Nonvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Jalabert, zht'li'baiR', (CHARLES FRANCOIS,) a French
historical painter, born at Nimes about 1815, obtained a
medal of the first class in 1855.
Jalal-ed-Deen, (or -eddiii.) See JELAL-F.D-DEEN.
Jaley, zhi'la', (JEAN Louis NlCOLAS,) a skilful French
statuary, born in Paris in 1802. Among his works are
statues of " La Pucleur" and " La Priere," (1855.)
Jallabert, zhS'iS'baik', (fvriENNE,) a French natural
philosopher and writer, born in 1658; died in 1724.
Jallabert, (JEAN,) a son of the preceding, born in
Geneva in 1712, filled the office of syndic of the repub
lic. He wrote "Experiments upon Electricity," (1748,)
and several other scientific works. Died in 1768.
See DESGENETTKS, notice in the " Biographic Medicale ;" " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Jam'bli -ehus, a native of Syria, who was enslaved
by the Romans under Trajan, flourished in the second
century. He subsequently obtained his liberty, and
wrote a romance, in Greek, entitled " Babylonics, or
the Loves of Sinonis and Rhodanes."
Jamblichus or Jamblicus, a Platonic philosopher,
and native of Syria. He flourished under the reign of the
emperor fulian, who dedicated numerous epistles to him.
Jam'bli-ehus or I-am'bli-chus -eiial-ci-de'nus,
[Gr. '\u.fjLJ)7j.^o^ ; Fr. JAMDLIQUK, zh6.\'blekr,] an eminent
heathen philosopher, born at Chalcis, in Syria, flourished
in the reign of Constantine the Great, (306-37 A.D.) He
was a pupil of Porphyry, and was attached to the Neo-
Platonic school. Many of the Neo-Platonists encouraged
a life of ascetic meditation and a belief in magic and
divination. Their system was built on the doctrine
of emanation, — that the souls of all beings, after the
requisite purification, return to the Source from which
they emanated. Jamblichus wrote a "Life of Pythago
ras," a treatise on the " Mysteries of the Egyptians,"
and several other works. To his influence is ascribed
the prevalence of magic, sacrifices, and superstition in
the Neo-Platonic philosophy.
See EUNAPIUS, "Vita? Sophistarum ;" RITTKR, "History of Phi
losophy:" FABRICHIS, " Bibliotheca Grasca;" HEBENSTREIT, "Dis-
sertaiin de Jambiichi Doctrina," 1764.
Jamblicus. See JAMHLICHUS.
Jamblique. See JAMKI.ICHUS.
Jamee, Jami, or Djami, ja'mee, (Moolla-Noor-
ed-Deen- (Ncmr-ed-Dm-) Abd-er-Rahrnaii, mool'la
nooK-ed-deen' abd eR-ran'man,) written also Djamy
and Dschami, a celebrated Persian poet, born at Jam, (or
Djam,) in Khorassan, in 1414, lived at Herat, where he
enjoyed the bounty of the Sultan Aboo-Saeed, (Abou-
Said.) Among his principal works are "The Chain
of Gold," (Sil'silet-zah'ab or -zeh'eb,) a collection of
satires, and " The Loves of Joseph and Zuleika, and Mej-
noon and Leila." He also wrote " Beharistan," (" Abode
of Spring,") a treatise on morality, in prose and verse,
which is admired for its graceful style as well as for its
sentiments. Jamee has sometimes been called " the Per
sian Petrarch." He was devoted to the doctrine of the
Soofees ; and many of his poems are characterized by
the spiritual or mystical ideas of that sect. Died in 1492.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale, "article " Djami ;"OUSF.LEV,
" Biographical Notices of Persian Poets ;" " Eraser's Magazine" for
November. 1856.
Jameray-Duval. See DUVAL.
James [Sp. JAIME, Hl'ma] I., King of Aragon, sur-
named THE CONQUEROR, succeeded to the throne in
1213. He quelled an insurrection formed against him
by his nobles, and checked the encroachments of papal
power. Died in 1276. He was succeeded by his son,
Pedro III.
See T. DE SOTO. " Vida del Rev Don Jaime I. de Aragon," 1622.
James II., King of Aragon, surnamed THE JUST,
son of Peter III., was born in 1261. He ascended the
throne in 1291. He annexed Catalonia and Valencia to
his territory, and carried on long wars against Navarre
and the Moors. He was a brave, magnanimous, and
benevolent prince. Died in 1327.
James I. of England and VI. of Scotland was born in
the Castle of Edinburgh in June, 1566. He was the only
child of Mary Queen of Scots and her husband Henry
Lord Darnley, (called, after his marriage, King Henry.)
Both Queen Mary and Lord Darnley were grandchildren
of Margaret Tudor, sister of Henry VIII. of England.
It was through this princess that James claimed the
throne of England. In 1567 Lord Darnley was mur
dered, James was placed under the care of the Earl of
Mar, and Queen Mary married Bothwell, and was soon
after made prisoner by the insurgent lords. Mary was
forced to abdicate in favour of her son, who was crowned,
as James VI., on the 2gth of July, 1567. During his
minority Scotland was fearfully rent by contending
factions and the violent disputes of the Protestants and
Catholics. The regent Morton having rendered himself
odious by his tyrannical acts, a successful conspiracy
was formed against him by a majority of the Scottish
nobles. Morton, however, on account of his Protestant
proclivities, soon regained his former influence, fames
from the commencement of his reign exhibited a weak
and frivolous passion for favourites. His cousin Esme
Stuart, Lord D'Aubigny, a native of France, obtained
the principal ascendency over his vouthful mind. Cap
tain James Stuart held the second place in the king's
esteem. Lord D'Aubigny was created Duke of Lennox,
and Captain Stuart Earl of Arran. Both eagerly plotted
j the destruction of Morton, who was put to death in
1581. In 1582 a company of nobles seized King fames,
confined him in the castle of Ruthven, in Perthshire, im
prisoned Arran, and forced Lennox to retire to France.
This revolt is knosvn in history as the Raid of Ruthven.
At the expiration of ten months, James recovered his
liberty and reinstated Arran in his former power. In
1 585 a treaty was concluded between the English and
Scottish sovereigns. Elizabeth conferred upon James
an annual pension of five thousand pounds, and through
her influence deprived the Earl of Arran of all emolu
ments. In 1586 James formed another treaty with Eng
land, offensive and defensive, for the protection of the
Protestant religion. In 1587 Mary Queen of Scots was
executed. James at first appeared insulted and enraged ;
he threatened to invade the dominions of Elizabeth ;
but, feeling more interested for the inheritance of the
crown of England than for his honour or for filial duty,
he was soon pacified. In 1589 he married Anne, daugh
ter of the King of Denmark. In 1594 he quelled a
rebellion of the Catholic lords. Bothwell also, having
taken part in this revolt, was obliged to fly from the
country, to which he never returned. James was an
earnest advocate of Episcopacy, and made strenuous
efforts to establish it in his dominions, in opposition to
the wishes of the people. On this account a tumult
was raised in Edinburgh in 1596, from which his life
appeared to be in imminent danger. But James, ex
hibiting for him an unusual share of spirit and energy,
dexterously turned this to his own advantage. In 1600
he was decoyed to the castle of the Earl of Gowrie,
where Ruthven, brother of the earl, made an attempt
on the king's life, on which occasion both the noblemen
were slain. The Gowrie Conspiracy has always been
veiled in mystery, — no historian having yet unravelled it.
On the death of Elizabeth, in 1603, James became
King of England. He displeased his new subjects by
the prodigality of his gifts to his Scottish favourites. He
continued the foreign policy of Elizabeth by concluding
a treaty with Henry IV. of France for assisting Holland
against Spain. In 1605, chiefly through King James's
penetration, the Gunpowder Plot was discovered. (See
F.AWKES, GUY.) The year 1612 was marked by the death
of Henry, Prince of Wales, who by his manly and noble
qualities had been far more successful than his father in
winning the affections of the English people. In 1613,
James's daughter, the princess Elizabeth, was mariied
to Frederick, the Elector-Palatine. Among the king's
favourites were successively Sir George Hume, Philip
Herbert, Earl of Montgomery, and Robert Carr or
Ker, a young Scotchman who by his handsome person
monopolized the royal favour. lie was created Earl
of Somerset. In 1615 Carr was tried and convicted on
a charge of poisoning his friend Sir Thomas Overbury.
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
ia6o
JAMES
This made room for a new favourite, named Villiers, who
was created Duke of Buckingham, and who retained
his influence over the king during the remainder of the
reign. In 1617 James visited Scotland, where he was
very zealous in introducing episcopal forms into the
Established Church. In 1618 Sir Walter Raleigh was
executed on the pretended charge of conspiracy, but in
fact to conciliate the court of Spain. The public con
tempt which this excited against James was increased
by his behaviour towards the Elector-Palatine, whom
the Bohemians had chosen as their king, and who was
attacked by the united forces of Austria and Spain.
James pusillanimously refused to give his son-in-law
any assistance or encouragement. Frederick had been
the Protestant champion of Europe, and the people of
Britain hesitated not to express their grief and rage.
During a long period James had wished to form a Span
ish alliance for Prince Charles; and he now hastened
the negotiations. This alliance was, however, broken
off through the rashness and insolence of Buckingham.
Finally, in 1624, war was declared against Spain, and
an army was fitted out to assist the Elector. Owing to
pestilence and mismanagement, this army never entered
the Palatinate, which remained in the possession of the
Duke of Bavaria. James died in March, 1625, after a
reign of nearly fifty-eight years, during twenty-two of
which he sat on the throne of England. He had seven
children by his queen, Anne of Denmark, of whom only
Prince Charles and the Princess Elizabeth survived him.
"No prince," says Hume, "so little enterprising and
so inoffensive, was ever so much exposed to the opposite
extremes of calumny and flattery, of satire and panegyric.
. . . Many virtues, it must be owned, he was possessed
of; but scarce any of them pure or free from the conta
gion of the neighbouring vices. His generosity bordered
on prolusion, his learning on pedantry, his pacific dis
position on pusillanimity, his wisdom on cunning, his
friendship on light fancy and boyish fondness." (Hume's
" History of England," chapter xlix. Respecting the
character of James, see, also, Gardner's " History,"
referred to below, vol. i. chap. ii. pp. 55-57.) James was
the author of numerous works, which displayed con
siderable learning and no little pedantry ; but the most
important of his labours was the supervision of the
present translation of the Bible, which will remain as a
lasting monument of his industry and munificence. The
translation was not only made under his immediate
superintendence, but the excellent rules by which the
translators were governed were drawn up by James him
self. Among his works we may cite "Basilicon Doron,
or his Majesties Instructions to his Dearest Son, Henry
the Prince," "The Essays of a Prentice in the Divine
Art of Poesy," " The True Law of Free Monarchies,"
" Daemonology," and "A Counterblast to Tobacco."
See ARTHUR WILSON," Life and Reign of King James I. ,"1653;
W. HAKKIS, ''Life of James I.," 1753; ROBERTSON, " History of Scot
land ;" "Secret Histories of the Court of James I.," by OSBOHNB,
WBLDON, and SIR E. PKYTON, with notes by SIK WAI.TKK SCOTT, 2
vols., 1811 ; GARDINER, " History of England from the Accession of
James I. to the Disgrace of Chief-Justice Coke," London, 1863.
James II. of England and VII of Scotland, son of
Charles I., and younger brother of Charles II., was born
at Saint James's, London, in 1633, and soon after was
created Duke of York. He was taken prisoner by the
Parliamentarians in 1646. In 1648 he escaped to Hol
land, and went to Paris, where he remained nearly four
years. Having received a commission in the French
army, he served under Marshal Turenne until the peace
concluded between Cromwell and the French obliged
him to leave the kingdom. At the restoration, in 1660,
James accompanied his brother to England, where he
received the appointments of lord high admiral and lord
warden of the Cinque Ports. The same year he married
Anne, daughter of •Chancellor Hyde. In 1664 the Duke
of York was an earnest advocate of the war with Hol
land. He took command of the fleet, and in June, 1665,
gained an important victory over the Dutch. In 1671
the Duchess of York died, and James avowed himself a
Roman Catholic. In 1672 war was renewed against Hol
land, and James, as lord admiral, assumed the command
of the navy. In 1673 the Test Act was passed against
Catholics and dissenters. By it the Duke of York was
compelled to resign the command of the navy, and all
other offices which he held under government. The same
year he married Maria Beatrice Eleonora, daughter of
the Duke of Modena. In 1677, greatly to the satisfaction
of the English nation, Mary, daughter of the Duke of
York, was married to her cousin William, Prince of
Orange, who was a Protestant.
In 1679, during the commotions of the Gates Popish
Plot, James retired to the continent. In his absence
a bill for excluding him from the throne was brought
before the Parliament. It was passed by the Commons,
but was rejected by the Lords. Upon the death of King
Charles, in 1685, James ascended the throne unopposed,
and promised to maintain and defend the Established
Church. He summoned a Parliament, which voted him
all the revenues his brother had enjoyed. Having de-
clarocl his intention of continuing the alliance formed
by Charles with France, he received from Louis XIV.
500,000 livres. Strong suspicions were soon excited
against the king by his arbitrary measures. It became too
manifest that he only intended to keep his promises until
he could break them with safety. He sent an agent to
Rome to promote the restoration of Roman Catholicism
in England ; he publicly attended the illegal celebration
of the mass, and laboured earnestly for the repeal of
the Test Act. The blindness of his zeal was so apparent
that even the pope advised him to exercise more caution.
In June, 1685, England was invaded by the Duke of
Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II. Monmouth
was totally defeated at Sedgemoor on the 5th of July,
was captured two days after, and executed. James now
exhibited his true character. Colonel Kirke and the in
famous Judge Jeffreys were sent to the western counties,
which had been the principal scene of Monmouth's insur
rection, and, by the king's express authority, perpetrated
a series of butcheries. Men were shot and hung with
out the form of trial, and women were burned at the
stake for sheltering fugitives. In opposition to law, he
admitted Catholics to the highest rank in the army and
the navy. Protestants holding high offices of state were
discharged, and a court resembling that of the high com
mission under Charles I. was established. Episcopal
dioceses were given to professed Catholics, and the Prot
estant clergy were driven from the colleges of Oxford and
Cambridge to make room for foreign priests. In June,
1688, the queen gave birth to a son, who was suspected
to be spurious. Previous to this period, Mary, Princess
of Orange, had been regarded as the heir-apparent to
the crown, and the English people had hoped that at
length they would again be governed by a Protestant
sovereign. These hopes being now blighted, they ap
plied to the Prince of Orange for assistance in an effort
to depose the king. He was prepared to accept the in
vitation which they sent him ; and in November, 1688,
he landed in Devonshire, with about fourteen thousand
men. The king, deserted by the nobility, the gentry,
the army, his friends, and his servants, quitted the island
in December, and fled to France, where he was kindly
received by Louis XIV. Soon after, the Prince and
Princess of Orange were crowned, as King William III.
and Queen Mary. In 1689 James landed in Ireland with
a small force given him by Louis. He besieged London
derry, which he was unable to take. On the 1st of July,
1690, King William, who commanded in person, totally
defeated James's army at the battle of the Boyne, and
firmly established his own power. James soon returned
to France, and resided at Saint Germain's until his death,
which occurred in September, 1701. As a king, he was
brave, determined, energetic. He did much for the im
provement of the British navy; he was industrious, and
frugal of the public money. But he was implacable in
revenge, and his blind bigotry cost him three kingdoms.
James had by his first wife, Anne Hyde, eight children,
of whom only Queen Mary and the Princess Anne sur
vived him. By his second wife, Mary of Modena, he
had six children, two of whom outlived him; He also
had four children by Arabella Churchill, a sister of the
Duke of Marlborough, and one by Catherine Sedley.
See DAVID JONES, "Life of James II.," 1702; J. S. CLARKE,
" Life of James II., King of England," 2 vols., 1816; BURNKT, " His
tory of his Own Times;" MACAULAY, '• History of England;" C.
J. Fox, "History of the Early Part of the Reign of James II.," 1808.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; me"t; n6t; good; moon;
JAMES
1261
JAMES
James I., King of Scotland, of the house of Stuart,
and son of Robert III., was born about 1394. In 1405
his father sent him to France, in order that he might
escape the intrigues of the Duke of Albany; but he was
sei/ed by a British fleet, carried as prisoner to Lon
don, and thrown into the Tower, whence, after remaining
thei'e more than two years, he was taken to Windsor.
In 1417, when King Henry V. invaded France, James was
obliged to accompany him. In 1424, after a captivity of
nineteen years, he was released and restored to his king
dom. While the young king was in England, Henry V.
had given him a good education ; and, upon his acces
sion to power, James commenced with energy and firm
ness to reform the laws and customs of Scotland. During
his captivity Scotland had been governed successively by
the two Dukes of Albany as regents, who had increased
their own power and that of the feudal lords, to the
detriment of the royal authority. On the recovery of his
kingdom he resolved to check with a strong hand the
arrogance and lawlessness of the nobles. Me seized his
cousin Murdo, Duke of Albany, his sons, the Earls of
Douglas, Lennox, Angus, and many other peers and
barons. All were reconciled to the king except the Duke
of Albany, his sons, and the Earl of Lennox, who were
tried and executed. This blow struck terror into the order
of nobles. The king continued to conduct his reforms
with ability and prudence. One part of his policy was
to raise the ecclesiastical power in order to balance that
of the barons. James had married Joanna Beaufort, a
lady of the blood-royal of England. Although the earls
at first received the innovations of the king in a spirit
of submission, they at length, perceiving the rapid decline
of their authority, formed a conspiracy against him, and
assassinated him in 1437. James had the reputation of
being one of the most accomplished princes of his day.
He produced several poetical pieces and songs, which
were greatly admired, and in which much literary taste
was displayed. There yet remains his "Kings Quhair."
Robertson justly remarks that "it was the misfortune of
James that his maxims and manners were too refined for
the age in which he lived. Happy had he reigned in a
kingdom more civilized. His love of peace, of justice,
and of elegance would have rendered his schemes suc
cessful ; and, instead of perishing because he attempted
too much, a grateful people would have applauded and
seconded his efforts to reform and improve them."
See BUCHANAN, "Rerum Scoticarum Historia ;'' BURTON, " His
tory of Scotland," vol. iii. chap, xxvii. ; ROBERTSON, "History of
Scotland."
James II., son and successor of the preceding, was
born in 1430. He had for his adviser an able man,
named Crichton, who during his minority obtained chief
control of the government. Crichton impressed on the
mind of the young monarch the necessity of further hum
bling the nobility. But what James I. had attempted
to do slowly and by legal means, his son and Crichton
pursued with an impetuosity as unscrupulous as it was
unwise. William, sixth Earl of Douglas, having defied
the royal authority, was decoyed by Crichton to an in
terview in the Castle of Edinburgh, where both he and
his brother were murdered. James stabbed with his
own hand William, eighth Earl of Douglas. This led
to a revolt, and the house of Stuart appeared to be in
imminent peril. The Earl of Douglas commanded the
greater number and more warlike followers ; but, owing
to his want of energy, nearly all his retainers deserted
him before a battle was fought, and he was obliged to
fly to England, James would in all probability have
succeeded in his plans, had he not been killed in 1460
by the bursting of a cannon.
See BURTON, "History of Scotland," vol. iii. chap, xxviii. ;
ROBERTSON, "History of Scotland."
James III., the son and successor of James II., was
born in 1453. During his minority the kingdom was
governed successively by Bishop Kennedy and Lord
Boyd. James married Margaret of Denmark about
1470. He had respectable abilities, and was a lover of
the fine arts and literature. The nobles weie offended
because he neglected them and chose for his associates
artists, musicians, and other persons of inferior rank.
The king's brothers, the Duke of Albany, and the Earl
of Mar, conspired with the malcontent nobles against
James, who was defeated by them in battle near Ban-
nockburn in 1488, and was murdered as he fled from
the field.
See BURTON, "History of Scotland;" ROBERTSON, "History of
Scotland."
James IV., King of Scotland, succeeded his father,
James III., in 1488, at the age of fifteen. lie was gen
erous and brave, loved magnificence, delighted in war,
and was eager to obtain fame. During his reign the
ancient and hereditary enmity between the king and the
nobles appears almost entirely to have ceased. During
the revolt which had cost James III. his life, his son
had been compelled or persuaded to set himself at the
head of it, and was openly declared king. He was sub
sequently troubled by remorse for this deed, and, not
being free from superstition, he received from the pope,
as penance, an iron belt to be worn without cessation for
the remainder of his life. He also performed several pil
grimages on foot. James founded (1497) the University
of Aberdeen, and he also created the order of Knights
of the Thistle, (or of Saint Andrew.) In 1513, in oppo
sition to the advice of his sagest counsellors, he rashly
invaded England with one of the most loyal and gallant
armies that ever a Scottish king had commanded, and
was defeated at the famous battle of Flodden, where
the flower of the Scottish chivalry perished. The king,
with twelve earls, thirteen lords, and a great number of
barons, died upon the field, in September, 1513.
See BUHTON, "History of Scotland," vol. iii. chap. xxx. ; ROB
ERTSON, "History of Scotland."
James V., a son of James IV., was born in 1512, and
succeeded his father in 1513. The regency was conferred
upon his cousin, the Duke of Albany, a man of enteiv
prise and ability, who was desirous to extend the royal
authority ; but, in spite of all his exertions, the aris
tocracy retained their power, and the duke resigned his
authority about 1525. The king was then in his thir
teenth year, and the nobles agreed that he should assume
the government. The Earl of Angus, however, by his
intrigues, obtained the chief control of affairs, and kept
the young king as a prisoner in his own palace. James,
after suffering this for some time, escaped, and Angus was
obliged to fly from the country. Firmly seated upon the
throne, James continued the policy of his predecessors
in humbling the nobility. Commencing very cautiously,
he found loyal supporters among the clergy, the prin
cipal of whom was Cardinal Beaton. The nobles had
received too severe a blow at Flodden to resist, and
James pushed forward his plans in an unscrupulous
and arbitrary manner. He married Mary of Guise in
1538. Henry VIII. of England declared war against
him in 1542, and he was obliged to seek the assistance
of those nobles whom he had oppressed. They took
up arms at his command, were led by him against the
English, and were at first successful; but, owing to the
lateness of the season, and to other causes of discontent,
they refused to follow up their good fortune. A second
expedition across the border was still less successful :
nearly ten thousand Scots were taken prisoners, or, as
some say, went deliberately over to the English. This
proved too great a blow to the proud and ambitious
monarch, who died of a broken heart in December,
1542, in the thirty-first year of his age, leaving the
crown to his only legitimate child, the unfortunate Mary
Queen of Scots.' He had several natural children, one
of whom was the famous Regent Murray.
See BURTON, " History of Scotland," vol. iii. chaps, xxxi.-xxxiii. ;
FKOUDE, "History of England," vol. iv. chaps, xviii. and xix. ;
ROBERTSON, " History of Scotland ;" He ME, " History of England."
James VI. OF SCOTLAND. See JAMES I. OF ENG-
LA N I ).
James, [Gr. 'luKuCoc ; Lat. JACO'EUS ; Ger. JAKOB,
ya'kob; Fr. JACQUES, x.hsk; Sp. SANTIAGO, san-te-a'go;
It. GIACOMO, ja'ko-mo,] one of the twelve apostles,
commonly called SAINT JAMES, son of Zebedee, and
brother of Saint John. He was one.of the three apostles
who appeared to be the most intimately associated with
our Saviour. He suffered martyrdom about 44A.D., by
the order of Herod Agrippa.
See Matthew iv. 21, x. 2, xvii. ; Luke viii. 51.
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in //5z'.r. (2!^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
JAMES
i 262
JAMESON
James, called THE LESS, was one of the twelve apos
tles, and is generally supposed to have been the brother
of our Saviour, and the author of the Epistle bearing
that name. Josephus states that he was put to death
by the high-priest Ananias about 62 or 63 A.D.
See Matthew x. 3, xiii. 55, xxvii. 56; Mark iii. 18, vi. 3, xv. 40;
Luke vi. 15 ; Acts i. 13.
James, (CHARLES T.,) an American Senator and in
ventor, born in West Greenwich, Rhode Island, about
1805. In 1851 he was elected a Senator of the United
States for six years by the legislature of Rhode Island.
He invented a rifled cannon, and was killed at Sag Har
bour, Long Island, in October, 1862, by the explosion of
a shell on which he was experimenting.
James, zhtm, (CONSTANTIN, ) a French medical
writer, born at Bayeux in 1813. lie edited Magendie's
"Lectures on Physiology," etc., (1837-39.)
James, (GEORGE PAYNK RAINSFOKD,) a very volu
minous novelist and historian, born in London in 1801.
Before attaining the age of seventeen he had written a
series of Eastern tales, entitled "The String of Pearls."
In 1825 he published "Richelieu," which had previously
received the commendation of Sir Walter Scott and
Washington Irving. This is thought to be his best pro
duction. In 1852 Mr. James was chosen Bsitish consul
at Norfolk, in Virginia, and in 1858 received the same
appointment for Venice. His works amount to one
hundred and eighty-nine volumes. Of these we may
mention " Philip Augustus," (1831,) " Adra, or the Peru
vians, a Poem," " Memoirs of Great Commanders," (3
vols., 1832,) "History of Charlemagne," (1832,) "Lives
of Foreign Statesmen," (5 vols., 1832-38,) and "Came-
ralzaman," a dramatic poem, (1848.) Died in 1860.
See "New Spirit of the Age," by R. H. HORNE, London, 1844 ;
ALI.IBONE, " Dictionary of Authors ;" "North American Review"
for April, 1844, (by E. P. WHIPPLE.)
James, (HENRY,) an able and original writer on the
ology, born at Albany in 1811. About 1843 he became
acquainted with the writings of Swedenborg, whose
leading doctrines he appears to have fully embraced,
without, however, joining himself to the ecclesiastical
organization of Swedenborgians. He has published,
besides other works, "Moralism and Christianity," (1852,)
"Christianity the Logic of Creation," (1857,) and "The
Secret of Swedenborg. being an Elucidation of his Doc
trine of the Divine Natural Humanity," (1869.)
See "Old and New" for January, 1870.
James, (JoHN ANGELL,) an eloquent English dissent
ing minister and popular writer, born at Blandford, Dor
set, in 1785. He was for many years an Independent
minister of Birmingham, and acquired great influence by
his oral ministry and his numerous writings, which have
had an immense circulation. Among his works are
"The Anxious Inquirer," "Christian Fellowship," (.nth
edition, 1855,) " Family Monitor," (gth edition, 1848,)
"The Church in Earnest," (4th edition, 1851,) and " Fe
male Piety," (4th edition, 1855.) Died in 1859.
See " Life and Letters of John Aneell James," by R. W. DALE ;
REV. ROBERT STEEL, "Burning and Shining Lights," 1864.
James, (JoHN THOMAS,) Bishop of Calcutta, born at
Rugby in 1786. Upon the death of Bishop Heber he
was appointed to the diocese of Calcutta, and sailed for
India in 1827. He was the author of a "Tour through
Germany, Sweden, Russia, and Poland," (1816,) "Treat
ise on the Italian, French, Dutch, and German Schools
of Painting," (1822,) and "The Semi-Sceptic, or the
Common Sense of Religion considered." Died in 1828.
See " Memoirs of Bishop James," by his brother, 1830.
James, (RICHARD,) an English divine, linguist, and
traveller, and nephew of Thomas' James, (1571-1629,)
was born at Newport, in the Isle of Wight, in 1592.
Among his works are manuscripts upon Russia, and a
" Poem upon the Death of Sir Robert Cotton." Died
in 1638.
James, (ROBERT,) an English physician, born in Staf
fordshire in 1703. He was the inventor of a celebrated
fever-powder which bore his name, and the author of a
"Medicinal Dictionary," (1743-45,) (in which he was
assisted by Dr. Samuel Johnson,) treatises on the "Prac
tice of Physic" and " On Canine Madness," and a "Dis
sertation on Fevers," (1778.) Died in 1776.
James, (THOMAS,) a learned divine, born at Newport,
in the Isle of Wight, in 1571. He was distinguished as
an able and industrious writer against the Catholics.
Among the most important of his works are " A Treat
ise of the Corruptions of the Scriptures, Councils, and
Fathers by the Church of Rome," (1612,) and "The
Jesuits' Downfall." Died in 1629.
See Wooo, "Athene Oxoaienses."
James, (Tiio.MAS,) an English navigator, who sailed
in 1631 in search of a northwest passage. He made
some discoveries on the shores of Hudson's Bay, and to
the country lying west of it he gave the name of New
Wales. On his return to England he published "The
Strange and Dangerous Voyage of Captain Thomas
fames for the Discovery of a Northwest Passage to the
South Sea."
James, (THOMAS,) an English teacher, became head
master of Rugby School in 1776. He published a "Com
pendium of Geography." He was the father of Bishop
John T. James, noticed above. Died in 1804.
James, (THOMAS C.,) M.D., an American physician
and scholar, born in Philadelphia in 1766. He graduated
at the University of Pennsylvania in 1788, and followed
his profession with eminent success in his native city.
In iSir he was appointed professor of midwifery in the
above institution. Died in Philadelphia in 1835. He
is said to have been versed in the Greek, Latin, French,
and German languages, and to have possessed some
acquaintance with the Hebrew. lie contributed several
short but beautiful poems to Dennie's "Portfolio."
See " Memoir of Thomas Chnlkley James," by J. R. TVSON,
Philadelphia, 1836; GROSS, '•American Medical Biography ;" CAR
SON, " History of the Medical Department of the University of
Pennsylvania."
James, (WILLIAM,) an English land agent and sur
veyor, born in Warwickshire in 1771. He was the first
to project the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, and is
generally regarded as "the father" of the railway-system
in England. Died in 1837.
James, (WILLIAM,) an Englishman, known as the
author of "The Naval History of Great Britain from
the Declaration of War by France in 1793 to the Ac
cession of George IV. in 1820," (5 vols., 1822.) a work
evincing great research. Died in 1827.
James, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English naval officer of
high rank, born at Milford Haven about 1721. Me dis
tinguished himself in the East India service and in the
American war. Died in 1785.
James (or Jacques, zhtk) de Vitri, (deh ve't^e',) a
distinguished cardinal and historical writer, born at Vitri,
near Paris, in the twelfth century. He preached against
the Albigenses, and about 1218 joined the crusade against
the Saracens. He wrote, besides other works, a " His
tory of the East and West." Died in 1240.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
James (or Giacomo, ja'ko mo) de Voragine, (da
vo-ra'je-na,) a Romish prelate, born at Voraggio, near
Genoa, about 1230. In 1292 he was ordained Archbishop
of Genoa. Died in 1298. He wrote various ecclesias
tical works, and a famous collection of the lives of the
saints, entitled the "Golden Legend."
James Francis Edward, called the first Pretender,
and Chevalier de Saint George, born in 1688, was the
son and heir of James II. of England. He was educated
in France, and was a Roman Catholic. At the death
of his father he was recognized as King of England by
Louis XIV. He entered the French army, and charged
at the head of the cavalry at Malplaquet in 1709. Lord
Bolingbroke formed a design to secure for him the suc
cession to the throne, but was defeated by the death of
Queen Anne. In 1715 the Scottish Jacolntes took arms
to assert the title of the Pretender, and, under the com
mand of the Earl of Mar, were defeated at Sheriffmuir.
Another army of his partisans surrendered at Preston.
James Francis Edward landed in Scotland in December,
1715; but, finding his cause in a desperate state, he
returned to France the next month. Died in 1 758 or 1 765.
See JESSE, "Memoirs of the Pretenders and their Adherents,"
1845.
Ja'me-son, (ANNA,) a celebrated writer, born in
Dublin in 1797, was the daughter of Mr. Murphy, a
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
JAMESON
1263
JANIN
painter. She married in 1824 a barrister named Jame
son, with whom she went to live in Canada ; but, various
circumstances causing a separation, Mrs. Jameson re
turned to England, to employ herself in literature and
the fine arts. She was an earnest labourer for the fuller
development of the usefulness and mental culture of the
women of England. Her productions evince great dis
crimination, learning, and refinement. Among the most
important of these we may mention "The Diary of an
Ennuyee," (1826,) afterwards enlarged and published
with the title of "Visits and Sketches at Home and
Abroad," (2 vols , 1834,) " Loves of the Poets," (1829,)
" Memoirs of Celebrated Female Sovereigns," (2 vols.,
1831,) "The Beauties of the Court of Charles II.,"
"Lives of the Early Italian Painters," (2 vols., 1845,)
and " The Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art," (2
vols., 1848.) Died in 1860.
See HARRIET MARTINEAU, "Biographical Sketches," London,
1869; "New Spirit ot" the Age," by' R. H. HORNE; " Edinburgh
Review" for October, 1834, and April, 1^49; " BlacUwood's Maga
zine" for Julv, 1853 ; " Fraser's Magazine" lor March, 1849; "Twelve
Biographical Sketches," by B. R. PARKKS, London, 1866.
Ja'me-spn, (CHARI.KS DAVIS,) an American general,
born at Gorham, Maine, in 1827. He distinguished
himself at the battle of Bull Run, with the rank of
colonel, July, 1861, and commanded a brigade at Fair
Oaks, May, 1862. Died at Oldtown, Maine, in Novem
ber, 1862.'
Ja'me-spii, (RoiiF.irr,) an eminent Scottish naturalist,
born at Leith in 1774 or 1773. ^e published " Mineral
ogy of the Scottish Isles," (2 vols., 1800,) " A System of
Mineralogy," (3 vols., 1804-08,) and other works. He
was professor of natural history in the University of
Edinburgh from 1804 until 1854. In 1819 Professor
Jameson and Sir David Krewster founded the " Edin
burgh Philosophical Journal," which the former edited
many years. He also contributed to the " Encyclopaedia
Britannica." He had a high reputation as a professor.
Died in 1854.
See "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1804, and April, 1805;
"Annual Register" for 1854.
Ja'me-spne, (GKOKGE,) an eminent painter, called
"the Van Dyck of Scotland," was born at Aberdeen in
1586. About 1616 he went to Antwerp, where, with Van
Dyck, he studied under Rubens. " His excellence," says
Walpole, "consisted in delicacy and softness, with a
clear and beautiful colouring." It is said that, in 1633,
when Charles I. visited Edinburgh, the magistrates of
that city employed Jamesone to paint the portraits of
some of the Scottish monarchs. Charles was so much
pleased with the result that he sat for his own portrait,
and presented the artist with a diamond ring from his
finger. Jameson was also a painter of historical and
landscape scenes. Died in 1644.
See ALLAN CUNNINGHAM, "Lives of the Most Eminent British
Painters," etc. ; WAI. POLK, "Anecdotes of Painting ;" CHAMUEKS,
" Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Jamet, zhi'mi', (PiF.RUK CHARI.KS,) a French writer,
born near Sens in 1701. Among his works are "Meta
physical Essays," (1732,) "Letters on Taste and the Doc
trine of Bayle," (1740,) and "The Mongol Philosopher
Dane-Che-Men-Kan," (1740.) Died about 1770.
Jami. See JAMFE.
Ja'mie-spn, (JoHN,) D.D., a learned divine, born in
Glasgow in 1759, became in 1797 pastor of a church in
Edinburgh, where he remained until his death. The
degree of doctor of divinity was conferred upon him by
the College of New Jersey. He published, besides other
works, "Socinianism Unmasked," (1788,) "The Sorrows
of Slavery," a poem, "The Use of Sacred History," (2
vols., 1802,) an "Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish
Language," (2 vols., 1809,) which is highly esteemed,
and "An Historical Account of the Ancient Culdees of
lona," (1811.) Died in 1838.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
"Edinburgh Review" for April, 1809, and May, 1828; "Monthly
Review" for September, 1810.
Jamin, zhi'max', ( JF.AN BAPTISTE, ) VICOMTE, a
French general, born in 1772; died in 1848.
Jamin, (JtiLFS CEI.FSTIN,) a French natural philoso
pher, born in 1818. He became professor of physics in
the Polytechnic School at Paris. He commenced in 1858
the publication of an important work, entitled "Cours
de Physique."
Jamin de Bermuy, zhS'maN' deh beVmii-e', (JF.AN
BAPTISTE AUGUSTE MAKIF.,) one of the best French
cavalry officers of his time, was born in Bretagne in
1773. He became colonel of the royal guards of light
cavalry about 1807, and went to Spain, where he dis
tinguished himself at the battle of Ocana in 1809. As
general of brigade, he won additional honours at the
battle of Vitoria, in 1813. For his various services he
was created baron of the empire and Marquis de Ber
muy. He fell at the battle of Waterloo, 1815.
See J. NOLLET-FABEKT, " Le General Jamin," 1853.
Jamsheed. See JF.MSHEKD.
Jamshid. See JEMSHEKD.
Jamyn, zht'ma.N', (AMADIS,) a French poet, born
in Champagne about 1540. His productions attracted
the attention of Ronsard, who became a warm friend and
liberal patron of Jamyn and procured for him the situa
tion of secretary and reader to Charles IX. He wrote
poems on various subjects, and made translations of the
last three books of the " Iliad" and the first three of the
"Odyssey." Died in 1585.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Janachen, yan-a'ken, (i.e. Jan. (or John) Acheii.)
See AcHii.N.
Jane OF NAVARRE. See JOAN.
Janes, janz, (EDMUND S.,) a bishop of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, was born in Salisbury, Connecticut,
about 1805. In early life he was principal of an academy
in New Jersey. About 1836 he became minister of a
church in Philadelphia, and in 1839 was transferred to
Mulberry Street Church, in New York. He was chosen
in 1841 financial secretary of the American Bible So
ciety, and travelled through most of the States in plead
ing the cause of the Bible. He was elected a bishop in
1844-
Janet, a French painter. See CLOUF.T.
Jane'way, (JAMES,) an English nonconformist divine,
born in Hertfordshire in 1636. He was a preacher of
great power, and was very actively employed at the time
of the plague both in the pulpit and in visiting the sick.
He wrote a " Life of John Janeway," his- brother, and
"The Saint's Encouragement to DJligence," (1675.)
Died in 1674.
Jani, yl'nee, (CHRISTIAN DAVID,) a German phi
lologist, born near Halle in 1743. He published a good
edition of Horace, (2 vols., 1778-82,) and other works.
Died in 1790.
Janigon, /hS'ne'sfiN7', (FRANCOIS MICHEL,) a noted
journalist, born in Paris in 1674. Being an avowed
Protestant, he went to receive his education in Holland,
which became his adopted country. In early life he
entered the army, but finally devoted himself to litera
ture. Among his wotks are " Present State of the
Republic of the United Provinces and their Dependen
cies," (1729,) a production of great merit, and "Serious
and Satirical Letters upon the Works of the Savants,"
(12 vols., 1740 et st'(j.} Died in 1730.
See MOREKI, "Dictionnaire Historique ;" NIC^RON, " Memoires."
Janin, zht'naN', (Jui.F.s GABRIEL,) a celebrated French
critic and litterateur, born at Saint-fitienne in 1804. He
contributed successively to the "Figaro" and the "Quo-
tidienne," and about 1830 became one of the editors
of the "Journal cles Debats," for which he furnished a
number of brilliant and original articles on politics and
literature. He was for a long time the dramatic critic
of that journal. He also wrote for the " Revue des Deux
Mondes," etc. Among his other productions are the
romances of" Barnave," (1831,) "New Literary Tales,"
"Journey in Italy," (1839,) and " The Nun of Toulouse,"
(1850.) He also wrote an abridgment of " Clarissa Har-
lowe," and a "History of Dramatic Literature," (4
vols., 1851-56.) His critiques consist mostly of literary
gossip, written in a sparkling and polished style. He
was admitted to the French Academy in 1870.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, " Canseries du Luudi :" QTERARD, "La
France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Janin de Combe -Blanche, zht'naN' deh koN'-
', (JEAN,) a celebrated surgeon and oculist, born
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
J4NITIUS
1264
JjfNSS&NS
in Carcassonne, France, in 1731. He was the author
of a "Treatise upon the Lachrymal Fistula," and seve
ral other works on diseases of the eye. Died about 1790.
See QUBKAKO, "La France Litteiaire."
Jauitius, ya-nit'se-iis, or Jaiiicki, ya-nlt'skee, (Cl.K-
MKNT,) a learned Polish writer, born in 1516. At fifteen
he wrote elegant Latin poetry. Among his works is
"Lives of the Kings of Poland." Died in 1543.
Jannabee or Jannabi, Al, al-jan-na'bee, |I,at. AL-
JANNA'HIUS, or simpiy JANNA'HIUS,] (Aboo-Moham-
med-Mustafa — moos'ta-fa,) written also Djannaby
and Dschaimabi, an Arabian historian, of whose life
scarcely anything is known. lie wrote an abridgment
of universal history, entitled " Bahar-al-Zokkar," from
the creation of the world down to his own time. Died
in 1581.
Jannabi. See JANNAHEE.
Jarmabius. See JANNABKE.
Jaunequin, x.hin'ka.N', (CLAUDE,) Sieurde Rochefort,
a French traveller, sailed for Africa in 1637, and, after
his return, published a " Voyage to Libya, to the King
dom of Senegal, and the Banks of the Niger," etc., (1643.)
Jannequin, (CLEMENT,) a French or Flemish mu
sician of superior merit, flourished about 1550. He
composed masses, canzoni, chansons, etc. in 1544
he published " Inventions musicales a quatre et cinq
Parties," which displayed much inventive genius.
See liiWNF.v, "History of Music;" FETIS, " Biographic Univer-
selle des Musicieus."
Jan'ney, (SAMUEL M.,) an American writer, born in
London county, Virginia, January 11, 1801. Both his
parents were members of the Society of Friends, or
Quakers ; and his mind appears to have been at an early
age deeply impressed with the truth and high importance
of the religious principles in which he was educated.
Besides some smaller works, he has written "Conver
sations on Religious Subjects," (1835;) "A Teacher's
Gift, consisting of Fssays in Prose and Verse," (1840;)
"An Historical Sketch of the Christian Church during
the Middle Ages," (1847,) ar|d two valuable biographies,
viz., a " Lite of William Penn," (1852,) and a "Life of
George Fox," (18^5.) His last and most important
publication is a " History of the Religious Society of
Friends from its Rise to the Year 1828," (4 vols., 1867.)
This work treats,' among other subjects, of the causes
and events of the separation which occurred in the
Society in 1827—28. The writer belongs to the anti-
orthodox division of the Quakers; and, though not pro
fessing strict impartiality, he has evinced, in his treatment
of this delicate and difficult subject, great moderation,
a scrupulous regard for the facts of the case, and, on
the whole, a liberal and kindly spirit. He is a highly-
esteemed minister of the Society of which he is a member.
Early in 1869 he was appointed by President Grant
superintendent of Indian affairs in the Northern Super-
intendency.
Janozki, ya-nozh'kee, or Janotzki, ya-nots'kee,
sometimes written Janisck, (TjoHN DANIEL,) a Polish
or Russian author, born at Viborg in 1720. He was
appointed superintendent of the Zaluski Library at
Warsaw. Among his works, which principally relate
to the literature of Poland, are "Letters on Criticism,"
"A Dictionary ot the Living Authors of Poland," and
"Polish Literature of our Time." Died in 1786.
Jansemin. See JASMIN.
Janseii, jai/sen or yan'sen, or Jau-se'm-us, [Dutch
pron. ydn-sa'ne-us, ] (CoKNEi.is,) Bishop of Ypres, cele
brated as the founder of the sect of Jansenists, born near
Leerdam, in Holland, in October, 1585. He pursued his
studies at Paris, and in 1617 was chosen professor of di
vinity in the University of Louvain. About 1634116 bitterly
attacked the French government, in his " Mars Gallicus,"
for having formed a treaty of alliance with the Dutch Prot
estants. This provoked the enmity of Cardinal Richelieu,
but obtained the favour of the King of Spain, who raised
Jansenius to the see of Ypres in 1635. His principal
production was entitled " Augustimis," (Louvain, 1640,)
in which he advocated the doctrines of Saint Augustine
in regard to the atonement, divine grace, free will, and
predestination. This work was finished a short time
previous to his death, in 1638, and by his will he referred
it to the judgment of the Holy See ; but his executors
published the book, and suppressed that part of the will
which related to it. The opinions which he advocated
were directly opposed to those advanced by the Jesuits,
who made great efforts to obtain a decision against them
by the pope. Finally the bishops of France reduced the
doctrines of Jansenius to five propositions for condemna
tion, — viz. : i. That there are divine precepts which good
men are unable to obey for want of God's grace, although
desirous to do so. 2. That no person can resist the in
fluence of divine grace when bestowed. 3. That for
human actions to be meritorious, it is not requisite that
they should be exempt from necessity, but only from
constraint. 4. That the Semi-Pelagians err grievously in
maintaining that the human will is endowed with power
of either receiving or resisting the aids and influences
of preventive grace. 5. That whoever maintains that
Jesus Christ made expiation by his sufferings and death
for the sins of all mankind is a Semi-Pelagian. Innocent
X. condemned the first four of these propositions as
simply heretical, but the last as rash, impious, and in
jurious to the Supreme Being. Many bulls were also
issued by the succeeding popes, by which the Jansenists,
several of whom were among the most learned and emi
nent ecclesiastics of France, were deprived of office and
declared to be heretics. Louis XIV., at the instigation
ot his Jesuit confessor, ordered them to be persecuted
and their monastery at Port-Royal to be suppressed.
Notwithstanding these attempts to crush them, the Jan
senists continued to increase, comprising among their
champions Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole, and many other
celebrated men.
See LEVDRCKBR, "Historia Jansenism!," 1695; BAYI.K, "His
torical and Critical Dictionary;' SAINTE-!>KUVK, "Port-Royal,"
tomes i., ii. : HKHSKK, "Hislorisch Verhaal van cle Geboorte, I, even,
eic. van C. Jansenius," 1727; " Nouvelle Biographic Gihierale."
Janseii, yan'sen, (HKNDIUK,) a noted writer and trans
lator, born at the Hague in 1741. He fixed his residence
in Paris about 1770, where he became librarian to Tal
leyrand. His works were chiefly of a historical and
philosophical character. Died in 1812.
Jansenius. See JANSKN.
Jaiiseiiius, yin-sa'ne-us, (CORNELLS,) a learned Flem
ish ecclesiastic, born at Hulst in i^io. In 1568 he was
ordained first Bishop of Ghent. Of his works we may
mention "Concord of the Evangelists," and a "Para
phrase on the Psalms." Died in 1576.
Jaiiseiiius, (JAKOH,) a Dutch scholar, born at Am
sterdam in 1547, became in 1595 regius professor of the
Sacred Scriptures at Louvain. Among his works are
Expositions of the Prophet Job, of the Psalms of David,
and of the Gospel of fohn. Died in 1625.
Janson or Jeiison, zhS.v'soN', (NICOLAS,) a French
engraver, printer, and type-founder, settled in Venice
about 1470. lie produced there a number of celebrated
editions between 1470 and 1480. He is called the in
ventor of the Roman type now generally used. Died
about 1481.
See G. SARDINI, " Esanie su i Principj del'a Frnncesa ed Ita'iana
Tipografia, ovvero Stoiia critica di N. Jt-nson,'' 3 vois., 1796-0.^.
Jaiissen, yans'sen, or John'son, (CORNELLS,) a noted
artist, born in Amsterdam in 1590. In 1618 he visited
England, where he was employed by James I. to paint
the portraits of the royal family. He was also patronized
by the nobility. He possessed neither the freedom nor the
grace of Van Dyck, but in other respects was regarded as
is equal, and in finishing was considered even superior
to him. His carnations have been particularly admired ;
and his pictures yet retain their original lustre, in conse
quence perhaps of the ultramarine which he used. Died
in 1665.
Janssens, yans'sens,( ABRAHAM,) a celebrated painter,
born at Antwerp in 1569. His designs were elegant and
spirited. He was a good colorist, and a rival of Rubens.
He excelled in painting subjects illuminated by torches,
where the brilliant light and deepest shade were placed
in a striking contrast. His most important works are
the " Resurrection of Lazarus," and a " Descent from the
Cross." Died at Antwerp in 1631.
Janssens, (ERASMUS,) a Dutch Unitarian theologian,
born about 1540, preached at Clausemburg. Died after
1595-
a, e, T, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
J4NSSENS
1265
JARS
Janssens, (JAN WILLEM,) a distinguished Dutch
general, born at Nymwegen in 1762. In 1802 he was
appointed governor and general-in-chiefof the colony of
the Cape of Good Hope, where he was defeated by the
English, who took possession of that country in 1806.
After the abdication of Louis Bonaparte, under svhom
he had held the office of minister of war, Napoleon made
him Governor-General of Holland and the East Indies.
In this capacity he bravely defended Batavia against the
English in 1811, but was finally obliged to surrender.
Died in 1835. »
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Janssens, (VICTOR HONORIUS,) a noted Flemish
painter, born at Brussels in 1664. He studied in Rome
the works of Raphael, selected Albano for his model,
and excelled all his contemporaries in that style. At
the expiration of eleven years he returned to Brussels,
where he painted numerous large pictures for palaces
and churches. Died in 1739.
Janszoon. See KOSTER.
Januario. See JANUARIUS.
Jan-u-a'ii-us, [Fr. JANVIER, zh5N've^i'; It. JANUA
RIO, yi-noo-a're-o,] SAINT, Bishop of Benevento, was
beheaded during the persecution of Diocletian, about
305. A cathedral was erected over his grave at Naples,
where it is believed that his blood exerts great power in
checking the eruptions of Vesuvius.
Ja'nus, an ancient Latin deity, represented with two
faces. He was regarded as the opener of the day and
as having charge of the gates of heaven.* He seems to
have presided over the commencement of enterprises.
The word Janua ("gate") is supposed to have been de
rived from him ; also the name of the month January.
The temple of Janus Quirinus at Rome was kept open
in time of war and closed during peace. It has been
conjectured by some scholars that the name and attri
butes of Janus may be traced to Ganesa, (or Ganesha,)
the Hindoo deity of prudence and circumspection, who,
among his other offices, had those of presiding over the
commencement of undertakings, guarding gates and
doors, etc.
See GUIGNIAUT, " Religions de 1'Antiquite," Paris, 1825-29, vol.
ii. book v. sect. 2, chap. iii. ; KEIGHTLEV, "Mythology."
Janvier. See JANUARIUS.
Janvier, zhAVve-i', ( ANTIDE,) an ingenious and cele
brated horologist, was born at Saint-Claude, in France,
in 1751. He invented numerous improvements for
watches and for different kinds of astronomical appa
ratus. In 1784 he became watchmaker to the king.
Died in 1835.
Janvier, (Dom RENE AMBROISE,) a learned French
monk, born in 1614. He made a Latin translation of
the " Rabbi David Kimchi's Hebrew Commentary on
the Psalms." Died in 1682.
Japet. See IAPETUS.
Japetus. See IAPETUS.
Ja'pheth, [Heb. H3',] a patriarch, one of the three
sons of Noah, and the supposed ancestor of the Cauca
sian race. (See IAPETUS.)
See Genesis vi., vii., ix.
Japix, Japicx, or Japiks, ya'piks, (GYSBERT,) a
celebrated Frisian poet, born at Bolsward in 1603. But
few incidents in his early life are known. Japix was the
first, and in fact the only, writer in Frisian of any note of
that period. In 1763, at Dr. Johnson's request, Bos-
well, then at Utrecht, sent a copy of Tapix as a specimen
of Frisian, and at the same time remarked that "it was
the only book which they had ; that there were no treat
ises of devotion, ballads, or story-books in the language."
Japix died of the plague in 1666.
See H/UPERTSMA, "Hulde aan G. Japiks," 1827; "Foreign
Quarterly Review" for January, 1829.
Jaquelot. See JACQUET.OT.
Jaquotot, zht'ko'to', (MARIE VICTOIRE,) a skilful
French painter on porcelain, born in Paris in 1778. She
copied several works of Raphael on porcelain, and
painted the dessert-service presented by Napoleon I. to
the Czar of Russia after the peace of Tilsit. Died in 1855.
* Some writers suppose Janus to be a corruption of Dianas, (from
Dies, " Day,'') because he was the opener of the day.
Jarchi, zhaVshe', (SOLOMON BEN ISAAC,) sometimes
called Raschi, a distinguished Jewish writer, born at
Troyes, in France, about 1040. After finishing his edu
cation at the Jewish Academy in that city, he travelled
through Egypt, Western Asia, Greece, Russia, and Ger
many. On his return to France he wrote Annotations
on the Five Books of Moses, the Mishna, and the Gemara.
These works obtained a high reputation, and procured
for the author the title of " Prince of Commentators."
Died in 1 105.
Jardin or Jardyn. See Du JARDIN.
Jar'dme, (GEORGE,) born in Lanarkshire, Scotland,
in 1742, was professor of logic in the University of Glas
gow from 1774 to 1824, and made improvements in the
mode of teaching. He published "Outlines of Philo
sophical Education," (1818.) Died in 1827.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
"Monthly Review" for July, 1819.
Jardine, (Sir WILLIAM,) a Scottish naturalist, born
in Edinburgh about 1800. He studied botany, orni
thology, etc. He published, besides other works, " Illus
trations of Ornithology," (3 vols., 1829-45.) He was
one of the authors of the " Naturalist's Library," (40
vols., 1833-43,) and joint editor of the "Edinburgh Phi
losophical Journal."
Jardinier, zhtK'de'neJt', (CLAUDE DONAT,) a French
engraver, born in Paris in 1726. Among his works is the
"Virgin and the Infant Jesus," from C. Maratta. Died
in 1774.
Jardins, des, da zhtR'daN', (MARIE CATHERINE,)
MADAME DE VILLEDIEU, a talented and profligate French
authoress, was born in 1640. She removed to Paris,
where she supported herself by writing romances and
dramas. Her works were quite successful, and, not
withstanding her very exceptionable conduct, she was
much courted by persons of distinction. Her active
and vivid imagination produced a new era in French
romances, changing their old and tedious style into that
of the modern novel. Died in 1683.
Jard-Panvillier, zhfR'pfiN've'yej-i', (Louis ALEX-
ANDRE,) a French politician, born near Niort in 1757.
In 1792 he was elected to the National Convention,
where he distinguished himself by his bold defence of
the king. Napoleon created him baron of the empire
and president of the court of exchequer. Died in 1822.
Jardyn or Jardin, (KAREL DE.) See DUJARDIN.
Jarnac, de, cleh zhaVna'k', (Gui CHABOT,) SEIGNEUR,
a French soldier, who in 1547 killed La Chateigneraye
in a duel which was fought in the presence of King Henry
II. Died about 1560.
See TAVANNES, "Memoires;" BRANT&ME, "Memoires," tome iii.
Jarnowich, yaR'no-vik', or Giornovichi, JOR-IIO-
vee'kee, (GIOVANNI MARIA,) a celebrated and eccentric
violinist, born at Palermo, Sicily, in 1745. He spent
several years in France, Prussia, and England. He sub
sequently visited Saint Petersburg, where he died in 1804.
Jaroslaf. See YAROSLAF.
Jarrige, zhi'rezh', (PIERRE,) a French Jesuit, born at
Tulle in 1605. He embraced Protestantism, and wrote
a work against the society of which he had been a mem
ber, entitled "The Jesuits upon the Scaffold ;" but sub
sequently he was reconciled to them, and published a
refutation of his previous work. Died in 1660.
Jarry, zhi're', (Xicoi.AS,) a French calligraphist, born
in Paris about 1620, was famous for the beauty of his
penmanship.
Jarry, du, dii zht're', (LAURENT Juilhard — zhii-e'-
ytu',) a celebrated ecclesiastic, poet, and orator, born
near Saintes, in France, about 1658. He went to Paris,
where he was patronized by Bossuet and the Due de
Montausier. In 1714116 gained a poetical prize at the
French Academy over Voltaire and other competitors.
He wrote "The Evangelical Ministry, or Reflections
upon the Eloquence of the Pulpit," (1726,) "Poems,
Christian, Heroic, and Moral," and several other works.
Died in 1730.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
j zhtR, (GABRIEL,) a distinguished mineralogist,
and member of the French Academy of Sciences, born
at Lyons, in France, in 1732. In 1757 he was sent to ex-
as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
80
Explanations, p. 23.)
JARS
1266
JAFELLO
amine the mines of Germany and Hungary, and in 1765
visited England, Scotland, Norway, and Sweden for the
same purpose. He died in 1769, leaving manuscripts from
which his brother compiled "Observations upon a Great
Number of Gold and Silver Mines," (3 vols., 1774-81.)
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire."
Jars, de, deh zhjtu, ( FRANCOIS DK Rochechouart —
rosh'shoo-f R',) CHKVAI.IKR, a French officer and cour
tier. He was arrested by Cardinal Richelieu in 1632,
because he refused to give evidence in the prosecution
of his friend Chateauneuf, keeper of the seals. After
an imprisonment of eleven months in the Bastille, and
twenty-four examinations, during which nothing could
be extorted from him that would criminate Chateauneuf,
he was convicted on false evidence and sentenced to
death. A reprieve, however, arrived from the king after
Jars had placed his head upon the block. He obtained
his liberty after a long imprisonment. Died in 1670.
See RICHELIEU, "Memoires."
Jarta or Jaerta, yeR'ta, (JoHAN or HANS,) a Swedish
statesman, born in Dalecarlia in 1774, was minister of
finances from 1809 to 1811, and assisted in framing the
present Constitution of Sweden. Died in 1847.
Jar'ves, (JAMES JACKSON,) a writer and traveller,
born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1818. He produced,
besides other works, a " History of the Hawaiian or
Sandwich Islands," (1843,) and "Art Hints," (1855.)
Jar'vis, (ABRAHAM,) D.D., Bishop of the Protestant
Episcopal Church, was born at Norwalk, in Connecticut,
in 1739. lie graduated at Yale in 1761, was ordained
in England in 1764, and became Bishop of Connecticut
in 1797. Died in 1813.
Jar'vis, (JOHN,) an artist, born in Dublin about 1749,
had a great reputation for his paintings on glass and his
exquisite manner of finishing single subjects. Among
his principal works is the west window of New College
Chapel, Oxford, from a design of Sir Joshua Reynolds.
Died in 1804.
Jarvis, (JOHN WESLEY,) a distinguished artist, born
in the north of England in 1780, came at an early age to
New York, where he gained a high reputation by his
portraits. He was also noted for his eccentricities and
genial humour.
See DUNI.AP, "Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in
America;" TUCKERMAN, " Book of the Artists."
Jarvis, (SAMUEL FARMER,) D.D., LL.D., an Ameri
can clergyman and author, son of Bishop Jarvis, was
born in Middletown, Connecticut, in 1786. He graduated
at Yale in 1805, and was for some time professor of
Oriental literature in Washington (now Trinity) College
at Hartford, and from 1837 to 1842 was rector of Christ
Church in his native town. He wrote " A Chronological
Introduction to the History of the Church," etc., (1845,)
and "The Church of the Redeemed; or, The History
of the Mediatorial Kingdom," (1850.)
Jasikov or Jazikov. See YAZIKOF.
Jasmin, zhfs'ma.N', or Jansemiii, zhfiNss'maN',
QACQUES or JAQUOU,) the "Barber Poet of Agen," born
at that town in 1798. His poems, which are written
in the Proven9al patois, enjoy the highest popularity in
France, and display great powers of humour and pathos,
with a charming simplicity of diction. Among the most
admired are "The Curl-Papers," ("Los Papillotos,")
and "The Blind Girl of Castel-Cuille," ("L'Abuglo de
Castel-Cuille.") The latter has been translated into
English by Longfellow. Died in 1864.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, "Causeries du Lundi ;" " Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generate ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1849.
Ja'soii, IGr. 'Idouv,] a semi-fabulous Greek hero, cele
brated as the leader of the Argonautic expedition, which
was supposed to have occurred before the siege of Troy.
The Argonauts went to Colchis to fetch a golden fleece
which was guarded by a dragon. Jason succeeded in
this enterprise by the aid of Medea, a sorceress, whom
he married. (See MEDEA.)
Jason, tyrant of Pherse, and chief magistrate of Thes-
saly, was ambitious and enterprising. He obtained
control of Thessaly in 374 B.C., and aspired to be master
of all Greece. He was assassinated in 369 B.C.
Jas'per, (WILLIAM,) (known in history as SERGEANT
JASPER,) a brave soldier of the American Revolution,
born in South Carolina about 1750. When the American
flag was shot away in the attack on Fort Moultrie, June
28, 1776, he leaped outside the walls of the fort, amidst
a perfect storm of cannon-shot, replaced the flag, and
returned to his post without injury. For this gallant
service Governor Rutledge presented to him his own
sword. He afterwards served with distinction under
Marion, and was killed at Savannah in October, 1779.
Jaubert, zho'baik', (FRANCOIS,) COMTE, a French
lawyer, born at Condom in iZjjS. In 1804 he became
president of the Tribunate. In 1806 he was appointed
councillor of state. Died in 1822.
Jaubert, (HIPPOLYTE FRANCOIS,) a French minister
of state, and naturalist, a nephew of the preceding, was
born in Paris in 1798. He became minister of public
works in 1840. He published " Illustrationes Plantarum
Orientalium," (2 vols., 1842-46.)
See "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Jaubert, (PIERRE AMEDE^EMILIEN PROHE,) a French
Orientalist, born in Provence in 1779, accompanied Na
poleon to Egypt as first secretary-interpreter in 1799.
He was appointed, after his return, professor of Persian
in the College of France, was elected to the Academy
of Inscriptions in 1830, and made a peer of France in
1841. He contributed to the "Journal Asiatique," and
wrote a number of learned works. Died in 1847.
See E. BIOT, " Notice biographique sur M. Jaubert ;" QUERARD,
"La France Litteraire."
Jaucourt, de, deh zhS'kooR', (ARNAIL FRANC.OIS,)
MARQUIS, a French politician, born in Paris in 1757,
was a moderate member of the Legislative Assembly
in 1791. In June, 1814, he acted as minister of foreign
affairs in the absence of Talleyrand. He founded the
Protestant Bible Society of Paris. Died in 1852.
Jaucourt, de, (Louis,) CHEVALIER, an accomplished
French writer and scholar, born in Paris in 1704. He
studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden, and was a
pupil of Boerhaave in medicine. He published in 1734
a " History of the Life and Works of Leibnitz," which
is much admired. He wrote many articles on natural
philosophy, natural history, literature, etc. for the great
French Encyclopaedia of Diderot. His principles were
more consistent with the Christian religion than those
of the other Encyclopaedists. He wrote a voluminous
Medical Lexicon, but lost the manuscript at sea, and
contributed largely to the " Bibliotheque raisonnee des
Ouvrages des Savants de 1'Europe," (1728-40.) Died
at Compiegne in 1779.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale;" MM. HAAG, "La France
protestante. "
Jauffret, zho'fRi', (GASPARD JEAN ANDRE JOSEPH,)
a French writer on theology, born in Provence in 1759,
became chaplain to Napoleon about 1804, Bishop of Metz
in 1806, and Archbishop of Aix in 1811. Died in 1823.
Jauffret, (Louis FRANCOIS,) a brother of the pre
ceding, was born in Paris in 1770. He was secretary of
the Academy of Marseilles, and wrote several valuable
juvenile books. Died about 1850.
Jaugeon, zh5'zh6N', (N.,) an able French mechani
cian, who wrote several works on natural history and
physiology. Died in 1725.
Jault, zho, (AuousTiN FRANC.OIS,) a physician and
Orientalist, born in Franche-Comte in 1700, became
professor of Greek and Syriac in the Royal College at
Paris. He translated Ockley's " History of the Sara
cens" (1748) from the English, and several medical works
from the Latin. Died in 1757.
Jauregui y Aguilar, de, di How-ra'gee e a-ge-laR',
(JuAN,) Chevalier de Calatrava, a Spanish poet and
painter, born at Toledo about 1570. In 1607 he visited
Rome, where he studied Italian and improved himself
in the art of painting. He translated into his native
tongue the "Pharsalia" of Lucan and the "Aminta" of
Tasso, (1607.) The latter is an excellent version. He
introduced a superior style among the Spanish painters.
Died in 1650, or, according to some, in 1640.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature ;" QUILLIET, " Die-
tionnaire des Peintres Espagnols."
Javello, ya-vel'lo, (CRISOSTOMO,) a learned philoso
pher and theologian of the Dominican order, was born
near Milan about 1471.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
JAPOLENUS
1267
JAY
Jav-o-le'nus, (Piuscus,) a Roman jurist, supposed to
have lived under the reigns of Nerva and Hadrian. He
wrote an " Epitome of the Libri Fosteriores of Labeo,"
and several treatises on law.
Jay, zhi, (ANTOINK,) a French journalist and littera
teur, born in the Gironde in 1770. He was for many
years chief editor of the " Constitutionnel," a daily paper
of Paris, and the "Miuerve." In politics he was liberal.
He spent seven years in the United States, 1795-1802.
In 1832 he was chosen a member of the French Academy.
His most important work is a "History of the Ministry
of Cardinal Richelieu," (1815,) which is highly praised
by Henri Martin. Died in 1854.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Gendrale."
Jay, (JOHN,) an illustrious American statesman, first
chief justice of the United States, was born in New York,
December 12, 1745. He was descended on his father's
side from Pierre Jay, a Huguenot merchant of La Ro-
chelle, who fled to England on the revocation of the
edict of Nantes. Jay graduated at King's (now Columbia)
College in 1764, and was admitted to the bar of New
York in 1768. At this period he combined in a remark
able degree the dignity and gravity of manhood with the
ardour of youth. His talents soon procured for him
both an extensive legal practice and great influence in
the political assemblies called to consider the aggressive
policy of the British government. Elected to the first
Continental Congress at Philadelphia in 1774, he took
a leading part in all its proceedings, and, as one of a
committee of three, drew up the address to the people
of Great Britain, which at once procured for its author
the reputation of being one of the ablest and most elo
quent writers in America. He also prepared the address
issued by Congress in 1775 to tne people of Canada. In
the general debates he took strong ground in favour of
the central authority and against separate colonial action.
Having been recalled from Philadelphia in May, 1776,
to take part in the deliberations of the New York pro
vincial Congress, his name does not appear on the
Declaration of Independence, which, however, received
his cordial support. He exerted great influence in the
convention which met in August of the same year to
frame a State government for New York. To arouse
the people from the despondency occasioned by the
disasters to our arms, he prepared, in December, an
address to the country, which was issued by the con
vention and ordered by Congress to be translated into
German. He also reported to the New York conven
tion, in March, 1777, a bill of rights, and had a chief
share in framing the Constitution. Before its adjourn
ment, May, 1777, the convention appointed Jay chief
justice of New York.
In December, 1778, he again took his seat in Congress,
and a few days after was chosen its president. His dig
nified and impartial discharge of the duties of this posi
tion won the esteem of all parties. In September, 1779,
he resigned the offices both of president and chief justice,
to accept the appointment of minister to Spain to nego
tiate for a loan of $5,000,000 and for the free navigation
of the Mississippi. Alter many months of vexatious
and fruitless labours at Madrid, he proceeded to Paris,
and took part with Adams, Franklin, and others in ne-
gotiating the treaty of peace between the United States
and Great Britain, signed September 3, 1783. Jay re
turned to New York in July, 1784, and, learning that
Congress had already appointed him secretary of foreign
affairs, then probably the most important office in the
government, he accepted this position in December
following, and discharged its duties until the election of
Washington as President of the United States in 1789.
To answer the objections of the opponents to the Federal
Constitution as it came from the General Convention of
1787, Jay united with Hamilton and Madison in writing
"The Federalist." "No constitution of government,"
says Chancellor Kent, "ever received a more masterly
and successful vindication." Jay contributed greatly
towards overcoming the majority against the Constitution
in the New York convention called to adopt or reject
it in 1788, (at first the vote stood only eleven for, to
forty-six against it ; afterwards thirty for, to twenty-seven
against,) and on the reorganization of the government
under it in 1789 he was offered by Washington, it is said,
the choice of the offices in his gift,
chief justice of the supreme court.
He accepted that of
" His general learn
ing and ability," says Daniel Webster, " and especially
the prudence, the mildness, and the firmness of his char
acter, eminently fitted Mr. Jay to be at the head of such
a court." In 1792 Jay received a majority of the votes
for Governor of New York ; but, on some technical
grounds, George Clinton, the Republican candidate, was
declared elected. In writing of this result to his wife, he
said, " A few years will put us all in the dust; and then
it will be of more importance to me to have governed
myself than to have governed a State." In 1794 Jay
accepted with reluctance the appointment of special
minister to England to negotiate a settlement of the dif
ficulties between the two countries, well knowing that
in the state of public feeling no adjustment that could be
effected would give satisfaction to all parties. He con
cluded a treaty on the igth of November of the same year.
It provided, among other things, that pre-revolutionary
debts owed to British subjects should be paid by the
United States, that the British government should indem
nify Americans for losses sustained by illegal captures, etc.
(About $10,000,000 were afterwards paid on this account.)
This treaty was at once assailed with almost unexampled
violence by the party favourable to France. Mobs lighted
bonfires with it in the principal cities, and in Boston Jay
himself was burned in effigy. On the other hand, Ham
ilton defended the treaty with an ability that extorted
the admiration even of its opponents, and Fisher Ames,
in one of the greatest efforts of American eloquence,
declared that the " treaty had justly raised the character
of the nation." It was finally carried into effect by a
vote of fifty-eight to fifty-one. While Jay was absent
in England, he was elected, without his knowledge or
consent, Governor of New York, — an office which he
held for six years. It was under his administration that
slavery in that State was abolished. In writing to a
friend, in 1780, he had declared, "Till America comes
into this measure, [the abolition of slavery,] her prayers
to Heaven for liberty will be impious." Five years later
(1785) he was made president of a society in New York
"to promote the manumission of slaves." Having de
clined a re-election at the close of his second guberna
torial term, Jay was nominated and confirmed by the
Senate to succeed Oliver Ellsworth in his former office
of chief justice of the United States; but this honour he
also declined, and for the remainder of his life resided
on his estate at Bedford, Westchester county, New York.
He died May 17, 1829. "In lofty disinterestedness,"
says Hildreth, " in unyielding integrity, in superiority
to the illusions of passion, no one of the great men of
the Revolution approached so near to Washington,"
(as Jay.) Jay was a member of the Episcopal Church,
and was a man of deep religious as well as earnest moral
convictions ; the Bible is said to have been his con
stant study. In stature he was somewhat less than six
feet in height ; he was svell formed, but rather thin, face
colourless, with deep-blue eyes, and aquiline nose.
See a " Life of John Jay, with Selections from his Writings," by
his son. WILLIAM JAY, 2 vols., 1833; JAMES RENWICK, " Lives of
John Jay and Alexander Hamilton," 1840; HENKY FLANDERS,
" Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the United States,"
1855; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol.
ii. ; "North American Review" for July, 1823, and October, 1833.
Jay, (JOHN,) an eminent lawyer, a grandson of the
preceding, and a son of Judge William Jay, was born in
New York in 1817. He graduated at 'Columbia College
in 1836, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1839.
He distinguished himself as an opponent of slavery, and
was counsel for several fugitive slaves in the courts of
law. In April, 1869, he was appointed minister to Aus
tria. He was thrice chosen president of the Union League
of New York.
Jay, (WILLIAM,) a popular English dissenting minis
ter and writer, born at Tisbury, Wiltshire, in 1769. He
was the pupil and protege of the Rev. Cornelius Winter.
He began to preach about the age of sixteen, and be
came in 1791 minister of Argyle Chapel, Bath, where
he continued to preach for sixty-two years. He was
called the "prince of preachers" by the eminent John
Foster. Among his works are " Morning and Evening
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.
JAY
1268
JEBB
Exercises," (1842,) "Lectures on Female Scripture
Characters," (1854,) a "Life of Cornelius Winter,"
"Mornings with Jesus," (1854,) and "Evenings with
Jesus," (1854.) Died in December, 1853.
See his Autobiography, edited bv GEORGE REDFORD and JOHN
ANGELL JAMES, 1854; "Memoir of William Jay," by S. S. WILSON,
1834-
Jay, (WILLIAM,) an American philanthropist, second
son of Chief-Justice Jay, was born in New York in 1789.
He graduated at Yale in 1807, and on the death of his
father, in 1829, succeeded to the family estate at Bedford.
He had previously, in 1820, been appointed first judge
of Westchester county, in which office he was continued
till superseded, in 1842, on account of his anti-slavery
opinions. He early entered upon his philanthropic
labours, and continued to exert himself in behalf of
the temperance reform, the abolition of slavery, educa
tional and missionary enterprises, Sunday-schools, tract
and Bible societies, etc., for the remainder of his life. He
was for several years the president of the American
Peace Society, and was one of the chief founders of the
American Bible Society. His principal works are the
" Life of John Jay, with Selections from his Writings,"
(2 vols., 1833,) "An Inquiry into the Character and
Tendency of the American Colonization and American
Anti-Slavery Societies," (1835,) "A View of the Action
of the Federal Government in I3ehalf of Slavery," (1839,)
" War and Peace," (1848,) and " A Review of the Causes
and Consequences of the Mexican War," (1849.) Died
at Bedford, New York, in 1858.
Jay, le, (Guv MICHEL.) See LE JAY.
Jayadeva or Djayadeva, jl-a-da'va, a celebrated
Hindu poet, known as the author of the " Gita Govinda,"
(" Song of Krishna,") a famous Sanscrit poem in honour
of Krishna. The time and circumstances of his life are
unknown. An Oriental critic refers to Jayadeva as a
poet in the following terms : " Whatever is delightful
in the modes of music, . . . whatever is exquisite in
the sweet art of love, whatever is graceful in the strains
of poetry, — all that let the happy and wise learn from
the songs of Jayadeva."
See MOOR, "Hindu Panlheon ;" "Asiatic Researches," vol. iii.
p. 207.
Jazet, zht'zi', (JEAN PIERRE MARIF,) a French en
graver, born in Paris in 1788. He perfected the art of
engraving in aquatint, and reproduced the works of
Horace Vernet and other masters.
Jeacocke, ja'kok, ? (CALEU,) a baker of London,
known as the author of the " Vindication of the Moral
Character of the Apostle Paul against the Charges of
Hypocrisy and Insincerity brought by Bolingbroke, Mid-
dleton, and Others," (1765.) Died in 1786.
Jean OF FRANCE. See JOHN.
Jean Bon Saint-Andre, zh&N b6x saN'toN'dRa',
BARON, a French revolutionist, born at Montauban in
1749. He studied theology, and became a Protestant
minister. He was chosen deputy to the National Con
vention in 1792, joined the Jacobins, voted for the death
of the king, and was elected one of the committee of
public safety. He was appointed prefect of Mayence,
(Mentz,) where he won great esteem by the firmness, in
tegrity, and wisdom of his administration. Died in 1815.
Jean Jacques. See ROUSSEAU.
Jean de Matha. See MATHA.
Jean de Paris, zh8N de pS're', a French Dominican,
and professor of theology at Paris, wrote " De Regia
Potestate et Papali," in which he maintained the cause
of King Philip against the pope. Died in 1304.
Jean Paul. See RICHTER.
Jeanes, jeenz, (HENRY,) an English divine, born at
Allensay, in Somersetshire, in 1611. He wrote a treatise
on " Abstinence from Evil," one entitled "The Image
Unbroken," (1651,) in defence of Charles I., and a work
in reply to the " Iconoclastes" of Milton. Died in 1662.
Jeanne d'Albret, zhtn dil'bui', or Joan, Queen of
Navarre, born in 1528, was the only child of Jean II.
d'Albret, King of Navarre, and Marguerite, sister of the
French monarch Francis I. Her earliest suitor was Philip,
the son of Charles V. of Germany ; but Francis I. opposed
the union, and gave her in marriage to Antoine de Bour
bon, Duke of Vendome, in 1548. Through her husband's
influence she embraced the Calvinistic faith, caused it to
be introduced into Navarre, and in a short time was re
garded as one of the chief supporters of Protestantism in
France. On the 131)1 of December, 1553, she gave birth to
a son, afterwards known as the illustrious Henry IV. In
J555' vv'th ner husband, sne succeeded to the sovereignty
of Navarre. Two years later, her husband, having been
appointed lieutenant-general of France, was killed at
the siege of Rouen. Jeanne died at Paris in 1572. She
was distinguished for her talents, virtues, and heroic
qualities.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Frangais ;" DE THOU, " Historia
sui Temporis;" D'Aumr.NE, " Memoires."
Jeanne d'Arc. See JOAN OF ARC.
Jeanne of Naples. See JOAN OF NAPLES.
Jeanne of Navarre. See JOAN OF NAVARRE.
Jeannin, zht'na.N', (PIERRE,) a French statesman and
diplomatist of high reputation, born at Autun in 1540.
He held an office at Dijon in 1572, when a royal order
came for the massacre of the Protestants. Although he
was a zealous Catholic, he persuaded the local authori
ties to disobey or suspend the execution of the order,
which in a few days was countermanded. He afterwards
became president of the Parliament of Dijon. In 1594
he gave his adhesion to Henry IV., who employed him
on important foreign missions. He gained the confidence
of the king in a high degree. After the death of Henry
IV., (1610,) the queen, Marie de Me"dicis, appointed
Jeannin controller of the finances, and confided to him
the chief direction of affairs. He died in 1622, leaving
"Memoirs of his Negotiations," (1656.)
See PIERRE SAUMAISE, "FJos;e de Jeannin ;" THIROUX, " Eloge
de M. Jeannin ;" DE THOU, "Historia sui Temporis;" GUYTON DE
MOKVKAU, "filoge du President Jeannin," 1766; GROTIUS, " An-
nales et Historia; Belsicas;" " Nonvelle Biographic Gendrale ;"
MOTLEY, "United Netherlands," vol. iv. chap. 1. et seg.
Jeanron, zhAv'riN', (PHILIPPE AUGUSTE.) a French
painter, born at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1809.
Jeaurat, zho'rt', (EDME S^HASTIEN,) a French as
tronomer, born in Paris in 1724. He published in 1750
a valuable "Treatise on Perspective." In 1753 he was
appointed professor of mathematics in the Military School
of Paris, where he caused an observatory to be estab
lished. Among his works is "Observations on the Solar
Eclipse of 1793." He became a member of the Institute
in 1796. Died in 1803.
See "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale."
Jebb, ( [OHN,) M.D., a celebrated divine, born in Lon
don in 1736. In 1768 he delivered a course of lectures
on the Greek Testament at Cambridge. He obtained
the living of Ovington, in Norfolk, in 1764, and became
chaplain to the Earl of Harborough. Having subse
quently embraced Socinian views, he resigned all his
ecclesiastical appointments and commenced the study
of medicine. He obtained his degree at Saint Andrew's,
and practised with success. He was much engaged in
political controversy, and earnestly advocated the Amer
ican cause during the Revolutionary war. Died in 1786.
See DISNEY, "Life of John Jebb," 1787.
Jebb, (JOHN,) an Irish Protestant bishop and clas
sical scholar, born at Drogheda in 1775, was educated
at Trinity College, Dublin. He published, in 1819 or
1820, an important work on "Sacred Literature," which
is highly praised by several critics. " It has the highest
claims," says T. II. Home, "to the attention of every
biblical student." In 1823 he was appointed Bishop of
Limerick. Among his works is "Practical Theology,"
(2 vols., 1830.) Died in 1833.
See CHARLES FORSTER, "Life of Bishop Jebb," 2 vols., 1837.
Jebb, (Sir RICHARD,) BART., son of Dr. Samuel Jebb,
noticed below, was born at Stratford, in Essex, in 1729.
He studied medicine in London, and afterwards at the
University of Leyden, where he obtained the degree of
M.D. He became physician-extraordinary to George
III. about 1777, and physician-in-ordinary to the Prince
of Wales in 1780. Died in 1787.
Jebb, (SAMUEL,) M.D., a noted English physician
and classical scholar, born in Nottinghamshire, was an
uncle of John Jebb, M.D., noticed above. He embraced
the principles of the nonjurors, and became librarian to
the celebrated Jeremy Collier. He edited the " Dialogue
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, \\, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; not) good; moon;
JEE-JEE-B'HOT
1269
JEFFERSON
of Justin Martyr with Trypho the Jew, in Greek and
Latin," the "Opus Majus" of Roger Bacon, and several
other works. Died in 1772.
See NICHOLS, "Literary Anecdotes of Bowyer."
Jee'jee-b'hoy', (Sir JAMSET'JKE,) a Hindoo mer
chant and munificent benefactor of Bombay, was born
in 1783. He amassed a large fortune, and gave vast
sums to benevolent institutions. The honour of knight
hood was conferred on him by Queen Victoria. Died in
1859-
See " North American Review" for July, 1851, (by C. E. NORTON.)
Jefferson, (THOMAS,) an eminent American statesman,
and the third President of the United States, was born,
April 2, 1743, at Shadwell, Virginia, near the spot which
afterwards became his residence with the name of Mon-
ticello. He was the oldest son in a family of eight
children. His father, Peter Jefferson, was a man of
great force of character and of extraordinary physical
strength. His mother, Jane Randolph, of Goochland,
was descended from an English family of great respecta
bility. Young Jefferson began his classical studies at
the age of nine, and at seventeen he entered an advanced
class at William and Mary College. On his way thither
he formed the acquaintance of Patrick Henry, who was
then a bankrupt merchant, but who afterwards became
the great orator of the Revolution. At college Jefferson
was distinguished by his close application, and devoted,
it is said, from twelve to fifteen hours a day to study.
He became well versed, we are told, in Latin, Greek,
Italian, French, and Spanish, making at the same time
a respectable proficiency in his mathematical studies.
After a five years' course of law under Judge Wythe,
he was admitted to the bar in 1767. His success in the
legal profession was remarkable ; his fees for the first
year amounted to nearly three thousand dollars. In
1769 Jefferson commenced his public career as a member
of the Virginia House of Burgesses, in which he had,
while a student of law, listened to Patrick Henry's great
speech on the Stamp Act.
In 1773 he united with Patrick Henry and other pa
triots in devising the celebrated committee of corre
spondence for disseminating intelligence between the
colonies, of which Jefferson was one of the most active
and influential members. Elected the next year to a
convention to choose delegates to the first Continental
Congress at Philadelphia, he drew up for their instruc
tion his famous " Summary View of the Rights of British
America," which, though rejected by the convention as
being too radical, was subsequently issued by the House
of Burgesses, and, after some revision by Edmund Burke,
passed through several editions in Great Britain. June
I, 1775, Jefferson reported to the Assembly the reply of
Virginia to Lord North's conciliatory proposition, and
on the 2ist of the same month took his seat in the
Continental Congress. His reputation as a statesman
and accomplished writer at once placed him among the
leaders of that renowned body. He served on the most
important committees, and, among other labours, drew
lip the reply of Congress to the above proposal of Lord
North, and assisted John Dickinson in preparing, in be
half of the Colonies, a declaration of the cause of taking
up arms. The rejection of a final petition to the king
having at length destroyed all hope of an honourable
reconciliation with the mother-country, Congress, early
in the session of 1776, appointed a committee to draw
up a declaration of independence, of which Jefferson was
made chairman. In this capacity he drafted, at the re
quest of the other members of the committee, (Franklin,
Adams, Sherman, and R. R. Livingston,) and reported to
Congress, June 28, that great charter of freedom known
as the " Declaration of American Independence," which,
on July 4, was adopted unanimously, and signed by every
member present except John Dickinson of Pennsylvania.
It may be doubted if in all history there be recorded so
important an event, or if a state paper has ever been
framed that has exerted, or is destined to exert, so great
an influence on the destinies of a large portion of the
human race. The Declaration of Independence, says
Edward Everett, " is equal to anything ever born on
parchment or expressed in the visible signs of thought."
" The heart of Jefferson in writing it," adds Bancroft,
"and of Congress in adopting it, beat for all humanity."
In October following, Jefferson resigned his seat in
Congress, and also the appointment of commissioner to
France, to take part in the deliberations of the Virginia
Assembly. A State Constitution had previously been
adopted, to which he had furnished the preamble ; and
he now applied himself to a radical revision of the laws
of the commonwealth, in which he was engaged for two
years and a half. Among other reforms, he procured
the repeal of the laws of entail, the abolition of pri
mogeniture, and the restoration of the rights of con
science, — reforms which, he believed, would eradicate
"every fibre of ancient or future aristocracy." He also
originated a complete system of elementary and collegiate
education for Virginia.
In June, 1779, Jefferson succeeded Patrick Henry as
Governor of Virginia, and held the office during the
most gloomy period of the Revolution. He declined
a re-election in 1781, assigning as a reason that at that
critical juncture "the public would have more confidence
in a military chief." Two days after retiring from office,
his estate at Elk Hill was laid waste, and he and his
family narrowly escaped capture by the enemy. Jefferson
was twice appointed, in conjunction with others, minister-
plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty of peace with Great
Britain, — viz., in June, 1781, and in November, 1782, —
but was prevented, by circumstances beyond his control,
from action in either instance. Returned to Congress
in 1783, he reported to that body, from a committee of
which he was chairman, the definitive treaty of peace,
(concluded at Paris, September 3, 1783,) acknowledging
the independence which had been announced in the De
claration of July 4, 1776. He also proposed, and carried
through Congress at its next session, a bill establishing
the present Federal system of coinage, which took the
place of the English pounds, shillings, pence, etc., and
reported a plan of government for the territory of the
United States. In May following, (1784,) Congress ap
pointed him minister-plenipotentiary to act with Frank
lin and Adams in negotiating treaties of commerce and
amity/vvith foreign powers ; and in 1785 he succeeded
Dr. Franklin as resident minister at Paris. It was during
this sojourn in France, which was one of the happiest
periods of Jefferson's life, that he formed that strong
predilection for the French nation over the English
which marked so conspicuously his subsequent career.
He published, while abroad, his famous "Notes on Vir
ginia," relating to politics, commerce, manufactures, etc.,
(Paris, 1784,) which at once attracted general attention
throughout Europe. Having obtained permission to
return to America, he left Paris in September, 1789, and
reached Virginia soon after the election of Washington
as first President of the United States. The Federal
Constitution, then recently adopted, did not meet with
his approval. He declared that he did not know whether
the good or the bad predominated. Subsequently, how
ever, he thought more favourably of it. In organizing
the government, Washington offered him a seat in his
cabinet as secretary of state, which Jefferson accepted.
With Washington's administration began the fierce
struggles between the two great political parties of the
country, the Republicans and Federalists, — the former
under the lead of Jefferson, and the latter under that
of Alexander Hamilton, then secretary of the treasury.
Jefferson opposed Hamilton's funding system, his United
States bank, and other financial measures ; and when the
war broke out between England and France he was in
favour of aiding the latter with our arms, while Hamilton
advocated the observance of a strict neutrality. These
differences between the two rival chiefs, which were the
occasion of many stormy discussions in the cabinet and
of an almost unexampled political excitement throughout
the country, culminated shortly after the dismissal of the
French minister Genest, (Genet,) and Jefferson resigned
his office, December 31, 1793, and retired to Monticello.
At the close of Washington's second term he was again
called into public life, as the Presidential candidate of
the Republican party, John Adams being the nominee of
the Federalists. In the ensuing election Adams received
the highest number of votes, and was declared President ;
and, according to a rule then in force, Jefferson, being
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
JEFFERSON
1270
JEFFRET
the next highest candidate, became Vice-President. By
virtue of this office he took his seat, March 4, 1797,
as president of the Senate. The disputes with France,
and other difficult questions, rendered the administration
one of extraordinary turbulence. At its close, Jefferson
and Adams were again the respective candidates of the
Republican and Federal parties. In this election the Re
publicans triumphed, but cast an equal number of votes
for Jefferson and Aaron Burr, — seventy-three : Adams
received but sixty-five. As it was necessary that the
person chosen to the first office should have a plurality
of votes, the election, in these circumstances, devolved
upon the House of Representatives, which, on its thirty-
sixth ballot, declared Jefferson President and Burr Vice-
President, their terms of office to commence March 4,
1 80 1. Jefferson was re-elected in 1804 by an electoral vote
of one hundred and forty-eight to twenty-eight, and in
1809 retired voluntarily from office, after a prosperous ad
ministration of eight years. Among the important events
that occurred during his term of office were the purchase
of Louisiana, (1803,) the brilliant victories of our fleets in
the Mediterranean, and peace with Morocco and Tripoli,
in 1803, Lewis and Clark's overland exploring expedi
tion to the Pacific, sent out by the President in 1804, the
arrest and trial of Aaron Burr for treason, 1807, and the
attack, the same year, of the British war-frigate Leopard
on the American frigate Chesapeake, which led to Jeffer
son's embargo act and ultimately to the second war with
Great Britain. Washington and Adams had opened Con
gress with a speech; but Jefferson preferred a written
message, as being more democratic. He also initiated
the policy of removing incumbents from office on the
grounds of a difference in political opinion. After par
ticipating in the inauguration of his friend and successor,
James Madison, Jefferson retired to Monticello, where
he passed the remainder of his life in attending to his
private affairs, receiving the numerous calls of friends
and strangers, and in the exercise of a most liberal hos
pitality. In 1819 he took the chief part in founding the
University of Virginia, at Charlottesville, near Monti-
cello, and acted as its rector till his death, which occurred
on the same day with that of John Adams, July 4, 1826,
— the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independ
ence. The following epitaph, written by himself, is
inscribed on his tombstone, a small granite obelisk, at
Monticello : " Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, author
of the Declaration of Independence, of the Statute of
Virginia for Religious Freedom, and Father of the Uni
versity of Virginia." As the author of the Declaration of
Independence and the founder of the Republican (Demo
cratic) party, Jefferson has probably exerted a greater
influence on the institutions of this country than any other
American except Washington. He was regarded as the
very embodiment of democracy. All titles of honour
— even that of Mr. — were distasteful to him. Dressed
in the plainest apparel, he was as accessible to the
yeoman in his every-day garments as to a foreign dig
nitary of state. In his intercourse with others he was
distinguished for his affability. _His conversation was
fluent, imaginative, various, and eloquent. " In Europe,"
wrote the Due de Liancourt, "he would hold a distin
guished rank among men of letters." His adroitness in
politics and in the management of men has rarely been
surpassed. In religion he was what is denominated a
free-thinker. "His instincts," says Bancroft, "all in
clined him to trace every fact to a general law, and to
put faith in ideal truth." Slavery he considered a moral
and political evil, and declared in reference to it that he
"trembled for his country when he remembered that
God is just." His extreme views of State rights in
later life were very much modified, and he owned that
it was necessary for the general government sometimes
"to show its teeth."
In his prime, Jefferson was six feet two and a half
inches in height, with a sinewy, well-developed frame,
angular face, but amiable countenance, and ruddy com
plexion delicately fair. He had deep-set, light-hazel eyes,
and hair of a reddish chestnut colour, very fine. He
was married in 1772 to Mrs. Martha Skelton, daughter
of John Wales, a distinguished Virginia lawyer. She
brought him a large dowry in lands and slaves, about
equal in value to his own property; but his liberality
and generous living left him insolvent at his death. One
daughter and ten grandchildren survived him. "The
Memoirs, Correspondence, and Private Papers of Thomas
Jefferson," in 4 vols. 8vo, edited by his grandson, Thomas
Jefferson Randolph, was published at Charlottesville in
1829, and republished in London and Boston the same
year, and in New York in 1830. In 1848 his manuscripts
were purchased by Congress, and published under the
title of " The Writings of Thomas Jefferson," in 9 vols,
8vo, 1853-55. U's "Manual of Parliamentary Practice"
is still in use among legislative bodies in this country.
See, in addition to the works already mentioned, HENRY S. RAN
DALL, "Life of T. Jefferson," 3 vols., 1858; GEOKGE TUCKER, "Life
of Thomas Jefferson," 1836; B. L. RAYNER, " Life of Thomas Jef
ferson," 1834; THEODORE DWIGHT, "Character of T. Jefferson,"
1839; W. LINN, " Life of T. Jefferson," 1835; NICHOLAS KIDDLE,
"Eulogy on T. Jefferson," 1827; GRISWOLD, "Prose Writers of
America;" DOYCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature,"
vol. i. ; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1830, and October, 1837;
"North American Review" for April, 1830, and January, 1835;
"Westminster Review" for October, 1830; and an excellent article
on Jefferson in the "New American Cyclopedia," (by JOHN E.
COOKE.)
Jeffery or Jeffrey, (JoHN,) an English divine, born
at Ipswich in 1647. He was chosen rector of Kir ton
and Falkenham, in Suffolk, in 1687, and was appointed
Archdeacon of Norwich in 1694. He published the
religious works of Sir Thomas Browne. Dr. Jeffrey was
strongly opposed to religious controversy. Died in 1720.
See " Life of Jeffery," prefixed to his " Sermons."
Jeffery or Jeffrey, (THOMAS,) an English dissent
ing minister, born at Exeter about the year 1700. He
was the author of several religious works, in which he
displayed great ability. Of these we may mention "The
True Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion,"
and "The Divinity of Christ proved from Holy Scrip
ture." Died about 1728.
Jeffrey, (FRANCIS,) LORD, a distinguished Scottish
critic and essayist, born in Edinburgh on the 23d of Oc
tober, 1773. He was sent to the University of Glasgow
in 1787, and removed in 1791 to Queen's College, Ox
ford, where he remained but a few months. In 1794 he
was admitted an advocate to the Scottish bar, but for
several years obtained scarcely any practice. About
this time he became a member of the Speculative Soci
ety of Edinburgh, where he formed the acquaintance of
several young men afterwards eminent in the literary
and political world. Among these were Sydney Smith
and Henry (afterwards Lord) Brougham, with whom he
projected the "Edinburgh Review," the first number
of which was issued in October, 1802. Three numbers
were edited by Smith ; but upon his removal to London
the entire charge devolved upon Jeffrey, who held the
position of editor for the ensuing twenty-six years. It
was successful from the first, and in a short time the
circulation had increased to about nine thousand, and
in 1813 it considerably exceeded twelve thousand. As
Jeffrey himself expressed it, "it stood on two legs, the
one being the criticism of current literature, the othei
being Whig politics." The commencement of the "Ed
inburgh Review" formed a new era in English literature,
and completely changed the style of the popular maga
zines. Jeffrey was the principal contributor; and his
articles in both politics and criticism attracted great atten
tion. Scott, Byron, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Moore, and
other distinguished poets of that period were severely —
sometimes unjustly — criticised ; but most of them after
wards became warm friends of the great reviewer. About
1802 he married his second-cousin, Catherine Wilson, •
who died in 1805. In 1813 he married an American lady
in New York, named Charlotte Wilkes. Though Jeffrey
devoted so much of his time to editorial labours, his
practice as a lawyer greatly increased. In rapidity, flu
ency, and eloquence he had no equal at the Scottish bar.
Once, while conducting the prosecution of a libel-suit
at Glasgow, he poured forth such a torrent of words that
the opposing counsel declared " that, by calculation with
his watch, that man had actually spoken the English
language twice over in three hours." In 1820 he was
elected lord rector of the University of Glasgow. Nine
years later he became dean of the faculty of advocates,
and thereupon resigned the editorial chair of the
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; me"t; not; good; moon;
JEFF RETS
1271 JELAL-ED-DEEN-ROOMEE
"Edinburgh Review." In 1830 he was elected to the
first Parliament of William IV. He continued in Par
liament four years, and held the office of lord advocate
of Scotland under the administration of Grey. He re
ceived the appointment to a Scottish juclgeship in 1834,
with the honorary title of Lord. As a judge he was
highly esteemed for his conscientiousness and his busi
ness qualifications. Lord Jeffrey's contributions to the
" Edinburgh Review" extend over a period of nearly
fifty years, and amount to over three hundred articles.
The greater part of these were published, in 4 vols., in
1843. Died in January, 1850.
See LORD COCKBURN, " Life of Lord Jeffrey," 2 vols., 1852 :
ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;" "London Quarterly Review"
for July, 1852 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for September and October,
1852 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1852 ; " North British Review"
for May, 1850, and August, 1852. For an able, though somewhat
severe, review of Jeffrey's character as a critic, see article entitled
" British Critics," published in the second volume of WHIPPLE'S
"Essays and Reviews," New York, 1849: (it first appeared in the
" North American Review" for October, 1845.)
Jeffreys, (Lord GEORGE,) Baron Wem, the infamous
minion of James II., was born at Acton, in Denbighshire,
and studied law at the Middle Temple. At first he pro
fessed to be a Roundhead, and was chosen recorder of
London, and city judge. During his practice at the Old
Bailey bar he had acquired a boundless command of the
language in which the depraved express hatred and con
tempt ; and on the bench he hesitated not to pour forth
torrents of oaths, curses, and vituperative epithets on
attorneys, jurymen, witnesses, and prisoners. Age and
merit were treated in the same manner ; for when Baxter
was brought before him, on a charge of nonconformity,
he railed in such a manner at that eminent divine and
his counsel that it was impossible to obtain a fair trial.
His voice and manners were always disagreeable ; but
these, which he considered natural advantages, he had
improved to such a degree that in his paroxysms of rage
few could hear him unmoved. His eye had a terrible
fascination for the prisoner on whom it was fixed. He
appeared to delight in misery merely for its own sake.
Such was the man who became the court favourite of
James and chief justice of England. Jeffreys, perceiving
that he had obtained all that could be expected from
his old friends, sought the favour of the court. He
received great attention from the Duke of York ; but
the king regarded him with contempt and disgust. Not
withstanding these views, however, Jeffreys was soon
made chief justice of the king's bench. Upon James's
accession to the throne he was raised to the peerage,
with the title of Baron Wem, and was subsequently
made lord high chancellor of England. He gained great
notoriety during the trials of those who had participated
in the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth. Pen can
scarcely portray the atrocities committed under his juris
diction. He delighted in torturing, burning, hanging,
and beheading men, women, and children, after the
merest shams of trials. All these actions appeared to
give great satisfaction to his sovereign. Yet his decisions
are said to have been generally just and impartial where
political purposes were not to be subserved. When the
Prince of Orange came to England, the lord chancellor
attempted to escape to the continent ; but as he was
in a beer-house at Wapping, dressed as a sailor, he
was discovered by an attorney whom he had formerly
abused. This person gave the information to the popu
lace, who immediately seized Jeffreys and carried him
before the mayor, from whence he was sent to the
Lords. By them he was committed to the Tower, where
he died in 1689, from the effects of his intemperance and
misfortunes.
See WOOLRVCH, "Memoirs of the Life of G. Jeffreys," 1827;
LORD CAMPBELL, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors," 1856; MAC-
AULAY, " History of England," vols. i. and ii. , *
Jeffreys, (GEORGE,) an English poet, born in North
amptonshire in 1678. He studied at Cambridge, and
was admitted to the bar, but never practised. Among
his productions were several tragedies, and an oratorio,
entitled "The Triumph of Truth." Died in 1755.
See BAKER, " Biographia Dramatica."
Jeffries, jef'frez, (Jon.v.) M.D., an American physi
cian, born in Boston in 1744. He graduated at Harvard
in 1763, and took his medical degree at Edinburgh. In
the Revolution he sided with the British, and became
surgeon-major to the royal army in America. In 1780
he resumed his profession in London. While making
some investigations in atmospheric temperature, in 1785,
he crossed from England to France in a balloon. This
was the first successful experiment in aeronautics on
an extensive scale. He returned to Boston in 1789,
and died in 1819.
Jehan-Geer or Jahangir, je-han'geer', written also
Djahanguir, Djehanguire, Djah.au Gbyr, and
Dschehangir, (i.e. the "Conqueror of the World,")
one of the Mogul emperors of Hindostan, succeeded his
father, the great Akbar, in 1605. Jehangeer left Memoirs
of his own life. He died in 1627. He inherited nothing
of the ability of his father. It was during the reign of
this emperor that the celebrated embassy of Sir Thomas
Roe arrived from England at the court of Delhi.
See COLLIN DE BAR, "Histoire de 1'Inde;" "London Quarterly
Review" tor March, 1834.
Je-ho'a-haz- [HelxinKtiT; Fr. JOACHAZ, zho't'kiz',]
son of Jehu, ascended the throne of Israel 856 B.C., and
reigned seventeen years.
See II. Kings xiii. i-io.
Jehoahaz, also called Shallum, succeeded his father
Josiah on the throne of Judah, and reigned three months.
Died about 610 B.C.
See II. Chronicles xxxvi. 1-4.
Jehoash. See JOASH.
Je-hoi'a-kim, [~Heb. D'p'lTT ; Fr. JOACHIM, zho'S'-
ki\', ] whose name was changed by Pharaoh-Necho
from Eliakim, succeeded to the throne of Judah 608 B.C.,
and reigned eleven years.
See II. Chronicles xxxvi. 4-9.
Je-hoi'a-kin or Jec-o-m'ah was the son of the pre
ceding, whom he succeeded as King of Judah in 597 B.C.,
and reigned three months.
See II. Kings xxiv. ; II. Chronicles xxxvi. 8-10.
Je-ho'ram or Jo'ram, [Heb. D11JT,] King of Israel,
son of Ahab, succeeded to the throne 896 B.C. He was
killed in battle by Jehu in 884 B.C.
See II. Kings i.-x.
Jehoram or Joram, son of Jehoshaphat, ascended
the throne of Judah 893 or 892 B.C. Died in 885 or 884.
See II. Kings viii. 15-25; II. Chronicles xxi.
Je-hosh'a-phat, [Heb. D3BN7T; Gr. 'luaapar; Fr.
JOSAPHAT, zho'zt'tit',] King of Judah, a son of Asa, was
born about 950 B.C. He began to reign in 914, formed
an alliance with Ahab, King of Israel, and reigned
twenty-five years. He had a high reputation for piety
and justice.
See II. Chronicles xvii.-xxii.
Je'hu, [Heb. N1!T,] King of Israel, was an officer in
the army of King Jehoram, when he was anointed king
by a young prophet sent by Elisha in 884 B.C. He killed
Jehoram, and reigned about twenty-eight years.
See II. Kings ix. and x.
Jek'yll, (Sir JOSEPH,) a distinguished lawyer and
statesman, born ir. .Nottinghamshire in 1664. He was
a prominent member of the Whig party during the reign
of Queen Anne, and was knighted upon the accession
of George I. He was afterwards master of the rolls, and
privy councillor. Died in 1738.
Jekyll, (JOSEPH,) M.P., a witty English barrister,
born about 1752, was distinguished by his talent for
epigram and repartee. He became solicitor-general to
the Prince of Wales in 1805. Died in 1837.
Jelal-ed-Deen or Djelal-Eddin, jeh-ltl' ed-deen',
(i.e. the "Splendour (or Glorv) of Religion,") written also
Jalal-ed-Deen and Djalal-Eddin, KingofKhorasmia,
who succeeded his father, Ala-ed-Deen, in 1318, was re
nowned fof his military ability and enterprise. He fought
numerous battles against Jengis Khan with various suc
cess. It is said that he afterwards abandoned himself to
indolence and pleasure, and when a Mongol army in
vaded his capital he fled, and was killed, in 1231.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Jelal-ed-Deen-Roomee, (Jelal-ed-Din-Rumi or
Djelal-ed-dyn-Roumy,) jeh-lSl'ed-deen-roo'mee, one
of the most eminent Persian poets, born at Biilkh or
Balkh, in Khorassan, about 1200. His father was a
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
JELLACHICH
1272
JENNENS
noted doctor and preacher of the Soofee sect, who set
tled at Iconium, (Konieh,) in Asia Minor, (called in Arabic
and Persian Room, because it was part of the empire
of Rome.) At his death, in 1233, Jelal-ed-Deen became
the chief of the Soofees. His "Mes'newee" ("Mesnewi")
or "Mesnevee," (i.e. poem with rhyming couplets,) less
correctly written " Metsnewee" or " Metsnevi," is re
garded as an excellent model of the mystical style.
" This precious pearl of the ocean of mysticism departed
from this fragile world" in 1272.
Jellachich von Buzini, von, fon yel'la-Kiic' fon
boot'sim, (FRANZ,) BARON, an Austrian general, born in
1746, fought with distinction in the principal campaigns
of the French Revolution, and rose to be lieutenant-
field-marshal in 1800. Died in 1810.
Jellachich von Buzini, von, (JOSEPH,) Ban of Cro
atia, son of the preceding, was born at Peterwardein in
1801. In the revolution of 1848 he was appointed Ban,
or commander-in-chief, of the Croats, and had the prin
cipal share in the victory of Schwechat, near Vienna,
over the Hungarians. He gained several advantages
over General Bern, but was at length defeated, (1849,) and
forced to retreat with considerable loss. Died in 1859.
See BAI.LEYDIER, " Histoire de la Guerre de Hongrie."
Jellinek, yel'le-nek', (ADOLPH,) a German philologist,
of Jewish extraction, born in Moravia in 1820, has written
on the Cabala and on Oriental philology.
See JOST, "Adolphe Jellinek et la Kabbale," 1852.
Jem or Djem, jSm, sometimes called Zizini, a Turkish
prince, born in 1459, was a son of Mahomet II., and
younger brother of Bayazeed, (Bajazet.) At the death of
his father he aspired to sovereign power, but was de
feated in battle by Bayazeed, (1481.) Jem became an exile,
passed some years in France, and died in Italy in 1495.
Jemlah or Djemlah, jem'la, [Hindoo pron. jum'la,]
(Mohammed, mo-ham'med,) called AMKER (or EMIU)
AL OMRA, (i.e. " Prince of the Nobles,") a famous states
man and general, born near Ispahan. In 1652 he entered
the service of Aurung-Zeb, and was raised to the rank of
first vizier of the Mogul empire. Having been appointed
Viceroy of Bengal, he commanded in 1659 an expedition
against Assam, in which he displayed great talents and
prudence. Died in 1665.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Jemsheed or Jemshid, jem-sheed', written also
Djemchyd, Dschemschid, and Jamshid, an ancient
Persian king, supposed to have ascended the throne
about 800 K.C. He greatly improved and embellished
the city of Istakhar, or Persepolis, the ruins of which are
now known by the name of Chilminar, (" Forty Pillars.")
Tradition ascribes to him the introduction of the solar
year among the Persians, and the invention of tents. He
was dethroned by Zohak, an Arabian.
See ATKINSON, "Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Firdausi;"
D'HHKBELOT, " Bibliotheque Orientale."
Jemshid or Jemschid. See JEMSHEED.
Jen§is Khan, jen'gis Kin, (written also Djenguiz
Khan, Dschengis Chan, Tchenguyz Khan, Chingis
Khan, and in various other modes,*) a celebrated Tartar
conqueror, born in 1 164, was the son of a Mongolian chief.
Having subdued a number of Mongol and Tartar tribes,
he caused himself to be proclaimed khan of the nation,
and about 1210 invaded China, took Peking, (1215,) and
in a few years gained possession of the northern prov
inces. In 1218 he marched against Mohammed Koteb-
ed-Deen, King of Khorasmia, whom he defeated, and
afterwards destroyed Bokhara, Samarcand, and other
cities. Having subjected the whole of Persia, he gained
a victory over the King of Tangoot, and was proceeding
towards the south of China, when he died in 1227, leaving
the principal part of his empire to his son Okui. Jengis
Khan is said to have caused the destruction of five mil
lions of human beings. He gave a code of laws, which
is still called by his name.
See DE GUIGNES, "Histoire gthieVale des Huns," etc. ; PETIS
DE LA CROIX, " Histoire du grand Gengliizcan ;" A. REMUSAT,
^Nouvelles Melanges Asiatiques ;" VON HAMMER-PURGSTAI.L,
' Gesclnclite der Goldenen Horde in Kiptschak," 1840; ANTOINE
GAUBIL, " Histoire de Gentchiscan," 1739; ABOOI.FEDA, "Annales
Moslemici ;" KARAMZIN, " Histoire de Russie."
* This name is written in more than twenty different modes, not
counting such forms (like Gentchiscan) as are manifest errors.
Jenichen or lenichen, ya'ne-Ken, (GOTTLOB AU
GUST,) a German jurist and bibliographer, born at Leipsic
in 1709; died in 1750.
Jenisch, von, fon ya'nish, (BERNHARD,) BARON, a
German Orientalist, born at Vienna in 1743, became
in 1772 keeper of the Imperial Library. He pub
lished "Persian Anthology," ("Anthologia Persica,"
1778,) and a "History of the Early Kings of Persia
after the Establishment of the Mohammedan Religion,"
("Historia priorum Regum Persarum post firmatum in
Regno Islamismum ex Mohamede Mirkhond," 1792.)
Died in 1807.
Jenischius, ya-nis'Ke-us, (PAUL,) a Dutch or Flemish
writer, born at Antwerp in 1558. He published "Thea-
trum Animarum." Died in 1647.
Jgnk'in, (ROBERT,) an English divine, born in the
isle of Thanet in 1656. He was educated at Cambridge,
and received several preferments ; but, refusing to take
the oaths of allegiance to William and Mary, he was
deprived of them all. He wrote "The Reasonableness
of the Christian Religion," (1696,) and several other
works. Died in 1727.
Jenkin or Jenk'yn, (WILLIAM,) an English Puritan
minister, born at Suclbury in 1612. He preached many
years in London, and published an " Exposition of the
Epistle of Jude," (1652,) which is called an excellent
work. His ministry was highly commended by Baxter.
He died in Newgate prison in 1685.
See J. SHERMAN, " Memoir of William Jenkin," 1839.
Jenk'ins, (ALHERT G.,) an American general, born
in Cabell county, Virginia, about 1830. He represented
a district of Virginia in Congress, 1857-61. He served
under General Lee at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, and
was killed at the battle of the Wilderness, May 5, 1864.
Jenk'ins, (DAVID,) a Welsh judge, was born in Gla
morganshire in 1586. After the commencement of the
civil war he condemned to death several persons who
had fought against the king. He was taken prisoner by
the Parliamentary forces, and confined in the Tower, in
1645. Having been brought before the House of Com
mons on a charge of high treason, he refused to kneel,
and called the House "a den of thieves." He was fined
;£iooo, and imprisoned in Newgate. He was released
about 1660. He wrote several legal works. Died in 1667.
See WOOD, "Athena; Oxonienses."
Jenk'ins, (HENRY,) an Englishman, celebrated for
his longevity, born in Yorkshire in 1501 ; died in 1670.
Jenkins, (JoiiN,) an English musician and composer,
born at Mfldstone in 1592; died in 1678.
Jenkins, (JOHN S.,) an American biographer of the
present century. He published, besides other works,
" Lives of the Governors of the State of New York," a
" Life of Silas Wright," and a " Life of Andrew Jack
son," (1847.)
Jenkins, (Sir LEOLINE,) a British civilian and states
man, born in Glamorganshire in 1623. He fought on the
king's side in the civil war, and on the death of Charles
became tutor to several families in Wales. He was sub
sequently obliged by Parliament to leave the country.
After the restoration he was chosen principal of Jesus
College, Cambridge. In 1665 he was appointed judge
in the court of admiralty, and in 1672 ambassador to
Holland. On his return he became secretary of state.
He was twice chosen member of Parliament for the
University of Oxford. His letters and manuscripts, con
taining valuable diplomatic information, were published,
in 2 vols., in 1724. Died in 1685.
See WYNNE, " Life of Sir L. Jenkins," 1724 ; " Biographia Bri-
tannica. "
Jenk'in-son, (ANTHONY,) an Englishman, travelled
in Russia and Persia about 1560. His Adventures were
published by Hakluyt and Purchas.
Jenkiiisbn, (CHARLES.) See LIVERPOOL, EARL OF.
Jenkinson, (ROHERT.) See LIVERPOOL, EARL OF.
Jenks, (BENJAMIN,) an English religious writer, born
in 1646, was curate of Kenley and Harley. He wrote
" Prayers and Offices of Devotion," (1697,) and " Medi
tations on Important Subjects," (1701.) Died in 1724.
Jen'nens, (CHARLES,) a rich and vain Englishman,
called " Solyman the Magnificent." He composed or
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a., e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon;
JENNER
1273
JEROME
selected the words of some of Handel's oratorios, and
edited several plays of Shakspeare. Died in 1773.
Jen'ner, (EDWARD,) M.D., celebrated for having in
troduced the practice of vaccination, was born at Berke
ley, in Gloucestershire, England, in 1749. He studied
surgery at Sodbury, "and afterwards went to London,
where he attended the lectures of the celebrated John
Hunter, with whom he formed an intimate friendship.
He commenced practice at Berkeley, and obtained "a.
high reputation for skill. His attention was first called
to the subject of vaccination by hearing a countrywoman
remark that she could not take the smallpox, because she
had had the cow-pox. Upon investigating the subject,
he ascertained that milkers frequently caught a disease
from an eruption on the cow's udder, and that to such per
sons it was impossible to communicate the smallpox by
inoculation. Jenner related the circumstance to several
eminent men in the profession ; but they treated it with
ridicule. By further experiments he clearly demonstrated
the fact that from one of the several eruptions to which
cows were subject, the true cow-pox, as he termed it,
could be propagated to the human body, and then from
one person to another, and that this was a preventive of
the smallpox. After nearly twenty years of experiments,
he published " An Enquiry into the Causes and Effects
of the Variolae Vaccinse," (1798;) and soon after more
than seventy physicians and surgeons signed a declara
tion of their entire confidence in the truth of Jenner's
theory. He was rewarded by Parliament for his dis
covery by a present of ,£10,000 in 1802, and a grant of
^20,000 in 1807. He also received marks of distinction
from the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia.
Died in 1823.
See DR. JOHN BARON, "Life of Dr. Jenner," 1827; DR. VALEN
TIN, " Notice historique surle Docleur Jenner," Nancy, 1824 ; WAN-
LOP, "Hulde aan E. Jenner," Rotterdam, 1812; J. A. DUPAU,
"Notice historique sur le Dr. E. Jenner," 1824; "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale;" "Encyclopaedia Britannica."
Jenner, (WILLIAM,) F.R.S., an English physician,
born at Chatham in 1815, graduated in London in 1844.
He became professor of anatomy in University College
in 1848, and professor of clinical medicine there in 1857.
He was appointed physician-in-ordinary to the queen in
1862, and physician-in-ordinary to the Prince of Wales
in 1863.
Jeii'nings, (DAVID,) a learned dissenting minister,
born in Leicestershire, England, in 1691. He was ap
pointed to an Independent church in Wapping, where
he preached about forty years. He wrote " An Appeal
to Reason and Common Sense for the Truth of the
Holy Scriptures," " An Introduction to the Knowledge
of Medals," (1763,) and a "Treatise on Jewish Antiqui
ties," (1766, often reprinted.) Died in 1762.
Jennings, (HENRY CONSTANTINE,) an English an
tiquary and virtuoso, born at Shiplake, Oxfordshire, in
1731. He had a passion for the collection of medals,
antiquities, and works of art, by the purchase of which
he ruined his fortune. Died in 1819.
Jennings, (SARAH.) See MARLBOROUGH, DUCHESS
OF.
Jen'our, (ALFRED,) an English divine and scholar,
was rector of Kittisford, in Somersetshire. He pub
lished in 1830 a "Translation of Isaiah, with Notes,'
(2 vols.)
Jensoii, (NICHOLAS.) See JANSON.
Jen'yns, (SoAME,) a distinguished writer and politi
cian, born in London in 1704, was educated at Cam
bridge. At the age of twenty he married a young lady
of a large fortune, from whom he soon after separated
He was several times elected to Parliament, and in 1755
was made a lord of trade. In politics he was a Tory
His writings are conspicuous for elegance of style, wit
and discrimination. Among them we may mention "A
Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil," (1757,
"Viesv of the Internal Evidence of the Christian Reli
gion," (1776,) a work which attracted great attention
and several poetical productions. Died in 1787.
See C NELSON COLE, "Life of Soame Jenyns," 1790; JoHNSpr.
and CHALMERS, "Lives of the English Poets;" " Retrospectiv
Review," vol. ii., 1820.
Jeph'son, (ROBERT,) a dramatic writer, and captain ii
the English army, was born in Ireland in 1736. He wrote
'esides other works, the tragedies of " Braganza," (1775,)
and "The Count of Narbonne," which were successful,
ind a poem entitled "Roman Portraits," (1797.) He
,vas master of the horse under twelve successive viceroys
if Ireland. Died in 1803.
Jeph'thah, [Heb. nr\£T,] a judge of Israel, about
200 B.C.
See Judges xi. and xii.
Jer'dan, (WILLIAM,) a writer and critic, born at
Celso, in* Scotland, in 1782. He formed a connection
about 1805 with a newspaper in London called the
"Aurora," and in 1817 established the "Literary Ga
zette," which he edited in an able manner until 1850.
At this time he was granted a pension by government
of one hundred guineas per annum. He published an
nteresting work, entitled "Men I have known," (1866.)
Died in 1869.
See his "Autobiography," 4 vols., 18.52-53.
Jereer, Jerir, or Djerir, jeh-reeu', [in German,
DSCHERIR,] or, more fully, Jereer-Ibii-Ateeyah-At-
;emeemee, (Attemimi,) Ib'n a'tee'yah at-te-mee'mee,
surnamed ABOO- (ABC-) HAZRAH, (a'boo haz'ra,) a
celebrated Arabian poet, who lived at Bassora, (Basra,)
whence he was called EL-BASREE, (or -BASRY.) He
excelled in almost every kind of poetry, in panegyric,
and in amatory pieces, but was most distinguished for
lis wit and satiric powers. He died about 730 (or,
according to some authorities, about 700) A.D.
See article "Djerir" in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Jgr-e-mi'ah, [Heb. 5TDT or 1TVOT ; Lat. JEREMI'AS ;
Fr. JEREMIE,' zha'ra'me'; Ger. JEREMIAS, ya-ra-mee'as ;
It. GEREMIA, ja-ra-mee'a,] a prophet of Judah, who
lived about 600 B.C., was one of the four great prophets
of the Bible. He was the author of the greater part of
the book in the Old Testament which bears his name,
and of all the book of Lamentations. He is called
JEREMY in the New Testament. (Matthew xxvii. 9.)
Died about 580 B.C.
Jeremiah was Patriarch of Constantinople in 1572.
The Lutherans sent him a copy of the Confession of
Augsburg, hoping to obtain his approval of it; but, on
the contrary, he condemned it in many of his writings.
Jeremie. See JEREMIAH.
Jeremie, jer'e-me, (Sir JOHN,) an eloquent lawyer,
born in Guernsey in 1795, at the age of twenty was
admitted to the bar. In 1824 he was appointed chief
justice of Saint Lucia, in the West Indies. When he first
went to that island he was opposed to the abolitionists ;
but, improving the opportunities which he possessed
of investigating the subject of slavery, he formed very
different views. During the time that he held office in
Saint Lucia he ably enforced the laws for the ameliora
tion of the condition of the slaves. On his return to
England, in 1831, he published "Four Essays on Colonial
Slavery." In 1836 he became justice of the supreme
court of Ceylon, and four years later Governor and Cap
tain-General of Sierra Leone, where he died in 1841.
He was the author of a " Letter on Negro Emancipation
and African Civilization."
Jerir. See JEREER.
Jermolov, (ALEXIS PETROVITCH.) See YERMOLOF.
Jerningham, jer'ning-am, (EDWARD,) an English poet,
born in 1727. Of his productions we may cite "The
Rise and Fall of Scandinavian Poetry," "Essay on the
Mild Tenour of Christianity," and "The Shakspeare
Gallery," which was praised by Edmund Burke. Died
in 1812.
Jer-o-bo'am [Heb. D>'3T] I., first King of Israel,
was elected king by the ten tribes who had revolted
from Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, 975 B.C. Died
about 954 B.C.
See I. Kings xi. to xv. ; II. Chronicles ix. to xiv.
Jeroboam II., a son of Joash, became King of Israel
in 834 or 825 B.C., and reigned forty-one years.
See II. Kings xii.
Jerome, ie-rom' or jeVom, [Lat. HIERON'YMUS; Fr.
JEKOME, zha'rom'; Ger. HIEROM, hee'rom ; It. GIRO-
LAMO, je-rol'a-mo ; Sp. GERONIMO, Ha-ron'e-mo,] SAINT,
or, more fully, Eu-se'bi-us Hi-er-ou'y-mus So-phro'-
nl-us, one of the most learned of the Latin Fathers of
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (£|f=See Explanations, p. 23.)
JEROME
1274
JESSENIUS
the Church, was born at Stridon, in Dalmatia or in Pan-
nonia, about 340 A.D. After receiving his education at
Rome, he visited Gaul, where he collected a valuable
library. He next travelled through Thrace, Pontus, and
Cappadocia, and finally fixed his residence in Syria. He
subsequently went to Jerusalem to study Hebrew. About
382 he returned to Rome, and became secretary to Pope
Damasus. Upon the death of that pontiff he removed
to a monastery at Bethlehem, where he died in 420 A.D.
A large portion of his writings were of a controversial
character, exhibiting great learning, eloquence, and in
genuity, though too often betraying bigotry, passion, and
bitterness. But the works by which he will ever be
remembered and honoured are a treatise on the " Lives
and Writings of the Elder Christian Fathers," " Com
mentaries on the Prophetical Books of the Old Testa
ment, the Gospel of Saint Matthew, and several of the
Epistles of Saint Paul," and a translation of the Old and
New Testaments into Latin, known in the Romish
Church as the " Vulgate."
See EKASMUS, "Vita Doctoris Hieronymi," RSle, 1519 ; SCHUOKH,
"Kirchengeschichte," vol. xi. ; MARTIANAY, "Vie de Saint-Jerome,"
1706: F. Z. COI.I.OMBET, " Histoire de Saint-Jerome," 1844; JOSE
DE SIGUENZA, " Vida de San Geronimo," Madrid, 1595 ; SEBASTIANO
DOI.CI," Maximus Hieronymus Vitaesuaa Scriptor,"etc.. 1758; VILI.E-
MAIN, "Tableau de 1'Eloquence chretienne au quatrieine Siecle,"
1857; VINCENZO ROM AMI, " Compendio storico della Vita e degli
Scntti di S. Girolamo," 2 vols., 1844; ERSCH und GRUBER, "Allge-
mei'ne Encyklopaedie."
Jerome OF SANTA F6, (san'ta fa,) a learned Spanish
Jew, who lived about 1420. His Hebrew name was
JOSHUA LAKCHI. After making a careful examination
of the prophecies in regard to the Messiah, he was con
vinced of the truth of Christianity. He wrote a treatise
on the errors of the Jewish faith, and another against
the Talmud.
Jeidme de Cardie. See HIERONYMUS.
Jerome of Prague, [Lat. HIERON'YMUS PRAGEN'SIS.J
one of the most distinguished followers of John Huss,
was born in the city from which he took his surname. He
studied at the Universities of Paris, Heidelberg, and Co
logne, each of which conferred upon him the diploma of
D.I). About 1400 he became acquainted with John Huss,
whose doctrines he soon after began to preach with great
effect in Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland. In 1415, when
Huss was arrested, Jerome prepared to go to Constance
to defend him. Being informed, however, of the great
hostility felt there towards reputed heretics, he retired
to Eberlingen, and afterwards attempted to return to
Bohemia, but was arrested, and placed in the custody
of the Prince of Salzburg, who sent him in chains to
Constance, where he was thrown into prison and treated
with great cruelty. On a third examination before the
council, he signed a recantation of the doctrines of Hnss
in regard to transubstantiation ; but a few months after he
bitterly repented of this, and declared that fear of a cruel
death alone induced him to do it. He was thereupon
condemned as a heretic, and sentenced to be burnt on
the 3Oth of May, 1416. He suffered with the greatest
firmness, serenity, and Christian heroism, and his death
excited the highest admiration even in his enemies.
See " J. Hussi et Hieronymi Pragensis Historiaet Monumenta;"
CoCHi.jKus, "Historia Hussitarum."
Jgr'ram, (CHARLES,) an English theologian, born in
1770, was vicar of Chobham, Surrey. He published,
besides other works, " Conversations on Infant Baptism,"
(2d edition, 1826.) Died about 1853.
See " Memoirs of C. Jerram," by his son, 1855.
JeVrold, (DOUGLAS WILLIAM,) celebrated as a hu
mourist, a journalist, and a dramatical and satirical
writer, was born in London in 1803. He was the son
of the manager of Sheerness Theatre, where he imbibed
his taste for dramatic literature. He was apprenticed
to a printer in London, in which situation he diligently
improved his leisure hours in the study of literature and
the languages. Shakspeare was his favourite book. His
first production was an essay on the opera of " Der Frei-
schiitz," which he enclosed anonymously to the editor
by whom he was then employed. The article was highly
commended, and Jerrold had the satisfaction of placing
it in type. Thus encouraged, he wrote " Black-Eyed
Susan," (about 1824,) one of the most popular dramas
ever acted on the English stage. This was followed by
several other plays of great merit. He afterwards be
came a contributor to "Punch," the popularity of which
was rapidly increased by his satirical and witty produc
tions. He also edited successively " The Heads of the
People," "The Illuminated Magazine," "The Shilling
Magazine." and " Lloyd's Weekly.*' All of these were
very successful, and the last had an immense circulation.
Many of his writings have been issued in volume form,
among which we may mention " Mrs. Caudle's Curtain
Lectures," (new edition, 1846,) "Chronicles of Clover-
nook," (1846,) "Saint Giles and Saint James," (1851,)
"Prisoner of War," "Time Works Womleis," (1854,)
and the "Bubbles of the Day." Died in 1857.
See "The Wit and Opinions of Douglas Jerrold," edited by his
son, W B. JBKROI.D, 1858; "Life and Letters of D. Jerrold," by
W. B. JKRROLD, iS5g; "New Spirit of the ASe," by R. H. HORNE,
London, 1844; "North British Review" for May, iS.qg.
Jerrold, (WILLIAM BLANCHARD.) a son of the pre
ceding, was born in London in 1826. He published,
besides other works, "A Brage-Beaker with the Swedes,
or Notes from the North," (1853,) ancl "Life of Douglas
Jerrold," (1859.) He succeeded his father as editor of
"Lloyd's Weekly News."
Jerusalem, yi-roo'za-le'm', (JOHANN FRIEDRICII
WILHKLM,) a celebrated Protestant divine and pulpit
orator, born at Osnabriick, in Germany, in 1709. He
was appointed in 1740 court preacher to Duke Charles
of Brunswick, and soon after became tutor to his son,
Prince Charles William. Through his influence the
Caroline College was established at Brunswick. In 1771
he was created vice-president of the consistory at Wol-
fenbuttel. He published, besides sermons, " Contem
plations on the Principal Truths of Religion," (5 vols.,
1768-79.) Died in 1789. The suicide of his son, Karl
Wilhelm, suggested to Goethe the story of" Werther."
See JERUSALEM, " Entwurf einer Selbstbiographie;" " Lebens-
geschichte des seeligen Jerusalem," 1790.
Jer'vas, (CHARLES,) a portrait-painter, and native of
Ireland, born about 1675. His chief excellence lay in
copying. He gave lessons to Pope the poet, who highly
praises him in the "Epistle to Jervas." Died in 1739.
See WALPOLE, "Anecdotes of Painting."
Jer'vis, (JOHN,) Earl of Saint Vincent, and admiral of
the British fleet, born at Meaford, in Staffordshire, in
1734. He entered the navy when ten years old, and in
1760 became a post-captain. In 1778 he commanded an
eighty-gun ship in Keppel's action against the French,
and in 1782 captured the Pegase, of seventy-four guns.
He sat in Parliament several years for various boroughs,
until the commencement of the French Revolution, when
he sailed at the head of a squadron to the West Indies,
with the rank of rear-admiral. He captured Martinique,
Guadeloupe, and Saint Lucia. In 1795 he was made
admiral of the blue, and commander of the naval force in
the Mediterranean. He encountered the Spanish fleet
off Cape Saint Vincent in February, 1797, and, though
their force was double his own, he gained a complete
victory. For this exploit he received the thanks of both
Houses of Parliament, and a pension of ^"3000, and was
raised to the peerage, with the titles of Earl of Saint Vin
cent and Baron Jervis of Meaford. He was appointed
first lord of the admiralty in i8oi,and retired from that
office in 1804. He became admiral of the fleet in 1821.
Died in 1823.
See E. P. BRENTON, " Life of Earl Saint Vincent," 2 vols., 1838.
Jesabel, the French of JEZEBEL, which see.
Jesi, ya'see, (SAMUELE,) an Italian engraver, born at
Milan about 1789, executed a number of excellent plates,
after Raphael. Died in 1853.
Jesid. See YEZEED.
Jes'se, (EDWARD,) an English naturalist and writer,
published, besides other works, "Gleanings in Natural
History," (3 vols., 1832-35,) and ".Scenes and Tales of
Country Life," (1844.) Died in 1868.
Jesse, (foHN H ENRAGE,) an English poet and his
torical writer of the present age. Among his works are
" Memoirs of the Court of England during the Reign of
the Stuarts," (4 vols., 1839-40,) and "Memoirs of the
Pretenders and their Adherents," (2 vols., 1845.)
Jesseiiius, y§s-sa'ne-us, (JOHANN,) a physician, born
in Hungary in 1566, was employed by the Emperor of
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, xi, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
JESSET
1275
JOAN
Germany. In 1621 he was condemned and executed for
having attempted to incite his countrymen to revolt
against the house of Austria.
Jes'sey, (HENRY,) a learned English divine, born in
Yorkshire about 1600. He was ordained after the Epis
copal forms, and obtained a living. He subsequently
became minister of a Baptist congregation. He com
menced a new translation of the Bible, but, from the
persecutions which he suffered for his religious belief,
was unable to finish it. He died in prison in 1663.
Jes'sup, (THOMAS S.,) an American general, born in
1790 ; died in 1860.
Je'sus or Jesh'u-a, son of Sirach, a learned Jew, and
the author of the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus. He
was a native of Jerusalem, and is supposed to have lived
about 200 B.C.
Je'ter, (JEREMIAH B.,) D.D., an American Baptist
divine and author, born in Bedford county, Virginia, in
1802, became pastor in Richmond. He published several
works.
Jeuffroy, zhuh'fRwa', (R. V.,) a distinguished French
engraver of gems and medals, born at Rouen in 1749.
He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1826.
Jeune, le, leh zhun, (JEAN,) a celebrated French
preacher, bom in Franche-Comte in 1592; died in 1672.
His sermons were published in 10 vols.
Jevhery or Djevhery, jeVha-ree, (Ismaeel-Ibn-
Ham'mad,) an Arabian lexicographer, born at Farab.
Afcer travelling through various countries, he settled at
Nishapoor, in Persia, where, in 999, he published one
of the most perfect of Arabian dictionaries, of which
Golius made extensive use in his "Lexicon Arabicum."
Died about 1005.
Jev'pn, (THOMAS,) an English dramatic writer and
actor, who died in 1688, aged about thirty-five.
Jew'ell or Jew'el, (JoHN,) Bishop of Salisbury, one
of the earliest champions of the Episcopal Church, born
at Buden, in Devonshire, in 1522. He studied at Oxford,
and graduated in 1540. Under the reign of Edward VI.
he openly avowed the Protestant faith, and assisted Peter
Martyr in his dispute with the Catholic theologians at
Oxford. After the accession of Mary he fled to Ger
many, (1555,) and at Strasburg again met Martyr, whom
he assisted on some of his works. When Elizabeth
ascended the throne, Jewell returned to England, and
was ordained Bishop of Salisbury in 1559 or 1560. In
this position he continued to labour diligently for the
advancement of the Protestant religion. He died in
1571, greatly esteemed for his eminent piety and vast
theological knowledge. His writings are principally
of a controversial nature, and are still highly valued.
The most important of these is " Apologia Ecclesiae
Anglicanas," ("Apology for the Church of England,"
1562,) written in elegant Latin, and translated into
English by the mother of Lord Bacon. Versions were
also rendered of it into Dutch, French, German, Greek,
Italian, and Spanish ; and it is said to have done more
for the promotion of the Reformation than any other
work. Jewell also wrote a "Defence of the Apology,"
(1567,) in answer to Harding, a Roman Catholic, who
had attacked him.
See L. HUMFREY, " Life of Jewell," 1573: C. W. LE BAS, "Life
of Bishop Jewell," 1835 ; BURNET, " History of the Reformation ;"
" Biographia Britannica."
Jews'bur-y, (GERALDINE ENDSOR,) younger sister
of Mrs. Fletcher, noticed below, was born at Manchester
in 1821. She published a number of novels, among
which may be named " Zoe, or the History of Two
Lives," (1845,) "Marian Withers," (1851,) and "The
Sorrows of Gentility," (1856.)
Jewsbury, (MARIA JANE,) an English authoress,
born in Warwickshire about 1800. Among her principal
works are " Phantasmagoria, or Sketches of Life and
Literature," (1825,) "Lays of Leisure Hours," (1829,)
and "Three Histories." Having been married in 1832
or 1833 to the Rev. William Fletcher, she accompanied
him to India, where she died in 1833. She was an
intimate friend of Wordsworth, who has eulogized her
character and talents. He said he considered her
"unrivalled in one quality, — quickness in the motions
of her mind."
Jez'e-bel, [Heb. ^PX; Fr. JESABEL, zha'zt'bel ',] a
daughter of Ethbaal, King of the Zidonians, and wife of
Ahab, King of Israel. She was notorious for her cruelty
and ill faith. She was killed by being thrown out of a
window by the order of Jehu.
See I. Kings xvi. ; II. Kings ix.
Jezid or Jezed. See YEZEED.
Jezzar or Djezzar Ahmed, jez'zar aH'me"d, a Pasha
of Acre and Sidon, notorious for his cruelty, was born
in Bosnia. After being a slave of AH Bey in Egypt, he
became governor of Cairo. In 1775 he was appointed
Pasha of Acre and Sidon, and about 1784 he received
the Three Tails. In 1799 he was defeated by the French,
and shut himself in Saint-Jean-d'Acre, which, with the
aid of Sir Sidney Smith, he successfully defended against
Bonaparte. Died in 1804.
Jina, jin'a, [a Sanscrit word signifying "victorious,"]
one of the many names applied to Vishnu : also the
name of a celebrated sage, (called also JAINA, jl'na,)
the founder of the sect of Jains or Jainas. As the
Hindoos have no trustworthy history, it seems impos
sible to determine positively the character of the Jains.
They are commonly regarded as a division or offshoot
of the Booddhists ; although in one passage of the
" Bhagavat" Jina is spoken of as the father of Booddha.
Thus much only is certain, that in some of their tenets
and customs the Jains closely resemble the Booddhists.
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon," and an excellent article on the
Jains, by MR. COLKBROOKE, in "Asiatic Researches," vol. ix. p. 288.
Jo'ab, [Heb. 2XV,] chief captain of the armies of
Israel under King David.
See II. Samuel iii., iv., x., xviii., xix., xx. ; I. Kings ii.
Jo'a-ehim, [It. GiOACCHiNo,jo-ak-kee'no,] an Italian
monk, founded the monastery of Flora, in Calabria. He
wrote several heretical works, in which he advanced
the doctrines of tritheism. Died in 1202 or 1207.
Joachim, (GEORGE.) See RH^TICUS.
Joachim, yo'a-Kim, (JoHANN FRIEDRICH,) a German
historian and medallist, born at Halle in 1713. He was
professor of history and law at Halle, and wrote several
works on history and numismatics. Died in 1667.
Joachim Murat. See MURAT.
Joan or Jo-an'iia [Fr. JEANNE, zhfn ; It. Gio-
VANNA, jo-van'na] I., Queen of Naples, a daughter of
Charles, Duke of Calabria, was born in 1327. She was
married to Andrew, Prince of Hungary, and in 1343 suc
ceeded her grandfather, Robert, King of Naples.^In 1345
Andrew was murdered by conspirators, probably with
the connivance of Joan, who soon after married Prince
Louis of Tarentum. To avenge the death of Andrew,
Louis, King of Hungary, invaded Naples and expelled
Joan from the kingdom. Having gained the favour of the
pope by ceding Avignon to him, she was restored to the
throne in 1352. She was married in 1376 to her fourth
husband, Otho of Brunswick, but continued to be child
less. In 1381 Naples was invaded by Charles Durazzo,
who captured Joan and put her to death in 1382.
See " Historical Life of Joanna of Sicily," London, 2 vols., 1824;
GIANNONE, " Storia civile del Regno di Napoli ;" V. MIGNOT, " His-
toiredejeanne I, Reinede Naples," 1764; D. CRIVELLI, " DeKaprima
e delia seconda Giovanna, Regine di Napoli," 1832 ; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generate, " (under "Jeanne ;")" London Quarterly Review"
for December, 1824; "Monthly Review" for December, 1824.
Joan (or Giovanna) II., daughter of the Duke of
Durazzo, succeeded her brother Ladislaus on the throne
of Naples in 1414. She was notorious for her licentious
conduct and the number of her favourites. She died in
1435, leaving the kingdom in a very unsettled state.
See D. CRIVELLI, "Delia prima e della seconda Giovanna, Regine
di Napoli," 1832; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Joan, POPE, supposed by many to have been a fabu
lous character, is placed by several writers in the ninth
century. Having assumed male attire, she went to Rome,
and became so celebrated for her ecclesiastical know
ledge that upon the death of Leo IV. she was unani
mously elected pope. She was, hosvever, one day seized
with the pains of childbirth as she was proceeding to the
Lateran Basilica, and died in the street, after a pontificate
of two years, five months, and four days. She was buried
without honours. Other accounts state that upon the
discovery of the imposture she was stoned to death by the
populace. The Protestants have been accused of fabri-
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
JOAN
1276
JOAO
eating the account ; but it has been satisfactorily proved
that it was in circulation as early as the twelfth century.
See J. LENFANT, " Histoire de la Papesse Jeanne," 1730; S.
BARING-GOULD, "Curious Myths of the Middle Ages," 1867.
Joan, Queen of Castile, daughter of Ferdinand and
Isabella the Catholic, was married in 1496 to Philip,
Archduke of Austria. In 1500 she gave birth to Prince
Carlos, afterwards Charles V. of Germany. She soon
after lost her reason ; and when, upon the death of Isa
bella, she became Queen of Castile, it was necessary that
a regent should be appointed. Died in 1555.
See PRESCOTT, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella;" MARIANA,
"Historiade Espana."
Joan, (Jeanne,) daughter and heiress of Henry I.
of Navarre, and queen of Philippe le Bel of France,
was born in 1272. Upon her marriage with the French
monarch she retained authority over her hereditary do
minions of Navarre and Champagne. She carried on
a successful war against the Castilians and Aragonese,
assisted her husband in the councils and administration
of affairs in France, established a college in Navarre,
and was a liberal patroness of learning. In 1297, Count
de Bar having invaded Champagne, the queen marched
against him at the head of her troops, cut his army in
pieces, and carried him prisoner to Paris. Died in 1305.
Joan d'Albret. See JEANNE D'ALHRET.
Joan of Arc, or Jeanne Dare, zhin dauk, surnamed
THE MAID OF ORLEANS, [Fr. LA PUCELLE D'OKLEANS,
It pii'sel' doR'la'&.V,] the most illustrious of the hero
ines of history, was born in the hamlet of Dom-Remy,
in Champagne, about 1411. She was the daughter of
poor and religious peasants, who implanted in her heart
at an early age the seeds of that exalted enthusiasm
which subsequently obtained so absolute an ascendency
over her character. At this time the rival factions of
the Orleanists or Armagnacs and the Burgundians deso
lated France by their wars. The former supported the
claims of Charles VII. ; while the latter had sworn al
legiance to Henry V. of England. Joan from infancy
had imbibed the principles of the Orleanists, by whom
she was surrounded. Her devotion to their cause was
increased by the cruelties which she frequently saw the
enemy commit. She was untiring in her efforts to re
lieve the sufferings of the poor around her, and even sold
her bed and the greater part of her clothing in order to
procure them supplies. She afterwards stated that as
early a» the age of thirteen she received commands from
Heaven to go and liberate France. These commands
continued to be repeated ; but her parents endeavoured
to suppress her enthusiasm. She, however, obtained
the assistance of an uncle, who introduced her to De
Baudricourt, the commander of a neighbouring fortress,
before whom her voices, as she termed them, had or
dered her to lay her divine commission. That officer at
first treated her assertions with scorn ; but finally, on
account of the disasters that his prince had suffered, he
gave her the assistance which she had requested, and
in February, 1429, with a guard of five or six men, she
set out on her journey for Chinon, where Charles then
held his court. At this time his cause appeared to be
almost desperate. Orleans, which was the only place of
importance that remained to him, was closely besieged
by the English. Joan appeared before him, and declared
that her mission was to raise the siege and to conduct
him to Rheims to be crowned. At this period she had
reached her eighteenth year, and possessed a very beau
tiful countenance and noble form. Charles was convinced
of the truthfulness of her statements, and, notwithstand
ing the opposition of his ecclesiastics and courtiers,
raised her to the rank of a military commander, and
placed a considerable body of troops at her disposal.
She entered Orleans about the last of April, 1429, with
a convoy of provisions, and in one week raised the siege.
In battle Joan displayed great personal bravery. She
subsequently gained the battles of Jargeau and Patay, in
the latter of which the noted Talbot was made prisoner.
Several important cities surrendered to her without resist
ance ; and in less than three months from the time that she
received her military command, Charles was crowned at
Rheims, in the cathedral consecrated to the coronation of
the French sovereigns. She then petitioned the king that
she might be permitted to return home ; but he prevailed
on her to continue in the army. The following spring, as
she was making a sortie against the Burgundians near
Compiegne, she was captured by them and subsequently
handed over to the English, who, with the Bishop of
Beauvais and the University of Paris, urgently demanded
her execution as a sorceress. The King of England
granted their request, and Joan, after a mock-trial at
Rouen, was condemned to be burnt. On the 3ist of
May, 1431, she was dressed in the garb of the victims of
the Inquisition, and, amidst the clamours of assembled
thousands, conducted to the stake, where, in a short
time, her body was consumed. She died declaring that
her voices had not deceived her, and with the name of
Jesus on her lips. Many of those who had most eagerly
sought her death were melted to tears ; and even the
executioner declared that he had committed an unpar
donable sin. A secretary of the King of England also
said, "We are lost! we have burned a saint." Thus
perished the Maid of Orleans, against whom not the
slightest crime could be proved. If the inspiration which
she received came not from the source to which she
attributed it, it was at least the offspring of bravery, of
generosity, of patriotism, of those virtues which have
raised to immortality so many of the great and good.
In the high-coloured and eulogistic account given of
her by Michelet, he remarks, "She had the goodness of
the ancient martyrs, but with this difference : the early
Christians remained pure and virtuous only in retiring
from the encounter and in separating themselves from
the struggles and temptations of the world, while she
was benign in the fiercest conflicts, good among the bad,
gentle even in war ; 'into war, that triumph of the devil,
she carried the spirit of Heaven.' This tenderness of
heart she had for all men. She wept after the victories,
and relieved the sufferings of the wounded English."
Her death stamped indelible infamy on all the parties
connected with the war, — on the Burgundians for de
livering her to her inveterate enemies, on the English
and their French allies for their inhuman cruelty and
thirst for revenge, and on her own prince and party for
not making a powerful attempt to save her.
See BARTmJ.r.EMYDE BEAUREGAKD, " Histoire de Jeanne d'Arc,"
2 vols., 1847 : DESJARDINS, "Vie de Jeanne d'Arc," 1854 ; VAI.I.ET
DE VIRIVII.I.E, " Nouvelles Recherches sur la Famille, etc. de Jeanne
Dare," 1854; LENGI.ET-DUFRRSNOY, "Histoire de Jeanne ci'Arc,"
1753; LE BRUX DE CIIARMETTES. " Histoire de Jeanne d'Arc,"
4 vols., 1817; AI.PHONSE DE I.AMARTiNE, "Jeanne d'Arc," 1853;
JUI.ES MICHEI.ET, "Jeanne d'Arc," 1853; R. M. EVANS, "Story
of Joan of Arc," 1847; A. M. MENEGHEI.LI, "Giovanna d'Arc,"
Padua, 1841: MICHELET, "History of France;" CARL LIEBELT,
" D/.iewica Orleanska ustep dziejow Francyi," Posen, 1847; Gumo
GOERRES, "Die Jungfrau von Orleans," 1834; HARRIET PARR,
"Life and Death of Jeanne d'Arc," 1866; THOMAS DE QUINCEY,
" Miscellaneous Essays;" "London Quarterly Review" for March,
1842.
Joan [Sp. JUANA, Hoo-an'ya] Henriquez, (gn-ree'-
k£th,) Queen of Aragon and Navarre, daughter of Fred
erick Henriquez, of the blood-royal of Castile, and
admiral of that kingdom. In 1444 she was married to
John II. of Aragon, and in 1452 gave birth to Ferdinand
the Catholic. She was a princess of great energy of
character and of uncommon mental endowments ; and
to her advice and assistance many of the successes of
John II. are to be attributed. Died in 1468.
Joanes, no-a'nes, or Juanes, Hoo-a'nes, (VINCENTE,)
an eminent Spanish painter, born in Valencia in 1523,
studied at Rome, and was regarded as the greatest artist
of the Valencian school. Died in 1579. Among his
most important works may be mentioned Christ after
death borne by the angels, the Saviour with the two
prophets, and a Saint Francis.
Joannes. See JOHN.
Joannes Coninenus. See CALO-JOANNF.S.
Joannes Massilieiisis. See CASSTAN, (JOHN.)
Joannet, xho't'ni', (Cl.AUDE,) a French litterateur,
born at Dole in 1716; died in 1789.
Joanny, zho'Jt'ne', the assumed name of JEAN BAP-
TISTK BERNARD BRISSEBARKE, a famous French tragic
actor, born at Dijon in 1775, and who is said to have
been nearly equal to Talma. Died in 1849.
Joao (or Joam) OF PORTUGAL. See JOHN.
Joao or Juan, surnamed DE Dios or DE DIEU. See
DIEU.
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, ?, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
JO4SH
12/7
JO HAN NOT
Jo'ash [Heb. BW] or Je-ho'ash, King of Judah,
and son of Ahaziah. He ascended the throne when
seven years of age, and reigned virtuously forty years.
He was assassinated by his servants in 838 B.C.
See II. Chronicles xxiii. and xxiv. ; II. Kings xi. and xii.
Joash or Jehoash, King of Israel, succeeded his
father, Jehoahaz, 839 or 840 B.C., and reigned sixteen years.
See II. Kings xiii. ; II. Chronicles xxv. 17.
Job, [Heb. 3TN; Gr. 'Iw,J; Arabic, AIYOOB, (AiYOUB
or AIYUB,) I'yool/; Ger. HIOB, hee'op ; It. GIUBBE,
job'bi,] a patriarch of Uz, (a country which is believed
by many to be the same as Idumaea,) who is supposed to
have lived in a very remote antiquity. One of the most
sublime books of the Old Testament bears his name and
gives an account of his life and virtues. By many it has
been thought that Job was an allegorical character; but
there appears to be little reason for this supposition.
He is mentioned by the prophet Ezekiel, (XT. 16,) and
by Saint James, (v. 11,) as a real person. Much con
troversy has arisen about the age in which he lived, and
the author of the book ; but both these points remain
unsettled. This work was written in Hebrew, with a
mixture of Arabic.
Job or Aiyoob, I'yoob', (SOLOMON,) an African
prince, son of a king of Bondoo, in Senegambia. In
1730 he was sold to the English, who carried him to
Maryland, where he became a slave. His story interested
General Oglethorpe and others, who ransomed him and
sent him to England in 1733. He was presented at
court, and attracted much attention. He produced an
interesting geographical account of his native country,
and wrote from memory, it is said, three copies of the
Koran. He returned to Bondoo about 1735.
Jobard, zho'btK', (J. B. A. M.,) a writer on social
economy, born in Haute-Marne, France, in 1792. He
lived in Belgium. Died in 1861.
Jobert, zho'baiR', (Louis,) a French Jesuit and anti
quary, born at Paris in 1637. For some time he was
a professor of rhetoric in his native city, and afterwards
became celebrated as a preacher. He was the author
of several treatises on medals. Died in 1719.
Jobert de Lamballe, zho'baiR' deh IflN'btK, (AN-
TOINK JOSEPH,) an eminent French surgeon, born at
Lainbalie in 1799. He lectured in Paris, and published,
besides other works, a "Treatise on Plastic Surgery,"
("Traite de Chirurgie plastique," 2 vols., 1849.) He
became surgeon to the emperor in 1854. Died in 1867.
Jo-cas'ta or Jo-cas'te, [Gr. 'loKuarri ; Fr. JOCASTE,
zho'kist',] sometimes called Epicaste, the wife of Laius,
and the mother of CEdipus. According to tradition, she
was married to CEdipus without knowing who he was,
and hung herself after she discovered the relationship
between them.
See the " CEdipus" of SOPHOCLES.
Jocaste. See JOCASTA.
Jog'e-lyn, (ROBERT,) LORD, M.P., an English poli
tician, born in 1816, visited China about 1840, and pub
lished "Six Months in China." Died in 1854.
Jo-eha'nan or Jo-ha'nan Ben E-li-e'zer, a Jewish
rabbi, born in Palestine about 184 A.D. He compiled
the "Jerusalem Gemara," a part of the Talmud. He is
said to have died in 279 A.D.
Jocher or Joecher, yo'Ker, (CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB,)
an eminent German scholar and writer, born at Leipsic
in 1694. He became professor of philosophy and his
tory at Leipsic about 1730. His most important work
is a " Universal Dictionary of Learned Men," ("Allge-
meines Gelehrten-Lexikon," 4 vols., 1750-51,) which is
highly esteemed. Supplements have been published by
Adelung and others. Died in 1758.
See ERNESTI, "Memoria C. G. Jocheri," 1758: ERSCH tind
GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" ADELUNG'S Supplement to
Jocher.
Jochmus, yoK'mus, (ALBRF.CHT,) a German general,
born at Hamburg in 1808. About 1838 he was sent by
Lord Palmerston to Constantinople to plan a campaign
in Syria. He became general-in-chief of the allied
armies of England and Turkey in December, 1840. He
was appointed minister of foreign affairs by the Archduke
John, Vicar of the German empire, in May, 1849, and
resigned in December of that year.
Jocondus. See GIOCONDO, (GIOVANNI.)
Jode, de, deh yo'deh, (ARNOLD,) son of Pieter, Jr.,
noticed below, was born about 1636. He is said to
have been inferior to his grandfather and father as an
engraver. While in London, in 1667, he engraved for
Charles I. "Mercury Instructing Cupid," by Correggio.
Among his other works is "The Infant Jesus embracing
Saint John."
See BASAN, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs."
Jode, de, (PIETER,) a Flemish engraver, born in 1570;
died in 1634. Among the most important of his pro
ductions may be mentioned "The Last Judgment," by
Cousin, and "Jesus Christ giving the Keys to Saint
Peter," by Rubens.
Jode, de, (PIETER or PETRUS,) Jr., son of the pre
ceding, was born at Antwerp about 1606. He engraved
numerous pictures from Rubens, Van Dyck, Titian, and
other artists. Among his best works is " The Visita
tion of the Virgin," after Rubens. Died after 1660.
Jodelle, z'no'deK, (ETIENNE,) Lord of Lymodin, born
at Paris in 1532. He was one of the seven French poets
termed the " Pleiades." He is said to have been the first
to write plays in the French language and to introduce
choruses after the Greek manner. It is said that his
fluency of composition was so great that on a wager he
composed in one night five hundred Latin verses on a
given subject. He died poor in 1573. His principal
production was the tragedy of "Cleopatra," (1552.)
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" BAYI.E, " His
torical and Critical Dictionary ;" NICERON, " Memoires ;" SAINTE-
BEUVE, " Poesie Francaise au seizieme Siecle."
Jo'drelL, (RICHARD PAUL,) an English dramatic
writer, born in 1745. He produced "A Widow and no
Widow," a farce, "The Persian Heroine," a tragedy,
(1786,) and " Philology of the English Language," (1820.)
Died in 1831.
Joecher. See JOCHER.
Jo'el, [Heb. '"JXV; Gr. 'lur/A,] one of the twelve minor
Hebrew prophets, is supposed to have lived in the reign
of Uzziah, about 800-750 B.C. A passage of his prophecy
is quoted in Acts ii. 17.
Joerdens. See JORDENS.
Joffredus. See JOUFFROI.
Jof frid, an English abbot of Lincolnshire, lived in
the twelfth century. Peter de Blois, a writer of the time
of Henry II., states that Joffrid was the founder of the
University of Cambridge.
Jogues, zhog, (ISAAC,) a French Jesuit, born at Or
leans in 1607, spent many years in Canada as a missionary.
He was killed by the Mohawks in 1646.
Johaiin, (princes of Germany.) See JOHN.
Joharmeau, zho'i'no', (£LOI,) a French antiquary,
born near Blois in r/yo. He was one of the founders
of the Academic Celtique. In i8'i he became imperial
censor of books. He wrote on botany, Celtic monuments,
and other subjects. Died in 1851.
Johannaeus, (FINNUS.) See JONSSON, (FINN.)
Johannes, the Latin for JOHN, which see.
Johannes Antiocheiius. See JOHN OF ANTIOCH.
Johannes Climacus. See CLIMACUS.
Johannes Secundus. See EVERARD, (JOHANNES.)
Johannot, zho'f'no', (CHARLES,) eldest son of Fran-
9ois, noticed below, was born at Frankfort about 1790.
He was a skilful engraver, and produced illustrations of
the life of Saint Genevieve of Brabant. Died in 1825.
Johannot, (CHARLES HENRI ALFRED,) an engraver
and painter, second son of Frai^ois, noticed below,
was born at Offenbach in 1801. He acquired a high
reputation for his vignette-designs illustrating the French
translations of Byron, Scott, and Cooper. Among his
best paintings are " The Entrance of Mademoiselle
Montpensier into Orleans during the Fronde," and " Mary
Stuart leaving Scotland." Died in 1837.
See "Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Johannot, (FRANC.OIS,) a German designer and en
graver, of French extraction, was born in Hesse-Darm
stadt, and lived about 1790. He settled at Paris with
his partner, Charles Andre.
Johannot, (TONY,) a painter and wood-engraver, a
son of the preceding, was born at Offenbach in 1803.
He gained a wide reputation as a designer and engraver
•e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (SJf^See Explanations, p. 23.)
JOHN
1278
JOHN
of vignettes for books. Among the works which he
illustrated are " Werther," the plays of Moliere, " Manon
Lescaut," "Jerome Paturot," and "The Vicar of Wake-
field." Died in Paris in 1852.
John [Gr. 'luuwr/s ; Lat. JOHAN'NES ; Fr. JEAN, zh6N ;
It. GIOVANNI, jo-van'nee] THE DIVINE, commonly called
SAINT JOHN THE EVANGELIST, with his brother James,
was among the first to become a disciple of our Saviour
when He commenced his ministry. John was made
one of the twelve apostles; and his gentle, loving spirit
appears to have especially endeared him to his divine
Master. He spoke of himself as "the disciple whom
Jesus loved." He was with his Master in the garden of
Gethsemane. When our Saviour was nailed to the cross,
He commended his mother to the care of the beloved
disciple. After the resurrection and ascension of Jesus,
Saint John became one of the most prominent of the
propagators of the Christian religion. Syria and Asia
Minor were the principal scenes of his labours. We
are told by Tertullian and Saint Jerome that under the
reign of Domitian, by the order of a Roman proconsul,
he was immersed in a caldron of boiling oil, and that in
this terrible ordeal he was miraculously preserved, so
that he sustained not the slightest injury. After this
he was banished to the isle of Patmos, where he wrote
the Apocalypse, or Revelation. He also wrote three
Epistles, and the Gospel according to Saint John. He
is supposed to have died at Ephesus in 99 A.D., at the
age of ninety-four.
Among all the disciples of Christ, John appears to
have most fully comprehended the character and spirit
of his divine Master. He first announced in clear and
concise terms the great central truth of Christianity,
that " God is love," — a truth which, in his view, finds
its fullest proof in the great fact that God gave His
Son for the salvation of the world. (See John iii. 16,
17; and I. Epistle iv. 8, 9, 10.) The soul of "the be
loved disciple" seems ever filled with the one theme.
Love, not fear, is to be the motive of obedience : — " If ye
love me, keep my commandments." The love to which
he refers is not a mere sentiment, but a living power : —
"This is the love of God, that we keep his command
ments." (See John xiv. 15, 21, 23; I. Epistle iv. 7, 8,
16, 18, 20; v. 2 and 3.)
See F. A. THOI.UCK, " Commentary on the Gospel of John," the
yth edition of which was translated into English by DR. C. P.
KRAUTH, Philadelphia, 1859; WEGSCHEIDER, "Introduction to the
Gospel of Saint John," Gbuingen, 1806; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generate. "
John I., surnamed ZIMIS'CES, [Gr. T&uw/ciyc,] became
Emperor of the East in 969 A.D. He carried on a suc
cessful war against the Rossi, or Russians, and quelled
serious disturbances in his eastern provinces. He died
of poison, as he was returning to Constantinople, in 975.
He is said to have been a man of superior talents.
John III., of the family of Ducas, surnamed VATAT'-
ZES, born in Thrace in 1193, succeeded his father-in-law,
Theodore Lascaris, in 1222, as Emperor of the East.
Constantinople being then in possession of the Latins,
John fixed his capital at Nicaea, in Bithynia. In 1235 he
besieged Constantinople, but was repulsed. He, how
ever, reconquered all the other possessions belonging to
the Greek Empire which had been taken by the Latins.
John was a liberal patron of the useful arts, and did much
to promote the welfare of his subjects. Died in 1255.
John IV. (Las'caris) succeeded his father Theodore
as Emperor of the East in 1259, when he was aged but
six years. He was deprived of the crown in 1261 by
Michael Palasologus, who put out his eyes and im
prisoned him during the remainder of his life.
John V. See CANTACUZENUS.
John VI., (Falaeol'ogus,) born in 1332, was a son of
Andronicus, whom he succeeded on the imperial throne
of Constantinople in 1341. He was afterwards impris
oned by one of his sons. During these intestine troubles
the Turks attacked the capital, and forced John to con
clude a disgraceful treaty. He left the throne to his son
Manuel. Died in 1391.
John VII. (Faleeologus) succeeded his father Man
uel on the throne of Constantinople in 1425. Being
unable to oppose the Turkish invaders, he sought the
assistance of the Latins ; and, in order to cement the
union, he formed a reconciliation between the Eastern
and Western Churches, which, however, lasted but a
short period. Died in 1448. He was succeeded by his
brother, Constantine XIII.
See LE BEAU, " Histoire du Bas- Empire."
John [Sp. JUAN, Hoo-an'] I., son of Peter ("Pedro) IV.,
was born in 1350, and ascended the throne of Aragon in
1387. Died in 1395.
John (Juan) II, King of Aragon and Navarre, born
in 1397, was one of the bravest and most enterprising
of the Spanish sovereigns. In 1425 he ascended the
throne of Navarre, as the husband of Queen Blanche,
and three years later was appointed by his brother Al
fonso V. to the government of Aragon. Blanche died
soon after, and in 1447 he married Joan Henriquez, of
the blood-royal of Castile, who became the mother of
Ferdinand the Catholic. He became King of Aragon in
1458. He carried on long and successful wars against
Henry IV. of Castile and Louis XI. of Erance. He also
suppressed a formidable rebellion of the Catalans. Died
in 1479.
See PRESCOTT, " Ferdinand and Isabella," chap. ii. ; ERSCH und
GKUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
John (Juan) I., King of Castile and Leon, was born
in 1358. He succeeded his father Henry (Henrique) II.
in 1379. He subsequently invaded Portugal, but met
with a total defeat at Aljubarota in August, 1385. Died
in 1390.
John II., King of Castile and Leon, son of Henry
(Henrique) III., born in 1404, was proclaimed sovereign
two years later. He carried on successful wars against
the Kings of Aragon and Navarre and the Moors of
Granada. By his first wife, Maria of Aragon, he left
three children, one of whom succeeded him as Henry
(Henrique) IV. By his second queen, Isabella, he had a
daughter, afterwards illustrious as Isabella the Catholic.
Though a feeble sovereign, he was a liberal patron of
learning, and his reign was distinguished for the revival
of literature in Castile. Died in 1454.
See PRESCOTT, "Ferdinand and Isabella," chap. i. ; ERSCH und
GRUHER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
John (Hans, hans) I. OF DENMARK and II. OF
SWEDEN, son of Christian I., of the house of Oldenburg,
born in 1455, ascended the throne in 1481. About the
year 1500 the Swedes rebelled against him because he
had garrisoned the fortresses with Danish and German
troops. He was finally obliged to resign all claims to the
Swedish crown. Died in 1513.
John, King of England, surnamed SANSTEURE,(" Lack
land,") the youngest son of Henry II. by his queen, Elea
nor of Guienne, was born at Oxford in 1166. The king
at first create 1 him Earl of Montague, in Normandy, and
in 1178 made him Lord of Ireland. In 1189 he married
the daughter and sole heiress of William, Earl of Glou
cester. The same year he was a confederate in the
rebellion of hi,s brother Richard. On the accession of
the latter to the throne he gave John several earldoms,
including about one-third of the kingdom. Soon after
Richard's departure on the crusade for the Holy Land,
John formed plans to obtain the crown on the event of
the king's death, in opposition to the rights of his nephew
Arthur, Duke of Bretagne, whom Richard had recognized
as his heir. When John was informed of his brother's
imprisonment in Germany, he immediately attempted to
usurp the throne, but was kept in check by the loyalty
of the nobles. On the king's return to England, in
1 194, he deprived John of all his estates and compelled
him to make a humble submission. Richard died in
France in 1199, leaving his kingdom to John, who was
then with him. That prince hastened to establish his
authority in Normandy and his other dominions, and
was crowned at Westminster in May, 1199. In 1201 he
obtained a divorce from his wife, and married Isabella
of Angouleme. Philip Augustus of France espoused
the cause of Arthur, who commenced hostilities against
John and gained several victories, but was subsequently
taken prisoner by his uncle and conveyed to Rouen.
Nothing further was heard from him ; but the probability
is that he was murdered. The war afterwards went
entirely against the King of England, who in the course
of two years lost the greater part of his continental
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
JOHN
1279
JOHN
possessions. During this period he drew upon himself
the hostility of the Roman pontiff by insisting on his
right to appoint the Archbishop of Canterbury, that see
being then vacant. The pope excommunicated him and
laid the kingdom under an interdict, (1208.) John, how
ever, paid no attention to the thunders of the Vatican,
but imprisoned or banished the bishops and clergy who
obeyed the pope's orders. Meanwhile he reduced Lle
wellyn, a Welsh prince, to subjection, and suppressed a
rebellion in Ireland. Finally the pope, having formally
deposed him and absolved his subjects from their oaths
of allegiance, instigated the French king to invade Eng
land. John, perceiving his danger, made an abject sub
mission to the papal legate, and resigned to him the
kingdoms of England and Ireland, (1213.) Philip was
then forbidden to prosecute his enterprise. For a long
time John's tyranny had excited the hatred of his barons.
This was increased by Langton, Archbishop of Canter
bury, who, presenting them with the charter of Henry I.,
exhorted them to obtain the liberties therein granted. A
numerous body of barons solemnly swore to regain their
rights or to levy an unceasing war on the king. King
John, being supported by the pope, scornfully refused to
make any concessions to the barons, who raised a power
ful force and marched to London, where the citizens
gladly received them. On the I5th of June, 1215, John
consented to grant all that they required, and signed at
Runnymede the famous Magna Charta. Scarcely had
he done this before he induced the pope to absolve him
from these obligations and to excommunicate several
of his opponents. He also brought into England large
bodies of foreign troops, and gained several victories
over the barons. The latter then chose Louis, Dauphin
of France, as their king. This prince landed at Sand
wich in May, 1216. John would probably have been
successful, (for dissensions were already breaking out in
the camp of Louis,) had he not been carried off by a
fever in October of that year. John has left one of the
darkest, names in the history of the English kings. He
was extremely cruel, fickle, and licentious, without a
redeeming virtue. He had, by his queen Isabella, five
children, the eldest of whom succeeded him as Henry
HI. The second, Richard, was elected King of the
Romans in 1257.
See HUME, "History of England;" HALI.AM, "Constitutional
History of England;" JOSEPH BERINGTON, "History of Henry II.
and of Richard I. and John, his Sons," 1790; LINGAKD, "History
of England."
John [Fr. JEAN, zhdN] I., a posthumous son of Louis
X., King of France, was born in 1316. Though he lived
but eight days, he is recorded among the French mon-
archs.
See N. DE MONMERQUE, "Dissertation historique sur Jean I,
Roi de France," 1844.
John (Jean) II., surnamed LE BON, ascended the
throne of France upon the death of his father, Philip
of Valois, in 1350. Charles, King of Navarre, having ac
cepted an invitation to meet John at Rouen, was there
imprisoned, and several of his lords put to death. The
people of Navarre applied to England for assistance, and
Edward the Black Prince invaded France at the head of an
army. John marched against him with 60,000 men, was
defeated and made prisoner at the battle of Poitiers, fought
in 1356, and conducted to London, where he was received
with great honour by Edward III. While he remained
in England a civil war broke out in France with the peas
antry, known in history by the name of" La Jacquerie."
In this revolt the castles of the nobility were plundered
and burnt and the inmates massacred. These ravages
continued for two years, until the dauphin, assisted by
several powerful lords, defeated the peasants, putting
thousands of them to the sword. In 1360, peace having
been concluded between France and England, John re
turned to his capital ; but, finding much opposition made
by the nobles to the conditions of the treaty, he again
visited England, to confer with King Edward. He was
soon after taken ill, and died in London in 1364.
See SISMONDI, "Histoire des Francais;" FROISSART, "Chroni
cles;" MICHELET, "Histoire de France;" HENKI MARTIN, "His
toire de France."
John I. OF NAVARRE. See JOHN II. OF FRANCE.
John II. OF NAVARRE. See JOHN II. OF ARAGON.
John III. OF NAVARRE, or Jean d'Albret, zh6N
dSl'bu.V, began to reign in 1494. In 1512 Ferdinand
the Catholic invaded Navarre and drove John from the
throne. Died in 1516.
John I., King of Poland, a son of Casimir IV., was
born in 1459, and succeeded his father in 1492. He
waged war against the Tartars and Turks. Died in 1501.
John II. OF POLAND. See CASIMIR V.
John III. OF POLAND. See SOBIESKI.
John I Port. JOAO or JOAM, zho-owN'] I., surnamed THE
GREAT, King of Portugal, the natural son of Peter I.,
was born in 1357. On the death of his brother Ferdi
nand, in 1385, he assumed the regal power in opposition
to the rights of Ferdinand's daughter Beatrix, who had
married John I., King of Castile. This led to a war with
Spain, in which the Portuguese monarch gained several
important victories and firmly established his power. He
subsequently carried on a successful war against the
Moors of Africa. During his reign the Portuguese com
menced those maritime expeditions which soon after
rendered them so celebrated. Under the command of
his son, Prince Henry, they discovered Madeira, the
Canaries, the Azores, and several places on the western
coast of Africa. Died in 1433.
See LA CLEDE, "Histoire generale de Portugal;" FERNANDO
LOPEZ, "Chronica del Rey Joao I.," 3 vols., 1644; MANGEL MON-
TEIRO, "Joannes Portugaliae Reges," 1742.
John (Joao) II., King of Portugal, surnamed THE
PERFECT, son of Alfonso V., was born in 1455, and
ascended the throne in 1481. At the age of sixteen
years he fought against the African Moors and took Ar-
zile and Tangiers, and five years later gained the battle
of Toro over the Castilians. Soon after his coronation
he quelled a powerful conspiracy formed against him
by his nobles. He encouraged the spirit of enterprise
among the Portuguese, and fitted out a squadron destined
for the East Indies and the Eastern Seas. Died in 1495.
See VASCONCELLOS, " Vida y Acciones del Rey Don Juan II.,"
1639, (translated into French, 1641;) DAMIAO DE GOES, "Chronica
do Principe Dora Joao Rey," etc., 1567; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
John (Joao) III., King of Portugal, born in 1502,
succeeded his father, Emanuel the Great, in 1521. In
1524 he married Catherine of Austria, to whose brother,
Charles V., he gave his sister Isabella in marriage. He
colonized Brazil, and sent to the Eastern Seas a fleet,
by which Japan was discovered. He established the
Inquisition in Portugal and its colonies. Died in 1557.
John (Joao) IV., surnamed THE FORTUNATE, chief
of the dynasty of Braganza, was born in 1604. He threw
off the authority of Spain, to which Portugal had been
subjected since the days of Philip II., and became king
in 1640. He enacted many wise and beneficial laws, and
died, greatly regretted by the nation, in 1656.
See VERTOT, " Histoire des Revolutions de Portugal," 1689.
John (Joao) V., King of Portugal, born in 1689, suc
ceeded his father, Peter II., in 1707. He joined the allies
against France and Spain about 1702. After the peace
of Utrecht (1713) he devoted his time to the encourage
ment of education and commerce. Died in 1750.
See "Vida, Successes e Fallecimento do Rey Joao V.," Lisbon,
1750; FERDINAND DENIS, "Portugal."
John (Joao) VI. of Portugal, was born in 1769, and
was appointed Regent of Portugal in 1793 on account of
the derangement of his mother, Maria I., who was then
queen-regnant. In 1807, when the French invaded
Portugal, he sailed to Brazil, where he received the title
of emperor. He returned in 1821, soon after which the
Brazilians revolted and declared themselves independent.
Died in 1826.
See " Histoire de Jean VI, Roi de Portugal," 1827; "Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
John, KING OF SCOTLAND. See BALIOL.
John OF RUSSIA. See IVAN.
John (Johaii, yo'han) I., King of Sweden, the Jast
of the dynasty of Sverker, succeeded Eric in 1216. He
was very active in establishing Christianity. Died in 1222.
John II. OF SWEDEN. See JOHN I. OF DENMARK.
John III., King of Sweden, the second son of Gus-
tavus Vasa, was born in 1537. He married Catherine
Jagelion, daughter of Sigismund, King of Poland. In
1560 he visited England, to negotiate a marriage between.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, grMural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this.
ee Explanations, p. 23.)
JOHN
1280
JOHN
his elder brother Eric and Queen Elizabeth, in which he
was unsuccessful. In 1568 he deposed Eric and ascended
the throne in his stead. Influenced by his queen, he
attempted to re-establish the Catholic religion, but was
effectually resisted by his brother Charles, Duke of
Sudermania, at the head of the Protestants. Died
in 1592.
John (Jean) I., Duke of Bretagne, was born in 1217.
Having attempted to check the papal encroachments,
the pope excommunicated him, and he was obliged to
go to Rome to obtain absolution. Died in 1284.
John II., son of the preceding, was born in 1239. He
married Beatrix, daughter of Henry III. of England,
from whom he received the title of Count of Richemont.
He was also made a peer of France by Philippe le Bel.
He was killed at the ordination of Clement V. at Lyons
by the falling of a wall.
John III, Duke of Bretagne, surnamed THE Goon,
succeeded his father, Arthur II., in 1312. He is said
to have been a just and benevolent prince. Died in
I34i-
John IV., Duke of Bretagne, known as JEAN DE
MONTFORT, half-brother of the preceding, was born in
1293. John (Jean) III., having no children, willed the
dukedom to Charles de Blois ; but Jean de Montfort, re
garded by many as the legitimate heir, soon reduced all
the towns and provinces to his subjection, and went to
England to render homage to King Edward for his estates.
On his return he was summoned before the court of peers
to prove his claims to Bretagne. The peers decided
against him, and he raised an army to defend his rights,
but was shortly after taken prisoner by the Duke of Nor
mandy and confined in the tower of Louvre at Paris.
In the mean time the war was carried on with energy
by his duchess, Jeanne of Flanders. At the expiration
of nearly four years, John escaped, disguised as a mer
chant. He died soon after, in 1345.
See DARU, " Histoire de BretaRiie."
John (Jean) V., (or John IV., according to some
authorities,) Duke of Bretagne, born in 1338, was a
son of the preceding. He married Mary, a daughter
of Edward III. of England. By a decisive victory over
his competitor, Charles de Blois, at Auray, in 1364, he
obtained possession of Bretagne. He afterwards fought
for the English against the French, who drove him out
of Bretagne about 1374 ; but he was soon restored. Died
in 1399.
See S/SMONDI, "Histoire des Francais."
John (Jean) VI., son of the preceding, became Duke
of Bretagne in 1399, when he was ten years of age. He
carried on a war against the Count of Penthievre and
the Duke of Burgundy, and afterwards joined the Eng
lish under the Duke of Bedford against France. Died
in 1443.
See D'ARGENTRE, "Histoire de Bretagne," etc.
John, surnamed THE FEARLESS, [Fr. JEAN SANS PEUR,
zhSN s6x pUR,| Duke of Burgundy, born at Dijon in
1371, was the eldest son of Philip the Bold. At the age
of twenty-five he assisted Sigismund, King of Hungary,
against the Turks, by whom he was made prisoner at the
battle of Nicopolis. When taken before the Sultan Baya-
7,eed, (Bajazet,) he evinced so much courage that that
sovereign gave him his liberty and the surname of SANS
PEUR, (the "Fearless.") After his return to France he
was engaged in fighting the English and in political in
trigues at the French court. He was appointed guardian
of the dauphin of France in 1406. He caused the assas
sination of his rival, the Duke of Orleans, in 1407, and
obtained almost unlimited power in the kingdom. He
was murdered in 1419, at the instigation of the dauphin,
son of Charles VI.
See DE BARANTE, " Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne ;" MICHE-
LEJ, " Histoire de ¥ ranee."
John, [Ger. JOHANN, yo'han,] surnamed THE CON
STANT, a son of the Elector Ernest, was born in 1467,
and became Elector of Saxony in 1525. He was a zealous
defender of the Protestant faith, and in 1530 caused the
Confession of Augsburg to be proclaimed in the Diet
assembled at that city. Died in 1532.
See ERSCH tind GRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
John [Lat. JOHAN'NES; Fr. JEAN, zh6N ; It. Gio-
VANNr, jo-vai/nee| I., a native of Tuscany, was raised to
the Roman see upon the death of Hormisdas, in 523.
He was sent on an embassy to Constantinople by King
Theodoric to obtain toleration for the Arians ; and on
his return, having displeased that monarch, he was
thrown into prison, where he died in 526.
John II., surnamed MERCURIUS, was a native of
Rome, and succeeded Boniface II. in 532 or 533. Died
in 535-
John III., a native of Rome, succeeded Pelagius I.
in 560. Died about 573, and was succeeded by Bene
dict I.
John IV., a Dalmatian, succeeded Severinus in 640.
He condemned the doctrines of the Monothelites and the
edict of the emperor Heraclius, called "The Exposition
of Faith," which was issued in their defence. Died in
642, and was succeeded by Theodorus.
John V., a native of Antioch, in Syria, was chosen
pope on the death of Benedict II., in 685, and died in
687. Conon succeeded him.
John VI., a Greek, succeeded Sergius I. in 701. During
his pontificate Wilfred, Archbishop of York, was tried
and acquitted of the charges preferred by the English
clergy. Died in 705.
John VII., a native of Greece, was elected successor
to the preceding. Died in 707. Sisinnius succeeded
him.
John VIII., (called John IX. by those who admit the
truth of Pope Joan's history,) was a native of Rome, and
succeeded Adrian II. in 872. He crowned the emperor
Charles the Bald, and afterwards Charles le Gros. He
confirmed Phocius Patriarch of Constantinople. In 878
the Saracens invaded Italy and compelled him to pay
tribute. Died in 882. He was succeeded by Martin II.
See ARTAUD DE MONTOR, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes."
John IX., an Italian, became pope in 898, after the
death of Theodore II. Died about 900.
John X. was elected in 91 5, through theinflueyceofhis
mistress Theodora, as successor to Lando. He crowned
Berengarius as emperor. Subsequently, with the assist
ance of this sovereign, he marched against the Saracens,
who had invaded Italy, defeated them, and drove them
from the country. At this time Guido, Duke of Tus
cany, with his wife, the infamous Marozia, possessed
great power in Rome. John, having offended them, was
seized in his palace by their soldiers and put in prison,
where he is said to have been killed in 928.
John XI., elected pope in 931, was the son of Maro
zia, as some suppose, by Pope Sergius III. Alberico,
another son of Marozia, r.aised a revolt against his
mother, whom he imprisoned with John in the castle
of Sant' Angelo. The latter died about 936, and was
succeeded by Leo VII.
John XII., son of Alberico, was elected successor to
Agapetus II. in 956, when he was but eighteen years old.
He changed his name from Octavianus. Four years
later he crowned Otho I. Emperor of Germany and
King of Italy. Subsequently he became so notorious for
his oppression and licentiousness that Otho returned to
Rome in 963 and caused John to be deposed and Leo
VIII. to be chosen in his place. But, as soon as Otho
left Italy, John entered Rome at the head of a powerful
party, drove out Leo, and committed great atrocities.
He died in 964. One of his mistresses, named Joan,
exercised much influence at Rome during his pontificate ;
and it has been suggested that this may hav* given rise
to the story of " Pope Joan."
See BARONIUS, "Annales."
John XIII., Bishop of Narni, was raised to the papal
see in 965 by the influence of the emperor Otho I. The
Romans, however, being opposed to this election, im
prisoned John. Otho marched to Rome, liberated him,
and hanged several of his opponents. John crowned
Otho II., son of Otho I., as emperor. Died in 972, and
was succeeded by Benedict VI.
John XIV., Bishop of Pavia, was raised to the papal
see, as successor to Benedict VII., about 984. After a
pontificate of nine months, he was deposed by Boniface
VII. and put in prison, where he is supposed to have
been poisoned in 985.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
JOHN
1281
JOHN
John XV., elected successor to John XIV., died a few-
days after. By some he is left out of the order of popes.
John XVI., a native of Rome, became pope about
986. During his pontificate, a patrician, named Cres-
centius, caused great disturbances and drove the pope
from Rome. He was, however, reinstated in his au
thority by the emperor Otho. Died in 996, and was
succeeded by Gregory V.
John XVH., whose previous name was PHILAGA-
THIUS, a native of Calabria, and Bishop of Piacenza, was
chosen pope in 997 by the faction of Crescentius, in op
position to Gregory V. Otho III., espousing the cause
of the latter, executed Crescentius with his adherents,
and imprisoned John after having horribly mutilated him.
John XVIII. was elected successor to Sylvester II.
in 1003, and died four months afterwards.
John XIX., elected pope in 1004. He sent Saint
Bruno to preach Christianity to the Russians, and healed
the schism between the Churches of Rome and Constan
tinople. Died in 1009, and was succeeded by Sergius IV.
John XX., previously named ROMANUS, was the son
of Count Gregory of Tuscany, and brother of Benedict
VIII., whom he succeeded in 1024. In 1027 he crowned
Conrad as emperor. He died in 1033 or 1034, and was
succeeded by Benedict IX.
John XXL, born in Lisbon, was elected successor to
Adrian V. about 1276. He died after a pontificate of a
few months. Nicholas III. succeeded him.
John XXII., a native of Cahors, in France, and pre
viously known as JACQUES D'Eusx, or JAMES OF OSSA,
was chosen to succeed Clement V. in 1316. He was
consecrated at Lyons, and made his residence at Avignon.
At this period there was a competition for the throne of
Germany between Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of
Austria. John, who declared that he had the right to
appoint the emperor, excommunicated Louis in 1324 or
1327, and advanced the claims of Robert, King of Naples.
This led to a long war in Italy between the Guelphs,
who were allies of Robert, and the Ghibelines, who were
assisted by the troops of Louis. At first the Guelphs had
the advantage ; but their opponents soon gained ground,
and in 1327 Louis visited Italy and received the iron
crown of Milan. At Rome the Bishops of Venice and
Aleria crowned him emperor, after which he deposed
John and appointed Peter de Corvara in his place, with
the name of Nicholas V. After the return of Louis to
Germany the Guelphs began to obtain the ascendency.
John died at Avignon in 1334. He possessed extraor
dinary abilities, was devoted to study, and wrote some
medical treatises. His avarice, however, was the most
prominent trait in his character ; and to him is attributed
the introduction of the Annates, or First-Fruits. He left,
besides his jewels, eighteen millions of golden florins in
his coffers.
See AKTAUD DE MONTOR, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes;"
PI.ATINA, " Historia de Vitis Pontificum Romanorum ;" " Xouvelle
Biographic Generale. "
John XXIII., (or XXII., according to some authori
ties,) (Cardinal COSSA,) a Neapolitan, was elected as suc
cessor to Alexander V. in 1410, during a schism of the
Church. His title was disputed by two rivals, Benedict
XIII. and Gregory XII. He was a man of depraved
morals and of insatiable cupidity. A quarrel between
John and Ladislaus of Naples resulted in the expulsion
of the former from Rome. John applied for support
to the emperor Sigismund, who convoked at Constance
in 1414 a general council. This council (at which John
was present) required him to abdicate the popedom.
He pretended to comply, but left Constance disguised,
and fled towards Rome with the intention to resist the
decree of the council. He was quickly arrested and
brought back to Constance, where he was convicted of
many heinous offences, and formally deposed, in 1415.
He was confined in prison about three years. He died
at Florence in 1419.
See RANKE, "History of the Popes;" ALLETZ, "Histoire des
Papes," 1776; TH. DE NIEM, " Historia de Vita Joannis XXIII.,"
1620.
John, (Juan,) DON, OF AUSTRIA, one of the most cele
brated military and naval commanders of the sixteenth
century, was the natural son of the emperor Charles V.
and Barbara Blomberg, a native of Germany. He was
born at Ratisbon in 1546, and passed as the son of a
Spanish nobleman named Quixacla, by whom he was
educated. Charles V. on his death-bed recommended
him to the protection of Philip II., who soon after ac
knowledged John as his brother and made appropria
tions which enabled him to live in princely state. At
the age of twenty-two he was appointed commander-in-
chief of the forces sent against the Moriscoes of Granada,
whom he vanquished in several battles and finally re
duced to complete subjection. In 1571, war having been
declared between Philip II. and the Sultan, Don John
was appointed generalissimo of the combined fleets of
Spain and Italy. He sailed from Messina in the middle
of September with two hundred and fifty ships of war
and about fifty thousand men, and on the 7th of October
encountered the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto,
where he gained one of the greatest naval victories of
which history makes mention. Soon after the battle
of Lepanto he received an embassy from the Greeks of
Albania and Macedonia, requesting him to assist them
against the Turks and to receive the sovereignty of their
countries. Don John was prevented from accepting the
offer by Philip, who, jealous of his brother's reputation,
refused the assistance necessary for the enterprise. Don
John, in a subsequent expedition against Africa, took
Tunis, Biserta, and several other important places. He
was appointed in 1576 Governor of the Netherlands,
which were then in a state of rebellion. He at first used
conciliatory measures ; but the States, suspecting him
of duplicity, declined his overtures and prepared for war.
Don John soon after took Namur by stratagem, and on
the ist of January, 1578, gained the decisive victory of
Gemblours. He afterwards reduced Louvain, Nivelle,
and other towns belonging to the insurgents. \Yhile
thus actively engaged, in October, 1578, he was seized
with an illness which carried him to the grave. Strong
suspicions were entertained by many that he was poisoned.
See L. VAN DER HAMMEN, "Vida de Don Juan," 1627; BRUSLE
DE MONTPLEINCHAMP, " Vie de Don Juan d'Autriche," 1690 ; ALEXIS
DfMESXM, "Vie de Don Juan d'Autriche," 1827; MOTLEY, "Rise
of the Dutch Republic," vol. iii. part v. chaps, i.-v. ; PRESCOTT,
" History of Philip II.," vol. ii. ; J. P. LYSER, " Erzherzog Johann.
der Freiind des Volkes," 1843 ; SCHNEIDKWIMD. " Leben des Erz-
herzogs Johann von Oesterreich," etc., 1849 '• " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale," 1848.
John or Johann, (NEPOMUK MARIA JOSEPH,) born in
1801, succeeded his brother Frederick Augustus as King
of Saxony in 1854. He was distinguished for great virtues
as a ruler, and for his literary attainments, and published
a translation of Dante's "Divine Comedy." He was an
ally of Austria in the war against Prussia in 1866.
John OF BAYEUX, [Fr. JEAN DE BAYEUX, zhoN cleh.
bi'yuh',] a haughty and violent French prelate. He
became Archbishop of Rouen in 1070. Died in 1079.
John OF BRIENNE, [Fr. JEAN DE BRIENNE, zhSx cleh
bRe'en',] King of Jerusalem, and Regent of Constanti
nople, was born in France. He assisted in the taking
of Jerusalem in 1204, and in 1218, at the head of a Latin
army, he took Damietta. In 1226 he was compelled to
resign Jerusalem to the emperor Frederick II. Three
years later he was elected, by the French barons in the
East, Regent of Constantinople, which he bravely de
fended against the Greek emperor John Ducas. Died
in 1237.
John OF BRUGES. See EYCK, (JOHN VAN.)
John OF CAPPADOCIA, a theologian, became Patriarch
of Constantinople about 518. He co-operated with the
pope Hormisdas in the restoration of union between
the Eastern and Western Churches. Died in 520.
John II. OF CAPPADOCIA became Patriarch of Con
stantinople about 582 A.D. Died in 596.
John, surnamed CLIMACUS or CLIMACHUS. See
CUMACUS.
John OF GIS'CALA or GISCHALA, a Jewish captain,.
was an enemy of Josephus the historian. He was the
chief of one of the factions of zealots and outlaws that
fought against each other and against the Romans in Je
rusalem while that city was besieged by Titus, in 70 A.D..
On the capture of the city he was imprisoned for life.
John OF LUXEMBURG, surnamed THE BLIND, son of
the emperor Henry VII., was born in 1295. In 1309
he was elected King of Bohemia, and in 1322 he con-
€ as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gitttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
81
Explanations, p. 23.)
JOHN
1282
JOHNSON
quered Silesia. In 1331 he formed a league with Louis
of Bavaria, Emperor of Germany, against Pope John
XXII., and entered Italy. The pope then offered to
recognize him as King of Italy. The emperor, in order
to prevent this, invaded Bohemia. John left the com
mand of his army in Italy to his son, returned to Bo
hemia, and drove out Louis. He was soon after attacked
with a disease in his eyes, which produced blindness,
but did not in the least affect his spirit of enterprise.
He invaded Poland, reduced it to subjection, and formed
an alliance with Philip of France against the English.
He was mortally wounded at the battle of Crecy, in 1346,
after having performed great feats of valour.
See FROISSART, "Chronicles;" SISMONDI, "Histoire des Fran-
cais."
John OF RAGUSA, a learned Romish prelate, was in
1426 sent by Martin V. to the Council of Bale, over which
he presided in 1431. He distinguished himself by his
controversies with the followers of Huss.
John OF SALISBURY, a learned scholastic philosopher
and writer, born at Salisbury about 1120. He entered
the service of Thomas a Becket, and became his secre
tary. In 1176 he was appointed Bishop of Chartres.
He wrote, besides other valuable works, " Polycraticus
de Nugis Curialium et Vestigiis Philosophortim," which
is a satire on the follies of courtiers, etc., and a "Life
of Thomas a Becket." Died in 1180. His works were
published by J. A. Giles, Oxford, (5 vols., 1848.)
See "Gallia Christiana," tome viii. ; 15. HAUREAU. "De la Philo
Sophie scholastique;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
John OF SEVILLE or DE LUNA, a learned Jewish
convert of the twelfth century. He translated into Span
ish many valuable Arabic works.
John OF SUABIA, surnamed THE PARRICIDE, born
in 1289, was a nephew of the emperor Albert I. The
latter, having withheld from him his hereditary domains,
was murdered by John and a band of conspirators.
See BRANTOME, "Vies des grands Capitaines."
John OF UDINK. See GIOVANNI.
John (Johann) Baptist, (JOSEPH FABIAN SEBAS
TIAN,) Archduke of Austria, born in 1782, was a son of
Leopold II. He succeeded Kray in 1800 as commander
of the Austrian army, and was defeated by General
Moreau at Hohenlinden, in December of that year. In
the campaign of 1809 he directed the operations in the
Tyrol, and gained a victory over the viceroy Eugene. In
June, 1848, he was elected Vicar of the German empire
by the Parliament at Frankfort. He resigned that office
in December, 1849. Died in 1859.
John Cas'i-mjr, [Ger. JOHANN CASIMIR, yo'han
ka'ze-m?K,] Count Palatine, born in 1543, was the second
son of the Elector-Palatine Frederick III. He was a
zealous Calvinist, and in 1568 raised an army with which
he invaded Lorraine to aid the French Huguenots. In
1575 he again entered France, as the ally of the Prince
of Conde. His court at Neustadt became the centre
of the Calvinist policy. After the death of his father,
John Casimir was the political chief of the Reformers.
Died in 1592.
See DE THOU, " Histoire Universelle ." DANIEL PARENS, "His-
toria Palatina;" F. JUNIUS, "Ecloga in Obitum Joannis Casimiri,"
1592; "Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale."
John Comnenus. See CALO-JOANNF.S.
John Damascenus. See DAMASCENUS.
John Frederick [Ger. JOHANN FRIEDRICH, yo'han
freed'riK] I. of Saxony, surnamed THE MAGNANIMOUS,
was a son of the Elector John the Constant, whom he
succeeded in 1532. Having joined the Protestant League
of Schmalkalden, he was taken prisoner at the battle of
Miihlberg, but was released through the intervention of
his cousin, Maurice of Saxony. Died in 1^4.
S/
B
sen," 1755.
John Frederick II., Duke of Saxony, and a son of
the preceding, was born in 1529. He began to reign
in 1554. Died in 1595.
John George [Ger. JOHANN GEORG, yo'han ga'oRG]
I., Elector of Saxony, born in 1585, began to reign in
1611. During the Thirty Years' war his course was
vacillating, alternately favouring the cause of the emperor
and of the Protestant allies. In 1635 he made a disad
vantageous peace with Ferdinand II. Died in 1656.
See KARL AUGUST MUI.I.ER, " Kurfurst Johann Georg I., seine
Familie," etc., 1838; SEELIGMANN, "Dissertatio de Vita Joannis
Georgii I.," 1676.
John George 'II., Elector of Saxony, born in 1613,
began to reign in 1656, and distinguished himself as a
legislator. Died in 1680.
See STOCKMANN, " Programma : Elector Joannes Georgius II.
Saxonio: et Lusatiae Legislator," 1789.
John of Antioch, or John the Scholastic, [Lat.
JOHAN'NES ANTIOCHE'NUS, or JOHAN'NES SCHOLAS'TI-
cus; Fr. JEAN D'ANTIOCHE, zhoN d6N'te-osh',] a Greek
canonist, born at Antioch, became Patriarch of Constan
tinople in 565 A.D. fie published a collection of canons.
Died in 578. (See MALALA.)
John of Bologna. See BOLOGNA.
John of Damascus. See DAMASCENUS.
John of Gaunt or Ghent, Duke of Lancaster, a
younger son of Edward III. of England, was born in
1340. He served under his brother Edward the Black
Prince in the French wars, where he gained great dis
tinction for his skill and bravery. He married Constance,
a natural daughter of Peter the Cruel, King of Castile
j and Leon, and, on the death of that monarch, laid claim
to the sovereignty of those kingdoms, but was defeated
by Henry of Trastamara. He subsequently gave his
daughter in marriage to the heir-apparent of the crowns
of Castile and Leon, upon which he resigned his own
claims. His third wife was a sister of the poet Chaucer,
to whom he proved a liberal patron. Died in 1399. His
son, surnamed Bolingbroke, afterwards ascended the
throne of England, with the title of Henry IV.
John of Leyden, sometimes called Johann Bock-
elson or Beccold, a notorious fanatic, born at Leyden
in 1510. Having joined the Anabaptists, he associated
himself with Matthys, and with his followers took pos
session of the city of Minister. After committing the
greatest excesses and cruelties, he was taken prisoner
by the Bishop of Minister, and executed in 1536.
See JOCHMUS, " Gescliiclite der Miinsterschen Wiedertatifer ;"
ROBERTSON, " History of Charles V.," book v. ; C. A. VULPIUS,
"Johann von Leyden, 1793; J. C. WALI.MANN, "Johann von Ley
den," 1844; ERSCII und GKUHER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
John the Baptist, | Fr. JEAN BAPTISTE, zh6N bfp'-
test'; It. GIOVANNI BATTISTA, jo-vaii'nee bat-tis'ta,]
son of Zacharias, a Jewish priest, and his wife Elisabeth.
It was foretold of him that he should come in the spirit
and power of Elias, to prepare the way of the Lord.
(Luke i. 17.) Our Saviour also said that no prophet
was greater than John the Baptist. (Luke vii. 28.) He
began to preach and to baptize in the desert country
through which the Jordan flowed. It was here that
Jesus received baptism and was proclaimed by him as
the promised Messiah. He was subsequently cast into
prison, and beheaded by the order of Herod.
See Mark vi. 16-30.
Johnes, j6nz, ? (THOMAS,) an English scholar and
bibliomaniac, born at Ludlow, in Shropshire, in 1748.
He was twice elected a member of Parliament. lie
translated Froi.-sart's "Chronicle," and other literary
works, from the French. Died in 1816.
John'son, (ALEXANDER B.,) an author and banker,
born in Gosport, England, in 1786. He settled in Utica,
New York, in 1801, and engaged in banking operations
in that town. He devoted his leisure to the study of
the nature of human knowledge, or ideas irrespective of
the words by which they are expressed. The results of
his investigation are his "Philosophy of Human Know
ledge, or a Treatise on Language," (1828,) a " Treatise on
Language, or the Relation which Words bear to Things,"
(1836,) and other publications on the same subject. His
"Physiology of the Senses" (1856) was highly com
mended by the "Westminster Review." He has also
published a "Treatise on Banking."
John'son, (ANDREW,) the seventeenth President of
the United States, was born at Raleigh, North Carolina,
in 1808. He learned the trade of a tailor, which he fol
lowed formany years at Greenville, Tennessee. He was
self-educated, and, it is said, never attended any school.
5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mgt; nfit; good; moon;
JOHNSON
1283
JOHNSON
In 1828 he was elected alderman, and in 1830 mayor, of
Greenville. After he had served several terms in the
legislature of Tennessee, he was elected a member of
Congress by the Democrats in 1843, and continued in
that body for ten years. He was chosen Governor of
Tennessee in 1853, and again in 1855. In 1857 he was
elected a United States Senator for six. years. Having
taken a decided stand against the disunion movement in
1860 and 1861, he was appointed Military Governor of
Tennessee by President Lincoln in 1862. He was elected
Vice-Preside'nt of the United States by the Republicans
in November, 1864, and, on the death of Mr. Lincoln,
became President in April, 1865. On his accession to
office he displayed at first a spirit of great severity
against the rebels, but soon afterwards adopted a line of
policy in relation to the reconstruction of the seceded
States which was very favourable to them. His policy,
which tended to restore the domination of the secession
ists and to reduce the freedmen again to many of the
evils of slavery, was rejected by a majority of Congress ;
and a violent contest ensued between that body and the
President, who vetoed numerous acts passed by Con
gress for the reconstruction of the Southern States, etc.
His vetoes, however, were overruled by a majority of
two-thirds in each House, and the policy of Congress
prevailed. In the course of a tour from Washington to
Chicago, in 1866, he made many undignified political
speeches, which rendered him very unpopular, and in
the next elections his opponents, the Radicals, obtained j
large and increased majorities. He opposed impartial I
suffrage, recommended repudiation, and co-operated with
the Democratic party. He pardoned a large number \
of counterfeiters. In August, 1867, he suspended Mr. |
Stanton, secretary of war, and appointed General Grant
secretary ad interim. The Senate of the United States
reinstated Mr. Stanton in January, 1868, and President
Johnson quarrelled with General Grant because he gave
up the war office to Mr. Stanton. Great excitement was
produced by the attempt of the President to remove Mr. I
Stanton in February, and he was impeached of high j
crimes and misdemeanours by a large majority of the I
House of Representatives. Among the crimes charged !
against him w:as the violation of the "Act regulating;
the Tenure of certain Civil Offices," by the removal of j
Mr. Stanton without the consent of the Senate. The
trial before the Senate began about March 13, and ended,
May 26, in his acquittal. Thirty-five Senators voted that
he was guilty, and nineteen voted not guilty. Among
the latter were seven Republicans.
See "Life of Andrew Johnson," New York, 1866; "The Trial
of Andrew Johnson," (official,) 3 vols., 1868.
Johnson, (BF.x.) See JONSON, (BEN.)
Johnson, (CHAPMAN,) an eminent American lawyer,
born in Virginia in 1779. He began the practice of law
at Staunton, and rose to the first rank in his profession.
He served as aide-de-camp to General James Brecken-
riclge in the second war with Great Britain. Died in 1849.
John'son, (CHARLES,) an English dramatic writer,
born in 1679, is mentioned in Pope's "Dunciad," particu
larly on account of h'is obesity. The comedy of the
"Country Lasses" was the most popular of his plays.
Died in 1748.
See BAKER, "Biographia Dramatica."
Johnson, (CUTHBKRT W.,) an English writer on agri
culture, born at Bromley, Kent, about 1800. He pub
lished "The Farmer's Encyclopaedia and Dictionary of
Rural Affairs," (1842.)
Johnson, (EASTMAN,) an American painter of por
traits and genre, born near Freyburg, Maine. Among
his works are "The Old Kentucky Home," "Savoyard
Boy," "The Woodsman," "The Chimney-Corner," and
other admirable delineations of common life.
See Tt'CKERMAN, " Book of the Artists."
Johnson, (EDWARD,) one of the earliest historians of
New England, born in Kent, England, about 1600. He
emigrated to Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1630. Died
in 1672. His valuable "History of New England from
the English Planting in 1628 till 1652" was published in
London in 1650, and afterwards in the Massachusetts
Historical Collections.
Johnson, (EDWARD,) an American general, born in
Kentucky, graduated at West Point in 1838. He com
manded a division of Lee's army at Gettysburg, July 1-3,
1863, and was taken prisoner at Spottsylvania Court-
House, May 12, 1864.
Johnson, (GANRIEL.) See JOHNSTON.
Johnson, (HKSTKR.) See SWIFI*, (JONATHAN.)
Johnson,( ISAAC,) one of the founders of Massachusetts
colony, came from England with Governor Winthrop in
1630. He and three others organized, July 30, the church
of Boston at Charlestown ; but, for the want of good
water, they removed to Shawmut, now Boston, which
was settled under Johnson's supervision. Died in 1630.
Johnson, (JAMES,) an Irish physician, born about
1777, practised in London. He published, besides other
medical works, a "Treatise on the Influence of Tropical
Climates on European Constitutions," and "The Econ
omy of Health." Died in 1845.
See " Life of Dr. James Johnson," by his son, 1846.
Johnson, (JOHN,) a learned nonjuring divine, born
in Kent, England, in 1662. He was the author of " Holy
David and his Old English Translation Cleared," written
in answer to one of the works of Baxter, " The Clergy
man's Vacle-Mecum," (1708,) and several other works.
Died in 1725.
See THOMAS BRETT, "Life of John Johnson," 174?.
Johnson, (Sir JOHN,) a general, son of Sir William,
noticed below, was born in 1742. He was a royalist in
the Revolution, instigated the Indians to fight for the
king, and conducted several raids from Canada against
the State of New York. Near the close of last century
he was appointed Governor of Upper Canada. Died in
1830.
Johnson, (JOSEPH,) M.D., brother of Judge William
Johnson, was born in Charleston in 1776. He practised
as a physician in his native city, and in 1807 was chosen
president of the Medical Society of South Carolina. He
took an active part in the literary and political move
ments of Charleston, was long mayor of the city, and a
prominent leader of the party which opposed nullifica
tion in 1832-^3. He wrote a valuable work entitled " Tra
ditions and Reminiscences of the Revolution," (1851.)
Johnson, (MANUEL JOHN,) an English astronomer,
born about 1805. He was astronomer of the Radcliffe
Observatory of Oxford, and published "Astronomical
Observations," (13 vols., 1845-55.) Died in 1859.
Johnson, (MARTIN,) an English landscape-painter
and seal-engraver of the time of Charles II. Died
about 1685.
Johnson, (MAURICE,) an English lawyer and antiqua
rian, born in Lincolnshire. He founded an antiquarian
society at Spalding, and wrote several commentaries.
Died in 1755.
Johnson, (REVERDY,) an American lawyer, son of
Judge Johnson, was born in Annapolis, Maryland, May
21, 1796. He studied at Saint John's College, was
admitted to the bar in 1815, and followed his profession
with great success in Baltimore. He has also been
extensively engaged in cases before the supreme court of
the United States. In 1845 ne was elected by the Whigs
to the United States Senate. This position he resigned
in 1849 to accept the attorney-generalship of the United
States, tendered him by President Taylor. On the death
of General Taylor, in July, 1850, Mr. Johnson resumed
his profession in Baltimore. In connection with Thomas
Harris, he has published seven volumes of reports of
the Maryland court of appeals, (from 1800 to 1826.) He
was elected a Senator of the United States for six years,
(1863-69,) and appointed minister to England in June,
1868. He negotiated in relation to the Alabama claims
a convention which the Senate of the United States
rejected almost unanimously. He was recalled early
in 1869.
Johnson, (RICHARD,) a commentator and gramma
rian, born in England. Among his works are " Noctes
Nottinghamicae," and " Grammatical Commentaries."
Died in 1721.
Johnson, (RICHARD MENTOR,) ninth Vice-President
of the United States, was born near Louisville, Kentucky,
in 1780. He studied at Transylvania University, and
practised law with success. Elected a representative
•t as k; c as s: g hard; g as /; G, H, K. guttural: N, nasal: R, trilled: s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
JOHNSON
1284
JOHNSON
to Congress in 1807, he zealously supported the admin
istration of President Madison, and was regularly re-
elected for a period of twelve years. On the breaking
out of the war of 1812, he raised and commanded a
regiment of mounted riflemen on the Indian frontier. In
1813 he again took the field, and contributed greatly to
Harrison's victory of the Thames, (October 5, 1813.)
The Indian chief Tecumseh, who fell in this battle, is
generally believed to have been killed by Colonel John
son, who was dangerously wounded. In 1819 he was
transferred to the United States Senate, of which he
was a member for ten years. He was again returned to
the House of Representatives in 1829, and was regularly
re-elected till chosen Vice-President in 1837, Van Buren
being the President. None of the candidates for Vice-
President having on that occasion received a majority
of votes in the electoral college, Colonel Johnson was
elected by the United States Senate. He was again
the candidate for the Vice-Presidency on the ticket with
Van Buren in 1840, but was defeated. Died in 1850.
Johnson, (RICHARD W.,) an American general, born
in Kentucky about 1827, graduated at West Point in
1849. He commanded a division at the battle of Stone
River, December 31, i862-January 2, 1863, and at Chick-
amauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. He served under
General Sherman in Georgia in May, 1864.
Johu'spn, (SAMUEL,) an English divine, memorable
for his undaunted support of the Protestant cause, was
born in Staffordshire in 1649. Soon after he had taken
orders he removed to London. He became an earnest
advocate of the bill of exclusion against James, Duke
of York, and published a tract entitled "Julian the
Apostate," (1682,) in which he refuted the arguments in
favour of passive obedience. For writing this article he
was tried and imprisoned ; but during his confinement he
issued several treatises against popery. In 1686 he wrote
"An Humble and Hearty Address to all the English
Protestants in the Present Army." For the production
of this essay he was sentenced to stand three times in
the pillory, to pay a fine of five hundred marks, and to
be publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn. lie bore
all these sufferings with great firmness. He subsequently
wrote in favour of the Revolution, and also of William
of Orange, on whose accession he was rewarded with
a present of £1000 and an annuity of ^300. Died in
Johnson, (SAMUEL,) an eccentric English dramatic
writer, born in Cheshire about 1705. He wrote, besides
other comedies, " Hurlothrumbo, or the Supernatural."
Died in r773.
See BAKER, "Biogiaphia Dramatica."
Johnson, (SAMUK.L,) one of the most eminent Eng
lish writers of the eighteenth century, a son of Michael
Johnson, a bookseller, was born at Lichfield, September
18, 1709. He commenced his studies in his native town,
and subsequently continued them at a school in Stour-
bridge. In 1728 he entered Pembroke College, Oxford.
From boyhood he had been afflicted with the scrofula,
which greatly impaired his eyesight and weakened his
constitution. To this may be attributed the natural in
dolence. which he never fully succeeded in overcoming.
Notwithstanding these obstacles, he acquired such stores
of knowledge that, when he was examined at Oxford,
one of the officers pronounced him to be the best pre
pared among all those who had entered since his re
membrance. Three years afterwards he was under the
necessity of leaving college, on account of the narrowness
of his resources. The same year, his father dying under
pecuniary embarrassments, he obtained employment as
usher to a school in Market-Bosworth. The duties of
this office, however,, soon became so irksome that he
threw it up and removed to Birmingham, where he had
made an engagement to contribute to a newspaper. It
was there, also, that he produced his first book, an
abridged translation from the French of " Father Lobos'
Voyage into Abyssinia," for which he received the small
compensation of five guineas. In 1736 he married Mrs.
Porter, the widow of a mercer. This lady is described
as being nearly twice • his age, and as having vulgar
vmanners, a loud voice, and florid complexion. Johnson
Said, however, that it was a love-match on both sides.
Not long after, he attempted to establish an academy at
Edial Hall, where he obtained only three pupils, one of
whom was David Garrick. In 1737 he went to London,
accompanied by Garrick. In a short time he produced,
in imitation of the third Satire of Juvenal, a poem on
London, which attracted great attention. Pope remarked
"that the author, whoever he was, would not be long
concealed." It was in the metropolis that Johnson
formed a friendship for the poet Savage, with whom he
frequently walked the streets at night because they were
too poor to procure lodgings. In 1740 he wrote the
parliamentary speeches for the " Gentleman's Magazine,''
and in 1744 published the "Life of Richard Savage."
Three years later he commenced his English Dictionary.
In March, 1749, the first number of the " Rambler" was
issued. Johnson continued this periodical until his wife's
death, in 1752, which affected his mind so deeply that he
suspended many of his literary labours. In 1762 George
III. granted him a pension of ^300 per annum; and
from that time he was enabled to live in ease and inde
pendence. He became a member of the famous literary
club to which Burke, Goldsmith, Reynolds, and many
other celebrated men belonged. He received the degree
of LL.D. in 1765 from the University of Dublin, but did
not assume the title until several years later, when the
same honour was conferred on him by the University of
Oxford. He was also treated with marked attention by
the king, to whom he was introduced at the library in
Buckingham House. In 1773 he made an excursion to
the Western Islands of Scotland, of which he wrote
an account, and two years later visited Paris. In 1781
he finished the " Lives of the British Poets," the last of
his literary works. He died in 1784, from the effects
of dropsy and asthma.
Johnson's intellect was incisive, comprehensive, and
profound ; and, when fre'e from the influence of prejudice
or passion, his judgments are, generally speaking, re
markably just. He seemed to seize, instantaneously and
without effort, the essential features of the subject under
discussion, and his decisions are often expressed with a
clearness and force that make a vivid and indelible im
pression upon the minds of his readers. He was pre
eminently distinguished for his conversational powers ;
in society he was original, pointed, logical, and fond of
argument, in which no one but Burke could successfully
encounter him. Much of the intolerance and ill temper
which he too often betrayed on such occasions must be
ascribed to distressing and deep-rooted bodily infirmi
ties, which powerfully reacted upon his mind. If his
disposition was irritable, his heart was essentially kind
and generous. Few persons, with means so limited as
his, ever spent more for charitable or benevolent pur
poses. "He loved the poor," says Mrs. Thrale, "as I
never yet saw any one else love them. . . . He nursed
whole nests of people in his house, where the lame, the
blind, the sick, and the sorrowful found a sure retreat."
Francis Barber, the servant and friend of Dr. Johnson,
was originally a Jamaica slave. It is related that John
son, on making his will, asked his physician what would
be a sufficient annuity for a faithful servant. Being told
that fifty pounds a year would be regarded as adequate
in the case of a nobleman, " Then," he said, " I shall
be nolrilissimiis ; for I mean to leave Frank seventy pounds
a year." "That, with all his coarseness and irrita
bility," says Macaulay, (who will scarcely be accused of
any undue partiality to Johnson,) "he was a man of
sterling benevolence, has long been acknowledged. But
how gentle and endearing his deportment could be was
not known till the ' Recollections of Madame D'Arblay '
were published." Although certainly not wanting in a
proper respect for dignities, he possessed a true Saxon
independence of character, of which his well-known letter
to Lord Chesterfield furnishes a fine illustration. He
was a sincere and humble believer in the great truths
of Christianity, which he ably upheld and defended.
Johnson was great in all the branches of literature to
which he devoted his attention. Few men have exerted
so great an influence while living, — an influence which
will probably be felt far into the future. His poems,
\\hich are chiefly descriptive and satirical, have been
greatly admired by some of the most eminent critics.
a, e, I, 5, «, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon;
JOHNSON
1285
JOHNSTON
" I have had," said Sir Walter Scott, " more pleasure
in reading 'London' and the 'Vanity of Human Wishes'
than any other poetical composition that I can mention."
Of the latter Byron remarks, " Tis a grand poem, all
the examples and mode of giving them sublime." His
romances and plays attracted less attention. He was
particularly unsuccessful with his female characters.
Burke aptly remarked that among his dramatis persona
"all the ladies introduced were Johnsons in petticoats."
His excellence in literary criticism lies in his strength,
perspicuity, and originality of thought. His critical
observations are generally extremely just (as already
intimated) when not biased by prejudice. He had not,
however, that nice discrimination or sensibility requisite
in order to appreciate poetical beauties of a delicate or
subtle kind. His most important critical works are the
" I'reface and Notes to Shakspeare," and " The Lives
of the British Poets." His English Dictionary, upon
which he bestowed vast labour for several years, is
probably the most remarkable work of the kind "ever
produced by a single person. His style, precise and
stately, was much admired and imitated during his
lifetime ; but at present the prevailing taste in literature
has pronounced it too artificial and elaborate to be ever
used as a model.
See BOSWELL, "Life of Johnson ;" review of CROKER'S edition
of BOSWELL'S "Life of Johnson," in MACAUI.AY'S "Essays;"
"Anecdotes of Dr. Johnson," by MADAME PIOZZI, (MRS. THRAI.E,-}
1786; ANDERSON, "Life of Johnson," 1795; THOMAS CAKI.YLE,
"Heroes and Hero- Worship ;" SCOTT'S Miscellaneous Prose
Works ; GARY, " Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke
White;" "London Quarterly Review" for November, 1831, June,
1850, April, 1858, and January, 1859 ; "Westminster Review" for
October, 1831 ; see, also, the excellent and elaborate article in ALLI-
BONE'S " Dictionary of Authors."
Johnson, (SAMUEL,) D.D., born in Guilford, Con
necticut, in 1696, graduated at Yale in 1714. Having
become an Episcopalian, he took holy orders in England
in 1722, and on his return settled at Stratford. He was
chosen president of King's College in 1754. This posi
tion he resigned in 1763. Died in 1772. He wrote,
besides other works, a " System of Morality."
Johnson, (THOMAS,) a lieutenant-colonel in the royal
army, distinguished as a botanist, was born at Selby,
in Yorkshire. He received from the University of Ox
ford the title of M.D. He was mortally wounded at
the siege of Basinghouse, in 1644. He wrote several
botanical works.
Johnson, (THOMAS,) an English scholar, born in
Oxfordshire, was educated at Cambridge, where in 1692
he received the degree of M.A. He edited Sophocles,
(1705,) and other classical works. Died about 1750.
Johnson, (WALTER ROGERS,) an American chemist
and geologist, born in Leominster, Massachusetts, about
1794. He graduated at Harvard in 1819; and, while
professor of mechanics, natural philosophy, etc. in the
Philadelphia High School, he contributed largely by
lectures and essays towards introducing an improved
system of common-school education in Pennsylvania.
He afterwards made important investigations in the
geology of that State, particularly the coal formations,
filled for four years (1839-43) the chair of chemistry in
the Medical University of Pennsylvania, and in 1844
published, by order of Congress, his " Report on the
Different Varieties of Coal." Died in 1852.
Johnson, ( WILLIAM,) judge of the supreme court of
the United States, was born in Charleston, South Caro
lina, in 1771. He was a brother of Joseph, noticed above.
He graduated at Princeton, with the highest honours of
his class, in 1790, rose to distinction at the bar of his
native State, and was appointed judge by Jefferson in
1801. He died, while undergoing a surgical operation,
in New York, in 1834. He published "The Life and
Correspondence of Major-General Greene," (2 vols.,
1822.) .
Johnson, (Sir WILLIAM,) a British military officer,
born about 1715, was employed in North America, and
had great influence over the Indians. He commanded
an expedition sent against Crown Point in 1755, a"d
defeated the French and their Indian allies. He wrote
a short work "On the Customs and Languages of the
American Indians." Died in New York in 1774.
See " Life and Times of Sir W. John? on," by W. L. STONE, 1865.
Johnson, (WILLIAM B.,) a Baptist minister, born near
Charleston, South Carolina, in 1782. He presided over
the Baptist Convention of South Caiolina for twenty- five
years or more. He was the author of several religious
works.
Johnson, (WILLIAM SAMUEL,) F.R.S., an eloquent
American lawyer and scholar, born at Stratford, Con
necticut, in 1727, graduated at Yale in 1744. Having
been sent as a colonial agent to England in 1766, he
became an acquaintance of the celebrated Dr. Johnson,
with whom he corresponded for many years. He was
elected to Congress in 1785, was a member of the con
vention which formed the Federal Constitution in 1787,
and was elected a United States Senator for Connecticut
in 1789. He was president of Columbia College, New
York, from 1791 until 1800. Died in 1819.
Johiis'ton, (ALBERT SYDNEY,) an eminent American
general, born in Mason county, Kentucky, in 1803,
graduated at West Point in 1826. Having resigned his
commission in 1834, he enlisted as a private soldier in
the army of Texas in 1836. He soon became commander-
in-chief, in place of F. Houston, with whom he fought
a duel about 1837. He was secretary of war of the
republic of Texas, 1838-40, and served as colonel of
the army of the United States in the Mexican war,
(1846-47.) In 1849 ne was appointed paymaster of the
army of the United States. Having been raised to the
rank of colonel, he commanded the expedition sent to
Utah against the Mormons in 1857. In 1860 he took
command of the department of the Pacific. He offered
his services to the secessionists in 1861, and was ap
pointed commander of the department of Kentucky
and Tennessee. He occupied a fortified position at
Bowling Green in the autumn of 1861. The capture
of Fort Donelson, February 16, 1862, having rendered
this position untenable, he moved hastily southward
into Tennessee, and formed a junction with the army
of General Beauregard at Corinth. About six weeks
were spent in this disastrous retreat. He collected a
force of about 50,000 men at Corinth, and attacked the
army of General Grant at Shiloh on the 6th of April,
1862. He was killed about two P.M. on the first day
of this battle, by a ball, which cut an artery of his leg.
"A. S. Johnston," says Mr. Greeley, "was probably
the ablest commander at any time engaged in the rebel
service." ("American Conflict.")
See Life of A. S. Johnston in "Southern Generals," (anony
mous.) 1865; TENNEY, "Military and Naval History of the Rebel
lion," 1865.
Johiis'tpn, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish painter, born in
Edinburgh in 1816. His works mostly represent familiar
scenes of Scottish life, or events in Scottish history.
Johnston, (ALEXANDER KEITH,) an eminent geog
rapher, was born at Kirkhill, in Scotland, in 1804. In
order to be thoroughly informed upon geography, he
made himself acquainted with the French, Spanish,
Italian, and German languages. His first important
work, the "National Atlas," was issued in 1843. In
1848 he published a valuable "Physical Atlas," which
greatly extended the celebrity of its author. He was
elected a member of the Geographical Societies of Ber
lin and Paris, of the Geological Society of London, and
the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Of the other works
of Mr. Johnston may be mentioned "A Dictionary of
Geography," (1850,) and an "Atlas of the Historical
Geography of Europe."
See " Biackwood's Magazine" for April, 1849.
Johnston, (Dr. ARTHUR,) a Scottish physician and
poet, eminent for his classical learning, was born in Aber-
deenshire in 1587. He pursued his studies mostly on
the continent, and in 1610 received the degree of M.D.
at Padua. He afterwards resided at Paris several years,
and on his return to England, in 1632, was appointed
physician-in-ordinary to Charles I. Died in 1641. He
contributed to Sir John Scott's collection of Latin
poems, and composed, in Latin, "Poetical Paraphrases
of the Psalms of David," (1637.) "I am inclined to
think," says Hallam, "that Johnston's Psalms do not
fall far short of those of Buchanan, either in elegance
of style or in correctness of Latinity."
See IRVING, "Lives of Scottish Writers;" CHAMBERS, " Bio
graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,giMiiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2®=See Explanations, p. 23.)
JOHNSTON
1286
JOHN STONE
Johnston, (GABRIEL,) a native of Scotland, was ap
pointed colonial governor of North Carolina in 1734;
died in 1752.
Johnston, (GEORGE,) a distinguished naturalist, was
born at Simprin in 1789, and graduated as a physician at
the University of Edinburgh in 1819. Among his inter
esting and valuable contributions to science may be men
tioned " History of British Zoophytes," (1838,) " History
of British Sponges and Lithophytes," (1842,) papers on
"British and Irish Annelides," a work on Conchology,
(1850,) and " Botany of the Eastern Borders," (1854.)
He practised medicine at Berwick-on-Tweed for many
years. Died in 1855.
See a notice of G. Johnston in the "Gentleman's Magazine"
for September, 1855.
Johnston, (JAMKS T. W.,) a noted agricultural chem
ist, was born at Paisley, in Scotland, about 1796. lie
studied in Sweden, under Bencelius. In 1833 he was
appointed professor of chemistry in the University of
Durham. He also visited America, where he became
distinguished as an agricultural chemist. Among his
works are the " Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and
Geology," (1842,) " Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry
and Geology," (1844,) a work which has been translated
into nearly every European language, "Contributions
to Scientific Agriculture," (1849,) "Notes on North
America," (1851,) and " Chemistry of Common Life,"
(2 vols., 1854-55.) Died in 1855.
Johnston, (JoHN,) a Scottish poet and scholar, was
professor of divinity in the College of Saint Andrew's.
He wrote, besides other poems, " Heroes ex Omni His-
toria Scotica Lectissimi," (1603.) Died in 1612.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Johnston, (JOHN,) an eminent physician and natural
philosopher, born in Poland in 1603. He graduated at
the Universities of Leyclen and Cambridge. He wrote,
besides other works, in Latin, the "Wonders of Nature,
divided into Ten Classes," which was a natural history
of beasts, birds, fishes, and insects. Died in 1675.
Johnston, (JOSEPH EGGLKSTON,) an able American
general, born in Prince Edward county, Virginia, about
1809. His mother, whose maiden name was Wood, was
a niece of Patrick Henry. He graduated at West Point
in 1829, gained the rank of captain in 1846, and served
with distinction in the Mexican war, 1846-47. In June,
1860, he was appointed quartermaster-general, with the
rank of brigadier-general. He resigned his commission
in April, 1861, and was immediately appointed a major-
general, or general, by Jefferson Davis. He took com
mand of a force at Harper's Ferry in May, 1861, and was
opposed in that vicinity by General Patterson. Having
eluded Patterson, he moved his army rapidly to Ma-
it assas, and effected a junction with the army of Beau-
regard on the 2Oth or 2ist of July. General Johnston
was superior in rank to Beauregard, but he waived his
claim to precedence in the battle of Bull Run, July 21.
He remained inactive at Manassas Junction during the
autumn of 1861 and the ensuing winter. About the 8th
of March, 1862, he changed his base and retired behind
the Rapidan. He soon moved his army to the peninsula
to oppose McClellan, and, having been repulsed at Wil-
liamsburg, May 5, retreated towards Richmond. On
the 3 1st of May he attacked a part of the Union army at
Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines. In this battle he received
a severe wound, which disabled him for several months.
In November, 1862, he was assigned to the command of
a department comprising Tennessee, Alabama, and Mis
sissippi. He reported in April, 1863, that he was still
unfit for active service in the field. After General Grant
approached Vicksburg from the south, General Johnston
moved a small army to relieve that place, and reached
Jackson on the I3th of May. He was defeated on the
I4th, abandoned Jackson, and retreated to Canton. On
the 2gth of May he wrote to General Pemberton, " I am
too weak to save Vicksburg. Can do no more than
attempt to save you and your garrison." In December,
1863, he took command in person of the army which had
recently been defeated by General Grant near Chatta
nooga, and which was required to oppose the advance
of General Sherman towards Atlanta. He began this
campaign with about 55,000 men, occupying a strong
and fortified position at Dalton, Georgia. This position
having been turned by the Union army, Johnston fell
back to Resaca, where he was attacked on the 151)1 of
May. After a severe battle, he retreated in the ensuing
night, closely pursued, and reached Cassville, near the
Etowali River, on the igth. Having crossed the Etowah
under cover of the night, General Johnston made another
stand in the strong position of Allatoona Pass, to dis
lodge him from which General Sherman ordered a flank
movement to Dallas. General Johnston attacked the
Federals at Dallas on the 28th of May, was repulsed,
and on the 4th of June retreated to Kenesaw Mountain.
On the 27th of June, General Sherman made an unsuc
cessful assault on the works at Kenesaw, but he resorted
again to a flank movement, which compelled General
Johnston to abandon Kenesaw on the 2d or ^d of July,
and to retreat across the Chattahoocb.ee. He was re
moved from the command on the i8th of July, 1864.
Before this date he had attained the rank of general,
the highest in the service. He obtained command of
an army in South Carolina about February, 1865, and
on the iSth of March attacked the advance of General
Sherman's army at Bentonville, North Carolina. He
retreated to Smithfield on the 2ist of March, and
surrendered his army to General Sherman on the 26th
of April, 1865, on the same terms as were granted to
General Lee. (See SHERMAN, W. T.)
See a " Life of General J. E. Johnston" in "Southern Generals,"
1865.
Johnston, (Rov.>:RT,) a Scottish historical writer, was
the author of a " History of his Own Times," (1642, in
Latin.) Died about 1636.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Jolmstone (jons'ton) or Johnston of Warriston,
(ARCHIBALD,) a Scottish statesman, and leader of the
Presbyterians. He held several high offices, and was
an adherent of the Parliament in the civil war which
began in 1642. He became lord advocate in 1646, and
was created a peer by Cromwell. He was executed as
a rebel in 1663.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Johnstone, (BRYCE,) an eminent Scottish divine, born
in Dumfriesshire in 1747. He studied at the University
of Edinburgh, which in 1786 unanimously conferred upon
him the degree of D.D. Among his works may be men
tioned " Commentary on the Revelation of Saint John
the Divine," (1794,) "Essay on the Influence of Religion
on Civil Society and Civil Government," and a treatise
on agriculture. Died in 1805.
See a "Life of Bryce Johnstone," by his nephew, JOHN JOHN-
STONE, 1808.
Johnstone, Johnson, or Johnston, (CHARLES,) an
author, born in Ireland about 1720, was educated for the
bar. The most important of his productions was a po
litical romance, entitled "Chrysal, or the Adventures of
a Guinea," (1760,) which met with a great sale. Besides
this, he wrote "The Reverie, or a Flight to the Paradise
of Fools," (1762,) "Arsaces, Prince of Betlis," and other
works. Died in Calcutta in 1800.
See SIR WALTER SCOTT'S Miscellaneous Prose Works.
Johnstone, (GEORGE,) a diplomatist and post-captain
in the royal navy, the son of a Scottish baronet. In 1763
he was made Governor of West Florida. During the
American Revolution he was appointed (in 1778) one of
the commissioners sent with Lord Carlisle to the United
States to treat with Congress. Died in 1787.
Johnstone, ([AMES,) a distinguished Scottish physi
cian, born at Annan in 1730, was educated at Edinburgh
and Paris. lie was very successful in malignant fevers,
on which he wrote a treatise. He is also said to have been
the first to recommend the use of mineral acids in those
diseases. Among his other works may be mentioned
" Medical Essays and Observations, with Disquisitions
relating to the Nervous System," (1795.) He practised
at Worcester, where he died in 1802.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Johnstone, (JoHN,) son of the preceding, was bom
in 1768, and educated at Oxford. He was equally
celebrated as a skilful physician and an accomplished
scholar. He wrote the "Life of Dr. Parr," (1828,) with
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
JOHN STONE
1287
JOMBERT
whom he was very intimate ; also several medical works.
He practised in Birmingham about forty years. Died
in 1836.
See a notice of J. Johnstone in the " Gentleman's Magazine" for
May, 1837.
Johnstone, (JOHN HENRY,) a celebrated comic actor
and vocalist, born in Ireland in 1750; died in 1828.
Johnstone, jons'ton, de, CHEVALIER, a native of
Edinburgh, entered in 1745 the army of the Pretender, to
whom he soon became aide-de-camp. He served at the
battle of Prestonpans and in subsequent engagements.
After the battle of Culloden he escaped to Paris, and re
ceived an appointment in the French army. He wrote,
in FVench, " Memoirs of the Rebellion in 1745 and 1746,"
which was translated and published in London in 1820.
Died in France at an advanced age.
See the "Monthly Review" for May, 1822.
Joinville, zhwaN'vel', (EmioND,) a French landscape-
painter, born in Paris in 1801 ; died in 1849.
Joiiiville, de, deh join'vil or zhwaN'vel', (FRANCOIS
FERDINAND PHILIPPE Louis MARIE I/ORLEANS, )
PRINCE, the third son of King Louis Philippe, was born
in 1818. He served in the navy, and obtained the rank
of captain for his conduct at the attack on Vera Cruz in
1838. In 1840 he was sent to Saint Helena to bring the
remains of Napoleon to France. He commanded the
naval division which bombarded Tangier in 1844, and gave
an impulse to the construction of steam ships of war by
his " Note sur les Forces navales de la France," (1844.)
See " Nouvelie Biographic Generale."
Joinville, de, (JEAN or JEHAN,) SIRE, a French noble
man and chronicler of high reputation, born in Cham
pagne in 1224. He grew up at the court of Thibaut, King
of Navarre and Count of Champagne, and in 1248 raised
several hundred armed men from among his tenants and
accompanied Louis IX. in his first crusade to the Holy
Land. He soon became a great favourite with this
monarch. Joinville distinguished himself for bravery at
the capture of Damietta in Egypt, and was subsequently,
with Louis, made prisoner at Mansoorah. He returned
to France with the king in 1254. He wrote a very in
teresting work entitled "History of Saint Louis IX.,
King of France, by Jehan Sire de Joinville." "In this
history," says Ambrose Firmin Didot, "which is one of
the most precious monuments of ancient or modern
times, the Christian, the maji of the world, the friend of
the king, and the naif historian, display themselves with
such naturalness, simplicity, and candour that the reader
can penetrate the inner heart of the author by the simple
recital which he has given us. . . . His natural and
easy style has all the charm of conversation." ("Nou
velie Biographic Generale.") He is supposed to have
died about 1317.
See F. FERIEL, " Notice sur Jean de Joinville," 1853; CIIF.ZJEAN,
"Notice historique sur Sire de Joinville," 1853; SAINTE-BEUVE,
" Causeries du Lundi."
Joliet, zho'Ie-i', (Louis,) a French traveller, was one
of the first white men that explored the Mississippi
River. He had resided some time at Quebec before
1673, when he and Marquette were sent to explore that
river. (See MARQUETTE.) After the end of that voyage
it appears that he returned to Quebec. Died about 1730.
Joliveau de Segrais, zho'le'vo' deh seh'gRi', (MA
RIE MADELEINE NICOLE ALEXANDRINE,) a French
poetess, born at Bar-sur-Aube in 1756; died in 1830.
She wrote " New Fables in Verse," etc.
Jolivet, de, deh zho'Ie'vft', (JEAN BAPTISTE MOYSE,)
COUNT, a French advocate, born in 1754, was elected
in 1791 to the Legislative Assembly, in which he boldly
denounced the Jacobins. On the accession of Napoleon
he was created councillor of state. Died in 1818. He
wrote various works on political economy.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire. "
Jollivet, zho'le'vi', (ADOLPHE,) a French politician,
born in 1799, wrote many works against the abolition of
slavery. He was killed in Paris during the revolution
of February, 1848.
Jollivet, (PIERRE JULES,) a French painter of history,
born in Paris in 1803, gained a medal of the first class
in 1835.
Jollois, zho'Iwa', (JEAN BAPTISTE PROSPER,) a French
antiquary and engineer, born in Burgundy in 1776. He
was chief engineer of the department of Seine, (Paris.)
He published many works on French antiquities. Died
in 1842.
See ALFRED MAURV, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de J. B.
P. Jollois," 1846; "Nouvelie Biographic Generale."
Joly, zho'le', (BENIGNE,) a French religious writer,
born at Dijon in 1644, wrote a number of devotional
works. Died in 1694.
Joly, (CLAUDE,) a French writer and ecclesiastic, born
in Paris in 1607, wrote "A Collection of True Maxims
for the Education of a King, against the Pernicious
Policy of Cardinal Mazarin," (1652,) a copy of which
was burnt by the common executioner. He became a
canon of the Church of Paris in 1631. Died in 1700.
See MORERI, "Dictionnaire Historique."
Joly, (CLAUDE,) a French preacher, born in Lorraine
in 1610, became Bishop of Agen, and left several volumes
of sermons, (1692-94.) Died in 1678.
Joly or Jolly, zho'le', (FRANCOIS ANTOINE,) a French
comic poet, born in Paris in 1662. He wrote several
comedies, and published accurate editions of Moliere
(6 vols., 1734) and Corneille, (5 vols.) Died in 1753.
Joly, (Gill,) a French writer, a nephew of Claude Joly,
noticed above, became confidential secretary to Cardinal
de Retz. He is known as the author of the historical
" Memoirs" from 164810 1665, (1718.) An English trans
lation of this work was published in 1 755. His " Memoirs"
are designed to explain and complete those of De Retz.
Joly, (JOSEPH ROMAIN,) a French monk and writer,
born in 1715 ; died in 1805.
Joly, (MARC ANTOINE,) a French dramatist, born in
1672, wrote "The School of Lovers," and "The Jealous
Wife." Died in 1753.
Joly or Jolly, (MARIE ELISABETH,) a noted French
actress, born at Versailles in 1761. In 1793 she was
imprisoned by the revolutionists, but regained her free
dom on condition that she should perform at the theatre
of the Republic. Died in 1798.
Joly, (PHILIPPE Louis,) a learned French ecclesiastic
and philologist, born at Dijon about 1712. Among his
works are " Critical Remarks on the Dictionary of Bayle,"
(1748,) and a " Treatise on French Versification," (1751.)
Died in 1782.
See QUERAKD, "La France Litteraire."
Joly de Bevy, zho'le' deh ba've', (Louis PHILIPPE
JOSEPH,) a French judge and religious writer, born at
Dijon in 1736; died in 1822.
Joly-Clerc, zho'le' klaiR, (NICOLAS,) a French natu
ralist, wrote a number of works on botany. Died in 1817.
Joly de Fleury, zho'le' deh fluh're', (GUILLAUME
FRANCOIS,) a learned and eloquent French advocate and
magistrate, was born in Paris in 1675. For more than
twenty years he was attorney-general in the Parliament of
Paris. He wrote several treatises on law. Died in 1756.
Joly de Fleury, ( J EAN FRANQOIS,) a French financier,
a son of the preceding, was born in 1718. He succeeded
Necker as minister of finances in 1781, and resigned in
1783. Died in 1802.
Joly de Fleury, (JEAN Omer — o'maiR.',) a French
priest, nephew of Guillaume Frai^ois, noticed above.
Died in 1755.
Joly de Maizeroy. See MAIZEROY.
Jomard, zho'inaV, ( EDME FRANC.OIS, ) a French
archaeologist and geographer, born at Versailles in 1777.
He accompanied the army to Egypt in 1798, returned
in 1802, and was appointed secretary of the Egyptian
commission. He contributed to the redaction of the
great " Description of Egypt," and, as imperial com
missary, directed the engraving and impression of the
same for twenty years, (1807-26.) The portions of this
work written by Jomard were published separately,
with the title of "Observations on Ancient and Modem
Egypt, or a Historical and Picturesque Description of
its Monuments," (4 vols., 1830.) He was a member of
the Institute. Died in 1862.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Jombert, zhoN'bain', (CHARLES ANTOINE,) a French
writer on art, born in Paris in 1712; died in 1784.
c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
JOMELLI
1288
JONES
Jomelli, yo-mel'lee, (NiccoiA) a celebrated Italian
composer, born at Aversa, near Naples, in 1714. He
studied under Feo, Leo, and Martini. His first opera,
"L'Errore amoroso," produced when he was twenty-
three years of age, rendered him so famous that he was
soon after invited to Rome, where he composed two
more operas and was patronized by the Cardinal of
York. In 1742 he went to Vienna, where he formed an
intimate friendship with Metastasio and gave instruc
tions in music to the empress Maria Theresa. He was
employed as musician or chapel-master in Saint Peter's
at Rome from 1749 to 1754. The Duke of Wiirtemberg
having invited him to enter his service as chapel-master
to the court, Jomelli removed to Stuttgart, where he
passed about seventeen years, (1754-70.) Died at Naples
in August, 1774. Among his best productions are operas
entitled "Didone," (1745,) "Eumene,"(i746,) "Merope,"
(1747,) and "Ezio," (1748,) several oratorios and masses,
and a miserere for two voices.
See FETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musicians;" PIETRO
ALFIERI, "Notizie biografiche di N. Jomelli," 1X45; " Nouvelle
Biographie Ge'ne'rale ;" CHORON et FAYOLLE, " Dictionnaire des
Musiciens. "
Jomini, zho'me'ne', (HENRI,) BARON, an able general
and eminent writer on strategy, was born at Payerne,
in the Swiss Canton de Vaud, in 1779. He entered the
French army, became aide-de-camp to Ney about 1804,
and presented to Bonaparte on the field of Austerlitz
his " Treatise on the Grand Operations of War." A
few days after this event he was appointed chief of the
staff of Ney. He received the title of baron for his
conduct at Jena in 1806, and was employed in Spain in
1808. In 1811 he became a general of brigade, and in
1812 French governor of Wilna. He contributed greatly
to the victory of Bautzen in 1813. His promotion having
been obstructed by the enmity of Berthier, he quitted
the French service in 1813, and entered that of Russia,
with the rank of lieutenant-general, and became aide-de
camp to the emperor Alexander. Died about April i,
1869. Among his chief works are "Traite des grandes
Operations militaires, ou Histoire critique et militaire des
Guerresde Frederic II comparees a celles de la Revolu
tion," (5 vols., 1805,) a " Critical and Military History of
the Campaigns of the Revolution from 1792 to 1801,"
(15 vols., 1819-24,) and " Precis de I1 Art de la Guerre,"
(5th ed., 2 vols., 1838.) The works of Jomini are among
the best that have ever been written on the art of war.
See PASCAL, "Observations sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Baron
Jomini ;" QUERARD, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biogra
phie Ge'nerale ;" "Monthly Review," vol. xci., 1820, (Appendix.)
Jon Areson. See ARESON JON.
Jon, du, (FRANCIS.) See JUNIUS.
Joiiae, yo'na, (PETER,) Bishop of Strengnas, in Swe
den, was professor of theology at Upsal when John III.
attempted to re-establish the Catholic religion. Jonae
boldly opposed this proceeding. Died in 1607.
Jo''nah or Jo'nas, [Heb. HJV ; Gr. 'Iwruc; Lat.
JONAS,] one of the minor Hebrew prophets, and the
subject of the book bearing his name, is supposed to
have lived under the reign of Jeroboam II., about 800
B.C. ; but some place him under that of Jehu.
See II. Kings xiv. 25 ; Matthew xii. 39, 41 ; Luke xi. 29, 32.
Jonas. See JONAH.
Jonas, yo'nas, Jonae, yo'na, or Jonsson, yon'son,
(ARNGRIM,) a learned historian, antiquary, and divine,
born in Iceland about 1568, is said to have studied
astronomy under Tycho Brahe. Most of his works
relate to the history of Iceland. Died in 1648.
Jonas, yo'nds, (JUSTUS,) an eminent German Re
former and writer, born at Nordhausen in 1493. IIe
became in 1521 professor of theology at Wittenberg.
He assisted Luther in the translation of the Old Tes
tament, accompanied him to the Diet at Worms and at
Augsburg, and had a share in the composition of the
so-called Torgau Articles. He also translated a number
of Luther's works, and Melanchthon's "Defence (Apol
ogy) of the Augsburg Confession," from the Latin into
German. Died in 1555.
Jonas or Jonae, (RUNOI.PH,) a scholar and author,
born in Iceland, graduated at Copenhagen, where he
fixed his residence after 1649. He wrote "Elements
of the Northern Languages," and " Rudiments of the
Icelandic Grammar." Died in 1654.
Jon'a-than, [Heb. jruirv,] son of King Saul, and the
most intimate friend of the psalmist David. The death
of this prince, who fell with his father, near Mount Gilboa,
while fighting the Philistines, furnished the subject of
one of the most beautiful of David's songs.
See I. Samuel xviii., xix., xx. ; II. Samuel i. 17-27.
Joii'athan Ap'phus, (af'fus, ) a celebrated Jewish
leader and high-priest, succeeded his elder brother, Judas
Maccabxus, in 161 K.C., as chief ruler of his nation." For
seventeen years he governed with wisdom and justice, and
carried on successful wars with many of the surrounding
nations. During the civil dissensions in the kingdom
of Syria he was decoyed into the city of Ptolemais and
massacred with his entire escort.
Jonathan Ben Uz-zi'el (or uz'ze-el) or U-zi'el,
a Jewish rabbi, supposed to have been contemporary
with the prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. He
was the author of the "Targtim," a Chaldaic paraphrase
of most of the Hebrew prophetical books.
Joncourt, de, deh zhoN'kooR', (ELIE,) a Dutch writer,
of French extraction, born at the Hague in 1707. He
was one of the editors of the " Bibliotheque des Sciences
et des Arts," (50 vols., 1754-80,) and wrote various
works. Died about 1775.
Jonctys, yonk'tls, (DANIEL,) a Dutch litterateur and
physician, born at Dort, lived many years at Rotterdam.
Among his works was an able treatise against torture.
Died in 1654.
Jones, jonz, (ANSON,) an American physician, Presi
dent of the republic of Texas at the time of its annexation,
was born in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 1798.
He settled in Brazoria, Texas, in 1833, took a promi
nent part in the political and military movements which
resulted in the independence of that republic, was min
ister to the United States in 1838, and afterwards for
three years secretary of state under President Houston.
In 1844 he succeeded Houston as President. Died by
his own hand in 1858.
Jones, jonz, (DAVID,) a Welsh poet, born in Caer
narvonshire, was also a collector of Welsh manuscripts.
Died about 1780.
Jones, (DAVID R.,) an American general, born in
South Carolina about 1827, graduated at West Point in
1846. He served as brigadier-general in the army of
General Lee at Antietam, September 17, 1862. Died
in 1863.
Jones, (EDWARD,) a Welsh musician and bard, born
in Merionethshire about 1750. He published, besides
other works, " Musical and Poetical Relics of the French
Bards," (1784.) Died in 1821.
Jones, jonz, (ERNEST,) M.P., an English poet and
Chartist. He became the leader of the Chartist move
ment about 1846. He was imprisoned about two years
for his radical political speeches, (1848-49.) Among his
works are "The Wood Spirit," (1841,) and "Chartist
Lyrics." He was elected a member of Parliament in
1869, and died the same year.
Jones, (GRIFFITH,) a clergyman, born in Wales in
1684, was very active in supporting schools and in cir
culating the Bible among his indigent countrymen. He
wrote several educational treatises in Welsh and English.
Died in 1761.
Jones, (GRIFFITH,) an English author, born in 1721.
He edited at different times several periodicals, and was
connected with Dr. Johnson in the " Literary Magazine"
and with Goldsmith in the " British Magazine." Among
his works are "Great Events from Little Causes," and
several "Liliputian Histories." Died in 1786.
Jones, jonz, (HENRY,) an Irish poet and dramatic
writer, born at Drogheda about 1720, was by trade a
bricklayer. His productions attracted the attention of
the Earl of Chesterfield, then lord lieutenant of Ireland,
who took him to England and procured a large sub-
cription for his poems. Among his works we mfiy cite
the "Tragedy of the Earl of Essex," (1753,) and "The
Cave of Idra." Died in 1770.
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, <j, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; niftt; n6t; good; moon;
JONES
1289
JONES
Jones, (I.NIGO,) a distinguished architect, styled "the
English Palladio," was born in London about 1572.
Being apprenticed to a joiner, his talent for designing
attracted the attention of the Earl of Pembroke, who
furnished him with means to travel through Europe.
While in Italy, he accepted an invitation from Christian
IV. to visit Denmark. The sister of that monarch was
the queen of James I. of England ; and thus the way
was paved to the royal patronage when he reached his
native land in 1605. In a short time he was appointed
architect to the queen and to Prince Henry, in which
position he formed a friendship with Ben Jonson. They
subsequently quarrelled, and the poet ridiculed him in
several plays. In 1612 he visited Italy a second time;
and it was at this period that he fully adopted the classic
style of architecture, which was then but little known in
England. On his return he became surveyor-general of
the royal buildings. He died in 1653. Of the edifices
designed and constructed by him may be mentioned the
palace at Whitehall, and the west front of Old Saint
Paul's. He was an accomplished classical scholar, and
wrote a work entitled " Stonhenge Restored."
See PETER CUNNINGHAM, " Life of Inigo Jones," 1848: CAMP
BELL, "Vitruvius Britannicus," 5 vols., 1767; BRITTON, "Dictionary
of Architecture," 1830-38.
Jones, (JACOB,) COMMODORE, an American naval
officer, born in Kent county, Delaware, in 1770. He
became a lieutenant about 1801, and in October, 1812,
commanded the sloop-of-war Wasp, with which he cap
tured the British sloop Frolic, which carried more guns
than the Wasp. He was promoted to the rank of post-
captain in 1813, and obtained command of the frigate
Macedonian. Died in Philadelphia in 1850.
Jones, (JAMES CHAMKERLAIN,) a United States Sen
ator, born in Davidson county, Tennessee, in 1809. In
1841 he was chosen by the Whigs Governor of the State,
James K. Polk being his competitor. He was re-elected
in 1843, when Mr. Polk was again the opposing can
didate. In the National Whig Convention of 1848
Governor Jones strenuously advocated the nomination
of Henry Clay ; but after the selection of General Taylor
as the choice of the Convention he entered the canvass
warmly in his support, and spoke to large audiences
in different States of the Union. He was elected to the
United States Senate in 1851, and served the full term
of six years. He supported the Kansas-Nebraska bill
in 1854, and thenceforward acted principally with the
Democratic party. Died in 1859.
Jones, (JEREMIAH,) a learned and eloquent English
dissenting minister, born in 1693, published an important
work entitled a "New and Full Method of Settling the
Canonical Authority of the New Testament," (2 vols.,
1726,) which is said to be the best English work on the
subject. Died in 1724.
Jones, (JoHN,) a physician and medical writer, sup
posed to have been born in Wales about 1500. He was
educated at Cambridge, and practised at Bath, in Eng
land. Among his works was "The Art and Science of
Preserving the Body and Soul in Health," (1579.)
Jones, (JOHN,) a Benedictine, born in London in
1575. He studied at Oxford, where he roomed with
Laud, afterwards the celebrated archbishop. Having
become a Roman Catholi^, he went to Spain, became a
monk, and continued his studies at Compostella. He
was subsequently appointed professor of Hebrew and
divinity at Douay. He was the author of several theo
logical works. Died in London in 1636.
Jones, (JoHN.) a Welsh antiquary, who collected and
transcribed numerous old manuscripts in his native lan
guage. Fifty large volumes of these are yet preserved.
He is supposed to have died about 1600.
Jones, (JoHN,) the author of " Adrasta, or the
Woman's Spleen," (1635,) and other dramatic works,
lived in England during the reign of Charles I.
Jones, (JoHN,) a clergyman of the Church of Eng
land, born in Wales in 1700, and educated at Oxford.
In 1751 he became rector of Boulne-Hurst, and in 1755
vicar of Hitchin. Four years later he was chosen by Dr.
Young, the poet, to be his curate. He wrote " Catholic
Faith and Practice," (1765,) and other religious works.
Died about 1770.
Jones, (JOHN,) LL.D., a Unitarian minister, born in
Carmarthenshire about 1765. About 1795 he was ap
pointed pastor of a congregation at Plymouth Dock, and
afterwards at Halifax, in Yorkshire. He subsequently
removed to London. He was the first to introduce
the use of Greek-and-English dictionaries. Previous
to his time the Greek had been studied entirely with the
aid of books written in Latin. Of his numerous works
we may mention " Illustrations of the Four Gospels,
founded on Circumstances peculiar to our Lord and the
Evangelists," (1808,) and "A Greek-and-English Lexi
con," (1823.) Died in 1827.
Jones, (JoHN,) a lawyer and writer, born in Carmar
thenshire in 1772, was admitted to the bar in 1803.
Among his works are "A History of Wales," and
" Cyfamod Newydcl," a translation of the New Testament
from the Greek into Welsh. Died in 1838.
Jones, (JoHN GALE,) an English political orator, born
in 1771, advocated republican or radical opinions. He
was prosecuted for some political offence, defended by
Romilly, and acquitted. Died in 1838.
Jones, (JoHN M., ) an American general, born in
Virginia about 1820, graduated at West Point in 1841.
He became a captain in 1853, and resigned his commis
sion in 1861. He served as a brigadier-general in the
army of General Lee, and was killed near Spottsylvania,
May 10, 1864.
Jones, (Colonel LESLIE GROVE,) an English political
writer, born in 1779. He served in the Peninsula as
aide-de-camp of the Duke of Wellington. He con
tributed letters to the "London Times." Died in 1839.
Jones, (NoiiLE WIMBERLY,) a physician and patriot,
born in Georgia in 1725. He was an early and active
promoter of the Revolution, was a delegate to Con
gress in 1775, and was taken prisoner at Charleston in
1780. In 1781 he was again elected to Congress. Died
in 1805.
Jones, (OwEN,) an antiquary, born in Denbighshire,
Wales, in 1740. He published a large collection of
ancient WTelsh poetry, and the "Archaeology of Wales,"
containing several historical documents. Died in 1814.
Jones, (OwEN,) an architect, born in \Vales about
1809. In 1837 he visited Granada, and in 1842 published
" Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Details of the Al-
hambra," with a translation of the Arabic inscriptions,
and a historical account of the sovereigns of Granada
from the Spanish. He chiefly devoted his attention to
ornamental architecture, in which he soon acquired
distinction. In 1852 he was appointed "Director of
Decorations" at the Crystal Palace in London. He
displayed his taste and artistic knowledge with a very
happy effect in arranging and ornamenting the various
courts of that building. Among his writings are "De
signs for Mosaic and Tessellated Pavements," (1842,) and
the "Grammar of Ornament," (1856.)
Jones, (PAUL ; originally JOHN PAUL,) a famous naval
officer, born at Arbigland, in Scotland, in 1747. He emi
grated to Virginia, entered the colonial naval service in
1775, was appointed a captain in August, 1776, and took
command of the Ranger, a vessel of eighteen guns, about
June, 1777. He sailed to Europe in that year, cruised on
the coast of Scotland, and made a bold attack on White-
haven, where he burnt some shipping. He also captured
the Drake, a sloop of war. Early in 1779 he was trans
ferred to the Bonhomme Richard, which carried about
forty-five guns. Having several smaller vessels under
his command, he captured or destroyed many British
vessels. In September he attacked the Serapis. a frigate
of forty-four guns, which surrendered after a long battle.
His osvn ship was so much damaged in this action that
she sank a few hours after. Congress voted Captain
Jones a gold medal for this victory. He entered the
Russian service, with the rank of rear-admiral, in 1788;
but, having quarrelled with one of the Russian admirals,
he was soon removed from the command. He died in
Paris in 1792.
See J. H. SHERBOURNE, "Life of J. P. Jones," 2 vols., 1835;
JAMES HAMILTON, "Life of Rear- Admiral J. P. Jones," 1848; A.
S. MACKKNZIE, "Life of J. P. Jones," 2 vols., 1841; " Het Leven
van J. P. Jones." Groningen, 1829; W. G. SIMMS, " Life of J. P.
Jones," 1845; "National Portrait- Gallery of Distinruished Ameri
cans," vol. iii. ; •' Monthly Review" for September, 1825.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
JONES
1290
JONS ON
Jones, (RiCE,) a Welsh poet, born in 1715. He pub
lished " Welsh Anthology," (1770.) Died in 1801.
Jones, (RICHARD,) a Welshman, published about
1654 "Gemma Cambricum," a work of great ingenuity,
in which all the books and chapters of the Bible were
abbreviated and written in his native dialect.
Jones, (ROGER,) an American general, born in Vir
ginia, lie fought against the British on the northern
frontier in 1813 and 1814, and became adjutant-general
in 1825. Died in 1852.
Jones, (SAMUEL,) an American major-general, born
in Virginia, graduated at West Point in 1841. He took
arms against the Union in 1861, and commanded in
Western Virginia in 1862-63. He was killed at the
battle of the Wilderness, May 5, 1864.
Jones, (STEPHEN,) born in London in 1763. He was
the editor of the Whitehall "Evening Post," the "Bio-
graphia Dramatica," and a " Biographical Dictionary,"
(2d edition, 1796.) Died in 1827.
Jones, (Sir THOMAS,) chief justice of the common
pleas during the reign of James II. He openly opposed
the encroachments of the king on the laws of England,
and was dismissed from office in 1686.
See MACAUI.AY, "History of England," vol. ii. chap. vi.
Jones, (THOMAS M.,) born in Virginia about 1835,
became a brigadier-general in the Confederate army
about 1862.
Jones, (THOMAS RYMER,) an English physician and
surgeon, distinguished as a comparative anatomist and
physiologist, was born about 1810. He was educated
at London and Paris. He was appointed professor of
comparative anatomy in King's College, London, and
in 1840 became Fullerian professor of physiology in
the Royal Institution of Great Britain. In 1844 he was
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Among his
works may be mentioned " A General Outline of the
Animal Kingdom," (1841,) and "The Natural History
of Animals," (ist vol., 1844.)
Jones, (THOMAS WHARTOX,) a British oculist and phy
siologist, born at Saint Andrew's, Scotland, about 1808.
He published, besides other works, a "Treatise on Oph
thalmic Medicine and Surgery," and became professor
of ophthalmic medicine in University College, London.
Jones, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English judge under James
I. and Charles I., was born in 1566. He wrote several
legal works, and became a judge of the king's bench in
1625. Died in 1640.
Jones, (WILLIAM,) an able mathematician, born in
the island of Anglesey in 1680. He taught mathematics
for several years, and corresponded with the most dis
tinguished scientific men of that age. He was the friend
of Newton and of Halley, and the father of the emi
nent Orientalist Sir William Jones. He held the office
of vice-president of the Royal Society. Died in 1749.
Among his productions are "A Compendium of the Art
of Navigation," (1702,) and several works in defence
of the theories of Newton.
Jones (WILLIAM) of Nayland, a learned Episcopal
divine and multifarious writer, born in Northampton
shire, England, in 1726, graduated at Oxford in 1749.
Of his productions we may mention "Catholic Doctrine
of the Trinity provedfrom Scripture," (1756,) an "Essay
on the First Principles of Natural Philosophy," (1762,)
" A Course of Lectures on the Figurative Language of
the Holy Scriptures," (1786,) and two political treatises
against the French Revolution, entitled "A Letter from
Thomas Bull to his Brother John," and " The Scholar
armed against the Errors of the Times." He was per
petual curate of Nayland. Died in 1800.
See WILLIAM STEVENS, " Life of W. Jones of Nayland," 1801.
Jones, [Lat. JONF/SIUS,] (Sir WILLIAM,) an eminent
Orientalist, son of William Jones, noticed above, (1680-
1749,) was born in London September 28, 1746. He
lost his father when he was three years of age ; but his
mother, a lady remarkable both for her learning and
accomplishments, ably superintended his education. In
1753 he was placed at the Harrow School, of which Dr.
Thackeray was preceptor. Jones early distinguished
himself for his classical acquirements, and at the age of
seventeen entered University College, Oxford, with more
learning than many good scholars have carried thence.
The following year he left Oxford, to become tutor to
the son of Earl Spencer, in whose family he continued
to reside for five years. During this period he devoted
much of his time to the acquirement of the Oriental
languages. He was also versed in nearly all the Euro
pean tongues. In 1768, at the request of the King of
Denmark, he translated the "Life of Nadir Shah" from
the Persian into French. The year following he issued
a valuable Persian Grammar. In 1770 he began the
study of law, and in 1774 he was admitted to the bar.
In March, 1783, he was appointed judge of the supreme
court of judicature at Fort William, in Bengal, and re
ceived the order of knighthood. Soon after he married
Anna Maria Shipley, a daughter of the Bishop of Saint
Asaph. In the following September Sir William Jones
reached India, where he continued to pursue his Oriental
studies with unabated zeal. He also organized (about
1785) the " Asiatic Society," for the purpose of obtaining
further information relative to the sciences, antiquities,
languages, and history of Asia. He died at Calcutta
on the 271)1 of April, 1794, after a short illness. In the
branch of literature to which he devoted his attention
he undoubtedly surpassed all other Europeans. He is,
however, to be equally esteemed for his noble qualities
and Christian virtues as for his vast erudition. Among
his numerous works are " Commentaries on Asiatic
Poetry," commenced in his twenty-first year, and contain
ing translations from the most distinguished Hebrew,
Persian, Arabic, and Turkish poets, treatises " On the
Gods of Greece, Italy, and India," " On the Second
Classical Book of the Chinese," " On the Musical Modes
of the Hindus," and a translation of the "Institutes
of Manu," and a prose translation of Kalidasa's cele
brated poem " Sacontala," (" Sakoontala,") both from
the original Sanscrit. He was also author of several
works on the laws of England and of India.
See LORD TEIGNMOUTH, " Life of Sir William Jones," 1804 ;
" Autobiography of William Jones," published by his son, London,
1846; H. A. HAMAKEK, " Oratio de Vita et Mentis G. Jonesii,"
Leyden, 1822; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate :" "Edinburgh Re
view" for January, 1805: GARY, "Lives of English Poets from
Johnson to Kirke White."
Jones, (WILLIAM ALFRED,) an American writer and
critic, was born in 1817. He graduated at Columbia
College in 1836. He has contributed largely to various
periodicals, and published several volumes of essays.
His "Characters and Criticisms" (2 vols., 1857) was
highly commended by Washington Irving.
Jonesius. See JONES, (SiR WILLIAM.)
Jong, de, deh yong, (LuDOLK,) a Flemish painter
of battle- and hunting-scenes, born near Rotterdam in
1616 ; died in 1697.
Jongelingx, yong'eh-links', (JACOH,) a Flemish sculp
tor, born at Antwerp in 1531. Among his works is a
monument to Charles the Bold at Bruges. Died in 1606.
Jonin, zho'naN', (GILKERT,) a French Jesuit and poet,
born in Auvergne in 1596. He translated into Latin,
with many modifications, the Odes of Anacreon, which
he published under the title of " The Christian Anacreon."
He wrote several Greek and Latin odes. Died in 1638.
Joiisius, yon'se-us, (JoiiANN,) a German scholar, born
at Flensburg in 1624. He wrote, besides other works,
" De Scriptoribus Historian Philosophical," (1659,) which
was once highly prized. Died at Leipsic in 1659.
Jon'son or Johnson, (BEN,) one of the most cele
brated English poets and dramatists, was born at West
minster in 1574. His father, a Protestant clergyman,
died a month previous to his birth. Jonson's mother
subsequently married a master-bricklayer, who sent him
to Westminster, then under the charge of Camden, to
whom he afterwards dedicated the drama entitled " Every
Man in his Humour." Jonson regarded his preceptor
through life with esteem and affection. In his sixteenth
year he entered the University of Cambridge ; but, on
account of his straitened circumstances, he was obliged
to leave college and to assist his step-father as a mason.
Becoming disgusted with this employment, he enlisted
in the army in Flanders, and greatly distinguished himself
by his bravery. When he returned, as Gifford observes,
"he brought little but the reputation of a brave man, a
smattering of Dutch, and an empty purse." He soon
afterwards joined a company of actors ; but, having killed
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
JONSSON
1291
JO R DENS
one of them in a duel, he was thrown into prison, and
narrowly escaped svith his life. During his confinement
he was converted by a priest to the Roman Catholic
religion. Subsequently, after a careful examination,
he renounced his adopted faith, and was again received
into the communion of the Church of England. In 1598
he produced " Every Man in his Humour," a drama,
which at once brought him into notice. One of the
characters of this play is said to have been performed
by Shakspearc. It was followed by numerous produc
tions, which added to the fame he had already acquired.
About 1605 he assisted Chapman and Marston in writing
" Eastward Hoe." This was regarded as a libel on the
Scots, and his associates were thrown into prison, whither
he voluntarily accompanied them. The three poets were
condemned to lose their ears and noses ; but, through
Jonson's influence at court, they escaped. He was shortly
afterwards created poet-laureate by James I., with an
annual pension of ;£ioo and a tierce of Spanish wine.
Jonson died in 1637. On his death-bed he expressed
the deepest penitence for the profanity that he had intro
duced into his plays, which, with this exception, are far
purer in morals than the other dramas of that age. Jon-
soivs convivial habits (perhaps his greatest weakness)
caused him to suffer from poverty in his declining years.
He was accustomed to meet Shakspeare and other dis
tinguished persons at the drinking-houses of London.
He also gave costly entertainments at his own residence.
He was brave, generous, and benevolent, and governed
by the highest principles of honour. Towards his friends
lie was unwavering in his attachment, and was easily
reconciled to those who had injured him. As a poet he
exhibits uncommon classical learning, great intellectual
power, and acuteness of perception. He unquestionably
deserves much praise for refining English poetry and
the morals of the English stage. " I think him," says
Dryden, "the most learned and judicious writer which
any theatre ever had. ... If I would compare him with
Shakspeare, I must acknowledge him the most correct
poet, but Shakspeare the greater wit. Shakspeare was
the Homer or father of dramatic poets. Jonson was the
Virgil, the pattern of elaborate writing. I admire him,
but I love Shakspeare." Jonson was most successful in
satirical comedies, the style of which he obtained from
the ancients. To the refinement and thought displayed
in his writings may be attributed the ill success which
many of them first met with among the English people,
whose taste had been vitiated by the low wit and ob
scenity which they had been accustomed to hear from
the stage. Among the most important of his dramas
are "Cynthia's Revels," (1600,) " Sejanus," (1603,) " Vol-
pone,"'(i6o5,) "The Alchemist," (1610,) and "Catiline's
Conspiracy," (1611.)
See CHETWOOD, "Life of Hen Jonson," 1756; "Memoir of Ben
vol. i., 1820; "North British Review" for February, 1856.
Jonssoii, (ARNGRIM.) See JONAS.
Jonsson, yons'son, (FiNN,) [Lai. FIN'NUS JOHAN
N^F/US,] a clergyman and historical writer on the church
and literature of Iceland, was born in that island in
1704. After receiving his education at the University
of Copenhagen, he returned to Iceland. Died in
His most important work is the "Ecclesiastical Historj
of Iceland," ("Historia Ecclesiastica Islandiae.")
Jonston, (ARTHUR.) See JOHNSTON.
Jordaens, you'dlns, (JAKOU,) a distinguished painter
born at Antwerp in 1594. He studied under Van Oort
but was indebted for the most of his artistic knowledg
to Rubens, by whom he was subsequently employed. H
painted with rapidity and ease, and his colouring was
rich and harmonious ; but he was deficient in elegano
and loftiness of conception. Among his numerous work
are "Jesus Christ in the Midst of the Doctors," (a paint
ing which has been frequently attributed to Rubens
"The Adoration of the Shepherds," "Saint Peter Cut
ting off the Ear of Malchus," and "The Satyr and th
Man who Blew Hot and Cold." Died in i6J&.
See DKSCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamamls," etc.: Lout
ALVIN. " J Jordaens," 1844; J. CAMPO WEYEK.MAN, " De Schildei
konst der Nederlanders."
Jordan, zhoR'doN', (CAMILLE,) a French politician
.ud orator, born at Lyons in 1771. He was distinguished
3r his moderate principles during the Revolution, and
lis attachment to the Catholic religion, which he bravely
lefended. Having been proscribed by the Directory, he
ought an asylum in Switzerland in 1797, and afterwards
n Germany, where he became acquainted with Goethe,
Schiller, and other men of note. Jordan returned to
ranee about 1800. During Bonaparte's administration
ic led a private life; but upon the accession of Louis
VIII. he was ennobled, and elected to the Chamber
f Deputies. He wrote several works of a political
lature. Died in 1821.
See LAMARTINE, "History of the Girondists;" PIERRE SIMON
AI.I.ANCHE. " filoge de C. Jordan," 1823; THIERS, "Histoiy of
he French Revolution ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Revue
les Deux Mondes," vol. lx., 1868.
Jordan, (CHARLES ETIENNE,) a French Protestant
minister and writer, born at Berlin in 1700. He was
appointed privy councillor by Frederick the Great in
1740. He rendered important services to Berlin by the
suppression of mendicity and the promotion of educa-
ion. Among his works is "Travels in France anrl
England," (1735.) Died in 1745.
See MM. HAAG, "La V ranee protestante."
Jor'daii, (DOROTHEA,) or DOROTHY Bland, a cele-
jrated actress, born at Waterford, Ireland, about 1762.
In 1785 she made her appearance in London at Drury
Lane Theatre, where she enjoyed the highest popularity.
She subsequently became the mistress of the Duke of
Clarence, (afterwards William IV.,) to whom she bore
ten children. This connection being suddenly broken
off by the duke in 1811, Mrs. Jordan retired to France,
where she died in 1816 in great poverty. As an actress
he possessed uncommon versatility, and excelled both
in comedy and tragedy.
See J. BOA DEN, "Life of D. Jordan," 2 vols., 1831; OXBERRV,
Dramatic Biography."
Jordan, HOR-dan', (ESTEBAN,) a Spaniard, born at
Valladolid in 1543, excelled in painting, architecture,
and sculpture, but devoted his attention chiefly to the
last-named art. Philip II. appointed him his first
sculptor. Among his most admired productions are
"Saint Peter," "Saint Paul," and "The Addition of
the Kings." Died in 1605.
Jordan, yoR'clan, QOIIAXN CHRISTOPH,) a noted anti
quary, and privy councillor to the King of Bohemia,
was the author of annotations on Livy, Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, Polybius, and Diodorus Siculus. Died
about 1740.
Jordan, (Sir JOSEPH,) an English admiral, who com
manded at the victory of Solebay, which was gained over
the Dutch in 1672.
Jordan, (RUDOLF,) a German painter, born at Berlin
about 1 8 10. His delineations of fisher-life in Helgoland
are greatly admired : among these we may name "The
Shipwreck" and "The Death of the Pilot."
Jordan, (SYLVESTER,) a German jurist and politician,
born near Innspruck in 1792. He was imprisoned about
twelve years for his liberal opinions, and was released
in 1845. Died in 1861.
Jordan, (THOMAS,) an English poet and dramatist,
lived in London ; died about 1685.
Jor'dan, (THOMAS,) an American officer in the Con
federate service, born in Virginia about 1821, was made
a brigadier-general in 1862.
Jordanes. See JORNANDES.
Jordano, (LucA.) See GIORDANO.
Jordano Bruno. See BKUNO.
Jor'den, (EDWARD,) an English physician and scien
tific writer, born in Kent in 1569. He was a graduate
of the University of Padua. Died in 1632.
Jordeiis, yoR'dens, (GEORG,) a Dutch jurist, born at
Deventer in 1718, was known as the author of two legal
treatises,— one in defence of the University of Utrecht,
and the other on the Mosaic, Greek, and Roman laws.
Died in 1771.
Jordeiis or Joerdens, yoR'dens, (KARL HF.INRICH,)
a German philologist and biographer, born in the county
of Mansfeld in 1757. He was rector of an academy at
Lauban. His chief work is an excellent "Dictionary of
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gr(mtral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
JORDT
1292
JOSEPH
German Poets and Prose Writers," (6 vols., 1805-11.)
Died in 1835.
See ERSCH und CRUDER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Jordy, zhoR'de', (Nicoi.AS Louis,) a French general,
born at Abreschwiller in 1758; died in 1825.
Jore, zhoR, (CLAUDE FRANgois,) a French printer,
lived about 1750, was a friend of Voltaire, for whom
he published several works. He wrote " Six Letters to
Voltaire," and some other productions.
See VOLTAIRE, " Correspondance generale."
Jorgenson, yoR'gen-son, written also Jiirgensen,
(JORGEN,) a Danish adventurer, born at Copenhagen
in 1779. Having gone to England in early youth, he
was some years later promoted to the command of an
English vessel, and during the war between England
and Denmark sailed for Iceland. On the 25th of June,
1809, he landed with twelve English sailors and took
the governor, Count Trampe, prisoner, and proclaimed
that Iceland was free and independent of Denmark.
With a force of eight Icelanders, he continued to exer
cise undisputed sway over the island until August, when
the British restored it to its former government. During
this revolution not a gun was fired nor a drop of blood
' shed. The inhabitants feared to resist, as their capital
lay exposed to the guns of Jorgenson's vessel. Soon
after his return to England he became very dissipated,
and was finally convicted and transported to New South
Wales, where he is supposed to have died. While in
Newgate, before his transportation, he wrote a work en
titled" "The Religion of Christ the Religion of Nature."
See SIR WM. HOOKER, "Tour in Iceland;" SKULASON, "J. Jiir-
gensens Usurpation; Island," 1832 ; ERSLEW, " Forfatter-Lexicon."
Jorisz, yoR'is-, (AUGUSTIN,) a Dutch painter and en
graver, born at Delft in 1525 ; died in 1552.
Jorisz, (DAVID.) See DAVID GEORGE.
Jorjanee, Jorjani, or Djordjani, jor-ja'nee, (Saeed
Shereef Zein-ed-Deen Abool Hassan, or Said
Scherif Zeiii-ed-Din Abou'l Hassan, sa-eed' sher-
eety zan (or zin) ed-deen' a'bool has'san,) a renowned
Arabian writer, born in Tagoo, (Tagou,) in the district
of Asterabad and the region called Jorjan, in 1339. lie
was the author of numerous works, among which per
haps the most important is an extremely valuable dic
tionary, entitled "Tarafat," (i.e. " Definitions.") Jorjanee
enjoyed the favour of the great conqueror Tamerlane.
Died in 1413.
Jor-nan'des or Jor-da'nes, a distinguished Gothic
historian of the sixth century, was secretary to the Gothic
kings of Italy. Having embraced Christianity, he was
ordained Bishop of Ravenna in 552. The most important
of his works is a " History of the Goths" until the reign
of Vitiges, who was conquered by Belisarius, (" De Ge-
tarum sive Gothorum, Origine et Rebus gestis.") It was
first printed at Augsburg in 1515, and is highly prized.
He also wrote an abridgment of universal history, en
titled " De Regnorum et Temporum Successione."
See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis;" ERSCH und GRUBER,
" Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" D. W. MOLLER, " Disputatio Circu-
laris de Jornande," 1690.
Jor'tin, (JOHN,) D.D., an English divine and critic,
of French extraction, born in London in 1698. Soon
after graduating at Cambridge he settled in his native
city, where he gained great distinction for his eloquence
and learning. He was appointed Archdeacon of London
in 1764. Of his works may be mentioned a volume of
"Latin Poems," (1722,) which are classed among the
most finished of the modern productions in that lan
guage, " Miscellaneous Observations on Authors, An
cient and Modern," (2 vols., 1732,) "Remarks upon
Ecclesiastical History," (5 vols., 1751-73,) and the "Life
of Erasmus," (1758.) Died in 1770. "Jortin's sermons,"
says Dr. Johnson, "are very elegant."
See JOHN DISNEY, " Life of Jortin," 1792.
Josaphat. See JEHOSHAPHAT.
Jo'seph, [Heb. ^DV ; Gr. 'lum/fr : Lat. JOSE'PHUS ;
It. JOSEF, yo-sef ; Sp. JOSEF, Ho-seY',| one of the twelve
patriarchs, and the favourite son of Jacob, was born in
Mesopotamia about 1525 B.C. At an early age, on ac
count of their jealousy, he was sold by his brothers to
some Ishmaelitish merchants, who carried him as a slave
into Egypt, over which kingdom he was subsequently
appointed governor by Pharaoh. The descendant.; of his
sons Ephraim and Manasseh formed the two half-tribes,
which exerted no little influence in the Hebrew nation.
See Genesis xxxv.-l.
Joseph [Ger. pron. yo'sSf] I., Emperor of Germany,
of the house of Hapsburg, and son of Leopold I., was
born in 1676. In 1687 he was proclaimed King of Hun
gary, and in 1690 King of the Romans. At the death
of his father, in 1705, he ascended the imperial throne.
He carried on a successful war against Louis XIV., in
which he was assisted by England, Holland, and Savoy.
The allied armies were commanded by Prince Eugene
and the Duke of Marlborough. Joseph granted, through
the influence (it is said) of Charles XII. of Sweden, nume
rous privileges to his Protestant subjects. Died in 1711.
See G. LANGE, " Leben und Thaten des K a ysers Joseph I.," 1712;
FRANZ WAGNER, "Historia Joseplii I. Cssaris Augusti," 1745;
ERSCH und GKUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Joseph. II., Emperor of Germany, the eldest son of
Francis of Lorraine and Maria Theresa of Austria, was
born in Vienna in 1741. In 1764 he was elected King
of the Romans, and in the following year succeeded his
father on the throne of Germany. He married Isabella,
a daughter of the Duke of Parma, in 1760, and Maria
Joscpha, a daughter of the emperor Charles VII., about
1764. In 1772 he signed, with the sovereigns of Russia
and Prussia, the treaty by which Poland was divided
between them. At the death of his mother, in 1780,
he came into possession of Hungary and all the other
hereditary dominions of the house of Austria. He
united with Catherine of Russia, six years later, in a
Turkish war, in which his general Laudon gained
several important victories. During his reign he intro
duced many civil and ecclesiastical reforms, which would
probably have been very beneficial to his subjects had
he acted with more calmness and deliberation. He
abolished feudal serfdom, regulated the taxes, allowed
liberty of conscience and rights of citizenship to all
denominations of Christians, mitigated the condition of
the Jews, suppressed several convents, greatly abridged
the power of the pope and clergy in his dominions, and
encouraged manufactures and industry. But his zeal in
correcting the abuses of the Roman Church caused an
insurrection in Belgium ; while his attempt to establish
the German as the universal language in his dominions
induced the Hungarians to revolt. He died, without issue,
in February, 1790, and was succeeded by his brother,
Leopold II.
See PAGANEI., "Histoire de Joseph II," 1843: F. X. HUBER,
"GeschiclHe Kaiser Joseph's II.," 2 vols.. 1792; L. A. DE CARAC-
cioi.i, "Vie de Joseph II, Empereur d'Allemagne," 1790; JGNAZ
CORNOVA, "Leben Joseph II., Romischen Kaisers," 1802; C. T.
HEYNE, " Geschichte Kaiser Joseph's II.," 2 vols., 1848 ; RAMSHORN,
" Kaiser Joseph II. und seine Zeit," 1845.
Joseph, FATHER, [It. Fra GIUSEPPE,] an Italian mis
sionary, whose family name was SEBASTIANI. He went
to Persia, and obtained no little influence at the court of
the Shah. He used his power in favour of the English
interests and against those of the French. He was
acquainted with several of the Oriental languages, and
translated the works of the Persian poet Hafiz into
Latin.
Joseph, zho'zeP, (FRANC.OIS LECLERC du Trem-
blay — clii titSm'bli',) called FATHER JOSEPH, a French
monk, born in Paris in 1577, became the agent and
confidant of Cardinal Richelieu, who employed him in
negotiations and intrigues. Died in 1638.
See ABBE RICHARD, "Vie du Pere Joseph," 2 vols. ; " Le ve'ri-
table Pere Joseph," 1704; RICHELIEU, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generate. "
Joseph OF EXETER. See ISCANUS.
Joseph Al'bo, a Jew, distinguished for his learning,
born at Sora, in Spain, in the fourteenth century. He
was the author of a work on Jewish faith, entitled " Se-
pher Ikkarim." Died in 1430.
Joseph Ben Gorion. See GORTON IDES.
Joseph Emaiiuel, [Port. JOZE MANOEL, zho-za' ma-
no-61',] King of Portugal, born in 1714. In 1750 he suc
ceeded his father, John V. In 1755 his kingdom suffered
from a great earthquake, which destroyed a large part
of Lisbon and killed about sixty thousand persons. In
1758 an attempt was made to assassinate him, in which
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon;
JOSEPH
JGSUH
he was severely wounded. He discovered that the Jesuits
were implicated in the plot, and immediately caused all
against whom any evidence was brought to be executed.
He also issued an edict by which all the Jesuits in Por
tugal were declared traitors. In 1762 he united with
England in a war against France and Spain. He enacted
several laws to encourage education and to advance
religious toleration, and restricted the powers of the
Inquisition. Died in 1777.
See "Leben Joseph Emmanuels Konigs von Portugal," Nurem
berg, 1778.
Joseph Meir, (maR,) a French Jew, born at Avignon
in 1496. He wrote a work, in Hebrew, on the Kings of
France and the Sultans of Turkey. Died in 1554.
Josephe, the French of JOSEPHUS, which see.
Josephine, jo'ze-feen', [Fr. pron. zho'za'fen',] origin
ally Marie Joseph Rose Tascher de la Fagerie,
(tS'sha' deh IS pt/h're',) wife of Napoleon I. of France,
was born in 1/63 in the island of Martinique. At a
very early age she attracted attention by her remark
able beauty and vivacity. About 1778 she went to
reside in France with an aunt by whom she had been
adopted, and thus became the heiress to a large for
tune. She was soon after married to Viscount de Beau-
harnais, one of the most polished noblemen of the French
court. In 1780 she gave birth to Eugene, who was sub
sequently appointed Viceroy of Italy by Bonaparte, and
in 1783 to Hortense, afterwards Queen of Holland, and
mother of Napoleon III. Jealousies having arisen be
tween Bettuharnais and his wife, the former sued for a
divorce before the Parliament of Paris. The case was
decided in favour of Josephine, who in a short time
sailed for Martinique with her daughter. At this period
her circumstances were so straitened that she was glad
to accept from the captain of the vessel a pair of shoes
for Hortense. At the expiration of three years she re
turned to France and was reconciled to her husband.
During the French Revolution Beauharnais boldly op
posed the measures of the Jacobins, by whom he was
executed in 1794. His wife, who was then in prison,
escaped the same fate only by the sudden fall of Robes
pierre. Through the influence of Barras and Tallien,
she regained part of her husband's property, which had
been confiscated. She now became one of the leaders
of fashion. Her talents and personal attractions enabled
her also to exert no little influence in the politics of that
period. In 1796 she was married to Bonaparte, who had
recently been appointed commander-in-chief of the army
in Italy. At the time Josephine was thought by her
friends to have formed a mesalliance. After Bona'parte
became First Consul, she exerted all her influence to alle
viate the sufferings of the royalists, and even endeavoured
to persuade him to restore the Bourbons. While Napo
leon was in Egypt, she had bought for her favourite resort
the estate of Malmaison, which she fitted up with royal
magnificence. At length her expenditures for this and
other luxuries became so enormous as to occasion the
First Consul serious embarrassment. When Napoleon
was raised to the imperial throne and she became Empress
of France, to her was due in a great measure the honour of
having imparted to the court of the Tuileries the splendour
and taste for which it was then distinguished. From the
time of her coronation her influence over the emperor
rapidly diminished ; and, as there was no longer hope of
her bringing him an heir, he finally resolved to divorce
her. The announcement of this decision plunged the
empress into the deepest despair. Napoleon himself
is said to have been greatly affected; but his resolu
tion was fixed, and the bill of divorce was passed in 1809.
Josephine, still retaining her former dignities and titles,
retired to Malmaison. Napoleon occasionally visited
her, and appeared to cherish a sincere affection for her.
When the allied armies invaded France, she was treated
with the greatest respect by the emperor Alexander.
She died in 1814, soon after the abdication of Napoleon.
The character of Josephine has been greatly admired.
The cause of this is to be attributed more to her pleasing
manners than to any exalted virtue which she possessed.
It is said that there was a fascination in her countenance
which no painter could transfer to canvas. She had a
very remarkable memory, was accomplished, educated,
and witty ; but vanity seems to have had an unlimited
ascendency over her, and it does not appear that she
was endowed with so many uncommon qualities as several
modern writers have attributed to her. (See BONA
PARTE, NAPOLEON.)
See "Josephine, " in the " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale," vol.
xxxvii. For the private life of Josephine, the reader may consult
AUBENAS* "Histoire de I'lmpe'ratrice Josephine," z vols. 8vo, Paris,
1857-59; a'so the letters of Napoleon to Josephine, and of Josephine
to Napoleon and to her daughter. For a very curious account of
the empress Josephine's descendants, see " London Review" for
June, 1866; MARIE ANNE I.K NORMAND, " Memoires historiques
et secrets de Josephine," 2 vols., 1820, (English version of the same,
1848;) P. C. HEADLEY, "Life of the Empress Josephine," 1852.
Jo-se'phus, [Fr. JOSEPHE, zho'zef'; It. GIOSEFFO;
jo-seT'fo,] or, more fully, Fla'vi-us Jo-se'phus, [Gr.
<b/.u:3io(; 'HJarjxof,] the most celebrated of Jewish historians,
was born at Jerusalem A.D. 37. His mother was of the
royal house of the Asmonaeans, and his father belonged to
the sacerdotal order from which the chief pontiff's were
chosen. He pursued his studies in his native city with
such assiduity that at the age of fourteen he was often
consulted on abstruse points of Jewish law. He after
wards joined the sect of the Essenes, and passed three
years with a hermit in the desert. At the age of nine
teen he became a Pharisee. In the year 63 he visited
Rome, in order to procure the liberation of some Jew
ish priests whom the governor Felix had sent there as
prisoners. He was favourably received at the imperial
court, and succeeded in his enterprise through the in
fluence of Poppaea, the wife of Nero. On his return to
Judea he opposed the revolutionary spirit that was then
gaining ground among his countrymen. Perceiving his
efforts to be of no avail, he accepted the government of
the two Galilees, and in 67 A.D. bravely defended for forty-
seven days the city of Jotapata against a powerful Roman
army under Vespasian. The Romans finally triumphed,
however, and of the Jewish warriors Josephus alone was
saved, on account of his predicting that Vespasian would
soon receive the imperial purple. He was treated with
the greatest respect by Vespasian and Titus, and at the
destruction of Jerusalem his influence procured the
liberation of his brother and fifty of his friends. He
afterwards accompanied Titus to Rome, where Vespasian
granted him a pension and raised him to the rank of a
Roman citizen. As a mark of gratitude for these and
other favours, Josephus assumed the emperor's family
name of Flavius. -The date of his death is unknown ;
but some writers have placed it A.D. 95. The most im
portant works of Josephus are his " History of the Jew
ish War," in seven books, " The Antiquities of the Jews,"
('lavdaiKjj 'Apxaudayia,) in twenty books, two treatises
" Against Apion of Alexandria," a " Discourse on the
Martyrdom of the Maccabees," and an account of his
own life. All of these were written in Greek, with the
exception of the first, which was originally composed in
Syro-Chaklaic and afterwards translated into Greek by
himself. On account of the beauty of his style, he has
been called " the Grecian Livy." His works have been
translated into Latin and most of the modern languages
of Europe.
See G. R. VAN HOEVEI.I., " F. Joseph! Vita," 1835; J. F. ECK-
HARD, " Biographic des beriihmten F. Josephus," 1785 ; FABRICIUS,
" Hibiiotheca Gra^ca ;" CAVE, " Scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Historia
literarin :" C. F. BOEHMERT, " Ueber des Flavius Josephus Zeugniss
von Chii^to," 1823; PHILARETE(JHASLES, " De 1'Autorite histoiique
de F. Josephe," 1841.
Josepin. See CESARI, (GIUSEPPE.)
Josh'u-a, [Heb. >'Bnrv ; Gr. 'l-qame ; Fr. Josug, zho'-
zii'a',] or O'she-a, the son of Nun, (Numbers xiii. 16,)
became commander of the Israelites on the death of
Moses. He was distinguished for his bravery and mili
tary skill, and gained numerous important victories over
the different Canaanite princes. Much controversy has
arisen in regard to the authorship of the book of Joshua.
Many suppose it to have been compiled from manuscripts
written by himself; others attribute it to Samuel. Died
about 1425 is.c.
Jo-sl'ah [Heb. iri'tyx* ; Fr. JOSIAS, zho'se'as'] suc
ceeded his father Amon on the throne of Judah 641 n.c.,
at the age of eight years. He was an able and pious
prince, and during his reign of thirty-one years many
wise and beneficial laws were enacted: idolatry was
suppressed, the Temple was repaired, and the true forms
c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
JOS US
1294
JOUFFROr
of worship were restored. He was killed in a battle
against Pharaoh-Necho, King of Egypt, about 610 B.C.
See II. Kings xiii., xxii. ; II. Chronicles xxxiv., xxxv.
Josias. See JOSIAH.
Josika, yo'she-koh, (MlKi.os,) a Hungarian nobleman
and celebrated novelist, born in 1796 at Torda, in Tran
sylvania. His first and most successful work, " Abafi,"
a historical tale, appeared in 1836. He produced about
sixty volumes of romances, which were very popular with
the Hungarians. In 1848, as a member of the upper
house of nobles, he took a bold stand against the en
croachments of Austria, and advocated the measures of
Kossuth. After the defeat of the Hungarians in 1849 he
lived in exile. Died in 1865.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Josquin Desprez or Depres. See DESPRES.
Josselin de Courtenay, zhos'laN' den kooRt'ny, a
French nobleman, who went on a crusade to Palestine in
iioi. He was created Count of Edessa by the King of
Jerusalem, and won great distinction by the numerous
victories which he gained over the Saracens. Died in 1 147.
Jost, yost, (IsAAK MARCUS,) a learned Jew, born at
Bernburg, in Germany, in 1793, studied philology at
Gottingen and Berlin. His principal work is a " History
of the Israelites," (10 vols., 1846.) He also published a
translation of the " Mishna," with a text and commen
tary. Died in 1862.
Josue. See JOSHUA.
Jo'tham, [Heb. DTil',] King of Judah, was the son
of Uzziah, whom he succeeded n.c. 757.
See II. Kings xv. 32, 38; II. Chronicles xxvii.
Jotun, yo'tiin, in the plural Jotuns, [an old Norse
word signifying "giant," supposed to be derived from
an ancient form of the verb to " eat," (Anglo-Saxon
eofen,) the most prominent characteristic of the Jotuns
being their prodigious voracity. (See Thorpe's " North
ern Mythology," vol. i. p. 148,)] in the Norse mythology,
the name applied to certain mythical beings supposed
to be hostile to men and to the beneficent /Esir. The
Jotuns, or Giants, are types of the disturbing, untamable,
or destructive forces of nature. Hence the wolf Fenrir,
(supposed to typify volcanic fire,) Midgard's Serpent,
(the vast untamable ocean,) and Hela (the goddess of
death) are all represented as of Jotun birth. Loki him
self is considered to be of Jotun origin, and is the father
of the mightiest and most terrible beings belonging to
that race. Cold or frost, being one of the principal causes
of desolation and death, is represented as the parent of
a powerful family of Jotuns, termed Frost-giants. The
abode of the Jotuns is called Jotunheim or Utgard,
(oot'gard, i.e. "outer ward,") and comprises the desert
regions on the outermost boundary of the world. The
Jotuns (i.e. the elements of disorder and desolation) are
represented as being always at war with the ^sir, the
powers presiding over life and order. (See /EsiR.) The
opposition is eternal ; they are never reconciled, as in the
case of the Vanir and /Esir, (see VANIR,) because there
can be no reconciliation between order and confusion, or
between life and death.
See, besides the work above referred to, KEVSER, "Religion of
the Northmen;" MAI.LET, "Northern Antiquities;" PETEKSEN,
" Nordisk Mythologi."
Jouarmet, zhoo't'ni', (FRANC.OIS VATAR,) a French
antiquary and statistician, born in 1765 ; died in 1845.
See LAMOTHE, " Jouannet, sa Vie et ses ficrits," 1847.
Jouamiin, zhoo'S'naN', (JOSEPH MARIE,) a French
Orientalist, born in Bretagne in 1783 ; died in 1844.
Joubert, zhoo'baiR', (BARTH^LEMY CATHERINE,) a
French general, born at Pont-de-Vaux, in Bresse, in
1769. In 1791 he enlisted in the army of the Rhine,
and served with distinction against the Austrians. Two
years later he was taken prisoner by the Sardinians. He
soon after regained his liberty and returned to France,
where he boldly opposed the Jacobins. In 1794 he re
ceived the appointment of adjutant-general, and in 1795,
having displayed great bravery at Loano, he was raised
to the rank of a brigadier-general on the field of battle.
He subsequently gained distinguished honours at several
battles in Italy and in the Tyrol. In 1799 he was ap
pointed general-in-chief of the army in Italy, and fell at
the battle of Novi, in August of that year. "He united
with great military talents," says the "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale," " all the virtues of a citizen. He was
admired by all parties, and devoted exclusively to the
glory and happiness of his country."
See P. J. GAR AT, " filoge de B. C Joubert," 1799; J. LAVAL-
I,£E, "l5loge de Joubert," 1800; GUILBERT, " Notice sur la Vie de
Joubert," etc., 1799; H. LESUKUR, in the "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale ;" J. J. LE FRANCOIS DE LALANUE, " Sur le General Jou
bert," 1799; THIERS, "History of the French Revolution."
Joubert, (FRANC.OIS,) a French priest and Jansenist,
distinguished for his learning, born at Montpellier in
1689. On account of his principles, he was persecuted
by the Jesuits and was imprisoned in the Bastille. lie
wrote commentaries on the Apocalypse and on a number
of the Hebrew prophecies. Died in 1763.
Joubert, (JOSEPH,) a French Jesuit, born at Lyons,
known as the author of a valuable work, entitled " French
and Latin Dictionary, taken from the Original and Clas
sical Authors in both Languages." Died in 1719.
Joubert, (JOSEPH,) a French moralist, born at Mon-
tignac (Perigord) in 1734, became a resident of Paris
about 1778. He was an intimate friend of Fontanes, by
whose influence he was appointed inspector-general of
the University of Paris in 1809. He died in 1824, leaving
many manuscripts, a part of which Chateaubriand edited,
with the title of "Pensees." A more complete edition
of the "Pensees, Essais," etc. appeared in 2 vols., 1842.
See "Notice sur J. Joubert," by his brother ARNAUD, 1824;
SAINTE-BEUVE, "Portraits Litteraires," and " Causeries du Luudi,"
tome i. ; PAUL RAYNAI., "Notice sur J. Joubert," prefixed to his
"Pensees," etc., 1842; "Essays in Criticism," by MATTHEW AR
NOLD, 1865.
Joubert, (JOSEPH ANTOINE RENE,) a French general,
born at Angers in 1772. He served with distinction at
Hcliopolis, Wagram, (1809,) Smolensk, (1812,) and Lut-
zen, (1813.) Died in 1843.
Joubert, (LAURENT,) an eminent French physician,
born at Valence in 1529. He graduated at the Univer
sity of Montpellier, of which he was afterwards chosen
chancellor. lie was also appointed first physician-in-
ordinary to Henry III. He wrote "Popular Errors in
regard to Medicine," (1578-79,) which was often re
printed, and a "Treatise on Laughter." Died in 1583.
See A.MOREUX. " Notice sur la Vie de L. Joubert," 1814; BAYLE,
"Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON, "Memoires."
Joubert, (LEON,) a French biographer of the present
century, wrote many able articles for the " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Jouermeaux. See JUVENAL.
Jouffroi, de, deh zhoo'fiuva', [ Lat. JOFFRE'DUS, ]
(JEAN,) a French prelate, born at Luxeuil about 1412.
He obtained the favour of Louis XL, who procured for
him a cardinal's hat in 1461, and made him his almoner.
Died in 1473.
Jouffroy, zhoo'fRwa', (FRANC.OIS,) a French sculptor,
born at Dijon in 1806. He gained the grand prize in
1832, and went to Rome with a pension. He became
a member of the Academic des Beaux-Arts in 1857.
Jouffroy, (THEODORE SIMON,) a French philosophical
writer, born near Mouthe (Doubs) in 1796, was a pupil
of Victor Cousin, who influenced the development and
direction of his mind. He was appointed a tutor of
philosophy (eleve repetiteur) in the Normal School in
1817. This school having been suppressed in 1822, he
began to write for several journals in Paris. In 1830 he
became a professor in the Normal School, then re-estab
lished. He produced a version of the complete works
of Thomas Reid, (6 vols., 1828-35.) In 1833 he was
appointed professor of Greek and Latin philosophy in
the College de France. He exchanged this position in
1838 for "the office of librarian to the University, and
succeeded Laromiguiere as professor of philosophy in
1837. Among his works are " Melanges philosophiques,"
(1833,) and "Cours d'Esthetique," (1843.) lie also
produced a version of Dugald Stewart's " Essays on
Moral Philosophy," (1826,) to which he wrote a valuable
preface. Died in 1842.
See MIGNET, "Notice sur Jouffroy," 1853; ADOI.PHE GAR-
NIER, article " Jouffroy" in the " Dictionnaire des Sciences philoso
phiques," tome iii. ; "'Nouvelle Biographic Geuerale."
Jouffroy, de, deh zhoo'fmva', (CLAUDE FRANgois
DOROTHEE,) MARQUIS, an ingenious Frenchman, born
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, \\, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
JOUKOFSKI
1295
JO USENET
in Franche-Comte, about 1750. He studied the con
struction of different vessels, and went to Paris, where
he conceived the idea of propelling boats by steam. His
first vessel of this kind was launched in 1776. Although
this attempt was far from being successful, Jouffroy was
-convinced that his object was attainable. In 1783 he
completed another steam-vessel, one hundred and forty
feet long, with which he ascended the Saone several
miles, but, on account of his limited means, was unable
to carry his invention to a higher state of perfection.
The inventions of Jouffroy were highly spoken of by
Robert Fulton. Died in 1832.
See F. A. A. MIGNET, " Notice historique sur la Vie et les Tra-
vaux de M. Jouffroy," Paris, 1853 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Joukofski, (VASILI ANDREIVITCH.) See ZHOOKOF-
SKI.
Joule, jool, ? (JAMES P.,) F.R.S., an English experi
mental philosopher, born at Salford, near Manchester,
in 1818. He was a pupil of the celebrated Dalton. He
made some discoveries in electro-magnetism, and in the
theory of heat. He is considered by some persons as
the founder of the modern theory of the correlation of
forces.
Jourdain, zhooR'clax', (AMABLE Louis MARIE Mi-
CHI.I. Brechillet — bRa'she'yi',) a distinguished French
writer and Orientalist, born in Paris in 1788. Among
his principal works is "Persia ; or, A Description of the
History, Government, Religion, and Literature of that
Empire," (5 vols., 1814.) He was a contributor to the
"Biographic Universelle." Died in 1818.
Jourdain, (ANSELME Louis BERNARD Brechillet,)
an eminent surgeon-dentist, the father of the preceding,
was born in Paris in 1734. He invented several instru
ments used by dentists, and wrote numerous treatises on
dentistry. Died in 1816.
See J. R. DUVAL, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. Jourdain,"
1816.
Jourdain, (CHARLES MARIE GABRIEL Brechillet,)
a philosopher, a son of Amable, noticed above, was born
in Paris in 1817. He published, besides other works,
" La Philosophic de Saint Thomas d'Aquin," (2 vols.,
1858.)
Jourdain, (CLAUDE,) a French Benedictine and
antiquarian writer, born at Poligny in 1696; died in
1782.
Jourdan, zhooR'dfix', (ANDRE JOSEPH,) a French
statesman, born in Provence. In 1795 he was elected
to the Council of Five Hundred, where he opposed the
laws against the emigrants. For this reason, in 1797 he
was obliged to seek an asylum in Spain. On the acces
sion of Louis XVIII. Jourdan was chosen councillor of
state. Died in 1831.
Jourdan, (AXTOINE JACQUES Louis,) born in Paris
in 1788, published a "Dictionary of Terms used in the
Natural Sciences," (2 vols., 1834.) Died in 1848.
Jourdan, (JEAN BAPTISTS,) a French dramatist, born
at Marseilles in 1711 ; died in 1793.
Jourdan, (JEAN BAPTISTS,) a marshal of France, born
at Limoges in 1762, was the son of a poor surgeon, who
paid but little attention to his education. At the age
of sixteen he entered the French army, and fought for
the Americans in the Revolutionary war until 1782,
when he returned home on account of ill health. In
1791 he again entered the army, and soon after received
the command of a battalion, and served under La Fa-
yette and Dumouriez. In 1793 he was appointed general
of division. Having distinguished himself at the battle
of Hondschoote, in 1793, he was chosen commander-in-
chief of the French army. He then gained a decisive
victory over the Austrians at Wattignies, near Mau-
beuge, and raised the siege of that town. He was sub
sequently called to Paris by the committee of public
safety to consult upon the future movements of the
army. He was at first received with great enthusiasm ;
but, having given offence by the candour with which
he expressed his sentiments, he was deprived of his
authority, and Pichegru was chosen in his place. In
1794, however, he was appointed commander of the
army of the Moselle against the Austrians, over whom,
in a few weeks, he won the important battles of Arlon
and Fleurus. He also captured Charleroi and many
other towns. In the autumn of 1794 he gained the
victories of Ayvaile and Aldenhoven. He afterwards
took Luxemburg, Dusseldorf, Frankfort, and Wiirzburg,
but in September, 1796, was signally defeated by the
Archduke Charles near the last-named place. Jonrdan
soon after resigned, and, having returned to Paris, was
chosen a member of the Council of Five Hundred, of
which a few months later he was elected president. In
! 1798 he was appointed to the command of the army on
the Danube. In 1799, having met with two decisive
defeats from the Archduke Charles, he was succeeded
by Massena. The same year he was dismissed from the
Council of Five Hundred for having opposed the ambi-
j tious projects of Napoleon. He was sent as ambassador
to the Cisalpine Republic in 1800. Though created a
marshal of the empire in 1804, no military command of
importance was given to him until he accompanied Jo
seph Bonaparte to Spain as major-general. He remained
I with that monarch through all his vicissitudes, and was
i the nominal commander of the French forces when they
pSvere defeated at Vitoria by Wellington in 1813. In 1818
Louis XVIII. created Jonrdan a peer of France. Died
in 1833. He was the author of two works, — "Opera
tions of the Army of the Danube under the Orders of
i General Jourdan," and " History of the Campaign of
1796, containing the Operations of the Army of the
| Sambre-et-Meuse." Napoleon, at Saint Helena, con
fessed that he had ill-treated Jourdan, whom he charac
terized as a " true patriot."
See THIERS, "Histoire du Consulat et de 1'Empire;" DE COUR-
CELI.ES, " Dictionnairedes Generaux Francais;" MICHAUD, " Notices
historiques sur le Marechal Jourdan, les Generaux Kalckreuth, Kil-
maine," etc. ; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Jourdan, (MATHIEU JOUVE,) surnamed COUPE-TETE,
koop'tit', (" cut-throat,") a French revolutionist, noto
rious for his inhumanity, was born in Vivarais in 1749.
He was executed in 1794.
Jourde, zhooRd, (GILBERT AMABLE,) a French law
yer, born in Auvergne in 1757, in 1795 was elected a
member of the Council of Five Hundred. Died in
1837-
. Jourdeuil, zhooR'dul' or zhooR'duh'ye, (DIDIER,) a
French Jacobin, was one of the chief instigators of the
massacre in September, 1792. Died about 1800.
Jourgniac Saiat-Meard, zhooRn'ye-tk' sax ma'f R',
(Chevalier FKAN<JOIS,) a French satirical writer and
royalist, born at Bordeaux in 1745. In 1792 he was
arrested on a charge of treason, but was acquitted. Died
in 1827.
Jousse, zhooss, (DANIEL,) an eminent jurist, born
at Orleans, in France, in 1704. He entered a college
in Paris, where he gained distinction in mathematics.
He subsequently began the study of law. Among his
numerous works are a " Historical Detail of the City
of Orleans," and " New Commentary upon the Criminal
Ordinance." Died in 1781.
See ERSCH und GRUBER, " Allgeineine Encyklopaedie."
Joussouf, Joussef, or Joussof See YOOSUF.
Jouvancy or Jouvency, zhoo'vSN'se', (JOSEPH,) a
celebrated French Jesuit, born at Paris in 1643. He
was chosen professor of rhetoric in the college of Louis
le Grand, and was afterwards called by his superiors to
Rome to assist in writing the history of the Jesuits. His
style is remarkable for its purity and elegance. Among
his works are " Notes upon Juvenal, Persius, Terence,
Horace, Martial, and the Metamorphoses of Ovid," and
the fifth volume of the " History of the Jesuits" from
1591 to 1616. Died in 1719.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" QCERARD, " La France
Litteraire."
Jouvency. See JOUVAXCY.
Jouvenet, zhoov/ni/, (JEAX,) a celebrated historical
painter, born at Rouen, France, about 1646. He was a
pupil of his uncle, Laurent Jouvenet, and afterwards
studied in Paris and was admitted into the Academy of
Painting. He was subsequently patronized by Louis
XIV., who granted him a pension of 1700 livres. Having
lost the use of his right hand by a paralytic stroke, he
ascertained that he could use his left with equal facility,
and soon after painted one of his best pictures, a repre
sentation of Innocence followed by Falsehood and seek-
e as k: c as s: g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
JOUPENNSJUX
I 296
JOTEUSE
ing protection in the arms of Justice. Among his other
works are "Esther before Ahasuerus," "Jesus Christ
driving the Money-Changers from the Temple," "The
Resurrection of Lazarus," and the " Descent from the
Cross."
See D'ARGENVILLE, " Vies des Peintres ;" " Nouvelle Biographie
Ge'nerale."
Jouvenneaux. See JUVENAL.
Jouy, de, deh zhooV, (Louis FRANCOIS,) a French
lawyer, and advocate of the Parliament of Paris, where
he was born in 1714 ; died in 1771.
Jouy, de, (VICTOR JOSEPH ETIENNE,) an eminent
French writer, born at Jouy, near Versailles, in 1764 or
1769. He entered the army at an early age, and in 1790
favoured the Revolution; but during the reign of terror
he fled for safety to Switzerland. In 1794 he returned to
France, and, after serving for some time in the army, which
he quitted in 1797, fixed his residence in Paris and turned
his attention to literary pursuits. Among his works are
the operas of "The Vestal" (1807) and of "The Ama
zon," the tragedy of " Sylla," (1822,) "Cecil," a novel,
(1827,) and a series of essays entitled "The Hermit of
the Chaussee d'Antin," (5 vols., 1812-14.) The last
work, which somewhat resembles Addison's " Spec
tator," obtained a European reputation. He was elected
to the French Academy in 1815, and appointed chief
librarian of the Louvre in 1831. Besides the works
above named, he wrote "The Hermit in the Province,"
("L'Hermite en Province," 14 vols., 1818 et scy.,) and
"The Hermits in Prison," (" Les Hermites en Prison,"
2 vols., 1823,) which was very popular. Died in 1846.
See QUE^RARD, "La France Litteraire ;" CHARLES NISARD, m the
"Dictioimaire de la Conversation;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene'-
rale ;" "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1822.
Jove. See JUPITER.
Jovellanos, de, da Ho-vel-ya'n6s, (CASPAR MEL-
CHIOU,) a Spanish statesman, author, and scholar, born
of noble parentage at Gijon, in Asturias, in 1744. He
studied at the Universities of Oviedo, Avila, and Alcala.
In 1770 he was chosen a member of the Royal Academy
of Madrid, and was soon after appointed councillor of
state by Charles III. In 1778 he became a judge of
the criminal court at Madrid. Afterwards, through the
instrumentality of Don Manuel Godoy, Prince of Peace,
he was banished to Majorca, where for more than seven
years lie remained a prisoner. He returned to Spain
in 1808, and in a short time became a member of the
supreme junta. Among his works are several valuable
treatises on political economy, the tragedy of " Pelayo,"
(1790,) the comedy of "The Honourable Delinquent,"
a " Dissertation on English Architecture," and an ex
cellent " Memoir on Law applied to Agriculture," (" In-
forme sobre la Ley agraria.") Died in 1811.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" CEAN BER-
MUDEZ, " Memorias para la Vida del Don G. Jovellanos," 1814;
ANTILLON, " Noticias historicas de G. M. de Jovellanos," 1812;
"Foreign Quarterly Review" for February, 1830.
Jo'vi-an, [Lat. JOVIA'NUS ; Fr. JOVIEN, zho've-aN';
It. GIOVIANO, jo-ve-a'no,] or, more fully, Jo-vi-a'nus
Fla'vi-us Clau'dl-us, Emperor of Rome, was born in
Pannonia, 331 A.D. He early distinguished himself as
a commander in the Roman army, and, though an avowed
Christian, received many marks of distinction from Julian
the Apostate, whom he accompanied on his unsuccessful
expedition into Persia. At the death of that sovereign,
in 3°3> Jovian was elected emperor by the army. The
Roman troops were at that time in imminent danger,
both on account of the superior Persian forces by which
they were hemmed in, and the great scarcity of provi
sions. Jovian, after bravely repelling several attacks of
the enemy, formed a treaty, by which he agreed to give
up the Roman conquests west of the Tigris. Returning,
he spent some time at Antioch, where he annulled
Julian's laws against the Christians and re-established
the orthodox religion. He died in 364, at Dadastana,
in Galatia, as he was proceeding to Constantinople.
Jovianus. See JOVIAN.
Jovien, the French for JOVIAN, which see.
Jovin. See JOVINUS.
Jo-viii'I-an, [Lat. JOVINIA'NUS; Fr. JOVINIEN, zho'-
ve'iie-^N',] an Italian monk, distinguished for his bold
opposition to the growing superstition andencroachments
of the Roman Church. He particularly censured celi
bacy, fasting, and the austerities of the convent. For
the propagation of these principles he was condemned
for heresy by the Bishops of Rome and of Milan, and
in 398, by the orders of the emperor Honorius, was
scourged and banished. Died about 410 A.D.
See SAINT JEROME," Contra Jovinianum ;" BARONIUS, " Annales
Ecclesiastic!."
Joviniarms. See JOVINIAN.
Jovinien. See JOVINIAN.
Jo-vi'nus, [Fr. JOVIN, zho'vaN',] a native of Rheims,
was created a Roman consul by the emperor Valentinian
in 367 A.D. He received the command of the cavalry in
Gaul, and soon after cut in pieces a German army which
had invaded that country. He built in his native city a
church, in which he was buried in 370 A.D.
Jovinus, a Roman general, who in 41 1 A.D., under the
reign of Honorius, assumed the imperial title and pos
sessed himself of part of Gaul. In 412 he was defeated
by Ataulphus, King of the Visigoths, an ally of Hono
rius. He was soon after taken and executed.
Jovius, (PAUL.) See GIOVIO, (PAOLO.)
Jow'ett, (Rev. WILLIAM,) an English missionary,
born about 1787. He published "Christian Researches
in Syria and the Holy Land," (1825,) and other works.
Died in 1855.
Joy, Joye, or Gee, (GEORGE,) an early English Re
former, born in Bedfordshire. He graduated at Cam
bridge in 1513. Being accused of heresy, he retired to
Germany, where he remained several years. He is sup
posed to have died in 1553. He assisted in the transla
tion of Tyndale's Bible which was printed at Antwerp in
1534, and wrote several religious works, among which is
one "On the Unity and Schism of the Ancient Church."
See LEWIS, " History of the Translations of the Bible."
Joyant, zhwa'y6N', (Jui.ES ROMAIN,) a skilful French
landscape-painter, born in Paris in 1803. He produced
views of Venice, which were much admired. Died in 1854.
Joyce, jois, (JEREMIAH,) an English writer and Uni
tarian minister, born in 1764. He was principal editor
of the "Cyclopaedia" which appeared under the name
of William Nicholson, and was the author of a justly
popular work, "Scientific Dialogues," "Letters on Nat
ural Philosophy," and other productions of a similar
nature. He was arrested in 1794 with Home Tooke and
others on a charge of treason, but was released without
trial after the acquittal of Tooke. Died in 1816.
Joyeuse, de, deh zhwa'yuz', (ANNE,) Due, a French
nobleman, born about 1561. He married Margaret of
Lorraine, sister of the queen of Henry III. About 1586
he received the command of the army sent against the
Huguenots. He at first gained some advantages, and
committed great cruelties upon the Protestants, but in
October, 1587, was defeated and slain at the battle of
Coutras by Henry of Navarre.
See SISMONDI, "Histoire des Francais;" D'AuBiGNE, " M£-
Joyeuse.de, (FRANC.OIS,) CARDINAL, brother.of the
preceding, was born in 1562. He was the confidential
minister of Henry III., Henry IV., and Louis XIII. In
1614 he became dean of the cardinals of Avignon. Died
in 1615.
See AUBERY, " Histoire du Cardinal de Joyeuse, "etc., Paris, 1654.
Joyeuse, de, (GUILLAUME,) VISCOUNT, a French
military commander, born about 1520. He was made
lieutenant-general of Languedoc, and in 1562 distin
guished himself in the wars against the French Protest
ants. In 1582 he was created a marshal. Died in 1592.
Joyeuse, de, (HENRI,) Due, born in France in 1567.
The death of his wife, about 1587, affected him so deeply
that he entered the order of the Capuchins. In 1592 he
obtained a dispensation releasing him from his vows, and
received the command of the army in Languedoc. Henry
IV. created him marshal of France. He afterwards be
came again a Capuchin. Died in 1608.
See BROUSSK, "Viede Henri, Due de Joyeuse," Paris, 1621.
Joyeuse, de, (JEAN ARMAND,) MARQUIS, a French
nobleman, born in 1631. He served with distinction in
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, fi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m&t; not; good; moon;
JOTNER
1297
JUD4S
Flanders under Turenne, and was afterwards created
marshal of France. Died in 1710.
Joy'ner, (WILLIAM,) sometimes called Lyde, an
English Catholic and author, born near Oxford in 1622 ;
died in 1706. Among his works are "The Roman Em
press," a comedy, and several English and Latin poems.
See BAKER, " Biographia Dramatica. "
Joze, zho-za', ( ANTONIO,) a Portuguese Jew and cele
brated dramatist. He excelled in wit and sai casm, which,
in one of his comedies, he directed against some of the
Catholic ceremonies. He was soon after seized by the
officers of the Inquisition, tortured, and finally burned at
an auto-de-fe in 1745. Among the best of his comedies
are "Esop'T and "The Enchantments of Medea."
Joze Manoel. See JOSEPH EMANUEL.
Juan, DON. See JOHN, DON, OF AUSTRIA.
Juaii, Hoo-Sn', DON, natural son of Philip IV. of
Spain and Maria Calderona, an actress, was born in
Madrid in 1629. In 1647 he received the command of
the Spanish army in Italy, where he took the city of
Naples and gained many other advantages. Afterwards
he was defeated by Turenne in the Netherlands, at the
battle of Dunes, and compelled to evacuate the country.
His brother, Charles II., subsequently made him prime
minister. Died in 1679.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Francais."
Juan de Santa Cruz. See JUAN DE YEPEZ.
Juan de Yepez, Hoo-an' da ya'pe'th, or Juan de
Santa Cruz, a saint of the Roman calendar, was born
in Old Castile in 1542. He, with Saint Theresa, estab
lished the order of Barefooted Carmelites. Died in 1591.
Juan y Santacilia, noo-an'e san-ta-thee'le-a,(JoRGK,)
DON, a celebrated Spanish mathematician and naval
officer, was born at Orihuela, in Valencia, in 1712. He
was sent about 1735, with several Spanish and French
servants, to measure the degree of the meridian at the
equator. He devoted much attention to naval archi
tecture. He wrote "Observations on Astronomy and
Physics made in the Kingdom of Peru," (5 vols., 1748,)
and a treatise on the construction of vessels, (2 vols.,
1761.) Died in 1774.
See LA COXDAMINE, "Journal du Voyage fait a 1'Equateur," etc.
Juana OF SPAIN. See JOAN.
Juarez, joo-a'rgz, [Sp. pron. Hoo-a'r£th,l (BENITO,)
a Mexican statesman, born in Oajaca about 1807, is said
to be of pure aboriginal stock. He studied law, was
elected to Congress in 1846, and was Governor of Oa
jaca from 1848 to 1852. In 1853 he was banished by-
Santa Ana. He joined the party of Alvarez, who became
president in 1855, and served under him as minister of
justice. In 1857 he was appointed secretary of state by
Comonfort, who was driven from power in January, 1858.
Juarez was recognized as the successor of Comonfort by
the Liberals, but was opposed by the clerical party in a
long civil war. He was elected president about 1861,
soon after which Mexico was invaded by a French army.
Having gained several victories, the French took the
city of Mexico in June, 1863, and Maximilian of Austria
assumed the imperial power, under the patronage of
Napoleon III. Juarez was reduced to a critical position,
and his cause seemed desperate ; but at length the French
army was withdrawn in 1866, and the Liberals quickly
recovered the ascendency. (See MAXIMILIAN.) He was
elected president again in October, 1867.
Ju'ba [Gr. 'I66af] L succeeded his father, Hiempsal,
on the throne of Numidia about 50 B.C. In the war
between Cassar and Pompey he supported the cause of
the latter, and gained a decisive victory over Curio, a
lieutenant of Czesar. After Pompey's defeat at Phar-
salia, Juba continued to support his cause in Africa, and
for some time held even Caesar in check. He was, how
ever, defeated by the dictator at the battle of Thapsus,
and soon after killed himself, 42 B.C., in preference to
gracing the triumph of the conqueror. His kingdom
was reduced to a Roman province, of which the historian
Sallust was appointed the first governor.
See CXKAR, " Beilum Civile ;" DION CASSIUS, " History of
Rome;" APPIAN, "Beilum Civile."
Juba IL, son of the preceding, was carried to Rome
by Caesar, who gave him a liberal education. He served
in the army of Augustus, from whom he received the
kingdom of Mauritania about 30 B.C. He married Cle
opatra Selena, the daughter of the celebrated Cleopatra,
Queen of Egypt, by Antony. Juba was distinguished
for his learning, ability, and justice. He was the author
of several works, written in Greek, upon various subjects.
Pliny, Plutarch, Tacitus, and other historians mention his
writings with just commendation. He died about 20 B.C.
See Vossii's, " De Historicis Gratis ;" ECKHEL, " Doctrina Nu-
morum;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gcnerale. "
Jube, zhii'ba', (AUGUSTK,) a French historian and
general, born in 1765. He wrote a "Military History
of the Wars of France from 1643 to '815," (2 vols.,')
and other works. Died in 1824.
Jube, (JACQUES,) a French Jansenist, born near Paris
in 1674; died in 1745.
Jubiiial, zhu'be'ntl', (MiCHEL Louis ACHILLE,) a
French writer and politician, born in Paris in 1810.
Juda, zhii'dS', (LEON,) a French Protestant, born in
Alsace in 1482, was the natural son of Jean Juda, a
priest. In 1502, having formed a friendship with Zuin-
glius, he was led to embrace the principles of the Re
formers, and became pastor of Saint Peter's Church in
Zurich. He was distinguished for his zeal in promoting
the Reformation, both from his pulpit and by his pen.
Died in 1542. He commenced a translation of the Old
Testament into Latin, which was finished after his death,
and was regarded by the Protestants, and even by many
Catholic divines, as the best version extant. He was
the author of several religious works.
See M. ADAM, " Vit;e Theologorum Germanorum ;" HAAG, " La
France protestante."
Ju'dah, [Heb. miiT,] fourth son of Jacob, and one
of the twelve Hebrew patriarchs, was born in Mesopo
tamia, B.C. 1755. When Joseph was thrown into the
cave by his brethren, it was through Judah's influence
that they sold him to the Ishmaelites, instead of taking
his life as they had previously intended. (Genesis xxxvii.
26.) Jacob, on his death-bed, foretold that Judah's pos
terity would become the principal tribe of Israel, and
also referred to the coming of the Messiah, who was to
be his lineal descendant. (Genesis xlix. 8-12.)
Ju'dah, (HENRY M.,) an American general, born at
Snow Hill, Maryland, about 1821, graduated at West
Point in 1843, anc^ was a captain before the civil war
began. He became a brigadier-general of Union volun
teers early in 1862, and commanded a division at Resaca, .
Georgia, May 15, 1864.
Judah or Je-hu'dah Hak'ka-dosh',,(or Hakka-
dosch,) a learned Jewish rabbi, born in Galilee about
1 20 A.D. He is believed to have compiled, at the re
quest of the Roman emperor Marcus Antoninus, the
Mishna, (Mischna,) which contains the various Jewish
laws and institutions not found in the Old Testament.
In a short time the Talmud was ranked among the
sacred books of the nation, and it has since received ad
ditions from several learned rabbis. Died in 190 A.D.
See WOLF, " Bibliotheca Hebraica."
Ju'dah Hioog, (or Hioug,) he-oog', a Jewish rabbi
and physician, who gained great distinction for his learn
ing and skill, was born at Fez, in Africa, and lived about
1040. He wrote several works (in Arabic) on the Hebresv
language, and is now regarded by his nation as their first
and perhaps their greatest grammarian. His name is
sometimes written JUDAH CHIUG.
Judah Rav or Rab, a celebrated Jewish doctor,
who lived near Babylon in the third century of our era,
is said to have been the principal author of that portion
of the Talmud known as the "Babylonish Gemara."
Ju'das Is-car'i-ot, one of the twelve apostles chosen
by Jesus. He betrayed his Master to the officers of the
chief priests for thirty pieces of silver. Afterwards, being
stung with remorse, he returned the money to the priests
and "went and hanged himself."
See Matthew x. 4, xxvi. 47-50, xxvii. 3-5 ; Mark xiv. 18-21, 43.
Ju'das Le-vi'ta. or Hal'le-vi, a learned Spanish Jew
and poet, born in 1090 or 1080, wrote a work in Arabic
in defence of the Jewish religion, entitled " Sepher Hoc-
cori," which was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and
Spanish. Died in 1140.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; P, trilled; s as z; %h as in this.
Sz
Explanations, p. 23.)
JUDAS
1298
JUGURTHA
Ju'das Maccabae'us, (mak-ka-bee'us,) [Gr. 'lowkzo o
Mowca(3<MOf; Fr. JUDAS MACHABEK, zhti'dav mi'kt'ba',]
of the royal line of the Asmonaeans, became leader of the
Jews upon the death of his father, Mattathias, H.C. 166.
He conquered and cut in pieces several Syrian armies
which had been sent against him by Antiochus, subdued
the Iclumeans, Ammonites, and other neighbouring na
tions, and restored the worship of the true God in the
Temple of Jerusalem. He was afterwards besieged in
that city by Antiochus Eupator, who was, however, soon
obliged to return to Syria, on account of a civil war which
had'broken out in his kingdom. Judas, wishing to form
an independent government in Judea, and being unable
to contend against the whole power of Syria, concluded
a treaty of alliance with the Romans. Hut, before any
assistance could arrive, a large army of Syrians again
invaded Judea. Judas marched against them with a body
of three thousand men, which was soon reduced by de
sertion to eight hundred. He nevertheless attacked the
enemy, and, after a severe battle, was defeated and slain,
1 60 B.C.
Judd, (SYLVESTER,) a Unitarian minister and writer,
born in Westhampton, Massachusetts, in 1813. He
graduated at Yale in 1836, studied divinity at Harvard,
and from 1840 until his death, in 1853. was pastor of the
Unitarian church in Augusta, Maine. His principal
work, "Margaret, a Tale of the Real and Ideal," (1845,)
is pronounced by the "North American Review" "the
most emphatically American book ever written." It has
since been beautifully illustrated by Darley. Among his
other works are " Fhilio," a didactic poem.
See "Life and Character of Sylvester Juckl," Boston, 1854;
DUYCKIXCK. " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; " Fra-
scr's Magazine" lor July, 1867.
Jude, [Gr. 'loMac,] SAINT, one of the twelve apos
tles. He is supposed to be the author of the book
bearing his name. He was surnamed LEBBEUS and
THAUDEUS.
See Matthew x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18.
Judicael, ju'de-kal, became ruler of Bretagne about
632, and assumed the title of royalty. After a reign of
six years, he entered a monastery, and was succeeded by
his son Alain.
Ju'dith, [Heb. mirr ; It. GIUDITTA, joo-det'ta,] a.
Jewish heroine, of uncertain epoch. According to tradi
tion, she lived at Bethulia when that town was besieged
by Holofernes, a general of the King of Assyria. Having
by insidious arts gained admission to his tent and per
suaded him that she designed to betray the town to him,
she cut off his head and carried it in a sack to Bethulia,
which was, consequently, saved from capture.
See the Apocryphal Book of Judith ; ALFONSO NICCOLAI, "La
Giuditta; Dissertazione," 1765.
Jud'son, (AnoNiRAM,) an eminent Baptist mission
ary, born in Maiden, Massachusetts, in 1788, graduated
at Brown University in 1807. He was sent as a mis
sionary to Burmah in 1812, founded a mission at Ran
goon, and learned the Burmese language. In 1823 he
printed a Burmese translation of the New Testament.
He was thrown into prison in 1824, and kept in close
confinement eighteen months or more, during which he
and his companions suffered extremely. He completed
a Burmese translation of the Bible in 1834. He married
successively Ann Hasseltine, Sarah Hall Boardman, and
Emily Chubbuck, each of whom is noticed below. Having
' visited the United States in 1845, ne returned to Burmah
in 1846, and resumed his labours at Maulmain. He died
at sea in April, 1850.
See FRANCIS WAVLAND, "Memoir of the Life of A. Judson," 2
vols.. 1853; JAMES CLEMENT, " Life of the Rev. A. Judson," 1850;
H. C. CONANT, "The Earnest Man • a Sketch of the Character and
Labours of A. Judson," 1856 ; WILLIAM HAGUE, " Life of A. Jud
son," 1851.
Judson, (ANN,) (originally Miss HASSELTINE,) a
missionary to India, wife of the Rev. Dr. Adoniram
Judson, was born in Bradford, Massachusetts, in 1789.
(See preceding article.) A "Memoir of her Life," by
the Rev. J. D. Knowles, appeared soon after her death
in 1826.
Judson, (EMILY,) (originally Miss CHUBBUCK,) an
American authoress, known by the nom de plume of
" Fanny Forester," was born at Eaton, in New York,
in 1817. She wrote for the "New York Mirror," and
published two volumes of her essays, sketches, and
poems, under the title of " Alderbrook," (1846.) She
was married in 1846 to Dr. Judson, and immediately
sailed with him for India. While in Burmah, she com
posed some of her best poems. After the death of her
husband, in 1850, she returned to America, and died at
Hamilton, New York, in 1854. (See JUDSON, ADONIKAM.)
Judson, (SARAH,) (originally Miss HALL,) a mission
ary to India, born in Alstead, New Hampshire, in 1803.
In 1825 she was married to the Rev. George Dana
Boardman, and the same year sailed with him for Bur
mah. They established the Baptist Mission at Maul-
main, and subsequently at Tavoy. After the death of
her husband, in 1831, she continued her missionary
labours with great success. In 1834 she was married to
Rev. A. Judson, noticed above. Died at Saint Helena
in 1845.
Juel, yoo'el, (J.,) a Danish admiral, was a brother
of Niels, noticed below, with whom he co-operated in
several battles. He was one of the negotiators of the
treaty of Lund in 1679. Died about 1700.
See N. JONGE, "Vice-Admiral J. Juels Liv og Lcvnctsbeskri-
velse," 1755.
Juel, ( NIELS or NICHOLAS,) a celebrated Danish ad
miral, born in 1629. After serving in the Dutch navy
under Van Tromp and De Ruyter, he entered the Danish
service, and greatly distinguished himself by several im
portant victories which he gained over the Swedes. The
King of Denmark created him an admiral, knighted him,
and conferred upon him other honours. Died in 1697.
See T. DE HOKMAN, "Portraits historiques des Homines il-
lustres de Danemarck;" HAGERUP, "Ligtale over N. Juel," 1795;
H. G. GARDE, " N. Juel," 1842; MARCUS GJOE, "Ligtale over N.
Juel," 1753.
Juenin, zhu-a'na.N', (GASPARD,) a French priest,
writer, and professor of philosophy in Paris, born at
Varambon, in Bresse, in 1650; died in 1713.
Juglaris, yoo-gla'res, (ALOISIO,) an Italian Jesuit and
professor of rhetoric, born at Nice in 1607. He was also
employed as preceptor to Prince Charles Emanuel of
Savoy. He wrote numerous panegyrics on Louis XIII.
and other persons of distinction. Died in 1653.
Jugleb, yooc/lgp, or Jugler, yooc'ler, (JoHANN
FRIEDRICH,) a German writer, born near Naumburg in
1718. He published "Biographical and Critical Notices
of Eminent Jurists and Statesmen of Europe," (6 vols.,
1773-80,) and other works. Died in 1791.
Ju-gur'tha, [Gr. '[ovyovpOag or 'loyopdaf,] an African
prince, remarkable for his crimes and tragical death, was
a natural son of Manastabal. He was brought up at the
court of his uncle, Micipsa, King of Numiclia, and at an
early age served under Scipio /Emilianus in the Roman
army. During the war with Numantia he gained great
distinction, and at its conclusion was highly commended
to his uncle by Scipio. Micipsa soon after created him
joint heir with his own sons Adherbal and Miempsal.
Upon the death of that monarch, Jugurtha caused
Hiempsal to be murdered, and forced Adherbal to seek
protection at Rome. Commissioners were sent out by
the Roman senate to divide the kingdom between Ad
herbal and Jugurtha ; but the latter, having bribed them,
received the largest portion of the territory, and was
declared to be innocent of the murder of Hiempsal.
Resolving, however, to obtain the entire kingdom, he
captured Adherbal in the city of Cirta, while he was jet
under the protection of the Roman senate, and put him
to death with the greatest cruelty. War was imme
diately declared against him by the Romans ; but he
succeeded in forming an advantageous treaty with the
consul Calpurnius, who had been sent to reduce him to
subjection. The senate refused to-ratify this treaty, and
summoned Jugurtha to Rome to answer the charges
brought against him. He obeyed the mandate; but
while in that city he procured the assassination of his
cousin Massiva, another claimant of the Numidian crown.
Upon the commission of this outrage he was commanded
to leave Rome. As he was taking his last view of the
capital, he is said to have exclaimed, "Mercenary city,
thou waitest only for a purchaser to sell thyself; and
thou wilt perish if one is found." After his return to
Numidia he defeated a Roman army under Aulus Post-
a,e,T, 6, ii, y, long;^., e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T,o,u,y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
JUIGNE
1299
JULIAN
hum! us, compelling it to pass under the yoke and to
evacuate the country. The war was afterwards con
tinued by Metellus ; and, though [ugurtha was one of
the ablest commanders of that age, he was unable to
resist the Roman general, whose skill and prudence made
him ever victorious on the field of battle, and who.se
stern integrity rendered him invincible to the golden
offers of the Xumidian usurper. J ugurtha, having been
twice defeated by Marius, the successor of Metellus, was
delivered to his enemies by the treachery of his ally,
Bocchus, King of Mauritania. He was carried in chains
to Rome, where he graced the triumph of Marius. He
was then thrown into the Mamertine prison. His death,
which occurred six days later, is generally supposed to
have been caused by starvation. The Jugurthine war,
which was terminated Ii.c. 106, is the subject of one of
the histories of Sallust.
See SAI.I.UST, " Jugurtlia ;" PLUTARCH, " Marius;" LIVY, " Epi
tome," books Ixii., Ixiv., Ixvii. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Juigne, de, deh Ehu-fen'yi',(ANTOlNEEuioNORK LEON
LKCI.ERC,) a French prelate, born in Paris in 1728, dis
tinguished himself by his persecution of the Jansenists.
In 1781 he became Archbishop of Paris. Died in 1811.
See LAMBERT, "Vie de Messire A. E\ Lecleic de Juij;ne," 1821.
Juigue-Broissiuiere, de, deh zhii-en'ya' bRwa'se'-
ne-aik', a French lawyer and compiler, was born in
Anjou, and lived about 1650. His principal work is a
"Theological, Historical, Poetical, and Cosmographical
Dictionary,'' (1644.)
Juillard or Juilhard. See JARRY.
Jukes, jiiks, (Jusm-H BEETE,) F.R.S., an English
geologist, born near Birmingham about 1812. He pub
lished, besides other works, " Popular Physical Geology,"
(1853.)
Jules, the French for JULIUS, which see.
Ju'li-a, |Fr. JULIK, zhii'le',] a Roman lady, remarka
ble for her beauty and virtues, was the daughter of Julius
Cnssar. She first married Cornelius Csepio, but, by her
father's command, procured a divorce and became the
wife of Pompey the Great. She died 53 i:.c., before the
dissensions arose between her father and her husband.
Julia, only daughter of Augustus Caesar, born about
39 i:. c., was distinguished for her beauty, accomplish
ments, and disgraceful intrigues. She was married to
Marcellus, upon whose death she became the wife of
Agrippa, by whom she was the mother of five children.
Alter the death of her second husband she was given in
marriage to Tiberius, who divorced her, and afterwards
caused her to l)e poisoned, 14 .\.n.
Julia, a daughter of the preceding, born about 18 H.C.,
was married to L. /Emilius Paulus. Her character is
said to have resembled that of her mother. Some writers
identify her with the Corinna of Ovid. Died 28 A.D.
Julia, a daughter of Drusus and Livia, born about 5
A.D., was a niece of Germanicus. She was married to
Nero, who was her cousin -german.
Julia, daughter of Csesar Germanicus, was born 17 A.D.
At the age of sixteen she was married to a Roman sena
tor named Vinucias. She was soon after suspected of
conspiracy and banished by her brother Caligula, but
was subsequently recalled by Claudius. .She was put
to death in her twenty-fourth year, at the instigation
of Messalina.
Julia de Fontenelle, zhii'le-S' deh foN'teh-neT,
([KAN SEBASTIEN EUGENE,) a French chemist, born at
Xarbonne in 1790, published a "Manual for Glass-
makers," and other works. Died in 1842.
See HENRI JULIA DE FONTENELLE," Notice sur M. Julia de Fon
tenelle," 1843.
Ju'U-a Dom'na, wife of the Roman emperor Septi-
mius Severus, and the mother of Caracalla and Geta, was
born in Syria about 170 A.n. She was the daughter of
Bassianus, a priest of the sun. After the death of Seve
rus she endeavoured to heal the dissensions l>etween her
sons, but in vain ; Geta was murdered in her presence
in 212, by his brother's orders. During the remainder of
Caracalla's reign she exerted great influence in the affairs
of government. Died in 217.
Julia Mammaea. See MAMM.CA.
Ju'll-an, [Lat. JL'LIA'.NUS ; Fr. JULIEN, zhii'le^N',]
or, more fully, Ju-li-a'nus Fla'vl-us Clau'di-us, stir-
named THE APOSTATE, a Roman emperor, was born in
Constantinople in 331 A.D. He was the son of Julius
Constantius, and a nephew of Constantine the Great.
On the death of the latter, the soldiers, in order to
secure the succession of his sons, massacred all the other
members of the Flavian family except Julian and his
elder brother Gallus. The jealousy of the emperor
Constantius afterwards banished the brothers to Cap-
padocia, where they were educated in the principles of
the Christian religion and officiated as lecturers in the
church of Nicomedia. In 351 Gallus was created Caesar
by the emperor, and Julian was permitted to return to
his native city, but in a short time was again exiled to
Xicomedia. He subsequently embraced the philosophy
of the Platonists, and, having obtained permission to
visit Athens, he pursued his studies in that city and was
privately initiated in the mysteries of the religion of
Greece. After the execution of his brother, in 355, he
was recalled to Constantinople through the influence of
the empress Eusebia. Constantius created him Caesar,
and gave him command of the armies in Gaul. Julian
also received in marriage Helena, sister of the emperor.
He made four successful campaigns against the Germans,
who had overrun Gaul, expelled them from that country,
took captive Chnodomarius, their most powerful king,
invaded Germany, and gained a high distinction for
military skill and personal bravery. Constantius,
envious of the fame of Julian, and wishing to destroy his
power, commanded him to send his best troops to
the East, in order that they might assist in the Persian
war. The soldiers, who had Income greatly attached to
Julian, refused to obey, and, notwithstanding his remon
strances, proclaimed him Augustus. It is even stated
that they threatened him with death if he refused the
purple. He then sent an embassy to Constantius, re
questing that he might be recognized as Augustus in
Gaul. This not having been granted, he marched
towards Constantinople ; but the sudden death of the
emperor, in 361, enabled Julian to ascend the imperial
throne unopposed. Immediately after his accession he
threw off the hypocrisy which had shielded him for
so long a time, and, renouncing Christianity, in which
probably he was never a true believer, declared his faith
in the divinities of Greece and Rome. He proclaimed
liberty of conscience to all, commanded the pagan tem
ples to be reopened, and even attempted to restore Ju
daism by rebuilding the Temple at Jerusalem. He was
prevented from completing this project by remarkable
eruptions of fire, which rendered it impossible for the
workmen to continue their labours. In the spring of
363 he set out from Antioch, at the head of 65,000 well-
disciplined troops, on his contemplated invasion of Per
sia. He crossed the Euphrates and Tigris, and gained
several important victories over the Persians; but the
oppressive heat and the scarcity of provisions compelled
him to retreat, and in June of the same year, as he was
bravely repelling an attack of the enemy, a javelin
wounded him fatally in the side. He died the following
evening, while he was calmly conversing with his friends
on philosophy. Julian was the author of an account of
his Gallic and German wars, which has been lost, "The
Cassars," " Misopogon," a satire against the citizens
of Antioch, whom he had offended by his philosophical
austerity and his slovenly habits, and of about eighty
letters upon various subjects.
See AUGUST NEANDER, " Ueber Kaiser Julian und sein Zeital-
ter," 1812. (translated into En^ii^h by G. V. Cox, 1850;) LA BLET-
TERIE, "Vie de 1'Empereur Julien, 1735; JONDOT, " Histoire de
1'Empereur Julien," 2 vo!s., 1817 ; WILLIAM WARBCRTON, "Julian,
or a Discourse concerning the Earthquake and Fisry Eruption which
defeated mat Emperors Attempt to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem."
1750; AISEI. DESJARDIXS, " E"rude sur 1'Empereur Julien," 1845 : j.
KORNKR. " Kaiser Juiian der Abtriinnijre,"etc., 1830; GIBBON, '' His
tory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire:" SOCRATES,
" Historia Ecc'esiaslica ;" MILMAX, " History of Christianity. "
Julian, uoo-le-an', COUNT, Governor of Andalusia
under the JGothic kings of Spain. After King Roderick
had ravished the daughter of Julian, the latter formed a
treaty with the Moslems for the invasion of Spain, and
rendered them efficient service at the battle of Xeres,
where Roderick was defeated in 711 A.D.
See MURPUV, " History of the Mahometan Empire in Spain;"
SOUTHEV, "Roderick, the Last of the Goths."
€ as k: c as s: g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal; R. trilled: s as z: th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23. *
JULIAN
1300
JUNCKER
Ju'li-an, [Lat. JULIA'NUS; Fr. JULIEN, zhii'le-aN';
It. GIULIANO, joo-le-S'no,] an Italian bishop, distin
guished for his opposition to the doctrines of Saint Au
gustine, was born about 380, and studied theology under
Pelagius. In 416 Innocent I. raised him to the see of
Eclanum ; but about 420 he was banished from Italy on
account of his Pelagian doctrines. Having been con
demned by several councils, he settled in Sicily. Died
about 455.
Julian, Archbishop of Toledo, and a saint of the
Roman calendar, was born in Spain, of Jewish descent.
He was raised to the see of Toledo in 680, and presided
over four different councils held in that city. He was
the author of a work on death, the resurrection, and the
final judgment. Died in 690.
Julian, (MARCUS AURELIUS,) a Roman Governor of
Venetia, who in 285, while aspiring to the imperial
purple, was defeated and slain near Verona by Cariuus.
Julian Cesarini. See CESAKINI, (GIULIANO.)
Ju-11-a'na, a woman of Portuguese descent, born in
Bengal in 1658. Having gained the favour of Aurung-
Zeb, she was appointed governess to his son, Shah Alum,
who succeeded to the crown in 1707. In a battle between
that prince and his brothers, who disputed the succession,
she rode by his side on an elephant and greatly contrib
uted to his success. Shah Alum raised her to the rank
of a princess, and conferred upon her many other honours.
See " Biographic Universelle."
Julianus. See JULIAN.
Ju-11-a'nus or Julian, (SALVIUS,) a celebrated Roman
jurist, and great-grandfather to the emperor Didius, was
born about 100 A.n. He was twice chosen consul. His
principal work is entitled " Digesta," in ninety books,
and is often referred to by writers on Roman law.
See J. G. HEINECCIUS, " Progranima de S. Juliano," 1733.
Julie. See JULIA.
Julien, the French for JULIAN, which see.
Julien, zhii'le-aN', (PIERRE,) a celebrated French
sculptor, born at Saint-Paulien in 1731. He commenced
his studies at Lyons, under Perache, whom he left in
1765 to become the pupil of Coustou, the king's sculp
tor, at Paris. In 1768 he went to Rome, where he re
mained four years, to perfect himself in his art. In 1779
his statue of "The Dying Warrior" gained his admission
to the Academy of Painting and Sculpture in Paris.
Died in 1804. Among his most admirable productions
are " La Baigneuse," the statues of La Fontaine and
Poussin, and copies of Apollo Belvedere and "The Dying
Gladiator," from the Italian.
See J. LEBRETON, " Notice historique stir In Vie et les Ouvrages
de P. Julien," 1805.
Julien, (SiMON,) or Julien of Parma, a French artist,
born at Toulon in 1736, studied in Paris under Vanloo,
resided ten years at Rome, and after his return was
elected a member of the Academy of Painting. He was
called JULIEN THE APOSTATE, because he abandoned
the French style. Died in 1 800.
Julien, (STANISLAS,) an eminent French Orientalist,
born at Orleans in 1799. He studied under Abel Re-
musat, and devoted himself particularly to the Chinese
language. He succeeded Abel Re'musat as professor of
Chinese in 1832, and afterwards became administrator, in
the College of France. He made translations from Meng-
tseu (Mencius) and other Chinese authors, and pub
lished " Practical Exercises of Chinese Syntax and Lexi
cography," (1842.) Jnlien enjoys the reputation of one
of the first Chinese scholars of his time. He was a
member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and of the prin
cipal learned societies of Europe. Among his works is one
of great interest, "Voyages des Pelerins Bouddhistes,"
(3 vols., 1853-58,) translated from the Chinese.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Julio Romano. See GIULIO ROMANO.
Julius [Fr. JULES, zhiil ; It. GIULIO, joo'le-o] I., a
Roman by birth, succeeded Marcus in the papal see in
336. In 340 he convoked a council at Rome to settle
the dispute between Athanasius, the orthodox Bishop
of Alexandria, and the Arians, who had expelled him
from his office. Athanasius appeared ; but his enemies
called at Antioch a council which condemned him.
Julius, finding his interpositions to be in vain, sum
moned the General Council of Sardica, which restored
the bishop to his see and introduced the custom of
appealing to the pope in all ecclesiastical disputes. Died
in 352 A.I).
Julius II., (Cardinal GIULIANO della Rovere —
del'la ro-va'ri,) born in 1441, was elected to the see of
Rome upon the death of Pius III., in 1503. Haughty
and warlike in his disposition, he immediately turned his
ambition to the aggrandizement of the papal authority.
He drove Ctesar Borgia from the Romagna, and attempted
to expel the Venetians from Ravenna, Rimini, and other
parts ot his dominions. Failing in this, he formed the
League of Cambrai with the King of France, the Emperor
of Germany, and the Duke of Ferrara, for the destruction
of the Venetian republic. Julius, soon discovering, how
ever, that he had more to fear from the French than
from the Venetians, made a treaty with the latter in
1510, and took the field in person against the French,
over whom he gained some slight advantages. In 1512
he allied himself with the English, Spaniards, Swiss,
and Venetians, and finally succeeded in expelling the
French from Italy. But liftle was gained by this success ;
for the Swiss and Spaniards gave him as much trouble
as the French had previously done. He died before
these new difficulties were adjusted, in 1513. Julius
displayed a great taste for the fine arts. He was the
first to commence Saint Peter's Cathedral at Rome, and
was the patron of Michael Angelo, Raphael, and other
men of distinction. Leo X. was his successor.
See RANKE, "History of the Popes;" BRUVS, " Histoire des
Papes," 1732 ; " La Viedu Pape Jules II," (anonymous,) Paris, 1515.
Julius III., (Cardinal Giocci — jot'chee,) born in 1487
at Arezzo, succeeded Paul III. in February, 1550. His
pontificate was marked by quarrels with the King of
France, the Venetians, and other powers. Died in 1555.
See ARTAUD DE MONTOR, " Histoire des souvernins Pontifes."
Jullian, zlui'le-fiN', (PIERRE Louis PASCAL,) a French
historical writer and politician, born at Montpellier about
1769. He wrote "Fragments historiques," (1804,) and
"Souvenirs de ma Vie," (1808.) Died about 1836.
Jullien, zhu'le^N"', ( ANURE,) a writer upon the culture
of the vine, born at Chalons-sur-Saone, in France, in
1766 ; died in 1832.
Jullien, (Louis,) a popular French composer of music
and director of concerts, was born in 1812. He com
posed music for balls, operas, etc., and performed in
Paris and London. Died in 1860.
Jullien, (MARCEL BERNARD,) a French grammarian
and writer, born in Paris in 1798.
Jullien de la Di 6me, zhii'le-aN' deh It dRom, (MARC
ANTOINE,) a French Jacobin, distinguished for his vio
lence, was born in Dauphine in 1744; died in 1821.
Jullien de Paris, zhu'le-a.N' deh pS're', (MARC AN
TOINE,) a politician and journalist, born in Paris in 1775,
was a son of the preceding. During the Revolution he
was a Jacobin. He published several works on politics,
education, etc., and founded in iSiS the "Revue Ency-
clopedique." Died in 1848.
See QI;£RARD, " La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biopraphie
Generale :" BOILEAU D'AUXY, " Biographic de M. J. de Paris," 1842.
Julus. See IULUS.
Jumel, zhii'meT, (JEAN CHARLES,) a French eccle
siastic and writer, born in Paris ; died in 1824.
Jumeliu, zhiim'laN'', (JEAN BAPTISTE, ) a French
savant, physician, and writer, born in 1745, visited Greece,
where he directed his attention to the botany as well as
to the antiquities of that country. Died in 1807.
Jumilhac, de, deh zhii'me )tk', (ANTOINE PIERRE
JOSEPH CHAPELLE,) MARQUIS, a French royalist, dis
tinguished as a cavalry officer, was born in 1764. In
1791 Louis XVI. appointed him lieutenant-colonel of
his guard. He served under Napoleon. Died in 1826.
Jumlah. See JEMLAH.
Jumonville, de, deh zhii'n^N'vel', (Coui.ON,) a
French officer, born about 1725, signalized his bravery
in the Canadian wars. He is said to have been treache
rously killed in 1753 by the English, to whom he was
bearing a message.
Juncker, ydonk'ker, (CHRISTIAN,) a German phi
lologist and historian, was born at Dresden in 1668. He
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; gcJod; moon;
JUNCKER
1301
JUNIUS
published several works on German history, and a " Ljfe
of Luther," (1699.) Died at Altenburg in 1714.
See SCHADEN, " Ehrengedachtniss Junckers," 1714; ERSCH und
GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" GELI.IUS, " Epistola ad J.
A. Fabricium de C. Junckero," 1714-
Juiicker or Junker, (GOTTLOB JOHANN,) a German
physician, born near Giessen in 1680. He became pro
fessor of medicine at Halle in 1729, and maintained the
doctrines of Stahl. He wrote numerous medical works.
Died at Halle in 1759.
Juncosa, Hoon-ko'sa, (Fra JOAQUIN*,) a skilful Span
ish painter, born in the diocese of Tarragona in 1631 ;
died near Rome in 1708.
Junc-tl'nus, the Latin name of FRANCESCO GlUNTlNI,
an Italian astrologer and monk, born at Florence in 1522.
He wrote several works on astrology, etc. Died in 1590.
Jung, voting, or Junge, yoong'eh, [Lat. JUNG'IUS,]
( JOACHIM,) a German physician and botanist, born at
Lubeck in 1587, became successively professor of mathe
matics at Giessen and Rostock. He was one of the most
able opponents of the scholastic philosophy, and for his
actiteness was compared by Leibnitz to Copernicus and
Galileo. He also, it is said, first suggested, in his "Isa-
goge Phytoscopica," (1678,) the classification of plants
afterwards developed by Linnaeus. He was rector of a
school at Hamburg from 1629 until his death. Died at
Hamburg in 1657.
See MARTIN VOGEI., " Histotia Vita: et Mortis J. Jimgii," 1657;
GUHRAUER, " J. Jungius und sein Zeitalter," 1850; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Jung, (TUHAXN HEINRICH,) commonly known by the
pseudonym of STILLING, an original German writer,
born at 'im-Grund, in the duchy of Nassau, in 1740.
While studying medicine at Strasburg, he formed an
intimacy with Goethe, who has given an interesting ac
count of him in his Autobiography. In 1804 he became
professor of political economy at Heidelberg. He pub
lished in 1777 " Henry Stilling's Youth, Early Years, and
Wanderings," which was foliosved soon after by " Henry
Stilling's Domestic Life." Among his fictitious writings
we may cite "Theobald, or the Enthusiast," "The Chris
tian Philanthropist," and " Scenes from the Spirit-Land."
Stilling appears to have been a man of great earnestness
as well as simplicity of character, with a strong tendency
to religious enthusiasm and mysticism. Died in 1817.
See J. H. JUNG. " H. Stilling's Jtieend, Jiingiingsjahre. Wan-
deischatt und hausliches Leben," 3 vols., 1777-79: enlarged under
the title of " Lebensbeschreibung J. H. Jungs." 5 vols.. 1806:
SCHWARZ, " Jung-Stillings Alter," 1817; JOHN WRIGHT, " Life of
H. Stilling," abridged by SAMUEL JACKSON, 1847 '• " Foreign Quar
terly Review" for July, 1838.
Jung-Bahadoor, (or -Bahadur,) jung (or Jung) ba-
ha'door, (i.e. "brave in war,") [from the Hindostanee
Jung, " battle," " war," and bahadurm bahadoor, " brave,"]
the name, or rather surname, of several Indian princes,
among whom the recent minister of Nepaul and virtual
sovereign of that country deserves particular mention.
He was the son of a Nepaulese general, was born about
1815, and by his unscrupulous audacity, combined with
rare talents for intrigue, he soon raised himself to the
highest position in the state. About 1850 he visited
England as ambassador, and while in that country was
the object of much attention. In 1857 he offered the
English government his co-operation in suppressing the
mutiny of the Sepoys, and, with about 9000 Goorkhas,
(a race of Tartar origin,) took part in the capture of
Lucknow, for which, and other services, he received from
Queen Yictoria the grand cross of the order of the Bath.
Junger, yoong'er, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH,) a German
litterateur, born at Leipsic in 1759. He was the author
of numerous popular romances and dramatic works.
Among his nov< Is are " Vetter Jakobs Launen," (6 vols.,
1786-92,) and " Der Schein triigt," (1787.) Diedin 1797.
Jungerniann, yo6ng'er-man',(GoTTFRiEn,) a German
philologist, born at Leipsic. He published " Longi Pas-
toralia Greece cum Latina Versione," (1605,) and other
classical works. Died in 1610.
Juiigermaun, (Luowio,) a botanist, born at Leipsic
in 1572, was a brother of the preceding. He was pro
fessor of botany at Altdorf. Died in 1653.
Junghuhn, yodng'hoon, (FRANZ WII.HKI.M,) a Prus
sian naturalist, born at Mansfeld in 1812. He was em
ployed as army physician or officer of health in India,
and explored the island of Java. He published, besides
other works, an account of the topography, botany, and
geology of Java, ("Java, seine Gestalt, Pflanzendecke
und innere Bauart," 3 vols., 1852,) which is esteemed
the best work on that subject.
Jungius. See JUNG.
Jungmann, yocng'man, (JOSEPH JAKOH,) a learned
Slavonian philologist, born at Hudlitz, in Bohemia, in
1773. He was appointed in 1815 professor of languages
and rhetoric at the Gymnasium of Prague, where he was
aftersvards prefect. His greatest work is a " Bohemian-
German Dictionary," (5 vols., 1835,) which gives evi
dence of immense learning and industry. He also wrote
a " History of the Bohemian Language and Literature,"
(1825,) and a "Bohemian Chrestomathy." He wrote
other works, in prose and verse, and made a number of
translations from eminent English and French writers.
Jungmann is regarded as one of the most zealous and
efficient promoters of Slavonian literature. Diedin 1847.
See L. CELAKOVSKV, " Dodavky ke Slpvmku J. Jungmanna,"
1850; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1828.
Ju-nill-us, a bishop who flourished in Africa about
550 A.D. He wrote a Latin work "On Parts of the
Divine Law," which was printed at Bale in 1545-
Ju'm-us, the assumed name of a political writer who
in January, 1769, -began to issue, in London, a series
of famous letters, which first appeared in Wooclfall's
" Public Advertiser." Junius opposed the ministry then
in power, and denounced several eminent persons with
great severity of invective and pungency of sarcasm.
His style is eminently pure, terse, and vigorous. These
letters had a great popularity, and powerfully promoted
the cause of civil liberty. "The myrmidons of the court,"'
said Burke, in the House of Commons, " have been long,
and are still, pursuing him in vain. They will not spend
their time upon me, or you, or you. No : they disdain
such vermin when the mighty boar of the forest, that
has broken through all their toils, is before them. . . .
Kings, Lords, and Commons are but the sport of his
fury. Were he a member of this House, what might
not be expected from his knowledge, his firmness and
integrity!" Among the numerous persons to whom
these letters have been attributed were Sir Philip Fran
cis, Lord Chatham, Edmund Burke, Henry Grattan,
Colonel Barre, Gibbon the historian, John Home Tooke,
Horace Walpole, John Wilkes, and Wedderburn, (after
wards Lord Loughborough.) The publication of the
Letters of Junius continued until January, 1772. In
his dedication to the people of England, he said, " I am
the sole depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish
with me."
A multitude of books and essays have been written in
the attempt to solve this mystery. But all the efforts
in that direction seemed for a long time to be wholly
unsuccessful ; so much so that a very able lawyer and
antiquary, Sir N. H. Nicolas, writing in 1843, declared
his conviction that all the Junius-seekers had completely
failed in their undertaking. Macaulay, however, in his
essay on Warren Hastings, (1841,) says that "the evi
dence [against Sir P. Francis] would support a verdict
in a civil — nay, in a criminal — proceeding." At the
present time (1870) the question appears to be no longer
doubtful. A great number of circumstances (some of
which have only very lately come to light) seem to point
with unerring certainty to Sir Philip Francis as the true
Junius. Among the various incidental proofs bearing on
this question, one of the most curious and decisive is
given in " Lippincott's Magazine" for January, 1870, p. 11 8.
See JOHN TAYLOR, "The Identity of Junius with a Distinguished
Living Character Established," 1816; JOHN MASON GOOD, "Essay
on Jiinius and his Writings;" MACAULAY, review of Gleig's "Lite
of Warren Hastings ;" LORD BROUGHAM, article in the " Edinburgh
Review" for November, 1817, (vol. xxix. ;) ''London Quarterly Re
view" for December, 1851 ; AI.LIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Ju'nl-us, (FRANCIS,) [Fr. FRANCOIS nu JON, frS.N'-
swa' dii zhiN, | a learned Protestant theologian, was born
at Bonvges, in France, May I, 1545. He studied at Lyons
and Geneva, and was appointed pastor of a Walloon
church in Antwerp in 1565, but at length was com
pelled to fly to Germany to escape the tortures of the
Inquisition. In 1568 he became chaplain to the army
€ as k; c as s; g hard;%3&j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in Ms.
Explanations, p. 23.)
JUNIUS
1302
JUPITER
of the Prince of Orange. Five years later, at the re-
cjuest of the Elector- Palatine, he went to Heidelberg,
where, with the assistance of Tremellius, he translated
the Old Testament into Latin, (1575-79.) This work,
which established his reputation, is known as the version
of Junius and Tremellius. He afterwards filled succes
sively the chairs of theology at Neustadt, Heidelberg,
and Leyden. He wrote numerous works on divinity and
the classics. Died at Leyden in October, 1602.
See "Vita F. Junii Biturigensis ab ipsnmet conscripts, " 1505:
BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON, "Me-
moires;" F. GOMAK, "Oratio funebris in Obilum F. Junii," 1602.
Junius, (FRANCIS or FRANCISCUS,) an eminent phi
lologist, son of the preceding, was born at Heidelberg
in 1589, and was educated at Leyden. He passed over
to England about 1620, and became librarian to Thomas
Howard, Earl of Arundel, with whom he remained thirty
years. He devoted his attention chiefly to the study of
the Teutonic languages. He published a rare and valu
able work, — a translation of the Gospels into the ancient
Gothic, (made by Bishop Ulphilas about 360 A.D.,) with
a Commentary, (1665.) Junius was the author of a work
"On the Painting of the Ancients," ("l)e Pictura
Veterum," 1637,) and of an Etymological Dictionary,
("Etymologicum Anglicanum," 1743,) in which he ex
plains the derivation and origin of numerous English
words. He left his choice collection of manuscripts to
the University of Oxford. Died at Windsor in 1677.
See GRJEVIUS, " Life of Francis Junius," in the 21! edition of liis
"De Pictura Veterum," 1694; BAVI.K, "Historical and Critical Dic
tionary;" NICEKON, " Memoiies :" WOOD, " Athena: Oxonienses."
Junius, de, deh yoo'ne-us, or Jonghe, yong'eh,
(ADRIAAN,) a learned Dutch physician, was born at
Hoorn, in Friesland, in 1512. He went to England
near the close of the reign of Henry VIII., and became
physician to the Duke of Norfolk. After the accession
of Edward VI. he published a Greek-and-Latin Lexi
con, which he dedicated to that sovereign. For this he
was severely censured by the Roman pontiff. He wrote
in honour of the marriage of Queen Mary with Philip
of Spain a Latin poem entitled " Philippeis." About
1564 he was appointed physician to the King of Den
mark. Died at Middelburg in 1575. As a philologist
and linguist his contemporaries regarded him as second
only to Erasmus. In addition to the works previously
mentioned are his "Nomenclature of All Things," a
vocabulary in seven different languages, several Latin
poems and epistles, and various commentaries on the
writings of the ancient authors.
See P. SCHKI.TEMA, "Diatribein H. Junii Vitam ingeniuin et Merita
literaria," 1836.
Junker, yoonk'er, or Juniker, yoo'ne-ker, (GKORG
ADAM,) a teacher and translator, born at Hanau about
1720. He translated numerous German dramas, etc.
into French. Died in 1805.
Ju'no, [Fr. JUNON, zhii'noN' ; It. GIUNONE, joo-no'-
na,] a goddess of the Roman mythology, called the queen
of heaven and the wife of Jupiter, corresponding to the
Greek Hera, ('H/xz or "Hp??.) She was regarded as the
protecting deity of the female sex, and as the patroness
of marriage and maternity. She was surnamed MATRONA
and REGINA, and was worshipped by the Roman women
at an annual festival called Matronalia. As the patroness
of marriage, she was called Pronuba, Gamelia, Jugalis or
Juga, and various other names. Her aid was implored
by women in childbirth under the name of LuciNA, (which
see.) She is usually represented as a majestic woman,
crowned, with her favourite bird, the peacock, near her.
The name Juno is in all probability related etymologically
to the Sanscrit word Ydm,* signifying "matrix," and
hence denoting maternity and femineity.
See SMITH, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and
Mythology ;" KEIGHTI.EV, "Mythology," article "Hera;" Gui-
GNIAUT, "Religions de 1'Antiquite," vol. ii. chap. ii.
Junon. See JUNO.
* It is scarcely necessary to remind the etymologist how nearly u is
related to o: in Arabic and Persian they have but a single letter to
represent both ; in Norwegian and Swedish there is but little differ
ence in the pronunciation of the two vowels, o being pronounced pre
cisely like the Italian or German ;/. J (i.e., i consonant) in the Latin
(as it does in many of the modern languages') corresponded to our
Y- The terminal o in Jiino is merely the feminine termination so
common in Greek and Latin proper names.
Junot, zhu'no', (ANDOCHK,) Due d'Abrantes, a distin
guished French general, was born near Semur in 1771.
At the age of twenty he enlisted as a common soldier,
but, on account of his uncommon bravery, was soon made
lieutenant. While serving at the siege of Toulon, he
gained the approbation of Bonaparte, who made him his
first aide-de-camp, with the rank of captain. He ac
companied that general on his Italian campaigns, and
fought with his accustomed bravery at the battles of Lodi,
Arcola, Castiglione, and l^onato. During the invasion of
Egypt and Syria he became the favourite of Bonaparte,
and gained great distinction at the battle of Nazareth,
where, with three hundred horsemen, he attacked and
held in check a body of three thousand Moslems. After
his return to France he rendered efficient service to
Bonaparte in the subversion of the Directory. In 1800
he was appointed commandant of Paris, and afterwards
governor of that city and colonel-general of hussars.
He also received the decoration of the grand eagle of
the legion of honour, and was sent as ambassador to
Portugal. He took part in the battle of Austerlitz, in
1805. In 1807 he commanded an army which invaded
Portugal and took Lisbon. He was soon afterwards
created Due d'Abrantes. In August, 1808, he was
defeated by Sir Arthur Wellesley at V'imiera, and com
pelled to evacuate Portugal. The emperor then deprived
him of the governorship of Paris, but appointed him
Captain-General and Governor of the Illyrian provinces.
His misfortunes and disgrace shortly after affected his
mind so deeply that he was obliged to retire from public
life. He died at Montpellier in July, 1813.
See MADAME b'AnRANTBs, " Memoires ;" THIERS, " Histoire du
Consulate! de PKmpire:" NAPOLEON, " Correspondance ;" ALISON,
"History of Europe;" " Nouvellt Biographic Generale."
Junot,(LAUREPKRMON,)MADAME, Duchesse d'Abran
tes, was born in Montpellicr in 1784, and was married
to General Junot about 1800. Her family was related to
that of Bonaparte, to whom her mother had shown great
kindness before he l>ecame a general. At her marriage
Mademoiselle Pennon received from the First Consul
one hundred thousand francs as a marriage-portion.
In 1806 she accompanied her husband to Lisbon, and
in 1807 became Duchesse d'Abrantes. On the restora
tion of the Bourbons she was kindly received by Louis
XVIII. She wrote, besides other works, "Memoirs or
Historical Souvenirs of Napoleon, the Revolution, the
Directory, etc.," (18 vols., 1831-34.) Died in 1838.
See A. D. ROOSMALEN, " Les derniers Moments de la Duchesse
d'Abrantes," Paris, 1838; IGNAZIO CANTU, " Relazione della Du-
chessa d'Abrantes," 1837; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Junquieres, de, deh zhuN'ke-aiu', (JEAN BAPTISTE,)
a French poet and officer, born at Paris in 1713; died
in 1786.
Junta or Junte, (FILIPPO.) See GIUNTA.
Junta, (Tu.MMASO,) a Venetian physician, floiuished
about 1550. He wrote a treatise "On the Battles of
the Ancients," which displays considerable erudition.
Junte. See GIUNTA.
Junterbuck, yotm'ter-book', (JAMES,) a Polish writer,
and professor of theology at Erfurt, was born about 1385 ;
died in 1465. He wrote various works, among which is
a "Tract on Mental Apparitions."
Ju'pl-ter or Jup'pi-ter, [Fr. pron. zhii'pe'taiR' ; It.
GlOVK, jo'va, whence the English JOVE,*] the supreme
deity of the Roman mythology, corresponding to the
Greek ZKUS, and represented as the eldest son of Saturn
and Rhea. He was the greatest of all the gods of the
classic mythology, and was supposed to control all earthly
and human affairs and to foresee futurity. The Romans
ascribed to him power over all changes in the sky, and
the phenomena of rain and lightning, and hence applied
to him the epithets of "Pluvius," ("rainy," or "raining,")
"Tonans,"(" thundering,")" Fulminator," ("thunderer,'')
etc. As presiding over marriage, he is sometimes called
Gamelius; and as the protector of the rights, of hospi
tality, he was invoked as Jupiter Hospitalis. He was
sometimes called Jupiter Capitolinus, because his tem-
* Or, to speak more accurately, both the Italian and English are
derived from Jovis, the Latin genitive case of Jupiter. The German,
Spanish, and Portuguese names for Jupiter, in spelling and accen
tuation, are the same as the Latin.
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; nSt; good; moon;
JUPPIN
1303
JUSSIEU
pie at Rome stood on the Capitol. He was the father
of Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Minerva, Venus, etc. Ac
cording to the Greek mythology, he kept his court on
Olympus. His most famous Greek temple was at
Olympia, in Elis. He is usually represented as seated
on a throne, with a thunderbolt in his right hand, in his
left a sceptre, and near him his favourite bird the eagle.
The name Jupiter (who was also called Diespiter) is
probably a corruption of Diu-pater, (or Dior-is pater,)
("father of the heavens," or "heavenly father.") Diiim,
Dirnm, and Dies originally signified the same, — viz., the
"sky," or "heaven." Others derive it from the Greek
Zens Pater or Zeu Pater, (i.e. " father Zeus.") Respect
ing the probable identity between Jupiter (or Zeus) and
the Hindoo god Siva, see SIVA.
See SMITH, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and
Mythology;" GUIGNIAUT, "Religions de 1'Antiquite," vol. ii. chap,
i. ; KHIGHTI.EY, " Mythology."
Juppiii, zhii'pa.N', QEAN BAPTISTE,) a Flemish land
scape-painter, born at Namur in 1678. He studied in
Brussels, and afterwards visited Italy. Among his works
is the "Crater of Vesuvius." Died in 1729.
Juret, zhii'ri', (FkAN^ois,) a French critic and poet,
born at Dijon in 1553, became canon of Langres. He
published " Senecre 'ad Lucilium Epistolarum Liber,"
(1602,) and " Panegyrici Veteres cum Xotis," (2 vols.,
1652.) Died in 1626.
Jurieu, zhii're-uh', ( PIERRE,) a learned French theo
logian and controversialist, was born at Mer, in Orleanais,
in 1637. He became pastor of a Protestant congregation
in Mer after he had studied at Saumur and Sedan. He
was subsequently appointed professor of theology and
Hebrew at Sedan. On the revocation of the edict of
Nantes, in 1685, he retired to Rotterdam, where he was
appointed professor of theology. He wrote numerous
religious works, among which are a " History of Cal
vinism and Popery compared," (1682,) and a "Critical
History of Doctrine and Worship, Good and Bad,"
(1704,) both in French. Died in 1713.
See HAAG, "La France pvotestante ;" " Xouvelle Biographic
Generale." 3<*y7<> /-Z3'« fT'rumy *~>fic4t~ .
Ju'rin, (JAMES,) an English physician and philosopher,
was born in 1684, and was educated at Cambridge. He
was elected a member of the Royal Society, of which
he became secretary, and was chosen president of the
College of Physicians. He wrote several treatises on
philosophy and physiology. Died in 1750.
Jurine, zhli'ren', (Louis,) a .Swiss physician and natu
ralist, born at Geneva in 1751, resided in Paris. He
wrote, besides other works, a treatise on ascertaining the
salubrity of the atmosphere. Died in 1819.
Jussieu, jiis-sii', de, [French pron. deh zhii'se-uh',]
(ADRIEN,) a celebrated French botanist, son of Antoine
Laurent, noticed below, was born in Paris, December 23,
1797. He gained the first prize at the competition of
1814, and applied himself to the study of natural history
and medicine. He succeeded his father as professor of
rural botany in the Museum of Natural History in 1826,
and was admitted to the Institute in 1831. He published
a series of memoirs and monographs which have placed
him in the first rank of botanists. Among his best works
are a "Monograph of the Malpighiaceae," (1843,) and
an " Elementary Course of Botany," which has been
translated into all the languages of Europe. In 1845
he became professor of vegetable organography to the
Faculte des Sciences. Died in June, 1853.
See " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Jussieu, de, (ALEXIS,) a French journalist and ad
ministrator, born in 1797, was a nephew of the great
botanist Antoine Laurent. He was prefect of Ain and
of Vienna in the reign of Louis Philippe.
Jussieu, de, (ANTOINE,) professor of botany in the
Royal Garden of Paris, was born at Lyons in 1686. He
travelled in France, Spain, and Italy for the purpose
of making botanical explorations, succeeded Tournefort
as professor of botany in 1708, and was the author of
several treatises on that science. He published a new
edition of Tournefort's "Institutions." Died in 1758.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Jussieu, de,( ANTOINE LAURENT,) a celebrated French
botanist, born at Lyons in April, 1748, was the most
eminent member of a family which has been called "the
Botanical Dynasty." In 1765 he went to Paris to study
medicine, and became the protege and pupil of his uncle,
Bernard de Jussieu, who lectured on botany in the Jar-
din clu Roi, and was meditating a natural method of
classification, near the close of a life memorable in the
records of botanical science. This uncle, whose advanced
age and dimness of sight indisposed him to the labours
of authorship, freely communicated his mature reflections
to young Jussieu, who zealously enlisted in the important
enterprise. In 1770, having just graduated as M.D., he
was appointed demonstrator of botany in the Jardin du
Roi, as the substitute of Lemonnier, chief physician to
the king. His first production was an excellent mono
graph on the " Ranunculaceae," (1774,) which opened to
him the Academy of Sciences and determined him to
apply himself almost exclusively to botany.
In 1774 the arrangement of the plants in the Royal
Garden, which was conformed to the system of Tourne
fort, was exchanged for one proposed by Jussieu, founded
on natural affinities. While performing his duties as
professor, he continued to digest and perfect his new
system, until 1788, when he developed the same in his
great Latin work, " Genera Plantarum secundum Ordines
naturales disposita," "which," says Cuvier, "forms in
the sciences of observation an epoch perhaps as im
portant as the ' Chemistry' of Lavoisier in the sciences
of experiment." Although the success of his book was
retarded by the political convulsions of France, his philo
sophical system has gradually prevailed and superseded
the artificial method of Linnaeus. The idea of such a
system had occurred to other botanists ; but Jussieu is
entitled to the honour of laying its broad and impreg
nable foundations.
In 1793 the school of the Royal Garden was reor
ganized, under the title of " Museum of Natural His
tory," and the chair of botany was given to Jussieu, who
was also chosen director of the institution. A few years
later he became a member of the Institute, and in 1808
was appointed a councillor of the Imperial University.
At the restoration of the Bourbons he lost the office last
named, but retained the professorship until 1826, when
he resigned it in favour of his son. Between 1800 and
1820 he wrote many botanical treatises on natural orders
and families, which were inserted in the records of the
Institute or the "Annales du Museum." These are
characterized by the same merits as his principal work,
— profound knowledge, patient observation, a correct
estimate of the value of characters, and an admirable
sagacity in perceiving affinities. Died in 1836.
See FI.OURENS, " filoge de A. L. de Jussieu," 1838 ; A. T. BROXG-
NIART, " Notice liistorique sur A. L. de Jussieu," 1837; " Nouvelle
Biograpliie Generale."
Jussieu, de, (BERNARD,) a celebrated botanist,
brother of Antoine, noticed above, was born at Lyons in
1699. After studying in his native city, he accompanied
his brother on several scientific tours. On returning
to France he entered the medical course at Montpellier,
where he graduated in 1720. Six years later he was
chosen Doctor of the Faculty of Medicine at Paris. He
was the first to conceive the idea of the classification of
plants according to their affinities. This method was per
fected by his nephew, the celebrated Antoine Laurent de
Jussieu. He was held in high esteem by Louis XV., to
whom he gave valuable advice upon the formation of the
garden at Trianon. Jussieu visited England, and was
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1777.
See CONDORCET, " filoge de Jussieu ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Jussieu, de, (JOSEPH,) brother of Antoine and Bernard
de Jussieu, was born in Lyons in 1704. In 1735 he ac
companied, as a botanist, the French and Spanish savants
who had been sent by their respective governments to
Peru. He remained in that country and other parts of
South America until 1771, and collected valuable infor
mation on natural history. Died at Paris in 1779.
Jussieu, de, (LAURENT PIERRE,) a French moralist
and writer, born at Lyons in 1792, was a brother of
Alexis, noticed above. He wrote a number of popular
educational works, among which are " Simon de Nantua,"
,) and "Antoine et Maurice," (1821.) His "Post-
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, wow/; R, trilled; s as s; th as in //4w. (g^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
JUS SOW
1304
JUST I NUN
humous Works of Simon de Nantua" (1829) obtained
the Montyon prize.
See QUERAKU, " La France LitteVaire."
Jussow, yoos'so, (HEiNRicii CHRISTOPH,) a German
architect, born at Cassel in 1754. He designed a church
at Neustadt, a wing of the royal palace of Wilhelmshohe,
and the Chinese Gallery at Cassel. Died in 1825.
See ERSCH und GKUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Jussy, zhu'se', (JACQUKS PHILIPPE,) a French phy
sician, born at Besai^on about 1716. He introduced a
new and successful method of lithotomy. Died in 1798.
Just, Saint. See SAINT-JUST.
Juste, zhiist, (THEODORE,) a Belgian historian, born
at Brussels in 1818. He published, besides other works
in French, a "Popular History of Belgium," (1838,) a
" History of the Belgian Revolution of 1790," (3 vols.,
1846,) and a " History of the Middle Ages," (5 vols.,
1848.)
Justel, zhiis'tel', (CnuiSTOPHE,) a French Protestant
statesman, and secretary to Henry IV., was born in Paris
in 1580. He was distinguished for his knowledge of
ecclesiastical history and of canon law, upon which he
wrote several books. He also wrote some historical
works, among which is a " History of the Family of
Turenne," (1645.) Died in 1649.
See SAX, " Onomasticon ;" MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique ;"
HAAG, "La France protestante."
Justel, (HENRI,) a canonist, born in Paris in 1620,
was a son of the preceding, whom he succeeded as
secretary to the king. He collected an extensive library,
especially rich in manuscripts, and was a liberal patron
of literary men. For the sake of religious liberty he
emigrated to England in 1681, and became librarian to
Charles II. He published " Bibliotheca Juris Canonic!
veteris," (2 vols., 1661.) Died in 1693.
See SAX, "Onomasticon;" HAAG, "La France protestante;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Justen. See JUUSTEN.
Justi, yoos'tee, (JOHANN HEINRICH GOTTLIEB,) a
German writer on political economy and philosophy,
born in Thuringia about the beginning of the eighteenth
century. Among his numerous works are a "Treatise
on Manufactures and Fabrics," (3 vols., 1758-61,) and
"Moral and Philosophical Writings," (2 vols., 1760-61,)
both in German. Died at Kiistrin in 1771.
See ERSCH und GRUBEK, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Jus'tin, [Lat. JUSTI'NUS, or JUSTI'NUS FRONTI'NUS,]
a Latin historian of uncertain period, and of whose life
nothing is known. He wrote a work entitled " Histo-
riarum Philippicarum Libri XLI V.," which, as he informs
the reader in his preface, is extracted or abridged from
the History of the World written by Trogus Pompeins.
As the original work is lost, Justin's history, although
it has no great intrinsic merit except an elegant style,
supplies much valuable information not found in other
histories. The most ancient writer that mentions Justin
is Saint Jerome ; and it is supposed that the former lived
between 150 and 350 A.D.
See D. W. MOLLER, " Disputatio de Justine, " 1684 ; ZEMBSCH,
" Justimis Trogi Pompeii Epitomator," 1804.
Jus'tin or Justi'nus, surnamed THE MARTYR, one
of the earliest and most learned of the Christian fathers,
was born of Greek parentage at Neapolis, in Palestine,
about 103 A.D. He was educated in the pagan religion
and in the philosophy of Plato. About 132 he embraced
Christianity. He afterwards removed to Rome, where
he wrote, in Greek, his first apology for the Christian
religion. It was addressed to the emperor Antoninus,
from whom Justin procured some concessions for the
Christians. His other apology was addressed to Marcus
Aurelius. He also wrote an account of his discussions
with Trypho, a learned Jew, upon the Messiah. He
suffered martyrdom at Rome under Marcus Aurelius,
for refusing to sacrifice to the heathen gods, about 165.
His writings are considered very valuable.
See JOHN KAVE, "Life of Justin Martyr," London, 1836; CARL
SEMISCH, "Justin der Miirtyrer," 2 vols., 1840-42; VOI.KMAR,
"Ueber Justin den Martyrer," etc., 1853; JUNIUS, " Dissertatio de
Justino Martyre," 1836 ;' RITTER, "History of Christian Philoso
phy;" EUSEBIUS, " Ecclesiastical History;" NEASDER, " History of
the Church ;" FLEURY, " Histoire ecclesiastique."
Justin or Justinus I., Emperor of the East, was
born a peasant in Dacia in 450 A.D. At an early age he
went to Constantinople, where he enlisted in the im
perial guards of Leo I. He distinguished himself by
his military abilities, and rose in rank until he was suc
cessively appointed general and commander of the
guards. In 518, on the death of the emperor Anasta-
sitis, Justin was proclaimed his successor by the soldiers
and the people. Through his instrumentality the Greek
and Roman Churches were reconciled. He is generally
regarded as a just prince. Died in 527, soon after re
signing the throne to his nephew Justinian.
See LE BEAU, "Histoiredu Bas-Empire;" ZONARAS, "History."
Justin or Justinus II. was a nephew of Justinian I.,
whom he succeeded as Emperor of Constantinople in
565. During his reign the Longobards under Alboin
invaded Italy, the northern part of which they wrested
from the Eastern Empire, and the Persians made several
important conquests in the Asiatic provinces. In 574,
perceiving his inability to govern, he resigned in favour
of Tiberius, the captain of his guards. Died in 578.
See LE BHAU, "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" MEXANMIEK, "His-
toriarurn Libri VI II.," Paris, 1609; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Jus-ti'iia, [Fr. JUSTINE, zhus'ten',] SAINT, a Chris
tian martyr, who is supposed to have suffered death
under Diocletian, (A.D. 304.) She was the patroness of
Venice and of Padua. In the latter town a church was
built in her honour in the fifth century.
See MRS. JAMESON, " History of Sacred and Legendary Art."
Jus-tin'i-aii or Jus-tin-1-a'nus [Fr. JUSTINIEN,
zhiis'te'ne-a.N'] I., one of the most celebrated of the Em
perors of the East, and nephew of Justin I., was born in
Dardania, May 11,483 A.D. Justin at his coronation in
518 appointed Justinian his colleague, and in 527 invested
him with supreme authority. Soon after ascending
the throne, Justinian commenced an active persecution
against the Arians, Jews, and Pagans. About 532 se
rious revolts occurred, in one of which the church of Saint
Sophia and other buildings were destroyed by fire. This
sedition, in which thirty thousand insurgents are said to
have fallen, was incited by the factions of the circus, and
was only quelled by the prompt resolution of Belisarius at
the head of the imperial guards. Justinian showed great
clemency to those of his rebellious subjects who were
made prisoners. He immediately began to repair the
damages of the conflagration. The magnificent church
of Saint Sophia, which is one of the most remarkable
edifices of any age or country, was rebuilt upon the plan
furnished by the architect Anthemius. Justinian also
exhibited his liberality and architectural skill in the con
struction of temples, convents, roads, bridges, aqueducts,
and fortifications in many parts of his vast empire. But
by far the greatest work of his reign was the revision of
the Roman law and the publication of the Codes, Pan
dects, and Institutions which bear his name, and which
were compiled under his supervision by the eminent
jurist Tribonian. The "Codes," consisting of twelve
books, were completed in 534. The " Digesta" or " Pan-
dectae," embracing all that was taken from the decisions,
arguments, and expositions of the civilians of Rome, were
subsequently issued in fifty books. The "Institutiones"
were an abridgment of the first principles of the law for
the use of students. Justinian also composed many new
laws, mostly in Greek, entitled " Constitutiones No
velise." While he was thus rendering such eminent
service to the world by the publication of his Codes and
Pandects, his celebrated generals Belisarius and Narses
carried the terror of his arms into Persia, Italy, and
Africa, and made their master the sovereign of nearly
all the territory over which the first Caesars had held
dominion. (See BELISARIUS, and NARSES.) Justinian
gave liberal encouragement to the industrial arts, and
was the first to introduce silk-worms and the manu
facture of silken goods into Europe. He died in 565,
after a reign of more than thirty-eight years, and was
succeeded by his nephew, Justin II. Justinian, although
justly censurable for his occasional intolerance, was dis
tinguished for his general justice and humanity, as well
as for his knowledge of theology, philosophy, law, poetry,
and architecture, for his administrative powers, and for
his exceedingly virtuous and temperate life, — qualities
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
JUSTINUN
JUXON
which would have placed him in the highest rank as a
monarch, even if he had not produced those Codes which
have immortalized his name.
See PROCOPIUS, " HistoriasuiTemporis," (translated into English
by HOI.CROFT, 1653;) LUDEWIC, "Vita Justiniani," 1731 ; ISAMBERT,
" Hivoirede Justinien," 1856; CORVINUS DE BEI.DERN. •' Imperator
Justinianus Catliolicus," 1618 : G. PEKRIN, " Vita Justiniani," 1576 ;
GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" MONTESQUIEU,
" Grandeur et Decadence desRomains,"chap. xx. ; H. VOGKL, " Dis-
serta;io de Jnstiniano," 1672; P. GAUDENZIO, "Gloria Justiniani
Imperatoris vindicata," 1639; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Justinian [Lat. JUSTINIA'NUS] II., son of Constan-
tine III., ascended the throne of Constantinople in 685.
He gained important advantages over the Saracens, and
compelled them to relinquish some of their conquests.
Finally, his great cruelties to his subjects, and also, it is
said, his intention of burning Constantinople, caused his
general Leontius to depose him, to cut off his nose, and
to banish him to the Crimea. He subsequently escaped
from the Crimea, and married the daughter of a Turkish
chief, with whose assistance, and that of the Bulgarians,
he regained his crown. He put Leontius, and many
others, to horrible deaths. He was preparing to execute
further cruelties, when he was killed in 711 by Philip-
picus Bardanes, who succeeded him.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire:" LE BEAU,
" Histoire du Bas-Empire;" ZONARAS, "History;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Ge'nerale."
Justiniani. See GIUSTINIANI.
Justinianus. See JUSTINIAN.
Justinien. See JUSTINIAN.
Justinus. See JUSTIN.
Jus'tu-lus.yoos'too-lus, (PiETRO FRANCESCO,) a Latin
poet, and secretary to Caesar Borgia, a native of Italy,
lived about 1500. His poems are distinguished for their
purity and elegance.
Ju'suf. See YOOSUK.
Ju-tur'iia, [Fr. JUTURNE, zhu'tliRn',] a nymph or
goddess of the Roman mythology, was said to be beloved
by Jupiter. According to Virgil, she was a sister of
Turnus. The water which the Romans used in sacrifices
was mostly drawn from the fountain of Juturna.
Juturne. See JUTURNA.
Juusten or Justen, yoos'ten, (PAUL,) Bishop of Abo,
in Finland, was born at Viborg. He was sent in 1569 by
John III. of Sweden as an ambassador to Ivan, Czar of
Russia. That monarch, on some false pretence against
John, threw Juusten in prison, where he was confined for
three years. Died at Abo in 1575.
Juvara, yoo-va'ra, or Ivara, e-va'ra, (FILIPPO,) first
architect to the Duke of Savoy, was born at Messina, in
Italy, in 1685, and educated at Rome under Fontana.
He constructed a palace at Messina, and several edifices
in Turin. In 1724 he went to Lisbon, where he super
intended the building of the royal palace and other edi
fices, for which he received the order of knighthood and
a pension of about three thousand dollars. He died in
1735, at Madrid. Among his best works are the hunting-
palace of Stupinigi, and the Birago di Borgaro palace,
both in Turin.
See MII.IZIA, " Memorie degli Architetti ;" QUATREMERE r>E
QUINCV, "Vies des Architectes celebres;" " Xouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Ju've-nal, [Lat. JUVENA'I.IS ; Fr. JUVENAL, zhii'va'-
ntl',] or, more fully, De9/a-mus Ju'm-us Ju-ve-na'-
lis, one of the most celebrated of the Latin satirical poets,
is believed to have been born in Aquinum, a Volscian
town, about A.D. 40. But few authentic facts have been
preserved respecting his history: it is said, however, that
he was the son of a wealthy freedman, and that he
devoted the early part of his life to the study of rhetoric
and declamation. He afterwards became a pleader in
the courts of law, where he appears to have been suc
cessful. He was an intimate friend of the poet Martial,
who mentions him in two of his epigrams. None of
the productions of Juvenal were given to the public
until he had passed the age of sixty years. His poems,
which he then recited, gained him universal admiration.
One of his earliest satires had been written against an
actor named Paris, who was a great favourite with the
emperor Domitian. It was not published until the reign
of Hadrian, who, imagining that it reflected on one of
his own favourites, sent Juvenal into an honourable exile
by making him the prefect of a legion in Egypt, where
he is said to have died about A.D. 125. Sixteen of his
satires have been preserved. Several translations of
them have been made into English, of which the most
prominent are those of Dryden and Gifford. In these
satires Juvenal severely lashes the prevailing vices of
his time ; but it may well be doubted whether his vivid
pictures of the licentiousness of that age do not tend to
fan those very passions which they seem intended to
restrain. He was distinguished for his force of intellect,
his flow of language, and his never-failing wit. "Juvenal
gives me," says Dryden, "as much pleasure as I can
bear. He fully satisfies expectation ; he treats his sub
ject home. . . . When he gives over, 'tis a sign that the
subject is exhausted, and that the wit of man can carry
it no further." His works, differing equally from the
austere moral dialogues of Persius and the genial raillery
of Horace, are rhetorical rather than poetical. They are
brilliant and sonorous declamations, and master-pieces
of denunciation.
"Magnificent versification," says Macaulay, "and in
genious combinations rarely harmonize with the expres
sion of deep feeling. In Juvenal and Dryden alone we
have the sparkle and the heat together. Those great
satirists succeeded in communicating the fervour of their
feelings to materials the most incombustible, and kindled
the whole mass into a blaze at once dazzling and destruc
tive." (" Essay on Dryden.") Among the best editions
of Juvenal is that of Ruperti, (Leipsic, 2 vols., 1801,) to
! which are prefixed all the ancient documents for the
j biography of the satirist.
See J. V. FRANCKE, " Examen criiicum D. J. Juvenalis Vita;,"
1820, and " Programma de VitaD. J. Juvenalis Questioaltera," 1827 ;
VOI.KER, "Juvenal, Lebens- und Charakterbild," 1851 ; BAUER,
" Kritische Bemerkungen iiber einige Nachrichten atis dem Leben
Juvenals," 1833 : BAHR, "Geschichte Her Romischen Litteratur. "
Juvenal, zhiiv'njtl', (Gui Jouvenneaux.zhoo'vcYno',
or Jouennaux, zhoo'i'no',) a French philologist and
ecclesiastic, born about 1460, was educated at Paris.
Among his works are "Commentaries on the Comedies
of Terence," and "Monastic Reformations Vindicated."
Died in 1505.
Juvenal des Ursiiis. See URSINS.
Ju-ven'cus, (CA'IUS VEC'TIUS (vek'she-us) AQUILI'-
NUS,) one of the earliest Christian poets, was born in
Spain about 330 A.D. His principal production is the
" Life of Christ," written in Latin poetry and taken lite-
• rally from the four Evangelists.
See A. R. GEBSER, "Dissertatio de C. V. A. Juvenci Vita et
i Scriptis," 1827; ERSCH und GRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Juvenel, zhiiv'nel', (F^Lix,) a French historical writer,
i born at Pezenas in 1669, published "Principles of His
tory." Died in 1760.
Juvigny. See RIGOLEY DE JUVIGNY.
Jux'on, (WILLIAM,) Archbishop of Canterbury, born
in Chichester in 1582, graduated at Oxford. In 1621 he
was appointed president of Saint John's College, and
afterwards received various offices in the Church through
the patronage of Archbishop Laud. In 1633 he was
successively raised to the sees of Hereford and London.
Two years later he was appointed by Charles I. lord
high treasurer of England. For about six years he ful
filled the duties of this station with so much justice and
ability that, although great hostility was excited that an
ecclesiastic should be chosen to that office, no charges
were made against his administration. He remained
with Charles through his trial, and accompnnied him to
the scaffold, where he received the dying injunctions of
that monarch. On the restoration he was raised to the
see of Canterbury. Died in 1663.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=>See Explanations, p. 23.)
KAAB
1306
KALCKREUTH
K.
Kaab, ka'ab, a distinguished Arabian poet, who flour
ished about 650 A.D. He was at first a bitter enemy of
Mohammed ; but afterwards, becoming reconciled to
him, he wrote a poem, which is regarded as the most
beautiful of the eulogiums addressed to the founder of
the Moslem faith. The prophet was so much pleased
that he gave Kaab his green mantle. The poem was
hung up in the Temple of Mecca. Kaab died in 662 A.D.
See D'HERUELOT, " Bibliotheque Orientale."
Kaas, kas, [Lat. KAA'SIUS,] (Nucoi.AUS,) a Danish
statesman, born in 1535, and educated in Germany, where
he studied theology under Melanchthon. In 1573 he
was appointed chancellor of Denmark, and in 1588 be
came first regent of the kingdom during the minority
of Christian I. lie performed the duties of that office
with commendable ability and patriotism. Died in 1594.
Kaas actively promoted the cause of education.
See HOFMANX, " Portraits historiques des Hommes cdlebres du
Danemaick ;" KOLDHR, " Exegesis Virtutum et Rerum gestarum N.
Kaasii," 1580; P. J. WINSTKUP, " Ligpraediken over N. Kaas,"
1594; J. CALUNDANUS, "Descriptio Vita; N. Kaasii," 1637.
Kaasius. See KAAS.
Kaau-Boerhaave, kow booR'ha'veh, (AliRAM,) a
Dutch physician, and nephew of Herman Boerhaave,
was born at the Hague in 1713, and educated at Leyclen.
In 1740 he was invited to Saint Petersburg, where he
became councillor of state, and in 1748 first physician to
the imperial court. Died at Moscow in 1753.
Kabbete, kab'l>eh-teh, QAN,) a Dutch landscape-
painter. Some of his pictures were engraved by Perelle.
Died in 1660.
Kabel, van der, vtn der ka'bel, (ADRIAAN,) a Dutch
landscape-painter and engraver, born at Riswyck in 1631.
His designs were natural and vigorous. Died in 1695.
See PILKINGTO.V, " Dictionary of Painters."
Kabus or Kabous. See CAUOOS.
Kadlubek, kad-loo'bek, (VINCKNT,) sometimes writ
ten Kodlubko or Kalubko, a Polish historian and
prelate, was born in Galicia. In 1208 he was raised to
the see of Cracow. Died in 1223. He wrote a valuable
and accurate history of Poland to the year 1202.
See OSSOLIXSKI, " V. Kadlubek, ein historisch-kntischer Beitrag,"
etc., 1822.
Kaempfer. See KAMPFER.
Kaestner. See KASTNER.
Kager, ka'ger, (JOHANN MATTHIAS,) a German
painter of history, born at Munich in 1566; died at
Augsburg in 1634.
Kahle, kri'leh, (LuowiG MARTIN,) a German philos
opher and jurist, born at Magdeburg in 1712. Among
his works is " The Balance of Europe," (" De Trutina
Europae," 1744.) Died in 1775.
Kahler, ka'ler, (JOHANN,) a German Lutheran divine,
born at Wolmar, Hesse-Cassel, in 1649, was a Cartesian
in philosophy, and wrote several works. Died in 1727.
Kahnis, ka'nis, (KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST,) a Ger
man theologian, born at Greitz in 1814. He studied
under Tholuck, and became professor of theology at
Leipsic in 1850. He published a valuable work, entitled
" Luthei ische Dogmatik," (2 vols., 1861-68.)
Kaiaiiian or Caianian, kl-a'ne-an, the name of the
most celebrated of all the ancient Persian dynasties, so
called from its founder, Kai-Kobad, who, according to
the Persian legends, was placed on the throne by the
famous hero and conqueror Roostum, (or Rustem.) Of
this dynasty, Cyrus the Great (called by the Persians
Kai-Khosroo or Kai-Khosrau, Kos-row') was the chief
ornament and glory. (See CYRUS.) Darius the Younger,
conquered by Alexander the Great, was the last of the
Kaianian kings.
See ATKINSON, "Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Firdaust,"
London, 1832; "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of SIR VV.
JONES'S Works.
Kai-Kaoos, (-Kaus or -Kaous,) ki ka'oos', an an
cient king of Persia, (or Iran,) was the son of Kai-Kobad.
His general, the famous Roostum, carried on successful
wars against the Kings of Turan. Sir William Jones
places the date of this prince's accession at B.C. 610.
Kai-Kaoos is said to have founded an observatory in
Babylon. He was succeeded by his grandson, Kai-Khos
roo, (Cyrus the Great.)
See MIRKHOND, "Raouset;" ATKINSON, "Abridgment of the
Shah Nameh."
Kai-Kaoos, (-Kaus or -Kaous,) ki ka'oos', I.,
seventh Sultan of the dynasty of the Seljookides of
Anatolia, succeeded his father, Kai-Khosroo, about A.D.
1210. He was engaged in wars with the Grecian em
peror and several of the neighbouring princes. Died in
1219, and was succeeded by his brother, Kai-Kobad
Ala-cd-Deen, (Ala-eddin.)
See FERISIITA, "History."
Kai-Kaoos (or -Katis) II, Azzed-ed-Deen, (Az-
zed-Eddin,) az'zed ed-deen', succeeded his father,
Kai-Khosroo II., in the sovereignty of Anatolia, about
A.D. 1244. His reign was occupied by long wars with
his brother, Kilij-Arslan, and with the Grand Khan
ofTartary. Died in 1278.
Kai-Khosrau. See CYRUS.
Kai-Khosroo (-Khosrou) THE ELDER. See CYRUS.
Kai-Khos'roo' I., sixth Sultan of the dynasty of the
Seljookides, became sovereign of Anatolia A.D. 1192.
He was killed in battle in 1210 by Theodore Lascaris,
Emperor of Constantinople.
Kai-Khosroo II. succeeded his father, Kai-Kobad
Ala-ed-Deen, (Ala-eddin,) on the throne of Anatolia in
1237. In 1244 he was defeated by the Tartars, and was
compelled to become a tributary to their grand khan.
He died the same year.
Kai-Khosroo III., twelfth of the dynasty of the
Seljookides, became Sultan about 1266. Died in 1283.
Kailasa or Cailasa, kl-la'sa, called in the common
dialect Kailas, ki-lSs', the name of a very high mountain-
peak near the northern extremity of India, supposed to
be the favourite abode of Siva and Parvati. (See SIVA.)
Kain. See LE KAIN.
Kaiook, Kaiuk, or Kaiouk, kl-ook', a grandson
of Jengis Khan, was proclaimed Grand Khan ofTartary
in 1246. This prince granted numerous privileges to
the Christians of his dominions. He died in 1248, as he
was raising an immense army for the invasion of Europe.
Kairis, ka'ris, (THEOPHILOS,) a Greek ecclesiastic,
born in the island of Andros in 1780. In 1839 he was
banished by the Synod of Athens to a cloister for having
taught deism. He wrote a burlesque on the prayers of
the Christian Church. In 1852 he was sent to prison,
where he died in 1853.
Kaiser, kl'zer, (FRIEDRICH,) a German engraver, born
at Ulm in 1775, worked in Vienna. Died in 1819.
Ka'kig I., King of Armenia, of the dynasty of Pagrat-
ides, succeeded his brother, Sempad II., in 989. Kakig
assumed the surname SiiAHAN-SiiAH, (" King of kings.")
In 998 he assisted David, a Georgian prince, to defeat the
Mohammedans under Mamloon the Ameer. Died in 1020.
Kala, kd'la, or Kal, a Sanscrit word, signifying "time,"
[from Ml,* to "count" or " reckon,"] and forming one of
the many names of the destroying god SIVA, (which see.)
Kalanaga. See KALIYA.
Kalauu or Kalaoun. See KELAOON.
Kalb, de. See DE KALI?.
Kalckreuth.von, fon kalk'roit', (FRIEDRICH ADOLF,)
COUNT, born at Sangerhausen, in Prussia, in 1737, served
in the war of the Bavarian succession, and afterwards
in the campaigns of Holland and P 'ranee. For his gallant
defence of Dantzic against the French, in 1807, he was
made field-marshal. In July, 1807, he concluded with
Talleyrand a treaty of peace between Prussia and
France. Died in 1818.
See L. G. MICHAUD, "Notices historiques sur le Marechal Jour-
dan et les Generaux Kalckreuth et Kilmaine."
* This word is related etymologically to the middle syllable of the
Latin " interai/aris," denoting the reckoning of a day or space of
time between other days. The word "kalends" is not improbably
from the same root.
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon;
KALDI
1307
KALRAAT
Kaldi, kal'dee, (GKORGE,) a learned and eloquent
Hungarian Jesuit, born in Tirnau about 1572, was pro
fessor of theology at Olmiitz. Died at Presburg in 1634.
He translated the Bible into the Hungarian language.
Kale. See KALK.
Kalee. See KALL
Kalergis, ka-leR'gis, (DEMETRIUS,) a Greek general
and politician, born in Taganrog about 1802. He fought
for independence against the Turks. About 1843 he be
came a general, and governor of Athens. He was min
ister of war for about two years, (1854-56.) Died in 1867.
Kalf, kalf, written also' Kale, (WlLHELM,) a distin
guished Dutch painter of still life, born in Amsterdam
in 1630. He especially excelled in painting fruit, gold
and silver vessels, gems, crystals, etc. Died in 1693.
Kali or Kalee, ka'lee, the feminine of Kala, (a name
of Siva,) forming the common appellation of Siva's con
sort in her destroying character. She is often called
Maha Kali, (ina-ha' ka'lee,) or the "Great Kali," and
Bhaclra (b'hud'ra) Kali, (from Bhadra, one of the many
appellations of Siva,) and various other names. She is
represented sometimes with four and sometimes with
eight hands, and her person is decorated with a necklace
of human skulls. Her images are usually painted black
or of a dark colour. In her character of Maha Kali she
sometimes represents eternity. (See Coleman's "My
thology of the Hindoos," p. 91.) As active or militant
virtue, she is called Durga; in her ordinary and more
peaceful character she is known as Parvati, (i.e. the
"mountain goddess," in allusion to her dwelling on the
inaccessible heights of the Himalayas,) or as Devi, (da'-
vee,) which signifies the " goddess" par excellence. (See
DUKC.A, and PARVATI.)
Kalidasa, Calidasa, ka'll-da'sa, or Kalidasas,
called "the Shakspeare of India," the most illustrious
of Hindoo poets, is supposed to have lived about 50
}!.C., under the magnificent reign of Vikramaditya I. He
was the author of several dramas, of which the most
celebrated, " Sakoontala," (or " Sakontala,") was first
made known to the nations of the West through the prose
translation of Sir William Jones. The appearance of
this remarkable production excited a deep interest and
general admiration among the critics of Europe. Of its
author, Alexander Humboldt observes, "Tenderness in
the expression of feeling, and richness of creative fancy,
have assigned to him his lofty place among the poets of
all nations." Goethe expresses his admiration in a still
higher strain :
" Willst du die Bliithe des friihen, die Friichte des spateren Jahres,
\Villst du was reizt mid ent/.iickt, willst du was sattigt und nahrt,
Willst dn den Hinimel, die Krde, init einem Namen begreifen?
Nenn' ich Sakontala dich, und so 1st alles gesagt."*
A new translation of Sakoontala, by Monier Williams,
the present professor of Sanscrit at Oxford, was pub
lished at Hertford in 1856. In this version the metrical
portions of the original play were for the first time
rendered into English verse. Besides the drama already
referred to, there have come down to us two others by
Kalidasa, viz., " Vikrama and Urvasi," which abounds in
lyrical beauties, and a comedy entitled "Agnimitra and
Mnlavika." His two epic poems, " Raghuvansa" and
"Kumara-Sambhava," possess, with many individual
beauties, comparatively little merit, taken as a whole.
Among his lyrical poems, " Megha-duta," or the " Cloud-
Messenger," is remarkable for its deep feeling and grace
ful delineations of nature. The " Nalodaya," a sort of
poetical romance, which, in spite of much that would
strike a European reader as ridiculous or absurd, has
many charming passages, is also commonly ascribed to
Kalidasa.
See the notice of Kalidasa prefixed to PROFESSOR WIM.IAMS'S
translation of " Sakoontala," already referred to ; WILSON'S " Indian
Theatre," in which there are English translations of the " Megha-
duta" and an analysis of "Agnimitra and Malavika;" also BROCK-
HAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon." The " Nalodaya" has been trans
lated into English verse by the REV. W. YATES, Calcutta, 1844.
* " Wouldst thou the blossoms of the early, the fruits of the later year,
Wouldst thou what charms and enraptures, what satisfies and nour
ishes, [the soul,]
Wouldst thou comprehend heaven and earth [in short] under one
name?
When I name thee, O Sakoontala, then everything is said."
Kallya, ka'H-ya, [from the Sanscrit Mia, " black," and
hence "terrible" or "deadly,"] called also KalanEkga,
(ka'ia-na'ga,) in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a
terrible serpent destroyed by Krishna. As the latter is
by some identified with the Apollo of the Greeks, so
Kaliya is supposed to be the Python of classic mythology.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Kalkar. See CALCAR.
Kalkar, kal'kar, (CHRISTIAN ANDREAS HERMAN,) a
Danish theologian, born at Stockholm in 1802. He be
came first minister of the diocese of Seeland in 1843.
Among his works is a " Manual of Exegesis," (2 vols.,
1836-38.)
Kalkbrenner, kalk'bRen'ner, (CHRISTIAN,) a Ger
man musician and composer, born at Minden in 1755.
He composed dramatic and instrumental music, and
became chapel -master to the queen at Berlin in 1788.
Died in Paris in 1806.
See FETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musicians."
Kalkbrenner, (FRIEDRICH,) a German musical com
poser and pianist, born in Berlin in 1788, was a son of
the preceding. He visited Vienna in 1803, where he
studied under Albrechtsberger. He settled in Paris in
1824, and, in conjunction with Pleyel, founded one of the
most celebrated piano-manufactories of that city. As a
musician he holds the first rank, and his numerous com
positions for the piano are highly esteemed. Died in 1849.
See L. BOIVIN, "Kalkbrenner," Paris, 1842: P'ETIS. " Biographic
Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Kal'ki, [modern Hindoo pron. kiil'ki ; from the San
scrit Ml, to "count" or "reckon,"] the only one of the
avatars of Vishnu yet to come. Vishnu, mounted on a
white horse, with a flaming sword in his hand, will bring
the present (or Kali) age to an end, to be followed by an
era of purity.
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon."
Kail, kal, (ABRAHAM,) an eminent Danish scholar,
born in Jutland in 1743, graduated at the University of
Copenhagen, where in 1778 he became professor of the
history and mythology of the North. In 1785 he founded
a society for the promotion of the study of foreign lite
rature, and in 1808 was appointed historiographer of the
kingdoms of Denmark and Norway. Died in 1821.
See ERSLEW, "Forfatter- Lexicon."
Kallgreen. See KELLGRE.N.
Kallias. See CALLIAS.
Kallicrates. See CALLICRATES.
Kallicratidas. See CALLICRATIDAS.
Kallimachus. See CALLIMACHUS.
Kallinicus. See CALLI.NICUS.
Kallinus. See CAI.LINUS.
Kalliope. See CALLIOPE.
Kallippus. See CALLIPPUS.
Kallistuenes. See CALLISTHENES.
Kallistratus. See CALLISTRATUS.
Kalliwoda, kal'le-wo'da, (JOHANN WENZEL,) a noted
violinist and composer, born at Prague about 1800.
Kalm, kalm, (PEHR,) a Swedish naturalist, born in
1715. In 1748, under the direction of the Academy of
Sciences in Stockholm, he sailed for North America,
where he remained about three years, prosecuting the
study of natural history. On his return to Sweden he
published an account of his travels, under the title of
"A Voyage to North America," (1753.) The first part
of this valuable work relates to Sweden, Norway, and
England. He was afterwards elected a member of the
Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and created knight
of the order of Vasa. He wrote several other scientific
works. Died in 1779. The genus Kalmia was named
in honour of him.
See J. L. ODHELIUS, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver P. Kalm," 1780;
ADELI'NG, Supplement to JOCHER'S " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexi-
kon."
Kalo-Joannes. See CALO- JOANNES.
Kalraat, van, vtn kal'rSt', (ABRAM,) a Dutch painter
and sculptor, born at Dort in 1643. His paintings are
chiefly of flowers and fruits. Died in 1699.
Kalraat, van, (BERNARD or BARENT,) brother of the
preceding, born in 1650, studied under Albert Cuyp.
He was distinguished for the elegant finish which he
c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; .R, trilled ': s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
KALUBKO
1308
KANE
gave to his landscapes. He painted scenes on the Rhine.
Died in 1721.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Kalubko. See KADLUBEK.
Kalypso. See CALYPSO.
Kamadeva, ka'ma-da'va, or Kamaddo, ka'ma-da'o,
[from the Sanscrit kamd, "desire" or "love," and dh'd,
a "god,"J written also Camadeva, Camadeo, and
Canideo, sometimes called simply Kama or Cama,
the god of love of the Hindoos, is said to be the son of
Maya, ("Illusion.) He is represented as a beautiful youth,
sometimes as riding on a parrot, and sometimes as con
versing with his mother Maya, or his wife Reti, (or Rati,)
(i.e. " Affection.") He has a bow made of sugar-cane, (or,
according to some authorities, of flowers.) The points
of his arrows are tipped with flowers. Vasanta (the
" Spring") is said to be his most intimate friend. The
most remarkable event in Kamadeva's history is his
encounter with Siva. It is related that he once pre
sumed to aim one of his arrows at the destroying deity,
who with one glance of his eye reduced the love-god to
ashes. Since that catastrophe Kamadeva has ceased to
possess any corporeal form ; but his actual power seems
thereby to have been increased rather than diminished,
as he can now more easily, and with less suspicion, exert
his sway over the minds of men.
See MOOR'S "Hindu Pantheon;" SIR WILLIAM JONES'S Works,
vol. vi., (or vol. xiii. of another edition.)
Kamadheiiu, ka'ma-d'ha'noo, [i.e. "wish-cow," from
the Sanscrit kam&, "desire" or "wish," and dheini, a
"cow,"] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a won
derful cow, produced by the churning of the ocean, having
power to grant to those whom she favoured whatever
they might desire. She is also called SurabhT, (soo'-
ra-b'hi,) and is in fact a goddess of no mean pretensions,
aiid would appear to occupy nearly the same rank as
Vishnu's consort Lakshmi, who also was produced from
the churning of the ocean. It is not unusual for the
Hindoos, when praying for prosperity or happiness, to
say, " May Lakshmi, who resides among the gods, (or
"who reposes on the bosom of Vishnu,") become a boon-
granting cowtome." (See LAKSHMI, and KCRMA.)
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon."
Kamala or KSmala, [modern Hindoo pron. kxim'-
a-la'; from kamala, the "lotus," which is in its turn
derived from kam&t "beauty," "radiance,"] one of the
names of LAKSHMI, (which see.)
Kanibyses. See CAMBYSES.
Kamehameha (ka-ma-ha'ma-ha') HI., King of
Hawaii, or the Sandwich Islands, was born about 1817 ;
died in 1854.
Kamehameha IV., a son of the preceding, born in
1833, was educated by Protestant missionaries. He
visited Europe in 1852, and succeeded his father in 1854.
Kamel. See CAMELLI.
Kamenski, ka-men'skee, (Count MICHAEL FEDORO-
VITCH,) a Russian, born about 1735, was created field-
marshal by the emperor Alexander in 1802. Four years
later he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army
sent against the French, but was soon after succeeded
by Benningsen. He died, or was killed, in 1809.
Kames^ LOUD. See HOME, (HENRY.)
Kam-Hi. See KHANG-HEE.
Kampen, van, ([ACOB.) See CAMPEN.
Kamperi, van, van kam'pen, (NICOLAAS GODFRIED,)
a Dutch historian, born at Haarlem in 1776. In 1829
he was professor of Dutch history and literature in Am
sterdam. Among his works may be mentioned " His
tory of the French Ascendency in Europe," (8 vols., 1815
-23,) and " Geographical and Statistical Account of the
Kingdom of the Netherlands," (1827.) Died in 1839.
See MULI.ER, " Leven van N. Kampen," 1840; VAN UF.N KRINK,
" N. G. van Kampen," etc., 1839.
Kampenhausen, kam'pen-how'xen, (BALTHASAR,)
BARON, born near Riga, in Russia, in 1772, wrote several
political and topographical works. Died in 1823.
Kampfer or Kaempfer, kemp'fer, (ENGELBRECHT,)
an eminent German botanist and traveller, was born at
Lemgo in 1651. He studied medicine and the languages.
In 1683 he accompanied the Swedish ambassador to
Persia. Having passed into the service of the Dutch
East India Company as surgeon, he visited Bengal,
Java, Sumatra, and Japan. He returned to Europe in
1693, and published an important work entitled "Amce-
nitates Exoticae," (1712,) which contains the results of
his researches in Persia, etc. He also wrote a valuable
" History of Japan and Siam," which was published by
Sir Hans Sloane in English, (1727.) It was also pub
lished in German in 1777. Died at Lemgo in 1716.
See HIRSCHINO, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ;" "Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Kamphuizen. See CAMPHUYSEN.
Kamptz, von, fon kampts, (KARL ALBRECHT CHRIS-
TOPH HKINRICH,) an able Prussian statesman, born at
Mecklenburg in 1769, was successively appointed min
ister of the interior and of the police, and in 1830 min
ister of justice. Died in 1849. ^e published "Civil
Law of the Duchy of Mecklenburg," and " Contributions
to Public and International Law."
Kanada, (the name of a sage.) See KASYAPA.
Kaiiaris, ka'na-ris, (CONSTANTINE,) a famous naval
hero of modern Greece, born in the island of Ipsara
about 1790. In 1822 he blew up the Turkish admiral's
ship in the channel of Chios, and in 1824 saved the island
of Samos by burning a large Turkish frigate and several
transport-ships which were destined to attack it. In
1827 he represented Ipsara in the Greek National Con
vention, and in 1848 was appointed minister of the marine
and president of the cabinet. He resigned in 1855.
See A. SOUTZO, " Histoire de la Revolution Grecque."
Kandace. See CANDACE.
Kandaules. See CANOAULES.
Kaiideh Rao, kan'deh ra'o, [perhaps from the San
scrit kanda, a " horse," and rdo, a modern Hindoo word,
signifying "prince,"] written also Kandarahu, the
name of an avatar of Siva, in which that god is always
represented on horseback. (See SIVA.) Kandeh Rao
is worshipped chiefly among the Mahrattas.
See Moon, "Hindu Pantheon."
Kandjatou. See KANJATOO.
Kandler, kant'ler, (JoiiANN JOACHIM,) a German
artist and modeller in porcelain, born in Saxony in 1706.
He worked at Meissen. Died in 1776.
Kane, (ELISHA KENT,) M.D., a distinguished Ameri
can explorer, born 'in Philadelphia on the 2Oth of Feb
ruary, 1820. lie was the son of Judge John K. Kane.
He studied medicine, and graduated in the University
of Pennsylvania in 1842, on which occasion he wrote an
inaugural thesis on "Kyestein." In 1843 he sailed to
China with Commodore Parker, as surgeon or physician
to the embassy. lie visited India, Ceylon, and the Phil
ippine Isles, and was impelled by his adventurous spirit
into several perilous enterprises. In 1845 he made an
excursion to the Himalaya Mountains, ascended the
Nile to Nubia, and traversed Greece on foot. He re
turned home in 1846. He served in the Mexican war in
1847. I'1 May, 1850, he sailed as surgeon to the expedi
tion which Lieutenant De Haven conducted in search of
Sir John Franklin. He published, in 1854, " The United
States Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John Frank
lin." He commanded a second expedition sent out for
the same purpose, and sailed from New York in the
Advance in May, 1853. He failed to find any traces of
Franklin, returned home in October, 1855, and related
the adventures and sufferings of his party in his "Arctic-
Explorations," (2 vols., 1856.) In this voyage he had
discovered the existence of an open Polar sea. lie re
ceived a gold medal from the Royal Geographical Society
of London. To recruit his failing health, he made a voy
age to England in October, 1856, and passed thence to the
West Indies. He died at Havana in February, 1857.
See WILLIAM ELDER, " Biography of Elislia Kent Kane," 1X5^ :
SCHMUCKEK, " Life of Elisha Kent Kane ;>: " North British Review"
for February, 1857.
Kane, (Sir ROBERT,) M.D., a distinguished chemist,
born in Dublin in 1810. After filling professorships in
several scientific societies, he was appointed in 1849
president of Queen's College, Cork. He had previously
been knighted by the lord lieutenant. He wrote various
works on chemistry, pharmacy, and other sciences.
Kane, (THOMAS L.,) a general, brother of Dr. E. K.
Kane, was born in Philadelphia about 1822. He was sent
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nftt; good; moon;
K4NJATOO
1309
KAO-TSOONG
on an important mission to the Mormon insurgents of
Utah in 1858. He was wounded in a battle near Har-
risonburg, Virginia, in June, 1862.
Kanjatoo, Kaiidjatou, or Kanjatu, kan-ja-too',
fifth Mongol sovereign of the dynasty of Jengis Khan,
began to reign over Persia A.D. 1291. A conspiracy
having been formed against him by his nobles, he was
killed in 1295.
Kanne, kan'neh, (JoiiANN ARNOLD,) a learned and
eccentric German writer, born at Detmold in 1773,
studied philology and theology at Gottingen. In 1818
he became professor of Oriental literature at Erlangen,
where he died in 1824. Among his various works we
may name "Anthology of Greek Epigrams," ("Florile-
gium Epigrammatum Graecorum,") " System of Indian
Myths," and " Biblical Researches."
Kannegiesser, kan'neh-gees'ser, (GOTTLIEB HEIN-
RICH,) a German medical writer, born at Gotha in 1712 ;
died at Kiel in 1792.
Kannegiesser, (KARL FRIEDRICH LUDWIG,) a Ger
man scholar, born at Wendemark in 1781, is known for
his numerous and excellent translations into German.
Among these are the dramas of Beaumont and Fletcher,
Dante's "Divine Comedy," extracts from the writings
of Byron, Madame de Stael, Mickiewicz, and other cele
brated authors. He also made translations from Horace,
Sappho, and Anacreon, and published original dramas
entitled "Mirza" and "Dorothea."
Kaiisa. See KRISHNA.
Kant, (IMMANUEL,) one of the profoundest metaphy
sicians that have ever lived, the founder of the Critical
(popularly called the Transcendental) school of philoso
phy in Germany, was born at Konigsberg, April 26, 1724.
His father was a saddler, and is said to have been of
Scottish extraction. Both his parents are represented
as having been endued with a severe and inflexible vir
tue ; and to the influence of their precept and example
must be ascribed, in no small measure, the pure moral
character and that profound respect for moral obliga
tion which Kant exhibited through the whole of his
life. Having gone through a course at the gymnasium,
(the Collegium Fredericianum,) he entered in 1740 the
university of his native city. Here he commenced the
study of theology, but soon abandoned it for other pur
suits, and devoted his attention to the natural sciences,
mathematics, and philosophy. On leaving the university
he maintained himself for several years as a private tutor.
During this period he published his first work," Thoughts
on the True Estimation of the Living Powers," ("Ge-
danken von der wahren Schatzung der lebencligen
Krafte.") About 1755 he began to give lectures on
logic, physics, metaphysics, and mathematics. In 1762
he was offered the professorship of poetry in the Uni
versity of Konigsberg ; but he declined the position, on
the ground that he had not the proper qualifications.
He had already established his reputation as an original
and profound thinker, when at length, in 1770, he was
appointed to the chair of logic and metaphysics in the
University of Konigsberg. When he entered upon his
professorship, he delivered a discourse on the World of
the Senses and that of the Understanding, ("De Mundi
sensibilis et intelligibilis Forma et Principiis,") containing
the germs of the philosophical system which he after
wards developed in his great work entitled " Critique
of Pure Reason," (" Kritik der reinen Vernunft,") first
published in 1781. He had previously, in his work on
"Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens,"
("Allgemeine Xaturgeschichte und Theorie des Him-
mels," 1755,) in which he may be said to have anticipated
the discovery of the planet Uranus, given proof of his
sagacity in questions relating to physical science. Among
his various other works may be named " Observations
upon the Sentiment of the Beautiful and Sublime,"
(" Beobachtungen iiber das Gefiihl des Schb'nen und Er-
habenen," 1764,) "Critique of Practical Reason," ("Kritik
der praktischen Vernunft," 1790,) — that is, reason con
sidered in its application to our moral conduct, — "Cri
tique of the Faculty of Judging," ("Kritik der Urtheils-
krat't," 1793,) and his essay " On a Plan for an Everlasting
Peace," (" znm ewigen Fricden" ) (1795.) Kant died
February 12, 1804, having never, it is said, in the whole
course of his life travelled above seven miles from his
native city. Although his writings embrace a great va
riety of subjects, his fame rests chiefly upon his achieve
ments as a metaphysician. As a deep and close thinker
he has perhaps never been equalled.* Our limits will
not permit us to give even an outline of the Kantian
system of philosophy, which could only be rendered
intelligible in an extensive treatise. It will be sufficient
here to observe that Kant's great aim was to determine
the laws and limits of the intellect of man, and thus to
guard, on the one hand, against the arrogant dogmatism
of those who overestimate, and, on the other, against
the absurd skepticism of those who underestimate, the
powers of the human mind. He does not pretend to
have made any important discoveries respecting ques
tions which belong properly to religion, (such, for ex
ample, as the immortality of the soul, the moral attributes
of the Deity, etc.,) but he claims that the great points
of faith are not only undisturbed by his system, but are
rendered more secure against the attacks of those who
use their reputation for philosophic insight to give weight
to arguments against religion, in questions where, from
the necessary laws of the human intellect, the profoundest
philosopher can know no more than the great mass of
mankind. "Only by this means," (i.e. by a critique
determining the laws and limits of the human reason.)
says he, " can the roots of materialism, fatalism, atheism,
... be cut off;" and he proposes in this manner "to
make an end for all future time of all objections against
morality and religion, by presenting the clearest proofs
of the ignorance of their assailants." It is claimed by
some of the admirers of Kant (indeed, he himself sug
gested the parallel) that he performed for mental phi
losophy a service similar to that which his countryman
Copernicus performed for astronomy. As the latter may
be said to have determined the relative importance as
' well as the true position of the earth in the solar system,
; so the former has determined the proper limits and true
j position of the human intellect in relation to the objects
] of knowledge ; and as Copernicus has demonstrated that
j many of the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies
I are not real, but caused by the motion of the earth, (the
\ standpoint of the observer,) so Kant has shown that
i many mental phenomena are to be explained, not by
I referring them, as most philosophers have done, to in-
: dependent external causes, but to those essential laws
| which regulate the movements of the mind itself.
For an excellent popular notice of the influence exerted
! by Kant's philosophy, the reader is referred to De Quin-
I cey's chapter on German Literature in the volume of his
works entitled "Life and Manners." He will also find
I many interesting observations on Kant and his writings
j in Madame de Stael's "Germany," Part III. chap. vi.
See, also, F. BOUTERWEK, "I. Kant, ein Denkmal," 1804; F.
W. SCHUBERT, " I. Kant's Biographic," etc., 1842; JACHMANN, "I.
Kant, geschildert in Hriefen," etc., 1804; BOROWSKI, " Darstellung
des Lebens und Characters I. Kant's," 1804; F. T. RINCK, " An-
sicliten aus I. Kant's Leben," 1805; AMAND SAINTES, " Histoire
de la Vie et de la Philosophic de Kant," 1844 ; J. WII.I.M, " Histcire
de la Philosophic Allemande depuis Kant jusqu'a Hegel," Paris,
4 vols., 1846 ; M. V. COUSIN, " Kant dans les dernieres Annees de sa
Vie," 1857; HASSE, " Letzte Aeusserungen Kant's," 1804; WASI-
ANSKI, " Iinmanuel Kant," etc., 1804; F. HOEFER, article in the
"Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale;" HEDGE, "Prose Writers of Ger
many ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1827, (by DE QUIN-
I CEY.) and August, 1830; ''Edinburgh Review" for January, 1803.
Kaiitacuzenus. See CANTACUZENUS.
Kantemir. See CANTEMIR.
Kao-Tsoo or Kao-Tsou, ka'o tsoo, the name of
! several emperors of China, of whom one reigned in the
I seventh and two others in the tenth century.
Kao-Tsoong or Kao-Tsoung (ka'o tsoong) I., of
the dynasty of Tang, succeeded his father, Tha'i-Tsoung,
on the imperial throne of China about 648 A.D. He was
a wise and just ruler, and enacted many good laws.
He reduced the Khan of the Turks to complete subjec
tion. Died in 684.
See MAILLA, "Histoire generale de la Chine;" PAUTHIER,
"Chine ancienne."
* M. Stapfer, author of the article on Kant in the " Biographie
Universelle," calls him "the most profound thinker with whom the
history of the human mind has made us acquainted," (" le penseur
le phis profond que nous fasse connaitre 1'histoire de 1'esprit hu-
main.")
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
KAO-TSOO-OOTEE
1310
KARSTEN
Kao-Tsoo-OoteeorKao-Tsou-Outi.ka'o-tsoo'oo'-
tee, called also Soong-Ootee or Soung-Outi, soong-
oo'te, Emperor of China, and founder of the dynasty of
Soong, was born about A.D. 355. By his intrigues and
military skill he reduced many of the rival chiefs to
subjection, and, after putting the emperor and his son
to death, ascended the imperial throne. Died in 422.
KSLpl-1^ or Capila, (Hindoo pron. kup'i-la,] an In
dian philosopher, regarded as an avatar of Siva, was
the founder of a celebrated sect named Sankhya, and of
a philosophic system called the Sdnkhya philosophy,
supposed to have been the genn or commencement of
Booddhism. The Sankhya philosophy was a system of
rationalism pushed to the borders of atheism. (See
VASUDfiVA.)
See "Nouvelle Biographic Ge^ie'rale," under "Capila."
Kapnist, kap'nist, (VASiLi VASILIEVITCH,) a cele
brated lyric poet and dramatist, born in Russia in 175°-
His translation of the Odes of Horace .first fixed his
reputation as a man of letters. He was an intimate
friend of the poet Derzhavin, and a member of the Im
perial Academy of Saint Petersburg. Among his works
are the comedy of " labeda," and an "Essay upon the
Odyssey." Died in 1813.
Kapbdistria. See CAPO n'IsTRTAS.
Kara-George. See CZERNI-GEOKGE.
Kara-Moustapha. See CAKA-MUSTAFA.
Kara-Yusuf See CARA-YOOSEF.
Karajitch, Karadjitch, 01 Karadscliitsch, ka-ra'-
jitsh, a learned Servian, was born near Losnitza in 1787.
Having fled to Vienna in 1813 to escape the cruelties
of the^Turks, his attention was turned to the national
ballad-poetry of his country, said to exceed in richness
and extent that of almost every other nation. His
collection was issued in Vienna in 1814, under the title
of "Servian National Songs." He published a Servian
Grammar, a Servian-and-German Dictionary, and various
other works.
See BOWRING, " Servian Poetry ;" JUNGMANN, " History of Bo
hemian Literature."
Karamzin or Karamsin, ka-ram-zeen' or ka-ram-
zii/, (NIKOLAI MIKHAELOVITCH,) one of the most emi
nent of Russian historians, was born in the province of
Orenburg in December, 1765, and was educated in Mos
cow. In 1789 he commenced a tour through England,
France, Switzerland, and other countries of Europe. On
his return he published " Letters of a Travelling Rus
sian." He afterwards issued various literary productions,
which were written in a finished and elegant style. He
was one of the editors of the " European Messenger," a
literary journal. In 1803 he was appointed historiogra
pher of Russia, and the same year commenced his great
work, the " History of the Russian Empire," (n vols.,
1815-24.) He did not live to finish the work, which ends
about the year 1610. No work in the Russian language
has obtained greater popularity. The first edition, of
eight volumes, brought the author 100,000 rubles. The
emperor Alexander created him councillor of state and
knight of the order of Saint Anne ; and after the death of
the historian his widow received from the same monarch
an annual pension of 50,000 rubles. " The History of
the Russian Empire" has been translated into French,
German, and Polish. Died in May, 1826.
See DEPPING, notice of Karamzin in the " Revue Encyclopedique ;"
PRINCE A. GAI.ITZIN, article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale ;" " British and Foreign Review" for September, 1828 ; " Monthly
Review," vol. xci., 1820, (Appendix;) " Foreign Quarterly Review"
for September, 1828.
Karburis. See CARIHIRIS.
Karim or Kareem. See KEREF.M.
Karl, (FRIEDRICH AUGUST,) Duke of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz, born at Hanover in 1785. Having distinguished
himself in several actions against the French, he was ap
pointed lieutenant-general by the King of Prussia in 1813.
He entered Paris at the head of the royal guard in 1815.
In 1825 he became a general of infantry and president
of the council of state. Died in 1837.
Karl Albrecht, Elector of Bavaria. See CHARLES
VII., EMPEROR.
Karl Alexander, Duke of Wurtemberg, born in 1684,
was the successor of Ludwijj Eberhard. He was an
ally of the emperor Leopold in the war of the Spanish
succession. He distinguished himself at the battle of
Turin in 1706, defended Landau against Marshal Villars
in 1713, and obtained the rank of field-marshal. Died
in 1737.
Karl der Fiinfte. See CHARLES V.
Karl der Grosae. See CHARLEMAGNE.
Karl Eugen, (oi-gat/,) or Charles Eugene, a son
of Karl Alexander, noticed above, was born in 1728,
and became Duke of Wu'rtemberg in 1737. He pro
moted commerce, arts, and agriculture, and founded the
university called Carolina, at Stuttgart. Died in 1793.
Karloman. See CARLOMAN.
Karlstadt. See CARLSTADT.
Karmarsch, kaR'maush, (KARL,) a German savant,
and director of the Polytechnic School at Hanover, born
at Vienna in 1803. He wrote "First Sketches of Me
chanical Technology," and other scientific works.
Karmat, Karniath, Carmath, kau'inat, or Kar-
mathi, kau'ina-tee, called also Hamdan, ham-din', the
founder of a fanatical and numerous sect which made
great ravages in the Arabian empire in the ninth cen
tury. He attempted to establish a community of property,
and taught a contempt for religion and morality. His
followers were called Karmatians (Carmatians) or Kar-
mattians. Died about 900 A.n.
See D'HERBELOT, " Bibliotheque Orientate."
Karneades. See CARNEADES.
Karnkowski, kaRn-kov'skee, written also Karu-
cov, kaun'kov, or Karnowski, (STANISLAS,) a distin
guished prelate, born in Poland about 1525. In 1581
he was created Archbishop of Gnesen and Primate of
Poland. He was a liberal patron of learning, and a
successful promoter of reforms among the priests. He
wrote a " History of the Interregnum in Poland," and
several other works. Died in 1603.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Karoly, ki'rol, written also Karoli, (JASPER,) a
Protestant minister, who lived in Hungary about 1580.
He was distinguished for his knowledge of philosophy,
theology, and philology. He produced a valuable trans
lation of the Bible from the original Hebrew into the
Hungarian, (1589.)
Karpiiiski, kaR-pin'skee or kau-pin'skee, (FRANCIS,)
a Polish poet, born in Galicia about 1760. He wrote a
tragedy entitled "Judyta," and a number of popular
songs and idyls. Died in 1823.
Karpinski, kar-pen'skee, ( HYACINTH,) a Russian
theological writer, born in Ukraine in 1721; died in
Moscow in 1798.
Karpocrates. See CARPOCRATKS.
Karr, ktn, (JEAN BAPTISTS ALPHONSE,) a popular
French novelist, born at Munich in 1808, was a son of
Henri Karr, a pianist. He produced in 1832 a novel
entitled " Sous les Tilleuls," in which the public admired
the mixture of irony and sentiment, of fancy and good
sense. About 1837 he became editor of the "Figaro,"
and of a satirical monthly periodical called "The Wasps,"
(" Les Guepes.") Among his numerous novels are " Fa
clieze," (1834,) " Vendredi Soir," (1835,) and " La Famille
Alain," (1848.) lie also wrote an ingenious work on
flowers and gardens, " Voyage autour de mon Jarclin,"
(2 vols., 1845.)
See "Revue des Deux Mondes," February, 1842; CI.KMKNT IJE
Ris, " Portraits i la Plume," 1853 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for May,
1851, and February, 1854: " Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1852;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Karsch, kaRsh, or Karschin, kaRsh'ln, ( ANNA
LUISE,) a German poetess, whose original name was
DURHACH, was born near Schwiebus in 1722. After
living a long time in poverty and obscurity, she visited
Berlin, where she was patronized by Gleim and Men
delssohn. Her "Select Poems," published in 1764, were
very favourably received, and procured for her the title
of "the German Sappho." Died in 1791.
See L. VON KI.KUKB, " Lebenslauf der Karschin," 1792; HIR-
SCHING, " Historisch-liternrisches Handbuch."
Karsten, kai/sten, (DIETRICH LUDWIG GUSTAV.) a
German mineralogist, born at Bu'tzow in 1768. lie wrote
many able treatises on mineralogy. Died in 1810.
See LEOPOLD VON Boot, " Lobrede auf Karsten," in the "Ab-
hanclHingen der Berliner Akadeniie," 1814; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
a, e, T, o,ii, y, fan?; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a,e, T,o, u, y, s kort; a, e, j, $, obsrure : far, fall, fat; inSt; not; good: moon;
KARSTEN
1311
KAULBACH
Karsten, (FRANZ CHRISTIAN LORENZ,) a German
agriculturist and writer, an uncle of the preceding, was
born at Biitzow in 1751 ; died in 1829.
Karsten, (KARL JOHANN BERNHARD,) an eminent
Prussian mineralogist, son of the preceding, was born at
Biitzow in 1782. He was appointed privy councillor of
mines in the ministry of the interior in 1819. He pub
lished a treatise " On the Carbonaceous Substances of
the Mineral Kingdom," (1826,) a " System of Metallurgy,"
(5 vols., 1832,) a " Philosophy of Chemistry," (1843,) an(l
other important works. In his peculiar department of
science Karsten occupied the highest rank. Died in 1853.
See BKOCKHAL'S, " Conversations- Lexikon."
Kartlkeya, kSR-tl-ka'ya. written less correctly Car-
ticeya or Cartikiya, otherwise named Skan'da, a
son of Siva and Parvati, and brother of Ganesa, is the
Hindoo god of war and commander of the celestial armies.
He is sometimes called AGNlimCs or AONIBHU'VA,
("born of Agni" or Fire,) SKIMANA, and many other
names. One of his greatest exploits was the destruction
of the mighty giant Tripurasura, who had acquired such
power that Indra and the other gods trembled for their
dominion.
See MOOR'S " Hindu Pantheon."
Kartikiya. See KARTIKEYA.
Xashyapa. See KASYAPA.
Kassiopeia. See CASSIOPEIA.
Kastner or Kaestner, kgst'ner, (AKRAHAM Gorr-
HELF,) an eminent German mathematician, astronomer,
and poet, bom at Leipsic in September, 1719. He be
came assistant professor of mathematics at Leipsic in
1746, and obtained the chair of mathematics and physics
at Gottingen in 1756. In 1762 he succeeded Tobias
Mayer as director of the Observatory at Gottingen. He
wrote, besides numerous works on mathematics and
astronomy, and witty epigrams, a " History of Mathe
matics from the Revival of Science to the End of the
Eighteenth Century," (in German, 4 vols., 1796-1800.)
Died in June, 1800.
See "Vita Kaestneri," by himself, Leipsic, 1787 ; KIRSTEN, " De
A. G. Kaestnero," 1787 ; C. G. HEYNE, " Elogium Kzstneri," 1801 ;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Kastner, kast'ner, (KARL WILHEI.M GOTTLOB,) a
German physician and naturalist, born at Greifenberg,
in Pomerania, in 1783. In 1821 he was professor of
chemistry and medicine at Erlangen. He wrote, among
other treatises, "Outlines of Physics and Chemistry,"
(1821,) and a "Manual of Meteorology," (3 vols., 1823-
30.) Died in 1857.
Kas'ya-pa or Casyapa, (modern Hindoo pron.
kus'ya-pa,) [etymology obscure ; perhaps from the San
scrit kas or kac, to "shine,"] written also Kashyapa
and Ka§yapa, in the Hindoo mythology, the name of
a celebrated sage (Rishi) or demi-god, the father (by
Aditi) of the Suras, including Indra, and (by Diti) of
the Asuras, or giants.
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon:" MONIER WILLIAMS, "Transla
tion of Sakoontala," (by KAUDASA.)
Kasyapa, kSs'ya-pa, called also Kan'a-da, a cele
brated Hindoo sage or philosopher, was a son of the
preceding.
Kate, Ten, ten ka'teh,(LAMiiERT,) a Dutch clergyman,
who lived about 1720. He is known for his valuable
grammar of the Dutch language, (Amsterdam, 1723.) He
also wrote "On the Connection between the Gothic and
Dutch Languages," and a "Life of Jesus Christ."
See SAX, "Onomasticon."
Ka'ter, (HENRY,) F.R.S., a skilful mathematician,
born in Bristol, England, in 1777, was educated in the
Royal Military College in Sandhurst. lie was distin
guished for his investigations of the principles of reflect
ing telescopes ; for his experiments to determine the
exact length of the seconds-pendulum ; for his important
advice and improvements on measures and weights ; and
especially for his invention of the floating collimator, an
instrument for adjusting the telescope. In 1814, when
the emperor Alexander of Russia visited England, Kater
was decorated by him with the order of Saint Anne.
He wrote several mathematical treatises. Died in 1835.
Katona, kot'o-noh, (STEPHEN,) an eminent Hungarian
scholar and historian, was born at Papa in 1732, and
became a Jesuit at the age of eighteen. He afterward*
filled the chairs of poetry, rhetoric, and history in the
University of Buda. Died in 1811. His chief produc
tion is a History of Hungary, written in Latin, ("Historia
critica Regum Stirpis Aus'triaczE," 41 vols., 1795 et seq.)
This is regarded as the most valuable and accurate
work upon the subject. It closes with the year 1801.
Katona was also the author of several other historical
works, in the Latin and Hungarian languages.
See G. FEJEK, "Memoria S. Katon^e," 1812.
Katt, voii, fan kat, a Prussian officer, born in 1681,
was an intimate friend of Prince Frederick, afterwards
Frederick the Great. For having aided him in his
attempt to escape to England, Katt was executed before
the prison-windows of the prince.
Kauer, kow'er, (FERDINAND,) a German musical com
poser, born in Moravia in 1751. His works, amounting
in all to nearly two hundred, consist of church music,
operas, symphonies, concertos, etc. Died in 1831.
KaufTmanu, kowf'man, ( MARIA ANGELICA, ) the
daughter of a portrait-painter, was born at Coire, in
Switzerland, about 1741. After studying painting in
Italy, she went under the patronage of Lady Wentworth
to England, where in a short time she gained consider
able celebrity in her art. Her popularity was probably
as much due to her accomplished manners and her supe
rior education as to any excellence which she possessed
as an artist. In 1781 she was married to Antonio Zucchi,
a Venetian painter, whom she accompanied to Italy in
the following year. She still retained her maiden name
of Kauffmann. Died at Rome in 1807.
See G. r>E Rossi, "Vita di Angelica Kauffmann," 1810; A. FR.
L^ON DE WAILLY, "Angelica Kauffmann." Paris, 2 vols., 1838;
KoNijNENBi'RG, " Ktinstveidiensten van A. Kauffmann en Raphael,"
1810; " Nouveile Biographie Generale."
Kaufmarm, kowf man, (JoHANN GOTTFRIED,) a Ger
man mechanician, born at Chemnitz, in Saxony, in I752>
was the inventor of several very ingenious instruments,
among which was a flute- and harp-clock, (Floten- und
ffarfenuhr,) which was purchased by the Elector Fred
erick Augustus. His son FREDERICK, born in 1782,
invented the automaton trumpeter and other similar
works. Died in 1818.
Kaulbach, kowl'baK, (\\TILHELM,) one of the most
eminent painters of recent times, was born in the princi
pality of Waldeck, Germany, in 1805. Though destined
by his father to be an artist, he showed little inclination
for painting, until a collection of engravings illustrating
Schiller's tragedies fell into his hands and gave the first
impulse to his genius. He began his studies under
Cornelius at the Academy of Dusseldorf about 1822, and
in 1829 finished his picture of the " Mad-House," (" Irren-
haus,") a work displaying such originality and power as
entitled him at once to a place among great painters.
About this time he executed the frescos of " Apollo and
the Muses," in the Odeon, and "Cupid and Psyche," in
the palace of Duke Max, at Munich. In 1837 he com
pleted his " Battle of the Huns," founded on the tradition
of the combat before the gates of Rome, between the
Romans and the spirits of the Huns who were slain,
which, rising in the air, continued the fight. This won
derful production, so strange and unique in its character,
was received with general applause, and is justly re
garded as a miracle of art. His second great historical
piece, " The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus," was
finished in 1838 ; and a copy of it, executed in oil at the
request of King Louis of Bavaria, occupies a conspicuous
place in the Pinakothek. Kaulbach also illustrated,
somewhat in the style of Hogarth, Schiller's " Criminal
from Lost Honour," Goethe's " Faust," and " Renarcl the
Fox," (" Reineke Fuchs :") the last displays exquisite
humour. Besides the above-mentioned works, he has
painted a number of portraits, and furnished illustrations
for Shakspeare and other poets. Kaulbach excels in the
highest qualities of his art, and has been eminently suc
cessful in blending in his style the ideal and symbolic
with the real. He is director of the Academy of Arts at
Munich, and is a member of nearly all the similar institu
tions of Europe.
See A. RACZINSKI, " Histoire de 1'Art moderne en Allemagne ;"
H. FORTOUL, "De 1'Art en Allemagne;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
c as k; 9 as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (JJ^"See Explanations, p. 23.)
KAUNITZ
KE4NE
Kaunitz, von, fon kow'nits, (WENZEL ANTON,)
PRINCE, a celebrated Austrian statesman and diploma
tist, born at Vienna in February, 1711. After travelling
in England, France, and Italy, he was appointed by the
emperor Charles VI. aulic councillor, (1735.) On the
accession of Maria Theresa he was made in 1745 minis
ter-plenipotentiary to Charles of Lorraine, Governor of
the Netherlands. In 1748 he was a member of the Peace
Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle, and was soon after created
minister of state and knight of the Golden Fleece.
Having been sent as ambassador to France in 1750, he
negotiated the secret alliance between that country and
Austria. lie was soon after appointed chancellor of
state and chancellor of Italy and the Netherlands. He
enjoyed the unbounded confidence of the empress, to
whose service he was devoted, and the principal measures
of her government are to be ascribed to his influence.
He acted a prominent part in the ecclesiastical reforms
of Joseph II. The court of Rome, offended by these
innovations, called Kaunitz "the heretical minister,"
("il ministro eretico.") For a long time he was consid
ered as the oracle of diplomacy, and exercised such an
influence over the direction of affairs that he was jest
ingly called "The Coachman of Europe." Kaunitz was
a generous patron of learning and the arts, and was
himself an accomplished scholar. Died in 1794.
See VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XV;" GRIMM, " Correspon-
dance;" OBERMAVER, "Trailer am Grabe des \V. A. Fiirsten von
Kaunitz," 1794; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Kausler, von, fon kows'ler, (FRANZ,) a German
officer and military writer, born at Stuttgart in 1794,
served in the campaigns against the French from 1812
to 1815. He published a " History of the Wars of all
Nations and Times," (5 vols., 1826-32,) and a "Life of
Prince Eugene of Savoy," (2 vols., 1839.) Died in 1848.
Kavaiiagh, kf v'a-nail, ( JULIA,) a distinguished writer
of tales and romances, born in the county of Tippe-
rary, Ireland, iri 1824. In 1848 she published "Made
leine," a tale from real life, which was very successful,
and her romance of "Nathalie" (1851) was still more
admired. -She also wrote a biographical work entitled
" Woman in France during the Eighteenth Century,"
(2 vols., 1850.) Her writings are remarkable for their
beautiful delineation of character and graceful simplicity
of style.
See "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1851.
Kay, (JoHN,) an English poet, was the first that re
ceived in England the title of poet-laureate. He flourished
about 1480.
Kay, (JoHN,) a miniature-painter and engraver, born
near Dalkeith, in Scotland, in 1742. For several years
he gained a livelihood as a barber in Edinburgh ; but,
having exhibited a talent for sketching, he was assisted
by a wealthy gentleman, that he might devote himself
entirely to art. His paintings were distinguished for
their correct and exact likeness to the original. He
etched about nine hundred plates, which contained por
traits of the distinguished or eccentric personages of
Edinburgh at that date. These were published, under
the title of " Kay's Edinburgh Portraits." Died in 1826.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Kay or Key, kl, (Wii.LEM,) a Flemish historical
painter, born in Breda in 1520. Of his most admired
productions we may mention a portrait of Cardinal
Granvelle, and a large painting in which the chief magis
trates of Antwerp were introduced of the size of life.
Died in 1568.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Kay-Shuttleworth,shut'tel-worth, (Sir JAMES PHIL
LIPS,) an English lawyer, born in 1804. He is noted for
his activity in advancing the interests of public schools.
For several years he held the office of secretary to the
committee of the privy council on education.
Kaye. See CAIUS.
Kaye, ka, (JoHN.) an English ecclesiastic, born in 1 783,
became Bishop of Lincoln about 1827. Died in 1853.
Kaye, (JoHN WILLIAM,) an English historical writer,
born in London about 1814. He published, besides other
works, a " History of the War in Affghanistan," (1851,)
a " Life of Sir John Malcolm," (1856,) and a <( History
of the Sepoy War," (1866.)
Kazinczy, koz'int-se, (FRANCIS,) a Hungarian noble
man, distinguished for his contributions to the litera
ture of his country, was born at Er-Semlyn in 1759.
He devoted his attention to the restoration of the
Hungarian language, which the emperor Joseph II. was
attempting to extirpate. This dialect had then partially
fallen into disuse, and many terms to express modern
significations were required to be added in order to give
it a reasonable degree of completeness. To effect this,
Kazinczy translated numerous works from the French,
German, and English, adding words where the original
Hungarian was delicient. In this undertaking he appears
to have been eminently successful. In 1788 he established
the first Hungarian magazine, entitled " Magyar Mn-
zeum," and two years later commenced the "Orpheus."
In 1794 he was arrested on a charge of conspiracy and
condemned to death. This sentence, however, was com
muted to imprisonment, and after the expiration of about
six years he regained his liberty. He wrote various
poems, and several works in prose. Died of cholera
in 1831.
Kazwyny, (ZACHARIA BEN MOHAMMED.) See CAZ-
WEENEE.
Keach, keech, (BENJAMIN,) an English Baptist min
ister, born in Buckinghamshire in 1640. After the resto
ration he was bitterly persecuted on account of the
principles which he had advanced in his writings. He
preached some years in London after 1668. The most
important of his works are the "Key to open Scripture
Metaphors," (1682,) and "Exposition of the Parables,"
(1704.) He also wrote two works in imitation of Bunyan,
viz., "Travels of True Godliness," and "Travels of Un
godliness." Died in 1704.
See CROSBY, " History of the Baptists."
Kean, (CHARLES J.,) a distinguished actor, the son
of Edmund Kean, was born in Waterford, Ireland, in
1811, and studied at Eton. He made several visits to
America, the last of which was in 1866. About 1846 he
became the manager of the Princess's Theatre, London,
to the popularity of which he contributed greatly by the
introduction of the most admirable machinery, such as
had never before been exhibited to the British public.
He was also employed to superintend the royal theatri
cals at Windsor Castle. Died in 1868.
Kean, (EDMUND,) a celebrated tragedian, born in
London about 1787. He was the son of an actress
named Ann Carey, and, while very young, was brought
upon the stage to play those parts in which children
were represented. In this capacity he performed before
George III. at Windsor Castle, greatly to the satisfaction
of that monarch. In 1814 he first appeared at Drury
Lane Theatre, in the character of " Shylock," with such
distinguished success that he not only fully established
his own fame, but also retrieved the declining popularity
of the theatre. lie afterwards visited America, where
he remained two years. Died in 1833. As a tragedian
Kean is considered not inferior to any one that has ap
peared on the English stage. His remarkable success
was owing to his great application in the study of his
characters and the intensity of passion which he threw
into them. He especially excelled in his representations
of "Shylock," "Othello," and "Richard III."
See PROCTER, "Life of E. Kean," 1835; F. W. HAWKINS,
"Life of Edmund Kean;" OXBERRY, "Dramatic Biography:"
" London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835.
Keane, keen, (Joii.x,) LORD, a celebrated British
general, was born at Belmont, in the county of Water-
ford, in 1 781. He entered the army at the age of thirteen.
In 1799 he was promoted to the grade of captain, and
was appointed aide-de-camp to Earl Cavan in Egypt.
In 1812 he served as colonel in Spain under Sir Arthur
Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, and was
present at the engagements of Vitoria, Toulouse, and
other important battles. lie was subsequently sent to
America, where, with the rank of major-general, he
took part in the battle of New Orleans, January, 1815.
In 1833 he was appointed commander of the forces of
Bombay, and in 1838 became general-in-chief of the
British army sent against the Afghans. In 1839 he be
sieged the fortress of Ghuznee, which had been regarded
as impregnable, and which was garrisoned with 3500
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, \, short: a, e, j, o, obsciire; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moor ;
KEARNEY
1313
KEFERSTEIN
men, well supplied with all the munitions of war. The
place was, however, taken by assault in forty-eight hours,
with a loss of only two hundred on the side of the British.
For this victory General Keane was raised to the peerage,
with the title of Baron Keane of Ghuznee. Died in 1844.
Kearney or Kearny, kar'ne, (PHILIP,) an able
American general, born in the city of New York in June,
1815. He was sent to Europe by the government to
study the French cavalry tactics about 1838. He ob
tained the rank of captain in 1846, served in the Mexican
war, and lost his left arm near Mexico in 1847. Having
resigned his commission in 1851, he passed several years
in Europe, and served in the French army at Solferino,
(1859.) He became a brigadier-general of the Union
army in 1861. He commanded a division at the battles
of Williamsburg, May 5, Fair Oaks, May 31, White Oak
Swamp, June 30, and Malvern Hill, July I, 1862. In
the month last named he was raised- to the rank of
major-general. He was killed at the battle of Chantilly,
September i, 1862.
Kearny, (STEPHEN WATTS,) a major-general in the
United States army, an uncle of the preceding, was born
in Newark, New jersey, in 1794. He entered the army
as lieutenant in 1812, and distinguished himself at the
battle of Queenstosvn. Promoted to the rank of briga
dier-general on the breaking out of the Mexican war in
1846, he marched westward from the Arkansas, con
quered New Mexico, and established a provisional gov
ernment at Santa Fe. He was brevetted major-general
for his gallantry at the battle of San Pasqual, December
3, 1846. In the following spring he was for some time
Governor of California. Died in 1848.
Keate, keet, (GEORGE,) F.R.S., an English author,
born in Wiltshire in 1729. During his travels on the
continent he made the acquaintance of Voltaire, with
whom he was a correspondent for a long time. Of his
works we may mention the poems of "Ancient and Modern
Rome,'' (1760,) and "The Alps," (1763.) He compiled an
account of the " Pelew Islands" ( 1 788) from manuscripts
placed in his hands by Captain Wilson. Died in 1797.
Keat'ing, (GEOFKKEY,) D.D., a Catholic priest and
historical writer, was born in Tipperary, Ireland, about
1600. His chief production is a "History of Ireland
from the Time that it was Planted after the Flood until
the Seventeenth Year of the Reign of Henry II." This
work, which is replete with fables and traditions, was
translated from the Irish by Dermot O'Connor, and
published in London, in 1738.
Keats, (JOHN,) a celebrated English poet, born in
London in 1795 or 1796, and educated in the classics at
Enfielcl. He published his first poems in 1817, at the
recommendation of Leigh Hunt.. His " Endymion,"
which appeared soon after, was severely criticised by
Gifford in the "Quarterly Review." As Keats was of a
very sensitive disposition, it is supposed that this criti
cism aggravated the disease under which he was suffer
ing. He died in 1821 at Rome, whither he had gone to
reside on account of his health. The poetry of Keats,
though exhibiting a vivid perception of the beautiful, and
great powers of fancy, is deficient in intensity and force ;
and his celebrity is perhaps to be attributed as much to
the circumstances attending his early death as to his
poetical abilities. Besides the " Endymion," we may
mention, as among the most important of his works,
"Hyperion," "Lamia," and "Isabella."
"We had never happened," says Lord Jeffrey, "to
see either of these volumes ["Endymion" and" "The
Eve of Saint Agnes"] till very lately, and have been
exceedingly struck with the genius they display, and the
spirit of poetry which breathes through all thei'r extrava
gance. . . . Mr. Keats, we understand, is still a very
young man ; and his whole works, indeed, bear evidence
enough of the fact. They are full of extravagance and
irregularity, rash attempts at originality, interminable
wanderings, and excessive obscurity. They manifestly
require, therefore, all the indulgence that can be claimed
for a first attempt; — but we think it no less plain that
they deserve it ; for they are flushed all over with the
rich lights of fancy, and so coloured and bestrewn with
the flowers of poetry, that, even while perplexed and be
wildered in their labyrinths, it is impossible to resist the
intoxication of their sweetness, or to shut our hearts to
the enchantments they so lavishly present." ("Edin
burgh Review" for August, 1820.)
See RICHARD MONCKTON MII.NES, "Life, Letters, and Literary
Remains of John Keats," 2 vols., 1848; "London Quarterly Re
view" lor April, 1818; "Westminster Review" for January, 1849;
"Atlantic Monthly" for January, 1861 ; " Monthly Review" tor July,
1820.
Keats, (Sir RICHARD GOODWIN,) an English admiral,
born in Hampshire in 1757. In 1778 he was promoted to
a lieutenancy in the ninety-eight-gun ship Prince George,
where the Duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.)
was placed under his command. He served with dis
tinction against the Americans and the French. In 1782
he received a commander's commission, and in 1807
became rear-admiral. Died in 1834.
Keble, kee'bel or kee'b'l, (JoiiN,) an English divine
and poet of high reputation, was born at Fairford, in Glou
cestershire, on the 25th of April, 1792. He was educated
at Oxford, elected a Fellow of Oriel College about 1810,
and ordained a priest in 1816, soon after which date he
left the university. For twenty ensuing years he was
employed as his father's curate at Fairford. He was an
intimate friend of John Henry Newman, and one of the
leaders of the Tractarian movement in favour of High-
Church doctrines, or Puseyism. According to Dr. New
man, Keble was the primary author of this movement.
In 1827 he published "The Christian Year: Thoughts
in Verse for the Sundays and Holidays throughout the
Year," which obtained almost unbounded popularity,
and passed through fifty editions or more. He was
appointed professor of poetry at Oxford in 1833, and
became vicar of Hursley in 1835. About this time he
married Charlotte Clarke. He contributed to the " Tracts
for the Times," (1834-36,) and published a number of
sermons. Among his popular works is "Lyra Innocen-
' tium : Thoughts in Verse on Christian Children, their
j Ways and Privileges," (1846.) "To English church
; people without number," says the "North British Re
view," '"The Christian Year' has long been not only a
cherished classic, but a sacred book, which they place
! beside their Bible and their Prayer-Book. . . . Popularity
is no word to express the fact that this book has been
j for years the cherished companion, in their best moods,
• of numbers of the best men, of the most diverse charac
ters and schools, who have lived in our time." Died in
March, 1866.
See SIR JOHN T. COLERIDGE, " Memoir of the Rev. John Keble,"
1869; "North British Review" for September, 1866; "Quarterly
Review" for April and July, 1869 ; "British Quarterly Review" for
July, 1867 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1869.
Keble, (JOSEPH,) an English writer upon law, born
in London about 1632; died in 1710. Of his numerous
• works we may cite "An Explanation of the Laws against
Recusants," (1681.)
Keckermann, kek'ker-man', (BARTHOLOMAUS,) a
learned German writer on science, born at Dantzic in
1571. He wrote, besides other works, " Systema Ethi-
cum," (1610,) and "Systema Mathematices," (1617.)
Died in 1609.
Keder, kil'der, (NiLS or NICHOLAS,) a Swedish an
tiquary, born at Stockholm in 1659. He wrote his auto
biography, and several treatises upon the ancient medals
of the North. He was ennobled in 1719. Died in 1735.
Keene, keen, (EDMUND,) an English prelate, born at
Lynn in 1713. In 1752 he was raised to the see of
Chester, and in 1770 to that of Ely. He was distinguished
for his learning and benevolence. Died in 1781.
Keen'er, (JOHN CHRISTIAN,) D.D., a Methodist
divine, born in Baltimore in 1819. He graduated at
Wesleyan University, Connecticut, in 1834. He wrote
a popular work entitled "The Post-Oak Circuit."
Kee-Tse or Ki-Tse, kee-tsiih, [written in French,
Ki-TsEU,] a Chinese philosopher, who lived in the twelfth
century li.c. He became the adviser of the emperor
Woo-Wang, the founder of the third Chinese dynasty.
See PAUTHIER, "Chine ancienne;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene-
rale."
Keferstein, ka'fer-stln', (CHRISTIAN,) a German
geologist, born at Halle in 1784. He published, besides
other works, " Geognostic Observations on the Basaltic
Structure of Western Germany," (1820,) in which he
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as^'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
83
Explanations, p. 23.)
KE1GHTLET
I3H
KELLER
successfully maintains the volcanic nature of basalt, and
"The Natural History of the Earth," (2 vols., 1834.)
Keightley, kit'le, (THOMAS,) a historical and bio
graphical writer, born in Dublin about 1790. He pub
lished, besides other works, "Mythology of Ancient
Greece and Rome," (3d edition, 1854 ;) a " History of
England," (1837 ;) a " Life of John Milton," (1855 ;) and
a " History of Rome."
Keil, kil, (JoiiANN GEORG,) a German scholar and
litterateur, born at Gotha in 1781. He published in 1814
an " Elementary Book of the Spanish Language." In
1813 he was chosen a member of the Royal Spanish
Academy. He also wrote a number of lyrical poems.
Died in 1857.
Keil, (KARL AUGUST GOTTLIEB,) a German theolo
gian, born at Grossenhain in 1754. He published, be
sides other works, a " Manual of Hermeneutics of the
New Testament," in German, (1810.) Died in 1818.
Keill, keel, (JAMES,) a physician, brother of John,
noticed below, was born at Edinburgh in 1673. He
studied medicine in his native city and at Leyden, and
lectured on anatomy in the Universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. He wrote a work entitled " Anatomy of
the Human Body," and several physiological treatises.
Died in 1719.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Keill, (JOHN,) a distinguished mathematician, born
at Edinburgh in 1671, and educated at Oxford. In 1700
he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote
several works in defence of the theories of Newton against
Leibnitz. In 1711 he was chosen to decipher papers for
the queen, for which position he was well qualified. He
became professor of astronomy at Oxford, where he had
received the degree of doctor of physic. Among his
works are " An Introduction to Natural Philosophy,"
and "An Introduction to the True Astronomy," both
of which were published in Latin and English. Died
in 1721.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Keim, kirn, (FRANZ XAVER,) a German architect,
born in 1769 ; died in 1864.
Keim. kim, (WILLIAM II.,) an American general, born
at Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1813. lie was elected a
member of Congress by the voters of Berks county
in 1858, and was appointed a brigadier-general in the
autumn of 1861. Died at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania,
in May, 1862.
Keisar, kl'sar or kl'zar, ( WII.LEM,) a Flemish painter,
born at Antwerp about 1647; died about 1693.
Keiser. See KIESER, (DIETRICH GEORG.)
Keiser, ki'zer, (REINHARD,) one of the earliest opera
composers in Germany, born in Leipsic in 1673, was the
author of more than a hundred operas, besides several
concertos and pieces of church music. His productions
were highly esteemed by Handel. Died in 1739.
See " Nouvelle Biographic GeneYale ;" BURNEY, " History of
Music."
Keith, keeth, (GEORGE,) fifth Earl Marischal of
Scotland, distinguished as a munificent patron of learn
ing, and as the founder of Marischal (mar'shal) College,
Aberdeen. He studied in Paris, and afterwards at
Geneva, where he had the celebrated Theodore Beza for
a preceptor. He succeeded his grandfather as earl
marischal in 1581. During the reign of James VI. he was
appointed to several high offices of state. Died in 1622.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Keith, (GEORGE,) hereditary Earl Marischal of Scot
land, was born in that country about 1693. He entered
the army, and was appointed by Queen Anne the captain
of her guards. At the death of that sovereign he made
strenuous but unsuccessful efforts to have the Pretender
proclaimed in London. After the accession of George
I., in 1714, his property was confiscated, and sentence
of death passed against him by the British Parliament.
Keith escaped to the continent, and served for some
time in the Spanish army. He subsequently removed
to Berlin, where he spent the remainder of his days in
high favour with Frederick the Great. Died in 1778.
See D'ALEMUEKT, " filoge de Milord Marechal," 1779.
Keith, (GEORGE,) a Scottish religionist, who at an
early age embraced the principles of George Fox, in
the defence of which he displayed much zeal and elo
quence. He subsequently advocated many views at va
riance with those held by the Quakers, for which he was
" disowned" or excommunicated by the Society. Before
his death his views again changed, and he died in the
communion of the Church of England. He wrote " The
Standard of the Quakers Examined," (1702,) intended as
a refutation of Barclay's " Apology."
See JANNEY, ''History of Friends," vol. iii. chap. iii. ; GOUGH,
" History of the Quakers ;" SMITH. " History of Pennsylvania."
Keith, (JAMES,) field-marshal of Prussia, and brother
of George Keith, (1693-1778,) was born in Scotland in
1696. Having entered the army of the Pretender, he
took part in the disastrous battle of Sheriffmtiir, where
he was wounded. He afterwards served in Spain and
in Russia, where he obtained distinction as a warrior and
statesman and was raised to the rank of lieutenant-gen
eral. Soon after the accession of the empress Elizabeth
he removed to the court of Frederick the Great, by whom
he was created field-marshal of Prussia, and in 1749
governor of Berlin. He fell at the battle of Hochkirchen,
in October, 1758.
See A. HENDERSON, "Memoirs of Field-Marshal Keith," 1759:
VARNHAGEN VON ENSE, " Leben des Feld-Marschalls J. Keith,"
Berlin, 1844; CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent
Scotsmen."
Keith, (ROBERT,) a Scottish Episcopal clergyman and
antiquary, born in Kincardineshire in 1681, was conse
crated a bishop in 1727. He was the author of a " His
tory of the Affairs of Church and State in Scotland from
the Beginning of the Reformation in the Reign of James
V. to the Retreat of Queen Mary into England," (1734.)
Died in 1757.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Keith, (Sir ROBERT MURRAY,) a British diplomatist,
born about 1730. He was for many years ambassador
at the court of Vienna. Died in 1795.
See his " Memoirs and Correspondence, Official and Familiar,"
etc., published by MRS. GII.UESPIE SMYTH, 2 vols., 1849.
Keith, (THOMAS,) an English mathematician, born in
Yorkshire in 1759. He wrote the "Complete Practical
Arithmetician," a work on Trigonometry, and other
works. Died in 1824.
Keith, VISCOUNT. See ELPHINSTONE, (G. KEITH.)
Keitt, commonly pronounced kit, (LAWRENCE M.,) a
politician, born in South Carolina in 1824. In 1853 he
was elected a representative to Congress, and re-elected
in 1855, 1857, and 1859. In 1856 he was associated with
Preston S. Brooks in his assault upon Charles Sunnier
on the floor of the United States Senate. He took an
active part in the Southern disunion movement of 1860.
He was killed in battle near Richmond in June, 1864.
Kelaoon, Kelaoun, or Kelaun, keTS oon', (Alma-
lek - Almansoor - Seif - ed - Deen, (or - Almansour-
Saiffeddyn,) al-mSl'ek al-man-sooR' slf-ed-cleen',) Sul
tan of Egypt, was brought to that country as a slave in
1249 A.n. He rapidly rose in rank, and in 1279, having
revolted against Almalek-al-Saeed, he was proclaimed
Sultan of Egypt and Syria. He subsequently conquered
Tripoli, and other places of importance in Northern
Africa. Died in 1290.
Kelij-Arslan. See KILIJ-ARSLA"N.
Keller. See CELLARIUS.
Keller, kel'ler, (GEORG,) a German Catholic theolo
gian, born near Bomdorf, in the Black Forest, in 1760.
He became in 1806 pastor at Aarau, where his opinions,
which leaned towards Protestantism, gave great offence
to the Catholic clergy. lie published, among other
works, "The Catholicon." Died in 1827.
Keller, kel'ler, (GODFREY,) a Swiss poet, born at Zu
rich in 1819. He published in 1846 a volume of poems,
which were received with favour. Died in 1860.
Keller, (JAKOB,) a German Roman Catholic writer,
born at Seckingen in 1568. He wrote several polemical
works against the Protestants. Died in 1631.
See BAYI.E, " Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Keller, (JEAN BALTHASAR,) a brass-founder, born in
Zurich, Switzerland, in 1638. lie removed to Paris,
where he gained distinction by the bronze statues whi9h
he executed, several of which were purchased to orna
ment the garden of Versailles. Died in 1702.
a, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 5, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, xi, y, short; a, e, |, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good: moon;
KELLER
1315
KEMBLE
Keller, (JosKPH,) an able German engraver, born at
Linz, on the Rhine, in 1815, became professor of en
graving at Dusseldorf. Among his works are a large
engraving of Raphael's " Dispute of the Sacrament,"
and several prints after Overbeck.
Keller von Steinbock, kel'ler fon stln'bok, (FRIED-
RICH LUDWIG,) a Swiss jurist and legal writer, born at
Zurich in 1799, became professor of law at Halle in
1843-
Kellerhoven, kel'ler-ho'ven, (MoRiTZ,) a German
painter and engraver, born at Altenrath, duchy of Berg,
in 1758, became court painter at Munich about 1806.
He excelled in portraits, and engraved many of his own
works. Died in 1830.
Kellermann, de, deh ki'leVmdN', (FRANgois CHRIS-
TOPHE,) Duke of Valmy, a distinguished French mar
shal, of German extraction, born at Strasburg in 1735.
After serving in the Seven Years' war, he was made a
lieutenant-general in 1792,3110! was soon after appointed
to command the central army on the Moselle. He gained
a decisive victory over the Duke of Brunswick at Valmy
in September, 1792. Having been accused of treachery
by Custine and others, he was imprisoned for ten months,
and only released after the fall of Robespierre. In 1795
he became commander of the army of the Alps, and
after his return to Paris was appointed inspector-general
of cavalry, in 1798. He was created in 1804 senator and
marshal of France, and in 1806 he obtained from Napo
leon the command of the reserve army on the Rhine, and
other distinctions. On the accession of Louis XVIII.
he was made a peer, and received the grand cross of the
order of Saint Louis. Died in 1820.
See DE SALVE, "Fragments historiques sur le Marechal de Kel-
lermnnn," 1807 ; THIERS, " Histoire du Consulat et de 1'Empire ;"
BOTIDOUX, "Esquisse de la Carriere militaire de F. C. de Keller-
mann," 1817; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Kellermann, de, (FRANgois CHRISTOPHE EDMOND,)
Duke of Valmy, a son of Francois Etienne, noticed below,
was born in Paris in 1802. He was elected to the
Chamber of Deputies in 1839, 1842, and 1844.
Kellermann, de, (FRANgois ETJENNE,) Duke of
Valmy, born at Metz in 1770, was a son of General Kel
lermann, noticed above. He served as adjutant-general
under Bonaparte in Italy in 1796, became a general
of brigade in 1797, and contributed greatly to the victory
at Marengo in 1800. About 1802 he obtained the rank
of general of division. He was wounded at Austerlitz,
where he directed several charges of cavalry. In 1815
he fought for Napoleon at Waterloo. Died in 1835.
Kel'ley, (BENJAMIN FRANKLIN,) an American gen
eral in the Union army, born in New Hampshire about
1807. He gained a victory at Philippi, Virginia, in Tune,
1861. In March, 1862, he was appointed commander of
the "railroad district" in Northwestern Virginia.
Kel'ley, (EDWARD,) a noted astrologer, born at Wor
cester, England, in 1555. He was an accomplice of the
notorious Dr. Dee, whom he accompanied to Germany.
While there, he was imprisoned as an impostor by the
emperor Rudolph; but. having afterwards obtained his
release, he won the favour of the emperor, by whom he
was knighted. He, however, resumed his old practices,
and was again imprisoned. In an attempt to regain
his liberty, he fell from his window, and was mortally
wounded, in 1595. He wrote various works upon al
chemy and astrology.
See WOOD, " Athenae Oxonienses."
Kelley, (WILLIAM D.,) born in Philadelphia about
1814, studied law, and was elected as a Democrat a judge
of the court of common pleas. About 1856 he became
an active Republican, and was in 1860 an ardent sup
porter of Lincoln for the Presidency. He was elected
a member of Congress from Philadelphia in 1860, in
1862, in 1864, in 1866, and in 1868. In the House of
Representatives Judge Kelley has uniformly acted with
the radical Republicans. *
Kellgren, chel'gR^n, (JoHAN HENRIK,) an eminent
Swedish poet, born in West Gothland in 1751, was edu
cated at the University of Abo, in Finland. In 1786
Gustavus III. appointed him a member of the Swedish
Academy, and likewise chose him for his private secre
tary and librarian. His works, consisting of lyric poetry
and four operas, were published in 1796, in 3 vols., under
the title of " Samlade Skriftes." Died in 1795.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" N. VO.M Ro-
SENSTEIN, " J. H. Kellgrens Lefnad," 1796.
Kellie, EARL OF. See ERSKINE, (T. ALEXANDER.)
Kel'11-son, (MATTHEW,) an English Roman Catholic
priest, born in Northamptonshire about 1560. He filled
the offices of chancellor of the University of Rheims and
president of the College of Douay. He wrote numerous
religious and controversial works. Died in 1641.
Kel'ly, (ALFRED,) an American lawyer, born at Mid-
dletown, Connecticut, in 1787. Having removed to
Cleveland, Ohio, he contributed greatly to the internal
improvement of the State by canals, and was several
times elected to the legislature. Died in 1859.
Kel'ly, (Sir FITZROY,) a British lawyer, born in Lon
don in 1796. He was for many years a Conservative
member of Parliament, and was attorney-general in
1858-59.
Kelly, (HUGH,) a dramatic and political writer, born
at Killarney, in Ireland, in 1739. He removed to Lon
don, where he became the editor of several periodicals.
He published a pamphlet entitled a "Vindication of the
Administration of Mr. Pitt," and the plays of " False
Delicacy," (1768,) "A Word to the Wise," (1770,) and
the "School for Wives," (1774.) Died in 1777.
See " Life of Kelly," prefixed to the edition of his Works, 1778.
Kelly, (JOHN,) a clergyman of the Church of Eng
land, born at Douglas, in the Isle of Man, in 1750. He
translated the Bible into the Manks language, a dialect
of the ancient Celtic, in which he was exceedingly well
versed, and wrote " A Practical Grammar of the Ancient
Gallic, or Language of the Isle of Man." Died in 1809.
Kelly, (MICHAEL,) a celebrated singer and musical
composer, born at Dublin in 1762. At the age of sixteen
he went to Naples, and received lessons there from
Fineroh and April!. He performed with eminent success
in Italy, and also in Germany, where he was a favourite
with the emperor Joseph and an intimate friend of the'
great Mozart. He afterwards became first singer at
Drury Lane Theatre, London. He wrote an interesting
work entitled " Reminiscences" of his contemporaries
and friends. Died in 1826.
See "Musical Biography," London, 1814; "Monthly Review"
for November, 1825. ..
Kem'ble, (CHARLES,) a brother of Mrs. Siddons and
J. P. Kemble, was born in South Wales in 1775. He
was educated at Douay, in France, and became an actor
at the age of eighteen. In 1792 he performed at Drury
Lane as "Malcolm" in " Macbeth," and continued upon
the stage as a successful actor until 1840. Died in 1854.
See OXBERRY'S "Dramatic Biography;" "Eraser's Magazine"
for December, 1854.
Kemble, (ELIZABETH,) a daughter of Roger Kemble,
was born in Lancashire, England, in 1761. She made
her first appearance in London in 1783. In form and
expression, as well as in the applause which she re
ceived, she has been compared to her sister, Mrs. Sid-
dons. In 1785 she married an actor named Whitlock,
whom she accompanied to America in 1792. In this
country she became a great favourite, and performed
several times before General Washington. Died in 1836.
Kemble, (FRANCES ANNE,) often called FANNY
KEMBLE, a popular English actress and writer, born in
London in 181 1, was a daughter of Charles Kemble. She
performed both tragedy and comedy with eminent suc
cess. About 1832 she accompanied her father to the
United States, where she married Pierce Butler, from
whom she was divorced in 1849. She published a "Jour
nal of a Residence in America," (1835,) "The Star of
Seville," a drama, "Journal of a Residence on a Georgian
Plantation in 1838-39," (1863,) etc.
See " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835, and September,
1847; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1835; "Eraser's Magazine"
for May, 1832, and September, 1835.
Kemble, (GEORGE STEPHEN,) another brother of the
Kemble family, and a distinguished actor, was born in
Herefordshire in 1758. He first appeared at Covent
Garden in 1783, and afterwards was successively the
manager of the theatres of Glasgow, Edinburgh, and
Drury Lane. Died in 1822.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g zsj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Srj^See Explanations, p. 23.)
KEMBLE
1316
KEN
Kemble, (JOHN MITCHELL,) an Anglo-Saxon scholar
and historian, son of Charles Kemble the actor, was
born in 1807, and was educated at Trinity College, Cam
bridge. For several years he. was the editor of the
"British and Foreign Quarterly Review." lie became
a member of various foreign scientific and historical
societies. His chief work is entitled "The Saxons in
England; a History of the English Commonwealth till
the Period of the Norman Conquest," (2 vols., 1849.)
Died in 1857.
See "Eraser's Magazine" for March and May, 1857.
Kemble, (JoHN PHILIP,) an eminent English trage
dian, brother of the celebrated Mrs. Siddons, and son
of Roger Kemble, was born at Prescot, in Lancashire,
in 1757. He first appeared on the stage at the age of
ten years. He was afterwards educated at the Roman
Catholic seminary at Douay, France. In 1776 he again
went on the stage, and rose rapidly to the first rank in
his profession. In 1783 he first performed as " Hamlet"
in London at the Drury Lane Theatre. He subsequently
became a shareholder and manager in the Covent Garden
Theatre. He retired from his profession in 1817. On
this occasion a public dinner was given him, at which
Lord Holland presided. On account of ill health, he
then went to reside in the south of France, and after
wards at Lausanne, in Switzerland, where he died in 1823.
A competent and impartial critic thus states his im
pressions of Kemble as an actor: "His performances
throughout evince deep study and application, joined to
amazingly judicious conception. They are correct and
highly-finished paintings, but much laboured. . . . Though
my head is satisfied, and even astonished, yet my heart is
seldom affected. . . . Once, I must own, however, I was
completely overpowered by his acting. It was in the
partofZanga. . . . I could not have believed that tragic
representation could so far deceive the senses and the
Judgment." (" Life and Letters of Irving," vol. i. p. 156.)
As an actor, Kemble excelled in the highest order of
tragedy. He possessed an elegant and discriminating
taste, and was learned and refined. His manners were
uncommonly attractive. He enjoyed a high character as
a gentleman and a man of honour.
See BOADEN, "Memoirs of John P. Kemble," 2 vols., 1825;
" London Quarterly Review" for June, 1826; "Westminster Review"
for April, 1825.
Kemble, (PRISCII.LA,) an English actress, wife of the
preceding, was born about 1755 ; died in 1845.
Kemble, (!<OGER,) a distinguished actor, born in Here
ford, England, in 1721. In 1753 he1 married Sarah Ward,
an actress, by whom he had twelve children. Among
these were Mrs. Siddons, John Philip Kemble, Eliza
beth Kemble, and Charles Kemble, all of whom are
mentioned in this work.
Kemeny, kem'afi, (SiGMUND,) BARON OF, a Hunga
rian writer and journalist, born in 1816. In 1849 he was
elected to the National Assembly at Pesth, where he
advocated the revolutionary cause. The next year he
became one of the editors of the "Respublica." He
wrote several popular romances. Died in 1852.
Kemp, (GEORGE MICKLE,) the designer of the Scott
monument at Edinburgh, was born at New Hall, in
Scotland, about 1794. He was employed for a time as a
draughtsman, and, when plans were requested for the
Scott monument, he furnished one which was preferred,
though he did not live to see the execution of it. Died
in 1844.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement.)
Kemp, (JAMES,) D.D., Bishop of the Protestant Epis
copal diocese of Maryland, born in Scotland in 1764,
came to the United States in 1787, and for more than
twenty years was rector at Great Choptank, Maryland.
He was bishop of that diocese, and provost of the Uni
versity of Maryland, from 1816 until his death, in 1827.
Kemp, (JoHN,) an English prelate, born in Kent about
1400, was elected Archbishop of Canterbury in 1452, and
subsequently became lord chancellor. He had distin
guished abilities both as a primate and statesman. Died
in 1454.
See W. F. HOOK, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
vol. v. chap. xx.
Kemp, (JOSEPH,) a distinguished musical composer,
and organist of the cathedral of Bristol, was born at
Exeter in 1778; died in 1824. Among his productions
are the anthems "I am Alpha and Omega," "A Sound
of Battle is in the Land," and "The Siege of Ischia,"
an opera.
Kempelen, von, fon kem'peh-len, (WOLFGANG,) a
famous mechanical genius, and the inventor of the chess
machine, was born at Presburg in 1734. His remarkable
talent for chess-playing made him a favourite at the
court of Maria Theresa, who created him an imperial
councillor. In 1769 he exhibited to the empress his
chess-player, representing a man of usual size sitting
before a table which held a chess-board. Though op
posed by the best players, the machine was nearly always
victorious, and would correct a false move of the other
party. He visited France and England, where his in
vention caused a great sensation. In 1728 he invented
the speaking-machine, having the form of a wooden
box provided with a bellows. This was made to speak
words distinctly in a voice like that of a child. Kem
pelen wrote a treatise "On the Mechanism of Human
Speech." Died in 1804.
Kemper, kem'per, (JAN MELCHIOR,) an able Dutch
jurist, born at Amsterdam in 1776. He became pro
fessor of law at Leyden in 1809, and published a number
of works on law. Died in 1824.
See M. SIEGENBEEK, "Memoria J. M. Kemperi," 1824.
Kem'per, (REUBEN,) an American officer, born in
Fauquier county, Virginia. He distinguished himself in
various engagements against the Spaniards in Florida
and Mexico, and took part in the defence of New Orleans
under General Jackson. Died in 1826.
Kemph, kemf, (NiKOLAUS,) a German theologian
and writer, born at Strasburg in 1397 ; died in 1497.
Kempis, d, a kem'pis, (THOMAS,) or THOMAS Ham'-
er-ken, a celebrated German ascetic writer, born at
Kempen, in the diocese of Cologne, about 1380. He
became an inmate of the monastery of Mount Saint
Agnes, and spent much time in copying religious books.
Pie is said to have employed fifteen years in writing a
copy of the Bible. He also wrote several original treat
ises. His reputation is founded on the well-known work
entitled "De Imitatione Christi ;" but it remains an
unsettled question whether he composed or only tran
scribed it. Many volumes have been written on each
side of this question. Died in 1471.
See BREWER, "Thomas a Kempis Biographia," 1676; BAEHRING,
"Thomas von Kempen," etc., 1854; MOOREN, "Nachrichten iiber
Thomas a Kempis," Crefeld, 1855, (said to be the best of all the
biographies of T. a Kempis ;) M AI.OU, " Recherches sur le veritable
Auteur de 1'Imitation, " 1858: HODGSON, "Reformers and Mar
tyrs," Philadelphia, 1867 ; CHARLES HOFFMANN, " T. a Kempis et ses
EcntS," 1848; J. P. SILBERT, "Gersen, Gerson und Kempis, oder
1st Einer von diesen Dreien der Verfasser," etc., 1828; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Ken, (THOMAS,) a celebrated English prelate, born at
Berkhamstead in 1637, and educated at Oxford. About
1679 he went to Holland as chaplain to the Princess
of Orange. He was afterwards appointed chaplain to
Charles II., who raised him to the see of Bath and Wells
in 1684. "He was," says Macaulay, "a man of parts
and learning, of quick sensibility and stainless virtue. . . .
Before he became a bishop, he had maintained the
honour of his gown by refusing, when the court was at
Winchester, to let Eleanor Gwinn [a mistress of Charles]
lodge in the house which he occupied there as a preben
dary. The king had sense enough to respect so manly
a spirit. Of all the prelates he liked Ken the best."
Deprived of his bishopric as a nonjuror upon the coro
nation of William III., he was regarded with the highest
esteem even by his opponents. Queen Anne, upon her
accession, granted him a pension. He was the author
of several volumes of elaborate sermons, and of many
poetical productions of a religious character. " His
Morning and Evening Hymns," says 4he writer above
quoted, "are still repeated daily in thousands of dwell
ings." He died in 1711.
See W. HAWKINS, "Life of Bishop Ken," 1713; W. L. BOWLES,
" Life of Thomas Ken," 1830 ; MACAULAY, " History of England,"
vol. i. chap. v. ; "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1851 ;
Miss STRICKLAND, "Lives of the Seven Bishops," etc., London,
1866; "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1832.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, tat; met; not; good; moon;
KENDAL
1317
KENNICOTT
Ke"n'dal, (GEORGE,) an English nonconformist minis
ter, born in Devonshire, was a Calvinist. He became
rector of Blissland, in Cornwall, from which he was
ejected about 1662. Died in 1663.
KSn'dall, (A.\ios,) an able American statesman, born
at Dunstable, Massachusetts, in 1789. He graduated at
Dartmouth College in 1811, and subsequently, removing
to Kentucky, became a tutor in the family of Henry
Clay. He supported General Jackson in the Presiden
tial campaign of 1829, and was afterwards appointed by
him an auditor of the treasury department. He was
made postmaster-general in 1835, and continued to fill
that post till 1840. He began about 1844 a Life of
General Jackson, of which the first volume was pub
lished several years ago. Died in 1869.
See notice in the "Democratic Review" for March, 1838, (with a
portrait ;) " Life of Jackson."
Ken'dall, (G.,) an English missionary, who laboured
in New Zealand, and opened a school there in 1816. He
acquired a thorough knowledge of the language of that
country, and wrote a "Grammar and Vocabulary of the
Language of New Zealand," (1820.) He was drowned
at sea in 1835.
Kendall, (GEORGE WILKINS,) an American writer
and journalist, born at Amherst, New Hampshire, in
1810. He removed in 1835 to New Orleans, where he
became associated with Mr. Lumsden as editor of the
"Picayune." In 1841 he accompanied the Santa Fe ex
pedition from Texas, of which he published an account
after his return. He brought out in 1851 a work entitled
"The War between the United States and Mexico," with
coloured plates of the principal conflicts.
Kendall, (JOHN,) an English writer, and member of
the Society of Friends, born about 1725; died in 1814.
Among his works are a " Life of Thomas Story," and
"Precepts of the Christian Religion."
Kendi, Al. See ALCHINDUS.
Ken'drick, (ASAHEL C.,) D.D., an American scholar
and Baptist clergyman, born at Poultney, Vermont, in
1809. He graduated at Hamilton College, New York,
in 1831. He was afterwards appointed professor of
Latin and Greek at Madison University, and in 1850
Greek professor in the University of Rochester, New
York. He has published a number of religious and
miscellaneous works.
Kendrick, (NATHANIEL,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born
in Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1777, was appointed
professor of theology and moral philosophy in Hamilton
College (now Madison University) in 1822. His labours
contributed greatly to the prosperity of the institution.
Died in 1848.
Kenicius, ka-nee'she-us, (PETER,) Archbishop of
Upsal, Sweden, during the reign of Gustavus Adolphus,
was born in 1555. He rendered important service to
the cause of education, and owing to his efforts parish
hospitals were established throughout Sweden. He
wrote several theological works. Died in 1636.
Ken'ly, (JoHN R.,) an American lawyer and general,
born in Baltimore about 1820. He commanded, a small
force which was attacked at Front Royal by the army
of Stonewall Jackson, May 23, 1862. lie was wounded
and captured in this action.
Ken'na-way, (Sir JOHN,) a British diplomatist, born
at Exeter in 1758. He became a captain of the army in
India in 1780, and negotiated an important treaty with
Tippoo Saib in 1792. Died in 1836.
Ken'ne-dy, (GRACE,) a popular Scottish authoress,
born in Ayrshire in 1782. She published several moral
and religious tales of great merit. Among these we
may name "Anna Ross," "The Decision," and "Jessy
Allan," which have been translated into German; also
"Father Clement," (1825.) Died in 1825.
Kennedy, (!I.DEFONSO,) a Scottish Benedictine and
scientific writer, born at Muthel in 1721, was secretary
to the Academy of Sciences at Munich. Died in 1804.
Kennedy, (JAMES,) a Scottish prelate, and grandson
of Robert III., was born about 1405. He was raised in
1440 to the see of Saint Andrew's, and was subsequently-
chosen a lord of the regency until James III. obtained
his majority. He was distinguished for the salutary re
forms which he effected among the Scottish clergy. He
was the founder of the University of Saint Salvator, at
Saint Andrew's. Died in 1466. ' v
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Kennedy, (JOHN,) a physician and antiquary, born
in Scotland. He wrote a. treatise on the coins of the
emperor Carausius. Died in 1760.
Ken'ne-dy, (JoHN,) an English author, and rector of
Bradley, in Derbyshire. Among "his works is "A Scrip
ture Chronology," (1752.) Died about 1770.
Ken'ne-dy, (JoHN PENDI.ETON,) an American states
man and popular writer, born at Baltimore, Maryland, in
1795. He served in the war of 1812, and was elected in
1820 to the Maryland House of Delegates, He was sub
sequently three times elected to the United States House
of Representatives, where he actively supported the lead
ing measures of the Whig party. He was appointed
secretary of the navy in 1852. He has published several
popular works of fiction, among which we may name
" Swallow Barn, or a Sojourn in the Old Dominion,"
(1832,) and " Horse-Shoe Robinson, a Tale of the Tory
Ascendency," (1835;) also a "Life of William Wirt,"
besides other works. Died in August, 1870.
See GRISWOLD, "Prose Writers of America."
Ken'net, (BASIL,) a clergyman of the Church of
England, and brother of Bishop Kennet, born in Kent
in 1674, was educated at Oxford. He became chaplain
to the English factory at Leghorn. He returned to
England on account of ill health. He wrote various
antiquarian and historical works, among which are "The
Antiquities of Rome," (1696,) relating to the history of
the republic, and "Lives and Characters of Ancient
Greek Poets," (1697.) Died in 1715.
See " Biographia Britannica."
Kennet, (WniTE,) an English prelate and author,
born at Dover in 1660, was educated at Westminster
School and at Oxford. In 1699 he received the degree
of D.D., and in 1718 was ordained Bishop of Peterbo
rough. He was distinguished as a preacher of great
eloquence and as a scholar of indefatigable industry and
perseverance, as well as for his opposition to the High-
Church party. Died in 1728. Of his numerous works
we may mention " Parochial Antiquities attempted in
the History of Ambrosden, Burcester, and other Ad
jacent Places in the Counties of Oxford and Bucks,"
(1695,) and "A Register and Chronicle, Ecclesiastical
and Civil," (1728,) relating to the reign of Charles II.
See W. NEWTON, "Life of White Kennet," 1730; "Biographia
Britannica."
Ken'neth I., King of Scotland, died, after a short
reign, in 606, and was succeeded by Eugene III.
Kenneth II. succeeded his father, Alpin, as King of
the Scots, in 834. He carried on a successful war against
the Britons, and reduced the Picts to subjection. He is
said to have been the first sovereign who swayed a
sceptre over all Scotland. Died about 858 A.D.
Kenneth III. ascended the throne of Scotland in 970.
He repelled the invasions of the Danes, established a
just and efficient government in his dominions, and is
said to have been the first monarch who gave Scotland
a written code of laws. He was assassinated in 994.
See BUCHANAN, " History of Scotland."
Ken'nI-cott, (BENJAMIN,) a learned divine and He
brew scholar, born at Totness, in Devonshire, England,
in 1718. While a student at Oxford, he wrote two dis
sertations, one " On the Tree of Life in Paradise," and
the other "On the Oblations of Cain and Abel," which
procured for him, free of expense and before the usual
period, the degree of B.A. He was soon after elected
a Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, became canon of
Christ Church, and obtained the degree of M.A. in 1750.
In 1753 he published a treatise on "The State of the
Printed Hebrew Text of the Old Testament," in which
he unfolded his plan of collating the Hebrew manuscripts
of the Old Testament. Although his efforts met with
opposition from some of the clergy, a large sum was
raised to aid him in his enterprise, and several men
of learning were employed to assist him in his labours.
His " Hebrew Bible," the result of these labours, was
issued in 1776, with the various readings attached. Dr.
Kennicott and his assistants in this valuable work con-
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
KENNON
1318
KENTON
suited sixteen Samaritan and over six hundred Hebrew
manuscripts. Died at Oxford in 1783.
See "Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale."
Ken'iipn, (ROKERT LEWIS,) a Methodist divine anc
physician, born in North Carolina in 1789. He excellec
in various branches of science, particularly geology, anc
is said to have been the first to call attention to the coal
fields of Alabama. Died in 1838.
Ken'rick, (FRANCIS PATRICK,) D.D., a Catholic
prelate, born at Dublin in 1797, emigrated in 1821
to America. In 1842 he succeeded Dr. Conwell as
Bishop of Philadelphia. He was created Archbishop of
Baltimore in 1851, and was afterwards appointed by
the pope " primate of honour," having precedency over
all other Catholic prelates of the country. He enjoyec"
a high reputation for learning, and published, among
other works, " Dogmatic Theology," and "Moral The
ology," (both in Latin.) Died in 1863.
Keiirick, (PETER RICHARD,) D.D., brother of the
preceding, was born at Dublin in 1806. Having re
moved to Philadelphia, he became editor of the "Cath
olic Herald." On the deatli of Dr. Rosati, in 1843, he
succeeded him as Bishop of Saint Louis, and in 1847
was made first archbishop of that city. lie has founded
several charitable institutions, and has been active in
promoting the cause of education.
Ken'rick, (WILLIAM,) an English writer, noted for
his quarrelsome disposition, born in Hertfordshire about
1720, published "Epistles, Philosophical and Moral,'
in poetry, (1759,) " A Review of Dr. Johnson's New Edi
tion of Shakspeare," (1765,) which caused a controversy
with Johnson's friends, a " Dictionary of the English
Language," and a poem called " Love in the Suds," for
which he was sued for damages by Garrick, whom he
had libelled in it. Died in 1779.
See BAKEK, "Biographia Dramatica."
Ken'sett, (JOHN FREDERICK,) an American land
scape-painter, born in Cheshire, Connecticut, in 1818.
He studied in London, and in 1845 exhibited at the
Royal Academy his "View of Windsor Castle." He
afterwards visited Rome, where he executed several
excellent pictures of Italian scenery. Among his best
American landscapes may be named "Sunset in the
Adirondacks," " Franconia Mountains," and "Hudson
River from Fort Putnam." He became a member of
the National Academy of Design in 1849.
See TUCKERMAN, "Book of the Artists."
Kent, (EDWARD,) DUKE OF, father of Victoria, Queen
of Great Britain, and the fourth son of George III., was
born in 1767. He studied at Gottingen and Geneva. In
1790 he entered the army, and three y«ars later assisted
in the capture of Saint Lucia. In 1796 he was appointed
lieutenant-general, and in 1799 was created Duke of Kent
and Strathern and Earl of Dublin. In 1802 he became
Governor of Gibraltar ; but, his rigid discipline producing
a mutiny, he was soon after recalled. In 1818 he married
a daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg. The Duke of
Kent was a liberal patron of benevolent enterprises.
Died in 1820.
See "Life of Edward, Duke of Kent," by ERSKINE NEALE, 1850.
Kent, (EDWARD,) LL.D., an American judge, born in
Concord, New Hampshire, in 1802. He graduated at
Harvard, and in 1825 settled as a lawyer in Bangor,
Maine. He was afterwards twice Governor of the State,
and became an associate justice of the supreme court of
Maine in 1859.
Kent, (JAMES,) a distinguished organist and musical
composer, born at Winchester in 1700. He became one
of the children of the Chapel Royal in London. Upon
finishing his education, he was successively chosen or
ganist of Trinity College, Cambridge, and of Winchester
Cathedral. He published a popular work containing
"Twelve Anthems" of his composition. Died in 1776.
See BURNEY, "History of Music."
Kent, (JAMES,) an eminent American jurist, born in
Putnam county, New York, in July, 1763. He graduated
at Yale College in 1781, studied law, and commenced the
practice of his profession at Poughkeepsie. In politics
he was a Federalist. He was profoundly versed in legal
knowledge. He became a resident of the city of New
York about 1793, and a friend of Alexander Hamilton.
In 1798 he was appointed a judge of the supreme court
of New York, and in 1804 became chief justice. He
lectured on law at Columbia College. His important
decisions in law and equity have been preserved in the
Reports of Johnson and Caines. He became chancellor
in 1814, and retired from that office in 1823, after which
he was again professor of law in Columbia College. He
published "Commentaries on American Law," (4 vols.,
1826-30,) which is a standard work of high authority
and a production of great literary merit. Referring to
this work, Judge Story remarks, "These Commentaries
have already acquired the reputation of a juridical classic,
and have placed their author in the first rank in the
benefactors of the profession. They embody the prin
ciples of law in pages as attractive by the persuasive
eloquence of their style as they are instructive by the
fulness and accuracy of their learning." ("On the Con
flict of Laws.") "It will be a proud distinction to Kent
and Story," says the " Edinburgh Review" for October,
1852, (p. 340,) "that they have done more than any other
men to put an end to the indifference of English lawyers
to the learning of their American brethren." Judge
Kent had a high reputation for virtue. He died in New
York in December, 1847, leaving one son, William.
See JOHN DUER, " Discourse on the Life of James Kent ;" " Na
tional Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. ; AI.I.I-
BONE, "Dictionary of Authors," vol. ii. ; DUYCKINCK, " Cyclopxdia
of American Literature," vol. i.
Kent, (MARIA LOUISA VICTORIA,) DUCHESS OF, born
in 1786, was a daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg.
She was married about 1803 to Prince Emich Karl of
Leiningen, and again to tj.ie Duke of Kent in 1818. Vic
toria, Queen of England, was the issue of her second
marriage. Died in 1861.
Kent, (WILLIAM,) the founder of the English style
of landscape-gardening, was born in Yorkshire about
1685. He studied painting, which he soon abandoned
for ornamental architecture. Among his best designs is
that of the temple of Venus at Stowe. His fame, how
ever, rests chiefly on the great improvement he effected
in landscape-gardening, by substituting the close imita
tion of nature for the stiff and formal style of the French
and Dutch. Walpole has styled him "the creator of
modern gardening." Died in 1748.
See WAI.J'.OI.E, "Anecdotes of Painting."
Kent, (WILLIAM,) an American lawyer, son of James
Kent, the eminent jurist, noticed above, was born in
1802. He was appointed by Governor Seward a judge
of the circuit court of New York. Having resigned
that office, he practised law in New York City. Died in
January, 1861.
Kent'i-gern, SAINT, a Scottish ecclesiastic, became
Bishop of Glasgow. He is said to have converted many
of the natives to Christianity. Died about 600.
Ken'ton,(SiMON,) an American soldier, born in Fau-
quier county, Virginia, was one of the associates of
Daniel Boone, the Kentucky pioneer. He fought against
the Indians on the Western frontier, and subsequently
in the war of 1812. Died in 1836.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
Ken'yon, (JOHN,) an English poet, born in Jamaica
about 1783, inherited an ample fortune. He published
' A Day at Tivoli, with other Poems." Died in 1856.
See " Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1838; "North
American Review" for April, 1839, (by PRESCOTT.)
Kenyon, (LLOYD,) LORD, an eminent English law
yer, and chief justice of the king's bench, was born at
~reddington, in Flintshire, October 5, 1732. He be
came in 1754 a member of Lincoln's Inn, and was
idmitted to the bar in 1761. With too high a sense
of honour to employ artifice, and having no influential
"riends to assist him, several years elapsed before he
obtained practice. In 1779 he distinguished himself by
lis able defence of Lord George Gordon, on trial for
reason. Three years later he was made attorney-general.
'n 1788 he was appointed chief justice of the king's bench
and was raised to the peerage, with the title of Lord Ken-
on, Baron Greddington. He died in 1802, after having
amassed a large fortune. Lord Kenyon was generally
a, e, 1, 6, it, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon;
KEOGH
KERCKHERDERE
popular, though his extremely parsimonious habits, added
to his overbearing and haughty manner towards the bar
risters as well as towards his associate judges, made him
no favourite with the members of his profession. As a
justice, he was distinguished for his strict adherence to
the letter of the law, and for his impartial severity upon
offenders of every rank.
See LORD CAMPBELL, "Lives of the Chief Justices;" "Sketch
of the Life, etc. of Lord Kenyon," London, 1802 ; Foss, "The Judges
of England."
Keogh, ka'oH, ? (WlLUAM,) an Irish lawyer, born at
Galway in 1817. He published "The Practice of the
Court of Chancery in Ireland." In 1856 he became a
judge of the common pleas.
Kepler, kep'ler, or Keppler, [Lat. KEPLE'RUS,]
(JOHANN,) a celebrated German astronomer, born at or
near Weil, in Wiirtemberg, on the 271)1 of December,
1571. His father, Henry Kepler, lost nearly all his prop
erty by becoming surety for a friend, and was reduced
to the position of tavern-keeper at Ehnendingen. About
1586 he entered the monastic school of Maulbronn,
where he was educated at the expense of the Duke of
Wiirtemberg. He continued his studies at Tubingen,
which he quitted in 1591 with the degree of master.
In 1594 he was appointed professor of mathematics at
Gratz, in Styria. He published, under the title of
" Mysterium Cosmographicum," (1596,) an account of
his inquiries and speculations in relation to the number,
distances, and periodic times of the planets. In 1597 he
married a widow named Barbara von Muller. Kepler
and the other Protestant professors were driven from
Gratz by persecution about 1600. He visited Tycho
Brahe, who then resided near Prague, and who intro
duced him to the emperor Rudolph. At the request of
Rudolph, he began to assist Tycho in the formation of
astronomical tables.
On the death of Tycho, in October, 1601, Kepler suc
ceeded him as principal mathematician to the emperor,
with a salary of 1500 florins, and inherited his unpub
lished observations. He published in 1604 an important
contribution to the science of optics, entitled a " Supple
ment to Vitellio." After he obtained the patronage of
the emperor he resided for some years at Linz. In 1609
he produced his greatest work, "Astronomia nova, seu
Physica celestis tradita Commentariis de Motibus Stellas
Martis," in which he announced two of the laws which
regulate the periods and motions of the planets, and
which are known as Kepler's Laws. These are : I, that
the orbits of the planets are elliptical ; 2, the radius-
vector, or line extending from a planet to the sun, de
scribes or passes over equal areas in equal times ; 3, the
squares of the periodic times of planets are proportional
to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
"These laws constitute undoubtedly," says Sir John
Herschel, " the most important and beautiful system of
geometrical relations which have ever been discovered
by a mere inductive process, independent of any con
sideration of a theoretical kind. They comprise within
them a compendium of the motions of all the planets,
and enable us to assign their places in their orbits at any
instant of time, past or to come." "This beautiful and
simple law," says Professor Playfair, in reference to the
third law, "had a value beyond what Kepler could pos
sibly conceive ; yet a sort of scientific instinct instructed
him in its great importance. He has marked the year
and the day when it became known to him : it was on
the 8th of May, 1618." His third law was discovered
with infinite satisfaction in 1618, and announced in his
" Harmonice Mundi," (1619,) the title and contents of
which recall the ideas of Pythagoras on celestial har
mony. Kepler imagines that in this music of the spheres
Saturn and Jupiter perform the bass, Mars the tenor,
and the Earth and Venus the haute-contre. He con
sidered the sun to be the source of motion as well as of
light and heat. The treasury of the emperor was so
exhausted by war that Kepler could not obtain the pay
ment of his salary, and often felt the pressure of poverty.
Afer the death -of Rudolph, (1612,) he was appointed
pro'essor of mathematics at Linz. His first wife having
died, he married Susanna Rettinger, about 1614. In
1620 he was visited by Sir Henry Wotton, an English
ambassador, who invited him to remove to England ;
but he declined. He expended the labour of several
years on his " Rudolphine Tables," which were published
in 1627 and were highly prized. Among his important
works is his " Dioptrica," (1611,) in which he describes
the astronomical telescope with two convex lenses. The
invention of this form of telescope is ascribed to him.
Kepler was so devoted to science, and had so little re
gard for riches, except those of the mind, that he used
to say he would rather be the author of the works he
had written than possess the duchy of Saxony. He died
at Ratisbon in November, 1630, leaving four sons and
three daughters.
See DRINKWATER BETHUNE, "Life of Kepler," in the "Library
of Useful Knowledge:" BRKITSCHWERD, " Keplers Leben mid Wir-
ken," 1831: SIR DAVID BREWSTER, "Martyrs of Science," 1841;
ARAGO, " Notices biographiques," tome ii. ; DR. F. HOEFER, article
in the " Nouvelle Biographic G^nernle :" " Foreign Quarterly Re
view" for June, 1835; "Atlantic Monthly" for April, 1860.
Kepler, (LuowiG,) a German physician, son of the
preceding, was born at Prague in 1607. He practised
at Bale, Strasburg, and Konigsberg, and wrote several
works. Died in 1663.
Keplerus. See KEPLER, (JOHANN.)
Kep'pel, (AUGUSTUS,) an English admiral, son of
William, Earl of Albemarle, was born in 1725. In 1761,
as commander of a small squadron, he captured Belle-
Isle, and the following year was created rear-admiral of
the blue. In 1778 he became admiral. He was subse
quently raised to the peerage, as Viscount Keppel, Baron
Elden, and was twice appointed first lord of the admi
ralty. He was accused by Sir Hugh Palliser of neglect
of duty in an action against the French in July, 1778, and
was tried by a court-martial, by which he was honourably
acquitted. Died in 1786.
See "Life of Viscount Keppel," by THOMAS KEPPEL; KIPPIS,
"Life of Lord Anson;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1842.
Keppel, EARL OF ALBEMARLE. See ALBEMARLE.
Keppel, (GEORGE THOMAS,) an English officer, born
in 1799, was a son of the Earl of Albemarle. He was
elected to Parliament in 1832 and in 1847. He published
a "Journey across the Balkan."
Keppel, (Sir HENRY,) an English naval officer, a
younger son of the Earl of Albemarle, was born in 1809.
He became a captain about 1837, and commanded the
naval forces operating against China in 1857-58. He
wrote a work entitled "An Expedition to Borneo."
Keppler. See KEPLER.
Ker, ker or kar, (JoHX,) of Kersland, a Scottish
philologist, was professor of Hebrew at Edinburgh. He
was employed as a political agent by William III., and
published " Memoirs and Secret Negotiations," (3 vols.,
1726.)
Ker, (JOHN,) an eminent bibliographer, born in London
in 1740, was the son of Robert, Duke of Roxburgh, whom
he succeeded in 1755 in the Scottish dukedom, and also in
the British peerage as Earl and Baron Ker of Wakefield.
He died in 1804. In the accumulation of his library,
which is said to have been the most valuable private
collection in Great Britain, he exhibited remarkable
industry and rare judgment. The sale of these books
after his death produced a great sensation in the lite
rary world. One — " II Decamerone di Boccaccio" — was
sold for £2250.
Ker, (ROBERT.) See CARR. ,
Ker Porter. See PORTER, (ROBERT KER.)
Keralio, de, deh keh-i t'leV, (Louis FELIX Guine-
meiit — gen'mSx',) a French officer and litterateur, born
in Brittany in 1731. He wrote, besides other works,
one upon the "General Principles of Tactics." Died in
1793-
Keratry, de, deh ka'rf'tRe', (AUGUSTE HILARION,)
a French litterateur and statesman, born at Rennes in
1769. He was twice chosen a member of the Chamber
of Deputies, in 1818 and in 1827, and was made a peer in
1837. Among his principal works are " Moral and Physi
ological Inductions," (1817,) and several romances and
poems. Died in 1859.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Kerckherdere, keRk'heVdeh-reh, (JAN GERAART,)
a Dutch philologist and theologian, born near Maestricht
c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
e Explanations, p. 23.)
KERCKHOVE
1320
KETBOGA
about 1678. He was professor at Louvain, and wrote
several works. Died in 1738.
Kerckhove, van den, vSn din keKk'ho'veh, (JAN
POLYANDER,) a Protestant theologian, of Dutch extrac
tion, born at Metz in 1568. In 1609 he was appointed
to the chair of theology in the University of Leyden, of
which he was subsequently chosen rector eight times.
Died in 1646.
Kerckhove, van den, written also Kerckchove,
(JOSEPH,) an able Flemish painter, born at Bruges in
1669. He painted sacred history. Died in 1724.
Kerckring, kSRk'ring, (THEODORUS,) a physician and
anatomical writer, born at Amsterdam ; died in 1693.
Kereem- (Kerim- or Kerym-) Khan, ker-eem' Kan,
became sovereign of Persia in 1750. He was an able
warrior, lawgiver, and statesman. Died about 1780.
Kerguelen-Trernarec, de, deh kiR'ga'lftN' tKa'mi'-
rek', (IVEs JOSEPH,) a celebrated French navigator, born
at Quimper, in Brittany, in 1745. Having previously
visited the North Sea, he set out in 1771 on a voyage to
the South Sea, and the following year discovered, in 498
south latitude, the island to which Captain Cook gave,
in 1776, the name of Kerguelen's Land. He published
a " Narrative of a Voyage to the North Sea and the
Shores of Iceland, Greenland," etc., (1771,) and "An
Account of Two Voyages in the South Sea and the
Indies," (1782.) Died in 1797.
Kerhallet, de, deh ki'r&'li', (CHARLES PHILIPPE,)
a French hydrographer, born in Brittany in 1809. He
became a captain in the navy, and was employed many
years in surveying the coast of Africa. He published a
" Manual for the Navigation of the West Coast of Africa,"
(3 vols., 1853.) Died in Paris in 1863.
Keri, ka'ree, (FRANCIS BORGIA,) a historian and Jesuit,
born at Zemplin, in Hungary, wrote a " History of the
Empire of the East." Died in 1769.
Keri, (JOHN or JAxos,) a learned Hungarian bishop,
who wrote " Ferocia Martis Turcici," a history of the
different Turkish invasions of Hungary. Died in 1685.
Keiim-Khan. See KEREEM-KHAN.
Keri, keRl, (JoHANN CASPAR,) a German composer
and organist, born in Saxony in 1625. He was chapel-
inaster to the Elector of Bavaria. Died about 1685.
Kern, kcRn, (J. CONRAD,) a Swiss statesman of the
Liberal party, was born at Berlingen in 1808. He be
came president of the Federal Tribunal in 1850.
Kern, k^Rn, (ViNCENZ,) a skilful German surgeon,
born at Gratz in 1760. He became professor of surgery
in the University of Vienna, and is said to have intro
duced important reforms in the practice of surgery. He
published several professional works. Died in 1829.
Kernel!, keVnil, (PEHR ULRIK,) a Swedish litterateur,
born in 1797 ; died in 1824.
Kerner, keR'ner, (ANDREAS JUSTINUS,) a German
lyric poet, born at Ludwigsburg in 1786. He published
in 1811 "Travelling Shadows, by the Magic-Lantern
Player," a work of great humour and originality. His
"Visionary of Prevorst" (1829) had great success.
See a long notice of Kerner in HKNRI BLAZE'S " ficrivains et
Poetesde rAllemagne," 1851 ; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Keroual, kir'roo-il', or Querouaille, ka'roo'tF or
ka'roo't'ye, (LouiSE PENHOET,) Duchess of Portsmouth,
a mistress of Charles II. of England, was born in France
about 1652. She wen$ to England as maid of honour to
Henriette, the queen of Charles I., and received the title
of Duchess of Portsmouth in 1673. She is said to have
used her influence to promote the designs of Louis XIV.
Died in 1734.
See EVELYN, "Diary ;". VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV."
Kerr, ker or kar, (RoiiERT,) a Scottish surgeon and
scientific writer, born about 1755, was a member of the
Royal and Antiquarian Societies of Edinburgh. Among
his works are " The Animal Kingdom or Zoological
System of Linnaeus," " The Natural History of Quad
rupeds and Serpents," and a "History of Scotland during
the Reign of Robert Bruce." The first and second are
translations. Died in 1813.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Kersaint. See DURAS, DE, (CLAIRE LECHAT.)
Kersaint, de, deh keR'saN', (ARMAND GUI SIMON,)
COUNT, a French naval commander, born in Paris about
1741. After the commencement of the Revolution he
made his residence in Paris, where he became a member
of the Jacobin Club. He afterwards joined the Girondists,
and, as a member of the Convention, boldly opposed the
execution of the king and the extreme measures of the
Jacobins. He was proscribed and executed in Decem
ber, 1793.
Kersenbrock, ker'sen-bRok', (HERMANN,) a German
historian, born in the county of Lippe in 1526. His chief
work is a "History of the Anabaptists of Minister," (in
Latin.) Died in 1585. •*
Ker'sey, (JOHN,) an English mathematician, lived in
the reign of Charles II., and wrote a work on Algebra,
(I673-)
Kersseboom, keRs'seh-bom', (WILLEM,) a Dutch
statistician, born in 1691, wrote a number of valuable
works on population, mortality, etc. Died in 1771.
See HEUSCHLING, "Notice sur la Vie de Kersseboom," 1857;
" Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Kervillars, de, deh kek've'ytR', (JEAN MARIE,) a
French Jesuit, born at Vannes in 1668. He produced a
version of Ovid's Elegies, (1724.) Died in 1745.
Kesava, ka'sa-va, written also Cesava and Kegava,
[from the Sanscrit word kcsa, "hair," probably cognate
with the Latin acsaries, having the same signification,]
(i.e. "having beautiful hair,") an epithet of KRISHNA,
(which see ;) also, a surname of Booddha.
Kessel, van, v$n kes'sel, (FERDINAND,) a distin
guished painter, born at Antwerp in 1660, was patronized
by John Sobieski, King of Poland, and William III. of
England. His death is variously dated in 1696 and about
1710.
See PILKINGTON, "Dictionary of Painters."
Kessel, kes'sel, orKessels, van, vtn kes'sels, (JAN,)
THE ELDER, a Dutch artist, born at Antwerp in 1626,
excelled in painting animals, fruits, and flowers. His
portraits and landscapes were^lso of superior merit.
He was the father of the preceding. Died about 1692.
Kessel, van, (JAN,) THE YOUNGER, the son, or, ac
cording to some writers, the nephew, of the preceding,
was born at Antwerp about 1648. He was one of the
best portrait-painters of his time ; and some of his works
have been mistaken for those of Van Dyck. Having
visited Spain, he was appointed in 1686 court painter to
Charles II. His portraits of the two queens of Charles
and that of Philip V. of Spain are ranked among his
master-pieces. Died in 1708.
See PILKINGTON, "Dictionary of Painters."
Kessel, van, (Nicoi.AAS,) a painter, born at Antwerp
in 1684, was a nephew of Ferdinand, noticed above. He
adopted the style of David Teniers. Died in 1741.
Kessel, van, (THEODORUS,) a Flemish engraver, born
at Antwerp about 1620, engraved some works of Rubens,
and historical subjects after several Italian masters.
Kessels, kes'sels, (MATTHIAS,) one of the most dis
tinguished Dutch sculptors of recent times, was born at
Maestricht in 1784. Among his best works are a colossal
scene from the Deluge, a " Madonna," a "Cupid sharp
ening his Arrow," and a "Discobolus." Died at Rome
in 1836.
See FILIPPO GERARDI, " Vita di M. Kessels," 1837 : NAGLER,
" Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Kestner, kest'ner, (CHRISTIAN WILHELM,) a German
physician, born in Thuringia in 1694, published "Biblio-
theca Medica," (1746.) Died in 1747.
KSt or Kett, (Ror.ERT,) a tanner, of Norfolk county,
England, was the chief leader in a rebellion which
occurred in 1549, during the protectorate of Somerset.
After several considerable successes, he was at length
defeated by Dudley, Earl of Warwick. Soon after he
was taken prisoner and hung at Norwich Castle. Ket's
rebellion — or, as it is commonly called, the Norfolk re
bellion — was "remarkable," says Froude, "among other
things, for the order which was observed among the
people during seven weeks of lawlessness." (" History
of England," vol. v. chap, xxvi.)
Ket, ( WILLIAM,) of Norfolk, an English rebel, brother
of the preceding, was one of the leaders of the insurgents
who took Norwich. He was hanged in 1549.
Ketboga or Ketbogha, kSt-bo'ga, a Mongolian by
birth, and Sultan of Egypt, was brought to that country
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, tat; met; not; good; moon;
K ETC HUM
1321
KHALEEL
as a slave in A.D. 1288. He rapidly rose in rank, and
finally made himself the sovereign of Egypt in 1294. In
1296 'he was driven from the country by his favourite
Lajeen, (Lajin or Ladjyn,) who succeeded him.
Ketch'um, (WILLIAM SCOTT,) an American officer
in the Union army, born at Nonvalk, Connecticut, in
1813. He served in the Mexican war, and in 1862 was
made brigadier-general of volunteers.
Ketel, ka'tel, (CORNELIS,) a Dutch painter, born at
Gouda in 1548. He commenced his studies in Paris;
but, being a Protestant, he was soon driven from France
by Charles IX. About 1574 he went to England, where
he painted the portraits of Queen Elizabeth and of
several English noblemen. Died after 1602. Among
his pictures is " Force Conquered by Wisdom," which
he painted in England.
See PILKINGTON, " Dictionary of Painters."
Ketelaer, ka'teh-l§R', (NICOLAAS,) one of the earliest
of Dutch printers, flourished at Utrecht about 1480.
Kett, (HENRY,) a learned English divine and author,
born at Norwich in 1761, graduated at Oxford in 1783.
He was drowned, while bathing, in 1825. Among his
works are " History the Interpreter of Prophecy," (3
vols., 1798-99,) "Elements of General Knowledge," (3
vols., 1802,) and "Flowers of Wit," (1814.)
Kett, (ROBERT.) See KET.
Kettlewell, ket'tel-wel, (JOHN,) an English nonjuring
divine, born in Yorkshire in 1653. He published in
1678 " Measures of Christian Obedience," which was
highly esteemed. He became rector of Coleshill about
i682,'refused to take the oath of allegiance to William
III. in 1689, and was ejected. His "rare integrity" is
commended by Macaulay. Died in 1695-
See NELSON, " Life of Kettlewell," 1718.
Kettner, ket'ner, (FRIEDRICH ERNST,) a German
writer on history and theology, born at Stollberg in
1671 ; died in 1722.
K6tu, ka'too, or K6tus, ka'toos, [perhaps etymologi-
cally related to the Greek KI/TOC;, a "sea-monster,"] a
monster of the Hindoo mythology; in astronomy, the
dragon's tail, or descending node. (See RAHU.)
Keuchen, ko'Ken, (ROBERT,) a poet and historical
writer, born at Geldern, flourished about 1660.
Keuleii, van, van ko'len or kuh'len, (JANSZONS,) a
Dutch painter, born in 1580. He was employed in Eng
land by Charles I., and afterwards fixed his residence at
the Hague. Died in 1665.
Keulen, van, (LUDOLPH,) a Dutch mathematician,
born at Hildesheim. He wrote a treatise on the circle,
("Van den Cirkel," 1596,) and "Geometrical Problems."
Died at Leyden in 1610.
Keux, Le. See LE KEUX.
Kew, written also K'ew and Kieou, one of the names
given to Confucius.
See LEGGE'S "Life and Teachings of Confucius," ch. v. p. 58.
Kexler, keks'ler, (SiMON,) a Swedish scholar, born in
1602, wrote various mathematical works. Died in 1669.
Key. See CAIUS.
Key, (FRANCIS SCOTT,) an American jurist and poet,
born in Frederick county, Maryland, in 1779. Having
removed to Washington, he became district-attorney of
the District of Columbia. He was the author of the
popular national song of "The Star-Spangled Banner,"
and a number of other poems. Died in 1843.
Key, (THOMAS HEWITT,) an English philologist, born
near London in 1799. Having graduated at Cambridge,
he was invited in 1824 to fill the chair of mathematics in
the University of Virginia, then recently founded. After
his return he became, in 1828, professor of Latin in the
University of London. Among his principal works are
a "Latin Grammar," (1846,) and numerous valuable con
tributions to the "Penny Cyclopaedia" and the "Journal
of Education." He has been many years engaged on
a Latin-English dictionary.
Key, kl, (\\'ILI.EM,) a portrait-painter, born at Breda,
in the Netherlands, in 1520; died in 1568.
Keyes, keez, (ERASMUS D.,) an American general,
born in Massachusetts about 1811, graduated at West
Point in 1832. He became a colonel in the regular army
in 1861, and commanded a brigade at Bull Run, July 21.
He commanded a corps at the battle of Fair Oaks, May
31, 1862, and at other battles in June of that year.
Keying, kl'ing', or Ky-In, kl'in', a Chinese diplo
matist, negotiated with the English the treaty of Nankin
in 1842, after which he was governor of Canton. He
favoured a friendly policy towards Europeans, and was
disgraced by Hien-Fung in 1850, but restored in 1852.
Keylhau, kil'how, (EBERHART,) a painter, known in
Italy under the name of MONSU BERNARDO, was born
at lielsingor, in Denmark, in 1624. After studying under
Rembrandt, he went to Rome, where he died in 1687.
Keyser, de, deh ki'zer, (NICAISE,) an eminent Belgian
painter, was born near Antwerp in 1813. In 1836 he
exhibited at Brussels his picture of "The Battle of the
Golden Spurs." Among his other works are "The Battle
of Wceringen," one of the most admired works of the
Belgian school, "The Antiquary," and a "Crucifixion."
Keyser, van, vSn ki'zer, sometimes written De
Keyser, (HENDRIK,) a Dutch architect and sculptor,
born at Utrecht in 1565. In 1619 he completed the
monument of William I., Prince of Orange. Died in
1621.
Keyser, van, (THEODORUS,) a skilful Dutch portrait-
painter, flourished about 1630-50.
Keyserling, von, fon ki'zer-ling', (THIERRY,) a Prus
sian general and litterateur, born in Courland in 1698,
was a friend of Frederick the Great. Died in 1745.
See MALTERTUIS, "filoge de Keyserling."
Keysler, kis'ler, QOHANN GEORG,) a German anti
quary, born at Thurnau in 1683. He published "Travels
in Germany, Italy," etc., (2 vols., 1741,) and other works.
Died in 1743.
See HABERLIN, "Keysler's Leben," 1743.
Khadijah, Khadeejah, or Khadidja, KJ-dee'ja, [in
German, CHADIDSCHA,] written also Chadijah, a rich
widow of Mecca, who married Mohammed the prophet.
At the time of their marriage she was about forty years
of age, while he was only twenty-five. She bore him eight
children, all of whom died young except Fatimah, who
became the wife of his cousin and favourite, Alee, (Ali,)
the son of Aboo-Talib. (See MOHAMMED.)
Khadyjah. See KHADIJAH.
Khaisang, k'hi'sang', surnamed WOO-TSOONG, (the
" Honourable Warrior,") called by the Tartars Kaishan-
Kulluk-Khan, kl'sbln' kool'look Kin, a sovereign of
the Mongolian dynasty, succeeded to the imperial throne
of China A.D. 1308, at the age of twenty-nine. He was
distinguished for his abilities as a commander, and for
his patronage of men of letters. Died A.D. 1311.
Khalaf, "Ka-lSP, ascended the throne of Seistan, in
Eastern Persia, about A.D. 963. He was a bold and skil
ful warrior and an able diplomatist, but was treacherous,
cruel, and tyrannical. After a reign of forty years, he
was conquered by the emperor Mahmood of Ghazna,
who imprisoned him till his death, A.D. 1008.
See MALCOLM, "History of Persia."
Khaled or Chaled, xa'led, written also Caled, a
celebrated Arabian general, born in 582 A.D. In the
third year of the Hejrah he completely routed the army
of Mohammed at the battle of Ohod. He subsequently
embraced the Moslem faith, gained numerous important
victories over its enemies, and received from the prophet
the title of " The Sword of God." Eastern writers ascribe
to this warrior almost superhuman valour, which, how
ever, was often stained with cruelty. Died about 642 A.D.
See OCKLEY, " History ot the Saracens;" ELMACIN, "Historia
Saracenorum ;" ABOOLFF.DA, "Annales Moslemici."
Khaled-Ben (or-Ibn) -Barmek. See BARMECIDES.
Khaleel (Khalil) or Chalil, KMeel', (Aboo-Abd-
er-Rahman, i'boo abd-er-ran'man,) a celebrated Arabic
grammarian of Bassora, born about 719 A.D. ; died in 786.
Khaleel, (Khalil,) surnamed MELIK-AL-ASHRAF,
mel'ik al-ash'raf, (i.e. the " Illustrious King,") eighth
Sultan of Egypt and Syria, succeeded his father Kelaoon
(Kelaun) A.D. 1290. He took Acre from the European
Christians, whom he final)y drove from Syria. He was
assassinated bv his ameers, A.D. 1293.
Khaleel- (Khalil- or Chalil-) Beg, Ka-leel' beg, of
the Turkoman dynasty, succeeded his father, Oozoon
(Uzun) Hassan, on the throne of Persia, A.D. 1478- His
excessive cruelty and oppression caused several revolts
*• as X-; $ as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ([JiJ^See Explanations, p. 23.)
KHALEEL
1322
KHOSROO
among his subjects, during one of which he was slain
on the field of battle.
Khaleel ( Khalil or Chalil) Pasha, grand vizier to
the Ottoman Sultan Amurath II. In 1444 he gained
at Varna a decisive victory over the Christian allies.
In this battle Ladislaus, King of Hungary, fell. Upon
the accession of Mahomet II. Khaleel still retained his
power, and commanded the Turkish army at the capture
of Constantinople, in 1453. He was a few days after
condemned on a charge of bribery, and executed.
Khalil. See KHALEEL.
Khallikan. See IHN-KHALLIKAN.
Khang-Hee, (or -Hi,) k'hanghee, Emperor of China,
of the dynasty of the Mantchoo Tartars, was born about
1653 A.D. He succeeded his father, Shun-Chee, (Chun-
tchi,) at the age of seven years. In 1675 he quelled a
formidable rebellion raised against him by the Chinese
under Oo-san-Kwei. He afterwards carried on success
ful wars against the neighbouring nations, and reduced
nearly all the princes of Tartary to vassalage. Historians
speak in the highest terms of the justice, candour, libe
rality, and tolerant spirit of this monarch. Died in 1722.
See BOUVET, "Life of Cang-Hy, Present Emperor of China,"
London, 1699; MAILLA, " Histoire 'generale de la Chine ;" " Nou-
velle Biopjraphie Generale."
Khatchadoor, Khatchadour, or Khatchadur,
Ka-cha-dooR', an Armenian poet and bishop, born at
Caesarea, in Cappadocia, about 1600. His poems are
chiefly of a religious and moral character.
Khatchig (Ka'chig) I. was elected Patriarch of Ar
menia in 972. He founded numerous monasteries, and
encouraged literature and the fine arts. Died in 992.
Khatchig U., sometimes written Khatchadoor, be
came Patriarch of Armenia in 1058. He was imprisoned
at Constantinople by Constantine Ducas, who afterwards
banished him to Cappadocia. Died in 1064.
Khell, K&l, (JOSEPH VON KHELLBURG,) a German
numismatist, born at Linz in 1714, published several
works in Vienna. Died in 1772.
Khernnitzer, (!VAN IVANOVITCH.) See CHEM-
NIT7.ER.
Kheraskof or Kheraskov, Ker'as-koP, [written, in
German, CHERASKOW,] (MICHAEL MATVIEVITCH,) a
distinguished Russian poet, born in 1733. Among his
principal works maybe mentioned " Rossiada," (1785,)
an epic on the event of the Russians liberating them
selves from their Tartar oppressors. Died in 1807.
Khevenhiiller, Ka'ven-htil'ler, (FRANZ CHRISTOPH,)
a German historian, born in 1589, rose to be imperial
minister of state. He wrote " Annales Ferdinandei," a
history of the reign of Ferdinand II. Died in 1650.
Khilkof or Khilkov, Kil'kof, (ANDREI YAKOF LE-
VITCH,) a Russian prince, sent as ambassador to Sweden
by Peter the Great in 1700. War having been soon
after declared between the two countries, Charles XII.
ordered Khilkof to be thrown into prison. During his
confinement of eighteen years he wrote his celebrated
" History of Russia." He died at the isle of Aland, on
his return to Russia, in 1718.
Khlesl, klesl, (MELCHIOR,) a German cardinal, born
at Vienna in 1553, became first minister of the emperor
Matthias, whom he had assisted in usurping the throne
of Rudolph II. Died in 1630.
See VON HAMMER-PURGSTALL," Leben des Cardinals M. Khlesl,"
Vienna, 4 vols., 1847-51.
Khoda-Bendeh, Ko'dah ben'deh, ( MOHAMMED, )
sovereign of Persia, of the dynasty of the Sofees, (or
Sofys,) began to reign in 1578. He was a weak and
effeminate prince. During his reign the Turks and Tar
tars ravaged his dominions. Died about 1587.
See MALCOLM, "History of Persia."
Khomarooyah or Khomarouyah, Ko-ma-roo'yah,
succeeded his father, Ahmed, as Sultan of Egypt and
Syria, 884 A.D., at the age of fifteen. He carried on a
war with the caliph Mootamed, whom he obliged to sue
for peace, and invaded the tGreek empire, from which
he carried a rich booty. He^was assassinated in 896.
Khomiakof, Ko-me-a'kof, Khomiakov, or Khomi-
akow, Ko-me-a'kov,( ALEXIS STEFANOVITCH,) a popular
Russian poet, born about 1802. He published historical
dramas, called " Yermak" (or " lermak") and " The False
Demetrius," also lyrical poems, and some able prose
works.
Khondemeer, Khondemir, or Khondemyr, Kon-
cle-meeR', a surname of Giyas-ed-Deen* (Oiyas-
eddin) Mohammed, ge-Sss' ed-deen' mo-htir/ined, a
Persian historian, and a son of the eminent historian
Mirkhond, was born at Herat in the second half of the
fifteenth century. He wrote a valuable universal his
tory, extending from the creation to 1471, also a work
called " The Friend of Biographies and Eminent Men,"
which is highly commended. Died after 1522.
See ABEL REMUSAT, "Melanges Asiatiques ;" D'HERBELOT,
" Bibliotheque Orientale."
Khoong-Foo-tsze. See CONFUCIUS.
Khosroo or Khosru, Kos'roo', written also Khos-
rou, Khosrau, Kos'row, and Khosrew, [Gr. Xoapow;
Lat. CHOS'ROES,] surnamed in Persian NOUSIUKVAN,
now'shlR-var/, or NOOSHIRVAN, (NuscniRWAN,) said to
signify " Generous Soul," the greatest of the Sassanide
sovereigns, was the son of Kobad, (Cabades,) whom
he succeeded on the throne of Persia, A.D. 531. At an
early age he displayed extraordinary talents for govern
ment, and upon his accession to the throne immediately
commenced a reform, which the corrupt reign of his
father had rendered necessary. By the retrenchment
of expenditures, and other means, he greatly improved
the state of the finances. He appointed none but the
most efficient men to offices ; he established a strict
and impartial justice throughout his dominions ; he re
modelled his army, and suppressed the Zendiks, who
were promulgating doctrines immoral and dangerous to
the state. He also concluded a peace with the emperor
Justinian, who paid the Persian monarch ten thousand
pounds of gold. He afterwards carried on wars with
various Asiatic nations, extending his empire as far as
the Indus. Alarmed at the successes of Belisarius in
Italy and Africa, he resolved to strike a sudden blow.
In 540 he invaded Syria, pillaged and burned several
cities, including Antioch, and took a multitude of pris
oners and an immense amount of booty. The next year
he was opposed by Belisarius, one of the greatest gene
rals of that or of any age. The Roman commander, with
a small number of ill-disciplined soldiers, succeeded in
holding in check the innumerable hosts of Persia. But
in 542 this great general was recalled, and Khosroo,
having now nothing to fear, went from victory to victory.
The war continued until 562, when Justinian purchased
a treaty for thirty thousand pieces of gold. Hostilities
were again renewed under the emperor Justin, and the
King of Persia met at length with a total defeat, in 578,
from Justinian, the general of the emperor Tiberius.
Khosroo died in 579. The long and beneficent reign of
this prince is mentioned by Oriental poets as the golden
age of Persia. His virtues, his wise and efficient meas
ures for the welfare of his subjects, his conquests, his
liberal encouragement of literature and science, attested
by the numerous colleges and libraries which he founded,
all rendered it worthy of this eminent distinction. A
Pehlvi translation of the celebrated Bidpay or Pilpay
Fables of India was made under the auspices of this
prince. He was succeeded by Hormisdas IV.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" MIRK
HOND, "Histoire des Sassanides," translated by DE SACY ; D'HEK-
BELOT, " Bibliotheque Orientale," article " Nouschh van ;" LE BEAU,
"Histoire du Bas-Empire;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Khosroo, Khosru, or Khosrau (or Chosroes) II.,
surnamed PARVEEZ or PARWIX., par'veez', i.e. the " Gene
rous," son of Hormisdas IV., and grandson of Khosroo
I., was raised to the throne of Persia upon the deposition
of his father, A.D. 590. He was soon after driven from
his capital by the rebel Bahram, and obliged to seek the
protection of Maurice, the Emperor of the East. This
sovereign, with a powerful army, overthrew the rebels
and reinstated Khosroo. In 602 Maurice was assassin
ated by the usurper Phocas. Khosroo immediately took
up arms to avenge his death, and by a series of victories
in a few years subjugated the greater part of the Greek
empire, and at length appeared before the gates of Con
stantinople. Heraclius, the successor of Phocas, having
vainly attempted to obtain a favourable peace, resolved
* Written also Gaiatheddin. See Introduction, p. 15.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nflt; good; moon;
KHOSROO
1323
K1KKERT
bravely to meet his foe in the field. He gained repeated
victories, and in five years drove the Persians out of
every province which they had wrested from the empire.
Khosroo was assassinated in 628. He had married a
Christian lady named Shereen, (Shirin,) distinguished for
her exquisite'beauty. She poisoned herself at his grave.
The romantic and unchanging affection of these royal
lovers, together with their tragic end, has furnished the
subject of many an Oriental poem.
See MALCOLM, "History of Persia;" LE BEAU, " Histoire du
Bas- Empire."
Khosroo, Khosrou, or Khosru I., King of Armenia,
surnamed THE GREAT, a brave prince and able general,
ascended the throne 198 A.D. He conquered the nations
of the Khazars and Basiliens, and overran the greater part
of the Persian dominions. He was assassinated in 232.
Khosroo, Khosrou, or Khosru II., the second
Christian King of Armenia, and a contemporary and
ally of Constantine the Great, ascended the throne in
314. Died in 325.
Khosroo, Khosrou, or Khosru IIL was placed
upon the throne of Persian Armenia by the King of
Persia in 387, whilst the legitimate king Arsaces ruled
that part of Armenia which belonged to the Romans.
Khosroo gained several important victories over the
neighbouring nations, and upon the death of Arsaces
annexed Roman Armenia to his own dominions. In 392
the King of Persia, suspecting Khosroo of the design
to render himself independent, took him prisoner, and
placed another prince on his throne. After remaining
in captivity twenty-one years, he was restored to his
kingdom. His death occurred soon after.
See LE HEAL', "Histoire du Bas-Empire."
Khouiig-Fou-Tseu or Khoung-Tseu. See CON
FUCIUS.
Khowawezmi. See AL-KHOWAREZMI.
Khulleel. See KHALEEL.
Kick, kik, '(CORNELIS,) an artist, celebrated as a
painter of flowers and portraits, was born in Amsterdam
in 1635 ; died in 1675.
See PILKINGTON, "Dictionary of Painters."
Kidd, (JOHN,) an English chemist, born in 1775, was
professor of chemistry, or medicine, at Oxford. He
wrote, besides other works, the Bridgewater Treatise
" On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical
Condition of Man." Died in 1851.
Kidd, (SAMUEL,) an English Orientalist, born at Hull
in 1801. He went as missionary to Malacca, and after
his return was professor of Chinese in the University of
London. He published " Illustrations of the Symbols
of China," (1841.) Died in 1843.
Kidd, (WILLIAM,) a notorious American pirate, born
about 1650. In 1696 he was intrusted by the British
government with the command of a privateer, and sailed
from New York for the purpose of suppressing the
numerous pirates then infesting the seas. He went to
the East Indies, where he began a career of piracy, and
returned to New York in 1698 with a large amount of
plunder. He was soon after arrested, sent to England
for trial, and executed in 1701.
See a " Historical Sketch of Robin Hood and Captain Kidd," by
W. W. CAMPBELL, 1853.
Kid'der, (DANIEL PARISH,) D.D., an American
Methodist clergyman, born in Genesee county, New
York, in 1815. He graduated at the Wesleyan Uni
versity, Connecticut, and in 1836 settled as a pastor at
Rochester, New York. In 1837 he went as a missionary
to Brazil, where he introduced the Scriptures in the
Portuguese language. He published, besides other
works, " Sketches of a Residence and Travels in Bra
zil," (1845,) which was republished, with large additions,
by Rev. James C. Fletcher, in 1858.
'Kid'der, (RICHARD,) a learned English theologian,
entered Cambridge University in 1649, and, after various
preferments, was appointed Dean of Peterborough in 1689.
He was raised by William III. to the see of Bath and
Wells in 1691, as successor to Bishop Ken. He wrote
"A Commentary^on the Pentateuch," a " Demonstration
of the Messias," and several other works. Died in 1703.
See MACAULAV, "History of England," vol. v. ; WOOD, " Athenz
Oxonienses."
Kid'der-min'ster or Kyd'er-myn'ster, (RICH
ARD,) an English monk, distinguished as a preacher
and scholar, was born in Worcestershire. He published
a Latin treatise against the doctrines of Luther. Died
in 1531.
Kiel, (CORNELIS VAN.) See KILIAX.
Kiehneyer, von, fon keel'mi'er. (K.\RL FRIEDRICH,)
a German naturalist and professor, born near Tubingen
in 1765. He published a "Treatise on the Relations of
Organic Forces," (1793.) Cuvier, who was his pupil,
speaks of him as the founder of the modern philosophical
school. Died in 1844.
See VON MARTIUS, "Denkrede auf C. F. von Kielmeyer," 1845.
Kielsen, keel'sen or ke-el'sen, (FREDERIC CHRIS
TIAN,) a Danish naturalist, born at Copenhagen in
1774, wrote on zoology and botany, a "Natural History
of Birds," (1810,) and other works.
Kien-Loong, (or -Lung,) ke-en'loong, written also
Kien-Long, born in 1710, succeeded his father, Yung-
Tching, on the imperial throne of China in 1735. He
reduced Calmuck Tartary and Thibet to subjection, and
established numerous fortresses throughout his vast em
pire. It was in 1770, during the reign of this emperor,
that the Torgoots, a Mongolian tribe numbering about
300,000 and inhabiting the country near the Volga, left
their homes, and, travelling eastward, after incredible
sufferings, finally reached the confines of China. Kien-
Loong welcomed them warmly, and allotted them ample
territory for their future home. As a prince, he was wise,
just, and beneficent. He was noted for his love of lite
rature, and for the liberal encouragement which he gave
to learned men of every nation. Died in 1799.
See FORTIA D'URBAN, " Discours sur 1'Empereur Kien-Long,"
1841; ABEL REMUSAT, " Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques," tome
ii. ; " Notivelle Biographic Generale." For an interesting account
of the migration of the Torgoots, see DE QUINCEY, "Narrative aud
Miscellaneous Papers," etc., vol. i.
Kien-Lung. See KIEN-LOONG.
Kieou, (pronounced almost kew,) a name given to
Confucius in his childhood. (See CONFUCIUS.)
Kiepert, kee'pCRt, (HEINRICH,) a German geogra
pher, born in Berlin in 1818, published a number of
excellent maps, among which are the "Atlas of Hellas
[Greece] and the Hellenic Colonies," " Maps of Asia
Minor," and an "Historical-Geographical Atlas of the
Ancient World," (1848.)
Kierings, kee'rings, (ALEXANDER,) a skilful land
scape-painter, born in Holland in 1590 ; died in 1646.
Kierman, keeR'man, (GusTAF,) a Swedish patriot,
born in 1702. He was elected seven times a member of
the Diet. Died in 1766.
Kiernander or Kjernander, kyeVnan'der, QOHAN
ZECHARIAS,) a missionary, born in Sweden in 1711,
was sent to India by the English Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge. Died at Calcutta in 1799.
Kieser, kee'zer, (DIETRICH GEORG,) a German natu
ralist and medical writer, born at Harburg, in Hanover,
in 1779 ; died in 1862.
Kiesewetter, kee'zeh-wet'ter, (JOHANN CHRISTOPH,)
a learned German writer, born at Oberweissbach in 1-666.
He wrote, in Latin, many works. Died in 1744.
Kiesewetter, (RAFAEL GEORG,) a German writer on
music, born in Moravia in 1773. Among his productions
are treatises " On the Music of the Modern Greeks" and
" On the Music of the Arabians." Died in 1850.
Kiesling, kees'ling, (JoHANN RUDOLPH,) a German
Protestant theologian, born at Erfurt in 1706; died in
1778.
Kiesling, (LEOPOLD,) an eminent German sculptor,
born at Schoneben, in Austria, in 1770. He worked in
Vienna, and became sculptor to the court. Among his
works are a bust of the Archduke Charles, and the
monument of Von Hammer- Purgstall. Died in 1827.
See NAGLER, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Kif'fin or Kif fen, (WILLIAM,) an English merchant
and preacher, born in 1616. He amassed a large fortune
by trade, and afterwards became a dissenting minister.
Died in 1701.
See MACAL-LAY, "History of England," vol. ii. chap. vii.
Kik'kert, (ANTOON,) a Dutch admiral, born at Vlie-
land in 1762; died about 1835.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
KILBOURNE
'324
KIMBERLET
Kilbourne, kil'burn, (JAMES,) an American pioneer,
born in New Britain, Connecticut, in 1770. He organized
about 1802 the Scioto Company which settled in Ohio,
and was a member of Congress from 1813 to 1817. Died
in 1850.
Kilbye, kil'be, ? (RICHARD,) an English divine, born
at Ratcliffe, in Leicestershire, about 1550. He was pro
fessor of Hebrew at Oxford, and one of the translators
of the Bible. Died in 1620.
Kilbye, (RICHARD,) an English minister, author of
"The Burden of a Loaded Conscience." Died in 1617.
Kil-dare', (THOMAS FITZGERALD,) EARL OF, an Irish
nobleman, born about 1514, was a son of Gerald, Earl
of Kildare. He rebelled against the King of England
in 1534, and was taken prisoner, sent to England, and
executed at Tyburn in 1537.
Kilian, kee'le-an' or kil'e-an, (BARTOLOMAUS,) a skil
ful engraver, born in Augsburg in 1630, was the son and
pupil of Wolfgang, noticed below. Died in 1696.
Kilian, kee'le-an, or van Kiel, (vSn keel,) (CORNE-
LIS,) a learned author, born in Brabant. Among his
works are an " Etymology of the Teutonic Languages,
or a Teutonic-and-Latin Dictionary," and several pieces
of Latin poetry. Died in 1607.
Kilian, (GEORG CHRISTOPH,) an engraver, born at
Augsburg in 1709, was a brother of Philipp Andreas,
noticed below. Died in 1781.
Kilian, (LUCAS,) one of the most distinguished of
German engravers, born at Augsburg in 1579. He en
graved with uncommon ease and rapidity. Among his
best works are "The Resurrection," by Paul Veronese,
and " Christ after Death," by Michael Angelo. Died
in 1637.
Kilian, (PHILIPP ANDREAS,) an eminent engraver,
was born ill Augsburg in 1714. Augustus III., King of
Poland and Elector of Saxony, appointed him his court
engraver, and Kilian executed several designs at Dres
den, though he continued to spend most of his time at
Augsburg. Among his works are the " Adoration of
the Kings," by Paul Veronese, and portraits of Francis
I. and Maria Theresa. Died in 1759.
See NAGLER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Kilian, (WOLFGANG,) brother of Lucas, noticed above,
was born in 1581. He studied engraving at Augsburg
and Venice. The most important of his numerous works
is the "Celebration of the Westphalian Peace in Augs
burg in 1649," which contains about fifty portraits. Died
in 1662.
See NAGI.ER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Kilij- (or Kilidj-) Arslan, kil'lij aR'sltn', written
also Kelij-Arslan, I., Sultan of Iconium, began to reign
in 1092. He was defeated by the crusaders under God
frey of Bouillon at Nicaea in 1097. In 1101 he gained a
complete victory over a large army of crusaders. Having
revolted against the Sultan of Persia, he was killed in
battle in 1107.
See ABOOLFEDA, "Annales."
K^lij- (or Kilidj-) Arslan II., surnamed AZZ-ED-
DEEN or AZZEDDYN, az'ed-deen', (" Splendour of the
Faith,") Sultan of Anatolia,commenced his reign at Ico
nium in 1155 A.D. He carried on long and doubtful
wars against the Greek empire, but finally succeeded in
annexing several provinces to his dominions. He was
distinguished for his skill, energy, and generosity. Died
in 1192.
See MICHAUD, " Histoire des Croisades."
Kil'll-grew, (ANNE,) an English lady, to whom Dry-
den has addressed his most beautiful elegy, was cele
brated for her virtues and accomplishments. She was
the daughter of Dr. Henry Killigrew, and was born in
1660. She excelled both as a poetess and as an artist.
A volume of her poems was published shortly after
her death, which occurred in 1685. She executed por
traits of James II. and his queen, and several historical
paintings.
See BALLARD, "Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain,"
etc. ; "Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by L. S. COSTELLO,
1844.
Killigrew, (CATHERINE,) the wife of Sir Henry Kil
ligrew, was born about 1530. She was distinguished for
her poetical effusions and for her knowledge of the
classical and Oriental languages. She was a daughter
of Sir Anthony Cooke, and a sister of Lord Bacon's
mother. Died in 1600.
Killigrew, (Dr. HENRY,) a dramatist, and a brother
of Sir William Killigrew, was born in 1612. He served
as chaplain to the Cavaliers, and subsecpuently gradu
ated as D.D. at Oxford in 1642. He wrote a tragedy,
"The Conspiracy," and other works. Died about 1688.
See WOOD, "Athena; Oxonienses."
Killigrew, (MARGARET,) wife of William Cavendish,
Duke of Newcastle. She wrote a life of her husband,
and several philosophical works. Died in 1673.
Killigrew, (THOMAS,) an English dramatist, born in
Middlesex in 1611, was a page to Charles I. After the
commencement of the rebellion he accompanied Charles
II. on the continent, and married one of the queen's
maids of honour. Upon the restoration he was made
groom of the bed-chamber, and, on account of his wit
and oddities, became a highly-privileged person at court.
He wrote several plays. Died in 1682.
See BAKER, " Biographia Dramatics."
Killigrew, (Sir WILLIAM,) a brother of the preceding,
was born in 1605. For his faithful adherence to Charles
I. he was knighted at the restoration, and was soon after
appointed vice-chamberlain. He wrote several plays,
and two works entitled "Midnight and Daily Thoughts"
and " Artless Midnight Thoughts of a Gentleman at
Court." Died in 1693.
See BAKER, " Biographia Drainatica."
Kilmaine, kil-man', (CHARLES JOSEPH,) a general,
born in Dublin in 1754, entered the French army, and
served with distinction under Bonaparte in Italy. Died
in 1799.
Kilmarnock, EARL OF. See BOYD, (WjjxiAM.)
Kil-pat'rick, (Jui)SON,) an American general, born
in New Jersey in 1838, graduated at West Point in April,
1861. He served as captain at the battle of Big Bethel,
and in the autumn of 1861 became a lieutenant-colonel
of cavalry. In 1862 he took part in various operations of
the army of the Potomac. He was appointed a brigadier-
general of volunteers in May, 1863, after which he was
employed in a raid to Richmond for the release of Federal
prisoners. lie commanded the cavalry of Sherman's
army in its march from Atlanta to Savannah, November-
December, 1864.
Kil'vert, (Rev. FRANCIS,) an English scholar and
author, born in 1793 ; died in 1863.
Kilwardeby, kil-ward'be, ( ROBERT, ) an English
prelate, became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1272, and
cardinal in 1277. Died in 1279.
Kil-war'den, (ARTHUR WOLFE,) LORD, an Irish
judge, born about 1740. lie was called to the bar in
1766, became attorney-general in 1789, and chief justice
of the king's bench in 1798. lie was massacred by a
mob of insurgents in Dublin in 1803, during a revolt, of
which Robert Emmet was the leader.
Kim'ball, (NATHAN,) an American general, born in
Indiana. He commanded a division of the Union army
at the siege of Vicksbnrg, June-July, 1863, and at the
battle of Franklin, November, 1864.
Kimball, (RICHARD BURLEIGII,) an American writer
and lawyer, born at New Lebanon, New Hampshire, in
1818. He graduated at Dartmouth College, and sub
sequently travelled in England and on the continent.
Among his principal works are "Reminiscences of an
Old Man," "Cuba and the Cubans," (1850,) and "Ro
mance of Student-Life Abroad," (1853.)
Kim'ber, (EDWAKD,) son of Isaac Kimber, born in
1719, produced some historical works, and a novel en
titled "Adventures of Joe Thompson." Died in 1769.
Kimber, (ISAAC,) an English dissenting minister, born
in Berkshire in 1692. He wrote the Lives of Bishop
Beveridge and of Oliver Cromwell, (1714,) and compiled
a " History of England," (1745.) Died in 1758.
Kim'ber-ley, (JOHN WODEHOUSE,) EARL OF, an
English statesman, born in 1826, graduated at Oxford in
1847. He was under-secretary of stale*for foreign affairs
from 1852 to 1856, was sent as ambassador to Saint Pe
tersburg in the latter year, and returned in 1858. He
e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon;
KIMBOLTON
1325
KING
was again appointed under-secretary for foreign affairs
in June, 1859, resigned in August, 1861, and was lord
lieutenant of Ireland from October, 1864, to July, 1866.
In June, 1866, he was raised to the peerage, as Earl of
Kimberley, and in December, 1868, he was appointed
lord privy seal in the new Liberal cabinet.
Kimbolton, LORD. See MANCHESTER, EARL OF.
Kinichi, kim'kee or ka.v'she', (DAVID,) an eminent
Jewish rabbi, born in the south of France. He is regarded
by his nation as the greatest Hebrew grammarian. In
1232, on account of his influence and vast erudition, he
was appointed by the French and Spanish Jews to decide
in a controversy which then existed between them in
regard to the doctrines of Maimonides. His principal
works are a Hebrew Grammar, a "Dictionary of He
brew Roots," and commentaries on nearly all the books
of the Old Testament. Died about 1240.
See WOLF, " Bibliotheca Hebraica;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Generate. "
Kimchi, (JOSEPH,) a learned rabbi, the father of the
preceding, flourished at Narbonne about 1 160. He wrote
treatises on grammar.
Kinaston. See KYNASTON.
Kind, klnt, QOHAXN FRIEDRICH,) a German litterateur
and poet, born at Leipsic in 1768. He wrote novels,
dramas, and poems. His most famous production is the
opera " Der Freischiitz," set to music by Weber. Died
at Dresden in 1843.
Kind, (K.ARL THEODOR,) a German writer, distin
guished for his knowledge of the modern Greek language
and literature, was born at Leipsic in 1799. He published,
among other works, " Modern Greek Popular Songs in
the Original and with a German Translation."
King, (CHARLES,) an American journalist, son of
Rufus King, noticed below, was born in New York
in 1789. He became in 1823 associate editor of the
"New York American," a literary and political journal
of a conservative character. He was subsequently one
of the editors of the "Courier and Enquirer," in New
York, and in 1849 was chosen president of Columbia
College. Died near Rome in 1867.
King, (EDWARD,) an English poet, who is said to have
been the subject of Milton's monody of "Lycidas." He
was drowned in 1637, aged about twenty-seven years.
King, (EDWARD,) a learned English antiquary and
lawyer, born in Norfolk in 1735. In 1767 he was elected
A Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote, besides other
works, " Observations on Ancient Castles," and a treatise
on English architecture previous to the Norman con
quest. Died in 1807.
King, (GREGORY,) an English engraver and writer on
heraldry, born at Lichfield about 1648; died in 1712.
King, (Dr. HENRY,) an English divine and poet, born
in 1591, became Bishop of Chichester. He wrote "A
Poetical Version of the Psalms," "Poems, Elegies, Para
doxes, and Sonnets," (1659,) and various sermons and
religious treatises. Died in 1669.
See WOOD, " Athenae Oxonienses. "
King, (JoHN,) a clergyman and writer, brother of
Bishop Henry King, was born about 1596; died in 1639.
King, (JoHN,) an English theologian, born in the
county of Bucks about 1559, was the father of Henry,
noticed above. He became chaplain to Queen Elizabeth,
and was an eloquent preacher. In 161 1 he was appointed
Bishop of London. Died in 1621.
King, (JoHN,) an English divine, born in Cornwall in
1652. He preached for some time at Chelsea, and be
came prebendary of York in 1731. Died in 1732.
His son JOHN, born in 1696, was a physician, and
published an edition of the "Orestes," "Hecuba," and
"Phoenissae" of Euripides, (1726.) Died in 1728.
King, (JOHN CROOKSHANKS,) born in Ayrshire, Scot
land, in 1806, emigrated in 1829 to America, where he
soon became distinguished as a sculptor. Among his
principal works are busts of John Q. Adams, Daniel
Webster, and other eminent Americans.
King, (JoHN GLEN,) a clergyman and writer, was born
in Norfolk, England, about 1735. He was chosen in
1763 chaplain to the English factory at Saint Petersburg.
Died in 1787. Of his works maybe mentioned "The
Rites and Ceremonies of the Greek Church in Russia;
containing an Account of its Doctrine, Worship, and Dis
cipline."
King, (JoHN P.,) an American lawyer, born in Ken
tucky about 1800, was elected by the Democratic party
to the United States Senate in 1833. He was again
elected, but resigned before the term was completed.
King, (MITCHELL,) LL.D., a distinguished jurist and
scholar, born in Scotland in 1783. He removed to
Charleston, South Carolina, where he devoted himself
to the study of law. He was one of the founders of the
Philosophical Society at Charleston, and was appointed
in 1819 judge of the city court.
King, (PETER,) LORD, an eminent lawyer and high
chancellor of England, born at Exeter in 1669, was the
son of a grocer. His talents and application attracted
the attention of his maternal uncle, the celebrated John
Locke, through whose influence he was sent to the
University of Leyden. After his return to England he
studied law, gained admission to the bar, and rapidly
rose in his profession. He was elected about 1700 a
member of Parliament for Beer-Alston, which seat he
retained for several years. In 1708 he was appointed
recorder of London, and was knighted. Notwithstand
ing the arduous duties of his profession, King found time
to write two able theological works, which alone would
have made him celebrated. They are an " Inquiry into
the Constitution, Discipline, Unity, and Worship of the
Primitive Church," (1691,) (in which he favoured the
rights of the Protestant dissenters,) and the " History
of the Apostles' Creed, with Critical Observations on its
Several Articles," (1702.) In 1714 Sir Peter King was
created chief justice of the common pleas, and in 1725
was made lord chancellor, and raised to the peerage, as
Baron King of Ockham. He was attached to the Whig
party. He resigned the seals in 1733, on account of ill
health. Died in 1734.
See LORD CAMPBELL, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" " Selec
tion from the Speeches and Writings of Lord King;" Foss, "The
Judges of England. "
King, (PETER,) LORD, an English statesman, born
in 1775, was a great-grandson of the preceding. He
entered the House of Lords about 1796, and became a
political and personal friend of Charles James Fox. He
published a " Life of John Locke," (1829.) He died in
1833, leaving a son WILLIAM, Earl of Lovelace, who
married Lord Byron's daughter Ada.
See LORD BROUGHAM. " Sketches. oS Statesmen of the Time of
George III.," (second series.)
King, (PETER JOHN LOCKE,) an English legislator, a
son of the preceding, was born at Ockham, Surrey, in
1811. He was elected to Parliament in 1847, and ob
tained the repeal of one hundred and twenty sleeping
statutes in 1856. ^
King, (PHILIP PARKER,) an English navigator, born
in the island of Norfolk in 1793. He commanded an
expedition sent in 1826 to explore and survey the coasts
of South America. The results were published in a
"Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H.M.S. Ad
venture and Beagle, between the Years 1826 and 1836,"
(1839.) Died in 1855.
King, (PRESTON,) an American statesman, born in
Ogdensburg, New York, in 1806. He embraced the
profession of law, and was a representative in Congress
from 1843 to J847, and again from 1849 to 1853. He was
transferred to the United States Senate in 1853, took an
active part in the senatorial debates, and, during the dis
union movement of 1860-61, advocated a firm adherence
to the principles of the Republican party. He was ap
pointed collector of the port of New York about 1864.
Died at New York in November, 1865.
King, (RICHARD,) an English divine and polemical
writer, born in Bristol about 1750. Among his princi
pal works are " Letters from Abraham Plymley to his
Brother Peter on the Catholic Question," and a " Treat
ise on the Inspiration of the Scriptures." Died in 1810.
King, (Sir RICHARD,) an English admiral, born in
Dorsetshire in 1771. He rendered important services
at the battle of Trafalgar, where he fought as captain,
(1805.) He became a vice-admiral in 1821. Diedini834.
King, (RuFUS,) an American statesman, born in Scar
borough, Maine, in 1755, graduated at Harvard in 1777.
€ as k: 9 as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
KING
1326
KINGS LET
He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1780, and
became an eloquent pleader. In 1784 he was elected
a delegate to the Continental Congress, in which he
offered in 1785 a resolution "That there be neither
slavery nor involuntary servitude in any of the States
described in the resolution of Congress of April, 1784,"
i.e. the Northwest Territory. He married Mary Alsop,
of New York City, in 1786. He took a prominent part
in the Convention which in 1787 formed the Constitu
tion of the United States, and became a leader of the
Federal party. Having fixed his residence in the city
of New York in 1788, he was elected a Senator of the
United States in 1789. He advocated Jay's treaty in
several eloquent speeches, was re-elected to the national
Senate in 1795, and was appointed minister-plenipoten
tiary to Great Britain in 1796. He performed the duties
of this position with much ability for eight years, and
retired to private life in 1804. In 1813 he was elected
a United States Senator by a legislature of adverse poli
tics. Having been again elected in 1819 or 1820, he
continued in that body until 1825, and made an able
speech against the extension of slavery on the occasion
of the admission of Missouri. He was appointed min
ister to England in 1825, returned about a year later, and
died in April, 1827.
See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iii.
King, (Rurus,) an American general, a son of Charles
King, noticed above, was born in the city of New York
in 1814. He graduated at West Point in 1833, and was
employed as an engineer for several years. About 1838
he became adjutant-general of New York. He after
wards edited a paper at Milwaukee. He was appointed
a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1861, and commanded
a division under Generals McDowell and Pope in the
summer of 1862. He was minister at Rome from Oc
tober, 1863, to July, 1867.
King, (SUSAN PKTIGRU,) an American writer, daugh
ter of James L. Petigru, was born at Charleston, South
Carolina. She has published " Busy Moments of an Idle
Woman," "Sylvia's World," and other tales of fashion
able life. •
King, (THOMAS,) an actor and dramatist, born in
London in 17^0. Among his productions are " Love at
First Sight," " A Peep behind the Curtain, or the New
Rehearsal," and "Wit's Last Stake." Died in 1805.
See "Biographia Dramatica."
King, (T. BUTLER,) an American politician, born in
Hampshire county, Massachusetts, in 1804. He studied
law, and removed to Georgia about 1824. He was elected
a member of Congress in 1839, 1841, and 1845, and be
came a secessionist in 1861. Died in 1864.
King, (THOMAS STATER,) an American Unitarian di
vine, born in New York in 1824. He became in 1848
pastor of the church in Hollis Street, Boston, and in
1860 sailed for San Francisco, where he assumed charge
of the Unitarian church in that city. He had a high
reputation as a lecturer, and published, among other
works, "The \Vhite Hills: their Legends, Landscapes,
and Poetry," (1859.) Died in 1864.
See "A Tribute to Thomas Starr King," by R. FROTHINGHAM.
King, (WILLIAM,) a Protestant prelate, was born in
Antrim, Ireland, in 1650. He opposed the Catholics
under James II., and favoured the Revolution. In 1703
he was created Archbishop of Dublin. He wrote " The
Inventions of Men in the Worship of God," (1694,)
intended to reconcile the Irish Presbyterians to the
Episcopal ceremonies, and a treatise, in Latin, on "The
Origin of Evil," ("De Origine Mali," 1702,) which was
attacked by Bayle and Leibnitz. Died in i729.B*y?e,v.6
King, (WILLIAM,) a learned and satirical writer, born
in London in 1663. About 1702 he was appointed in Ire
land to the offices of judge of the admiralty, keeper of the
records, and commissioner of prizes. Among his works
are " Animadversions upon the Pretended Account of
Denmark," (1694,) in answer to a work by Lord Moles-
worth, "The Transactioneer," a satire on the Royal So
ciety, (1700,) and "Original Works in Prose and Verse,"
(3 vols., 1776.) A Memoir of his life is prefixed to the
last. Died in 1712.
King, (WILLIAM,) an English writer, born near Lon
don in 1685. Among his works are several Latin tracts
on various subjects, and his autobiography, entitled
"Political and Literary Anecdotes," (1819,) containing
an interesting account of a number of his contemporaries.
He was principal of Saint Mary's Hall, Oxford. Died
in 1763.
See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1819; "Monthly Review"
for February, iSigt
King, (WILLIAM,) born at Scarborough, Maine, in
1768, was president of the convention which framed the
Constitution of his native State. He was afterwards
elected first Governor of Maine. Died in 1852.
King, ( WILLIAM RUKUS,) an American statesman of
the Democratic party, born in Sampson county, North
Carolina, in 1786. In 1810 he was elected to Congress.
He was United States Senator from Alabama from 1819
to 1840, being re-elected four times. He supported
General Jackson in the Presidential campaigns of 1824,
1828, and 1832, and was appointed minister to France by
President Tyler in 1844. He was elected president of
the Senate in 1850, and in 1852 Vice-President of the
United States. Died in 1853.
King'lake, (ALEXANDER WILLIAM,) an English au
thor and barrister, born at Taunton in 1809, was edu
cated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He
was called to the bar in 1837, after which he made a
tour in the Levant, and published a book of travel
called " Eothen," (1844,) which was highly successful.
He accompanied the British army to the Crimea in 1854,
and wrote a " History of the Crimean War." In 1857
he was elected a member of Parliament.
See " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1844, and April,
1863; " Hlackwood's Magazine" fur March, 1863, and January, 1869;
" Edinburgh Review" for April, 1863; "North British Review" for
May, 1863.
Kingo, king'o, (THOMAS,) a Danish poet and prelate,
born at Slangerup in 1634, became Bishop of Fiinen.
His sacred poems were highly esteemed by his contem
poraries, and he has been compared by English readers
to Dr. Watts. Died in 1723.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Kingsborough, king//bur'eh, (EDWARD KING,) VIS
COUNT, an English antiquary, born in 1795, was a son
of the Earl of Kingston. He published a costly work
entitled "Antiquities of Mexico, comprising Fac-Similes
of Ancient Mexican Paintings," etc., (9 vols., 1830 ct
seq.} Died in 1837.
Kings'ley, (CALVIN,) D.D., an American Methodist
clergyman, born in Oneida county, New York, in 1812.
He graduated at Alleghany College, Pennsylvania. He
took the editorial charge of the " Western Christian
Advocate" in 1856. Died in 1870.
Kings'ley, (Rev. CHARLES,) a popular English writer,
born at Holne Vicarage, in Devonshire, in June, 1819.
He was educated at Magdalene College, Cambridge, was
ordained a priest of the Anglican Church in 1843, and
became rector of Eversley, Hampshire, in 1844. About
this date he married Miss Grenfell, whose sister is the
wife of Froude the historian. He published in 1848 a
dramatic poem called "The Saint's Tragedy." He
united with his friend the Rev. J. F. D. Maurice in efforts
to improve the condition of the working-men by the
formation of co-operative associations. His interest in
the sufferings and trials of the working-classes in large
towns was manifested in his novel of "Alton Locke,
Tailor and Poet," (1850,) which attracted much attention.
In 1853 he produced a philosophical romance entitled
" Hypatia," which appeared first in " Fraser's Magazine"
and is regarded as one of his most powerful works.
He afterwards published "Alexandria and her Schools,"
"Glaucus; or, The Wonders of the Shore," (1855,)
"Two Years Ago," a novel, (1857,) "Westward Ho,"
and other works.
See " Klnckwood's Magazine" for November, 1850, June, 1855,
and August, 1858 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1848, and June,
1858 ; " North British Review" for August, 1851.
Kingsley, (JAMES LUCE,) LL.D., born in Windham,
Connecticut, in 1778, graduated at Yale College in 1799,
and in 1805 became professor of Hebrew, Latin, and
Greek in that institution. He wrote the "Life of Ezra
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; not; good; moon;
KINGS MILL
1327
K1RCHMA1ER
Stiles" in Sparks's " American Biography," and pub
lished several educational works. Died in 1852.
Kings'niill, (ANDREW,) an English Puritan minister,
born at Sidmonton in 1538. He preached at Oxford and
at Geneva, and published several religious works. Died
at Lausanne in 1569.
Kings'ton, (ELIZABETH CHUDLEIGH,) DUCHESS OF,
an English' beauty, born in 1720. She was privately
married to Harvey, who became Earl of Bristol, and
from whom she was soon separated. In 1769 she was
again married to the Duke of Kingston. She was tried
on a charge of bigamy, and convicted. Died in 1788.
See " An Authentic Detail of Particulars relative to the Duchess
of Kingston," London, 1788.
Kinkel, kink'el, (JOHANN GOTTFRIED,) a German
patriot, poet, and writer upon art, born at Oberkassel in
1815. He published in 1846 a " History of the Plastic
Art among Christian Nations," and a poem entitled
"Otto the Archer." In 1848 he established a journal
called " Spartacus," in which he was a zealous advocate
of democratic principles. Having taken part in the
storming of the arsenal at Siegburg, and the insurrec
tion of the Palatinate, he was in June, 1849, taken by the
Prussians and imprisoned at Spandau. In November,
1850, assisted by his friend Carl Schurz, he made his
escape to England.
See STRODTMANN, " Kinkels Leben," 2 vols., 1850; LONGFEL
LOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Kinkel, (JOHANNA,) the wife of the preceding, born
about 1807, was distinguished as an authoress and
musician. Died in 1858.
Kinker, kink'er, (JAN,) a Dutch author and poet,
born near Amsterdam about 1760; died about 1825.
Kinnara, kin'a-ra, [etymology uncertain,] sometimes
improperly written Cinnara, the name given to the male
dancers of Swerga, or the paradise of Indra. The Kin-
naras are represented with the body and limbs of a man
and the head of a horse.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon ;" WILSON, " Sanscrit Dictionary."
Kinsbergen, van, vfn kins'beR'Hen, (JAN HEN-
DRIK,) a Dutch admiral, born at Doesburg in 1735. In
1767 lie entered the Russian service under Catherine II.,
and soon after gained a brilliant victory over the Turks.
In 1781 he assisted in the famous battle of Doggersbank,
fought between the Dutch and English. He was created
Count of Doggersbank by Louis, King of Holland. Died
in 1820.
See M. C. VAN HALL, "Leven en Karakter van den Admiraal
Jnnkheer J. H. van Kinsbergen," 1841; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Kinschot, van, vtn klns'Kot, (HENDRIK,) a Belgian
jurist, born near Antwerp in 1541 ; died in 1608.
Kinschot, van, (KASPAR,) a Dutch writer of Latin
poetry, born at the Hague in 1622 ; died in 1649.
Kinsky, kin'skee, (FRANZ JOSEPH,) COUNT, an Aus
trian general, born at Prague in 1739, served with dis
tinction against the French in 1793-96. Died in 1805.
Kinson, kin'son, or Kinsoen, kin'soon, (FRANS,) a
skilful Flemish portrait-painter, born at Bruges in 1774
or 1770, worked in Paris and Brussels. Died in 1839.
Kip, (\VILLIAM INGRAHAM,) D.D., an American prel
ate, born in New York in 1811. He graduated in 1831
at Yale College, and was consecrated in 1853 missionary-
bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in California.
He published "Early Conflicts of Christianity," and
" Domestic and Religious Life in Italy."
KipTing, (THOMAS,) D.D., professor of theology at
Cambridge, and Dean of Peterborough, born in England
about 1755. He wrote "The Articles of the Church of
England proved not to be Calvinistic," and various other
works. Died in 1821.
Kipping, kip'ping, [Lat. KIPPIN'GIUS,] (HEINRICH,)
a German philologist, born near Rostock about 1623,
was the author of numerous works on philology, history,
and antiquities. Died in 1678.
See H. E. HEEREN, "Oratio de H. Kippingio," etc., 1755.
Kippingius. See KIPPING.
Kip'pis, (ANDREW,) an English dissenting minister
and eminent biographer, born at Nottingham in 1725.
He preached for some years in London, whither he
removed in 1753, and was appointed teacher in Coward's
Academy for the education of dissenting ministers, in
1763. About 1780 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal
Society. His most important work is a new and enlarged
edition of the " Biographia Britannica," of which he pub
lished 5 vols. in 1778-79. This work is highly esteemed,
but was left unfinished, terminating at the letter F. He
wrote a "Life of Captain Cook," (1788.) Died in 1795.
See REES, " Cyclopedia."
Kir'by, (JoHN JOSHUA,) F.R.S., an English artist
and antiquary, born in Suffolk in 1716. He published
"The Perspective of Architecture," (1761,) and "A Map
of Suffolk." Died in 1774.
See NICHOLS, "Biographical Anecdotes of Hogarth."
Kirby, (Rev. WILLIAM,) an eminent English ento
mologist, born in Suffolk in 1759, was a nephew of the
.preceding. He was educated at Caius College, Cam
bridge, and became curate of Barham. He studied
various branches of natural history, and was one of the
first members of the Linnaean Society, to which he
contributed several papers. He acquired a European
reputation by his work on English Bees, "Monographia
Apium Anglije," (2 vols., 1802.) In conjunction with Mr.
Spence, he published an excellent " Introduction to En
tomology," (4 vols., 1815-26.) He also wrote the Bridge-
water Treatise entitled " The Habits and Instincts of
Animals." Died in 1850.
See J. FREEMAN, "Life of William Kirby," 1852; " Eraser's
Magazine" for October, 1835; "Monthly Review" for January,
1803, and November, 1817.
Kirch, k£e~RK, (CHRISTFRIED,) a distinguished as
tronomer and writer, born at Guben in 1694. He was a
member of the Academies of Science at Paris and Saint
Petersburg, and director of the Observatory in Berlin.
Died in 1740.
Kirch, (GOTTFRIED,) father of the preceding, was
born in Lower Lusatia in 1639. He was appointed di
rector of the Observatory and royal astronomer at Berlin.
He wrote " Observations upon the Comet that appeared
in Italy in 1676," (1677,) " Astronomical Tables," and
" Christian, Jewish, and Turkish Calendar to the Year
1685." Died in 1710.
Kirch, (MARIE MARGARETHE WINCKELMANN,) an
astronomer, wife of the preceding, was born in Upper
Lusatia in 1670. She assisted her husband in his astro
nomical labours, and published almanacs. Died in 1720.
Kir'-eher, [Ger. pron. ketVKer; Lat. KIRCHE'RUS,]
(ATHANASIUS,) alearned German Jesuit, distinguished for
his talents and versatility, was born near Fulda in 1601.
Having studied at Avignon, he was invited to Rome by
the pope to fill the chair of mathematics in the Roman
College. He wrote numerous treatises on philology,
hieroglyphics, and antiquities, which display profound
learning, but are deficient in sound criticism, and many
of them are rather interesting than reliable. Among
these may be named " Prodromus Coptus," (1636,)
"OZdipus Egyptiacus," (3 vols., 1652-55,) being an ex
planation of hieroglyphics, " Mundus Subterraneus,"
(1665,) and "Description of Latium considered in its
Ancient and Modern Aspect," ("Latium, id est nova et
parallela Latii, turn veteris, turn novi, Descriptio," 1669.)
He also published several valuable scientific treatises;
and to him is generally ascribed the invention of the
magic-lantern. Died in 1680.
See his autobiography, "Vita Kircheri," in the "Fasciculus
Epistolarum Kircheri," 1684 ; BAVI.E, " Historical and Crilical Dic
tionary ;" NICERON, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Kircher, (CONRAD,) a German philologist and writer,
born in Augsburg. His chief work is a Greek and He
brew Concordance of the Old Testament, (1607.) Died
after 1620.
, Kirchhoff, keeRK'hof, (G.,) a German astronomer of
the present age, distinguished for his observations and
discoveries with the spectroscope. He published "Re
searches on the Solar Spectrum," (1862.)
Kirchmaier or Kirchmayer, ke^RK/mT'er, (GEORG
KASPAR,) a German chemist and scholar, born in Fran-
conia in 1635. He wrote commentaries on several classic
authors. The discovery of the art of etching on glass
with fluoric acid is attributed to him. Died in 1700.
See JOCHER, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon;" "Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
K1RCHMA1ER
1328
KISF4LUDT
Kirchmaier, (THOMAS,) a Lutheran minister, born in
Bavaria about 1511. He took the Greek name of Nao
Georgos. lie is the author of numerous Latin poems
and theological and polemical works, mostly written in
the Latin language. He preached at Stuttgart, Esslingen,
and Wisloch. Died in 1563.
See BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" SAX, " Ono-
masticon."
Kirchman, keeRic'man, a Russian electrician, of Ger
man extraction, was professor of philosophy at Saint
Petersburg. He was killed by the electric fluid, in the
act of attracting it from the clouds, in 1753.
Kirchmami, keeRK'man, (|OHANN,) a German au
thor and scholar, born at Lubeck in 1575, became in
1603 professor of poetry at Rostock. He wrote a " Dis
sertation on the Funeral Ceremonies used among the
Romans," (1605,) and " De Annulis,'" a treatise on an
cient rings. Died in 1643.
See BAVI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
" Memoires."
Kirgener, keRzh'naiu', (JOSEPH,) a French general,
born in Paris in 1766, was killed at Markersdorf in 1813
Kirk, (EDWARD N.,) an American general, born in
Ohio. He was a citizen of Illinois when the civil war
began. He commanded a brigade of the Union army at
the battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7, 1862, and was killed
at the battle of Stone River, January, 1863.
Kirk, (EDWARD NORRIS,) D.D., an American Con-
gregationalist divine, was born in New York in 1802.
He graduated at Princeton College, New Jersey, and
became in 1828 pastor of a church at Albany. He was
afterwards appointed secretary of the Foreign Evangelical
Society, and in 1842 settled as pastor of the Mount Ver-
non Church, Boston.
Kirk'al, (EDWARD,) an English engraver, born in
Sheffield about 1700.
Kirkaldy, ker-kau'de, (Sir WILLTAM,) of Grange,
one of the earliest Protestants of Scotland, was the son
of Sir James Kirkaldy, high treasurer under the reign of
James V. Sir William was implicated in the assassina
tion of Cardinal Beaton, for which he was imprisoned.
He finally escaped to France, where he was distinguished
as one of the most valiant and chivalrous knights in the
court and army of Henry II. After his return to Scot
land, he became a leader of the Protestants. He fought
bravely against the French, who had been sent over to
assist the Catholics, and made Queen Mary prisoner. He
vainly attempted to capture Bothwell, whom he pursued
as far as the coast of Norway. About 1570 Kirkaldy
espoused the cause of the queen, of whose party he
became the leader. He refused to obey the mandates
of the regent, and after several months of fighting, in
which great ferocity was displayed on both sides, sus
tained a siege in Edinburgh Castle. He was, however,
finally obliged by his soldiers to make an unconditional
surrender. He, with several of his friends, was hung
in August, 1573. John Knox, who had formerly been
his intimate friend and fellow-sufferer in the Protestant
cause, deeply deplored his change of principles and his
untimely end.
See " Memoirs and Adventures of Sir Win. Kirknldy," Edinburgh,
i84q : ROBERTSON, " History of Scotland :" CHAMBERS, " Biographi
cal Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" FROUDE, " History of Eng
land ;" " Blackxvood's Magazine" for January, 1849.
Kirk'bride, (THOMAS S.,) M.D., an American phy
sician, born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1809.
Having graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, he
became resident physician of the Pennsylvania Hospital,
and in 1840 superintendent of the Hospital for the In
sane. He has published an excellent work entitled
"Rules and Regulations of the Pennsylvania Hospital
for the Insane," (1850.)
Kirke, kerk, (PERCY,) COLONEL, a British officer,
notorious for cruelty, lived in the reigns of James II. and
William HI. He served in the army which suppressed
the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth, (1685.) His
men were called "Kirke's lambs."
See PEPYS, "Diary;" MACAUI.AY, " History of England."
Kirke White. See WHITE.
Kirk'land, (Mrs. CAROLINE MATILDA STANSBURY,)
an American writer, born in the city of New York, was
married about 1830 to Professor William Kirklancl, of
Hamilton College. After a residence of nearly three
years in Michigan, she published, under the assumed
name of " Mary Clavers," "A New Home — Who'll Fol
low ?" (1839.) "Forest Life," (1842,) and "Western Clear
ings," (1846,) which soon obtained a wide popularity.
She became editor of the " Union Magazine," in New
York, in 1847. Among her other works may be named
"An Essay on the Life and Writings of Spenser," (1846,)
and "Personal Memoirs of George Washington," (1858.)
Mrs. Kirkland's delineations of Western pioneer-life are
among the most admirable of their kind, abounding in
humorous incidents, shrewd sense, and picturesque de
scriptions. Died in 1864.
See GRISWO^.D, " Prose Writers of America ;" DUVCKINCK, " Cy
clopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; CLEVELAND, "Compen
dium of American Literature ;" " North American Review" for
January, 1840.
Kirkland,(JoiiN THORNTON,) D.D., LL.D., an Amer
ican scholar and divine, born at Little Falls, New York,
in 1770. Having graduated at Harvard in 1789, he
became pastor of the Congregational church in Summer
Street, Boston. He was elected, in 1810, president of
Harvard College. He wrote a " Life of Fisher Ames,"
and several other works. Died in 1840.
Kirk'land, (THOMAS,) an English physician and
medical writer, born in 1721. He graduated as M.D. at
the University of Edinburgh. Died in 1798.
Kirk-pat'rick, (WILLIAM JAMES,) an Oriental
scholar, born about 1760, was a member of the Asiatic
Society of Calcutta, and major-general in the English
army at Bengal. He wrote a " Biography of the Persian
Poets," " Description of the Kingdom of Nepaul," (iSil,)
and several other works. Died in 1812.
Kirnberger, kee'Rn'be'Rr/er, (JOHANN PHILIPP,) a
German musician and writer on art, born in Thuringia
in 1721 ; died in 1783.
Kirsten, keeVsten, or Kirchstein, keeRK'stin,
(GEORG,) a physician and writer on surgery and anatomy,
born at Stettin, in Pomerania, in 1613; died in 1660.
Kirsten, (MICHAEL,) a learned physician and scientific
writer, born in Moravia in 1620; died in 1678.
Kirsten, [Lat. KIRSTE'NIUS,! (PETER,) a distinguished
physician and Oriental scholar, born at Breslau in IS77-
He studied at the most celebrated universities of Ger
many, and travelled extensively in Europe. He was sub
sequently invited to Sweden by Chancellor Oxenstiern,
where he was appointed physician to Queen Christina
and medical professor in the University of Upsal. He
is said to have been master of twenty-six languages.
He wrote, among other works, an " Arabic Grammar,"
(1608-10,) and "Notes on the Gospel of Saint Matthew,
from the Collation of Arabic, Syriac, Egyptian, Greek,
and Latin Texts," (1611.) Died at Upsal in 1640.
See BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
' Memoiresr"
Kirstenius. See KIRSTEN, (PETER.)
Kirwaii, ker'wan, (RICHARD,) a distinguished chemist
and geologist, born at Gal way, in Ireland, about 1733,
or, as others say, in 1750. He was elected president of
the Royal Irish Academy, Fellow of the Royal Society
of London, and member of various scientific associations
on the continent. He published "An Essay on the
Constitution of Acids," (1787,) which was translated
by Lavoisier and refuted by him, " Elements of Mine
ralogy," (1794,) an "Essay on the Analysis of Mineral
Waters," "An Estimate of the Temperature of Different
Latitudes," and other scientific works. Died in 1812.
See CUVIER, "Histoire des Sciences naturelles."
Kir-wan, (WALTER BLAKE,) an Irish clergyman, dis
tinguished for his eloquence, born at Gal way in 1754.
He was educated as a Catholic priest, but joined the
Church of England in 1787, after which he preached in
Dublin. Died in 1805.
Kis, klsh, (STEPHEN, ) a Hungarian theologian, born at
Szegedin in 1505, was a disciple of Luther. He preached
at Temesvar, and published several works. Died in 1572.
Kischtasp. See GIISHTASP.
Kisfaludy, k?sh'foh-loody, almost kish'foh-looj,
'KAROLY,) a celebrated dramatist, the founder of Hun
garian comedy, was born at Tete in March, 1790. On
a, e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
KISFALUDT
1329
KLAPROTH
account of his fiery and turbulent disposition, he was
placed in the Austrian army at an early age. He served
as an officer in Italy in 1805 against Napoleon, and svas
afterwards taken prisoner by the French. Having, been
exchanged, he fought in Germany in 1809. He left the
army in 1810, and fixed his residence at Vienna, where
he gained a living as an artist. In 1819 he acquired a
sudden celebrity by his play "The Tartar in Hungary."
Soon after he produced " Ilka," a tragedy, " Stiber the
Chieftain," and several other plays, all of which were
received with the greatest applause. Among the most
popular of his comedies are the "Student Matthias,"
of which the emperor Matthias Corvinus is the hero,
"The Suitors," and "The Insurgents." Kisfaludy es
tablished an able and successful literary annual, entitled
the "Aurora." Died in November, 1830.
See T. MUNDT, "Geschichte cler Literatur der Gegemvart:"
FRANZ SCHEIJEL, "Kisfaludy K. FJete," Hilda- Pesth, 1832; "North
American Review" for April, 1850, (by MRS. PUTNAM.)
Kisfaludy, (SANDOR,) an elder brother of the pre
ceding, and one of the most eminent of the poets of
Hungary, was born in the county of Szalad in 1772. He
entered the army in 1793, and formed an attachment for
the beautiful Rosalia Szegedy, who rejected him. He
subsequently served against Napoleon in Italy, and was
taken prisoner by the French. While a captive in the
place where Petrarch had poured forth his immortal
strains to Laura, the young Hungarian resolved to ad
dress the object of his love in a similar poem. In 1800
he regained the affections of the lady Rosalia, to whom
he was 'married. He left the army and retired to his
paternal estate. The same year the anonymous publica
tion of his poem, under the title of " Himfy," produced
a sensation among men of letters never equalled in
Hungary. In 1807 he made himself known in publish
ing a poem entitled " Happy Love." He afterwards
wrote several other poems and dramas, of which "John
Huniades" and "Ladislaus the Rumanian" were greatly
admired. Died in 1844. Three years later his complete
works were published at Pesth, in 6 vols. Several
extracts from " Himfy" have been translated into English.
See T. MUNDT, "Geschichte der Literatur der Gegenvvart,"
Leipsic, 1853; also the article on the "Language and Literature
of the Magyars" in the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for September,
1828.
Kiss, kis, (AUGUSTUS,) a distinguished Prussian sculp
tor, born at Pless, in Upper Silesia, in 1802. He studied
ur.der the celebrated Rauch. He was professor in the
Academy of Fine Arts of Berlin. Among his most
admirable works are an equestrian statue of Frede
rick the Great, and two colossal groups in bronze, — an
"Amazon attacked by a Tiger," and "Saint George
and the Dragon." Died in 1862.
Kisselef, Kisseleff, or Kisselew, kis'seh-leT, (NI
CHOLAS,) COUNT, a Russian diplomatist, born in 1800.
He was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to Paris in
1851, and was sent as Russian minister to Rome in 1856.
Kisselef, (PAUL,) COUNT, a Russian general and
diplomatist, a brother of the preceding, was born at
Moscow in 1788. He was appointed minister of the
domains of the emperor in 1837, and sent as ambassador
to France in 1856.
See " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale."
Kisselew. See KISSELEF.
Kitch'eii-er, (WILLIAM,) an English physician and
writer on gastronomy, born in London about 1775. He
was the author of "The Cook's Oracle," "The Art of
Invigorating and Prolonging Life," " The Traveller's
Oracle," "Observations on Vocal Music," and other
works on various subjects. Died in 1827.
See WILLIAM JERDAN, "Men I have known," London, 1866 ;
" Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1827.
Kite, (CHARLES,) an English physician and writer,
born at Gravesend about 1768 ; died in 1811.
Ki-Tseu or Ki-Tse. See KEE-TSE.
Kit/to, (JOHN,) an English writer, distinguished as a
biblical scholar, born at Plymouth in 1804. He suffered
much privation and neglect in his childhood in conse
quence of the intemperance of his father. About the
age of twelve he was rendered incurably deaf by a fall
from the roof of a house. He became an inmate of the
poor-house, where he manifested such an earnest desire
to improve his mind that some persons procured for
him admission to a college in Islington. As tutor to the
children of Mr. Grove, he travelled in Russia, Arme
nia, and Persia in 1829-32. About 1833 he was engaged
by Charles Knight to write for the " Penny Magazine."
He edited "The Pictorial Bible" published by Charles
Knight, (1838,) and produced numerous valuable and
successful works, among which are " The Cyclopaedia
of Biblical Literature," (4 vols., 1845-50,) "The Lost
Senses — Deafness and Blindness," which contains an
autobiography, and "Daily Bible Illustrations," (7 vols.,
1849-53.) HC was married about 1833. He died at
Cannstadt, Wiirtemberg, in 1854.
See J. E. RYLAND, "Memoirs of John Kittp," 1856; "Brief
Biographies," by SAMUEL SMILES; "North British Review" for
February, 1847.
Kiuperli. See KOPKILI.
Kj oping or Kjoeping, cho'ping, (NIKOLAUS MAT-
SON,) a Swedish traveller, born in 1630. In 1648 he
sailed to the East Indies, and afterwards visited Persia,
Farther India, Arabia, and Egypt. An account of his
travels was published after his death. Died in 1667.
Klapka, klop'koh, (General GEORGE,) born at Te-
mesvar, in Hungary, in 1820. He became a cadet in
an artillery regiment about 1838, and lieutenant-colonel
in 1847. In 1848 he joined the Hungarian revolutionists,
and greatly distinguished himself by his daring courage
and his ability as a commander. He soon after received
a general's commission and was appointed secretary^ of
war. In 1849, while defending the fortress of Comorn,
he made a sally at midnight, totally routed the Austrian
army, and took several pieces of artillery. He forced
his enemies to evacuate Raab, and cut off their commu
nication with Austria. A few days after he received the
information that the Hungarian army in the South had
surrendered to the Austrians, and also a command from'
Gorgey to yield up the fortress of Comorn. This man
date General Klapka refused to obey ; but two months
later, having obtained honourabla terms from Haynau
for himself and troops, he capitulated, in October, 1849.
He then went to London, and afterwards to Geneva.
He wrote " Memoirs of the War of Independence in
Hungary," (2 vols., 1850,) and a work upon the war in
the East and the siege of Sebastopol, (1855.)
Klaproth, klap'rot, sometimes Anglicised in pronun
ciation as klap'roth, (HEixiucH JULIUS,) an eminent
German Orientalist and traveller, born at Berlin, October
II, 1783, was a son of Martin H. Klaproth, noticed below.
At an early age he acquired, without a teacher, consid
erable knowledge of the Chinese language, and in 1802
founded the " Asiatisches Magazin" at Weimar. On the
recommendation of Count Potocki, he was invited in 1805
to Saint Petersburg, where he was made adjunct for the
Oriental languages and literature at the Academy of
Sciences. In the capacity of interpreter to the Russian
embassy to China, he travelled through Siberia as far as
Irkootsk in 1805, and collected valuable books and docu
ments, which he used in the composition of his " Asia
Polyglotta." In 1807 he was sent by the Russian govern
ment on a scientific expedition to the Caucasus, and on
his return, in 1809, was appointed aulic councillor, and
received a title of nobility and other distinctions. He
resigned his offices in Russia in 1812. In 1816, through
the influence of William von Humboldt, Klaproth re
ceived from the King of Prussia the honorary title of
professor of Oriental languages and literature at Berlin,
together with a large pension, and permission to reside
in Paris. Among his numerous works we may mention
"Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia," (2 vols., 1812-
14,) "Geographical and Historical Description of the
Eastern Caucasus," (1814,) "Historical Pictures of Asia
from the Monarchy of Cyrus to the Present Time,"
(1824,) "Asia Polyglotta," or a classification of Orien
tal nations according to their languages, (1829,) and
" On the Origin of Paper Money in China." Besides
these productions, which enjoy the highest reputation
throughout Europe, he published a number of excellent
maps and geographical treatises, and wrote valuable
articles for the " Biographic Universelle." Died in
Paris in 1835. Klaproth was one of the greatest linguists
of his time. His sagacity, judgment, and memory were
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
84
(23^See Explanations, p. 23.)
KLAPROTH
'33°
KLEIST
extraordinary. " Since Klaproth's death," says the " En
cyclopaedia Britannica," " his fame has continued to rise.
His merits as a philologer are very great ; but his merits
as a linguist are greater still. . . . His memory, both for
comprehensiveness and accuracy, was unrivalled."
See LANDRESSE, " Notice historique et litternire sur Klaproth ;"
FISCHER, " Denksclirift anf Klaproth." Berlin; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generate;" "Monthly Review" for October, 1814.
Klaproth, (MARTIN HEINRICH,) an eminent German
analytical chemist and mineralogist, born at Wernigerode,
in Prussian Saxony, in December, 1743. He served an
apprenticeship as an apothecary, and about 1768 went to
Berlin, where he studied chemistry. Having gained dis
tinction by the analysis of mineral substances and by
discoveries in chemistry, he was elected a member of the
Academy of Berlin in 1788, and a foreign associate of the
French Institute. He discovered the metals Uranium
and Titanium, and the earth Zirconia. He published the
results of his researches and experiments in his "Con
tributions to the Chemical Knowledge of Mineral Bodies,"
(5 vols., 1796-1810.) About 1809 he became professor
of chemistry in Berlin. Died in Berlin in 1817.
See " Biographic Medicale ;" KOPP, "Geschichte der Chemie."
Klass, klas, (FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN,) a German land
scape-painter, born at Dresden in 1752 ; died in 1827.
Klass, (KARL CHRISTIAN,) a historical painter, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Dresden in 1747.
Died in 1793.
Klauber, klow'ber, (!GNAZ SEBASTIAN,) a German
engraver, was born in Augsburg in 1754. He was
invited to Saint Petersburg by the empress Catherine,
who appointed him professor in the Imperial Academy
of Fine Arts. Died about 1820. Among his engravings
is a portrait of the empress Catherine.
Klauber, (JOSEPH,) an engraver, born at Augsburg
in 1710, was an uncle of the preceding. Died in 1768.
Klaus, a surname of NICOLAS VON DER FLUE. See
FLUE, DE.
Kleander or Kleandros. See CLEANDER.
Kleanthes. See CLEANTHES.
Klearchus. See CLEARCHUS.
Kle'ber, fFr. KLEBER, kla'baiR',] (JEAN BAPTISTE,)
a celebrated French general, born at Strasburg in 1754.
Having studied at the military school of Munich, he
returned to France in 1788, and soon attained the rank
of adjutant-major. For his gallant conduct at the siege
of Mayence, in 1793, he was made general of brigade.
He subsequently gained several advantages over the
Vendeans ; but his generous treatment of the prisoners
called down upon him the censures of the committee of
safety. He was removed to the army of the North, in
which, as general of division, he served under Jourdan.
He gained distinguished laurels in 1794 at the battle
of Fleurus, where he commanded the left wing of the
French army. He soon after captured Mons and the
fortress of Maestricht. In 1797, displeased with the
Directory, he retired to a country-seat near Paris ; but
he left this retreat at the request of Bonaparte, whom he
accompanied in 1798 to Egypt. He was severely wounded
at the siege of Alexandria, of which city he was appointed
governor. The following winter he marched into Syria
at the head of the French vanguard, reduced El Arish,
Gaza, and Jaffa, and gained in April, 1799, the decisive
victory of Mount Tabor. On his return to Egypt he
added to his already brilliant reputation at the battle of
Abonkir. In August, 1799, he was made commander-
in-chief by Bonaparte, who returned to France. Though
Kleber was very popular, this event caused general dis
satisfaction in the army. The soldiers were greatly re
duced in numbers, and provisions were scarce. The grand
vizier, with over 40,000 men and several English officers,
having captured the important fortress of El Arish, was
marching against the French. For these reasons Kleber
formed a treaty with the Turks and the English admiral
Sir Sidney Smith, by which, upon the surrender of all
the fortresses in his possession except three, he was to
receive from the Turks a large amount of gold and per
mission to return peaceably to France. He accordingly
delivered up several strongholds, and was preparing to
sail from Egypt, when he was informed by Admiral Keith
that the English government, on the ground that Smith
was not vested with full authority, would not consent
that the French should leave the country except as pris
oners of war. This infraction of the treaty thoroughly
aroused the French general. He attacked the Turks,
gained over them the brilliant and decisive victory of
Heliopolis, drove their army from Cairo, and within a
month regained every position which he had previously
abandoned. He then turned his attention to the im
provement of his conquests. He distributed land among
his troops, formed several companies of native soldiers,
and was using practicable and efficient means to render
Egypt a valuable colony of France, when he was assassin
ated in June, 1800, by a Mohammedan fanatic. Kleber
stands as one of the very first of the many distinguished
generals of that period. To his great intellectual powers
were joined the generosity of a lofty mind and the hatred
of avarice and cruelty. " Kleber," said Napoleon at
Saint Helena, "was an irreparable loss to France and to
me. He was a man of the brightest talents and of the
greatest bravery. Of all the generals I have had under
me, Desaix and Kleber possessed the greatest talents."
See COI'SIN D'AVALLON, " Histoire des GeneVaux Desaix et
Kleber," 1802; LUBERT DE HERICOURT, "Vie du General Kleber,"
1800; TIIIKRS, "History of the French Revolution;" E. BAKKOIS,
"Notice sur le GdneVal Kleber," 1839; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Kleeman, kla'man, (CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH KARL,)
a German naturalist and painter of insects, etc., was
bom near Nuremberg in 1735. He wrote several works
on entomology. Died in 1789.
Klefeker, kla'feh-ker, (JoiiANN,) a German writer,
bom in Hamburg in 1698 ; died in 1775.
Klein, kiln, (BERNHARD,) a German composer, born
at Cologne in 1794. Among his principal works arc the
oratorios of "Job" and "David," and an opera entitled
"Dido." Died in 1832.
See FETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens."
Klein, klaN, (DOMINIQUE Louis ANTOINE,) a French
general, born at Blamont in 1761 ; died in 1845.
Klein, (ERNST FERDINAND,) a learned jurist, born
at Breslau in 1743, became privy councillor at Berlin.
He wrote " Principles of German and Prussian Penal
Law," (1795,) "System of Prussian Civil Law," (1830,)
and other legal works. Died in 1810.
See his Autobiography, " E. F. Klein's Selbstbiographie," 1810.
Klein, ( JAKOB THEODOR, ) a celebrated writer on
natural history, born at Konigsberg in 1685. He was
a member of the Academy of Sciences of Saint Peters
burg and of the Royal Society of London. Linnaeus
gave the name of Kleinia to a new plant in honour of
this naturalist. The works of Klein are regarded as
valuable contributions to science. Died in 1759.
See CHRISTIAN SKNDEL, "Lpbrede auf Herrn J. T. Klein," 1759 ;
HIRSCHINC;, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Gdne'rale."
Klein, (JOHANN ADAM,) a distinguished German
painter of landscapes and animals, and a skilful engraver,
was born at Nuremberg in 1792. He visited Rome
about 1820.
See NAGLER, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Kleiiiarts. See CLENARD.
Kleinau, kli'now, (JOHANN,) Baron von Janowitz,
an Austrian general, born in Bohemia about 1760. He
commanded a corps at Wagram, and rendered important
services at Leipsic, 1813. Died in 1819.
Kleist, von, fon klist, (EWALD CHRISTIAN,) a popu
lar German poet, was born near Koslin, in Pomerania,
in 1715. He studied at Konigsberg, and afterwards
entered the Danish army. In 1740 he left Copenhagen,
and received a commission in the service of Frederick
the Great. He greatly distinguished himself at the battle
of Kunnersdorf in 1759, where he was mortally wounded.
His most celebrated work is a poem entitled " Spring,"
("Der Friihling," 1749.) Besides this, he wrote several
hymns and idyls, a series of essays, and a treatise on
military tactics.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" F. NICOLAI,
"Ehrengedaohtniss E. C. von Kleist's," 1759; GERVINUS, "Ge
schichte der Deutschen Dichtung," 1853.
Kleist, von, (HEINRICH,) a German poet and novel-
st, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1776. He fought
in the Prussian army against France. In 1808 he was
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
KLEIST
KLOP STOCK
associated with Adam Miiller in the publication of the
"Phoebus." A victim of hypochondria, he committed
suicide in 1811. Gervinus places him above all the dra
matic poets of his time. His works include dramas, lyric
poems, novels, and tales, among which are the tragedies
entitled "The Prince of Homburg" and "The Battle of
Hermann," (1809,) and "Michael Kohlhaas," a tale.
See BULOW, " Heinrich von Kleist's Leben und Briefe," 1848;
GERVINUS, " Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtung," 4th edition, 1853 ;
"Foreign Quarterly Review" for June, 1828; "British Quarterly
Review^ for October, 1860. .
Kleist von Nollendorf, klist fon nol'len-doRf,
(EMIL FRIEDRICH,) COUNT, a Prussian commander,
born at Berlin in 1762. He served with distinction in
the Russian campaign of 1812, and at the battle of Baut
zen, after which, as Prussian plenipotentiary, he concluded
the truce. After the battle of Dresden and the retreat
of the allies, he gained a signal victory over Vandamme
at Nollendorf, (August, 1813.) He was created a field-
marshal in 1821, having previously received the order of
the Black Eagle and been made commander-general of
Saxony. Died in 1823.
Kleistheiies. See CLISTHENES.
Kleitarchos. See CLITARCHUS.
Kleitomachos. See CLITOMACHUS.
Kleitos. See CLITUS.
Klemm, klem, (FRIEDRICH GUSTAV,) a German lit
terateur, born at Chemnitz in 1802. He published a
"History of Bavaria," (3 vols., 1828,) a "Manual of
German Archaeology," (1835,) a "General History of
Human Civilization," (10 vols., 1843-50,) and other
works.
Klengel, klejig'el, QOHANN CHRISTIAN,) a German
painter and engraver, born near Dresden in 1751.
Among his best pictures are an "Italian Landscape at
Twilight," and "The Wheat Harvest." Died in 1824.
Klenze, klgnt/seh, (CLEMENS AUGUST KARL,) a Ger
man jurist, a brother of the following, was born near
Hildesheim in 1/95. He wrote a "Manual of Common
Penal Law," (1833,) and other works. Died in 1838.
Klenze, von, fon klSnt'seh, (LEO,) an eminent Ger
man architect, born at Hildesheim in 1784. He studied
at Brunswick and at Berlin, and afterwards in France,
England, and Italy. In 1813 he went to Munich, where
he was patronized by the crown-prince Ludwig, and two
years later was appointed court architect to the King of
Bavaria. In 1833 he was ennobled. Among the most
important of his designs are the Glyptothek, a building
to receive statuary and gems, completed in 1830 ; the
Odeon and the Pinakothek (picture-gallery) at Munich,
completed in 1837 ; and the Walhalla, or hall of heroes,
a magnificent marble edifice near Ratisbon, finished in
1839. This building, the exterior of which resembles the
Parthenon, is one of the most remarkable monuments
erected in modern times. Klenze, in his designs for
buildings, displays an uncommon knowledge of the
various styles of architecture ; though he regards the
Grecian models as superior to all others. He also
erected at Saint Petersburg, under the auspices of the
emperor Nicholas, the Imperial Palace (completed in
1851) and the Imperial Museum. Klenze published,
among other works, an " Essay on the Restoration of
the Tuscan Temples," " The Walhalla in its Artistic and
Technical Relations," and several collections of Grecian
designs. He was likewise skilled in painting, and pro
duced several landscapes and architectural pieces. Died
in 1864.
See R. WIEGMANN-, " Ritter L. von Klenze und unsere Kunst,"
1839; NAGLER, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale;" FORTOUL, "De 1'Art en Allemagne," tome i.
Kleobulos. See CLEOBULUS.
Kleonibrotos. See CLEOMBROTUS.
Kleomedes. See CLEOMEDES.
Kleomeiies. See CLEOMENES.
Kleoii. See CLEON.
Kleopatra. See CLEOPATRA.
Kleophon. See CLEOPHON.
Kleostratos. See CLEOSTRATUS.
Klerck, kleRk, (HENDRIK,) an artist and poet, born
in Brussels about 1570. Among his paintings are "The
Resurrection of Jesus Christ," and "The Martyrdom of
Saint Andrew."
Kletten, klet/ten, (GEORG ERNST,) a German medical
writer, born near Wurzburg in 1759; died in 1827.
Klettenberg, klet'ten-b?RG', (SUSANNE CATHERINE,)
born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1723, was an intimate
friend of Goethe's mother, and has been celebrated by
the poet in his " Wilhelm Meister," under the name of
"the Beautiful Soul." She wrote a number of religious
essays and hymns. Died in 1774.
Kleuker, kloi'ker, QOHANN FRIEDRICH,) a German
scholar, born at Osterode in 1749. He became in 1798
professor of theology at Kiel, where he died in 1827.
He translated the " tend Avesta" of Zoroaster from the
Persian, (1776,) and wrote a treatise "On the Religious
System of the Brahmins," (1797.)
See RATJEN, "J. F. Kleuker und Briefe seiner Freunde," etc.,
1842.
Klicpera, klits'peh-ra, ? (WENCESLAUS,) a Bohemian
dramatist, born at Chlumec in 1792 ; died in 1859.
Klimrath, klaN'rit', (HENRI,) a French jurist, born
at Strasbourg in 1807 ; died in 1837.
Klingemaun, kling'eh-man', (ERNST AUGUST FRIED-
RICH,) a German dramatic poet, and director of the court
theatre at Brunswick, where he was born in 1777. Among
his best works are "Luther," "Henry the Lion," and
"German Fidelity," ("Deutsche Treue.") Died in 1831.
See "Foreign Quarterly Review" for November, 1827.
Klingenstierna, kling'en-sheR/na, (SAMUEL,) an
eminent Swedish philosopher and mathematician, born
near Liukoping about 1690, was educated at Upsal.
Having visited Germany, he became the friend and dis
ciple of the celebrated Wolf. Upon his return to Swe
den, in 1730, he was appointed professor of mathematics,
and was subsequently chosen tutor to the crown-prince,
(Gustavus III.) He performed the duties of this office
with great ability, receiving as a reward the order of the
Polar Star and the title of councillor of state. He was
a Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and of Upsal.
Klingenstierna wrote a work on refracting telescopes,
which obtained the prize offered by the Academy of
Sciences of Saint Petersburg, a treatise on the height of
the atmosphere, (1732,) and various other productions.
Died at Stockholm in 1785.
See MARTIN STROEMEK, " Aminnelse-Tal Sfver S. Klingen
stierna," 1785; ADEI.UNG and JOCHER, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-
Lexikon."
Klinger, kling'er, (FRIEDRICH MAXIMILIAN,) a Ger
man litterateitr, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in Febru
ary, 1753. Having visited Russia in 1780, he became
reader to the grand duke Paul, whom he accompanied
on his travels. In 181 1 he was created lieutenant-general.
He published poems, dramas, and romances. Died at
Saint Petersburg in 1831. His drama entitled " Storm and
Stress, or Impulse," ("Sturm und Drang," 1775,) had a
great success, and gave a name to a period of German
literature, ("Die Sturm-und-Drang Periode,") which,
says Gervinus, "was an epoch of the revolt of nature
against civilization, of simplicity against conventionality,
of youth against age, of the heart against reason," etc.
See GERVINUS, "Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtung;" "Xou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Klingsor von Ungerland, kling'soR fon dong'er-
lant', a German minnesinger and astrologer of the thir
teenth century, supposed by some writers to have been
the author o'f the famous "Nibelungen-Lied," while
others regard him as a fabulous personage.
Klingstadt, Klingstaedt, or Klingstet, kling'stgt,
(CLAUDIUS GUSTAV,) a miniature-painter in the suite
of the regent Duke of Orleans, born at Riga in 1657;
died at Paris in 1734.
Klio. See CLIO.
Klocker, klok'ker, or Kloker, kk/ker, (DAVID,) a
portrait and historical painter, born at Hamburg in 1629.
In early life he went as secretary of legation to Sweden,
where he was appointed to give lessons in drawing to
Queen Christina. He was afterwards liberally patron
ized by Charles X. Died at Stockholm in 1698.
See ERSCH und GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie. "
Kloostermaii. See CLOSTERMAN, (JOHANN.)
Klopstock, klop'stok, (FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB,) a
celebrated German poet, born at Quedlinburg, July 2,
1724. He early cherished the ambition of writing an epic
poem. About 1746 he went to Jena to study theology,
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z, th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
KLOSE
1332
KNAPP
and in 1747 removed to Leipsic. He produced in
1748 the first three cantos of his "Messiah," which
had immense success and opened a new era in German
poetry. In 1749 he was employed as tutor in a family
at Langensalza. He removed in 1751 to Copenhagen,
at the invitation of the king, Frederick V., who gave
him a pension of four hundred thalers that he might
have leisure to complete his great poem. In 1754 he
married Margaret (Meta) Moller, an accomplished and
literary woman, whom he has commemorated in odes
and elegies under the name of "Ciclli." He remained
twenty years at Copenhagen, where he was patronized
by Count Bernstorff and Count Moltke. In 1755 he pub
lished five more cantos of the "Messiah." He cherished
the idea that he had a great poetical mission. " This
idea of an epic priesthood," says Taillandier, "gradually
became a reality. He transferred to his poem the events
of his life; he regulated his life by the inspirations of
his poem." " By his character and conduct," says Goethe
in his Autobiography, " Klopstock had succeeded in
creating attention and respect for himself and other men
of talent. ... At this time Klopstock came forward
and offered his 'Learned Republic' for subscriptions.
Although the later cantos of the ' Messiah' could not
have the effect of the earlier, partly on account of their
contents, partly on account of their mode of treating the
subject, which came pure and innocent into a pure and
innocent time, the esteem for the poet remained un
changed." The same writer remarks, " On the whole,
one might have taken him for a diplomatist. He carried
himself with the self-conscious dignity of a person who
has a great moral mission to fulfil."
In 1758 he was greatly afflicted by the death of his
wife. He settled at Hamburg in 1771, and published
in 1773 the last cantos of his "Messiah." The general
sentiment of his contemporaries in relation to this poem
is thus expressed by Madame de Stael, in her " Tableau
de I'Allemagne :" " When the reader commences this
poem, he receives an impression like that of a person
entering a grand cathedral filled with the music of an
organ." His admirers compared him to Homer and
Milton ; but more sober critics censure his sentimen
tality, monotony, and lack of action. Although his
" Messiah" is seldom read at the present time, all the
German schools unite in the expression of honour and
gratitude to the author for the impulse which he gave
to the national literature. The finest qualities of his
genius are displayed in his odes, some of whifch are con
sidered as classic models of the noble and the graceful.
He also wrote a number of sacred dramas, among which
is "The Death of Adam." About 1792 he married a
widosv named Von Winthem. He died at Hamburg in
March, 1803.
See HEINRICH DURING, " F. G. Klopstock's Biographic," 1853;
CRAMER, "Klopstock er und iiber ihn," 5 vols., 1780-93; Miss
BENGEK, "Klopstock and his Friends," 1814; H. DOKING, "Klop
stock's Leben, "1825; JOIIANN G. GRUBER, " Klopstocks Leben,"
1832; BON JOSEPH DAUER, "filoge de Klopstock," Paris, 1805;
F. L. MOLTKE, " Ara D. M. F. G. Klopstock," Altona, 1818; LONG
FELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" "Foreign Quarterly Re
view" for January, 1843; GERVINUS, " Geschichte der Deutschen
Dichtung ;" ALEXANDER TOLHAUSEN, " Klopstock, Lessing, and
Wieland: Treatise on German Literature," London, 1848; " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Klose, kids, (F. J.,) an English musical composer and
skilful pianist, was born in London ; died in 1830.
Klotz, klots, [Lat. KLOT'ZIUS,] (CHRISTIAN ADOL-
PHUS,) a learned German critic and poet, born at Bischofs-
werda, near Dresden, in 1738. He studied at Leipsic
and Jena, and in 1762 became professor of philosophy
at Gottingen. He was appointed by the King of Prussia
professor of rhetoric at Halle in 1765, with the title of
aulic councillor. He wrote numerous commentaries and
short treatises, among which are " Ridicula Literaria,"
(1762,) "Acta Literaria," (7 vols., 1764-73,) and "Lec-
tiones Venusinae," (1771.) Died in 1771.
See C. HAUSEN, " Leben und Charakter C. A. Klotzens," 1772 ;
C. G. VON MURR, "Denkmal zur Khre des Herrn Klotz," 1772;
MANGELSDORF, " Vita et Memoria Klotzii," 1772.
Klotz, (MATTHIAS,) a German painter of portraits
and landscapes, born at Strasburg in 1748; died in 1821.
His three sons, CASPAR, SIMON, and JOSEPH, acquired
distinction in the same departments of painting.
Klotz, (REINHOLD,) a German critic and scholar, born
at Stollberg in 1807, succeeded Hermann as professor of
philology at Leipsic in 1849. He published editions of
Terence, of the " Phoenissae" and " Medea" of Euripides,
and other works.
Klotz, (SiMON,) a German painter of history and
landscapes, born at Mannheim in 1777, was a son of
Matthias, noticed above. Died in 1825.
Klotzius. See KLOTZ, (CHRISTIAN ADOLPHUS.)
Klotzius, klot'se-us, (STEPHEN,) a German Jheolo-
gian, born at Lippstadt in 1606; died in 1668.
Kliiber or Klueber, klu'ber, (JOHANN LUDWIG,) a
German jurist and writer of high reputation, was born
near Fulda in 1762. He became professor of law at
Heidelberg in 1807, soon after which date he was coun
cillor of state at Carlsruhe. In 1817 his friend Prince
Hardenberg procured for him a high office in the min
istry of foreign affairs at Berlin. He acquired distinc
tion by a history of the Congress of Vienna, " Acten des
Wiener Congresses in den Jahren 1814 und 1815," (9
vols., 1815-35,) ancl other works. Died in 1837.
See MORSTADT, "Kliibers Leben," prefixed to KI.UBER'S " Of-
fentliches Recht des Deutschen Bundes," 1840; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Klueber. See KLUHER.
Kluegel. See KLUGEL.
Kliigel, klii'gel, (GEORG SIMON,) a German mathema
tician, born at Hamburg in 1739. He became in 1766
professor of mathematics at Helmstedt. Among his
principal works is "Elements of Astronomy," (1819.)
Died in 1812.
Kluit, kloit, ( ADRIAAN,) a Dutch historical writer, born
at Dort in 1735. In 1779 he was appointed professor
of the archaeology of Holland and of diplomatic history
at Leyden. Among his works are a "History of the
Political Administration of Holland" until 1795, (5 vols.,
1802-05,) and the " Political Economy of Holland." Died
in 1807.
Kluk, klook, (CHRISTOPHER,) a Polish naturalist,
born in Podlachia in 1739, published a " Dictionary of
Plants," (3 vols. 1786-88.) Died in 1796.
Klupfel, kloop'fel, (EMMANUEL CHRISTOPH,) a Ger
man, born in Saxe-Gotha, became, in 1764, editor of the
well-known "Almanach de Gotha." Died in 1776.
Klyn or Klijn, kiln, (HENDRIK HERMAN,) a Dutch
poet, born at Amsterdam in 1773, wrote a poem on
Astronomy, (1809,) and other works.
Klytermiestra. See CLYTEMNESTRA.
Kmety, kma'tee, (GEORGE,) GENERAL, the son of a
Protestant minister, was born in the county of Gomor,
in Hungary, in 1810. He entered the Austrian army,
in which he obtained a commission. In 1848 he joined
the Hungarian army which fought against the Austrians,
and signalized his bravery on several occasions. After
the surrender of Gorgey, he embraced the Moslem faith,
and enlisted in the Turkish service, with the title of
Ismael Pasha. He distinguished himself as a general in
the Crimean war, particularly in a battle with the Rus
sians before Kars. Died in 1865.
Knapp, knap or k'nap, (ALISRECHT,) a German divine,
born in the duchy of Wurtemberg in 1798, has published
several collections of hymns and sacred poems, which
are highly esteemed.
Knapp, (GEORG CHRISTIAN,) a German theologian,
born at Halle in 1753. He was professor of theology at
Halle about fifty years, and was distinguished in sacred
criticism. He was moderately orthodox, endeavouring
to reconcile revelation with the demands of reason. He
published "Lectures on Christian Theology," (2 vols.,
1827,) and other works. Died at Halle in 1825.
See A. H. NIEMEYER, " Epicediendem Andenken G. C. Knapp's,"
etc., 1825.
Kuapp, (JoiiANN,) a German painter of flowers and
animals, was born in Vienna in 1778 ; died in 1833.
Knapp, nap, (SAMUEL LORENZO,) a miscellaneous
writer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1784.
Among his principal works are "Biographical Sketches
of Eminent Lawyers, Statesmen, and Men of Letters,"
"Travels in North America, by Ali Bey," "Lectures
on American Literature," and "American Biography."
Died in 1838.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; m§t; not; good; moon;
KNAPTON
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KNIGHT
Knapton, nap'ton, (GEORGK,) an English portrait-
painter, born in London in 1698, painted in crayons.
Died in 1788.
Kiiaust, knowst or k'nowst, (HEINRICH,) a German
poet, born in 1541 ; died in 1577.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Knaut, knowt or k'nosvt, (CHRISTIAN,) a German
botanist, born at Halle in 1654; died in 1716.
Knaut, (CHRISTOPH,) a botanical writer, father of the
preceding, was born at Halle in 1638; died in 1694.
Knauth, knowt, (CHRISTIAN,) a German historian,
born at Gorlitz in 1706 ; died in 1784.
Knebel, kna'bel, (EMMANUEL THEOPHILUS,) a Ger
man medical writer, born at Gorlitz in 1772 ; died in 1809.
Knebel, von, fon kna'bel, (KARL LUDWIG,) a Ger
man litterateur, born at Wallerstein, in Franconia, in
1744. He published an excellent translation of the
Elegies of Propertius (1798) and the " I)e Rerum
Xatura" of Lucretius, (1821 and 1831.) His interesting
" Correspondence with Goethe" came out after Knebel's
death, which took place in 1834. He was intimate with
Mendelssohn, Gleim, Jacobi, and other eminent writers.
SeeT. MUNDT, " Knebels Leben," prefixed to his " Literarischer
Xachlass," 1835-40: SCHWARZ, "Zur Erinnerung an K. L. von
Knebel: Rede an seinem Grabe gesprochen," 1834; LONGFELLOW,
"Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for
January, 1838.
Kneller, nel'ler, [Ger. pron. knel'ler,] (GODFREY,)
a celebrated portrait-painter, was born at Lubeck in
1648. He commenced his studies under Rembrandt,
and pursued them in Italy. He afterwards went to Eng
land, where he was successively court painter to Charles
II., James II., William III., Queen Anne, and George I.
The last-named created him a baronet. Kneller was also
made a knight of the Roman empire by the emperor
Leopold. In addition to the distinguished personages
of the English court, he painted portraits of Louis XIV.
and Peter the Great. Died about 1723.
See W. A. ACKERMANN, " Der Portrnitmaler Sir Godefrey Kneller
im Verhaltniss zur Kunstbildung seiner Zeit dargestellt," Lubeck,
1845-
Kniazhnin, kne-azh'nin, written also Kniaschnin
and Kniajm'n, (YAKOF BORISSOVITCH,) a Russian poet
and dramatist, was born at Pskov in 1742. Among his
principal works are the tragedies of " Dido" and " Sopho-
nisba," and a number of odes, songs, and fables. At the
request of the empress Catherine, he translated from
the Italian " La Clemenza di Tito" of Metastasio. Died
in 1791.
See " Memoirs of the Princess Daschkoff," 1840.
Kniaziewicz, kne-azh'ya-vitch, ? (KARL,) a Polish
general, born in 1762. He fought bravely, though un
successfully, in the defence of his country in 1794, and
afterwards entered the French army and distinguished
himself in the Italian campaign of 1798. He was made
a commander of the legion of honour in 1804. Died in
1842.
See L. CHODZKO, "La Pologne illustree," 1840.
Kniaznin, kne-azh'nin, ? (FRANCIS DIONYSIUS,) a
Polish poet, born in the government of Vitepsk in 1750,
became teacher in the Jesuits' College at Warsaw, and
was afterwards secretary to Prince Adam Czartoryski.
He was the author of lyric poems, and published various
translations of ancient poets into Polish. Died in 1807.
Knibb, nib,'(Rev. WILLIAM,) an English Baptist mis
sionary, noted for his courageous opposition to slavery
in Jamaica, was born at Kettering, in Xorthamptonshire,
about 1800. He laboured zealously to ameliorate the
condition of the slaves ; and by his representations to
the people of England he aided not a little in the negro
emancipation of Jamaica, as well as in the subsequent
abolition of the apprentice system. He made a powerful
anti-slavery speech at Exeter Hall in 1840. Died in 1845.
See JAS. HOBV, " Memoir of Wm. Knibb," 1839; J. H. HINTON,
" Memoirs of Wm. Knibb," 1847.
Knicauiu, kne-ka-neen'. ? (STEPHAN PETROVITCH,) a
Servian general, born in 1808, distinguished himself in
the revolution of 1848, and in 1852 was made a general
and senaH^. Died in 1855.
Knickerbocker, (DIEDRICH.) See IRVING.
Kniep, kneep, (CHRISTOPH HEINRICH,) a German
painter, born at Hildesheim in 1748. He travelled in
Italy with Goethe, and worked in Xaples. His drawings
in sepia and crayons, of Italian landscapes and antiqui
ties, are much admired. Died in Xaples in 1825.
Knigge, von, fon knik'keh, (ADOLF FRANZ FRIED-
RICH,) BARON, a German philosopher and writer, born
near Hanover in 1752. He wrote, besides other works,
"The Romance of my Life," ("Roman meines Lebens,"
4 vols., 1781,) and "'On the Art of Living with Men,"
("Ueber den Umgang mit Menschen," 1788.) Died in
1796.
See GODEKR, "Adolf von Knigge, sein Leben und Blicke in seine
Zeit," 1844; " Kurze Biographic des A. von Knigge," 1823.
Knight, nit, (CHARLES,) an eminent English editor
and author, born at Windsor in 1791. He settled in
London about 1823, and commenced business as a pub
lisher. He was one of the first members of the Society
for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, under whose
auspices he published "The Penny Magazine" (1832-45)
at his own risk, and "The Library of Entertaining
Knowledge." Among the works which he has published
or edited are "The Penny Cyclopaedia," (30 vols., 1833-
46,) "The Pictorial History of England," (about 1844,)
and a valuable "English Cyclopaedia," (24 vols., 1854-
61,) which is in fact a recast of the " Penny Cyclopaedia,"
with important changes and additions. This is separated
into divisions for biography, geography, etc. He has also
published a number of popular works, among which are
a " Life of Shakspere," prefixed to his " Pictorial Shak-
spere," (1839,) "Knowledge is Power," (1855,) and his
"Popular History of England," (1856-62.)
See "Passages of a Working- Life," by CHARLES KNIGHT;
"British Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1864.
Knight, (CORNELIA,) an English authoress, born
about 1758, was for a time companion to the princess
Charlotte. She resided many years in Italy. Among
her works is "Dinarbas," (1790,) which is a sequel to
Johnson's "Rasselas." Died about 1837.
See " Autobiography of Miss Cornelia Knight," London, 1861 ;
BESSIE R. PARKES, "Twelve Biographical Sketches," London,
1866 ; " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1862 ; " British
Quarterly Review" for January, 1862.
Knight, (EDWARD,) an English comic actor, born at
Birmingham in 1774; died in 1826.
Knight, (GODWIN,) F.R.S., an English philosopher,
graduated at Oxford in 1742. He published an " Attempt
to demonstrate that all the Phenomena of Nature may
be explained by Attraction and Repulsion," (1748.) Died
in 1772.
Knight, (HENRY GALLY, ) an English antiquary,
traveller, and writer, born in 1786. He wrote poems
and treatises on architecture. Died in 1846.
Knight, (JAMES,) an English navigator, who in 1719
was sent by a mercantile company with two vessels to
search for a northwest passage and for mines of copper.
None of this party ever returned.
Knight, (JoHN PRESCOTT,) an English painter, born
at Stafford in 1803, is the son of a noted comedian. He
painted portraits with success.
Knight, nit, (JONATHAN,) an American surgeon, born
at XTorwalk, Connecticut, in 1789. He became professor
of anatomy at Yale College in 1813, and was professor
of surgery at the same college from 1838 to 1864. Died
in 1864.
Knight, (RICHARD PAYNE,) an English antiquary and
Greek scholar, born in Herefordshire in 1750. He was
several times elected to Parliament for the boroughs of
Leominster and Ludlow. He made a large collection
of Greek coins, bronzes, and various works of art, valued
at fifty thousand pounds, which he bequeathed to the
British Museum. Among other works, he wrote "An
Analytical Enquiry into the Principles of Taste," (1805.)
He contributed to the "Edinburgh Review," and wrote
a mediocre poem on "The Progress of Civil Society,"
(1796,) which furnished Canning and others a subject for
a parody in "The Anti-Jacobin." Died in 1824.
See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1806.
Knight, (SAMUEL,) an English clergyman and biogra
pher, born in London in 1674. He wrote the Lives of
Erasmus (1724) and of Dr. John Colet, (1726.) He
became chaplain to George II. in 1730, and Archdeacon
of Berks in 1735. Died in 1746.
€ as/-; 9 as s; 'ghard; g as_/; G, H, K, guttural; x, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in t'tis.
Explanations, p. 23.)
KNIGHT
'334
KNOX
Knight, (THOMAS ANDREW,) a distinguished vege
table physiologist and horticulturist, born in 1758, was a
brother of R. P. Knight, noticed above. He succeeded
Sir Joseph Banks as president of the British Horticul
tural Society. He wrote "A Treatise on the Culture
of the Apple and Pear, and on the Manufacture of Cider
and Perry," (1797,) and other works. He produced new
and valuable varieties of fruits from seeds, and made
experiments in vegetable fecundation, in the germination
of seeds, and in other processes of vegetable physiology.
Died in 1838.
Knightoii or Knyghton, m'ton, (HENRY,) a his
torical writer and ecclesiastic, flourished in England
about 1380-1400. His principal works are a chronicle
of events from the invasion of William the Conqueror,
and a history of Richard II.
Kuill, nil, (Rev. RICHARD,) an English Methodist mis
sionary, born in Devonshire in 1787. He was sent in
1816 by the London Missionary Society to India, where
he spent three years, and subsequently resided sixteen
years in Russia, where he laboured with great zeal and
success. Died in 1857.
See CHARLES M. BIRRELL, " Life of Richard Knill, with a Review
of his Life and Character," by J. ANGELL JAMES, London, 1860.
Knipperdolling, knip'per-dol'ling, (BERNHARD,) a
German fanatic, born in Minister, was associated with
the principal leaders of the Anabaptist insurrection of
1533. He was executed in 1536, with his accomplice,
John of Leyden.
Knipstrovius. See KNIFSTROW.
Kiiipstrow, knip'stRo, or Kiiiepstrow, kneep'stRo,
[Lat. KNIPSTRO'VIUS,] QOHANN,) a German reformer,
born at Sandow, in Silesia, in 1497. He distinguished
himself in a public dispute against Tetzel in 1518. In
1539 he became professor of theology at Greifswalde,
and in 1547 rector of the university at that place. Died
in 1556.
See MAYER, "Vita Knipstrovii."
Knjaschnin or Knjaznin. See KNIAZHNIN.
Knobelsdorf, kno'bels-douf, (HANS GEORG WEN-
CESLAUS,) a distinguished Prussian architect, born in
1697, was appointed by Frederick the Great superin
tendent of the royal buildings. Among his best works
are the castle of Sans-Souci and the Opera-House at
Berlin. Died in 1753.
Knoblecher, knop'leK-er, (N.,) a German mission
ary and traveller, born about 1800. In company with a
trading-party, he ascended the White Nile in 1849-50
to about 4° north latitude, but was unable to reach the
source of the river.
Kiioller, von, fon knol'ler, (MARTIN,) an eminent
historical painter, born at Steinach, in the Tyrol, in 1725,
studied several years in Rome. Among his best works
are the frescos painted from incidents in the life of
Cardinal Borromeo, and a large fresco at Munich of the
"Ascension of the Virgin." Knoller received a patent
of nobility from the empress Maria Theresa. He worked
many years in Milan. Died in 1804.
See ENRICO CLAUSEN, " Memoria della Vita e delle Opere di M.
Knoller," Milan, 1838; NAGLER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Knolles, nolz, (RICHARD,) an English writer, born
in Northamptonshire about 1545. Among his works
are " General History of the Turks from the Origin of
this Nation until the Elevation of the Ottoman Family,"
(1610,) and a "Compendium of the Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew Grammar." His " History of the Turks" was
praised by Dr. Johnson. Died in 1610.
Knolles or Knowles, n51z, (ROBERT,) a celebrated
English general under the reign of Edward III., was
'born about 1317 ; died about 1406.
See FROISSART, "Chronicles."
Knollis or Knowles, nolz, (Sir FRANCIS,) an English
statesman, born in Oxfordshire about 1530. He pro
moted the Reformation in the reign of Edward VI. On
the accession 6f Elizabeth, (1558,) he was appointed
chamberlain of the household and privy councillor. Died
in 1596.
See TURNER, " History of the Reign of Edward VI.," etc.
Knorr, knoR, (GEORG WOLFGANG,) a German en
graver, born at Nuremberg in 1705 ; died in 1761.
Knorr von Rosenroth, knoR fon ro'zen-r5t', (CHRIS
TIAN,) BARON, a German scholar and statesman, born
near Liegnitz in 1636. He wrote an "Evangelical His
tory," and "Kabbala Denudata," an exposition of the
transcendental, metaphysical, and theological doctrines
of the Hebrews. Died in 1689.
Knott, not, (EDWARD,) an English Jesuit and con
troversial writer, whose proper name was MATTHEW
WILSON, was born in Northumberland in 1580. Among
his principal works is " Infidelity Unmasked," (1652,) in
answer to Chillingworth's " Religion of Protestants."
Died in 1656.
Knowler, no'ler, ? (WILLIAM,) an English clergyman,
born about 1700, translated part of Saint Chrysostom's
works. Died in 1767.
Knowles, n5lz, (JAMES DAVIS,) an American writer
and Baptist clergyman, born at Providence, Rhode Island,
in 1798. He graduated at Columbian College, Wash
ington, D.C., and in 1825 became pastor of a church
in Boston. He wrote Memoirs of Roger Williams and
of Mrs. Ann H. Judson, and was the founder of the
"Christian Review." Died in 1838.
Knowles, nolz, (JAMES SHERIDAN,) a popular drama
tist and actor, born at Cork, in Ireland, in 1784. At
twelve years of age he wrote his first play, and at four
teen produced an opera, "The Chevalier de Grillon."
He visited America in 1835, where he performed on the
stage and met with a flattering reception. P'our years
later, an annual pension of two hundred pounds was con
ferred upon him by the British government. Among the
most celebrated of his numerous plays may be mentioned
"Leo the Gipsey," "Caius Gracchus," (1815,) "Vir-
ginius," (1820,) and "The Hunchback," (1832.) Several
years before his death he left the stage and became a
Baptist preacher. Died in 1862.
See R. H. HORNE, " New Spirit of the Age," 1844 ; " Edinburgh
Review" for July, 1833; "Eraser's Magazine" for April. 1836;
" Ulackwood's Magazine" for October, 1863; ALLIBONE, "Diction
ary of Authors."
Knowles, (THOMAS,) an English clergyman and
writer, born at Ely in 1723. He wrote "Advice to
Young Clergymen," "Primitive Christianity, in Defence
of the Trinity," and "Lectures for Passion Week."
Died in 1802.
Knowlton, noKton, (THOMAS,) an English botanist,
born in 1692 ; died in 1782.
Knox, noks, (HENRY,) an able American general and
statesman, born at Boston, July 25, 1750, was a book
seller in his youth. He married an accomplished lady
named Lucy Fluker. He took part in the battle of
Bunker Hill, and in the beginning of the Revolution
distinguished himself by his skill as an engineer and
artillerist. In 1775 he was appointed commander of
the artillery. He was raised to the rank of brigadier-
general in 1776, and served under Washington in the
battles of Trenton and Princeton, January, 1777. He
directed the artillery at the battle of Branclyvvine, Sep
tember, 1777, and at Monmouth, June, 1778. lie also
contributed to the defeat and capture of the British army
at Yorktown, in October, 1781, soon after which he was
promoted to be a major-general. He enjoyed in a high
degree the esteem and confidence of General Wash
ington. He succeeded General Lincoln as secretary of
war in March, 1785, before the adoption of the Consti
tution, and was appointed to the same office by President
Washington in 1789. In politics he was a Federalist.
He resigned his office in December, 1794, after which he
lived in Maine. He had seven or more children. He
died at Thomaston, Maine, in October, 1806.
See BANCROFT, "History of the United States;" "National
Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii.
Knox, noks, (JOHN,) the greatest of the Scottish Re
formers, was born at Gifford, in East Lothian, in 1505.
He was educated at the University of Saint Andrew's,
and in theology was a pupil of John Major or Mair. He
was ordained a priest about 1530, soon after which a great
change took place in his religious opinions. In 1542
he openly renounced the Roman Catholic religion, and
became a zealous preacher of the Protestant doctrines,
which at that time had few adherents in Scotland. The
storm of persecution soon began to beat against him,
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fet; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
KNOX
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KOCH
and it is stated that Cardinal Beaton employed assassins
to take his life. In 1547 he retired for safety to the.castle
of Saint Andrew's, which was occupied by a party of
Protestants who had conspired against and killed Cardi
nal Beaton. During the siege of this place he preached
with great power and converted many of its inhabitants.
The castle at length was captured by Regent Arran and
his French allies, who carried Knox as a prisoner to
Rouen. He was confined nineteen months in the French
galleys, and released in 1549, after which he preached
at Berwick and Newcastle for several years. He was
appointed chaplain to Edward VI. about 1551, and was
intimate with Cranmer. In 1553 he married Marjory
Bowes. On the accession of Queen Mary, (1553,) he
was induced by the urgent entreaties of his friends to
retire to the continent. He visited Scotland in 1555,
after which he passed about three years at Geneva, where
he formed a friendship with Calvin, studied Hebrew, and
was employed as pastor of a church. In 1558 he pub
lished "The First Blast of the Trumpet against the
Monstrous Regiment of Women." The Scotch Prot
estants in the mean time had increased in number, and
the conflict between the opposing ideas had reached a
crisis which required the inflexible resolution and un
flinching courage of Knox. He returned to Scotland in
May, 1559, and became the master-spirit of the Refor
mation in that country, which was then ruled by Marie,
the queen-regent, a French princess of the family of
Guise. The Protestants raised and maintained an army
for self-defence, and were animated by the vehement
harangues of Knox, who thundered continually against
the idolatry of the Romish Church. The Parliament in
1560 renounced the authority of the pope, and adopted
a confession of faith proposed by Knox. In 1561 the
young queen Mary arrived in Scotland, and had with
Knox several interviews, with no satisfactory results.
" At my interview with the queen," he wrote to Cecil,
"she showed more artifice than I ever found in a person
so young." At her instigation, Knox was accused of
treason, and tried, but was acquitted, (1563.) His first
wife having died, he married in 1564 Margaret Stewart,
a daughter of Lord Ochiltree. The projects and influ
ence of Knox were promoted by the abdication of the
queen and the appointment of Murray as regent. But
in his latter years he was greatly afflicted by the assas
sination of Murray (1570) and the confusion and disorders
which followed that event. He died in November, 1572.
Among the Reformers of that age, Knox was distin
guished for his courage and sagacity, as well as for his
earnestness and the inflexible austerity of his principles.
The regent Morton, in a short funeral oration, said of
him, " Here lies he who never feared the face of man."
Of Knox, Froude remarks that he was "perhaps in
that extraordinary age its most extraordinary man, and
whose character became the mould in which the later
fortunes of his country were cast." (" History of Eng
land," vol. iv. chap, xviii.) In another place he says,
" No grander figure can be found in the entire history of
the Reformation in this island than that of Knox. . . .
The one man without whom Scotland, as the modern
world has known it, would have had no existence. . . .
His was the voice which taught the peasant of the
Lothians that he was a free man, the equal in the sight of
God with the proudest peer or prelate that had trampled
on his forefathers. He was the one antagonist whom
Mary Stuart could not soften nor Maitland deceive ; he
it was that raised the poor commons of his country into
a stern and rugged people, who might be hard, narrow,
superstitious, and fanatical, but who nevertheless were
men whom neither king, noble, nor priest could force
again to submit to tyranny." (See " History of England,"
vol. x. chap, xxiii. pp. 452-456 et seq.)
See McCRiE, "Life of John Knox," 2 vols., 1812; BURTON',
" History of Scotland," more particularly chap, xxxviii. ; ROBERT
SON, " History of Scotland ;" FROUDE, " History of England," vols.
v., vii., ix., x. ; NIEMEYER, " Leben des J. Knox und der beiden
Marien," 1824; " Encyclopedia Britannica;" "Westminster Re
view" for July, 1853; CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Emi-
nen Scotsmen;" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1812, April, 1852,
and July, 1853.
Knox, noks, (JOHN,) an English benefactor, born
about 1720, was a bookseller of London. He acquired a
fortune by business, and spent much time and money in
plans to improve the condition of the poor in the High
lands of Scotland, which he visited sixteen times. He
wrote a " Systematic View of Scotland." Died in 1790.
Knox, (JoHN,) a native of Edinburgh, and captain
in the English navy, wrote a historical account of the
campaigns, naval battles, etc. in America during the
years 1757, 1759, and 1760. Died in 1790.
Kiiox, (ROBERT,) of the British East India naval
service, was born about 1640. In 1660 he was wrecked
on the island of Ceylon, where he remained a captive
twenty years. After his escape he published a " His
torical Relation of the Island of Ceylon," (1681.) Died
about 1700.
Kuox, (ViCESiMUS,) D.D., a celebrated English cler
gyman and author, born at Newington Green, in the
county of Middlesex, in 1752. The title of D.D. was
conferred upon him by the University of Pennsylvania.
Of his numerous works may be mentioned " Essays,
Moral and Literary," (1777,) "Personal Nobility, or
Letters to a Young Nobleman," "Christian Philoso
phy," (1795,) "On the National Importance of Classical
Education," and "Considerations on the Nature and
Efficacy of the Lord's Supper." As a preacher he was
very popular. He obtained the united rectories of Rum-
well and Ramsden Crays in Essex, and was master of
Tunbridge School, which he conducted for many years.
Died in 1821.
Knox, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish poet, born about 1788.
Among his poems are "The Lonely Hearth," and "Ma-
riamne." Died in 1825.
Kiiud. See CANUTE.
Knupfer, kndop'fer, (NIKOLAUS,) a German painter
of battles and mythological subjects, born at Leipsic in
1603 ; died in 1660.
Knut. See CANUTE.
Knutzen, knoot'sen, (MARTIN,) a German writer, and
professor of philosophy in the University of Konigsberg,
was born in that city in 1713 ; died in 1751.
Kuutzen, Knuzen, or Cnutzen, knoot'sen, (MAT
THIAS,) an atheist or skeptic, was born in Holstein, and
educated at Konigsberg. He made numerous proselytes,
who, from his doctrine that reason and conscience were
sufficient to guide all men, have been called Conscien-
tiarians. Died after 1674.
Knuzen. See KNUTZEN.
Knyphausen, knip'how'zen, (BARON,) a German
general, born in Alsace about 1730. He obtained in 1776
command of an army of Hessians who were hired by
the British ministry to fight against the Americans. He
took part in the battle of Brandy wine, September, 1777,
and in other actions of the Revolutionary war. Died in
Berlin in 1789.
Kobad. See CABADES.
Kobell, ko'bel, (FERDINAND,) an able German land
scape-painter and engraver, born at Mannheim in 1740.
He worked for some years at Munich, where he died in
1799. His etchings are highly prized.
Kobell, (FRANZ,) a German landscape-painter, brother
of the preceding, was born at Mannheim in 1749. He also
executed with his pen a large number of pictures, which
have been greatly admired. Died in 1822.
Kobell, (FRA'NZ,) a German poet and mineralogist,
a grandson of Ferdinand, noticed above, was born at
Munich in 1803. He published several good works on
mineralogy, and a number of popular poems.
Kobell, ko'bgl, (HENDRIK,) a Dutch painter, born at
Rotterdam in 1751. He painted landscapes, marine
pieces, and naval battles with success. Died in 1782.
Kobell, (JAN,) a skilful painter of landscapes and
animals, born at Utrecht in 1782, was a son of the pre
ceding. Died in 1814.
Kobell, (WILHKLM,) an eminent German painter
of landscapes and battles, born at Mannheim in 1766,
was a son of Ferdinand, noticed above. He worked at
Munich. Died in 1853. •
Kobenzl. See COHENZL.
Koch, von, fon koK, (CHRISTOPH WILHF.LM,) a
French Protestant and historical writer, of German
parentage, was born at Bouxviller, in Alsace, in 1737.
He studied at Strasburg under Schopflin, and gained dis-
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
KOCH
1336
KOHL
tinction as a lecturer on history, public law, etc. in that
city. In 1791 he represented Bas-Rhin in the Legisla
tive Assembly. He was imprisoned during the reign of
terror, and became a member of the Tribunate in 1802.
Among his important works are "Tableau des Revolu
tions de 1'Europe depuis le Bouleversement cle 1'Empire
Remain," (1771,) and an "Abridged History of the
Treaties between the European Powers since the Peace
of Westphalia," (4 vols., 1796.) Died in 1813.
See SCHWEIGHAUSER, " Notice biographique de Koch."
Koch, (JEAN BAPTISTE FREDERIC,) a general, nephew
of the preceding, was born at Nancy in 1782. He wrote
" Memoirs towards the History of the Campaign of 1814,"
(3 vols., 1819,) and aided Jomini in his " History of the
Wars of the Revolution," (5 vols., 1819-24.) Died in 1861.
Koch, (JOSEPH ANTON,) an eminent landscape and
historical painter, born in the valley of Lech, near Augs
burg, in 1768. He studied in Rome, where he fixed his
residence. Among his best pieces are the " Sacrifice of
Noah," " Francesca da Rimini," and the frescos from
Dante in the villa Massimi. He also etched twenty
plates of Italian landscapes, which are esteemed master
pieces. Died at Rome in 1839.
See NAGLER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Koch, (KARL HEINRICH EMANUEL,) a German natu
ralist, born at Weimar in 1809. He travelled in Southern
Russia, Turkey, and the Caucasus, and published, after
his return, his " Journey through Russia to the Caucasian
Isthmus," (2 vols., 1842,) "Wanderings in the East," (3
vols., 1846,) and a "Flora of the Levant," (" Beitrage zu
einer Flora des Orientes," 1848-54.)
Koch, (WILHELM DANIEL JOSEPH,) a German phy
sician and botanist, born near Deux-Ponts in 1771, be
came, in 1824, professor of botany and medicine at Erlan-
gen. He published a treatise "On European Willows,"
(" De Salicibus Europacis," 1818,) " Synopsis of the Flora
of Germany and Switzerland," (1835-37,) and other works
on botany. Died in 1849.
Koch-Sternfeld, UOK steiu/felt, (JOSEPH ERNST,)
a German historical writer and antiquary, born at Mit-
tersill in 1778. Among his works are "The Kingdom
of the Longobards in Italy," (1839,) and "Historical
Studies on Civilization in the Alps," (2 vols., 1852.)
Kochaiiowski, ko'Ka-nov'skee, (JoHN,) a Polish
nobleman and celebrated poet, born in 1532. For his
translations of the Psalms into Polish verse he received
the title of "the Pindar of Poland." His other poems
were published at Warsaw, (1803-05.) Died in 1584.
See BENTKOWSKI, "History of Polish Literature."
Kock, (MATTHEW.) See COCK.
Kock, de, deh kok, (CHARLES PAUL,) a French ro
mance-writer and dramatist, of Dutch extraction, born
at Passy, near Paris, in 1794. His works, though pos
sessing 'little merit as literary productions, and ranking
among the most immoral of French novels, enjoy great
popularity both in France and other countries of Europe.
Some French critics consider him an excellent painter
of French manners, of Parisian roguery, rustic bonhomie,
and the absurdity of the bourgeois.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generate ;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1837; "Foreign
Quarterly Review" for February, 1830, and October, 1839 ; " North
American Review" for April, 1843.
Kochly or Koechly, koK'lee, (HERMANN AUGUST
THEODOR,) a German philologist, born at Leipsic in
1815. He published, among other works, a valuable
"History of the Art of War among the Greeks," (1852.)
Kodde, van der, vSn der kocl'deh, (J/\N, ADRIAAN,
and GYSBERT,) three brothers, who lived at Warmond,
near Leyden, and founded a religious society, called Col-
legiants, about 1620.
Kodhaee or Kodhai, Al, al ko-dha'ee, (Abdallah-
Ibn-Abi-Bekr-Ibnul-Abbar, ab-d31'lah Tb'n a'bee
bek'r ib-nool' ab-bSn',) often called simply Ibnul- (or
Ibnool-) Abbar, a celebrated Spanish Arabian author,
born at Valencia, in Spain, in the thirteenth century.
His style is elegant, pure, and terse. Among his writings
are two biographical works on the Arabian poets and
authors.
Kodros. See CODRUS.
Koeberger, koo'beRG-er, (VENCESLAUS,) a Flemish
painter and architect, born in Antwerp about 1550. He
studied in his native city, and afterwards at Rome, where
he greatly distinguished himself. Among his paintings
are the " Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian," and " Christ
taken from the Cross and supported by Angels." Died
in 1634, or, according to some authorities, in 1610.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Koecher. See KOCHER.
Kcechlin, kek'liN', (DANIEL,) a French chemist and
manufacturer of cotton, born at Miilhouse about 1780,
was one of the firm of Nicolas Koechlin freres. He
greatly promoted the prosperity of Miilhouse by the
invention of a process of adorning printed muslins with
rich designs and brilliant colours.
Kcechlin, (NICOLAS,) a brother of the preceding, was
born at Miilhouse in 1781. lie was a manufacturer of
fine muslins (indiennes) at Miilhouse, and a liberal mem
ber of the Chamber of Deputies. Died in 1852.
Koechly. See KOCHLY.
Koeck, kook, (PIETER,) a Flemish painter, engraver,
and architect, was born at Alost about 1500. He studied
in Italy, and afterwards visited Turkey. Among his
works are seven large and well-executed paintings to
illustrate the manners of the Turks. He also made
engravings of these pictures. Koeck was first painter
to Charles V. Died in 1553.
See PII.KINGTON, "Dictionary of Painters."
Koegler. See KOGLER.
Koehler. See KOHLER.
Koekkoek, kook'kook, (BERNARD CORNELLS,) a
Dutch landscape-painter, born at Middelburg in 1803,
published in 1841 "Recollections and Communications
of a Landscape-Painter." His works are commended
for fidelity to nature and other merits. Died in 1858.
See NAGLER, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Koelcsey, (FRANCIS.) See KOLCSEY.
Koeler. See KOHLER.
Koelliker. See KOLLIKER.
Koelreuter. See KOLREUTER.
Koeiiig. See KONIG.
Koenigshoveii. See KONIGSHOVEN.
Koenigsmarck. See KONIGSMARCK.
Koeppen. See KOPPEN.
Koepstein. See CAPITO, (WOLFGANG.)
Koerner. See KORNER.
Koerte. See KORTE.
Koerten-Block. See BLOCK.
Koes, (F.) See Kos.
Koestliii. See KOSTLIN.
Koets, koots, (ROELOF,) a Dutch portrait-painter,
born at Zwolle in 1655. Among his works are the por
traits of WTilliam III. of England, and of several distin
guished Flemings, Germans, and Englishmen. Died in
1725.
See DESCAMPS, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Kofod, ko'fod, (JOHAN ANCHER,) a Danish writer,
born near Bornholm in 1777, published several histories
and a "Conversations-Lexicon," (28 vols., 1816-28.)
Died in 1829.
See ERSLEW, " Forfatter- Lexicon."
Kogler or Koegler, kor/Ier, ( IGNAZ, ) a learned
Jesuit, born in Bavaria in 1680. In 1715 he was sent as
a missionary to China, where he received many marks
of distinction from the emperor Kang-Hee, (Kang-Hi.)
He died in Pekin in 1746.
Kohen Attar, ko'hen at-t&R', written also Cohen
Atthar and Kuhan Atthar, a learned Egyptian phy
sician, lived about 1150, and wrote on materia meclica.
Kohl, k5l, (JoiiANN GEORG,) a German traveller and
popular writer, was born at Bremen in 1808. Among his
principal works are "Travels in the Interior of Russia
and Poland," (1841,) "Travels in Styriaandthe Bavarian
Highlands," (1842,) "Travels in England, Scotland, and
Ireland," (1844,) and "Travels in the Netherlands,"
(1850.) He also wrote "Sketches from Nature and
Common Life," (2 vols., 1851.) His fine descriptive
powers and spirited, attractive style entitle him to rank
among the best writers of travels in recent times.
See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1841, and January,
1842 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1846.
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m§t; n&t; good; moon;
KOHLER
1337
KONIG
Kbhler or Koehler, ko'ler, QOHANN BERNHARD,)
a German scholar, born at Lubeck in 1742. In 1781 he
was appointed to the chair of the Greek and Oriental
languages in the University of Konigsberg. He wrote
"Remarks on Dion Chrysostom," "Tracts on Roman
Law," and several other works. Died in 1802.
Kohler, Koehler, or Koeler, QOHANN DAVID,) a
German author and antiquary, born near Leipsic in
1684. In 1710 he was appointed professor of logic at
Altorf, and about 1725 was chosen professor of history
at Gottingen. His numerous works relate to history,
bibliography, and literature. Died in 1755.
See J. M. GESNER, " Memoria Koehleri," 1755; GATTERER und
J. I!. KOHLER, "J. D. Kohlers Leben," in the last volume of his
"Miinzbelustigungen," 22 vols., 1729-55.
Kohler or Koehler, (JOHANN TOBIAS,) a German
numismatist, born at Altorf in 1720, was a son of the
preceding. He published a "Cabinet of Ducats,"
("Ducaten-Cabinet," 2 vols., 1758-60.) Died in 1768.
Kohlrausch, kol'rowsh, ( HKINRICH FRIEDRICH
THKODOR,) born near Gottingen in 1780, published a
" History of Germany."
Kohrie, ko'neh, (FREDERICK,) born in Prussia in
1757, emigrated to America in 1780, and made a large
fortune at Charleston, South Carolina. He died in 1829,
leaving a great part of his property to the charitable
institutions of Pennsylvania and South Carolina, for the
benefit of the coloured as well as the white population.
Kolb. See KOLBE, (PETER.)
Kolbe, kol'beh, (KARL WILHELM,) a skilful German
engraver and writer, born at Berlin in 1757. He etched
numerous landscapes after his own designs, and wrote,
among other works, a treatise " On the Riches of the
German and French Languages, and the Capacity of
both for Poetry," (1806.) Died in 1835.
See his Autobiography, " Mein Lebenslauf und mein Wirken,"
1825; NAGLER, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Kolbe, (KARL WILHELM,) a German painter, nephew
of the preceding, born at Berlin in 1781 ; died in 1853.
Kolbe, written also Kolb, kolp, or Kolben, kol'ben,
(PETER,) a naturalist, born at Wunsiedel, in Bavaria,
in 1675. He passed some years in Southern Africa,
and wrote, among other works, "A Description of the
Cape of Good Hope," (1719.) His book, containing
much valuable information, was translated into the
French, Dutch, and English languages. Died in 1726.
See G. C. OERTEL, "Dissertatio de Vita et Mentis P. Kolbii,"
1758-
Kolben. See KOLBE, (PETER.)
Kolcsey, kol'cha, (FRANCIS,) one of the greatest of
Hungarian orators, celebrated also as a poet, critic, and
lawyer, was born in Middle Szolnok in 1790. At an
early age he formed a friendship with Kazinczy and Paul
Szemere, and in 1826 was associated with the latter as
editor of a journal entitled " Life and Literature." He
published in this periodical a number of critical essays,
regarded as the best in the Hungarian language, the
object of which was the improvement of the national
literature of Hungary. He was a deputy to the Diet
of 1832-36, where he was distinguished for his rare elo
quence and his unswerving course in the support of
liberal principles. Died in 1838. His complete works,
consisting of poems, tales, essays, and philosophical and
miscellaneous writings, were published the same year.
See an article on the " Language and Literature of the Magyars,"
in the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for September, 1828.
Koler. See KOHLER.
Ko-let'tis or Co-let'tis, (JOANNIS,) a modern Greek
statesman and democrat, born near Janina in 1788, was
one of the most active promoters of the insurrection of
1821. On the accession of King Otho he was appointed
minister of the interior and president of the cabinet.
He became in 1844 minister of foreign affairs, which post
he held until his death, in 1847.
See L. DE LOMENIE, "M. Colettis, par un Homme de Rien,"
1842.
Kollar, kol'laR, (JAN,) a distinguished ecclesiastic,
poet, and antiquary, born in Northern Hungary in 1793.
He endeavoured by his writings to establish a common
language and feeling of nationality between the various
Slavonic races in Europe. This spirit pervades all his
poetry, for which he used the Bohemian language, re
garding his native Slovakian as deficient in dignity and
comprehensiveness. After the revolt of the Hungarians,
to whom he was bitterly opposed, he removed to Vienna,
where he became professor of archaeology. Died in 1852.
His principal poem is entitled " Slawy Dcera," (" Daugh
ter of Glory," 1824.) Among his prose works are "Treat
ises on the Names and Antiquities of the Slavonic
Nation," and "On the Literary Reciprocity between the
Races and Dialects of the Slavonic Tribes," (1831.)
See DR. J. BOWRING, "Servian Poetry;" "Foreign Quarterly
Review" for April, 1828.
Kolli, kol'lee, de, (BARON,) a political adventurer,
born in Piedmont about 1775. He made an attempt in
1810 to release from prison the Spanish prince, (after
wards Ferdinand VII.,) but, his plan having been be
trayed, he was imprisoned four years in the castle of
Saumur. Died about 1825.
See " Memoirs of Baron de Kolli," by himself; " Edinburgh
Review" for October, 1823.
Kolliker or Koelliker, kol'le-ker, (ALBERT,) a Ger
man physiologist of high reputation, born about 1818.
He gained distinction by his minute investigations with
the microscope. Among other works, he published
" Manual of Human Histology," (" Handbuch der Gewe-
belehre des Menschen," 1852,) which has been translated
into English by Busk and Huxley. He became professor
of anatomy and physiology at Wiirzburg.
Kollmann, kol'man, ( AUGUST FRIEDRICH KARL,) a
German composer, born near Hanover in 1756. He was
an organist in London, and wrote a "Theory of Musical
Harmony," (1806.) Died in 1824.
Kollontaj or Kolontaj, kol'lon-t!', (Huco,) written
also Kollontay, a Polish patriot, born in the government
of Sandomir in 1750. He had the principal share in
drawing up the constitution of the 3d of May, 1791, but,
after the meeting of the confederation of Targowitza, was
forced to leave the country. He was afterwards impris
oned for a time at Olmiitz by the Austrians. He was the
author of several able political treatises. Died in 1812.
Kolmar. See COLMAR.
Koln. See COLN.
Kol-o-ko-tro'nis or Colocotronis, (THEODORE,)
a modern Greek patriot, born in Messenia in 1770. He
distinguished himself in many engagements with the
Turks, and rose to be commander-in-chief of the Pelo
ponnesus in 1823. In 1835 he was made a councillor
of state by King Otho, and obtained other distinctions.
Died in 1843.
See QUINET, "La Grece moderne dans ses Rapports avec 1'An-
tiquite."
Kolowrat or Kolowrat-Liebsteinski, ko'lo-rat'
leep-stln'skee, (FRANZ ANTON,) a Bohemian minister of
state, born at Prague in 1778. He became a member
of the council of ministers at Vienna in 1825, and had
charge of the department of finances for many years.
Kolowrat, ko'lo-rat', or Kollowrath, kol'lo-rat',
(LEOPOLD KRAKOWSKI,) a statesman of Austria under
the reigns of Francis I., Maria Theresa, Joseph II.,
Leopold II., and Francis II. He held the offices of
minister of the interior and grand chancellor of Bohemia.
Died in 1809.
Kolreuter or Koelreuter, kol'roi'ter, (JOSEPH
GOTTLIEB,) a German botanist, born at Julz, on the
Neckar, in 1733; died in 1806.
Koltzof or Kolzov, kolt'sof, ( ALEXEI VASILIE-
VITCH,) a Russian poet, born in the government of
Voronezh in 1809. His "Russian Songs and Ballads"
are ranked among the best productions of the kind in
the language. Died in 1842.
Komnenos. See COMNENUS.
Konarski, ko-naR'skee, (STANISLAS JEROME,) a
Polish poet and litterateur, born at Konary, near Cracow,
in 1700. He founded a college of Piarists at Warsaw.
He published numerous works which contributed- to
reform the national literature. Died in 1773.
See KRAJEWSKI, " filoge historique de Konarski," Warsaw, 1783.
Kong-Fou-Tse. See CONFUCIUS.
Kong-Fu-Tse. See CONFUCIUS.
Koiiig or Koenig, ko'nic, (CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB,) a
German poet, born at Altorf in 1711 ; died in 1782.
€ as k; c as s; g hard;gzs>j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
KON1G
1338
KOOTOOZ
Konig or Koenig, ko'nio, (EMANUEL,) a Swiss natu
ralist and medical writer, born at Bale in 1658. Among
his works is " Regnum Vegetabile," (1680.) Died in
1731.
Konig or Koenig, (FRIF.DRICII,) the inventor of the
steaiu-press, was born at Eisleben, in Germany, in 1775.
About 1807 he visited London, where he was aided in
carrying out his plans by Bensley, Taylor, and Woodfall.
In 1811 a sheet of the " Annual Register" was printed,
being the first that was done by a printing-machine by
which the paper was applied to the type by a revolving
cylinder. In November, 1814, a number of the "Times"
was printed by a steam press on the principle of Konig's
invention : it is said to have been the first newspaper
ever printed by steam-power. After his return to Ger
many, Konig, in conjunction with his friend Bauer, es
tablished at Oberzell, near Wurzburg, a manufactory
for the construction of printing-machines, four hundred
of which had in 1853 been sent forth from it. After the
death of Konig, in 1833, the business was carried on by
Bauer.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale."
Konig or Koenig, (GEORG MATTHIAS,) a German
writer and scholar, born at Altdorf, in Franconia, in 1616,
was appointed in 1667 professor of poetry in his native
city. Among his works are a " Latin-and-German Lexi
con," (1668,) and a Biographical Dictionary of Authors,
(" Bibliotheca Vetus et Nova," 1678.) Died in 1699.
See BAVLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
"Memoires. "
Konig or Koenig, (HEINRICH JOSEPH,) a German
novelist, born at Fultla in 1790. Among his best works
are "The Waldenses," (1836,) " William Shakspeare,"
(1839.) and "The Clubbists of Mentz," ("Die Clubisten
von Mainz," 1847 :) the last named, a historical romance,
is especially admired. He was secretary of finance at
Hanau from 1819 to 1835. Died in 1869.
See N. GRETCH, " H. Konig und seine Liigen ; Seitenstiick zu
Nic. Gretsch und die Russische Literatur in Deutschland," 1840.
Konig or Koenig, (JoiiANN GERARD,) a botanist, and
pupil of Linnaeus, born in Livonia in 1728. He visited
Iceland and the East Indies, and wrote several treatises
on botany, which he left in manuscript. Died at Tran-
quebar in 1785.
Konig or Koenig, (SAMUEL,) an eminent mathema
tician, son of Samuel Heinrich, noticed below, was born
at Biidingen in 1712. He was professor of mathematics
at Franeker, and professor of philosophy and law at the
Hague. Died in 1757.
Konig or Koenig, (SAMUEL HEINRICH,) a Swiss
Orientalist and theologian, born about 1670 at Berne,
where he became professor of mathematics and Oriental
languages in 1731. Died in 1750.
Koriig or Koninck, (SOLOMON.) See CONINCK.
Kbnigshoven or Koenigshoven, kS'nios-ho'ven,
also known as JAMES TWINGER, an ecclesiastic, born at
Strasburg in 1346. He wrote, in Latin and German,
" Chronicles of Strasburg." Died in 1420.
See OBERLIN, " De Jacobo Twingero," etc., 1789.
Konigsmarck or Koenigsmarck, von, fon ko'-
niGs-maRk', written also Kouigsmark, [Lat. KONIGS-
MAR'KIUS,] (JOHANN CHRISTOPH,) COUNT, a celebrated
general, born in Germany in 1600, entered the service
of Gustavus Adolphus in 1630. After the death of the
King of Sweden, he defeated the Austrians in the battle
of Wolfenbiittel. He also invaded Bohemia, and captured
Prague, in 1648. He was afterwards appointed Governor
of the duchies of Bremen and Verden. Queen Christina
created him count and field-marshal. Died in 1663.
See " Eterna Gloria J. C. Kbnigsmarkii," Holm, 1664.
Konigsmarck, Koenigsmarck, or Konigsmark,
von, (MARIA AURORA,) COUNTESS, a granddaughter of
the preceding, celebrated for her beauty and accomplish
ments, was born in Bremen about 1670. She was the
mistress of Frederick Augustus, Elector of Saxony and
King of Poland, by whom she had a son, Maurice Count
de Saxe, afterwards famous as a French general. In
1702 she was sent by the Elector to treat with Charles
XII. That monarch refused to see her ; " but she
returned," says Voltaire, "with the satisfaction of be
lieving that she was the only person feared by the King of
Sweden." The Countess of Konigsmarck spoke several
languages with great fluency and correctness. She com
posed a poem on Charles XII., written in the purest
French. Died in 1728.
See CRAMER, " Denkwurdigkeiten der M. A. Konigsmark," 2
vols.. 1836; CORVIN-WIERSBITZKY, "Maria Aurora Grafin von
Konigsmark," 1841 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1837.
Konigsmarck, von, (OTTO WILHELM,) COUNT, son
of Johann Christoph, noticed above, was born in West
phalia in 1639. He subsequently served with great dis
tinction in the P'rench army under Turenne and with
the Swedish army in Germany. In 1686 he was created
generalissimo of the Venetian republic, for which he
gained several victories over the Turks. Died in 1688.
Konigsmark or Koeiiigsmark, ko'niGs-maRk', (Fi-
LIP CHRISTOFEK,) COUNT, a Swedish officer, born about
1640, was a favourite lover of Sophia Dorothea, the wife
of George, Elector of Hanover. This prince, it is said,
caused him to be assassinated in 1694.
See SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires;" BLAZE DE BURV, "Episode de
1'Histoire du Hanovre."
Konigsmarkius. See KONIGSMARCK.
Koninck. See CONINCK.
Koning, ko'ning, (CORNELIS,) a Dutch engraver, born
at Haarlem about 1524, engraved portraits of celebrated
men, including Luther and Calvin.
Kouing, (JACOB,) a Dutch painter of landscapes and
history, born at Amsterdam about 1645. He went to
Copenhagen, and worked for the King of Denmark.
Koiiing, de, (DAVID.) See CONINCK.
Koning or Koninck, de, cleh ko'ning, (PuiLiPP,)
an able Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1619, was
a pupil of Rembrandt. He was a good colorist, and
excelled in landscapes and portraits. Died in 1689.
Konon. See CONON.
Konstantijn or Konstantyn. See CONSTANTTNE
THE GREAT.
Kontski, kont/skee, (MARTIN,) a Polish general, born
in 1635, served with distinction under John Sobieski. He
directed the artillery in the great battle against the Turks
at Vienna in 1683. Died in 1710.
Konz, (KARL PHILIPP.) See CONZ.
Kooang or Kouang, koo-ang', (almost kwang,) a
Chinese statesman and celebrated historian, born in the
province of Shen-see or Chen-si about 1018 A.D. He
wrote an important work on the history of China. Died
in 1086.
See MAII.LA, "Histoire g^nerale de la Chine."
Kooblai (Koublai or Kublai) Khan, koo'bl!' Kan,
(Shee-Tsoo or Chi-Tsou, shee-tsoo,) the founder of
the Mongol dynasty of China, was a grandson of Jengis
Khan. He began to reign over the north part of China
about 1260, soon after which date he conquered the
southern provinces and became master of a vast empire
extending from the Polar Sea to the Straits of Malacca,
and including Thibet, Tartary, Siam, etc. He is said to
have been an able ruler. In his reign Marco Polo visited
China. Died in 1294.
Koogen, van der, v3n der ko'gen, (LEONARD,) a
Flemish painter, born at Haarlem in 1610, was also an
etcher. Died in 1681.
Koolee Khan. See NADIR SHAH.
Koolnef, Koulneff, or Kulnew, kool-neT, (YAKOF,)
a Russian general, born in 1763. He was killed at the
battle of the Drissa, in July, 1812.
Koorakiii or Kourakin, koo'ra-keen' or koo'ra-kin',
(ALEXANDER BORISOVITCH,) PRINCE, a Russian diplo
matist, born in 1752, was a favourite courtier of Paul I.
He was ambassador at Paris from 1808 to 1812. Died
in 1818.
Koorakin or Kourakin, ( BORIS IVANOVITCH, )
PRINCE, a Russian diplomatist, born in 1677, was a
brother-in-law of Peter I. He was sent to Rome on a
political mission by that emperor. Died in 1727.
Koornhert. See CORNHERT.
Kooten, van, vtn ko'ten, (THEODORUS,) a Latin poet,
born in Holland in 1749; died in 1814.
Kootooz or Kutuz, (Kothouz,) koo-tooz' or koo'-
tooz',* written also Kotouz, (Mahmood Seif-ed-
* There is some discrepancy in the mode of writing this name.
Abulpharagius more frequently gives both syllables long. See
Pocock's edition, Oxford, 1663.
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; not; good; moon;
KOOTOOZOF
1339
KORTHOLT
Deen Malek Modhaffer, man'mood' sif ed-deen' mo'-
dhaf'fer,) became Sultan of Egypt in 1259 by usurpation.
He defeated the Tartars in Syria. He was assassinated
by Bibars in 1260.
Kootoozof, Koutouzof, Koutousof, or Kutu-
sow, koo-too'zof, (MICHAEL LAURIONOVITCH GOLENI-
TCHEF,) a celebrated Russian commander, born in 1745,
served against the Poles and the Turks, and rose to be
lieutenant-general in 1789. In 1793 he was ambassador
to Constantinople, and on the accession of the emperor
Paul was charged with a mission to Berlin. After the
assassination of that sovereign he was appointed gov
ernor-general of Saint Petersburg, and in 1805 was
created commander-in-chief of the first corps of the
Russian army against the French. He gained a victory
over Marshal Mortier at Dtirrenstein, and soon after
commanded the allied army under the emperor Alex
ander at Austerlitz, (1805.) In 1812, at the age of sixty-
seven, he succeeded Barclay de Tolly as commander-
in-chief of the Russian army, a few days before the
battle of Borodino. For his victories over Ney and
Davoust the emperor bestowed upon him the surname
of Smolenskoi. He died in 1813, at Buntzlau, where a
monument was erected to him.
See SEGUR, " Histoire de Napoleon et de la grande Armee;"
MIKHAII.OVSKY-DANILEVSKY, "Vie du Feld-Marechal Koutouzoff,"
translated from the Russian by FIZELIER, 1850; " Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generale."
Kopernicus. See COPERNICUS.
Kopernik. See COPERNICUS.
Kopievitch, ko-pe-a'vitch, written also Kopieu-
vicz, (ELIAS,) a Russian philologist, who was sent by
Peter the Great to Holland in order to complete his
studies. Among his works are a Latin Grammar for Rus
sian schools, and a Slavonic-and-German Dictionary.
Kopisch, ko'pish, (AUGUST,) a German poet and
artist, born at Breslau in 1799 ; died in 1853.
Kopitar, ko'pe-taR', (BARTHOLOMAUS,) a philologist,
born in Carniola in 1780, was appointed first keeper of
the Imperial Library at Vienna, (1843.) He published
in 1808 a " Grammar of the Slavonian Language in Car
niola, Carinthia, and Styria." Died in 1844.
Kopp, kop, (JOHANN ADAM,) a German publicist,
born at Offenbach in 1698. He wrote, besides other
works, a " History of the Law which now prevails in
Germany," (" Historia Juris quo hodie in Germania
utimur," 1741.) Died in 1748.
Kopp, kop, (JOSEPH EUTYCH,) a Swiss historian, born
at Miinster, in Lucerne, in 1793. Among his works is a
" History of the Swiss Leagues," ( Biinde,) (4 vols., 1845-
57,) which is commended as very interesting. Kopp
discredits the popular tradition of William Tell.
Kopp, (ULRICH FRIEDRICH,) a German antiquary,
born at Cassel in 1762, became director of the court
archives in 1802. His " Paloeographia critica" (1817) is
much esteemed. Died in 1834.
Koppe, kop'peh, (JOHANN BENJAMIN,) a German
theologian, born at Dantzic in 1750. He published
several exegetical works, and left unfinished an edition
of the New Testament in Greek, (3 vols.) Died in 1791.
See HOPPENSTEDT, "Ueber den verstorbenen J. B. Koppe,"
1791.
Koppen or Koeppen, kop'pen, (ADOLPHUS Louis,)
a Danish scholar and writer, born at Copenhagen in
1804. In 1834 he visited Greece, where he was appointed
professor of history, archaeology, and modern languages
at the military college in ^£gina. He removed in 1846 to
America, where he became in 1854 professor of history,
aesthetics, and modern languages in Franklin and Mar
shall College, Pennsylvania. He has published "The
World in the Middle Ages," (1854,) and other works.
Koppen or Koeppen, kop'pen, (CARL FRIEDRICH,)
a German writer, born about 1800, became assistant pro
fessor in one of the principal gymnasiums of Berlin. He
published in 1848 a treatise "On the Divine Right of
Kings," ("De Jure Divino,") which was condemned by
the government and forbidden to be reprinted. His
work entitled " The Religion of Booddha and its Origin"
("Die Religion des Buddha und ihre Entstehung," 1857)
is regarded as one of the best treatises on that subject.
He also published " The Lamaic System of Religion,"
etc., (" Lamaische Hierarchie," 1859.)
Koppen or Koeppen, kop'pen, (FRIEDRICH,) a Ger
man writer on philosophy, born at Lubeck in 1775. He
became pastor of a church at Bremen in 1804, and pro
fessor of philosophy at Erlangen in 1827. Among his
works is "The Philosophy of Christianism," (2 vols.,
1813-15.) Died in 1858.
Koppen or Koeppen, (JOHANN HEINRICH JUSTUS,)
a German philologist, born at Hanover in 1755. He
published a Greek Anthology, (3 vols., 1787,) "Com
mentary on Homer's Iliad," (5 vols., 1787-92,) and other
works. Died in 1791.
Koppen, kop'pen, (PETER,) a Russian writer, born at
Kharkov in 1793, has published several works on the
antiquities and statistics of Russia, and a valuable "Eth
nographical Chart of European Russia," (1851.)
Koprili, ko'pre-lee, written also Coprogli and Kiu-
perli, (MEHEMET,) an eminent Turkish commander,
born at Kopri, in Asia Minor, in 1585, rose from the
station of a cook to be grand vizier at Constantinople in
1656. He took Tenedos and Lemnos from the Vene
tians, and obtained other advantages over the enemies
of the Sultan. As a ruler he showed great energy and
prudence, and effected important reformations in the
condition of the country. Died in 1661.
Koprili, (MUSTAFA,) surnamed THE VIRTUOUS, son
of the preceding, was appointed grand vizier by Solyman
III. in 1689. Died in 1691.
Koprili-Fazil-Ahmed, (or -Achmed,) ko'pre-lee
fa'zil an'med, a brother of the preceding, born in 1626,
succeeded Mehemet Koprili as grand vizier. He gained
several important victories over the Hungarians and the
Poles, and took the island of Candia. Died in 1676.
See Vox HAMMER, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs."
Kops, kops, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a Belgian landscape-
painter, born about 1800.
Koray. See CORAY.
Kordes, kor/de's, (BERNHARD,) a German writer,
born at Lubeck in 1762. He lived at Kiel. Died in 1823.
Koren, (MOSES OF.) See MOSES CHORENENSIS.
Koreiiatz. See MOSES CHORENENSIS.
Korf, koRf, (ANDREI,) BARON, a Russian publicist
and senator, born near Mittau in 1715 ; died in 1823.
Korf, (NICHOLAS,) BARON, a Russian minister of state
under Peter III., was born in 1710; died in 1766.
Korinna. See CORINNA.
Kornelisz. See CORNELISZ.
Korner or Koerner, koR'ner, (CHRISTIAN GOTT
FRIED,) born at Leipsic in 1756, was the father of Theo-
dor Korner, and an intimate friend of Schiller. He was
also a correspondent of Goethe. It was in his beautiful
vineyard near Dresden that Schiller wrote "Don Car
los." Died in 1831.
Korner or Koerner, (KARL THEODOR,) one of the
most celebrated German poets, was born in Dresden in
1791. He studied at Leipsic and Berlin, and displayed
at an early age a rare poetical genius. Among his first
productions were the popular comedies of "The Green
Domino," (1812,) and "The Watchman," (1812.) He
was one of the first to enlist in the war against Napoleon ;
and, inspired with patriotic enthusiasm and a keen sense
of his country's wrongs, he produced some of the most
spirited and beautiful martial lyrics in the German lan
guage. These were published under the title of "The
Lyre and the Sword," (1814.) Korner was also the
author of two popular tragedies, " Rosamunda," (1812,)
and "Zriny," (1813.) He fell in battle near Rosenberg,
in 1813, at the age of twenty-two.
See F. \V. LEHMANN, " Lebensbeschreibung K. T. Koerner's,"
1819; H. A. ERHARD, "T. Koerner's Leben, "etc., 1821 ; H. BLAZE,
" ficrivains et Poetes de I'Allemagne," 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographie
Generale ;" LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Black-
wood's Magazine" for October, 1820, and February, 1821.
Kornmann, koRn'man, (HEINRICH,) a German writer
and lawyer, born in Wiirtemberg ; died about 1620.
Korosi. See CSOMA.
Kbrte or Koerte, koR'teh, (WILHELM,) a German
writer, born at Aschersleben in 1766. He published,
among other works, a "Life of Gleim," (1811,) who was
his great-uncle, and a "Life of Carnot," (1820.) Died
in 1846.
Kortholt, koRt'holt, [Lat. KORTHOL'TUS,] (CHRIS
TIAN,) a Lutheran theologian and ecclesiastical historian,
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in ?///>. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
KORTHOLT
1340
KOSSUTH
born at Burg, in Holstein, in 1633. About 1665 he was
appointed professor of divinity in the University of Kiel.
He published numerous religious treatises, of which we
may name "On the Pagan, Mohammedan, and Jewish
Religions," (1666,) " Of the Three Impostors Herbert,
Hobbes, and Spinosa," (1680,) "On the Origin and Na
ture of Christianity," and " On the State and Progress
of Schools and Academies, especially in Germany." Died
in 1694.
See LINDEMANN, "Memoria C. Kortliolti," 1694.
Kortholt, (CHRISTIAN,) a Danish or German theo
logian, son of Sebastian, noticed below, was born at
Kiel in 1709. He became professor of divinity at Got-
tingen. He published "The Letters of Leibnitz," (4
vols., 1734-42,) and wrote, besides other works, (in Latin,)
an "Essay on the Enthusiasm of Mohammed," (1745.)
Died in 1751.
See AYRER, " Memoria C. Kortholti," 1751.
Kortholt, (SEBASTIAN,) a son of Christian, noticed
above, (1633-94,) and the father of the preceding, was
born at Kiel about 1670. He was a man of great learn
ing, and wrote many literary essays. Died about 1740.
Kortholtus. See KORTHOLT.
Kortiim or Kortuem, koR'tiim, (JOHANN FRIF.DRICH
CHRISTOPH,) a German historian, born in Mecklenburg-
Strelitz in 1788, became professor of history at Heidel
berg in 1840. He wrote, among other works, a " History
of the Political Constitution of Greece," and a " History
of the Middle Ages," (2 vols., 1837.) Died in 1858.
Kortiim or Kortuem, (KARL ARNOLD,) a German
physician and satiric poet, born at M ill heim-an-der- Ruhr
in 1745, published a mock-heroic poem entitled "The
Jobsiad; or, The Life, Opinions, and Deeds of Jerome
Jobs the Candidate," (1784.) Died in 1824, An English
translation of "The Jobsiad," by Rev. Charles T. Brooks,
was published in Philadelphia in 1863.
Kosciusko, kos-se-us'ko, [Polish, KOSCIUSZKO, k6sh-
yoo'sko,] (THADDEUS,) an illustrious Polish patriot and
general, of a noble family, was born in Lithuania about
1750. Having studied at the military academy of Ver
sailles, he embarked about 1777 for America, where he
fought with distinction at New York and Yorktown and
acquired the friendship of Washington. He returned
to Poland in 1786, but, his country being soon after sub
jected to Russia, he retired to Leipsic. On the break
ing out of the revolution of 1794, he was appointed
commander of the Polish army, and defeated the Russians
with greatly superior numbers at Raclawice. For two
months he defended Warsaw against the united forces
of Russia and Prussia, but, overpowered at last by fresh
troops advancing under Fersen, suffered a total defeat at
Maciejowice, where he was wounded and taken prisoner
in October, 1794. After two years' imprisonment, he was
released by the emperor Paul, who offered him his sword,
which Kosciusko refused, saying " he had no need of a
sword, since he had no longer a country." When solicited
by Napoleon to aid him in his ambitious schemes with
regard to Poland, he steadily refused ; and the proclama
tion to the Poles, which appeared in the "Moniteur"
under his name in 1806, was declared by him a forgery.
He died in 1817, at Soleure, in Switzerland, having
previously written to the emperor Alexander entreat
ing him to give to Poland a free constitution. He also
abolished serfdom on his Polish domain.
See M. A. JULI.IEN, "Notice sur Kosciuszko," 1818; FAI.KEN-
by GODEBESKI, 1851; "Nouvelle Hiographie GeneVale ;" "Foreign
Quarterly Review" for March, 1835.
Kosegarten, ko'zeh-gaR'ten, (JOHANN GOTTFRIED
LUDWIG,) son of Ludwig Theobul, noticed below, was
born in the island of Rligen in 1792. Having studied
philology in Paris, he became in 1824 professor of Ori
ental languages at Greifswalde. He translated into
German the Hindoo poem "Nala," (1820,) and made
several versions from the Persian. He also published
editions of the " Moalakat," and other Arabic works.
Died in 1860.
Kosegarten, (Lunwic THEOBUL,) a German divine
and poet, was born at Grevismiihlen, in Mecklenburg,
in 1758. He became in 1808 professor of history at
Greifswalde, and subsequently of theology, and rector
of the university. His romance of " Ida von Plessen,"
(1788,) as well as his "Legends" and lyric poems, enjoy
a wide popularity. He also made several translations
from the Danish and English : among the latter is Rich
ardson's "Clarissa." Died in 1818.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Koslof, kos'lof, or Kozlov, koz'lof, (!VAN IVANO-
vrrcit,) a Russian poet, born in 1774, made a number
of excellent translations from the English. His poems,
written after he became blind, are distinguished for their
melody of versification and tender pathos. Among the
most admired of these is "The Monk," ("Tchernets.")
Died in 1838.
See E. MECHERSKI, "Les Poetes Russes."
Koslovski, (M. I.) See KOZLOFSKI.
Kos-Iov'ski, (OssiP ANTONOVITCH,) a popular Rus
sian composer, produced, among other works, a " Re
quiem" of great beauty, and composed the music for
Oserof's tragedy of " Fingal." Died in 1831.
Kosmas. See COSMAS.
Kossuth, kosh'oot, (Louis,) an eminent Hungarian
orator and statesman, born of a noble family at Monok,
in the county of Zemplin, in 1802. He studied law at the
Protestant college of Sarospatak, and joined the popular
party in opposing the despotic policy of Austria. Having
offended the government by his writings, he was impris
oned three years, (1837-40.) The Diet of 1840 refused to
grant supplies during the imprisonment of Kossuth, who
was consequently liberated. In 1841 he married Theresa
Meszlenyi, and began to edit a daily paper at Pesth, called
" Pesti-Hirlap," the tone of which was liberal, but not
radical or democratic. He was elected a member of the
Diet by the national party of Pesth in 1847, and acquired
a high reputation as an orator. In March, 1848, the
Diet adopted a proposition made by Kossuth, the object
of which was the appointment of a responsible Hun
garian ministry, as a pledge of constitutional reforms.
Kossuth and others were sent as a deputation to Vienna,
and obtained the assent of the emperor, then conscious
of the pressure of a powerful revolutionary movement.
Kossuth induced the Diet to vote the perfect equality of
civil rights and public burdens for all classes, and to
extend the right of suffrage. lie became minister of
finance in the new ministry formed in April, 1848. Al
though the benefits of these reforms were shared by the
Croatians and Servians, an anti-Magyar party was soon
formed in Croatia by the intrigues of Austrian agents.
The Croatians, directed by Jellachich and secretly aided
by Austria, revolted against Hungary, and began hos
tilities by the massacre of villagers on the frontier. In
June, 1848, the Austrian court openly sanctioned the
movementsof the Croatian insurgents. Kossuth believed
that the time had come to defend by arms the constitu
tion and the national independence. He called for the
levy of 200,000 men, which was granted by the Diet. In
September, 1848, Jellachich was defeated in battle, and
Kossuth was elected president of a committee of de
fence. After the second insurrection at Vienna, October,
1848, the Hungarian army advanced to the assistance
of the Liberals of that capital, but was repulsed at
Schwechat. The Austrian general Windischgratz then
invaded Hungary, took Pesth, and committed great atro
cities. A war of extermination followed, and the Austrians
were defeated in several battles. In April, 1849, the
Hungarians renounced allegiance to the house of Haps-
burg, and chose Kossuth governor or dictator. But the
intervention of Russia rendered the heroic efforts and
sacrifices of the Hungarians unavailing. The victories
gained by Dembinski, Klapka, and Bern served merely
to prolong the national agony. Kossuth, after a dis
agreement with Gorgey, whom he accused of treachery,
resigned his office on the nth of August, 1849, and went
into exile. He retired to Turkey, and was imprisoned
at Kutaieh. Through the intervention of England and
the United States, he was released in August, 1851. He
then visited England, where he was received with en
thusiastic popular demonstrations, and made several
admirable speeches in the English language. In the
autumn of 1851 he came to the United States, the
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; me"t; not; good; moon;
KOSTA
134'
KRASHENINNIKOF
citizens of which gave him a very warm and flattering
reception.
See P. C. HHADI.EV, " Life of L. Kossuth," 1852 ; HORN, " Louis
Kossutli," 1851; "Kossuth, von einem Ungarn," Leipsic, 1854;
"Kossuth in England uncl seine Reden," etc., 1851 ; KLAPKA, " Me-
moiren," 1850; " L. Kossuth, Dictator von Ungarn," Mannheim,
1849: "Hungary and its Revolutions, with a Memoir of L. Kossuth."
Kosta-Ibn-Looka, (or -Luka,) kos'ta ib'n loo'ka,
written also Costha-Ben-Louka, an excellent Arabian
scholar and translator, bom at Balbec, flourished from
about 870 to 900 A.D. He translated several Greek works
into Arabic, and wrote original treatises on philosophy,
logic, medicine, etc.
Koster. See COSTER.
Kos'ter or Cos'ter, (LAURENS JANSZOON,) a Dutch
printer, born at Haarlem about 1370, is supposed by
some writers to have invented the art of printing. Ac
cording to one tradition, he kept his art a secret, but it
was stolen by one of his workmen, named John Fust.
Died about 1440.
See A. F. DIDOT, " Essai sur la Typographic;" AUGUSTE BER
NARD, " Histoire de 1'Origine de I'ltnprimerie."
Kostlin or Koestlin, kost-leen', (CHRISTIAN REIN-
HOLD,) a German jurist and novelist, born at Tubingen
in 1813; died in 1856.
Kostrof, Kostrov, or Kostrow, kos'Uof, (£RMIL
IVANOVITCII,) a Russian poet, born in the province of
Viatka ; died in 1796.
Kothouz. See KOOTOOZ.
Kotouz or Kotftz. See KOOTOOZ.
Kotter or Cotter, kot'ter, (CHRISTOPH,) a German
enthusiast, born in Silesia in 1585. He obtained notoriety
bv visions and predictions. Died in 1647.
'Kotzebue, von, fon kot'seh-boo, (AUGUST FRIED-
RICH FERDINAND,) a prolific and popular German
dramatist, born at Weimar in 1761. He went to Saint
Petersburg in 1781, and was appointed president of the
government of Esthonia. He produced in 1789 "The
Indians in England," and " The Stranger," which were
very successful. About 1800 he settled in Berlin. He
wrote abusive articles against Goethe and other great
German authors, who had refused to admit him into
their literary circle at Weimar. Between 1802 and 1806
he made journeys in different countries of Europe, and
published "Souvenirs of Paris in 1804," (2 vols., 1805.)
After the battle of Jena (1806) he took refuge in Russia,
and edited two journals, called "The Bee," (1808-10,)
and " The Cricket," (1811-12,) in which he wrote against
Napoleon. In 1817 he was sent to Germany by the
Russian government to watch and report the state and
tendency of public opinion. He expressed such hostility
and contempt for liberal principles and institutions that
he rendered himself odious to many Germans, especially
the students. He was assassinated at Mannheim in 1819
by Karl Ludwig Sand, who was actuated by a fanatical
zeal against one whom he considered a traitor to liberty.
Among his dramas are "The Two Klingsbergs," a
comedy, (1807,) and " Pizarro," (" Die Spanier in Peru.")
His works, which were very numerous, were formerly
more popular than they are at the present time. Kot
zebue possessed a ready invention and a great facility in
composition ; but his productions are deficient in depth
and power.
See F. CRAMER, " Kotzebue's Leben," 1820 ; " Kotzebue, sein
Leben, Wirken und trauriges Ende," Frankfort, iSig; H. DORING,
" Kotzebue's Leben," 1830; GEISER, " Kotzebue als Knabe, .[ting
ling, Mann, Schriftstellerund Exulant," 1803: " Literary and Political
Life of Aug. Kotzebue," translated from the German ; LONGFELLOW,
"Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;"
" Monthly Review" for January, 1801, September, 1805, and August,
1806.
Kotzebue, von, (OTTO,) a son of the preceding, born
at Reval, in Russia, in 1787. After having made the
voyage around the world with Krusenstern, he set sail
again in 1815, accompanied by Chamisso, Eschscholtz,
and others. He discovered several islands in the South
Sea, and the sound southeast of Behring's Strait called
by his name. He published, after his return, a "Voyage
of Discovery in the South Sea and to Behring's Strait,
to find a Northeast Passage," (1821.) Having sailed
for the third time in 1823, he made other discoveries,
which are described in his " New Voyage around the
World in 1823-26," (1830.) He died at Reval in 1846.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
See "Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R,
Kotzeluch, kot'seh-looK.', (LEOPOLD,) a Bohemian
composer and musician, born at Wei warn in 1753. He
succeeded Mozart as composer to the court at Vienna,
^1792.) He composed operas, symphonies, and sonatas,
which were once very popular. Died in 1814.
Kouang. See KOOANG.
Koublai Khan. See KOOBI.AI KHAN.
Kouck, kowk, (PiETER,) a Dutch painter, born in
1500 or 1501, worked at Antwerp. He was patronized
by Charles V. Died in 1550.
Kouli Khan. See NADIR SHAH.
Koulneff. See KOOLNEF.
Koumas, koo'mas, ( CUNSTANTINE MICHAEL, ) a
modern Greek scholar and author, was born at Larissa
about 1775. He published a "Greek Lexicon," (1826,)
"Elements of Philosophy," (4 vols.,) and other scientific
works. Died at Trieste in 1836.
Koung-Fou-Tseu. See CONFUCIUS.
Kourakin. See KOORAKIN.
Kourma or Kourmavatara. See KURMA.
Koutouz. See KOOTOOZ.
Koutouzof or Koutousof. See KOOTOOSOF.
Kouwenberg, van, vSn kow'en-be'Rg', (K.RISTIAEN,)
a Dutch painter of history, born at Delft in 1604; died
at Cologne in 1667.
Kozlofski, koz-lof'skee, or Koslovski.kos-lov'skee,
(MiCHAiL IVANOVITCII,) a Russian sculptor, became
professor in the Academy of Arts at Saint Petersburg.
Among his master-pieces are the statue of Suwarow at
Saint Petersburg, and the statue of Catherine II. as
Minerva. Died in 1803.
Kozlov. See KOSI.OF.
Kozmian, koz'me-an, ? (GAETAN or C AJETAN,) a Polish
poet, born in Lublin in 1771. He wrote odes which were
highly esteemed, — "The Georgics of Poland," — and an
epic poem entitled " Stephen Czarniecki." Died in 1856.
See F. MORAWSKI, "Notice sur Kozmian," Posen, 1856.
Kraflft, kRaft, (ADAM,) a German sculptor, born at
Nuremberg about 1429. Among his master-pieces are
the tabernacle in the church of Saint Lawrence at Nu
remberg, the celebrated Ciborium in the minster at Ulm,
and a number of beautiful bas-reliefs. Died in 1507-
Krafft, (JOSEPH,) a portrait-painter, born at Hanau in
1787, was a brother of Peter, noticed below. He worked
in Vienna. Died in 1828.
Krafft, (PETER,) a German painter, and professor at
the Academy of Vienna, born at Hanau in 1780. Among
his works we may name " Rudolph of Habsburg" and
" Belisarius." Died in 1856.
Kraft. See CRATO.
Kraft, kRaft, or Krafft, (GEORG WOLFGANG,) a Ger
man natural philosopher, born in Wiirtemberg in 1701,
was professor of physics at Tubingen, and wrote several
works on geometry and physics. Died in 1754-
Kraft von Toggenburg, kRaft fon tog'gen-booRG', a
German minnesinger. Died in 1259.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Kraitsir, kRlt'sir, (CHARLES,) a Hungarian physician
and scholar, born in 1804. He emigrated to America
in 1833, and became in 1842 professor of modern lan
guages and history in the University of Virginia. He
published "Glossology," and several other works. Died
in Westchester county, New York, in 1860.
Kramer. See CRAMER.
Kramp, kR5N, (CHRETIEN,) a French mathematician
and medical writer, born at Strasburg ; died about 1828.
Kranach. See CRANACH.
Kraiitor. See GRANTOR.
Krantz or Crantz, kRants, (ALBERT,) a German his
torian and diplomatist, born at Hamburg about 1450,
was employed on several important embassies to Eng
land and France. Among his principal works, which
are written in Latin, are " Chronicles of the Kingdoms
of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway," and "Ecclesiastical
History of Saxony." Died in 1517.
See WII.KENS, "Leben Alberlii Crantzii," 1722; BAYLE, "His
torical and Critical Dictionary ;" NICERON, " Memoires ;" MOLLER,
"Cimbria Literata."
Kranz, (DAVID.) See CRANZ.
Krasheninnikof or Krascheninnikov, kRash-en-
nin'ne-kof, (STEPHEN PETROVITCH,) a Russian natural-
trilled; s, as z; th as in this. (2l^~See Explanations, p. 23.)
KRASICKI
KREUTZER
ist, born at Moscow in 1713. He travelled in Siberia
and Kamtschatka, and wrote a " Description of Kamt-
schatka," (2 vols., 1755.) Died in 1755.
See GRETCH, " Essai sur 1'Histoire de la Litterature Russe."
Krasicki,kRa-set'skee, (IGNATIUS,) an eminent Polish
poet and litterateur, born at Dubiecko in 1734. Having
taken orders as a priest, he rose to be Bishop of Erme-
land in 1767, and in 1795 Archbishop of Gnesen. His
wit and conversational powers made him a favourite
with Frederick the Great of Prussia, who once said to
him, " I hope, my lord bishop, you will take me into
Paradise with you under your mantle." " No, sire," he
replied, (alluding to the loss of some revenues:) "your
majesty has made it so short that I cannot conceal any
thing contraband under it." Among his principal works
we may name the mock-heroic poem entitled "The
Mousiad," ("Myszeis,") founded on the tradition of King
Popiel being devoured by rats and mice, " War of the
Monks," (" Monachomachia,") and a number of fables
and satires of great merit. His novel of" Pan Podstoli"
is also highly esteemed. Died in 1801.
See S. K. POTOCKI, "Essai sur la Vie, etc. de Krasicki," 1808;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" DMOCHOWSKI, " Eloge de Kra
sicki," 1801.
Krasinski, kRa-sin'skee, (VALERIAN,) COUNT, a dis
tinguished Polish writer and scholar, born in White
Russia about 1780. After the suppression of the Polish
revolution of 1830 he repaired to England, where he
published, among other works, a " History of the Re
formation in Poland," (2 vols., 1840,) " Panslavism and
Germanism," (1848,) and " Religious History of the Sla
vonic Nations," (1851.) Died in Edinburgh in 1855.
Kraszewski, kka-shev'skee, (JOSEPH IGNATIUS,) a
Polish novelist and miscellaneous writer, born at War
saw in 1812. His works, which are very numerous, con
sist of novels, poems, travels, and historical treatises.
His romances are very popular in Poland, and have in a
great measure superseded the French novels. Among
the best are "The Magic-Lantern," (1843,) "Ulana,"
(1843,) a"d "Sviat i Poeta." His epic poem "Ana-
fielas," and a " History of Wilna," are also ranked among
his best productions.
Krateros. See CRATERUS.
Krates. See CRATES.
Kratinos. See CRATINUS.
Kratippos. See CKATIPPUS.
Kratzensteiu, kRat'sen-stln', (CHRISTIAN GOTT
LIEB,) a German natural philosopher, mechanical inventor,
and writer, born at Wernigerode in 1723, became pro
fessor of physics at Copenhagen in 1754. Died in 1795.
Kraus, kRowss, (CHRISTIAN JAKOB,) a learned Ger
man writer, professor of philosophy, etc. at Konigsberg,
was born at Osterode in 1753. He published a treatise
on " Political Economy," and other works. Died in 1807.
Kraus, (FRANZ,) a German historical painter, born in
Suabia about 1704; died about 1750.
Kraus or Krauss, krowss, (JOHANN BAPTIST,) a
German prelate and historical writer, born at Ratisbon
in 1700. He was prince-abbot of the monastery of Saint
Emmeran. Died in 1762.
See PETRI, " Ehrengedachtniss des Priilaten J. B. Kraus," 1762.
Kraus, QOIIANN ULRICH,) a German engraver, born
at Augsburg about 1645 ; died in 1719.
Kraus, (MARTIN.) See CRUSIUS.
Krause, kRow'zeh, (GEORG FRIEDRICH,) a German
economist and writer on the science of forests, born at
Prenzlow in 1768; died in 1836.
Krause, (GEORG MEI.CHIOR,) a German painter and
engraver, born at Frankfort in 1737 ; died in 1806.
Krause, (JoHANN CHRISTOPH,) a German historian,
born at Artern in 1749. Among his works is a "His
tory of Europe," (5 vols., 1789-98.) Died in 1799.
Krause,( JOHANN GOTTLIEB,) a German bibliographer,
born in Silesia in 1684, published, besides other works,
" Umstandliche Biicher-Historie," (3 vols., 1716.) He was
professor of eloquence at Wittenberg. Died in 1736.
See KIRCHMAIER, " Programma ad Exequias J. G. Krausii," 1736.
Krause, (KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH,) a German
philosopher and masonic writer, born at Eisenberg in
1781. He devoted several works to the display of the
merits of freemasonry, of which he was a zealous advo
cate. Among his other works is "Urbild der Mensch-
heit," ("The Type of Humanity," 1811.) Died in 1832.
See LINDEMANN, " Darstellung des Lebens und der Wissen-
sclinftslehre Krauses," 1839.
Krause, (\VILHELM,) a German landscape and marine
painter, born at Dessau in 1803. He has produced some
excellent pictures of Norwegian scenery.
Kraut, kRowt, (WiLHELM THF.ODOR,) professor of
law at Gottingen, was born at Liineburg in 1800. He
wrote a number of legal works.
Krauth, krawth, (CHARLES PORTERFIELD,) D.D., a
Lutheran divine and accomplished scholar, the son of
Dr. Charles Philip Krauth, (late president of Pennsyl
vania College at Gettysburg,) was born at Martinsburg,
Virginia, March 17, 1823. He graduated at Pennsyl
vania College in 1839. Ordained in 1842, he became
pastor of a church in Baltimore, and was subsequently
settled at Winchester, Virginia, and Pittsburg, Pennsyl
vania. In 1859 he was called to the pastoral charge of
Saint Mark's Lutheran Church, Philadelphia, where he
remained four years. In 1861 he became editor of "The
Lutheran and Missionary," issued in Philadelphia, and
in 1864 professor of theology, church history, etc. in the
Lutheran Seminary of that city. In 1868 he was unani
mously elected to the chair of moral and intellectual
philosophy in the University of Pennsylvania. Among
his various publications we may name his edition of
Fleming's "Vocabulary of Philosophy," to which he
added a valuable bibliographical and synthetical Index,
etc., and his translation of Tholuck's "Commentary on
Saint John," (1859,) which has been reprinted in Eng
land. He has now (1870) in press "The Conservative
Reformation and its Theology," (pp. 800, 8vo.)
Kray, von, fon kul' or 'Krajof, von, fon kiu'of,
(PAUL,) BARON, an Austrian general, born at Kesmark,
in Hungary, in 1735. He fought against the French in
the Low Countries and on the Rhine in 1793-95, and
became a field-marshal-lieutenant in 1796. In 1799
he obtained the chief command of the army, defeated
Scherer twice in Italy, and took Mantua. Having
failed in a campaign against Moreau in Germany in 1800,
he was removed from the command. Died in 1804.
See ALISON, "History of Europe."
Krayenhoff, kRl'en-hof, written also Kraijenhoff,
(CORNELIS ROELF,) a Dutch general, born atNymwegen
in 1758, became minister of war under Louis Bonaparte.
He published several excellent charts. Died about 1840.
Krayer. See GRAYER.
Krebs, kReps, (JoiiANN AUGUST,) a learned German
writer, born at Heinaugen in 1681 ; died in 1713.
Krebs, (JoiiANN TOHIAS,) a German scholar and an
tiquary, born in Thuringia in 1718 ; died in 1782.
Krehl, kRal, ( AUGUST LUDWIG,) a German Protestant
theologian, born at Eisleben in 1784, became professor
of theology at Leipsic in 1834. Died in 1855.
Kreil, kkll, (KARL,) an able astronomer, bom at Ried,
in the Tyrol, in 1798, became director of the Observatory
of Prague in 1845. ^e published a treatise "On the
Nature and Motion of Comets," (1843.)
Kreitniayer or Kreytmayr, kRlt'mTR, written also
Kreittmayr, (ALOYS WIGULAUS,) a German statesman
and jurist, born at Munich in 1705. Among his works
we may name "Code of Bavarian Judicial Law," (1751,)
and "Bavarian Civil Code." Died in 1790.
See J. A. KAI.B, "Biographic des Staatskanzlers A. W. von
Kreittmayr," 1825.
Kremer, kRa'mer, (CHRISTOPH JAKOB,) a German
historian, born at Worms in 1722. He wrote several
works on German history. Died in 1777.
Kremer, kRa'mer, (PETER,) an eminent Belgian
painter of history and genre, born at Antwerp in 1801.
Among his works are " Maritis at Carthage," and " David
Teniers Designing after Nature."
Kresa, kRa'sa, FATHER, a Moravian priest and lin
guist, born in 1648; died in 1715.
Kretschmann, kRetsh'miln, (KARL FRIF.DRICH,) a
German poet, born at Zittau in 1738, published "Songs
of the Bard Ringulph," and other works. Died in 1809.
Kreutzer, kRoit'ser, (KONRADIN,) a German com
poser of operas and songs, born in the duchy of Baden
in 1782; died in 1849.
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moonj
KREUTZER
1343
KR UGER
Kreutzer, kRUt'saik', (RUDOLF,) a celebrated com
poser and musician, of German extraction, born at Ver
sailles in 1766, became violinist at the imperial chapel,
and a member of the Conservatory in Paris. Among
his best works are the operas of "Lodoiska" and " Paul
and Virginia." Died in 1831.
See F£TIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens."
Kreysig, kRl'zic, (FRIEDRICH LUDWIG,) a medical
writer, born near Leipsic in 1770, studied medicine at
Pavia under Spallanzani. In 1803 he was appointed
physician to the Elector Frederick Augustus, afterwards
King of Saxony. He became in 1815 professor of thera
peutics and pathology at Dresden. Died in 1839.
Kreysig, (GEOKG'CHRISTOPH,) a German historian,
born near Annaberg in 1697. He wrote on the history
of Saxony. Died in 1758.
Kreyt'mayr. See KRKITMAYER.
Krichna. See KRISHNA.
Kriloff or Krilov. See KRYLOF.
Krishna, Crishna, Krichna, or Krischna, kRish'-
na, [a Sanscrit word, signifying "dark blue :" see below,]
in the Hindoo mythology, the eighth avatar of Vishnu,
usually regarded as the most glorious of all the manifesta
tions of that deity. It is said by the votaries of Krishna
that in the other avatars Vishnu manifested only a
portion of his godhead, but that in this instance he ap
peared in all the fulness of his power and glory. He
was born in the kingdom of Mathura ; his mortal parents
were Vasudeva and Devaki. It had been predicted that
the son of Devaki should deprive Kansa, the tyrannical
king of that country, of his life and crown. Kansa there
fore sought by force and stratagem to destroy the young
child ; but the parents, assisted and guided by power
divine, succeeded in baffling all his efforts. It is related
that, when Krishna was only seven years old, Indra,
jealous of the popularity of the child-god, attempted to
destroy the worshippers of the latter by a fearful storm
of lightning, rain, and hail. But Krishna raised above
them on the tip of his little finger Mount Goverdhen,
the Hindoo Parnassus, thus affording complete shelter
to his trembling followers.
" Them the heavenly child
Called, and with looks ambrosial smiled;
Then with one finger reared the vast Goverdhen,
Beneath whose rocky burden,
On pastures dry, the maids and herdsmen trod : —
The lord of thunder felt a mightier god."
SIR WILLIAM JONES: Hymn to Indra.
One of Krishna's earliest exploits was the destruction of
the great serpent Kaliya, (or Kalinaga,) which poisoned
the waters of the river Jumna. Not long afterwards
he slew his malignant enemy Kansa, having first para
lyzed him with fear. A remarkable resemblance between
Krishna and the Grecian Apollo has been pointed out
by Sir William Jones and other writers. " In honour of
Krishna's triumph," (over Kaliya,) says Moor, "games
and sports are annually held in India, as the Pythic
games at stated times were exhibited in Greece. . . .
Apollo and Krishna are both inventors of the flute.
One was disappointed by Daphne, who was turned into
the Laitrtis, hence sacred to Apollo; Krishna's coy
nymph was transformed into the Tnlasi, alike sacred to
him." Krishna was pre-eminently a pastoral god, and
his followers were principally milkmaids and herdsmen.
Apollo was regarded as the protector of flocks and herds,
(his name of Nomios theos (i'<y«of 0edf) is derived from
nome, (vopi,) a "meadow" or "pasture;") and, when
compelled to pass some time on earth, he employed him
self in tending the flocks of Admetus, King of Thessaly.
The pictures of Krishna are usually painted a dark
blue, (the colour of VISHNU, which see,) this colour cor
responding to the signification of his name. Among his
other names are BHAGAVAT, (modern Hindoo pron.
b'hug'a-vut,) the "adorable;" KESAVA (ka'sa-va) or
KESHAVA, "having fine or beautiful hair;" GOVINDA or
GOPALA, the "cow-herd," etc.
See " Biographic Uniyerselle," (Partie mythologique ;) MOOR,
"Hindu Pantheon;" COLEMAN, "Hindu Mythology;" SIR W.
JONES, "On the Gods of Greece, Italy, and India," in "Asiatic
Researches," vol. i. ; see, also, the episode of the " Mahabharata,"
entitled " Bhagavat Gita," (i.e. the " Song of Krishna.")
Kritias. See CRITIAS.
Kritolaos. See CRITOLAUS.
Kriton or Krito. See CRITO.
Kroeyer. See KROYER.
Krohn, ki<5n, (HERMANN GEORG,) a German jurist,
born in 1705 ; died in 1756.
Kromayer, kRo'miR, (HIERONYMUS,) a German
Protestant theologian, born at Zeitz in 1610, wrote " His-
toria Ecclesiastica," and other works. Died in 1670.
See G. LEHMANN, " Leichpredigt auf H. Kromayer," 1670.
Kromayer, (JoiiANN,) a German theologian, born
in Misnia in 1576, was an uncle of the preceding. He
became superintendent (Protestant bishop) at Weimar,
and published several works. Died in 1643.
Krommer, kuorn'mer, (FRANZ,) a German composer,
born at Kamenitz, in Moravia, in 1759 ; died in 1831.
Krosick, von, fon kRo'zik, (BERNHARD FRIEDRICH,)
BARON, a German savant, born in 1656, erected a private
observatory at Berlin. Died in 1714.
Kroyer or Kroeyer, kRo'yer, (HENDRIK NICOLAUS,)
a Danish naturalist, born at Copenhagen in 1799. He
was sent on a mission to South America in 1840. He
published, besides other works on natural history, " The
Fishes of Denmark," (2 vols., 1838-43.)
Kriideiier or Kruedener, (JULIANA,) a Russian
mystic or enthusiast, born at Riga in 1766, was the
daughter of Baron Vietinghof, and was married at the
age of fourteen to Baron Krudener, from whom she was
divorced in a few years. She was intimate with Madame
de Stae'l. Having lived for a time in fashionable dissipa
tion, she adopted the views of the Pietists about 1806,
and gave herself up entirely to preaching the gospel and
prophesying. After travelling in Germany, where she
formed an acquaintance with Stilling, she visited Paris,
but, owing to the disturbances caused by her meetings,
was obliged to leave the city, and soon after her arrival
in Germany she was ordered by the government to return
to Russia. She died in 1824. She was the author of a
romance entitled " Valeria," (1803.) She is said to have
had much influence over Alexander, Czar of Russia, who
heard her preach in Paris in 1815, and who submitted to
her revision his plan of the Holy Alliance. In the latter
part of her life she abounded in works of charity towards
the poor.
See CH. EYNARD, "Vie de Madame de Kriidener," 1849; ADEI.B
DU THOU, "Notice sur Julienne de Krudener," 1827; "Vie de Ma
dame de Krudener," Paris, 2 vols., 1849; SAINTE-BEUVE, "Por
traits de Femmes ;" W. T. KRUG, " Gesprach unter vier Augen mil
Fran von Kriideiier," 1818; "Westminster Review" for January,
1852.
Krueger. See KRUGER.
Kruenitz. See KRUNITZ.
Krug, kRooc, (JOHANN PHILIFP,) a German historian
and numismatist, born at Halle in 1764, wrote on Rus
sian history and coins. Died in Saint Petersburg in 1844.
Krug, (WiLHELM TRAUGOTT,) a German philoso
phical writer, born near Grafenhaynchen, in Prussian
Saxony, in 1770. Having studied at Gottingen and Wit
tenberg, he became professor of philosophy at Leipsic
in 1809. He was chosen in 1833 a deputy to the first
constitutional Diet, where he was a warm advocate
of liberalism. Among his principal writings are his
" Fundamental Philosophy," (1803,) and " History of the
Philosophy of the Ancients, especially of the Greeks
and Romans," (1815.) He professed a system called
"transcendental synthetism," which was very popular
in Germany. Died in 1842.
See his Autobiography, " Meine Lebensreise in sechs Stationen,"
1826; EMIL F. VOGEL, '"Dr. W. T. Krug, in drei vertraulichen
Briefen an einen Freund im Aus'ande biographisch-literarisch ge-
schildert," 1844; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Kriiger or Krueger, kRiic'er, (EPHRAIM GOTTLIEB,)
a German engraver, born at Dresden in 1756. Among
his master-pieces is "Ariadne at Naxos." Died in 1834.
Kriiger or Krueger, (FRANZ,) a skilful German
painter, born at Anhalt-Dessau in 1796. He worked
in Berlin, where he painted good portraits and became
court painter. His favourite subjects were hunting-
scenes and landscapes with animals. Died in 1857.
See NAGLER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Kriiger, (JOHANN GOTTLOI?,) a German naturalist,
born at Halle in 1715, published, besides other works,
a "Treatise on Physics," ("Naturlehre," 3 vols., 1740-
49.) Died in 1759.
•e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, n, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
KR UGER
1344
KUGLER
Kriiger, (THKODOR,) a learned German writer, born
at Stettin in 1694; died in 1751.
Kriiger, (THKODOR,) a German engraver, born about
1575 ; died at Rome in 1650.
Kruilof. See KRYLOF.
Krummacher, kRoom'maK'er, (FRIEDRICH ADOLF,)
a distinguished German theologian and writer, born at
Tecklenburg, in Westphalia, in 1768. He was succes
sively professor of theology at Duisburg, councillor of
the consistory, and court preacher at Bernburg. His
" Parables" (in verse) (1805) enjoy great popularity both
in Germany and in other countries. Among his other
works are "Die Kinderwelt," consisting of religious
poems for children, " Sufferings, Death, and Resurrec
tion of our Lord Jesus Christ," (1817,) "Cornelius the
Centurion," (1829,) and "The Life of Saint John,"
(1833.) He was attached to evangelical religion as
distinguished from rationalism. Died in 1845.
See MOI.LER, " F. A. Krummacher mid seine Freunde," 2 vols.,
1849.
Krummacher, (FRIEDRICH WILHKI.M,) an eminent
pulpit orator and writer, son of the preceding, was born
about 1796. He was for a time pastor in Wupperthale,
where he was a zealous advocate of the older Lutheran-
ism, and gave great offence by his denunciation of the
rationalists. As preacher of a reformed community,
he went to New York in 1843. After a few years he
returned to Germany, and settled at Berlin in 1847.
Among his principal works we may name "The Church's
Voice of Instruction," "Elijah the Tishbite," and " Sab
bath Bells," (1851.) Died in December, 1868.
Krummacher, (GOTTFRIED DANIEL,) an uncle of
the preceding, was born at Tecklenburg in 1774. He
became in 1816 reformed preacher at Elberfeld, where
he was one of the principal leaders of the Pietists.
Among his works are a series of sermons, entitled " The
Wanderings of the Israelites through the Wilderness to
Canaan," (1850,) and "Daily Manna," which have been
translated into English. Died in 1837.
See FRIEDRICH W. KRUMMACHER, "G. D. Krummacher's Le-
ben," 1838.
Kriinitz or Kruenitz, kRii'nits, QOHANN GEORG,) a
German physician and scholar, born at Berlin in 1728, is
principally known as the publisher of the " Economico-
technological Encyclopaedia," seventy-three volumes of
which had appeared at the time of his death, in 1796.
The work has been continued by the brothers Florke
and others, and in 1853 numbered two hundred and
fourteen volumes.
Kruse, kRoo'zeh, (FRIEDRICH KARL HERMANN,) a
German historian, born at Oldenburg in 1790. In 1825
he published his principal work, entitled "Hellas," and
in 1828 was appointed professor of universal and Russian
history at the University of Dorpat. lie also wrote a
valuable "Chronicle of the Northmen," (1850.)
Kruse, (KARSTEN or CHRISTIAN,) a learned German
writer, the father of the preceding, was born in Olden
burg in 1753. He published " Atlas and Tables for the
Survey of the History of all European Countries," (1804.)
Died in 1827.
Kruse, kRoo'zeh, (LAURIDS or LAURENT,) a Danish
litterateur, born at Copenhagen in 1778. Among his nu
merous works are comedies, novels, etc. He translated
into Danish and German some works of Ingemann, and
others. Died in Paris in 1839.
See liis Memoirs of liis Life, " Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben,"
2 vols., 1829.
Kruseman, kRoo'zeh-man', (CoRNELis,) a Dutch
historical painter of great merit, born at Amsterdam in
1797. Among his master-pieces are " A Burial-Scene,"
"The Preaching of John the Baptist," and " Belisarius."
Died in 1857.
Kruseman, (JAN ADAM,) a painter of portraits and
sacred history, a brother of the preceding, was born at
Haarlem in 1804.
Krusemark, kRoo'zeh-maRk'^FRiEDRiCH WILHKLM
LUDWIG,) a Prussian commander and diplomatist, served
against the French in the campaigns from 1806 to 1813,
and rose to the rank of lieutenant-general. He was
employed successively on important missions to Saint
Petersburg, Paris, and Vienna. Died in 1822.
Krusenstern, kkoo'zen-steun', (ADAM JOHN,) a cele
brated Russian navigator and traveller, born in Esthonia
in 1770. In 1803 he sailed from Cronstadt, and during
an absence of three years discovered the Orloff Islands,
and obtained much information respecting countries pre
viously little known. He brought out in 1810 his " Voy
age around the World from 1803 to 1806," (3 vols.,
with an atlas and 104 plates,) which was translated into
the principal European languages. He also published
" Contributions to the Hydrography of the Greater
Oceans," " Atlas of the Pacific Ocean," and other similar
works. Krusenstern was the first Russian navigator who
sailed around the world. Died in 1846.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate;" "Monthly Review" for
June and July, 1814.
Krylof, kRe-lof, or Kruilof, almost kRwe-lof, (!VAN
ANDREIEVITCH,) written also Krylow, Kriloff, and
Krilov, a celebrated Russian fabulist, born at Moscow
in 1768. At an early age he became familiar with the
French language, and read with avidity the works of
Moliere, Racine, and Boileau. His first compositions
were dramas, which were not favourably received. He
was successively editor of "The Spirit Post," "The
Spectator," and the "Petersburg Mercury," and in 1801
was appointed secretary to Prince Gallitsin. In 1808 he
published a collection of fables, which met with great
favour. He was elected to the Petersburg Academy in
1811, and subsequently received a large pension from
the emperor Alexander, who also loaded him with hon
orary distinctions. His " Fables," which vie with those
of La Fontaine in naivete and humour, are the delight
of all ages and classes in Russia, and many sentences
in them have become proverbs. They have been trans
lated into German, French, and Italian; but no version,
it is thought, does justice to the original. Krylof was
intimate with Pooshkin, (Pushkin,) Karamzin, and other
eminent writers. Died in 1844.
See PI.ETNEF, "Life of Kri'off," prefixed to his Works; "Revue
des Deux Mondes" for September i, 1852; ALFRED BOUGEAULT,
" Kry!off, ou le La Fontaine Russe, sa Vie et ses Fables," Paris,
1852 ; "Nouvelle Biographic GeneYale ;" also an article on the Rus
sian Fabulists, in " Fraser's Magazine" for February, 1839.
Kryns or Krijns, kRins, (EVERARD,) a Dutch painter
of history and portraits, lived at the Hague about 1600.
Kshat'ri-ya, [modern Hindoo pron. kshut'ri-ya,]
written also Kshetriya and Kshattriya, the name of
the second or military caste among the Hindoos. It
originally included all princes and professional warriors.
But at the present time there are many exceptions to
this general rule : many of the Brahmans nowadays are
professional soldiers. (See' BRAHMANISM.)
Kublai Khan. See KOOHLAI KHAN.
Kiicken or Kuecken, kiik'ken, (FRIEDRICH WIL-
HELM,) a popular German composer, born at Bleckede in
1810. His songs and ballads are great favourites both
in Germany and England. In 1851 he was appointed
court chapel-master at Stuttgart. He has produced two
successful operas.
Kuecken. See KUCKEN.
Kuegelgen. See K(JGELGEN.
Kuehn. See KUHN.
Kuehne. See KUHNE.
Kuehnoel. See KUHNOL.
Kuesel. See KUSEL.
Kuester. See KUSTER.
Kiigelgen or Kuegelgen, kii'gel-gen, (KARL and
GERHARD,) German painters, born at Bacharach, on
the Rhine, in 1772, were twin-brothers, and pursued
their studies together at Rome. In 1799 they visited
Saint Petersburg, where they married two sisters of
high rank. Karl remained in Saint Petersburg, where
he was patronized by the emperor Alexander, while Ger
hard returned to Dresden. He perished by the hand of
a robber near that city in 1820. His works are chiefly
portraits and historical pictures. Among Karl's pro
ductions are a series of Crimean and Finnish landscapes,
executed by order of the emperor. In 1823 he published
"A Painter's Journey in the Crimea." Died in 1832.
See HASSE, "Leben G. von Kiigelgen," etc., 1824; NAGI.ER,
" Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Kugler, kooc/ler, (FRANZ THEODOR,) an eminent
German critic and writer on art, born at Stettin in 1808,
became in 1833 professor of the history of art in the
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long ; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moor.;
KUH
'345
KURTZ
Academy at Berlin. About 1835 he visited Italy, and
in 1837 brought out his " Hancl-Book of the History
of Painting from Constantine the Great to the Present
Time," which was followed by his equally valuable
"Manual of the History of Art," (1841,) and other simi
lar works. Died in Berlin in 1858.
See " Nouvelle Hiographie Generate. "
Kuh, koo, (Ei'HRAiM MOSES,) a German poet, of
Jewish parentage, born at Breslau in 1731, wrote songs,
odes, fables, and epigrams. He was a triend of Lessing
and Mendelssohn. Died in 1790.
Kuhl, kdol, (HEINRICH,) a German naturalist, born
at Hanau in 1797; died at Java in 1821.
See T. VAN SWIXDEREN, "Bijdragen tot eene Schets van het
Leven, het Karakter, etc. van H. Kuhl," 1822.
Kuhlau, koo'low, (FRIEDRICH DANIEL,) a German
musician and composer, born in Hanover in 1786 or
1787. He composed operas which were popular, and
music for the flute. Died in 1832.
Kuhlmann, kuTmdN',(CHARLKS FREDERIC,) a French
chemist and writer, born at Colmar in 1803.
Kuhlmann, kool'man, (Qi;iRi.\us,) a German vision
ary, born at Breslau in 1651. He led a wandering life,
and published several extravagant writings. He was
burned at Moscow in 1689.
See ( 1. WHKNSIMIRF, " De Fanaiicis Silesiorum et speciatiin de
Q. Kulilinanno," 169^.
Kuhn, koon, or Kuhnius, koo'ne-us, (JoACHiM,) j.
German philologist, born at Greifswalde in 1647. He
was professor of Greek at Strasburg in 1676. Among his
works is " Quasstiones Philosophical ex Sacris Veteris
et Novi Testament! Scri])toribus," (1698.) Died in 1697.
Kiihn or Cuehn, kiln, (KARL GOTTLOB,) a German
physician, born near Merseburg in 1754, published a
complete edition of the " Extant Works of the Greek
Physicians,"' ("Opera Medicorum Graecorum qua? super-
sunt,") in the original, with a Latin translation, 29 vols.,
(1821.) Died in 1840.
Ktihne or Kuehne, ku'neh, (GUSTAV,) a German
litterateur, born at Magdeburg in 1806, published "Clois
ter Novels," (" Klosternovellen,") and other romances.
Kiihner, kii'ner, (RAFAEL,) a German philologist,
born at Gotha in 1802, published a "Complete Gram
mar of the Greek Language," (1834,) ami "Elementary
Grammar of the Greek Language," (1837.)
Kuhnius. See KIHN.
Kiihnol or Kuehnoel, kii'nol, (CHRISTIAN GGTT-
LIEIJ,) a German biblical critic, born at Leipsic in 1768.
He became professor of theology at Giessen about 1809,
and published " Commentaries on the New Testament,"
(4 vols., 1807-18.) Died in 1841.
Kuick. See KUYK.
Kuli Khan. See NADIR SHAH.
Kullack or Kullak, kool'lak, (TiiKODOR,) a Ger
man composer and pianist, born in Posen in 1818. He
received the title of pianist to the King of Prussia in 1846.
Kulm, koolm, (JoHANN ADAM,) a German anatomist
and physiologist, born at Breslau in 1689; died in 1745.
Kulmann, kool'mln, (ELISABETH,) a Russian poetess,
of German extraction, born at Saint Petersburg in 1808.
She spoke many languages, and composed lyric poems,
published in three volumes in 1833. Died in 1825.
Kummer, koom'mer, (GEORG ADOLF,) a German
naturalist, born at Ortrand in 1786 ; died near Kakonda,
Africa, in 1817.
Kummer, (KARL WILHELM,) a German geographer,
born about 1780, was a brother of the preceding. He
produced globes and maps en relief. Died about 1840.
Kun, van der, (PKTER.) See CUN/EUS.
Kuiickel, koonk'kel, (JoHANN,) a German chemist,
born at Rendsburg in 1630. He is said to have dis
covered phosphorus. Died at Stockholm in 1702.
See MOI.I.ER, " Ciinbria Literata ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene-
rale."
Kundmann, koont'man, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN,) a
German numismatist and naturalist, born at Breslau in
1684 ; died in 1751.
Kunigunde, the German of CUNEGONDE, which see.
Kunrath, koon'rat, (HEINRICH,) a German chemist
and alchemist, born at Leipsic about 1560; died in 1605.
Kunst, koonst, (CORNELIS,) a Dutch painter, born at
Leyden in 1493 ; died in 1544.
Kunth, von, fon koont, (KAUL SIGISMUND,) an emi
nent German botanist, bom at Leipsic in June, 1788. He
was patronized by Alexander von Humboldt, who fur
nished him with the means to study in the University of
Berlin, and took him to Paris in 1813. He became pro
fessor of botany at Berlin in 1819. He published, besides
other works, " Nova Genera et Species Plantarum quas
collegerunt Bon pi and et Humboldt," which treats of the
plants collected in America by Bonpland and Humboldt,
(7 vols., 1815-25,) "The Grasses of South America," (a
vols., 1825-33,) and an "Enumeration of all the Plants
hitherto known," (5 vols., 1833-50.) Died in 1850.
Kuntz, koonts, (KARL,) a skilful German painter of
animals and landscapes, born at Mannheim in 1770, was
also an engraver. He worked mostly at Carlsruhe, where
he was court painter. He engraved Claude Lorrain's
picture of " Abraham Sending away Hagar." Died in
1830.
See NAGLER, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-I-exikon."
Kuntz, (RUDOLF,) a German lithographer and painter
of horses, son of the preceding, was born in 1797.
Kunzeii, koont'sen, (FRIKDRICH LUDWIG EMIL,) a
musical composer, born at Lubeck in 1761, produced a
number of successful operas. Died in 1817.
Kupetzky or Kupetzki, koo-pets'kee, (JoHANN,) an
eminent German portrait-painter, born at Pesing, on the
borders of Hungary, in 1667. After a residence of many
i years in Italy, where he was patronized by John Sobieski,
I he returned to Vienna. He was treated with great dis-
! tinction by the emperors Joseph I. and Charles VI.,
whose portraits he painted, as well as those of the prin
cipal nobles of the court. He painted in the style of
Rembrandt, and ranks among the best artists of the
time in his department. Died in 1740.
See J. C. FUESSLI, " Leben G. P. Rugendasund J. Kupetzki, "1758.
Kurma, kooR'ma, called also Kurmavatara, koor-
mt'va-ta'ra, (i.e. the "avatar of the tortoise,") the second
of the avatars of Vishnu, on which occasion he took the
form of a tortoise that he might furnish a support to
Mount Mandara while the gods and Asurs churned
the ocean. The mountain being the churn-stick, the
great serpent Sesha was made use of for the string.*
The churning of the ocean is one of the most famous
and popular fables related in the mythology of the Hin
doos. It resulted in the production of the fourteen gems,,
as they are called, — namely, I. Chandra, (the moon ;) 2.
Lakshmi, the incomparable consort of Vishnu; 3. Sura-
clevi, or the goddess of wine ; 4. Oochisrava, a won
derful eight-headed horse; 5. Kustubha, a jewel of ines
timable value ; 6. Parijata, a tree that yielded whatever
one might desire ; 7. Surabhi or Kamadhenu, a cow
similarly bountiful ; 8. Dhanwantara, a wondrous phy
sician ; 9. Iravata or Iravat, the elephant of Indra ; 10.
Shank, a shell which conferred victory on whoever
sounded it ; n. Danusha, an unerring bow ; 12. Vish,t a
remarkable drug or poison; 13. Rembha, (or Rambha,)
an Apsara possessed of surpassing charms; 14. Amrita,
or Amrit, the beverage of immortality.
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon."
Kurmavatara. See KfJKMA.
Kurreem Khan. See KKKK.KM KHAN.
Kurrer, kdor'rer, (JAKOB \VILHELM HEINRICH,) born
in \Yurtemberg in 1781, wrote "On the Art of Dyeing
and Printing Cloth," (3 vols., 1848-50.) and other works.
Kurschner, (CONRAD.) See PELLICAN.
Kurtz, kooRts, (JoHANN HK.INRICH,) a Prussian theo
logian, born at Montjoie in 1809, became in 1850 pro
fessor of ecclesiastical history at Dorpat. He wrote a
treatise on " The Unity of the Book of Genesis," and
other religious works.
* It maybe proper to observe that in India churning is usually
performed by causing a body, termed the churn-stick, to revolve
rapidly in the cream or milk, by means of a string, in the same man
ner as a drill is made to revolve. In some of the Hindoo pictures of
the churning of the ocean, the gods are represented as standing on one
side of Mount Mandara, and the Asurs on the other, both grasping
in their hands the serpent Sesha. which is wound round the mountain.
This rests upon the back of the tortoise. (Vishnu.) At the same
time, the preserving deity, in consequence of his ubiquitous character,
is seen standing among the gods and grasping Sesha, and also as
dancing on the top of MandSra. (See Plate 49 in Moor's " Hindu
Pantheon.")
t Called Bikh in some of the modern Hindoo dialects.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
85
Explanations, p. 23.)
KURZ
1346
LABARRE
Kurz, kooRts, (HKINRICH,) a litterateur and Oriental
scholar, of German extraction, born in Paris in 1805.
He wrote chiefly in German.
Kiisel or Kuesel, kii'sSI, (MATTHIAS,) a German
engraver, born at Augsburg in 1621 ; died in 1682.
Kiisel or Kuesel, (MKLCHIOR,) a skilful engraver,
brother of the preceding, was born at Augsburg in 1622.
He engraved (with the burin) and etched portraits, sacred
history, and landscapes. He resided mostly at Augsburg.
Died in 1683.
Kuster or Kuester, kiis'ter, (GEORG GOTTFRIED,) a
German historian, born at Halle in 1695. He wrote,
besides other works, " Ancient and Modern Berlin," (3
vols., 1752-59.) Died in 1776.
Kuster, (LUDOI.PH,) an eminent German scholar,
born at Blomberg, in Westphalia, in 1670. He published
" Historia Critica Homeri," (1696,) and was a contributor
to the "Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanorum" of Groe-
vius. He also published editions of Suidas (3 vols., 1705)
and Aristophanes, (1710.) He was a member of the
Academy of Inscriptions in Paris. Died in 1716.
Kiittiier, kut'ner, (KARL GOTTLOB,) a German trav
eller, born near Delitzsch in 1755. He published several
books of travel and descriptive works on England,
France, and other countries of Europe. Died in 1805.
Kutuzof or Kutusow. See KOOTOOZOF.
Kuvdra or Cuvera, koo-va'ra, [a Sanscrit word sig
nifying "deformed," "lazy," "slow,"*] the name of the
Hindoo Plutus or god of riches, said to be a half-brother
of the famous giant Havana. He is said to reside in the
splendid city of Alaka, and is sometimes borne through
the air in a gorgeous car called Push'paka. His consort
(Sakti) is called Kauveri, (kow-va'ree.)
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon."
Kuyk, koik, or Kuick van Wouterszoon, (vfn
wow'ter-zon',) (JAN,) a skilful Dutch painter on glass,
born at Dort in 1530. Having opposed the Jesuits, he
was charged with heresy, and burned at Dort in 1572.
Kuyp. See CUYP. '
Kiizing or Kiitzing, kiit'sing, (FRIEDRICH TRAU-
GOTT,) a German naturalist, born in Thuringia in 1807,
published, among other works, "Elements of Philo
sophical Botany."
Kvasir, kva'sir, [etymology unknown,] a mythic per
sonage mentioned in the Norse legends. He was so
wise and knowing that no one could ask him a question
which he could not answer. He was, however, entrapped
and slain by two dwarfs who had invited him to a feast.
With his blood they mingled honey, and thus composed
a mead which makes every one who drinks of it a skald,
or wise man.
See THORPE'S " Northern Mythology," vol. i.
* The signification of the name of Kuvera has doubtless allusion to
the fact that, to those engaged in the pursuit of wealth, it usually
seems to come with a very slow and hobbling pace. In like manner
the Plutus of the Greeks was represented as not only blind, (because
he bestowed his favours with so little discernment,) but lame, because
he seemed to come so slowly and reluctantly to those who sought
him.
Kyau, von, fon kee'ow, (FRIEDRICH WILHELM,)
BARON, a Prussian nobleman, celebrated for his wit and
blunt honesty, was born in 1654. He was a favourite of
Augustus II., King of Poland, who made him adjutant-
general. Died in 1733.
Kyd, (THOMAS,) an English dramatist, flourished
about 1580, a short time before Shakspeare. His only
works extant are entitled "Cornelia, or Pompey the
Great his fair Cornelia's Tragedy," " The First Part of
Geronimo," and " The Spanish Tragedy, or Hieronymo
is mad again." The last-named production displays
uncommon power, and is supposed to have suggested
to Shakspeare some parts of " Hamlet."
See COLLIER, " History of Dramatic Poetry."
Kydermynster. See KIDDERMINSTER.
Kyffhauser, klf'hoi'zer, an ancient palace (now in
ruins) of the emperors of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, is
situated on a high eminence near the village of Tilleda,
in Germany. There is a popular tradition that at the
Kyffhauser, in a magnificent subterranean palace, Fred
erick Barbarossa ("Red-beard") exists in a state of en
chantment, with his knights and squires seated round
a stone table, through which his beard has grown. Once
in one hundred years (or, as some say, in sixty years)
he partially awakes from his enchanted sleep, and sends
out some one to inquire how the time is passing. It is
supposed that after a certain period he will awake and
revisit his empire, and then a better time will prevail.
One of Freiligrath's finest poems, entitled " Barbaros-
sa's First Awaking," (" Barbarossa's erstes Erwachen,")
has reference to the above tradition.
See THORPE, "Northern Mythology," vol. iii. pp. 100-102; S.
BAKING-GOULD, " Curious Myths of the Middle Ages," p. 103.
Kylian, kil'e-an, (JACOB,) a Bohemian astronomer,
born at Prague in 1714; died in 1774.
Kyii'as-ton or Kin'as-ton, (Sir FRANCIS,) an Eng
lish poet, born in Shropshire in 1587, translated Chau
cer's "Troilus and Cressida" into Latin, and was the
author of a poem entitled "Leoline and Sydanis." He
was the founder of the Museum Minervas in Covent
Garden. Died in 1642.
See WOOD, "Athena; Oxonienses."
Kynaston, (JoiiN,) an English divine, born at Ches
ter in 1728, was a Fellow of Brazennose College, Oxford.
Died in 1783.
Kyper, kee'per, (ALBRECHT,) a German medical
writer, born at Konigsberg about 1605. He became
first physician to the Prince of Orange, and professor
of medicine at Leyden in 1648. Died in 1655.
Kypke, kip'keh, (GEORG DAVID,) a German Oriental
ist, born in Pomerania in 1724, wrote " Observationes
Sacras in Novi Foederis Libros," (1755.) Died in 1779.
Kyrle, kerl, (JoHN,) an English benefactor, eulogized
by Pope in the verses on the Man of Ross, was born
about 1664. He was a native or resident of Ross, in
Herefordshire, where he built a church and endowed a
hospital. He owned an estate of ^500 a year. Died
in 1754, aged ninety.
L.
Laale, lau'leh, (Pr.DER,) a Danish poet of the fifteenth
century, was born at Lolland. He wrote "Latin-Danish
Proverbs," ("Adagia Latino-Danica.")
Laar. See LAKR, VAN.
Labadie, It'bt'de', (JEAN,) a French Protestant min
ister, regarded by some as a mystic or a fanatic, was born
at Bourg, in Guienne, in 1610. After joining the Jesuits
and obtaining success as an eloquent preacher, he turned
Protestant in 1650, and was for eight years pastor of a
church at Montauban. lie subsequently preached at
Geneva, Middelburg, etc., where he made many prose
lytes or friends, among whom were Anna M. Schur-
niann and the Princess Elizabeth of the Rhine. The
sect called Labadists, which he formed in Germany,
continued for nearly a century. Died in 1674.
See MAUCDUICT, "Avis charitable a Messieurs de Geneve tou-
chant la Vie du Sieur Jean Labadie," etc., Lyons, 1664; NIC^RON,
" Memoires."
La'baii, [Heb. p/,] the son of Bethuel, lived at
Haran, in Mesopotamia, about 1740 B.C. He had two
daughters, Leah and Rachel, who became the wives of
Jacob. (See Genesis xxix. and xxx.)
Labanof (Labanov or Labanow) de Rostof,
la-ba'nof deh ros'tof, (Prince ALEXANDER,) a Russian
general and writer, born in 1788, served as aide-de-camp
to the emperor from 1817 to 1828. His principal work
is " Letters, Instructions, and Memoirs of Mary Stuart,
Queen of Scots," (7 vols., 1844.)
La Barbinais le Gentil, If bfta'be'ni' leh zh6N'-
te', a French traveller, born probably at Saint-Malo.
He visited Chili, Peru, and China, as a merchant, about
1715, and published "A New Voyage round the World
with a Description of China," (3 vols., 1727.)
Labarraque, It'bt'raV, (ANTOINE GERMAIN,) a
French chemist, born at Oloron in 1777 ; died in 1850.
Labarre. See BARRE.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
LABARRE
'347
LAEITTE
Labarre, Ifbik', (£i,ui,) a French architect, born in
Picardy in 1764, built the Bourse and Tribunal of Com
merce in Paris, (finished about 1826.) He was admitted
into the Institute in 1827. Died in 1833.
Labarre, (THEODORE,) a French composer, and a
skilful performer on the harp, was born in Paris in 1805.
He composed several popular ballads and operas.
Labarre de Corcelles, de, deh It'biR' deh koR's£l',
(FRANCOIS Tirecuy — teit'ku-e',) a French liberal poli
tician, born in 1801. He was a friend of Cavaignac,
who in 1848 sent him on a mission to the pope.
La Barre-Duparc, de, deh IfbaV dii'ptRk', (Nico-
LAS EDOUARD,) a French military writer and officer, born
at Saint-Cloud in 1819.
Labarthe, lt'ba"Rt', (PIERRE,) a French geographer
and writer, born at Dax in 1760; died in 1824.
La Bastie, de, deh la" bts'te', (JOSEPH BIMARD,)
BAHON, a French antiquary, born at Carpentras in 1703 ;
died in 1742.
Labat, li'bt', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French monk and
successful author, born in Paris in 1663. He went in
1694 to the West Indies as a missionary, and, having
returned to France in 1706, published a "Description
of the West Indies," (6 vols., 1722,) a work of some
merit. In 1728 he published an excellent Description
of Senegal and adjacent regions, (" Relation de 1'Afrique
occidentale," 5 vols., 1728,) the data of which were fur
nished by De Brue. Died in 1738.
Labat, (LEON,) a French traveller and physician,
born at Agde in 1803. He cured the Shah of Persia,
who gave him the title of prince. Died in 1847.
Labbe, lib, (PHILIPPE,) a French Jesuit and volumi
nous writer, born at Bourges in 1607. He lived many
years in Paris, and published several useful works on
history and chronology, among which is "Chronological,
Technical, and Historical Agreement," (" Concordia
Chronologica, Technica et Historica," 1656.) He is
chiefly known at the present time by his valuable work
on Latin pronunciation, entitled "Eruditae Pronuntia-
tionis Catholic! Indices," which was enlarged by E.
Leeds and republished in London in 1751. Died in 1667.
See XICERON, "Memoires."
Labbe de Monveron, It'ba' deh moN'va'roN',
(CHARLES,) a French philologist and advocate, born in
Paris in 1582. He published, as editor, besides other
\\Kiks, " Glossaries of Cyrillus, Philoxenus, and other
Ancient Writers," ("Cyrilli, Philoxeni et aliorum vete-
nim Glossaria," 1679.) Died in 1657.
Labe, iS'ba', (LouiSE,) a French lady, known by the
name of LA HELLE CORDIERE, was born at Lyons in 1526,
and became the wife of Ennemond Perrin, a merchant
who dealt in cordage. She was learned in languages
and celebrated for her beauty and ardent imagination.
She composed elegies, sonnets, and a drama named
"De'bat de la Folie et de 1'Amour." Died in 1566.
See NICERON, "Memoires;" LOVGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry
of Europe;" C. J. DE RUOLZ, " Discours sur la Personne et les
Ouvrages de L. Labe," 1750.
La Eedolliere, It ba'do'le-aiR', (£MILE GIGAULT,)
a French litterateur, born at Amiens in 1812. He be
came an editor of the "Siecle." Among his works are
a "Life of La Fayette," (1833,) and a "History of the
Manners and Private Life of the French," (3 vols.,
1847.) He translated into French Fenimore Cooper's
works, Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and the
Waverley Novels.
See " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Labedoyere or La Bedoyere, de, deh It'ba'dwa'-
yaiR', (CHARLES ANGELIQUE HUCHET,) COUNT, a French
general, noted for graceful manners and chivalrous spirit,
was born in Paris in 1786. He became aide-de-camp to
Marshal Lannes in 1808. At Essling, in 1809, he was
wounded by the side of Lannes, who was killed at the
same time. He was aide-de-camp to Eugene Beauhar-
nais in 1812, and distinguished himself at the Moskwa
and Berezina. In 1814 he accepted from Louis XVIII.
the command of a regiment stationed at Grenoble. He
was one nf the first officers that in 1815 joined the stan
dard of Napoleon, who raised him to the rank of general
of division ; and he was one of the last to leave the field
at the battle of Waterloo. Having been arrested in
Paris and tried by court-martial, he was shot, in 1815.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
La'be-o, (Quivrus ANTISTIUS,) a Roman jurist, who
flourished about 50 B.C. He fought for Brutus at Phi-
lippi, and, after the battle was lost, died by his own hand.
His son, QUINTUS or MARCUS ANTISTIUS LAHEO, was a
more eminent jurist, a man of great learning, and an
inflexible republican. He lived during the reign of Au
gustus, to whom he sometimes expressed his mind with
boldness. He was the founder or head of a school of
law, and was the rival of Capito. He wrote Commen
taries on the Twelve Tables, and many treatises, extracts
from which are preserved in the Digest. Labeo and
Capito are styled "ornaments of Peace" ("decora Pads")
by Tacitus. The disciples of Labeo were called Procu-
liani, from Proculus, his successor.
See Aui.us GEI.LIUS, " Noctes Attics;" C. VAN ECK, " Disser-
tatio de Vita, Moribus et Studiis Q. Antistii Labeor.is," i6g2.
Laberge, de, deh iS'binzh', (CHARLES AUGUSTE,)
an excellent French landscape-painter, born in Paris in
1805. He represented human nature with surprising
fidelity in a picture of a " Diligence passing through a
Village and announcing the Revolution of 1830." His
"Country Physician" (1832) is called his master-piece.
His works are finished very minutely, without impairing
the general effect. Died in 1842.
Labergerie, de, deh li'be'Kzh're', (JEAN BAPTISTE
ROUGIER,) BARON, an eminent French agriculturist, bora
in Touraine in 1759. He published several approved
historical works on the agriculture of the ancient Greeks,
Romans, and Gauls, also treatises on Practical Agricul
ture. Died in 1836.
La-be'ra-us, (DECIMUS,) a Roman knight, distin
guished as a writer of mimes, was born about 107 B.C.
In the year 45 Caesar signified a wish that he should act
his mimes in public. He reluctantly complied, such
practice being deemed degrading, and acquitted him
self with credit, at the same time availing himself of the
opportunity to turn his wit against the dictator. The
prologue which he spoke on this occasion has been
preserved, and is much admired. Only small fragments
of his works are extant. Died in 43 B.C.
La-bi-e''nus, (QuiNTUS,) was a son of Titus, noticed
below. He commanded an army of Parthians which
defeated the forces of Mark Antony in Cilicia. Having
been captured by the Romans, he was put to death in 39
Ji.c. His brother, TITUS LABIENUS, was an eloquent
orator, and an enemy of Augustus Cassar. He died in
12 A.I).
Labienus, (Trrus,) a Roman general, born 98 B.C.,
was chosen tribune of the people in 63, and praetor a few-
years later. About 60 B.C. he became lieutenant of Caesar.
He was the ablest general that served under Caesar in
the conquest of Gaul, where he gained victories over the
Treviri. He abandoned his late chief at the passage of
the Rubicon, and took arms for Pompey and the senate in
49 B.C. After the battle of Pharsalia he commanded in
Africa, and was killed in the battle of Munda, in Spain,
in 45 B.C.
See CAESAR, "De Bello Gallico ;" DION CASSIUS, "History of
Rome."
Labillardiere or La Billardiere, de, deh It'be'ytR'-
de_^aiR', (JACQUES JUI.IEN HOUTON,) a French botanist,
born at Alei^on in 1755. After he had explored Cyprus,
Syria, and Mount Lebanon as a botanist, he was em
ployed as naturalist in the expedition which was sent in
search of La Perouse in 1791. Having returned to
Paris, he published two valuable works, viz., "Narrative
of a Voyage in Search of La Perouse," (1800,) and a
"Flora of New Holland," (1804-06.) The former has
enriched the various branches of natural history. He
was a member of the Institute. Died in 1834.
See P. FI.OURENS, "E"loge de J. J. de Labillardiere," 1837;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Labitte, iS'bet', (CHARLES,) a French critic, born at
Chateau-Thierry in 1816, became professor of foreign
literature at Rennes in 1840. He wrote for the "Revue
des Deux Mondes" able articles on M. |. Chenier and
other authors. Died in 1845. Two volumes of his
'Etudes litteraires" were published in 1846.
<: as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gtitttiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LABLACHE
1348
LA CALPRENEDE
Lablache, la'blish', (Louis,) a celebrated singer and
actor, born of French parentage in Naples in 1794. He
performed many seasons in Paris and London. His
voice embraced two full octaves ; it was firm and sonorous,
powerful and expressive. He was successful both in
the serious and comic opera. It is stated that he gave
lessons in music to Queen Victoria. " He has given
form and life," says M. D'Ortigue, "to the immortal
types traced by musicians of genius; he has delighted
civilized Europe for nearly half a century as a tragedian
full of dignity and as an inimitable buffoon." Died in
1858.
See CASTII.-BLAZE, "Biographic de Lablache;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Labile, It'bla', (JACQUES,) a French writer of fiction
and verses, born at Beaugency in 1751 ; died in 1841.
La Boetie. See BOETIE.
La Borde. See BORDE.
Laborde, (GENERAL.) See DELABORDE, (HENRI F.)
Laborde, It'bord', (MAXIMILIAN,) an American phy
sician, of French extraction, born in Edgefield, Soutli
Carolina, in 1804. He became in 1838 secretary of state.
In 1842 he was appointed professor of logic and belles-
lettres in South Carolina College, and afterwards of
metaphysics and physiology in the same institution.
Laborde, 18'boiul', (VmiEN,) a French priest, born at
Toulouse in 1680. He lived in Paris, and was patronized
by Cardinal de Noailles. He published a "Treatise on
the Essence, Distinction, and Limits of the Spiritual and
Temporal Powers," "Familiar Conferences," and other
admired religious works. Died in 1748.
Laborde, de, deh It'boiul', (ALEXANDRE Louis JO
SEPH,) COUNT, a French antiquary and litterateur, born
in Paris in 1774, was a son of Jean Joseph, (1724-94.)
He accompanied Lucien Bonaparte in his embassy to
Spain in 1800, after which he devoted some years to the
study and delineation of Spanish monuments, scenery,
etc. He published the results in a large and costly
work, — " Picturesque and Historic Journey in Spain,"
("Voyage pittoresque et historique en Espagne,"4 vols.,
1807-18, with 900 engravings,) which is highly com
mended. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies
in 1822 and 1827, and risked his life for the popular
cause in July, 1830, after which he became a councillor
of state. Among his important works are "The Monu
ments of France classed Chronologically," (24 parts,
1816-26,) and a "Picturesque Journey in Austria," (3
vols., 1821-23.) He was a member of the Institute.
Died in 1842.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'neVale ;" "Monthly Review" for
August and October, 1810.
Laborde, de, (JEAN JOSEPH,) MARQUIS, a French
financier, born at Jacca, Aragon, in 1724. He acquired
a very large fortune by commerce, and was distinguished
for his liberality. He was appointed banker to the
court by the Duke of Choiseul, who gave him the title
of marquis. He was guillotined in 1794, on suspicion
of having conspired against the dominant party.
Laborde, de, (LEON EMMANUEL SIMON JOSEPH,)
COUNT, a French traveller and writer on art, a son of
Count Alexandre Louis Joseph, noticed above, was born
in Paris in 1807. He became aide-de-camp to La Fa-
yette in 1830, and was elected to the Chamber of Depu
ties in 1840. In 1842 he was admitted into the Academy
of Inscriptions. He produced a splendid work entitled
" Travels in the East," ("Voyage en Orient," etc., con
taining four hundred views in Asia Minor and Syria, 36
parts, 1837-55,) "The Renaissance of the Arts at the
Court of France," (1850-55,) and other works on art.
In 1857 he was chosen director of the archives of the
empire.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" " London Quarterly Re
view" for June, 1837.
Labouchere, la'boo'shaiR', (HENRY,) Baron Taun-
ton, an English Whig minister of state, born in Lon
don in 1798, was descended from a family of French
Protestants. He was returned to Parliament for Taunton
in 1830, became privy councillor in 1835, and president
of the board of trade in 1839. Having resigned with
his party in 1841, he was chosen chief secretary for Ire
Jand in 1846. He was president of the board of trade
from July, 1847, till February, 1852, and was colonial
secretary from the accession of Palmerston, in 1855, until
February, 1858. His mother was a Baring, sister of
Lord Ashburton. Died in July, 1869.
Labouchere, la'boo'shaiR', (PIERRE ANTOINE,) a
French historical painter, was born at Nantes in 1807.
Among his works are "The Colloquy of Geneva in 1549 :
Calvin, Beza, and Fare!," and "Luther at the Diet of
Worms," (1857.)
Labouderie, It' bood're', (JEAN,) a French religious
writer and abbe, born in Auvergne in 1776 ; died in 1849.
Laboulaye, la'boo'li', (£DOUARD REN£ LKKEIJURE.)
a French jurist and historical writer, born in Paris in
1811. He acquired a high reputation by his writings,
among which are a " History of the Law of Landed
Property in Europe," (1839,) a "History of the United
States of America," (3 vols., 1855.) and an ingenious
and witty work entitled " Paris in America." He trans
lated into French several of the works of Dr. Channing,
(1853.) In 1845 he was chosen a member of the Acad
emy of Inscriptions. He was a warm friend of the Union
during the great civil war, (1861-65,) ar|d >s a Liberal in
French politics.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Labourdormaie or La Bourdonnaie, de, deh 13'-
boou'do'i^V, (ANNE FRANCOIS AUGUSTIN,) COUNT, a
French general, born at Guerande in 1747. In 1792 he
was made a general, and, having obtained command of
the army of the North, was denounced by Dumouriez for
obstructing his operations in Belgium, and was recalled.
He afterwards commanded the army of the Pyrenees.
Died in November, 1793.
Labourdonnaie, de, (FRANQOIS REGIS,) COUNT, a
French legislator, born at Angers in 1767. In 1815
he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, where for
about fifteen years he was one of the chief orators of
the extreme royalists. He obtained the portfolio of the
interior in the Polignac ministry in 1829, but resigned
about the close of that year. Died in 1839.
Labourdonnais, de, (M.-uiE.) See MAIIE.
Labourdonnais, de, deh la'booit'dc/ni', (M.-\HE,
mt'a',) a Frenchman, snrnamed "The King of Chess,"
was born in 1795. After the death of Philidor he was
probably the most skilful chess-player in France. He
wrote a " Life of Malic de Labourdonnais," (his grand
father.) Died in 1840.
Laboureur, Le, leh It'boo'rUR', (JEAN.) a French
priest, whose works have thrown light on the history of
France, was born at Montmorency in 1623. He became
one of the almoners of the king. He published "Monu
ments of Illustrious Persons," (1641,) "Memoirs of
Michel de Castelnau," (1659,) and other works. Died
in 1675.
Labrador, la-bRa-D6R', (JuAN,) a Spanish painter of
the Seville school, was born in Estremadura. He painted
flowers and fruits with great success. His works are
highly prized in Spain. Died in 1600, at an advanced age.
Labrousse, de, deh li'bRooss', (CLOTII.DE SUZANNE
de Courcelles — deh koou'sel',) a French enthusiast,
born in Perigord in 1747. She professed to be a pro
phetess. In the Revolution she advocated the popular
cause. Died in 1821.
LaBrousse, de, (Nicoi,\s,)Comtede Verteillac, (deh
vcR'tA'yJtk',) a French general, born in 1648, was killed
near Mons in 1693. Louis XIV. said, "I have lost in
the Count of Verteillac the best officer of infantry that I
have had since Turenne."
La Brune, de, deh It biuin, (JEAN,) a French Prot
estant minister and writer, lived about 1690-1720.
La Brunerie, de, deh It bRiin're', (GuiLLAUME,) Vi-
comte Dode, a French general, born in Isere in 1775.
He had the chief command of the engineers of the army
which invaded Spain in 1823, and directed the fortifica
tions of Paris, (1840-45.) He was made a marshal of
France in 1847. Died in 1851.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
La Brxiyere. See BRUYERE, DE LA.
La Caille. See CAILLE, DE LA.
La Calleja, de, elk la kal-ya'na, (ANDRES,) a Spanish
painter, born at La Riojain 1705 ; died in Madrid in 1785.
La Calprenede. See CAI.PRENEDE, DE LA.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n5t; good; moon;
LACARRY
'349
LACORDAIRE
Lacarry, ll'kf're', (GiLLES,) a learned French Jesuit
and historian, horn in the diocese of Castres in 1605, was
for many years rector of the College of Cahors. He pub
lished several esteemed historical works, among which
is a " History of Rome from Julius Caesar to Constan-
tine I.," (1671.) Died in 1684.
Lacaussade, Ia"'k5'.sa"d', (AucusTF.,) a French poet
and critic, born in the Isle of Bourbon in 1820. He made
a good version of Ossian's poems, (1842,) and became
secretary to M. Sainte-Beuve. In 1852 he published
" Poemes et Paysages," ("Poems and Landscapes.")
Lacaze, de, deli It'kiV, (Louis,) a French medical
writer, born in Beam in 1703. Among his works is
" Idee de 1'Homme physique et moral," (" Ideal of the
Physical and Moral Man," 1755.) Died in 1765.
Lacepede, de, deh It'si'pld', (BERNARD GERMAIN
EriKNNK DE LA VlLLE,) COUNT, an eminent French
naturalist, born at Agen in 1756. He was carefully edu
cated at home by his father, who was of a distinguished
family, and in early youth chose natural history as his
favourite study and Buffon as his model. Having sent
to Buffon an account of some experiments on electricity
and received a complimentary answer, he went to Paris
in 1777, and formed an intimacy with that naturalist and
Daubenton. He published an "Essay on Electricity"
in 1781, and soon after became the favourite pupil of
Buffon, who selected him to continue his "Natural His
tory." In 1785 Lacepede was appointed curator and
sub-demonstrator in the Cabinet du Roi. He published,
as a sequel to Buffon's work, in 1788, a "Natural His
tory of Oviparous Quadrupeds and Serpents," which
was commended by Cuvier. In 1791 he entered the
Legislative Assembly as a moderate friend of the new
regime, and during the reign of terror found refuge in the
country. He obtained a chair of zoology in the Museum
of Natural History in 1795, and was admitted into the
Institute in 1796. His "Natural History of Fishes" (6
vols. 4to, 1798-1803) is elegant in style, but defective in
philosophy. Having been chosen president of the senate
in 1801, grand chancellor of the legion of honour in
1803, and minister of state in 1804, he was very assiduous
in the performance of his public duties. His "Natural
History of Cetacea" (2 vols., 1804) is called his best I
work. After the restoration he was made a peer of !
France. Died in 1825.
See CrviER. " filoge Imtorique du Comte de T.acepede." 1826; |
VILI.EXAVE, "fi'.oge liistorique du Comte de Lacepede." 1826:
AMAI.KIC, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. le Comte de
Lacepede:'' QTERARD, '"La France Litteraire ;" " Xouveile l>io-
grapliie Generate. "
La Cerda. See CERDA, DE LA.
Lacerda e Almeida, de, da la s§R'dJ a al-ma'e-da,
(FRANCISCO Jo/,6,) a Portuguese traveller, explorecTparts
of Brazil, and portions of Africa between io°and 26° south
latitude. Died in Africa about 1798.
La Chabeaussiere, de, deh \%. sht'bo'se-aJR', (ANGF.
ETIENNE XAVIF.R POISSON,) a French comic poet, born
in Paris in 1752 ; died in 1820.
La Chaise or Lachaise, de, deh IS shiz, (FRANgois
D'Aix,) or La Chaise d'Aix, (FRANCOIS DE,) PERK,
a French Jesuit, born in Forez in 1624. After teaching
philosophy at Lyons, he obtained in 1675 the place of
confessor to Louis XIV., which he kept for thirty-four
years. He had much influence with the king, and ap
pears to have acted with moderation and prudence.
Voltaire calls him a "mild person, with whom the ways
of conciliation were always open." He is partly respon
sible, however, for the revocation of the edict of Nantes.
Died in 1709. A large cemetery of Paris bears the name
of Pere La Chaise.
See VOLTAIRK. " Siecle de Louis XIV;" SAINT-SIMON, "Ale-
moires;" "Nouvel'e biographic Generate."
La Chalotais. See CHALOTAIS, DE LA.
Lachambeaudie, It'shoN'bo'de', (PIERRE,) a French
fabulist, born at Sarlat in 1806. He joined the Saint-
Simonians about 1832, and published, in 1839, " Popular
Fables," (7th edition, 1849,) which gained a prize of 2000
francs from the French Academy.
La Chambre. See CHAMKRE, DE LA.
Lachapelle or La Chapelle, de, deh li'sht'ne'i',
(ARMAND Boisbeleau — bwa'beh'lo',) a French Prot
estant minister, was born in Saintonge in 1676. After
preaching in London, he became pastor of a church at
the Hague in 1725. He was the editor of the last ten
volumes of the " Bibliotheque Anglaise," or "Literary
Journal of Great Britain," (15 vols., 1717-27,) which was
commenced by Laroche, and wrote several theological
works. Died in 1746.
La Chapelle, de, (JEAN,) a mediocre French poet,
born at Bourges in 1655, became a member of the French
Academy. He wrote several successful tragedies, among
which was " Za'ide," and "The Amours of Catullus,"
(1680.) Died in 1723.
La-eh'a-res, [Aa.\ap??o,] an Athenian demagogue and
tyrant, who obtained the chief power at Athens in 296
i:.C. He was expelled by Demetrius in 295.
La Chatre, de, deh It'shatR', (CLAUDE,) a French
general and courtier, born about 1536; died in 1614.
La Chaussee. See CHAUSSEE.
La'-ehes, [Atrp/c,] an Athenian general, commanded
an expedition sent to Sicily in 427 B.C. He was one of
the commanders of the army sent to Argos in 418 H.C.,
and was killed at Mantinea in that year.
La-eh'e-sis, [Aa^w^c,] a Greek word signifying "lot"
or "destiny," the name of one of the PARC^, (which see.)
La Chetardie. See CHETARDIE, DE LA.
Lachmann, laK/man, (KARL,) an eminent German
critic and philologist, born at Brunswick in March, 1793.
He studied at Leipsic and Gottingen. After having
lectured in the University of Konigsberg, he became
in 1827 professor in that of Berlin, where he acquired
a high reputation. In 1830 he was admitted into the
Academy of Sciences of Berlin. He published excellent
critical essays on Homer and on the " Niebelungen-
Lied." Between 1829 and 1845 he edited the works of
Catullus, Tibullus, Terence, and Avianus. He published
an edition of Lucretius, (1850.) He also wrote " De
Choreis Systematis Tragicorum Grascorum," (1819,) and
many other works. Died in Berlin in 1851.
See JACOB GRIMM, "Rede auf Lachmann," iSji ; MARTIN
HERTZ, " K. Lachmann, eine Biographic," 1851; " Nouvelle Bio-
granhie Generate;" "London Quarterly Review" for September,
1847.
Lachner, laK'ner, (FRANZ,) a German musical com
poser, born at Rain, in Bavaria, in 1804. He composed
symphonies, which are his chief title to fame, and sev
eral operas and oratorios. After acting as chapel-master
in Vienna some years, he became royal chapel-master in
Munich in 1836. He ranks among the greatest com
posers of symphonies in recent times. In 1852 he was
chosen general director of music in Munich.
Lackemacher, lak'keh-maK'er, QOHANN GOTT
FRIED,) a German Orientalist, born at Osterwick in
1695 ; died in 1736.
Lack'ing-tpn, (JAMES,) an English bookseller, born
about 1745; died in 1816.
See his " Autobiographic Memoirs," 1792.
Lackmann, lak'man, (ADAM HEINRICH,) a German
historian, born at Weningen in 1694; died in 1753.
La Clede or Laclede^de, deh It'klid', (N.,) a French
historian, was a friend of Voltaire. He published a " Gen
eral History of Portugal," (2 vols. 410, 1735,) of which
a Portuguese version appeared in i6vols., (1781-97.) He
died young in 1736.
Laclos or La Clos, de, deh IS'klo', (PIERRE AM-
RROISE FRANCOIS Choderlos — sho'deR'los',) a French
officer, born at Amiens in 1741. He was secretary to
the Duke of Orleans during the Revolution. In the
army he served as marechal-de-camp under the Republic.
He published a licentious romance, "The Dangerous
Liaisons." Died in 1803.
La Colonie, de, deh It ko'lo'ne', QEAN MARTIN,) a
French historical writer, born at Bordeaux in 1674. He
wrote a " History of Bordeaux," (3 vols., 1757.) Died
'" '759-
Lacombe, If koMb', (JACQUES,) a mediocre French
writer, born in Paris in 1724. Among his numerous
works, in prose and verse, are a " Dictionary of the Fine
Arts," (1759,) a "History of Revolutions in Russia,"
(1763,) and a " Dictionary of Arts and Trades," (8 vols.,
1789-91.) Died in iSit.
La Condamiiie. See CON DA MINE, LA.
Lacordaire, If kou'diR', (JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI,) a
celebrated French preacher, and founder of a new order
t as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LACORDAIRE
1350
LACR UZ
of Dominicans, was born at Recey-sur-Ource (Cote d'Or)
in 1802. He was educated for the law, which he re
nounced in 1823 for the church, having been converted
from Voltairian views by the " Essay on Indifference"
of Lamennais. In 1830 he was associated with Lamen-
nais and Montalembert as an editor of the " Avenir,"
which was ultramontane in religion but liberal or r-adical
in politics. Mis unity and co-operation with Lamen
nais ceased in 1832, after a visit to Rome with his two
friends above named, and after the pope had denounced
the "Avenir." In 1835 the archbishop opened to him
the pulpit of Notre-Dame, Paris, where he attracted
immense crowds by the novel and brilliant style of his
sermons, in which he availed himself freely of the various
interests and excitements of the time. He became a
Dominican friar in 1840, and published a " Life of Saint
Dominic." In 1848 he was elected to the Constituent
Assembly ; but he resigned his seat in May of that year,
having failed as a parliamentary speaker. He after
wards preached in Paris and other cities. He pub
lished " Considerations on the Philosophic System of
Lamennais," (1834,) "Sermons (Conferences) at Notre-
Dame," (3 vols., 1835-50,) "Letter on the Holy See,"
(1838,) and other works. In 1859 or 1860 he was elected
to the French Academy in place of De Tocqueville.
Died in November, 1861.
See MONTALEMBKRT, " Vie de Lacordaire ;" " Notice sur Lacor-
daire," Lyons, 1845; SAINTE-BEUVE, " Causeries du Lundi," tome
i. : L. DE LOMENIE, "Le Pere Lacordaire," 1844 : PIERRE LOKRAIN,
" Biographic historique de Lncordaire," 1847 ; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generate ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1863; " London
Quarterly Review" for July, 1864; PERE CHOCARNE, " Vie du Pave
Lacordaire." (and English translation of the same, Dublin and New
York, !S67.)
Lacordaire, (JEAN THEODORE,) a French naturalist,
a brother of the preceding, was born at Recey-sur-Ource
in 1801. He travelled extensively in South America
between 1825 and 1832. Among his works are an "In
troduction to Entomology," (2 vols., 1834-37,) and a
" Natural History of Insects : Genera of Coleoptera,"
(4 vols., 1857.)
Lacoste, iS'kost', (fiuE,) a French Jacobin, born at
Montagnac, was elected to the Convention in 1792. On
the gth Thermidor, 1794, he spoke with energy against
Robespierre, and procured the suppression of the revo
lutionary tribunal. Died in 1803.
Lacour, It'kooR', (PIERRE,) a French painter and
archaeologist, born at Bordeaux in 1778.
Lacretelle, de, deh IS'kReh-tel', (JEAN CHARLES
DOMINIQUE,) a popular French historian, born at Metz
in 1766. He was in Paris during the Revolution, and was
a zealous partisan of the moderate Constitutionalists.
After the fall of Robespierre he became one of the chiefs
of the jennesse doree, and gained distinction as an elo
quent writer and editor of a political journal. On the
1 8th Fructidor, 1797, he was arrested on the charge of
being a royalist, and imprisoned twenty-three months.
He published a " History of the French Revolution," (5
vols., 1801-6,) which obtained great success, a "His
tory of France since the Restoration," (3 vols., 1829-35,)
and many other works on French history. Among his
best productions is a " History of France during the
Eighteenth Century," (6 vols., 1808,) and "The National
Convention," (3 vols., 1825.) He was admitted into the
French Academy in 1811, and was professor of history
at the Faculty of Letters from 1809 to 1848. In 1827 he
was the prime mover of a protest which the French
Academy made against a proposed law to subvert the
freedom of the press. Died in 1855.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" TASTEL, "Histoire des
quarante Fauteuils de 1'Academie Francaise," 4 vols., 1855; "Lon
don Quarterly Review" for April, 1814; "Edinburgh Review" for
January, 1805.
Lacretelle, de, (PIERRE Louis,) a French lawyer and
successful writer, brother of the preceding, was born at
Metz in 1751. He became a resident of Paris at an early
age. He gained reputation by his "filoge de Montau-
sier," by a prize essay " Sur la Prejuge des Peines infa-
mantes," ("On the Prejudice against [the Families of
those who suffer] Infamous Penalties," 1784,) and other
works, for which the Academy in 1786 awarded him the
prize founded for the work most useful to morals. In
1791 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly, where
he acted with the moderate Constitutionalists. About
1802 he was admitted into the French Academy in place
of La Ilarpe. After the restoration of 1814 he was one
of the editors of the "Minerve Francaise." He was
author of "Portraits and Tableaux" and "Melanges of
Philosophy and Literature," (5 vols., 1802-07.) Died in
1824 or 1825.
Lacroix, llt'kRwa', (JULES,) a French novelist and
poet, born in Paris in 1809, published " The Parasites,"
(2 vols., 1837,) " Memoirs of a Somnambulist," (5 vols.,
1845,) and other novels.
Lacroix, (PAUL,) a prolific writer and novelist, brother
of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1807, and is
known under the pseudonym of P. L. JACOB BIBLIOPHILE.
He published a " History of the Sixteenth Century in
France," (4 vols, 1834,) a "History of Napoleon III.,"
(4 vols., 1854,) and other historical works. The manners,
arts, and sciences of Europe in the middle ages and in
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are illustrated in his
" Moyen-Age et la Renaissance," (5 vols., 1847-51,) which
is regarded as a valuable and important work. Among
his novels are " Soirees of Walter Scott at Paris," (2 vols.,
1829-31,) "The Good Old Time," (1835,) and "Lover
and Mother," (" Amante et Mere," 2 vols., 1839.)
Lacroix, (SILVESTRE FRANCOIS,) a French mathema
tician, born in Paris in 1765. He was professor in the
Polytechnic School, the Sorbonne, and the College of
France for about sixty years, and rendered important
services to science by his elementary works on geometry,
algebra, etc. lie published a "Treatise on the Differ
ential and Integral Calculus," (2 vols., 1797,) which is
highly esteemed. He was a member of the Institute.
Died in 1843.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lacroix or La Croix, de, deh It'knwa', (EMERIC,)
a French writer against war, born in Paris about 1590.
Among his works is "The New Cyneas."
Lacroix, de, (FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAMPHILK,) Vi-
COMTE, a French general, born in Languedoc in 1774;
died in 1842.
Lacroix, de, (J. P.,) a French regicide and lawyer,
was born at Pont-Audemer in 1754. He was an active
member of the Convention, and became a political friend
of Danton, with whom he was executed in April, 1794.
Lacroix, de, (Louis ANTOINE NICOLLE,; a French
geographer, born in Paris in 1704. He published a
" Modern Geography," (1747,) which was used in colleges
for about fifty years. Died in 1760.
Lacroix, de, (MARIE NICOLAS CHRESTIEN,) a French
engineer and topographer, born in Paris in 1754. lie
enjoyed high consideration as chief of the topographical
bureau in the department of foreign affairs. Died in 1836.
Lacroix du Maine, de, deh 13'kRwa' dti m|n,
(FRANQOIS GRUDE,) SIEUR, a French bibliographer, born
at Mans in 1552. Having collected many books and lite
rary materials, he published in 1584 his " Bibliotheque
Franfaise," which contains valuable information on
French works and their authors, and is commended for
accuracy. He was assassinated in 1592 by some fanatics
who suspected that he secretly favoured the Reformed
religion.
Lacrosse, de, deh 13'kRoss', (BERNARD THEOBALD
JOSEPH,) BARON, a French politician, born at Brest in
1796. In December, 1848, he was appointed minister of
public works. He became a senator in 1852.
Lacrosse, de, (JEAN BAPTISTE RAYMOND,) BARON,
a French admiral, the father of the preceding, was born
at Meilhan in 1765. In 1804 he was appointed com-
mander-in-chief of the flotilla at Boulogne. Died in 1829.
Lacroze, de, deh iS'kRoz', (MATHURIN VEYSSIERE,)
a French Orientalist, born at Nantes in 1661, became
librarian of the King of Prussia in 1697, and professor
of philosophy in Berlin. He wrote an " Egyptian Dic
tionary," and several historical treatises. Died in 1739.
Lacruz or La Cruz, de, da la-kRooth', (JuAN,) a
skilful Spanish painter of history and portraits, was born
at Valencia in 1545, and was surnamed PANTOJA. He
was patronized by Philip II., for whom he painted por
traits and religious pieces for the Escurial.
Lacruz, de, (JUANA INEZ,) a Spanish or Mexican
poetess, born near Mexico in 1651. She published in
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m§t; nSt; good; moon;
LACK UZ
LAENNEC
1670 a volume of dramas and other poems, religious and
secular, which were greatly admired for grace and sensi
bility. She retired to a convent in 1668, and died in
1695. She was often called "the Tenth Muse."
Lacruz y Caao, de, da la-kRooth' e ka'no, (RAMON,)
a Spanish dramatic poet, born at Madrid in 1731. He
had great facility in versification, and excelled in ridicule
or facetiae. He produced many successful comedies, in
which characters are skilfully treated. Died in 1795-
Lacshmi. See LAKSHMI.
Lactance. See LACTANTIUS.
Lactantius, lak-tan'shfxus^Fr. LACTANCE, If k'toNss';
It. LATTANZIO, lat-tin'ze-o,] (Lucius CCELIUS FIRMI-
ANUS,) an eloquent Latin Father, who flourished in the
third and fourth centuries, and is supposed to have been
a native of Africa. He was a pupil of Arnobius. About
290 A.D., Diocletian employed him as teacher of rhetoric
at Nicomedia. Some writers think he was converted
from paganism after that date. Between 310 and 320 he
was preceptor of Crispus, the son of the emperor Con-
stantine, and during that period lived in Gaul. His
principal work is " Institutiones Divinse," ("Divine In
stitutions,") a defence of Christianity. He is reputed
the most eloquent and polished of the Latin Fathers,
and was called by Saint Jerome "the Christian Cicero."
Died probably about 325 A.D.
See BROOKE MOUNTAIN, " Summary of the Writings of Lactan
tius," London. 1839; FLECRY, " Histoire ecclesiastique ;" SAINT
JEROME, " l)e Scriptoribus Ecc'esiasticis ;" P. ECKERMAN, " Disser-
tatio de I, actantio, Cicerone Christiano," 1754 ; " Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generate. "
Lacuee, It'ku'i', (GERARD JEAN,) Comte de Cessac,
a French general and administrator, born near Agen in
1752. He became a member of the Institute, minister
of state, (1807,) and minister of the administration of
war in 1810. Died in 1841.
Lacuna. See LACUNA.
La/cy, (foHN,) an English actor and dramatist, born
at Doncaster. He obtained such popularity as a comic
actor that Charles II. had his portrait painted in several
characters. He wrote, besides other comedies, "The
Dumb Lady," and " Sir Hercules Buffoon." Died in 1681.
Lacy, de, da laV//ee', (Luis,) an able Spanish general,
born near Gibraltar in 1775. Having failed in an attempt
to restore the authority of the Cortes, he was shot in 1817.
Lacy, von, (JOSEPH FRANZ MOKITZ.) See LASCY.
La-9y'des, [Aa/ct'^f,] a Greek philosopher of the Pla
tonic school, was a native of Gyrene. He was a pupil
of Arcesilaus, whose successor he became at Athens
about 240 B.C. His writings are not extant. Died
about 215 B.C., (one account says 241 B.C.)
Ladd, (WILLIAM,) an American philanthropist, born
at Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1778, was one of the
originators of the American Peace Society, of which he
became president. He was successively editor of the
"Friend of Peace" and the "Harbinger of Peace," and
wrote several essays on that subject. Died in 1841.
See the "Democratic Review" for March, 1842.
Ladenberg, voii, fon la'den-beRc', (ADALBERT,) born
at Anspach in 1798, filled many important posts under
the Prussian government. Died in 1855.
Ladenberg, von, (PHILIPP,) a Prussian lawyer, the
father of the preceding, born at Magdeburg in 1769,
became in 1837 privy minister of state. Died in 1847.
Ladislaus, lad'is-lawss or la'dis-lowss, [Fr. LADISLAS,
It'de'slas': Polish, WLADISLAW, vla'de-slav' or vla'de-
slaf,] I., King of Hungary, and SAINT, born in 1041, was
a son of Bela I. He began to reign in 1078, and died in
1095. He was canonized by the pope.
See GANOCZY, "Dissertatio de S. Ladislao," etc., Vienna, 1775.
Ladislaus II., of Hungary, a son of Bela II., was
born about 1134; died in 1162, after a reign of about
six months. He is omitted from some lists of the kings
of Hungary.
Ladislaus II. or IT!., King of Hungary, born about
1185, was a son of Emeric. He was elected in 1204, and
died in 1205.
Ladislaus III. or IV., surnamed CUMAN, King of
Hungary, succeeded his father, Stephen IV., in 1272. In
his reign Hungary was ravaged by the Tartars or Mon
gols. He was assassinated in 1290.
Ladislaus IV. or V., King of Hungary, born about
1400, was a son of Jagellon or Ladislaus. He inherited
the throne of Poland in 1434, and was elected King of
Hungary in 1440. His army gained several victories
over the Turkish invaders. (See HUNIADES.) He was
killed at the battle of Varna by the Turks in 1444. He
was succeeded by the infant son of Albert II., who
was styled Ladislaus VI., and who died in 1457, aged
seventeen.
See FESSLER, "Geschichte der Ungarn."
Ladislaus VI. or VII., King of Hungary, born about
1450, was a son of Casimir IV. of Poland. He was
elected King of Hungary in 1490. During his reign the
conquests of Matthias Corvinus in Austria were lost.
He died in 1516, leaving the throne to his son Louis.
See COUNT VON MAILATH, " Geschichte der Ungarn."
Ladislaus or Lancelot, King of Naples, was the
son of Charles III., and began to reign in 1386. His
rival, Louis II., had possession of Naples, but was ex
pelled in 1399. Ladislaus excited the Romans to revolt
against Innocent VII., and in 1408 made himself master
of Rome. Died in 1414.
Ladislaus OF POLAND. See VLADISLAUS.
Ladmiral, Ifd'me'rtl', (JAN,) a Dutch engraver, of
French descent, born at Leyden in 1680.
Ladoucette, de, deh It'doo'seV, ([KAN CHARLES
FRANCOIS,) BARON, a meritorious French administrator,
born at Metz in 1770; died in 1848.
Ladowski, la-dov'skee, (REMIE,) a Polish naturalist,
born at Volhynia in 1738, published a "Natural History
of Poland," (1783.) Died in 1798.
Ladvocat, Itd'vo'kt', QEAN BAPTISTE,) a French
doctor of the Sorbonne, born at Vaucouleurs in 1709,
was learned in philosophy, history, Oriental languages,
etc. He became professor of divinity in the Sorbonne,
and published, besides other works, a Hebrew Grammar,
" Bibliotheque annuelle," (1748-51,) and a "Historical
Dictionary," (2 vols., 1752.) An enlarged edition of the
last was published in 5 vols. in 1822. Died in 1765.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire."
Ladvocat, (Louis FRANC.OIS,') a French philosophical
writer, born in Paris in 1644. He became a counsellor
and dean of the chamber of accounts. He wrote several
metaphysical works, one of which is entitled a " New
System of Philosophy." Died in 1735.
Ladvocat, (N.,) a French publisher and bookseller,
born in 1790; died in 1854.
Laelius, lee'le^us, (CAius,) surnamed NEPOS, an emi
nent Roman general. He had a high command under
Scipio Africanus in the expedition against Spain in 210
B.C. In 205 he gained a victory over Syphax in Africa,
for which he received a crown of gold. He was elected
praetor in 197, and consul in 190. His notes furnished
Polybius with materials for his history of Scipio's cam
paigns in Spain.
Laelius, (C'Aius,) surnamed SAPIENS, a son of the pre
ceding, studied philosophy with Diogenes the Stoic, and
became an eminent orator. He served with distinction
under his friend Scipio the Younger at the siege of Car
thage, and was chosen consul in 140 B.C. He favoured the
aristocratic party, and was an opponent of T. Gracchus.
The celebrity of the friendship between Laelius and
Scipio caused Cicero to place the name of the former at
the head of his dialogue "De Amicitia." Horace com
mends his mild philosophy, — "mitis sapientia Laelii,"
(Serm. ii. Sat. i.) Died about 115 B.C.
See CICERO, " Brutus" and " De Oratore ;" HENDRIK HANA,
"Dissertatio de C. Ljelio Sapiente," 1832.
Laennec, It'neV, (GUILLAUME FRANCOIS,) a French
physician, born at Quimper in 1748, was the uncle of
the following. He became physician-in-ordinary to the
king in 1779. Died in 1822.
Laennec, (RENE THEODORE HYACINTHS,) an eminent
French physician, born at Quimper in February, 1784,
went to Paris in 1800 to pursue his studies. He gave
special attention to anatomy, in which he made several
discoveries. He had already acquired a reputation by his
practice and writings, when he invented the stethoscope
in 1815, and opened a new era in medicine by his impor
tant discovery of auscultation. Having been chosen chief
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LAENSBERGH
1352
LA FATETTE
physician of the Hopital Necker in 1816, he studied the
diseases of the thorax with great diligence, sagacity, and
success. His "Treatise on Mediate Auscultation," etc.
("Traite de 1' Auscultation mediate et des Maladies des
Poumons et du Coeur," 2 vols., 1819) produced a great
sensation, and may be regarded as the most important
contribution to medical science made in the present cen
tury. He was appointed professor of medicine in the
College of France in 1822, and obtained the chair of
clinic medicine in 1822 or 1823. He died of consump
tion in 1826.
See PARISET, " filoge de Laennec," 1840 ; A. L. J. RAYI.E, " No
tice histonque sur H. T. H. Laennec," 1826; " Nouvelle Biographic
Geneiale. "
Laeusbergh, iSns'beiui or lans'be'Rg, ( MATHIEU,)
a Fleming, who lived about 1630, was the author of a
famous almanac, first published about 1635. An almanac
bearing his name continues to be published at Liege.
La ihiziiia or Enciiia. See LNZINA.
Laer or Laar, van, vSn iSn, (PIKTER,) a celebrated
Dutch painter, born at Haarlem in 1613. He studied
and worked sixteen years in Rome, where he was inti
mate with N. Poussin and Claude Lorrain and received
the surname of BAMHOCCIO. In 1639 he returned to
Holland and settled in Haarlem. His favourite subjects
were hunting-scenes, rural sports, fairs, fisheries, and
rustic festivals, which he treated with great vivacity. He
excelled in design, colour, and aerial effects. His etch
ings of his own designs are also much admired. Died
in 1673.
Laerte. See LAKRTES.
La-er'tes, [Or. Aai'/)7//f ; Fr. LAERTK, It'eRt',] King
of Ithaca, and father of Ulysses, is said to have been
one of the Argonauts. lie resigned the crown to his
son just named.
Laertius, (DiooF.NES.) See DIOGENES.
Laet, van, vitn 1st, (J.\N,) a Flemish geographer, born
at Antwerp, was well versed in languages and history.
He published valuable descriptive works on Spain, Italy,
Persia, etc. His " Description of the West Indies" (1640)
is highly commended. Died about 1650.
See NICERON, " Me'moires."
Laeviiius, le-vi'nus, (MARCUS VALERIUS,) a Roman
general, who, having obtained the office of praetor in 214
H.C., fought with success against Philip, King of Mace-
don, at Oricum. He became consul in 210 B.C., and
obtained by lot the command of Italy, which was then
invaded by Hannibal ; but he exchanged this province
with Marcellus for Sicily. He quickly expelled the Car
thaginians from this island. Died in 200 n.C.
See Livv, "History of Rome;" POLYEIUS, " History."
Laevinus, (Puuuus VALERIUS,) a Roman general,
who was consul in 280 li.C. He obtained the chief com
mand in the war against Pyrrhus and the Tarentines.
His army was defeated by Pyrrhus in a great battle on
the Siris, near Heraclea, in 280 B.C.
Lceviiius, la-vee'nus, ( TORRENTIUS, ) called also
Vander Beken, vtn der ba'ken, a Flemish prelate,
born at Ghent about 1525, was distinguished as a Latin
poet. He founded a college of Jesuits at Louvain, and
became Bishop of Mechlin. Died in 1595.
Lasvius, lee've-us, a Latin poet, of whom little is
known. He lived in the first century before Christ, and
wrote " Erotopasgnia."
Lafabrique, IS'fS'bKek'.fNicoLAS,) a Flemish painter,
born at Xamur ; died at Liege in 1736.
La Fage, IS ttzh, (RAIMOND,) a French designer and
engraver, born at Lisle (Albigeois) about 1650, studied
and worked at Rome and at Paris. He was renowned
for boldness of touch and facility of execution. The
pen was his favourite instrument in design. He left
many etchings. His habits were very intemperate.
Died about 1690.
La Faille, de, deh It ftl or ff'ye, (CLEMENT,) a
French naturalist, born at La Rochelle in 1718; died in
1782.
Lafaist. See LAFAYK.
La Fare, de, deh It flu, (CHARLES AUGUSTS,) MAR
QUIS, a French litterateur, born at Valgorge in 1644. He
served several campaigns in the army, (1667-74,) and
became a friend of Turenne. Besides some trifling
poetical pieces, he wrote "Memoirs and Reflections on
the Principal Events of the Reign of Louis XIV.,"
(1715,) which is commended. Died in 1712.
La Farge, 15 fSRzh, (JOACHIM,) a French financier,
born in Paris about 1750, originated a system of tontine
which is called by his name. Died about 1825.
La Farge, (MARIE CAITELI.E, ) a Frenchwoman,
notorious for her crimes, was born in I'icardy in 1816.
She was the daughter of a colonel of artillery, and was
married in 1838 to M. La Farge, who died soon after, it
was supposed, from the effects of poison administered
by his wife. About the same time she was accused of
having stolen from one of her friends some diamonds of
great value. The trial which followed was of the most
exciting kind, several eminent chemists having declared,
alter an examination of the remains, that there were no
marks of poison, while M. Orfila asserted that arsenic
was present. Madame La Farge was condemned to
imprisonment for life, but after twelve years she was
released, on account of ill health, and died in 1852.
See " Memoires de Mnrie Cappelle Veuve La targe," by herself,
4 vols., 1840; " Edinburgh Review" for Ji:ly, 1842.
La Farina, la fA-Ree'na, (GiusEiTE,) an Italian lawyer
and historical writer, born at Messina in 1815. He
founded several liberal journals, which were successively
suppressed by the government. lie afterwards settled
at Florence, where he found more liberty, and published
a democratic anti-papal journal, " 1,'Alba." He took a
prominent part in the unsuccessful revolution in Sicily
in 1848, after which he again became an exile. Among
his works are a " History of Italy from 1815 to 1850,"
(6 vols.,) and a "History of the Revolution of Sicily in
1848-49," (2 vols.)
Lafaye, It'tY, (ANTOINE,) a French Protestant min
ister, born at Chateaudun, became professor of theology
at Geneva in 1584. He wrote several theological works,
and a "Life of Beza," (1606.) Died in 1615.
Lafaye or Lafaist, li'tY, (PIERRE BENJAMIN,) a
French philologist, born in the department of Yonne in
1808. His chiet works are "French Synonvmes," (1841,)
crowned by the Institute, and a " Dictionary of the
Synonymes of the French Language," (1858.)
Lafaye, de, deh It'tV, (JEAN £LIE,) an able French
engineer, born at Yienne in 1671. He served in the
army many years as engineer, and made discoveries in
the science of war. Died in 1718.
Lafaye, de, (JEAN FRANC.OIS,) a French diplomatist,
distinguished for his wit and accomplishments, brother
of the preceding, was bom at Vienne in 1074. lie was
a member of the French Academy. Died in 1731.
La Fayette or Lafayette, de.'cleh It'tYeV, (GEORGE
WASHINGTON,) the only son of General La Fayette, was
born in 1779. He entered the army young, and served
in Italy about 1796. As aide-de-camp of General Grou
chy, he made the campaigns of Austria, Prussia, and
Poland, (1805-07.) He was elected to the Chamber of
Deputies in 1822, and again in i8:?7, by the voters of
Seine-et-Marne, whom he continued to represent until
1848. In politics he was an advanced liberal. Died in 1849.
La Fayette, de, (GILHERT,) a French general, born
about 1380. He fought for the dauphin Charles against
the English, and became a marshal of France in 1420.
He was afterwards one of the chief counsellors of
Charles VII., and contributed to the victory of Joan
of Arc at Orleans in 1429. He aided in expelling the
English from Normandy in 1449. Died in 1462.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
La Fayette, de, (LOUISE,) a French lady, born in
1616, was a daughter of Count Jean de la Fayette.
She gained the affection of Louis XIII. about 1634, and
encouraged him to become more independent of Riche
lieu. She entered a convent about 1636. Died in 1665.
La Fayette or Lafayette, de, (MARIK (KAN PAUL
Roch Yves Gilbert Motier — rosh ev zhel'baiR' nu/-
te-a',) MAROUIS, an illustrious French statesman and
patriot, was born at Chavagnac, September 6, 1757. 1 lis
father, who was a marquis and marechal-de-camp, was
killed at the battle of Minden in 1757. Alter leaving
the College Du Plessis, in Paris, he married in 1774
Mdlle. d'Ayen, a daughter of the Duke of Ayen. He
was the heir of an immense fortune, and had brilliant
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; tar, fall, fat; me"t; nftt; good; moon;
LA FATETTE
'353
LA FERTE
prospects at court, when, with generous enthusiasm for
liberty, he offered his services to the new-born republic
of America. Silas Deane, commissioner of the United
States in Paris, accepted his offer, and promised him
the grade of major-general, which was confirmed by the
American Congress. In the spring of 1777 he arrived
in the United States, and in the same year took part in
the battle of the Brandywine, where he was wounded.
He gained the favour and confidence of Washington,
and received the thanks of Congress for his conduct at
Monmouth in 1778. The French court having recog
nized the independence of the United States, La Fayette
recrossed the ocean in 1779 and returned with material
aid to the scene of war. He commanded the advanced
guard of Washington in 1780, and contributed to the
decisive victory of Yorktown, (1781,) where the war was
virtually ended.
On his return to France, with a prestige magnified
by distance, he was received with unbounded applause,
which reanimated or confirmed his devotion to the cause
of liberty. In 1787 he advocated the rights of the French
Protestants and various reforms in the government. His
principal parliamentary act in the States-General of 1789
was his Declaration of the Rights of Man, which was
adopted by that body. In that year he was chosen by ac
clamation commandant of the Parisian militia, to which
he gave the name of the National Guard. At this period
he was the popular favourite of the nation. " The federa
tion of 1790," says Lamartine, "was the apogee of La
Fayette. He overshadowed on that day both the king
and the Assembly." (" History of the Girondists.")
Aiming to reconcile his loyalty to the king with his duty
to the cause of freedom, he acted with the FeuHlants,
the friends of constitutional monarchy. In the main
tenance of order he often risked his life, and he enforced
martial law against the insurgents in the Champ-de-Mars
in July, 1791, soon after the arrest of the king at Va-
rennes. Before the end of that year he resigned his com
mand, and was a candidate for the mayoralty of Paris ; but
the intrigues of the queen and court, who hated or feared
him, decided the election in favour of Pethion, who was
a radical revolutionist. The large majority of Pethion
showed that the star of La Fayette was declining. In the
winter of 1791-92 he was chosen commander of one of
the three armies, and, war having been declared against
Austria in April, he directed some small operations on
the frontier of Flanders, at the same time striving, with
out success, to defeat the Jacobins at Paris. Indignant
at the attack on the Tuileries, (June 20, 1792,) La Fayette
went, with a single officer, to Paris, and, in a short
harangue before the bar of the Assembly, demanded the
punishment of the offenders. " In this a'ttempt to act as
dictator," says Lamartine, "the motive was generous,
the peril great, but the means null." Returning to the
army, he devised a plan to save the king by transferring
him from the capital to his camp ; but the court rejected
the offer.
The insurrection of August 10 gave the ascendency to
the republicans, who deprived La Fayette of his command.
He then fled towards Holland, intending to emigrate to
the United States, but was arrested by the Austrians and
detained in the dungeons of Neiss and Olmiitz, where
he was treated with much rigour. In a treaty with Aus
tria in 1797, Bonaparte insisted on his liberation, which
was effected in September of that year. Having passed
about two years in Holland, he returned to France in
1800, and, refusing several offers of public employment
under Bonaparte, maintained his political consistency in
retirement at La Grange. Some one having complained
that La Fayette censured the government, the First
Consul replied, " Let him alone : he will not say more
against me than he has expressed openly before me."
In the Chamber of Deputies in 1815, he opposed the
claims of Bonaparte and of the Bourbons, and wished to
rally round the standard of 1789 for "liberty, equality,
and order." After the restoration of the Bourbons he
spoke frequently in the Chamber in opposition to the
ministry. In 1824 he revisited the scene of his youthful
exploits, where he was received with cordial demonstra
tions of honour and gratitude, and passed about a year
in a triumphal progress through the twenty-four States of
the Union. The Congress of the United States voted
$200,000 in recompense for his services in the war of
independence. The arbitrary measures of Charles X.
again roused him to political action. He took a promi
nent part in the revolution of 1830, as the chief of the
popular camp in Paris, and president of the commission
which exercised a sort of dictatorship after the expul
sion of Charles X. He was also chosen commander
of all the National Guards of France. He acquiesced
in the accession of Louis Philippe, which Lamartine
thinks he might easily have prevented by proclaiming
a republic. On this occasion he said to the nesv king,
"You know that I am a republican, and that I regard
the Constitution of the United States as the most perfect
that ever existed." He died May 20, 1834, leaving one
son and several daughters. Perhaps no man ever lived
through such vicissitudes of fortune, and such severe
trials of his virtue, with a character more free from just
reproach than La Fayette. The high-toned consistency
of his conduct is expressed in the assertion of Madame
de Stael, " that you could certainly predict what he would
do in every contingency."
See SARR.ANS, "Lafayette et la Revolution de 1830," 2 vols.,
1834; CLOQUET, "Souvenirs de la Vie de La Fayette," 1836; " Me-
nioires et Correspondance du General Lafayette," (published by
his family,) 6 vols., i83S; J. Q. ADAMS, " Oration on the Life and
Character of Lafayette," 1*34; WILLIAM CUTTKR, " Life of General
Lafayette," New York, 1X49 ; L. DE LO.MENIE, " M. de LnfnyMte, par
un Homme de Rien," iS42; P. C. HEADLEY, "Life of Lafayette,"
Auburn, 1851; SAINTE-BHUVE, " Critiques et Portraits litteraires, "
tome v. ; £MILE DE LA BEDOI.LIERE, "Vie poliiique dn Marquis de
Lafayette," 1833: BANCROFT, "History of the United States." vol.
ix. ; "North American Review" for January, 1825, (by GEORGE
TICKNOR,) and January. 1830, (by EDWARD EVERETT; "London
Quarterly Review" for December, 1832; "Foreign Quarterly" for
October, 1832; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1833.
La Fayette, de, (MARIE MADELEINE Pioche de la
Vergne — pe'osh' deh It vinn,) COUNTESS, a popular
French authoress, born in Paris in 1634, was eminently
beautiful. She married the Count de la Fayette in 1655,
and her house became the resort of La Fontaine, La
Rochefoucauld, Menage, and other eminent authors.
She wrote two successful novels, " Zayde," (1670,) and
"The Princess of Cleves," (1678,) which were the first
French works of fiction that truly represented the man
ners of the higher classes. She left also " Memoirs of
the French Court" for the years 1688 and 1689, (1731,)
and a few other works. Died in 1693.
See LEMONTEY, "Notice sur Madame de la Fayette," 1822;
SAINTE-BEUVB, "Portraits de Femmes." 1844; AUGER, "Notice
biographiqne sur Madame de Lat'ayette," (prefixed to her Letters,)
1823 ; " Nouvel'e Biographic Generale."
La Fayette, de, (Osc,\R,) a son of George \V., noticed
above, was born in Paris in 1816. He served in the
army in Africa, and obtained the rank of captain. In
1846 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and in
1848 to the Constituent Assembly, in which he voted
with the republicans.
Laferriere or La Ferriere, It'ft're-aiR', (Louts
FIRMIN JULIEN,) a French jurist, and a member of the
Institute, was born at Jonzac in 1798. His principal
work is a "History of the Civil Law of Rome and of
French Law," (6 vols., 1846-53.) Died in 1861.
La Ferriere, de, deh It fi're-aiR', (Louis MARIE,)
COUNT, born at Redon in 1776, became a general of
division. He Tost a leg at Craonne in 1814. Napoleon
left him a legacy of 100,000 francs. Died in 1834.
La Ferte-Imbault, de, deh It feVti' aN'bo', (MARIE
THERESE GEOFFRIN,) MARQUISE, a literary French lady,
born in Paris in 1715, was a daughter of the well-known
Madame de Geoffrin. She was trained up in the society
of such men as Fontcnelle and Montesquieu, who were
habitues of her mother's salon. Her moral or pious prin
ciples caused her to close her door against D'Alembert
and the other Encyclopaedists. She \\asgrand maifresse
of the order of Lanturelus, designed for literary diver
sion, and composed several volumes of moral maxims.
Died in 1791.
See MARMONTEL, " Memoires."
La Ferte-Senneterre, de, deh It feVta' sgn'taiR',
(HKNRI,) Due, a French marshal, born in 1600, com
manded a wing at the battle of Rocroy, (1645.) He
became a marshal of France in 1651, after which Tu-
renne and he recovered Bar, Arras, and other towns
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LA FEVILLADE
1354
LA FONTENELLE
which the Prince of Concle had captured. Died in
1681.
La Feuillade. See FEUILLADE, DE LA.
Laffitte, It'fet', (JACQUES,) an eminent French finan
cier and liberal statesman, born at Bayonne in 1767, was
the son of a carpenter. In 1788 he entered as clerk the
banking-house of Perregaux at Paris. He became a part
ner about 1802, and the head of the firm in 1809. In
the latter year he was chosen governor of the Bank of
France. The great fortune which he had acquired was
freely offered for the defence of Paris from the invaders
in 1814, and for the restoration of the public credit in
1815. Napoleon deposited with him 5,000,000 francs
just before his departure to Saint Helena, with the ex
pression of perfect confidence in his honesty. In 1816
he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he
acted with the Liberal opposition and spoke with ability
on financial questions. " Placed in the vanguard of the
defenders of the Charter," says M. de Lomenie, "as
popular by his opinions as by his princely munificence,
the opulent banker beheld himself surrounded by all the
notabilities of the press and the tribune." He took an
active part in the dethronement of Charles X. in 1830,
and used his influence in favour of Louis Philippe, to
whom in a critical hour he wrote, "No more hesitation !
Choose between a crown and a passport." He entered
the first ministry of the new reign as minister without a
portfolio. This ministry having been speedily dissolved,
Laffitte, on the 3d of November, 1830, became prime
minister (president du conscil) and minister of finance.
Failing to command a majority in the chamber, he re
signed in March, 1831. The financial crisis which fol
lowed ruined his fortune, which had been reduced by
large donations to the popular cause in 1830. A national
subscription relieved him from embarrassment about
1833. Died in 1844.
See M. C. MARCHAI., "Souvenirs tie J. Laffitte, mem-lie's par lui-
nieme," 1844; "Jacques Laffitte," Paris, 1844; "Vie He M. Laffitte,"
Paris, 1844; LOMENIE, " Galerie des Contemporains illustres."
Laffon de Ladebat, It'foN' deh li'da'bi', (ANDR£
DANIEL,) a French financier, born at Bordeaux in 1746,
was a merchant in early life. He was a moderate mem
ber of the Assembly in 1791, and of the Council of Elders
in 1795. The coup d'etat of September 4, 1797, sent him
as an exile to Guiana. After his return to France he
published several treatises on finance, economy, etc. He
was one of the founders of the Protestant Bible Society
in 1818. Died in 1829.
See THIERS, " History of the French Revolution;" HAAG, "La
France protestante."
Lafitau, It'fe'to', (JOSEPH FRANCOIS,) a French Jes
uit, born at Bordeaux. Having been for many years a
missionary in Canada, he returned to France, and pub
lished "Manners of the American Savages compared
with the Manners of Primitive Ages," and two other
works. Died in 1740.
Lafitau, (PIERRE FRANC.OIS,) a French priest and
writer, born at Bordeaux in 1685. He wrote a "Life
of Clement XL," (1752,) and other works. He became
Bishop of Sisteron in 1719. Died in 1764.
Lafite, It'fet', (MARIE ELISABETH Bouee — boo'a',)
a French authoress, born in Paris about 1750. She
wrote several juvenile books, among which are " Moral
Conversations and Tales," etc., (1781,) often reprinted.
Died in 1794.
Lafitte, It-fit' or It'fet', (JEAN,) a notorious French
privateer, born about 1780, became about 1813 the leader
of a band of pirates who established themselves at
Grande Terre, in Barataria Bay, in the Gulf of Mexico.
In 1814 he was offered a large sum of money, and a
commission in the navy, on condition of his assisting
the British in their attack on New Orleans. He refused
these proposals, and offered his services to defend Loui
siana on condition of pardon to himself and followers,
which offer was accepted. The time and circumstances
of his death are unknown. The adventures of Lafitte
have formed the subject of several tales and romances.
Lafolie, It'fo'le', (CHARLES JEAN,) a French littera
teur, born in Paris in 1780, published "Notices of the
Public Monuments, Palaces, Museums, Colleges, etc.
of Paris," (1820.) Died in 1824.
Lafolie, (Louis GUILLAUME,) a French chemist, born
at Rouen in 1739. He discovered the yellow dye ex
tracted from gaude, (dyer's weed,) and wrote an imagina
tive work called the " Philosopher without Pretension,"
(" Philosophesans Prevention," etc., 1775.) Died in 1780.
Lafon, It'foN', (PIERRE,) a famous French tragic
actor, born in Perigorcl in 1775, made a successful debut
in Paris in 1800, and was considered by his admirers a
rival of Talma. Died in 1846.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Lafons, de, deh It'foN', ( FRANCOIS JOSEPH ALEX-
ANDRE,) Baron de Mellicocq, a French botanist and
antiquary, born at Noyon, Oise, in 1802.
Laforit, It'foN', (CHARLES PHILIPPE,) a popular mu
sician, born in Paris in 1781, was appointed in 1809 first
violinist to the emperor Alexander of Russia, and on his
return to Paris in 1815 filled the same office at the royal
chapel. Died in 1839.
Lafont, (PIERRE CHERI,) a French actor, born at Bor
deaux in 1801.
Lafont, de, deh It'foN', (JOSEPH,) a French dramatist,
born in Paris in 1686, wrote successful comedies, among
wh ch was " The Festivals of Thalia," (" Les Fetes de
Thalie," 1714.) Died in 1725.
Lafontaine, It'foN'tin', (AUGUST HEINRICH JULIUS,)
a popular novelist, of French origin, born at Brunswick
about 1758. Having taken holy orders, he was employed
as pastor or professor at Halle. He published, in Ger
man, a great number of novels, which had a temporary
success and were translated into French. Among them
are "The Singular Man," (" Der Sonderling,") "The
Family De Maiden," and "Agnes and Bertha," (1818.)
Died at Halle in 1831. His style is easy and agreeable,
but his sentimentality is considered excessive.
See JOHANN G. GRUHER, "A. Lafbntaine's Leben und Wirken,"
1833; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Foreign Quarterly Re
view" for February, 1834.
La Fontaine or Lafontaine, de, deh It'foN'tan',
(JEAN,) a famous French fabulist, born at Chateau-
Thierry, July 8, 1621, was the most popular French poet
of his time. He was remarkable for an easy, careless,
and indolent temper, and passed the age of twenty-one
before he manifested his poetical genius. He married
Marie Hericart to please his father, who procured for
him the office of master of waters and forests ; but he
soon sold his office and separated from his wife. The
Duchess de Bouillon, pleased with his first literary
efforts, became his patroness and took him to Paris. He
received a pension from Fouquet, and about 1662 com
posed an admirable elegy on the fall of that minister.
He enjoyed for about twenty years the hospitality of
Madame Sabliere, a lady of Paris, who generously pro
tected him from the effects of his improvidence and
incapacity for business. His first tales appeared in 1664,
and six books of Fables in 1668. Ten years later, he
produced the last six books of those inimitable works.
At the death of Colbert (1683,) La Fontaine and Boileau
were rival candidates for the place which he left vacant
in the French Academy ; and the former was successful.
Moliere and La Fontaine are reckoned the two most
original writers of the brilliant age of Louis XIV. Many
anecdotes are related of his simplicity, naivete, and ab
sence of mind. " His lines," says Hallam, " have a
proverbial truth and a humour of expression which
render them constantly applicable. . . . Many of his
fables are admirable : the grace of the poetry, the happy
inspiration that seems to have dictated the turns of
expression, place him in the first rank among fabulists."
(" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") He died
in Paris in April, 1695, having expressed penitence for
the licentious passages in his tales.
See LA HARPE, " filoge de Lafontaine," 1774 ; WAI.CKENAER,
" Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de J. de La Fontaine," 1820 ;
MARAIS, "Histoire de la Vie et desOuvrages de J. de La Fontaine,"
1811 ; CHAMFORT, " FJoge de La Fontaine," 1774; SAINTE-BEUVK,
" Portraits litteraires," tome i., and " Causeries du Lundi," tome vii. ;
DES RENAUDES, "Notice sur la Vie de J. de Lafontaine," 1852:
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry
of Europe ;" "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1820.
La Fontenelle or Lafoiitenelle, de, deh IS foNt'nel',
(ARMAND DESIRE,) a French antiquary and biographer,
born in Poitou in 1784. Among his works are a " His-
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LAFOSSE
1355
LAGRANGE
tory of Oliver de Clisson," (2 vols., 1826,) and the " Life
and Correspondence of Du Plessis-Mornay," (with Au-
guis, 12 vols., 1822-42.) Died in 1847.
Lafosse, iS'foss', (PHILIPPE ETTENNE,) a French vete
rinary physician, wrote "The Farrier's Guide," (1766,)
and a "Manual of Veterinary Medicine," (1803.) Died
in 1820.
Lafosse or La Fosse, de, cleh It foss, (AXTOINE,)
a French dramatist and poet, born in Paris in 1653,
was accounted by some the first tragic poet of his time.
He produced, besides other dramas, " Polyxene," (1686,)
and " Manlius Capitolinus," (1698,) a tragedy, which is
highly praised by La Harpe. Died in 1708.
Lafosse, de, (CHARLES,) a French historical painter
of high reputation, born in Paris in 1640, was an uncle
of the preceding. He studied under Lebrun, and in
Rome. He was employed by Louis XIV. to adorn the
Trianon and the Hotel des Invalides, the frescoed dome
of which is called his master-piece. He was admitted
into the Academy of Painting in 1683, when he exhibited
the "Abduction of Proserpine." Died in 1716.
See " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lafosse, de, (JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH,) a skilful
French engraver, was born in Paris in 1721 ; died about
1775-
Lafrery, ItfVre' or It'fReh-re', (AXTOIXE,) a French
engraver, born at Salins in 1512. He worked in Rome,
where he published maps and engravings, and "Mirror
of Roman Grandeur," (" Speculum Romanae Magni-
tudinis,'' in 118 plates, 1554-73.)
La Fuente. See FUENTE, LA.
La Fuente, la fwen'ta, (ALCANTARA MIGUKI.,) a
Spanish historian and lawyer, born in the province of
Malaga in 1817. He died at Havana in 1850,50011 after
he had been made/fov7/ (attorney-general) of Cuba. His
chief work is a " History of Granada," (4 vols., 1843-48.)
Lagalla, Id-gal'la, (GiULio CESARE,) an Italian phy
sician and philosopher, born at Padula in 1576, was
professor of philosophy in the Roman College from 1597
till his death. He published a "Treatise on Comets,"
(1613,) and " De Immortalitate Animorum," (1621,) an
effort to prove that Aristotle admitted the immortality
of the soul. Died in 1624.
La Gallissoniere. See GALLISSONIERE, DE LA.
Lagaraye, de, deh IJt'gS'ri', (CLAUDE TOUSSAIXT
MAROT,) COMTE, a French chemist and philanthropist,
born at Rennes in 1675. He founded infant-schools,
and hospitals for the sick and aged. He made some
improvements in vegetable analysis, and published a
treatise on "Hydraulic Chemistry," ("Chimie hydrau-
lique," 1746.) Died in 1755.
See " Les Epoux charitab'es, ou Vies du Comte et de la Comtesse
de La Garaye," Rennes, 1782.
Lagarde. See DESHOULIERES.
La Gardie. See GARDIE, DE LA.
La Gasca. See GASCA, DE LA.
Lagerbring, la'ger-bKing, (SVEX or SVEX BRING,)
a Swedish historian, born in 1707, was for many years
professor of history in the University of Lund. He
published a " History of Sweden" down to 1457, (3 vols.,
1769-76,) a work of much research, but defective in
style and method. Died in 1788.
See C. WOLLIN", "Parentation ofver S. Lagerbring," 1788.
Lagerlof or Lagerloef, la'ger-lof, (PEHR,) a Swedish
scholar and writer, born in 1648, became professor of
rhetoric at Upsal. He was learned in languages, and
wrote Latin verse with much purity of style. He pub
lished several antiquarian treatises. Died' in 1699.
See JOCHER, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon."
LagerstromorLagerstroem.von, fonla'ger-stRom',
(MAGNUS,) a Swedish savant, born at Stockholm in 1696,
was a friend of Linnaeus. He translated French and
German works into Swedish, and availed himself of his
advantages as director of the East India Company to
collect scientific facts and specimens and to promote
researches in natural history. Died in 1759.
See KRYGER, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver M. Lagerstroeni," 1760.
Lagny, de, deh Itn'ye', (THOMAS FANTET,) a French
mathematician, born at Lyons in 1660. He removed to
Paris in 1678, was admitted into the Academy of Sciences
in 1695, and chosen professor of hydrography at Roche-
fort in 1697. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of
London. He published, besides other ingenious treatises,
"The Cubature of the Sphere," (1703,) "which," says
Fontenelle, "would prove him to be a great geometer."
Died in 1734.
See FONTENELLE, " FJoge de M. de Lagny."
Lagomarsini, la-go-mau-see'nee, (GIROLAMO, ) an
eminent Italian philologist and Jesuit, born in 1698. He
was professor of rhetoric in Florence for many years, and
about 1750 became professor of Greek in the Roman
College. He published Latin orations (1746) and epis
tles, a poem "On the Origin of Springs," ("De Origine
Fontium," 1749,) and other works. Died in 1773.
See FABRONI, "Vita; Italorum doctrina excelientium ;" PARTHE-
Nirs, " De Vita et Studiis H. Lagomarsini," 1801.
La Grange, (ANTOIXE.) See RIVET DE LA GRANGE.
Lagrange or La Grange, It gRdxzh, (JOSEPH Louis,)
one of the most eminent geometers of modern times, was
born at Turin on the 251)1 of January, 1736. His parents
were of French origin. He was educated in the College
of Turin, where his mathematical genius was rapidly
developed and was specially directed to the study of
modern analysis. It has been said that all he learned
seemed to be only a reminiscence of what he had before
known. Having examined Euler's work on " Isoperi-
metrical Problems," he sent to the author in 1755 the
first essays of his *" Method of Variations," which alone
would immortalize his name, and which he had invented
to respond to the desire of Euler. About the age of
nineteen he was chosen professor of mathematics in the
military college of Turin. The first volume of the " Me
moirs of the Academy of Turin" (1759) consisted chiefly
of the admirable essays of Lagrange on the most im
portant and difficult points of analysis and mechanics,
such as the propagation of sound and the vibration of
chords. He published in 1762 some applications of his
great discovery, which was afterwards called the " Method
of Variations." In 1764 he gained the prize offered by
the French Academy of Sciences for a "Theory of the
Libration of the Moon." Invited by Frederick the
Great, he removed to Berlin in 1766, and was for twenty
years director of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, which
he enriched with numerous treatises on " Tautochronous
Curves," " Numerical Equations," the " Integral Cal
culus," " Partial Differences," and on the most arduous
questions of general astronomy and celestial mechanics.
He was chosen a foreign associate of the Academy of Paris
in 1772. The persuasion of Mirabeau and the offer of a
pension from the king induced him to settle in Paris in
1787. He published in 1788 his magnificent work "La
Mecanique analytique," ("Analytical Mechanics,") which
is considered one of the master-pieces of the human in
tellect. His interest was vividly excited by the Revolu
tion, in which, however, he took no active part. In 1792
he married Mademoiselle Lemonnier. He was the first
professor of geometry in the Polytechnic School, founded
about 1794; and his name was the first inscribed on the
list of the members of the Institute, founded in 1795.
Napoleon, who highly appreciated the great talents of
one so incapable of intrigue and adulation, gave him the
office of senator and the titles of count of the empire and
grand officer of the legion of honour. He died in April,
1813. "Among the inventors who have most enlarged
the boundaries of our knowledge," says La Place, "New
ton and Lagrange appear to have possessed in the highest
degree the power which, by the discovery of general
principles, constitutes the true genius of science." "After
Newton's discovery of the elliptic orbits of the planets,"
says Playfair, " Lagrange's discovery of their periodical
inequalities is, without doubt, the noblest truth in phy
sical astronomy ; and, in respect of the doctrine of final
causes, it may trulybe regarded as the greatest of all."
See DELAMBRE, " FJoge de Lagrange;" VIREY et POTEI.,
"Precis histnrique sur la Vie de Lagrange," 1813; PIETRO COSSALI,
" Klogio di G. L. Lagrange," 1813 ; MAGISTRINI. " Discorso in Lode
di Lagrange," 1819; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
La Grange, (N.,) a French litterateur, born in Paris
in 1738, translated the great poem of Lucretius " De
Rerum Natura," with notes, (1768,) and the works of
Seneca, (7 vols., 1779.) The former passes for one of
the best versions in the French language. Died in 1775.
€ as k; 9 as $; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
LA GRANGE
1356
LAIGNELOT
La Grange or Lagrange, de, deh If guON/.h, (ADE
LAIDE BLAISE FRANCOIS I.K LIEVKE,) Marquis de Fou-
rilles, born in Paris in 1766, became general of division
in 1809. Died in 1833.
La Grange, de, (ADELAIDE EDOUARD,) MARQUIS, a
son of the preceding, and a member of the Institute, was
born in Paris in 1796. He was an active member ot the
Chamber of Deputies from 1834 to 1848,3110! voted with
the friends of Louis Napoleon in the Assembly of 1849.
In 1852 he became a senator. He wrote, besides other
works, treatises on numismatics.
La Grange, de, ( AMAND CHARLES Louis I.E LIEVRE,)
a French general, born in 1783, served with distinction
under Napoleon I.
Lagrange, de, (JOSEPH,) COMTE, a French general,
born in 1763; died in 1836.
La Grange, de, (JOSEPH DE CHANCEL,) a French
dramatic and satiric poet, commonly called La Grange-
Chancel, was born at Perigueux in 1676. His drama
of " Jugurtha" was performed with success in 1694. He
produced other tragedies, among which " Amasis'" (1701)
and " Ino and Melicerta" (1713) are called the best. He
was imprisoned or exiled some years for three remark
able odes, named " Philippiques," (1720,) which were
libellous satires against the Regent of France. " As a
satiric poet," says the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale,"
"he has left a work which, in spite of its imperfections
and crying injustice, is the monument of satire in France."
Died in 1758.
See "Nouvelle Biographie Gene"rale ;" SAINT-SIMON, "Me-
moires. "
Lagrene, de, deh litgR'ni' or It'gReh-na', (TiiEooosE
MARIE MELCHIOR JOSEPH,) a French diplomatist, was
born at Amiens in 1800. He went to Athens as minister
in 1836, and to China in 1844.
Lagrenee, It'gRa'na', (JEAN JACQUES,) a French his
torical painter, born in Paris in 1740. He worked in Paris
with success, and reproduced antique paintings by incrus
tation on marble and glass. Died in 1821.
Lagrenee, (Louis JEAN FRANCOIS,) called AINE, a
French historical painter, brother of the preceding, was
born in Paris in 1724. He was surnamed "the French
Albano." Me studied at Rome, became Academician
in 1755, and for some time was first painter to the Em
press of Russia. He afterwards worked in Paris. Died
in 1805.
See RENOV, ''Notice sur Lngrenee 1'aine," 1815.
La Gueronniere or Lagiieronniere, de, deh la" g.V-
ro'ne-aiR', (ARTHUR,) VICOMTE, a French political
writer and Bonapartist, born in 1816. He became chief
editor of Lamai tine's new journal, the "Pays," in 1850.
A dissension arose between him and Lamartine on the
subject of a historical study on Louis Napoleon, which
the former published in the " Pays," and which increased
his reputation as a brilliant writer. He was elected a
deputy in 1852, and appointed a councillor of state in
1854. His pamphlet entitled "Napoleon III. and Eng
land" (1858) produced a great sensation on both sides
of the Channel. He became an editor of the " Consti-
tutionnel."
Laguerre or La Guerre, It'gaiu', (Louis,) a French
painter, born in 1663, was a pupil of Le Brun. He went
to England about 1684, and worked with or for Verrio.
He painted "The Labours of Hercules" in Hampton
Court Palace. Died in 1721.
La Guiche or Laguiche, de, deh la" gesh, (PuiLi-
BERT,) a French general, born about 1540. He refused to
execute the order of the court for the massacre of Prot
estants in 1572. He commanded the artillery at Ivry,
and contributed largely to the victory. Died in 1607.
His nephew, JEAN FRANC.OIS, born in 1569, was a
marshal of France. Died in 1632.
Laguille, IS'geTor la'ge'ye, (Louis,) a French Jesuit,
born at Autun in 1658, wrote an "Ancient and Modern
History of Alsace," (2 vols. folio, 1727.) Died in 1742.
Laguna, la-goo'na, or Lacuna, li-koo'na, (ANDRES,)
a learned Spanish physician, born at Segovia in 1499.
He obtained the confidence of Charles V., who appointed
him physician of the army in Flanders. He practised
in Metz, (1540-46,) and in Rome, where he was patron
ized by the pope, who made him a count. He died in
Spain in 1560, leaving numerous works, among which
are Commentaries on Galen and Hippocrates, and
"Anatomica Methodus," (1535.)
See N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova."
Laharpe or La Harpe, ItV/itRp', (FREDERIC CESAR,)
a Swiss officer and republican, born in the Pays de Vaud
in 1754. He was for some years preceptor of Alexander,
afterwards Czar of Russia, and about 1798 became the
chief or most powerful director of the Helvetic Republic.
He went out of power in jSoo. In 1814 he enjoyed the
favour of Alexander, who was in Paris and gave him the
rank of general in his army. He wrote several treatises
on Swiss politics. Died in 1838.
See CHARLES MONNAKD, "Notice biographique sur le General
F. C. cle Liharpe," iS3S: " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
La Harpe or Laharpe, de, deh It'/ftiq/, (JEAN
FRANC.OIS,) a celebrated French critic and dramatist,
born in Paris in 1739, was educated at the College of
Haicourt. He produced in 1763 the tragedy of" War
wick," which was very successful, and wrote to Voltaire a
letter on the dramatic art which procured him the favour
and patronage of that philosopher. He composed, be-
sktes other dramas, the applauded tragedies of " Me-
lanie," (about 1770,) and " Philoctete." His talents
found a congenial employment in academic competitions.
He wrote admirable eulogies on Fenelon, Henry IV.,
Lafontaine, and others, and he received several prizes
from the French Academy, of which he was chosen a
member in 1776. About 1786 he began to lecture at
the Lycee of Paris on literature. These lectures, en
titled "Cours de Litterature, ancienne et moderne," (18
vols.,) constitute his most durable title to fame. His
criticisms on French authors are much better than those
on the ancient classics. "The seventeenth century," says
Sainte-Beuve, "in some of its parts and some of its
works, was never better analyzed," [than by La Harpe.]
At the beginning of the French Revolution he was a
republican. He was imprisoned a few months during
the reign of terror. Died in 1803.
See SAINTB-BEUVE, "Causeries du Lundi," tome v. ; LEON
THIESSE, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Laharpe," 1X27;
MKLY-JANIN, "Vie de J. F. de La Harpe." 1813 ; DAUNOII, " Notice
sur La Harpe;" SAlNT-SllRiN, "Notice sur La Harpe," 1X22;
ArcER, "Vie de La Harpe," 1813; SERIEVS, "J. F. de La Harpe,
peint par lui-meme," 1817.
La Haye, (French engraver.) See DEI.AHAYE.
Lahire or Lahyre, 1S7/CK', (£TIENNE Vigiioles —
ven'yol',) a famous French captain or bandit. He per
formed many exploits against the English in France in
the reign of Charles VII. He never obtained a very
high rank in the army. Having failed in an attempt to
rescue Joan of Arc at Rouen, he was taken prisoner, but
soon escaped. Died in 1442.
La Hire or Lahyre, de, deh lS7/eR', (LAURENT,) an
eminent French painter and engraver of merit, born in
Paris in 1606. He adorned many of the churches of
Paris with his works, among which the " Apparition of
Christ to the Three Marys" is called the master-piece.
His easel-pictures are very finely finished. He received
the title of painter to the king, and was one of the
founders of the Royal Academy. Died in 1656.
Lahire, de, (PHILIPPE,) a French geometer, son of
the preceding, born in Paris in 1640. He was admitted
into the Academy of Sciences in 1678, and was employed
by the government in continuing the measurement of the
meridian commenced by Picard. For many years he was
professor of mathematics in the College of France. I le
was also versed in experimental physics. Among his
principal works are "Conic Sections," (1685,) a "Treat
ise on Mechanics," (1695,) a"d "Astronomical Tables,"
(1702.) Died in 1718 or 1719.
See FOXTENELI.E, " filoge de Lahire;" "Nouvelle Biographic
GineYale."
La Huerta. See HUERTA.
Lahyre. See LA HIRE.
Laid'law, (WILLIAM,) a British poet, born in 1780;
died in 1845.
Laignelot, LWyeh-lo', (JOSEPH FRANCOIS,) a French
dramatist and Jacobin, born at Versailles in 1750, com
posed a tragedy called " Rienzi.'' He was an active
member of the Convention from 1792 to 1795, and voted
for the death of the king. Died in 1829.
I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
LAINE
'357
LAKE
Laine, 14'na', (JOSEPH HENRI JOACHIM,) VICOMTE,
an eminent French orator and statesman, born at Bor
deaux in 1767. He acquired distinction as an advocate
at Bordeaux, supported the popular cause in the Revo
lution, and was for several years under the empire a
member of the legislative body. In 1813, as chairman
of a committee of that house, he made an important
report on the state of the nation, which gave great offence
to Napoleon. Having become a royalist, he was chosen
president of the Chamber of Deputies in 1814 and in
1815. He was admitted into the French Academy and
appointed minister of the interior in 1816. He retired
from office in December, 1818, became secretary of state
without a portfolio in 1821, and was created a peer of
France in 1823. He was one of the leaders of the mode
rate royalists. Died in 1835. " M. Laine and De Serres,"
says Lamartine, " were the two greatest characters and
the two most pathetic orators of the restoration."
See LAMARTINE, " History of the Restoration;" " Noitvel'e Bio-
graphie Generate. "
Laiuez, li'na', (ALEXANDRE, ) a French poet and
linguist, born at Chimay about 1650. After travelling
several years in Europe and Asia, he became a resident
of Paris. He was courted by the great for his brilliant
conversation and extensive knowledge, and composed
brief poetical effusions, which were admired for grace
and vivacity. Died in 1710.
Laiuez or Laynez, IT-nSth', sometimes improperly
written Leynez, ( |.\GO or DIEGO,) the second general
of the order of Jesuits, was born in Castile, Spain, in
1512. About 1536 he was associated with Ignatius Loy
ola in organizing the society of Jesuits. (See LOYOLA.)
He was deputed by the pope to the Council of Trent,
where he signalized his zeal for the interests of the
court of Rome. In 1558 he succeeded Loyola as gen
eral of the order. The Council of Trent having re
sumed its session, he made there a famous speech, in
which he argued the necessity of a supreme head of
the Church. Died in 1565. The polity of the Jesuits
appears to have been mainly the product of the intelli
gence and subtlety of Lainez.
See RIBADENEIRA, " Vida del P. V. D. Laynez," 1604; F. SOUER,
"Vie du P. J. Laynez," 1599; F. RAINALDI, "Vita di J. Laynez,"
Rome, 1672.
Laiiig, lang, (ALEXANDER GORDON,) MAJOR, a resolute
Scottish traveller, born in Edinburgh in 1793, enlisted in
the army in 1810. In 1822 the Governor of Sierra Leone
sent him on a mission to the Mandingo country. He
also explored Solimana and adjacent regions. In 1824
he was raised to the rank of major, and was employed
by Lord Bathurst to explore the Niger. Proceeding
from the north, he arrived in August, 1826, at Timbuctoo,
after having been wounded by the Tuariks. On his way
to Sansanding he was murdered by his guide, an Arab
sheik, in September, 1826. His journal has not been
recovered.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
"Monthly Review" for September, 1825.
Laing, (MALCOLM,) an able Scottish historian and
lawyer, born in Orkney in 1762. He practised law in
Edinburgh, where he was admitted to the bar in 1785.
In 1800 he published a "History of Scotland from the
Union of the Crowns [1603] to the Union of the King
doms in the Reign of Queen Anne," which is a work
of merit and remarkable for critical acumen, but defect
ive in style. He wrote a treatise against the authenticity
of Ossian's poems, and a few other works. He became
a member of Parliament, and he was a friend of Charles
J. Fox. His political principles were liberal. Died in
1818.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;"
"Monthly Review" for October, 1801.
Laing, (SAMUEL,) a British lawyer and politician, a
nephew of the preceding, was born in Scotland in 1810.
He was elected to Parliament as a Liberal in 1852, and
was president of the company which owned the Crystal
Palace at Sydenham, from 1850 to 1854. He was ap
pointed chancellor of the exchequer in India in 1860.
Lair, laR, (PIERRE AIME,) a French writer on agricul
ture, born at Caen in 1769, was noted for his beneficence.
Died in 1853.
Laire, laR, (FRANCOIS XAVIER,) an eminent Fiench
bibliographer and monk, born at Vadans in 1738. Dur
ing the Revolution he saved valuable historical documents
from destruction. He published a "Series of Aldine
Editions," a " Specimen of Roman Typography of the
Fifteenth Century," an "Index of Books from the In
vention of Printing to the Year 1500," and other works.
Died in 1801.
Laire, IT'reh, (SlGlSMOND,) a German painter, born in
Bavaria about 1550 ; died in Rome in 1636.
Lairesse, li'ress', (GERAUD,) a skilful Flemish his
torical painter and engraver, born at Liege in 1640, was
a pupil of his father. He settled in Amsterdam. His
facility as an artist was remarkable. He had a rich
imagination, and was skilful in costume and composi
tion. His engravings are much esteemed. He died in
1711, leaving an able "Treatise on Painting."
La'is, [AmV.J a celebrated Greek courtesan, lived at
Corinth in the fifth century u.c., and was notorious for her
avidity and caprice. Among her lovers was the phi
losopher Aristippus. The citizens of Corinth erected a
monument to her. Another courtesan of that name was
supposed to have been a native of Sicily. She lived at
Athens or Corinth about 400 H.c.
La'I-us, | (Jr. Aui'of,] a king of Thebes, and the father
ofCEdipus. An oracle having declared that he should
be killed by his own son, he exposed his son soon after
birth on Mount Cithseron. The child was preserved by
strangers, was named (Edipus, and remained ignorant
of his parentage. (See (EDU'US.)
Lajard, li'zhik', (jKA.x BAITISTE FELIX,) a French
antiquary, born at Lyons in 1783, went to Persia as sec
retary of embassy in 1807. lie was admitted into the
Academy of Inscriptions in 1830. Among his works is
" Researches into the Public Worship and the Mysteries
of Mithra in the East and West," (1848.) He pro
pounded a novel theory on the relations of the Greeks
with the Oriental races, which has since been partially
confirmed. Died in 1858.
See " Xouvelle Biographie Generale."
Lajard, de, deli iS'zhtR', (PIERRE AUGUSTE,) an able
French statesman, born at Montpellier in 1757, was
minister of war in 1792. During the empire he was a
member of the legislative body. Died in 1837.
La Jonchere, de, deh la" zho.N'shaiR', (ETIENNE LE-
CUYER,) a French engineer, born in Auvergne in 1690.
He projected the connection of the Saone and the Yonne
by a canal, the construction of which, however, was given
to another engineer. Died about 1740.
Lakanal, It'kS'ntl', (JOSEPH,) a French republican,
born at Serres (Ariege) in 1762. As a member of the
Convention, (1792-95,) he protected the interests of the
arts and sciences. He took a prominent part in the
organization of the Institute, of which he was a member.
In 1814 he retired to the United States, was welcomed
by Jefferson, and obtained from Congress five hundred
acres of cotton-land. He was afterwards president of
the University of Louisiana, and returned to France in
1833. Died in Paris in 1845.
See I. GEOFFROY SAIN-T-HII.AIKK, "Lakanal, sa Vie, ses Travaiix
a la Convention," etc., 1849; MIGNET, " Notice historique sur M.
Lakanal," 1X57.
Lake, (ARTHUR,) a learned English preacher, born at
Southampton, was appointed Dean of Worcester in 1608,
and Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1616. Died in 1626.
Several volumes of his sermons were published.
Lake, (GERARD,) Viscount Lake, a British general,
was born in 1744. Having served in the American war
and in the war against the French republic, he was ap
pointed commander of the army in Ireland during the
rebellion which began in 1797, and was defeated by the
French at Castlebar. In 1800 he obtained the chief
command in India, and in 1803 gained a victory over
the Mahrattas near Delhi. He defeated them again the
same year at Laswarree. Between 1804 and 1806 he
waged a successful war against Holkar, and received
the title of Baron Lake of Delhi, etc. He returned to
England in 1807, and was created a viscount. Died in
1808.
Lake, (JOHN,) born in Yorkshire in 1624, became
Bishop of Chichester in 1685. He was imprisoned, in
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,giittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LAKSHMI
1358
LALLI
company with six other prelates, in the Tower of London
in 1688. Died in 1698.
See AGNES STRICKLAND, "Lives of the Seven Bishops."
Laksh'mi, [modern Hindoo pron. luksb/mee; ety
mology obscure,] called also Sri,* snee, or Shri, shnee,
in the Hindoo mythology, the goddess of wealth, and the
consort of Vishnu, is fabled to have sprung from the
churning of the ocean. (See KUKMA.) There is a striking
analogy between the origin of Lakshmi and that of the
Venus (Aphrodite) Anaclyomene of the Greeks, who
also is said to have sprung from the foam of the sea.
(See VENUS.) But Lakshmi, though represented as
extremely beautiful, is not, like Venus, the patroness of
love, but the goddess of wealth and prosperity. She is
represented with four arms and arrayed with the most
beautiful ornaments and gems. She is sometimes called
Padma, (from pddmd, the "lotus,") in allusion, perhaps,
to her divine beauty, and by many other names. She is
sometimes identified with the beautiful Apsara Rambha,
(or Rembha.)
See MOOR'S "Hindu Pantheon."
Lalamant or Lallemaiit, laTmSN'', (JEAN,) a French
physician and scholar, who lived about 1550-90, was a
native of Autun. He produced, besides works on medi
cine, history, etc., a French version of Demosthenes'
"Philippics," (I549-)
Lalande, de, deh iS'lftxd', (JACQUES,) a meritorious
French jurist, born at Orleans in 1622. He published
" Specimen Juris Romano-Gallici ad Pandectas," (1690.)
Died in 1703.
Lalande, de, (JOSEPH jEi<6ME LEFRANC.AIS,) one of
the most eminent French astronomers, was born at
Bourg (Ain) in July, 1732, and was the only child of
Pierre Lefrai^ais. He manifested at an early age the
love of fame which was his ruling passion. He was a
student in a college of Lyons when the great eclipse of
July, 1748, inspired him with a determination to be an
astronomer. Having been sent by his parents to Paris
to study law, he attended the lectures of Messier and
Lemonnier on astronomy and mathematics, and became
the favourite pupil of both professors. The Academy
having resolved to send an astronomer to Berlin to
make observations and to second La Caille, who was
stationed at the Cape of Good Hope, Lalande was
selected in 1751, through the influence of Lemonnier.
Returning in 1752, his labours were approved, and he
was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in
his twentieth year. He next ascertained the diameter
of the moon, and began to work on the theory of the
planets, which became one of the most constant occu
pations of his life. He assisted "Clairaut in computing
the effect of planetary perturbations on the return of
Halley's comet about 1759.
He was chosen in 1760 editor of the "Connaissances
des Temps," in the plan of which he introduced impor
tant improvements, and succeeded Delisle as professor
of astronomy in the College of France in 1762. For
forty-six years he discharged the functions of this place
with great zeal and Mat. In 1764 he published his great
"Treatise on Astronomy," ("Traite d' Astronomic,") in
which the theory and practical part of the science are
extensively treated. He produced in 1772 a " Memoir
on the Transit of Venus of 1769," and a year later a
speculation on the possibility of a collision of comets
with the earth, which caused a panic among the un
learned, although he had arrived at the conclusion that
such a collision was very improbable. He wrote many
articles for the "Encyclopedic Methodique" and the
"Journal des Savants," and published "The History,
Theory, and Practice of Navigation," (" Abrege de Na
vigation,1' etc., 1793.) Among his other works are
"Astronomical Bibliography," (1803,) " Histoire celeste
Frai^aise," (1801,) containing the observations of many
French astronomers, and "Memoirs on the Parallax of
the Moon." He died in 1807. "Though in many re
spects only an astronomer of the second order," says
Delambre, "he was the foremost of all as a professor,
and did more than any other to promote the study of
* I.e. "prosperity;" also "beauty" or "splendour."
the science." His temper was irritable, but candid and
benevolent.
See DKI.AMBRE, " filoge de Lalande;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Ge'nera'e. "
Lalande, de, (MICHEL JEAN JEROME LEFRANC.AIS,)
an astronomer, a nephew of the preceding, was born in
Normandy in 1766. Under the direction of his uncle he
made observations in Paris, and ascertained the theory
of the orbit of Mars. He became a member of the In
stitute and of the Bureau of Longitudes. Died in 1839.
Lalande, de, (MICHEL RICHARD,) a French com
poser, born in Paris in 1657, became superintendent of
music of Louis XIV. about 1683. He composed many
motets. " He was," says Denne-Baron, " the most skilful
French composer of religious music of his time." Died
in 1726.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Gdnerale."
La Laiidelle or Lalandelle, de, deh It ISN'dcl',
(GUILI.AUME JOSEPH GABRIEL,) a French novelist, born
at Montpellier in 1812, wrote "The Naval Crown," (9
vols., 1848,) and other maritime novels.
Lalanne, li'lftn', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French didactic
poet, born at Dax in 1772.
Lalanne, (LEON Louis CHRETIEN,) a French civil
engineer and writer, born in Paris in 1811.
Lalanne, (MARIE LUDOVIC CHRETIEN,) a French
writer, brother of the preceding, born in Paris in 1815.
Among his works is "Curiosites litteraires," (1845.)
Laliemand, laTinox', (CHARLES FRANCOIS AN-
TOINK,) BARON, a French general, called LALI.EMAND
AINE, was born at Mctz in 1774. He served in Spain,
where he obtained the rank of general of brigade, (1811.)
During the Hundred Days he joined Bonaparte, and
commanded a division at Waterloo. As a fugitive, he
sought refuge in the United States, and attempted to
found a colony in Texas about 1818, but failed. In 1830
he returned to France, was restored to the rank of gene
ral, and entered the Chamber of Peers. Died in 1839.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Laliemand, (CLAUDE FRANQOIS,) an eminent French
medical writer, born at Metz in 1790. He was professor
of clinic.il surgery at Montpellier from 1819 to 1823, and
again from 1826 to 1845. In the latter year he was
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and
settled in Paris. He wrote, besides other medical treat
ises, an important work entitled "Anatomico-Pathologic
Researches on the Brain," (5 vols., 1820-36,) which was
translated into many languages. He was once called to
Egypt to attend Ibraheem Pasha. Died in 1854.
See QUEKARD, "La France Litteraire."
Laliemand, (HENRI DOMINIQUE,) born in 1777, was
a brother of Charles Fran£ois Antoine, noticed above,
and a brave partisan of Napoleon, who made him general
of division in the Hundred Days. He fought at Water
loo, (1815,) after which he went as an exile to the United
States. Died at Borrientown in 1823.
Laliemand, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French painter of
landscapes and sea-views, born at Dijon in 1710, worked
some years in Rome, and painted several pieces for the
Vatican. Died in 1802.
Lallemandet, Itl'm&N'di', (JEAN,) a theologian, born
at Besan$on in 1595, wrote "Philosophical Decisions,"
(" Decisiones Philosophicae," 1644,) and other works.
Died in 1647.
Lallemant. See LALAMANT.
Lallemant, lal'mSN', (JACQUES PHILIPPE,) a French
Jesuit, born near Abbeville about 1660. He published
a remarkable work, entitled "The True Spirit of the
New Disciples of Saint Augustine," (4 vols., 1706 et
seq.,) and " Moral Reflections, with Notes, on the New
Testament," (u vols., 1714.) Died in 1748.
Lallemant, (PIERRE,) a mystical French writer, born
at Rheims in 1622, published " The Spiritual Testament,"
(1672,) and other works. Died in 1673.
Lalli, lal'lee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian poet
and diplomatist, born at Norcia, in Umbria, in 1572,
was employed in several negotiations by the courts of
Rome and of Parma. He acquired a high reputation
by his epic poem "Titus Vespasian, or the Destruction
of Jerusalem," (" II Tito Vespasiano, overo La Geru-
a, e, T, o, \\,y,long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
LALLY
1359
LAM ART IN E
salemme Desolata," 1629.) He also produced some
popular burlesque poems, among which is " The /Eneid
Travestied," (1633.) Died in 1637.
Lally, de, deh li'le', (THOMAS ARTHUR,) COUNT,
Baron of Tollendal, in Ireland, a French general, of
Irish descent, born in Dauphine about 1700. For his
conduct at Fontenoy, in 1745, he was made brigadier-
general. He fought for the Pretender in Scotland in
the same year. In 1756, while France was at war with
England, he was appointed commandant-general of the
French possessions in India, commissary of the king,
and syndic of the French East India Company. He
took Fort Saint David in 1758, and attacked Madras
without success. His plans were thwarted by the cor
rupt agents of the company. In 1761 he surrendered
Pondicherry to Sir E. Coote, and was taken as prisoner
to England. After having been imprisoned for four years
in the Bastille, he was executed for treason in 1766. In
1778 the royal council annulled his sentence, the injustice
of which was generally recognized.
See VOLTAIRE, "Siecle de Louis XV."
Lally-Tollendal, de, deh It'le' to'IS.N'dtl', (TRo-
PHIME GERARD,) MARQUIS, a French orator and writer,
a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1751. He
devoted many years to the successful vindication of his
father's memory. In 1789 he was deputed by the no
blesse to the States-General, and was one of the minority
of his order who united with the Tiers-Etat and favoured
reform. He emigrated to England in 1792, and returned
to France in 1800. In 1815 he entered the Chamber of
Peers, where he showed himself a moderate royalist. He
was admitted into the French Academy in 1816. He died
in 1830, leaving many political treatises.
See QU^RARD, "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
La Longe or Lalonge, It loxzh, (HURF.RT or RO
BERT,) called IL FIAMMINGO, (i.e. "the Fleming,") a
skilful painter, bom at Brussels, lived mostly in Italy.
Died in 1/09.
La Loubere. See LOUBERE, LA.
La Luzerne. See LUZER.NE, LA.
Lama, la'ma, (GIOVANNI BERNARDO,) an Italian
painter of the Neapolitan school, was born about 1510.
He painted religious subjects and portraits with success.
Died about 1580.
Lam'a-ehus, [Aatm.i'Of,] an Athenian general, born
about 470 B.C., was the son of Xenophanes, and, accord
ing to Plutarch, was a man of great courage and honour.
In 415 Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus were chosen
generals of the expedition against Syracuse. The people
having recalled Alcibiades, Nicias had the principal
direction of the enterprise, though Lamachus was the
abler general. He was killed at Syracuse in 414 B.C.
Lamalle. See DUREAU.
Lamanon, de, deh It'mt'noN', (ROBERT DE PAUL,)
CHEVALIER, a French naturalist, born at Salon in 1752.
He lived some years in Paris, wrote memoirs on fossil
bones, etc., and accompanied the expedition of La
Perouse as naturalist in 1785. He was murdered by
some natives of one of the Navigator Islands in 1787.
La-mar', (MIRABEAU B.,) an American statesman,
born at Louisville, Georgia, in 1798. He removed in
1835 to Texas, and was elected first Vice-President in
1836, and in 1838 President of the republic. Died in 1859.
Lamarche or La Marche, It mtRsh, (JOSEPH
DROUOT,) a French general, born in Vosges in 1733.
At the death of Dampierre (1793) the chief command
devolved on Lamarche, until he was superseded by
Custine in July, 1793. Died about 1800.
La Marche, (OLIVIER.) See MARCHE, LA.
La Marck, (ROBERT.) See MARCK, LA.
Lamarck or La Marck, de, deh It mtRk, (JEAN
BAPTISTE PIERRE ANTOINE DE MONET,) CHEVALIER, a
celebrated French naturalist, born in Picardy, August
I, 1744. He was educated for the church at a college of
Amiens, but entered the army in 1761 and fought in one
campaign with distinction. Having been disabled for
action by an accidental injury, he went to Paris, where
he studied medicine, which, however, he did not prac
tise. He devoted himself to botany, in the classification
of which he made some innovations, and published
in 1778 "Flore Fran9aise," ("French Flora,") which
opened to him the Academy of Sciences. Taking the
most general conformations as the point of departure,
proceeding by a dichotomic path, and presenting at
each step a choice between two opposite characters, it
was found a convenient guide. Having received a com
mission as botanist to the king, he was employed in
botanical researches in Holland and Germany, from
which he returned in 1782. He extended his reputation
by the article Botany in the " Encyclopedic Methodique,"
(about 1783.) In 1788 he became an assistant of the
director of the Jardin du Roi, which was reorganized in
1793, under the name of the "Museum of Natural His
tory." Lamarck was appointed professor of zoology in
that institution. His sagacious and zealous researches
and writings in the department of invertebrata (which
devolved on him because the other professors deemed
them beneath their notice) constitute his principal title
to celebrity, and raise him to the rank of a legislator in
the animal kingdom. In 1809 he propounded, in his
" Philosophic zoologique," several novel or absurd hy
potheses on the production of animals, — as the theory
of metamorphosis or progressive development, and that
of spontaneous generation. His capital work, entitled
"Natural History of Invertebrate Animals," (" His-
toire naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres," 7 vols.,
1815-22,) ranks among the noblest monuments of human
science. He had published an outline of the same in
1801. Died in 1829.
See CUVIER, " filoge de Lamarck;" GROFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE,
"Discours prononce sur !a Tombe de Lp.marck ;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graplrie Generale;" "Monthly Review," vol. Ixv., 1811 et seq.,
(Appendix.)
Lamare-Picquot, It'mSR' pe'ko', (N.,) a French
naturalist, born at Bayeux about 1785, travelled in the
East Indies, from which he brought specimens of zoology
of eight hundred and fifty-five species. Between 1841
and 1848 he explored North America.
La Marmora. See MARMORA, DELLA.
Lamarque, It'mtKk', (FRANgois,) a French regicide,
born in Perigord about 1755, was elected to the Con
vention in 1792. He was one of the four deputies who
attempted to arrest Dumouriez at the head of his army
in 1793, and who were by him delivered to the Austrians.
Died in 1839.
Lamarque, (MAXIMILTEN,) an able French general
and orator, born at Saint-Sever (Landes) in 1770. He
served as a general of brigade at Austerlitz in 1805,
obtained command of a division in 1807, and took Caprasa
from the English in 1808. At the battle of Wagram, in
1809, his courage was conspicuous. He joined the
standard of Napoleon on his return from Elba, and
commanded with success in several actions against the
Vendeans in 1815. In 1828 he became a liberal member
of the Chamber of Deputies. Died in 1832. A bloody
conflict occurred between the troops and the populace
at his funeral in Paris.
See Louis BLANC, " Histoire de dix Ans :" " Memoires et Sou
venirs du General Lamarque," published by his family, 3 vols., 1835-
36; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
La Martelliere or Lamartelliere, It mta'ti'le-aiR',
QEAN HENRI FERDINAND,) a French dramatic author,
born at Ferrette in 1761 ; died in 1830.
Lamartine, de, deh It'inta'ten', (ALPHONSE,) a
French poet, orator, and historian of great celebrity, was
born at Macon, on the Saone, on the 2ist of October,
1792. His father served for a short time in the army
as captain or major, and was imprisoned as a royalist
in the Revolution. His mother's name was Alix des
Roys. The name of De Prat has been erroneously given
to the subject of this article by some biographers. He
was educated at the College of Belley, which he left
about 1809, and afterwards passed some time at home,
where he read and admired Dante, Petrarch, Shakspeare,
Milton, and Ossian. In 1811-12 he visited Rome and
Naples. He entered the life-guards of Louis XVIII. in
1814, and when his company was disbanded on the re
turn of Bonaparte from Elba, he retired into Switzerland,
where he remained during the Hundred Days. In 1820
he published a volume of poems entitled "Meditations
poetiques," which excited general admiration, and of
which 45,000 copies were sold in four years. This volume
of which he made some innovations, and published which 45,000 copies were sold in four years. This volume
c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z: th as in this. (E^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
LAM ART IN E
1360
LAMB
contained "The Lake," (" Le Lac,") a beautiful elegy,
(composed in 1817,) in which he expresses the contrast
between the permanence of nature and the instability of
human affairs. Lamartine was appointed in 1820 secre
tary of legation at Florence, (or, as one writer says, at
Naples,) and married an English heiress named Eliza
Marianna Birch. His " Nouvelles Meditations poetiques"
appeared in 1823. He was charge-d'affaires at Florence
for several years, ending in 1829, and was elected to the
French Academy in 1830. He professed devotion to the
church and the throne in his " Harmonies poetiques et
religieuses," (1830,) which are considered by some critics
as his best productions.
After the Revolution of 1830 he adopted more liberal
political principles, and resolved to make a change in his
pursuits. lie offered himself as a candidate for election
to the Chamber of Deputies, but was defeated. In 1832,
accompanied by his wife and daughter Julia, he visited
Palestine, the favourite scene of his youthful reveries and
aspirations, travelling like a prince in a vessel which he
had chartered. His daughter Julie died at Beyroot. He
returned in the autumn of 1833, and published, in prose,
" Souvenirs, Impressions, Pensees et Paysages pendant
un Voyage en Orient," (3 vols., 1835,) the English ver
sion of which is entitled "A Pilgrimage to the Holy
Land." During his absence he had been elected by the
voters of Bergues to the Chamber of Deputies, in which
he maintained a position independent of party, but spoke
often with success on questions of social and political
philosophy. He displayed a marvellous affluence of
pure sentiments and beautiful images in his poem of
" Jocelyn," (1836,) announced or designed as an episode
of a great poem on the progressive phases of humanity.
He became the representative of Macon in the Chamber
in 1837, and was classed for some years among the
"progressive conservatives ;" but he censured the im
mobility of Guizot's policy, and in 1843 became a deter
mined opponent of the ministry and conservative party.
The public were greatly surprised by the avowal of
democratic principles and sympathies which he made in
his eloquent and brilliant " History of the Girondists,"
(8 vols., 1847,) which had an important political influ
ence as a cause of the Revolution of 1848. He is cen
sured for inaccuracy as a historian, and for his imitation
of a habit of many ancient writers who ascribe to historical
persons imaginary speeches. " This work," says the
"Edinburgh Review" for January, 1848, "brings before
us that most stirring and important period with a clear
ness and vividness that all previous descriptions, except
some of Carlyle's, have failed to realize : it presents us
on the same page with distinct, highly-finished sketches
of the principal actors. ... M. de Lamartine seems to
us, on the whole, to have brought to the consideration
of the Revolution a more candid spirit and more whole
some sympathies than any preceding writer." He kept
himself aloof from the reform banquets of 1847, and took
no part in the first two days of the ensuing revolution.
On the 24th of February he entered the Chamber, and,
rejecting the claims of the falling dynasty, advocated
the formation of a provisional government. As a mem
ber of the government formed in that momentous crisis,
he assumed the functions of minister of foreign affairs.
He became at once the master-spirit and moderator of
the Revolution, and repressed the spirit of anarchy and
homicide by memorable demonstrations of eloquence,
courage, and magnanimity. His harangue to the se
ditious and infuriated bands who demanded the red flag
instead of the tricolonred (February 25) was one of the
most remarkable triumphs of eloquence recorded in
history. He addressed a pacific manifesto to Europe,
(March 4,) and was successful in averting a general war.
For some months his popularity was immense among
nearly all classes. In April he was elected by ten de
partments to the Constituent Assembly which met on
the 5th of May. He WHS the fourth on the list of the
Executive Commission of Five chosen by the Assembly
on the loth of May. The decline of his popularity
shown by this fact is ascribed to his connection or col
lusion with Ledru-Rollin, — a collusion which he com
pared to that of the lightning-rod with the pernicious
power which it averts. Lamartine and his colleagues
resigned in consequence of the insurrection of June 22,
which they were unable to suppress.
On the 6th of October he made a remarkable speech
in the Assembly, in which he advocated the election of
president by the people, and said, "If the republic suc
ceeds, I have won my game (partic) against destiny. If
it fails, either in anarchy or in a reminiscence of despot
ism, my name, my responsibility, and my memory will
fall with it." He also expressed his foreboding that the
result of the popular vote would not accord with his own
choice. At the election of president in December, 1848,
he received only about 8000 votes. After the coup d'etat
of December, 1851, he took no part in political affairs.
He published in 1849 a " History of the Revolution of
1848," (2 vols.,) " Les Confidences," containing memoirs
of his early life, and " Raphael, Pages de la vingtieme
Annee." Among his later works are a " History of the
Restoration," (7 vols., 1851-52,) " Histoire des Cons
tituents," (4 vols., 1854,) and a " History of Turkey,"
(8 vols., 1855.) Many of his works have been translated
into nearly all European languages. His neglect of
economy and his expensive habits involved him, many
years ago, in pecuniary embarrassments, which his great
literary industry and success failed to relieve. His friends
in 1858 opened a national subscription in his favour ; but
the results of this appeal to the public gratitude were
not very satisfactory. Died in February, 1869. "There
is in the most imperfect sketches of Lamartine," says an
anonymous French critic, "a grand current of inspiration
which imparts to each passion and idea its appropriate
life and lustre. God and man, society and nature, religion
and politics, all objects of thought and sentiment, con
tribute to this resplendent focus of universal poetry."
See CHARLES RODIN, "Biographic de Lamartine," 1848; CHA-
PUYS MONTI. AVII.I.H, " Vie de Lamartine;" LOMENIE, "Galerie des
Contemporains ;" SAINTE-BEUVE, " Portraits conteniporains," tome
i. : LURINK, "Histoire de A. de Lamartine," 1848; LONGFELLOW,
"Poets and Poetry of Europe;" E. FRENSDORFF, "Lamartine,"
Berlin, 1848; COKMENIN, "Lamartine et le Gouvernement provi-
soire," 1848 ; A. DE LAMARTINE, " Trois Mois an Pouvoir," (and Eng
lish version of the same, entitled "Three Months in Power: a History
and a Vindication ;") " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835, and
March, 1852; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1848, and January,
1850; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1844, and September,
1847; "Westminster Review" for January, 1836; "Blackwood'a
Magazine" for August, 1849.
La Martiiiiere. See MARTlNlfeRE, DE LA.
Lamb, lam, (Lady CAROLINE,) an English authoress,
daughter of Frederick Ponsonby, Earl of Besborough, wa<
born in 1785. She was married in 1805 to William Lamb,
afterwards Lord Melbourne. Her romances, entitled
"Glenarvon," "Graham Hamilton," and "Ada Reis,"
procured her some literary reputation. Her friendship
or love for Lord Byron attracted much attention, and
gave rise to some scandal. Died in 1828.
See the "Monthly Review" for October, 1822 ; MADAME Guic-
CIOLI, "Recollections of Lord Byron," pp. 100-101 et seq.
Lamb, (CHARLES,) a popular English essayist and
humorist, was born in London in February, 1775, and
was educated at Christ's Hospital, where he /formed an
intimacy with Coleridge. In 1792 he entered the ser
vice of the East India Company as clerk in the India
House, London. He began his literary career with a
small volume of poems published in 1798 in connection
with some verses of Coleridge and Llo'yd. Affer the
faithful performance of his irksome duties at the desk
for thirty-three years, he retired in 1825, with a pension
of ^441. His reputation is founded chiefly on his prose
works, especially the "Essays of- Elia," (1830.) His
exquisite taste and critical sagacity are manifested in
his " Essays on the Tragedies of Shakspeare," and other
works. His character was amiably eccentric, abounding
in whims and quaint humours, and most of his writings
are strongly expressive of his mental individuality. He
remained unmarried, and lived with his sister Mary, who
in a fit of insanity killed her mother about 1796. She
was restored to a sound mind, and found an affectionate
guardian in her brother until his death in 1834. His
sister died in 1847.
See T. N. TALKOURD, " Life of Charles Lamb ;" BRYAN \V.
PROCTER, " Charles Lamb: a Memoir," 1866; DE QUINCEY, "Lite
rary Reminiscences," vol. i. ; PERCY FITZGERALD, "Charles Lamb
and his Friends ;" " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1837 ; " Black-
wood's Magazine" for August, 1818, and August, 1849; "British
1 Quarterly Review" for April, 1867.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;
LAMB
1361
LAMBERT
Lamb, (GEOROK,) an English author, born in 1784,
was a younger son of the first Lord Melbourne, and a
brother of prime-minister Lord Melbourne. He was
elected to Parliament by the Whigs in 1818, and was
several times re-elected. He contributed to the "Edin
burgh Review," of which, said Byron, "Jeffrey and Lamb
were the Alpha and Omega," and published a trans
lation of Catullus. In 1832 he was appointed under
secretary of the home department. Died in 1834.
See the " Monthly Review" for January, 1822.
Lamb, (Sir JAMES BLAND BURGES.) an English poli
tician and writer, born at Gibraltar in 1752 ; died in 1824.
Lamb, (WILLIAM.) See MELBOURNE, LORD.
Lamballe, de, deh IfiN'bSK, (MARIA THEUESE LOUISE
de Savoie - Carignan — deh st'vwa' kit'ren'ySN', )
PRINCESS, born at Turin in 1749, was a member of the
royal family of Sardinia, and distinguished for beauty
and virtue. In 1767 she became the wife of the Prince
of Lamballe, (the son of the Duke of Penthievre,) and one
year later was left a widow. She was a favourite attendant
of Queen Marie Antoinette, whose danger and adverse
fortune she shared during the Revolution. Having been
imprisoned in La Force, she was massacred, with cir
cumstances of great atrocity, in September, 1792.
See " Memoires de la Princesse de Limballe." par MADAME
GUENARD, 4 vols., 1801 ; LAMARTINE, " History of the Girondists."
Lam'barde, (WILLIAM,) an eminent English lawyer
and antiquary, was born in London in 1536. He be
came a master in chancery in 1592, keeper of the rolls
in 1597, and keeper of the records of the Tower in
1600. He published a work on old Saxon laws, entitled
" Archaionomia," (1568,) "The Perambulation of Kent,"
and "Eirenarcha; or, The Office of the Justices of the
Peace." lie founded a hospital for the poor at Green
wich. Died in 1601.
See NICHOLS, "Life of Lambarde."
Lambeccius or Lambecius. See LAMBECK.
Lambeck, lam'bek, |Lat. LAMREC'CIUS or LAMBF/-
cius,] (PETER,) an eminent German bibliographer, born
at Hamburg, April 13, 1628. He became professor of
history in his native place in 1652, and librarian of the
Emperor of Austria, at Vienna, about 1662. Among his
works are a "History of Hamburg," (1652,) and "A
Catalogue of the Imperial Library of Vienna," ("Com-
mentaria de Augusta Bibliotheca Caesarea Vindobo-
nensi," 8 vols., 1665-79,) said to be the most extensive
ever compiled. Died in Vienna in 1680.
See " Leben des Petri Lambeccii," Hamburg, 1724.
Lamberg, von, fon lam'be'RG, (JOSEPH MAXIMILIAN,)
COUNT, a learned and ingenious German writer, born
at Briinn, Moravia, in 1729, corresponded with Voltaire
and Hume. He published (in French) an "Essay on
the Impossible," (1764.) and "Memoriel d'un Mondain,"
("Memorial of a Worldling," 1775.) Died in 1792.
Lam'bert, the son of Gui, Duke of Spoleto, Emperor
and King of Italy, succeeded his father at an early
age, in 894 A.D. His rivals Berenger and Arnulf were
masters of parts of Italy. He took Milan in 895, and
was killed by falling from a horse in 898.
Lam'bert, (AYI.MK.R BOURKE,) an English botanist,
born in 1762, contributed memoirs to the "Linnnsan
Transactions," and was a liberal patron of scientific
men. His herbarium was one of the finest in England.
Died in 1842.
Lambert, 16N'baiRr, (CHARLES JOSEPH,) called Lam
bert Bey, a French engineer, born at Valenciennes in
1804. About 1832 he entered the service of Mehemet
Ali of Egypt, who appointed him director of the Poly
technic School and the Observatory of Boolak.
Lambert, (CLAUDE FRANCOIS,) a French compiler,
born at Dole, lived in Paris. He published numerous
mediocre works, among which was a "History of all
Nations," (15 vols., 1750.) Died in 1765.
Lambert, (DANIEL,) a famous giant, born at Leices
ter, England, in 1770. He was five feet eleven inches in
height, and at twenty-three years of age weighed four
hundred and forty-eight pounds. He was also remark
able for his strength, and performed wonderful feats as
a swimmer and pedestrian. At the time of his death
(1809) he weighed seven hundred and thirty-nine pounds.
Lambert, [Lat. LAMBER'TUS,] (FRANCOIS,) a French
Protestant Reformer, born at Avignon in 1487, became a
monk in early youth. Having embraced the Reformed re
ligion, he fled to Switzerland in 1522, assumed the name
of JOHANNES SF.KRANUS, and was appointed professor
of theology at Marburg in 1527. He published com
mentaries on the Bible, and other works. He contributed
greatly to the propagation of the Reformed doctrines in
Thuringia and Hesse. His system of theology is ex
plained in his " Farrago of almost all Theological Mat
ters," (" Farrago Omnium fere Rerum Theologicarum.")
Died in 1530.
See BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" JOHANN W.
BAUM, " F. Lambert von Avignon nach seinem Leben," etc., 1840;
NICERON, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lambert, (GEORGE,) an eminent English painter and
engraver, born in Kent about 1710. He painted land
scapes in the manner of Gaspard Poussin, and had a
great talent for etching. He was the founder of the
Beefsteak Club. Died in 1765.
Lambert, lam'beRt, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) a profound
and original philosopher and mathematician, was born of a
French Protestant family at Mulhouse, Alsace, in August,
1728. From 1748 to 1759 he was preceptor to the sons
of Count de Salis. About 1763 he became a resident
of Berlin and a pensioned member of the Berlin Acad
emy of Sciences. He was afterwards employed in civil
affairs, with the title of councillor. He cultivated with
great success mathematics and astronomy, on which he
wrote many treatises, and he demonstrated the incom
mensurability of the circumference and diameter of a
circle. His " Cosmological Letters" (1761) attracted
much attention. He produced, in German, a celebrated
work on dialectics entitled " Novnm Organon," (1763,)
and " Photometria, sive de Gradibus Luminis," (" On
the Degrees of Light," etc.) He belonged to the Prot
estant church. Died in Berlin in 1777.
See MATTHIAS GRAF, " J. H. Lamberts Leben," 1829; FORMEY,
" E"loge de Lambert ;" DANIEL HUHKR, " J. H. Lambert nach seinem
Leben und Wirken," 1829; " Nouvelie Biographic Generale."
Lambert, (JoHN,) a prominent English republican
general, born about 1620, was a favourite of the Inde
pendents. He entered the army of the Parliament, fought
as colonel at Marston Moor in 1644, and at the end of
the first civil war had obtained the rank of general. He
was second in command under Cromwell in Scotland
in 1649, and led the van at Dunbar in 1651. In 1653 he
made the proposition that the title of Protector should
be given to Cromwell. " Lambert, his creature," says
Hume, "who, under an appearance of obsequiousness
to him, indulged an unbounded ambition, proposed to
temper the liberty of a commonwealth by the authority
of a single person." After the death of Oliver he plotted
against Richard Cromwell in 1659, and commanded the
army in opposition to the Parliament until the triumph
of the royalists under Monk. In 1662 he was condemned
to death ; but this penalty was commuted to banishment
in Guernsey, where he survived thirty years.
See HTME, "History of England;" GRANGER, "Biographical
History of England."
LambertjfloSEi'H,) a French ecclesiastic and moralist,
born in Paris in 1654, became prior of Saint-Martin-cle-
Palaiseau. Among his works are "The Evangelical
Year, or Homilies on the Gospels," (7 vols., 1693-97,)
and " Instruction respecting the Creed," ( Symbol?,) (2
vols., 1728; gth edition, 1830.) Died in 1722.
Lambert, lam'bert, (JossE,) a Flemish printer and
engraver, lived at Ghent, and died in 1556 or 1557.
Lambert, (MicHKL,) a French musician, born near
Poitiers in 1610, was patronized by Richelieu and praised
by Boileau. His songs and cantatas were greatly ad
mired. Died in 1696.
Lambert, (N.,) a French dramatist, lived about 1650.
Among his works is a drama in verse, called "Magic
without Magic," ("La Magie sans Magie," 1668.)
Lambert, SAINT. See SAINT LAMBERT.
Lambert, SAINT, Bishop of Maestricht, was assassin
ated in 708 by order of Alpheide, mother of Charles
Martel, for having censured her profligacy.
Lambert, de, deh ISN'baiR', (ANNE THEKESE DE
Marguenat de Courcelles — mfKg'na'deh kooR'seM',)
MARQUISE, a French authoress, born in Paris in 1647,
e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal: R, trilled: s as z; th as in this.
86
Explanations, p. 23.)
LAMBERT
1362
LA MESNARDIERE
was the wife of General Henri Lambert, noticed below.
She was a friend of Fenelon and Fontenelle. She wrote
"Treatises on Friendship, Taste, and Riches," (1732,)
"Advice of a Mother to her Daughter," (1734,) and
other works, commended for purity of style and of morals.
Died in 1733.
Her son, HENRI FRANCOIS, (1677-1754,) became a
lieutenant-general in 1720.
See FONTENELI.E, " E"loge de la Marquise cle Lambert," prefixed
to her "CEuvres completes," 1767; SAINTE-BEUVE, "Causeries du
Lundi," tome iv.
Lambert, de, (HENRI,) Marquis de Saint-Bris, a
French general, born in 1631 ; died in 1686.
Lambert le Chanoine, l6.\'baiR' leh sht'nwan', a
learned compiler, produced a book called "Liber Flori-
dus." Died at Saint Omer in 1125.
Lambert voii Aschaffeiiburg, lam'beKt fon a-shaf-
fen-booKC/, a German historical writer, born about 1020,
was author of well-written "Annals" published in 1525.
Died about 1080.
Lamberti, Idm-ben'tee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian poet,
born at Venice in 1757; died in 1832.
Lamberti, (BONAVENTURA,) an Italian painter, born
at Carpi in 1651, was a pupil, and one of the best imi
tators, of Cignani. He worked in Rome. Died in 1721.
Lamberti, (Luioi,) an Italian Hellenist, born at
Reggio about 1758. In 1797 he became a member of
the grand council of the Cisalpine Republic, and in the
next year a member of the Directory of the same. lie
was afterwards professor of rhetoric in the College of
Milan, and was admitted into the Italian Institute. His
most important work was a beautiful edition of Homer,
(3 vols., 1808.) He published an ode to Napoleon, and
other mediocre poems. Died in 1813.
Lambertini, lam-beR-tee'nee, (MiCHELE,) a painter
of the Bolognese school, lived from 1426 to 1469. He
painted a celebrated Madonna in fresco at Bologna.
Lambertini, (PROSPER.) See BENEDICT XIV.
Lambertus. See LAMUERT, (FRANgois.)
Lambilotte, 16.\'be'lot', ( Pere Louis,) a French
composer, born atCharleroi in 1797. His fugues, motets,
etc. had great success. The " Restoration of the Gre
gorian Chant" is called his master-piece. Died in 1855.
Lambin, ISN'bax', [Lat. LAMIH'NUS,] (DENIS,) a
learned French professor and classical scholar, born at
Montreuil-sur-Mer, in Picardy, about 1516. He was
appointed professor of Greek in the Royal College of
Paris in 1561. He published esteemed editions of
Cicero, Horace, (1561,) and Lucretius, (1563,) and Latin
versions of Demosthenes and Aristotle, (in part.) He
died of grief for the massacre of the Protestants in 1572.
See GHILINI, " Teatro degli Uomini illustri ;" TEISSIER, " Eloges
des Hommes savantes."
Lambinet, lo.x'be'n.Y, (£MILE,) a French landscape-
painter, born at Versailles about 1812. -z't"/V/*7'r
Lambinet, (PIKRRK,) a French bibliographer, born
near Mezieres in 1742, wrote "Researches into the Ori
gin of Printing," (I7QS.) Died in 1813.
Lambinus. See LAMBIN.
Lamblardie, lo.N'blftR'de', (JACQUES ELIE,) a French
engineer, born at Loches, in Touraine, in 1747. He wrote
an able "Memoir on the Coasts of Upper Normandy in
Relation to the Collection of Shingle," (Galet,) (1789.)
He was the h'rst director of the "ficole centrale des
Travaux publics," the name of which was changed to
Polytechnic School in 1795. Died in 1797.
Lam'bruu, (MARGARET,) a Scottish woman, whose
zeal for the cause of Mary Stuart induced her to make
an attempt against the life of Queen Elizabeth. Her
pistol having dropped from her hand when she was
about to fire, her design was frustrated, and she was
pardoned.
Lambruschini, lam-bRoos-kee'nee, (Luici,) an Ital"-
ian cardinal, born at Genoa in 1776. He was appointed
secretary of foreign affairs by Gregory XVI. In 1846
he obtained more votes for pope in the first scrutiny
than any other candidate, but was not elected. He be
came a member of Pius the Ninth's council of state in
1846, and fled from Rome during the short triumph of
the popular cause in 1848. Died in 1854.
Lambton, (JOHN GEORGE.) See DURHAM, EARL OF.
Lambton, lam'ton, (WILLIAM,) LIEUTENANT-COLO
NEL, an English officer, who acquired distinction by his
astronomical and geodesic labours in Hindostan, was
born about 1748. He was employed by the Marquis of
Wellesley about 1801 to direct the trigonometrical sur
veys which were designed to connect, by a series of tri
angles, the eastern with the western coast of India. l!y
the assiduous labour of more than twenty years, he had
extended his operations from the Carnatic to Ellichpoor,
and measured an arc of the meridian 12° in extent. He
died in India, of fever, in 1823. The Records of the
Asiatic Society contain several Memoirs on the opera
tions above mentioned.
Lame, It'nuV, (GAimiEL,) a French geometer and
engineer, born at Tours in 1795, became professor of
physics at the Polytechnic School in Paris about 1832.
He published, besides other works, an able "Treatise
on Physics," (3 vols., 1836,) "Lessons on the Inverse
Functions of Transcendents," etc., (" Lefons sur les
Fonctions inverses des Transcendantes," etc.,) and
" Lectures on the Mathematical Theory of the Elasticity
of Solid Bodies," (1852.) He was elected a member of
the Institute.
La'me-eh, [TIeb. "p 7,] the son of Methusaleh, and
the father of Noah, died five years before the Flood,
aged seven hundred and seventy-seven years. Another
Lamech, a descendant of Cain, is the first patriarch
mentioned in Scripture as having more than one wife.
See Genesis iv., v.
La Meilleraie or Meilleraye. See MEILLKRAIF., LA.
Lamennais or La Mennais, de, deh l£ nrVni',
(HUGUES FEI.TCIT£ ROHEKT,) AHKE, a celebrated Fiench
writer on religion and politics, was born at Saint-Malo in
June, 1782. He was educated at home, where lie learned
Greek, Latin, etc. without a teacher. Having received
the tonsure in 1811, he was ordained a priest at Rennes
in 1816, and acquired sudden celebrity by the publication
of his eloquent "Essay on Indifference to Religion,"
("Essai sur I'lndifference en Matiere de Religion," 4
vols., 1817-23,) in which he appeared as an orthodox
champion of the Catholic Church. In 1824 he visited
Rome, and declined the offer of a cardinal's hat from
Leo XII. He published in 1825 "Religion considered
in its Relations with the Civil and Political Order,"
which favoured the ultramontane doctrines. Before the
revolution of 1830 his mind had made great progress
towards liberal or democratic principles, without depart
ing from his religious faith. In that year he founded the
"Avenir,"a journal which, in bold and fervent words,
advocated religious and political reforms. Lacordaire
was his disciple and coadjutor in this journal, which was
condemned by the pope in 1832 and suppressed, lie
announced in 1834 his final revolt from the Church of
Rome, in his " Words of a Believer," (" Paroles d'un
Croyant,") which is one of his most important and
powerful productions and was stigmatized by the pope
as "small in volume but immense in perversity." A
great outburst of enthusiasm and indignation followed the
publication of this work. He became ultra-democratic,
and wrote several political works, among which were
"The Affairs of Rome," (1836,) and "The Book of the
People," (1837.) His "Outlines of Philosophy" (" Es-
quisse d'une Philosophic," 1840-46) obtained great suc
cess. In 1840 he was sentenced for one of his writings
to an imprisonment of one year. He was elected to the
Legislative Assembly in 1848. Died in 1854. His com
plete works appeared in 12 vols. 8vo, 1837.
See E. RENAN, "Lamennais et ses E"crits," in the "Revue des
Deux Mondes," August, 1857; SAINTE-BWVE, " Portraits contem-
porains," 1846, vol. i. ; E. R< BINET, " E"tudes sur 1'Abbe de La
mennais," 1835: MADRoi.t.E, " Histoire secrete du Partie et de
1'Apostasie de M. de Lamennais," 1843; L. DE LOMEMI', " M. de
Lamennais, par un Homme de Rien," 1840; " Nouvelle Biographic
GeneVale ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1838; "West
minster Review" for April, 1859.
Lamennais, de, (JEAN MARIE ROBERT,) a French
ecclesiastic, born at Saint-Malo about 1775, was a brother
of the preceding. He wrote several religious works, and
became canon of the diocese of Rennes. Died in 1860.
La Mesiiardiere, de, deh IS m.VnaR'de-aiR', (HIPPO-
LYTE JULES Pi LET,) a mediocre French poet, born at
Loudun in 1610 ; died in 1663.
a, e, I, o, u, y, long: a, 6, 6. same, less prolonged: a, e, T, o, \\, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; me"t; n6t; good; moon;
LAMET
1363
LAMORICIERE
Lamet, de, deh IS'nii'.f ADRIEN AUGUSTIN DE BUSSY,)
a French doctor of the Sorbonne, born in 1621. He
wrote "Solutions of Many Cases of Conscience," (1714.)
Died in 1691.
Lameth, de, deh li'm^t', (ALEXANDRE,) COUNT, a
French revolutionist, born in Paris in 1760. In 1/89 he
was one of the deputies of the noblesse who united with
the Third Estate to form the National Assembly, and he
acted the part of a zealous patriot in that body. After
the death of Mirabeau, (1791,) Barnave and the Lameths
were for a short time among the master-spirits of the
Assembly. He co-operated with his brother and La
Fayette in their efforts to defend the constitution and the
king after his arrest at Varennes. He was a general in
La Fayette's army when the crisis of August 10, 1792,
compelled him to fly with his general, and both fell
into the hands of the Austrians. Lameth recovered his
liberty in 1795, and returned to France in 1800. In 1820
he acted and voted with La Fayette in the Chamber of
Deputies. He published a "History of the Constituent
Assembly," (2 vols., 1829.) Died in 1829.
See TIIIERS, "History of the French Revolution;" QUERARD,
"La France Litteraire ;" " Xouvelie Biographic Generale."
Lameth, de, (CHARLES MALO FRANCOIS,) COUNT,
a French politician, brother of the preceding, was born
in Paris in 1757. He served at Yorktown, Virginia,
in 1781. In 1789 he was elected to the States-General,
in which he acted with the popular party. He was a
political friend of Barnave, and aspired to be a rival of
Mirabeau. Changing his course in 1791, he became the
friend of the king, and resisted the progress of the Revo
lution to extreme issues. lie emigrated about 1793, anc'
returned home in 1801. Under the regime of Napoleon
he was a general of brigade. Died in 1832.
See THIERS, " History of the French Revolution;" "Xouvelie
Biographic Generale."
Lameth, de, (THEODORE,) a brother of the preceding,
was born in Paris in 1756. He obtained the rank of
marechal-de-camp in 1791, and was in that year a mem
ber of the Legislative Assembly, in which he voted with
the constitutional royalists. He defended the king and
queen by his voice with courage and energy, and was an
exile from 1792 to 1800. Died in 1854.
La Metherie, de, deh It ma'tRe', QEAN CLAUDE,) a
French naturalist, born in Maconnais in 1743. He pub
lished " Principles of Natural Philosophy," (2 vols.,
1787,) "Considerations on Organized Beings," (2 vols.,
1805,) "Lectures on Geology," (3 vols., 1816,) and other
works. He became professor of natural sciences at the
College of France in 1812. Died in 1817.
La Mettrie. See MKTTKIK, LA.
Lamey, la'nil, (ANDREAS,) a German historical writer,
born at Minister in 1726, was perpetual secretary of the
Academy ot Mannheim. He wrote, besides other works,
a "Diplomatic History of the Counts of Ravensberg,"
(1779.) Died in 1802.
Lami or Lamy, Ift'me', (BERNARD,) a learned French
priest of the Oratory, born at Mans in 1640. He taught
philosophy and theology at Saumur, Angers, and other
places, and was a disciple of Descartes. He published
successful works on religion and science, among which
are a " Treatise on Rhetoric," " Elements of Geometry,"
(1685,) " Apparatus Biblicus," (1696,) and a "Descrip
tion of the Temple and Holy City of Jerusalem," (in
Latin, 1720.) His work called "Conversations on the
Sciences" (" Entretiens sur les Sciences," 1684) was
highly esteemed by J. J. Rousseau. Died in 1715.
See BOUILI.IER, " Histoire du Carte'sianisme ;" " Xouvelie Bio-
graphie Generale."
Lami or Lamy, (Dom FRANCOIS,) a French Bene
dictine monk, born near Chartres in 1636. He passed
his last twenty years in the abbey of Saint-Denis. He
was noted for his skill and alacrity in disputation, and
was the author of several theological works, the most
remarkable of which is " On the Knowledge of One's
Self," (6 vols., 1694-98.) Died in 1711.
Lami, la'mee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian antiquary and
litterateur of high reputation, born at Santa Croce, a
village between Pisa and Florence, in 1697. He was a
good classical scholar, and became professor of eccle
siastical history at Florence about 1732. From 1740 to
1770 he edited an able literary periodical named "No-
velle Letterarie." He contributed much to explain or
elucidate the civil and literary history of Tuscany, and
published, besides other works, "Delights of Learned
Men," (Delicias Eruditorum," 18 vols., 1736-69,) and the
lives of many eminent Italian literati, "Memorabilia
Italorum Eruditione praestantiutn," (3 vols., 1742-48.)
Died in 1770.
See his Autobiography in the isth volume of his "Deliciae Eru
ditorum;" FONTANI, " Elosjo di Lami," 1789; FABRONI, "Vita;
Italorum doctrina excellentium."
Lami, (PIERRE REMI CRUSSOLLE,) a French litterateur,
born in Paris in 1798; died in 1832.
La'mi-a, an Athenian courtesan, renowned for wit
and profusion, was the mistress of Demetrius Poliorcetes
about 300 B.C.
Lamiee, la'mi-ee, [Gr. \auiai ; Fr. LAMIES, 13'me',]
fabulous monsters of classic mythology, sometimes rep
resented as having the head and breast of a woman and
the body of a serpent. They were supposed to have the
power of changing their forms. According to one tradi
tion, there was a queen of Libya named Lamia, who was
notorious for her cruelty and was accustomed to murder
children. The name of Lamia was used to frighten
children in the nurseries of antiquity.
Lamies. See LAMI/E.
Lamliii or Laemlin, lem-leen', (ALEXANDER,) a Ger
man painter, born at Hohenfeld, Bavaria, in 1813, became
a citizen of Paris in his youth. Among his works are " The
Awaking of Adam, "( 1841,)" The Ladder of Jacob," ( 1 847,)
and portraits for the palace of Versailles.
Lamoignon, de, deh It'mwan'yox', (CHRETIEN
FRANCOIS,) a French magistrate, eminent for his integ
rity and talents, born in Paris in 1644, was the eldest son
of President Guillaume de Lamoignon. He was chosen
master of requests about 1668. For twenty-five years
(1673-98) he performed with honour the duties of advo
cate-general to the Parliament. He was made president
a mortier in 1690. He was intimate with Racine, and
with Boileau, who addressed to him his Sixth Epistle. In
1704 he became a member of the Academy of Inscrip
tions, after declining zfautenil in the Academic Fran-
£aise. Died in 1709.
His son GUILLAUME, Seigneur de Malesherbes, born
in 1683, became successively advocate-general, president
of the Parliament of Paris, and chancellor of France,
(1750.) He maintained the virtuous reputation of his
family, and died in 1772, leaving a son, who was the
eminent Malesherbes.
Lamoignon, de, (CHRETIEN FRANCOIS,) a French
judge, born probably in Paris in 1735. He became
president a mortier in 1758, and shared the exile of Par
liament in 1772. He was appointed keeper of the seals
in 1787. Died in 1789.
Lamoignon, de, (GUILLAUME,) an eminent judge,
and first president of the Parliament of Paris, was born
in 1617. His father, Chretien de Lamoignon de Baville,
was a highly meritorious magistrate. Guillaume became
master of requests in 1644, and first president of the
Parliament in 1658. In announcing his nomination, the
king said to him, " If I had known a better man, I should
have appointed him." He received much praise for the
part he took in relation to the ordinances of 1667 and
1670, and in several instances preferred the claims of
duty to the favour of the court. He laid the basis
of an important judiciary reform in his "Decisions,"
("Anetes,") printed in 1702. Died in 1677.
SeeGAir.LARii, " Viede Lamoignon," 1782 ; FI.ECHIER, " Funeral
Oration:" SAINT- SIMON, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Lamoignon de Baville, If'mwan'yoN' deh ba'vel',
(NICOLAS,) the fifth son of the preceding, was born in
1648. He was appointed master of requests in 1673.
Died in 1724.
Lamoignon-Malesherbes. See MALESHERBES.
La Mcnnoye. See MONNOYE.
Lamoriciere, de, deh lit'nu/re'se-aiR', (CiiRiSTorHE
Louis LEON Juchault — zhii'sho',) a French general,
born at Nantes in 1806. He gained distinction as colonel
of zouaves in Algeria, and became a marechal-de-camp
in 1840. He obtained the rank of lieutenant-general in
1843, returned to France in 1846, and was elected a
as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
LA MOT HE
1364
LAMPS ON
deputy in 1847. In the Re/olution of 1848 he made
strenuous efforts to support the Orleans dynasty. lie
was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and com
manded a division of the army in the fight against the
insurgents of Paris in June, 1848. He was Cavaignac's
minister of war about six months ending in December,
1848. Having shown hostility to the power of Louis
Napoleon, he was arrested on the 2cl of December, 1851,
and confined a few weeks in the Castle of Ham. He be
came general-in-chief of the army of the pope in 1860, and
was defeated by the Sardinians at Castelfidardo. He was
taken prisoner soon after this action. Died in 1865.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" " Blackwood's Magazine"
for February, 1866.
La Mothe. See MOTHE, LA.
La Mothe, It mot, (N.,) a French historian, born
about 1680, was also called La Hode. He wrote " His
tory of the Revolutions of France," (1738,) and a " His
tory of Louis XIV.," (5 vols., 1740.) Died about 1740.
Lamothe, de, deh It'mot', (PIKRRE LAMBERT,) a
French priest, born in 1624. He went as a missionary
to Siam about 1662, and died there in 1679.
La Mothe-Houdaiicourt, de, deh It mot hoo'doN'-
kooR', (Pmui'PE,) Due de Cardone, a French general,
born in 1605, gained successes over the Spaniards, and
received a marshal's baton in 1642. Having been de
feated at Lerida in 1644, he was deprived of command.
Died in 1657.
Lamothe- Langon, de, deh If'mot' l&N'g6N', (fvn-
ENNK LEON,) BARON, a French litterateur, born at Mont-
pellier in 1786. Among his numerous works are poems,
historical memoirs, and romances.
La Mothe le Vayer. See MOTHE, LA.
La Motte. See Morn-,, LA.
Lamotte, li'mot', (JKANNK DE Luz DE SAINT-REMY
DE VALOIS,) MADAME, an artful Frenchwoman, who
acquired notoriety in the affair of the " Diamond Neck
lace," was born, probably, at Bar-sur-Aube about 1750.
She became the wife of a person who styled himself
Count Lamotte. Having practised with success on the
credulity of Cardinal Rohan, she induced him to nego
tiate for a diamond necklace valued at about a million
and a half of francs, which he designed as a present to
the queen. Her husband absconded with the diamonds,
which she had obtained by fraud. She was whipped
and imprisoned for this offence, and died in 1791.
See " Memoires justificatifs de la Comtesse de Valois de la
Motte," by herself, London, 1788; M I.I.E. BERTIN, " Memoires sur
la Reine Marie Antoinette."
Lamotte- (or La Motte-) Fouque, If'mot' foo'ka',
(CAROLINE,) a German authoress, wife of the following,
was born at Nermhausen in 1773. She published suc
cessful novels entitled " Feodora," "Lady of Falken-
stein," and " Ida," also " Letters on Female Education"
and " Letters on Greek Mythology," which were received
with favour. Died in 1831.
Lamotte-Fouque, de, deh It'mot' foo'ka', (FRIED-
RICH HEINKICH KARL,) often called simply Fouque,
BARON, a German poet and romance-writer of rare genius,
was born at Brandenburg, February 12, 1777. He was a
grandson of Henry Augustus Fouque. (See FoUQUE.)
Having served in several great battles of the war against
Napoleon, about 1813 he retired from the army on ac
count of ill health, with the rank of major, and afterwards
resided in Paris, at Halle, and on his estate of Nenn-
hausen. He found a congenial sphere for his fertile
imagination in the Northern traditions and the old Ger
man poetry, and produced many beautiful poems and
works of fiction, among which are "Undine,"* a tale,
(1813,) one of the most exquisite creations of German
genius, "Corona," a poem, (1814,) " Der Zauberring,'
("The Magic Ring," 1816,) "Eginhard and Emma,'
a drama, and "Bertrand du Guesclin," an epic poem,
(1821.) Died in 1843.
See his Autobiography, entitled " Lebensgeschichte," etc., 1840
GERVINUS, " Geschichte'der Deutschen Dichtung;" "Monthly Re
view" for October, 1820.
Lamourette, It'moo'ret', (ADRIEN,) AKKE, a French
ecclesiastic, born in Picardy in 1742. He became an
auxiliary of Mirabeau in 1789, and wrote the address on
* Called in French Ondine.
the civil constitution of the clergy which that orator pro-
lounced. In 1791 he was chosen Bishop of Rhone-et-
Loire, and deputed to the National Assembly. Having
•esisted the extreme measures of the dominant party, he
was guillotined in 1794. He had published several re-
igious works.
Lamouroux, It'moo'roo', (JEAN VINCENT FELIX,) a
French naturalist, born at Agen in 1779. He went to
Paris in 1807, and was chosen professor of botany or
atural history at Caen about 1810. He gave special
attention to those marine productions which are found
on the borders between the animal and vegetable king
dom, and which he described in several capital works.
Among these is a "Description of Coral-forming Polypi
or Zoophytes," (" Histoire des Polypiers coralligenes
flexibles," 1816.) He also published " Lectures on Phys-
cal Geography." Died in 1825.
See " Notice biographique sur Lamouroux," by his brother, 1829.
Lampadius, lam-pa'de-us, (Wii.HELM AUGUST,) a
German chemist, called the founder of metallurgy, was
born in the duchy of Brunswick in 1772. He became
professor of chemistry or metallurgy at Freiberg in 1795.
His principal work is a "Manual of General Metal
lurgy," (3 vols., 1801-09.) Died in 1842.
See CAU.ISEN, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon ;" "Bio
graphic Medicale."
Lampe, lam'peh, (FRIF.DRICH ADOLPH,) a German
Protestant theologian, born at Detmold in 1683. lie
became professor of theology at Utrecht in 1720, and
published sermons and other works, among which was
a "Commentary on the Gospel of Saint John." Died
in 1729.
Lampe, (JOHANN FRIKORICH,) a German composer of
songs and operas, born about 1692, lived in London.
Died in 1756.
Lampetia, lam-pee'she-a, [Gr. Aajiwrer/jy; Fr. LAM-
PETIK, 16.N'pa'te',] a daughter of Helios, whose flocks
and herds she tended in the island of Thrinakia. Ulysses
having been long detained on the island by stress of
weather, his companions killed some of the sacred oxen,
for which the offended gods afterwards sent against them
a great tempest, in which all perished except Ulysses,
who saved himself on the piece of a mast.
Lampetie. See LAMPETIA.
Lampillas, lam-peel'yas, or Llampillas, lam-peel'-
yis, (FRANCISCO XAVIEK,) a Spanish Jesuit, born in
Catalonia in 1731. He lived at Genoa after the expul
sion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767. His principal
work is a defence of Spanish literature against Bettinelli
and Tiraboschi, "Saggio storico-apologetico della Let-
teratura Spagnuola," (6 vols., 1778-81.) Died in 1810.
Lamplugh, lam'ploo, ? (THOMAS,) an English prelate, ,
born in Yorkshire in 1615. He became Bishop of Exeter
in 1676, and was a partisan of James II. in 1688, but
after his flight recognized William III., who appointed
him Archbishop of York. Died in 1691.
Lampredi, lam-pRa'dee, (GIOVANNI MARIA,) an Ital
ian publicist and writer on law, born near Florence in
1732 ; died in 1793.
Lampredi, (URBAN,) an Italian philologist, born at
Florence in 1761 ; died in 1838.
Lampride. See LAMPKIDIUS.
Lampridio, lam-pRee'de-o, (BENEDETTO,) a Latin
poet, born at Cremona. After being professor of Greek
in Rome, he opened a school in Padua in 1521. He
composed admired odes, epigrams, and elegies. "It
cannot be denied," says Tiraboschi, "that he has imi
tated Pindar happily in nobleness of ideas and in imagi
native power." Died about 1540.
See TIRAPOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" PAOLO
GIOVIO, " Elogia Virorum illustrium."
Lam-prid'i-us, [Fr. LAMPRIDE, Ic-N'pRed',] (^LIUS,)
a Latin historical writer, who flourished about 310 A.D.
He was one of the authors of the " Augusta Historia,"
to which he is said to have contributed the lives of
Commodus, Diadumenus, Heliogabalus, and Alexander
Severus.
See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis ;" D. W. MOLLER, " Dis-
putatio circularis de A. Lampridio," 1688.
Lampson, lamp'son, [Lat. LAMPSONIUS, lamp-so'ne-
us,] (DOMINIC,) a Flemish painter and Latin poet, born
i, e, T, 5, ii, y, long; a., e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LAMPSONIUS
'365
LANDEN
at Bruges in 1532. His paintings are rare and esteemed.
Died in 1599.
Lanipsonius. See LAMPSON.
Lampugnani, lam-poon-ya'nee, (AGOSTINO,) an Ital
ian poet, born at Milan in 1588. He wrote many works
which were once popular. Died in 1668.
Lamy. See LAMI, (BERNARD.)
Laua, la'na, (Luici,) an Italian painter, born at M6-
dena in 1597. He worked in that city, and imitated
Guercino with success. His picture of " Modena de
livered from the Plague" is called his master-piece.
Died in 1646.
Laiia-Terzi, Li'na-teRd'zee or -te'Rt'zee, (FRANCESCO,)
(or FRANCESCO Terzi-Lana,) an Italian Jesuit and natu
ral philosopher, born at Brescia in 1631. He was at one
time professor of philosophy in his native place, and was
a diligent observer and experimenter in natural science.
He published, besides a few other works, "Magisterium
Naturae et Artis," (3 vols., 1684-92,) which treats of natu
ral philosophy. Died in 1687.
La Nauze, de, deh It noz, (Louis JOUARD,) a French
scholar and writer, born at Villeneuve d'Agen in 1696 ;
died in 1773.
Laiic'as-ter, (EDMUND,) EARL OF, the son of Henry
III. of England, was born in London in 1245. Edward
I. sent him with an army to conquer Guienne, but, before
he could effect that purpose, he died in 1296. His son
THOMAS, Earl of Lancaster, was the most powerful sub
ject of his time in England. He was a mortal enemy
to Piers Gaveston, whose death he procured in 1312.
Having rebelled against Edward II., he was defeated
and beheaded in 1322. His brother HENRY became his
heir, and aided Queen Isabella to depose the king in
1326. He was appointed guardian of the young king
Edward III. in 1327.
Lancaster, (Sir JAMES,) an English navigator, who
made a voyage to India in 1591, and conducted the first
expedition which the East India Company sent to that
region (1600-03) for the purpose of forming commercial
relations. He made a treaty with the King of Acheen.
Died in 1620. Narratives of his voyages may be found
in Hakluyt and Purchas. An inlet of Baffin's Bay was
named, in honour of him, Lancaster Sound.
See J. BARROV*, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen
Elizabeth's Reign."
Lancaster, (JOHN OF GAUNT,) DUKE OF. See JOHN
OF GAUNT.
Lancaster, (JOSEPH,) an Englishman, who acquired
distinction as the founder of " Lancasterian Schools,"
was born in London between 1771 and 1778, and was a
member of the society of Friends. About the age of
twenty he opened a school in Southwark, and tried with
success the system of mutual instruction. He was pa
tronized by the Duke of Bedford and other noblemen.
By lectures and writings he rendered his system popular,
and gave an impulse to the cause of education in Eng
land and other countries. Having become insolvent, he
went to the United States about 1818, and continued to
labour in the same cause. Died in New York in 1838.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1811 ; " Living
Age" for April, 1845.
Lancaster, (NATHANIEL,) a learned English writer,
born in Cheshire about 1700. He was for some time
rector of Stamford-Rivers. His principal work is an
"Essay on Delicacy," (1748,) a poem. Died in 1775.
Lance, (GKOKGE,) an excellent English painter of
fruit and still life, was born in Essex in 1802. He re
ceived lessons in " high" or " historical" art from Haydon,
and pursued his master's favourite branches of painting,
until he discovered that his genius was more adapted to
the treatment of fruit, flowers, game, etc. In this depart
ment he is considered to have excelled all the English
oil-painters of his time. He produced some historical
pieces and tableaux de genre. Died in 1864.
Lance, (\VILI.IAM,) an American lawyer and political
writer, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1791. He
published a" Life of Washington" in Latin. Died in 1840.
Lancelot, 16.\s'lo', (AxroiNE,) a French litterateur
and antiquary, born in Paris in 1675. He was a member
of the Academy of Inscriptions, for which he wrote many
learned antiquarian treatises. For a few years he had
the office of secretary to the king, which he sold in 1725.
Died in 1740.
Lancelot, (Dom CLAUDE,) an able French gram
marian, born in Paris in 1615. He became one of the
recluses of Port-Royal in 1638, and was the first regent
of the schools of Port-Royal, which flourished from 1646
to 1660 under the care of such men as Arnauld and Pas
cal. Lancelot was the first master of Racine. " He threw
some additional lustre," says Hallam, " around Port-
Royal by the Latin and Greek Grammars (1644 and
1655) which are more frequently called by the name of
that famous cloister than by his own." They were used
for a long time in the French schools. He published in
1660 "Grammaire generale et raisonnee," a treatise on
the philosophy of all languages, which is esteemed a
work of the first class. Died in 1695.
SeeS/MNTE-BEUVE, " Port- Royal ;" MORERI, " Dictiounaire His-
torique ;" NICERON', '' Memoires."
Lancelot OF NAPLES. See LADISLAS.
Lancelotti, lan-cha-lot'tee, written also Lanceloti,
(GIOVANNI PAOLO,) an Italian jurist, born at Perugia in
I ^ii. He wrote, in Latin, "Institutes of Canon Law,"
which were approved by Pope Paul IV. Died in 1591.
Lancillotti, lan-chel-lot'tee, or Lancelloti, lan-che!-
lo'tee, (SECoNDO,) an Italian author and priest, born at
Perugia in 1575. He published in 1630 a successful work
entitled "To-Day," (" L'Hoggidi,") intended to prove
that the world was not morally or physically worse than
it had been in ancient times. He wrote other learned
works. Died in Paris in 1643.
Lancilotti, lan-che-lot'tee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
painter and poet, born at Florence, lived about 1500.
He excelled in nocturnal scenes.
Laiicisi, lan-chee'see, (GIOVANNI MARIA,) an eminent
Italian physician and scholar, born at Rome in 1654. For
thirteen years he lectured on anatomy with eclat at the
College of Sapienza, Rome. He became the chief phy
sician of Pope Innocent XI. in 1688, and served Clement
XI. in the same capacity. Besides other professional
works, he published, in Latin, a "Treatise on Sudden
Deaths," (1707,) and one "On the Noxious Effluvia of
Marshes," (1717.) Died in 1720.
See ASSALTI, "Vie de Lancisi," prefixed to his treatise " De
Motu Cordis ;" FABRONI, " Vitae Italorum," etc. ; G. M. CRESCI.M-
BENI, "Vita di G. M. Lancisi," 1721 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Lancival. See LUCE DE LANCIVAL.
Lancjean, loN'zh&N', (!\EMI, ) a skilful Flemish
painter of history, born at Brussels, was a pupil of Van
Dyck. Died in 1671.
Lancre, loNkR, (PIERRE,) a French lawyer, and writer
on demonology and sorcery, was born at Bordeaux ; died
in 1630.
Lancret, 16N'kR<Y, (NICOLAS,) a French painter, born
in Paris in 1690. He imitated the manner of Watteau
with success. His reputation was higher in his own
time than at the present. Died in 1743.
Lancrinck or Lankrink, lan'kidnk, (PROSPER
HENRY,) a skilful landscape-painter, of German ex
traction, born about 1628. He worked in England, and
was employed by Sir Peter Lely to paint the landscapes,
flowers, etc. of his pictures. Died in 1692.
Landa, de, da lan'da, QUAN,) a Spanish painter, lived
at Pampeluna from 1570 to 1630.
Landais or Landois, loN'di', (PIERRE,) a French
parvenu of low birth, born at Vitre, became the favourite
of Francis II., Duke of Brittany, who gave him absolute
power. Landais was hated by the nobles, who conspired
against him and put him to death in 1485.
Lande. See LA LAN HE.
Laudelle, loN'del', (CHARLES,) a French historical
painter, born at Laval, Mayenne, about 1816. He ob
tained a medal at the Great Exposition of 1855 for his
picture of the " Repose of the Virgin."
Laii'den, (JOHN,) an English mathematician, born at
Peakirk in 1719. He began to write for the "Ladies'
Diary" in 1744, and published in 1755 "Mathematical
Lucubrations," in which various parts of high analysis
are treated. In 1766 he was admitted into the Royal
Society. He wrote several treatises on dynamics and
the integral calculus. Among his principal works is his
"Residual Analysis," (1/64.) Died in 1790.
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LANDER
1366
LAN DOR
Lan'der, (FREDERICK WILLIAM,) an American en
gineer and general, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in
1822. He commanded an expedition to open a wagon-
road across the plains to California in 1858. It is stated
that he made five explorations across the continent,
having been employed by the government to survey a
route for a Pacific railroad. In July, 1861, he was ap
pointed a brigadier-general. He was wounded at Ed-
wards's Ferry, October, 1861, and signalized his courage
at Blooming Gap, Virginia, in February, 1862. He died
at Pawpaw, Virginia, in March, 1862, leaving a high
reputation for enterprise and bravery.
Lan'der, (JoiiN,) an English traveller, born in 1807.
He accompanied his brother Richard in an expedition to
explore the river Niger in 1830. (See LANDER, RICHARD.)
Died in 1839.
Lander, (Lou ISA,) an American sculptor, born at
Salem, Massachusetts, about 1835, studied at Rome
under Crawford. Among her best works may be named
statues of " Evangeline" and of "Virginia Dare," and
a bust of Hawthorne.
Lander, (RICHARD,) an English traveller, who has
rendered his name memorable by solving the problem
of the course of the Niger, was born at Truro in 1804.
He had been employed as a servant by several gentle
men before 1825, when, hearing of Captain Clapperton's
proposed expedition to Africa, he offered his services
and was engaged by that officer as his confidential ser
vant. (See CLAPPKRTON, HUGH.) After performing
the last offices to his master near Saccatoo in April,
1827, he returned with the papers of Clapperton to
England, where he arrived in 1828. The offer which
he made to renew the enterprise was accepted by gov
ernment. Accompanied by his brother John, he sailed
from England in January, 1830, traced the Niger from
Yaoori (or Yauri) to its mouth in the Bight of Benin,
and returned home in 1831. A "Journal of an Expe
dition to Explore the Course and Termination of the
Niger," (2 vols.,) by Richard and John Lander, was
published in 1832. The voyage from Yaoori to the
mouth of the river occupied about four months, from
August 2 to December I, 1830. Having undertaken
another expedition to Western Africa in the service of
a mercantile company, he was killed by the natives in
1835. 1 "ne most prominent trait of his character was
indomitable perseverance.
See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1832 ; " North American Re
view" for October, 1832.
Landi, Lin'dee, (COSTANZO,) COUNT, an Italian phi
lologist and numismatist, born at Piacenza in 1521 ; died
in 1564.
Landi, (GASFARO,) CHEVALIER, an Italian painter of
history and portraits, born at Piacenza in 1756. lie
worked mostly in Rome, and became professor of paint
ing in the Academy of Saint Luke. He excelled in car
nation tints and in truth of expression. Some Italian
critics considered him as one of their best painters.
Among his principal works is "The Assumption of the
Virgin." Died at Rome in 1830.
Landi, (GiULio,) COUNT, an Italian writer, born at
Piacenza about 1500, wrote a romance entitled "The
Life of Cleopatra," (1551.) Died about 1580.
Landi, (ORTENSIO,) a witty and extravagant Italian
writer, born at Milan. He was for some time in the
service of the Bishop of Trent, and passed many of his
later years in Venice. He published several scandalous
and paradoxical works, among which are a " Dialogue
on the Death of Erasmus," (1540,) " Paradoxes," (" Para-
dossi,") and the " Scourge of Ancient and Modern Au
thors," (1550.) Died about 1560.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Landi, (STEFANO,) an Italian composer, born in Rome,
lived about 1630. He composed sacred music, and was
distinguished for his inventive genius.
Landini, lan-dee'nee, or Landino, lan-clee'no,
(CHRISTOFORO,) an Italian critic and scholar, born at
Florence in 1424, was reputed one of the principal orna
ments of the Platonic Academy of that city. He became
professor of belles-lettres at Florence in 1457, and was
chosen by Pietro de' Medici to finish the education of
his two sons. He wrote several Latin poems, and es
teemed commentaries on Horace, Virgil, and Dante.
Died in 1504.
See GiNCiUENE, "Histoirede la LitteVature Italienne;" NEGRI,
" Istoria de' Scrittori Fiorentini."
Landini, (TADDEO,) a Florentine sculptor, who worked
in Rome and was employed by Gregory XIII., Sixtus V.,
and Clement VIII. Died about 1594.
Landino, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian organist and com
poser, surnamed CIKCO, (the "Blind,") was born at Flor
ence about 1325 ; died in 1390.
Lan'do or Lan'don, a native of Sabina, was elected
pope, as successor to Anastasius III., in 913. He died
in 914 A.D., and was succeeded by John X.
Lando, lan'do, (PIETRO,) was elected Doge of Venice
in 1539. During his reign the Venetians made peace
with the Turks, and resisted the efforts of Charles V.
and Francis I. to engage them in new hostilities. Died
in 1545, aged eighty-four.
Laudon, iS.x'doN1', (CHARLES PAUL,) a French painter
and writer on art, born in Normandy in 1760. He
studied in Rome as a pensioner of the king, and worked
in Paris, but acquired more reputation by his writings
than by his paintings. lie published many magnificent
illustrated works, among which are "The Lives and
Works of the Most Eminent Painters of all Schools,''
(25 vols., 1803 ct st'y.,) and "Annals of the Museum/'
etc., ("Annalesdu Muse'e et de 1'Iicole des Beaux-Arts,"
(33 vols., 1808.) Died in 1826.
See Qi'ERAKi), " Li France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Lan'don, (LETITIA EI.IZAHETH,) a popular English
poetess, born in a suburb of London in 1802, She began
to write verse about the age of thirteen, and in 1820
became a contributor to the " Literary Gazette," under
the signature of L. E. L. These poetical efforts pro
cured for her an extensive reputation, and enabled her
to support herself. She produced, anonymously, two
novels, entitled "Romance and Reality" and "Ethel
Churchill," and poems called "The Troubadour," "Ze
nana," etc. Her poems are chiefly of a sentimental or
romantic character. In 1838 she was married to George
Maclean, Governor of Cape Coast Castle, Africa, whither
they went to reside. Her death, which occurred in 1839,
is ascribed to prussic acid, which she \va*s in the habit of
taking as medicine.
See LAMAN BLANCHARD, "Life and Literary Remains of L. E.
L.," 3 vols., 1840; "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iii. ;
MRS. EI.WOOD, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from
the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. ii., 1843; ALLIIJONE,
"Dictionary of Authors;" "Monthly Review" for July, 1825;
"Atlantic Monthly" for March, 1865.
Lan'dor, (WALTER SAVAGE,) an eminent English
author, born at Ipsley Court, Warwickshire, January
30, 1775, was a son of Walter Landor, who married a
rich heiress named Elizabeth Savage. He was edu
cated at Rugby and at Trinity College, Oxford, became
master of an independent fortune, and followed no pro
fession except that of author. He published a volume
of poems in 1795, and a poem entitled "Gebir" in 1798.
In 1806 he sold his large estates, quitted England in
disgust, and removed to the continent. lie served as a
colonel in the Spanish army against Napoleon from 1808
to 1814. In 1811 he married Julia Thnillier, of Bath.
He became a resident of Florence about 1816, and occu
pied the palace of the Medici for several years. He pub
lished in 1820 Latin poems, entitled " Idyllia Heroica."
His reputation was extended by his " Imaginary Con
versations of Literary Men and Statesmen," (5 vols.,
1824-29,) which presented many novel and paradoxical
ideas. Among his other works are "Count Julian," a
poem, (1831,) "Pericles and Aspasia," (1836,) "Andrea
of Hungary," a drama, (1839,) "The Hellenics," (1847,)
and "The 'Last Fruit of an Old Tree," (1853.) He was
a friend of Robert Southey. Died at Florence in Sep
tember, 1864.
See JOHN FOSTER. "Walter S. Landor; a Biography," 1869;
" London Quarterly Review" for January, 1824, February, 1837,
and October, 1839; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1846, and April,
i8;;o; "North British Review" for November, 1846, and July, 1869;
''Nouvelle Biographic Ginerale;" R. W. EMERSON, "English
Traits ;'" " Biographical Sketches," by HARRIET MARTINEAU ; Miss
FIELD, "Last Days of W. S. Landor," in the "Atlantic Monthly"
for April, May, and June, 1866.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; mooi
LAND RUN I
LANGBAINE
Landriani, lan-dRe-a'nee,(PAOLO CAMILLO,) a painter
of the Milanese school, born about 1570 ; died about 1618.
Land'seer, (CHARLES,) an English painter, a son of
John Landseer, noticed below, was born in 1799. He
received lessons from Haydon, and acquired a fair repu
tation as an artist. His subjects are chiefly taken from
English history and poetry. His "Monks of Melrose"
(1843) gained a prize of about £T,OO. He was chosen
an Academician in 1845, and keeper of the Academy in
1851.
Landseer, (Sir EDWIN,) the most celebrated modern
painter of animals, was born in London in 1803. He
learned to draw after nature in his childhood, under the
direction of his father, began to exhibit in 1817, and at
the age of eighteen painted his admirable " Dogs of Saint
Gotharcl." Between 1821 and 1830 he produced "The
Prowling Lion," "The Return from Deer-Stalking,"
(1827,) and" Hunting of Chevy Chase." He was elected
Royal Academician in 1830, after which he exhibited " Sir
Walter Scott and his Dogs," (1833,) " Bolton Abbey in the
Olden Time," "The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner,"
(1837,) highly praised by Ruskin " as one of the most per
fect poems or pictures '(I use the words as synonymous)
which modern times have seen." His humorous picture
of "Laying Down the Law" appeared in 1840. His
marvellous technical skill is subordinated to the expres
sion of sentiment or pathos in a " Pastoral Scene," (1845,)
" Peace" and "War," (1846,) and other works. Among
his master-pieces are a portrait of a Newfoundland dog,
styled "A Member of the Humane Society," (1838,) "A
Scene from the 'Midsummer Night's Dream,'" (1851,)
and "The Children of the Mist," (1853.) Many of his
works have been engraved.
See " Eraser's Magazine" for July, 1856.
Landseer, (JOHN,) an English engraver, the father of
the preceding, was born at Lincoln in 1769. Having
acquired reputation by excellent engravings of animals,
after Rubens and other artists, he was chosen associate
engraver of the Royal Academy about 1807. He lec
tured on art in London, and published several treatises
on art, one of which is entitled " Sabasan Researches,"
(1823.) Died in 1852.
Landseer, (THOMAS,) an English artist and eminent
engraver, son of the preceding, was born before 1800.
Among his most admired productions are engravings of
his brother Edwin's pictures of animals, and of Rosa
Bonheur's " Horse-Fair."
Lan'dulph, [Fr. LANDULPHK, IS.N'dulf',] a mediaeval
historian and priest, born at Milan about 1080, was a
pupil of Anselm of Laon. He wrote, in Latin, a "His
tory of Milan from 1095 to 1137."
Lane, (EDWARD WILLIAM,) an English Orientalist,
born at Hereford in 1801. He resided several years in
Egypt, and published an interesting and valuable work
"On the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyp
tians," (1836,) and a very complete "Arabic-and-Eng-
lish Lexicon," (in two Parts, 1863-65.)
Lane, (HENRY S.,) an American Senator and lawyer,
born in Montgomery county, Kentucky, in 1811, removed
to Indiana. He represented a district of Indiana in Con
gress, 1841-43, and was elected Governor of that State
as a Republican in 1861. Having been chosen, a Sen
ator of the United States in 1861, he resigned the office
of Governor.
Lane, (JAMES H.,) an American general, born at Law-
rencebui-g, Indiana, in 1814. He was elected to Congress
in 1852, and removed in 1855 to Kansas, where he be
came a leader of the Free State party. He was elected
major-general by the legislature of Kansas in 1857, and
a Senator of the United States in 1861. He commanded
a brigade in the first year of the civil war, but retained
his seat in the Senate. Died by suicide in July, 1866.
Lane, (JOSEPH,) an American general and politician,
born in North Carolina in 1801. He distinguished him
self in the principal engagements of the Mexican war of
1846-47, and rose to the rank of major-general. He
became Governor of Oregon Territory in 1848, and was
elected United States Senator from the State of Oregon
in 1859. In 1860 he was the Democratic candidate for
Vice-President, John C. Breckinriclge being the nominee
for President.
Lane, (Sir RICHARD,) an English lawyer, born in
Northamptonshire. He was counsel for the Earl of
Strafford in 1640, and was an adherent of the king in the
civil war. In 1645 he became keeper of the great seal.
Died in 1651.
Lane, (RICHARD JAMES,) an English lithographer,
born in Hereford about 1800.
Lan'franc, [Lat. LANFRAN'CUS ; It. LANFRANCO, Ian-
fRan'ko,] a distinguished prelate, Archbishop of Canter
bury, was born at Pavia about 1005. Having embraced
the monastic life, he became celebrated for piety and
learning. He was a counsellor of William of Normandy
before his conquest of England, and in 1070 was chosen
Archbishop of Canterbury. " His zeal in promoting the
interests of the papacy," says Hume, "was indefati
gable." He enjoyed in a high degree the confidence
of the king, who consulted him in affairs of state. He
crowned William Rufus in 1087, and died in 1089, leaving
several works on theology.
See W. F. HOOK, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
vol. ii. chap. ii. ; A. CHARMA, " Lanfranc, Notice biographique, lit-
teraire," etc., 1849 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Laiifraiico. See LANFRANC.
Lanfranco, lan-fRan'ko, or Lanfranc, lan-fRank',
[Lat. LANFRAN'CUS,] an Italian surgeon, born at Milan
about 1250. He removed in 1295 to P.iris, where he
practised and lectured with a high reputation. He
wrote a treatise on surgery, entitled " Chirurgia magna
et parva," (1490.)
Lanfranco or Lanfranc, (GIOVANNI,) an eminent
Italian painter, born at Parma in 1581. He received
lessons from the three Caracci, whom, in design and
expression, he imitated. He worked in Rome for the
Dukes Farnese and the Borghese family, and afterwards
in Naples. His painting on the cupola of San Andrea
della Valle, Rome, was much admired. His works in oil
and fresco are very numerous. Died at Rome in 1647.
SeeV.ASARi, "Lives of the Painters ;" LANZI, " History of Paint
ing in Italy."
Lanfrancus. See LANFRANC and LANFRANCO.
Lang, (JOHANN MICHAEL.) See LANGE.
Lang, lang, (KARL NIKOLAUS,) a Swiss physician,
born at Lucerne in 1670. He practised medicine with
success in his native place, cultivated natural history,
and acquired fame by his work on the figured stones of
Switzerland, " Idea Historian naturalis Lapidum figurato-
rum Helvetia?," (1705.) Died in 1741.
Lang, (Louis,) born in Wiirtemberg, Germany, in
1814, studied painting in Paris, and subsequently at
Rome. In 1845 he settled in New York City, where
he has executed numerous works.
Lang, von, fon lang, (KARL HEINRICH,) a German
historical writer, born in Suabia in 1764, was appointed
I in 181 1 director of the archives of the kingdom at Munich,
He published a " History of the Jesuits in Bavaria," and
other works relative to that country. Died in 1835.
See KARL HEINRICH LANG, " Memoiren," 1842.
Langallerie, de, deh ISs'gtKre', (PHILIPPE DE GEN-
TILS,) MARQUIS, a French military adventurer, born at
Lamotte-Charente in 1656. He gained the rank of gene
ral in the <French army, and afterwards fought under
Prince Eugene against the French. He died in 1717,
leaving two volumes of Memoirs, (1709,) which have
been translated into English.
Langara, de, da lan-ga'ra, (Don JUAN,) a Spanish
admiral, born about 1730. He was defeated near Cape
Saint Vincent in 1780 by an English fleet under Rodney,
but was in the same year made lieutenant-general of the
navy. He commanded the Spanish fleet which took
Toulon in 1793. Died in 1800.
Langbaine, lang'ban, (GERARD,) D.D., an English
scholar, born in Westmoreland about 1608. He became
a Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and in 1644 keeper
of the archives of the university. He edited Longinus,
and left several useful catalogues, which remain in manu
script. Died in 1658.
Langbaine, (GERARD.) the son of the preceding, was
born at Oxford in 1656. Having collected many old
plays, (nine hundred and eightv,) he published a cata
logue of the same, called " Momus Triumphans," which
was improved and reprinted in 1691, with the title of
tor president. I was improved and reprinted in 1091, witn tne title ot
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ' ; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
LANGBEIN
1368
LANGHORNE
"Account of the English Dramatic Poets." This work
is prized for the information it affords, but has little
critical merit. Died in 1692.
Langbein, lang'bln, (AUGUST FRIF.DRICH ERNST,) a
German poet and writer of fiction, born at Radeburg,
near Dresden, in 1757. He became a resident of Berlin
in 1800. He published a number of romances, songs,
and humorous poems, which had a transient popularity.
Among his prose works are "Talismans against Ennui,"
"The Wings of Time," and "Ganymeda," (1823.) He
had an agreeable style, but little imagination. Died in
1835-
See BROCKHAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon."
Langdale, LORD. See BICKERSTETH, (HENRY.)
Lang'dale, (Sir MARMADUKK,) an English general,
born in Yorkshire. He fought for the king in the civil
war, and commanded with success at the siege of Ponte-
fract Castle. He commanded the left wing at Naseby
in 1645, and was defeated by Cromwell at Preston in
1648. On the restoration he returned to England in
1660, after many years of exile, and was chosen lord
lieutenant of Yorkshire. Died in 1661.
Lang'don, (JuHN,) LL.D., an American statesman,
born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1739. He
became successively a delegate to the General Congress,
member of the United States Senate in 1789, and Gov
ernor of New Hampshire several times between 1805
and 1811. He acted with the Republican party. Died
in 1819.
Langdoii, (SAMUEL,) D.D., an American divine and
theological writer, born at Boston about 1723, became
president of Harvard College in 1774, and resigned in
1780. Died in 1797.
Lange, lang'eh, (JOACHIM,) a German linguist and
writer, born at Gardelegen in 1670. He became pro
fessor of theology at Halle in 1709, and published, be
sides some theological works, a Latin Grammar and a
Greek Grammar, which were successful. Died in 1744.
Lange, [Lat. LAN'GIUS,] (JoHANN,) a learned German
physician, born at Lemberg, in Silesia, in 1485. He
was first physician to several Electors-Palatine. He
wrote professional works which are commended. Died
in 1565.
Lange or Lang, lang, (JOHANN MICHAEL,) a German
Protestant divine, eminent as an Orientalist, born at
Ezelwangen in 1664. He lived as inspector at Prentzlau
from 1710 until his death, in 1731. He published a
treatise "On Mohammedan Fables," (1697,) and several
critical essays.
Lange, (JOSEPH.) a German philologist, born at Kai-
sersberg. He published editions of Martial, Juvenal, and
Persius, also " Florilegium," (1598.) Died about 1630.
Lange, (JOSEPH,) a celebrated actor, born at Wurz-
burg, Bavaria, in 1751. He became a favourite on the
theatre of Vienna, where he performed many years. Died
about 1820.
Lange, lang'eh, (LARS,) a Danish or Swedish traveller,
born at Stockholm. Having entered the Russian service
as an officer of engineers, he was sent as minister to
Pekin in 1719, and again in 1726. Several narratives of
these journeys were published. The Journal of Lange
contains some interesting notices of the nomadic tribes
of Siberia.
Lange, [Lat. LAN'GIUS,] (RUDOLPH,) of Minister, a
German writer, born about 1438. He published some
Latin poems. Died in 1519.
Lange, de, deh lang'eh, written also Langhe, [Lat.
LAN'GIUS,] (CHARLES,) an eminent Flemish philologist
and critic, born at Ghent or Brussels. He edited Cicero's
treatises " De Officiis," " De Amicitia," and " De Senec-
tute." Lipsius pronounced him the most learned Fleming
of his time. Died at Liege in 1573.
See F^MX VAN HULST, "C. de Langhe (CarolusLanguis)et Lievin
Vanderbeke," 1846.
Langeac, de, deh loN'zhtk', (N. DE L'ESPINASSE,)
CHEVALIER, a French poet, born about 1748. He pro
duced, besides a number of original poems, a version of
Virgil's "Bucolics," (1806.) Died in 1839.
Langebeck, lang'eh-bek', (JACOB,) a learned Danish
writer, born in Jutland in 1710. He was employed by
the king to collect manuscripts, inscriptions, etc. He
became keeper of the national archives, and councillor
of state. His principal work is a great collection of
Danish writers, under the title of " Danish Historians
of the Middle Ages," ("Scriptores Rerum Danicarum
medii ^Evi," 1772.) Died in 1774.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Langelaud. See LONGLAND.
Langenbeck, lang'en-bek', (KONKAD JOHANN MAR
TIN,) a German surgeon and anatomist, born in the king
dom of Hanover in 1776, wrote a "Manual of Anatomy,"
(1806,) " Icones Anatomicas," (8 vols., 1826-39,) and
other valuable works. Died in 1851.
See SAINT-.MAURICHCABANY,"C. J. M. Lansenbeck," etc., if<52.
Langendyk, lanc/en-dik', (PiETER,) a Dutch poet,
born at Haarlem in 1662. He excelled in humorous
composition, and was the author of several epigrams
and comedies, among which is " Don Quixote at the
Wedding of Camacho." Died in 1735.
Langemi, von, fon lang-en', (FRIEDRICH ALHRECIIT,)
a German jurist, born at Merseburg in 1 798, was appointed
in 1835 tutor to Prince Albert.
Langenstein, lang'en-stin', (HEINRICH,) a German
astronomer and theologian, born in Hesse, was called
HENRICUS DE HASSIA. Died at Vienna in 1397.
Langer, lang'er, (JoHANN PETER,) a German painter,
born in 1756, became successively director of the Acad
emy of Arts at Dusselclorf and at Munich, where he
obtained great reputation and success as a teacher. His
best picture represents "Christ Blessing Children."
Died in 1824. His son ROBERT, born at Dusseldorf in
1783, was distinguished as a fresco-painter and designer.
Died in 1846.
Langeron, de, deh IS.v/.h'roN', (ANDRAULT,) COUNT,
a general, born in Paris in 1763. He emigrated in 1789,
entered the Russian service, and became a lieutenant-
general in 1799. He commanded a Russian division at
Austerlitz, in 1805, and gained some advantages over the
French in the campaign of 1813. Died in 1831.
Langetti, lan-jet'tee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Ital
ian painter, born at Genoa in 1635 ; died in 1676.
Langham, lang'am, de, ( SIMON,) an English car
dinal, born in Rutlandshire. He was appointed by the
king chancellor in 1364, became Archbishop of Can
terbury in 1366, and a cardinal in 1368. He was hostile
to Wycliffe, whom he removed from the mastership of
a college at Oxford. The temporalities of his see were
seized by Edward III. about 1368. Died in 1376.
See \V. F. HOOK, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
vol. iv. chap. xiii.
Langhans, lang'hans, (KARL GOTTHARD,) an eminent
German architect, born at Landshut in 1733. He was
appointed director of the public buildings of Berlin, and
adorned that city with several fine structures, among
which are the Brandenburg Gate and a theatre. He
was the author of some treatises on architecture. Died
in 1808.
Langhe, de, (CHARLES.) See LANGE.
Lang'horne, (Rev. DANIEL,) an English antiquary,
born in London. He published "Chronicle of the
Kings of England," ("Chronicon Regum Anglorum,"
1679.) Died in 1681.
Langhorne, (JOHN,) an English poet and translator,
born in Westmoreland in 1735. Having taken holy
orders, he obtained a curacy in London in 1764. He
wrote a number of successful sentimental works in prose
and verse, among which are "Letters of Theoclosius and
Constantia," and " The Fatal Prophecy," a drama. About
1768 he obtained the living of Blagden, Somersetshire.
His reputation rests chiefly on his translation of Plu
tarch's "Lives," (1770,) which is correct and literal.
He was assisted in this by his brother William. He
vindicated the Scotch against the satire of Churchill in
a poem called "Genius and Valour." His versification
is easy and harmonious. Died in 1779-
See JOHNSON and CHALMERS, "Lives of the English Poets;"
CAMPBEU., " Specimens of the British Poets."
Langhorne, (WILLIAM,) a brother of the preceding,
was born in 1721, and became rector of Folkstone. He
assisted his brother in the translation of Plutarch, and
published "Job, a Poem," and a paraphrase in verse of
a part of Isaiah. Died in 1772.
a, e, T, 6, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m£t; not; good; moon;
LANGINI
1369
LANJUINAIS
Langini, lan-jee'nee, (ANTONIO,) called also Antonio
da Carrara, because he was born at Carrara, an Italian
sculptor, lived about 1530.
Laiigius. See LANGE.
Langlade, de, cleh ISN'glSd', (JACQUES,) Baron de
Saumieres, a French writer, born in Perigord about
1620. He was secretary to Cardinal Mazarin. Died
iu 1680.
Langle, 15N'gla', (HONORE FRANCOIS MARIE,) an able
writer on music, born at Monaco in 1741. He published
a "Treatise on Harmony and Modulation," (1797,) and
composed several operas. Died in 1807.
Langle, de, cleh 16.\gl, (JEAN MAXIMILIEN,) a French
Protestant minister and writer, born at Evreux in 1590;
died at Rouen in 1674.
Langle, de, (PAUL ANTOINE MARIE FLEURIOT,) an
able French naval officer, born in 1744. He sailed as
second in command of La Perouse's exploring expe
dition. He was killed by the savages on one of the
Navigator Islands in 1787.
Langles, lo.v'gless', (Louis MATHIEU,) a French Ori
entalist, born near Saint-Didier in 1763. He gave special
attention to Arabic and Persian, became a member of
the Academy of Inscriptions, professor of Persian in
Paris, and keeper of the Oriental manuscripts of the
National Library, (1795.) Among his numerous works
are a French version of the " Political and Military
Institutes of Tamerlane," translations from the Eng
lish of several books of travels in the East, a Mantchoo
Dictionary, and "Ancient and Modern Monuments of
Hindostan," (2 vols., 1812-21, unfinished.) Died in 1824.
See ABEL REMUSAT, " Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques;" J. P.
A. REMUSAT, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de L. M. Langles,"
1825; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Laiiglet. See LEXGLET.
Laiig'ley, (BATTY,) an English architect, who pro
posed to improve the Gothic style of architecture by an
absurd imitation of the Grecian orders. lie published
several works on architecture. Died in 1751.
Langlois, lo.N'ghva', (EusTACHE HVACINTHE,) a skil
ful French designer and engraver, born in Normandy in
1777, worked chiefly at Rouen. His reputation is said
to have increased since his death. He published a
" Collection of Views, Sites, and Monuments of France,"
and several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1837.
See GILBERT, " Notice biographique sur M. Langlois," 1839.
Langlois, (JEAN,) a French engraver, born in Paris
in 1649, became a resident of Rome.
Langlois, (JEAN CHARLES,) a French painter of bat
tles and panoramas, born in Calvados in 1789. Among
his works are panoramas of the " Battle of Moskwa,"
(1835,) and the " Burning of Moscow," (1839.)
L'Anglois, ISs'glwa', (MICHEL,) [Lat. MICHAEL
ANGLI'CUS,] a Flemish priest and Latin poet, born at
Beaumont about 1470.
Langlois, (SIMON ALEXANDRE,) a French Orientalist,
born in 1788. lie was elected a member of the Acad
emy of Inscriptions in 1835. Among his works is " Rig
Veda, ou Livre des Hymnes," translated from the San
scrit, (4 vols., 1849-52.) Died in 1854.
Langrish, lang'grish, (BROWNE,) an English physi
cian, born about 1700, wrote several works on medicine.
Died in 1759.
Laiigsdorff, langs'doRf, (GEORG HEINRICH,) BARON,
a German naturalist and physician, born in Suabia in
1774, accompanied Krusenstern's expedition to the
North, (1803,) and afterwards visited Brazil. He pub
lished a Treatise on "Plants collected during the Rus
sian Voyage around the World," (1810,) and other works.
Died in 1852.
Lang'toft, (PETER,) an English chronicler, who lived
about 1300, was a canon-regular of the order of Saint
Austin at Bridlington. He compiled a " Chronicle of
England," (in French verse,) which extends to the year
1307. He is supposed to have died in the reign of Ed
ward II.
Lang'ton, (STEPHEN,) an English cardinal, Arch
bishop of Canterbury. In 1206 he went to Rome, and
was made a cardinal. The election of Archbishop of
Canterbury being contested in 1207, Innocent III. com
pelled the monks to choose Langton, whom King John
refused to recognize until the pope, by laying his king
dom under an interdict, reduced him to submission in
1213. He co-operated with the insurgent barons in
asserting the national liberties against King John in
1215, and was suspended by the pope for refusing to
publish the sentence of excommunication against the
barons. Died in 1228.
See W. F. HOOK, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
vol. ii. chap. xii.
Languet, IS.N'gi', (HUBERT,) a French Protestant
and political writer, born in Burgundy in 1518, was a
friend of Sir Philip Sidney. He entered the service of
Augustus, Elector of Saxony, in 1568, and was the envoy
of that prince to Paris at the time of the Massacre of
Saint Bartholomew, from which he escaped. He was
afterwards employed as negotiator by William, Prince
of Orange. In 1579 he published, under the name of
Junius Brutus, a famous work, entitled " Vindicias contra
Tyrannos," a bold assertion of the right of resistance to
tyrants. Died in 1581.
See PHILIBERT UE LA MARE, "Vie d'Hubert Languet," 1700;
CHKVKEUL, "Hubert Languet," 1852; BAVLE, "Historical and,
Critical Dictionary ;" NILERON, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Languet de Gergy, ISN'g.V cleh zheu/zhe', (JEAN
BAPTTSTE TOSEI'H,) a French philanthropist and bene
factor, svas born at Dijon in 1675. lie became vicar of
Saint-Sulpice, Paris, and built the magnificent church
of Saint-Sulpice, finished in 1745. He also founded in
Paris an institution in which poor women and girls were
supported and educated. It is said that he several times
refused a bishopric. Died in 1750.
Languet de Gergy, (JEAN JOSEPH,) a French theo
logian, born at Dijon in 1677, was a brother of the pre
ceding. He was a zealous adversary of the Jansenists,
and gained distinction by his polemical writings. He
became a member of the French Academy in 1721, and
Archbishop of Sens in 1730. He published Catechisms,
and other religious books. Died in 1753-
Lanier or Laniere, la-ne-aii<', (Niccoi.6,) an Italian
painter and musician, was born in 1568. He lived in Eng
land in the reign of Charles I., who patronized him and
employed him to purchase pictures. He was more eminent
as a musician than as a painter, and became the king's
chapel-master in 1626. Lanier was also a dealer in
pictures, and purchased several at the sale and dispersion
of the collection of Charles I. Died about 1660.
Lan'i-gan, (Jons,) an Irish writer and Roman Cath
olic priest, 'born at Cashel in 1758. Among his works is
an "Ecclesiastical History of Ireland," (4 vols., 1822.)
Died in 1828.
Lanino, la-nee'no, or Lanini, !a-nee'nee, (BERNAR
DINO,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Vercelli, was
a pupil of Gaudenzio Ferrari, whom he imitated. He
worked at Milan and Novara. His design and composi
tion are admired. Among his master-pieces are " Scenes
in the Life of the Virgin," "The Sibyls," (at Novara,)
and "The Martyrdom of Saint Catherine," (in fresco,) at
Milan. Died about 1570.
See VASARI, " Lives pf the Painters ;" LANZI, " Storia pittorica."
Lanjuinais, loN'zlui-e'ni', (JEAN DENIS,) COUNT, a
French lawyer and liberal legislator, born at Rennes in
1753. He was deputed to the States-General in 1789,
and to the Convention in 1792. In the latter body he
boldly defended the king during his trial, and resisted
the terrorists with great energy. His defence of the
Girondists in May, 1793, is praised by Lamartine. He
was proscribed with the Girondists, but escaped, and
kept himself concealed during the reign of terror. He
was chosen a senator in 1800, and a member of the
Academy of Inscriptions in 1808. He published many
political, religious, and historical treatises. Died in 1827.
See DUPIN, " Notice sur Lanjuinais," 1827 ; DACIER, " Notice sur
la Vie et les Ouvrages de Lanjuinais:" MICHEL BERR, "Notice
biosraphique sur le Comte Lanjuinais," 1827; V. DE LANJUINAIS,
"Notice historique sur J. D. de Lanjuinais," 1832; LAMARTINE,
" History of the Girondists;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Lanjuinais, (JOSEPH,) a French writer, uncle of the
preceding, was born in Bretagne. Having removed to
Moudon, in Switzerland, he turned Protestant, and became
a school-teacher. He published, besides other works,
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
LANJUINAIS
137°
LANTARA
"The Accomplished Monarch ; or, Prodigies of Goodness
and Wisdom which make the Eulogy of the Emperor
Joseph II.," (3 vols., 1774.) Died in 1808.
Laujuinais, (VICTOR,) a French lawyer, a son of Jean
Denis, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1802. He was
elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1838, and to the
Constituent Assembly in 1848.
Lank'es-ter, (EDWIN,) F.R.S., an English naturalist
and popular lecturer, born at Melton, in Suffolk, in 1814,
graduated as M.D. at Heidelberg in 1839. He was chosen
a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1845, and professor of
natural history at New College, London, in 1850. He
lectured on natural history at the Royal Institution and
other places, and contributed scientific papers to various
periodicals. He became joint editor of the " Quarterly
Journal of Microscopical Science" in 1853. Among his
works are an article on sanitary science in the " Ency
clopaedia Britannica," and " Half-Hours with the Micro
scope," (1859.)
Lankriiik. See LANCRINK.
Lanner, lan'ner, (JOSEPH FRANZ KARL,) a German
composer, born at Vienna in 1802. His works consist
chiefly of overtures, ballet-pieces, marches, and waltzes.
Died in 1843.
Lannes, iSn, (JEAN,) Duke of Montebello, one of the
most celebrated marshals of the French empire, was
born of humble parentage at Lectoure (Gers) in 1769.
He entered the army as a volunteer in 1792, and was
rapidly promoted until the coup ifefat of the gth Thermi-
dor, 1794, when he was forced to retire from the army.
As chef-de-bataillon, he served under Bonaparte in Italy
in 1796, and was made a colonel for his conduct at Mon-
tenotte. In 1798 he followed Bonaparte to Egypt, where
he became a general of division and rendered important
service at Aboukir. His courage and capacity were very
conspicuous at the battles of Montebello and Marengo,
in 1800. He was sent on a diplomatic mission to Por
tugal in 1801, and on his return, in 1804, was created a
marshal of the empire and Duke of Montebello.
Lannes commanded the left wing of the grand army
in the campaign of 1805, and added to his already
brilliant reputation at Austerlitz and Jena, (1806.) His
military skill was exerted with success at the memorable
siege of Saragossa, where he commanded in chief, in
1809. In the second war against Austria he contributed
to the victory at Eckmiihl, (1809,) and directed the suc
cessful attack on Ratisbon, where, when his men faltered,
he seized a scaling-ladder and ran forward through " the
imminent deadly breach." He was mortally wounded at
the battle of Aspern and Essling, in May, 1809. In the
midst of the conflict, Napoleon paused to address the
dying general, who said, "Adieu, Sire! Live for the
world ; but bestow a few thoughts on one of your best
friends, who in a few hours will be no more." The em
peror is said to have been more deeply affected by this
scene than he ever was before. " Lannes was at once,"
said Napoleon, " the Roland of the army and a giant in
capacity. He had been in fifty-four pitched battles. He
was cool in the midst of fire, and possessed a clear,
penetrating eye. Violent and hasty in his temper, some
times even in my presence, he was yet ardently attached
to me. As a general, he was greatly superior to Moreau
or Soult. I found him a mere swordsman ; I raised him
to the highest point of art." He left a son, Napoleon
Auguste, Duke of Montebello.
See RENE PERIN, " Viemiiitairede J. Lannes," 1810; CHATEAU-
NEUF, " Vie du Marechal Lannes," 1813: THIERS, "History of the
French Revolution;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale. "
Lannes, (NAPOLEON AUGUSTE,) Duke of Montebello,
a son of the preceding, was born in 1802. He was sent
as ambassador to Naples in 1838, and became minister
of the marine in 1847. In 1849 ne was elected to the
Legislative Assembly, in which he voted with the ma
jority. He was appointed ambassador to Russia in 1858,
and commander-in-chief of the French army at Rome
about June, 1862.
Lanno, It'no', (FRANCOIS GASPARD AIME,) a French
sculptor, born at Rennes in 1800. He gained the first
prize in 1827 for his Mucius Scaevola. Among his works
are statues of Fenelon and Pascal.
Lannoi. See LANNOY.
Lannoy, IS'nwa', (JULIANA CORNELIA,) BARONESS OF,
an eminent Dutch poetess, born at Breda in 1738. Her
poetical talents were displayed in satires, odes, and epis
tles, which are admired for elegance and spirit-stirring
power. She produced three successful tragedies, " Leo
the Great," (1767,) "The Siege of Haarlem," (1770,) and
"Cleopatra," (1776.) Died in 1782.
Lannoy or Lannoi, de, deh IS'nwa', (CHARLES,) a
famous general of the Spanish armies, was born in Flan
ders about 1470. Having served with distinction in
various campaigns, he received the badge of the Golden
Fleece in 1516, and was appointed Viceroy of Naples by
Charles V. in 1521. After the death of Prosper Colonna,
he commanded the imperial armies, and in 1525 gained
the decisive victory of Pavia, where he exchanged swords
with Francis I. Died in 1527. (See AVALOS, FERDINANDO
D', MARQUIS DE PESCARA.)
His son FERDINAND, Duke of Boyennes, born in Italy
about 1510, was versed in mathematics, and was reputed
the inventor of the demi-cannon. lie attained the rank
of general of artillery in the Spanish army, and was after
wards Governor of Holland and of Gray. Died in 1579.
La Noue. See NOUK, LA.
Lanoue, It'noo', (FELIX HIPPOLYTE,) a French land
scape-painter, born at Versailles in 1812. He gained the
first prize for landscapes in 1841.
Laiisberg, lans'beiu/, or Lansperg, lans'pgRC/,
(JoHANN,) an ascetic German writer and monk, born at
Landsberg, in Bavaria. Died in 1539. Among his chief
works is a "Manual of the Christian Warfare," ("En
chiridion Militia? Christiana;," 1546,) which he wrote in
opposition to the " Miles Christiamis" of Erasmus.
Lansberg, lans'beRgor lans'bCRH, written also Lans-
berghe, (PHILIPPUS,) a Dutch astronomer and geometer,
born in Zealand in 1561. lie was for many years pastor
of the Protestant church at Ter-Goes. He published,
besides other works on mathematics, a "Treatise on the
Diurnal and Annual Motion of the Earth," (1630,) in
which he advocates the Copernican system, and "Geom
etry of Triangles," (1631.) Died in 1632.
See BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" FOPPENS,
" Bibliotheca Belgica."
Lansdowne. See GRANVILLE, (GEORGE.)
Lansdowne, lanz'down, (HENRY PETTY FITZ-MAU-
RICE,) third MARQUIS OK, an eminent English statesman,
born in 1780, was the second son of the first Marquis.
(See SHELHURNE.) About 1795 he was placed under
the tuition of Dugald Stewart in Edinburgh, and several
years later he graduated at Cambridge. In 1802 Lord
Henry Petty entered the House of Commons, where he
at length became a successful debater. He was ap
pointed chancellor of the exchequer when the Whig
ministry of Grenville and Fox came into power in 1806,
but retired from that office in March of the ensuing
year. He married a daughter of the Earl of Ilchester
in 1808. At the death of his brother, in 1809. he in
herited the title of marquis, and passed into the House
of Lords. He cordially supported at different times the
efforts to abolish slavery, spoke ably in favour of Catholic
emancipation, and acted generally with the Whig party.
In 1827 he was secretary for the home department under
Canning for three or four months ; and during the brief
ministry of Lord Goderich, which resigned about the
end of 1828, he was secretary of foreign affairs. On the
formation of a Whig ministry by Lord Grey in 1831, Lord
Lansdowne became president of the Council, which po
sition he filled with credit until 1841. He was the leader
of the opposition in the House of Lords from 1841 until
1846, when he entered the cabinet of Lord John Russell
as president of the Council. He resigned in 1852. Died
about February I, 1863.
His son, the fourth Marquis of Lansdowne, born in
1816, died in July, 1866.
Lansdowne, MARQUIS OF. See SHELBURNE, EARL
OF.
Lantara.lSN'tf'rt', (SIMON MATHURIN,) an excellent
French landscape-painter, born nearMilly in 1729, or, -as
some say, in 1745. He worked in Paris, and passed his
life in poverty, caused by his indolent and improvident
habits. His manner reminds one of Claude Lorrain.
He excelled in aerial perspective, and represented in a
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
LANTERI
LAO-TSE
marvellous manner the different periods of the day. The
skies of his pictures present a vapory tone and an ex
quisite lightness of touch. Died in Paris in 1778.
See CHARLES BLAXC, " Histoire des Peintres ;" LA CHAVIGNE-
RIE, " Recherches historiques, biographiques et Ktteraires sur le
Peintre Lantara," 1852; " Nouveile Biograpliie Generale."
Lanteri, lan-ta'ree, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian writer,
born at Briga in 1801. Among his works is a " History
of the House of Savoy," (" Storia della Monarchia di
Casa Savoja," 1835.) Died in 1843.
Laiithenas, Juxt'nas', (FRANgois,) a French revolu
tionist, born in* Forez about 1740. He was a member
of the National Convention, and was proscribed with the
Girondists in May, 1793 ; but his name was erased from
the fatal list by Marat with an expression of contempt.
Died in 1799.
Lantier, de, deh l&N'te-i', (£TIENNE FRANC.OIS,) a
popular French author, born at Marseilles in 1734, was
called "the Anacharsis of the Boudoirs/' His comedy
" L'Impatient" was performed with great applause in
1778. He is ranked by some critics among the best
disciples of the school of Voltaire. During the reign
of terror (1793) he was imprisoned at Lyons. He after
wards produced a fictitious narrative of the " Travels of
Antenoiy' ("Voyages d'Antenor," 1798,) which had a
prodigious success and was translated into nearly all
modern languages. At the age of ninety he composed
a poem, called " Geoffroy Rudel, or the Troubadour."
Died in 1826.
See '• Nouveile Biographic Generale."
Lanusse, la'niiss', (FRANgois,) a French general,
born at Habas (Les Landes) in 1772. As general of
brigade he rendered important services at Lodi and
Castiglione, and as general of division followed Bona
parte to Egypt in 1798. He commanded in the Delta
during the expedition against Syria, and was killed by
the English at the battle of Alexandria, or Aboukir, in
March, 1801.
See ADRIEV PASCAL, " Biographies du Lieut.-General de Lanusse
et du Lieut-General Baron de Lanusse," 1843.
Laii'yon, (CHARLES,) an English architect and civil
engineer, born in Sussex in 1813. He designed Queen's
College, in Belfast, and other public edifices.
Lanzani, lan-za'nee, or Lanzano, lan-za'no, (AN
DREA,) an Italian painter, born at Milan about 1648,
studied under Carlo Maratta. He worked at Milan and
Vienna, where he was employed by the emperor. Among
his works are a Saint Charles Borromeo, and a "Holy
Family." Died at Vienna in 1712.
Lanzano. See LANZANI.
Lanzi, lan'zee, (LuiGi,) an eminent Italian antiquary
and writer on art, was born near Macerata in 1732. He
became a good classical scholar, and had acquired the
reputation of an able professor and writer, when the
suppression of the order of Jesuits, of which he was a
member, opened to him a new career. He was chosen
sub-director of the Gallery of Florence in 1773. In 1789
he published an " Essay on the Etruscan Language," (3
vols.,) which was highly prized by the learned. His
reputation was increased by his "History of Painting
in Italy from the Renaissance of Art to the End of the
Eighteenth Century," (" Storia pittorica della Italia,"
etc., 1792 ; 3d edition, 6 vols., 1809,) which is character
ized by good taste and judicious criticism. It was trans
lated into English by Thomas Roscoe. Died in 1810.
See ZANXONI. " Elogio storico di L. Lanzi;" MAURO BONI,
" Sajrgio di Studj di L. Lanzi," iSis; A. CAPPI, " Bioc;rafia di L.
Lanzi," 1840; "Edinburgh Review" for September, 1828.
Lanzoui, lan-zo'nee, (GIUSEPPE,) an eminent Italian
physician, born at Ferrara in 1663. He obtained in 1684
a professorship of philosophy at Ferrara, which he re
tained until his death. His works have been collected
under the title "Opera Omnia Medico-Physica et Philo-
sophica," (3 vols., 1738.) Died in 1730.
La-oc'o-on, [Gr. AaoKour,] a Trojan hero, and a priest
of Apollo or of Neptune, was variously represented as a
son of Antenor or a son of Priam. He strenuously
opposed the admission of the wooden horse into the city
of Troy, and thrust his spear into that structure. While
he was offering a sacrifice to Neptune with his two sons,
two huge serpents, issuing from the sea, attacked them
and crushed them all to death. His story was a favourite
subject with the ancient poets and artists, and has derived
especial celebrity from a magnificent marble group of
Laocoon and his sons which is preserved in the Vatican
in Rome, and which was described by Pliny as superior
to all other master-pieces of ancient sculptors. This
group was executed by Agesander, his son Athenodorus,
and Polydorus.
See VIRGIL'S "sEneid," book ii. 41-50 and 199-233; also, LES-
SING'S " Laocoon."
Laodameia. See LAODAMIA.
La-o-da-nii'a or La-o-da-mei'a, [Gr. Aaodu^sia ;
Fr. LAODAMIE, li'o'dt'me',] a daughter of Acastus, and
wife of Protesilaus, the first Greek who fell at Troy. To
keep alive the memory of her husband, whom she ten
derly loved, she caused a wooden image of him to be
made. Her father, in the hope of dispelling her grief,
ordered it to be burned, when she threw herself into the
flames and perished with it.
Laodamie. See LAODAMIA.
La-od'i-ce, [Aaofc;;,] the name of several Grecian
princesses, one of whom was the mother of Seleucus Ni-
cator, founder of a Syrian dynasty. Another was the
wife of Antiochus Theos, whom she poisoned in 246 B.C.
Her son, Seleucus Callinicus, then became king.
La-om'e-don, [Gr. Aao//a5on>,] the king and founder
of Troy, and the father of Priam. According to ancient
legends, Neptune and Apollo were condemned to serve
Laomedon for one year, and the former built the walls
of Troy for a stipulated price, but after the work was
finished the perfidious king refused to pay Neptune.
Laomedon was killed by Hercules for another breach
of faith.
Laomedon, a Greek general in the service of Alex
ander the Great, enjoyed the confidence of that king in
a high degree. After the death of Alexander he became
governor of Syria, in 323 H.c. He was driven out by the
army of Ptolemy about 321 B.C.
Lao-Tse, la'o'tseh/ or laVtsiih', or Lao-Tseu, liV-
tsuh', written also Laou-Tsze andLao-Tze, sometimes
called Lao-Kiun, (kyoon,) a celebrated Chinese phi
losopher or sage, who was born, it is said, in the province
of Honan, 565 years before Christ, or fourteen years be
fore the birth of Confucius. He was born, we are told,
I with white hair and eyebrows, whence he was named
Lao-Tse, the "hoary or aged child," and Lao-JCiun, the
"aged prince." His white hair seems to have been re
garded as an indication of his early wisdom. Many other
marvels are told concerning his birth, which need not be
related here. It seems probable that Lao-Tse was not
wholly unacquainted with the religious doctrines of India,
not only those of the Brahmans, but perhaps also of the
Booddhists. For some years he was archivist and his
toriographer to one of the Chinese princes. He was, it
is said, profoundly versed in the doctrines and institutions
of the ancients. He taught the existence of a supreme
Being, under the name of Ttio, or the " supreme reason."
His followers are called Tao-Sse (ta'o si) or Taose, —
that is, the "disciples of Reason." Instead of referring,
like Confucius, to the authority of the ancient sages, he
taught that we must seek for the principles of right
within ourselves, in complete retirement from all worldly
pursuits and thoughts. On one occasion Confucius had
an interview with Lao-Tse, who cautioned him against
seeking the honours of the world. Lao-Tse observed
that the possessor of true wisdom seeks rather to hide
than to display his riches. Confucius left him deeply
impressed with his extraordinary character, and evidently
regarded him as something wonderful, if not divine. We
are told that after this interview Confucius said to his
disciples, " It does not astonish me to see the birds fly,
the fishes swim, or the beasts run ; I know that the fishes
may be taken with nets, the beasts with snares, and that
the birds may be shot with an arrow. But I cannot tell
how the dragon* can fly on the wind through the clouds
and raise himself to heaven. To-day I have seen Lao-
Tse : he can be compared only to the dragon." The
date of Lao-Tse's death is unknown. He was undoubt-
* The dragon of the Chinese is regarded as a supernatural or
divine being.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as^;'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (ftJf^See Explanations, p. 23.)
LAO-TSEU
1372
LAPLACE
edly an extraordinary man, and his influence is not yet
lost in China. The following sayings of his may serve
to give an idea of the cast and calibre of his mind : " He
only can be called wise (or enlightened) who knows him
self; he only can be called valiant who subdues him
self; he only can be called rich who knows what is
necessary." Like the Brahmans of India, Lao-Tse
taught the final absorption of pure and enlightened souls
into the supreme eternal Spirit, and that, "having thus
become one with the supreme Reason, they will exist
eternally." He inculcated universal benevolence : we
ought to show kindness not only to the sincere and vir
tuous, but also to the insincere and wicked. "Those
who are holy," he says, "will treat all men as a father
treats his children." The religion of the Tao-Sse, at
the present day, seems closely allied to Boocldhism ;
and many of its votaries of both sexes, like the followers
of Gautama, spend their lives in monasteries. The
modern Tao-Sse are much addicted to superstitions
observances, and deal largely in sorcery. They are very
popular with the common people, and in some parts of
the empire their influence rivals that of the Booddhists.
See PAUTHIER, "Chine, "pp. 110-120; LEGGE, " Life and Teach
ings of Confucius," chap, v , London, 1X67, Triibner& Co. ; BKOCK-
HAUS, " Conversations- Lexikon," article " Lao-Tse ;" LOOMIS," Con
fucius and the Chinese Classics," p. 278 et seq ; J. P. A. RKMUSAT,
" Memoire sur la Vie et les Opinions de Lao-Tseu," 1829.
Lao-Tseu. See LAO-TSE.
Laou-Tse or Laou-Tsze. See LAO-TSE.
La Paix, the French of EIRKNE, which see.
Laparelli, la-pa-rel'Iee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
architect, born at Cortona in 1521. lie planned the
city of Valetta, Malta, and assisted Michael Angelo in
the design of Saint Peter's, at Rome. Died in 1570.
La Perouse. See PEROUSE, DE LA.
La Peyrere. See PEVRERE, LA.
La Peyronie, de, deh 13 pi'n/ne', (FRANC/MS GIHOT,)
a French surgeon, born at Montpellier in 1678. He re
ceived the title of first surgeon to the king, (Louis XV.,)
and wrote a "Treatise on Diseases of the Brain," (1708.)
Died in 1747.
La Peyrouse, de, deh 13 p-Vroo//, (PHILIPPE PICOT,)
BARON, a French naturalist, born at Toulouse in 1744.
He published, besides other works, a " Flora of the Pyr
enees," (1795-1801.) Died in 1818.
See DECAMPE, "filoge de M. le Baron de La Peyrouse," 1819.
Lapham, lap'am, (INCREASE A.,) an American natu
ralist, born at Palmyra, New York, in 1811. He has
fublished "Wisconsin ; its Geography and Topography,
listory, Geology, and Mineralogy," (1844,) "Antiquities
of Wisconsin," (1855,) anc' °ther scientific works.
Lapi, la'pee, (NiccoL6,) an Italian painter, born at
Florence in 1661, was a pupil of Luca Giordano. The
gallery of Florence contains a "Transfiguration" by him.
Died in 1732.
Lapide, a, a la'pe-di', called also Steen, (stan,)
(CORNELIUS,) a Flemish Jesuit, born in the diocese of
Liege. He wrote "Commentaries on the Bible." Died
in 1657.
Lapis, la'pess, (GAETANO,) a painter of the Roman
school, born in Umbria in 1704 ; died in 1776.
Lapisse, 13'pess', (PIERRE BELON,) Baron de Sainte-
Helene, a French general, born at Lyons in 1762, was
killed at Talavera in July, 1810.
Lapithse, lap'T-///ee, [Gr. AamOcu : Fr. LAPITHES, 13'-
pet', ] a fabulous tribe of Thcssalians, whose story is
intimately connected with that of the Centaurs. They
were ruled by a chief named Pirithons, to whose mar
riage the Centaurs were invited. At this marriage-feast
occurred the celebrated fight of the Lapithas and the
Centaurs, which was a favourite subject with the ancient
poets and artists.
Lapithes. See LAPITH/E.
Lapito, iS'pe'to', (Louis AUGUSTF.,) a French land
scape-painter, born near Paris in 1805. Many of his
works are in the royal galleries of Luxembourg, Tuile-
ries, etc.
Laplace, It'pltss', (CYRILI.E PIERRE THEODORE,) a
French navigator, born in 1793. He commanded two
scientific expeditions, of which he gave accounts in the
following works: a "Voyage around the World, per
formed in 1830-31-32," (5 vols., 1833-39,) and "Circum
navigation of the Artemisia, 1837-40," (4 vols., 1845-48.)
lie was made a vice-admiral in 1853.
La Place, (PIERRE.) See PLACE, DE LA.
Laplace, (PIERRE SIMON,) one of the greatest as
tronomers and mathematicians of any age or country,
was born at Beaumont-en-Auge, (Calvados,) in France,
March 23, 1749. His father was a peasant or poor
farmer. After making great progress in the high mathe
matics at the Academy of Beaumont, he went to Paris,
where, through the influence of D'Alembert, he became
professor of mathematics in the military school about
1 768. He was chosen a membre-adjoint of the Academy of
Sciences in 1773, and about that time produced a capital
"'Memoir on Differential Equations and the Secular In
equalities of the Planets." Addressing himself to the
arduous questions of mathematical astronomy, he began
to confirm the theories of his predecessors and to demon
strate in detail the principles of Newton. In 1785 he
became a titular member of the Academy of Sciences,
which he enriched with memoirs on pure mathematics,
general astronomy, and the theory of the planets. He
favoured the popular cause in the Revolution, and offered
homage to the rising star of Bonaparte, who in 1799 nomi
nated him minister of the interior, thinking, perhaps,
that the man who ascertained the laws of the planetary
perturbations might also regulate the disturbing forces
of the social and political spheres. This experiment was
a failure, and Laplace was removed from that office to
the senat consen'ateur in December, 1799. "He was,"
said Napoleon, "below mediocrity as a minister. He
looked at no question in its proper point of view, but,
always searching for subtleties, aimed to conduct the gov
ernment on the principles of the infinitesimal calculus."
In 1796 he published important discoveries in his
" Exposition of the System of the Universe," ("Exposi
tion du Systeme du Monde,") which is a kind of trans
lation into popular language, without analytical formulas,
of his greater work, " La Mecanique celeste." It was
the " Exposition" that procured for him the reputation
of a pure and elegant writer, and eventually opened to
him the Academic Frar^aise in 1816. The clearness
and facility with which he explains and demonstrates the
great laws of astronomy render this work one of the most
admirable resumes which have ever appeared. " No work
of that kind existed at that time," says Parisot, "which
combined the same merits in the same degree." He
received the title of count in 1806. He was for many
years a member, and eventually president, of the bureau
of longitudes. In 1814 he voted to erect a provisional
government on the ruins of Napoleon's empire, and he
remained aloof from the Imperialist party during the
Hundred Days. He was created Marquis Laplace in
1817, and in the same year was chosen president of the
Academy of Sciences. He had been chosen an associate
of many foreign Academies. Among his important pro
ductions are " The Analytic Theory of Probabilities,"
(1812,) and a "Philosophic Essay on Probabilities,"
(1814.) The capital monument of his genius is his
"Treatise on Celestial Mechanics," (" Traite de la Me
canique celeste," 5 vols., 1799-1825,) which will doubt
less preserve his memory to the latest posterity. Among
his great discoveries are the theory of Jupiter's satel
lites, and the causes of the grand inequality of Jupiter
and Saturn, and of the acceleration of the moon's mean
motion. He shares the honour of proving the stability
of the planetary system with Lagrange, than whom he
has attained a higher celebrity by ranging over a wider
field of discovery. One of his last expressions was,
" What we know is but little, (pen de chose ;) that which
we know not is immense." Died in 1827.
See FOURIER, " FJoge de La Place;" AKAGO, "Biographic de
La Place," (and English version of the same, published in 1859;)
" Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale ;" PUISIEUX et CHARLES, "No
tices snr Malherbe, Laplace." etc., 1847: "London Quarterly Re
view" for February, 1809; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1808,
and January, 1810; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for September, 1828.
La Place or Laplace, de, deh 13'pltss', (CHARLES
EMILE PIERRE JOSEPH,) MARQUIS, a son of the great
astronomer, was born in Paris in 1789. He entered
the army young, and served in the campaigns of Ger
many, (1809,) of Russia, (1812,) and of France, (1814.)
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n&t; good; moon;
LA PLACE
'373
LARDNER
In 1827 he was admitted into the Chamber of Peers. He
became a lieutenant-general in 1843, and a senator in 1853.
La Place, de, [Lat. PLAC.-E'US,] (JosuE,) a French
Protestant theologian, born in Bretagne about 1605. He
became professor of theology at Saumur in 1633. Among
his works are a treatise "On the Imputation of the First
Sin of Adam," ("De Imputatione Primi Peccati Adami,"
1655,) in which he opposes the doctrine that the sin of
Adam is imputed to all his posterity, and "An Argument
for the Divinity of Christ," (1657.) Died in 1665.
La Placette, \'& plf'seY, (JKAN,) a French Protestant
divine and moralist, born at Pontac in 1639. lie emi
grated when the edict of Nantes was revoked, in 1685,
and was pastor of the French church in Copenhagen
from 1686 to 1711. Among his works, which are highly
esteemed, are " Essays on Morality," (2d edition, 4 vols.,
1697,) and "Christian Morals reduced to Three Princi
pal Duties : the Repentance of Sinners, the Perseverance
of the Righteous, and Growth in Grace," (1695.) Died
in 1718.
See NICERON, " Me'moires ;" QUERARD, " La France Litte'raire."
La Planche. See REGMER, (Louis.)
Lapo, la'po, a Florentine architect, was the pupil of
NVcolo de Pisa, and a friend of Arnolfo di Lapo. Va-
sari represents him as a German, (whose proper name
was Jacob or Jacopo,) and as the father of Arnolfo ; but
others have disproved both of these statements. lie
adorned Florence with many fine edifices, which time
has destroyed. Died about 1275.
Lapo, (diminutive of Jacopo,) an Italian canonist,
born in Tuscany, taught canon law at Florence more than
twenty years, and was chosen captain or chief of the
Guelph party. He gained distinction by his researches
for manuscripts of classic authors, and had the good for
tune to find Cicero's oration for Miloand the Philippics,
which he sent to his intimate friend Petrarch. Died in 1381.
See TIRABOSCHI, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Lapo Gianni, la'po jan'nee, an Italian poet, a native
of Florence, lived about 1250.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Lapo, di, de la'po, (ARNOI.FO,) a celebrated Italian
architect and sculptor, born near Florence about 1232,
was the son of Cambio, and the pupil of Cimabue in de
sign, lie had the reputation of being the greatest Tuscan
architect in his time. About 1294 he began to erect
the church of Santa Croce in Florence. His greatest
work is the church of Santa Maria del Fiore, called also
the Duomo, or Cathedral, of Florence, which, however,
he left unfinished. Its noble and beautiful dome was
the work of Brunelleschi. Among his master-pieces of
sculpture is the tabernacle of the basilica of San Paolo,
near Rome. Died about 1300.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors."
Lapointe, iS'pwaxt', (SAVINIF.N,) a French poet, born
at Sens (Yonne) in 1812, was a shoemaker in his youth.
He was befriended by Be'ranger and Victor Hugo, with
whose aid he published a volume of verses called "A
Voice from Below," (" Une Voix d'en bas," 1844.) He
wrote interesting "Memoirs of Beranger," (1857.)
Laponneraye, 13'pon'ri', (ALHERT,) a French his
torical writer, born at Tours in 1808, published, besides
other works, a " History of the French Revolution from
1789 to 1840," (3 vols., 1840.) Died in 1849.
Laporte or La Porte, de, deh li'poRt', (HIPPOLYTE,)
MARQUIS, a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1770.
Among his works are "Ivelina," (3 vols., 1830,) and
"Recollections of an Emigrant," (1843.) Died in 1852.
La Porte, de, ( JOSEPH,) AiU!E\ a French critic and
compiler, born at Befort in 1713. The most important
or popular of his compilations was the "French Trav
eller," ("Voyageur Frai^ais,") a melange of romantic
adventures and historical narratives, (42 vols., 1765-95.)
Died in 1779.
Laporte du Theil. See DUTHEIL r>E LA PORTE.
Lappe, lap'peh, (KARL,) a popular German poet, born
near Wolgast in 1774, published "Funereal Garlands,"
(" Friedhofskranze,") and other works.
Lappenberg, lap'pen-be'RG', (JoiiANN MARTIN,) an
able German historian, born at Hamburg in 1794. He
studied in Edinburgh, London, and Berlin, and was ap
pointed minister to the court of Berlin in 1820. In 1823
he became keeper of the archives of the senate of Ham
burg. He published, besides other works, a continua
tion of Sartorius's "Authentic History of the Origin
of the German Hanse Towns," (1830,) and a valuable
" History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings,"
(2 vols., 1834-37,) which has been translated into Eng
lish by Thorpe. Died in 1865.
Lappoli, lap'po-lee, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) an Italian
painter, born in 1492. He worked in Rome and at
Arezzo. Died in 1552.
Laprade, de, deh It'pRJtd', (PIERRE MARIN VICTOR
RICHARD,) a French poet, born at Montbrison in 1812,
is called a disciple of Lamartine. His "Symphonies"
(1856) opened to him the doors of the French Academy
in 1858, and are praised by M. Villemain.
La Primaudaye, de, deh IJt pue'mf/di', (PIERRE,)
a French writer, born about 1545. Among his works
was "L'Acade'mie Fran£oise," (1577, often reprinted.)
La Quintiivie. See QUINTINIE, DE LA.
Larauza, It'ro'zi', QEAN Louis,) a French teacher,
born in Paris in 1793. He wrote an " Essay on the Pas
sage of the Alps by Hannibal," (1826.) Died in 1825.
La Ravardiere, de, deh la" r&'vaVde-aiR', (DANIEL
DE LA TOUSCHE,) SIEUR, a French explorer, born in
Poitou about 1570. He conducted an expedition to
Brazil in 1611, and planted a colony on the island of
Maranham ; but they were expelled by the Portuguese in
1615. Died after 1630.
Larcher, ItR'sha', (PIERRE HENRI,) a French littcra-
teiir and Hellenist, born at Dijon in 1726. After trans
lating several works from the English, he published in
1767 an able work, entitled "Supplement to the Phi
losophy of History," which was designed to refute Vol
taire, from whom it drew a sarcastic reply. His chief
work is a translation of Herodotus into French, with a
commentary, (1786,) which is highly prized as a monu
ment of learning, but has no beauty of style. He was a
member of the third class of the Institute or Academy
of Inscriptions. Died in 1812.
See DACIKR, " filoge de Larcher;" ROISSONADE, "Notice sur
la Vie et les ficrits de M. Larcher," 1813; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Lardizabal, de, da laR-de-tha-bal', (Don MANUEL,)
a Spanish minister of state, born in Biscay about 1750.
In 1814 Ferdinand VII. appointed him minister of the
Indies. Soon after that date he was imprisoned for some
unknown reason, and died in exile in 1823.
Lard'ner, (DiONYSius,) LL.D., a distinguished scien
tific writer and editor, was born in Dublin in 1793,
and educated at Trinity College. He wrote at college a
" Treatise on Algebraic Geometry," (1823.) His " Popu
lar Lectures on the Steam Engine" (1828) passed through
many editions. In 1828 he became professor of natural
philosophy in the London University, and projected the
"Cabinet Cyclopaedia," to which Hersche), Brewster,
and other eminent authors contributed. For this work,
which appeared in 134 volumes, (1830-44,) Dr. Lardner
wrote the treatises on hydrostatics, pneumatics, geome
try, etc. Between 1840 and 1845 he delivered in the
chief cities of the United States scientific lectures, which
were published, and favourably received. He became
a resident of Paris in 1845, after which he published
hand-books of natural philosophy, astronomy, and other
sciences. Died in 1859.
Lardner, (NATHANIEL,) D.D., an English theologian
of great merit, was born in Kent in 1684. He studied
at Utrecht and Leyden, and became a dissenting minis
ter. From 1713 to 1729 he was chaplain in the family
of Lady Treby. He began to preach to the Presbyterian
congregation of Old Jewry, London, in 1723. In 1727
he published the first part of his "Credibility of the
Gospel History," a work of profound reasoning and
research, and one of the most successful arguments in
defence of Christianity ever given to the world. Re
ferring to this work, Sir James Mackintosh remarks that
it "soon wearies out the greater part of readers, though
the few who are more patient have almost always been
gradually won over to feel pleasure in a display of know
ledge, probity, charity, and meekness unmatched by an
avowed advocate in a case deeply interesting his warmest
c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 2; th as in Mw.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LA RENAUDIERE
'374
LAROON
feelings." (See his remarks on Paley in the " View of
the Progress of Ethical Philosophy.") Between 1731
and 1743 he produced five more volumes of the same
work. He was the author of other treatises, one of
which ("Letter on the Logos," or "Word") advocates
Socinian doctrines. Died in 1768.
See KIP PIS, " Life of N. Lardner," prefixed to his complete Works,
ii vols., 1788; "Memoirs of the Life of the Rev. N. Lardner,"
London, 1769.
La Renaudiere, de, deh It reh'ii5'd(>aiR', (PHILIPPE
FRANCOIS,) a French geographer, born at Vire, in Nor
mandy, in 1781, was associated with Malte-Bi un as editor
of the " Annales des Voyages," (54 vols., 1826-39.) He
published several geographical works. Died in 1845.
Larentia. See ACCA LAUKENTIA.
La/res, a name applied to genii, or inferior gods of
human origin, worshipped by the ancient Romans. The
Lares were believed to preside over houses and families,
and were divided into several classes, as Lares domestic!,
Lares public!, Lares urbani, etc. They were supposed
to be the spirits of good men who had died, and were
partly identified with the Manes. (See MANES.)
Lareveillere-Lepaux or Larevelliere-Lepeaux,
de, deh iS'ra'vil'ytxjJit' la'po', a French republican,
born at Mortagne in 1753. He was deputed to the Con
vention in 1792, voted for the death of the king, and
defended the proscribed Girondists in 1793, for which he
was doomed to die, but escaped by concealing himself.
In 1795 he resumed his place in the Convention, where
he acquired the reputation of an effective speaker, and
in October of that year was elected a member of the
Executive Directory. lie presided over the department
of science, morals, and religion, and showed his hostility
to the Catholics, who stigmatized him as a fanatic and
" theophilanthropist." He acted with Barras and the
majority of the Directors in the coup tfftat of the iSth
Fructidor, (September, 1797.) The Directors became
divided into two parties, in which Lepaux was opposed
to Barras, and, finding himself in a minority, he re
signed in June, 1799. Died in 1824.
See, also, THIERS. " History of the French Revolution ;" " Nou
velle Biographic Generaie."
Lareveillere-Lepeaux, (OssiAN,) a French littera
teur, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1797.
He wrote important articles for the "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Largilliere, ItR'zhe'ye-aiR', (NICOLAS,) a skilful
French painter of portrait-Tand history, born in Paris in
1656, was called "the French Van Dyck." He worked
some years in London, where he painted portraits of
James II. and his queen. In 1686 he was elected a
member of the Academy of Paris. He surpassed all his
French rivals in portraits except Rigaud, worked with
great facility, and was a good colorist. Among his works
are portraits of Louis XIV. and Charles Lebrun. Died
in 1746.
See CHARLES BI.ANC, " Histoire des Peintres :" HORACE WAL-
POI.E, " Anecdotes of Painting."
La Riboisiere or Lariboisiere, de, deh It're'bwa'-
zcj-aiR', (JEAN AMUROISE BASTON,) a French general,
born at Fougeres in 1759. He became a general of di
vision in 1807, and directed the artillery with skill at
Eylau, Dantzic, and Friedland. Died in 1813.
La Rive, de, deh It rev, (AUGUSTE,) a Swiss natural
philosopher, born at Geneva in 1790, was a son of the
following. He became professor of physics in his native
city, and wrote many treatises on electricity, the voltaic
pile, etc.
La Rive or Larive, de, (CHARLES GASPARD,) a Swiss
chemist and physician, born at Geneva in 1 770. He gave
special attention to voltafc electricity, and about 1820
constructed a pile of five hundred pairs. He was one
of the first to demonstrate the action of the electric
current on the magnetic needle. Died in 1834.
Larive or La Rive, de, deh la rev, (JEAN Mauduit
— mo'dti-e',) a popular French tragedian, born at La Ro-
chelle about 1746. He made his debut in Paris in 1770,
and for many years was a prime favourite. His voice and
gestures were admirable. No actor of his time possessed
in such perfection the tone of command, of disdain, of
irony, and of menace. He performed " Achilles," " Spar-
tacus," " Philoctetes," "Bayard," and "William Tell"
with great success. He was imprisoned more than a
year by the Jacobins in 1793-94. Died in 1827.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Larivey, de, deh It're'va', (PIERRE,) a French drama
tist, born at Troves about 1550. He published in 1579
the " Laquais," and other comedies, which in humour
are compared to those of Moliere. He was one of the
first in France who chose subjects for comedy from real
life, and the first Frenchman who wrote original dramas
in prose. Died about 1612.
See "Nouvelle Biographic GeneYale."
La Riviere. See RIVIERE.
Lariviere, It're've^-aiR', (CHARLES PHILIPPE,) a
French historical painter, born in Paris about 1802. He
obtained the grand prize in 1824, and a medal of the first
class at the Exposition of 1855. Among his works is
"Bayard wounded at Brescia," (about 1838.)
Lariviere or La Riviere, de, deh Izt'rc've-aiR',
(PIERRE JOACHIM HENRI,) a French lawyer and orator
of the Girondist party, was born at Falaise in 1761. lie
was elected to the Convention in 1792, and took an active
part in the struggle which resulted in the defeat of the
Girondists in May, 1793. He found refuge in Calvados,
and resumed his seat in 1795. Died in 1838.
Larmessin, IttR'm.VsaN', (NICOLAS,) a skilful French
engraver, born in Paris about 1640, produced numerous
portraits of illustrious men. His son, NICOLAS, born in
1683, surpassed his father in the same art. lie engraved
portraits and history with equal success, and received
the title of engraver to the king. Died in 1755.
Laniac, laVntk', (FRANQOIS,) a French poet, born
at Nimes in 1760; died in 1840.
Lar'ned, (Rev. SYLVESTER,) an American Presbyte
rian divine, born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in 1796. He
studied theology at Princeton, and soon acquired a high
reputation as a pulpit orator. He subsequently became
pastor of a church at New Orleans, where he died during
the prevalence of the yellow fever in 1820. A collection
of his sermons was published in 1844.
Laroche or La Roche, It'rosh', (BENJAMIN,) a
French poet and translator, born in 1797, produced good
translations of " The Vicar of Wakefield," Shakspeare's
works, (6 vols.,) Byron's complete works, (4 vols.,) and
the complete works of Sir Walter Scott. He wrote a
poem called "The Funeral of Liberty," (1820.) Died
in 1852.
Laroche, It'rosh', (MARIE SOPHIE,) a German mis
cellaneous writer, born at Kaufbeuren in 1731, was the
author of " Moral Tales," " Rosalie's Letters," and sev
eral popular romances. Died in 1807.
Laroche du Maine. See LUCHET, (JEAN PIERRE
Louis.)
La Rochefoucauld. See ROCHEFOUCAULD.
Larochejacquelin. See ROCHEJAQUELEIN.
La Rochejaquelein. See ROCHEJAQUELEIN.
Laromiguiere, la'ro'me'gexuK', (PIERRE,) an eminent
French metaphysical philosopher, born in Rouergue
(now Aveyron) in November, 1756. He became pro
fessor of philosophy at Toulouse in 1784. Having
removed to Paris, he was admitted into the Institute in
1796. As professor of philosophy in the Faculty of
Letters, he delivered, in 1811 and 1812, a series of lec
tures which were attended and admired by the elite of
the capital. He retained the title of professor after 1812,
but ceased to lecture, and published in 1815 "Lectures
on Intellectual Philosophy, or on the Cause and Origin
of our Ideas," (" Lemons de Philosophic sur les Principcs
de 1'Intelligence, ou sur les Causes et sur les Origines
de nos Idees," 2 vols.) This work was adopted by the
government as a text-book for public instruction. Died
11 August, 1837. " He left a fair and pure renown," says
M. Cousin, who delivered an oration at his funeral.
See DAUXOU, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Laromi-
. uiere," iS-jq; MIGNET, "Notice historique sur la Vie et les ficrits
de Laromiguiire," 1856; VALETTE, " Laromiguiere et 1'liclectisme,"
"42; article by C. MAI. LET in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Laroon, la-ron', (MARCELLUS,) a Dutch painter, born
at the Hague in 16^3, was skilful in copying the works
of great masters. He worked some years in England.
Died in 1705.
a. e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat: met: not; good; moon;
LARRA
1375
LA SALLE
Larra, de, da Idr'ra, (Don MARIANO JOSE,) a popular
and witty Spanish author, born at Madrid in 1809. He
had no profession except literature. In 1832 he pub
lished a satirical journal, "El Pobrecito Hablador,"
which was suppressed after the appearance of the four
teenth number, and a few years later, as chief editor of
the "Spanish Review," (" Revista Espanola,") produced,
under the signature of " Figaro," able articles on Span
ish politics, manners, literature, etc. He published
" Macias," and other dramas. All his works bear the
decided stamp of the Spanish national character. He
committed suicide in 1837, before which he had been
subject to deep melancholy.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Larrameiidi, lar-ra-men'dee, (MANUEL,) a Spanish
philologist, born in Guipuzcoa. He wrote on the Basque
language. Died in 1750.
Larrey, It'ri', (CLAUDE FRANCOIS HILAIRE,) a French
physician and writer, born in 1774, was a brother of
Dominique Jean, noticed below. He practised at Nimes.
Died in 1819.
Larrey, (DOMINIQUE JEAN,) BARON, a French surgeon
of great merit, born near Bagneres-de-Bigorre (Plaut-
Pyrenees) in 1766. Having served a short time in the
navy, he entered the land-army about 1792, and rendered
important services by the invention of the ambulances
Z'olantes, (flying hospital.) He accompanied Bonaparte
to Egypt in 1798, and published a "Historical and Sur
gical Account of the Expedition to the East," (1803.)
He received the title of baron about 1810, and became
surgeon-in-chief of the grand army in 1812. At the
battle of Waterloo, in 1815, he was wounded and taken
prisoner. Under the restoration he was chief surgeon
of the royal guards and of the Hotel des Invalides until
he resigned in 1836. He died in 1842, leaving a high
reputation for virtue and talents. He had published
"Memoirs of Medicine and Military Surgery," (1812-18,)
"Collection of Treatises on Surgery," ("Recueil de Me-
moires de Chirurgie," 1821,) and other excellent works.
Bonaparte in his will mentions Larrey as "the most
virtuous man I have ever known."
See Louis DE LOMENIE, " I.e Baron Larrey, par un Homtne de
Rien," 1840; J. SAINT-AMOUR, "Notice necrologique sur D. J.
Larrey," 1844 ; QUERARD, " La France Litteraire ;" " Biographic
Meciicale ;" " Xouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Edinburgh Review"
for March, 1819.
Larrey, (FELIX HIPPOLYTE,) a French surgeon and
writer, a son of the preceding, was born about 1810. He
became surgeon-ordinary to Napoleon III., and in 1858
medecin-inspecteur of the army.
Larrey, de, deli It'ri', (ISAAC,) a French Protestant
historian, born at Montivilliers in 1638. Having become
an exile for the sake of religion, he took up his residence
in Berlin, and was appointed an aulic councillor by the
Elector. He published, besides other works, a " History
of Augustus," (1690,) a "History of England," (1697-
1713,) and a "History of the Seven Sages of Greece,"
(1713-16,) which were favourably received. Died in
Berlin in 1719.
Larrivee, iS're'va', (HENRI,) a celebrated French
operatic performer and singer, born at Lyons in 1733.
lie made his debut in Paris in 1755, and maintained
his reputation in the opera for thirty years. Died in
1802.
Larroque, IS'rok', (DANIEL,) born at Vitre in 1660,
became a Catholic, and lived in Paris, where he was a
clerk in the bureaus of De Torcy, secretary of state.
He displayed literary talents in several works, among
which are "The Proselyte Abused," (1684,) and the "Life
of Mezeray." Died in 1731.
Larroque, de, deh IS'rok', (MATHIEU,) an eminent
French Protestant theologian, the father of the preceding,
was born at Lairac, near Agen, in 1619. He was pastor
of the church of Vitre from 1643 to 1669, after which he
preached at Rouen. His "History of the Eucharist"
(1669) was highly esteemed. He wrote several other
works. Died in 1684.
See " Life of M. Larroque," by his son, prefixed to his "Adver
saria Sacra," 1688 ; BAYLE, " Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Larruga, lar-roo'ga, (Don EUGENIC,) a Spanish writer
on political economy, commenced a work entitled " Po
litical and Economical Memoirs on the Industry, Mines,
and other Resources of Spain." Forty-eight volumes
had been issued at his death, in 1804.
La Rue or Larue, de, deh IS'rii', [Lat. RU/E'US,]
(CHARLES,) a French poet and eloquent preacher, born
in Paris in 1643. He composed, in Latin, tragedies and
other poems, one of which, on the victories of Louis
XIV., was translated into French by P. Corneille, (1667.)
His Sermons were published in 4 vols., 1719. His
tragedy of " Sylla" is commended. He prepared an
edition of Virgil "in usum Delphini," (1675,) °ftei1 re
printed. Died in 1725.
La Rue, It rii, [Lnt. RU^E'US,] (FRANgois,) a Flemish
naturalist, born at Lille about 1520; died in 1585.
La Rue, It rii, (PIERRE,) a Dutch poet and biographer,
born at Middelburg in 1695.
Larue, de, (GERVAIS.) See DELARUE.
La Sabliere. See SABLIERK, DE LA.
La Sabliere, de, deh It sS'ble-aiR', (ANTOINE DE
RAMBOUILLET,) SIEUR, a French poet and financier,
born in Paris in 1624; died in 1679.
Lasagni, la-san'yee, (BARTOLOMMEO VINCENZO GIU
SEPPE,) an Italian jurist, born at Rome in 1773. He was
a judge or counsellor in the French court of cassation
in Paris from 1810 to 1850. Died in 1857.
La Sale or La Salle, de, deh If sal, (ANTOINEJ a
French writer, born about 1398. He wrote, besides other
works, a satire entitled " Les quinze Joyes de Mariage,"
("The Fifteen Comforts of Matrimony,") which was often
reprinted. Died after 1461.
La Sale, de, (ROBERT CAVELIER.) See LA SALLE.
Lasalle or La Salle, de, deh It sfl, (ANTOINE,) a
French metaphysician, born in Paris in 1754, published
"The Natural Balance," (1788,) and "Moral Mechanics,"
(2 vols., 1789.) He translated the works of Lord Bacon
into French, (15 vols., 1800.) Died in 1829.
Lasalle, de, (ANTOINE CHARLES Louis COI.LINET,)
COUNT, a French officer, born at Metz in 1775, served
in several campaigns in Italy. In 1798 he followed
Bonaparte to Egypt, where he gave proof of courage
at the Pyramids 'and Thebes. As general of brigade,
he contributed to the victories of Austerlitz (1805) and
Jena, (1806.) At the end of 1806 he was made general of
division. In the second Austrian war he commanded
the cavalry of the advanced guard at Raab, Essling, and
finally at Wagram, where he was killed in July, 1809.
See E. A. BEGIN, "Vie mi'itaire du Comte de Lasalle," 1830;
PIGAUI.T- LEBRV.V, " filoge historique du General de Lasalle,"
1852; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
La Salle or La Sale, de, (ROBERT Cavelier — kSv'-
le-i',) an enterprising Frenchman, who has rendered his
name memorable by his exploration of the Valley of the
Mississippi, was born at Rouen about 1635. He emigrated
to Canada in 1667, and engaged in the fur-trade, making
long excursions among the native tribes. In 1675 he was
appointed by Colbert governor of Fort Frontenac, and
was encouraged to pursue discoveries which his own
ambition or enterprising spirit had suggested. Having
built a vessel on Lake Erie, he began his voyage in
August, 1679, and passed through Lakes Huron and
Michigan. He built a fort at Peoria, Illinois, and, as his
vessel had been wrecked, returned by land to Frontenac
in 1680. In 1682 he renewed the enterprise with a nume
rous party, and descended the Mississippi in canoes from
the Illinois River to its mouth, where he arrived in April,
1682. The part of this river below the Arkansas had never
before been explored by a European. In 1683 he went
to France, and, having obtained a commission to plant
a colony in Louisiana, undertook a voyage to that region
by the Gulf of Mexico in 1684, but" failed to find the
mouth of the Mississippi, and landed in Texas. There
he encountered great difficulties, and at last was mur
dered by his own mutinous crew, in March, 1687. " His
capacity for large designs," says Professor Jared Sparks,
" and for procuring the resources to carry them forward,
has few parallels among the most eminent discoverers.
To him must be mainly ascribed the discovery of the
vast regions of the Mississippi Valley."
See " Memoir of La Salle," in SPARKS'S "American Biography,"
vol. i, 2d series; "Journal historique du dernier Voyage de La
Salle," par MICHEL, 1723; HII.DKETH, "History of the United
States," vol. ii. chap, xviii. ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (33f='See Explanations, p. 23.)
LA SANTE
1376
LASOURCE
La Sante or Lasante, de, cleh It soNt, (GILLES
ANNE XAVIER,) a French Jesuit and Latin poet, born
in Bretagne in 1684, taught belles-lettres in Paris, and
numbered Turgot among his pupils. Died in 1762.
Lasaulx, von, fon l&'so', (ERNST,) a German phi
lologist and writer of classic antiquities, was born at
Coblentz in 1805. He became professor of philology
at Munich in 1844, and wrote, besides other works, " On
the Oracle of Dodona," (1841,) "On the Myth of Pro
metheus," (1843,) and " Studies on Classical Antiquity,"
(1854.) Died in 1861.
La Saussaye, de, cleh It so's&', (JKAN FRANCOIS DE
PAULK Lours PETIT,) a French antiquary, born at Blois
in 1801. His " Numismatics of Narbonese Gaul" ("Nu-
mismatique de Gaule Narbonnaise," 1842) opened to him
the Academy of Inscriptions.
Lasca, lils'ka, (ANTONIO FRANCESCO GRAZZINI,) an
Italian poet and dramatist, born at Florence in 1503. In
1540 he founded the Florentine Academy, and assumed
the name of Lasca, (" Mullet.") He afterwards conceived
the idea of a new Academy, called Delia Crusca, the aim
of which should be to perfect the Tuscan language. His
most famous work is a collection of tales, entitled " The
First and Second Supper," (" La prima e la seconda
Cena.") He also composed sonnets, satirical poems, and
"Gtlosia" and other comedies in prose. His works are
recognized as authorities (testi di lingua) by the Academy
Delia Crusca. Died in 1583.
See GINGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie."
Lascaris or Lascari. See CARBURIS, (MARINO.)
Lascaris, lis/ka-res, (AGOSTINO,) Marquis of Vinti-
miglia, an Italian general and agriculturist, born at Turin
in 1776. He wrote several treatises on agriculture. Died
in 1838.
Las'ca-ris, (ANDREAS JOHANNES,) surnamed RHYN-
DACENUS, a noble Greek scholar. About 1454 he went
as a fugitive to the court of Lorenzo de' Medici, by whom
he was patronized. In or before 1495 he removed to
Paris, where he taught Greek to Budceus and others.
Leo X. placed him at the head of a Greek college in
Rome about 1508. Between 1518 and 1534116 resided
chiefly in Paris or Venice, whither Francis I. sent him
as ambassador. He edited "The Greek Anthology,"
(1494,) "Commentaries on Sophocles," (1518,) and other
Greek works. Died in 1535.
See BAYI.E, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" PAOLO Giovio,
" Elogia Virorum illustrium."
Lascaris, (CONSTANTINE.) a Greek scholar, who
contributed much to the revival of learning, was a de
scendant of the royal family of Constantinople. After
the conquest of that city by the Turks, he took refuge in
Italy, (1454,) and was employed by the Duke of Milan
to give lessons in Greek to his daughter Ippolita. He
afterwards taught Greek at Rome, Naples, and Messina,
where he died about 1494. His Greek Grammar (1476)
is said to have been the first work printed in Greek
characters.
See Hooius, " De Grscis illustribus ;" VJLI.EMAIN, "Lascaris,
on les Gvfccs du quinzieme Siecle," 7825.
Lascaris, Its'kf'ress', (PAUL Louis,) a French trav
eller, born in Provence in 1774. In the service of Bona
parte, he traversed Syria and Asiatic Turkey between
1803 and 1814 for the purpose of gaining the friendship
of the Bedouins and preparing the way for an expedi
tion to India. He died at Cairo in 1815, leaving notes,
which were published by Lamartine.
Lascaris, (THEODORE I.,) a Greek emperor, eminent
for political and military talents, born about 1175. He
married about 1200 the daughter of Alexis III., who
had usurped the throne of his brother Isaac. After a
brave resistance to the crusaders, who took Constanti
nople in 1204, he was elected emperor and made himself
master of Bithynia. He was crowned as emperor at
Nic?ea in 1206. He waged war for several years against
the French or Latins, and defeated Alexis (above named)
near Antioch in 1210. He died in 1222, and was suc
ceeded by his son-in-law, John Ducas Vatatzes.
Lascaris, (THEODORE II.,) the son of John Ducas,
became Emperor of Nicasa in 1255. He waged a suc
cessful war against the Bulgarians. He died in 1259,
leaving an infant son, John, whose throne was usurped
by Michael Palaeologus.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Mi-
CHAUD, " History of the Crusades;" LE BEAU, "Histoire du Bas-
Enipire. "
Las Casas. See CASAS, DE LAS.
Las Cases, de, cleh las kaz, (KMMANUEL AUGUSTIN
DIKUDO.NNE MARIN JOSEPH,) MARQUIS, a French officer,
distinguished as a companion of Bonaparte at Saint
Helena, was born near Revel, in Languedoc, in 1766.
He served some years in the navy, emigrated in 1789,
fought for the royal cause at Quiberon, and returned to
France in 1800. He became chamberlain to Bonaparte
in 1810, and followed him into exile in 1815. In Novem
ber, 1816, he was sent to the Cape of Good Hope, where
he was imprisoned several months, after which he was
taken to Europe. He had kept a journal of Napoleon's
conversation, which he published, under the title of " Me
morial of Saint Helena," (Svols., 1822-23.) Died in 1842.
See " Memoires d'E. A. D. Comte de Las Cases, communiques
par lui-meme," etc., 1819; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;"
"Mouthy Review" for March and May, 1823.
Las Cases, de, (EMMANUEL PONS DIEUDONNE,) a
son of the preceding, was born in Finisterre in 1800. lie
fought for the popular cause in Paris in July, 1830, and
sat in the Chamber of Deputies from 1830 to 1848. He
became a senator in 1852.
Lasco or Laski. See A LASCO.
Las'9Jf, (or La'cy,) de, (PETER,) COUNT, an Irish
general, father of the following, was born in Limerick
in 1678. Having entered the Russian service, he was
rapidly promoted, and in 1709 commanded the left wing
at Pultowa. The Czar Peter appointed him general -in-
chief of the infantry about 1722. In 1734 he commanded
an army against the Poles under Stanislas, -and obtained
the rank of field-marshal. He gained an important
victory over the Swedes at Helsingtors in 1742. Died
in 1751.
Lascy or Lacy, von, fon las'see, (JOSEPH FRANCIS
MAURICE,) COUNT, a general in the Austrian army, born
in .Saint Petersburg in 1725. Having saved the army at
Lowositz in 1756, he was promoted from the rank of
colonel to that of general. For his services at Hoch-
kirchen, in 1758, he was made general of artillery. He
received from Maria Theresa a marshal's baton in 1762.
After the peace he entered the aulic council, and dis
played much ability as minister of war. Died in 1801.
See " Hiildigung dargebracht der Wahrheit und den Manen des
Grafen von Lascy," 1801.
La Sena, la sa'na, or La Seine, 13 sin, (PIETRO,)
also written Lascena, an Italian philologist, born in
Naples in 1590, practised law in that city. He wrote
" Homeri Nepenthes, sen de Abolendo Luctu Liber,"
(1621,) and several treatises on philology. Died in 1636.
See BULCARDI, " Vita P. La Senae," 1637.
Laserna. See SANTANDKR.
Lasiiiio, la-see'ne-o, (CARLO,) COUNT, an able Italian
engraver, born at Treviso about 1765. He engraved
numerous works of early Italian masters. Among his
plates is a collection called "Etruria pittrice." Died
about 1837.
His son, GIOVANNI PAOLO, was an engraver at Flor
ence.
Lasius, la'ze-us, (LORENZ OTTO,) a German philolo
gist, born at Ruclen in 1675; died in 1751.
See his Autobiography, " Lebensbei-chreibung," 1730.
Lasne, Ian, (MiCHEL,) a French designer and engraver,
born at Caen in 1596, engraved chiefly after Italian mas
ters. Died in 1667.
Lasnier, la'ne-i', (REMI,) a French surgeon and
celebrated oculist, practised in Paris. He was very
successful in the treatment of cataract. Died in 1690.
Laso, (GARCIAS.) See GARCILASO.
Lasource, It'sooRss', (MARIE DAVID ALBIN, ) a
French Girondist revolutionist, born near Montpellier
in 1762. As a member of the Convention in 1792, he
strove to establish order in the republic. He was one
of the first members of the committee of public safety.
He attacked Robespierre in a speech in April, 1793,
was arrested about June I, and executed with the other
Girondist chiefs in October of that year.
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
LASPHRISE
'377
LATER OP
Lasphrise, de, deh la'fKez', ( MARC DE Papillon —
pt'pe'yoN',) SKIGNEUR, a French poet, born at Amboise
in 1555, composed many admired sonnets, songs, elegies,
and epitaphs. He was living in 1599.
Lassaigne, iS'sin', (JEAN Louis,) a French chemist,
born in Paris in 1800. lie became professor of chem
istry or pharmacy at Alfort in 1828. Among his dis
coveries were delphine, cathartine, and phosphoric ether.
He published an " Elementary Treatise on Organic and
Inorganic Chemistry," (2 vols., 1829.) Died in 1859.
Lassala, las-sa'la, or Lasala, (MANUEL,) a Spanish
historian and poet, born at Valencia in 1729. He be
came a Jesuit, and as such was banished in 1767, after
which he lived at Bologna. He published an "Essay
on Ancient and Modern History," (3 vols., 1755.) Died
in 1798.
Lassay, de, deh It's.V, (ARMAND LEON DE MADAIL-
LAN DE LESPARRF.,) MARQUIS, a French officer, distin
guished for his gallantry and talents, was born in 1652.
He was intimate with Fontenelle and Voltaire. He died
in 1 738, leaving a volume entitled " Recueil de differentes
Choses," or "Memoirs of the Marquis de Lassay."
See PAUI.IN PARIS, " Le Marquis de Lassay et 1'Hotel de Las
say," 1848; SAINTE-BEUVE, "Causeries du Lundi," tome ix.
Las'sels, (RICHARD,) born in Yorkshire, England, in
1603, was converted to the Roman Catholic religion,
lie wrote "Travels in Italy," (2 vols., 1670.) Died at
Montpcllier in 1668.
Lassen, las'sen, (CHRISTIAN,) a Norwegian scholar,
distinguished for his profound knowledge of the Ori
ental languages and Indian antiquities, was born at Ber
gen in 1800. He studied at Heidelberg and at Bonn,
where in 1840 he was appointed professor of the ancient
Indian language and literature. He rendered most im
portant services to philology by his excellent editions of
standard works in Sanscrit, and published "Contribu
tions to the History of the Greek and Indo-Scythian
Kings in Bactria, Cabool, and India," " Indian Antiqui
ties," (2 vols., 1844-52,) and "The Old Persian Inscrip
tions in the Arrow-Headed Characters," which he was
the first to decipher and explain. His " Institutiones
Linguae Pracriticse" (1837) is esteemed the best work
that has appeared on the subject of the ancient popular
dialects of India.
See " Nouvelie Biographic Gene'rale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Re
view" for October, 1837.
Lassis, llt'sess', (N.,) a French physician and writer,
born at Chatillon-sur-Loing in 1772, devoted his atten
tion chiefly to the subject of contagion. He practised
in the army in 1812 and 1813, during the prevalence of
the typhus fever. Died in 1835.
La'sso, di, de las'so, (ORLANDO,) [Lat. ORLAN'DUS
LAS'SUS,] sometimes called ROLAND DE LATTRE, (deh
iStR,) a famous musical composer, born at Mons, in Flan
ders, in 1520. At the age of sixteen he was taken to Italy
by Gonzago, Viceroy of Sicily. After passing a few years
in Rome and Antwerp, he was invited by the Duke of
Bavaria to Munich, whither he went in 1557 and became
•maitre-de-chapelle. He was invited to Paris by Charles
IX. in 1574; but that king died before the arrival of
Lasso. By the number, originality, and richness of his
compositions he acquired a higher rank than any com
poser of his time except Palestiina. Among his works
are masses, motets, magnificats, songs, and other music.
Died about 1595.
See FETIS, " Biograpliie Universelle des Musiciens ;" DEI.MOTTE,
" Noiice sur R. Delattre," 1^36; MATHIEU, "Roland de Lattre,"
1838 ; BURNEY, " History of Music ;" F. C. KIST, " Levensgefdiie-
denis van O. de Lassus, 1841.
Lasso or Lassus, von, fon las'sus, (RUDOLF,) a mu
sician, born at Munich, was a son of the preceding. He
was organist to the Duke of Bavaria. Died in 1625.
Lassone, It'son', (JOSEPH MARIE FRANCOIS,) a
French physician, born at Carpentras in 1717. Having
practised with success in Paris for many years, he became
physician to the queen in 1751. After her death he was
appointed first physician to Louis XVI. He wrote
treatises on medicine and chemistry, which were inserted
in the collections of the Academy of Sciences. Died in
1788.
See FELIX VICQ D'AZVR, "filoge de J. M. F. Lassone," 17^9.
Lassus. See LASSO and LASUS.
Lassus, It'suV, ( PIERRE,) a French surgeon and
writer, born in 1741, was professor of external pathology
in Paris for many years. Died in 1807.
Lasteyrie, de, deh Its'tiYre', (FERDINAND,) an anti
quary, born in Paris in 1810. He acted with the Liberal
party in the Chamber of Deputies, (1842-48,) and with
the moderate republicans in the Assembly, (1848-50.)
He published a " History of Painting on Glass,"( 1837-58.)
Lasteyrie, de, (Jui.ES,) a grandson of General La
Fayette, was born in 1810. He was elected a deputy in
1842 and in 1846. After the revolution of 1848 he be
came a member of the Assembly. He has written articles
for the "Revue des Deux Monties."
Lasteyrie-Dusaillaiit, de, deh Ifs'uVre' dii'zf yftli',
(CHARLES PHILIBERT.) COUNT, a French philanthro
pist and economist, the father of Ferdinand, noticed
above, was born in Correze in 1759. He wrote treatises
on agriculture and on the natural history of the sheep,
the horse, etc. Died in 1849.
Lastic, de, deh laVtek', QEAN BONPAR,) a brave
French captain, born in Auvergne about 1370. He was
chosen grand master of the order of Saint John of Jeru
salem in 1437. In 1444 he defended the city of Rhodes
with success against the Sultan of Egypt. Died in 1454.
See VKRTOT, "Histnire de 1'Ordre de Saint Jean de Jerusalem;"
"Achievements of the Knights of Malta," by ALEXANDER SUTHER
LAND, Philadelphia, 1846.
Lastman, last/man, (PiETKR,) a Dutch painter and
engraver of high reputation, born at Haarlem between
1562 and 1581. He visited Rome in 1604. He was one
of the masters of Rembrandt. His son NICOLAS, born
at Haarlem in 1619, was a skilful artist.
La'sus, [Adoof,] an eminent Greek dithyrambic poet,
born at Hermione, in Argolis, flourished at Athens in the
sixth century F.C. He is said to have been the master
of Pindar. His works are not extant. He was some
times reckoned among the Seven Wise Men.
La Suze. See COLIGNI, (HENRIETTE.)
Latapie, li'tt'pe', (FRANC.OIS DE PAUL,) a French
botanist, born at Bordeaux in 1739; died in 1823.
Lateirade, It'ti'rSd', QKAN FRANCOIS,) a French
botanist of Bordeaux, born about 1780; died in 1858.
La'tham, (JoHN,f F.R.S., an English naturalist and
physician, born at Elthain, in Kent, in 1740. He began
to practise at Dartford in 1763, and, in the intervals of
business, pursued the study of natural history, especially
ornithology. Between 1781 and 1787 he produced his
" General Synopsis of Birds," (6 vols., with plates,) a
work of much merit. In 1796 he removed to Romsey,
in Hampshire, and ceased to practise medicine. He
afterwards received the title of physician to the prince-
regent. He also wrote, besides medical treatises, a " Gen
eral History of Birds," (1821-24,) of which the figures
were drawn and engraved by his own hand. Died in
1837-
Latham, (ROBERT GORDON,) F.R.S.,an eminent Eng
lish philologist and ethnologist, born in Lincolnshire in
1812. He took the degrees of B.A. and M.D. at Cam
bridge, where he acquired proficiency in ancient and
modern languages. In 1840 he was appointed professor .
of English literature in University College, London. He
published "The English Language," (1841,) which is con
sidered a standard book, and several English grammars,
which are extensively used in the schools. Among his
other productions are an excellent work entitled "Natu
ral History of the Varieties of Man," (1850,) "Man and
his Migrations," (1851,) "Ethnology of Europe," (1852,)
and "Nationalities of Europe," (1863.) Dr. Latham
has attained eminence as a physician. He was suc
cessively physician to the Saint George's and the Saint
James's Dispensary.
La'thrpp, (JoHN,) born at Boston in 1772, was the
author of a poem entitled " Speech of Canonicus, or an
Indian Tradition," (1803.) Died in 1820.
See DUYCKINCK, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i.
Lathrop, (Rev. JOSEPH,) D.D., an American Presby
terian divine, born at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1731.
Having graduated at Yale College, he became pastor
of the'Congregational church at West Springfield. He
published a collection of sermons, entitled " Wolves in
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
87
LATIMER
1378
LATOURETTE
Sheep's Clothing," which obtained extensive popularity.
Died in 1820.
Lat/i-mer, (Hucn,) a celebrated English Reformer,
distinguished for his courage, zeal, and piety, was born
in Leicestershire about 1472. Having graduated at Cam
bridge and entered into holy orders, he gained distinctio
as a zealous and eloquent preacher of the Reformed re
ligion. He was patronized by Thomas Cromwell, who
in 1529 gave him a benefice in Wiltshire and saved him
from persecution which certain bishops raised against
him. He became chaplain to Anne Boleyn and Bishop
of Worcester in 1535. On account of the passage of the
act of six articles in 1539, he resigned his bishopric, and
was imprisoned in the Tower until the death of Henry
VIII., in 1547. He was again arrested in 1553, and
compelled by his enemies to be present at a dispute on
transubstantiation at Oxford in 1554. In 1555 he was
burned at the stake, in company with Ridley, to whom
he said, "Be of good cheer, brother; we shall this day
kindle such a torch in England as I trust shall never be
extinguished."
See W. GILPIN, " Life of Hugh Latimer," 1780; FROUDE, " His
tory of England," vol. ii. chap. vi. ; " Retrospective Review," vol. vi.,
1822; "Monthly Review" for July, 1755.
Latimer, (WILLIAM,) an English scholar and reviver
of classical learning. He became Fellow of a college at
Oxford in 1489, and taught Greek to Erasmus, who ex
pressed a good opinion of him. Died in 1545.
Latini, Id-tee'nee, (BRUNETTO,) a celebrated Italian
poet, orator, and grammarian, born at Florence about
1230. He taught philosophy and grammar in Florence,
where Dante was his pupil, and he held some of the
highest offices in the republic. He was attached to the
Guelph party. His greatest work, entitled "The Trea
sure," (" Le Tresor,") is written in French, and consists
of extracts and translations from classic authors on his
tory, philosophy, rhetoric, etc. He also composed " The
Little Treasure," (" II Tesoretto,") a poem, and a treatise
on rhetoric. Died in 1294.
See NEGRI, " Istoria degli Scrittori Fiorentini :" TIRABOSCHI,
"Storiadella Letteratura Italiaua;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Latini, la-tee'nee, or Latinio, la-tee'ne-o, (LATINO,)
[Lat. LATI'NUS LATIN'IUS,] a learned and judicious
Italian critic, was born at Viterbo in 1513. He became
a resident of Rome in 1552, and served as secretary to
several cardinals, among whom was Cardinal Colonna.
He published " Letters, Conjectures, and Observations,"
(1659,) in Latin, which treat of many points of history,
antiquity, and criticism. Died in 1593.
Latino. See LATIN us.
La-ti'nus,[Gr. Aara-of ; It. LATINO, la-tee'no,] a legen
dary king of Latimn, a son of Faunus, and the father of
Lavinia, who became the wife of /Eneas. According to
some authors, he was an incarnation of Jupiter Latiaris.
See VIRGIL'S "/Eneid," book vii.
Latiiius Latinius. See LATINI.
Lat'o-mus, (or IS'to'miiss',) the Latin name of a Flem
ish theologian, sometimes called JAMES MASSON, who
was born in Hainault about 1475. He was professor of
theology at Louvain, and was one of the ablest adver
saries of Luther. He wrote several works against the
doctrines of the Reformers. Died in 1544.
Latomus, (BARTH^LEMY,) a scholar, born in Luxem
burg about 1485, became professor of eloquence in the
College Royal of Paris in 1534. He wrote notes on
Cicero, and other works. Died in 1566.
La-to'na, [Gr. AT/TV ; Fr. LATONE, It'ton',] in classic
mythology, a daughter of the Titans Creus and Phoebe,
was the wife of Jupiter, and the mother of Apollo and
Diana. The poets relate that, persecuted by Juno, she
wandered about until she came to Delos, which was
then a floating island, but became stationary when she
touched it. Here Apollo and Diana were born. Latona
received from Niobe an affront which Apollo and Diana
severely revenged.
Latoue. See LATONA.
Latouche or La Touche, de, deh If'toosh', (HYA-
CINTHE THABAUD,) a French poet and romancer, born
at La Chatre, in Berry, in 1785, was known by the name
of HENRI DE LATOUCHE. He edited the posthumous
poems of Andre Chenier about 1819. Among his best
works are the fictitious "Correspondence of Clement
XIV. and Carlin," (1827,) and several short poems.
Died in 1851.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, "Causeriesdu Luudi," tomeiii. ; "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
La Touche-Treville, de, deh 13 toosh tua'vel',
(Louis RENE MADELEINE LE VASS'OR,) a French admiral,
born at Rochefort in 1745. He was elected to the States-
General in 1789, and became a rear-admiral in 1792. He
commanded in a naval battle against Nelson in 1801.
Died in 1804.
Latour. See TOUR, DE LA.
Latour or La Tour, li'tooR', (DOMINIQUE,) a French
physician and medical writer, born in 1749, was chief
physician to Louis Bonaparte while he was King of
Holland. Died about 1820.
Latour, (JEAN RAIMOND JACQUES AMEDEE,) a French
medical writer, born at Toulouse in 1805. He founded
in 1847 the "Union Medicale," a journal.
Latour, de, (CAGNIARD,) BARON. See CAGNIARD.
Latour, de, deh IS'toou', (Louis ANTOINK TENANT,)
a French poet and litterateur, born in Haute-Vienne in
1808, published "Far from the Fireside," ("Loin du
Foyer," 1841,) and other poems.
Latour, de, (MAURICE Qui<:.\TiN,)an eminent French
portrait-painter, born at Saint-Quentin in 1704. He
removed to Paris about 1727, and became a fashionable
painter of portraits in pastel. In 1750 he received the
title of painter to the king. Among his works are por
traits of Voltaire and Rousseau. Died in 1788.
Latour.voii, fon la'tooR', (KARL ANTON MAXIMILIAN
BAILLET,) COUNT, an Austrian general, born in 1737.
He obtained command of the army of the Lower Rhine
in 1796. In this campaign he was opposed to Moreau,
and, in concert with the Archduke Charles, fought seve
ral battles, in which the Austrians were worsted. He
became president of the council of war, and died in 1806.
La Tour (or Latour) d'Auvergne, de, deh Is'tooR'
do'viRfi', (TiiEoi'HiLE MALO CORRKT,) a brave officer,
surnamecl " the first grenadier of France," was born at
Carhaix in 1743. He was eminent for modesty and
generosity. Having become captain about 1789, he re
fused further promotion ; but in 1793 he became com
mander of a division of 8000 grenadiers, which formed
the vanguard of the army of the Pyrenees and was called
"the infernal column." By the rapidity of his move
ments he usually decided the victory before the main
body of the army reached the field of battle. Napoleon
having presented him a sabre inscribed to "the first
grenadier of France," he answered, "Among us soldiers
there is no first nor last." He was killed at the battle of
Oberhausen, in 1800. He learned many languages, and
published "Researches into the Language, Origin, and
Antiquities of the Bretons," (1792.)
See BITHOT DE KKKSERS, " Histoire de La Tour d'Auven;ne,"
1841; CALOHAR, "Notice siir La Tour d'Auvergne," 1841; Roux
DE ROCHELLE, " Nolice sur La Tour d'Auvergne," iSoo; PKIOU,
" Notice surT. M. de La Tour d'Auvergne," 1843; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Latour du Pin Gouvernet, de, deh 15'tooR' du
paN goo'veVni', (JEAN FREDERIC,) Comte de Paulin,
a French general, born at Grenoble in 1727. He was
elected in 1789 to the States-General, and was minister
of war from August, 1789, to November, 1790-. He was
executed in 1794.
Latour - Maubourg, de, deh li'tooK' irm'booR',
(MARIE CHARLES CESAR FAY,) COUNT, a French gene
ral, born in 1758. He was one of the three commis
saries who escorted the king from Varennes to Paris in
1791, after which he was marechal-de-camp in the army
of La Fayette. He escaped with La Fayette in 1792,
and shared his long captivity in Austria. Died in 1831.
Latour - Maubourg, (MARIE VICTOR DE FAY,)
MARQUIS, a general, brother of the preceding, was born
in 1766. Having become a general of division in 1807,
be distinguished himself in Spain and Russia, and lost a
leg at Leipsic, (1813.) He was minister of war about
two years, (1820-21.) Died in 1850.
See A. SAI.A, "Le General de Maubourg," Paris, 1850; " Nou
velle Biographic Generale."
La Tourette. See TOURETTE, DE LA.
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LATREILLE
1379
LAVDERDALE
Latreille, It'tR&I' or It'tki'ye, (PiF.KRE ANDRE,)
eminent French naturalist, surnamed "the Prince
of
Entomology," was born at Brives (La Correze) in 1762.
While a student in the college of Cardinal Lemoine,
Paris, he gained the favour of Abbe Haiiy. In 1786 he
retired to his native province, where he spent all his
leisure in the study of insects, having adopted the pro
fession of a priest. In consequence of the revolutionary
troubles, he abandoned that profession, and applied him
self to his favourite science as his chief business. He
published in 1796 a treatise " On the Generic Characters
of Insects." About 1798 he was employed to arrange
insects in the Museum of Paris, in which position he
remained nearly thirty years. In 1814 he was chosen a
member of the Institute, and in 1829 lie succeeded La
marck as professor of zoology. lie had published "The
Natural History of Ants," (1802,) " The Natural History
of Reptiles," (1802,) "A Memoir on the Sacred Insects
of the Egyptians," and many other works. Latreille was
the author of the entomological part of Cuvier's " Regne
Animal," and of the portion of Buffon's and Sonnini's
work which treats of Crustacea and insects. His capital
work is "The Genera of Crustacea and Insects, arranged
according to the Natural Order," ("Genera Crustaceo-
rum et Insectorum secundum Ordinem naturalem dis-
posita," 4 vols., 1806-09.) Died in 1833.
See " Biographic Medicale ;" QCERARD, " La France Litteraire ;"
V. AunouiN, "Discours prononce sur la Tombe tie M. Latfeille,"
1833; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Monthly Review," vol.
Ivi'.," iSoS, (Appendix.)
La Tremouille. See TRIMOUII.LK, DF. LA.
La Trimouille, de, deli It tRe'mool' or M tRe'moo'ye,
(CLAUDE,) Due, a French Protestant commander, born
in 1566, was a brother-in-law of the prince Henri de
Conde. He distinguished himself at Ivry. Died in 1604.
His son HENRI, born in 1599, became a general in the
service of Louis XIII. His mother was a daughter of
William the Silent, Prince of Orange. Died in 1674.
La'tro, (M. PORCIUS,) a Latin rhetorician, born about
50 B.C., was a friend of Seneca the elder. He had a high
reputation as a declaimer, and was master of a cele
brated school in Rome, where Ovid was his pupil. He
was called by Quintilian "imprimis clari nominis pro
fessor." Died in 4 B.C.
Latrobe, It'tro!/, (BENJAMIN HENRY,) an architect,
born in England in 1763. He emigrated to America in
1795, and was employed as engineer by the State of Vir
ginia. He was architect of the United States Bank in
Philadelphia, and of the first Hall of Representatives at
Washington. Died in 1820.
Latrobe, (CHARLES JOSEPH,) an English traveller,
who visited the United States and Mexico in 1832, pub
lished "The Rambler in North America," (London,
1835,) also entitled "The Rambler in Mexico." It is
commended by Prescott and other competent critics.
See "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1835; "West
minster Review" for January, 1837.
Lattaignant. See ATTAIGNANT, DE L'.
Lattanzio. See LACTANTIUS.
Lattre. See LASSO.
Latude. See MASERS.
Laube, low'beh, (HEINRICH,) a German poet and lit
terateur, born in Silesia in 1806. His "Tales of Travel,"
(" Reisenovellen,") published in 1834, resemble those
of Heine, and are by some critics preferred to them.
Among his other productions we may cite " The Countess
Chateaubriand," a romance, (1843,) "Prinz Friedrich,"
and other dramas, and an interesting work entitled "The
First German Parliament," (3 vols., 1849.)
See "Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
L'Aubespiiie. See AUBESPINE, DE L'.
Laud, lawd, (WILLIAM,) a celebrated Archbishop of
Canterbury, was born at Reading, in Berkshire, in 1573,
and was educated at Oxford. He became one of the chap
lains of the king about 1615, Bishop of Saint David's in
1621, and Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1626. After the
accession of Charles I. he rose rapidly into great influ
ence at court. In 1628 he was translated to the see of
London, and became the chief minister or favourite of
the king. He disgraced himself by the persecution of
the Puritans, and was suspected of a strong bias in favour
of popery. In 1633 he was appointed Archbishop of
Canterbury. "Of all the prelates of the Anglican
Church," says Macaulay, " Laud had departed farthest
from the principles of the Reformation and had drawn
nearest to Rome/' "Of all men then living," says Gar
diner, "he [Laud] was the least fitted to be intrusted
with political power. . . . His thorough belief in the
unbounded efficacy of external forms and institutions,
combined with his complete ignorance of human nature,
would be sufficient to goad to madness any nation which
might be subjected to his control." ("History of Eng
land from 1603 to 1616," vol. ii. chap. x. p. 41.) In 1640
he was impeached by the Commons and committed to
the Tower. After he had been tried for treason, without
obtaining a judicial sentence, the Commons passed an
ordinance for his execution, and he was beheaded in
1645. "His zeal was unrelenting," says Hume, "in the
cause of religion, — that is, in imposing by rigorous meas
ures his own tenets and pious ceremonies on the obsti
nate Puritans, who had profanely dared to oppose him."
See "Life of Laud," by PRYNNE, 1644, HEYLIN, 1671, LAWSON,
1829, BAINES, 1855; WHAKTON, "Troubles and Trial of W. Laud,
to which is prefixed the Diary of his own Life," 1794; HUME, " His
tory of England," chap. lii. ; "Retrospective Review," vol. vii., 1*23.
Laudati, low-da'tee, (GiosEFFO,) an Italian painter
of the Roman school, born at Perugia in 1672, was a
favourite pupil of Carlo Maratta. Died after 1718.
Lau'der, (Sir JOHN,) Lord Fountainhall, an eminent
Scottish lawyer, born in Edinburgh in 1646. He became
a member of Parliament, and opposed the arbitrary
policy of James II. Died in 1722.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Lauder, (ROBERT SCOTT,) a Scottish painter, born
near Edinburgh in 1803. Among his best works are
"The Bride of Lammermuir," "Trial of Effie Deans,"
and other scenes from Scott. He worked mostly in
London and Edinburgh.
Lauder, (Sir THOMAS DICK,) a Scottish author, born
in 1784, inherited a baronetcy from his father, and lived
near Edinburgh. He was one of the early contributors
to " Blackwood's Magazine," and author of various
works, among which are "Lochandhu,"a novel, " High
land Rambles," (1837,) and a "Tour round the Coasts
of Scotland." Died in 1848.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Lauder, (WILLIAM,) a Scotchman, who gained no
toriety by literary impostures designed to prove that
Milton was a plagiarist. In 1751 he published an "Es
say on Milton's Use and Imitation of the Moderns in
his Paradise Lost," in which he charged Milton with
making too free use of the ideas of Grotius and others.
He was convicted of having interpolated in Grotius's
Latin drama " Adamus Exsul" several verses copied
from an obscure version of Milton's poem. He died in
Barbacloes in 1771.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Lau'der-dale', (JAMES MAITLAND,) EARL OF, an able
Scottish Whig statesman, born in 1759, was the son of
the seventh Earl of Lauderdale, and was first styled
Lord Maitland. About 1781 he was elected to the
House of Commons, where he acted as the political
friend of Fox, and in 1787 was chosen one of the man
agers of the impeachment of Hastings. He inherited the
title of earl in 1789, and was chosen one of the Scottish
representative peers in 1790. He favoured the French
republic, and opposed the war against the French which
began in 1793. In 1806 he became a peer of the United
Kingdom, and keeper of the seal of Scotland, and was
He
rote
sent by Mr. Fox to Paris with full powers to negotiate
a peace, but without success. On the fall of the Whig
ministry in 1807 he gave up the seal of Scotland,
died in 1839, leaving his title to his son James. He w
several treatises on finance and political economy.
Lauderdale, (Jonx MAITLAND,) DUKE OF, a British
courtier, born at Lethington in 1616, was a grandson
of John Lord Maitland, Chancellor of Scotland. His
father was first Earl of Lauderdale. He was conspicu
ous among the Scottish insurgents of 1638, and began his
public career as a zealous supporter of the Covenant.
After the restoration of 1660 he became the prime fa
vourite of Charles II., and in 1670 was a member of that
e as k: c as s: g hard; g as/; n, H, K, guttural: N. nasal: R. trilled: s as z: th as in this.
e Explanations, p. 23.)
LAUD IV 10
1380
LAURENCE
corrupt cabinet called the Cabal. "Under the outward
show of boisterous frankness," says Macaulay, " he was
perhaps the most dishonest man in the whole Cabal."
He was created duke in 1672. In 1678 he became min
ister for Scottish affairs, which he managed in a violent
and arbitrary manner. " He had the fortune, beyond
any other minister," says Hume, "to maintain an ascend
ant over Charles II. during the greater part of his reign."
(" History of England.") Died in 1682. As he left no
male issue, his brother inherited the earldom.
See MACAULAY, "History of England;" BURNET, " History of
his Own Time."
Laudivio, low-dee've-o, (ZACCARIA,) an Italian poet,
born near Genoa, lived about 1470. He wrote " Letters
of the Grand Turk," ("Epistolae Magni Turci," 1473,)
often reprinted, and "On the Praises of Wisdom and
Virtue," ("De Laudibus Sapientiae et Virtutis.")
Laudon, von, fon low'don, written also Laudohn
and London, (GIDEON ERNST,) BARON, a famous field-
marshal of the Austrian army, was born in Livonia in
1716. He entered the service of Maria Theresa in 1743,
and for his exploits in several campaigns was rewarded
with the rank of general in 1757. The next year he was
made lieutenant-general, and contributed greatly to the
victory of Hochkirchen over the Prussians. In 1759 he
gained a complete victory at Kunersdorf, where Frederick
the Great commanded in person. He was raised to the
rank of field-marshal in 1778, gained several victories
over the Turks in 1788, and was chosen generalissimo
in 1789. Died in 1790.
See TOLNAY, "Laudon's Ehrendenkmal ;" JOHANN PEZZI,, "Le-
bensgesthichte Laudon's," 1790; FRIKDRICH VON DER TRENCK,
"Denkmai und Trauerrede bei dem Grabe des Feldmarschalls Lau
don," 1790; " Leven en Heldendaden van G. E. van Loudon," 1792.
Lauffer, lowf'fer, ( JAKOB, ) a Swiss historian and
Protestant divine, born at Zoffingen in 1688. He wrote,
in German, a "History of Helvetia," (or Switzerland,)
(" Helvetische Geschichte," 18 vols., 1736-38.) Died
i'11734-
Laugel, lo'zhel', (AUGUSTS,) a French writer, visited
the United States of North America in 1864. He pub
lished a work entitled " The United States during the
War," (" Les fitats-Unis pendant la Guerre," 1866.)
There is a good English translation of it, said to be by
the author.
Laugier, lo'zhe-i', (ANDRE,) an able French chemist,
born in Paris in 1^770. hi 1809 he succeeded Fourcroy
as professor of chemistry in his native city. His lectures
were published with the title of " Cours de Chimie gene-
rale," (3 vols., 1828.) He excelled in chemical analysis,
and wrote numerous memoirs on the analysis of minerals.
Died in 1832.
See P. J. ROBIQUET, " Notice bistorique sur A. Laugier," 1832;
" Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale. "
Laugier, (ERNEST,) an astronomer, a son of the
preceding, bom in Paris in 1812, obtained in 1841 the
Lalande medal for the discovery of a comet and the cal
culation of its orbit.
Laugier, (JEAN NICOLAS,) a French engraver, born
at Toulon in 1785, worked in Paris. Among his works
are "Leonidas at Thermopylae," and "Trance of Saint
Paul," after Poussin.
Laugier, (MARC ANTOINE, ) a French writer and
priest, born at Manosque in 1713. He preached in sev
eral pulpits of Paris, and afterwards obtained the abbey
of Ribeaute in 1757. He published, besides other works,
a successful "Essay on Architecture," (1753-55,) anc' a
"History of Venice," (12 vols., 1759-68,) which was the
best which had appeared until that of Daru was pub
lished in 1819. Died in 1769.
__ Laugier, de, deh 15'zhe-i', (CESAR DE BELLECOUR,)
COUNT, a general, was born in the isle of Elba in 1789.
He is ranked among the best military writers of Italy.
In May, 1848, he obtained the chief command of the Tus
can corps raised to fight against Austria. With about
5000 men he resisted 30,000 Austrians for six hours near
Mantua. He was minister of war under Leopold II. in
1850 and 1851. Among his works is "Annals and Vicis
situdes of the Italian Peoples from 1801 to 1815," (13
vols., 1829-32.)
Laujon, lo'zhoN', (PIERRE,) a French poet, born in
Paris in 1727. He composed admired songs and lyrical
dramas. In 1807 he was chosen a member of the Insti
tute. Died in 1811.
See " Monthly Review," vol. Ixviii., 1812, (Appendix.)
Lauman, law'man, or Lan'man, (JACOB G.,) an
American general, born in Maryland in 1813. He com
manded a brigade at the battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7,
1862, and a division at the siege of Vicksburg, June and
July, 1863.
Laumoiit, de, deh IO'IYION', (FRANgois PIERRE NI
COLAS Gillet — zhe'yi',) a French mineralogist, born in
Paris in 1747. He discovered several minerals, and
wrote memoirs which were printed in the " Annales des
Mines" and other journals. Died in 1834.
Launay, de, deh lo'n^', (FRANgois,) a French jurist,
born at Angers in 1612. He was professor of French
law at the College Royal, and published several legal
works. Died in 1693
Launay, de, (PIERRE,) a French Protestant theo
logian, born at Blois in 1573. He received the title of
counsellor to the king, and taught Greek gratis at the
Academy of Saumur. He wrote a " Paraphrase on the
Epistles of Saint Paul," (2 vols., 1650,) and other com
mentaries on Scripture, which were highly esteemed.
Died in 1661.
Launey, de, deh lo'n.V, (BERNARD RENE JOURDAN,)
the last governor of the Bastille, was born in Paris in
1740, and became governor in 1776. The storming of
that state prison by the populace, being the first violent
symptom of the Revolution, has rendered his name
historical. On the I4th of July, 1789, he repulsed the
insurgents for several hours with cannon and other
guns, and attempted to blow up the building by firing
the magazine, but was prevented. He was massacred
immediately after the capture of the place.
Launey, (EMMANUEL DE.) See ENTRAIGUES, D'.
Launoi or Launoius. See LAUNOY.
Launoy or Launoi, de, deh If/nwa', [Lat. LAUNO'-
ius,] (JEAN,) a French doctor of the Sorbonne, born near
Valogne in 1603, had a high reputation for learning. In
1643 he was chosen royal censor of books. lie published,
besides many works on theology, a " History of the Col
lege of Navarre," (1677,) and defended the liberties of
the Gallican Church against the pretensions of the court
of Rome. He was noted for his zeal and sagacity in
expunging the names of spurious saints from the calen
dar, and was said to have dethroned more saints than
ten popes had canonized. Died in 1678.
See BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
"Memoires ;" J. REISER, "J. Launoius Tbeologus," etc., 1685.
Laura. See NOVES, DE, and PETRARCH.
Laura, (FILIPPO.) See LAURI.
Lauraguais, de, deh lo'rf'gi', (Louis LEON FELI-
crr£,) COMTE, Due de Brancas, an eccentric Prench
nobleman, born at Versailles in 1733. lie patronized
literature and science, and by his chemical experiments
associated his name with those of Lavoisier and Daicet.
He wrote many political treatises. Died in 1824.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Laurati. See LORENZETTI, (PIETRO.)
Laurati, low-ra'tee,(PiETRO,) an Italian fresco-painter,
born at Sienna in 1282; died in 1340.
Laurel. See LAURELIUS.
Laurelius, low-rii'le-us, or Laurel, low'rel, (Oi.Atis,)
a Swedish theologian, born in West Gothland in 1585.
He became Bishop of Westerns in 1647. He published,
besides other works, a "System of Theology," (1641,)
which was esteemed a standard work. Died in 1670.
Laurenberg, low'ren-beRo', or Lauremberg, low'-
rern-be'Ro', (JOHANN,) a poet and philologist, born at
Rostock in 1590. He ranked high among the poets of
his time. Among his works are four poetical satires,
(1652-70,) and "Grsecia Antiqua," a description of
ancient Greece, (1661.) Died in 1658.
Laurenberg, (PETER,) a botanist and anatomist, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Rostock about
1575. He became professor at Rostock in 1624, and
published several works on anatomy. Died in 1639.
Lau'rence or Law'rence, (Dr. FRENCH,) an eminent
English civilian and author, born at Bristol, graduated
at Oxford about 1780. "He was, "says Lord Brougham,
" one of the most able, most learned, and most upright
a. e, T, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon;
LAURENCE
1381
LAUZUN
men that ever adorned the legal profession. . . . He
united in himself the indefatigable labour of a Dutch
commentator with the alternate playfulness and sharp
ness of a Parisian wit.'' He was a member of Parlia
ment about twenty years. About 1797 he was chosen
professor of civil law at Oxford. He was the intimate
friend and executor of Edmund Burke. He wrote some
of the "Probationary Odes," and contributed largely to
the epigrams and satires, in prose and verse, of "The
Kolliad." Died in 1809.
Laurence, (RICHARD,) a brother of the preceding,
was born at Bath in 1760. lie became professor of
Hebrew at Oxford in 1814, and Archbishop of Cashel
in 1822. Died in 1838.
Laurencin, de, deh 16'rS.N'sax', QEAN ESPERANCE
ELAN DINK,) COMTE, a French poet, born near Valence
in :733 ; d'ed in 1812.
Laurens. See Du LACK ENS.
Lau'rens, (!!KNRY,) an American statesman, born at
Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. Soon after the
breaking out of the Revolution he was elected a dele
gate to the General Congress, of which he subsequently
became president, in November, 1777. While on his
voyage as ambassador to the Hague, in 1780, he was
taken by the British and imprisoned for fourteen months
in the Tower of London. In conjunction with Franklin
and Jay, he afterwards signed the preliminaries to a treaty
with England, November, 1782. Died in 1792.
See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
Laureus, (JOHN,) an American patriot and soldier,
born in South Carolina about 1756, was a son of the
preceding. He entered the army early in 1777, became
an aide-de-camp to Washington, and was wounded at
Germantown. It is stated that he distinguished him
self in every action of the army which Washington
commanded. He was an intimate friend of General
Hamilton. In 1781 he was sent to France on a special
mission, for which he was selected by Washington. He
was successful, and returned in time to take part in
the victory at Yorktown, October, 1781. He was killed
in a battle on the Combahee River, South Carolina,
in August, 1782. Colonel Laurens is represented as
having been a man of rare endowments, as blending in
harmonious union the character of a gallant officer, a
fine scholar, and an accomplished gentleman.
Laurent. See LAWRENCE, SAINT.
Laurent, 15'roN', (AUGUSTS,) a French chemist, born
near Langres in 1807. He became assayer of the mint
at Paris in 1848, and wrote a "Method of Chemistry,"
(1854.) Died in 1853.
Laurent, (PAUL MARIE,) a French historian, born in
Ardeche in 1793. His principal work is a "History of
Napoleon," with 500 designs by Horace Vernet, (9 vols.,
1838-42.)
Laurent, (PIERRE.) a skilful French engraver, born
at Marseilles in 1739, worked in Paris. He excelled in
landscapes and animals, and published engravings of
the master-pieces of the Louvre. Died in 1809.
Laurent, (PIERRE JOSEPH,) a skilful Flemish mecha
nician, born at Bordeaux in 1715. He was appointed
director of the canals of Flanders at the age of twenty-
one, and gained reputation by the junction of the Somme
with the Scheldt. He was very skilful in the fabrication
of artificial limbs. Died in 1773.
Laurentie, lo'rfiN'te', (PIERRE SEBASTIEN,) a French
historical and political writer, born at Houga (Gers) in
1793. He edited several royalist journals in Paris, and
published "Studies, Literary and Moral, on the Latin
Historians," (2 vols., 1822,) and a " History of France,"
(1841-43.)
Laurentius, (JOANNES.) See LYDUS.
Laurentius, (LYDUS.) See LYDUS.
Laurentzen, low'rent-zen, or Lorentsen, lo'rent-
sen, (JoHAN,) a Danish historical writer, born at Ribe.
He wrote on Danish history, and produced a Danish
version of the Bible, (1719.) Died about 1728.
Lauretti, low-ret'tee, or Laureti, low-ra'tee, (ToM-
MASO,) an Italian painter, born at Palermo, worked at
Rome for Gregory XIII., and became president of the
Academy of Saint Luke. His pictures of" Brutus Judging
his Sons" and " Horatius Codes Defending the Bridge"
were much admired. Died about 1600, aged eighty.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, "History of
Painting in Italy."
Lauri, low'ree, (BALTHASAR,) a Flemish landscape-
painter, born at Antwerp about 1570; died at Rome in
1642.
Lauri or Laura, low'ra, (FiLiPPO,) an eminent painter
of history and landscapes, son of the preceding, was born
in Rome in 1623. Filippo painted in preference small
cabinet pictures which were remarkable for imagination
and spirit. He also painted figures for the landscapes
of Claude Lorrain. His design and composition are
highly commended by E. Breton in the "Nouvelle
Biographic Ge'nerale." Died in 1694. His brother
FRANCESCO was a promising artist when he died in
1635, aged twenty-five.
See LANZI. " History of Painting in Italy."
Lauria, (ROGER DE.) See LORIA.
Lauriere. de, deh 16're-aiR', (EusEBE JACOB,) a pro
found French jurist, born in Paris in 1659. He was
thoroughly versed in legal science, and attained grent
proficiency in literature. Among his numerous works
are "The Origin of the Law of Amortizement," (1692,)
and " Library of Common Law," (" Bibliotheque des
Coutumes," 1699.) Died in 1728.
See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Laurillard, lo're'ySu', (CHARLES LEOPOLD,) a French
naturalist and artist, born at Montbeliard in 1783, was a
pupil of Cuvier, who employed him in the execution of
his anatomical designs. He published "The Mammifera
and Human Races," (1849.) Died in 1853.
Laurimanus. See LAUWKRMAN.
Lauristou, de, deh lo'res'tiN', (JACQUES ALEXAN-
DRE BERNARD LAW,) MARQUIS, a marshal of France,
was born in India in 1768, and was great-nephew of
John Law, the famous projector. In 1800 he became
aide-de-camp to Bonaparte, and served at the battle of
Marengo. lie was made a general of brigade in 1802,
general of division in 1805, and governor-general of
Venice in 1807. Having received the title of count,
as commander of the artillery of the imperial guard, he
took part in several victories over the Austrians in 1809.
He was sent as ambassador to Russia in 1811, and com
manded a corps in the campaign of 1813. He was created
a marquis in 1817, became minister of the royal house
hold in 1821, received a marshal's baton in 1823, and
was appointed minister of state in 1824. Died in 1828.
See DE COURCELI.ES, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Fran^ais :"
"Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Lauro, low'ro, (GIOYANNI BATTISTA,) a modern Latin
poet, born at Perugia in 1581 ; died at Rome in 1629.
Laus du Ferret. See DUPERRET.
Lauterbach, low'ter-baK', (WOLFGANG ADAM,) a
German jurist, born in 1618, wrote a work on the Pan
dects, (3 or 4 vols., 1690-1714.) Died in 1678.
Lauth, lot, (ALEXANDRE,) a skilful French anatomist,
born at Strasbourg in 1803. He published a "Manual
for the Anatomist," (1829,) and other able professional
works. Died in 1837.
Lautrec, 15'tReV, (ODET DE Foix,) MARSHAL, a
brave French general, was a cousin of Gaston de Foix.
He was wounded at Ravenna in 1512. Just after Con
stable Bourbon had resigned the command, Francis I.
appointed Lautrec his lieutenant-general in Italy, (1516.)
He was defeated at Bicoque in 1522, and fought by the
side of Francis I. at Pavia in 1525. In 1527 he resumed
command of the army in Italy, and was besieging Naples,
when he died of fever in 1528.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Frangais."
LauwermanJow'er-man'.ILat. LAURIMA'NUS,](COR-
NELIS,) a Dutch teacher and Latin poet, born at Utrecht
about 1520; died in 1573.
Lauzun, Due DE. See BIRON, (ARMAND Louis DE.)
Lauzun, de, deh IO'ZU.N', (ANTOINE NOMPAR DE
CAUMONT,) DUKE, a French courtier and general, whose
life presents remarkable vicissitudes, was born in Gascony
in 1632. He became a favourite of Louis XIV., who
gave him a high rank in the army before he had merited
it by services. In 1671 he commanded the army which
€ as. k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23. )
1382
LA VERNE
accompanied the king to Flanders. He was engaged to
Anna Maria, Duchess of Montpensier, a granddaughter
of Henry IV., but the match was broken off, and, having
incurred the enmity of Madame Montespan, he was im
prisoned from 1671 to 1681, when his penalty was com
muted into exile from court. It is supposed that he was
secretly married to the lady first above named. When
the throne and person of James II. of England were
menaced by revolution, (1688,) that king confided his
wife and son to Lau/un, who escorted them to Paris
and by that service regained the favour of Louis XIV.
He commanded the French army sent to Ireland to fight
for James II., was defeated at the battle of the Boyne in
1690, and returned to France about the end of that year.
Died in 1723. "His life was like a romance," said La
Bruyere, "except that it lacked probability."
See LA BRUYERE, " Caracteres;" SAINT-SIMON, " Me'moires ;"
DANGEAU, "Journal ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" DKLORT,
" Histoire cle la Detention de Fouquet, de Pellisson et de Lauzun,"
3vols., 1829; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1822.
Laval, It'vSK, (ANNE ADRIEN PIKRRE DE MONT-
MOKENCY,) Due de Laval, born in Paris in 1768, was
the son of the Due cle Laval. He was sent as ambas
sador to Spain in 1814, to Rome about 1820, and to
Vienna in 1828. In 1829 he was transferred to the court
of Saint James. Died in 1837.
Lavalette, de, deh lit'vi'leY, (Pere ANTOINE,) a
French Jesuit, born in 1707. He was chosen superior-
general of the missions of South America in 1754. He
engaged in mercantile speculations which resulted in a
disgraceful bankruptcy. This affair was one of the
causes or pretexts of the abolition of the order of Jesuits
in France in 1762.
Lavalette, de, (CHARLES JEAN MARIE FELIX,) MAR
QUIS, a French diplomatist, born at Senlis in 1806. He
was minister-plenipotentiary to the Sublime Porte from
1851 to 1853, and was raised to the dignity of senator in
the latter year. In 1865 he was appointed minister of
the interior. He became minister of foreign affairs in
December, 1868.
La Valette, de,( JEAN PARISOT.) See VALETTE, DE LA.
Lavalette, de, (MARIE CHAMANS,) COUNT, a favour
ite officer and minister of Bonaparte, was born in Paris
in 1769. He entered the army in 1792, and obtained
the grade of captain at Arcola in 1796. Soon after this
date, Bonaparte employed him in important missions,
and gave him for his svife fimilie de Beauharnais, a
niece of Josephine. During the Egyptian campaign
(1798) he was one of Bonaparte's favourite attendants.
In 1800 he was called to preside over the post-office
department, first with the title of commissary, and soon
after with that of director-general. At the restoration
of 1814 he retired to private life, but on the return of
Napoleon from Elba he resumed his functions as post
master-general on the 2oth of March, 1815. In the same
year he was arrested by the agents of Louis XVIII. and
condemned to death. Just before the day of execution,
Madame Lavalette visited him in prison, and remained
in his place while he escaped disguised in her dress. By
the aid of Sir R. Wilson and other Englishmen, he
reached Flanders safely. He was pardoned by the king
in 1822, and died in 1830, leaving two volumes of me
moirs of his life, (1831.) He wife was tried and ac
quitted, but became permanently insane in consequence
of the exertion and excitement.
See LAVALETTE, " Me'moires et Souvenirs," 2 vols., 1831, and
" Notice btographique sur le Comte de La Valette," Paris, 1830.
La Vallee, IS vt'li', (JOSEPH,) Marquis de Bois-Ro-
bert, a French writer, born at Dieppe in 1747. Among
his works is a piquant journal called " Semaines cri
tiques," (4 vols., 1797.) Died in London in 1816.
See the "Monthly Review," vol. Ixxxv., 1818, (Appendix.)
Lavallee, (THEOPHILE SEBASTIKN,) a French histo
rian, born in Paris in 1804. He published a " History
of the French from the Time of the Gauls to 1830," (3
vols., 1839; loth edition, 1854,) and other works.
See the "Monthly Review," vol. Ixxxiv., 1817, (Appendix.)
La Valliere. See VALLIERE, DE LA.
Lavardiu, de, deh IS'vttR'daN', MARSHAL, a French
general, whose proper name was JEAN DE BEAUMANOIR,
was born in Maine in 1551. He fought as second in
command of the Catholic army at Coutras in 1578, but
entered the service of Henry IV. in 1595, and was
then made a marshal of France. He was riding in the
carriage with the king when the latter was assassinated
in 1610. Died in 1614.
Lavardin, de, (HENRI CHARLES DE BEAUMANOIR,)
MARQUIS, was a great-grandson of the preceding. In
1687 he was sent as ambassador to Rome, with a large
retinue of armed men, for the purpose of maintaining a
claim to certain privileges or franchises which the pope
refused to grant. (See INNOCENT XI.) Lavardin en
tered Rome as a victor at the head of an army, but was
excommunicated, and returned to France in 1689. Died
in 1701.
Lavater, la'va-ter or iS'vt'taiR', (Jonx CASPAR,) a
celebrated Protestant minister and writer on physiog
nomy, born at Zurich in 1741. He was educated for the
church, which profession was congenial to his character.
In 1763 he made a journey to Berlin with Henry Fuseli
the artist. lie produced in 1767 his admirable "Swiss
Songs," and in 1768 an ingenious work entitled "Pros
pects into Eternity," ("Aussichte in die Ewigkeit.") He
was ordained a deacon in 1769, and a few years later
became pastor of a church in Zurich. His sermons
were much admired, and widely diffused by the press ;
but he was censured by some for a tendency to paradox,
superstition, and mystical theology. In 1775-78 he pub
lished, in German, his celebrated "Physiognomic Frag
ments for the Promotion of the Knowledge and Love
of Mankind," (" Physiognoinischen Fragmente x.ur ]>e-
fdrderung der Menschenkenntniss und Menschenliebe,"
4 vols.) This is the result of multiplied and curious
observations generalized into an ingenious system, lie
was the author of numerous religious and moral works
in prose and verse, among which are "Pontius Pilau-,"
(1782,) and two poems, "The Messiah" (4 vols., 1783-86)
and "The Human Heart," (1789.) lie was a friend of
Goethe, with whom he corresponded. In the commo
tions which followed the French Revolution he displayed
courage and firmness in opposing the French party,
(though not with carnal weapons ;) and at the capture
of Zurich by Massena, in September, 1799, he was shot
in the street by a soldier. After suffering from the wound
more than a year, he died in 1801. His character was
eminently honest and noble. "Lavater's spirit," says
Goethe, in his Autobiography, "was altogether im
posing. Near him, you could not resist his decided in
fluence ; and I had to submit to observing brow and
nose, eyes and mouth, in detail, and to weighing their
relations and proportions to each other. . . . Many
times in my after-life I had occasion to think about this
man, who is one among the most excellent with whom I
have ever attained to so intimate a relation."
See MEISTH:R, "J. C. Lavater," 1802; GESSNER, "Lavater's
Lebensbeschreibung," 3 vols., 1802; GOETHE, " Briefe an Lavater,"
1833: lioDEMANN, "Life of Lavater," 1856: P. I. HEISCH, "Me
moirs of J. C. Lavater." London, 1842; C. L. HAI.I.ER, " Denkmal
auf Lavater," 1801 ; F. W. JUNG, " Erinnerungen an Lavater," 1812;
F. HERBST, "Lavater nach seinem Leben und Wirken," 1832.
Lavater, (Louis,) a Swiss Protestant clergyman, born
in 1527. He lived in Zurich, and wrote many theological
and other works, among which is a curious treatise on
spectres, apparitions, etc., (1570.) Died in 1586.
Laveaux, If vo',( JEAN CHARLES THIBAULT,) a French
grammarian, born at Troyes in 1749. He published,
besides other works, a " Dictionary of the French Lan
guage," (1826.) Died in 1827.
Lavergne, de, deh lt'v<\Rn', (Louis GABRIEL LEONCE
Guilhaud — ge'15',) a French economist and writer, born
at Bergerac in 1809. Among his works are a "Memoir
on the Rural Economy of France," (1857,) and many
important articles in the " Revue des Deux Mor.des"
on Spanish history, literature, etc.
La-ver'iia, [Fr. LAVERNE, It'veRn',] in Roman my
thology, was regarded as the patroness of thieves and
impostors.
Laverne. See LAVERNA.
La Verne, de, deh 15 VCRU, (LEGER MARIE PHILIPPE
Tranchant — trftN'shox',) COMTE, a French tactician
and writer on the art of war, born near Vesoul in 1769.
Among his works is a "History of General Suwarow,"
(1809.) Died in 1815.
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m5t; not; good; moOn;
1383
LAWES
Laves, love's, (GEORG LUDWIG FRIEDRICH,) an emi
nent German architect, and chief director of buildings
for the kingdom of Hanover, was born at Uslar in 1789.
In 1852 he finished the new theatre at Hanover, which is
regarded as his best work.
Lavigne, de, deh iS'ven', (ANNE,) a French poetess,
born at Vernon, in Normandy; died in 1684.
La Ville de Mirmont, de, deh la" vel deh meR'moN',
(ALEXANDRE JEAN JOSEPH,) a French dramatic poet,
born at Versailles in 1782. His drama " Le Li be re"
(1835) gained the Montyon prize of the French Acad
emy. Died in 1845.
La Villemarque, de, deh IS vel'mt R'ki', (THEODORE
CLAUDE HENRI Hersart — heR'saV,) VICOMTE, a French
philologist, born at Quitnperle in 1815. He published
"The Popular Songs of Bretagne," (1839,) with a French
version, and other works.
Lav'ing-toii, (GEORGE,) a learned English prelate,
born in Wiltshire in 1683. He became a canon of Saint
Paul's, London, in 1732, and Bishop of Exeter in 1747.
He published, besides sermons, " The Enthusiasm of the
Methodists and Papists Compared." Died in 1762.
La-vin'I-a, [Fr. LAVINIE, If've'ne',] a daughter of
Latinns, King of Latium, and his wife Amata, who
promised her to Tnrnns. She was married to /Eneas
instead of Turnus because an oracle had declared that
she should be the wife of a foreign prince. She was the
mother of /Eneas Sylvius.
See VIRGIL, "/Eneid," book vii.
Lavinie. See LAVINIA.
Lavocat, If vo'kt', (ANTOINE,) a French mechanician
and inventor, born near Nancy in 1707; died in 1788.
Lavoisier, iS'vwa'ze-i', (ANTOINE LAURENT,) an
illustrious French chemical philosopher, and the chief
founder of modern chemistry, was born in Paris on the
26th of August, 1743. After leaving the College Maza-
rin, where he obtained high honours, he pursued with
zeal the study of astronomy, mathematics, and especially
chemistry. In 1766 he gained the prize offered by the
Academy of Sciences in 1763 for an improved method
of lighting the streets of Paris, and in 1768 was chosen
an associate of that institution. About this period he
entered the public service as farmer-general, in order to
obtain the funds required for his scientific researches,
to which he devoted the greater part of his time. He
acquired durable celebrity by the discovery of a new
chemical theory of combustion, (called the anti-phlo
gistic,) which was partially developed in 1773 in a work
entitled "Physical and Chemical Essays," ("Opuscules
physiques et chimiques,") and which forms a great epoch
in the science of chemistry. In a memoir which he read
to the Academy in 1775, he announced that calcination
and combustion are the results of the union of a "highly
respirable gas" (oxygen) with combustible bodies, and
soon after proposed the theory that the heat produced
during combustion was disengaged from that respirable
air. "" These two propositions," says Cuvier, "belong
to Lavoisier in his own right, and form the basis and
fundamental character of the new chemical theory." In
1776 he was appointed to superintend the fabrication of
saltpetre and gunpowder, of which he greatly improved
the quality. Co-operating with other French chemists, he
rendered an important service by reforming the chemical
nomenclature, and published in 1787 " Method of Chemi
cal Nomenclature," (" Methode de Nomenclature chi-
mique,") in which a simple, systematic, and expressive
terminology was substituted for the absurd or fanciful
terms of "the alchemists. He displayed his admirable
talent for explaining the truths which he had discovered
in his "Elementary Treatise on Chemistry," ("Traite
elementaire de Chimie," 2 vols., 1789.) He invented the
pneumatic cistern, che gasometer, and other chemical
apparatus. His glorious career was prematurely closed
by an unjust suspicion against the farmers of the revenue,
although in this service he had acquitted himself with
great honour and success. In the reign of terror La
voisier and many of his colleagues were condemned to
death on frivolous charges, one of which was that they
moistened with water the tobacco of which they had the
monopoly. His request for a respite of a few days, in
order to finish some important experiments, was refused
and he was executed in May, 1794. About that time he
liad published two volumes of a large and important
ivork on chemical philosophy, entitled "Memoires de
Chimie," which remained unfinished.
See article on Lavoisier, by CUVIER, in the " Biographie Univer-
selle ;" FOURCROY, " Notice sur Lavoisier," 1796; J. J. LE FRANCOIS
DE LAI.ANDE, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Lavoisier,"
1796: DR. F. HOEFER, article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale;" KIREEVSKY, " HistoiredesLegislateurs-Chimistes : Lavoisier,
Berthollet, H. Davy," 1845.
Law, (EDMUND,) D.D., an eminent English metaphy
sician, born in Lancashire in 1703, was the father of Lord
Ellenborongh. He was educated at Cambridge, and,
while a student there, published a translation of King's
" Essay on the Origin of Evil," with notes, and an " En
quiry into the Ideas of Space and Time." He became
rector of Graystock, Cumberland, in 1737, and arch
deacon of Carlisle in 1743. Soon after this date appeared
his admired "Reflections on the Life and Character of
Christ." He was appointed master of Peter-House,
Cambridge, about 1755, professor of casuistry in 1764,
and prebendary of Durham in 1767. In 1769 he was
made Bishop of Carlisle. He published in 1777 an
edition of the works of Locke, with a life of the author,
of whom he was a disciple. He belonged to the rational
and liberal school of theology. Died in 1787.
Law, (EDWARD.) See ELLEN is OROI;C.I.
Law, (JoiiN,) of Lauriston, a famous Scottish pro
jector and financier, was born at Edinburgh in 1671,
and inherited an estate called Lauriston. About 1694
he went to London, where, by means of his handsome
figure and graceful address, he gained admission into
fashionable society, and supported himself by gaming.
Having killed a man in a duel, he fled to the continent,
where he followed the trade of a gambler with great
success in Paris, Venice, Genoa, etc. About 1715 he
persuaded the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France, to
favour a scheme by which he promised to greatly im
prove the financial condition of the kingdom. In 1716
he obtained a charter for a general bank of issue and
discount, under the name of Law & Company. In
connection with this bank he formed the Mississippi
Company, with a capital of one hundred million francs,
and with the exclusive right of the trade between France
and Louisiana, China, India, etc. The stock of these
companies was bought up with avidity, and the former
was soon erected into the Royal Bank, with the privilege
of coining gold and silver. The hope of enormous profits
infatuated the public so generally that the stock of the
company rose to twenty times its original value. In
January, 1720, Law was appointed contrSleur-general of
finances, (i.e. prime minister.) The fall of his baseless
fabric was sudden and ruinous in 1720, when the public
confidence began to fail, and the notes of his bank fell
to one-tenth of the nominal value. Law was compelled
to leave France; and he died poor at Venice in 1729.
His system is often called the " South Sea Bubble."
VIAL, "J. Law et le Systeme du Papier-Monnaie de 1716," 1849;
J. HEYMANN, "Law und sein System," 1853; CHAMBERS, "Bio
graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Law, (WILLIAM,) a pious and mystical English au
thor, born at King's Cliff, Northamptonshire, in 1686.
He became a Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge,
but forfeited his fellowship by refusing to take the re
quired oath at the accession of George I. in 1714. He
lived some years as tutor in the family of Gibbon, (father
of the historian,) to whom he was related, and was after
wards chaplain to Miss Hester Gibbon at King's Cliff.
He adopted the mystical doctrines of Jacob Bohme, (or
Behmen,) which he inculcated in his "Way to Know
ledge," "Spirit of Love," and "Letters." Mr. Law
published many other works, of which the most popular
is his "Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life," (1729.)
This was praised by Dr. Johnson and by Gibbon. " In
mere dialectical skill," says Macaulay, "he had very few
superiors." Died in 1761.
See RICHARD TIGHK, "The Life and Writings of the Rev. Wil
liam Law," 1813.
Lawes, lawz, (HENRY,) an eminent English composer,
born probably at Salisbury in 1600. He was one of the
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2IT"See Explanations, p. 23.)
LAWES
LAWRENCE
gentlemen of the royal chapel, and clerk of the cheque
to Charles I., in whose service he continued until 1649.
He composed the music for Milton's "Comus," (per
formed in 1634,) in which the poet compliments him as
one
" Whose artful strains have oft de'ayed
The huddling brook to hear his madrigal,
And sweetened every musk-rose of the dale."
In 1653 he published " Ayres and Dialogues," consisting
of songs, duets, and trios. " Milton probably took lessons
[in music] from him." (Masson.) Died in 1662.
Lawes, (WILLIAM,) a brother of the preceding, was
a skilful musician and composer, and was one of the
gentlemen of the royal chapel. lie fought for the king
in the civil war, and was killed at Chester in 1645. He
composed music for Sandys's paraphrase of the 1'salms,
and many other works.
Law'less, (JoHN,) an Irish agitator and orator, born
in Dublin in 1772, was often called "honest Jack Law
less." Died in London in 1837.
See THOMAS McGEE, " Sketches of O'Connell and his Friends."
Lawless, (VALENTINE.) See CLONCURRY.
Law'rance, (JoHN,) a judge, born in Cornwall, Eng
land, in 1750. lie emigrated in 1767 to the city of New
York, where he practised law, and rose to distinction in
his profession. He was a delegate to the Congress of
the Confederation in 1785-87, and represented the city
of New York in the Congress of the United States from
1789 to 1793. In 1794 he was appointed a judge of the
district court for New York. He was elected a Senator
of the United States for New York in 1796, and resigned
his seat in 1800. He was a Federalist, and a personal
friend of Alexander Hamilton. Died in 1810.
Law'reiice, (AnnoTT,) an eminent American mer
chant and philanthropist, born in Groton, Massachusetts,
in 1792. As the partner of his brother, Amos Law
rence, he acquired a large fortune, a portion of which
was invested by them in the cotton-factories of Lowell,
which owes its prosperity chiefly to these enterprising
merchants. He was elected to Congress in 1839, and in
1843 was appointed one of the commissioners to settle
the northeast boundary question with Great Britain. He
was United States minister to England in 1849. He
died in 1855. Among his numerous and munificent do
nations was that of $100,000 to Harvard University to
found the scientific school called by his name. He also
bequeathed the sum of $50,000 towards erecting model
lodging-houses.
See APPLETON, " Life of Abbott Lawrence;" HUNT, "Lives of
American Merchants."
Lawrence, (AMOS,) a distinguished philanthropist,
brother of the preceding, was born at Groton, Massa
chusetts, in 1786. Having acquired an immense fortune
as a merchant, he spent a great part of it in various
charities and donations to public institutions ; and the
amount of his benefactions is estimated at $700,000.
Among the colleges to which he gave large sums were
Kenyon College, Ohio, Williams College, and the Theo
logical Seminary at Bangor, Maine. He died in 1852,
and his "Life and Correspondence" was published by
his son in 1855.
Law'rence, (Sir HENRY MONTGOMERY,) an English
officer, born in Ceylon in 1806, served with distinction
in the campaigns of the Sutlej. He was appointed presi
dent of the board of government in the Punjaub about
1850, and chief commissioner of Oucle in 1857. He
rendered important service by the defence of Lucknow
against the mutinous Sepoys, and was killed during the
siege of that city in July, 1857.
See J. W. KAYE, "Lives of Indian Officers," London, 1867;
" Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1857; "North British Review"
for May, 1860.
Lawrence, (JAMES,) an American naval officer, of
distinguished bravery, born at Burlington, New Jersey,
in 1781. He served under Commodore Decatur in the
Mediterranean, and was afterwards appointed succes
sively to the command of the Vixen, the Wasp, the Argus,
and the Hornet. In 1813 he captured the Peacock from
the British after a short engagement, and was soon after
made post-captain, and commander of the frigate Ches
apeake. On the ist of June, 1813, he encountered near
Boston the British frigate Shannon, and after a severe
contest, in which he was mortally wounded, his vessel
was boarded and taken by the English. It was on this
occasion that he uttered the memorable words, "Don't
give up the ship." The remains of Captain Lawrence
were subsequently removed to Trinity church-yard,
where a monument has been erected to him. He left a
widow and two children. He had been in command of
the Chesapeake only a few days, and was a stranger to
the crew, who were not well disciplined.
Lawrence, (JoHN,) an English agriculturist, born at
Colchester in 1756, became a merchant in London, lie
published a "Philosophical and Practical Treatise on
I forses," and several treatises on rural economy. Died
about 1836.
Lawrence, (Sir JOHN LAIKD MAIR,) an English
administrator of great ability, a brother of Sir Henry M.
Lawrence, was born in 1810. He entered the civil service
of the East India Company about 1830, and became chief
commissioner of the Punjaub soon after the conquest of
that country. He was knighted for his services in the
suppression of the mutiny of 1857, and was appointed
Governor-General of India in November, 1863.
See " Rlackwood's Magazine" for April, May, and June, 1869;
" Hritish Quarterly Review" for July, 1869.
Lawrence, (JONATHAN,) an American poet and law
yer, born in New York in 1807. He died in 1833, leaving
a number of poems and prose essays.
See GRISWOI.D, " Poets and Poetry of America."
Law'rence, [Lat. LAUREN'TIUS; Fr. LAURENT, 15'-
roN1'; It. LORENZO, lo-rSn'xo ; Ger. LORENZ, lo'rcnts,]
SAINT, a martyr, born in Rome in the third century,
was in 257 appointed by Pope Sixtus treasurer of the
Church. In consequence of edicts issued against the
Christians by Valerian, he suffered martyrdom in 258.
It is said he was burned to death on a gridiron.
See MRS. JAMESON, "Sacred and Legendary Art."
Lawrence, (STRINGER,) an English general, born in
1697, commanded in India for many years. Died in 1775.
Lawrence, (THOMAS,) an eminent English physician,
born in Westminster in 1711. lie became a Fellow of
the College of Physicians in 1744, and was president of
the same from 1767 to 1774. He wrote a "Life of Wil
liam Harvey," and several medical treatises in Latin.
He was an intimate friend of Dr. Johnson. Died in 1783.
Lawrence, (Sir THOMAS,) a celebrated English por
trait-painter, born at Bristol in 1769. His artistic talents
were marvellously developed in early childhood, when
he was also remarkable for his memory, musical voice,
and personal beauty. It is stated that he drew with a
crayon accurate likenesses of eminent persons about the
age of six years. In 1782 he became a pupil of Prince
Iloare at Bath, and soon acquired the grace, inspiration,
and delicacy of manner which rendered him unrivalled
among contemporary English artists in the expression
of female beauty. He removed to London in 1787, and
was admitted as an associate of the Royal Academy in
1791. In 1792 he succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds as
first painter to the king. From that time he was abun
dantly patronized at the rate of one hundred guineas for
a full-length portrait. In 1797 he painted a portrait of
Mrs. Siddons, which is one of his master-pieces. Be
tween 1814 and 1820 he painted, by order of the prince-
regent, the King of Prussia, the Emperor of Austria,
Pope Pius VII., Wellington, and many famous generals
and statesmen. He received the honour of knighthood
in 1815, and visited Vienna and Rome in 1819. On the
death of Benjamin West, in 1820, Sir Thomas was elected
president of the Royal Academy. Died in 1830. He
excelled in the art of imparting ideal beauty to his sub
jects without departing from the reality. Among his
master-pieces are portraits of Benjamin West, John
Kemble, Curran, Lord Erskine, Lady Cowper, and. the
Duchess of Sutherland.
See D. E. WILLIAMS, "Life and Correspondence of Sir T. Law
rence," 3 vols., 1831; CHARLES HLANC, " Histoire des Peintres;"
BRYAN, "Dictionary of Painters;" "Edinburgh Review" for De
cember, 1831.
Lawrence, (WILLIAM,) F.R.S., an English surgeon,
born about 1785. He became professor of anatomy
and surgery to the Royal College of Surgeons, London,
1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
LAWSON
1385
LAZZARO
about 1816, and delivered "Lectures on the Physiology,
Zoology, and Natural History of Man," which attracted
much attention. Among his works are " Anatomico-
Chirurgical Descriptions and Views of the Nose, Mouth,
Larynx, and Fauces," a "Treatise on Ruptures," (5th
edition, 1838.) and a "Treatise on Diseases of the Eye.''
D'ied in 1867.
Law'son, (GEORGE,) a learned Scottish divine, born
in West Lin ton in 1749; died in 1820. His memory
was so extraordinary that he knew nearly the whole
of the Bible by heart. It was his own belief that if the
Holy Scriptures should be destroyed he could restore
them all from his memory, with the exception of two or
three chapters in the Old Testament.
See the " Sketch of Professor George Lawson" in the "Watch
man and Reflector," 1867.
Law'son, (HENRY,) F.R.S., an English savant, born
at Greenwich in 1774. He erected an observatory at
Bath, and published a " History of the New Planets,"
(1847.) Uied in l858-
Lawson, (Sir JOHN,) an English admiral, born at
Hull, became a captain before the encf'of the civil war.
He co-operated with Monk in the restoration of Charles
II., and was made rear-admiral. About 1664 he and De
Ruyter were sent with combined fleets into the Medi
terranean in order to chastise the pirates of Barbary.
He was killed in a battle against the Dutch in 1665.
See CAMPHELL, "Lives of the British Admirals."
Lawson, (JOHN,) a native of Scotland, emigrated to
America, where he became surveyor-general of North
Carolina. He was captured and put to death by the
Indians in 1712. He published "A New Voyage to
Carolina," etc., (1709.)
Law'ton, (ALEXANDER R.,) an American officer, born
in Georgia about 1820, became a brigadier-general in the
Confederate army in 1861.
Lax, (Rev. WILLIAM,) an English astronomer, born in
1751. He became professor of astronomy and geometry
at Cambridge in 1795. Died in 1836.
Laxmaiin, laks'man, (ADAM,) a Russian officer, who
in 1792 was sent by his government to Japan for the
purpose of opening commercial intercourse with the
Japanese. He failed in this object, and wrote a succinct
narrative of his journey.
Lay, (BENJAMIN,) an eccentric philanthropist, born in
England, became a resident of Abington, Pennsylvania.
He was one of the earliest and most zealous opponents
of slavery in the United States, and the coadjutor of
Franklin and Benezet. He was a member of the Society
of Friends, in which he bore a faithful testimony against
the practice of slaveholding, then prevalent among them.
He resolutely refused to partake of any food or wear any
clothing which was wholly or in part produced by the
labour of slaves. Died in 1760.
See "Life of Benjamin Lay," by R. VAUX, Philadelphia, 1815.
Laya, li'yt', (AI.EXANDRE,) a French jurist and
writer, was born in Paris in 1806. He published a work
on English law, "Droit Anglais, ou Resume de la Legis
lation Anglaise," etc., (2 vols., 1845,) and " Studies on
the Life of M. Thiers," (2 vols., 1846.)
Laya, (JEAN Louis,) a French dramatist, father of
the preceding, was born in Paris in 1761. His comedy
"The Friend of the Laws" was received with great
favour in 1793, but was proscribed by the terrorists.
He wrote various other works, and was chosen a mem
ber of the French Academy in 1817. Died in 1833.
See "Notice biographique sur J. L. Laya," Paris, 1833; "Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Laya, (LEON,) a French dramatist, son of the pre
ceding, was born in Paris in 1809. He produced many
popular comedies, among which are " Emma, or -the
Guardian Angel," (1844,) and " An April Fool," ("Un
Poisson d'Avril," 1845.)
Lay'ard, (AUSTEN HENRY,) an Orientalist and anti
quary, a' grandson of the following, was born in Paris, of
English parents, in March, 1817. He visited Asia Minor,
Persia, etc. about 1840, and a few years later discovered
the ruins of Nineveh near Mosul. Under the auspices
of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, and in conjunction with
M. Botta, he made extensive excavations at Nimroud,
where he found monuments marked with cuneiform
nscriptions, and colossal emblematic figures in the form
of winged bulls and lions, — memorials of a civilization
which existed before the commencement of profane his
tory. These sculptures, bas-reliefs, etc. are now deposited
in the British Museum. Mr. Layard returned to England
n 1847, ancl published an account of his researches in
" Nineveh and its Remains," (2 vols., 1849.) He resumed
the enterprise in 1849, and published a second work,
entitled " Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Baby
lon, with Travels in Armenia, Kurdistan, and the Desert,"
(1853.) In 1852 he was elected a member of Parliament.
He was uncler-secretary of state for foreign affairs from
August, 1861, to June, 1866. He is a member of the
Liberal party. In December, 1868, he was appointed
commissioner of public works, and ambassador to Spain
in 1869.
See "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1848; " Eraser's
Magazine" for April, 1849; "North British Review" for May, 1853.
Layard, (CHARLES PETER, ) an English divine, of
French descent, born about 1748, was grandfather of
the preceding. He obtained the Seatonian prize for
poetry at Cambridge about 1774. In 1800 he was
appointed Dean of Bristol. Died in 1803.
Layens, de, deh IT'ens or It'yo.N', ( MATHIEU, ) a
Flemish architect of Louvain. He designed the Hotel-
de-Ville of Louvain, an excellent specimen of what is
termed ogival architecture. Died in 1484.
Laynez. See LAINEZ, (JAGO.)
Lazare. See LAZARUS.
Laz'a-rus, [Gr. Aufapoc; Fr. LAZARE, If'zaV ; It. LAZ-
ZARo, Id't'sa-ro,] one of the personal friends of Christ, and
a brother of Mary and Martha. The Saviour wrought
one of his most memorable miracles by recalling Lazarus
to life after he had been dead four days.
See John xi. and xii.
Lazeri, lad-x.a'ree, ? (Pi ETRO,) an Italian writer on eccle
siastical history, born at Sienna in 1710; died in 1789.
Lazius, lat/se-us, (WOLFGANG,) a German antiquary,
born at Vienna in 1514, practised medicine in that city.
About 1550 the emperor Ferdinand appointed him his
physician. He published, besides other works, "On
the Migrations of Nations and Origin of Languages,"
etc., (" De Gentium aliquot Migrationibus, Linguarumque
Initiis," etc., 1557.) Died in 1565.
See NIC^RON, "Memoires;" SAX, " Onomasticon."
Lazzarelli, lat-sa-reKlee, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) an
Italian satirical poet, born at Gubbio in 1621. His
principal works are " La Cicceide," a personal satire,
and "Cosmopoli," (1691.) " He was," says Tiraboschi,
" among the small number of poets who did not follow
the bad taste of his age." Died in 1694.
Lazzarelli, (Luici,) a Latin poet, born at San Seve-
rino in 1450. He wrote " The Cup of Hermes," (" Crater
Hermetis,") and " Bombyx," a poem on silk-worms,
(1518.) Died in 1500.
Lazzari. See BRAMANTE, (DONATO LAZZARI.)
Lazzarini, lat-sa-ree'nee, (DoMENico,) an Italian
poet, born near Macerata in 1668. He composed a
few dramas, sonnets, and other poems. Died in 1734.
Lazzarini, (GIOVANNI ANDREA,) a skilful Italian
painter and elegant writer, was born at Pesaro in 1710,
and became a canon of the church. His master-piece
is a " Virgin with Saint Catherine," (at Gualda,) some
figures of which Lanzi pronounces "truly Raffaelesque."
lie wrote a "Treatise on the Art of Painting," which
was often reprinted. Died in 1786, or, as others say, in
1801. " Lazzarini was perfectly master of good painting
as well as good writing," says Lanzi ; "easy, yet always
studied in every part ; at once noble and graceful, . . .
yet free from affectation and parade."
See MONTANARI, " Biojrrafia del Canonico G. A. Lazzarini,"
1836; LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" FANTUZZI, " Notizie
del Canonico Lazzarini."
Lazzarini, (GUEGORIO,) an Italian painter of history,
born at Venice in 1655. He excelled in design and
colouring. His " S. Lorenzo Giustiniani" was greatly
admired. He was one of the best Venetian painters
of his time. Died in 1730 or 1740.
Sec L szi, " History of Painting in Italy."
Lazzaro. See LAZARUS.
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
LEA
1386
LEBAS
Lea, lee, (HENRY C.,) a son of Isaac Lea, noticed
below, and a grandson of Mathew Carey, was born in
Philadelphia, September 19, 1825. He wrote " Supersti
tion and Force — Essays on the Wager of Law, the Wager
of Battle, the Ordeal and Torture," (1866,) and " Studies
in Church History," etc., (1869.) Mr. Lea is the present
representative of the celebrated publishing-house estab
lished towards the close of the last century by Mathew
Carey & Sons, which for a long period held the first
place among all the establishments of the kind in the
United States.
Lea, (ISAAC,) LL.D., an American naturalist, born
at Wilmington, Delaware, in 1792. He became in 1821
the partner of his father-in-law, Mathew Carey, a promi
nent publisher in Philadelphia. His "Observations on
the Genus Unio" came out in 1827, and was followed
by "Contributions to Geology," (1833.) He also pub
lished " Fossil Footmarks in the Red Sandstones of
Pottsville," " Synopsis of the Family of Naiades," and
other scientific treatises. He was elected president of
the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, in 1858.
Mr. Lea's contributions on conchology to the "Trans
actions" of the American Philosophical Society are
esteemed among the most valuable that have appeared
on that subject.
Lea, (THOMAS GIBSON,) a botanist, a brother of the
preceding, was born in Wilmington, Delaware, in 1785 ;
died in 1844.
Leach, leech, (WILLIAM ELFORD,) an eminent Eng
lish naturalist and physician, born at Plymouth in 1790.
He took the degree of M.D. at Edinburgh about 1812,
and was appointed curator of the natural history depart
ment of the British Museum in 1813. Thenceforth he
devoted his time to the study of natural history, espe
cially zoology. In 181=; he published the first part of
his excellent " History of the British Crustacea," which
was never completed. He largely promoted the intro
duction into England of the natural system which La
marck and Cuvier had adopted. About 1821 he resigned
the place of curator, on account of ill health. Died in
Italy in 1836.
Lead or Ledde, ISd, (JANE,) an English mystical
writer, born in 1623, was a disciple of Jacob Bohmen.
She wrote a number of works, among which is "The
Wonders of the Creation in Eight Different Worlds, as
they were revealed to the Author," (1695.) Died in 1704.
See LEE, "Life of Jane Lead."
Leake, leek, (Sir JOHN,) an English admiral, born in
Surrey in 1656, was the son of Captain Richard Leake,
noticed below. He served with distinction in the battle
of La Hogue, in 1692, and displayed skill as commander
at Gibraltar in 1705. He commanded the fleet which
took Alicante, Majorca, etc. in 1706. In 1707 he was
made an admiral and chosen commander-in-chief of the
fleet, and in 1709 became a lord of the admiralty. Died
in 1720.
See S. M. LEAKE, " Life of Sir John Leake," 1750.
Leake, (JOHN,) an English physician, born at Ain-
stable. He practised with success in London, and ex
celled in obstetrics. He wrote treatises " On Puerperal
Fever," the "Diseases of Women," etc. Died in 1792.
Leake, (RICHARD,) an English naval officer, born at
Harwich in 1629. He displayed great courage in a battle
against the Dutch in 1673, anc^ was appointed master-
gunner of England. Died about 1690.
Leake, (STEPHEN MARTIN,) a nephew of Sir John,
noticed above, was born in England in 1702. He ob
tained a high office in the Heralds' College, and pub
lished a "History of British Coins," (1726,) and a "Life
of Sir John Leake," (1750.) Died in 1774.
Leake, (Colonel WILLIAM MARTIN,) an English trav
eller, distinguished by his researches in the antiquities
of Greece, was born in 1777. Having obtained the rank
of lieutenant-colonel in the army, he commenced about
1800 his travels in Asia Minor, the Morea, and other
parts of Greece. He returned to England in 1810, and
afterwards published a number of valuable works, — viz.,
" Researches in Greece,"( 1814,)" Topography of Athens,"
(1821,) "Travels in the Morea," (1830,) "Travels in
Northern Greece," (1835,) and "Numismata Hellenica,"
a catalogue of Greek coins, (1854.) By his thorough
research and critical sagacity he has done more, probably,
than any other traveller to illustrate the history and
geography of ancient and modern Greece. Died in 1860.
See "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1814.
Le-an'der, [Gr. AemwSpof ; Fr. LEANDRE, la'd.NclR',]
a youth of Abydos, and a lover of Hero. He swam
across the Hellespont every night to visit Hero at Sesto?;.
As he was once attempting to cross in a storm, he was
drowned. (See HERO.)
Leander, [Fr. LEANDRE,] SAINT, Archbishop of Sev
ille, in Spain, was a brother of Saint Isidore. He was
a zealous opponent of Arianism. He died about 600
A.D., leaving a work "De Institutione Virginum," ("On
the Education of Virgins.")
Leandre. See LEANDER.
Leang-Oo-Tee, (or -Ou-Ti,) li'ang' oo'tee, Emperor
of China, and founder of the Leang dynasty, usurped the
throne about 502 A.D. Through devotion to the doc
trines of Fo and the mysticism of the Bonzes, (priests
of Fo or Boocldha,) he neglected the care of the empire.
He died in 549, soon after he had been dethroned by
one of his officers, Heoo-King.
Leao. See LEO.
Leao, la-owN', or Liao, do, do IC-OWN', (DUARTE
NUNEZ,) a Portuguese historian, born at Ev'ora in 1608.
Lea'por, (MARY,) an English poetess, born in North
amptonshire in 1722, was the daughter of a gardener,
and received the usual education of the lower class. At
her death, in 1746, she gave her father several poems
which she had kept secret, and which have considerable
merit. One of them is called "The Temple of Love."
Lear, leer, (ToiHAS,) a diplomatist, born at Ports
mouth, New Hampshire, about 1760. He became pri
vate secretary to General Washington in 1785, and
negotiated a peace with Tripoli in 1805. Died in 1816.
Le-ar'-ehus, [Gr. Aea/j^of ; Fr. LEARQUE, la'3Kk',J an
ancient Greek statuary of Rhegium, lived about 600 or
700 13. C. Pausanias states that he saw at Sparta a bronze
statue of Jupiter executed by Learchus.
Learque. See LEARCHUS.
Lebaillif, leh bt'yef, ( AI.EXANDRE CLAUDE MARTIN,)
a French natural philosopher, born at Saint-Fargeau in
1764. He constructed excellent micrometers and elec
trometers, and invented a sideroscope. Died in 1831.
Lebailly, leh-bS'ye', (ANTOINE FUANC.OIS,) a French
fabulist, born at Caen in 1756. He published a collec
tion of fables in 1784, and another in 1811. They are
praised for wit, imagination, style, and good morality.
He also wrote operas, etc. Died in 1832.
Lebarbier, leh-btR'be-i', (JEAN JACQUES FRANC.OIS,)
a French historical painter, born at Rouen in 1738,
worked in Paris. He was a member of the Royal
Academy. Died in 1826.
Lebas or Le Bas, leh-ba', (JACQUES PHILIPPE,) an
eminent French engraver, born in Paris in 1707. lie
was for a long time the most popular of French engravers.
In 1743 he was admitted into the Academy of Painting.
He engraved many works of Teniers, Wouwerman, and
Vernet, and some of his own designs, which are also
admired. In 1782 he received the title of engraver to
the king. Died in 1784.
See BASAN, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs."
Lebas or Le Bas, (JEAN BAPTISTE APOLLINAIRE,)
a French engineer, born in the department of Var in
1797. He superintended the removal of an obelisk from
Luxor, Egypt, to Paris in 1836, and published an account
of that difficult enterprise.
Le Bas, (Louis HIPPOLYTE,) a French architect, born
in Paris in 1782. He was a member of the Institute.
His principal works are the church of Notre Dame de
Lorette, commenced about 1825, and the prison of La
Roquette, Paris.
Lebas, (PHILIPPE,) a French archaeologist, son of the
succeeding, was born in Paris in 1794. He became in
1820 the preceptor of Louis Napoleon, (late emperor,)
returned to France in 1828, and in 1842 was sent on
a scientific mission to Greece and Asia Minor. The
results of this mission were published by order of the
government in his "Antiquarian Journey in Greece and
Asia Minor," (" Voyage archeologique en Grece et en
Asie Mineure," about 12 vols., 1847 et seq.)
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; me1 1; not; good; moon;
LEBAS
1387
LEBR UN
Lebas, (PHILIPPE FRANCOIS,) a French Jacobin, born
near Arras in 1765. He became the devoted personal
friend and partisan of Robespierre, and voted for the
death of the king in the Convention. As the commis
sary of the Convention in the departments of the Rhine,
he seconded Saint-Just in the direction of the army, and
arrested several generals. At his own request, he was
included in the decree against Robespierre on the gth
Thermidor, 1794, and killed himself on the same day.
See THIERS, " History of the French Revolution."
Lebeau or Le Beau, leh-bo', (CHARLES,) a learned
French historian, born in Paris in 1701. lie obtained
the chair of eloquence in the College of France in 1752,
and was chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy of
Inscriptions in 1755. He published Latin verses, ("Car-
mina," 3 vols., 1782,) and a "History of the Lower Em
pire from the Time of Constantine the Great," (" Histoire
du Bas-Empire en commei^ant a Constantin le Grand,"
22 vols. I2mo, 1757-79,) which is a judicious and accu
rate resume of the Byzantine historians, but is faulty
in style. Having been left unfinished by Lebeau, it was
completed by Ameilhon and published "in twenty-seven
volumes. A revised edition was published by Saint-
Martin and Brosset, (21 vols., 1836.) Died in 1778.
See CHARLES F. DUPUIS, " FJoge de C. Lebeau," 1779: " Nou-
velle Biugrapliie Generale ;" " Monthly Review" for July and August,
1770.
Lebeau, QEAN Louis JOSEPH,) a Belgian minister of
state, born at Huy in 1794. He was minister of foreign
affairs from April, 1840, to April, 1841. Died in 1865.
See L. DE LOMEXIE, "M. Lebeau, parun Homme de Rien," 1844.
Lebedef, leb'eh-deT, (GUERASIM or HERASIM,) a
Russian traveller and Orientalist, born in 1749. He
passed some years at Madras and Calcutta, and pub
lished a "Grammar of the Pure and Mixed East Indian
Dialects," (London, 1801.) Died after 1815.
Lebeed, Lebid, or Lebyd, leb-eed', a popular Ara
bian poet, born about 530 A.D. He had acquired a great
reputation when, at the age of ninety, he was converted
to Islamism by Mohammed, whom he followed in his
flight to Medina. Under the reign of Omar he settled
at Koofah, where he died about 673 A.D., at the extra
ordinary age of one hundred and forty-five. Another
account states that he died in 662, aged about ninety.
His poems are said to abound in original ideas.
See DE SACV, "Notice sur le Poete Lebyd;" D'HCRBELOT,
" Bibliotheque Orientale;" CAUSSIN DE PERCEVAL, "Essai sur
1' Histoire des Arabes."
Leberecht, von, fon la'beh-re'Kt', (KARL,) a German
engraver of medals, born at Meiningen in 1749. He
settled in Saint Petersburg in 1775, and became in 1800
director of the Russian mint, or Cour des Monnaies.
Died in 1827.
Le Berriays, leh bi're'A', (R.ENE,) a French horticul
turist, born near Avranches in 1722, wrote a valuable
"Treatise on Gardens," (2 vols., 1775.) Died in 1807.
Lebeuf, leh-buf, (JEAN,) a French antiquary and
priest, born at Auxerre in 1687. In 1740 he was chosen
a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, for which he
wrote many memoirs. He published several dissertations
on French history. Died in 1760.
Lebid. See LEBEED.
Leblanc or Le Blanc, Ieh-bl5x', (FRANCOIS,) a
French numismatist, born in Dauphine ; died in 1698.
Leblanc or Le Blanc, (JEAN BERNARD,) AKBE, a
mediocre French writer, born at Dijon in 1707. He
published various works, two of which had a transient
popularity, viz., "Abensaid," a tragedy, and "Letters
of a Frenchman on the English Nation," (3 vols., 1745.)
Died in 1781.
Leblanc, (Louis,) a French surgeon, born at Pon-
toise, practised at Orleans about 1770.
Le Blanc or Leblanc, (MARCEL,) a French Jesuit,
who was sent to Siam in the reign of Louis XIV. He
was taken prisoner by the English, and not released
until 1690. He wrote a "History of the Revolutions
of Siam," (1692.) Died at Mozambique in 1693.
Le Blanc, (NICOLAS,) a French chemist, born at
Issoudun in 1753, was attached as a surgeon to the
household of the Duke of Orleans. He discovered about
1790 a method of obtaining soda from sea-salt, and thus
rendered an important service to the industrial arts.
Died in 1806.
Le Blanc, (THOMAS,) a French author, born at Vitry
in 1599, wrote many works for the promotion of religion
and morality. Died in 1669.
Leblanc de Castillon, leh-bldN' deh kfs'te'yiN',
(JEAN FRANCOIS ANDRE,) a French magistrate, born at
Aix in 1719, was eminent for his legal knowledge and
eloquence. Died in 1800.
Leblanc de Guillet, leh-blSN' deh ge'yi', (ANTOINE
BLANC,) a French dramatist, born at Marseilles in 1730.
He produced, besides other works, two tragedies," Manco
Capac," (1763,) and "The Druids," (1772.) Died in 1799.
Leblond, leh-bloN', (AUGUSTE SAVINIEN,) a French
naturalist and writer, born in Paris in 1760. Among his
works is a "Dictionary of Celebrated Men of Antiquity
and Modern Times," (2 vols., 1802.) Died in 1811.
Leblond or Le Blond, (GASPARD MICHEL,) a French
antiquary and ecclesiastic, born at Caen in 1738, lived
in Paris. He was keeper of the Mazarin Library, and
a member of the Institute, and wrote several treatises
on medals. Died in 1809.
Leblond, (GUILLAUME,) a French mathematician,
born in Paris in 1704. He was selected in 1751 by Louis
XV. to teach mathematics to the princes-royal. He
published "Elements of Fortification," "Elements of
Tactics," and other works. Died in 1781.
Leblond, (JEAN BAFFISTE,) a French naturalist, born
at Toulongeon in 1747. He travelled in South America
many years between 1767 and 1802, and published
"Travels in the Antilles and South America," (1813.)
Died in 1815.
Leboii or Le Bon, leh-b6N', (JEAN,) a French medi
cal writer, born in Champagne, was physician to Charles
IX. He published numerous works, (1554-76.)
Lebon, (JOSEPH,) a French revolutionist, who ren
dered his name infamous by his cruelties, was born at
Arras in 1765. He became a partisan of Robespierre
and a member of the Convention in 1793. He was
executed in 1795.
Lebon, (PHILIPPE,) a French chemist and engineer,
born near Joinville in 1769. He is said to have invented
the use of gas for illumination. Died in 1804.
Lebossu, leh-bo'sii', (RENE,) a French writer, born
in Paris in 1631. lie joined the canons-regular of Saint-
Genevieve in 1649, and taught the humanities in various
schools. He published a "Treatise on Epic Poetry,"
(1675,) which was praised by Boileau as one of the best
works on poetry that have appeared in the language.
Died in 1680.
Le Boucq, leh book, (SlMON,) a French antiquary,
born at Valenciennes in 1591. He wrote on the history
and antiquities of Valenciennes. Died in 1657.
Le Bouvier, leh-boo've-i', (Gn.LES,) a French chroni
cler, born at Bourges in 1386, wrote a "History of
Charles VII. of France." Died about 1460.
Lebret, la'bRgt or leh-bRi', QOHANN FRIEDRICH,)
born in Wiirtemberg in 1732, wrote a " History of Ger
many," (1772,) and other works. Died in 1807.
Lebretou or Le Breton, leh-bReh-to.N', (ANDRE
FRANQOIS,) a French bookseller, born in Paris in 1708.
He was the publisher of Diderot's " Encyclopedic,"
commenced in 1751, and took the liberty to suppress
or modify furtively some passages which were offensive
to the court and clergy. Diderot was extremely angry
when he detected the fact. Died in 1779.
Lebreton, (JOACHIM,) a French litterateur, born in
Bretagne in 1760 ; died at Rio Janeiro in 1819.
Lebreton, (THEODORE,) a French poet, born at Rouen
in 1803. He was befriended by Beranger and Lamar-
tine, and published a collection of poems, "Leisure
Hours of a Workman," (" Heures de Repos d'un Ou-
vrier," 1837.)
Lebrixa, (ANTONIO.) See NEBRISSENSTS.
Lebrun or Le Brun, leh-bruN', (ANNE CHARLES,)
Duke of Piacenza, (Plaisance,) a French general, born in
Paris in 1775, was the eldest son of the statesman C. F.
Lebrun. He was aide-de-camp of Desaix at Marengo,
(1800,) distinguished himself at Jena, (1806,) and became
a general of brigade in 1807. He svas an aide to Napo
leon at Eylau and Wagram in 1809, and was made a
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23. )
LEBRUN
1388
LEG CHI
general of division in 1812. During the Hundred Days
he took the field for Napoleon. He inherited the title
of duke in 1824. In 1852 he was appointed a senator.
Died in 1859.
See " Biographic des Membres du Sennt," 1852.
Lebrun or Le Brun, (ANTOINE Louis,) a French
poet, born in Paris in 1680, wrote verses in Latin and
French. Among his best works is a collection of fables,
(1722.) Voltaire imputed to Lebrun the authorship
of the satire for which the former was confined in the
Bastille. Died in- 1743.
Lebrun or Le Bruu, (CHARLES,) a celebrated French
painter, born in Paris in March, 1619. lie was a pupil
of Vouet in Paris, and afterwards studied six years with
Poussin at Rome. In 1648 he was admitted into the
Academy of Painting, and, having acquired a high repu
tation, he became first painter to Louis XIV. in or before
1662. He displayed his genius as a painter, and his ex
traordinary powers of invention, in a series of pictures of
the battles of Alexander the Great, which are among his
most admired productions. " The Family of Darius" is
called his master-piece. He was appointed president
of the Royal Academy and director of the Gobelin
manufactory, and exercised a sort of dictatorship in
the arts for many years. He published a " Treatise on
Physiognomy." Died in 1690.
See FELIBIEN, "Vies des Peintres ;" CHARLES BLANC, " His-
toire des Peintres;" BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Lebrun or Le Brun, (CHARLES FRANCOIS,) Duke of
Piacenza, a French statesman and author, born in Nor
mandy in 1739. He was versed in ancient and modern
languages. He composed many discourses and edicts
for his patron Maupeou during his contest with the par
liaments. In 1776 he published an esteemed version
of Homer's " Iliad." Elected to the States-General in
1789, he acted with the moderate friends of reform.
Lebrun became one of the ablest members of the Coun
cil of Elders in 1796, and was appointed Third Consul
by Bonaparte in 1799. He enjoyed the confidence of
the First Consul, (who afterwards designated him as one
of the best writers of France, and a man of strict probity.)
He was appointed chief treasurer in 1804, and made Duke
of Piacenza (Plaisance) in 1808. In 1810 he was chosen
Viceroy or Lieutenant-General of Holland, the throne of
which Louis Bonaparte had just resigned. The Dutch
were pleased with his modest temper and methodical
habits. From 1811 to 1813 inclusive he was Governor-
General of Holland. He published an admired version
of Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," and other works.
Died in 1824.
See MAKIE DU MBSNIL, " Me"moire sur le Prince Lebrun, Due
de Plaisance," 1828; THIKRS, " History of the French Revolution ;"
" Opinions, Rapports et Choix d'ficrits poHtiques de C. F. Lebrun,"
preceded by a "Notice biographique" by his son CHARLES, 1828;
" Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Lebrun, (DENIS,) a French jurist, became an advo
cate in the Parliament of Paris in 1659 ; died in 1706.
Lebrun, (JEAN BAPTISTE PIERRE,) a French picture-
dealer, critic, and amateur, born in Paris in 1748. He is
said to have been the best connoisseur of paintings in
Europe. His wife, in her " Souvenirs," says he ruined
her fortune by his passion for gaming and other vices.
They lived separately many years. Died in 1813. He
published a " Gallery of Flemish, Dutch, and German
Painters," containing two hundred plates.
Lebrun, leh-bruN', (KARL AUGUST,) born at Halber-
staclt, in Germany, in 1792, acquired celebrity as an actor,
and wrote several successful dramas. Died in 1842.
Lebruu, MADAME, (nee MAKIE LOUISE SLISAUETH
Vigee — ve'zha',) a French lady, eminent for her beauty
and her skill as a portrait-painter, was born in 1755. In
1776 she was married to J. B. P. Lebrun, a painter and
dealer in pictures. She became a fashionable artist, and
was welcomed in aristocratic society as an accomplished
woman. Between 1779 and 1789 she painted several
portraits of Marie Antoinette. Her soirees were thronged
with people of rank and celebrity. After her return to
Paris, in 1801, she painted Lord Byron, Madame de Stael,
etc. In 1835 she published well-written "Souvenirs"
of her life. The number of her portraits is over six
hundred. Died in 1842.
See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1837.
Lebrun, ( PIERRE, ) a French theologian, born at
Brignolles in 1661, was professor in several colleges.
He wrote, among other works, a "Critical History of
Superstitious Practices which have seduced the People,"
(1702.) Died in 1729.
Lebrun, (PIERRE,) a French lawyer, born at Mont-
| pellier in 1761. He wrote agreeable verses, and was
the author of the version of Horace's " Ars Poetica"
published by Count Daru, who was his brother-in-law.
Died in 1810.
Lebrun, (PIERRE ANTOINE,) a popular French lyric
and dramatic poet, born in Paris in 1785. In 1805 he
received a pension for his " Ode to the Grand Army."
His tragedy " Ulysses" was received with favour in 1814.
j After the restoration he produced " Joan of Arc" and
I other odes, and a poem on the death of Napoleon,
, (1821,) which was much admired. His drama "Marie
Stuart" (1820) had a great success, and is called his
capital work. In 1828 he was elected to the French
Academy in place of Frai^ois de Neufchateau. From
1831 to 1848 he was director of the royal printing-estal>
lishment, anil in 1839 he was admitted to the Chamber
of Peers. He became a senator in 1853.
See SAINTS BBOVE, " Portraits con temporains ;" "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Gene'rale."
Lebrun, (PIERRE HENRI HEI.ENE MARIE TONDU,) a
French Girondist, born at Noyon in 1763. He was ap
pointed minister of foreign affairs in August, 1792, and
was executed in 1793.
Lebrun, ( PONCE DENIS £COUCHAKD, ) a popular
French lyric poet, born in Paris in 1729, was called LE-
HKUN PINDAKE, (paN-'dSk',) or the French Pindar. In
early life he began a poem on Nature, which was never
finished. He composed a number of beautiful odes
before the Revolution, and during the Republic favoured
the popular cause. He was patronized by the Conven
tion, and afterwards by Napoleon, who in 1801 granted
him a pension of 6000 francs. In 1803 he produced a
National Ode on the prospective invasion of England.
"Although he excelled in epigram," says Marie J. Che-
nier, "and though he displayed remarkable beauties in
poems which he left unfinished, he will owe chiefly to
his odes his durable reputation, and will pass to pos
terity as one of the three great French lyric poets."*
La Harpe judged him less favourably. He was a member
of the Institute. Died in 1807.
See GINGUENE, " Notice sur Lebrun," prefixed to an edition of
Lebrun's works, 4 vols., 1811; M. J. CIIBNIER, "Tableau de la
Literature;" SAINTE-BEUVE, "Portraits litte'raires," tome i., and
" Causeries du Lundi," tome y. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale;"
"Monthly Review," vol. Ixvii., 1812, (Appendix.)
Lebrun de Charmettes, leh-bRuN' deh shtR'met',
(PHILIPPE ALEXANDRE,) a French poet and historian,
born at Bordeaux in 1785. Among his works are a
"History of Joan of Arc," (4 vols., 1817,) and "L'Orle-
anicle," a poem, (2 vols., 1819.)
Lecamus. See CAMUS, LE, (ANTOINE and ETIENNE.)
Lecanu, leh-kS'nu', (Louis RENE,) a French chemist,
born in 1800, published numerous works.
Lecat, leh'ka"', (CLAUDE NICOLAS,) an eminent French
surgeon, born in Picardy in 1700. He settled about 1733
at Rouen, where he lectured on anatomy and practised
with success. In 1744 he founded a Royal Academy at
Rouen. He was a skilful lithotomist, and published
several treatises on that branch of surgery. He wrote a
"Treatise on the Senses," (1740,) and other professional
works. Died in 1768.
See L. A. VALF.NTIN, " filoge de Lecat," 1769; MONFALCON, in
the "Biographic Mddicale ;" HALLER, " Bibhotheca Chirurgica;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Lecchi, lek'kee, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) an Italian
mathematician, born at Milan in 1702. He obtained in
1739 the chair of mathematics in Pavia, where he taught
with great success for twenty years. He was afterwards
appointed by Maria Theresa mathematician of the court
at Vienna. He published, besides other works, "Ele
ments of Geometry," ( 1 753,) a " Theory of Light, including
Optics," (1759,) and a "Treatise on Hydrostatics," (1765.)
Died in 1776.
See TIPAI.DO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
* J. B. Rousseau and Malherbe being the other two.
a, e, 1, 6,u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LECENE
1389
LECLUSE
Lecene, leli-sin', (CHARLES,) a learned French Prot
estant theologian, born at Caen about 1647. He retired
to Holland in 1685, and afterwards to London, where
he attempted to found an Arminian church, but failed,
because he was suspected of holding Socinian views.
He made a French translation of the Bible, (1741,)
which deviates too much from the literal sense, and
wrote several works on theology. Died in London in 1703.
Lechevalier or Le Chevalier, leh sheh-vt'leji',
(JEAN BAPTISTK,) a French traveller and savant, born
near Coutances in 1752. In 17^4 he went to the Levant
as secretary of Choiseul-Gotilrier, ambassador to the
Ottoman Porte, and made diligent researches in the
plain of Troy, which attest the accuracy of Homer's
descriptions.' He published his "Voyage de la Troade,"
(1798 or 1800,) and a "Voyage to the Propontis and the
Euxine," (1800.) Died in 1836.
Leck'y, (W. E. H.,) an English philosopher, pub
lished in 1865 a "History of the Rise and Influence of
the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe," (London, 2 vols.)
"We closed them," says the "Edinburgh Review,"
(April, 1865,) "with the' conviction that Mr. Lecky is
one of the most accomplished writers and one of the
most ingenious thinkers of the time." He also wrote
a "History of European Morals, from Augustus to
Charlemagne," (1869.)
See "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1869; "British
Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1865; "Eraser's Maga
zine" for November, 1865, and September, 1869.
Leclerc or Le Clerc, leh-klaik', (DANIEL,) a Swiss
physician, born at Geneva in 1652, was a brother of
Jean the eminent critic. He practised with distinction
in Geneva, became a counsellor of the republic, and
published, besides some other works, a "Complete
Surgery," (1695,) and a "History of Medicine," (1696,)
which was translated into English. Died in 1728.
Leclerc, (DAVID,) a Swiss Protestant theologian, born
at Geneva in 1591 ; died in 1654.
Leclerc, (DAVID,) a skilful Swiss portrait-painter,
born at Berne in 1680, worked many years in Frankfort,
and painted portraits in oil and miniature of numerous
German princes. Died in 1738.
Leclerc, leh-klaiR', (GAHRIEL,) a French physician,
practised in Paris. He became physician-in-ordinary to
Louis XIV., and published between 16943110! 1706 several
professional works, one of which is entitled "Convenient
Medicine," (" La Medecine aisee.")
Leclerc, [Lat. CLKR'ICUS,] (JEAN,) an eminent Swiss
critic and divine, born at Geneva in 1657. He became
a champion of Arminianism, and removed to Holland in
1683. After preaching for a short time in the church of
the Remonstrants in Amsterdam, he obtained in that city
the chair of philosophy and Hebrew, which he retained
until his death. In 1686 he commenced the "Biblio
theque Universelle," the first of those three celebrated
series of reviews to which he owes much of his fame,
and which was issued monthly until 1693. It was fol
lowed by the " Bibliotheque Choisie," (1703-13,) and the
" Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne," (1714-27.) "These
journals," says Hallam, "enjoyed an extraordinary in
fluence over Europe, and deserved to enjoy it. ... He
is generally temperate and judicious, and displays a very
extensive erudition." (" Introduction to the Literature
of Europe.") He published many other valuable works,
among which are "Ars Critica," (2 vols., 1696,) " Par-
rhasiana," (2 vols., 1699-1701,) and a "Commentary on
the Bible." Died in 1736.
See J. CI.ERICI, "Vita et Opera ad Annum 1711 Amici ejus Optis-
culum;'1 VAN DER HOEVKX, "Dissertationes II. de J. Clerico et
Pliilippo 4 Limborch," 1843; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;"
MM. HAAG, "La France protestante."
Leclerc, (JEAN BAPTTSTE,) a French legislator and
writer, born at Angers in 1756. He was a member of
the Convention, (1792-95,) and of the Council of Five
Hundred, (1795-99.) He wrote "Pastoral Poems,"
(1786,) and other literary works. Died in 1826.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale. "
Leclerc, (JEAN Louis.) See BUFFON.
Leclerc, (JOSEPH VICTOR,) a French classical scholar,
was born in Paris in 1 789. He obtained the chair of Latin
eloquence at the Faculty of Letters in 1824, and was ad
mitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1834. H*
published, besides some original works, "The Thoughts
of Plato," in Greek and French, (1818,) and "The Com
plete Works of Cicero," with a French version, (30 vols.,
1821-25.)
Leclerc, (LAURENT,) a French priest, born in Paris in
1677, was a son of Sebastien Leclerc the engraver. He
published, besides other works, "A Critical Letter on
Bayle's Dictionary." Died in 1736.
Leclerc, (MICHEL,) a French poet and advocate,
born at Albi in 1622. His principal work is "Virginia
the Roman Girl," (" Virginie Komaine," a tragedy,
1645.) He was a member of the French Academy.
Died in 1691.
Leclerc, (NICOLAS GABRIEL.) See CLERC.
Leclerc, (Osc.vR,) known as Leclerc Tlioiiin, an
agriculturist, born in Paris in 1798, was a son of Jean
Baptiste, noticed above, and a nephew of Andre Thou'in.
He published treatises on agriculture. Died in 1845.
Leclerc, (SEHASTIEN,) a skilful French designer and
engraver, born at Metz in 1637, removed to Paris in
1665. In 1672 he was chosen professor of perspective
in the Academy of Painting. His works were nearly
all designed by himself. Louis XIV. appointed him
engraver of his cabinet and professor in the ficole des
Gobelins. Leclerc published a " System of Vision,"
" Systeme sur la Vision," 1679,) and an esteemed treat
ise on Architecture, (1714.) Died in 1714.
See VALI.EMOXT, "Eloge de M. Leclerc Dessiiiateur,"etc., 1715;
QUERARD, "La France Litteraire."
Leclerc or Le Clerc, (SEBASTIEN,) a good his
torical painter, born in Paris about 1684, was a son of
the preceding. He was chosen a member of the Royal
Academy about 1704. Died about 1765.
Leclerc or Le Clerc, ( VICTOR EMMANUEL,) a French
general, born at Pontoise in 1772. He served at the
siege of Toulon, (1793,) where he formed a friendship with
Bonaparte, and distinguished himself in the Italian cam
paign of 1796. lie followed Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798,
and promoted the success of the coup d'etat of i8th Bru-
inaire, 1799. Soon after this event he married Pauline
Bonaparte, with the consent of her brother, the First
Consul, who in 1801 gave him command of a large
armament (35,000 men) sent to subjugate the revolted
negroes of Hayti. He obtained some successes, and
sent Toussaint L'Ouverture as a captive to France ; but
his army was wasted by the yellow fever, of which he
died in November, 1802.
See THIERS, "History of the French Revolution," and " His
tory of the Consulate and the Empire;" " NouveUe Biographie
Geuerale."
Leclerc des Essarts, leh-klaiR' di zi'stR', (Louis
NICOLAS MARIN,) a French general, brother of the pre
ceding, was born at Pontoise in 1770. For his services
at Eckmuhl, Wagram, etc., in 1809, he received the title
of count. He commanded a division in Russia in 1812,
where he distinguished himself by his courage and skill.
Died in 1820.
See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Leclercq or Le Clercq, leh-klARk', (CHRETIEN,) a
French missionary, born in Artois about 1630. In 1655
he was sent to Canada, where he laboured many years.
After his return to France he published "The History
of the French Colonies in New France, and of Lasalle's
Expedition to Explore the Mississippi," (1691.)
Leclerq, (MICHEL THEODORE,) a French dramatist,
born in Paris in 1777. He published "Dramatic Pro
verbs," (4 vols., 1823-26,) which were very popular.
Died in 1851.
Lecluse or L'ficluse, de, deh la'kluz', written also
L'Escluse, (CHARLES,) [Lat. CAR'OLUS CLU'SIUS,] a
savant, who made important contributions to the science
of botany, was born at Arras in 1526. He studied at
Louvain,Wittenberg, and Montpellier. At the last-named
place he graduated as physician in 1555. After travelling
many years in France, Spain, etc., for botanical informa
tion, he was director of the emperor's garden at Vienna
from 1573 to 1587. He published, in Latin, a "Descrip
tion of the Rare Plants of Spain," (1576,) and a "De
scription of the Rare Plants of Austria," (1583,) both of
which were afterwards united in his " Rariorum Plan-
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z: th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
LECLUSE
1390
LEDESMA
tarum Historia," ("History of the Rarer Plants," 1601,)
with figures. In 1593 he became professor of botany at
Leyden, where he died in 1609. lie was endowed with
a great memory and a rare sagacity, and excelled in
description. He left a work on foreign animals and
plants, entitled "Exoticorum Libri Decem, quibus Ani-
malium, Plantarum, Aromatumque Historian describun-
tur," (1605.)
See HALI.ER, " Bibiiotheca Rotanica ;" NICE^RON, " Me'moires ;"
fii.ov, " Dictiounaire de la Medecine ;" MORREN, "Ala Mdmoire
de C. de L'Kscluse, un des Peres de la Botnnique," etc., Lie^e, 1853.
Lecluse, de, (FLEURY,) a French Hellenist, born in
Paris in 1774. Among his works is a " History of Greek
and Latin Literature,'7 (2 vols., 1837.) Died in 1845.
Lecointe. See COINTE, LE.
Lecointe-Puiraveau, leh-kwaNt' pii-e'rS'vo', (Mr-
CHKL MATHIEU,) a French legislator, born at Saint-
Maixent about 1750, was an active member of the Con
vention, (1792-95.) Died in 1825.
Lecointre, leh-kwa.NtR', (LAURENT,) a French regi
cide. He voted for the death of the king in the Con
vention, and instigated the execution of the queen.
Died in 1805.
Lecomte or Le Comte, leh-koxt', (FELIX,) a French
sculptor, born in Paris in 1737, was a pupil of Falconet.
He was received as Academician in 1771. By order of
the king, he executed statues of Fenelon and Kollin.
He is classed in the second rank of French sculptors.
Died in 1817.
Lecointe, (Jui.ES,) an able French litteratenr,\>Q\\\ at
Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1812. He edited several journals,
and published "Letters on French Authors," (1837,) a
"History of the Revolution of 1848," (1850,) and "The
English Pontoons," (" Les Pontons Anglais," a maritime
novel, 5 vols., 1850-52.) Died in 1864.
Lecointe, (Louis,) a French Jesuit, born at Bor
deaux, was one of six mathematicians sent as mission
aries to China in 1685. He laboured some years in
the mission of Shensee, (Chensi,) and, having returned
to France, published in 1696 "Memoirs on the Present
State of China," which was censured by the Faculty of
Theology. Died in 1729.
Leccmte, leh-kc-Nt', [Lat. CON'TIUS,] (ANTOINE,) a
French jurist, born at Noyon, was a cousin-german of
Calvin, but an opponent of his doctrines. He lectured
on law at Orleans and Bourges, and left several legal
works. Died in 1586.
Le Conte, Ie-k5nt, (Jonx,) an American naturalist,
and officer in the corps of United States engineers, was
born near Shrewsbury, New Jersey, in 1784. He pub
lished " Descriptions of the Species of North American
Tortoises," " Monographs of the North American Spe
cies of Utricularia," etc., and other works. Died in 1861.
Leconte, (Jimx L.,) M.D., a son of the preceding,
born in New York in 1825, is distinguished as an ento
mologist. He has published numerous treatises, etc.
on entomology, among which is one " On the Classifi
cation of the Carabidae of the United States."
Lecoiite, (Jonx,) M.D., an American naturalist and
physician, born in Liberty county, Georgia, in 1818. He
became in 1856 professor of natural and mechanical
philosophy in South Carolina College, Columbia.
Lecoiite, (JOSEPH,) M.D., brother of the preceding,
was born in Liberty county, Georgia, in 1823. In 1851
he accompanied Professor Agassiz on a scientific tour in
Florida, and in 1856 became professor of chemistry and
geometry in South Carolina College. He has published
several chemical and geological works.
Lecoiite de Lisle, ]eh-ko.\t/ deh lei, (CHARLES
MARIE,) a French poet, born in the Isle of Bourbon in
1820, removed to Paris in 1847. He produced in 1852
a volume of " Poe'mes antiques," which obtained a prize
of the French Academy, and in 1854 " Poesies nou-
velles." "His character," says Sainte-Beuve, "is one of
the most decided (prononce) and most worthy among
the poets of our time." " His art," says Villemain, " is
at the same time skilful and bold, more worthy of glory
than sure of popularity." The form of his poetry is
compared to an exquisitely-finished antique statue.
See " Rapports de M. Villemain a 1'Academie Fratifaise sur les
Prix decernes en 1853," etc.; SAINTE-BEUVE, " Causeries du Lnndi,"
tome v.
Lecoq or Le Coq, leh-kok', (HENRI,) a French nat
uralist, born at Avesnes (Nord) in 1802. He wrote
treatises on geology, chemistry, and botany. His most
important work is " Studies on the Botanical Geography
of Europe," (7 vols., 1854-57.)
Lecoq, von, fon leh-kok', (KARL CHRISTIAN ERD-
MANN EDLER,) an able German general, born at Torgau
in 1767. He fought for the French at \Vagram in 1809,
and commanded a division of Saxon troops in the Rus
sian campaign of 1812. After 1815 he received the
chief command of the Saxon army. Died in 1830.
Le Courayer or Le Courraye'r. See COURAYEU, LE.
Lecourbe or Le Courbe, leh-kooRb', (CLAUDE
JOSEPH,) a French general, born at Lons-le-Saulnier in
1760. In 1799 he defeated the Austrians in Switzerland.
Having been selected by Moreau to command the right
wing of his army in 1800, he distinguished himself at
Hochstadt and other places. On account of his attach
ment to Moreau, he was deprived of command in 1804.
Died in 1815.
Lecouvreur or Le Couvreur, Ieh-koov'ruR', ( Aniu-
ENNE,) a popular French actress, born near fipernay
about 1690. She excelled in tragedy, and was a great
favourite in Paris from 1717 until her death. Voltaire
and other poets offered poetical homage to her talents.
Died in 1730.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, "Causeries du Lundi."
Lect, lekt, [Lat. LEC'TIUS,] (JACQUES,) a learned
Swiss jurisconsult, born in 1560, at Geneva. He obtained
a chair of law in that city in 1583, and the next year was
chosen a member of the council of state. In the critical
times which followed he showed firmness and ability.
He wrote several legal works, an edition of" Poetac Grrcci
veteres Carminis heroici Scriptores," (1606,) and short
Latin poems, " Poemata Varia," (1609.) Died in 1611.
Lectius. See LECT.
Lecurieux, leh-ku're'uh'.fjACQUES JOSEPH,) a French
historical painter, born at Dijon in 1801. Among his
works are "Saint Louis at Damietta," and "Mary of
Burgundy."
Le'da, [Gr. Ar/tSa,] the wife of Tyndareus, King of
Sparta, and mother of Castor, Pollux, Helen, and "Cly-
temnestra. According to the popular legend, two of
these were the offspring of Jupiter, who, when he visited
Leda, assumed the form of a swan.
Le Dain, leh daN, (OLIVIER,) a Flemish barber, who
became a favourite of Louis XI. of France. He was
hung by Charles VIII. in 1484.
Ledebour, von, fon la'deh-booR'.fKARL FKIEDRICH,)
an eminent German botanist, born at Stralsund in 1785.
He was professor of botany at Dorpat from 181 1 to 1836,
and, after a journey to the Altai Mountains, published
" Flora Altaica," (4 vols., 1829-34.) His " Flora Rossica"
(3 vols., 1842-51) is regarded as the best work that has
appeared on the flora of Russia. He also published
"Illustrations of New Russian Plants, in five hundred
coloured plates," (5 vols., 1829-34.) Died in 1851.
Ledebur, von, fon la'deh-booR', (LEOPOLD KARL
WILHELM AUGUST,) a German writer, born at Berlin
in 1799, published a number of geographical, historical,
and antiquarian works.
Lederlin, leh-deVlaN', (JEAN HENRI,) a French
philologist, born at Strasburg in 1672. He published
editions of the " Onomasticon," by Pollux, of ,/Elian's
History, (1713,) znid of other works. Died in 1737.
Ledermuller, la'der-mul'ler, (MARTIN FROHENIUS,) a
German, distinguished for his researches with the micro
scope, was born at Nuremberg in 1719. He published
"Microscopic Studies," (1759,) and "Microscopic Amuse
ments," ("Mikroskopische Gemuths- und Augenergot-
zen," 3 vols., 1760-64,) often reprinted. Died in 1769.
Ledesma, de, da la-Des'ma, (ALONZO,) a Spanish
poet, born at Segovia in 1552. He was a disciple of
Gongora, and, notwithstanding the obscurity and other
defects of his poetry, acquired a high reputation. Lope
de Vega, in his "Laurel d'Apollo," mentions him in
favourable terms. He published "Spiritual Thoughts,"
"Conceptos Espirituales," 1600-16,) and other poems.
Died in 1623.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature;" LONGFELLOW,
"Poets and Poetry of Europe."
a, e, T, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; good; melon;
LEDESMA
LEE
Ledesma, de, (JosE,) a Spanish painter, born at Bur
gos in 1630; died in 1670.
Ledieu, leh-de-uh', (FRANgois,) ABBE, a French
ecclesiastic, born at Peronne, was private secretary to
the celebrated Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux. lie wrote
"Memoirs of the Life and Works of Bossuet," (4 vols.,
1856.) Died in 1713.
Ledoux, leh-doo', (CLAUDE NICOLAS,) a French
architect, born at Uornians in 1736. The most remark
able monuments of his invention are the Barrieres
of Paris. lie published a "Treatise on Architecture."
Died in 1806.
Ledran, leh-di<6N', (HENRI FRANgois,) an eminent
French surgeon, born in Paris in 1685, became a Fellow
of the Royal Society of London. He wrote, besides other
professional works, a "Treatise on Lithotomy," (1730,)
"Observations on Surgery," (1731,) and "Practical Re
flections on Gunshot Wounds," (1737.) Died in 1770.
Ledru, leh-diui', (ANDRE PIERRE,) a French priest
and naturalist, born in Maine in 1761, was employed
as botanist in Baudin's expedition to the Canaries and
the Antilles in 1796. He wrote several works. Died
about 1825.
Ledru, (NICOLAS PHILIPPE,) a French experimenter
in natural philosophy, bom in Paris in 1731, was a
grandfather of Ledru-Rollin. Pie made discoveries in
magnetism. Died in 1807.
Ledru-Rollin, le-drti' rol'lin or leh-duii' ro'laN',
(ALEXANDRIA AUGUSTE,) a distinguished French socialist
and radical republican, born in Paris in 1808. His family
name was Ledru, to which he added that of Rollin. lie
became an advocate about 1830, and was employed as
counsel for the defence in many political trials between
1832 and 1848. In 1841 he was elected to the Chamber
of Deputies by the voters of Mans, and became the chief
orator of the extreme gauche, or ultra-democrats. As a
tribune and popular agitator he was distinguished for his
audacity and vehemence, but had not much influence
in the Chamber. He founded " La Reforme," a political
journal, and took a prominent part at the reform ban
quets of 1847.
During the Revolution of February, 1848, he entered
the Chamber when the regency of the Duchess of Or
leans was under discussion. By the exertion of great
physical force he occupied the tribune, and, amidst the
violent tumult, spoke against the regency. He was chosen
by acclamation as a member of the provisional govern
ment, and became minister of the interior. (See LAMAR-
TINE.) His measures in this capacity were not approved
by the majority of his colleagues. He was censured for
an attempt to proscribe the defeated party ; but he is said
to have saved the government from the violence of the
insurgents on the i6th of April. At the election of five
members of the executive commission by the Assembly
in May, he was the lowest of the successful candidates,
receiving four hundred and fifty-eight votes out of about
eight hundred. He owed this election to the influence
of Lamartine. He lost his popularity with the masses,
and retired from power in June, 1848, when Cavaignac
became dictator. In December, 1848, Ledru-Rollin re
ceived only 370,119 votes for president, having failed to
obtain the support of the socialists. He was the chief
of the "Mountain" in the Assemblies of 1848 and 1849,
to the latter of which he was elected by five departments,
and made eloquent speeches against the government.
In Tune, 1849, he demanded the impeachment of the
president, and, when this was refused, called on his
partisans to rise in arms. The few who obeyed this call
were quickly dispersed by the troops, and Ledru-Rollin
escaped to England, where he remained many years. In
his absence he was condemned to deportation. He pub
lished a book "On the Decline of England," (2 vols.,
1850,) and united with Kossuth and Mazzini to form a
revolutionary committee for the promotion of the demo
cratic cause in Europe. Among his publications is
"French Jurisprudence," etc., ("Jurisprudence Fran-
9aise, ou Repertoire du Journal clu Palais," 8 vols.,
1843-48.) Availing himself of the general amnesty, he
returned to France in 1870.
See N. GAI.LOIS, " Vie politique cle Ledru-Rollin," 1850; "Black-
wood's Magazine" for August, 1850; " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'-
rale."
Leduc or Le Due, leh-diik', (JAN,) a Dutch painter
and engraver, born at the Hague about 1638, was a pupil
and skilful imitator of Paul Potter. He painted interiors,
guard-rooms, robbers, etc. About 1671 he entered the
army, in which he obtained the rank of captain, and
abandoned his art.
Led'wich, (EDWARD,) an Irish antiquary, born in
1739, became vicar of Aghaboe. He published a valu
able work entitled "The Antiquities of Ireland," (1794,)
and a few other treatises. He offended many of his
countrymen by denying the truth of the legend of Saint
Patrick. Died in 1823.
Led'yard, (Joux,) a celebrated American traveller,
born at Groton, in Connecticut, in 1751. At an early
age he took passage as a common sailor on a vessel
bound for Gibraltar, and thence repaired to London,
where in 1776 he set sail with Captain Cook on his third
voyage around the world. After his return, in 1780, he
published a journal of the voyage, including an account
of the circumstances attending the death of Captain
Cook. Having projected an expedition to the Arctic
regions, he set out in 1786, and, after a journey of great
hardships, he arrived at Irkootsk in January, 1787. Here
he was arrested as a spy by order of the empress, and
forbidden again to enter Russia. He next went to Lon
don, where he was most kindly received by Sir Joseph
Banks, and in June, 1788, under the patronage of the
African Association, set out on a voyage of discovery
to Central Africa. He reached Cairo in August, but,
while making preparations for his journey, was attacked
by a fever, of which he died. The news of his death
was heard with deep regret by his friends in England,
who had formed the highest opinion of his qualifica
tions for the arduous task of African exploration. He
was described by Mr. Beaufoy, secretary of the African
Association, as " adventurous beyond the conception of
ordinary men, yet wary and considerate, and appeared
to be formed by nature for achievements of hardihood
and peril."
See SPARKS, "Life of Ledyard," in his "American Biography;"
"Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. ii. ; "London
Quarterly Review" for July, 1828, (by SOUTHEV ;) " North American
Review" for October, 1828; CLEVELAND, "Compendium of Ameri
can Literature."
Ledyard, (WILLIAM,) COLONEL, an American officer,
born in Connecticut about 1750, commanded at Fort
Griswold during the attack made by the British in 1781.
He was brutally 'stabbed by the English commander,
Major Bromfield, after he had delivered up to him his
sword. lie was an uncle of the distinguished traveller
John Ledyard.
Lee, (ALFRED,) an American theologian, born at
Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1807, was consecrated
Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Delaware in 1841. He
has published a "Life of the Apostle Peter," and a "Life
of Saint John."
Lee, (ANNE,) founder of the sect called Shakers, was
born at Manchester, in England, in 1735. Having re
moved to America, she settled near Albany, New York,
where she gathered a number of proselytes around her.
She taught many strange doctrines, — among others, that
all marriage is sinful, and is to be shunned under all
circumstances. She was usually styled by her fol
lowers "Mother Anne." She died in 1784. Among
the principal settlements made by her followers are those
at New Lebanon, near Albany, and at Harvard, Massa
chusetts.
See ALLEN'S "American Biographical Dictionary."
Lee, (ARTHUR,) an American statesman and revolu
tionist, born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, in 1740,
was a brother of Richard Henry Lee. He studied medi
cine in Edinburgh, and subsequently became a student
of law in London. He there published a number of
eloquent political essays, under the name of "Junius
Americanus," in which he advocated the cause of the
American people. He was sent as minister to France
in 1776; and, in conjunction with Franklin and Deane,
he negotiated a treaty with the French. He was recalled
in 1779. After his return he was elected to Congress
in 1782, and was subsequently made a counsellor of the
supreme court of the United States, and a member of
the board of treasury, (1784.) He was never married.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled: s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LEE
1392
LEE
He was a good classical scholar, and an intimate friend of
Sir William Jones. Died in 1792.
See R. H. LEE, " Life of Arthur Lee," 2 vols., 1829: "North
American Review" for April, 1830 ; " Encyclopedia Americana."
Lee, (CHARLES,) a distinguished officer in the American
Revolutionary war, was a native of Wales. Having served
for a time in the British army, he removed to America.
He was appointed major-general by Congress in June,
1775. In 1776 he was appointed to the chief command
of the Southern colonies. He was surprised and taken
prisoner by the English while marching through New
Jersey to join Washington in Pennsylvania, (December,
1776;) but after the surrender of Burgoyne, in October,
1777, he was exchanged. Having disobeyed General
Washington's orders at the battle of Monmouth, in 1778,
he was tried by a court-martial, and suspended from
service for a year. Died in 1782. General Lee was the
author of several political works.
See " Encyclopaedia Americana."
Lee, (EDWARD,) an English prelate, born in Kent in
1482. He became chaplain of Henry VIII., who em
ployed him in several diplomatic missions. In 1529
he was sent to Rome to negotiate for the divorce of the
king, and in 1531 was appointed Archbishop of York.
He opposed the doctrines of Luther, but favoured the
innovations which Henrv VIII. made in the Church.
He wrote " Epicedia Clarorum Virorum," and other
works in Latin. Died in 1544.
Lee, ( ELIZA BUCKMINSTKK, ) an American writer,
daughter of the Rev. Joseph Buckminster, was born at
Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Among her principal
works are " Sketches of a New England Village," and
" Naomi, or Boston Two Hundred Years Ago." She
has also translated the "Life of Jean Paul Richter," and
portions of Richter's works, from the German.
Lee, (EzuA,) an American officer, who served in the
Revolutionary war, was born in 1749 ; died in 1821.
Lee, (FiTZ-IIuGH,) an American general, a nephew
of General Robert E. Lee, was born in Virginia in 1835.
He graduated at West Point in 1856, and commanded
a division of cavalry in the Confederate army in the
summer of 1863.
Lee, (FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT,) an American statesman
and patriot, born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, in
October, 1734, was a younger brother of Richard Henry
Lee. He inherited a large estate, and married a daugh
ter of Colonel John Tayloe in 1772. He was elected to
the General Congress in 1775, and signed the Declaration
of Independence in 1776. Having been re-elected, he
continued to serve in Congress until 1779. He was too
diffident to gain distinction as a debater, but took an
active part in legislative business. Died without issue,
at Richmond, in 1797. He was eminent for conversa
tional powers, and was a general favourite in society.
Lee, (FREDERICK RICHARD,) a popular English land
scape-painter, born at Barnstaple about 1800. He began
to exhibit at the Royal Academy about 1824, and was
chosen an Academician in 1838. He is most successful
in river-scenery and in landscapes where trees are promi
nent objects. His pencil has been employed exclusively
on British scenery. Among his works are "The Mill,"
" The Storm on the Lake," and " The Avenue of Sher-
brooke Park."
Lee, (HANNAH F.,) an American novelist and mis
cellaneous writer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts.
Her "Three Experiments of Living," published in 1838,
passed through numerous editions both in America and
Europe. Among her works are " Grace Seymour,"
"Eleanor Fulton," "Luther and his Times," and a
"History of Sculpture and Sculptors."
Lee, (HARRIET,) an English writer of fiction, was
born in London in 1756. In partnership with her sister
Sophia, she taught school for many years (1780-1803)
at Bath. After publishing "Clara Lennox" and other
novels, which are now neglected, she produced between
1797 and 1805 five volumes of the "Canterbury Tales,"
which were very successful. Died in 1851. Lord Byron,
referring to " Kruitzner" in Lee's " Canterbury Tales,"
(from which he took the subject of his " Werner,") says,
" I am not sure it ever was very popular ; . . . but I
have generally found that those who had read it agreed
with me in their estimate of the singular power of mind
and conception which it develops. . . . Amongst those
whose opinions agreed with mine upon this story I could
mention some very high names." (See Preface to the
tragedy of " Werner.")
Lee, ( HENRY,) an eminent American general, born in
Westmoreland county, Virginia, in January, 1756. His
father, Henry Lee, was a first-cousin of Richard Henry
Lee. He became a captain of cavalry in 1776, joined
the main army in September, 1777, and performed several
daring exploits. He captured a British fort at Paulus
Hook in July, 1779- He was raised to the rank of lieu
tenant-colonel about 1780, after which year he served in
the army of General Greene as an officer of cavalry. He
rendered important services at Guilford Court-House,
March, 1781, and at the attack on Fort Ninety-Six. His
legion of cavalry also contributed to the victory at Eutaw
Springs, September 8, 1781. He was appointed a dele
gate to the General Congress in 1786, and was elected
Governor of Virginia in 1791 or 1792. He was again a
member of Congress in 1799, and was selected by Con
gress to pronounce a eulogy on Washington, whom he
characterized as "first in war, first in peace, and first in
the hearts of his countrymen." He wrote about the year
1809 valuable "Memoirs of the War in the Southern
States." In 1814 he was severely injured by a Baltimore
mob, against which he fought to defend a printing-office
and editor. He never recovered from this injury, and
died in Georgia in March, 1818, leaving four sons, —
Henry, Charles C., Robert E., (the famous general,) and
Sidney Smith. He was often called LIGHT- HOKSK
HARRY. In a letter to Henry Lee, General Greene
wrote, "Everybody knows I have the highest opinion of
you as an officer. . . . No man in the progress of the
campaign had equal merit with yourself."
See DUYCKINCK, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. ;
" Encyclopaedia Americana."
Lee, (JESSE,) an American Methodist divine, born
in Virginia in 1758, was for many years a chaplain to
Congress. Died in 1816. '
Lee, (JoiiN,) D.D., a Scottish professor of divinity,
born about 1780. He became principal of the University
of Edinburgh about 1840, and afterwards professor of
divinity there. Died in 1859.
Lee, (LKROY MADISON,) D.D., an American clergy
man of the Methodist Episcopal Church, born at Peters
burg, Virginia, in 1808. He published several religious
works, and in 1836 became editor of the Richmond
"Christian Advocate."
Lee, (LUTHER,) D.D., an eminent American divine
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Scho-
harie county, New York, in 1800. He was editor of the
"New England Christian Advocate" and "The True
Wesleyan." He became president and professor of the
ology in Michigan Union College in 1856. He has pub
lished, among other works, " Slavery Examined in the
Light of the Bible," and "The Immortality of the Soul."
Lee, (MARY E.,) born at Charleston, South Carolina,
in 1813, was the author of "Tales from History," and
made a number of translations from the French, Italian,
and German. Died in 1849.
See GRISWOLD, "Female Poets of America."
Lee, (NATHANIEL,) an English dramatist, born about
1658. After he>had appeared as an actor on the London
stage without success, he composed thirteen tragedies,
two of which — viz., "Alexander the Great" and "Theo-
closius" — obtained public favour. He was confined in
Bedlam for insanity in 1684, and released about ]688.
Died in 1691. His imagination is extravagant, and in
clined to bombast. " Among our modern English poets,"
says Acldison, "there is none who was better turned for
tragedy than Lee, if, instead of favouring the impetuosity
of his genius, he had restrained it within proper bounds."
See "Retrospective Review," vol. iii., 1821.
Lee, (RACHEL FANNY ANTONINA,) an eccentric Eng
lish authoress, originally named DASHWOOD, was born
about 1770. She wrote an "Essay on Government,"
which was commended by Wordsworth. Died in 1829.
See DE QUINCEV, "Autobiographic Sketches," chap. iv.
Lee, (RICHARD HENRY,) an American statesman and
orator, and one of the signers of the Declaration of In-
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LEE
'393
LEE
dependence, was born in the county of Westmoreland,
Virginia, in 1732. He was educated in England, and,
after his return, was elected about 1757 to the House of
Burgesses in Virginia. He married Miss Aylett in early
life. In 1765 he eloquently defended the resolutions
against the Stamp Act, introduced by Patrick Henry.
He was a delegate from Virginia in 1774 to the Conti
nental Congress, and took a prominent part in the pro
ceedings of that body. The memorial to the people of
British America, authorized by the Continental Congress,
is attributed to his pen. In June, 1776, he introduced
into Congress the measure declaring the colonies free
and independent States, which motion he supported by
a most eloquent and powerful speech. Mr. Lee was
again elected to Congress in 1778 ; he became president
of that body in 1784, and was elected a United States
Senator from Virginia in 1789. Like most other Vir
ginians, he disapproved the Federal Constitution. Died
in 1794.
Set; GOODRICH. "I ives of the Signers to the Declaration of In
dependence;" '' Memoirs <>t" the Life of R. H. I.ee," by his grand
son, R H. LEI-;, 2 vob.. 1825 ; '• North American Review" for April,
1X26, (by KUWARU EVEKKTT.)
Lee, (ROBERT,) I). D , a theologian, born at North Dur
ham in 1804, was a minister of the Established Church of
Scotland. He became professor of biblical criticism in
the University of Edinburgh in 1846. Died in 1868.
Lee, (RuiiKKT EDML'.ND,) a celebrated American
general, a son of General Henry Lee, noticed above,
was born ar Stratford, Westmoreland county, Virginia,
in 1806. His mother's name was Anne Carter. He
graduated at the head of his class at West Point in 1829,
and married in 1832 a daughter of George Washington
Parke Custis, who was the adopted son of General
Washington. He obtained the rank of captain in 1838,
and served in the Mexican war (1846-47) as chief engi
neer of the army of General Scott, by whom his conduct
was highly commended. For his services in Mexico he
was raised to the rank of brevet colonel. He was
superintendent of the Academy at West Point from
September, 1852, to April, 1855. By his marriage he
became proprietor of the Arlington House, on the Poto
mac, where his family resided when the civil war began.
He \vas appointed a colonel of cavalry in March, 1861.
On the 2oth of April, 1861, he resigned his commission
by a letter to General Scott, to whom he wrote, "My
resignation would have been presented at once, but
for the struggle it has cost me to separate myself from
a service to which I have devoted all the best years of
my life."
About the 2ist of April he was appointed major-
general in command of all the forces of Virginia. In
July ensuing, his rank was fixed as brigadier-general in
the Confederate army, and he took command of a force
in Northwestern Virginia. He was opposed to General
Rosecrans in this campaign, the results of which were
rather favourable to the Unionists; though no impor
tant battle was fought. About December, 1861, he was
ordered to take charge of the coast-defences of South
Carolina and Georgia. He returned to Richmond in
March, 1862, and on the 3d of June took the chief com
mand of the army destined to defend the capital. On
the 2fith of June he attacked the army of General
McClellan at Mechanicsville. The conflict was renewed
on the 27th at Gaines's Mill, where both armies suffered
heavy losses. Having been attacked at Savage's Sta
tion on the 2gth, the Union army retired to Malvern
Hill, close to the James River. Lee's army was defeated
at Malvern Hill, July i, losing about 6500 killed and
wounded. General McClellan was, nevertheless, soon
after compelled to retreat, and to abandon the siege of
Richmond. The seat of war having been transferred
to the northern part of Virginia, General Lee gained a
victory over General Pope at Bull Run, or Manassas,
on the 2gth and ^oth of August, and invaded Maryland
about the 4th of September. He commanded in person
at the great battle of Antietam, September 17, where he
had, according to Pollard, about 70,000 men. His loss
at South Mountain and Antietam is reported to have
been 1842 killed and 9399 wounded, besides several
thousand prisoners. General Lee retired to Virginia on
the 1 8th, but was not pursued, and occupied a strongly-
fortified position at Fredericksburg, where General
Burnside attacked him on the I3th of December and
was repulsed with heavy loss. On the 2d and 3d of
May, Generals Lee and Hooker fought a great battle at
Chancellorsville, where the former had the advantage;
but the losses were nearly equal, and the retiring Union
army was not pursued. Having been largely reinforced,
he assumed the offensive with an army of about 95,000
men, and crossed the Potomac on the 24th of June, 1863,
for the invasion of Pennsylvania. Marching against
Harrisburg, he was confronted at Gettysburg by the
Union army, commanded by General Meade and posted
on a range of hills. The Union army acted on the
defensive in the battle of Gettysburg, which began on
the ist of July and was renewed on the 2d without a
decisive result. On the 3d, General Lee made several
desperate assaults, which were repulsed, and the Union
army was finally victorious. According to the report of
General Meade, the Federals took here 13,621 prisoners,
including the wounded. General Lee retired in the
night of the 4th of July, through the rain, and returned
to Virginia. His army was not engaged in any great
battles during the ensuing winter.
The campaign of 1864 was opened about the 4th of
May by General Grant, who crossed the Rapidan and
advanced towards Richmond. A severe and indecisive
battle ensued at the Wilderness on the 5th and 6th of
May. General Grant continued to approach his objective
point by a series of flank movements, alternating with
great battles at Spottsylvania Court-House, May 9-12,
at the North Anna River, May 23, and Cold Harbour,
June 3. In these battles General Lee acted mostly on
the defensive in fortified positions, and his losses were
probably less than those of Grant. General Grant, how
ever, referring to those battles, says, " Bloody and terrible
as they were on our side, they were even more damaging
to the enemy." Having crossed the James River about
June 15, the Union army commenced the long siege of
Petersburg, near which several actions were fought in
July and August. (See GRANT, ULYSSKS S.)
In February or March, 1865, General Lee was appointed
commander-in-chief of all the Confederate armies. During
the winter of 1864-65 the army of Virginia had been
mostly inactive, and greatly trammelled by the necessity
of defending Richmond and Petersburg. About the 3OtB
of March the armies operating against these cities began
to move, and to cut the Danville and Southside Railroads,
by which Lee's army received supplies. The right wing
of his army was defeated by General Sheridan at Five
Forks on the 1st of April, and General Grant made a
general and successful assault on the works at Peters
burg on the 2d. General Lee evacuated Richmond and
Petersburg in the night of April 2, and retreated towards
Danville with about 35,000 men. He was pursued by
the cavalry under General Sheridan, who attacked him
On the 6th near the Appomattox River and took about
6000 prisoners. He received pacific overtures from
General Grant on the 7th, and surrendered his army at
Appomattox Court-House on the 9th of April, 1865. It
was then agreed by the contracting parties that "each
officer and man will be allowed to return to his home,
not to be disturbed by United States authority so long
as they observe their paroles and the laws in force where
they reside." Soon after the end of the war, General Lee
became president of Washington College, at Lexington,
Virginia. Speaking of the character of Lee as a general,
Mr. Greeley remarks that he knew how to make the
most of a good defensive position, "the single point in
which (but it is a vital one) his admirers can justify
their claim for him of a rare military genius. No other
American has ever so thoroughly appreciated and so
readily seized the enormous advantage which the in
creased range, precision, and efficiency given to musketry
by rifling have insured to the defensive, when wielded
by a commander who knows how speedily a trench may
be dug and a slight breastwork thrown up, which will
stop nine-tenths of the bullets." ("American Conflict,"
vol. ii. p. 581.) He died, at Lexington, October 12, 1870.
See "Southern Genera's," (anonymous.) New York, 1865; E. A.
POLI.ARD, "Lee and his Lieutenants, "1867.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, gtittural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
LEE
1394
/ EFEB^RE
Lee, (SAMUEL,) an English nonconformist minister,
born in London in 1625. He preached in London for
some years, and emigrated to New England about 1686.
He published several religious works, among which is
"The Temple of Solomon." Died in 1691.
Lee, (SAMUEL,) D.D., an eminent English Orientalist,
born at Longnor, in Shropshire, in 1783. He learned
the trade of a carpenter, which he followed for some
years, during which he studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew,
Syriac, Arabic, etc. About 1817 he took the degree of
B.A. at Cambridge, and entered holy orders. He was
chosen professor of Arabic at Cambridge in 1819, and
professor of Hebrew about 1832, after which date he
obtained the rectory of Barley. He published a Hebrew
Grammar, (1830,) a "Hebrew, Chaldaic, and English
Lexicon," (1840,) an " Inquiry into the Nature, Progress,
and End of Prophecy," (1849,) and other works. Died
in 1852.
Lee, (SAMUEL P.,) an American naval officer, born in
Virginia, became a midshipman in 1825. lie commanded
the Oneida in the battle against the forts and gun
boats below New Orleans in April, 1862, and in 1^
was promoted to the command of the North Atlantic
Blockading Squadron.
Lee, (SARAH,) (Mrs. BOWDICH,) an English writer,
born about 1800, was the wife of T. E. Bowdich, whom
she accompanied to South Africa. She wrote "Stories
of Strange Lands," (1825,) a " Memoir of Baron Cuvier,"
(1833,) and other works. She was married again to a
Mr. Lee. Died in 1856.
Lee, ( SOPHIA, ) an English dramatist and novelist,
born in London in 1750, was a sister of Harriet, noticed
above. She began her literary career in 1780 by the
"Chapter of Accidents," a comedy, which was success
ful, and was followed by novels entitled "The Recess,"
(1785,) and "The Life of a Lover." In 1796 she com
posed " Almeyda, Queen of Granada," a tragedy, of which
Mrs. Siddons performed the principal rdle with applause.
She wrote two of the "Canterbury Tales" published by
her sister, and other works. Died in 1824.
See BOADEN, "Life of Mrs. Siddons," chap. vi. p. 103.
Lee, (THOMAS,) a Virginian planter, distinguished for
his talents, was president of the Council of Virginia. He
was the father of Richard Henry, Francis Lightfoot, and
Arthur Lee. Died in 1750.
Lee, (THOMAS,) an American jurist, born at Charles
ton, South Carolina, in 1769. He was appointed by
President Monroe judge of the United States district
court for South Carolina in 1823. Died in 1839.
Lee, (THOMAS BLAND,) an American politician, born
in Virginia about 1762. He was a member of Congress
from 1789 to 1795. Died in 1827.
Leeb, lap, (JOHANN,) a German sculptor, born at
Memmingen in 1790; died about 1856.
Leech, (JOHN,) an English artist and caricaturist,
born in London about 1816. He is chiefly known as the
designer of the humorous figures which illustrate the
London " Punch." His sketches are excellent as works
of art, though drawn with rapidity and haste. He pub
lished "Pictures of Life and Character," and "The
Rising Generation," (1848,) which display a rare percep
tion of the varieties of character and the keenest sense
of the ludicrous. Died in 1864.
See the "North British Review" for March, 1863.
Leech/man, (WILLIAM,) a learned Scottish theolo
gian, born in Lanarkshire in 1706. He was professor of
theology at Glasgow for seventeen years. His lectures
in defence of revealed religion against Voltaire and Hume
are commended. He published a collection of sermons,
and a work " On the Nature, Reasonableness, and Ad
vantages of Prayer," (1743.) Died in 1785.
Leeds, DUKE OF. See DANHY, EARL OF.
Leemans, la'mans, (CONRAD,) a Dutch archaeologist,
bom at Zalt Boemel in 1809, published an extensive
work "On the Egyptian Monuments of the Museum of
Levden," (1835-52.)
Leepe, van der, v3n der la'peh, (JAN ANTOON,) a
Flemish landscape-painter, born at Brussels in 1664,
excelled in marine views. His execution is easy, his
touch light, and his colour good. Among his works is
a " Flight into Egypt." Died in 1720.
Lee'ser, (ISAAC,) a Jewish theologian and religious
writer, born in Westphalia in 1806, emigrated to Amer
ica, and became in 1829 rabbi of the principal synagogue
of Philadelphia. Died in 1868.
Leeu, Leuw, or Leeuw, van der, vtn der lo or luh,
(GAiiRiEL,) a Dutch painter of animals, born at Dort in
1643. He worked at Amsterdam, Paris, Naples, and
Rome with success, and adopted the Italian manner.
His touch was grand and decided. His works represent
flocks of sheep, herds of cattle, etc. Died in 1688.
Leeu or Leeuw, van der, (PIKTER,) a painter of land
scapes and cattle, a brother of the preceding, was born
about 1645. His style resembles that of Van der Velde.
He was a good colorist, and painted with facility. Died
about 1705.
Leeuw or Leuw, van der, vSn der 15 or luh, (WiL-
LEM,) a Flemish engraver, born at Antwerp in 1600.
He engraved many works of Rubens, among which is
" Daniel in the Lions' Den," and several works of Rem
brandt, including " David Playing on the Harp." Died
about 1665.
Leeuwen, van, vjtn luh'wen or 16'wen, ( SIMON,) a
Dutch jurist, born at Leyden in 1625 ; died in 1682.
Leeuwenhoeck. See LF.UWENHOEK.
Leeves, leevz, (Rev. WILLIAM,) an English composer,
born in 1749, was the author of the air of " Auld Robin
Gray." Died in 1828.
Lefebure, leh-fa'biiu', (Louis HKNRI, ) a French
litterateur, born in Paris in 1754. He wrote a prize
essay against lotteries, besides several treatises on music
and botany. Died in 1839.
Lefebure de Foxircy, 1eh-fa'buV deh fooR'se',
(Louis,) a French mathematician, born at Saint Do
mingo in 1785. He succeeded Lacroix as professor in
the Faculty of Sciences in Paris, and published "De
scriptive Geometry," (4th edition, 1843,) and "Analytic
Geometry," (1827.)
Lefebvre. See LEFEVRE.
Lefebvre, leh-f.\vR' or leh-fevit', (CHARLEMAGNE
TuEoriULF.,) a French traveller, born at Nantes in
181 1, became an officer in the navy. He wrote " Travels
in Abyssinia," (6 vols., 1845-50,) a scientific work of
much merit.
Lefebvre, (FRANQOIS JOSEPH,) Duke of Dantzic, a
French marshal, born at Ruffach, in Alsace, in 1755. He
was rapidly promoted in the war which began in 1792, and
became a general of division in January, 1794. lie con
tributed greatly to the victories of Fleurus (1794) and
Altenkirchen, (1796.) In August, 1799, he was appointed
by the Directory commander of the military division of
which Paris was the head-quarters. On the i8th Bru-
maire he acted as lieutenant of Bonaparte, to whom he
rendered important services in that coup d'etat which
made him dictator. He was made a marshal of the
empire in 1804, commanded the foot-guards at the battle
of Jena, and was rewarded for his success at the siege
of Dantzic in 1807 by the title of Duke of Dantzic. In
the Austrian campaign of 1809 his skill and courage
were conspicuous at Eckmiihl and Wagram. He com
manded the imperial guard in the Russian campaign of
1812, and defended France at Montmirail, etc. in 1814.
On the return of Bonaparte from Elba, Lefebvre ac
cepted a place in his Chamber of Peers, and conse
quently was excluded from that of Louis XVIII. in
1816. He was reinstated in his military rank in 1819.
Died in 1820. He had the reputation of being one of
the best generals of the army, uniting great intrepidity
with superior judgment, and had the faculty of animating
his. men as if by an electric influence. "His military
genius," says Marshal Suchet, " found on the scene of
action, and without any previous combination, extraor
dinary resources to decide the victory."
See THIERS, " History of the French Revolution," and " History
of the Consulate and the Empire;" DE COURCEI.I.KS, "Dictionnaire
des GeneVanx Frnngais;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lefebvre, (TANNEGUY.) See LEFEVRE.
Lefebvre or Lefevre, (VALENTIN.) See FERRE, LE.
Lefebvre de Cheverus, (JEAN Louis ANNE MADE
LEINE.) See CHEVERUS.
Lefebvre - Desnouettes, leh - flvu' cli'noo'et',
[CHARLES,) COUNT, a French general, born in Paris in
a, e, T, o, u, y, Jong; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LEFEVRE
1395
LEGARE
1773. He entered the army in 1792, and was chosen
one of Bonaparte's aides-de-camp in 1800. As colonel
he distinguished himself at Austerlitz in 1805. He be
came a general of division in 1808, commanded the chas
seurs of the emperor's guard in 1809, and was employed
near Napoleon's person in Russia, (1812.) At the first
restoration he was retained in his command by Louis
XVIII. ; but he joined the standard of Bonaparte in
March, 1815, and fought at Waterloo. Having been
condemned to death by a council of war, he escaped to
the United States in 1816. He perished in the wreck
of the Albion packet-ship, as he was returning to Europe,
in April, 1822.
Lefevre. See CAUMARTIN, DACIER, FEVRE, LE-
FHHVRK, and FABER, (JEAN.)
Lefevre, (CHARLES SHAW.) See EVERSLEY.
Lefevre or Lefebvre, (CLAUDE.) See FEVRE, LE.
Lefevre, leh-favR', (JEAN,) a French astronomer,
born at Lisieux, became a member of the Academy of
Sciences in 1682. He edited the " Connaissances des
Temps" from 1684 to 1701. Died in 1706.
Lefevre, (JEAN JACQUES,) a liberal French publisher,
born at Neufchateau in 1779, settled in Paris in his
youth. He published excellent editions of many Greek,
Latin, and French classics, for some of which he wrote
notes. Died in 1858.
Lefevre, (NICOLAS,) an able French chemist, emi
grated ;o England in 1664 at the invitation of Charles
II., who gave him the direction of a "laboratory in his
palace. He wrote "Theoretical and Practical Chem
istry," (1660.) Died in 1674.
Lefevre, (PIERRE FRANC.OIS ALEXANDRE,) a French
dramatist and poet, born in Paris in 1741, produced
tragedies entitled " Zuma," (1776,) and "Elisabeth de
France," (1783,) also "Gustavus Vasa," an epic poem.
Died in 1813.
Lefevre, (ROBERT,) a French portrait-painter, born
at Bayeux, in Calvados, in 1756, removed to Paris in
1784. Having acquired a high reputation, he painted
portraits of Napoleon and Josephine, which were so
much admired that more than twenty copies were or
dered by various cities, courts, and other parties. About
1815 he received the title of first painter to the king.
Died in 1830.
Lefevre or Lefebvre, 1eh-fivR', (TANNEGUI or TAN-
NEGUY, tSn'ge',) [Lat. TANAQUIL'LUS FA'HER,] an emi
nent French scholar and critic, born at Caen in 1615, was
the father of the renowned Madame Dacier. He was
appointed by Cardinal Richelieu inspector of the royal
printing-establishment in Paris. After the death of
Richelieu he joined the Protestants, and was chosen a
professor in the Academy of Saumur about 1655. He
published annotated editions of Lucretius, (1662,) Lon-
ginus, (1663,) Horace, (1671,) Virgil, and other classics,
and translated into French several Greek works. Died
in 1672.
See F. GRAVEROL, " Memoires pour servir a la Vie de T. Le
fevre, "1686; NICEHON, "Memoires;" MM. HAAG, "La France
protestante ;" "Nouveile Biographic Gene'rale."
Lefevre de la Boderie, leh-ftvR' deh It bod're',
(GuY,) a French Orientalist, born near Falaise in 1541.
He co-operated with Arias Montanus in the Polyglot
Bible of Antwerp, for which he edited and translated
into Latin the Syriac version of the New Testament,
(1572.) He also wrote some poems. Died in 1598.
Lefevre d'fitaples, leh-fivR' da'tfpl', [Lat. FA'ISER
STAPULEN'SIS,] (JACQUES,) an eminent French scholar
and theologian, born at fitaples about 1455. ^e was
condemned as a heretic by the Sorbonne, but was justi
fied by Francis I., who employed him as preceptor to
his son. Lefevre produced the first complete French
version of the Bible, (1530.) His version is used in the
French Protestant churches. He wrote commentaries
on the works of Aristotle. Erasmus expressed veneration
for his character, (singularem vita: sanctimoniam veneror.)
Died in 1537.
^ee C. H. GRAF, " Essai sur la Vie et les Kcrits de J. Lefevre
d'Etaples," 1842; BAYLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;"
HAAG, " La France protestante ;" " Nouveile Biographic Generale ."
Lefevre de Saint-Remy, leh-ftvR' deh sa.\ ra'me',
(JEAN,) a French chronicler, born near Abbeville about
1394 ; died in 1468.
Lefevre-Deumier, leh-ftvR' duh'me^i', (JULES,) a
French poet, born about 1804. He became private
librarian of President Louis Napoleon in 1849, and
librarian at the Tuileries in 1852. Died in 1857.
Leflo, leh-flo', (AnoLPHE CHARLES EMMANUEL,) a
French general, born at Lesneven in 1804. lie was sent
as ambassador to Russia in 1848, and was banished in
1852.
Lefort or Le Fort, leh-foii', (FRANC.OIS,) a Swiss
general, was born at Geneva in 1656. He entered the
Russian service, and fought several campaigns against
the Turks before the peace of 1681. He rendered valu
able service to the Czar Peter in his contest with Sophia,
his sister and rival ; and when that prince triumphed, in
1689, Lefort became his favourite and chief minister, a
dignity which he merited by his virtues and talents. He
gave wise counsels to the young autocrat, and was the
author of many of the reforms which marked that reign.
Lefort was appointed general-in-chief and admiral about
1693. Died in 1699.
See BASSEVILLE, "Vie de F. Lefort," 1784; GOLIKOF, "Vie de
Lefort," Moscow, i?oo; VOI.TAJRE. " Histoire de Pierre le Grand.Jljy—
'Tl'Afse iC, 2tf. 7^t ",i z •?> *Srtr£~. zi^, ^'-t-r^TTTT^ >
Lefranc. See POMPIGNAN.
Lefranc, (MARTIN.) See FRANC, LE.
Lefranc, leh-fkS.N', (VICTOR,) a French advocate and
writer, born at Garsin in 1809.
Lefran9ais. See LALANDE.
Lefren, la'fRen or Ifi'fuen, (LARS ULOF,) a Swedish
Orientalist, born in 1722; died in 1803.
Lefuel, leh-fu-el', (MARTIN HECTOR,) a French archi
tect, born at Versailles in 1810. In 1853 he succeeded
Visconti as architect of the structures by which the
Louvre is joined to the Tuileries. He designed the
fafades and distributed the interiors of this work, which
was finished in 1857. He designed the palace of the
Universal Exposition of 1855.
See " Nouveile Biographic Ge^ieVa!e."
Legallois or Le Gallois, leh-gi'lwa', QULIEN JEAN
CESAR,) a French physiologist, born near Dol, in Bre-
tagne, in 1770. In 1801 he took the degree of M.D.,
and wrote an able treatise entitled "Is the Blood iden
tical in all the Vessels through which it passes ?" He
merited a high rank among physiologists and experi
menters by his "Experiments on the Principle of Life,
especially on that of the Movements of the Heart and
on the Seat of this Principle," (1812.) Died in 1814.
See BOISSEAU, in the " Biographie Medicale;" "Nouveile Bio-
graphie Generale."
Le Gallois, (PIERRE,) a French bibliographer, born
in Paris. He published a " Treatise on the Finest Libra
ries of Europe," (1680.)
Legare, pronounced leh-gree', (HUGH SWINTON,) an
American statesman and scholar, of Huguenot descent,
was born at Charleston, South Carolina, January 2, 1797.
He graduated at the South Carolina College about 1815,
after which he pursued his studies in Paris and Edin
burgh. He was well versed in Greek and other lan
guages. He also studied law, and gave much attention
to juridical philosophy. In 1830 he was elected attorney-
general of South Carolina. He contributed many able
articles to the " Southern Review," and was an adherent
of the Union when nullification was agitated in his State.
Having served as charge-d'affaires at Brussels for about
three years, he returned home in 1836, and was elected
by the voters of Charleston a member of Congress, in
which he served one term, (1837-39.) As a lawyer he
stood high in his profession. In 1840 he advocated the
election of General Harrison to the Presidency by several
eloquent speeches in New York, Virginia, etc. He was
appointed in September, 1841, attorney-general of the
United States under President Tyler. He died at Boston
in June, 1843. Among his writings are an "Essay on
Classical Learning," an "Essay on Roman Literature,"
and "The Constitutional History of Greece." "The
impression left by his collected writings," says R. W.
Griswold, " is that his mind was of the first order, but that
it did not hold in that order a very prominent place."
See GRISWOLD, " Prose Writers of America," and a Memoir pre
fixed to Legare's collected works, 2 vols., 1846.
Legare, (Bullen,) (MARY SWINTON,) sister of Hugh
S. Legare, noticed above, was born at Charleston, South
c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^T^See Explanations, p, 23.)
LEGJZPI
1396
LEGOUVE
Carolina, about 1800. She has acquired distinction as an
artist.
Legazpi, de, da la-gath-pee', (MIGUEL LOPE/,,) a
Spanish commander, born at Zubarraja. He went to
Mexico in 1545, and commanded an expedition sent in
1564 against the Philippine Isles, which he conquered
about 1565-70. Died in 1572.
Legendre or Le G-endre, leh-zhoNclu', (ADRIEN
MARIE,) an eminent French geometer, and one of the
most profound analysts of his time, was born at Tou
louse in 1752. He was educated at Mazarin College,
Paris, and in early life obtained a chair of mathematics
in the Ecole militaire of that city. Having written a
prize essay on the balistic problem, and a memoir on
the attraction of spheroids, (1782,) he was admitted into
the Academy of Sciences in 1783. lie was associated
in 1787 with Cassini and Mechain in the operation to
connect the Observatories of Paris and Greenwich by a
series of triangles. In 1794 he published his admirable
"Elements of Geometry," which has been extensively
used as a text-book in various languages, and has done
more to popularize his name than any other work. He
was a member of the bureau of longitudes, and from
1807 to, 1815 an honorary councillor of the Imperial
University. In 1807 he produced an important work
called "Exercises on Integral Calculus," etc., ("Exer-
cices de Calcul integral sur divers Ordres de Transcen-
dantes," 3 vols.,) which contains his discoveries on the
subject of elliptic functions. This subject was more
fully developed in his "Traite des Fonctions elliptiques
et des Integrates Euleriennes," (3 vols., 1827.) He also
made valuable additions to the theory of numbers, on
which he published an essay. Died in 1833. Laplace,
Lagrange, and Legendre formed a mathematical trium
virate, which the French consider entitled to pre
eminence among European geometers of that age.
See " Noiivelle Hiographie Gene'rale ;" " Memoir of Legendre"
in the "Report of the Smithsonian Institution" for 1867, translated
from tlie French of fii.iE DK BEAUMONT; "North American Re
view" for July, 1828.
Legendre, (Louis,) a French historian, born at
Rouen in 1655. He became a canon of the church of
Notre-Dame, Paris, and published, besides other works,
a " History of France, ending at the Death of Louis
XIII.," (3 vols., 1718.) Died in 1733.
Legendre, (Louis,) a subaltern demagogue of the
French Revolution, born in 1756. He was deputed in
1792 to the Convention, in which he voted with the
"Mountain." "He was," says Lamartine, "the most
courageous friend of Danton, and was by turns the
agitator and moderator of the people." The next day
after the arrest of Danton, Legendre openly defended
him in the Convention by a speech. Died in 1797.
Legendre, (Nicoi.AS,) a French sculptor, born at
Etampes in 1619, worked in Paris. His subjects are
chiefly religious. Died in 1671.
Le Gentil. See LA BARIUNAIS.
Legentil de la Galaisiere, leh-zh6N'te' cleh IS gi'-
LVze-a,iR', (Guiu.AUME JOSEPH HYACINTHS JEAN BAP-
TiSTnT) a French astronomer and traveller, born at
Coutances in 1725. In 1769 he went to Pondicherry to
observe the transit of Venus, but failed, because the sun
was hidden by clouds. He published a "Voyage in the
Indian Seas," (1779,) which contains valuable observa
tions on monsoons, currents, and tides, and information
respecting the manners, religion, and science of the
Hindoos. Died in 1792.
See JEAN DOMINIQUE CASSINI, " filoge de M. Legentil," 1810.
Leger, la'zha' or la'zhaiit', (ANTOINE,) a Protestant
.divine, born in Savoy in 1594. He was professor of
theology and Oriental languages at Geneva from 1645
until his death, in 1661. He published a Greek edition
of the New Testament, (1638.)
Leger, (ANTOINE,) a son of the preceding, was born
in Geneva in 1652, and was ordained a minister He
filled the chair of philosophy for twenty-four years at
Geneva with eminent success. He published several
scientific treatises and many sermons. Died in 1719.
Leger, (JEAN,) a cousin of the preceding, was born
in Savoy in 1615. He was a pastor of a church of the
Waldenses, and, having escaped from the massacre of
1655, he went to France, and solicited the intervention
of the court for his countrymen. In 1663 he became
pastor of a Walloon church in Leyclen. He wrote a
" History of the Churches of the Valleys of Piedmont,"
(the Waldenses, 1669.) Died about 1670.
See " Abrege de la Vie de Jean Leger, ecrite par lui-meme," at
the end of his " History of the Waldenses."
Leger, SAINT. See SAINT-!, EC.EK.
Legge, leg, (GEORGE,) Lord Dartmouth, an English
admiral, born about 1648. lie distinguished himself in
the war against the Dutch in 1671, was made Baron of
Dartmouth in 1682, and admiral in 1683. At the acces
sion of James II., in 1685, he was appointed master of
the horse and general of the ordnance. He commanded
the fleet in 1688, and made an ineffectual effort to pre
vent the landing of the Prince of Orange. After taking
the oath to William III., he joined a Jacobite conspiracy
in 1690. " He laid a plan," says Macaulay, "for betray
ing Portsmouth to the French." He was arrested for
treason, and sent to the Tower, where, after a short
confinement, he died of apoplexy in 1691.
Leg'gett, ( WILLIAM,) an American journalist and
miscellaneous writer, born in New York in 1802. In
1828 he founded in his native city a literary gazette en
titled "The Critic," which was subsequently united with
"The Mirror." To these journals he contributed a num
ber of spirited tales and sketches, afterwards published
under the titles of "Sketches of the Sea" and "Tales by
a Country Schoolmaster." He married Elmira Waring
in 1828, and became associated with Mr. Bryant as
editor of the " Evening Post" in 1829, and in 1836 estab
lished "The Plaindealer," (issued weekly,) which soon
acquired a high reputation for its independent spirit and
the distinguished ability with which it was conducted.
He was appointed a diplomatic agent from the United
States to the republic of Guatemala in April, 1838, but,
while preparing for his departure, died suddenly, on
the 29th of May, 1838. Two volumes of his political
writings, with a Memoir, were published by his friend
Mr. Theodore Sedgwick, who says, in his preface, "It is
not the suggestion of a too fond affection, but the voice
of a calm judgment, which declares that, whatever public
career he had pursued, he must have raised to his
memory an imperishable monument."
See R. W. GRISWOI.D, "Poets and Poetry of America ;" Duvc-
KINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; "London
Quarterly Review," 1828; "Democratic Review" for January, 1840,
(with portrait.)
Legillon, leh-zhe'yo.N', (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a Flemish
painter, born at Bruges in 1739; died in Paris in 1797.
Legipont, leh-zhe'p6.N', (OLIVER,) a learned monk
and writer, born at Soiron, in Limburg, in 1698; died
in 1758.
Le Glay, leh gli, (ANDRE JOSEPH GHISLAIN,) a
French historian, born at Arleux in 1785.
Legnani, len-ya'nee or lan-ya'nee, (S'l'EFANO,) an
Italian painter, also called Legnanino, born at Milan in
1640, was a pupil of Cignani and Carlo Maratta. He
painted frescos at Milan. Died in 1715.
See E. CORAZZI, " Elogio storico di S. Legnani," 1720.
Legobien, leh-go'be^N', (CHARLES,) a French Jesuit,
born at Saint-Malo in 1653, became secretary of the
missions to China. He published, about 1702, a collec
tion of letters from missionaries in China, etc., entitled
" Lettres edifiantes et curieuses ecrites des Missions
etrangeres." This interesting publication was continued
by Duhalde. Died in 1708.
Le Gonidec, leh go'ne'dek', (JEAN FRANQOIS MARIE,)
a French philologist, born at Conquet, in Bretagne, in
1775. He published a good " Dictionnaire Breton-
Frai^ais," (1821.) Died in 1838.
Legote, la-go'ta, (PAULO,) a Spanish painter, born
about 1600 ; died at Cadiz about 1670.
Legouve, leh-goo'va', (ERNEST WILFRID,) a French
poet and novelist, born in Paris in 1807. He obtained a
prize of the French Academy for his poem " On the In
vention of Printing," (1829,) and produced several dramas.
He was admitted into the French Academy in 1855.
SeeQuiiRARD, "La France Litteraire."
Legouve, (GABRIEL MARIE JEAN BAPTISTS,) a French
dramatic poet, father of the preceding, was born in Paris
5, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
LE GOUZ
1397
LEHNBERG
in 1764. He produced "The Death of Abel," (1792,)
which was very successful, and other tragedies. He he-
came a member of the Institute in 1798. His tragedy
"Henry IV. of France" (1806) displays dramatic skill
and elegant diction. He composed several popular
poems, one of which is entitled " Female Merit," (" Me-
rite des Femmes," 1800.) Died in 1812, or, according
to some authorities, in 1814.
See " Notice of Legouve," prefixed to his works, by KOUILI.Y and
MA i.o, 1826; QUERAKD, "La France Litte'raire ;" " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Le Gouz. See Gouz.
Legoyt, leh-gwa', (ALFRED,) a French economist and
statistician, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1815, became
chief of the bureau of general statistics, and published,
besides other works, "La France statistique," (1843.)
Legraiii or Legrin, leh-gRiN', (JEAN BAPTISTK,) a
French historian, was born in Paris in 1565. He held
some office at the court of Henry IV., and was master
of requests of the queen Marie de Medicis. He
wrote a History of the Reign of Henry IV., ("Decade
con tenant la Vie et les Gestes," etc., 1614,) and "The
History of Louis XIII. from 1610 to 1617," (1618.)
Died in 1642.
Legrand or Le Grand, leh-gRSN', (ANTOINE,) a
French writer and monk, born at Douay, lived about
1650-80. He was professor of philosophy and theology
in Douay, and was a disciple of the Cartesian philosophy,
on which he wrote several treatises. He published a
"Sacred History from the Creation to Constantine the
Great," (1685,) and other works.
Le Grand, (B.U'TisTE ALEXIS VICTOR,) a meritorious
French engineer and administrator, born in Paris in
1791. He became engineer-in-chief of the first class,
and in 1834 was appointed director-general of bridges,
roads, and mines. He was elected to the Chamber of
Deputies five times. It is stated that no person con
tributed more to the success of the vast plan conceived
in his time to increase the riches of France by facility of
transport. His moral dignity, public spirit, and various
merits are highly commended by M. Villemain, who
calls him a true model of the able and zealous adminis
trator. Died in 1848.
See VII.I.E.MAIN'S article in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Legrand, (CLAUDE JUST ALEXANDRE,) a French
general, born in the department of Oise in 1762. As
general of division, he commanded under Morean at
Hohenlinden, (1800,) and served at Austerlitz, (1805.)
He maintained his reputation at Jena (1806) and at
Wagram, (1809.) He commanded the second corps-
d'armee at the Berezina, (1812.) Died in 1815.
Legrand, (JACQUES GUILLAUME,) an eminent French
architect, born in Paris in 1 743, was a pupil of Clerisseau,
whose daughter he married. After he had travelled in
Italy and acquired a pure taste, he was employed as
architect of several public edifices in Paris, among which
are the Halle aux Bles, (Corn-Market, 1783,) Halle aux
Draps, (Cloth-Market, 1786,) and Theatre Feydeau,
(1790.) Molinos was associated with him in these works.
Legrand published a " Comparison between Ancient and
Modern Architecture," (1799,) and wrote an " Fssay on
the History of Architecture," (1809.) Died in 1807.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Legrand, (JOACHIM,) a French historian and abbe,
born at Saint-Lo in 1653, was a person of great erudi
tion. He was secretary of legation in Spain about 1702,
and was afterwards employed in the foreign office. He
published a " History of the Divorce' of Henry VIII. of
England," (1688,) and a few other historical works.
Died in 1733.
Legrand, (Louis,) a French theologian, born in Bur
gundy in 1711. He became professor or maitre des etudes
in the seminary of Saint-Sulpice, Paris, and published,
besides other works, a " Treatise on the Incarnation of
the Word," (1751.) He composed the censures which
the Faculty of Theology published against Rousseau's
"Emile" (1762) and Buffon's " Cpoques de la Nature."
Died in 1780.
Legrand, (MARC ANTOINE,) a French 'dramatist and
actor, born in Paris in 1673. He composed a number
of popular comedies, among which are "The Blind
Clairvoyant," (1716,) and " Roi de Cocagne," 1719. Died
in 1728.
Legrand d'Aussy, leh-gR&N' do'se', (PIERRE JEAN
BAPTISTE,) a French litterateur, born at Amiens in 1737.
He wrote, besides other works, "Fabliaux, or Tales of
the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries," (1779.) In 1795
he was chosen keeper of the French manuscripts of the
National Library. Died in 1800.
Legranzi, la-gRan'zee, or Legrenzi, la-gRSn'zee,
(GIOVANNI,) an Italian composer, born near Bergamo
about 1625 ; died about 1690.
Legras, leh-gua', (ANTOINE,) a French scholar and
writer, born in Paris about 1680. lie published, besides
other works, "The Works of the Fathers who lived in
the Time of the Apostles, with Notes," (1717.) Died
in 1751.
Legraverend, leh-gkaVRoN', (JEAN MARIE EMA-
NUEL,) a French jurist, born at Rennes in 1776, published
a "Treatise on Criminal Legislation in France," (1816,)
and other approved works. Died in 1827.
Legrenzi. See LKORANZI.
Legrin. See LKGRAIN.
Legris-Duval, leh-gue' dii'vtl', (RENE MICHEL,) a
French priest, born in Bretagne in 1765, was a zealous
and efficient promoter of benevolent institutions. Died
in 1819.
Legroing de la Maisonneuve, leh-gitwaN' deh
IS ini'zo'nuv', (FRANC.OISE THERESE ANTOINETTE,)
COUNTESS, a French authoress, born in Lorraine in 1764.
She wrote "Zenobia," a novel, (1800,) an " Essay on the
Education of Women," (iSoi,) and a "History of the
Gauls and of France from the Earliest Times to the End
of the Reign of Hugh Capet," (1830.) Died in 1837.
Legros or Le Gros, leh-gRo', (NicoLAS,) a French
Jansenist theologian, born atRheimsin 1675. He passed
the last twenty-five years of his life in Holland, to which
he retired for refuge from persecution. Among his works
are a French translation of the Bible, (1739,) which is
esteemed for fidelity, and a "Manual for the Christian,"
(1740.) Died in 1751.
Legros, (PIERRE,) a French sculptor, born in Paris
in 1666. He studied in Rome, where he executed many
admired works. His statue of Saint Dominic is reckoned
among the master-pieces of the Basilica of Saint Peter.
He also adorned the chateau of Versailles. He sacri
ficed less to the depraved taste of the time than most
other French artists. Died in Rome in 1719.
Le Guaspre. See DUGHET.
Lehmann, la'man, (CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED WIL-
HELM,) a German scholar, born at Halberstadt in 1765.
He published a " Summary of the Natural History of
Man," (1799.) Died in 1823.
Lekmami, (HEINRICH,) a skilful German painter of
history and portraits, born at Kiel in 1814. He became
in youth a resident of Paris, where he obtained medals
of the first class in 1840, 1848, and 1855, and was em
ployed by the emperor to adorn the palace of Luxem
bourg.
Lehmann, (JoHANN GEORG,) a German topographer,
born in 1765, invented about 1793 a new method of sur
veying, since called by his name. Died in 1811.
Lehmami, (JOHANN GEORG CHRISTOPH,) a German
botanist, born about 1794, was professor of botany at
Hamburg. He wrote monographs of several genera,
and other works. Died in 1861.
Lehmann, (JoiiANN GOTTLOU,) a German philoso
pher, who acquired a European reputation as a mine
ralogist. In 1761 he removed from Berlin to Saint
Petersburg, in compliance with an invitation from the
empress, who gave him a place in the Academy of that
city. He published a work on mineralogy for the use
of schools, (1759,) and other treatises on that science.
Died in 1767.
Lehmann, (Runoi.F,) a painter, and a brother of
Heinrich, was born at Hamburg in 1819. lie worked
mostly in Rome, and received medals at the Salon of
Paris. Many of his works represent the manners, cos
tumes, and scenery of Italy.
Lehiiberg, lan'be'RG, (MAGNUS,) an eloquent Swedish
writer and pulpit orator, born in 1758, became Bishop
of Linkoping. Died in 1809.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Mi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23
LEHOC
1398
LE1DT
Lehoc, leh-ok', (Louis GREGOIRE,) a French littera
teur, bom in Paris in 1743. Among his works is "Pyr-
rhus," a tragedy, (1807.) Died in 1810.
Lehrberg, lai/beRG, (ARON CHRISTIAN,) a Russian
scholar, born at Dorpat, in Livonia, in 17/0. He re
moved to Saint Petersburg, and wrote "Inquiries into
the Early History of Russia," (1814.) Died in 1813.
Le Huerou, leh hii-a'Roo', QULIEN MARIE,) a French
historian, born at Prat in 1807. He wrote on the history
of the Franks, Gauls, etc. Died in 1843.
Leibnitz or Leibniz, von, fon lib'nlts or llp'nlts,
[Lat. LEIBNITZ'IUS,] (GOTTFRIED WILHELM,) BARON, a
German philosopher and mathematician of the first
order, pre-eminent among the moderns as a universal
genius, was born at Leipsic on the 6th of July, 1646.
He was a son of Friedrich Leibnitz, professor of moral
philosophy at Leipsic. After learning Latin and Greek
at the school of Saint Nicholas, he entered the University
of Leipsic at the age of fifteen, and studied law, philoso
phy, mathematics, etc. He acquired a profound know
ledge of the works of Plato and Aristotle, whose systems
he endeavoured to harmonize. In 1666 he produced a
remarkable treatise on the combination of numbers and
ideas, " De Arte Combinatorial' and took the degree of
doctor of laws at Altorf. He accepted in 1667 the office
of councillor of state at Frankfort, and published his
"New Method of Learning and Teaching Jurispru
dence," ("Nova Methodus discendae docendseque Juris-
prudentias," 1668,) an ingenious and profound essay on
Roman law, which raised him to the first rank of philo
sophic writers.
Attracted by a tendency to universality in science, he
meditated the plan of an encyclopaedia, which became
one of his favourite projects, and produced in rapid
succession works on politics, religion, and philosophy,
in Latin and French, — for he scarcely ever wrote in his
mother-tongue. He advanced new and bold theories of
motion in his "Theory of Concrete Motion" ("Theoria
Motus concreti") and "Theory of Abstract Motion,"
("Theoria Motus abstract!," 1671.) In 1672 he visited
Paris, where he met Cassini and Iluyghens, and declined
to enter the Academy of Sciences with the condition that
he should abjure the Protestant religion. Proceeding
to London, he formed an acquaintance with Newton,
Boyle, and others, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal
Society. In 1676 he removed to Hanover, having been
appointed by the Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg his coun
sellor {Hofrath} and librarian. About this time he made
the great discovery of the infinitesimal calculus, nearly
identical with Newton's method of fluxions. Many
years later an acrimonious controversy was carried on
between the friends of these two rivals, respecting the
priority of claim to this discovery. A committee of
the Royal Society of London (about 1705) decided in
favour of Newton ; but M. Biot maintains that Leibnitz
anticipa-ted Newton in respect to publicity by a letter to
Oldenburg in 1676, and accords to both the honour of
the original invention. Leibnitz developed the power
of this calculus with a marvellous felicity in its applica
tion to the theory of curves, to mechanical problems, etc.
In 1682 he became editor of the "Acta Eruditorum"
of Leipsic, a journal which he rendered celebrated. He
wrote in 1693 a treatise on geology, entitled "Protogasa,"
"which," says Hallam, "no one can read without per
ceiving that of all the early geologists Leibnitz came
nearest to the theories which are most received in the
English school at this day." He was appointed presi
dent of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin in 1702, with
out being required to change his residence or to retire
« from the service of the Elector of Brunswick. Charles
VI. of Germany gave him the titles of baron and of aulic
councillor, but could not prevail on him to enter his
'service. Between 1690 and 1700 he was engaged in a
long epistolary negotiation with Bossuet in order to re
store the unity of the Catholic and Protestant churches.
He crowned his career as author by his great work
entitled "Essay of Theodicea on the Goodness of God,
the Liberty of Man, and the Origin of Evil," ("Essai de
Theodicee sur la Bonte de Dieu, la Liberte de 1'Homme,
et 1'Origine du Mai," 1710.) According to his system,
God is the supreme Reason of the universe, the first and
last term in the series of efficient causes, as in that
of final causes. In forming the world He has realized
the ideal models of truth, beauty, and perfection which
existed eternally in His mind. To the parallelism estab
lished in the divine mind between the reign of efficient
causes and that of final causes, corresponds another har
mony, of a superior order, between the kingdoms of nature
and of grace. From the infinite perfection of the divine
attributes he deduces the celebrated theory of Optimism,
— that among all possible plans of creation the Almighty
has chosen the best, the one which combines the greatest
variety with the greatest order, — in which matter, space,
and time are most wisely economized. He died at Hano
ver, November 14, 1716. Among his important works
is one entitled "New Essays on the Human Understand
ing," ("Nouveaux Essais sur 1'Entendement humain,"
about 1765,) in which he controverts the opinions of Locke.
Another of his works is called " Pre-Established Har
mony," (" Harmonic pre-etablie.") His " Monadologie,"
(1714,) in which his metaphysical system is developed,
is one of the most remarkable monuments of his intel
lectual power. "There was only one man in the world,"
says Hallam, "who could have left so noble a science as
philosophical jurisprudence for pursuits of a still more
exalted nature and for which he was still more fitted ;
and that man was Leibnitz himself." ("Introduction to
the Literature of Europe.") He was never married. His
disposition was cheerful, his manners were affable, and
his habits temperate. A complete edition of his works
has recently been published by Foucher de Careil, Paris.
See FONTENEI.LE, " filoge de Leibnitz;" J. A. EBEKIIAKP,
" Characteristik des Freilierrn von Leibnitz," 1817; LAMPKECHT,
" Leben des Freilierrn G. W. von Leibnitz," 1740; HISSMANN,
"Versuch iiber das Leben des Freiherrn von Leibnitz," 1783; I)H
JAUCOUKT, " Vie de Leibnitz," 1734; GUHRAUKR, " G. VV. von Leib
nitz, Biographic," 2 vols., 1845; G. SCHILLING, "Leibnitz als
Denker," 1846 ; JEAN SVLVAIN BAIU.V, " FJoj;e de Leibnitz," i-6g ;
JOHN M. MACKIE, " Lite of G. \V. Leibnitz," Boston, 1845; EMIL
F. VOCEL, "G W. von Leibnitz," Leipsic, 1846; DK. F. HOEI--EK,
article in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" BIOT, article in the
"Biographic Universelle :" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1846;
"Atlantic Monthly" for June, 1858. ^a.y7e-, JJr'elmittvy . <-->:(,(,(.
Leibnitzius. See LEIKMTZ.
Leicester, EARL OF. See DUDLEY, (ROBERT.)
Leicester, les'ter, OF HOLKHAM, (THOMAS WILLIAM
COKE,) EARL OF, an eminent English agriculturist, was
the son of Wenman Roberts, of Norfolk, and was born
in 1752. His father assumed the name of Coke when
he inherited the estates of his uncle Thomas Coke, who
was Earl of Leicester and a descendant of Sir Edward
Coke. From 1776 to 1832 he represented the county of
Norfolk in Parliament, and was a constant supporter of
the Whig party. He owned a very large and highly-
cultivated estate at Holkham, and became distinguished
for his liberality and zeal in the improvement of agricul
ture. After the death of the Duke of Bedford (1802) he
was reputed to hold the highest place among English
cultivators. In 1837 he was raised to the peerage, as
Earl of Leicester of Holkham. The last name of this
title was annexed to distinguish him from another Earl
of Leicester. Died in 1842.
Leich, UK, (JOHANN HKINRICH,) a German philolo
gist, born at Leipsic in 1720, became professor of phi
losophy at that city in 1748. He wrote the "Life and
Reign of Cons tan tin us Porphyrogenitus," and several
other works. Died in 1750.
Leichiier, llK/ner, (EcCARD,) a German naturalist
and physician, born in Tliuringia in 1612. He practised
at Erfurt, where he died in 1690.
Leichner, (JOHANN GEORG HEINRICH,) a German
painter, born at Erfurt in 1684; died in 1769.
Leidy, li'de, (JOSEPH,) M.D., LL.D., a distinguished
American naturalist, of German extraction, born in
Philadelphia, September 9, 1823. He graduated as M.I),
at the University of Pennsylvania in 1844, and the same
year commenced the practice of his profession, but soon
abandoned it for more congenial pursuits. From 1846
to 1852 he gave private courses of lectures on anatomy
and physiology. In 1853 he was elected professor of
anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania, which position
he still holds. Besides anatomy, human and compara
tive, he has devoted much attention to natural history,
more especially zoology and palaeontology. Since 1846
a, e, T, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
LEIGH
'399
LEKAIN
he has occupied the position of chairman of the curators
in the Academy of Natural Sciences. The third volume
of the "Catalogue of Scientific Papers," compiled and
published by the Royal Society of London, gives a list
of one hundred and eleven of his published papers up
to 1860. Among the most important of these are the
" Flora and Fauna within Living Animals," and the
"Ancient Fauna of Nebraska," both published by the
Smithsonian Institution. Since 1860, besides publishing
an " Elementary Treatise on Human Anatomy," he has
largely added to his list of scientific papers. Among
the most important of these are the "Cretaceous Rep
tiles of the United States," published in the fourteenth
volume of the "Smithsonian Contributions to Know
ledge," in 1865, and "The Extinct Mammalian Fauna
of Dakota and Nebraska, together with a Synopsis of the
Mammalian Remains of North America," (410, with 30
plates,) published as the seventh volume of the "Journal
of the Academy of Natural Sciences" of Philadelphia.
Leigh, lee, (BENJAMIN W ATKINS,) an American jurist
and statesman, born in Chesterfield county, Virginia, in
1781. He practised law at Richmond, and became one
of the most prominent politicians in the State. He was
elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature
of Virginia in 1834 or 1835, and resigned his seat in 1837.
Died in 1849.
Leigh, lee, (CHARLES,) F.R.S., an English naturalist,
born in Lancashire about 1650. He practised medicine
in London and other cities, and published several works,
the most important of which is a "Natural History of Lan
cashire, Cheshire, and the Peak of Derbyshire," (1700.)
Leigh, (Sir EDWARD,) an English writer and biblical
scholar, born in Leicestershire in 1602, was educated for
the law. In the civil war he favoured the popular cause,
and was a member of Parliament, from which he was
expelled in 1648 by the extreme opponents of the king.
He displayed much learning in his " Critica Sacra,
or the Hebrew Words of the Old and the Greek of the
New Testament," (1639,) and published a "Treatise of
Divinity," (1646,) and other esteemed religious works.
Died in 1671.
Leighton, la'ton, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish clergy
man, born at Edinburgh in 1568. He was professor of
moral philosophy in that city for several years prior to
1613, when he removed to London and obtained a lec
tureship. For libellous or offensive expressions against
the king, queen, and the bishops in his book called
" Zion's Plea," (1629,) he was punished by the Star
Chamber with mutilation, the pillory, and long imprison
ment. He was released in 1640, and died about 1646.
Laud appears to be responsible for the cruel treatment
of Leighton.
Leighton, la'ton, (ROBERT,) a British divine of emi
nent merit and piety, born in London about 1612, was
the son of the preceding. About 1641 he became min
ister of the Presbyterian church at Newbottle, near
Edinburgh. Finding that his moderation was unaccept
able to the contentious spirit and fierce zeal which then
prevailed, he retired from the pulpit, and was chosen
principal of the University of Edinburgh. "When Charles
II. resolved to restore Episcopacy in Scotland, (about
1661,) Leighton was made Bishop of Dumblane. About
1670 he became Archbishop of Glasgow. His conduct
was more conciliatory than that of the other bishops.
He had a high reputation as a preacher, and published
sermons and other works, which are greatly esteemed.
His commentary on the first epistle of Peter was often
reprinted. In 1674 he resigned his archbishopric, prob
ably from an abhorrence of the violent contest which
disturbed the Church and State. Died in 1684.
See JOHN X. PEARSON. " Life of R. Lei.shton," 1832 ; GEORGE
JEKMENT, ''Remains of the Life of R. Leighton," 1808; BCRNET,
" History of his Own Time;" " R. Leighton ein apostolischer
Mann," etc., Berlin, 1834; CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary
of Eminent Scotsmen."
Leiningen, von, fon H'ning-en, (CHARLES,) PRINCE,
a German prince, born in 1804, was a half-brother of
Victoria, Queen of England. Died in 1856.
Leinster, lin'ster or leen'ster, (WILLIAM ROBERT
FITZGERALD,) DUKE OF, an Irish peer, born in 1749,
entered the British House of Lords in 1776, and acted
with the Tories. Died in 1805.
Leisewitz, H'zeh-wits', (JOHANN ANTON,) a German
dramatist, born at Hanover in 1752, wrote a popular
tragedy, entitled "Julius von Tarent." Died in 1806.
Leisler, lis'ler, (JACOB,) an adventurer and revolu
tionist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, in Germany, emi
grated to America in 1660, and became a resident of
Albany. He was appointed one of the commissioners
of the court of admiralty in 1683. In 1689 he was the
leader of a mob which seized the fort and public funds
of New York, "for the preservation," as he said, "of the
Protestant religion." Having declared himself for the
Prince of Orange, he strengthened the fort, and was
proclaimed by his adherents commander:in-chief of the
province. Sloughter having been soon after appointed
Governor of the coloTiy, Leisler was arrested, and exe
cuted in r6gi.
See a " Life of Jacob Leisler," by C. F. HOFFMAN, in SPARKS'S
" American Biography," vol. Hi. 2d series.
Leismann, lis'man, (JOHANN ANTON,) a German
painter, born at Salzburg in 1604. He settled in Venice,
painted landscapes and battles, and had a high reputa
tion. His manner is said to resemble that of Salvator
Rosa. Died in 1698.
Leith, leeth, (Sir JAMES,) a British general, born in
Aberdeenshire, Scotland, in 1763. He served as major-
general under Sir John Moore in the Peninsula, and
took part in the battle of Corunna, in 1809. He was
appointed commander of the forces in the West Indies
in 1814. Died in 1816.
Lejay, leh-zhi', (GABRIEL FRANCOIS,) a French Jes
uit, born in Paris about 1660. He was eminent as a
professor of rhetoric in Paris, where Voltaire was his
pupil. He published, besides other works in Latin,
" Bibliotheca Rhetorum," (" Library of Orators," 1725,)
which is said to be a valuable systematic treatise on
eloquence. Died in 1734.
Lejay or Le Jay, (Gui MICHEL,) a Frenchman, known
by the Polyglot Bible which bears his name, was born
in Paris in 1588. He expended the labour of seventeen
years and a large patrimony in the publication of his
"Bible in Hebrew, Samaritan, Chaldee," etc., ("Biblia
Hebraica, Samaritana, Chaldaica, Graeca, Syriaca, Latina,
Arabica," 1645,) which is a master-piece of typography.
Lejay was assisted in editing this work by Morin, Gabriel
Sionita, and other learned men. He was made a privy
councillor. Died in 1674.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lejeune, leh-zhun', (CLAUDE,) a famous French
musician and composer, born at Valenciennes about
1540. He received the title of composer to Henry IV.
Died about 1600.
Le Jeune, (JEAN.) See JEUNE, LE.
Lejeuiie or Le Jeune, (Louis FRANgo'is,) BARON,
a French general and painter, born at Strasburg in I77v
For his conduct at Austerlitz he was made chef-de-batail-
lon in 1805. He obtained the rank of general of brigade
at Borodino in 1812, and is said to have saved the army
of Oudinot at Hoyerswerda. He painted, besides other
subjects, "The Battle of Marengo," (1801,) "The Battle
of Lodi," (1804,) and "The Battle of the Moskwa,"
(1824.) Died in 1850.
Lejeune, (PAUL,) a French missionary, born in 1592,
laboured in Canada for many years. He published a
descriptive work on Canada and its native tribes, (7
vols., 1640.) Died in 1664.
Lejeune-Dirichlet, (GUSTAV.) See DIRICHLET.
Lekain, leh-ka.v', (HENRI Louis,) a famous French
actor, born in Paris in 1728. He was patronized by
Voltaire, who discerned in him the germ of great talent
while he was acting in a private troupe. He made his
debut in 1750, and attained a celebrity scarcely equalled
by that of any actor of modern times except Garrick.
Lekain was most successful in tragedy and in the ex
pression of deep emotion. Voltaire designated him as
the only truly tragic actor. In the latter part of his
career he performed at Berlin, by request of Frederick
the Great. Died in 1778.
See " Memoires de Lekain," published by his son, 1801 : F. J.
TAI.MA, "Memoire sur Lekain et sur I'Art diamatiqne," 1827:
VOLTAIRE, " Correspondance ;" " Xouvelle Biographic Generale;"
"Monthly Review," vol. xxxvi., 1801, (Appendix.)
Wltn me lories. JJICCI in 1005. "Monthly Review," vol. xxxvi., 1801, (Appendix.)
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gu(tural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JH^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
IE KEUX
1400
LEMAIRE
Le Keux, leh-kooks, ? (HENRY,) a skilful English
engraver, born in 1788. Me engraved some works of
Turner and Prout, illustrations of Sir Walter Scott's
Poems, etc. Died in 1868.
Le Keux, (foiix,) an English architectural engraver,
a brother of the preceding, was born in London in 1783
or 1784. He excelled in the engraving of Gothic ar
chitecture, the principles and details of which he had
diligently studied. His works have contributed much
to the diffusion of a taste for the Gothic style in England.
He engraved part of Britton's "Cathedral Antiquities,"
and of Pugin's "Antiquities of Normandy" and "Gothic
Specimens," and other works. He died in 1846.
Le Keux, (Jon.M HENRY,) an excellent engraver and
draftsman, a son of the preceding, was born about 1812.
He acquired a high reputation as engraver of architec
ture. Among his works are numerous plates in Ruskin's
" Modern Painters."
Le Laboureur, ([EAX.) See LABOUREUR, LE.
Ls'laud, (CHARLES GODFREY,) an American littera
teur, born at Philadelphia in 1824. He was a contributor
to the " Knickerbocker Magazine" and other periodicals.
He published in 1855 the "Sketch-Book of Meister
Karl" and "The Poetry and Mystery of Dreams," and
in 1856 a translation of Heine's "Pictures of Travel,"
(" Reisebilder.")
Lel'and or Laylonde, la'lond, (Joiix,) an eminent
English antiquary and linguist, born in London soon
after 1500. lie learned the ancient and modern lan
guages at Oxford and Paris. Having entered into holy
orders, he became chaplain to Henry VIII., who em
ployed him as librarian and in 1533 gave him the title
of his antiquary, with orders to explore the antiquities
of England. He spent about seven years in collecting
materials for history, and in 1545 compiled his "Account
of British Authors," ("Commentarii de Scriptoribus Bri-
tannicis.") He became insane in 1550, and died in 1552,
leaving many manuscripts, which were deposited in the
Bodleian Library. His "Itinerary" (9 vols.) was edited
by Hearne in 1710.
See HunDKSFORD, " Lives of Leland, Hearne, and Wood," 1772 ;
BAVLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" WOOD, "Athena;
Oxonienses. "
Leland, (Jonx,) an English dissenting minister, born
in Lancashire in 1691. He became pastor of a Presby
terian congregation in Dublin in 1716. In 1733 ne pub
lished an "Answer to Tindal's ' Christianity as Old as
the Creation.'" He wrote other approved treatises in
defence of Christianity, and in 1754 published his chief
work, a " View of the Principal Deistical Writers that
have appeared in England in the Last and Present Cen
tury." Died in 1766.
See the "Monthly Review" for March, 1754, March, 1755, and
June, 1764.
Leland, (Joux,) an American Baptist divine, born at
Grafton, Massachusetts, in 1754. He published nume
rous sermons, and essays on various subjects. Died in
1841.
Leland, (THOMAS,) a classical scholar and historical
writer, was born in Dublin in 1722. He took orders, and
became eminent as a preacher. In 1756 he produced
the first volume of an excellent translation of Demos
thenes' Orations, which was finished in 1770. He was
appointed professor of oratory in Trinity College in 1763.
His principal works, besides the above-named, are a
" History of the Life and Reign of Philip of Macedon,"
(1758,) a " Dissertation on the Principle of Human Elo
quence," (1764,) and a "History of Ireland," (1773.)
Died in 1785.
See the " Monthly Review" for August, 1758, and September and
November, 1773.
Leleux, leh-luh', (ADOLPHE, ) a popular French
painter of genre, born in Paris in 1812. Among his
works are " The Spanish Smugglers," and " The Return
from Market," (1847.)
Leleux, (ARMAXD,) a painter of genre, etc., a brother
of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1818.
Lelewel, la-la'vel,? (JOACHIM,) one of the most emi-
ner.t Polish historians of modern times, was born at
Warsaw in 1786. He conspired with the insurgents at
Warsaw against Constantine of Russia in November,
1830, and was proposed for dictator; but Chlopicki was
preferred. Lelewel held several high offices in the new
government for a short time, until the victories of the
Russians drove him into exile in 1831. After 1833 he
resided at Brussels. Among his most popular works
are a " History of Poland," (1829,) a " History of Poland
under Stanislas Augustus," (1831,) and "Poland of the
Middle Ages," (1846-51.) He published (in French) an
important work on "Mediaeval Geography," (1852,) and
various other books. Died in 1861.
See L. CHODZKO, "Notice biographique stir J. Lelewel," 4th
edition, 1834.
Lelli, lel'lee, (ERCOLE,) an Italian painter and modeller
of the Bolognese school, born in 1702. He excelled in
the art of anatomical preparations. Died in 1766.
Lelong, leh-loN1', (JACQUES,) a French priest and
bibliographer of high reputation, born in Paris in 1665,
was learned in languages and literary history. He be
came librarian in the Maison Saint- Honore, at Paris.
Among his principal works are "Bibliotheca Sacra; or,
Syllabus of nearly all Editions and Versions of the
Scriptures," (2 vols., 1709,) and "Bibliotheque historique
de la France," (1719,) containing a catalogue of works
which treat on French history, with notes. An enlarged
edition of the latter was published by Fevret de Fon-
tette, (5 vols., 1768-78.) Died in 1721.
See " Noiivelle Biographic Generate. "
Le Lorrain, leh k/rax', (Louis JOSEPH,) a French
engraver and mediocre painter, born in Paris in 1715;
died in Saint Petersburg in 1760.
Lelorrain or Le Lorrain, (RoiiKRT,) a French sculp
tor, born in Paris in 1666, was a pupil of Girardon. He
was chosen a member of the Royal Academy in 1701.
His works display good talents, but are censured for
mannerism. Died in 1743.
Lelut, li'lii', (Louis FKANC.OIS,) a French physician,
born in Haute-Saone in 1804. He wrote able treatises
on psychology, insanity, etc.
Le'ly, (STr PETER,) or Van der Faes, vtn der fas, a
successful portrait-painter, of Dutch descent, was born
at Soest, in Westphalia, in 1617. He removed to Lon
don in the reign of Charles I. He excelled in the repre
sentation of female beauty, and became one of the most
fashionable artists of that time. After the restoration
in 1660, he received the title of first painter to Charles
II., the beauties of whose court were the subjects of
his master-pieces. His works are generally censured for
immodesty. Died in 1680.
See BRYAN, " Dictionary of Painters;" WALPOLE, "Anecdotes
of Painting.1'
Lemaire, leh-maV, (HENRI,) a French novelist, born
at Nancy in 1756. He wrote, besides other works, "The
French Gil Bias, or Adventures of Henri Laii9on," (3
vols., 1792.) Died in 1808.
Lemaire, leh-maV, (JACQUES,) a Dutch navigator and
merchant, who was director-general of a company which
in 1615 sent an expedition to find a new route to the
Pacific Ocean. He discovered the strait which bears
his name and separates Staten Land from Terra del
Fuego, in 1616, doubled Cape Horn for the first time,
and sailed to the East Indies. He died at sea in 1616.
C. Schouten was captain of the ship which made this
voyage.
See A. G. CHOTIN, "Notice sur J. Lemaire, Navigateur."
Lemaire, (JEAN,) a Belgian poet and historian, born
in Hainault about 1473. ^e entered the service of
Margaret of Austria as librarian. His principal work
is entitled " Illustrations of the Gauls," (" Illustrations
des Gaules," 1512.) Died about 1548.
Lemaire, (NICOLAS fiLOi,)a French classical scholar
and Latin poet, born at Triancourt (Mense) in 1767. He
was chosen professor of Latin poetiy in the Faculty of
Letters, Paris, in iSn. He composed Latin verses with
remarkable facility. Among his productions is a Latin
"Ode on the Birth of the King of Rome," (1812.) He
acquired reputation among classical literati by the pub
lication of all the best Latin authors, in 154 vols. 8vo,
under the title of " Bibliotheca Classica Latina." This
is said to be the best collection of the classics that exists.
Died in 1832.
See " Notice sur N. E. Lemaire," Paris, 1842.
a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
LEMA1RE
1401
LEMOINE
Letnaire, (PHILIPPE HENRI,) a French sculptor, a
member of the Institute, was born at Valenciennes in
1798. He gained the first prize in 1821, and studied in
Rome. His design for the fronton or pediment of the
church of Madeleine, Paris, was preferred in 1836. This
vast composition is called his capital work.
Lemaire, ( PIERRE AUGUSTE, ) a French classical
scholar, a nephew of Nicolas filoi, noticed above, was
born at Triancourt in 1802. He edited Lucan, Lucre
tius, and other classic authors.
Lemaistre, leh-mitk', (ANTOINE,) a French advocate,
born in Paris in 1608, was a brother of Lemaistre de Sacy.
He acquired a great reputation by his eloquence, and
afterwards retired to the cloister of Port-Royal. He was
a friend of Pascal, and a nephew of Arnauld d'Andilly.
Referring to his published forensic speeches, Hallam
says, " Lemaistre is fervid and brilliant; he hurries us
with him. Both Lemaistre and Patru do great honour
to the French bar." He was one of the translators of
the Port-Royal New Testament. Died in 1658.
See Pmui'PE SIMON DCPIX, "Notice sur A. Lemaistre," 1822;
VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV:" FOURNEL, "Histoire des Avo-
cats;" u Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lemaistre, (JEAN,) a French magistrate, who in 1591
was nominated first president of the Parliament of Paris
by the chiefs of the League. At a critical period in the
contest between the League and Henry IV. he procured
a decree of Parliament in favour of the latter, (1593.)
Died in 1596.
Lemaistre de Saci or Sacy, 1eh-m.\tK' deh st'se',
(ISAAC Loris,) a French Jansenist theologian, born in
Paris in 1613, was a nephew of Antoine Arnauld le
Grand. He was ordained a priest in 1650, and became
confessor or principal director of the recluses of Port-
Royal. He was confined in the Bastille two years, (1666-
68,) during which he made a French translation of the
Old Testament. He was one of the translators of the
New Testament of Mons, (1667,) which was often re
printed. In consequence of renewed persecution, he left |
Port-Royal in 1679. He published French versions of I
several works, among which were the fourth and sixth
books of the "yEneid." Died in 1684.
See FONTAINE, "Memoires sur Port-Royal;" SAINTE-BEUVE,
"Port-Royal," tome ii. ; LELONG, " Bibliotheque sacree;" " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Lemaitre. leh-m<\tR',(FREDERic,) a celebrated French
actor, born at Havre in 1798, was called "the Talma
of the Boulevards." He was successful in tragedy and
comedy, and excelled in the romantic drama.
Le'maii, (Rev. THOMAS,) an English antiquary, born
in 1751 ; died in 1827.
Le Marchant, leh mSR'shftN', (JACQUES,) a Flemish
historian, born at Fumes in 1537, wrote several works
on the history of Flanders. Died in 1609.
Lemare, leh-mtR', (PIERRE ALEXANDRE,) a French
grammarian, born in Franche-Comte in 1766, published
several successful works on grammar. Died in 1835.
Lemazurier, leh-mi' zii're-a', (PIERRE DAVID,) a
French writer, born at Gisors in 1775; died in 1836.
Lembke, lemp'keh, (JOHANN PHILIPP,) a German
painter and engraver, born at Nuremberg in 1631, painted
battles, sieges, and hunting-scenes with success. He
was invited to the court of Sweden by Charles XL, who
gave him the title of painter to the king. Died in 1721.
Lemchen. See LEMNITS, (SIMON.)
Lemerie, la-ma'na, (FRANCESCO,) COUNT, an Italian
poet, born at Lodi in 1634. Me composed many elegant
Latin verses, but his principal poems were written in the
Italian language. He had a rich and poetic imagination,
and contributed much to reform the poetry of his country.
Died in 1704.
See TOMMASO CEVA, " Memorie di alcune Virtu del Signor
Conte F. di Lemecie," 1706; TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura
Italiana."
Lemens, van, vfn la'mens, (BALTHASAR,) a Flemish
painter of history, born at Antwerp in 1637, worked in
London. Died in 1704.
Lemercier, leh-meR'se-i', (JACQUES,) a French archi
tect, born at Pontoise about 1600. By order of Cardinal
Richelieu, he built about 1635 the church of the Sor-
bonne at Paris, and the Chateau Richelieu. He obtained
the title of chief architect to the king. Among his most
admired works are the church of the Annonciade at
Tours, and that of Saint-Koch in Paris. Died in 1660.
See FONTENAY, " Dictionnaire des Artistes;" "Xouvelle Biogra
phic Generale ;" QUATKEMERE DE QUINCY, "Vies des plus celebres
Architectes."
Lemercier, (Louis JEAN NEPOMUCENE,) a popular
French poet and dramatist, born in Paris, April 21,
1771. He was a republican in the Revolution and
through all the changes which followed. His tragedy
of "Agamemnon," m verse, (1797,) procured for him
a triumph of which the annals of the theatre offer few
examples. He afterwards produced "Ophis," "Louis
XL," (1821,) and other successful tragedies. He was
chosen a member of the French Academy in 1810. He
wrote a poem entitled "The French Ages," (1803,) and
many other works. Talleyrand is reported to have said
that Lemercier conversed better than any other man in
France. Died in 1840. "
See " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lemery, lam're', (Louis,) a skilful physician and
chemist, a son of Nicolas, noticed below, was born in
Paris in 1677. He was a member of the Academy of
Sciences, for which he wrote many memoirs. For thirty-
three years he was physician to the Hotel-Dieu, Paris.
Died in 1743.
Lemery, (NICOLAS,) M.D., a French chemist, born
at Rouen in 1645, was educated a Protestant. In 1672
he settled in Paris, where he lectured on chemistry with
eclat, and published a "Course of Chemistry," ("Cours
de Chimie," 1675,) which was very successful. It was
often reprinted, and was translated into many languages.
After suffering much persecution for religion, he abjured
Calvinism in 1686. He was received into the Academy
of Sciences in 1699. Died in 1715.
See PAUL ANTOINE CAP, " Lloge de X. Lemery," if.iS; J. TON-
NET, " Xotice sur X. Lemery," 1^44: FONTENELI.E, '• FJloge de N.
Lemery," 1715; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lemierre, leh-me-aiR', (ANTOINE MARIN,) a French
dramatic poet, was born in Paris in 1723. He produced
in 1758 " Hypermnestre," a tragedy, which was com
pletely successful. His tragedies "\Villiam Tell" (1766)
and "The Widow of Malabar" (1770) were often per
formed with applause. He composed a poem on Painting,
(1769,) which contains several fine passages. He was
chosen a member of the French Academy in 1781. Died
in 1793.
See PEKRIN, " Notice de Lemierre," prefixed to an edition of his
works, Paris, 3 vols., 1810; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Lemire, leh-meR' or leh-meeR', [ Lat. MIR/E'US, ]
(AuitERT,) a Flemish compiler, born at Brussels in 1573.
He studied for the clerical profession, and became vicar-
general at Antwerp in 1624. He published, besides other
Latin works, "Eulogies of Eminent Belgian Authors,"
(1602,) and "Annals of Belgium," ("Rerum Belgicarum
Annales," 1624.) Died in 1640.
See NIC^RON, "Memoires;" FOPPENS, " Bibliotheca Belgica."
Lemire, leh-meR', (NoEi.,) a French engraver, born
at Rouen in 1724, was a pupil of Lebas. He engraved
landscapes, portraits, etc., and excelled in vignettes.
"The Partition of Poland" (designed and engraved by
him) is called his master-piece. Died in 1801.
Lemrnens. See LEMNIUS.
Lemnius, lem'ne-us, or Lemmens, lem'me'ns, (LiE-
VIN,) a Dutch physician and philosopher, born at Zierikzee
in 1505. He practised in his native place, and acquired
a European reputation by his skill. He wrote, in elegant
Latin, " De occultis Naturae Miraculis," ("The Secret
Wonders of Nature," 1559,) and other scientific or moral
works, which were very successful. Died in 1568.
See HARDERWIJCK, "Jets over L. Lemnius," 1843; M. ADAM,
"Vita; Medicorum Germanorum."
Lemnius, le'm'ne-us, (SIMON,) a Swiss poet, whose
proper name was Lemchen, (l£m'Ken,) was born in the
Grisons. He studied at Wittenberg, whence he was
banished by the influence of Luther or Melanchthon
about 15^8, probably on account of his writings. He
published Latin epigrams and other verses. Died in 1550.
Lemoiiie, leh-mwan', (ANTOINE,) a French officer, a
brother of DTberville, was born at Montreal in 1683. He
became Governor of Cayenne, where he died about 1730.
(See IBERVILLE, D'.)
« ask; 9 ass; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
LEMOINE
1402
LEN4U
Lemoine or Lemoyiie, leh-mwan', (CHARLES,) a
brother of the preceding, was born in 1656, at Montreal,
of which he afterwards became governor. Died in 1729.
Lemoiiie or Lemoyne, (firiENNE,) a French Prot
estant divine and Orientalist, born at Caen in 1624,
wrote "Varia Sacra." Died in 1689.
Lemoine, (FRANCOIS,) an eminent French historical
painter, born in Paris in 1688, was a pupil of Galloche.
He was admitted into the Royal Academy in 1718, in
consideration of his " Hercules and Cacus." He made
a short visit to Italy in 1723, and at his return was chosen
professor of painting in the Academy. His master
piece is "The Apotheosis of Hercules," (1736,) an oil-
painting, which adorns a ceiling in the palace of Ver
sailles, and is said to be the largest in Europe, (64 feet
by 54.) He excelled in composition, and had probably
a higher reputation than any French painter of his time ;
was a son of the preceding. He was chosen a member
of the Academy of Sciences in 1736, and assisted Mau-
pertuis and Clairaut in measuring a degree of the me
ridian at Tornea, within the polar circle, in 1736-37. In
I746he ascertained the inequalities of Saturn caused by
the attraction of Jupiter, and in 1748, during an eclipse,
measured the diameter of the moon on the disc of the
sun. He was for many years a professor of physics
in the College of France. lie published " Histoire ce
leste," (1741,) "Astronomic Institutes," ("Institutions
astronomiques," 1746,) a good elementary work on
astronomy, "Nautical Astronomy," (1771,) and other
treatises on astronomy, navigation, etc. Died in 1799.
See LALANDE," Bibliographic ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Lemontey, leh-mc-N'ti', (PIERRE EDOUARD,) an able
French historical writer and lawyer, born at Lyons in
1762. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly in
but his design wasjncorrect. ^ In 1736 he became first j I79I. During the empire he gained the confidence of
1 Napoleon, who ordered him to write the " History of
France in the Eighteenth Century." He published in
1818 an "Essay on the Monarchical System ( ' Etablisse-
painter to the king, and in the next year committed
suicide.
See BRVAN, "Dictionary of Painters.
Lemoine, (JEAN,) a French cardinal and canonist,
born at Crecy. He founded in Paris the college which
bears his name. Died in 1313.
Lemoine, (JOSEPH,) brother of Charles, noticed above,
was born in Montreal in 1668. In 1719 he took Pen-
sacola from the Spaniards. Died in France in 1734.
Lemoine or Lemoyne, (PIERRE.) a French poet
and Jesuit, born at Chaumont, in Bassigny, in 1602. He
took part in the dispute between the Jesuits and Jan-
senists. His principal work is a bombastic epic poem en
titled " Saint Louis, or the Holy Crown recovered from
the Infidels," (1653,) which obtained little favour with
the public. His "Devotion Made Easy" ("La Devotion
aisee," 1652) was criticised by Pascal in the eleventh of
his " Provincial Letters." Died in 1671.
Lemoine, (SAUVOLI.E,) brother of Joseph, noticed
above, was born in Montreal about 1671. He accom
panied his brother D'Iberville on his western expedition,
and was appointed by Louis XIV. governor of the
colony of Louisiana in 1699. Died in 1701.
Lemoine d'Iberville. See IHERVIU.K, n'.
Lem'pn, (GEORGE WILLIAM,) an English gramma
rian, born in 1726. He published an "Etymological
English Dictionary." Died in 1797.
Lemon, (MARK,) an English dramatist, humorist,
and editor, born in London in 1809. lie produced a
large number of farces, melo-dramas, etc., among which
are "The Serious Family" and "The Ladies' Club."
Several of his plays are quite popular. He became
editor of the London "Punch" soon after its first pub
lication, and literary editor of the "Illustrated London
News." Died in May, 1870.
Lemonnier, leh-mo'ne-S/, (ANICET CHARLES GA
BRIEL,) a French painter, was born at Rouen in 1743.
Among his works are "Cleombrotus" and the "Death
of Antony." Died in 1824.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lemonnier, (GUILLAUME ANTOINE,) a French abbe
and litterateur, born in 1721, produced French trans
lations of Terence and Perseus, and wrote a volume of
"Fables and Tales." Died in 1797.
Lemonnier or Le Monnier, (Louis GUILLAUME,)
a French physician and botanist, born in 1717, was a
brother of Pierre Charles, noticed below. He succeeded
Bernard Jussieu as professor of botany in the Jardin du
Roi in 1777, and received the title of first physician to
the king about 1780. He was for some time chief phy
sician of the army. He rendered considerable service
to the science of botany, and wrote several treatises
which were inserted in the collection of the Academy
of Sciences. Died in 1799.
See CHALLAN, " Essai historique surlaVie de L. G. Lemonnier,"
1800.
Le Monnier, (PIERRE,) a French astronomer, born
in Normandy in 1675. He was professor of philosophy
at the College of Harcourt, and published a work called
" Course of Philosophy," (" Cursus Philosophiae," 6 vols.,
1750.) Died in 1757.
Lemomiier or Le Monnier, (PIERRE CHARLES,) a
distinguished French astronomer, born in Paris in 1715,
Sy*
tucnt) of Louis XIV.," and was admitted into the French
Academy in 1819. Died in 1826. In 1832 appeared his
"History of the Regency and the Minority of Louis
XV.," a part of his unfinished " History of France."
See VILI.EMAIN, "Discours prononc.5 aux Fune'railles de Lemon
tey;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" PASSERON, "Notice snr
Lemontey."
Lemos, Ia'm6s, (ToMAS,) a Spanish theologian, born
in Galicia, was professor at Valladolicl in 1594 when the
Thomists and Molinists began a controversy about grace.
He took a prominent part in favour of the former, and
wrote many works, one of which was entitled " Panoply
of Grace," (" Panoplia Gratia?," 1676.) Died in 1629.
Lemos, de, da la'mos, (Don PEDRO FERNANDEZ DE
CASTRO,) COUNT, a Spanish statesman, born at Madrid
about 1564. He became president of the Council of the
Indies in 1603, and Viceroy of Naples about 1610. He
was a patron of Cervantes. Died in 1634.
Lemot, leh-iiH/, (FRA.xgois FREDERIC,) a French
sculptor, born at Lyons in 1773. Having gained the
grand prize about 1790, he went to Rome with a pension.
He afterwards worked in Paris, and was chosen a mem
ber of the Institute. Among his admired works are
statues of Henry IV., Lycurgus, Leonidas, Brutus, and
Cicero. Died in 1827.
See J. S. PASSERON, " Notice sur Lemot."
Lemoyne. See LEMOINE.
Lemoyne, leh-mwfn', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French
sculptor, born in Paris in 1704; died in 1778.
Lemoyne, (JEAN BAPTISTE MOYNE,) a French com
poser, born in Perigord in 1751. He composed " Phedre,"
(1786,) and other successful operas. The poem of
"Phedre" was written by Hoffman. Died in 1796.
L'Empereur. See EMPEKKUK, L'.
Lempriere, lem'pre-er or lem-preer', (JoiiN,) D.D.,
a teacher and classical scholar, born in the island of
Jersey about 1760. He published in 1788 an excellent
classical dictionary, which has enjoyed a wide popularity
and is still in extensive use. After acting as master of
the grammar-school at Exeter, he obtained the rectory
of Meeth, in Devonshire, about 1811. He also pub
lished a "Universal Biography," (1808.) Died in 1824.
Lem'u-res, [Fr. LEMUKES, la'miiR',] a name applied
by the ancient Romans to spectres or departed spirits,
which, as they believed, returned to the world. If benefi
cent, they were called Lares; and if malign, Lan'tE.
Some authors, however, considered the Lemures and
Larvas as identical. To propitiate them or counteract
their influence, solemn rites were annually performed.
Lenaeus, le-nee'us, (PoMi'Eius,) a grammarian, born
at Athens, lived about 50 n.c. He was once a slave of
Pompey the Great, who liberated him. He defended
Pompey against the charges of Sallust.
Lenain. See TILLEMONT.
Lenau, la'now, (NIKOI.AUS,) an eminent poet, born
in Hungary, August 15, 1802. His family name in full
was NIEMBSCH VON STREHLENAU, (neempsh fon stRa'-
leh-now'.) After he left the University of Vienna he
studied law, medicine, and natural sciences, and visited
the United States in 1832. He produced about 1832 a
e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
LENCLOS
H°3
LENOIR
collection of lyric poems in German, which had great
success. He also wrote several epic poems, among
which is "The Albigenses," (" Die Albigenser," 1841.)
He is ranked by the "Xouvelle Biographic Generale"
among the first lyric poets of Germany. Died in 1850.
See UFFO HORN, " N. Lenan. seine Ansichten und Tendenzen,"
1838 ; THEODOR OPITZ, " N. Lenau ; ausfiihrliclie Characteristik
des Dichters," 1850; L. A. FRANKL, " Zu Lenau's Biographie,"
1854-
Lenclos or L'Enclos, de, deh 15N'klo', (ANNE ;
commonly called NINON,) a French courtesan, celebrated
for her wit and beauty, was born in Paris in 1616. She
was courted by many men of high rank and of eminent
talents, with whom she formed liaisons. Among her
female friends were Madame de Maintenon and Madame
de La Fayette. She was never married. It appears that
venality was not one of her vices. Her letters are
marked by an elegant simplicity of style. Moliere is
said to have had such a high opinion of her literary
taste that he often consulted her. Died in 1706.
See BRET, " Memoire sur Ninon de L'Enclos," 1750; GUYON DE
SARDIERE, " Vie de Ninon de L'Enclos;" L. DAMOUKS, " Lettres
de Ninon de Lenclos an Marquis de Sevigne, au;>nientees desa Vie,"
2 vols., 1752, (translated into English, London, 1761.)
Lenet, leh-ni', (PIERRE,') a French historian, born at
Dijon, was devoted to the Prince of Conde during the
war of the Fronde. He wrote " Memoirs of the Civil
War which began in 1649," (2 vols., 1729.) Died in 1671.
Le Neve, leh-neev', (JoHN,) an English antiquary,
born about 1679. He published " Fasti Ecclesiaa Angli-
canoe." Died about 1740.
Le Neve, (PETER,) an English antiquary, born in
1662, became Norroy king-at-arms. Died in 1729.
Lenfaiit, IdN'fdN*', (ALEXANDRE CHARLES ANNE,) a
French Jesuit, eminent as a preacher, was born at Lyons
in 1726. He preached in Paris and other cities, and
was reputed one of the most eloquent pulpit orators of
his time. He was one of the victims of the massacre
in Paris in September, 1792.
Lenfant, (JACQUES,) a French Protestant divine of
great merit, born at Bazoche in 1661. He was educated
at Saumur and Geneva, and in 1689 removed to Berlin,
where he preached forty years. About 1705 he became
chaplain to Frederick William of Prussia, and in 1724
was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences. He
was the author of many valuable works, among which
are a "History of the Council of Constance," (2 vols.,
1714,) a " Preventive against Reunion with the See of
Rome," (1723,) and a "History of the Wars of the
Hussites and of the Council of Basle," (2 vols., 1731.)
In partnership with Beausobre, he produced a French
translation of the New Testament, with notes and a
learned introduction by Lenfant, (1718.) Died in 1728.
His histories are admitted to be impartial and moderate.
See NICERON, " Memoires ;" HAAG, "La France protestante."
Leng, (JoHN,) an English scholar, born at Norwich
in 1665. He became chaplain to George I., who ap
pointed him Bishop of Norwich in 1723. He pub
lished "The Clouds" of Aristophanes, (1695,) and a
good edition of Terence, (1701.) Died in 1727.
Leiigard. See LENNARD.
Leugerke, von, fon leng'er-keh, (ALEXANDER,) a
celebrated agricultural writer, born at Hamburg in 1802.
Among his principal works is the "Agricultural Con
versations-Lexicon," (4 vols., 1835-38.) Died in 1853.
Lengerke, von, (CXsAK, ) a learned theologian,
brother of the preceding, was born at Hamburg in 1803.
His principal works are "Commentaries on the Prophet
Daniel and the Psalms."
Lenglet-Dufresnoy, lox'gli' dii'fRi'nwa', (NICOLAS,)
a French abbe, noted as a voluminous and sarcastic writer,
was born at Beauvais (Oise) in 1674. He was several
times confined in the Bastille for his freedom or impru
dence as a writer. He displayed great erudition in his
numerous works, which are chiefly historical. Among
his most important works are "Method for the Study
of History" (2 vols., 1713) and "Method for the Study
of Geography," (4 vols., 1716.) He also wrote a " His
tory of the Hermetic Philosophy," (3 vols., 1742,) and
edited the works of various authors. Died in 1755.
See MICHAULT, " Memoire de Lenglet-Dnfresnoy," 1761 ; Qci-
RARD, "La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Lengnich, le'ng'niK, (GOTTFRIED,) a Prussian his
torian and publicist, born at Dantzic about 1690. He
published a "History of Polish Prussia from 1526 to
1748," (9 vols., 1723-48,) "The Public Law of Poland,"
(1742,) and other works. Died in 1774.
Lengnich, (KARL BENJAMIN,) a German numismatist
and antiquary, born at Dantzic in 1742 ; died in 1/95.
Lenhossek, de, deh le'n-hosh'e'k, ? (MICHAEL,) a
Hungarian physician, born at Presburg in 1773. lie
obtained the title of first physician of Hungary, and
published many able professional works. Died in 1840.
Len'nard or Lengard, Igng'garcl, (SAMPSON,) an
English antiquary, who fought under Sir Philip Sidney
at Zutphen. He translated from the French Charron's
" La Sagesse," and other works. Died in 1633.
Leniie, li'na', (PETER JOSEPH,) born at Bonn in 1789,
acquired a high reputation throughout Germany for his
skill and taste in landscape-gardening.
Lennep, van, vin lei/nep, (DAVID JACOB,) a Dutch
poet and philologist, born at Amsterdam in 1774. He
became professor of eloquence at Leyden, and was
eminent as a classical scholar. He wrote philological
essays and elegant verses, and published editions of
Hesiod and of Ovid. Died in 1853.
See KOENEN, " Lijkrede op D. J. van Lennep," 1853.
Lennep, van, (JACOB,) a celebrated novelist, a son
of the preceding, was born at Amsterdam in 1802. He
chose the profession of the law, in which he attained
eminence. Among his early productions are poems
entitled "National Legends," (" Vaderlandsche Legen-
den.") In 1830 he produced "The Village on the
Frontier," a political farce, which had immense success.
He published many popular novels, among which are
"Our Forefathers," (" Onze Voorouders,") and "The
Rose of Dekama." He translated into Dutch some plays
of Shakspeare, and poems of Byron and Tennyson. He
is often called " the Walter Scott of Holland."
Lennep, van, (JAN DANIEL,) a Dutch linguist and
critic, born at Leeu warden in 1724. He was professor of
Latin and Greek at Groningen from 1752 to 1768. He
gained a high reputation by a work " On the Analogy
of the Greek Language," and by his "Etymology of the
Greek Language," (" Etymologicum Linguae Grascae,")
(published by Scheide, 2 vols., 1790.) Died in 1771.
See SAX, "Onomasticon."
Lenngren, len'gRen,( ANNA MARIA,) a Swedish writer,
originally named Malmstedt, (malm'ste"!,) born at Upsal
in 1754, was the author of poems of a humorous character.
Died in 1817.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Len'npx, (CHARLOTTE,) an ingenious authoress, born
at New York in 1720, was the daughter of Colonel Ram
say, lieutenant-governor of that place. She went to Eng
land in her youth, and appears to have been dependent
on her literary talents for support before and after her
marriage with Mr. Lennox. She wrote "The Female
Quixote," (1752,) " Henrietta," a successful novel, (1758,)
and other works of fiction. In 1753 she published
"Shakspeare Illustrated," a collection of tales on which
the plays of that dramatist are founded, translated from
various languages. She enjoyed the friendship of Dr.
Johnson, who expressed a high opinion of her works.
Died in 1804.
Lenoble, leh-nobl', (EUSTACHE,) a French litterateur,
born at Troves in 1643. He wrote many works in prison,
where he was confined for forgery, and acquired some
popularity as a gay, sprightly writer. Among his works
are " Political Dialogues," (1690,) and "The School of the
World." Died in 1711.
Lenoir, leh-nwaR', (ALEXANDRE,) a French antiquary
and artist, born in Paris in 1761. In the Revolution he
saved from destruction many monuments and works of
art found in convents and churches. He was chosen
keeper (administratfiir) of the Museum of French Monu
ments in 1801. He published, besides other works, a
"History of Painting on Glass," (1804,) and a "History
of the Arts in France proved by Monuments," (1810,)
Died in 1839.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Lenoir, (ALEXANDRE ALBERT,) an architect, a son
of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1801. He was
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanatiens, p. 23. )
LENOIR
1404
LEO
architect of the museum formed by the union of the
Palais des Thermes with the Hotel de Cluny.
Leiioir, (firiKNNF.,) a Frenchman distinguished for
his skill in the fabrication of astronomical and mathe
matical instruments, was born at Mer in 1744. He fur
nished the instruments for the expeditions of La Perouse
and Baudin, and those used by the savants whom Bona
parte took to Egypt in 1798. Died in 1832.
Leiioir, (NICOLAS,) called LK ROM AIM, a French
architect, born in Paris in 1726. He was employed as an
architect by Voltaire at Ferney. Died in 1810.
Lenormand, leh-noR'mS.N', (MARIE ANNE ADE
LAIDE,) a French fortune-teller, born at Alen£on in 1772.
She wrote, besides other works, " Memoirs of the Em
press Josephine," (1829,) which has been translated into
English. Died in 1843.
See F. GIRAULT, " Mademoiselle Le Normand, sa Biographic, ses
Predictions," etc., 1843.
Lenormant, leli-noii'mSN', (CHARLES,) a French
antiquary, born in Paris in 1802. lie accompanied
Champollion to Egypt in 1828, and was chosen a substi
tute of Guizot as professor of history in Paris in 1835.
He wrote an " Introduction to Oriental History," (1838,)
and other works.
Lenotre, leh-notR', (ANDRE,) a French architect and
designer of the royal gardens, was born in Paris in 1613.
He displayed his inventive genius in adorning the park
and garden of Versailles for Louis XIV., and designed
or embellished other royal gardens at Chantilly, Saint-
Cloud, and the Tuileries. In 1675 the king granted
him letters of nobility. Died in 1700. "The gardens
of the Tuileries and of Versailles," says the " Biographic
Universelle," " will always be the master-pieces of the
style invented by Lenotre."
See, also, MOKEKI, "Dlctionnaire Historique ;" " Nouvelle Bio
graphic GeneVale."
Lenourry, leh-noo're', (DEN is NICOLAS,) a learned
French monk, born at Dieppe in 1647. He devoted
many years to a work entitled "Apparatus ad Bibliothe-
cam maximam Patrum Veterum," etc., (2 vols., 1694-97,)
which contains critical dissertations on the works of the
Fathers. Died in 1724.
Lgn'ox, (MATTHEW STUART,) EARL OF, a Scottish
nobleman, was the father of Lord Darnley. In 1544 he
was driven out of Scotland by the hostility of the regent
Arran, and went to the court of Henry VIII., who gave
him his niece Margaret Douglas in marriage. lie was
invited to return to Scotland with his son in 1564. In
1570 he was chosen Regent of Scotland by the party
which was hostile to Queen Mary. Her partisans sur
prised him at Stirling in 1572, and, perceiving that his
friends were likely to rescue him, instantly put him to
death.
See ROBERTSON, "History of Scotland."
Lens, Igns or ION, (ANDREAS CORNELIS,) a Flemish
painter, born at Antwerp in 1739. He worked in Brus
sels, and painted history and portraits. He excelled in
design, colouring, and chiaroscuro. Died in 1822.
See DE STASSART, "A. C. Lens," 1846.
Lens, (BERNARD,)- a Belgian painter and engraver,
excelled in miniature. He became court painter to
George II. of England. Died in 1741.
Lenstrbm orLenstroem, leVstrdm, (KARL JULIUS,)
a Swedish writer, born at Gefle in 1811. He became
professor of philosophy at his native place, and pub
lished, besides other works, a " History of the Theories
of Art," (2 vols., 1839,) and a "History of Swedish
Poetry," (1840.)
Leiithal or Lenthall, Ignt'al, ? (WILLIAM,) an English
statesman and lawyer, born in Oxfordshire in 1591. He
was returned to Parliament in 1639, and in 1640 was
chosen Speaker of the Commons by the popular or re
publican party. When the king attempted to arrest
Hampden, and four other members, in the House, and
asked Lenthal if they were present, he prudently re
plied, " I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak
in this place, but as the House, whose servant I am, is
pleased to direct me." In 1653 he ceased to be Speaker,
the Parliament having been violently dissolved by Crom
well, but was elected by the new House to the same
office in 1654. He also acted as Speaker for a short
time in 1660, before Charles II. was restored. Died in
1682, or, according to some authorities, in 1662.
See HUMK, "History of England;" CLARENDON, "History of
the Rebe lion."
Leii'tu-lus, the name of a noble Roman family, a
branch of the gens Cornelia, which produced several
distinguished men. PUISLIUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS
SURA, a man of corrupt character but popular manners,
was chosen consul in 73 B.C., and was afterwards ex
pelled from the senate for some misconduct. He was
an accomplice in Catiline's conspiracy, and was per
suaded by the soothsayers that he was the third member
of the Cornelia gens destined by the fates to have the
chief power in Rome. By the orders of Cicero and the
senate, he was put to death in 62 B.C.
P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS SI-INTHER was consul in
57 B.C., when he promoted the recall of Cicero. In the
civil war he took arms for Pompey, was made prisoner
and liberated by Caesar, but fought for Pompey at Phar-
salia, and fled to Rhodes. Nothing further is known
respecting him.
Lentulus, len'too-lus, (CviUACUs,) a German publi
cist, born at Elbingen about 1620. He published, in Latin,
"Arcana of Kingdoms and Republics," (1653,) and " The
Absolute Prince," (1663,) which, with his other works,
form an ample commentary on Tacitus. Died in 1678.
Lenz, lents, (HEINRICH FRIEDRICH EMIL,) a German
physician, born at Dorpat in 1804. He was chosen a
member of the Academy of Sciences at Saint Peters
burg in 1834, and was afterwards professor of medicine
at the university in that city, and numbered among his
pupils the imperial princes.
Lena, (JAKOB MICHAEL REINHOLD,) a German poet
and intimate friend of Goethe, born in Livonia in 1750.
He became insane in consequence of an unrequited
Eassion for Frederica Brion, who has been celebrated
y Goethe. He wrote several comedies. Died in 1792.
See A. STOBER, " Der Dichter Lenz und Friederike von Sesen-
heim," 1842.
Lenz, (KARL GOTTHOLD,) a German philologist and
writer, born at Gera in 1763 ; died at Gotha in 1809.
Lenz, (SAMUEL,) a German historian, born at Stendal
in 1686; died about 1760.
See HUCH, " S. Lenz's Leben," 1758.
Le'o [Fr. LEON, la'oN'j I, Fla'vi-us, Emperor of
Constantinople, was a native of Thrace. At the death of
Marcianus, in 457 A.D., he held a high rank in the army,
by which he was proclaimed emperor through the influ
ence of Aspar, who designed to make him only a nominal
monarch. Having gained a victory over the Huns, he
sent an expedition against Gensericin Africa, which was
unsuccessful. He is represented as an able ruler. He
died in 474 A.IX, having named as his successor his
grandson, Leo, an infant, who died after a nominal reign
of a few months. Zeno, the father of Leo II., then began
to reign.
SeeGiBHON, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" LE BEAU,
"Histoire du Bas Empire," edited by SAINT-MARTIN.
Leo II., born about 47OA.D., succeeded Leo I. 511474,
and died the same year.
Leo III, called ISAU'RICUS, one of the most able
emperors of the East, was born in Isauria, of obscure
parentage. In the army of Justinian II. he rose to the
highest rank. When Anastasius II. was dethroned, in
716 A.D., Leo and Theodosius aspired to succeed ; and
the former prevailed in 717. The first important event
of his reign was his great victory over the Saracens, who
had besieged Constantinople for two years, (718-19.)
The prosperity of his reign was soon blasted by a dis
pute about the use of images, which Leo prohibited
in 727, and which the Greek patriarch and the pope
defended. Thus began the schism of the Iconoclasts,
which convulsed the empire with persecutions, revolts,
and great calamities to the end of his reign, and caused
the final separation of the Latin from the Greek Church.
He died in 741 A.D., and was succeeded by his son,
Constantine Copronymus.
See GIBBON, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" LE BEAU,
"Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" THEOPHANES, "History;" "Nouvelle
.Biographic Generale."
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; n5t; good; moon;
LEO
1405
LEO
Leo IV., Emperor of Constantinople, born in 751
A. ix, was the son of Constantine Copronymus, whom he
succeeded in 775. His wife was the ambitious Irene.
He was a zealous Iconoclast, and is charged with perse
cuting the orthodox or image-worshippers. He died in
780, leaving the throne to his minor son, Constantine VI.
See CEDRENUS, " History."
Leo V., Emperor of the East, is called THE ARMENIAN,
because his father was a native of Armenia. Supported
by the army, which he had corrupted, he rebelled against
Michael Rangabe, and usurped the throne, in 813 A.I).
He defeated the Bulgarians, who invaded his dominions,
in 814. He was a zealous Iconoclast, and violently per
secuted the image-worshippers, who appear to have been
the majority. He was assassinated in 820 A. I)., and
Michael the Stammerer became emperor.
See GIBBON, " Dec'ine and Fall of ihe Roman Empire."
Leo VI., surnamed THE PHILOSOPHER, Emperor of
the East, born in 865 A.D., was the son of Basilius the
Macedonian, whom he succeeded in 886. He exiled the
patriarch Photius. His empire was invaded by the Sara
cens, who gained several victories. After a weak and
inglorious reign, he died in 911, and was succeeded by
his son, Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Leo was more
successful as an author than as a ruler. He wrote an
esteemed treatise on Tactics, a poem on the desolation
of Greece, moral discourses, and other works.
See GIBBON% "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" LE
BEAU, " Histoiredu Has- Empire ;" FABRICIUS," KibliothecaGraca."
Le'o[Fr. LEON, la'oN'; It. LEONE, li-o'ni; Sp. LEON,
la-on'; Port. LEAO, la-owN'] I., POPE, called THE
GREAT, an ambitious and able pontiff, was a native of
Rome, and was chosen bishop of that see in 440 A.D., as
successor to Sixtus III. His talents and learning had
been approved in several important missions. In 445
he reversed the decision of Hilaire, (Hilarius,) a French
bishop, on a question of discipline. It was the con
stant aim of his policy to promote the supremacy of the
Bishops of Rome. He pronounced against the heresy
of Eutyches, which was condemned in the oecumenic
Council of Chalcedon in 451. Tradition informs us that
Attila, marching against Rome in 452, was persuaded
by the prayers of Leo to spare that city. He failed
to prevent the pillage of Rome by the Vandal king
Genseric in 455. He died in 461 A.D., leaving many
sermons and epistles, which are valuable for the light
they throw on the history of the age. Hilarius I. was
his successor.
See P. DE MORNAV, " Histoire pontificate, " 1612; P. DUMOUI.IN,
"Vie et Religion de deux bons Papes, Leon I et Gregoire I," 1650;
E. PERTHEI., "Pap-t Leo's I. Leben und Lehren." 1843: W. A.
ARENDT, " Leo der Grosse und seine Zeit," 1835; SAINT-CHERON,
"Histoire du Pontifical de S. Leon le Grand," 2 vols., 1845.
Leo II., POPE, a native of Sicily, succeeded Agathon
in 682 A.D. He is praised for virtues and learning by
Catholic writers. He died in May, 684, and was suc
ceeded by Benedict II.
Leo III., a Roman by birth, was chosen pope in 795
A.D., in place of Adrian I. His first act was the recog
nition of his subjection or allegiance to Charlemagne, to
whom he sent the keys of Saint Peter's. In 799 he was
attacked by a band of conspirators, and escaped with
several wounds. Charlemagne visited Rome in 800, and
was crowned by the pope as Emperor of the Romans,
with the title of Augustus. Thus the Western Empire
was restored, after it had been subverted three hundred
and twenty-five years. Leo died in 816 A.D., and was
succeeded by Stephen IV.
See J. G. FADER, "Dissertatio de Leone III. Papa Romano,"
1748.
Leo IV., a native of Rome, was chosen pope in 847
A.D., in place of Sergius II. He bravely defended Rome
against the Saracens, who, however, pillaged the basilica
of Saint Peter. He built a suburb of his capital, which
was named Leonina. His character is said to have been
good. He died in 855, and was succeeded by Benedict
III. The fabulous female pope Joan was supposed by
some writers to have been the successor of Leo IV.
See BARONIUS, "Annales."
Leo V., a native of Ardea, was elected pope in 903
A.D., after the death of Benedict IV. About two months
after his election he was deposed by his rival Christopher,
and died in prison, according to one account, in 903.
Leo VI. succeeded John X. in 928 A.D., when the
Church was in a deplorable state and Italy was filled
with disorder. After a reign of seven months, he died,
in 929, and was succeeded by Stephen VII.
Leo VII. was chosen pope after the death of John
XL, in 937 A.D. He has the reputation of a wise and
pious pontiff. His reign was not marked by important
events. He died in 939, and Stephen VIII. then became
pope.
Leo VIII. was elected pope in 963 A.D., in place of
John XII., who had been deposed by a council. John
returned, expelled Leo from Rome, and held the place
until his death, in 964. The Romans then elected Bene
dict V. ; but Leo was restored by the emperor Otho. He
died in 965, and was succeded by John XIII.
See PI.ATINA, "Vita; Pontificnm Romanorum."
Leo IX., originally Bruno, buoo'no, was born in
Alsace in 1002, and was a cousin-german of the emperor
Conrad the Salic. He was noted for learning, and be
came Bishop of Toul. In 1049 he succeeded Damasus
II. He held frequent councils, and laboured zealously
to reform the morals of the clergy Having raised an
army to oppose the Normans, he was defeated by them
and made prisoner, but was at last released. He died in
1054, and was succeeded by Victor II.
See F. X. HUNKI.ER, "Leo IX. und seine Zeit," 1851 ; MURA-
TORI, "Reruni Italicarum Scriptores," vol. iii., 1733.
Leo X., (Cardinal GIOVANNI de' Medici — da med'-
ee-chee,) celebrated as a munificent patron of literature
and the arts, the second son of Lorenzo de' Medici, (the
Magnificent,) was born at Florence in 1475. He was
created a cardinal at the age of thirteen. In 1512 he
was made prisoner by the French at Ravenna, but soon
regained his liberty. Julius II. having died, Cardinal de'
Medici was elected pope, March n, 1513, and assumed
the name of Leo X. He announced his patronage of
literature by choosing two eminent authors, Bembo and
Sadolet, as his apostolical secretaries. The pontificate of
Leo is a memorable epoch in religion, politics, and the fine
arts. In 1515 he negotiated and signed, with Francis I. of
France, an important concordat, which remained in force
nearly three centuries and gave to the king the right of
nominating bishops in his own dominions. One of the
most momentous acts of his administration was the im
mense issue and sale of indulgences, which were authorized
in 1517, (ostensibly for the completion of the cathedral
of Saint Peter's,) and which impelled Luther to denounce
the corruptions and defy the power of the Church of
Rome. (See LUTHER.) He is censured by many Catho
lics for his lenity towards Luther. By violence and craft
he annexed Urbino and Perugia to the Papal State. In
1521 he made a treaty with Charles V., and became the
ally of that prince in a war against Francis I. The
capture of Milan had just been achieved by the allies,
when Leo died in December, 1521, not without suspicion
of poison. He was succeeded by Adrian VI. It is
generally admitted that Leo was rather worldly and
luxurious as the head of the Church. His fondness for
buffoonery gave much offence to the stricter Catholics.
As a temporal ruler he is considered more meritorious.
Under his auspices Michael Angelo obtained celebrity
at Florence and the splendid works of Raphael were
completed in the Vatican. He restored its alienated
revenues to the Roman University, in which one hundred
professors received salaries, founded a Greek college at
Rome, and liberally patronized poets, scholars, and
artists. The part of the sixteenth century in which learn
ing and art flourished most remarkably is generally
designated as the " age of Leo the Tenth."
See VV. ROSCOE, " Life of Leo X.," 3d edition, 1840; A. FAPRONT.
" VitaLeonisX.," 1797: A mix, " Histoire de Le'onX," 1844: PAUI.O
GIOVIO, "Vita Leonis X.," 1651 ; ARTAUD DE MONTOR, " Hisloire
des souverains Pontifes," vol. iv. : BAVI.E, " Historical and Critical
Dictionary;" GUICCIARDINI, " Istoria d'ltalia;" RANKE, "History
of the Popes;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1806; "Monthly
Review" for October and November, 1806.
Leo XL, (Cardinal AI.ESSANDRO de' Medici — da
m§d'e-chee,) was advanced in years when he succeeded
Clement VIII. on the ist of April, 1605. He died on
the 27th of the same month, probably from the fatigue
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; gas j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as s; th as in this. (S^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
LEO
1406
LEON HARD
of the coronation. He had been legate to France under
Clement VIII., and had the reputation of a virtuous and
moderate prelate. Paul V. was his successor.
Leo XII, (Cardinal ANN IB ALE della Genga— del'13.
je'n'ga',) was born in the district ofSpoletoin 1760. Having
acted for some years as nuncio in Germany and France,
he became a cardinal in 1816. In September, 1823, he
succeeded Pope Pi^Jp VII. He proclaimed a jubilee in
1825, and made reforms in the civil administration. His
biographers give him credit for political prudence. In
a circular letter of 1825 he denounced the Bible Socie
ties. He died in February, 1829, and was succeeded by
Pius VIII.
See P. RUDONI, "Leone XII. e Pio VIII.," 1829: C. SCHMID,
" Trauerrede auf Leo XII," 1829; ARTAUU DE MONTOR, " Histoire
du Pape Leon XII.," 2 vnls., 1843; CARDINAL WISEMAN, "Recol
lections of the Last Four Popes."
Leo, an astronomer, who lived at Constantinople.
He was invited to Bagdad by the caliph Al-Mamoon,
but the emperor refused to part with him. He was ap
pointed Archbishop of Thessalonica, but was deprived
of that office, for his opposition to image-worship, in
849 A.D.
Leo [Gr. Aewv] OF BYZANTIUM, [Fr. LEON DE BY-
ZANCE, la'6.\' deh be'z5.\ss',] a philosopher, who lived
about 350 B.C., was a disciple of Plato. He was sent as
ambassador to Philip of Macedon. His writings have
not come down to us.
Leo OF MODENA, a celebrated Jewish rabbi, whose
proper name was Juda Ari£ or Arje, (ak'ya,) was born
at Venice about 1572, and lived mostly in that city. He
wrote verses in Hebrew and Italian, and published, be
sides other works, a Hebrew dictionary, and an "Ac
count of the Rites and Customs of the Jews," (1637.)
Died about 1650.
See WOLF, " Bib'iotheca Hebraica."
Leo OF ORVIETO, [Lat. LEO URBEVETA'NUS,] an
Italian chronicler, who flourished about 1320. He wrote,
in barbarous Latin, a chronicle of the emperors, ending
in 1308, and a chronicle of the popes, ending in 1314.
Leo, la'o, (HEINRICH,) an eminent German historian,
born at Rudolstadt in 1799. He obtained about 1828
the chair of history at Halle, which he filled for twenty-
five years or more. In 1830 he published a " Manual of
Mediaeval History" and a "History of the Italian States,"
(5 vols.,) which were received with favour. He is an
adversary of the Liberal or radical party in politics.
Among his other works is a "Guide to Universal His
tory," (" Leitfaden der Universal-Geschichte," 1838-40.)
See EouARoMEVEN, "H. Leo der verhallerte Pietist, "etc., 1839.
Leo, la'o, (JUAN,) surnamed AFRICA'NUS, a Moorish
geographer, born at Granada, was a child when his pa
rents, flying from the victorious Spaniards, took him to
Africa in 1491. He travelled extensively in Africa and
Asia, was taken captive by Christian corsairs, and pre
sented to Pope Leo X. about 1517. He abjured Islam-
ism, and wrote, in Arabic, a " Description of Africa,"
(1526,) which was published by Ramusio in 1550 and
was for a long time the best work on that subject.
See CASIRI, " Hibliotheca Arabico-Hispana. "
Leo, la'o, (LEONARDO,) an eminent Italian composer,
born in Naples in 1694, was a pupil of Scarlatti. He
composed admired Italian operas, but acquired a more
durable reputation by his "Miserere," " Dixit Dominus,"
and other pieces of sacred music, in which a grand effect
is produced by means comparatively simple. He was
the master of Piccini and of other excellent composers.
His death is variously dated 1742, 1745, or 1755.
See FHTIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle
Biographie Ge"nerale."
Leo Allatius. See ALLATIUS.
Le'o Di-ac'o-iius, a Byzantine historian, was born at
Caloe, in Ionia, about 950 A.D., and became a resident
of Constantinople. He wrote a narrative of events from
959 to 975, which is called a valuable supplement to the
Byzantine history.
Leo the Grammarian, one of the Byzantine his
torians. He wrote about 1013 (as a continuation of
Theophanes) a history of Leo V. and seven succeeding
emperors, entitled " Chronographia Res a recentioribus
Imperatoribus gestas complectens," from 813 to 929.
Leo the Great. See LEO I., POPE.
Leo Juda. See JUDA, (LEO.)
Leo Pi-la'tus or Leon'tius (le-on'she-us) Pila'tus,
[Fr. LEONCE PILATE, la'oxss' pe'laY,] a Greek scholar,
who taught Greek at Florence, and is said to have been
the first who translated Homer into Italian or Latin. He
was killed by lightning at sea about 1364.
See HODIUS, "De Gnecis illustribus ;" PETRARCH, "Epistolas,"
v. and vi.
Leo Urbevetanus. See LEO OF ORVIETO.
Le-o-eh'a-res, [ A? (J^ap^c, ] an excellent Greek sculp
tor, flourished at Athens in the fourth century before
Christ. His master-pieces were the " Rape of Gany
mede," a statue of Apollo wearing a diadem, and one
of Jupiter Tonans, which was placed in the Capitol of
Rome. He executed, in gold and ivory, portrait-statues
of King Philip and Alexander the Great. Died after
338 H.C.
Le-od'a-mas, [AfwA'^af,] an Athenian orator of high
reputation, was a disciple of Isocrates, and flourished
about 400-350 n.c.
Leon, the French for LEO, which see.
Leon, !a-6n', (DIEGO,) a Spanish general, born in
1804. In the civil war which began in 1833 he fought
for the queen against Don Carlos. He was reputed the
best general of cavalry in Spain. In 1840 he became a
partisan of Christina in her contest with Espartero, and
was appointed by her captain-general of Madrid. He
conspired against Espartero, was made prisoner, and
executed in 1841.
Leon, ( PONCE DE.) See PONCE DE LEON.
Leon de Saint-Jean, la'6.N' deh sd.N zhoN, or Leo
of Saint John, a French theologian, born at Rennes
in 1600. He wrote "Studium Sapientiae universalis."
Died in 1671.
Leonard, LVo'naV, (NICOLAS GERMAIN,) a French
poet, born at Guadeloupe in 1744, came to France in
early youth. He wrote a poem on the seasons, and
several idyls, (1766.) Died at Nantes in 1793.
Leonard de Limousin, la'o'nSi<' deh le'moo'zaN',
or Limosin, le'mo'za'N', a French painter and enamel-
ler, born at Limoges about 1500. He was director of a
manufactory of enamels which Francis I. founded at
Limoges. His works are admirable in design and colour.
He copied the master-pieces of Raphael, Giulio Romano,
and other Italian painters. Died about 1580.
Leonardi, la-o-naR'dee, or Leouardoni, la-o-naR-
do'nee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian painter, born at Venice
in 1654, excelled in portraits. Died at Madrid in 1711.
Leonardo, la-o-naR'do, (AUGUSTIN, ) a Spanish
painter and friar, born at Valencia about 1580. He
painted history and portraits with success in Seville and
Madrid. Died about 1640.
Leonardo (or Lionardo, le-o-naii'do) da Pisa, la-
o-nak'do dS pee'sd, called also Lionardo Pisauo
(pe-sii'no) and Leonardo Bonacci (bo-nJt'chee) or
Fibonacci, (fe-bo-naVchee,) an Italian mathematician,
who flourished about 1200. He was probably the first
who introduced into Europe the Arabic numeration and
the knowledge of algebra, which he derived from the
Saracens. He wrote a work which remained in manu
script and is described in Cossali's " History of Algebra."
See GUGLIHLMINI, " Elogio di Lionardo Pisano," 1813.
Leonardo da Vinci. See VINCI.
Leonarducci, la-o-naR-doot'chee, (GASPARE,) an Ital
ian poet, born at Venice in 1685. His principal poem is
" Providence," ("La Providenza," 1739.) Died in 1752.
Leonatus. See LEONNATUS.
Leonbruno, li-on-bRoo'no, (LORENZO,) a painter of
the Mantuan school, born in 1489; died about 1537.
See PRANDI, " Notizie spettanti la Vita di L. Leonbruno," 1825.
Leonce. See LEONTIUS.
Leonce Pilate. See LEO PILATUS.
Leone. See LEO.
Lepnelli, la-o-nel'lee, (ZECCHINI,) an Italian mathe
matician and architect, born at Cremona in 1776; died
in 1847.
Leonhard, von, fon la'on-haRt', (KARL CAESAR,) an
eminent German geologist, born near Hanau in 1779.
He studied at Gottingen, and in 1818 was appointed
professor of geology at Heidelberg. Among his numerous
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; flr, fill, fit; mSt; n3t; good; moon;
LEON HARD I
1407
LEOPARDI
works we may name his "Topographical Mineralogy,"
(3 vols., 1805-09,) and "Geology, or Natural History of
the Earth," (8 vols., 1836-45,) which have been trans
lated into English, French, and Dutch.
Leonhardi, la-on-haR/dee, QOHANN GOTTFRIED,) a
German physician, born at Leipsic in 1746. He became
physician to the Elector of Saxony. Died in 1823.
Leoni, la-o'nee, (GiACOMO,) a Venetian architect, who
removed to England. Died about 1746.
Leoni, (LEONE,) a skilful sculptor and engraver of
medals, born at Arezzo, in Tuscany. He was patronized
by Charles V., for whom he worked at Brussels and
Madrid. He made marble statues of Charles and his
empress, and a colossal bronze statue of the former at
Madrid. Died about 1592. His son POMPEIO was also
skilful in the same arts, and was enriched by the favours
of Philip II. of Spain. Pompeio died at Milan in 1660.
See CICOGNARA, " Storia della Scultura."
Leoni, (Luioi,) an Italian painter, sculptor, and en
graver, surnamed PADOVANO, was born at Padua in
1531. He practised his three arts at Rome with nearly
equal success. His paintings are landscapes and his
torical pieces. Died in 1606.
Leoni, (OrrAVio,) surnamed IL PADOVANO or PADO-
VANINO, the son and pupil of the preceding, was born in
Rome about 1576, and became one of the most famous
portrait-painters of his time. He was chosen principal
of the Academy of Fine Arts in Rome. Died about 1630.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy."
Leoniceno, la-o-ne-cha'no, [Lat. LEONICF/NUS,](NIC-
COI.6,) an eminent Italian physician, born at Lonigo, in
the Vicentine, in 1428. He was professor of medicine
or philosophy at Ferrara, and gained a high reputation
by his writings. He was the first who translated Galen's
work into Latin. Among his works is a treatise "On
Syphilis," (" De Morbo Gallico," 1497.) Died in 1524.
See PAOLO GIOVIO, " Elogia Virorum ilhistrium ;" TIRABOSCHI,
"Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Leonicenus. See LEONICENO.
Le-on-i-ce'iius Om-m-bo'nus, [It. OcNiBudNo DI
LONIGO, on-ye-boo-o'no cle lo-nee'go,] an eminent Ital
ian grammarian, born at Lonigo about 1420. He lived
in Venice, where it is supposed he taught rhetoric. He
published a Latin "Treatise on Grammar," (1473,) anc^
Commentaries on Lucan, Cicero, and other classics.
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Latina media; et infima? ./Etatis."
Leonico, la-on'e-ko, (TOMMASO NiccoiA) an Italian
classical scholar, born at Venice in 1456. He translated
some works of Aristotle and other ancient Greeks. Died
in 1531.
Le-on'I-das,
[ Aeon'«5af, ] a heroic king of Sparta,
renowned for his invincible courage, patriotic devotion,
and noble and tragical end, was the son of Anaxandrides.
He succeeded his brother, Cleomenes I., in 492 B.C. When
Xerxes invaded Greece with his countless myriads, in
480, the Greek Congress resolved to defend the pass of
Thermopylae, and Leonidas commanded the small band
to which that task was confided. With about 4000 men,
he resisted the Persian army for several days, until a
treacherous Greek guided io,coo of the enemy through
a secret path over the mountain. Leonidas, perceiving
that his position was turned, dismissed all his men ex
cept 300 Spartans and about 1000 other Greeks. The
Spartans maintained their post until they were all slain.
The Persians are said to have lost there 20,000 men. The
monument raised on the grave of the Spartans bore this
inscription: "Go, traveller, and tell at Lacedasmon that
we fell here in obedience to her laws." He left a son,
Pleistarchus, who became king.
See HERODOTUS, books v. and vii. ; GROTE, " History of Greece ;"
JUSTIN, book ii. ; P. ECKERMAN, " Dissertatio de Virtute Leonidae,1'
1762.
Leonidas II., King of Sparta, the son of Cleonymus,
ascended the throne in 256 B.C. He factiously opposed
the reforms of Agis IV., his colleague, who wished to
restore the regulations of Lycurgus. After having been
deposed for a short time, he regained his power in 240,
and procured the death of Agis. In 236 B.C. he died,
and was succeeded by his son, Cleomenes III.
Leonidas OF TARENTUM, a Greek poet, born at
Tarentum, flourished about 275 B.C. He wrote about
one hundred epigrams, which are preserved in the Greek
Anthology and are much admired.
See FAHRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Graeca."
Leonio, la-o'ne-o, (ViNCENZO,) an Italian poet, born
at Spoleto in 1650. He was one of the founders of the
Academy of Arcades, and contributed by his precepts
and example to reform Italian poetry. Died in 1720.
Leonnat. See LEONNATUS.
Le-on-na'tus or Le-o-na'tus, [Gr. Aeovvurof ; Fr.
LEONNAT, la'o'nt',] a Macedonian general of Pella, ac
companied Alexander the Great in his invasion of Persia
in 334 B.C. He was one of the officers employed about
that king's person and on occasions requiring entire
confidence. In the attack on Malli the life of Alexander
was saved by the personal bravery of Leonnatus and
Peucestas. At the death of his chief he obtained the
satrapy of Phrygia Minor, and was soon urged by An-
tipater to aid him against the revolted Greeks. For
this purpose he marched with an army into Thessaly,
where he was killed in battle in 322 B.C.
See ARRIAN, "Anabasis," books ii., iii., iv., vi., and vii.; Dio-
DORDS SICULUS, "History."
Le-on-ti'a-des, |Gr. AeovTtacJjjfJ a leader of the oli
garchical party which, aided by the Spartan army, ob
tained the mastery at Thebes about 382 B.C. He was
killed in his own house by Pelopidas in 379 B.C.
Leontief or Leontiew, la-on'te-ef, (ALEXIS LEON-
TIEVITCH,) a Russian savant, who obtained in 1779 the
title of aulic councillor, and held other high offices. He
was deeply versed in the Chinese literature, and trans
lated into Russian several Chinese works on history,
geography, etc. Died in 1786.
Leontium, le-on'she-um, [Gr. Aeovnov,] an Athenian
courtesan, the disciple^and mistress of Epicurus. She
acquired some distinction as a philosopher, and com
posed in answer to Theophrastus a work on philosophy,
the style of which is praised by Cicero as written " scito
quidem sermone et Attico."* Among her various lovers
was Metrodorus, the disciple and intimate friend of Epi
curus.
Leontius, le-on'she^s, [Gr. Aeovnof ; Fr. LEONCE,
la'oNss',] Emperor of^he East, was born about 650 A.n.
He became a general, and gained several victories. In
695 A.D. he rebelled against Justinian II., and usurped
the throne. He was deposed by Apsimerus in 698,
and in 705 A.D. was put to death by Justinian, who had
recovered his power.
See GinnoN, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Leontius OF BYZANTIUM, called SCHOLAS'TICUS, an
ecclesiastical writer, lived about the end of the sixth
century. He wrote "De Sectis," and other works.
Leontius Pilatus. See LEO PII.ATUS.
Leopardi, la-o-paR'dee, (AI.ESSANDRO,) an excellent
Italian sculptor and architect, born at Venice. Among
his works are the mausoleum of Doge Andrea Vendra-
mini, (Venice,) and the three bronze columns in the
Piazza di San Marco, on which the standards of the re
public were suspended. The elegance and proportions
of these are equally admirable. Died in 1515.
See CICOGXARA, "Storia della Scultura;" TICOZZI, " Dizionario."
Leopardi, (GiACOMO,) COUNT, an eminent Italian
poet and philologist, born, at Recanati, in the Papal
States, in June, 1798. Between 1818 and 1820 he won a
place among the first lyric poets of Italy by canzoni "To
Italy," and "On the Monument which Florence was
about to erect to Dante." In 1822 he removed to
Rome, where he produced an excellent criticism on the
publication of the "Chronicon" of Eusebius by Mai
and Zohrab, (1823.) His poems, published collectively
under the title of "Canti," (1831,) contain passages of
great eloquence and pathos. His prose essays, " Operette
morali,"(i827,) are esteemed among the finest models of
Italian prose which the present century has produced.
Died in Naples in 1837. "We believe," says the "Quar
terly Review" for April, 1850, "it may be said without
exaggeration that he was one of the most extraordinary
men whom this century has produced, both in his powers
and likewise in his performances, achieved as they were
under singular disadvantages. For not only did he die
* I.e. " In a skilful and elegant style."
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
LEOPOLD
1408
LEOPOLD
at thirty-eight, almost ncl mezzo dd cammin di nostra
&;Vrt,'but likewise 'Heaven's unimpeached decrees,' in
his case, nearly
' Made that shortened span one long disease.'
With a life thus limited, . . . Count Giacomo Leopardi
amassed great stores of deep and varied learning, proved
himself to be possessed of profound literary judgment,
exquisite taste, and a powerful imagination, and earned
in his own country the character summed up in the words
of one of his editors, as sommo filologo, soinmo focta e
sommo filosofo." Leopardi sympathized with the efforts
to liberate Italy from foreign domination.
See MONTANARI, " Biografia del Conte Leopardi," 1838 ; SAINTE-
BEUVE. " Portraits conteniporains," tome iii. ; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale;" "Encyclopedia Britannica ;" "Eraser's Magazine for
December, 1848.
Le'o-pold [It. LEOPOT.DO, la-o-pol'do] I., often called
Leopold the Great, [Ger. LEOPOLD DKR GKOSSK, la'-
o-polt clCK gRos'seh ; Lat. LEOPOI/DI'S MAG'NUS,] Em-
peror of Germany, of the house of Austria, the second son
of Ferdinand III. and of Maria Anna of Spain, was born
in T«ne> 1640. lie became King of Hungary in 1655,
and King of Bohemia in 1657. After the death of his
father, and a competition with Louis XIV. of France,
Leopold was elected emperor on the iSth of July, 1658.
The Turks, having invaded Hungary with a large army,
were defeated at Saint Gothard in 1664, and Leopold
then made with them a truce of twenty years. In 1674
he commenced war against Louis XIV., which, after
indecisive campaigns on the Rhine, was ended by the
treaty of Nymwegen in 1678. The Hungarians, driven
by his despotic measures to revolt, chose Tekeli as their
leader in 1682, and were aided by a Turkish army of
200,000 men, which besieged Vienna in July, 1683. So-
bieski, King of Poland, saved the capital by a decisive
victory over the Turks in September of that year. The
Austrians, commanded by Prince Eugene, finished the war
by a victory at Zenta in 1697, in which year also a second
war against France was ended by the peace of Ryswick.
The claim of his family to the throne of Spain, vacated
by the death of Charles IT. in 1700, involved Leopold
in another war with Louis XIV. He renewed his alli
ance with England and Holland in 1701. His army,
commanded by Prince Eugene, gained several victories
in Italy in 1701-02, and shared the triumph of the allies
at Blenheim in 1704. Before the termination of this
long war of the Spanish succession, he died, in May,
1705, and was succeeded by his son, Joseph I. He had
had three wives, the first of whom was a Spanish prin
cess, Margarita Theresa. His prosperity is ascribed to
the merit of his ministers and generals, rather than to
his own abilities. Among the important events of his
reign was the recognition of Ernest Augustus of Hanover,
in 1692, as an Elector of the empire.
See "Life of Leopold I.," London. 1706; MKNCKR, " Leben
Leopolds I.." 1707 ; WAGNER. " Historia Leopoldi Mnsrni," 1719-31 ;
RINCK, " Leben und Thaten Leopolds des Grossen," 1708 ; RKINA,
"Vita ed Imperio di Leopoldo I. ,"1710; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Leopold II. OF GERMANY, the second son of the
empress Maria Theresa, was born May 5, 1747. At the
death of his father, Francis I., in 1765, he inherited the
grand duchy of Tuscany, which he ruled twenty-five
Sears in a wise and liberal spirit. During this period
e made many reforms in the administration. He sup
pressed the Inquisition, abolished the penalty of death,
and co-operated with Ricci, Bishop of Pistoia, in the
reformation of monastic discipline, which caused an
angry contest between him and the court of Rome. On
the death of his brother, Joseph II., February 20, 1790,
Leopold became heir of the Austrian monarchy, which
was then not in a prosperous condition. The Low Coun
tries were in revolt, Hungary was discontented, Turkey
and Prussia were hostile, and France was estranged from
Austria by the Revolution. He quickly reduced the
Low Countries to obedience by an army, and pacified
his other subjects by a conciliatory policy. In 1791 he
concluded peace with Turkey at Sistova, and was elected
Emperor of Germany. The alarming progress of the
French Revolution induced him to form an alliance with
Prussia at Pilnitz, in 1791, for the restoration of Louis
XVI. Hostilities were about to begin, when he died
suddenly on the 1st of March, 1792, leaving the repu
tation of an able and just ruler. His wife was Maria
Louisa, daughter of Charles III. of Spain. He was
succeeded by his son, Francis II., (of Germany,) who
in reference to Austria is styled Francis I.
See "Leben Leopolds II.," Prague, 1791 : FOUCAUI.T, "Histoire
de Leopold II," 1791; AI.XINGEK, " Ueber Leopold II.," 1792;
SARTORI, " Leopoldinische Annalen," 2 vols., 1792; J. B. SCHEI.S,
" Leopold II.," 1837.
Leopold I., King of Belgium, Duke of Saxony, and
Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, was born at Coburg in
1790. He was a son of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saal-
feld, was a brother of the Duchess of Kent, and uncle of
the British queen Victoria. In May, 1816, he married
the princess Charlotte, daughter of George IV. and heir-
apparent to the throne of Great Britain, who died in
childbirth before the end of that year. He refused the
crown of Greece, offered to him in 1830. On the 4th of
June, 1831, he was elected King of the Belgians, who
were separated from Holland by the revolution of 1830.
Hostilities were renewed by the Dutch, and a French
army came to the aid of the Belgians. In 1832 Leopold
married Louise Marie Therese, a daughter of King Louis
Philippe. He was quite popular among his subjects,
towards whom his policy was marked by liberality and
a scrupulous regard for their constitutional rights. He
died in December, 1865, and was succeeded by his son,
Leopold II.
See L. HVMAXS, " Histoive cln Re^ne de Leopold I." 1804 ; RAS-
Tot'i. DE MONGEOT, " Leopold I. Roi des Beiges, sa Vie mi itaire et
politique," 1850; TMEODOKK JUSTK, "Leopold, Roi des Beiges,"
1X68; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale:" "London Quarterly Re
view" for April, i86g; "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1866.
Leopold I., Duke of Austria, was born in 1157. He
served under Richard I. of England at the siege of Acre.
In 1193, to gratify his avarice and to revenge an insult
he fancied he had received from Richard, he arrested
him at Vienna on his homeward journey and threw him
into prison. He received a large sum of money for the
transfer of the royal captive to the emperor Henry Vf.
Died in 1194.
Leopold II., Duke of Austria, born in 1292, was the
third son of Albert I., Emperor of Germany, who was
killed in 1308, leaving his dominions in joint-tenancy to
his sons. Leopold ruled Suabia, Alsace, and Switzer
land. His brothers, Frederick and Louis of Bavaria,
were competitors for the imperial throne. In 1315 Leo
pold attacked the Swiss, (who favoured the cause of
Louis of Bavaria,) and was defeated at Morgarten. In
1325 a treaty was made between the two parlies, and it
was agreed that Louis and Frederick should reign jointly.
Leopold died about 1326.
See I.ICHNOWSKV, "Geschichte Hauses Habsburg."
Leopold III., Duke of Austria, the son of Albert TL,
was born about 1350. He became ruler over Suabia,
Tyrol, etc. War having broken out between him and
the Swiss cantons, he was defeated and killed in 1386 at
the famous battle of Sempach, where Arnold of Win-
kelried decided the victory by throwing himself on the
Austrian spears and breaking the phalanx.
See KUKZ, " Oestreich unter Albrecht III."
Leopold I. OF TUSCANY. See LEOPOLD II., (Em
peror.)
Leopold II., Grand Duke of Tuscany, was born at
Florence in 1797, and was a son of Ferdinand III., whom
he succeeded in 1824. He conceded a constitution to
Tuscany in 1847. In consequence of the triumph of
the democratic party, he retired from Florence, but was
restored by the Austrian army in July, I.V49- He was
forced to abdicate by the revolutionary movements of
the spring of 1859, and Tuscany was annexe."! to Sardinia,
lie published a fine edition of the works of Lorenzo de'
Medici, (4 vols., 1825.)
Leopold OF ANHAI.T-DESSAU. See ANHALT-DESSAU.
Leopold OF LORRAINE. See LORRAINE.
Leopold, la'o-pold', (CARL GTSTAF,) an eminent
Swedish poet, born at Stockholm in 1756. In 1778 he
composed an "Ode on the Birth of the Prince-Royal
Gustavus Adolphus," and in 1788 he became private
secretary of Gustavus III., who treated him with much
favour and confidence. He produced two successful
tragedies, "Odin" (1790) and "Virginia," and sang the
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mit; not; good; moon;
LEOPOLD
1409
LEPIDUS
martial exploits of the Swedes in several admired odes.
He was appointed secretary of state in 1818. Died in 1829.
See MAGNUS AF PONTIN, " Minne af C. G. Leopold,'^ 1830;
EHKKNSTROEM, "Notice biographique sur M. cle Leopold, 1838;
SKJOEI.UEBRAND, "Tal vid C. G. af Leopolds Graf," 1829; LONG
FELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Leopold Friedrich, la'o-polt/ fReed'riK, Duke of
Anhalt-Dessau, was born in 1794. On the death of his
grandfather, in 1817, he succeeded to the government,
and in 1853 to that of Anhalt-Kothen.
Leopold Friedrich
fRants, Duke of Dessau,
Franz, la'o-polt/ fReed'riK
born in 1740. In 1758 he
assumed the government, and distinguished himself by
his able administration and his patronage of learning
and the arts. He died in 1817, and was succeeded by
his grandson, the subject of the preceding article.
Leopoldo. See LEOPOLD I., Emperor of Germany.
Leosthene. See LEOSTHENES.
Le-os'the-iies, [Gr. Awoferw ; Fr. LEOSTHENE, 1k'-
os'tin',] an Athenian general, who makes his first ap
pearance in history about the time of the death of Alex
ander the Great, 324 B.C. He was attached to the party
of Demosthenes, and seems to have had a high repu
tation, as he was chosen commander of the combined
Greek army in the Lamian war, the object of which was
to liberate Greece from the Macedonian yoke. He de
feated Antipater in Thessaly, and besieged him in Lamia.
At this siege Leosthenes was killed, in 323 li.c., after
which success deserted the Athenian arms.
See GROTE, "History of Greece;" THIRLWALL, "History of
Greece."
Leotaud, la'o'to', (VINCENT,) an able French geome
ter, born in the diocese of Embrun in 1595. He was a
professor at the College of Dole. Among his works
are " Elements of Practical Geometry," (" Geometries
practice Elementa," 1631,) and " Cyclomathia," etc.,
(1663.) Died in 1672.
Le-o-ty-eh'i-des, [Gr.
Fr. LEOTYCHIDE,
la'o'te'ked',] a Spartan king, the son of Menares, suc
ceeded Demaratus, who was deposed about 491 B.C.
Leonidas I. was his colleague in the government. He
obtained command of the Greek fleet, and shared with
Xanthippus the honour of the signal victory over the
Persians at Mycale in 479 B.C. Having been accused of
receiving a bribe from some Thessalians, he was banished
in 469, and died in exile at Tegea.
See HERODOTUS, " History," books vi., viii., and ix.
Leowitz, la'o-wits', [Lat. LEOVI'TIUS,] (CYPRIAN,)
a Bohemian astronomer, born near Hradisch in 1524;
died in 1574.
Le Paige, leh-pizh', (THOMAS,) a French religious
writer, born in Lorraine in 1597 ; died in 1658.
Lepaute, leh-pot', QEAN ANDRE,) a French clock-
maker, born at Montmedy in 1709. He lived in Paris,
and was celebrated for the perfection of his works. He
made time-pieces for many public edifices of Paris, and
for the most of the observatories of Europe. He pub
lished a "Treatise on Clockwork," (Horlogerie.) Died
in 1789.
His wife, nee NICOLE REINE Stable de Labriere —
a'ttb'l' deh IS'bRe'aiR', born in Paris in 1723, acquired
distinction as an astronomer. She was a friend of Clai-
raut and Lalande, whom she assisted in the calcula
tions on the return of Halley's comet, (1757.) She was
the author of " Observations" inserted in the "Connais-
sances des Temps," of " Tables of the Sun, Moon, and
Planets," and of several memoirs on astronomy. Died
in 1788.
Lepautre orLepotre,leh-potR', (ANTOINE,) a French
architect, born in Paris in 1614. He was first architect
of Louis XIV. In 1652 he published an esteemed work
entitled " The Architecture of A. Lepautre." He had
an excellent talent for decoration, and abounded in new
inventions. The church of Port-Royal, in a suburb of
Paris, was designed by him. Died in 1691.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
Lepautre, (JEAN,) a brother of the preceding, born
in Paris in 1617, was a skilful designer and engraver.
He designed and etched many subjects which are ad
mirable models for architects and other artists. Dice1
in 1682.
Lepautre, (PIERRE,) a French sculptor, born in Paris
n 1660, was a son of Antoine, noticed above. He studied
and worked in Rome for fifteen years, and then returned
to Paris, where he obtained success, though his works
are defective in taste. His chief production is the group
of /Eneas and Anchises, at the Tuileries. Died in 1744.
Lepaux. See LAREVEILLERE.
Le Pays, de, deh leh piV, ( RENE, ) Sieur Plessis-
Villeneuve, a gay and witty French versifier, born at
Nantes or Fougeres in 1636. He was for many years
director-general of the salt-tax (gabelle) in Dauphine and
Provence. He was noted for his bans mots. His " Friend-
Jiips, Loves, and Little Loves" ("Amities, Amours et
Amourettes," 1664) had a great success. He published
many letters, sonnets, etc. Died in 1690.
See BAYLE, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" MORERI,
1 Dictionnaire Historique."
Lepee, (AnBE.) See F,PEE.
Lepekhiii or Lepechin, lep-eh-Keen' or lep-eh-Kin',
IVAN IVAXOWITCH,) a Russian naturalist, born about
1740. He was charged by Catherine II. to explore
Russia, and published the results in a " Journal of
Travels through the Various Provinces of the Russian
Empire," (3 vols., 1771-80.) Died in 1802.
Lepelletier, leh-pel'te-i', (CLAUDE.) a French theolo
gian, born in Franche-Comte about 1670, became canon
of Rheims. He wrote polemical treatises against the
Jansenists, and many religious works. Died in 1743.
Lepelletier or Le Pelletier, (JEAN,) a French an
tiquary and merchant, born at Rouen in 1633. He wrote,
besides other works, a " Treatise on Noah's Ark," (i 704.)
Died in 1711.
Lepelletier (or Le Peletier, leh peh-leh-te-i') de
Saint-Fargeau, leh-pel'te-a' deh saN'faVzho', (Louis
MICHEL,) a French revolutionist, born in Paris in 1760,
was president a mortier of the Parliament of Paris, and
was the owner of an immense fortune. He became a
partisan of the new regime, and in 1792 was an influen
tial member of the Convention. It appears that he had
given the royalists reason to expect he would fav
lenity in the king's trial, but was impelled by the
roris'm of the Jacobins to vote for death. For this act
he was assassinated by Paris, a royalist, in January, 1793.
See THIERS, " History of the French Revolution;" FELIX LE
PELLETIER, "Vie de M. Lepelletier," 1793.
Le Pere, leh paiR, (JEAN BAPTISTS,) a French archi
tect, born in Paris in 1761. He accompanied the expe
dition to Egypt in 1798, and was directed by Bonaparte
to draw up a plan for the restoration of the canal across
the Isthmus of Suez. Died in 1844.
Lepicie, la/pe'seji, (BERNARD,) a skilful French en
graver and painter,"was born in Paris in 1698. He went
to England, and engraved Raphael's Cartoons at Hamp
ton Court. He afterwards worked in Paris, and became
secretary of the Academy in 1740. His manner is broad
and mellow, and his design correct. Died in 1755.
Lepicie, (NICOLAS BERNARD,) a French historical
painter, son of the preceding, was born in Paris in
1735. He was a pupil of C. Vanloo, became professor
in the Royal Academy, and received the title of painter
to the king. His works are marred by the faults which
prevailed in the French school at 'that time. Died
in 1784.
Lep'i-da Do-mi'ti-a, (clo-mish'e-a,) a Roman lady
of great personal beauty but infamous character. She
svas the daughter of Drusus, and aunt of the emperor
Nero.
Lep'i-dus, the name of a celebrated Roman family
of the patrician gens Emilia. MARCUS ^MILIUS LEPI
DUS was elected consul in 187 B.C., pontifex maximus
in I So, and censor in 179. He was six times chosen by
the censors princeps Senatns. Died about 152 B.C. The
triumvir of the same name was his lineal descendant.
Lepidus, (MARCUS /EMII.IUS,) a Roman orator, a
grandson of the preceding, was consul in 137 B.C. In
the next year he commanded in several battles in Spain,
and was defeated. Cicero represents him as the greatest
orator of his age.
Lepidus, (MARCUS /EMILIUS,) the father of the tri
umvir, was prastor in Sicily in 81 B.C. In 79 he was
chosen consul by the partisans of Marius, and attempted
our
ter-
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
LEPIDUS
1410
LERMA
to nullify or repeal the measures of Sulla, who had just
died. A violent contest ensued between the factions. In
77 Lepidus was declared by the senate a public enemy,
and was defeated in battle by Ponipey near Rome. lie
died about 76 B.C.
Lepidus, (MARCUS ^EMILIUS,) THE TRIUMVIR, was
prrctor when the civil war broke out between Pompey
and Caesar, in 49 B.C. He joined the party of Cassar,
who, at his departure for Spain, left Lepidus in charge
of the capital. In 48 he obtained the province of Nearer
Spain, with the title of proconsul, and in 46 became the
colleague of Caesar in the consulship. He was master
of the horse when Caesar was killed, in 44 B.C. When
the senate and Antony came to an open rupture, Lepidus
joined the latter with an army, and in October, 43, he
united with Antony and Octavian to form the famous
triumvirate. He put his own brother on the list of the
proscribed who were sacrificed by this coalition. In
the division of provinces, Spain and Narbonese Gaul
were allotted to Lepidus, who remained in Italy, while
the other two led their army against Brutus. After their
victory at Philippi, Octavius and Antony ceased to treat
him as their equal, and deprived him of his provinces
in 42, but gave him a command in Africa. When the
triumvirate was renewed, however, (37 B.C.,) he was
nominally included in it. In 36 he failed in an attempt
to recover power, and, being deserted by his troops, sur
rendered to Octavius, who spared his life but banished
him from Rome. He died in 13 B.C.
See DION CASSIUS, "Hislory of Rome;" APPIAN, "Bellum
Civile;" MKRIVALE, "The Romans under the Emperors."
Lepidus, (MARCUS /EMILIUS,) a son of the preceding,
formed a conspjracy, in 30 B.C., to kill Augustus on his
return to Rome after the battle of Actium. Maecenas
detected the plot, and sent Lepidus to Augustus, who
put him to death.
Lepidus, (PAULUS ^EMILIUS,) a brother of the tri
umvir, became aedile about 55 B.C., praetor in 53, and
consul in 50. After the death of Caesar, 44 B.C., he acted
with the aristocratic party in opposition to the triumvirs.
Died about 40 B.C.
Leplat, leh-pla"', QOSSE,) a Belgian jurist and canonist,
born at Malines in 1732 ; died in 1810.
Lepois. See Pois, LE.
Le Poittevin, leh pwat'vaN', a successful French
painter of landscapes, genre, and marine pieces, was
born in Paris in 1806. His proper name is EDMONDE
MODESTE EUGENE POIDEVIN. He gained a medal of
the first class in 1836.
Le Prevost d'Iray, leh pRa'vo' de'ri', (CHRETIEN
SIMEON,) a French poet and antiquary, born in Nor
mandy in 1768. Among his works is a "History of
Egypt under the Romans," (1816.) Died in 1849.
Leprince or Le Prince, leh pRaNss, (JEAN,) a French
painter, born at Metz in 1733. ^e worked several years
in Saint Petersburg, where he adorned the imperial
palace. He returned to France many years before his
death, \vhich occurred in 1781.
Le Prince de Beaumont, leh praNss deh bo'miN',
(MARIE,) a sister of the preceding, was born at Rouen
in 1711. She was divorced from M. Beaumont in 1745,
and removed to London, where she was employed as
governess or teacher for many years. She published
many useful and successful juvenile books, moral tales,
etc. Her " Magazine for Children" (" Magasin des En-
fan ts," 1757) was often reprinted and translated. She
was author of a popular " Magazine for Young Ladies,"
'The Modern Mentor," (1772,) "Complete Education,"
etc. About 1764 she went to reside at Annecy, in Savoy.
Died in 1780.
Lepsius, Igp'se-us, (KARL PETER,) a German anti
quary, born at Naumburg, on the Saale, in 1775, was the
father of Karl Richard, noticed below. He studied law,
and obtained several civil offices under the Saxon and
Prussian governments. He published a "Treatise on
the Mediaeval Architectural Monuments of Saxony and
Thuringia," and a few other works. Died in 1853.
Lepsius, (KARL RICHARD,) a German philologist and
antiquary, highly distinguished for his Egyptian re
searches, was a son of the preceding. He was born
at Naumburg, in Prussian Saxony, December 20, 1813,
and received his first instruction from his father. He
pursued his studies in the Universities of Leipsic and
Gottingen, giving special attention to languages and phi
lology. In 1834 he published " Palaeography as an Aid
to Philology," which obtained a prize from the French
Institute, and was followed by an " Essay on the Affinity
of the Semitic, Indian, Ancient Persian, Egyptian, and
Ethiopian Languages," (1835.) In 1836 he visited Rome,
where he formed an intimate friendship with Bunsen,
and wrote a " Letter to Rosellini on the Hieroglyphic
Alphabet," (1837,) which attracted great attention. He
visited England in 1838, and afterwards became a resi
dent of Berlin. He produced a treatise on the " Etrurian
and Oscan Dialects," (1841,) and "Obituary of the Egyp
tians," (" Das Todtenbuch cler Aegypter," 1842.) Lep
sius having projected a great historical and antiquarian
work on Egypt, the King of Prussia was induced by
Bunsen and Humboldt to send to Egypt an expedition
under his direction. Assisted by artists of various
sorts, he investigated the antiquities of that country from
1842 until 1846. On his return he was chosen a pro
fessor in the University of Berlin, and in 1849 produced
the first volume of his "Chronology of the Egyptians."
lie published the interesting and important results of
his late expedition in a splendid work entitled "The
Monuments of Egypt and Ethiopia," (" Denkmaler aus
Aegypten und Aethiopien," 1849-59.) Among his prin
cipal works are " Letters on Egypt, Ethiopia, and the
Peninsula of Sinai," (1852,) and "Alphabet of Universal
Linguistic," ("Das allgemeine linguistische Alphabet,"
I855-)
Leptine._ See LEPTINES.
Lep'tl-nes, [Gr. AeTrmv/?; Fr. LEPTINE, ISp'ten',] a
Syracusan commander, was a brother of Dionysius the
Elder. He contributed greatly to the defeat of the
Carthaginians at Syracuse about 396 B.C. He was killed
at the battle of Cronium, in 383 B.C.
Lequien, leh-ke-aN', (MICHEL,) a learned French
monk, born at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1661. Among his
works are a "Defence of the Hebrew Text, and of the
Vulgate," (1690,) and "Oriens Christianus," (3 vols.,
1740,) an account of the churches, patriarchs, etc. of
the East, which is commended. Died in 1733.
Lequien de la Neuville, leh-ke-aN' deh \%. nuh'vel',
(JACQUES,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1647. He
accompanied the French ambassador to Lisbon in 1713,
and there composed his principal work, a " History of
Portugal," (2 vols., 1700-20.) Died in 1728.
Leray, leh-ri', (THEODORE CONSTANT,) a French
admiral, born at Brest in 1795 ; died in 1849.
Lerche, leR'iceh, (JOHANN JAKOB,) a German natu
ralist, born at Potsdam in 1703; died at Saint Peters
burg in 1780.
Lerchenfeld, le'R'Ken-fe'lt', (MAXIMILIAN,) BARON
OK, a German statesman of liberal opinions, born at
Munich in 1779; died in 1843.
Lerebours, leh-reh'booR', (Nofe'L JEAN,) a French
optician, born in Normandy in 1762. He made tele
scopes of superior quality, and other optical instruments.
Died in 1840.
Leri, de, deh leh-re', (JEAN,) a French Protestant
minister, born in 1534. He laboured in Brazil about two
years, (1556-58,) and published "An Account of his
Voyage to Brazil," (1577.) Died in 1611.
Lerma, de, da leVma, (FRANCISCO DE ROXAS (or
ROJAS) DE SANDOVAL,) DUKE, a Spanish statesman of
moderate ability. He was equerry to Don Philip, who
in 1598 became king as Philip III. and appointed the
subject of this article prime minister. He was then
created Duke of Lerma, having previously been called
Marquis of Denia. lie equipped a large fleet which
was ordered to cruise on the English coast, but was
destroyed by a storm, after which he made a peace on
terms favourable to England. For twenty years he
retained the favour of the king, and had entire control
of the government. His policy was mild, pacific, and
prudent in some respects, but was not successful in
relation to finances. He was supplanted in 1618 by his
son, the Duke of Uzeda. Died in 1625.
See WATSON, "History of Philip 1 1.;" MOTLEY, " United Nether
lands," vol. iv. chap, xlviii.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
LERMINIER
141 1
LE SAGE
Lerminier, le'R'me'neJi', (JEAN Louis EUGENE,) a
French publicist and lawyer, born in Paris in 1803. He
obtained in 1831 a chair of legislation in the College of
France, where his eloquent lectures were much admired
by the ardent youth. Amona; his works are "The Phi
losophy of Law," (2 vols., 1831,) and a "History of the
Legislators and Constitutions of Ancient Greece," (2
vois., 1852.) He wrote the article " Guizot" in the " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale." He was remarkable for
animation of style, vigour of images, and nobleness of
expression. Died in 1857.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Lerminier, (THEODORIC NELAMOND,) a French phy
sician, born at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme in 1770. In
1808 he was appointed physician par quartier for the
service of the imperial household. He attended Na
poleon in the campaigns of Spain, Russia, (1812,) and
Saxony, and gave proof of great professional talent
and courage. Died in Paris in 1836.
LErmite. See ERMITE, L'.
Lermontof,Lermoiitov, or Lermoiitow, leR'mon-
tof, (MIKHAIL IVANOVITCH,) a popular Russian poet,
born in 1811, became an officer in the guards. In 1837,
by a poem "On the Death of Pushkin," he offended the
emperor, who ordered him to join the army of the Cau
casus. While serving there in the army, he wrote "The
Circassian Boy," and other popular poems, and a suc
cessful novel, called "A Hero of our Own Time," (1840.)
He was killed in a duel in 1841. Like Byron, he ex
presses his own character and feelings in his writings,
and is the principal person in the tales or pictures which
his imagination produces.
See SAINT-RENE TAII.I.ANDIER, "Le Poete du Cancase," in the
"Revue des Deux Mondes" for February i, 1855; "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Lernaean Hydra. See HYDRA.
Lernout, leVnoo', QEAN,) [Lat. JA'NUS LERNU'TIUS,]
a Latin poet, born at Bruges in 1545. He was made
prisoner by the English in 1587, and detained five years.
His "Carmina," odes, epigrams, etc., published in 1579,
are said to have considerable merit. Died in 1619.
Leruutius. See LERNOUT.
Leroi. See LEROY.
Leroux, leh-roo', (JEAN JACQUES,) a French physician,
born at Sevres in 1749. Having been elected to a high
municipal office in Paris in 1790, he exposed his life in
his efforts to defend the royal family, for which he was
proscribed. Died in 1832.
Leroux, (PIERRE,) a French socialist, born in Paris in
1798. He founded, in partnership with Madame George
Sand, the "Revue Inde'pendante." His principal work
is "On Humanity: its Principle and its Prospects,"
(" De 1'Humanite : de son Principe et de son Avenir,"
2 vols., 1840.)
Leroy, leh-Rwa', (CHARLES,) a French physician, born
in Paris in 1726, was a son of Julien, noticed below. He
published two valuable works, viz. : " Memoirs and Ob
servations on Medicine," and " Melanges of Philosophy,
Chemistry," etc., (1771.) Died in 1779.
Leroy, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a natural philosopher, born
in Paris, was a son of Julien, noticed below. He became
a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1751, and wrote
several memoirs on electricity. Died in 1800.
Leroy, (JEAN BAFHSTEONESIME,) a French dramatic
writer, born at Valenciennes in 1788. He produced suc
cessful comedies.
Leroy or Le Roy, (JULIEN,) a French watchmaker,
bom at Tours in 1686. He settled in Paris, and ac
quired a European reputation by the excellence of his
workmanship. He obviated the changes of temperature
by a mechanism of compensation, invented horizontal
clocks, and made many improvements in the art. In
1739 he received the title of horloger to the king. Died
in 1759. His sons CHARLES, JEAN BAPTISTE, JULIEN
DAVID, and PIERRE are noticed in this work.
Leroy or Leroi, ( JULIEN DAVID,) a French architect,
son of the preceding, was born in Paris about 1726.
Having visited and studied the ancient models in Greece,
he published in 1758 an excellent work entitled "Ruins
of the Finest Monuments of Greece," which contributed
greatly to reform the vitiated taste that prevailed in
France before its appearance. The lectures which he
gave for forty years as professor of architecture finished
the revolution which that book commenced. He wrote,
also, " Observations on the Edifices of Ancient Nations,"
(1767,) and other works. Died in 1803.
See GABET, " D'ctionnaire des Artistes."
Leroy orLeRoy,[ Lat. RK/GIUS,J(LOUIS,) an excellent
French classical scholar, born at Coutances. He trav
elled much in his youth, and on his return home gained
distinction by translations of Demosthenes' " Philippics"
and of some works of Plato. He was an old man when
he obtained the chair of Greek in the College Royal in
1572. Among his works are a "Life of Budaeus," in
elegant Latin, (1540,) "The Origin and Excellence of
the Art of Government," (TArt folitiqite,) (1567,) and
"The Vicissitude and Variety of Things," (1576.) He
is reputed one of the first French writers who attained
harmony in prose. Died in 1577.
See NIC^RON, "Memoires;" TEISSIEK, " filoges."
Leroy, (PIERUE,) a French satirical writer, who lived
about 1590, was a canon of the cathedral of Rouen. He
was one of the principal authors of a very popular satire
and master-piece of pleasantry, entitled "Menippean
Satire on the Virtue of the Spanish Catholicon," (" Satyre
Menippee de la Vertu du Catholicon d'Espagne," 1593,)
"which," said Voltaire, "was as profitable to the cause
of Henry IV. as the battle of Ivry."
Leroy, (PIERRE,) a skilful watchmaker, born in Paris
in 1717, was the son of Julien, noticed above. He was
chiefly noted for the perfection he attained in marine
time-pieces, and received a prize from the Academy for
the best method of measuring time at sea. He has the
credit of discovering the isochronism of spiral springs.
He published several remarkable treatises on his art,
— one called "Etrem-es chronometriques pour 1'Annee
1760." Died in 1785.
Leroy d'fitiolles, leh-inva' da'te^'ol', (JEAN JACQUES
JOSEPH,) a French surgeon, born in Paris in 1798, is
distinguished as the inventor of instruments used in
lithotrity. This invention was also claimed by M. Ci-
viale ; but a committee of the Academy of Sciences
awarded a prize to Leroy d'fitiolles " for having first
made known [in 1822] the instruments which he had
invented." He invented other surgical instruments.
Leroy de la Corbinaye, leh-Rwa' deh It koR'be'ni',
(CHARLES,) a French lexicographer, born at Saint-Brieuc
in 1690. He published a valuable "Treatise on French
Orthography, in the Form of a Dictionary," (1739,) which
is praised for accuracy, method, etc. Died in 1739.
Leroy de Saint- Arnaud, leh-Rwa' deh saxt aVno',
(ARNAUD JACQUES,) a French general, born in Paris
about 1800. He distinguished himself in Algeria, and
obtained the rank of marechal-cle-camp in 1847, and that
of general of division in 1851, as a reward for his suc
cessful operations against the Kabyle tribes. Having
become minister of war in October, 1851, he promoted
the coup d'etat of December 2, and was made a marshal
of France in December, 1852. He obtained the chief
command in the Crimean war, which began in 1854,
and, although suffering severely from disease, displayed
his usual energy and skill at the battle of the Alma,
September 20, 1854. He was obliged by the state of his
health to resign the command, and he died on the 291)1
of September, 1854.
See DUPERREI. SAINTE-MARIE, "M. le General Leroy de Saint-
Arnaud," 1852; CHARRAS, " Les trois Marechaux MM. de Saiut-
Arnaud. Magnan et Castellane," 1851.
Lery, li're', or Leri, (JEAN,) a French Protestant and
traveller, born at Margellte in 1534. He went as a mis
sionary to Brazil in 1556, and returned in 1558. He
published, in French and in Latin, "A Narrative of a
Voyage to Bra/il," with a good description of that re
gion, "(1578.) Diedini6n.
Le Sage or Lesage, leh sSzh, (ALAIN RENE,) a cele
brated French romancer and dramatist, born at Sarzeau,
near Vannes, (Morbihan,) May 8, 1668. He was the son
of a lawyer, was educated at the College of Vannes, and
is supposed to have been employed several years in the
collection of taxes. In 1692 he went to Paris to study
law and philosophy. There his handsome figure and his
intelligence and fine literary taste procured for him free
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
IE SAGE
1412
LESDIGUIERES
access to the most polished and aristocratic society. In
1694 he married Mademoiselle Iluyard, of Paris, and was
admitted as advocate of the Parliament, but soon relin
quished all other pursuits that he might devote himself
to literature. He studied Spanish, and improved his
style by translating or imitating several Spanish come
dies. His comedy " Don Caesar Ursin," imitated from
Calderon, was a failure; but his "Crispin Rival de son
Maitre" ("Crispin the Rival of his Master") was per
formed with brilliant success in 1707. In the same year he
produced " Le Diable boiteux," (i.e. "The Lame Devil,"
popularly called in English "The Devil on Two Sticks,"
and sometimes "Asmodeus,") a romance, the idea and
name of which he derived from a work of Luis Velez de
Guevara. By its satire on all conditions, its nervous
style, and its truthful portraits, this book attained great
popularity. He increased his reputation by an original
prose play called "Turcaret," which exposed the iniqui
ties of the traitants and other agents of the revenue.
These parties offered him one hundred thousand francs
to suppress the piece ; but he refused the bribe, and it
was performed with immense applause in 1709. It is
superior to any play which he imitated from the Spanish.
In 1715 Le Sage published two volumes of his most
celebrated work, "Gil Bias de Santillane," which is
perhaps a more universal favourite than any other novel,
and owes its success to its admirable and natural pictures
of human life in all its conditions and all its phases.
It has been translated into all the languages of Europe.
Voltaire and others attempted, without success, to
convict him of borrowing or purloining the story from
some Spanish writer. Their charges have been refuted
by Fransois de Neufchateau. He employed the period
between 1713 and 1738 chiefly in writing comic operas
and other pieces, which were exhibited at the fair of
Saint-Germain and were extremely popular. He pub
lished "Roland 1'Amoureux," (1717-31,) an imitation of
"Orlando Innamorato," and "The Adventures of Guz
man d'Alfarache," (1732,) an amusing novel, superior
to the Spanish work of which it is a version or imitation.
In 1735 he produced a dialogue full of witty, wise, and
original thoughts, entitled " A Day of the Parcae," (" Une
Journee des Parques,") and finished the last volume of
"Gil Bias." After composing several other works and
enjoying a large share of domestic happiness, he died at
Boulogne in November, 1747. He had the reputation
of a high-minded and honourable man. His eldest son,
who assumed the name of MONTM&NIL, became a famous
play-actor.
See AUDIFFRET, " Notice stir A. R. Lesage," 1822 ; SIR WALTER
SCOTT, "Biographical Noiice of Le Sage," (in his Miscellaneous
Works:) MAI.ITOURNF:, " Slogede Le Sage," 1822 : SAINTE-BEUVE,
" Causeries du Lundi," tomeii ; HENRI PATIN, " filoge de Lesage,"
1822; TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" VlLLBMAIN,
" Literature Frangaise du dix-huitienie Siecle," tome i. : SAINT-
MARC GIRARDIN, " filose de Lesage," 1822; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807.
Le Sage or Lesage, (BERNARD MARIE,) a French
revolutionist, was a member of the Convention in 1792,
and voted for the death of the king. As a Girondist he
was proscribed and outlawed in 1793, but escaped by
flight. Died in 1796.
Le Sage or Lesage, (GEORGE Louis,) a Swiss phi
losopher, born at Geneva in 1724. He studied medicine,
but did not practise it. I lis favourite studies were natural
philosophy, mathematics, and mechanics. In 1750 he be
came a teacher of mathematics at Geneva. He published
an "Essay on Mechanical Chemistry," (1758,) an inge
nious treatise called " Newtonian Lucretius," ("Lucrece
Newtonien," 1782,) and "Fragments on Final Causes,"
and left many works in manuscript. He was a Fellow
of the Royal Society of London, and corresponded with
D'Alembert and other eminent savants. Died in 1803.
See P. PREVOST. "Notice sur la Vie de G. L. Lesage," 1805;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Le Sage (or Lesage) de Montmenil, leh stzh deh
moN'ma'neK, (RENE ANDRE,) a son of the author of "Gil
Bias," was born in Paris in 1695. He made his debut on
the stage in 1726, and performed various rdles in comedy
with success. He soon became one of the most cele
brated French actors of that time. His private character
is said to have been noble. Died in 1743.
Les-bo'nax, [A.ca6tiva%,] a Greek sophist and rheto
rician of Mitylene, who lived in the first century B.C., in
the time of Augustus. He was the father of Polemon,
the preceptor of Tiberius. His philosophic works have
not come down to us ; but we have two orations of some
merit, which are ascribed to him. Another Lesbonax, a
Greek grammarian, is supposed to have lived in a later
period. He was author of a small work on grammatical
figures, Ilepi IiX?i[iu,-uv, which is extant.
See SUIUAS, "Lesbonax."
Lescaille, li'kil' or LVkt'ye, (CATHERINE,) a Dutch
poetess, born at Amsterdam in 1649, was called "the
Sappho of Holland." -She wrote tragedies, — " Genseric,"
"Cassandra," " Herod and Mariamne,"etc. Died in 171 1.
See MOKEKI, " Dictionnaire Historique. "
Lescaille, (JACQUES,) a Flemish or Dutch poet and
publisher, born in 1610, was the father of the preceding.
Died in 1677.
Lescale. See SCALIGER.
Lescallier, li'ka'leji' or l.Yktl'ya', (DANIEL,) a
French officer of the niaTine, born at Lyons in 1743. He
wrote a " French-English Vocabulary of Marine Terms,"
(1777,) and "Travels in England, Russia," etc., (1800.)
Died in 1822.
Lescarbot, la'kiu'bo', (M/\RC,) a French writer and
lawyer, born at Vervins. He contributed to form the
first French colony in Canada, and, having returned to
France, published in 1609 a " History of New France."
Lesceiie-Desmaisons, KVsin'da'nKyzoN', (JACQUES,)
a French historical writer, born at Granville in 1750.
He published in 1781 a " History of the Last Revolution
in Sweden," and in 1789 a " Political History of the
French Revolution." Died in 1808.
Leschassier, LVshS'se-a', (JACQUES,) a French jurist,
born in Paris in 1550; died in 1625.
Leschenault de La Tour, I.\sh'n5' deh If IOOR,
(JEAN BAPTISTE Louis CLAUDE THEODORE,) a French
naturalist and traveller, born at Chalons-sur-Saone in
1773. He travelled in Hindostan about five years, (1816-
21.) Among his works is a " Treatise on the Vegetation
of New Holland." Died in 1826.
Lgs'-ehes [At'a,p;r] or Les'cheus, [Aec^evf,] a Greek
poet, born in the island of Lesbos, lived about 700 or
600 B.C. He is the reputed author of a poem called
"The Little Iliad," ('I2.«tc /u/(pu.)
L'Escluse. See L'ficLUSE.
Lesconvel, de, deh LYkiN'vel', (PIERRE,) a French
writer of fiction, born about 1650 ; died in Paris in 1722.
Lescot, leVko', (PIERRE,) an eminent French archi
tect, born in Paris about 1510. Little is known of his
life, except that he was abbe of Clagny. He designed
the Louvre, which was begun about 1541. The part of
this palace called the Fa£ade de 1'Horloge is considered
a master-piece. Another specimen of his good taste is the
Salle des Caryatides, in the same edifice. "He will ever
be regarded," says the " Biographic Universelle," " as
one of the greatest architects of France." Died in 1571.
See QUATKEMERE DE QuiNCY, "Vies des plus illustres Archi-
tectes;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lescun, de, deh leYkuN', (THOMAS DE Foix,) SKI-
GNEUR, a French general, was a younger brother of
Lautrec. He was made a marshal of France in 1521.
After fighting the armies of Charles V. at several places
in Italy, he was mortally wounded at Pavia in 1525.
Lescure, de, deh li'kiiR', (Louis MARIE,) MARQUIS,
a French royalist and Vendean chief, was born in 1766,
and svas a cousin of Larochejaquelein. He was the most
scientific officer in the Vendean army, and was noted for
his cool bravery. He distinguished himself at Fontenay
and Torfou, and was mortally wounded at Tremblaye
in October, 1793. "His humanity," says Alison, "was
angelic. Alone of all the chiefs in that memorable
struggle, it could be said with truth that his glory was
unstained by human blood." (" History of Europe.")
See MADAME DE LA ROCHEJAQUEI.EIN, "Memoires."
Lesdiguieres, de, deh l.Yde'ge-aiR', (FRANCOIS DE
BONNE,) DUKE, a distinguished French marshal, born in
Dauphine in 1543. He fought for the Protestants in
the civil war which began about 1562, and obtained the
chief command of the Protestant army in 1575. He was
one of those who most effectually aided Henry IV. in
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; nftt; good; moon;
LESEUR
H'3
LESLIE
obtaining the throne. In 1608 he was rewarded with the I
rank of marshal and a dukedom, and about 1610 com- I
manded the army in Italy, where he defeated the Span- j
iards. He was accused by some writers of conspiring |
with other Protestant leaders to form a republic after j
the death of Henry IV. ; but he refused to fight against j
the court in the civil war that began about 1620. In
1622 he abjured Calvinism, and was appointed Con
stable of France. Died in 1626. Henry IV. once said
he would acknowledge his own inferiority to no captain
in Europe except Lesdiguieres.
See Louis VIDEL, "Vie du Marechal de Lesdiguieres," 1638:
BRANTOME, "Vies des grands Capitaines ;" DE'I'HOU, " Historia sui
Temporis ;" J. C. MARTIN, " Histoire abregee de la Vie de F. de
lionne," 1802; " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Leseur, leh-zua', (THOMAS,) an able French geometer,
born at Rethel in 1703. lie became a professor of ma
thematics in the College of Sapienza, in Rome. There
he formed an intimacy with F. Jacquier, whom he as
sisted in two works, viz., a "Commentary on Newton's
Principia" and "Elements of the Integral Calculus,"
(1748.) Died in 1770.
Leske, les'keh, (XATHAMK.I. GOTTFRIED,) a German
naturalist, born at Muskau in 1757; died in 1786.
Lesley. See LKSI.IE, (AI.KXANDKR.)
Les'ley, ([OHN,) Bishop of Ross, a Scottish Catholic
prelate, chiefly noted for his zeal and fidelity in the
service of Mary Queen of Scots, was born in 1527. He
escorted Mary from France to Scotland in 1561, and was
soon after appointed Bishop of Ross. When Queen
Mary was detained as a prisoner in England, and com
missioners were ordered to examine her cause in 1568,
Lesley was one of the commissioners whom she chose
to defend her. Having taken part in the matrimonial
intrigue between Mary and the Duke ol Norfolk, he was
imprisoned in the Tower in 1571, and released in 1573.
He passed the remainder of his life in exile. He wrote a
Latin work " On the Origin, Customs, and Achievements
of the Scotch," (1578,) eloquent arguments in defence of
Queen Mary, and other works. Died in 1596.
See RoBF.RTs-iN, "History of Scotland;" LAING, "History of
Scotland;" BCRTON, "History of Scotland," vol. iv. chap. xli. ;
FROUDE, " History of England;" CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dic
tionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Les'lie (les'le) or Lesley, (ALEXANDKR,) Earl of
Leven, an eminent Scottish general. He served some
years under Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who pro
moted him to tlie rank of field-marshal. In 1628 he
defended Stralsund with success. Having returned
home in 1639, when the Covenanters were preparing to
resist Charles I., he was chosen general-iii-chief of their
army ; but before any battle was fought a treaty of peace
was made. War was renewed in 1640. Leslie defeated
the king's army at Newburn, and another treaty followed.
He commanded the large Scottish army which, in Jan
uary, 1644, marched to assist the Engli>h Parliament.
Having effected a junction with the army of Fairfax, he
led a division at Marston Moor, (1644,) where he was
driven off the field, though his allies gained the victory.
In May, 1646, Charles I. delivered himself up to the
army of Leslie, then encamped at Newark. On account
of his great age, he resigned his command in 1650. Died
in 1 66 1.
See HUME, "History of England;" CHAMBERS, "Biographical
Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Leslie, (CHARI.KS,) a British polemical writer on
politics and religion, was born in Ireland about 1650.
He took orders about 1680 in the Anglican Church, and
gained distinction as a disputant against the Catholics.
In the Revolution, however, (1688,) he was a staunch
Jacobite and nonjuror, at the sacrifice of his preferment
in the church. He wrote several controversial works
against the Jews, Deists, Socinians, and other sects. In
his " Snake in the Grass" he attacked the Society of
Friends. After the death of James II., Leslie joined the
court of the Pretender in France. He died in Ireland
in 1722. His most esteemed work is a "Short and
Easy Method with the Deists," (1694.) Dr. Johnson
pronounced him the only one of the nonjurors that
could reason.
See BURXET, "History of his Own Time;" MORERI, "Diction-
naire Historique. "
Leslie, (CHARLES ROUERT,) an eminent English his
torical painter, born of American parents in Ixmdon in
1794, was a brother of Eliza Leslie the authoress. After
passing twelve years in Philadelphia with his parents,
he removed in 1813 to London, where he was instructed
in the study of art by West and Allston. Among his
first successful works was "Sir Roger de Coverley going
to Church," (1820.) He was elected an Associate of the
Royal Academy in 1821, and Royal Academician in 1826.
His subjects are mostly of a homely and familiar char
acter, illustrative of the works of Shakspeare, Moliere,
Cervantes, and other humorous writers. Among his
most admired productions are his illustrations of " Don
Quixote." He was also successful in portraits. In 1847
he was chosen professor of painting in the Royal Acad
emy. He published a "Life of John Constable," (1843,)
and a "Hand-Book for Young Painters," (1855.) Died
in 1859. "The more I learn of art," says Ruskin, "the
more respect I feel for Mr. Leslie's painting as such.
Given a certain quantity of oil-colour to be laid with one
touch of the pencil so as to produce at once the subtlest
and largest expressional result possible, and there is no
man now living who seems to me to come at all near Mr.
Leslie, his work being in places equal to Hogarth for
decision."
See RI-SKIX, "Modern Painters;" C. R. LESLIE, "Autobio
graphic Recollections," edited by TOM TAYLOR. Boston, 1865;
" London Quarterly Review" for April, 1860 ; " North American
Review" for January, 1861.
Leslie or Lesley, (DAVID,) an able Scottish general.
After serving with distinction under Gustavus Adolphus
of Sweden, he returned to Scotland about 1642. He
had obtained the rank of major-general when he fought
against Charles I. at Marston Moor in 1644. The suc
cess of this action was ascribed chiefly to Cromwell and
Leslie. In 1646 he defeated Montrose at Philiphaugh.
On the resignation of the Earl of Leven, (1650,) Leslie
was chosen commander-in-chief of the Scottish army
raised to restore Charles II. He intrenched his army
between Edinburgh and Leith, and prudently declined
Cromwell's offer of battle. Leslie followed the English
army to Dunbar, where they were reduced to extremi
ties for want of provisions. Against his own judgment,
he was induced by the clergy to descend from his ad
vantageous position and offer battle. The result was a
signal defeat of the Scotch, September 3, 1650. Leslie
was second or third in command at Worcester in 1651.
In the retreat from this battle he was made prisoner, and
was confined in the Tower until 1660. He received the
title of Lord Newark in 1661. Died in 1682.
See HUME, "History of England ;" CHAMBERS, "Biographical
Dictionary of Eminent "Scotsmen ;" CLARENDON, " History of the
Rebellion:"
Leslie, (ELIZA,) an American writer, sister of Charles
Robert, noticed above, was born in Philadelphia in 1787.
She was the author of numerous tales and sketches,
which display uncommon powers of humour and satire
and acquired extensive popularity. Among the principal
of these are " Pencil Sketches, or Outlines of Character
and Manners," (1833,) " Atlantic Tales," "The American
Girl's Book," and "Althea Vernon," (1841.) She also
published "The Domestic Cookery Book," the "Beha
viour Book," and other similar works. Died in 1857.
See " North American Review" for October, 1833.
Leslie, (JOHN,) born in Scotland about 1570, was the
father of Charles Leslie, (1650-1722.) He spoke Latin
and several modern languages. He was appointed
Bishop of Raphoe in 1633, and built a strong castle,
which he defended against Cromwell in the civil war.
He is said to have been the last in Ireland to submit
to the victor. In 1661 he became Bishop of Clogher.
Died in 1671.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Leslie, (Sir JOHN,) an eminent Scottish geometer and
natural philosopher, born at Largo, in Fifeshire, in 1766.
He was educated at Saint Andrew's and Edinburgh, and
became a resident of London in 1790. In 1793 he pro
duced a translation of Buffon's " Natural History of
Birds," which was very favourably received. About
1795 he invented the Differential Thermometer. He
published in 1804 his ingenious " Experimental Inquiry
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( 3^="See Explanations, p. 23.)
LES P1N4SSE
1414
LESSING
into the Nature and Propagation of Heat," for which
the Royal Society awarded him the Rumford medal. In
1805 he was elected professor of mathematics in the
University of Edinburgh, although the clergy formally
protested against his election, because he had com
mended Hume's "Theory of Causation." He succeeded
Playfair as professor of natural philosophy in Edinburgh
in 1819, and contributed much to the perfection of the
apparatus and experiments of that department. lie
wrote many scientific articles for the " Encyclopaedia
Britannica" and "Edinburgh Review." Among his
separate publications were " Elements of Geometry,"
etc., (1809,) and "Elements of Natural Philosophy,"
(1823.) He wrote an interesting and excellent " Dis
course on the Progress of Mathematical and Physical
Sciences during the Eighteenth Century," which is one
of the preliminary dissertations in the first volume of
the new edition of the "Encyclopaedia Hritannica." His
treatise on "Heat," above noticed, indicates a remarka
ble original genius, and constitutes an era in the history
of that branch of science. Died in 1832.
See MACVEY NAPIER, "Memoir of Sir John Leslie," 1838;
" Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" CHAMBERS, '* Biographical Dictionary
of Eminent Scotsmen ;" •' Edinburgh Review" tor October, 1805, and
Ju!y, 1812.
Lespinasse. See ESIMNASSE, DK L'.
Lespiaasse, leVpe'nt-/, ( AUGUSTIN, ) COUNT, a
French general, born at Prenilly in 1737. In 1796 he
fought under Bonaparte in Italy, and directed the artil
lery at Mantua, Castiglione, and Arcola with great skill,
and obtained the rank of general of division. Died in 1816.
Lessart, de, deh li'stk', (ANTOINK DK VALDEC,) a
French minister of state, born in Gnienne in 1742. He
was appointed minister of the interior about January i,
1791, and minister of foreign affairs in December of that
year. His policy offended the dominant party, which
impeached him in March, 1792. He was imprisoned,
and perished in the massacre of September, 1792.
See THIKRS, "History of the French Revolution."
Lesseps, de, deh l.Vse;/, (FERDINAND,) a French
diplomatist, born at Versailles in 1805. He became
consul at Cairo about 1833, and in 1842 was appointed
consul at Barcelona. During the bombardment of this
city by Espartero, Lesseps performed perilous acts of
humanity, for which he received testimonials of honour
from several governments. He was minister at Madrid
from April, 1848, to February, 1849. In May, 1849, he
was sent to Rome to negotiate a peace between the
popular party and the French army. He was recalled
in disgrace in June of that year, because he was too
favourable to the Roman republic. He expended many
years in a great project to construct a ship-canal across
the Isthmus of Suez, for which purpose a joint-stock
company was formed under his direction. This canal,
about one hundred miles long, was completed and
opened in November, 1869, at a cost of nearly sixty
millions of dollars.
See " Xouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Lesseps, de, (J KAN BAPTISTE BARTHELEMI,) a French
traveller and civil officer, born at Cette in 1766. As
interpreter he accompanied La Perouse's expedition in
1785, and on their arrival at Kamtchatka (1787) was
sent home by land with despatches, etc. He published
a Journal of his Travels from Kamtchatka to France,
(1790.) Died in 1834.
Lesser, leVser, (FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN,) a German
naturalist and theologian, born at Nordhansen in 1692.
He became pastor of a church in Nordhausen in 1739.
His most popular work is the "Theology of Insects,"
(1738.) "The plan of this work is excellent," says
Walckenaer ; " but the art of describing with precision
and narrating with elegance is not found in it." He also
wrote the "Theology of Stones," (1735.) Died in 1754.
See J. P. F. LESSKR, " Nacluicht von dem Leben und den
Schriften F. C. Lessers," 1755; MKUSEL, " Gelehrtes Deutschland."
Lesser, de, (AUGUSTIN CREUZE.) See CREUZE.
Lessing, les'sing, (GOTTHOI.D KPHRAIM,) an eminent
author, regarded as the father of the new era of German
literature, was born at Kamentz, in Upper Lusatia, in
1729. When twelve years old, he was sent to the high
school at Meissen, where he distinguished himself by
his application and his rapid acquisition of knowledge.
Being destined by his parents to the ministry, he entered,
at the age of seventeen, the university at Leipsic. While
here, his taste for general literature and his fondness for
the theatre caused him to neglect, and ultimately to
abandon, the study of theology, that he might devote
himself wholly to his favourite pursuits. Not to mention
several dramas of minor importance, Lessing brought
out in 1755 "Miss Sarah Sampson," a tragedy, which
was received by the German public with extraordinary
favour, and was translated into other languages. In
1757 he commenced, in concert with Mendelssohn and
Nicolai, the publication of the " Bibliothek der schonen
Wissenschaften," (literally, the " Library of the Beautiful
Sciences,") — .1 literary journal of great merit. He pub
lished in 1766 his "Laocoon, or the Limits of Poetry
and Painting." This work has exerted a great and per
manent influence on the science of criticism in Germany,
both in literature and art. In 1768 appeared the " Dra
maturgic," — another critical work, in which Lessing
opposes the French and defends the English drama.
He completed in 1772 his "Emilia Galotti/' which has
been styled "the master-piece of German tragedy, as
the ' Laocoon' is the master-piece of German criticism ;"
and in 177^ he brought out his "Minna von Barnhclm,"
regarded as the most perfect of his comedies. His
last important work was "Nathan the Wise," ("Nathan
der Weise,'') — a sort of controversial drama in iambic
verse, directed against religions intolerance. Our limits
will scarcely permit us to do more than allude to his
various minor productions, nearly all of which, in a
greater or less degree, bear the decided impress of an
earnest, independent, and original mind. We may,
however, mention his " Letters on Literature," (" Lite-
rattirbriefe,") his " Education of the Human Race."
(" Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts,") and especially
his " Fables," so rich in wit and original thought : many
of these have a literary application.
One of the great objects for which Lessing earnestly
laboured was to build up a national literature. The
Germans had previously, to a great extent, neglected
or despised the rich native resources of their own
tongue. Lessing sought by precept and example to re
call his countrymen from the almost exclusive study of
the French, recommending in preference the English
dramatic models, as superior in themselves nnd better
adapted to the genius of the German people.
In 1760 Lessing was made a member of the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and soon after accom
panied General Tauenzien, Governor of Silesia, as his
secretary, to Breslau, where lie resided five years. During
this period he became addicted to gambling; but this
vice does not appear to have materially interfered with
his application to literature. In 1770 he obtained the
office of head librarian of the Wolfenbiittel Library.
Soon after, he discovered and published the famous
" Wolfenbiittel Fragments," (on the discrepancies of the
gospel narratives,) by Reimarus, who, however, at that
time was not known as the author. This publication
brought upon Lessing much censure and reproach : he
was accused of a deliberate design to undermine Chris
tianity. If, however, we may believe his friend Herder,
he gave those "Fragments" to the public " purely for
the interests of truth, for the sake of freer inquiry and
of examination and confirmation on all sides." A candid
examination of Lessing's own writings will, we are per
suaded, go far to justify, if not fully to confirm, Herder's
opinion. The extraordinary activity and incessant appli
cation of Lessing's mind at length wore out his physical
constitution. He died at Brunswick 1781, aged fifty-two.
SeeE. P. EVANS, "Life and Works of G. E. Lessing," from the Ger
man of ADOLF W. T. STAHR, 2 vols., 1867 ; DANZHI, " G. E. Lessing.
sein Leben nnd seine Wrrke," 1850 ; C. G. LESSING, " G. E. Lessing's
Leben." etc., 3 vols., 1793; DOKINU, ''G. E. Lessmg's Biographic,"
1853; DlLLBK, " Erinnerungen an G. E. Lessing," 1841; SCHINK,
" Cliaracteristik G. E. Lessing's," iRzs : GROSSMANN, "Lessing's
Denkmal," 1791; A. TOLHAUSEN, "Klopstock, Lessing, and Wie-
land," London, 1848; H. G. GRAEVE. "-G. E. Lessing's Lebensge-
schichte," etc., 182-); F. SCHI.EGEL. " Characteristics and Criticisms"
('" Characteristiken nnd Kritiken") on L<-ssing,'° 1801 ; "Charac
teristics of Men of Genius," by E. P WHIPPI.E, 1840: " Mlack-
wood's Magazine" for November, 1826. (by DK QUINCEY ;) HEDGE,
" Prose Writers of Germany," 1847 ; " Hiographie Universelle."
a, c, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, fi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LESSING
1415
LETELLIER
Lessing, (KARL FRIEDRICH,) an eminent German
painter, and grand-nephew of the celebrated critic, was
born at \Yartenberg in 1808. He studied architecture
for a time, but soon yielded to his stronger attraction
for painting. In 1825 he finished his picture of "The
Church-Yard," which excited great admiration. He
soon after studied historical painting under Schadow at
Dusseldorf. In this department he produced in 1829
"The Battle of Iconium," and completed other illustra
tions of the life of Frederick Barbarossa, left unfinished
by Cornelius. His next productions, representing scenes
from Burger's " Lenore" and Uhland's "Royal Mourn
ers," display great originality and poetic fancy. Among
his master-pieces we may also name " Huss before the
Council of Constance," "The Robber and his Child,"
and a "Scene in the Eifel," with several other exqui
site landscapes. Lessing, while retaining many of the
peculiar excellencies of the ideal or romantic school,
has avoided the formality of style into which it has
sometimes degenerated.
See NAGLER, "Allgemeines Ktinstler-Lexikon."
Leasing, (KARL GUTTHELF,) a German dramatist,
born in 1740, was a brother of the great author. He
published several comedies, and a " Life of Gotthold
Ephraim Lessing."
Lessius, les'se-us, (LEONARD,) a Flemish Jesuit, born
at Brechtan, in Brabant, in 1554. He lectured on the
ology with eclat at Louvain from 1585 until 1623. He
wrote several popular works, among which are one
"On Justice and other Cardinal Virtues," (1621,) and
another ''On the Power of the Pope." He was charged
with favouring semi-Pelagianism. Died in 1623.
Lessmarm, les'man, (DANIKL,) a German litterateur,
born at Soldin in 1794. He wrote lyric poems, and
a number of novels and tales. He died in 1831, it is
supposed by suicide.
Lesson, Ii's6.\', (RENE PRIMEVERE,) a French natu
ralist, born at Rochefort in 1794. Among his numerous
works are a "Manual of Ornithology," (2 vols., 1828,)
and a "Supplement to the Works of Buffon," ("Com
plement des CEuvres de Buffon," 10 vols., 1828 et seq.)
Died in 1849.
See AMEDEE LEFEVRE, "FJoge historique de R. P. Lesson,"
1850.
Les'ter, (CHARLES EDWARDS,) an American littera
teur, born in New London county, Connecticut, in 1815.
He published the " Life and Voyages of Americas
Vespucius," "Artists of America," and various other
works, and made several translations from the Italian.
See the " North American Review" for April, 1846.
Lestiboudois, les'te'boo'dwa', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a
French botanist, born at Douay in 1715; died in 1804.
His grandson, THEMISTOCLES, born at Lille in 1797, is
a physician and writer on botany, etc.
Lestocq or Lestoq, leVtok', QOHANN HERMAN,)
a surgeon, born of French parents in Hanover about
1695. He removed in 1713 to Saint Petersburg, and
became surgeon to Peter the Great. In 1725 he was
appointed surgeon to the princess Elizabeth. He was
the master-spirit of the plot or revolution which made
her empress in 1741. For some years afterwards he
\yas treated with much favour, and took an influential j
part in affairs of state; but in 1750 he was disgraced '
and exiled. He was recalled by Peter III. in 1762. i
Died in 1767.
Lestoile or Letoile. See F/TOILE, DE L'.
L'Estrange, ISs-tranj', (Sir ROGER,) an English par
tisan writer, born in Norfolk in 1616, was a zealous
royalist in the civil war. Having been detected in a plot
to surprise Lynn, he was sentenced to death as a spy in
1644, but obtained a respite, and escaped in 1648. After
passing a few years in exile, he returned in 1653 and
obtained from Cromwell a release from the sentence. In
the reign of Charles II. he was censor of the press. He
translated the works of Josephus, Seneca's " Morals,"
and /Esop's Fables, and wrote many popular political
tracts. His style is censured for vulgarity, and his works
abound in slang. After the restoration he edited several
political journals. " His /Esop's Fables," says Hallam,
"will present everything that is hostile to good taste."
(" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in
1704.
See "Biographia Britannica."
Lesueur or Le Sueur, leh-sii'uR', (CHARLES ALEX-
ANDRE,) a French naturalist and designer, born at Havre
in 1778. He explored with Peron the coasts of Aus
tralia, and wrote many memoirs on mollusca, etc. Died
in 1846.
Lesueur, (CiCERON JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French archi
tect, born near Rambouillet in 1794, became a member
of the Institute. He published a "Chronology of the
Kings of Egypt," (1848-50.)
Lesueur, (EUSTACHE,) an excellent painter of history,
surnamed "the French Raphael," was born in Paris in
1617. He was a pupil of Vouet. He excelled in com
position, expression, and chiaroscuro. Among his works
are "Saint Paul Preaching at Ephesus," "The Annun
ciation," "The Life of Saint Bruno," (in 22 pictures,)
and "The Death of Tabitha." The first is called a
master-piece of invention and style. He died prema
turely in 1655.
See CHARLES BLANC, "Vies des Peintres Francais," and " £tude
sur E. Lesueur," 1845; Louis VITKT, " E. Lesueur, sa Vie et ses
CEuvres," 1853: L. DUSSIKUX, " Nouvelles Recherches sur la Vie
d'E. Lesueur," 1852.
Lesueur, (JEAN,) a French historian and Protestant
minister. He wrote a " History of the Church and Em
pire from the Birth of Christ," (1672.) Died in 1681.
Lesueur or Le Sueur, (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a cele
brated French composer, born near Abbeville about
1760. Having gained reputation by his motets and
masses, he was chosen chapel-master of Notre-Dame,
Paris, in 1786. His opera "La Caverne" (1792) was
very successful. In 1804 he became chapel-master of
Napoleon, and produced "The Bards," (" Les Bardes,")
an opera, which was greatly applauded. He was chosen
a member of the Institute in 1815. He composed other
operas, an "Essay on Sacred Music," and a "Treatise
on Ancient Music," which are highly commended. Died
in 1837.
See FETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musicians ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Le Sueur, (NICOLAS,) a French philologist, born in
Paris about 1540, became president of the Chamber of
Inquests in the Parliament of Paris. He made a good
translation of Pindar's Odes into Latin verse, (1575.)
Died in 1594.
Lesueur, (NICOLAS,) a French engraver of cameos,
born in Paris in 1690; died in 1764. His uncle PIERRE,
born at Rouen in 1636, was one of the best engravers on
wood of his time. Died in 1716.
Leszczinski. See STANISLAS.
Letaiiduere, de, deh la'toN'dii'aiR', (HENRI FRAN
gois DESHERRIERS,) MARQUIS, an able French naval
officer, born at Angers in 1682. He was made chef d"es-
cadre in 1745. In that year he captured four English
frigates near Brest. Died in 1750.
Letellier. See Louvois, COURTANVAUX, DE, and
ESTREES, D', (LOUIS C6SAR.)
Letellier, leh-ti'le a', a French painter, born at Rouen
in 1614, was a nephew and pupil of the celebrated
Poussin. His favourite subjects were devotional. He
excelled in expression and linear perspective. Among
his best works are a "Holy Family," an "Ascension,"
and an " Annunciation." Died in 1676.
Letellier or Le Tellier, ( MICHEL,) a French states
man, born in 1603. By the patronage of Mazarin, he
was appointed secretary of state for the war department
soon after 1642. During the troubles of the Fronde he
was an adherent of Mazarin. The latter having with
drawn from France about 1651, Letellier was employed
as minister by the queen-regent during the short period
of his absence. In 1677 he was appointed chancellor
of France. He sealed with alacrity the fatal edict against
the Protestants which in 1685 revoked the edict of Nantes.
Died in 1685. Louvois, the minister of Louis XIV., was
his son.
See VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" CHOISY, "Memoires."
Letellier, (MICHEL,) a French Jesuit, born at Vire,
in Normandy, in 1643. He edited Quintus Curtius for
c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LETHE
1416
LEURET
the use of the dauphin (in usum Delphini) in 1678, and
wrote against Jansenism. In 1709 he became confessor
to Louis XIV., with the privilege of presenting subjects
for benefices. D'Alembert and others accuse him of
giving the king perfidious counsels. At the death of
Louis XIV. (1715) he was exiled. Died in 1719.
See VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis 'XIV;" SAINT-SIMON, "Me"-
moires;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Le'the, [A//0/;,] a Greek word signifying "forgetful-
ness" or " oblivion," and forming the name of one of
the streams of Hades. See PLUTO.
Lethiere, leh-te-aiR', (GUILLAUME GUII.LON, ) an
eminent French landscape- and historical painter, was
born in Guadeloupe in 1760. lie studied in Rome, and
worked in Paris with success. Among his works are
"The Death of Cassar," "The Judgment of Paris," and
"Homer reciting his Poems." Died in 1832.
Lethington. See MAITLAND, (WILLIAM.)
Leti, la'tee, (GREGORIO,) an Italian historical writer,
born at Milan in 1630. He went to Geneva, turned
Protestant, and opened a school in 1660. In 1669 he
published a "Life of Sixtus V.," which is his most
popular work. His satirical humour involved him in
difficulties, which compelled him to leave Geneva in
1679. He passed some time at the court of Charles
II. of England, and was ordered to quit that kingdom
in 1682. He died in Amsterdam in 1701, leaving many
histories and biographies, which are unreliable.
See NICERON, "Memoires."
Leto. See LATONA.
Leto, (POMPONIO.) See POMPONIUS L/ETUS.
Letourneur, leh-tooR'nUR', (CHARLES Louis FRAN
COIS HONORE,) a Director of the French republic, was
born in Basse-Xormandie in 1751. He was deputed to
the Convention in 1792, and voted with the Girondists
for the death of the king. He was one of the members
of the Executive Directory elected in October, 1795 or
1796. He was exiled as a regicide in 1816, and died
in 1817.
See THIERS, " History of the French Revolution."
Le Tourneur, (PIERRK.) See TOURNEUR, LE.
Letronne, leh-tRon', QEAN ANTOINE,) an eminent
French antiquary and critic, born in Paris in 1787, was
remarkable for sagacity, mental activity, and variety of
acquirements. After returning from his travels in Italy
and other countries, he was chosen a member of the
Academy of Inscriptions in 1816. In 1823 he published
a " Historical Essay on Egypt during the Domination
of the Greeks and Romans." He wrote able articles
for the " Biographic Universelle" and " Revue des Deux
Mondes." He was appointed professor of history in the
College of France about 1831, and keeper of the archives
of France in 1840. Among his principal works is "A
Collection ofthe Greek and Latin Inscriptions of Egypt,"
(2 vols. 410, 1842-48.) He proved that the zodiac of
Denderah belonged to the time ofthe Roman emperors,
thus exploding the theory of Dupuis. Died in 1848.
See BURNOUF et QUATREMERE, " Discours prononce's aux Fune'-
railles de Letronne," 1848; WAI.CKENAER, " Eloge de Letronne,"
1850; Ko.MoNoGARNiER, " Notice sur Letronne ;" ALFRED MATRY,
" Notice sur Letronne," 1849; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Letrosne, leh-tR5n', (GUILLAUME FRANC.OIS,) a
French advocate and economist, born at Orleans in 1728.
He published a treatise in favour of free trade in grain,
and other works on political economy. Died in 1780.
Lette, let'teh, (\\'ILHKLM ADOLPH,) a Prussian econ
omist and liberal politician, born at Kienitz in 1799.
He was elected to the legislative assembly of Prussia
several times between 1850 and 1856.
Lattice, let'tiss, (JoHN,) an English poet and clergy
man, born in Northamptonshire in 1737. His poem on
the conversion of Saint Paul gained a prize at Cam
bridge in 1764. He attained eminence as a pulpit orator.
In 1785 he was presented to the living of Peasemarsh,
Sussex. He was author of " Fables for the Fireside,"
(1812,) "Strictures on Elocution," (1821,) sermons, and
other works. Died in 1832.
Lett'sovn, (JoHN COAKLEY,) an English physician,
born in the West Indies, near Tortola, about 1744. His
parents were members of the Society of Friends. He
studied in Edinburgh, Paris, and Leyden, and in 1769
settled in London, where, through the influence of Dr.
Fothergill, he obtained a large practice. He acquired an
extensive scientific reputation, and was elected Fellow
of the Royal Society in 1771. Besides several profes
sional treatises, he published "The Natural History of
the Tea-Tree," (1772,) the "Naturalist's and Traveller's
Companion," (1774,) and a "Life of Dr. Fothergill,"
(1783.) Died in 1815.
See "Memoirs of J. C. Lettsom," by T. J. PETTIGKEW, 1817;
DESOBNETTES, in the "Biographic Medicale."
Leu, loi, [Fr. pron. luh,] (JoiiANN JAKOB,) a Swiss
writer, born at Zurich in 1689. His most important
work is a " Universal Dictionary of Switzerland," (20
vols., 1746-63,) which treats of the civil, religious,
literarv, and natural history of that country. Died in
1768. '
Leuchtenberg, DUKE OF. See BEAUHARNAIS, DE,
(ElHJENK.)
Leuchtenberg, de, deh loiK'ten-beRC/, (KARL AU
GUST NAPOLEON,) PRINCE, the eldest son of Eugene de
Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy, was bom at Milan in
1810. His mother was Augusta Amelia, daughter ofthe
King of Bavaria. He passed his youth in Bavaria.
About 1834 he was made the first peer of Bavaria by
his uncle, Louis I. He married Maria, Queen of Por
tugal, in January, 1835, and was created Duke of Santa
Cruz, but died before the end of the year.
Leucippe. See LKUCIPPUS.
Leu-cip'pus, [Gr. A«'KCT7roc; Fr. LEUCIPPE, luh'sep',]
a famous Greek philosopher, who is generally reputed
the author ofthe atomic philosophy. lie was a disciple
of Zeno of Elea. The time and place of his birth are
unknown ; but, as he was the teacher of Democritus, he
probably lived earlier than 450 U.c. Different accounts
state that he was born at Elea, Abdera, or Miletus. His
works have not come down to us. His doctrines are
supposed to have been similar to those of Democritus.
See RITTER, "History of Philosophy ;" DIOGENES LAKRTICS.
Leuckfeld, loik'felt, QOHANN GEORO,) a German
historian, born in Thuringia in 1668 ; died in 1726.
Leu'con, [A«'/cwi>,] an Athenian poet of the old
comedy, was a contemporary and rival of Aristophanes.
Leu'-coth'e-a, (or lu-ko'the-a,) [Gr. Afwofltn ,• Fr.
LEUCOTHEE, luh'ko'ta',] i.e. "White Goddess," a name
given to I NO, which see.
Leucothee. See LEUCOTHEA.
Leunclavius, loin-kla've-us, (JoiiANN,) an excellent
German scholar, whose proper name was LOWENKLAU
or LOEWENKLAU, (16'wen-klow',) was born at Amel-
bauern, in Westphalia, in 1533. lie was well versed in
Greek, Latin, and public law. A large part of his life was
passed at the courts of the Duke of Savoy and of other
princes. He published editions with Latin versions of
Xenophon, (1569,) Dion Cassius, Zosimus, (1579,) Pro-
copius, and other Greek authors. Scaliger, Bayle, and
others praise him highly as a translator. lie wrote a
few original works, among which was a "History of
the Moslems," (" Musulmanicae Historian Libri XVIII.,"
J595-) Died at Vienna in 1593.
See BAVI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
"Memoires;" M. ADAM, "Vita; Philosophorum Germanorum."
Leupold, loi'polt, (JAKOB,) an ingenious Saxon
mechanician, born at Planitz in 1674. He excelled in
the fabrication of mathematical and philosophical instru
ments. The Elector of Saxony appointed him a member
of the Council of Mines. He published in 1723-27 an
important work called "Theatre of Machines," ("Thea-
trurn Machinarutn,") which treats of machines, statics,
hydrostatics, mechanical sciences, etc. Died in 1727.
See TETTELBACU, " Lebensbeschreibung J. Leupold," 1735.
Leupoldt, loi'polt, (JOHANN MICHAEL,) a German
physician, born at Weissenstadt, Bavaria, in 1794. He
published a number of treatises on pathology, physi
ology, and hygiene, and a " General History of Medi
cine," (1825.)
Leuret, luh'ii', (FRANC.OIS,) a French physician,
born at Nancy in 1797. Having given special attention
to mental maladies, he acquired distinction by his " Psy
chological Fragments on Insanity," (1834,) and other
works, among which is one "On the Moral Treatment
a, e, T, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
LEUSDEN
1417
LEfERRIER
of Insanity," (1840.) He became chief physician of the
Bicetre in Paris. Died in 1851.
See U. TKELAT, "Notice sur F. Leuret," 1851; CHARLES HE-
QUET, " Notice biographique sur la Vie du Docteur Leuret," 1852.
Leusden, lus'den, [Lat. LEUSDE'NIUS,] QAN,) a
Dutch philologist, eminent as a Hebrew scholar, was
born in 1624, at Utrecht. He studied the Oriental lan
guages in that city and Amsterdam. In 1649 he obtained
the chair of Hebrew at Utrecht, which he held until his
death. He explained many curious Biblical questions '
in three works, entitled "Hebrew Philologist," (" Philo- '
logus Hebraeus," 1656,) " Philologus Hebraso-Mixtus,"
(1663,) and " Hebrew-Greek Philologist," ("Philologus
Hebrx'o-Graecus," 1670.) Among his other works are
"Scholia Syriaca," "Compendium Biblicum," (1674,) !
and a Greek edition of the Nesv Testament, (1675.)
Died in 1699.
See NICERON-, " Memoires ;" BURM ANN, " Trajectum Eruditum ;" |
G. DE VKIES, " Oratio in Obitum J. Leusdenii," 1699.
Leusdenius. See LKUSDEN.
Leutholf. See LUDOLPH, (Joi!.)
Leutinger, loi'ting-er, (XiKOLAUS,) a German his
torian, born in Brandenburg in 1547. He published
about 1587 a "History of Brandenburg." Died in 1612.
Leutze, loit'seh, (EMANUEI,) a distinguished his
torical painter, born at Gmiind, in Wiirtemberg, in
1816. At an early age he accompanied his father to
Philadelphia, where his talents attracted the notice of
Mr. Carey, by whose assistance he was enabled to visit
Europe. He studied at Dusseldorf under Leasing, and
about 1842 produced his "Columbus before the Council
at Salamanca," which gave him a high reputation.
Among his pictures, many of which illustrate American
history, we may mention "The Landing of the North
men," "Washington Crossing the Delaware," "John
Knox and Mary Stuart," " Washington at Princeton,"
and "Columbus before the Queen." Died at Washing
ton in July, 1868.
See H. T. TL'CKERMAN, "American Artist Life," 1867, and
"Book of the Artists."
Leuwenhoek, van, vfn luh'wen-hook', (AvrooN,)
sometimes written Leeuwenhoek or Leeuwenhoeck,
a celebrated Dutch naturalist, born at Delft in 1632.
He first acquired reputation by his skill in the fabrica
tion of microscopes. By his successful use of the micro
scope in researches into the intimate structure of the
human system and the composition of animal fluids, he
afterwards obtained celebrity as an anatomist and physi- j
ologist. He communicated many of his discoveries to
the Royal Society of London, of which he was chosen a
Fellow in 1680. He discovered the so-called animalcules
in the spermatic fluid in 1677. About 1690 he proved
the continuity of the arteries with the veins, and success- |
fully combated the prevalent hypothesis of the fermen
tation of the blood. He described with accuracy the
structure of the lamina which compose the crystalline
lens of the eye. In 1698, Peter the Great, passing
through Delft, requested the favour of seeing Leuwen
hoek and his microscopes, which was accorded. Died
in 1723. Leuwenhoek's works were printed in the
"Philosophical Transactions," (London.) Four vol
umes of his collected works were published at Leyden
in 1724, under the title of "Opera Omnia."
See I. VAN HAASTERT, "A. van Leeuwenhoeck, vereerend Her-
dacht in eene korte Levensschets," etc., 1823 ; HALBFRTSMA, ''Dis-
sertatio historico-medica de A. Leeuwenhoeckii Mentis," etc., 1843.
Leva. See LEYVA.
Le Vacher de Chamois. See CHARNOIS, DE.
Le Vaillant. See VAII.LAXT, LE.
Leval, leh-vil', (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a French general,
born in Paris in 1761. As general of division, he ob
tained success at Philipsburg in 1799. He took part in
the battle of Jena, in 1806. Died in 1834.
Levasseur, leh-vJt'srR', a French anatomist, who
wrote about 1540. "He appears," says Hall am, "to
have known the circulation of the blood through the
lungs, as well as the valves of the arteries and veins,
and their direction and its purpose, — treading closely
on an anticipation of Harvey."
Levasseur, (JEAN CHARLES,) a French engraver,
born at Abbeville in 1734. He engraved some works
of Boucher, Lemoine, Vanloo, etc. Died about 1810.
Levasseur de la Sarthe, leh-vt'sua' deh \$ stRt,
(R.E.\£,) a French Jacobin, born in Maine in 1747, voted
in the Convention of 1792 for the death of the king, and
was a violent enemy of the Girondists. Died in 1834.
See ACHII.I.E ROCHE, "Memoires de R. Levasseur," 2 vo!s., 1829.
Levassor, leh-vi'soR', (MiCHEL,) a French historian
and priest, born at Orleans. About 1675 he became a
Protestant, and emigrated to Holland. He afterwards
removed to England, and published a "History of Eu
rope in the Reign of Louis XIII.," (lovols., 1700-11.)
Voltaire calls him " un declamateur odieux," (" an odious
declaimer,") and says he was thought to be erroneous in
nearly all his judgments. Died in 1718.
Levati, la-va'tee, (CARLO AMBROGIO,) an Italian
writer, born at Biassono in 1790. Among his works is
a " Biographical Dictionary of Illustrious Women of all
Ages and Nations," (3 vols., 1822.) Died in 1841.
Levau or Leveau, leh-vo', (Louis,) a French archi
tect, born in 1612. He built the Hotel Lambert and
Hotel Colbert, at Paris. He obtained the title of first
architect to Louis XIV., by whose order he added to the
chateau of the Tuileries the Pavilions de Flore and de
Marsan. Died in 1670.
See QL'ATREMERE DE QUINCY, "Vies des plus illustres Archi-
tectes."
Le Vayer. See MOTHE, LA.
Leven, EARL OF. See LESLIE, (ALEXANDER.)
Leve"que, la'vfk', (PIERRE,) an able French mathe
matician, born at Nantes in 1746. To a sound judgment
he added extensive acquirements in various sciences and
languages. He published " The Navigator's Guide,"
(1779,) which was praised by Lalande, and other nautical
works. He was elected to the Institute in 1801. Died
in 1814.
See DELAMRRE, " filoge de LevSque," 1816; " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Le'ver, (Sir ASHTON,) an English naturalist, born
near Manchester. He formed a museum of natural his
tory. Died in 1788.
Le'ver, (CHARLES JAMES,) a popular Irish novelist,
was born in Dublin in 1806. He practised medicine a
few years, but abandoned that profession when he be
came editor of the "Dublin University Magazine," about
1842. He has written a multitude of novels, among
which are " Harry Lorrequer," " Charles O'Malley,"
"The Knight of Gwynne," (1854,) "The Daltons," and
"Davenport Dunn," (1859.) After 1845 he resided for
many years at Florence. In 1858 he was appointed
vice-consul at Spezzia, and transferred to Trieste in 1867.
See " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1862 ; " Fraser's Maga
zine" for September, 1840, and October, 1842.
Lever, (THOMAS,) an eloquent English divine, born
in Lancashire. He was ordained a Protestant minister
in 1550. On the accession of Mary (1553) he retired to
the continent. He afterwards dissented from the Angli
can Church, from a partiality to Calvinism. He pub
lished sermons, and other religious works. Died in 1577.
Lev'e-rett, (FREDERICK PERCIVAL,) an American
scholar, born at Boston in 1803. He published a " Lexi
con of the Latin Language," an edition of Caesar's "Com
mentaries," and other educational works. Died in 1836.
Leverett, (Sir JOHN,) born in England in 1616,
emigrated to America, where he was elected in 1673
Governor of Massachusetts. He was made a baronet
by Charles II. Died in 1679.
Leverett, (JoHN,) grandson of the preceding, born in
Boston in 1662, became president of Harvard University
in 1708. He was a distinguished jurist and scholar, and
a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1724.
Lev'e-ridge, (RICHARD,) an English singer, song
writer, and musical composer, was born about 1670. He
published two volumes of his own songs, and composed
the music for many of Purcell's songs. Died in 1758.
Leverrier or Le Verrier, leh vi're-i', (URKAIN
JEAN JOSEPH,) an eminent French astronomer, born at
Saint-L6 (La Manche) in March, 1811. He entered the
Polytechnic School about 1830, and after leaving it de
voted himself with success to chemistry and mathematics.
He became a tutor (repetiteur) in the Polytechnic School,
and in 1839 wrote two treatises on astronomy, which pro
cured for'him the friendship of Arago. In January, 1846,
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23. )
LE VERT
1418
LEWIS
he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences.
Before that date he had undertaken to rectify the tables
of Uranus, the orbit of which was subject to perturba
tions from an unknown cause. Conjecturing this cause
to be a planet, he calculated its orbit, mass, and position,
and announced the results in a memoir to the Academy
of Sciences in June, 1846. The-planet was observed by
telescope near the place indicated, by Galle, of Berlin, in
September of that year, and received the name of Nep
tune. Leverrier acquired a just celebrity by this great
discovery, and was appointed professor of astronomy in
the Faculty of Sciences, Paris. In 1849 he was elected
to the Legislative Assembly. Having supported Louis
Napoleon's policy, he was chosen a senator in 1852. He
succeeded Arago in 1853 as astronomer to the bureau
of longitudes and director of the Imperial Observatory.
He has published, besides other works, "Annales de
1'Observatoire de Paris," (1856.) About 1860 he pre
sented to the Institute an interesting memoir on Mer
cury. He observed a movement of the perihelion of that
planet which suggested the existence of a small planet
between Mercury and the sun. In 1870 he was removed
from the position of director of the Observatory.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Biographic des Membres
du Senat," 1852.
lie Vert, leh vert, (OCTAVIA WALTON,) an American
writer, born in Georgia about 1820. She has published
"Souvenirs of Travel," (1857,) and made various con
tributions to English and American periodicals.
Levesque, li vtk', (PIERRE CHARLES,) a French his
torian and translator, born in Paris in 1736. He became
professor of belles-lettres in Saint Petersburg in 1773.
In 1780 he returned to Paris, and published his "His
tory of Russia," (" Histoire de Russie," 6 vols., 1782,)
which is esteemed a classic work. He afterwards was
chosen a professor in the Royal College and a member
of the Institute. In 1795 he produced a successful trans
lation of Thucydides. He wrote other historical works,
and translated some of the writings of Plutarch and
Xenophon. Died in 1812.
See DACIER, " filosre de' Levesque;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale ;" " Monthly Review," vol. liv., 1807 et sey., (Appendix.)
Levesque de Burigiiy. See BURIGNY, DE.
Levesque de la Ravaliere, la'vSk' deh IS rt'vjt'-
le-aiR', (PIERRE ALEXANDRE,) a French writer, born at
Troves in 1697. He was chiefly known by his edition
of the poems of Thibault de Champagne, King of Na
varre, (1742,) which was accompanied by an " Essay on
the Revolutions of the French Language from Charle
magne to Saint Louis." Died in 1762.
Levesque de Pouilly, la'vik' deh poo'ye', (Louis
JEAN,) a French litterateur, born at Rheims in 1691. He
was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1722.
He corresponded with Fontenelle, Voltaire, and Lord
Bolingbroke. His principal work is the "Theory re
specting the Agreeable Sentiments," (" Theorie des
Sentiments agreables," 1747,) revised and enlarged in
1749. Died in 1750.
His son, JEAN SIMON, (1734-1820,) wrote a "Life
of Chancellor L'Hopital," (1764,) and a work called
"Theory of the Imagination," (1803.)
Le'vi, [Heb. 'lS ; Gr. Aew,] a Hebrew patriarch, a
son of Jacob and Leah, was born in Mesopotamia about
1750 B.C. He died in Egypt, aged one hundred and
thirty-seven, leaving three sons, one of whom was the
grandfather of Moses.
See Genesis xxix., xxxiv., xlix., and Exodus vi. 16.
Levi, (DAVID,) a learned Jew, born in London in 1740.
He published, besides other works, " Lingua Sacra, or a
Grammar and Dictionary of the Hebrew, Chalclee, and
Talmuclic Dialects," (3 vols., 1789.) Died in 1799.
Levi, la/vee, (LEONE,) a writer on commerce and
commercial law, born at Ancona in 1821. He became
professor of commercial law in King's College, London.
Among his works is an important treatise on " The Com
mercial Law of Great Britain," (4 vols., 1850-52.)
Levieil, leh-ve-kl', (PIERRE,) a French painter on
glass, was born in Paris in 1708. He restored the
painted windows of Notre-Dame, and wrote a com
plete technical " Treatise on Painting on Glass." Died
in 1772.
Levieux, leh-ve-uh', (RENAUD,) a French painter of
history, born at Nismes about 1630. By correctness of
design and brilliancy of colour he merited a place
among artists of the second order.
Le"v'ing-ston, (FAMES,) Earl of Callenclar, a Scottish
officer, fought for Charles I. in the civil war. Died in
1672.
Levis, de, deh la've' or la'vess', (FRANC.OIS,) Due,
marshal of France, was born in Languedoc in 1720. He
succeeded Montcalm, who was killed at Quebec in 1759,
and took up his winter-quarters at Montreal. He de
fended Canada several months-; but he was forced by
want of stores to capitulate to the English about 1760.
He was made a marshal in 1783. Died in 1787.
Levis, de, (PIERRE MARC GASTON,) Due, a son of
the preceding, was born about 1760. In 1789 he was de
puted to the Constituent Assembly, in which he favoured
moderate reforms. He emigrated in 1792 to England,
and returned in 1800. He acquired literary distinction
by his "Maxims and Reflections" (1808) and "Souve
nirs and Portraits," (1813,) and wrote several other
works. In 1816 he became a member of the French
Academy and of the privy council. Died in 1830.
See LE HAS,"" Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France."
Levita. See ELIAS LKVITA.
Levitschiiigg, la'vit-shnik', (HEINRICII,) a popular
Austrian poet, born at Vienna in 1810, is the author of
a number of lyric and romantic poems.
Levizac, cle, deh leh-ve/zSk/, (JEAN PONS VICTOR
LECOUIY.,) ABBE, a French grammarian, born in Langue
doc. Having been driven into exile by the Revolution,
he emigrated to London, where he taught French. He
published in 1797 a "Grammar of the French Lan
guage," which was extensively used by persons to whom
the French is a foreign tongue. He wrote other educa
tional works. Died in 1813.
Levret, leh-vK<Y, (ANDRE,) a French surgeon, born in
Paris in 1703, had a high reputation for skitl in accouche-
ments. He was called to court to attend the dauphiness,
mother of Louis XVI. He wrote excellent works on
obstetrics, among which is "The Accoucheur's Art
demonstrated by Physical and Mechanical Principles,"
("L'Art des Accouchements demontre par des Principes
de Physique et Mecanique," 1753.) Died in 1780.
Lewald, la'walt, (FANNY,) a popular authoress, and
a relative of the writer noticed below, was born at
Kdnigsberg in 1811. Her principal works are novels,
tales, and sketches of travel. She was married to Adolf
Stahr, the author, about 1854.
Lewald, (JOHANN KARL AUGUST,) a German littera
teur, born at Konigsbergin 1792. He produced a number
of dramatic works, novels, and tales, and in 1835 founded
a journal entitled " Europe, or Chronicle of the Educated
World."
See "Aquarelle aus dem Leben," 4 vols., 1837.
Lewenhaupt. See LOWENHAUPT.
Lewes, lu'iss, (GEORGE HENRY,) a popular English
author, distinguished for his learning and versatility, was
born in London in 1817. He studied medicine, but soon
exchanged that profession for literature, in which his
labours have been very abundant and diversified. He
contributed many literary, historical, scientific, and phi
losophical essays to the " Edinburgh," " Westminster,"
and other quarterly reviews. He also wrote articles for
Blackwood's and Fraser's Magazines and the " Penny
Cyclopaedia." Among his principal separate works we
may mention "Biographical History of Philosophy,"
(1845,) " Rose, Blanche, and Violet," a novel, (i84'8,)
"Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences," (1853,) "The
Life and Works of Goethe," (1855,) which is one of
his most popular productions, and "Sea-Side Studies,"
(1858.) He is the author of a successful tragedy, "The
Noble Heart," (1850,) and of other dramas. In 1865
he became for a short time the chief editor of the
"Fortnightly Review." ZJt'*X-,fi>7i'
See " British Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1864.
Lewis or Ltidwig, lood'wic, (KARL AUGUST,) I., King
of Bavaria, born in August, 1786, was the son of King
Maximilian Joseph. He married in 1810 the princess
Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Before his accession he
a, e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
LEWIS
1419
LEWIS
built the Glyptothek, a splendid museum for the master
pieces of sculpture. He became king in 1825, and made
economical reforms in the government. His reign is
remarkable for the great impulse given by his liberality
and taste to the fine arts, especially architecture. He
assembled in his capital many scholars and artists, and
adorned Munich with numerous fine edifices, among
which are the Odeon, the Pinakothek, the royal palace,
university, and several churches. He built the famous
Walhalla at Ratisbon, (Regensburg,) and made a canal
which bears his name. In 1829 lie published a collection
of poems. The latter part of his reign did not correspond
with the beginning. He excited disaffection by restoring
convents and restricting the political and religious liber
ties of his subjects. The influence of Lola Montez over
the king was another cause of offence. Stimulated by
the revolution in France, (1848,) the Bavarians revolted,
demanding reforms, in consequence of which he abdi
cated in March, 1848, in favour of his son, Maximilian
IF. Otho, ex-King of (*reece, is his second son. Died
at Nice in February, 1868.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Lewis, (Kings of France.) See Louis. -
Lew'is or Louis, loo'is, [Ger. Lumvio, lood'wir, ;
Lat. Lunovi'ci's,] I., King of Germany, styled LK GKR-
MANiQt'K, (or GF.KMAN'ICUS,) the third son of Louis le
Debonnaire, was born in 806, and became King of Ba
varia in 817 A.D., when his father divided his dominions
among his three sons. Having revolted against his
father, he seized Saxony, and -assumed the title of King
of Germany. In alliance with Charles the Bald, he
defeated his brother, Lothaire I., at Fontenoy in 841.
He died in 876 A.D., leaving three sons, Carloman,
Lewis, and Charles.
See H. LUDEN. " Geschiclite des Deutschen Volkes," 12 vols.,
182^-37 ; •' Xouvel'.e Biographic Generale.''
Lewis (Ludwig) II. or IIL of Germany was the
» second son of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 876.
The same year he defeated his uncle, Charles the Bald,
who had invaded his kingdom. He died at Frankfort
in 882, while waging war with the Normans.
Lewis (Ludwig) III. or IV., called THE INFANT,
(DAS KINO,) born in 893 A.rx, was the son of the
emperor Arnulph, and became King of Germany in
900. He died in 912, and was the last prince of the
race of Charlemagne in Germany.
Lewis TV. or V., Emperor of Germany, born in 1286,
was the son of Lewis, Duke of Bavaria, and Matilda,
who was a daughter of the emperor Rudolph of I laps-
burg. After the death of Henry VII. (1314) Lewis
and his cousin, Frederick of Austria, were rival candi
dates for the throne, and both claimed to have been
elected. A long civil war was the result, in which the
Ghibelines fought for Lewis and the Guelphs for Frede
rick, who was taken prisoner in 1322. Lewis released
him after he had signed an act of renunciation of the
empire, and was crowned at Rome in 1328. About
this time he was excommunicated by Pope John XXII.,
against whom he retorted the charge of heresy. In 1346
Clement VI. issued a bull against Lewis, and attempted
to transfer the crown to Charles IV. ; but Lewis defended
himself until his death, in 1347.
See CONRAD MANNERT, "Kaiser Ludwig IV.," 1812; N. BUR-
(U'NDCs, "Historia Havarica, sive Ludovicus IV.." etc., 1636; J.
SCHLETT, " HioRraphie von Kaiser LiMwiji deni Bayer," 1822 ; KOT-
ZEBUE, "Geschichte Kaiser Ludwigs IV.," 1812.
Lewis I., surnamed THE GREAT, King of Hungary
and Poland, born in 1326, was the son of Charobert,
whom he succeeded on the throne of Hungary in 1342.
He waged successful wars against the Venetians and
against Joan, Queen of Naples. After the death of his
uncle Casimir, in 1370, he was elected King of Poland.
He died in 1382, leaving three daughters, one of whom
was married to Sigismund, Emperor of Germany. He
is said to have been a just and wise ruler.
See BONFINIUS, " De Rebus Hungaricis;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generate. "
Lewis H. of Hungary and Bohemia was born in
1506, and succeeded his father, Ladislaus VI., in 1516.
Owing to his youth and the factious conduct of the
nobles, his power was only nominal. In 1521 he mar-
, ried Mary, a sister of the emperor Charles V. His
: kingdom was invaded by the Turks, and his army com-
| pletely defeated at M oh Acs, where Lewis was killed in
1 1526. He left no issue, and Ferdinand I. of Austria
became master of Hungary.
Lewis, (Kings of Italy and Spain.) See Louis.
Lewis |Sp. Luis, loo-ess'] I. of Spain, the eldest son
| of Philip V., was born in 1707. Philip V., having fallen
into a melancholy mood, retired to the solitude of Saint
lidefonso, and resigned the crown to Lewis, who was
I proclaimed in January, 1724. A few months after his
; accession he died of smallpox, and Philip V. resumed
| tlie cares of royalty.
Lewis [Ger. LUDWIG, lood'ftic] I., Grand Duke of
j Hesse-Darmstadt, born in 1753, succeeded his father in
! 1790. He joined the alliance against Napoleon in 1813.
! Died in 1830.
See STEINER, "Ludwig I. von Hessen-Darmstadt," 1842.
Lewis (Ludwig) H., a son of the preceding, was born
in 1777, and became grand duke in 1830. Died in 1848.
Lewis, (Ludwig,) Prince of Prussia, often called
Ludwig Ferdinand, was a nephew of Frederick the
Great, and was born in 1772. He was a son of Prince
August Ferdinand. He served in the campaign against
! the French in 1792. In 1806 he was the head of the
1 war-party which urged the king into a disastrous contest
j with Bonaparte. Having obtained the rank of lieuten-
I ant-general, he engaged a superior force under Lannes
at Saalfeld, October 10, 1806, when he was defeated and
killed, preferring to die rather than to surrender.
Lew'is, (A.NDKKW,) born in Ireland about 1730, emi
grated to Virginia, and served with distinction in the
war of the Revolution, being made brigadier-general
about 1775. His statue occupies a place near Washing
ton's Monument at Richmond. Died in 1780. His three
brothers, THOMAS, WILLIAM, and CHARLES, were a!s.>
noted as patriots and soldiers.
Lewis, (Dixo.v HALL,) a Senator and lawyer, born
in Hancock county, Georgia, in 1802, removed to Ala
bama. He was a Democratic member of the House of
Representatives from 1830 to 1844, and became a United
States Senator in the latter year. Died in 1848.
Lewis, (EDMONIA,) an American sculptor, of negro
and Indian extraction, born near Albany, New York,
about 1845. Among her works are " The Freedwomau
on first hearing of her Liberty," and a bust of Colonel
Shaw.
See TUCKERMAN, " Book of the Artists."
Lewis, (ELLIS,) LL.D., an able American jurist, bora
in York county, Pennsylvania, in 1798. He rose through
various offices to be chief justice of the supreme court
of Pennsylvania in 1854.
Lewis, (ENOCH,) a distinguished American mathema
tician, born in Chester county, Pennsylvania, in 1776.
He became teacher of mathematics in the Friends' Acad
emy, Philadelphia, in 1799, and subsequently at the West-
town Boarding-School, established by the Society of
Friends. He was the author of treatises on algebra,
trigonometry, etc., a "Life of William Penn," and other
valuable works. In 1847 ne became editor of the
"Friends' Review," Philadelphia. Died in 1856.
Lewis, (EsTEi.i.E ANNA ROKINSON,) an American
poetess, born in Maryland about 1825, has published
"Records of the Heart," (1844,) and "Myths of the
Minstrel," etc., (1852,) and has been a contributor to
the " Democratic Review" and other periodicals.
See GRISWOLD, " Female Poets of America."
Lewis, (FRANCIS,) one of the siejners of the Declara
tion of American Independence, born in Wales in 1713,
emigrated to New York in 1735. He was elected to the
Continental Congress in 1775. Died in 1803.
Lew'is, (Sir GEORGE CORNEWALL,) Bart., an eminent
English statesman and author, born in London in Octo
ber, 1806, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Frankland
Lewis. He graduated with high honours in the classics
at Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1831, but never
practised law. In 1844116 married a sister of the Earl
of Clarendon. In 1847 he was elected by the Liberal
party member of Parliament for Herefordshire, and was
appointed secretary to the board of control. He became
under-secretary for the home department in 1848, and
as K: c j^ ^: g hi. rd: g as/; c,, H, IK., guttural ; N, nasal: R, trilled; s as z: th as in tkis.
Explanations, ;>. 23 )
LEWIS
1420
LETDEN
secretary of the treasury in 1850. He resigned this office
when Lord John Russell ceased to be premier, in March,
1852. In this year he published a "Treatise on the
Method of Observing and Reasoning in Politics." He
became editor of the "Edinburgh Review" in 1854, but
retired from that post in the early part of the next year.
From February, 1855, until February, 1858, he was
chancellor of the exchequer in Pahnerston's cabinet.
On the formation of a new Liberal ministry under Pal-
merston, in June, 1859, Sir George was appointed home
secretary. He succeeded Lord Herbert as secretary of
war in July, 1861. He wrote several able political and
philosophical works, among which is an " Inquiry into
the Credibility of Early Roman History," and, with
the Right Hon. H. Tufnel, made a translation of K. O.
Miiller's "Die Dorier," ("The Dorians," 2 vols., 1830.)
Died in 1863.
See article entitled "Lewis on Early Roman History," in the
" Quarterly Review" for April, 1856; " Fraser's Magazine" for Feb
ruary, 1848.
Lewis, (JoiiN,) an English theologian and antiquary,
born at Bristol in 1675. He became curate of Margate
and rector of Saltwood and Eastbridge. Besides many
works on theology, he published a " History of John
Wickliff," (1720,) and a "Life of Caxton," (1737.) Died
in 1746.
Lewis, (JoH.\ FREDERICK,) an excellent English
painter, born in London in 1805, received instruction
from his father, F. C. Lewis, a landscape-painter. After
a visit to Spain, he produced about 1835 several admired
pictures in water-colours of Spanish scenes, among which
was a "Bull-Fight in Seville." Between 1840 and 1850
he worked and travelled in Egypt, Asia Minor, and other
parts of the Levant. After his return he increased his
reputation by excellent and finely-finished pictures of
"The Harem," (1850,) "An Arab Scribe," and "Mount
Sinai." He was elected president of the Society of
Painters in Water-Colours in 1855, and became an asso
ciate of the Royal Academy in 1859.
Lewis, (Lady MARIA THERESA,) an English novelist,
born in 1803, was a sister of the Earl of Clarendon. She
was married to Thomas Henry Lister in 1830, and to
Sir George Cornewall Lewis in 1844. She wrote novels
entitled "The Semi-Detached House" and "The Semi-
Attached Couple." Died in iS6v
Lewis, (MATTHEW GREGORY,) a successful English
novelist and dramatist, often called Monk Lewis, was
born in London in 1775. He inherited from his father
an ample fortune, which consisted partly in an estate
and slaves in Jamaica. About the age of twenty he
produced " The Monk," a novel which, by an artful com
bination of mysterious horrors and voluptuous images,
obtained a large circulation, but was stigmatized as per
nicious by the stricter moralists. He composed several
successful dramas, among which were " The Castle
Spectre," "Adelgitha," a tragedy, and "Timour the
Tartar," (1812.) He also wrote other romances and a
few poetical pieces. He died at sea, on a voyage from
Jamaica to England, in 1818.
See "Life and Correspondence of M. G. Lewis," London, 1839;
" Edinburgh Review" for January, 1803, (by SYDNEY SMITH.)
Lewis, ( MERIWETHER, ) an enterprising American
traveller, born in Virginia in 1774. He became private
secretary to President Jefferson about 1801, and was
soon after employed by the United States government,
conjointly with Captain Clarke, to explore the northwest
part of the American continent. They gave the names
of Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison to the three streams
which form the Missouri. They also explored the Co
lumbia River to its mouth. After his return, in 1806,
Captain Lewis was made Governor of Missouri Territory.
He committed suicide in 1809, in a fit of temporary in
sanity. One of the principal affluents of the Columbia
River was named in his honour. A " Memoir" of Cap
tain Lewis was written by Jefferson.
See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1815; "Edinburgh
Review" for February, 1815; "Monthly Review" for July, August,
and September, 1815.
Lewis, (MORGAN,) an American general and Gov
ernor, born in the city of New York in 1754, was a son
of Francis, noticed above. He served with distinction
in the Revolutionary war, at the end of which he had
the rank of colonel. In 1801 he became chief justice
of the supreme court of New York. He was Governor
of that State from 1805 to 1807, and commanded the
forces in New York in 1814, with the rank of major-
general. Died in 1844.
See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iii.
Lewis, (SAMUEL,) an American philanthropist, born
at Falmouth, Massachusetts, in 1799, settled in Ohio,
where he distinguished himself by his zeal in promoting
education and other reforms. Died in 1854.
Lewis, (TAYLER,) LL.D., a distinguished American
scholar and author, born in Saratoga county, New York,
in 1802, became professor of Greek in Union College
in 1849. Ue nas written several critical and theological
works, evincing much learning and ability.
See ALUBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Lewis, (WILLIAM,) an English chemist and physician,
who practised at Kingston, Surrey. He was a Fellow
of the Royal Society, and was employed to read lectures
on chemistry to the Prince of Wales at Kew. He pub
lished "An Experimental History of the MateriaMedica,"
(1760,) and other works. Died in 1781.
Ley or Leigh, lee, (Sir JAMES,) an English lawyer,
born in Wiltshire in 1552. He was appointed chief
justice of the court of king's bench in 1621, and lord
high treasurer in 1625. lie was afterwards created Earl
of Marlborough. Died in 1628. His "Reports of
Cases in the Courts of Westminster" were published.
See Foss, "The Judges of England."
Ley, (JOHN,) an English controversial writer, born at
Warwick in 1583. He was a partisan of the Parliament
in the civil war. Died in 1662.
Leyba, de, da la'e-na, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish
dramatic poet of the seventeenth century. His works
are highly commended.
Leybourn, la'burn, ? (WILLIAM,) an English mathe
matician, who was in his youth a printer in London.
He edited the works of Gunter, and published, besides
other works, "The Complete Surveyor," "Mathematical
Course," ("Cursus Mathematicns," 1690,) and "The
Trader's Guide," (1693.) He died about 1690.
Leydecker, li'dek'er, (MKi.nnoK,) a learned Dutch
Calvinist theologian, born at Middelburg in 1642. He
became professor of theology at Utrecht in 1678, and
published (in Latin) several esteemed works, among
which are a "History of the African Church," (1690,)
"On the Hebrew Republic," (1704,) and a treatise
against the philosophy of Descartes, called "The Torch
of Truth," ("Fax Veritatis.") Died in 1721.
Leyden, li'den, (JoHN,) M.D., a Scottish poet and
antiquary, eminent as an Oriental scholar, was born at
Denholm, on the Teviot, in 1775. At a college of Edin
burgh he studied the principal ancient and modern
languages. He afterwards studied medicine, and in
1802 went to Madras as an assistant surgeon in the
service of the East India Company. There he learned
Sanscrit, Persian, Hindostanee, and other Asiatic lan
guages. About 1806 he was appointed professor of
Hindostanee at Calcutta. He became assay-master of
the Calcutta Mint in 1810. He contributed to Scott's
" Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border," wrote other poetical
pieces, and published a treatise "On the Languages and
Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations." Died in Java
in 1811.
See SIR WALTER SCOTT, "Essay on the Life of Leyden," in
SCOTT'S Miscellaneous Works; and a Memoir by MOKTON pre
fixed to the " Poems of Leyden," 1819; CHAMBERS, "Biographical
Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Monthly Review" for July,
1822.
Leyden, (JOHN OF.) See JOHN OF LEYDEN.
Leyden, van, vtn li'den, (LUCAS,) [Fr. LUCAS DE
LEYDE, lii'kas' dehlid,| or LUCAS Dammesz, a cele
brated Dutch painter and engraver, born at Leyden in
1494. He received his first lessons in design from his
father, Hugh Jacobs or Jacobze, and at the age of twelve
painted in distemper a picture of Saint Hubert, which
was greatly admired. He painted, with equal success,
landscapes and portraits. As an engraver he excelled
in aerial perspective and chiaroscuro, and, according to
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LETNEZ
1421
VHQP1TAL
Vasari, surpassed Albert Dtirer in composition. "As a
painter," says the "Biographic Universelle," "he passes
for the greatest artist of the Flemish school in his time."
Among his master-pieces are a painting of the " Last
Judgment," an " Ecce Homo," dated 1510, an engraving
of " Mary Magdalene Dancing," and another called " Eu-
lenspiegel," of which, it is said, only five or six proofs
are extant. He was an intimate friend of Albert Diirer.
Died in 1533.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; DESCAMPS, "Viesdes
Peii.tres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Leynez. See LA INEZ.
Leys, Us or 1&, (JEAN AUGUSTE HENRI,) an eminent
Belgian historical painter, born at Antwerp in 1815. He
obtained one of the grand medals at the Exposition of
Paris in 1855, when he exhibited "The New Year in
Flanders," and other pictures.
Leyser, von, ton li'zer, (AucusriN,) an eminent
German jurist, born at Wittenberg in 1683. He pub
lished many legal works, the most important of which
is "Thoughts on the Pandects," ("Meditationes ad Pan-
dectas," u vols., 1717-47.) Died in 1752.
Leyser, von, written also Lyser, [Lat. LYSE'RUS,]
(Poi.YCARP,) a German Lutheran divine, was born in
Wurtemberg in 1552. He was appointed professor of
theology at Wittenberg in 1576. From 1594 until his
death he was the first preacher at the court of Dresden.
He published, besides other works, a continuation of
Chemnitz's " Harmonia Evangelica." Died in 1610.
Leyssens, lls'sens, (XIGOLAAS,) a Flemish painter,
born at Antwerp about 1660, worked with success in his
native city. Died in 1720.
Leyva, de, da la'e-va, or Leva, la'va, (ANTONIO,)
one of the ablest generals of the emperor Charles V.,
was born in Navarre about 1480. He fought at Ravenna
in 1512, and distinguished himself at Rebec in 1524.
He commanded in Pavia when it was besieged by Francis
I. His obstinate defence occasioned the battle of Pavia,
(1525,) during which he made a sortie, and, falling upon
the rear of the French, decided the fate of the day. In
1532 he was chosen generalissimo of the Italian league
against Francis I. He accompanied Charles V. in his
expedition against Tunis in 1535, and had the chief
direction of the army which invaded Provence in 1536.
He died of an epidemic in the same year.
See ROBERTSON, " History of Charles V."
Leyva, de, (JAGO,) a Spanish painter, born about
1580. He studied at Rome, and worked at Burgos.
Died in 1637.
Lezardiere, de, cleh la'ztk'dejuR', (MARIE CHAR
LOTTE PAULINE ROBERT,) a French female publicist,
born in La Vendee in 1754. She produced in 1791 a
work of some merit, entitled "Theory of the Political
Laws of the French Monarchy," reprinted in 4 vols.,
1844. Died in 1835.
Lezay-Marnesia, de, cleh leh-zi' ml Rn'zeJI/, (Ao-
RIEN,) COUNT, a French publicist, born near Orgelet
in 1770. He published a tract against the Constitution
of 1795, a work "On the Causes of the Revolution,"
(1797,) and other political treatises. He was prefect of
Strasbourg when he died, in 1814.
Lezay-Marnesia, de, (CLAUDE FRANCOIS ADRIEN,)
MARQUIS, the father of the preceding, was born at
Metz in 1735. He was a liberal member of the States-
General in 1789. He published, besides several prose
works, a poem of some merit, called "Essays on Rural
Nature," ("Essais sur la Nature champetre," 1787.)
Died in iSoo.
L'Heritier de Brutelle, la're'te-i' cleh bRii'te'l',
(CHARLES Louis,) a French botanist, was born in Paris
in 1746. He was admitted into the court of aids in 1775.
After the Revolution he was twice appointed a judge
of the civil tribunal of Paris. His principal works are
" New or Rare Plants," (" Stirpes novae aut minus cog-
nitae," 1784,) and " Sertum Anglicum," (1788,) a descrip
tion of plants in the royal garden of Kew, in England.
" His works," says Cuvier, " are prized throughout
Europe for the exactitude of the descriptions and the
finish of the plates." He left in manuscript a "Flora of
Peru," which he compiled from the notes and herbal of
Dombey. He was assassinated near his house in 1800.
Neither the author nor the motive of this crime was evtr
discovered.
See CUVIER, " FJoge de L'Heritier," in the " Me'moires de 1'Ins-
titut;" ''Xouvelle liiographie Generale."
L'Heritier de Villandon, la're'te-i' deh ve'lftN'-
d6N', (MARIE JEANNE,) a French authoress, born in
Paris in 1664, wrote in prose and verse. Died in 1734.
L'Heritier de Villandon, (NICOLAS,) a French
dramatic poet, father of the preceding, was born in Paris
about 1613; died in 1680.
L'Hermite, leR'met', (FRANgois,) a popular French
poet and dramatist, known under the name of TRISTAN,
was born in La Marche in 1601. He was admitted into
the French Academy in 1649. Died in 1655.
L'Homondor Lhomond, IO'IDON', (CHARLES FRAN
COIS,) a French teacher, born at Chaulnes in 1727, was
a professor in the University of Paris. He was a friend
of the eminent Haiiy, whose first scientific efforts he
directed. He published two elementary works which
are used in many schools of France, England, and
America, viz., " Viri Romae," and " Epitome of Sacred
History," ("Epitome Historiae Sacrae.") Died in 1794.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire."
L'Hopital, de, deh IS'pe'ta"!', (FRANC.OIS,) Comte de
Rosnay, a marshal of France, born in 1583, was a brother
of Marshal de Vitry. As lieutenant-general, he com
manded in Lorraine, where he gained several victories
between 1638 and 1642. He received a marshal's baton
in 1643, anc' was selected to advise the young Prince of
Conde, who had just taken command of the army in
Flanders. Against the orders of the ministry and the
advice of L'Hopital, Conde risked a battle at Rocroy
in 1643, and gained a victory over the Spaniards. Died
in 1660.
See DE COURCEI.I.ES, " Dictionnaire des Gene'raux Fran<jais."
L'Hopital or L'Hospital, de, (GUILLAUME FRANC.OIS
ANTOINE,) Marquis de Saint-Mesme and Count d'En-
tremont, a distinguished French geometer, was born in
Paris in 1661. At the age of fifteen he is said to have
been a profound mathematician. In early life he was
forced to renounce the military profession by the weak
ness of his sight. In 1692 he learned from John Ber
noulli the new geometry which Leibnitz had discovered.
He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences about
1694. In 1696 Bernoulli challenged the geometers of
Europe to a trial of skill in the problem of the brachys-
tochron, — i.e. line or curve of quickest descent. At the
expiration of the stated time (ten months) solutions were
furnished by only four persons, — Newton, Leibnitz,
L'Hopital, and James Bernoulli. The result was the
paradoxical cycloid. In 1696 he published "Analyse des
infiniment petits," ("Analysis of Infinitesimals,") which,
being the first work adapted to initiate students in the
mysteries of the infinitesimal calculus of Leibnitz, was
received with great eagerness and marked the epoch of
a revolution in the science. He died in 1704. His post
humous work, "Analytic Treatise on Conic Sections,"
(1707,) had a high reputation.
See FONTENELLE, " FJoge du Marquis de L'Hopital;" MON-
TUCI.A, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" "Acta Eruditorum," 1721.
L'Hopital or L'Hospital, de, (MiCHEL,) Chancellor
of France, an illustrious legislator and statesman, was
born at Aigueperse, in Auvergne, in 1505. His father,
Jean, was physician to Constable Bourbon, to whom he
adhered in his defection from the service of Francis I.
to that of Charles V '. He studied law at Padua for six
years, and about 1534 settled in Paris. Three years later,
Morin, lieutenant-criminel, gave him his daughter, and the
office of counsellor to the Parliament as her dowry. His
promotion was hindered by the connection of his father
with the defection of Bourbon, and by his own modesty ;
but he at last found a patron in Chancellor Olivier, and
was appointed ambassador to the Council of Trent in
1547. About 1554 he was chosen by Henry II. superin
tendent of the finances, in the management of which he
made important reforms. In 1560 the regent Catherine
de Medicis appointed him chancellor of France. On his
arrival at court he found that the chiefs of the house of
Guise had resolved to establish the Inquisition and to
ruin the Protestants. He defeated the first project, and
opposed the other with partial success. He caused the
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, \a,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; %h as in this. (E^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
UHQP1TAL
1422
L1BERWS
States-General to be convoked at Orleans in December,
1560, and obtained edicts favourable to liberty or tolera
tion. But, in spite of his mediatorial efforts, the war
between Catholics and Protestants began in 1562. His
advice was no longer listened to at court, and he was
removed from office in 1568. He was at his country-
seat at Vignay during the Massacre of Saint Bartholo
mew, and his life was spared through the mediation of a
lady at court. He died in 1573, leaving a name greatly
venerated for wisdom and integrity. As a statesman
and legislator he holds a high rank. His political prin
ciples are announced in a Latin poem, (composed on
occasion of the coronation of Francis II.,) which was
much admired. He wrote other elegant Latin poems
and discourses, which have been published.
See M. VII.I.EMAIN, "Vie de L'Hopital," in his " fitudes d'His-
toiremoderne;" LEVF;SQUK DE POUILLY, "Vie de Michel de L1 Hospi
tal," 1764; CHARLES BUTLER, "Essay on the Life of M. de L'Hopi
tal," 1814; BAYLH, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" DE THOU,
"Historia sui Temporis;" M. CRESSON, " l?loge lu'storique de M.
de L'HSpita'," 1850; TAILLANDIER'S article in the " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Genera'e."
L'Hdpital, de, (MICHEL HURAUI.T,) Seigneur de
Belesbat, was a grandson of the preceding. He was
chancellor of Henry of Navarre before the latter became
King of France, (1589.) He was also employed by Henry
as ambassador to Holland and Germany, and wrote two
able political treatises "On the State of France," (1588-
93.) Died in 1592.
L'Hote or Lhdte, lot, (NESTOR,) an artist and anti
quary, born of French parents at Cologne in 1804. He
was a member of the commission sent in 1828 to ex
plore Egypt under the direction of Champollion, who
employed him as draughtsman. In 1838 he made fur
ther explorations and illustrations of Egypt, for the
purpose of rendering more complete Champollion's
posthumous work on the monuments of that country.
Died in Paris in 1842.
Lhoyd, loid, written also Lhuyd and Llwyd,
(HUMPHRY,) a learned British antiquary, was born at
Denbigh, in Wales. He wrote a " History of Cambria
from Caradoc," " On Mona, the Island of the Druids,"
(" De Mona Druidum Insula,") and other works. Died
about 1570.
See WOOD, " Athens Oxonienses."
Lhuyd, commonly pronounced loid, (EnwARD,) an
eminent Welsh antiquary, born in Carmarthenshire
about 1665. He became keeper of the Ashmolean Mu
seum in 1690. He published a catalogue of the figured
fossils of the Ashmolean Museum, called " Lythophylacii
Britannic! Iconographia," (1699,) and a treatise on
British antiquities, " Archasologia Britannica," (1707.)
Died in 1709.
Liadieres, le't'de^aJR', (PIERRE CHARLES,) a French
litterateur, born at Pan in 1792. He composed several
dramas, and other mediocre works in prose and verse.
Died in 1858.
Liais, le'.V, (EMMANUEL,) a French astronomer, born
at Cherbourg in 1826. He was appointed an assistant
in the Observatory of Paris in 1852.
Liancourt, de, cleh le'SN'kooR', (JEANNE DE SCHOM-
BERG,) DUCHESS, a French lady, distinguished for her
talents and piety, born in 1600, was the daughter of
Henri de Schomberg, marshal of France. She became
the wife of the Due de Liancourt. Her house was
frequented by Pascal, Arnauld, and other recluses of
Port-Royal. Died in 1674.
See J. J. BOILEAU, " Vie de Madame de Liancourt," 1698.
Liano, da, da le-a'no, (TEonoRO FELIPE,) a Spanish
painter, born at Madrid in 1575, excelled in miniatures,
and was surnamed THE LITTLE TITIAN. He was a
friend of Lope de Vega. Died in 1625.
Liard, le'ta', an eminent French engineer, bom in
Lorraine in 1747. His principal work is the important
canal which connects the Rhine with the Rhone. It was
commenced about 1805 and completed in 1832. Died
in 1832.
Liban, lee'ban, [Lat. LIBA'NIUS,] (GEORGE,) a Polish
classical scholar, born at Liegnitz in 1490. He taught
Greek at Cracow. Died in 1550.
Libanius. See LIBAN.
Li-ba'iii-us, [ Gr. At&ivtoc, ] a celebrated heathen
sophist and rhetorician, born at Antioch in 314 A.D. He
studied with Diophantes of Athens and others. After
he had taught rhetoric for several years at Constanti
nople and Athens with success, he settled in 354 at An
tioch, where he opened a school, which became very
celebrated. Among his pupils were Saint Basil and
Saint Chrysostom. He accepted the office of quaestor
from the emperor Julian, who was his friend and ad
mirer. He died probably about 390 A. IX, leaving many
works, which are still extant, and display a brilliant
imagination. They consist chiefly of declamations on
events of Greek history, and have been designated by
Gibbon as "the vain and idle compositions of an orator
who cultivated the science of words." But this is re
garded by other eminent critics as too harsh a judgment.
See his Autobiography, entitled Bios 17 Aoyos irepi TTJ? eavTou
riixi? ; KUNAPIUS, "Vita; Sophistarum ;" KABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca
Graeca ;" J. G. BBKGBR, " De Libanio Disputationes sex," 1696:
C. PETERSEN, " Cotnmentatio de Libanio Sophista," 1827; "Nou
velle Biographic Gihierale."
Libavius, le-ba've-us, (ANDREAS,) a German physi
cian and chemist, born at Halle. He was chosen rector
of the gymnasium of Coburg in 1605. He gained repu
tation by works on chemistry, in which he endeavoured
to refute the reveries of Paracelsus. His " Alchymia
recognita emendata et aucta" (1597) was the best manual
of chemistry which had appeared at that time. Died
in 1616.
See FREIIER, "Theatrum Eruditorum ;" LINDEN, "De Scriptori-
bus Medicis."
Libelt, lee'belt, (KAROL,) an able Polish writer on
philosophy and politics, was born at Posen in 1806. He
fought with distinction against the Russians in the Polish
insurrection which began in 1830. For his share in a
democratic conspiracy he was imprisoned at Berlin in
1846, but was released by the revolution of 1848. Soon
after his release he was chosen a member of the Slavonic
congress of Prague. While a prisoner in Berlin 'in 1847
he wrote "The Maid of Orleans." Among his works
are excellent philosophical and critical essays, " Filo-
zofia i Krytyka," (1845-50.)
See BROCKIIAUS, " Conversations Lexikon."
Ll'ber, a name applied by the Romans to the Bac
chus or Dionysus of the Greek mythology. Liber was
an ancient Italian divinity. See BACCHUS.
Lib'e-ra, in the Roman mythology, was the wife of
Liber, and' was supposed to preside over the culti
vation of the vine. She was sometimes identified with
Proserpine.
Liberale da Verona, le-ba-ra'la da va-ro'na, a
painter of the Venetian school, born at Verona in 1451.
He was one of the most excellent artists of his country
at that time. His painting of the "Epiphany" is said
to be still visible at Verona. Died in 1536.
Lib-er-a'tus, a deacon of the Church of Carthage.
He was sent to Rome about 535 by a council of African
bishops.
Libere. See LIBERIUS.
Liberi, lee'ba-ree, (PiKTRO,) CAVALIERE, an eminent
Italian painter, surnamed LIBERTINO, (le-be~R-tee'no,)
born at Padua in 1605, was a pupil of Padovanino. lie
pursued his studies in Rome, Parma, Venice, etc., and
formed a style in which the characteristics of several
schools were united. " He was regarded," says the " Bio
graphic Universelle," "as the most skilful draftsman of
the Venetian school." Among his master-pieces are
the " Massacre of the Innocents," at Venice, "The Gene
ral Deluge," " Noah coming out of the Ark," " The Judg
ment of Paris," and several pictures of Venus nude. His
style was sometimes grand and sometimes graceful. It
is said that when he worked for connoisseurs his manner
was bold and free, but for other patrons he finished his
work with much care and precision. Died in 1687.
See GUAI.DO PRIOR ATO, "Vita del Cavnliere P. Liberi," 1818;
RIOOLFI. "Vite dei Pittori Veneti ;" WINCKELMANN, " Neues
Mahler-Lexikon."
Li-be'ri-us, [Fr. LIBERE, le'baiR'; It. LIKF.RIO, le-
ba're-o,] a native of Rome, was elected pope in 352
or 353 A.D., and succeeded Julius I. He favoured the
orthodox in the controversy with the Arians ; and, the
Council of Milan having condemned Athanasius in 355,
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LIBERT AS
M23
LICHTWER
he refused to sanction that act. For this cause he was
banished by the emperor Constantius to Bercea. After
an exile of two years, he recovered his see in 358,
by signing the formula of Sirmium, a modification of
Arianism. He refused to subscribe the confession of
the Council of Rimini, (359,) where the Arians again
prevailed. He died in 366 A.D., and was succeeded
by Damasus I.
See BARONIUS, "Annales;" LARKOQUE, "Dissertatio de Liberio
Romano," 1670.
Lib'er-tas, [Fr. LIBKRTE, le'beVta',] the goddess of
liberty worshipped by the ancient Romans. She was
represented as a matron, holding in one hand a broken
sceptre and in the other a pike surmounted by a cap,
(f ileus.)
Liberte. See LIHERTAS.
Libertine. See LIKERI.
Libes, lib, (ANTOINK,) a French savant, born at
Be'ziers in 1752. For many years he taught the physi
cal sciences in the College Charlemagne, Paris. 'He
discovered that pressure is one of the elements of the
intensity of electric tension developed by contact, and
published, besides other works, "The Physical and
the Moral World," (1815.) Died in 1832.
Li-beth'ri-des, [Gr. A«(?//0/j/Jef,| a name of the Muses,
which they derived from Mount Libethrius, or from a
well called Libethra, in Thrace. (See MUS/E.)
Lib-I-ti'iia, [Fr. LIBITINE, le'be'ten',] a Roman god
dess, supposed to preside over funerals. All things
needful for funerals were kept for sale in her temple.
The business of an undertaker was also called libitina.
Libitiiie. See LIBITINA.
Li'bon or Li'bo, [Gr. Ai6uv,] a Greek architect, a
native of Elis, flourished about 450 B.C. He built near
Pisa or Olympia, in the Doric style, the magnificent
temple of Olympian Jove, 245 feet long by 100 wide. In
the vicinity of this the Olympic games were celebrated,
and the master-pieces of art were accumulated for many
ages. It contained a celebrated statue of Jupiter by
Phidias.
See QUATREMERE DE QuiNCY, "Jupiter Olympian."
Libri, dai, da-e lee'bRee, (GIROLAMO,) a Venetian
painter and illuminator, born at Verona in 1472, was one
of the most skilful artists of his time. Among his works
are a " Deposition from the Cross," and " The Expulsion
of Adam and Eve from Eden." He painted many books
for the Church, and excelled in miniature. Died in 15^5.
His son FRANCESCO was a promising painter, who
died young.
Libri-Carrucci, lee'bRee kar-root/chee, (GUILLAUME
BRUTUS ICILIUS TIMOI.EON,) COUNT, an Italian mathe
matician, born at Florence in 1803. He became a pro
fessor of mathematics at Pisa in 1823, and emigrated to
France in 1830. Having been naturalized as a French
citizen, he was admitted into the Institute in 1833, and
was appointed inspector-general of the libraries of
France. On a false charge of purloining books of great
value from the public libraries, he was condemned in
1850 to imprisonment for ten years; but he had pre
viously escaped to London. His principal work is a
" History of Mathematical Sciences in Italy," (4 vols.,
1838-41,) which is highly commended. Died in 1869.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Liburnio, le-booR'ne-o, (NiCCOiA) an Italian gram
marian, born at Venice in 1474, became a canon of San
Marco, in that city. Died in 1557.
Liceti, le-cha'tee, or Liceto, le-cha'to, (FORTUNIO,)
an Italian physician and professor, famous in his time
as a Peripatetic philosopher, was born at Rapallo, near
Genoa, in 1577- He became professor of philosophy at
Padua in 1609, and professor of medicine in 1645. He
published a treatise on the nature of monsters, (1616,)
and other works, the majority of which are now justly
neglected. lie had more erudition than judgment.
Died in 1657.
See BAYI.K, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
" Memoires."
Lichnowsky, von, fon h'K-nov'skee, (£DUARD MA
RIA,) PRINCE, a German historian, born in 1789. He
wrote a " History of the House of Hapsburg," (4 vols.,
1836-44,) which is commended. Died in 1845.
Lichnowsky, von, (FELIX,) PRINCE, a Prussian
general, son of the preceding, was born in 1814. He
fought for Don Carlos in Spain about 1839. In German
politics he was a conservative or absolutist. He was
killed by a mob at Frankfort in 1848.
See KOSTI.IN, "Auerswald und Lichnowsky," 1853.
Lichteiiau, von, fon liK'teh-now', (WILHELMINE
ENKK,) COUNTESS, born at Potsdam in 1754, was the
daughter of a poor musician. She became the mistress
of the crown -prince of Prussia, Frederick William.
kAfter his accession to the throne, in 1786, she was a
powerful and influential person until the death of the
king. Died in 1820.
See her "Autobiographic Memoirs," 1808.
^ Lichtenberg, liK'ten-beur/, (GEORG CHRISTOPH,) a
German savant and witty author, born near Darmstadt
in July, 1742. He studied at Gottingen, and made great
progress in nearly all departments of knowledge. In
1770 he was appointed professor of philosophy and exact
sciences at Gottingen. He visited England, where he
associated with the most eminent literati. He wrote
excellent scientific articles for two periodicals of Gottin
gen, — "The Magazine of Science and Literature," (1780-
85,) and "The Almanac," (1778-99,) which owed their
great success chiefly to him. The charms of his style
contributed greatly to the diffusion of a taste for the
sciences. He particularly excelled in what in English
is called "humour." Among his most popular works is
his "Ample Commentary on the Engravings of Hogarth,"
which he began to publish in 1794, and left unfinished
at his death. It abounds in wit and satire, and displays
much insight into human nature. His autobiography is
said to be the most candid and piquant ever written.
Died at Gottingen in 1799. " He is," says Stapfer, "gay
without the least trace of levity, versatile and profound
without ceasing to be solid and clear." (" Biographic
Universelle.")
See his Autobiography, in an edition of his works, Gottingen, 9
vols., 1800-1806; " Elogium Lichtenbergii," by KASTNER, 1799;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" HKINRICH DOKING, " Lebens-
umrisse von Karl August von Sachsen-Weimar, J. D. Falk, Lich-
teiibeip," etc., 1840; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1804;
" Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1836.
Liechtenstein, liK'ten-stln', ( MARTIN HEINRICH
KARI.,) a German physician and naturalist, born at
Hamburg in 1780. About 1802 he became physician
to the Governor of Cape Colony, Africa, and in 1810
published "Travels in Southern Africa," (2 vols.,) a
valuable contribution to natural history. In 1813 he
was appointed director of the Zoological Museum of
Berlin, which, under his care, became one of the largest
in Europe. His favourite pursuit was ornithology. Died
in 1857.
See CALLISEN, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon," (Supple
ment.)
Liechtenstein, von, fon liK'ten-stln', QOHANN JO
SEPH,) PRINCE, a general, the head of one of the most
noble families of Austria, was born in Vienna in 1760.
After serving in several campaigns against the French,
he negotiated the conditions of peace at Presburg in
1805. He distinguished himself at Essling and Wagram
in 1809. Died in 1836.
Liechtenstein, von, (JOSEPH WENZEL,) PRINCE, an
Austrian general, born in Vienna in 1696. His services
in the campaigns of 1733 aiic' !734 were rewarded with
the rank of lieutenant-general. Having been made field-
marshal, he commanded the army in Italy in 1746, and
ained a victory at Piacenza. He was afterwards em
ployed with success in diplomatic affairs. Died in 1772.
Liechtenstein, von, (Ui.Ric,) one of the early Ger
man poets, was born about 1199. His principal poem,
entitled " Frauendienst," though possessing no great
literary merit, is a valuable monument of the manners
of that time. Died about 1275.
Lichtwer, llKt'wer, (MAGNUS GOTTFRIED,) one of
the most popular German fabulists, was born at "\Vurzen
n 1719. He published the first edition of his "Fables"
n 1748, and in the next year removed from Wittenberg
to Halberstadt, where he obtained a canonicate. In
1758 he produced another edition of the "Fables." The
German critics rank him as a fabulist with Lessing and
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; %h as in this. (2^==See Explanations, p. 23.)
LIC IN I A
1424
L1EBIG
Gellert, whom perhaps he surpasses in piquancy of
style and talent for narration. Died in 1783.
See EICHHOI.Z, " Lichtwer's Leben," 1784; HIRSCHING, "His-
torisch-literarisches Handbucli."
Li-ciii'i-a, (or li-sin'e-a,) the name of the wife ot C.
Gracchus. Also the name of the wife of Maecenas, said
to have been distinguished for her conjugal tenderness.
Li-cin-I-a'iius Gra'nI-us, a Roman historian, who
lived probably in the first century n.C. In 1853 Mr.
Pertz, of Berlin, discovered a portion of his " Annals"
among some Syriac manuscripts brought from the desert,
of Nitria in 1847.
Licinio, le-chee'ne-o, (BERNARDINO,) a painter of the
Venetian school, born at Pordenone, was one of the best
pupils of Pordenone, who was his relative. Me painted
portraits and Madonnas. He was living in 1540.
Licinio, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO.) See PORDENONE.
Licinio, (Giui.io,) called n. ROMANO, (el ro-ma'no,)
an Italian painter, born about 1500, was a nephew of
Pordenone. Died at Augsburg in 1561.
Li-ciii'I-us, (or le-siu'e-us,) (Fi.Avius VALERIUS,)
(called by some writers Pub'lius Fla'vius Gale'rius
Valeria'nus Licinia'nus,) a Roman emperor, born in
Dacia about 263 A.ix, was originally a peasant. He rose
to the rank of general in the army, and gained the favour
of Galerius, who in 307 made him a partner in the
empire, with the title of Augustus. In 313 he married
Constantia, sister of Constantine the Great, and, having
defeated Maximin, became master of all the Eastern
provinces. A war soon ensued between him and Con
stantine, which ended in the complete defeat of Licinius
at Chalcedon, near Byzantium, in 323. He was put to
death by order of the victor in 324 A.D. He was noto
rious for cruelty and other vices.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Li-cin'i-us Cal'vus, (C/\ius,) an eminent Roman
orator and poet, son of C. Licinius Macer, was born in
82 li.C. Cicero thought his style was too laboured, but
admitted that he had wit, judgment, and much learning.
His style was eulogized by Quintilian as grave, chaste,
and sometimes vehement. As a poet he was usually
ranked with Catullus, and was very popular. His works
are all lost except fragments of his poems, which con
sisted of elegies and epigrams or lampoons. He died
about the age of thirty-five.
See WEICHERT, " De C. Licinio Calvo Oratore et Poeta," 1825 ;
PLINV, " Natural History," vii. and xxxiv.
Licinius Macer. See MACER.
Li-ciii'i-us Sto'lo, or, more fully, Ca'ius Licin'ius
Cal'vus Sto'lo, a Roman legislator, of plebeian family,
who effected important changes in the constitution of
Rome. In 375 B.C., he and his friend L. Sextius La-
teranus were chosen tribunes of the people, and pro
posed the enactment of these laws : 1st. That in future
one of the two consuls chosen annually should be a ple
beian, and that no more military tribunes should be
appointed ; 2d. That no citizen should possess more
than five hundred acres (jugcra) of public land. These
innovations were strenuously resisted by the patricians
for about ten years, a period of anarchy, during which
Camillus was chosen dictator. The land in question
had been acquired by conquest, and had been appro
priated by the patricians. The laws above named were
passed in 366, and Licinius was elected consul in 364
B.C. He was re-elected in 360, and was fined ten thou
sand asses in 356 for the violation of his own agrarian
law.
See NIEBUHR, " History of Rome ;" LIVY, "History of Rome,"
books vi. and vii. ; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale. "
Li-ci'nus Por'cius, (por'she-us,) a Roman poet, men
tioned by Aulus Gellius, lived about 120 B.C.
Licquet, le'ki', (FRANC.OIS ISIDORE,) a French litte
rateur, l>orn at Caudebec, Normandy, in 1787. He wrote,
besides several dramas, a "History of Normandy," (2
vols., 1835,) a work of merit, which was completed by
Depping. Died in 1835.
Lid'del, (DUNCAN,) a Scottish physician and mathe
matician, born at Aberdeen in 1561. He became pro
fessor of mathematics at Helmstedt in 1591, after which
he was first physician at the court of Brunswick. Having
returned to Scotland in 1607, he founded a professorship
at Aberdeen. He was author of several medical works,
one of which is called " Ars Meclica," (1607.) Died in
1613.
See STUART, "Life of Duncan Liddel," 1790; CHAMBERS, " Bio
graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Lid'dell, (Rev. HENRY GEORGE,) an English scholar,
born in 1812. He became chaplain to the prince-consort
about 1845, and Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1855.
He produced, in conjunction with Mr. Scott, an excel
lent "Greek-English Lexicon," (1843,) on tne basis of
the Greek-German Lexicon of Passow, and wrote a
" History of Rome."
Liddell, (Sir JOHN,) F.R.S., a British physician, born
at Dumblane in 1794. He served as surgeon in the royal
navy, was knighted in 1850, and was appointed director-
general of the medical department of the royal navy
about 1854. In 1859 he became honorary physician to
Queen Victoria.
Liden, le-diin', (JoHAN HENRIK,) a Swedish writer,
born at LJnkoping in 1741, was struck in the prime of
life with palsy, which deprived him of the use of his
limbs. He composed a " History of Swedish Poets,"
and several literary memoirs. Died in 1793.
See WAI.LIN, " Amiimelse-Tal ofver J. H. Liden," 1797.
Lidner, lid'ner, (BENGT,) a Swedish poet, born in
1759, resided some time in Paris. His chief work, "The
Countess Spastara," is commended for eloquence and
pathos. Died in 1793.
Lidskialf, (Hlidskialf.) See ODIN.
Liebault, le'a'bS', (JEAN,) a French writer on medi
cine and agriculture, born at Dijon about 1535; died in
1596.
Liebe, lee'beh, (CHRISTIAN SIGISMOND,) a German
numismatist, born in Misnia iu 1687. He was a large
contributor to the " Acta Eruditorum." Died in 1736.
Lieber, lee'ber, (FRANCIS,) a German historical and
political writer of distinguished ability, born at Berlin,
March 18, 1800. He served against the French in 1815,
and was present at the battles of Ligny and Waterloo.
Being imprisoned some years after for his liberal opinions,
he was released through the influence of Niebuhr, and
sought refuge in 1827 in the United States. In 1829 he
edited the " Encyclopaedia Americana," (13 vols.,) taking
for its basis Brockhaus's " Conversations-Lexikon," (pub
lished at Leipsic, in Germany.) He was appointed in 1835
professor of history in Columbia College, in South Caro
lina, which position he held until 1856. He afterwards
became professor of the law of nations and constitutional
law in the same institution. Among his numerous and
popular works are a " Manual of Political Ethics,"
(1838,) "Laws of Property: Essays on Property and
Labour," (1842,) "Civil Liberty and Self-Government,"
(2 vols., 1853,) and " Reminiscences of Niebuhr the
Historian."
See AI.LIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors;" DUVCKINCK, " Cyclo
paedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; " North American Review"
for January, 1832.
Lieber, (THOMAS.) See ERASTUS.
Lieberkuhn, lee'ber-koon', (JOHANN NATHANIEL,) a
German anatomist, born at Berlin in 1711, practised in
that city. He was very skilful in the art of injections.
He was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of Lon
don. Died in 1756.
Liebhard. See CAMFRARIUS, (JOACHIM.)
Liebig, von, fon lee'bio, (JUSTUS,) BARON, one of the
greatest chemists of the present century, was born at
Darmstadt, in Germany, in May, 1803. He entered the
University of Bonn in 1819, and in 1822 went to Paris,
\\here he became acquainted with Humboldt and Gay-
Lussac. Favoured by the influence of Humboldt, Liebig
obtained in 1824 the appointment of professor of chem
istry in the University of Giessen. He founded there
the first model laboratory of Germany, which became
very celebrated and made that university the central
point of attraction to the chemical students of Europe.
Although his services have been great in every depart
ment of chemical science, he owes his celebrity chiefly
to his discoveries in organic chemistry. He produced
in 1840 an important work entitled "Organic Chem
istry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology,"
("Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
LIEBKNECHT
142,
LIGQNIER
Agricultur und Physiologic.") His principal works,
besides the above, are "Animal Chemistry, or Chemistry
in its Application to Physiology and Pathology," (1842,)
"Researches on the Chemistry of Food," (1849,) and
a "Dictionary of Chemistry," (5 vol.s., 1837-51,) in
which he was assisted by Wohler. He received the title
of baron in 1845, am' accepted the chair of chemistry
at Munich in 1852. In 1848 Liebig and Professor
Kopp began to issue an annual report on the progress
of chemistry. His "Familiar Letters on Chemistry"
(1844) are much admired, and are well adapted to
render the science popular. His principal works above
named have been translated into English and French.
See CALI.ISEX, " Medicinisches Schriftstelier-Lexikon ;" " Nou-
velle Hiopraphie Generate ;" " London Quarter, y Review" for June,
1^42; "North American Review" for July, 1X41, April, 1842,3110!
October, 1842.
Liebknecht, leep'kneKt', (JoiiAXN GF.ORG,) a Ger
man antiquary, born at Wassungen about 1680, wrote,
besides other works, " Discourse on the Great Deluge,"
(" Discursus de Diluvio Maximo," 1704.) Died in 1749.
Liemaecker or Liemaker, lee'ma'ker, (\IKOI.AAS,)
a skilful Flemish painter, surnamed KUOSK, was born at
Ghent in 1575, and was a friend of Rubens. Among his
works, which are mostly of large dimensions, are "The
Last Judgment," and "The Transfiguration." Died in
1646.
Lieoo- (or Lieou-) Pang, le-oo' pang, a Chinese
emperor, the founder of the dynasty of I Ian, was born
about 250 li.c. He was proclaimed emperor in 202.
One of his generals, named King-Poo, having revolted,
a battle was fought, in which Lieoo- Pang gained the vic
tory, but received a wound of which he died in 195 l!.C.
Lieutaud, le-uh'to', (JoSKPH,) a skilful French physi
cian, born in 1703, at Aix, in Provence. He was elected
to the Academy of Sciences in 1752. In 1774 he was
appointed first physician to Louis XVI. He published,
besides other professional works, " Synopsis of Univer
sal Medical Practice," ("Synopsis Universse Praxeos
Medicoc," 1765,) a work of much merit. Died in 1780.
See CONDORCET, " filoge de Lieutaud," 1780; LASSERVOLLE,
" filojre historique de M. Lieutaud," 1781; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Lieven, de, deh lee'ven, (DOROTHEA,) PRINCESS, a
Russian lady, of German extraction, celebrated for her
diplomatic talents and political intrigues, was born in
1784. Her maiden name was BKNKKXDORF. She went
to London about 1812 with her husband, who was
Russian ambassador at that court, and acquired much
influence by her conversational powers. After 1838
she resided in Paris, where her salon was frequented by
many diplomatists, statesmen, etc. She was often called
the " Egeria of Guizot." Died in 1857.
Lieven, von, ton lee'ven, (JoHAN HKNRIK,) COUNT,
a Swedish general, born in Livonia in 1670. After the
defeat of Charles at Pultowa, in 1709, Lieven was sent
by the council of regency on a mission to that king,
then in Turkey. Died in 1733.
Lievens, lee'vens, (J.\x,) |Lat. JOHAN'NES LIVINE'-
IUS,] a Flemish Hellenist, born about 1546. He was
canon of Antwerp. He edited and translated some works
of Chrysostom and Gregory of Nyssa. Died in 1599.
See PAQVOT, " Memoires."
Lievens or Livens, (J.\N,) an eminent Dutch painter
and engraver, born at Leyden in 1607. About 1630 he
went to England, and painted portraits of the royal
family. He afterwards worked at Antwerp, chiefly on
historical subjects, and acquired a high reputation. As an
engraver he is said to rival Rembrandt. Died in 1663.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peir.tres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Ligario, le-ga're-o, (PiETRO,) an Italian painter, born
in the Yaltellina in 1086; died in 1752.
Li-ga'rI-us, (QUIXTUS,) a Roman officer, who fought
for P( mpey in the civil war, and after the battle of Phar-
salia renewed the war against Caesar in Africa. He was
pardoned by the victor, but was forbidden to enter Italy.
"When his friends made efforts to restore him to citizen
ship, they were opposed by Ttibero, who became his
public accuser in a trial before the dictator, in 45 or 46
B.C. On this occasion Cicero pronounced his admirable
oration "Pro Ligario." Plutarch informs us that Caesar
had resolved to condemn Ligarius, but that in the
course of the speech his colour often changed, his frame
trembled, and a verdict of acquittal was obtained from
him through the transcendent powers of the orator.
See PLUTARCH, "Life of Cicero."
Liger, le'zha', (Louis,) a French writer on agricul
ture, born at Auxerre in 1658. He published several
mediocre but useful works. Died in 1717.
Light'foot, (Joiix,) an English divine, eminent as a
biblical commentator, was born in Staffordshire in 1602.
He was an excellent Hebrew scholar. In 1630 he be
came rector of Ashley, and in 1642 obtained the living of
Saint Bartholomew, in London. He was identified with
the Presbyterians during the civil war. About 1644
he was chosen master of Catherine Hall, Cambridge,
and was presented to the living of Great Munden. In
Rabbinical literature he had few, if any, superiors. He
published " Horse Hebraicae et Talmudicae," (1658,) and
many Latin commentaries on the Scriptures, one of
which is called " Harmony of the Four Evangelists,"
(1644-50.) Died in 1675.
See " Brevis Descriptio Vitae J. Lightfooti," 1699; NICERON,
" Memoires."
Lightfoot, (JoHN,) F.R.S., an English botanist, born
in Gloucestershire in 1735. He was educated for the
church, became chaplain to 'the Duchess of Portland,
and obtained the livings of Sheldon and Gotham. In
company with Pennant, he explored the Hebrides about
1772, and published in 1777 a valuable ''Flora of Scot
land," (" Flora Scotica," 2 vols.,) with excellent figures.
His herbal was purchased by the king, and was after
wards consulted with profit by Sir J. E. Smith. Died
in 1788.
See PENNANT, "Life of J. Lightfoot."
Lignac.de, deh len'yik', (JOSEPH Amu EN LE LARGE,)
a French abbe and author, born of a noble family of
Poitiers. He wrote " Letters to an American on Bnffon's
Natural History," (1751-56, 4 vols.,) and a few other
works. Died in 1762.
Ligue, de, deh len, (KARi. JOSEPH,) PRINCE, an able
Austrian general and witty author, born at Brussels,
May 12, 1735, was the son of a field-marshal in the Aus
trian service. He served with distinction in the Seven
Years' war, (1755-62,) and was made a general-major in
1765. In 1782 he was ambassador to Russia, and was
highly favoured by Catherine II. He commanded a
corps at the capture of Belgrade in 1789. He obtained
the rank of field-marshal in 1808. His generous and
chivalrous character rendered him the idol of his army.
He died at Vienna in 1814, leaving interesting memoirs,
letters, and other works, (in French,) which contain
curious anecdotes and piquant passages. Madame de
Stael published in 1809 a volume of "Letters and
Thoughts of Prince de Ligne." He had published
"Military, Literary, and Sentimental Miscellanies,"
("Melanges militaires, litteraires et sentimentaires,"
34 vols., 1795-1811.) According to Madame de Stael,
" he was the only foreigner that became a model in the
French style, instead of an imitator."
See " I etters and Reflections of the Austrian Field-M.irshal
Prince de Ligne ;" SOUBIRAN, " Biographic tin Prince C. de Li.nne,"
1807; SAINTE-HEUVE, "Causeries du Lundi ;" " Xouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Ligniville, de, deh len'ye'vel', (RENE CIIAKI.KS ELI
SABETH,) COMTE, a French general, born in 1/57; died
in 1813.
Lignon, len'y6Nr, (firiENNE FREDERIC,) a French
engraver, born in Paris in 1779; died in 1833.
Lig'on, ? (RICHARD,) an English traveller, who emi
grated to Barbadoes in 1647 and returned to England
in 1650. He published "A True and Exact History
of Barbadoes," a work of some value. He was the
overseer of the female slave Yarico, whose story is
narrated in his book and furnished Steele a subject for
the eleventh number of the " Spectator."
Ligonier, lig'o-neer', (JoHN,) EARI., an eminent gene
ral of the British army, was born of Protestant parents in
France in 1678, and emigrated to England in early youth.
He fought at Blenheim, (1 704,) Ramillies, and Malplaquet,
(1709,) and commanded the infantry at Fontenoy, (1745.)
In 1746 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the
l/jallvrll A l\J A^J^ttl 1U. £IUl«Ul*ll llJ»V-MUlr> US LiJttL V*cC5-<U ill 1 /^O 1IC >\ as appUIIIlVU V.UIllllltllH.H-1 -J l|-l_lllt I ^1 lilt
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as /; G, IT, K, guttural; x, nasal ; R, trilled '; s as z; th as in this. (JJJT^See Explanations, p. 23.)
90
LIGORIO
1426
L1MATRAC
British forces in Flanders. He displayed great skill and
courage at Laffeldt in 1747, but was there made prisoner.
He became an English peer, with the title of Earl Ligo-
nier, in 1766, and was a field-marshal and privy coun
cillor at his death, in 1770.
See MM. HAAG, "La France protestante."
Ligorio, le-go're-o, (PiRRo,) an Italian architect,
painter, and antiquary, born in Naples about 1530, or,
as others say, 1498. He was appointed by Paul IV.
architect of the Vatican and of Saint Peter's Church,
which Michael Angelo had previously superintended.
The latter left Rome about that time. Ligorio, having
deviated from the plan of Michael Angelo, which he was
ordered to follow, was discharged in 1568. He then was
employed as architect by Alphonso, Duke of Ferrara.
He died about 1580, leaving in manuscript voluminous
writings on antiquities and architecture, which are
praised by Muratori.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; LANZI, " History of
Painting in Italy;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale. "
Ligozzi, le-got'see, (JACOI'O,) an eminent Italian
painter of history, born at Verona in 1543, was a pupil
of Paul Veronese. He painted both in fresco and in oil.
Having acquired a high reputation at Verona, he re
moved to Florence, where he received the title of painter
to the grand duke Ferdinand. Among his master-pieces
are "The Four Crowned Saints," at Imola, and the
" Martyrdom of Saint I )orothea," at Pescia. His smaller
pictures are highly finished. Died in 1627.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy;" TICOZZI, "Diziona-
rio ;" LOMAZZO, "Idea del Tenipio della Pittura."
Liguori, da, da le-goo-o'ree, (Ai.Koxso MARIA,) an
Italian priest and casuist, born at or near Naples in
1696. He founded in 1732 an order of missionaries to
convert or instruct the lower classes, and named it the
Order of the Most Holy Redeemer. In 1762 he was
appointed Bishop of Saint Agatha dei Goti. He wrote,
besides other approved works, a " Moral Theology,"
('755') which was often reprinted. Died in 1787.
See GIATTINI, "Vita del beate A. M. Liguori," 1815 ; G. KI.OTH,
" Leben des heiligen A. M. Liguori," 1835; "Life of Saint A. M. de
Liguori," London, 2 vols., 184$.
Lil'burne, (JoHN,) an English Puritan enthusiast and
radical agitator, was born in Durham in 1618. He was
accused before the Star Chamber in 1637 of distributing
seditious pamphlets, and was condemned to be whipped
and imprisoned. He was released in 1640, and obtained
^2000 damages. In 1644 he fought bravely against the
king at Marston Moor, where he led a regiment. He
afterwards attacked Prynne, Lenthal, and others in pam
phlets, for which he was committed to Newgate. He
was one of the master-spirits of the " Levellers," and
a stubborn opponent of Cromwell's authority. In 1651
he was tried for treason and acquitted by the jury. He
became a Quaker a few years before his death, which
occurred in 1657. Hume designates him as "the most
turbulent, but the most upright and courageous, of human
kind." (" History of England.")
See, also, CLARENDON, "History of the Rebellion;" "Monk's
Contemporaries," by GUIZOT, London, 1865.
Lilieblad, lee'le-eh-blad', or Liljenblad, leel'yen-
blad', (GusTAVUs,) a Swedish scholar and linguist, born
at Strengnes in 1651. He was for many years professor
of Oriental languages at Upsal, and wrote, in Latin, a
"History of Egypt," (1698.) Died in 1710.
See GEZEI.IUS, "Biographiskt- Lexicon."
Lilienberg or Liljenberg, lee'le-e'n-be'Rg', (ERIK
GUSTAF,) KARON OF, a Swedish general, who served in
the French army at Laufelcl and in other battles. Died
in 1770.
Lilienkrantz or Liljenkrantz, lee'le-en-kRants', or
Liliecrantz, lee'le-eh-kKants', QOHANN,) COUNT DE, a
Swedish financier, born about 1730. On the accession
of Gustavus III. (1771) he was appointed minister of
finances, which he managed with success for many years.
Died in 1815.
See GEYER, " Histoire de la Suede."
Lilienthal, lee'le-en-til', (MICHAEL,) a learned Prus
sian philologist, born at Liebstadt in 1686. He was
for many years professor of theology in the University
of Konigsberg. He was the principal editor of the
"Erlautertes Preussen," (1724-28,) a highly-esteemed
literary journal, and published, besides other works,
"Historical and Literary Selections," ("Selecta His
torica et Literaria," 1711-19.) Died in 1750.
See HIRSCHING, "Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ;" MEUSEI.,
" Lexikon."
Lilienthal, (THEODOR CHRISTIAN,) a German theo
logian and writer, a son of the preceding, was born at
Konigsberg in 1717; died in 1782.
Lilio, lee'le-o, or Lilli, lel'lee, (ANDREA,) an Italian
painter, born at Ancona in 1555. He worked at Rome
for Sixtus V., and at Ancona. Died in 1610.
Lilip, (Luioi,) [Lat. AI.OY'SIUS LII/IUS,] an Italian
physician and astronomer, born in Calabria. He is
remembered only for the part he had in the reform of
the calendar under the auspices of Gregory XIII. lie
applied the epacts to the cycle of nineteen years, and,
by adding one day to the end of each cycle, he arrived
at an approximative equation of the solar and lunar
years. He died in 1576, just after he had finished the
work. His method was approved by the pope in 1582.
Lilio Giraldi. See GIRAI.DI.
Lilius. See LILIO.
Liljenblad. See LILIERLAD.
Liljenkrantz. See LILIENKRANTZ.
Lil'lo, (GEORGE,) a successful English dramatist, born
in 1693, became a jeweller of London. He holds a high
rank among English dramatists of the second order.
"The Fatal Curiosity," a tragedy, (1737,) is called his
master-piece, and is constructed with remarkable skill.
His "George Karmvell" and "Arden of Feversham"
were also popular. Died in 1739.
See " Biographia Dramatica ;" CAMPBELL, "Specimens of the
British Poets."
Lil'ly, written also Lily and Lyly, (JOHN,) an English
dramatic writer, born in Kent about 1553. He wrote
several dramas, which were performed with success, and
flourished as a wit at the court of Elizabeth. About 1580
he published " Euphues : the Anatomy of Wit," which
became very popular with that pedantic generation for
its affected and dainty style, called "Euphuism." "It
deserves notice," says Hallani, "on account of the influ
ence it is recorded to have had upon the court of Eliza
beth and over the public taste." He was the author of
a famous satirical pamphlet against Martin Mar-Prelate,
called " Pap with a Hatchet." Died about 1600.
See "The Dramatic Works of John Lyly, with some Account
of his Life," etc., by T. W. KAIRHOLT, 1858; "London Quarterly
Review" for April, 1861.
Lilly, (WILLIAM,) a famous English astrologer, born
in Leicestershire in 1602. In early life he was employed
as a servant in London. He began to study astrology
in 1632, and acquired fame as a fortune-teller. He pro
fited by the credulity of Charles I., who consulted him
on political affairs in the civil war. Some agents of the
popular party also patronized him. He published an
nually an almanac, called " Merlinus Anglicus Junior,"
(1644-81.) His character is represented by Kutler under
the name of "Sidrophel." Died in 1681.
See "Life and Times of \V. Lilly," by himself, 1715; " Retro-
spective Review," vol. ii., 1820.
Lil'y or Lil'ly, (WILLIAM,) a distinguished English
schoolmaster, born at Odiham, in Hampshire, about
1468. After studying languages in Greece and Rome,
he settled in London in 1509, and opened a grammar-
school. He appears to have been the first who taught
Greek in London. In 1512 he became master of Saint
Paul's School, just founded by Colet. He published,
besides Latin poems, " Brevissima Institutio sen Ratio
Grammatices cognoscendae," (1513,) commonly called
"Lily's Grammar," which was for a long time more
used in English schools than any other Latin grammar.
He was intimate with Erasmus. Died in 1523.
See WARTON, "History of Poetry."
Lima, de, da lee'ma, (Luiz CAETANO,) a Portuguese
historian and grammarian, born in Lisbon in 1671 ; died
in 1757.
Limayrac, le'mi'rfk', (PAULIN,) a French litterateur,
born at Caussade in 1817. He became chief editor of
"La Patrie," a daily paper of Paris, in 1858.
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m5t; not; good; moon;
LIMBORCH
1427
LINCOLN
Limborch, van, vtn lim'boRK', written also Lini-
borg, (HKNDRIK,) a Dutch painter, born at the Hague
in 1680, was one of the best pupils of Adrian van cler
Werf, of whose works he made fine copies. Died in 1758.
Limborch, van, (PHILIPPUS,) a learned Dutch theolo
gian, was born in Amsterdam the igth of June, 1633. He
was one of the principal supporters of the Remonstrant
or Arminian doctrines, which were condemned by the
Synod of Dort in 1619. After preaching f r ten years
at Gouda, he became in 1668 pastor and professor of
theology at Amsterdam. He corresponded for a long
time with John Locke. His most important work is
"Theologia Christiana," (1686,) "a system of divinity
and morals which," says Hallam, " is the fullest delinea
tion of the Arminian scheme." He wrote a "History
of the Inquisition," (1692.) Died in 1712.
See LKCI.EKC. " Oratio fimebris in OLiuun P. Limborch," 1712;
VAN DEK HOEVKN, " Dissertationes II. de J. Clerico et P. a Lim
borch," etc., 1^43; NICEKON, " MemoTes."
Limbourg, van, vtn Hm'booKG', (J.vx PHILIPPUS,)
a Flemish medical writer, born near Spa in 1726. He
practised at Spa with great success. Died in 1811.
Limburg-Brouwer, van, \tn lin/buRH bRow'er,
(Pu.TER,) a Dutch poet, born in 1795; died in 1847.
Limnaeus or Limnaus, lim-na'us, (JoHANX,) a Ger
man publicist, born at fena in 1592. lie was preceptor
of the M«rgrave of Anspach and of Albert of Branden
burg, who afterwards employed him as chancellor and
privy councillor. lie wrote an esteemed work on "The
Public Law of the Romano-Germanic Empire," (3 vols.,
1645-57.) and an "Account of the French Monarchy and
Constitution," (" Xotitia Regni Galliae," 2 vols., 1655.)
Died in 1663.
See STKEBEL, "Leben und Schriften des Staatslehrers J. Lim-
na^us," 1741.
Limousin or Limosin. See LEONARD DE LIMOUSIN.
Lin. See LINTS.
Lin, van, vtn lin, (IlAXS,) a Dutch painter of genre,
who flourished about 1650, was surnamed STILHEID. He
excelled in battle-pieces, and painted horses better than
any other Dutch artist except Wouwerman.
Linacre, lin'a-ker, written also Linacer (or Lina-
ker) and Lynacer, ( THOMAS,) an eminent English
physician and scholar, born at Canterbury about 1460.
He learned Greek of Demetrius Chalcondylas at Flor
ence, and studied medicine at Rome. After his return to
England he lectured on medicine, and taught Greek at
Oxford for several years, until Henry VIII. employed
him as physician and preceptor of Prince Arthur. He
was the principal founder and first president of the Col
lege of Physicians, London. At an advanced age he took
orders, and obtained the rectory of Mersham, a prebend
in York Cathedral, and other benefices. He was an ex
cellent classical scholar, and a correspondent of Erasmus.
He translated several of Galen's works into Latin, and
wrote "On the Correct Structure of Latin Prose," (" De
Emtndata Structura Latini Sermonis,") which Hallam
calls "the first-fruits of English erudition," and which
must, he says, have been highly valuable. Died in 1524.
Ste " Lives of British Physicians," London, 1857: BAYLE, "His
torical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON, "Me'moires."
Liuant, Ie'n6.\', (MLCHEL,) a French litterateur, born
at Louviers in 1708. Voltaire, who was his friend, spoke
highly of his taste and imagination. Linant lived in
Paris, and was employed as tutor to the sons of M.
Hebert. He wrote odes, epistles, and other short poems,
which gained several prizes of the French Academy. He
also published an edition of Voltaire's works, (1738.)
Died in 1749.
Linck, link, (JoiiANX HEINRICJI,) a German natu
ralist, born at Leipsic in 1674; died in 1734.
Lincoln, link'on, (ABRAHAM,) the sixteenth President
of the United States, was born in Hardin county, Ken
tucky, (in a part now included in Larue county,) the
1 2th of February, 1809. His ancestors were of English
descent ; they are supposed to have originally emigrated
to America with the followers of William Penn. A
little before the middle of last century they resided in
Berks ctunty, Pennsylvania, whence a part of the family
removed in' 1750 to Virginia. About the year 1780
Abraham Lincoln, the grandfather of the subject of this
notice, settled in Kentucky, where not long after he was
stealthily shot by an Indian. I le left three sons, of whom
the eldest, Thomas Lincoln, married and settled in Har
din county in 1806. Abraham Lincoln was his second
child and oldest son. His childhood was passed in the
midst of hardship and toil. When he was scarcely
eight years old, his parents removed to Spencer county,
Indiana. It was a difficult and wearisome journey, and
he ever afterwards retained a vivid recollection of the
trials and hardships which he passed through on that
occasion. Before he was eleven years of age, he ex
perienced a bitter and irreparable loss in the death of
his mother. Under her guidance he had learned to
read and prize the Bible, and to her influence, there is
reason to believe, he was largely indebted for the develop
ment of those rare and noble moral traits which have
conferred upon him, if not a brilliant, at least a spotless
and ever-enduring fame. Among the books which, as a
boy, he particularly valued, was a Life of Washington ;
and it is not improbable that the contemplation of such a
character, which united to plain and practical common
sense moral qualities of the highest order, may have
contributed not a little to that combination of straight
forward simplicity and moral grandeur for which Lin
coln was afterwards distinguished. The " Pilgrim's
Progress" was also one of his favourite books; and its
influence upon his style may perhaps be traced not
merely in his preference for forcible and racy Saxon
words, but also in that homely directness of expression
by which all his speeches and writings are characterized.
On the breaking out of the Black Hawk war, in the
early part of 1832, Lincoln promptly volunteered for the
defence of the frontier settlements, and was chosen captain
of his company. The war, however, having been speedily
brought to a close before he had an opportunity of meet
ing the enemy, he returned to the pursuits of peace. In
the political contest which took place between General
Jackson and Henry Clay in the autumn of 1832, he zeal
ously espoused the cause of the latter, for whom he
had felt an enthusiastic admiration from his boyhood.
He himself was a candidate for the State legislature;
and, although unsuccessful, he received in his own pre
cinct two hundred and seventy-seven votes out of the
two hundred and eighty-four which had been cast; that
is, thirty-nine fortieths of the whole number. In 1834
he was again a candidate for the legislature, and was
elected. He was re-elected in 1836. In March, 1837,
he gave proof of the uprightness as well as independ
ence of his character by recording his protest on the
journal of the House against some extreme pro slavery
resolutions which had been passed by the Democratic
majority in the legislature. At that time the expression
of any anti-slavery sentiments was extremely unpopular
in every part of the United States, but perhaps nowhere
north of Mason and Dixon's line was it more so than in
j Illinois. Lincoln and another member who shared his
I views declared in their protest that " they believe that
the institution of slavery is founded in injustice and bad
policy." Having been again elected to the legislature
in 1838, he became the acknowledged leader of the
Whigs in the House, and received the entire vote of his
party for the speakership, which he lost by only one vote.
' He had been admitted to the bar in 1836, and in April,
1837, he established himself permanently in Springfield
and commenced the practice of law in earnest, with John
T. Stuart as his partner. In November, 1842, he mar
ried Miss Mary Todd, daughter of Robert S. Todd, Esq.,
of Lexington, Kentucky. Having accepted the nomi
nation for Congress in 1846, he was triumphantly elected,
being the only Whig out of the seven representatives
sent by Illinois to the national legislature. During the
time that he was in Congress he uniformly gave his voice
in favour of freedom, voting against laying on the table
without consideration the petitions for the abolition of
slavery, and always supporting the doctrines of the
Wilmut Proviso whenever any measure of this kind
was before the House. The passage of the Nebraska
bill in May, 1854, involving the repeal of the Missouri
Compromise, gave everywhere fresh interest and ar
dour to the contest between freedom and slavery. A
United States Senator was to be chosen by the Illinois
as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; x, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 25
LINCOLN
1428
LINCOLN
legislature. Lincoln had been nominated by the Repub
lican party as their candidate for the Senate of the United
States. Judge Douglas, confessedly the ablest politician
and best debater among all the Democratic leaders of
the West, was the opposing candidate. Lincoln chal
lenged his opponent to a series of public discussions
respecting the views and policy of the two contending
parties. That political contest first fully revealed the
versatility, depth, and comprehensiveness of Mr. Lin
coln's mind. Even some of those belonging to the party
of Judge Douglas admitted that the latter was inferior
to his opponent both in learning and in argument, — in
short, in every essential qualification for the discussion
of those great principles which were then agitating the
country from one extremity to the other. As the elec
tion of United States Senator depended on the legisla
ture, and not on a direct vote by the people, Douglas
was the successful competitor; but the extraordinary
ability displayed by Lincoln in the discussion above re
ferred to, led to his nomination by the Republican party
in 1860 as their candidate for the Presidency. No Presi
dential contest involving issues so momentous had ever
before occurred. The general election then about to
take place was to decide the all-important question
whether the blighting influence of slavery should be
allowed to extend to every part of the republic, or should
thenceforward be restricted to the territory which it
already possessed. Never before had any Presidential
election so strongly excited all the hopes and fears of the
patriot, all the affections and passions of the people.
It took place on the 6th of November, 1860. Lincoln
received the electoral votes of all the free States except
New Jersey, which was divided, giving him four votes
and Douglas three. Breckinridge received the votes
of all the slave States except Virginia, Kentucky, Ten
nessee, and Missouri ; the three former voted for Bell,
the last for Douglas. Lincoln received in all one hun
dred and eighty electoral votes, Breckinridge seventy-two,
Bell thirty-nine, and Douglas twelve.
No sooner was the result of the election known than
several of the Southern States made preparations for
formally separating themselves from the Federal Union.
South Carolina took the lead in the secession movement.
The legislature convened in November and passed an
act calling a State convention to meet on the I7th of
December. It met accordingly, and on the 2Oth an
ordinance was passed unanimously dissolving the union
till then " subsisting between South Carolina and other
States under the name of the United States of America."
It was evident, from the language of the leading men in
that convention, that the ordinance of secession was not
the result of any sudden excitement or hastily-adopted
resolution, but was the deliberate fulfilment of a settled
and long-cherished purpose. "The secession of South
Carolina," said Mr. Rhett, "was not the event of a day."
It was "a matter which had been gathering head for
thirty years." Mr. Inglis said that most of them had
had it "under consideration for the last twenty years."
" So far," says Raymond, "as South Carolina was con
cerned, there can be no doubt that her action was de
cided by men who had been plotting disunion for thirty
years, not on account of any wrongs her people had sus
tained at the hands of the Federal government, but from
motives of personal and sectional ambition, and for the
purpose of establishing a government which should be
permanently and completely in the interest of slavery."
("Lincoln's Administration," chap, i.) Following the
example of South Carolina, Mississippi passed an ordi
nance of secession on the gth of January, 1861,* Florida
January 10, Alabama January n, Georgia January 18,
Louisiana January 26, Texas February I. Thus, more
than a month previous to the expiration of Mr. Buch
anan's term of office, seven Stntes had done all that
lay in their power to dissolve their connection with the
Union. Delegates appointed by the conventions of the
seceding States met at Montgomery early in February,
and formed a new Confederacy, of which Jefferson Davis,
of Mississippi, was elected President, and Alexander II.
* These dates, and most of the others in this article connected
with the events of the rebellion, are taken from Greelev's "American
Conflict:"
Stephens, of Georgia, Vice-President. Not long after,
Mr. Stephens, in an elaborate speech addressed to the
people of Savannah, attempted to vindicate the course
of the seceders in setting up a new government in oppo
sition to that of the United States. On that occasion he
said that the prevailing ideas of Jefferson and " most
of the leading statesmen at the time of the formation of
the old Constitution were that the enslavement of the
African was a violation of the laws of nature, that it was
wrong in principle, socially, morally, politically. . . .
These ideas, however, were fundamentally wrong. They
rested upon the assumption of the equality of races.
This was an error. . . . Our new government was
founded upon exactly the opposite ideas ; its foundations
are laid, its corner-stone rests, upon the great truth that
the negro is not equal to the white man ; that slavery,
subordination to the superior race, is his natural and
normal condition. This, our new government, is the
first in the history of the world based upon this great
physical, philosophical, and moral truth."
While President Buchanan took the ground that the
Federal government had no right to coerce the seceding
States, several members of the cabinet had not neglected
the opportunities which their official position afforded, of
promoting the interests of the Southern Confederacy.
The secretary of war, John B. Floyd, took care to make
such a disposition of the Federal arms and ammunition
that in case the new administration should be disposed
to adopt a more decisive policy it would find its energies
paralyzed by a total want of the material of war, while
the revolted States, in case of necessity, might readily
possess themselves of that very material which had been
thus adroitly placed beyond the reach of the Federal
' government. An official report from the ordnance
department, dated January 16, 1861, shows that during
the year 1860 115,000 muskets had been removed from
Northern armories and sent to Southern arsenals by a
single order of the secretary of war ; and it was claimed
for him, by one of his eulogists in Virginia, that, while
a member of President Buchanan's cabinet, Mr. Floyd
"thwarted, resisted, and forbade" certain measures
which, if carried into effect, would have rendered the
formation of the Southern Confederacy impossible.
It was under such circumstances as these — with seven
of the most influential of the United States in open re
volt, and several others on the eve of secession, — with
timorous indecision at the head of the government, and
secret treason lurking not only among the members
of the cabinet, but also among the officers of the army
and navy — that Abraham Lincoln, on the nth of Feb
ruary, 1861, left his Western home and proceeded to
Washington to take into his hands the reins of govern
ment. His brief parting words to his friends at Spring
field reveal at one view the simple, manly earnestness
of his character, and that humble but unfaltering trust
in God by which he was sustained through all the perils
and darkness which surrounded his administration. " My
Friends : No one not in my position can appreciate the
sadness I feel at this parting. To this people I owe all
that I am. Here I have lived more than a quarter of a
century ; here my children were born, and here one of
them lies buried. I know not how soon I shall see you
again. A duty devolves upon me which is, perhaps,
greater than that which has devolved upon any other
man since the days of Washington. He never would
have succeeded except for the aid of divine Providence,
upon which he at all times relied. I feel that I cannot
succeed without the same divine aid which sustained
him ; and on the same almighty Being I place my reli
ance for support ; and I hope you, my friends, will all
pray that I may receive that divine assistance, without
which I cannot succeed, but with which success is
certain. Again I bid you all an affectionate farewell."
A rumour was current some time before the President
elect left his home in Illinois, that he would never reach
the national capital alive. An attempt was made (Feb
ruary it) on the Toledo and Western Railroad to throw
from the track the train on which he was ; and after
wards, just as he was leaving Cincinnati, a hand-grenade
was found to have V>een secreted on the car. A plot had
likewise been formed to take his life during his passage
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short: a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fill, fit; m§t; nftt; good; m ion-
LINCOLN
1429
LINCOLN
through Baltimore on his way to Washington. Mr.
Se\vird and General Scott, having been informed of
that fact, arranged it that Lincoln should pass through
Baltimore several hours earlier than had at first been
proposed. The plans of the conspirators were thus
frustrated, and the President-elect reached Washington
in safety on the morning of the 2jd of February.
Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated as President of the
United States on the 4th of March, 1861. In his ad
dress on that occasion he mildly but distinctly and
firmly announced his purpose to "take care that the
laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all the States."
"I trust," he adds, "this will not be regarded as a
menace. . . . There need be no bloodshed or violence ;
and there shall be none, unless it be forced upon the
national authority. The power confided to me will be
used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places
belonging to the government, and to corlect the duties
and imposts ; but, beyond what may be necessary for
these objects, there will be no invasion, no using of force
against or among the people, anywhere. . . . The mails,
unless repelled, will continue to be furnished in all parts
of the Union. So far as possible, the people everywhere
shall have that sense of perfect security which is most
favourable to calm thought and reflection. . . . Physically
speaking, we cannot separate. We cannot remove our
respective sections from each other, nor build an impass
able wall between them. A husband and wife may be
divorced and go out of the presence and beyond the
reach of each other; but the different parts of our coun
try cannot do this. They cannot but remain face to face ;
and intercourse, either amicable or hostile, must continue
between them. Is it possible, then, to make the inter
course more advantageous or more satisfactory after
separation than before? . . . THE CHIEF MAGISTRATE
DERIVES ALL HIS AUTHORITY FROM THE PEOPLE ; AND
THEY HAVE CONFERRED NONE UPON HIM TO FIX TERMS
FOR THE SEPARATION OF THE STATES. . . . HlS DUTY IS
TO ADMINISTER THE PRESENT GOVERNMENT AS IT CAME
INTO HIS HANDS, AND TO TRANSMIT IT UNIMPAIRED BY
HIM TO HIS SUCCESSOR.
"My countrymen, one and all, think calmly and well
upon this whole subject. Nothing valuable can be lost
by taking time. If there be an object to hurry any of
you in hot haste to a step which you would never take
deliberately, that object will be frustrated by taking
time ; but no good object can be frustrated by it. ...
" In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen,
and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war.
. . . You can have no conflict without being yourselves
the aggressors. You have no oath registered in heaven
to destroy the government, while I shall have the most
solemn one to 'preserve, protect, and defend' it." Mr.
Lincoln did not deny that the laws of the Federal gov
ernment, and even the Constitution itself, might perhaps
bear unequally and hardly upon some sections of the
country; but he thought that all grievances of this kind
would be far more likely to be properly redressed through
a calm and friendly appeal to the sense of justice in the
people than by violence or war.
It was enough, hosvever, for the slave-holding party
that he denied not merely the expediency but the right
of any State or sectional combination of States to se
cede. This was considered equivalent to a declaration
of war ; and active preparations for the coming struggle
were at once commenced throughout the seceded States.
The moderate, reasonable, and conciliatory tone of the
Inaugural had, it cannot be doubted, a most happy effect,
not only in uniting and consolidating, so to speak, the
public sentiment of the North, but also in encouraging
all those in the border States who, whatever may have
been their views in relation to slavery, had not yet cast
off all attachment to the national flag and the Federal
Union. Fort Stimter, in the harbour of Charleston, was
occupied by a United States garrison, under the com
mand of Major Anderson. General Beaurec;ard, on the
part of the .Southern Confederacy, demanded its sur
render. To this demand, which was made on the nth
of April, Major Anderson at once replied that his "sense
of honour and his obligations to his government prevented
his compliance." Early on the I2th an attack on the fort
was commenced, and kept up with the utmost fury with
shells and red-hot cannon-balls, in consequence of which
Major Anderson, after a gallant resistance of thirty-three
hours, was at length obliged to evacuate the place, which
he did on the morning of the I4th. The bombardment
of Fort Sutnter was the first aggressive act committed
on either side. It produced a deep and intense excite
ment throughout the Northern States, breaking down
j for a time all party distinctions, and uniting the whole
' people in an earnest, unfaltering purpose to support the
government.* The President, justly regarding this un
provoked attack upon a United States fort as the com
mencement of actual war, issued on the next day (April
! 15) a proclamation directing both Houses of Congress
1 to meet in extra session on the 4th of July following,
and calling out "the militia of the several States of the
Union, to the aggregate number of 75,000," for the pur-
1 pose of supporting the authority and enforcing the laws
1 of the Federal Union. It was not, however, merely for
maintaining the authority of the government that troops
were needed, but for the defence of the national capital
itself. The President of the Southern Confederacy had
' declared, more than a month before, that whenever war
' should commence the North and not the South should
i be the battle field ; and the recent attack on Fort Sumter
I was a sufficient proof that no veneration t >r the national
flag nor any lurking scruples of any kind would be likely
to prevent the carrying out of that threat if it were pos
sible to accomplish it. All the Northern States responded
1 to the demand of President Lincoln with the utmost
: alacrity and zeal. Massachusetts — be it said to her
' immortal honour — was the first in the field. The
i next day after the issue of the proclamation, her Sixth
regiment left Boston for the national capital. Two
more regiments set out within forty-eight hours. The
Sixth regiment was attacked (April 19) in Baltimore
by a mob carrying a secession flag, and several of
the soldiers were killed or severely wounded. Gov
ernor Hicks having united with Mayor Brown, of Balti
more, in urging, for prudential reasons, that no more
troops should be brought through that city, it was ar
ranged that those needed for the defence of Washington
should in future be sent thither by way of Annapolis.
On the iQth of April President Lincoln issued a procla
mation blockading the ports of the seceded States. The
excitement caused by the bombardment of Fort Sumter,
which tended so powerfully to unite public sentiment at
the North, appeared to have produced a still greater
effect in the Southern States, where the enthusiasm
of the people was inflamed almost to frenzy by what
seemed the brilliant success of the Confederates, in re
ducing so quickly a fortress which was regarded as one
of the strongest in the United States, though it was at
that time feebly garrisoned and supplied with provisions
for a few clays only. Yielding to this whirlwind of ex
citement, the legislature of Virginia, on the I7th of
April, (three days after the taking of Fort Sumter,)
passed an ordinance of secession by a vote of 88 to 55.
Not long after, the State Convention of North Carolina,
elected during the excitement which followed the cap
ture of Sumter, passed unanimously an ordinance of
secession.
The most active preparations were made on both sides
for the contest which was now inevitable. In the seceding
States more than a hundred thousand troops had been
raised, of which the larger portion had been marched
towards the Northern border. The greatness of the force
arrayed against the government made an additional sup
ply of troops necessary for the security of the national
capital. A second proclamation was issued on the 3d
of May, calling into the United States service a large
numbe'r of volunteers, and greatly increasing the force
both of the army and navy. The difficulties surrounding
the new administration were rendered still more for
midable by the precipitate action of the French and
English governments, which, as soon as information was
* The very next day after Major Anderson had evacuated the ruin?
of Fort Slimier, a leading journal of New York (the " Tribune") aptly
and forcib'y observed, " Fort Sumter is lost, but freedom is saved.
... It is liard to lose Sumter; it is a consolation to know that ir
losing it we have gained a united people."
€ zs>k; 9 as.?; %hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; ^trilled; sasz; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LINCOLN
H3°
LINCOLN
received that hostilities had actually begun in America,
determined, in concert, to acknowledge the Southern
Confederacy as a belligerent power.
In accordance with the proclamation of the 1 5th of
April, Congress met in extra session, July 4, 1861. In
the message which on that occasion the President ad
dressed to the Senators and representatives, after re
viewing the condition of the country and explaining
the course of the government, he proceeds to say, —
"It is thus seen that the assault upon and reduction
of Fort Sumter was in no sense a matter of self-defence
upon the part of the assailants. They well knew that
the garrison in the fort could by no possibility commit
aggression upon them. They knew, they were expressly
notified, that the giving of bread to the few brave and
hungry men of the garrison was all which would on that
occasion be attempted, unless themselves, by resisting
so much, should provoke more. They knew that this
government desired to keep the garrison in the fort, not
to assail them, but to maintain visible possession, and
thus to preserve the Union from actual and immediate
dissolution, trusting, as before stated, to time, discussion,
and the ballot-box for final adjustment ; and they assailed
and reduced the fort for precisely the reverse object, to
drive out the visible authority of the Federal Union and
thus force it to immediate dissolution. ... In this act,
discarding all else, they have forced upon the country
the distinct issue, 'immediate dissolution or blood.'
"And this issue embraces more than the fate of
these United States. It presents to the whole family of
man the question whether a constitutional republic or
democracy — a government of the people by the same
people — can or cannot maintain its territorial integrity
against its own domestic foes. . . .
" It was with the deepest regret that the Executive
found the duty of employing the war-power in defence
of the government forced upon him. He could but per
form this duty or surrender the existence of the govern
ment. . . . As a private citizen, the Executive could not
have consented that these institutions should perish ;
much less could he, in betrayal of so vast and so sacred
a trust as these free people have confided to him. He
felt that he had no right to shrink, or even to count the
chances of his own life, in what might follow."
There were a few members in both Houses who in
sisted that any employment of the war-power against
the rebels was unconstitutional ; but the general senti
ment of Congress fully sustained the President in the
course he had taken. On July 15, Mr. McClernand, a
Democratic member from Illinois, offered a resolution
pledging the House to vote any amount of money and
any number of men necessary to suppress the rebellion
and restore the authority of the government. This reso
lution was adopted with but five dissenting votes. The
spirited action of Congress seemed to inspire the people
everywhere throughout the North with renewed hope
and confidence. Towards the latter part of June, a large
rebel force had occupied a strong position on Bull Run
Creek, near Manassas. It was resolved on the part of
the Federal government to attack and drive back this
force ; and the belief was generally entertained that a
single decided success on the part of the Union armies
would put an end to the war. The Federal forces, com
manded by General McDowell, made an attack upon
the position of the rebels on the 2ist of July; but they
met with a disastrous defeat, and were driven back in
great disorder towards \Vashington. Then, for the first
time, the Northern States realized the greatness of the
conflict which was before them. They then understood
how great were the advantages possessed by the Con
federates in consequence of their having been for years
preparing for war. No inconsiderable portion of their
troops had been thoroughly disciplined under excellent
officers, while many of the Northern troops had scarcely
any discipline at all. Add to this that a large proportion
of the best and most experienced officers in the regular
army of the United States had resigned their commis
sions and joined the Confederate cause. All the prin
cipal Confederate officers, with scarcely an exception,
had been educated at the national military academy at
West Point, and had afterwards held important positions
in the regular army. It may suffice to cite the names of
Generals Joseph E. and Albert Sydney Johnston, Jeffer
son Davis, the President of the Southern Confederacy,
and General Robert E. Lee, regarded, at the time of the
breaking out of the rebellion, as by far the ablest officer
in the United States army, General Scott having become
through age and infirmities unequal to the duties of the
field. Hut the disaster of Bull Run damped the hopes
of the Unionists for a moment only. After the first
surprise was over, its effect was to rouse the courage and
determination of the people to the highest point. Vol
unteers flocked by thousands to join the national army.
From the time of Lincoln's inauguration, through all the
anxious months of the spring and summer of 1861, Gene
ral Scott had retained his position as commander of the
armies of the United States, and had given the govern
ment the benefit of his wisdom and experience and the
support of his 'great influence and unwavering loyalty.
At length, on the 3 1st of October, in consequence of ill
health and advancing age, he applied to the secretary of
war to be released from active service. He was accord
ingly placed upon the list of retired officers of the army
of the United States, but retaining his full pay, according
to a special provision passed by Congress in the summer
session. At the recommendation of General Scott, Gene
ral McClellan, who had obtained marked distinction by
his success dining the summer of 1861 in clearing
Western Virginia of rebel troops, was called to Wash
ington and appointed to the command of the Federal
forces. He at once commenced a thorough reorganiza
tion of the army, and before many months brought it
into a state of high and efficient discipline. Unfortunately,
his sympathies were rather with the moderate slave
holders than with the staunch supporters of the govern
ment, and, when it became necessary to sacrifice slavery
in order to save the republic, he could not nerve himself
to the task. In a war of a different kind, requiring simply
vigilance, skill, and the spirit of conciliation, he might
have earned enduring laurels. But the Confederates had
gone too far to be won back by conciliation. As nothing
could satisfy them short of breaking up the Union, so
nothing was left for the Federal government, if it would
escape general disruption and utter ruin, but to suppress
the rebellion by force of arms.
The forces under the immediate command of General
McClellan having remained inactive during most of the
winter of 1861-62, President Lincoln issued on the 271!!
of January, 1862, an order that on the 22cl of February a
general movement against the insurgents should be made
by the land and naval forces of the United States. Gene
ral McClellan at first objected, in a letter to the secre
tary of war, to the plan of operations which he had been
directed to pursue. At length, on the 131)1 of March, a
council of war was held, in which it was decided to ad
vance against Richmond from Fortress Monroe. The
army was conveyed by water down the Potomac and
Chesapeake Bay to the mouth of James River. Soon
after the commencement of the campaign, General
McClellan began to complain that he was not properly
supported by the Executive at Washington. Advancing
into the heart of a hostile country, where his enemies,
by means of the railroads, which they could completely
control, might concentrate, at a very short notice, all their
available force at or near the point of threatened attack,
it behooved him, undoubtedly, to use great circumspec
tion. Unhappily, the extreme precautions which he took
against a doubtful or contingent peril had no other effect
than to surround him with real dangers of the most for
midable character. His movements were so slow and
hesitating that the Confederates not only had time to
assemble their forces from distant points and erect ex
tensive fortifications, but even to raise and discipline
large reinforcements of fresh troops. Had he early in
April advanced with his army against Yorktown, he
would have met with a feeble resistance, and might, in
all probability, have pushed on at once to the conquest
of Richmond. But he decided to approach it by a regular
siege ; extensive earthworks were thrown up, and the
campaign was protracted into the hottest part of the
summer. His troops, compelled to encamp among the
swamps adjacent to theChickahominy, perished in great
a, e, I, o, fi, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nftt; good; moon;
LINCOLN
LINCOLN
numbers from disease. At last, after a series of sangui
nary but indecisive conflicts, the army was forced to
retreat. It was moved in August from James River by
water to Aqui'a Creek, on the Potomac, some forty miles
below Washington. About the same time the army of
General Pope, after several days of hard fighting near
Manassas and Centreville, was driven back with heavy
loss upon Washington. There was perhaps no darker
period during the whole war than that in which the
summer of 1862 came to a close ; and we may safely say
that no one throughout the land felt more deeply the
reverses and sufferings of his countrymen than President
Lincoln.
On the 2d of September, General McClellan took
command of all the available troops for the defence of
the capital. General Lee, having crossed the Potomac
(September 5) into Maryland, was attacked and de
feated by McClellan at Antietam on tile i6th and I7th
of September. He retreated into Virginia, and was not
pursued. Early in October McClellan was ordered to
cross the Potomac and give battle to the enemy or drive
him southward ; but, having delayed his advance for
about three weeks, he was removed from his command,
by an order dated November 5. General Burnside, who
succeeded McClellan as commander of the army of the
Potomac, attacked (December 13) General Lee, then
occupying a strongly-fortified position at Fredericks-
burg, and was repulsed with severe loss. Again, on the
2d and 3d of May, 1863, General Hooker was worsted
by General Lee in a very hard-fought battle at Chancel-
lorsville. The great and repeated disasters experienced
by the Union armies from the beginning of the war, but
more particularly those of the summer of 1862, appear
to have prepared the people of the Northern States for
the adoption of a more radical policy on the part of the
government. At first it had been the aim of the Execu
tive to preserve the Union with all the provisions of the
Constitution as it was originally adopted. But, the slave
holders having by their rebellion forfeited all claim to
the protection of that instrument, it might become ex
pedient or necessary to assail them on the side where
they were confessedly weakest, — viz., through the institu
tion of slavery. President Lincoln had been censured
by some for not taking a more decided position on the
subject of slavery at the commencement of the war; but
he had very strong reasons for the line of policy which
he had hitherto thought proper to pursue. So powerful
was the influence, so plausible the arguments, brought
by the Confederates to bear upon the border States, that
it was only with the greatest difficulty that Maryland,
Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri could be prevented
from following Virginia and North Carolina and joining
the rebellion. If, then, the Federal government, with
those States standing neutral or divided, was able to re
establish its authority only after years of conflict and the
loss of hundreds of thousands of lives, what might have
been the issue had those four populous and warlike
States from the very commencement of the war been
closely and firmly united with the Confederacy? Had
President Lincoln at once, on the breaking out of the
rebellion, attempted the overthrow of slavery, there is
reason to believe that all the above-named States would
have arrayed themselves against the government, and
the theatre of war, instead of being almost exclusively
confined to the territory of the slave States, would, in all
probability, have been extended to the adjacent free
States, — to Pennsylvania and Ohio, if not still farther.
Nor would this have been the only misfortune ; such an
attempt would, it can scarcely be doubted, have divided
the people in many of the free States, and prevented
them from giving the government that cordial and united
support so indispensable to the Union cause in such a
crisis.
The conscientious and anxious desire evinced by the
President to respect the constitutional rights of every
section of the country, if it produced no favourable influ- j
ence upon the mind's of the Confederates, had at least
the effect of gaining over to his cause multitudes of his
political opponents in the Northern as well as in the bor
der States ; so that tens of thousands who had opposed
his election in 1860 became, before the close of his first
Presidential term, of the number of his most cordial
supporters. He considered it, indeed, to be not merely
expedient, but to be his imperative duty, to weigh care
fully all the circumstances by which he was surrounded.
A religious or moral reformer may very properly content
himself with merely proclaiming and expounding great
truths, and then leave the minds of men to embrace
them, as they may be prepared to do so. But he who,
being placed at the head of a government, neglects to
consider the question whether his measures are prac
ticable, or whether they are or are not adapted to the
actual condition and wants of the people, can have no
claim to the name of statesman, although he may pos
sibly merit that of a far-seeing reformer or philanthropist.
To some, who were urging him to issue at once a
proclamation of emancipation, intimating that they felt
assured it was the will of God that he should do so,
Lincoln replied, "I hope it will not be irreverent for me
to say that, if it is probable that God would reveal his
will to others on a point so connected with my duty, it
might be supposed he would reveal it directly to me ;
for, unless I am more deceived in myself than I often
am, it is my earnest desire to know the will of Providence
in this matter ; and if I can learn what it is, I will do it."
At another time he said, "There are 50,000 bayonets in
the Union army from the border slave States. It would
be a serious matter if, in consequence of a proclamation
such as you desire, they should go over to the rebels.
. . . Every day increases their Union feeling." He dili
gently sought every opportunity of informing himself re
specting the condition of public sentiment, especially in
regard to the question of emancipation. A great change
in the minds of the people had undoubtedly taken place
in this respect, not only in the North, but also in several
of the slave States. After mature deliberation, being at
length satisfied that the welfare of the country would be
promoted by such a measure, and that public senti
ment would sustain it, he issued (September 22, 1862) a
proclamation of emancipation, in which it was declared
that on the first day of January, 1863, "all persons held
as slaves within any State, or designated part of a State,
the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the
United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever
free ; and the executive government of the United States,
including the military and naval authority thereof, will
recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons,
and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or
any of them, in any efforts they may make for their
actual freedom."
After the battle of Chancellorsville the tide of success
seemed to turn in favour of the Union cause. This is
not the place to go into any detailed account of the
movements of the different armies. It may suffice briefly
to notice a few of the principal battles which constituted,
so to speak, turning-points in the history of the war, and
which had an immediate and important influence in
bringing it to a close.
On the 3d of July, 1863, the army of the Potomac,
under General Meade, defeated the rebel forces, com
manded by General Lee, in a great battle (which had
lasted three days) near Gettysburg, in Pennsylvania.
On the 4th of the same month, General Grant cap
tured Vicksburg, after a long and most obstinate defence
on the part of the garrison, and in spite of the strenuous
efforts of the Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston to
raise the siege. The number of Confederate troops
paroled at Vicksburg was about 27,000, of whom only
15,000 were fit for duty. "This," says Mr. Greeley,
" was the heaviest single blow ever given to the muscu
lar resources of the rebellion ; and no other campaign
in the war equals in brilliancy of conception and general
success in execution that which resulted in the capitula
tion of Vicksburg." As Commander Farragut, supported
by a land-army under General Butler, had already (April,
1862) taken possession of New Orleans, the conquest
of Vicksburg gave to the Unionists the command of the
Mississippi throughout its entire length.
The courage, skill, and, above all, the unconquerable
energy displayed by General Grant in the siege and
capture of Vicksburg, seemed to point him out to the
government as pre-eminently qualified to conduct a war
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LINCOLN
LINCOLN
in which a wise foresight, an untiring vigilance, and an
indefatigable activity were equally necessary to success.
There was another point also wherein, to adopt the
language of Mr. Greeley, "his fitness for the chief com
mand was decided, if not pre-eminent ; and that was an
utter disbelief in the efficacy of any rose-water treatment
of the rebellion." In his report to the government,
General Grant says, " From the first I was firm in the
conviction that no peace could be had that would be
stable and conducive to the happiness of the people, both
North and South, until the military power of the rebel
lion was entirely broken." On the 1st of March, 1864,
in compliance with a recommendation of Congress, the
President appointed General Grant lieutenant-general of
the armies of the United States. When he presented
General Grant with his commission, Mr. Lincoln ad
dressed him with these words : "The nation's apprecia
tion of what you have already done, and its reliance upon
vou for what still remains to be done, in the existing
great struggle, are now presented with this commission,
constituting you lieutenant-general of the armies of the
United States. With this high honour devolves upon
you also a corresponding responsibility. As the country
herein trusts you, so, under God, it will sustain you. I
scarcely need to add that with what I here speak for
the nation, goes my own hearty personal concurrence."
General Grant, having taken immediate command of
the army of the Potomac, commenced early in May the
ever-memorable campaign of 1864 against Richmond.
After many severe and bloody conflicts, and the display
of consummate military skill on the part of the rival com
manders, and an obstinate bravery on the part of their
troops, rarely paralleled in the history of warfare, Gen
eral Lee was at length (April 2, 1865) forced to abandon
the defence of Richmond, which was evacuated the fol
lowing night, and on the gth of April he surrendered to
General Grant with all his army. On the iyth of the
same month, General J. K. Johnston, commander of the
southern division of the Confederate army, then in North
Carolina, entered into terms of capitulation with Gen
eral Sherman, according to which all the Confederate
troops still remaining in the field were to lay down their
arms and return to their respective States. Thus the
war of the rebellion was brought to a close. But, before
the final arrangement between Sherman and Johnston
was completed, the universal joy of the Northern States
was changed into bitter mourning by the death of Presi
dent Lincoln, who was cut off in the very hour of triumph
by the hand of an assassin. A desperate band of con
spirators, of whom John Wilkes Booth, a native of
Maryland, was the ringleader, had for some time enter
tained the design of seizing the President and making
him a prisoner. Finding no opportunity to carry their
purpose into effect, they resolved at length to take his
life. The great object of Lincoln's administration — the
restoration of the authority of the government — having
been at last accomplished, on the evening of the I4th of
April he sought at Ford's Theatre a brief relaxation from
the duties and cares of his high office. Booth, being an
actor by profession, had free admittance to the theatre.
While the President's attention was absorbed by the
scene before him, the assassin approached him from
behind, unperceived. To make sure of his victim, Booth
discharged his pistol when the muzzle was not more
than a few inches from the head of the President, who,
as the ball entered his brain, sank slightly forward with
out uttering a sound ; and, although he continued to
breathe for several hours, he was evidently wholly un
conscious from the time that he received the fatal wound
until his death, which occurred at half-past seven on the
morning of the I5th. Mr. Lincoln had often received
anonymous letters threatening him with death; but his
thoughts were too much occupied with the affairs of
the nation to permit him to feel anxiety for his personal
safety ; and, indeed, it was impossible for him, as he
intimated to some of his friends who urged him to be
more on his guard, to render his life secure without
adopting precautions alike repugnant to his own feel
ings and to the universal usage of his country. We
believe it is no exaggeration to say that, since the dawn
of history, no more upright or conscientious ruler than
President Lincoln ever presided over the destinies of a
great nation ; nor has there been any more free from
every taint of selfish ambition or personal resentment.
Among the many eminent men who, in their writings
or public speeches, have attempted to portray the char
acter and commemorate the virtues of President Lincoln,
we know of none who has been more successful than
Mr. Emerson. The admirable fitness of his remarks
must be our apology, if any be needed, for giving the
following extracts from his discourse delivered at the
funeral services held in Concord, Massachusetts, April
19, 1865 :
"A plain man of the people, an extraordinary for
tune attended him. Lord Bacon says, ' Manifest virtues
procure reputation; occult ones, fortune.' lie offered
no shining qualities at the first encounter; he did not
offend by superiority. Me had a face and manner which
disarmed suspicion, which inspired confidence, which
confirmed good will. He was a man without vices. He
had a strong sense of duty, which it was very easy for
him to obey. Then he had what fanners call a 'long
head ;' was excellent in working out the sum for himself, —
in arguing his case and convincing you fairly and firmly.
. . . He had a vast good nature, which made him tolerant
and accessible to all. . . . Then his broad good humour,
running easily into jocular talk, in which he delighted
and in which he excelled, was a rich gift to this wise
man. It enabled him to keep his secret, to meet every
kind of man, and every rank in society, ... to mask
his own purpose and sound his companion, and to catch
with true instinct the temper of every company he ad
dressed. His occupying the chair of state was a triumph
of the good sense of mankind and of the public conscience.
This middle-class country had got a middle-class Presi
dent at last. Yes, in manners and sympathies, but not
in powers; for his powers were superior. This man
grew according to the need ; his mind mastered the prob
lem of the day; and as ihe problem grew, so did his
comprehension of it. Rarely was a man so fitted to the
event. ... It cannot be said that there is any exagger
ation of his worth. If ever a man was fairly tested, he
was. There was no lack of resistance, nor of slander,
nor of ridicule. . . . Then what an occasion was the
whirlwind of the war! Here was place for no holiday
magistrate, no fair-weather sailor : the new pilot was
hurried to the helm in a tornado. In four years — f< mi-
years of battle-days — his endurance, his fertility of re
sources, his magnanimity, were sorely tried and never
found wanting. There, by his courage, his justice, his
even temper, his fertile counsel, his humanity, he stood
a heroic figure in the centre of a heroic epoch. He is
the true history of the American people in his time — the
true representative of this continent — father of his country,
the pulse of twenty millions throbbing in his heart, the
thought of their minds articulated by his tongue."
"The name of Lincoln," says the eminent historian
Merle d'Aubigne, "will remain one of the greatest that
history has to inscribe on its annals." "This man,"
observes Henry Martin, " will stand out in the traditions
of his country and the world as an incarnation of the
people, and of modern democracy itself."
See RAYMOND, "Life and Administration of President Lincoln,"
1864; GREEI.EY, "American Conflict," 2vols. 8vo, Hartford, 1864-66;
DR. J. G. HOLLAND, "Life of A. Lincoln," 1865; and the noble
and eloquent tribute to the memory of Lincoln in MRS. STOWE'S
"Men of our Time," Hartford, 1868.
Lincoln, (BENJAMIN,) an American general, born in
Hingham, Massachusetts, in January, 1733. He was
originally a farmer. In 1776 he was appointed a major-
general of militia, and joined the army of Washington
with reinforcements in February, 1777. In this year he
was appointed major-general by Congress, and was or
dered to join the Northern army, commanded by General
Gates. In October, 1777, he received a wound which
disabled him for nearly a year. He was appointed to
the chief command of the Southern department about
September, 1778, and defended Charleston against Gen
eral Prevost in the spring of 1779. In October of that
year General Lincoln and Count D'Estaing made an
unsuccessful assault on Savannah. He was besieged by
Sir Henry Clinton in Charleston, which he was com
pelled to surrender in May, 1780. He afterwards com-
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, Jr, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
LINCOLN
H33
LINDET
manded a division at the siege of Yorktown, in October,
1781. He had the reputation of an able and prudent
general. In October, 1781, he became secretary of war.
He retired from this office about the end of 1784, and
was elected Lieutenant-Governor of Massachusetts in
1787 by the Federalists. Died at Hingham in 1810.
See a " Life of Benjamin Lincoln," by FRANCIS BOWEN, in
SFARKS'S "American Biography," second series, vol. xiii. ; "Na
tional Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii.
Lincoln, link'pn, (EDWARD CLINTON,) EARL OF, an
English admiral, born in 1512, was the only son of
Thomas Lord Clinton. He was appointed lord admiral
for life in 1550. In 1557 he commanded a division of
the English army at Saint-Quentin. On the accession
of Elizabeth (1558) he was retained in the office of lord
admiral. In the peaceful reign that followed he had
little opportunity to acquire renown. He was created
Earl of Lincoln in 1572. Died in 1584, leaving the title
to his son Henry. A Henry Clinton, Earl of Lincoln,
married the daughter of Henry Pelhanl, who was prime
minister about 1750. In 1768 he inherited the title of
Duke of Newcastle.
Lincoln, (ENOCH,) a lawyer, brother of Levi, noticed
below, (1782-1868,) was born at Worcester, Massachu
setts, in 1788. He represented a district of Maine in
Congress from 1819 to 1826, and was Governor of that
State in 1827-29. Died in 1829. He wrote several
poems, including one entitled "The Village," (1816.)
Lincoln, QOHN LARKIN,) LL.D., an American scholar
and critical writer, born at Boston in 1817. He was
appointed in 1844 professor of the Latin language and
literature in Brown University. He published an edition
of Horace for the use of schools.
Lincoln, (LKVI,) an American jurist and statesman,
born in Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1749, graduated at
Harvard College. He practised law at Worcester, and
became one of the most eminent lawyers in the State.
In 1799 he was elected a member of Congress. He was
a Democrat or Republican in party politics, and was
attorney-general under Jefferson from 1801 to December,
1805. In 1807-08 he was Lieutenant-Governor of Mas
sachusetts. Died at Worcester in 1820.
Lincoln, (Li-:vr,) a lawyer, a son of the preceding,
was born at Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1782. He
was chosen Governor of his native State in 1825, being
supported by both parties, and was a member of Con
gress during three terms, (1835-41.) Died in 1868.
Lind, (/AMES,) an English physician, born about 1716,
published a valuable "Treatise on the Scurvy," (1753,)
and " Essay on the Diseases to which Europeans are
exposed in Hot Climates," (1768,) which were often
reprinted. Died at Gosport in 1794,
Lind, ([ENNY,) a celebrated Swedish vocalist, born
at Stockholm in 1821, was the daughter of a teacher of
languages. She began to sing on the stage about the
age of ten years, and performed in vaudevilles with
success. At the age of sixteen she became the prime
favourite of the Stockholm Opera, where she made her
debut as Agatha in " Der Freischiitz." In 1841 she
became a pupil of Garcia, the celebrated singing-master
in Paris, where she met Meyerbeer, who engaged her
for the Opera of Berlin. She sang in Berlin in 1844 and
1845, exciting great and unabated enthusiasm. After
performing in several capitals of Germany, she visited
London, where she was greeted with the warmest ap
plause, in 1847 and the two ensuing years. Having
made an engagement with P. T. Barnum to sing in the
United States, she arrived at New York in September,
1850. Her concerts in this country excited enthusi
astic admiration, and were repeated in the chief cities of
the Union until 1852, when she returned to Europe with
Otto Goldschmidt, a skilful pianist, to whom she had
been married in 1851. She gave many thousand dollars
for charitable purposes in the United States. Her
private character is excellent. Her voice is a soprano,
remarkable for sweetness. Since her marriage she has
ceased to perform on the stage.
See N. P. WILLIS, " Memoranda of the Life of Jenny Lind ;" J.
A. BECHER, "J. Lind: Skizze ihres Lebens," etc., 1847; "Memoir
of J. Lind," London, 1847; HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN, "True
Stoiy of my Lite ;" the same notice in the " Living Age" for No
vember, 1850.
Linda. See LINDANUS.
Lindanus, lin-da'nus, or Linda, lin'cla, (WILLIAM
DAMASUS,) a Roman Catholic prelate, noted as a con
troversialist, was born at Dort, Holland, in 1525. He
was remarkable for the severity with which he per
formed the office of Inquisitor of the faith. In 1562
he was appointed by Philip II. Bishop of Ruremond.
His most popular work was "Evangelical Panoply,"
("Panoplia Evangelica," 1563.) Died in 1568 or 1588.
See A. HAVENSIUS, "Vita G. Lindani," 1609.
Lindberg, llnd'beKG, (JACOB CHRISTIAN,) a Danish
theologian and numismatist, born at Ripen, Jutland, in
1797. He published a "Treatise on Curie Coins,"
(1830,) a "Hebrew-Danish Hand-Lexicon," (1835,) and
able works on theology, etc.
Lindblom, Hnd'blom, (jACOis AXEL,) a Swedish prel
ate, born in Ostrogothia in 1747. He was professor of
belles-lettres in the University of Upsal, and published
a " Latin-Swedish Dictionary" before he became Bishop
of Linkoping, (1789.) He was afterwards chosen Arch
bishop of Upsal. Died in 1819.
See HEDBORN, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver J. A. Lindblom," 1819.
Linde, von, fon lin'deh, (JUSTIN TIMOTHEUS BAL-
THASAR,) a German jurist, born in Westphalia in 1797,
published numerous legal treatises.
Linde, von, fon lin'deh, (SAMCEL GOTTLOB,) an emi
nent Polish lexicographer, born at Thorn in 1771. About
1803 he became rector of the Lyceum and chief librarian
of the University in Warsaw. In 1807 he produced the
first volume of his great "Dictionary of the Polish Lan
guage," (6 vols.,) regarded as the best work of the kind.
From 1833 to 1838 he was director of the gymnasium
of Warsaw. He wrote a " Historical Outline of the
Literature of the Slavonic Races," (1825.) Died at W'ar-
saw in 1847.
See SAINT-MAURICE CABANY, " S. T. de Linde," etc., 1853.
Lindeblad, lin'deh-blad', (AssAR,) a Swedish poet,
born near Lund in 1800. Among his best productions
is "The Missionary," (1839.)
Linden, van der, vtn der lin'den, (DAVin,) a Flemish
poet and antiquary, born at Ghent about 1570; died
about 1635.
Linden, van der, vtn der lin'den, (JAN ANTOMDES,)
a learned Dutch physician, born at Enkhuysen in 1609.
He became professor of medicine at Leyden about 1650.
He published a "Medical Bibliography," (" De Scriptis
Medicis," 1637,) "Physiological Medicine," (" Medicina
Physiologica,") and a good edition of Hippocrates, in
Greek. Died in 1664.
See BAVLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ; " NICERON,
" Memoires."
Lindeiiau, von, fon lin'deh-now', (BERNHARD AU
GUST,) a German astronomer, born at Altenburg in 1780.
Between 1826 and 1843 he served the King of Saxony
as privy councillor, minister of the interior, etc. In 1843
he retired from political life to devote himself to as
tronomy. Among his publications are " Tables of Venus,"
(1810,) "Tables of Mars," (1811,) and a " History of
Astronomy during the First Decade of the Nineteenth
Century," (181 1.) Died in 1854.
See BROCKHAUS, " Conversations- Lexikon."
Lindenbrog, lin'den-bRoc/, or Lindenbruch, lin'-
den-bRooK', [Lat. TILIOBRO'GA,] (£RPOLD,) a German
historical writer, born at Bremen in 1540. He wrote a
" History of the Kings of Denmark," and " Chronicle
of the Life and Actions of Charlemagne." He also
edited the " Historians of Northern Germany." Died
in 1616.
See WILKENS, "Leben der beriihmten Lindenbrogiorum," 1723.
Lindenbrog or Lindenbruch, (FRIEDRICH,) a jurist
and classical scholar, a son of the preceding, was born
at Hamburg in 1573 ; died in 1648.
Lindenschmit, lin'den-shmit', (WiLHELM,) a Ger
man historical painter, born at Mentz in 1806. Among
his works are frescos painted for Prince Ludwig in
the Hofgarten, Munich, and in the Pinakothek. Died
in 1848.
Lindet, laN'dV, QEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT,) a French
Jacobin and financier, born at Bernay, Normandy, in
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 0; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LIN DIET
H34
L1NGELBACH
1743. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, am
was a member of the committee of public safety after
its number was reduced and after it was invested with
supreme executive power, (1793.) He was reputed one
of the least violent but most subtle chiefs of the domi
nant faction. He was minister of finances from June,
1799, until Bonaparte became First Consul, in Novembei
of that year. Died in 1825.
Llnd'ley, (JoHN,) LL.D., F.R.S., one of the most
eminent botanists of the present century, was born at
Catton, near Norwich, England, in 1799. He was the
son of the proprietor of a nursery-garden. About 1821
he became a resident of London, and was employed to
write the descriptions of London's' " Encyclopaedia of
Plants," (1829.) In 1830 he published an " Introduction
to the Natural System of Botany." Of this system he
is a zealous advocate, and has contributed more than
any other English botanist to render it popular. His
" Introduction to Systematic and Physiological Botany'
(1832) is highly commended. In 1836 he produced "A
Natural System of Botany," which was expanded into
"The Vegetable Kingdom," (1846,) with engravings, —
probably the most excellent and comprehensive work
that has ever appeared on that subject. He adopted in
this work an improved, or at least new, system of classi
fication, and explained the uses of plants. In 1829 Dr.
Lindlcy became professor of botany in the University
College, London, where he was very successful as a lec
turer. His "Flora Medica" (1838) describes the plants
used in medical practice. He wrote many botanical
articles for the " Penny Cyclopaedia," and a good ele
mentary work on Botany inserted in the "Library
of Useful Knowledge." In his excellent work entitled
"Theory of Horticulture," (1844,) he successfully ap
plied science to practical utility. He was also the
author of popular treatises, entitled "Ladies' Botany,"
" School Botany," " British Pomology," and " Orchard
and Kitchen Garden." About 1841 he became editor
of the "Gardener's Chronicle," a valuable periodical.
Died at Acton Green, November i, 1865.
Lindner, llnt'ner, (FKIKDIUCH LumviG,) a German
political writer, born at Mitau, Courland, in 1772. In
1824 he published "Secret Papers," and in 1825 became
editor of the "Political Annals," at Munich. He also
wrote " Europe and the Orient," (1839,) and other works.
Died in 1845.
Lindner, (FRIEDRICH WII.HELM,) a German teacher
and theologian, born at Weida in 1779. He became
professor of the science of teaching at Leipsic in 1825.
He published a Latin treatise on the art of teaching,
" De Finibus et Praesidiis Artis paedagogicas," (1825,)
and a work on free- masonry.
Lindner, (\VILHELM BRUNO,) a writer on theology,
a son of the preceding, was born at Leipsic in 1814. He
was appointed professor of theology at Leipsic in 1846.
His principal work is a "Manual of the History of the
Christian Church," (2 vols., 1848-54.)
Lindpaintner, lint'pint'ner, (PETER JOSEPH,) a Ger
man composer, born at Coblentz in 1791. He produced
symphonies, overtures, instrument pieces, and operas
entitled "The Sicilian Vespers" ajid "The Vampyre."
Died in 1856.
Lindsay, lin'ze, (ALEXANDER WILLIAM CRAW
FORD,) LORD, a British author, the son of the Earl of
Crawford, was born in Cumberland in 1812. After
making a tour in the East, he published in 1838 " Letters
on Egypt, Edom, and the Holy Land," which passed
through several editions. He increased his reputation
by an important and novel work, entitled " Sketches of
the History of Christian Art," (1847,) which displays
much research and contains eloquent passages. In 1849
he published the "Lives of the Lindsays," a family his
tory of much merit.
See " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1847.
Lindsay, (Sir DAVID,) a Scottish poet, born about
1495. lie became in 1512 a page or servitor to the
prince, (afterwards James V.,) and continued in his ser
vice until 1524. Among his principal works are "The
Dream," "The Complaint of the King's Papingo," (a
satire on the clergy,) a " Satire on the Three Estates,"
and "The Monarchic." He excelled in sarcasm, which
he directed with much effect against the Romish Church.
He is supposed to have died after 1567.
See LORD LINDSAY, "Lives of the Lindsays," 1849; CHALMERS,
" Life," prefixed to Lindsay's works, 1806 ; CHAMBERS, " Biographical
Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Monthly Review" tor June,
1808.
Lindsay, lin'ze, (JoiiN,) an English nonjnring minis
ter, born about 1686. He wrote a " History of the Regal
Succession," (1720.) Died in 1768.
Lindsay, (JoHN,) Earl of Crawford, an able British
general, born in 1702. For his conduct at Fontenoy he
obtained the rank of major-general. He was renowned
for generosity, talents, and other popular qualities. Died
in 1749.
See RICHARD ROI.T, "Memoirs of the Life of J. Lindsay," etc.,
'753; CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Lindsay, (WILLIAM SHAW,) a British merchant, born
in Ayrshire in 1816, is reputed one of the largest ship
owners in the kingdom. He was once a cabin-boy, and
has raised himself to affluence by industry and prudence.
He was elected to Parliament for Tynemouth in 1854.
Lindsey, EARL OF. See BERTIE, (ROBERT.)
Liudsey, lin'ze, (MONTAGUE BERTIE,) EARL OF,
born in 1608, was a son of Robert Bertie. (See BERTIE.)
He fought for Charles I. at Edgehill and Nasebv, and,
when the king was imprisoned in the Isle of Wight,
negotiated the treaty of Newport. Died in 1666.
Lindsey, (THEOPHILUS,) an English Unitarian min
ister, born in Cheshire in 1723. Having taken orders
in the Anglican Church, he obtained in 1763 the living
of Catterick, Yorkshire. He became so dissatisfied with
the Trinitarian creed that in 1773 he resigned his living
and published an " Apology" for his course, which is a
work of much research. He then removed to London,
where he was successful in forming a Unitarian congre
gation, and preached about twenty years. He published,
besides other works, a " Historical View of the State of
the Unitarian Doctrine and Worship," (1783.) Died in
1808.
See THOMAS BKI.SHAM, "Memoirs ofTheophilus Lindsey," 1812.
Lindsley, linz'le, (PHILIP,) D.D., an American di
vine and scholar, born at Morristown, New Jersey, in
1786. He became in 1850 professor of ecclesiastical
archaeology in the New Albany Theological Seminary,
Indiana. Died in 1855.
Ling, (PKHR HENKIK,) born in Smaland, in Sweden,
in 1776, is regarded as the founder of modern gym
nastic institutions, the first of which he established at
Stockholm. They were subsequently adopted at Berlin,
Vienna, and other German cities. Died in 1839.
Liiiga, ling'ga, or Liugarn, llng'gam, in the Hindoo
mythology, a phallic symbol, or type of the reproductive
power, which is regarded as the especial attribute of
Siva. (See SIVA.)
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon;" GUIGNIAUT, "Religions del'An-
tiquiie," book i. chap. ii.
Lingard, ling'gard, (Joiix,) an eminent English histo
rian, born at Winchester in 1771. He became a Roman
Catholic priest, and settled at Hornby, Lancashire, about
1811. He published in 1819 the first volume of his
" History of England from the First Invasion by the
Romans to the Accession of William and Mary in 1688,"
of which the sixth edition, in 10 vols., appeared in
1855- This work is highly esteemed for its style, accu
racy, and other merits. He also wrote " The Antiquities
of the Anglo-Saxon Church," (1806,) and other works.
He visited Rome in 1825, and, it is said, refused the
offer of a cardinal's hat. Died in 1851.
See " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1825, (vol. xlii..) and March,
1831, (vol. liii. ;) "Month'y Review" for Jniy and September, iSig,
and September, 1825; "North British Review" for November, 1846.
L'Ingegno. See LUIGI, (ANDREA DI.)
Lingelbach, Hng'el-baK', (JOHANN,) sometimes writ
ten Linglebach, an eminent painter of genre and land
scapes, was bom at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1625. He
studied in Rome, and settled in Holland about 1650.
He excelled in the treatment of markets, fairs, and sea-
aorts. His colour is good, his touch free and spirited,
and his works remarkable for variety. His blue dis
tances and lightly-clouded skies produce an exhilarating
effect. Among his works are a " Sea- Port in the Levant,"
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, vi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
LINGENDES
H35
LINN JE US
and "The Vegetable Market." Died at Amsterdam in
1687.
See C. BLANC, "Les Peintres de toutes les ficoles;" NAGLER,
" Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Lingendes, de, deh laN'zhftxcK, (Ci.AUDE,) a French
pulpit orator and Jesuit, born at Moulins in 1591 ; died
in 1660.
Lingendes, de, (JF.AN,) a French poet, born at Mou
lins about 1 580, composed stanzas, odes, and other verses.
Died in 1616.
Lingendes, de, (JEAN,) a relative of the preceding,
was born at Moulins in 1595. He became an eminent
preacher, and chaplain to Louis XIII. He was made
Bishop of Macon in 1650. Died in 1665.
Linguet, la.x'gi', (SIMON NICOLAS HENRI,) an elo
quent French advocate and polemical writer, born at
Rheims in 1736. He pleaded with success at the bar of
Paris, but made many enemies by his sarcasms and his
impetuous temper. He was confined in the Bastille two
years, ending in 1782. He published numerous works,
which display learning and talent but are censured as
paradoxical. Among them are a " History of the Age of
Alexander the Great," (1762,) and "The Fanaticism of
Philosophers," (1764.) He fell a victim to the reign of
terror in 1794.
See GARDAZ, " Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Linguet,"
1808; "Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Liniere, de, deh le'ne-aiR', (FRANCOIS PAYOT,) a
French satiric poet, born in Paris in 1628, was a gay
votary of pleasure. He composed songs and epigrams
with facility. Boileau, in his ninth Satire, mentions
Liniere as a judicious critic. Died in 1704.
Link or Linck, link, (HKINRICH FRIEDRICH,) a
German naturalist and physician, born at Hildesheim
in 1767. He was appointed professor of botany and
chemistry at Breslau in 1811, and in 1815 filled the
same chair at Berlin. He published numerous works
on botany, of which we may name "The Anatomy of
Plants," (1807,) and "Elements of Botanical Philos
ophy," (1824.) Died in 1851.
See VON MARTIUS, " Denkrede auf H. F. Linck," 1851; " Bio
graphic Medicale."
Liii'ley, (THOMAS,) an excellent English musical
composer, born at Wells about 1725, was a pupil of Pa-
radies. In his early life he conducted the concerts and
oratorios at Bath. He composed the music for Sheri
dan's " Duenna," which had great success, in 1775. In
1776 he removed to London, and became one of the
proprietors of Drury Lane Theatre, in partnership with
his son-in-law, R. B. Sheridan, the great orator. Mr.
Linley directed the musical department, and composed
for it the "Carnival of Venice," " The Camp," etc.
Among his admired productions are "Six Elegies,"
"Twelve Ballads," and a madrigal to these verses of |
Cowley,
" Let me, careless and unthoughtful lying,
Hear the soft winds above me flying."
Died in 1795.
See BURNEY, " History of Music."
Linley, (THOMAS,) a son of the preceding, was born
at Bath about 1756, and inherited his father's musical j
talent. He studied under the best masters of Italy, and
became very intimate with Mozart. He composed seve
ral admired airs for the theatre. He was drowned in
1778, while sailing in a pleasure-boat in Lincolnshire.
Linley, (WILLIAM,) a brother of the preceding, was
born about 1766. In his youth he went to India as a
clerk, and rose to the office of sub-treasurer at Fort Saint
George. He returned to England in the prime of life,
and devoted himself to music and literature. He com
posed several glees, songs, and other verses, and pub
lished the dramatic songs of Shakspeare. Died in 1835.
Linn, (Jon.\ BLAIR,) D.D., an American poet and
divine, born at Shippensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1777,
was brother-in-law of the celebrated novelist Charles
Brockden Brown, and son of William Linn, who was
also a divine. He became assistant pastor of the First
Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia in 1798. He
was the author of " The Powers of Genius," and other
poems, and a reply to Dr. Priestley's "Comparison
between Socrates and Christ." Died in 1804.
See DUVCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature."
Linn, (LEWIS FIELDS,) M.D., a Senator of the United
States, was born near Louisville, Kentucky, in 1795, and
removed to Missouri about 1816. He was elected to the
Senate by the Democrats in 1833, and again about 1838.
Died in 1843.
See "Life of L. F. Linn," by E. A. LINN and N. SARGENT,
1857-
Linnaeus, lin-nee'us, [Sw. VON LINNE, fon lin-nn',]
(CHARLES or CARL,) a celebrated Swedish botanist,
and the most influential naturalist of the eighteenth
century, was born at Rashult, in Smaland, on the 24th
of May, 1707. He was the son of Nicholas Linnaeus, a
village curate, who, it is said, so far underrated his son's
capacity that he made him an apprentice to a shoemaker
after he had reached the age of seventeen without mak
ing much progress in his studies. In 1727, however, he
was sent to the University of Lund to study medicine,
and his inclination for natural history was favoured by
Professor Stobasus. Although nearly destitute of pecu
niary resources, he pursued his studies at Upsal, (1728,)
where he was patronized by Olaus Celsius, who relieved
him from his extreme poverty. About 1730 he conceived
the idea of a reform in botanical method and nomencla
ture, and began the composition of several great works,
noticed below. At the expense of the Royal Academy
of Upsal, he made a botanical excursion on foot through
Lapland in 1732, the results of which appeared in his
"Flora Lapponica," (1737.)
Between 173^5 and 1738 he passed three years in the
house of George Cliffort, a rich Dutch gentleman living
between Leyden and Haarlem, who employed him to
arrange his fine garden and museum. Linnaeus has
expressed his gratitude to this benefactor for the facilities
he there enjoyed for his favourite pursuits, and has
honoured his memory by a work entitled "The Garden
of Cliffort," (" Hortus Cliffortianus.") He perceived
that it was necessary to invent methods of distribu
tion capable of embracing all creatures, and founded on
characters well defined ; to invent terms sufficiently
numerous to designate the prodigious variety of their
conformation, and define these terms with precision ;
finally, to make a general review of all beings described
in former works, or to be found by the exploration of
nature. The first sketch of this great enterprise ap
peared in two small volumes, entitled " System of Nature,
or the Three Kingdoms of Nature exhibited methodically
in Classes, Orders, Genera, and Species," (" Systema Na
turae, seu Regna tria Naturae systematice proposita, per
Classes, Ordines, Genera et Species," 1 735,) and " Funda-
menta Botanica," (1736.) The characters of genera were
largely developed in his " Genera of Plants according to
the Number, Figure, Position, etc. of the Parts of Fruc
tification," ("Genera Plantarnm secundum Numerum,
Figuram, etc. omnium Fructificationis Partium," 1737.)
He removed in 1738 to Stockholm, where he practised
medicine, lectured on botany, and received the title of
physician to the king. He married a daughter of Dr.
More in 1739. In 1741 he obtained at Upsal the chair
of botany, which he occupied thirty-seven years, witness
ing the continuous growth of his fame and influence, and
exerting his unabated activity to improve his scientific
productions. Thunberg, Kalm, Hasselquist, Forskal, and
other eminent naturalists, who had been his pupils, visited
various foreign countries and brought back willing tribute
to enrich his collections and publications. The botanical
philosophy of Linnaeus was reproduced in its ensemble,
arranged in its parts, and enforced by examples in his
" Philosophia Botanica," (1751.) "This work," says
Cuvier, " which exhibits on every page proofs of the
rarest ingenuity (finesse cTesprit) and the most sur
prising profoundness of observation, has enjoyed a suc
cess which was previously unexampled. It has become
as it were a fundamental law, to which all botanists con
form in their descriptions and in their use of terms."
His artificial sexual system was for a long time uni
versally adopted, but has been superseded in a great
measure by the natural method of Jussieu. In 1753 he
produced his "Species Plantai um," an important work,
in which he adopted the happy idea of designating each
species by a single epithet added to the name of the
genus. He also applied his methods with success to the
e as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanation s, p. 23.)
LINNAEUS
H36
LIPPI
animal kingdom in several enlarged editions of his
" Systema Naturae," in his "Fauna Suecica," ("Swedish
Fauna," 1744,) or history of Swedish animals, and va
rious other works. Died in January, 1778.
See PULTENEY, "Life of Linnaeus," 1781; AGARDA, " Antiqiii-
tates Linnaeanae," 1826; A. L. A. FEE, "Vie de LiimeY' 1832;
Miss HRIGHTWEU., '' Life of Linnaeus ;" VAN HALL, " Epistolse Lin-
nasi ;" J. TRAPP, " Life of Linnaeus," 1794; STOEVER, " Leben des
Ritters C. von LimieV' 2 vols., 1792; ADAM AFZEI.IUS, " Egenhan-
diga Anteckniiisar af C. Linnaeus om sie sjelf," 1823; ANTONIO
CATTANRO, " Cenni sulla Vita di C. Linne," 1838; " Nouveile Bio
graphic Gdnerale ;" " Monthly Review" for July, 1785.
Linnaeus, (Linne,) von, (CHARLES or CARL,) only
son of the preceding, was born at Fahlun in 1741. He
was chosen demonstrator of botany at the Royal Garden
of Upsal at the age of eighteen, and succeeded his father
as professor in the university of that place in 1778. He
published "Two Decades of Rare Plants of the Gar
den of Upsal," "Methodus Muscorum," ("Method of
Mosses,") and a few other small works. His talents
were moderate. lie died in 1783, and the family then
became extinct.
See SVKN ANDERS HEDIN, " Minne af C. von Linne, Fader och
Son," 1808.
Linne. See LTNN^US.
Lin'nell, (JoHN,) a successful English portrait- and
landscape-painter, born in London in 1792. He has
represented English scenery with success in the "Heath
Scene," "The Windmill," (1847,) and "The Forest
Road," (1853.) Among his other great works are the
" Eve of the Deluge," (1848,) "The Return of Ulysses,"
(1849,) and " Christ and the Woman of Samaria," (1850.)
His portraits of Thomas Carlyle (1844) and Sir Robert
Peel are admired. He is called an excellent colorist.
Linschooten, van, vtn lin'sKo'ten, (ADRIAAN,) a
skilful Dutch painter of history and genre, born at Delft
in 1590. Among his works is " The Repentance of Saint
Peter." Died about 1678.
Linschooten or Linschoten, van, (JAN HUGO,) a
Dutch voyager, born at Haarlem in 1563. He went to
Goa in 1583, and remained there several years in the
service of Archbishop Fonseca. After his return, he
published in 1596 an "Account of his Voyage, with a
Description of the Portuguese East Indies," which is
said to be reliable, and has often been reprinted. Died
in 1633.
Linseiibahrt, lin'sen-baRt', [Lat. ROSI'NUS LEN-
TII/IUS, | a German medical writer, born at Waldenburg
in 1657; died at Stuttgart in 1733.
Lint, van, vtn lint, (HENDRIK,) a skilful Flemish
landscape-painter, lived probably about 1630-50. He
worked in Rome, where he obtained the surname of
STUDIO. Among his works :s "Views near Rome."
Lint, van, (PiKTKR,) a Flemish painter of history,
born at Antwerp in 1609. He worked in Rome, and
afterwards at Antwerp, to which he returned in 1639,
and was patronized by Christian IV. of Denmark. lie
was a good colorist, a correct designer, and painted
history with equal success in large or small pictures.
Died about 1668.
See DESCAMPS, "Vie des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Lin'ton, (WILLIAM,) an eminent English landscape-
painter, born at Liverpool about 1790. He became a
resident of London in his youth, and afterwards travelled
extensively in the South of Europe. The subjects of his
best works are Italian and Grecian scenes, among which
are "The Bay of Naples," "Lake Lugano," "Ruins
of Paestum," "Athens," and "An Arcadian Landscape."
His style is simple and rather austere.
Li'nus, [Gr. Aivof,] a fabulous personage, whom the
ancients regarded as a son of Apollo or Mercury, and as
one of the inventors of poetry. lie is called by some
authors a personification of the dirge. Among the an
cient Greeks circulated a plaintive song or dirge called
"Linus," which is mentioned by Homer, ("Iliad," xviii.
569.) According to tradition, he was killed by Hercules,
who was his pupil.
Li'nus, [Fr. LIN, laN,] Bishop of Rome, was a native
of Volterra, in Tuscany. According to some accounts,
he became bishop in 66 A.D., and was the immediate
successor of Saint Peter. Little is known of his history ;
but it is supposed that he suffered martyrdom about 78
A.D. He is mentioned in Saint Paul's second Epistle to
Timothy, chap. iv. 21.
Lin'wood, Miss, an English artist, born at Birming
ham in 1755, made, in needle-work, copies of many pic
tures of the old masters. She was offered, it is said, three
thousand guineas for one of her works. Died in 1845.
Liouardo da Vinci. See VINCI, DA.
Li'o-nel, Duke of Clarence, the third son of Edward
III. of England, was born at Antwerp in 1338. He died
in 1368, leaving no issue except a daughter, Philippa,
who was married to Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March.
Lionne, de, deh le'on', (HucUKS,) Marquis de Berny,
a French statesman and diplomatist, born at Grenoble
in 1611. He was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1655.
He succeeded Mazarin in 1661 as minister of foreign
affairs, which he directed with great ability for ten years.
Died in 1671.
See SAINT-SIMON, " Memoires ;" SISMONDI, " Histoire des Fran-
cais."
Lionnet. See LYONNET.
Liotard, le'o'ta"R', (JEAN ETIENNE,) a Swiss portrait-
painter, surnamed THE TURK, because he adopted the
Turkish costume, was born at Geneva in 1702. In 1725
he went to Paris, where he acquired reputation by his
skill in crayon and enamel miniatures. He worked four
years in Constantinople, (1738-42), painting Turkish cos
tumes, etc. He afterwards painted portraits of the royal
families of Austria and France. Died in 1790.
See NAGI.ER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Liotard, (JEAN MICHEL,) a twin-brother of the pre
ceding, born at Geneva in 1702, was an engraver, and
one of the best pupils of Benoit Audran. He engraved
the great cartoons of C. Cignani in Italy, and afterwards
worked in Paris. He returned to Geneva, where he
died about 1760.
Liotard, (PIERRE,) a French botanist, born near
Grenoble in 1729, was originally a poor peasant. He
acquired a good knowledge of the plants of the Alps,
and was employed as guide by J. J. Rousseau ar.d
Desfontaines. He corresponded for some years with
Rousseau. Died in 1796.
Liouville, le'oo'vel', (JOSEPH,) an able French mathe
matician, born at Saint-Omer in 1809. He became in
1839 a member of the Institute. He wrote several im
portant treatises, and edited for a long time a journal
of pure mathematics called by his name.
Lipano, de, da le-pa'no, COUNTESS, was the title
assumed by Caroline, Queen of Naples, after the death
of Murat, her husband. See BONAPARTE, (CAROLINE
MARIE.)
Liparini, le-pa-ree'nee, (LUDOVICO,) an Italian painter
of history, born at Bologna in 1800 ; died in 1856.
Lipenius, le-pa'ne-us, (MARTIN,) a learned German
bibliographer, born in Brandenburg in 1630, was rector
of gymnasiums at Halle and Stettin. He compiled
"Bibliotheca Juridica," (1679,) "Bibliotheca Realis, etc.
Philosophica," (2 vols., 1682,) "Bibliotheca Realis The-
ologica," (2 vols., 1685,) and other works. Died at
Lubeck in 1692.
See J. H. VON SEEI.EN, "Vita M. Lipenii," edited by JENICHEN,
'737; NICERON, " Memoires."
Lipinski, le-pen'skee, (CHARLES,) a celebrated Polish
violinist, born at Radzin in 1790. He received the title
of first violinist to the Emperor of Russia.
Lippert, lip'peRt, (PHILIPP DANIEL,) a German artist
and glyptographer, was bom at Meissen in 1703. He
published " Dactyliotheca ; or, A Collection of Two
Thousand Prints of Antique Gems." Died in 1785.
Lippe-Schaumburg, von, fon lip'peh showm'booRG,
(FRIEDRICII WILHELM,) COUNT, a German general, born
in London in 1724. He served several campaigns in the
Austrian army, and afterwards travelled in Italy. He
obtained the chief command of the British troops sent
in 1761 to aid Portugal, which he defended with success
against the Spaniards. Died in 1777.
See BROCKHAUS, " Conversations- Lexikon."
Lippi, lep'pee, (ANNIBALE,) a Roman architect, who
lived in the sixteenth century.
Lippi, (FiiJPPO,) one of the most celebrated of the old
Italian painters in oil and fresco, born at Florence in 1412,
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, i.focure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LIP PI
H37
L IS FRANC
was a pupil of Masaccio. Before he was of age he was
captured by pirates and enslaved in Africa. His master
was so pleased with a portrait of himself, drawn with a
coal on the wall, that he gave the artist his liberty.
Lippi then returned to Florence, and adorned the
churches and convents of that city, and of Spoleto,
Prato, etc. Among his master-pieces are a Madonna,
in oil, "The Life ot Saint Stephen," "The Death of San
Bernardo," in oil, at Prato, two "Annunciations," and
"The Coronation of the Virgin," in fresco. He excelled
in invention, design, and colouring, and is ranked among
the greatest painters before Raphael. Died in 1469.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters ;" LANZI, " History of Paint
ing in Italy;" BALDINUCCI, " Notizie ;" TIUIZZI, " Dizionario ;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Lippi, (FiLiPPO or FIUPPINO,) son of the preceding,
was born at Florence in 1460, and became an excellent
painter. He studied with Sandro Botticelli, and worked
chiefly in Florence and Rome. He was distinguished
for his good taste and correctness of design, and was
perhaps the first painter among the moderns who treated
costumes and other accessories with propriety. Among
his master-pieces are " Saint Peter and Saint Paul before
the Proconsul," the " Death of Lucretia," at the Pitti
palace in Florence, several Madonnas, and frescos in
Santa Maria Novella, in the same city. Died in 1505.
See VASARI, " Lives of tlie Painters ;" LANZI, '' History of Paint
ing in Italy;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generaie."
Lippi, (GiACuMO,) an Italian painter, born near Bo
logna in the sixteenth century, was a pupil of L. Caracci.
Lippi, (LiiTO,) called LIPPO OF FLORK.NCK, a Floren
tine painter, born in 1354, was the father of Filippo
Lippi, (1412-69.) His works, which are praised by
Vasari, are not now extant. Died in 1415.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters."
Lippi, (LORENZO,) a successful Italian painter and
poet, born at Florence in 1606, received lessons in art
from Roselli. He worked in Florence, and was reputed
one of the best draughtsmen of his time. "The Martyr
dom of Saint Sebastian" and "The Triumph of David"
are called his master-pieces. He wrote a facetious poem
called "II Malmantile racquistato," (1676,) which was
admired and recognized by the Academy della Crusca
among the testi di lingua. Died in 1664.
See MRS. JAMESON, " Memoirs of Early Italian Painters ;" LANZI,
"History of Painting in Italy;" BALDINUCCI, "Notizie."
Lip'pin-cott, (JosHUA B.,) an American publisher,
distinguished for his ability, energy, and enterprise,
was born in Burlington county, New Jersey, in 1814
About 1828 he came to Philadelphia and engaged him
self in a small bookstore. At an early age he com
menced the publishing and bookselling business, which
he conducted successfully. In 1850 he purchased the
business of Messrs. Grigg & Elliot, and the firm of
which he became the head soon took its place among
the most distinguished publishing houses in the United
States.
Lippincott, (SARAH G.,) a popular American writer,
whose original name was CLARKE, was born at Pompey,
in Onondaga county, New York, about 1825. Her first
productions appeared in the New York " Mirror," under
the pseudonym of GRACE GREENWOOD. She also
contributed to the "National Era," Washington. Her
principal works are "Greenwood Leaves," (1850-52,)
" History of my Pets," (1850,) "Poems," (1851,) "Recol
lections of my Childhood," (1851,) "Haps and Mishaps
of a Tour in Europe," (1852,) "Forest Tragedy, and
other Tales," (1856,) and "Stories and Legends of His
tory and Travel," (1857.) She was married in 1853 to
Leander K. Lippincott, of Philadelphia, where she be
came editor of a popular juvenile periodical called "The
Little Pilgrim."
See Ci.KVEi.AND, "Compendium of American Literature;" ALI.I-
BUNE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Lippo OF FLORENCE. See LIPPI.
Lippomani, lep-po-ma'nee, (ALOISIO,) a learned Ital
ian prelate, born at Venice about 1500. He obtained
successively the bishoprics of Modon, Verona, and Ber
gamo, and was one of three prelates selected to preside
over the Council of Trent. In 1556 he became secretary
to Pope Julius III. He wrote, besides a few other works,
commentaries on Genesis, Exodus, and the Psalms. Died
'n 1559-
Liprandi, le-puan'dee, (PAUL PETROVITCH,) a Rus
sian general, born in 1796, distinguished himself at the
taking of Warsaw, in 1831, and in the Crimean war took
(October 25, 1854) the Turkish fortress at Kadikoi.
Lips, lips, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) a Swiss painter, de
signer, and engraver, born near Zurich in 1758. Among
his best works are the engravings for Lavater's " Phys
iognomical Fragments," and a " Saint Sebastian," after
Van Dyck. Died in 1817.
Lipse, (JusTK.) See Lirsius.
Lipsius, lip'se-us, (JUSTUS,) [Fr. JUSTE LIPSE, zhiist
16ps,] a Flemish scholar, critic, and philologist of high
reputation, was born at Isque, between Brussels and
Louvain, in 1547. lie was educated at Brussels and
Louvain. At the age of nineteen he produced "Various
Readings," (" Varise Lectiones,") which were received
with favour. He was professor of history in Jena two
years, ending in 1574, and occupied the same chair at
Leyclen from 1579 to 1592. About this time he became a
Roman Catholic, and was afterwards professor of history
at Louvain. He wrote many works on history, criticism,
antiquities, etc., which were very popular in his time.
His best work, according to Scaliger, is a commentary
on Tacitus, (1574,) whose history, it is said, he knew by
heart. His admiration of Tacitus and Seneca spoiled
his Latinity, which was affectedly concise. His moral
character is said to have been good. Died in 1606.
See MIK^KUS, "Vita Justi Lipsii," 1606; SCRIBANI, "Justi Lipsii
D-feiisio ;" CHARLES NISARD, " Le Triumvirat litteraire an XVle
Siecie, J. Lipse, Joseph Scaliger et I. Casanbon," 1852; EDWARD
VAN EVKN, " J. Lipsius alsVaderlander," 1849: HAYLE, " Historical
andCiiiical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generaie."
Liron, le'riN', (JEAN,) a learned French Benedictine
monk, born at Chartres in 1665, lived in Paris and at
Mans. Among his works are " The Amenities of Criti
cism," (2 vols., 1717,) and a curious book called "His
toric and Literary Oddities," (" Singularites historiques
et litteraires," 4 vols., 1734-40.) Died in 1749.
Liruti, le-roo'tee, (GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE,) an Italian
antiquary, born in Friuli about 1710; died in 1780.
Lis, 11s or less, (CHARLES AUGUSTS,) a Belgian com
poser, born at Antwerp in 1784; died in 1845.
Lis or Lys, liss, or Van der Lys, vtn der liss, QAN,)
a Dutch painter, born at Oldenburg in 1570. He worked
in Rome and Venice, taking for his models Titian and
Paul Veronese. Some critics find in his works the good
colouring of the former with the grace of the latter.
Among his productions are "Adam and Eve Mourning for
Abel," and "The Prodigal Son." Died at Venice in 1629.
Lis or Lys, van der, (TAN,) a Dutch painter, born
at Breda about 1600. A picture of "Diana Bathing" is
called his best work.
Lisboa, de, di les-bo'a, (MARCOS,) a Portuguese his
torian and Franciscan friar, born at Lisbon in 1511.
He wrote a "Chronicle of the Order of Friars of Saint
Francis," (3 vols., 1556, 1570, 1660,) and is ranked among
the classic authors of Portugal. Died in 1591.
Liscov, lis'kof, (CHRISTIAN Lumvic,) the most ex
cellent satirist and prose writer of Germany before Les-
sing, was born at Wittenberg in 1701. He lived at
Lubeck, Dresden, etc., and about 1741 became secretary
to Bruhl, the Saxon minister. In 1745 he obtained the
title of Kriegsrath, (councillor of war,) but a few years
later he was removed from office. He published in 1739
a "Collection of Satirical and Serious Writings." His
style was remarkable for purity. His works are per
vaded by a sound philosophical spirit, and have been
more highly appreciated since his death than before.
He was a complete master of the weapons of irony.
One of his treatises is entitled "The Excellence and
Utility of Bad Writers." Died in 1760.
See LISCH, "L'scovs Lcben," 1845; KARL GUSTAV HELBIG,
" C. L. Liscovv: Beitrag zur Literatur- und Cultur-Geschichte, " etc.,
1844.
Lisfranc, le'fR6,N', (JACQUES,) a distinguished French
surgeon, born in the department of Loire in 1790. Among
his works is " Diseases of the Uterus," (" Maladies de
rUterus," 1836.) Died in 1847.
See L. A. COUTOURIER, " Biographie de J. Lisfranc," 1852 ; " Nou
velle Biographie Generaie."
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, n, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LISLE
H38
L1TTA
Lisle, IT!, (Lady ALICE,) was the widow of an English
lawyer who took an active part against Charles I. She
was condemned to death by Judge Jeffreys, and executed
in 1685.
See MACAULAV, " History of England," vol. i. chap. v.
Lisle, (Sir GKORGK,) an English royalist officer, dis
tinguished himself at the battle of Newbury. Having
been taken prisoner at Colchester in 1648, he was shot.
L'Isle-Adam. See VILUERS.
Lisle, de. See DEI. is I.E.
Lisle, de, deh lei, (JEAN BAI-TISTE ISOARD,) a prolific
French writer, called also DELISLE DE SALES, was born
at Lyons in 1743. He was condemned to exile for the
alleged immorality of his " Philosophy of Nature,"
which consequently attracted attention ; but his sentence
was annulled or remitted. He wrote many other works.
Died in 1816.
Lismanin, lis-ma-neen', (FRANCIS,) a Socinian theo
logian, born at Corfu, became confessor to the Queen of
Poland about 1546. Died about 1563.
Lisola, de, deh le'zo'lS', (FRANC.OIS PAUL,) BARON,
an able diplomatist, born at Salins, France, in 1613. He
was successively employed by the Emperor of Germany
as minister to England, (1743,) to Poland, and to Spain.
He wrote several successful political treatises, one of
which, called "Shield of the State and of Justice,"
(1667,) was directed against the ambition of Louis XIV.
Died about 1675.
List, list, (FRIEDRICII,) a German political economist,
was born at Reutlingen in 1789. In 1825 he emigrated
to Pennsylvania, where he was extensively engaged in
coal-mining, and published, in English, "Outlines of a
New System of Political Economy," (Philadelphia, 1827.)
Having been appointed United States consul at Leipsic,
he returned to Europe in 1832, and in several publica
tions efficiently advocated the construction of railroads
in Germany. He published "A National System of Po
litical Economy," (Stuttgart, 1841,) in which he favours
the protection of native industry. He committed suicide
in 1846. Since his death his merit has been more fully
recognized throughout Germany.
See " Life of List," prefixed to an edition of his works published
at Stuttgart, 1851.
Lista y Aragon, les'la e a-ra-gon', (Don ALBERTO,)
an eminent Spanish poet, critic, and mathematician, born
at Triana, a suburb of Seville, in 1775. At the age of
twenty he became professor of mathematics in the nau
tical college of Seville. He obtained the chair of rhetoric
and poetry in the university of that city in 1807, but lost
it in consequence of the French invasion of 1808. He
passed about four years as an exile in France, from 1813
to 1817. In 1820 he began to edit "The Censor," at
Madrid. After various removals and adverse fortunes,
he became about 1833 editor of the "Gaceta de Madrid,"
which in his hands was an able and successful political
journal. In 1822 he published a volume of poems, which
are greatly admired. His superior critical ability is dis
played in his "Lectures on the Dramatic Literature of
Spain," (1839.) He also published a "Treatise on Pure
and Mixed Mathematics," which is a standard work.
As a lyric poet he united the fervour and splendid colour
of the old Spanish school with the purer taste and depth
of reflection of the moderns. His imitations of Horace,
in his "Philosophic Poems," are admirable. Died in 1848.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Lis'ter, (JOSEPH JACKSON,) F.R.S., an English mer
chant of London, who attained distinction by his know
ledge of optics and by his improvement of the achromatic
microscope. He had been led to the use of that in
strument by a love of natural history. About 1828 he
produced a combination of lenses which was perfectly
achromatic, with a large focal pencil, thus surmounting
what had before been the chief obstacle to the perfection
of the microscope. He sent to the Royal Society an
account of it, which was inserted in their "Philosophical
Transactions."
Lister, (MARTIN,) M.D., F.R.S., an English naturalist,
born at Radcliffe (Bucks) about 1638. In 1670 he settled
at York, where he practised medicine. He removed to
London in 1684, and published "Synopsis Conchylio-
rum," (1685-93,) a valuable work on conchology, which
was highly commended by Linnaeus. In 1709 he became
physician to Queen Anne. He wrote three excellent
treatises on English Spiders, Fluviatile Shells, and
Marine Shells, (1678,) and other works. "Lister may
be reckoned," says Hall am, "one of those who have
done most to found the science of conchology." (" In
troduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1711.
See THOMPSON, "History of the Royal Society."
Lister, (Sir MATTHEW,) an English physician, born
in Yorkshire about 1565. He became president of the
College of Physicians, London, and physician to Charles
I. Died in 1657.
Lister, (THOMAS HENRY,) an English author and
gentleman, born about 1800, was the son of Thomas
Lister, Esq., of Armitage Park. He obtained the office
of registrar-general of births. He published two novels,
entitled "Granby," (1826,) and " Herbert Lacy," and a
"Life of Lord Clarendon the Historian." He married
the sister of the Earl of Clarendon, known as the au
thoress of " Sketches of the Contemporaries of Lord
Chancellor Clarendon." Died in 1842. In 1844 his
widow became the wife of Sir George Cornewall Lewis.
He was a brother-in-law of Lord John Russell.
Lis'ton, (JoHN,) a popular English comedian, born
in London in 1776, appeared on the London stage about
1805. lie excelled in low comedy, and acted many years
at the Haymarket, Covent Garden, and Drury Lane
Theatres. Died in 1846.
Lis'ton, (RoiiERT,) F.R.S., an eminent Scottish phy
sician, born in 1794. About 1817 he began to practise
in Edinburgh, where he attained great eminence as a
surgeon. In 1833 he published his "Principles of Sur
gery." He removed to London in 1834, practised with
success, and became professor of clinical surgery in
University College. Died in 1848.
See CHAMHERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement.)
Liszinski, le-shen'skee, (CASIMIR,) a Polish philoso
pher, who was beheaded in 1689 on a false charge of
heresy or atheism.
Liszt, list, (FRANZ,) a Hungarian musician, and the
most celebrated pianist of recent times, was born at Rai
ding in 1811. He was instructed by Czerny and Salieri
at Vienna, and afterwards repaired to Paris, where his
performance made a great sensation. About 1823 he
visited England, and was received with equal enthusiasm.
Having, after his return to Paris, heard Pagan ini, he re
solved to obtain the same mastery over the piano which
that great musician had gained over the violin ; and it is
generally allowed that he has succeeded. He visited
the principal cities of Europe, and everywhere excited
the warmest admiration. Though he produced several
compositions, he chiefly excelled as a performer. Liszt
was distinguished for generosity, and gave largely to
charitable and useful institutions. In 1848 he was ap
pointed leader of the orchestra in the imperial chapel
at Weimar. He was the author of a " Life of Frederick
Chopin." Died in 1868.
See L. REI.I.STAB, " F. Liszt: Beurtheilungen, Berichte, Lebens-
sltizze," 1842; GUSTAV SCHILLING, " F. Liszt; sein Leben \ind
Wirken." 1844 : F. KEMPE, " F. Liszt ;" RICHARD WAGNER, "Apho-
ristische Memoiren," etc., 1852.
Lith'gow, (WILLIAM,) a traveller, who traversed on
foot a large part of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and pub
lished in 1614 an entertaining narrative of his travels.
At Malaga he was arrested as a spy and heretic, and
tortured by the Inquisition.
See "Retrospective Review," vol. xi., 1825.
Lithov, lit'hov, ? (GusTAVUS,) a Latin poet, born in
Sweden in 1692. In 1734 he published "Heroic-Mis
cellaneous Poems," ( Poemata hero'ico-miscellanea." )
His "Panegyric on Charles XII." (1720) produced a
great sensation. Died in 1753.
Litta, let'ta, (PoMi'KO,) COUNT, an Italian historical
writer, born in Milan in 1781. He entered the French
army in 1804, fought at Austerlitz, (1805,) and, having
obtained the grade of chef-de-bataillon, left the service in
1814. In 1819 he began to publish at Milan his famous
and costly work, " Celebrated Italian Families," which
was continued until his death, and contains accounts of
5, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
LITTLE
H39
L1V1A
seventy-five families. It is considered remarkable for
historical accuracy. Died in 1852.
See BRCJCKHAUS, " Conversations- Lexikon."
Little. See MOORE, (THOMAS.)
Lit'tle, (HENRY,) an American general, born at Bal
timore, served in Mexico in 1846, and entered the Con
federate army in 1861. He was killed at the battle of
lukn, in 1862.
Lit'tle, (WILLIAM,) an English historian, called NAU-
BRIGENSIS, was born at Bridlington, Yorkshire, in 1136.
He became a monk of Newborough Abbey, and wrote a
" History of England from the Conquest to 1197," which
is a work of merit.
Lit'tle-tpn, (ADAM,) an English divine, eminent as
a philologist and Orientalist, was born in Shropshire in
1627. He became chaplain to Charles II., rector of
Chelsea, and prebendary of Westminster. His Latin
Dictionary (1679) was esteemed and often reprinted. He
published many sermons, and other works. Died in 1694.
Littleton, (EDWARD,) LORD, lord keeper of the great
seal of England, born at Munslow, Shropshire, in 1589,
was a lineal descendant of the jurist Thomas Littleton.
After finishing his studies in the Inner Temple, he soon
rose to the summit of his profession. In 1626 he entered
Parliament, where he was at first a zealous adherent of
the popular party, but afterwards went over to the court
with Wentworth and others. He was made chief justice
of the common pleas in 1640, and reluctantly accepted
the great seal in January, 1641. He was then raised to
the peerage, as Lord Littleton. The vacillation which
he displayed in the contest between Charles I. and the
Parliament is ascribed to lack of moral courage ; but he
was suspected of perfidy by the royalists and by the king.
In 1642 the king, then at York, ordered Falkland to de
mand the great seal from the "traitor." Littleton soon
joined the court at York, and, through the intercession
of Lord Clarendon, was retained in office until his death,
in 1645. "He was," says Lord Campbell, "a man of
excellent private character."
See LORD CAMPBELL, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors of Eng
land," 1X46; Foss, "The Judges of England."
Littleton, (EDWARD,) an English poet. He was
presented to the living of Maple Durham about 1727,
and was afterwards chaplain to the king. He was author
of Verses on a Spider, and other poems. Died in 1734.
Littleton, LORD. See LYTTLKTON.
Littleton or Lyttleton, (THOMAS,) a celebrated
English judge and jurist, born probably about 1420, was
the son of Thomas Westcote, of Devonshire, and Eliza
beth Littleton. He studied in the Inner Temple. In
1455 he was appointed king's Serjeant, and rode the
northern circuit as judge of assize. After the triumph
of the house of York, he received a pardon from Edward
IV., about 1462, and was retained in the office of king's
sergeant. He was appointed a judge of the court of
common pleas in 1466, and created a knight of the Bath
in 1475. He died in 1481, leaving three sons, from whom
the lord keeper Lyttleton and other eminent men de
scended. His treatise on " Tenures," written in Norman
French, is regarded as the principal basis of the laws
of property in Great Britain, and is indispensable to
students of English law. The style is remarkably clear
and pure. Sir Edward Coke wrote a celebrated com
mentary on Littleton.
See Foss, " The Judges of England."
Littre, letR, (ALEXIS,) a French physician, born at
Cordes in 1658, practised in Paris, and wrote many
memoirs on pathological anatomy. Died in 1725.
Littre, le'tRa', (MAXIMILIEN PAUL EMILE,) a French
philologist, born in Paris in 1801. He was one of the
editors of the "Nationel," a democratic journal, from
1831 to 1851. His most important work is an edition
of Hippocrates with a French version, (8 vols., 1839-52,)
which is, say the French critics, the best edition extant.
Littrow^ lit'tRof or lit'tRo, (JOSEPH JOHANX,) an
eminent astronomer, born in Bohemia in 1781. He was
appointed professor of astronomy at Cracow in 1807, and
at Kazan in 1810. In 1819 he'became director of the
Observatory of Vienna, which he greatly improved, and
lectured on astronomy with success in that city. He
published many valuable scientific works, among which
are "Theoretic and Practical Astronomy," (1822-26.)
'" Dioptrics," (1830,) and "The Wonders of the Heavens,"
0853.) The last is called one of the best popular books
on that subject. Died in 1840.
Littrow, (KARL LUDWIG,) a son of the preceding,
was born at Kazan in 1811. He succeeded his father
as director of the Observatory of Vienna in 1842. The
Annals of this observatory which have appeared since
his appointment are esteemed among the most valuable
astronomical registers. In 1847 Eittrovv and W. Struve
were employed to connect Austria and Russia by trian-
gulation.
Lit-jf-er'ses, [Gr. AJTW^C,] a son of Midas, King
of I'hrygia, was killed by Hercules.
Liutprand. See LUITPRAND.
Liutprandus. See LUITPRANDUS.
Livens. See Li EVENS.
Liverani, le-va-ra'nee, an Italian theologian, born at
Castel-Bolognese in 1823, published in 1861 a work
against the temporal power of the pope.
Liv'er-more, (AKIEL ABBOTT,) an American Unita
rian divine, born at Wilton, New Hampshire, in 1811,
became in 1850 pastor of a church at Cincinnati. He
has published a number of works in prose and verse.
Liy^er-pool, (CHARLES JENKINSON,) first EARL OF,
a British statesman, born in Oxfordshire in 1727, was
the son of Charles Jenkinson. In 1761 he entered Par
liament, and was appointed by Lord Bute under-secretary
of state. After the retirement of Lord Bute, in 1763, he
acquired the favour of the king, and incurred much
popular odium as the chief of the secret cabinet. He
became one of the lords of the treasury in 1767, was
secretary of war under Lord North from 1778 to 1782,
and was afterwards president of the board of trade in
the ministry of the younger Pitt. He was created Lord
Hawkesbury in 1786, and Earl of Liverpool in 1796. In
1758 he had published a "Discourse on the Conduct of
Great Britain with respect to Neutral Nations." He died
in 1808, leaving his title to his son, who became premier.
Liverpool, (ROBERT BANKS JENKINSON,) EARL OF,
a conservative British statesman, eminent for his pru
dence and prosperity, born in 1770, was the son of the
preceding. He was educated at Oxford. In 1790 he
entered Parliament as a political friend of Pitt. He dis
tinguished himself by his candour in debate, by abilities
more solid than brilliant, and by his persistent hostility
to innovation or reform. About 1796 he received the
title of Lord Hawkesbury, and married a daughter of
the Earl of Bristol. He became foreign secretary in the
ministry of Addington in March, iSoi, and made peace
with Napoleon by the treaty of Amiens in 1802. In
1804 he accepted the office of home secretary under Pitt,
who had returned to power. The ministry having been
dissolved by the death of Pitt, in 1806, Lord Hawkesbury
was requested by the king to form a new ministry ; but
he declined the task. He took office as home secretary
in the cabinet of the Duke of Portland in 1807, and suc
ceeded to his father's earldom in 1808. In June, 1812,
he obtained the place of first lord of the treasury, or
premier, vacated by the death of Percival, which he re
tained until he was prostrated by a stroke of apoplexy
in February, 1827. "He presided over the councils of
England," says Brougham, " for a longer time than any
other, excepting Walpole and Pitt. It happened to him
that the years during which the helm of the state, as it
is called, were intrusted to his hands, were those of the
greatest events, alike in negotiation, in war, in commerce,
and in finance, which ever happened to illustrate or to
checker the annals of Europe. ... So long and so little
interrupted a course of official prosperity was never,
perhaps, enjoyed by any other statesman." Brougham
also represents him as remarkable for discretion and
as a model of safe mediocrity. He is censured for op
posing the abolition of the slave-trade, and for the part
he took in the persecution of Queen Caroline. Died
in December, 1828.
See BROUGHAM, "Statesmen of the Time of George III.;"
" Memoirs of the Public Life of Lord Liverpool, " London, 1827.
Livl-a, [Fr. LIVIE, le've',] or, more fully, Livl-a
Dru-sil'la, a Roman empress, born in 58 B.C., was
first married to Tiberius Nero. After becoming the
c as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (33f=See Explanations, p. 23.)
L1VIA
1440
LIVINGSTONE
mother of Tiberius and Drusus Germanicus, she was
married in 38 H.C. to the emperor Augustus, over whom
she acquired an ascendency which she retained until his
death. She persuaded him to adopt her son Tiberius as
his successor. By his last will he appointed Livia and
Tiberius his heirs, and directed her to assume the name
of Julia Augusta. She was a woman of superior talents.
Died in 29 A.D.
See J. D. KOEULER, "Dissertatio de Livia Augusta," 1715;
TACITUS, "Annales," i. and v. : "Nmivelle Biographic Generale. "
Liv'I-a Liv-il'la, a granddaughter of the preceding,
was the s'ister of Germanicus. She became the wife of
her cousin Drusus, the son of Tiberius, and was sus
pected of poisoning her husband in concert with Sejanus.
She was put to death for that crime, by order of Tiberius,
about 30 A.D.
Livie. See LIVIA.
Livineius. See LIKVENS, (JoiiN.)
Liv'iug-stpn, (BROCKHOLST,) an American jurist and
soldier, born in New York in 1764, served with distinc
tion in the Revolutionary war, and subsequently rose to
be a judge of the supreme court of the United States.
He was a son of William Livingston, Governor of New
Jersey. Died in 1823.
Livingston, (EDWARD,) an eminent American jurist
and statesman, born in Clermont, Columbia county, New
York, on the 26th of May, 1764, was a son of Robert
Livingston, a judge of the supreme court of New York.
His mother was Margaret Beekman. He graduated at
Princeton College, New Jersey, in 1781, studied law,
and began to practise in the city of New York about
1785. He married Mary McEvers, of New York. After
he had acquired great eminence as an advocate, he was
elected a member of Congress in 1794 by the Democrats.
He was re-elected in 1796 and in 1798. In 1801 he was
appointed district-attorney of the United States for the
State of New York, and elected mayor of the city of
New York for two years. In the autumn of 1803 he
became a public defaulter in consequence of the mis
conduct of one of his clerks. He made an assignment
of his property, resigned his offices, and removed in
1804 to New Orleans. Having lost his first wife, he
married a Creole, named Louise Moreau de Lassy, in
1805. lie enjoyed great professional success in New
Orleans, and paid in full the debt which he owed to
the government. He was involved in a long controversy
and litigation about the title to some land, called the
Batture, which he purchased in New Orleans. President
Jefferson was one of his adversaries in this dispute ;
but Livingston gained his cause. At the battle of New
Orleans, January 8, 1815, he acted as aide-de-camp to
General Jackson, who was his intimate friend. In 1821
he was authorized by the legislature of Louisiana to
revise the system of criminal law. I fe acquired celebrity
by his " System of Penal Law or Criminal Codes," pub
lished in 1833, in which he opposed capital punishment.
"This volume," says the " Edinburgh Review" for July,
1864, "is a perfect treasure-house of juridical and legis
lative schemes and suggestions, doctrines and contri
vances ; and its indirect influence has been immense."
M. Villemain declared the "System" to be "a work
without example from the hand of any one man. . . .
The lapse of time has deepened and strengthened the
foundations of his fame."
He represented a district of Louisiana in Congress
from 1823 to 1829, and was elected a Senator of the
United States by the legislature of that State in the
latter year. In April or May, 1831, he was appointed
secretary of state by President Jackson. Having re
signed this office in May, 1833, he was immediately
appointed minister-plenipotentiary to France, where he
is said to have "hit the happy medium between firm
ness and conciliation in diplomacy." He returned home
about the end of 1835, and died r.t Rhinebeck, New
York, in May, 1836. He had several children.
See a " Life of Edward Livingston." by CH AKI.ES HAVENS HUNT,
with an Introduction by GEORGE I'ANCROFT, 1864; "National Por
trait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans, " vol. i. ; " North American
Review" for October, 1836.
Liv'ing-stpn, (Jons,) a Scottish Presbyterian divine,
born in 1603. Having declined to take the oath of alle
giance in 1663, he was banished, and retired to Rotter
dam, where he died in 1672.
See CIIAMHKKS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
A. GUNS, "Memoirs of j. Livingston," New York, 1829.
Livingston, (Rev. JOHN H.,) an American divine
of the Dutch Reformed Church, born at Poughkeepsie,
New York, in 1746. Having studied at Yale College
and in Holland, where he received the degree of D.D.,
he became, on his return, pastor of the Dutch Church
in New York. He was appointed professor of theology
at Queen's College, New Jersey, in 1807, and president
of that institution in 1810. Died in 1825.
Livingston, (I'mi.ti',) an American revolutionist, and
signer of the Declaration of Independence, born at Al
bany in 1716. He graduated at Yale College in 1737,
and in 1759 was elected a member of the General Assem
bly of the colony from the city of New York. In 1770
he was one of the committee appointed to correspond
with the celebrated Edmund Burke, then agent for the
colony of New York. He was elected a member of the
Congress of 1774 and 1776. Died in 1778.
Livingston, (Runnier,) the first possessor of the
Livingston Manor, New York, was born in Scotland in
1654. He emigrated to New York about 1672, and ob
tained a grant of a large tract of land near the Hudson
River. He was the ancestor of several eminent men named
Livingston. He had three sons, Pinup, ROBKRT, and
Gii.iiKUT, from the second of whom the statesmen Robert
R. and Edward Livingston were descended.
Livingston, (RoiiKKT R.,) an American statesman,
born in New York in 1746, was a brother of Edward
Livingston, the great jurist. He graduated at King's
College, New York, in 1765. He was a descendant of
Robert, noticed above. As a member of the Congress
of 1776, he was appointed one of the committee to draw
up the Declaration of Independence. He became chan
cellor of the State of New York in 1777, was secretary
for foreign affairs about two years, (1781-83,) and in
1801 was sent as minister to France, where he was very
favourably received by Napoleon and assisted in the
negotiation for the purchase of Louisiana. He returned
home in 1805, after which he aided Robert Fulton in
the introduction of steam-navigation, and promoted
improvements in agriculture. Died in February, 1813.
See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
Livingston, (WILLIAM,) an American jurist, brother
of Philip, noticed above, was born in New York in 1741.
Having removed to New Jersey, he was elected to the
first Congress from that State in 1774. He became
Governor of New Jersey in 1/76, which office he filled
for fourteen years. He was a member of the Convention
which framed the Constitution, (1787.) He was the
author of a " Review of the Military Operations in North
America from 1753 to 1758;" also of several political
works, and of a poem entitled "Philosophical Solitude."
Died in 1790.
See " Memoir of William Livingston," by THEODORE SEDG-
WICK, JR.
Liv'ing-stone or Liv'ing-ston, (DAVID,) a Scottish
missionary, distinguished as an explorer of Africa, was
born at Blantyre, near Glasgow, about 1815. He worked
in a cotton -factory in his youth. Having studied medi
cine and theology, with an intention to labour as a mis
sionary, he was sent by the London Missionary Society
to South Africa in 1840. He laboured and travelled in
the interior of Africa for sixteen years, and made im
portant discoveries, for which the Geographical Society
awarded him a gold medal. He returned to England in
1856, and published an interesting work entitled " Mis
sionary Travels and Researches in South Africa," etc.,
(1857.) In iS<;S he again went to Africa, as consul at
Quilimane or KiHimane, with a view to explore the river
Zambesi, to promote the production of cotton, and to
open commercial intercourse with the natives of that
region. He returned to England in 1864, and about the
end of 1865 published a "Narrative of an Expedition to
the Zambesi, 1858-64." He set out again for Africa in
1865. A report reached Europe in the spring of 1867
that Dr. Livingstone had been killed near Lake Nyassa ;
and, although later information showed that rumour to
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, fhort; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n& gooa; moon;
L1V1N
1441
LLOTD
have been false, great uncertainty still prevails respecting
his fate.
See "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1866: "West
minster Review" tor January, 1866 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for
January, 1858.
Livin Menus, lee'vin ma'nus, ? a skilful Dutch
painter, born at Amsterdam in 1630, worked for many
years at Florence, where he died in 1691.
Livius, (TiTus.) See Livv.
Liv'i-us An-dro-iil'cus, a popular Roman dramatist
and actor, who began his career as an author about 240
li.C. The place of his birth is unknown. He is regarded
as the earliest dramatic writer of Rome. He composed
both tragedies and comedies, of which only small frag
ments now remain, and was the sole performer of his
own plays, which were used in schools in the time of
Horace. He was a writer of industry and learning
rather than original genius.
See PROFESSOR SELLARS, " Roman Poets of the Republic,"
chap. iii.
Livonniere, de, deh le'vo'ne-aiR', (CLAUDE Poc-
quet — po'ki',) a French jurist, born at Angers in 1652 ;
died in Paris in 1726.
Livoy, de, deh le'vwa', (Pere TIMOTHEE,) a French
friar and litterateur, born at Pithiviers in 1715. He pub
lished, in 1767, a "Dictionary of French Synonyms.''
Died in 1777.
Liv'y, [Lat. Liv'ms,] (Trrus,) [It. TITO LIVIO, tee'to
lee've-o ; Fr. TITE LIVE, let lev,] a celebrated Roman
historian, was born at Patavium (now Padua) in 59 H.c.
Ancient writers furnish us few particulars of his life,
except that he was patronized by Augustus and became
a person of consideration at court. He appears to have
passed the greater part of his time in Rome. Niebuhr
favours the opinion that he was in early life a teacher of
rhetoric. His great history of Rome, from the origin of
the city to the year 9 H.C., was called by him " Annales,"
and was comprised in one hundred and forty-two books,
of which thirty-five have come clown to us entire, — viz.,
the first, third, and fourth decades, and five books of the
fifth decade. We have also epitomes, by an unknown
hand, of one hundred and forty books. The first book
was probably published or written between 29 and 25
B.C. His dialogues on philosophy and politics, which,
according to some writers, procured him the favour of
Augustus, are not now extant.
The great popularity of his history must be ascribed
to the excellence and beauty of his style and his wonder
ful powers of description. The numerous orations by
which the history is diversified are models of eloquence.
" The painting of the narrative," says Macaulay, in his
essay entitled " History," in the "Edinburgh Review,"
" is beyond description vivid and graceful. The abun
dance of interesting sentiments and splendid imagery in
the speeches is almost miraculous." But he was desti
tute of many qualifications essential to a historian of the
first order. Incapable of broad philosophic views, and
indisposed to profound research, he was more studious
to exalt the national glory and produce a picturesque
effect than to compose a true history. He made little
use of public documents, and was not familiar with the
antiquities of his country. His work is also deficient
in the explanation of the original constitution of the
state, the contests between the orders, the progress
of civilization, and other domestic affairs. Livy was
married, and had two or more children. Died at Padua
in 17 A.D.
See N. MACHIAVEI.I.I, "Discorso sopra la prima Decada di Tito
Livio," 1532, (translated into Engiit-h by E. DACRES, 1636:) D. W.
MOI.LER, "Disputatio circulaiis de 'liio Livio." 1688; A. M. MENE-
GHKI.I.I, "Vita di Tito Livio." 1^35; G. V. TOMMASIXI, " Vita Titi
Livii," 1630; J. C. HAND, " De Tito Livio Oratore," 1773.
Llanos de Valdez, la'nos da val'deth, (Don SF.UAS-
TIAX.) a Spanish painter, born at Granada about 1602;
died after 1670.
Llewellyn or Llywelyn, loo-eM'in, L, Prince of
Wales, began to reign about 1 190, and married a daughter
of John, King of England. The latter afterwards invaded
Wrales and forced him to do homage. Llewellyn waged
war against Henry III. about 1228. Being harassed by
the rebellion of his youngest son Griffith, he made, in
1237, a treaty with Henry, and purchased peace by
acknowledging himself the vassal of that king. He died
in 1240, and was succeeded by his son David.
Llewellyn II. was the son of Griffith, and successor
of his uncle David. He renewed the homage to Henry
III., but conspired with the Earl of Leicester against
him in 1263. Llewellyn and his allies were defeated at
Evesham in 1265. In 1276 he was summoned by Edward
I. to come and do homage ; but he declined. Wales
was then invaded and conquered by Edward in 1277.
Llewellyn, having again revolted, was killed in battle,
about 1280.
Llorente, lo-ren'ta, (BERNARDO GERMANO,) a Span
ish painter, born at Seville in 1685 ; died in 1757.
Llorente, (Don FELIX,) a Spanish painter, born at
Valencia in 1712, was successful in history, landscapes,
and portraits. Died in 1787.
Llorente, (Don JUAN ANTONIO,) a learned Spanish
historian, born near Calahorra, in Aragon, in 1756.
Having l>een ordained as a priest, he was chosen vicar
general of the see of Calahorra in 1782. Favoured by
Florida-Blanca or the king, he was appointed in 1789
secretary-general of the Inquisition, of which he became
a determined adversary. Iiri794 the Grand Inquisitor
directed Llorente, whose opinions were known to be
liberal, to write an exposition of the abuses of the In
quisition. In 1808 he embraced the party of the French
invaders, was admitted into the council of state by King
Joseph, and promoted the suppression of the Inquisition
in 1809. On the expulsion of the French from Spain, in
1814, he went as an exile to Paris, where he published
in 1817 his "Critical History of the Spanish Inquisi
tion," which was his great work. It is said by Prescott
to be the only authentic account of that institution. He
also wrote " Historical Notices of the Basque Provinces,"
(1806-8.) Died in 1823.
See PRESCOTT, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella." vol. i. parti. ;
his autobiographic Memoirs, " Noticia biografica o Memorias para
la Historia de su Vida," 1818 ; J. A. MAHUL, " Notice biographique
sur Don J. A. Llorente," 1823 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;"
"Monthly Review," vol. xci., 1820, (Appendix.)
Lloyd, loid, (CHARLES,) an English banker, eminent
as a scholar and philanthropist, born in Birmingham
in September, 1748, was a member of the Society of
Friends. He was conspicuous as an advocate of the
abolition of the slave-trade, and was a man of great in
fluence in the community. He was an uncle of Thomas
F. Buxton, and father of Anna Braithwaite. Died in 1828..
Lloyd, (CHARLES,) an English bishop, born in Buck
inghamshire in 1784. He was appointed regius professor
of divinity in Oxford in 1822, and Bishop of Oxford in
1827. Died in 1829.
Lloyd, (CHARLES,) an English poet, born in Birming
ham, was a son of Charles Lloyd, banker, noticed above,
and was a friend of Coleridge, Lamb, and Southey. In
1796 he went to Bristol, and lived in the same house
with Coleridge. Lloyd produced, besides other poems,
" Nugae Canorae," ("Sounding Trifles," 1819,) "Desul
tory Thoughts in London," (1821,) and "The Duke
of Ormoncl," a tragedy, (1822.) He translated the
tragedies of Alfieri into English. Died in 1839.
See DE QLMNCEY, "Literary Reminiscences," vol. ii. ; "Monthly
Review" for May, 1816, July, 1820, and July, 1823.
Lloyd, (DAVID,) a British biographer, born in Merio
nethshire in 1625. He took orders, and successively
held several benefices. Among his principal works is
"The Statesmen and Favourites of England since the
Reformation," (1665.) Died in 1691.
Lloyd, (HENRY,) a British officer, distinguished as a
writer on tactics, was born in Wales about 1725. He
served in the Seven Years' war, first in the Austrian
army and afterwards in that of Prussia. About 1770
he obtained the rank of major-general in the Russian
army, and was employed in a war against the Turks, but
was suspected of being a secret agent of the English
government. Suddenly quitting the Russian service, he
went to Gibraltar, and gave valuable counsel to General
Elliott respecting the siege of that fortress. He died at
Huy in 1783, leaving an " Introduction to the History of
the War between the King of Prussia and the Empress
Maria Theresa," (1781,) a " Memoir on the Invasion and
Defence of England," (1798,) and other works.
See " Nouvelle Blographie Generale."
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
91
LLOYD
1442
LOB STEIN
Lloyd, (NICHOLAS,) a British .writer, born in Flint
shire in 1634. He obtained the living of Newington,
Surrey, in 1672. In 1670 he published a " Historical,
Geographical, and Poetical Dictionary," which was once
esteemed. Died in 1680.
Lloyd, ( ROBERT,) an English poet, born at West
minster in 1733. He became an usher in the West
minster School, and a companion of Churchill, Colman,
etc. His health and fortune were injured by dissipated
habits. He composed an admired poem, "The Actor,"
(1760,) "The Capricious Lovers," a comic opera, and
other works. Died in 1764.
See NEWTON, "Life of R. Lloyd;" KENRICK, "Life of Lloyd,"
1774-
Lloyd, (WILLIAM,) a pious and learned English
bishop, born in Berkshire in 1627. He was appointed
Bishop of Saint Asaph in 1680, and was one of the
bishops imprisoned by James II. in 1688 for refusing to
publish in their churches the declaration of indulgence
to Catholics and dissenters. He became almoner to
William III., Bishop of Li ch field in 1692, Bishop of
Worcester in 1699 or 1700, and almoner to Queen Anne
a few years later. lie furnished Burnet valuable mate
rials for his history, and wrote several religious treatises.
Died in 1717.
See BURNET, " History of his Own Times;" MACAULAY, " His
tory of England ;" Miss STRICKLAND, "Lives of the Seven Bishops,"
London, 1866. J3<Vj1<^, &«:&*»« *y 7//3Z ,
Llywelyn. See LLEWELYN.
Loaysa, lo-I'sa, (GARCIAS,) a Spanish cardinal and
eloquent preacher, born at Talavera about 1480. About
1524 he became confessor to Charles V. He was after
wards Bishop of Seville, and president of the Royal
Council of the Indies. Died in 1546.
Lobau, de, cleh lo'bS', (GEORGES Mouton — moo'-
t6x',) COUNT, a French general, born in Phalsbourg in
1770. He entered the army in 1792, became aide-de
cani]) of Joubert in 1798, and aide-de-camp of Bonaparte
in 1805. His services were rewarded by the rank of
general of division in 1807. He displayed great courage
at Eckmiihl, Aspern, and Lobau in 1809, and received
the title of Count de Lobau. In the invasion of Russia
(1812) he was aide-major-general of the imperial guard.
He fought at Lutzen and Bautzen in 1813, and was taken
prisoner at Waterloo in 1815, after which he passed many
years in retirement. During the revolution of 1830 he
favoured the cause of Louis Philippe, who appointed him
commander of the national guard in December, 1830, and
gave him a marshal's baton in 1831. Died in 1838.
See J. NOI.LET-FABKKT, " Le Marechal Mouton," 1832 ; PIERRE
PHILIPPE DE SEGUR, " E"loge historique de M. le Comte de Lobau,"
1839.
Lobb, (THEOPHILUS,) an English physician, born in
London in 1678. He practised with success in that city,
and wrote medical works, among which are a "Treatise
on the Small -Pox," (1731,) and "Medical Practice in
Curing Fevers," (1735.) Died in 1763.
Lobe, lo'beh, QOHANN CHRISTIAN,) a German mu
sical composer, born at Weimar in 1797. He produced
in 1833 "The Princess of Granada," an opera. His
theoretic works are highly esteemed.
Lobeck, lo'bek, (CHRISTIAN AUGUST,) one of the
most thorough and acute philologists and antiquaries of
recent times, was born at Naumburg, in Prussia, in 1781.
lie became professor of ancient literature and eloquence
at Konigsberg in 1814. He published valuable editions
of the " Ajax" of Sophocles, (1810,) and of Phrynicus,
(1820.) Among his other most important works is " Pa-
thologiee Linguae Graecae Elementa," (1853.) Died in
1859-
See " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale."
Lobeira or Lobeyra, de, da lo-ba^e-ra, written also
Loveira, (VASCO,) a celebrated Portuguese author, was
born at Oporto about 1360. He was knighted by King
John I. of Portugal on the battle-field of Aljubarrota in
1386, and died in 1403. He was the author of the famous
romance " Amadis de Gaul," which is now seldom read.
The earliest edition now known was printed in 1519. It
passed for the best of the romances of chivalry until the
satire of Cervantes rendered them all unpopular.
See TICKNOR'S " Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap. xi. p. 221
et seq.
Lobel or L'Obel, k/bel', (MATHIKU,) an eminent
botanist, born at Lille, France, in 1538. He practised
medicine at Antwerp, and became physician to the Prince
of Orange, after whose death he went to England, where
he passed the most of his life. In 1570 Lobel and Pena
published in London " Stirpium Adversaria," which pre
sents the first sketch, though rude, of a natural method
of botany, with neat engravings of about two hundred
and seventy plants. He published in 1581 a valuable
work entitled " Icones Stirpium," which contains figures
of about two thousand plants, and is still, says Duvau,
often consulted. Lobel was also physician to James I.
Died near London in 1616. The genus Lobdia was
named in honour of him.
See C. F. A. MORRKN, " Notice biographique surM. de L'Obel,"
1853 : EI.OY, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine."
Lobell or Loebell, 16'bel, (JOHANN WILHELM,) a
German historian, born in Berlin in 1786. He became
professor of history at Bonn about 1830.
Loben or Loebeii, lo'ben, (Orro H KINRICH,) COUNT,
a German writer of the romantic school, born at Dresden
in 1786, is known by the name of ISIDORUS OKIKNTALIS.
He wrote, besides numerous tales and poems, romances
entitled " Guido" (1808) and "Arcadion," (1811.) Died
in 1825.
Lobera, lo-Ba'ra, (Luis,) a Spanish physician, born
at Avila, in Old Castile. He was physician to Charles
V., and published treatises on anatomy and medicine,
(1542-51.)
Lobiiaeau, lo'be'no', (Gui ALEXIS,) a learned French
monk, born at Rennes in 1666. He wrote a continuation
of the " History of Bretagne" (1707) by Legallois, and
another of Felibien's "History of Paris," (5 vols., 1725.)
Died in 1727.
Lobkowitz. See CARAMUEL.
Lobkowitz. See HASSENSTEIN.
Lobkowitz, von, fon lob'ko-wits', (GEORG CHRIS
TIAN,) PRINCE, an Austrian general, born in 1702. He
took command of the army of the empress Maria Theresa
in 1741, and gained advantages over the French at Brau-
nau and Prague. Died in 17^3. His son JOSEPH, born
in 1725, distinguished himself in the Seven Years' war as
major-general. In the reign of Joseph II. he was made
a field-marshal. Died in 1802.
Lobo, lo'bo, (FRANCISCO RODRIGUEZ,) a celebrated
Portuguese poet, born at Lein'a about 1550. He was the
author of songs, pastoral romances, sonnets, and of a
prose work entitled "Court in the Country and Winter
Nights." lie has been styled "the Portuguese Theocri
tus." "He was," says Longfellow, "a scholar of great
erudition ; and the services he rendered to the Portu
guese language and style make an era in that literature."
See LONGFELLOW'S " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Lobo, IO'HO, (GERARDO,) a Spanish poet, born in Old
Castile. He became a favourite at the court of Philip
IV., who sometimes required his companions to talk
in verse to him. Lobo had a remarkable facility for
improvisation, and, it is said, could converse all day
without descending to prose. His productions consist
of odes, sonnets, etc. Died in 1668.
Lobo, (JEUONIMO,) an enterprising Portuguese mis
sionary and Jesuit, born at Lisbon in 1^93. He was
sent to labour in the mission of Goa in 1622. In 1625,
with other missionaries, he undertook to evangelize
Abyssinia, whose sultan, Seged, (Segued,) had become a
Roman Catholic, or at least was friendly to that Church.
The sultan having died, the missionaries were expelled
by his successor in 1634. In 1640 he went again to Goa,
where he was chosen provincial of his order. He re
turned to Lisbon in 1656, and published a valuable rela
tion of his travels in Abyssinia, entitled a " History of
Ethiopia," (1659,) which was translated into English by
Dr. Johnson. Died in 1678.
See BARBOSA MACHADO, " Bibliotheca Lusitana."
Lobstein, 15p'stm or lob'staN', (JEAN FREDERIC,) a
French anatomist and surgeon, born near Strasburg in
1736 ; died in 1784.
Lobstein, (JEAN FREDERIC,) an anatomist, a nephew
of the preceding, born at Giessen in 1777, lived at Stras
burg. Died in 1835.
a, e, T, 5, u, y,long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
LOC4TELLI
H43
LOCKE
Locatelli, lo-ka-tel'lee, or Lucatelli, loo-ka-tel'lee,
(ANDREA,) an Italian painter of landscapes and genre,
horn at Rome. He adorned his landscapes with figures
which are admired, and displayed good taste in familiar
scenes. His works are praised by Lanzi. Died in 1741.
Locatelli, (LuiGl,) an Italian physician, born at Ber
gamo, invented the "balm of Lucatel." Died in 1637.
Locatelli or Lucatelli, (Pi F.TKO,) a historical painter,
born in the Roman States. lie was admitted into the
Academy of Saint Luke in 1690.
Locatelli, (PIETKO,) an Italian violinist, born at Ber
gamo in 1693 ; died in 1764.
Locceilius, lok-sa'ne-iis, (JoHAN,) a Swedish histo
rian, born in Holstein about 1598. Queen Christina gave
him the title of historiographer of Sweden. He wrote,
in Latin, " History of Sweden," (1654,) and several works
on law. Died in 1677.
See M. STEUCH, " Memoria J. Locceuii," 1678; OLOF A. KNOES,
" Letvernes Beskrifning 0111 J. Loccenius," 1807.
Loch, lok or loK, ([AMES,) a Scottish lawyer, born in
1780. He was employed as auditor by the Earl of Elles-
mere and other noblemen, and was for many years a
Literal member of Parliament. He published a " Sta
tistical and Historical Account of the County of Suther
land." Died in 1855.
Locher, loK'er, (JAKOB,) a German poet, born in
Suabia in 1470, was surnamed PHII.OMUSUS. He was
crowned poet-laureate by the Emperor of Germany.
Among his works (in Latin) are a poem on Lazarus
and Dives, and "The Judgment of Paris," (1501.) Died
in 1528.
Lochner, loK'ner, (MICHAEL FKIEDRICH,) a skilful
German physician and botanist, born near Nuremberg
in 1662 ; died in 1720.
Lock, (MATTHEW,) an excellent English composer,
born at Exeter about 1635. Soon after the restoration
(1660) he received the title of composer-in-ordinary to
Charles II. He is called the first English composer for
the stage. Some of his sacred compositions appeared in
the " Harmonia Sacra." His chief title to durable fame
is the admirable " Music in Macbeth." Died in 1677.
See BURNEY, " History of Music."
Lock'art, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish lawyer, born
near Edinburgh in 1675. He wrote "Memoirs of Scot
land." Died in 1732.
Locke, lok, [Lat. LOC'KIUS,] (JOHN,) a celebrated
English philosopher and philanthropist, born at Wring-
ton, in Somersetshire, in 1632, was 'the son of Captain
Locke, who served in the parliamentary army during
the civil war. He studied at Westminster School, and in
1651 entered Christ Church, Oxford, where he soon dis
tinguished himself by his talents and acquirements. He
left Oxford with no very favourable views of the system
of instruction there pursued. He had, indeed, been far
more indebted for his mental culture to his own efforts
than to the skill or labour of his tutors, 'and was himself
an example of that self-teaching which in his writings
he so strongly recommends. In 1665 Locke accom
panied, as secretary, Sir Walter Vane, royal envoy to
the Elector of Brandenburg. He returned to England
in February, and soon after formed the acquaintance of
Lord Ashley, (afterwards Shaftesbury,) who received him
into the number of his most intimate and confidential
friends. In 1672, Shaftesbury being then lord chancellor,
Locke was appointed secretary for the presentation
of benefices, but quitted this office in 1673, when his
patron, having quarrelled with the court, resigned the
great seal. In 1675 Locke visited the south of Frame
on account of his health. He resided more than a year
at Montpellier, and afterwards spent much time in Pan's.
He returned to his own country in 1679; but, Shaftes
bury having been compelled by his enemies to leave
England towards the close of 1682, Locke followed him
to the continent in 1683, and passed several years in
Holland. In 1688 he returned to his native land in
the same fleet that conveyed the Princess of Orange to
England. Soon after his arrival, he was offered by Lord
Mordaunt the position of envoy to one of the European
courts ; but he declined the office on account of his
feeble health : he accepted, however, the post of com
missioner of appeals, which yielded him, it is said,
two hundred pounds a year, — no inconsiderable sum for
that period. The asthmatic affection under which he
had been suffering for many years having become more
aggravated, he resigned, in 1700, his position under 'the
government, and retired to Oates, in Essex. Here he
spent the remainder of his days at the house of Sir
Francis Masham, whose accomplished lady was the
daughter of the celebrated Dr. Cudworth. He died
October 28, 1704.
Locke was no less distinguished for his virtues and
piety than for his extraordinary intellectual endowments.
All his writings may be said to have had for their object
the improvement of mankind in knowledge, liberty, and
virtue. Although he was in favour of the utmost free
dom of investigation in regard to religious as well as
other truths, he entertained for the Holy Scriptures the
profoundest veneration. To a friend inquiring the best
way to attain a true knowledge of the Christian religion,
he answered, "Study the Holy Scriptures, especially
the New Testament : therein are contained the words
of eternal life. It has God for its author, salvation for
its end, and truth without any mixture of error for its
matter." A little before his death, while acknowledging
that his life, on the whole, had been a happy one, he
pronounced all sublunary enjoyments to be "vanity,"
and earnestly exhorted his friends to prepare for the
endless life to come. He extolled the goodness of God
in providing for the salvation of mankind through faith
in Jesus Christ, and expressed particular gratitude that
he had been led through divine goodness to the know
ledge of the Saviour. (See a letter by Coste, the French
translator of the " Essay on the Human Understanding,"
published February, 1 7*05.) As a controversialist, Locke
was remarkable not only for the clearness and cogency
of his arguments, but also for the perfect fairness and
respect with which he treated his opponents. His con
versation, we are told, was a "happy union of wit and
good sense ;" so that his company was sought by many
of the most distinguished men of that period, — such as
Halifax, Buckingham, etc. As an evidence of the variety
and extent of his attainments, we may mention that the
great Sydenham, alluding to Locke's skill in medicine,
gave it as his opinion that "in genius, penetration, and
accurate judgment he had in that age few equals and
scarcely any superior." From the character of Locke
as given by Le Clerc, which he assures us " is an accu
rate and by no means flattered description," we take the
following: " He was a profound philosopher, and a man
fit for the most important affairs. He had much know
ledge of belles-lettres, and his manners were very polite
and particularly engaging. He knew something of almost
everything which can be useful to mankind, and was
thoroughly master of all that he had studied ; but he
showed his superiority by not appearing to value himself
in any way on account of his great attainments. . . . He
was very charitable to the poor, provided they were not
the idle nor the profligate. . . . He was an exact ob
server of his word, and what he promised was sacred.
He was scrupulous about recommending people whom
he did not know ; and he could not bring himself to
praise those whom he did not think worthy." (See "Life
of Locke," by Lord King, pp. 267-271.)
Locke's great work, entitled an " Essay on the Human
Understanding," was first published in 1690, (three years
after the appearance of Newton's " Pn'ncipia,") although
the original copy, still preserved and in his own hand
writing, is dated 1671, — an evidence of his great caution
(evinced also in his other works) with respect to offering
his views to the public. The leading position of his
essay is that the human mind has no innate ideas, and
that all ideas, with their various combinations, are to be
j referred to sensation and reflection. His other publica
tions were, — three " Letters on Toleration," (1690-92,)
' a "Treatise on Education," (1690,) one on the value of
| money, (1691,) "The Reasonableness of Christianity,"
I (1695,) a m"st and second Vindication of the last-named
work, (1696,) and three elaborate letters in defence of
the " Essny on the Human Understanding" against
Stillingfleet, Bishop of Winchester, (1697-99.) Locke's
work on the "Conduct of the Human Understanding,"
1 and his " Discourse on Miracles," and " Commentaries
as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23 )
LOCKE
1444
LODER
on the Epistles of Saint Paul," were published after his
death."
See "Life of Locke," by LORD KING; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale ;" "Biographic Universelle ;" article^" Locke" in the
'•Encyclopaedia Briiannica ;" JEAN LECI.ERC, " £loge hislorique cle
feu M. Locke," 1711 ; "Memoirs of the Lite of J. Locke," 1742;
J. G. MELI.RING, "Merita J. Lockii in Phiiosophiam," 1702; LlL-
JENROTH, "Dissertatio Vitam J. Lockii exponens," 1793; EDOUARO
LABOUI.AYE, " Locke Legislateur de la Caroline," 1850; "Edinburgh
Review" for April, 1854.
Locke, (Jonx,) M.D., an American geologist, born
at Fryeburg, Maine, in 1792. lie became professor
of chemistry at Cincinnati in 1836. He was well versed
in geology and natural history. Died in Cincinnati
in 1856.
Locke, (JOSEPH,) M.P., F.R.S., an eminent English
railway-engineer, born near Sheffield in 1805. He learned
the business of engineering with the celebrated George
Stephenson. He gained a high reputation as engineer
of the Grand Junction Railway, (of whic.i Birmingham
is one of the termini,) completed in 1837. The London
and Southampton Railway, under his direction, was
opened in 1840. He was afterwards employed as en
gineer of the railways connecting Paris and Rouen, and
Havre and Rouen, in France. For several years before
his death he was a member of Parliament, in which he
acted with the Liberal party. Died in 1860. ,
See " Life of Joseph Li eke," by J. DEVEY, 1862.
Lock'er, (EmvARD HAWKE,) an English writer, born
in Kent in 1777. He was private secretary to Lord
Exmouth about fifteen years, commencing in 1800. He
was one of the projectors and editors of "The Plain
Englishman," a useful periodical adapted to the instruc
tion of the people. He also published "Lectures on the
Bible and Liturgy." Died in 1849.
Lockhart, lok'art, (Sir GKOKGK,) an eminent Scot
tish lawyer, was a brother of Sir William, noticed be
low. He was admitted to the bar about 1656, and was
appointed lord president of the court of sessions in 1685.
He was murdered. in Edinburgh in 1689.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary ol Eminent Scotsmen."
Lockhart, (GKOKGK,) a son of the preceding, was
born near Edinburgh in 1673. He was a zealous and
prominent partisan of the Pretender about the time of
the rebellion of 1715. lie wrote "Memoirs concern
ing the Affairs of Scotland," which are of some historical
value. Died in 1731.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Lockhart, (Jonx GIHSON,) a distinguished British
author, poet, and critic, was born at the manse of Cam-
busnethan, in Lanarkshire, Scotland, in 1794. He was the
son of a Presbyterian minister, who removed to Glasgow
while the subject of this article was in his infancy. As
a student in the Glasgow University he obtained a valua
ble bursary, in virtue of which he entered Baliol College,
Oxford. lie studied law, and was called to the Scottish
bar in 1816, but preferred the profession of literature.
He was one of the chief contributors to "Blackwood's
Magazine" for about seven years after it was first estab
lished, in 1817. He advocated Tory principles in politi
cal articles which displayed a great mastery of sarcasm
and invective. In 1820 he married Sophia, daughter of
Sir Walter Scott. He produced in 1821 "Valerius, a
Roman Story," which is much admired, and was fol
lowed by "Reginald Dalton, a Story of English Univer
sity Life," (1823.) About this time he published elegant
translations of "Ancient Spanish Ballads." In 1825 01
1826 he removed to London, and became editor of the
" Quarterly Review," which he conducted with success
until 1853, and for which he wrote many excellent criti
cal and biographical articles. In 1843116 was appointee"
to the lucrative office of auditor of the duchy of Corn
wall. His most important work is his "Life of Sii
Walter Scott," (7 vols., 1838,) which ranks very high ii
respect to literary merit, and is surpassed in interest
by few, if any, biographies in the English language.
He also published a "Life of Robert Burns," (1825,'
which was received with favour, and Lives of Theodore
Hook and Napoleon I. His manners were reserved
and even chilling. His last years were rendered un
happy by the loss of his wife and two sons. He died ii
1854, leaving a daughter, who was the only surviving
lescendant of Sir Walter Scott when she was married
.o Mr. Hope.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
Supplement;) " Biographical Sketches," by HAKKIKT MARTINEAU,
London, 1869; "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1864;
' Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1830, (with a portrait.)
Lockhart, (Sir WILLIAM,) of Lee, an able British
statesman, born in 1621. He fought for Charles II.,
and was made prisoner at Preston, (1650.) In 1652 he
entered the civil service of Cromwell, and in 1655 was
sent as ambassador to Louis XIV. of France. He com-
nanded the British at the siege of Dunkirk in 1658, and
then became governor of that place. At the restoration
of 1660 he was recalled. Died in 1675. "He was,"
says Clarendon, "a man of great address in treaty."
SeeCnAMBKK.s, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
' North British Review" for February, 1862.
Lockius. See LOCKK, (JoiiN.)
Lockmaii. See LOKMAN.
Lock'man, (|OHN,) an English writer on various
subjects, born in 1698; died in 1771.
Lock'wood, (IlKNKY II.,) an American general, born
in Kent county, Delaware, about 1814, graduated at
West Point. He became a brigadier-general of United
States volunteers in August, 1861, and took part in the
battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863.
Locmaii. See LOKMAN.
Locie de Roissy, lo'kua' deli uwa'se', JEAN Gtui.-
LAUME,) a jurist, born of a French family at Leipsic in
1758, came to France in his youth. He published "The
Spirit of the Code Napoleon," (" Esprit du Code Napo
leon," etc., (5 vols., 1806,) and "The Civil, Commercial,
and Criminal Legislation of France," (31 vols., 1826-32.)
Died in 1840.
Loder, lo'der, ( JUSTUS CHRISTIAN,) an anatomist,
born at Riga in 1753. In 1809 the Czar Alexander called
him to Moscow and chose him for his first physician.
He published "Anatomical Plates," ("Tabula; Ana-
tomicae," 1794,) with explicative text, a work of great
merit. Died in Moscow in 1832.
See MEUSKI., " Gelehrtes Deutschland."
Lodge, (Ei>MUM>,) an English herald and biographer,
born in London in 1756. lie became Norroy king-at-
arms in 1822, and Clarenceux king-at-arms in 1838. He
published valuable "Illustrations of British History,"
(3 vols., 1791,) and "Portraits of Illustrious Personages
of Great Britain," (4 vols., 1821-34,) which is his prin
cipal work. It was republished in 8 vols., 1849. In
reference to it Sir Walter Scott remarked, "It is impos
sible for me to conceive a work which ought to be more
interesting to the present age than that which exhibits
before our eyes our 'fathers as they lived,' accompanied
with such memorials of their lives and characters as
enable us to compare their persons with their sentiments
and actions." Died in 1839.
See the " Monthly Review" for May, 1792.
Lodge, (THOMAS,) an English dramatist and versatile
writer, born probably about 1556. He is supposed to
have been in early life a soldier and play-actor. Ac
cording to some authorities, he practised medicine with
success in London, and died of the plague in 1625. He
translated Josephus and Seneca into English, and wrote
successful dramas, novels, and other works. Among his
principal productions are "The Wounds of Civil War,"
a tragedy, (1594,) a " Looking-Glass for London and
England," (a drama, of which R. Greene was joint author,)
and "Rosalynde: Euphues' Golden Legacie," (1590,) a
novel which furnished the incidents of Shakspeare's "As
You Like It." Hal lam calls him one of the best poets
of the age. (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.")
See WOOD, "Athense Oxonienses ;" " Biographia Dramatica."
Lodge, (WILLIAM,) an eminent English engraver,
bom at Leeds in 1649. He travelled in Italy and in his
native country, and published engravings of places, etc.
which he had designed. He translated into English
Barri's "Picturesque Journey in Italy," (1679,) and en
graved with remarkable skill a series of portraits of
eminent persons. Died in 1689.
Lodi, (CALISTO DA.) See PIAZZA, (CALISTO.)
Lo'dur, [related to the German lodern, to " blaze,"]
one of the gods of the Norse mythology, who assisted
a, e, T, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
LOEBELL
1445
LOHAIA
Odin in the creation of mankind. He is supposed to
typify vital warmth. As Loki is named from the perni
cious qualities of fire, so Lodur would seem to represent
its beneficent properties. (See LOKI, also HOENMK.)
Loebell. See LOBKLL.
Loebeii. See Lou EN.
Loefling. See LOFLING.
Loehr. See LOHR.
Loenurot. See LONNROT.
Loescher. See LOSCHER.
Loesel. See LOSEL.
Loeve-Veimars, lo'ev' va'miR', (FRANCOIS ADOL-
I'HE,) BARON, a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1801.
He published translations from the German, tales, cri
tiques, a "History of Ancient Literature," (1825,) and
other works. Died in 1854.
Loewen. See I .OWEN.
Loewenklau. See LK.UNCLAVIUS.
Lofft, (C.\PEL,) an English writer on various subjects,
born in London in 1751, was a gentleman and lawyer.
He patronized the poet Hloomfield, advocated the abo
lition of the slave-trade, and wrote political pamphlets,
dramas, verses, etc. He died in France in 1824.
Lofliug or Loefling, lof/ling, (PETER,) a Swedish
botanist, born at Tollforsbruch in 1729. He was a
favourite pupil of Linnaeus, by whose mediation he was
appointed botanist to the King of Spain in 1751. He
accompanied as naturalist an expedition sent by the
Spanish government to South America in 1754. After
brief explorations of the districts of Cuniana and Guiana,
he died in 1756. His "Excursion in Spain" ("Iter His-
panicum") was published in 1758 by Linnaeus.
Lofn, lofn, or Lov'ua, [from /#/", "praise," also
" leave," " favour :" compare the German Lob and Ver-
laub,\'m the Norse mythology, a goddess, who is espe
cially favourable to lovers, by whom she is principally
worshipped. Power is given to her to unite those who
love each other, whatever obstacles may stand in the
way. From a root cognate with her name the Swedes
derive their fdrlofva and the Germans their verloben,
signifying to "betroth."
See THORPE, "Northern Mythology;" MALI.ET, "Northern
Antiquities," vol. ii., Fable XVIII.
Lof'tus, (DUDLEY,) an Irish lawyer, versed in Orien
tal lore, was born near Dublin in 1618. He became a
master in chancery and a judge of the prerogative court.
He translated several works from the Syriac, and made
the Latin version of the /"Kthiopic New Testament which
was published in Walton's Polyglot. Died in 1695.
Lof'tus, ( WILLIAM KENNETT,) an English archaeolo
gist, born at Rye about 1820. He explored the sites of
ancient cities on the Euphrates and Tigris, and pub
lished a valuable work entitled "Travels and Researches
in Chaldaea and Susiana," etc., (1857.) Died in 1858.
Lo'gan, a celebrated Indian chief, of the tribe of the
Cayugas, whose original name was Tah-gah-jute, was
born about 1725. His family having been murdered
by a party of white men, he avenged himself by waging
a destructive war on the Western settlers, in which the
Indians were at length defeated. He was killed in 1780
in a skirmish with a party of Indians. Logan's regard
for the whites caused him to be called by his country
men "the P'riend of the White Man." A granite monu
ment was erected to his memory at Fair Hill Cemetery,
near Auburn, in Cavuga countv, New York.
Logan, (GEORGE,) an American physician and philan
thropist, born near Philadelphia in 1753, was a grandson
of James Logan, noticed below. He was an earnest
advocate of peace, and went to France in 1798 in order
to prevent a war between France and America. He
represented Pennsylvania in the Senate of the United
States from 1801 to 1807. He acted with the Repub
licans, and was denounced by the Federalists for his
voluntary services in France. Died in 1821.
Lo'gan, (JAMES,) a colonial statesman and author,
born at Lurgan, Ireland, in 1674, was a member of the
Society of Friends. He was master of the Greek, Latin.
French, and German languages. In 1699 he accompanied
William Penn to America as his secretary. Under the
patronage of William Penn he was much employed in
public affairs. He was appointed secretary of the pro
vince in 1701, after which he became chief justice and
president of the council. He acted as Governor about
two years after the death of Governor Gordon, in 1736.
Among his works is a Latin treatise on the generation
of plants, " Experimenta et Meletemata de Plantarum
Generatione," (1739.) He produced a good version of
Cicero " De Senectute," (1744.) He collected a library
of about 3000 volumes, which is known under the name of
the Loganian Library and is included in the Philadelphia
Library. Died near Philadelphia in October, 1751.
See a "Memoir of James Logan," by W. ARMISTEAD.
Lo'gan, (JoHN,) a Scottish divine and poet, born at
Soutra in 1748. He was appointed minister of Leith in
1773, and became an eloquent and popular preacher.
He delivered in Edinburgh lectures "On the Philosophy
of History," which were published in 1781. In this year
he published a volume of admired poems, chiefly lyrical,
among which is an "Ode to the Cuckoo." Having given
offence to his church by writing " Runnimede," a tragedy,
(1783,) he removed to London in 1785. There he wrote
a pamphlet entitled " Review of the Charges against
Warren Hastings," advocating the cause of Hastings.
It led to the celebrated trial of Stockdale, his publisher.
Died in 1788. His sermons were published in 1790, and
are highly esteemed.
See " Life of Logan," prefixed to an edition of his poems, 1805 ;
CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Logan, (JoHN A.,) an American general, born in
Jackson county, Illinois, in February, 1826. He studied
law, which he practised with success until he was elected
a member of Congress by the Democrats of the ninth
district of Illinois, in 1858. In 1860 he was again elected
to Congress. Having raised a regiment of volunteers,
he was appointed colonel of the same in September,
1861, and was wounded at Fort Donelson, February,
1862. He became a brigadier-general in March, 1862,
and a major-general about the end of that year. He
served with distinction in the campaign against Vicks-
burg which ended July 4, 1863. In October, 1863, he
obtained command of the fifteenth army corps, with
which he contributed to the victories gained by Sherman
between Chattanooga and Atlanta, after McPherson was
killed. He commanded the army of the Tennessee in a
battle near Atlanta, July 22, 1864. He also led a corps
of Sherman's army in the march from Savannah through
South Carolina and North Carolina in February and
March, 1865. He was one of the most successful of the
civilian or political generals in the civil war. In 1866
he was elected to Congress as a Radical. He was one
of seven members elected March 2, 1868, as managers
to conduct the impeachment of President Johnson. He
was again elected to Congress in 1868.
Logan, (Sir WILLIAM EDMOND,) a distinguished geol
ogist, born at Montreal, Canada, in 1798. About 1842
he was appointed to superintend a geological survey of
Canada. He received the gold medal of honour at the
Paris Industrial Exhibition of 1855, and in 1856 the
i Wollaston palladium medal.
Logau, von, fon lo'gow, (FRIEDRICH,) KARON, a Ger
man poet, born in Silesia in 1604. He passed the latter
part of his life in the service of the Duke of Liegnitz,
and died in 1655, leaving a great number of epigrams,
which were highly praised by Lessing and are remark
able for irony and pathos.
Loges, des, di lozh, MADAME, a Protestant French
lady, whose maiden name was MARIE BRUNEAT, (bRii'-
no'J was born at Sedan about 1584. Her house in Paris
was frequented by Malherbe and other eminent wits,
attracted by the charm of her conversation. Died in 1641.
Log'gan, (I)AVID,) an eminent engraver and designer,
born at Dantzic about 1635. He became a resident of
London, where he published Engravings of the Colleges
of Oxford, ("Oxonia Illustrata,") and similar illustra
tions of those of Cambridge. After the restoration of
1660, he engraved portraits of Charles II., and of many
dukes, earls, prelates, etc. of his time. Died in 1693.
See STRI-TT, "Dictionary of Engravers."
Lohaia, Ibn, ib'n lo-hi'a, or Ibn-Lahia, Ib'n la-hee'a,
a Moslem doctor, born about 710 A.D. He was appointed
Cadee of Egypt in 771, and died about 790. The tra
ditions transmitted through him are of great authority
c 3&k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, giittnral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (25f=See Explanations, p. 23.)
LOHEXSTEIN
LOKI
among Egyptians. Silvestre de Sacy attaches importance
to the historical traditions derived from him.
Lohenstein, von, ton U/en-stin', (DANIEL CASPAR,)
a German writer, born at Nimptsch, in Silesia, in 1635.
He founded a literary school which corrupted the na
tional taste, and wrote tragedies and other poems. " He
was always tumid," says Hullam, "and striving at some
thing elevated, so that the ' Lohenstein swell' became a
byword with later critics." (" Introduction to the Litera
ture of Europe.") Died in 1683.
See PASSOW, " D. C. von Lohenstein, seine Tnuierspiele," etc.,
1852.
Lohr or Loehr, IOR, (JOHANN ANDREAS CHRISTIAN,)
a German writer, born at Halberstadt in 1764, published
several popular works for children. Died in 1823.
Lohurasp, lo'hoo-rSsp', written also Lohrasp, a
Persian king, who was (according to the " Shah Nameh")
the father of Gushtasp. He is supposed to have reigned
about 550 li.C. According to the Arabian chronicles,
his army took Jerusalem.
See J. ATKINSON'S " Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Fir-
dausi," London, 1832.
Loir, IwaR, ( NICOLAS PIKRRE, ) a skilful French
painter, born in Paris in 1624. After a visit to Rome,
he returned in 1649, was received as Academician in
1663, and was patronized by Louis XIV., who gave him
a pension of four thousand francs. lie worked with
facility, and was successful in history and landscapes.
The picture of "Cleobis and Biton drawing the Chariot
of their Mother" is called his master-piece. He etched
about one hundred and fifty pieces of his own and of
other artists. Died in 1679.
His brother ALEXIS, born about 1640, had a high
reputation as an engraver. He engraved several works
of Ponssin, Lebrun, etc. Died at Paris in 1713.
See NAGI.ER, " Allgemeines Kunsder-Lexikon."
Loiseau de Mauleon, Iwa'xo' deh mo'la'As', (ALKX-
ANDRE JEROME,) an eloquent French advocate, born in
Paris in 1728. lie was a friend of Rousseau, who ad
vised him to defend good causes exclusively. " He fol
lowed my counsel," says Rousseau, " and has found the
advantage of it. His defence of M. de Portes is worthy
of Demosthenes." Died in 1771.
See ROUSSEAU, "Confessions."
Loisel, Iwa'zeV, (ANTOINE,) a French jurist, born at
Beauvais in 1536. He wrote, besides other legal works,
"Institutes coutumieres," (1607,) a treatise on common
law. Died in 1617.
Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, Iwaz'lUR'da'ldN'shd.N',
(AuousTE Louis AKMAND,) a French Orientalist, born
in Paris in 1805, gave special attention to the Sanscrit.
His most important work is "The Book of the Laws of
Manu," (" Manava-Dharma-Sastra," 1832.) Died in 1840.
Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, (JEAN Louis Au-
GUSTE,) a French botanist, born at Dreux in 1775, was
the father of the preceding. He obtained a diploma as
physician in 1805. Among his works are a " Flora Gal-
lica," (2 vols., 1806-7,) and " Le Nouveau Duhamel," or
"Treatise on Trees and Shrubs cultivated in the Open
Air in France," (7 vols., 1812-19.) Died in 1849.
See LECLERC, "filoge de M. Loiseleur-Deslongchanips," 1851.
Loison, lwa'z6Nr, (Louis HENRI,) a French general
of division, born in Lorraine about 1770, received the
grand cross of honour for his conduct at Austerlitz,
(1805.) Died in 1816.
Lojsalfar. See ELVES.
Lok or Loke. See LOKI.
Loki, lo'ke, or Loke, lo'keh, written also Lok, [from
the old Norse logi, (Ger. Lo/ie,} "flame," allied to the
Latin luc-eo, to "shine," and to the Scottish lug, "fire;"
probably so named because he united the subtlety and
untrustworthiness (or treachery) of fire with its destroy
ing properties,] in the Norse mythology, the god of evil
and deceit, corresponding in the main with the Ahriman
of the Zoroastrians. He is of Jotim (giant) descent, but
was received among the gods, and in the beginning was
a foster-brother of Odin. From his association with the
/Esir, he is often styled ASA-LOKI or ASALOKE. He is
called by various appellations ; among others, the Slan
derer or Accuser, — epithets exactly corresponding to the
Greek 6iu8oAo<;, (Latin Diab'olus.} He is the enemy and
mocker, as well as tempter, of gods and men. As proof
of his subtlety, he often changed his sex, assuming on
different occasions the form of a mare, a cow, an old
woman, etc., as well as that of the gods. The /Esir often
made use of his cunning and strength ; but still more
frequently they had cause to rue those very powers em
ployed against themselves. Professor Petersen furnishes
perhaps the most philosophical and most satisfactory
account of Loki and his various attributes that can any
where be found. Among other things, he observes that
"Asaloke forms an antagonism (modstztning) to all the
other gods. He is the [principle of] evil exerting itself
in every direction. He runs in the veins of mankind as
sensuality. He is the destructive [power) of nature in
air, in fire, and in water. In the bosom of the earth [he
shows himself] as volcanic fire; in the sea as a devour
ing serpent ; in the lower world (underverden) as pale
Death. He is not confined to any one part of nature,
but, like Odin, pervades it all. . . . And all that he is
in [external] nature, the same is he in the mind of man :
shrewdness, but also cunning and falsehood at the same
time ; spirit, but likewise craft, deceit, and malice. . . .
And in each of these forms he continually becomes worse
and worse ; according to the old proverb, that ' every
thing grows worse as it grows older.' " (" Nordisk My-
thologi," pp. 355-6.)
Through the deceitful malice of Loki, Balder, the
beautiful and good, was slain by the hand of his blind
brother Hoder. (See BALDER.) By the female Jotun
Angurboda, Loki was the father of the wolf Fenrir, of
the World-Serpent, (or Midgard's Ormr,) and of Ilela,
the goddess of death. He is also fabled to have been (by
a change of sex) the dam of the horse Sleipnir. The
/Esir, exasperated on account of the death of Balder,
determined at length to take vengeance on Loki. He
had fled to the mountains, and there built himself a
house which was open on four sides, whence he could
see everything that happened throughout the world. By
day he often transformed himself into a salmon, and hid
himself in a waterfall. The gods, learning his hiding.
place, attempted to catch him with a net ; he sprang
over the net, but Thor caught him by the tail. This is
the reason, we are told, why the salmon has so thin and
pointed a tail. Having thus captured Loki, the gods
bound him with magic cords to three sharp stones. A
venomous snake was then hung above his head, so that
the poison might continually drip on his face. But his
faithful wife Sigyn (sig'in) stands by him and catches the
falling venom in a cup. When the cup is full, while she
is emptying it the poison falls upon his face, which makes
him howl with anguish and writhe his body so that the
whole earth trembles. Loki will break loose from his
bonds at Ragnarock,* (the " twilight or evening of the
gods,") when he will become the leading spirit among
the enemies of the /Esir. He is not only the leader of
Fenrir and the other progeny of evil, but he is said
to steer the fatal ship Naglfar which conveys the sons
of Muspel over the ocean. In the final conflict he will
encounter Heimdall, and they will slay each other. Frey
falls under the sword of Surt. Tyr slays and is slain by
the dog Garni. Odin is devoured by the wolf Fenrir,
which in turn is killed by Vidar. Thor slays the world-
serpent, but dies immediately afterwards from the effects
of its venom. Then Surt scatters fire over the earth,
and the whole world is consumed. (See FENRIR.) We
are told, however, that this destruction is not to last
forever. A new earth, forever green and beautiful, will
rise out of the sea. Vali and Vidar (the slayer of Fen
rir) will survive the conflagration, and will be joined by
Modi and Magni, the sons of Thor and Balder, and
Hoder will return from the realms of Mela. The sun
before her destruction bore a daughter more beautiful
than herself. As successor to her mother, she will pursue
her appointed path through the renovated world. A new
race shall fill the earth, and all evil come to an end.
See KEYSER, " Religion of the Northmen," translated by PEN-
NOCK, pp. 101-104 ; THORPE, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; MAL
LET, "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii., Fable XV 1., also XXX. tc
XXXIII. inclusive; PETEKSEN, "Nordisk Mythologi."
* Derived, according to Keyser, from Regin, the " ruling powers,"
and hence "gods," and Rokkr, "darkness," also "twilight."
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, !, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
LOKMAN
'447
LOMBARDUS
Lokman or Locman, lok'mai/, written also Loq-
man, an ancient Arabian sage, celebrated for his wis
dom, and supposed to be the author of a. collection of
popular Oriental fables. He is mentioned in the Koran,
and is regarded as a contemporary of David and Solo
mon. One Arabian writer tells us that Lokman (who is
called " the oldest sage") was an Abyssinian slave be
longing to an Israelite in the time of King David, and
that he was a tailor by trade. Another writer says he
had read more than 10,000 wise sayings and maxims, but
none finer than those of Lokman. It is related that
Lokman, being asked whence he had learned his wisdom,
replied, "From the blind, who do not set down their
feet until they know the place ;" and when asked from
whom he had learned good manners, lie said, " From
the ill-mannered, because I avoid everything offensive
in them." Coincident traditions suggest the possible, if
not probable, identity of Lokman and yEsop. "Many
passages of his history," says Silvestre de Sacy, "seem
evidently borrowed from the life of yEsop." " Nothing
in his fables is characteristic of Arabian genius; and
they have received the name of Lokman only because
he was renowned for wisdom." They were edited and
translated into Latin by Erpenius in 1615.
See HAMMER-PURUSTAU., " Literaturgeschichte der Araber,"
vol. i. p. 31 et seq.
Lola Montez, lo'la mon'tez, (MARIA DOLORES POR-
Ris GILBERT,) a famous female adventurer, was born
about 1820, at Limerick. At an early age she made her
debut at Paris as a danseuse, and by her beauty and
genius attracted many admirers. About 1846 she went
to Munich, where she captivated the king, Louis, who
gave her the title of Countess of Lansfeld. After several
ministers had been discarded by her influence, her
enemies prevailed in 1848, and she retired from Bavaria.
She was afterwards married twice, and lived in England
and the United States, where she lectured with success
in various cities. She published a volume of lectures,
and was the reputed author of a work called "The Arts
of Beauty, or Secrets of a Lady's Toilet." She died in
New York in 1861.
See " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1848.
Loli, lo'lee, (LORENZO,) an Italian painter and en
graver, born at Bologna in 1612, was a pupil of Guido
Reni. His most admired works are etchings, after Guido,
Sirani, etc. Died in 1691.
Lol'lard or Lol'hard, (WALTER,) a person of whom
we have little information, except that he was burned
to death as a heretic at Cologne in 1322. His followers
or fellow-believers, called " Lollards," were a numerous
sect in England many years after his death. Their doc
trines appear to have been similar to those of the Prot
estants. The term Lollard was applied to the disciples
of Wickliffe by their opponents. In the reign of Henry
V. (1414) the Lollards were persecuted, and revolted
without success. (See COBHAM, LORD.)
Lolli, lol'lee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian violinist, born at
Bergamo in 1728; died in 1802.
Lol'li-a Pau-li'na, a Roman empress, whose beauty
captivated Caligula. She was married to him in 38 A.D.,
but was soon discarded by the capricious emperor. She
was put to death in 49 A.n. by the order of Agrippina,
who was prompted to this act by jealousy.
Lol-li-a'rms, [Ao/./<avof,] a Greek sophist and writer
on rhetoric, born at Ephesus, lectured at Athens in the
reign of Hadrian, (117-138 A.n.)
See KAVSF.R, " P. Hordeonius Lollianus gescliildert," etc., 1841.
Lollio, lol'le-o, (Al.HERTO,) an Italian orator and
poet, born at Florence in 1508. He published elegant
orations and letters, and several poems, among which is
" Arethusa," a pastoral drama, (1563.) Died in 1568.
Lol'li-us, (M.,) a Roman general in the service of
Augustus. lie was defeated in Gaul by the Germans in
16 B.C. Died in 3 A.n.
Lolme. See DE LOLME.
Loni'ax, (JOHN TAYLOR,) an American lawyer, born
in Caroline county, Virginia, in 1781, was appointed in
1826 professor of law in the University of Virginia.
Lomazzo, lo-mat'so, (GIOVANNI PAOLO,) an Italian
painter and able writer on art, was born at Milan in
1538. He was appointed by Cosimo de' Medici keeper
of his vast gallery of pictures in Florence. He was
versed in belles-lettres and various sciences, and ac
quired a profound theoretical and practical knowledge
of the fine arts. Having become blind in the prime of
life, he composed his "Trattato della Pittura," (1584,)
" the most complete treatise on painting," says the " Bio
graphic Universelle," " that has hitherto appeared." His
praises were sung by the first Italian poets of his time.
He also published "Idea (or Image) of the Temple of
Painting," ("Idea del Tempio della Pittura," 1591.)
Died about 1600.
See LANZI, "History of Paint'n.z in Ita'y;" WINCKELMANN,
" Neues Mnhler-Lexikon ;" TICOZZI, "Dizionaiio."
Lombard, lo.x'ba'R', (CLAUDE ANTOINE,) a French
surgeon, born at Dole in 1741; died in 1811.
Lombard, (JEAN Louis,) a French artillerist, bom
at Strasburg in 1723, was learned in languages, etc. He
published a translation of Robins's " Principles of Ar
tillery," (1783,) and other esteemed works on gunnery.
Died in 1794.
Lombard, lom/baut, (JoiiANN WILIIELM,) a Prus
sian politician, born at Berlin about 1767. He was ap
pointed minister of foreign affairs about 1800. He
favoured the P'rench interest by promoting the neutrality
in which Prussia persisted until 1806. Died in 1812.
Lombard, loN'baV, |Lat. LOMHAR'D;:S] (LAMBERT,)
an excellent Flemish painter and architect, born at Liege
about 1500. He studied in Italy under Andrea del Sarto,
and returned to his native city. In his school of design
were formed several eminent artists, among whom was
Frans Floris. His style is Italian. Among his master
pieces is an oil-painting of the "Last Supper." Died in
1565-
See VASARI, "Lives of tlie Painters;" DOMINICUS LAMI'.SONIUS,
(or LAMPSON.) " Lamberti Lombard! apud EbnronesPictoris celeber-
rimi Vita," 1565.
Lombard, (TuEonoRE,) a French poet, born at An-
nonay in 1609 ; died about 1770.
Lombard de Langres, loN'bitR' deh loNgR, (VIN
CENT,) a French litterateur, born at Langres about 1765.
He wrote "Neslie," (1798,) and other poems, and "Me
moirs of the French Revolution," (2 vols., 1823.) Died
in 1830.
Lombard!, lom-baR'dee, (ALFONSO,) an Italian sculp
tor, was born at Ferrara in 1487. He had an excellent
talent for portraits. Among his works were portraits of
Bembo, Ariosto, and Charles V., and a group in terra
cotta representing the "Death of the Virgin." Died
in 1536.
See G. BARUFFALUI, "Vita di A. Lombardi," i83q : VASARI,
"Lives of the Painters and Sculptors;" CICOGNARA, "Storia della
Scultura."
Lombardi, (CARLO,) an Italian litterateur, born at
Rimini, became a Protestant, and a professor of philoso-
phv and medicine at Marburg, where he died in 1669.
Lombardi, (GIOVANNI DOMENICO.) called L'(.)MINO,
an Italian painter, born at Lucca in 1682 ; died in 1752.
Lombardi, (GiROLAMO,) an Italian sculptor, born at
Ferrara, lived about 1550. He was employed, under the
direction of Sansovino, on the church of San Marco,
Venice.
Lombardi, (GIROLAMO,) an Italian philologist, born
at Verona in 1707 ; died in 1792.
Lombardo, lom-baR'do, (PIETRO,) a Venetian archi
tect and sculptor. He made the monument raised to
Dante at Ravenna in 1482, and designed the church of
Santa Maria de' Miracoli at Venice. Among his works is
the tower for the clock on the Piazza San Marco. Died
about 1520. His sons ANTONIO and TULLIO were able
sculptors and architects. The latter designed the church
of San Salvator, Venice. His finest works as a sculptor
were two marble bas-reliefs in the Chapel del Santo at
Padua. Died in 1559.
See CICOC;NARA, "Storia della Scultura."
Lombardo, (SANTE,) an architect and sculptor, born
at Venice in 1504, was a nephew of Tullio. Among his
works was the Scuola di San Rocco at Venice. Died
in 1560.
Lombardo, (TOMMASO,) an Italian sculptor, born at
Lugano, lived about 1530.
Lombardus. See LOMBARD, (LAMBERT.)
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (SJjT^See Explanations, p. 23.)
LOME ART
1448
LONDONDERRY
Lombart, lA.x'btR', (PIERRE,) a French engraver,
born in Paris in 1612. Among his works are twelve
portraits, after Van Dyck, a " Nativity," after Poussin,
and a " Penitent Magdalene," after Titian. Died in 1682.
Lombert, lox'baiR', (PIERRE,) a French translator,
born in Paris, was an associate of the Port-Royalists.
He produced French versions of the works of Saint
Cyprian, (2 vols., 1672,) and of Saint Augustine's "City
of God," (2 vols., 1675.) Died in 1710.
Lomeier, lo'mi'er, written also Lomeir, (JAN,) a
learned Dutch philologist, born at Zutphen in 1636. He
became minister of the church in that town in 1674, and
professor of belles-lettres there in 1686. He published
a curious treatise "On Libraries," (" De Bibliothecis,"
1669,) and a work on ancient history and philology, en
titled "Dierum Genialium." Died in 1699.
See SAX, " Onoinasticon."
Lomeni, lo-ma/nee, (ToNA/.io,) an Italian writer on
rural economy, born at Milan in 1779; died in 1838.
Lomenie, de, deli lo'ma'ne', (HENRI AUGUSTE,)
Count de Brienne, a French statesman, born in Paris in
1594. At the age of twenty he obtained the reversion
of the office of secretary of state, which his father had
held. In 1624 he was sent to England to draw up the
articles of the marriage between Henrietta of France
and the Prince of Wales. He retired from office in 1661,
and died in i66'>.
Lomenie, de, (Louis HENRI,) Count de Brienne, the
son of the preceding, was born in 1635. About the age
of twenty-six he resigned the office of secretary of foreign
affairs, and became a priest of the Oratory. lie wrote
poems, memoirs, and other works, which have some
literary merit. He was expelled from the order of the
Oratory for eccentric or improper conduct, and was
deranged many years. Died in 1698.
See " Memoires de L. H. de Lomenie," 2 vols., 1720.
Lomenie, de, (Louis LEONARD,) a French author,
born in Haute-Vienne in 1818. He began his literary
career by a series of biographies, entitled "Gallery of
Illustrious Contemporaries, by a Man of no Account,"
{" Galerie des Contemporains illnstres, par nn Homme
de Rien," 10 vols., 1840-47.) which procured for him an
honourable reputation for good taste, discretion, and
other merits. Many of these biographies have been
published separately. Among his works is " Beaumar-
chais and his Times : Studies on French Society," (2
vols., 18^5.)
Lomenie de Brienne, de, deh lo'ma'ne' deli bRe'e'i/,
(£TIKNNE Cll \RI.ES,) a French cardinal and minister of
state, born in Paris in 1727. He was appointed Arch
bishop of Toulouse in 176^. In 1770 he was elected to
the French Academy. In May, 1787, he succeeded
Calonne as contrdleur-ghtfral Q{ finances, without abili
ties adequate to the crisis. An exciting contest arose
between the court and the Parliament of Paris, which j
was exiled from the capital and deprived of political :
power. In 1788 he was invested with the title of prime
minister and made Archbishop of Sens. In this year,
yielding to the importunate appeals of the people, then
in a state of great excitement, he convoked the States-
General for May, 1789. Having been so unsuccessful as
a financier that he was compelled to suspend payments,
he was dismissed on the 241)1 of August, 1788. and Necker
becanie premier. He was one of those in the new regime
who took the oath as a constitutional bishop. Died in
1794-
Set- DROZ. " Histoire du Regne de Louis XVI ;" " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Lomi, lo'inee, (ARTEMISIA,) an Italian painter, born
at Pisa in 1590, was a daughter of Orazio Lomi, and a
pupil of Guido. She had a high reputation as a portrait-
painter, and painted some historical works, among which
is "Judith and Holofernes." She died in London or
Naples about 1644.
Lomi, (AiiREi.io,) an Italian painter, born at Pisa in
1556, is called one of the chiefs of the school of Pisa.
He painted frescos and oil-paintings in Rome, Genoa,
Florence, Pisa, etc. Among his admired works are a
Saint Jerome and "Adoration of the Magi." Died in 1622.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy;" BALDINUCCI, " No-
l-.zie."
Lomi, (BACCIO,) an Italian painter, an uncle of the
preceding, born at Pisa, lived about 1570-1600. He
worked at Pisa with success, and founded a school.
Lomi, (ORAZIO,) an Italian painter, called GENTI-
LESCHI, a brother of Aurelio, noticed above, was born
at Pisa about 1563. He worked in Rome, where he was
employed by Agostino Tassi to paint figures. About
1623 he removed to London, where he was patronized
by Charles I. Among his works are a "Repose in
Egypt," and an "Assumption." Died in London in 1646.
Lomm, lom, [Lat. LOM'MIUS,] (JossE,) one of the
most skilful physicians of his time, was born at Buren,
in Holland, in 1500. He practised at Tournai and at
Brussels, whither he removed about 1557. In his " Medi
cinal Observations" (" Observations Medicinales," 1560)
many diseases are accurately described. He wrote other
works, in Latin of uncommon purity. Died after 1562.
See PAQUOT, " Me'moires."
Lommius. See LOMM.
Lomonosof, Lomonossov, Lomonosov, or Lom-
onosow, lom-o-no'sof, (MiCHAEL VASII. i KVITCH,) a cele
brated Russian poet, born at or near Kolmogory, in the
government of Archangel, in 1711, is called the father
of modern Russian literature. He was the son of a serf,
whom he assisted in the business of a fisherman until
his thirst for knowledge led him to Moscow, and thence
to Saint Petersburg, in 1734. lie became learned in an
cient and modern languages and in abstract and natural
sciences. In 1746 he was appointed professor of chem
istry, and in 1760 rector of the gymnasium and Uni
versity of Saint Petersburg. He rendered the Russian
language more polished and more rich by his multifarious
productions, in prose and verse, on grammar, history,
chemistry, rhetoric, etc. His poem entitled " Petriade"
(an unfinished epic, of which Peter the Great is the
hero) is one of his most popular works. lie also pro
duced two volumes of odes, religious and secular, and
an abridged " History of Russia." He was made council
lor of state in 1764. Died in 1765. Polevoi has published
a work entitled " M. V. Lomonossov," (1836,) which is
said to be a biography blended with fiction.
See, also. G. GKITI.IN, " Dissertatio He Mentis liternriis Lomo-
nossovii," 1829; "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'ra'.e ;" "Foreign Quar
terly Review" for July, 1X39.
Londe, 16\d, (CHARLES,) a French medical writer,
born at Caen in 1798. His "Elements of Hygiene"
(1827) have been translated into many languages.
Londe, de la, deh It loxd, (FRANQOIS RICHARD,) a
French poet, born at Caen in 1685; died in 1765.
Londerseel, lon'der-sal', (AssiJR,) a Dutch landscape-
painter and engraver, born at Amsterdam in 1550.
Londerseel, van, vf n lou'der-sal', QAN,) a Flemish
engraver, born at Bruges about 1580.
Lon'dpn-dei'ry, ( CHARLES WILLIAM STEWART,)
third MAKQUIS OK, born in Dublin in 1778, was a son
of Robert the first Marquis, and a half-brother of Lord
Castlereagh. His mother was a daughter of Lord Chan
cellor Camden. He entered the army in 1793, became
colonel and aide-de-camp to the king in 1803, and dis
tinguished himself in Portugal under Sir John Moore.
He served as adjutant-general under Sir Arthur \Vel-
lesley for several years in the Peninsula. In 1813 Sir
Charles was envoy-extraordinary to the court of Berlin,
and was officially attached to the head-quarters of Ber-
nadotte. Much importance is ascribed to the efforts
and menaces by which he induced Bernadotte to co
operate with the allies at Leipsic. He was raised to the
peerage, as Lord Stewart, in 1814, and was one of the
plenipotentiaries sent by England to the Congress of
Vienna in 1815. Having married a daughter and heiress
of Sir Harry Vane Tempest in 1819, he assumed the
name of Vane. He succeeded his half-brother as Mar
quis of Londonderry in 1822, and obtained the rank of
general in 1837. In politics he was an ultra-conserva
tive. He was author of a " History of the Peninsular
War," (1813.) He died in 1854, leaving two sons, WIL
LIAM ROISERT, who inherits the tille of marquis, and
GEORGE, who is Viscount Seaham.
See T. P. FITZGERALD, "Life of Lord Londonderry;" "Bio
graphical Sketches," by HARRIET MAKTINKAU.
Londonderry, MARQUIS OK. See CASTLEREAGH.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;
LONDON 10
1449
LONG HI
Londonio, lon-do'ne-o, ( FRANCESCO, ) an Italian
painter of animals, born at Milan in 1723 ; died in 1783.
Long, (EDWARD,) an English writer, born in Corn
wall in 1734. He emigrated in 1757 to Jamaica, where
he was appointed a judge. Having returned to England
in 1769, he published a "History of Jamaica," (1774,)
and several minor works. Died in 1813.
Long, (GEORGE,) an eminent English scholar and
editor, born at Poulton, Lancashire, in 1800. Having
been educated at Cambridge, he became professor of
ancient languages in the University of Virginia in 1824,
and professor of Greek in the London University in
1826. About this time he became a member of the
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge," under
whose auspices he edited the " Penny Cyclopaedia," with
great ability, from 1832 to 1843. He afterwards edited
for the same society a " Biographical Dictionary," which
was discontinued at the end of the letter A. He has
contributed many articles to Smith's "Classical Diction
ary," edited Cicero's Orations, and published, besides
other works, "France and its Revolutions," (1850,) and
"The Decline of the Roman Republic," (3 vols., 1864-
69 ; yet unfinished.) He has translated into English the
" Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus."
In 1849 he was appointed one of the professors in the
college at Brighton.
Long, (KoGKR,) F.R.S., an English astronomer, born
in the county of Norfolk in 1680. He became Lowndes
professor of astronomy at Cambridge in 1749, and after
wards obtained the rectory of Brad well. He wrote a
"Treatise on Astronomy," of which the first volume was
published in 1742 and the second in 1764. Died in 1770.
Long, (STEIMIEN II.,) an American engineer, born at
Hopkinton, New Hampshire, in 1784. About 1816 he
set out on a tour for exploring the western frontier from
Texas to the sources of the Mississippi, and published
in 1824 his "Expedition to the Source of Saint Peter's
River, Lake of the Woods," etc.
Long, (THOMAS,) an English clergyman, born at Exe
ter in 1621. About 1660 he obtained a prebend in Exeter
Cathedral, from which he was ejected as a nonjuror in
1688. He wrote a "Vindication of the Primitive Chris
tians in Point of Obedience to their Prince," (1683,) and
other polemical works. Died in 1700.
Long, Le. See LEI.O.NG.
Longchamps, de, deh lo.x'shfiN', (PiF.RUK,) a French
writer, born probably at Rochelle. He translated the
Elegies of Propertius into French prose, and wrote
" Memoirs of a Nun," and other works. Died in 1812.
Longepierre, de, deh lo.xzh'pe-aiR', (HILAIRE BER
NARD J)K RKQUELEYNE,) BARON, a French poet, born at
Dijon in 1658. He was an excellent Greek scholar, and
produced poetical versions of Anacreon, Sappho, Bion,
and Moschus. His tragedy of "Medea," says Voltaire,
although too full of declamation, is superior to Corneille's
"Medea." Died in 1721.
Longet, lo.x'zhi', (FRANCOIS ACHILLE,) a French
physician and physiologist, born at Saint-Germain-en-
Laye in 1811. He published " Anatomy and Physiology
of the Nervous System," (2 vols., 1843-46,) and a " Com
plete Treatise on Physiology," (1850-55.) He became
one of the consulting physicians of the emperor.
Long'fel-low, (HENRY WADSWORTH,) an eminent
American poet and scholar, born at Portland (Maine)
the 271(1 of February, 1807. He graduated at Bowdoin
College in 1825,30011 after which he was appointed pro
fessor of modern languages and literature in that institu
tion, with the understanding that he should have the
privilege of spending some time in Europe in order more
fully to qualify himself for his new position. He left
home in 1826, and spent four years abroad, chiefly in
France, Spain, Italy, and Germany. In 1835 he suc
ceeded Mr. George Ticknor in the chair of modern
languages and belles-lettres at Harvard. The same year
he visited Europe the second time ; and, after making
an extensive tour through Denmark, Sweden, Germany,
etc., he entered upon the duties of his professorship in
1838. In 1839 appeared his romance of " Hyperion,"
and a collection of his poems, entitled "Voices of the
Night," which attracted great attention and raised him
at once to the first rank among American poets. In
1841 he published "Ballads, and other Poems:" his
charming drama of "The Spanish Student" appeared
in 1843. This was followed by his " Poets and Poetry
of Europe," (1845,) "The Belfry of Bruges, and other
Poems," (1846,) and " Evangeline," (1847,) one of the
most admired of all his productions. It has been pro
nounced (and we think justly) "the most perfect speci
men extant of the rhythm and melody of the English
hexameter." It was followed by "The Golden Legend,"
(1851,) "The Song of Hiawatha," (1855,) perhaps the
most popular of all his works, "The Courtship of Miles
Standish," (1858,) and "Tragedies of New England,"
(1868.) Of his prose writings, besides "Hyperion,"
already referred to, we may mention "Outre-Mer: a
Pilgrimage beyond the Sea," (1835,) "Kavanagh," a
novel, (1849,) and his contributions to the "North
American Review." His last important work is a trans
lation of Dante's "Divina Commedia," (1867,) remark
able for its literalness and fidelity to the original. Mr.
Longfellow resigned his chair at Harvard in 1854, and
was succeeded by Professor Lowell.
As a poet, Longfellow is characterized by tenderness
and depth of feeling, to the expression of which the pic
turesque and graceful simplicity of his language often
imparts an indescribable charm. He seldom or never
attempts to excite admiration by far-sought conceits, by
wild or lofty flights of imagination, or by the exhibition
of dark and terrible passions. He relies chiefly for his
success on a simple and direct appeal to those sentiments
which are common to all mankind, — to persons of every
rank and of every clime.
It is, in fact, to his command over those feelings which
are universal in the human heart, that we must ascribe
the extraordinary popularity of his Indian story of " Hia
watha." It is, perhaps, not too much to say that he is
not merely the first but the only writer who has suc
ceeded in giving a deep and living interest to a story of
Indian life. Restricted as he necessarily was by the
nature of the subject, — by the extreme simplicity, not to
say meagreness, of the character of our aborigines, — he
has yet produced a poem which not only comes home to
the hearts of the masses of the people, but which must ex
cite the admiration of the cultivated reader who will take
into consideration the inherent difficulties of the task,
and the limits and restrictions which the poet, in selecting
such a subject, had necessarily to impose upon himself.
The form of the verse is in admirable keeping with the*
simplicity of the story. But, " unhappily for the poet," as
"Blackwood" for February, 1856, justly observes, "this
is the very measure to attract the parodist. ' Punch'
has opened the assault ; and we will not venture to pre
dict how many gleeful voices may echo his good-humoured
mockery before the year is out." We may, indeed, safely
assert that whatever declension there has been from the
first popularity of "Hiawatha" must in a great measure
be attributed to the "good-humoured mockery" of the
countless parodies that have been made upon it. Happily,
there are those (and we would fain hope their number
is not small) who can judge of a poem by its intrinsic
merits, and who will not permit a whole "college of wit-
crackers" to destroy their enjoyment of what is truly
beautiful or prevent their admiration of what is truly
excellent. A writer in the "London Examiner" thinks
" Hiawatha" "the most original of all his [Longfellow's]
productions." Several different translations of it have
been made, — one by the distinguished German poet Frei-
ligrath, — and it has been read and admired in every part
of Europe.
See A i.i.i BONK. "Dictionary of Authors ;" GRISWOI.D, " Poets and
Poetry of America :" DUYCKINCK, " Cyclopaedia of American Litera
ture," vol. ii. : "North American Review" for January, 1840, July,
1842, Jnlv, 1845, and January, 1848 ; " Kraser's Magazine" for March,
1848; "British Quarterly Review" for January and April, 1864.
Longheiia, lon-ga'na, (BAI.DASSARE,) an Italian archi
tect, worked at Venice about 1640.
Longhi. See LUNGHI.
Longhi, loi/gee, (AI.ESSIO or AI.ESSANDRO,) a Vene
tian painter and engraver, born in 1726 ; died about 1790.
Longhi, (GiUSEi'PE,) a celebrated Italian engraver,
born at Monza, in Lombardy, in 1766. He was a pupil
of Vincenzo Vangelisti. He worked mostly at Milan,
where he became professor in the Academy of Fine Arts.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (ftgf^See Explanation s, p. 23.)
LONG HI
1450
LONGSTREET
His works are admired for the magical effect of the chiaro
scuro. He was an excellent draftsman. Among his
master-pieces are "The Marriage of the Virgin," after
Raphael, "The Magdalene," after Correggio, a "Gala
tea," after Albani, and "The Last Judgment," after Mi
chael Angelo. He published " La Calcographia," (1830,)
an able treatise on engraving. Died in 1831.
See V. LONGHKNA, " Nolizie bioprafiche di G. Longhi," 1831 ;
SACCHI, " Biografia di G. Longhi," 1831 ; TIPAI.IX), " Biografia degli
Italiani illustri ;" G. BERETTA, "Vita del Cavaliere G. Longhi,"
1837-
Longhi, lon'gee, or Lunghi, loon'gee, (LucA,) an
Italian painter, born at Ravenna in 1507, always resided
in that city. He excelled in portraits, and also painted
some subjects of sacred history with success. Died in
1580. " His conceptions," says Lanzi, " are sweet, varied,
and graceful, with a powerful union of colours." His
daughter BARBARA was also a painter.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters."
Longhi, (PiETRO,) an Italian painter of masquerades,
dances, and other gay or familiar scenes, born at Venice
in 1702 ; died in 1762.
Longin. See LONGINUS.
Longino. See LONGINUS.
Longinus. See DI.UGOSZ.
Loii-gi'nus, [Gr. Aoj-j'troc; Fr. LONGIN, !6N'zhaN'; It.
LONGINO, lon-jee'no,] a celebrated Greek philosopher
and critic, was born probably in Syria, and flourished
in the third century. Some ancient writers call him
LONGINUS CASSIUS, or DIONVSIUS CASSIUS LONGINUS.
He was a pupil of his uncle Phronto of Emesa, and was
a Platonist in philosophy. He opened at Athens a
school of philosophy and rhetoric, which became very
celebrated. The famous Porphyry was one of his pupils.
After passing many years at Athens, he accepted the
invitation of Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, to reside at
her court. He taught her Greek, and served her as
councillor or prime minister during her war against Au-
relian, Emperor of Rome. The latter, having captured
Palmyra, put Longinus to death in 273 A.D. Longinus
was the first to whom was applied the phrase, often re
peated since, "a living library," and is considered the
greatest philosopher of his age. He wrote many critical
and philosophical works, none of which have come down
to us except his admirable "Treatise on the Sublime,"
(Htpl ''T^'ot'f,) which Boileau translated into French and
called a " master-piece of good sense, learning, and elo
quence." Some writers, however, have doubted — but with
little reason, it would seem — whether Longinus was the
real author of this work. (See, on this subject, the arti
cle "Longin" in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale.")
It has been truly said that to be a good critic one must
be something of a poet. This qualification Longinus
possessed in a pre-eminent degree. Pope, addressing
him, says,
"Thee, bold Lonpinus ! all the Nine inspire,
And bless their critic with a poet's fire ;
An ardent judge, who, zealous in his trust,
With warmth gives sentence, yet is always just ;
Whose own example strengthens ail his laws,
And is himself that great sublime he draws."
Essay on Criticism, part iii.
OfLonginus's "Treatise on the Sublime," several good
French translations have been made, — one by the cele
brated critic and poet Boileau, (1674.) It has also been
translated into German by Schlosser, and into English
by W. Smith.
See D. RUHNKEN, " Dissertatio de Vita et Sciiptis Longini,"
1776: P. EKKRMAN, " Dissertatio de D. Longino Cassio," 1750;
L. VAUCHER, "Etudes critiques sur la Tiaite du Sublime et sur
les ficrits de Longin," 1854; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;"
"Monthly Review" for May, 1779; SMITH, "Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Biography."
Long'land or Lang'laud, (JoiiN,) an English bishop,
born at Henley in 1473. HC became confessor to Henry
VIII., and Bishop of Lincoln, in 1520. On the question
of the divorce of Queen Catherine he gave the king
such counsels as were most agreeable to the latter. His
sermons were published. Died in 1547.
Longlaud, written also Langelande, (ROBERT,) an
early English poet, a native of Shropshire, was a con
temporary of Chaucer, and a disciple of Wickliffe. He
was the reputed author of a celebrated poem called the
"Visions of Piers Plowman," (1369.) It is a satire
directed against the vices of the clergy and other pro
fessions, and displays considerable fancy and originality.
Long'man, (THOMAS NORTON,) an English merchant
and publisher, born about 1770, was honourably and
widely known as the head of the great publishing-firm
of Longman & Company, Paternoster Row, London.
He published works for Scott, Wordsworth, and Thomas
Moore. Died in 1842.
Longobardi, lon-go-baR'dee, (Niccoi.6,) a Jesuit,
born in Sicily in 1565. He went to China as a mission
ary in 1596, and wrote a "Treatise on Confucius and his
Doctrine," (" De Confucioejusque Doctrina Tractatus.")
Leibnitz published a new edition of this work, with notes.
Died at Pekin in 1655.
Longolius. See LONGUEIL.
Longolius, long-go'le-us, (JoiiANN DANIEL,) a Ger
man scientific writer, born at Meissen in 1677 > died in
1740.
Longolius, (PAUL DANIEL,) a learned German writer,
born near Dresden in 1704. He was rector of the gym
nasium of Hof for forty-four years, and was one of the
editors of the "German Encyclopaedia, or Universal
Lexicon," of Zedler, (Leipsic, 1731-50.) He also pub
lished editions of Pliny the Younger, and of Aulus
Gellius. Died in 1779.
See G. W. KIRSCH, " Vier Programme von P. D. Longolii Leben,"
1779-81; "Life of Longolius," prefixed to his " Notitia Hermun-
dorum maxinueque Partis Germanise," by KRNESTI, 1793.
Longomoiitan. See LONGOMONTANUS.
Longomontanus, lon'go-mon-ta'nus, [Fr. LONGO-
MONTAN, loN'go'moN'tS.N', ] (CHRISTIAN,) a Danish
astronomer, born in 1562 at Langsberg, (Jutland,) of
which place lie assumed the name, Latinizing it, accord
ing to the custom of the time. He was the son of a
poor labourer, whose family name was SEVEUIN. He
obtained the favour of Tycho Brahe, whom he assisted
in calculations and observations at Huen, or Hoe'ne,
from 1589 to 1597. From 1605 to 1645 he was professor
of mathematics in the Academy of Copenhagen. He
died in 1647. Among his principal works are "First
Part of a Mathematical System," (" Systematis Mathema-
tici Pars I.," 1611,) " Danish Astronomy," (" Astronomia
Danica," 1622,) " Pentas Problematum Philosophic,"
(1623,) and "Invention of the Quadrature of the Circle."
See NICERON, "Memoires;" L. SCAVENIUS, " Prograinma Lon-
goinontani."
Loiigperier, de, deh loN'pa're-i', (HENRI ADRIEN
PREVOST,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1816,
wrote treatises on numismatics, etc.
Long'street, (AUGUSTUS BALDWIN,) son of William,
noticed below, was born in Augusta, Georgia, in 1790.
He became a minister of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, and was appointed president of the South Caro
lina College in 1857.
Longstreet, (JAMES,) an American general, born in
South Carolina about 1821, graduated at West Point in
1842. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and
was breveted major for his conduct at Molino del Rey.
In 1852 he obtained the rank of captain. He resigned
his commission about June, 1861, commanded a brigade
in the Confederate army at Bull Run, July 21, and be
came a major-general soon after that date. He took
part in the battles near Richmond in May and June,
1862, and commanded the right wing of General Lee's
army at Antietam, September 17. Having been raised
to the rank of lieutenant-general, he commanded a corps
at the battle of Gettysburg, July 2-3, 1863. In the Sep
tember ensuing he joined the army of General Bragg,
under whom he served at Chickamauga, September 19-
20. He commanded a force which General Bragg sent
against Burnside in October, 1863; and he attempted to
take Knoxville in November, without success. In the
battle of the Wilderness, May 6, 1864, he was wounded
in the throat by a ball fired by a Confederate soldier in
mistake. He was disabled for five months by this
wound.
See a Memoir of General J. Longstreet in "Southern Generals,"
(anonymous,) 1865.
Longstreet, (WILLIAM,) an American inventor, born
in New Jersey, removed to Georgia. He obtained a
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LONG VEIL
1451
LOON
patent for an improvement in the cotton-gin. Died in
1814.
Longueil, de, deh loN'guI' or lox'guh'ye, [Lat. LON-
GO'LIUS,] (CHRISTOPHE,) an eminent French scholar,
born at Malines in 1490. He practised law in Paris,
and was chosen comeiller ait parlement. Afterwards he
removed to Padua, and devoted himself to literature.
He was one of the Latin scholars whose fastidious purity
Erasmus ridiculed in his "Ciceronianus," and who
affected to use no terms which were not found in Cicero's
works. He was author of discourses against Luther, of
"Letters to Bembo and Sadolet," etc. Died in 1522.
See Poi. us, "Vita I.ongnlii :" PAOLO GIOVIO, " Elogia Virorum
illustrium ;" NICEKON-, " Memoires;" FOPPENS, " Bibliotheca Bel-
gica."
Longueil, de, deh loN'guT, [Lat. LONGO'LIUS,] (GiL-
liERT,) a Dutch philologist, born at Utrecht in 1507. He
taught school at Deventer and Cologne, and practised
medicine. He published a "Latin-Greek Lexicon,"
(1533,) and notes on Ovid, Plautus, and Cicero. Died
at Cologne in 1543.
Longueil, de, ( JOSEPH,) a French engraver, born at
Givet in 1736; died in 1792.
Longuemar, de, deh lo.Ng'mtu', (ALPHONSE I.E
ToUkE,) a French geologist and antiquary, born at
Saint- Dizier about 1800.
Longuerue, de, deh loNg'iu', (Louis DUFOUR,)
A null, a French ecclesiastic, eminent for learning, was
born at Charleville in 1652. He was deeply versed in
languages, history, philosophy, etc., and wrote many
works, but published none. His friends, however, pub
lished for him an "Essay on the Antiquities of Chaklea j
and Egypt," "Description of France, Ancient and Mod
ern," (1719,) "Annals of the Arsacidae," (1732,) and
other works. Died in 1733.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique," edition of 1759; "Nou
velle Biographic Generale."
Loiigueval, loNg'vtK, (JACQUES,) a French Jesuit,
born near Peronne in 1680. He taught rhetoric and
theology in various colleges, and was author of the first
eight volumes of a " History of the Gallican Church,"
(1730-49,) which was continued by Fontenay and others.
Died in 1735.
Longueville, loNg'vel', (£DME PAUL MARCELLTN,) a
French Hellenist, born in Paris in 1785; died in 1855.
Longueville, de, deh loNg'vel', (ANNE GENEVIEVE
de Bourbon -Conde — deh booR'b6N' ki.x'da', )
DUCHESS, a French lady, distinguished for beauty, tact,
and talent, was born at Vincennes in 1619. She was a
sister of the great Conde, and was married to the Due
de Longueville, noticed below, in 1642. The enmity
between the parliaments and Mazarin gave rise to the
faction or conspiracy of the Fronde, of which- she became
the heroine. Her nonchalance and languor were agree
ably diversified by surprising and splendid awakenings
of genius. She exercised great influence over the chiefs
of the Fronde, and had a liaison with La Rochefou
cauld, who was one of the leaders of that party. When
her husband and brothers were imprisoned by Mazarin
in 1650, she escaped to Stenay, the head-quarters of
Turenne, whom she induced to join the party of the
Fronde. With his aid she effected the release of her
three friends in 1651, and returned to Paris in triumph.
Peace was made between the Frondeurs and the court
in 1659, after which she ceased to meddle with politics.
She became devout, and spent much time in her latter
years at the cloister of Port-Royal. Cardinal Mazarin
once said, " We have three women in France who would
be competent to govern or overturn three great king
doms, name!}-, the Duchess de Longueville, the Princess
Palatine, and the Duchess de Chevreuse." Died in 1679.
See BOCRGOING DE VII.I.EFORE, "Vie de Madame de Loncue-
ville,"i738: V. CorsiN, "La Jeunesse de Mme. de Longueville,"
1853; LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Longueville, de, (CHARLES PARIS D'ORLEANS,)
Due, a son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1640,
inherited the brilliant qualities of his mother. He served
in the army of his uncle the Prince of Conde, and was
killed at the passage of the Rhine in 1672, when the
Polish deputies were on their way to offer him the crown
of Poland.
Longueville, de, (HENRI,) Due, a French general,
born in 1595, was the son of Henri d'Orieans, a prince
of the blood, and was a grand-nephew of Henry IV. In
the reign of Louis XIII. he distinguished himself by
military exploits in Italy, etc. He married the sister of
the Prince of Conde in 1642, and supported the party of
the latter in the time of the Fronde. Died in 1663.
Lon'gus, [Aoyj-of,] a Greek sophist or author, of whom
little or nothing is known. He is supposed to have lived
in the fourth or fifth century of our era, and to have been
the author of an ingenious prose romance entitled
TloifisviKu -a Kara Autyviv /cat X/IOT/P, ("Pastorals relating
to Daphnis and Chloe,") sometimes called "Loves of
Daphnis and Chloe." It is admired for a charming,
elegant style, and other literary merits. In 1810 Paul
Louis Courier found at Florence a manuscript of Longus
which supplied a hiatus of all the other manuscripts.
He published a complete edition of the original and a
corrected edition of Amyot's French version.
See FABRICIUS, "Bibliolheca Grseca;" DUNI.OP, " History of
Fiction;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Long'worth, (NICHOLAS,) an American cultivator,
born at Newark, New Jersey, in 1782. Having removed
to Cincinnati, he devoted himself to the culture of native
grapes and the manufacture of wine, by which he acquired
an immense fortune. Died in 1863.
Loni, lo'nee, (ALESSANDKO,) an Italian painter, born
at Florence in 1655, was a pupil of Carlo Dolce. Died
in 1702.
Lonicer, lo'nu-ser, [Lat. LONICE'RUS,] (ADAM,) a
German physician and naturalist, born at Marburg in
1528, was a son of Johann, noticed below. He obtained
in 1554 the place of pensioned physician of Frankfort,
which he occupied thirty-two years. He published
several treatises on medicine, and a Latin work on Plants,
Animals, and Minerals, called " Naturalis Historian Opus
Novum," (1551-55,) which was often reprinted. Died in
1586.
His son, JOHANN ADAM, born in 1557, was a physician
of Frankfort. He published Latin poems, and a treatise
on the chase, called " Venatus et Aucupium."
Lonicer, [Lat. LONICE'RUS,] (JOHANN,) a German
scholar, born in Mansfeld in 1499. From 1527 until his
death he was professor of Greek and Hebrew at Mar
burg. He made good Latin translations of several Greek
authors, among whom were Pindar, Isocrates, and De
mosthenes. He was a friend and correspondent of
Melanchthon. Died in 1569.
See M. ADAM, "Vitae Philosophorum Germanorum."
Lonicerus. See LONICER.
Lonjumeau. See GAILLARD DE LONJUMEAU.
Lbmirot or Loennrot, lon'rot, (Ei.iAS,) a Finnish
philologist, born in the district of Helsingfors in 1802.
He became a zealous student of the national literature
of Finland. About 1835 he discovered and published
the famous Finnish poem of "Kalevala," which is said
to resemble the "Hiawatha" of Longfellow. He suc
ceeded Castren as professor of Finnish at Helsingfors in
1852, and published several collections of old legends,
proverbs, etc., with a view to revive the use of the Finn
ish language.
Lons'dale, (IlENRY,) an English physician and
writer, born at Carlisle in 1816. He gained distinction
by his researches in the toxicology of prussic acid ar.d
other subjects.
Lonsdale, (WILLIAM LOWTHER,) EAKL OF, an Eng
lish peer, born in 1787. He was postmaster-general from
1841 to 1845, and was lord president of the council in
the cabinet of Lord Derby in 1852.
Loo. See VAN LOO.
Loo'mis, (ELIAS,) an American astronomer and phy
sicist, born in Tolland county, Connecticut, in 1811,
graduated at Yale College in 1830. He became pro
fessor of natural philosophy at the Western Reserve
College, Ohio, in 1837, and obtained a similar chair in
the New York University in 1844. He made valuable
contributions to magnetism, astronomy, and meteor
ology. Among his works are " Elements of Natural
Philosophy," and an " Introduction to Practical As
tronomy."
Loon. See VAN LOON.
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in //4w. (JiJ^See Explanations, p. 23.)
LOON
1452
LOREDJNO
Loon, van, v8n Ion, (THEODORE,) a Flemish painter,
born at Brussels about 1630. His design was correct,
and his colouring excellent. After working with Carlo
Maratta at Rome, he returned to Brussels, where he con
firmed his reputation by many historical paintings in the
manner of Maratta. Some of the churches of Rome and
Florence are adorned with his works. Died in 1678.
Loopolof, Loupolov, or Lupolow, kx/po-lof,
(PRASCOVIA,) a Russian heroine, born in 1784, was a
daughter of an officer exiled to Siberia. She performed
on foot the journey from Tobolsk to Saint Petersburg,
and obtained a pardon for her father. Her adventures
form the subject of Madame Cottin's "Elizabeth, or the
Exiles of Siberia." Died in 1809.
Loos, 15s, [Lat. CALUD'IUS,] (CoRNELis,) a Dutch
Catholic theologian, born at Gouda about 1545. He
was persecuted for opposing the prevalent superstitious
notions respecting magic in his book " De vera et falsa
Magia,"("On True and False Magic,") and for con
demning the practice of burning those called witches.
He wrote other works. Died in 1595.
See '• Callidius," in BAYLE'S "Historical and Critical Diction
ary;" NICERON, " Memoires."
Loosjes, los'yes, (ADRIAAN,) a Dutch poet and novel
ist, born at Haarlem in 1761, was a dealer in books.
He passed his life in his native city. Among his works
are novels entitled " John De Witt" (1805) and " Susanna
Bronkhorst," (6 vols., 1806,) and a poem called "The
Last Campaign of De Ruyter." Died in 1818.
See " Hulde aan de Nagedachtenis van A. Loosjes," by P. H.
PEERLKAMP, C. UE KONING, A. VAN DER WII.I.IGEN, and H. MEIJEK,
i8iS.
Loots, lots. (CORNELIS,) a Dutch poet, born at Am
sterdam in 1774; died about 1850.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Lope de Rueda, lo'pi da roo-a'na, a Spanish actor
and dramatic author, born at Seville about 1500. He
was the leader of the first troupe of strolling players in
Spain, and was praised by Cervantes as an actor and
writer. His plays were dialogues between a few shep
herds. Died in 1564.
Lope de Vega Carpio, lo'pi da va'ga kaR'pe-o,
(FELIX,) a celebrated Spanish poet and dramatist, born
at Madrid on the 25th of November, 1562, was a con
temporary of Cervantes and Shakspeare. His father
was a hidalgo, (gentleman,) but rather poor. Felix began
to write verses in early childhood, and composed dramas
about the age of twelve. While a student at the Uni
versity of Alcala, he found a powerful patron in the
Duke of Alva, whose service he entered, and at whose
request he wrote his" Arcadia," a pastoral heroic poem,
which first revealed his superior genius. It was first
printed in 1598, though finished many years earlier. He
quitted the service of Alva, and married Dona Isabel
de Urbino. Having in a duel wounded his antagonist,
he fled from Madrid, and passed a few years in Valencia.
His grief for the death of his wife is assigned as his
motive for becoming a soldier. In 1588 he enlisted as
a private volunteer, and, with ardent zeal for what he
deemed a holy cause, took part in the expedition of the
Invincible Armada, during which he wrote his admired
poem the " Beauty of Angelica," (" Hermosura de An
gelica,") a continuation of Ariosto's "Orlando." Re
nouncing martial pursuits in 1590, he returned to Madrid,
where he began to write for the stage, and by his mar
vellous fertility of invention rapidly acquired fame and
affluence. He required only a single day to compose a
versified drama. This astonishing facility enabled him
to produce two thousand original dramas, consisting of
spiritual plays, historical comedies, and dramas of in
trigue, called De Capa y Espada, (" Of the Cloak and
Sword,") which were performed with immense applause.
There is scarcely an example on record of an equal
popularity. His name became a synonym for the super
lative degree, and it was the fashion to say a Lope dia
mond, a Lope dress, etc., to express the splendour or
perfection of those articles. He was styled the "Centre
of Fame," the "Darling of Fortune," the "Phoenix of
Ages," etc. Among his dramas we may mention " The
Beautiful Deformed," ("La Hermosa fea," ) "The
Prude," (" La Dama melindrosa,") " The Certain for
the Doubtful," (" Lo Cierto por lo Dudoso,") and "Es-
trella de Sevilla," or " Don Sancho Ortiz." In richness
of invention, vivacity of dialogue, and variety of ideas
he is perhaps unsurpassed by any dramatist. For the
sake of trying the public taste, he published, without
his name, a poem entitled "Soliloquies on God," which
was received with much favour. After the death of his
second wife he became a priest, (1609,) but continued to
write for the stage. He also wrote epic poems, entitled
"Circe," "Andromeda," and "Jerusalem Delivered,"
which are considered much inferior to his dramas. Died
in 1635. (For some very interesting remarks on Lope de
Vega, particularly in reference to the marvellous fertility
of his genius, see Prescott's " Miscellanies," pp. 137-139.)
See MONTAI.VAN, " Fama posthuma a la Vida y Muerte del Lope
de Vega Carpio," Madrid, 1636; LORD Hoi. r. AND, "Some Account
of the Lite of Lope de Vega Carpio," 1817 ; LAKRAMENDI, " Pianto
funebre en la Muerte de L. F. de Vega Carpio," 1635: TICKNOR,
"History of Spanish Literature;" N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca His-
pana Nova;" SEDANO, " Parnaso Espaiiol ;" FAITRIEL, " Lope de
Vega," in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," September i, 1X39, and
September 15, 1843; LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;"
ENK VON DER BUNG, " Studien iiber Lope de Vega," Vienna, 1839;
" Notivelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale."
Lopes, lo'pgs, (FERNANDO,) a Portuguese historian,
born about 1380; died in 1449.
Lopez. See AYAI.A, I>E, GOMARA, and CASTANHEDA.
Lopez, lo'|>5th, (Ai.oN/.o,) a Spanish critic, born at
Valladolid. He practised medicine with such success
that he received the title of physician to Maria of Castile,
daughter of Charles V. He published in 1596 "Ancient
Poetical Philosophy," (" Philosophia antiqua poetica.")
Lopez, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish artist, who became
painter to Philip III. about 1602, and adorned the Prado
with frescos. He was living in 1638.
Lopez, lo'pes or k/pe'th, (Don FRANCISCO SOLANO,)
an able South American general and political leader,
born about 1826. He was elected in September, 1862,
President of Paraguay, as the successor of his father,
Don Carlos Lopez. He declared war against Brazil in
1865, and commanded his army in person with various
success. He was killed in battle or retreat in March, 1870.
Lopez, (I AGO or DIEGO,) a Spanish painter, born at
Toledo about 1465 ; died about 1530.
Lopez, (Don JOAOUIN MARIA,) an able and eloquent
Spanish statesman, born at Villena in 1802, was a zeal
ous adherent of the constitutional party. In 1836 he
became minister of the interior under Calatrava. He
resigned in March, 1837. He was prime minister for a
short time in 1843.
Lopez, (JoSE,) a Spanish painter, born at Seville
about 1650, was a pupil of Murillo.
Lopez, lo'pSs or lo'pfith, (NARCISSO,) an American
revolutionist or filibuster, born in Venezuela in 1799.
He served some time as an officer in the Spanish army,
and in 1849 organized in the United States an expedition
for the conquest of Cuba, which failed. He renewed the
enterprise in August, 1851, was captured, and garroted
at Havana the same year.
Lopez, (PEDRO,) a Spanish painter, was a pupil of
Greco. His chief work is the "Adoration of the Magi,"
(dated 1608,) at Toledo, which is much admired.
Lopez de Lereiia, lo'pe'th dali-ia'na, (Don PEDRO,)
a Spanish financier, born at Val de Moro in 1734. lie
was appointed in 1785 secretary of state for the finances,
which he managed with success until his death, in 1792.
Loqman. See LOKMAN.
Lorch, IORK, written also Lorich, (MELCHIOR,) a
Danish painter and eminent engraver, born in Sleswick
in 1527. He visited many foreign countries, and died in
Rome in 1586. Among his works are engravings of
Luther, of Albert Diirer, and of the Deluge.
Lord, (NATHAN,) D.D., an American Congregational
divine, born at Berwick, Maine, in 1792. He graduated
at Bowdoin, and in 1828 became president of Dartmouth
College. Died in 1870.
Lordon, loR'doN', (PIERRE JEROME,) a French histori
cal painter, born in 1780, worked in Paris. Died in 1838.
Loiedano, lo-ra-da'no, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) a
mediocre Italian poet and litterateur, born at Venice in
1606. He became a senator, and obtained other high
offices. About 1630 he founded the academy of the In-
cogniti. He wrote numerous works in verse and prose,
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
LORED4NO
H53
LORRAINE
among which are "The Agreeable Jests," ("Gli Scherzi
geniali," 1632,) " L'lliade giocosa," a burlesque of the
"Iliad," (1654,) and "Amorous Tales." Died in 1661.
See A. LIU-IS "Vi;a di G. F. Loredano," 1663; G. BRUNACCI,
"Vita di G. F. Loredano, Senatore Veneto," 1662.
Loredano, (LKOXAKDO,) was Doge of Venice from
1501 until 1521, when he died, at the age of ninety. His
administration was disturbed by the wars which were
consequent on the League of Cambray, and was a period
of disaster to the republic. lie waged war against a
powerful coalition consisting of France, Germany, and
the pope. He was one of the greatest doges of Venice.
Loreiitz, h/rcnts, (JoHANN FKIKDRICH,) a German
mathematician, born at Halle in 1738; died in 1807.
Loreiitz or Lorenz, lo'rflx', (JOSEPH ADAM,) a
French surgeon, born in Alsace in 1734; died in 1801.
Loreriz. See LORENZO and LAWRENCE.
Lorenz, lo'rents or lo'ruN', (JKAN MICHEL,) a French
historical writer, born at Strasburg in 1723, became pro
fessor of history in his native city, and oi" eloquence in
1784. He published, (in Latin,) besides other works of
merit, a "Life of Saint Paul," (" Annales 1'aulini," 1769,)
a " History of Ancient Gaul," and " Rudiments of Ger
man History," (1776.) Died in 1801.
See MM. HAAG, "La France protestante."
Lorenzetti, lo-rSn-zet'tee, or Lorenzetto, lo-ren-
zet'to, (AMUROGIO,) sometimes called AMUKOGIO ni
LORENZO, an old Italian painter, born at Sienna about
1260, was a pupil of his father Lorenzo, and was a
brother of Pietro. His birth is variously dated about
1257, 1277, and 1300. Ambrogio and Pietro worked
together in Sienna, and were among the greatest artists
of their time. The works of, Ambrogio are nearly all
destroyed ; but some of his frescos are still visible in
Sienna. He was, says Vasari, universally admired. Died
in 1340, 1348, or 1360.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; LANZI, " History of
Painting in Italy ;" BAI.UINUCCI, " Noti/.ie."
Lorenzetti, (PiKTKO,) a brother of the preceding,
worked in Sienna, Florence, Rome, and Pisa, and, ac
cording to Vasari, surpassed Cimabiie and Giotto. In
the Campo Santo of Pisa is preserved his picture repre
senting the " Life of the Fathers in the Desert," in fresco.
lie painted several Madonnas, which have been de
stroyed. He is sometimes called LAURATI. His last
works are dated 1355.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; LANZI, " History of
Painting in Italy."
Lorenzetto. See CAMPANAIO.
Lorenzi, lo-reVx.ee, (BARTOI.OMMF.O,) an Italian poet
and Jesuit, born near Verona in 1732, had an excellent
talent for improvisation. Died in 1822.
Lorenzi, (!>ATTISTA,) an Italian sculptor and engraver,
born in Tuscany in 1528; died in 1593.
Lorenzi, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian painter, born at
Verona in 1719 ; died in 1783.
Lorenzi, (STOl.no nt GINO, stol'do de jee'no,) an
Italian sculptor, born at Settignano about 1540.
Lorenzini, lo-ren-zee'nee, (FRANCKSCO MARIA,) an
Italian poet, born in Rome in 1680. He acquired a
high reputation as a poet, and was remarkable for the
energy of his style. In 1728 he succeeded Crescimbeni
as president of the Academy of Arcades. He was the
author of satires, epigrams, dramas, and other poems in
Italian and Latin. Died in 1743.
See FABRONI, "Vitae Italorum."
Lorenzini, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) an Italian engraver,
born at Bologna in 1665. He engraved the works of
Andrea del Sarto and other Italian masters. Died in 1740.
Lorenzini, (LORENZO,) an Italian geometer, born at
Florence in 1652. For some political offence he was
imprisoned at Volterra twenty years, ending about 1700,
and in this period wrote an able work on conic sections.
Died in 1721.
Lorenzo. See LAWRENCE, SAINT.
Lorenzo de' Medici. See MEDICI.
Lorenzo the Magnificent. See MEDICI, (LO
RENZO DE'.)
Loret, lo'rk', (JEAN,) a French rhymer, born in Nor
mandy. He began to issue in 1650 a weekly newspaper,
called "Gazette en Verses burlesques," which was very
successful. From 1656 to 1665 it was published undtr
the title of " Muse historique." Died about 1665.
Lorge, loRzh, (JEAN THOMAS GUILLAUME,) a French
general, born at Caen in 1767 ; died in 1826.
Lorges. See DURFORT, DE, (Gui AI.PHONSE.)
Lorgna, loRn'ya, (ANTONIO MARIA,) an Italian mathe
matician, born at Verona about 1734. After obtaining
the rank of colonel of engineers, he became professor
in the military school of Verona. He had the reputation
of being' one of the best geometers of Italy. Died in
1796. Among his works are treatises on Statics and
Mechanics, and " Essays on Mathematics and Physics,"
("Opuscula Mathematica et Physica," 1770.)
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Loria, di, de lo're-a, or Lauria, low're-a, (ROGER,)
an able Italian admiral, born at Loria, (or Lauria.) In
1282, as admiral of Peter II., King of Aragon and Sicily,
he defeated the fleet of Charles I. of Naples near Mes
sina. He gained a naval victory over the P'rench near
Barcelona in 1285, and another over the Neapolitans
before Castellamare in 1287. Having entered into the
service of Jayme of Aragon, he defeated the Sicilian
fleet at Cape Orlando in 1299, and again in 1300. Died
in 1305. Sismondi considers him the greatest admiral
that Italy has produced.
See QUINTANA, "Lives of Celebrated Spaniards;'1 SISMONDI,
" Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" GIOVANNI VII.I.ANI, " Isto-
rie Florentine."
Lorichon, lo're'sho.N', (ANTOINE CONSTANT Louis,)
a French engraver, born in Paris in 1800.
Lorieux, lo're-uh', (AUGUSTE JULIEN MARIE,) a
French writer and lawyer, born at Croisic in 1797. He
wrote a " History of the Reign of Charles X.," and a
"Treatise on the Royal Prerogative in France and Eng
land," (1840.) Died in 1842.
Lorin, lo'raN', (JEAN,) a French theologian, born at
Avignon in 1559; died in 1634.
Lo'ring, (WILLIAM W.,) an American major-general,
born in North Carolina about 1815. He took arms
against the Union in 1861, and was employed in the
defence of Vicksburg in the spring of 1863.
Lorinser, lo'rin-ser, (KARL IGNAZ,) a German medi
cal writer, born at Nimes, in Bohemia, in 1796; died in
1853.
Loriot, lo're'o', (ANTOINE JOSEPH,) a French me
chanician, born near Pontarlier in 1716. He gained a
wide reputation by his ingenious .and useful inven
tions, among which were a loom for ribbons, machines
•for working mines, and a new mortar or water-proof
cement which bears his name. Died in 1782.
Loriot, (PIERRE,) a French jurist, born at Salins, be
came professor of law at Leipsic in 1550; died about
1568.
Loriquet, lo're'ki', (JEAN NICOLAS,) a French Jesuit
and historical writer, bom at Epernay in 1760. He
published many school-books in which history was ex
purgated or falsified to promote sectarian and partisan
opinions. He stated in one of his works that "In 1809
the Marquis of Bonaparte, as lieutenant-general of the
King of France, entered Vienna at the head of an army."
Died in 1845.
Loritz. See GLARE AN us.
Lorme, de. See DEI.ORME.
Lorn, LORD. See CAMPUELL, (ARCHIKALD,) Marquis
of Argyle.
Lorrain, (CLAUDE.) See CLAUDE LORRAIN.
Lorrain, Le, (RonEUT.) See LELORRAIN.
Lorraine. See CHARLES II., CHARLES III., FRAN
CIS I., GUISE, HARCOURT, (HENRY,) and MAYENNE.
Lorraine, lor-ran' or lo'rin', (ANTOINE,) DUKE OF,
the son of Rene II., was born at Bar-le-Duc in 1489.
He succeeded his father in 1508, and married Renee de
Bourbon, a French lady. He maintained a neutrality in
the war between Charles V. and Francis I., and reigned
mostly in peace, except some bloody contests with the
German Protestants. He died in 1544, leaving the duchy
to his son, Francis II.
Lorraine, CARDINAL. See GUISE, (CHARLES DE.)
Lorraine, lo'rin', (CHARLES IV.,) DUKE OF, the son
of Fran£ois, Comte de Vaudemont, was born in 1604, and
succeeded his uncle Henry (whose daughter he had mar-
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LORRAINE
'454
LOTAR10
ried) in 1624. Louis XIII. of France invaded Lorraine
in 1632, and took without much resistance Nancy (the
capital) and several fortresses. In the Thirty Years'
war, which began about 1620, Charles fought for the
German empire, contributed to the victory over the
Swedes at Nordlingen in 1634, and as an ally of Spain
fought against the French in several ensuing campaigns.
By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) Lorraine was re
stored to him, but France retained the duchy of Bar. In
1662 he appointed Louis XIV. his heir, but soon took
arms against him, and became a general in the imperial
army. Died in 1675.
See DOM CAI.MET, " Histoire de Lorraine;" C. A. BIIGIN, " His-
toire Hes Ouches de Lorraine et Bar," 1834; " Nouvelle Biographic
Gene'rale."
Lorraine, (CHARLES V.,) DUKE OF, an able general
and statesman, born at Vienna in 1643, was the nephew
of the preceding. lie was the son of Francis, (a brother
of Charles IV.) At the death of Charles IV. the duke
dom was claimed by the subject of this article, and by
the French king, who had possession ; but Charles was
recognized as duke by the other powers of Europe.
Having entered the Austrian service, he was made a
general in 1672, and distinguished himself at Senef in
1675. His reign over Lorraine was only nominal. He
was chosen generalissimo of the imperial army in 1676.
In 1678 he married a sister of the Austrian emperor, and
was restored by the treaty of Nymwegen to his duchy,
with the condition of ceding Nancy to France ; but he
refused to accept these terms. He rendered signal
services to Austria in the war against the Turks which
began in 1683, and commanded a corps against the
French in 1689. He died in 1690, leaving his title to his
son, Leopold I.
See JKAN DE LA P.RUNE, "Vie de Charles V," i6qi ; C. FRBS-
CUOT, ''Vita di Caroli V.," 1692; DUPONT, " Abrege historiquede la
Vie de Charles V," 1701.
Lorraine, (HENRI,) DUKE OF, surnamed THE Goon,
born at Nancy in 1563, was the son of Charles III. and
Claude, daughter of Henry II. of France. He married
Catherine de Bourbon, a sister of King Henry IV., and
in 1608 succeeded his father. He died in 1624, leaving
the duchy to his nephew, Charles IV.
Lorraine, (LEOPOLD I.,) DUKE OF, born at Innspruck
in 1679, was the son of Charles V. By the treaty of
Ryswick, in 1697, he recovered Lorraine, with the con
dition that he should not repair the dismantled forts nor
keep an army. He married Elizabeth Charlotte, niece
of Louis XIV. He showed himself a wise ruler, and
improved the condition of his dominions, which had been'
desolated by long wars. In reference to him, Voltaire
says, "One of the petty sovereigns of Europe has done
the most good to his people/' He died in 1729, and
was succeeded by his son Francis, who married Maria
Theresa of Austria, and exchanged Lorraine for Tuscany.
He was the last Duke of Lorraine.
Lorraine, (RENE II.,) DUKE OF, born in 1451, be
came duke in 1473. His mother was a daughter of
Rene of Anjou, and heiress of the duchy of Lorraine. His
dominions having been invaded by Charles the Bold of
Burgundy, Rene, with his Swiss allies, defeated Charles
at Moral in 1476. The next year he gained another
famous victory near Nancy, where Charles was killed in
battle. lie formed an alliance with Venice, and in 1480
was appointed captain-general of that republic; but on
the death of Louis XI. of PYance he left the service
of Venice to urge his claims to Anjou and Provence,
which he failed to obtain. He died in 1508, leaving two
sons, Antoine, who was his heir, and Claude, the first
Duke of Guise.
See DOM CAI.MET, " Histoire de Lorraine."
Lorrain, de, (CHARLES I.) See CHARLES DE FRANCE.
Lorraine, de, (CHARLES II.) See CHARLKS II., Duke
of Lorraine.
Lorraine, de, (CHARLES III.) See CHARLES III.,
called THE GREAT.
Lorraine, de, deh lor-ran', (CHARLES,) an Austrian
general, called PRINCE CHARLES OF LORRAINE, born at
Luneville in 1712, was the second son of Duke Leopo'd
I., and a brother of Francis I. of Austria. He commanded
the Austrians in the war between Maria Theresa and
Frederick the Great, by whom he was defeated at Czas-
lau in 1742. In 1744 he forced Frederick to evacuate
Bohemia, married a sister of Maria Theresa, and was
appointed Governor of the Low Countries. At the be
ginning of the Seven Years' war he was commander of
the Austrians, and gained a victory over the Prussians
at Breslau in 1757 ; but, having been completely defeated
in the great battle of Leuthen, in the same year, he re
signed his command. Died in 1780.
Lorraine, de, (FKANC.OIS,) grand-prieiir of France,
was born in 1534, and was a son of the Duke of Guise.
After serving with distinction in naval war against the
Turks, he was made general of the galleys, and com
manded several expeditions. Died in 1563.
Lorris, de, deh lo'ress', (GUII.LAUME,) a mediaeval
French bard, born at Lorris, on the Loire. He was the
author of the "Romance of the Rose," ("Roman de la
Rose,") a remarkable poem, which had a great influence
on French literature. The subject is the art of love, and
is treated in an agreeable style. lie is supposed to have
died about 1240.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lorry, lo're', (ANNE CHARLES,) a French physician,
born at Crosne in 1726. He practised in Paris, and
attained the highest rank in his profession. He became
docteiir-regcntv>i\\\<i faculty, and attended Louis XV. in his
last illness. He published a valuable treatise "On Cuta
neous Diseases," (1777;) also an edition of the "Apho
risms" of Hippocrates, and other wciks. Died in 1783.
See Vic IJ'AZYR, " fiioge de Lorry;" " Nuuvelle Biographic
Generale."
Lort, (MICHAEL,) an English writei on theology, born
in 1725. lie became professor of Greek at Cambridge
about 1759. Died in 1790.
Lortic, lou'tek', (ANDR^,) a French Protestant min
ister and writer, born at Saintonge, lived between 1650
and 1700. Died in London.
Lortzing, loiu'sing, (ALHEKT AUGUST,) a German
composer, born in Berlin in 1803; died in 1851.
Losada, lo-sa'na, ( DIEGO,) a Spanish officer, who
conquered the native tribes of Venezuela, and founded
Santiago de Leon. Died in 1569.
Losana, lo-sa'na, (MATTEO,) an Italian priest, born
in Piedmont in 1738. He published useful treatises on
rural economy, insects, etc. Died in 1833.
Loscher or Loescher, lo'sher, (VALENTIN ERNST,)
a German theologian, born at Sondershausen in 1672.
He taught theology at Wittenberg for many years, and
published there a monthly journal of theology and lite
rature, (1701-20,) which had great success. Died in 1749.
Loschge, losh'geh, (FRIEURICH HEINRICH,) a Ger
man physician and writer, born at Anspach in 1755;
died in 1840.
Losel or Loesel, lo'zel, QOHANN,) a German bota
nist, born at Brandenburg in 1607. He became pro
fessor of anatomy and botany at Konigsberg, and died
in 1656, leaving in manuscript a "Flora Prussica," — a
mere catalogue of plants, — which Gottsched published
in 1703.
Losenko, lo-scn'ko, written also Losseiiko, (IVAN,)
an eminent Russian painter, born about 1720. He was
director of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in Saint
Petersburg. Among his works is "The Parting of Hec
tor and Andromache." Died in 1773.
Los'siiig, (BENSON JOHN,) an American historian and
engraver, born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1813.
He published numerous illustrated works, most of which
have enjoyed a great and deserved popularity. Among
the most important are "The Pictorial Field-Book of
the Revolution," (2 vols., 1850-52,) "The Life and Times
of Philip Schuyler," (2 vols., 1860,) a "Life of Washing
ton," (3 vols., 1860,) and a " Pictorial History of the
Civil War in the United States," (3 vols., 1866-69.)
Lossius, los'se-iis, (LuCAS,) a German musician and
writer, born at Vach in 1508; died in 1582.
Lot, [Heb. DI1? ; Fr. LOTH, lot,] a Hebrew patriarch,
who lived about 1900 K.C., was the son of Haran, and
nephew of Abraham. He resided in Sodom until he
was warned by angels of its impending destruction.
See Genesis xi., xii., xiii., xix. ; II. Peter ii. 7.
Lotario. See LOTHAIRE I.
*. e, I. o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
LOT EN
H55
LOUD ON
Loten, lo'ten, (JoiiN or JACOB,) a Dutch landscape-
painter, who excelled in wild, rocky scenery, and storms.
lie worked mostly in England, where he died in 1681.
Loth. See LOT.
Loth, lot, or Loti, lo'tee, [in Italian, Lorn,] (JoiiANX
KARI.,) a German painter, born at Munich in 1632. He
acquired a high rank among the realists, whom the Ital
ians call " Xaturalisti." Among his chief works are
"The Death of Abel," and a "Nativity." Me received
the title of first painter to the emperor Leopold I. Died
at Venice in 1698.
Lothaire, lo-thair', [Fr. pron. lo'taV ; Lat. LOTHA'-
RIUS ; Ger. LOTHAR, lo-taR' ; It. LOTARIO, lo-ta're-o,] I.,
Emperor of the West or of Rome, born about 795 A.D.,
was the eldest son of Louis le Debonnaire. His father as
sociated him with himself in the empire in 817, and made
him King of Italy in 822. Pepin and Louis, brothers of
Lothaire, received respectively Aquitaine and Germany.
At the death of his father, in 840, he claimed supremacy
as emperor ; but his brothers, Louis the Germanic and
Charles the Bald, united to dispute his title, and defeated
him at the great battle of Fontanet, (now Fontenailles,) in
841. I5y the treaty of Verdun (843) Lothaire retained
Italy, with some provinces of France. His capital was
Aix-la-Chapelle. He died in 855 A.D., leaving three sons,
Louis, Charles, and Lothaire, among whom the empire
was divided.
See ASTROXOMUS, "Vita Ludovici Pii ;" FAI-RIEI.. " Histoire de
la Gaule meridionale," tome iv. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Lothaire [Lat. LOTHA'RIUS; Ger. LOTHAR] II. or
III., Emperor of Germany, sometimes called LOTHAIRE
OF SAXONY, was born in 1075. He was the son of Geb-
hard, Count of Arnsberg. After the death of Henry i
V. he was elected emperor, in 1125. Conrad, Duke j
of Franconia, protested against the election, and was j
crowned at Milan by his partisans. About 1132 Lothaire j
inarched to Rome and restored Pope Innocent II., who
had been expelled by his rival Anaclete. He was j
crowned at Rome by Innocent, and performed acts of
homage to the pope which were afterwards cited as an
evidence that the empire was a fief of the Roman See.
He died in 1137, and Conrad III., above named, became
emperor. In the reign of Lothaire the Diet of the empire
asserted its exclusive right to impose taxes and make
war or peace.
See GFRVAIS, "Geschichte Deutschlands unter Kaiser Heinrich
V. und I.otliar III.." 2 vols.. 1842: MASCOV, " Commentarii de i
Rebus Imperil Romano-Germanici sub Lotliario II.," 1755; JAFFE. |
" Geschichte des Deutscheu Reiches unter I.othar von Sachsen,"
184.?.
Lothaire, lo-thair' or lo'tSR', King of France, the son
of Louis d'Outremer, was born in 941 A.n., and suc
ceeded his father in 954. His reign was disturbed by
contests with powerful vassals, among whom was Hugh
Capet, and he waged war with Otho II. of Germany. He
died in 986, and was succeeded by his son, Louis V.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lothaire, King of Italy, was the son of Hugh of
Provence, who admitted him to a share of the royal
power in 931. He reigned alone a few years, and died
in 950, leaving an only child, Emma, who was married to
Lothaire of France. His successor was Berenger II.
Lothaire, King of Lorraine, was the second son of
the emperor Lothaire I. In 855 he inherited the country
situated between the Rhine and the Meuse, which was
called Lotharingia, — Gallice Lorraine. He weakened the
royal power by yielding to the encroachments of the
clergy, and by other impolitic measures. Died in 869 A.D.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lothar. See LOTHAIRE.
Lotharius. See LOTHAIRE.
Lotharius, CARDINAL. See INNOCENT III.
Lotich, lo'tiK, (JoHANN PETER,) a German physician
and Latin poet, born at Nauheim in 1598, was a nephew
of Peter, noticed below. He lived at Frankfort, where
he died in 1669. He was the author of Latin epigrams
and of several historical and medical works.
See NICERON, "Memoires."
Lotich, [Lat. LOTICH'IUS,] (PETER,) a celebrated
German poet, born at Schluchtern, Hesse-Cassel, in
1528, was called SECUNDUS, to distinguish him from his
uncle of the same name. He fought for the Protestant
League of Schmalkalden, and afterwards entered the
civil service of the Elector-Palatine. He became pro
fessor of medicine at Heidelberg in 1557, and died in
1560. He owes his fame to Latin elegies and other
poems, (1551,) which were highly praised by eminent
critics. " Lotich," says Hallam, "is a very elegant and
classical versifier, and perhaps equal in elegy to any
Cisalpine writer of the sixteenth century." ("Intro
duction to the Literature of Europe.")
See JOHANN HAOF.N-, "Vita Peiri Lotichii Secundi," 1586; NICE-
RON, " Memoires;" M. ADAM, " VitxGermanorum Philosophorum."
Lotichius. See LOTICH, (PETER.)
Lotteri, lot-ta'ree, (ANGEI.O LUIGI,) an Italian mathe
matician, born in the Milanese in 1760. Among his
works is "The Principles of the Differential and Integral
Calculus," (1788.) Died at Milan in 1839.
Lotti. See LOTH.
Lotti, lot'tee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian composer, born
at Venice about 1665; died in 1740.
Lotti, (Cosmo,) a Florentine painter and architect,
was noted for mechanical ingenuity, and made several
automata at Florence. About 1628 he was invited by
Philip IV. to Madrid, where he built the theatre Buen
Retire.
Lottin, lo'taV, (AUGUSTix MARTIN,) a French book
seller, born in Paris in 1726. He published a "Return
from Saint-Cloud by Land and Sea," a facetious work.
Died in 1793.
Lotto, lot'to, (LORENZO,) an excellent Italian painter,
was born at Venice about 1490. He worked chiefly at
Bergamo, and had the reputation of being one of the
best painters of the Venetian school. Among his master
pieces are several Madonnas at Bergamo. His first
works are dated about 1515, and his last about 1560.
"His master-pieces," says Lanzi, "place him almost on
a level with the first luminaries of the art."
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters;" I.ANZI, " History of Painting
in Italy;" RIDOLFI, "Vite degli illustri Pittori Veneti."
Louandre, loo'5NdR', (CHARLES LEOPOLD,) a French
litterateur, born at Abbeville in 1813.
Loubere, de la, deh It loo'baiR', ( ANTOINE,) a French
geometer, born in Languedoc in 1600. He taught va
rious sciences in the colleges of the Jesuits, and pub
lished several learned mathematical works. Died in 1664.
Loubere, de la, (SiMON,) a nephew of the preceding,
was born at Toulouse in 1642. lie was sent as envoy
to Siani in 1687. After his return he published a work
"On the Kingdom of Siam," (1691,) which is praised for
fidelity and judicious observations. He was elected to
the French Academy in 1693. Died in 1729.
Loubon, loo'bA.N', ( CHARLES JOSEPH EMILE, ) a
French painter of history and landscapes, born at Aix
in 1809.
Louchet, loo'shi', (Louis,) a French Jacobin, who
became a member of the Convention in 1792. He was
the first who ventured, on the 9th Thermidor, 1794, to
move the arrest or trial of Robespierre. Lamartine
calls him an obscure representative. Died in 1815.
Loudou, (GIDEON ERNST.) See LAUDON.
Loudon, low'don, (JANE,) the wife of J. C. London,
noticed below, and daughter of Thomas Webb, was born
near Birmingham in 1808. She was married in 1381,
before which she had published a novel called "The
Mummy." She gave efficient aid to her husband in his
literary enterprises, and after his death published new
editions of some of his works. She also wrote "The
Ladies' Flower-Garden," ( 1841,) "Botany for Ladies,"
(1852,) "Gardening for Ladies," and other esteemed
works. Died in 1858.
See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap, xvii.;
"London Quarterly Review" for June, 1842.
Loudon, (JoiiN CLAUDIUS,) an eminent Scottish
writer on horticulture and agriculture, was born at
Cambuslang in 1783. Having learned the business of
a landscape-gardener, he removed to London in 1803.
A few years later he rented a farm, on which he tried
new modes of cultivation with success, and soon acquired
an easy fortune. After visiting various countries of
Europe, he returned to London, and published "The
Encyclopaedia of Gardening," (1822,) which had a very
c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Kt guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (ft^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
LOUET
1456
LOUIS
large sale. He afterwards produced " Encyclopaedia of
Agriculture," (1825,) and "Encyclopaedia of Cottage,
Farm, and Villa Architecture," (1832.) The last was
especially popular, lie was editor of the "Gardener's
Magazine," commenced in 1826, and of the "Magazine
of Natural History," (1828-36.) His industry and ex
tensive learning were displayed in an expensive work on
the trees and shrubs of Britain, entitled " Arboretum et
Fruticetum Britannicmn," (1838.) Died in 1843.
See " Memoir of J. C. London," by his wife, 1845 J CHAMBERS,
" Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Edinburgh Re
view" for July, 1839.
Louet, loo'i', (GF.ORGKS,) a French jurist, born at
Angers about 1540; died in 1608.
Lough, liif, (JoHN GR \H.\M,) an English sculptor,
born at Greenhead, in Northumberland. He produced
about 1827 an admirable statue of Milo for the Duke of
Wellington, and went to Italy in 1834. After his return
home, in 1838, he exhibited " ( )phelia," " Hebe banished,"
"The Roman Fruit-Girl," a statue of Victoria, (1845,)
and a statue of Prince Albeit, (1847.) Among his
greatest works is a colossal marble group of " Satan
subdued by the Archangel Michael," (1851.)
Loughborough, LORD. See WKDDKIUHIRN.
Lours, loo'iss, [It. LUIGI, loo-ee'jee,| I., King of Etru-
ria, born at Parma in 1773, -was the son of Ferdinand,
Duke of Parma. In 1795 he married Maria Louisa, a
daughter of Charles IV. of Spain. By a treaty between
the Spanish court and Napoleon in 1801, Louis acquired
Tuscany in exchange for Pirmn, and the name of the
former was changed to Etmria. lie died in 1803,
leaving a son, Louis II.
Louis, loo'iss, [Fr. pron. looV ; Ger. I.umvio, loocl'-
ftir, ; Lat. Lunovi'cus,] the name of many kings of
France. Louis I., surnamed I.K DEBONN AIKE and THK
Pious, [Lai. LUDOVI'CUS Pi'us ; Ger. Lunwu; DER
FROMMK,] Emperor of the West, and King of France,
the son and successor of Charlemagne, was born at
Casseneuil in 778 A.I). Two elder brothers having died
before their father, Louis became heir of all the vast
dominions of Charlemagne in 814; but his character
was too feeble to maintain the integrity of the empire.
He had three sons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis, whom
about 820 he made his colleagues in the government,
giving Italy to the first, Aqniuine to the second, and
Bavaria to the third. After this division another son,
Charles the Bald, was born to him. His sons Lothaire
and Pepin revolted in 830, and deposed him. He was
compelled to do public penance, and confined in a con
vent. By the efforts of his sons Louis and Pepin, he was
restored to the throne a short time before his death,
which occurred in 840.
See FR \vriv, "Louis le Pieux et'son Siecle," 2 vols, 1840;
FR\NCK. " Ludwig der Fromnie," 1832; " Nouvelle biographic
(iauerale."
Louis II., surnamed I.K BKGUE, leh bin, (i.e. "the
Stammerer,") King of France, the son of Charles the
Bald, was born in 846 A.D. He succeeded his father in
877. He propitiated his turbulent nobles by granting to
them many duchies, earldoms, and seignories. He died
in 879, leaving three sons, Louis, Carloman, and Charles
the Simple.
See MICHEI.ET, " Histoire de France."
Louis III., King of France, born about 863, was the
eldest son of Louis II. In 879 the kingdom was divided
between Louis and Carloman, the former of whom re
ceived for his share Netistria. He gained a victory over
the Normans who invaded France, when he died, with
out issue, in 882 A.D., aged about twenty, and Carloman
became sole king of France.
See MICHEI.ET, " Histoire de France."
Louis IV., surnamed n'OuTRKMF.R (dootR'niaik')
because he had visited England in infancy, was the son
of Charles the Simple. He was born in 920 A.n., and
crowned king in 936. Among the events of his reign
was a war between him and Hugh, the father of Hugh
Capet. He died in 954, and was succeeded by his son,
Lothaire II.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Francais."
Louis V., King of France, surnamed LE FAINEANT,
(i.e. "the Idle" or "Do-Nothing,") the son of Lothaire
II., was born about 966. He inherited the title of king in
986, and died in 987, without issue, being the last king
of the Carlovingian dynasty. Hugh Capet was elected
as his successor.
See MICHKI.ET, " Histoire de France."
Louis VI. of France, surnamed LE GROS, (leh gRo,)
was the son of Philip I. and of Bertha. He was born
in 1078, and became king in 1108. Before his accession
the royal power had been much reduced by the preva
lence of the feudal system, and in his reign many sei
gneurs asserted by arms the sovereign power over their
rtefs. He waged war against -Henry I. of England for
the possession of Normandy, but was not successful.
He is represented as a brave and generous prince, and
is honoured for the establishment of communes and
municipal governments, by which he promoted the politi
cal influence of the third estate. He died in 1137, and
was succeeded by his son, Louis VII.
See SISMONUI, "Histoire des Francais;" MICHEI.ET, "Histoire
de France."
Louis VII., King of France, surnamed LE JKUNE,
("the Young,") born in 1120, was the son of Louis VI.,
whom he succeeded in 1137. He married Eleanor,
heiress of the Duke of Aquitaine. Having been anathe
matized by the pope, he became penitent, and, in order
to expiate his sins, he joined the second crusade to Pal
estine in 1147, and was followed by a large army of
Frenchmen and others. After many defeats ami disas
ters, by which he lost nearly all his men, he returned in
1149. His wife Eleanor, having been divorced in 1152,
married Henry II. of England, who by this marriage
acquired Guienne and Poitou. War ensued between
Louis and Henry, but no decisive advantage was gained
by either. He died in 1180, and was succeeded by his
son, Philip Augustus.
See MICHEI.ET, "Histoire de F ranee:" MICHAUD, " History of
the Crusades ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Louis VIII., surnamed C(EUK-DK-LiON, (kuk'deh-
IC'ON',) the son of Philip Augustus, was born in 1187,
and ascended the throne in 1223. His wife was Blanche
of Castile. He recovered by arms Poitou and several
places which the English held in France. Instigated by
the pope, he led a crusade against the Albigenses, and
waged an unjust war against the Count of Toulouse,
who was denounced as a heretic. At the end of the first
campaign he died, in 1226, leaving the throne to his son,
Louis IX.
See RYMER, " Fcedern," 1704 ; VAISSETTE, " Histoire generale
du Languedoc." 5 vols., 1730-45.
Louis IX., or Saint Louis, King of France, was born
in 1215, and succeeded his father, Louis VIII., in 1226.
His mother, Blanche of Castile, was regent during his
minority, and defended his throne with wisdom against
Thibaut de Champagne and other barons who were
leagued with him. Louis married Margaret of Pro
vence in 1234. In 1244 he recovered from a dangerous
illness, and made a vow to conduct a crusade against
the infidels. Having raised a large army, he departed
in 1248, and in the next year entered Egypt. There his
army was ravaged by disease, and defeated at Mansourah
by the Saracens, who took Saint Louis prisoner. By
paying a ransom he obtained his liberty, and pursued
his course to Palestine, where he remained about three
years. He returned to France in 1254, and employed
himself in improving the condition of the people by svise
laws. His foreign policy was pacific towards European
nations, but his zeal against infidels urged him to another
crusade in 1270. He first directed his operations against
Tunis, but before he had reached that place he died, near
Carthage or Tunis, in August, 1270. He was canonized
in 1297. He was succeeded by his son, Philippe le Hard!.
" Louis was," says Voltaire, " in all respects a model for
men. His piety, which was that of an anchorite, did not
deprive him of royal virtues. He made a profound policy
agree and concur with exact justice ; and perhaps he is
the only sovereign who merits this praise."
See G. UK NANGIS, "Vie de Saint-Louis;" JOINVII.I.E, "Vie de
Saint-Louis;" FIT.I.KAU r>E I.A CHAISE. "Histoire de Saint-Louis,"
2 vols , 1688; BUKY, "Histoire de Saint Louis," 1775; MICHEI.ET,
" Histoire de France ;" MICH A tin, " History of the Crusades ;" Vn.-
I,ENEUVE-BARC;EMONT, " Histoire de Saint-Louis, Roi de France,"
3 vols., 1836; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
a, e, I, 6, u, y, Jong; a, e. 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; me"t; nftt; good; moon;
LOUIS
'457
LOUIS
Louis X., sin-named LK HUTIN, (leh hii'taN',) King of
France, the son of Philippe le Bel, was born in 1289,
and became king in 1314. He married Clemence, a
daughter of the King of Hungary. Among the chief
events of his short reign was his unfortunate expedition
against Flanders. He died, without male issue, in 1316,
and his brother, Philippe le Long, was his successor.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire cles Francais."
Louis XI., King of France, born at Bourges in 1423,
was the son of Charles VII. He married Charlotte, a
daughter of the Duke of Savoy. His ambitious and un
scrupulous character was early manifested by revolts
against his father. He became king in 1461, soon after
which the Duke of Burgundy and other nobles formed
against him the " League of the Public Good." Besieged
in his capital by the army of this league in 1465, he in
duced them to retire and disband by the large conces
sions of a treaty which he intended to violate at his own
convenience. By crafty policy, superior abilities, and
vigorous measures, he greatly increased the royal power
at^the expense of the nobles, many of whom fell victims
to his cruelty. His inveterate enemy, Charles the Bold
of Burgundy, having been killed in battle at Nancy in
1477, Louis availed himself of the occasion to seize his
large domains, but was resisted with partial success by
Maximilian of Austria in a war of several years. Louis
had made peace with Edward IV. of England in 1475.
He died in 1483, leaving the throne to his son, Charles
VIII. The reign of Louis XI. is remarkable for the
multitude of important events, and for the complete
revolution which the monarchy then passed through.
Post-offices were first established by him in France.
See COMINES, " Memoires contenant les Choses ndvenues chirant
le Regne de Louis XI," 1523 ; the same in English ; DUCJI.OS, " His
toire de Louis XI," 1745; JEAN DE TROVES, " Chroniqiie scanda-
leuse ;" MATHIEU, "Histoire de Louis XI," 1610; BASIN, " De
Rebus gestis Caroli VII. et Ludpvici XI.:" MICHEI.ET, "Histoire
de France: " Nouveile Biographic Generale."
Louis XII. of France, born at Blois in 1462, was the
son of Charles, Duke of Orleans, and Marie of Cleves.
At the accession of Charles VIII. (1483) he was the
first prince of the blood. Before that date he had been
compelled to marry Jeanne, the daughter of Louis XI.
In 1495 he attended his cousin, Charles VIII., in his
expedition against Naples, and in 1498 became the suc
cessor of that king, who left no issue. I le married Anne
de Bretagne, the widow of the late king, thus securing
the province of Bretagne for the crown. His army con
quered the duchy of Milan, and brought Duke Francis
Sforza a captive to France in 1500. He resolved, also,
to prosecute the claims of his family to Naples, then
ruled by Frederick of Aragon. In 1501 Louis and Fer
dinand of Spain agreed to partition between themselves
the kingdom of Frederick, who, finding resistance im
possible, retired to France and received a pension from
Louis. The quarrel that ensued between Louis and
Ferdinand ended in 1503 by the expulsion of the French
from Naples by Gonsalvo de Cordova. The pope, Julius
II., having formed a league against Louis, the French
were defeated at Novara in 1513 and driven out of Italy.
At the age of fifty-three he married Mary, a sister of
Henry VIII. of England. He died on the 1st of Janu
ary, 1515, leaving two daughters, Claude and Renee.
He was succeeded by Francis I. Louis XII. gained the
affection of his subjects by reducing the taxes and pro
moting justice, and received the surname of " Father of
the People."
See JEAN D'AUTON, "Histoire de Louis XII." 1615; CLAUDE
DE SEVSSEL, "Les Louanges du bon Roi Louis XII," 1508; JAY,
" Histoire de Louis XII :" BRANTOME, " CEuvres ;" A. VARII.LAS,
"Histoire de Louis XII," t6SS; SISMONDI, "Histoire des Fran-
£ais ;" P. L. GINGUENE, " filoge de Louis XII," 1788.
Louis XIII. of France, the son of Henry IV. and of
Marie de Medicis, was born at Fontainebleau on the
27th of September, 1601. He succeeded his father
May 14, 1610, under the regency of his mother, was de
clared of age in 1614, and married Anne of Austria, a
daughter of Philip III. of Spain, in 1615. Soon after
that date Marie de Medicis was exiled from court, and
the Duke de Luynes became the royal favourite. In
1620 Louis marched against his Protestant subjects, who
had been provoked into a revolt. During the progress
of this war Richelieu obtained the favour and confi
dence of the king, who made him prime minister in
1624. As Louis was very deficient in political ability,
Richelieu was the master-spirit of the government from
that time until his death. Among the memorable events
of this reign was the capture of Rochelle from the Prot
estants, (1628,) after a siege of about a year. The great
talents and policy of Richelieu were directed with suc
cess to the subjection of the Huguenots, the establish
ment of absolutism in France, and the abatement of the
overgrown power of Austria. During the Thirty Years'
war the French armies obtained frequent successes
against the Spaniards and Imperialists, and extended
the boundaries of France by the conquest of Roussillon,
Alsace, and the duchy of Bar. Louis died in May, 1643,
leaving the crown to his son, Louis XIV. His character
was timid, and not adapted to win the favour or admira
tion of the French. He is said, however, to have given
proof of personal courage in several battles.
See MALINGRR, " Histoire de Louis XI 1 1," 1646; Cn. BERNARD,
"Histoire de Louis XII I," 1646; J. HHWEI.L, "Life of Lewis
XIII," 1646; LE VASSOR, "Histoire du Regne de Louis XIII,"
1700-11; BAZIN, "Histoire de France sous Louis XIII," 1837;
" Nouveile Biographic Generate."
Louis XIV., surnamed LK GRAND, (lehgRoN,) or " the
Great," often called even by English speakers Louis
QUATOKZE, (loo'e' kt'touz',) the eldest son of Louis XIII.
and Anne of Austria, was born on the i6th of September,
1638. At the age of five he ascended the throne, in 1643,
under the regency of his mother, who was a daughter of
Philip III. of Spain. During his minority the government
was directed by Cardinal MAZAKIN, (which see,) a for
eigner, whose ministry was very unpopular, and who was
involved in a civil war, against a faction called La Fronde,
from 1648 until 1653. In 1649 Louis and his mother were
driven out of the capital by the Frondeurs, of whom
Conde was the chief. The Thirty Years' war was ended
in 1648 by the peace of Westphalia, on terms favourable
to France ; but Spain, refusing to unite in this treaty, con
tinued the war against the French until the treaty of the
Pyrenees, (1659,) when Louis married Maria Theresa,
daughter of Philip IV. of Spain.
At the death of Mazarin, in 1661, Louis resolved to be
his own prime minister, and was fortunate in obtaining
the services of so able a financier as Colbert. France
was then without doubt the greatest and most compact
power in Europe. To the arduous duties of his new
position the king brought imposing and popular personal;
qualities, and political talents of a high order. His am
bition was to make France prosperous and the monarchy
absolute. His policy was briefly summed up in his fa
mous saying, " L'litat, c'est mo/ !" ("The State — that is
myself!") The death of Philip IV. of Spain, in 1665,
furnished him a pretext for the extension of his domin
ions towards the Rhine. In exchange for the dowry
promised to his queen, which the Spanish court neglected
to pay, he claimed Flanders and Franche-Comte, which
he invaded with success in 1667. The emperor Leopold
and the Dutch aided the Spaniards against him until the
treaty of Nymwegen, (1678,) by which Louis retained
Franche-Comte and a large part of Flanders. In the
mean time the administration had been reformed and
centralized by Louis, and the taxes had been reduced
and the revenue increased by Colbert. In 1670 Louis
made a secret treaty with Charles II. of England, whose
alliance he purchased by a pension. Commerce, manu
factures, arts, literature, etc. were liberally encouraged in
his reign ; but the intolerant zeal of the king betrayed
him into one very unjust and impolitic measure when,
in 1685, he revoked the edict of Nantes, which had se
cured the religious liberty of Protestants. His Catholic
zeal, however, did not de'ter him from a serious quarrel
with the pope, on the question of franchises, in 1687.
About this time he secretly married Madame de Main-
tenon, a lady of obscure origin but eminent merit. (See
MAINTKNON.)
A second general war broke out in 1688, between Louis
on one side, and Spain, Austria, England, and the Prince
of Orange on the other. Louis failed in his attempt to
restore James II. of England, and found a formidable
adversary in James's successor, William III. After many
sieges and indecisive actions in Flanders, the war was
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as>; o, H, ^guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^="See Explanations, p. 23.)
O3
LOUIS
1458
LOUIS
suspended by the treaty of Ryswick, (1697.) By the will
of Charles II. of Spain, (1700,) Philip, Duke of Anjou,
a grandson of Louis XIV., was appointed heir to the
Spanish throne. This occasioned a great European coali
tion against the French king, and the long war of the
Spanish succession, in which he had to contend against
the English and Austrians, under Marlborough and Eu
gene, who won great victories at Blenheim, Malplaquet,
etc. ; but the French prince Philip remained master of
Spain, and hostilities were ended by the treaty of Utrecht,
in April, 1713. After a reign of seventy-two years, he
died, on the 1st of September, 1715, and was succeeded
by his great-grandson, Louis XV. The age of Louis
XIV. svas the most brilliant in the literary history of
France, and he was a very judicious as well as a very
munificent patron of literary merit. He preserved his
equanimity in his successes and his reverses.
" No sovereign," says Macaulay, in his review of Du-
mont's "Recollections of Mirabeau," "has ever repre
sented the majesty of a great state with more dignity
and grace. ... He was not a great general ; he was not
a great statesman ; but he was, in one sense of the words,
a great king. Never was there so consummate a master
of what our James I. would have called king-craft.
Though his -internal administration was bad, though the
military triumphs of his reign were not achieved by
himself, though his later years were crowded with de
feats, ... he succeeded in passing himself off on his
people as a being above humanity."
See VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV," 1752 ; PELI.ISSON, " His-
toire de Louis XIV," 1749; DANGEAU, "Journal de la (Jour de Louis
XIV ;" " Letters of Madame de Maintenon ;" J. DE LARKHY, " His-
toire de France sons la Regne de Louis XIV," 1718-22 ; CAPEFIGUE,
" Louis XIV, son Gouvernement," etc., 6 vols., 1837 : SAINT-SIMON,
"Memoires;" G. P. R. JAMES, "The Life and Times of Louis
XIV.," 4 vols., 1X38; LORD HOLINGBROKE. "Siecle politique de
Louis XIV," 2 vols., 1754; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;"
"London Quarterly Review" for July, 1818.
Louis XV. of France, the great-grandson of Louis
XIV., was born at Fontainebleau the 15111 of February,
1710. His father was the virtuous Duke of Burgundy,
and his mother was Maria Adelaide of Savoy. Louis
became king on the 1st of September, 1715,1)16 Duke of
Orleans, a nephew of Louis XIV., being then appointed
regent. The minority of Louis was a period of scan
dalous corruption in morals and politics. Among the
ruinous errors of the regent's administration was his
adoption of the financial system of the famous projector
Law. (See LAW, JOHN.) In 1723 the king was declared
of age, the- Duke of Orleans died, and the Duke of
Bourbon became prime minister. In 1725 Louis married
Marie Leczinska, daughter of Stanislas, the dethroned
king of Poland, and in the next year Bourbon was super
seded by the eminent statesman Cardinal Fleury, who
had been preqeptor of the young king and had merited
his confidence.. By his prudent and pacific administra
tion Fleury restored some degree of order and prosperity
in the state, and arrested the downward progress of the
monarchy. A war which began between the French and
Austrians in 1733 was waged on the Rhine and in Italy
until 1735, when Lorraine was ceded to France by the
treaty of Vienna. Against the advice of Fleury, Louis
joined in 1741 the iniquitous coalition against Maria
Theresa of Austria, and sent an army into Bohemia.
The English then declared war against France. In 1743
Cardinal Fleury died, and Louis resolved to dispense
with a prime minister. Among the principal events of
this war was the battle of Fontenoy, (1745,) where in
presence of Louis his army defeated the English under
the Duke of Cumberland. Hostilities were suspended
by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. About this
period Louis ceased to take an active part in the govern
ment, and abandoned himself to scandalous vices in the
harem called the " Pare aux Cerfs."
Rival claims of the French and English in Canada
were the cause or pretext of a war which began in 1755,
and the French court was at the same time involved in
the Seven Years' war as the ally of Maria Theresa. The
disasters and disgraces of this war increased the un
popularity of the king, who was stabbed by a fanatic
named Damiens in 1757, but only slightly hurt. The
French were defeated by Frederick the Great at Ross-
bach (1757) and at Minden, (1759,) and in various nava!
battles by the English. After losing Canada and other
colonies, the French court signed the treaty of Paris in
1763, and ended a war the odium of which was thrown
on Madame de Pompadour. Under the auspices of the
Due de Choiseul, then chief minister, the order of the
Jesuits was suppressed about 1762. Louis died in May,
1774, leaving the kingdom impoverished, oppressed, and
demoralized. He was succeeded by his grandson, Louis
XVI., whose father, the dauphin, had died in 1765.
See LACRETEI.I.E, " Histoire de France pendant le dix-huitieme
Siecle," 5 vols., 1809; BAUER, " Ludwij; XV., Kbuig von Frank-
reich," 1804; VOLTAIRE, "Histoire du 'Siecle de Louis XV;" DE
ToCQUBVlLLH, "Histoire pliilnsophique du Regne de Louis XV,'.'
1847; MAUREPAS, " Memoires," 1791 ; M. CAPKFIGUE, " Louis XV
et la Societ^ du XVI He Siecle;" CARLYLK, " French Revolution.''
Louis XVI., the grandson of Louis XV., was born
at Versailles, August 23, 1754. He was the second son
of Louis, Dauphin of France, and Marie Josephe of
Saxony, and received at his birth the title of Due de
Berry. In 1770 he married Marie Antoinette, a daughter
of Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria. He ascended
the throne in 1774, and appointed Turgot minister of the
finances, which were then in great disorder. Turgot,
a man of probity and ability, undertook wise and exten
sive reforms; but these were resisted by the nobility
and clergy, and he was dismissed from office in 1776.
Necker then became controleur-getieral, or prime minister.
(See NKCKKR, J.) In 1778 the French court recognized
the independence of the United States, declared war
against England, and sent a fleet and army to fight for
the new republic. Peace was restored between France
and England in 1783, and the French soldiers returned
home enthusiasts for liberty.
Necker having resigned in 1781, Calonne was ap
pointed contrdleiir-general. He not only failed to supply
the deficit in the revenue, but increased the public dis
tress by his prodigality, and called an Assembly of Nota
bles in 1787. In this year Calonne was superseded by
Lomenie de Brienne, who also was found incompetent
to guide the state through that great financial and politi
cal crisis, and advised the king to convoke the States-
General, which had not been assembled since 1614.
Louis recalled Necker to the place of prime minister
about September i, 1788, and convoked the States-Gene
ral at Versailles in May, 1789. This event was the signal
for the explosion of passions, ambitions, and resentments
which had accumulated and fermented during a long
period of misrule. The popular cause derived great
advantage from Necker's ordinance that the number of
the deputies of the Third Estate should be equal to the
sum of all the noblesse and clergy. After a contest
between the Third Estate and the other orders on the
question whether they should vote together or separately
by orders, the Third Estate prevailed, and took the name
of the National Constituent Assembly. Necker having
been dismissed in July, 1789, the populace of Paris de
stroyed the Bastille a few days later. Thenceforth the
progress of revolution was rapid and irresistible. The
Assembly madi a great and sudden change in the po
litical and social condition of France by the abolition of
tithes, titles of nobility, feudal privileges, and inveterate
abuses. The landed estates of the Church, comprising
nearly one-third of France, were confiscated. The king,
who was disposed to make large concessions and lacked
firmness to resist popular aggressions, remained as a
hostage of the old regime in the hands of the nation.
The position of Louis became so irksome and perilous
that he attempted, in June, 1791, to escape with his
family from Paris, but was arrested at Varennes and
compelled to return. He then accepted the new consti
tution, which proclaimed liberty, equality, and universal
suffrage. In March, 1792, a Girondist ministry was
formed, in which Dumouriez and Roland were the chief
ministers, and war was declared against Austria and
Prussia. By the insurrection of August 10, the Jacobins,
led by Danton and Robespierre, effected the total sub
version of the monarchy and initiated the reign of terror.
Louis was confined in a prison called the Temple, after
being subjected to indignities and outrages from the mob.
He was tried for treason by the National Convention,
which met in September, 1792, defended by Deseze and
Tronchet, and condemned to death, the vote being 387
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; nftt; good; moon;
LOUIS
H59
LOUIS
for death and 334 for banishment or detention. He was
executed January 21, 1793, and died with tranquil forti
tude. He left a son, Louis, styled the Seventeenth, and
a daughter, Elizabeth. His virtues were better adapted
to a private station than to a throne.
See GASSIER, " Vie de Louis XVI," 1814 ; DURDENT, " Histoire
de Louis XVI," 1817; J. DROZ, "Histoire du Regne de Louis
XVI, "3 vols., 1839-42; FAU.OUX, " Louis XVI," 1840; CAHEFIGUE,
"Louis XVI. son Administration," etc., 4 vols., 1844: SOULAVIE,
"Memoires du Regne de Louis XVI," 6 vols., 1801; THIEKS,
"History of the French Revolution;" LAMAKTINE, "History of
the Girondists," 1847; CAKI.YLE, "French Revolution;" "Last
Years of the Reign and Life of Louis XVI.," by FKANCIS Hue.
Louis XVII. of France, the second son of Louis
XVI., was born in 1785. He became dauphin at the
death of an elder brother in 1789, and was recognized as
king in January, 1793, by the French royalists and several
foreign courts, but was closely confined by the Jacobins.
The cruel treatment which he received from his jailers
hastened his death, which occurred in prison in June,
1795-
See A. DE BEAUCHESNE, "Life, Sufferings, and Death of Louis
XVII.," translated by W. HAZLITT; "London Quarterly Review"
for October, 1853.
Louis XVIII. of France, born at Versailles in No
vember, 1755, was the third son of the dauphin, and
younger brother of Louis XVI. He received at his
birth the names of Louis Stanislas Xavier, and the title
of Count de Provence. He was also styled MONSIEUR
during the reign of Louis XVI. In 1771 he married
Marie Josephine de Savoy. He favoured the Revolu
tion in its first stages, and by his influence determined
that the Third Estate should send to the States-General
as many deputies as both of the other orders. He re
mained in Paris until the flight of the king to Varennes,
in June, 1791, when lie escaped by another route. During
the republic and empire he resided at Verona, Mitati,
Warsaw, and Hartwell, England. In April, 1814, he
returned to France and ascended the throne vacated
by Bonaparte. He hastened to accept a constitutional
charter which his ministers presented. By the escape
of Napoleon, his daring march to Paris, and the defec
tion of the army, Louis was forced to fly on the 2oth of
March, 1815, and retired to Ghent. (See BoNAi'AKTK.)
He was again restored by the allied armies in July,
1815, at one of the most disastrous epochs in French
history. " The king must have had," says Lamartine,
"great courage or a great thirst of power, to accept a
throne and a nation buried under so many ruins." Louis
dismissed Talleyrand, and selected for prime minister
the Due de Richelieu ; but M. Decazes, minister of
police, was his chief favourite. The majority of the
Chamber of Deputies were extreme royalists, and main
tained an opposition to the ministry. Several Bona-
partists were executed, and others banished. On Sep
tember 5, 1816, the king dissolved the Chamber, and by
this coup d'etat gained much popularity. The next elec
tions resulted in favour of the moderate royalists. In
December, 1818, a new liberal ministry was formed, and
Decazes became prime minister. (See DHCAZES.) The
ultra-royalists, with Villele as premier, came into power
in February, 1820, and passed an electoral law less
favourable to the liberal party. In 1823 the French
court sent an army into Spain, and supported the cause
of absolutism, as an ally of Ferdinand VII. Louis died
in September, 1824, without issue, and was succeeded by
his brother, Charles X. " His qualities," says Michaud,
"were rather brilliant than solid." He had respectable
literary attainments and an easy elocution. He is re
puted the author of the saying, " Punctuality (exactitude)
is the politeness of kings."
See ALPHONSE L>E BF.AUCHAMP, "Vie de Louis XVIII," 1821;
LACRETELI.E, "Histoire de France depuis la Restauration," 4 vols.,
1829-36; LAMARTINE, " History of the Restoration ;" "Memoires
de Louis XVIII," (anonymous,) Paris, 1832; CHATEAUBKIAND,
" Me'moires d'Outre-'i'ombe :" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;"
EYRE EVANS CROWE, " History of Louis XVIII. and Charles X.,"
2 vols., 1854; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1833.
Louis, (Kings or princes of Germany.) See LEWIS.
Louis [It. LUIGI, loo-ee'jee] II., King and Emperor of
Italy, the son of Lothaire I., was born about 822 A.D.
He became the colleague of his father in 850, and at the
death of the latter, in 855, inherited the throne of Italy.
Among the events of his reign were battles which he
fought with various success against the Saracens who
invaded Italy. He died in 875, leaving a daughter
Ermengarcle, who was married to Boson, King of Aries.
They had a son, who was styled Louis III.
See MURATORI, "Annales d'ltalia;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Louis (Luigi) III., King or Emperor of Italy, sur-
named THE BLIND, born about 879, was a grandson of
the preceding. He was a son of Boson, King of Aries,
and Ermengarde. In 900 he was invited to Italy by
several barons, and was crowned in place of Berenger,
who took Louis prisoner in 905 and put out his eyes.
Died in 929.
Louis (Luigi) OF TARENTUM, King of Naples, born
in 1320, was a grandson of Charles the Lame. He was
a cousin of Queen Joan of Naples, who married Louis
in 1346, after she had strangled her husband Andrew.
Died in 1362.
Louis (Luigi) II., King of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusa
lem, born in 1377, was a son of Louis I. He was crowned
by the pope in 1389, and obtained possession of Naples,
from which he was expelled by Ladislaus in 1399. Died
in 1417.
Louis (Luigi) III, of Naples, Duke of Anjou, born
in 1403, was a son of the preceding. He inherited his
father's title to the throne of Naples, which, however,
was occupied by Alfonso of Aragon. He invaded Italy,
and conquered a large part of the kingdom, but died in
1434, before his enterprise was finished.
Louis [Port. Luis, loo-ess' 1 1., King of Portugal, born
in 1838, began to reign at the death of his brother,
Pedro V., in November, 1861, before which he was the
Duke of Oporto. He married Maria Pia, a daughter of
Victor Emmanuel of Italy, in 1862.
Louis (Luigi) I., King of Sicily or of Naples, Count
of Provence, Duke of Anjou, etc., born in 1339, was
a younger son of Jean II. of France. At the instigation
of Pope Clement VII., Queen Joan of Naples adopted
Louis as her successor in 1380, but his title was disputed
by Charles of Durazzo, who afterwards became King of
Naples. Died near Bar! in 1384.
Louis [Sp. Luis, loo-ess'] OF ARAGON, King of Sicily,
born in 1338, was the eldest son of Peter II., whom he
succeeded in 1342. Died in 1355.
Louis, Dauphin of France, the son of Louis XIV.
and Maria Theresa, was born in 1661, and was called
MONSEIGNEUR. His education was directed by Bossuet,
who wrote for him his "Discourse on Universal His
tory." The dauphin, however, had a great aversion to
study, and appears to have had only moderate abilities.
He married Marie Christine of Bavaria, and became
father of the Duke of Burgundy and of the Duke of
Anjou, who was afterwards Philip V. of Spain. In 1688
Louis XIV. placed him at the head of the army of the
Rhine, under the direction of Vauban. As commander
of the army in Flanders in 1694, the dauphin received
credit for a march which protected Dunkirk. His last
years were passed in compulsory idleness. Died in 1711.
Louis, Dauphin of France, the son of Louis XV.,
was born in 1729. His virtues, talents, and attainments
are highly commended by M. Michaud, Jr. In 1747 he
married Marie Josephe of Saxony, by whom he had
three sons, who became kings, viz., Louis XVI., Louis
XVIII., and Charles X. He was excluded by his father
from all participation in the government. Died in 1765.
Louis, loo'e', (ANTOINE,) a celebrated French sur
geon, born at Metz in 1723. He settled in Paris at an
early age, and acquired a high reputation by his writings
on surgery. He wrote many able surgical articles for
the " Encyclopedic." He was for many years the oracle
and counsel of the tribunals in questions of medical
jurisprudence. Died in 1792.
See "Nouvelle Biographic GeneYale."
Louis, (Louis DOMINIQUE,) BARON, a successful
French financier, better known as AKH^ Louis, was born
at Toul in 1755. He emigrated to England in 1792, and
returned about the end of 1799. During the empire he
became administrator of the treasury, councillor of state,
and a baron. From April, 1814, until August, 1815, he
served Louis XVIII. as minister of finance. He was re
called to the same office in 1818 by Decazes, and resigned
as k; c as s; ghard; gas/; G, H, is., guttural; N, nasai; K, trilled: sasz: t-h as in this.
e Explanations, p. 23.)
LOUIS
1460
LOURDOUEIX
in November, 1819. He was also appointed minister of
finance by Louis Philippe in 1830. Died in 1837.
See "Souvenirs sur le Baron Louis," Paris, 1842: CoMTE UE
SAINT-CRICQ, ''^loge de Baron Louis," 1838; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Louis, (PIERRE CHARLES ALKXANDRE,) a French
physician, born at Ai (Marne) in 1787. Among his
works is "Researches on Typhoid Fever," (2 vols.,
1828.)
Louis Napoleon. See NAPOLEON III.
Louis Philippe, loo'e' fe'lep', Duke of Orleans, King
of the French, often called "the Citizen King," was
born in Paris on the 6th of October, 1773, and was the
eldest son of Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke of Orleans,"
who was styled Philippe Egalite. His mother was Louise
Marie de Bourbon, a daughter of the Due de Pen-
thievre. His early education was directed by Madame
de Genlis, who taught him liberal principles and formed
him to habits of prudence and self-control. During the
life of his father, who was executed in 1793, he was styled
the Duke of Chartres. About 1790 he entered the army
as colonel, and merited two civic crowns by saving the
lives of two priests in an emcute. lie favoured the
popular cause in the Revolution, and served in the first
campaign against the Austrians in 1792. In November
of that year he commanded the centre at Jemmapes,
and was, says Lamartine, the favourite lieutenant of
Dumonriez, the general-in-chief. Having been sum
moned to appear at the tribunal of the committee of
public safety in April, 1793, he escaped across the Bel
gian frontier with Dumouriez, in whose conspiracy with
the Austrians he was implicated. He afterwards wan
dered as an exile and in disguise through various coun
tries and strange vicissitudes, and was for some months
(1794) professor in the College of Reichenau, under the
name of M. Chambaud. In 1796 he came tor greater
safely to the United States, where he travelled more than
a year. From 1800 until 1808 the Duke of Orleans re
sided in England. He married Maria Amelia, daughter
of Ferdinand, King of Naples, in 1809. At the restora
tion of the Bourbons (1814) he returned to France, and
was reinstated in his hereditary honours and possessions.
\\ hen the escape of Bonaparte from Elba became known
at Paris, Louis XVIII. appointed the Duke of Orleans
commander of the army of the North ; but he soon re
signed this place. He took little part in public affairs
until the revolution of July, 1830, had dethroned Charles
X., and a provisional government was formed, under the
direction of La Fayette, Lafitte, Guizot, Thiers, and others.
A powerful party then urged the claim of Louis Philippe
to the throne, while others wished a republic. The scale
appears to have been turned by La Fayette, (who did not
consider France yet prepared for a republic,) and the
crown was offered to the Duke of Orleans by the Deputies
and Peers, on the gth of August, and accepted, with a
remodelled constitution. The king called into his cabi
net the Due de Broglie, Count Mole, M. Guizot, and
Lafitte. He was soon after recognized by the great powers
of Europe. In October, 1830, M. Lafitte became premier,
and in March, 1831, was superseded by Casimir Perier.
The first part of this reign was disturbed by riots and
conspiracies of the Carlists and republicans, and several
attempts were made to assassinate the king. In October,
1832, a new ministry was formed, of which Marshal Soult
was premier and Guizot and Thiers were members, the
majority being Doctrinaires. Frequent changes of the
ministry afterwards occurred, by which Couut Mole, the
Due de Broglie, Thiers, and Guizot were successively
raised to the office of prime minister. In October, 1836,
Louis Napoleon made at Strasbourg an abortive attempt
to dethrone Louis Philippe, for which he was banished to
the United States. Louis Philippe followed a pacific policy,
and waged no wars against the great European powers ;
but his army made important conquests in Algeria. His
reign, however, though successful, was not generally
popular. It was stigmatized as reactionary, temporizing,
"egotistical." The peace which had been the chief merit
of this reign was at last imperilled by the impolitic mar
riage of the king's son, the Duke of 'Montpensier, to the
eventual heiress of the Spanish crown. Electoral reform
became the rallying-cry of a plan of agitation concerted
by a coalition of republicans, Bonapartists, and royalists
in 1847. 'l*ne forcible opposition of the ministry to this
open agitation at reform banquets caused a collision be
tween the troops and the Parisian populace on February
24, 1848. Unwilling to authorize a great slaughter of
the people, the king then abdicated in favour of his
grandson, Count of Paris; but the republic proclaimed
by Lamartine, Arago, and others prevailed. Louis Phi
lippe escaped in disguise to England, where he was kindly
received. He died at Claremont, England, in August,
1850, leaving four sons, styled the Due de Nemours,
the Due de Montpensier, the Prince de Joinville, and
the Due d'Aumale.
SeeHouDiN, " Histoirede Louis Philippe." 1847; I,. G. MICHAUD,
lkThe Public and Private Lite of Louis Philippe," in French, 1849;
NOUVION, "Viede Louis Philippe," 1849; G. N. WRK;HT, "The
Lite and Times of Louis Philippe," 1842 ; Louis HI.ANC, " Histoire
de dix Ans," (1830-40) Paris, 1842; ALFRED E. DOUGLAS, "Lite
and Times of Louis Philippe, ex- King of the French," 1X4$; GUIZOT,
" Memoires pour servir a 1'Histoire de mon Temps;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale;" "London Quarterly Review" for April and
October, 1850.
Louis Quatorze. See Louis XIV.
Louisa (or Luise) Auguste Wilhelmine Amalie,
Queen of Prussia, the daughter of the Duke of Mecklen-
burg-Strelitz, was born at Hanover in 1776. She was
married in 1793 to the prince-royal, who in 1797 became
King Frederick William III. After becoming the mother
of several children, she died in 1810. Her beauty and
accomplishments are highly praised.
See CHARI.OTTK RICHAKDSON, " Memoirs of the Private Life of
Louisa, Queen of Prussia," 1847; J. F. SCIIINK, "Louise Preus-
sens Schutzgeist," 1817; "Nouvelle liiographie Generale."
Louise de Lorraine, loo'ez' deh lo'rin', Queen of
France, born in 15^4.) was the daughter of Nicolas,
Count de Vaudemont. In 1575 she was married to
Henry III., who treated her with neglect. Died in 1601.
Louise de Savoie, loo'ez' deh sS'vwa', Regent of
France, born at Pont d'Ain in 1476, was the daughter
of Philip, Duke of Savoy. She married Charles of Or
leans, and had a son who became king as Francis I.
On his departure to Italy, in 1515, he appointed her
regent of the kingdom. She caused the loss of the
Milanese by appropriating to herself the money destined
to pay the troops, and by her unjust treatment provoked
Constable Bourbon to join the enemy. She obtained
the regency again in 1524, and retained it during the
captivity of the king. In 1529 she negotiated with Mar
garet of Austria the treaty of Cambray between Francis
I. and Charles V. Died in 1532.
See MARII.LAC, "Vie du Connetable de Bourbon ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Louise d'Orleans, loo'ez' dou'la'oN', (MARIE TIIE-
RESK CAROLINE ISABELLK,) Queen of Belgium, born at
Palermo in 1812, was a daughter of Louis Philippe of
France. She was married to Leopold, King of Belgium,
in 1832. Died in 1850.
SeeT. SCHEI.I.INCK, "Ken Engel in den Hemel of Leven van H.
M. Louise Marie," etc., 1850; MOKREN, "Heliotrope; Immortalite
de Louise Marie, Reme des Beiges," 1850.
Louise (or Luise) Ulrike, loo-ee'zeh ool're-keh,
Queen of Sweden, born at Berlin in 1720, was a sister
of Frederick the Great of Prussia. She became ac
quainted with Voltaire, who wrote verses in praise of
her agreeable qualities. In 1744 she was married to
Prince Adolphus Frederick, who became king in 1751.
She founded an Academy of Belles-Lettres at Stockholm
in 1753. Died in 1782. Gustavus III. was her son.
Loup, loo, [Lat. SERVA'TUS Lu'i'us,] Abbe of Fer-
rieres, is regarded as the most polished writer that
France produced in the ninth century. He was born in
the diocese of Sens in 805. He was employed by Charles
the Bald in important missions, and corresponded with
the most eminent men of his time, including several
kings. His letters are prized for the light they throw
on the events of that period.
See "Gallia Christiana;" "Nouvelle Biographic GeneraJe."
Loupolof. See LOOPOLOF.
Louptiere, de la, deh It loo'te-ain', (JEAN CHARLES
me Relongue — reh-loNg',) a French poet, born in the
diocese of Sens in 1727; died in 1784.
Lourdoueix, looR'doo'i',(SoPHIE TESSIER,) a French
writer of fiction, born in Paris in 1793. She married M.
S, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
LOURE1RO
1461
LOPE JOT
Lourdoueix, an editor of the "Gazette de France."
Among her works is "The Son of his Works," (" Le
Fits de ses CEuvres," 2 vols., 1845.)
Loureiro, de, da lo-ra^e-ro, (JuAO.) a Portuguese bot
anist, born about 1715. He practised medicine many
and was esteemed a valuable contribution to botanical
science. Died in 1796.
Loutherbourg, loo'teVbooa', or Lutherburg, loo'-
teR-booRC/, (PHILIPPE JACQUES,) a skilful French land
scape-painter, born at Strasburg about 1735, was a pupil
of Casanova. After working some years in Paris, he
removed in 1771 to London, where he painted decora
tions for the Opera. He excelled in landscapes, battle-
pieces, and views on the sea-coast. His execution is
remarkable for facility and vigour. He etched some of
his own designs. He died in London about 1812.
See NAGLEK, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Louvard, loo'viR', (FRANCOIS,) a French Jansenist
and polemical writer, born in Maine in 1661 ; died in 1739.
Louvel, loo'vel', (PIERRE Louis,) a French assassin,
born at Versailles in 1783, was a saddler by trade.
Prompted by party spirit and enmity to the Bourbons,
he assassinated the Due de Berry, February 13, 1820.
This act caused great political excitement, and led to the j
resignation of the prime minister Decazes. Louvel was j
executed in June, 1820.
Louverture. See TOUSSAINT.
Louvet, loo'vi', (PiERRE,) a mediocre French histo
rian, born at Beauvais in 1617. He wrote histories of
Languedoc, Aquitaine, and Provence. Died about 1680.
Louvet, (PIERRE,) a French antiquary, born near
Beauvais about 1570; died in 1646.
Louvet de Couvray, loo'vi' deli koo'vRi', (JEAN
BAPTISTS,) a French Girondist orator, born in Paris in
1760. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, and
became a prominent member of the Girondist party. In
October, 1792, he attacked Marat and Robespierre in a
bold and effective speech. He was proscribed with the
Girondist chiefs about June i, 1793, but escaped by flight
to Normandy. In April, 1794, he entered Paris, where
he concealed himself until the fall of Robespierre. In
1795 he resumed his seat in the Convention, from which
he passed into the Council of Five Hundred. He pro
duced several successful romances, comedies, and polit
ical tracts. Died in 1797. In reference to the above-
named speech, which is inserted in his " History of the
Girondists," Lamartine says, "Louvet was one of those
men whose political destiny is composed of a single day;
but this day conquers futurity for them, because it asso
ciates with their name the memory of a sublime talent
and a sublime courage."
See LAMARTIKE, " History of the Girondists :" THIKRS, " His
tory of the Frencli Revolution ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale. "
Louviers, de, deh loo've-a', (CHARLES JACQUES,) a
French writer, was appointed a member of the council
of state by Charles V. in 1376. He is supposed to be
the author of the famous " Dream of the Orchardist,"
("Songe du Vergier,") the aim of which is to prove that
the pope has no temporal power over princes. The book
is in the form of a dialogue.
Louville, de, deh loo'vel', (CHARI.KS AUGUSTE d'Al-
lonville — dt'lox'vel',) MARQUIS, a French diplomatist,
born in 1668. In 1701 he was chosen gentleman of the
chamber to Philip V. of Spain, who afterwards employed
him in missions to Paris and Rome. Died in 1731.
Louville, de, (JACQUES EUGENE d'Alloiiville,)
CHEVALIER, a French astronomer, born in the C'hartrain
in 1671, was a brother of the preceding. He devoted
himself to astronomy, and erected an observatory near
Orleans. Having been admitted into the Academy of
Sciences, he contributed to it "New Tables of the Sun,"
"Observations on the Obliquity of the Ecliptic," etc.
Died in 1732.
See FONTENELLE, " FJoge de M. Louville."
Louvois, de, deh loo'vwa', (CAMILLE LETEI.I.IF.R,)
AKBE, born in Paris in 1675, was a son of the celebrated
minister of war. He was included by Baillet among the
"enfants celebres," and was elected to the French
Academy in 1706. He added 30,000 books to the Royal
Library. Died in 1718.
Louvois, de, CHEVALIER. See ESTREES, D', (Louis
CESAR LETELLIER.)
Louvois, de, (FRANgois MICHEL LETELLIER,) MAR
QUIS, a powerful French minister of state, born in Paris
in 1641, was a son of Michel Letellier, chancellor of
France. In 1654 his father, who was then secretary of
war, obtained the reversion of that office for Louvois,
who, having qualified himself by diligent studies and
gained the favour of the king, became sole minister of
war in 1666. While Colbert managed the finances and
increased the resources of France, Louvois contributed
greatly to the military successes of Louis XIV. He
supplanted Colbert in the favour of the king, and in
stigated Louis to persecute the Protestants. By the
counsels of this unscrupulous and haughty minister, who
was then extremely powerful, the edict of Nantes was
revoked in 1685, and the Palatinate was wasted by fire
and sword in 1689. The atrocity of the latter measure
excited general horror. His insolence at last exhausted
the patience of the king. In 1691 Louvois excited the
anger of Louis by proposing to burn Treves, and would
have been dismissed if he had not died suddenly in the
same year. He is censured for having caused the
derangement of the finances, and for fomenting the ag
gressive martial ambition of his master. "He was the
greatest adjutant-general, the greatest quartermaster-
general, the greatest commissary-general," says Macau-
lay, "that Europe had seen. He may, indeed, be said
to have made a revolution in the art of disciplining, dis
tributing, equipping, and provisioning armies." His
son, the Marquis of Barbesieux, was his successor as
minister of war.
See CHAMLAY, "Meinoires pour servir 4 1'Histoire du Marquis
de Louvois ;" SAINT-SIMON, " Meinoires ;" DANGKAU," Journal ;"
VOLTAIRK. " Siecle de Louis XIV ;" SISMONDI, " Histoire des Fran-
gais ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Louvrex, de, deh loo'vRa', (MATHIAS GUILLAUME,)
a Belgian jurist and historian, born at Liege in 1665 ;
died in 1734.
Lovat, luv'at, (SiMON Fraser,) LORD, a Scottish
Jacobite conspirator, born near Inverness about 1666.
At the death of Lord Lovat, who was chief of the Fraser
clan, Simon Fraser made unsuccessful attempts to obtain
the title and estates. To evade the penalty of some
crime, he passed over to France about 1700, and turned
a Roman Catholic. Having entered the service of the
Pretender, he was sent to Scotland in 1702 to incite the
Highlanders to rebellion ; but he betrayed his trust, and
acted the part of informer against the Jacobites. For
this offence he was confined in the Bastille several years.
In 1715 Fraser fought against the cause of the Stuarts at
Inverness, and was rewarded with the estates of the
Erasers and the title of Lord Lovat. In the rebellion
of 1745 he was detected in treasonable acts against King
George, for which he was executed in London in 1747.
See AKBUTHNOT, "Life of Simon Fra^er," 1746: FOSTER, " Me
moirs of Lord Lovat," 1746; "Memoirs of Lord Lovat," by him
self, 1797; JOHN Hn.L BURTON, "Lives of Lord Lovat and Duncan
Forbes," 1846; "North British Review" for May, 1847.
Love, liiv, (CHRISTOPHER,) a Presbyterian theologian,
was born at Cardiff, Wales, in 1618. He began to
preach in London in 1644, after which he was a member
of the Assembly of Divines. After the death of Charles
I., he entered into a conspiracy called Love's Plot, the
design of which was to restore Charles II. For this
cause he was executed in August, 1651. His Sermons,
and other works, were published in three volumes.
Love, (JAMES.) the assumed name of a dramatist and
actor, who was a son of Mr. Dance, a London architect.
A satire against Walpole having appeared under the
title "Are these Things so?" he wrote an answer, en
titled "Yes, they are: What then ?" for which Walpole
gave him a present. He acted at Drury Lane from 1762
until his death, and wrote " Pamela," and other come
dies. Died in 1774.
Loveira. See LOBEIRA.
Love'joy, (luv'joi,) (ELIJAH P.,) an American clergy
man and opponent of slavery, born at Albion, in Maine,
in 1802, graduated at Waterville in 1826. He began to
edit at Alton, Illinois, about 1836, an anti-slavery paper,
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
'LOl'EJOr
1462
LOWELL
called "The Alton Observer." His press was twice de
stroyed by a pro-slavery mob. While defending his
premises at Alton against a third attack, he was shot
and mortally wounded, in November, 1837.
See GREEI.KY, "Ameiic.m Conflict," vol. i. pp. 130-142.
Lovejoy, (O\VK.\,) a brother of the preceding, was
born at Albion, Kennebec county, Maine, in 1811. He
was employed as minister of a Congregational church at
Princeton, Illinois, from 1838 to 1854, and was elected a
member of Congress by the Republicans of the third
district of Illinois in 1856. He was re elected in 1858,
1860, and 1862. He was a radical opponent of slavery.
Died at Brooklyn, New York, in March, 1864.
Love'lace, (ADA AUGUSTA BYRON,) COUNTESS OK,
the only child of the poet Lord Byron, was born in 1815.
She was married to the Earl of Lovelace, who was a^on
of Lord Peter King. Died in 1852.
Lovelace, (RICHARD,) an English poet, born in Kent
in 1618. He fought for the king in the civil war, and
rose to the rank of captain. Having spent his fortune
in the royal cause, he entered the French service in
1646. On his return to England in 1648, he was impris
oned for political reasons. In 1649 he was released,
and published a volume of poems, consisting of odes,
sonnets, etc. addressed to "Lucasta." Some of these are
admired for grace and vigour. He died poor in 1658.
See WOOD, "Atlienae Oxonienses ;" EI.I.IS, "Specimens of
Poetry;" "Retrospective Review," vol. iv., 1821.
Lovell, liiv'el, (MANSFIELD,) an American general,
born in the District of Columbia about 1822, graduated
at West Point in 1842. He lived in New York City
when the civil war began. In October, 1861, he took
command of the disunion army at New Orleans. After
the Union fleet had passed the forts below the city, he
evacuated New Orleans, which he transferred to the cus
tody of the mayor on the 251)1 or 26th of April, 1862.
Lover, liiv'er, (SAMUEL,) an Irish novelist, poet, and
painter, born in Dublin in 1797. He acquired in his youth
a good reputation as a portrait-painter, and afterwards
became a successful author. Besides numerous ballads
and dramas, he produced " Legends and Stories of Ire
land," and a novel entitled " Handy Andy," (1842,) and
" Rory O'Moore," a song. Among his later publications
is "Metrical Tales, and other Poems," (1859.) Died in
July, 1868.
Lov'i-bond, (EDWARD,) an English poet, was born
in Middlesex, and inherited an easy fortune. He con
tributed several essays to "The World," a popular pe
riodical, and was the author of various poems, among
which "The Tears of Old May-Day" (1754) is highly
praised. Died in 1775.
Lovini. See LUINL
Low, (GKORr.K.,) a Scottish naturalist, born in Forfar-
shire in 1746. He became a clergyman in Pomona, one
of the Orkney Isles, in 1774. He wrote "Fauna Or-
cadensis," (1813,) which treats of the animals of the
Orkney and Shetland Isles. Died in 1795.
Lowe or Loewe, lo/weh, the name of a German
family, distinguished in various departments of art.
AUGUST LEOPOLD LOWE, born at Schwedt in 1767, was
the composer of a popular opera entitled "The Island
of Temptation." Died in 1816. His son FERDINAND,
born in 1787, acquired a high reputation as a tragedian.
Died in 1832. His daughter SOI-HIE, born in 1815,
became one of the most celebrated vocalists in Germany.
She was married about 1840 to Prince Frederick of
Liechtenstein. Her brother, FRANCIS Louis FEODOR,
born in 1816, distinguished himself as an actor and a
poet. JULIA LOWE, aunt of the preceding, born in 1790,
was very successful as an actress at Vienna. Died about
1850.
Lowe, lo, (Sir HUDSON,) a British general, born in
Ireland about 1770. He served many campaigns in
Egypt, Italy, Germany, etc., and obtained the rank of
major-general in 1814. In 1815 he was selected to be
the jailer of Bonaparte in Saint Helena. He was cen
sured by many French and English writers for arbitrary,
rude, and illiberal treatment of the captive, who in 1816
refused to see him or have any further intercourse with
him. Died in 1844.
See a " Histoiy of the Captivity of Napoleon, from the Letters
of Sir Hudson Lowe," etc., by W. FORSYTH, 4 vols., 1853.
Lowe, (JoHANN KARL GOTTFRIED,) a German com
poser, born near Halle in 1796. His works include
operas, sonatas, ballads, and oratorios : of the last we
may name " The Seven Sleepers."
Lowe, (PETER,) a Scottish medical writer, practised
medicine in Paris. He wrote a " Discourse on Chi-
rurgery," and other works. Died in 1612.
Lowe, (KoliKKT,) an English financier and eminent
orator, born at Bingham in 1811. He graduated at Ox
ford in 1833, and practised as a barrister in Australia
from 1843 to 1850. In 1852 he was returned to Parlia
ment for Kidderminster. He was appointed vice-presi
dent of the education board in 1859, but was removed a
few years later. Mr. Lowe is an editor or contributor to
the London "Times." He was a leader of the Adullam-
ites, (nominal Liberals, who opposed the Reform bill
of Russell and Gladstone in 1866,) and is one of the
ablest and most brilliant debaters in Parliament. Having
supported Gladstone's motion for the disestablishment
of the Anglican Church in Ireland, he was appointed
chancellor of the exchequer when the Liberal party
came into power, in December, 1868. He was elected
a member of Parliament for the University of London
in November, 1868.
Low'ell, (CHARLES,) D.D., an American divine, a son
of Judge Lowell, noticed below, was born at Boston in
1782. He became minister of the West Congregational
Church in that city about 1806. He travelled exten
sively in Europe and the East, returning home in 1840.
Among his publications are two volumes of sermons,
(1855.) Died January 20, 1861.
Lowell, (Colonel CHARLES RUSSELL,) an American
officer, born in Boston in 1835, was a nephew of the
poet, J. R. Lowell. He graduated at Harvard in 1854
with the first honours. lie served as captain of cavalry
in the peninsular campaign in 1862, and commanded
a body of cavalry which protected Washington in the
summer of 1863, after which lie served under General
Sheridan and commanded a brigade. He had thirteen
horses shot under him. He was killed at the battle of
Cedar Creek, Virginia, October 19, 1864. He was a
young man of great promise.
Lowell, (FRANCIS CAHOT,) brother of John Lowell,
(the second of the name,) born at Newburyport in 1775,
was one of the principal founders of the city of Lowell,
to which he gave his name. He was a merchant and
manufacturer of cotton. Died in 1817.
Lowell, (JAMES RUSSELL,) a distinguished American
poet, critic, and scholar, the son of the Rev. Charles
Lowell, noticed above, was born February 22, 1819.
Having graduated at Harvard in 1838, he entered the
law school < f that institution, where he remained two
years, and was admitted to the bar in 1841 ; but he soon
abandoned the profession, that he might devote himself
wholly to literature. He published in 1844 a volume
of poems containing a "Legend of Brittany," "Pro
metheus," and a number of smaller pieces. In 1848
appeared a second collection of poems, and in a small
volume (separately) "The Vision of Sir Launfal." In
the same year he also published the "Biglow Papers,"
a witty and humorous satire, written in the "Yankee"
dialect, on the events of the Mexican war, and a "Fable
for Critics," a charming_/w <f esprit, which, in the words
of Professor Bowen, is "a very witty review article done
into rhyme."* It is not too much to say that the best
parts of this poem (which, by the way, is very unequal)
are scarcely surpassed either in wit or in felicity of ex
pression by anything of a similar kind in the English lan
guage. In the summer of 1851 Mr. Lowell visited Europe,
and returned home after an absence of somewhat more
than a year. In the winter of 1854-55 he delivered in
Boston a very popular course of lectures on the British
poets. Professor Longfellow having, in 1854, resigned
the chair of the modern languages and belles-lettres at
Harvard, Mr. Lowell was appointed his successor in
January, 1855. On the establishment of the "Atlantic
Monthly" in 1857, Professor Lowell became the editor, —
a position which he held about five years, — and under
his auspices this magazine acquired a wide and deserved
* See " North American Review" for January, 1849.
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; not; good; moon;
LOWELL
1463
LOWNDES
popularity. Among his more recent poetical produc
tions we may mention "Under the Willows, and other
Poems," (1869,) and "The Cathedral," (1870.) Besides
the various collections of his poems referred to above,
he has published a volume of his prose writings, entitled
" Among my Books," ( 1 870,) consisting of literary essays,
contributions to Reviews, etc.
Among the poets of America, Lowell is distinguished
by the great range, (if we may use the expression,) as
well as by the versatility, of his powers. He seems
equally at home in the playful, the pathetic, or the medi
tative realms of poetry. And we always rise from the
perusal of his productions with the impression that he
has not put forth all his strength, but that, had he as
pired to something still higher, it would not have been
beyond the reach of his genius.
Several editions of his collected poems have been
published in England as well as in the United States.
See ALI.IBONE, " Dictionary of Authors ;" "North American Re
view" for April, 1841, April, 1844, and January, 1849; and the article
on "American Humour," in the "North British Review" for No
vember, iS6o.
Lowell, (JOHN,) an American statesman, born at
Xewburyport, Massachusetts, in 1743. He began to
practise law in Boston about 1777. As a member of the
convention which formed the Constitution of Massachu
setts in 1780, he efficiently promoted the liberation of
slaves held in that State. He was elected a member
of Congress in 1781, and appointed a judge of the dis
trict court of Massachusetts in 1789. He had three
sons, John, Francis C., and Charles. Died at Roxbury
in 1802.
Lowell, (JOHN,) an able lawyer and political writer,
born at Xewburyport in October, 1769, was a son of the
preceding. He graduated at Harvard College in 1786,
practised law at Boston, and acquired a high reputation.
About 1803 he visited Europe. He was a Federalist,
wrote much for the public journals, and exerted great
influence in New England, but declined to enter the
public service. He published twenty-five or more pam
phlets, mostly political, and was one of the founders of
the Boston Athenaeum and the Massachusetts General
Hospital. He was distinguished for his colloquial powers.
Died at Boston in 1840.
Lowell, (JOHN,) the founder of Lowell Institute, was
born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1799, and was a son
of Francis Cabot Lowell, noticed above. Having lost
his wife and children about 1831,116 travelled extensively
in Europe, Syria, and Egypt. He died at Bombay in
March, 1836, leaving by his will about $250,000 to main
tain in Boston annual courses of gratuitous lectures on
various subjects. *
Lowell, (MARIA WHITE,) an American poetess, the
wife of James Russell Lowell, noticed above, was born
at Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1821. She was married
to Mr. Lowell in 1844. She died in 1853. She is
described as having been singularly beautiful both in
person and character. A volume of her poems appeared
in 1855.
See GRISWOLD'S " Female Poets of America."
Lowell, (MARY.) See PUTNAM, (Mrs. MARY.)
Lowell, (ROBERT TRAILL SPENCK,) son of the Rev.
Charles Lowell, noticed above, was born in Boston in
1816. He was ordained a clergyman of the Episcopal
Church in 1842, and subsequently became rector of
Christ Church, Duanesburg, New York. He has pub
lished a novel entitled "The New Priest in Conception
Bay," and a collection of poems.
Lowen or Loewen, 16'wen, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH,)
a German poet and writer of fiction, born at Klausthal
in 1729 ; died in 1771.
Loweiidahl or Loewendahl, lo'wen-dal', written
also Loevendahl, (Ui.RiCH FRIEDRICH WOLDEMAR,)
a celebrated general, born at Hamburg in 1700, was
a great-grandson of Frederick III. of Denmark. He
entered the service of Russia in the reign of Anne, about
1736, and as general of artillery gained victories over the
Turks and Tartars. In 1743 he passed into the French
service as lieutenant-general, and in 1745 commanded
the reserve corps at Fontenoy. As second in command
under Marshal Saxe, he took many towns in Flanders
in the same year. For the capture of Bergen-op-Zoom,
in 1747, he was rewarded with a marshal's baton. He
died in 1755.
See CARL C. ROTHE, " Grev von Loevendals Liv og Levnet,"
1750; M. RANFT, " Leben und Thaten des Grafen von Lowenthal,"
1754; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Lowenhaupt or Loewenhaupt, 16'wen-howpt',
(ADAM Louis,) COUNT, a skilful Swedish general, born
in 1659. He was appointed Governor of Riga in 1706.
On his march to join the army of Charles XII., who had
invaded Russia, he was attacked by the Czar Peter at
Liesna in 1708, and lost about 4000 men, but pursued
his course. He displayed great courage at Pultowa,
July, 1709, and when Charles fled to Turkey the command
of the Swedish army devolved on Lowenhaupt, who was
forced to capitulate in 1709. He was kept as a prisoner
in Russia until his death, in 1719.
Lowenhaupt or Loewenhaupt, von, fon lo'wen-
howpt', (CARL EMIL,) COUNT, a Swedish general, born
in 1692. War having been declared against Russia, he
was chosen general-in-chief of an army sent to invade
Finland in 1742. His success was hindered by dissen
sions among the Swedish officers, and he surrendered
at Helsingfors, in September, 1742. The anti-war party
having become dominant, he was tried for that reverse,
and executed in 1743.
Lowenhielm or Loewenhielm, lo'wen-he-elm',
(CARL GUSTAF,) COUNT OF, a Swedish statesman, was
the chief of the party of "Caps." His party having
gained the ascendency in 1765, he was then made min
ister of foreign affairs. He wrote several memoirs for
the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1768.
Lowenhielm or Loewenhielm, (GUSTAF CARL
FREDERIK,) COUNT OF, a Swedish diplomatist, born at
Stockholm in 1771. He served in the army, and obtained
the rank of general. He represented Sweden at the
Congress of Vienna, (1814,) and was Swedish minister
at the court of Paris from 1818 .until 1856. He wrote
several military treatises, and a remarkable work on the
organization of government. Died in 1856.
Lowenklau. See LEUNCLAVIUS.
Low'er, (RICHARD,) F.R.S., an eminent English
anatomist, born in Cornwall about 1630. He became a
friend and coadjutor of Dr. Willis, whom he assisted in
his work on the "Anatomy of the Brain." In 1661 he
confirmed the Harveian theory- by experiments on the
transfusion of blood. He practised medicine in London
many years, and wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise
on the Heart, on the Motion of the Blood," etc. Died
in 1691.
See " Biographie Medicale."
Lower, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English dramatist, born
in Cornwall ; died in 1662.
Lowitz, lo'wits, (GEORG MORITZ,) a German astrono
mer, born near Nuremberg in 1722. He became pro
fessor of mathematics at Gotlingen about 17551 and was
afterwards director of the observatory at that place. In
1766 he removed to Saint Petersburg, and was admitted
into the Academy of Sciences, by which he was employed
in astronomical observations. He was killed by some
rebels at Dmetriefsk in 1774. He had written several
memoirs on astronomy.
His son TOKIAS, born at Gottingen in 1757, became
one of the most eminent members of the Imperial Acad
emy of Saint Petersburg, and professor of chemistry.
Died in 1804.
Low'man, (MosES,) a learned English divine, born
in London in 1680. About 1710 he settled at Clapham,
where he preached many years to a congregation of Dis
senters. He wrote a " Rationale of the Ritual of the
Hebrew Worship," and other works. Died in 1752.
Lowndes, lowndz, (RAWLINS,) born in the British
West Indies in 1722, settled at Charleston, South Caro
lina, where he rose to eminence as a statesman and law
yer. He was elected president or Governor of South
Carolina in 1778. Died in 1800.
Lowndes, (WILLIAM JONES,) an eminent American
statesman, a son of the preceding, was born at Charles
ton, South Carolina, on the 7th of February, 1782. He
studied law, and married a daughter of General Thoma's
Pinckney. In 1810 or 1811 he was elected a member of
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. ((5^='See Explanations, p. 23.)
LOW N DES
1464
LUBBOCK
Congress for a district of South Carolina. lie was an
eloquent debater, and was eminent for his wisdom and
logical acumen. He is said to have been modest and
unambitious. He continued to serve in Congress about
eleven years, and was chairman of the committee of
ways and means from 1818 to 1822. It appears that he
was a general favourite, and was reputed to stand in the
first rank of American statesmen. His health having
failed, he sailed for Europe, but died on the voyage in
October, 1822.
See " Encyclopedia Americana," (Supplement.)
Lowiides, (WILLIAM THOMAS,) an English bibliog
rapher, lived in London. He published, about 1834,
" The Bibliographer's Manual," which is highly esteemed.
Died in 1843.
L6w'ry, (Wn.SOX,) a skilful English engraver, born
at Whitehaven in 1762, became a resident of London.
He contributed to the perfection of his art by several
important inventions, and acquired a high reputation,
especially as an engraver of architecture and mechanism,
in which he was unsurpassed. He engraved many figures
for Kees's "Cyclopaedia." Died in 1824.
Lowth, lowth, (KuKERT,) an English bishop and emi
nent writer, born at Winchester in 1710, was the son of
William Lowth, noticed below. He was educated at Ox
ford, and became eminent as a biblical scholar. Having
been chosen professor of poetry at Oxford, (1741,) he
delivered " Lectures on the Poetry of the Hebrews," (in
Latin,) which were published in 1753, and often reprinted.
This work was highly esteemed by the most eminent
critics. He was appointed Bishop of Saint David's in
1766, translated to the see of Oxford in the same year,
and to that of London in 1777. Among his most impor
tant works is an excellent " Translation of the Prophet
Isaiah," (1778.) Died in 1787.
See P. HALL, "Life of Bishop Lowth," 1834 : " Memoirs of the
Life of Robert Lowth," London, 1797; "Monthly Review" for
February and March, i779,*and April, 1780.
Lowth, ( SIMON,) an English theologian, born in
Northamptonshire about 1630. He was vicar of Saint
Cosmus and Damian-on-the-Blean. He published "Let
ters between Dr. G. Burnet and Simon Lowth," (1684,)
and other writings. Died in 1720.
Lowth, (WILLIAM,) a scholar and commentator, the
father of Robert, noticed above, was born in London in
1661. He was chaplain to the Bishop of Winchester,
and became rector of Buriton about 1700. He wrote
several highly esteemed works, among which are " Di
rections for the Profitable Reading of the Holy Scrip
tures," (1708,) and a "Commentary on the Four Greater
Prophets," (4 vols., 1714-26.) Died in 1732.
Lowther, (WILLIAM.) See LONSIMLE, EARL OF.
Loyd, loid, (LKWis,) an English banker, born in 1768.
He was a partner of the banking-house of Jones, Loyd
& Co., London, and was distinguished as a financier. He
died in 1858. His son, Samuel J. Loyd, received the
title of Lord Overstone.
Loyer, Le, leh Iwd'ya', (PIERRE,) a French lawyer,
born in Anjou in 1550, was learned in antiquities and
Oriental languages. He wrote a curious work on de-
monology, entitled "On Spectres, Angels, and Demons
distinctly manifesting themselves to Men," ("Quatres
Livres des Spectres, Anges et Demons se montrant sen-
siblement aux llommes,") and other works. Died in 1634.
Loyola, loi-o'la, [Sp. pron. lo-yo'la,] (IGNATIUS,)
originally Don INIGO LOPEZ de Recalde, (da ra-kal'cli,)
often called Saint Ignatius, (ig-na'she-us ;) [Fr. SAINT-
IGNACE, saN'ten'yfs'; It. SANT' ICNAZIO, sant en-ydt'-
se-o,] a celebrated Spanish reformer, and the founder
of the order of Jesuits, was born of a noble family at
Loyola Castle, in Biscay, in 1491. He received from
nature an ardent, imaginative temperament, and in youth
was the very prototype of the hero of Cervantes, an
enthusiastic votary of chivalrous romance. After signal
izing his gallantry in several campaigns, he received
about 1520, at the siege of Pampeluna, a wound which
made him a cripple for life. During the tedious con
finement which followed, his attention was directed to
the mysteries of religion. Ascribing his recovery to a
miracle of grace, he dedicated himself to arduous re
ligious enterprises and to the service of the Blessed.Vir-
gin. He became a popular preacher, and was renowned
for his penances and vigils. In 1523 he performed a
pilgrimage to Jerusalem, from which he returned to
Spain in 1524. He passed several ensuing years at Al-
cala and Salamanca in the study of grammar, philosophy,
etc., which he had neglected to learn in his youth. In
1528 he became a student in the University of Paris,
where he found several congenial spirits, among whom
were Francis Xavier and James Lainez. With these he
formed in 1534 a religious society devoted to the educa
tion of youth, the renovation of the Catholic Church,
and the conversion of the infidels.
After they had digested the polity and peculiar maxims
of the new order, Paul III. gave it his formal sanction
in 154°) 9X\A Loyola was chosen superior or general
(with absolute power) of the order, which was styled the
Society of Jesus. Loyola thenceforth remained in Rome,
and witnessed the extraordinary success of his efforts.
"Under his rule," says Macaulay, "the order grew
rapidly to the full measure of its gigantic powers. With
what vehemence, with what policy, with what exact
discipline, with what dauntless courage, with what self-
denial, with what unscrupulous laxity and versatility in
the choice of means, the Jesuits fought the battles of
their Church, is written in every page of the annals of
Europe during several generations. In the Order of
Jesus was concentrated the quintessence of the Catholic
spirit; and the history of the Order of Jesus is the
history of the great Catholic reaction. This order pos
sessed itself at once of all the strongholds which com
mand the public mind, — of the pulpit, of the press, of
the confessional, of the academies. . . . Nor was it less
their office to plot against the thrones and lives of apos
tate kings, to spread evil rumours, to raise tumults, to
inflame civil wars, to arm the hand of the assassin."
(See Review of Ranke's "History of the Popes.") It
does not appear, however, that Loyola was responsible
for the corruptions referred to in the above quotation.
His chief work is "Spiritual Exercises," (" Exercicios
espirituales," 1548,) in which he gives rules and counsels
for the guidance of believers. lie died in 1566, and was
canonized as a saint by the pope in 1622.
See RIBADENEIRA, "Vida de S. Ignazio," 1570; G. P. MAFFKI,
"De Vita et Moribus Ignatii Loyolze," 1584 ; STEIN, "Vita Ignatii
Loyolas," isgS; P. BOIIHOURS, " Vie de Saint-Ijtnace," 1679; I'OM-
BINA, "Vita S. Ignatii," 1615; M. WALPOLK, " Life of Saint Igna
tius," 1617; ISAAC TAYLOR, " Lite of Ignatius Loyola;" HARTOLI,
" Histoire de la Societe de Jesus ;" GRETSER, " Apologia pro Vita
S. Ignatii," 1509-1604; GENELM, " Leben des Ignatius von Loyola,"
i84S; "Retrospective Review," vol. ix., 1824.
Loyseau. See LOISEAU.
Loyseau, hva'zo', (CHARLES,) a French jurist, born
at Nogent-le-Roi in 1566; died in 1627.
Loysel. See LOISEL.
Loyson, (CHARLES.) See HYACINTHE.
Loyson, Iwa'zox', (CHARLES,) a French poet, born
in Mayenne in 1791, was matt re des conferences in the
Normal School. He published, in 1819, a volume of
elegies and epistles, which abound with beautiful verses.
"He approaches Lamartine," says Sainte-Beuve, "in
elevation and spiritualisme of sentiments." Died in 1820.
Lu'a, [from lito, to "purge" or "purify,"] a Roman
goddess, who presided over things purified by lustra
tions. By some she is identified with Ops or Rhea.
Lubbert, Itib'bert, or Luthbert, liit'be' Rt, (SIBRAND,)
a learned Dutch Calvinist, born in Friesland about 1555.
He was for many years professor of divinity at Franeker,
and was deputed to the Synod of Dort about 1618. He
wrote controversial works against Socinus, Arminius,
and Grotius. Died in 1625.
Lub'bock, (Sir JOHN,) an English banker and savant,
a son of Sir John William, noticed below. He is
spoken of by the "Spectator" for February 19, 1870,
as "an accomplished economist and financier, a man
of the deepest and widest scientific culture, a thorough
physiologist," etc. He was nominated as Liberal candi
date to represent Maidstone in Parliament in 1870.
Lubbock, (Sir JOHN WILLIAM,) Bart., an English
mathematician and astronomer, born in London in 1803,
was educated at Cambridge. About 1830 he was elected
a Fellow of the Royal Society, which he served as treas
urer for many years. He contributed to the " Philosophic
Transactions" treatises on the "Tides," "On Meteor-
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
LUBERSAC
1465
LUCAS
ology," " Researches in Physical Astronomy," etc. In
1833 he produced a work "On the Theory of the Moon
and on the Perturbations of the Planets." Died in 1865.
Lubersac, de, deh Ki'beVstk', (N.,) a French writer
and amateur of art, born in Limousin in 1730; died
in 1804.
Lubert, de, deh Ki'baiR', MADEMOISELLE, a French |
romance-writer, born in Paris about 1710. She com-!
posed successful romances and fairy-tales, one of which
is entitled "Princess Rose-Colour and Prince Celadon." |
Voltaire complimented her with -the title of "Muse et
Grace." Died about 1780.
Lubieniecius. See LUBIENIECKI.
Lubieniecki, loo-be-en-e-e'ts'kee, written also Lu-
bienetski or Lubienietski, (CHRISTOPHER,) a painter,
of Polish extraction, born at Stettin in 1659. He settled
in Amsterdam, where he painted portraits and history.
Died in 1729.
Lubieniecki or Lubienietski, [Lat. LUBIENIF/-
cius,] (STANISLAS,) a Polish Socinian and astronomer,
was born at Cracow in 1623. He became minister of a
church in Lublin, and wrote a "History of the Polish
Reformation," (1685.) He was exiled from Lublin for
his opinions in theology, aijd died at Hamburg in 1675.
His reputation rests chiefly on his "Theatrum Cometi-
cum,"' (1667,) which gives an ample account of four
hundred and fifteen comets which appeared from the
Deluge to his own time.
See BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Lubieniecki or Lubienetski,(TiiEODORE,) a painter
and engraver, born at Cracow in 1653, was a brother of
Christopher, noticed above. He became a resident of
Berlin, where he painted landscapes and historical pic
tures. A Socinian treatise which he wrote having been
burnt by the hangman, he resigned his place, and re
turned to Poland, in 1706. Died in 1720.
Lubin, lii'bd.N', (AucusTiN,) a French monk, born in
Paris in 1624. He received the title of geographer to
the king, and published, besides other learned works
on ancient and sacred geography, " Plates of Sacred
Geography," ("Tabulae Sacra; Geographicae," 1670.)
Died in 1695.
Lubin, loo'bin, (EiLHARD,) a German philologist,
born in Oldenburg in 1565. He became in 1595 pro
fessor of belles-lettres at Rostock, where he died in 1621,
leaving, besides other works, a " Key to the Greek Lan
guage," ("Clavis Lingua; Grsecae," 1622,) and notes on
Horace, Persius, and Juvenal.
Li .n, (JACQUES,) a French engraver, born in Paris
in 1637 ; died about 1695.
Lubis, lii'bess', (E. P.,) a French political writer,
born in 1806, published a " History of the Restoration,"
(in French, 6 vols., 1836.) Died in Paris in 1859.
Lublink, lub'link, (JAN,) a Dutch writer, born at
Amsterdam in 1735. He translated into Dutch Thom
son's " Seasons" and Young's " Night Thoughts," and
wrote other works. Died about 1815.
Lubomirski, loo-bo-meR'skee, (STANISLAS HERA-
CLIUS,) a noble Polish writer, born about 1640. He
became grand marshal of Poland, and defended the
national independence with his pen and sword. One
of his works is a political treatise called " Consultations ;
or, On the Vanity of Counsels," ("Consultationes, sive
de Vanitate Consiliorum," 170x3.) Died in 1702.
Luc, the French for LUKE, which see.
Luc, SAINT. See LUKE, SAINT.
Luc, de. See DELUC.
Luc de Bruges. See LUCAS BRUGENSIS.
Luca. See LUKE.
Luca, loo'ka, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian jurist
and prelate, born at Venosa in 1614. He published
"Theatre of Truth and Justice," (" Theatrum Veritatis
et Justitiae," 7 vols., 1697,) which treats on canon and
civil law and was highly esteemed. Died in 1683.
Luca or Lucae, loo'tsa, (SAMUEL CHRISTIAN,) a
German anatomist, born at Frankfort in 1787; died in
1821.
Luca, von, fon loo'ka, (!GNAZ.) a German historian
and political writer, born in Vienna in 1746 ; died in 1799.
Luca Santo, loo'ka san'to, or Saint Luke, a Flor
entine painter of the eleventh or twelfth century. He is
supposed to have painted the Madonnas which were
ascribed to Saint Luke the Evangelist.
Lucain. See LUCAN.
Lu'can, (GEORGE CHARLES BINGHAM,) EARL OF, a
British general, a son of the Earl of-Lucan, was born in
London in 1800. He succeeded to the earldom about
1840, and voted with the Conservative party in the House
of Lords. In 1854 he obtained command of the cavalry
in the Crimea, with the rank of lieutenant-general. He
was censured for the disastrous result of the cavalry
charge at Balaklava.
Lu'can, [Lat. LUCA'NUS; Fr. LUCAIN, lii'kaN' ; It.
LUCANO, loo-ka'no,] (MARCUS ANN--EUS,) a Roman epic
poet, born at Corduba, (Cordova,) Spain, in 38 A.D., was
a nephew of the philosopher Seneca. He was educated
at Rome. His early poems procured him the favour of
Nero, who appointed him quaestor and augur and con
descended to appear as his rival in a literary contest.
Lucan gained the prize, but at the same time lost the
favour of the tyrant, whom he had formerly addressed
with gross adulation. Nero forbade him to read any more
poems in public. Lucan, with Piso and others, conspired
against the life of Nero ; the plot was detected, and the
poet was put to death in 65 A.I). His fame rests on a
poem entitled " Pharsalia," which treats of the civil war
between Caesar and Pompey, and displays great beauties
with great defects. Among the latter is an inflated,
declamatory style. Conieille and Voltaire were warm
admirers of Lucan. " His genius," says Villemain, re
ferring to his early death, " had only time to produce
grandeur, without naturalness or truth." Among his
merits are exalted imagination, intense energy, and
impressive diction.
See KARL H. WEISE, " Vita Lucani," 1835 ; JACOB PALMER,
"Apologia pro Lucano," 1704: V;>LTAIKE, " Essai siir la Poesie
epique ;" J. G. MECSEL, " Dissertntiones II. de Lucano," 1767;
SMITH, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generate. "
Lucano. See LUCAN.
Lucanus. See LUCAN.
Lucar, (CYRIL.) See CYRIL-LUCAR.
Lu'cas, (CHARLES,) an Irish physician, patriot, and
politician, born in 1713. He was a popular member of
the Irish Parliament, and an opponent of the court.
Died in 1771.
Lu'cas, (FREDERICK,) an English lawyer and editor,
was born in Westminster in 1812. About 1840 he was
converted to the Roman Catholic faith, and soon after
became editor of "The Tablet," a newspaper published
in London. Having removed to Dublin, he was elected
to Parliament in 1852, and distinguished himself by his
zeal to promote the political power or privileges of the
Irish Catholics. Died in 1855.
Lucas, lii'ka', (HIPPOLYTE JULIEN JOSEPH,) a French
poet and writer of fiction, born at Rennes in 1807. He
produced in 1834 two volumes of verse and prose,
entitled "The Heart and the World." Among his
numerous works is a " Philosophic and Literary His
tory of the French Theatre," (1843.)
Lucas, (JEAN,) a French poet and Jesuit, born in
Paris about 1650. He wrote a Latin poem entitled
" Actio Oratoris," (1675,) which treats on gesture and
elocution.
Lucas, (JEAN ANDR£ HENRI,) a French mineralo
gist, born in Paris in 1780 ; died in 1825.
Lucas, (JEAN JACQUES ETTENNE,) a French naval
officer, born at Marennes in 1764. In 1803 he obtained
command of the Redoutable. At the battle of Trafalgar
(1805) his ship grappled with Nelson's flag-ship, the Vic
tory, and one of his crew gave Nelson a mortal wound.
Lucas was taken prisoner in this action. Died in 1819.
Lucas, (JEAN MARIE CHARLES,) a French economist,
born at Saint-Brieuc in 1803. He wrote "On the Re
form of Prisons," (3 vols., 1836-38,) and other works.
He was admitted into the Institute in 1836.
Lucas, (MARGARET.) See CAVENDISH, (MARGARET.)
Lucas, (PAUL,) a French traveller, born at Rouen in
1664, was in early life a dealer in jewels. He visited
Upper Egypt, Syria, Persia, etc., and published "Voyage
to the Levant," (1704.) Having received a commission
from Louis XIV. to collect medals and other monu
ments of antiquity, he again explored the Levant, (1705-
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
LUCAS
1466
LUCILIUS
08,) and published a narrative of his journey. In 1719
he produced his best work, entitled a " Journey in Turkey,
Syria, Palestine, and Egypt," (performed in 1715-16.)
Many of his stones are exaggerated and absurd. Died
in 1737.
See MOREKI, "Dictionnaire Historique;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generaie."
Lu'cas, (RICHARD,) a learned British divine, born
in Radnorshire in 1648. lie settled in London about
1684, and became prebendary of Westminster in 1696.
lie published an "Enquiry after Happiness," and "Prac
tical Christianity," which are highly commended, and
other works. Died in 1715.
Lucas, SAINT. See LUKK, SAINT.
Lucas, (SAMUEL,) an English journalist and miscel
laneous writer, born at Bristol in 1818. He was editor
of the " Press" and of " Once a Week." He contributed
to the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews. Died in 1865.
Lu'cas Bru-gen'sis, [or Luc DK BRUGES, liik deh
briizh,] (FRA.NC.ois,) a Flemish theologian and excellent
linguist, born at Bruges in 1549. He published, besides
other works, "Concordances of the Vulgate Edition of
the Sacred Books," (" Sacrorum Bibliorum Vulgatre
Editionis Concordantiae," 1617; and 5 vols., 1712.) Died
in 1619.
Lucas de Cranach. See CRANACH.
Lucas van Leyden. See LEYDEN.
Lucatelli. See LOCATELU.
Lucceius, luk-see'us, (Lucius,) a Roman orator and
friend of Cicero, flourished about 60 U.C.
Lucchesiui, look-ka-see'nee, (CESARE,) an Italian
philologist, born at Lucca in 1756, was a brother of
the marquis, noticed below. He acquired a European
reputation by his numerous works on philology, among
which is "The Sources of Ancient and Modern Lan
guages." Died in 1832.
SeeTipALix), " Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Lucchesiui, (GIOVANNI LORENZO,) an Italian Jesuit,
born at Lucca in 1638. He wrote, besides other works,
a refutation of Machiavel's work on Politics, (1697.) Died
about 1710.
Lucchesini,(GiovANNi ViNCENTzo,)an Italian scholar,
born at Lucca in 1660. He lived in Rome, and obtained
from Clement XII. the high office of secretary of briefs.
He published an edition of Demosthenes' Orations, with
notes and a good Latin translation, and a "History of
Europe from 1678 to about 1735." Died in 1744.
See FABRONM, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium."
Lucchesiiii, da, da look-ka-see'nee, (GIROLAMO, )
MARQUIS, an able diplomatist, born at Lucca in 1752.
He removed to Berlin in the latter part of the reign of
Frederick the Great, who appointed him his librarian
and reader. He was sent as minister of Prussia to Vi
enna in 1793, and to Paris in 1802. After the battle of
Jena (1806) he negotiated a truce with the victor ; but it
was not ratified by the Prussian court. Soon after this
event he returned to Lucca. He wrote a work called
" On the Causes and Effects of the Confederation of
the Rhine," (1819.) Died in 1825.
See TIPALDO, "Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Luce, the French of Lucius, (Pope,) which see.
Luce de Lancival, His deh ISN'se'vSl', ( JEAN
CHARLES JULIEN,) a French litterateur, born in Picardy
in 1764. He was chosen professor of belles-lettres in
the Prytanee, a college of Paris, about 1797. Among
his best productions are a poem called "Achilles at
Scyros," (1805,) and " Hector," a tragedy, (1809,) which
Villemain pronounces "truly Homeric." Died in 1810.
See VILI.EMAIN, notice in the " Magasin Encyc'opedique ;" H.
GRELLET, " Luce de Lancival: Notice biographique," 1857.
Lucena, de, di loo-sa'na, (JoXo,) a Portuguese writer,
born at Trancoso about 1548. He was professor of phi
losophy at Ev'ora, and author of an excellent " Life of
Francis Xavier," (1600,) often reprinted. Died in 1600.
Lucena, de, (VASCO FERNANDEZ,) COUNT, a Portu
guese historian and statesman, born about 1410. He
translated Quintus Curtius into French for Charles the
Bold of Burgundy. He received the title of chancellor
of Portugal. Died about 1500.
Lu-ce'rI-us, [" light-bringing,"] a surname of JUPI
TER, which see.
Luchet, lii'shi', (AucusTE,) a French litterateur and
democrat, born in Paris in 1806. He was sentenced in
1842 to an imprisonment of two years for one of his
works.
Luchet, de, deh lii'sh.Y, (JEAN PIERRE Louis,) MAR
QUIS, a prolific French author, born at Saintes about
1740, was styled Marquis de la Roche du Maine. He
published many superficial works. His " Literary His
tory of Voltaire" (1782-) furnishes some curious details.
Died in 1792.
Luchetto da Genova. See CAMHIASO, (LucA.)
Lucian, loo'she^n, [Gr. Aowaai'of; Lat. LUCIA'NUS;
Fr. LUCIEN, lii'se-aN' ; It. LUCIANO, loo-cha'no,] one
of the most witty and original Greek writers, was born
at Samosata, (Someisat,) on the Euphrates, about 120
A.D. He practised law a short time at Antioch, and
exchanged that profession for the more lucrative pursuit
of sophist and teacher of rhetoric, which he followed
with success in Gaul until he was about forty years old.
Again changing his profession, he returned to the East,
and lived many years at Athens, where he was intimate
with Demonax and employed his time in literary com
position. His principal works are dialogues, written
in pure and elegant Greek, on history, mythology, phi
losophy, and various other subjects. His object appears
to have been to cure men of their prejudices and super
stitions and their foolish admiration of philosophic char
latans. His genius is eminently satirical, and his works
are remarkably humorous; but some of them are cen
sured as offensive to morality and religion. Among the
titles of his dialogues are "Timon the Misanthrope,"
"Charon," "Menippus," and "The Assembly of Gods."
English versions of his dialogues have been published by
T. Franklin (1780) and William Tooke, (1820.) Wieland
produced a good German translation. Good editions of
the Greek text have been published by Dindorf (Paris,
1840) and Bekker, (1853.)
losophie," 1804; EDUARD EMU. STRUVE, " Specimina II. de /Etate
et Vita Luciani," 1829-30; PASSOW, "Lucian und die Geschrchte,"
1854; "Nouvelle Biographie Generaie;" ""Eraser's Magazine" for
January, February, April, May, and June, 1839 : " London Quarterly
Review" for January, 1828.
Lucian, [Fr. LUCIEN, Ki'se'ax',] SAINT, a Christian
martyr, born at Samosata in the third century, was emi
nent for piety and learning. He was ordained a priest
or presbyter at Antioch. lie prepared a revised edition
of the .Scriptures, which, Jerome says, was more correct
than those of Hesychius and Pamphilus. Diocletian
having issued an edict against the Christians, Lucian
suffered martyrdom in 312 A.D.
See SAINT JEROME, "De Viris illustribus;" EUSEBIUS, " Historia
Ecclesiastica.*
Luciano. See PIOMHO, (SEHASTIANO DEL.)
Lucianus. See LUCIAN.
Lucien, the French of LUCIAN, which see.
Lu'cl-fer, Bishop of Calaris, (now Cagliari,) in Sar
dinia, was noted for his intolerance and zeal against
Arianism. About 355 A.D. he was banished by Constan-
tius, who favoured the Arians. He wrote a "Defence
of Athanasius," and other works. He refused to recog
nize as orthodox those bishops who signed the formula
of Rimini, (359,) or to have fellowship with any who
recognized them, and finally became the author of a
schism. He had many followers, who formed a distinct
sect, called Luciferians. Died about 370 A.D.
Lu-cil'i-us, (CAius,) a Roman satiric poet, born at
Suessa Aurunca, (now Sessa,) in Italy, about 148 li.c., was
a great-uncle of Pompey the Great. In early youth he
served under Scipio Africanus at the siege of Numan-
tia, and became an intimate friend of that general. He
composed thirty satires and various other poems; but
only fragments of his works have come down to us.
Horace asserts that he was the first writer of satire
among the Romans, (Sat., lib. 2, i. 62.) His satires
were much admired by many ancient critics, including
Cicero, Quintilian, and Pliny. " He was," says Professor
Sellar, "vehement in invective, because he was thor
oughly earnest in his purpose to expose vice and base
ness among the high and low with impartial severity.
Although probably few writers of verse have had less
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
LL'CILIUS
1467
LVCVLLVS
poetical faculty, yet, by his originality and force of char
acter, he became the favourite of his own time and coun
try; and he alone among Roman writers has introduced
a new and permanent form of poetry into the world."
Died about 100 B.C.
See SELI.AR, "Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. vi. ; PETER-
MANN, " Dissertatio de C. Luci ii Vita," 1842 ; SMITH, "Dictionary
of Greek and Roman liiograpliy."
Lucil'ius Ju'nior, a Roman poet and naturalist,
lived in the first century, and was a friend of Seneca.
He is supposed to be the author of a poem of six hun
dred and forty hexameter verses, entitled " y£tna," which
presents some fine passages.
Lu-ci'na, [Fr. LUCINF., lii'sen',] the name of the god
dess that brings to light and presides over the birth of
children, was used as a surname of Juno and of Diana, '
both of whom were supposed to assist women in partu
rition, and were sometimes called LUCIN^E. The Greek
goddess IUTHYI'A or EII.KITHYIA ['EtMdvta] appears to
be essentially the same as Diana (Artemis) in her char
acter of Lucina.
See MOT-TIGER, " Ilithyia," Weimar, 1799.
Lucine. See LUCINA.
Lucius. See Luz.
Lucius, loo'she-us, [Fr. LUCK, liiss,] I., Bishop of
Rome, succeeded Cornelius in October, 252 A.D., and
died in March, 253. Stephen I. was his successor.
Lucius II., a native of Bologna, was elected pope in
March, 1144, as successor to Celestine H. He died in
1145, after a pontificate of eleven months, and Eugenius
III. was chosen in his place.
Lucius III. (Cardinal UBALDO OF Lucc\) was elected
pope in 1181, after the death of Alexander HI. His
election was the first that was decided by the cardinals,
the clergy and people being excluded from the right to
vote. A revolt of the people of Rome obliged him to
leave the city, and he retired to Verona. He died in
1185, and was succeeded by Urban III.
Lucius, (C.rSAR,) a Roman prince, born 17 B.C., was
a son of M. Agiippa and Julia, who was a daughter of
the emperor Argustus. He and his brother Cains were
heirs-presumptive of the empire, but they died before
Augustus. Lucius died in 2 A.n. The Maison Carree
at Nimes was a temple dedicated to Caius and Lucius.
Lucius, lu'she-r.s, fit. Lucio, loo'cho,] (GIOVANNI,)
a historian, born"~at Trail, in Dalmatia. He published
in 1666 a "History of Dalmatia and Croatia." Died in
1684.
Lucius Verus. See VKRUS.
Liicke or Luecke, Hik'keh, (GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN
FRIF.DRICH,) an eminent German theologian, was born
at Egeln, near Magdeburg, in 1791. He studied at
Halle in 1810, and subsequently at Gottingen, where
he formed a friendship with Bunsen and Lachmann.
He became professor of theology at Bonn in 1818, and
soon after published, conjointly with Schleiermacher and
De Wette, the "Theological Journal." His "Commen
tary on the Writings of Saint John the Evangelist" (4
vols., 1820—32) is esteemed one of the best works of its j
kind. In 1827 he succeeded Staucllin in the chair of
theology at Gottingen. Died at Gottingen in 1855.
Luckner, look'ner, (\IKOLAUS,) a marshal of France,
born at Kampen, in Bavaria, in 1722. At an early age
he entered the service of Prussia, for which he fought
with distinction in the Seven Years' war, (1756-63.)
About 1763 he accepted the rank of lieutenant-general
in the French army, which for many subsequent years
was not called into active service. Having submitted
to the new regime, he was promoted to the rank of mar
shal in December, 1791. In the spring of 1792 he ob
tained command of one of the armies which defended the
frontier against the Austrians, and a few weeks later
succeeded Rochambeau as general-in-chief. The domi
nant party, distrusting both his fidelity and capacity, de
prived him of the command in 1792. He was guillotined
in January, 1794.
See THIEKS, " History of the French Revolution."
Lucotte, Ki'kot', (EmiF. AIME,) COUNT, a French
general, born in Burgundy in 1770. The Bourbons con
fided to him the defence of Paris in March, 1815. Died
in 1815.
Lucrece. See LUCRETIA and LUCRETIUS.
Lucretia, loo-kree'she-a, [It. LUCREZIA, loo-kReY-
se-a ; Fr. LUCRECE, lu'kRis',] a Roman lady, distin
guished for her beauty, virtue, and tragical destiny, was
the wife of Collatinus, who was related to Tarquin the
Proud, King of Rome. The outrage offered to her honour
by Sextus Tarquin, and the voluntary sacrifice of her
life, (507 B.C.,) have furnished a favourite theme for poets
and painters, and, according to a doubtful legend, caused
the dethronement of Tarquin, and the conversion of the
Roman state into a republic, under the direction of
Junius Brutus.
Lucretius, lu-kree'she-us, [Fr. LUCRECE, Iti'kRiss' ;
It. LUCRF.ZIO, loo-kRet'se-o ; Sp. LUCRECIO, loo-ki<a'-
t/ie-o,] or, to give his full name, Ti'tus Lucre'tius
Ca'rus, one of the greatest Latin poets, was born in
Italy in 95 B.C., and was contemporary with Cicero.
The records of antiquity throw scarcely any light on his
life, which was probably passed in studious retirement.
It is not known whether he ever visited Greece ; but
it is. evident from his writings that he had profoundly
studied the language, philosophy, and manners of that
people. A doubtful tradition asserts that he was subject
to insanity caused by a love-potion ; and the statement
that he committed suicide in his forty-fourth year is gen
erally credited. He left only one work, — a philosophic
and didactic poem, in six books, entitled " De Rerum
Natura," (" On the Nature of Things,") in which he ex
pounds and illustrates the physical and ethical doctrines
of Epicurus, of whom he was a disciple. From such
abstruse speculations and intractable subjects he lias
produced one of the most admirable poems in the lan
guage. Although his system is erroneous and incoherent,
his reasoning is remarkably clear and close. Probably
no other work so amply demonstrates the power of the
Latin language to utter the sublimest conceptions with
a sustained majesty and harmony. "A great atheistic
poet," says Villemain, "is surely a surprising phenom
enon. His genius finds sublime accents to attack all
the inspirations of genius. He renders even nothing
ness poetic ; he insults glory ; he enjoys death. Out of
the abyss of skepticism he sometimes soars to a height
of enthusiasm which is rivalled only by the sublimity of
Homer." Referring to this work, Macaulay remarks,
"The finest poem in the Latin language — indeed, the
finest didactic poem in any language — was written in
defence of the silliest and meanest of all systems of
natural and moral philosophy." Ovid appears to be
the only contemporary writer who fully appreciated the
genius of Lucretius.
See the article on Lucretius, by VII.I.EMAIN. in the " Eiographie
Ur.iverselle ;" SELLAR, "Roman Poets of the Republic;" CAKI. F.
SCHMID, "Dissertatio de T. Lucretio Caro," 1768; J. SIKBKLIS,
" Quzstiones Lucretianas," 1844 : J. I.EGRIS, " Rome, ses Novateurs,
ses Conservateurs, etc. fitudeshistoriques sur Lucrece, Catulle," etc.,
1846; FABRICIUS, '' Bibliotheca Latina ;" SMITH, "Dictionaiy of
Greek and Roman Biography ;" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807.
Lucrezia. See LUCRETIA.
Lucrezio. See LUCRETIUS.
Lu-cul'lus, (Lucius LICINIUS,) a celebrated Roman
general, born of a patrician family about no B.C. In
the year 87 he went to Asia as quaestor under Sulla,
who gave him many proofs of his confidence. After an
absence of several years, during which the civil war be
tween Marius and Sulla raged at Rome, he returned, and
was elected consul in 74 B.C. In this year he obtained
the chief command in the war against Mithridates, whom
he defeated at Cyzicus in 73, and, after other victories,
drove him out of the kingdom of Pontus. He afterwards
defeated Tigranes of Armenia, whose capital he took
about 68 B.C. The mutiny of his troops prevented his
final triumph over Mithridates, and he was superseded
by Pompey in the year 66. Cicero expressed the opinion
that so great a war was never conducted with more
prudence and courage. (" Pro Muraena.") Lucullus then
retired from public affairs, and expended part of the im
mense fortune he had acquired in the East in building
magnificent villas, giving sumptuous entertainments, and
collecting expensive paintings and statues. He was a
liberal patron of learning and the arts. Sulla had dedi
cated to him his Commentaries. Plutarch, after com
paring him with Cimon, says it is hard to say to which
•e as>£; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, giittural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2®=See Explanations, p. 23.)
LUCUMO
1468
L UIN1
side the balance inclines. He was living in 59, but was
not living in 56 B.C.
See " Lucullus," in PLUTARCH'S "Lives;" CICERO, "Pro Lege
Manilla;" JOHAN UPMARCK, "Dissertatio historica de Lucullo,"
1703; DION CASSIOS, " History of Rome," books xxxv. and xxxvii. ;
DKU.MANN, " Geschiclite Koms, " vol. iv. ; " Noiivelle Biographie
Generale."
Lucumo. See TARQUINIUS PRISCUS.
Ludeke, loo'deh-keh, or Ludecke, loo'dek-keh,
(CHRISTOPH WILHKLM, ) a German writer, born at
Schonberg in 1737, was minister of a German church
in Stockholm. lie published a " Historical Account
of Turkey." Died in 1805.
Laden, loo'den, (HF.INRICH,) a distinguished Ger
man historical and political writer, born in the duchy
of Bremen in 1780. lie became in 1810 professor of
philosophy at Jena, where he also lectured on history.
His most important work is a " History of the German
Nation," ("Die Geschichte des Deutschen Volkes," 12
vols., 1825-37,) brought down to 1237. He also wrote
general histories of the nations of antiquity and of the
middle ages, a "Life of Hugo Grotius," (1806,) se.veral
biographies, etc. Died at Jena in 1847.
See bis Autobiograpby, "Riickblicke in mein Leben," 1847.
Luden, (HEINRICH,) a son of the preceding, was born
at Jena in 1810. He became a professor of law, and a
member of the court of cassation at Jena. He published
several legal works.
Liiders, lu'ders, (ALEXANDER NIKOLAIEVITCH,) a
Russian general, of German origin, born in 1790. lie
defeated the Hungarians under Bern in July, 1849, and
succeeded Gortchakof in the command of the army of
the Danube in 1855. He was commander-in-chief in
the Crimea for a fesv weeks between the fall of Sebas-
topol and the end of the war.
Ludewig. See LUDOVICI, (KARI. GUNTHF.R.)
Ludewig, von, fon loo'deh-ftio', QOUANN PETER,)
a learned German jurist and historian, born in Suabia
about 1670. He became professor of philosophy at
Halle in 1695, and of history in 1703. The King of
Prussia made him a privy councillor in 1709. Among
his works are "Germania Princeps," (1702,) treating
on the rights, privileges, etc. of the house of Austria
and of the Electors, " Writers of German History,"
(" Scriptores Reruni Germanicarum," 1718,) and a "Life
of Justinian," (1730.) Died in 1743.
See FRIKDRICH WIKOEBURG, "Dc Vita et Script is J. P. de Lude
wig," Halle, 1757; HIKSCHING, " Historisch-literarisches Hand-
bucli. "
Lu'dl-US, a Roman painter, who lived in the reign
of Augustus, and of whom we know little. He gained
renown by decorating walls with landscapes of large
dimensions.
Liid'low, ( EDMUND, ) an able English republican
general, born in Wiltshire about 1620. He fought against
the king at Edgehill in 1642, and led a regiment at the
battle of Newbury. Elected to Parliament in 1645, he
voted for the conversion of the kingdom into a republic,
and was one of the judges who condemned Charles I.
in 1649. In this year he was chosen a member of the
council of state, in which he opposed the ambitious
designs of Cromwell. In 1650 he went to Ireland as
lieutenant-general. On the death of Ireton, November,
1651, the command of the army devolved on Ludlow.
As he refused to support the government of the Pro
tector, (1653,) he was deprived of command. After the
death of Oliver (1658) he resumed his seat in Parliament,
and obtained command of the army in Ireland in 1659.
At the restoration (1660) he escaped through France to
Vevay, where he resided mostly until his death, in 1693.
He left Memoirs of his life, (2 vols., 1698.) Macaulay
refers to him as "almost the only survivor, [in 1689,]
certainly the most illustrious survivor, of a mighty race
of men, the judges of a king, the founders of a repub
lic. . . . There was but a single blemish on his fame," —
i.e. the execution of Charles I.
See CLARENDON, " Hi-story of the R-hsllion ;" HUME. " History
of England;" GUIZOT, " Hi^toire de la Resolution de 1'Anpleterre :"
WM. SftWEL, " Memoirs of E. Ludlow." 3 vols , 1698-99; " Monk's
Contemporaries," by GUIZOT, London, 18^4
Ludolf, loo'dolf, (HiERONYMUS,) a German medical
writer, born at Erfurt in 1679 ; died in 1728.
Ludolph, loo'dolf, (HEINRICH WILHEI.M,) a nephew
of the following, was born at Erfurt in 1655. He became
secretary to Prince George of Denmark, who married
Queen Anne of England. He published a Russian
Grammar, (Oxford, 1696,) and several small religious
treatises. Died in 1711.
Ludolph OF SAXONY, a monk, who died at Mentz
about 1370. He composed, in Latin, a " Life of Christ,"
which was popular and often reprinted.
Ludolphus, loo-dol'fiis, written also Ludolph and
Ludolf, originally Leutholf, loit'holf, (Jon,) an emi
nent German Orientalist, born at Erfurt in 1624. He
is said to have acquired twenty-five languages, among
which was the Abyssinian. The Duke of Saxe-Gotha
employed him to educate his sons, and appointed him
an aulic councillor. Ludolf published, in Latin, an
esteemed "History of Abyssinia," (1681,) an Ethiopian
Grammar, and other works. Died in 1704.
See C. JUNCKKR, "Coinmentarius de Vita J. Ludo'fi," 1710;
VOCKERODT, "Memoria J. Ludolfi renovata," 1723; NICEKON,
" Me moires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Ludovici, loo-do-veet'see, or Ludwig, lood'wio,
(GOTTFRIED,) a German philologist, born at Baruth, in
Prussia, in 1670. He published, besides other works,
a "Universal History," (2 vols., 1716.) Died in 1724.
Ludovici, (KARL GUNTHER,) a learned German pro
fessor, born at Leipsic in 1707. He wrote a " Dictionary
of Commerce," (5 vols., 1752-56,) and a "Plan of a
History of the Philosophy of Leibnitz," (1737.) Died in
1778. He spelled his name LUDKWIG in his latter years.
Ludovisio. See GREGORY XV.
Ludwig. See LEWIS, Louis, and LUDOVICI.
Ludwig, (Kings of Germany.) See LEWIS.
Ludwig, lood'wio, (CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB,) a German
botanist, born at Brieg, Silesia, in 1709. About 1732 he
made a botanical excursion to Africa. He was chosen
professor of medicine at Leipsic in 1747. He contributed
to reform botanical science by his writings, among which
are works "On the Sexes of Plants," "Definitions of
Plants," (1737,) and " Botanical Aphorisms," (1738.) J.
J. Rousseau expressed the opinion that Ludwig was the
only botanist besides Linnaeus that viewed botany like a
philosopher. Died in 1773.
See HIKSCHING, " Historisch-literarisches Handbnch;" "Nou
velle Biographie Generale."
Ludwig, (DANIEL,) a German writer on materia
medica, born at Weimar in 1625 ; died in 1680.
Ludwig, (JOHANN,) a self-taught German peasant,
born near Dresden in 1715, became a proficient in as
tronomy.
See C. L. BRIGHTWELL, "Annals of Industry and Genius."
Luecke. See LUCKE.
Luetzelburger. See LUTZELBURGER.
Luetzow. See Lth'zow.
Lufft, looft, (IL\NS,) a German printer and bookseller,
born in 1495, resided at Wittenberg, where he published
the first editions of Luther's translation of the Bible.
This work appeared complete in 1534. Within fifty
years one hundred thousand copies were issued from
Lufft's office ; and he has been surnamed THE Bun.K
PRINTER. Died in 1584.
Luganski. See DAHL, (VLADIMIR IVANOVITCH.)
Lugo, de, da loo'go, (JuAN,) a Spanish Jesuit, born
at Madrid in 1583. lie taught theology at Rome twenty
years, was made a cardinal in 1643, and wrote several
theological works, which were often reprinted. Died in
1660. His brother FRANCISCO (1580-1652) was also a
Jesuit, and author of several works on theology.
Luigi, di, de loo-ee'jee, (ANDRF.A,)an Italian painter,
surnamed L'INGEGNO, (len-je'n'yo,) and sometimes called
ANDREA in ASSISI, was born at Assisi about 1470. He
assisted Perugino in adorning the Cambio at Perugia,
and worked mostly at his native place. He painted a
coat of arms for the town-hall of Assisi. It appears
that nothing is known certainly of his other works.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc.
Luini, loo-ee'nee, (AuREi.io,) an Italian painter, a
son of Bernardino, noticed below, was born about 1530.
He worked at Milan, and painted scriptural subjects,
among which is "The Adoration of the Magi." He
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mgt; nSt; good; moon;
L UINI
1469
LUMSDEN
died, according to Lanzi, in 1593 ; but some date his
death many years earlier.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy."
Luiiii, Luvini, loo-vee'nee, or Lovini, lo-vee'nee,
(BERNARDINO,) an eminent Italian painter, was born at
Luino, on Lake Maggiore. He is called the most ex
cellent imitator and pupil of Leonardo da Vinci. Lo-
mazzo says he was already a distinguished painter in
1500. Luini worked both in fresco and oil, and painted
at Milan several works which are still in good preserva
tion. " Few painters," says Lanzi, "deserve to be com
pared to him." Among his master-pieces in oil are a
"Magdalene," a "Madonna," and a "Saint John with a
Lamb," all at Milan. He excelled in colouring, chiaro
scuro, and the expression of feminine grace. He died
after 1530. His sons, AURELIO and EVANGKLISTA, were
skilful painters.
?ee VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; LANZI, " History of
Painting in Italy."
Luini, (EVANGELISTA,) a decorative painter of Milan,
.was a son of the preceding. Died after 1584.
Luini, (ToMMASO,) an Italian painter, born at Rome
about 1597. He was called CARAVAGGINO, because he
imitated Caravaggio. Died about 1632.
Luino, loo-ee'no, or Luini, loo-ee'nee, (FRANCESCO,)
an Italian geometer, born at Milan in 1740. He was
professor of mathematics successively in a college of
Milan and in the University of Pavia. He published a
treatise on "Progressions and Series," ("Sulle Progres
sion! e sulle Serie," (1767,) "Philosophic Meditation,"
and a few other works. Died in 1792.
Luis, the Spanish for Louis, which see.
Luis de Granada. See GRANADA, (Luis BE.)
Luisini, Luisino, or Luisinus. See LUVIGINI,
(FRANCESCO.)
Luithold von Savene, loit'holt fon sa'veh-neh, or
Liitolt von Saven, lu'tolt fon si'ven, a German minne
singer of the latter part of the twelfth century.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Luitprand, loo'it-prand or lut'prand, written also
Liutprand, King of the Lombards, the son of Ans-
prand, reigned, from 712 A.I), until 744. His valour and
wisdom are praised by Sismondi. In 739 he marched
into France to aid Charles Martel against the Saracens.
He died in 744, and was succeeded by his nephew Hil-
debrand.
See MCRATORI, " Annales d'ltalia."
Luitprand or Liutprand, [Lat. LUITPRAN'DUS,] a
historical writer, was one of the most learned men of
the age. He was sent as ambassador to Constantinople
in 946 by Berenger, Marquis of Ivrea. Having been
chosen Bishop of Cremona, he attended in 963 a council
(at Rome) which deposed Pope John. In 968 the em
peror Otho I. sent him on a mission to Constantinople,
where he was maltreated by the emperor. He was au
thor of an esteemed " History of Europe from 862 to 964."
See KOEPKE, "De Vita et Scriptis Luitprandi," 1842; "Nouvelle
Biojrraphie Generale. "
Lukaszewitsch, loo-ki'she'-witch, (JOSEPH,) a Polish
writer, born near Posen about 1800, published several
valuable works on the ecclesiastical history of Poland.
Among these we may name the " History of the Churches
of the Helvetic Confession of Faith in Lithuania," (1842.)
Luke, |Gr. AOVKUC; Lat. LU'CAS ; Fr. Luc, liik ; It.
LUCA, loo'ka,] SAINT, one of the Four Evangelists, was a
companion of the Apostle Paul in his mission to the Gen
tiles, between 50 and 66 A.D. The time and place of his
birth are unknown. That he was liberally educated is
made evident by the classical style of his writings and
by the learned details which he gives on historical and
geographical subjects. His Gospel contains valuable
accounts which are not found in the others. He also
wrote " The Acts of the Apostles," which, as well as his
Gospel, is in the Greek language. Tradition indicates
that Saint Luke is the same as the physician Luke
mentioned by Saint Paul in Colossians iv. 14, and the
same as Lucas named in Philemon 24. (See II. Tim
othy iv. II.)
Lu'kin, (LIONEL,) an English mechanic, noted as the
inventor of the life-boat, was born about 1742; died in
1834.
€ as,/-.- c ;is s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Lull. See LULLI, (RAYMOND.)
Lulli or Lulle, lool'lee, [Fr. LULLE, liil,] (ANTONIO,)
a grammarian, born in Majorca. He corresponded with
Erasmus, and wrote a treatise on rhetoric, called "De
Oratione." Died in 1582.
Lulli or Lully, lii'le', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a celebrated
Italian composer, called "the father of French dramatic
music," was born at Florence in 1633. About the age
of fourteen he went to Paris, where he became a skilful
performer on the violin, and was patronized by Louis
XIV. In the fetes which were often repeated at court,
he found occasion to try his talents for operatic music.
In 1672 the king gave him the privilege or direction of
the Royal Academy of Music, from which time dates
the foundation of the Grand Opera in France. Co-ope
rating with Quinault the poet, Lulli composed in fifteen
years nineteen operas, which were very successful. He
finally became one of the secretaries of the king. Died
in 1687.
See FETIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens :" DE LA
BORDE, " Essai sur la Musique," 1780 ; " Nouvelle Bioyraphie Gend-
rale:" LE PROVOST u'ExMES, "Lulli Musicien."
Lulli or Lully, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a son of the pre
ceding, born in 1665. With his brother Louis he com
posed an opera called "Orphee," (1690.) Died in 1701.
Lulli, (JEAN Louis,) born in 1667, succeeded his
father, Jean Baptiste, as composer to the king. Died
in 1688:
Lulli, (Louis,) a musician, brother of the preceding,
was born in Paris in 1664. He became composer to the
king in 1688. Died about 1736.
Lulli, written also Lully, Lulle, and Lull, [Lat.
LUI/LUS or LUI/LIUS,] (RAYMOND,) a philosopher,
surnamed THE ENLIGHTENED DOCTOR, was born at
Palma, in Majorca, about 1235. He professed to believe
that he was called to convert the Moslems, and he pre
pared himself for the task by learning Arabic. In order
to prove that the mysteries of faith were not opposed
to reason, he composed a treatise, or method, called
" Ars Lulli," or "Ars Magna Lulli," ("The Great Art
of Lulli,") designed also to systematize knowledge and
facilitate the process of reasoning on all questions.
His method obtained great celebrity; but, according
to Hallam, it was an "idle and fraudulent attempt to
substitute trick for science." " He was one of those
innovators in philosophy who, by much boasting of their
original discoveries in the secrets of truth, gain credit
for systems of science which those who believe in them
seldom trouble themselves to examine." (" Introduction
to the Literature of Europe.") He made several attempts
to convert the Moors in Northern Africa, and was
violently persecuted. Died in 1315.
See WADDING, "Viede R. Lulle;" SEGUI. "Vie de R. Lulle."
1605: COLLETET," Vie de R. Lulle/' 1646; LOEV, " De Vita K. Lulli
Specimen," 1830; PERROQUET, "Vie et Martyre de R. Lulle," 1667;
HEI.FFEREICH, "Raymond Lull," Berlin, 1858; "Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generale."
Lullin de Chateauvieux, Hi'laN1' cleh sha'tf/ve-uh',
(jACou FREDERIC,) a Swiss agriculturist and writer,
born at Geneva in 1772; died in 1840.
Lullin de Chateauvieux, (MICHEL,) a Swiss writer
and experimenter on agriculture, born at Geneva in
1695 ; died in 1781.
Lully. See LULLI.
Lulof, lii'lof, (JAN,) a Dutch astronomer, born at
Zutphen in 1711. He wrote several works on astronomy.
Died in 1768.
Lumene van Marck, lu'meh-neh (?) vin niank, [Lat.
LUMIN.-E'US, | (JACQUES CORNEILLE,) a Flemish scholar
and Benedictine monk, born at Ghent about 1570. He
produced many Latin poems. Died in 1629.
Luminasus. See LUMENE VAN MARCK.
Lump'kin, (JOSEPH HENRY,) brother of Governor
Lumpkin, noticed below, born in Oglethorpe county,
Georgia, in 1799, became professor in the Lumpkin Law
School at Athens, in his native State.
Lumpkin, ( WILSON,) an American statesman, born
in Pittsylvania county, Virginia, in 1/83. He was twice
elected Governor of Georgia, and became a United
States Senator in 1838.
Lums'den, ( MATTHEW, ) a distinguished Scottish
Orientalist, born in Aberdeenshire in 1777. He was
ianations, p. 23.)
LUNA
1470
LUSSI
chosen professor of Persian and Arabic in the College
of Calcutta in 1805. In 1810 he published an excellent
"Grammar of the Persian Language," and in 1813 an
"Arabic Grammar." About 1820 he returned to Great
Britain. Died in London in 1835.
His brother THOMAS, an officer, published a Journey
from Merut, India, to London, (1822.)
See ZENKER. "BibHotheca Orientalis."
Lu'na, [Fr. LUNE, liin,] the Moon, a goddess wor
shipped by the Greeks and Romans.
Luna, loo'na, (FAHRIZIO,) an Italian lexicographer,
bom at Naples, is said to have been the compiler of
the first Italian dictionary, called "Vocabulary of Five
Thousand Tuscan Words," (" Vocabulariodi cinque mila
Vocabuli Toschi," 1536.) Died in 1559.
Luna, de, da loo'na, (Don ALVARO,) a Spanish cour
tier and poet, who became the chief favourite and min
ister of John II. of Castile. In 1423 he was made Con
stable of Castile. Through the enmity of the grandees,
he was exiled in 1427, and again in 1439. In 1445 he
was recalled, and obtained command of the army, with
which he defeated the malcontents. Having lost the
favour of the king, he was executed in 1453.
See a well-written biography, entitled " Cronica del Condestable
Don Alvaro de Luna," by an anonymous contemporary writer, pub
lished in 1546, and " Histoire de Alvaro de Luna," Paris, 1720.
Lund, loond, (CAKi.,) a Swedish writer on law, born
at Jonkoping in 1638, published, besides other works,
a " History of the Law of Sweden." Died in 1715.
Lund, (DANIEL,) a Swedish professor of Hebrew,
born in 1666; died in 1747.
Lunden. See LUNDIN.
Lttn'din or Lun'den, (Sir ALAN,) an ambitious Scot
tish politician, was born in Forfarshire. He married a
natural daughter of Alexander II., and in 1243 was
chosen lord justiciar of Scotland. Having opposed the
coronation of the minor son of the late king, he was
dismissed from office about 1250. He was afterwards
pardoned, and held the same office for several years.
Died in 1275.
Lundorp. See LONDORP.
Liin'd^, (BENJAMIN.) an American philanthropist,
born in Sussex county, New Jersey, in 1789. He founded
in 1815 an anti-slavery association, called the "Union
Humane Society," and subsequently became editor of
the "Genius of Universal Emancipation," originally
published at Mount Pleasant, Ohio, but removed to
Baltimore in 1824. He was also active in promoting
lectures on slavery and in advocating abstinence from
the products of slave-labour. Died in 1839.
See the " Life, Travels, etc. of Benjamin Lundy," by THOMAS
EARI.E; GREEI.KV, "American Conflict," vol. i. pp. 111-115.
Luneau de Boisjermain, Ki'no' deh bwa'zhe'R'-
max', (PIERRE JOSEPH FRANCOIS,) a mediocre French
writer, born at Issoudun in 1732. He became a school
teacher in Paris, and published several educational works
on history and languages. He also edited the works of
Racine, (1768.) Died in icoi.
Lunghi, (Luc.x.) See LONGHI.
Lunghi, loon'gee, (MARTINO,) an Italian architect,
born in the Milanese. He was employed in Rome by
Pope Gregory XIII., erected the Campanile of the Capi
tol, and built the elegant palace of Prince Borghese.
His last works were built about 1600. His grandson,
MARTINO, was an architect, and worked in Rome,
Naples, and Milan. Died in 1657.
See QUATREMERE DE QuiNCv, " Dictionnaire d'Architecture,"
and "Vies des Architectes celebres."
Lunghi, written also Loiighi and Longo, (Sn.LA
GIACOMO,) an Italian sculptor, born at Vigiu, in the
Milanese ; died about 1625.
Lunig, loo'nio, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN,) a German com
piler and publicist, born in 1662. lie published valua
ble works entitled " Archives of the German Empire,"
(24 vols., 1713-22,) "Diplomatic Code of Italy," ("Codex
Italiae Diplomaticus,"4 vols., 1725-35,) and "Diplomatic
Code of Germany," ("Codex Germanise Diplomaticus,"
2 vols., 1733.) Died in 1740.
Lflnt, (GEORGE,) an American lawyer and miscella
neous writer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts. He
was appointed in 1849 district attorney for Massachu
setts, and in 1857 became one of the editors of the
" Boston Courier."
See GR-SWOI.D, " Poets and Poetry of America."
Lupercalia. See PAN.
Luperci. See PAN.
Lu-per'cus, an ancient deity, who was worshipped
by the Italian shepherds as the guardian of their flocks
against wolves, and sometimes identified with Pan.
Lupi, loo'pee, (ANTONIO MARIA,) a learned Italian
Jesuit and antiquary, born at Florence in 1695 ; died in
I737-
Lupi, (MARIO,) an Italian historian, born at Bergamo
in 1720; died in 1789.
Lupin, von, fon loo-peen', (FRIEDUICH,) BARON, a
German writer and mineralogist, born at Memmingen in
1771 ; died in 1844.
See his Autobiography, ("Selbstbiographie,") 2 vols., 1844-47.
Lupoli, loo'po-lee, (ViNCENZio,) an Italian canonist
and jurist, born near Aversa in 1737, published several
works on law. Died in 1 800.
Lup'set, (THOMAS,) an English scholar, born in Lon
don about 1496. He obtained the chair of rhetoric at
Oxford, and corresponded with Erasmus and Sir Thomas
More. He published a "Treatise on Charity," and other
religious works, and translated parts of the writings of
Cyprian and Chrysostom. Died in 1532.
Lup'ton, (DONALD,) an English biographer, of whom
little is known. He published in 1637 a " History of the
Modern Protestant Divines," (translated from the Latin,)
and " The Glory of their Times ; or, The Lives of the
Primitive Fathers," (1640.)
Lu'pus, or Wolf, wolf, (CHRISTIAN,) a Catholic
theologian, born at Ypres in 1612. He became a pro
fessor of theology at Louvain, and published several
works on dogmatic theology. Died in 1681.
Lupus Servatus. See Lour.
Luque, de, da loo'ka, (HERNANDO,) a Spanish bishop
of Peru. He was a priest of Panama when, in 1525, he
associated himself with Pizarro and Almagro in an ex
pedition for the conquest of Peru. De Luque furnished
the money for this enterprise. Died in 1532.
See HERRERA, " Historia general de los Viajes en las Inriias Occi-
dentales ;" PKESCOTT, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. ii.
Lurine, Ki'ren', (Louis,) a French writer of fiction, •
satire, etc., born in 1816. He contributed many articles
to the public journals.
Luscinius, loos-see'ne-us, (OTHMAR,) a litferatenr,
whose proper name was Nachtigall, (naK'te-gal,) was
born at Strasburg about 1480. He removed from Augs- .
burg to Bale in 1526, and afterwards lodged with Eras
mus at Freyburg. He edited some works of Lucian and
Martial, and published various other works. Died about
1535-
Liish'ing-ton, (Right Hon. STEPHEN,) D.C.L., an
eminent English civilian and statesman, born in London
in 1782, was the son of Sir Stephen Lushington. lie
was educated at Oxford, and called to the bar in 1806.
Between 1807 and 1841 he represented Yarmouth, II-
chester, the Tower Hamlets, and other places, in Par
liament, voting for the abolition of the slave-trade (1807)
and for other liberal measures. He also contributed
greatly to the abolition of slavery. He was one of the
counsel for the defence in the trial of Queen Caroline,
(1821.) In 1838 he was appointed a judge of the admi
ralty, and privy councillor.
Lusignan, (Guv DE.) See GUY DE LUSIGNAN.
Lusignan, de, deh Ki'zen'yoN' or loo-sen-yan', (STE- >x
FANO,) a descendant of the royal family of Cyprus, was
born in that island in 1537. He became a priest, and
emigrated to Italy in 1571. He wrote a " History of
Cyprus from the Time of Noah until 1572," and other
works. Died about 1590.
Lussan, de, deh lii'sox', (MARGUERITE,) a French
novelist, born in Paris in 1682. In 1730 she published
the " Story of the Countess de Gondes," which was suc
cessful. She also wrote " The Life of the Brave Crillon,"
(1757,) and several historical romances. Died in 1758.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire."
Lussi, loos'see, (MELCHIOR,) a Swiss general and
diplomatist, born at Stanz in 1529; died in 1606.
a, e, T, 6, u,y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o. obscure; far, fall, fat; m5t; not; good: moon;
LUTATIUS
1471
LUTHER
Lutatius Catnlus. See CATULUS.
Luthbert See LUBBERT, (SIBRAND.)
Lu'ther, (MARTIN,) [Ger. pron. maR'tin loo'ter; Lat.
MARTI'NCS LUTHE'RUS; It. MARTINO LUTERO, maR-
tee'no loo-ta'ro ; Sp. MARTIN LUTERO, maR-ten' loo-
ta'ro,] the great leader of the Reformation in Germany,
was born at Eisleben, the loth of November, 1483. He
was the son of Hans Luther, a miner. His mother's
maiden name was Margarethe Lindemann. At the age
of fifteen he was sent to the Latin school at Eisenach,
then under the direction of Trebonius. In 1501 he en
tered the university at Erfurt. While here, he found
in the university library a rare and precious book, — a
Latin Bible, — which became an object of extraordinary
interest to him. About this time a severe attack of ill
ness, and, soon after, the sudden death of one of his
intimate friends, (caused, as some historians state, by a
stroke of lightning,) produced such an impression on
the mind of young Luther, that he made a solemn vow
to become a monk, and in July, 1505, he entered the
Augustine convent at Erfurt. In 1507 he was ordained
a priest, and in the following year, through the influence
of Staupitz, (the provincial of his order, and subsequently
vicar-general,) he was appointed professor of philosophy
in the University of Wittenberg. Luther's visit to Rome,
made in 1510, in fulfilment of a previous vow, opened to
him new views of the character and condition of the
Romish Church. In 1512 he was made licentiate and\
doctor of divinity, and began about this time to declare'
openly his views of scriptural theology, which he ex
plained according to the system of Saint Augustine,!
resting the doctrine of justification solely on faith in thej
sacrifice of the Saviour. In 1517, Tetzel, a Dominican'
monk, received from the pope, (Leo X.,) through the
Archbishop of Magdeburg, a commission for the sale of
indulgences. With a view to increase the demand for
his merchandise, Tetzel asserted, what few or none of
the other Catholics appear to have ever claimed, that
the indulgences not only released the purchasers from
the necessity of penance, but absolved them from all the
consequences of sin both here and hereafter. Indignant
at what he regarded as an insult to reason and religion,
Luther drew up his celebrated ninety-five propositions,
in which he set forth in the strongest language the theo
logical unsoundness as well as the pernicious effects of
' Tetzel's doctrine of indulgences. This publication in
volved Luther in violent controversies. Among the
most conspicuous of his opponents was Dr. Eck, (in
Latin, Eckius or Eccius,) professor of divinity at Ingol-
.stadt. But the cause of the Reformer steadily gained
ground, and among the number of his favourers was
Frederick the Wise, the Elector of Saxony,— one of the
most powerful princes of Germany. Leo having sum
moned Luther to plead his cause at Rome, the Elector
interposed, and it was arranged that the examination or
trial should take place at Augsburg, before Cardinal
Cajetan, (Caietano,) the legate of the pope. The car
dinal having refused to enter into any discussion with
Luther, at the same time insisting that the latter should
submit himself unreservedly to the authority of the
papal see, Luther, fearing — perhaps with too much
reason — the fate of John Huss, secretly withdrew from
Augsburg, leaving an "appeal to the pope when he
should be better informed." Soon after Leo issued a
bull *n support of the doctrine of indulgences ; where
upon Luther appealed from the pope to a general council
of the Church.
^With a view to restore tranquillity to the Church, Leo
ent his chamberlain Mikitz — a Saxon by birth, and a
man of great tact and intelligence — as nuncio into Ger
many. By kindness and flattery, Miltitz obtained from
Luther (March, 1519) a promise that he would submit
to the authority of the pope and discontinue the con
troversy respecting indulgences, on condition that his
adversaries should also preserve silence on the subject.
Dr. Eck, however, would not permit the^controversy to
slumber. He soon after challenged Carlstadt, one of
Luther's disciples, to a public dispute at Leipsic ; so that
Luther himself was again almost unavoidably involved
in the contest. The result was a confirmation of his
former views of the fallibility of the pope and the errors
of the Church, which found expression in several publi
cations, and especially in a work entitled " De Captivi-
tate Babylonica Ecclesiae," (" On the Babylonian Cap
tivity of the Church.") Leo had, a short time previously
to this publication, issued a bull condemning forty-one
propositions which had been selected from the works of
Luther, and directing the bishops to search diligently
for the writings in which those errors were contained,
and to have them publicly burned. Luther resolved to
anticipate the blow, and at the same time to render the
breach between himself and Rome forever impassable.
Attended by a crowd of doctors, professors, and students,
he proceeded to a spot fixed on for the purpose, without
the walls of Wittenberg, near the east gate, and there
burned before the assembled multitude the bull, with
the accompanying decretals and canons relating to the
pope's supreme authority.
Up to this period, it would appear that the reverence
for the Church in which Luther had been educated had
always exercised a controlling influence upon his mind ;
for, although he denounced in the boldest manner the
abuses of the ecclesiastical power, he had ever mani
fested a profound respect for the sovereign pontiff him
self. But now he broke through all restraint, and not
only denied the authority of the pope, but he assailed
him with all the fierce invective and vituperation which
were so common in that age.
After this additional provocation, it was not to be ex
pected that the thunders of the Church should slumber.
Not content with merely excommunicating Luther and
laying every place which should harbour him under an
interdict, Leo urged the newly-elected emperor, Charles
V., to come forward as the champion of Catholicism
and inflict upon the arch-heretic and his adherents the
punishment due to their apostasy. But the Elector of
Saxony, to whom Charles had been indebted for his new
dignity, interposed a second time, and so far prevailed
that it was determined the cause of Luther should he
tried before the Diet of the empire. The Diet assem
bled at Worms early in the year 1521. It was the wish
and intention of the legate Aleander and the other
advocates of the papal cause that Luther should not be
present at his own trial. But the majority of the Diet,
whether influenced by friendship for the Reformer or b'y
the desire to preserve the appearance of justice in their
proceedings, insisted that Luther should not be con
demned unheard. The emperor was prevailed upon to
grant him a safe-conduct, (dated March 6, 1521.) The
greater number of Luther's friends earnestly dissuaded
him from going to Worms. Even Spalatin, the secretary
and confidential adviser o£ the Elector Frederick, sent
him a pressing message exhorting him on no account to
enter that city. Luther replied, "Were there as many
devils in WTorms as tiles upon the roofs of the houses,
still would I enter," (" Wenn so viel Teufel zu Worms
waren als Ziegel auf den Dachern, doch wollt' ich
hinein.") He arrived in the city on the i6th of April,
and appeared before the Diet the following day. When
asked if he was the author of the works produced against
him, containing the passages which had been condemned,
he replied in the affirmative. On being again asked
whether he was prepared to retract the objectionable
doctrines contained in them, he answered that, as this
question concerned the word of God, the Christian faith,
and the salvation of souls, it was of great importance
that he should not speak rashly, lest he should offend
against the word of God : he therefore desired that time
might be allowed him for consideration. The next day
he was again brought before the Diet. While he ad
mitted that in some instances he might have written
with less humility and more violence than became his
ecclesiastical character, he refused to retract anything
that he had said, unless it could be shown to be con
trary to the Scriptures ; at the same time, he Jxildly
repeated and defended several of his positions which
had been objected to. Hereupon Charles and the other
favourers of the Catholic cause refused to hear him any
further. He was commanded to leave Worms. He
accordingly returned to Saxony. As he was journeying
on the borders of the Thuringian Forest, he was sud
denly seized by a number of warriors in masks, and
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
L UTHER
1472
LUTI
hurried off to the solitary castle of Wartburg, where
his ecclesiastical habit was exchanged for the dress
and sword of a knight. This whole proceeding was a
stratagem of Frederick to protect the Reformer against
the designs of his enemies. Luther had previously been
apprised of the contemplated scheme. He remarks, in
one of his letters, that he scarcely knew himself in his
strange disguise.
Immediately after the departure of Luther, Aleander,
the Papal legate, prevailed on Charles to give the edict
against him the sanction of the imperial signature and
seal. It was declared, in tfoe name of the emperor, that,
as soon as the term of his safe-conduct had expired,
Luther should be seized and held in durance until they
should be informed how to deal with him.
Luther remained in the castle of Wartburg about ten
months. Me left it in March, 1522, and returned to Wit
tenberg in order to rebuke the excesses into which some
of his former disciples had fallen. In 1524 he laid aside
the monastic dress; and in 1525 he married Catharina
von Dora, who had once been a nun. Luther completed
his German version of the Old Testament in 1534; his
translation of the New Testament had appeared in 1522.
These translations, by their extensive circulation, as well
as by the force and beauty of the language, have exerted
a most important influence upon German literature,
which may almost be said to date its origin from their
composition.
Frederick the Wise, Luther's faithful friend and pro
tector, died in 1525, and was succeeded by his nephew
John, who was an open and devoted adherent of the
great Reformer. During the latter portion of his life,
Luther was held in the highest consideration by most
of the princes of Germany, where his doctrines continued
to spread, and finally, even during his lifetime, extended
to Moravia, Bohemia, Denmark, and Sweden. He died
at Eisleben, the l8th of February, 1546; in the sixty-third
year of his age. Among Luther's voluminous works,
his translation of the Bible, already mentioned, is the
most important. Besides his controversial writings, he
has left numerous letters, sermons, etc. His "Table-
Talk," (" Tischreden,") which is, says Carlyle, "the
most interesting now of all the books proceeding from
him," consists of sayings and anecdotes collected by
Luther's friends after his death.
Although the character of Luther was especially dis
tinguished by ardent zeal and unconquerable courage,
yet on important occasions he could exercise the greatest
moderation as well as discretion. The intrepidity with
which he faced the dangers that threatened him at Worms
is not more deserving of our praise than the admirable
prudence and tact which he displayed in his defence on
that memorable occasion. The fierce invective and coarse
vituperation for which his controversial writings have
been censured, are palliated by the consideration that
such was the almost universal custom of that age. It
his opposition was violent, it was not malignant or un
forgiving. When his bitterest enemy, Tetzel, — the man
who had excited Luther's fiercest indignation, — was in
misfortune and disgrace, forsaken by all his friends, he
received from his generous adversary a letter of con
dolence and consolation. As a reformer, Luther sought
to introduce such changes only as he deemed to be im
peratively demanded ; and to the last he clung to some
of the doctrines of his early faith which were rejected
by all or nearly all the other Protestants. He was always
an advocate of peace where peace could be had without
the sacrifice of any great principle ; and, so long as he
lived, he steadfastly opposed, both by his counsels and
by his influence, those religious contests which after his
death desolated Germany.
"Justification by Faith" formed the great central doc
trine in Luther's system of theology, as unconditional
election and reprobation was the central idea of that of
Calvin. The great aim of the latter would seem to have
been to prove the utter and absolute helplessness of
man ; and, in the march of his inexorable logic, he some
times appears equally regardless of the hopes of man
kind and of the justice of God. Luther, while ascribing
everything in the act of conversion to the grace of God,
seems not so completely to close the door to human
aspirations, — taking for his motto, " If thou canst believe
— all things are possible to him that believeth."
Luther is described as a man of low stature but hand
some person, with a lively complexion and falcon eyes.
His voice was clear and of great power. On behold
ing his picture, Melanchthon is said to have exclaimed,
" Each one of thy words was a thunderbolt !" (" Fulmina
erant singula verba tua.") Carlyle says of him, "No
more valiant man ever lived in that Teutonic kindred
whose character is valour : the thing he will quail before
exists not on this earth or under it." " He was," observes
Heine, "not only the greatest, but the most German,
man of our history. In his character all the faults and all
the virtues of the Germans are combined on the largest
scale. He had qualities which are very seldom found
united, which we are accustomed to regard as irrecon
cilable antagonisms. . . . He was not only the tongue,
but the sword, of his time. Sometimes he was wild
as the storm that uproots the oak, and again he was
as gentle as the zephyr which dallies with the violet."
In a not dissimilar strain, Carlyle contrasts the wild,
unconquerable energy with the affectionate tenderness
of Luther's character: "A most gentle heart withal,
full of pity and love, as, indeed, the truly valiant heart
ever is." Alluding to Luther's fondness for music, he
adds, "Death-defiance on the one hand, and such love
of music on the other, — between these two, all great
things had room."
Those who may desire to see a less favourable view of
the great Reformer's character and influence, are referred
to the article " Luther" in the " Nouvelle Biographic
Gene'rale," from the pen of the editor, Dr. Hoefer.
See D'AuniGNi*, " History of the Reformation ;" MICIIF.I.ET,
"Memoires de Luther," 2 vols., 1835; MELANCHTHON, "Life of
Luther," ("Vita Lutheri ;") JOHANN MATHKSIUS, " Historia von
Dr. M. Luther'* Anfang, i.ehr, Leben, "etc., 15^5 : IMMANUEI.VKGA,
" De M. Lutheri Vita et Miracu'is," 1586; M DRESSER, " Historia
M. Lutheri." 1598; T. HAYNE, "Life and Death of Martin Luther,"
1641 : C. JCNCKKR. "Vita Lutheri," etc., 161)9; C. M. SEIDEI., " Kr-
bauliches Leben Dr. M. Luther's," 1718; J. COLKRUS, " Lutherus
Redivivus," 1718 ; J. COCHI.AEUS, " Commentaria de Actiset Scriptis
M. Lutheri," 1549; N. TAII.I.F.PIED, " Histoire de la Vie de M. Lu
ther," 1577 ; GLOCERUS, " Historia von der Lehre, Leben. etc. Dr. M.
Lutheri," 1586; J. D. HERRENSCHMIDT, "Vita Dr. M. Luilieri,"
etc., 1742; C. J. WAGENSEIL, " Lebensgeschichte Dr. M. Luther's,"
1782: TISCHEK, "Leben, Thaten und Meinungen Dr. M. Luther's,"
1783; F. O. ZIMMF.KMANN, " Memoria Dr. M. Lutheri," iVoS; A.
BOWER, " Life of Dr. M. Luther," 1813; UKERT, "Dr. M. Luther's
Lebeu," 1817 ; H. MUELLER, " Dr. M. Luthers Lebeu und Wirken,"
1817 ; STANG, " M. Luther, sein Leben," etc., 1835 ; G. PFIZER, " M.
Luther's Leben," 1836; J. E. RIDDLE, "Luther and his Times,"
1X37 ; JOHN SCOTT, " Luther and the Lutheran Reformation," 1838;
AuoiN, " Histoire de la Vie de M. Luther," 2 vols., 1830; HANNAH
LEK, " Life and Times of M. Luther," Boston, 1839 ; M. MKURER,
"M. Luther's Leben," 3 vols., 1846; CARL JURGENS, "M. Luther's
Leben," 3 vols., 1847; R. FERGUSON, "Luther: his Times, Charac
ter, and Works," 1848; F. W. GENTHE, "Leben und Wirken Dr.
M. Luther's." 1842: IGNAZ Dor. LINGER, "Luther: eine Skir/.e,"
1851; E. HAAG, "Vie de M. Luther," 1840; JANUER, "Luther's
Leben," etc., 1853: N. M. PETF.RSEN, "M. Luther's Levuet," 1840;
J. A. CRAMER, "Luther und Melanchthon," 1817: PAUL SEIDKI.,
" Historic und Geschichte des Vaters Dr. M. Lutheri," 1581 ; CARL
R. RICHTER, "Geschichte Dr. M. Luther's," 1817; K. F. A.
KAHNIS, " Lutherische Dogmatik," 2 vols., 1861-68; DR. C. P.
KRAUTH, "The Conservative Reformation and its Theology." etc.,
1870 : CARLYLE, " On Heroes and Hero- Worship ;" HEDGE, " Prose
Writers of Germany ;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1839,
Luther, (PAUL,) a chemist, son of the preceding, was
born at Wittenberg in 1533. He became physician to
Augustus, Elector of Saxony, and to his successor, Chris
tian. Died at Leipsic in 1593.
Luther, (RonKKT,) a German astronomer, born ^ibout
1810, lived near Dusseldorf. He discovered eight small
planets or asteroids between 1852 and 1858-
Lutherburg. See LOUTHKRUOURG.
Luti, loo'tee, or Lutti, loot/tee, (BENEDETTO,) an
excellent Italian painter of history, born at Florence in
1666, was a pupil of Gabbiani. He worked chiefly in
Rome, and was patronized by Clement XI. According
to Lanzi, many connoisseurs designated him the last
master of the Florentine school. Among his merits are
forms delicate and graceful, and a skilful distribution of
colours and shadows. He painted in oil, in fresco, and
in pastel. Among his master-pieces are an "Annun
ciation," " San Ranieri taking the Habit," and " The
Prophet Isaiah," in the Lateran. Died in 1724.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy:" TICOZZI, "Diziona-
rio;" WINCKELMANN, " Neues Mahler- Lexikon."
a, e, T, o, ft, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a. e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
LUTON
H73
LUTNES
Luton, IU'ION', (Loins,) a French chemist and painter
on glass, born in Paris in 1757; died in 1852.
Luttrell, COLONEL. See WII.KKS, (JOHN.)
Lut'trell, (NARCISSUS,) an English political writer,
who kept a diary of public events during the Revolution
of 1688 and subsequent years, which Macaulay often
quotes and calls a valuable manuscript. Died about
1732. His diary was published in 1857.
See "Xor.h British Review" for November, 1857.
Liitzelburger or Luetzelburger, lut'sel-booRr/er,
sometimes erroneously written Leutzelburger, (HANS,)
also called HANS FRANK, a Swiss wood-engraver, of
whom very little is known, lived about 1520-40. Among
the most 'important works attributed to him is the
" Dance of I )eath," (usually ascribed to Holbein,) " Illus
trations of the Old Testament," a portrait of Erasmus,
and " The Sale of Indulgences."
See NAGI.EK, "Allgemi-ines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Liitzow or Luetzow, liit'so, (I.unwio ADOLF WIL-
HKLM.) a Prussian general, born in 1782; died at Ber
lin in 1834.
Liitzow, von, fon liit'so, (THERESA VON STRUVF.,)
M \n\MK, a German authoress, born at Stuttgart in
1804. She wrote several novels and books of travel.
Died in Java in 1852.
Luvigini, loo-ve-jee'nee, Luisini, loo-e-see'nee, or
Luisino, loo-e-see'no, [Lat. LuiSl'NUS,] (FRANCESCO,)
an Italian scholar, born at Udine in 1523. He was pre
ceptor of the son of Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Paimn.
Among his works is a " I^itin Commentary on Horace's
Art of Poetry," (1554-) His poetical talent is praised
bv Mu ret and Giraldi. Died in 1568.
'Luvigini or Luisino, (Luioi,) a brother of the pre
ceding, born at Udine, was a physician at Venice. Among
his works is a version of the "Aphorisms" of Hippocrates,
in Latin hexameters, (1552.)
Lux, looks, (ADAM,) a German republican, born
Mentz about 17/0. He was sent to Paris in March, 1793,
to solicit the annexation of his country to France. He
witnessed with sympathy and admiration the conduct of
Charlotte Corday at her execution. A few days later he
published an apology for that heroine. For this and
other offences be was executed in November, 1793.
Luxdorf, looks'doRf, (BoLLE WILLUM,) a Danish
writer and lawyer, born in the island of Seeland in 1716
He cultivated Latin poetry with success. Died in 1788
Luxembourg, luk's5NvbooR', (CHRISTIAN Louis DF
MONTMORENCI,) Prince de Tingri, a French general,
born in Paris in 1675, was the fourth son of the great Mar
shal Luxembourg. For his services at Oudenarde and
Lille (1708) he obtained the rank of lieutenant-general
He commanded at Ettlingen in 1734, and was made a
marshal of France in the s'ame year. From that time he
was called MARSHAL DE MONTMORENCI. Died in 1746
See PINARIJ, "Chronologic militaire."
Luxembourg, de, deh luk'sS.x'booR', (C HA RLE:
FRANCOIS FREDERIC DK. MONTMORENCI,) MARSHAL
born in 1702, was a grandson of the first Marshal Lux
embourg. He was aide-de-camp of Louis XV. in thi
war of 1741, and, having served with distinction in Ger
many, became a marshal of France. He gave a home it
J. J.' Rousseau at Montmorenci. (See the notice of hi
wife, below.) Died in 1764.
See ROUSSEAU, " Confessions."
Luxembourg, de, written also Luxemburg, (FRAN
gots HENRI DE MONTMORENCI,) Due, a celebrated mar
shal of France, born in Paris in 1628, was a son of th
Count de Montmorenci-Bouteville, and acousin-germa
of the great Prince de Conde. For his conduct at Len
in 1648 he was made marechal-de-camp. From devotio
to the Prince of Conde, he served several campaign
against France between 1653 and 1659, during whic
period Conde commanded the Spanish army. Hnvin
received a pardon from the king in 1660, he married th
heiress of the house of Luxembourg, and assumed thr
name. In 1672 he obtained command of an army whic
invaded Holland and took several towns. His skilfi
retreat from Utrecht to Charleroi in November, 167
raised him to the rank of the first captains of that ag
In 1674 he commanded the right wing of Conde's arm
at Senef, and in 1675 received a marshal's baton.
€ as k • 9 as s • g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this.
93
gained victories over the allies in Flanders in the cam
paign of 1677, which was followed by a long peace.
Having incurred the enmity of Louvois, he was confined
in the Bastille fourteen months on a charge of sorcery.
In 1690, Louis XIV., against whom Austria, Spain, and
England had formed a coalition, gave the chief com
mand of his army to Marshal Luxembourg, who, since
the death of Turenne and Conde, was the ablest of his
generals. He defeated the allies at Fleurus in 1690.
In the campaign of 1691 he defeated William III. of
England at the great battle of Steenkei ke. He was victo
rious over the same enemy and leader at Neerwinden,
r Landen, in 1693. He died in January, 1695, after
hich the army of Louis gained few victories. "Even
he admirers of William III.," says Macaulay, "were
irced to own that in the field he was not a match for
.uxembourg," whose "judgment was clearest and surest
hen responsibility pressed heaviest on him and when
iffkulties gathered thickest around him." " He gained
nmense renown at William's expense; but he had not
le art of improving a victory, while William, of all gen-
rals, was best qualified to repair a defeat." (" History
f England," vol. iv. chap, xix.)
See BK.AUKAIN. " Histoire militaire du Due de Luxembourg,"
756; "Memoirs of Marshal Luxemburg," written by himselt, 1758;
OI.TAIRE, " Sieclede Louis XIV:" SAINT-SIMON, _" 'Memo.res ;
JBSORMFM-X " Histoire de la Maison de Montmorenci, vols. iv. and
. ; L. ARTOING. "LeMarechal de Luxembourg," 1853: "Nouvelle
iiographie Generate."
Luxembourg or Luxemburg, de, (Louis,) Comte
e Saint-Pol, an ambitious French general, born in 1418.
le fought against Louis XI. at Montlheii about 1464,
nit wa-T soon after won over by the high office of Con-
table of France, and married the queen's sister, Marie
le Savoie. He was called the pivot of the principal
ntrignes of that time. His perfidy provoked Louis XI.
nd 'Charles the Bold to declare him their common
nemy. He was beheaded in 1475.
See COMIXES. "Memoire*;" SISMONDI, " Histoire desFrancais;'1
' Xouvelle Biographie Generale."
Luxembourg de, (MADF.LENE ANGELIQUE de Neuf
ville-Villeroi— deh nuf'vel' vel'Rwa',) MARECHALK-
OUCHF.SSE, born in 1707, was a granddaughter of Marshal
Villeroi. She was married to Marshal C. F. de Luxem
bourg in 1750. About 1758 this couple gave Rousseau
an asylum at Montmorenci. Rousseau has commemo-
•ated'in his "Confessions" her charming conversation
and liberality. Her rank and talents gave her great
social influence in Paris. Died in 1787.
Luxembourg-Ligni, de, deh luk'sON'booR' len ye ,
t .VALERAN,) Comte de Saint-Pol, was born in 1355, of
one of the most illustrious families of Europe. While
fighting for the French king, he was taken prisoner by
the English in 1374. He married Matilda, a sister of
Richard II. of England. Having been chosen Con
stable of France in 1412, he defeated the Armagnacs
in battle. Died in 1417.
Luxemburg. See LUXEMBOURG.
Luyken or Luycken, loi'ken, (JAN,) a Dutch en
graver, born in 1649, lived in Amsterdam. He etched,
after his own designs, many admired works, which dis
play a fertile invention, the "Death of Coligny" is
called his best production. Died in 1712.
Luynes or Luines, de, deh Hi-en', (CHARLES D' AL
BERT,) Due, the favourite of Louis XIII. of France,
was born in Languedoc in 1578. As the companion
of Louis in youth," he acquired an ascendency over him,
and about 1616 he became his most powerful minister.
His cupidity and ambition excited many enemies, among
whom was the king's mother; but through his influence
she was sent into exile. In 1621 he was appointed Con
stable of France, and declared war against the Hugue
nots. It appears that Louis had resolved to discard him ;
but before that purpose was effected Luynes died, in
December, 1621. He was a brother of Marshal Chaulnes,
noticed in this work.
See BAZIN, "Histoire de Louis XIII:" RASSOM PIERRE . " Me-
moires;" S.ISMOXDI, "Histoire des Krancais ;" " Nouvelle Biogra
phie Gdnera'e."
Luynes, de, (HONORS' TIIEODORIC PAUL JOSEPH
D'Ai.KKRT,) Due, a French antiquary, born in Paris in
1802, was a liberal patron of arts and sciences. He was
>ee Explanations, p. 23.)
LUTTS
'474
LTCURGUS
admitted in 1830 into the Academy of Inscriptions, to
which he contributed many valuable treatises on antiqui
ties and medals.
Luyts, loits, (JAN,) a Dutch philosopher and astrono
mer, born at Horn about 1660, became professor of
physics at Utrecht. He was an opponent of the Cartesian
philosophy. Died in 1721.
Luz, liiz, ? [Lat. Lu'cius,] (Louis,) a Swiss Protest
ant theologian, born at Bale in 1577. He wrote a " His
tory of the Jesuits," (1626,) and other works. Died in
1642.
Luzac, lii'zak/, (Ei.iAS,) a Dutch philosopher and
jurist, born near Leyden in 1723. He published in 1756
" Researches into the Principles of Human Knowledge."
His "Riches of Holland," (1778,) a history of Dutch
commerce, is highly esteemed. Died in 1796.
Luzac, (JAN,) a philologist and publicist of great
merit, born at Leyden in 1746. lie practised law in his
native place. In 1775 he became chief editor of the
"Gazette de Leyde." From 1785 until 1796 he was
professor of Greek in Leyden University. He corre
sponded with Washington and Jefferson, the former of
whom wrote, "America is under great obligations to the
writings and actions of such men as you." Among his
works are " Socrates as a Citizen," (" De Socrate Give,")
dedicated to John Adams, of Massachusetts, and "Attic
Readings," (" Lectiones Atticas," 1809.) He was killed
by an explosion of gunpowder at Leyden in 1807.
See SIEGENBEEK, " Notice snr la Vie et lesTravaux de J. Ltizac."
Luzac, ( STEVEN,) the uncle of the preceding, was born
at Leyden in 1706. He became in 1738 proprietor and
editor of the "Gazette de Leyde," which is described
as a model'of accuracy and wisdom, and possessed much
historical value. Died in 1787.
Luzan, loo-than', (Don IGNACIO,) a Spanish critic,
poet, and literary reformer, born at Saragossa in 1702.
About 1750 he was appointed director of the mint, a
councillor of state, and minister of commerce. To coun
teract the vicious poetical style of Gongora, he wrote
his celebrated "Art of Poetry," ("La Poetica, o Reglas
de la Poesia en general," 1737,) which is said to have
been effectual in rectifying the national taste. He pro
duced several admired poems, one of which is " The
Judgment of Paris." Died in 1754.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature:" LONGFELLOW,
" Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gdnerale."
Luzarches, de, deh Ki'zSush', (ROBERT,) a French
architect, designed the magnificent cathedral of Amiens,
which was commenced in 1220 and finished in 1269.
Luzerne, de la, deh It Ki'ziRn', (ANNE CESAR,)
CHEVALIER, a French diplomatist, born in Paris in 1741.
In 1779 he was sent as minister to the United States,
where he had much influence, and performed with credit
the duties of a position which the absence of instructions
made more responsible. He left the United States in
1783. He was ambassador from France to London from
1788 until his death, in September, 1791.
Luzerne, de la, (CESAR GUILLAUME,) a learned prel
ate, born in Paris in 1738, was a brother of the pre
ceding. He became Bishop of Langres in 1770, and was
elected to the States-General in 1789. He emigrated in
1791, returned in 1814, and was made a cardinal' in 1817.
Among his numerous works is " Considerations on
Divers Points of Christian Morality," (5 vols., 1795.)
Died in 1821.
See Qt-ERARD, "La France Litte'raire;" "Nouvelle Biographic
GeneVale. "
Luzerne, de la, (CESAR HENRI,) COUNT, a French
minister of state, born in Paris in 1737, was a brother of
the preceding, and a nephew of Malesherbes. He was
appointed minister of the marine in 1787. The hostility
of the dominant party caused him to resign in 1790. He
emigrated in 1791, and died in Austria in 1799.
Lygeus, H-ee'us, [Gr. AuoZoc, from Ai>«, to " free" or
" loosen,"] a surname given to Bacchus, because he (wine)
frees the mind from care ; though some say it is because
[he loosens the limbs of his votaries, rendering them un
able to walk. (See BACCHUS.)
Lycambes. See ARCHILOCHUS.
Ly-ca'oii, |Gr. AVKUUV,] a fabulous king of Arcadia,
and a son of Pelasgus. He and his numerous sons were
notorious for impiety and cruelty The poets feigned
that Jupiter in disguise once visited Lycaon, who offered
him human flesh to eat, for which offence he was changed
into a wolf.
Lycius, lish'e-us, [Ai'/aoc,] a Greek sculptor, born in
Bceotia, lived about 425 H.C. According to Pliny, he was
a pupil of Myron.
Lycomede. See LYCOMEDES.
Lycomede, le'ko'm.W', the assumed name of GIU
SEPPE MARIA ARRIGHI, (ar-ree'gee,) a Corsican writer,
born in 1768. He published, in Italian, a "Historical
Essay on the Civil and Political Revolutions of the
j Kingdom of Naples," (3 vols., 1812.) Died in 1834.
Lyc-o-me'des, (Gr. Avico[u/6rj£ ; Fr. LYCOMEDE, le'-
ko'm.\d',] a king of Scyros and of the Dolopians, was
the father of Deidamia, who became the mother of
Pyirhus by Achilles. The poets relate that young
Achilles was committed to his care by Thetis to prevent
him from going to the Trojan war. Lycomedes is said
to have murdered Theseus, who sought refuge at his
court.
Lycomedes, [Gr. \vKop/h]f,] an Arcadian general,
was one of the founders of Megalopolis, (370 :;.c.) He
defeated the Spartans in 369, and took Pellene. He was
murdered about 366 H.c.
Ly'coii, [Ai'/cwv,] an Athenian orator, who acquired
notoriety as one of the accusers of Socrates. He was
banished with Anytus for this offence.
Lycon, a Greek philosopher, born at Laodicea, lived
about 300 H.C. He was the successor of Strain, and for
about forty years was the head of the Peripatetic school
j of Athens. He had a high reputation for eloquence.
See RITTER, " History of Philosophy."
Lyc'o-phroii, \\vKo6pui',} a Greek poet and gram
marian, born at Chalcis, in Etiboca. He lived at the
court of Ptolemy Phiiadelphus, in Alexandria, from 280
to 250 is.C. lie was one of the seven poets who were
styled the " Pleiades." The numerous tragedies which
he wrote have all been lost, but his lyric poem called
41 Cassandra," or "Alexandra," has come down to us. It
is very obscure and enigmatical, but is admired as a
prodigy of learning and valued as a treasury of facts
and traditions.
SeeOsiANDER, " Bemerksmgen zuLycophron." 1826; FABRICIUS,
" I'ib'iotlieca Graeca ;" VOLKKR, "De Lycophronis Cassandra,"
1820; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Ly-cor'tas [Av/coprof] of Megalopolis, an Achaian
general, was the father of Polybius the historian, and a
friend of Philopcemen. He was sent as ambassador to
Rome in 189 H.C. Died after 168 B.C.
Lycosthenes, le-kos'ta-nes, (CONRAD,) the Greek
name of CONRAD WOLFKHART, a scholar, born in Alsace
in 1518. He became minister of a church in Bale in
1545, and published a curious work on " Prodigies,"
(" Prodigiorum Chronicon,") a new edition of Gesner's
" Bibliotheca," and other works. Died in 1561.
Ly-cur'gus, [Gr. Awcorpj-of ; Fr. LYCURGUE, le'kiiRg',]
in classic mythology, a king of Thrace, who is said to have
been a persecutor of Bacchus, and to have been punished
with madness. According to another tradition, Jupiter
deprived him of sight.
Lycurgus, [Gr. Avuovpyot; : Fr. LYCURGUE, le'kiiKg';
Ger. LYKURGUS, le-kdoR'gdos,] a famous Spartan law
giver, who belongs to the period anterior to authentic
history. Plutarch begins his biography with the remark
that nothing certain can be said concerning him. Accord
ing to Aristotle, he lived more than 850 years H.C. He is
supposed to have been the son of King Eunomus, who was
succeeded by another son, Polydectes. At the death of
the latter, Lycurgus refused the crown, and defended the
right of Charilaus, a posthumous son of Polydectes. lie
visited many foreign countries, whose institutions he
studied, and, after a long absence, returned to Sparta,
where he made social and political changes of the most
radical kind. His constitution was considered by the
Greeks as the model of a perfect aristocracy, but con
tained a strong democratic element. The executive
power was divided between two persons called kings. A
remarkable feature in his system was the equal division
or community of property, which existed to an extent
unequalled in any other country in ancient or modern
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
'475
LTX4R
times. The interference of the state with domestic affairs
and relations was carried to a great excess. His laws were
based on the idea that men are made for the government,
rather than the government for men. He is said to have
prohibited the use of gold and silver money, and abol
ished all professions among the Spartans except that of
arms, assigning all mechanical and menial employment
to the slaves, (Helots,) who appear to have been treated
•with great severity. Having imposed on the people an
oath that they would not alter his laws during his ab
sence, he went into voluntary exile, from which he never
returned. Tradition informs us that he vanished myste
riously from the earth. The Spartans erected a temple
to him, and paid him divine honours. According to one
legend, he ordered his ashes to be cast into the sea after
his death, fearing that if his body were conveyed to
Sparta the Spartans might think themselves absolved
from their oath.
See PI.I/TARCH, ''Life of Lycurgus;" GROTE, "History of
Greece-." vol. ii. chap. vi. : PLATO, " De I,egibus ;" K. O. MUI.LKR,
" Die Dorier ;" ARISTOTLE, '• Politica ;" THIKLWALL, _'• History ot
Greec-:" WEICHKRT, " Questionum Lycnrgearuni Specimen." 1^44:
J. WKOEI.IS-. " Politische und moraiische Betrachtimcen iiber die
Si-artanische Gesetzgebung des Lycurgus," 1763; "Nouvelle Bio-
j.rapl<ie Generale."
Lycurgus, an eminent Athenian orator, born about
400 B.C., was the aon of Lycophron. He is said to have
studied philosophy under Plato, and eloquence under
1st it-rates. For about fifteen years he presided over the
public revenue with a high reputation for integrity and
financial ability. In the contest with Philip of Macedon
he supported the democratic party. He was one of the
orators whom Alexander required Athens to deliver up
to him in 335 B.C. This demand was firmly refused.
Fifteen of his orations were extant in the time of Plu
tarch, and only one (that against Leocrates) has come
clown to us. His style is noble rather than elegant.
Died in 323 B.C.
See NISSKN, " Disseitatio de I.ycurgi Oratoris Vita," 1833; G. A.
HLUME, "Narratio de Lycurgo Oratore," 1834: PLUTARCH, "Vitae
Decem Oratormii."
Lyde. See JOYXER, (WILLIAM.)
Lyd'gate, (jonx,) an old English poet, born about
1375. became a monk of the abbey of Bury Saint Ed
mund's. He was ordained a priest in 1397, after which
he travelled on the continent. On his return, he opned
at the abbey above named a school, in which he taught
languages, rhetoric, and versification. He acquired a
high reputation as a poet. Among his numerous works
are "The Story of Thebes," "The Fall of Princes," and
the "History, Siege, and Destruction of Troy." Died
about 1460.
See \V.\RTON-, "History of English Poetry."
Lyd'i-at, (THOMAS,) an English chronologer and
mathematician, was born at Okerton in 1572. He be
came rector of Okerton about 1612. During the civil
war he suffered persecution for his loyalty to Charles I.,
and he died very poor in 1646. His adversities are
commemorated in these verses of Dr. Johnson :
" If dreams yet flatter, once again attend:
Hear Lydiat's life and Galileo's end."
Among his works (in Latin) are a Censure of Scaliger's
Chronology, ( " Emendatio Temporum contra Scalige-
rum," 1609,) "The Period of the Sun and Moon," and
"The Measurement of the Solar Year."
See BAYLE, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" WOOD, "Athe-
nje Oxonienses;" NICERON, " Me'moires."
Lydius, lid'e-us, ( JAKOB, ) a Dutch scholar of the
seventeenth century, was a minister of Dort. He pub
lished " Belgium Gloriosum," and other works.
Ly'dus, a son of Atys and Callithea, was the sup
posed ancestor of the ancient Lydians.
Lydus, [Gr. Aw56o,| the surname of JOANNES LAU-
KENTIUS, ['luainvK AavpevTiof,] a Greek historical writer,
born at Philadelphia, in Lydia, about 490 A.n. He was
employed many years in various official functions in the
imperial palace at Constantinople. He resigned his
offices about 550, and afterwards wrote many works,
some of which are lost. An important treatise, " On the
Magistrates of the Roman Republic," is still extant.
See PHOTIUS, " BibHotheca ;" FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Gra=ca ;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Lye, IT, (En\VARD,) an English philologist and clergy
man, born at Totness in 1704. Soon after he left college
he obtained the living of Houghton Parva, and in 1750
became vicar of Yardley Hastings. He acquired dis
tinction by his researches into the Saxon language and
literature. In 1743 'le published the " Etymologicon
Anglicanum," which Francis Junius had left in manu
script. His chief work is his "Anglo-Saxon and Gothic
Dictionary," (1772.) Died in 1767.
Ly'ell, (CHARLES,) a Scottish botanist, born about
1767, resided at Kinnordy, Forfarshire. He was the
father of the geologist of the same name. Died in 1849.
Lyell, (Sir CHARLES,) an eminent British geologist,
a son of the preceding, was born at Kinnordy, in Forfar
shire, in November, 1797. He graduated at Oxford in
1821, and studied law, but soon relinquished the prac
tice of that profession in order to devote his time to
geology. About 1826 he began to contribute to the
" Transactions of the Geological Society" a series of
papers which display superior powers of observation
and comparison, and in 1830 published the first volume
of his important work, " Principles of Geology," (3
vols., 1830-33,) which was very favourably received. It
reached the fifth edition in 1837. He afterwards divided
i the work into two parts, one of which was published
I under the title of "Elements of Geology," (1838.) In a
i subsequent edition the name was changed to " Manual
I of Elementary Geology." It is generally admitted that
' his work contributed much to place geology on a philo-
: sophical basis as an inductive science. Having visited
! the United States in 1841, he lectured on geology at Bos
ton, and after his return published " Travels in North
America, with Geological Observations on the United
States, Canada, and Nova Scotia," (2 vols., 1845.) lie
also wrote many treatises on the geology of America,
which were printed in the "Transactions" of the Geo
logical Society, and in other journals. In 1845 ^e made
another excursion to the United States, the result of
which was a " Second Visit to the United States," (2
vols., 1849.) Both of these books of travel contain much
to interest the general reader. Mr. Lyell was knighted
in 1848. He was elected president of the Geological
Society in 1836, and again in 1850. He published in
1863 "The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of
Man, with Remarks on Theories of the Origin of Species
by Variation." He was formerly prominent among the
opponents of the "development" or Darwinian theory;
but within the last few years he has changed his views
in that respect.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale :" " Edinburgh Review" for
July, 1839, and July, 1863; "London Quarterly Review" for July,
1849, and October, 1851 ; " North British Review" for February,
1851 ; " North American Review" for October, 1845.
Ly'ford, (WILLIAM,) an English clergyman, born in
Berkshire about 1598. He became a Calvinistic minister
at Sherborne, Dorsetshire, and wrote several works, one
of which is called " Principles of Faith and of a Good
Conscience." Died in 1653.
Lykurgos, le-koor'gos, (LoGOTHETis,) a modern
Greek patriot, born in the island of Samos in 1772.
Soon after the breaking out of the war of independence
in Greece, (1821,) he was chosen commander-in-chief of
the army in Samos. He was also appointed civil and
military governor of the island, which office he held till
1826. He afterwards became a senator under the new
monarchy of Greece. Died in 1850.
See BROCKHAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon."
Lykurgus or Lykurgos. See LYCURGUS.
Lyly, (Jonx.) See LILLY," TjuiiN.)
Ly'man, (PHINEAS,) an American officer, born at
Durham, in Connecticut, in 1716. He served with dis
tinction against the French in Canada under General
Johnson, Abercrombie, and others, and attained the
rank of major-general. Died in 1775.
Lyna. See HLINA.
Lynacer. See LINACRE.
Lynar, von, fon lee'naR, (FRIEDRICH,) COUNT, a
German statesman and scholar, born in Lower Lusatia
in 1708. He held several high offices in Denmark
between 1740 and 1749. He wrote political treatises,
"Travels in Germany," etc. Died in 1781.
•e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
e Explanations, p. 23.)
LTNCEE
1476
LYONS
Lyncee. See LYNCEUS.
Ljfn'9eus, [ Gr. Avyneve ; Fr. LYNC£K, l&N'sa', ] a
king of Argos, was a son of /Egyptus, and married
Hypermnestra, one of the Uanaides. She saved his life
when her forty-nine sisters killed their husbands. (See
DANAIDES.)
Lynceus, one of the Argonauts, was a son of Apha-
reus, and celebrated for his keenness of sight. He was
killed by Pollux.
Lynch, (JoHN,) a learned Irish priest and writer,
born at Gahvay about 1600. Me took refuge in France
in 1652, and returned to Ireland after the restoration,
(1660.) He wrote a historical work in Latin, entitled
" C;imbrensis Eversus," (1662,) and other works. Died
in 1674.
Lynch, (THOMAS,) one of the signers of the Declara
tion of American Independence, was born in Prince
George's Parish, South Carolina, in 1749. He gradu
ated at Cambridge, England, and soon after his return
was appointed to the command of a company in the first
South Carolina regiment of provincial regulars. He
was elected to the Congress of 1776. While on a voyage
for his health, he was lost at sea in 1779.
Lynch, (WILLIAM F.,) an American naval officer,
born in Virginia about 1805. He set out in 1847 on
an expedition to explore the shores of the Dead Sea,
of which he published an interesting account, entitled
" Narrative of the United States Expedition to the River
Jordan and the Dead Sea," (1849.) Died in 1865.
Lyncker, von, fun link'er, (NiKpi.AUS CHRISTOPH,)
a German jurist, born at Marburg in 1643. He was a
mtmber of the aulic council at Vienna, and wrote many
legal works. Died in 1726.
Lynde, lind, (Sir HUMPHRY,) an English author, born
in Dorsetshire in 1579. He was a member of Parliament
for several years. He published "Ancient Characters
of the Visible Church," and " Via Tula, or the Safe
Way," which was often reprinted. Died in 1636.
Lynd'hurst, (JOHN SINGI.KTON COPI.KY,) LORD, an
eminent English statesman, born at Boston, Massachu
setts, in 1772, was the son of the distinguished painter
John S. Copley, who took him to England about 1775.
He was educated at Cambridge, and chose the profes
sion of law. Having gradually risen to be the leader
of the Midland circuit, he was elected to Parliament as
a Tory in 1818, and appointed solicitor-general in 1819,
when he was also knighted. Sir John became attorney-
general in 1824, and was returned to Parliament by the
University of Cambridge in 1826. After opposing the bill
for Catholic emancipation, he accepted the office of lord
chancellor in the Liberal ministry of Canning in April,
1827, and was raised to the peerage, as Baron Lyndhurst.
Having been retained in his office by the Duke of Wel
lington, he voted in concurrence with his colleagues for
Catholic emancipation in 1829. In November, 1830, the
Liberal party, under Earl Grev, came into power, and
Lord Lyndhurst was deprived of the great seal ; but
in 1831 he was appointed chief baron of the exchequer.
He made an able speech against the Reform bill in 1832.
In the court of exchequer he displayed eminent judicial
qualifications. He was again lord chancellor during the
brief ministry of Sir Robert Peel in 1834. In August,
1841, Sir Robert became premier, and Lord Lyndhurst
lord chancellor, of a new Conservative ministry, which
was deprived of power by the triumph of the Whigs in
1846. After that date, until near his death, he was one
of the most prominent orators of his party in the House
of Lords. He advocated the prosecution of the Russian
war (1854-56) in several eloquent speeches. Died in 1863.
See LORD CAMPBF.I.L, "Life of Lord Lyndhurst," i86g; Foss,
"The Judges of England." vol. ix. ; "Biographical Sketches from
the Note-Book of a Law Reporter," by W. H. BENNETT, London
1867.
Lyndsay. See LINDSAY.
Lynedoch, Hn'doK, (THOMAS GRAHAM,) BARON, a
British general, born in Perthshire in 1750. Having
obtained the rank of general, he served under Sir John
Moore in Portugal in 1808-9. He gained a victory at
Barossa in 1811, and commanded the left wing at the
battle of Vitoria, in 1813. He was raised to the peerage
in 1814. Died in 1843.
Ljfn'wood, Lynd'wood, or Lin' wood, (WIL
LIAM,) an English canonist, and Bishop of Saint David's.
Died in 1446.
Ly'pn, (GKORGK FRANCIS,) an English navigator,
born in Sussex in 1795, entered the navy in his youth.
In 1818-19 he was the companion of J. Ritchie in an
expedition into the interior of Africa, of which he pub
lished an account in 1821. Captain Lyon commanded
one of the ships in Parry's voyage to the Northern
Ocean, (1821-23,) and kept a journal, which was pub
lished. Both of the works above named are commended.
Died in 1832.
See "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1821.
Ly'on, (MARY,) a meritorious teacher, born at Buck-
land, Massachusetts, in 1797, was the founder of the
Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in that State. It was
opened in 1837, and soon acquired a very high reputa
tion and extensive patronage. " She presided for years
over an admirable school," says Allen. Died at South
Haclley in 1849.
See DR. HUMPHREY'S " Life of Mary Lyon," and "Recollections
of Mary Lyon," by Miss F. FISK, Boston, 1866; AI.I.EN'S "Amer
ican Biographical Dictionary."
Lyon, (MATTHEW,) born in Wicklow county, Ireland,
in 1746, emigrated to America, where he served in the
Revolutionary war and distinguished himself as a poli
tician of the Democratic party. Died in 1822.
Lyon, (NATHANIEL,) an able American general, born
at Ashforcl Windham county, Connecticut, in July, 1819,
graduated at West Point in 1841. He served in the
Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a captain in 1851.
Early in 1861 he was placed in command of the United
States Arsenal at Saint Louis, where he rendered im
portant services to the cause of the Union. He captured
a large band of secessionists at Camp Jackson, Missouri,
in May, and was appointed commander of the depart
ment of Missouri in June, 1861. He defeated the insur
gents at Booneville, June 17, after which he marched to
Springfield. He commanded an army of about 6000
men which engaged a superior force at Wilson's Creek,
where he was killed, August 10, 1861. His loss was
deeply lamented as a national disaster. He left by will
about thirty thousand dollars to the public treasury.
See TENNKV, " Military History of the Rebellion;" "Last Po-
liiical Writings, etc. of Nathaniel Lyon," New York, 1861.
Lyomiet, le'o'ni', (PIERRE,) a skilful anatomist, natu
ralist, and engraver, of PVench origin, was born at Maes-
tricht in 1707. He studied law, and was employed at
the Hague as secretary and translator for Latin and
French by the government. About 1760 he published
an "Anatomical Treatise on the Caterpillar which eats
the Willow," which, says Cuvier, "is among the master
pieces of human industry." The engravings are ex
quisitely neat and delicate. Died in 1789.
See 1'. H. MARKON, "Notice hiographique snr P. Lyonnet,"
'7951 Joi'iMJAN, in the "Biographic Medicale," vol. vi. ; " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Lyomiet, (ROHERT,) a French physician, born at
Puy-en-Velay. He became physician to Louis XIII.,
and published a treatise on the Plague, (1639.)
Ly'ons, (EDMUND,) LORD, a British admiral, born
near Christchurch, Hants, in 1790. He entered the
navy about iSoi. In 1811 he performed a daring exploit
when he captured by storm the Dutch fort Marrack in
the island of Java. He became a post-captain in 1814,
after which a long peace followed. In 1828 he com
manded a vessel at the blockade of Navarino. He was
knighted in 1835, and appointed minister-plenipotentiary
to the court of Athens, where he remained until 1849.
At the beginning of the war against Russia, (1853,) Sir
Edmund was appointed second in command in the Black
Sea. His ship, the Agamemnon, was engaged with the
enemy on the shore at the battle of Alma, in September,
1854. He planned a successful expedition against the
forts on the Sea of Azov, and became commander-in-
chief of the fleet in June, 1855. He was raised to the
peerage, as Baron Lyons of Christchurch, in 1856. Died
in 1858.
Lyons, (ISRAEL,) a Polish Jew, taught Hebrew in the
University of Cambridge, and published a Hebrew
Grammar. Died in 1770.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure: fir, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon;
LTONS
1477
LTSONS
Lyons, (ISRAEL,) an English botanist and mathema
tician, born at Cambridge in 1739, was the son of the
preceding. He published a "Treatise on Fluxions,"
and a work on the plants growing near Cambridge. At
the invitation of Sir Joseph Banks, he went to Oxford
about 1762, and lectured there on botany. The bureau
of longitude selected him to accompany Captain Phipps
in a voyage towards the North Pole in 1773. Died in
1775-
Lyons, (RICHARD BICKERTON PEMKI.I.,) LORD, a
son of Edmund, noticed above, was born in 1817, and
inherited the title of baron in 1858. He was ambassador
to the United States from 1859 to 1865. About the end
of 1865 he was sent in the same capacity to Constanti
nople.
Lyra, de, cleh le'ra"', (NICOLAS,) a French monk and
exegetical writer of high reputation, born at Lyre in
the thirteenth century. He was a good Hebrew and
Greek scholar. He wrote a commentary on the Bible,
" Postillae Perpetuae," which was esteemed and often
reprinted. The first edition appeared at Rome in 1472,
(5 vols.) Died in Paris in 1340.
Lys. See Lis.
Ly-san'der, [Gr. \vaavftpoq; Fr. LYSANDRK, le'-
/oNclit' ; Ger. LYSAXDROS, le-zln'dRos,] one of the ablest
generals and statesmen of ancient Sparta, makes his
first appearance in history near the close of the Pelopon-
nesian war. Fu 407 B.C. he was chosen commander of
the fleet, with which lie gained a victory over the Athe
nians at Notium in that year. He made himself very
popular with the Persian allies of Sparta, and he de
feated the Athenian fleet in a decisive battle at /Egos-
potami in 405. In 404 he captured Athens, and changed
its democracy into an oligarchy ruled by thirty archons,
(usually called the Thirty Tyrants.) He was then the
most powerful man in Greece, but soon found an able
rival in Agesilaus, who became King of Sparta in 398
H.C. and thwarted his ambitious designs. Lysander
meditated a revolution in Sparta by the abolition of
hereditary royalty. Before his design was matured, he
was appointed commander of an army sent against the
Thebans, and was killed in battle at Haliartus in 395
n.C. In Plutarch's "Lives" Lysander is brought into
comparison with the Roman Sulla.
See XKNOPHON, " Hellenica;" CORNET. it's NEPOS, "Vita Lysan-
dri ;" W. VISCHKR, " A'cibiades und I.ysandros," 11545: PLUTARCH,
"Life ot" Agesilaiis;" THIRLWALL, " History of Greece."
Lysandre. See LYSANDER.
Lysandros, the German of LYSANDER, which see.
Lyschander or Lyscander, lis-kin'der, (CLAUDIUS
CHRISTOPHORSEN,) a Danish chronicler, born in 1557.
He wrote a "Chronicle of Greenland," in Danish verse,
(1608,) and flattered the national vanity in a fabulous
work on the genealogy of the Danish kings, entitled
"Synopsis of Danish History," ("Synopsis Historian
Danicre," 1622.) Died in 1623.
Lyser, lee'zer, originally Leonhardt, la'on-haRt',
(CAROLINE,) a German authoress, born at Dresden in
1817. Among her works are fugitive poems, "Sketches
of Character for German Matrons and Maids," (1838,)
and "Albert Diirer," a drama, (1840.)
Lyser, (MICHAEL,) a German anatomist, born at
Leipsic about 1650. He published a good manual of
anatomy, entitled " Culter Anatomicus," (1653.) He
shares with Bartholin the honour of the discovery of
the lymphatic vessels.
Lyser or Lyserus, (POLYCARP.) See LEYSER.
Lysias, lish'e-as, [Auoiaf,] one of the ten Athenian
orators, was born at Athens in 458 B.C., and was the son
of Cephalus, in whose house Plato placed the scene of
his famous dialogue "On the Republic." From 443 until
411 he lived at Thurium, in Italy, from which he was
expelled by the victorious Spartans at the latter date.
He then returned to Athens, where his property was
confiscated by the Thirty Tyrants, who would have put
him to death if he had not escaped, 404 B.C. Soon after
that date he united with Thrasybulus in the expulsion
of the Thirty, and opened a school of rhetoric in Athens.
His orations, amounting to more than two hundred,
were mostly composed after his return to Athens, (411.)
Thirty-five of these have come down to us. Lysias
died at Athens about 378 B.C., leaving a high reputation
as a writer of orations, only one of which, it is said, was
spoken by him. His diction is eminently graceful, pure,
and perspicuous. " He resembles," says Quintilian,
" rather a pure fountain than a great river," (" puro fonti
quam inagno flumini propior.")
See PLUTARCH, "VitaeDecem Oratorum ;" FRANZ, " Dissertatio
de Lysia Oratore Attico," (in Greek,) iS-jS; SUIDAS, "Lysias:"
L.. HOKI.^CHKK, "Dissertatio de Lysiz Vita et Dictione," 1837;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Ly-sic'ra-tes, [Avoocpdr^c,] an Athenian, who lived
about 335 H.C., and whose name has been preserved by
means of a beautiful choragic monument built for him at
Athens. It has been commonly called "the Lantern of
Demosthenes," from a tradition that he used it as a
place of study.
Ly-sim'a--ehus, [Gr. Aiw'aa^oo; Fr. LYSIMAQUE,
le'ze'mf k',]' King of Thrace, was born in Macedonia
about 355 B.C. In his youth he was so distinguished
for courage and strength that Alexander the Great
chose him as one of his body-guards. In the division of
provinces at the death of Alexander, (323,) Lysimachus
obtained Thrace and some adjacent districts. In 315
he joined Seleucus, Cassander, and Ptolemy in a coali
tion against Antigonus. Lysimachus marched into Asia
Minor, formed a junction with Seleucus, and fought a
battle at Ipsus in 301 B.C., where Antigonus was defeated
and killed. By this victory he acquired the northwest
ern part of Asia Minor. Demetrius of Macedon having
been defeated and dethroned by the allied armies of
Lysimachus, Pynhus, and Seleucus, the first annexed
Macedon to his dominions in 286. He was soon after
involved in a war with Seleucus, and was killed in battle
at Corupedion in 281 B.C.
See ARRIAN, "Anabasis;" JUSTIN, " History," books xiii., xv.,
and xviii. : DIODORUS Sicui us, books xviii., xix., and xx.
Lysimaque. See LYSIMACHUS.
Lysippe. See LYSIPPUS.
Ly-sip'pus, a Greek poet of the old comedy, born in
Arcadia, flourished about 434 B.C.
Lysippus, [Gr. Ai'ai-rroc; Fr. LYSIPPE, le'zep',] a
Greek statuary of great celebrity, was born at Sicyon,
and flourished in the reign of Alexander the Great, about
330 B.C. He formed his style by the imitation of nature,
without much respect to the conventionalities of the
schools. His statues, according to Pliny, amounted to
six hundred and ten, all or nearly all of which were of
bronze. None of his works are now extant. Among
his master-pieces, described by Pliny, Pausanias, and
others, were colossal statues of Zeus and Hercules, a
statue of Time or Opportunity, (K(wpoo,) and several
images of Alexander the Great, who is said to have
issued an edict that no one should make his statue but
Lysippus.
See PLINY, "Natural History," book xxxiv. ; PAUSANIAS, i., ii.,
vi., and ix. ; SILI.IG, " Catalogus ;" NAGLKR, " Allgemeines Kiinst-
ler-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Ly'sis, [AVOTC,] an eminent Greek philosopher, born
at Tarentum, lived about 400 B.C. He is said to have
received lessons from Pythagoras. Having been driven
from Italy by persecution, he settled at Thebes, and be
came the teacher of Epaminondas.
See RITTER, " History of Philosophy;" DIOGENES LAERTIUS.
Lysistrate. See LYSISTRATUS.
Ly-sis'tra-tus,[Fr. LYSISTRATE, le'ze'stRft/,] a Greek
statuary of Sicyon, was a brother of Lysippus, and flour
ished about 425 B.C. He is said to have been the first
who used gypsum moulds in the formation of wax
figures.
Ly'spns, (DANIEL,) an English physician, practised
at Bath, 'where he died in 1800. He had published several
medical treatises.
Lysons, (Rev. DANIEL,) an English topographical
writer, born at Rodmarton in 1760, was a nephew of the
preceding. He published a valuable work entitled " The
Environs of London,'' (1792-96,) and became rector of
Rodmarton. In partnership with his brother Samuel,
he published another excellent topographical work,
"Great Britain," ("Magna Britannia," 1806-22.) Died
in 1834.
See the " Monthly Review" for August, 1807, and January, 1812.
€ as/e; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
LTSONS
1478
MACADAM
Lysons, (SAMUEL,) an English antiquary, brother
of the preceding, was born at Rodmarton in 1763. He
was one of the directors of the Society of Antiquaries.
About 1804 he was chosen keeper of the records of
the Tower of London. His principal work is "Great
Britain," ("Magna Britannia," 1806-22,) in which he
was aided by his brother Daniel. Died in 1819.
Lyte, (HENRY,) an English botanist, born in Somer
setshire in 1529. He published, in 1578, an English
version of Dodoen's " History of Plants," with many
engravings. Died in 1607.
Lytle, IT'tel, (Wn.UAM HAINES,) an American gene
ral, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1826. He served as
colonel in Western Virginia in 1861, and was wounded
at Perryville, Kentucky, in October, 1862. He was killed
at the battle of Chickamauga, September 20, 1863.
Lyt' tie-ton or Lyt'tel-toii, (CHARLES,) an English
antiquary, born at llagley in 1714, was a brother of Lord
George, 'noticed below. He became Bishop of Carlisle
in 1762. Died in 1768.
Lyttleton or Lyttelton, (GEORGE,) LORD, an Eng
lish author and statesman, born in 1709, was the eldest
son of Sir Thomas Lyttleton, of Hagley, in Worcester
shire, and a descendant of the great jurist Littleton.
About 1730 he entered Parliament, where he became a
successful speaker and acted with the opponents of
Walpole. He was afterwards secretary to Frederick,
Prince of Wales, and in 1744 was appointed a lord of
the treasury. In 1747)16 published "Observations on
the Conversion and Apostleship of Saint Paul," a work
of superior merit. lie was chancellor of the exchequer
for several months in 1756, and resigned that office (for
which he was not well qualified) when Pitt became prime
minister. In 1759116 was created Baron Lyttleton. He
was author of a popular work entitled "Dialogues
of the Dead," (1760,) of a valuable " History of Henry
II.," and of several poems, "which," says Dr. Johnson,
"have nothing to be despised, and little to be admired."
Died in 1773.
See JOHNSON, "Lives of the Poets;" PHII.I.IMORE, " Lite of Lord
Lyttleton," 1845; "London Quarterly Review" tor June, 1X46;
"Monthly Review" for April and May, 1772, and December, 1774.
Lyttleton, (THOMAS.) See LITTLETON.
Lyttleton, (THOMAS,) LORD, a son of Lord George,
noticed above, was born about 1744. The day ot his
death is said to have been announced to him three days
before it occurred, by means of a dream or vision. Died
in 1779.
Lytton, LORD. See BULWER, (EDWARD.)
Lyvedeii, liv'den, (ROBERT VERNON SMITH,) LORD,
I born in London in 1800, was a nephew of the famous
Rev. Sydney Smith. He represented Northampton as
a Liberal member of Parliament from 1831 to 1859. and
was secretary at war for a few months in 1852.
M.
Maaii, infix, (JEAN,) a French historian and eccle
siastic, born at Mans, became canon of Tours in 1648.
Maaiien, van, vfn ma'nen, (CORNELLS FELIX,) a
Dutch statesman, born at the Hague in 1769. After the
accession of King William he was made president of
the Assembly of Notables, and minister of justice, (1815.)
His unpopular measures contributed to bring about the
Belgian revolution, and in 1830 he resigned his office.
Died in 1843.
Maas, nias, (ARNOULT VAN AART,) a Dutch painter
and engraver, born at Gouda about 1620, was a pupil of
D. Teniers. Died after 1650.
See PII.KINGTON, "Dictionary of Painters."
Maas or Maes, mils, (DiRK or DIEDRIK,) a Dutch
painter, born at Haarlem in 1656, was a pupil of Berg-
hem and Hnchtenburgh. He excelled in battle-pieces
and hunting-scenes. Died in 1715.
See PII.KINGTON, " Dictionary of Painters;" DESCAMPS, "Vies
des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Maas or Maes, mas, (Goi)KRiED,) a skilful Flemish
painter of history, born at Antwerp in 1660, was a pupil
of his father. He was chosen a director of the Academy
in 1682, and acquired a fair reputation as an artist. He
died in 1722, or, according to some authorities, about
1710.
Maas or Maes, (NICOLAAS,) an eminent Dutch painter
of genre and portraits, born at Dort in 1632, was a pupil
of Rembrandt. In his youth he imitated the manner
of that master with success. He afterwards adopted a
different style. About 1678 he removed to Amsterdam,
where he applied himself chiefly to portraits and became
a fashionable artist. Died in 1693.
See DESCAMPS, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Maass, mSss, (JOHANN GEBHARD EHRENREICH,) a
German philosopher and savant, born near Halberstadt
in 1766. He became professor of philosophy at Halle
in 1798, and published, besides other works, " Essays on
the Imagination," (1792,) the " Passions," (1805-07,) and
the "Sentiments," (1811.) Died in 1823.
Mabellini, ma-bel-lee'nee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA
CARLO MARIA,) an Italian Hellenist, known in France
by the name of AliBfi MAIU.IN or MAKI.INI, was born
in Piedmont in 1774. He was professor of Greek in
Paris, where he died in 1834.
Mabil or Mabille, ma-beel/ or mi'bel', (PiERRE
Louis,) a learned writer, of Italian extraction, was born
in Paris in 1752. He made a good translation of Livy
into Italian, and published " Mabiliania," " The Influence
of Poetry on the Customs of Nations," (1804,) and other
works. Died in 1836.
See TIPAI.PO. " Biografia degli Italian! illustri;" CATULLO,
i "Cenni biografici del Cavaliere P. L. Mabil," 1836.
Mabillon, mS'be'yix', (JEAN,) a very learned French
j author, born in the diocese of Rheims in 1632, became a
Benedictine monk. In 1685 he visited Italy, by order of
the king, to collect manuscripts and historical documents,
and on his return published his " Museum Italicum,"
(1687-89.) His "Treatise on Monastic Studies" (1691)
was received with favour. Among his most important
works is a treatise on Diplomatics, (1681.) Died in 1707.
See CHAVIN DE MAI.AN, " Hisloire de Mabillon," 184.1; J. LA-
POUDERIE, "Notice sur Dom Mabillon;" THIERKY RUINART,
"Abreg» de la Vie de Dom J. Mabillon," 1709; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Mably, de, deh mS'ble', (GABRIEL BONNOT,) Ai;is6,
a French historical writer, born at Grenoble in 1709,
was a brother of Etienne Bonnot de Condillac. He
became a resident of Paris in his youth, and produced
in 1740 his "Parallel between the Romans and French
in Respect to Government," which was very successful.
In 1743 he negotiated a secret treaty with Prussia against
Austria. Among his numerous works are " Observations
on the Romans," (1751,) and "Observations on the His
tory of France," (1765.) Died in 1785.
See L. BAKTHKI.EMY, "Vie privee de Mably," 1791 ; BRIZARD,
" FJoge de Mably." 1787; P. C. LEVFSQUK, " Kloge historique de
1'Abbe de Mably," 1787; QUI^RARD, "La France Litteraire."
Maboul, mS'bool', (JACQUES,) a French pulpit orator,
Bishop of Alet, born in Paris about 1650; died in 1723.
Mabuse, mS'biiz', or Maubeuge, mo'buzh', (JAN,)
a famous Flemish painter, whose family name was GES-
SART or GASSAERT, was born at Maubeuge in 1499. He
is said to have studied in Italy. He worked in Micldel-
burg and in London, where he painted portraits of the
royal family in the reign of Henry VII I., and historical
pictures, which are still admired. Among his master
pieces was a "Descent from the Cross," which was de
stroyed by lightning at Middelburg, and "The Wise
Men's Offering," now owned by the Earl of Carlisle.
His habits were very intemperate and prodigal. Died
about 1562.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; PIERART,
" Recherches historiques sur Maubeuge," 1853.
Macaber, ma'ka-ber, a German poet, was the author
of a work called "The Dance of Death."
Mac-ad'am, (JoiiN LOUDON,) a Scottish surveyor,
noted for his improvement in roads, was born in Ayr-
] shire in 1756. He made the first macadamized roads,
a,e, i, 5, u, y,
, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon;
MACA1RE
'479
MACAULAY
near Bristol, about 1815, and explained his system in his
" Kssay on the Scientific Repair and Preservation of
Public' Roads," (1819.) In 1827 he was made general
surveyor of the metropolitan roads, and afterwards re
ceived a grant of ^10,000 for his services. Died in 1836.
See " Annual Register," 1836 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;"
CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Sup
plement.)
Macaire. See MACARIUS.
Mac-a-nal'ly, (D.\vin RICF.,) an American Methodist
divine, born in Granger county, Tennessee, in 1810. He
hns published "Sketches of the Life and Character of
Mrs. Ramsay," and other biographical works.
Mac-Ar'dell, (J,\MK.s,) nn excellent English engraver
in mezzotinto, born about 1710. He engraved portraits
of many eminent contemporaries, and subjects after Rem
brandt, Van Dyck, Murillo, and other masters. Among
his works are " Moses on the Nile," after Van Dyck, and
an "Assumption," after Murillo. Died in 1765. Of
MacArdell Basan observes that he " was one of the best
engravers in mezzotinto that England ever produced."
Pee STRUTT, article "Ardeil" in his "Dictionary of Engravers."
Macarel, mS'ki're'l', (Louis ANTOINE,) a French
jurist, born at Orleans in 1790. He published, besides
other works, " Elements of Administrative Jurispru
dence," (1818.) Died in 1851.
Ma-ca'ri-us, [Gr. Maaupiof ; Fr. MACAIRK, mfkiu',]
an eminent ascetic or hermit of Egypt, born about 300
A.D., has been canonized as a saint by the Catholic
Church. Fifty extant Greek homilies are ascribed to
him. Died about 390 A.I).
Another SAINT MACARIUS, called Junior, lived at
Alexandria in the fourth century, and was noted for
his ascetic piety. He is supposed to be the author of a
work called the "Rule of Saint Macarius."
See TII.I.EMONT, " Memoires :" CEII.LIKR. " Hi'toire des Anteurs
sacres;" SCHATTEMAN. " Leven van den H. Macarius," 1623; GEN-
NADIUS, "De Viris illustribus."
Mac-ar'tkur, (DUNCAN,) an American soldier and
statesman, born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1772.
He served in the war of 1812, and rose to the rank of
brigadier-general. He was elected Governor of Ohio
in 1830. Died in 1840.
Mac-Ar'thur, (JOHN,) a general, born in Scotland
about 1826, emigrated to Illinois about 1850. He com
manded a brigade of the Union army at Shiloh, April,
1862, and at Corinth, in October of the same year.
MacArthur, (JOHN,) a distinguished architect, born
;>t Bladenoch, in Wigtonshire, Scotland, May 13, 1823,
tame to Philadelphia when only ten years of age. He
learned the business of a carpenter, and studied drawing
:>nd architecture in his evenings. In 1848 he was
."warded the first premium for his plan of a new House
( f Refuge, and was given the entire charge of the erection
t f the building. Among the prominent buildings erected
l.y him in Philadelphia, we may name the Continental
liotel and Jayne's splendid mansion at the corner of
Nineteenth and Chestnut streets. He was architect for
the war department during the war, and after its close
for the navy department, for which he built the Naval
Hospital at Philadelphia, and other similar works.
Mac-art'iiey, (GF.ORGK,) LORD, a statesman, of'Scot-
tish descent, born near Belfast, Ireland, in 1737. He
was elected to Parliament in 1768, and appointed chief
secretary for Ireland in 1769. In 1775 he was chosen
Governor of the island of Granada, which the French
captured from him in 1779. From December, 1780, to
1786, he was Governor of Madras. He was appointed
Governor-General of India, as successor to Warren
Hastings, but declined on account of ill health. His
most remarkable public service was his embassy to
China, where he arrived in August, 1793, being the first
English ambassador to that court. He refused to pros
trate himself before the emperor, according to Chinese
etiquette. Though he failed to obtain a commercial
treaty, he maintained his reputation as an able negotiator.
He was raised to the peerage, as Baron Macartney, in
1/96. He died in 1806, after which appeared a "Jour
nal of the Embassy to China in 1792-94."
See an "Account of the Public Life, elc. of Lord Macartney."
by JOHN BARROW. 1807; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;"
" Monthly Review" for August and September, 1808.
Macaulay, ma-kaw'le, (CATHARINE,) an English
authoress, whose maiden name was SAWBRIDGE, was
born in Kent in 1733. She was married to Dr. George
Macaulay, of London, about 1760, and published a
" History of England from the Accession of James I. to
the Elevation of the House of Hanover," (1763,) which
is favourable to republicanism. In 1785 she visited
Washington at Mount Vernon. She wrote several po
litical treatises. " Her history," says T. B. Macaulay,
"is more distinguished by zeal than either by candour
or skill." Died in 1791.
See WILKES, " Life and Letters ;" " Monthly Review" for March
1765, May, 1769, and August, 1771.
Macaulay, (THOMAS BAKINGTON,) BARON, an emi
nent English scholar, critic, and historian, was born at
Rothley Temple, in Leicestershire, October 25, 1800.
His father, Zachary Macaulay, was a native of Scotland,
of Highland descent ; his mother, Selina Mills, the
daughter of a bookseller of Bristol, was of a Quaker
family. His home education was religious and somewhat
austere. Mrs. Hannah More, who was intimate with
his parents, has given in her letters many interesting
particulars of the future historian. From his earliest
childhood he was passionately fond of poetry, — so much
so that he could hardly be prevailed on to read prose.
Later, however, we find him deeply interested in history,
and warmly discussing with a friend of his own age the
respective merits of Marlborough and other eminent
commanders. (See " Letters of Hannah More to Zach
ary Macaulay, containing Notices of Lord Macaulay's
Youth," 1860.)
When about twelve years of age, he was placed under
the instruction of Mr. Preston, with whom he laid the
foundations of his acquaintance with the classics. At
eighteen he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where
he greatly distinguished himself, having twice won the
chancellor's medal for English verse, — the first time for
a poem on " Pompeii," in 1819, the second for one on
"Evening," in 1820. He graduated as B.A. in 1822, and
soon after was chosen a Fellow of his college. He
studied law at Lincoln's Inn, and was admitted to the
bar in 1826. "The Battle of Ivry," one of the most
universally admired of his shorter poems, was published
in "Knight's Quarterly Magazine" in 1824. In 1825 he
contributed to the "Edinburgh Review" an article on
Milton, which at once placed him in the foremost rank
of the most distinguished essayists of the age. This
was the commencement of that splendid and fascinating
\ series of review-articles, the publication of which maybe
' said to form an era in the history of literature, when for
the first time the critical or historic essay threatened to
! bear away the palm of popularity from the most brilliant
works of fiction.
Macaulay entered Parliament in 1830, as a representa-
! live of the borough of Calne. While at Cambridge he
had distinguished himself as an orator, and he now more
than justified the high expectations which his friends
had formed of his parliamentary career. His speeches
on the Reform bill (in 1830-32) established his fame as
an able and eloquent speaker. It is said, however, that,
owing to his rapid and somewhat monotonous delivery,
his speeches were more effective and convincing when
they appeared in print than when spoken in the House
of Commons. One of his most remarkable efforts was
his great speech (1833) on the bill for the renewal of the
charter of the East India Company. He was soon after
made a member of the supreme council of India, and
! placed at the head of the law commission to prepare a
new code for the government of that country. Although
it was found impossible to carry into immediate effect
many of the reforms which he sought to introduce, his
efforts in this cause have not been without important
results. Since the government of India was transferred
to the imperial crown, his code has been made the basis
of the legal system of the country. His sojourn in India
(from 1835 to 1838) had made him acquainted with its
history and with the character of its various peoples;
and to the knowledge thus acquired in a field hitherto
untrodden by him, we are indebted for two of his most
effective and most brilliant essays, — those on Clive and
Warren Hastings.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MACAULAY
1480
MACAULAT
Having returned to England in 1838, he again entered
Parliament, as a representative of the city of Edinburgh,
and soon after received the appointment of secretaty
at war in the Melbourne ministry. On the fall ot the
Whigs in 1841, he went into the opposition. When they
returned to power in 1846, he was made paymaster-gene
ral. He had been regularly re-elected from Edinburgh
until 1847, when, owing to an unusual combination of
different party elements, he was defeated. The mor
tification of this repulse stung him very deeply. He
resolved to devote the remainder of his life to studious
retirement. He seems to have felt, indeed, that his
proper vocation was the pursuit of literature, apart from
the excitements of the political arena. One of the im
portant results of his withdrawal from public life was his
being able to apply himself without interruption to the
composition of his great work, the "History of Eng
land," the first two volumes of which made their appear
ance near the close of 1848. Never before in the annals
of literature was any work of history welcomed by the
public with such enthusiastic admiration. His work was
read by tens of thousands with as much eagerness and
delight as a fresh novel by Scott or Bulwer would have
been. In 1849 Macaulay was chosen lord rector of the
University of Glasgow. Not long after, in a speech which
he made in that city, he took a formal leave of political
life, explaining at the same time the principles by which
he had sought to guide his course while he was con
nected with the government. Among other things, he
said on that occasion, " I cannot accuse myself of having
ever been untrue either to the cause of civil or religious
liberty, or to the cause of property and law. I reflect
with pleasure that I bore a part in some of those reforms
which corrected great abuses and removed just discon
tents. I reflect with equal pleasure that I never stooped
to the part of a demagogue, and never feared to confront
what seemed to me to be an unreasonable clamour." In
1852 the people of Edinburgh, as some atonement for
the injustice which they felt had been done him five years
before, again returned Macaulay to Parliament, without
his having so much as offered himself as a candidate or
having made the smallest effort to procure his re-elec
tion. Although he took his seat in the House of Com
mons, his declining health did not permit him to take
any active part in the debates. During the whole time
that he was in the House he spoke but twice : on both
occasions he was listened to with the most respectful
and eager attention. An imperfect and extremely in
accurate collection of his speeches having been printed
without his sanction, a correct edition was by his au
thority issued in 1854. In 1856, on account of ill health,
he resigned his seat in Parliament. In 1855 the third
and fourth volumes of his History made their appearance.
They were welcomed as warmly and read as eagerly as
the two former had been. It was his original purpose
to bring his History from the accession of James II.
down to a time within the memory of persons still living.
But in the last volume he had only reached the peace
of Ryswick, in 1697. After his decease another frag
mentary volume was published, including an account
of the death of William 1 1 1.
In 1857 Macaulay was raised to the peerage, with the
title of Baron Macaulay of Rothley. Although his
health continued to decline, he still applied himself to
his literary labours until very near the time of his death.
His disease was an affection of the heart, of which he
died suddenly on the 28th of December, 1859.
Besides the various productions of his pen already
referred to, he contributed a series of valuable biogra
phies to the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Not content
with his acknowledged mastery in the different depart
ments of prose, he became again in 1842 a candidate for
poetic laurels, and gave to the world his " Lays of Ancient
Rome," of which it is scarcely too much to say that,
for a combination of picturesqueness, simplicity, and
power, there is nothing of the kind superior to them in
the English language.
It is, however, as a writer on history that the name
of Macaulay is destined to take its most distinguished
place and descend to the remotest posterity. Already,
in his essays, he had proved his mastery in this depart
ment of composition. A perfect history, according to
his ideal,* would not be content with merely recording
wars and revolutions, the lives of kings and heroes, but
would include literature and the arts, manners and
usages, the progress of civilization, — in short, the whole
life of the nation ; not of the aristocracy only, but of the
people in every rank and condition. Referring to Mac-
aulay's historic essays, Dean Milman well observes, "The
variety of topics is almost as nothing to the variety of
information on every topic." Of the style he remarks,
" It was eminently his own. ... Its characteristics were
vigour, animation, copiousness, clearness, — above all,
sound English, now a rare excellence. . . . His English
was pure both in idiom and in words ; pure to fastidious
ness ; not that he discarded or did not make free use
of the plainest and most homely terms, . . . but every
word must be plain English, — nothing that approached
real vulgarity, nothing that had not the stamp of popu
lar use or the authority of sound English writers."
That Macaulay possessed in a pre-eminent degree
many of the highest attributes of a great historian, none
will deny. In that power of imagination by which he
was enabled to clothe the dead past with all the activity
and fulness of life, he was scarcely, if at all, inferior to the
most gifted writers of fiction. In the extent and variety
of his knowledge, in the quickness and strength of his
intellect, by which he was able to grasp with facility the
most difficult political and moral problems, in his thor
ough acquaintance with all the springs of human action,
in the vividness of his descriptions, in the animation
and sustained interest of his nairative, in the clearness,
force, and brilliancy of his style, in his command, in
short, over every species of eloquence, whether declama
tory, argumentative, or poetical, he has, even among the
greatest masters of historical composition, few, if any,
superiors. He is, however, it must be confessed with
regret, deficient in one important or rather essential
qualification, — impartiality. His feelings were so intense,
his attachments and aversions so strong, that, where
these chanced to enter into the subject to be weighed,
the balance was too seldom held with an equal hand.
Macaulay's great work has been compared to a vast
painting, in which the different figures correspond to
prominent historic characters. It may be said that as
in his style he too often sacrifices simplicity to his love
of antithesis, so in his history he is too apt to exagger
ate, for the sake of effect, the lights and shadows of his
portraits.
In relation to his conversational powers, Dean Milman
observes, "In the quiet intercourse with the single
friend, no great talker was more free, easy, and genial
than Macaulay. There was the most equable interchange
of thought ; he listened with as much courtesy as he
spoke with gentle and pleasant persuasiveness. In a
larger circle, such as he delighted to meet and assemble
around him to the close of his life, a few chosen in
timates, some accomplished ladies, foreigners of the
highest distinction who were eager to make his acquaint
ance, his manners were frank and open. In conversation
in such a circle, a commanding voice, high animal spirits,
unrivalled quickness of apprehension, a flow of language
as rapid as inexhaustible, gave him, perhaps, a larger
share, but a share which few were not delighted to yield
up to him. His thoughts were like lightning, and clothed
themselves at once in words. . . . And the stores which
his memory had at instantaneous command ! . . . With
these came anecdotes, touches of character, drollery, fun,
excellent stories excellently told."
"Lord Macaulay," observes the same writer, "was
never married ; his strong domestic affections were
chiefly centred in his sister — happily married to his
friend Sir Charles Trevelyan — and her family. Her
children were to him as his own, and cherished with
almost parental tenderness. As a friend he was singu
larly steadfast. He was impatient of anything dispar
aging of one for whom he entertained a sincere esteem.
In the war of political life he made, we believe, no lasting
enemy ; he secured the unswerving attachment of his po
litical friends, to whom he had been unswervingly true."
See his essay on " History," in the '' Edinburgh Review," 1828.
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mgt; n6t; good; moon;
MACAULAY
1481
All Macaulay's works have been reprinted in Germany.
His " History" has been translated into French, the first
two volumes by M. Jules de Peyronnet, the second and
third by M. Amedee Pichot.
See a " Memoir of Lord Macaulay," written for the Royal Society
by DEAN Mi I.MAN ; the excellent article in A LI. i RONE'S "Dictionary
of Authors;" '' Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale ;" "Biographical
Sketches," by HARRIKT MARTINEAU. 1860; WHIFFLE" s "Essays
and Reviews," 2 vols., 1852; "Edinburgh Review" for Ju'y, 1849.
October. 1^54, January, 1857, and October, 1861 ; " London Quarterly
Review" for March, 1843, April, 1849, and April, 1868 ; " Blackwood's
Maga/ine" for Anril, 1849, August and September. 1856, Ju'y and
August, iSjq; "North British Review" for May, 1856, and Novem
ber' iS6o ; " Kraser's Magazine" for February, 1856 ; J. PAGKT, " New
Examen ;" " J.ihrbuch 7.11111 Conversations- Lexikon" for 1860.
Macaulay, (ZACHARY,) F.R.S., an English philan
thropist, of Scottish descent, born about 1768, was the
father of Lord Macaulay, the historian. He was a
zealous coadjutor of Wi'lberforce in the abolition of
the slave-trade, in which cause he laboured many years.
Died in 1838. His father, John Macaulay, minister at
Inverary, is mentioned in Dr. Johnson's "Tour to the
Hebrides."
Mac-Au'ley, (CATHERINE E.,) an Irish lady, eminent
for benevolence and piety, born in the county of Dublin
in 1787. She was educated a Catholic. Having lost
her parents in early life, she was adopted by Mr. Cal-
lahan, a wealthy gentleman, who at his death, in 1822,
left her his entire fortune. She founded in 1827, in
Maggot Street, Dublin, an institution designed as a
temporary home for poor women out of employment,
and a school for children. It was afterwards called the
Institute of Our Blessed Lady of Mercy, having for its
object the care of the sick. She became in 1831 superior
of the Order of the Sisters of Mercy. This order has
been introduced into Great Britain, the United States,
Australia, and South America. Died in 1841.
See " Life of Catherine MacAuley," by a member of the Order
of Mercy, New York, 1866.
Mac-beth' or Macbeda, mak-ba'iha, a king of
Scotland, who, according to the common tradition, was
a cousin of King Duncan, and originally Thane of Gla-
mis. About 1040 Macbeth assassinated Duncan and
usurped the throne. Malcolm, the lawful heir, fled to
England, and, having returned with an army, defeated
Macbeth, who was killed in 1056 or 1057.
The story of Macbeth's usurpation would seem to
possess scarcely any positive historic basis. " However
he may have gained his power," says Burton, " he exer
cised it with good repute, according to the reports nearest
to his time. It is among the most curious of the an
tagonisms that sometimes separate the popular opinion
of people of mark from anything positively known about
them, that this man, in a manner sacred to splendid in
famy, is the first whose name appears in the ecclesiastical
records both as a king of Scotland and a benefactor of
the Church. . . . He had a wider dominion than any
previous ruler, having command over all the country
now known as Scotland, except the isles and a portion
of the western highlands." (" History of Scotland," vol.
i. chap, x.) The legend of Macbeth forms the subject
of one of Shakspeare's most celebrated tragedies.
See HOLINSHED, "Chronicles of Englande, Scotlande," etc.;
BUCHANAN, "Historia Scotica."
Mac-Bride', (DAVin,) an eminent surgeon, born in
the county of Antrim, Ireland, in 1726, settled in Dublin
in 1749. Besides other works, he published an "Intro
duction to the Theory and Practice of Medicine," (1772,)
which is much esteemed. Died in 1778.
Maccabaeus, ( JUDAS.) See JUDAS.
Mac'ca-bees, |Gr. 'M.aKKaBa'ioi; Fr. MACCAHEES, ma"'-
kf'ba',1 a 'celebrated Jewish family, which attained the
royal dignity in Judea. The surname MACCAH/EUS, from
the Hebrew Makkab, a "hammer," was first given to
Judas for his victories over the King of Syria, about 165
li.c. His family and descendants were also called Mac
cabees or Asmonaeans. Judas, who was the son of
Mattathias, had three brothers, John, Simon, and Jona
than, noticed in this work.
See Apocryphal Book of Maccabees; JOSEPHUS, " Antiquitates
Judaicae."
Mac-Call', (GEORGE A.,) an American general, born
in Philadelphia in 1802, graduated at West Point in 1822.
He took command of a division or corps called the Penn
sylvania Reserves, about May, 1861, and commanded the
same at Mechanicsville and Gaines's Mill, June 26-27,
1862. He was taken prisoner June 30 of that year.
Died in February, 1868.
Mac-Caul', (Rev. ALEXANDER,) an English Hebraist
and writer on theology, was born about 1800. He be
came prebendary of Saint Paul's, London, in 1845. Died
in 1863.
Macchi, mak'kee, (MAURO,) an Italian political
writer, born at Milan in 1815. He was a moderate Lib
eral in politics.
Macchiavelli or Machiavelli, de, da ma-ke-a-vei'-
lee, often Anglicized as Machiavel, mak'e-a-ve'l, |Lat.
MACHIA VEL'LUS ; Fr. MACHIAVEL, mfshe'i'veV,] (Xic-
COI.6 DI BERNARDO,) a famous Italian statesman,
diplomatist, and writer, whose character abounds in
enigmas and paradoxes, and from whose name has been
derived a svnonym of perfidious policy, ( Machiiwellism.)
He was born at Florence on the ^d of May, 1469. In
1499 he was appointed secretary of the Ten who managed
the diplomatic affairs of the republic. He retained this
office about fourteen years, during which he was em
ployed in many foreign missions to France, etc., and
acquitted himself with great dexterity. In 1510, for the
third time, he was sent to France, and negotiated an
alliance with Louis XII. He zealously exerted his talents
and influence to maintain the independence of Florence,
but without success. In 1512 the Medicis obtained sove
reign power in Florence by the aid of the pope and the
emperor, and Macchiavelli was banished from the city,
but forbidden to leave the country. He passed several
ensuing years in retirement, and during this period com
posed a treatise on the "Art of War," and his important
work entitled "The Prince," (" Del Principe," or " De
Principatibus,") which has entailed a large portion of
conventional infamy on his name. It was written for the
private use of Lorenzo de' Medici, and not designed f-~>r
publication. "Few books," says Hallam, "have been
more misrepresented. His crime, in the eyes of the
world, was to have cast away the veil of hypocrisy."
("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") About
1520 he was recalled into public service by Leo X., and
was employed on several missions, the last of which was
to the army of the league against Charles V., (1526.) He
died at Florence in June, 1527. His last work was an
excellent, luminous, and picturesque history of Florence,
(" Storie Florentine," 1525,) the style of which is greatly
admired. He was also author of several comedies of
some merit, and of valuable "Discourses on Livy."
" The character of Macchiavelli," says Macaulay, " was
hateful to the new masters of Italy. His works were
misrepresented by the learned, misconstrued by the
ignorant, censured by the Church, abused with all the
rancour of simulated virtue by the minions of a base
despotism and the priests of a baser superstition. . . .
The name of a man whose genius had illuminated all
the dark places of policy, and to whose patriotic wisdom
an oppressed people had owed their last chance of
emancipation, passed into a proverb of infamy. . . . The
terms in which he is commonly described would seem
to import that he was the tempter, the evil principle, the
discoverer of ambition and revenge, the original inventor
of perjury," etc. " His History of Florence," says Hal-
lam, "is enough to immortalize the name of Machiavel.
Seldom has a more giant stride been made in any de
partment of literature than by this judicious, clear, and
elegant history." (" Introduction to the Literature of
Europe.")
See GAI.ANTI, " Elopr'o di Niccolq Machiavel'i," 1779: BAL-
DEI.I.I, " Elogio di Niccol6 Machiavelli," 1794; PERIES, "Histoire
de N. Machiavel," 1823 ; ARTAUU DE MONTOK, " Machiavel, son
Genie et ses Erreurs," 1837 : MACAULAY'S "Essays," article " Ma
chiavelli ;" T. MUNDT, "Macchiavelli uncl der Gang der Euro-
paisrheu Po'itik," 1852; GINCUIENE, "Histoire de la Litterature
Italienne;" GERVINUS, "Historische Schriften :" F. W. EBEI.ING,
" N. di Bernardo de Macrhiavelli's ro'itisches System." etc., 1850;
"Nouvelle Biographie Ge'uerale ;'' "Edinburgh Review" for Septem
ber, 1816, p. 209, (by SIR JAMES MACKINTOSH;) "Edinburgh Re
view" for March, 1827 ; " North American Review" for July, 1835.
Macchietti, mak-ke-et'tee, (GlROLAMO,) an Italian
painter, surnamed DEL CROClFiSSAjo,(kRo-che-fes-sa'yo,)
(because, as we are told, his master painted crucifixes,)
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^=See Explanations, p. 23. )
MJCCLELLAN
1482
MACCLINTOCK
was born at Florence about 1 540. He worked at Florence
and Rome, and painted history and portraits with great
success. Among his master-pieces was a picture of the
"Adoration of the Magi."
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters."
Mac-Clel'laii, (GEORGE,) M.D., an eminent American
surgeon, born at Woodstock, Windham county, Con
necticut, in 1796. He graduated at Yale College in
1815, and studied medicine in the University of Penn
sylvania, where he took the degree of M.D. in 1819.
He founded about 1826 the Jefferson Medical College
in Philadelphia, in which he became professor of surgery
and a very popular lecturer. He was one of the first in
the United States to introduce the system of clinical
instruction into the medical schools. He was particu
larly distinguished as a bold and successful surgical
operator. Died in 1847.
See S. D. GROSS, "American Medical Biography," 1861 ; SAMUEL
G. MORTON, "Biographical Notice of Dr. George McClellan," "849;
VV. DARRACH, " Memoir of Dr. George McClellan," 1847.
MacClellaii, (GKOKCK BRINTON, ) a distinguished
American general, the son of the preceding, was born in
Philadelphia, December 3, 1826. He entered the Military
Academy at West Point in 1842, and graduated there in
the summer of 1846, standing second in general rank in
a large class. He served in the Mexican war as lieutenant
of engineers in 1847, and was breveted captain for his
services at the capture of Mexico. In the spring of 1855
the government sent to the seat of war in the Crimea a
military commission to examine the military systems of
the European powers, etc. Captain McClellan was one
of the three officers selected for this mission. He re
turned home in April, 1856, and gave the results of his
observations in a valuable report to the war department.
He resigned his commission in the army in 1857, and
was appointed chief engineer of the Illinois Central
Railroad.
In May, 1861, he took command of the Union forces
in Western Virginia, which defeated the enemy at Rich
Mountain and Cheat River in July. A few days after
the battle of Bull Run (July 21, 1861) he was, at the re
commendation of General Scott, appointed commander
of the army at Washington. He reorganized that army
and brought it into a high state of discipline. When
General Scott retired from active service, November i,
1861, McClellan was appointed to the command of the
armies of the United States. About the end of January,
1862, the President ordered that a general movement
should be made by all the armies on the 22cl of February.
Having been relieved from the command of all the de
partments except that of the Potomac, McClellan began
to move towards Richmond about the loth of March.
He conveyed his army by water down the Potomac and
Chesapeake Hay to the mouth of James River. Soon
after the opening of this campaign he began to complain
that he was not properly supported by the President.
He commenced active operations about the 5th of April,
by the siege of Yorktown, which the insurgents evacuated
on the 3d or 4th of May. On the next day he fought an
indecisive battle at Williamsburg, from which he slowly
followed the retiring enemy to the Chickaliominy.
According to his biographer and admirer, Mr. Hillard,
"the mind of McClellan was constantly burdened with
a conviction that his troops were not numerous enough."
He had about 95,000 men at Yorktown. The Union
army was attacked at Fair Oaks on the 3 1st of May by
General J. E. Johnston, who was repulsed with heavy
loss. According to Hillard, McClellan was confined to
bed by illness during this battle. His army remained
nearly inactive in the swamps of the Chickahominy for
about three weeks, during which he lost great numbers
by sickness. Active hostilities were renewed by the
enemy on the 26th of June, and then began the Seven
Days' battles, at Mechanicsville, Savage's Station,
White Oak Swamp, Gaines's Mill, and Malvern Hill,
(July i, 1862,) the result of which was that the Union
army was compelled to retreat and abandon the con
quest of Richmond. lie wrote to Secretary Stan ton,
June 28, "If I save this army now, I tell you plainly
that I owe no thanks to you or to any other persons in
Washington. You have done your best to sacrifice this
army." In July, 1862, he wrote the President a letter
on the policy which ought, in his view, to be adopted
in the conduct of the war. "Military power," he
wrote, "should not be allowed to interfere with the rela
tions of servitude. ... A declaration of radical views,
especially upon slavery, will rapidly disintegrate our
present armies."
In August his army left the peninsula, and was
moved by water from the James River to Aqui'a Creek.
About the 2cl of September he was appointed general-in-
chicf of the army which had been commanded by Pope
and had been driven back to Washington. General
Lee, having crossed the Potomac into Maryland, was
pursued by McClellan, who gained a victory at Antictam
Creek on the i6th and 171)1 of September, 1862. The
Union army lost in this battle 11,426 in killed and
wounded, and was unprepared or unable to pursue Lee,
who retired to Virginia on the iSth of September. On
the 6th of October McClellan was ordered to cross the
Potomac and give battle to the enemy or drive him
south ; but he delayed his advance for about three weeks,
and was removed from command by an order dated the
5th of November and received on the 7th. In August,
1864, he was nominated as Democratic candidate for the
Presidency by the Convention at Chicago. He received
at the election only twenty-one electoral votes, cast by
the States of Kentucky, Delaware, and New Jersey.
He resigned his commission as major-general of the
regular army, November 8, 1864, and made a long visit
to Europe, from which he returned in 1868. (See the
article on LINCOLN, (AuK.Mi AM,) in this work.)
Mac-Cler'naiid, (Jonx A.,) an American general,
born in Breckinridge county, Kentucky, in 1812. lie
removed to Illinois, and served as a member of Congress
from that State from 1843 to 1861. He commanded a
brigade at Fort Donelson, February, 1862, and a division
at Shiloh, April 6 and 7 of that year. He succeeded
General Sherman as commander of an army in Missis
sippi in January, 1863, and directed a corps at the siege
of Vicksburg in May. lie was removed from this com
mand before the end of that siege.
Mac-Clint'ock, (Sir FRANCIS LEOPOLD,) a successful
Arctic explorer, born at Dundalk, Ireland, in 1819. He-
entered the navy about 1831, and obtained the rank of
I lieutenant in 1845. I'1 J^4^ and 1849 he served under
Sir James Ross in his expedition in search of Sir John
Franklin. He distinguished himself by his enterprise,
skill, and energy in several subsequent expeditions for
the same purpose, and performed remarkable feats in
sledge-travelling. In 1857 Captain McClintock received
command of the " Fox" screw-steamer, fitted out by Lady
Franklin for a final effort to obtain tidings of the lost
navigator. In the winter of 1858-59 he and his officers
performed extensive sledge-journeys, and in May found
at Point Victory, on King William's Island, the record
of Franklin's death and the remains of the last sur
vivors of his party. (See FRANKLIN, Sir JOHN.) Soon
after his return, September, 1859, he was knighted, and
received various honours and rewards. lie published a
" Narrative of the Discovery of the Fate of Sir John
Franklin," (1860.)
Mac-Clint'pck, (JOHN,) D.D., an eminent American
scholar and Methodist divine, born in Philadelphia in
1814, graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in
1835. He was professor of Greek and Latin in Dickinson
College at Carlisle, became editor of the "Methodist
Quarterly Review" in 1848, and conducted the same with
great ability for eight years. In 1857 he was appointed
pastor of Saint Paul's Church, in the city of New York,
where he acquired distinction as a pulpit orator. He
accepted in 1860 the charge of the American Chapel
in Paris. During the civil war he rendered important
services to the cause of the Union by his pen and voice,
and his home in Paris became a rallying centre for pa
triotic Americans. Having returned home about 1865,
he resumed his literary labours, and was selected in 1867
to organize the Drew Theological Seminary. His most
important work, in which he was assisted by Dr. W.
Strong, is a " Theological and Biblical Cyclopaedia," still
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon;
MAC-CLURE
H83
MACDIARMID
unfinished,) of which three volumes have been published,
(1867-69.) Died in March, 1870.
Mac-Clure' or Maclure, (Sir ROBERT LF. MESU-
RIKK,) a navigator, was born at Wexford, Ireland, in
1807. After serving many years in the navy, he accom
panied Sir James Ross in search of Sir John Franklin
in 1848. On his return, in 1849, he was raised to the
rank of captain. In 1850, as captain of the Investigator,
he was directed to renew the enterprise by advancing
eastward from Behring's Strait. Fie entered a strait
which he named the Prince of Wales Strait, and, after
his ship was frozen fast, he pursued the exploration by
sledges until he reached Melville or Barrow's Strait, in
the winter of 1850-51. This is called the first discovery
of the Northwest Passage. In the next season he dis
covered a second passage, on the north side of Baring
Island. In 1853 he was extricated from a perilous situ
ation by Captain Kellet, who arrived at Melville Island
from the east ; but he was forced to abandon the Inves
tigator. On his return home he received a reward of
^5000 for his discoveries.
See OSROKN, " Narration of the Discovery of the North-West
Passage," iS56.
Mac-clurg', (JAMES,) an American physician, born
at Hampton, Virginia, in 1747, was the author of a
treatise " On the Human Bile," which was translated
into several languages. Died in 1825.
Mac-con'nel, (JOHN L.,) an American lawyer and
writer, born in Illinois in 1826. He has published " Tal-
bot and Vernon," and other sketches of Western life.
Mac-Cook', (ALEXANDER McDowEi.i.,) an American
general, born in Coltimbiana county, Ohio, in 1831, grad
uated at West Point in 1852. He served as colonel at
Bull Run, July 21, 1861, became a brigadier-general of
volunteers in September of that year, and fought at
Shiloh in April, 1862. Having obtained the rank of
major-general in the ensuing July, he commanded a
corps at the battle of Perryville, October 8, 1862. He
led the right "wing at the battle of Stone River, which
ended January 2, 1863, and commanded a corps at Chicka-
mauga, September 19 and 20 of that year.
MacCook, (ROBERT L., ) an American general, a
brother of the preceding, was born in Jefferson county,
Ohio, in 1837. He was a lawyer before the war. He
served as colonel at Mill Springs, Kentucky, January,
1862. He was murdered by guerillas near Salem, Ala
bama, in August of the same year.
Mac-cord', (DAVID J.,) an American jurist, born in
Saint Matthew's parish, South Carolina, in 1797, con
tributed a number of essays to the " Southern Review"
and "I)e Bow's Review." Died in 1855. His wife,
Louisa S. (Cheves,) published "Caius Gracchus," a
tragedy, and several other works.
Mac-Cor'mic, (CHARLES,) a historical writer, born in
Ireland in 1/44, wrote "The Reign of George III. to
1783,'' and other works. Died in 1807.
Mac-Cosh', (JAMES,) D.D., an eminent Scottish writer
on theology and metaphysics, was born in Ayrshire about
1810. He became a minister of the Free Church of
Scotland, and about 1852 professor of logic at Belfast,
Ireland. Among his works are " The Method of the
Divine Government, Physical and Moral," (1850,) "The
Intuitions of the Mind Inductively Investigated," (1860,)
and " Examination of Mr. J. S. Mill's Philosophy," (1866,)
and in conjunction with Dr. George Dickie, of Belfast,
"Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation," (1869.)
Dr. MacCosh is a very clear as well as a profound
thinker, and has thrown valuable light on some of the
abstrusest questions of the philosophy of the human
mind. At the earnest invitation of the trustees and
other friends of Princeton College, New Jersey, he came
to America in 1868 and assumed the office of president
in that institution, to the prosperity of which his name
and influence appear to have given a new impulse.
Maccovius. See MAKOWSKF.
Mac-C6wn', (JOHN PORTER,) an officer, born in Ten
nessee, served in the Mexican war in 1847, and became
a brigadier-general in the Confederate army in 1861.
MacCrea, mak-kta', (JANE,) a daughter of a Scottish
clergyman in Xew Jersey, was murdered in 1777 by the In
dian allies of Burgoyne, near Fort Edward, on the Hudson.
MacCrie, mak-kree', (THOMAS,) an eloquent Scottish
Presbyterian writer, born at Dunse, in Berwickshire, in
1772. He belonged to " the most straitest sect" of his
religion, styled " Anti-Burghers," a part of the Secession
Church. About 1795 he was ordained minister of a con
gregation in Edinburgh. In 1811 or 1812 he published
a " Life ot John Knox," which obtained great popularity.
His" Life of Andrew Melville" (1819) displays, with warm
sectarian partiality, much learning and ability. He after
wards produced, besides other works, an interesting
" History of the Progress and Suppression of the Re
formation in Italy," (1827.) Died in 1835. In reference
to his " Life of Knox," Lord Jeffrey says, " We do not
hesitate to pronounce it by far the best piece of history
which has appeared since the commencement of our
critical career. It is extremely accurate, learned, and
concise, and at the same .time very full of spirit and
animation."
See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1812; CHAMBERS, "Biogra
phical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.)
MacCullagh, mak-kul'laH, (JAMES,) a distinguished
mathematician and natural philosopher, born in the
county of Tyrone, Ireland, in 1809, was educated in
TrinitV College, Dublin. He was chosen a Fellow of
that college in 1832, and professor of natural philosophy
in 1843. He gained distinction by his researches in the
wave theory of light, and other subjects, on which he
wrote several treatises. In 1846 he received the Copley
medal of the Royal Society for his contributions to the
science of light. He died, by suicide, in 1847.
MacCulloch, mak-kul'loh, (BENJAMIN,) an American
general, born in Rutherford county, Tennessee, in 1814.
He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and took arms
against the Union in 1861. He commanded at the battle
of Wilson's Creek, Missouri, August 10, 1861, and was
killed at the battle of Pea Ridge, March, 1862.
See TENNEY, " Military History of the Rebellion," 1865.
MacCulloch, mak-kul'loh or mak-kul'loK, (HoRA-
TIO,) a skilful Scottish landscape-painter, born in Glas
gow in 1806, worked in Edinburgh. Died in 1867.
MacCulloch, mak-kul'loh, (JOHN,) F.R.S., a Brit
ish geologist and naturalist, born in Guernsey in 1773.
He studied medicine, which he practised for a short
time. About 1812 he began to make a scientific survey
and exploration of Scotland in the service of the govern
ment, and while thus employed he examined the geology
and mineralogy of that region. He became well versed
in many natural sciences and in several arts. In 1821
he published a "Geological Classification of Rocks,"
etc., and in 1824 "The Highlands and Western Isles of
Scotland, in a Series of Letters to Sir W. Scott." For
many years, ending in 1832, he was employed in the
geological and mineralogical survey of Scotland. He
afterwards published the results of this survey in an
excellent mineralogical map. Died in 1835.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for May, 1820, and January, 1831.
MacCulloch, (JOHN RAMSAY,) an eminent Scottish
writer on political economy and commerce, was born in
Wigtonshire about 1789. He edited the "Scotsman"
in Edinburgh for a few years, and contributed many
articles to the "Edinburgh Review." About 1828 he
removed to London and became professor of political
economy in the new university. He wrote many works,
which are highly esteemed. Among these are "The
Principles of Political Economy," (1825,) a valuable
"Dictionary of Commerce and' Commercial Naviga
tion," (1832,) often reprinted, and a "Dictionary, Geo
graphical, Statistical, and Historical," etc. About 1838
he became comptroller of the stationery office, London.
Died in 1864.
Macdiarmid, mak-der'mid, ? (JOHN,) a Scottish
author, born in Edinburgh about 1790. In 1817 he
became editor of the "Dumfries Courier," which, under
his direction, was an excellent and successful journal
for many years. He published a "Life of Cowper,"
" Sketches from Nature," " The Scrap-Book," and a few
other works. Died in 1852.
Macdiarmid, (JOHN,) a Scottish author, born in
Perthshire in 1779. He settled in London, where he
edited "The Saint James's Chronicle." He was author
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
MACDONALD
1484
MAC EDO
of an " Inquiry into the System of Military Defence,"
and "Lives of British Statesmen." Died in 1808.
See DISKAKU, ''Calamities of Authors;" CHAMBERS, " Bio-
graphic.tl Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Mac-doii'ald, (ANDREW,) a Scottish poet, born at
Keith' about 1755. He was an Episcopal clergyman in
Glasgow for a lew years. He wrote " Velina," a poem,
and a tragedy called " Vimonda," which was performed
with success in Edinburgh. Having retired from the
clerical profession, he removed about 1786 to London,
where he was reduced to extreme poverty. Died in 1788.
SeeCuAMHEKS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
DISRAELI, " Calamities of Authors."
Macdonald, [Fr. pi on. maVdo'nfl',] (firiENNE
JACQUES JOSEPH,) Duke of Tarentum, an able French I
marshal, was born of a Scottish family at Sancerre in j
1765. For his conduct at Jemmapes (1792) he was made
a colonel. In 1793, as general of brigade, he served under
Pichegru in Flanders. He svas made a general of division
in 1795 or 1796, and joined the army of Italy in 1797. In
February, 1799, he succeeded Championnet in the chief
command at Rome, where his operations were success
ful. I le commanded at the great battle of Trebbia, (June,
1799,) where the superior numbers of the allied forces
under Suwarow were victorious. In November, 1800, he
led an army to Italy by the celebrated passage of the
S phi gen, which, says Alison, "was perhaps the most
wonderful achievement of modern war." (" History of
Europe.") He was sent as ambassador to Denmark in
1802, and returned in 1804. After this he passed about
five years without employment, having, it is supposed,
offended Bonaparte by his public expressions in favour
of Moreati. Having received command of a division in
1809, he displayed great skill and courage at Wagram,
(|uly, 1809,) where Bonaparte gave him a marshal's
baton on the field of battle. Soon after this event he
was created Duke of Tarentum. In the Russian cam
paign of 1812, Marshal Macdonald commanded the tenth
corps. He contributed to the victories of Lutzen and
Bautzen, (1813,) and served the emperor with fidelity to
the last in the campaign of 1814. When Napoleon was
about to abdicate, he expressed his grateful sense of
Macdonald's services, and presented to him a Turkish
sabre. Having declared his adhesion to Louis XVIII.,
he refused to serve his former master during the Hun
dred Days, and in 1816 was appointed grand chancellor
of the legion of honour, and commander of a military
division. He died in 1840, leaving his title of duke to
an only son.
•See THIEKS, "Histoire du Consulat et de 1'Empire;" JOMINI,
"Precis des Operations militaires ;" THIBAUDKAU, "Histoire de
Napoleon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Macdonald, ( FLORA, ) a Scottish heroine, born in
one of the Hebrides in 1720. After the battle of Cul-
loden, (1746,) the Pretender Charles Edward Stuart be
came a fugitive, and was hunted from place to place by
the king's troops until he was rescued by the courageous
exertions of Flora, who conducted him (disguised as her
female servant) to the Isle of Skye. She was imprisoned
a few months for this offence. About 1750 she was mar
ried to Macdonald of Kingsburgh. They emigrated to
the United States of North America about 1774, and
afterwards returned to Skye, where she died in 1790.
See the " Autobiography of Flora Macdonald," Edinburgh, 1869.
Macdonald, (JAMES,) M.D., an American physician,
born at While Plains, New York, in 1803. He pub
lished an " Essay on the Construction and Management of
Insane Hospitals, "and other similarworks. Died in 1849.
Macdonald, (JoHN,) F.R.S., a Scottish officer and
writer, was the son of Flora, above noticed, and was born
at Kingsburgh in 1759. He passed many years in the
military service of the East India Company, and became
a captain in the corps of engineers. About 1800 he re
turned to England. He published a valuable "Treatise
on Telegraphic Communications," (1808,) and wrote
many articles on magnetism and other sciences, some of
which were inserted in the " Gentleman's Magazine."
He translated from the French several works on military
tactics. Died in 1831.
See "Gentleman's Magazine," 1831; CHAMBERS, " Biographical
Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.)
Macdonald, (LAURENCE,) a Scottish sculptor, born
about 1815, passed the greater part of his mature life at
Rome. His subjects are mostly taken from the Greek
and Roman mythology, and are treated in the pure
classical style.
Macdonough, mak-don'oh, (THOMAS,) an American
commodore, born in New Castle county, Delaware, in
1784. As commander ot the American fleet on Lake
Champlain, he gained a splendid and decisive victory
over the British in September, 1814, in an action of little
more than two hours. For this service he was promoted
to the rank of captain. Died in 1825.
See "Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement.)
Macdougal, mak-doo'gal, (ALEXANDER,) an Amer
ican officer, born about 1750, distinguished himself in the
war of the Revolution, rose to be major-general, and
commnnded at the battle of White Plains, (1776.) He
was elected to the Continental Congress in 1781. Died
in 1786.
Mac-DSw'ell, (!RWIN,) an American general, born in
Franklin county, Ohio, about 1818, graduated at West
Point in 1838. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-
47,) and became a captain in 1847. Jn May> 1861, he
was appointed a brigadier-general of the regular army.
He commanded the Union forces at the battle of Bull
Run, July 21, 1861. In April, 1862, he took command of
the department of the Rappahannock. He commanded
a corps of the army of General Pope, and took part in
several battles near Manassas in August, 1862. He
was appointed commander of the department of the
Pacific in 1862 or 1863, and commander of the fourth
military district (Mississippi and Arkansas) in Decem
ber, 1867. He was removed by President Johnson in
June, 1868.
MacDowell, (JAMES,) an American statesman, born
in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in 1796. He was Gov
ernor of Virginia from 1842 to 1845, and a member of
Congress from 1845 to 1851. Died in 1851.
Mac-B6w'ell, (PATRICK,) a skilful sculptor, born at
Belfast, in Ireland, in 1799. After he had served sev
eral years as an apprentice to a coachmaker of London,
lie became a self-taught sculptor. His marble statue
of a "Girl Reading" (1838) was greatly admired, and
procured for him liberal patronage. In 1844 he pro
duced a marble group called "Love Triumphant." He
was elected a Royal Academician in 1846. Among his
master-pieces are "Psyche," "Eve," "Early Sorrow,"
and "The Day-Dream. "
Mac-Duf'fie, (GEOUGE,) an American lawyer and
politician, born in Columbia county, Georgia, about
1788. He was a member of Congress from 1821 to
1835, supported Jackson for the Presidency in 1828, and
was elected Governor of South Carolina in 1834. He
gained distinction as a public speaker, and took an
active part in the debates of Congress, in which he
advocated State rights and the policy of J. C. Calhoun.
In 1843 'ie was elected a Senator of the United States
by the legislature of South Carolina. He resigned his
seat in 1846, on account of ill health. Died in 1851.
Mace, mS'.sa', (FRANCOIS,) a French ecclesiastic and
biblical writer, born in Paris about 1640. He wrote
"La Science de 1'Ecriture sainte," (1708,) and other
works. Died in 1721.
Mace, mas, (THOMAS,) an English musician, born in
1613, published a book called "Music's Monument,"
(1676.) Died in 1709.
See BURNEV, "History of Music."
Macedo, de, da ma-sa'do, (ANTONIO,) a Portuguese
Jesuit, born at Coimbra in 1612. He wrote a " History
of the Portuguese Popes and Cardinals," (1663.) Died
in 1693.
Macedo, de, (FRANCISCO,) a Portuguese monk and
prolific writer, born at Coimbra in 1596, was a brother
of the preceding. Died at Padua in 1681.
See HAYI.H, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
" Memoires :" N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" "Nou
velle Biographic Geiie"rale."
Macedo, de, (Jo/,6 AGOSTINHO,) a distinguished
Portuguese poet and critic, born at Ev'ora about 1770.
He adopted the profession of a priest, and became a
popular preacher in Lisbon. He edited the official
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a., e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
MACE DON
1485
Gazette of Lisbon, and wrote several political tracts.
About 1811 he produced an epic poem called "Gama."
A revised edition appeared with the title "The Orient,"
("O Oriente.") He was also author of poems entitled
"Meditation" (" Meditacao") and "Newton." Died in
1831.
Ma9/e-doii, [Ma/ca5an>,] said to have been a son of
Jupiter and Thyia, and a brother of Magnes. From his
name that of Macedonia is supposed to be derived.
Macedon'icus, a surname of Q. C^CILIUS METEL-
LUS. See METELLUS.
Mag-e-do'm-us, [Gr. MfMC«56wofJ the founder of a
heretical sect called Macedonians. He was a leader of
the Semi-Arians, and was chosen Patriarch of Constan
tinople by the Arians about 341 A.D. ; but the Catholics
refused to recognize him. In 360 he was deposed. lie
afterwards denied the divinity or personality of the Holy
Spirit, and found followers.who composed a separate sect.
See TII.I.KMONT, " Me'moires ;" SAINT AUGUSTINE, " De Hjeresi-
bus;" SAINT ATHANASIUS, " Historia Arianoruin."
Macer. Sec CAI.VUS, (C. LTCINIUS MACER.)
Ma'cer, (/EMILIUS,) a Roman poet of Verona, was
contemporary with Virgil. He wrote a poem or poems
on Birds, Snakes, and Medicinal Plants. His works are
not extant. Died in 16 B.C.
Macer, (/EMILIUS,) a Roman jurist, who lived in the
time of Alexander Severus. He wrote several legal
works, of which extracts are given in the "Digest."
Among the titles of these are "De Appellationibus" and
" De Re Militari."
Macer, (C. LICINIUS,) a Roman historian, born about
110 B.C., was the father of C. Licinius Calvus, and a
leader of the democratic party. He became praetor
about the year 70. His history of Rome, entitled "An-
nales," or "Rerum Romanorum Libri," is referred to by
Livy with respect. Having been impeached by Cicero,
and convicted under the law " De Repetundis," in 66
i:.c., he committed suicide.
See LIVY, "History of Rome," books iv., vii., ix., and x.
Macfarlane, mak-far'len, (CHARLES,) a British au
thor, who published, besides other works, "Our Indian
Umpire," (2 vols., 1844,) "The French Revolution," (4
vols., 1845,) anc'- '" conjunction with George L. Craik,
"The Pictorial History of England," (8 vols., 1849,)
which is highly esteemed. Died in 1858.
Macfarlane, (ROHERT,) a Scottish writer, bom in
1734. He published a " History of the Reign of George
III.," edited the "Morning Chronicle," London, and is
said to have assisted Macpherson in the preparation of
Ossian. Died in 1804.
See CHAMBERS, '' Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Mac-far'ren, (GEORC.E ALEXANDER,) an eminent
English musical composer, born in London in 1813. He
became a professor in the Royal Academy of Music, and
produced many successful operas, songs, duets, etc.
Among his principal works are "The Devil's Opera,"
(1838,)' "Don Quixote," (1846,) "King Charles II.,"
(1849,) "Robin Hood," (1860,) and "Jessie Lea," (1863.)
Mac-fei 'rill, (JoiiN KERRY,) an American Method
ist divine, born in Rutherford county, Tennessee, in
1807, became editor of the "Southwestern Christian
Advocate," Nashville, in 1840.
Mac-gil'li-vray,( ALEXANDER,) born in Coosa county,
Alabama, about 1740, became chief of the Creek Indians
on the breaking out of the Revolutionary war, in which
he sided with the British. Died in 1793.
Mac-gil'li-vray, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish naturalist,
born in the Isle of Harris in 1796. He became con
servator of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
in Edinburgh, and subsequently professor of civil and
natural history in Marischal College, Aberdeen. He
was distinguished as a zoologist, and also cultivated
botany and geology. His principal work is a "History
of British Birds," '(3 vols.,) two volumes of which were
published after his death. Among his other works is a
"History of British Quadrupeds." Died in 1852.
See "Brief Biographies," by SAMUEL SMILES; "North British
Review" for May, 1853.
Mac-greg'or, (JoiiN,) a British statistician and
economist, born at Stornoway, county of Ross, in 1797.
He published a work entitled " British America," (1832,)
and became assistant secretary of the board of trade in
1840, and a member of Parliament about 1847. Among
his works is "The Progress of America from the Dis
covery of Columbus to the Year 1846," (2 vols., 1847.)
Died In 1857.
Machado. See BARDOSA-MACHADO.
Ma-ehan'I-das, a tyrant of Sparta, was killed by
Philopoemen in 207 li.C.
Ma-eha'on, [Ma#«uv,] a celebrated Greek physician,
a son of /Esculapius. He is said to have served as
surgeon at the siege of Troy, and, according to some
authors, was one of the Greek heroes inclosed in the
wooden horse.
See VIKGII.'S ",/Eneid," book ii., 1. 263.
Machault, de, deh mt'sho', ( JACQUES,) a French
Jesuit, born in Paris in 1600. He wrote "The History
of Japan," (" De Rebus Japonicis," 1646,) and a work
on the Indian and Persian Missions. Died in 1680.
Machatilt, de, QEAN,) a Jesuit and writer, born in
Paris in 1561, was an uncle of the preceding. Died in
1629.
Machault d'Arnouville, mi'sho' dtn'iioo'vel',
(JEAN BAPTISTE,) an able French financier and statesman,
born in 1701. He was appointed contrMeur-gtntrol of
the finances in 1745, and received in addition the office
of keeper of the seals in 1750. In order to divide the
imposts more equally, he encroached on the pecuniary
privileges of the clergy, and thus made powerful enemies.
In 1754 he was removed from the control of the finances,
but was placed at the head of the marine. He was dis
missed finally from office in 1757. Died in 1794.
See MARTIN, " Histoire de France;" BRESSON, "Histoire finan-
ciere cle la France ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Machet, mi'sh.Y, (GERARD,) a French cardinal, born
at Blois about 1380. He was confessor to Charles VII.,
and presided over the examination of Joan of Arc in
March, 1429, (while the king was yet doubtful whether
to trust her predictions,) when he declared that the
advent of a liberatress was announced by prophecy, and
that he had read it in books. Died in 1448.
See H. GREUOIRE, " Histoire des Confesseurs," 1824.
MacCheyne, mak-shaV, (ROBERT MURRAY,) a Scot
tish divine, born at Edinburgh in 1813. He studied
theology under Dr. Chalmers in the university of his
native city, and in 1836 was ordained minister of Saint
Peter's, Dundee. His earnest and faithful labours were
instrumental in converting great numbers during the
memorable revival of 1839. He died in 1843, leaving a
number of hymns of great beauty.
See " Memoir and Remains of Robert M. McClieyne," by REV.
A. A. BONAR, 1844; REV. ROBERT STKEL, "Burning and Shining
Lights," 1864; CIIAMIIERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent
Scotsmen," (Supplement.)
Machiavel. See MACCHIAVELLT.
Machin, mak'in, ? (JoHN,) F.R.S., a British mathema
tician, was made professor of astronomy in Gresham Col
lege in 1713. He wrote "On the Laws of the Moon's
Motions," a " Solution of Kepler's Problem," and a treat
ise "On the Curve of Quickest Descent." Died in 1751.
See WARD, "Livesof the Professors of Gresham College," 1740.
Ma'-ehon, [Ma^ow,] a Greek comic poet, born at
Corinth or Sicyon, lived at Alexandria between 300 and
260 B.C. According to Athenasus, he was one of the
best poets of the "Pleiad." His works are lost, except
small fragments.
Machy, de, deh mt'she', (PIERRE ANTOINK,) a French
painter and engraver, born in Paris in 1722 ; died in 1807.
Macias, ma-///ee'as, one of the most admired Span
ish poets of his age, lived in the fifteenth century, and
was surnamed EL E.NAMOKADO, ("the Enamored,") in
reference to an unhappy passion which inspired his best
poetical effusions. He had many imitators among
Spanish poets. lie was assassinated by a man whose
motive was jealousy.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature."
Maciejowski, mat-se-a-yov'skee, (WENCESLAUS
ALEXANDER,) a Polish historian and jurist, born in 1792.
He published an excellent work entitled " Historya Pra-
woclawstw Slowianskich," (4 vols., 1835,) which treats of
the political and civil institutions of the Slavonic nation.
Macllvaine, mak-il-van', (CHARLES PETTIT,) D.D.,
LL.D., an eminent American divine and writer, born at
€ as/£; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MACINTOSH
1486
MACKENZIE
Burlington, New Jersey, in 1798. He was appointed
professor of ethics and chaplain in the Military Academy
at West Point in 1825. In 1832 he was consecrated
Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Ohio.
His lectures on "The Evidences of Christianity," deliv
ered in New York in 1831, and published in 1832, have
had an extraordinary success, and have been i epublished
in London and Edinburgh.
Mac'In-tosh, (fon.N,) an American soldier of the
Revolution, was a native of Georgia; died in 1826. His
son, JAMES S. MACINTOSH, served with distinction in
the war of 1812 and in the Mexican war, and was mor
tally wounded at the battle of Molino del Key, in 1847.
Macintosh or Mackintosh, (L\ciii,\N,) born near
Inverness, Scotland, in 1727, emigrated to Georgia,
where he rose to the rank of brigadier-general in the
American army. He was elected to Congress in 1784.
Died in 1806.
See the " National Portrait- Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iii.
Macintosh, (MARIA J.,) an American writer, born
at Sunbtiry, Georgia. She has published "Jessie
Graham," "Praise and Principle," (1845,) "Charms
and Counter-Charms," (1848,) and several other tales.
See DUVCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii.
Mack von Leiberich, mak fon IT'beh-dK', (K..\ui.,)
BARON, an Austrian general, noted for his ill success,
was born at Neuslingen in 1752. He served as quarter
master-general against the French in 1793. In 1794 he-
was sent to London to concert with the English minis
ters the operations of the war. The court of Naples
having in 1798 requested that of Austria to send a gene
ral to command the army against the French, Mack was
selected. He was quickly defeated by Championnet,
and sought refuge from the rage of the Neapolitans in
the French camp, (1799.) In 1805 he obtained com
mand of the Austrian army, which was invested by Na
poleon in person at Ulm. On the 2Oth of October he
ignominiously surrendered his army of 30,000 men as
prisoners. Mack was tried by court-martial, and pun
ished by imprisonment for several years. Died in 1828.
See THIF.RS, " Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire;" Ausox,
"History of" Europe ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mac-kail', (WILLIAM W.,) an American general,
born in the District of Columbia about 1818, served with
distinction in the Mexican war of 1846-47, and became
in 1861 a brigadier-general in the Confederate army.
Mackau, mt'ko', (ANGE RENE ARMAND,) a French
admiral, born in Paris in 1788. He was minister of the
marine from July, 1843, to May, 1847. Died in 1855.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mac-kay', (ANDREW,) an English mathematician,
author of a "Treatise on the Longitude." Died in 1809.
Mac-kay', (CHARLES,) a Scottish poet and writer of
songs, was born at Perth in 1814. Between 1835 and
1844 he published "The Salamandrine," a poem, and
several other works. His "Voices from the Crowd"
(1846) included a popular song called "The Good Time
Coming." He afterwards published several volumes of
verses, entitled "Voices from the Mountains," (1847,)
"Town Lyrics," (1848,) and " Egeria, or the Spirit of
Nature," (1850.)
Mac-Kean', (THOMAS,) an American patriot and
signer of the Declaration of Independence, born in
Chester county, Pennsylvania, in 1734. In 1765 he rep
resented the counties of Newcastle, Kent, and Sussex,
in Delaware, in the so-called Stamp- Act Congress. He
was elected to the Congress of 1774 from Delaware, in
which post he continued till 1783. He had been appointed
in 1777 president of the State of Delaware, and chief
justice of Pennsylvania. He was Governor of the latter
State from 1799 to 1808. Died in 1817. He was a
political friend of Jefferson.
See GOODRICH, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde
pendence ;" " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans "
vol. iv.
MacKean, (THOMAS J.,) an American general, born
in Bradford county, Pennsylvania, about 1810, graduated
at West Point in 1831. He became a brigadier-general
about November, 1861, and commanded a division at
Corinth, October 4, 1862.
MacKean, (WILLIAM W.,) an American commodore,
born in Pennsylvania in iSoi, was a nephew of Governor
Thomas McKean, noticed above. He was appointed
commander of the West Gulf Blockading Squadron in
1861. Died in 1865.
Mac-Kee'ver, ( ISAAC,) an American commodore,
born in Pennsylvania in 1793. He distinguished himself
in the war of 1812, and in 1851 commanded the squadron
on the coast of Brazil. Died in 1856.
Mackeldey, mak'kel-dt', (FERDINAND,) a German
jurist, born at P.runswick in 1784. He became first pro
fessor of law at Bonn in 1818, and published a "Manual
of the Institutes of Roman Law of the Present Time,"
(1814.) Died in 1834.
Mac-Kel'lar, (THOMAS,) an American poet, born in
the city of New York in 1812. He became a printer,
and removed to Philadelphia in 1833. On the death of
Mr. Johnson, in 1860, Mr. Mackellar succeeded him as
the head of the type-foundry of L. Johnson & Co., (now
of MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan,) perhaps the most ex
tensive establishment of the kind in the United States.
He lias published several small volumes of poems, some
of which have been warmly commended by N. P. Willis,
W. C. Bryant, and other competent critics.
See AI.MBONE'S "Dictionary of Authors."
Mac-ken'dree, (WILLIAM,) born in King William
county, Virginia, in 1 757, entered the ministry about 1 788.
He was chosen a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal
Church in 1808. Died in 1835.
Mac-keii'zie, (Sir ALEXANDER,) an enterprising
Scotchman, born at Inverness about 17^5. In his youth
he emigrated to Canada, and became a clerk in the
service of the Northwest Fur Company. From 1781 to
1789 he spent eight years in trading with the Indians at
Lake Athabasca, and in the latter year discovered the
river which bears his name, and traced it from its source
to its entrance into the Arctic Ocean, where he arrived
in July, 1789. In 1792 he led another exploring party
westward to the Pacific. On his return to England, in
iSoi, he published his "Voyages from Montreal to the
Frozen and Pacific Oceans," which, says Chateaubriand,
"is a work of great merit." Died in 1820.
See CHATEAUBRIAND, "Voyages en Amerique ;" CHAMBERS,
" Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Monthly Review"
for July and August, iSoj.
Mac-ken'zie, (ALEXANDER SLIDELL,) an American
naval officer and miscellaneous writer, born in New York
in 1803. Having visited Europe in 1825, he published,
soon after his return, his "Year in Spain," which was
received with great favour. In 1835 he made another
voyage to Europe, the result of which was his two works
entitled "The American in England" and "Spain Re
visited." While commander of the Somers, in 1842, he
ordered the mutineer Spencer and two of his associates
to be hanged from the yard-arm of the vessel, which act
was publicly approved by a high court of inquiry after
his return. He died in 1848. Besides the above-named
works, he wrote a "Life of Paul Jones," in Sparks's
"American Biography."
See DUVCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii.
Mackenzie, (CHARLES FRAZER,) a Scottish mission
ary, born in Peebleshire in 1825. lie went to Southern
Africa in 1860, and began to labour near the Zambesi
River. He died in Africa in January, 1862.
Mackenzie, (DONALD,) a merchant, born in Scot
land in 1783. He became in 1809 a partner of John
Jacob Astor in the fur-trade, and made an overland
journey to the Pacific. Died in 1851.
Mackenzie, (GEORGE,) Earl of Cromarty, a Scottish
politician and writer, born in 1630. He was appointed
justice-general in 1678, and a lord of session in 1681.
In 1685 he was created Viscount Tarbat, and in 1703
Earl of Cromarty. He was secretary of state for Scot
land from 1701 to 1704. He wrote, besides other works,
"Synopsis Apocalyptica," (1708,) and an "Account of
the Conspiracy of the Earl of Gowrie against James
VI.," (1713.) Died in 1714.
See WALPOI.R, "Royal and Noble Authors;" CHAMBERS, "Bio
graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Mackenzie, (Sir GEORGE,) a Scottish lawyer and
writer, born at Dundee in 1636. He attained eminence
a, e, T, o, ii, y, fang : a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
MACKENZIE
1487
MACKINTOSH
in his profession, and about 1661 was appointed justice-
depute, or judge. He published "Religio Laid," a treat
ise on religion and morality, (1663,) "Moral Gallantry,"
(1667,) " Institutions of the Laws of Scotland," (1684,1
and other works. From 1674 to 1685 he was employed
as king's advocate, and in this period had some agency
in the persecution of the Covenanters, who designated
him "the bloodthirsty advocate." Died in 1691.
See " Life of Sir G. Mackenzie." prefixed to his works ; KURNHT,
" History of his Own Times;" CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionaiy
of Eminent Scotsmen."
Mackenzie, (GEORGE,) a Scottish physician and
writer, who practised in Edinburgh with success, and
published "Lives and Characters of the Most Eminent
Writers of the Scottish Nation," (3 vols., 1708-22.)
Died in 1726.
Mackenzie, (HENRY,) an eminent Scottish novelist
and essayist, born in Edinburgh in 1745. In his youth
he obtained the office of attorney in the Scottish court of
exchequer. In 1771 he published, anonymously, "The
Man of Eeeling," a novel, which is his principal work.
and was generally admired. He edited "The Mirror,''
a periodical resembling the "Spectator," which was first
issued in 1779, and was discontinued the next year.
More than one-third of the articles in this popular work
were written by him. He afterwards produced "The
Man of the World," a novel, several political treatises
favourable to the Tory party, " The Prince of Tunis,"
and other dramas. He contributed many essays to " The
Lounger," a successful periodical, of which he was editor
in 1785-86. In 1804 he obtained the lucrative office of
comptroller of taxes for Scotland. Died in 1831.
See SIR WALTER SCOTT'S Miscellaneous Prose Works; "Nou-
velle Biographic Generale ;" CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary
of Kminent Scotsmen;" ALUBONK, " Dictionary of Authors."
Mackenzie, (ROISERT SHEI.TU.N,) D.C.L., a writer
and journalist of much ability, born in Limerick county,
Ireland, in 1809. He was editor successively of the
" Liverpool Journal" and various other British periodi
cals, and in 1852 settled in America, where he became
literary and foreign editor of the Philadelphia " Press."
He has published "Lays of Palestine," (1828,) "Life
of Curran," (1855,) "Tressilian, or the Story-Tellers,"
(1857,) a valuable "Life of Charles Dickens," (1870,)
and many other works.
Mackenzie, (WILLIAM LYON,) a Canadian journalist
and politician, born at Dundee, Scotland, in 1794. He
emigrated to Canada in early life, and became the editor
of a paper. He was the leader of a parly which took
arms against the government in December, 1837, and
was quickly dispersed. He took refuge in New York.
Died in 1861.
Mackey, mak'ee, (ALKERT GAI.LATIX,) an American
physician and journalist, born at Charleston, South
Carolina, in 1807. He published a "Text-Book of
Masonic Jurisprudence," and other works of the kind.
Mackey, mak'ee, (Jonx,) an Englishman, who, as
an agent of William III., watched the movements of the
Jacobite exiles after the revolution of 1688. He wrote
a "Picture of the Court of Saint Germain," (1695.)
Died in 1726.
See "Memoirs of the Secret Services of" John Mackey," London,
'833.
Mackie, mak-kee', (Jon.x,) a Scottish physician, born
in Fifeshire in 1 748, published, besides medical treatises,
" A Sketch cf a New Theory of Man." Died in 1831.
Mackie, (Joiix MILTON,) an American writer, born
at Wareham, Massachusetts, in 1813. He has written a
"Life of Godfrey William von Leibnitz," (1845,) "Life
nf Schamyl, the Circassian Chief," (1856,) and contrib
uted various articles to the " North American Review."
Mac-kin'non, (D,\xiEi.,) COLONEL, a British officer,
born in 1791. He commanded a regiment of Coldstream
Guards at Waterloo, and wrote a "History of the Cold-
stream Guards." Died in 1836.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminei.t Scotsmen,"
(Supplement.)
Mackinnon, (HENRY,) a British general, born near
Winchester in 1773. He served many campaigns against
the French. He distinguished himself in several actions
in Spain, obtained command of a brigade in 1809, and
was killed at Ciudad Roclrigo in 1812.
Mack'iii-tosh, (Sir JAMES,) an illustrious British
author, orator, and statesman, was born at Aldourie,
near Inverness, on the 241)1 of October, 1765. He was
the son of Captain John Mackintosh, of the army, and
Marjory Macgillivray. At King's College, Aberdeen,
which he entered in 1780, he profited by the congenial
society of Robert Hall, who was his fellow-student and
intimate friend. He studied medicine in Edinburgh,
and, having obtained his diploma, in 1788 removed to
London, where he married Catherine Stuart in 1789. His
fluent elocution, admirable temper, and refined manners
procured his admission into the best society. He had a
"boundless literary ambition," and a most capacious and
accurate memory. In defence, or rather ardent eulogy,
of the first reforms of the French Revolution, he produced,
in answer to Burke's famous "Reflections," his " Vindi-
cise Gallicae," (1791,) which raised him into sudden
celebrity and caused him to be warmly caressed bv Fox,
Sheridan, and other chiefs of the Whig party. About
this time he renounced medicine and became a student
of law. lie was called to the bar in 1795, gave special
attention to public law, and practised with success in the
home circuit. In 1799 he delivered a series of lectures
"On the Law of Nature and of Nations," which were
highly applauded by the most eminent judges of all
parties as a noble monument of intellectual power and
wisdom. He expressed in these lectures more conserva
tive views than those of his " Vindicias Gallica;." In
1803 he gained a high reputation for forensic eloquence
by his defence of M. Peltier, a French emigrant, who
was tried for a libel on Bonaparte, and was acquitted.
This speech was translated into French by Madame de
Stae'I. He accepted the office of recorder of Bombay,
where he arrived in 1804, and was appointed judge of
the admiralty court in 1806. Sir James returned to
England in 1812, and was elected to Parliament by the
Whigs in 1813. He won and maintained a high place
among parliamentary speakers. From 1818 to 1824 he
was professor of law and politics in the college at llai-
leybury. He contributed to the " Edinburgh Review,"
and wrote an important " Dissertation on the Progress
of Ethical Philosophy," which appeared among the pre
liminary essays of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." In
1830 he accepted office as commissioner for the affairs
of India under the ministry of Earl Gray. He made a
powerful and luminous speech in the House on the Re
form bill in 1831. He wrote a " History of England." a
work of great merit, which was published in "Lardner's
Cyclopaedia," (1831.) He died in May, 1832, leaving
unfinished a "History of the Revolution in England
in 1688," which was published in 1832. "We have no
hesitation," says Macaulay, "in pronouncing this frag
ment decidedly the best history now extant of the reign
of James II. ... The intellectual and moral qualities
which are most important in a historian, he possessed in
a very high degree. He was singularly mild, calm, and
impartial in his judgments of men and of parties." The
same critic adds, "He distinguished himself highly in
Parliament. But nevertheless Parliament was not ex
actly the sphere for him. The effect of his most success
ful speeches was small, when compared with the quantity
of ability and learning which was expended on them."
" It would be difficult," says Mr. Whipple, "to men
tion any writer whose name has been connected with the
literary journals of the nineteenth century, who has
carried into the task of criticism so much fairness and
moderation as Mackintosh. His nature was singularly
free from asperity and dogmatism. To a large under
standing and boundless stores of knowledge he united
candour and even humility in their employment. . . .
The beauty of his character will long continue to exert an
influence in insensibly moulding the minds of scholars
and statesmen." (See article on " British Critics" in
the "North American Review" for October, 1845.)
See " Memoirs of the Life of Sir James Mackintosh." eriiied by
his son, ROHFRT J. MACKINTOSH, 2 vols., 1835: "Historical Char
acters," by SIR H. L. BUIAVEK, London, 1868; "Encyclopedia
Biitannica;" CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent
Scotsmen;" " Nouvelle Bioeraphie Generale;" "Edinburgh Re
view" for October, 1835, (by JEPKRKV ;) " Hii.ish Quarterly Review"
for November, 1846; "North American Review" for October, 1832,
(by A. H. EVERETT;) and the very elaborate article on "Mackin
tosh" in ALUBONE'S "Dictionary of Authors."
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: 5 as z; th as in this. (ftrj^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
MAC KLIN
1488
Mac-klin', (CHARLES,) a popular Irish actor and
dramatist, (whose family name was McLaughlin,) was
born at Westmeath in 1690. He appeared on the Lon
don stage in 1725, and did not retire until 1789. He
excelled in the r&le of "Shylock," and wrote, besides
several other plays, a successful comedy called "The
Man of the World." Died in 1797, at the age of 107.
See J. T. KIRKMAN, " Memoirs of Charles Macklin," 1790: WIL
LIAM COOKK, " Memoirs of C. Macklin," 1804 ; " Monthly Review"
for November and December, 1799.
MacKiiight, mak-mt', (J.-\MKS,) an eminent Scottish
Presbyterian divine, born at Irvine in 1721. He became
minister at Maybole in 1753, and published his " Har
mony of the Gospels," (1756,) which is esteemed an ex
cellent standard work and has been often reprinted. In
1763 he produced "The Truth of the Gospel History,"
which was received with favour. From 1772 until 1778
he preached in Lady Yester's parish in Edinburgh, and
during the remainder of his life he was minister of the
Old Church of that city. In 1795 he published a " Lite
ral Translation of all the Apostolic Epistles," a work of
high reputation. Died in 1800.
See "Life of J. Macknisht," by his son; CHAMBERS, " Bio
graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Maclane, mak-lan', (ARCHIBALD,) an Irish clergyman,
born at Monaghan about 1722. He preached for the
Anglican Church of the Hague about fifty years, ending
in 1796. He published a volume of sermons, and trans
lated Mosheim's "History of the Church," (1765.)
Died in 1804.
MacLane, mak-lan', (Louis,) an American states
man, born at Smyrna, Delaware, in May, 1786. He
gained distinction as a lawyer, and represented Delaware
in Congress from 1817 to 1827. In the latter year he
was elected a Senator of the United States by the legis
lature of Delaware. He served as minister to England
about two years, (1829-31,) and was appointed secretary
of the treasury by President Jackson in April or May,
1831 ; but, not approving, it is said, of the removal of the
deposits from the United States Bank, he was in 1833
removed from the treasury and made secretary of state,
which position he resigned in June, 1834. In 1845 he
went to England as ambassador. After the question of
the boundary of Oregon was settled, he returned home.
Died in October, 1857.
See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. i.
Mac-lar'eii, (CHARLKS,) a Scottish journalist and
geologist, born about 1783. He was chief editor of the
" Scotsman" (a leading political journal of Edinburgh)
from 1820 to 1847. He published, besides other works,
"The Geology of Fife and the Lothians," (1839.) Died
in September, 1866.
Mac-lau'riii, (Coi.iN,) an eminent Scottish mathe
matician, born at Kilmodan in 1698. He obtained the
chair of mathematics in Marischal College, Aberdeen,
in 1717. In 1720 he published " GeometriaOrganica sive
Descriptio Linearum Curvarum universalis," a treatise
on curve lines, which is said to have excited the admira
tion of Newton. In 1725 he was appointed assistant of
Professor Gregory in the University of Edinburgh, where
he remained about twenty years. While he was em
ployed in fortifying Edinburgh against the Pretender's
army,- in 1745, he contracted a disease which hastened
his death, lie shared with D. Bernoulli and Euler the
prize awarded in 1740 by the Academy of Paris for a
memoir on Tides. He was the author of several original
and profound works, among which are a "Treatise on
Fluxions," (1742,) and a "Treatise on Algebra," (1748.)
Died in 1746.
See MONTUCI.A, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" CHAMBERS,
" Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Maclaurin, (JoHN,) a Scottish lawyer, born in Edin
burgh in 1734, was a son of the preceding. He became
a judge about 1787, when he received the title of Lord
Dreghorn. He wrote an " Essay on Literary Property,"
a drama entitled " Hampden," and several other works
in prose and verse. Died in 1796.
See " Life of Lord Dreghorn," prefixed to his works.
Mac-Laws', (LAFAYKTTE,) an American general, born
in Georgia. He commanded a division of General Lee's
army at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863.
Mac-lay', (ARCHIBALD,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born
in Scotland in 1778, emigrated to America in 1805, and
became pastor of a chinch in New York. He was
thirteen years general agent of the American and Foreign
Bible Society. Died in 1860.
MacLeaii or Maclean, mak-lan', (JoHN,) an Ameri
can statesman and jurist, born in Morris county, New
Jersey, in March, 1785. He removed with his father to
Ohio about 1798, was admitted to the bar in 1807, and
began to practise at Lebanon. In 1812 lie was elected
a member of Congress, in which he acted with the
Democrats, and supported the war against England.
He was again elected by a unanimous vote in 1814,
was a judge of the supreme court of Ohio from 1816 to
1822, and became postmaster-general in 1823. He filled
this office with great credit and ability until March, 1829,
during which period he introduced many improvements
and brought the department into a state of the highest
efficiency. lie declined a place in the cabinet of Presi
dent Jackson, and was appointed a judge of the supreme
court of the United States in 1829. He dissented from
the decision of the court in the Dred Scott case, as given
by Chief-Justice Taney in 1857, and opposed the exten
sion of slavery. At the Republican National Convention
of 1856 he received one hundred and ninety-six votes as
a candidate for the Presidency of the United States.
Died in Cincinnati in April, 1861.
See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
Maclean, (Mrs. L. E.) See LANDON, (L. 1-:.)
Mac-Lel'lan, (!SAAC-,) an American poet, born at Port
land, Maine, about 1810. Among his works we may
mention "The Fall of the Indian, (1830,) and "The
Year, and other Poems," (1832.)
See GRi-iwoi.n, "Poets and Poetry of America ;" CLEVELAND,
"Compendium of American Literature."
Macleod, mak-lowd', (ALKXANDKR,) D.D., born in
the island of Mull in 1774, emigrated to the United
States, and became in 1801 pastor of a Reformed Pres
byterian church in New York. He was the author of an
"Ecclesiastical Catechism," "Negro Slavery Unjustifi
able, ""The Life and Power of True Godliness," and
other religious works. Died in 1855.
MacLeod, (JoHN,) a Scottish surgeon, born at Bun-
hill in 1782. He became in 1817 surgeon of the Alceste,
which conveyed Lord Amherst to China,, and in 1818
published "The Voynge of the Alceste along the Coast
of Corea," etc. Died in 1820.
See WALCKENAER, " Collection des Relations des Voyages."
MacLeod or Macleod, (Rev. NORMAN,) a Scottish
divine, born at Campbelton in 1812. He became min
ister of London in 1838, of Dalkeith in 1843, and of the
Barony Parish, Glasgow, in 1851. He published, among
other works, " Home Education," and " The Earnest
Student," and is editor of a monthly periodical called
"Good Words."
Macleod, (XAVIKR DONALD,) a son of Alexander,
noticed above, horn in New York in 1821, published
numerous works in prose and verse, among which we
may name a " Life of Mary Queen of Scots," (1857,) and
a poem entitled "The Saga of Viking Torquil." Died
in 1865.
Maclise, mak-leess', (DANIEL,) a popular historical
painter, born at Cork, Ireland, in i8u. He went to
London in 1828, and became a student in (he Royal
Academy, where he quickly won several prize medals.
He gained a high reputation by his " Vow of the Ladies
and the Peacock," (1835,) and "Merry Christmas in the
Baron's Hall," (1838.) In 1840 he was elected an
Academician. Among his admired productions are
"The Sleeping Beauty," (1841,) "The Play Scene in
Hamlet," (1842,) " Noah's Sacrifice," (1847,) and " Shak-
speare's Seven Ages," (1848.) He is regarded as one
of the most original of English painters of the present
time. Died in April, 1870.
Maclure. See MACCLUKK.
Mac-lure', (WILLIAM,) an eminent naturalist, and
pioneer of American geology, born at Ayr, in Scotland,
in 1763. Having made an extensive scientific tour in
Europe, he removed to the United States, and about
1806 entered upon a geological survey of that Country.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, f 41', fit; met; not; good; moon;
MACMAHON
1489
MACPHERSON
In the accomplishment of this task, he visited nearly
every State and Territory in the Union, and crossed and
recrossed the Alleghanies fifty times. An account of his
tour was published in the " Transactions of the Ameri
can Philosophical Society," (1809.) A revised edition
of his "Observations on the Geology of the United
States," with a coloured map and sections, came out in
1817. It ranks among the most valuable contributions
to American science. In 1812 Mr. Maclure became one
of the first members of the Academy of Natural Sciences
just founded at Philadelphia, and was elected president
of that institution in 1817. He continued to fill this
post for twenty-two years, and the "Journal" of the
Academy was begun under his auspices. His donations
of books to the Academy amounted to nearly fifteen
hundred volumes, comprising valuable works on natural
history, antiquities, etc.. and he gave the sum of $20,000
towards the erection of the building on Broad Street,
finished in 1840. He died in 1840, at San Angel, in
Mexico, whither he had gone on account of his health.
See "Memoirs of Win. Mature," by SAMUEL G. MORTON.
MacMahon, mJtk'mt'o.N'', (MARIE EDME PATRICE
MAI'KICK,) Due de Magenta, a French marshal, of Irish
extraction, born at Sully, on the Loire, in 1808. He was
a son of Marquis Charles Lanre de MacMahon, a peer
of France. lie served in Algeria from 1830 to 1850,
having obtained the rank of colonel in 1845 and general
of brigade in 1848. In 1852 he became a general of
division. In the siege of Sebastopol he commanded the
division which took the Malakoff by assault on the 8th
of September, 1855. He commanded the second corps-
d'armee in the Italian campaign of 1859, and took a
prominent part in the battle of Magenta. This service
was rewarded (1859) by the rank of marshal of France
and the title of Due de Magenta. lie also contributed
to the victory of Solferino, June 24, 1859. In the recent
war with Prussia he was defeated at Worth (August 6,
1870) and at the great battle of Sedan, (about September
I,) where he was severely wounded.
See " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
MacMichael, mak-ml'kel, (WILLIAM.) an English
physician, born in 1784. He published a "Journey from
Moscow to Constantinople," (1819.) Died in 1839.
Mac-Nab', (Sir ALLAN,) an officer in the British ser
vice, 'born in Canada in 1798. He studied law, and was
elected to the legislature of Canada West. During the
insurrection of 1837 he commanded near Niagara, and
sent over the falls the steamboat Caroline, which had
been captured from the insurgents. He was the prin
cipal minister during part of the period in which Lord
Elgin governed Canada, (1846-54.) He was knighted
for his services in the rebellion above mentioned. Died
in Canada in August, 1862.
MacNaghten, mak-naw'ten, (Sir WILLIAM,) a British
officer in the civil service of the East India Company,
was sent as envoy to Shah Soojah about 1840, and was
assassinated at Cabool by Akbar Khan in 1841.
Mac-Nal'ly, (LEONARD,) an Irish barrister and dram
atist, born in Dublin in 1752. He wrote "Fashionable
Levities," a successful comedy, and several operas and
farces, also "The Rules of Evidence." Died in 1820.
Mac-neil', (HKCTOR,) a Scottish poet, born near
Roslin in 1746. He passed many of his early years in
the West Indies, probably as overseer, and returned to
Scotland about 1788. He published "The Harp," (1789,)
"Scotland's Skaith," (1795,) which was much admired,
and other poems. Died in 1818.
See CIIAMBKRS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Mac-neil', (JoiiN,) an American general, born in
New Hampshire in 1784, served with distinction at the
battle of Chippewa in 1814. Died in 1850.
Macneile, mak-neel', (Rev. HCGH.) D.D., an Irish
Protestant clergyman, born in the county of Antrim about
1794. He preached several years in London, and be
came the incumbent of Saint Paul's, near Liverpool, in
1848. He published "The Church and the Churches
of Christ," (1847,) and other works.
MacNeill, mak-neel', (Sir JOHN,) G.C.B., a British
officer and diplomatist, born at Colonsay in 1795. He
passed several years in the army of the East India Com
pany. From 1835 until 1844 he was British ambassador
to the court of Persia, where he gained important in
formation respecting the policy and resources of several
Asiatic nations. In the winter of 1854-55 he was one
of two commissioners sent to the Crimea to inspect the
commissariat department. He was chosen a member of
the privy council in 1857.
Mac-iiev'in, (WILLIAM JAMES,) born in Galway
county, in Ireland, in 1763, joined the United Irishmen
in the rebellion of 1791, and subsequently entered the
French army. In 1805 he removed to America, and
was appointed professor of chemistry in the Medical
College, New York. He was the author of " Rambles
in Switzerland," and several scientific works. Died in
1841.
Mac-nish', (ROBERT,) M.D., a Scottish author, born
at Glasgow in 1802. He became one of the editors of
" Eraser's Magazine" in 1831. Among his works is "The
Philosophy of Sleep," (1830.) Died at Glasgow in 1837.
See D. MOIR, "Life of R. Macnish," prefixed to a collection of
his ''Tales, Essays, and Sketches," 1839 and 1844; CHAMBERS.
"Biographical Dictiona:y of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement;)
" Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1835, (with a portrait.)
Macornb, ma-koom' or ma-kom', (ALEXANDER,) a
distinguished American general, born at Detroit in 1782.
He served in the war of 1812, and, as brigadier-general,
in 1814, gained the victory of Plattsburg over the British
| at the same time that Commodore Macdonough signally
defeated them on the Jake. General Macomb was ap
pointed in 1835 commander-in-chief of the United States
army. Died in 1841.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. i.
Ma'cpn, (NATHANIEL,) an American statesman, born
in Warren county, North Carolina, in 1757. He served
as a private in the army from 1778 to 1782, and opposed
the adoption of the Constitution of the United States,
(1788.) In 1791 he was elected a member of Congress
for a district of North Carolina, which he represented
until 1815. He was always a Democrat, and a strict-
constructionist. He was Speaker of the National House
of Representatives for three terms, (1801-06,) and be
came a Senator of the United States in 1816. His
speeches were short, but effective. He served in the
Senate until 1826, having then been a member of Con
gress for thirty-seven consecutive years. He died in
Warren county, North Carolina, in June, 1837. John
Randolph called him "the best and wisest man that I
ever knew."
Mac-pher'spn, (JAMES,) a Scottish poet, celebrated
as the .translator or author of " Ossian," was born in In
verness-shire in 1738. After leaving college he became
a school-teacher at Ruthven, and in 1758 published " The
Highlander," a poem, which was not successful. In 1760
he surprised the literary world by the publication of
"Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the High
lands of Scotland, and translated from the Gaelic or FIrse
Language." These were admired by the poet Gray and
others, and a subscription was raised to aid Macpherson
in exploring the Highlands for other similar treasures.
The ostensible result of this search appeared in "Fingal,
an Epic Poem," (1762,) and " Temora, an Epic Poem,"
(1763,) which purported to be the work of Ossian, a
poet of the third century. These poems found many
enthusiastic admirers throughout Europe. An anirrrated
controversy ensued about their authenticity, which was
defended by Dr. Blair and other eminent critics. Dr.
Johnson, on the other hand, confidently maintained that
they weie forgeries. Many others adopt the theory that
he caught the spirit of the Ossianic poetry from the
tales of the old Celtic bards, but supplied from his own
invention much of the peculiar imagery and cloudy
verbiage which abound in his pretended translations.
About 1772 he settled in London, and produced a prose
version of the " Iliad," which was a failure, a " History
of Great Britain," and other works. He was a member
of Parliament from 1780 to 1790. Died in 1796.
Sec BI.AIR. " Ciitical Dissertation on the P< ems of OsHan," 1763 ;
H. MACKKNZIK, "Report of the Committee ot the Highland Society
of Scotland,'' etc. : J. SINCLAIR. "On the Authenticity of OSMBII'S
Poems." iSo<> : " Nouvelle Biographic Generale :" CHAMBF.RS, " Hio-
graphical Diciionaiy of Eminent Scotsmen;'' Review of " Ossian,"
in the " Monthly Review" for January and February, 1762.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural: \, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in ////>.
94
Explanations, p. 23.)
M4CPHERSON
1490
M4CROBIUS
Mac-Fher'son, (JAMES Hi KUSEYE,) an eminent Amer
ican general, born in Sandusky county, Ohio, in Novem
ber, 1828. He entered the Military Academy of West
Point in 1849, and graduated at the head ot" his class in
1853. Having been assigned to the corps of engineers,
he was employed as engineer at New S'ork, Fort Del
aware, and Alcatraz Island, California. He obtained
the rank of first lieutenant in 1858, and that of captain
in August, 1861. In November ensuing he became
aide-de-camp to General Halleck, with the rank of lieu
tenant-colonel. He served as chief engineer on General
Grant's staff at the capture of Fort Donelson, and at the
battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7, 1862. In May of that
year he was appointed a colonel in the regular army,
and brigadier-general of volunteers. He commanded a
division which broke through the lines of General Price,
then investing Corinth, and marched in to the relief of
the garrison in October. For this service he was pro
moted to the rank of major-general on the 8th of Octo
ber, 1862. Having obtained command of the seventeenth
army corps in December, he served under General Grant
in the campaign against Yicksburg. His corps gained a
victory at Raymond on the I2th of May, 1863, and, with
the aid of General Sherman's corps, defeated General
loseph E. Johnston at Jackson on the I4th. General
McPherson contributed to the victory of Champion's
Hills, and took part in two unsuccessful assaults on
the works of Vicksburg in May. For his services in this
campaign he was promoted to be a brigadier-general in
the regular army, to date from the capture of Vicksburg,
and was appointed commander of the district of Vicks
burg, July, 1863. He served under Sherman in the
expedition to Meridian in February, 1864. In the next
month, General Grant, who had just been nominated
general-in-chief of all the Union armies, wrote a letter
to Sherman, in which he expressed his thanks to Sher
man and McPhersou as the men to whom he was most
indebted for his success. On the I2th of March, McPher
son was appointed commander of the department and
army of the Tennessee.
As commander of the army of the Tennessee, he
maintained his high reputation in the campaign which
Sherman conducted in Georgia. His army fought with
success against the rebels at Dallas on the 28th of May.
On the 27th of June, Generals Thomas and McPherson
assaulted the fortified lines of Kenesaw Mountain, but
were repulsed with severe loss. By a flank movement
of the army of McPherson, General Johnston was induced
to abandon his strong position at Kenesaw about July 3,
and to retreat to Atlanta. After the Union armies had
advanced to the vicinity of Atlanta, the enemy adopted
.a bolder policy, and made several attacks, in one of which
McPherson was killed, July 22, 1864. "About i I'.M.
of this day," says General Grant, "the brave, accom
plished, and noble-hearted McPherson was killed." (Re-
.port, dated July 22, 1865.)
See TENNEY, " Military History of the Rebellion."
Macpherson, (Sir JOHN,) born in Skye, Scotland,
about 1767, became a member of the supreme council
•of Bengal in 1781. He acted as Governor-General of
India alter the retirement of Warren Hastings, (Feb
ruary, 1785,) until July, 1786. Died in 1821.
Macquarie, ma-kwor're, (LACHLAN,) a British gene-
,ral, born in the island of Mull in 1762. lie served many
years in India, and fought against the French in Egypt in
1801. From 1809 to 1821 he was Governor of New South
Wales. About 1814 he obtained the rank of general.
.Died in 1824.
Macquart, mi'kti<', (Louis CHARLES HENRI,) a
•Fiench mineralogist, born at Rheims in 1745. He pub
lished a "Manual of the Properties of Water," (1783,)
and a " Dictionary of Health and Education," (2 vols.,
1800.) Died in 1808.
Macquer, mfkaik', (Pnn.ii'i'K,) a French litterateur
.and advocate, born in Paris in 1720. He was author
of a "Chronological Abridgment of Ecclesiastical His
tory," (2 vols., 1751,) "Roman Annals," (1756,) and an
•"Abridged History of Spain and. Portugal," (2 vols.,
1759,) (all in French,) which were received with favour.
Died in 1770.
See QUEKARD, " Li France Litteraire."
Macquer, (PIERRE JOSEPH,) a meritorious French
chemist and physician, born in Paris in 1718, was a
brother of the preceding. He discovered new properties
in many chemical substances, and is said to have been
the first who proved that the diamond is combustible,
(1771.) lie published " Elements of Theoretical Chem
istry," (1741,) and a valuable " Dictionary of Chemistry,"
(1766.) In 1745 he was elected a member of the Academy
of Sciences. He succeeded Bourdelin as professor of
chemistry at the Jardin du Roi, and edited the scientific
department of the "Journal des Savants'' from 1768 to
1776. Died in 1784.
See F. HOEFEK, " Histoire de la Chimie."
Macready, ma-kree'de, (WILLIAM CHARLES,) a
popular English tragic actor, born in London in 1793.
He made a successful debute Birmingham in 1810, and
appeared on the London stage in 1816, when he per
formed "Orestes" at Covent Garden with great applause.
His reputation was increased by his performance of the
" Virginius" of Sheridan Knowles, and ot " Richard III."
and other leading characters- of Shakspeare. From 1837
to 1839 he was lessee and manager of Covent Garden
Theatre. About 1842 he assumed the management of
Drury Lane; but, as he failed to make it profitable, he
kept it only two or three seasons. He performed with
great success in the principal cities of the United States
in 1848 and 1849. While he was in this country, a
quarrel between him and Edwin P'orrest resulted in a
serious riot in New York. He retired from the stage
in 1851.
See LITTLETON, "Biography of W. C. Macready," 1851; R-
H. HOKNK, "New Spirit ot' the Age," 1844; "New American Cy^
clopaedia."
Macret, mS'kR.V, (CHARLES FRANCOIS ADKIEN,) a
French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1750; died in
I783-
Mac-ii-a'nus, [Fr. MACRIEN, mt'kRe^N',] (MARCUS
FULVIUS,) a Roman emperor, born in Egypt. lie rose
from the lowest to the highest rank in the army. The
emperor Valerian having been taken prisoner by the
Persians, a part of the army, in 261 A.D., chose for his
successor Macrianus, who was then an old man. In
262 he was defeated in Illyricum, and put to death, by
Domitian, a general of Gallienus.
See TILI.EMONT, "Histoire des Kmpereurs."
Macrien. See MACRIANUS.
Macrin. See MACRINUS, and SALMON, (JEAN.)
Macriiio d'Alba, ma-kkee'no ddl'ba, an Italian
painter, born at Alba, near Turin, about 1460. He was
among the most skilful artists of his time, and one of the
first to adopt the modern style. Many of his works are
preserved at Turin and Alba. Died about 1520.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Macrinus, mt'kRe'nuss', (CHARLES SALMON,) a
French writer, was a brother of Jean the poet, and pre
ceptor to Catherine of Navarre. He was a victim of the
Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, (1572.)
Ma-cri'nus, [Fr. MACRIN, mt'kKa.v',] (M. OPELIUS
or Ol'lLius,) a Roman emperor, was born of obscure
parents in Mauritania in 164 A.I). He obtained the high
office of prefect of the praetorians under Caracalla. In
April, 217 A.D., he instigated the assassination of Cara
calla, and was proclaimed emperor by the army, whose
choice was confirmed by the senate. In the same year
he was defeated by the Parthians at Nisibis. lie was
defeated near Antioch in June, 218, by the partisans of
Elagabalus, and put to death.
See TII.LEMONT, " Histoire des Empereurs;" " Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generale."
Ma'cro, [Fr. MACRON, mS'kRo.N',] (N/EVius SEKTO-
RIUS,) a profligate Roman courtier, who enjoyed the
favour of the emperor Tiberius and was the principal
agent in the arrest of Sejanus. After the death of
Sejanus, he became prefect of the praetorian guard. He
was put to death by Caligula in 38 A.D.
See TACITUS, "Annales."
Macrobe. See MACROHIUS.
Ma-cro'bI-us,[Fr. MACROHK, mf kRol/,](AMBRosius
AURELIUS THEODOSIUS,) a grammarian and writer, who
is supposed to have lived at Rome in the fifth century.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
M ACT Y EIRE
1491
MADISON
It is not known whether he was a Christian or a pagan, a
Greek or a Roman. He was the author of three Latin
works which have come down to us, a " Treatise on the
Latin and Greek Verb," a "Commentary on the Dream
of Scipio," and a series of curious and valuable essays
on history, mythology, criticism, etc., entitled "Saturna-
liorum Conviviorum Libri Septem."
See FABRICR-S. " Bib'iotheca Latina;" AI.PHONSK MAHUL,
" Dissertation sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Macrobe," 1817 ; " Nou
velle Biographic Generale. "
Mactyeire, mak-te-air', ? (HOLLAND NIMMONS,)
1). I)., a Methodist divine, born in South Carolina in
1824, became editor of the "Christian Advocate," at
Nashville.
Mac-vick'ar, (JoHN,) D.D., an American Episcopal
divine, born in New York in 1787. He was appointed
in 1817 professor of moral philosophy and rhetoric in
Columbia College. He has published "Outlines of Po
litical Economy," "The Professional Years of Bishop
Hobart," and other works.
Macwhorter, mak-hwur'ter, ? (ALEXANDER,) a Pres
byterian minister, born in New Castle county, Delaware,
iii 1734. He preached many years at Newark, New Jer
sey. Died in 1807.
Madai, von, von mod'oy, (DAVID SAMUEL,) a Hun
garian numismatist, born at Schemnitz in 1709. He pub
lished a work entitled "A Complete Cabinet of Medals,"
(1765-74.) Died in 1780.
Mad'aii, (MARTIN,) an English clergyman, born near
Hertford* in 1726. He became a popular preacher at the
Lock Hospital, and published, besides other works,
" Thelyphthora," in which he advocated polygamy. Died
ffi 1790.
See the "Monthly Review" for October and November, 17^0.
Madan, (SPENCER,) a brother of the preceding, be
came Bishop of Peterborough. Died in 1813.
Madaii, (Rev. SPENCEK,) a son of Martin, noticed
above, was born in 1759. He was an eloquent preacher,
and obtained the living of Ibstock and the prebend of
Peterborough. For about thirty years he was chaplain
to the king. Died in 1836.
Mad'den, (Sir FREDERICK,) an eminent English
antiquary, born at Portsmouth in 1801, was appointed
keeper of the manuscripts in the British Museum in
1837. He was a valuable contributor to British history,
and edited many works, among which are " Havelock
the Dane," (1828,) and "Layamon's Brut, or Chronicle
of Britain," (1847.)
Mad'den, (RICHARD ROBERT,) an Irish physician
and writer on various subjects, was born in Dublin in
1798. Among his numerous works are "Travels in I
Turkey, Egypt, and Palestine," (2 vols., 1829,) "The j
Lives and Times of the United Irishmen," (7 vols.,) j
and " Memoirs and Correspondence of the Countess of
Blessington," (3 vols., 1855.)
Madden, (SAMUEL,) an Irish clergyman and writer,
whom Dr. Johnson said Ireland ought to honour, was
born in 1687. I le was noted for public spirit, and founded
at Dublin a society for the promotion of the arts by pre
miums. He wrote " Memoirs of the Twentieth Cen
tury," (1732,) and the "Monument of Boulter," a poem.
Died in 1765.
See NICHOLS and BOWYER, "Literary Anecdotes."
Maddersteg, mad'der-steV, (MICHAEL,) a Dutch
painter of marine views, etc., born at Amsterdam in
1659, worked in Berlin. Died in 1709.
Maddius. See MAGGI, (CARLO.)
Mad'dox, (ISAAC,) born in London in 1697, became
Bishop of Worcester in 1743. '^e wrote a " Review of
Nerd's History of the Puritans." Died in 1759.
Madeleine. See MAGDALENE.
Madelenet, mtci'leh-ni', (G.MiRiEL,) a French poet,
born in the Auxerrois about 1587, lived mostly in Paris.
He composed elegant Latin odes. Died in 1661.
Mader, ma'cler, (JOACHIM JOHANN,) a German philol
ogist, born at Hanover in 1626. He published editions
of some Latin and Greek Fathers, and wrote " DeCoro-
nis sacris et profanis," (1662.) Died in 1680.
Maderno, ma-deR'no, (CARLO,) an eminent Italian
architect, born in Lombardy in 1556. He studied or
worked with his uncle, Domenico Fontana, in Rome.
Having acquired a great reputation, he obtained about
1614 the title of architect of Saint Peter's Church, and
was charged by the pope to finish the anterior part. He
deviated from the original plan by adopting the form of
a Latin cross instead of a Greek cross. His additions
to this edifice are condemned by Milizia and others.
Among his best works is the Mattei palace. Died in
1629.
See QL-ATREMEKE I>E QUINCY, " Vies des plus celebres Arclii-
tectes;" CICOGNAKA, " Storia della Scultura; TICOZZI, " Dizio-
nario ;" " Nouvelle Hiograjihie Generale. "
Maderno, (STKKANO,) an Italian sculptor, born near
Conio in 1576. He adorned some churches of Rome
with bas-reliefs and statues. Died in 1636.
Madeweis, ma'deli-wis', (FRIEDKICH,) a learned Ger
man writer, born at Sammentin in 1648; died in 1705.
Madier de Montjau, mt'de-a' deli mo.M'zho', (PAU-
LIN,) a French advocate and judge, born at Bourg-Saint-
Ancleol in 1785. He showed firmness and sagacity in the
repression of the excesses committed by the royalists
about 1816-20.
Mad'i-son, (JAMES,) D.I)., an American prelate, born
in Rockingnam county, Virginia, in 1749, became Episco
pal Bishop of Virginia in 1790. He had been previously
elected president of William and Mary College. Died
in 1812.
Madison, (JAMES,) an eminent American statesman,
the fourth President of the United States, born in King
George county, Virginia, on the i6th of March, 1751,
was a son of Colonel James Madison and Eleanor or
Nelly Conway. He entered Princeton College, New
Jersey, in 1769, and graduated in 1771, after which he
studied law. In 1776 he was elected a member of the
Assembly or Convention of Virginia. He was defeated
in the election of 1777 because he refused to "treat" the
voters ; but he was ehected a member of the General
Congress by the Assembly of Virginia in 1779. From
this period he was one of the most prominent men in
the political history of the republic. He was re-elected
in 1786, and was a member of the National Convention
which met at Philadelphia in 1787 to form the Constitu
tion of the United States. He took a prominent part
in the debates on the Constitution, and advocated the
adoption of the same by a series of able essays, forming
part of "The Federalist," which is the joint production
of Hamilton, Madison, and Jay. Madison was a mem
ber of the Virginia Convention which, after a spirited
contest, adopted the Federal Constitution by a small
majority in June, 1788. He became a member of Con
gress in 1789, and united with the Republicans as a
moderate opponent of the administration of Washington
and the financial measures of Hamilton. He was dis
posed to be a mediator rather than a partisan in the
dissensions which arose among the founders of the re
public. In 1794 he married Dorothy Todd, originally
Dorothy Paine, a woman eminent for her virtues and
accomplishments. He declined the office of secretary
of state vacated by Jefferson in December, 1793, and
continued to serve in Congress until 1797. He opposed
the alien and sedition laws of 1798, and was the author
of a series of resolutions adopted by the Assembly of
Virginia and known as the Resolutions of 1798, which
protested against all attempts to increase the power of
the Federal government by forced constructions of gen
eral clauses of the Constitution. He was appointed
secretary of state by President Jefferson in March, 1801,
and filled that office for eight years in such a manner as
to acquire the confidence and approbation of the people.
Having been nominated for the Presidency by a caucus
of Republican members of Congress, he was elected in
1808, receiving one hundred and twenty-two electoral
votes out of one hundred and seventy-five, which was
the whole number. Charles C. Pinckney, the Federal
candidate, received forty-seven votes. On entering upon
the office of President, March 4, 1809, he found the United
States involved in difficulties and disputes with the British
government, which had offended the Americans by im
pressing seamen and by searching American vessels for
deserters, and had injured their commerce by orders
in council. His cabinet at first consisted of Robert
Smith, secretary of state, Albert Gallatin, secretary of
€ as k; c as j; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; x, nasai: R, trilled: § as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MIDLER
1492
MAECENAS
the treasury, William Eustis, secretary of war, and Paul
Hamilton, secretary of the navy.
In May, 1810, Congress passed a non-intercourse act.
The President sent to Congress a special message on
the subject of British aggressions about the 1st of June,
1812, and war was declared on the iSth of the same
month. A few days later the British ministry repealed
their orders in council in relation to the rights of neu
trals, but they refused to satisfy the Americans in relation
to the impressment of seamen. In the autumn ot 1812
Mr. Madison was re-elected to the Presidency by one
hundred and twenty eight electoral votes. His com
petitor was De Witt Clinton, who received eighty-nine
votes. The slave States, with Pennsylvania, Ohio, and
Vermont, voted for Madison. A strong party in the
United States was opposed to the war of 1812, which
was waged with various success on land and sea. Com
modore Perry gained a naval victory on Lake Erie in
September, 1813. About the 3d of July, 1814, a small
American army invaded Canada, gained a victory at
Chippewa, and fought a severe battle at Lundy's Lane,
or Niagara, (July 25,) in which the Americans lost 743
killed and wounded and the British lost 878. In August
of that year a small British force ascended the Chesa
peake, took" Washington by a sudden movement, and
burned the Capitol. A treaty of peace was signed at
Ghent, December 24, 1814; but, before the tidings of
this event had reached the United States, General Jack
son gained a signal victory over the British at New
Orleans, January 8, 1815. In 1816 Madison approved a
bill which Congress had passed to charter the Bank of
the United States for twenty years. On the 4th of March,
1817, he retired from public life. lie passed the re
mainder of his days on his farm at Montpelier, Orange
county, Virginia. lie was a member of the Virginia
Convention called in 1829 to revise the Constitution of
the State. Died at Montpelier, June 28, 1836.
"This great statesman and philosopher," says R. W.
Griswold, " was the confidential, personal, and political
friend of Jefferson ; but in almost every respect their
characters were essentially different. Mr. Madison's in
tellect was of a far higher order, and its ascendency over
his passions was nearly perfect. His triumphs were
those of pure reason. His public and private life were
above reproach. . . . His writings on the Constitution
and other subjects were second only to those of Hamilton
in ability and influence; and his extensive information,
sound judgment, skill as a logician, and unvarying cour
tesy, secured him the highest consideration in the Con
gresses of which he was a member.'' (" Prose Writers
of America.") He left in manuscript " Reports of the
Debates in the National Convention of 1788," which
were purchased by Congress after his death, and pub
lished in 3 vols., (1840.) This is a work of great value to
students of political philosophy.
See WM. C. RIVES, " History of the Life and Times of James
Madison," 3 vols., 1859-1868, (unfinished. This work extends only
to 1797;) JOHN Q. ADAMS, '"Lite of James Madison," 1850: BAN
CROFT, " History of the United States;" "National Portrait-Gallery
of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. ; "New American Cyclopae
dia;" "London Quarterly Review" tor September, 1812.
Madler or Maedler, med'ler, (JOHANN HEINRICH,
a German astronomer, born in Berlin in 1794. In con
junction with Beer, he produced an excellent lunar chart,
— " Mappa Selenographica," (1834-36 ) In 1840 he was
appointed professor of astronomy and director of the
Observatory of Dorpat. He has published, besides
other works, "The Existence of a Central Sun," (1846,)
and " Researches into the System of Fixed Stars," which
is highly commended.
See HKOCKHAUS, " Con venations- Lexikon."
Mad'oc or Madog, the second son of Owen Gwy-
nedd, Prince of Wales, lived in the twelfth century.
Some writers favour the hypothesis that he discovered
America about 1170, at which period he was compelled
to leave Wales by a successful rebellion against his
dynasty. Tradition informs us that he sailed from Wales
on a second expedition to the newly-discovered shores,
and was never heard from after. His history furnishes
the subject of Southey's poem entitled "Madoc."
See OWEN, "British Remains," 1777.
Madog. See MADOC.
Madox, (ISAAC.) See MADDOX.
Mad'px, (THOMAS,) an eminent English antiquary,
was an inmate of the Middle Temple, London, and
was called to the bar about 1704. He was a diligent
collector of old legal and historical records, and obtained
the title of royal historiographer. His principal work
is "The History and Antiquities of the Exchequer of
the Kings of England from the Norman Conquest to
the End of the Reign of Edward II.," (1711.) He also
published " Finna Burgi ; or, A Historical Essay con-
erning the Cities, Towns, and Boroughs of England,"
(1726.)
See NICHOLS and BOWVER, " Literary Anecdotes."
Madoz, ma-doth', (PASCUAL,) a Spanish author and
iberal statesman, was born at Pampeluna in 1806. He
chose the profession of the law, and was appointed a
judge at Barcelona in 1835. He edited a "Universal
Geographical Dictionary," (1831-34,) — a work of de
cided merit. Having been elected a deputy to the
Cortes, he removed to Madrid, where he devoted much
time to an arduous and successful enterprise, as editor
of a voluminous " Geographical - Historical Dictionary
of Spain," (1848,) which is, perhaps, the most com
plete and excellent work of the kind ever published.
Madoz became a leader of the party called Progre-
sistas, and was minister of finance for about four months
in 1855.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Madrazo, de, da ma-Dua'tho, (Don FKDKKICO,) a
Spanish painter, a son of the following, was born at
Rome in 1815. He painted portraits with success, ami
became court painter at Madrid. He gained a medal ot
the first class in 1855.
Madrazo y Agudo, de, da ma-DRa'tho e a-goo'no,
(Don Jus£, ) a Spanish painter of history and portraits,
born at Santander in 1781. He became court painter to
Ferdinand VII., and director of the Academy of Madrid.
Died in 1859.
Madrid, de, da man-rei/, (Jos£ FKRNANDK/.,) born
at Carthagcna, South America, in 1789. He was chosen
president of the republic of New Granada in 1816, but
in the same year was made prisoner by the Spaniards.
After an imprisonment of nine years in Havana, he
escaped in 1825, after which he was employed by Bolivar
as secret agent in Paris. He wrote " Atala," a tragedy.
Died in 1830.
Madrolle, mi'cluol', (ANTOINK,) a French writer on
religion and politics, born at Saint-Seine in 1792. He
published numerous works, in which he advocated ultra
montane doctrines. Died in 1861.
Madvig, mad'vig, (JoiiANN or JKNS NIKOLAI.) a
Danish philologist, born in the isle of Bornholm in 1804.
He was appointed minister of public instruction in 1848.
Among his works is "Opuscula Academica," 2 vols.,
(1834-42.)
Maecenas, me-see'nas, [It. MF.CENATK, ma-cha-na'ta,
orMKCKNATO; Fr. M£CENK, ma'sin',] (CAius CII.NIUS,)
a celebrated patron of literature at Rome, was born prob
ably about 70 K.C. lie was descended from an ancient
and royal Etruscan family, and belonged to the eques
trian order. (Horace, Carm. I. 1-20.) He was the friend
of Octavius before his accession as the emperor Augus
tus. His fidelity and talents having been approved in
many important negotiations, Octavius intrusted to him
the administration of Rome during his absence in 36 n.C.
when he went to war against Sextus Pompeius. After
the battle of Actinm (31 A.n.) had rendered Octavius
master of Rome, he is said to have followed the counsel
of Maecenas in founding an empire instead of restoring
the republic. Agrippa and Maecenas were the favourites
and chief ministers of Augustus for many years. The
political career of the latter ended about 16 li.c. Mae
cenas was versed in Greek and Roman literature, and
rendered his name memorable by his liberal patronage
of Horace, Virgil, and other poets, who were his intimate
friends. His name had become proverbial as a patron
of letters as early as the time of Martial. It is said that
Virgil's " Georgics" was written at the request of Mae
cenas. In the councils of state he advocated mild and
liberal measures and the free expression of opinions.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
M&CIANVS
1493
MAGAT1
He wrote several mediocre works, of which only small
fragments are extant. Died in 8 E.G.
See A. RIVINUS, " Dissertationes II. de Maecenate," 1649-52;
HEN'KI RICHER, "Vie de Mecenas," 1746; R. SCHOMBERG, "Lite
of Maecenas," London, 1766; C. CAPORALI, "Vila di Mecenate,"
1604; S. VIOLA, "Storia di C. C. Mecenato," 1816; FRANUSEM. " C.
C. Maecenas," etc., 1843; MEIBOMIUS, "De C. C. Maecenatis Vita,"
Meecianus, me-se-a'nus, (Lucius VOLUSIUS,) a
Roman jurist of the second century. He was a legal
adviser of Antoninus Pius, and a preceptor of Marcus
Aurelius. He wrote " De Fideicommissis," and other
works, of which extracts are found in the "Digest."
Maedler. See MADI.ER.
Maelzel. See MAI./.EL.
Masiiades, mcn'a-diz, [from [tairopai, to "rave,"] a
name of the priestesses of BACCHUS, (which see.)
Maeoiiides, me-on'I-deez, [Or. Mowwifyf,] or Maeonian
bard, a name sometimes given to Homer, because he
was reported to have been born in Lydia, the ancient
name of which was Maeonia. (See HOMKR.)
Maerland or Maerlant, van, vftn mar'lant, (JACOB,)
an early Flemish poet, born about 1235, is called "the
father of Flemish poetry." He was a person of uncom
mon information and learning for that age. Among his
works are " Sentences from Aristotle," " The \Var of
Troy," and " Wapen Martyn." Died in 1300.
See J. F. Wn. I.E.MS. "J. van Maerlant," 1838; VISSCIIER, "Jets
over J. de Coster van Maerlant," 1838.
Maes. See MAAS.
Maes, mis, (ANDREAS,) a Belgian Orientalist, born
in Brabant in 1515 or 1516; died in 1573.
Maestlin. See MASTI.IN.
Maevius, mee've^us, an obscure Roman poetaster of
the Augustan age, acquired notoriety by his envious
attacks on the best poets of his time. His name has
been saved from oblivion by the ridicule of Virgil, who
mentions him in his Third Eclogue. The name of
GifforcFs satiric poem "The Masviad" is derived from
Maeviup.
Maffei, maf-fa'ee, (BERNARDINO,) an Italian cardinal,
bom in 15 13, wrote a " Commentary on Cicero's Epistles."
Died at Rome in 1553.
Maffei, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian painter, born at
Vicenza. He imitated Paul Veronese in colouring. His
style is grand, but rather exaggerated. Died about 1660.
'Maffei, (FRANCESCO SCIPIONE,) MARQUIS, a cele
brated Italian scholar and author, born at Verona in
June, 1675. He made a campaign in the service of
Bavaria, and distinguished himself at Donauwerth in
1704, but soon renounced the military profession and
devoted himself to literature. In 1713 he produced
"Merope," a tragedy, which was highly applauded, and
ran through seventy editions in forty years. His prin
cipal work, "Verona Illustrata," (2 vols. fol., 1731,)
treats of the origin, history, and literary history of
Verona. It is admirable for profound research, sound
criticism, and elegant style. He also wrote "Introduc
tion to the Science of Diplomatics," ("Istoria diplo-
matica che serve dTntroduzione all' Arte critica in tal
Materia,") and other works. He was a member of the
Royal Societies of London and of Berlin. Died in 1755.
See FABROXI, "Vitae Italorum doctrina exceilentium ;" PINDK-
MONTE, " Elogio dei Marchese Maffei," 17^4; TIPAI.DO, ''Biografia
deg.i Italian! illustri ;" " Nouvelle Kingraphie Generale."
Maffei, [Lat. MAFF.-E'IUS or MAPH/E'US,] (GIOVANNI
PIETKO,) an excellent Italian writer, born at Bergamo
in 1535. He went to Rome and entered the order of
Jesuits in 1565, after which he lectured on eloquence for
six years at the Roman College with great success. His
most celebrated work is "Historian Indicae," ("History
of India," 1588,) of which the style is the chief merit.
"Maffei," says Hallam, "threw all the graces of a pure
Latin style over his description of the East." He wrote
a " Life of Loyola,"(i585,) and other works. Died in 1603.
See TIRABOSCHI, "Storia della Letteratnra Italiana;" NICERON,
" Memoires."
Maffei, (PAOLO ALESSANDRO,) an Italian antiquary,
born at Volterra in 1653. He published a "Collection
of Ancient and Modern Statues, with Critical Observa
tions," and another esteemed work, illustrative of ancient
gems, ("Gemme antiche figurate," 1707.) Died in 1716.
Maffei, (RAFFAELLO,) also called Raffaello Volter-
rano, raf-fa-el'lo vol-ier-ra'no, an Italian scholar, born
at Volterra in 1451. His most important work is " Com-
mentarii Urbani," which treats of geography, biography,
sciences, etc. It was reprinted at Paris in 1526. Died
at Rome in 1522.
See FALCONINI, "Vita di Raffaello Volterrano," 1722.
Maffeo ( or Maffei ) Vegio, maf-fa'o va'jo, [Lat.
MAPH/E'US VE'GIUS,] one of the most eminent Latin
poets of the fifteenth century, was born at Locli in 1406.
He became a resident of Rome, and was appointed
secretary of briefs and datary by Eugene IV. Besides
several religious works in prose, he composed Latin
poems, entitled "The Golden Fleece," (" Astyanax Vel-
Itis Aureum,") and "yEneidos Supplementum," (1471,)
a continuation of Virgil's great epic. The last was the
most admired of his works. He was highly praised by
Scaliger. Died in 1458.
See TIRABOSCHI, "Storia della Letteratnra Italiana;" BAVLE,
"Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON, "Memoires."
Maf'fitt, (JoiiN NEWLAND, ) a noted Methodist
preacher, born at Dublin, Ireland, in 1794. Having
emigrated to the United States in 1819, he became
in 1833 associate editor of the "Western Methodist,"
published at Nashville, Tennessee. He was elected
professor of elocution at La Grange College, Alabama,
in 1837. Died in 1850.
Mafoma. See MOHAMMED.
Ma§al!iaeii3. See MAGELLAN.
Magalhaens, ma-gal-yd'exs, (GABRIEL,) a Portu
guese missionary, born near Coimbra in 1609, laboured
in the Jesuit missions in China from 1640 until his death,
in 1677, and wrote a "Description of China," (1688.)
Magalhaens de Gaiidavo, de, da ma-gal -ya'e.vs
da gan-da'vo, (PEDRO,) a Portuguese historian, born at
Braga about 1550. He passed some years in Brazil, and
published at Lisbon in 1576 a "History of Brazil," a
work of some merit.
Magalon, mt'gi'ioN', (JEAN DENIS,) a French writer
and journalist, born at Bagnoles in 1794; died about 1840.
Magalotti, ma-ga-lot'tee, ( LORENZO, ) COUNT, an
Italian philosopher, born at Rome in 1637, was versed
in ancient and modern languages. He became a resident
of Florence, the grand duke of which employed him on
diplomatic missions to Vienna and Mantua. Among his
works are a treatise against atheism, called "Familiar
Letters," (1719,) "Scientific and Learned Letters,"
(" Lettere scientifiche ed erudite," 1721,) and "Ana-
.creontic Songs," (1723.) "The Letters of Magalotti
and of Redi," says Hallam, "seem to do more credit
than anything else to this period," (of Italian literature.)
Died in 1712.
See FABRONI, "Vitse Italoruin doctrinn excellentutm ;" P. Poz-
ZETTI, " Elogio storico del Conte L. Magalotti," 1787 ; TIRABOSCHI,
"Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Maganza, ma-gan'za, (ALESSANDRO,) an Italian his
torical painter, born at Vicenza in 1556. He imitated
Paul Veronese with moderate success. Died in 1630.
Alessandro had three sons, who were promising artists ;
but they died prematurely before their father.
See A. M. MENEGIIEI.I.I, " Elogio di A. Maganza," 1845; LANZI,
" History of Painting in Italy."
Maganza, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian painter,
surnamed IL MAGAGNO, (el ma-gan'yo,) born at Vicenza
in 1509, was the father of the preceding. He was a
pupil of Titian, and was successful in portraits and his
tory. He was author of a volume of poems, (" Rime,")
published in 1570. Died in 1589.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" BALDINUCCI, " No-
tizie."
Maganza, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) a painter of the
Venetian school, born at Vicenza in 1577, was a son and
pupil of Alessandro, noticed above. Died in 1617.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Ma'gas, [Gr. Muj-ac,] a king of Cyrene, and a step
son of Ptolemy Soter. Died in 258 B.C.
Magati, ma-ga'tee, or Magatti, ma-gat'tee, [Lat.
MAGA'TUS,] (CESARE,) an eminent Italian surgical writer,
e as R; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^=>See Explanations, p. 23.)
MAGATUS
1494
MAGL1ABECCHI
born at Scancliano in 1579. He wrote " I)e rara Medi-
catione Vulnertim," (1616.) Died in 1647.
Magatus. See MAC, ATI.
Mag'da-lene or Mag'da-len, [Fr. MADELEINE or
MADKI.ENE, mld'l&n',] (MARY,) an eminent Christian
saint, was probably born at Magdala, in Galilee. She
was one of the personal followers of Christ, by whom
she was "healed of evil spirits and infirmities." (See
Luke viii. 2.) Nothing appears to be known of her his
tory in addition to the facts narrated by the four Evan
gelists. (See Matthew xxvii. and xxviii., Mark xvi., and
John xix. 25 and xx. 1-18.) The learned differ on the
question of her identity with Mary the sister of Lazarus
of Bethany. The prevalent notion that her morals were
very depraved before her conversion appears to have no
real foundation.
Ma-gae', (WILLIAM,) Archbishop of Dublin, was
born in Ireland in 1765. lie opposed Unitarianism in
" Discourses on the Scriptural Doctrines of the Atone
ment," (2 vols., 1801,) which procured for him a wide
reputation. He became Bishop of Raphoe in 1819, and
Archbishop of Dublin in 1822. Died in 1831.
Magellan, ma-jel'lan, [Sp. pron. ma-hel-yan'; Port.
MAGALHAKNS, ml-gal-yi'ftNs,] (FERNANDO,) a Portu
guese navigator, distinguished for his skill, enterprise,
and important discoveries, was born about 1470. He
served several years in the East Indies under Albu
querque, and took part in the capture of Malacca in
1511. A few years later he offered his services to
Charles V., and received command of a fleet of five
vessels and 230 men. With these he sailed, September,
1519, with a view to find a western route to the East
Indies. He passed the winter of 1520 (from May to
September) in the Hay of Saint Julian, about 49° south
latitude, where a serious mutiny or conspiracy was sup
pressed by the execution of two captains of vessels. In
October, 1520, he discovered and passed through the
strait which bears his name. Pursuing his course through
the great ocean of which he was the first navigator,
and which he named the Pacific, he discovered the La-
drones about the 6th of March, 1521. He proceeded
thence to the Philippine Isles, and was amicably received
by the Prince of Zebu or Cebu. Having become an ally
of this prince in a war against another small island of
the same group, Magellan was killed in battle in April,
1521. One of his ships, the Vittoria, commanded by
Sebastian del Cano, returned to Spain, and was the first
that circumnavigated the globe. An Italian named Pi-
gafetta accompanied Magellan in this last voyage, and
kept a journal, which was published. (See PIGAKKTTA.)
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" Eu. CHAKTON, "Voya-
geurs anciens et modernes."
Magellan or Magalhaens, ( JOAO JACINTO,) was
born at Lisbon in 1723. He emigrated to England
about 1764, cultivated natural philosophy with success,
and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, (1774.)
He wrote a " Description of English Octants and Sex
tants," and other scientific treatises. Died near London
in 1790.
Magendie, mi'zhS.N'de', (FRANCOIS,) an eminent
French physiologist and physician, was born at Bor
deaux on the 1 5th of October, 1783, and was educated
in Paris. He became demonstrator of anatomy in the
Faculty of Medicine, Paris, about 1805. In 1816 he
produced a manual of physiology, "Precis elementaire
de Physiologic," which was translated into German and
English. He was admitted into the Academy of Sci
ences about 1821, and became professor of anatomy or
medicine in the College of France in 1831. His experi
ments contributed greatly to the progress of physiology.
Among his important services was the discovery or
demonstration of the functions of the spinal nerves. The
honour of this discovery, however, is shared by Charles
Bell. Magendie discovered that in the circulation of
the blood, the arteries act not by irritability, but by elas
ticity, and proved that the veins are organs of absorption.
He experimented on living animals more than any of his
predecessors. Among his principal works are " Lectures
on the Physical Phenomena of Life," (" Le9ons sur les
Phenomenes physiques de la Vie," 4 vols., 1836-42,)
and " Lectures on the Functions and Diseases of the
Nervous System," (2 vols., 1839.) He founded in 1821
the "Journal of Experimental Physiology," which he
continued to edit until 1831. He was appointed presi
dent of the board of public health (ccmiite consultatif
d' hygiene pnblique ) in 1848. Died in October, 1855.
See KLOURENS, " Eloge historique de F. Magendie," 1858 ; Bu-
BOIS U'AMIENS, " £loge de Magendie;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Magenta, Due DE. See MACMAHON.
Mageoghegan, mi-ge-Su'e-gan, ( JAMES,) an Irish
historian, born in 1702, became a resident of Paris, and
a priest. He wrote a "History of Ireland, Ancient and
Modern," (3 vols., 1758-63.) Died in 1764.
Maggi, mad'jee, [Lat. MAI/DIUS,) (C.-uu-o MARIA,)
an Italian poet, born at Milan in 1630. He became a
member of the Academy Delia Crusca, and professor
of Greek in Milan. His works consist of Greek, Latin,
and Italian poems, of Letters, etc. "Maggi bore an
honourable part," says Hallam, "in the restoration of
poetry." Died in 1699.
See L. A. MUKATORI, " Vita di C. M. Maggi, Milanese," 1700;
TIKABOSCHI, " Stori.i della Letteratura Italiana."
Maggi, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian painter and etcher,
born in Rome about 1566; died after 1618.
Maggi, (GiKOLAMo,) a lawyer and writer, born at
Anghiari, in Tuscany. About 1560 he settled in Venice,
where he published several works, among which were
"The War of Flanders," a poem, and " Varirc Lec-
tiones." Having been made prisoner by the Turks in
Cyprus, he attempted to escape, was recaptured, and
strangled in Constantinople in 1572.
Maggi, (LuciLlo FII.ALTKO.) a learned Italian physi
cian, was born at Brescia about 1510. He obtained the
chair of medicine in the University of Pavia about 1553.
He wrote "Familiar Letters" (" Epistolae Familiares")
on the literary history of Italy. Died about 1570.
Maggio, mad'jo, or Magio, ma/jo, (FRANCESCO
MARIA,) a monk, born at Palermo in 1612, became
skilled in Oriental languages. He was employed as a
missionary in Syria, Georgia, etc., and wrote a "Gram
mar of the Georgian Language." Died in 1686.
Ma'gi, a religious sect or priestly caste of ancient
Persia, which had exclusive possession of scientific
knowledge. They worshipped fire and the sun, and
were reformed by Zoroaster. In the Gospel certain
members of this caste are mentioned as " wise men of
the East." ( See Matthew, ii. i.) In process of time
the term Magi became synonymous with philosophers,
learned men, astronomers, and soothsayers, or dealers
in magic arts.
Magini, ma-jce'nee, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) an Italian
astronomer, born at Padua in 1555. He was professor
of mathematics at Bologna from 1588 to 1617, and wrote
many works, among which are " Ephemerides." and
" New Theories of the Celestial Orbs," (" Novae Creles-
tium Orbium Theorise," 1589.) Died in 1617.
See LALANDE, " Hibliotheque astronomique."
Ma-ginn', (WILLIAM,) a witty and versatile writer,
born at Cork, in Ireland, about 1793. He removed to
London about 1824, and adopted literature as a profes
sion. About this time he was a frequent contributor to
" Black wood's Magazine," in which he appears as the
"Morgan O'Doherty" of the "Nodes Ambrosianae."
About 1828 he became sub-editor of "The Standard." a
Tory paper, and began to write able and caustic articles
for " Eraser's Magazine." He also wrote a novel called
"Whitehall." Died in 1842.
Magirus, nia-gee'rus,(ToniAS,) a German philosopher,
born at Angermiinde in 1586, taught logic and physics
at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Died in 1651.
Magistris, de, deli mri-jes'tRess, (GiACiNTO,) an Ital
ian missionary, born in the diocese ot Cremona in 1605 ;
died at Goa, India, in 1666.
Magistris, de, (SiMONK,) an Italian priest, noted for
his mastery of ancient languages, was born in Corsica in
1728; died at Rome in 1802.
Magliabecchi, mal-ya-bek'kee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian
bibliomaniac and librarian, noted for his prodigious
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscttre; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
M4GN4N
1 49 5
MAGO
memory and learning, was born at Florence in 1633. He
devoured a great number of books with avidity, became
veised in languages and antiquities, and was regarded as
an oracle by the learned. His habits were very eccentric.
He was for many years librarian of Cosimo III., Grand
Duke of Tuscany, and of his successors. At his death,
in 1714, he left his rich library to the city of Florence,
by which it is kept open to the public.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della LetteraUira Italiana;" FABRONI,
"Vits Iialorum doctrina exceilentium :" L. BKIOHTWELI,, " By-
P.iths of Biography;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate;" A. M.
SAI.VINI, "Orazione funerale in Lode di A. MagUabecchi," 1715.
Magnan, mtn'yfiN', (BERNARD PIERRE,) a French
general, born in Paris in 1791. He served as captain at
Waterloo, (1815,) and obtained the rank of colonel about
1827, after which he was employed in Algeria. He
became a lieutenant-general in 1845, an<^ commanded
the army of the Alps in 1849. In July, 1851, he was
appointed commander-in-chief of the army of Paris, and
in December, 1852, he was raised to the rank of marshal
of France. Diecl in 1865.
See J. LASSAGN'E, " Notice sur le General Magnan," 1852.
Magnan, (DOMINIQUE,) a French antiquary and monk,
born at Raillane in 1731. He lived in Avignon and
Rome, and acquired a European reputation by his works,
among which are a " Description of the City of Rome,"
(1763,) and several treatises on numismatics. Died in
I7Q6.
Magnani, man-ya'nee, (CRISTOFORO,) an able Italian
painter, born at Pizzighettone before 1550, was a pupil
of Bernardino Campi.
Magiiasco, man-yas'ko, (Ai.KSSANDRO.) called Lis-
SANURIXO, an Italian painter, born at Genoa in 1681.
His favourite subjects were processions, etc. Died in
1747-
Magnasco, (STEFANO,) a painter, born about 1630,
was the father of the preceding. Died in 1665.
Magne, nitii, (PiKRRE,) a French advocate and min
ister of state, born at Perigueux in 1806. He was ap
pointed minister of public works in January, 1851, and
minister of finance in February, 185$. He retired from
this office about 1861. -ZJ^<=«£' >
Magnence. See MAGNKNTIUS.
Magnentius, mag-ne'n'she-us, [Fr. MAGNENCE, mtn'-
y6.\ss',] (Fi. AYR'S,) a Roman general, born in Germany
about 300 A.D. While commanding an army in Gaul,
he revolted against the emperor Constans, and usurped
the empire of the West in 350. Constans was killed by
his orders. Magnentius made himself master of the city
of Rome. A war ensued between him and Constantius,
who defeated the usurper on the river Drave in 351.
He retreated to Gaul, was again defeated, and killed
himself in August, 353 A.D.
See GIBBON, "Dec'ine and Fall of the Roman Empire;" LE
BEAT, "Histoiredu Bas-Empire."
Mag'nes, [Mu;r»/r.] an Athenian poet of the old
comedy, was born in Icaria, and lived about 450 B.C.
See FABRICIUS. "Biblioiheca Gra:ca."
Magni, (JoiiAN.) See MAGNUS.
Magni, mag'nee, written also Magne, [from Afagtt,
" strength,"] a son of Thor, who, with his brother Modi,
will survive the conflagration of the world at Ragnarock.
(See Mom.)
Magni, mag'nee, or Magnus, mag'nus, (JoiiAN or
JONAS,) a Swedish bishop, born at Wexio in 1583, wrote
" Synopsis Historian universalis," (1622,) and other works.
Died in 1651.
Magni, man'yee, fLat. MAG'NUS,] (VALERTAXO,) an
Italian writer and Capuchin friar, born at Milan about
1586. He wrote against the Jesuits. " This fere" says
Pascal, in a letter to the Jesuits, "has found the secret
of stopping your mouth." Among his works is " Or-
ganum theologicum," (1643.) Died in 1661.
See PASCAL. " Lettres Provinciates. "
Magnien-Graiidpre, mtn'ye-n.N' gRON'pRi', (N.,) a
French financier and writer, born at Challon in 1745;
died in 181 1.
Magnier, mi n'ye-a',(LAURENT,) called also MANIERE,
a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1618; died in 1700.
Magniii, mt i'ya.\', (CHARLK.s,) a French critic, born
in Paris in 179^. He acquired reputation as a critic of
dramatic literature. Among his works are a series of
"Lectures on the Drama," (1838,) and "Causeries et
Meditations historiques et litteraires," (2 vols., 1842.)
See SAINTE-BEUVE, " Portraits contemporains."
Magnocavalli, man-yo-ka-val'lee, (FRANCESCO OT-
TAVIO,) Count de Varengo, an Italian poet, born at
Casal in 1707, wrote "Corradin, Marquis de Mont-
ferrat," and other tragedies. Died in 1788.
Magnol, mtn'yol', (PIERRE,) a French botanist and
physician, born at Montpellier in 1638. He became
professor of botany in his native city in 1694, before
which he had published "Introduction to the General
History of Plants," ("Prodromus Historias generalis
Plantarum," 1689.) He had some sound ideas on
botanical philosophy, and shares with other botanists
of his time the merit of favouring the progress of the
| natural method. He wrote several minor works on
I botany. The genus Magnolia was named in his honour.
| Died in 1715.
See " Biographic Medicale."
Magnon, mSn'ydN', (JEAN,) a mediocre French poet
and dramatist, born at Tournus. He left unfinished a
poem entitled "La Science universelle," (1663.) He
was assassinated at Paris in 1662.
Mag'nus I., King of Norway, surnamed THE GOOD,
was the son of Saint Olaiis. He became king in 1034,
and at the death of Canute II., in 1042, obtained the
throne of Denmark. He died in 1047, leaving Norway
to Ilaiold, and Denmark to Sweyn, a nephew of Canute
the Great.
See ToRFyEus, "Historia Rerum Norvegicarum."
Magnus, surnamed LADULOS, King of Sweden, born
in 1240, was the second son of Birger. He deposed his
own brother, Waldemar, and reigned many years. He
died in 1298, and was succeeded by his son, Birger.
Magnus, surnamed SMEK, King of Sweden, born in
1316, was the son of Duke Eric, and succeeded Birger
in 1320. His actual reign began in 1337. He was placed
under interdict by the pope, and deposed by his nobles
about 1363, when Albert of Mecklenburg became king.
Magnus died in 1374.
See F. RUHS, "Geschichte Schwedens."
Mag'nus, a Greek physician, lived about 100 A.D.
He was one of the Pneumatic sect.
Magnus, (ALBERTUS.) See ALBERTUS MAGNUS.
Magnus, mag'nus, (EDUARD,) a German painter of
genre and portraits, born at Berlin in 1799. His works
are commended as excellent in colour and correct in
design.
Magnus, mag'nus, or Magni, mag'nee, (Jon AN or
JONAS,) Archbishop of Upsal, was born at Linkoping ir.
1488. He opposed the Reformation in Sweden without
success, and retired to Rome, where he died in 1544.
He was author of a "History of Sweden," in Latin,
("Historia Gothorum Suevorumque," 1554.)
See XICERON, "Memoires;" SCHEFFER, " Suecia L:terata."
Magnus, (Oi.\us or OI.OF,) a Swedish prelate, brother
of the preceding, was born at Linkoping about 1490. lit
was sent by Pope Paul III. to the Council of Trent in
1546. He wrote (in Latin) a " History of the Northern
Nations," (1555,) which was translated into English,
Dutch, German, and Italian. Died in Rome in 1568.
See ANDERS NORBERG, " Dissertationes II. de Meritis tt Fatis J.
et O. Magnorum," 1741-43.
Mag'nus, (THOMAS,) an English emissary, sent by
Cardinal Wolsey to Scotland in 1524, in the twofold
capacity of ambassador and spy. He sent to the Eng
lish court some curious details (preserved in the state
papers of Henry VIII.) relating to the young King of
Scotland and the customs of those times.
See BURTON, " History of Scotland." chaps, xxxii. and xxxvii.
Magnusen, mag'nu*-en, or Magnusson, mag'nus-
son, (FiNN,) an Icelandic historian and antiquary, born
at Skalholt in 1781. He published, among other works,
a "Translation and Explanation of the Elder Edda,"
(1821.) Died in 1847.
See ERSI.EW. " Forfatter-L^xikon :" " Foreign Quarterly Review"
for April, 1828, and April, 1*29.
Ma'go, [Gr. MU-/UV ; Fr. MAGON, mt'giN',] a Cartha
ginian admiral, who gained a victory over the fleet of
€ as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, in, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MAGO
1496
MAHMOOD
Syracuse about 396 n.c. A few years later he was de
feated by Dionysius in Sicily. He returned to Carthage,
and was elected chief magistrate. Having led another
land-army into Sicily, he was killed, and his army was
defeated at Cabala by Dionysius, about 382 b.c. His
son, MAGO, succeeded to the command of the army, and
prosecuted the war with success.
Another MAGO commanded a fleet which the senate
of Carthage sent, in 280 H.C., to aid the Romans against
Pynhus. He was grandfather of Hannibal.
See DIODOKUS SICULUS.
Mago, a Carthaginian writer of uncertain period, was
called "the father of agriculture" by Columella. lie
wrote an extensive work on agriculture, which was trans
lated into Latin by the order of the Roman senate after
the destruction of Carthage.
Mago, a brother of the famous Hannibal, followed
him in the invasion of Italy, and held a high command
at the battle of Cannae, 216 n.c. He carried the news
of this victory to Carthage, and solicited reinforcements,
but was ordered to Spain, where he and Hasdrubal com
manded for several years against the Scipios with vari
ous success. After gaining some advantages in Liguria,
where he was severely wounded, he was ordered to
hasten to the defence of Carthage, but he died during
the voyage, in 203 li.C.
See Livv, " History of Rome," books xxi.-xxx. ; POLYBIOS,
" History," books iii., x., and xi.
Magoii. See MAGO.
Magou de Clos-Dore, mS'g6\' deh klo'do'ra',
(CliARLKS RKN£,) a French rear-admiral, born in Paris
in 1763. He was killed at the battle of Trafalgar, in 1805.
Ma-goon', (Ei.isHA L.,) I). I)., an American Baptist
divine, born at Lebanon, New Hampshire, in 1810,
published "Proverbs for the People," "Orators of the
American Revolution," and other works.
Magri, ma'guee, (DoMKNico,) an Italian writer, born
in Malta in 1604. He published a " Lexicon of Ec
clesiastic Terms and Rites," ("Notizia de' Vocaboli
ecclesiastic!.") Died in 1672.
Magruder, ma-groo'der, (JoiiN B.,) an American
general, born in Virginia about 1810, graduated at West
Point in 1830. He served as captain in the Mexican
war, (1846-47.) With the rank of major-general, he
fought against the Union at White Oak Swamp and
Malvern Hill, July i, 1862. He commanded the army
in Texas in 1863 and 1864.
Maguire, ma-gwir', (JOHN FRANCIS,) M.P., an Irish
Catholic politician, born at Cork about 1815, wrote, be
sides other works, "Rome and its Rulers," (1857.)
MAHA,m-A.-\\l!, [from the adjective mtihdt, "great,"] a
Sanscrit prefix forming a portion of many Indian names,
as MAHADKVA, "great god," M.\HA-PRALYA,the "great
destruction," etc. See these names in their alphabetical
place.
Maha-Bali. See BAI.I.
Mahabhaiata, ma-ha'ba'ra-ta, or Mahabharat,
ma-ha'ba'rat, [from the Sanscrit mdhd, "great," and
Bharata, a descendant of Bharata, a famous Hindoo
prince,] the name of the great epic poem of the Hindoos,
so called because it treats of the war waged among the
descendants of Bharata. It is said to contain 200,000
lines, or 100,000 double verses. Tradition ascribes it
to Viyasa, the arranger or editor of the Vedas. (See
VIYASA.) But there is reason to believe that it is the
production or compilation of several — perhaps of many
— writers, living in different ages, both before and after
the Christian era. It was made a kind of cyclopaedia
of such knowledge as was deemed desirable for the
Kshatriyas, or warrior caste.
See the article on "Sanscrit Literature" in the " New American
Cyclopaedia, " (by PKOFESSOK WHITNEY,) xiv., p. 337.
Mahaddva, ma-ha'da'va, or Maha-Deo, ma-ha' da'o,
(i.e. the "great god,") the name by which Siva is com
monly known in many parts of India. (See SIVA.)
Maha-Kala, ma-ha' ka'la, a name of Siva, regarded
as Time, which is the great destroyer. (See SIVA.)
Maha Kali. See KAI±
Maha-Maya, ma-ha' ma'ya, the name of the mother
of Boocldha. See GAUTAMA.
Ma-ha' Pral'ya, [ modern Hindoo pron. ma-li.i'
prul'ya,] (i.e. the "great end" or "great destruction,") a
term applied to the final consummation of all things,
which, it is supposed, will take place after a hundred
years of Brahma have elapsed, in which each day (with
its night) is reckoned as 8640 millions of our years. At
the time referred to, all the gods, including Brahma, as
well as all creatures, will be annihilated ; Brahm, the
eternal, self-existent Spirit, will alone remain.
See MOOR, "Hindoo Pantheon."
Maharbal. See MAHKKISAL.
Maha-Rudra, a name of Siva. See RUDRA.
Mahdee, Mahdy, or Mahdi, Al, Si mah'dee, (Mo-
HAMMKD, mo-Hani'med,) the third Abbasside caliph of
Bagdad, succeeded his father, Al-Mansoor, in 775 A.D.
He waged war against the Greeks with such success that
the empress Irene sued for peace. He died in 785, and
was succeeded by his son Hadee, (or Hady.)
See WEIL, " Geschichte der Clialifen," vol. ii. chap. iii.
Mah6 de la Bourdormais, mS'a' deh IS booR'do'-
n \', (BKRNARD FRANCOIS,) a distinguished French naval
officer, born at Saint-Malo in 1699. About 1718 he
entered the service of the French East India Company.
He was appointed Governor-General of the Isles of
France and Bourbon in 1734, and received command of
a squadron in 1741. War having begun between France
and England, he repulsed an English fleet near Madras,
and captured that place, in 1746. He quarrelled with
Dupleix, governor of the French possessions in Hin-
dostan, who refused to give up Madras, which La Bour-
donnais by treaty had agreed to restore to the English.
Having been recalled to France, where he arrived in
1748, he was confined in the Bastille three years, and
then tried and acquitted. His talents and virtues are
praised by Saint-Pierre in the preface to "Paul and
Virginia." Died in 1754 or 1755.
See GHRARD, "Vies des plus illustres Marina Francais," 1825;
MILL, " History of British India." 1826.
Ma-heii'dra, called also Mahin'do, a son of Asoka,
introduced Booddhism into Ceylon about 200 B.C.
Ma-her'bal or Ma-har'bal, [Gr. Maapffor,] a Car
thaginian general, who followed Hannibal into Italy,
fought at Thrasymene, and commanded the right wing at
the battle of Cannae, in 216 n.c. He urged Hannibal to
advance on the Roman capital, and, when the latter
rejected this counsel, said to him, "You know how to
gain victories, but not how to improve them."
See LIVY, " History of Rome," books xxi.-xxiii.
Mahesa, ma-ha'sa, or Mahdsha, ma-ha'sha, and
Maheswara, ma-has' wa-ra, names of SIVA, which see.
Mahindo. See MAHKNDRA.
Mahlmann, mal'man, (SIKGFKIKD AUGUST,) a Ger
man poet, born at Leipsic in 1771. Some of his produc
tions were very popular. Died in 1826.
Mahmed. See MOHAMMKD.
Mahmood, Mahmoud, or Mahmud, man-mood',
I., Sultan of Turkey, born in 1696, was the son of
Mustafa II. lie succeeded his uncle, Ahmed (Achmet)
III., in 1730. In 1734 he began a war against the Rus
sians, who were assisted by the Austrians. The latter
made peace and gave up Belgrade to Turkey in 1739.
Soon after that date he made a treaty of peace with
Russia. Mahmood left the direction of affairs to his
ministers. Died in December, 1754.
See Vox HAMMKR, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiclis;"
LEVF.SQUK, " Histoire dc la Russie."
Mahmood, Mahmoud, or Mahmud II., Sultan
of Turkey, a younger son of Sultan Abdool Haniid,
was born July 20, 1785. His youth was passed in seclu
sion or confinement and in literary pursuits. During
the reign of his brother, Mustafa IV., the deposed Sul
tan, Selim III., was his fellow-captive, and initiated him
in those projects of reform which he himself had failed
to effect. In Tll'y. 1808, Mustafa was deposed by the
military, and Mahmood was proclaimed Sultan at one of
the most critical periods in the history of the Ottoman
empire. The pashas of Asia and Africa had rendered
themselves nearly independent of the Sultan, and the
disaffection of the Janissaries threatened a revolution in
the capital. He began the work of reform in the army,
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
MAHMOOD
H97
MAHMOOD
which he ordered to be organized after the European
system. In November, 1808, the Janissaries rebelled,
attacked the Sultan's palace, and proclaimed Mustafa.
Mahmood suppressed this dangerous revolt by the exe
cution of Mustafa and his heirs, after which he remained
the only surviving prince of his race.
A war with Russia, in which the Turks had been de
feated, was terminated by a treaty of peace in May, 1812.
He pursued his projects of reform with courage and
energy, amidst the violent opposition of his subjects.
About 1822 began a general insurrection of the Greeks,
who, after a war of several years, were liberated from
the Turkish yoke. During this war he continued his
bold innovations against the old customs and traditions ;
he dressed himself in the European fashion, and finally
accomplished his most important measure, — the destruc
tion of the Janissaries, who had instigated a formidable
insurrection in the capital. The next day (June 15) the
standard of the prophet was unfurled, and all good
Mussulmans were summoned to arms. The Janissaries
were outnumbered and speedily overpowered, and many
thousands of them were killed. On the i6th an edict
was issued for the abolition of their organization.
On the 20th of October, 1827, Mahmood's fleet was
defeated and ail-but annihilated at Navarino by the allied
French, English, and Russians, who fought there for the
liberty of Greece. Mahmood is censured for rashness
in renewing the war with Russia in 1828. The Russian
general Diebitsch defeated the Turks at Shumla, crossed
the Balkan, and took Adrianople in 1829. The existence
of the Turkish empire was in peril ; but, through the
mediation of England and other powers, the Sultan ob
tained peace (September, 1829) by paying a large sum
of money and resigning the sovereignty of Moldavia,
Wallachia, and Servia. In 1832 he was involved in war
with Mehemet Ali of Egypt, whose army, commanded
by his son Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) gained a decisive vic
tory at Konieh, (December, 1832." Russia interposed
to protect Mahmood against his rebellious vassal. The
Ottoman empire was apparently on the verge of disso
lution, when the Sultan died, in June, 1839, and was
succeeded by his son, Abdool-Mejeed.
See VoN'MuN'CH, "Mahmud II., sein Leben," etc., 1*39; POUQUK-
VII.LE, " Histoire cle la Regeneration de la Grece," and article
" Mahmoud" in the " Nouvelle Biogrnphie Ganerale."
Mahmood, Mahmoud, or Mahmud, man'mood',
(Abool-Kasim-Yemeen-ed-Dowlah, or Abul-
(Aboul-) Kasim-Yemin-ed-Daulah, a'bool ka'sim
yeh-meen' ed-dow'lah,) one of the most celebrated of all
the Mohammedan conquerors, the founder of the Gazne-
vide dynasty, and the first who established a permanent
Moslem empire in India, was born at Gazna (or Ghiznee)
in 967 A.n. lie was the son of Sabuktageen, whom he
succeeded as governor of the province of Candahar, (or
Gazna.) At an early age he distinguished himself while
fighting under his father against the enemies of Nooh,
(or Nouh,) the Samanide sovereign of Persia, from whom
he received the title of Seif-ed-Dowlah, (" Sword of the
State.") But afterwards, having been ill treated by
Mansoor, a successor to Nooh, he overthrew the throne
of the Samanides, and established his empire over a
vast territory, including what is now called Afghanistan,
besides an extensive region in the northeastern part of
Persia. But, still unsatisfied, he resolved on the subju
gation of the countries beyond the Indus. During a reign
of rather more than thirty years, he made no fewer than
twelve expeditions into India, besides carrying on several
important wars in Central Asia. He extended his con
quests not only over the whole of the Punjab, but pene
trated as far as Bundelcund on the east and Guzerat on
the south. Moore, in his beautiful poem of " Paradise
and the Peri," gives a striking picture of Mahmood's
sanguinary and desolating career through Hindostan.
Apostrophizing India, he says,
" Land of the sun ! what foot invades
Thy pagods and thy ) illared shades?
'Tis he of Gazna. — fierce in wrath
*******
He comes, and India's diadems
Lie scattered in his ruinous path.
His bloodhounds he adorns with gems
Torn from the violated necks
Of many a young and loved sultana ;
Maidens within their pure zenana,
Priests in the very fane he slaughters.
And chokes up with the glittering wrecks
Of golden shrines the sacred waters."
Lalla Rookh.
It is related by Ferishta, a celebrated Moslem his
torian, that, having hoard of the immense riches de
posited in the temple of Somnath, famous throughout
all India for its sanctity, Mahmood determined to take
possession of that place. The priests of Somnath had
boasted that, if he dared approach their holy shrine, he
would receive from the avenging gods the just reward
of his temerity. The temple stood on the extremity
of a point of land in Guzerat, and was surrounded on
three sides by the sea. It was defended by the Hindoos
with all the courage of religious enthusiasm and all the
obstinacy of despair. But nothing could withstand the
valour of the fierce invaders. Mahmood, having entered
the temple, was about to demolish a gigantic image, the
object of the idolatrous worship of the Hindoos. The
Brahmans, in great trepidation, offered him an immense
sum of gold if he would spare their idol. Some of his
officers advised him to accept the ransom ; but his zeal
as a true Moslem forbade such a compromise. He
smote the image and broke it to pieces. It proved to
be hollow, and a countless treasure of diamonds, rubies,
and pearls was poured from its cavity upon the ground,
thus richly rewarding the incorruptible zeal of the con
queror, and at the same time explaining the pious libe
rality of the Brahmans. In the extensive wars which
Mahmood carried on in Central Asia, after his first ex
pedition into India, he appears to have been mainly
indebted for his success to the elephants used in his
army. It is related that on one occasion Ilij (or Elich)
Khan, a Turkish prince, invaded Khorassan with a large
army. Mahmood hastily assembled an inferior force,
which was accompanied, however, by five hundred ele
phants. The hostile armies met near Bulkh, (or Balkh,)
in the vicinity of the river A moo, or Oxus. Mahmood
was mounted on a superb elephant, which, during the heat
of the battle, rushed forward, and, seizing with his trunk
the chief standard-bearer of the Turks, hurled him into
the air. The other elephants followed the example of
their great leader : with their trunks they lifted the horse
men from their saddles and dashed them on the ground,
so that the Turkish army was soon broken and put to a
total rout. Later, the military establishment of Mah
mood is said to have comprised no fewer than thirteen
hundred elephants and more than fifty thousand horse.
Along with great military talents and a fierce, uncon.-
querable energy and courage, Mahmood possessed some
virtues of a more exalted kind. A woman from a dis
tant province, it is said, complained one day to the Sultan
that her son had been killed and her property carried
off by robbers. He replied that it was impossible for
him to prevent all disorders in a region so remote.
"Why, then," said the woman, "do you conquer king-
doms'which you cannot protect, and for which you will
have to answer at the day of judgment ?" Far from
resenting the freedom of this rebuke, he immediately
took effective measures for establishing order in that dis
tant part of his dominions. After his Indian conquests
he not only greatly embellished Gazna, which still con
tinued to be the capital of his empire, so that it rivalled,
it is said, the most splendid cities of the East, but he
showed himself a patron of science and literature, espe
cially of poetry. It was during his reign that Firdousee,
(or Firdausi,) the greatest of all the poets of Moham
medanism, flourished. (See FIUDOUSEE.) Seven other
distinguished poets, according to Von Hammer, lived at
his court and chanted his praises. Mahmood was the
first, it is said, of the great Moslem rulers who employed
the Persian language in official documents. Died in 1030.
See FERISHTA, " History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power
in India, "(translated by GENERA t. Bmr.r.s;) IBN KHAI.LIKAN, "Dic-
tionnaire Hiographique ;" WII.KKN, " Historia Ghasnevidarum ;"
VON HAMMER, ''Geschichte der schonen Redekunste Persiens ;"
HAMDAU.AH MESTOUFI, " Histoires choisies;" " History of British
India," in "Harper's Fanii'y Library," vol. i. ; VON HAMMER,
" Gemahldesaal grosser Mosleinischer Herscher."
Mahmood (Mahmoud or Mahmud) II., surnamed
NASIR-OOD-DEEN, (NAsiR-oun-Dix,) na'sir ood-deen',
(i.e. " Defender of the Faith,") an eccentric though able
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in //«'.?. (I^'See Explanations, p. 23. )
M AH MOOD
1498
MAI
Sultan of Delhi, who ascended the throne in 1246. After
the death of his father, Altmish, (ilt'mish,) he was im
prisoned by his step-mother, and remained in confine
ment several years. During this period he voluntarily
earned his bread by copying manuscripts. Even after
he was raised to the throne he continued, it is said, to
earn his subsistence by his pen. As a king he was dis
tinguished for his ability, justice, and liberality ; he was
a patron of learning, the protector of his people, and a
friend of the poor. He was a successful general, and
speedily reduced several insurrections which broke out
during his reign. Contrary to the custom of Moslem
princes, Mahmood had but one wife, whom he required
to be as industrious as himself, and to perform all the
homely duties of housewifery like the meanest of her
subjects. Her majesty, having one day burned her
fingers while cooking, begged Mahmood to let her have
a maid to assist her ; but he refused, saying he was but a
trustee of the state and had no right to burden it with
needless expenses. He used to say, " Those who will
not work for their bread do not deserve it." Mahmood
Nasir-ood-Deen was a half-brother of the distinguished
Sultana Ruzeea Begum. (See RUZEEA BEGUM.) He
died after a reign of twenty years.
See FERISHTA, "Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India,"
(BRIGGS'S translation.) vol. i ; " History of British India," vol. i., in
"Harper's Family Library."
Mahmood (Mahmoud or Mahmud) Shah, (Na-
sir-ed-Deen or -Eddyn, na'sir ed-deei/,) Emperor of
Ilindostan, was the son of Mohammed HI. He ascended
the throne of Delhi in 1394, and was a feeble ruler. 1 1 is
reign was a disastrous period of intestine wars and an
archy. Timur (Tamerlane) invaded India, defeated the
army of Mahmood in 1399, and took Delhi. A few years
later, Mahmood returned to Delhi, but lie obtained but
little power. He died in 1413, being the last of his
dynasty. &e.ff~* '**&**&* ,1*1*1*- ) lf-'*l* ~ <
Mahmood, (Sultan of Syria and Egypt.) See NOOK-
ED- I )KKN.)
Mahmoud. See MAHMOOD.
Mahmud. See MAHMOOD.
Mahomet, (the Prophet.) See MOHAMMED.
Ma-hom'et* [ Fr. pron. mt'o'mi'] or Mohammed
(mo-ham'med) I., Emperor or Sultan of the Ottomans,
born in 1374, was a younger son of Bayazeed (Bajazet) I.,
who was defeated by Tamerlane at Ancyra in 1401. At
this time he was governor of Amasia, of which the victor
left him in possession. Mahomet and his brother Moosa
(Mousa) having appealed to arms for a decision of their
claims to the throne, the latter was killed in battle in 1413.
Mahomet restored the Ottoman empire to its former sta
bility, subjected the Bosnians and Servians, and was the
first Sultan that disputed with the Venetians the empire
of the sea. He died in 1421, and was succeeded by his
son, Amurath II.
See VON HAMMER, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiclis."
Mahomet or Mohammed IL, styled THE GREAT, the
st>n of Amurath II., was born in 1430, and succeeded his
father in 1451. Having raised an army of about 300,000
men, he attacked Constantinople, defended by the Greek
emperor Constantine Palaeologus. After a siege of fifty-
five days, the city was taken by storm on the 2gth of May,
1453, and Constantine was killed fighting in the breach.
Great numbers of the Greek citizens were massacred by
the orders or permission of the victor, who in 1456 returned
to Adrianople, his former capital. In that year he was
defeated at Belgrade by the Hungarian chief Huniades.
He conquered Trebizoncl from David Comnenus in 1461,
and afterwards acquired by his arms Bosnia, and seve
ral islands in the Archipelago. In 1465 he was defeated
by Scanderbeg in Albania. He waged successful wars
against the Venetians and the Persians, (1470-78,) and
invaded Italy in 1480. Death arrested his progress to
further conquest in 1481, and delivered Christian nations
from a formidable adversary. He left the throne to his
son, Bayazeed (Bajazet) II.
See GUIU.ET DE SAINT GEORGES, " Histoire du Regne de Ma
homet," 1682: VON HAMMER, "Geschichte des Osmanischen
Reichs;" GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
* For some remarks on the pronunciation of this name, see MO
HAMMED, (the Prophet.)
Mahomet or Mohammed III., Sultan of Turkey,
was born about 1568, and succeeded his father, Amurath
III., in 1595. He put his brothers to death in the first
days of his reign. He was a feeble ruler, and preferred the
pursuit of pleasure to his duties as a monarch. Among
the chief events of his reign was a war with the emperor
Rudolph in Hungary, where the Turks lost several
towns. He died in 1603, and was succeeded by his son,
Ahmed (Achmet) I.
See VON HAMMER, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs."
Mahomet or Mohammed IV., the son and succes
sor of Ibraheem I., was seven years old when his father
was killed by the Janissaries in 1649. Having a ruling
passion for the chase, he permitted the grand vizier,
Mahomet Koprili, to direct the affairs of the empire.
That able minister took Lemnos and Mitylene from the
Venetians in 1660, and about the same time waged war
against the Austrhtns in Hungary. After several victories,
the Turks were defeated at Saint Gothard on the Raabin
1663, and the svar was suspended by a treaty. In that year
Koprili died, and his son Ahmed (Achmet) became grand
vizier. He took the capital of Candia in 1669, after a
long siege. In 1683 a Turkish army of about 200,000
men under Cara Mustafa invaded Austria and besieged
Vienna, from which the emperor Leopold fled without
offering battle. After a siege of nearly two months, John
Sobieski marched to the relief of the city, and put the
Turks to a total rout. In consequence of this and other
later reverses, Mahomet was deposed in 1687, and was
succeeded by his brother, Solyman II. Mahomet was
imprisoned until his death, in 1691.
See VON HAMMKR. "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs ;"
DF.VIZK, " Histoire de Mahomet IV depose en 1687," Amsterdam,
1688.
Mahoii, LORD. See STANHOPE, EAKL or.
Mahon, mS'oN', (PAUL AIH;USTIN OLIVIER,) a French
physician, born at Chartres in 1752. lie wrote " Mikle-
cine legale," (3 vols., 1802.) Died in 1801.
Ma-ho'ny, (FRANCIS,) an Irish writer and wit, born
about 180:5, wrote under the assumed name of "Father
Prout." He contributed many able articles to " Eraser's
Magazine," which were published separately in 1860.
He also wrote as correspondent for several daily jour
nals of London. Died in 1866.
See " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1836.
Mahudel, mt'ii'del', (NICOLAS,) a French antiquary,
born at Langres in 1673. He practised medicine in
Paris for many years. He wrote a "Treatise on the
Ancient Medals or Coins of Spain," (1725,) and several
antiquarian treatises inserted in the records of the Acad
emy of Inscriptions. Died in 1747.
Mahul, infill', (AI.PHONSE JACQUES,) a French po
litical writer, born at Carcassone in 1793. He published
a valuable work entitled " Annuairc necrologique, ou
Supplement annuel et Continuation de toutes les Bio
graphies," (6 vols., 1821-26.)
Mai, ma'ee or ml, (ANOELO,) CARDINAL, a celebrated
Italian critic and philologist, born at Schilpario, in the
province of Bergamo, on the 7th of March, 1782. He
became an excellent classical scholar, and about 1808
was admitted as an associate in the Ambrosian Library
of Milan, which was rich in ancient manuscripts. He
applied himself to the task of deciphering palimpsests,
and discovered portions of Cicero's orations and other
classic works which had never been printed. In 1819
he was appointed chief librarian of the Vatican at Rome.
The discovery which made the greatest sensation was
that of six books of Cicero, " De Republica," which he
published, with able critical notes, in 1822. These
books, which had been lost since the twelfth century,
were found by him in the Vatican. Among the monu
ments of his critical sagacity and patient research are
three collections, entitled "A New Collection of Ancient
Authors, produced from the Library of the Vatican,"
(" Scriptorum Veterum nova Collectio e Vaticanis Cocli-
cibus edita," 10 vols. 410, 1825-38,) "Classic Writers
published from the Manuscripts of the Vatican," (" Clas
sic! Scriptores ex Codicibus Vaticanis editi," 10 vols.,
1828-38,) and " New Library of the Fathers," ("Nova
Bibliotheca Patrum," 6 vols., 1845-53.) ^e was raised
to the dignity of cardinal in 1838, was chosen a foreign
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
MAIA
1499
MAILLET-D UCLA1R ON
associate of the French Institute in 1842, and librarian
of the Roman Church in 1853. Died in September, 1854.
See P. A. MUTTI, " Elogio di Angelo Mai," 1828; " Noiivelle
Biographic Generale."
Ma'ia, [Mala or Mawic,] in Greek mythology, is repre
sented as the daughter of Atlas and Pleione, (whence
she was called Atlantis and Pleias,) and the eldest of the
Pleiades. She was the mother of Hermes, (Mercury.)
Another MAIA, alias MAJESTA, was a goddess of the
Romans, who named one of the months in honour
of her.
Maiaiio or Majaiio, da, da ma-ya'no, (BENEDETTO,)
an eminent Italian sculptor and architect, was born in
Tuscany, perhaps in Florence, in 1424, or, according to
other authorities, in 1442. He acquired fame first by
his unrivalled skill in inlaid work, and afterwards de
voted himself to sculpture in marble. He worked in
Florence and Naples. Among his best productions are
a bust of Giotto, and a marble pulpit of Santa Croce,
(in Florence,) in which he represented the life of Saint
Francis. Died in 1498.
Maiaiio or Majano, da, (Giui.iANo,) an excellent
Italian architect, born in Naples. His birth is variously
dated 1377, 1387, and 1432. He designed at Naples the
royal palace of Poggio Reale and the triumphal arch of
Castello Nuovo. Having been invited to Rome by Paul
II., he built between 1464 and 1471 one of the courts of
the Vatican and the palace and church of San Marco.
Died about 1490.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ;Ticozzi, "Di/ionario."
Maichel, ml'Kel, (DANIEL,) a German philologist,
born at Stuttgart in 1693, became professor of philoso
phy at Tiibingen in 1724. lie published an "Introduc
tion to Literary History," in which he describes the
great libraries of Paris. Died in 1752.
Maidalchini-Pamfili. See MALDACHINI-PAMFILL
Maienne. See MAYENNE.
Maier. See MAYKK.
Maier, ml'er, (MICHAEL,) a famous German alchemist,
born in Holstein in 1568. He became physician to the
emperor Rudolph, but left his service, and wasted his
time and money in the researches of alchemy. He wrote,
besides other works, "Jocus Scverus," " Atalanta fu-
giens," (1618,) and " Tripus Aureus," (" Golden Tripod,")
which are prized by amateurs. Died in 1622.
See HOKFER, " Histoire de la Chimie."
Maignan, min'yS.N', [Lat. MAIGNA'NUS,](EMANUEL,)
a French monk, eminent as a geometer and philosopher,
w; s born at Toulouse in 1601. He became professor
of mathematics in Rome In 1636. He wrote " Perspec-
tiva Horaria," an able " Treatise on Catoptrics, "(1648,)
and a few other works. Died in 1676.
See S.UHTENS, " De Vita, Moribus, etc. E. Maignani," 1697;
NiCKRON', "Memoires."
Maignaiius. See MAIGNAN.
Maigrot, mi'gRo', (CHARLES,) a French missionary,
born in Paris in 1652. He laboured in China from 1683
to 1706, and wrote " De Sinica Religione," (unpublished.)
Died at Rome in 1730.
See MAII.LA, " Histoire geiierale de la Chine."
Maikof, Maikov, Maikoff, or Maikow, ml-kof',
(VASII. IVANOVITCH,) a Russian soldier and poet, born
at Yaroslaf in 1725. He obtained some reputation for
humour and comic power by his " Yelisei, or Bacchus
Enraged," a burlesque poem. He also wrote several
dramas and fables. Died in 1778.
Mailath or Majlath, ml'lat, (JA\os NEPOMUK,)
COUNT, an eminent Hungarian poet and historian, was
born at Pesth in 1786. He was employed many years
in the civil service of Austria. In the affairs of Hun
gary he was identified with the conservatives, or adver
saries of Kossuth. lie published, in German, two
important works, a " History of the Magyars," (1828-
31,) and a " History of the Austrian Empire," (1834-50.)
The revolution of 1848 deprived him of his official em
ployment as judcx citria: at Pesth, and reduced him to
extreme poverty. He and his daughter Henrietta drowned
themselves in Lake Starnberg, in Bavaria, in 1855. lie
left several poems and translations. He was highly
respected as a man.
See BROCKHAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" also an article on
the "Language and Literature of the Magyars" in the "Foreign
Quarterly Review" for September, 1828, and October, 1839.
Mailhe, mil, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French revolution
ist, born in 1754, was elected to the Convention in 1792.
During the trial of the king, he voted for an appeal to
the people ; but he was counted among those who voted
for death conditionally. Died in 1834.
Mailla, Maillat, mt'yt', orMaillac, de, deh mt'yik',
(JOSEPH ANNE MARIE DE MOYRIA,) a French Jesuit and
missionary, born near Nantua in 1679. He was sent to
China in 1702, resided at court, and received the title of
mandarin. He translated into French a "General His
tory of China," (12 vols., 1777-83.) "This work," says
Weiss, "with the Memoirs published by Batteux, Bre-
quigny, etc., (1775-1816,) forms the most extensive and
valuable collection that has yet appeared on China." He
died in Pekin in 1748.
Maillac. See MAII.LA.
Maillane. See DUKAND DE MAILLANE.
Maillard, mt'yt K'. (OLIVIER,) a celebrated French
pulpit orator, born in Bretagne. He preached in Paris
in 1494, and gave much offence by his boldness. Louis
XI. having threatened to throw him into the river, Mail-
lard said to the person who conveyed the menace, "Go
tell the king that I shall arrive at heaven by water sooner
than he can by post-horses." Died about 1505.
See NICKRON, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Maillard, (SEBASTIAN,) a scientific Austrian general,
born at Luneville in 1746. He wrote "The Mechanics
of Arches," and other works. Died in 1822. '
Maillard de Chambure, mS'yfR' deh sho.VbuR',
(CHARLES HIPPOLYTE,) a French antiquary, born at
Semur in 1772 ; died in 1841.
Maillat. See MAILLA.
Maillebois, de, deh maTbwa' or mt'ye-bwa', (JEAN
BAPTISTE FRANCOIS Desmarets — cli-mt'ii',) MARQUIS,
a famous French general, born in Paris in 1682, was a son
of Nicolas Desmarets, contrdleitr-general, and a grandson
of the great Colbert. After many services, he was made
lieutenant-general in 1731, commanded a division in Italy
in 1 733, and took Corsica in 1 739. He obtained the rank
of marshal in 1741, defeated the Austrians on the Po in
September, 1745, and was forced to retreat at the battle
of Piacenza, in June, 1746. Died in 1762.
See VOLTAIRE, "Siecle de Louis XV;" SISMONDI, " Histoire des
Francais ;" MASSON DE PKZAY, '' Histoire des Campagnes du Maie1-
chal de Maillebois en Italie," 3 vols., 1775.
Maille-Breze, de, deh mt'ya' bReh-zi', (URBAIN,) a
French general, who obtained command of the French
army in Germany in 1634, and defeated the Spaniards
at Avesnes in 1635. Having gained several advantages
in Flanders between 1642 and 1650, he was made a
marshal of FYance. His wife was Nicole, a sister of
Cardinal Richelieu. He died in 1650.
His son, ARMAND, born in 1619, became Due de
Fronsac and de Caumont. As admiral of France, he
defeated the Spaniards off Cadiz in 1640, and was killed
at Orbitello in 1646.
See GRIHFET, " Histoire de Louis XIII."
Maille de Breze, de, deh mt'ya' deh bReh-za',
(SlMON,) a French prelate, born in 1515. He became
Archbishop of Tours in 1554, and was a member of the
Council of Trent. Died in 1597.
Maillet, mS'y.V, ( JACQUES LEONARP, ) a French
sculptor, born in Paris in 1823. He gained the first
prize in 1847.
Maillet, de, deh mt'yi', (BENOIT,) a French writer,
)orn at Saint-Mihiel in 1656. He was consul-general of
France in Egypt about ten years, ending in 1702, and
published a "Description of Egypt," (1735,) which has
some merit. lie also wrote a singular treatise on cos
mology, entitled "Telliamed," (anagram of De Maillet.)
Died in 1738.
Maillet-Duclairon, mt'yi' clifkli'roN', (ANTOINE,)
a French author, born near Macon in 1721. He cor
responded with Voltaire and Turgot, and wrote several
works, among which is " Cromwell," a tragedy, (1764.)
Died in 1809.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, if., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MA1LLT
1500
MAINTENON
Mailly.mS'ye', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a respectable French
historian, horn at Dijon in 1744. He lectured on his
tory at Godran College in Dijon, and published " Spirit
of the Fronde," (" L'Esprit de la Fronde," 1772,) and
"Spirit of the Crusades," ("L'Esprit des Croisades," 4
vols., 1780.) Died in 1794.
Mailly d'Hautcourt, de, deh mS'ye' do'kooR', (JO
SEPH AUGUSTIN,) COUNT, a French general, born in
1708. After the peace of 1763 he was commandant-in-
chief of Roussillon. He obtained the rank of marshal
in 1783. lie was beheaded as a royalist in 1794.
Maimbourg, maN'booR', (Louis,) a French Jesuit
and historian, born at Nancy in 1620. He acquired
reputation by his historical works, which, however, are
neither accurate nor impartial. Having written a treatise
in defence of the liberties of the Gallican Church, and
thus offended the pope, he was expelled from the order
of fesuits. Among his works are (in French) a "His
tory of the Iconoclasts," (1674,) a '•History of the
Crusades," (1675,) a "History of Arianism," (1682,) a
" History of Calvinism," (1682.) and a " History of the
Pontificate of Saint Leo," (1687.) His style is agree
able. Voltaire expressed the opinion that he was " over
rated at first, and too much neglected afterwards." Died
in 1 686.
See DUPIN', " Bibliotheque eccUsiastique ;" BAYLE, " Historical
and Critical Dictionary."
Maimoii. See MAIMONIDES.
Maimon, mi'mon, (SOLOMON,) a Jewish rabbi and
philosopher, born in Lithuania in 1753. He had a talent
for metaphysical speculations, and a skeptical spirit.
Among his best works are "Critical Researches on the
Human Mind," (" Kritische Untersuchungen liber den
menschlichen Geist," 1797,) and memoirs of his own life,
entitled " Lebensgeschichte," (2 vols., 1793.) Died in
1800.
See WOI.F, "Rhapsodien zur Characteristik S. Maimons," 1813.
Maimonide. See MAIMONIDKS.
Maimoiiides, nn-moi/e-des, [ Fr. MAI'MONIDE, mt'e'-
mo'ned', ] or Mo'ses-Beii-Maimon, ( bcn-mT'mon, )
called by the Arabs Moosa-Ibn-Maimoon, (Musa-
Ibii-Maimuii or -Maimouii,) moo'sa Tb'n mi'moon', a
Jewish rabbi and philosopher of great celebrity, was born
at Cordova, in Spain, about 1135. He studied philosophy
and medicine under the famous Averroes, with whom he
formed a lasting friendship, and was also versed in mathe
matics and several languages. Having removed to Egypt
about 1 165, he became chief physician to the Sultan
Saladin and his successor. lie acquired a great repu
tation for talents and learning. Among his numerous
works are "The Strong Hand," a digest of Hebrew
laws, and " More Nebokhim ; or, Teacher of the Per
plexed," (in Arabic,) which explains difficult and obscure
portions of the Old Testament. Died in 1209.
See AKRAHAM GEIGER. " Mose Hen Maimon, seine Lebensge-
scliichte," iS;o: OLAUS CELSIUS. " De Maimonide," 1727; PETER
BKER, "Das Leben Moses ben Maimon," 1835: LEMANS, " Levens-
beschrijvine van Maimonides," 1815; STEIN, "Moses Maimonides,"
1846; R. M. MAIMONIDRS, "Account of the Life, etc. of Maimoni
des," London, 1837; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mainardi, ml-naR/dee, (ANDREA,) an Italian painter,
born at Cremona about 1550. He was sometimes called
CHIAVEGHINO, (ke-a-va-gee'no.) Died after 1613.
Mainardi, (]>ASTIANO,) a painter of the Florentine
school, born in Tuscany, lived about 1500.
Mainardi, (LATTANZIO,) an Italian painter, born at
P>ologna, lived about 1590. He was employed by the
pope SixUis V. to adorn with frescos the church of Santa
Maria Maggiore, and the Vatican. Died at the age of
twenty-seven.
Maindron, maN'dRoN', (firiENNK HIPPOLYTE,) a
French statuary, born in the department of Maine-et-
Loire in 1801.
Maine, (LACROIX DU.) See LACROIX r>u MAINE.
Maine de Biran, min deh be'ro.x', (MARIE FRAN
COIS PIERRE GONTHIER,) an eminent French metaphy
sician, born near Bergerac in 1766. After opposing the
excesses of the Revolution, he was deputed from Dor-
dogne to the Council of Five Hundred in 1797. From
1809 to 1814 he was a member of the legislative body.
After the restoration of 1816 he was a moderate royalist
member of the Chamber of Deputies. He gained in
1803 a prize of the Institute for his essay "On the Influ
ence of Habit on the Faculty of Thought," (" De ['Influ
ence de 1'Habitude sur la Faculte de Penser.") He also
wrote the metaphysical part of the article "Leibnitz" in
the " Biographic Universelle," a "Memoir on the De
composition of Thought," ("Sur la Decomposition de la
Pensee," 1805,) and several other works. M. V. Cousin
estimated him as the greatest metaphysician of P'rance
since Malebranche. Died in 1824.
See ERNKST NAVIU.K, "Maine de Biran, sa Vie et sts Pensee^,"
1857; DAMIRON, " Essai sur i'Histoire de la Philosophic en Trance
an dix-neuvieme Siecle ;" SAINTK-BEUVE, "Causeries du Lundi ;"
COUSIN, Preface to the " CEuvres philosophiques de Maine de
Biron," 1841 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale ;" " British Quarterly
Review" for October, iS66.
Maine, du, du m;\n, (Louis AUGUSTE DE BOURI:ON,)
DUKE, the son of Louis XIV. and Madame de Monies-
pan, was born in 1670, and legitimated in 1673. lie was
appointed general of the galleys in 1688, and grand
master of the artillery in 1694. The king recognized
him as a prince of the blood and capable of succeeding
to the throne. The duke appears to have displayed a
gentle and liberal spirit, with moderate literary talents.
Died in 1736.
See SAINT-SIMON', "Memoires;" LEMONTEY, " Histoire de la
R'>;;eiice ;" M \D\MK DE SKVIGNE, "Lettres."
Mainfioi. See MANFRED.
Maiiio, ml'no, (GiASoNE,) an Italian jurist, born at
Pesaro in 1435. He \vas professor of law at Pavi'a from
1467 to 1486. After an absence he returned to Pavi'a in
1491, and lectured to large classes of Italian, French,
and German students. He published commentaries on
the Digest, three Latin orations, and " Consilia sive
Responsa." Died in 1519.
See FABRONI. "Vita: Italonim doctrina excellentium."
Mainteiion, de, deh maNt'noN', (FRANCOIS D'Au-
KIGNE,) MAKOOISK, a French lady, whose life was
marked by romantic adventures and surprising vicissi
tudes, was born in 1635, in the prison of Niort, (where
her father, Constant d'Aubigne, was detained.) She was
a granddaughter of the eminent author T. A. d'Aubigne.
Having become a poor orphan, she was constrained
by her guardians to abjure Calvinism. To escape the
miseries of dependence on her unkind godmother, she
married in 1652 Scarron the burlesque poet and wit, who
was infirm and deformed in person. His house was a
fashionable resort of the most brilliant wits and noblesse
of Paris. He died in 1660, leaving her again destitute
of resources except her rare beauty and talents. Her
eyes are described as dark, intensely spiritual, and inex
pressibly lustrous. She received a pension of 2000 li vres
from the queen-mother for several years preceding the
death of the latter, in 1666.
About 1670 Madame Scarron was selected as govern
ess of the Due du Maine, a son of Louis XIV. and
Madame de Montespan. The king presented to her the
estate of Maintenon in 1674, after which she was called
Madame de Maintenon. She gradually gained a com
plete ascendant over Louis, and was secretly married to
him in 1685. The marriage was never formally avowed
by him. " It would be hard to name any woman," says
Macaulay, "who, with so little romance in her temper,
has had so much in her life. ... A just understanding ;
an inexhaustible yet never redundant flow of rational,
sprightly conversation ; a temper of which the serenity
was never for a moment ruffled ; a tact which surpassed
the tact of her sex as much as the tact of her sex sur
passes the tact of ours : such were the qualities which
made the widow of a buffoon first the confidential friend
and then the spouse of the proudest and most powerful
of European kings." Madame de Sevigne describes her
society as "truly delicious."
She laboured assiduously to convert the king to vital
religion. Louis transacted business with his ministers
in her apartment, discussed the most important ques
tions in her presence, and often asked her advice in these
terms: "Qu'en pense votre Solidite?" ( " What does
your Solidity think about it?") He was once dissuaded
by her from the cruel purpose of burning the city of
Treves. As the king grew old and fretful, her task of
entertaining him became very arduous. "I have seen
her," says Mile. d'Aumale, "divert the king by a thou-
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, yi short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon;
MAINflELLE
1501
MA1TLAND
sand inventions for four hours together, without repeti
tion, yawning, or slander." She founded a good school
for girls at Saint-Cyr. She died in 1719. Her letters
and other works have been published by M. Lavallee, in
lovo's., (1854 et seq.) This edition includes "Souvenirs
de Mine, de Caylus," and " Memoires de Mile. d'Au-
male."
See CARMTCIOI.I, "Viede Madame de Main tenon," 1786; MA
DAME SUARD, " Madame de Maintenon peinte par elle-meme," 1810;
MONMEKQUE, "Notice snr Madame de Mamienon," 1820; LA
BKAUMKI.I.E, "Memoires potir servir al'Histoir.? de Mnie. de Main-
tenon," 1756 ; LE Due DE NOAILI.ES "Histoire de Madame de
M.iintenon," 4 vols., i84S-5g; LA FONT D'AUSOSMH, "Histoire dc
Madame de Maintenon," 1814; VOLTAIRE, ".Siecie de Louis XIV;"
SAINTE-BEUVE, "Canseries dn Lundi," tome iv. ; " Noiivelle Bio
graphie Ge'nerale ;" W. H. D. ADAMS, " Famous Beauties and
Historic Women," vol. i., London, 1865; "Blackwood's Maga-
?ine" for February, 1850; " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1849;
" Letters of Madame de Maintenon," in the " Monthly Review" for
January, 1753.
Mainvielle, maN've'SK, or Mainville, maN'vel',
(PiERRE,) a member of the French Convention of 1792,
* ^ » • .1-1
was born at Avignon in 1765. He
the Girondists in October, 1793.
See LAMARTINE, " Histoire des Girondi:
Mairobert, de, deh mi'ro'baiR', (MATHIEU FRAN
COIS PiDANSAT,)a French writer, born in Champagne in
1707. Among his works is the "Observateur Anglais,"
(4 vols., 1778,) reprinted under the title of "Espion
Anglais," ("English Spy.'") Died in 1779.
Maironi da Fonte, mi-ro'nee da pon'ta, (Gio-
VANNI,) an Italian naturalist and writer, born at Ber
gamo in 1748; died in 1833.
Maiseaux, Des. See DKSMAISEAUX.
Maison, ma'/ox', (Nicoi.,\s JOSEPH,) COUNT, a mar
shal of France, was born at Epinay, near Paris, in 1771.
He distinguished himself at Jemmapes in 1792. In 1799
he became adjutant-general or chief of the staff in the
army of Bernadotte. For his services at Austerlit/,, in
1805, he was made a general of brigade. He took part
in the Russian campaign of 1812, during which he ob
tained the rank of general of division. In 1814 he
received from Louis XVIII. the title of peer and the
command of the army of Paris. He refused to recog
nize Bonaparte on his return from Elba. He commanded
Mainzer, nnnt'ser, (JOSEPH,) a German musician and
writer on music, born at Treves in 1801 ; died in 1851.
Maio or Majo, da, da ma'yo, (FRANCESCO or Cic-
Cio,) an excellent Italian composer of operas and sacred
music, born at Naples in 1745, (some say about 1740.)
Among his operas are " Montezuma," (1765,) and
"Ipermnestra," (1770.) Died at Rome in 1/74.
See FETIS, "Biographic Universel'e des Mus ciens."
Maioli or Majoli, ma-yo'lee, (Ci.s\ui,) an Italian
naturalist, born at Forli in 1746. He obtained a chair
of philosophy at Rome in 1781. He'wnite many works
on botany and zoology, the most of which remain in
manuscript. Died in 1823.
See FARINI, "Memorie sopra la Vita del Majoli," 1^24.
Maioli or Majoli, (SIMONE,) an Italian canonist,
born at Asti about 1520.
Maioragio or Majoragio, ma-yo-ra'jo, [Lat. MA-
JOKA'GIUS,] (MARCANTONIO,) an eloquent and learned
Italian writer, whose proper name was ANTONIO MARIA
CONTI, was born in the Milanese in 1514. At the age
of twenty-six he obtained the chair of eloquence at
Milan. He wrote a "Commentary on the Works of
was executed with the expedition against the Turks of the Morea in 1828,
and on his return received a marshal's baton. He was
sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1830, and became min-
>ther
>rks.
ister of war in 1835. Died in 1840.
See THIERS, " Histoire de la Republique, du Consu'at et de
I'Empire ;" MARMONT, " Memoires ;" VICTOR DE BKOC;I.IB, " Elogi
historique du Marechal Maison, " 1842 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene-
rale."
Maisonfort, de la, deh It mi'zdN'foR', (Louis Du-
r.ois DESCOURS,) MARQUIS, a French biographer, born
in Berry in 1763, was a royalist. He published a bio
graphical Dictionary of those who figured in the French
Revolution, (3 vols., 1800.) Died in 1827.
Maisonneuve, de, deh mi'zo'nuv', (Louis JEAN
BAPTISTE,) a French dramatic poet, born at Saint-Cloud
about 1745. His tragedy of " Roxelane et Mustapha"
(1785) had a prodigious' success. He produced, also,
" Odmar and Zulma," (1788.) Died in 1819.
Maissiat, mi'se't', (MiCHEL,) a French topographical
engineer, born at Nantua in 1770. He published several
professional works. Died in 1822.
Maistral, mi'tntr, (Espurr TRANQUILLE,) a French
naval officer, born at Quimper in 1763 ; died in 1805.
Maistre. See SACY.
Maistre, (ISAAC.) See LEMAISTRE.
Maistre, de, deh mitR, (JOSEPH MARIE,) COUNT, an
eminent political writer and philosopher, was born at
Cicero," poems, harangues, and vari
Died in 1555. j Chambery, in Savoy, in 1754, He was a warm oppo-
Maiquez, mT-keth', (IsiDORO.) a ponular Spanish ! nent of the French Revolution, and attached to the
comedian, born at Carthagena about 1766. He intro- ultramontane school of theology. In 1796 he published
cluced at Madrid a more simple and natural style of
action, and was reputed the most excellent comedian
that Spain had produced. Died in 1820.
Mair, (JOHN.) See MAJOR, (Joirx.)
Considerations on France," which obtained great suc
cess. He was appointed by the King of Sardinia grand
chancellor in 1799. From '1802 to 1816 he was ambas
sador to Saint Petersburg, and, on his return to Turin
Mairaii, de, deh mi'iSx', JEAN JACQUES DORTOUS,) in 1817, became minister of state. His most important
a distinguished French savant and litterateur, born at ' work is entitled "On the Pope," (" Du Pape," 1819,) an
Beziers in 1678. About 1718 he removed to Paris, and j argument for the cause of popery and absolutism. Died
was elected to the Academy of Sciences, for which he in 1821. He was distinguished as an original thinker,
wrote many memoirs on geometry, physics, and other
sciences. He published a " Dissertation on Ice," (" Dis
sertation sur la Glace,") "Letters on China," and other
works. In 1740 he succeeded Fontenelle as secretary
to the Academy of Sciences, and in 1743 was elected to
See RAYMOND, " E"!oge du Comte J. M. de Maistre." 1827 ; VIL-
T.EMAIN, "Cours de Litterature -£v;b»£»&e au dix-ln itieme Siece;"
the French Academy. He was intimate with Voltaire.
Died in 1771.
See VILI.KMAIN. "Tableau de la I.itterature Francaise au dix-
VILLENEL-VE-ARIFAT, " E"lope du CVmte J. de Maistre." 1^5.3;
SAINTE-BF.UVE, "Causeries du Lundi," and " Portraits contempo-
rains;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate;" "Edinburgh Review"
for October, 1852 ; "Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1849.
Maistre, de, (XAVIER,) a popular and witty author,
a brother of the preceding, was born at Chambery
in 1764. He entered the Russian service about iSco,
^"iSd:^ the Persians, and obtained the rank of
de Mairan," 1771; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." j major-general. Ill 1794 he produced (ill French) his m-
TVTairaiiltL rifi deh ma'ro'. fAnRiEN MAURICE.) a genious and humorous " Journey around my Chamber,"
Mairault, de, deh mi'ro', (ADRIEN MAURICE,)
French critic, born in Paris in 1708. He aided Desfon-
taines in his critical works. Died in 1746.
Maire, Le. See LEMAIRE.
Mairet, mi'ri', (JEAN,) a French dramatic poet, born
at Besan9on in 1604: In 1629 he produced his principal
work. " Sophonisba,'' a tragedy, which was very suc
cessful, and formed an epoch in the annals of the French
theatre, being the first in which the rule of unities was
observed. He wrote many other tragedies and come
dies. Died in 1686.
genious „ .
("Voyage autour de ma Chambre.") lie maintained
his reputation as an elegant writer by tales entitled
" Prisoners of the Caucasus," and " Prascovie, ou la
jeune Siberienne." After 1817 he lived alternately in
France and Saint Petersburg. Died in 1852.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, " Portraits contemporaius ;" " Nouveile Bio
graphie Generale."
Maitani, ml-ta'nee, (LORENZO,) an Italian architect,
born at Sienna about 1240; died after 1310.
Mait'land, (Sir FREDERICK LEWIS,) a British naval
„ r ..r •„ officer, horn in Scotland in 1779. As captain, he served
et S^P^ONT^ ^C^eille^'^ C°rne'"e I with distinction against the French on the coast of Egypt
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MA IT LAND
1502
MAJORAG1O
in 1801. In 1815 he was ordered to keep watch on the
coast of France in order to prevent the escape of Na
poleon, who surrendered himself to Captain Maitland in
[uly and was conveyed by him in the Bellerophon to
England. He obtained the rank of rear-admiral. Died
in 1839.
Maitland, (TAMES.) See LAUDERDALE, EARL OF.
Maitland, (JOHN.) See LAUDERDALE, DUKE OF.
Maitland, (JOHN,) of Thirlestane, first Lord Mait
land, an eminent Scottish statesman, born about 1540,
was the second son of Sir Richard Maitland, noticed
below, and grandfather of the Duke of Lauderdale. He
was appointed keeper of the privy seal in 1567. For his
loyalty to Queen Mary he was proscribed by the domi
nant party about 1570 and imprisoned several years. In
1584 he was made secretary of state, and became in fact
the chief minister of James VI. He was appointed chan
cellor of Scotland in 1586 or 1587, and created Baron
Maitland in 1590. lie is praised for his moderation and
integrity as well as for his talents. Several of his Latin
epigrams have been published. Died in 1595.
See MACKENZIE, "Scotch Writers;" LODGE, "Lives of Eminent
Personages."
Maitland, (Sir RICHARD,) of Lethington, a Scottish
writer and judge, born in 1496, was the father of Sir Wil
liam Maitland, noticed below, and of John, first Lord
Maitland. He studied law in France, and held several
high offices. About 1550 he was chosen a lord of session,
and in 1562 lord privy seal, lie acquired distinction
as a poet and collector of Scottish poetry. One of his
poems is entitled "Creation and Paradise Lost." Died
in 1586.
See IRVINK, " Lives of the Scottish Poets ;" MACKENZIE, " Scotch
Writers;" CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots
men."
Maitland, (Rev. SAMUEL ROFFEY,) D.D., F.R.S., an
able English essayist and writer on ecclesiastical history,
etc., was born in London in 1792. He was librarian to
the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1837 to 1848. lie
was author of numerous essays on theology, morals, etc.
Among his principal and most popular works is "The
Dark Ages : being a Scries of Essays intended to Illus
trate the State of Religion and Literature in the Ninth,
Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Centuries," (1844.) He
aims to prove that those ages were not so dark as they
are commonly represented. Died in 1866.
Maitland, (Sir WILLIAM,) of Lethington, Lithington,
or Lidington, an able Scottish minister of state, was
the eldest son of Sir Richard, noticed above. In 1558
he became principal secretary to Mary of Guise, queen-
regent; but in 1559 he joined the Protestant chiefs who
had taken arms against her. He was restored to the
office of secretary of state by Mary Queen of Scots in
1561. Though not a Catholic, he enjoyed the favour and
confidence of the queen, who sent him >>n several em
bassies to Queen Elizabeth. After Mary was imprisoned,
(1567,) he adhered to her cause, and united with the
Duke of Norfolk in an effort to save her. Having failed
in an attempt to mediate between the two hostile parties,
in 1570 he declared openly for the queen. His enemy,
Regent Morton, took him prisoner, and would probably
have hung him if Maitland had not died soon after, as
some suppose, by his own hand, in 1573. "All the con
temporary writers," says Robertson, "mention him with
an admiration which nothing could have excited but the
greatest superiority of penetration and abilities." " His
name," says Burton, "was a by-word for subtlety and
state-craft. Yet, ... if we look at his life and doings,
we do not find he was one of those who have left the
mark of their influence upon their age. . . . He had
great abilities, but they were rather those of the wit and
rhetorician than of the practical man." ("History of
Scotland," vol. iv. pp. 55-57.) Hume styles Maitland
" Secretary Lidington." Queen Elizabeth called him
"the flower of the wits of Scotland."
See FROUDE, "Reign of Elizabeth," passim, but particularly
chans. xix. and xxiii. ; HUME, " History of England ;" ROBERTSON,
" History of Scotland."
Maitland, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish antiquary, born at
Brechin about 1693. He became a resident of London,
and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He
published a " History of London," (1739,) and a " His
tory of Edinburgh." Died in 1757.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Maittaire, mi'tiu', (MICHEL,) an eminent scholar
and bibliographer, born in France in 1668, was the son
of Protestant parents, svho emigrated to England when
the edict of Nantes was revoked, (1685.-) lie was a
good classical scholar, and edited many Greek and Latin
authors. lie resided many years in London. Among
his most important productions are " Dialects of the
Greek Language," (1706,) and "Typographic Annals
from the Invention of Printing to 1557," ("Annales Ty
pographic! ab Artis Inventoe Origine ad Annum 1557,"
•9 vols., 1719-41,) a work of great research, and superior
to any that had appeared on that subject. Died in 1747.
See DIHDIN, "Bibliomania;" P. CHASI.BS, "Dissertation on the
Life and Works of M Maittaire," London, 1819.
Maitz de Goimpy, du,clum;\tsdehgwaN'pe', (FRAN
COIS Louis EI>MK GAIJKIK.I.,) COUNT, a French astrono
mer and naval officer, born in Beau:e in 1729 ; died after
1784.
Maius. See MAY.
Maizeroy, de, deh m.\//rwa', (PAUL GEDEON JULY,)
a French officer and eminent tactician, was born at Metz
in 1719. He served several campaigns, ending at the
peace of 1763, and became lieutenant-colonel. He wrote
numerous works on tactics and military science, which
had a transient success, but are now obsolete. Died in
1780.
Maiziere.3, de, deh mi'ze-aiit', (PHILIPPE,) a French
writer, born in the diocese of Amiens in 1312. He insti
gated the Kings of France and of Cyprus to conduct a
crusade against the Saracens of Egypt in 1365. He
wrote an allegory, " Le Songe du vieil Pelerin," etc.
Died in 1405.
See " Noiivelle 1'iographie Generale."
Majano. See MAIANO.
Majlath. See MAI LATH.
Majo. See MAIO.
Majoli. See MAIOI.I.
Major, ma'yoR, or Meier, ml'er, (GF.ORG,) a German
Lutheran theologian, born at Nuremberg in 1502. He
studied under Luther and Melanchthon at Wittenberg,
where he was afterwards professor of theology for many
years. He published commentaries on the New Testa
ment, and many theological works. Died in 1574-
See C. UI.ENBKRG, "Vita et Res gests M. Lutheri, P. Melanch-
thonis et G. Majoris," 1622.
Major, (ISAAC,) a German painter and engraver,
born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1576. He engraved
a number of large landscapes representing scenes in
the mountains of Bohemia. Died in 1630.
Major, ([OIIANN* DANIEL,) a German physician and
antiquary, born at Breslau in 1634. He practised with
success at Hamburg. In 1665 he obtained the chair of
medicine at Kiel, where he planted a botanic garden.
He wrote, in Latin, many learned professional treatises.
Died in 1693.
Ma'jor, (JoiiN,) written also Mair, a Scottish his
torian and theologian, born near North Berwick about
1470. He passed a number of years in Paris as a stu
dent and then as a professor of scholastic philosophy.
In 1519 he returned to Scotland, and some years later
became professor of theology at Saint Andrew's, where
George Buchanan and John Knox were his pupils. lie
wrote, (in Latin,) besides other works, " Commentaries
on the Four Books of Sentences," and a " History of
Scotland." Died about 1550. Robertson calls him a
" succinct and dry writer."
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Ma'jor, (RICHARD HENRY,) an English antiquary,
born in London in 1818. He edited several works, and
wrote a " Life of Prince Henry the Navigator," (1868.)
Major, (THOMAS,) a skilful English engraver, born
about 1715. He engraved landscapes after Berghem,
Teniers, Claude Lorrain, etc. Among his most ad
mired works are twenty-four views of the Ruins of
Paestum, after J. B. Borra, published at London, (1768.)
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Majoragio. See MAIORAGIO.
a, e, T, a, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ti, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
MAJORAG1W
Majoragius. See MAIORAGIO.
Majoraiio, (GAETANO.) See GAFFARELI.I.
Ma-jo'ii-an, [Lat. MAJORIA'NUS; Fr. MAJORIEN,
m&'zho're-^N', ] (Jui.tus VALERIUS,) a Roman general,
who succeeded Avitus as Emperor of the West in 457
A.I). He defeated Theodoric the Visigoth in Gaul in 459,
and afterwards waged war against Genseric. He was
deposed and put to death by Kicimer in 461.
See TII.I.EMONT, " Histoire cles Empereurs ;" SMITH, "Diction
ary of Greek and Roman Biography."
Majorien. See MAJORIAX.
Majus, ma'yiis, (HKINRICH,) aGerman natural philos
opher, born at Cassel in 1632 ; died in 1696.
Majus, (JoHAr'N BUKKHARD,) a German historian,
born at Pfortzhelm in 1652. He wrote " De Rebus
Badensibus," (1678,) and other works. Died in 1726.
Majus or Maius, (JoiiANN HEINRICH,) an Oriental
ist, brother of the preceding, was born in 1653. He wrote
on theology and Hebrew antiquities. Died in 1719.
Makeblyde, ma'keh-bli'deh, (Louis,) a Flemish
religious writer, born at Poperingue in 1564; died in
1630.
Makkaree, Makkari, or Makkary, Al, Si mak'-
ka-ree, (AiiMED-lBN-MoHAMMKD, ail'mOd ib'n mo-ham'-
mcd,) an Arabian historian, born at Tlemcen about
1585. He became a resident of Cairo about 1620, and
wrote numerous historical and theological works, the
most important of which is a valuable " History of Spain
during the Domination of the Moors," which was trans
lated into English by Pascnal cle Gayangos, under the
title of a "History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in
Spain," (2 vols., 1843.) Died in 1631.
See " Nouvelie Hiographie Generale."
Mako, mok'ko, (PAUL,) a learned Hungarian Jesuit,
born in 1723. He wrote on geometry, physical science,
etc. Died in 1793.
Makouski. See MAKOWSKT.
Makowski, ma-kov'skee, written also Makouski,
[Lat. MACCC/VIUS,] (JOHN,) a Polish Protestant divine,
born at Lob/.enick in 1588. He was noted for disputa-
tiousness and fondness for scholastic subtleties. Died
in 1644.
See JOHANN COCCEJI, "Oratio in Funere J. Maccovii," 1644.
Makreezee or Makrizi, Al, tl ma-kRee'zee, sur-
namecl TAKYAH-ED-DEEN or TAKY-ED-DEEN, (or TAKI-
EDi>L\r,) tak'yed deei/, (i.e. the " Support of Religion,") a
celebrated Arabic writer, born at Cairo about 1360. He
held several civil and religious offices in his native city.
He wrote many historical works, which attest the variety
and extent of his knowledge. His " Historical and Topo
graphical Description of Egypt" gives an ample account
of the events which occurred after the conquest of the
Saracens, and of the customs and antiquities of that
country. He also wrote a "History of Saladin and
his Successors," and a treatise on Moslem Coins. The
above-named works have been translated into French
by Silvestre de Sacy. Al Makreezee has the reputa
tion of being, on the whole, an impartial, trustworthy,
and eminently judicious writer. Died in 1442.
See SILVESTRE DE SACY, " Chrestomathie Arabe."
Makrizi. See MAKREEZEE.
Malabranca, ma-la-buan'ka, (LATINO,) an Italian
Dominican, called also Frangiparii, was a nephew of
Pope Nicholas III. He was made Bishop of Ostia and
Velletri in 1278. His diplomatic talents were1 employed
and approved by several successive popes. Died about
1294. The celebrated hymn " Dies Iras" is attributed
to him by many writers.
Malacarne, ma la-kaR'na, (MiciiELE VINCENZO,) an
Italian surgeon, born at Saluzzo in 1744. He contributed
by his works to the progress of science in Italy. He was
professor of surgery at Padua from 1794 until his death,
in 1816. Among his works is a treatise on Encepha-
lotomy.
Ma'1'a-ehi, [Heb. 'D.sSo.] the last of the minor He
brew prophets, is supposed to have prophesied about
420 r,.C. Nothing is positively known of his history.
The name signifies " angel," or " messenger of the Lord."
The book of Malachi is the last book of the Old Testa
ment, in the order of time as well as of position.
Malachowski, ma-la-Kov'skee, (CASIMIR,) a Polish
general, born in 1765. He had the chief command at
Warsaw when that place was taken by the Russians in
1831. Died in 1845.
Malagrida, ma-la-gRee'da, (GAURIELE,) an Italian
Jesuit, born in the Milanese in 1689. He removed to
Portugal, became a popular preacher, and wrote several
works. He was suspected of complicity in the attempt
to assassinate the King of Portugal, (1758.) and was
convicted of heresy, for which he was burned in 1761.
See SMITH, " Memoirs of the Marquis of Pombal ;" VOLTAIRE,
" Precis clu Siecle de Louis XV ;" " Nouvelle Hiographie Generale ;"
PI.ATEL, " Relazioue della Condamna ed Esecuzione del Gesuita G.
Malagrida,'' 1761.
Malaguti, ma-la-goo'tee, (FRANgois,) a distinguished
chemist, born at Bologna in 1802. Having settled in
France, he studied in the laboratory of Gay-Lussac, and
became in 1850 professor of chemistry at Rennes. He
published several valuable works, among which is " Les
sons of Agricultural Chemistry," (1848.)
Malaiiie, mi'l&n', (JOSEPH LAURENT,) a French
painter of flowers, born at Tournai in 1745; died in
Paris in 1809.
Mal'a-la, Mal'e-la, or Mal'e-las, [Gr. MoAa/ia or
Ma/.£'/.a,j called also JOHN OF ANTIOCH, was the author
of a Greek chronicle which extends from the creation
to the year 566 A.D. It was first printed by Chilmead,
at Oxford, in 1691. The time and place of his birth and
death are not known. He was, perhaps, the same as
John of Antioch the Scholastic.
See CAVE, " Historia Literaria."
Malan, mi'l6NT/, (ABRAHAM HENRI CESAR,) a Swiss
theologian, born at Geneva in 1787, was the leader of a
sect sometimes called momiers. Died in 1864.
See the "Life, Labours, etc. of Caesar Malan," by his son, Lon
don, 1869.
Malapert, mt'lS'paiR', (CHARLES,) a Flemish poet
and geometer, born at Mons in 1581. He became a
Jesuit, and a professor of mathematics in various col
leges. He published Latin poems, and several works
on geometry. Died in Spain about 1630.
Malarme, de, deh mS'lium', (CHARLOTTE,) COUNT
ESS, a novelist, born at Metz, France, in 1753, was a
sister of Count de Bournon, the mineralogist. She
wrote "Niralba," (1800,) and other novels. Died about
1830.
Malaspiiia, ma-ia-spee'na, (RICORDANO,) the earliest
historian of Florence, was born in that city in the thir
teenth century. He wrote a "History of Florence from
its Origin to the Year 1281."
See TIRABOSCHI, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Malaspina di Sannazaro, ma-la-spee'na de san-
nad-za'ro, (Luici,) MARQUIS, an Italian writer and politi
cal economist, born at Pavia in 1754. He founded a
school of fine arts in his native city. Died in 1834.
Malatesta, ma-la-teVta, a noble Italian family, which
acquired the lordship of Rimini in the thirteenth cen
tury, and furnished several leaders of the Guelph party.
MALATESTA II. and GALEOTTO MALATESTI, sons of
Pandolfe I., began to reign over Rimini in 1335. They
had a great military reputation, and next to the Visconti
were perhaps the most powerful princes of Italy. The
former died in 1364, and Galeotto in 1385, leaving two
sons, CARLO and PANDOLFO III. These two became
able generals, and commanded the army of Visconti,
Duke of Milan, from 1393 to 1408. Carlo, who was
Lord of Rimini, died without issue in 1429. The de
scendants of Pandolfo HI. possessed Rimini until 1528,
when it was added to the papal dominions.
Malatesta, (BATTISTA,) an Italian lady of eminent
talents, was married in 1405 to Galeotto Malatesta,
Seigneur of Pesaro. She taught philosophy in public,
and
wrote some admired verses.
.
made Latin orations before the emperor and pope, and
Malaval, mt'li'vtl', (FRANgois,) a French mystic,
born at Marseilles in 1627, became blind in infancy,
but studied Latin with success. He published, besides
several prose works of a mystical character, " Poesies
spirituelles," ("Spiritual Poems.") Died in 1719.
Mai-bone', (EDWARD G.,) an American portrait-
painter, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1777. He
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
MAicnm
1504
MALEBRANCHE
visited Europe in iSoi in company with Washington
Allston, hut returned the same year to America, where
he soon acquired a high reputation in his art. Died
in 1807.
See Di'Ni.Ap, " History of the Arts of Design in America," vol.
ii. chap, ii. ; TUCKERMAN, " Book of the Artists."
Mal'-ehus [Gr. Mu^oc] OF Pnn.AnKi.PHiA, called
THE SOPHIST, a Byzantine historian, lived about 600
A.D. Fragments of his works are extant.
See CAVE, " Historia Literaria."
Malchus, vou, fon mil'Kus, (KART. AUGUST,) BARON,
a German writer, born at Mannheim in 1770, was ap
pointed minister of the interior in the kingdom of West
phalia in 1813. Me published several works on political
economy. Died in 1840.
Malcolm (maKkprn) I., King of Scots, the son of
Donald IV., succeeded his cousin, Constantine III., in
938 A.I). lie was killed by some of his own subjects who
had revolted ; but the date of this event is not known.
Malcolm II., King of Scotland, was the son of Ken
neth III. He began to reign in 1003, and resisted seve
ral hostile incursions of the Danes with success. He-
died in 1033, leaving two daughters, one of whom was
the mother of Duncan I.
Malcolm III., surnamed CANMORE, (" Great Head,")
was the sou of King Duncan, whose virtues and tragical
fate are commemorated in Shakspeare's " Macbeth."
When Duncan was killed, in 1040, Malcolm escaped to
England. (See MACHKTH.) He returned with an army,
defeated Macbeth, and ascended the throne in 1057.
About 1090 a war commenced between William II. of
England and Malcolm, who was killed in battle at Aln-
wick Castle in 1093. His sons Alexander and David
became kings.
See BURTON, " History of Scotland," vol. i. chap. xi.
Malcolm IV., King of Scotland, was born about
1140, and succeeded his grandfather, David I., in 1153.
He made peace with Henry II. of England by ceding
to him Northumberland. lie died in 1165, and was
succeeded by his brother William.
See BURTON, " History of Scotland," vol. ii. chaps, xiii., xiv. ;
BUCHANAN, " Rerum Scoiicarum Historia."
Malcolm, mal'kom, (|AMKS PEI.LER,) an engraver
and antiquary, born in Philadelphia about 1768. He
visited Europe in his youth, and became a student in
the Royal Academy of London. He published " Lon-
dinum Redivivum ; or, The Ancient History and Modern
Description of London," (1802-05,) "Seventy Views
taken within the Compass of Twelve Miles round Lon
don," (iSu,) and other works. Died in 1815.
See " Gentleman's Magazine," 1815.
Malcolm, mal'kom, (Sir JOHN,) G.C.B., a British
general and eminent historian, born in Dumfriesshire,
Scotland, in 1769. In his youth he went to India as a
cadet in the army of the Company. After performing
an important political mission to Persia, (1799,) he was
appointed to the presidency of Mysore in 1803. He
was minister-plenipotentiary to the court of Persia in
1809 and 1810. Having collected information respect
ing Persia, he went to England in 1812, and published
a valuable "History of Persia" (1815) from the earliest
times to the date of publication. He returned to India
in 1817, obtained the rank of brigadier-general, and, as
second in command, distinguished himself at the battle
of Mehidpoor, where Holkar was defeated. For several
ensuing years he governed Malwa and the adjacent
provinces in a manner which is highly commended. He
returned to England in 1821, with the rank of major-
general, was appointed Governor of Bombay in 1827,
and resigned that post about the end of 1830. Sir John
published, besides other works, a " Political History of
India," (from 1784 to 1823,) and left a "Life of Lord
Clive," which appeared in 1836. He was a brother of
Admiral Sir Pulteney Malcolm. Died in 1833.
Malcolm, (Sir PUI.TKNEY,) G.C.B., a British admiral,
born near Langholm, Scotland, in 1768, was a brother of
the preceding. He entered the navy in 1778, fought
against the Erench in the West Indies, and was made
a post-captain in 1794. He escorted the army of Sir
Arthur Wellesley to Portugal in 1808, and obtained the
rank of rear-admiral in 1813. In 1816 and 1817 he was
commander-in-chief of the Saint Helena station, where
his duty called him into intercourse with Bonaparte, who
expressed himself much pleased with his manners and
conduct. He was promoted to the rank of full admiral
in 1837. Died in 1838.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,''
(Supplement.)
Mal'cpm, (HOWARD,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born
in Philadelphia in 1799, was one of the founders of the
American Tract Society and of the American Sunday-
School Union. In 1835, as a missionary, he visited
India and China, and on his return published "Travels
in South-Eastern Africa," (1839.) He published a " Dic
tionary of the Bible," which had an extensive circulation,
and other religious works.
Malczewski, nuil-elieVskee, written also Mal-
czeski, (ANTONI,) an excellent Polish poet, born in Vol-
hynia about 1792, was a son of a general in the Russian
service. He received a French education, and entered
the army in 1811. Having quitted the army in 1816, he
travelled for some years, and is said to have been the
first Pole that ascended Mont Blanc. His reputation is
founded on a single poem, entitled "Maria; a Tale of
the Ukraine," (Warsaw, 1826,) which is one of the most
popular poems in the Polish language, lie died poor at
Warsaw in 1826.
See BIELOWSKI, "A. Malczewski," etc., 1843.
Maldachini - Famfili, mal-cla-kee'nee pam-fee'lce,
(Donna Ol.lMPlA,) an Italian woman, noted for her am
bition, vices, and political influence, was born at Viterbo
in 1594. She was married to a man whose brother, J. 15.
Pamfili, was elected pope in 1644 and assumed the title
of Innocent X. Died in 1656.
Mal'den, (HENRY,) an English writer, born about
1800, graduated at Cambridge in 1822. He became
professor of Greek in University College, London, about
1830.
Maldonado, mal-do-na'no, (Loi-K/,,) a Spanish poet
of the sixteenth century, was contemporary with Cer
vantes, who mentions him with eulogy.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Maldonado, (LoRKNXo FKKKEK,) a navigator, who
was born probably in Spain. He wrote a narrative of a
voyage which he made, or pretended to have made, from
the Atlantic to the Pacific through Behring Strait in 1588.
The majority of geographers have discredited his story.
See V. DK NAVARRETK, " Historia de la Nauticei."
Maldonat, mai-do-nat', [ Lat. MAI.DON.V'TIIS,](JIJAN,)
a celebrated Spanish theologian, born in Estremadura
in 1534. Having entered the order of Jesuits, he went
to Paris about 1564, and and acquired a high reputation
as a professor of theology. He is said to have been a
person of great talents, learning, and piety, and to have
written Latin with much purity. He wrote, besides
other works, "Commentaries on the Four Evangelists,"
(1596,) which, says Ilallam, "have been highly praised
by theologians of the Protestant side." Died in 1583.
See PRAT, "Maldonat et 1'Universite de Paris." 1857; BAYLR,
" Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICKRON, "Memoires."
Maldonatus. See MAI.DONAT.
Malebranche, mSl'bR6Nsh/,[Lat. MALEBRAN'CHIUS,]
(NICOLAS,) a French metaphysical philosopher of great
eminence, was born in Paris on the 6th of August, 1638.
His habits in youth were retired and studious. lie became
a priest of the Oratory in 1660, and was a zealous Carte
sian in philosophy, which was his favourite study. In 1674
he produced the first volume of his admirable and original
"Search for Truth," (" Recherche de la Verite,") which
was quickly and highly appreciated. New and enlarged
editions of it rapidly followed. The general design of
this work is to demonstrate the harmony of the Cartesian
philosophy with revealed religion. His style is eminently
pure, perspicuous, and elegant, having, says Fontenelle,
"all the dignity which the subject requires, and all the
grace or ornament which it could properly receive."
a, e, T. o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T,6, ii, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met: not; good; moon;
M4LEBRANCHIVS
MALHERBE
"He was," says Hallam, "a warm and almost enthusi
astic admirer of Descartes, but his mind was independent,
searching, and fond of its own inventions ; he acknow
ledged no master, and in some points dissents from the
Cartesian school. . . . The fame of Malebranche, and,
still more, the popularity in modern times of his ' Search
for Truth,' have been affected by that peculiar hypothe
sis, so mystically expressed, the seeing all things in God,
which has been more remembered than any other part
of that treatise." " He bears a striking resemblance,"
adds the same critic, " to his great contemporary Pascal.
Both of ardent minds, endowed with strong imagination
and lively wit, sarcastic, severe, fearless, disdainful of
popular opinion and accredited reputations. . . . But
in Malebranche there is a less overpowering sense of
religion ; his eye roams unblenched in the light before
which that of Pascal had been veiled in awe. He has
less energy, but more copiousness and variety." (" Intro
duction to the Literature of Europe.") "This ingenious
philosopher and beautiful writer," says Mackintosh, "is
the only celebrated Cartesian who has professedly
handled' the Theory of Morals. . . . The manner in
which he applied his principles to the particulars of
human duty is excellent. He is perhaps the first phi
losopher who has precisely laid down, and rigidly ad
hered to, the great principle that virtue consists in pure
intentions and "dispositions of mind, without which actions,
however conformable to rules, are not truly moral." He
was involved in a long and intemperate controversy with
Arnauld on the theory of ideas and on the doctrine of
grace.
In 1687 he combined all the parts of his system, and
developed them more fully, in "Conversations on Meta
physics and Religion," (" Entretiens sur la Metaphysique
et la Religion.") He was author of other religious and
mystical works, among which are "Christian and Meta
physical Meditations," (1683,) and a "Treatise on Mo
rality," ("Traite de Morale," 1684.) He gave proof of
his profound attainments as a geometer by a "Treatise
on the Communication of Motion." Died at Paris in
October, 1715.
See FONTENEU.E, " filoge de Ma'ebranche ;" MACKINTOSH,
"View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy;" J. E. ERDMANN,
"Ma'ebranche, Spinoza uncl die Sceptiker und Mystiker des sieb-
zehnten Jahrhunderts," 1836; KARI. RELKTAG, " Dissertatio de
Malebrai.chio Phi'.osnpho." 1846; NICEKON, "Memoires;" " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Malebraiichius. See MALEBRANCHE.
Maleguzzi-Valeri, mi-la-goot'see va-la'ree, (VERO
NICA,) COUNTESS, one of the most learned and gifted
women of Italy, was born at Reggio, Lombardy, in 1630.
She wrote a drama called " Innocence Recognized."
Died in 1690.
Malek-Ibn-Anas, ma'lek Ib'n an'as, the chief or
founder of one of the four Moslem sects which are ac
counted orthodox, was born at Medina in 714 A.D. His
doctrines, of which he published an explanation, were
generally adopted by the Mussulmans of Spain, Egypt,
and Barbary. Died about 795.
See HAMMER Pi'RGSTAi.L, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber ;"
" Nonvelle Biographic Generale."
Malek-Shah. See MALIK-SHAH.
Malela. See MALALA.
Malermi, ma-len'mee, or Malerbi, ma-leR'bee, (Nic-
COI.6,) an Italian translator, born in Venice in 1422. He
produced (1471) the first Italian version of the Bible
that was ever printed.
Malesherbes, de, deh maTziRb', (CHRETIEN GUIL-
I.AUME DE Lamoigiion — li'mwii/yoN',) a meritorious
French judge and philanthropist, born in Paris in 1721,
was a son of Chancellor de Lamoignon. At the age of
twenty-four he was chosen a counsellor in the Parliament,
and in 1750 became president of the Conr des Aides. He
was directntr de la librairie, or censor of books, from
1750 to 1768, and was praised for his liberality or indul
gence by Rousseau, Voltaire, and the Encyclopaedists.
He acquired great popularity by his defence of the Parlia
ment against the ministry about 1772. In 1775, having
been indicated by the public voice, he was appointed a
colleague of Turgot in the new ministry, as minister of
the king's household and of the police, but he resigned
in 1776, when Turgot was dismissed. He was elected
to the French Academy in 1775, though he had not pro
duced any purely literary work. He was author of
treatises on rural economy and finances, and of a " Me
moir on the Liberty of the Press." When Louis XVI.
was arraigned by the Convention in 1792, Malesherbes
generously offered to him his services as counsel, which
were accepted. This act of fidelity having rendered him
suspected by the terrorists, he was executed in April,
1794. His virtues are warmly eulogized by both royal
ists and republicans.
See DELISLE DE SALES, " Memoires sur la Vie publique et privee
de Malesherbes," 1803; GAILI.ARD, "Vie ou filoge histoiique de
Malesherbes," 180=;; J. B. DUBOIS, "Notice sur Lamoignon- Males
herbes," 1806 ; BOISSY D'ANGLAS, " Essai sur la Vie, etc. de Males
herbes," avols.. 1818; C. P. DUFI.ESSIS, "filoge de Malesherbes,"
1820; DUPIN A!SE, "filoge de Lamoignon-Malesherbes," 1841;
SAINTE-BEUVE, "Malesherbes," in " Causeries du Lundi," tome ii.
Malet, de, deh mS'li', (CLAUDK FRANC.OIS,) a French
general and conspirator, born at Dole in 1754. About
1806 he was dismissed from the service, and went to
Paris, where he plotted against Bonaparte, and was im
prisoned from 1808 to 1812. Having formed another
conspiracy, he announced at the barracks, in Paris, on
the 24th of October, 1812, that Bonaparte had died in
Russia, and that he (Malet) had been appointed gov
ernor of Paris by the senate. By forged orders he im
posed on the prefect of Paris, made Savary prisoner, and
shot General Hullin. At this crisis his audacity was
baffled by Laborde, who made him prisoner. Malet and
his accomplices were shot, after a summary process, in
October, 1812.
See LAFOX, "Histoire de la Conspiration du General Malet,"
1814; DOUKILLE, " Histoire de la Conspiration de Malet," 1840.
Mare-vill or Mel'vill, (GEOFFREY,) a Scottish states
man, became lord justiciary of Scotland in 1171. He is
said to have been the first who held that office.
Maleville, de, deh mSl'vel', (JACQUES,) MARQUIS, a
French jurist, born in Perigord in 1741. He aided Po<--
talis and others in framing the Civil Code, about 1800,
and wrote an " Analysis of the Discussion of the Civil
Code," (4 vols., 1805.) Died in 1824.
Maleville, de, (LEON,) a French advocate and poli
tician, born at Montauban in 1803. He was minister of
the interior for a short time in December, 1848. He
was a moderate royalist, and a devoted friend of Thiers.
COLONEL DE MALEVILLE, a brother of the preceding,
born at Domme in 1813, was killed at Solferino in July,
1859.
Malezieu, de, deh mal'ze-ur/, (NICOLAS,) a French
scholar, born in Paris in i65o^He was a friend of Fene-
lon and Bossuet, whose influence procured for him the
place of preceptor of the Due du Maine. He after
wards taught mathematics to the Duke of Burgundy,
was elected to the French Academy in 1701, and pub
lished " Elements of Geometry for the Duke of Bur
gundy," (1715.) Died in 1729.
Malfilatre or Malfillatre, de, deh rnfl'fe'latR',
(JACQUES CHARLES Louis,) a French poet, born at
Caen in 1733. He composed a poem on the "Transla
tion of Elijah to Heaven," and another called " Narcissus
in the Island of Venus," (1769,) which is said to possess
great beauties. Died in 1767.
See DE BAUDKH, "Discours sur la Vie, etc. de Malfilatre," 1825 ;
LA HAKPE, " Cours de Litterature."
Malgaigiie, mSl'gan', (JOSEPH FRANCOIS,) a French
medical writer and surgeon, born in Paris about 1806.
He published, besides other works, a "Treatise on Sur
gical Anatomy and Experimental Surgery," (2 vols.,
1838.) Died in 1865.
Malherbe, de, deh mi'liRb', (FRANCOIS,) a dis
tinguished French lyric poet, born at Caen about 1555.
He served several campaigns in the civil wars of the
League, and married Madeleine de Carriolis in 1581.
In 1587 he composed his first work, "The Tears of Saint
Peter." An "Ode to the Queen Mariede Medicis" (i6co)
was the foundation of his fame. He came to Paris a few
years later, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry IV.
during the life of that'prince. Malherbe was called the
poet of princes and the prince of poets. He died in 1628.
" He was," says La Harpe, " the first [French] model of
the noble style, and the creator of lyric poetry. He has
its enthusiasm, its movements, and its toitrmtres." " Mal-
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
95
ee Explanations, p. 23.)
MALHOUET
1506
MALLET
herbe," says Hallain, "gave a polish and a grace to the
lyric poetry of France, which has rendered his name cele
brated in her criticism. In general, \ve find in his poems
neither imagery nor sentiments that yield us delight."
Comparing him with Horace, the same critic remarks,
" He is far from deficient in that calm philosophy which
forms the charm of the Roman poet." (" Introduction
to the Literature of Europe.'1)
SeeRoux-Ai.pHERAN, " Recherches sur Malherbe et sa Famille,"
1840; '• Malherbe, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," by M. DE GOURNAV,
1852 ; SAINTK-BEUVE, " Causeriesdu Lundi," tome viii. ; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Malhouet. See MALOUET.
Malibran, mt'le'bRdN', (MARIA FELicrrA,) a cele
brated singer and actress, born in Paris in 1808, was the
daughter of Manuel Garcia, a Spanish tenor singer. She
made her debut in London in 1825, and in 1826 visited
New York, where she married M. Malibran, a banker.
After he had become a bankrupt, she separated from him
and went to Paris, where she performed with complete
success in 1828. In Italy, England, and Germany she
also obtained triumphs almost unexampled in the his
tory of artistes. Her voice was a mezzo-soprano of great
volume. She was very successful as an actress. She
died in England in 1836, soon after a second marriage
with M. de Beriot, a violinist.
See FETIS, "Biographic Uinverselle des Musiciens;" "Memoirs
of Madame Malibran," by the COUNTESS OF MERLIN.
Malik (mal'ik) or" Melik, mel'ik, El Adel, el a'clel,
I., (Seif-ed-Deen Aboobeker Mohammed, or Saif-
Eddyn Aboubekr Mohammed, slf ed-deen' a'boo-
bek'er mo-ham'med,) Sultan of Egypt and Damascus,
born at Baalbec in 1139, was a brother of the famous
Saladin. He gained victories over the crusaders in 1174
and 1187. In 1201 he became Sultan of Egypt. He
extended his dominions by conquest in Syria. Died
in 1218.
See WEIL, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. iii.
Malik-Shah, mal'ik shah, written also Malek-
(Malec- or Melek-) Shah, a famous Seljookicle sove
reign, the son of Alp- Arslan, whom he succeeded in 1072.
Under Malik-Shah the Seljookian empire reached its
highest point of power and glory. His character, like
that of his father, appears to have been singularly noble.
His succession to the throne had been disputed by his
brother Toortoosh, (Tourtousch.) Before giving battle
to his rival, he asked his minister, Nizam-ool-Moolk, as
they came out of the mosque together, what he had
prayed for. " I have prayed," answered the minister,
" that God would give you the victory over your brother."
"And I," said Malik-Shah, " that God would take away
my life and crown, if my brother is worthier to reign than
I." Perhaps the only stain upon the character of this
great prince is his having, at the instigation of his Sul
tana, the Khatoon Tdorkan, removed from office his
minister, the illustrious Nizam-661-Mdolk,* to whose
wise administration the empire was chiefly indebted for
its long-continued prosperity. Hizam ool-Mdolk died
soon after by the dagger of an assassin. Malik-Shah
survived his minister only a few months. He died in 1092.
"There is no instance," says Sir John Malcolm, "in
Persian history, of so vast an empire enjoying so long a
period of tranquillity. The kingdom he inherited, which
extended from the plains of Tartary to those of Syria,
was, during the twenty years of his reign, only disturbed
by a short contest with his uncle and brother. . . . Agri
culture was promoted, learning was encouraged ; an as
sembly of astronomers from every part of Malik-Shah's
wide dominions were employed for several years in re
forming the calendar."
See MALCOLM, "History of Persia," vol. i. chap. viii.
Malinche or Malintzin. See MARINA.
Malingre, mt'laNgk', (CLAUDE,) a French histo
rian of little merit, born at Sens about 1580. He wrote
several works on French history, which were not suc
cessful. Died about 1653.
Mal'la-ry, (CHARLES,) a Baptist minister, born in
Poultney, Vermont, in 1801, removed to Georgia. He
was one of the founders of Mercer Theological Seminary,
at Penfield, Georgia.
* This name, the only one by which he was known, signifies the
" regulator of the state or kingdom."
Mallary, (ROLLIN CARLOS,) a lawyer, a brother of
the preceding, was born in Cheshire, Connecticut, in
1784. He was a member of Congress from 1819 until
his death, in 1831.
Mallemaiis, mSl'mSN', QEAN,) a French writer, noted
for singul.ir and extravagant opinions, born at Beatine
in 1649, was a brother of Claude, noticed below. He
wrote a " History of the Church before the Reign of
Jovian," (1704,) and other works. Died in 1740.
Mallemaiis de Messanges, mal'moN' deh mi'sdNzh',
(CLAUDK,) a French savant, born at Beaune in 1653. He
was professor of philosophy for thirty-four years at the
College du Plessis, Paris. He published "A Physical
Treatise on the World," and other works. Died in 1723.
Malleolus. See HAMMERLEIN.
Mallery, de, deh mtl're', (CHARLES,) a Flemish en
graver, born at Antwerp in 1576. His son PHILIP, bom
in 1600, was a skilful engraver.
See F. BASAN, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs."
Mallet, m$.'}Y, (CHARLES AUGUSTE,) a French phi
losopher, born at Lille in 1807. He published, besides
other works, " Etudes philosophiques," (2 vols., 1837-
38,) which gained a prize of the French Academy. He
wrote numerous articles in the "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Mal'let or Malloch, mal'loK, (DAVID,) a Scottish
poet and dramatist, born at Crieff, in Perthshire, about
1698, was the son of James Malloch. He removed to
London about 1724, and changed his name to Mallet. In
1728 he produced "The Excursion," a poem, and in 1731
" Eurydice," a tragedy. He became intimate with Pope,
who procured him a situation as travelling tutor. His
tragedy " Mustapha" (1739) was performed with ap
plause. About 1740 he was appointed under-secretary
to Frederick, Prince of Wales. Among his other works
are " Amyntor and Theodora," and a " Life of Bacon. '
He is censured for acting as the venal agent of Boling-
broke in an attempt to blast the memory of Pope, (1749.)
Died in 1765. "As a writer," says Dr. Johnson, "he
cannot be placed in any high class. His dramas had
their day, — a short day, — and are forgotten : his blank
verse seems to my ear the echo of Thomson."
See JOHNSON, " Lives of the Poets ;" RUFFHEAD, " Life of Pope ;"
BOSWELL, " Life of Johnson ;" DISRAELI, " Quarrels of Authors ;"
CHAMBERS, ''Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Mallet, (El)ME,) a French litterateur, born at Melun
in 1713. He published an "Essay on the Study of
Belles-Lettres," and translated into French Davila's
" History." Died in 1755.
Mallet, mal'ler, (FREDRICK,) a Swedish writer on
science, born in 1728, was for many years professor of
mathematics at Upsal. He published many treatises
between 1752 and 1774, and co-operated with Bergman
in a general description of the earth. Of this work
Mallet wrote the astronomical part. Died in 1797.
Mallet, m&'li', (JACQUES ANDRE,) called Mallet-
Favre, a Swiss astronomer, born at Geneva in 1740, was
a favourite pupil of Daniel Bernoulli. He became pro
fessor of astronomy at Geneva about 1770, and built an
observatory there. He wrote memoirs on astronomy,
mechanics, etc. for the Academy of Paris and the Royal
Society of London, of which he was a member. Died
in 1790.
See PICOT, " filogede J. A. Mallet," 1790.
Mallet, (PAUL HENRI,) a Swiss historian, bom at
Geneva in 1730. He taught French to the Prince-Royal
of Denmark, (Christian VII.,) and returned to Geneva
in 1760. He was appointed professor of history in the
Academy of that city. Among his works (in French)
are "Monuments of the Mythology and Poetry of the
Celts," (1756,) "Memoirs on the Literature of the
North," (6 vols., 1760,) and a "History of Denmark,"
(3 vols., 1777,) which is highly esteemed and has been
translated into English, German, etc. Died in 1807.
His "Introduction a 1'Histoire de Danemark" was
translated into English, under the title of "Northern An
tiquities," which is one of the most valuable works on
Northern mythology.
See SISMONDI, "De la Vie et les ficrits de P. H. Mallet," 1807;
HAAG, " La France protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene"-
rale;" "Monthly Review" for March, 1771.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n5t; good; moon;
MJLLET-DVPJN
1507
MALTE-BRUN
Mallet-Dupan, mt'l&' du'pdN', (J.ACQUF.s,) a distin
guished publicist and editor, born at Geneva in 1749.
He became a resident of Paris in 1782, and editor of a
journal called " Mercure historique et politique," which
was very successful. In the Revolution he defended the
royalist cause, and in 1792 was compelled to suspend
the publication of the " Mercure," of which he had
written the political editorials. He then became an
exile, and in 1799 began to issue, in London, the " Mer
cure Britannique," which was ranked among the ablest
political journals of that time. Died in England in 1800.
See " Memoires et Correspondance de Mallet-Dupan." Paris,
1851 ; SAINTE-KEUVE, " Causeries cht Lundi ;" " Nouvelle Biograpliie
Generate ;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1852.
Mallet-Prevost, mt'li'pRa'vo', (HENRI,) a scientific
Swiss writer, born at Geneva in 1727. He published a
valuable "Metrologic Manual, or Repertory of Weights,
Measures, and Coins of Various Nations," (1802,) and a
"Description of Geneva," (1807.) Died in 1811. He
was a brother of Paul Henri Mallet, noticed above.
Malleville, de, deh mtl'vel', (CLAUDE,) a French
minor poet, born in Paris in 1597, was one of the first
members of the Academic Frai^aise. " He seldom
produced a finished piece," says Hallam, "though not
deficient in spirit and delicacy." His poems are son
nets, one of which is called " The Fair Early-Riser,"
("La belle Matineuse.") Died in 1647.
See " Histoire de 1'Academie Francaise."
Mallinkrot, von, fon mal'lin-knot', (BERNARD,) a
German philologist, was dean of the chapter of Minister.
He wrote, besides other works, a treatise " On the Rise
and Progress of the Art of Printing." Died in 1664.
Mallio, mal'le-o, (MiCHELE,) an Italian writer of verse
and fiction, born at Sant' Elpidio in 1756; died in 1831.
Malloch. See MALLET, (DAVID.)
Mal'lo-rjf, (STEPHEN R.,) an American Democratic
politician, born about 1810. He was elected a Senator of
the United States by the legislature of Florida in 1850,
and re-elected in 18*56. He served as secretary of the
navy of the Confederate States from March, 1861, to
1865.
Malmesbury, EARL OF. See HARRIS, (JAMES.)
Malmesbury, ma"ms'ber-e, (JAMES HOWARD HAR
RIS,) third EARL OF, a British Tory statesman, a grand
son of the first Earl of Malmesbury, was born in 1807.
He succeeded to the earldom at the' death of his father,
in 1841, before which he was styled LORD FITZHARRIS.
In February, 1852, he was appointed secretary of foreign
affairs in the Derby ministry, which was dissolved in
December of that year. He again became foreign secre
tary under Lord Derby in 1858, and on the formation
of the Liberal ministry in June, 1859, was succeeded by
Lord John Russell. He edited the "Diaries and Official
Correspondence of the First Earl of Malmesbury," (1844.)
About July i, 1866, he was appointed lord privy seal.
He retired from office in December, 1868.
Malmesbury, (WILLIAM OF,) an old English histo
rian, who is supposed to have been born in Somerset
shire about 1095. He became a monk in the monastery
of Malmesbury, where he held the office of librarian.
His principal works are a " History of England from
450 to H27,"("De Gestis Regum Anglornm,") "Recent
History," ("Historia Novella,") wherein he relates events
of which he was an eye-witness, and a " History of the
English Prelates," (" De Gestis Pontificum." ) These are
highly prized for accuracy, veracity, and critical judg
ment. He died in or after 1143.
Malmstrom or Malmstroem, malm'stRom, (ELis,)
a Swedish poet, born in 1816. He published a collection
of elegies entitled "Angelica," (1840,) and an epic poem
of " Ariadne." Died at Stockholm in June, 1865.
Malombra, ma-lom'bRa,(PiETRO,) a Venetian painter,
born in 1556. He was successful in portraits and in
historical pictures. Died in 1618.
Malon, mi'loN', (JULIUS,) a Belgian statesman and
prominent leader of the Catholic party, bom at Ypres
in 1810. He became minister of finance in 1845.
Ma-lone', (EDMUND,) an Irish critic, chiefly distin
guished as an editor and commentator of Shakspeare,
was born in Dublin in 1741. Having inherited an easy
fortune, he removed to London and devoted himself to
literature. He associated with Dr. Johnson, Burke, and
other eminent authors. In 1790 he published his edition
of Shakspeare, with commentaries. He excelled Stee-
vens, a rival commentator, in candour and love of truth ;
but "neither seems," says Hallam, "to have had a full
discernment of Shakspeare's genius." Malone published
an edition of Sir Joshua Reynolds's works, with a Me
moir of his Life, (1797,) and other works. He died in
1812, leaving unfinished an improved edition of Shak
speare, since published, (1821.)
See JAMES BOSWF.I.L, " Biographical Memoir of Edmund Ma-
lone :" SIR JAMES PRIOR, "Life of Edmund Malone," 1860;
"Monthly Review" for September, 1793.
Malouet orMalhouet, mt'loo'a', (PIERRE VICTOR,)
a French statesman, born at Riom in 1740. In 1789 he
was elected to the States-General, where he became
prominent as a liberal royalist and co-operated with
Clermont-Tonnerre. He took refuge in England in
1792, returned about 1802, and was chosen a councillor
of state in 1810. Died in 1814.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Malouin, mt'loo-aN', (PAUL JACQUES,) a French
chemist and physician, born at Caen in 1701. He be
came professor of chemistry in the Jardin du Roi, Paris,
in 1745, wrote many articles on that science for the
"Encyclopedic," and published an esteemed work on
"Medical Chemistry," (1750.) He was a member of the
Academy of Sciences. Died in 1778.
See CONDORCET, " E"loge de P. J. Malouin ;" " Biographic Medi-
cale."
Malpighi, mal-pee'gee, (MARCELLO,) [Lat. MARCEI/-
LUS MALPIG'HIUS,] a celebrated Italian anatomist and
naturalist, born near Bologna in 1628. Having gradu
ated as a physician in 1653, he became professor at Pisa
in 1656, and at Messina about 1664. He published, be
tween 1661 and 1665, treatises "On the Lungs," (" De
Pulmonibus,'') " On the Tongue," (" De Lingua,") and
"On the Brain," (" De Cerebro.") Malpighi was the
first who used the microscope in the study of anatomy.
In 1670 he returned to Bologna, and wrote an important
work on the anatomy of plants, " Anatome Plantarum,"
(1675,) a science which was first cultivated by Grew and
Malpighi. He made discoveries in the structure of the
skin and glands. In 1691 he was chosen chief physician
to Pope Innocent XII. He died in Rome in 1694.
See REGIS, "Vita Malpighii," prefixed to his " Opera posthuma,"
1698; FABRONI, " Viue Ita!orum t'octiina exceilentium ;" G. ATTI,
" Notizie biografiche di M. Malpighi," etc., 1847; NICE'RON, "Me
moires;" CUVIER, "Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Malpighius. See MALPIGHI.
Malsburg, mals'booRG, (ERNST FRIEDRICH GEORG
OTTO,) BARON, a German litterateur, born at Hanau in
1786, translated Calderon's dramas into German, and
published a number of religious poems. Died in 1824.
Malt'by, (EDWARD,) an English theologian, born at
Norwich in 1770. He became Bishop of Durham in
1836, and published several volumes of sermons. Died
in 1859.
See the " Monthly Review" for March, 1820.
Malte-Brun,mault/brun/ormSl/teh-briiN',(CoNRAD,)
a Danish author and geographer of great merit and celeb
rity, was born at Thister, Jutland, in 1775. His original
name, MALTHE CONRAD "BRUUN, (bRoon,) was changed
by the French into Malte-Brun, by which he is now
universally known. He had a great facility for learning
languages, and wrote French with an ease and elegance
which perhaps no other foreigner ever acquired. In his
enthusiasm for liberty, he wrote some political articles,
for which he was banished in 1796. He composed several
admired odes ; that on the death of Count Bernstorf
is esteemed one of the finest in the Danish language.
Induced partly by admiration of Napoleon, he became
an adopted citizen of Fiance about 1800. In 1806 he
was engaged as one of the editors of the "Journal des
Debats" of Paris, for which he wrote, during many years,
able articles on foreign politics, history, languages, science,
etc. Malte-Brun and Eyries edited in 1808 the " An
nals of Voyages of Geography and of History," ("Annales
des Voyages de la Geographic et de 1'Histoire.") Be
fore this period he had devoted his attention chieflv to
€ as*; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, TH,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s ass; %h as in this. (3^="See Explanations, p. 23.)
MALTE-BRUN
MAMM&A
the science of geography, in which he surpassed all his
predecessors by his happy union of philosophy with a
highly poetic imagination. In 1810 he published the
first volume of his great work, "A System of Universal
Geography," (" Precis de la Geographic universelle,")
the plan of which was too vast for one man to execute.
The sixth volume was finished in 1825. Exhausted with
excessive labour and study, he died in December, 1826,
leaving his task unfinished. The language of this work
is graphic, picturesque, and at times highly poetical. In
order to complete the plan, two more volumes were sub
sequently added by M. Huot. There is a good English
version of Malte-Brun's Geography, by J. G. Percival, the
American poet and savant.
See BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, " Notice biographique sur M.
Malte-Brun." 1827; QUKRARD, "La France Litteraire;" EKSLEW,
" Formatter- Lexicon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Malte-Brun, (VICTOR ADOLPHE,) a geographer, a
son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1816. He
became professor of history at Pamiers in 1838. He
published a new edition of his father's Geography, (8
vols., 1852-55.)
Mal'thus, (THOMAS ROBERT,) an English political
economist, distinguished as the author of the Malthusian
theory, was born near Dorking, Surrey, in 1766. He
graduated as M.A. at Cambridge in 1797, took orders,
and settled in a parish near his native place. In 1798
he controverted the theories of Godwin and others on
the progress and perfectibility of human nature, in his
" Essay on the Principle of Population as it affects the
Future Improvement of Society." Much attention was
excited by his fundamental principle, that population
tends to increase in geometrical progression, and that
the supply of food and other necessaries of life can only
be increased in an arithmetical progression. After ex
ploring several countries of Europe in search of facts to
confirm his system, he published in 1803 an enlarged
edition of his essay. His principles were approved by
many statesmen and political economists. From 1805
until his death he was professor of modern history and
political economy in the college at Haileybury. He was
author of an " Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of
Rent," (1815,) " Principles of Political Economy," (1820,)
and other works. Died in 1834.
See OTTER, "Memoir of Malthus:" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1837; "Monthly
Review" for December, 1803. January, 1804, and May, 1821.
Maltitz, mal'tits, (FRANZ FRIEDRICH,) BARON, a
Russian statesman, of German extraction, born in 1794,
was appointed minister-plenipotentiary of Russia at the
Hague. He was the author of poems and dramas, (in
German,) and wrote a continuation of Schiller's " Deme
trius."
Maltiz, mal'tits, (APOLLONius,) z litterateur a.nA diplo
matist, of German extraction, born in 1795, was ambas
sador from the Russian court to Lisbon. He wrote
epigrams and other poems.
Maltiz, mal'tits, (Gornui.F AUGUST,) BARON, a
German writer, born at Konigsberg in 1794, published
several dramas, and a political satire entitled "Pepper-
Corns," (" Pfefferkorner.") Died in 1837.
Mal'ton, (THOMAS,) an English geometer and artist,
born between 1735 and 1750, lived in London. He
published about 1776 a "Complete Treatise on Per
spective," which is highly commended. He also pub
lished various engravings, designed by himself, among
which were " Views of London." Died about 1802.
Mains, mt'luV, (£TTENNE Louis,) an eminent French
optician and military engineer, was born in Paris in 1775.
He became a student of the Polytechnic School about
1794, and, aided by the tuition of Monge, made great
progress in mathematics. "Of all the pupils who then
attended that school," says Biot, " he showed himself
the first in application and talents." In 1798 he accom
panied as engineer the army to Egypt, and was employed
at the sieges of Jaffa, Cairo, etc. He returned to France
in 1801, devoted his leisure to analytic optics, and pub
lished an excellent "Traite d'Optique." In 1808 the
Institute proposed a prize for a memoir on the double
refraction of crystals. Malus won this prize, after a mul
titude of experiments, in which he happened to make
one of the most important discoveries of physical
science, — viz., the property or phenomenon which he
named the "polarization of light." lie was elected to
the Institute, and in 1811 received the Rtimford medal
from the Royal Society of London for the discovery just
named. He was chosen examiner for physics and geome
try at the Polytechnic School. " While thus surrounded,"
as Biot observes, "with numerous friends who appre
ciated his genius, honoured with eminent positions to
which his talents, services, and probity had raised him,
already celebrated for great discoveries," etc., he died
prematurely, in February, 1812.
See ARAGO, "Notices biographiques," vol. iii. ; "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Malvasia, mal-va-see'a, (CARLO CESARE,) a learned
Italian antiquary, born at Bologna in 1616, was versed
in law, medicine, and theology. He became professor
of law in the University of Bologna, and published, be
sides numerous other works, one on the Bolognese
painters, " Felsina Pittrice, Vite e Ritratti de' Pittori
Bolognesi," (1678.) Died in 1693.
See CRESPI, "Vita di C. C. Malvasia."
Malveiida, mal-ven'da, (TOMAS,) a learned Spanish
Dominican, born at Xativa in 1566, was a good Hebrew
scholar. lie lived at Rome and Valencia. He wrote a
"Commentary on the Old Testament," with a literal
Latin version, and a "Commentarius de Paradiso,"
("Account of Paradise.") Died in 1628.
Malvezzi, mal-veYsee, (ViRGii.io,) MARQUIS, an
Italian author, born at Bologna in 1599. He served in
the Spanish army, and was sent as ambassador to Eng
land by Philip IV. of Spain. He wrote, besides other
historical and political works, "A Life of Romulus," and
a "Life of Tarquin the Proud." Died in 1654.
Malvoisine. See MAWMOISINE.
Malzel or Maelzel, melt'sel, (LEON HARD,) a Ger
man mechanician, noted for ingenuity, was born at Rat-
isbon in 1776. He made an automaton chess-player,
and invented the metronome, which is said to be useful
i to musicians. Died at Vienna in 1855.
Maniachi, ma'ma-kee, (TOMMASO MARIA,) a monk,
bom in the isle of Scio in 1713. He went to Rome in
1740, and became professor in the College of the Propa
ganda. He wrote "On the Oracles of the Heathen,"
(1738,) and "Christian Antiquities," ("Origines et Anti-
quitates Christianse," 4 vols., 1749-55.) Died in 1792.
Mambelli, mam-bel'lee, (MARCANTONIO,) an Italian
grammarian, born at Forli in 1582 ; died in 1644.
Mambrun, rnoN'buuN', (PIERRE,) a French critic
and Latin poet, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1600. He
became a Jesuit, and taught philosophy at Caen and
theology at La Fleche with a high reputation. Taking
Virgil for his model, he composed Latin eclogues, an
epic poem called " Constantinus," (1658,) and an " Essay
on Epic Poetry." His epic obtained a transient favour
with the public. Died in 1661.
Ma-nier'cus [Gr. M«//fyjKO£] was tyrant of Catana
when Timoleon invaded Sicily in 344 B.C. He formed
an alliance with Ilicetas and the Carthaginians against
Timoleon, by whom he was defeated and executed about
338 is.c.
Mamiani, ma-me-d'nee, (TERENZIO DELLA ROVERE,)
COUNT, an Italian philosopher and poet, born at Pesaro
about 1802. He produced " Nuove Poesie," (1836,) and
" Dialoghi di Scienza prima," (1846.) He was minister
of the interior and president of the ministry at Rome
from May to July, 1848. In politics he was a moderate
Liberal, and opposed to the temporal power of the pope,
on which he published an able work, "Del Papato,"
(1851.) He became minister of public instruction under
Victor Emmanuel in 1860, and was sent as ambassador
to Greece in 1861.
Mammeea, mam-mee'a, or Mameea, ma-mee'a, (J u-
LIA,) a Roman lady or princess, born at Emesa, was the
daughter of Julia Mtesa, and the aunt of Elagabalus. She
became the wife of Gessius Marcianus and the mother
of Alexander Severus, whose moral education she guarded
with watchful diligence. Severus having been chosen
emperor in 222 A.D., she acted as regent during his
minority. She and her son were assassinated by the
partisans of Maximin in 235 A.D.
See DION CASSIUS, " History of Rome."
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
MAMOON
1509
MANCINI
Mamoon, Mamoun, or Mamun, Al, al-ma'moon',
(Abool- (or Abul-) Abbas-Abdallah, a'bool' ab'bis'
ab-dal'ldh,) the seventh Abbasside caliph, was born at
Bagdad in 786 A.D., and was the son of Haroun-al-
Raschid. After defeating his brother Alameen in battle,
he ascended the throne in 813. His reign was disturbed
by rebellions excited by princes of the race of Alee and
Mau'by, (Captain GEORGE WILLIAM,) a British
officer, born in Norfolk in 1765. Having entered the
army, lie obtained the rank of captain. About 1808
he invented a mode of saving life by shooting from a
mortar a rope to mariners shipwrecked near the coast.
Several crews having been rescued by this means, the
government provided mortars and other apparatus at
others. He enforced by persecution the dogma that the numerous stations, and presented to Captain Manby
Koran was created and not eternal, which was considered several sums, amounting to £7000. Died in 1854.
heretical by many of the Moslem doctors. While he
was prosecuting a war against the Greek emperor The-
ophilus in Cilicia, he died, in 833, leaving his extensive
empire to his brother Motassem. Mamoon was cele
brated as a patron of science and literature, and was
See " Edinburgh Review" for May, 1823.
Man'ches-ter, (Sir EDWARD MONTAGU,) EARL OF,
an English general, born in 1602, was the son of Henry,
first Earl of Manchester. He was styled Lord Kimbolton
before his father's death, (1642.) Having joined the
praised by Eastern writers for his talents and liberality. Opj)osjtion to the court about 1640, he acquired great
He founded colleges, collected Greek and Hindoo manu- | popularity. In 1642 he was impeached for treason, with
scripts, which were translated at his expense, and invited \ HamClen and four other members of Parliament, whom
'
the scholars and savants of all nations to his capital, tne
(Bagdad,) then the great centre of learning and science
in the world.
See HAMMER-PURGSTALL, " Littraturjieschichte der Araber;"
ABOOLFEDA, " Annales Moslemici ;" ELMACIN, " Historia Sara-
ceiionim ;" CONDE, "Historia de la Domination de los Arabes;"
WEIL, " Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. ii. chap. vii. ; CASIKI, " Bibiio-
theca Arabico-Hispana."
Mamoun. See MAMOON.
Mamvm. See MAMOOX.
Ma-mu'ri-us Ve-tu'ri-us, a worker in brass at
Rome in the time of Numa, was employed to make
other shields exactly like the one which was said to
have fallen from heaven. He asked no other reward
but that his name might be sung at the feast of the An-
attempted to seize in the House. He was
cilia, (shields.)
Ma-mur'ra,
a Roman knight, was the commander
He
of the engineers in Julius Caesar's army in Gaul,
amassed a large fortune.
Man or Maaii, man, (CORNELLS.) a Dutch portrait-
painter, born at Delft in 1621. Having studied and
worked in Rome and Venice some years, he settled at
Delft. He was a good colorist, and his style is said to
have resembled that of Titian. His portraits of surgeons
and physicians in the Surgeons' Hall of Delft are highly
praised. Died in 1706.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Maiiaigo, ma-m'go, (SiLVESTRO,) a historical painter,
born in Venice about 1680.
Maiiara, ma-na'ra, (PROSPERO,) MARQUIS, an Italian
writer, born at Taro, near Parma, in 1714. He became
a councillor of state, and afterwards prime minister of
the Prince of Parma. He translated into Italian verse
Virgil's "Georgics" and " Eclogues," and wrote sonnets,
eclogues, and other short poems. Died in 1800.
See ANTONIO CERATI, " Elogio di P. Manara," 1801.
Maiiardi, ma-naR'dee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian phy
sician and writer, born at Ferrara in 1462 ; died in
1536.
Manasse. See MANASSEH.
Ma-nas'seh or Ma-nas'ses, [Heb. r\Wtt ; Fr. MA
NASSE, mt'nt'sa',] a Hebrew patriarch, born in Egypt
about 1712 B.C., was the son of Joseph and Asenath.
(See Genesis xli. 51.) His descendants formed a half-
tribe among the tribes of Israel.
Manasseh, [Heb. HtyjO,] King of Judah, the son of
Hezekiah, was twelve years of age when he succeeded
his father, in 697 li.C. Having forsaken the true worship
and Income an open idolater, he %vas taken captive by
the King of Assyria, and detained at Babylon some
years. He repented, and was restored to his kingdom.
After a reign of fifty-five years, he died, and was suc
ceeded by his son Amon.
See II. Kings xxi. and II. Chronicles xxxiii.
Ma-nas'ses, (CONSTANTINE,) a Greek writer of the
twelfth century, wrote a general chronicle, in verse, from
the creation to the year 1081 A.D. It is of some value
for the history of the Byzantine empire.
Ma-iias'ses Ben-Jb'seph-Een-Is'rael, a learned
Jewish rabbi, born in Spain about 1604. He resided
mostly at Amsterdam. He wrote, besides other works,
"On the Harmony of the Scriptures," (" De Convenien-
tia Locorum Sanctse Scripturae," etc.,) and "The Hope
of Israel," (" Spes Israelis.") Died in 1659.
appointed a general of the army of Parliament in 1643,
and co-operated with Fairfax at the victory of Marston
Moor, (1644.) Manchester and Essex were charged by
Cromwell with temporizing and with being averse to a
decisive victory of the popular party, and the command
was taken from them by the " Self-denying Ordinance,"
(1644.) At the restoration (1660) he was appointed lord
chamberlain by Charles II. Died in 1671. "He was
distinguished," says Hume, "by humanity, generosity,
and every amiable virtue."
See CLARENDON, "History of the Rebellion;" LODGE, " Por
traits of Illustrious Personages."
Manchester, (HENRY MONTAGU,) first EARL OF, an
English statesman, father of the preceding, was born in
Northamptonshire about 1562. He became lord chief
justice about 1617, and lord treasurer of England in
1620. He was created Earl of Manchester in 1626.
Died in 1642.
Manchoo or Manchu Khan. See MANGOO.
Mancinelli, man-che-nel'lee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian
poet, born at Velletri in 1452. He taught grammar at
Rome, Venice, etc., and wrote several works on gram
mar. He was author of "The Mirror of Morality,"
(" Speculum de Moribus,") " Carmen de Vita sua," (a
poem on his own life,) and other poems. Died about
1506.
See BAVI.E, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" NICERON
" Memoires."
Mancini, man-chee'nee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
painter, born in the Romagna in 1725. He worked in
Rome, and was reputed one of the best painters of his
time. Died in 1758.
Mancini, (HORTENSIA,) Duchess of Mazarin, an
Italian lady of remarkable beauty, born at Rome in
1646, was a niece of Cardinal Mazarin, who refused to
give her in marriage to Charles II. of England, then an
exile. She made in 1661 an ill-assorted marriage with
the French Due de la Meilleraie, who then received the
title of the Due de Mazarin. She soon separated from
him, and lived many years in London, where her house
was the resort of men of wit and pleasure. Died in
1699. According to Macaulay, she was one of the sul
tanas of Charles'll. in the last years of his reign.
See A. RENEE, "Les Nieces de Mazarin."
Mancini, (Louis JULES.) See NIVERNOIS.
Mancini, (MARIA,) Princess of Colonna, a sister of
Hortensia, noticed above, was born in Rome in 1640,
and was a daughter of Cardinal Mazarin's sister. Louis
XIV. was so well pleased with her in his early youth
that he was inclined to marry her ; but Mazarin sent
her to a convent. In 1661 she was married to Prince
Colonna. She ran away from him in 1672, obtained a
divorce, and became a nun. Died about 1715.
See SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires;" A. RENEE, "Les Nieces de
Mazarin."
Mancini, (MARIA ANNA,) Duchess of Bouillon, a niece
of Mazarin, was born in Rome in 1649. She was mar
ried in 1662 to the Duke of Bouillon, and became the
mother of the Prince de Turenne. She was the first
person who patronized La Fontaine the fabulist, who has
praised her in his letters. She died in 1714.
See VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV ;" A. RENEE, " Les Nieces
de Mazarin."
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (£p=See Explanations, p. 23.)
MANCINI
1510
MANET HO
Mancini, (OLYMPIA,) Countess de Soissons, another
sister of the preceding, born about 1642, was married to
Eugene Maurice of Savoy, Count de Soissons. She was
the mother of the celebrated Prince Eugene, commander-
in-chief of the Austrian armies.
Mancini, (PAOLO,) the founder of the Academy of
Umoristi, was born at Rome, lie was the grandfather
of Hortensia and Maria Mancini, noticed above. Died
in 1635-
See TIRABOSCHI, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Man'co Ca-pac' (or mang'ko ka-pak') was, according
to tradition, the first Inca of Peru. He instituted the
worship of the sun, of which he pretended to be the
offspring, founded the city of Cuzco, and gave laws to
the natives of that region, whom he found in a savage
state. He is supposed to have flourished about 1000
A.D. (See INCA.)
Manco Capac, Inca of Peru, was the son of Huayna
Capac. He became heir to the throne after Atahualpa
was killed by Pizarro, in 1533. He made a treaty with
Pizarro, but, finding himself treated as a captive, he
escaped in 1535, raised a native army, and besieged
Cuzco. The approach of Almagro forced him to retire.
He was assassinated by a Spaniard about 1544.
See PKESCOTT, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. ii. chap,
iii. ; G. DE VEGA, '• Historia general del Peru."
Mandajors, de, deli mS.N'dS'zhok', (JEAN PIERRE
DES OURS,) a French historical writer, born at Alais in
1679. He published a "Critical History of Gallia Nar-
bonensis," (1733.) Died in 1747.
Man'da-ne, [Gr. Mavt5ow?,j a daughter of Astyages,
King of Media, and mother of Cyrus the Great.
Mandar, mun'clur, the same as MANDARA, which see.
Mandar, moN'cla'K', (MicuKi. PHILIPPE,) better known
as THEOPHILE MANDAR, a French political writer and
revolutionist, born at Marines in 1759. He took an active
part in several insurrections in Paris from 1789 to 1793.
It is said that in the councils of his party he attempted
to arrest the massacre of September, 1792, and proposed
a dictatorship for that purpose. He wrote "The Genius
of Ages," and other poems, and several political works.
Died in 1823.
See Louis BI.ANC, "Histoire de la Revolution Francaise."
Maii'da-ra, [modern Hindoo pron. mun'da-ra,] in the
Hindoo mythology, a famous mountain used by the gods
in churning the ocean. (See K<JRMA.)
Mandel, man'del, (EDUARD,) a German engraver,
born at Berlin in 1810. His portrait of Charles I., after
Van Dyck, is esteemed a master-piece. He obtained a
medal of the first class at the Exposition of Paris in 1855.
Mandelot, de, deli moNd'lo', (FRANCOIS,) a French
fanatic and general, born in Paris in 1529. He was
commandant at Lyons, and co-operated with the king in
the massacre of the Protestants in 1572. Died in 1588.
Mander, van, vtn man'der, (CAREL,) an eminent
Flemish painter, poet, and biographer, born at Meule-
beke, near Courtrai, in 1548. He received lessons in art
from Lucas de Heere of Ghent, and about 1574 went to
Rome, where he worked three years and gained a high
reputation as a painter of landscapes and of frescos.
In 1583 he settled at Haarlem, where he remained
twenty years and founded an academy of painting.
Among his master-pieces are "Adam and Eve in Eden,"
and "The Adoration of the Magi." He translated the
" Iliad," and Virgil's " Bucolics'' and " Georgics." He
was author of " Dina," a drama, and of other poems.
His best literary work is "Lives of Flemish and Italian
Painters," (1604,) which is highly esteemed. Died in
1606.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ;
GESLACHT, "Vie de Care] van Mander," prefixed to his works;
NAGI.ER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Mander, van, (CAREL,) a painter, a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Delft in 1580. He worked at the
court of Denmark. Died about 1665.
Man'de-ville, de, (or deh mfixd'vel',) (BERNARD,) an
ingenious author, born at Dort, in Holland, about 1670.
He became a resident of London, where he practised
medicine before he appeared as an author. In 1 7 14 he pub
lished a poetical satire called " The Grumbling Hive, or
Knaves Turned Honest." This having been censured as
immoral by William Law and other writers, he published,
with notes, a new edition, with the title of "The Fable
of the Bees, or Private Vices Public Benefits," (1723.)
It was denounced by the grand jury of Middlesex as a
pernicious book. (For an analysis of this remarkable
work, see the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," article
" Mandeville, B. de.") He also wrote "Free Thoughts
on Religion, the Church, and National Happiness."
Died in 1733.
See BIKTH, "Life of Bernard de Mandeville;" " Biographia
Britannica."
Mandeville, de, deh man'deh-vil', (Sir JOHN,) a fa
mous English traveller, born at Saint Alban's about 1300.
In early life he practised medicine. In 1327 he went
to Palestine, enlisted in the army of the Sultan of
Egypt, and afterwards travelled in various countries of
Asia. He spent about three years in Cambalu, (Peking,)
and returned home in 1360. He wrote an account of
his travels, which obtained a wide reputation. Ilis book
abounds in marvellous and extravagant stories, partly
borrowed from Pliny and from mediaeval romances. Died
in 1372. He is called the first English prose writer.
See DISRAELI, "Amenities of Literature;" SPRENGEI., " Ge-
schichte der geographischen Entdeckungen ;" "Retrospective Re
view," vol. iii., (1821.) m .
Maiidosio, man-do'se-o, ( PROSPERO,) a mediocre
Italian writer, born at Rome. He compiled a work
called " Bibliotheca Roinana," consisting of biographies
of about five hundred Roman writers, ancient and
modern, (2 vols., 1682-92.) Died about 1700.
Manes. See LARES.
Ma'nes, Ma'ni, or Manichaeus, man-e-kee'us, the
founder of the heretical sect of Manichseans, was prob
ably born in Persia in the early part of the third cen
tury. He corrupted the Christian religion by mixing
with it some doctrines of the Magi, teaching that the
world is made or ruled by two eternal and opposing
principles of light and darkness. He rejected the Old
Testament, professed that he was the Comforter promised
in John xvi., held the doctrine of metempsychosis, and
published a book which he pretended contained a revela
tion from heaven. Manes obtained proselytes in Persia,
Egypt, and other countries. Saint Augustine was a zealot
of this sect in his youth. The Oriental accounts of Manes,
differing widely from those of the Greek or Catholic
writers, state that he was born of the race of Magi, lived
in Susiana, was an adept in painting and other arts,
produced a "gorgeous picture-book," which was re
ceived as sacred by his disciples, and was put to death
by Varanes, King of Persia, about 272 A.D. The Latin
and Greek writers say that his original name was CuiiRl-
cus, that he derived his doctrines from an impostor
named Terebinthus, and was punished with death for
his heresy, in 277 A.D.
See BEAUSOHRE, " Histoire du Manicheisme ;" BASNAGE, "His
toire des Eglises reformers ;" SAINT AUGUSTINE, " De Moribus
Manichreorum;" WALCH, " Geschichte der Ketzereien ;" PLUCQUET,
" Dictionnaire des Heresies;" HITTER, " History of Philosophy;"
BAYLE, " Historical and Critical Dictionary," article " Manicheism."
Manesse, mi'ness', (DENIS JOSEPH,) a French natu
ralist, born at Landrecies in 1743 ; died in 1820.
Manesson-Mallet, mt'n.YsoN' mS'li', (ALAIN,) a
French geometer and military engineer, born in Paris in
1630. He published a "Description of the World,"
("Description de 1'Univers," 5 vols., 1683.) Died in 1706.
Man'e-tho, [Gr. Wiaviduv and Mai-eflwc; Fr. MANE-
THON, nit'na'to.N',] a celebrated Egyptian writer and
priest, was a native of Sebennytus, or, according to some
accounts, of Diospolis, and flourished in the reigns of
Ptolemy Soter and Ptolemy Philadelphus, between 300
and 250 H.C. He was reputed to have attained the highest
possible degree of wisdom. lie was keeper of the sacred
archives at Ileliopolis, and author of several important
works, among which was a " General History of Egypt,"
in Greek. This is lost, except fragments preserved by
Josephus in his "Reply to Apion," and by George Syn-
cellus. He was the first Egyptian who wrote in Greek
an account of the religion, history, and chronology of
Egypt. A poem, in Greek, on the influence of the stars,
entitled "Apotelesmatica," (which has come down to us
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
M4NETHON
1 5i
MAN GUM
entire,) is sometimes ascribed to Manetho, but was proba
bly written by a later author.
See BI-NSEN, " Egyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte ;" BOECK,
" Manetho und die H'undssternperiode," 1845; FABRICIUS, " Biblio-
theca Gra?ca ;" FRUIN, " Dissertatio historica de Manethone," 1847 ;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" SMITH, "Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Biography," etc.
Manethon. See MANETHO.
Maiietti, ma-net'tee, [Lat. MANET'TUS,] (GiAN-
NOZZO,) an Italian statesman and author, bom at Flor
ence in 1396, was one of those who contributed to the
revival of learning in Italy. He was versed in Latin,
Greek, and Hebrew, and was reputed one of the most
learned men of his time. After holding other high offices
in Florence, he was elected to the Council of Ten, and
was secretary to Pope Nicholas V. Among his works
are a " Life of Petrarch," and a " Specimen of the Lite
rary History of Florence during the Thirteenth and
Fourteenth Centuries," in Latin, (1747.) Died in 1459.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" J. B.
REQCIEK, "Vie de G. Manetti, Senateur de Florence," 1762; NAI.DO
NALDI, "Vita Manetti," in MURATORI'S " Scriptores Rerum Itali-
cartim. "
Manetti, (RuTii.io,) an Italian painter, born at Sienna
in 1571, was a pupil of Francesco Vanni. His design
and style are commended as correct and noble. He
painted both in oil and freito with equal success. Died
in 1639.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" BALDINUCCI, " No-
tizie."
Manetti, (SAVERIO,) an Italian physician and natu
ralist, born at Florence in 1723. He became keeper of
the botanic garden of that city, and corresponded with
the most eminent savants of Europe. He published,
among other works, a "Treatise on Different Species of
Grain and Bread," (1765,) and a splendid work on the
" Natural History of Birds," with coloured plates, (1767.)
Died in 1785.
Maiiettus. See MANETTI, (GIANNOZZO.)
Man'fred, [It. MANFREDI, man-fra'dee; Lat. MAN-
FRE'DUS; FT. MAINFROI, ma.N'I'Rwa',] King of Naples,
born about 1234, was a natural son of the emperor Frede
rick II., from whom he seems to have inherited noble or
at least popular qualities. By the will of Frederick, who
died in 1250, Manfred became Regent of the Tsvo Sicilies
until the arrival of Conrad, the lawful heir, who was
in Germany. Conrad died in 1254, leaving an infant
son, Conradin or Corradino, and Manfred again became
regent. A rumour of Conradin's death having obtained
credence, Manfred was proclaimed king in 1258, and he
refused to relinquish the royal power when that report
was proved to be false. He became an ally of the Ghibe-
linesof Northern Italy against the Guelphs. Urban IV.,
who became pope in 1261, and who had long been an
enemy to the house of Suabia, excommunicated Manfred,
and offered the kingdom of the Two Sicilies to Charles
of Anjou, a brother of Louis IX. of France. Charles
accepted it as a fief of the see of Rome, marched an
army into Naples, and gained a victory, in which Man
fred was killed, in 1266.
See BLTRIGNI, " Histoire de Sicile;" SlSMONDI, " Histoire des
Republiques Italiennes :" GIUSEPPE DE CESARE, "Storia di Man
fredi Re di Sicilia," 2 vols., 1837 ; VON MUNCH, "Konig Manfred,"
1840; C. M. RICCIO, "A'iCiini Studii storiri intonio a Manfredi,"
etc., 1850; F. A. SEHIRE, "fitude historique: Les Partis au Moyen-
Age," etc., 1853.
Manfredi. See MANFRED.
Manfredi, man-fKa'dee, (BARTOI.OMMEO,) an Italian
painter, born at Mantua about 1580. He was a pupil of
Caravaggio, whom he imitated so well that good judges
mistook his works for those of his master. Among his
productions is "A Party of Men drinking." Died in
Rome in 1617.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy."
Manfredi, (EusTAcmo,) an eminent Italian geometer
and astronomer, born at Bologna in 1674. He was ap
pointed professor of mathematics in the University of
Bologna in 1698, and astronomer to the Institute of that
city in 1711. He published Ephemerides from 1715 to
1750, "Elements of Chronology," (1744,) "Institutes of
Astronomy," (" Instituzioni astronomiche,") and other
works. Manfredi also wrote admired sonnets and can-
zoni. He was a foreign associate of the Academy of
Sciences of Paris, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of
London. Died in 1739.
See FONTENELLE, " f.'.oge de Manfredi;" G. P. ZANOTTI, "Vita
di E. Manfredi," 1743; FABRONI, "Vitz Italorum doctrina excel-
lentium ;" FANTUZZI, " Scrittori Bolognesi."
Manfredi, (GARRIELE,) born at Bologna in 1681, be
came professor of mathematics in Bologna in 1720. He
succeeded his brother Eustachio in 1739 as superin
tendent of the waters. He wrote an able treatise "On
Equations of the First Degree," and several Memoirs
for the Institute of Bologna. Died in 1761.
See MONTUCLA, " Histoire des Mathematiques."
Manfredini, man-fRa-dee'nee, ( FEDERIGO, ) MAR
QUIS, an Italian minister of state, born at Rovigo in
1743. He became prime minister of the archduke Fer
dinand of Tuscany in 1790. His prudent measures pre
served Tuscany from invasion by the French until 1799,
when Ferdinand and his minister were forced to retire
into exile. Died in 1829.
Manfredus. See MANFRED.
Mangeart, mSN'zhaR', (THOMAS,) a French nu
mismatist and monk, born at Metz in 1695, WI"fte an
''Introduction to the Knowledge of Medals," (1763.)
Died in 1762.
Mangenot, mSNzh'no', (Louis,) ABPE, a French poet
and priest, born in Paris in 1694. He \\rote an admired
eclogue called "The Rendezvous." Died in 1768.
Manget, moN'zhcV, (JEAN JACOB,) a Swiss physician
and writer, born at Geneva in 1652. He practised in
that city, and published many scientific works, among
which are "Anatomical Library," (" Bibliotheca Ana-
totnica," 1685,) and "Curious Chemical Library," ("Bi
bliotheca chemica curiosa," 1702.) In 1699 he received
the title of first physician to the Elector of Brandenburg.
Died at Geneva in 1742.
See SENKBIER, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve."
Man'gey, (THOMAS,) an English theological writer,
born at Leeds in 1684. He obtained the first stall of
Durham in 1722. Died in 1755.
See HUTCHINSON, "History of Durham."
Mangili, man-jee'lee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian natu
ralist and physician, born at Caprino in 1767; died in
1829. He wrote several scientific treatises.
Mangin, mdN'zhaN', (CHARLES,) a French architect,
born near Meaux in 1721, designed several important
edifices in Paris, among which were the Halle au Ble
(Grain-Market) and the Church du Gros-Caillou. Died
in 1807.
Mangin, (JEAN HENRI CLAUDE,) a French advocate,
born at Metz in 1786. He wrote several legal works.
Died in 1835.
• Manglard, mSN'glfR', (ADRIEN,) a French painter
of landscapes and marine views, was born at Lyons in
1695 ; died at Rome in 1-760.
Mangles, mang'g'lz, (Captain JAMES,) a British trav
eller, who obtained the rank of commander in the navy
in 1815. In 1816, accompanied by Captain Irby, he be
gan an extensive journey, in which they explored the
Upper Nile, the ruined city of Petra, and the Dead
Sea. They returned to England in 1820. See IRBY,
(CHARLES L.)
Man'goo' (or Mangou) Khan, written also Meng-
ko and Moengke, Emperor or Grand Khan of the
Mongols, was the son of Toolee, (Touli,) and grandson of
Jengis Khan. He ascended the throne about 1250. His
empire included Tartary, India, a part of China, and
Persia. One of his armies, under his brother Kooblai
Khan, subdued Thibet ; and another army at the same
time (1256) conquered in Persia the Ismaeelian dynasty.
Two years later he took Bagdad and made himself mas
ter of the caliph's dominions. While pursuing his con
quests in China, he was killed in battle, in 1259. He was
succeeded by his brother, Kooblai Khan.
See VON HAMMER, "Histoire des Ilkans ;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Ger.erale."
Mangum, mang'gum, ( WILLIE PERSON,) an American
statesman, born in Orange county, North Carolina, in
1792. He was elected a Senator of the United States
by the legislature of North Carolina in 1831, and acted
with the Whigs until that party was dissolved. He
also represented North Carolina in the Senate for two
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ¥i, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MANHES
1512
MANN
SCAI.IGKR, "Prolegomena in Mamlium," ifioo ; F. JACOH,
. Manilio Poeta," etc., 1832; " Noitvelle Biographic Gene-
terms, (1841-53,) and was president of that body during
the administration of Tyler. Died in 1861.
Manhes, mi'neV, (CHARLES ANTOINE,) a French
general, born at Aurillac in 1777. He entered the service
of Muratin 1809, and suppressed brigandage in Calabria
with extreme severity. Died in 1854.
Mani. See MANES.
Manichaeus. See MANES.
Mauigault, man'e-go', ? (GABRIEL,) a wealthy Amer
ican merchant and patriot of the Revolution, born at
Charleston, South Carolina, in 1704; died in 1781.
Ma-nil'i-a Gens, the name of a plebeian Roman
ife/is, 'which was not numerous and consequently was
not divided into families. MARCUS MANILIUS, who be
came consul in 149 B.C., was the first member of this
gens that figures in history.
Ma-uil'i-us, (CAius,) a Roman tribune, and partisan
of Pompey. He was tribune of the people in 66 B.C.
He proposed a bill called " Lex Manilla," granting to
Pompey the command of the war against Mithridates in
place of Lucullus. On this occasion Cicero uttered his
celebrated oration " Pro Lege Manilla."
Manilius, (MARCUS or CAIUS,) a Latin poet, known
as the author of an astrological poem called "Astro-
noinica." His name is sometimes written MALLUJS or
MANLIUS. Nothing is certainly known of his nativity
or history ; but he is supposed to have lived in Rome
in the reign of Augustus or of Tiberius. His poem,
first discovered by Poggio about 1410, is a work of
much learning, and contains some fine passages, but is
faulty in style.
See
"De M
rale.
Manin, ma-neen', (DANIEI.E,) an eminent Italian
patriot and statesman, born in Venice in May, 1804, was
educated for the profession of advocate. He was a re
publican, and promoted the liberation of Venetia by legal
means rather than by arms. In March, 1848, he pro
claimed a republic at Venice, and became president of
the provisional government. Having vainly opposed
the annexation of Venetia to Piedmont, he resigned in
July, 1848. He was soon recalled, and governed Venice
as dictator during the siege, which lasted a year, and
ended, after a heroic struggle, in August, 1849. He
went into exile, and died in Paris in 1857. His remains
were honoured with a magnificent public funeral, by
order of the Italian Parliament, in the metropolitan
church of Venice, in March, 1868.
See HENRI MARTIN, "Life of Daniel Manin," 1859: G. V.
ROVANI, "Memoria storica di T>. Manin," Turin, 1850; H. CAS-
TII.LR, "Manin;" CHASSIN, "Manin et 1'Italie," 1859; KDMOND
FLAGG, "Venice, the City of the Sea," New York, 1853 ; " Fraser's
Magazine" for November, 1857; "Westminster Review" for April,
1860.
Manin or Manini, ma-nee'nee, (Lonovico,) the last
Doge of Venice, was born about 1727. He was elected in
1788, a period when the republic manifested evident signs
of approaching ruin. He refused to join Austria in a
coalition against the French in 1792, and remained neutral
in the war that ensued. Venice was invaded by the
French in 1797, the form of the government was changed,
and Manini retired to private life.
See DARU, " Histoire de Venise."
Manini, ma-nee'nee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian writer on
theology and history, was born at Ferrara in 1750; died
in 1834.
Manini, (Lonovico.) See MANIN.
Man'ley, (JAMES R.,) an American physician, born
in the latter part of the eighteenth century, became
professor in the Medical College of New York. Died
in 1851.
Maiiley, (JOHN,) CAPTAIN, an American naval officer
of the Revolution, born in 1734. He performed several
important services. Died in Boston in 1793.
Man'ley, (DE LA RIVIERE,) MRS., a popular English
authoress, born in Guernsey about 1672, was the daughter
of Sir Roger Manley. To procure a subsistence, she
wrote " The Royal Mischief," (1696,) a tragedy, which
was successful. Her next work was a romance called
" Memoirs of the New Atalantis," containing severe
strictures on some of the persons in power, which caused
her to be prosecuted and imprisoned for libel. She
wrote political articles for the Tory ministry between
1710 and 1714, and edited the " Examiner" with ability
after Dean Swift had retired from the direction of that
paper. Died in 1724.
See GIBBER, " Lives of the Poets."
Man'li-a Gens, one of the most ancient and cele
brated of the patrician genles or tribes of Rome. The
family names of the Manlii were Cincinnatus, Acidimis,
Capitolinus, Torquatus, and Vulso. Among the emi
nent persons of this ^cns was
Maii'li-us Cap-it-o-ll'nus, (MARCUS,) who was
elected consul in 392 B.C. In 399 the Gauls under Bren-
nus captured Rome and besieged the Capitol, which
Manlius and others defended. According to tradition, an
attempt of the Gauls to surprise this fortress by night was
defeated by Manlius, who was awakened by the clamour
of a flock of geese. For this service he received the
surname of CAPITOLINUS. He became a champion of
the popular party, or plebeians, in 385, spent his for
tune freely for the relief of those who were oppressed
by debt, and was accused of aspiring to royalty. His
enemy Camillus was appointed dictator, and Manlius,
having been tried for treason and condemned to death
by the patricians, was thrown from the Tarpeian rock in
381 B.C.
See LIVY, " History of Rome ;" CICERO, " De Republica ;" AURE-
LIUS VICTOR, " De Viris illustrious."
Man'li-us Tor-qua'tus, or, more fully, Ti'tus Man'-
lius Capitoli'nus Torqua'tus, a popular Roman hero,
was the son of L. Manlius Imperiosus, who was dictator
in 362 or 363 B.C. He signalized his filial affection by
extorting from Pomponius an oath that he would desist
from the prosecution of his father. In 359 he was elected
a military tribune. He killed in battle a Gaul of gigantic
stature and despoiled him of a chain, (torques,) from
which he derived the surname TORQUATUS. He was ap
pointed dictator in 353, and again in 349 B.C. Having
been elected consul for the third time in 340, he defeated
the Latins, and punished with death his own son, who
had violated orders by fighting a single combat with
one of the enemy.
See LIVY, " History of Rome," books vii., viii. ; AURF.I.IUS VIC
TOR, " De Viris illustribus ;" P. EKERMAN, " Dissertatio de T. M.in-
lio Torquato," 1767.
Manlius Torquatus, (Trrus,) a Roman general, of
the same family as the preceding, was consul in 235 B.C.
Sardinia having been subjected by him in that year, the
temple of ] anus was shut, for the second time in the his
tory of Rome, because the Romans enjoyed a universal
peace. He was re-elected consul in 224, and made a
speech against the motion to ransom the prisoners taken
by Hannibal at Cannae, (216.) In 215 B.C. he gained a
decisive victory over the Carthaginians in Sardinia. He
was appointed dictator in 208, and died in 202 B.C.
See LIVY, '' History of Rome," books xxii., xxiii., xxv., etc.
Man'lius Vul'so, (CNEius,) a Roman general, elected
consul about 190 B.C. He conquered the Gauls of Ga-
latia, and received the honour of a triumph in 186 B.C.
Man'ly, (BASIL,) a Baptist minister, born in Chatham
county, North Carolina, in 1798. He became president
of the University of Alabama in 1837. Died in 1868.
Mann, (HORACE,) LL.D., an eminent American edu
cationist, born in Franklin, Norfolk county, Massachu
setts, May 4, 1796. His father was a farmer in limited
circumstances, so that Horace was obliged to procure by
his own exertions the means of obtaining an education.
The books to which he had access in early life, as he
informs us, "were few, and their contents meagre and
miserable." "My teachers," he adds, "were very good
people, but they were very poor teachers." There was,
however, no lack of hard work, and in summer his
labours often encroached upon the hours which should
have been devoted to sleep ; yet, with all these disad
vantages, his mind gave early proof of uncommon power
and intense activity. He had earned his school-books,
when a child, by braiding straw; and his severe and
frugal life gave him the habit of depending solely upon
himself for the gratification of all his wants. When
about the age of twenty, he commenced the study of
Latin, and in six months prepared himself to enter the
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; not; good; moon;
MANN
1513
MANNING
sophomore class in Brown University, at Providence,
Rhode Island, where he graduated with the highest
honours in 1819. The subject of his discourse on that
occasion was " The Progressive Character of the Human
Race." This was always a favourite theme with him,
and his first oration may be said to have foreshadowed
his subsequent career as philanthropist and statesman.
While at Providence he became acquainted with the
young lady whom he afterwards married. She was the
daughter of Dr. Messer, president of the university. In
1821 he entered the law school at Litchfield, and in 1823
was admitted to the bar. He commenced the practice
of law at Dedham. He was elected in 1827 to the State
legislature, and during his connection with that body was
distinguished for the zeal with which he devoted himself
to the interests of education and temperance. In the
practice of his profession he had adopted the principle
never to take the unjust side of any cause : it is said that
he gained four out of five of all the contested cases in
which he was engaged. The extraordinary influence
which he exerted over the minds of the juries was owing
in a great measure to the confidence which all felt in
his honesty of purpose. In 1833 he removed from
Dedham to Boston, and soon after was elected to the
State Senate. In 1836, and again in 1837, he was chosen
president of the Senate. About this time he became
acquainted with Dr. W. E. Channing and Dr. S. G. Howe,
for whom he ever afterwards cherished the sincerest
respect and affection.
To his enlightened philanthropy and untiring efforts
was due the establishment of the State Lunatic Hospital
at Worcester. In 1837 he was elected secretary of the
Massachusetts Board of Education, (then recently organ
ized,) and was unanimously re-elected to the same posi
tion for eleven successive years. From the moment that
he entered upon his new duties, he devoted himself to
them with undivided attention and unremitting zeal. By
his lectures and writings he awakened an interest in the
cause of education that had never been felt before.
Through his influence, important changes were made in
the school laws of Massachusetts, and a thorough reform
was effected in the educational system of the State.
In May, 1843, Mr. Mann married as his second wife
Miss Mary Peabocly, daughter of Dr. Nathaniel Peabocly
and sister-in-law of Mr. Hawthorne ; and immediately
afterwards he sailed for Europe, chiefly for the purpose
of visiting European schools, particularly those of Ger
many. He returned to his native country in the autumn
of the same year.
In the spring of 1848, Mr. Mann was elected to Con
gress, as successor to J. Quincy Adams, who had died
in February of that year. His first speech in the House
of Representatives was in advocacy of the right and duty
of Congress to exclude slavery from the territories. He
says, in a letter dated December, 1848, "I think the
country is to experience serious times. Interference
with slavery will excite civil commotion at the South.
Still, it is best to interfere. Now is the time to see
whether the Union is a rope of sand or a band of steel."
In another letter, dated January, 1850, he says, "Dark
clouds overhang the future ; and that is not all : they are
full of lightning." Again, " I really think if we insist
upon passing the Wilmot Proviso for the territories that
the South — a part of them — will rebel. But / would
pass it, rebellion or not. / consider no mil so great as that
of the extension of slavery " On the 7th of March, 1850,
Webster delivered his great speech against the Wilmot
Proviso. This led to an open rupture between him and
Mann. Through the influence of Webster's friends, in
the following November Mann failed by a single vote to
obtain a re-nomination in the Whig convention. He,
however, appealed to the people as an independent can
didate, and was triumphantly re-elected.
In September, 1852, Mr. Mann was chosen president of
Antioch College, at Yellow Springs, Ohio. On the same
day he was nominated for Governor of Massachusetts by
a convention of the Free Democracy (otherwise called
the Free-Soil party) assembled at Lowell. Although not
elected Governor, his popularity was shown by his vote
running far ahead of that of the other Free-Soil candi
dates. He accepted the presidency of Antioch College,
which under his able management attained a large
measure of success. But the labours and anxieties of
that responsible position proved at length too much for
his health, never strong, and now undermined by a life
of the most intense and unremitting activity. He died
August 2, 1859. The immediate cause of his death was
doubtless the extraordinary and unceasing mental effort
called forth at the college commencement in July, 1859.
His address to the graduating class on that occasion*
is an eloquent resume of the great principles by which
his life was governed, and forms an appropriate close to
the labours of this heroic and gifted philanthropist.
See " Life of Horace Mann," by his wife, Boston, 1865; "New
American Cyclopaedia."
Mann, man, (THEODORE AUGUSTIN,) ABB£, a Flem
ish writer and antiquary, born about 1740, resided at
Brussels. He published a "Tableau of the Coins,
Weights, and Measures of Different Nations," (1779,) a
"Description of Brussels," (1785,) and -other works.
Died at Prague in 1809.
Marine, de, deh mtn, (Louis CHARLES JOSEPH,) a
French librarian, born in Paris in 1773. He became in
1820 keeper of the Bibliotheque Nationale, in which he
classified 300,000 volumes. Died in 1832. His son
EDMUND succeeded him as librarian.
Manners. See RUTLAND, DUKE OF.
Manners, (JuiiN.) See GRANBY, MARQUIS OF.
Man'ners, (JOHN JAMES ROBERT,) LORD, a second
son of the Duke of Rutland, was born in 1818. He
entered the House of Commons in 1841, and identified
himself with the Tory party. He was first commissioner
of the board of works for a short time in 1858-59, and
obtained the same position in the Derby cabinet in July,
1866. He resigned in December, 1868.
Manners, (ROBERT,) LOUD, a younger son of John,
Marquis of Granby, was a brother of the fourth Duke
of Rutland. He died of wounds received at a battle in
the West Indies in August, 1782, where he commanded
the ship Resolution.
Manners, (ROBERT WILLIAM,) LORD, an English
general, born in 1781. He entered the army in 1798,
served Wellington as aide-de-camp in the Peninsular
war from 1808 to 1813, and was wounded at Waterloo,
(1815.) In 1830 he obtained the rank of major-general.
He was frequently elected to Parliament. Died in 1835.
Mannert, man'ne'Rt', (KoNRAD,) a German writer,
born at Altdorf in 1756, was the author of a "History
of the Vandals," (1785,) " History of Bavaria," (1826,)
and other works. Died in 1834.
Mamii, man'nee, (DOMENICO MARIA,) a distinguished
Italian antiquary and printer, born at Florence in 1690.
He published new editions of early Italian works, which
he enriched with prefaces, notes, etc., and wrote valuable
dissertations on the history of Florence. His " Historic
Observations on the Seals of the Middle Ages" (30 vols.,
1739-86) is a work of merit. Died in 1788.
See TOMITANO, " Elogio di D. M. Manni," 1789.
Manni, (GIANNICOLA,) an Italian painter, born at
Perugia about 1478, was a pupil of Perugino. Died in
1544-
Man'ning, (HENRY EDWARD,) a Roman Catholic
prelate, born in London in 1809, graduated at Oxford.
He took orders in the Anglican Church, and became
Archdeacon of Chichester in 1840. In 1851 he entered
the priesthood of the Catholic Church. He was ap
pointed Archbishop of Westminster in 1865. Among
his works are "The Unity of the Church," (1843,) and
"The Temporal Sovereignty of the Popes," (1860.) He
took a prominent part in the CEcumenical Council which
held its sessions in Rome from December, 1869, to May,
1870, and he maintained the dogma of papal infalli
bility.
Man'ning, (TAMES,) D.D., an American Baptist di
vine, born at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, in 1738, was
the first president of Brown University, Rhode Island.
Died in 1791.
Manning, (OWEN,) an English antiquary, born in
Northamptonshire in 1721. He became Vicar of Godal-
ming and rector of Pepperharrow, (1769.) He wrote the
* Printed in bis "Life," pp. 554-575.
c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MANNING
1514
MANSO
" History and Antiquities of Surrey," and completed
Lye's " Saxon Dictionary." Died in iSoi.
SeeW. BRAY, " Life of O. Manning," prefixed to the first volume
of his " Antiquities of Surrey."
Manning, (THOMAS,) an English linguist, born in
Norfolk in 1774. He resided for a long time in Thibet,
and accompanied Lord Amherst to China in 1816. Died
in 1840.
Maimini, man-nee'nee, (JACOPO ANTONIO,) an Italian
painter, born at Bologna in 1646; died in 1732.
Maimo, man'no, (FKANCKSCO,) an Italian painter,
born at Palermo in 1754; died in 1831.
Mamiory, mt'no're', (Louis,) a French advocate,
born in Paris in 1696. He published " Voltairiana,"
(1748,) and " Plaicloyers et Memoires," (18 vols., 1759.)
Died in 1777.
See VOLTAIRE, "Correspondance."
Maimozzi, man-not'see, (GIOVANNI,) an excellent
Italian fresco-painter, born at San Giovanni, near Flor
ence, in 1590, was sometimes called GIOVANNI DA SAN
GIOVANNI. He was a pupil of Rosselli. In 1621 he
went to Rome, where he painted, in rivalry with Guido's
"Aurora," a picture of "Night in a Chariot." Having
returned to Florence, he painted " The Judgment of
Paris," "Aurora and Tithonus," etc. The picture of
" The Patronage of the Arts and Sciences by Lorenzo
de' Medici" is called his master-piece. Died in 1636.
See BALDINUCCI, " Notizie ;" TICOZZI, " Dizionario ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Maii'nyng or Man'niiig, (ROBERT,) an English
monk, was also called ROBERT DK BRUNNE. He lived
in the reign of Edward I. and Edward II., and was a
canon in the monastery of Brunne or Bourne. He trans
lated into English rhyming chronicles from the " Brut
d'Angleterre" and " Roman le Rou."
Manoel. See MANUEL,
Maiioel OF PORTUGAL. See EMMANUEL.
Manoncourt. See SONNINI.
Manrique, man-ree'ka, (JoRGE,) a Spanish poet,
born about 1420. His reputation is founded on his
moral poems, which are highly commended. Died
about 1485.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature ;" LONGFELLOW,
"Poets and Poetry of Europe. "
Mansard or Mansart, mSs'stR', (FRANCOIS,) an
excellent French architect, born in Paris in 1598. He
restored the Hotel Toulouse, and erected the chateaus
of Berny and of Choisy-sur-Seine, and several churches
in Paris. The Chateau de Maisons, a few miles from
Paris, is one of his most admired works. His designs
are remarkable for nobleness and majesty. He invented
the curb-roof called " Mansard." Died in 1666.
See FONTENAY, "Dictionnaire des Artistes."
Mansard or Mansart, (JULES HARDOUIN,) a cele
brated architect, born in Paris in 1645, was a son of
Jules Hardouin, a painter. His mother was a sister of
F. Mansard, noticed above. He studied the art with
this uncle, and assumed his name. Having obtained
the favour of Louis XIV., he designed the most im
portant architectural works of his reign. He had a rare
opportunity to display his genius in the chateau or royal
palace of Versailles, which, though imposing in dimen
sions and rich in ornaments, faiis to satisfy the require
ments of good taste. He built the Hotel des Invalides,
— in the grand dome of which he attempted to rival Sir
Christopher Wren, — the Chateau de Marly, the Place
Vendome, and other public works. In 1699 he was
chosen superintendent of buildings, arts, and manufac
tures. Died in 1708.
See QUATREMERK DE QuiNCY, "Vies des plus celebres Archi-
tectes ;" FONTENAY, " Dictionnaire des Artistes;" JEAN DUCHESNE,
" Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de J. H. Mansart," 1805.
Mansart. See MANSARD.
Man'sel, (Rev. HENRY LONGUEVILLE,) a prominent
English writer on metaphysics and theology, logic, etc.,
was born at Cosgrove, in Northamptonshire, in 1820.
He became professor of moral and metaphysical philos
ophy at Oxford about 1859, and regius professor of
ecclesiastical history in 1867. Among his works is
"The Limits of Religious Thought Examined," (1858,)
which has attracted much attention and no little criti
cism and has passed through a number of editions. In
this treatise he takes as the basis of his argument Sir
William Hamilton's position that "the unconditioned is
incognizable and inconceivable ;" and the work is justly
regarded as one of the most important applications of
the Hamiltonian philosophy to questions of religion.
He edited Sir W. Hamilton's works on logic and meta
physics. He also contributed to the "Encyclopaedia
Bntannica" a valuable treatise on metaphysics, which
has since been published in a separate form. He was ap
pointed Dean of Saint Paul's, London, in October, 1868.
Mansfeld, von, fon mans'felt, (ERNST,) COUNT, one
of the greatest generals of his time, born in 1585, was
the natural son of Peter Ernst, noticed below. After
fighting for the King of Spain and the Emperor of Ger
many, he left their service about 1610, and became an
enemy of the house of Austria. He avowed himself a
convert to the Reformed faith, and in 1618 was chosen
general-in-chief of the Bohemian insurgents. In the
service of Frederick, whom those insurgents had elected
king, he fought many battles, and defeated the Bavarians
in 1622. He afterwards marched into Flanders and re
pulsed the Spaniards at Fleurus. Having raised another
army to attack Austria, he was defeated by Wallenstein
in 1626, and died near Zara in the same year. He was
one of those generals who are as formidable after defeat
as before.
See "Acta Mansfeldica," 1624; NIKMANN, " Geschichte der Gia-
fen von Mansfeld," 1834; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mansfeld, von, (PETER ERNST,) COUNT, an able
German general, born in 1517. In his youth he entered
the army of the emperor Charles V. After serving in
several campaigns, he commanded an army against the
French in 1552, and in 1569 led another army to aid
Charles IX. against the Huguenots. He distinguished
himself at the battle of Moncontour. He succeeded the
Duke of Parma as Governor-General of the Low Coun
tries in 1592. Died in 1604.
See SCHANNAT, " Histoire du Comte de Mansfeld," 1707; Mo-
RERI, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" MOTLEY, " United Netherlands,"
Mans'field, QARKD,) an American mathematician,
born at New Haven, Connecticut. He became pro
fessor of natural philosophy in the Military Academy at
West Point. lie published several scientific works.
Died in 1830.
Mansfield, (JOSEPH KING FENNO,) an American
general, born at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1803,
graduated at West Point in 1822. lie served as captain
in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a colonel in
1853. He commanded the department of Washington
in June and July, 1861, and directed a corps at the
battle of Antietam, where he was killed, September 17,
1862. He was a brigadier-general in the regular army.
See TENNEY, "Military History of the Rebellion."
Mansfield, LORD. See MURRAY, (WILLIAM.)
Mausi, mdn'see, (GIOVANNI DOMENICO,) a learned
Italian prelate, born at Lucca in 1692. He translated
into Latin Calmet's "Dictionary of the Bible" and the
"Commentaiy" of the same author, and edited several
works of theology. One of the most important of his
works was an edition of the "Collection of Councils,"
("Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima Collectio,"
1757 et seq.,) in which he was aided by N. Coleti. He
was appointed Archbishop of Lucca in 1765. Died in
1769.
See ZATTI, "Vita di D. Mansi," 1772.
Manso, man'so, orManzo, man'zo, (GIOVANNI BAT-
TISTA,) Marquis de Villa, an Italian author, eminent as
a patron of literature, was born in Naples about 1560.
He expended part of his fortune in founding in Naples
the Academy degli Oziosi, He was intimate with the
poet Tasso, who commemorated their friendship in his
dialogue entitled " II Manso." Milton, who had been
his guest in Naples, addressed to him in complimentary
terms a beautiful Latin poem or eclogue entitled " Man-
sus." Manso wrote the " Life of Torquato Tasso," (1619,)
and several poems. Died in 1645.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Manso, man'so, QOHANN KASPAR FRIEDRICH,) a
German scholar and historian, born in the duchy of
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m§t; not; good; moon;
MJNSOOR
MANTUANO
Gotha in 1759. He published a "Life of Constantine
the Great," (1817,) and a number of poems and an
tiquarian treatises. Died in 1826.
See KLUG, "Manso als Scluilmann und Ge'ehrter," 1826.
Mansoor, (Aboo-Aniir-Mohammed.) See AL
MA NSOOK.
Mansoor, Mansour, Mangour, or Mansur, Al,*
al mansooR', (Aboo-Jaafar- (or Djafar-) Abdallah,
a'boo ja'far ab-dal'lah, the second Abbasside caliph of
the Arabian empire, succeeded his brother As-Seffah (or
Al-Saffah) in 754 A.D. About 765 he founded Bagdad,
which thenceforth was the capital of the empire for five
centuries. He waged war with success against the
Turcomans and the Greeks of Asia Minor, but lost
Spain, which was taken possession of by the Omevyads.
He is said to have united superior talents with great
cruelty and other vices. He died in 775 A.D., leaving
the throne to his son Mahdee, (or Mahdi.)
See WEIL, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. ii. chap. ii.
Manstein, von, fon man'stin, (CiiRisroPH HER
MANN,) an able general and historical writer, born in
Saint Petersburg in 1711. In 1745 he entered the ser
vice of Prussia, and a few years later became a major-
general. He was employed by Frederick the Great in
important political affairs, and took part in the battle of
Prague, (1757.) He was killed in a skirmish the same
year. He left "Historical, Political, and Military Me
moirs of Russia," (in French, 2 vols., 1772.) This work
has been translated into English.
See HUBER, "Vie de Manstein," prefixed to his " Memoires."
Mansueti, man-soo-a'tee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian
painter, born in Venice about 1450; died after 1500.
Mant, (RicHARD,) an English bishop and commen
tator, born at Southampton in 1776. In conjunction
with D'Oyly, he prepared an edition of the Bible, with
notes, (1817.) He became Bishop of Down and Connor
about 1823. He wrote, besides other works, a " History
of the Church in Ireland." Died in 1848.
See BERKNS " Memoir of the Life of Bishop Mant," 1849 ; " Lon
don Quarterly Review" for December, 1812.
Mantegna, man-ten'ya, (ANDREA,) an eminent Italian
historical painter and engraver, born at Padua about
1430, was a pupil of F. Squarcione, who adopted him
as a son. After he had worked at Padua and Verona,
he went to Milan, where he painted the "Triumph of
Julius Caesar/' which Vasari esteemed his master-piece,
and which was purchased by Charles I. of England. It
is now at Hampton Court. He painted several frescos
in the Vatican at Rome, and worked some years in Man
tua, where he was patronized by the Marquis de Gon-
zaga. Among his most admired oil-paintings is the
"Delia Vittoria," (1495,) (a picture of the Marquis of
Mantua rendering thanks to the Virgin for his victory
at Fornovo,) which still retains its beauty. He was
probably the first engraver of his time. Died in 1506.
See VASAKI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, "History of
Painting in Italy;" RIDOI.FI, "Vite degli illustri Pittori Veneti ;"
LOMAZZO, " Idea del Tempio della Pittura ;" MRS. JAMESON, "Me
moirs of Eariy Italian Painters;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. "
Mantegna, (BERNARDINO,) a painter of the Mantuan
school, born in 1490, was a son and pupil of the pre
ceding. Died in 1528.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters."
Mantegna, (FRANCESCO,) an able Italian painter, son
of Andrea, noticed above. He was a pupil of his father,
and completed several works which the latter left un
finished at Mantua. It is stated that he was the first
master of Correggio. Died after 1514.
Maiitegna, del, del man-ten'ya, (CARLO,) an Italian
painter, was a relative and pupil of Andrea Mantegna,
noticed above. In 1514 he was master of a school of
artists in Genoa.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters."
Maii'tell, (GIDEON ALGERNON,) an eminent English
geologist and palaeontologist, born at Lewes, in Sussex,
in 1790. He adopted the medical profession, which he
practised many years at Lewes. A mine near that place
offered him a rich field for observations in geology, to
which his attention was early directed. He collected
* Al Mansoor surnities ''the Victoiious."
from the Weaklen formation and the chalk a museum of
specimens of extinct reptiles, fishes, and plants, which was
afterwards bought by the trustees of the British Museum
for .£5000. About 1825 he discovered the Iguanodon,
an extinct reptile about sixty feet long, and in that year
was elected to the Royal Society. He also discovered
three other genera of the colossal Dinosaurian reptiles.
In 1822 he published "The Fossils of the South Downs."
He removed to Clapham in 1839, and a few years later
to London. He not only enriched the science by his
discoveries, but was unsurpassed by any English geolo
gist of his time as a lecturer and a popular expounder
of geological facts.- His most important works are "On
the Iguanodon," "The Geology of the Southeast of
England," (1838,) "The Wonde'rs of Geology," (1838,)
and "The Medals of Creation," (1844.) Died in 1852.
See AGASSIZ and STRICKLAND, " Bibiiographia Zoologias et
Geologic."
Manteuffel, man'toiffel, (Orro THEODOR,) BARON,
a Prussian statesman, born at Liibben in 1805. He was
appointed director in the ministry of the interior in 1846,
and minister of the interior about November, 1848.
Many of the notes and diplomatic circulars of 1848 and
1849 were written by him. He was president of the
council of ministers from December, 1850, to December,
1858.
See G. HESKKIEL, "O. T. Manteuffel: ein Preussisches Leber.s-
bild," 1851.
Mantica, man-tee'ka, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian prel
ate and jurist, born at Pordenone in 1534, published
"Decisiones Romaiias," (1618.) Died in 1614.
Man'to, [Gr. Marru,] a prophetess, daughter of Tire-
sias, was taken prisoner by the Argives at Thebes, and
was dedicated to Apollo, under whose auspices she is
said to have uttered oracles at Delphi. She was some
times called DAPHNE. She became the wife of Rhakius
or Rhacius, and the mother of Mopsus.
Man'ton, (THOMAS,) an English divine, born in
Somersetshire in 1620. He obtained the living of Stoke
Newington in 1643, and afterwards preached at Covent
Garden in London. He was eminent for eloquence and
learning, and was appointed chaplain to Cromwell in
1653. In 1660 he became a chaplain to Charles II.,
but was ejected from his church in London for non
conformity in 1662. Several volumes of his sermons,
lectures, etc. were published. Died in 1677.
Mantouan, Le. See MANTUANO.
Mantovano. See MANTUANO.
Mantuan, man-too-an', or Mantuano, man-too-a'no,
(BATTISTA,) or Battista Spagnuoli, (span-yoo-o'lee,)
a Latin poet, once of great celebrity, was born at Mantua
in 1448. He had great facility as a versifier, but was de
ficient in taste, and his works, consisting of eclogues,
silva, etc., are now entirely neglected. "He was, and
long continued to be," says Hallam, "the poet of
school-rooms. Erasmus says that he would be placed
by posterity not much below Virgil." He was a Car
melite friar. Died in 1516.
Mantuano, man-too-a'no, (ADAMO GHISI,) an able
engraver, born at Mantua about 1530, was a son of
Giovanni Battista, noticed below. He engraved after
Michael Angelo, Giulio Romano, and other masters.
Mantuano, (GiORGio GHISI,) born at Mantua about
1522, was a skilful engraver and painter. He worked
many years in Rome, and engraved the finest works of
Michael Angelo, Raphael, and other masters. Among
them are " The Last Judgment," after Angelo, and the
" Holy Family" and "School of Athens," after Raphael.
He was living in 1578.
His sister, DIANA MANTUANA, a skilful artist, en
graved several works of Raphael about 1570-80.
Mantuano, [Fr. LE MANTOUAN, leh mS.N'too'oN',]
(GIOVANNI BATTISTA BERTANO,) an Italian painter,
sculptor, engraver, and architect, the father of the pre
ceding, was born at Mantua about 1500. He was the
head of a family which produced several artists, and
whose proper name was GHISI. He was the pupil of
Giulio Romano. His engraving of the "Burning of
Troy" is highly praised.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters."
Mantuano, (TEODORO.) See GHISI.
c as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MANU
1516
MAN WOOD
Manu, [modern Hindoo pron. miin'oo,] written also
Menu, [from the Sanscrit mdn, to "know,"] a celebrated
Hindoo sage, the son of Brahma, and the revealer of the
code of laws known as the "Institutes of Manu."
See WILSON, "Sanscrit Dictionary;" MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon."
Maiiuce, (Ai.DK.) See MAXUTIUS, (ALDUS.)
Man'u-el I. Com-ne'mis, [Or. Maiw///. f> Kop>r}v6e ;
Fr. MANUEL COMXENE, mS'iiu'el' kom'nin',] a Greek
emperor, born about 1120, was a younger son of John
Comnenus, who designated him for his successor. Manuel
began to reign at Constantinople in 1143. He was am
bilious, brave, and licentious. He is accused of perfidy
towards the crusaders Conrad of Germany and Louis
VII., King of France, who passed, with their armies,
through his dominions in 1147, and with whom he had
made a treaty of alliance. He afterwards waged war
against Roger, King of Sicily, the Hungarians, and the
Turks, over whom he gained several victories. Peace
was made between him and Roger in 1155. In 1176 he
was defeated disastrously by Az-ed-Deen, the Turkish
Sultan, near Myriocephalus, where Manuel fought in
person. The Turks were defeated in turn by his army
in Lydia, in 1177, when the war was ended by treaty.
He died in 1180, and was succeeded by his only son,
Alexis II.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" LE BEAU,
" Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Manuel II. Palaeologus, (pal-e-ol'o-gus,) [Gr. Mrz-
vovrfAo ria?.a«)/(/; (if ; Fr. MANUEL PAI.EOLOGUE, int'iiu'el'
pi'la'o'log',] Emperor of Constantinople, was the second
son of John VI., who admitted him as his associate in
the empire about 1372. At the death of his father, in
1391, Manuel was held as a hostage by Sultan Bayazeed
I. He escaped from Xic?ea, and fled to his own capital,
in the same year. The enraged Sultan inarched against
him, and besieged Constantinople. The French and
German chivalry came to his assistance with a large
army, and forced Bayazeed to raise the siege ; but he de
feated those allies at Xicopolis (Nicopol) in 1396. The
Sultan prosecuted the siege for several years, until the
alarming progress of Tamerlane called him away for the
defence of his own kingdom. After the defeat and death
of Bayazeed, in 1403, Manuel reigned in peace. He died
in 1425, aged seventy-seven, and was succeeded by his
son, John VII. Palaeologus.
See GIBBON, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire;" VON HAMMER, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs;"
BERBER DE XIVREY, " Memoire sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Ma
nuel Paleologue," 1853.
Manuel, ma-noo-el', or Manoel, ma-no-el', (FRAX-
Cisco,) an eminent Portuguese poet, born at Lisbon in
1734. He wrote admired odes, sonnets, and epistles,
and attained the reputation of the most excellent modern
lyric poet of Portugal. Among his poems is an ode to
Washington. The liberality of his principles subjected
him to a charge of heresy, for which he was summoned
before the Inquisition, lie escaped, and retired to Paris
in 1788. He made admirable Portuguese versions of La
Fontaine's "Fables," Chateaubriand's "Martyrs," and
Wieland's "Oberon." His poems were published, under
the name of" Filinto Elysio." Died in Paris in 1819.
Manuel, mS'iiu'el', (JACQUES AXTOIXE,) a French
orator and republican, born at Barcelonnette (Low Alps)
in 1775. In the profession of advocate he attained
eminence at Aix. He was a member of the Chamber of
Deputies during the Hundred Days, (1815,) when he
spoke against the pretensions of Bonaparte and of the
Bourbons. In 1818 he was elected to the Chamber of
Deputies by the liberals, and was ranked among the
ablest debaters of that assembly. "Of all the revolu
tionary orators," says Lamartine, "he was the most
feared and hated by the majority." After a speech in
reply to Chateaubriand, he was expelled from the Cham
ber in 1823. Died in 1827. "He had no one to con
sole him," says Lamartine, "but Beranger, whose heart
loved in Manuel the antique stamp of the premature
but intrepid, moderate, and upright republican. ... He
was more remarkable for character than eloquence ; he
preferred action to speech," etc.
See FADEVILLE, " Manuel juge par ses Actions," 1824 ; RAMOND
DE LA CROISETTE, " M. Manuel," 1824; FOURTANIER, " E"loge de
Manuel," 1849; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Manuel, ma-noo-el', (Don JUAN,) a Spanish prince
and author, was a nephew of Alfonso X. of Castile. He
was Regent of Castile during part of the minority of
Alfonso XL, and distinguished himself in battle against
the Moors. He wrote many works, in prose and verse.
His political and moral treatise called "The Count of
Lucanor" (" El Conde de Lucanor") was esteemed by
Bouterwek as the finest monument of Spanish literature
in the fourteenth century. Died about 1350.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" TICKNOR,
" History of Spanish Literature."
Manuel, (Linns PIERRE,) a French revolutionist,
born at Montargis in 1751. According to Bcaulieu, he
took a prominent part in the riot of the loth of August,
1792, and was a partisan of Danton. Soon after this
date he conducted the royal captives to the prison of the
Temple. He rescued ftladame de Stael and Beaumar-
chais from the massacre of September. Asa member
of the Convention, he voted against the death of Louis
XVI. For this he was proscribed and executed in 1793.
See PRUDHOMME, " Les Revolutions de Paris ;" Louis BLANC,
" Histoire de la Revolution ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Manuel, mt'nu'el', (NICOLAS,) a Swiss artist, author,
and Reformer, bom at Berne in 1484, was sometimes
called DEUTSCH, in Italian TEDESCO, (i.e. the "German.")
About 1510 he went to Venice and became a pupil of
Titian. He returned to Berne, and painted "The Dance
of Death," in fresco. He wrote satirical poems and
songs, and "Dramatic Moralities and Mysteries," a hu
morous composition. In his latter years he held several
public offices, and was an active promoter of the Swiss
Reformation. Died in 1530.
Manutius, ma-nu'she^us, (AL'DUS,) [It. ALDO MA-
xrzio, al'do ma-noot'se-o ; Fr. ALDE MAXUCE, Sid
mf'niiss',] a celebrated Italian, printer and scholar, bom
at Bassiano, in the Papal States, in 1447. With the
patronage of Pico de Mirandola and Alberto Pio, he
established a printing-press at Venice about 1490. He
invented the form of type called Italic, procured manu
scripts from various countries, and published editions of
classics which surpassed all others in correctness. About
1500 he formed at Venice a literary association called the
Alcline Academy, the design of which was to promote
literature by perfecting the copies of the models of an
tiquity. He compiled a Greek-and-Latin Lexicon, (1497.)
Died in 1515.
See UNGER, "De Aldi Pii Manutii Vita Meritisque," 1752; D.
M. MANNI, "Vita di Aldo Pio Manuzio," 1749; A. RENOUARD,
"Annales de 1'Imprimerie des Aide;" AMBKOISE FIRMIN DIDOT,
article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Manutius, (ALDUS,) or Manuzio, (ALDO,) THE
YOUXGER, born at Venice in 1547, was a son of Paolo,
noticed below. At the age of fourteen he published a
" System of Orthography," (" Orr.hograph.ia: Ratio.") He
was professor of eloquence at Bologna, Pisa, and Rome.
He wrote, besides antiquarian treatises, " The Life of
Cosimo I. de' Medici," and "The Accomplished Gentle
man," ("II perfetto GentiPuomo.") Died in 1597.
See A. RENOUARD, "Annales des Aide."
Manutius, (PAULUS,) or Manuzio, (PAOLO,) an
Italian printer, author, and critic, born at Venice in 1512,
was a son of Aldus Senior. As the successor of his
father in the printing-establishment, he published excel
lent editions of Latin classics in Venice. About 1562
he removed his press to Rome, whence he returned to
Venice in 1570. He acquired a high reputation as a
critic and as a writer of elegant Latin. Among his prin
cipal works are "On the Roman Senate," ("De Senatu
Romano,") "On the Roman State," ("De Civitate Ro-
mana,") " Roman Antiquities," and a volume of Latin
Epistles. " The letters of Manutius," says Hallam, " pall
on the reader by their monotonous elegance. . . . Sciop-
pius thinks him consummate in delicacy and grace."
[" Introduction 'to the Literature of Europe.") Died in
1574-
See A. RENOUARD, "Annales de 1'Imprimerie des Aide," 1834;
J G. KR \USE, "Apparatus ad P. Manutii Vitam,"i66g; AMFIROISE
KIK.MIN* DIUOT, article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Manuzio. See MANUTIUS.
Man'wood, (JoHX,) an English jurist, flourished
about 1600, and wrote a " Treatise on the Laws of the
Forest."
a, e, I, o, 11, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
MAN WOOD
M4RANS1N
Manwood, (Sir ROGER,) probably the father of the
preceding, was chief baron of the court of exchequer.
Died in 1593.
Manzi, man'zee, (GuLiELMO,) an Italian litterateur,
born at Civita Vecchia in 1784. He made a good Italian
version of Lucian, (1819,) and wrote a "Discourse on
the Spectacles, Festivals, and Luxury of the Italians of
the Sixteenth Century," (1818.) Died in 1821.
See TIPALDO. " Biografia degli Italian! illustri ;" Rossi, " Elogio
storico di G. Manzi," 1822.
Manzi, (PiETRO,) an Italian writer, born at Civita
Vecchia in 1785, was a brother of the preceding. He
published "The Conquest of Mexico," (1817,) and other
works. Died in 1839.
Manzo. See MAN so.
Manzolli, man-zol'lee, or Manzoli, tnan-zo'lee, (PiE-
TRO or PIER ANGELO,) a Latin poet, born at Stellata, on
the Po, in Italy, flourished about 1510-40. He was bet
ter known by his assumed name, PALINGENIO or PALIN-
GE'NIUS STELLA'TUS. The events and circumstances
of his life are unknown. He wrote a long moral poem,
entitled " Zodiac of Life," (" Zodiacus Vitae," Bale, 1537,)
the books of which are named from the signs of the
zodiac. "It is not very poetical," says Hal lam, "but
by no means without strong passages of sense and
spirit, in a lax Horatian metre. The author has said
more than enough to incur the suspicion of Lutheran-
ism." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.")
See GERDES, " Historia Reformationis ;" " Palingene," in
BAYLE'S " Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Manzoni, man-zo'nee, (ALESSANDKO,) a celebrated
Italian novelist and poet, was born at Milan, March 8,
1784. His father bore the title of count, and his mother
was a daughter of the Marquis Beccaria, the eminent
jurist and writer. About 1805 he made a long visit
to Paris, where he formed an intimate friendship with
Fauriel and produced a poem on the death of Carlo
Imbonati, (1806.) He married Henriette Louise Blonde],
of Geneva, in 1808, and became a zealous member of
the Roman Catholic Church. Soon after this event he
produced several hymns on the Nativity, the Passion,
the Resurrection, etc., which have much literary merit.
His next work was a tragedy, called "II Conte di Car-
magnola," (1820,) in which the three unities are not ob
served. This drama was warmly applauded by Goethe.
He published another tragedy, entitled " Adelchi," and
an admirable ode on the death of Napoleon, " II cinque
Maggio." His capital work is the historical novel of
" I promessi Sposi," (3 vols., 1827,) an English version
of which has appeared under the title of " The Betrothed
Lovers." It presents a vivid picture of Italian society
of the seventeenth century. The style is natural, elo
quent, and beautiful. Manzoni became a senator of the
kingdom of Sardinia in 1860.
See Louis DE LOMENIE, " M. Manzoni, par un Hoinnie deRien,"
1*42; SAINTK-BECVE, " A. Manzori : Fragment biographkjne,"
1*45; LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe :" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generate;" "Foreign Quarter' y Review" for July and
November, 1827; " Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1826;
" North American Review" for October, 1840.
Manzoni, (FRANCESCA,) an Italian poetess, born in
the Milanese in 1710, was versed in the Greek and Latin
languages. Died in 1743.
Manzuoli, man-zoo-o'lee, (TOMMASO,) an able Italian
painter, born near Florence in 1536, was also called
MASO DA SAN FRIANO. He adorned several churches
of Florence. His master-piece is the " Visitation," which
is preserved in the gallery of the Vatican. Died in 1575.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc.
Mapes, map,? or Map, (WALTER,) an old English
author, born in the Welsh marches about 1150. He
became a favourite of Henry II., who sent him on a mis
sion to the King of France and gave him several bene
fices. In 1196 he was appointed Archdeacon of Oxford.
He wrote satirical Leonine Latin poems, among which
is an ode which begins " Meum est propositum in taberna
mori." In Latin prose he wrote a curious and interesting
work called " De Nugis Curialium." He was the re
puted author of several romances in French or Anglo-
Norman.
See G. PHILLIPS, "W. Map, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte Konig
Heinrichs II. von England," 1853.
Maphaeus. See MAFFEI and MAFFKO.
Mapletoft, ma'pel-toft, (JoHN,) an English physician,
born in Huntingdonshire in 1631. He was appointed
professor of medicine in Gresham College, London, in
1675. About 1680 he took holy orders. He translated
into Latin Sydenham's "Observations," at the request
of the author, and wrote "The Principles and Duties
of the Christian Religion." Died in 1721.
Mapp, niSp, [Lat. MAP'PUS,] (MARC,) a French bot
anist and physician, born at Strasburg in 1632. He wrote
a mediocre "Description of the Plants of Alsace." Died
in 1701.
Mappus. See MAPP.
Maquet, mi'ki', (AuGUSTF,,) a French novelist, born
in Paris in 1813. He was author (in part) of a number
of works which were published under the name of Alex-
andre Dumas. Among these is " Monte-Cristo."
Mar, EARL OF. See ERSKINE, (JoHN.)
Mara, ma'ra, a famous deva of the Hindoo mythology,
mentioned in the history of GAUTAMA, (which see.)
Mara, ma'ra, originally named Schmelling, (ELIZA
BETH,) a celebrated German singer, was born at Cassel
in 1749. She was a pupil of Paradisi, and became the
wife of J. Mara, a violoncellist of Berlin. Between 1784
and 1787 she appeared four times as first vocalist at the
Handel Commemoration, and was greatly admired. She
afterwards performed with applause in Paris and Berlin.
She sang in four languages. Died in 1833.
See GROSHEIM, "Das Leben der Kiinstlerin Mara," 1823.
Mara, de, deh mt'rt', (GuiLLAUMF.,) a priest and
Latin poet, born in the diocese of Coutances, France,
about 1470; died about 1530.
Maracci. See MARRACCI.
Maracci, ma-rat'chee, or Marracci, mar-rat'chee,
(GIOVANNI,) an Italian historical painter, born at Lucca
in 1637, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. Died in 1704.
Marais, mi'ii', (M.\RIN,) a French musical composer,
was born in Paris in 1656. Among his works is an opera
entitled "Alcyone," (1706.) Died in 1728.
Marais, (MATHIEU,) a French jurist and writer, born
in Paris in 1664. He wrote some articles for Bayle's
"Historical and Critical Dictionary," and a "Life of
La Fontaine," (1811.) Died in 1737.
Marais, des. See REGNIER-DESMARAIS.
Maraldi, ma-ral'dee, (JACQUES PHILIPPE,) an as
tronomer, born at Perinaldo, in the county of Nice, in
1665, was a nephew of Giovanni Domenico Cassini,
under whom he studied astronomy in Paris. About
1700 he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences.
He spent many years in astronomical observations, and
in forming a Catalogue of the fixed stars, which he left
in manuscript when he died, in 1729.
See FARROXI, "Vita: Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" FONTE-
NELLE, " filoge de Maraldi."
Maraldi, (TEAN DOMINIQUE,) a nephew of the pre
ceding, was born at Perinaldo in 1709. He became
assistant astronomer at the Paris Observatory, and made
many observations, which were inserted in the collection
of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1788.
Maran, mf ro.\', [Lat. MARA'NUS,] (Dom PRUDENT,)
a learned French Benedictine monk, born at Sezanne in
1683. He wrote a " Dissertation on the Semi-Arians,"
and edited the works of Saint Cyprian. Died in 1762.
Marana, ma-ra'na,(GiovANNi PAOLO or GIAMPAOLO,)
an Italian writer, born at Genoa about 1642. He was
imprisoned four years (1670-74) for a political reason.
About 1682 he removed to Paris, and obtained a pen
sion from the king. In 1684 he published, in French, the
first volume of " The Turkish Spy," (" L'Espion Turc,")
which was very successful. "The Turkish Spy," says
Hallam, "is no ordinary production, but contains as
many proofs of a thoughtful, if not very profound, mind,
as any we can find. It suggested the Persian Letters
to Montesquieu." He published a second volume in
1686. Died in 1693.
Marangoui, ma-ran-go'nee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian
antiquary, born at Vicenza in 1673. He wrote a learned
treatise on the Flavian Amphitheatre, and "Thesaurus
Parochorum." Died in 1753.
Maransin, mt'r&N'saN', QEAN PIERRE,) BARON, a
French general, born at Lourdes in 1770; died in 1828.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; %h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MAR ANT A
1518
MARCEL
Maranta, ma-ran'ta, (BARTOLOMMEO,) an Italian bot
anist and physician, lived at Venosa, in the kingdom of
Naples. He assisted Ferrante Imperato in writing his
" Natural History," and wrote an esteemed elementary
work on botany, entitled " Methodus Cognoscendorum
Medicamentorum simplicium," (1559.) "The author,"
says Hallam, " is independent, though learned, extremely
acute in discriminating plants known to the ancients, and
has discovered many himself." (" Introduction to the
Literature of Europe.") Died about 1554.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Mar an us. See MAR AN.
Marat, mS'rS', (|KAN PAUL,) a notorious Jacobin
demagogue, born near Neufchatel, in Switzerland, in
1744. He practised medicine in Paris before the Revo
lution, and published many treatises on electricity,
optics, etc. In 1789 he incited the populace to anarchy
and bloodshed by his journal "The Friend of the Peo
ple," (" L'Ami du Peuple.") Among the Jacobin leaders
^ lie was probably the most rancorous enemy of the royal
ists and the Girondists. In 1792 he was elected to the
Convention, and, uniting with Danton and Robespierre,
formed the bloody triumvirate of the reign of terror.
He became a self-constituted public accuser before the
commune and the Convention. In May, 1793, the ma
jority of the Convention ordered his arrest for outrages
committed against that assembly. He was tried, but
was acquitted by the tribunal and brought back to the
Convention in triumph by the mob. "The hesitation
of Danton," says Lamartine, "and the temporizing of
Robespierre, raised Marat at this moment to the apogee
of his popularity and power. He shrugged his shoulders
at the names of Danton and Robespierre, expressing his
doubts of their capacity to guide the Revolution." He
was assassinated by Charlotte Corday in his own house
in July, 1793. (See CORDAY, CHARLOTTE.)
See, also, DES.MAREST, "Vie de Marat depuis 1789:" VAL-
LOUISE, "Marat," 1840; " Skizzen aus Marats Leben," Hamburg,
1846; PAUL LACKOIX, "Marat Philosophe, Naturaliste," etc., 1854;
THIERS, " History of the French Revolution."
Maratta, ma-rat'ta, or Maratti, ma-rat'tee, (CARLO,)
an Italian painter, born at Camurano, in the March of
Ancona, in May, 1625, enjoyed in his time the reputation
of being one of the best painters in Europe. He became
a pupil of Andrea Sacchi and a devout student of Ra
phael's works, and chose Rome as his permanent resi
dence. He was employed by Clement IX. and by four
other successive popes, and received the title of painter-
ordinary to Louis XIV., for whom he painted a picture
of Daphne. His Madonnas are admired for modest
dignity and amiable expression. He preferred to paint
pictures for galleries and altars, rather than large works.
Maratta also excelled in the art of etching. He was the
last great painter of the Roman school. Died in 1713.
See BEI.LORI, "Vita del Cavalier Maratti," 1732; LANZI, "His
tory of Painting in Italy:" PASCOI.I, "Vite de' Pittori modern! ;"
TICOZZI, " Dizionario ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Maratta or Maratti, (MARIA,) a daughter of the
preceding, was a painter and a poetess. She was mar
ried to G. Zappe, the poet.
Maratti. See MARATTA.
Maraviglsa, ma-ra-vel'ya, (GIUSEPPE MARIA,) an
Italian philosopher and moralist, born at Milan. His
Latin name was MlRABH.lA. Died in 1684.
Marazzoli, ma-rdt-so'lee, (MARCO,) an Italian com
poser of operas and oratorios, born at Parma; died in
1662.
Marbach, maR'baK, QOHANN,) a German Protestant
theologian, born at Lindau in 1521. Among his works
is " The Faith of Jesus and of the Jesuits," (" Fides Jesus
et Jesuitarum.") Died in 1581.
Marbeau, mfR'bo', (JEAN BAPTISTS FRANC.OIS,) a
French writer on social economy, born at Brives in 1798.
He founded in 1844 charitable institutions called Creches,
for infants whose mothers serve as labourers out of their
own houses.
Mar'beck, QOHN,) an English composer of cathedral
music, was organist of Windsor in the reign of Henry
VIII. He composed the notes to the Prcces and Re
sponses used in the English cathedrals. Having iden
tified himself with the Protestant cause, he was con
demned to be burned for heresy about 1545, but was
pardoned, — perhaps on account of his musical skill. He
published a "Book of Common Prayer Noted," (1550,)
and a "Concordance." Died in 1585.
See HAWKINS, " History of Music."
Marbeuf 01 Marbceuf, mtu'buP, (Louis CHARLES
REN:E,) MARQUIS, a French general, born near Renues
in 1712. He commanded in Corsica against Paoli, by
whom he was defeated in 1768. Died in 1786.
Marbois, mf a'bwa', ( FRANC.OIS de Barbe — deh
baVba',) MARQUIS, called also MARQUIS DE MARBOIS,
a French statesman and writer, born at Metz in 1745.
About 1780 he was charge -d'affaires and consul-general
to the United States. In 1792 Louis XVI.. who esteemed
him for his probity, sent him on an embassy to Vienna.
He was elected in 1795 to the Council of Elders, in which
he spoke often and with ability. In September, 1797, he
was, with others, deported to Guiana by the Directory.
Bonaparte appointed him director of the treasury, or min
ister of finance, in 1801. Marbois was dismissed in 1805,
but in 1808 became first president of the Cour des
Comptes, (Chamber of Accounts, or exchequer.) He held
this office about thirty years. He was keeper of the seals
and minister of justice in 1815 and 1816, and received
the title of marquis in 1817. He wrote numerous moral,
political, and historical works, among which are "The
Conspiracy of Arnold against the United States,"
(1816,) and a " History of Louisiana," (1828.) Died in
1837-
See ANTOINE PASSY, " Notice sur le Marquis de Barbe- Marbois,"
1838; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Marbot, maVbo', (ANTOINE ADOI.PHE MARCELLIN,)
a French general, born at Altillac in 1781 ; died in 1844.
Marbot, (JEAN BAPTISTS ANTOINE,) a general, born
at Altillac in 1782, was a brother of the preceding. Na
poleon left him a legacy of one hundred thousand francs.
Died in 1854.
Marc, the French for MARK, which see.
Marc, mituk, (CHARLES CHRETIEN HENRI,) a physi
cian, born at Amsterdam in 1771, settled in Paris in 1798.
About 1818 he became physician to the Duke of Orleans,
who, on his accession as Louis Philippe, in 1830, gave
him the title of first physician to the king. He wrote,
besides other works, a " Treatise on Insanity," (" De la
Folie," etc., 2 vols., 1840,) and published several able
medical treatises. Died in 1841.
See PARISET, " FJoge de Ch. Ch. H. Marc," 1842; REVEILLB-
PARISSE, "Notice sur C. C. H. Marc," 1842.
Marc, SAINT. See MARK, SAINT, and MARCUS.
Marc Antoine, the French for MARK ANTONY. See
ANTONIUS, (MARCUS.)
Marc Antonio. See RAIMONDI.
Marc Aurel, the German for MARCUS AURELIUS.
Marc Aurele. See AURELIUS, (MARCUS.)
Marca, de, deh maVka"', (PIERRE,) an ambitious and
learned French prelate, born in Beam in 1594. At the
request of Cardinal Richelieu, he wrote his famous
treatise on the liberty of the Gallican Church, entitled
"De Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii," (1641,) which
offended the court of Rome. He was made Bishop of
Toulouse in 1652, minister of state about 1658, and
Archbishop of Paris in 1661. Among his works is a
" History of Beam." Died in 1662.
See DE FACET, "Viede Pierre de Marca;" BOMPART, "FJoge
de Marca," 1672.
Marceau, maVso', (FRANC.OIS SEVERIN DESGRA-
VIERS,) a French general, born at Chartres in 1769. He
entered the army in 1786, and became a general of
brigade at the age of twenty-two. In 1793 he obtained
the chief command of the army sent against the Ven-
deans, whom he defeated at Mans. In 1795 and 1796 he
commanded a division on the Rhine and in the Palati
nate, where he gained advantages over the Austrians.
He was killed in battle near Altenkirchen in 1796.
Kleber, who was his friend, said, "I have never known
any general so capable as Marceau to change the plan
of battle on the spot with sang-froid and judgment."
See CLAUDE DESPREZ, "Kleber et Marceau," 1857; LAVALLE,
" filoge historique du General Marceau," 1797; SEKGENT-MAR-
CEAU, "Notice sur le General Marceau," 1820.
Marcel. See MARCELLUS I., Bishop of Rome.
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; m§t; nftt; good; moon;
MAR CEL
1519
MARCEL LUS
Marcel, mlk'sel', (£TIEXNE,) a French partisan chief
and agitator of reform, was provost of the merchants of
Paris when King John was defeated and made prisoner
at Poitiers, in 1356. He became the leader of the popular
party in its contest with the dauphin Charles, who acted
as regent. Marcel was predominant in Paris, and con
trolled a majority in the States-General, which refused
to vote supplies for the war unless their grievances
should be redressed. A revolution was effected which
rendered the government almost republican. Having
given the command of Paris to Charles the Bad, of
Navarre, he was betrayed by him, and was assassinated
in 1358.
See NAUDET, "Conjuration cl'Fltienne Marcel, "etc. ; FROISSART,
"Chronique ;" SISMONDI, " Histoire des Francais."
Marcel, (GUILLAUME,) a French chronologist, born
at Toulouse in 1647. He negotiated a treaty with the
Dey of Algiers in 1677. He published valuable "Chro
nological Tablets," and a " History of the Origin and
Progress of the French Monarchy," (1686,) which is
commended for accuracy in dates. Died in 1708.
Marcel, (GuiLLAUME,) a French writer and priest,
born about 1612. He wrote Latin and French verse,
etc. Died in 1702.
Marcel, (JEAN JOSEPH,) an eminent French Orien
talist and historian, born in Paris in November, 1776.
He went to Egypt in 1798 as a member of the scientific
commission, and, having returned to France in 1801,
was selected as one of the redadeitrs of the "Descrip
tion of Egypt." He was director of the national printing
department (imprhnerie) from 1802 to 1814. Among
his numerous works are "Melanges Orientaux," (1833,)
a " History of Egypt from the Arabian Conquest to the
French Expedition," (2d edition, 1844,) ar>d a "Scien
tific and Military History of the French Expedition
in Egypt," (with Louis Reybaud,) (10 vols., 1830-36.)
Died in 1854.
See BELIN, "Notice sur J. J. Marcel," in the "Journal Asi-
atique," iS^-t; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Marcel, maRt'sel, (N.,) a German painter of flowers,
fruits, etc., born at Frankfort in 1628; died in 1683.
Mar-cel'la, a Roman« lady, was a daughter of C.
Marcellus and Octavia, who was a sister of the emperor
Augustus. She was married first to M. V. Agrippa,
divorced in 21 B.C., and married again to a son of Mark
Antony the triumvir.
Marcelliii. See MARCET.LINUS.
Mar - eel -II' mis, [ Fr. MARCELLIN, ml R'si'lax', ]
SAINT, a native of Rome, succeeded Caius as Bishop of
Rome, or pope, in 295 A.D. During his tenure of that
office the Church was persecuted by Diocletian. He
died in 304 or 305, and was succeeded by Marcellus I.
See ARTAUD DE MONTOR, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes
Remains."
Marcellinus Ammianus. See AMMIANUS.
Marcellis, mar-sel'lis, (Onto,) a Dutch painter of
flowers and animals, was born in 1613. He worked
with success in Paris, Rome, and Amsterdam. Died
in 1673.
Marcello, maR-chel'lo, (BENEDETTO,) a celebrated
Italian composer and poet, born of a patrician family at
Venice in 1686, was a pupil of Gasparini. He studied
law, and was for fourteen years a member of the Council
of Forty. He gained distinction as a poet by a number
of sonnets and canzoni. His capital work is a collection
of psalms, entitled " Estro poetico-armonico Parafrasi
sopra i 50 primi Salmi," (1724.) These were received
with universal enthusiasm throughout Europe, and mer
ited for the author the appellation of the Pindar and
Michael Angelo of musicians. Died in 1739.
See BURNEY, "General History of Music;" FETIS, " Bio?raphie
Universelle des Musiciens ;" F. FONTANA, "Vita di R. Marcello,"
iyS8; F. CAFFI, "Delia Vita e del Comporre di B. Marcello," 1830:
" Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Marcello, (PiETRo,) an Italian biographer, lived at
Venice about 1500, and wrote " De Vita Principum et
Gestis Venetorum," (1554.)
Mar-cel'lus [Fr. MARCEL, min'sel'; It. MARCELLO,
maR-chel'io] I., Bishop of Rome, was a Roman by birth,
and was elected in 308 A.n. His efforts to maintain
strict discipline are said to have caused a schism and
sedition among the believers. He died in 309 or 310,
and was succeeded by Eusebius.
Marcellus II., POPE, born at Fano in 1501, was
named MARCELLUS CEKVIUS. He was elected pope in
April, 1555, after the death of Julius IH. About three
weeks after his election he died, and was succeeded by
Paul IV.
See A. BOWER, " History of the Popes ;" ARTAUD DE MONTOR,
" Histoire des souverains Pontifes Remains. "
Mar-cel'lus, (CAIUS CLAUDIUS,) a Roman consul,
who married Octavia, the sister of Octavius Caesar.
He became consul in 50 B.C., before which he had at
tached himself to the party of Pompey. While in this
office he made a motion in the senate to deprive Caesar
of his command, but did not succeed. He remained in
Italy during the civil war, and shared the clemency of
Caesar after the victory of the latter. Died about 40 B.C.
Mar-cel'lus, [It. M'ARCELLO,maR-chel'lo,](Do.\ATO,)
an Italian physician, born at Mantua. He wrote " De
Historia Medica mirabili," (1586.)
Marcellus, (MARCUS CLAUDIUS,) a Roman general,
celebrated as the conqueror of Syracuse, born about 266
B.C., was the greatest member of a consular plebeian
family which produced several eminent men. In 222
he became consul, (with Cn. Cornelius Scipio,) defeated
the Insubrians on the Po, and obtained the honour of a
triumph. After Hannibal had invaded Italy in the second
Punic war, Marcellus was chosen praetor for the year 216
B.C., in which the battle of Cannae was fought. He was
not present at this battle. The command of the forces
which escaped from that defeat having devolved on him,
he repulsed the attack of Hannibal on Nola, and was the
first that checked his victorious progress. He was elected
for the third time consul for the year 214, with the great
Fabius Maximus as his colleague. His most famous
exploit was the conquest of Syracuse, which, though
defended by the genius of Archimedes, he took, after a
siege of two years and some months, in 212 B.C. He
again obtained the consulship in 210 B.C., with the com
mand of the army in Italy, and fought an indecisive bat
tle with Hannibal at Ntimistro. Marcellus and Hannibal
commanded the respective armies at Canusium, (209,)
where the Romans claimed the victory. Marcellus was
elected consul for the fifth time in 208 B.C. Plaving
advanced to reconnoitre near Venusia, he fell into
an ambuscade, and was killed in the skirmish with the
advanced posts of Hannibal, in that year. Plutarch
has drawn a parallel between Marcellus and Pelopidas,
" who," he says, " were both men of heroic strength, and
were equal in courage and magnanimity." Polybius
denies that Marcellus ever defeated Hannibal.
See PLUTARCH'S "Lives;" AURELIUS VICTOR, "De Viris illus
trious;" Livv. "History of Rome," books xxii.-xxvii. ; POLYBIUS,
"History;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Marcellus, (MARCUS CLAUDIUS,) a Roman general,
was a son of the preceding. He was wounded in the
skirmish in which his father was killed. He was elected
praetor in 198 B.C., and consul in 196, when he com
manded in Cisalpine Gaul and defeated the Insubrians.
In 189 he was censor. Died in 177 B.C.
Marcellus, (MARCUS CLAUDIUS,) a son of the pre
ceding, obtained the consulship in 166 B.C. He was
chosen consul again in 155, and gained a victory over
the Ligurians. In 152 he obtained a third consulship,
with command of the army in Spain, where he subdued
the Celtiberians and founded Corduba, (Cordova.) He
perished by shipwreck in 148 B.C.
Marcellus, (MARCUS CLAUDIUS,) the friend of Cicero,
and the subject of the admirable oration " Pro M. Mar-
cello," was a descendant of the great Marcellus. He
had a high reputation as an orator. Elected consul in
52 B.C., he urged the senate to extreme measures against
Caesar. In the civil war he was an adherent of Pompey
and the senate. He fled from Rome in 49, and joined
the army in Epirus. After the ruin of his cause at Phar-
salia, he exiled himself to Mitylene. Overcome by the
warm intercession of the senators, Caesar granted him a
pardon in 47 B.C. On this occasion Cicero expressed his
thanks to the dictator, and his high estimate of the merit
of Marcellus, in the oration which bears his name.
Marcellus was on his homeward journey when he was
MFICI discipline are saici to nave caused a scnism ana Marcellus was on his Homeward journey when he svas
e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /„• G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^="See Explanations, p. 23.)
MARCELLUS
1520
MARCHETTI
assassinated, near Athens, by P. Magius, one of his at
tendants, about 46 B.C.
See CICRRO, " Pro M. Marcello ;" DRUMANN, " Geschichte
Roms;" ORELI.I, " Ononiasticon Tulliammi."
Marcellus, (MARCUS CLAUDIUS,) was the son of C.
Claudius Marcellus, noticed above, and Octavia. About
the year 25 B.C. he was adopted by his uncle, the empe
ror Augustus, who gave him his daughter Julia in mar
riage. He was a youth of promising talents, and was a
general favourite. He died in his twentieth year, in the
autumn of 23 B.C. His memory was embalmed by Vir
gil in a beautiful passage of his epic poem, (book vi., v.
872, etc.,) which was recited by the poet in the presence
of Octavia and Augustus. (See OCTAVIA.)
See PLUTARCH, " Marcellus ;" TACITUS, "Annales."
Mar-cel'lus Em-pir'i-cus, a Latin writer, born at
Burdigala, (Bordeaux.) He was magister officioritm in
the re'ign of Theodosius the Great, (379-395 A-IX) .He
was author of a pharmaceutical work, " De Medica-
mentis Empiricis, Physicis," etc.
Mar-cel'lus Si-de'te§, a native of Side, in Pam-
phylia, lived about 140 A.D. He wrote a long Greek
medical poem, of which fragments are extant.
Mar-cel'lus Ul'pl-us, a Roman jurist, who nourished
about 150 A.D., and was a legal adviser of the emperor
Antoninus Pius. He was author of thirty-one books of
" Digesta," six books on the "Leges Julia et Papia,"
and one book of " Responsa." About one hundred and
fifty excerpts from his works are found in the "Digest."
He is often quoted as high authority by Ulpian, Paulus,
and other jurists.
See M. TYDEMAN, " De Marcelli Vita," 1762 : J. T. SEGBR, " Ul-
pius Marcellus," 1768.
Marcellus, de, deh maVsa'Hiss', (MARIE Louis
JEAN ANDRE CHARLES Demarthi du Tirac — deh-
mfR'taN' du te'rtk',) CoMTE, a French writer, critic,
and diplomatist, born in Guienne in 1795- During a mis
sion to the Levant, in 1820, he brought away the statue
of Venus of Milo. He published " Souvenirs of the
Levant," (2 vols., 1839,) " Popular Songs of Greece,"
(1851,) and "Chateaubriand and his Times," (1859.)
Marcet, mar'seV or maVs.V, (A.LKXANDRK,) F.R.S.,
a skilful Swiss physician and chemist, born at Geneva in
1770. Having been exiled for political reasons, he settled
in London about 1797, and acquired a high reputation as
a practitioner and a lecturer on chemistry. In 1815 he
returned to Geneva, where he was elected to the supreme
council. His principal work is an " Essay on the Chem
ical History and Treatment of Calculous Disorders,"
(1817, in English.) Died in 1822.
Marcet, QANE HALDIMAND,) a popular writer on
science, wife of the preceding, was born at Geneva in
1785. She published "Conversations on Chemistry,"
(in English,) which passed through many editions, and
"Conversations on Political Economy," (1816.) "Every
girl," says Macaulay, " who has read Mrs. Marcet's dia
logues on political economy could teach Montague or
Walpole many lessons on finance." Died in 1858.
See a notice of Mrs. Marcet, by PROFESSOR DE LA RIVE, in the
" Bibliotheque Umverselle," new series, 1858, vol. iii. ; HARRIET
MARTINEAU, " Biographical Sketches," London, 1869.
Marcgraf, maRk'gRaf, or Marggraf, inaRr/gRaf,
(GEORC,,) a German naturalist, born at Liebstadt in 1610,
was author of a "Natural History of Brazil," (in Latin,)
published at Leyden in 1648. "The descriptions of
Marcgraf," says Hallam, " are good, and enable us to
identify the animals. They correct the imperfect notions
of Gesner, and add several species which do not appear
in his work." Died in Guinea in 1644.
March, maRch, (AusiAS or OSIAS,) a Spanish poet,
born at Valencia. He imitated Petrarch with success,
and wrote many short poems on love, morals, etc., which
were printed in 1543. Died in 1460.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature."
March, (MIGUEL,) a Spanish painter of religious
subjects, born at Valencia in 1633 ; died in 1670.
March de les Batallas, mauch da las ba-tdl'yas,
(EsTEBAN,) a Spanish painter, father of the preceding,
was born at Valencia. He acquired a great reputation
as a painter of battles. He died at Valencia in 1660.
See CEAN-BERMUDEZ, " Diccionario Historico," etc.
Marchais, des, di mtu'shi', (RENAUD,) a French
traveller, wrote a description of Western Africa, which
was published by Labat, in 4 vols., (1731.) Died about
1728.
Marchal, mia'shil', (FRANC.OIS JOSEPH FERDINAND,)
a Belgian writer, born at Brussels in 1780. His chief
work is a " History of the Reign of Charles V.," (1857.)
Died in 1858.
Marchand, mSn'sliox', (F/riENNE,) a French navi
gator, born in the island of Grenada in 1755. He made
a voyage round the world in 1790-92, and discovered
several small islands in the Northern Pacific Ocean. A
narrative of the voyage was published. Died in 1793.
Marchand, (JEAN GAURIEL, ) COMTE, a French
general, born near Saint-Marcellin in 1765. He served
as general of division at the battles of Jena (1806) and
Friedland, (1807.) When Napoleon returned from Elba,
(1815,) Marchand adhered to Louis XVIII. Died in
1851.
Marchand, (|EAN HENRI,) a witty French writer in
prose and verse. Among his works are " Memoirs of
an Elephant," (1771,) and "Political Testament of M.
de V.," (Voltaire.) Died about 1785.
See BARISIEK, " Dictionnaire des Anonymes."
Marchand, (Louis,) a French organist, born at
Lyons in 1669. He became organist of the royal chapel
at Versailles. Died in 1732.
Marchand, (PROSPER,) a learned French bibliogra
pher, born in Picardy about 1675. Having become a
Protestant, he removed to Amsterdam in 1711. He
published editions of rare books, collected literary anec
dotes, and wrote a "Historical Dictionary, or Critical
and Literary Memoirs," (1758,) a work of considerable
interest. (See ALLAMAND.) He was one of the editors
of the "Journal Litteraire," an able periodical published
at the Hague, (1713-37,) and author of a "History of
the Art of Printing." Died in 1756.
See HAAG, "La France protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Marchangy, de, deh mtR'shoN'zhe', (Louis AN-
TOINE FRANC.OIS,) a French author and advocate, born
at Clamecy in 1782. He published, besides other works,
"The History of France, considered in its Relations with
Poetry, Eloquence, and the P'ine Arts," (" La Gaule
poetique," etc., 1813.) Died in 1826.
Marchant, mSR'shSN', (Nicoi.AS,) a French botanist,
was one of the founders of the Academy of Sciences,
(1666.) Died at Paris in 1678.
Marchant, (Nicoi.AS DAMAS,) BARON, a French
antiquary and physician, born in 1767; died in 1833.
Marche, de la, deh l£ nia'Rsh, (OLIVIER,) a poet and
chronicler, born in Burgundy in 1426. He served Charles
the Bold as captain of his guards, and was made prisoner
at the battle of Nancy, (1477.) He was afterwards
maitre-d''h<)tel (steward) of Mary of Burgundy and her
son Philip. He wrote, in French, " Historical Memoirs,"
(of events which occurred from 1435 to 1492,) which are
considered valuable and candid. He also wrote several
poems, one of which is called " Le Chevalier clelibere,
ou la Vie de Charles le Temeraire." Died in 1501.
See COMINES, " Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Marcheiia, maR-cha'na, (JosE,) a Spanish litterateur,
born in Andalusia in 1768, went to France about 1790.
Being an expert linguist, he was employed as secretary
by General Moreau, (1798-1804.) He translated into
Spanish Moliere's " Tartuffe," Rousseau's " fimile," and
other works. Died in 1821.
Marches!, maR-ka'see, or Zaganelli, (FRANCESCO,)
an Italian painter, born at Cotignola. He lived about
1520, and worked at Ravenna.
Marches!, (GIROLAMO,) a painter, was born about
1480. He painted portraits and history at Rome and
Naples. Vasari dates his death about 1550.
Marches!, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter, born at
Bologna in 1699; died in 1771.
Marches!, (POMPEO,) an able Italian sculptor, born
in 1790, was a pupil of Canova. Among his works are
a marble statue of Goethe at Frankfort, and a Saint Am
brose at Milan. Died at Milan in 1858.
Marchetti, maR-ket'tee, (ALESSANDRO,) an eminent
Italian poet and professor, was born at Pontormo, in
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m5t; nftt; good; moon;
MARCHETTI
1521
MARCUS
Tuscany, in 1633. He was professor of philosophy at
Pisa from 1659 to 1679. In the latter year he obtained
the chair of mathematics at Pisa. He published an able
treatise " On the Resistance of Solids," and other works
on physics and mathematics. His reputation rests chiefly
on his Italian versions of Anacreon and Lucretius. The
version of Lucretius, in sciolti, or blank verse, is generally
admired for fidelity and elegance. He wrote, also, short
original poems. Died in 1714.
See FRANCESCO MAKCHETTI, "Vita di A. Marchetti," 1755 : FA-
BROM, "Vitne Italorum doctrina excellentium;" NICERON, "Me
moires;" TIKABOSCHI, '' Storia della Letterntura Italiana."
Marchetti, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian ecclesiastical
writer, born at Empoli in 1753. He defended the cause
of the pope in some of his numerous works. Among
these is a "Critique on Fleury's History of the Church,"
(2 vols., 1782.) Died in 1829.
Marchetti, (GIUSEPPE Salvagnoli — sal-van-yo'lee,)
an Italian poet, born near Empoli in 1799. He com
posed several small poems, and translated Virgil's
Eclogues into Italian verse. Died in 1829.
Marchetti, (MARCO,) called MARCO DA FAENZA, a
skilful Italian painter, born at Faenza ; died in 1588.
Marchettis, di, dee maR-ket'tess, (PiETRO,) an Italian
writer on surgery, born at Padua in 1593. He published
" Sylloge Observationum Medico-Chirurgicarum," (1664,
often reprinted.) Died in 1673.
Marchi, da, damaR'kee, (FRANCESCO,) a distinguished
Italian engineer, born at Bologna about 1506. He served
the King of Spain as military engineer in Flanders for
thirty years, and made inventions in fortification. His
reputation was founded on a work entitled "On Forti
fication," (Delia Architettura militare," 1599.) Died
about 1599.
See MARINI, "Vitadi F. Marchi," 1810 ; GINGUENE, "Histoire
de la Litterature Italienne."
Marchin, de, deh maVshaN', (FERDINAND,) COUNT,
sometimes written Marsin, a French general, born in
1656. He was sent on an embassy to the King of Spain
in 1701. He returned to France in 1703, and was raised
to the rank of marshal. At the battle of Blenheim (1704)
he was second in command, and, after Tallart was made
prisoner, conducted the retreat in good order. He com
manded under the Duke of Orleans at the great battle
of Turin, (1706,) where the French were defeated by
Prince Eugene and Marchin was killed.
See SAINT-SIMON, " Memoires ;" DE COURCELI.ES, "Diction-
naire des Generaux Francais. "
Marchini, maR-kee'nee, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) an
Italian ecclesiastic, born at Vercelli in 1713. He pub
lished a " Treatise on the Divinity of the Sacred Books,"
and other works. Died in 1774.
Marchione (mai<-ke-o'na) OF AREZZO, a mediaeval
Italian sculptor and architect, flourished about 1200.
One of his works, the church of Santa Maria della Pieve,
is extant at Arezzo.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc.
Marchmoiit, EARL OF. See HUME, (Sir PATRICK,)
and HUME, (Huc.H CAMPBELL)
Marcia or Martia (mar'she-a) Gens, a Roman
gens, originally patrician, claimed to be descended from
Ancus Marcius. The family of Coriolanus belonged to
this gc/ts.
Marcian, mar'she-an, [Lat. MARCIA'NUS ; Gr. M«f>/«-
ai'oc; Fr. MARCIEN, mfR'se-aN',] Emperor of the East,
was born of obscure parents in Thrace about ^90 A.n.
He had risen by his merit to a high rank in the army
when Theodosius the Younger died, in 450. He then
accepted from Pulcheria. a sister of Theodosius, the
offer of her hand, and became emperor. His reign
was wise and peaceful. He refused to pay the tribute
demanded by Attila, King of the Huns, saying, "I
have gold for my friends, and iron for my enemies."
He died, without issue, in 457 A.D., and was succeeded
by Leo I.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" LE
BEAU, " Histoire du Bas- Empire."
Marcianus. See MARCIAN.
Marcianus, mar-she-a'nus, (/Euus,) a Roman jurist,
who wrote in the reigns of Septimius Severus and Cara-
calla. He survived the latter, who died in 217 A.D. The
Digest contains many excerpts from his " Institutiones,"
his " Publica Judicia," and other works.
See OEI.RICHS, "De Vita /Elii Marciani," 1754.
Marcianus OF HERACLEIA, (in Pontus,) [Fr. MAR-
CIF.N D'llERACLEE, nilR'se-a.N' da'rt'Ula',] a Greek
geographer, who is supposed to have lived in the fourth
century. He wrote a " Periplus of the External Sea,
both Eastern and Western," of which fragments have
come down to us and are esteemed valuable.
See UKERT, "Geographic der Griechen und Komer."
Marcien. See MARCIAN.
Marcile. See MARCILIUS.
Marcilius, mar-see'le-us, [Fr. MARCILE, mfR'sel',]
(TiiKODORUS,) a Dutch philologist, born at Arnheni in
1548. He was professor of rhetoric in several colleges
of Paris from 1578 to 1617. He published notes on
Persius, Horace, Lucian, and other classics, and wrote
" Lusus de Nemine," (1586,) a poem, and a "History
of New- Year's Gifts," (" Historia Strenarum," 1599.)
Died in 1617.
See P. VALENS, " Marcilii Elogium," 1620.
Marcion, mar'she-on, [Gr. Mapniuv,] a celebrated
heresiarch of the second century, was born at Sinope, in
Pontus. Having been excommunicated for some youthful
fault, he went to Rome about 140 A.D. He devised a
new creed or system, which was accepted by numerous
disciples (Marcionites) and was opposed by Tertullian,
Origen, and other Fathers. He taught the existence of
two original principles, — the authors of good and evil, —
and ascribed the Mosaic law to the evil principle. He
also rejected a large part of the New Testament.
See TII.I.EMONT, " Memoires ecclesiastiques ;" LARDNER, " His
tory of Heretics;" SCHEJ.UNG, " Dissertatio de Marcione," 1795;
NEAXDER. " History of the Christian Church :" CAVE, " Historia
Literaria;" TEKTUI.LIAN", " Contra Marcionem."
Marck, de la, deh If maRk, (GuiLLAUME,) a Flemish
chief, born in 1446, was noted for his ferocity, and was
surnamed THE WILD BOAR OF ARDENNF.S. He assas
sinated the Bishop of Liege, and ravaged Brabant, but
was defeated by the archduke Maximilian. He then
made an alliance with Rene of Lorraine in order to re
new the war. Maximilian captured him, and put him to
death in 1485. William de la Marck is a conspicuous
character in Scott's romance of "Quentin Durward."
Marck, de la, (ROHERT,) COUNT, was master of the
duchy of Bouillon and of Sedan. He was an ally of
France in the war against the Austrians. He was driven
out of his dominions by the armies of Charles V., but
was restored by the treaty of Madrid, (1526.) Died in
1535. His son Robert became marshal of France. (See
FLEURANGES.)
Marco Calabrese, maR'ko ka-la-bRa'si, an Italian
painter of the Neapolitan school, flourished from 1508
to 1541. His proper name was CARDISCO.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters."
Marco da Faeiiza. See MARCHETTI, (MARCO.)
Marco da Forli. See PALMEGIANI.
Marco Polo. See POLO.
Marconville, de, deh mtR'koN'vel', or Marcou-
ville, mi R'koo'vel', (JEAN,) a French writer, born in Le
Perche about 1540. Among his works are a "Treatise
on the Origin of the Diversity in the Opinions of Men,"
and one "On the Goodness and Depravity of Women,"
(" La Bonte et Mauvaistie des Femmes.")
Marcot, mfR'ko', (EUSTACHK,) a French physician,
born at Montpellier in 1686. He became first physician-
in-ordinary to the king. Died in 1755.
Marcuife, mar'kulf, a French monk, who is supposed
to have lived about 650 A.D. He formed a collection of
formulas of contracts, deeds, and public acts which were
used and approved in his time. This collection is valued
as a monument of French history and jurisprudence.
Mar'cus, [Fr. MARC, m^Rk,] a native of Rome, was
elected Pope or Bishop of Rome, in place of Sylvester,
in 336 A.D. He died about nine months after his elec
tion, and was succeeded by Julius I.
Marcus Aurelius. See AURELIUS ANTONINUS.
Mar'cus G-rae'cus (gree'kus) passes for the author
ot a Latin work on the art of destroying enemies by fire,
(" Liber Ignium ad Comburendos Hostes,") a manuscript
of which is said to be found in the Royal Library of
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; th as in this,
96
Explanations, p. 23.
MARCr
1522
M4RG4RET
Paris. No ancient writer mentions him, and nothing is
known of his history. G. Fournier (of the " Biographic
Universelle") conjectures that he wrote near the close
of the thirteenth century, and thinks the " Liber Ignium'
is a rather bad version of a Greek original. " It is a
tissue of errors," he adds, "and a collection of recipes,
one or two of which give almost exactly the composition
of gunpowder."
See V. HOEKER, " Histoire de la Chimie."
Mar'cy, (RANDOLPH B..) an American general, born
in Massachusetts about 1812, graduated at West Point
in 1832. He became a captain in 1846, and colonel in
iSrji. He served as chief of the staff of the army of the
Potomac in 1862, under General McClellan, his son-in-
law.
Marcy, (WILLIAM L.,) a distinguished American
statesman of the Democratic party, born at Southbridge,
Massachusetts, in 1786. Having graduated at Brown
University in 1808, he studied law at Troy, New York.
He entered the army as lieutenant on the breaking out
of the war of 1812, and distinguished himself in several
engagements in Canada. About 1820 he became editor
of the "Troy Budget," a Democratic journal, and in 1823
was elected comptroller of the State. He became a
United States Senator in 1831, and was chosen Governor
of New York in 1832, 1834, and 1836. He was a candi
date in 1838, but was defeated by Mr. Seward. He was
appointed by President Polk secretary of war in March,
1845, and displayed much ability in this position, which
was rendered more arduous by the occurrence of the
Mexican war. He retired from office in March, 1849,
after which he passed four years in private life. He
supported General Cass in the Presidential election of
1848, and was secretary of state in the cabinet of Presi
dent Pierce from March 4, 1853, to March 4, 1857.
During this period he gained a high reputation as a
diplomatist. He died at Ballston Spa on the 4th of
July, 1857^
Mar-do'm-us, [Gr. MaptWiwr,] an able Persian gen
eral, was a son-in-law of Darius Hystaspes. In 492 li.C.
he commanded a large armament sent by Darius against
the Grecian states. Having lost a great part of his fleet
in a storm, he returned without success. In 481 he
held a high command in the expedition which Xerxes
led against the Greeks. After the Persians had been
defeated at Salamis, (480 B.C.,) Xerxes returned home,
leaving 300,000 men under Mardonius, who captured
Athens without much resistance. lie was defeated and
killed at Plataea in 479 B.C. by the army of Pausanias.
See GROTE, "History of Greece;" HERODOTUS, "History,"
books vi.-ix.
Mare, de la, deh If ma"R, (NICOLAS,) a French magis
trate, born near Paris in 1639. He wrote a "Treatise
on the Police," ("Traite de la Police," 4 vois., 1707-38.)
Died in 1723.
Mare, de la, (PHILIHERT,) a French historical writer,
born at Dijon in 1615. He wrote " De Bello Burgundico,"
(1641,) and other works. Died in 1687.
Marec, mt'rek', (PIERRE,) a French legislator, born
at Brest in 1759, was a moderate member of the Conven
tion, (1792-95.) He rendered valuable services in the
committees of finance and marine. Died in 1828.
Marechal, mt'ra'shf 1', (GEORGES,) a French surgeon,
born at Calais in 1658. lie was appointed in 1703 first
surgeon to Louis XIV. He wrote several valuable treat
ises on surgery. Died in 1736.
Marechal, (LAURENT CHARLES,) a French painter
on glass, bom at Metz about 1800, adorned many of the
grand churches of France with windows of painted glass.
Marechal, (PIERRE SYLVAIN,) a French litterateur,
born in Paris in 1750, is said to have been an atheist.
He published a " Dictionary of Atheists," (1800,) and
many other works. His chief production is " Travels of
Pythagoras in Egypt, Chaldea, India," etc., (" Voyages
de Pythagore en Egyptc," etc., 6 vols., 1799,) which dis
plays much learning and research. Died in 1803.
See LALANDE, "Notice sur S. Mardclial," 1803; " Nouvelle
Biosraphie Generate. "
Marenco, ma-reVko, (VINCENZO,) an Italian poet,
born near Mondovi in 1752. He wrote "Osiris, sive De
Legum Origine," (1797,) and other poems. Died in 1813.
Marenzeo, ma-ren'ze-o, (LucA,) an eminent Italian
composer, born at Brescia about 1550. His works are
principally madrigals, which are esteemed models of ten
derness and harmony. Died in 1599.
Marescalchi, ma-res-kll'kee, (FERDINANDO,) an
Italian diplomatist, born at Bologna in 1764. lie was
employed in 1803 to negotiate a treaty between the
Italian republic and the court of Rome. Died in 1816.
Marescalco, ma-res-kal'ko, (PIETRO,) sometimes
called LA SI-ADA, a painter of the Venetian school, born
at Feltre, lived about 1500.
Marescot, de, deh mt'res'ko', (ARMAND SAMUEL,)
COUNT, a skilful French military engineer, born at
Tours in 1758. lie was appointed first inspector-general
by Bonaparte in 1800, and was made a count in 1804.
Died in 1831.
Maresius. See DESMARETS, (SAMUEL.)
Marestier, mi'reVte-a', (JE\\ BAI-TISTK,) an able
French engineer and naval architect, born at Saint-Scr-
van about 1780. He constructed the first steamboat
used by the military marine for the service of seaports.
He published a "Treatise on the Steamboats of the
United States," etc., (1824.) Died in 1832.
Maret, mt'r.V, (HuouES,)a learned French physician
and writer, born at Dijon in 1726. lie was a corre
sponding member of the Academy of Sciences, Paris,
and a friend of the celebrated chemist Guyton de Mor-
veau. One of his sons was the Duke of Bassano,
noticed below. Died in 1786.
Maret, (Huc.UES BERNARD,) Duke of Bassano, an
able French statesman and diplomatist, born at Dijon in
1763. lie studied law in Paris, and in 1789 reported
the debates of the National Assembly in a daily " Bul
letin." This was soon united with 'the " Moniteur,"
which owed its success to the reports of Maret. Under
the new regime he was rapidly advanced in the depart
ment of foreign affairs, and was sent on missions to
England and Naples in 1793. On his way to Naples he
was arrested by the Austrians, and confined in a dun
geon about two years. From 1800 to 1811, as secretary-
general, or secretary of state, he directed the home
department with great credit, had a large share of Bona
parte's confidence, and accompanied him in his cam
paigns. In 1811 he was appointed minister of foreign
affairs, and received the title of Duke of Bassano. On the
return of Bonaparte from Elba, Maret became again his
secretary. He was restored to the rank of a peer of
France in 1831, and in 1834 was minister of the interior
for a short time. lie had been admitted into the Institute
(Academic Franchise) in 1803. Died in 1839.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" LAS CASES, "Memorial
de Sainte-Helene."
Maret, ([K.AN PHILIHERT,) a French surgeon, born
at Dijon in 1705; died in 1780.
Marets, des. See DESMARETS.
Marezoll, ma'ret-sol', (GUSTAV LUDWIG THEODOR,)
a German jurist, born at Gottingen in 1794. He was
the author of several legal works.
Mar'ga-ret OF ANJOU, [Fr. MARGUERITE D'ANJOU,
maVgRet' d6.\'zhoo',] a daughter of Rene of Anjou,
Duke of Lorraine, was born in Lorraine in 1429. She
was married in 1445 to Henry VI., King of England,
and, in consequence of his imbecility, had the principal
share in the government. In the ensuing contest be
tween the houses of York and Lancaster, her troops
were several times victorious over the former ; but they
suffered a fatal defeat at Towton in 1461. After several
unsuccessful efforts to repair her fortunes, Margaret was
again defeated and made a prisoner at Tewksbury by
Edward IV. in 1471. She was ransomed by the French
king, Louis XL, and passed the remainder of her life in
France, where she died in 1481.
See AGNES STRICKLAND, " Lives of the Queens of England ;"
ABBE PREVOST, "Histoire de Marcuerite d'Anjou," 2 vols., 1750;
Louis LAI.I.EMAND. " Marguerite d' Anjou- Lorraine," 1855; J. J.
ROY, " Histoire de Marguerite d'Anjon," 1857.
Margaret OF AUSTRIA, [Ger. MARGARETHE VON
OESTREICH, maR-ga ra'teh fon ost'rlK,] daughter of Max
imilian, Emperor of Germany, and Mary of Burgundy,
was born at Ghent in 1480. She was betrothed when a
child to Charles VIII. of France. But he refused to
keep the engagement, and married in 1491 Anne, the
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
MARGARET
1523
M ARGON
heiress of Brittany. Margaret was married in 1497 to
Don Juan, Infant of Spain, son of Ferdinand and Isa
bella, who survived but a few months. She was again
married in 1501 to Philibert the Handsome, Duke of
Savoy, who died in 1505. In 1517 Margaret was ap
pointed by her father ruler of the Netherlands, in which
post she displayed signal ability. She had a part in the
League of Cambray, formed in 1508 by the principal
European powers against Venice. She died in 1530,
leaving a number of works in prose and verse, including
her "Correspondence," which was published in 1839,
(2 V01S.)
See MUNCH, " Leben Margarethes," 1833; AI.TMEVER, "Vie
de Marguerite d'Autriche," in the "Revue Beige," 1839; P. J.
D'AVOINE, " Essai historique sur Marguerite d'Autr'.clie," 1849.
Margaret OF AUSTRIA, Duchess of Parma, born at
Brussels in 1522, was a natural daughter of Charles
V., Emperor of Germany. She was married in 1533 to
Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence, and after his
death to Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma. In 1599 she
was appointed Governor of the Netherlands by Philip
II. of Spain. This difficult post she occupied till 1567,
when she resigned it to the Duke of Alva. The cele
brated Alexander Farnese, afterwards Duke of Parma,
was her son and only child.
See MOTLEY, " History of the Dutch Republic ;" PRESCOTT,
"History of Philip II.;" SCHILLER, "Geschichte des Abfails der
Niederlande."
Margaret, [Danish, MARGARETHE, maR-ga-ra'teh,]
daughter of Waldemar III., King of Denmark, born at
Copenhagen in 1353, was married in 1363 to Haquin,
King of Norway. In 1376 she was appointed Regent of
Denmark during the minority of her son Olaus, then but
five years old. On the death of Haquin, in 1380, she be
came Queen of Norway, and, her son dying in 1387, the
Danes also acknowledged her as their sovereign. Soon
after this, Margaret engaged in a war with Albert, King
of Sweden, against whom his subjects had rebelled. Her
army defeated the Swedes and captured Albert, (1388,)
who obtained his liberty only by renouncing the crown
of Sweden. At an assembly of the estates of the three
kingdoms, held at Calmar in 1397, the famous treaty
called "the Calmar Union" was formed. By this it was
agreed that Sweden, Denmark, and Norway should in
future be united under one sovereign, and Eric VII.,
nephew of Margaret, was appointed her successor. Died
in 1411.
See SUHM, "Historic af Danmark;" MAGNUS, "Gothorum His-
toria ;" WICHMANN, "Margarethe Dronmng til Danmark Norge og
Sverrig," 1824.
Margaret [Fr. MARGUERITE, mf R/gRet'] OF FRANCE,
daughter of Francis I., born in 1523, was distinguished
for her learning and accomplishments and her patron
age of literature. She was married in 1559 to Emmanuel
Philibert, Duke of Savoy. Died in 1574.
See BRANTOME, "Vies des Dames illustres;" MEZERAY, " His-
toire de France."
Margaret OF FRANCE, or OF VAI.OIS, [Fr. MARGUE- j
RITE DE VALOIS, mtR'gRet' deh vtl'wa',] a daughter
of Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis, was born in j
1553. She had respectable talents, but little virtue. In !
1572 she was married to Henry of Navarre; but love I
apparently had no part in this fatal alliance. During [
the festivities that followed the marriage, the perfidious :
court of Charles IX. ordered the Massacre of .Saint j
Bartholomew. She had lived separately from her hus
band some years before he became Henry IV. of France,
and their union was formally dissolved about the year
1600. Died in 1615.
See MONGES, " Hi«;toire de la Reine Marguerite de Valois," etc.,
1777 : BRANTOME, "Vies des Dames illustres."
Margaret, Queen of Navarre, originally Margaret
of Angouleme, [Fr. MARGUERITE D'ANGOULEME,
mtR'gRet' dSN'goo'lim',] daughter of Charles, Count of
Angouleme, and Louise of Savoy, and sister of Francis
I., was born in 1492. She was married in 1509 to
Charles, Duke of Alen£on, who died in 1525, and in 1527
she became the wife of Henry d'Albret, King of Navarre.
She was distinguished for her beauty, talents, and supe
rior culture, and exercised great influence in the govern
ment of her brother, Francis I., to whom she was warmly
attached. The mildness and toleration she displayed
towards the Protestants, and particularly her protection
of Calvin, brought upon her the imputation of heresy
from the Catholic party. She was the author of nume
rous works in prose and verse, among which may be
named the " Heptameron," a collection of tales in' the
style of Boccaccio's " Decamerone," and a devotional
treatise entitled "Mirror of the Sinful Soul." She died
in 1549, leaving a daughter, Jeanne d'Albret, afterwards
the mother of Henry IV. of France.
:le Francois I," 2 vols., 1^48; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for
October. 1842.
Margaret OF PROVENCE. See MARGUERITE.
Margaret, SAINT, [Lat. SANC'TA MARGARI'TA ; Fr.
SAINTK-MARGUERITE, sa.Nt miVgRet/,] a virgin of An-
tioch, supposed to have suffered martyrdom in 275 A.D.
According to tradition, she was solicited in marriage by
Olibrius, governor of Antioch, and on her refusal was
tortured and put to death by his order. This legend has
formed the subject of Milman's "Martyr of Antioch,"
and of numerous works of art.
See BAII.LET, "Vies des Saints;" MRS. JAMESON, "Sacred and
Legendary Art."
Margaret, SAINT, daughter of Edward, a Saxon
prince, and sister of Edgar Atheling, was born in 1046.
She was married about 1070 to Malcolm III., King of
Scotland, and died a few days after the death of her
husband and son, who fell in battle in 1093.
See SAINT ^ELRED, "Vita Sanctz Margarita;" BAILLET, "Vies
des Saints."
Margaret OF SCOTLAND, daughter of James I., was
married in 1436 to the Dauphin of France, afterwards
Louis XI. Died in 1445.
See SISMONDI, "Histoire des Francais;" DUCLOS, " Histoire de
Louis XI."
Margarit, maR-ga-ret', or Marguerit, de, da maR-
ga-ret', (JosE,) Marquis d'Aguilar, a Spanish soldier,
born in Catalonia in 1602, was a prominent leader in
the insurrection of that province against the Spanish
government in 1640. He was afterwards appointed
Governor of Catalonia by Louis XIII. Died in 1685.
Margarit or Marguerit, de, (JuAN,) a Spanish car
dinal, born at Girona about 1415, rose to be chancellor
of Aragon. He wrote a history of Spain, entitled " Para-
iipomenon Hispaniaj." Died in 1484.
Margarit, (PEDRO,) was educated at the court of
Ferdinand V. He sailed with Christopher Columbus in
1492, and discovered the archipelago to which he gave
the name of Marguerite Isles.
Margaritone, maR-ga-re-to'na, an Italian painter,
sculptor, and architect, born at Arezzo about 1236. His
pictures were executed in fresco on wood and on copper,
and he sculptured in wood as well as marble. His
monument to Pope Gregory X., in the cathedral of
Arezzo, is ranked among his best works. Died about
I3'3-
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters, Sculptors," etc. ; LANZI.
"History of Painting in Italy."
Margeret, mtRzh'ri', (JACQUES,) a French officer,
born in Burgundy. He entered the Russian service,
which he exchanged about 1610 for that of Poland. He
wrote an "Account of the Russian Empire, etc. from
1590-1606," (in French, 1607,) which was translated into
Russian.
Marggraf, maRg'gRaf, (ANDREAS SIGISMUND,) an
eminent German chemist, born in Berlin in 1709. He
was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in
1738, and director of the class of physics about 1762. He
was an ingenious and sagacious experimenter, and wrote
many able treatises or memoirs, which were inserted in
the records of the Academy of Berlin. He made the
important discovery that sugar can be procured from
the beet. Died in 1780.
See F. HOEFER, " Histoire de la Chimie ;" " Nouvelle Biogra-
phie Generale."
Marggraf, (GEORG.) See MARCGRAF.
Margon, de, deh maVgoN', (GUILLAUME PLANT AVIT
DE LA PAUSE,) ABBE, a French satirist, born near Beziers
about 1685. He wrote several controversial works, dis
tinguished for their virulence and bitter personalities,
<; as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Vs.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MARGUERIE
1524
and directed alternately against the Jesuits and the Jan-
senists. Died in 1760.
Marguerie, mSug're', (JK.AN JACQUES,) a French
mathematician and writer, born near Caen in 1742. He
served as lieutenant in the navy against the British
in 1778-79, and was killed near Grenada in 1/79.
Marguerit. See MARGAKIT.
Marguerite. See MARGARET.
Marguerite de Provence, iniK'gRet' deh pRo'-
vdxss', daughter uf Raymond Herenger, Comte de Pro
vence, born in 1221, was married in 123410 Louis IX.,
King of France, commonly called Saint Louis. She
accompanied him in his expedition to Egypt, and while
in Damietta gave birth to a son. She died in a convent
in 1295.
See JOINVIU.E, "MJmoires;" GUILLAUME DE NANGIS, "Viede
Saint-Louis."
Marguerittes, maVgRet', (JEAN ANTOINE TKISSIER,)
a French dramatist and royalist, born at Nimes in 1744,
was a deputy to the Constituent Assembly. He was
executed by the terrorists in 1794.
Margunius, maK-goo'ne-us, or Margunio, maR-
goo'ne-o, (M.-\xiM us,) a modern Greek prelate and
scholar, born in the island of Candia about 1525. He
founded a printing-office at Venice, where he published
numerous editions of the Greek classics, remarkable for
their accuracy. In 1585 he was appointed Bishop of
Cerigo. He wrote " Anacreontic Hymns," and several
ecclesiastical works. Died in 1602.
Marheineke, maR-h!'neh-keh, (Pmi.irp KONRAD,)
a German Protestant theologian of high reputation, born
at llildesheim in 1780, became successively professor of
theology at Erlangen, Heidelberg, and Berlin. He pub
lished a "History of the Reformation in Germany," (4
vols., 1816,) "Christian Symbolics," and several philo
sophical works, in which he favours the system of Hegel.
Died in 1846.
Maria, the Latin of MARY and MARIE, which see.
Ma-ri'a OK AUSTRIA, a daughter of the archduke
Philip the' Handsome and Joanna of Aragon, was born
at Brussels in 1503. She was married in 1521 to Louis
II., King of Hungary and Bohemia, and after his death
was appointed by her brother, Charles V., ruler over the
Netherlands. Soon after the abdication of the emperor
she resigned her office and retired to Spain, where she
died in 1558.
See LANZ, " Correspondenz Karls V. ;" BRANTOME, "Vies des
Dames illustres "
Maria, ma-ree'a, II., (DA GLORIA, da glo're-a,) daugh
ter of Don Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, and Leopoldine,
Archduchess of Austria, was born at Rio Janeiro in 1819.
Her father succeeded to the throne of Portugal in March,
1826, but renounced his right in favour of Dona Maria.
Her uncle Don Miguel usurped the throne about May,
1828, and was supported by the absolutist party. A civil
war ensued, Don Miguel was defeated, and Dona Maria
became queen about September, 1833. She married
Duke Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Kohary in April, 1836.
Her reign was disturbed by emeutes and insurrections.
She died in November, 1853, and was succeeded by her
son, Pedro V.
Maria, ma-ree'a, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian painter and
architect, surnamed FALCON ETTI, born at Verona in 1458.
He formed a lasting friendship with the celebrated Louis
Cornaro, in whose household he lived for twenty-two
years. Died in 1534.
Maria, di, de ma-ree'a, (FRANCESCO,) a Neapolitan
painter, born in 1623, was a pupil of Domenichino. Died
in 1690.
Ma-ri'a El-e-o-no'ra OF BRANDENBURG, daughter
of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg. She was
married in 1620 to Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden,
whom she accompanied in his campaigns in Germany.
Died in 1655.
See GEIJER, " History of Sweden," (translated by TURNER.)
Maria Leszcinska, ma-ree'd la-chens'ska, daughter
of Stanislas Leszcinska, King of Poland, born in 1703,
was married in 1721; to Louis XV. of France. Died in
1768.
See VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XV;" PROYART, "Vie de
Marie Leszcinska."
Maria Louisa, ma-ri'aloo-ee'za, [Fr. MARIE LOUISE,
mS're' loo'ez', ] daughter of the emperor Francis I.
of Austria and Maria Theresa of Naples, was born at
Vienna in 1791. She was married in 1810 to Napo
leon I., Emperor of France, to whom she bore a son
in March, 1811. On the abdication of Napoleon, in
1814, she retired to Vienna, and in 1816 the allied
powers gave her the duchy of Parma. She was pri
vately married to Count Neipperg, her chamberlain.
Died in 1847.
See " Nonvelle Biographic Generale."
Maria Theresa, ma-ree'a ta-ra'sa, [Fr. MARIE THE-
RESK, mS're' ta'i;\//,[ daughter of Philip IV. of Spain,
was married in 1660 to Louis XIV. of France. (See
Louis XIV.)
Maria Theresa, ma-rl'a te-ree'sa, [Fr. MARIE THE-
RESK, ma" re' ti'riz' ; It. MARIA TKRESIA, ma-ree'a ta-
ra'se-a,] daughter of Charles VI., Emperor of Germany,
and Elizabeth Christina of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel, was
born in May, 1717. She was married in 173610 Francis,
Duke of Lorraine. Charles VI. having died in 1740,
his daughter succeeded him on the throne of Germany,
in accordance with the act called the Pragmatic Sanction.
Her title was soon disputed by the Electors of Saxony
and Bavaria and the Kings of Prussia, Spain, and Sar
dinia, each claiming some portion of Germany in the
name of the Austrian princesses with whom they were
connected. Maria Theresa imme'diately repaired to Vi
enna, where she received the homage of her Austrian
states, and thence proceeding to Presburg was crowned
Queen of Hungary in 1741. She received offers of as
sistance from Frederick IT. of Prussia on condition of
her ceding to him Lower Silesia, but she firmly refused.
Her capital being soon after threatened with a siege by
the Elector of Bavaria and his French allies, the empress
convoked the Hungarian Diet at Presburg, where, with
her infant children, she said to the deputies that, "being
assailed by enemies on every side, she had no hopes ex
cept in their loyalty, and she had come to place under
I their protection the daughter and son of their kings."
The Hungarian nobles responded with enthusiasm to
this appeal, and drew their swords, exclaiming, " We
will die for our king, Maria Theresa!'' ("Moriamur
pro rege nostro, Maria Theresia !") The French and
Bavarians were soon driven out of her hereditary states
by the Imperial forces under General Kevenhuller and
Prince Charles of Lorraine. In 1742 a treaty of peace
was concluded between Maria Theresa and the King of
Prussia, by which the latter obtained Silesia. The Elec
tor of Bavaria, wjio had been previously chosen Emperor
of Germany under the name of Charles VII., having died
in 1745, Francis, the husband of Maria Theresa, was
elected to that dignity. In 1746 the Imperialists gained
important victories in Italy, and defeated the French and
Spaniards at Piacenza. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle,
in 1748, put an end to the war of the Austrian succession,
leaving the empress in possession of all her hereditary
estates except Silesia. The Seven Years' war, carried
on by Prussia against France, Russia, and Austria, ter
minated in 1763, leaving the boundaries of Austria and
Prussia the same as before. The emperor Francis
having died in 1765, his son Joseph was elected to the
imperial dignity ; but Maria Theresa still retained the
administration of the government. She is said to have
refused to take any part in the partition of Poland (1772)
until prevailed upon by the representations of Joseph II.
and Prince Kaunitz. Among the important reforms of
her reign was the abolition of the torture (1776) and
of feudal service. She also abolished the Inquisition
at Milan, and suppressed the order of Jesuits. She
died in November, 1780, and was succeeded by her son,
Joseph II.
See PAOI.O FRISI, " Elogio di Maria Teresia," 1783; SABATIER
DE CASTRES, "Abrege de la Vie de Marie Therese," 1773; RICH-
TER, " Lebens- und Staatsgeschichte Maria; Theresia;," 3 vols.,
1745; DULLER, "Maria Theresia und ihre Zeit," 1844; RAUTEN-
STRAUCH, " Biographic der Kaiserin Maria Theresia," 1780; REN-
NER, " Maria Theresia und Friedrich der Grosse," 1831 ; WOLF,
"Oestreich unter Maria Theresia," 1855; " Nouvelle Biographic
Gene1 rale."
Marialva, ma-re-al'va, (Dom JOAO Coutinho —
ko-ten'yo,) COUNT, a Portuguese officer, fought under
a , e, I, 5, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nSt; good; moon;
MARIALVA
1525
MARIE
Alphonso V. against the Moors in Africa, and was killed
while assisting in the capture of Arzilla, in 1471.
Marialva y Menezes, ma-re-al'va e ma-na'ze's,
(ANTONIO Luiz,) Count de Castanhede, an able Portu
guese general and statesman, born about 1627. In 1659
he gained a signal victory over the Castilians at Elvas,
and soon after became principal minister of state, Marquis
of Marialva, and lieutenant-general of the armies of the
kingdom. Died about 1668.
See LACLEOE, " Histoire de Portugal."
Ma-ri-am'iie, [Gr. Mapiufivr],] a beautiful Jewess, a
granddaughter of the high-priest Hyrcanus II., became
in 38 B.C. the wife of Herod the Great, who, when he
departed from his capital to meet Octavian, gave secret
orders that she should be put to death in case he did
not return in safety. This secret having been revealed
to her, she received him coldly on his return, and excited
his jealousy, which was increased by the intrigues of
Herod's sister Salome, who suborned the royal cup
bearer to testify that Mariamne designed to poison the
king. She was put to death in 29 B.C. This story is the
subject of one of Voltaire's tragedies.
See JOSEPHS, " History of the Jews;" SMITH, " Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography."
Mariana, de, da ma-re-a'na, (Ju.\N,) an eminent
Spanish historian, born atTalavera in 1536. He studied
at Alcala, and, having entered the order of Jesuits, was
appointed professor of theology in their college at Rome,
(1560.) He returned to Spain in 1574, where he passed
the remainder of his life in retirement, devoted to literary
pursuits. He published in 1599 his "Treatise on Roy
alty," ("De Rege et Regis Institutione,") in which he
maintains that it is lawful in certain cases to put a king
to death. This work caused a great sensation, particu
larly in France, where it was denounced by the Sorbonne,
and soon after the assassination of Henry IV. it was
publicly burned by order of the Parliament. In 1592 he
brought out his great work entitled " Historia de Rebus
Hispanias," ("History of Spain,") which was received
with great favour and was soon after translated by him
into Spanish. His Latin style is characterized by great
elegance and animation, and has been compared to that
of Livy ; while his Spanish history is generally esteemed
the most admirable work of the kind in the language.
"Noble, pure, and rich without diffuseness, it unites
with rare felicity," says a French critic, "the picturesque
vivacity of the chroniclers with the dignity of history;"
and Ticknor, in his " History of Spanish Literature,"
observes, "Its admirably idiomatic style, so full yet so
unencumbered, so pure and yet so rich, renders it, if
not the most trustworthy of annals, at least the most i
remarkable union of picturesque chronicling with sober j
history that the world has ever seen." Mariana also '
published a treatise "On Weights and Measures," "On
Death and Immortality," and other learned works, in
Latin, and an essay entitled "De las Enfermedades de
la Compania y de sus Remedies," ("On the Disorders
of the Society [of Jesuits] and their Remedies," 1625,)
in which he boldly exposes and condemns the errors of
the Jesuits. Died in 1623.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature :" TAMAJO (or
TAMAYO) DE VARGAS, "Vid.i del P. Juan Mariana;" N. ANTONIO,
" Kibliotheca Hispana Nova;" ACOSTA, "Vida de Mariana;" F.
B
J
gn
apl
Mariani, ma-re-a'nee, (CAMII.LO,) an Italian sculptor
and painter, born at Vicenza in 1565 ; died in 1611.
Mariani, (GIOVANNI MARIA,) an Italian painter, born
at Ascoli about 1650. Among his master-pieces is a
"Baptism of Saii.t James," at Rome.
Ma-ri-a'iius Sco'tus, a Scottish chronicler, born in
1028. is said by Matthew of Westminster to have been
a relative of the Venerable P>ede. • His principal work is
a " Universal Chronicle from the Creation to the Year
1083," (in Latin.) Died in 1086.
See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis."
Marichl, ma-ree'chi, a celebrated Hindoo sage or
demi-god, was, according to one account, the son of
Brahma, — according to another, the son of Bhrigu. He
was the father of Kasyapa. By some he is considered
was the tatner ot Kasyapa. r>y some ne is considered stmacy ana violent temp
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; x, nasal ; R, trilled ; § as z; th as in this.
as the god of "light," which appears to be the etymo
logical signification of his name.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon ;" " Institutes of Manu," chap. i.
Marie, the French for MARY, which see.
Marie, mf re', (ALEXANDER THOMAS,) a French ad
vocate and republican, born at Auxerre in 1795. He
was minister of public works from February to June,
1848, and minister of justice from July to December of
that vear. He was elected to the Corps Legislatif in
1863.'
Marie Adelaide de Savoie, ml 're' f 'da'lf'ed' deh
sf'vwd', daughter of Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy,
born at Turin in 1685, was married in 1697 to the Duke
of Burgundy, grandson of Louis XIV. of France. She
died in 1712, leaving one son, afterwards Louis XV.
See SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires de Louis XIV," etc.; MADAME
DE MAINTENON, " Lettres."
Marie Amelie de Bourbon, mf're' f'ma'Ie' deh
booR'bo.N'', Queen of France, born near Naples in 1782,
was a daughter of Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sici
lies. She was married in 1809 to the Duke of Orleans,
afterwards King Louis Philippe. After his death she
retired to England, where she resided at Claremont,
near London. Died in 1866.
Marie Anne Christine Victoire de Baviere,
mf'ie' fn kKes'ten' vek'twaR'deh bi've-aiR', daughter of
Ferdinand, Elector of Bavaria, was born at Munich in
1660. In 1680 she was married to Louis, the Dauphin
of France, son of Louis XIV. She died in 1690, leaving
three sons.
Marie Antoinette Josephe Jeanne d'Autriche,
mt're' ON'twa'neV zho'zaf zhtn do'tResh', (commonly
called simply Marie Antoinette,) born at Vienna in
1755, was the daughter of -Maria Theresa and the em
peror Francis I. of Germany. She was married in
1770 to the Dauphin of France, afterwards Louis XVI.
High-spirited and energetic, she strove during the
revolutionary troubles to inspire the king with her own
courage ; but her counsels often led him into greater
difficulties. It was her misfortune and the misfortune of
France that she resisted all those reforms which might
have prevented or moderated the violence of the Revo
lution. Possessing extraordinary personal charms and
great vivacity of disposition, the freedom of her manners
was often misconstrued by her enemies ; but their accu
sations are generally believed to have been groundless.
During the terrible scenes which followed the captivity
of the royal family, she displayed the greatest firmness
and dignity, showing on all occasions more concern for
her husband and children than for herself. After the
fall of the Girondists, Marie Antoinette was condemned
to death by the Jacobins, and executed in October, 1793.
(See Louis XVI.)
See MADAME CAMPAN, " Memoirs of the Court of Marie Antoi
nette ;" "Memoires de Mademoiselle Benin sur la Reine Marie
Antoinette ;" MADAME VIGEE-LEBRUX, " Souvenirs," 1835 : THIHRS,
" Histoire de la Revolution Franchise ;" LAMARTINE, " History of
the Girondists ;" WEBER, "Memoires concernant Marie Antoinette,"
1822.
Marie Clotilde Adelaide Xaviere de France,
mf're' klo'teld' f'da'lf'ed' za've-aik' deh fRfiNss, sister
of Louis XVI., born at Versailles in 1759, was married
in 1775 to the Prince of Piedmont, afterwards Charles
Emmanuel, King of Sardinia. Died in 1802.
Marie de Bourgogne. See MARY OF BURGUNDY.
Marie de Guise. See MARY OF GUISE.
Marie de I'lncarnation, mf're' deh laN'kf R'na'-
SC-ON', a French missionary, whose original name was
GI'YARD, born at Tours in 1599, visited Canada in 1639,
where she made many converts among the Indians, and
fc unded a convent of her order. Died in 1672.
See " Vie de la Mere Marie de I'lncarnation," by P. CHARLE-
voix.
Marie de Lorraine. See MARY OF GUISE.
Marie Madeleine. See MAGDAI.F.NK.
Marie de Medicis, mf're' deh ma'de'sess', or Maria
de' Medici, ma-ree'a da med'e-chee, the daughter of
Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and the archduchess
Joan of Austria, was born at Florence in 1573. She was
married in 1600 to Henry IV. of France. She had
moderate abilities, but exorbitant ambition ; and her ob
stinacy and violent temper were the source of constan-
Explanations, p. 23.)
MARIE
i 526
MARINEO
dissension between her and her husband. On the death
of Henry she became regent, for which office she proved
herself utterly incompetent. Having given offence to her
subjects by her partiality for unworthy favourites, she
was deposed and imprisoned, but, effecting her escape,
again took part in the government. She introduced
Richelieu into the administration, who soon possessed
himself of the highest power, and induced her son,
Louis XIII., to imprison her (1630) at Compiegne. After
a second escape, she died at Cologne in 1642.
See Miss PARDOE, "Life of Marie de' Medici;" RICIIRLIEU,
" M >moires ;" SISMUNUI, " Histoiredes Francois ;" RUAU, " Tableau
de ia Kegence de Marie de Medicis," 1615.
Marie d'Orleans, mi're' doii'la'oN', (MARIE CHRIS-
TINK CAROLINE ADELAI'DK. FRANC.OISE D&OPOLDINE DE
VAI.OIS, mS're' kkes'tei/ kiWlen' S'da'lf 'ccK fRd.Vswaz'
la'o'pol'den' deh vtl'wa',) Duchess of Wiirtemberg,
born at Palermo in 1813, was the youngest daughter of
Louis Philippe, King of France. Having early mani
fested a love for the arts, she studied sculpture and de
sign under Ary Scheffer. Among her works the statue
of Joan of Arc is the most generally admired. She was
married in 1837 to Duke Alexander of Wiirtemberg.
Died in 1839.
Marie Therese. See MARIA THERESA.
Mariette, mi're'eV, (Aur.usTE EDOUARD,) a cele
brated French archaeologist, born at Boulogne in 1821.
Having acquired a knowledge of Egyptian hieroglyphics,
he was charged in 1850 with a scientific mission to
Egypt, where he discovered the site of the city of Mem
phis and disinterred the temple of Serapis and a ne
cropolis of vast extent. In this were found the granite
sarcophagi of the bulls of Apis, hewn out of a single
stone, fifteen feet long, nine in width, and the same in
height. He also removed the sand from the colossal
Sphinx, which was cut entire from a rock. He published,
about 1856, a work on the monuments discovered during
the disinterring of the Serapeum at Memphis, a specimen
of a larger work which he has in preparation.
Mariette, (JEAN,) a French engraver, born in Paris
in 1660, executed a number of prints after Poussin and
Le lirun. Died in 1742.
Mariette, (PIERRE JEAN,) son of the preceding, born
in Paris in 1694, was one of the most distinguished ama
teurs of his time, and became director of the Imperial
Gallery at Vienna. He was a member of the Academy
of Painting in Paris, and of the Academy of Design at
Florence. He published, among other works, a "Treat
ise on the Engraved Gems of the Royal Cabinet." Died
in 1774.
See DUMESNIL, " Histoire des plus ce'lebres Amateurs Francais,"
1856; " Xouvelle Biographic Gdnerale."
Marignano, ma-ren-ya'no, written also Melegnaiio,
[Fr. MAKIGNAN, mt'rfen'ydx',] (GiAN GIACOMO,) Mar
quis de Medichino, a celebrated Italian soldier, born at
Milan in 1497. He entered the service of the emperor
Charles V., who sent him in 1540 to reduce the city of
Ghent, of which he was afterwards appointed governor.
He took an active part in the siege of Metz, in 1552, and
was subsequently employed by the grand duke Cosimo
de' Medici to suppress the revolt in the republic of
Sienna, where he ravaged the country and was guilty of
great barbarity towards the inhabitants. Died in 1555.
See DE THOU, " Historia sui Temporis;" BRANTOME, "Vies
des grands Capitaines;" SISMONDI, "Histoire des Republiques
Italiennes;" MISAGI.IA, "Vita del Marchese di Marignano," 1605;
ROBERTSON, " History of Charles V.,*' book xi.
Marignie, de, deh mt'ren'ye-i', (JEAN ETIENNE
FRANCOIS,) a French litterateur, born in Languedoc about
1755, was O1ie °f tne "lost zealous defenders of Louis
XVI. in the National Convention. He published a num
ber of dramas and political treatises. Died about 1830.
Marigny, de, deh mt'ren'ye', ( ABEL FRANCOIS Pois-
son — pwa'soN',) MARQUIS, a French architect, born in
Paris in 1727, was a brother of Madame de Pompadour,
through whose influence he was appointed in 1751 di
rector-general of the royal buildings. Died in 1781.
Marigny, de, (ENGUERRAND,) a French statesman,
filled several high offices under Philippe le Bel, and
attained the rank of prime minister. Soon after the ac
cession of Louis X., he was condemned to death on the
false accusations of his enemies, and executed about 1315.
Marigny, de, (FRANCOIS AUGIER,) a French Orien
talist and historian, born about 1690. He produced a
"History of the Twelfth Century," (5 vols., 1750,) and a
"History of the Arabs under the Government of the
Caliphs," (4 vols., 1750.) Died in Paris in 1762.
Marigny, de, (GASPARD AUGUSTIN RENE BERNARD,)
a French officer, born at Lu£on in 1754, was one of the
royalist chiefs in the Vendean war. He was condemned
to death by his own party for alleged neglect of duty,
and executed in 1794.
Marigny, de, (JACQUES CARPENTIER, ) a French
priest, noted for his wit, born near Nevers. He wrote
several poems, and Letters, (1678.) Died in 1670.
Marillac, de, deh mt're'yaV, (CHARLES,) an able
French negotiator, born in Auvergne about 1510. He
was chosen Archbishop of Vienne, and conducted suc
cessfully some important negotiations in Germany and
Rome. He was at the head of a small number of French
bishops known by their tendency to a philosophic spirit.
Died in 1560.
Marillac, de, (Louis,) a nephew of the preceding,
was born in Auvergne in 1572. He served with distinc
tion in the armies of Henry IV., and was made a mar
shal of France in 1629. Being afterwards suspected of
conspiring against Cardinal Richelieu, he was executed,
on a charge of peculation, in 1632.
See " Procas du Marechal de Marillac," etc., 1633 ; RICHELIEU,
"Journal."
Marillac, de, (MiciiEL,) a French statesman, brother
of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1563. lie was
appointed by Cardinal Richelieu keeper of the seals,
(1626.) Having subsequently incurred the enmity of
the cardinal, he was imprisoned at Chateaudun in 1630,
where he died in 1632.
Mariii. See MARINUS OF TYRE.
Marin, mS'raN', a French mechanician, and a native
of Lisieux, invented the air-gun, which he exhibited in
the presence of Henry of Navarre.
Marin, (FRANC.OIS Louis CLAUDE,) a French littera
teur, born in Provence in 1721. Among his principal
works is a " History of Saladin, Sultan of Egypt," etc.
Died in 1809.
Marin, (MiciiEi, ANGE,) a French ecclesiastic and
devotional writer, born at Marseilles in 1697. He pub
lished " Lives of the Hermits of the East," (3 vols. 410,
1761,) and numerous other works. Died in 1767.
See CHAUDON, " filoge historiquedu Pere M. A. Marin," 1769.
Marina, ma-ree'na, Malinche, ma-len'cha, written
also Malintzin, the daughter of a Mexican chief, born
about 1505, was sold as a slave, and subsequently fell
into the hands of Cortez, whom she accompanied in all
his expeditions. She possessed rare beauty and talents,
and, from her knowledge of the Spanish as well as
Mexican languages, was of great service as an inter
preter. After the death of Cortez, she was married to
Don Juan de Xamarillo, a Spanish officer. Marina has
been celebrated by the Spanish poet Moratin in his
" Noves de Cortes."
See BERNAL DIAZ, "Historia de la Conquista del Mexico;"
PRKSCOTT, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," book ii.
Marina, ma-ree'na, (Don FRANCISCO MARTINEZ,) a
Spanish political writer of the liberal party, born about
1757. He published the " Theory of the Cortes," (1821,)
" Discourse on the Origin of the Spanish Monarchy,"
etc., and other works. Died in 1833.
See PRESCOTT, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella."
Marinali, ma-re-na'lee, (ORAZIO,) an Italian sculptor,
born at Bassano in 1643 ; died in 1720.
Marinari, ma-re-na'ree, (ONORIO,) a Florentine
painter, born about 1660, was a pupil and imitator of
Carlo Dolce. Died in 1715.
Marinas, de las, da las ma-ree'nas, (ENRIQUEZ,) a
Spanish painter, born at Cadiz in 1620, was celebrated
for the excellence of his marine views, from which he
derived his surname. Died in 1680.
Marinella, ma-re-nel'la, or Marinelli, ma-re-nel'lee,
(LucREZlA,) an Italian poetess, born at Venice in 1571.
She wrote, besides other works, " Life of the Virgin
Mary," (" Vita di Maria Vergine," 1617.) Died in 1653.
Marineo, ma-re-na'o, (Lucio,) a Sicilian scholar and
historian, born at Bidino about 1460. He became chap-
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nSt; good; moon;
MAR IN I
1527
MARIUS
lain and historiographer to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and
was also distinguished by the favour of the emperor
Charles V. He wrote several works on Spanish history,
(in Latin.) Died about 1535.
Marini, ma-ree'nee, (BENEDETTO,) an Italian painter,
born at Urbino, lived about 1625.
Marini, (GAETANO LUIGI,) an Italian antiquary, born
at San Arcangelo in 1740. Me wrote several valuable
works, one of which is entitled "Acts and Monu
ments of the Rural Brothers," etc., (2 vols., 1795.) Died
in 1815.
Marini or Marino, ma-ree'no, (GIAMBATTISTA,) an
Italian poet, born at Naples in 1569, was a friend of
Tasso. He produced "Adonis, "and many other poems,
which were greatly admired by his contemporaries, but
are marred by affected conceits and extravagant meta
phors. He passed several years in Paris, and received
a pension from Queen Marie de Medicis. Died in 1625.
See BAIACCA, "Vita del Cavalier Marino," 1625; F. CHIARO,
"Vita del Cavalier Marino," 1626: LOKKDANO, "Vita del Cavalier
Marino," 1633: CAMOI.A, "Vita di (1. P>. Marini," 1633; POPPE,
"VitaJ. B. Marini," 1771; LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of
Europe;" "Lives of the Italian Poets," by the REV. HENRY STEB-
BING, London, 1831.
Marini, (GIOVANNI AMBROGIO,) an Italian writer,
born at Genoa about 1594. He wrote two popular
romances, entitled "II Caloandro fedele" and "Quarrels
of the Desperadoes," (" Le Gare de' Desperati.") Died
about 1650.
Marini, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) a Piedmontese phy
sician and writer, born in 1726; died in 1806.
Marini, (GIOVANNI FII.IPPO,) an Italian Jesuit and
missionary, born near Genoa in 1608. lie resided four
teen years at Tonquin, and published a valuable work
entitled "A New and Curious Account of the Kingdoms
of Tonquin and Laos," (1666.) Died in 1677.
Marino. See MARINI, (GIAMBATTISTA.)
Marinoni, ma-re-no'nee, (GIOVANNI GIACOMO,) an
Italian mathematician, born at Udine in 1676. He was
appointed court mathematician by the emperor Leopold
I., and drew a plan of Vienna and its environs. He was
one of the founders of the Academy of Military Science
at Vienna in 1717, and subsequently built at his own
expense an observatory, which is esteemed one of the
best in Europe. He published several scientific works.
Died in 1755.
Ma-ri'nus, [Gr. Mapnwc,] a native of Samaria, studied
philosophy at Athens under Proclus, whom he succeeded
as a teacher in 485 A.D. His only work extant is a " Life
of Proclus."
See Vossius, "De Historicis Grsecis."
Ma-ri'iius, SAINT, [It. SAN MARINO, san ma-ree'no;
Fr. SAINT-MARIN, saN nit'raN',] an ecclesiastic of the
fourth century, was a native of Dalmatia, and lived as a
hermit near Rimini, in Italy. The miracles said to have
been wrought at his tomb drew thither many pilgrims,
who in time built a town called San Marino, which for
ten centuries has formed the centre of a little republic.
See BAILLET, "Vies des Saints."
Marinus OF TYRE, [Fr. MARIN DE TYRK, mt'raN'
deh teR,] a Greek geographer, who lived about 150 A.D.
His works were highly esteemed by his contemporaries,
but none of them are extant.
See UKERT, "Geographic der Griechen und Romer."
Mario Nuzzi. See FIOKI, DE', (MARIO.)
Marion, mt're'oN', (fii.iE,) a leader of the Camisards
in France, born in 1678, was the author of several re
ligious works and so-called prophecies.
Mar'I-pn, (FRANCIS,) a celebrated American general
of the Revolution, was born in South Carolina in 1732.
Soon after the breaking out of the war he entered the
army, and assisted in the defence of Sullivan's Island
against the British in 1776. The enemy having taken
possession of Georgia and besieged Charleston, Marion
raised a brigade of soldiers, at the head of whom he
carried on for more than three years a guerilla warfare,
often attended with brilliant successes, and baffling all
the attempts of the British generals to effect his capture.
Died in 1795.
See the " Life of General Marion," by P. HORRY and M. L
WEEMS, and the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Ameri
cans," vol. iii.
Marion Delorme. See DELORME.
Marion -Dufresne, mt're'oN' dii'frin', ( NICOLAS
THOMAS,) a French navigator, born at Saint-Malo in
1729, sailed on a voyage of discovery to the South Sea
in 1771. Soon after landing at New Zealand, Marion
was treacherously murdered by the natives, together
with the greater part of his men, (1772.)
Marion du Mersan, mt're'oN' clii meR'sSiV, (THEO-
PHILK,) a French antiquary and dramatist, born in 1780,
published a great number of popular comedies and prose
essays on various subjects. Died in 1849.
Mariotte, mt're'ot', (EDME, ) an eminent French
mathematician and physicist, was a resident of Dijon.
He was one of the earliest experimental philosophers in
France, and discovered the law of elastic fluids called
by his name. Among his principal works are his " Dis
course on the Nature of Air," (1676,) "Treatise on the
Movement of Waters," (1690,) "Experiments on the
Colours and Congelation of Water," and an " Essay on
Logic," which is highly commended by Condorcet. Died
in 1684.
See CONDORCET, " Eloges des Academiciens," etc. ; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generate. "
Mariti, ma-ree'tee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian traveller
and writer, born at Florence in 1736, visited the isle of
Cyprus, Syria, and Palestine, and published in 1769 an
account of his journey, which was translated into French,
German, and Swedish. Died in 1806.
Maritz, ma'rits or mtt'rets', (JEAN,) a Swiss mecha
nician, born at Berne in 1711, invented a machine for
boring and turning cannon. For this service he was
ennobled by the French government. Died in 1790.
Mariuccia. See MAROZIA.
Ma'ri-us, (CAius,) a Roman general, distinguished
for his splendid talents, indomitable energy, and unprin
cipled ambition, was born near Arpinum (now Arpino)
in 157 B.C. Mrs parents were poor and plebeian. He
served under Scipio Africanus at the siege of Numantia,
and was chosen tribune of the people in 119. He ob
tained the praetorship in 115, though strongly opposed
by the patrician party, and about the same time married
Julia, an aunt of Julius Caesar. Having accompanied
Metellus as legate and second in command into Africa,
(109 li.C.,) he won such popularity by his skill and bravery
that he was elected consul for 107 li.C. and intrusted
with the command of the Jugurthine war. He defeated
Jugurtha, who was made prisoner in 106. In 104 K.C.
Marius was again chosen consul, as being the only one
capable of defending the state from the threatened in
vasion of the Teutones and Cimbri. He defeated the
barbarians at Aix, (Aquae Sextiae,) in Gaul, in 102 r,.c.
Having been elected consul the next year, for the fifth
time, Marius, in conjunction with Catulus, gained a sig
nal and overwhelming victory over the Cimbri in the
plain of Vercellse, (Vercelli.) By the aid of the tribune
Saturninus, Marius became consul for 100 B.C., in spite
of the determined hostility of the patricians. During
this consulate an agrarian law was passed, and Metellus
Numidicus was exiled for refusing to conform to it. On
the expiration of his term of office, Marius went to Asia,
under the pretext of sacrificing to Cybele, but really in
order to excite Mithridates to a war with Rome, that he
might again distinguish himself in his congenial element.
In 90 B.C. both Marius and Sulla entered the service
of the consuls Octavius and China in the Marsian or
Social war; but, jealous of the reputation of his rival,
the former soon resigned. Sulla, having become consul
in 88 B.C., obtained the command in the Mithridatic
war, upon which Marius, assisted by his friends, caused
a law to be passed transferring it to him. He was soon
driven from the city by Sulla and his adherents, and
forced to take refuge in Africa. When Sextilius, Gov
ernor of Libya, sent him orders to leave the country, on
pain of being treated as an enemy, Marius replied to the
messenger, "Go tell him that you have seen the exile
Marius sitting on the ruins of Carthage." The next
year, while Sulla was absent in Greece, Marius, joined
by the consul Cinna, entered Rome and ordered a
general massacre of the opposite party. Among the
patricians who perished was M. Antonius, the orator so
highly praised by Cicero. Marius and Cinna became
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (SJ^See Explanations, p. 23. )
1528
MARLBOROUGH
consuls, (86 B.C.,) but the former was attacked by a fever,
of which he died the same year.
See PLUTARCH, "Life of Marius:" GEORGE LONG, "Life of
Manns," London, 1844; MERIMEE, "Etudes sur 1'Histoire Ro-
maine." etc. ; SALLUST, "Jugurtha;" F. WEILAND, "C. Marii sep-
ties Consulis Vita," Berlin, 1845 : P. EKERMAN, "Dissertatio de C.
Mario septies Consule," 1742; SMITH, "Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Marius, (CAius,) nephew and adopted son of the pre
ceding, took refuge, after the proscription of his uncle.
with Hiempsal, King of Numidia. He was made consul
in 82 B.C., and signalized himself by many acts of in
justice and cruelty. Having been defeated by Sulla, he
caused himself to be killed by one of his officers.
See PLUTARCH, "Marius."
Marius, (MARCUS AURELIUS, ) one of the Thirty
Tyrants of Gaul, was, on the death of Victorinus the
Younger, chosen emperor by the army. He was assas
sinated about 268 A.D., after a reign of a few months.
Marivaux, de, deh mt're'vo', (PIERRE CARI.ET DE
CHAMBI.AIN,) a French novelist and dramatic writer,
born in Paris in 1688. His principal works are his ro
mances entitled "Marianne" and " Le Paysan parvenu,"
which enjoyed great popularity at the time, and were
among the first novels which delineated real life and
manners. He also wrote a number of comedies. The
affected style and false sentiment of these productions
have given rise to the term marruaudage, " Never,"
says La Harpe, "did any one turn common thoughts in
so many ways, each more affected than the last ;" and
Voltaire, admitting that Marivaux knew "the paths to
the heart," maintains that " he was ignorant of the high
road." He was elected to the French Academy in 1743,
having Voltaire for a competitor. Died in 1763.
See VOLTAIRE, "Correspondance avec D'Alembert ;" GRIMM,
" Correspondance litteraire ;" LA HARPE, " I.ycee ;" VII.LEMAIN,
" Histoire de la Litterature Franchise au dix-hnitieme Siecle ;"
SAINTE-BEUVK, "Causeries du Lundi ;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Marivetz, de, deh mt're'vi', (£TIENNE CLEMENT,)
BARON, a French savant, born at Langres in 1728, pub
lished several treatises on physics, etc. He was executed,
by order of the Revolutionary Tribunal, in 1793.
'Marjolin, mtR'zho'la.N', (JEAN NICOLAS,) a French
writer and surgeon, born in 17^0; died in 1850.
Mark, |Gr/MupKOf; Lat. MAR'CUS ; It. MAR'CO; Fr.
MARC, mtRk,] SAINT, THE EVANGELIST. He was a
companion of Saint Peter in his travels, (see I. Peter v.
13,) and is supposed to have planted the Church at Alex
andria. The early Christian writers believed that he was
the interpreter of Saint Peter, and that he wrote his
Gospel in Greek, under the direction and with the appro
bation of that apostle. Saint Augustine thought it was
an abridgment of the Gospel of Matthew. According to
tradition, he suffered martyrdom in Egypt in 68 A.D.
By many critics he is identified with John surnamed
Mark, who was a companion of Paul and Barnabas in
their mission to the Gentiles about 45 A.D., (Acts xii.
12, 25, xiii. 13, xv. 37,) and who was in Rome with
Paul in 63 A.D.
See Colossians iv. i<5 ; II. Timothy iv. n.
Markham, mark'am, (GERVASE,) an English soldier
and miscellaneous writer, born in Nottinghamshire
about 1570, served in the royalist army in the civil war.
He was the author of a tragedy entitled "Herod and
Antipater," "The Poem of Poems, or Sion's Muse," etc.,
and other works. Died about 1655.
See WARTON, " History of English Poetry ;" LANGBAINE, " Dra
matic Poets;" DRAKE, "Shakespeare and his Times."
Mark'land, (JEREMIAH,) an eminent English scholar
and critic, born in Lancashire in 1693. He published
editions of the "Sylvae" of Statius (1728) and the
"Supplices" of Euripides, which are esteemed master
pieces of acute criticism. He also assisted Dr. Taylor
in preparing his editions of Demosthenes and Lysias,
and published " Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to
Brutus," etc., in which he attempts to prove them spu
rious. Died in 1776.
See NICHOLS and BOWYER, "Literary Anecdotes."
Markof, maR'kof, Markov, or Markow, (ARCADI
IVANOVITCH,) COUNT, a Russian diplomatist. On the
accession of Alexander I. he was appointed minister-
plenipotentiary to France, (1800.)
Marlborough, mal'bur-uh, (popularly called in
French MALBROUK, maTbrook'; Sp. MAMHRU, mam-
broo',) DUKE OF, originally John Churchill, an English
;eneral, whose military genius and triumphs have been
quailed by those of few men of modern times, was born
at Ashe, in Devonshire, June 24, 1650. He was the son
of Sir Winston Churchill and of Elizabeth Drake. His
ducation was rather defective. He received from nature
an eminently handsome person, a bland temper, and all
the qualities essential to a successful general and cour
tier. In 1672, with the rank of captain, he served in the
army which fought in alliance with France against the
Dutch. His bravery in this and the ensuing campaigns
attracted the favourable notice of Turenne and Louis
XIV. At the peace of 1678 he returned to England,
and married Sarah Jennings, whose talents and impe
rious temper enabled her to exert an important influence
over his political conduct.
He was the favourite attendant and confidential agent
of the Duke of York before his accession as James
II., in 1685 ; and soon after that event he was raised to
the peerage, as Baron Churchill of Sandriclge. Having
contributed to the defeat of Monmouth at Sedge-
moor, he was made a major-general. His wife was the
favourite of the king's daughter, Princess Anne, over
whom she had a complete ascendency. In the combi
nations and intrigues which preceded the revolution of
1688, Lord Churchill acted with deep duplicity. After
secretly committing himself to the cause of William
of Orange, he professed his devotion to James in Novem
ber, 1688, and, a few days later, deserted to the stronger
party. He was created Earl of Marlborough on the
accession of William III., (1689,) and made a lord of
the bedchamber.
He commanded the English forces employed against
the French in the Low Countries in 1689, and led a suc
cessful expedition against Cork and Kinsale in Septem
ber, 1690. While he was thus trusted by William and
hated as an arch-traitor by the Jacobites, he opened a
treasonable correspondence with the dethroned king,
who was at Saint Germain's. According to Macaulay,
he undertook to corrupt the army, with which his bril
liant successes and winning manners rendered him a
favourite in spite of his sordid avarice. The country
being apprised of this plot, he was deprived of his offices
in January, 1692, and committed to the Tower a few
months later. Though he was quickly admitted to bail,
he passed the next four years in disgrace. About the
end of 1696 he was restored to his military rank and
command, and admitted to the privy council. (Respecting
Macaulay's charges against Marlborough, see J. Paget's
"New Examen," 1861, and the "Quarterly Review" for
April, 1868.)
In 1701, William took Marlborough to Holland, gave
him command of his army, and invested him with ample
powers to negotiate with the allies in relation to the im
pending war of the Spanish succession. He displayed
here the sagacity and address of a consummate diplo
matist. The accession of Queen Anne, in March, 1702,
opened to him a brilliant career of glory abroad and
power at home. He became commander-in-chief of the
allied army, and at the end of the campaign in Flanders,
December, 1702, was created Duke of Marlborough.
About this time he and Prince Eugene began to act in
concert, and formed a cordial friendship, which greatly
promoted the success of the allies. Among their most
celebrated achievements was the decisive victory at Blen
heim over the French marshal Tallard, August 13, 1704.
Marlborough gained a great victory at Ramilliesin 1706,
and shared with Eugene the triumph at Oudenarde in
1708. The allies also claimed the victory over Mar
shal Villars at Malplaquet, (1709,) although their loss
amounted, it is said, to 25,000 men.
During these foreign transactions, Godolphin, the
duke's personal and political friend, had been the head
of the English Tory ministry. The Tories, who had the
warm sympathy of the queen, wished to discontinue the
war, and fomented intrigues against Marlborough. His
duchess, a zealous Whig, with much importunity pre-
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
MARLBOROUGH
1529
MARMONTEL
vailed on him to coalesce with the Whigs, who insisted
on prolonging the war. The fondness of the queen for
the Duchess of Marlborough was at length turned into
violent aversion. The Tories obtained a complete as
cendency in 1710, and Marlborough was dismissed with
disgrace from all his employments at the end of 1711.
On the accession of George I. (1714) he was restored to
favour, and again became captain-general and master of
the ordnance. He died in 1722, leaving his titles and
estate to the male heirs of his daughter, who was mar
ried to Charles Spencer, Earl of Sunderland.
See CIIXR, " Memoirs of John, Duke of Marlborough," 3 vols.,
1818; SIR A.ALISON, "Life of Marlborough," 1847; M ACAULAY,
" History of England ;" THOMAS LEDYARD, " History of John,
Duke of Marlborough," 3 vols., 1736; JOHN CAMPBELL, ''Military
History of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough," 2 vols.,
1736; CHARLES BUCKE, "Life of John, Duke of Marlborough,"
1839; J. F. HUGUES DUTEMS, " Histoire de J. Churchill," etc.,
3 vols., 1806-08, written by the order of Napoleon I.; GEORGE
Mt'KKAY, "History of the Duke of Marlborough;" ABRAHAM DE
VRYER, " Historic van J. Churchill," etc , 4 vols., 1738-40 ; " History
of Prince Eugene and Marlborough," by DCMONT and ROUSSET,
translated from the French, 1736; "London Quarterly Review" for
May. 1820; " Blackwood's Magazine" for July and November, 1846,
and June, iS$q.
Marlborough, (SARAH JENNINGS,) DUCHESS OF, the
wife of the preceding, born in 1660, was celebrated for
her beauty, ambition, and political influence. She was
brought up from childhood with the princess Anne, who
regarded her with romantic fondness, combined with the
deference which the weak feel for superior minds. Im
patient of the restraints of etiquette, Anne, in conversa
tion and correspondence with her favourite, assumed the
name of Mrs. Morley, and addressed her friend as Mrs.
Freeman. In 1678 Miss Jennings was married to Colo
nel Churchill, in whom she found an uxorious husband.
" History," says Macaulay, " exhibits to us few specta
cles more remarkable than that of a great and wise man
who could carry into effect vast and profound schemes
of policy only by inducing one foolish woman, who was
often unmanageable, to manage another woman who was
more foolish still. . . . To the last hour of her hus
band's life, she enjoyed the pleasure and distinction of
being the one human being who was able to mislead
that far-sighted and sure-footed judgment, who was fer
vently loved by that cold heart and servilely feared
by that intrepid spirit." Having been supplanted in
the royal favour by Mrs. Masham, she was dismissed from
court in 1710, and became an inveterate misanthrope.
Died in 1744.
See " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by LOUISA S. Cos-
TEI.I.O, London, 1844.
Marliani, maR-le-a'nee, (BARTOI.OMMEO,) an Italian
antiquary, born at Milan. He wrote "Topography of
Rome," (" Urbis Romae Topographia,") and other works.
Died about 1560.
Marlorat, mtR/lo'rt', (AucusTiN,) a French Prot
estant theologian, born at Bar-le-Duc in 1506. He be
came minister of the Reformed Church at Rouen in 1560,
and acquired a great influence by his talents. He wrote
commentaries on Scripture, and other works. He was
put to death at Rouen in 1563.
See HAAG, "La France protestante."
Marlowe, mar'lo, (CHRISTOPHER,) an English drama
tist, born at Canterbury in 1564. He studied at Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge, where he took his degree
in 1587. He afterwards devoted himself to dramatic
writing, and, according to some authorities, became an
actor. He was addicted to low vices, and was killed in a
quarrel with a footman in 1593. The principal dramas
known to be his are "The Jew of Malta," "Edward
the Second," and "The Tragical History, etc. of Dr.
Faustus," [the last-named was the original of Goethe's
celebrated " Faust."] Marlowe is characterized by the
French critic Villemain as a genius, whose rude dramas,
disorderly as his life, contain splendid beauties and a
gloomy audacity, the influence of which has not been
lost upon Shakspeare. His " Faust" is less elegant and
less ironical than that of Goethe, but every thing that
the pathos of such a subject can effect — the fever of
doubt in a superstitious imagination, the boldness of
impiety in a despairing heart — stamps this work with
the impress of extraordinary power. His " Edward II."
was greatly admired by Charles Lamb, who says that
one of its scenes moves pity and terror beyond any
scene, ancient or modern.
See WARTON, " History of English Poetry ;" CAMPBELL, " Speci
mens of the British Poets;" VILLEMAIN, "Melanges iitteraires ;"
DRAKE, "Shakspeare and his Times;" "Retrospective Review,"
vol. iv., (1821.)
Marmier, ml u/me-i', (X.A.VIER,) a French litterateur
and traveller, was born at Pontarlier in 1809. He pub
lished, among other works, "Studies on Goethe,"" Poetic
Sketches," and " History of Literature in Denmark and
Sweden," (1839,) and made numerous translations from
the English and German.
Mar'mi-on, (SHAKERLY,) an English dramatist, born
in Northamptonshire in 1602. His principal works are
the comedies of " Holland's Leaguer," " A Fine Com
panion," and "The Antiquary." Died in 1639.
See BAKER, " Biographia Dramatica ;" WOOD, "Athenae Oxo-
nienses."
Marmitta, maR-met'ti, (LtiDOVico,) an Italian gem-
engraver, born at Parma. Among his master-pieces is
a cameo representing a head of Socrates. He lived
about 1500.
Marrnol, de, da maR-moK, (Luis CARAVAJAL,) a
Spanish writer, born at Granada about 1520, accom
panied the emperor Charles V. in his African campaigns.
He wrote a "General Description of Africa," (1599,)
and a " History of the Rebellion, etc. of the Moors of
Granada," (1600.)
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" PRESCOTT,
" History of Philip II.," vol. iii. book v.
Marmont, de, deh miR'miN', (AUGUSTE FREDERIC
Louis VIESSE,) Duke of Ragusa, a celebrated French
marshal, born at Chatillon-sur-Seine in 1774, received
his military education at the artillery school of Chalons.
He accompanied Bonaparte as aide-de-camp in the Ital
ian campaign of 1794, and, as general of brigade, took
part in the invasion of Egypt in 1798. He fought with
distinguished bravery at the battle of Marengo, (1800,)
obtained command of a division, and was appointed
inspector-general of artillery about 1802. Having as
sisted at the capture of Ulm, in 1805, Marmont became
in 1806 general-in-chief of the army in Dalmatia, and
gained a signal victory over a superior force of Russians
and Montenegrins at Castelnuovo. In 1807 he carried
out a system of public works, the most important of
which was a line of road-way two hundred and ten miles
in length ; and for this service he was created Duke of
Ragusa. Soon after the battle of Wagram (1809) he
was made a marshal of France, and appointed Governor-
General of the Illyrian provinces. As commander of
the second corps, in 1813 he took part in the battles
of Bautzen, Dresden, and Leipsic, and closed the cam
paign of 1814 by his engagement near Paris with the
allied army of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, (March 30.)
Though contending against a greatly superior force,
Marmont and Mortier refused to capitulate until au
thorized to do so by Joseph Bonaparte. In April, 1814,
Marshal Marmont, after stipulating with Prince Schwar-
zenberg for the withdrawal of the French troops into
Normandy, entered the service of the allies. He subse
quently filled several high offices under the Bourbons.
Being called upon to suppress the revolt of July, 1830,
he brought great opprobrium upon himself by his failure
in this difficult task ; his name was struck off the army
list, and he was exiled. He died at Venice in 1852,
leaving "Memoires du Due de Raguse," (8 vols., 1856.)
See THIERS, "History of the Consulate and of the Empire;"
VAULABELLE, "Histoire des deux Restaurations;" BoL'RRIKNNR,
"Memoires;" LAMARTIXE, " History of the Restoration;" MAU-
DUIT, "Derniers Jours de la grande Armee ;" L. DE LOMENIE,
" M. le Marechal Marmont, par tin Homme de Rien," 1844;
SAINTE-BEUVE, "Causeries du Lundi," tome vi. ; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generate;" "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1845;
" Edinburgh Review" for July, 1857.
Marmontel, niaVmoN'tel', (JEAN FRANC.OIS,) a cele
brated French critic and miscellaneous writer, born in
Limousin in 1723. His family was poor, and he was
educated in the Jesuits' College at Mauriac, but he did
not enter their order. At an early age he acquired the
friendship and patronage of Voltaire, on whose recom
mendation he visited Paris in 1746, and published the
same year a translation of Pope's " Rape of the Lock."
He brought out in 1748 his "Dionysius the Tyrant,"
* as k; c as s; g hard; g a.sj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23. )
MARMORA
'53°
MA RON I
(" Denys le Tyran,") which was soon followed by " Aris-
tomene" and "Cleopatre," three tragedies, which hac"
considerable success at the time. His " Moral Tales'
("Contes moraux," 1761) were received with extraor
dinary favour, and were translated into the principal
languages of Europe, including Danish and Hungarian.
They are written with great elegance and animation ;
though their morality is often questionable. About this
time Marmontel was imprisoned for a short time in
the Bastille, on a false accusation of having satirized a
person of rank. He published in 1763 his "Poetique
Frai^aise," and in 1767 his political romance of " Beli-
saire," which obtained great popularity and has taken
its place among the classics of the language. The
empress Catherine II. ordered a translation of it into
Russian, and versions of it appeared in nearly all the
European languages. Some passages in the book, how
ever, which favoured toleration, were denounced by the
Sorbonne, and the work was condemned by the Arch
bishop of Paris, as containing impious and heretical
propositions. In the exciting controversy which followed,
Voltaire took an active part, and published several witty
and caustic pamphlets in defence of his protege. Mar
montel was soon after appointed historiographer of
France. Among the most important of his other works
we may name " Les Incas," a romance, dedicated to
Gustavus III. of Sweden, the comic operas of " Le Hu
ron," "Sylvain," and "Zemire et Azor,"and the tragedy
of " Les Ile'raclides," which is highly commended by La
Harpe. His "Elements de Litterature" (6 vols., 1787)
is also ranked among his best productions. In 1783
Marmontel succeeded D'Alembert as perpetual secretary
of the French Academy. He lived in retirement in the
country during the greater part of the Revolution, and
died in 1799, leaving " Memoires" of his life. He had
married about 1778 the niece of Abbe Morellet.
See VOLTAIRE, " Correspondance ;" SAINT-SURIN, "Notice sur
Marmontel," 1824: LA HARPE, "Lycee;" GRIMM, "Correspon
dance litteYaire;" VILI.ENAVF,, "Notice sur les Ouvrages de Mar
montel." 1820; SAINTE-BKUVE, "Causeries du Lundi," tome iv. ;
MOKKI.I.ET, " Elo^e de Marmonte!," 1805; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1806; "Monthly
Review" for November and December, 1805.
Marmora, della, del'la mau'mo-ra, (ALBERTO Fer-
rero — fe'r-ra'ro,) COUNT, a Sardinian general and savant,
born in 1789. He entered the French army, and rose
to be military commander in the island of Sardinia in
1849. He published "Travels in Sardinia; or, Statis
tical, Physical, and Political Description of that Island."
Marmora, della, (ALESSANDRO FERRERO,) brother
of the preceding, born in 1799, fought in the war for
Italian independence in 1848, and became a major-gene
ral, lie died in the Crimea in 1855.
Marmora, della, (Ai.Foxso FERRERO,) an Italian
general and statesman, brother of the preceding, was
born in Turin in 1804. He was appointed minister of
war by the King of Sardinia in November, 1849, resigned
in February, 1855, and the same year took command of
the Sardinian forces in the Crimean war, after which he
again served as minister of war. He was president of
the Council of Ministers from July, 1859, to July, 1860.
In September, 1864, he became minister of foreign affairs
and president of the Council of Ministers in the kingdom
of Italy. He was succeeded by Ricasoli in June, 1866,
took command of the army, and was defeated by the
archduke Albert of Austria, at Custozza, in July of the
same year. -27-»>«<< - '
Marmora, della, (CARLO FERRERO,) MARQUIS, Prince
of Masserano, eldest brother of the preceding, was born
in 1788. Having been made lieutenant-general and sen
ator of the kingdom of Sardinia, he accompanied Charles
Albert as first aide-de-camp in the campaigns of 1848
and 1849. Died in 1854.
Marue, de, deh maun, QEAN BAPTISTE,) a Flemish
Jesuit and historian, born at Douai in 1699, wrote a
" History of the County of Namur," which has a high
reputation. Died in 1756.
Marne, de, or Demarne, (JEAN Louis,) a painter,
born at Brussels in 1744. He was reduced to the neces
sity of working at the porcelain-manufactory of Sevres,
and fell into a mannerism called the manttre porcelaine.
His early style was much more graceful. Died in 1829.
Marner, maR'ner, (KoNRAD,) a German minnesinger,
flourished about 1250-70.
Marnesia or Marnezia. See LEZAY-MARNESIA.
Marnix de Saint- Aldegonde, van, vSn maVneks'
deh sax'tal'deh-goN'd', (Pmi.iiM'K,) an eminent Flemish
writer and Protestant Reformer, was born at Brussels in
1538. He studied at Geneva, where he acquired the
friendship of Calvin and adopted his faith. In 1566
he drew up the celebrated formulary of the Flemish
nobles against the Inquisition. As burgomaster of Ant
werp, he defended that city in 1584 against Alexander,
Duke of Parma ; but he was forced to capitulate in 1585.
He was the author of a " Picture of the Difference be
tween the Christian Religion and Popery," and "The
Romish Bee- Hive." He also translated the Psalms into
Dutch verse, and was engaged on a Flemish version of
the Scriptures when he died, in 1598. "He was," says
Motley, "a man of most rare and versatile genius.
Scholar, theologian, diplomatist, swordsman, orator,
poet, pamphleteer, he had genius for all things, and was
eminent in all."
See MOTI.EV, " History of the United Netherlands," vol. i. chap,
iii. ; STKADA, " De Hello Helgico;" JOHANNES PRIMS, "Leven van
P. van Marnix," 1782; DRKSSEI.HUIS, " F. van Marnix, Heer van
Mont Saint- Aldegonde," 1832; WILLKM BROES, " F. van Marnix,
Heer van Saint-Aldegonde," etc., 2 vols., 1838-40. J^nLTt. . 73/ •:/•«> "
Maro, the cognomen of PUHLIUS VIRGILIUS MARO.
(See VIRGIL.)
Marochetti, ma-ro-ket'tee, (CHARLES,) BAROX, a
celebrated Sardinian sculptor, born at Turin about 1805.
After executing several works in Paris, among which
was an equestrian statue of Emmanuel Philibert, Duke
of Savoy, he went to London in 1848. Under the patron
age of the court and the nobility, he produced a colossal
equestrian statue of Richard Cceur-de-Lion, (1851.) a
bust of Prince Albert, an equestrian statue of Queen
Victoria at Glasgow, (1854,) a statue of Lord Clyde,
(1867.) and several groups of statuary. He was elected a
Royal Academician in 1866. Died in December, 1867.
Marochetti, (ViNCENZio,) an Italian scholar, father
of the preceding, was born in Piedmont about 1768.
He was appointed advocate to the court of cassation in
Paris. Died in 1820.
Maroli, ma'ro-lee, (Do.MEXico,) a Sicilian painter,
born at Messina in 1612. lie was killed in the revolu
tion of Naples, (1676.)
Marolles, de, deh mS'roT, (MiCHEL,) a French litte
rateur, born in Touraine in 1600, was Abbe de Villeloin.
He made translations from Juvenal, Statins, and other
classics, which were much esteemed at the time. lie
made a valuable collection of prints, which were added
to the royal cabinet. Died in 1681.
See NICERON, "Me'moires:" M. DE MAROLLES, "Memoires,"
1656, (and in 3 vols., 1755.)
Ma'ron, SAINT, written also Maroun, an anchorite
of the fourth century, resided in Asia Minor. He is
supposed by some writers to have been the founder of
the Maronites, while others ascribe the origin of that
sect to another of the same name, living in the seventh
century.
Maroncelli, ma-ron-chel'lee, (PiERo,) an Italian pa
triot, musician, and poet, born at Forli in 1795. He
published in 1819" a hymn, for which he was imprisoned
a short time. He was -again arrested in 1820, and con
demned to twenty years' imprisonment in the fortress
of Spielberg, where his intimate friend Silvio Pellico
was confined at the same time. They were at first sepa
rated, but at the end of three years were permitted to
enjoy each other's society. They were released in 1830,
Maroncelli having previously suffered the amputation of
one of his legs, in consequence of a disease contracted
in the prison. Died in New York in 1846.
See SILVIO PELLICO, "My Prisons;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Marone, ma-ro'na, (ANDREA,) an Italian improvisa-
tore, born in the Friuli in 1474, was celebrated for his
skill in improvising Latin verse on any given subject.
Died in 1527.
Maroni, da, da ma-ro'nee, or Maron, ma-ron',
(THERESA,) a sister of the celebrated Raphael Mengs,
ivas distinguished as a painter of miniatures. Having
accompanied her brother to Rome, she was there mar-
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
MAROOF
MARRY AT
ried to the Chevalier da Maroni, an artist. Died
in 1806.
Maroof- (or Marouf-) el-Karkhi, ma-roof 51 kan'-
Kee, one of the founders of the Soofees, (Soufis,) or
Mussulman mystics, born near Bagdad about 750;
died about 815.
See HAMMER-PURGSTALL, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber."
Maroof- (or Marouf-) Mohammed-ben-Abdel-
Khalik, ma-roof mo-ham'me'd bgii ab'cle"! Ka'lik, an
Arab lexicographer of the ninth century. His principal
work is an Arabic Lexicon, in which words are explained
in Persian.
Marot, ma'n/, (Ci EMENT,) a French poet, born at
Cahors in 1495, was a son of Jean, noticed below. He
was patronized at the court of Francis I., and became a
page to his sister, Margaret of Valois. He was impris
oned in 1526 on a charge of heresy, and during his con
finement composed his " Enfer," (" Hell,") an allegorical
satire, and prepared a new edition of the "Roman du
Rose." After his release he visited Geneva, where he
professed Calvinism ; but he was subsequently obliged
to leave the place, on account of some misdemea
nour, and, having renounced his new faith, accompanied
Francis I. in his Italian campaign of 1535. He was the
author of numerous lyric poems, epigrams, etc., which
were greatly admired for their grace and vivacity ; and
the style Marotique has been imitated by La Fontaine
and other French writers. His version of the Psalms
was very popular at the time. Died in 1544.
See Arcuis. "Vie de Marot," prefixed to an edition of his wniks,
5 vols., 1823: BAVI.E. "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" JAN
Si'KT. " Leven en Kecliijf van C. Marot," 1655; SAINTE-BBUVE,
" Tableau de la Poesie Francaise an seizieme Siecle :" " XmivelJe
Biosraphie Genera'.e ;" NICEROX, "Memoires;" LONGFELLOW,
" Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Marot, (DANIEL,) son of the architect Jean Marot
noticed below, was l>orn in Paris about 1660. He be
came architect to William, Prince of Orange, whom he
accompanied to England in 1688.
Marot, (FRANCOIS,) a French painter, born in Paris
in 1667 ; died in 1719.
Marot, (JEAN,) a French poet, born near Caen in
1463, was patronized by Anne of Brittany, queen of
Charles VIII. He subsequently accompanied Louis
XII. in his expedition to Venice and Genoa, of which he
wrote an account. Died in 1523.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, "La Poesie Francaise an seizieme Siecle."
Marot, ( JEAN,) a French architect and engraver, born
in Paris about 1630. He furnished the design for the
principal fa9ade of the Louvre. Although a Protestant,
he was appointed royal architect. Died in 1679.
Maroto, ma-n/to, (Don RAFAEL,) a Spanish Carlist
general, born at Conca in 1785. On the death of Zu-
mala-Carreguy, he was appointed to the chief command
in Biscay, and soon after defeated Espartero at Arrigoria.
In 1839 he concluded with the queen's party the treaty
ofBergara. Died in 1847.
Maroun. See MA RON.
Maroutha. See MARUTHA.
Marozia, ma-rot'se-a, or Mariuccia, ma-re-oot'cha,
a Roman lady, celebrated for her beauty and profligacy,
was the daughter of the famous Theodora. She was
successively married to Duke Alberic of Tuscany, Guido,
Marquis of'Tuscany, and Hugo, King of Italy and Aries.
In 928 she caused Pope John X. to be murdered, and
afterwards raised three others to the tiara, among whom
was her son by Pope Sergius III. Her son Alberic hav
ing revolted against her, she was imprisoned for the
remainder of her life.
Mar-pes'sa, [Gr. MapT^cruo : Fr. MARPESSE, mf R'-
pess',1 a daughter of Eveuus, beloved by Apollo.
See HOMER'S " Iliad," book ix.
Marpurg, mau'pS&RG, (FRIEDRICH WILHELM,) an
eminent writer on music, born at Seehausen, in Prussian
Saxony, in 1718. Among his principal works are "Treat
ises on Fugue," "Critical Introduction to the History
of Music," (17^4,) and " Rudiments of Theoretic Music,"
(1760.) Died in 1795.
See FETIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musicians."
Marquard. See FRKHER, (MARQUARD.)
Marquet, maVki', (FRANC.OIS NICOLAS,) a French
botanist, and physician to Leopold, Duke of Lorraine,
was born at Nancy in 1687. He wrote several medical
and botanical works. Died in 1759.
Marquette, maVket', (JACQUES,) a celebrated French
missionary and discoverer, was born in Picardy. He
travelled and laboured several years in Canada and other
regions. The first Europeans who are certainly known
to have discovered and explored the Mississippi River
were Father Marquette and M. Joliet, who in 1673 con
ducted a small exploring party from Quebec. Entering
the great river at the mouth of the Wisconsin, they de
scended in canoes nearly to the mouth of the Arkansas,
or to latitude 34°, which they reached in July, 1673. They
were deterred from pursuing the voyage by reports that
the river below was infested by armed savages, and they
returned in canoes to the mouth of the Illinois, which
they ascended. Marquette wrote a narrative of this
expedition, which was published in Paris in 1681. " He
writes," says Professor Sparks, "as a scholar and as a
man of careful observation and practical sense. In every
point of view, this tract is one of the most interesting
among those that illustrate the early history of America."
Having resumed his missionary labours among the
Miamis on Lake Michigan, he died there in 1675.
See CHARI.EVOIX, " Histoire de la Nouvelle France;" MORERI,
" Dictionnaire Historique;" SPARKS, "American Biography," vol.
x., ist series.
Marquis, maVke', (ALEXANDRE Louis,) a French
botanist, born at Dreux in 1777. He published " Frag
ments of Botanic Philosophy," and other works. Died
in 1828.
Marracci, mar-rat'chee, (LuiGi,) an Italian priest,
eminent as an Oriental scholar, was born at Lucca in
1612. He became professor of Arabic in the College di
Sapienza, Rome. His principal work is an excellent
-. edition of the Koran in Arabic, with a Latin version,
|(i698.) "This," says Hallam, "is still esteemed the
best." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.")
Died in 1700.
See NICERON', "Memoires."
Marrast, mt'ras', (ARMAND,) a French republican
journalist and political writer, born in Haute-Garonne
in 1801. Soon after the revolution of 1830 he became
associate editor of the " Tribune," the organ of the ultra-
Liberal party. He was imprisoned in 1834 on a charge
of being implicated in the " Conspiracy of April," but
he soon effected his escape, and repaired to England,
where he married Lady Fitz-Clarence. On his return
to France he succeeded Armand Carrel (1836) as prin
cipal editor of " Le National," a popular daily journal,
which he conducted with great ability for nearly twelve
years. After the abdication of Louis Philippe, (1848,)
Marrast became successively secretary of the provisional
government, mayor of Paris, and president of the Con
stituent Assembly. He made valuable contributions to
the " Paris Revolntionnaire" and other works. Died in
1852.
See REGNAULT, "Armnnd Marrast," in " Le Siecle," 1859;
"Nouvelle Bioi_rraplrie Generale."
Marre, van, vtn maR, (JAN,) a Dutch poet, born at
Amsterdam in 1696. His principal works are tragedies
entitled "Jacqueline of Bavaria" and " Marcus Curtius."
Died in 1763.
Marrier, mt're-i', (MARTIN,) a learned French Bene
dictine monk, born in Paris in 1572. He published
"Bibliotheca Cluniacensis," (1614.) Died in 1644.
Marron, mt'roN', (MARIE ANNE CARRELKT,) Ba-
ronne de Meillonaz, a French artist and dramatic writer,
born at Dijon in 1725. She was a friend and corre
spondent of Voltaire. Died in 1778.
See VOLTAIRE, " Correspondar.ee. "
Marron, mf'roN', (PAUI.HENPI,) a Protestant divine,
of French extraction, born at Leyden in 1754. He be
came pastor of a church in Paris in 1788, and favoured
the Revolution. He* contributed numerous valuable
articles to the "Biographic Universelle," and published
other works, on various subjects. He died in 1832,
leaving a large collection of engraved portraits, which
were purchased by Louis Philippe.
See HAAG, "La France protestante."
Mar'ry-at, (FREDERICK,) a popular English novelist
and naval officer, born in London in 1792. He entered
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MARS
1532
MARSHALL
the service as midshipman under Lord Cochrane in
1806, and distinguished himself during the three follow
ing years in numerous engagements in the Mediterra
nean and off the French coasts. Me was made a captain
in 1815, and in 1821 commanded the Rosario, which
brought to the English government the news of the
death of Napoleon. He assisted in the attack on Ran
goon in 1823, and in the expedition against the Malays
in 1824. He published, besides other novels, " Peter
Simple," (1834,) "Jacob Faithful," (1834,) " Japhet in
Search of his Father," (1836,) "Mr. Midshipman Easy,"
(1836,) and " Masterman Ready," (1841.) Among his
works is "Valerie," an Autobiography, and a "Diary
in America," (6 vols., 1839.) Died in 1848.
See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1839.
Mars, [Gr. "A^c, (Ares;) It. MARTE, mau'ta,] the
name of the Roman god of war, was a contraction of
MAYORS. He was supposed to be a son of Jupiter and
Juno, and was identified with the Ares of Greek my
thology. According to Ovid, he was a son of Juno, but
had no father. He was worshipped with extraordinary
honours by the Romans, of whom he was one of the
tutelary deities. Homer and other poets relate that
Mars fought for the Trojans at the siege of Troy and
was wounded by Diomede. He was called Gradivus,
Quirinus, Mavors, Salisubulus, Mamers, Enyalus, and
Camulus. The amours of Mars and Venus are very
celebrated. He was said to be the father of Romulus,
Remus, Cupid, Harmonia, and Meleager. Ares was one
of the twelve great Olympian gods of the Greeks, and
was especially worshipped in Thrace. According to
tradition, he fled to Egypt during the contest between
Typhon and the gods, and changed himself into a fish.
Having killed a son of Neptune, he was prosecuted
before the Areopagus (Mars Hill) at Athens, and was
acquitted. Mars was believed to love war for its own
sake, and to delight in carnage. He is usually repre
sented as a grim soldier in full armour, — sometimes as
driving furiously in a war-chariot.
Mars, marz or mtRs, (ANNE FRAMBOISE HIPPOLYTE
Boutet Monvel — boo'ti' m6N'vel',) MADEMOISELLE,
a celebrated French actress, born in Paris in 1779. She
was the daughter of Monvel, a popular actor at the
Theatre Francais, and an actress named Mars, and
was early trained for the stage. She excelled in genteel
comedy, in which she was considered unrivalled among
the actors of her time. She retired from the stage in
1841. Died in 1847.
See A. LIREUX, "Mademoiselle Mars; Notice biographique,"
1847; L. Fusn, "Notice stir Mademoiselle Mars," 1847; R. DE
BEAUVOIR, " Memoires de Mademoiselle Mars," 2 vols., 1849;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Marsais, du. See DUMARSAIS.
Marsaiid, maR-sand', (ANTONIO,) an Italian littera
teur, born at Venice in 1765. He published an excellent
edition. of Petrarch's poems, with a memoir, and several
original works on various subjects. Died in 1842.
Marschall von Bieberstein, maR'shal fon bee'ber-
stin', (FRIEDRICH,) FREIHKRR, a German botanist, born
in 1766, removed to Russia, where he became a council
lor of state. He published "Flora Taurico-Caucasica,"
(1808-19.) Died in 1826.
Marschner, maRsh/ner, (HKiXRiCH,)a German com
poser and musician, born at Zittau in 1795, was appointed
chapel-master at Hanover. Among his most popular
works are the operas of " The Vampyre," " The Templar
and the Jewess," and "Hans Heiling." Died in 1861.
See FETIS, "Biographic (Jniverselle des Musiciens."
Mars'd^n, (WILLIAM,) an eminent Orientalist, of
English extraction, born at Dublin in 1754. Having en
tered the service of the East India Company, he sailed
in 1771 to Bencoolen, Sumatra, where he was appointed
principal secretary to the government and devoted him
self to the study of the Malay language. He returned
in 1779 to England, and was soon after elected a Fellow
of the Royal Society. He published in 1782 his "His
tory of Sumatra," which was very favourably received
and was translated into French and German. He was
subsequently appointed chief secretary to the board of
admiralty, with the war salary of ^4000 per annum.
Having resigned this post in 1807, he brought out in
1812 his "Grammar" and "Dictionary" of the Malay
language, which are esteemed standard works. He also
made an excellent translation of the " Travels of Marco
Polo," with a commentary, and wrote a description of
Eastern coins, entitled "Numismata Orientalia Illus-
trata," (1823.) He gave up his pension to the gov
ernment in 1831, and soon after presented his valuable
collection of coins ard medals to the British Museum,
and his library to King's College. Died in 1836.
See "Memoir of the Life, etc. of William Marsden," by himself,
1838.
Marsh, (ANNA CALDWELL,) MRS., an English au
thoress, born in Staffordshire about 1798. Among her
most popular works we may name " Tales of the
Woods and Fields," (1836,) " Ravenscliffe," "Mount
Sorel," (1843.) and "Emilia Wyndham," (1846.)
Marsh, (CATHERINE,) an English writer, born at
Colchester about 1815. Among her works are "Me
morials of Captain Hedley Vicars," "English Hearts
and English Hands," and "Light for the Line, or the
Story of Thomas Ward," which have gained extensive
popularity.
Marsh, (DEXTER,) an American geologist, born in
1806, made a large and choice collection of specimens
of fossil footprints, obtained chiefly in the Connecticut
valley. Died in 1853.
Marsh, (GEORGE PERKINS,) LL.D., an American
philologist and diplomatist, born in Windsor county,
Vermont, in 1801. He was appointed minister resi
dent at Constantinople in 1849, and in 1852 was sent on
an embassy to Greece. He has published, among other
works, a "Compendious Grammar of the Old Northern
or Icelandic Language, compiled and translated from
the Grammar of Rask," (1838,) and " Man and Nature,"
(1864.) His wife, Caroline C. Marsh, has published a
number of poems and made translations from the Ger
man. In 1861 he was appointed minister to Italy.
See GKISWOLD, "Prose Writers of America."
Marsh, (HERBERT,) a learned English theologian,
born in London in 1757. He became professor of di
vinity at Cambridge in 1807, and rose to be Bishop of
Peterborough in 1819. He published several religious
and controversial treatises, and translated Michaelis's
" Introduction to the New Testament" into English.
Died in 1839.
Marsh, (JAMES,) an English chemist, born in 1789,
was the inventor of an apparatus, called by his name,
which detects the presence of arsenic in liquids, how
ever minute the quantity. Its utility and certainty were
verified by Orfila and other toxicologists. Died in 1846.
Marsh, JAMES,) D.I)., a distinguished American
scholar and divine, born at Hartford, Vermont, in 1794.
He was appointed professor of classics at Hampden-
Sidney College, Virginia, and in 1826 president of the
University of Vermont. He translated from the German
Herder's "Spirit of Hebrew Poetry," and contributed
religious and philosophical essays to the "Christian
Spectator" and other journals. Died about 1842.
Marsh, (NARCISSUS,) a learned prelate, born in Wilt
shire in 1638, became successively Archbishop of Dublin
and of Armagh. He wrote an "Essay on an Introduc
tion to the Theory of Sounds," which was inserted in
the " Philosophical Transactions" of the Royal Society.
Died in 1713.
Mar'shail, (CHARLES KIMHALI.,) an American Meth
odist divine, born at Durham, Maine, in 1812, became
pastor of a church at Natchez, Mississippi.
Marshall, (HUMPHRY,) an American botanist, was
a resident of Pennsylvania. He published in 1785 his
" Arbustum Americanum," or catalogue of the trees and
shrubs of America, which was translated into French.
Died about 1805.
See W. DARLINGTON, "Memorials of John Bartram and H.
Marshall, " 1849.
Marshall, (JoiiN,) an eminent American jurist and
statesman, born at Germantown, Fauquier county, Vir
ginia, on the 24th of September, 1755. He was the
eldest son of Colonel Thomas Marshall and Mary Keith,
who had fifteen children. He never attended a college,
but he was well educated under the care of his father.
He enlisted in the army in 1776, became a captain in
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obsatre; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
MARSHALL
'533
MARSTON
May, 1777, and served at the battles of Brandy wine,
September, 1777, Germantown, and Monmouth, June,
1778. Having resigned his commission in 1781, he be
gan to practise law, and was chosen a member of the
House of Delegates in 1782. In 1783 he married Mary
Willis Ambler, of York, Virginia, and became a resi
dent of Richmond. As a member of the Convention
of Virginia, in 1788, he advocated the adoption of the
Federal Constitution by several powerful speeches. He
contributed more to the adoption of this Constitution
by Virginia than any man except James Madison. He
became identified with the Federal party, and cordially
supported the administration of Washington. His
reputation was widely extended by a speech in the
Assembly of Virginia in favour of the treaty negotiated
by John Jay with Great Britain in 1794. In 1797 he
was associated with General Pinckney and Mr. Gerry in
a special mission to the French Directory. His incli
nation or interest induced him to decline several high
offices, but, at the special request of General Washing
ton, he became a candidate for Congress, and was elected,
in 1799. He made a great speech in Congress, defend
ing President Adams for his surrender of Thomas Nash,
alias Kobbins, who was claimed by the British govern
ment as a fugitive from justice. This speech settled
forever the question whether such cases should be
decided by the executive or the judiciary. "That argu
ment,'' says R. W. Griswold, "deserves to be ranked
among the most dignified displays of human intellect."
He was appointed secretary of state by President Adams
in May, 1800, and displayed great diplomatic ability in
his correspondence with Rufus King, minister to Eng
land. On the 3 ist of January, 1801, he was appointed
chief justice of the supreme court of the United States.
lie pei formed the functions of this high office for thirty-
four years, and rendered important services by the just
and liberal principles according to which he construed
the Constitution. His profound learning and wisdom,
his moral courage, and his high-toned virtue secured for
him universal respect and confidence. His services as
an expounder of constitutional law are commended by
Judge Story in the following terms: "If all others' of
the chief justice's judicial arguments had perished, his |
luminous judgments on these occasions would have j
given an enviable immortality to his name." In 1804
he published a "Life of George Washington," (5 vols.,)
which is highly esteemed. Judge Marshall was distin
guished for his benevolence, modesty, urbanity, and
simplicity. He was a devout believer in Christianity,
and was happy in his domestic relations. He died in
Philadelphia (whither he had gone for medical advice)
in July, 1835. "To one who cannot follow 'his great
judgments, "says R. W. Griswold, "in which at the same
time the depths of legal wisdom are disclosed and the
limits of human reason measured, the language of just
eulogy must wear an appearance of extravagance. In
his own profession he stands for the reverence of the
wise rather than for the enthusiasm of the many."
See GRISWOLD, "Prose Writers of America:" JUDGE JOSEPH
STORY, notice of John Marshall, in the "National Portrait-Gallery
of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. : HORACE BINNEV, "Eulogy
on the Life and Character of John Marshall;" "North American
Review" for January, 1828, and January, 1836.
Mar'shall or Mareschal, (THOMAS,) an English
scholar, born in Leicestershire about 1621. He became
successively rector of Lincoln College, Oxford, chaplain-
in-ordinary to the king, and Dean of Gloucester, (1681.)
He was distinguished for his knowledge of the Oriental
tongues and of the Anglo-Saxon, and published " Ob
servations on Two Ancient Versions of the Gospels, —
the Gothic and the Anglo-Saxon," (in Latin, 1665,) also
a " Life of Archbishop Usher." Died in 1685.
See WOOD, " Athense Oxonienses."
Marshall, (WILLIAM CALDER,) a Scottish sculptor,
born in Edinburgh in 1813, was a pupil of Chantrey.
He visited Rome about 1836, and settled in London in
1839. Among his chief works are " Sabrina," "Una
and the Lion," the "Dancing-Girl Reposing," (1846,)
which gained a prize of five hundred pounds, and a
statue of Sir Robert Peel.
Marshall, (WILLIAM HUMPHREY,) an English bota
nist and agricultural writer, born in 1745. He published
a number of works which contributed greatly to the im
provement of agriculture in England. He also wrote
" The American Grove ; or, Catalogue of the Trees, etc.
of the United States." Died in 1818.
Marsh'am, (Sir JOHN,) an English chronologist, born
in London in 1602. He embraced the cause of the
royalists in the civil war. He was the author of a work
entitled " Chronologicus Canon /Egyptiacus, Ebraicus,"
etc., (1672,) in which he attempts tojeconcile Egyptian
chronology with the Hebrew Scriptures, by supposing
four collateral dynasties of Egyptian kings reigning at
the same time. This theory has been adopted by several
eminent scholars. Died in 1685.
See Worm, "Athens Oxonienses;" SHUCKFORD, "Sacred and
Profane History."
Marsh'maii, (JOSHUA,) an eminent English divine
and Orientalist, born in Wiltshire in 1767. Being sent
by the Baptist Missionary Society to India in 1799,
he became a proficient in the Chinese, Sanscrit, and
Bengalee languages. He translated the four Gospels
into Chinese, and assisted Dr. Carey in preparing a
Sanscrit Grammar and a Bengalee-and-English Diction
ary. He also translated the works of Confucius, and
wrote a "Defence of the Deity and Atonement of Jesus
Christ, in Reply to Rammohun Roy," (1822.) Died in
1837.
See Cox, " History of the Baptist Missionary Society."
Marsigli, maR-sel'yee, (Luici FERIMNANDO,) a dis
tinguished Italian naturalist and mathematician, born
at Bologna in 1658. He served in the Austrian army
against the Turks in 1683 and in several succeeding
campaigns, and was made a colonel in 1689. He was
one of the founders of the Society of Sciences and Arts
at Bologna, (1712,) to which he gave a very valuable
scientific collection. He afterwards visited England,
where he acquired the friendship of Newton and Halley
and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was
the author of "Physical History of the Sea," (1725,) a
description of the shores of the Danube, entitled " Danu-
bius Pannonico-Mysicus," etc., (1726, 7 vols. fol., finely
illustrated,) "The Military State of the Ottoman Em
pire," (1732,) and other works. He had been elected
in 1725 a member of the Academy of Sciences, Paris.
Died in 1730.
See Quixcv, " Memoires stir la Vie du Comte de Marsigli," 1741 ;
FONTENEU.E, " Eloges des Academiciens ;" FABRONI, "Vita; Ita-
lorum doctvina excellentiiim ;" G. FAXTUZZI, " Memoria delia Vita
del Conte Marsigli," 1770; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Marsilio (maR-see'le-o) [Lat. MARSIL'IUS] OF PADUA,
an Italian jurist, sometimes called MENANDRINO, born
at Padua. He was patronized by the emperor Louis of
Bavaria, in whose favour he wrote his " Defensor Pads,"
an attack on the papacy, for which he was excommuni
cated in 1327. Died in 1328.
Marsilius. See MARSILIO.
Marsilius Ficinus. See FICINUS.
Marsin. See MARCHIN.
Marso, maR'so, [Lat. PISCI'NUS,] (PAOLO,) an Italian
savant, said to have been born at Piscina. He wrote a
commentary on the " Fasti" of Ovid, published in 1485,
and several Latin poems.
Marsollier, nitk'so'le-i', (JACQUES,) a French writer,
born in Paris in 1647, was author of a " History of the
Inquisition and its Origin," (1693,) an^ several other
works. 'Died in 1724.
See NICEKON, " Memoires."
Marsollier des Vivetieres, mfR'so'le-a' d£ vev'-
tej-aiu', (BENofr JOSEPH,) a French dramatist, born in
Paris in 1750, produced numerous comic operas, which
had great popularity. Died in 1817.
Mars'tou, (JOHN,) an English dramatist, was the
author of tragedies entitled "Antonio and Mellida,"
" Sophonisba," and " Antonio's Revenge," and several
comedies ; he was also associated with Ben Jonson and
Chapman in writing "Eastward, Ho !" His comedy of
" The Malecontent" is esteemed his best work ; but he
is said to have borrowed a great part of it from Webster.
Died in 1634.
See CAMPBELL, "Specimens of the British Poets."
Marston, (\VESTLAND,) an English poet and drama
tist, born in Lincolnshire in 1819. He wrote "The
« as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MARSUPIUS
MARTIAL
Patrician's Daughter," " The Heart and the World,"
and several other popular dramas.
Marsupius. See MARSUPPINI.
Marsuppiiii, maR-soop-pee'nee, [Lat. MARSU'PIUS,]
(CARLO,) an Italian scholar, sometimes called ARE-
TINO, born at Arezzo about 1399. He was appointed
professor of rhetoric at Florence in 1434, and secretary
of the Florentine republic in 1444. He translated into
Latin hexameter verse Homer's " Batrachomyomachia,"
and wrote a number of Latin poems. Died in 1453.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Mar'sus, (Doxirnus,) a Roman poet under the reign
of Augustus, was a friend of Virgil and Tibullus. Among
his extant works is a poem entitled " Cicuta," and a
number of fragments have been collected by Broek-
huisen in his edition of Tibullus.
See WEICHERT, "De Domitio Marso, Poeta."
Marsy, mSk'se', (GASPARDand BALTHASAR,) brothers
and distinguished French sculptors, born at Cambray,
the former in 1625 and the latter in 1628. Among their
master-pieces are the figures of the Baths of Apollo,
representing the "Tritons showering the Horses of
the Sun," and the group of" Latona and her Children."
Both brothers were members of the Academy of Painting
and Sculpture. Balthasar died in 1674, and Gaspard
in 1681.
See LENOIR, "Muse'e des Monuments Francais."
Marsy, de, deh m^R'se', (FRANCOIS MARIE,) a French
litterateur, born in Paris in 1714. He published, among
other works, a " History of Mary Stuart," and a Latin
poem entitled " Painting," (" Pictura,") which was much
admired. Died in 1763.
See LA HARPE, " Cours de LitteYature."
Mar'sy-as, [Gr. Mapo-mf,] a personage of the Greek
mythology, was called by some authors a Satyr, and a
son of Olympus. According to tradition, he found a
flute which Minerva had thrown away, (because her
face was distorted by playing on it,) and challenged
Apollo to a trial of skill in music, on the condition
that the victor might do what he pleased with the van
quished. Apollo gained the victory, and flayed Marsyas
alive. This story was a favourite subject of ancient
poets and artists.
Martainville, mSR'taN'vel', ( AI.PHONSE Louis DIEU-
DONNE,) a litterateur 3X\A journalist, of French extraction,
born at Cadiz in 1776. He became associate editor of
several political journals of Paris. He wrote a number
of bold and witty satires on the Jacobins, and several
popular comedies. Died in 1830.
Martange, de, deh maVtoNzh', (N. BONNET,) a
French general and writer, born at Beauce in 1722,
served in the Austrian army in the Seven Years' war.
He wrote several poems and tales. Died in 1806.
Marteilhe, mSn'til' or mtR'ti'ye, (JEAN,) a French
Protestant, born at Bergerac in 1684, was condemned in
1702 to the galleys at Dunkirk, where he spent seven
years. Died in 1777.
See "The Huguenot Galley-Slave, " New York, 1867; ".Quarterly
Review" for July, 1866.
Martel, (CHARLES.) See CHARLES MARTEL.
Martel, mtu'ieT, (FRANCOIS,) a French surgeon, born
at Perigueux in 1549. He became first surgeon to Henry
IV. Died about 1610.
Martel, maR-teT, (GERONIMO,) a Spanish historian,
wrote a valuable work entitled "Forma de celebrar
Cortes." He became royal historiographer in 1597.
See PRESCOTT, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i.
pin i.
Marteliere, de la, deh It mtut'le-aiR', (PIERRE,) a
celebrated French lawyer, was born at Bellesme in
the sixteenth century. He published a number of
pleas, one of which, in favour of the University of Paris
against the Jesuits, was very much admired. Died
in 1631.
Martelli, maR-tel'lee, (Lunovico,) an Italian poet,
born at Florence in 1499. He wrote lyric poems, and
"Tullia," a tragedy. Died in 1527.
See GINGUENE', " Histoire litteVaire d' Italic."
Martelli or Martello, maR-tel'lo, (PIETRO GIACOMO,)
an Italian litterateur, born at Bologna in 1665. He wrote
poems and dramas, which were popular at the time.
Died in 1727.
See FABR'iNi, ''Vita: Italorum doclrina excellentium ;" "Vitadi
Martelli," (written by liimself,) in CAI.OC;EKA'S " Raccolta," vol. ii.
Martelly, de, deh mSk'ti'le', (HONORE FRANCOIS
RICHARD,) a French actor and dramatist, born at Aix in
1751, published a comedy entitled "The Two Figaros,"
and other works. Died in 1817.
Martene, maVt.\N', (Dom EDMOND,) a learned French
ecclesiastic, of the order of Benedictines, born in the
diocese of Dijon in 1654. In 1708 he visited the abbeys
and cathedrals of France, in order to procure materials
for a new edition of the "Gallia Christiana." He also
published a "Collection of Old Authors and Historical
Monuments," (1700,) in Latin, and, conjointly with his
friend Durand, "Literary Travels of Two Benedictines
of Saint-Maur," (1717.) Died in 1739.
See TASSIN, " Histoire litteraire de la Congregation de Saint-
Maur."
Martens, mau'tens, written also Mertens, [Lat.
MARTI'NUS,] (THIERRY,) a Flemish printer, born at Alost
about 1450, is said to have introduced the art of printing
into the Netherlands. He exercised his profession at
his native town, and subsequently at Louvain and Ant
werp. He printed in Roman characters, hitherto un
known, and his editions of the classics were highly prized.
Martens was an intimate friend of Erasmus, who com
posed a Latin epitaph upon him. Died in 1534.
See MAITTAIRH, "Annales Typographies ;" MARCHAND, "His
toire de 1'Iinprimerie ;" F. A. VAN ISEGHKM. " Hio-jraphie de Thierry
Martens," iS^; THKODORK JUSTE, "Notice biographique sur 1.
Martens," 1849.
Martens, von, fon maR'tens, (GEORG FRIEDIUCH,)
a German jurist, born in Hamburg in 1756. Among his
works, which are chiefly written in French, we may name
his "Collection of Treaties," (1791,) and "Summary of
Modern European Law," (1821.) Died in 1821.
Martens, von, (KARL,) a nephew of the preceding,
was born about 1790. He was employed as a diplomatist
by the King of Prussia. He published, besides other
works in French, "Causes celebres du Droit de Gens,"
(3 vols., 1827,) and "Guide diplomatique," (2 vols., 1832.)
Martensen, maR'ten-sen, (HANS LASSEN,) a Danish
theologian, born at Flensborg in 1808. He became
Bishop of Seeland in 1843, and court preacher at Copen
hagen in 1845. His principal work is a treatise on
Christian Doctrine, " Den Christelige Dogmatik," (1849.)
Mar'tha, |Gr. JAupBa; Fr. MARTHE, ma"Rt,] a sister of
Mary and Lazarus of Bethany.
See John xi. ; Lai-e •<.
Marthe. See MARTHA.
Marthe, mtm, (ANNE Biget — be'zVuV,) a French
nun, called SISTER MARTHA, born at Besan£on in 1749,
devoted herself during the Revolution to the relief of the
sick and wounded, and of prisoners of all nations. Died
in 1824.
Marti, maR'tee, [Lat. MARTI'NUS,] (MANUEL,) a
Spanish scholar and poet, born near Valencia in 1663.
He published a collection of poems, entitled " Amalthea
Geographica," and made several translations from the
Latin. Died in 1737.
See M \Y.\N, "Vita EmanueHs Martini," 1735.
Martial, mar'she-aj, [Fr. MARTIAL, ma'R'se'a'K ; Lat.
MARTIA'I.IS ; It. MARZIALE, maKt-se-a'li,] or, more fully,
Mar'cus Vale'rius Martia'lis, a famous Latin epi
grammatic poet, born at Bilbilis, in Spain, about 40 A.D.,
went to Rome at the age of twenty-two, and resided there
thirty-five years. The events of his life are very imper
fectly known ; but it appears that he devoted his atten
tion chiefly to poetry. Some epigrams which he wrote
on the occasion of the public spectacles given by Titus
about the year 80, procured him the favour of that prince.
He was also patronized by Domitian, who made him a
tribune and a Roman knight. He was intimate with
Juvenal, Quintilian, and Pliny the Younger. About 98
A.r>. he returned to his native place, where he died a few
years later. Fourteen books of his " Epigrams" are still
extant, and are much admired by some eminent critics,
such as Scaliger, Lipsius, and Malte-Brun. The latter
thinks his writings are among the most interesting monu
ments of Roman literature, though many of them offend
against good taste and pure morality. Probably no poet
a, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
MARTIAL
1535
MARTIN
ever estimated his works more justly than he did in the
following line :
"Sunt bona, sunt quasdam mediocria, sunt plura mala."
(" Some are good, some indifferent, and more are bad.")
See CRUSIUS, " Life of Martial," in " Lives of the Roman Poets,"
1726: LESSING, "Vermischte Schriften ;" A. PERICAI-D. " Essai sur
Martial," 1816 : FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Latina;" " M. V. Mar-
tialis a!s Mensch nnd Dichter," Berlin, 1843; "Martial and his
Times," in the ''Westminster Review" for April, 1853.
Martial d'Auvergne. See AUVERGNE, D', (MAR
TIAL.)
Martialis. See MARTIAL.
Martianay, mSR'se'S'ni', (Dom JEAN,) a French
Benedictine monk and theological writer, born in 1647 ;
died in 1717.
Martignac, de, deh miVten'yik', (IvriENNE ALGAY,)
a French litterateur, born at Brives-la-Gaillarde about
1620. He published "Memoirs of Gaston, Duke of
Orleans," and made translations from Horace, Juvenal,
and other classics. Died in 1698.
See VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV."
Martignac, de, (JEAN BAPTISTE SYLVERE GAVE,)
YICOMTE, an able and eloquent French statesman under
Charles X., was born at Bordeaux in 1776. He was
elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1821. As the
head of the ministry that came into power in January,
1828, he held the o'ffice of minister of the interior, and
sought to unite conflicting parties for the support of the
throne ; but, unable to effect this object, and forsaken by
the king and the court, he resigned his place in August,
1829, and was succeeded by Polignac. On the trial of
the latter, Martignac became his eloquent defender
in the Chamber of Peers. He died in 1832, leaving a
" Historical Essay on the Spanish Revolution," and
other works.
See CAPEFIGUE, " Histoire de la Restauration ;" CHATEAUBRIAND,
" Memoires d'Outre-Tombe ;" L. DE LOMENIE, " M. de Martignac,
par un Homme de Rien," 1842 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Martigues, ml R'teg', (SEBASTIEN DE LUXEMBOURG,)
VISCOUNT, a brave French officer, who assisted at the
siege of Metz, (1552,) and in the capture of Calais by
the Duke of Guise, (1558.) He was killed in 1569.
Mar'tin [Lat. MARTI'XUS] I. succeeded Theodore as
pope in 649 A.D. Having condemned the Monothelites,
he was banished by the emperor Constans II., who
favoured that sect, to the Thracian Chersonesus, where
he died in 655 A.D.
Martin II., or Marinus I., succeeded John VIII. as
pope in 882 A.D. Died in 884, and was succeeded by
Adrian III.
Martin III., or Marinus II., born at Rome, suc
ceeded Stephen VIII. in 942, and died in 946. His
successor was Agapetus II.
Martin IV., (Cardinal SIMON de Brion — deh
bRe'o.N', (or Brie — bRe,)) a native of Touraine, in France,
succeeded Nicholas III. in 1281. He adhered to the
cause of Charles of Anjou, and when, after the Sicilian
Vespers, that sovereign lost his power in Sicily, Martin
excommunicated Peter of Aragon, who had been chosen
king of that country. He died in 1285, and was suc
ceeded by Honorius'lV.
Martin V. (Cardinal OTHO Colonna — ko-lon'na)
was elected pope in 1417, in the place of John XXIII.,
deposed by the Council of Constance. In 1431 he
called a council at Bale, in Switzerland, for the purpose
of effecting a reform in the Church, and sent Cardinal
Julian Cesarini as his legate. He died 'soon after, and
was succeeded by Eugene IV.
See ARTAUD DE MONTOR, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes
Remains."
Martin, son of Martin, King of Aragon, ascended
the throne of Sicily in 1399. He married in 1401, as his
second wife, Blanche, daughter of the King of Navarre.
He died in 1409, and the kingdom of Sicily was united
to that of Aragon by his father, who survived him.
Martin, surnamed GALLUS, a French ecclesiastic of
the thirteenth century, was a missionary to Poland, and
wrote a history of that country, (" Chronica Polonorum,")
a valuable work, and the earliest one written on that
subject.
Mar'tin, (ALEXANDER,) born in New Jersey about
1740, served as a colonel in the war of the Revolution,
and was chosen Governor of North Carolina in 1782.
Died in 1807.
Martin, mfR'taN', (ANDRE,) a French ecclesiastic,
born in Poitou in 1621. He was one of the earliest
advocates of the Cartesian philosophy, and wrote
"Christian Moral Philosophy," (" Philosophia Moralis
Christiana.") Died in 1695.
Mar'tin, (BENJAMIN,) an English mathematician, born
in Surrey in 1704. He was the author of "The Philo
sophical Grammar," (1735,) "New System of Optics,"
(1740,) and other scientific works. Died in 1782.
Martin, (BoN Louis HENRI,) an eminent PVench
historian, born at Saint-Quentin in 1810. He has pub
lished a "History of France from the Earliest Times to
1789," (18 vols., 1838-53,) " Monarchy in the Seventeenth
Century," (1848,) a "Life of Daniel Manin," (1859,) and
other similar works. The first enjoys a high reputation,
and has gained a prize of the Academic Frai^aise. He
published a revised edition of his " History of France,"
(1855-60.)
See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1857.
Martin, (CHRISTIAN RKINHOLD DIETRICH,) a Ger
man jurist, born near Gottingen in 1772, was the author
of several legal works. Died in 1857.
Martin, (CLAUDE,) a French soldier, born at Lyons in
1732. He accompanied General Lally to India, and sub
sequently entered the English service. Having amassed
a large fortune, he built a magnificent palace near Luck-
now. He died in 1800, leaving numerous bequests for
charitable purposes.
See G. MARTIN, " filoge historique de C. Martin," 1830.
Martin, (CLAUDE,) a learned French Benedictine
monk, born at Tours in 1619, published several devo
tional works. Died in 1696.
Martin, (DAVID,) a French Protestant theologian,
born at Revel in 1639. He published a " History of
the Old and New Testament," " Treatise on Natural
Religion," and other works, which enjoy a high reputa
tion. Died in 1721.
See NICERON, " Memoires."
Martin, (FKANC.OIS,) an agent of the East India Com
pany, born in France. In 1674 he formed a colony at
Pondicherry, of which city he afterwards became gov
ernor. Died about 1725.
Martin, (EDME,) a French jurist, born near Sens
about 1714, became professor of canon law in Paris.
Died in 1793.
Martin, (FRANCOIS XAVIER,) LL.D., born at Mar
seilles, France, in 1764, emigrated about 1785 to North
Carolina, and subsequently settled in Louisiana. He
attained a high reputation as a jurist, and published His
tories of Louisiana and North Carolina. Died in 1846.
Martin, (GREGORY,) an English Catholic theologian,
was a native of Sussex. He became professor of Hebrew
at Douai, and subsequently at Rheims. His principal
work is an English translation of the Bible, which
appeared in 1610. Died in 1582.
Martin, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French painter, surnamed
DES BATAILLES, ("of battles,") born in Paris in 1659.
On the death of Van der Meulen, in 1690, he was ap
pointed by Louis XIV. to paint his battles. Died in 1735.
Martiii, (JEAN BI.AISE,) a celebrated French vocalist,
born in Paris in 1767. He held the place of tenor solo
in the imperial chapel under Napoleon and his succes
sors, Louis XVIII. and Charles X. Died in 1837.
Martin, (JOHN,) an English painter, born in North
umberland in 1789. He studied under Bonifacio Musso,
and in 1815 obtained the prize at the British Institution
for his picture of " Joshua commanding the Sun to stand
still." This was followed by "The Fall of Babylon,"
(1818,) "Belshazzars Feast," (1821,) "The Deluge,"
(1826,) "The Fall of Nineveh," (1828,) and other
works on similar subjects, which enjoyed great tem
porary popularity. He published in 1828 "A Plan for
supplying with Pure Water the Cities of London and
Westminster." Died in 1854.
See "Autobiography of John Martin," in the "Athenzum,"
1854; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Martin, (Louis AIME,) a French litterateur, born at
Lyons in 1781, became professor of rhetoric, history,
€ as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, gitttural '; N, nasal; :<.. trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (^^"See Explanations, p. 23.)
MARTIN
1536
MARTINET
etc. in the Polytechnic School, Paris, about 1815. He was
an intimate friend of Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, whose
widow he married. Among his principal works are his
"Letters to Sophia on Physics, Chemistry," etc., (1810,)
"Collection of Tales, etc. in Verse and Prose^'' (1813,)
and an " Essay on the Life and Works of Bernardin de
Saint-Pierre," (1820.) Died in 1847.
See LAMARTINK, " Discours prononce sur la Tonibe de M. Aimt*
Martin ;'' QUERAKD, " La Franca Litteraire."
Martin, (LUTHKK,) an American lawyer, born about
1745. He was a delegate from Maryland to the conven
tion which in 1787 formed the Constitution of the United
States. In this body he advocated the sovereignty and
equality of the States, contending that a small State
should send as many members to Congress as a large
Stale. Died in 1826.
Martin, (MARGARET MAXWELL,) born at Dumfries,
Scotland, in 1807, emigrated to America, and was mar
ried in 1836 to the Rev. William Martin, a Methodist
divine. She has published " Methodism, or Christianity
in Karncst," and other religious works.
Martin, (NICOLAS,) a French poet, born at Bonn, in
Prussia, in 1814. His mother was a sister of Karl Sim-
rock the poet. Among his works is "Le Presbytere,
Epopee domestique," (1856.)
Martin, (PIERRE,) an admiral, of French extraction,
born in Canada in 1752. In 1795 he maintained a
prolonged fight with a superior English fleet under
Hothain, and was soon after made vice-admiral. Died
in 1820.
Martin, (ROBERT MONTGOMERY,) an English writer,
born in Tyrone county, Ireland, about 1803. He published,
besides other works, "The Colonies of the British Em
pire," (1834-38,) and "The Indian Empire: its History,
Topography, Geology, Government," etc., (1858-61.)
Martin, [Lat. MAKTI'NUS,] SAINT, an eminent eccle
siastic of the fourth century, was a native of Pannonia.
He was converted to Christianity at an early age, and
was made Bishop of Tours about 360 A. D. He founded
the abbey of Marmoutier, near the river Loire, and he
also established a monastery at Liguge, near Poitiers,
said to be the oldest institution of the kind in France.
Died about 396.
See C'.ERVAISE, "Vie de Saint-Martin," 1699; MRS. JAMESON,
"Sacred and Legendary Art ;" A. DUPUV, " Histoire de Saint-
Martin," 1852.
Martin, SAINT, born in Hungary, became Archbishop
of Braga, in Portugal, and founded a number of monas
teries in Galicia. He was the author of several theo
logical works, in Latin. Died in 580 A.I).
Martin, (SARAH,) an English philanthropist, born near
Yarmouth in 1791, was distinguished for her labours in
the cause of prison-reform. Died in 1843.
See " Brief Biographies," by SAMUEL SMILES; REV. ERSKINE
NEM.E, "Christianity and Infidelity Contrasted ;" " Edinburgh Re
view" for April, 1847.
Martin, (THEODORE,) a British writer, born in Edin
burgh in 1816. He became a resident of London about
1846. In conjunction with Professor Aytoun, he pro
duced a version of Goethe's poems and ballads, (1858.)
He also translated the Odes of Horace, (1860.)
See the "North British Review" for February, 1862, and March,
1866.
Martin, (THOMAS,) an English antiquary, born in
Suffolk in 1697. He was the author of a " History of
Thetford," published after his death by Gough, (1779,)
and was a contributor to Le Neve's " Monumenta Angli-
cana." Died in 1771.
Martin, (THOMAS HENRI,) a French philosopher,
born at Bellesme, in Orne, in 1813. His " Studies on
the Timaeus of Plato" (2 vols., 1841) obtained a prize of
the French Academy. lie also published a "History
of the Physical Sciences in Antiquity," (2 vols., 1849.)
Martin, (Wn.i.iAM,) an English naturalist, born in
Nottinghamshire in 1769. He published " Figures and
Descriptions of Petrifactions in Derbyshire," and other
scientific works. Died in 1810.
Martin, (WILLIAM D.,) an American jurist and poli
tician, born in South Carolina in 1789; died in 1833.
Martin, de, deh miVtaN', (JACQUES,) a French writer,
born in the diocese of Mirepoix in 1684. He published, '
among other works, a " History of the Gauls and of i
their Conquests," etc., and " The Religion of the Gauls."
Died in 1751.
Mar'tiii-dale, (JoHN HENRY,) an American general,
born at Sandy Hill, New York, about 1815, graduated
at West Point in 1835. He was a lawyer before the
civil war. He commanded a brigade at the battles of
Gaines's Mill, June 27, and Malvern Hill, July I, 1862.
He commanded a division of General Grant's army in
the summer of 1864. In November, 1866, he was elected
attorney-general of New York.
Mar'tlne, (GEORGE,) a Scottish physician, born in
1702, accompanied Lord Cathcart to America, where
he died in 1743. lie published "Commentaries on the
Anatomical Tables of Eustachius," (in Latin,) and other
works.
Martineau, mar'te-no, (HARRIET,) an English mis
cellaneous writer, born at Norwich in 1802, was de
scended from a French Huguenot family. Being left in
limited circumstances on the death of her father, she
devoted herself to literature as a means of support, and
published, in 1823, " Devotional Exercises for the Use
of Young People," which was succeeded by a number
of popular tales, among which we may name "Christmas
Day," "The Rioters," (1826,) "Mary Campbell," (1827,)
"The Turn-Out," and "My Servant Rachel," (1828.)
Her "Traditions of Palestine" came out in 1831, and
were soon followed by a series of tales illustrating po
litical economy, which were received with great favour
and were translated into French and German. In 1835
she visited the United States, where she spent about
two years, and published, after her return, " Society in
America," (1837,) and " Retrospect of Western Travel,"
(1838.) Her novel of " Deerbrook" appeared in 1839,
and in 1840 the romance of "The Hour and the Man."
Her health becoming impaired about this time, she was
obliged to suspend her literary labours. After her re
covery she published, besides other works, " Life in a
Sick-Room," (1845,) anf' " Forest anc^ Game Law Tales,"
(1845.) Among her later publications are a "History
of England during the Thirty Years' Peace,'' (2 vols.,
1850,) " Letters between Miss Martineau and Mr. II. G.
Atkinson," etc., (1857,) and " Biographical Sketches,"
(London, 1869.) She has also been a contributor to the
" Westminister Review" and other literary journals.
See "Men and Women of tlie Time;" "Brief Biographies," by
SAMUEL SMILES; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1833, April, 1838,
and April, 1847 : " London Quarterly" for January, 1839; " Eraser's
Magazine" for April, 1851.
Martineau, (JAMES,) a Unitarian divine, brother of
the preceding, was born at Norwich, in England, about
1805. He became professor of moral and metaphysical
philosophy in Manchester New College, London, in 1853,
and in 1858 associate pastor of the Unitarian Chapel in
Little Portland Street. Among his principal works are
"Rationale of Religious Inquiry," (1839,) "Endeavours
after the Christian Life," (1843,) and "Studies of Chris
tianity," (1858.) Mr. Martineau occupies a prominent
position both as theologian and philosopher, being the
representative on the one hand of Unitarianism as op
posed to Trinitarian orthodoxy, and on the other of
Theism and Spiritualism as opposed to the materialistic
tendencies of the age.
See the " British Quarterly Review" for October, 1859.
Martinelli, maR-te-nel'lee, (!)OMEMCO,) an Italian
architect and painter, born at Lucca in 1650. Among
his best works is the palace of Prince Lichtenstein at
Vienna. Died m 1718.
Martinengo, maR-te-nen'go, (GIROLAMO SILVIO,)
COUNT, an Italian poet, born at Venice in 1753, pub
lished a translation of Milton's "Paradise Lost" (" II
Paradiso Perduto") into Italian verse. Died in 1834.
Martinengo, (Trro PKOSI-KKO,) a learned Italian
ecclesiastic, born at Brescia, published a number of
devotional poems, in Latin and Greek. Died in 1595.
Martinengo-Coleoiii, maK-te-ncn'go ko-la-o'nee,
(GIOVANNI ETTORE,) an Italian officer and diplomatist,
born at Brescia in 1754, entered the French service.
Died about 1830.
Martinet, mfK'te'ni', a French officer, who lived
about 1660-80 and introduced great improvements into
military tactics and the organization of the army.
See VOLTAIME, " Siecle de Louis XIV."
a, e ~
5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, v., y. xAoff; a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;
MARTINET
'537
MARTINIERE
Martinet, nit k'te'ni', (JAN FLORF.XS,) a Dutch divine
and writer, born about 1735, was pastor of the Men-
nonite church at Zutphen. Died in 1796.
Martinet, (Louis ACHILLE,) a French engraver, born
in Paris in 1806, gained the grand prize in 1830. He
engraved several works of Raphael and other old
masters.
Martinetti, maR-te-net'tee, (GlAMBATTlSTA,) an Ital
ian architect, born at Hironico in 1764; died in 1829.
Martinez, mar-tee'ne'th, ( DOMINGO, ) a Spanish
painter, born at Seville in 1690 ; died in 1750.
Martinez, (GRF.GORIO,) a Spanish landscape-painter,
born at Valladolid, worked at Madrid. Among his best
works is a " Holy Family with Saint Francis d'Assisi."
Died about 1610.
Martinez, (JosE.) a Spanish painter, born at Sara
gassa in 1612, became painter to King Philip IV. Died
in 1682.
Martinez, (SEBASTIAN,) a Spanish painter, born at
Jatn in 1602. On the death of Velasquez he became
first painter to King Philip IV. Among his master
pieces are a " Nativity" and a "Saint Jerome." Died
in 1667.
Martinez, (ToMAS,) a Spanish painter, was a native
of Seville. He imitated successfully the style of Mu-
rillo. His "Mater Dolorosa" is esteemed a master
piece. Died in 1734.
Martinez del Barranco, maR-tee'neth del bar-ran'-
ko, (BERNARDO,) a Spanish painter, born at Cuesta in
1738 ; died in 1791.
Martinez de la Plaza, maR-tee'nlth da la pla'tha,
(Lris,) a Spanish poet, born at Antequera in 1585 ; died
in 1635.
Martinez de la Rosa, maR-tee'neth da la ro'sa,
(FRANCISCO,) a celebrated Spanish poet, orator, and
statesman, born at Granada in 1789. On the breaking
out of the war of 1808, he ably defended the cause of
the patriots both by his tongue and pen. About 1811
he was sent on a mission to London, where he published
his first poem, entitled "Zaragoza." After his return to
Spain he wrote his tragedy " The Widow of Padilla,"
("La Viuda de Padilla,") and the comedy of "The
Consequences of Holding Office," (" Lo que puede un
Empleo,") which were brought out on the stage at Cadiz
while that city was besieged by the French, and were
received with enthusiasm. In 1812 he was chosen a
deputy to the Cortes. On the restoration of Ferdinand,
in 1814, he was imprisoned six years in the fortress of
Gomera, on the African coast. In 1821 he obtained an
office in the ministry ; but, being accused of want of zeal
by the Liberal party, he retired to Paris. Having re
turned to Spain, he became prime minister in 1834, and
drew up the " Estatuto Real," granting a new constitu
tion. He was obliged to resign his post in 1836, and
resided for a time in Paris and London. In 1851 he
was chosen president of the Chamber of Peers. Among
his most popular productions are the dramas entitled
"The Conspiracy of Venice" and " CEdipus," "The
Girl at Home and the Mother at the Masquerade," a
comedy, and "El Arte poetica," a didactic poem. He
also published a historical work, called " El Espiritu del
Siglo," ("The Spirit of the Age,") in 10 vols., and the
romance of " Isabel de Solis." Martinez held the post
of perpetual secretary at the Spanish Academy. Died
in February, 1862.
See JAMES KENNEDY, " Modern Poets and Poetry of Spain ;"
LONGFELLOW. " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" LOMENIE, " Galerie
des Contemporains ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1838.
Martini, maR-tee'nee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian prelate,
born at Prnto in 1720, was created Archbishop of Flor
ence in 1781. He published an Italian translation of the
Old and New Testaments, and several original works.
Died in 1809.
Martini, maR-tee'nee, (CORNELIS,) a Belgian writer
on logic and metaphysics, born at Antwerp about 1567;
died in 1621.
Martini, maR-tee'nee, (FERDINAND HEINRICH WIT,-
HF.I.M.) a German naturalist, born in the duchy of Gotha
in 1729. Among his works are the first three volumes
of a "Systematic Cabinet of Shells," (" Conchylien-
Cabinet," 10 vols., 1768-88.) Died in 1778.
Martini, (GEORG HEINRICH,) a German archaeologist,
born in Misnia in 1722. He wrote on Greek and Roman
antiquities. Died in 1794.
Martini, (GIAMUATTISTA,) an eminent Italian musi
cian and composer, sometimes called PADRE MARTINI,
born at Bologna in 1706. His compositions are chiefly
of a religious character, and possess great merit ; but his
reputation rests principally on his " History of Music"
(3 vols., 1757-81) and "Essay on Counterpoint," (1775.)
He has been styled "the most profound harmonist, and
the best acquainted with the art and science of music, in
Italy." Died in 1784.
See DF.I.LA VALI.E, " Memorie storiche intomo alia Vita di G. B.
Martini," 1785; FETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens ;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Martini, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian musician, a native
of Milan, visited England, where he was patronized by
Frederick, Prince of Wales. He was an excellent per
former on the hautboy, and composed a number of con
certos and sonatas, which are greatly admired. Died
in 1750.
Martini, (JEAN PAULEGIDIUS,) often called MARTINI
IL TEDESCO, ("the German,") a German musician and
composer, whose original name was SCHWARTZENDORF,
born at Freistadt in 1741. In 1767 he went to Paris,
where he was patronized by the Duke of Choiseul and
the Prince of Conde. He brought out in 1771 his opera
of "The Lover of Fifteen," (" L'Amoureux de quinze
Ans,") which had a brilliant success ; it was followed
by " Henri IV," " Sapho," " Annette et Lubin," and
other works of the kind, which had great popularity.
Martini was also distinguished for his improvements in
military music. Died in Paris in 1816.
See FETIS. " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens:" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Martini, (MARTINO,) a Jesuit missionary, born at
Trent in 1614, visited China, and published after his
return a " History of the Tartar War in China," (" De
Bello Tartarico in Sinis,") which was translated into
the principal European languages ; also an excellent
map of China, ("Atlas Sinensis,") and a "History of
China previous to the Christian Era," (in Latin.) Died
in 1661.
Martini, (MATTHIAS,) a German philologist, born
in Waldeck in 1572, published a good "Lexicon Philo-
logicum" (1623) of the Latin language. Died in 1630.
Martini, (ViNCENZO,) a celebrated Spanish composer,
born at Valencia in 1754. He visited Italy and Germany,
where his operas were received with great favour, and in
1788 took up his residence at Saint Petersburg. He was
appointed director of the Italian Opera in that city by the
emperor Paul I. Among his best works we may name
" Ipermnestra," " L'accorta Cameriera," ("The Prudent
Chambermaid,") and " La Cosa rara," from which Mo
zart borrowed a portion of his "Don Giovanni." Died
in 1810.
See FETIS, '• Biographic Universelle des Musiciens."
Martini, di, de mar-tee'nee, or Martino, mar-tee'no,
an Italian painter, sometimes called SIMONE DI MEM-
MI, and SIMON OF SIENNA, was born in Sienna about
1280. He was a pupil of Giotto, and a friend of Petrarch,
for whom he painted a portrait of Laura. Among his
master-pieces are the frescos in the church of Santa
Maria Novella at Florence. Petrarch dedicated two
sonnets to Martini, who was esteemed one of the greatest
painters of his time. Died in 1344.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc.
Martiniere, de la, deh If mtK'te'nej-aiR', (ANTOINE
AUGUSTIN Bruzen — bRii'zoN',) a FreiTch writer, born
at Dieppe about 1680, was appointed first geographer
to Philip V., King of Spain. His works are numerous
and valuable. Among the most important we may name
" The Historical, Geographical, and Critical Dictionary,"
do vols., 1726,) and a "Life of Moliere." Died at the
Hague about 1748.
See " Biographic Universelle."
Martiniere, de la, (PIERRE MARTIN,) a French phy
sician and traveller, born at Rouen, accompanied the
expedition sent by the King of Denmark to the Arctic
regions in 1653, and published, after his return, his " New
Voyage to the North," etc., (1671.)
€ as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
97
Explanations, p. 23.
MAR TIKO
1538
MAR WAN
Martino. See MARTINI, (SIMONE.)
Martiuot, maVte'no', (HENRI,) a French mecha
nician, born in Paris in 1646, was patronized by Louis
XIV., who employed him to make the clocks for Ver
sailles and the Trianon. Died in 1725.
Martins, maVtas1', (CHARLES FREDERIC.) a French
botanist, b'»rn in Paris in 1806, became professor of
botany at Montpellier in 1847. He published several
scientific works, among which we may name his treatise
"On Vegetable Teratology," and "Botanical Journey in
Norway," ( 1841.)
Martinus. See M \RTENS and MARTI.
Mar-ti'nus Fo-lo'nus or Bo-he'mus, a Polish
chronicler and ecclesiastic, born at Troppau, in Silesia.
He became chaplain and confessor to Pope Clement IV.
and several of his successors, and was appointed in 1278
Archbishop of Gnesen. He wrote a valuable work,
entitled "Chronicon de Summis Pontificibus," ("Chron
icle of the Popes.") Died in 1278.
See NiCBKOS', " Memoires. "
Martirauo, maR-te-ra'no, (CORIOLANO,) an Italian
litterateur, born at Cosenza. was Bishop of San Marco,
in Calabria. He wrote a number of dramas. Died in
'557-
Martire, (PIETK<>.) See PETER MARTYR.
Martins, von, fon maiu'se-us, (K\Ri. FKIEDRICH
PHILTPP,) an eminent German botanist, born at Erlangen
in 1794. He studied medicine in his native city, and in
1817 joined the scientific expedition sent by the Austrian
and Bavarian governments to Brazil. After his return
he published, in 1824, his "Brazilian Travels," a work
very attractive in its style, and full of valuable infor
mation concerning the natural history of that country.
In 1832 he brought out his "Nova Genera et Species
Plantarum," (3 vols., with coloured plates,) and in 1845
his superb "Genera et Species Palmarum," being a
complete description of the palms, (3 vols., with 219
coloured plates.) Besides the above, we may name the
"Flora Brasiliensis," and "The Plants and Animals of
Tropical America," (1831.) Von Martins was appointed
director of the botanic garden at Munich, and chosen
a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and other
institutions of the kind. Died in December, 1868.
See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for February, 1830.
Martorelli, maR-to-rel'lee, (GiACOMO,) an Italian
antiquary, born at Naples in 1699. He published a treat
ise "On the Ancient Colonies of Naples," and other
works. Died in 1777.
Martos, mar'tos, (IVAN PETROVITCH,) a Russian
sculptor, born in Little Russia about 1760. Among his
best works are the mausoleum of the emperor Alexander
at Taganrog, the colossal group in bronze of the patriots
Minin and Pozharsky at Moscow, and the monument of
Potemkin at Cherson, also the bas-relief on the monu
ment of the grand duchess Helena Paulovna. Martos
was director of the Academy of Fine Arts at Saint Peters
burg. Died in 1835.
See NAGI.EK, " Neues Allpemeines Ktinstler-Lexikon."
Mar'ty^i, (HENRY,) an able English lawyer and ex
cellent scholar, known as a contributor to the "Specta
tor." His name appears in No. 555 of the "Spectator"
at the head of a list of contributors given by Steele, who
says, " He can hardly be mentioned in a list wherein he
would not deserve the precedence." He was appointed
inspector-general of imports and exports, to reward him
for the service he rendered the government by the
publication of "The British Merchant, or Commerce
Preserved," (about 1713.) Died in 1721.
Martyn, (HENRY,) an eminent English missionary
and Orientalist, born at Truro, in Cornwall, in 1781. He
studied at Saint John's College, Cambridge, where he
distinguished himself by his attainments in the classics,
and was chosen a Fellow of the college in 1802. Having
become acquainted with the Rev. Charles Simeon about
this time, and experienced deep religious convictions, he
embarked in 1805 as a missionary for India. He made
rapid progress in acquiring the language of the country,
and was soon able to translate the New Testament into
Hindostanee, and subsequently into Persian. He also
made a Persian translation of the Psalms. His health
at length gave way under his devoted labours, and he
died at Tokat, in Asia Minor, while on his way to Eng
land, in 1812.
See REV. .J. SARGENT, "Memoir of the Rev. Henry Mnrtyi."
1821; J. W. KAYE, " Lives of Indian Officers," iS67; '• London
Quarterly Review" for Ju'y, 1^21.
Martyn, (|"OHN,) an English physician and botanist,
born in London in 1699. He was elected to the Royal
Society in 1727, and in 1733 became professor of botany
at Cambridge. His " History of Rare Plants," (in Latin,
1728,) illustrated by Van Hnysum, was the best work
of the kind then published, and was translated into
German. Martyn also made an excellent translation
of Virgil's "Bucolics" and " Georgics," and was a con
tributor to the "Grub Street Journal." The genus
Martynia was named in his honour. Died in 1768.
See GORHAM, "Memoirs of John and Thomas M.irtyn," 1830;
CUVIER, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles "
Martyn, (THOMAS,) son of the preceding, was born at
Chelsea in 1735. He succeeded his father as professor
of botany at Cambridge in 1761. He wrote several bo
tanical works and miscellaneous treatises. Died in 1825.
See GORHAM, " Memoirs of John and Thomas Martyn," 18-50.
Martyn, (Wiu.iAM,) an English writer, born at
Exeter in 1562, was the author of the " History and Lives
of the Kings of England from William the Conqueror
to the End of the Reign of Henry VIII." Died in 1617.
Martyr. See JUSTIN MARTYR.
Martyr, (PKTER.) See PETER MARTYR.
Martyr, (PKTER.) See ANGHIERA.
Marucelli, ma-roo-chel'lee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
scholar and philanthropist, born at Florence in 1625,
was a liberal patron of learned men. Died in 1713.
Marucelli, (GIOVANNI STEFANO,) an Italian painter
and architect, born at Umbria in 1586; died in 1646.
Marullo, ma-rool'lo, (MiCHEi.E Tarcagnota— laR-
kan-yo'ta.) [Lat. MARUI/I.UST.\RCHANU/TKS,] a modern
Greek scholar and poet, born at Constantinople. lie
was the author of numerous Latin hymns and epigrams
of great elegance. Died in 1500.
See GiNCU'RNE, " Histoire de la Literature Italienne."
Marullus. See MARUI.LO.
Ma-rul'lus, (MARCUS,) a Latin satiric poet in the time
of Marcus Aurelius. His style is commended by Saint
Jerome. There is only a fragment of his works extant.
Marut [Hindoo pron. mur'oot] or Ma-rut, ma'root,
a Sanscrit word, signifying "wind," and applied in the
Hindoo mythology to the genii (or gods) presiding over
the winds' In 'the Vedas the Maruts are often ad
dressed as the attendants and allies of Indra, anil are
called the sons of Prisni, (or Pi^ni,) or the Earth ; they
are also called Rudras, or the sons of Rudra, (rood'ra.)
See the Introductions to the several volumes of PROFESSOR WIL
SON'S translation of the "Rig- Veda ;" Moon, " Hindu Pantheon.''
Ma-ru'tha 01 Maroutha, ma-roo'tha, SAINT, a Syrian
prelate, became Bishop of Martyropolis. He was a
friend of Saint Chrysostom, and wrote a " History of
the Council of Nice," and other works. Died about 420.
Mar'vell, (ANDREW,) an eminent English patriot and
satirical writer, born at Kingston-upon-Hull in 1620.
Having travelled through France, Spain, Italy, and Hol
land, where he acquired the languages of those countries,
he was, after his return to England, appointed assistant
to Milton, then Latin secretary to Cromwell, (1657.) He
was first elected to Parliament in 1660, and in this office
gave such entire satisfaction to his constituents that he
continued to represent them till his death. Marvell's
wit and distinguished abilities rendered him formidable
to the corrupt administration of Charles II., and attempts
were made to win him over by the offer of a large sum
of money, which he promptly refused, thus proving his
integrity to be equal to his talents. As a writer he is
chiefly known by his " Rehearsal Transposed," written
in answer to Dr. Parker, afterwards Bishop of Oxford, a
fanatical defender of absolute power. Died in 1678.
See the " Life of Andrew Marvell," by JOHN DOVE ; HARTLEY
COLERIDGE, "Lives of Distinguished Northerns:" CAMPBELL,
"Specimens of the British Poets;" DISRAELI, "Quarrels of Au
thors ;" "Retrospective Review," vols. x. and xi.. (1824, 1825:)
"Edinburgh Review" for January, 1844; "Westminster Review"
for January, 1833.
Marville, de, (VIGNEUI,.) See ARGONNE, D'.
Marwan. See MERWA"N.
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, T, o, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; not; good; moon;
'539
MART
Marx, mai<ks, (Anor.pH BERNHARD,) a German com-
poser and writer on music, born at Halle in 1799, became
professor of music in the University of Berlin in 1830.
Among his works are "The Theory of Musical Compo
sition," (1837,) and " General Theory of Music," (" Allge-
meine Musiklehre," 1839.)
Ma'ry, daughter of Henry VII. of England, was born
in 1497. She became in 1514 the third wife of Louis
XII. of France, who died in the following year. A few
months after .she was married to Charles Brandon, Duke
of Suffolk. She left one daughter, named Frances, who
was the mother of Lady Jane Grey. Died in 1534.
Mary, commonly called BLOODY QUEEN MARY, on
account of her cruel persecution of the Protestants,
daughter of Henry VI IF. by his first wife, Catherine
of Aragon, was born at Greenwich in 1516. During her
childhood several negotiations were entered into for her
marriage, none of which, however, were carried into
effect. After the divorce of Catherine, the title of
Princess of Wales was transferred from Mary to the
princess Elizabeth. In 15^6, on the execution of Queen
Anne, Mary was induced to acknowledge Henry's eccle
siastical supremacy and the nullity of his marriage with
her mother. Having, by her outward compliance with
her father's whims, in some degree gained his favour,
the inheritance was secured to her, after her brother
Edward and his heirs, in the act of succession of 1544.
When Edward succeeded to the throne, Mary resisted all
his entreaties, and those of his ministers, to change her
religious views, upon which, by the advice of Northum
berland, he made over the crown to Lady Jane Grey.
(See GKKY, Lady JANE.) Mary's first act when estab
lished on the throne was to restore to their sees Bonner,
Gardiner, and other bishops who had been deposed during
the late reign ; and shortly afterwards Cranmer and Lati-
mer were committed to the Tower. These measures gave
rise to an insurrection of the Protestants, headed by Sir
Thomas Wyatt, in 15^4, which, being soon quelled, was
followed by the execution of Lady Jane Grey, her hus
band and father, and of Wyatt himself. In July, 1554,
Mary was married to the son of Charles V., afterwards
Philip II. of Spain. In the November following, Par
liament passed acts restoring the authority of the pope
and reviving the former statutes against heresy. From
this time began a fierce persecution of the Protestants,
and it is estimated that two hundred and eighty victims
died at the stake between the years 1555 and 1558.
Among the most eminent of these martyrs were Bishops
Latimer of Worcester and Ridley of London, and Cran
mer, Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1557 Mary was
induced to assist Philip in his war against France, and
the united forces of England and Spain obtained a victory
over the French at Saint-Quentin. But the following
year Calais was taken by the Duke of Guise. This
was a severe blow to Mary, and probably hastened her
death, which took place in November, 1558. She was
succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth.
Without defending the cruelties with which Mary's
reign has been reproached, the candid historian will find
many palliations for her conduct in the spirit of that age,
which favoured persecution, in the injustice with which
she had been treated by her father, and in the state of
her health during that part of her reign when the per
secutions were at their height, which made it impossible
for her to know the true state of affairs. Fronde, who
will hardly be suspected of any bias in her favour, says,
"To the time of her accession she had lived a blameless
and, in many respects, a noble life; and few men or
women have lived less capable of doing knowingly a
wrong thing." He adds that her trials and disappoint
ments, "it can hardly be doubted, affected her sanity."
And he ends with laying the chief blame of the persecu
tions of her reign first on Gardiner, and secondly, and
more especially, on Cardinal Pole.
See FROUDE, "History of England," vol. v. chap, xxviii., and
the whole of vol. vi. ; STHICKI.AND, "Queens of England;" also,
HUME'S and LINGARD'S " History of England."
Mary, [Gr. Maf«'a ; Lat. MART/A ; Fr. MARIE, mi're';
It. MARIA, ma-ree'a,] SAINT, a Hebrew woman, cele
brated as the mother of the Lord Jesus Christ, and styled
by the Roman Catholics the Blessed Virgin Mary,
(Beata Virgo Maria,) also the Mother of God and Queen
of Heaven.
See Matthew i. : Luke i. ; John i. and xix. 25 ; DUVERGIER DE
HAURANNE, ''Vie de la sainte Vierge," 1664; F. W. GENTHE. " Die
Jungfrau Maria," etc., 1852; CARLO MASSINI, "Vitadella samissinia
Vergine Maria," 1830; OKSINI, " La Vierge : Histoire de la Mere
de Dieu," etc., 1837.
Mary of Burgundy, [ Fr. MARIE DE BOURGOGNE,
mS're' deh booR'gon',] daughter of Charles the Bold
and Isabella de Bourbon, was born at Brussels in 1457.
On the death of her father, in 1477, she became heiress
of Burgundy, and was married the same year to the
archduke Maximilian, son of the Emperor of Germany.
She died in 1482, in consequence of a fall from her horse.
She left two children, Philip, the father of Charles V.,
and Margaret, Duchess of Savoy.
Mary of Guise, (gweez,) [Fr. MARIE DK GUISE,
mi're' deh gii-ez',] or Mary of Lorraine, [Fr. MARIE
DE LORRAINE, ma"/re/ deh lo'rin',] a daughter of Claude,
Duke of Guise, born in 1515, was married in 1534 to
Louis d'Orleans, Duke of Longueville, who died the
following year. In 1538 she was married to James V.
of Scotland, and after his death became, for a short time,
regent of the kingdom. She is described by the histo
rian De Thou as naturally inclined to justice and tolera
tion, but she was influenced by the court of France and
her brothers, the Duke and Cardinal of Guise. She
died in 1560, leaving a daughter Mary, afterwards the
celebrated Queen of Scots.
See BURTON, " History of Scotland," vol. iv. chaps, xxxvii. and
xxxviii. : DE THOU, " Historia sni Temporis;" ROBERTSON, "His
tory of Scot'and ;" FROUDE, " History of England."
Mary Magdalene. See MAGDALENE.
Mary de' Medici. See MARIE DE MEDICIS.
Mary Stu'art, Queen of Scots, born at Linlithgow
about the 7th of December, 1542, was the only surviving
child of James V. and Mary of Guise, (or Lorraine,) who
was a daughter of the French Duke of Guise. James
V. died a few days after the birth of Mary, who was
crowned in September, 1543, by Cardinal Beatoun. This
ambitious and unscrupulous prelate, who was the head
of the Roman Catholic party, usurped the office of re
gent. A treaty having been negotiated for the marriage
of Mary with the Dauphin of France, she was sent to
France in the summer of 1548 to complete her education.
Before the year just mentioned, Scotland had been in
volved in a war against Henry VIII. of England, who
wished to obtain the hand of Mary for his son and thus
unite the two countries under one crown.
Educated at the polite and voluptuous court of Paris,
Mary excelled in various accomplishments, and at an
early age became mistress of the Latin, French, and Ital
ian languages. About the age of fourteen she composed
and pronounced before Henry II. a Latin oration, in
which she maintained that it is becoming for women to
learn literature and liberal arts. Her rare and radiant
personal beauty, her intellectual graces, and her fasci
nating manners rendered her a general favourite and the
chief ornament of the French court. "Graceful alike in
person and intellect," says Froude, "she possessed that
peculiar beauty in which the form is lost in the expres
sion, and which every painter, therefore, has represented
differently. Rarely, perhaps, has any woman combined
so many noticeable qualities as Mary Stuart : with a
feminine insight into men and things and human life,
she had cultivated herself to that high perfection in
which accomplishments were no longer adventitious
ornaments, but were wrought into her organic constitu
tion. . . . She had vigour, energy, tenacity of purpose,
with perfect and never-failing self-possession, and, as the
one indispensable foundation for the effective use of all
other qualities, she had indomitable courage." (" History
of England," vol. vii. chap, iv.)
In April, 1558. she was married to the dauphin, who
on the death of his father, Henry II., ascended the
throne of France, as Francis II., in 1559. On the death
of the English queen Mary, Francis and Mary assumed
the titles of King and Queen of England, refusing to
recognize the right of Elizabeth to the throne. The
brilliant prospects of Mary were suddenly clouded by
€ as/e: c as s: g h ira; g as// G, H, v; , guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MART
1540
MART
the death of Francis, who died, without issue, in De
cember^ 1560. One great obstacle to her prosperity
was her zealous attachment to the Roman Catholic re
ligion, which was rejected or abhorred by a majority of
her subjects. The Scottish Estates sent Lord James
Stuart, Mary's half-brother, to invite her to Scotland
and to offer her the free exercise of her religion. Having
resolved to return to her native land, she requested
permission to pass through England on her way thither ;
but Elizabeth would not grant this favour to a rival
claimant of her crown. Mary was thus reduced to the
alternative of a voyage by sea, with the risk of being
captured by the English fleet. She embarked in August,
1561, and parted with regret from la belle France, at
which, with eyes bathed in tears, she continued to gaze
until it was hidden by the darkness. After a passage of
four days, she arrived safely at Leith, and chose for her
chief advisers Lord James Stuart and William Maitland,
of Lethington, both Protestants. She made friends even
among the Protestants, but failed to propitiate John
Knox, with whom she had an interview. According to
Randolph, he made her weep on this occasion.
Soon after her arrival in Scotland, Mary sent Secretary
Maitland to London as ambassador. Me made overtures
of peace and friendship, requiring, however, as an indis
pensable condition, that Elizabeth and the English Par
liament should recognize Mary as her successor in case
the former should die without issue. On this condition
Mary promised she would not claim the English crown
during the life of Elizabeth. " Elizabeth," says Fronde,
"refused positively to name Mary Stuart her successor,
knowing that she would be signing her own death-
warrant." These words suggest the probable assassina
tion of P.lizabeth by the partisans of her rival. Mary
attempted to open the chapel royal for public Catholic
service, but the Protestant mob drove away the priest
with a broken head, and the queen made concession to
the popular will by ordering that the service should be
performed privately. In 1562 Mary wrote a letter to
Elizabeth, and expressed a great desire to have an inter
view with her. Several courteously-worded letters were
exchanged by them, and their correspondence grew more
and more cordial ; but a serious difference arose on the
choice of a husband for Mary. Elizabeth objected to
her proposed marriage with Don Carlos of Spain, and
suggested Lord Robert Dudley, her own favourite ; but
Mary preferred her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley,
(a son of the Earl of Lennox,) whom she married on
the 2gth of July, 1565. By this act she provoked the
violent hostility of the English queen, and estranged
from her support her half-brother, James Stuart, Earl
of Murray, the ablest Scottish statesman of his time.
"Her gentle administration," says Robertson, "had
secured the hearts of her subjects, who were impatient
for her marriage and wished the crown to descend
in a right line from their ancient monarchs. She
herself was the most amiable woman of her age. . . .
No event in that age excited stronger political fears and
jealousies, none interested more deeply the passions
of several princes, than the marriage of the Scottish
queen." (" History of Scotland.") Mary made an un
wise choice at last ; for the character of Darnley was at
once weak, capricious, and obstinate. She gave him
the title of king, by a stretch of her prerogative which,
according to Robertson, was a strong proof of the vio
lence of her love or the weakness of her counsels. In
stigated by Queen Elizabeth, the Scottish malcontents,
including the Earl of Murray, took arms against Mary
in August, 1565 ; but this revolt was quickly suppressed
by the queen, who rode on horseback at the head of her
army, and the leaders of the insurgents took refuge in
England. Elizabeth disclaimed all responsibility for their
conduct, and expressed her abhorrence of their treason.
In 1566 Mary Stuart joined the King of France, the
pope, and others, in a Catholic league for the extirpation
of heresy, and began to attempt the restoration of popery
in Scotland. "To this fatal resolution," says Robertson,
" may be imputed all the subsequent calamities of Mary's
life." She took into her confidence and favour David
Rizzio, (or Ritzio,) an Italian musician, who became her
French secretary and inseparable companion, even in
the council-room. " He had the control," says Fronde,
"of all the business of the state." Mary soon repented
of her union with the insolent and dissolute Lord Darn-
ley, who treated her with rudeness and neglect and
became jealous of Rizzio, whom he resolved to remove
by violence. Rizzio was dragged from the queen's pres
ence by the accomplices of Darnley, and killed, in March,
1566. This act was the result of a plot in which the
Earl of Morton, Ruthven, Maitland, and other Protestants
united for political reasons. Deserted and betrayed by
Darnley, they failed to recover power, and fled to Eng
land. Although Mary deeply resented the conduct of her
husband, she plied him with caresses and gained him over
to her interest. About this time a new favourite acquired
an ascendant over her heart and began to influence her
counsels. This was James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell,
a man of some ability, but unscrupulous and reckless t<>
the last degree. In June, 1566, occurred an event which
apparently tended to confirm the power and promote
the interest of Queen Mary, — the birth of her son James.
In January, 1567, Darnley was attacked with a severe
illness at Glasgow, where Mary visited him, and, having
employed her artifices to gain his confidence, persuaded
him to be removed to the vicinity of Edinburgh. He
was lodged in a detached house at Kirk-a-Field, very
near the capital. Mary attended her husband assidu
ously, and slept two nights in the house at Kirk-a-Field,
which she left on the gth of February at u P.M. About
three hours later the house was blown up by gunpowder,
and Darnley was found dead in the garden. Suspicion
fell on Bothwell as the chief perpetrator of this crime,
and on Mary as an accessary. She outraged public sen
timent so far that she not only screened Bothwell from a
fair trial, but married him in May, 1567. Robertson and
Froude agree in the opinion that Mary was responsible
for the death of Darnley.
Impelled bya justand burning indignation, the Scottish
lords and people, both Protestant and Catholic, rose in
arms against Mary and Bothwell, who, in June, 1567,
met them at Carberry Hill with a small army. The
troops of the queen, however, refused to fight, and she
was compelled to surrender herself to her adversaries,
who confined her on a little island in Loch Lcven. Queen
Elizabeth now interposed in favour of Mary, thinking
the treatment she received a dangerous example, and de
manded her release, — without effect. The captive queen
abdicated in favour of her son, and the Earl of Murray
became regent, (July, 1567.) Letters which Mary had
written to Bothwell were produced in the Scottish Par
liament, by which she was declared to be accessory to
the murder of the king. By the aid of George Douglas,
a youth of eighteen, she escaped from prison in May,
1568, and was quickly joined by an army of six thousand
men, which Regent Murray routed at Langside on the
I3th of May. Mary fled to England, and rashly threw
herself on the generosity of her rival, who refused to
admit her into her presence because she was not yet
cleared from the charge of murder. Treated as a pris
oner, Mary was confined at Bolton Castle, Coventry, and
Fotheringay. She had many adherents in England, who
made several attempts against the power and life of
Elizabeth. In 1586 she was accused of complicity in
Babington's conspiracy, for which she was tried by a
commission, and condemned without proof. She was be
headed at Fotheringay Castle on the 8th of February, 1 587.
"All contemporary authors," says Robertson, "agree
in ascribing to Mary the utmost beauty of countenance
and elegance of shape of which the human form is ca
pable. Her hair was black, her eyes were a dark gray,
her complexion was exquisitely fine, and her hands and
arms remarkably delicate both as to shape and colour.
Her stature was of a height that rose to the majestic."
See BURTON, "History of Scotland;" FROUDE, "History of
England ;" ROBERTSON, " History of Scotland ;" TYTLER, " His
tory of Scotland;" HUME, "History of England;" SAMUEL JEHU,
" Life of Mary Stuart," 1725 ; CHALMERS, •' Life of Mary, Queen
of Scots," 1818; Miss BENGER, "Life of Mary, Queen of Scots,"
1823; BELL, " Life of Mary Stuart," 1831; BUCKINGHAM, "Life of
Mary, Queen of Scots," 1X44; DE MARSY, " Vie de Marie Stuart,"
3 vols., 1743; GENTZ, "Marie Stuart's Leben," 1799; SCHUETZ,
"Leben Marie Stuart's," 1839; MIGNET. " Histoirede Marie Stuart,"
2 vols., 1854; DARGAUD, "Histoirede Marie Stuart," 2 vols., 1850;
STRICKLAND, "Lives of the Queens of Scotland," 8 vols., 1854;
LABANOFF, "RecueildesLettres de Marie Stuart," 7 vols., 1844.
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, f>, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon;
MARZAR1
1541
MASERS
Marzari - Fencati, maRd-za'ree pe"n-ka'tee, (Giu-
SKi'i'K,) COUNT, an Italian mineralogist, born at Vicenza
in 1777, discovered in 1810 the mine of fossil coal at
Borgo di Valsugna. He invented an instrument for
measuring angles, called " Tachigonimetro." Died in
1836.
Masaccio Guidi da San Giovanni, ma-sat'cho
goo-ee'dee da sail jo-vdn'nee, (TuMMASo,) an eminent
Italian painter of the Florentine school, born near
Florence in 1401, ranks first among the artists of the
second or middle age of modern painting. His works
were studied by Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Leonardo
da Vinci. His figures are characterized by great anima
tion and fidelity to nature and graceful arrangement of
the draperies. He also excelled in perspective, which
he learned under Brunelleschi. " Masaccio," says Fuseli,
'• was a genius, and the head of an epoch in the art. He
may be considered as the precursor of Raphael, who
imitated his principles and sometimes transcribed his
figures." Among his most admired works are the frescos
of San Fietro del Carmine at Florence, and the picture
of " Christ Curing the Demoniacs." Masaccio died in
1443, and is generally supposed to have been poisoned.
See VA^ARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; MRS. JAMESON, "Me
moirs of Early Italian Painters."
Masaiiiello, md-sd-ne-el'lo, or TOMMASO Aniello,
horn at Amalfi, in Italy, in 1622, was the son of a fisher
man, and in 1647 became leader of a revolt against the
Duke of Arcos, Spanish Viceroy of Naples. At the head
of 50,000 insurgents, he compelled the duke to abolish
a tax which he had imposed, and also to give up the
charter of exemption granted to Naples by Charles V.
The intoxication produced by this sudden change of
fortune seems to have affected the reason of Masaniello,
and, having by his conduct alienated his friends, he
was soon after assassinated by the adherents of the
viceroy.
See " History of the Rise and Fall of Masaniello." by FRANCIS
Minox. London. 1729; A. GIRAFFO, " Rivoluzioni di Napoli," 1647 :
MEISSNER, "Masaniello: historisches Bruchstiick," 1785; " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for Au
gust, 1829.
Mascagni, mas-kan'yee, (DONATO,) an Italian monk
and painter, called FRA ARSENIO, born at Florence in
1570 ; died in 1636.
Mascagni, (PAOLO,) an Italian anatomist, born near
Sienna in 1752. He became professor of anatomy in
the University of Sienna in 1774. He wrote an admi
rable work entitled " History and Iconography of the
Lymphatic Vessels of the Human Body," an outline
of which had previously obtained the prize offered
by the Academy of Sciences in Paris. In 1801 he was
appointed professor of anatomy, chemistry, and physi
ology at the hospital of Santa ^Iaria Xuova at Florence.
Among his works is "Anatomia universa." Died in
1815.
See G. SARCHIANM, " E'ogio del P. Mascagni,'' 1816; TIPAT.DO,
"Biogr,ifiadegli Italian! illustri;" DESGENETTES, article in the " Bio
graphic Medicale."
Mascardi, mas-kaR'dee,(AoosTiNo,)an Italian writer,
born at Sarzana in 1591. He was appointed by Pope
Urlvin VIII. professor of rhetoric in the College della
Sapienza at Rome, (1628.) He published, among other
works, " Five Treatises on the Art of Writing History."
Died in 1640.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia delia Letteratura Italiana."
Mascardi, (GIUSKPPE,) an Italian ecclesiastic and
writer on jurisprudence, born at Sarzana, near Genoa,
was an uncle of the preceding. Died in 1588.
Mascaroii, inits'ki'ro.N', (JULES,) an eminent French
prelate and pulpit orator, born at Aix in 1634. He
acquired a high reputation by his funeral oration on
Anne of Austria, (1666,) and was soon after appointed
preacher-in-ordinary to Louis XIV. He was created
Bishop of Tulle in 1671, and of Agen in 1679. He is
said to have converted many Calvinists in the latter dio
cese to Catholicism. He died in 1703, leaving all his
property to the poor, to whom his virtues had greatly
endeared him. A volume of his " Funeral Orations"
was published in 1704. That on Marshal Turenne is
eulogized by La Harpe as a master-piece.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Masch, mash, (ANDREAS GOTTLIEB,) a German
writer and theologian, born in Mecklenburg in 1724.
He published, besides other works, "Contributions
towards the History of Remarkable Books," (1769,) and
an excellent edition of Lelong's " Bibliotheca Sacra."
Died in 1807.
Mascheroni, mas-ka-ro'nee, (LORENZO,) an Italian
mathematician, born near Bergamo in 1750. He became
professor of Greek at Pavia, and subsequently of geom
etry at Bergamo. On the invasion of Italy by the French,
he was elected a member of the legislative body in the
Cisalpine Republic. He published " Researches on the
Equilibrium of Vaults," (1785,) and other mathematical
treatises of a high character, also a curious work called
"The Geometry of the Compass," (1797,) and a number
of poems. Died in Paris in 1800.
See S^VIOLI, "Memorie alia Vita dell'Abate L. Mascheroni,"
1801 : G. M \NGILI, " Eloaio storicodi L. Mascheroni," iHoq; MON-
TUCLA, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Masclef, mfs'kleT', (FRANCOIS,) a French Orientalist,
born at Amiens in 1662. He published a "Hebrew
Grammar," (" Grammatica Hebraica,") in which he op
poses the use of vowel-points. It is regarded as one of
the best works of the kind. Died in 1728.
See QUEKARD, " La France Litteraire."
Mascov, mas'kof, (GOTTFRIED,) a German jurist,
born at Dantzic in 1698. He lectured at Gottingen, and
published several works. Died in 1760.
Mascov, [Lat. MASCO'VIUS,] (JOHANN JACOB,) a
German jurist and historian, born at Dantzic in 1689,
was a brother of the preceding. He became professor
of law at Leipsic in 1719, and was the author of a
treatise "On the Origin and Progress of Public Law,"
and other legal works, in Latin. He also wrote a
" History of Germany to the Commencement of the
Franconian Monarchy," (unfinished.) Died in 1761.
See "Memoria J. J. Mascovii," Leipsic, 1761.
Mascovius. See MASCOV.
Mascrier, Le, leh mts'kue-i.', QKAN BAPTISTE,) a
French litterateur, born at Caen in 1697. He assisted
in the translation of De Thou's "Universal History,"
and published several original works. Died in 1760.
Masdeu, mas'de'-oo, (JuAN FRANCISCO,) a Span-ish
Jesuit and historian, was born at Barcelona in 1740. He
wrote a "Critical History of Spain and of Spanish Cul
ture in every Department." (20 vols., 1783-1800,) which
has a high reputation for learning and accuracy. Died
in 1817.
Masen. See MASEMUS.
Masenius, ma-sa'ne-us, or Masen, md'sen, (TAMES,)
a Flemish writer, born in the duchy of Juliers in 1606.
He became professor of eloquence in the college of
Cologne, and was the author of a Latin poem entitled
" Sarcotis," or " Sarcothea," which, it is pretended by
Lander, suggested to Milton the idea of " Paradise
Lost." Died in 1681.
Maseres or Mazeres, mt'zaiR', (FRANCIS,) BARON,
a distinguished mathematician, of French extraction,
born in London in 1731. He was for a time attorney-
general for Canada, and in 1773 was appointed cursitor-
baron of the exchequer. He was the author of a " Dis
sertation on the Use of the Negative Sign in Algebra,"
and other similar works, and reprinted at his own ex
pense a collection of the writings of Kepler and other
mathematicians, also one containing the optical works
of Descartes, Huyghens, Gregory, and Halley. The
latter was completed by Mr. Babbage. He was recorder
of the city of London for about forty years. Died in
1824.
See "Gentleman's Magazine," 1824.
Masers de Latude, mi'zaiR' deh li'tiid', (HENRI,)
was born in Languedoc in 1725. Having given offence
to Madame de Pompadour, he was by her orders im
prisoned in the Bastille. After remaining captive nearly
three years, he effected his escape, (1756,) with the assist
ance of a fellow-prisoner and by means of the mos;
persevering toil. He was soon arrested, with his com
panion, D'Alegre, and, after suffering an imprisonment
of thirty years, was at length released, by the efforts
of Madame Legros, who interested Cardinal Rohan,
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gttttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
M4SIIJM
1542
MJSON
Madame Necker, and others, in his behalf. His "Me
moirs" were published by M. Thierry. Died in 1805.
See THIERRY, " Le Despotisme devoid, ou Memoires de La-
Uide," 3 vols., 1792.
Mash'am, (AIJIGAIL HILL,) born in London about
1670, was a cousin of the celebrated Duchess of Marlbo-
rough, upon whose recommendation she became waiting-
maid to the princess, afterwards Queen Anne. She
continued in this post after Anne ascended the throne,
and by her arts supplanted the Duchess of Marlborough
in the royal favour. She was married in 1707 to Mr.
Masham, who was made a peer in 1711. It appears
that her influence raised Harley and the Tories to power
in 1710, deprived the Duke of Marlborough of the com
mand of the army, (1712,) and made important changes
in the politics of Europe. In allusion to her intrigues,
Macaulay says, " The great party which had long swayed
the destinies of Europe was undermined by bedchamber-
women." Died in 1 734.
See MACAUI.AY'S Review of LORD MAHON'S " History of the
War of the Succession."
Masham, (Lady DAMARIS,) the daughter of Dr.
Ralph Cudworth, born at Cambridge, England, in 1658,
was married to Sir Francis Masham, of Essex. She was
distinguished for her piety and for her attainments in
history, philosophy, and divinity. She was a friend and
pupil of the celebrated Locke, who died at her house,
having resided there for some time. Lady Masham
wrote several religious treatises. Died in 1708.
See LORD KING, "Life of Locke."
Mas-I-nis'sa, [Gr. 'Maaaaruaor/c,] King of Numidia,
the son of Gula, who reigned in Massylia, was born about
250 B.C. In the second Punic war he fought at first for
the Carthaginians in Spain, but, having been generously
treated by Scipio Africanus, he became a zealous and
faithful ally of the Romans. He waged war with Syphax,
a Numidian prince, and was defeated by him twice. The
Romans under Scipio came to his assistance, and in 203
the allies gained a decisive victory. Among the captives
was the charming Sophonisba, a Carthaginian lady,
whom Masinissa married. Being sternly reproved by
Scipio for this impolitic act, he sent her a cup of poison,
which she drank, it is said, with heroic spirit. He con
tributed to the victory of the Romans at the battle of
Zama, and was rewarded with the kingdom of Numidia.
He is said to have been a wise ruler and to have done
much to civilize his subjects. He died about the age of
ninety-seven, leaving the kingdom, under the guardian
ship of Scipio /Emilianus, to his three sons, Micipsa,
Gulussa, and Mastanabal.
See NIEHUHR, "Lectures on Roman History," vol. i. ; Livv,
"History of Rome," books xxiv.-xxx. ; SALLUST, "Jugurtha;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Masius. See MAES, (ANDREAS.)
Mas'ke-lyne, (NsviL,) an English astronomer of
great merit, born in London in 1732. He was sent to
Saint Helena in 1761 to observe the transit of Venus,
in which enterprise he failed because the sun was ob
scured by clouds. In 1765 he succeeded Mr. Bliss as
astronomer royal. He originated the "Nautical Alma
nack," (1767,) and superintended its publication till his
death. It acquired a high reputation in Europe, and was
styled by Lalande ''the most perfect Ephemeris that
had ever been made." For forty-seven years Maskelyne
made exact observations of the sky at Greenwich, and
was the first to give a standard catalogue of stars, (1790.)
In 1772 he visited Scotland, in order to ascertain the
density of the earth by observing the effect of the moun
tain Schehallien upon the plumb-line. He was the author
of several astronomical treatises in the " Philosophical
Transactions," and was a Fellow of the Royal Society.
He was also a foreign associate of the Academy of Sci
ences in Paris. Died in 1811.
See DKLAMBRE, "Notice svir la Vie de N. Maskelyne," 1813;
REES, "Cyclopaedia;" DEI.AMBRE, " Histoire de 1'Astronomie an
dix-ruiitieme Siecle ;" " Monthly Review" for March, 1786.
Mas-Latrie, de, deh ma'lt'tRe', (JACQUES MARIK
JOSEPH Louis,) a French archaeologist and historical
writer, born at Castelnaudary in 1815. He published a
" Historic Chronology of the Popes, General Councils,"
etc., (1837,) "History of the Isle of Cyprus under the
Rule of the Princes of the House of Lusignan," (1852,)
and other works.
Maso. See FINIGUEKRA.
Maso da San Friano. See MANZUOLI.
Ma'spn, (AKMISTK.M) THOMSON,) a son of Stevens
T. Mason, (1760-1803,) was born in London county,
Virginia, in 1787. lie was chosen a Senator of the
United States by the Democrats in 1815, and was killed
in a duel by J. M. McCarty in 1819.
Ma'son, (CHARLES,) an English astronomer, who
assisted Dr. Bradley in the Royal Observatory at Green
wich. He published an improved edition of Mayer's
"Lunar Tables," and, in company with Mr. Dixon, was
sent to America to determine the limits of Maryland and
Pennsylvania. They measured a degree of the meridian,
and in 1768 Dr. Maskelyne published an account of their
operations in the "Philosophical Transactions'' for that
year. Died in 1787.
Mason, (FRANCIS,) an English clergyman, born at
Durham in 1566, became Archdeacon of Norwich. He
published a "Defence of the Anglican Church," (" Vin-
dicias Ecclesiae Anglicanae.") Died in 1621.
Mason, (FRANCIS,) D.D., a learned Baptist divine and
missionary, born at York, England, in 1709. Having
emigrated to America, he studied theology at Newton,
Massachusetts, and sailed for India in 1830. He pub
lished a "Memoir of Mrs. Helen M. Mason," (1847,)
" Burmah, its People and Natural Productions,'' (1852,)
" Life of Kotha-byn, the Karen Apostle," a translation
of the Bible into the Karen language, (1853,) and other
works. lie was also editor of a Karen journal, entitled
" The Morning Star."
Mason, (GEORIIE,) COLON KL, an English statesman
and soldier under the reigns of Charles I. and Charles
II., emigrated to America about 1654, and settled in
Virginia-.
Mason, (GEORGE,) an American statesman, a de
scendant of the preceding, was born in Stafford county,
now Fairfax county, Virginia, in 1726. He wrote the
Declaration of Rights and the Constitution of Virginia,
(1776,) after which he served in the legislature. In 1777
he was elected to the Continental Congress. He was
reputed one of the ablest debaters that Virginia ever
produced. He was a member of the national convention
which framed the Constitution of the United States, but
he refused to sign that Constitution, and vehemently
opposed its adoption in the Virginia Assembly, for the
alleged reason that it tended to monarchy. He was
highly eulogized by Jefferson. Died in 1792.
Mason, (GKOKGE,) an English litterateur, who wrote
a "Life of Lord Howe," an "Answer to Thomas Paine,"
and an "Essay on Designs in Gardening." Died in 1806.
Mason, (JAMES,) a distinguished English engraver,
born about 1710, executed a number of landscapes after
Claude Lorrain, G. Poussin, Hobbema, and other artists.
Died about 1780.
Mason, (JAMES MURRAY,) an American Democratic
politician, born in Fairfax county, Virginia, about 1798.
He became a member of Congress in 1837, and was
elected a Senator of the United States by the legisla
ture of Virginia in 1847. He continued to be a member
of the Senate for fourteen years, and was the author of
the fugitive-slave law of 1850. He was sent with J.
Slidell on a mission to England by Jefferson Davis in
1861. During the passage in the steamer Trent they
were seized by Captain Wilkes, of the Federal navy, in
November, 1861. They were claimed by the British
government, and were liberated in January, 1862, after
which Mr. Mason passed several years in England,
remaining abroad during the civil war.
Mason, ( JEREMIAH,) an American statesman and
lawyer of high reputation, born at Lebanon, Connecticut,
in April, 1768, graduated at Yale College. He practised
law many years at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, to
which he removed in 1797. He was a Federalist, and
a friend of Daniel Webster, who expressed a very high
opinion of him. He represented New Hampshire in the
Senate of the United States from 1813 to 1817. In 1832
he removed to Boston, where he died in October, 1848.
He was considered in the early part of the present cen
tury to be the foremost lawyer in New England.
a, e, T, 6, ii, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;
MASON
'543
M4SS4SSOIT
Mason, (Sir JOHN,) an English statesman, born at
Abingdon in 1500. He was privy councillor in the reigns
of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Died
in 1566.
Mason, (JoHN,) a native of England, born in 1600,
emigrated to America, where he became Deputy Gov
ernor of Connecticut. He was the author of a "History
of the Pequot War." Died in 1672.
See G. E ELLIS, " Life of John Mason," in SPARKS'S "Amer
ican Biography," vol. iii., 2d series.
Mason, (JoHN,) an English divine and religious writer,
born in Essex in 1706, was the author of a popular work,
entitled "Self-Knowledge," (1745,) which was translated
into several languages. Died in 1763.
Mason, (JOHN MITCHELL,) a celebrated American
theologian and pulpit orator, born in New York in 1770.
He graduated at Columbia College in 1789, and subse
quently finished his theological studies in Edinburgh.
In 1793 he succeeded his father as pastor of the Reformed
Presbyterian Church in Cedar Street, New York, where
he attracted great numbers by his eloquence. He was
the founder of the first theological seminary in the United
States, of which he was appointed professor. He be
came editor of the " Christian's Magazine" in 1807, and
was elected in 1811 provost of Columbia College, and
in 1821 president of Dickinson College, Pennsylvania.
Among his most admired writings is his " Oration on
the Death of Alexander Hamilton," who was his intimate
friend. Dr. Mason died in 1829. His works (in 4 vols.)
were edited by his son, the Rev. Ebenezer Mason.
See "Memoirs of J. M. Mason," by J. VAN VECHTKN, 1856;
DUYCKIXCK, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i : CLEVE
LAND, " Compendium of American Literature."
Mason, (JoHN THOMSON,) an American lawyer and
statesman, son of Thomson Mason, noticed below, was
born in Stafford county, Virginia, in 1764. He was a
personal friend of Jefferson, who appointed him to seve
ral high offices. Died in 1824.
Mason, (JoHN THOMSON,) son of the preceding,
born in Washington county, Maryland, in 1815, became
collector of the port of Baltimore under President
Buchanan.
Mason, (JoHN Y.,) born in Sussex county, Virginia,
about 1795, was secretary of the navy under President
Tyler, and attorney-general and secretary of the navy
(1846-49) under President Polk. He was afterwards
appointed minister to France by President Pierce. Died
in Paris in 1859.
Mason, (LOWELL,) an American composer and teacher
of music, born at Medfield, Massachusetts, in 1792. He
received the degree of doctor in music from the New
York University in 1855. He has been a contributor to
the "Musical Review," and has published numerous
works on music, both original and compiled.
Mason, (RICHARD B.,) grandson of George Mason,
noticed above, served with distinction in the Mexican
war of 1848, and became civil and military Governor of
California. Died in 1850.
Mason, (STEVENS THOMSON,) a nephew of George
Mason, was born in Virginia in 1760. He served in the
war of the Revolution, and was elected to the United
States Senate in 1794. Died in 1803.
Mason, (STEVENS THOMSON,) grandson of the pre
ceding, was born in Loudon county, Virginia, in 1811.
He was elected in 1835 nrst Governor of Michigan.
Mason, (THOMSON,) younger brother of George Ma
son, noticed above, was born in 1730. He distinguished
himself as a jurist and a patriot, and was the author of
several able political essays. Died in 1785.
Mason, i WILLIAM,) an English poet, born at Hull in
1725. He was chosen a Fellow of Pembroke College in
1747, and, after taking orders, became chaplain to the
king. Mason is chiefly remembered as the friend and
biographer of the poet Gray. His principal works are
two tragedies, entitled " Elfrida" and " Caractacus,"
several odes, and "The English Garden," a descriptive
poem. He was also distinguished for his skill in paint
ing and music. Died in 1797.
See HARTLEY COLERIDGE, " Lives of Distinguished Northerns;"
CAMPBELL, " Specimens of the British Poets ;" WARTON. " History
of English Poetry ;" " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1816 ;
" Monthly Review" for March, 1772, June, 1783, and August, 1796.
Masoodee Alee-Abool-Hassan, Mas'udi Ali-
Abul-Hassan, or Masoudy Ali-Aboul-Hassan,
ma-soo'dee a'lee' a'bool' has'san, often called Al-Ma-
soodee, (or Al-Mas'udi,) an eminent Arabian historian,
born at Bagdad in the ninth century. His profound and
various attainments in almost every department of know
ledge have obtained for him the admiration of Europeans
as well as of his own countrymen. He travelled over a
great part of Asia, and as far west as Morocco and Spain.
Among his most important works are his " History of
the Times," and his " Meadows of Gold and Mines of
Gems," the latter of which comprises the history, poli
tics, religion, and geography of Eastern and European
nations. Masoodee is supposed to have died at Cairo,
in 956 A.D.
See EViKNNE QUATREMERE, " Notice sur la Vie et lesOuvrages
de Mas'oudy," 1839; REINAUD, article in the " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Masotti, ma-sot'tee, (DoMENico,) a distinguished
Italian surgeon, born at Faenza in 1698, was appointed
professor of physiology and surgery at Florence, and
afterwards of lithotomy. In 1763 he published his prin
cipal work, entitled "Lithotomy for Women Perfected."
Died in 1779.
Masoudi. See MASOODEE.
Masque de Fer, mSsk deh feR, (L'Homme au,
lom 5,) (the "Man with the Iron Mask,") an unknown
person, who in 1662 was imprisoned in the chateau of
Pignerol, afterwards conveyed to the isle of Sainte-Mar-
guerite, and in 169810 the Bastille, where he died in 1703.
Various conjectures have been formed concerning this
mysterious prisoner, who was evidently a person of high
rank and refined tastes. Some writers have supposed
him to have been a twin brother of Louis XIV. ; others,
that he was the Count of Vermandois, the Duke of
Beaufort, or Count Mattioli.
See G. J. \V. A. ELLIS, (LORD DOVER.) "History of the State
Prisoner called The Iron Mask," 1826 ; PAUL LACROIX, " L'Homme
au Masque de FT," 1837 ; L. LETOUKNEUR, " Histoire de I'Homme
au Masque de Fer," 1849: VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV;"
" London Quarterly Review" tor June, 1826.
Masquelier, misk'leji', (Louis JOSEPH,) a French
engraver, born near Lille in 1741. In 1802 he obtained
from the gallery of Florence a gold medal for his en
gravings. Died in i8ti.
Massa, mas'sa, (NiCCOLO,) an Italian physician and
medical writer, born at Venice ; died about 1563.
Massard, nit'stR', QKAN,) a French engraver, born
at Belleme in 1740. He became a member of the Acad
emy of Painting in the reign of Louis XVI., and, on the
restoration of the Bourbons, was made, in 1814, engraver
to the king. His most admired works are " The Family
of Charles I.," after Van Dyck, and " The Death of
Socrates," after David. Died in 1822.
Massard, (JEAN BAPTISTK RAPHAEL URBAIN,) a skil
ful French engraver, son of the preceding, was born in
Paris in 1775. He engraved some works of Raphael,
Giulio Romano, and David. Died in 1849.
See NAGLER, "Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon."
Massaredo. See MAZARREDO Y SALAZAR.
Massari, mas-sa'ree, (Lucio,) an Italian painter, born
at Bologna in 1569, was a pupil of Ludovico Caracci.
He was intimate with Albano, and took part in some of
his labours. Among his master-pieces are the "Mar
riage of Saint Catherine," and a " Noli me Tangere."
" Some of his works," says E. Breton, " are so graceful
that they defy the severest criticism." Died in 1633.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy;" BALDINUCCI, " No-
tizie;" MALVASIA, " Felsina pittrice."
Massaria, mas-sa-ree'a, (ALESSANDRO,) a learned
Italian physician, born at Vicenza about 1510. He
studied under Fracantianus and Fallopius, and in 1587
succeeded Mercuriale as professor of medicine in the
University of Padua. He was the author of a "Treatise
on the Plague" and a "Treatise on Bleeding," which are
highly esteemed. Died in 1598.
See PORTAL, "Histoire de 1'Anatomie."
Mas'sas-soit, an Indian chief of the Womponoags,
born in Massachusetts. In 1621 he formed a league with
the colonists at Plymouth, which was never violated. He
was the father of the celebrated warrior King Philip.
Died in 1661.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( JJF^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MASSE
'544
MAS SINGER
Masse, mi'sa', QEAN BAPTISTE,) a French artist,
born in Paris in 1687, engraved the pictures which Le-
brun had executed for the gallery of Versailles. Masse
became painter to Louis XV. Died in 1767.
Masse, (VICTOR,) a French composer, born at Lorient
in 1822. He produced, besides other works, a comic
opera entitled " Galathee."
Massena, mS'si'nS', [It. MASSENA, mas-sa'na,] (AN
DRE,) Prince of Essling, Duke of Rivoli, and one of
the most distinguished marshals of Napoleon I., was
born of Jewish parentage at Nice in 1758. He enlisted
in 1775 as a private of the royal Italian regiment, from
which he retired at the expiration of fourteen years,
having attained no higher rank than that of a sergeant.
At the beginning of the French Revolution he again en
tered the army, and in a short time was successively pro
moted to the rank of colonel, general of brigade, and
general of division. In 1794 he gained a victory over the
Austrians near Tanaro, took Ormea, and rendered effi
cient service at the battle of Saorgio. The following year,
while serving under General Scherer, he drove the Aus
trians from their position at Vado and gained over them
the decisive victory of Loano. In 1796 he acquired
great distinction at the engagements of Montenotte, Mil-
lesimo, Castiglione, and Arcola. His gallant conduct at
the battle of Rivoli, in 1797, subsequently procured for
him the title of Duke of Rivoli. The next year he was
appointed to the command of the army in the Papal
States ; but his rapacity and avarice excited so great
hostility both in his soldiers and in the inhabitants that
he was soon after compelled to resign. In 1799, as com-
mander-in-chief of the armies of Switzerland and the
Danube, he exhibited the highest order of military talent,
especially at Zurich, where he gained an important and
brilliant victory over the Russians. In 1804 he was
created a marshal of France. The next year he was sent
to Italy, to command against the Archduke Charles,
whom he finally succeeded in driving back into Germany.
In 1806 he reduced the insurgent Calabrians to subjec
tion, took the fortress of Gaeta, and enabled Joseph
Bonaparte to seat himself firmly upon the Neapolitan
throne. He reaped further laurels in 1809, at the battles
of Landshut and Eckmiihl and by the capture of the
fortress of Ebersdorf. The same year he was created
Prince of Essling, for his distinguished services at the
battle of that place. Massena was appointed in 1810
general-in-chief of the army in Portugal, where, although
he exhibited his usual courage and military skill, he was
ultimately obliged to yield to the superior genius of Sir
Arthur Wellesley. He has, however, received the highest
commendation from English as well as French historians
for the strategic skill with which he conducted his re
treat into Spain. In 1812 Marmont was appointed to
succeed him. The year following, Mass;na joined the
Bourbons. He acknowledged the authority of Napoleon
when he returned from Elba, but took no part in the
affairs of government during the Hundred Days. He
was subsequently appointed commander-in-chief of the
National Guard in Paris, and also received several marks
of distinction from Louis XVIII. He died in Paris,
April 4, 1817.
See GENERAL KOCH, " M^moires de Masse'na," 1849; NAPIER,
" History of the Peninsular War ;" MAJOR-GENERAL J. MITCHELL,
" Biographies of Kminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries,"
1*65 : PONS. " Notice historique sur le Marechal Masse'na," 1837 ;
THIERS, " History of the Consulate and of the Empire;" " Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
Massenbach, von, fon mas'sen-baK.', (CHRISTIAN,)
a Prussian officer, born at Schmalkalden in 1768. He
published several historical works. Died in 1827.
Mas'sey, (GKRALD,) an English poet, born in Hert
fordshire in 1828. The child of indigent parents, he
was obliged at an early age to work in a factory, and re
ceived no other instruction than that of a penny school.
He published in 1847 " Poems and Chansons," which
were followed in 1853 by "The Ballad of Babe Chris-
tabel, with other Lyrical Poems."
See " Brief Biographies," by SAMUEL SMILES.
Massiac, de, deh mt'se'fk', (GABRIEL,) a French
officer and historical writer, born at Narbonne in 1657.
He wrote " Memoirs of the Most Important Events of
the War from 1688 to 1698." Died in 1727.
Massias, mi'se'as', (NICOLAS,) BARON, a French litte
rateur, born at Villeneuve d'Agen in 1764. Among his
philosophical works is an "Essay on Instinct, Intelli
gence, and Life," (4 vols., 1822.) Died in 1848.
Massie, mas'se, (NATHANIEL,) an American soldier
and pioneer, born in Goochland county, Virginia, in 176^;,
settled in Ohio, where he became one of the largest land
owners in the State. He founded in 1796 the town of
Chilicothe. Died in 1813.
Massieu, mt'se-yh', (GUILLAUME,) a French lit
terateur, born at Caen in 1665. lie was appointed in
1710 professor of Greek in the College of France. He
translated the Odes of Pindar, and wrote a " His
tory of French Poetry," brought down to the reign of
Francis I. Died in 1722.
See GROS DE BOZE, "fi^oge de Massieu;" THERY, "Notice sur
1'Abbe Massieu."
Massieu, (JEAN BAPTISTK,) a French ecclesiastic,
born in Picardy, became constitutional Bishop of L'Oise
in 1791. He voted for the death of Louis XVI. in the
National Convention. Died in 1818.
Massillon, ma'sel'yoN' or mt'se'yi.v', (JK.,\\ BAI>-
TISTK,) a French pulpit orator of great celebrity, born
at Hieres, in Provence, in 1663. lie was educated in
the college of that town, and became a priest of the
Oratory. After professing belles-lettres and theology at
Montbrison and Vienne, and pronouncing some funeral
orations, he was called to Paris in 1696 to direct the
Seminary of Saint-Magloire. His talent was gradually
developed by the ecclesiastic conferences which he com
posed at this period. He admired the austere eloquence
of Bourdaloue, but chose for himself a different style,
characterized by profound pathos and an insight into
the most secret motives of the human heart. In 1699
he preached at Paris the Lent sermon, which was warmly
applauded. The same year he was chosen to preach the
Advent at court, on which occasion Louis XIV. said to
him. " I have heard many great orators and been pleased
with them ; but after hearing you I am displeased with
myself." The death of Bossuet and Bourdaloue, in
1704, left him at the head of French pulpit orators. In
this year he again preached before Louis XIV., whose
funeral oration he pronounced in 1715. He was ap
pointed Bishop of Clermont in 1717, and preached before
the young king the Lent sermon called " Petil-Careme,"
which is esteemed his master-piece. His diction is noble,
simple, and unaffected. Voltaire kept a volume of his
sermons constantly on his desk, as a model of eloquence.
Massillon was admitted into the French Academy in
1719. In the government of his diocese he was moderate,
charitable, and conciliatory. He died in 1742. His pub
lished works consist of Sermons, Ecclesiastical Con
ferences, Paraphrases of certain Psalms, Letters, etc.
Voltaire thought him " the preacher who best understood
the world, — whose eloquence savoured of the courtier,
the academician, the wit, and the philosopher."
See LA HARPE. " Cours de Litte'rature ;" MAURY, "Eloquence
de la Chaire ;" F. THEREMIN, " Demosthenes und Massillon," 1*45 ;
D'AI.EMBERT. " FJoge de Massillon;" SAINTE-BEUVK, " Causeries
du Lundi ;" TAI.BKRT, " FJoge de Massillon," 1773; "Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
Massimiliano. See MAXIMILIAN.
Massimo. See MAXIMUS.
Mas'siii-ger, (Pnn.ip,) an eminent English dramatic
poet, was born at Salisbury in 1584. In his eighteenth
year he entered Saint Alban's Hall, Oxford, supported
by the Earl of Pembroka. Here, according to Anthony
Wood, "he spent his time in reading poetry and ro
mances instead of logic and philosophy, which he ought
to have done, as he was patronized to that end." He
became a resident of London about 1606, and assisted
Fletcher in the composition of several dramas. The
first production of Massinger was the "Virgin Martyr,"
(1622.) Eighteen of his dramas are extant, mostly
tragedies and tragi-comeclies. Among the most admired
are " The City Madam," " The Maid of Honour,"
"A New Way to Pay Old Debts," and "The Fatal
Dowry." The latter has given to Rowe the outline of
the " Fair Penitent." Massinger's dramas are remark
ably free from profanity; and the coarseness which dis
figures some of them is probably to be attributed to his
coadjutors. He is said to have been the only dramatist
a, e, T, o, u, y, long ; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mfit; n5t; good; moon;
MASS MANN
J545
MATHAM
of that time who rejected the doctrine of the divine right
of kings. Died in 1640.
See DAVIES, "Some Account of the Life and Writings of P.
Malinger," 17^9: "Lives of the British Dramatists," by CAMP
BELL. LEIGH HUNT, etc.
Massmann, mas'man, (H.\NS FERDINAND,) a Ger
man scholar, born at Berlin in 1797. He published an
edition of the "Explanation of the Gospel of Saint
John" in Gothic.
Massolino, da, da mas-so-lee'no, (PANICALE, pa-ne-
ka'ia,) an Italian painter, born near Florence in 1378.
His master-pieces are the pictures in the chapel of San
Pietro al Carmine, representing leading incidents in the
life of Saint Peter. He numbered among his pupils the
celebrated Masaccio. Died in 1415.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc.
Masson. See LATOMUS.
Masson, mf'soN', (A.vroiNE,) a French engraver,
born near Orleans in 1636. He excelled particularly in
representing colour and the different textures of objects.
His print of the "Disciples at Emmaus," after Titian, is
esteemed one of his master-pieces, though not free from
a fantastic style of executing the hair, peculiar to himself.
Masson was also a painter, and his engravings from his
own portraits, as well as from those of other artists,
are greatly admired, many of them representing the
most distinguished men of that time. He was engraver-
in-ordinary to the king. Died in 1702.
His daughter, MADELENE MASSON, born in 1666, was
a skilful imitator of her father's style, and executed the
portraits of Maria Theresa, the Duchess d'Ale^on, and
several others.
See DUMESNIL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Frangais."
Masson, (.\UGUSTE MICHEL BENO! T GAUDICHOT,) a
French novelist and dramatist, born in Paris in 1800.
Masson, (BARTHOLOMEW.) See LATOMUS.
Masson, (CHARLES FRANC.OIS PHILIBERT,) a French
litterateur, born in Franche-Comte in 1762. He was a
member of the Institute of France. He wrote "Me
moirs of Russia," (3 vols., 1800-02,) and a poem entitled
"The Helvetians." Died in 1807.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mas'son, (DAVID,) a Scottish critic and litterateur,
born at Aberdeen in 1823, became a contributor to "Fra-
ser's Magazine" and the " North British" and " Quarterly
Reviews," and other publications. In 1859 he became
editor of "Macmillan's Magazine," and in 1865 was
appointed professor of rhetoric and pjigHsh literature
in the University of Edinburgh. His principal works
are ''The Life and Times of Milton," (1859,) "British
Novelists and their Styles," (1859,) and "Critical and
Biographical Essays."
Masson, (FRANCIS,) a distinguished Scottish botanist,
born at Aberdeen in 1741. About 1771 he visited the
Cape of Good Hope, where he made a valuable collec
tion of plants for the Kew Gardens. After having spent
some time in Portugal and the West Indies, he was sent
to Canada, where he died in 1805. He left an admirable
work entitled " Stapeliae novas," in folio, with 41 coloured
plates.
See REES, "Cyclopaedia."
Masson, (FRANCOIS,) a French sculptor, born in Nor
mandy in 1745. Among his master-pieces are several
groups in the garden of the Tileries, the bas-reliefs of
the Pantheon, the sculptures qri the tomb of Vauban,
and an exquisite rigure of Flora.' Died in 1807.
See REGNACLT, " Notice historique stir Francois Masson."
Masson, (JEAN,) a French litterateur and Protestant
divine, born about 1680, wrote the Lives of Horace and
Ovid, and several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1750.
Masson, (JEAN Papire — pf'peR',) [Lat. PAPIR'IUS
MASSO'NCS, | a French writer, born at Saint-Germain-
Laval in 1544. He became an advocate of Parliament in
1576. He was the author of " Annals of France," (1577,)
a " Description of the Rivers of France," (1618,) and a
collection of biographies of eminent persons, entitled
" Elogia." Masson was a friend of the historian De
Thou, who has written his Life. Died in 1611.
See DE THOI', "Vita P. Massoni ;" NICERON, "Memoires."
Masson de Pezay. See PEZAY.
Massooa or Massoua, mas'soo'a, written also Ma-
sua and Mesue, a celebrated Arabian savant, who was
physician to the caliph Haroun-al-Raschid.
Massuet, mt'sii-i', (PIERRE,) a learned French phy
sician, born near Sedan in 1698, studied under the
celebrated Boerhaave. He wrote several historical
treatises. Died in 1776.
Massuet, (RENE,) a learned French ecclesiastic, born
in Normandy in 1666. On the death of Mabillon and
Ruinart, he wrote a continuation of the "Annals of the
Benedictine Order." He also published an excellent
edition of the works of Saint Irenaeus. Died in 1716.
Mastelletta. See DONDUCCI.
Mas'ters, (ROBERT,) an English divine and antiquary,
born in 1713, published a "History of the College of
Corpus Christi," (1753,) and other works. He was a
Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. Died in 1798.
Masters, (THOMAS,) an English poet, born in Glou
cestershire about 1600. He was a friend of Lord Her
bert of Cherbury, whom he is said to have assisted in
some of his writings. He wrote a Greek poem on the
" Passion of Christ," and other works. Died in 1643.
See WOOD, "Athense Oxonienses."
Mastlin or Maestlin, mgst-leen', (MICHAEL,) aGer-
I man astronomer, born in Wiirtemberg about 1550. He
I passed a portion of his early life in Italy, where he asso-
: ciated with Galileo. Having returned home, he was
j appointed professor of mathematics at Tubingen, where
j he was the tutor and generous friend of Kepler. He
accepted the Copernican theory. He was author of
" Thesis de Eclipsibus," " Epitome Astronomiae," (1597,)
and other works. Hallam designates him as "the illus
trious master of Kepler." Died in 1590 or 1631.
See KASTXER, " Geschichte der Mathematik ;" Vossius, "De
Scientiis Mathematicis.",
Mastropetro, mas-tRo-pa'tRO, (ORio,) was elected
Doge of Venice in 1179. He abdicated in 1191, and
retired to a monastery, and was succeeded by the cele
brated Dandolo.
Masucci, ma-soot'chee, (AGOSTINO,) an Italian
painter, born at Rome in 1691, was a pupil of Carlo
Maratta. Among his master-pieces is a " Holy Family."
! Died in 1758.
Masuccio, ma-soot'cho, L, an Italian architect and
, sculptor, born at Naples in 1230. He built the church
of San Domenico Maggiore, and completed that of Santa
Maria del Ntiova, begun by Giovanni Pisano. Died in 1305.
Masuccio II., (TOMMASO DE' STEFAN i.) a pupil of the
\ preceding, was born in 1291. Among his works are the
castle of Saint Enno, and the church of San Lorenzo
| at Naples. He also executed sculptured monuments of
i great merit. Died in 1338.
See CIC<X;NARA, " Storia deila Scultura."
Masudi or Al-Masudi. See MASOODEE.
Matall, ma'ta-li, in the Hindoo mythology, the chariot
eer of Indra.
See WILLIAMS'S translation of " Sakoontala," Act vi.
Mataiii, ma-ta'nee, (ANTONIO,) a learned Italian phy
sician, born at Pistoia in 1730. He was a corresponding
member of the Royal Society of London. He published
a treatise "On the Figure of the Earth," and several
medical works. Died in 1779.
See TIPAI.DO, "Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Match'am, (GEORGE,) an English traveller, born in
1755, published a "Journey from Aleppo to Bagdad
' across the Arabian Desert." Died in 1833.
Matelief, ma'teh-leef,(CoRNELis,) a Dutch navigator,
I born about 1570, was sent in 1605 as commander of a
' squadron to the East Indies, for the purpose of opposing
j the Portuguese and of opening relations with China and
Japan. He died about 1628, and an account of his voy
age was published at Amsterdam, (1705.)
See MOTLEY, "United Netherlands," vol. iv. chap. xlix.
Maternus. See FIRMICUS.
Matham, ma'tam, (JACOB,) a Dutch engraver, born
at Haarlem in 1571, was a pupil of Henry Goltzius.
Died in 1631.
Matham, (THEODORUS,) son of the preceding, born
at Haarlem in 1589, engraved a number of portraits, and
several historical pieces of great merit. Died in 1677.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
MATHER
1546
MATILDA
Math'er, (COTTON,) D.D., a celebrated American
theologian and writer, born at Boston in 1663, was a son
of Increase Mather, noticed below. He was ordained
as a minister in 1684, and preached in Boston. Among
his principal works are "The Wonders of the Invisible
World," (1693,) " Magnalia Christi Americana, or
The Ecclesiastical History of New England," (1702,)
"Essays to do Good," (1710,) "Psalterium America-
num," (1718,) "The Christian Philosopher," (1721,) and
" Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures," (in manuscript.)
His character exhibits a remarkable compound of ardent
piety, (which, however, was not without a tincture of
self-conceit,) uncommon activity, and force of intellect
joined to a credulity which, even in that age, had
scarcely any parallel among educated men. From the
first he was eager to bring to trial and punishment those
supposed to be guilty of witchcraft, and, when others
began clearly to see the folly and injustice of these cruel
persecutions, he earnestly, though vainly, strove to stem
the reaction in the popular mind.
See Dl'VCKiNCK. " Cyclopaedia of American .Literature," vo'. i. ;
" North American Review" for July, 1840; HILDKETH, "History of
the United States," vol. ii. chap. xx.
Mather, (!NCRKASF.,) son of Richard Mather, a non
conformist divine who removed from Lancashire to New
England, was born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1635.
He was sent about 1685 to England as agent of the
province for the redress of grievances. He published,
among other works, an " Essay on Remarkable Provi
dences." Died in 1723.
Mather, (MosK.s,) D.D., a relative of the preceding,
born at Lyme, Connecticut, in 1719. He was the author
of a " Systematic View of Divinity," and other works.
Died in 1806.
Mather, (RICHARD,) an English Puritan, born in Lan
cashire in 1596, emigrated to New England in 1635.
He preached at Dorchester, Massachusetts, for many
years. Died in 1669.
See a " Life of R. Mather," by his son Increase.
Matheson. See MATTHESON.
Math'ew, (Rev. THKOHALD,) the celebrated Apostle
of Temperance, a Catholic priest, born in the county
of Tipperary, Ireland, in 1790. He was appointed after
his ordination to a missionary charge at Cork, where he
established a charitable association on the model of that
of Saint Vincent de Paul. About 1838 he became presi
dent of a temperance society, and in a few months admin
istered the pledge to 150,000 persons in Cork alone.
He afterwards visited different parts of Ireland, the cities
of London, Manchester, and Liverpool, and the United
States of America, being everywhere received with en
thusiasm. For these eminent services in the cause of
religion and morality, Queen Victoria bestowed upon
Father Mathew an annuity of ^500. Died in 1856.
See "Father Mathew, a Kiography," by J. F. MAGUIRE; P. M.
MOKKIS "Memoirs of the Life of Theobald Mathew," New York,
1841 : I. S. HENSHAW, "Life of Father Mathew," New York, 1849;
"Biographical Sketches," by HARKIET MARTINEAU, 1869 ; " Fra-
ser's Magazine" for January, 1841.
Math'ews, (CHARLKS,) a celebrated English come
dian, born in London in 1776. Having visited the United
States in 1822, he brought out on his return his enter
tainment entitled "A Trip to America," which obtained
great popularity. He was distinguished for his extraor
dinary talent for imitation, in the exercise of which he
was seldom if ever ill-natured or offensive. He died in
1836, leaving "Memoirs" of his life, which were finished
by his widow, (4 vols., 1839.)
See " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1836; " Blackwood's Maga
zine" for December, 1839; "London Quarterly Review" for Janu
ary, 1839.
Mathews, (CHARLES JAMES,) an English comedian,
a son of the preceding, was born in 1803. He mar
ried Madame Vestris in 1838, and, after her death, in
1857, another actress, Mrs. Davenport. He produced
several dramas, among which is "My Wife's Mother,"
(1833.) JD^cC^-fiv
Math'ews, (CORNELIUS,) a distinguished American
litterateur and journalist, born at Port Chester, New
York, in 1817. Having previously contributed numerous
articles in prose and verse to the "American Monthly
Magazine," " New York Review," and " Knickerbocker
Magazine," he published, in 1839, " Behemoth, a Legend
of the Mound-Builders." Among his other works may
be named "The Politicians," a comedy, (1840,) "Poems
on Man in the Republic," (1843,) " Witchcraft," a tragedy,
(1846,) "Money-penny, or the Heart of the World,"
(1850,) and a comedy entitled "False Pretences," (1856.)
Mr. Mathews has been a zealous advocate of inter
national copyright.
See DUVCKINCK, "Cvclopssdia of American Literature," vol. ii. ;
GRISWOI.D, "Prose Writers of America."
Mathews, (GEORGE,) an American jurist, born near
Staunton, Virginia, in 1774, removed to Louisiana, where
he was appointed presiding justice of the supreme court.
Died in 1836.
Mathias, ma-thl'as, (THOMAS JAMES,) an English lit
terateur^ born about 1757, wrote a poem entitled " Pursuits
of Literature," (1794,) " Runic Odes," and other English
works ; also a number of poems in Italian. He died at
Naples in 1835. He translated Milton's " Lycidas" into
Italian.
Mathieu, mf'te-uh', (AooLPHE CHARLES GHISLAIN,)
a Belgian poet and journalist, born at Mons in 1804, pub
lished numerous works.
Mathieu, ma"'te-uh', (CLAUDE Louis,) a French
mathematician and astronomer, born at Macon in 1784.
He was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1817.
He was a brother-in-law of Francis Arago.
Mathieu de la Redorte, mit'te-uh' deh la reh-doiu',
(DAVID MAURICE JOSEPH,) CoMnCa French general,
born at Saint- Affrique in 1768. lie became general
of division in 1799, and peer of France in 1819. lie
married Mademoiselle Clery, a sister of Joseph Bona
parte's wife. Died in 1833.
Mathieu de Dombasle, mt'te-uh' deh do.Vbal',
(CHKISTOPHE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE,)~a French agricul
tural writer, born at Nancy in 1777 ; died in 1843.
Mathieu-Mirampal, mt'te-ul/ me'roN/pir, (JEAN
BAPTISTE CHARLES,) born at Compiegne, in France,
in 1764, was a deputy to the National Convention in
1792, and voted for the death of the king. Died in 1833.
Mathilde. See MATILDA.
Mathon de la Cour, mt'toN' deh It UOOR, (CHARLES
JOSEPH,) a French litterateur, son of Jacques, noticed
below, born at Lyons in 1738. He wrote a treatise
" On the Danger of reading Books hostile to Religion,"
(1770,) which was crowned by the Academy of Inscrip
tions, and other works. He was guillotined at Lyons
in 1793.
Mathon de la Cour, (JACQUES,) a French mathe
matician, born at Lyons in 1712. He published several
scientific treatises. Died about 1770.
Mathusalem. See METHUSELAH.
Matignoii, mt'ten'yoN', (CHARLES AUGUSTK de
Goyon — deh gwa'yoN',) Comte de Gace, a French
marshal, born in 1647, accompanied James II. of Eng
land in his Irish campaign. He afterwards distinguished
himself at Fleurus, Mons, and Namur, and was created
a marshal in 1708. Died in 1729.
Matignon, de, deh mS'tin'yoN', (JACQUES DE GOYON,)
COMTE, a French marshal, born in Normandy in 1525.
He served in the wars of Henry II. and Henry III.
against the Protestants. He was made a marshal in
1579. Died in 1597.
See BKANTOME. "Vies des grands Capitaines Francais;" CAL-
I.IERES, " Histoire du Mareschal de Matignon," 1661.
Ma-til'da, Maud, or Maude, [Fr. MATHILDE, inf
ield',] Empress of Germany and Queen of England, born
about 1 102, was a daughter of Henry I. of England. She
was married in mo to Henry V. of Germany, who died
in 1125. About 1127 she became the wife of Geoffrey
Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and was recognized by
her father as his successor. On the death of Henry
(1135) her title was disputed by Stephen of Blois, and a
long civil war ensued between them. Matilda prevailed
in 1141, and was crowned in London. She was the
mother of Henry II. Died in 1167.
See MATTHEW PARIS, " Historia major."
Matilda, daughter of Boniface III., Marquis of Tus
cany, was born about 1046. She was first married to God
frey le Bossu, son of the Duke of Lorraine. He died in
1076, and, her mother having died the same year, Matilda
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; not; good; moon;
MATILDA
>547
MATTHESON
came into possession of her vast estates, including the
greater part of Northern Italy. In the contest for su
premacy between Pope Gregory VII. and the Emperor
of Germany, she espoused with great zeal the cause of
the former ; and it was at her castle of Canossa that
Henry IV. underwent the humiliating penance imposed
by the pope. In 1077 she made a reversionary grant
of all her dominions to the Church of Rome. She was
married in 1089 to Guelph, Duke of Bavaria, from whom
she was divorced in 1095. Uied in 1115.
See FKIKENTINI, " Meinorie di Matilda la Contessa di Toscana,"
1642; AMEOKK KKNEE, "La arande Italienne," 1859 ; Mozzi DE'
CAPITANI. "Sulia Contessa Matilda," etc., 1845 ; " Nouvelle I3io-
£raphie Generale."
Matilda, (CAROUNK.) See CAROLINE MATILDA.
Matius. See CAI.VKNA.
Matius, ma'she-us, written also Mattius, (CxKius,)
a Rinnan poet in the time of Julius Caesar, whose friend
ship and patronage he enjoyed. Me was the author of
epic and dramatic poems, and mimiambi. Of the last-
named there are fragments extant, which are greatly
admired. lie also translated the "Iliad" into Latin
verse. He is supposed by some to be the same as CAL-
vi:\ \, (which see.)
Maton de la Varenne, mS'tox' deh It vi'ren', (P.
A. L.,) a French litterateur, born in Paris about 1760;
died in 1813.
Matooan- (or Matouan-) lin, ma-too-an' lin, a very
learned Chinese writer, born in the province of Kiang-si
about 1250. He was the author of a historical work,
entitled " Wen-hian-thoon-khao," which displays im
mense erudition and embraces a great variety of sub
jects. Abel Remusat says of this production, "It is in
it-elt worth a library, and, if Chinese literature contained
no other, it would be worth while to learn Chinese in
order to read it."
Matos, de, da ma'tos, (JoAO XAVIER,) a Portuguese
poet of the latter part of the eighteenth century, was the
author of sonnets, odes, etc., and of a tragedy entitled
'' Viriacia."
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Matos Fragoso, ma't6s fka-go'so, (JUA.x,) a dramatic
writer, born at Elvas, in Portugal, about 1630, was the
author of numerous popular comedies, (in Spanish.)
Died in 1692.
Matsko, motsh'ko, (JoHX MATTHIAS,) a Hungarian
astronomer, born at Presburg in 1721 ; died in 1796.
Mats'ya, [modern Hindoo pron. muts'ya,] a Sanscrit
word signifying a "fish," and forming the na/ne, in the
Hindoo mythology, of the first avatar of Vishnu. On
that occasion the preserving deity is said to have as
sumed the form of a great fish shining like gold, and,
according to one account, "extending a million leagues,"
that he might protect the ark which contained Satyavrata
and the seven Rishis with their wives, all the rest of the
human race having been destroyed by the deluge.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Matsys, mat-sis', (CORXELIS,) a Dutch or Flemish
engraver, born about 1500; died in 1560.
Matsys, (J.-\x,) a relative of Quentin, noticed below.
His pictures are few in number, but of great merit, and
painted in the style of Quentin Matsys. Died about
1560.
Matsys, mat-sis', or Metsys, me"t-sls', written also
Messis, (QUENTIN,) a celebrated Flemish painter, born
at Antwerp about 1450. He was originally a blacksmith,
and is said to have changed his vocation in order to
obtain the hand of a lady he loved, who was the daughter
of an artist. Among his master-pieces are " The Descent
from the Cross," in the Museum at Antwerp, "The
Misers," in the Gallery at Windsor, and the " Portrait
of a Jeweller," in the imperial collection of Vienna. Died
in 1529.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; E. VAN
EWEN. "Notice biographique sur Q. Metsys," 1846.
Mat-ta-thl'as, a Jewish priest, appointed to officiate
in the Temple, was the founder of the family of the
Maccabees, and the father of the celebrated warrior
Judas Maccabaeus. During the persecution of the Jews
by Antiochus Epiphanes, he was conspicuous for his
zeal in the defence of his religion, and, with a band of
his followers, marched against the idolaters and over
threw their altars. Died in 166 B.C.
Matte, mtt, (NICOLAS AUGUSTIX,) a French sculptor,
born in Paris in 1781. Among his works we may name
busts of Racine and Corneille. Died about 1840.
Matteani, mat-ta-a'nee, (AXGEI.O,) an Italian jurist
and mathematician, born at Marostica in 1535. He be
came professor of law at Padua in 1589. Died in 1600.
Mattel, mat-ta'ee, (ALESSANDRO,) an Italian cardinal,
born at Rome in 1744. In 1777 he became Archbishop
of Ferrara, and in 1797 he was sent to negotiate with
Bonaparte, then inarching towards Rome. Died in 1820.
Mattel, (LORETTO,) an Italian poet, born at Rieti in
1622. He was the author of " II Salmista Toscano," a
paraphrase, in verse, of the Psalms. Died in 1705.
Mattel, (SAVERIO,) an Italian litterateur, born in Cala
bria in 1742. He became in 1767 professor of Oriental
languages at Naples. His translation of the Book of
Psalms was very popular. Died in 1795.
Mattel, (STAXISLAO,) an Italian composer, born at
Bologna in 1750; died in 1825.
Matteis, mat-ta'ess, or Mattel, mat-ta'ee, (PAOLO,)
an Italian painter and engraver, born near Naples in 1662.
Among his master-pieces are the pictures of the " Sa
viour and Saint Gaetano," in the church of Saint Paul
at Pistoia, and the " Meeting of Erminia and the Shep
herds," in the Museum of Vienna. Died in 1728.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Matte-Lafaveur, mtt li'ffvUR7, (SEHASTIKN,) a
French chemist, wrote a work entitled " Practice of
Chemistry." Died about 1684.
Matteb da Siena, mSt-ta'o da se-a'na, or Matteo
di Giovanni, mat-ta'o de jo-van'nee, an Italian painter,
born at Sienna in 1420. He adorned the cathedral of
that city with his works. Died in 1495.
Matter, nit'taiR', (JACQUES,) a French historian and
philosopher, born near Saverne in 1791. He published,
besides other works, a "Critical History of Gnosticism,"
etc., (2 vols., 1828,) a "General History of the Christian
Church," (4 vols., 1828-35,) and "The Philosophy of
Religion," (1857,) all in French. He became in 1845
inspector-general of the libraries of France.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Matteucci, mat-too'chee, [It. pron. mat-te'oot-chee,]
(CARLO,) an Italian writer, distinguished for his researches
in electro-physiology, was born in 1811. He published,
besides other valuable works, " Lectures on the Physico-
Chemical Phenomena of Living Bodies," (1844,) for which
he received the prize of the French Academy of Sciences
and the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London.
He became minister of public instruction. Died at Flor
ence in 1868. (For two of his works, see " Smithsonian
Reports" for 1865 and 1867.)
Matteucci, (PETROMO,) an Italian astronomer. In
1786 he gave an account of the transit of Mercury. Died
in 1810.
Matthaeus, mat-ta'us, (ANTOON,) a Dutch jurist and
antiquary, born at Utrecht in 1635 ; died in 1710.
Matthai or Matthaei. mat-ta'ee, (CHRISTIAN FRIED-
RICH,) a German scholar, born in Thuringia in 1744, was
appointed professor of Greek at Wittenberg, and subse
quently of classic literature at Moscow. He published
a number of critical treatises and editions of various
Greek classics. Died in 1811.
Matthai or Matthaei,( FRIEDRICH,) a German painter
of history and portraits, born at Meissen in 1777. He
was a pupil of Casanova, and subsequently of Fiiger,
at Vienna, and was appointed in 1809 professor in the
Academy of Painting at Dresden. Died in 1832. His
brother, ERNST GOTTLIEK, born in 1779, was a sculptor
of great merit, and was appointed honorary professor in
the university at Rome. Died in 1842.
Matthesius, mat-ta'ze-us, (JoHAXX,) a German Prot
estant minister, born at Rochlitz in 1504. He became
first preacher at Joachimsthal about 1543. He wrote a
" History of Luther's Doctrine, Life, and Death," (in
German, 1565.) Died in 1568.
Mattheson, mat'teh-son, (JOHAXX,) a German mu
sician and composer, born at Hamburg in 1681. His
works are very numerous, comprising operas, church
music, sonatas, etc. He also published several treat-
c as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this,
anations, p. 23.)
MATTHEW
1548
MATTIOLI
ises on music, which are highly esteemed. He was an
intimate friend of Handel. Died in 1764.
See BUKNKY, " History of Music;" " Nouvelle Biographic G6n6-
rale. "
Matthew, math'u, [Gr. MarMoc; Fr. MATTHIEU,
mt'te-uh' ; It. MATTKO, mat-ta'o,] SAINT, THE EVAN-
GKl.isKa native of Galilee, is generally believed to have
been the same person as Levi, the son of Alpheus, men-,
tioned in Mark (ii. 14) and Luke, (v. 27.) His employ
ment was that of a publican, or collector of customs,
under the Romans, and while engaged in this function
he was called by Christ to be one of the apostles. The
history of Matthew alter the ascension of Christ is not
known, some writers asserting that he suffered death
at Nacldabar, in Ethiopia, and others that he was one
of the apostles who escaped martyrdom.
Matthew OK CRACOW, [Lat. MATTHI'AS CRACOVI-
KN'SIS,] a German bishop and Reformer, born in Foine-
rania. He became Bishop of Worms in 1405, and wrote
against the corrupt practices of the Church. Among his
works is a treatise "On the Pollutions of the Romish
Court." Died in 1410.
See HODGSON, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867.
Matthew OK WESTMINSTER, an English monk and
historical writer of the fourteenth century, was the author
of "Flowers of History," ("Flores Historiarum,") ex
tending from the creation to the death of Edward I. It
is highly valued for its accuracy.
Matthew, math'u, (ToniAS,) an English prelate, born
in Bristol in 1546. In 1572 he was chosen president of
Saint John's College, Oxford, and one of the queen's
chaplains-in-ordinary. In 1595 he was created Bishop
of Durham, and in 1606 Archbishop of York. The
learning and piety of Archbishop Matthew have been
warmly eulogized by Camden. Died in 1628.
See WOOD, "Athens Oxonienses."
Matthew, (ToiUA.s,) son of the preceding, born at
Oxford in 1578, became a Roman Catholic. He was
employed by James I. in 1621 to negotiate the marriage
of the Prince of Wales with the Infanta of Spain. He
was knighted in 1623. Among his works are a "Life
of Saint Theresa," and a "Collection of Letters includ
ing a Character of Lucy, Countess of Carlisle." Died in
1655-
See WOOD, " Athenae Oxonienses."
Matthew Paris, math'u par'iss, a celebrated English
chronicler, enjoyed the patronage of Henry III., from
whom he obtained important privileges for the Univer
sity of Oxford. He was the author of " Historia Major
Angliae," and " Historia Minor Angliae." The former
extends from the time of William the Conqueror to the
reign of Henry HI. Died in 1259.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Matthews, math'uz, (GEORGE,) an American officer
of the Revolution, born in Augusta county, Virginia, in
1739. He was elected Governor of Georgia in 1780, and
again in 1794. Died in 1812.
Matthews, (THOMAS,) a British naval officer, born
in Wales in 1681, distinguished himself in the engage
ment at Cape Passaro under Admiral Byng, (1718,) and
in other campaigns of the, war of the Spanish succession.
He obtained the rank of admiral of the blue. Died in
1751.
See VAN TENAC. " Histoire generale de la Marine."
Matthia or Matthiae, mat-tee'a', (AUGUST II KIN -
RICH,) a German philologist, born at Gottingen in 1769.
He published " Elements of Greek and Roman Litera
ture," a " Complete Greek Grammar," which was trans
lated into French, an excellent edition of the Tragedies
of Euripides, and other works. Died in 1835.
Matthia, (JoHAN,) a Swedish prelate, born in Ostro-
gothia in 1592, became court preacher and almoner to
Gustavus Adolphus. He was afterwards appointed pre
ceptor to Christina, the daughter of that monarch, and
was created Bishop of Strengn'as in 1643. He wrote
several moral and theological works. Died in 1670.
Matthiae. See MATTHIA.
Matthias, ma-thl'ass, [Ger. pron. mat-tee'ass ; It.
MATTIA, mat-tee'a,] Emperor of Germany, born in 1557,
was the son of Maximilian II. and Mary, daughter of
Charles V. He was invited in 1578, by the Catholics
of the Netherlands, to assume the government of that
country, which office he soon resigned. He was ap
pointed Stadtholder of Austria in 1595, and in 1611 was
invited by the Bohemians to become their ruler. On
the death of his brother Rudolf, Emperor of Germany,
in 1612, Matthias succeeded to the throne. In the en
suing contest between the Protestant and Catholic fac
tions he pursued a vacillating policy, and while striving
to direct made himself distrusted by both. He con
cluded a disadvantageous treaty with the Turks, then in
possession of Hungary, (1615,) and soon after caused
his cousin Ferdinand to be proclaimed King of Bohemia
and Hungary. (See FERDINAND II.) Matthias died in
1619, in the midst of the dissensions which preceded the
Thirty Years' war.
See KHEVENHUI.I.ER, " Annales Ferdinandei ;" P. SANTORIO,
"Vite di Ridolfo e Mattia Imperatori," 1604; " Nouvelle Biographic
Gene'rale."
Matthias, ma-thi'ass, an American fanatic and impos
tor, originally named MATTHEWS, born in Washington
county, New York, about 1790, became a street-preacher
in Albany, and prophesied the destruction of that city.
See "Matthias and his Impostures," by WM. L. STONH, New
York, 1835; "North American Review" for October, 1X35.
Matthias OK JANOW, (ya'nov,) a German priest and
Reformer, preached in Prague. He wrote against popery,
and published "The Abomination of Carnal Priests and
Monks." Died in 1394.
See HODGSON, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867.
Matthias Corvinus. See CORVINUS.
Matthieu, the French for MATTHEW, which see.
Matthieu, mt'te-uh', (PIERRE,) a French poet and
historical writer, born in Franche-Comte in 1563. He
became historiographer of France under Henry IV.,
wrote a tragedy entitled " La Guisiade," of which the
Duke of Guise is the hero; also a "History of Henry
III. and Henry IV." Died in 1621.
See POIKSON, "Histoire du Regne de Henri IV;" NICERON,
" Memoires."
Matthieu de Veiidome, mi'te-uh' deh v6.\'dom', a
French statesman and ecclesiastic, born about 1220, was
appointed regent of the kingdom by Louis IX. on his
departure for Palestine. After the accession of Philip
he was made prime minister in 1270. Died in 1286.
Matthieu de Vendome, a French scholar and Latin
poet, lived about 1180-1200.
Matthiolus. See MATTTOLI.
Matthisson, von, von mat'te-son', (FiUKDRicH,) an
eminent German lyric poet, born near Magdeburg in
1761. He studied at Halle, and in 1794 accompanied
the Princess of Anhalt-Dessau on her tour through
Switzerland, Italy, and the Tyrol. In 1812 the King
of Wurtemberg appointed him his chief librarian and
conferred upon him a title of nobility. His poems are
characterized by great tenderness of feeling, graceful
versification, and faithful delineations of nature. lie
also published an interesting work entitled " Remi
niscences," (" Erinnerungen," 5 vols., 1810-16,) being an
account of persons and places he had visited. Died in
1831.
See DORING, " Matthisson's Leben," 1833 ; LONGFELLOW, " Poets
and Poetry ot Europe;" F. VON MATTHISSON, " Selbstbiographie,"
1818. *
Matthys, mat-tls', (GERARD,) a Flemish philosopher
and Greek scholar, born in Gelderland in 1523. He
published a number of commentaries on Aristotle, and
other critical works. Died in 1574.
Matti, mat'tee, (EMANUEL,) a Spanish ecclesiastic
and Latin poet, born at Oropesa in 1663, was appointed
Dean of Alicante. Died in 1737.
Mattioli, mit-te-o'lee, (Luici,) an Italian engraver,
born at Crevalcore in 1662, executed a number of prints
after the Caracci. He was also distinguished as a
painter. Died about 1745.
See G. ATTI, "Vita di L. Mattioli," 1836.
Mattioli, [Lat. MATTHI'OLUS,] (PIETRO ANDREA,)
an eminent Italian physician and botanist, born at Sienna
in 1500. Being invited to Prague by the emperor Fer
dinand, he was made aulic councillor, and subsequently
appointed first physician to Maximilian II. He published
a, e, i, Q, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nfit; good; moon;
MATT I US
1549
MAUPEOU
" Commentaries on the Materia Medica of Dioscorides,"
(in Latin, 1554,) which are highly esteemed and have
been translated into several languages; also a number
of medical and botanical treatises. The well-known
genus Matthiola (Stock-gilliflower) was named in honour
of" this botanist. Died in 1577.
See CUVIEK, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles:" HAI.LER,
" Hibliotheca Botanica ;" VAN DEK LINDEN, "De Scriptorlbus Me-
dicis."
Mattius. See MATIUS.
Mat'u-rin, (CHARLES ROBERT,) a distinguished i»oet,
novelist, and pulpit orator, born at Dublin in 1782, was
descended from a French Protestant family. He studied
at Trinity College, and was subsequently appointed
curate of Saint Peter's, Dublin. He published in 1807
"The Fata! Revenge, or the Family of Montorio," which
was followed by " The Milesian Chief," "Women, or
Pour et Contre," "Melmoth the Wanderer," and other
romances of the Radcliffe school. His tragedy of "Ber
tram," brought out at the Drury-Lane Theatre in 1816,
met with brilliant success. It has been translated into
French, as well as several of his romances. In 1824 he
published " Controversial Sermons," directed against the
corruptions of the Roman Church, which obtained great
popularity. Died in 1824.
See the "Edinburgh Review" for June, 1818; "London Quar
terly Review" lor December, iSiS, and January, 1821; "Monthly
Review" for August, iSiS, et seq.
Maturino di Firenze, ma-too-ree'no de fe-ren'za,
an Italian painter, born at Plorence about 1490, was a
pupil of Raphael, and a friend of Polidoro Caravaggio,
in conjunction with whom he executed a number of
frescos at Rome. These works are preserved in the
engravings of Cherubino, Albert!, Goltzius, and other
artists. Died about 1528.
Matttszewic, ma-too'sha-vits, (THADDKUS,) a Polish
statesman, was appointed minister of finance in 1815.
Died in 1818.
Maty, ma'tee, (MATTHEW,) an eminent physician and
writer, born near Utrecht in 1718, studied at Leyclen,
and subsequently settled in England, (1740.) He founded
in 1750 the "Journal Britannique," a literary periodical
of great merit, which was highly commended by Gibbon.
He was elected in 1758 a Fellow of the Royal Society,
of which he became perpetual secretary in 1765. In
1772 he succeeded Dr. Knight as chief librarian of the
British Museum. He published an "Essay on the
Character of the Great Physician, or a Critical Eulogy
on Boerhaave," (in French, 1747,) "Authentic Memoirs
of Richard Mead," (1755,) and " Memoirs of Lord Ches
terfield." Died in 1776.
See NICHOLS. "Literary Anecdotes;" GIBBON, "Memoirs."
Maty, (PAUL HENRY,) a son of the preceding, was
born in London in 1745. He became one of the secre
taries of the Royal Society in 1778. He published a
translation, from the German, of Riesbeck's "Travels,"
(1787.) Died in 1787.
Maubert de Gouvest, mo'baiR' deh goo'vi', QEAN
HENRI,) a French litterateur, born at Rouen in 1721,
wrote a work entitled " Political History of the Age,"
which was commended by Lord Bolingbroke. Died in
1767.
Maubeuge. See MABUSE.
Maubreuil, de, deh mo'bRuI' or mo'bRUh'ye, (MA
RIE ARMAND GUERRI,) MARQUIS, a French political
adventurer, bom in Bretagne in 1782. He served in the
army as captain. According to his own statement, he
was authorized and bribed by certain members of the
provisional government in 181410 assassinate Napoleon
and to rob the Queen of Westphalia of her diamonds.
He performed the latter part of his mission, and was
cast into prison for that offence. Died in 1855.
Mauburne, mo'buRn', or Momboir, mo.N'bwaR',
(JEAN,) a Flemish ecclesiastic and devotional writer,
born at Brussels about 1460, was a friend and corre
spondent of Erasmus. Died in 1502.
Maucomble, mo'koMbl', (JEAN FRANCOIS DIEU-
DONNE,) a French writer, born at Metz in 1735, pub
lished a " History of the Antiquities of the City of
Nimes," (1767.) Died in 1768.
Maucroix, de, deh mo'kRwa', (FRANCOIS,) a French
scholar, born at Noyon in 1619. He made translations
from the " Philippics" of Demosthenes, the " Homilies"
of Saint Chrysostom, and other Greek classics. He was
an intimate friend of Boileau, Racine, and La Fontaine,
and published conjointly with the last-named a collection
of works in prose and verse. Died in 1708.
Maud or Maude. See MATILDA.
Maudsley or Maudslay, mawdz'le, (HENRY,) an
English artisan, born at Woolwich in 1771, was an em
ploye of Joseph Bramah. He made several valuable
mechanical inventions. Died in 1831.
See SMILES, '' Industrial Biography."
Mauduit, mS'du-e', ( ANTOINE RENE,) a French
mathematician, born in Paris in 1731. He published,
among other works, " Elements of Conic Sections De
monstrated," which is highly commended by Lalande.
Died in 1815.
Mauduit, mo'dwe', (ISRAEL.) an English writer, of
French extraction, born at Bermondsey in 1708, was
appointed agent for the province of Massachusetts. He
published a "Short View of the History of the New
England Colonies," (1769,) and several other works.
Died in 1787.
Mauduit, (MICHEL,) a French theologian, born at
Vire, in Normandy, in 1644. He was the author of an
"Analysis of the Gospel, according to the Historic
Order," etc., a " Treatise on Religion," and other works.
Died in 1709.
Mauduit du Plessis, mo'dii-e' dii plk'se', (THOMAS
ANTOINE,) a French officer, born at Hennebon in 1753,
served in the American war, where his courage and
abilities won for him the particular regard of Washington.
Having joined the royalists soon after the breaking out
of the French Revolution, he was killed in attempting
to suppress a mutiny among his soldiers in Hayti, in
1791.
Maugras, mo'gRa', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French phi
losopher and writer, born near Bourbonne-les-Bains in
1762 ; died in 1830.
Mauguin, mo'gaN"', (FRANCOIS,) an eloquent French
advocate, born at Dijon in 1785. He took a prominent
part in the revolution of 1830, and sat in the Chamber
of Deputies until 1848. Died in 1854.
See M. DE CORMENIN, " Le Livre des Orateurs ;" L. DELoM^NiE,
" M. Mauguin, par un Homme de Rien," 1840.
Maule, (Fox.) See PANMURE, LORD.
Maulmont, mol'moN', or Malmont, de, deh m&Y-
mc>N', (JEAN,) a French scholar and theologian, was an
intimate friend of J. C. Scaliger.
Maultrot, mo'tRo', (GABRIEL NICOLAS,) a French
jurist, born in Paris in 1714, published numerous treat
ises on canon law. Died in 1803.
Mauii'der, (SAMUEL,) an English compiler, born
about 1790. He published, besides other works, a
" Treasury of Useful Knowledge," and a " Biographical
Treasury," (6th edition, 1847.) Died in 1849.
See WM. JERDAN, "Men I have known."
Maundeville. See MANDEVILLE, (Sir JOHN.)
Maun'drell, (HENRY,) an English traveller, born
about 1650, visited Palestine in 1697, and published in
1698 his" Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, "etc., which
was translated into French. Died about 1710.
Maunoir, mo'iiwau', (JULIE.N,) a learned French ec
clesiastic, born in 1606, wrote several theological treat
ises in Latin, and a number of works in the dialect of
Brittany, including a grammar and dictionary. Died in
1683.
Maupas, de, deh mo'pa', (CHARLES CAUCHON,) a
French soldier, born at Rheims in 1566, was appointed
councillor of state by Henry IV., and was subsequently
ambassador to the court of England. Died in 1629.
Maupas du Tour, de, deh mo'pa' dii tooR, (HENRI
CAUCHON,) a French writer, born near Rheims in 1600,
rose to be Bishop of Evreux in 1661. He wrote a " Life of
Saint Francis de Sales," and other works. Died in 1680.
Maupeou, de, deh mS'poo', ( RENE CHARLES,) a
French statesman, born in Paris in 1688. He was suc
cessively appointed first president of the Parliament of
Paris, keeper of the seals, and vice-chancellor, (1763.)
Died in 1775.
See DE TOCQUF.VILLE, " Hbtoire de Louis XV;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale. "
t as fc; c as s; g hard; g as/: G, H, K, guttural; N, ttai il ; R, trilled ; § as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MAUPEOU
1550
MAURICEAU
Manpeou, de, (RENE NICOLAS CHARLES Auc-us-
TIN,) a son of the preceding, born in 1714, rose through
various high offices to be chancellor of France in 1768.
In this post he directed all his efforts towards the over
throw of the parliament, which, by his intrigues, was
accomplished in 1771. The president Lamoignon and
several distinguished members were exiled ; but on the
accession of Louis XVI. (1774) they were recalled, and
the former system was re-established. Maupeou was ban
ished to his estate, near Les Andelys, where he died
in 1792, having bequeathed to the nation the sum of
800,000 livres. He was the last chancellor of the
ancient monarchy.
See "Lettres de Madame du Beff.md :" DP.TOCQUEVILLE, " His-
toire de Louis XV;" SISMONDI, " Histoive des Fraucais."
Maupertuis, de, deh mo'peK/tii-e', (PIERRE Louis
MOKEAU,) an eminent French mathematician, born at
Saint- Malo in 1698. He finished his studies in Paris,
was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1723, and in
1727 became a Fellow of the Royal Society, London.
In 1736 he was the chief of a party of savants, in
cluding Clairaut and Lemonnier, who were sent to
Lapland by the Academy in order to measure a degree
of the meridian. The result of this experiment, which
is his chief title to celebrity, exposed the error which
had been made by Dominic and Cassini in their measure
ment in France, and tended to confirm Newton's theory
of the oblate form of the earth. On the invitation of
Frederick II. of Prussia, Maupertuis repaired in 1740 to
Berlin, where he was appointed president of the Acad
emy of Sciences. He was the author of an " Essay on
Moral Philosophy," "The Balistic Arithmetic," "The
Measure of the Northern Degree," " Discourse on the
Figure of the Stars," and several able treatises on geom
etry. Died in 1759.
See L. A. UK I.A KKAUMKI.I.R, " Vie de Maupertuis," 1856 ; DAM£-
RON, " Menu-ire stir Maupertuis;" VOLTAIRE, " Correspondance
Generale;" J. H. FORMKV. " Eloge de Maupertuis." 1761; " Noti-
velle Biographic Gaiie'rale. "
Mauquest de la Motte, mo'k.V deh If mot, (GuiL-
LAUMK,) a French surgeon, born at Valognes in 1655,
wrote a "Treatise on Surgery," (3 vols., 1722.) Died
in 1737.
Maur. See RAUAN MAUK.
Maurand or Mauran, mo'rfiN', (PIERRE,) the first
leader of the Albigenses, was born at Toulouse. It is
said that, under the pressure of severe persecution, he
abjured his doctrines. Died in 1199.
Maureillan, nio'ii'yoN', (CASIMIR POITEVIN,) Vr-
COMTE, a French general, born at Montpellier in 1772,
succeeded the Duke of Ragusa as Governor of Dalmatia
in 1806. Died in 1829.
Maurepas, de, deh mok'pa', QEAN FREDERIC Phe-
lypeaux — fa'le'po',) COMTK, a French statesman, born
at Versailles in 1701, was a grandson of Chancellor Pont-
chartrain. He succeeded his father, Jerome de Pontchar-
train, as secretary of state in 1715, and in 1725 became
minister of marine. Though frivolous in his character
and superficial in his attainments, he was a liberal patron
of learned men, and promoted the scientific expeditions
of Maupertuis and his companions to Lapland and of
Tussieu to South America. Having offended Madame
de Pompadour by an epigram, he was banished from
court ; but after twenty-five years he was recalled. The
principal measure of his subsequent administration was
the restoration of the parliaments. Died in 1781.
See CONDORCRT. " fi'oge de M. de Maurepas," 1782; VOLTAIRE,
"Siecle de Louis XV :" UROZ, " Histoire de Louis XVI;" MAR-
MONTKL, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle l.iographie Generale."
Maurer, mow'rer, (CHRISTOPH,) a Swiss painter and
engraver, son of Josias, noticed below, was born at Zurich
in 1558. He was a pupil of Tobias Slimmer. Died in
1614.
Maurer, mow'rer, (GF.ORG Lumvio,) a German jurist,
born near Durkheim, in Bavaria, in 1790, became min
ister of foreign affairs and of justice in 1847. He pub
lished a number of treatises on German law.
Maurer or Murer, inoo'rer, (JosiAS,) a Swiss artist
and litterateur, born at Zurich in 1530, excelled as an
engraver and painter on glass. Died in 1580.
Maurice, EMPEROR OF THK EAST. See MAURICIUS.
Maurice, the French for MAURICIUS, which see.
Maurice, mo'ress', (ANTOINE,) a French Protestant
theologian and Orientalist, born in Provence in 1677.
He became professor of history, Oriental languages, and
theology at Geneva. Died in 1756.
Maurice, (ANTOINE,) a theological writer, a son of
the preceding, born at Geneva in 1716, succeeded his
father in the chair of theology in that city, (1756.) Died
in 1795.
Maiirice, (FREDERIC GUILLAUME,) BARON, a Swiss
writer, sou of Ajituine, (the second of the name,) bom
at Geneva in 1750, was one of the founders of the " Bi-
Bliotheque Britannique," -(1796,) and published several
agricultural works. Died in 1826.
Maurice, mau'riss, (Jon.\ FREDERICK DENNI.SON,)
an English divine and prominent leader of the " Broad
Church" party, born in 1805. He studied at Trinity Col
lege, Cambridge, and subsequently became editor of the
London "Athenaeum." Among his principal works are
his "Theological Essays," "Prophets and Kings of the
Old Testament," "Unity of the New Testament," "The
Kingdom of Christ," (1841,) "Religions of the World,"
" Philosophy of the First Six Centuries," " Doctrine of
Sacrifice deduced from the Scriptures," "Lectures on
National Education," " Philosophy of the Middle Ages,"
"Claims of the Bible and of Science," (1862,) and "The
Conflict ot Good and Evil in our Day," (1865.) He was
appointed professor of moral philosophy at Cambridge
in 1866.
See " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1854; " New American Cy
clopaedia."
Maurice, (Rev. THOMAS,) an English divine and
scholar, born in Hertford in 1755, became vicar of Cud-
ham, in Kent. He was the author of "Indian Antiqui
ties," (7 vols., 1797,) "History of Hindostan," (3 vols.,
1799,) and "Modern History of Hindostan," (2 vols.,
1804.) He also translated into verse the "(Edipus
Tyrannus" of Sophocles, and published several poems
and dramas. Died in 1824.
See "Memoirs of Rev. Thomas Maurice," 1819, by himself:
"Gentleman's Magazine," 1824.
Maurice OK NASSAU. See NASSAU.
Maurice, mau'riss, [Ger. MO'RITZ; Lat. MAURI'TIUS,]
Elector of Saxony, a celebrated general and champion
of the Protestant cause, was born at Freiberg, March
21, 1521. He succeeded his father, Henry, Duke of
Saxony, in 1541, and married Agnes, a daughter of Philip,
Landgrave of Hesse. In 1546 he formed a secret alliance
with the emperor Charles V. against the Protestant
League of Schmalkalden, with a design to supplant John
Frederick as Elector of Saxony, whose dominions he
invaded with success. The title ot elector was trans
ferred to him by Charles V. In consequence of his un
expected hostility to the Protestants, the Imperial army
gained a decisive victory at Muhlberg in April, 1547, and
the Protestant cause was apparently ruined. Having
changed his policy, and formed, in 1551, a secret treaty
with Henry PL of France, Maurice, aided by several Ger
man princes, in the spring of 1552 took arms for the
assertion of religious liberty, and marched against Charles
V., who was at Innspruck. Surprised by this sudden
movement, Charles was compelled to retreat, the Council
of Trent was dispersed in confusion, and hostilities were
terminated by the memorable treaty of Passau, August
22, 1552, which secured religious liberty to the Protest
ants of Germany. Maurice was killed in a battle against
Albert of Brandenburg, at Sievershausen, in July, 1553.
See J. CAMERARIUS, "Vita M.iuritii Electoris Saxonix," 1569;
GEORC; ARNOLD, "Vita Mauritii," 1719; F. A. vox LANGENN,
" Moritz Herzog und Clutrfiirst von Sachsen," 2 vols., 1841 ; SCHLKX-
KERT, " Moritz Churfiirst von Sachsen," 4 vols., 1798-1X00 ; "Nou
velle Biographic Gene'rale."
Maurice, mau'riss, [Fr. pron. mo'ress',] SAINT, a
Christian martyr, was commander of the Theban Legion,
which was composed entirely of Christians. Being or
dered by the emperor Maximian to make a sacrifice to
the gods for the success of the Roman arms, he refused
to comply, and was put to death, together with the greater
part of the legion he commanded, (286 A.D.)
See J. DE LISLE, " Defense de la Verite du Martyre de la Ldgicn
Thebeenne," 1737.
Mauriceau, mS're'so', (FRANC.OIS,) a French phy
sician, born in Paris, published a "Treatise on the Dis-
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, \\, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nflt; good; moon;
MAURICUNUS
1551
MAYOR
eases of Pregnancy," which was translated into several
languages. Died in 1709.
Mauricianus, mau-rish-i-a/nus, (JV.Nius,) a Roman
juri>t under the reign of Antoninus Pius.
Mauricius or Mauritius, mau-rish'i-us, [Gr. Mav-
p'tKiof ; Fr. MAURICK, mo'ress' ; It. MAURISIO, mow-
ree'se-o,] (Fi.AVius TIBERIUS,) Emperor of the East,
born in Cappadocia in 539 A.I). Having been appointed
by the emperor Tiberius commander of his armies
against the Persians, he gained several important victo
ries, and was, on his return, rewarded by Tiberius with
his daughter's hand. After carrying on war for some
time with the Abares, a barbarous tribe on the Danube,
a mutiny broke out among his soldiers, who chose for
their leader a centurion named Phocas. Mauritius was
put to death, having previously witnessed the execution
of five of his sons, (602.)
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire:" LE
BEAT, " Kistcire du Bas Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Maurisio, mow-ree'se-o, (GERARDO,) an Italian jurist
and historian, born at Vicenza, lived about 1200-1240.
He served under the Ghibeline commander Ezzelino
da Komar.o, and subsequently wrote a history of his
achievements, which enjoys a high reputation.
Mauritius. .See MAURICE of Saxony, and MAURI-
Cius.
Mauro, FRA, fRa mow'ro, an eminent Italian geog
rapher, wa • a monk of the order of the Camaldules,
near Yenic' . His principal work is an excellent map
of the won 1, executed about 1458. Several copies of
it ha\x be< n made ; one of the best of these is in the
British Mu eum.
See PI...CI o Z' RI.A, "II Mappamundo di Fra Mauro," 1806.
Mauru< entis. See MUROSINI.
MAUro^ordato. See MAVKOCORD vros.
Maurolico, mow-n/ie-kr, ( KRANCKSCO,) a celebrated
Sicilian geometer, born at Messina in 1494, was for many
years piote>sor of mathematics in his native city. He
was the author of a "Treatise on Conic Sections," " Op
tical Theorem," and other valuable works in Latin, and
made translations from Euclid, Apollonius, and Auto-
lycus. Died in 1575.
See F. MAUKOI.ICO, "Vita del Abbate Francesco Maurolico,"
1613; D. SC.INA, '• E:o;;io di F. Mauroiico," iSo-j.
Mau'rus Terentia'nus, (te-rSn-she-a'nus,) a Latin
writer, supposed to have been a native of Carthage, was
the author of a poem on the rules of Latin versification,
entitled " De Literis, Syllabi's, Pedibus," etc.
Maury, mo're', ( JEAN SIFFREIN,) a celebrated French
prelate and pulpit orator, born in the Venaissin in 1746.
He repaired to Paris about 1766, and soon acquired a
high reputation by his " Funeral Oration on the Dauphin."
and his " Eulogy of Fenelon." He published in 1777
his "Treatise on Pulpit Eloquence," and in 1778 was ap
pointed to preach the Careme (Lent) sermon before the
king. His " Panegyric on Saint Vincent de Paul," which
is esteemed his master-piece, appeared in 1785, and he
was soon after chosen a member ot the French Academy.
In 1789 he was a deputy of the clergy of Pe'ronne to the
States-General, where he was conspicuous as the elo
quent advocate of the Church and of the royalist party
and the most powerful opponent of Mirabeau. On the
dissolution of the Constituent Assembly he was obliged
to leave the country, and at the invitation of Pius VI.
he took up his residence at Rome, where he was made
a cardinal in 1794. In 1804 he wrote a letter of con
gratulation to the emperor Napoleon, and henceforth
attached himself to the interests of the new sovereign.
He was successively created by him a member of the
Institute, first almoner of Jerome Bonaparte, and Arch
bishop of Paris, (1810.) After the restoration of the
Bourbons, Cardinal Maury was deprived of his place,
and retired to Rome, where he died in 1817. Maury was
noted for his brilliant repartee, of which the following
instances may be given. Beinc; asked by Napoleon how j
he stood with regard to the Bourbons, he replied, "Sire,
my respect for them is unalterable ; but I have lost faith j
and hope, and there remains to me only charity." Once, :
in the Assembly, some ladies of rank, known for their j
republican opinions, attempted by their loud conversa- j
tion to drown his voice, when, turning to the president,
he said, " I pray you silence those Sans-culottes."
See "Viedu Cardinal Maury," 1827, by his nephew; POUJOUI.AT,
" Le Cardinal Mauiy. sa Vie et ses CEuvres," 1855 ; •' Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale ;" "Monthly Review," vol. Ixix., 1812, (Appen
dix )
Maury, movv-ree', (JUAN MARIA,) a Spanish poet
and critic, born at Malaga, published in 1826 a collection
of Spanish lyrics, entitled "Poetical Spain," (" Espagne
poetique,") which were translated into elegant French
verse and accompanied with critical and biographical
notices. Died in 1845.
Maury, (Louis FERDINAND ALFRED,) a French anti
quarian writer, born at Meaux in 1817. He became a
member of the Academy of Sciences in 1857. He pub
lished a number of works, the most valuable of which
is his "History of the Religions of Ancient Greece."
(3 vols., 1857.)'
Mau'ry, (MATTHEW FONTAINE,) LL.D., an American
hydrographer and naval officer, born in Spottsylvania
county, Virginia, in 1806. About 1826 he sailed in the
Vincennes on a voyage around the world, and after his
return was made a lieutenant in 1836. He has published
a "Treatise on Navigation," (about 1835,) "Letters on
the Amazon and the Atlantic Slopes of South America,"
"Relation between Magnetism and the Circulation of
the Atmosphere," "Astronomical Observations," (1853,)
and " Physical Geography of the Sea," (1855, sixth edi
tion, 1856,) a work which has been highly praised by
competent judges.
See the " North British Review" for May, 1858.
Mausole. See MAUSOLUS.
Mau-so'lus, [Gr. Mat'owAoc: Fr. MAUSOLE, m5'zol',]
son of Hecatomnus, became King of Caria, in Greece,
about 377 B.C. He made considerable conquests in
Persia and in different parts of Greece, and was, accord
ing to Demosthenes, one of the instigators of the Social
war. From his name is derived the word " Mausoleum."
(See ARTEMISIA.)
See CLINTON, " Fasti Hellenic!."
Maussac, de, deh mo'stk', [Lat. MAUSSA'CUS,]
(PHILIP JACQUES,) an eminent French critic and scholar,
born near Beziers about 1590. He became first president
of the Chambre des Comptes at Montpellier in 1647.
He published the "Greek Lexicon" of Harpocration,
with notes, (1614,) an edition of Aristotle's "History of
Animals, "and of Psellus"On the Virtues of Minerals."
Maussac was one of the first Greek scholars of his time,
and was an intimate friend of Salmasius. Died in 1650.
See BAILLET, " Jugements des Savants."
Maussacus. See MAUSSAC.
Mautour, de, deh mo'tooR', (PHII.TKERT BERNARD
MOREAU,) a French antiquary, born at Beaune in 1654.
Among his works is a "Dissertation on the History of
the Amazons." Died in 1737.
Mauvais, mo'vi', (FELIX VICTOR,) a French astron
omer, born at Maiche, in Doubs, in 1809; died in 1854.
Mauvillon, mo've'yoN', (ELEAZAR,) a French litte
rateur, born in Provence in 1712, became secretary to
Frederick Augustus, King of Poland. He published a
"History of Prince Eugene of Savoy," (5 vols., 1740,)
a "History of Peter the Great," (1742,) "History of
Gustavus Adolphus," (1764,) and other works, (in
French.) Died at Brunswick in 1779.
Mauvillon, ( FACOK,) son of the preceding, born at
Leipsic in 1743, became professor of military science at
Cassel in 1771. He wrote a " Historical Essay on the
Art of War," etc., (in French, 1784,) and other works
in French and German, also "The Prussian Monarchy,"
("La Monarchic Prussienne,") in conjunction with
Mirabeau, who was his intimate friend. Died in 1794.
See HAAC;, "La France protestante ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
GeneVale."
Mauzinho Quevedo de Castello Branco, mow-
zen'yo ka-va'do da kas-tel'lo bRan'ko, a Portuguese
poet, wrote a poem entitled "Alphonso the African,"
commemorating the achievements of King Alphonso V.
Ma'vor, (WILLIAM FORDYCE,) a Scottish writer, born
near Aberdeen in 1758, became tutor to the children
of the Duke of Marlborough. He published a number
of useful compilations, among which we may name a
« as k: c as s: g hard:'%?&j; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal: R, trilled ; s as s; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MAYORS
1552
MAXIMILIAN
"Historical Account of the Most Celebrated Voyages,"
"Elements of Natural History," and "The British Cor
nelius Nepos." Died in 1837.
Mavors. See MARS.
Mavrocordatos, mav-ro-kor-da'tos, or Mavrocor-
dato, mav-ro-kor-da'to, (ALEXANDER,) a modern Greek
physician, statesman, ami scholar, born about 1636. He
studied at Rome and Padua, and took his medical degree
at Bologna. Having settled at Constantinople, his pro
found knowledge of both Oriental and European lan
guages procured for him the post of grand dragoman to
the Ottoman Porte, (1673.) He was afterwards employed
in important embassies to Vienna, and negotiated the
treaty of Carlowitz, (1698.) His services to Austria on
this occasion were rewarded by the emperor Leopold
with the title of count of the empire, while he was ap
pointed secretary of state by the Sultan, and obtained
other distinctions. He was the author of a medical
work entitled " Pneumaticum Instrumentum," etc., which
was translated into French, German, and Spanish, a
" Modern Greek Grammar," and a collection of letters.
Died in 1709.
See VON HAMMER, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Mavrocordatos, (ALEXANDER,) a Greek statesman,
born at Constantinople in 1791. He took arms against
the Turks in 1821, and was appointed president of the
executive committee in January, 1822, soon after which
he took command of the army. Having been rendered
almost powerless by the dissensions among the Greeks
and by the enmity of Colocotronis and Ypsilanti, he re
signed or refused the office of president in 1823. In 1832
he was appointed a member of the cabinet by King Otho,
whom he served as ambassador to Munich, Berlin, and
London between 1834 and 1840. He was prime minis
ter for a short time in 1841, and president of the council
in 1844. About May, 1854, he was restored to power,
which he resigned a few months later. Died in 1865.
See TRICOUPIS, " History of the Greek Revolution," (in modern
Greek,) 4 vois., 1*53-56; '• Nouvelle Hiographie Ge'nerale;" L. DE
LOMENIE, " Galerie des Contemporains. "
Mavrocordatos, (CONSTANTINE,) was appointed
Ilospodarof Wallachia in 1735. He abolished serfdom,
and introduced great improvements in the agriculture
of the country. Died in 1765.
Mavrocordatoa, (NICHOLAS,) son of Alexander,
(the first of the name,) was appointed successively
dragoman to the Sultan, Hospodar of Moldavia (1709)
and of Wallachia, (1711.) Died in 1730.
Mavromichalis, mav-ro-me-Ka'lis, known also as
PIETRO BEY, a modern Greek patriot, born in the Morea
about 1775. He fought against the Turks in the revo
lution which began in 1821, and became a member of
the provisional government. Died in 1848.
Mawe, maw, (JosKi'H,) an English naturalist, born in
Derbyshire in 1764, published "Travels in the Interior of
Brazil," etc., (1812,) "Treatise on Diamonds and Precious
Stones," (1813,) "Mineralogy of Derbyshire," and other
scientific treatises. Died in 1829.
Mawmoisiiie, maw'moi-zin, or Malvoisine, de,
deh mal'vo-/,in, (WILLIAM,) a prelate, supposed to have
been a native of France. Having visited Scotland, he
was made Bishop of Saint Andrew's in 1202. He estab
lished many monasteries in that country, and was active
in promoting a crusade to the Holy Land.
Maxcy, mak'see, (JUNATHAN,) D.D., an American
Baptist divine, born at Attleborough, Massachusetts, in
1768. He became successively professor of divinity at
Brown .University, Rhode Island, (1791,) president of
Union College, New York, (1802,) and president of
South Carolina College, (1804.) Died in 1820.
See the " Literary Remains of Rev. Jonathan Maxcy," with a
Memoir by R. ELTON, D. D., 1844.
Maxence. See MAXENTIUS.
Maxentius, maks-6n'she-us, [Fr. MAXENCE, mfk'-
s6Nss',] (MARCUS AuREUtTs VALERIUS,) a Roman em
peror, was the son of Maximian, who abdicated in 305
A.D. He married the daughter of the emperor Galerius.
He thought himself slighted by the promotion of Con-
stantine to the rank of Caesar in 306, and excited a
revolt among the Praetorian guards, who proclaimed him
emperor at Rome in the same year. Galerius, who was
then in a distant province, sent against him an army
under Severus, who was defeated and killed by the aid
of Maximian. Maxentius and his father reigned together
for a short time, and made an alliance with Constantine,
who married Fausta, a sister of Maxentius. Maximian
was expelled from Rome in 308, in consequence of a
quarrel with his son. In 312 the army of Constantine
defeated that of Maxentius, who, in the retreat, was
drowned in the Tiber.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" TII.I.E-
MONT, '' Histoire des Empereurs."
Maxime. See MAXIMUS.
Maxime de Tyr. See MAXIMUS TYRIUS.
Max-ini'I-an, [Fr. MAXIMIEX, mSk'se'me^N' ; Lar.
MAXIMI A'NUS, ] or, more fully, Mar'cus Vale'rius
Maximia'rms, a Roman emperor, born in Pannonia,
was the son of a peasant. He had obtained high rank in
the army when Diocletian, in 286 A.D., adopted him as
his colleague in the empire. In the division of the e'm-
pire, Italy and Africa were assigned to Maximian. In
305 Diocletian and Maximian formally abdicated in
favour of Galerius and Constantius Chlorus. The next
year he joined his son Maxentius in an effort to recover
power, and was proclaimed emperor. In the war that
ensued between him and Constantine he was taken
prisoner, and executed in 310. (See MAXENTIUS.)
See GIBBON, " Dec ine and P'all of the Roman Empire;" TILLE-
MONT, " Histoire des Empereurs."
Maximianus. See MAXIMIAN.
Maximien. See MAXIMIAN.
Max-i-mil'i-an [Ger. pron. mak-se-mee'le-an ; Fr.
MAXIMII.IEX, maVse'me'le'a.N'; Lat. MAXIMILIA'NUS ;
It. MASSIMILIANO, mas-se-me-le-a'no] I., Emperor of
Germany, born at Neustadt in 1459, was the son of
Frederick III. and Leonora of Portugal. He married,
in 1477, Mary of Burgundy, daughter and heiress of
Charles the Bold, who died in 1482, leaving two children,
Philip and Margaret. In accordance with the stipulations
of the peace of Arras, (1482,) he betrothed his daughter
Margaret to the Dauphin, (afterwards Charles VIII. of
France,) with Burgundy, Artois, and Flanders for her
portion. For several years following he was involved in
a contest with France, and with his subjects in the Neth
erlands, incited to revolt by Louis XI. About 1492 he
prepared to make war on Charles VIII. , who not only
refused to keep his engagement with Maximilian's daugh
ter, but had deprived him of his intended bride, Anne,
the wealthy heiress of Brittany. By the mediation of
Philip, Elector of the Palatinate, a treaty of peace was
concluded between the two sovereigns at Senlis, (1493,)
by which Charles was compelled to give up the dowry
of the princess. Maximilian was crowned Emperor of
Germany, and in 1494 married Bianca Sforza, daugh
ter of the Duke of Milan, which alliance gave rise to a
succession of wars in Italy. He soon after joined the
League of Cambray, formed between Pope Julius II.,
Ferdinand of Spain, and Louis XII. of France, against
the Venetians ; but, that republic having soon after
become reconciled to the pope, Maximilian joined the
so-called Holy League between England, Spain, Venice,
and the pope, in opposition to the French, who were
signally defeated by the forces of Henry VIII. and the
emperor, in the " battle of the spurs," near Guinegate,
(1513.) Francis I., having succeeded to the throne of
France, captured Milan, and compelled Maximilian to
give up Verona to the Venetians for 200,000 ducats. By
the treaty of Bale (1499) he had been obliged to acknow
ledge the independence of Switzerland. Though often
unsuccessful in his wars, he had the fortune to acquire
extensive territories by the marriage of his son Philip
with the Infanta of Spain, and of his grandchildren Fer
dinand and Maria with the son and daughter of Ladislaus,
King of Hungary and Bohemia. His daughter Mar
garet was married to the Spanish prince Don Juan, a
son of Ferdinand and Isabella. Among the important
acts of his reign were the establishment of the Imperial
Chamber and Aulic Council, and the abolition of the
Secret Tribunal of Westphalia ; he also created a stand
ing army and introduced military discipline. He was a
liberal patron of learned men, and was the author of
a, e, T, o, u, \, /img: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; m§t; n6t; good; moou;
MAXIMILIAN
1553
MAX1MUS
several works in prose and verse. He died in January,
1519, and was succeeded by his grandson, Charles V.
See COXE, "History of the House of Austria:" HF.GEWISCH,
" Geschichte der Regiening Maximilians I.," 1782: KAKI. HALTAI'S,
"Geschichte des Kaisers Maximi ian," 1850; VAN DKK V.MIRT,
" Maximilian van Oosteurijk," 1844 ; LICHNOWSKY, " Gescliichte
des Hauses Habsburg."
Maximilian IL, born in 1527, was the son of Fer
dinand I., whom he succeeded in 1564 as Emperor of
Germany. He was soon after engaged in a war with the
Turks, who had established themselves in Hungary.
After the death of Solyman II. a truce of eight years
was concluded between his successor and the emperor. ;
Maximilian was favourably inclined towards the Protest
ants, whom he allowed to fill important offices; but the
influence of the pope, the King of Spain, and the Catho
lic princes of Germany prevented him from formally
embracing their doctrines. He died in 1576, and was
succeeded by his eldest son, Rudolph.
See COXE, '• History of the House of Austria;" DeTHOU, " His-
toria sui Temporis;" " Nouvelie Biographic Ganerale."
Maximilian I., Elector of Bavaria, born in 1573.
On the formation by the Protestants of the confederacy
called the Union, (1608,) Maximilian put himself at the j
head of the opposing Catholic faction of the League. ;
In conjunction with the emperor Ferdinand II., he fought
in the Thirty Years' war against the Palatine Frederick V'., j
and conquered the Upper and Lower Palatinate. In 1623 j
he obtained the electoral dignity of the Palatinate and |
the hereditary domains of Frederick V. Maximilian was j
an able ruler, and founded a number of colleges and other
useful institutions. Died in 1651.
See KARI, MARIA VON ARETIS, "Geschichte des Herzogs und j
Kurfiirsten Maximi ian I.," 1842.
Maximilian H., (JOSEPH,) King of Bavaria, the
eldest son of King Lewis, was born in iSil. He mar- !
ried in 1842 a daughter of Prince Frederick William of |
Prussia. In March, 1848, he succeeded his father, who |
abdicated the throne. He opposed the project to unite
the German peoples into one nation or confederacy of
which the King of Prussia should be the head. He died
in March, 1864, and was succeeded by his son Lewis.
Maximilian, (FERDINAND JOSEPH, ) Emperor of
Mexico and Archduke of Austria, born in July, 1832,
was a brother of the emperor Francis Joseph, lie
married Carlotta, or Charlotte, a daughter of Leopold,
King of Belgium, about 1858. In 1859 he was appointed
an admiral and commander-in-chief of the Austrian navy.
In 1863 he was tempted by Napoleon III. to act the part
of emperor in Mexico, then partly conquered by the
French and partly governed by the republican President
luarez. He arrived at the Mexican capital in June, 1864.
He issued a decree that all who adhered to the republic
or resisted his authority should be shot. Many prisoners,
including General Orteaga, accordingly suffered death by
his order. According to the New York "Evening Post,"
fuly i, 1867, he ordered the enslavement of the whole
labouring population of Mexico. The United States
refused to recognize him as emperor, and required Na
poleon to withdraw his army. Maximilian was much
embarrassed by the want of money, and offended the
clerical party (which had favoured him) by refusing to
restore the property of the Church, which had been
confiscated by the Liberals. The French troops de
parted about the end of 1866, after which the republicans
gained several victories and the empire quickly collapsed.
Maximilian was captured at Queretaro in May, and shot
on the I gth of June, 1867.
See his "Recollections of my Life," 3 vo!s., 1868; F. HALL,
" Lii'e of Maximilian," 1868.
Maximilian, (ALEXANDER PHII.IPP,) Prince of Neu-
wied, a German naturalist and traveller, born at Neu-
wied in 1782. In 1815 he set out on a journey through
Brazil, where he spent two years and made a rich col
lection of specimens. On his return he published his
" Travels in Brazil" and a " Description of the Natural
History of Brazil." In 1833 he visited the western part
of the United States. His "Journey through North
America," a magnificent work, illustrated with eighty-
one engravings, came out in 1843, and is said to be
superior to anything of the kind that had hiiherto
appeared in Germany.
Maximilian Mari'a Eman'uel, Elector of Bavaria,
born in 1662, was a grandson of Maximilian I. In 1685
he married Maria Antonia, daughter of the emperor
Leopold I., and was appointed in 1692 Governor of the
Netherlands. Having taken part with the French in
the war of the Spanish succession, he delivered up to
them the Spanish Netherlands. After his defeat at the
battle of Schellenberg, he was obliged by the emperor
to give up his possessions, which, however, were restored
at the peace of Baden in 1714. Died in 1726.
Max'i-min, [ Lat. MAXIMI'NUS; Fr. MAXIMIN, mtk'-
se'ma\',j or, more fully, Cai'us Ju'lius Ve'rus Max-
imi'iius, a native of Thrace, born in 173 A.D., served
in the Roman army under Septimius Severus. Having
followed Alexander Severus in his German campaign,
he caused him to be assassinated, A.D. 235, and was
proclaimed emperor in his stead. In consequence of his
cruelties, the province of Africa soon after revolted, and
Gordianfis was made emperor by 'the senate of Rome,
A.D. 237. Maximinus, having defeated and slain Gor-
diamis, laid siege to Aquileia, during which he was killed
in a mutiny of his soldiers, together with his son, in 238
A.D. If we may trust the concurrent testimony of ancient
writers, Maximin was above eight feet high, well propor
tioned, and of such strength that he could easily draw a
loaded wagon, and with a kick break the leg of a horse.
He is said to have used his wife's bracelet for a finger-
ring.
See TU.LEMONT, " Histoire des Empereurs."
Max-I-mi'iius Da'za, an Illyrian peasant, a relative
of Galerius, was raised by him to the dignity of Caesar,
A.D. 305. He ruled over Syria and Egypt, and perse
cuted the Christians. On the death of Galerius, in 311,
Maximinus took possession of all the Asiatic provinces.
He afterwards made war on Licinius, but was defeated,
and died by poison at Tarsus in 313 A.D.
Maxl-iiius, |Fr. MAXIME, mtk'sem'; It. MASSIMO,
mas'se-mo, ] (MAGNUS CI.KMKNS, ) a usurper of the
Roman empire, was a native of Spain. Having for sev
eral years commanded the Roman army in Britain with
success, he revolted against Gratian about 381 A.D.,
and was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers. He then
invaded Gaul to offer battle to Gratian, who was defeated,
or fled without fighting, and was killed in 383. Theo-
dosius and Valentinian recognized him as Emperor of
Gaul, Spain, and Britain. Attempting to obtain Italy
also by conquest, he was defeated by Theodosius, taken
prisoner, and executed in 388 A.D.
See LE BEAU, " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" TU.LEMONT, " His
toire des Empereurs."
Maximus, [Fr. MAXIME, mfk'sem',] SAINT, sur-
named THE CONFESSOR and THE MONK, an eminent
Greek theologian, born at Constantinople about 580
A.D. He zealously opposed the heresy of the Monothe-
lites, and wrote many works on theology, which were
highly esteemed in the middle ages. Died in 662 A.D.
Max'I-mus THE GREEK, a native of Albania, was
invited to Russia by the grand duke Vassili Ivanovitch,
in order to examine numerous Greek manuscripts re
cently discovered. He made translations of the princi
pal ones into Latin, which were rendered by others into
Slavonian. At the request of the Czar, he undertook
to revise the early translations of the books of the
Greek Church ; but the numerous corrections which he
made gave great offence, and he was excommunicated
as a heretic in 1525. Died in 1556.
Maximus Fabius. See FABIUS.
Max'I-mus Fe-tro'nI-us, an ambitious Roman cour
tier, born in 395 A.D. He was twice chosen consul.
In 455 he procured the assassination of Valentinian
III., was proclaimed emperor, and married Eudoxia, the
widow «f Valentinian. Genseric the Vandal, invited by
Eudoxia, marched an army towards Rome, when Maxi
mus attempted to escape by flight, but was killed by his
soldiers, or by the officers of Eudoxia, in 455 A.D.
See TII.I.KMONT. " Histoire des Empereurs."
Max'I-mus Ru-til'I-us, a Roman jurist, supposed to
have lived under Severus and Caracalla. He was the
author of " Ad Legem Falcidiam,'1 or Commentary on
• the Lex Falcidia.
Max'I-mus Tyr'I-us, [Fr. MAXIME DE TYR, mik'-
sem' deh teH,] an eminent Platonic philosopher, born at
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this.
98
Explanations, p. 23.)
MAXWELL
"554
MAYER US
Tyre in the second century, lived at Athens and Rome
in the reigns of the Antonines and of Com mod us. He
wrote, in Greek, numerous philosophical dissertations,
the style and sentiments of which are commended. Two
of these are entitled "On the Daemonium of Socrates,"
and "On Plato's Opinion respecting the Deity."
See RITTER, " History of Philosophy ;" FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca
Gr.-eca."
Max'well, (Sir MURRAY,) a Scottish naval officer,
born near Perth in 1766, served with distinction in sev
eral campaigns against the French and Spaniards, and
in 1815 accompanied Lord Amherst on his embassy to
China. He was made a knight in 1818. Died in 1831.
See BASH. HALL, " Voyage of Discovery to the Western Coast
o!' Corea," etc. ; " Fraser's Magazine" for October and November,
1842.
Maxwell, (ROKKRT,) one of the Scottish lords of the
regency during the absence of James V. in France, had
a share in the mutiny at Solway Moss. In* the first
Parliament of Mary Queen of Scots, (1543,) he intro
duced a bill to allow the reading of the Scriptures in the
vulgar tongue, which was passed in spite of the oppo
sition of the lord chancellor, the bishops and priests.
Died in 1546.
Max'well, (Wn.UAM HAMILTON,) a writer, born in
Ireland in 1795. He published, besides several novels,
a " Life of Wellington," and contributed to " Bentley's
Miscellany." Died in 1850.
Maxwell, (WILLIAM STIRLING.) See STIRLING.
May, (CAROLINE,) an American writer, and resident
of New York, has published several poems and prose
works, and prepared an edition of the "American Female
Poets," with notes.
May, (EDITH.) See DRINKER.
May, (EDWARD H.,) an American painter, of English
extraction, resided in New York City. He studied under
Couture, in Paris, and produced a number of pictures
which were highly commended by French critics. Among
his master-pieces are " Jewish Captives at Babylon,"
" Francis I. at Prayer after hearing of the Death of his
Son," and a " Scene from Waverley."
See TUCKERMAN, " Book of the Artists."
May, (THOMAS,) an English writer, born in Sussex
about 1595, was appointed by Cromwell secretary and
historiographer to the Parliament. He was the author
of a " History of the English Parliament which began
November, 1640," which is commended by Warburton ;
also the tragedies of " Antigone" and "Agrippina," a
comedy entitled "The Heir," and other works. He
likewise translated Lucan's " Pharsalia," and wrote a
continuation of it, in Latin and English. It is eulogized
by Dr. Johnson and other critics. Died in 1650.
See GIBBER, "Lives of the Poets;" WARBURTON, "Letters to
Hard;" "Monk's Contemporaries," by GUIZOT, London, 1X64.
May, (THOMAS ERSKINE,) an English historian and
writer on law, born about 1815. He published, besides
other works, a " Constitutional History of England from
176010 1860," (1861-63.)
May de Rom ain-Mo tier, mi deh ro'miN' mo'te-i',
(EMMANUEL,) a Swiss writer, born at Berne in 1734,
published a " Military History of the Swiss," etc., (1772.)
Died in 1799.
Maya, ma'yt, a Sanscrit word, signifying " Illusion,"
and applied by the Hindoos in a philosophical or mys
tical sense to that Power which caused or created the
visible phenomena of the universe, it being assumed that
external objects have no absolute existence, but that
they are mere impressions on the mind, according to
the theory held by Berkeley and some other European
philosophers. The Maya of the Hindoo mythology is,
according to some, a mighty goddess, regarded as the
wife or consort of Brahma.
See MOOR, " Hindoo Mythology ;" WILSON, " Sanscrit Dic
tionary."
Mayans y Siscar, ml-5ns' e ses-kaR', [Lat. MAIAN'-
sius,] (GREGORIO,) a Spanish jurist and scholar, born
at Oliva in 1699. He published a "Life of Miguel Cer
vantes," (1738,) and a number of legal and critical works
of a high character. Died in 1781.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature;" STRODTMANN,
" G. Maiansii Vita," 1756.
Maydieu, m.Vde-uh', (JEAN,) a French litterateur,
who was born at Troyes, and lived about 1760-1800. He
wrote several works of fiction.
Mayemie or Maiemie, de, deh mt'yeV, (CHARLES
DE LORRAINE,) Due, an able French general, born in
1554, was the second son of Francis, Duke of Guise.
He fought against the Huguenots in the civil wars
under Charles IX. and Henry III. His brother Henry
and he organized the Catholic League in 1577. (See
GUISE, DE, HENRY, DUKE.) On the death of his brother
Henry, in 1588, the Duke of Mayenne became com-
mander-in-chief of the army of the League. He occupied
Paris in February, 1589, and opposed the succession of
Henry IV., who defeated Mayenne at Ivry in March,
1590. The duke retained possession of Paris until 1593,
and concluded a treaty of peace with Henry IV. in 1596.
Died in 1611.
See NKRVEZE, " Histoire de la Vie du Due de Mayenne," 1618 ;
SISMONDI, " Histoire des Francais ;" DAVII.A, " History of the
Civil Wars of France ;" H. MARTIN, " Histoire de France."
Mayenne, de, (HENRI DE LORRAINE,) Due, a son
of the preceding, born in 1578. He acted a prominent
part in the tumults and violent feuds which prevailed
during the minority of Louis XIII. In 1621 he was
killed at Montauban, where he fought against the Prot
estants.
Mayer, mi'er, (ANDREAS,) a German astronomer,
born at Augsburg in 1716; died in 1782.
May'er, (BRANZ,) an American lawyer and writer,
born at Baltimore in 1809. He published " Mexico
— Aztec, Spanish, and Republican," (1851,) "Observa
tions on Mexican History and Archaeology," etc., and
"Mexican Antiquities," (1858.)
Mayer, mt'ya', (CHARLES JOSEPH,) a French novel
ist and historical writer, born at Toulon in 1751 ; died
about 1825.
Mayer, (JOHANN CHRISTOPH ANDREAS,) a German
anatomist, born at Greifswalde in 1747, became physician
to the King of Prussia in 1789. Died in 1801.
Mayer, mi'er, [Lat. MAYE'RUS,] (JOHANN TOHIAS,)
an eminent German mathematician and astronomer, born
at Marbach in 1723. At an early age he devoted him
self to the study of the e.xact sciences, and in 1750
became professor of mathematics in the University of
Gottingen, and the next year director of the observatory
in that place. In 1755 he published his " Lunar Tables,"
a work of the greatest accuracy and which at once
gained him a high reputation. Among his many able
productions we may name the " Zodiacal Catalogue," a
treatise " On the Libration of the Moon," " Solar Tables,"
and " Terrestrial Refractions." Mayer also discovered
the principle of the repeating circle, since developed by
Borda and employed by him to measure the arc of the
meridian. After Mayer's death, which took place in
1762, the British Parliament, at the suggestion of the
board of longitude, paid to his widow the sum of ^3000,
being the prize offered for the "Lunar Tables."
See A. G. KASTNER, " Eloginm T. Mayeri," 1762; NOPITSCH.
" Lebensbeschreibnng Tobias Mayers," 1805; " Nouvelle Biograplue
Generate. "
Mayer or Mayr, miR, (SiMON,) a celebrated German
composer, born at Mendorf, in Bavaria, in 1763. He
studied under Lenzi and Bertoni in Italy, and in 1802
became chapel-master at Bergamo. He composed a
great number of operas, among the most popular of
which are his " Medea," " Lodoiska," and " Music-Mad,"
(" II Fanatico per la Musica.") Died in 1845.
See FETIS, " Biographic Universelle des Mnsiciens."
Mayerne - Turquet, de, deh mi'verm' tuVki',
(Louis,) a French writer, born at Lyons about 1550, was
the author of a "General History of Spain," and other
works. Died in 1618.
Mayerne-Turquet, de, (THEODORE,) son of the
preceding, born at Geneva in 1573, became physician-
in-ordinary to Henry IV. of France. In 1611 he was
appointed first physician to James I. of England, and
held the same office under Charles I. He was the
author of several valuable medical works in Latin. Died
in 1655.
See SENEBIER, "Histoire litte'raire de Geneve."
Mayerus. See MAYER, (JOHANN TOBIAS.)
a, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; moon;
MAT EUR
555
MAZARIN
Mayeur de Saint-Paul, mt'yUR' deh saN'pol',
(FRANCOIS MARIE,) a French actor and dramatist, born
in Paris in 1758, published a number of comedies,
romances, and poems. Died in 1818.
Maygrier, mi'gRe'a', (JACQUES PIERRE,) a French
surgeon, born at Angouleme in 1771, wrote on anatomy
and medicine. Died in 1835.
May'hew, (HENRY,) an English litterateur and jour
nalist, born in London in 1812. He was one of the found
ers of the periodical entitled " Figaro in London," and
in 1841 became the first editor of " Punch." He sub
sequently edited the "Comic Almanac." Among his
works may be named " What to Teach, and How to
Teach it," (1842,) "London Labour and the London
Poor," (1851,) and "The Wonders of Science." In
conjunction with his brothers Augustus and Horace,
he published a series of comic sketches.
May'hew, (JONATHAN,) D.D., an American divine,
born in Martha's Vineyard in 1720, was distinguished as
a preacher and controversialist, and published a number
of theological works. Among these we may name
"Observations on the Charter and Conduct of the So
ciety for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts," and
" Christian Sobriety." Died in 1766.
Mayuard, m^'naa', (FRANCOIS,) a French poet, born
at Toulouse in 1582, was an intimate friend of Malherbe.
He was the author of odes, epigrams, and other poems,
which are characterized by La Harpeas possessing great
eloquence of diction, but are deficient in warmth. Died
in 1646.
May'nard, (Sir JOHN,) an English lawyer, born in
Devonshire in 1602. He became Cromwell's sergeant
in 1653, and, after the restoration, filled the same office
under Charles II. He was active in promoting the Revo
lution of 1688, and was appointed in 1689 one of the
lords commissioners of the great seal of England. Died
in 1690.
Mayne, man, (JASPER,) an English divine and poet,
born in Devonshire in 1604. He obtained several offices
under Charles I., of which he was deprived after Crom
well's usurpation. On the restoration he was appointed
chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles II., and Archdeacon of
Chichester. He was the author of a comedy entitled
"The City Match," and a tragi-comedy called "The
Amorous Warre." Died in 1672.
See WOOD, "Athenae Oxonienses ;" PRINCE, "Worthies of
Devon;" CAMPBELL, "Specimens of the British Poets."
Mayno, ml'no, (JuAN BAUTISTA,) a Spanish painter,
born at Toledo about 1590, was drawing-master to Philip
IV. Among his best productions are "The Nativity"
and "The Resurrection." Died in 1654.
See QUILLIET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols."
Maynwaring, man'a-ring, (ARTHUR,) an English
satirist and political writer, born in Shropshire in 1668.
He was for a time attached to the cause of James II.,
and satirized the government of William III., to which,
however, he was afterwards reconciled. After the peace
of Ryswick he visited Paris, where he made the ac
quaintance of Boileau. He was a member of Parliament
for Preston in 1705. Maynwaring's productions, both in
prose and verse, were much esteemed, and Sir Richard
Steele dedicated to him the first volume of the "Tatler."
Died in 1712.
See OLD.MIXON, "Life and Posthumous Works of A. Mayn
waring."
Mayo, ma'o, (AMORY DWIGHT,) an American divine,
born at Warwick, Massachusetts, in 1823, became pastor
of the First Congregational Unitarian Church in Albany.
He published "Graces and Powers of the Christian
Life," (1852,) "Symbols of the Capital, "and other works.
His wife, S. C. EDGARTON MAYO, was the author of a
number of poems of great beauty, chiefly on religious
subjects. She died about 1850.
Ma'yo, (HERUERT,) an English physician, became
professor of anatomy and physiology at King's College,
London, and acquired distinction as a lecturer. He was
a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Geological
Society. Among his principal works are "Outlines of
Human Physiology," (1827,) " Outlines of Human Pa
thology," (1836,) (translated into German,) "Philosophy
of Living," (1837,) "The Nervous System and its Func
tions," (1842,) and "Letters on the Truths contained in
Popular Superstitions," (1849.) Died near Mentz in 1852.
Ma'yo, (RICHARD SOUTHWELL BOURKE,) EARL OK,
and Lord Naas, a Conservative statesman, was born in
Dublin in 1822. He was appointed chief secretary for
Ireland in 1852, in 1858, and again in 1866. In 1868
he became Governor-General of India. Died in 1870.
Mayo, (WILLIAM STARHUCK,) an American physician
and writer, born at Ogdensburg, New York, in 1812. He
published, in 1849, " Kaloolah," a fictitious tale of African
adventure, which was followed by " The Berber, or the
Mountaineer of the Atlas," (1850,) and "Romance-Dust
from the Historic Placer."
Mayow, ma'o, ? (JOHN,) an English .physician, born
in Cornwall in 1645, was the author of a valuable work
"On Nitre and Nitro-Aerial Spirit," in which he origi
nated some of the most important modern discoveries
in pneumatic chemistry. Died in 1679.
Mayr, von, fon miR, (JOHANN MARIE ECK,) a Ger
man general, born in Vienna in 1716, fought for Frede
rick the Great in the Seven Years' war. Died in 1759.
Mayseder, ml'zeh-der, (JOSEPH,) a German violinist
and composer, born at Vienna in 1789.
Mazarin, maz'a-reen', [Fr. pron. mi/za"/raN/ ; It. MA-
ZARINI, mad-za-ree'nee ; Lat. MAZARI'NUS,] (GiULio or
JULES,) CARDINAL, a celebrated courtier and prime min
ister of France, was born in Italy in 1602. He was, edu
cated in a college of Jesuits at Rome, (where his father,
Pietro Mazarini, resided,) and adopted the profession of
law. He had acquired the reputation of an adroit nego
tiator in the service of the pope, when, in 1630, he met
Cardinal Richelieu, who secured his attachment to the
interest of France. When the French and Spanish were
about to engage at Casal, he prevented a battle, and ne
gotiated the treaty of Cherasco in 1631. He was nuncio
extraordinary to France in 1634, and gained the favour
of the French king, who sent him as ambassador to
Savoy in 1640. Through the influence of the French
court, Mazarin was made a cardinal in 1641. The next
year he was admitted into the supreme council. The
death of Richelieu (in 1642) and of Louis XIII. (in 1643)
opened a wider sphere to the ambition of Mazarin, whom
Richelieu recommended as his successor. By the will
of the late king he was declared sole adviser of the
queen-regent, Anne of Austria, in respect to ecclesiastic
affairs, and he soon acquired the principal power in the
government, as well as the confidence of that queen. He
used his power at first with moderation, and courted
popularity by gracious and affable manners. He prose
cuted the war against Spain which began under his pre
decessor, and in which Conde and Turenne maintained
the honour of the French arms. A dispute which arose
between the court and the Parliament of Paris was fo
mented by Cardinal de Retz into the revolt of the Paris
ians called " the Day of the Barricades," (August 27,
1648,) and was followed by the civil war of the Fronde.
The" queen, with her son, Louis XIV., and Mazarin, were
driven out of Paris in 1649 by the Frondeurs. This civil
war was more remarkable for the levity of the people than
for their military exploits. Ladies directed the several
factions, and cabals were made or broken by amorous
intrigues. In the midst of these domestic broils, Maza
rin had been so fortunate or politic as to conclude with
the German emperor the famous treaty of Westphalia,
(1648,) by which the latter ceded to France the province
of Alsace. In 1651 the cardinal was exiled to Cologne ;
but about two years later he returned to the capital in
triumph, and the end of the rebellion, in 1654, restored
him to his former power. He made in 1655 a treaty of
alliance with Cromwell, who, being solicited as an ally
by the French and the Spanish courts, preferred the
former. He acquired the same influence over the. king,
who had attained his majority, as he had exerted over
the queen. It is said that Louis XIV. wished to marry
Marie Mancini, a niece of his minister, but the latter
discouraged the match, and in 1659 negotiated a marriage
with a Spanish princess. Mazarin once said " Louis con
tained the material for four kings and one honest man."
He died at Vincennes in March, 1661. His person was
remarkably handsome, and his manners fascinating.
"Mazarin," says Mignet, "had a far-seeing and invent-
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MAZARINl
1556
M4ZZINI
ive mind, a character rather supple than feeble. His
device was 'Le Temps et moi.'" Much diversity of
opinion exists respecting his merit as a statesman ; but
it may safely be affirmed that he was able and skilful,
and, though avaricious, he was not a cruel or revengeful
minister.
See AUBERV, " Histoire clii Cardinal Mazarin," 1751 ; MIGNET,
" Memoires relatifs a la Succession d'Espagne;" SAINT-AUI.AIRE,
" Histoire de la Fronde ;" HAZIN, " Histoire de France sous le Mi-
nistere du Cardinal Mazarin ;" VOI.TAIRK, " Siecle de Louis XIV ;"
GUAI.DO-PKIORATO, "Vita del Cardinal Mazarini," 1662; JOHN
CALVERT, " Life of Cardinal Ma/.arin." 1670; RETZ, "Memoires:"
SISMONDI, "Histoire des Francais ;" GRAMONT, "Memoires;" V.
COUSIN, " La Jeunesse de Ma/.arin;" "Nmivelle Biographic Gene-
rale ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1831, and February, 1832.
Mazaiini. See MAZARIN.
Mazarinus. See MAZARIN.
Mazarredo y Salazar, ma-thar-ra'Do e sa-la-
than', (JosE MARIA,) a Spanish admiral, born at Bilbao
in 1714, distinguished himself by his defence of Cadiz
against the English in 1797. He was appointed by Joseph
Bonaparte minister of the marine in 1808. Died in 1812.
Mazdak, maz'dak, or Maz'dek, a Persian impostor,
who was born about 470 A.D., professed to be a prophet,
and advocated a community of property. He induced
King Kobad to adopt his system, and effected great
changes in the social order.
Mazdek. See MA/.DAK.
Mazeas, mt'za'a', (Gun.i.AUME,) a French writer,
born at Lamlernau in 1712, was a Fellow of the Royal
Society of London. Died in 1776.
Mazel, mi'zel', (ABRAHAM,) one of the leaders of
the Camisards in France, born at Saint-Jean-du-Gard.
After the insurrection of the Cevennes, in 1702, he was
imprisoned, but, having escaped, he again attempted to
rouse the people to revolt, and was killed in a skirmish
near Uzes in 1710.
See COUKT, " Hisioire des Camisards."
Mazeline, maV/len', (PiKRRF.,) a French sculptor,
born at Rouen in 1633. The palace of Versailles is
adorned with several ot his works. Died in 1708.
Ma-zep'pa, (I VAN STEPANOVITCH,) a celebrated Po
lish adventurer, burn in the government of Kief in 1644,
was educated at the court of John Casimir, King of
Poland. I laving been detected in an intrigue with the wife
of a nobleman, he was bound by his orders to one of the
wild horses of the Ukraine and carried to the country
of the Cossacks. He was kindly received by them,
and rose to be hetman, or commander-in-chief of their
armies, about 1687. When Peter the Great attempted
to take possession of the Ukraine, Mazeppa strongly
opposed the measure, but, finding resistance vain, en
tered into a negotiation with Charles XII. of Sweden
for the independence of his country. The plan being
discovered, and Mazeppa deserted by his troops, lie
joined the Swedish army, and after the battle of Pultava
took refuge in Turkey, where he died in 1709. The ad
ventures of Mazeppa have formed the subject of one of
Byron's poems.
See VOLTAIRE, "Histoire de Charles XII;" LESUR, "Histoire
des Cosaques;" ADI.KRFEI.D, " Hist< ire militaire de Charles XII ;"
K.AMKNSKI, "Life of Mazepra," (in Russian,) 1834.
Mazois, nii'zwa', (CHARLES FRANCOIS,) a French
architect and antiquary, born at Lorient in 1783, vvas
employed by Murat, King of Naples, to restore the
Portici palace, and other edifices. He afterwards in
vestigated the antiquities of Pompeii. He published in
iSu his principal work, "The Ruins of Pompeii," the
last two volumes of which appeared after his death.
Died in 1826.
Mazolini, mad-zo-lee'nee, [Lat. PRIE'RIAS, derived
from the name of his birthplace,] (SiLVESTRO,) an Italian
theologian, born at Prierio about 1460; died in 1523.
Mazo-Martinez, del, del ma'tho maR-tee'neth,
(JUAN BAUTISTA,) a Spanish painter, born at Madrid
about 1620, was a pupil and son-in-law of Velasquez,
whom he succeeded in 1661 as painter to Philip IV. His
portraits and landscapes are highly esteemed. Died in
1687.
Mazure, mt'zuR', (F. A. J.,) a French journalist and
litterateur, born in Paris in 1776, wrote a " History of
the English Revolution of 1688," and a " Life of Vol
taire." Died in 1828.
Mazza, mat'sa, (ANDREA,) an Italian philologist,
born at Parma in 1724. He published "Select Chap
ters of Church History," (in Latin, 1757.) Died in 1797.
Mazza, (ANGEI.O,) an Italian poet, born at Parma in
1741, became professor of Greek in his native city, (1768.)
He was the author of an ode entitled "Aura Armonica,"
and a number of lyrics, which obtained for him a high
reputation. Died in 1817.
See TIPAI.DO, " Biografia degli Ita'hni illustri."
Mazza, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian sculptor, born at Bo
logna in 1652 ; died in 1741.
Mazzinghi, mat-sen'gee ? (JOSEPH,) an English mu
sician and composer, born in London in 1768, was
patronized by George III. and George IV. Among his
most popular operas we may name "The Blind Girl,"
"The Exile," and "Paul and Virginia." Died at Bath
in 1844.
Mazzini, mat-see'nee, (GIUSEPPE,) a distinguished
Italian patriot and writer, born at Genoa about 1807, was
educated for the profession of law. In his youth he
wrote a number of literary articles for the " Inclicatore
Genovese" and other journals, and was an adherent of
the romantic school. He devoted himself at an early
age to the liberation and unity of Italy, which was then
degraded and oppressed by Austria and by various petty
despots. In 1830 he joined the Society of Carbonari,
which he proposed to reform. Having been banished
or proscribed, he retired in 1831 to Marseilles, where he
organized a political association called " Young Italy,"
(La Giovine Italia,) whose watchword was "God and
the People," and whose fundamental idea was that the
liberty of the Italians can only be secured by the union
of the several states or kingdoms into one nation. He
propagated his principles by writings, and, during a
long period of exile and adversity, pursued his purpose
witli invincible constancy.
About 1842 he became a resident of London, and
began to contribute political and scientific articles to
various journals, among which was the " Westminster
Review." His letters were opened in the post-office in
1844 by the British secretary for the home department,
Sir James Graham. The revolutionary movements of
1848 restored him to his native country. He issued a
journal called " Italia del Popolo," and, although he
preferred a republic, was disposed to co-operate with
King Charles Albert in resistance to Austrian domina
tion, and he enlisted under the standard of Garibaldi.
In February, 1849, he went to Rome, in which a republic
had recently been organized after the flight of the pope.
He was quickly recognized as the leader and master
spirit of the republicans, and in March of that year
Mazzini, Saffi, and Armellini were appointed triumvirs.
They defended Rome resolutely against the French
army, by which that city vvas at length captured in July,
1849. Mazzini then went into exile, and chose London
as the base of his operations. He associated himself
with Kossuth and Ledru-Rollin to form an international
revolutionary committee about 1851.
In 1857 he incited an insurrection in Northern Italy,
and went to Genoa to direct it ; but the movement failed.
He co-operated with Garibaldi in his victorious expedi
tion to Sicily in 1860, and opposed the project which
Napoleon III. formed for a confederation of Italian
states. In 1861 he republished, with additions, an es
say "On the Unity of Italy," in which he says, " I know
that the idea of a confederation is both the counsel and
design of one whom many Italians still regard as the
friend and protector of Italy ; but I know, too, that he is
treacherous, a foreigner, and a despot. That he should
seek to weaken in order to dominate us is easily under
stood ; but the mere fact that the suggestion springs
from such a source ought to be one of the most powerful
warnings against it."
Some of his predictions have been verified by recent
events in Italy, which have tended to raise his reputation
for sagacity and practical wisdom. He is the author of
a work entitled "The Duties of Man," (1858; English
version, 1862,) which enjoys great popularity in Italy,
and of many other works. In 1864 appeared the first
volume of the "Life and Writings of Joseph Mazzini,"
in English, (6 vols.)
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short: a, e, i. o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; radon?
MAZZOCCHI
'557
MEADE
The character of Mazzini is well described by Thomas
Carlyle in a letter to the London "Times," June, 1844,
reprinted in the "Westminster Review" for September
of that year. He says, " I have had the honour to know
M. Mazzini for a series of years ; and I can, with great
freedom, testify to all men that he, if I have ever seen
one such, is a man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling
veracity, humanity, and nobleness of mind, — one of those
rare men, numerable, unfortunately, but as units in this
world, who are worthy to be called martyr-souls ; who
in silence piously in their daily life understand and
practise what is meant by that."
See his "Autobiography," 6 vols., 1864; JULES DK BREVAL,
" Mazzini jtigd par lui-meme," 1853 ; " Jahrbuch zum Conversations
Lexikon" for 1859.
Ma-zzocchi, mat-sok'kee, or Mazzoccolo, mat-sok'-
ko-lo, (ALESSio SIMMACHO,) an Italian antiquary, born
at Santa Maria di Capua in 1684. He became professor
of Greek and Hebrew at Naples, and was a member of
the Academy of Inscriptions of Paris. He wrote many
valuable treatises in Latin and Italian. Died in 1771.
Mazzoccolo. See MAZZOCCHI.
Mazzola, mat-so'la, (GIROI.AMO BEDOLO,) an Italian
painter, sometimes called MAZZOLINO, born near Parma
in 1 503, was the most distinguished pupil of Parmigiano.
He excelled as a colorist and in perspective. Among
his best productions are a " Madonna with Saint Cathe
rine," and "Miracle of the Multiplication of Loaves."
Died about 1590.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc.
Mazzola, Mazzuola, mat-soo-o'la, or Mazzuoli,
mat-soo-o'lee, (GiROLAMO FRANCESCO MARIA,) an emi
nent Italian painter, surnamed IL PARMIGIANO, ("the
Parmesan,") born at Parma in 1503. He visited Rome
in 1523, and was employed by Clement VII. to execute
a number of works in that city. His style, formed
on that of Correggio and Raphael, is characterized by
exceeding grace and delicacy of form and softness of
colouring, and it was said by his admirers that " the
spirit of Raphael had passed into him." Among his
master-pieces are the " Madonna della Rosa," in the
gallery of Dresden, an "Annunciation," in the principal
church of Viadana, the "Madonna with Saint Margaret,
Saint Jerome," etc., in the Museum at Bologna, the
" Madonna dello Lungo Collo," at Florence, and the
" Vision of Saint Jerome," in the National Gallery, Lon
don. Mazzola was the first Italian artist who engraved
with aquafortis. Died in 1540.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; AFFO, "Vita di F-
Mazzo'a," 1784; MRS. JAMESON, "Memoirs of Early Italian
Painters;" F. BELLINI, "Cenni intorno alia Vita ed alle Opere di
F. Mazzola," 1844; MORTARA, " Memoria della Vita di F. Maz
zuola," 1846.
Mazzolari, mat-so-la'ree, (GIUSEPPE MARIA,) called
also MARIANO PARTENIO, an Italian writer and excellent
Latin scholar, born at Pesaro in 1712. He published
poems, orations, critical essays, commentaries, etc. Died
in 1786.
See MONTENARI, " Biografia di G. M. Mazzolari," 1837.
Mazzoli See MAZZOLA.
Mazzoliiio, mat-so-lee'no, (Lunovico,) a celebrated
Italian painter, surnamed II. FERKARESK, was born at
Ferrara in 1481. His "Adoration of the Magi," and
" Christ in the Midst of the Scribes," are ranked among
his master-pieces. Died about 1530.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc.
Mazzoni, mat-so'nee, (GiACOMO,) an Italian writer,
born at Cesena in 1548. He produced several critical
and philosophical works, the most important of which
is his "Defence of Dante," ("Defesa di Dante," 1573.)
He was an intimate friend of Tasso. Died in 19^8.
See SERASSI, "Vita di G. Mazzoni," 1790; GINGUEN^, " Histoire
de la Litterature Italienne."
Mazzuchelli, mat-soo-kel'lee, (GIOVANNI MARIA,)
COUNT, an Italian biographer, born at Brescia in 1707.
He was the author of " Historical and Critical Notices
of the Lives and Writings of Learned Italians," ("Scrit-
tori d'ltalia, cioe Notizie storiche e critiche intorno alle
Vite ed agli Scritti de letterati Italian!,") a work of great
merit, which he did not live to complete. He published
two volumes of this work, (1753-63.) Among his other
works are a "Life of Archimedes," (1737,) and a "Life
of Pietro Aretino," (1741.) Died in 1765.
See RODEI.LA, "Vita del Conte G. Mazzuchelli," 1766; FABSONI,
" Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" TIPALDO, "Biografia degli
Italian! illustri;" " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Mazzuchelli, (PIERO FRANCESCO,) an Italian painter,
surnamed IL MORAZZONE, was born at the village of that
name in 1571. He studied at Milan, where he after
wards established a school. Among his principal works
are a " Flagellation," and " Saint Michael Triumphant."
Died in 1626.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Mazzuola. See MAZZOLA.
Mazzuoli. See MAZZOLA.
Mazzuoli, mat-soo-o'lee, or Mazzola, mat'so-la,
(FILIPPO or GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter, surnamed IL
BASTARUOLO, born at Ferrara about 1530; died in 1589.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc.
Mead, (MATTHEW,) an English nonconformist divine,
born in Buckinghamshire in 1629. He was the author
of "The Young Man's Remembrancer," and "Sermons
on Ezekiel's Wheels." Died in 1699.
Mead, (RICHARD,) a celebrated English physician,
son of the preceding, was born at Stepney in 1673. He
studied at Leyden, and subsequently visited Italy, where
he took his medical degree at Padua. He was after
wards elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the
College of Physicians, and on the accession of George
II. (1727) became his physician-in-ordinary. He was
the author of a "Mechanical Account of Poisons,"
(1702,) "A Short Discourse concerning Pestilential Con
tagion," (1720,) which was translated into French and
Latin, " Medicina Sacra," (1749,) or an account of dis
eases mentioned in the Bible, and other medical works
of a high character. Dr. Mead numbered among his
friends Pope, Newton, and Boerhaave. Died in 1754.
See MATV, "Authentic Memoirs of Richard Mead," 1755; LE-
MAN, " Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Dr. Richard Mead."
Meade, meed, (GEORGE G.,) a distinguished American
general, was born in 1816, at Cadiz, in Spain, where
his father, R. W. Meade, was United States consul.
He graduated at West Point in 1835, served in the
Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a captain in 1856.
He was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in
August, 1861, and served in the battle of Gaines's Mill,
June 27, 1862. At Malvern Hill he received two wounds,
July i. He commanded a division at Antietam, Sep
tember 17, 1862. Having been raised to the rank of
major-general, he directed a corps at the battle of Fred-
ericksburg, December 13, 1862, and at that of Chancel-
lorsville, May 2-3, 1863. On the 28th of June ensuing,
he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army of
the Potomac. Just before the date last named, Gen
eral Lee had invaded Pennsylvania with a large army,
which the Union army encountered at Gettysburg on
the ist of July. General Meade, whose forces occu
pied a good position on a range of hills, acted mostly on
the defensive at this battle, which lasted three clays and
contributed largely to the triumph of the Union cause.
(See LEE, R. E.) General Meade reported that he took
at Gettysburg 13,621 prisoners, some of whom were
probably wounded, and he lost 16,643 killed and wounded.
He was promoted to be a brigadier-general of the regu
lar army by a commission dated July 3, 1863. About
the 1 8th of July he moved his army across the Potomac
into Virginia, where he had several skirmishes with the
enemy in October and November, 1863. He was second
in command of the army of the Potomac in its operations
against Richmond in 1864. " I tried as far as possible,"
says General Grant, "to leave General Meade in inde
pendent command of the army of the Potomac. My
instructions for that army were all through him, and
were general in their nature, leaving all the details and the
execution to him. The campaigns that followed proved
him to be the right man in the right place." In August,
1864, he was appointed a major-general of the regular
army. The army of which he had the immediate com
mand fought great battles at the Wilderness, Spottsyl-
vania Court- House, and Cold Harbour, and was em
ployed many months in the siege of Petersburg. (See
GRANT, U. S.) General Meade was appointed com-
•e as k; $ as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23. )
MEADE
1558
MEDICI
mander of the third military district, comprising Georgia,
Florida, and Alabama, in December, 1867.
Meade, (RICHARD KIDDER,) an American soldier of
the Revolution, born in Nansemond county, Virginia,
about 1 750, was one of General Washington's aides. Died
about 1810.
Meade, (WILLIAM,) D.D., son of the preceding, was
born in Clarke county, Virginia, in 1789. He graduated
at Princeton College in 1808, and in 1841 succeeded
Bishop Moore as Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in Virginia. He published several theological
works. Died in 1862.
Meadowcourt, m§d'o-kort, (RICHARD,) an English
critic, born in Staffordshire in 1697, published Notes on
Milton's " Paradise Regained." Died in 1769.
Meagher, ma'ner or ma'er, (THOMAS FRANCIS,) a
general, born at Waterford, Ireland, in 1823. He joined
the movement for the independence of Ireland, and was
condemned in 1848 to banishment or penal servitude
for life. He escaped from Tasmania in 1852, and took
refuge in the United States. He raised in 1861 an Irish
brigade, which he commanded at Gaines's Mill, June
27, at Antietam, September 17, and at Fredericksburg,
December 13, 1862. Died in 1867.
Mean, de, deh ma'6N', (CHARI.KS,) BARON, a Belgian
jurist, born at Liege in 1604; died in 1674.
Means, (ALEXANDER,) a Methodist minister, born
in North Carolina in 1801. He became professor of
natural science in Emory College in 1838, and professor
of chemistry in a medical college at Atlanta, Georgia,
in 1855.
Meaume, mom, (finotTARD,) a French jurist and
archaeologist, born at Ronen in 1812. Among his works
is a "Life of Jacques Callot," (2 vols., 1860.)
Mecenate. See MAECENAS.
Mecene, the French of M<«CENAS, (which see.)
Mechain, ma'sha.N', (PIERRE FRANC.OIS ANDR£,) an
eminent French astronomer, born at Laon in 1744.
Having visited Paris, he acquired the friendship and
patronage of Lalande. He was elected a member of the
Academy of Sciences about 1782, and in 1785 succeeded
Jeaurat as editor of the " Connaissances des Temps.7' In
1791 he was appointed, conjointly with Delambre, to
measure the arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and
Barcelona. Dissatisfied with the result of his calcula
tions, he was preparing to prolong the measurement to
the Balearic Isles, when he was attacked with fever, and
died on the journey, (1805.)
See DELAMBRE, "Histoire de 1'Astronomie au dix-huitieme
Siecle."
Mechel, mek'el, (CHRISTIAN,) a Swiss engraver, born
at Bale in 1737; died in 1817.
Mecheln, mgK'eln, or Meckenen, van, vSn mek'-
keh-nen', (ISRAEL,) a celebrated German painter and
engraver, said to have been born near Bocholt, in the
bishopric of Munster. It is, however, supposed by many
that there were two artists of the name. The principal
works attributed to Meister Israel, as he was called, are
in the Pinakothek at Munich. They possess great excel
lence, and entitle him to rank with Van Eyck, Memling,
and other eminent painters of the Flemish school. Died
in 1503.
Mecheriiio. See BKCCAFUMI.
Mechi, m§k'e, ? (JOHN JOSEPH,) a distinguished cul
tivator and agricultural writer, of Italian extraction, born
in England about 1800. Having made a fortune by trade
in London, he purchased in Essex a farm, which is es
teemed one of the finest in England. He also published
"Letters on Agricultural Improvement," "Experience
in Drainage," and " How to Farm Profitably," (1859.)
Mechitar. See MKKHITAR.
Meckel, me'k'kel, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH,) an eminent
German anatomist, born at Wetzlar in 1714. He became
surgeon to the King of Prussia. He made discoverie
in anatomy, and wrote numerous medical and anatomical
works. Died in 1774.
See J. H. S. FORMEY, " filoge de M. Meckel," 1774.
Meckel, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH,) a German anatomist,
born at Halle in 1781, was a grandson of the preceding.
He became professor of surgery and anatomy at Halle
in 1806. He published " Contributions to Comparative
Anatomy," and translated Cuvier's " Comparative Anat
omy," to which he added valuable notes. Died in 1833.
Meckenen. See MECKELN.
Meda, ma'df, or Merda, mea'df, (CHARLES AN
DRE,) a French general, born in 1775, served in the prin
cipal wars of the Revolution, and attained the rank of
general of brigade, (1808.) He was mortally wounded at
the battle of Moskwa, (1812.)
Mede, meed, (JOSEPH,) an eminent English scholar
and divine, born in Essex in 1586. He studied at Christ
College, Cambridge, where he afterwards became pro
fessor of Greek. His "Clavis Apocalyptica," published
in 1627, is esteemed a standard work. Died in 1638.
See "Life of Joseph Mede," prefixed to his works, 1672.
Me-de'a, [Gr. M//<5«a; Fr. MEDEK, ma'cla',] a famous
sorceress, daughter of /Eetes, King of Colchis. Having
assisted Jason to obtain the golden fleece, she became
his wife and accompanied him to Greece. Being after
wards deserted by him, she destroyed their two sons.
The story of Medea has formed the subject of tragedies
by Euripides and Sophocles among the ancients, and
Corneille among the moderns. Those written by Soph
ocles, /Eschylus, and Ovid are lost.
Medee. See MEDKA.
Mederer, ma'deh-rer, (JOHANN NEPOMUK,) a Ger
man litterateur, born in 1734, published several works on
German history. Died in 1808.
Med'hurst, (WALTER HENRY,) an English mission
ary and Chinese scholar, born in London in 1796. Hav
ing spent many years in China, Java, and Malacca, and
become thoroughly versed in the languages of those
countries, he published a " Chinese-and-English Dic
tionary," (1842,) "Chinese Dialogues," (1844,) "English-
and-Japanese Vocabulary," and other works. Died in
1857-
Medici, (A LESS AN DUO DE'.) See LEO XI.
Medici, de', da m£d'e-chee or ma'de-chee, ( ALESSAN-
DRO,) the subverter of the liberties of Florence, born in
1510, is supposed by some to have been a natural son of
Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, and by others, of the cardi
nal Giulio de' Medici, afterwards Clement VII. After
the sacking of Rome, in 1527, the latter made a treaty
with the emperor Charles V. in 1529, by which it was
agreed that the Medici should be restored to their
former rank at Florence, with Alexander as chief of the
republic. A marriage was also arranged betsveen him
and Margaret of Austria, a natural daughter of the em
peror. In 1530 Florence was taken by the Imperial
troops under Ferdinand de Gonzaga, and soon after the
pope obtained from the emperor a diploma which was
to decide the constitution of Florence. By this article
Alexander was declared head of the republic, but the
Florentines were left in possession of the same privileges
they had enjoyed under the former Medici. At length, by
the united intrigues of Clement VII. and Alexander, the
latter was declared duke of the republic in 1532, and the
old form of government was abolished. He now sig
nalized himself by every species of cruelty and oppres
sion. In 1535, Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici, whom he
had long feared as a rival, was poisoned by his orders ;
and he is believed to have caused the death of his own
mother in the same manner. In 1537, Lorenzino cle"
Medici, a distant relative of the duke, desiring to rid
his country of such a tyrant, procured his assassination.
Alexander left a son, named Giulia.no.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" MADAME
ALLART, " Histoire de la Republique cle Florence."
Medici, de', (CosiMo or COSMO,) surnamed THE
ELDER, a celebrated statesman of the Florentine repub
lic, was born in 1389. lie was a liberal patron of learning
and the arts, and made a munificent use of the immense
fortune he had accumulated by commerce, in adorning
his native city with public edifices and founding institu
tions for educational and charitable purposes. Among the
most important of these was an academy at Florence for
teaching the Platonic philosophy, at the head of which
he placed Marsilio Ficino. He also made a large col
lection of Latin, Greek, and Oriental manuscripts, which
he bestowed on the Laurentian Library. These benefits,
and the urbanity and moderation of his character, won
for him great personal popularity and the title of " Father
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y", short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
MEDICI
1559
MEDINA
of his Country." To give a detailed account of his ser
vices to literature and art would be to write the history
of the Renaissance in the first half of the fifteenth cen
tury. Li the words of Ginguene, " One saw at Florence
Masaccio and Lippi adorn churches and palaces with
the productions of their pencil, Donatelli give life and
expression to marble, and Brunelleschi, architect, sculp
tor, and poet, raise the magnificent cupola of Santa
Maria del Fiore ; while the Greek refugees, in return
for the noble asylum he had given them, spread abroad
the treasures of their beautiful language and the master
pieces of their orators, philosophers, and poets." Cosimo
died in 1464, leaving a son, named Piero.
Medici, de', (CosiMO,) called THE GREAT, [Lat.
COS'MUS MEDICE'US MAG'NUS,] son of the general
Giovanni de' Medici, was born in 1519. On the death of
Alexander he was declared his successor in 1537, through
the influence of Cardinal Cibo, which choice was con
firmed by Charles V. In 1537 he obtained a victory at
Montemerlo over the hostile Florentines. Cruel and
suspicious in his disposition, he caused upwards of four
hundred Florentine emigrants to be put to death in the
early part of his reign, and, having deprived the magis
trates of all authority, was invested with absolute power.
In 1554 the Marquis de Marignano, one of his generals,
defeated the French army under Marshal Strozzi, at
Siamiagallo, and soon after Philip II., having succeeded
the emperor, conferred upon the Duke of Florence the
state of Sienna, with the exception of the ports. In 1562
Giovanni de' Medici, a son of Cosimo, died suddenly,
as is supposed, by the hand of his brother Don Garcias.
A short time 'after, the latter also died, and his father
was charged with his death. Eleonora of Toledo, wife
of the grand duke, soon followed her sons, and her death
was likewise attributed to Cosimo. These fatal events
form the subject of Alfieri's tragedy of "Don Garcias."
In 1564 Cosimo made his son Francesco his associate in
the government, and in 1569 he was declared Grand
Duke of Tuscany by a bull of Pius V. He died in 1574,
leaving three legitimate sons, Francesco, Ferdinand, and
Piero.
See BAI.DINI, "Vita di Cosmo de' Medici 1.," 1578; FAHRONI,
" Magni Cosmi Medicei Vita ;" ALDO MANUCCI, "Vita di Cosimo
de' Medici," 1586; SISMONDI, " Histoire des Repubiiques Itali-
ennes. "
Medici, de', (CosiMO II.,) Grand Duke of Tuscany,
born in 1590, was a son of Ferdinand I. He began to
reign in 1609, and ruled with moderation and clemency.
Died in 1621.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Repubiiques Italiennes."
Medici, de', (CosiMO III.,) a son of Ferdinand II.,
was born in 1642, and became grand duke in 1670. He
married Marguerite d'Orleans, (a daughter of Gaston de
France,) who regarded Cosimo with extreme dislike and
caused him much trouble. He died in 1723, and his
family then became extinct.
See BOTTA, "Storia d' Italia."
Medici, de', (GIOVANNI.) See LEO X.
Medici, de', (GIOVANNI,) an Italian statesman, born
in 1360, was the father of Cosimo the Elder, noticed
above. He amassed a large fortune by commerce, and
rose through various offices to be gonfaloniere of justice
in 1421. Died in 1428.
See MACHIAVKL, " Storie Florentine."
Medici, de', (GIOVANNI,) an Italian general, of the
same family as the preceding, was born in 1498. He
distinguished himself both by his courage and his
ferocity in the civil wars of his country, and afterwards
entered the French service. He was mortally wounded
in battle in 1526.
Medici, de', (GIULIANO,) youngest son of Lorenzo
the Magnificent, was born in 1478. He married in 1515
Philiberta of Savoy, aunt of Francis I., by whom he
was created Duke of Nemours. Died in 1516.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes."
Medici, de', (Giui.io.) See CLEMENT VII.
Medici, de', (Ippoi.rro,) an Italian cardinal, born at
Urbino in 1511, was a natural son of Giuliano, noticed
above. He possessed immense wealth, and was noted
for his accomplishments and his profligacy. He died
in 1535, from the effects of poison administered, it is
supposed, by order of Alessandro de' Medici, Duke
of Florence.
See VARCHI, " Istoria Fiorentina."
Medici, de', (LORENZO I.,) surnamed THE MAGNIFI
CENT, [Fr. LAURENT LE MAGNIFIQUE, 16'roN' leh mSn'-
ye'fek' ; Lat. LAUREN'TIUS MED'ICES or MEDICE'US ;
It. LORENZO IL MAGMFICO, lo-re"n'zo el man-yef'e-ko,]
Prince of Florence, was born in 1448. He was the son
of Piero I., and grandson of Cosimo the Elder, and,
having early entered public life, succeeded to the influ
ence and popularity of his predecessors. He was care
fully educated by the best masters of the time, being
instructed in the Platonic philosophy by the celebrated
Marsilio Ficino. In 1478 he narrowly escaped falling
a victim to a conspiracy formed by the Pazzi family of
Florence in conjunction with the Archbishop of Pisa
and Pope Sixtus IV. His brother Giuliano was assas
sinated, and he received a slight wound. The Arch
bishop of Pisa was hanged for this offence, and Lorenzo
was excommunicated by Pope Sixtus IV. In 1484 the
latter died, and was succeeded by Innocent VIII., who
became a friend and ally of Lorenzo. Florence enjoyed
great prosperity under the government of Lorenzo, who
acquired the favour of the people by his munificence,
prudence, and clemency. He was highly distinguished
as a patron of literature and art, founded at Florence an
academy for the study of the antique, and expended large
sums in the erection of public edifices and in the collec
tion of libraries. He also attained considerable eminence
as a poet. Died in April, 1492.
See ROSCOE, "Life of Lorenzo de' Medici." 2 vols. 4to, 1795:
ANCELO FABRONI, " Laurentii Medicis Magnifici Vita," 2 vols.,
1784; PAMRE-MASSON, " Vita Laurentii Medicis," 1587; MACCHIA-
VEM.I, " Istorie Florentine ;" N. VALORI, " Laurentii Medicei Vita,"
1749; SCIPIONH AMMIRATO, " Istorie Florentine;" SISMONDI, " His
toire des Repubiiques Italiennes;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen£-
rale;" LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" " Lives of the
Italian Poets," by the REV. HENRY STEBBING, London, 1831.
Medici, de', (LORENZO II.,) eldest son of Piero II.,
born at Florence in 1492, was placed, through the in
fluence of his uncle, Leo X., at the head of the republic.
He married in 1518 Madeleine de La Tour, daughter of
Jean, Count d'Auvergne, and died in 1519, leaving an
infant daughter, Catherine de Medicis, afterwards Queen
of France.
Medici, de', (Luoovico,) Duke of Sarto, called also
the CHEVALIER DE MEDICI, a Neapolitan statesman, born
in 1760. He was appointed minister of finance in 1810,
and in 1815 was sent as ambassador to Vienna. Died
in 1830.
Medici, de', (PIERO I.,) eldest son of Cosimo the
Elder, born in 1414, succeeded his father as chief of the
Florentine republic. He had powerful rivals in the
Pitti family and other nobles of Florence, whose attempt
to assassinate him was defeated by the prudence of his
son Lorenzo. Died in 1469.
See SISMONDI, "Histoire des Repubiiques Italiennes."
Medici, de', (PiERO II.,) eldest son of Lorenzo the
Magnificent, was born at Florence in 1471. He succeeded
to the rank and influence of his father in the republic ;
but his arrogance and rashness soon deprived him of the
popularity hitherto enjoyed by his family. On the in
vasion of Italy by Charles VIII., in 1494, Piero made
overtures to the French king, into whose hands he sur
rendered several important places. Having subsequently
entered the French army, he shared in its defeat at the
Garigliano by Gonsalvo de Cordova in 1503, and was
drowned in attempting to cross the river.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Repubiiques Italiennes."
Medici, de', (SALVESTRO,) a Florentine statesman,
belonged to the Ghibeline faction, and was one of the
principal rivals of the Albizzi family. He was made
gonfaloniere of justice in 1378; but, the Guelph party
having again come into power, he was banished in 1381.
See NOBLE, " Memoirs of the House of Medici."
Medicis. See CATHERINE DE MEDICIS.
Medicus, ma'de-kus, (FRIEDKICH CASIMIR,) a Ger
man botanist, born at Grumbach in 1736. He published
several able botanical and medical works. Died in 1808.
Medina, ma-dee'na, (Sir JOHN BAPTIST,) a Flemish
painter, of Spanish extraction, born at Brussels in 1630,
resided the greater part of his life in Great Britain. He
e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, it., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MEDINA
i 560
MEHEMET-ALEE
was a pupil of Rubens, and enjoyed a high reputation.
Died in 171 1.
Medina, ma-Dee'na, (PEDRO,) a Spanish writer, born
at Seville about 1510, was the author of several historical
and mathematical works, and a treatise on navigation,
entitled " Arte de Navegar," (1545,) wliich was trans
lated into several languages.
Medina, de, da ma-Dee'na, (SALVADOR JACINTO
POLO,) a Spanish poet, born at Murcia, wrote the " Fable
of Apollo and Daphne," and a number of epigrams,
lyrics, etc. Died about 1660.
Medina de Medinilla, de, cli ma-Dee'na da ma-oe-
nel'ya, (PKDRO,) a Spanish poet, supposed to have been
a native of Seville. He wrote an eclogue on the death
of Isabella, wife of Lope de Vega, his intimate friend.
Medina - Sidonia, de, da ma-nee'na se-do'ne-a,
(CASPAR ALONZO Perez de Guzman — pa'reth da
gooth-man',) DuKii, a Spanish grandee, who lived about
1640, was a nephew of the prime minister Olivarez. He
formed a project to make himself King of Andalusia;
but his design was discovered before he began to exe
cute it.
Medinilla, ma-ne-nel'ya, ( BALTHASAR EI.ISIO,) a
Spanish poet, born at Toledo in 1585, was a friend and
disciple of Lope de Vega, who wrote an elegy on his
early death.
Med-I-tri'na, a Roman goddess of medicine, in whose
honour the festival of Meditrinalia was celebrated in the
month of October.
MSd'owI, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English general, born
in 1738. He served in America, and was wounded in
the battle of Brandywine, (1777.) He was made lieu
tenant-general in 1792, and in 1801 succeeded Lord
Cornwall's as Viceroy of Ireland. Died in 1813.
Medraiio.de, da ma-Dua'no, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish
lyric poet of the seventeenth century, whose works are
highly praised. Little is known of his life.
Me-du'sa, [Gr. Medovaa ; Fr. MEDUSE, ma'diiz',] one
of the Gorgons, was represented as a beautiful woman
who captivated Neptune and offended Minerva by re
ceiving his embraces in her temple. The goddess changed
her hairs into serpents, after which Perseus cut off her
head and gave it to Minerva, who placed it in the centre
of her aegis. (See GORGON.)
Meduse. See MKDUSA.
Meek, (ALKXANDER BEAUFORT,) an American lawyer
and writer, born at Columbia, South Carolina, in 1814.
As a member of the legislature of Alabama, he procured
the adoption of a system of free schools about 1853.
Among his works is a volume of " Songs and Poems of
the South," (1857.)
Meel. See Mi EL.
Meer, van der, vfn der maR, (JAN,) an eminent
Dutch painter, born at Schoenhoven in 1627. His fa
vourite subjects were sea-views, landscapes, and animals,
in which he attained great excellence. Died about 1690.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Meer, van der, (JAN,) a Dutch landscape-painter,
born at Haarlem about 1665, was a pupil of Nicholas
Berghem. Died in 1704.
Meerbeeck, van, vitn mau'bak, (ADRIAN,) a Flemish
writer, born at Antwerp in 1563, was the author of several
historical works in Latin and Flemish. Died about 1630.
Meerman, maR'miin, (GERAART,) a learned Dutch
jurist, born at Leyden in 1722, was appointed pensionary
of Rotterdam. He published a valuable work on civil
law, entitled " Novus Thesaurus Juris Civilis," etc., (7
vols., 1751,) and "Origines Typographical," (1765,) a
treatise on the origin of printing. Died in 1771.
Meerman, (/AN,) son of the preceding, was born at
the Hague in 1753. He studied at Gottingen, and took
bis degree of doctor of law at Leyden. He was made a
senator and count of the empire by Napoleon, (1811,)
and became minister of public instruction under Louis
Bonaparte. He wrote a supplement to his father's
"Thesaurus," and published several works in French.
He died in 1815.
See CRAS, " Elogium Johannis Meerman," 1817.
Meerveldt, von, fon maR'fglt', (MAXIMILIAN,)
COUNT, a German general, born in Westphalia in 1766,
commanded a corps of Austrians at Leipsic in 1813.
Died in 1814.
Meerza or Mirza, meeR'zS, (SAMUEL,) a Persian his
torian, born near Ispahan about 1490, was a son of Shah
Ismail, founder of the dynasty of Softs. He wrote a
" History of Poets." Died after 1550.
Meerza- (or Mirza-) Iskander-Kazem-Beg, meeR'-
i\ is-Uan'der ka'zem-beg, (Moham'med Al'ee,) a
Persian philologist, born in the province of Ghilan in
1803. Having settled in Russia, he was converted to
Christianity in 1822, and subsequently became professor
of the Persian language and literature at the University
of Saint Petersburg. He published an "Essay on Arabic
Literature," (in Persian,) and other works in Russian and
Persian, and has written a " Concordance of the Koran,"
(in Arabic,) and a "General History of the Turks," (in
Russian.)
Meetkercke. See METKERKK, (ADOI.IMIUS.)
Megabyze. Sec MKGAHVX.US.
Meg-a-by'zus or Meg-a-ba'zus, [Gr. Me-ya6vfa or
M.t-yu8ay>g ; Fr. MEGAHYZE, ma'gt'bez', or MEGAISAZK,
ma'gt'ba'z',] a Persian nobleman, and one of the seven
who conspired against Smerdis the Magian in 521 n.c.
He afterwards commanded an army of Darius I. in
Europe.
See HKHODOTUS, books iii. and vii.
Megaera. See FURI^E.
Meg'a-ra, [Gr. Mejupa,- Fr. MEGAKK, mi/giti*',] a
daughter of Creon, King of Thebes, was a wife of Her
cules, who, after he had in a paroxysm of insanity killed
her children, gave her to lolas.
Megare. See MKGARA.
Megasthene. See MK.GASTHENES.
Me-gas'the-nes, [Gr. Msj'aaOfvw ,• Fr. MEGASTHENK,
ma'gts'tan',] a Greek geographer under the reign of
Seleucus Nicator, King of Syria, whom he served as
secretary about 300 H.c. He was the author of a work
entitled " Indica," extracts from which are contained in
the writings of Strabo, /Elian, and Arrian.
Megerie. See AHRAM A SANCTA CLARA.
Meggot. See ELWES.
Megingjord or Megingjardar. See THOK.
Me-gis'tl-as, [Mejwrmf,) a celebrated soothsayer, a
native of Acarnania, fell with Leonidas at Thermopylae
Meglio, del, del mel'yo, (J/\COI'O Corn,) an Italian
painter of the Florentine school, born in 1523, assisted
Vasari in painting the pictures in the Palazzo Vecchio.
Died in 1591.
Mehegan, mi'a'goN', (GUILLAUME ALEXANDRIA) a
French litterateur, born at La Salle in 1721. He became
professor of French literature at Copenhagen in 1751.
His most important work is entitled " Picture of Modern
History from the Fall of the Western Empire to the
Peace of Westphalia," (1766.) Died in 1766.
Mehemet-Alee, (or -Ali,) meM/heli-met a'lee, or
Mo-ham'med-Al'ee, Viceroy of Egypt, was born at
Kavala in 1769. Having lost his parents at an early age,
he was protected by the Turkish governor of the town.
His distinguished abilities and energy soon won for him
a high reputation, and he was sent in 1799 to assist the
British in expelling the French from Egypt. lie was
appointed in 1804 Pasha of Cairo, for his services in
defending that city from the oppression of the Mame
lukes, and in 1806 was made Governor of Upper Egypt
by the Sultan. After a protracted contest with the Mame
lukes, who had for centuries been the scourge of the
country, Mehemet Alee invited them to a festival at
Cairo, and, having enclosed them in the citadel, ordered
a general massacre, in which four hundred and seventy
perished, (1811.) This sanguinary act was followed by
the destruction of the Mamelukes in other parts of Egypt.
In 1830 lie invaded Syria, which he soon subdued, and
which, after the interference of the sovereigns of Europe,
was ceded to him by the Sultan, on condition of his being
a vassal of the Porte, (1833.) The Sultan, becoming
jealous of his powerful rival, made a treaty, in conjunc
tion with several European powers, in 1841, by which Me
hemet was obliged to relinquish Syria, but his family was
permitted to retain the pashalic of Egypt. He died in
1849, having the previous year resigned the government
to his son, Ibraheem Pasha. As a ruler, Mehemet Alee
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon;
MEHEMET-ALEE
1561
MEINICKE
displayed talents of a very high order, and few princes
have founded more beneficent institutions or shown a
more just and liberal spirit. He established schools and
colleges, created an army and navy, and introduced the
manufactures of Europe. He protected his Christian
subjects, and aided by his liberality the researches of
Champollion, Lepsius, and other eminent savants.
See F. MENGIN, " Histoire de 1'figypte sous le Gouvernement de
Mohammed All," 1839; A. DE VAUI.ABEI.LE, " Histoire de 1'figypte."
Mehemet-Alee, (Pasha,) meVheh-mgt a'lee pa'shi',
an Ottoman minister of state, born at Trebizond about
1807. He became a general of division in 1840, and mar
ried a daughter of Sultan Mahmood in 1844. He was
grand vizier of Turkey from October, 1852, to May, 1853.
Died in 1865.
Mehul, nii'iil', (fitlENNE HENRI,) a celebrated French
composer, born in the department of Ardennes in 1763.
Having previously received some instruction from Hau-
ser, a German organist, he repaired in 1778 to Paris,
where he became a pupil of Gluck. In 1790 he brought
out his opera of "Euphrosyne and Coradin," which met
with brilliant success and was pronounced by Gretry equal
to the finest productions of Gluck. Among his operas,
which are more than forty in number, we may name
" Stratonice," "Joseph in Egypt," and "The Blind Man
of Toledo." His "Hong of Victory" and other popular
melodies of the kind are also greatly admired. Mehul
was one of the inspectors of the Conservatory of Music,
and a member of the French Institute. Died in 1817.
See QUATKEMERE DE QuixcY, "Notice snr Mehul :" FETIS.
"Biographic Universelle des Musiciens :" VIEILLAKD, "Notice sur
Mehul, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," 1859; "Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Mehus, mi'iis', (Livio,) a Flemish painter, born at
Ouclenarde in 1630, studied in Italy under Pietro da
Cortona, and died at Florence in 1691.
Mehus, ma'oos, (LORENZO,) an Italian scholar, a
native of Florence, lived about 1730-50.
Meibom, mi'bom, [Lat. MEIBO'&IIUS,] (HEINRICH,)
a German historian and philologist, born at Lemgo
in 1555. He devoted himself chiefly to the history of
Germany in the middle ages. Died in 1625.
Meibom, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) a German physician
and litterateur, born at Helmstedt in 1590, was a son of
the preceding. He wrote a number of medical treatises,
and also a " Life of Maecenas." Died in 1655. His son,
HEINRICH MEIBOM, born at Lubeck in 1638, became
professor of medicine at Helmstedt in 1661, and of his
tory and poetry in 1678. He was the author of several
able medical works and a "History of Germany," (in
Latin.) Died in 1700.
Meibom, (MARKUS,) a German philologist, born at
Tonningen in 1630. He was a profound classical scholar,
and published a work entitled " Seven Greek Writers
on Music," (2 vols., 1652,) which he dedicated to Chris
tina of Sweden, at whose court he resided for a time.
He afterwards became professor of history at Amsterdam,
where he died in 1711.
Meibomius. See MEIBOM.
Meier. See MAJOR, (GEORGE.)
Meier, mi'er, (GEORG FRIEDKICH,) a German critic
and philosopher, born near Halle in 1718, was appointed
professor of philosophy at Berlin in 1746. He was the
author of a "Critique on the Poetry of Gottsched,"
" Thoughts on Spectres," (1748,) and other works. Died
in 1777.
See S. G. LANGE, "Leben G. F. Meier's," 1778.
Meier, (MORITZ HERMANN EDUARD,) a German an
tiquary and philologist, born at Glogau in 1796, was
appointed in 1848 to the chair of eloquence at Halle.
Among his works is a treatise "On the Life and Orations
of Lycurgus." Died in 1855.
Meierotto, ml'eh-rot'to, (JOHANN HEINRICH Lun-
WIG,) a German scholar and popular teacher, born at
Stargard in 1742, became in 1772 professor of eloquence
in Joachim College, Berlin. He wrote a treatise "On
the Manners and Customs of the Romans," etc., and
other works, in Latin and German. Died in 1800.
See BRUNNKR, " Lebensbeschreibung Meierottos," 1803.
Meigs, megz, (JAMES ATKINS,) M.D., a distinguished
American physician and naturalist, born at Philadelphia
in 1829. He became in 1856 librarian of the Academy
of Natural Sciences, and in 1859 professor of the insti
tutes of medicine in Pennsylvania College. In 1868 he
was appointed professor of the institutes of medicine in
Jefferson Medical College as successor to Dr. Dunglison.
He has published several ethnological treatises, among
which we may name " The Cranial Characteristics of the
Races of Men."
Meigs, (MONTGOMERY C.,) an American general, born
in Georgia about 1816. He graduated at West Point
in 1836, served several years as an engineer, and was
appointed about 1852 to superintend the extension of
the Capitol at Washington. In May, 1861, he became
quartermaster-genera] of the Union army, the duties ot
which office he continued to perform with distinguished
zeal and ability till the end of the civil war.
Meigs, (RETURN JONATHAN,) an American officer,
born at Middletown, Connecticut, in 1740, served with
distinction in the Revolutionary war. Died in 1823.
His son, of the same name, became Governor of Ohio
in 1810, and in 1814 was appointed postmaster-general.
Died in 1825.
Meikle, mik'el, ? (JAMES,) a Scottish surgeon and
writer, born at Carnwath in 1730. He wrote, besides
other works, " Metaphysical Maxims, " ( 1 797,) and " Soli
tude Sweetened," (1803.) Died in 1799.
Meikle, (WILLIAM J.) See MICKI.E.
Meil, mil, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) a skilful German
designer and engraver, born nt Gotha in 1729, furnished
illustrations for Gellert's and La Fontaine's Fables and
Burger's poems. Died in 1803.
Meil, (JOHANN WILHEI.M,) brother of the preceding,
was born at Altenburg in 1732. He became director of
the Academy of Fine Arts at Berlin. His prints and
vignettes are highly esteemed. Died in 1805.
Meilleraie, de la, deh It mST'i \' or mi'ye-r J',
(CHARLES de la Porte — deh It pout.) Dec, a French
general, was cousin-german to Cardinal Richelieu. He
served in several campaigns, and in 1639 was created
marshal of France. He was regarded as the most skil
ful general of his time in conducting sieges. He died
in 1664, leaving an only son, who married Hortense
Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin.
Meineke, ml'neh-keh, (JOHANN ALBRECHT FRIED-
RICH AUGUST,) a German scholar, born at Soest in 1791.
He published excellent editions of Menander and Phi
lemon, and wrote a number of critical treatises on the
classics, among which are " Commentationes Miscel-
lanece," (1822.) His " Fragments of the Greek Comic
Poets," (" Fragmenta Comicorum Groecorum," 5 vols.,
1839-43,) preceded by biographical notices of the same,
is highly esteemed.
Meiiier, ml'ner, (JorANN WERNER,) a German phi
lologist, born in Francoi ia in 1723 ; died in 1789.
Meiners, ml'ners, (CuRiSTOi'H,) a learned German
writer and aniicjuary, born near Otterndorf, in ITanover,
in 1747. He obtained a chair of philosophy at Gottingen
about 1774, and published numerous and various works,
among which are a " History of the Origin, Progress,
and Decline of the Sciences in Greece and Rome," (2
vols., 1782,) and "Biographies of the Eminent Men of
the Time of the Renaissance," (" Lebensbeschreibung
beriihmter Manner aus den Zeiten der Wiederherstell,"
etc., 3 vols., 1796-99.) Died in 1810.
See C. G. HEVNK, " Memoria C. Meiners," 1810; "Nouvelle
Biopraphie Generale."
Meinhold, min'holt, (JOHANN WILHEI.M,) a German
writer and divine, born in the island of Usedom. He was
the author of various poems, and a novel entitled "The
Amber Witch," ("Die Bernstein Hexe," 1843,) which
made a great sensation and was for some time regarded
as a true narrative. It was translated into English, and
is characterized by a writer in the " London Quarterly
Review" as a tale worthy of De Foe. He also published
" Sidonia the Sorceress," etc., (" Sidonia von Borck die
Kloster-Hexe," New York, 1850.) Died in 1851.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1844; "British
Quarterly Review" for Februaiy, 1846; " Fraser's Magazine" for
October," 1848.
Meinicke, mi'n^k-keh, (KARL EDUARD,) a German
geographer, born in Brandenburg in 1803. Among his
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MEIR
1562
MELANCHTHON
works we may name a " History of the European Colo
nies in the West Indies," (1831,) and "The Continent
of Australia,'' (1837.)
Meir ben Todros, m&r b§n to'duis, a learned
Spanish rabbi, wrote several able treatises on the Tal
mud and the Mosaic rites. Died in 1244.
Meisner, mis'ner, (BALTHASAR,) a German Lutheran
theologian, born in 1587; died in 1626.
Meissel, (CONRAD.) See CEI.TES.
Meissner, mis'ner, (ALFRED,) a German poet, born
at Toplitz in 1822, lias published, among other works,
"Ziska," an epic poem, "The Son of Atta Troll," and
"Recollections of Heinrich Heine."
Meissner, (AUGUST GOTTI.IEH.) a celebrated German
litterateur and dramatist, born in Upper Silesia in 1753.
He wrote several dramas, of which his "John of Suabia"
is esteemed the best. He owes his reputation princi
pally to his "Sketches," ("Skizzen,") consisting of nar
ratives, anecdotes, fables, etc., which obtained extensive
popularity and have had many imitators. Died in 1807.
See MKUSEI,, "Gelehrtes Deutschland."
Meissonier, mi'so'ne-i', (JEAN Louis ERNEST,) a
celebrated French painter, born at Lyons about 1811.
Among his most admired works are " The Little Mes
senger," "The Painter in his Studio," and " The Chess-
Players." His pictures are of small size but of exquisite
finish, and command high prices. He was made officer
of the legion of honour in 1856, and has received a
number of medals.
Meissonier, (JusTK AUKEI.E,) a French artist, born
at Turin in 1675, was skilled in painting, sculpture, and
architecture. lie excelled particularly in ornamental
gold-work, and became goldsmith to the king, Louis
XV. Died in 1750.
Meister, nris'ter, (JACQUES HENRI,) a Swiss writer,
born at Zurich in 1744, was an intimate friend of Necker,
Diderot, and Grimm. lie wrote " Letters on Imagina
tion," (1794,) "Studies on Man," (1805,) and other
works. Died in 1826.
Meister, (LEONHARD,) a Swiss litterateur, born near
Zurich in 1741, wrote several historical works. Died
in 1811.
Meister, mis'ter, (SiMON,) a German painter, born
at Coblentz in 1803, studied under Horace Vernet, and
acquired great skill in painting battles and horses. Died
in 1844.
Mejanes, de, deh ma'zhtn', (JEAN BAPTISTS MARIE
de Piquet — deh pe'ki',) MARQUIS, a French nobleman,
born at Aries in 1729, was the owner of a library of more
than seventy-five thousand volumes, which at his death,
in 1786, he bequeathed to the city of Aix.
Mejia. See MEXIA.
Mekhitar or Mechitar, meK'e-tar', (PETER,) an
Armenian priest and reformer, born at Sebaste in 1676.
Having embraced Catholicism, he became a distinguished
and popular preacher, and founded, in 1740, an Armenian
monastery at Venice. He also established there a print
ing-house for the Armenian language. Among the works
issued from this press were an Armenian Grammar and
Lexicon.
Mekhitar Kosh, THE BEARDLESS, a learned Arme
nian ecclesiastic, born about 1140, founded a monastery
in the valley of Dandsoud, in Eastern Armenia, of which
he became the first abbot. Died in 1213.
Me'la, (PoMPoNlUS,) an eminent Roman geographer,
born in Spain, flourished probably about 50 A.D. He
wrote a valuable work entitled "On the Situation of the
Earth," (" De Situ Orbis.") A good edition of it was
published by Tzschucke, Leipsic, (7 vols., 1807 et seq.)
See MALTF. HRUN, article on " Mela" in the " Biographic Univer-
selle."
Melampe. See MELAMPUS.
Me-lam'pus, [Gr. MeAu^Trouf .- Fr. MELAMPE, ma'-
16.N]/,] a mythical personage of Argos, famous as a
soothsayer, was a son of Amythaon. He was considered
as the first mortal that possessed prophetic power, and
the first that practised medicine.
Me-lan-eh'thpn [Ger. pron. ma-lamc'ton] or Me-
lan'thon, (PHILIP,) an eminent German Reformer and
scholar, whose original name was SCHWA RZERD or
SCHWARZERDT, (shwaRts'eRt : i.e. " Black Earth,") which,
according to the usage of the time, he changed into Greek,
was born at Bretten, in the Palatinate, February 16, 1497
His father was a skilful and prosperous armourer. He
entered in 1507 the Academy of Pforzheim, where he en
joyed the patronage of Reuchlin, who was hisgreat-uncle.
About the age of twelve he passed to the University of
Heidelberg, where he took the degree of bachelor of
arts, and went in 1512 to finish his studies in the Uni
versity of Tiibingen. He learned the Greek language,
mathematics, jurisprudence, etc., and remained in this
university a number of years, during which he gave
public lectures on the classics and other subjects. In
1518 he was appointed professor of Greek in the Uni
versity of Wittenberg, then recently founded, and there
became the colleague and friend of Luther, whose doc
trines he adopted. The renown of his learning and
eloquence soon attracted multitudes of students from
all parts of Germany. In 1519 Luther and Melanchthon
held a public disputation at Leipsic with Eckius, one
of the ablest champions of the Roman Catholic Church.
Melanchthon married in 1520 Katharina Krapp, daugh
ter of a burgomaster of Wittenberg. It appears that
he was never ordained as a minister of the gospel. He
gave much attention to biblical exegesis, and became a
prominent advocate of the Reformed religion by his
writings. Compared with the other Reformers, he was
distinguished for moderation and gentleness, which
tended to restrain the impetuosity of Luther. In 1521
he published an able defence of the Reformed doctrines,
in a systematic treatise on theology, entitled " Loci com
munes Rernm theologicarum," which enjoyed great popu
larity. It was commended by Luther as being "next to
the Holy Scriptures the most excellent work on theol
ogy." He aided Luther in his German translation of
the Bible, on which he expended much time, (1522-34.)
In 1529 he attended the Diet of Spire. Having been
appointed by the leading Reformers to compose a formal
exposition of the Lutheran faith, he wrote the celebrated
"Augsburg Confession," which was presented to the
emperor Charles V. at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530,
and is perhaps the most important symbolical book of
the Lutheran Church. A Latin version of this Con
fession was published under the title of "Confessio Ficlei
exhibita invictissimo Imperatori Carolo V.," etc., (1531.)
He also wrote, in reply to certain Catholic theologians,
an "Apology of the Confession," (" Apologie dcr Augs-
burgischen Confession.") lie was invited by Henry VIII.
of England and Francis I. of France to visit their courts ;
but he declined both invitations, and remained at Wit
tenberg. He was one of the theologians that disputed
with the Roman Catholics at the Conference of Worms
(1540) and the Conference of Ratisbon, (1541,) where he
proposed concessions and compromises which the other
Reformers rejected. After the death of Luther, in 1546,
Melanchthon was recognized as the leader of the Refor
mation in Germany. His conduct was conformed to the
maxim "In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in om
nibus caritas," (" In essentials unity, in doubtful points
liberty, in all things charity,") which subjected him to
violent denunciations from some Protestant zealots. In
1551 he was sent as a delegate to the Council of Trent,
which, however, was dispersed by the hostile movements
of Maurice of Saxony before Melanchthon arrived at
Trent. The latter years of his life were greatly troubled
by the acrimonious dissensions among the Protestant
theologians. He died at Wittenberg on the igth of April,
1560, leaving three surviving children. He was a man
of small stature. Among his numerous works were
" Elements of Logic and Ethics," a Greek Grammar,
Commentaries on the Scriptures, editions of several
classic authors, with notes, and an extensive corre
spondence with his eminent contemporaries. An edi
tion of his works was published at Wittenberg by his
son-in-law, Pence r, in 1562-64.
See CAMKRARrus, "Vita P. Melanchthonis," 1566: F. A. Cox;
" Life of P. Mt-lanchthon," 1815; A. H. NIEMEVER, "P. Melanch
thon als Praece; tor Germanise." 1817 ; C. MATTMES, " P. Melanch
thon, sein Leben und Wirken," 1841 ; M. FACIUS, "P. Melancht lion's
Leben," 1X32; F. GAI.I.E, "Versuch einer Characteristik Melanch-
thon's," etc., 1840: LRDDERHOSE. "P. Melanchthon nach seinem
Uussern mid innern Leben dargestellt," 1847; D. NISARD, " fitudes
sur la Renaissance;" D'AumGNii. " History of the Reformation;"
DR. F. HOEFEK'S article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
MELANDER
1563
MELETWS
Melander, ma-lan'der, or Melanderhjelm, ma-lan'
der- he Sim', (DANIEL,) an eminent Swedish astronomer,
born at Stockholm in 1726. He succeeded Stromer
as professor of astronomy at Upsal in 1761, and sub
sequently became perpetual secretary to the Academy
of Sciences. He was also ennobled by Gustavus III.,
(1801.) He wrote a " Synopsis of Astronomical Lessons,"
and other treatises, (in Latin.) Melander was a corre
sponding member of the Academy of Sciences in Paris.
Died in 1810.
See LALANDE, " Bibliographic astronomique ;" KJELLIN, " Are-
mimie bfver D. Melanderhjelm," iSn.
Me-la'nI-a, [Fr. MELANIE, ma'lt'ne',} SAINT, called
THE YOUNGER, a Roman lady of a noble family, born
about 388 A. D. Having been converted to Christianity,
she founded a convent in Palestine, and subsequently a
monastery near Mount Calvary.
Sae MACE, " Histoire de Sainte-Melanie."
Melanie. See MELANIA.
Melauippide. See MKLANIPPIDES.
Mel-an-ip'pl-des, [Gr. Mt 'AavixniArjc ; Fr. MELA-
NiPiMDE, nia'lt'ne'ped',) a Greek poet, born in the
island of Melos, lived in the time of Perdiccas, King of
Macedonia, (about 450 li.c.,) at whose court he died. He
is styled by Xenophon one of the greatest dithyrambic
poets of Greece ; and he also excelled in music. His
only writings extant are to be found in Bergk's " Poetae
Lyrici Graeci."
See PLUTARCH, " De Musica;" XENOPHON, " Memorabi/ii ;"
FADRICIUS, " Bibiiotheca Grzca ;" ScHBIBBL, " Dissertatio de Me-
lanippide," 1848.
Melanthe. See MELANTHIUS.
Me-laii'tM-us or Me-lan'thus, [Gr. M&uvdiof or
MehavOoc ; Fr. MELANTHE, nia'ISNt',] an eminent Greek
painter, was contemporary with Apelles, with whom he
studied under Pamphilus. He ranked among the first
artists of the time, and his pictures commanded very
high prices.
Melauthius, [MehavOtoc,] a Greek tragic poet of
Athens, flourished about 400 H.C., and was noted for his
wit. lie was satirized by Aristophanes and other comic
poets. His works are lost.
Melanthus. See MELANTHIUS.
Melas, ma'las, (MICHAEL,) BARON, an Austrian gen
eral, born in Moravia in 1730. He served under Mar
shal Daun in the Seven Years' war and in several subse
quent campaigns against the French, and in 1796 became
commander-iii-chief of the Austrian forces in Italy. He
was signally defeated by the French army at Marengo,
(1800,) and was obliged to sign a capitulation. Died in
1806.
See TIIIERS, " History of the Consulate and of the Empire."
Melbourne, mel'burn, (WILLIAM LAMB,) VISCOUNT,
a popular English statesman, son of Sir Peniston Lamb,
afterwards Lord Melbourne, was born in 1779. He
entered the House of Commons in 1805, and advocated
a moderate Whig policy. His father dying in 1828, he
inherited his title, entered the House of Lords, and, on
the formation of Earl Grey's ministry, in 1830, became
secretary of state. He was appointed first lord of the
treasury in 1834; but the Tories, under Peel and Wel
lington, soon gaining the ascendant, he was compelled
to resign. In 1835 he succeeded in forming a Whig
ministry, which lasted six years. He was distinguished
for his tact and popular qualities and accomplishments.
Died in 1848. Lord Melbourne was the author of a
comedy entitled "The Fashionable Friends." His wife
was known as an authoress. (See LAMB, CAROLINE.)
See the " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1849.
Melchthal, von, fon mSlK'til, (ARNOLD,) a Swiss
patriot, became, in concert with his friends Furst and
Stauffacher, one of the founders of Swiss liberty. In
1307, in conjunction with thirty of their countrymen,
they formed a confederacy for the defence of Switzer
land against Austrian oppression. In the course of the
following year the adventure of William Tell with Gess-
ler brought affairs to a crisis. (See TELL.) These
incidents form the subject of "Wilhelm Tell," one of
Schiller's most popular dramas.
SeeTscHARNER, " Histoire des Confederes;" MULLBR, " Histoire
de la Confederation Suisse."
Melcombe, LORD. See DODINGTON.
Melder, mel'der, (GERARD,) a Dutch miniature-
painter, born at Amsterdam in 1693; died in 1740.
Meldolla, mSl-dol'la, (ANDRKA,) an Italian painter
and engraver, born in Dalmatia about 1520, was a pupil
of Mazzuoli, (Parmigiano.) He is supposed by some
writers to have been the same as Andrea Schiavone.
Died in 1582.
See LE BLANC, "Manuel de 1' Amateur d'Estampes."
Me-le-a'ger, [Gr. Me /leuypof ; Fr. MELEAGRE, ma'la'-
tgR',] a famous hero of classic mythology, was a son of
CEneus and Althaea, or, as others say, a son of Mars.
According to tradition, when he was seven days old the
Moir?e (or Fates) warned his mother that he would
die as soon as the billet which was burning on her
hearth should be consumed. Althaea then extinguished
the fatal brand and hid it in a chest. He signalized his
valour in the Argonautic expedition and the Calydonian
hunt. He fought with the Calydonians against the
Curetes, and offended his mother by killing her brothers.
She therefore cast the above-mentioned brand into the
fire, and Meleager speedily died.
Meleager, [Gr. Me/lEuy/wc,] a Macedonian general,
who served under Alexander the Great, and, after the
death of that monarch, attempted to raise Arrhidaeus to
the throne in opposition to Perdiccas. His partisans
were defeated, and he was put to death, 323 B.C.
See DROVSEN, "Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen."
Meleager, a Greek poet, supposed to have lived in
the first century before the Christian era, is said to have
been the first who made a collection of fugitive poems
and epigrams called an " Anthology," (" Anthologia.")
See BRUNCK, " Analecta," vol. i.
Meleagre. See MELEAGER.
Melece. See MELETIUS.
Melek Shah, (a Seljookide Sultan.) See MALIK
SHAH.
Melendez-Valdez, ma-le'n'de'th val'd&h, or Valdes,
val'dSs, (JiJAN ANTONIO,) an eminent Spanish poet, born
in Estremadura in 1754. He studied law at Salamanca,
where he became intimate with the poet Cadalso, and
distinguished himself by his attainments in English
literature, of which he was a warm admirer. His
idyl "Batilo" (1780) won the prize at the Spanish
Academy, and another was given to his "Pindaric Ode
on the Fine Arts" by the Academy of San Fernando.
He published in 1785 a collection of lyric and pastoral
poems, which established his reputation as the first Span
ish poet of his time. He had been appointed in 1781,
through the influence of his friend Jovellanos, professor
of humanities at Salamanca. In 1791 he obtained an
important office in the chancery of Valladolid, and in
1798 became fiscal of the supreme court of Madrid. He
published in 1797 another collection of poems, dedicated
to Godoy, who soon after appointed him to a high office
at court. On the fall of the minister Jovellanos, Melen-
dez was exiled from Madrid, to which he was not per
mitted to return until the fall of Godoy, (1808.) Having
subsequently joined the French party in Spain, he was
created councillor of state and minister of public in
struction by Joseph Bonaparte. He died in France in
1817. Of Melendez, Ticknor observes, "There can be
no doubt that he was better fitted to form a new school,
and give a guiding impulse to the national poetry, than
any writer that had appeared in Spain for above a
century."
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature;" KF.NNEDY,
" Modem Poets and Poetry of Spain ;" LONGFELLOW, " Poets and
Poetry of Europe;" QUINTANA, "Life of Melendez-Valdez," pre
fixed to PII edition of his works, Madrid, 4 vols., 1820; " Nouvelle
Bio^raphie GeneVale."
Meletius, me-lee'she-us, [Gr. Me/U'rtoc,] Bishop of
Lycopolis, was founder of a sect called by his name.
Having been deposed by the Bishop of Alexandria,
about 301 A.D., he formed a schism, and united with the
Arians.
Meletius, [Fr. MELECE, ma'lis',] SAINT, called THE
GREAT, born in Little Armenia, was appointed Bishop
of Sebaste in 357 A.D., and in 360 Patriarch of Antioch.
Through the influence of the Arians, he was thrice de
posed from his office and exiled, being finally restored
« as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J]^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
MELETWS
1564
MELO
in 378. He presided over the first General Council at
Constantinople, (381,) and died the same year, having
previously confirmed the nomination of Saint Gregory
Nazianzen as Patriarch of Antioch. His funeral oratior
was delivered by Saint Gregory of Nyssa.
See TII.I.EMONT, " Memoires," etc. ; BAILLET, " Viesdes Saints;'
MAIMMOURG, " Histoire de 1'Arianisme. "
Meletius, a Greek prelate and geographer, born at
Janina in 1661. He wrote an " Ecclesiastical History,'"
(3 vols., 1798.) Died in 1714.
Me-le'tus, [Me/b/roc,] written less correctly Me-li'tus
a Greek tragic poet, is chiefly known as one of the three
principal accusers of Socrates. He was a licentious
writer, and a man of profligate habits. He was put to
death by the Athenians when they repented of their
treatment of Socrates.
Mel'fort, (JoHN DRUMMOND,) DUKE OF, was prime
minister to King James II. of England, whom he ac
companied in his exile to France. Being accused of
planning a second invasion of England, he was banishec
by Louis XIV. to Angers, where he died in 1716.
Meli, ma/lee, (GIOVANNI,) an eminent Sicilian poet,
born at Palermo about 1740. His works, consisting
chiefly of eclogues, odes, and sonnets, are written in the
Sicilian dialect, to which he gave a grace and refinement
hitherto unknown. His pastoral poems are exquisite
specimens of their kind, especially the "Ecloghe Pesca-
torie," or fishermen's dialogues, distinguished for their
humour and the graceful simplicity of their language.
Meli also wrote satires and fables, and a mock-heroic
poem entitled "Don Quixote." Died in 1815.
See LOMBARDO, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" "Foreign
Quarterly Review" for November, 1829; A. GAM.O, "Cenni biogra
fici di G. Meli," 1836.
Mel-I-cer'ta or Mel-I-cer'tes, [Gr. Mt^Tpr^c; Fr.
MELICEKTE, mi'le's^Rt',] a son of Athamas and Ino.
The poets feigned that Ino threw herself and her son
into the sea, and Neptune changed them into sea-deities.
Melicerta then received the name of Palaemon.
Melicerte. See MKMCKKTA.
Melingue, ma'laNg', (£TIENNE MARTIN,) a French
actor and sculptor, born at Caen in 1808.
Meliorati. See INNOCENT VII.
Me-lis'sa, [Gr. Msfaaaa; Fr. MELISSE, ma'Iess',] a
daughter of Melissus, King of Crete, was said to have
fed the infant Jupiter with the milk of goats.
Melissa, in classic mythology, a nymph who first dis
covered the use of honey, or the method of procuring it ;
whence bees (in Greek Mefaoaai) are said to have derived
their name.
Melisse. See MELISSA.
Me-lis'sus, [MeAwaoc,] a Greek philosopher, born at
Samos, flourished about 440 li.C. He was also distin
guished as a naval commander, and gained an important
victory over the Athenians. He was a disciple of Par-
menides, and was the author of philosophical works of
which only fragments are extant.
Melissus, ma-lis'sus, (PAUL,) a German, distinguished
as a Latin poet, born in Franconia in 1539 ; died in 1602.
MeTi-tou or Mel'I-to, [Gr. Msfaniv,] an ecclesias
tical writer of the second century A.D., became Bishop
of Sardis in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. His works
were highly esteemed by his contemporaries, but they
have been lost, with the exception of a few fragments.
See TII.I.EMONT, "Memoires pour servir a 1'Histoire ecclesias-
tique. "
Melitus or Melitos. See MELETUS.
Me'lJ-us or Maelius, mee'le-us, (Spuiuus,) a Roman
knight, who gained the favour"of the people by the
liberal or profuse use of his large fortune. He was ac
cused by L. Minucius Augurinus of a design to make
himself king, and was summoned before Cincinnatus,
who was appointed dictator for this occasion. Refusing
to submit, he was killed by Servilius Ahalain 439 B.C.
See LIVY, " History of Rome ;" NIKBIUIR, " History of Rome."
Mellan, mi'IfiN', (CLAUDE,) an eminent French en
graver and painter, born at Abbeville in 1598, studied
under Villamena and Vouet at Rome. He originated a
new method of engraving, which consisted in producing
light and shade by varying the thickness of the single
lines instead of crossing one set by another. Among
his master-pieces are " Saint Peter Nolascus borne by
Two Angels," the "Face of Christ," "Rebecca at the
Well," and a portrait of Pope Urban VIII. Died in
1688.
See RENOUVIER," Des Types et ManieresdesMaitres-Graveurs ;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale."
Melle, mel'leh, (jACOii,) a German numismatist, born
at Lubeck in 1659. He published several works on
numismatics, etc. Died in 1743.
Mel'len, (GKENVII.LE,) an American poet, born at
Biddeford, in Maine, in 1799, was a son of Chief-Justice
Mellen, LL. 1)., of that State. Among his principal works
we may name "Our Chronicle of Twenty-Six," (1827,)
"Glad Tales and Sad Tales," (in prose, 1829,) "The
Martyr's Triumph," and "Buried Valley, and other
Poems," (1834.) Died iu 1841.
See GRISWOLD, "Poets and Poetry of America;" CLEVELAND,
"Compendium of American Literature."
Mellin, mel-Ieen', (GusrAK HENRIK,) one of the most
popular Swedish novelists and historians, born in Fin
land in 1813. Among his romances, which are generally
founded on Swedish history, we may name " Flickorna
i Askersund," (1832,) "Helena Wrede," (1834,) and
"Johannes Fjallman." His "Den Skandinaviska Nor-
dens Historia" (1850) and "Faderlandets Historia"
(1852) are highly esteemed by his countrymen. The
greater part of his romances have been translated into
German.
Mellin de Saint-Gelais, m.VlflN'deh saN zheh-LV, a
French poet, born in 1491, was the author of ballads,
sonnets, elegies, etc. Died in 1558.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Melling, mel'ling, (ANTON IGNAZ,) a German painter,
born at Carlsruhe in 1763 ; died in Paris in 1831.
Mellini, mel-lee'nee, (GIUSEPPE ZAMA,) an Italian
writer on religion, born at Bologna in 1788; died in
1838.
Mello, de, da mel'lo, or Melo, ma'lo, (FRANCISCO
MANOEL,) a Portuguese writer, born at Lisbon in 1611,
wrote (in Spanish) a valuable history of the Catalo-
nian revolution, entitled " Historia de los Movimientos y
Separacion, etc. de Cataluiia," (1645.) He also wrote
a number of dramas and poems, among which we may
name "The Three Muses of Melodino," ("Las tres
Musas de Melodino.") Died in 1665.
See BARBOSA-MACHADO, "Bibliotbeca Lusitana."
Mello, de, (P. Jo7,E,) an eminent Portuguese jurist,
wrote a " History of Portuguese Civil Law," (3d edition,
1800.) Died in 1798.
Melloiii, niSI-h/nee, (M.ACEDONIO,) an Italian savant,
born at Parma in 1801. He was appointed in 1839 di
rector of the Conservatory of Arts and Trades at Naples,
lie wrote several scientific works, one of which was
entitled "La Termocrasi," etc., explaining his theory
concerning the radiation of heat and the coloration of
light. He originated valuable discoveries on these sub
jects, for which the Royal Society of London bestowed
upon him the Rum ford medal. Died in 1854.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale."
MeTmoth, (WILLIAM,) an English lawyer, born in
1666, was the author of a work entitled "Great Impor
tance of a Religious Life," which was ascribed by Walpole
to the first Earl of Egmont. One hundred thousand
copies of this work were printed after the author's death.
Died in 1743.
See NICHOLS, " Literary Anecdotes ;" " Memoirs of a Late Emi
nent Advocate."
Melnioth, (WILLIAM,) an English litterateur, a P-m
of the preceding, was born in 1710. He published in
1747 a translation of the "Letters of Pliny," which is
esteemed one of the best versions of a Latin author in
[he English language, and is mentioned by Warton as
"one of the few that are better than the original." 1 [e
also translated the " Letters of Cicero to Several of his
Friends," and the treatises "On Friendship" ("De
Amicitia") and "On Old Age"("De Senectute") of the
ame author. Died in 1799.
See NICHOLS, " Literaiy Anecdotes."
Melo. See MELLO.
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;
MELON
1565
MEMNON
Melon, meh-IoN', (JEAN FRANCOIS.) .1 French lit-
tiraieitr, resided at Bordeaux, and, in conjunction with
the Duke de la Force, founded the Academy of that city
in 1712. He afterwards became secretary to the regent
Orleans. He wrote " Mahmoud the Gaznevide," an alle
gorical history of the regency, and a " Political Essay on
Commerce." The latter work was highly commended
by Voltaire. Died in 1738.
See VOLTAIRE, " Siicie de Louis XV," chap. iii.
Melot, meh-lo', (ANICET,) a French savant, born at
Dijon in 1697, became in 1738 a member of the Acad
emy of Inscriptions, to which he contributed several
able treatises. In 1741 he was appointed royal librarian.
He wrote a "Dissertation on the Capture of Rome
by the Gauls," and other antiquarian works. Died in
1759-
Melozzo da Forli, ma-lot'so da foR-lee', (FRAN
CESCO,) an Italian painter, born at Forli in 1438, invented
the sotto in sit, and discovered the rules of vertical per
spective. Among his finest extant frescos is " Sixtus IV.
giving to Platina charge of the Vatican Library," now in
the Vatican. His works are highly commended by Vasari.
He excelled in foreshortening. Died in 1492.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, "History of
Painting in Italy."
Mel-pom'e-ne, [Gr. ME/.-O/JEVTI ; Fr. MELPOMENE,
mel'pu'mii/,] one of the nine Muses, presided over
tragedy, and was represented as holding in her hand a
tragic mask. She was said to be the mother of the
Sirens. (See MuSyB.)
Melun, de, deh meh-luN', (CHARLES,) a French states
man under Louis XI., was appointed in 1465 grand
master of Fiance. Having subsequently incurred the
displeasure of the king, he was condemned to death and
executed, (1468.)
Melvil. See MELVILLE, (Sir JAMES.)
Mel'vill, (Rev. HENRY,) an eloquent English divine,
and chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Victoria, was born in
Cornwall about 1800. Having graduated at Cambridge,
he was appointed principal of the East India College,
Haileybury, about 1840. He published several volumes
ot sermons.
Melvill van Carnbee, mel'vil vtn karn'ba, ( PIE-
TER,) BARON, a geographer and naval officer, born at
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1816. He produced the " Mariner's
Guide," ("Zeeman's Gid," 1842.) Died in 1856.
Melville, mel'vil, (ANDREW,) an eminent Scottish
Reformer and scholar, born in Forfarshire in 1545- He
studied in Paris, and subsequently became professor of
humanities at Geneva. After his return to Scotland he
was appointed principal of Glasgow College, where he
introduced great improvements in the discipline and
was eminently successful as a teacher. He was actively
engaged in the religious controversies of the time, and
was chiefly instrumental in the abolition of episcopacy
in Scotland. He became in 1580 principal of Saint
Mary's College, Saint Andrew's, where he also filled the
chair of theology and the Oriental tongues. Having
given offence to King James by his bold opposition to
the measures of the court, he was imprisoned five years,
and subsequently retired to France, and was appointed
professor of theology at Sedan. Died in 1622.
See T. McC'RiE, "Life of Andrew Melville," 1819; GARDINER,
"History of England from 1603 to 1616," vol. i. chap. ix. ; CHAM
BERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Black-
wood's Magazine" for September, 1824.
Melville, (GEORGE WHYTE,) an English novelist,
born about 1820. He was a captain in the Coldstream
Guards. He produced popular novels, entitled " Dighy
Grand," (1853,) "General Bounce," "Kate Coventry,"
and "Holmby House," (1860.)
Melville, (HENRY DUNDAS,) VISCOUNT, a British
general, born in Edinburgh in 1801. He served in India
against the Sikhs in 1849, and inherited the peerage at
the death of his father, in 1851.
Melville, (HERMAN,) an American novelist and trav
eller, born in New York in 1819. Having made a voy
age to the Pacific in 1841, he spent several months on
one of the Marquesas Islands, and subsequently visited
the Sandwich and Society Islands. He published, after
his return, a narrative of his adventures, entitled
"Typee," (1846,) which was received with great favour,
both in the United States and England. Among his
other principal works are " Omoo, a Narrative of Ad
ventures in the South Seas," "White Jacket, or the
World in a Man-of-War," (1850,) and "The Piazza
Tales."
See DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii.
Melville or Melvil, (Sir JAMES,) a Scottish states
man and historian, born in Fifeshire in 1530. Having
been appointed page to Mary Queen of Scots during
her residence in France, lie accompanied her on her
return to Scotland, and was made her privy councillor
and employed in several important negotiations. He
died in 1606, leaving in manuscript a work published in
1683, under the title of "Memoirs of Sir James Melvil
of Halhill," etc., which are highly valuable as records
of his time. Froude speaks of Melville as " a man who,
without the faintest pretensions to statesmanship, was
as skilled an intriguer as Europe could boast." (" His
tory of England," vol. viii. chap, viii.)
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Melville, LORD. See DUNDAS, (HENRY.)
Melville, (ROBERT,) a Scottish officer, born in Fife-
shire in 1723, served against the French in the West
Indies in 1762, and was appointed governor of the pos
sessions conquered from France. He was a Fellow of
the Royal Society and of the Society of Antiquaries.
Died in 1809.
Melzi, mll'zee, (GAETANO,) COUNT, an Italian littera
teur, born at Milan in 1783, published a "Biography of
Italian Romances and Poems of Chivalry," (1838,) and
"Dictionary of Pseudonyms and Anonymous Works of
Italian Writers," etc., (1848,) both of which enjoy a
high reputation. He was the owner of a library of
more than thirty thousand volumes, consisting chiefly
of rare and valuable works. Died in 1852.
Melzi d'Eril, mel'zee cli-rel', (FRANCESCO,) an Ital
ian statesman, born at Milan in 1753. On the invasion
of Italy by the French he had a prominent part in the
establishment of the Cisalpine republic, of which he
was- made vice-president in 1802. He was afterwards
created by Napoleon high-chancellor of Italy, and Duke
of Lodi, (1809.) He was a grandee of Spain. Died
in 1816.
See THIERS, " History of the Consulate and of the Empire ;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Memling, mem'ling, Hemling, hem'ling, or Mem-
melinck, mem'meh-link', an eminent Flemish painter,
the date and place of whose birth are unknown. He
flourished about 1450-85. Among his master-pieces are
the " Marriage of Saint Catherine," and a " Baptism of
Christ."
See P. HEDOUIV, " Memlinj:. E"tvide sur sa Vie et ses Ouvrages,"
1847 ; " Lives of the Early Flemish Painters."
Memmi. See MARTINI, (SIMONE DA.)
Memminger, mem'min-jer, ? (CHARLES GUSTAVUS,)
a native of Wiirtemberg, Germany, born in 1803, settled
at Charleston, South Carolina, where he became distin
guished as a lawyer and politician. He zealously opposed
the State Rights party, which he satirized in his "Book
of Nullification," (1832.) He was appointed secretary of
the treasury in the cabinet of Jefferson Davis in February,
1861, and resigned in June, 1864.
Mem'ml-us, (C.\ius,) a Roman tribune, was a strenu
ous opponent of the aristocrats. He became tribune
of the people in in H.C., and exposed the venality and
corruption of the aristocratic leaders in their manage
ment of the Jugurthine war. While a candidate for the
consulship, he was killed by the mob led by Saturninus
in 100 B.C.
Memmius, (CAius GEMELLUS,) a Roman orator,
poet, and politician, was a tribune of the people in 66
H.C., and praetor in 58. He was a son-in-law of Sulla,
and friend of Lucretius, who dedicated to him his poem
" De Rerum Natura." He is also frequently mentioned
by Cicero. Having been accused of bribery, (ambitus,)
he went into exile about 54 B.C.
Mem'non, [Gr. Me/n-wv,] a mythical personage, sup
posed to have been a son of Tithonus and Eos, (Aurora,)
and a king of Ethiopia or Egypt. According to tradition,
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g zsj; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MEMNON
c66
ME NCI US
he fought for the Trojans at the siege of Troy, slew An-
tilochus, and was killed by Achilles. The poets feigned
that the dew-drops which appear in the morning are the
tears which Aurora shed for the death of Memnon. Many
writers identify Memnon with Amenophis II. of Egypt,
in whose honour was erected the celebrated colossal
statue near Thebes. This statue, which is still extant
and is about fifty feet high, was commonly believed by
the ancients to emit a sound when it was first touched
by the beams of the morning sun. Some writers, in
cluding Sir Gardner Wilkinson, believe that the phe
nomenon was the result of imposture.
See SIR J. GARDNER WILKINSON, "Topography of Thebes,"
PP- 33-37-
Mem/non, a Greek general in the service of Da
rius. King of Persia, attained the rank of high admiral,
and Governor of Western Asia. He had great military
talents. Died in 333 B.C.
See CLINTON, "Fasti Hellenic!."
Memnon, a Greek historian, supposed to have lived
under the reign of Augustus or the Antonines. He
wrote a history of Heraclea, of which only fragments
are extant.
See Vossius, "De Historicis Grjecis."
Mena, de, da ma'na, (FELIPE Gil,) a Spanish por
trait-painter of great merit, born at Valladolid in 1600;
died in 1674.
Mena, de, (JUAN,) a Spanish poet, born at Cordova
about 1410. He was patronized by John II., King of Castile,
who made him his Latin secretary and historiographer.
His principal work is an allegorical poem, entitled "The
Labyrinth," ("El Labirinto,") which enjoyed a high repu
tation in his time. He was an intimate friend of Henry
de Villena, the Marquis de Santillana, and other eminent
writers of that age. Died in 1456.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature ;" PRESCOTT,
" History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. pp. 18, 19, 20; LONG
FELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Menabrea, ma-na-bua'a, (LEON CAMII.I.E,) a littera
teur, born near Chambery in 1804. He wrote several
works on mediaeval antiquities, and left unfinished an
important work entitled " Les Alpes historiques." Died
in 1857.
Meiiabrea, ma-na-bRa'a, (Luioi F.,) COUNT, an Ital
ian general and statesman, born about 1809. He was
appointed minister of foreign affairs and president of
the council of ministers of the kingdom of Italy in
October, 1867.
Meuaechmus, me-neVmus, [ Mn'aqy/oc, | a Greek
sculptor, born at Naupactus, lived about 480 B.C. His
principal work was a statue, in gold and silver, of
Diana Laphyra at Calydon, in which he was assisted
by Soidas.
Menage, ma'nfzh', (Gil.LES,) a celebrated French
critic and scholar, born at Angers in 1613. He studied
law, and practised for a time in Paris, where he became
an advocate to the Parliament. He subsequently de
voted himself entirely to literary pursuits, and his house
became the resort of the distinguished wits and writers
of the time, including Balzac, Sarrazin, and Madame
Rambouillet. He was patronized by Paul de Gondi,
afterwards Cardinal de Retz, whose favour he subse
quently lost, owing to his arrogance and strong propen
sity for satire. He was also involved in a literary feud
with Boileau, who has severely satirized him in one of
his poems, and with Moliere, who introduced him into
his " Femmes savantes," in the character of Vadius.
His reputation rests principally on his "Etymological
Dictionary of the French Language," (1650,) which is
still esteemed a standard work. He also published a
number of poems in Latin, French, and Italian, and
a collection of witticisms, etc., entitled " Menagiana,"
(1693,) which ranks among the best productions of the
kind. His " Request of the Dictionaries," a satire on
the Dictionary of the French Academy, is believed to
have been the cause of his exclusion from that institu
tion. Died in 1692.
See ANTOINE GAI.LAND, "Menagiana," 1693; BAYLE, "His
torical and Critical Dictionary;" " M^moires pour servir a la Vie de
Manage," prefixed to the " Me'nagiana," 1715; MOR^RI, " Diction-
naire Historique ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Meiiageot, ma'ni'zho', (FRANQOIS GUILI.AUME,) a
painter, of French extraction, born in London in 1744.
He studied in Paris under Vien and Boucher, and was
appointed director of the French Academy at Rome in
1787. Among his works may be named "Time arrested
by Study," and " Diana seeking Adonis." Died in 1816.
Men'a-hem, [Heb. DHJO,] the son of Gadi, having
slain Shallum, King of Samaria, usurped his throne
and reigned ten years over that country.
See II. Kings \v. 14.
Me-iian'der, [Gr. M£'vat>(5/»f ; Fr. MEN AN DUE, mi'-
nfi.N'dK/; Ger. MENANDKOS, ma-nan'di<os, ] a Greek
dramatic poet, born at Athens in 341 B.C., is called the
originator of the new comedy, giving representations of
actual life and manners. He enjoyed the highest repu
tation among his contemporaries, and is eulogized by
Julius Csesar, Plutarch, and other eminent men of anti
quity. His dramas were very numerous, but they have
been lost, with the exception of the fragments preserved
in the works of several Greek writers.
See CLINTON, "Fasti Hellenic!;" K. O. MUI.I.ER, "History
of Greek Literature;" HAUPTMANN, " De Menandro atque illius
Comoediis," 1743; G. GUIZOT, "Menandre; Etude historique,"
etc.. 1855; "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale;" "London Quarterly
Review" for January, 1856.
Menander, a Macedonian general, was appointed
Governor of Lydia by Alexander the Great in 331 B.C.
He became a partisan of Antigonus, for whom he fought
against Eumenes in 320 B.C.
Menander, a Roman jurist under the reigns of
Severus and Caracalla.
Me-naii'der Fro-tec'tor, a Greek historian of the
sixth century, was one of the body-guard of the emperor
at Constantinople. He was the author of a " History
of the Eastern Empire from 559 to 582 A.D.," of which
only fragments are extant.
See Vossius, " De Historicis Graecis."
Menandre. See MENANDER.
Menandrino, ma-nan-dRee'no, (MAR.sn.io,)an Italian
jurist, sometimes called MARSILIUS OK PADUA. He was
counsellor to Louis of Bavaria, for whom he wrote a
treatise entitled "Defender of the Peace," in support of
the authority of the emperor over the pope. For this
he was excommunicated by John XXII. Died in 1328.
Menandros. See MENANDER.
Menard, mi'iiiu', (CLAUDE,) a French writer, born
at Sauinur about 1574, was the author of a "History of
Anjou," which is commended by Menage. He also edited
Joinville's " History of Saint Louis," and other works.
Died in 1652.
Menard, (JEAN,) a French ecclesiastic and writer, born
at Nimes in 1637, was an intimate friend of Fle'chier.
Died in 1710.
Menard, (LEON,) a French jurist and antiquary, born
at Tarascon in 1706. He wrote a "History of the City
of Nimes," a treatise " On the Manners and Customs of
the Greeks," and other works. He was a member of the
Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1767.
See LE BEAU, " Eloge de Menard," in the " Me'moires" of the
Academy of Inscriptions.
Menard, (NICOLAS HUGUES,) a French theologian
and pulpit orator, born in Paris in 1585, wrote several
religious and ecclesiastical works. Died in 1644.
Me'nas, [Gr. M??faf,j a freedman of Pompey the
Great and of his son, Sextus Pompey. He commanded
a fleet sent against Octavius, afterwards deserted Pom
pey for the service of Octavius, and was slain (B.C. 35)
at the siege of Siscia.
Meii-as'seh Ben Is'ra-el, an eminent Jewish
rabbi, born in Spain about 1604, studied in Holland,
and was appointed to explain the Talmud in the syn
agogue at Amsterdam. He published a treatise "On
the Resurrection of the Dead," and a work on the Pen
tateuch, entitled "Conciliador nel Pentateucho," which
was recommended by Grotius to students of theology.
Died in 1659.
Meiicius, m^n'shenis, the Latinized form of Meng-
Tse, meng'tseh', or Ivleng-Tseu, meng'tsuh', (named
also Meng-Kho, in his youth,) was, after Confucius, the
most celebrated of all the Chinese philosophers. He
was born in the little state of Tsow, (or Tsou,) which
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m5t; not; good; moon;
ME NCI US
MENCIUS
was subsequently included in the kingdom of Loo, and
in the modern province of Shan-Toong, (or Shan-Tung,)
about 370 years before Christ : he was, therefore, a con
temporary of Plato and Aristotle. He lost his father in
his early childhood. To his mother, who appears to have
been a woman of rare intelligence and worth, he was
indebted, in a great measure, not merely for his inclina
tion towards learning and philosophy, but also for that
pure and lofty virtue for which he was so distinguished.
It is related that after the death of her husband she re
sided for a short time near a butcher's shop, but, fearing
that the frequent sight of scenes of blood might harden
and deprave the heart of her son, she removed to another
abode. This happened to be near a cemetery, and young
Mencius amused himself with acting the various scenes
which he witnessed at the tombs. "This," said his
mother to herself, "is no place for my son." She again
changed her dwelling, and took a house in the market
place. But here he soon began to play the part of a
salesman, vaunting his wares and chaffering with cus
tomers. The watchful and anxious mother was not yet
satisfied. At last she found a house close by a school.
Her son's attention was attracted by the various studies
and exercises which he saw pursued in the school, and a
desire for learning was awakened in his mind. Soon
after she sent him to the school ; and he is said to have
distinguished himself by the quickness of his intellect,
and subsequently by his earnest application to study.
The following story may serve to show his mother's con
scientious watchfulness in regard to the moral education
of her son. Seeing a butcher killing pigs, he asked her
what that was done for. She replied rather thoughtlessly,
(as it appears,) " It is to furnish you with food." Her
conscience at once reproved her for saying what was not
strictly true, and, anxious not to set him an example of
untruthfulness, she went and bought some pork in order
to make good her words. One day when he returned
home from school, she looked up from the web which
she happened to be weaving, and asked him how he was
getting on. He answered, carelessly, that he was doing
well enough, whereupon she took a knife and cut through
her web. Alarmed, he inquired what she meant. She
then showed him that she had only done what he was
doing : she had lost her labour and thrown away the time
she had spent in weaving the web, he also was throwing
away his precious time through neglect of his studies.
The lesson was not lost upon him, and did not need to
be repeated.
Some writers represent Mencius as having studied
under Tseu-sse, (or Tsze-sze,) the grandson of Confucius.
But this is scarcely possible, since Tseu-sse, had he been
living, would have been more than a hundred years old
when Mencius was born. It is, however, certain that he
diligently studied the writings of Confucius, to the neglect
of whose precepts he attributed the miserable state of
things which he saw everywhere around him, faith and
justice being disregarded, the bonds of society breaking
asunder, and the whole empire hastening to decay. He
resolved to devote his life to correcting these evils and
restoring, so far as it lay in his power, the virtues of the
primitive ages.
Although Mencius considered himself a follower of
Confucius, yet in his mode of instruction, and especially
in his behaviour towards those rulers who sought his
counsel, he differed materially from his master. In his
reasoning, if less grave than Confucius, he displayed
more art and more acuteness. His method, indeed, was
not unlike the dialectic of Socrates ; he pushed his ad
versary from one admission to another, until he obliged
him either to confess his defeat or else to maintain the
most obvious and palpable absurdities. In his inter
course with kings he was more bold and severe than
Confucius, both in exposing folly and denouncing injus
tice and oppression. Mencius appears to have been
held in great respect by most of the Chinese princes to
whom his fame had penetrated. It is not known at what
time in his life he first began to teach publicly ; but we are
told that when he felt that he was sufficiently conversant
with the doctrines and precepts of the great teachers
of Chinese philosophy, he commenced his travels for the
purpose of offering his counsels to the different petty
sovereigns who ruled in the states adjacent or neighbour
ing to Loo. But, although he seems to have enjoyed
more consideration than Confucius had done, he was
scarcely more successful in carrying into practice his
ideal plans of government. His theory of morals was
too high and difficult for human nature in its ordinary
condition. He appears not to have succeeded in a single
instance in prevailing on any of the princes to embrace
and consistently carry out his principles ; and accordingly
he had little inducement to continue at any of the courts
longer than was necessary in order to make a fair trial
of what his influence could effect. He is said to have
passed the last twenty years of his life in the more con
genial society of his disciples, and in writing those works
by which he has perhaps exerted a greater influence on
after-ages than he did upon that in which he lived. He
is supposed to have died at an advanced age about 290
B.C. According to Dr. Legge, he died 288 B.C. ; some
other authorities, however, place the date of his death
many years earlier. The descendants of Mencius, like
those of Confucius, constitute at the present day a class
of what may be termed hereditary nobles, — the only
hereditary nobility in China.
One of the chief doctrines of Mencius was that man is
naturally good, although he admitted that by far the
greater part of mankind had, through unfavourable cir
cumstances or influences, become perverted. He says
the way in which a man loses his natural goodness is
like the way in which trees are deprived by the svood-
man of their branches and foliage. And if they still
send forth some buds and sprouts, "then come the cattle
and goats and browse upon them. As in the tree all
appearance of life and beauty is destroyed, so in man,
after a long exposure to evil influences, all traces of
native goodness seem to be obliterated. But he main
tains that there is an original power of goodness in the
race, and that all men may, if they will, become like
Yao and Shun, two of the early sages and kings, who
were pre-eminent for their virtue. A distinguished
Chinese scholar says the great object of Mencius, in his
writings, is to rectify men's hearts. " If a man once
rectify his heart," says Mencius, " little else will remain
for him to do." In another place he says, " The great or
superior man is he who does not lose his child's heart,"
an expression which vividly recalls those beautiful lines
of the great German poet, —
" Wolii dem der frei von Schuld und Fehle
Bewahrt die kindiich reine Seele. "*
It is evident, however, that, owing to his sanguine and
ardent nature, or to some other cause, Mencius did not
very fully realize the exceeding difficulty of " rectifying
one's heart." Yet Confucius, who was regarded by
Mencius as the most perfect of human beings, recognized
this great but melancholy truth, when he said it was
only at the age of seventy that " he could follow what
his heart desired without transgressing what was right."
("Analects," book ii.)
Confucius had always inculcated the reciprocal obli
gation between kings and subjects. . Mencius, without
denying the general obligation of obedience on the part
of subjects, taught nevertheless that among the various
elements in a state " the people are the most important
element, and the sovereign the least important ;" and
he did not hesitate to draw the legitimate inference from
such a position that a bad sovereign ought to be de
throned, and even slain, if his life should endanger or in
any way interfere with the public good.
The distinguished Orientalist Remusat, in drawing a
comparison between Confucius and Mencius, says the
former "is always grave, and even austere; he exalts
men of virtue of whom he presents an ideal portrait;
he speaks of bad men only with a cool indignation.
Mencius, with the same love of virtue, seems to feel
for vice rather contempt than abhorrence. He assails
it with the force of argument ; he does not disdain to
even employ against it the weapons of ridicule." Men
cius combined a certain modesty with a just and manly
appreciation of himself. He seemed greatly surprised
" Happy he who, free from sin and fault,
Preserves the pure childlike soul."
SCHILLER'S Kraniche des Ibiciu.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.)
MENCKE
1568
MENDOZA
when one of his disciples was disposed to rank him as a
sage; yet he said on another occasion, "When sages
shall rise up again, they will not change my words." He
believed that he was appointed by Heaven to uphold or
restore the doctrines of the ancient sages, such as Yao,
Shun, and Confucius. Hun-Yu, a celebrated Chinese
critic, says, "If we wish to study the doctrines of the
sages, we must begin with Mencius. ... It is owing to
his words that learners nowadays still know to revere
Confucius, to honour benevolence and righteousness, to
esteem the true sovereign, and to despise the mere
pretender." We have already noticed some of the lead
ing opinions of Mencius. The following are a few of his
most characteristic sayings : " I love life ; I also love
righteousness. If I cannot keep both, I will let life go,
and choose righteousness." (The Works of Mencius,
book vi. chap, x.) "There is a nobility of Heaven, and
there is a nobility of man. Benevolence, righteousness,
self-consecration, and fidelity, with unwearied joy in these
virtues, — these constitute the nobility of Heaven." (Book
vi. chap, xvi.) "Benevolence subdues its opposite, just
as water subdues fire. Those, however, who practise
benevolence nowadays do it as it with one cup ot water
they could save a whole wagon-load of fuel on fire, and,
when the flames are not extinguished, should say that
water cannot subdue fire. This conduct, moreover, greatly
encourages those who are not benevolent." (Book vi.
chap, xviii.) "There is no greater delight than to be
conscious of sincerity on self-examination." (Book vii.
chap, iv.) Kung-Sun-Chow said to Mencius that his
principles were admirable, but they were too difficult
and lofty for ordinary minds, and asked him why he did
not adapt his teachings to the capacity of the learners.
He replied, "A great artificer does not, for the sake of a
stupid workman, alter or do away with the marking-line."
(Hook vii. chap, xli.)
See the excellent notice of Mencius prefixed to the works of that
philosopher, in the second volume of DR. I.KGGE'S " Chinese Clas
sics, " Hong- Kong, 1861 ; also PAUTHIKK'S "Chine," pp. 187-193;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generate, " article "Mencius," by LEON
ROSNY ; " Les quatre Livres de Philosophic, Morale et Politique de
la Chine," translated by G. PAUTHIER. Paris, 1851 ; the Chinese
Classical \Vorks, translated by the late RE.V. DAVID COLLIE, Malacca
Mission Press, 1828 ; STANISLAUS JUI.IEN'S translation (into Latin)
of the Works of Mencius, Paris, 1824; "Confucius and the Chinese
Classics," (book iv..) by REV. A. W. LOOMIS, San Francisco, 1867.
Mencke, menk'keh, (FkiKDKicii OTTO,) a German
scholar and writer, son of Johann Burkhard, noticed
below, was born at Leipsic in 1708. He became pro
fessor of history at Leipsic in 1732. Among his works
is a "Life of Angelo Poliziano," (in Latin, 1736.) Died
in 1754.
Mencke, (JOHANN BURKHARD,) born at Leipsic in
1675, became in 1708 historiographer to Frederick
Augustus, King of Poland. He published, in Latin,
"Two Orations on the Charlatanry of the Learned,"
(1715,) and a work entitled "Writers of German His-'
tory," (3 vols., 1728-30.) The former caused a great
sensation, and was translated into several foreign lan
guages. Mencke also wrote a number of poems, and,
after the death of his father, conducted the "Acta Eru-
ditorum." Died in 1732.
See R. TREITSCHKK, " K. Mencke, Professor der Geschich'e zu
Leipzig," 1842; JOCHER, " Gelehrten-Lexikon."
Mencke, (Orro,) a learned German, the father of
the preceding, born at Oldenburg in 1644. He became
professor of moral philosophy at Leipsic. In 1682 he
founded the first literary and scientific journal published
in Germany. It was entitled "Acta Eruditorum," and
numbered among its contributors Leibnitz and other
eminent savants. Died in 1707.
See SEUGMANN.-"Leichenpredigtauf O. Mencken," 1707; NICE-
RON, "Memoires."
Mendana de Neyra, me'n-dan'ya da na^e-ra, (AL-
VARO,) a Spanish navigator, born in 1541, saTled on a
voyage to the Pacific in 1567, and discovered between
7° and 12° south latitude the islands of Saint Chris
topher, Isabella, and Guadalcanal He discovered in
1595 the isles since called by Admiral Byron the Dan
gerous Islands, and the large island of Santa Cruz, to
which Carteret gave the name of Egmont in 1767. He
also established a colony at Bahia Graciosa. The part
of Australasia which includes the Marquesas has been
named the Mendana Archipelago. Died in 1595.
See Dtj BKOSSKS, " Histoire des Navigations aux Terres australes,"
'756.
Mendelssohn, men'dels-son', (MosES,) an eminent
philosopher, born at Dessau, in Germany, in 1729, was
the son of a Jewish schoolmaster. In consequence of
the limited means of his family, he owed his early educa
tion chiefly to his own exertions. In 1745 he repaired
to Berlin, where he applied himself to the study of
mathematics and the philosophy of Wolf and Leibnitz.
In 1754 he formed an intimate friendship with Lessing,
in conjunction with whom he afterwards wrote the treat
ise entitled " Pope a Metaphysician." He next pub
lished his " Letters on the Sensations," and in 1767 his
" I'haedo, a Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul."
The latter work was received with great favour, and was
translated into the principal languages of Europe. Men
delssohn was one of the most profound thinkers of his
time, and was highly esteemed by his contemporaries for
the excellence of his character, as well as his intellectual
endowments. Died in 1786.
See MIK \UEAU, " Sur M. Mendelssohn," etc., 1787; "Memoirs
of Moses Mendelssohn," by M. SAMUKLS; WINCKI.KK, " Notice sur
M. Menddssolin," 179*; HKINKMANN, " M. Mendelssohn," 1819;
J. A. L. RiciiTKR, "M. Mendelssohn als Mensch," etc., 1829;
"Nouvelle Biographic GeneYale."
Mendelssohii-Bartlioldy, men'dels-son' baR-toK-
dee, (FKLiX,) an eminent German composer, born at
Hamburg in 1809, was a grandson of the preceding. At
an early age he manifested extraordinary musical talent,
which received the most elaborate culture under Zelter
and Ludwig Berger. He performed with brilliant suc
cess in Berlin and Paris before lie had completed his
tenth year, and in 1827 he brought out at Berlin his
"Overture to the Midsummer Night's Dream" and his
opera of " The Wedding of Camacho." He subsequently
visited London and Paris, where the
named was received with enthusiasm.
' Overture" above
After his return
to Germany, he was appointed, in 1835, director of the
Gewandhaus concerts at Leipsic. In 1836 he brought
out his oratorio of " Saint Paul," at Dusseldorf and
Leipsic, -and the- following year at Birmingham, Eng
land. His "Elijah." an oratorio, performed at the Bir
mingham Festival in 1846, caused a greater sensation
in the musical world than had been known in England
since the days of Handel. Subsequently, Mendelssohn's
health, which had been some time declining, failed
rapidly, and he died soon after his return to Germany,
in November, 1847. Among the more important of his
other compositions, we may name the overtures of
" F'ingal's Cave," " A Calm Sea and Happy Voyage,"
(" Meeresstille und gliickliche Fahrt,") and "The Beau
tiful Melusina," (" Die schone Melusine,") besides a
great number of cantatas and instrumental pieces. His
" Songs without Words" are particularly admired. As a
musician and composer, he is esteemed second only to
Handel and Mozart.
See JULIUS BENEDICT, "Life and Works of F. Mendelssohn-
Bartholdy," 1X50 ; W. A. LAMPADIUS, " Life of Felix Mendelssohn-
Bartholdy," 1865; F^TIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens ;"
V. MAC;NIEN, "Etude biographique sur Mendelssohn- Bartholdy,"
1850; " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1848, by MRS. AUSTIN;
" British Quarterly Review" for October, 1862.
Mendez Pinto. See PINTO.
Meiidizabal, y, e men-de-tha-bal', (Don JUAN AL
VAREZ,) a Spanish statesman, of Jewish extraction, born
at Cadiz about 1790. Having amassed a large fortune
by trade, he rose to be minister of finance in 1835. Died
in 1853.
Mendoga or Mendoza, de, da me'n-do'sa, (ANDREA
HURTADO,) a Portuguese naval commander, who ren
dered great services to his country by clearing the South
Seas of pirates and thus protecting the Portuguese es
tablishments in the East Indies. Died about 1606.
Mendoza, de, da me'n-do'tha, (ANTONIO HURTADO,)
a Spanish writer, born about 1590, was appointed private
secretary to Philip IV. He wrote a number of popular
dramas, also tyric poems and prose works. Died in 1644.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature."
Mendoza, de, (ANTONIO SARMIENTO,) a Spanish
writer, a native of Burgos, lived about 1630. He trans
lated Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered" into Spanish.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
MENDOZA
1569
MENESTHEUS
Mendoza, de, (Don BERNARDINO,) a Spanish his
torian and diplomatist, was employed by Philip II. in
several missions to France and England. He had a
prominent share, while in France, in the formation of the
Catholic League. He was the author of a " History of
the Netherlands from 156710 1577," and a treatise "On
the Theory and Practice of War."
See MOTI.KY, " History of the United Netherlands," vol. i. cliap.
iii. ; CAPKFICIUH, " Histoire de la ReTorme et In Ligue. "
Mendoza, de, (DiKoo HURTADO,) a celel)rated Span
ish writer, soldier, and diplomatist1, born at Granada in
1503, was a grandson of the Marquis de Santillann,
noticed below. He studied at Salamanca, and distin
guished himself by his attainments in the classics,
theology, and civil and canon law. He was afterwards
patronized by Charles V., who sent him in 1538 on an
embassy to Venice. While in this post, he devoted him
self to the collection of Greek and Latin manuscripts, of
which he acquired a great number, comprising works of
Saint Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Archimedes. They
were subsequently ceded to the Library of the Escurial.
He was soon after appointed by the emperor ambassador
at Rome and governor of Sienna. Having returned to
Spain in 1554, he incurred the displeasure of Philip II.,
who banished him from court. He devoted himself
thenceforth to literary pursuits, and published in 1610
his " History of the Wars against the Moors," ("Guerra
de Granada contra los Moriscos.") This work, which
has taken its place among Spanish classics, is charac
terized by great accuracy and impartiality, and is esteemed
the best imitation of the Latin historians in modern lite
rature. He was also the author of a number of poems,
and the celebrated comic romance of " Lazarillo de
Tonnes," (1554,) in which he originated the so-called
Picaresque school of fiction, afterwards followed by Le
Sage in his "Gil Bias." " Mendoza," says Prescott, "by
the brilliant success which he achieved as a statesman,
a diplomatist, a novelist, a poet, and a historian, has
established a reputation for versatility of genius second
to none in the literature of Spain." Died in 1575.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature;" SISMONDI,
" Histnire des Republiques Italiennes;" PRESCOTT, "History of
Philip II.;" LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe:" N.
ANTONIO, " Bibiiotheca Hispana Nova;" BOUTKRVVKK. "Histoire
de la J, literature Espagnole;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;"
Norce of "Lazarillo de Tonnes" in the "Retrospective Review,"
vol. ii., 1820.
Mendoza, de, (I.\ic,o LOPEZ.) See MONDEJAR, MAR
QUIS I)K.
Mendoza, de, (Ixioo LOPEZ,) Marquis de Santillana,
(di san-tel-yi'na,) a Spanish poet, born in 1398, was a
friend of Juan de Mena and the Marquis de Villena, and
one of the most brilliant writers of the court of John II.
He is said to have introduced the sonnet into Spanish
poetry. Among his best works is an " Elegy on the
Marquis de Villena." Mendoza was also a distinguished
soldier, and was created a marquis as a reward for his
services at the battle of Olmedo, (1445.) Died in 1458.
See TICKNOK, "History of Spanish Literature:" BOPTERWEK,
" Geschichte der Spanische Poesie und Beredtsamkeit ;" LONGFEL
LOW. " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Mendoza, de, ( JUAN GONZALEZ,) a Spanish mission
ary, born at Toledo about 1540. He visited China in
1580, and subsequently South America and Mexico.
He died as Bishop of Popayan in New Granada, (1617.)
He was the author of a " History of the Great Kingdom
of China," (1586,) which enjoys a high reputation and
has been translated into French.
Mendoza, de, (Don PEDRO,) a wealthy Spaniard,
born at Cadiz about 1487. He offered his services, in
1529, to the emperor Charles V., to complete, at his own
expense, the exploration of the rivers La Plata and Para
guay. Having been created by the emperor military
chief of the country adjacent to those rivers, he set sail
in 1534, and founded the city of Buenos Ayres in 1535.
He died soon after, while at sea on his return to Spain.
Mendoza, de, (PEDRO GONZALEZ,) a Spanish prelate
and statesman, called THE GRAND CARDINAL, born in
1428. He enjoyed the favour of John II. and Henry
IV., and was created successively Bishop of Siguenza,
Chancellor of Castile and Leon, and cardinal, (1473.)
Under Ferdinand and Isabella he became Archbishop
of Toledo. He also distinguished himself in the Moorish
war, in which he held a command. He founded the
magnificent College of Santa Cruz at Valladolid, and a
hospital at Toledo. Died in 1495.
See MARIANA, "Historia Hispanic;" SAI.AZAR DE MENDOZA,
"Coronica del gran Cardinal de Espana," 1625.
Mendoza, de, (PEDRO DE SALAZAK,) a Spanish his
torical writer, born at Toledo about 1550, published a
" Chronicle of the House of Ponce de Leon," (1620,) and
a "Chronicle of the Grand Cardinal of Spain, Pedro
Gonzalez de Mendoza," (1625.) Died in 1629.
Me-nec'ra-tes, [Gr. Meve/cp&n;?,] a physician who
made himself ridiculous by calling himself Jupiter. His
vanity was rebuked by Philip of Macedon, who in
vited him to a banquet and offered him only incense
and libations.
Menedeme. See MENEDEMUS.
Meii-e-de'mus, [Gr. MEV«%<OC; Fr. MENEDEME,
mi'ni'djm',] a Greek philosopher, born at Eretria in the
fourth century B.C. He was the founder of the school of
Eretria, and was a disciple of Plato and Stilpo. Died
about 277 B.C.
See C. MALLET, " Histoire de 1'Ecole de Megare et d'firetiie ;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Meneghelli, ma-na-gel'lee, (ANTONIO MARIA,) an
Italian litterateur, born in 1765, was professor of law at
Padua. Among his works is a "Life of Livy,'' (" Vita
di Tito Livio," 1835.) Died in 1844.
See his Autobiography, " La mia Vita," 1845.
Menelas. See MKNEI.AUS.
Men-e-la'us, |Gr. Mtre'Aaoc, Meve/lewc, or Mew'/lac ; Fr.
MENELAS, mi'ni'lSs', | a Grecian hero and king of Sparta,
was a son of Atreus. He and his brother Agamemnon
were called Atriclae. He mairied the beautiful Helen,
who preferred him to all of her numerous suitors, but
afterwards eloped with Paris. At the siege of Troy,
which was the consequence of the abduction of Helen,
Menelaus behaved with great spirit and courage, and
fought a single combat with Paris, whom he was about
to vanquish, when Venus interposed and rescued him.
He was one of the daring band that entered Troy in
the wooden horse. On the capture of Troy he recov
ered Helen, was reconciled to her, and, after a devious
voyage of several years, returned to Sparta. A temple
was erected in his honour at Therapne.
Menelaus, a celebrated mathematician and astrono
mer of Alexandria, resided in Rome under the reign of
Trajan. His only extant work is a treatise on spherical
geometry, which was translated into Latin.
Me-ne'm-us A-grip'pa, surnamecl LANA'TUS, a
Roman patrician and senator, was chosen consul in
503 B.C. He obtained a signal victory over the Sa-
bines, for which a triumph was decreed him. Through
his mediation the contest between the patricians and
the plebeians was appeased in 493. On this occasion
he related the fable of the belly and the members to
the plebeians.
Me'nes [Gr. M?/r??f, or M?/vif] was the first king of
Egypt, according to the traditions of that country. lie
is said to have founded Memphis, and to have introduced
the worship of the gods. He lived probably 2000 B.C.,
or earlier.
Meneses or Menezes, ma-na'se's, (ALEixo,) a Por
tuguese prelate, born at Lisbon in 1559, became Arch
bishop of Gon, and in 1607 succeeded Alphonso de
Castro as Viceroy of the Indies. He was appointed
by Philip III. of Spain Viceroy of Portugal in 1614.
Died in 1617.
See VEYSSIEKE LA CROZE, " Histoire du Christianisme des
hides."
Meneses Osorio, ma-na/s£s o-so're-o, (FRANCISCO,)
a Spanish painter, born at Seville in 1630, was one of
the most distinguished pupils of Murillo. Among his
master-pieces are " Saint Philip de Neri adoring the
Virgin," and " Saint Catherine." Died in 1705.
Meiiesthee. See MENESTHEUS.
Me-nes'theus, [Gr. MnwfltTf ,• Fr. MENESTHEE, mi'-
neVta',] a semi-fabulous king of Athens, obtained the
throne in the absence of Theseus, who was the lawful
monarch. He commanded the Athenians in the Trojan
war.
as K: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
QQ
Explanations, p. 23.
MENESTHEUS
1570
MENTCHIKOF
Menestheus, [Mevarffrff,] an able Athenian general,
was a son of Iphicrates. He was appointed commander
in the Social war, 356 H.C. He also commanded a naval
expedition against the Macedonians in 335 H.C.
Menestrier, meh-nes'tRe-a', (CLAUDK FRANC.OIS,) a
learned French ecclesiastic and antiquary, born at Lyons
in 1631. He was the author of numerous treatises on
heraldry, antiquities, and history, among which we may
name "On Ancient and Modern Chivalry," (1673,) "The
Origin of Armorial Hearings," (1679,) and "The Philos
ophy of Images," (2 vols., 1682-83.) Died in 1705.
Menestrier, Le, leh meh-nes'tRe-i', (CLAUDE,) a
French antiquary, whose principal work is entitled
"Statue of the Symbolical Ephesian Diana Explained."
Died in 1639.
Menestrier, Le, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French anti
quary, born at Dijon in 1564, was the author of a work
entitled "Medals, Coins, and Antique Monuments of the
Roman Empresses," (1625.) Died in 1634.
Meneval, de, cleh man'vtl', (CLAUDK FRANC.OIS,)
BARON, a French historian, born in Paris in 1778. During
the empire he served Napoleon as secretary, (secretaire
du portefeuille.) He wrote "Napoleon et Marie Louise,
Souvenirs historiques," (3 vols., 1843-45.) Died in 1850.
Menezes. See MENESES.
Menezes. See ERICKIRA.
Mengoli, men'go-lee, (PiETRO,) an Italian geometer,
born at Bologna in 1625 ; died in 1686.
Mengs, mengs, (ANTON RAFAEL,) a celebrated Ger
man painter, born at Aussig, in Bohemia, in 1728. lie
was instructed by his father, with whom he resided several
years at Rome. On his return to Germany he was ap
pointed court painter at Dresden, in 1744. While on a
second visit to Rome, he painted a " Holy Family," which
won for him a high reputation. The Madonna in this
picture was the portrait of a beautiful peasant-girl, whom
Mengs afterwards married, having become a Catholic
for her sake. He became in 1754 director of the Acad
emy of Painting at Rome, and in 1757 he executed his
celebrated fresco of "Apollo and the Muses" in the villa
of Cardinal Albani. On the invitation of Charles III.
of Spain, he repaired to Madrid, where he was appointed
first painter to the king, with a large salary. Here he
produced several of his master-pieces, among which we
may name his "Temple of Glory" and "Triumph of
Trajan" in the royal palace. He died at Rome in 1779.
Mengs is ranked among the best painters of his time,
his works being distinguished by great accuracy of de
sign and neatness of execution, but they are censured
by critics as deficient in warmth and animation.
See GUIBAI., " filoge liistorique de Mengs," 1781: J. J. MA-
RIETTE, "Abecedario ;" BIANCONI, " Elogio storico di R. Mengs,"
1780; NAGLBR, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Meng-Tse or Meng-Tseu. See MENCIUS.
Menil-Durand, de, deh ma'nel' dii'iS.N', (FRANCOIS
JEAN DE Graindorge d'Orgeville — gRaN'doRzl/
doRzh'vel',) BARON, a French officer, born at Lisieux
in 1729, published a number of works on military tactics.
Died in 1799.
Meiiinski, meh-na.N'ske', (FRANgois DE MESGNIEN,)
a French Orientalist, whose original name was MENIN,
born in Lorraine in 1623. Having accompanied the
Polish ambassador to Constantinople, he became inter
preter to the embassy, and subsequently ambassador.
He was appointed in 1671 first interpreter of Oriental
languages at the court of Vienna. His principal work
is a "Dictionary of Oriental Languages," ("Thesaurus
Linguarum Orientalium," 3 vols., 1680,) which is highly
-esteemed. Died in 1698.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Menippe. See MENIPPUS.
Me-nip'pus, [Gr. Mevimrof ; Fr. MENIPPE, ma'nep',]
;a Cynic philosopher and poet, was a native of Phoenicia,
.and lived probably about 60 B.C. Having amassed a
large fortune by usury, he destroyed himself in con
sequence of having been robbed of his treasures. He
was the author of numerous satires, none of which are
extant. Varro is said to have imitated the style of Menip-
pus. He is also mentioned by Lucian in his " Dialogues."
See VARRO, " Saline Menippeae ;" J. F. LEY, " Dissertatio de
Vita Scriptisque Menippi Cynici," 1843.
Menippus, a Greek geographer under the reign of
Augustus, was a native of Pergamus, in Asia Minor.
See " Menippos der Geograph aus Pergamon," etc., 1841, by
GROTEFHNU and ULRICHS.
Menippus OF STRATONICE, an eminent Greek rheto
rician, renowned throughout Asia for his eloquence. He
is highly commended by Cicero in his "Brutus."
Mennander, me'n-nan'der, (CARL FREDRIK, ) a
learned Swedish prelate, born at Stockholm in 1712.
He became Bishop of Abo, in Finland, and subsequently
Archbishop of Upsal, (1775.) Died in 1786.
Mennechet, nieii'sh.y, (finoUARD,) a French litte
rateur, born at Nantes in 1794. He produced odes,
dramas, and " Le Plutarque Francais," a collection ot
lives of eminent Frenchmen, (8 vols.) Died in 1845.
Mennes, menz, (Sir JOHN,) an English poet and
royalist, born in Kent in 1591 ; died in 1671.
Menuo, men'no, [Fr. MENNON, ma'no.N',] (SiMONis,)
the founder of the sect of Mennonites, was born in Fries-
land in 1496. His doctrines resembled in some points
those of the Anabaptists, but were tree trom the absurd
ities and excesses of the latter. The Mennonites were
included in the prescriptive edicts of the emperor Charles
V. in 1540, and a price was set on the head of their
founder. Menno died in 1561. His followers settled in
England, Holland, and North America, and are every
where favourably known for their virtues and industry.
See Miii.i.KR, "Cimbria Literata."
Mennoii. See MENNO.
Menochio, ma-no'ke-o, [Lat. MENO'CHIUS,] (GIO
VANNI STEFANO,) a learned Italian Jesuit and theologian,
born at Pa via in 1576. lie became rector of the colleges
of his order at Rome and Modena. His principal work
is a commentary on the Scriptures, entitled " Brevis Ex-
positio Sensus literalis totius Scripturoe," (2 vols., 1630.)
Died in 1655.
Menochio, (JACOPO,) an Italian jurist, father of the
preceding, was born at Pavfa in 1532. lie was appointed
a president of the Council of Milan by Philip II. of
Spain. He wrote several valuable legal treatises, in
Latin. Died in 1607.
Menochius. See MENOCHIO.
Me-nod'o-tus, [Gr. Mr/vwfo-oc,] a Greek physician of
Nicomedia, lived probably about too A.D. He belonged
to the sect of Empirici. He wrote a medical work,
which Erasmus translated into Latin.
Mencetius, me-nee'sheHis, [Gr. Msvoinof,] a son of
Actor, and father of Patroclus, took part in the Argo-
nautic expedition.
Me'ncm, [Gr. Mei'wc,] a Thessalian general, who
served in the Larnian war against the Macedonians. He
and Antiphilus were defeated by Antipater at Cranon in
322 H.C. He was killed in battle in 321 H.C.
Menem de Turbilly, de, deh meh-noN' deh titR7-
be'ye', (Louis FRANCOIS HENRI,) MARQUIS, a French
agricultural writer, born near La Fleche in 1712, wrote a
"Treatise on Clearing Land." Died in 1776.
Menou, de, deh meh-noo', (JACQUES
BARON, a French general, born in Touraine in 1750.
He served in the republican army in the Vendean cam
paign of 1793, and in 1795 commanded the National
Guard which suppressed the insurrection in the Fau
bourg Saint-Antoine. As general of division, he accom
panied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798, and on the death of
Kleber was invested with the chief command. In 1801
he was besieged in Alexandria by Sir Ralph Abercrom-
bie, to whom he was obliged to capitulate. After his
return to France, in 1802, he was appointed by Napo
leon Governor of Piedmont, and subsequently of Venice.
Died in 1810.
Ment'chl-koP, written also Mentschikow, Ment-
schikof, and Menchikof, (ALEXANDER DANIELO-
VITCH,) PRINCE, a celebrated Russian statesman and
general, born at Moscow about 1670, was the son of a
pastry-cook. His talents procured for him at an early
age the notice and favour of Peter the Great, and, having
served with great distinction in several campaigns against
the Swedes, he was created a field-marshal after the battle
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
MENTCHIKOF
1571
MER CER
of Pultava, (1709.) He was also made a prince of the
empire, and governor-general of Saint Petersburg, and
obtained from the King of Prussia the decoration of the
Black Eagle. On the deatli of Peter (1725) Mentchikof
caused the empress-dowager to be proclaimed empress,
under the title of Catherine I., and appointed a council
of regency for the son of Alexis, afterwards Peter II.
The latter, becoming weary of the insolence of Mentchi
kof, caused him to be arrested for his abuse of power,
and exiled to Siberia, where he i.ied in two years, (1729.)
See M. RANFT, " Leben des beriihmteii Fiirsten Mentschikow,"
1774 ; " Leben mid Todt des Fiirsten Men/,ikoff," 1730 ; VOLTAIKK,
" Histoire de Russie sous Pierre le Grand;" "Anecdotes secretes
de la Cour du Czar," 1780.
Mentchikof, (ALEXANDER SKRGEIVITCH,) a Russian
admiral, great-grandson of the preceding, born in 1789.
Soon after the accession of the emperor Nicholas, he
was sent as ambassador-extraordinary to Persia. lie
was appointed Governor-General of Finland in 1831,
and was subsequently created an admiral and minister
of the marine. In the Crimean war he was charged with
the defence of Sevastopol, and was defeated at the Alma
by the allies in September, 1854. Died in May, 1869.
See DESESSARTS, " Portraits des Homines de la Guerre de
1'Orient;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Mentel, mSN'tel', ([ACQUES,) a French physician,
born at Chateau-Thierri in 1597, wrote a Latin work in
which he claims the invention of printing for John Men
tel of Strasburg. Died in 1671.
Mentel, men'tel, or Mentelin, men'teh-leen', (Jo-
HANN,) the first printer of Strasburg, born at Schelestadt
about 1410, is said to have been instructed in his art by
Gutenberg. He printed in 1473 tne "-Specula" of Vin
cent de Beauvais, (10 vols. fol.) Mentel was ennobled
by the emperor Frederick III. Died in 1478.
See LABORDB, "Debuts de 1'Imprimerie a Strasbourg," 1840;
JACQUES MENTEL, " De vera Typographic Origine," 1650.
Mentelle, mftN'teV, (ErtME,) born in Paris in 1730,
was the author of a " Selection of Geographical and
Historical Lectures," (6 vols., 1783,) and other similar
works. He was a member of the French Institute.
Died in 1815.
See QUBRARD, "La France Litteraire ;" SAI.M-DYCK, "Notice
sur la Vie de Mentelle," 1839.
Meii'tpr, [Gr. M.svn>p,] a wise and faithful friend of
Ulysses, King of Ithaca, who, on his departure to the
siege of Troy, intrusted to him the care of his house.
Minerva is said to have assumed the form of Mentor,
and to have accompanied Telemachus in his travels.
(See "Odyssey," books ii., iii., and iv.) Minerva, as
Mentor, performs a conspicuous part in Fenelon's cele
brated romance of " Telemaque."
Mentor, a Greek artist of the time of Pericles, was
celebrated for his exquisite chased work in gold and
silver. His productions are eulogized in the highest
terms by Pliny, Cicero, and Martial, and Crassus is said
to have paid 100,000 sesterces for one of his goblets.
Mentor, a Greek general, and a brother of Meinnon.
He entered the service of the Persian king Artaxerxes
Ochus about 350 K.C., and led a successful expedition
against the Egyptians. By treachery he obtained pos
session of Hermias, (a friend of Aristotle,) whom he
delivered to King Artaxerxes.
Mentzel, ment'sel, (CHRISTIAN,) a German naturalist
and philologist, born at Fiirstenwald in 1622. He pub
lished " Kurze Chinesischen Chronologic," ("Chinese
Chronology Abridged," 1696,) and several botanical
works. Died in 1701.
Menu. See MANU.
Menu de Chomorceau, men-nil' deh sho'moR'so',
(JEAN ETIENNE,) a French litterateur, born in 1724,
wrote a heroic poem entitled " Renaud," in imitation of
Tasso. Died in 1802.
Menuret de Chambaud, meh-nii'ra' deh shSN'bo',
(JEAN JACQUES,) a French physician, born at Monteli-
mart in 1733. He contributed several valuable articles
to the "Encyclopedic" of Diderot. Died in 1815.
Menzel, ment'yel, (ADOLPH,) a German painter, born
at Breslau in 1815. Among his principal works may be
named "Frederick the Great at Sans-Souci," (in oil.)
Menzel, (FRIEDRICH WILHELM,) a German, born
about 1726, was private secretary at the court of Saxony.
Having revealed to the Russian ambassador the secret
correspondence between Russia, Saxony, and Austria,
he was imprisoned at Konigstein, where he died, after a
captivity of thirty-three years, in 1796.
Menzel, (KARL ADOLPH,) a German historian, born
at Griinberg in 1784, was the author of a " History of
Germany till the Reformation," (1815,) and a "Modern
History of Germany from the Reformation to the Act
of Confederation," (14 vols., 1848,) both of which are
highly esteemed. Died in 1855.
Menzel, (WOLFGANG,) a German critic and litterateur,
born at Waldenburg, in Silesia, in 1798. He became a
resident of Stuttgart about 1825, and edited the " Litera-
turblatt" for many years. He attacked the old German
school and the disciples of Goethe. Among his nume
rous works are a "History of Germany." (1824-25,)
"German Literature," ("Die Deutsche Literatur," 2
vols., 1828,) and a historical romance called "Furore,"
(3 vols., 1851.)
See L. WIENBARG, "Mennel und die Junge Literatur," 1835; L.
BORNE, "Menzel der Franzosenfresser," 1X44; "Foreign Quarterly
Review" for October, 1835 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" tor February,
1840.
Menzies, men'zez, (ARCHIBALD,) a Scottish bota
nist, born in Perthshire about 1754. He served as as
sistant surgeon in the navy. Died in 1842.
Menzini, men-zee'nee, (BENEDETTO,) an Italian poet,
born at Florence in 1646. He visited Rome in 1685,
and obtained the patronage of Christina of Sweden, then
residing in that city. His poems are chiefly sonnets,
hymns, and satires, which have a high reputation. His
" Arte Poetica" especially ranks among the classics of
the language. Died in 1704.
See PAOLUCCI, "Vita di B. Men/.ini," 1732; FABRONI, "Vita;
Italorum doctrina exceltentium ;" TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Let-
teratura Italiana;" LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Menzocchi. See MINZOCCHI.
Merat, ma'rt', (FRANCOIS VICTOR,) a French medical
writer and botanist, born in Paris in 1780; died in 1851.
Mercadante, meR-ka-dan'ti, (SAVERIO,) an Italian
composer, born at Altamura in 1798, produced a num
ber of popular operas, among which we may name
" Elisa e Claudio," " Didone," and "The Two Illustrious
Rivals." He was appointed in 1839 director of the Con
servatory of Music at Naples.
See FETIS, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens."
Mercati, meR-ka'tee, or Mercado, meR-ka'do, (Mr-
CHELE,) an Italian naturalist, born in Tuscany in 1541,
became physician to Pope Clement VIII. lie formed a
valuable collection of minerals, which was placed in the
Museum of the Vatican, and of which he wrote a de
scription entitled " Metallotheca," etc., (1717.) Died in
1593-
See NICERON, " Memoires ;" MAGELI.I, "Vita di Mercati," lire-
fixed to his " Metallotheca."
Mercator. See ISIDORE MF.RCATOR.
Mer-ca'tor, [Dutch pron. meR-ka'tor,] (GERARD,) a
celebrated geographer and mathematician, born at Rupel-
monde, in East Flanders, in 1512, was originally named
KAUFFMANN, ("Merchant," Lat. Mercator.} Through
the influence of Cardinal Granvelle, he was introduced
to the notice of the emperor Charles V., to whom he pre
sented two globes, superior to anything of the kind that
had then appeared. He is chiefly known from the method
of geographical projection called by his name. He pub
lished in 1569 the first hydrographic map of that kind.
He was the author of a Latin treatise " On the Use of
the Astronomical Ring," and other works. He also
executed numerous maps and charts. Died in 1594.
See ADAM, " Vita; Philosophorum ;" T. VAN RAEMDONCSC,
" Gerard Mercator, sa Vie et ses CEuvres."
Mercator, meR-ka'tor, (NICHOLAS,) a Danish mathe
matician, whose original name was KAUFFMANN, born in
Holstein about 1630. He was the inventor of a new
method of constructing logarithms, which he described
in a work entitled " Logarithmotechnia," (1668.) Having
visited England about 1660, he was elected a Fellow of
the Royal Society. Died in 1687.
Mer'cer, (HUGH,) a distinguished general in the
American Revolutionary war, was a native of Scotland.
He fought against the French and Indians, and served
under Braddock in the campaign of 1. lie was
ituuui 17^0, was private secretary ai me cuuri ut oiixony. iinucr DIHUUOI-IV 111 LUC uniiipaigii l/33-
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23
MERCER
1572
MERE
severely wounded at Fort Du Quesne, after which he
travelled on foot to Fort Cumberland, a distance of
more than one hundred miles. He afterwards took part
in the engagements of Trenton and Princeton, and was
mortally wounded at the latter place, January, 1777. A
monument has been erected to his memory at Laurel
Hill, near Philadelphia.
Mercer, (JESSE,) an American Baptist divine, horn in
Halifax county, North Carolina, in 1769. He published
a collection ot hymns entitled "Mercer's Cluster.'' He
died in 1841, leaving the principal part of his estate to
the university in Georgia called by his name.
Mercer, (JOHN,) an American officer and statesman,
served in the war of the Revolution, and was a member
of the convention which framed the United States Con
stitution. He was elected Governor of Maryland in
1801. Died in 1821.
Mercerus. See MEKCIK.R, QKAN.)
Mercey, de, deh meu'si' or mek'sa', (FREDERIC
BOURGEOIS,) a French litterateur and landscape-painter,
horn in Paris in 1808. He wrote works on art, and was
placed at the head of the Direction des Beaux-Arts in
S53-
M
ercier, meVse-i', (BARTHEI.EMI,) a French eccle
siastic and writer, burn at Lyons in 1734. He published a
Supplement to Prosper Marchand's " History of Print
ing," and several bibliographical works. Died in 1799.
Mercier or Le Mercier, leh mek'se-a', [Lat. MER-
CE'RUS,] (JKAN,) a French Orientalist, born at Uzes,
succeeded Vatable as professor of Hebrew in the Royal
College in 1546. He made a number of translations
from the Chaldee and Syriac, and published commenta
ries on various books of the Scriptures. Died in 1570.
Mercier, (JosiAS,) Sieur des Bordes et de Grigny,
a French scholar, born at Uzes, was a son of the pre
ceding. He was made a councillor of state by Henry
IV. He published "Annotations" on Tacitus and other
classics. Mercier was father-in-law of the celebrated
Sahnasius. Died in 1626.
Mercier, (Louis SEBASTIEN,) an eccentric French
writer, born in Paris in 1740, became professor of rhet
oric in the College of Bordeaux. He was the author
of "The Year 2440," etc., (1770,) a caustic satire on
Parisian society, entitled "Picture of Paris," ("Tableau
de Paris," 1781,) and a number of dramas, romances,
and miscellaneous treatises. In his "Essay on the Dra
matic Art" he denounces the dramas of Racine and
Corneille and proposes that his own should take their
place on the French stage. Among the most successful
of his plays were "The Deserter," and "The Wheel-
harrow of the Vinegar-Dealer," (" La Brouette du
Vinaigrier.") Mercier was chosen in 1792 a deputy to
the National Convention, where he acted with the
Girondists, voted for the imprisonment of the king, and
was proscribed by the Jacobins. He was afterwards a
member of the Council of Five Hundred, and of the
Institute of France. Died in 1814.
See DELISI.E DE SALES, "Notice des Ouvrages de Mercier;"
NODIER, "Souvenirs de 1' Empire :" QUEKARD, "La France Litte'-
raire :" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mercier, (PHILIP,) a painter, of French extraction,
born at Berlin in 1689, resided principally in England,
where he was patronized by Frederick, Prince of Wales.
His works are commended by Walpole. Died in 1760.
See WAI.POI.E, "Anecdotes of Painting."
Mercier de la Riviere, meVse-a' deh IS re'vejjJR',
a French writer on political economy, born about 1720.
His principal work is "The Natural and Essential
Order of Political Societies," (1767.) Died about 1794.
Merck, menk, QOHANN HEINRICH,) a German lit
terateur, horn at Darmstadt in 1741, was an intimate
friend of Goethe. He translated Addison's " Cato," and
other English works, and contributed to Lavater's
" Physiognomy." He also wrote for the " Deutschen
Mercur," and other literary journals. He died, by sui
cide, in 1791.
See ADOLPH STAHR, " J. H. Merck; ein Denkmal," 1840;
" Foreign Quarter')' Review" for Ju'y, 1836.
Mercklin, ingRk-leen', (GEORG ABRAHAM,) a German
physician and writer, horn at Weissemhurg in 1644;
died in 1702.
Mercceur, meR'kuu', (fiusA,) a French poetess, born
at Nantes in 1809, was patronized by Chateaubriand,
Lamartine, and other celebrated writers of the time.
Died in 1835.
Mercceur, de, deh meR'kuR', (PHILIPPE EMMANUKI.
de Lorraine — deh lo'rin',) Due, a French Catholic
leader, born in 1558, was appointed Governor of Brc-
tagne in 1582. He revolted against Henry III. in 1589,
and afterwards defied the authority of Henry IV. until
1598, when he submitted, and received a large sum of
money from the king. Died in 1602.
See BRUSI.E DE MONTPI.AINCHAMP, "Vie de P. E. de Lorraine,"
1689; " Nouvelle Hiographie Generale."
Mercure or Mercur. See MERCURY.
Mercuri, mCR-koo'ree, (PAOLO,) an Italian engraver,
horn at Rome about 1808. He worked with success in
Paris from 1832 to 1847.
Mercuriale, meK-koo-re-a'la, or Mercuriali, meR-
koo-re-a'lee, [Latin, MERCURIA'LIS,] (GiROLAMO,) an
Italian physician, born at Forli in 1530, succeeded Fra-
cantiani as professor of medicine at Padua, (1569.) On
the invitation of Maximilian II., he visited Vienna, and
was made a chevalier and count palatine by the emperor.
He edited the works of Hippocrates, and published,
among other works, a treatise "On the Gymnastic Art,"
(in Latin.) Died in 1606.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratitra Italiana;" F. BOER-
NER, " Dissertatio de Vita H. Mercurialis," 1751.
Mercurialis. See MKRCURIALE.
Mercurio. See MERCURY.
Mercurius. See MERCURY.
Mer'cu-ry, [Lat. MERCU'RIUS ; Fr. MERCURE, meRx-
kiiR'; It. MERCURIO, meR-koo're-o ; Ger. MERCUR,
meu-kooR',] in the Roman mythology, a god of com
merce and gain, (from the Latin merx, plural merces,
" merchandise,") was regarded as the messenger of
the gods, the patron of orators, merchants, travellers,
and thieves. He was identified by the Romans of the
later ages with the Greek Hermes, and was said to be
a son of Jupiter and Maia. The poets feigned that it
was his office to conduct the souls of the dead to the
infernal regions, — that he stole from Neptune his trident,
from Venus her girdle, from Mars his sword, and from
Jupiter his sceptre, — that he could assume whatever
shape he pleased, and render himself invisible. Having
invented the lyre and given it to Apollo, he received
from that god a golden wand, called cadnceits. The
invention of the alphabet, of numbers, of astronomy, of
music, and other things, was ascribed to Mercury, who
was also interested in alliances and treaties. He was
represented with a winged cap (fetasits) and winged
sandals, (talaria.) He received numerous surnames,
among which are Cyllenius, (from Mount Cyllene, where
he was horn,) Caduceator, (i.e. the "herald" or "wand-
bearer,") Argeiphontes, ( the "slayer of Argus,") and
many other names.
See J. D. GUIGNIAUT, " Commentatio de 'Ep/j.ov seu Merrurii
Mythologia," 1835.
Mercy, mCR'se', (CLAUDE FLORIMOND,) a distin
guished military commander, born in Lorraine in 1666,
was a grandson of Frai^ois, noticed below. Having
entered the Austrian service, he fought against the
French in the principal campaigns from 1702 to 1734,
and attained the rank of field-marshal and general-in-
chief of the Imperial forces in Italy. He was killed at
the battle of Parma, (1734.)
Mercy, (FRANCOIS,) a celebrated general, born in
Lorraine about 1595. He served with distinction in the
Austrian army during the Thirty Years' war, and gained
a decided advantage over Turenne at Marienthal, in
1645. He was mortally wounded in an action with the
Duke of Enghien, near Nordlingen, the same year.
See KRAFT, " Histoire de la Maison d'Autriche."
Mercy d'Argenteau, de, deh meR'se' df R'zhdN'to',
(FKANC.OIS,) COMTE, was Austrian ambassador from
the court of Vienna to Paris in 1791. He advised the
flight of the royal family. Died in 1794.
Mere, de, deh ma'ra', (GEORGES Brossin — bRo'saN',)
CHEVALIER, a French litterateur, born in Poitou about
1610. His principal work is entitled " Conversations of
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged: a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o. ohscure: far. fall, fat; met: n6t; good; moon;
MEREDITH
1573
MERLET
Marshal Clerambault and Chevalier de Mere." He was
intimate with Pascal and Balzac. Died in 1685.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, " Derniers Portraits litteraires."
Mer'e-dith, (GEORGE,) an English novelist, born in
Hampshire about 1828. Among his works are " Farina, |
a Legend of Cologne," (1858,) and " Vittoria," (1866.) j
Meredith, (HENRY,) an English navigator, born in ;
1782, visited the northern part of Guinea, and wrote j
an " Account of the Gold Coast, with a Brief History of ,
the African Company." He died in Guinea of injuries :
received from the natives, (1812.)
See W. HUTTON, "Voyage to Guinea," 1821.
Meredith, (OWEN.) See BUI.WKR.
Mgr'e-dith, (WILLIAM MORRIS,) an eminent Amer
ican lawyer, born in Philadelphia, June 8, 1799, graduated !
with distinction at the University of Pennsylvania in
1812. He commenced the practice of law about 1820. |
From 1824 to 1828 he represented his native city in the |
Pennsylvania house of representatives, and from 1834
to 1849 was president of the select council of Phila
delphia. In 1837 he was chosen a member of the Con
vention for amending the Constitution of the State. On
the inauguration of President Taylor, in March, 1849,
Mr. Meredith was appointed secretary of the treasury,
which position he held till the death of the President, in
July, 1850. In 1861 he became attorney-general of the
State of Pennsylvania, and filled this office until 1867.
As a lawyer, Mr. Meredith has for many years stood
in the foremost rank in his native State, and has been
constantly engaged in important cases both in the su
preme court of Pennsylvania and that of the United
States. As an able and ready legal debater, he has few
equals and scarcely any superior in our country.
Mer'i-am, (Er.EN,) an American meteorologist, born
at Concord, Massachusetts, in 1/94. He was a diligent
collector of statistics, and originated a theory of cycles
of atmospherical phenomena. Died at Brooklyn, New
York, in 1864.
Merian, ma're'S.N', (JEAN BERNARD,) a Swiss littlra-
tcur, born near Bale in 1723. He was the author of a
number of philosophical essays of great merit, and trans
lated into French some of the " Essays" of Hume.
Died in 1807.
See ANCILLON, " filoge de Merian," 1810.
Merian, ma're-an, (MARIA SIBYLLA,) a celebrated
flower-painter and naturalist, born at Frankfort-on-the
Main in 1647, was a pupil of Mignon. She was married
in 1665 to John Andrew Graff, an artist, whose name,
however, she did not assume. Having made a scientific
tour in South America in 1698, she published, after her
return, a magnificent work " On the Metamorphoses of
Surinam Insects," (1705, in Dutch and Latin;) also a
treatise "On the Origin of Caterpillars, their Nourish
ment and Changes." These works are illustrated by
designs from nature and painted with exquisite skill and
accuracy. She died in 1717, leaving two daughters,
|ane Maria Helena and Dorothea Maria Henrietta,
who were distinguished in the same department of art.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Merian, (MATTHlKf.) an eminent Swiss engraver,
the father of the preceding, was born at Bale in 1593,
and resided at Frankfort-on-the Main. His prints are
very numerous, and are highly esteemed. Died in 1651.
Merian, (MATTHIEL',) born at Bale in 1621, was a son
of the preceding. He studied under Sandrart and Carlo
Maratta. and painted portraits of great excellence in the
style of Van Dyck. Among his master-pieces is an eques
trian portrait of Count Soclerini. Died in 1687.
Meric, de, deh ma'rek', (JEAN,) a French general,
born at Metz in 1717, served under Marshal Saxe, and
was killed in an engagement near Malines in 1747.
Merilhou, ma'ie'loo', (JOSEPH,) a French lawyer,
born at Montignac in 1788. He gained distinction as an
advocate in political trials. In 1830 he became minister
of public instruction in Lafitte's cabinet. He was elected
to the Chamber of Deputies in 1831, and in 1837 was
made a peer. He published a " Historical Essay on the
Life and Works of Mirabeau," (1827.) Died in 1856.
See P. S. DUPIN, "Notice stir J. Merilhou," 1826; "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
M^rille, ma'rel' or ma-re'ye, (EDMOND,) a French
jurist and legal writer, born at Troyes in 1579; died in
1647.
Merimee, ma're'ma', (JEAN FRANCOIS LENORE,) a
French painter, born in 1765; died in Paris in 1836.
Merimee, (PROSPER,) a distinguished novelist and
historian, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in
1803. He produced in 1825, as translations from the
Spanish, several dramas, under the title of " Theatre de
Clara Gazul." In 1834 he was appointed inspector-
general of historical monuments. His novel of "Co-
lomba" (1841) was very successful. He was elected a
member of the French Academy in 1844, and became a
senator in 1853. Among his numerous works are "The
Double Mistake," ("La "double Meprise,") a moral tale,
(1833,) "Notes of a Journey in the South of France,"
(1835,) "Notes of a Journey in the West of France,"
(1836,) " Studies in Roman History," "The Conspiracy
of Catiline," etc., (2 vols., 1844,) a " History of Don
Pedro I., King of Castile," (1848,) " Les faux Deme
trius; Episode de 1'Histoire de Kussie," (1853,) and
"Melanges historiques et litteraires," (1855.) He had
an excellent talent for narration. Died in 1870.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, "Portraits contemporains," and "Canse-
ries duLundi;" " Nouvelle Bioeraphie Generale :" " Blackwcod's
Magazine" for March, 1849; " Edinburgh Review" for Ju'y, 1850.
Merino, ma-ree'no, (Don GKRONIMO,) a Spanish
guerilla chieftain, born at Villasbiado, in Old Castile,
about 1770, distinguished himself in the principal cam
paigns against the French from 1808 to 1811. Having
afterwards embraced the cause of Don Carlos, he suffered
a total defeat in 1838, and fled to France, where he died
in 1847.
Me-ri'o-nes, [Gr. M^pwi^c; Fr. M^RIONE, ma're'on',]
a Cretan hero, was one of the suitors of the celebrated
Helen. He was a friend of Idomeneus, whom he served
as charioteer in the Trojan war, in which he acted a
prominent part.
Mer'I-vale, (CHARLES,) an English historian, a son
of John Herman Merivale, noticed below, was born
about 1808. He graduated at Cambridge in 1830, and
became rector of Lawford, Essex. He wrote a " History
of the Romans under the Empire," (7 vols., 1850-62.)
See the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1850, and July, 1857.
Merivale, (HERMAN,) an English writer, a brother
of the preceding, was born about 1805. He became
professor of political economy at Oxford about 1837.
Among his works are "Lectures on Colonization and
the Colonies," (2 vols., 1841.) He completed the " Me
moirs of the Life of Sir Philip Francis," which had been
commenced by Joseph Parkes, (2 vols., 1867.)
Merivale, (JOHN HERMAN,) an English lawyer and
writer, the father of the preceding, was born at Exeter
in 1779. He practised in the court of chancery, and
published in 1827 a " Letter on the Chancery Com
mission." In 1831 he was made a commissioner of
bankruptcy. He translated the minor poems of Schiller,
and various other works from the German, Greek, and
Italian. Died in 1844.
Mer'i-weth-er, (DAVID,) an American soldier, born
in Virginia in 1755, served in the war of the Revolution.
He was chosen to represent a district of Georgia in
Congress in iSco.
Merkel, meVkel, (GARi.iEB,)born in Livonia in 1776,
was an intimate friend of Kotzebue, with whom he was
associated as editor of the "Freimuthigen" in Berlin.
Died in 1850.
Merle, meRl, (JEAN TOUSSAINT,) a French dramatist,
born at Montpellier in 1785. Among his most popular
works are " The Youth of Henry IV." and "The New-
Market Races." Died in 1852.
Merle, (MATTHIKU,) a French officer, born at Uzes,
in Languedoc, in 1548. He fought on the side of the
Protestants in the civil wars of the time, and was dis
tinguished by the favour of Henry IV. Died about
1590.
Merle, van. See MERULA, (PAUL.)
Merle-d'Aubigne. See D'AuBiCNE.
Merler. See HORSTIUS, (JACOBUS.)
Merley, me"RW, (Louis,) a French engraver of
medals, born at Saint-Etienne in 1815.
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
MERLIEUX
1574
MERU
Merlieux, mgR'le-uh', (Louis PARFAIT,) a French
sculptor, born in Paris in 1796. lie was employed by
Cuvier in 1822 to reproduce the forms of extinct animals.
His master-piece is a statue of "Capaneus struck with
Thunder," (1837.)
Mer'lin or Merdhin, mer'din, [Lat. MERLI'NUS
AMBRC/SIUS,] a celebrated prophet and magician, is
supposed to have lived in Britain about 450 A.D. He
is alluded to by Spenser in his "Faerie Queene," and
forms the subject of the metrical romance of " Merlin."
Another MKRLIN, called "the Caledonian," is said to
have lived in the latter part of the sixth century. He is
frequently mentioned in the works of Sir Walter Scott,
and his grave, near the Tweed, is still pointed out. The
" Prophecies" of Merlin have been attributed to both
writers of the name.
See T. HEYWOOD, "Life of Merlin Ambrosius," etc.
Merlin, meVlaN', (ANTOINE FRANCOIS EUGENE,)
COUNT, a French general, son of Merlin de Douai, was
born at Douai in 1778. Having accompanied Bonaparte
to Egypt as his aide-de-camp in 1798, he was present at
the battle of Aboukir. He afterwards served with dis
tinction in Austria, Prussia, and Spain. Died in 1854.
Merlin, (CHRISTOPHE ANTOINE,) COUNT, a French
general, born at Thionville in 1771. He served under
Joseph Bonaparte in Spain. Died in 1839.
Merlin, (PIERRE,) a French Protestant minister, born
about 1535, had much influence in the Church. He pub
lished several religious works. Died in 1603.
Merlin de Douai, meu'laN' deh doo'i', (PHILIPPE
ANTOINE,) COUNT, a French statesman and jurist, born
at Arleux in 1754. Elected to the Constituent Assembly
in 1789, he at first favoured moderate measures, but sub
sequently identified himself with the republican party,
and, as a member of the National Convention in 1792,
voted for the death of the king. In 1793 he presented
to the Convention the infamous decree called the law
of the suspected, (loi des suspects.) He was appointed
minister of justice in 1795, and was subsequently created
by Napoleon a councillor of state, count of the empire,
and grand officer of the legion of honour. He was chosen
a member of the French Institute soon after its founda
tion. He died in 1838, leaving several legal treatises.
See MATHIEU, " filoge histovique du Comte Merlin," 1839;
C. PAUI.MIEK, "Merlin," 1839; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Merlin de Thioiiville, meR'laN' deh te'6-N'vel',
(ANTOINK CHRISTOPHE,) born at Thionville in 1762, was
a brother of Christophe Antoine, noticed above. He
was elected in 1792 to the National Convention, where
he supported for a time the measures of the Jacobins,
whom he afterwards opposed. He was a member of the
Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1833.
See REYNAUD, "Vie et Corresponclance de Merlin de Thionville,"
iS6o.
Merlinus. See MERLIN.
Merniet, meVmi', (JULIEN AUGUSTINE JOSEPH,) a
French general, born at Quesnoi in 1772. He served in
several campaigns in Italy and Spain. Died in 1837.
Merode, ma'ro-deh or ma'rod', (CHARLES GHISLAIN,)
a Belgian diplomatist, born at Brussels in 1763. Having
been made a senator by Napoleon in 1809, he defended
the cause of Pope Pius VII. Died in 1830.
Merode, (JEAN PHILIPPE EUGENE,) Marquis of Wes-
terloo, born at Brussels in 1674, entered the Austrian
service, and was created a field-marshal and count of
the empire. He died in 1732, leaving a volume of "Me
moirs," reprinted at Mons in 1840.
Merode, (Luowic FRIEDRICH GHISLAIN,) a Belgian
count, born in 1792, was killed near Antwerp in 1830,
while fighting against the Dutch.
Merode, de, deh ma'ro-deh or ma'rod', (PHILIPPE
FELIX BALTHASAR OTHON GHISLAIN,) COUNT, a Bel
gian minister of state, born in 1791, was a brother of
the preceding. He was the most eloquent chief of the
Catholic party. He became minister of state under
Leopold I. Died in 1857.
MeVp-pe, [Gr. MepoTr??: Fr. MEROPE, ma'rop',] in
classic mythology, was a daughter of Atlas, and one of the
Pleiades. She was married to Sisyphus. It was fabled
that she appears less luminous than the other Pleiads,
because she was ashamed of her marriage with a mortal.
Merouan. See MERWAN.
Merovaeus. See MEROVEE.
Merovee, ma'ro'va', [Lat. MEROV^'US ; Ger. MERO-
VIG, ma'ro-viG,] the son of Clodion, born about 411, is
supposed to have been the third king of France, and was
the founder of the Merovingian dynasty. In conjunc
tion with the Roman general Aetius, he defeated Attila,
King of the Huns, in 451 A.D. Died in 457 or 458.
See A. TIIIKKRY, " Attila et ]' Empire des Huns ;" GIBBON, " De
cline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Merovee or Mer'o-vig, a son of Chilperic I., King
of Neustria. He married in 576 A.D. Brunehaut, Queen
of Austrasia, who was his aunt. By this act he lost the
favour of his father. lie was persecuted by Queen
Fredegunda, his step-mother, who employed assassins
to kill him. After he had fled for refuge to various
cities, he was killed in 577 A.D.
Merovig. See MEROVEE.
Mer'ret, (CHRISTOPHER,) an English physician and
naturalist, born in Gloucestershire in 1614, was a Fellow
of the Royal Society and of the College of Physicians.
He published an "Account of the Animal, Vegetable,
and Mineral Productions of Great Britain," and several
medical treatises. Died in 1695.
See WOOD, "Athena; Oxonienses."
Mer'rick, (JAMES,) an excellent English divine and
poet, born in 1720, published, at the age of fourteen,
"The Messiah, a Divine Essay." In 1739 he translated
the poem of Tryphiodorus on the "Capture of Troy."
lie became a Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1744.
He also wrote a " Dissertation on Proverbs," and a
translation of the Psalms into English verse, regarded as
one of the best in the language. "Died in 1769.
See DODDRIDGE, " Letters," p. 339 ; COATES, " History of Read
ing."
Merritt, (TIMOTHY,) an American Methodist divine,
born at Barkhamstead, Connecticut, in 1775, was editor
of "Zion's Herald," Boston, and published several re
ligious works. Died in 1845.
Mer'r^, (ROBERT,) an English poet and dramatist,
born in London in 1755, was the author of "Lorenzo,"
a tragedy, and a drama entitled " Ambitious Vengeance."
He died at Baltimore, in the United States, in 1798.
See " Gentleman's Magazine," vol. Ixix.
Mersch, van der, vSn der meRsh, QEAN ANDRE,)
a Belgian general, born at Menin in 1734, headed the
revolt of his countrymen against the Austrian emperor
Joseph II. in 1789. Having been deprived of his com
mand and imprisoned through the intrigues of his rivals,
he was released when the Austrians regained their power
in Belgium. Died in 1792.
Mersemie, meR'sen', [Lat. MF.RSEN'NUS,] (MARIN,)
a learned French philosopher, mathematician, and theo
logian, born in Maine in 1588. He studied at the Col
lege de la Fleche, where he formed an intimate and
lasting friendship with Descartes. He subsequently
entered the religious order of Minims. Among his most
important works are a commentary on Genesis, entitled
"Quasstiones celeberrimae in Genesim," (1623,) and a
" Treatise on Universal Harmony," (1627.) Died in 1648.
See HII.ARION UK COSTE, "Vie du Pere Mersemie;" BAILLKT,
"Vie de Descartes;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Merteiis, meR'tens, (CHARLES,) a Flemish physician,
born at Brussels in 1737; died in 1788.
Mer'ton, de, (WALTER,) an English prelate and
statesman, was created chancellor of the kingdom in
1258, and Bishop of Rochester in 1274. He was the
founder of Merton College, Oxford. Died in 1277.
Meru, ma'roo, or Merus, ma'rdos, [Gr. Mr/poo,] a
word of doubtful etymology, forming, in the Hindoo
mythology, the name of a celebrated mountain, said to
be situated in the centre of the seven continents. Its
height is supposed to be 84,000 yojanas,* of which 16,000
are below the surface of the earth. The sacred river
Ganges (Ganga) falls from heaven on its summit, and
flows to the surrounding worlds in four streams, of
which the southernmost is the Ganges of India. Brahma,
* A yo'jSnS (called yo'jiin in the common dialect of India) is usu
ally reckoned at 16,000 yards, or about nine of our miles ; but, ac
cording to some authorities, it is only five miles.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
MER ULA
1575
MESSALA
attended by Rishis (sages) and celestial minstrels, is
supposed to reside on Mount Mem, on one of the highest
summits of which, Kailasa, dwells also Siva, with his
consort, Parvati.
See WILSON, " Sanscrit Dictionary ;" MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Merula, ma'roo-la or m§R'oo-la, (Gioucio,) an Italian
scholar, born at Alessandria clella PagHa in 1424. He
brought out in 1470 an edition of Martial's Epigrams,
said to be the first ever published, and wrote comment
aries on Cicero, Pliny, and other classics. He was the
author of a " History of the Visconti, Princes of Milan,"
(in Latin.) Died in 1494.
See GiNGUEN'E, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" NICERON, " Me-
moires :" Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis."
Merula, mer'oo-la, (PAUL,) a Dutch jurist and writer,
born at Dort in 1558, was originally named VAN MKKLE.
In 1593 he succeeded Justus Lipsius as professor of his
tory at Leyden. He wrote a " Life of Erasmus," and a
number of legal and historical works, (in Latin.) Died
in 1607.
Merville, meVvel', the assumed name of PIEKRK
FKANC.OIS CAMUS, a French dramatist, born at Pontoise
in 1783 ; died in 1853.
Merwan or Merouan (mer'wtn') I., surnamed IBN-
TARID, caliph of the dynasty of the Omeyyads, born
at Mecca about 623. Having gained a victory over his
rival, Abdallah ben Zobeir, Merwan was proclaimed
caliph in 684. He was assassinated by one of his wives
in 685 A. n.
See WKII,, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. viii.
Merwan or Merouan II.,(Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-)
Abdelmelek, a'boo abd-el-mel'ek,) one of the Omey-
yad caliphs, grandson of the preceding, was born at
Damascus in 688 A. D. He was victorious over several
rivals, but was at last defeated by Abool-Abbas, son
of Ibrahim, in 749 A.D. He was subsequently killed by
the Christians, whom he had cruelly persecuted.
See WEIL, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. xvii.
Mery, inl're', (JEAN,) a French surgeon and anato
mist, born at Vatan in 1645, published a work entitled
"New System of the Circulation of the Blood," (1700,)
and other medical treatises. He was first surgeon of
the Hotel-Dieu, in Paris, and a member of the Academy
of Sciences. Died in 1722.
See FONTENELI.E, " filoges des Academiciens," etc.
Mery, (JOSEPH,) a French litterateur, born near Mar
seilles in 1798, wrote numerous poems, romances, and
dramas.
Merz, mSiUs, (JACOB,) a Swiss painter and engraver,
born in the canton of Zurich in 1783; died in 1807.
Merzliakof or Merzliakov, meiv.-le-a'kof, (Ai.EXis
FKODOROVITCH,) a Russian critic and poet, born in
1778, became professor of eloquence and poetry at
Moscow. Among his principal works is a " Discourse
ou the Poetry of the Ancients," etc. His lyric poems
are highly esteemed by his countrymen. He also trans
lated into Russian Tasso's "Gerusalemme Liberata,"
and various works in Latin, Greek, and French. Died
in 1827.
Mesa, ma'sa, (CRISTOBAL,) a Spanish poet, born in
Estremadura about 1540. During a residence of five
years at Rome, he became an intimate friend of Tasso.
He was the author of several heroic poems, which, how
ever, are much less esteemed than his translations of
Virgil's "/Eneid," " Georgics," and " Bucolics." Died
about 1620.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature."
Mesenguy or Mesengui, ma-zdN'ge', ( FRANQOIS
PHILIITE,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Beauvais in
1677, was an adherent of Jansenism, and published sev
eral treatises against the constitution Unigenitus. He
also wrote an "Abridgment of the History of the Old
and New Testament," (1737,) which is commended by
Rollin. Died in 1793.
See LKQUEUX, " Memoire sur la Vie, etc. de 1'Abbe Mesengui,''
1763-
Mesihi, meVe-hee, a celebrated Turkish poet, flour
ished in the reign of Solyman I. He is one of the seven
whose names, written in golden letters, are suspended
in the temple of Mecca, and who have been styled by
their countrymen "the Pleiades." One of his idyls has
been translated by Sir William Jones, in his " Commen
taries on Asiatic Poetry."
See VON HAMMER, "Geschichte der Osmanischen Dichtung."
Mesle, ni.Vla', (JEAN,) a French advocate in the Par
liament of Paris, wrote a valuable "Treatise on Minori
ties," (1714.) Died in 1756.
Mesmer, mes'mer, (FRIKDRICH ANTON,) founder of
the doctrine of Mesmerism, or animal magnetism, was
born at Meersburg, in Suabia, in 1733. Having made
various experiments with the mineral magnet, he was
led to the discovery of the power since called Mesmer
ism. This he made public in 1775, in his "Letter to
a Foreign Physician on Magnetism." He soon after
established a hospital at Vienna for the perfection and
promulgation of his discovery, and repaired in 1778 to
Paris, where he devoted himself to the cure of diseases
and made many proselytes. He subsequently refused a
large sum of money offered him by the French govern
ment for his secret. A number of his adherents having
presented him with 340,000 livres, on condition of being
instructed in his doctrine, he received the money, but
did not perform his promise. He died in Germany in
1815, leaving several treatises, one of which was entitled
"Memoire de Mesmer sur ses Decouveru s," (1799.)
See THOURET, " Recherches et Doutes sur le Magnetisme ani
mal," 1784; JOZVVIK, "Sur le Magnetisme animal," 1832; L)R.
HOEFEK, article in the " Nouvelle 15'iographie Generale."
Mesmes, de. See AVAUX.
Mesnies, de, deh mtm, (HENRI,) a French states
man, born in Paris in 1531, was a son of Jean Jacques,
noticed below. He became chancellor of the kingdom
of Navarre. Died in 1596.
Mesnies, de, (JEAN JACQUES,) a French diplomatist,
born in 1490, was patronized by Catherine of Navarre
and Francis I., and was appointed master of requests
in 1544. Died in 1569.
Mesmon, de, deh mes'moN', (GERMAIN HYACINTHS
de Romance — deh ro'moNss',) MARQUIS, a French
journalist, born in Paris in 1745. He edited succes
sively, at Hamburg, the " Spectateur du Nord," the
" Re'veil," and the "Censeur," and afterwards repaired
to Saint Petersburg, where he became editor of the
"Journal du Nord." Died in 1831.
"Mesnager, Le, leh m.Vna'zha', (NICOLAS LE BAILLIF,)
a French diplomatist, born at Rouen in 1658. He was
sent as a secret agent to London in 1711, to negotiate
the preliminaries of peace, and he was one of the French
diplomatists that signed the treaty of Utrecht, (1713.)
Died in 1714.
Mesnard, mi'titu', (JACQUES ANDRE,) A French
lawyer and senator, born at Rochefort in 1792. He
became a counsellor in the court of cassation in 1841,
and a senator in 1852. He translated into French the
"Divina Commeclia" of Dante, (3 vols., 1858.) Died in
1858.
Mesnardiere or Meiiardiere, de la, deh la ma'-
ntu'de-aiR', (Hii'POLYTE JULES PILF.T,) a French poet,
born at Loudun about 1610, was patronized by Cardinal
Richelieu. In 1655 he was elected a member of the
French Academy, a distinction which he owed chiefly
to his brilliant conversational powers. Died in 1663.
Mesnil, Du. See DUMESNIL.
Mesiiil, du, clii mi'nel', (JEAN BAPTISTF.,) a French
lawyer, born in Paris in 1517, was appointed in 1556
royal advocate. Died in 1569.
Mes-o-me'des, [Gr. Mem^^c,] a lyric poet, who
flourished under the emperor Hadrian. Three of his
poems are preserved in the Greek Anthology.
Mesonero y Romanes, de, da ma-so-na'ro e ro-
ma'nos. (RAMON,) a popular Spanish writer, born at
Madrid in 1803. His principal works are a "Manual
of Madrid, Description of the Court and the City," and
" Panorama of Madrid," (" Panorama Matritense," 1835,)
which are admired for their faithful delineations of life
and manners and the elegance of their style.
Mes-sa'la (01 Mes-sal'la) Cor-vi'nus, (MARCUS VA
LERIUS,) a celebrated Roman orator and general, born 59
B.C., at first opposed the party of Antony, and commanded
a division of the army of Brutus at the battle of Philippi.
After the death of Brutus he became general-in-chief.
c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MESSALINA
1576
METCALFE
He was subsequently reconciled to Augustus, who made
him consul, 31 B.C., and, five years after, prefect of Rome.
Among his other important military services, he reduced
Aquitania to subjection, for which he obtained a triumph,
(27 B.C.) Died about n A.n. Of the writings of Messala
only fragments remain ; but his eloquence is spoken of
in the highest terms by Quintilian, Seneca, and the two
Plinvs. He was intimate with Horace, Ovid, and Pollio,
and was a liberal patron of learning.
See M. C. VAX HAI.I., " M. V. Messala Corvinns." etc., 2 vols.,
1821 ; L. WIESE, " Dissertatio de Messalx Corvini Vita et Studiis,"
i82q; TACITUS, "Annales," books iv. and vi. ; APPIAN, "Helium
Civile."
Mes-sa-H'na, [Fr. MESSAI.INE, mi'sS'len',] a Roman
empress, notorious for her crimes, was a daughter of M.
Valerius Messala Barbatus. She was married to Clau
dius, who afterwards became emperor. She caused a
number of eminent Romans to be put to death. She
was executed, by order of Claudius, in 48 A.D.
Mes-sa-li'na Sta-til'I-a, granddaughter of Statilius
Taurus, became the third wife of the emperor Nero, in
66 A.D.
Messalla. See MESSALA.
Messape. See MKSSAPUS.
Messapus, [Gr. Meuaa-oc; Fr. MESSAPE, m.Vstp',]
in classic mythology, a son of Neptune, and a king of
Etruria. He fought for Tiirnus against tineas, and was
supposed to be invulnerable.
Mes-se'ne, [Gr. Msaov/i'?/,] the wife of Polycaon, whom
she induced to take possession of the country which was
afterwards called, from her, Messenia. A temple was
erected to her honour.
Mes-se'm-us, [Sw. pron. mes-sti'ne-us,] (ARNOLD,)
son of Johan Messenius, noticed below, was made his
toriographer to Christina of .Sweden, and obtained a
title of nobility. Having been concerned with his son
in writing a libel on the royal family, they were both
condemned to death and executed, (1648.)
See "Anecdotes de Suede," The Hague. 1716.
Messenius, (JOHAN,) a Swedish historian, born in
Ostrogothia in 1584, was professor of law in the Uni
versity of Upsal. Being accused of a treasonable cor
respondence with the King of Poland and the Jesuits, he
was imprisoned in 1616. During his confinement of
nearly twenty years he wrote several historical works,
of which the most important is entitled " Scandia Illus
trated," (in Latin.) Died in 1637.
See " Biographiskt- Lexicon ofver namnkimnige Svenska Man;'1
P. STENBECK, " De Vita et Mentis Messeniorum," 1741.
Mes'ser, (AsA,) D.D., LL.D., an American divine and
scholar, botn at Methuen, Massachusetts, in 1769. He
graduated at Brown University, where he became suc
cessively professor of the learned languages, (1796,) of
mathematics and natural philosophy, (1799,) and presi
dent of the institution, (1802.) Died in 1836.
Messier, mi'se-a', (CHARLES,) a French astronomer,
born at Badonviller, in Lorraine, in 1730. Having visited
Paris in 1751, he was employed by De Lisle in his ob
servatory, and distinguished himself by the accuracy of his
astronomical observations. He is said to have observed
forty-six comets, of which he discovered twenty-one.
He was a member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris,
and of similar institutions at St. Petersburg, Berlin, and
other cities. He died in 1817, leaving "Memoires" con
taining his observations. Lalande named in honour
of this astronomer a constellation situated between Ce-
pheus, Cassiopeia, and the Camelopard.
See DEI.AMRRE, "Notice sur la Vie, etc. de Messier," in the
" Memoires'' of the Academy of Sciences, vol. ii. ; LA HARPE, "Cor-
respondance litteraire."
Messina, da. See ANTONELLO DA MESSINA.
Messis. See MATSYS, (QUENTIN.)
Mes'ton, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish poet, born in Aber-
deenshire about 1688, was the author of " Mother Grim's
Tales," in verse, and a poem entitled "The Knight."
Died in 1745.
See " Life of William Meston," prefixed to Iris works ; CHAMBERS,
" Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Mestrezat, mes'tReh-zi', QEAN,) a Protestant theolo
gian and pulpit orator, born at Geneva in 1592, became
pastor of the church at Charenton, and distinguished
himself by his bold and eloquent defence of the Protest
ants against the Roman clergy. He was the author
of theological treatises and sermons, which are highly
esteemed. Died in 1657.
See SENEBIER, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve."
Mesue or Messua. See MASSOOA.
Meszaros, mH'si-rosh, (LAZAR,) a Hungarian general
and statesman, born in the county of Bacs in 1796. In
1848 he was appointed minister of war in the Hungarian
cabinet of Batthyanyi, but on the breaking out of the
war joined the revolutionary party. After sharing with
Dembinski the defeat of Temesvar, he took refuge in
Turkey, and afterwards visited England and America.
Died in 1858.
Metastase. See METASTASIO.
Metastasio, ma-tas-ta'se-o, [Fr. METASTASE, ma'tts'-
ttz',] (PIETRO BONAVKNTURA,) an eminent Italian poet,
born at Rome in 1698, was originally named TRAPASSI.
He manifested at an early age extraordinary talents
for improvisation on any subject. Having attracted the
notice of the celebrated jurist Gravina, he was adopted
by him, and his name was changed to Metastasio, (a
"changing,") in allusion to his adoption. His benefactor
died in 1718, leaving his property to Metastasio, who
now devoted himself principally to literary pursuits,
and brought out in 1721 his lyric drama entitled "The
Gardens of the Hesperides," ("Gli Orti Esperidi.")
This piece was received with great favour, one of the
principal parts in it being performed by Signora Bnlga-
rini, (La Romanina,) esteemed the first vocalist of her
time. At the request of this lady, he relinquished the
legal profession, which he had practised for a time, and
gave his attention exclusively to poetry. His opera of
" Didone Abbandonata" was performed with great ap
plause at Naples in 1724, and was followed by his " Ca-
tone," " Semiramide," "Artaserse," and other operas,
which established his reputation. On the invitation of
the emperor Charles VI., he repaired to Vienna, and
succeeded Apostolo Zeno as imperial laureate. In 1734
he lost his "inestimable counsellor and friend," Signora
Bulgarini, who bequeathed to him, after the death of
her husband, her property, amounting to twenty-five
thousand crowns. This, with characteristic delicacy, he
refused to accept. He brought out during his residence
at Vienna two of his most admired operas, the "Olim-
piade" and "La Clemenza di Tito," which the music
of Mozart has contributed to render immortal. Besides
the works above named, he composed a number of ora
torios, cantatas, sonnets, etc. He died at Vienna in
1782. The genius of Metastasio is eulogized by Vol
taire and La Harpe, the former of whom compares some
of his scenes to the most sublime of the Greek poets.
Rousseau, in his "Nouvelle Heloise," pronounces him
"the only poet of the heart, the only genius who can
move by the charm of poetic and musical harmony ;"
and Schlegel observes that his purity of diction, grace,
and delicacy have rendered him in the eyes of his coun
trymen a classic author, — the Racine of Italy.
See BURNEV, "Memoirs of Metastasio," 3 vo's.. 1796; TORCIA,
"Elogio del Abbate P. Metastasio," 1782; HII.I.KR, '" Ueber P. Me
tastasio und seine VVerke," 1786: LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry
of Europe :" AI.TANESI, "Vita di P. Metastasio," 178; ; "Nouvelle
Biographic Gdnerale ;" " Lives of the Italian Poets," by the REV.
HKNRY STEBBING, London, 1831.
Metcalfe, meVkaf, (CHARLES THEOPHILUS,) BARON,
an able English statesman, born in Calcutta in 1785, was
educated at Eton. He entered the service of the East
India Company as a writer, and became a member of the
Supreme Council of India in 1827. He resigned his
office, returned to England in 1837, and was appointed
Governor of Jamaica in 1839. For three years lie per
formed the duties of this difficult position with success.
He was appointed Governor-General of Canada about
February, 1843. In politics he was a Liberal. He re
signed on account of ill health in the autumn of 1845,
and died at Basingstoke in September, 1846.
See JOHN WILLIAM KAYE. " Life and Correspondence of Charles,
Lord Metcalfe," 1854 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for December,
1846, and February, 1855.
Met'calfe, (THOMAS,) an American Whig statesman,
born in Fauquier county, Virginia, in 1780, removed at
an early age to Kentucky. He worked at the trade of
a, e, I, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y", short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far. fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
METELLI
1577
METRODORUS
stone-mason in his youth. He became Governor of
Kentucky in 1828, and filled that office four years. In
1 8 }.8 he succeeded Mr. Crittenden in the United States
Senate. His term expired in March, 1849. Died in 1855.
Metelli. See MITEI.LT.
Me-tel'lus, (QuiNrusC^ECiLius,) called MACEDO'NI-
cus, an eminent Roman general, of a noble family, was
chosen praetor in 148 B.C. He gained a victory over the
Macedonians in that year, and took their leader, An-
driscus, prisoner, for which a triumph was decreed him.
In 146 he defeated the Achasans near Thermopylae. He
was made consul in 143, and was sent to Spain to op
pose Viriathus. It was during the censorship of Metellus
and Pompeius (131 B.C.) that the decree was passed
obliging all Roman citizens to marry. He opposed the
Gracchi. Died in 115 B.C.
See TACITUS, "Annales;" LIVY, "Epitome."
Metellus, (QUINTUS C/ECILIUS NUMIDICUS,) an able
Roman general, a nephew of the preceding, was a leader
of the aristocratic party. Having been chosen consul
for 109 B.C., he obtained as his province Numidia, then
the seat of war with Jugurtha, who had hitherto suc
ceeded in outgeneralling or outwitting all the Roman
commanders sent against him. Metellus was more suc
cessful, and finally gained a great victory over the African
prince at the river Muthul, towards the close of that
year. Before the end of this war the command was
transferred to Marius ; but Metellus was honoured with
a triumph on his return to Rome in 107, and received the
surname of NUMID'ICUS. He became censor in 102, and
was banished about 100 H.C., through the influence of
Marius and Saturninus, but he was recalled the next year.
He was distinguished as an orator, and was reputed one
of the most virtuous men of his time.
See SALI.UST, "Helium Jiigurthinum ;" PLUTARCH, "Marius."
Metellus, (Quivrus C^ECILIUS Pius,) a Roman
general, a son of the preceding, became praetor in 89
n.c. In the civil war between Marius and Sulla he
fought for the latter, and gained a decisive victory over
Carbo and Norbanus, near Faventia, in 82 B.C. He was
chosen consul with Sulla in the year 80, after which he
commanded in Spain and spent several years in un
successful efforts to conquer Sertorius. He became
pontifex maximus. Died about 63 B.C.
Me-tel'lus Ce'ler, (Q. C/ECILIUS,) a Roman states
man, and leader of the aristocratic party. He became
praetor in 63 B.C., acted with Cicero against Catiline,
and was chosen consul for the year 60. During his
consulship he resolutely opposed the laws which his
colleague Afranius desired to enact for the benefit of
Polnpey. Died in 59 B.C.
Me-tel'lus Ne'pos, (QUINTUS,) a brother of the
preceding, became tribune of the people in 63 B.C., and
was a partisan of Pompey. As tribune, he opposed
Cicero with some violence. He became praetor in 60,
and consul in 57 B.C. Died about 55 B.C.
Meteren, van, vfn ma'teh-ren, (EMANUEI.,) a Flem
ish Protestant historian, born at Antwerp in 1535, was
the author of a "History of the Netherlands from the
Early Part of the Sixteenth Century to his Own Time,"
(in Latin and Flemish.) It is valued for its accuracy;
but the historian is accused by some writers of injustice
towards the Catholics. Died in 1612.
See S. RUVTINCK, "Biographic de Van Meteren," prefixed to his
"Histoire," (French translation.)
Metezeau, meh'teh'zo', (CLEMENT,) a French archi
tect, born at Dreux, constructed the great dyke of La
Rochelle, which, suggested by Cardinal Richelieu, was
the principal means of reducing that city in 1628. Died
about 1650.
Method or Methode. See METHODIUS.
Me-tho'di-us, [Fr. METHODE, ma'tod',] SAINT, one
of the early Christian martyrs, surnamed PATARENSIS
on account of his having been Bishop of Patara. He
was also Bishop of Olympus, in Lycia, and afterwards
of Tyre. His piety and learning are highly commended
by Kpiphanius and Jerome. He wrote a work entitled
"The Banquet of Ten Virgins," of which a great part
is extant. He suffered martyrdom under Diocletian
about 312.
See LARDNER, " Credibility of the Gospel History."
Methodius [Gr. Metfo&oc] THE CONFESSOR, born at
Syracuse, was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople in
842 A.D. He was a zealous advocate of the worship
of images, and was the author of several learned works.
Died in 846.
See BARONIUS, "Annales."
Methodius, [Fr. METHODE, ma'tod'; Ger. METHOD,
ma'tod,] a native of Thessalonica, was sent, with his
brother Cyrillus, by the Greek emperor Michael III., to
convert the Saracens on the Euphrates, and about 863
went on a mission to the Slavonians. They invented
the Slavonian alphabet, and translated the Psalter and
Gospels into Slavonic. Methodius resided in the country
nearly thirty years, and, it is said, translated all the
Scriptures into Slavonic.
See F. X. RICHTER, "Cyrill und Method der Slaven Apostel,"
1825.
Me-thu'se-lah, [Heb. nStJnrra ; Fr. MATHUSAI.EM,*
ma"tii'za"'16.N', or MATHUSALA, mf'tu'za'lt',] a Hebrew
patriarch, noted for his longevity, was a son of Enoch.
He is supposed to have died about six years before the
deluge, aged nine hundred and sixty-nine years.
See Genesis v.
Me'tis, [Gr. Mrjng ; Fr. METIS, ma'tess',] in classic
mythology, the personification of prudence, was the
daughter of Oceanus, and the first wife of Zeus or Jupiter.
Metius, ma'te-us, (ADKIAAN,) a Dutch mathematician,
born at Alkmaar in 1571. He studied under Tycho
Brahe in Denmark, and after his return to Holland was
appointed, in 1598, professor of mathematics in the Uni
versity of Franeker. Among his works is a Latin essay
" On the Institutes of Astronomy." Died in 1635.
See MONTUCLA, "Histoire des Mnthematiques."
Metius, (JAKOB,) brother of the preceding, is regarded
by Descartes and some other savants as the inventor of
the refracting telescope.
See BARLOW, "History of Optics;" BOREL, " De vero Tele-
scopii Inventore."
Metkerke, van, vSn mct'keK'keh, or Meetkercke,
mat'keK'keh, (AiK)Li'HUS,) a distinguished Flemish phi
lologist, born at Bruges in 1528. He was a Protestant,
and was sent by the United Provinces on an embassy to
Queen Elizabeth of England. He translated Theocritus
into Latin verse, and published an edition of Dion and
Moschus. Metkerke was president of the Council of
P'landers. Died in 1591.
See MOTLEY, "United Netherlands," vol. i. chap. iii.
Metochita, me't-o-Kee'ta, ? (THEODORE,) a modern
Greek historian, was the author of a "Compendium of
Roman History from Julius Caesar to Constantine the
Great,'' and a " Paraphrase of the Physics of Aristotle."
Died in 1332.
Me'ton, [Merwv,] a Greek astronomer, flourished in
432 B.C. He observed the solstice at Athens, and dis
covered the lunar cycle of nineteen years, designed to
make the solar and lunar years begin at the same time.
This invention is called the Metonic cycle, and is still
employed by the Western Churches in their computation
of Easter.
See SUIDAS, "Melon;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gshierale."
Metrodore. See METRODORUS.
Met-ro-do'rus [Gr. M^r/xxJwpoe ; Fr. METRODOUE,
ma'tKo'doR'] OF CHIOS, a Greek philosopher, who lived
about 400 B.C., and wrote a " Treatise on Nature," which
was very celebrated. He is said to have been the mas
ter of Anaxarchus.
See BAYLE, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" FABRICIUS,
" Bibliotheca Grasca."
Metrodorus OF LAMPSACUS, a Greek philosopher,
born in 230 B.C., was a disciple and intimate friend of
Epicurus. He sensualized and debased the doctrines
which he had received from his master, and contributed
not a little to bring the Epicurean philosophy into con
tempt with the wise and virtuous. He wrote numerous
works, the titles of which have been preserved by Dio
genes Laertius.
See RITTER, " History of Philosophy ;" FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca
Grasca."
* The name was sometimes so written by the old English poets.
Cowley, in his "Fragments," says, "Seven royal years to a public
spirit will seem more than the private life of a Mathusalem."
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
METRODORUS
1578
MEX1A
Metrodorus, [Or. MrjTpodupof,] a celebrated Athenian,
born about 200 li.c. After the defeat of Perseus by
Paiilus Emilius, in 168 B.C., the latter commanded the
Athenians to send their best artist to paint his triumph
and their greatest philosopher to educate his sons. Me
trodorus, being esteemed by his countrymen as first in
both departments, was sent accordingly, and gave entire
satisfaction to the Roman general.
Mettenleiter, met'ten-H'ter, (JoiiANN MICHAF.L,) a
German engraver, born in 1765, executed a number of
mezzotints and lithographs of great merit. Died in 1845.
Mettermch, von, fon met'ter-n!K/, (CLEMENS WEN-
ZEL,) PRINCE, an emiiuent Austrian statesman and diplo
matist, born at Coblentz in 1773, was a son of Count
Metternich, who was a minister of state at Vienna and
died in 1818. He was sent as minister to Dresden in
1801, and to Berlin in 1803. In 1806 he became ambas
sador to Paris, where he remained until the renewal of
the war in 1809. After the capture of Vienna and the
restoration of peace, he was appointed chancellor and
minister of foreign affairs, October, 1809. For more
than thirty years from that date he had the chief direc
tion of affairs in Austria. He represented his govern
ment at the Congress of Vienna, (1814,) after which he
had great influence in European politics. "No diploma
tist," says Alison, " even in that age of intellectual giants,
excelled, perhaps hardly any equalled, Metternich in the
sagacious survey which he took of existing events, and
the admirable tact with which lie contrived to render
them conducive to the interests of his country." (" His
tory of Europe.") In politics he was extremely conser
vative. He was driven from power and into exile by
the revolution of March, 1848. He returned to Vienna
in 1851. Died in 1859. "He always comprehended his
position," says the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1858,
"and never lost an opportunity. He acted with equal jus
tice and calculation, and never made a retrograde step.
His conduct was always politic, and never precipitate."
See HINDER, "Clement von Metternich uiul sein Zeita'ter," 1836;
J. VON HORMAVR, " Kaiser Fran/, und Metternich," 1X48; CAPE-
FIGUK, " Diplomates contemporains ;" L. UK LOMENIH. " M. de
Metternich, par un Hornme de Rien," 1840; TIMERS, " History of
the Consulate and of the Empire:" "Biographical Sketches," by
HARKIKT MARTINKAH, 1869: " Nouvelle Biographic Ginjrale ;"
" British Quarterly Review" lor October, 1859 ; " Fraser's Maga/.ine"
for February and March, 1844: " Jahrbnch zum Conversations- Lexi-
kon" for 1861.
Mettermch, von, (RICHARD,) PRINCE, a diplomatist,
a son of the preceding, was born about 1828. lie was
sent by the Austrian government as ambassador to Paris
in 1859.
Mettrie, de la, deli If mi'tRe', (JULIEN OKFRAY,) a
French physician and atheistic writer, born at Saint-
Malo in 1709, published an infamous work entitled "The
Man Machine," which he had the impertinence to dedi
cate to Haller. Died in 1751.
See VOLTAIRE, " Correspondance Generate."
Metsys. See MATSYS.
Metz, mets, (KONRAD MARTIN,) a German engraver,
born at Bonn in 1755, executed a number of prints after
Michael Angelo and Caravaggio. Died in 1827.
Metzger, inets'ger, (EnuAKD,) a German architect,
born at Pappenheim in 1807, visited Greece in 1831.
He wrote several works on architecture.
Metzu, met'zii, (GAHRIEI.,) an eminent Dutch painter,
born at Leyden in 1615. Among his master-pieces we
may name the " Vegetable-Market at Amsterdam,"
" Interior of a Kitchen," "Chemist Reading near a Win
dow," and a " Young Girl Looking at a Butterfly."
Metzu is styled by Descamps one of the greatest artists
of his nation. Died in 1658.
See DESCAMPS, " Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc.; CHARLES
BLANC, " Histoire des Peintres."
Meulan, de, (PAULINE.) See GUIZOT, (ELISABETH
CHARLOTTE.)
Meulemeester, de. See DEMEULEMEESTER.
Meulen, van der, vtn der muli'len or mo'Ien, (AN-
TOON FKANS,) a celebrated Flemish battle-painter, born
at Brussels in 1634, was a pupil of Snayers. Having
visited Paris about 1666, he was patronized by Colbert,
and employed by Louis XIV. to represent his principal
engagements. He married the niece of Le Brun, and
assisted that artist in his works at the castle of Ver
sailles. In 1673 he was chosen a member of the Academy
of Painting. As a painter of battles, Van der Meulen
had perhaps no superior, and his landscapes also possess
great merit. Died in 1690.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.; CHARLES
BLANC, "Histoire des Peintres."
Meulen, van der, (PETER,) a Flemish painter of
battles, was a brother of the preceding. He went to
England in 1670, and was patronized by King Wil
liam III.
Meulen, Ver. See VERMEULEN.
Meun, Meung, HHTN, or Mehun, ma-iiN', (JEAN,)
a French poet, surnamed CLOPINEL, from his lameness,
born about 1280. He was the author of the principal
part of the " Romance of the Rose," one of the earliest
poems in the language, which was begun by Guillaume
de Lorris. The best edition was published in Paris in
1814, (4 vols. 8vo.)
See FAUCHET, "Originede la Poe'sie;" MASSIEU, "Histoire de
la Poesie Francaise."
Meurice, muh'ress', (FnANgois PAUL,) a French
dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1820, became a brother-
in-law of Victor Hugo. He produced successful dramas
called "Hamlet, Prince of Denmark," and " Benvenuto
Cellini."
Meurs, de, deli miiRs, [Lat. MEUR'SIUS,] (J.\N,) a
Dutch scholar and historian, born near the Hague in
1579. He was appointed professor of Greek at Leyden
in 1611, and soon after historiographer to the States of
Holland. lie subsequently became royal historiographer
to the King of Denmark. He published a number of
treatises on Greek and Roman antiquities, and a " His
tory of Denmark," (in Latin.) Died in 1639.
See SWEEKT, "Athena; Belj;ica3 ;" NICERON, " Me moires ;"
MORBRI, " Dictionnaire Historique;" SCHHAMM, " Dissertatio de
Vita et Scriptis J. Meursii," 1715.
Meursius. See MEURS, DK.
Meusebach, moi'zeh-baK', (KARL HARTWIG GRE-
GOR,) a German litterateur, born near Artern in 1781,
published a number of critical essays. He numbered
among his friends Tieck and Goethe. Died in 1847.
Meusel, moi'zel, (JuiiANN GEORG,) a German his
torian and bibliographer, born near Bamberg in 1743.
He became professor of history at Erfurt in 1769, and
at Erlangen in 1779. He published, besides other works,
" Bibliotheca Historica," (22 vols., 1782-84,) which con
tains notices of ancient and modern historians, a valuable
collection of biographies of German scholars, entitled
" Gelehrtes Deutschland," (15 vols., 1796-1812,) to which
Ersch and Lindner added seven volumes, and a "Dic
tionary of German Authors who died between 1750
and 1800," (15 vols., 1802-16.) All of these are highly
esteemed. Died in 1820.
See KARL HKINRICH RAH, " Dem Andenken J. G. Mensels,"
etc., 1820 ; " Nonvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Monthly Review,"
itSoo et seq., (Appendix.)
Meusel, written also Moezel, |Lat. Mus'cui.us,]
(WOLFGANG,) a German Protestant theologian and He
braist, born in Lorraine in 1497. He became minister
of a church at Augsburg in 1531, and professor of the
ology at Berne in 1549. His reputation is founded chiefly
on his commentaries on Genesis, Isaiah, and the Psalms.
Died in 1563.
See BAYLE, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" M. ADAM,
" Vita; Theologorum."
Meusnier, muh'ne-i', (JEAN BAI-TISTE MARIE.) a
French general and savant, born in Paris in 1754, in
vented several machines and apparatus. He was killed
in battle, near Mentz, in June, 1793.
Meusnier, (PHILIPPE,) a P'rench painter, born in
Paris in 1656, was a favourite at the court of Louis XIV.,
and became treasurer of the Academy of Painting. _ He
excelled in architectural views and perspective. Died
in 1734.
Meusnier de Querlon, muh'ne-i' deh keR'loN',
(ANNE GAHRIEI.,) a French litterateur, born at Nantes
in 1702. He wrote critiques, works of fiction, etc., and
translated Pliny's "Natural History" into French. Died
in 1780.
Mexia or Mejia, ma-nee'a, (PEDRO,) a Spanish his
torian, born at Seville about 1496, published a compila-
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nSt; good; moon;
METENDORFF
1579
tion entitled " Silva de varia Leccion," and a "History
of the Roman Emperors from Julius Cjesar to Maximilian
of Austria." He was patronized by Charles V., who
appointed him historiographer. Died in 1552.
See TICKNOR, " Histoiy of Spanish Literature."
Meyendorff, von, fon ml'en-doRf, (PETER,) a Rus
sian diplomatist, born about 1790. He was sent as
ambassador to Berlin in 1839, and represented Russia
at Vienna from 1850 to 1854.
Meyer, ml'er, (CONRAD,) a Swiss painter and en
graver, born at Zurich in 1618. He is said to have been
the first engraver who used soft instead of hard varnish.
Died in 1689.
Meyer, ( FELIX,) an eminent Swiss landscape-painter,
born at Winterthur in 1653. His delineations of the
mountain-scenery of Switzerland are esteemed master
pieces of the kind. Died in 1713.
See Pn.KiN'GTON, "Dictionary of Painters;" DESCAMPS, "Vies
des Peintres Klamands, Alleinancls," etc.
Meyer, ml'er, (FKIKDRICH JOHANN LORKNZ.) a Ger
man litterateur, born at Hamburg in 1760 ; died in 1844.
Meyer, mi'er, [Lat. MKVF/RUS,] (jACois,) a Flemish
historian, sometimes called BALIOLA'NUS, born near Bail-
leul in 1491, was the author of a " History of Flanders,"
and other works, (in Latin.) He was an intimate friend
of Erasmus. Died in 1552.
See SWEERT, "Athens Belgicae."
Meyer, (JAN LODEWYCK,) a Dutch painter of marine
views, born in Amsterdam about 1809. He painted
landscapes in his youth, and afterwards distinguished
himself as a marine painter at the Hague.
Meyer, (JoHANN GEORG,) a distinguished German
painter, called, MEYER VON BREMEN, born in 1813. His
best works are delineations of domestic life, particularly
those representing the actions and sports of children.
Among these may be named " The Game of Blind-Man's
Buff," and "The Youngest Brother."
See BROCKHAUS, "Conversations-Lexikon."
Meyer, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) a Swiss artist and
amateur, born at Stafa, on Lake Zurich, in 1759. While
on a visit to Italy, in 1/84, he formed an intimate friend
ship with Goethe and Herder. In 1807 he became
director of the Academy of Design at Weimar. He was
the author of a " History of the Plastic Arts among the
Greeks," (1824,) and was a contributor to the " Pro-
pylaen" and other works of Goethe. Died in 1832.
See GOETHE, " Briefwechseln."
Meyer, (JONAS DANIEL,) a Dutch jurist, born at Arn-
liem in 1780. He published, in French, "The Spirit,
Origin, and Progress of the Judicial Institutions of the
Principal Nations of Europe," (5 vols., 1818-23.) Died
in 1834.
Meyer, von, fon ml'er, (HERMANN,) a German geol
ogist and naturalist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in
1 80 1, published several works.
Meyerbeer, mi'er-baR', (GiACOMO,) an eminent Ger
man composer, of Jewish extraction, born at Berlin in j
1794, was originally named Jacob Meyer Beer. He
studied under dementi and Vogler, and at the age of
nine years was regarded as one of the best pianists in
Berlin. His first operas, entitled " Jephthah's Daughter"
and "Abimelech, or the Two Caliphs," were coldly re
ceived, but, having visited Italy in 1815, he there pro
duced his "Romilda e Costanza," (1818,) " Semiramide
Riconosciuta," (1819,) and " Emma di Resburgo," (1820,)
which met with enthusiastic applause. To these suc
ceeded, in 1824, his " Crociato in Egitto," which was
performed with brilliant success in all the principal
cities of Europe. His " Robert le Diable," brought out
in Paris in 1831, raised his reputation to the highest
point, and is ranked among the master-pieces of musical
art. He afterwards produced operas entitled "The
Huguenots," (1836,) and " Le Prophete," (1849,) both
of which were greatly admired. About 1842 he was ap
pointed director-general of music by the King of Prussia.
Among his later works are " L'fitoile du Xord," (1854,)
and " Le Pardon de Ploermel," (1859.) Died in 1863.
See L. DE LOMENIE, "M. Meyerbeer, par un Hnmme de Rien,"
1841; BROCK-HATS, "Conversations-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generale."
Meyerheim, mi'er-hlm', (FRIEDRICH EDUARD,) a
German painter of great merit, born at Dantzic about
1810. He studied at Berlin, and in 1838 became a mem
ber of the Academy of Arts in that city. His favourite
subjects are rural and domestic scenes, which he repre
sents with exquisite skill and fidelity. Among his master
pieces are "The Blind Beggar," "The Village School,"
and an " Old Woman Teaching her Granddaughter to
Knit." His brother WILHELM has distinguished him
self as a painter of animals, battles, and camp-life.
Meyering, mi'er-ing, (ALIIERT,) a Dutch painter,
born at Amsterdam in 1645 ; died in 1714.
Meyern, nri'eRii, (WILHELM FRIEDRICH,) a Ger
man novelist, born near Anspach in 1762. He wrote
a political romance, entitled " Dya-na-Sore, or the
Wanderers," (1787.) Died in 1829.
Meyerus. See MEYER, (JACOH.)
Meygret or Meigret, mi'gRi', (Louis,) a French
grammarian, born at Lyons about 1510, produced in 1550
a "Treatise on French Grammar," said to be the first
which ever appeared. He attempted to introduce a new
orthography conformed to the sound. Died after 1560.
Meyrick, mer'ik, written alsoMyrick, (Sir SAMUEL
RUSH,) an English antiquary, born in 1783. His prin
cipal work is a "Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour,
with Special Reference to England from the Norman
Conquest to the Time of Charles II.," (1824,) which is
highly esteemed. He was knighted in 1832. Died in
1848.
Mezence. See MEZENTIUS.
Mezentius, me-zSn'she-us, [Gr. Meaevrtof ; Fr. ME
ZENCE, ma'zoNSs',] a fabulous king of the Etruscans,
notorious for his cruelty and impiety. According to
Virgil, he was an ally of Turnus, and was killed in battle
by Aeneas. He svas the father of Lausus.
See VIRGIL'S "^Eneid," book vii. 648, book viii. 482, and book x.
689-908.
Mezeray, de, deh maz'Ri', (FRANC.OIS EUDES,) a
French historian, born in Lower Normandy in 1610, was
patronized by Cardinal Richelieu. His principal work
is a " History of France," (3 vols.. 1651,) which enjoyed
extraordinary popularity at the time, owing in great
part to the engraved portraits it contained. He suc
ceeded Voiture as a member of the French Academy in
1649, and became perpetual secretary of that institution
in 1675. He was also historiographer of France. Died
in 1683.
See LARROQUE, "Vie de Francois Me"zeray," 1720; SAINTE-
BEUVE, "Causeries du Lundi;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Meziriac, de, deh meh-ze're'tk', (CLAUDE CASPAR
BACHET,) a French scholar and mathematician, born at
Bourg-en-Bresse in 1581. He published an edition of
the "Arithmetic" of Diophantus, (with notes,) and trans
lated a number of Ovid's " Epistles" into French verse.
Died in 1638.
Mezzofanti, met-so-fan'tee, (GIUSEPPE GASPARO,) a
celebrated Italian linguist, born at Bologna in 1774. He
studied at the episcopal seminary of his native city, and
\vas ordained a priest in 1797. In 1804 he became pro
fessor of Greek and the Oriental languages at Bologna,
and in 1815 was appointed chief librarian of the uni
versity. Distinguished foreigners who visited Bologna
at this time praised his extraordinary attainments and
bore witness to the accuracy with which he spoke their
respective languages. On the invitation of Pope Gregory
XVI., he repaired in 1831 to Rome, where he succeeded
Angelo Mai as keeper of the Vatican Library, and in
1838 was made a cardinal. A German scholar says of
him at this period, " He is familiar not only with the
principal European languages, but with the Irish, Welsh,
and even Lappish." He is said to have spoken upwards
of fifty languages, and was thoroughly versed in the
idioms and provincialisms peculiar to each : he could
entertain his English friends with specimens of York
shire dialect, and his French or German visitors with the
patois of their respective countries. Lord Byron styles
Mezzofanti a prodigy of languages, who should have lived
in the times of the tower of Babel, to serve as a universal
interpreter. Died in 1849.
See WILLIAM RUSSKI.I, "Life of Cardinal Mezzofanti," etc.,
1857; MANAVIT, '• Esquisse historique sur le Cardinal Mezzofanti,"
1854; " Edinburgh Review" for 1855.
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. O^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MULL
tcSo
MICH 'A 'EL ANGELO
Mi'all, (EDWARD,) an English dissenter, born at
Portsmouth in 1809. He founded" The Nonconformist,"
in London, and wrote several works against the union of
Church and State. In 1852 he was elected a Liberal
member of Parliament for Rochdale. He was returned
to Parliament for Bradford in 1869.
Miaulis or Miaoulis, me-ow'lis, (ANDRKAS VOKOS,)
a distinguished patriot and admiral of modern Greece,
born at Negropont about 1768. In 1821 he was ap
pointed to the chief command of the fleet of the Greeks,
and gained a signal victory over the Turks at Patras.
In 1825 he burnt the Turkish fleet in the harbour of
Modon. He was created high admiral in 1832. On
the accession of King Otho to the throne of Greece,
Miaulis became one of his most zealous adherents. He
died in 1835, and was buried near the monument of
Themistocles.
See" Revue des Deux Mondes," 1859; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Miazzi, me-at'see, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian architect,
born at Bergamo in 1699. Among his most admired
works are the theatre at Treviso and the Spineda
palace at Venegaz/.a. Died about 1780.
Mi'cah, [Ileb. HD'O ; Fr. MICHEE, me'shi',] one of
the minor Hebrew prophets, was contemporary with
Isaiah and Hosea, and flourished under the reigns of
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, from 759 10699 B-c- " ^'s
style," says Bishop Lowth, "is in many parts animated
and sublime, and in general truly poetical."
Mical, me'kal', (N.,) an ingenious French mecha
nician, born about 1730, constructed several admirable
automatons, among which were two speaking heads,
presented by him to the Academy of Sciences in 1783.
Died about 1790.
See "Memoires secrets."
Micali, me-ka'lee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian historian
and antiquary, born at Leghorn about 1780. His prin
cipal work is entitled " Italy before the Dominion of the
Romans," (4 vols., iSlo.) Died in 1844.
Mi'-eha-el, [Heb. ^.SDTD ; Gr. MQW/A; Fr. MICHEL,
me'shel' ; It. MiCHELK, me-ka'la,] one of the archangels
mentioned in the Old Testament, was regarded as the
especial protector of the Jewish nation. A festival was
instituted in his honour, as a defender of the Church,
by the Christians of the ninth century, which is still
celebrated on the 29th of September, (Michaelmas Day.)
See Daniel x. 13-21 ; Revelation xii. 7-9.
Mi'-eha-el [Gr. Mt^a;//.; Fr. MICHEL, me'shel' ; It.
MICHELK, me-ka'la] I., Emperor of the East, surnamed
RHANGAHK, (6 Tovj-u/ji?,) succeeded, in 811 A.D., Stau-
racius, whose sister Procopia he had married. Being
unsuccessful in his war against the Bulgarians, he abdi
cated his crown in 813 and retired to a convent. Died
about 845.
See LE BEAU, " Histoire du Bas-Empire."
Michael II., THE STAMMERER, also called MICHAEL
THE PHRYGIAN, succeeded Leo the Armenian, whom he
had caused to be assassinated, as Emperor of Constanti
nople, in 820 A.D. He died after a reign of nine years,
leaving the empire to his son Theophilus.
Michael III., Emperor of the East, a son of The
ophilus, ascended the throne in 842 A.D., when he was
about three years old. He was assassinated by Basil
the Macedonian in 867. His character was very de
praved.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Michael IV., surnamed THE PAPHLAGONIAN, [Gr.
Mi,\'(«7A !j Ilafaaytiv,] became emperor in 1034, having
previously married Zoe, widow of Romanus III., whom
she had put to death. He died in 1041, and was suc
ceeded by his nephew, Michael Calaphates.
Michael V., surnamed CALAFHATES, [Gr. 6 KaAa-
tyuTTjf,] was made Emperor of the East in 1041, but he
was deposed by his subjects in 1042.
Michael VI., Emperor of the East, surnamed STRA-
TIOT'ICUS, began to reign in 1056. He was deposed in
1057, and was succeeded by Isaac Comnenus.
Michael VII., surnamed PARAPINA'CES, a son of
Constantine XL, succeeded Romanus III. in 1071. He
was feeble and incompetent to reign, and he abdicated
in 1078.
Michael VIII. Falaeol'ogus, [Gr. MI^O^A 6 Ila^ai-
oAoyoc; Fr. MICHEL PALEOIOGUE, me'sheKpt/la/o/log',]
Emperor of the East, and a son of Androni'cus Palaeol-
ogus, was born in 1224. He usurped in 1260 the throne
of John Lascaris, the infant heir of the late Emperor
of Nicrea. In 1261 his army took Constantinople from
the Latin ruler, Baldwin II. He was excommunicated
by the Patriarch Arsenius for his cruel treatment of John
Lascaris, whom he deprived of sight. Under his auspices
the Eastern and Western Churches made a treaty of
union in 1274; but this attempt to restore the union
proved abortive. In 1281 he defeated the army which
Charles of Anjou and the pope sent to invade the Eastern
empire. He died in 1282, and was succeeded by his son,
Androni'cus II.
See GIBBON, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" GEOKGE
PACHVMERKS, " Historia Rerum a Michaele PaUeologo gestarum,"
1666; LE BEAU, "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Mi'-eha-el An'ge-lo |Fr. MICHEL-ANGE, me'shel'
6.\zh ; It. MICHELANGELO, me-k£l-an'ja-)o ; Lat. MI
CHAEL AN'GELUS] Buonarotti (boo-o-na-rot'tee) or
Buonarroti, a celebrated Italian painter, sculptor,
and architect, was born in the castle of Caprese, in Tus
cany, on the 6th of March, 1474. He was descended
IK m the noble family of Canossa. At the time of his
birth, his father, Lodovico Buonarotti Simone, was
podesta or governor of Chiusi and Caprese. His
mother's name was Francesca del Sera. He attended a
grammar-school in Florence, and became in 1488 a pupil
of Domenico Ghirlandaio. Soon after that date he
began to study sculpture in an academy, or garden, which
Lorenzo the Magnificent had furnished with antique
statues and bas-reliefs, in Florence. He gained the
favour of Lorenzo, who about 1490 invited him to be
come an inmate of his palace and treated him with much
respect and kindness. Here he enjoyed the society of
eminent literary men, one of whom, Angelo Poliziano,
(Politian,) became his intimate friend. Among his ear
liest works was a marble bas-relief, the subject of
which was "The Battle of Hercules with the Centaurs."
This work, which was approved by his own mature judg
ment, is preserved in Florence. His patron, Lorenzo
cle' Medici, died in 1492, and was succeeded by his de
generate son Piero, by whose order Michael Angelo
made a colossal statue of snow. In 1494 he went to
Bologna, where he worked about a year. Having re
turned to Florence, he executed a statue of a " Sleeping
Cupid," which some person passed off as an antique
and sold for a high price to Cardinal San Giorgio. About
1497 he produced an admirable marble group, called a
" Pieta," representing "The Virgin weeping over the
Dead Body of her Son." " In none of his works," says
Ernest Breton, "has he displayed more perfect know
ledge of design and anatomy, or more profound truth of
expression." ("Nouvelle Biographic Generale.") This
group now adorns a chapel in the church of Saint Peter
at Rome. He found another patron in Pietro Soderini,
the gonfaloniere (chief ruler) of Florence, who employed
him in sculpture and painting. He executed a gigantic
marble statue of the psalmist David, which stands in
front of the Palazzo Vecchio, in Florence. He received
four hundred ducats for this work, on which he spent
about eighteen months and which he finished in 1504.
Having been commissioned by Soderini to paint in
fresco a historical picture in the hall of the ducal palace,
he chose for his subject an event in the war between the
Florentines and the people of Pisa. He displayed in the
cartoon of this composition a grandeur of style and a
knowledge of anatomy which had not been equalled by
any modern painter. " Such was the excellence of this
work," says Vasari, " that some thought it absolute per
fection." This cartoon has perished, and the painting
itself was never begun. Among his early paintings is
an oil-picture of the "Holy Family," (about 1504.) He
was invited to Rome by Julius II. soon after the acces
sion of that pontiff, who employed him to build his
monument or mausoleum. He formed a magnificent
design for this work, which design was approved by
the pope and has been described by Vasari, but was
never completely executed. While they were consulting
about a suitable place for the monument, the architect,
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
MICHAEL ANGELO
1581
MICHALLON
San Gallo, suggested that a new chapel ought to be
built expressly tor so superb a mausoleum. The pope
concurred in his opinion, and determined to rebuild the
church of Saint Peter. Thus Michael Angelo's design
is said to have been the cause of the erection of the
most magnificent church in the world. In 1506 he was
offended at the pope because he was not admitted to
his presence when he went to the palace on business.
He therefore abruptly quitted his service, and retired to
Florence. Julius II. sent messengers to bring him back,
but he refused to return, until the pope had urged him
by several letters and mandates. Michael Angelo wished
to finish the monument which he had begun, but Julius
had changed his mind, and ordered the great artist to
decorate with frescos the ceiling and walls of the Sistine
Chapel in the Vatican. He painted in the Sistine Chapel
numerous scenes from the book of Genesis, and colossal
figures of prophets and sibyls. " From the commence
ment," says Duppa, "to the conclusion of this stupen
dous monument of human genius, twenty months only
were employed. So short a time for the completion of
so vast a work could hardly be credited, if it were not
more difficult to refuse the testimony on which it is
supported." It was finished in 1512. Michael Angelo
and Raphael worked in the Vatican at the same time.
Julius II. died in 1513, and was succeeded by Leo X.,
who is censured for his illiberal conduct towards Michael
Angelo. Leo ordered him to build the facade of the
church of San Lorenzo at Florence, and compelled him
against his will to spend several years in procuring
marble for that purpose. " It is a mortifying reflection."
says Duppa, "that the talents of this great man should
have been buried and his time consumed, during the
whole reign of Leo X., in little else than in raising stone
out of a quarry and making a road to convey it to the
sea." (" Life of M. Angelo.") Under the patronage
of Clement VII., who was elected pope in 1523, he
began to build the library and chapel of San Lorenzo, at
Florence. He erected fortifications at Florence in 1528
or 1529, and aided in the defence of that city against the
papal troops. After the accession of Pope Paul III., in
1534, Michael Angelo was permitted to resume the
monument of Julius II., which he completed on a smaller
scale than that which he first designed. It consists of
seven statues, one of which represents Moses, and was
placed in the church of San 1'ietro in Vinculo. This
statue of Moses is called one of his master-pieces.
Among his greatest productions is a picture, in fresco,
of "The Last Judgment," in the Si.stine Chapel, Rome.
This work, which occupied him about eight years and
comprises nearly three hundred figures, was finished in
1541. It presents a confused mass of naked bodies in
the most violent attitudes and most admired disorder,
and excels chiefly in energy of expression. " In the
' Last Judgment, '"says E. Breton, "one will seek in vain
for that celestial light and divine inspiration which ap
pear in the 'Transfiguration,'" (of Raphael.)
In 1546 he was appointed architect of Saint Peter's
Church, which Julius II. began to build about 1506.
Michael Angelo accepted this appointment on the con
ditions that he should receive no salary, and that he
should deviate from the design of San Gallo, the former
architect of the church. He adopted a more simple
design, formed a model for the dome, and devoted the
remainder of his life chiefly to that grand fabric, but did
not live to see it completed. He finished the Farnese
palace, which is greatly admired, and is one of the most
imposing edifices of modern Rome. In his latter years
he adorned the Capitoline Hill with several fine buildings,
among which is the senatorial palace. He was the au
thor of numerous sonnets and other poems, which are
distinguished for elegance and purity of style. These
were published in 1538, and often reprinted. He never
married. He died in Rome in February, 1563, or, ac
cording to some authorities, in 1564. His moral character
is represented as good.
" He was the bright luminary," says Sir Joshua Rey
nolds, " from whom painting has borrowed a new lustre,
under whose hands it assumed a new appearance and
became another and superior art, and from whom all
his contemporaries and successors have derived what
ever they have possessed of the dignified and majestic."
("Discourses on Painting," vol. ii.) Comparing him
with Raphael, Quatremere de Quincy remarks, "If
Michael Angelo is the greatest of draughtsmen, Raffaello
is the first of painters." ("Life of Raffaello.") "In
painting," says Duppa, " the great work on which Michael
Angelo's fame depends, and, taking it for all in all, the
greatest work of his whole life, is the ceiling of the Sis-
tine Chapel. . . . His Sibyls and prophets exhibit with
variety and energy the colossal powers of his mind. . . .
In his great works, his superior abilities are shown in
the sublimity of his conceptions and the power and
facility with which they are executed." It is doubtful
whether any oil-painting by this artist is now extant.
See VASARI, " Lives of Painters and Sculptors :" CONDIVI, " Vita
rii Michelangelo Buonarroti," 1553; LANZI, " Storia della Pittura ;"
RICHARD DUPPA, " Life of Michael Angelo," London, 1806 : VIGNALI,
"Vila di Michelangelo," 1753; HAUCHECORNK, "Vie de Michel-
Ange :" QuATKBMBRB DE QUINCY, "Vie de Michel-Ange." 1833;
WiM.Kia.MANN, " Nenes Mahier Lexikon ;" NAC;I.ER, " Kiinstler-
Lexikon ;" CicoGNARA, " Storia della Scuitura ;" B. CKLI.IM, " Me-
morie ;" LANNAU ROU.AND, " Michel-Ange Puete ;" J. S. HAK-
FORD, "Life of Michael Angelo," 1856; MAKIK HKNRI BHYI.K,
" Histoire de la Peinture en Italic, " 2 vols., 1817, (said to contain
an ample and well-written account of Michael Angelo ;) HERMANN
GRIMM, "Michael Angelo's Leben." and English version of the
same, London, 2 vols., 1865.
Michael Angelo delle Battaglie. See CERQUOZZI.
Mi'chael Feodo'rovitch, (ti-o-do'ro-vitch,) Czar
of Russia, born in 1596, was a son of Feodor Romanof.
He began to reign in 1613. His rule is said to have
been beneficial to Russia. He had two sons and three
daughters. Died in 1645.
See BERCH, "Reign of Michael Feodorovitch," (in Russian.)
1832; LEVESQUE, " Histoire de Russie."
Michaeler, me-Ka'eh-ler, (KARI, JOSEPH,) a German
historian and scholar, born at Innspruck in 1735; c''ec'
in 1804.
Michaelis, me-Ka-a'lis, QOHANN BENJAMIN,) a Ger
man poet, born at Zittau in 1746. He was the author
of lyric poems, fables, and satires: the last-named are
particularly esteemed. He was intimate with Jacobi and
Gleim, and resided with the latter at the time of his
death, (1772.)
See SCHMID, " Leben J. B. Michaelis," 1775.
Michaelis, (JoiiANN DAVID,) an eminent German
theologian and Orientalist, born at Halle in 1717. He
studied in the university of his native city, and acquired
a profound knowledge of the Hebrew, Syriac, and Chal-
dee languages and biblical exegesis. He subsequently
visited Holland and England, and was appointed after
his return professor of philosophy at Gottingen, (1745.)
In conjunction with Haller, he founded the Society of
Sciences in that city, of which he afterwards became
director. He was editor of the " Gelehrte Anzeigen,"
at Gottingen, from 1753 to 1770, and about the same time
held the office of librarian at the university. He was the
author of " Introduction to the New Testament," ("Ein-
leitung in die Gottlichen Schriften des Neuen Bundes,"
2 vols., 1750,) "Commentaries on the Laws of Moses,"
(" Das Mosaische Recht," 6 vols., 1770,) and other works,
which entitle him to rank among the most learned men
of his time. He also published grammars of the Hebrew,
Syriac, and Chaldee languages, and several valuable
treatises on chronology and geography. Michaelis was
a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, member of
the Academy of Inscriptions, Paris, and privy councillor
of Hanover. Died in 1791.
See J. D. MICIIAKMS, '' Lebensbeschreibung von ihm selbst abge-
fasst," 1793: C. G. HKYNK, " Elogium J. D. Michaelis," 1701;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Michaelis, ( Jon ANN HK.INRICH,) a German Oriental
ist and theologian, born at Klettenberg, Saxony, in 1668.
He taught Hebrew, Greek, and Chaldee at Halle, and
became professor of theology at that place about 1709.
He wrote works on philology, etc. Died in 1738.
Michailowski. See MIKHAII.OFSKI.
Michallon, me'shi'lo.N', (Acmi.LE ETNA,) a French
painter, born in Paris in 1796. He gained the first prize
in 1817, and went to Rome with a pension. Died in 1822.
Michallon, (CLAUDE,) a French sculptor, the father
of the preceding, was born at Lyons about 1751. He
studied at Rome. Died in 1799.
€ as/£; 935 s; ghard; gas/; G, H, K, gtitttiral '; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MICHAUD
1582
Ml CHE LI US
Michaud, me'sho', (Ci.AUDK IGNACE FRANCOIS,) an
able French general, born near the Jura Mountains in
1753. Me became general of division in 1793, and in
1794 succeeded Pichegru as commancler-in-chief of the
army of the Rhine. In the same year he gained victories
at Kaiserslautern, Mannheim, and other places. From
1806 to 1813 he was Governor of the Hanse town*
Died in 1835.
Michaud, (JOSEPH FRANCOIS,) a distinguished French
writer and journalist, born in Savoy in 1767. Soon alter
the breaking out of the French Revolution he repaired
to Paris, where he was associate editor for many years
of the royalist journals the "Gazette Frai^aise" and
"La Quotidienne." In 1811 he began, in conjunction
with his brother, the publication of the celebrated "Bio
graphic Universelle," (completed in 1840, 85 vols. 8vo,)
which numbered among its contributors the most emi
nent literary and scientific men of France. Michaud
was the author of an excellent " History of the Crusades,"
(6 vols., 1841,) a poem entitled "The Spring-Time of an
Exile," which had great popularity, and other works in
prose and verse, besides a number of contributions to
the " Biographic Universelle." He was for many years
a prominent bookseller and publisher in Paris. Died
in 1839.
See VII.LENEUVE, "Notice historique stir Michaud," 1839;
SAINTE-BEUVE, "Causeries du Lundi ;" "Foreign Quarterly Re
view'1 for February, 1830.
Michaud, (Louis GAHRIEL,) a French litterateur, born
at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1772. He was a brother of the
preceding, in conjunction with whom he established a
printing-house in Paris, from which issued the principal
royalist publications of the time. He was the author
of a "Historical Picture of the First Wars of Napoleon
Bonaparte," "History of Saint-Simonism," etc., and
made numerous contributions to the "Biographic Uni
verselle." Died in 1858.
Michault, me'sho', (JEAN BERNARD,) a French phi
lologist and bibliographer, born at Dijon in 1707; died
in 1770.
Michaux, me'sb.5', (ANDR£,) a distinguished French
botanist and traveller, born at Versailles in 1746. After
having traversed Persia and other countries, he was sent
by the government to North America in 1785 for the
purpose of collecting trees and plants. For about eleven
years he thoroughly explored the botanical productions
of the United States, Canada, etc., with a courage and
energy which no danger or difficulty could overcome.
In 1796 he returned to France with his collections, and
prepared his " Description of the Oaks of North Amer
ica," (1801.) He accompanied Baudin's scientific ex
pedition to Australia in 1800, and, while pursuing his
researches in Madagascar, he died of fever in 1802.
He left a " Flora of North America," (" Flora Boreali-
Americana," 2 vols., 1803,) which for many years was
the most complete that had appeared. Both of his works
are adorned with excellent engravings by Redoute.
See CUBIERES. "Notice snr F. A. Michaux," 1807; " Edinburgh
Review" for October, 1805 ; " Monthly Review" for November, 1806;
"North American Review" for April, 1858.
Michee, the French for MICAH, which see.
Michel, the French for MICHAKI., which see.
Michel, me'shel', (CLAUDE ETIENNE,) a French
general of division, born at Pointre in 1772. He was
killed at Waterloo, June, 1815.
Michel, (FRANCISQUK XAVIKR,) a French archaeolo
gist, born at Lyons in 1809. He published editions of
the " Romance of the Violet," (1834,) " Song of Roland,"
(1837,) "Anglo-Norman Chronicle," and other works
of the middle ages.
Michel, (JKAN,) a French physician and dramatic
poet. He enjoyed a high reputation in his time, and
was appointed first physician to the king, Charles VIII.
Died about 1493.
Michel, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French engraver, born
in Paris in 1748, resided many years in London, where
he enjoyed a high reputation. Died in 1804.
See BASAN, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs."
Michel, (RoiiERT,) a French sculptor, born at Puy
in 1720, worked mostly in Spain. Died at Madrid in
1785-
Michel-Ange. See MICHAEL ANGELO.
Michelangelo or Michelagnolo. See MICHAEL
ANGELO.
Michel de Bourges, me'shel' deh booRzh, an elo
quent French advocate, born at Aix in 1798 ; died in 1853.
Michel de Tours, me'shei' deh toou, (GUILLAUMK,)
a French poet, who lived about 1500, was the author of
a work entitled "The Forest of Conscience," (1516.)
Michelburne, mlk'el-burn, ? (Sir EDWARD,) an Eng
lish navigator, born about 1574. He sailed in 1604, with
John Davis, on a voyage to the Indian Ocean.
Michelet, mesh'li', (JULES,) an eminent French his
torian, born in Paris in 1798. He was chosen chief of
the historical department of the archives of France in
1830, before which he had published several historical
works for schools. About 1832 he was appointed the
substitute or successor of Gui/.ot as professor of history
at the Sorbonne. He published in 1831 a "Roman
History: the Republic," and in 1833 the first volume
of his "History of France." In 1838 he obtained the
chair of history and moral science in the College of
Fiance, and was elected a member of the Academy of
Moral and Political Sciences. He distinguished himself
as an adversary of the Jesuits and of Romanism. After the
coup-d'etat of December, 1851, refusing to take the oath,
he lost his place in the archives, and his chair in the
College of France. His principal works are a " His
tory of the French Revolution," (7 vols., 1847-53,) a
"History of France," (14 vols., 1833-62,) "Love,"
("L'Amour," 1858,) and "Woman," ("La Femme,"
1859.) These have been translated into English and
often reprinted. His histories present a profusion of
poetical images, with a brilliant style and ingenious
generalizations. He also published "The Sea," ("La
Mer," 1861,) and "The Bible of Humanity," ("La Bible
de I'Humanite," 1864.)
See L. LOUVET, " E~tudes biographiques : M. Michelet;" "For
eign Quarterly Review" for July, 1840; "Edinburgh Review" for
January, 1844.
Michelet, mesh'eh-LV, (KARL LUDWIG,) a distin
guished German philosopher of the school of Hegel, was
born at Berlin in 1801. He was appointed in 1825 pro
fessor of philosophy and philology in the French gym
nasium at Berlin, and in 1829 obtained the chair of
philosophy in the university. He published " The Ethics
of Aristotle in their Relation to the System of Morality,"
(1827,) "Critical Examination of Aristotle's Metaphys
ics," (in French, 1836,) which was crowned by the Acad
emy of Moral Sciences of Paris, " History of the Last
Systems of Philosophy in Germany, from Kant to Hegel,"
(1837,) and other works of a high reputation.
Micheli, me-ka'lee, (ANDREA,) an Italian painter,
called ANDREA VICEN i INO, born at Vicenza in 1539. He
was a good colorist, but lacked invention. Died in 1614.
Micheli, (DOMKNICP,) a Venetian statesman, became
Doge of Venice in 1117. He conducted a fleet in a cru
sade to Palestine in 1123, and took Tyre in 1124. Died
in 1 130.
Micheli, me-ka'lee, or Mich'eli, me-ke-a'lee, [Lat.
MICHE'LIUS,] (PiKRo ANTONIO,) an eminent Italian
botanist, born at Florence in 1079, was appointed by
Cosimode' Medici superintendent of his botanical garden.
He gave particular attention to the classification of the
mosses, fungi, and lichens. His principal work, pub
lished in 1729, is entitled " Nova Plantarum Genera," in
folio, with plates, and is praised in high terms by Haller.
Linnaeus has named the genus Michelia in honour of
this botanist. Died in 1737.
See COCCHI, " Elogio di P. A. Micheli," 1737: CUVIER, " His-
toire des Sciences naturelles ;" G. MARSIU, " Di P. A. Micheli
botanico insigne," 1845; FABRONI, "Vitas Italorum," etc.
Micheli, (ViTALE,) a Venetian commander, elected
Doge of Venice in 1096, sent a large fleet to co-operate
with the leaders of the first crusade. Died in IIO2.
See DARU, " Histoire de Venise."
Micheli du Crest, mesh'le'dii kni, (JACQUES BAR-
THlh-KMY,) a Swiss mathematician and astronomer, born
at Geneva in 1690, published, among other works, a
Description of a Universal Thermometer," of which
he was the inventor. Died in 1766.
Michelius. See MICHELI.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
Ml CHE LOT
1583
M1DDLETON
Michelot, mesh'lo', (PiKRRK MAKIK JOSEPH,) a
French actor, born in Paris in 1785 ; died in 1856.
Michelozzi, me-ka-lot'see, or Michelozzo, me-ka-
lot'so, a Florentine sculptor and architect, was a pupil
of Brunelleschi. He furnished the design for the Ric-
cardi palace and for the chapel of the Annunciation at
Florence. Died in 1470.
See VASAKI, " Lives of the Painters, Architects," etc. ; QUATRE-
MERE DH QUISCY, " Vies des Architectes illustres."
Michelsen, me'Kel-sen, (ANDREAS LUDWIG JAKOB,)
a German jurist and historian, born in Sleswick in 1801,
became professor of law at Jena in 1842.
Michelson, mee'Kel-son, (IVAN,) a famous Russian
general, born in Livonia in 1735 ; died in 1807.
Michiel, me-ke-eT, (GIUSTINA REMEK,) a learned
Italian lady, born at Venice in 1755. She translated
"Macbeth" and "Othello" into Italian, and published
" Feste Veneziane," (5 vols., 1817-27.) Died in 1832.
Michieli. See MICHKLI.
Michiels, me'she-eT, (JOSEPH ALFRED XAVIER,) a
French litterateur, born at Rome in 1813. He published,
besides various other works, a " History of Flemish and
Dutch Painting," (4 vols., 1845.)
Mi-9ip'sa, [Gr. M(wi/;of,| King of Numidia, was a
son of Masinissa, at whose death, in 148 B.C., the king
dom was divided between Micipsa and his brothers,
Gulussa and Mastanabal. After the death of these two,
who survived their father but a short time, he was king
of all Xumidia. He was an ally of the Romans. Died
in 118 n.c.
Mickiewicz, m!ts-ke-a'vitch, (ADAM,) a celebrated
Polish poet, born in Lithuania in 1798. He studied at
the University of Wilna, where he became intimate with
several distinguished patriots and joined the secret
societies opposed to the Russian government. He pub
lished in 1822 a collection of poems, which at once es
tablished his reputation as the greatest poet his country
had produced. He was banished in 1824 to the interior
of Russia, on a charge of conspiring against the govern
ment, and while residing at Odessa wrote his "Crimean
Sonnets." Having been permitted to leave Russia, in
1828 he visited Germany and Rome, and in 1834 took
up his residence in Paris. He was appointed in 1840
professor of the Slavonic language and literature in
the College of France, where he lectured for a time
with great success. His subsequent connection with the
Polish fanatic Towianski, who inculcated the worship of
Napoleon Bonaparte, deprived him of his popularity,
and he was ordered to quit Paris by the government.
He was sent by Louis Napoleon on a mission to
Constantinople in 1855, and died soon after his arrival.
His principal works are his " Grajina," a historic pic
ture of Lithuania in early times, " Konrad Wallenrod,"
(1830,) the "Ancestors," ("Dziady," 1832,) — in the first
part of which he gives the story of his unfortunate at
tachment to the sister of a fellow-student, and in the
latter describes his imprisonment at Wilna, — and " Pan
Tadeusz," (1833.)
See L. DE LOMENIE, " Gaierie des Contemporains ;" GEORGE
SAND, " Essai sur le Drame famastique ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale ;" ''A. Mickiev.icz ; eine biographische Skizze," 1857;
" Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1838.
Mickle or Meikle, mlk'el, (WILLIAM JULIUS,) a
Scottish poet and translator, born in Dumfriess-shire in
1734. Having visited London in 1763, he published
several poems, which obtained for him the patronage of
Lord Lyttleton, and in 1775 brought out his translation
of the " Lusiad" of Camoens. It had great popularity
in England, and procured for him the honour of ad
mission to the Royal Academy of Lisbon. This work,
however, is far from being a faithful version of the origi
nal ; and Hallam observes that Mickle's " infidelities in
translation exceed all liberties ever taken in this way."
He also published several popular ballads, one of which,
entitled " Cumnor Hall," suggested to Sir Walter Scott
his romance of " Kenilworth." Died in 1788.
See GARY, " Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke
White :" CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots
men ;" "Monthly Review" for September, 1771, and April, May,
and Ju'y, 1776.
Mi'con, [Gr. MIKUV,] an eminent Athenian painter
and sculptor, flourished about the middle of the fifth
century B.C. He was chosen by his countrymen to paint
the walls of the temple of Theseus at Athens. His
pictures representing the battles of the Amazons and
Centaurs were especially admired for the skill displayed
in the delineation of the horses. There were several
other Greek artists named Micon.
Micrelius or Micr^lius, me-kRa'le-us, (JoHANN,)
a German historical writer, born at Coslin in 1597. He
taught philosophy at Stettin, and published, besides
other works, "Lexicon Philosophicum," (1653,) and
" Royal Political Science," (" Regia Politica Scientia,"
1654.) Died in 1658.
Mi'das, [Gr. M«5ac,] a Phrygian king, who, according
to tradition, requested of Bacchus that all he touched
might turn to gold, and was gratified by the grant of that
wish. Being thus in danger of starvation, he could
only escape the curse he had brought upon himself by
bathing in the Pactolus, which ever after flowed with
sands of gold. It is also related of him that, having
decided in favour of Pan in his musical contest with
Apollo, Midas's ears were changed to those of an ass,
which he endeavoured to conceal. They were-at length
discovered by a servant, who, unable to retain the secret,
whispered it in a pit in the ground, and the reeds which
grew around the spot revealed his disgrace, murmuring
in the winds the words, " King Midas has asses' ears."
This fable was a favourite theme with the Athenian
dramatists.
Middelburg, de, deli mid'del-buRH', (PAUL,) a
Dutch mathematician and writer, born at Middelburg in
1445, became professor of mathematics at Padua. He
was made Bishop of Fossombrone in 1494. Died in
1534-
Middendorp, van, vtn mid'den-doRp', (JAKOB,) a
Dutch historian, born in Overyssel in 1537. His his
tories are not reliable. Died in 1611.
Mid'dl-maii, (SAMUEL,) an English engraver, born
in 1746. He engraved landscapes with success. Died
in 1818.
Mid'dle-ton, (ARTHUR,) an American statesman,
born in South Carolina, succeeded Nicholson as governc
of that colony in 1725.
Middleton, (ARTHUR,) an American patriot of the
Revolution, born in South Carolina in 1743, was one
of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He
took the degree of A.B. at Cambridge, England, and
after his return was a delegate from his native State to
the United States Congress in 1776. He was subse
quently re-elected in 1782. Died in 1787.
See GOODRICH, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde
pendence."
Mid'dle-toii,(CoNYERS,)a celebrated English scholar,
divine, and controversialist, born in Yorkshire in 1683.
He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he
became a Fellow in 1706. He was created D.D. in 1717,
on which occasion he opposed the claims of Bentley (then
regius professor of divinity) to an exorbitant fee. A law
suit followed, in which Bentley was defeated. Middleton
published, soon after, "A Full and Impartial Account
of the Proceedings in the University of Cambridge against
Dr. Bentley," which, though highly vindictive in its
tone, is esteemed a master-piece of English style. He
was appointed chief librarian of the university about
1720. Having visited Italy in 1724, he published, after
his return, his "Letter from Rome," (1729,) in which he
maintains that "the religion of the present Romans is
derived from their heathen ancestors." Having brought
upon himself the charge of infidelity by this work and
succeeding publications, he wrote a pamphlet in defence
of his orthodoxy, which, however, failed to remove the
unfavourable impression he had made. He brought
out in 1741 his " History of the Life of M. T. Cicero,"
which, though marred with some grave defects, was
received with extraordinary favour. " Never," says
Macaulay, " was there a character which it was easier to
read than that of Cicero. Never was there a mind
keener or more critical than that of Middleton. But the
great Iconoclast was himself an idolater, and, while he
disputed with no small ability the claims of Cyprian and
Athanasius to a place in the calendar, was himself com
posing a lying legend in honour of Saint Tully." In
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
MIDDLETON
1584
M1ERIS
1749 he published "A Free Inquiry into the Miraculous
Posvers of the Christian Church," in which he insists
that the Protestant clergy should deny the authority of
the Fathers entirely, or admit the truth of the leading
Catholic doctrines. Died in 1750.
See " Encyclopedia Britannica ;" E. MIDOI.ETON, "Evangelical
Biography;" CHALMERS, "Biographical Dictionary;" " Biographia
Britannica."
Middleton, (EDWARD,) an English gentleman, born
at Twickenham, settled in South Carolina, and was the
founder of a family which produced several distinguished
statesmen.
Middleton, (ERASMUS,) an English writer, published
a "Dictionary of Arts and Sciences," and a collection
of lives of eminent Protestant theologians, entitled
" Biographia Evangel ica." Died in 1805.
Middleton, (HENRY,) son of Arthur Middleton,
Governor of South Carolina, was president of Congress
in 1775.
Middleton, (Sir HENRY,) an English navigator, born
about 1570, entered the service of the East India Com
pany. In 1610 he conducted an expedition to Mocha,
Surat, and Bantam. Died in 1615.
Middleton, (HENRY,) an American statesman under
the administration of President Monroe, was elected
Governor of South Carolina, and in 1820 was minister
to Russia. Died in 1846. His son HENRY, born in Paris
in 1797, has published several political treatises.
Middleton, (Sir HUGH,) a wealthy citizen of London,
born about 1565, is chiefly known from the important
service he rendered to London by uniting two streams in
Hertfordshire and Middlesex, for supplying the city with
water. The stream formed by this junction, called the
New River, was conveyed a distance of about- thirty-eight
miles. He was made a baronet in 1622. Died in 1631.
See LYSONS, " Environs of London."
Middleton, (JOHN IZARD,) son of Arthur, noticed
above, (1743-87,) was born in 1785. He wrote a work
entitled "The Cyclopean Walls." Died in 1849.
Middleton, (THOMAS,) an English dramatist, flou
rished during the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., and
Charles I. Nothing is known of his life, except that he
was chronologer to the city of London in 1620. Two
of his principal plays are entitled "A Mad World, my
Masters," and "The Roaring Girl." The latter is said
to be a true picture of London life at that time. Mid
dleton also assisted Rowley, Fletcher, and Tonson in
the composition of several of their plays. One of his
dramas, entitled "The Witch," is supposed to have fur
nished Shakspeare with the witch-scenes in "Macbeth."
Died about 1626.
See CAMPKKU., "Specimens of ihe British Poets;" BAKER,
" Biocrranhia Dramatica."
Middleton, (THOMAS FANSHAWE,) D.D., an English
prelate, born in Derbyshire in 1769. He took his degree
in 1808, and was appointed Archdeacon of Huntingdon
in 1812. Soon after this the government having decided
to constitute a bishopric in India, Dr. Middleton was
consecrated first Bishop of Calcutta, in 1814. Having
previously been made a Fellow of the Royal Society, he
set sail for India. He laid the foundation of the Bishops'
College at Calcutta, in 1820, and established a consistory
court in that city. While zealously engaged in his duties,
he was attacked with a fever, of which he died in 1822.
His principal work is entitled "The Doctrine of the
Greek Article applied to the Criticism and Illustration
of the New Testament."
See the "Life of Thomas Fanshawe Middleton," by C. W. LE
BAS ; " Month'y Review" for May, 1810 et seq.
Mid'gard's* Serpent, (or Mi5gar$sormr, mith'-
garthz-oRmr',) called also the "World-Serpent, and
Jormuugand, in the Norse mythology, the great serpent
which surrounds the world, the offspring of Loki and
the female Jotun Angurboda, (AngrboSa.) The gods,
having learned that the children of Loki and An
gurboda were destined at some future day to be fatal to
them, determined to get possession of those children
while they were still young. They were accordingly
* Midgard' ("middle-ward") was originally applied to man's
dwelling-place in the middle of the universe, and hence signifies the
" world."
brought, and Midgard's Serpent was cast into the
ocean, where it grew till it encircled the world, biting
its own tail. At the end of the world (Ragnarock) the
world-serpent will fight among the enemies of the gods
and be slain by Thor, who, however, will die immediately
afterwards from the effect of its venom. The myth of
the world-serpent is supposed to signify the deep or main
ocean, which, excited by Loki, (subterranean fire or earth
quake,) is thrown upon the land, thus proving scarcely
less fatal to the works of man than the direct action of
volcanic fire, represented under the form of FENRIR,
(which see.)
For further particulars, the reader mav consult THORPE'S " North
ern Mytholngv." vo!. i ; MAI. LET'S "Northern Antiquities," vol.
ii. Fables XVI., XXV.. XXVI., XXVII. ; KKYSRR'S " Religion
of the Northmen :'' a"d PKTKRSEN'S " Nordisk Mythologi."
Mieczyslaw, me-etch'is-lav, |Lat. MICCISLA'US or
MICISI.A'US,] I, surnamccl THE GLORIOUS, called also
Miesko, (me-eVko,) Duke of Poland, was born at Posen
in 931. Having become converted to Christianity, he
showed great zeal in its promulgation and the extirpa
tion of paganism. He died in 992. A monument, by
Ranch, was erected to his memory at Posen.
See K.ADI.UHECK-, "Annales;" SRIDEL, "Vondem ersten christ-
lichen Polnischen Fiirsten Miecislas," 1752.
Mieczyslaw or Miesko II., King of Poland, born
in 990, succeeded to the throne in 1025. He was de
ficient in talent and energy, and lost a considerable por
tion of his territory to the Germans and Hungarians.
He died in 1034, and was succeeded by his son, Casimir I.
Miel, meel, or Meel, mal, (!AN,) or GIOVANNI DELI.O
VITE, (jo-van'nee deTlo vee'ta.) a celebrated Flemish
painter, born near Antwerp in 1599. He was a pupil
of Andrea Sacchi, but he afterwards adopted the style
of Bamboccio. His favourite subjects were pastoral and
hunting scenes, gypsies, beggars, and carnivals, in which
he has never been surpassed. lie was patronized by
Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, who made him his
painter and presented him with a diamond cross of
great value. Many of the best works of this artist are
in the Imperial Gallery at Vienna. Died in 1664.
See DESCAMPS, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; C. BI.ANC,
" Histoire des Peintres ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gensrale."
Mielle, me'el', (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a French litterateur,
born at Dole in 1757. Among his works is a " History
of Portugal," (10 vols., 1828,) in which he was associated
with Fortia d'Urban. Died in 1839.
Mierevelt or Miereveld, mee'reh-velt', (MiCHiEi,
TANSEN,) a Dutch portrait-painter, born at Delft in 1567,
was a pupil of Blocklandt. His works are esteemed
master-pieces of the kind, and, though very numerous,
are finished with exceeding delicacy and precision. His
portraits are stated by Sandrart to have amounted to
more than ten thousand. Mierevelt belonged to the
sect of Mennonites, but, in consideration of his genius,
was allowed the free exercise of his religion. Among
his best portraits we may name those of Grotius, Gus-
tavus Adolphus, William the Silent, Prince of Orange,
Ambrose Spinola, Constantine Huyghens, the grand
pensionary Barneveldt, Admiral de Coligny, Maurice of
Nassau, the Dutch poet Jacob Cats, and the Duke of
Buckingham. Died in 1641.
S>-e PII.KINT.TON, "Dictionary of Painters:" DESCAMPS, "Vies
des Peintres Hollandais ;" CMAKI.ES BLANC, " Histoire des Peintres."
Mieris, mee'ris, (FRANS,) called THE ELDER, a cele
brated Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1635, was a
pupil of Gerard Douw, who called him the prince of his
disciples. His works are principally domestic scenes,
conversation-pieces, and interiors of palaces, and are
distinguished by great brilliancy of colouring and skilful
imitation of velvet, satin, and other rich materials.
Among his master-pieces we may name "The Silk-Mer
chant," which was purchased by the archduke Leopold
William of Austria for one thousand florins, a " Young
Girl Painting," an " Assembly of Ladies," bought by the
Grand Duke of Tuscany for one thousand dollars, a
" Lady at her Toilet," " The Pearl-Stringer," " The Silk-
Store," "Lady playing with a Parrot," and "The Sick
Woman." Died in 1681.
See SMITH, "Catalogue of the Most Eminent Dutch, Flemish,
and French Painters;" CHARLES BLANC, "Histoire des Peintres;"
DF.SCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ; " Nou
velle Biographie Generale."
a, e, 7, o, u,y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u,y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: fir, fill, fat; m§t; not; good; moon;
MIERIS
585
M1KHA1LOFSK1
Mieris, (FkANS,) THE YOUNGER, son of Willem,
noticed below, was born at Leyden in 1689. He was a
skilful artist, but is better known as a scholar and writer.
Among his works is his " History and Ecclesiastical
Antiquities of the Seven United Provinces," (1726.)
Died in 1763.
See CHARLES BLANC, "Histoire des Peintres."
Mieris, (JAN,) son of Frans the Elder, was born at
Leyden in 1660. He painted portraits and historical
pieces of great merit. Died in 1690.
Mieris, van, vfn mee'ris, (WILLEM,) son of Frans
the Elder, was born at Leyden in 1662. He studied
under his father, whose style he adopted. Among his
best pictures are a "Dutch Kitchen," a "Game-Mer
chant," and " Armida and Rinaldo." Died in 1747.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Mieroslawski, me a-ro-slav'skee, (Louis,) the son
of a Polish officer and a French lady, was born in France
in 1813. He wrote, in French, a " History of the Polish
Revolution," (1837,) and a number of historical and
political works in Polish.
Mierre, Le. See LEMIERRE.
Mif'flin, (THOMAS,) an American patriot and officer
of the Revolution, was born at Philadelphia in 1744.
He was a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1774,
became first aide-de-camp to Washington in 1775, served
with distinction at Long Island and Trenton, and rose
to the rank of major-general in 1777. He succeeded
Franklin in 1788 as president of the supreme executive
council of Pennsylvania. He was a member of the
Convention which framed the Constitution of the United
States in 1787. He was Governor of Pennsylvania from
1790 to 1/99. Died at Lancaster in 1800.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
Miger, me'zha', (PIERRE AUGUSTS MARIE,) a French
litterateur, born at Lyons in 1771 ; died in 1837.
Migliara, mel-ya'ra, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian painter,
born in Piedmont in 1785. He excelled in landscapes,
perspective, and architectural views. Among his best
works are the "Cathedral of Milan," "Charles V. in a
Convent," and " Interior of the Church of Saint Am
brose." Died in 1837.
See TIPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" "Westminster
Review" for April, 1841.
Migliorati. See INNOCENT VII.
Mignard, men'ya'K', (NiCOi.AS,) a French painter,
engraver, and architect, born at Troyes in 1608. He was
patronized by the Cardinal Archbishop of Lyons, brother
of Richelieu, whom lie accompanied to Rome in 1644.
He painted portraits of Louis XIV. and his queen, and
adorned the Tuileries with several historical pictures of
great merit. His engravings are also highly esteemed.
In 1663 he was appointed professor in the Academy of
Painting. He died in 1668, leaving two sons, PIERRE
and PAUL, who were artists of considerable merit.
See R. Dt-MESNiL. " Le Peintre Graveur F rascals ;" RENOUVIER,
"Des Types et Manieres des Maitres-Graveurs."
Mignard, (PIKRRE,) surnamed THE ROMAN, one of
the most eminent painters of the French school, was
a brother of the preceding, and was born at Troyes in
1610. He studied in Paris under Simon Vouet, and in
1635 visited Rome, where he met with Poussin, Claude
Lorrain, Dufresnoy, and other celebrated artists residing
in that city. On his return to Paris, in 1658, he was pa
tronized by Louis XIV., whose portrait he painted many
times. He was also employed to decorate the palaces
of Versailles and Saint-Cloud. On the death of Le Brun
he was appointed painter to the king, and director of the
Gobelin Manufactory. Mignard was ennobled by Louis
XIV., and became successively rector, chancellor, and
director of the Academy of Painting. Died in 1695.
See DE Mnxvii.i.E. "Vie r!e Milliard;" ROBERT DUMESNIL,
" Le Peintre-Gravenr Francais;" CHARLES BLANC, " His:oire des
Peintres;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mignault, men'yo', (CLAUDE,) better known by the
name of Minos,* a learned French writer, born near
* It may be proper to remind the reader that the final s in Latin
and Greek names is sounded in French, contrary to the general rule
of French pronunciation.
Dijon about 1536. He edited several Latin classic
authors, and published "Alciati Emblemata cum Notis
Minois," (1574,) often reprinted. Died in 1606.
Mignet, men'yi', (FRANCOIS AUGUSTE MARIE,) a dis
tinguished French historian, born at Aix, May 8, 1796.
He was educated at the College of Avignon, and studied
law in his native city, where M. Thiers was his fellow-
student. Having removed to Paris in 1821, he became
editor of the " Courrier Fran$ais." He brought out in
1824 his " History of the French Revolution from 1789
to 1814," (2 vols. 8vo,) which had extraordinary success
and was translated into the principal European lan
guages. In 1830 he was associated with Thiers and
Armand Carrel as editor of the "National," and was
one of the journalists who protested against the sub
version of the freedom of the press by the edict of July,
1830. He was soon after appointed archivist in the
ministry of foreign affairs, and councillor of state. He
was elected a member of the Academy of Moral and
Political Sciences in 1832, and in 1837 became perpetual
secretary of that institution, and succeeded Raynouard
in the French Academy. Mignet published, besides the
history above named, " Introduction to the Negotiations
relative to the Spanish Succession under Louis XIV.,"
(1842,) "Antonio Perez and Philip II.," (1845,) "His
tory of Mary Stuart," (1851,) "Charles Quint, son Abdi
cation, son Sejour et sa Mort au Monastere de Yuste,"
(1854,) which has been highly commended, and " Eloges
historiques," (1864.)
See SAINTE-BEUVE, " Revue des Deux Mondes" for March, 1845 ;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" " Edinburgh Review" for Janu
ary, 1849; " Fraser's Magazine" for October, 1866.
Miguon, men'yoN', written also Minjon or Minion,
(AiiRAHAM,) a German painter, born at Frankfort in 1639,
was celebrated for his exquisite representations of flowers,
fruit, insects, birds, etc. His works are esteemed second
only to those of Van Huysum. Among his master
pieces is a " Cat overturning a Vase of Flowers on a
Marble Table." Died in 1679.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Allemands," etc.
Mignot, men'yo', (ETIENNE,) a learned French ec
clesiastic, born in Paris in 1698, published a number of
works on theology and church government. He was
chosen a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in
1761. Died in 1771.
Mignot, (VINCENT,) a French writer, born in Paris
about 1725, was a nephew of Voltaire. He published a
" History of the Ottoman Empire from its Origin to the
Peace of Belgrade in 1740," (1771,) and other historical
works. Died in 1740.
See GRIMM, " Correspondance."
Miguel, me-gel', (Dom or Don MARIA EVARISTO,)
a Portuguese prince, born in Lisbon in 1802, was a
younger son of John VI. He became the head of the
absolutist party, and in 1828 usurped the throne, the
lawful heir of which was his niece, Dona Maria. The
partisans of this queen maintained her title by arms,
and were aided by her father, Don Pedro, and Admiral
Napier. Miguel was defeated in several actions, and
was expelled from Spain in May, 1834.
Mih-Teih, mlh-ta', or Me-Teih, an eminent Chinese
philosopher, who lived about 400 B.C. Dr. Legge says
of him that he was an original thinker, and exercised a
bolder judgment on things than Confucius or any of his
followers. He taught that all the evils in society arise
from the want of mutual universal love. For example,
a prince loves only his own state, and does not love the
neighbouring state. Therefore he makes war against it.
"If princes," he asked, "regarded other states as their
own, who would begin a war ? If every one regarded
his neighbour's person as his own, who would be found
to rob ? If universal love prevailed, all enmities, usur
pations, and miseries would disappear. Princes, loving
one another, would have no battle-fields; the chiefs
of families, loving one another, would attempt no usur
pations ; men, loving one another, would commit no
robberies."
See DR. LEGGE, "Chinese Classics," vol. ii. chap. iii.
Mikhailofski Danilefski or Michailowski Dani-
lewski, me-Ka'e-lof'skee da-ne-lgf'skee, (ALEXANDER
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
100
Explanations, p. 23.)
M1KLOSICH
, -86
MILL
IVANOVITCH,) a Russian general and historical writer,
born in 1790, served with distinction in the principal
campaigns against the French from 1812 to 1815, and in
the Turkish war of 1829. He published, among other
works, an "Account of the Campaign in France in 1814."
Died in 1848.
Miklosich, mik'lo-ziK/, (FRANZ,) a German linguist,
profoundly versed in the Slavonian language, born at
Luttenberg, in Styria, in 1813. Among his principal
works are a "Lexicon of the Old Slavonian Language,"
(in Latin, 1850,) and a "Comparative Grammar of the
Slavonian Language," (unfinished,) which "promises to
be for the Slavonian what the great work of Grimm is
for the German dialects." (Brockhaus.)
Milani, me-li'nee, (AURKLIO or AURELIANO,) an
Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1675, was a success
ful imitator of the style of the Caracci. Died in 1749.
Milano, da, dd me-la'no, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian
painter, was a native of Milan. He was a favourite pupil
of Taddeo Gaddi, whom he assisted in several important
works. He lived about 1370-90.
Milbourne, mil'burn, (LuKK,) an English writer and
divine, born in 1667, published a " Poetical Translation
of the Psalms," (1698,) "Notes on Dryden's Virgil," and
other works. He is one of the authors satirized in
Pope's "Dunciad." Died in 1720.
See JOHNSON, "Life of Dryden ;" MALONE'S edition of the
Works of Dryden.
Mil'burn, (WILLIAM HENRY,) a Methodist divine,
known as "the Blind Preacher," born at Philadelphia in
1823. Having visited England in 1859, he gave lectures
in the principal cities, and attracted large audiences by
his eloquence. He published "Ten Years of Preacher
Life," (1859,) and "The Pioneers and People of the
Mississippi Valley," (1860.)
Mild'may, (Sir WALTER,) an eminent English states
man and scholar, born in 1522, was distinguished by the
favour of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and held the
office of chancellor of the exchequer under Elizabeth
for more than twenty years. He was a liberal patron
of learning, and founded Emanuel College, Cambridge.
Died in 1589.
Miles, mllz, (DlXON H.,) an American officer, born in
Maryland about 1803, graduated at West Point in 1824.
lie became a colonel in 1859, and served at Bull Run,
July 21, 1861. He commanded at Harper's P'erry, and
there surrendered about 11,500 men, September 16,
1862. He was killed by a shell thrown after the sur
render. " It is impossible," says Greeley, " to resist the
conclusion that Miles, in this affair, acted the part of a
traitor." ("American Conflict," vol. ii. p. 202.)
Miles, (JAMES WARLEY,) an American scholar and
missionary, born at Charleston, South Carolina, about
1819. He became professor of Greek and history at
Charleston College. He has been a contributor to the
" Southern Review," and published various works in
prose and verse.
Mil'fort, (LE CLERC,) a native of France, who settled
about 1776 among the Creek Indians of Georgia and
fought as their ally in the war of the Revolution. He
returned to France in 1796, and was created by Bona
parte a general of brigade. He published a narrative
of his residence among the Creeks, entitled " Sejour
dans la Nation Creek." Died about 1814.
Milicz, mee'litch, (JoHANN,) a priest and reformer,
born in Moravia. He preached at Prague, and wrote a
work "On Antichrist." Died soon after 1374.
See HODGSON, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867.
Milius, me'le'iis', (PIERRE BERNARD,) BARON, a
French admiral, born at Bordeaux in 1773 ; died in 1829.
Milizia, me-let'se-a, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian archi
tect and writer, born in Otranto in 1725, was an intimate
friend of Raphael Mengs. He was the author of " Lives
of the Most Celebrated Architects of all Nations," (1768,)
a revised edition of which was entitled " Memorie degli
Architetti antichi e moderni," ("Memoirs of Ancient
and Modern Architects," 2 vols., 1781,) which were trans
lated into French and English, a treatise "On the
Theatre," (1772,) "Principles of Civil Architecture,"
("Element! di Architettura civile," 3 vols., 1781,) which
was highly esteemed and was translated into various lan
guages, a "Dictionary of Fine Arts," (1797,) and other
works. He lived many years in Rome, where he died
in 1798.
See F. MII.IZIA, " Notizie intorno alia suaVita," 1804: L. Cico-
GNARA, " Memoiia intorno all' Inclole di K. Milizia," 1808 ; TIPALDO,
" Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Mill, (HENRY,) an English engineer, born in London
about 1680. He supplied the town of Northampton with
water, and was appointed principal engineer to the New
River Company.
Mill, (JAMES,) a British historian and writer on po
litical economy, born at Montrose, in Scotland, in 1773.
He studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by
his attainments in the Greek language, metaphysics, and
moral philosophy. Having removed to London in 1800,
he became a contributor to the " Edinburgh Review"
and other periodicals. He published (1817-19) his
"History of British India," (in 5 vols. 8vo,) a work of
great merit, which procured for him the office of head
ot the department of Indian correspondence in the India
House. " We know of no work," says Mr. Grote, " which
surpasses his ' History of British India' in the main
excellences attainable by historical writers, — industrious
accumulation, continued for many years, of original au
thorities, careful and conscientious criticism of their
statements, and a large command of psychological ana
lysis, enabling the author to interpret phenomena of
society both extremely complicated and far removed
from his own personal experience." (See " Review of
J. S. Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's
Philosophy," London, 1868.) Among his other pro
ductions are a series of essays on "Jurisprudence,"
" Liberty of the Press," " Law of Nations," etc. These,
first published in the " Supplement to the Encyclo
paedia Britannica," were very favourably received, and
were followed by his "Elements of Political Econ
omy," which appeared in 1821, and his "Analysis of the
Phenomena of the Human Mind," in 1829. Mill was an
intimate friend of Jeremy Bentham, and one of the ablest
expounders of his system. Died in 1836.
See CHAMRF.RS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement;) "Edinburgh Review" for March, 1829; "Monthly
Review" for August and October, 1821.
Mill, [Lat. MII/LIUS,] (JoHN,) an English theologian
and pulpit orator, born in Westmoreland about 1645.
He became chaplain-in-orclinary to Charles II. in 1681,
and in 1704 was made a canon of Canterbury. He pub
lished a critical edition of the New Testament in Greek,
(1707,) which is highly esteemed. Died in 1707.
See CHALMKRS, "General Biographical Dictionary."
Mill, (JoiiN STUART,) an eminent English philosopher
and economist, son of James Mill, author of the " His
tory of British India," was born in London in May, 1806.
He was educated at home by his father, and entered in
1823 the service of the East India Company as a clerk
in the India House. In his early life he contributed to
the "Edinburgh Review" and the "Westminster Re
view." He published in 1843' a "System of Logic,
Rationative and Inductive," (2 vols.,) and, in 1844,
" Essays on some Unsettled Questions in Political Econ
omy." He acquired a high reputation by a popular work
entitled "The Principles of Political Economy, with
some of their Applications to Social Philosophy," (1848.)
As a writer he is distinguished by originality of thought
and acuteness in reasoning. In political principles he
is an advanced Liberal, and all his sympathies are in
favour of liberty and progress. About 1850 he married
Harriet Taylor, a lady of rare intellectual powers. He
became examiner of Indian correspondence in 1856.
During the late rebellion in the United States, Mr. Mill
was among the few prominent English writers who de
fended the cause of the North and of the Federal Union.
Among his more recent works are an " Essay on Liberty,"
and "An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Phi
losophy," (i86s,) of which a highly favourable review
from the pen of Mr. Grote, the historian, has been pub
lished, (London, 1868.) He was for some time editor of
the "Westminster Review." In 1865 he was elected a
member of Parliament for Westminster. He became an
able debater, and made several speeches in favour of
reform and extension of the elective franchise in 1866
and 1867. His career as a legislator has been very sue-
'ff: a, e, o, s-imp. less prolonged; a. e, T, o, fi, v", short: a, e, i, o. obscure: fir, fall, fit: m£t; not; good; moon;
MILL A IS
1587
MILLER
cessful. "Mr. Mill's success," says the "New York
Commercial Advertiser," August 29, 1867, "has beei
the most marked and decided in the annals of Parlia
ment. No man has ever before acquired so high a con
sideration in so short a time." He was, however,
.defeated in the general election of 1868. Mr. Mill has
distinguished himself as an earnest and able advocate of
the rights of women. In a recent work, entitled "The
Subjection of Women," (1869,) he takes the ground
"that the principle which regulates the existing social
relations between the two sexes — the legal subordina
tion of one sex to the other — is wrong in itself, and now
one of the chief hindrances to human improvement, and
that it ought to be replaced by a principle of perfect
equality."
See the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1848, and October,
1869 ; " Klackwood's Magazine" for October, 1848, and January, 1866;
" Eraser's Magazine" for September, 1848, and May, 1859; "British
Quarterly Review" for August, 1846, January, 1860, and July, 1868 ;
"Westminster Review" for May, 1843.
Millais, mil'la', (Joux EVERETT,) an English painter,
of French extraction, born at Southampton in 1829, was
one of the founders of what is called the " Pre-Raphaelite
School." He studied at the Royal Academy, and at
an early age produced several works of superior merit,
among which was "The Benjamites seizing the Daugh
ters of Shiloh." His " Return of the Dove to the Ark,"
" Child of the Regiment," " Ophelia," " The Order of
Release," and ''Joan of Arc" are among his most ad
mired productions. He was elected a Royal Acade
mician in 1863.
Mil'lar, (JuHN,) an eminent Scottish jurist, born in
Lanarkshire in 1735. He studied at Glasgow, where
he became in 1761 professor of civil law. The spirited
and attractive style of his lectures, which, says a critic
in the "Edinburgh Review," "gave to a learned discus
sion the charms of an animated and interesting conversa
tion," drew great numbers to the university, and made
it for the time one of the most flourishing and popular
in the kingdom. He was the author of " Origin of the
Distinction of Ranks," (1771,) and a " Historical View
of the English Government from the Settlement of the
Saxons to the Accession of the House of Stuart"," (1787.)
The former was translated into French, German, and
Italian, Died in 1801.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen :"
"Life of Millar," by CRAIG, prefixed to his "Origin of the Dis
tinction of Ranks;" " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1806.
Mil'lard, (DAVID,) an American divine, born at Ball-
ston, New York, in 1794, published several theological
works, also " Travels in Egypt, Arabia, and the Holy
Land," (1843.)
Mil/ledge, (Jonx,) an American patriot and states
man, born at Savannah, Georgia, in 1757, distinguished
himself in the war of the Revolution, and in 1802 was
elected Governor of Georgia. He was one of the founders
of the University of Georgia, and the former capital of
the State was named in his honour. Died in 1818.
Milledoler, mil'doi'ar, (PHILIP,) D.D., an American
divine, of the Dutch Reformed Church, born at Far-
mington, Connecticut, in 1775. He became president
of Rutgers College, Xew Brunswick, in 1825. Died in
1852.
Mil'ler, (EDWARD,) an American physician, born in
Delaware in 1760, was a brother of the Rev. Samuel
Miller, noticed below. He became professor of the
theory and practice of medicine in the College of Phy
sicians and Surgeons, New York, and wrote, among
other works, a " Treatise on Yellow Fever," which is
highly esteemed. He was one of the founders of the
" Medical Repository," the first medical journal of
America. Died in 1812.
Mil'ler, (EDWARD,) an English musician and writer,
born at Norwich, was a pupil of Dr. Burney. He was
the author of " Institutes of Music" and " Elements of
Thorough Bass and Composition." Died in 1807.
Miller, me'y^', (EMANUEI.,) a French scholar, born in
Paris in 1812, has published a "Catalogue of the Greek
Manuscripts in the Escurial," (1840,) and edited several
classical works.
Mil'ler, (HUGH,) an eminent Scottish geologist and
writer, born at Cromarty on the loth of October,
1802, was a son of a mariner and shipmaster, who per
ished in a storm in 1807. He attended the grammar-
school of the parish, and received instruction from two
maternal uncles, James and Alexander Wright, one of
whom encouraged his taste for natural history. At an
early age he began to write verses, lie learned the
trade of a stone-mason, and commenced in 1819 his life
of labour in a quarry of old red sandstone at Cromarty.
"It was the necessity which made me a quarrier," he
writes, "that taught me to be a geologist." He worked
as a mason in various parts of Scotland, and diligently
improved the intervals of labour by the cultivation of
his mind. In 1825 and 1826 he was employed at Edin
burgh as a stone-cutter. He afterwards published a vol
ume of poems, and in 1834 relinquished his trade to
become an accountant in a bank at Cromarty. In 1835
he produced " Scenes and Legends of the North of Scot
land," which was received with favour. He married
about 1836.
In 1839 he defended with much ability the cause of
the Free Church, in a " Letter from One of the Scotch
People to Lord Brougham," which was praised by Mr.
Gladstone. He became in 1840 editor of the " Witness,"
an organ of the Free Church or Non-Intrusionists, pub
lished in Edinburgh twice a week. He continued to
edit this paper until his death, and rendered it very
popular and influential. His reputation as a geologist
was increased by his work entitled " The Old Red
Sandstone, or New Walks in an Old Field," (1841,)
which is written in an attractive style. He afterwards
published "Footprints of the Creator," (1849,) "First
Impressions of England and its People," (1851,) an inter
esting autobiography entitled "My Schools and School
masters, or the Story of my Education," (1854,) and
" The Cruise of the Betsey." These works mark an
important epoch in the progress of geology. "There
was nothing in Miller's works," says the " Edinburgh
Review" for July, 1858, "which so much surprised the
public as their mere literary merit. Where could this
Cromarty mason have acquired his style ?"
In consequence of excessive mental exertion, his brain
became diseased. During a paroxysm of insanity, he
killed himself with a pistol in December, 1856. He had
just finished a work entitled "The Testimony of the
Rocks, or Geology in its Bearings on the Two Theologies,
Natural and Revealed," (1857.) In this work he rejects
the theory that the Mosaic account of the creation is
purely parable, while he censures those who refuse to
accept the evidences of scientific truths when they seem
to clash with traditionary interpretations of Scripture.
His "Footprints of the Creator" was written to refute
the theory of development advocated by the author of
" The Yestiges of Creation." " Hugh Miller," says the
"Edinburgh Review," "must undoubtedly be regarded
as one of the most remarkable men whom Scotland has
produced. . . . The interest of his narrative, the purity
of his style, his inexhaustible faculty of happy and inge
nious illustration, his high imaginative power, and that
light of genius which it is so difficult to define yet so
impossible to mistake, all promise to secure for the
author of the 'Old Red Sandstone' the lasting admira
tion of his countrymen."
See the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1858, article " Hugh Mi'-
er," (reprinted in the "Living Age," August 21, 1858;) " North
Jritish Review" for August. 1854; "North American Review" for
October, 1851 : AI.LIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Miller, (JAMES,) an English dramatist and satirical
.vriter, born in Dorsetshire in 1703. He published sev
eral political pamphlets, a satire entitled "The Humours
of Oxford," and a number of comedies. Died in 1744.
Miller, (JAMES,) an American officer, born at Peter
borough, New Hampshire, about 17/6. He served as
colonel with distinction at the battles of Chippewa and
Lundy's Lane, July 25, 1814. His commander asked
lim if he could take a certain battery at Lundy's Lane.
Pie answered, " I'll try, sir," and captured the battery.
Died in 1851.
Miller, mil'ler, (JOHANN MARTIN,) a German poet
and fictitious writer, born at Ulm in 1750. He was the
author of" Correspondence ofThree Academic Friends,"
' Siegwart, a Convent History," (1776,) which was trans-
ated into French, Dutch, and Polish, and several other
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MILLER
1588
MUM AN
popular works. His lyric poems are highly esteemed.
He was an intimate friend of Klopstock and Voss. Died
in 1814.
Miller, (JOSEPH,) a celebrated English comedian,
whose appreciation as an actor of the wit of Congreve's
plays contributed in a great measure to their success,
was born in 1684. The jests ascribed to him were in
reality compiled by John Motley, author of a " Life of
Peter the Great." Died in 1738.
Miller, (Pinup,) an English botanist and florist, born
in 1691. He published a "Catalogue of Hardy Trees,
Shrubs, etc. cultivated near London," (with coloured
plates, 1730,) "Gardener's Dictionary," (1731,) which
was translated into several languages, and "Figures of
Plants," (2 vols., 1755,) adapted to the Dictionary. The
genus Milleria was named by Dr. Martyn in honour of
this botanist. Died in 1771.
Miller, (SAMUEL,) D.I)., an American Presbyterian
divine, born in Delaware in 1769. He became pastor
of the First Presbyterian Church in New York in 1793.
In 1813 he was appointed professor of ecclesiastical
history in the Theological Seminary of Princeton. He
was the author of numerous theological and controversial
works, and wrote the " Life of Jonathan Edwards," in
Sparks's "American Biography." Died in 1850.
See SAMUEL MII.I.EK, "Life of Samuel Miller," 2 vols., 1869.
Miller, (STEPHEN FRANKS,) an American lawyer and
journalist, born in North Carolina, became associate
editor of " De Bow's Review" about 1848. He published
the " Bench and Bar of Georgia," and other works.
Miller, (Sir THOMAS,) a Scottish lawyer, born in 1718,
was appointed lord advocate of Scotland in 1760. On
the death of Dundas he became president of the court
of sessions, (1788.) Died in 1789.
Miller, (THOMAS,) an English poet and basket-maker,
born at Gainsborough about 1808. He was patronized
by the poet Rogers, by whose aid he began business as a
bookseller. He wrote, besides numerous poems, novels
entitled " Royston Gower" and " Fair Rosamond."
Miller, (WILLIAM,) founder of the sect of the Miller-
ites, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in 1781.
About 1833 he began to prophesy the end of the world,
which he affirmed would be destroyed in 1843. He died
in 1849; a"d his followers, who are said to have num
bered nearly fifty thousand, have since greatly decreased.
Miller, (\YIU.IAM AI.I.KN,) an English chemist and
physician, born at Ipswich in 1817. He took his medical
degree in London, and subsequently studied in the labo
ratory of Liebig at Giessen. He was appointed pro
fessor of chemistry in the Royal College in 1845, anc^
assayer at the Mint and Bank of England in 1851. He
was vice-president of the Royal Society and president of
the Chemical Society, and wrote " Elements of Chemistry,
Theoretical and Practical," (3 vols., 1850; 3d ed., 1866.)
Miller, (WILLIAM HALLOWS,) F.R.S., an eminent
English mineralogist and physicist, was educated at
Saint John's College, Cambridge, where he took the
degree of B.A. about 1826. He became professor of
mineralogy at Cambridge in 1832, and wrote several
treatises on crystallography. His most important work
is a new and greatly-improved edition of Phillips's
•'Elementary Introduction to Mineralogy," (1852.) He
was a member of a commission appointed by govern
ment in 1843 f°r tne restoration of the standards of
weight and measure, and he constructed and verified
the new national standard of weight.
Milles, milz, (JKREMIAH,) an English divine and an
tiquary, born in 1714, became Dean of Exeter in 1762.
He was a contributor to the " Archaeologia," and made
an unsuccessful attempt to vindicate the authenticity
of Rowley's poems. He was a Fellow of the Royal
Society, and president of the Society of Antiquaries.
Died in 1784.
See NICHOLS, " Literary Anecdotes."
Millet, me'y<i', (AiME,) a French painter and sculptor,
a son of Frederic Millet, noticed below, was born in
Paris about i8r8.
Millet, (FREDERIC,) a French portrait-painter, born
at Charlieu in 1786, was a pupil of Isabey. He executed
a number of portraits of great merit, among which we
may name that of the empress Josephine. Died in 1859.
Millevoye, mel'vwa', (CHARLES HUBERT,) a French
poet and litterateur, born at Abbeville in 1782. He was
the author of elegiac poems of great beauty, and ob
tained several prizes from the French Academy. Died
in 1816.
See SAINTB-BKUVK, "Portraits Litteraires ;" " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale;" LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Millin, me'ya.N',* (AuniN Louis,) a French antiquary
and naturalist, born in Paris in 1759. He published
"Elements of Natural History," (1794,) " Dictionary of
the Fine Arts," (3 vols., 1806,) " Mythological Gallery,"
(1811,) and other works. In 1795 he became editor'of
the " Magasin Encyclopedique," a journal of high char
acter, which he conducted for twenty years, lie was a
member of the P'rench Institute and of several foreign
Academies, and a chevalier of the legion of honour.
In 1794 he had been appointed keeper of the medals
and antiquities in the Royal Library. Died in 1818.
See KRAFFT, "Notice sur A. L. Miliin," 1818; BON JOSHPII
DACIKR, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. Millin," iSji ;
Qi'F.KARD, " La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gihie-
rale."
Millingen, mil'ling-gen, ? (JAMES,) an eminent anti
quary, of Dutch extraction, born in London in 1774. He
published " Remarks on the State of Learning and the
Fine Arts in Great Britain," " Ancient Coins of Greek
Cities and Kings," (1821,) and other similar works, which
have a very high reputation. Died in 1845.
Millon, me'yo.N1',* (CHARLES,) a French litterateur,
born at Liege in 1754, wrote poems, histories, etc. Died
in 1839.
Millon, (EUGENE,) a French chemist, born at Chalons-
sur-Marne in 1812. 1 le published, besides other chemical
treatises, " Elements of Organic Chemistry, comprising
the Applications of this Science to Vegetable Physi
ology," (2 Vols., 1845-48.)
Millot, me'yo',* (CLAUDE FRANC.OIS XAVIER,) a
French historian, born in Franche-Comte in 1726. lie
was the author of "Elements of Universal History,"
" Political and Military Memoirs towards the History of
Louis XIV.," etc., (6 vols., 1777,) and other works of
the kind. He was elected to the French Academy in
1777, and in 1778 was appointed preceptor to the Due
d'Enghien. Died in 1785.
See GRIMM, " Correspondance ;" LINGAV, " FJoge de 1'Abbe
Millot," 1814; QUERAKU, "La France LitteYaire."
Mills, (CHARLES,) an English writer, born at Green
wich in 1788, was the author of a "History of Moham
medanism," (1812,) " History of the Crusades," (1820,)
"Travels of Theodore Ducas," etc., (1822,) and other
works. Died in 1825.
Mills, (CLARK,) a distinguished American sculptor,
born in Onondaga county, New York, in 1815. Having
removed to Charleston, South Carolina, he executed
several busts in marble, which won for him a high repu
tation. In 1848 he began his bronze equestrian statue of
Jackson, for which, owing to its size, he was obliged to
construct a foundry. It was completed in 1853, and
placed in Lafayette Square at Washington. His next
work was the colossal equestrian statue of Washington,
finished in 1860.
See TUCKERMAN, "Book of the Artists."
Mills, (SAMUEL JOHN,) an American Congregational
divine, born at Torringford, Connecticut, in 1783, was
one of the founders of the American Missionary Society.
He also took a prominent part in the organization of
the American Colonization Society, and in 1817 visited
Africa, in company with the Rev. E. Burgess, for the
purpose of choosing a site for the colony. He died in
1818, while on his voyage home.
Mil'man, (Sir FRANCIS,) an eminent English phy
sician, born in Devonshire in 1746. He published
"Animadversions on the Nature and Cure of Dropsy,"
(1776,) "Treatise on the Source of the Scurvy," and other
works. He was appointed physician to George III.,
and was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Col
lege of Physicians. Died in 1821.
Milrnan, (Rev. HENRY HART,) an English poet,
historian, and divine, son of the preceding, was born in
* There seems to be some diversity respecting the pronunciation
of these names: some speakers say me'laN', me'loN', etc., omitting
all sound of tlie liquid /.
a, e, i, 5. u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obsntre; far, fill, fat; m§t; n&t; good; moon;
MILNE
1589
MILTIADES
London in 1791. He graduated at Brazenose College,
Oxford, where in 1821 he became professor of poetry.
Having filled several inferior offices in the Church, he
was appointed Dean of Saint Paul's in 1849. rl's tragedy
of "Fazio," published in 1815, was well received, and
was followed by the poems of " Samor, Lord of the
Bright City," (1818,) "The Fall of Jerusalem," (1820,)
"The Martyr of Antioch," and others. In 1840 he
brought out his " History of Christianity from the Birth
of Christ to the Extinction of Paganism in the Roman
Empire," (3 vols. 8vo,) and in 1854 his "History of
Latin Christianity, including that of the Popes to the
Pontificate of Nicholas V." He published excellent
editions of the works of Horace, with a well-written life
of the poet, and of Gibbon's " Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire." Died in September, 1868.
See W. E. H. LECKY, "History of European Morals from Au
gustus to Charlemagne," (Preface,) 1869 ; "Edinburgh Review" for
January, 1858, January, 1864, and January, 1869; " London Quarterly
Review" for April, 1816, July, 1818, May, 1820, and April, 1869;
" Hlackwood's Magazine" for March and July, 1822 ; " North British
Review" for November, 1854, and March, 1869; "Eraser's Maga
zine" for October, 1854.
Milne, miln, (CoLiN,) a Scottish divine and naturalist,
born at Aberdeen. He was the author of a "Botanical
Dictionary," "Indigenous Botany,"' etc. Died in 1815.
Millie, miln, (JuSHUA,) an English writer, born in
1776, was appointed actuary of the Sun Life Assurance
Office. He published a valuable " Treatise on Annui
ties," in which he describes a new system of notation for
the calculation of life-insurance.
Milne-Edwards, miln ed'wardz, [Fr. pron. meln
a'doo-tus',) (HENKI,) an eminent French naturalist, of
English descent, born at Bruges in 1800. After he had
taught natural history for some years in the College
Henri IV. in Paris, he was elected to the Academy
of Sciences in 1838. He published "The Natural His
tory of the Crustacea," (3 vols., 1834-41,) which is
highly esteemed. In 1841 he obtained the chair of
entomology in the Jardin des Plantes, and in 1844 was
chosen adjunct professor of zoology and comparative
physiology at the Faculty of Sciences. He succeeded I.
Geoffrey Saint-IIilaire as professor of zoology in 1862.
Among his works are "Elements of Zoology," (4 vols.,
1834-37,) which obtained considerable popularity, and
" Researches into the Anatomy and Physiology of
Polypi," (1842.)
See article " Milne," in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mil'iier, (ISAAC,) an eminent English divine and
mathematician, born near Leeds in 1751. He studied
at Queen's College, Cambridge, where he became in
1783 Jacksonian professor of experimental philosophy.
He was subsequently appointed master of his college,
(1788,) Dean of Carlisle, (1791,) and Lucasian professor
of mathematics, (1798.) He was also twice elected vice-
chancellor of his college. He was the author of a num
ber of sermons and miscellaneous essays, and wrote a
continuation of his brother Joseph's "Church History."
lie numbered among his friends Pitt and Wilberforce.
Died in 1820.
See MARY MILNER, " Life of Isaac Milner," 1842.
Milner, (JOHN,) a learned Roman Catholic divine,
born in London in 1752. He was the author of a " His
tory, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the Anti
quities, of Winchester," and was a contributor to the
" Archaeologia." He was a member of the Society of
Antiquaries. Died in 1826.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for May, 1810, and October,
iSn.
Milner, (JoiiN,) an English theologian, born near
Halifax in 1628, became canon of Ripon. Died in 1702.
Milner, (JosKPH,) an English divine, born near Leeds
in 1744, was a brother of Isaac, noticed above. He
became vicar of the Church of the Holy Trinity at Hull
in 1/97. He wrote a "History of the Church of Christ,"
(5 vols., 1794-1812,) which is esteemed a standard work.
It was completed by his brother, the Dean of Carlisle.
Milner also published an "Answer to Gibbon's Attack
on Christianity," and other works. Died in 1797.
See ISAAC MILNER, "Life of J. Milner," prefixed to his Sermons,
Millies, milnz, (RICHARD MONCKTON,) Baron Hough-
ton, an English statesman and miscellaneous writer,
born in Yorkshire in 1809. He graduated at Cambridge
in 1831, and in 1837 was first elected a member of Par
liament for Pontefract, which he continued to represent
until 1863, when he was raised to the peerage, as Baron
Houghton. As a member of the liberal conservative
party, he has been a prominent advocate of reform.
Among his principal publications are " Poems, Legendary
and Historical." "Palm-Leaves," (1844,) "Memorials of
Many Scenes," and the "Life, Letters, and Literary Re
mains of John Keats," (1848.) He contributed to the
"Edinburgh Review."
See "Eraser's Magazine" for June, 1847, article "Literary Legis
lators;" "North American Review" for October, 1839, and July,
1842.
Mil'iipr, (JAMES,) D.D., an American Episcopal
clergyman, born in Philadelphia in 1773, became rector
of Saint George's Church, New York, in 1816. Died in
1845-
See " Memoir of James Milnor, D.D.," by REV. J. S. STONE.
Mi'lo, [Gr. M&MV ; Fr. MILON, me'16N',] an athlete,
celebrated for his prodigious strength, born at Crotona,
in Italy, was a pupil of Pythagoras. He is said to have
once carried a bull on his shoulders to the sacrifice, and
killed it with a blow of his fist. In 509 B.C. he gained
a signal victory over the Sybarites. When advanced in
years, he found one day, in passing through a forest,
a tree partly cleft by wedges. Having introduced his
hands for the purpose of severing it entirely, the wedges
fell out, but, his strength failing him, the parts closed
again, retaining him a prisoner, and in this helpless con
dition he was devoured by wild beasts.
Mi'lo, (Trrus ANNIUS,) a famous Roman tribune, was
a plebeian, and a man of unscrupulous character. He
became tribune of the people in 57 H.C., and was a par
tisan of Pompey. By his efforts to restore Cicero from
exile he incurred the hostility of Clodius, with whom he
fought in several bloody affrays. In the year 53 Milo
was a candidate for the consulship. Before the electoral
contest was decided, Milo and Clodius met, each with
a band of armed slaves, and a fight ensued, in which
Clodius was killed. Milo was tried for homicide, and,
though defended by Cicero, was condemned, and exiled
himself to Marseilles. Having taken arms against
Cassar in the civil war, he was killed in Lucania, 48 B.C.
See CICERO, " Oratio pro Milone :" DKUMANN, "Geschichte
Roms;" DION CASSIUS. "History of Rome;" EI.BERI.ING, " Nar-
ratio de T. A. Milone," 1840; SMITH, "Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography."
Milon. See MILO.
Milonof, Milonov, or Milonow, mee'lo-nof, (Mi-
CHAEL VASSILIEVITCH,) a Russian poet, born in 1792,
was the "author of satires, epistles, and lyric poems, which
enjoy great popularity. Died in 1821.
See GRETCH, " Essai sur PHistoire de la Litterature Russe."
Miloradovitch, me-lo-ra'do-vitch, (MICHAEL AN-
DRIEVITCH,) COUNT, a Russian general, born at Saint
Petersburg in 1770. He fought with distinction against
the Turks and Poles and in the campaigns against the
French from 1799 to 1814, and attained the rank of
general of infantry. He was appointed military gov
ernor of Saint Petersburg in 1819. He was killed in
attempting to suppress the insurrection in that city, De
cember 25, 1825.
Milosh. See OBRENOVITCH.
Mil'roy, (ROBERT H.,) an American general, born
in Indiana about 1814. He was appointed a brigadier-
general of Union volunteers about September, 1861, and
served at Cross Keys, June 8, 1862. He commanded
about 8000 men at Winchester, was attacked June 15,
1863, and retreated, but lost nearly half of his force.
Miltiade. See MII.TIADKS.
Mil-ti'a-des, [Gr. M</.nuoV/c; Fr. MILTIADE, mel'-
te'td',] a 'celebrated Athenian general, who flourished
about 500 B.C., was the son of Cimon. He became suc
cessor to his uncle Miltiacles, who had made himself a
despot or mas'.er of the Chersonese in Thrace, and he
appears first in history as an arbitrary ruler. Darius of
Persia having sent a great armament, under Datis and
Artaphernes, to conquer Greece, Miltiades was chosen
one of the ten generals of the Athenian army, which
awaited the enemy at Marathon in 490 B.C. The Grecian
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, £«///«>•?/; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in Mis
Explanations, p. 23.)
MILTITZ
1590
MILTON
army numbered about 10,000 men, and the Persian prob-
ably'over 100,000. A regulation then prevailed that each
of the ten generals should command by turns for one day.
Some of them were averse to risking a battle. When
the command devolved on Miltiades, he gained one of
the most memorable and important victories recorded
in history. To reward his patriotism and eminent ser
vices to national liberty, the Athenians decreed that he
should have the foremost place in a painting which illus
trated the battle. Having failed in an attack on Paros,
he was fined fifty talents, which he could not pay, and
about the year 489 died in prison of a wound received
in the action just named. The famous general Cimon
was his son.
See CORNELIUS NEPOS, " Miltiades ;" HERODOTUS, books iv. and
vi. ; GROTE, "History of Greece," vol. iv. ; THIRI.WALL, " History
of Greece;" KIRCHMAIER, " Dissertatio de Miltiade," 1662.
Miltitz, von, fon mil'tits, (K.\RL,) a German prelate,
born about 1490, became chamberlain to Leo X., who
sent him in 1518 as nuncio to Germany, in order to
conciliate Luther or counteract his influence. On this
occasion he displayed much tact, and used flattery or
persuasive means with some success. (See LUTHER.)
Died in 1529.
Miltitz, von, (KARL BORROMAUS ALEXANDER STK-
PHAN,) a German poet and musical composer, born at
Dresden in 1781. Among his best compositions are
the operas of "Saul" and "Georg Czerny." Died in
1845. His brother ALEXANDER was ambassador to
Constantinople, and wrote a valuable work entitled
"The Manual of Consuls." Died in 1843.
Mil'ton, [Lat. MILTO'NUS; It. MIL'TON orMiLTONO,
mel-to'no,] (JoHN,) an immortal poet, and, if we except
Shakspeare, the most illustrious name in English litera
ture, was born in Bread Street, London, on the gth of
December, 1608. He was the eldest son of John Milton,
a scrivener, and Sarah Bradshaw, (or Caston, according
to some authorities.) His early education was directed
by a private tutor, — Thomas Young, a zealous Puritan.
A portrait of his beautiful features, taken by C. Jansen,
at the age often, has been preserved. Before he entered
college he was an excellent Latin scholar. In severe and
systematic study he laid the foundations of his fame.
In a letter to a friend, written some years later, he says,
"It is my way to suffer no impediment, no love of ease,
no avocation whatever, to chill the ardour, to break the
continuity, or to divert the completion of my literary
pursuits." His first English poems were versions of the
Ii4th and 1361!! Psalms, (1623.)
In February, 1624, he was admitted as pensioner into
Christ's College, Cambridge, where he acquired distinc
tion as a Latin poet. Dr. Johnson expresses the opinion
that Milton "was the first Englishman who, after the
revival of letters, wrote Latin verses with classic ele
gance." He took the degree of Bachelor in 1628, and
that of Master of Arts in 1632, — before which he had
been subjected to a temporary rustication (and, some say,
to corporal chastisement) for an unknown offence. " By
the intention of my parents," says Milton himself, " I
was destined of a child to the service of the Church, and
in my own resolutions. Till coming to some maturity
of years, and perceiving what tyranny had invaded the
Church, that he who would take orders must subscribe
SLAVE, and take an oath withal, ... I thought better
to prefer a blameless silence, before the sacred office of
speaking, bought and begun with servitude and for
swearing."
In 1632 he left the university, and retired to his
father's liouse at Horton, Buckinghamshire, where he
remained five years, during which he is said to have
read all the Greek and Latin writers. He also took
lessons in music, which he loved, and in which he was
very skilful. In this studious retirement, it appears, he
wrote his beautiful poems " Comus," " L'Allegro," " II
Penseroso," and " Lyciclas," (1637.) " Comus" — a drama
in form, but essentially lyrical — was written and per
formed at Ludlow Castle in 1634, but not printed until
1637. "It is certainly," says Macaulay, "the noblest
performance of the kind which exists in any language."
" Lycidas" is contemptuously depreciated by Johnson as
a "pastoral, easy, vulgar, and therefore disgusting."
But Hallam approves the judgment of a certain critic
(whom he does not name) that "Lycidas" is "a good
test of a real feeling for what is peculiarly called poetry."
Milton's "Allegro" and "Penseroso" are universally
admired. " It is impossible to conceive," says Macaulay,
" that the mechanism of language can be brought to a
more exquisite degree of perfection. These poems differ
from others as ottar of roses differs from ordinary rose-
water."
In 1638, attended by a servant, he visited Florence,
Rome, and Naples, conversed with Galileo, then a " pris
oner to the Inquisition," and received testimonials of
honour and friendship from Carlo Dati, Francini, and
Manso. He was admired as a great prodigy by these
Italian celebrities. He returned in 1639, and opened in
London a small boarding-school, in which he adopted a
new system of education. His nephews, Edward and
John Philips, were among his pupils. In 1641 he pro
duced his first prose work, — a " Treatise of Reforma
tion," — which was followed by other arguments against
the Established Church and Prelacy. He sympathized
with the popular party in the great crisis of English
liberty, but took no active part in the civil war which
began in 1642.
At Whitsuntide, 1643, he married Mary Powell, whose
father was a justice of the peace and a royalist of Ox
fordshire. "The lady," says Dr. Johnson, "seems not
much to have delighted in the pleasures of spare diet
and hard study." A month after the marriage, she made
a visit to her father's house, from which she refused to
return. Having resolved to repudiate her, Milton pub
lished "The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce," (1644,)
and other treatises on that topic, in his own justification.
He also paid his addresses to a Miss Davis, until his
wife implored forgiveness and was restored to favour.
She became the mother of three daughters, who were all
the children that Milton had.
He published in 1644 his " Areopagitica," or " Plea
for Unlicensed Printing," — probably his greatest prose
work. " Many passages in this famous tract," says Hal-
lam, "are admirably eloquent : an intense love of liberty
and truth glows through it." He had taken a larger
house in Barbican (about 1645) for the reception of
scholars; but his wife's relations, to whom, when ruined
by the civil war, he generously gave refuge, occupied his
rooms. In March, 1648-49, he was appointed Latin
secretary to the council of state, which was the highest
executive power in the new republic. As an antidote to
the " Eikon Basilike," i.e. the " Image (or Portrait) of the
King," — a work designed to excite commiseration for the
sufferings of Charles I., (see GAUDEN,) — Milton pro
duced his " Iconoclastes," (Eikonoklastes,) or "Image-
breaker," and, by order of the council, appeared as the
antagonist of the learned Salmasius, in reply to whom
he wrote, in Latin, his celebrated work entitled " Defence
of the English People," (" Defensio Populi Anglicani,"
1650.) (See SALMASIUS.)
About 1654 he became totally blind. His " Defensio
Secunda" (1654) contains an eloquent allusion to this
privation. His wife died about 1653, and in 1656 he mar
ried Catherine Woodcock, who died in the following year.
After serving the Protector Oliver as Latin secretary
for four or five years, he retired about 1657 from public
life, with a pension of ^150. Before that date he had
meditated the plan of a great epic poem. One of the
subjects that presented was the exploits of King Arthur.
After much deliberation, "long choosing and beginning
late," he preferred the subject of " Paradise Lost," which
at first he proposed to dramatize. At the restoration,
(1660,) his prosecution was ordered, and he concealed
himself in the house of a friend until the Act of Oblivion
released him from danger. He married his third wife,
Elizabeth Minshul, in 1664; and when the great plague
raged in London, (1665,) he retired to Chalfont, Bucks,
where his friend El I wood had engaged a cottage for him.
(See ELLWOOD, THOMAS.) In the course of the same
year Milton showed to Ellwood the finished manuscript
of " Paradise Lost," which the latter took home and
perused. On returning it to the author, he remarked,
"Thou hast said much here of Paradise Lost; but what
hast thou to say of Paradise found?" Milton sold his
a, 1. 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, \\, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m§t; ndt; good; moon;
MILTON
1591
MIND
copy MI April, 1667, to Samuel Simmons, for an imme
diate payment of five pounds and the promise of an
equal sum after the sale of thirteen hundred copies. It
was rather coldly received, only three thousand having
been sold in the first eleven years. " Its admirers," says
Johnson, "did not dare to publish their opinion."
He published in 1671 "Samson Agonistes," a tra
gedy, and " Paradise Regained," which he is said to
have' esteemed his most perfect production ; but the
public and the critics have not sanctioned this preference.
Milton died in London, by "a silent expiration," on the
8th of November, 1674.
A manuscript of Milton's "On Christian Doctrine,"
(" De Doctrina Christiana,") found in the State-Paper
Office, London, in 1823, was translated and published
in 1825. The genuineness of this work, though some
times called in question, is considered by the great
majority of critics to be established beyond reasonable
doubt.
Milton was not connected with any church, but ap
pears to have favoured the Independents, — a politico-
religious party. "He grew old without any visible
worship," says Johnson ; who adds, " His studies and
meditations were an habitual prayer." His favourite
authors among the Greeks were Homer and Euripides,
and Shakspeare and Spenser among the English. His
stature was rather below the middle height. In his youth
he was so eminently and delicately beautiful as to be
called "the Lady" of his college, though his habits were
far from effeminate. He had a fair complexion and
auburn hair. Portraits of him were taken at the ages
of ten, twenty-one, and about sixty.
" Considered with respect to design," says Johnson,
'"Paradise Lost' may claim the first place, and, with
respect to performance, the second, among the produc
tions of the human mind. . . . His [Milton's] great works
were performed under discountenance and in blindness;
but difficulties vanished at his touch : he was born for
whatever is arduous ; and his work is not the greatest
of heroic poems, only because it is not the first." " Was
there ever anything so delightful," says Cowper, "as
the music of 'Paradise Lost'? It is like that of a fine
organ. — has the fullest and the deepest tones of majesty,
with all the softness and elegance of the Dorian flute ;
variety without end, and never equalled, unless, perhaps,
by Virgil." Of Milton's prose writings, Macaulay ob
serves, "They are a perfect field of cloth of gold. The
style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery."
'•It is certain," Says Hume, "that this author, when
in a happy mood and employed on a noble subject, is
the most wonderfully sublime of any poet in any lan
guage, Homer and Lucretius and Tasso not excepted.
More concise than Homer, more simple than Tasso,
more nervous than Lucretius, had he lived in a later
age and learned to polish some rudeness in his verses,
had he enjoyed better fortune and possessed leisure to
watch the returns of genius in himself, he had attained
the pinnacle of perfection and borne away the palm of
epic poetry."
" It may be doubted," says Walter S. Landor,
"whether the Creator ever created one altogether so
great as Milton, — taking into one view at once his manly
virtues, his superhuman genius, his zeal for truth, for
true piety, true freedom, his eloquence in displaying it,
his contempt of personal power, his glory and exultation
in his country's."
"Milton," says Macaulay, "did not strictly belong
to any of the classes which we have described. He
was not a Puritan. He was not a Freethinker. He
was not a Cavalier. In his character the noblest quali
ties of every party were combined in harmonious union.
. . . We are not much in the habit of idolizing either
the living or the dead. But there are a few characters
which have stood the closest scrutiny and the severest
tests, which have been tried in the furnace and have
proved pure, which have been declared sterling by the
general consent of mankind, and which are visibly
stamped with the image and superscription of the Most
High. These great men we trust we know how to prize ;
and of these was Milton. . . . His thoughts are power
ful not only to delight, but to elevate and purify. Nor
do we envy the man who can study either the life or the
writings of the great poet and patriot without aspiring to
emulate, not indeed the sublime works with which his
genius has enriched our literature, but the zeal with
which he laboured for the public good, the fortitude with
which he endured every private calamity, the lofty dis
dain with which he looked down on temptation and dan
gers, the deadly hatred which he bore to bigots and
tyrants, and the faith which he so sternly kept with his
country and with his fame." ("Essay on Milton.")
Those who desire to know how this great poet is
regarded by a nation whose taste and habits of thought
differ most widely from those of the English, may con
sult the article "Milton" in the "Biographie Univer-
selle," from the pen of the justly-celebrated French
critic Villemain. He admits that Milton's picture of
our first parents in Eden surpasses, in graceful and
touching simplicity, anything to be found in the creations
of any other poet, ancient or modern, and that the
human imagination has produced nothing more grand
or more sublime than some portions of " Paradise Lost."
See the article "Milton," in JOHNSON'S "Lives of the Poets;"
TODD, " Life of Milton," 1801 ; KEIGHTLEY, " Life, Opinions, and
Wri.ings of John Milton," 1855 ; MASSON, " Life and Times of
Milton," vol. i., 1859; TOLAND. " Life of Milton," 1^)8; SYMMONS,
" Life of Milton :" HAYLEY, " Life of Milton," 1794; J>K. CH ANN ING,
"Remarks on the Character and Writings of Milton," 1828; MAC-
AUI.AY, "Essays;" HUME, "History of England," chap. Ixii. ; J.
MOSNERON, "Vie de Milton," 1804; EDWIN P. HOOD, "J. Milton,
the Patriot and Poet," 1851 ; JOSEPH IVIMEY, " J. Milton, his Life
and Times," 1832; C. R. EDMONDS, "J. Milton: a Biography,"
1851; EDWARD PHILIPS, "Life of J. Milton," 1694; notice in the
" North American Review" for July, 1838, by R. W. EMERSON; and
the excellent article,in AU.IBONE'S " Dictionary of Authors."
Milton, LORD. See FLETCHER, (ANDREW.)
Milutinovics or Milutiiiowitsch, pronounced
alike me-loo-tee'no-vitch, (SlMON,) a Servian poet, born
in 1791. He was the author of " Popular Songs of the
Montenegrins," etc., " History of Servia from 1813 to
1815," and other works.
Mi'mas, [Gr. Mi fins,] a giant said to have been de
stroyed by Jupiter. The island of Prochyte, near Sicily,
was believed to rest upon his body.
Mim-ner'mus, [Gr. Mifivep/jof; Fr. MIMNERME, mem'-
niRin',] a Greek elegiac and lyric poet, born at Colo
phon about 630 u.c., was contemporary with Solon.
The fragments of his poems have been published in the
collections of Estienne, Brunck, and Boissonade ; and, in
a separate edition by Bach, Mimnermus is said to have
invented the pentameter verse.
See K. O. MUI.LER, " Geschichte der Griechen Literatur," etc.;
CHRISTIAN MARX, " Dissertatio de Mimnermo," 1831.
Miiia,mee'na, (Don FRANCISCO Espoz y — es-p6th'e,)
a celebrated Spanish general, sometimes called EL KEY
DE NAVARRA, ("the King of Navarre,") born near Pam-
peluna in 1782. As a guerilla chieftain, he successfully
defended Navarre against the French in 1808 and the
succeeding campaigns. Having been created marechal
del campo in 1813, he endeavoured to excite an insur
rection against the government of Ferdinand VII., but,
failing in the attempt, took refuge in France. After his
return to Spain, in 1820, he became captain-general of
the armies of Navarre, Galicia, and Catalonia. He held
several high offices under Queen Christina, for whom
he fought against Don Carlos. Died in 1836.
See MINANO, " Examen critico de las Revoluciones de Espana,"
1837; MOLINE DE SAINT- YON, "Les deux Mina: Chronique Es-
pagnole du XIXe Siecle," 3 vols., 1840; BURCKHARDT, " Riego und
Mina," etc., 1835.
Mina, (XAVIER,) a Spanish officer, born in Navarre
in 1789, was a nephew of the preceding. He undertook
to liberate Mexico, which he entered in April, 1817, with
a few hundred men. He gained several victories, but
was captured and shot at Mexico in November, 1817.
Minano y Bedoya, de, da men-ya'no e ba-Do'e-a,
(SEHASTIAN,) a Spanish writer, born in the province of
Palencia in 1779. He wrote " Letters from a Resident
of Madrid," and a " History of the Spanish Revolution
from 1820 to 1823," (in French.)
Mind, mint, (GOTTFRIED,) a celebrated Swiss painter,
born at Berne in 1768, was surnamed THE RAPHAEL
OF CATS. He was the child of indigent parents, and
a cretin, and was educated at Pestalozzi's institution for
poor boys. His favourite subjects were cats and bears,
« as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MINDER ER
1592
MINUTUNUS
which he delineated with unequalled skill and fidelity.
He died in 1814, leaving numerous designs, which were
sold at a high price.
See NAGLER, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" L.
BRICHTWKLL, " By- Paths of Biography."
Minderer, min'deh-rer, (RAIMOND,) a German phy
sician, born at Augsburg about 1570, was the discoverer
of a new chemical compound, (acetate of ammonia,)
since called Spiritus Mindereri. lie published several
medical works in Latin, and became physician to the
emperor Matthias. Died in 1621.
Minderhout, min'der-howt', a Flemish painter, born
at Antwerp in 1577, excelled in marine views, seaports,
ntc. Died in 1663.
Miuelli, me-nel'lee, [Lat. MlNKl/LIUS,] (jAN,)aDutch
scholar, born at Rotterdam about 1625. He translated
Terence into Dutch, and published numerous editions
of the Latin classics, with notes, which had a high repu
tation at the time. Died in 1683.
Minellius. See MINELT.I.
Mi'ner, (THOMAS,) an American physician, born at
Micldletown, Connecticut, in 1777. He wrote, conjointly
with Dr. Tully, " Essays on Fevers and other Subjects,"
(1823.) Died in 1841.
Mi-ner'va or A-the'na, [ Fr. Mi NERVE, me'n.\Rv',]
one of the greater divinities of the Roman mythology,
corresponding nearly to the Greek Athena or Athene,
[Gr. 'Adf/vrj or 'A.0rjv<l.] She was regarded as the goddess
of wisdom, arts, and sciences, or a personification of the
thinking, inventive faculty. According to a popular tra
dition, she was the offspring of the brain of Jupiter, from
which she issued in full armour. She was always repre
sented as a virgin. In war she was contradistinguished
from Mars (the god of brute force) as the patroness of
scientific warfare, and hence, according to the ancient
poets, was always superior to him. The favourite plant
of Minerva was the olive, and the animals consecrated
to her were the owl and the serpent. Athena was the
great national divinity of Attica and Athens, to which
she is said to have given her name. Pope, in his
"Temple of Fame," alludes to her twofold character as
the patroness of arts and arms, where he says,
"There Oesar, graced with both Minervas, shone."
In the Trojan war she fought for the Greeks. She
was sometimes called Pallas, Parthenos, (i.e. "virgin,")
Tritonia or Tritogeneia, and other names. The poets
feigned that Neptune and Minerva disputed for the pos
session of Attica, which the gods promised to him or
her who should produce the most useful gift to mankind.
Neptune, striking the earth with his trident, produced a
war-horse, and Minerva produced the olive, (the symbol
of peace,) by which she gained the victory. She was
usually represented with a helmet on her head, holding
in one hand a spear and in the other an aegis, or shield,
in the centre of which was the head of Medusa. There
was a celebrated statue of Minerva, called Palladium,
which was said to have fallen from the sky, and on
which the safety of Troy depended.
See G. HERMANN, " Dissertatio de Graeca Minerva," 1837 ;
GUIGNIAUT, "Religions de 1'Antiquite ;" SMITH, "Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology ;" " Biographic Uni-
verselle," (Partie mythologique.)
Minga, del, del men'ga, (ANDREA,) an Italian painter,
of the Florentine school, lived about 1550-70.
Mingarelli, men-ga-rel'lee, ( GIOVANKI LUIGI,) an
Italian ecclesiastic and writer, born near Bologna in
1722, was a friend of Tiraboschi. Died in 1793.
See CAVALIERI, "Vita di Mingarelli," 1817.
Mingotti, men-got/tee, (CATERINA,) an Italian vocal
ist, of German extraction, born at Naples in 1728. She
studied under Porpora, and performed with brilliant suc
cess in the principal cities of Europe. Died in 1807.
Miiiiana, me-ne-a'na, (JoSE MANUEL,) a Spanish
historian, born at Valencia in 1671. He wrote a continua
tion of Mariana's "History of Spain," (1733.) Died in
1 730.
Minie, me'ne-i', (Ci.AunE ETIENNE,) a French of
ficer, born in Paris in 1810, was the inventor of the rifle
called by his name. He was appointed by Napoleon
III. superintendent of the school of ordnance at Vin-
cennes, and received from him the sum of 20,000 francs.
The Minie rifle was an immense improvement on any
thing of the kind that had previously been invented, both
as regards precision and the extent of its range.
Minion. See MIGNON.
Minjon. See MIGNON.
Miiio da Fiesole, mee'no da fe-eVo-li, an eminent
Italian sculptor, born at Fiesole about 1430. Among his
works is a tomb of Paul II. at Rome. Died in 1486.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors."
Minoochihr, Minoutchihr, or Minuchihr, min-
oo'chlh'r, written also Manucheher, an ancient Persian
king, the grandson (or, according to some authorities,
the great-grandson) of Fereedoon, (Feridun,) is said to
have been the first of his nation who fortified cities with
ramparts and ditches. With Minoochihr ended the glory
and power of the Peshdadian dynasty.
See "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of SIR WU.T.IAM
JONES'S Works; ATKINSON, "Abridgment of the Shah NSiiieh of
Firdausi," 1832.
Mi'nos, [Gr. M/vwf,] a celebrated king and lawgiver
of Crete, whose history is much obscured or embellished
with fable. According to Homer, he was a son of Jupiter
and Europa, a brother of Rhadamanthus, and the father
of Ariadne and Deucalion. He was renowned for his
justice and moderation, and it was fabled that after his
death he became a judge of the souls which entered the
infernal regions. He has by some writers been identified
with Manu, (or Menu,) the great Hindoo lawgiver.
Minos, a king and lawgiver of Crete, supposed to
have been a grandson of the preceding, with whom, how
ever, he has been confounded by some writers. He was
the husband of Pasiphae, and had many children. He
is said to have been the first Greek prince that had an
important naval power. The Cretans ascribed to Minos
their laws and political institutions, which served as a
model for the legislation of Lycurgus. According to one
tradition, he was cruel and tyrannical, and compelled the
Athenians, whom he vanquished, to pay him an annual
tribute in the form of boys and virgins, who were devoured
by the Minotaur.
Min'ot, ? (GEORGE RICHARDS,) an American jurist
and historian, born at Boston in 1758. His principal
works are a " Eulogy on Washington," " History of
Shays's Rebellion," and " History of Massachusetts Bay."
Died in 1802.
Min'pt, ? (LAWRENCE,) an English poet, whose works
were discovered by Tyrwhitt while he was preparing an
edition of Chaucer. He lived about 1330-50.
Min'o-taur, [Gr. Mivuravpof; Lat. MINOTAU'KUS ;
Fr. MINOTAURE, me'no'tSR',] a monster of classic my
thology, represented as half man' and half bull. Accord
ing to the legend, he was the offspring of Pasiphae and a
bull which was sent to Minos by Neptune ; he was kept
in the great labyrinth of Crete, was fed with youths and
maidens whom the Athenians sent to Minos as tribute,
and was finally killed by Theseus.
Miii'tha or Men'tha, [Gr. Mivdr/,] a nymph, fabled
to have been beloved by Pluto and changed by Ceres
into the plant known as mint.
Minto, LORD. See ELLIOT.
Min'to, (WALTER,) a Scottish mathematician, born
in Edinburgh, emigrated to America in 1786. He was
the author of several scientific works, and became pro
fessor of mathematics at Princeton College, New Jersey.
Died in 1796.
Mintrop, mln'trop, (THEODOK,) a distinguished
German painter and designer, born at Heithausen, in
Bavaria, in 1814. He produced designs in crayon, and
several oil-paintings of religious subjects. Among his
works are " The Riches of the Year," and " The Apo
theosis of Bacchus."
Minturni, men-tooR'nee, (ANTONIO SEBASTIANO,) an
Italian poet and canonist, born in Terra di Lavoro, was
noted for his learning. Died in 1574.
Miiiut, de, deli me'iiii', (G AH HI EL,) a French litte
rateur, born at Toulouse about 1520. He was patronized
by Catherine de Medicis, and was a friend of J. C.
Scaliger. He published treatises on medicine, theology,
and other subjects. Died in 1587.
Minutianus, me-nu-she-a'nus, [ It. MINUZIANO, me
noot-se-a'no,] (ALESSANDRO,) a learned Italian printer,
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, \, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon,
MINUTIUS
'593
MIRABEAU
born at San Severe about 14150. He published the first
complete edition of Cicero, and issued from his press
numerous classics of great beauty and accuracy. Died
about 1525.
Minutius or Minucius (mi-nu'she-us) Fe'lix, an
early Christian writer, supposed to have been a native
of Africa, lived in the third century. He was the author
of a work entitled " Octavius," written in defence of
Christianity. A good edition of it was published by
Gronovius in 1707.
See BOUCHARD, " Dissertatio de Mimitio Felice," 1685; HEIN-
RICH MKIKR, " Commentatio de Minucio Felice," 1825.
Minutoli, me-noo'to-lee, (HEINRICH MENU,) BARON,
a distinguished writer, of Italian extraction, born at
Geneva in 1772. He served in the Prussian army, and
attained the rank of lieutenant-general. In 1820 he
accompanied the scientific expedition sent by the Prus
sian government to Egypt, and published, (in German,)
after his return, a "Journey to the Temple of Jupiter
Ammon and Upper Egypt," (2 vols., 1824.) Among his
other works is •' Recollections of a Soldier." He was
a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and
was appointed by the king, Frederick William, tutor to
Prince Charles. Died in 1846.
Minutoli, (Jui.ius,) a lawyer, son of the preceding,
was born at Berlin in 1805. lie was appointed in 1851
consul-general for Spain and Portugal. He published
a work entitled " Spain and its Progressive Develop
ment."
Min'y-as, [Gr. Mwiac,] a fabulous personage, said
to be a son of Neptune, a king of Boeotia, and the an
cestor of the MINY^E, (yitvvai,) a race of heroes cele
brated in the most ancient epic poetry of Greece. The
Argonauts were mostly descendants of Minyas, and were
called Minyaj.
Minzocchi, mtn-zok'kee, or Menzocchi, mfin-zok'-
kee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian painter, born at Forll about
1500, was a pupil of Genga. Among his master-pieces
we may name "The Sacrifice of Melchisedec," "The
Fall of Manna," and a " Holy Family." Died in 1574.
Minzoni, men-zo'nee, (ONOFRIO,) an Italian poet and
Jesuit, born at Ferrara in 1734, became professor of phi
losophy at Venice. He was the author of a collection
of sonnets of great beauty. Died in 1817.
See Tii'Ai.Do, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri."
Miolaii-Carvalho, me'o'16.\' kf n'vt'lc/, (CAROLINE
FEI.IX,) a French vocalist, born at Chateau-Roux in 1829.
She performed with success in Paris and London as an
operatic singer.
Miollis, me'o'less', ( SEXTIUS ALEXANDRE FRAN
COIS,) COUNT, a French general, born at Aix in 1759. He
was wounded at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. He became
a general of division in 1799, and obtained command of
all the French forces in Northern Italy in 1805. In 1809
he entered Rome, where, having expelled the pope, he
remained, with the title of governor, until 1814. Died
in 1828.
Mionnet, me'o'ni', (THEODORE EDME,) a French
antiquary, born in Paris in 1770. He wrote a "Descrip
tive Catalogue of Greek and Roman Medals," (7 vols.,
1806-35,) :l standard work, which still ranks among
the best of its kind, a treatise " On the Rarity and
Value of Roman Medals," etc., (2 vols., 1847,) and other
similar works. Died in 1842.
Miot, me'o', (ANDRE FKANgois,) Comte de Melito, a
French statesman, born at Versailles in 1762. He was
minister of the interior at Naples under Joseph Bona
parte. He died in 1841, leaving "Memoirs of the Con
sulate, the Empire, and King Joseph," (3 vols., 1858.)
Mirabaud, me'rt'bc/, (JicAN BAPTISTE,) a French
litterateur, born in Paris in 1675. He made a transla
tion ot Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," which had great
popularity at the time. He also translated the "Orlando
Furioso," and published several treatises on various
subjects. The atheistical work entitled " Systeme de
la Nature" was for a time attributed to Mirabaud, but is
now known to have been written by Baron d'Holbach.
Mirabaud was elected to the French Academy in 1726.
Died in 1760.
See D'ALKMBERT, " Histoire des Membres de 1'Academie Fran-
c.aise."
Mirabeau, de, deh me'rf'bo', (BONIFACE RIQUETTI,)
VICOMTE, a brother of Gabriel, noticed below, was born
at Bignon in 1754. He served in the army of the United
States about 1780. In 1789 he became a royalist mem
ber of the States-General, and was opposed to his brother
in politics. He was so bloated by drinking that he was
nicknamed " Barrel Mirabeau," ("Mirabeau Tonneau.")
He was noted for his sarcastic wit. " In any other
family," said he, " I should pass for a reprobate (manvais
snjet) and wit ; but in mine I am regarded as a fool,
but a sedate man." When his famous brother reproved
him for his intemperance, he wittily replied, "Of all
the vices of our family, that is the only one which you
have left for me." He emigrated in 1790, and joined the
royalist army on the Rhine. Died in 1792.
Mirabeau, de, deh me'rt'bc/ or m!r'a-bo', (HONORE
GAKRIEL de Riquetti, (deh re'ka'te',) originally Arri-
ghetti,) COMTE, a famous French orator and states
man, was born at Bignon, near Nemours, March 9, 1749.
His family was of Italian extraction. He was the oldest
surviving son of the Marquis de Mirabeau and Marie
Genevieve de Vassan. The last representative of that
stormy and highly-gifted race, he inherited a passionate
nature, a frank and open temper, and a mind of great
amplitude of grasp and prodigious activity. The edu
cation which he received under the strict discipline of
his father was far from judicious. In his fifteenth year
he was sent to a boarding-school in Paris, where he
made rapid progress in ancient and modern languages
and mathematics, also in music and the fine arts. In
compliance with his father's will, he entered the army
in 1767. The next year, by an amorous intrigue, he pro
voked the ire of the marquis, who caused him to be
imprisoned in the Isle of Rhe. In 1769 he obtained
liberty to serve in Corsica against Paoli, where he won
golden opinions, and returned in 1770 with the brevet
of captain. It puzzled his father to find a proper sphere
for one whom he called a windmill, a whirlwind, one
who " had swallowed all formulas." On one occasion
he writes, " I pass my life in cramming him with prin
ciples."
In 1772 young Mirabeau married Marie fimilie de-
Covet, a daughter of the Marquis de Mariguan, and
became a resident of Aix. For running into debt, he was
banished to Manosque, near the Alps, where he wrote
an "Essay on Despotism." Having again displeased
the grim marquis by some venial error, he was confined,
by a Icttre dc cachet, in the castle of If, in 1774, and was
finally separated from his wife, who was not inconsolable
on that accourt. He was removed in 1775 to the castle
of Joux ; and, having liberty to walk out on parole, he
formed an ardent attachment for Sophie Monnier, un
happily married to a man four times older than herself.
With her he eloped in 1776, and went to Amsterdam,
where he earned fair wages by translating Watson's
"Philip II." and doing other literary jobs. The parlia
ment of Besan^on indicted him for abduction, and sen
tenced him to death. In May, 1777', the police-officers
arrested him in Holland and consigned him to the prison
of Vincennes, where he was kept forty-two months, ap
parently ruined, but still indomitable in spirit. Presenting
himself before the court which had condemned him as
contumacious, he pleaded his cause with such power
that the sentence was annulled. He again met his father
on amicable terms ; for it is recorded among his few
conventional virtues that he loved his father to the end.
The marquis, however, left him to his own resources
for a supply of money.
From about 1783 to 1788 he led a wandering life
in England, France, and Germany, supporting himself
by his wits, teeming with grand projects, and often en
gaging in questionable intrigues. Under the auspices
of Franklin, he published an eloquent essay "On the
Order of Cincinnatus," (1784,) which was followed by a
tract " On the Opening of the Scheldt." A polemical
tract on the water-company of Paris, in reply to Beau-
marchais, produced a prodigious effect. In 1786 Calonne
(partly from a desire to remove him out of the way) sent
him on a secret mission to Berlin, where he met the
Great Frederick, and collected materials for an important
work, — " The Prussian Monarchy," — which appeared in
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MIR ABE AU
'594
MIRANDA
1788. The States-General, which were convoked for
May, 1789, offered to him a congenial arena for the
exertion of his gigantic energies against the system of
organized injustice and oppression which for ages had
afflicted France. After he had been rejected with con
tempt by the noblesse of_ Provence, he was chosen tri
umphantly by the Tiers-Etat of Aix and Marseilles. lie
preferred to represent Aix. Aiming at reform by mod
erate means, he made overtures for co-operation with the
ministry, but was coldly received by Necker, and went
away in ill humour. On the 23d of June, 1789, he gave
a decisive direction to the Revolution by his famous
speech in reply to the king's usher, De Breze, who re
minded the Assembly that the king had ordered them
to disperse : — " The Commons of France have resolved
to deliberate. We have heard what the king has been
advised to say ; and you, who cannot act as his organ in
the States-General, — you, who have here neither seat
nor vote nor right ot speech, — you are not the person
to remind us of it. Go and tell your master that we
are here by the will of the nation, and that nothing but
the power of bayonets can drive us hence !" The usher
quickly vanished, and Mirabeau became the master-spirit
of the National Assembly. " Mirabeau's spiritual gift,"
says Carlyle, " will be found to be verily an honest and
great one ; far the strongest, best practical intellect of
that time." His brief and pithy sentences became the
watchwords of the Revolution ; "his gestures were com
mands, his motions were coups d'etat.'1'1 Exchanging the
role of tribune for that of a statesman, he soared above
the intrigues of party and the ideal abstractions that
were in vogue. " Where others grope darkly," says
Lamartine, " he aims surely, he advances directly. . . .
The philosophy of the eighteenth century, modified by
prudence and policy, flows out all formulized from his
lips. His eloquence, imperative as law, is only the gift
of impassioned reasoning."
He advocated the abolition of the double aristocracy
of lords and bishops, the spoliation of the Church, and
the formation of the national guard, but he demanded for
the king an absolute veto and the initiative in making
war and peace. One of his greatest triumphs as an orator
was won over Barnave, on the latter question, in 1790.
Loud explosions of popular fury greeted him when it
was known that he favoured the royal veto. As he en
tered the Assembly to speak on the question, he said to
a friend, " I will either leave the House in triumph, or
be torn to fragments." He gained his point, and re
stored his popularity. In the last part of his career he
became more conservative, and formed a secret alliance
with the court, from which he received large sums of
money. He doubtless cherished an ambition to be prime
minister of France.
In January, 1791, he was chosen president of the Na
tional Assembly. "Never had this office been so well
filled," says Dumont. On parting with Dumont, who
left Paris at the date just named, Mirabeau said, " I shall
die at the stake, and we shall never, perhaps, meet again.
That base faction whom I now overawe [the Jacobins]
will again be let loose upon the country. I have none
but direful anticipations." He died April 2, 1791.
Among his last words were, " Envelop me with perfumes
and crown me with flowers, that I may pass away into
everlasting sleep." His strong constitution had been
ruined by inordinate passions and immoral pleasures
carried to the greatest excess, but veiled under a decorous
exterior after he had attained eminence as a legislator.
He had the art of enlisting men of talents in his service
and appropriating their productions, on which he im
pressed the seal of his originality. Dumont, Claviere,
and Duroverai were, perhaps, the chief persons who thus
assisted him. Mirabeau had given development and
outward form to the French Revolution ; but to control
it was beyond his power. His indomitable will might
for a time direct or overawe the fury of the populace;
but he possessed no virtues which could inspire the
better portion of the people with that trust and confi
dence without which there can be no stability for any
government.
Alluding to the resemblance between Mirabeau and
Chatham, Macaulay observes, " Sudden bursts which
seemed to be the effect of inspiration, short sentences
which came like lightning, dazzling, burning, striking
down everything before them, ... in these chiefly lay
the oratorical power both of Chatham and Mirabeau. . . .
In true dignity of character, in private and public virtue,
it may seem absurd to institute any comparison between
them ; but they had the same haughtiness and vehemence
of temper. In their language and manner there was a
disdainful self-confidence, an imperiousness before which
all common minds quailed. . . . There have been far
greater speakers and far greater statesmen than either
of them ; but we doubt whether any men have, in modern
times, exercised such vast personal influence over stormy
and divided assemblies." (Article on " Dumont's Recol
lections of Mirabeau," in Macaulay's "Essays.")
See MIRABKAU, "A Life-History," London, 2 vols., 1848 ; LAMAK-
TINE, "History of the Girondists," book i. ; CARI.YLE, "Essays,"
vol. i. ; HROUGHAM, " Statesmen of the Time of George III.," 2d
series; CHAUSSARD, "Esprit de Mirabeau." 2 vols., 1797; VICTOR
HUGO, "fitude sur Mirabeau," 1834; F. LKWITZ, "Mirabeau, Uild
seines Lebens," etc., 2 vols., 1852-53: CADET DH: GASSICOURT,
" Essai sur la Vie prive'e de Mirabeau," 1800; J. MKRII.HOU, " Kssai
historiqiie sur la Vie de Mirabeau," 1825; Louis UK MONTIC;NV,
" Memoires bingraphiques, litteraires et politiques de Mirabeim," 8
vols., 1833-41 ; DUMONT, ''Souvenirs sur Mirabeau," 1832; i'rniou,
" Abri5<4e de la Vie de Mirabeau," 1791 ; " Memoires sur Mirabeau et
son E°poque," (anonymous,) Paris, 4 vols., 1824; SCHNEIDKWIND,
" Mirabeau uixl seine Zeit," 1831.
Mirabeau, de, (JEAN ANTOINE RIQUETTI,) MAR
QUIS, surnamed SILVERSTOCK, a brave French officer,
born in Provence in 1666, was the grandfather of the
great erator Mirabeau. His ancestors, the Arrighettis,
were exiled from Florence in 1267. He was called " Ven-
dome's right arm." At the battle of Cassano, in 1706,
where he commanded a regiment, he received twenty-
seven wounds, one of which was in the neck. In conse
quence of this, he wore a silver stock to support his head.
He married, and lived many years after that action.
See " Memoires de Mirabeau;" CARI.YLE, "Essays," vol. i.
Mirabeau, de, (VICTOR RIQUETTI,) MARQUIS, the
self-styled "Friend of Men." born at Perthuis in 1715,
was the son of the preceding, and father of the great
orator. A proud, eccentric person, of violent passions
and powerful intellect, he was regarded as the reverse of
a "friend" by most men who had intercourse with him.
His hobby was Political Economy, in which he w;is a
disciple of Du Quesnay. He published on that science
able and voluminous works, some of which were re
ceived with favour. His "Friend of Men," ("Ami des
Hommes,") which appeared about 1755, made a great
sensation, though its style was extremely rugged, quaint,
and tortuous. He lived mostly in Paris, and was am
bitious to diiect affairs of state. It is reported that he
obtained from the ministry no less than fifty-four lettres
de cachet, arbitrary warrants to imprison his children and
others. Die i in 1789. " Out of all which circumstances,"
says Carlyle. "there has come forth this Marquis tie
Mirabeau, si aped into one of the most singular, sublime
pedants that ever stepped the soil of France. There
never entered the brain of Hogarth or of rare old Ben
such a piece of humour as in this brave old Riquetti
nature has presented us ready-made. For withal there
is such genius in him, rich depth of character, inde
structible cheerfulness and health breaking out in spite
of these divorce-papers, like strong sunlight in thundery
weather."
Mirabella, me-ra-bel'la, (ViNCENZO,) an Italian anti
quary, born at Syracuse in 1570. lie wrote a "History
of Syracuse," and other works. Died in 1624.
Miraeus. See LEMIRK.
Miramon, me-ra-m6n', (MIGUEL,) a Mexican general,
born about 1832. He became the leader of the clerical
party which began to wage war against Juarez in 1858.
He was defeated in a decisive battle in December, 1860,
and went into exile. He afterwards returned, and
fought for Maximilian, and was executed with him in
June, 1867.
Miranda, me-ran'da, (FRANCISCO,) a South American
patriot, born at Caraccas about 1750. Having entered
the French army, he served in the American campaigns
of 1779 and 1781, and in 1792 became general of division
under Dumouriez. In the campaign of 1793 he was
defeated by the allies at Neerwinden, and was brought to
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;
MIRANDA
1595
MITCHELL
trial for mismanagement on this occasion, but he was
acquitted. Being condemned by the Directory in 1797,
he took refuge in England, and on his return to Paris,
in 1803, was a second time banished. He sailed in 1806
to Venezuela, where he made an unsuccessful attempt
to found a republic. He was arrested in 1812 by the
Spanish government, and imprisoned at Cadiz, where
he died in 1816.
See J. BIGGS, " History of Miranda's Attempt to effect a Revo
lution in South America ;" DUMOURIEZ, " Meinoires."
Miranda, de, da me-ran'da, (Don JUAN GARCIA,) a
Spanish artist, born at Madrid in 1677, became painter
to the king, Philip V. Died in 1749. There were
several other painters of the same family.
See CEAN-BEKMUDEZ, " Diccionario Historico," etc.
Miranda, de, da me-ran'da, (SA,) one of the earliest
Portuguese poets, born at Coimbra about 1495. He was
one of the founders of Portuguese literature, and is said
to have been the fir.st to employ the metres of Dante and
Petrarch. He was the author of sonnets and dramas,
but his reputation rests chiefly on his poetical epistles
and eclogues. Died in 1558.
See BARBOSA MACHADO. " Bibliotheca Lusitana;" BOUTF.RVVEK,
" Histoire litteraire ;" A. UE VAKNHAGEX, "O Panorama."
Mirandola. See Pico DF.I.LA MIRANDOI.A.
Mirbel, de, deh meu'bel', (CHARLES FRANCOIS BRIS-
SEAU,) an eminent French botanist, born in Paris in
1776. lie was appointed by the empress Josephine
superintendent of the gardens of Malmaison in 1803, and
in 1808 became a member of the Academy of Sciences,
and adjunct professor of botany and vegetable physiology
to the Faculty of Sciences. He afterwards held several
public offices, and in 1828 was appointed professor of
culture in the Jardin des Plantes. Among his principal
works are "Elements of Botany and Vegetable Physi
ology," (3 vols., 1815,) and "Natural History of Vege
tables," etc., (15 vols., 1826,) written in conjunction with
Lamnrck, also " Researches on the Marchantia Poly-
morpha," and other treatises of great value, contributed
to the "Journal de Physique" and various other scien
tific periodicals. He likewise assisted Sonnini in his
"Natural History of Plants." Died in 1854.
See PAVEN, "tflo-e historique de M. de Mirbel," 1858; " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Mirbel, de, (LIZINSKA ATMEE ZOE RUE,) the wife of
the preceding, was born at Cherbourg in 1796. She ac
quired a high reputation as a miniature-painter. Among
her best works may be named the portraits of Louis
Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, the Count of Paris,
Madame Guizot, and fimile de Girardin. She obtained
several medals, and was appointed after the restoration
miniature-painter to the king. Died in 1849.
See "Journal des Beaux- Arts," 1849.
Mirecourt, meR'kooii', (CHARLES JEAN BAPTISTE
JACQUOT,) called EUGENE DE MIRECOURT, a French lit-
~teratenr,\)m-n at Mirecourt, in Vosrjes, in 1812. Tie pro
duced a work called "Portrait-Gallery of Contempo
raries," ("Ga'erie des Contemporains," 60 vols., 1854-
57,) in which he indulged in offensive personalities. He
was prosecuted by Lamennais, George Sand, and others.
Mirepoix, de, deh meR'pwa', (CHARLES PIERRE
GASTON FRANQOIS de Levis — deh ll've',) Due, a
French general, born in 1699. He became a marshal of
France in 1757. Died in 1758.
Mirevelt. See MIEREVELT.
Mir'i-am, [Heb. Q'T3.] a prophetess, a sister of
Moses, the Hebrew lawgiver. She sang a song of tri
umph after the children of Israel had passed through
the Red Sea.
See Exodus xv. 20; Numbers xii.
Mirkhoiid, mir'Kond', a celebrated Persian histo
rian, born in 1433, was tne author of a work entitled
"Garden of Purity, or History of Prophets, Kings, and
Caliphs." There are manuscripts of this history in the
libraries of Paris, London, Berlin, and Vienna, and por
tions of it have been translated into French and several
other languages. Died in 1498.
Miromesnil, de, deh me'ro'm£'nel', (ARMA.ND THO
MAS HUE,) a French minister of state, born in the Or-
leannais in 1723. He was keeper of the seals from 1774
to 1787. Died in 1796.
Mirza. See MEERZA".
Mi-se'iius, [Gr. Munjvoc : Fr. MISENE, me'zin',] a
Trojan warrior, distinguished for his valour and his skill
as a trumpeter, was called ^Eoi/iDES by Virgil. After
the capture of Troy, he went to Italy with y£neas, whom
he served as a trumpeter. He is said to have been
drowned by a Triton who was envious of his musical skill.
See VIRGIL'S 'VEneid," book vi. 162-174.
Misri-Effeiidi, mis'ree ef-fen'dee, a Turkish poet
and enthusiast, born in Egypt about 1660. He cele
brated in verse the incarnation of Jesus Christ. Died
in 1710.
Missiessy, me'se'i'se', (finouARn THOMAS BUR-
GUES,) a French admiral, born in Provence in 1754. He
commanded a squadron which, in May, 1805, was sent
to the Antilles, and in 1809 commanded the naval forces
at Antwerp. Died in 1832.
Misson, me's6N', (FRANC.OIS MAXIMTI.IEN,) a French
writer, born at Lyons, was of a Protestant family, and
settled in England after the revocation of the edict
of Nantes. Having visited Italy in 1687, he published,
after his return, an account of his travels, which was
commended by Addison for its lively and faithful de
scriptions. Died in 1721.
Mitch'el, (JOHN,) an Irish adventurer, born in the
county of Deny in 1815. He was for a time associate
editor of the Dublin "Nation," and subsequently of
The United Irishman," which, however, was soon sup
pressed by the British government, and Mitchel was sen
tenced to fourteen years' banishment to Australia in 1848.
Having effected his escape in 1854, he came to New
York, and subsequently settled in Tennessee, where he
edited "The Southern Citizen." Soon after the breaking
out of the war of 1861, he became editor of the Richmond
"Examiner," one of the most violent and scurrilous
of the secession journals.
Mitchel, (ORMSBY MACKNIGHT,) an eminent Ameri
can astronomer, born in Union county, Kentucky, in
1810. Having graduated at West Point in 1829, he
became in 1834 professor of mathematics, philosophy,
and astronomy at Cincinnati College, Ohio. He first
suggested the erection of an observatory at Cincinnati,
and the successful accomplishment of the enterprise was
chiefly due to his efforts ; and the institution, of which he
became director, was provided through his exertions with
one of the finest telescopes to be found in the United
States. He delivered popular lectures on astronomy
at various places, and published, besides other works,
" Planetary and Stellar Worlds," which was very favour
ably received. In 1859 he became director of the Dud
ley Observatory at Albany. He was appointed a briga
dier-general in the Union army in August, 1861. He
moved with a small army from Tennessee to Alabama
in April, 1862, surprised Huntsville, and distinguished
himself by his energy. Having been promoted to the
rank of major-general, he was appointed commander of
the department of the South, about August, 1862. He
died of yellow fever at Beaufort, South Carolina, in
October of that year.
Mitch'ell, (Sir ANDREW,) a distinguished diplomatist,
born in Edinburgh about 1695, was elected to Parlia
ment in 1747, and in 1751 was appointed resident min
ister at Brussels. He was ambassador-extraordinary to
Berlin in 1753, and acquired considerable influence over
Frederick the Great, whom he succeeded in detaching
from the interests of France. Died in 1771.
See " Memoirs and Papers of Sir Andrew Mitchell," by A. Bis-
SF.TT, 1850; THIEBAUI.T, "Souvenirs de vingt Ans de Sejour a
Berlin."
Mitchell, (ANDREW,) a Scottish naval officer, born
about 1757, attained the rank of vice-admiral of the
white in 1799, and in 1802 was appointed Commander-
in-chief on the coast of America. Died in 1806.
Mitchell, (Sir DAVID,) a naval commander under the
reign of William III., rose to be rear-admiral of the
blue in 1693. He was afterwards employed in important
missions to Russia and Holland. Died in 1710.
Mitch'ell, (DONALD GRANT,) a distinguished Ameri
can writer, born at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1822.
Having graduated at Yale College in 1841, he made the
tour of Europe, and published after his return, under
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MITCHELL
1596
MIT FORD
the pseudonym of IK MARVEL, " Fresh Gleanings ; or, A
New Sheaf from the Old Fields of Continental Europe,'
(1847.) Mis " Reveries of a Bachelor" came out in 1850,
and "Dream Life" in 1851 : the former was received
with great favour. He has also been a contributor to
the " Knickerbocker Magazine" and the " Atlantic
Monthly." He was appointed in 1853 United States
consul at Venice. His agricultural writings have been
received with much favour. One of his latest works is
entitled "My Farm of Edgewoocl," (1863.)
Mitchell, (ELISHA,) D.D., an American chemist and
divine, born in Litchfield county, Connecticut, in 1793,
became professor of mathematics in the University of
North Carolina in 1817, and subsequently of chemistry
in the same institution. Being appointed State surveyor,
he first discovered the fact that the mountains of North
Carolina are the highest in the United States east of
the Rocky Mountains. While exploring one of these
heights, in 1857, he was killed by a fall from a precipice.
His name has been given to one of the highest summits.
Mitchell, (JOHN KKARSI.EY,) M.D., an American
physician, born in Jefferson county, Virginia, in 1796.
He graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, and
in 1841 became professor of the theory and practice of
medicine in Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia. He
published a treatise "On the Cryptogamous Origin of
Malarious and Epidemic Fevers," (1849,) and lectures on
scientific subjects, which are highly esteemed and have
been translated into foreign languages. Died in 1858.
Mitchell, (JOSEPH,) a Scottish poet and dramatist,
born about 1685, was the author of a tragedy entitled
"The Fatal Extravagance," "The Highland Fair," a
ballad opera, and a number of poems. Died in 1738.
See CIUBER. "Lives of the Poets."
Mitchell, (MARIA,) a distinguished American astron
omer, born in the island of Nantucket in 1818. She has
published, besides other astronomical treatises, a me
moir on a telescopic comet discovered by her in 1847.
A gold medal was conferred upon her by the King of
Denmark for this discovery. Miss Mitchell was" ap
pointed professor of astronomy at Vassar College soon
after the opening of that institution in 1865.
See "Woman's Record of Distinguished Women," by MRS. S. J.
HALE.
Mitchell, (ROBERT B.,) an American general, born
in Ohio about 1825. He became a brigadier-general of
the Union army about April, 1862, and commanded a
division at Perryville, October 8 of that year.
Mitchell, (S' WEIR,) M.D., an American physician
and physiologist, a son of Dr. J. K. Mitchell, noticed
above, was born in Philadelphia, February 15, 1829. He
graduated at the Jefferson Medical College in 1850. He
has particularly distinguished himself by his researches
on the chemical nature and physiological action of the
venom of serpents. Among his numerous contributions
to medical science we may name "Researches upon the
Venom of the Rattlesnake," etc., published among the
Smithsonian Contributions, (1860,) "Experiments and
Observations upon the Circulation in the Chelonura
Serpentina," (Snapping-Turtle,) etc., published among
the Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society,
1862, and " Researches on the Physiology of the Cerebel
lum," (see the "American Journal of Medical Sciences"
for April, 1869.) He has also published (with Drs. Keen
and Morehouse) an excellent work on the "Effects of
Gunshot Wounds and other Injuries of the Nerves,"
(1864.) Dr. Mitchell is a member of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
and of numerous other scientific institutions.
Mitchell, (THOMAS,) an eminent English scholar,
born in London in 1783. He studied at Pembroke Col
lege, Cambridge, and in 1813 began the publication of a
series of essays on Aristophanes and Athenian manners,
in the "Quarterly Review," which won for him a high
reputation. He afterwards published an excellent trans
lation of several comedies of Aristophanes into English
verse ; also an edition of Sophocles, and five dramas of
Aristophanes, (with English notes.) He died in 1845,
leaving unfinished an edition of his " Pentalogia Aris-
tophanica."
See " Edinburgh Review" for November, 1820.
Mitchell, (Sir THOMAS LIVINGSTONE,) a Scottish
traveller, born in Stirlingshire in 1792. He served in
the Spanish campaigns from 1808 to 1814, and in 1827
sailed to Australia, where he was soon after appointed
surveyor-general. He gave the name of Australia Felix
to a region hitherto unexplored, and ascertained the
courses of the Glenelg, the Darling, and other rivers.
He published, among other works, " Outlines of a Sys
tem of Surveying for Geographical and Military Pur
poses," (1827,) "Three Expeditions into the Interior of
Eastern Australia," etc., (2 vols., 1838,) and " Australian
Geography," etc., (1850.) He was a Fellow of the
Royal Society and of the Geographical Society. Died
in 1855.
Mitch'ill, (SAMUEL LATHAM,) M.D., LL.IX, an Ameri
can physician and naturalist, born on Long Island in 1764.
In 1786 he graduated as doctor of medicine at the Uni
versity of Edinburgh. He became in 1792 professor of
chemistry, natural history, and philosophy in Columbia
College, New York. He was tor many years associate
editor of the "Medical Repository." 'lie was elected
to the United States Senate in 1804, and in 1820 was
appointed professor of botany and materia medica in
the College of Physicians and Surgeons. New York.
He published "Observations on the Absorbent Tubes
of Animal Bodies," and other scientific works. Died in
1831.
Mitelli, me-tcl'lee, or Metelli, ma-tel'lee, (Acos-
TINO,) an Italian painter and engraver of great merit,
born near Bologna in 1609, was a pupil of Dentone and
Falcetta. His principal works are perspective and ar
chitectural pieces, in which his friend Michael Angelo
Colonna painted the figures. Among their master
pieces are the frescos in the palace of Cardinal Spada
at Rome. Mitelli died in 1660, at Madrid, whither he
had been invited by Philip IV.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Mitelli, (GiusKPi'K MARIA,) an Italian painter and
engraver, born in 1634, was a son of the preceding. His
prints after Correggio and the Caracci are ranked among
lis best works. Died in 1718.
Mit'ford, (JoiiN,) an English writer and journalist,
was editor of the "Bon-Ton Magazine," "Quizzical
Gazette," and other periodicals of the kind. lie was
the author of a naval romance entitled " fohnny New-
come in the Navy," and several popular ballads. Died
in 1831.
See TIMPKRI.EV, "Encyclopaedia of Literary Anecdote."
Mitford, (JoiiN FREEMAN,) an English statesman
and jurist, born in 1748, was a brother of the historian,
noticed below. He studied at New College, Oxford,
and, having been admitted to the bar, was elected to
Parliament for Beer-Alston in 1789. I le became attorney-
general in 1799, Speaker of the House of Commons
in 1801, and in 1802 lord chancellor of Ireland, being
created at the same time a peer, with the title of Baron
Redesdale. On the death of Mr. Pitt he resigned his
jffice of chancellor. Died in 1830.
Mitford, (MARY RUSSEI.I.,) a charming English writer,
jorn in Hampshire in 1786. Her father was a physician
of more than ordinary talent and culture, whose improvi
dence, however, and luxurious tastes had involved him
n pecuniary embarrassment. In order to relieve his
necessities, Miss Mitford devoted herself to authorship
at an early age, and published in 1806 three volumes of
poems, which met with severe criticism from some of
:he leading journals. Her next publications were the'
tragedies of "Julian," (1823,) "The Foscari," (1826,)
Rienzi," (1828,) and "Charles I.," several of which
were favourably received. She had previously contrib
uted to the " Ladies' Magazine" a series of sketches
of English life, which appeared in 1832 under the title
of "Our Village," etc., (5 vols.) The genial spirit,
graceful simplicity, and freshness of feeling displayed in
these tales won for them the favour of all classes, and
:hey passed rapidly through many editions. Among
Miss Mitford's other works we may name " Belford
Regis; or, Sketches of a Country Town," "Stories of
American Life by American Writers," " Recollections
I, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
MIT FORD
1597
M1TSCHERLICH
of a Literary Life," (3 vols., 1852,) and " Atherton, and
other Tales," (1854.) Died in 1855.
See the " Life of Mary Russell Mitford, told by herself in Letters
to her Friends," edited by the RKV. A. G. K. L' ESTRANGE, Lon
don, 1870; "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1824;
" Blackwood's Maj-azine" for June, 1854.
Mitford, (Wii.LiAM,) an English historian, born in
London in 1744. lie entered Queen's College, Oxford,
and subsequently studied law at the Middle Temple.
He was appointed in 1769 a captain in the South Hamp
shire Militia, where he acquired the friendship of Gib
bon, the future historian, at that time an officer in the
same regiment. Mitford published in 1774 his " Inquiry
into the Principles of Harmony in Languages," which
was followed by a "Treatise on the Military Force,''
etc. Having visited France and Italy, he was appointed,
after his return, lieutenant-colonel of the Hampshire
Militia, (1779,) and was subsequently returned to Parlia
ment, as a Tory, for Newport, Beer-Alston, and New
Romney. He brought out in 1784 the first volume of
his " History of Greece," completed in five volumes in
1818. Its style is characterized by great spirit and
warmth of colouring, and displays uncommon learning
and research, but it is strongly tinctured with the anti
democratic prejudices of the author. Died in 1827.
"The Athenian democracy," says an able critic in the
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale," " is treated by him
with extreme injustice. Scarcely anything can be ima
gined more partial or more false than his picture of the
great conflict between Athens and Philip of Macedon.
Philip, as he represents him, unites the perfections of a
king, a hero, and an accomplished statesman ; Demos
thenes, on the contrary, is a demagogue, violent, vena',
and dishonest." "Mitford's History of Greece is," says
I)e Quincey, "as nearly perfect in its injustice as human
infirmity will allow."
See MACAUI.AV, Review of "Mitford's History of Greece;"
"Edinburgh Review'' for July, iSoS; " London Quarterly Review"
for April, 1821 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mith'ra or Mith'ras, [Gr. MiOpaf, Lat. MITH'RAS ;
Sanscrit, MIT'KA or MITKAS,] a deity of the ancient
Persians, usually regarded as the god of the sun ; but
he is more properly the god of day, and, in a higher and
more extended sense, the god of light, presiding over
the movements and influence of the principal heavenly
bodies, including the five planets and the sun and moon.
By the followers of Zoroaster he was regarded as the
chief of the Izeds, (a class of angelic beings,) and in a
particular manner as presiding over the light which
mortals enjoy on earth, (but as distinct from the sun,)
and as a mediator between men and Onnuzd. The
primary signification of the Sanscrit Mitra is a " friend ;"
and Mithra would seem to be the representative of
light as the friend of mankind and as the mediator
between earth and heaven. In this character of medi
ator, as well as in some other respects, he would seem
to approach the character of AGNI, (which see.) In
the time of the emperors the worship of Mithra was
introduced extensively into Italy and other parts of the
Roman empire. He is usually represented as a hand
some young man, seated or kneeling on a bull, into which
he is thrusting the sacrificial knife ; at his side are the
evening and morning star, and near at hand a dog, a
lion, and other animals, the signification of which is at
present very imperfectly understood.
See GUIGNIAUT, "Religions de I'Antiquite." vol. i. book ii. ;
"Biographic Universelle," (Partie mythologique.)
Mithridate. See MITHRIDATKS.
Mith-ri-da'tes, [Gr. MiOputiurrK or Midpa^urrjc ; Fr.
MITHRIOATE, me'tRe'dit', | a Persian name, borne by
several kings of Pontus, who were descended from
Artabazes, a Persian noble. It is supposed to be de
rived from Mithra, (the sun.) and signifies "given by
the sun." Little is known of Mithridates I., who was
the son of Ariobarzanes.
Mithridates II., the son of Ariobarzanes II., began
to reign about 337 B.C. He extended his dominions by
conquest, and was called the founder of the kingdom of
Pontus. In a war with Antigonus he was defeated, made
prisoner, and put to death, about 303 B.C.
Mithridates III., a son of the preceding, succeeded
his father, and made conquests in Paphlagonia. He
died after a reign of thirty-six years, and was succeeded
by his son, Ariobarzanes III.
See CLINTON, "Fasti Hellenici.'
Mithridates IV, of Pontus, the son of Ariobarzanes
III., began to reign probably about 245 B.C., when he
was a minor. He waged a successful war against
Seleuctis Callinicus, who, to obtain peace, gave him his
own sister in marriage, with one or two provinces as a
dowry. He is supposed to have died in 190 B.C. His
successor was Pharnaces I.
Mithridates V., surnamed EVERGETES, was a grand
son of the preceding, and a son of Pharnaces I., whom
he succeeded in 156 B.C. He was a steadfast ally of
the Romans, who ceded to him the province of Phrygia.
After a peaceful reign, he died about 122 B.C.
Mithridates VI., King of Pontus, surnamed EU'PA-
TOR, and more commonly called THE GREAT, born about
135 B.C., was the son of Mithridates V., whom he suc
ceeded about the age of fifteen. He had great political
and military talents, and is said to have been master of
twenty-five languages. In the early part of his reign he
found scope for his ambition in the conquest of Colchis
and of the Scythian tribes which roamed on the north
of the Euxine. His attempt to acquire Cappadocia by
fraud and force was resisted by the Roman senate about
93 B.C. After forming an alliance with Tigranes, King
of Armenia, — then the most powerful monarch of Asia,
— he took the field in the year 88 with about 250,000
men, and defeated the Romans in several actions. In
the same year he instigated a general massacre of the
Romans resident in Asia Minor, of whom it was com
puted that 80,000 fell in one day.
In the year 87 he sent a large army into Greece, where
he was opposed by Sulla and defeated at Chasronea, 86
B.C. Timbria, with another Roman army, invaded Bi-
thynia and gained a decisive victory in the year 85. The
next year Sulla and Mithridates made a treaty of peace,
by which the latter abandoned his recent conquests.
Murasna, who had obtained command of the Roman
army, with some flimsy pretext renewed hostilities, and
was completely defeated on the river Halys in 82 B.C.
As the Roman senate had not ratified the treaty which
he signed with Sulla, Mithridates made great preparations
for war, which was renewed in 74, when two Roman
armies, under Lucullus and Cotta, entered Bithynia. De
feated with great loss by Lucullus at Cyzicus and Cabin',
Mithridates, retarding the pursuit of the Romans by the
riches he threw in their way, took refuge in the kingdom
of Tigranes (who was his son-in-law) about 72 B.C., and
gave orders that his wives Monima, Berenice, etc. should
be put to death.
Tigranes, having espoused his cause, was defeated at
Tigranocerta by Lucullus in 69, and at Artaxata in 68 B.C.
Mithridates then entered Pontus, and in 67 B.C. gained
a great victory over the Romans under Triarius, and re
covered his kingdom. Lucullus, whose victorious career
had been interrupted by a mutiny of his troops, was
superseded in 66 by Pompey the Great, who soon ter
minated the war. After losing a battle, the King of
Pontus fled to Lake Masotis, (now the Sea of Azov,) and
offered terms of peace, to which Pompey did not accede.
While he was busy in raising a new army among the
Scythians and other barbarous tribes, his son Pharnaces
conspired against him, so that, to avoid the fate of a
captive, he took poison, in the year 63 B.C. After Han
nibal, Mithridates was the most formidable enemy Rome
ever encountered. Cicero considered him superior in
power and character to any other king against whom
the Romans ever waged war.
See APPIAN, " Mithridaticri ;" Livv, "History of Rome;" JUS
TIN, "History;" WOLTKRSDORF, " Commentatio Vitam Mithridatis
Magni per annos digestam sistens," 1X13; DION CASSIUS, " Frag-
menta;" PLUTARCH, "Life of Lucullus;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale;" CLINTON, "Fasti Hellenici;" NIEBUHR, " Kleine
Schriften. "
Mith-ri-da'tis, [Gr. NliOptdan c, ] a daughter of the
preceding, died with her father by taking poison, B.C. 63.
Mitscherlich, mltsh'er-liK', (CuRiSToi'H WIUIELM,)
a distinguished German scholar, born in Thuringia in
1760, was professor of philosophy and rhetoric at Got-
tingen. He published in 1800 an excellent edition of
the Odes and Epodes of Horace. Died in 1854.
as K; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; th as in this.
e Explanations, p. 23.)
M1TSCHERL1CH
1598
MODENA
Mitscherlich, (EiLARD,) an eminent German chem
ist, born near Jever in 1794. He studied at Heidelberg
and Gottingen, and in 1819 was invited to Stockholm by
Berzelius, whose notice he had attracted by his valuable
discoveries in isomorphism. After his return to Ger
many (1821) he became professor of chemistry at the
University of Berlin, and a member of the Academy of
Sciences in that city. He was chosen a member of the
French Institute in 1852. He published a "Treatise on
Chemistry," ("Lehrbuch cler Chimie,"2 vols., 1829-40,)
which has a very high reputation, and wrote contribu
tions to Poggendorfs " Annalen" and to other journals.
Died in 1863.
Mittarelli, met-ta-rel'lee, (NiccoLd JACOPO, after
wards GIOVANNI BENEDETTO,) an Italian theologian,
born in. Venice in 1707. He wrote a "History of the
Camaldules," (" Annales Camaldulenses," 9 vols., 1755-
73,) a work of some merit. Died in 1777.
Mittermaier, mit'ter-ml'er. (IvARi, JOSEPH ANTON,)
a celebrated German statesman and jurist, born in
Munich in 1787. He was successively professor of law
at Bonn and Heidelberg, president of the preparatory
parliament at Frankfort in 1848, and soon after member
of the National- Assembly. He published a number of
valuable legal treatises, among which we may name "The
Common Civil Process of Germany compared with that
of Prussia and France," (1826.)
Mitzler (or Mizler) von Kolof, mits'ler fon ko'lof,
(LoKKNZ CHRISTOPH,) a German writer on music, born
in Anspach in 1711. He published a "Musical Library,"
("Musikalische Bibliothek," 4 vols., 1736-54,) and other
works. Died at Warsaw in 1778.
Mjolnir. See THOR.
Miiasalcas, na-sal'kas, [Gr. Mraau/U-nc.] an epigram
matic poet, a native of Sicyon, supposed by some to
have lived in the time of Alexander the Great.
Mnemoii, nee'mon, a surname given to Artaxerxes
on account of his retentive memory.
Mnemosyne, ne-mos'I-ne, [Gr. Mrri/xoaivrj ; Fr. MNE-
MOSYNE, na'mo'zen',] in the Grecian mythology, the
goddess of memory, was the daughter of Uranus, and
the mother of the nine Muses.
Mnesicles, nes'e-klez, [Gr. Mi'7?o(/iA?/c,] an able Greek
artist, of the age of Pericles, flourished about 433 }i.C.
He was the architect of the Propyloea of the Athenian
Acropolis.
Mnesimachus, ne-sim'a-kus, [Gr. Mp^a/^a^of ; Fr.
MNESIMAQUE, na'ze'mtk',] an Athenian comic poet of
the fourth century before the Christian era, was esteemed
one of the finest writers of the so-called middle comedy.
There are a few fragments of his plays extant.
Mnestheus. See MENESTHEUS.
Mnioch, mnee'oK, (JOHANN JAKOK,) a Prussian poet,
born at Elbing in 1765, wrote a number of popular lyrics,
among which we may name "The Song ot the Grave,"
and "Song of the Masons at Saint John's Festival."
Died in 1804.
Mo'ab, [Heb. 3X10,] the son of Lot, was the father
of the Moabites, who inhabited the country east of the
Dead Sea and the Jordan. (See Genesis xix.)
Moaweeyah, Moawiyah, or Moawyah, mo-t'-
wee'yah,* written also Muawia, Mauweiah, and Moa-
veah, [in German, MOAWIJAH, MUAWIJJAH, or MOA-
WIJE,] a celebrated caliph, born at Mecca in 610 A.D.,
was the founder of the Omeyyacl dynasty. He was
the great-grandson of Omeyyah, who was the head of a
powerful family of the Koreish, and cousin-german to
Abd-el-Moottalib, the grandfather of Mohammed. He
subjected Arabia to his power about 660, and deposed
Hassan, the son of Alee, (All.) He was an able and
successful but unscrupulous ruler. He died in 680, and
was succeeded by his son, Yezeed, (Yezid.) His grand
son, MOAWEEYAH II., born in 660, became caliph in 683.
He abdicated in 683 or 684 A.D.
See WEIL, " Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. irchap. v.
Mobius or Moebius, mo'be-us, ( AUGUST FERDI
NAND,) a German astronomer and mathematician, born
* There is a great diversity in the accentuation as well as in the
spelling of this name. Hammer-Purgstall, than whom there is no
higher authority, places the full accent on the penultima ; and we
have thought it safe to follow his example.
at Schulpforte in 1790. In 1844 he was appointed pro
fessor of astronomy at Leipsic. He published, among
other scientific treatises, "The Barycentric Calculus, a
New Expedient for the Analytic Treatment of Geome
try," (1827,) and "Manual of Statics," (1837.)
Mocchetti, mok-ket'tee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
poet and physician, born at Como in 1766, published
"Philosophical Odes." He became in 1815 physician to
Caroline, Princess of Wales. Died in 1839.
Mocchi, mok'kee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian sculptor,
born near Florence in 1580; died in 1646.
Mocenigo, mo-cha-nee'go, (Ai.visio,) born in 1701,
was elected Doge of Venice in 1763. He pursued a
pacific policy. Died in 1778.
Mocenigo, (GIOVANNI,) brother of Pietro, noticed
below, was born in 1408. He was elected Doge of Venice
in 1478. The country being devastated by famine and the
plague, and at the same time invaded by the Turks,
he made peace in 1479 with the Sultan, Mahomet II.
Died in 1485.
See MARINO SANUTO, " Vite de' Duchi di Venezia."
Mocenigo, (Luioi I.,) succeeded Pietro Loredano
as Doge of Venice in 1570. The most important events
of his rule were the capture of the isle of Cyprus by the
Turks, and the victory of Lepanto, gained by the Vene
tians and their allies under Don John of Austria, (1571.)
Died in 1577.
See DARU, " Histoire de Venise."
Mocenigo, (Luioi II.,) succeeded Valieri as doge in
1700. He governed with great wisdom and ability, and
prevailed on the Venetians to keep a strict neutrality
during the war of the Spanish succession. Died in 1709.
See MURATOKI, "Annales d' Italia."
Mocenigo, (PIETRO,) became Doge of Venice in 1474,
having previously greatly distinguished himself in the
wars against the Turks. Died in 1476.
Mocenigo, (SKHASTIANO,) brother of Luigi II., suc
ceeded Cornaro as Doge of Venice in 1722. Died in 1732.
See DARU, " Histoire de Venise."
Mocenigo, (ToMMA.su,) an able Venetian statesman,
bom in 1343. He was elected doge in 1414. The Vene
tian fleet defeated that of the Sultan in 1416. During his
administration the republic was prosperous and power
ful. Died in 1423.
See MARINO SANUTO, "Vite de' Duchi di Venezia ;" ANTONIO
QUADRI, "Serto de' Dogi Mocenigo," 1840.
Mocetto, mo-chet'to, (GiROLAMO,) an Italian artist,
had a high reputation as an engraver. He lived about
1470-1500.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc.
Mochnacki, moK-nat'skee, (MAURICE,) a Polish
patriot and historian, born in Galicia in 1804. He
became in 1825 associate editor of the " Warsaw Jour
nal," and in 1830 published an excellent treatise "On
the Polish Literature of the Nineteenth Century," which
was instrumental in founding a new school of poetry in
Poland. He was a prominent leader in the insurrection
of 1830 against the Russian government. On the fall
of Warsaw he took refuge in France, and began a
" History of the Polish Revolution," which he did not
live to complete. Died in 1834.
Mocquard, mo'kSR', (CONSTANT,) a French poli
tician and litterateur, born at Bordeaux in 1791. He
practised law in his early life. During the reign of
Louis Philippe he became a friend and adherent of
Louis Napoleon, who in 1848 appointed him his private
secretary. He performed an important part in the coup
d'etat of December, 1851, after which he was chef du
cabinet of the emperor for many years. He published a
collection of criminal trials, " Nouvelles Causes cele-
bres," (6 vols., 1847.) Died in 1864.
Mo-deer', [Sw. pron. mo-diir',] (ADOLF,) a Swedish
naturalist and economist, born in 1738, published several
works. Died in 1799.
Modena, mod'a-na, (GUSTAVO,) a popular Italian
writer and tragic actor, born at Venice in 1803. He
made his debut in 1826 at Rome. He became an orator
of the radical party during the revolutionary movement
of 1847, and published "Popular Dialogues," (" Dialo-
ghetti popolari.")
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y", short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
MODENA
'599
MOHAMMED
Modena, da, da mod'a-na, or Mutina, moo'te-na
(ToMMASo BARISINI,) an eminent Italian painter, sup
posed to have been born at Modena in the early part of
the fourteenth century. Among his master-pieces we
may name an altar-piece of the Virgin and Child.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Xotizie degli Artifici Modenesi."
Mo-des-ti'nus He-ren'iii-us, a Roman jurist of the
third century, was one of the counsellors of the emperor
Alexander Severus, and was appointed preceptor to
Maximinus the Younger. He wrote a number of legai
works, of which only fragments are extant.
Modi, mo'de, or Mo:5i, written also Mode, [that is,
" the Courageous," from a root cognate with the Danish
mod and German ninth, "courage,"] a son of Thor, des
tined to survive the destruction of the world at Ragna-
i ock. In the renovated world he will share with Magni
the possession of their father's hammer, (mjdlnir,) and
direct their efforts towards putting an end to all strife.
See THORPE, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; KEYSER, " Religion
or the Northmen."
Modigliano, mo-del-ya'no, (GiA.\ FRANCESCO,) an
Tialian painter, sometimes called FRANCESCO D\ FORM,
born at Forli about 1550. His works are principally
historical pieces of a religious character, some of which
have great merit.
Mo'di-us, (FRANC.OIS,) a Flemish philologist and
jurist, born near Bruges in 1536; died in 1597.
Moebius. See MOBIUS.
Moehler. See MOHLER.
Moehsen. See MOHSKN.
Moellendorf. See MOLLENDORF.
Moeller. See MOLLKR.
Moerike. See MCRIKE.
Mceris, mee'ris, or Myris, ml'ris, [Gr. Moipir or
Mi'/Mc,] a king of Egypt, who, according to Herodotus,
reigned about 1400 li.c. He is said to have been a pa
cific monarch, and to have adorned the kingdom with
many monuments and temples, at Thebes, Edfou, etc.
Mceris JElius, mee'ris ee'li-us, a Greek lexicog
rapher, surnamed ATTICISTA, is supposed to have lived
in the time of Adrian. His only work extant is a " Lexi
con Atticum," or vocabulary of Attic and Hellenic
words.
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graca."
Moeser. See MOSER.
Mof'fat, (RoHERT,) a Scottish missionary, born near
Edinburgh in 1795, set out for Africa about 1816. He
spent more than twenty years in the southern part of
that country, and about 1840 published "Missionary
Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa." He also
translated the New Testament and Psalms into the
Bechuana tongue. Mr. Moffat is father-in-law of the
African explorer, Dr. Livingstone.
Mohallal, mo-hal'lal, (Ada-Ben-Rebiah,) an Ara
bian poet, born at Diarbekir, lived about 600 A.D. He
first fixed the rules and metre of Arabian poetry. He
was an uncle of the poet Amrool-Kais.
Mo-ham'med or Ma-hom'et,* written also Mo-
hamed and Muhammed, [Arabic pron. mo-ham'-
med ; Fr. MAHOMET, mt'o'ma' ; Ger. MOHAMMED, mo-
ham'me't, or MUHAMMED, mdo-ham'me't ; It. MAOMETTO,
ma-o-met'to, or MACOMETTO, ma-ko-met'to ; Lat. MO-
HAM'MED or (rarely) MOHAM'MEDES, (gen. of both, Mo-
HAMMEDIS,) or MuHAMMKD ; Port. MAKOMA, ma-fo'ma ;
Sp. MAHOMET, ma-o-nieV,] a celebrated religious teacher
and pretended prophet, the founder of one of the most
widely diffused religions of the globe, was born at Mecca
about 570 A.D. The year of his birth is not positively
ascertained ; the authorities are divided between 571 and
569, but the former date appears to be generally regarded
as the niore probable one. Both his parents belonged
to the Koreish, at that time the most influential of all
the Arabian tribes. His father, Abdallah, who was of
the family of Hashem, was regarded as the handsomest
youth of his time. He married A'minah, of the noble
family Zohrah. Their only child was Mohammed, the
* This name is often pronounced, especially by the poets, mah'-
ho-met'orma'ho-met, an accentuation derived, in all probability, from
the French. (See Introduction, page 13.) Mahom'et (with the accent
on the penultima) is not only the prevailing English pronunciation,
but it corresponds more nearly with the Arabic.
future prophet. Aminah possessed, it is said, a pecu
liarly nervous temperament, and used to fancy, while
between sleeping and waking, that she was visited by
spirits. It is probable that Mohammed inherited from
his mother his constitutional tendency to epilepsy, as well
as his most remarkable mental peculiarities. Many mar
vellous stories are told of the circumstances attending
his birth. It is related, among other things, that his
mother experienced none of the pangs of travail. As
soon as her child was born, he raised his eyes to heaven,
exclaiming, " There is no God but God, and I am his
prophet !" That same night the fire of Zoroaster, which,
guarded by the Magi, had burned uninterruptedly for
more than a thousand years, was suddenly extinguished,
and all the idols in the world fell clown. t
When his son was only two months old, Abdallah
died ; (according to some accounts, he died two months
before the birth of Mohammed.) Aminah for a short
time nursed her infant herself, but sorrow soon dried
the fountains of her breast, and the young child was
committed to the care of Haleemah, (Halimah,) a shep
herd's wife, with whom he remained about five years. It
is related that when Haleemah showed the child to a
celebrated soothsayer, (Kahin,) who was an idolater, the
latter exclaimed, " Kill this child !" Haleemah snatched
away her precious charge and fled. Afterwards the
Kahin explained to the excited multitude : " I swear by
all the gods," said he, "that this child will kill those
who belong to your faith ; he will destroy your gods,
and he will be victorious over you." When Mohammed
was four years old, he was seized, while at play, with a
nervous fit, which was supposed to be epilepsy. As this
disease was ascribed to supernatural influence, his nurse
was alarmed, and was anxious to return him to his
mother ; but she was at last prevailed on to keep him
somewhat longer. When he had completed his sixth
year, his mother died. For the next two years he lived
with his grandfather, Abd-el-Moottalib, who appears to
have regarded him with great fondness. At his death,
Abd-el-Moottalib recommended the orphan to the care
of his son, the noble-minded Aboo-Talib.
When only twelve years old, Mohammed accompanied
his uncle on a trading expedition to Syria. Near Bostra
they met with an Arabian monk named Baheera or Ser-
gius. It is said that Aboo-Talib, for some reason not
explained, found it necessary to send the young Mo
hammed home again, and that Sergius took charge of
him and accompanied him to Mecca. Early Christian
biographers assert that Mohammed received his revela
tions from this monk ; and he himself tells us in the
Koran that he was accused of having been taught by a
foreigner. It is not improbable that on his different
journeys to Syria he learned many facts respecting the
religions of Western Asia ; but how far the knowledge
of such facts influenced his future career must ever
remain a subject of conjecture.
When Mohammed was twenty-five years of age, his
uncle, Aboo-Talib, proposed to him that he should take
charge of the merchandise which Khadijah, (or Khadee'-
jah,) a rich widow of Mecca, was about to send to the
markets of Syria. He accepted the proposal, and appears
to have fulfilled his charge with judgment and with entire
fidelity. Khadijah was so well pleased with him on his
return that she offered him her hand. Although she
was forty (lunar) years of age, and he but twenty-five, it
tvas considered by the family of Mohammed as a very
desirable connection. Their nuptials were celebrated
with a magnificent feast and great rejoicings. This mar-
iage raised Mohammed to an equal position with the
wealthiest inhabitants of Mecca. His moral character,
moreover, appears to have inspired universal esteem
and confidence, and he was generally known by the sur
name of El-Ameen, (El-Amin,) or "the Faithful." For
several years after his marriage he continued his com
mercial journeys, visiting, with the caravans, the Arabian
fairs and markets of Syria. But, being now above the
necessity of anxiously toiling for a subsistence, he had
"eisure to give free scope to the natural tendency of his
t It maybe proper to observe that some of the most wonderful
f these stories are not found in the earlier accounts of Mohammed's
ife, and are clearly the inventions of a later age.
f as k; c as .r; g hard; g as /; G, ir. K, guttural; x, nasal: R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MOHAMMED
1600
MOHAMMED
mind, which inclined him to religious meditation and
speculation. " He had," says Carlyle, " no school learn
ing ; of the thing we call school learning, none at all.
The art of writing was but just introduced into Arabia ;
it seems to be the true opinion that Mahomet never
could write. Life in the desert, with its experiences,
was all his education."
Until his fortieth year Mohammed appears to have
been a devout worshipper of the gods of his fathers.
About this time he began to entertain serious scruples
respecting the worship of idols. His followers ascribe
the change to a divine revelation ; but others have sug
gested that his scruples were probably excited by a more
extensive acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian
Scriptures, which he may have acquired from his wife's
cousin, War'aka, who had, it is said, once been a Jew
and afterwards became a Christian, and who made withal
some pretensions to astrology. Supposing these con
jectures to have a basis of truth, it was perhaps fortunate
for the new prophet's claims to an original revelation
that Waraka died a short time before Mohammed pub
licly proclaimed his divine mission. But, however his
thoughts may have been first directed to the subject of
religion, there is every reason to believe that he was, at
least in the early part of his career, sincere and unselfish
in his desire to convert his countrymen to a better faith.
He appears to have thought long and deeply, and to
have had many mental struggles, before he resolved to
announce himself as a divine teacher. He was of a
nervous and melancholic temperament, and there were
times, during the period of doubt and conflict which
preceded the annunciation of his great mission, when
he was strongly tempted to commit suicide by throwing
himself down from a precipice. (See Sprenger's "Life,"
p. 105.) In all his trials he found a great support in his
faithful wife Khaclijah, who was the first, as he himself
declared, among all his nation that believed in him.
"God thus ordained it," says Ibn Ishak, " that his duties
might be made easy to him ; for, as often as he had to
hear reproachful language, or was accused of falsehood,
or was cast down, she cheered him up and inspired him
with courage, saying, 'Thou speakest the truth.' " We
may well suppose, with Carlyle, that "of all the kind
nesses she had done him, this of believing the earnest,
struggling word which he now spoke was the greatest."
For a considerable time Mohammed preached his new
doctrines respecting the unity and glorious attributes of
God to his household and intimate friends only. In three
years he had made, we are told, only fourteen converts ;
but among these were the high-spirited, devoted, and
indomitable Alee, (Ali.) who was afterwards surnamed
the "ever-victorious Lion of God," (see ALEK,) and
Aboo-Bekr, whose character for good sense, benevolence,
and straightforward integrity contributed not a little to the
respectability and ultimate success of the new religion.
In the fourth year of his mission, in obedience, as he
alleges, to an express command from heaven, Mohammed
resolved to make a public declaration of his faith. Ele
addressed himself to the Koreish and others, asking
them, " If I were to tell you that there is an army on the
other side of that mountain, would you believe me ?"
" Yes," they answered, " for we do not consider thee to
be a liar." He then said, " I come to warn you ; and if
you do not believe me, a great punishment will befall
you ;" he told them they must renounce idolatry, and
make a profession of the one true God ; that unless they
did so they could have no true happiness in this life nor
salvation in the life to come. He formally separated him
self from the polytheists, and publicly condemned their
religion. A powerful opposition was in consequence
organized against him, — his uncle, Aboo-Lahab, (lar/hab,)
and Aboo-Sofian, (of the family of Omeyyah,) the prin
cipal leader of the Koreishites, being among the number
of his bitterest enemies. Not only the prophet himself,
but his disciples were for a time in extreme danger ; he
owed his life to the influence of the powerful family of
Hashem, and especially to the magnanimity, courage,
and indomitable firmness of his uncle, Aboo-Talib, who,
although he refused to accept the new faith, resolved, at
whatever cost, to protect his kinsman. Every form of
persuasion and menace was tried upon him in vain. To
the hostile Koreishites, who urged him to give up to
their vengeance the blasphemer of his country's gods,
he answered with indignant scorn, and declared that if
they should slay his nephew the lives of the chiefs of
their tribe should pay for the life of Mohammed. They
were thunder-struck at his boldness and awed by his
invincible determination. But, while they hesitated to
provoke the vengeance of the Hashemites by laying
violent hands upon Mohammed, they persecuted his
disciples in a hundred ways, insulting and imprisoning
those of the better class, and starving and torturing such
as had no wealth, position, or family connections to pro
tect them. Under the pressure of this persecution many
converts to the new faith apostatized ; and Mohammed,
fearing that others might desert him, advised some of his
followers to leave Mecca and seek refuge in Abyssinia,
which was ruled, he said, by a just and pious king. The
subsequent conduct of the Abyssinian monarch proved
that the confidence of the prophet was not misplaced.
In spite of all opposition, the new doctrines continued
to spread. In the sixth year of Mohammed's mission
two important conversions took place, — the prophet's
kinsman Hamzah, surnamed, on account of his bravery,
the " Lion of God," and Omar, who had at first been a
bitter opponent of the Islam, but afterwards became one
of its most zealous and powerful defenders. (See OMAR.)
Ten years after the commencement of his mission,
(that is, about 619 A.D.,) Mohammed lost by death his
generous and faithful wife, Khadijah, and his noble-
minded uncle and protector, Aboo-Talib. He appears
to have been greatly cast down by these severe afflictions,
and seldom went out of his house. Meanwhile, his
enemies seemed to have become more exasperated than
ever by the failure of all their efforts to prevent the
spread of the new religion. In this extremity, his uncle,
Aboo-Lahab, who had hitherto been one of his most
determined and bitter opponents, but upon whom now
devolved the duty of protecting his kinsman, came for
ward with singular magnanimity and said to Mohammed,
" Go wheresoever thou wilt, and do what thou wast ac
customed to do when Aboo-Talib was alive : I swear by
the gods of my country that no harm shall befall thee
while I live." But a few days afterwards some one said
to Aboo-Lahab, " Do you know what your nephew says
of your father? he says he is in hell." Aboo-Lahab
asked Mohammed if the charge was true. The prophet
had the hardihood to answer, "Your father died an
idolater; and every idolater goes to hell." Upon this,
Aboo-Lahab withdrew his protection.
Sr>]ong as Khadijah lived, Mohammed maybe said to
have been a strict monogamist. Shortly after her death
the daughter of Hakeem and wife of Othman asked the
prophet why he did not marry. "Whom shall I marry?"
said he. She replied, " If thou wishest a virgin, take
Ayeshah, the daughter of Aboo-Bekr ; if a widow, take
Sawdah, the daughter of Zamah, — she believes in thee."
He instantly replied, "I will marry them both."
After Mohammed was abandoned by Aboo-Lahab,
another uncle, El-Abbas, (the brother of Aboo-Talib,
and ancestor of the Abbassidc caliphs,) became his pro
tector. Meanwhile the faith which had been rejected at
Mecca was eagerly embraced in the neighbouring city
of Medina. A numerous and powerful deputation from
the most influential families of the latter city waited on
the prophet, and in a solemn covenant promised, with
an oath, that if he would come and live with them they
would protect him as they would protect their own wives
and children. The offer of this powerful aid did not
come a moment too soon. His enemies, headed by
Aboo-Sofian, had been unremitting in their efforts to
procure his destruction. At length it was formally and
publicly resolved that he should be slain. In order to
Ijaffle the vengeance of the Hashemites, and to divide
the guilt of his death, it was agreed that one man from
every family should at the same moment plunge his
sword into the heart of their victim. Nothing now re
mained for him but death or instant flight. At the dead
of night, accompanied by his faithful friend Aboo-Bekr,
he silently escaped from his house. The generous and de
voted Alee, covered with the shawl of the prophet, laid
himself down on the bed of his master. Meanwhile
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fit; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
MOHAMMED
1 60 1
MOHAMMED
Mohammed and Aboo-Bekr had fled to the cave of Thor,
about a league from Mecca: there they remained three
days. According to one account, their enemies, after
exploring every hiding-place in the vicinity, came to the
mouth of the cave. But, a spider having providentially
spread her web over the entrance, the Koreishites, deem
ing it impossible that Mohammed could have entered
there, turned back from their pursuit. Perhaps a more
probable explanation is that as the Koreishites knew
Medina to be the destination of the fugitives, they never
suspected that they could be concealed in the cave of
Thor, which lay in an opposite direction. While they
were in the cave, Aboo-Bekr, contrasting their weakness
with the strength of their enemies, said, trembling, " We
are but two." "No," replied Mohammed, "there is a
third : it is God himself." On the fourth night the
prophet and his companion left their hiding-place, and,
riding on camels which the servant of Aboo-Bekr had
brought, arrived safely at Medina sixteen days after his
flight from Mecca, His approach having been made
'known, several hundred of the citizens went out to meet
him. lie was welcomed with loud acclamations; and
he who a few days before had left his native city as a
fugitive, with a price upon his head, now entered Medina
more like a king returning victorious from battle than
an exile seeking a place of refuge. This separation or
flight of Mohammed from the city of his nativity (called
in Arabic Ifej'rak or Hifrah*) marks the commence
ment of the Mohammedan era.t
After Mohammed's arrival at Medina, a marked change
took place in his policy. He had hitherto asserted liberty
of conscience and opposed religious violence. He now
maintained that the Islam should, if necessary, be de
fended and propagated by the sword. "The sword,"
said he, " is the key of heaven and of hell : a drop of
blood shed in the cause of God, or a night spent in arms,
is of more avail than two months of fasting and prayer ;
whoever falls in battle, his sins are forgiven him, and at
the day of judgment the loss of his limbs shall be sup
plied by the wings of cherubim." Me was not long in
carrying his new principles into practice. His arch
enemy, Aboo-Sofian, had, with only thirty or forty fol-
Icnvers, conducted a rich caravan of a thousand camels
to the marts of Syria. The prophet resolved to inter
cept it on its return. Aboo-Sofian, having been informed
of his design, dispatched a messenger to Mecca and
obtained a reinforcement of nearly a thousand men. Mo
hammed's troops amounted to considerably less than
half that number. The hostile forces met in the vale
of Beclr, (or Bedder,) about twenty miles from Medina.
Mohammed was placed on a throne or pulpit whence
his eye could command the field of battle. His followers,
being outnumbered, were sorely pressed. At that critical
moment the prophet started from his throne, mounted
his horse, and threw a handful of dust into the air towards
the Koreishites, crying, "Let their faces be covered with
confusion !" Both armies heard his voice ; the Koreish
ites were stricken with terror, while the Mussulmans, \
assured of victory, rushed forward with an enthusiasm
that was irresistible. Some of the Moslem writers state
that when the prophet cast dust into the air three thou
sand angelic warriors on white and black steeds made
their appearance and swept his foes before them like a
whirlwind. Seventy of the Koreishites were killed, and
about the same number taken prisoners. Among the
slain was Aboo-Jahl, perhaps the most bitter and fero
cious of all the enemies of Islam. His head was brought
to Mohammed, who exclaimed with exultation, " This man
was the Pharaoh of our people." So great was the terror
and hatred he had inspired that even after his death his
name was never mentioned, it is said, by true believers
without the addition, "May he be accursed of God !"
* This word is often, but less correctly, written Hegira : it has,
properly speaking, but two syllables. The vowel i has doubtless
been added by the Italians or Germans to ind:cate the sound n(j. (or
g soft.) REISKK, in his Latin version of Aboolfeda's (Abulfeda's)
"Moslem Annals," ("Annales MosJemici,") invariably employs g/ or
gi to represent the sound of our/. : thus, he writes for Khadijah
Chadlgja, for Aboo-Jahl A bu Gjakl, etc.
t The era of the Hejrah is not calculated from the very day of
Mohammed's flight, but from the beginning of the lunar year in
which it occurred, namely, July 16, 622 A.D.
The prophet's success at Bedr was the first of that
wonderful series of victories which, by spreading the
new faith to the borders of China on the east and to the
Atlantic Ocean on the west, were destined to change the
face of the world. The Islamites were less successful
in a second encounter with their foes, near Mount Ohod,
six miles north of Medina. Mohammed himself was
wounded in the face with a javelin, two of his teeth were
shattered with a stone, and seventy of the faithful, in
cluding Hamzah, the prophet's uncle, were left dead on
the field of battle. But his enemies gained no perma
nent advantage. The Koreishites signally failed in an
attempt to take Medina by siege. The Islam constantly
gained new adherents. "Caled [Khaled] and Amrou,"
says Gibbon, " the future conquerors of Syria and Egypt,
most seasonably deserted the sinking cause of idolatry."
Soon after, Mecca itself was taken by the followers of
the prophet, who, led by Khaled, (surnamed afterwards,
on account of his valour, the " Sword of God,") entered
the city in three divisions. The chiefs of the Koreish
were prostrate at the feet of the prophet. " What mercy,"
asked he, "can you expect from the man whom you have
so deeply wronged ?" " We trust to the generosity of
our kinsman." "And you shall not trust in vain: go;
you are safe, you are free." He who seven years before
had left his native city as a hunted fugitive was now
received and honoured as prophet and king. But in an
attempt made soon after to reduce the Arabian tribes
who still adhered to idolatry, the army of Mohammed
was surprised in a mountain-pass, and for a time his
own life was in imminent peril. Several of his devoted
followers who endeavoured to shield him with their
bodies fell dead at his feet. In his distress he cried,
"O my brethren, I am the apostle of truth ! O man,
stand last in the faith ! O God, send down thine aid !"
His uncle Abbas, who was distinguished for the strength
of his voice, called on the flying Moslems, repeating the
promises of God to the faithful. The battle was soon
restored, and what threatened to be a disastrous defeat
was changed into a complete victory. About the year
630 Mohammed sent an army, under the command of
Zeid, who had formerly been his slave, to invade Pales
tine, then belonging to the Greek empire. At the battle
of Muta, where for the first time the Moslems encoun
tered a foreign foe, Zeid and two other of the leaders
were slain. It is related of Jaafar, who succeeded Zeid
in the command of the army, that when his right hand
was struck off he seized the banner with his left ; this
also being severed from his body, he embraced the stan
dard with his bleeding stumps, until at length he fell,
pierced with no fesver than fifty wounds. The day was
saved by the valour of Khaled, in whose hand it is said
that nine swords were broken before the hosts of the
enemy were turned backward. Mohammed had to be
wail, on this occasion, not only the death of his faithful
servant Zeid, but also that of many of his bravest fol
lowers. We are told that when, after the battle, he first
saw the young orphaned daughter of Zeid, he wept over
her in speechless sorrow. " What do I see?" said one
of his astonished followers. " You see," said he, " a friend
weeping the loss of his most faithful friend."
The recent successes of the prophet, by inflaming the
zeal of the faithful, confirming the wavering, and con
vincing the doubtful, — for, as it has been well observed,
there is no argument like success, — contributed greatly
to the rapid diffusion and final triumph of the new faith.
But in the early part of 632, while he was engaged in
organizing a formidable expedition against Syria, he was
seized with a violent malady, (supposed by some writers
to have been a fever,) which, before many days, terminated
fatally. It is related that near the beginning of this ill
ness Mohammed said to one of his attendants, " The
choice is given me either to remain on earth until the
end of time, or soon to depart to the presence of God :
I have chosen the latter." When he perceived that his
end was near, supported by the arms of Alee and another
relative, he went into the mosque and asked publicly if
he had injured any one, — if so, he was ready to make
full amends, or to suffer himself what he had inflicted on
others. As no one answered, he asked again if he owed
any man anything. A voice replied, " Yes, — to me, three
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in MM. (Q^^See Explanations, p.
101
MOHAMMED
1602
MOHAMMED
drachms of sih'er." The prophet ordered the money to
be paid, and thanked his creditor that he made his com
plaint now instead of deferring it till the day of judgment.
His last words were the utterance of a broken prayer, —
" O God, pardon my sins — yes — I come !" He died,
according to the Arabian historians, on his birthday, the
eleventh year of the Hejrah, (632 A.D.,) aged 63, or, ac
cording to some authorities, 65 years. He had ceased
to breathe, but his followers refused to believe that he
was dead. Omar, in his fierce zeal, threatened to strike
off the heads of the infidels who should dare to assert
that the great prophet and intercessor with God was no
more. The authority of Aboo-Bckr was required to
appease the tumult. "Is it Mohammed, or the God of
Mohammed, whom you worship? God liveth forever
and ever ; but Mohammed, though his prophet and
apostle, was mortal like ourselves, and, in dying, has
but fulfilled his own prediction."
In person Mohammed was of middle stature, with
broad shoulders and chest, square-built and strong, with
large hands and feet. The unusual size cf his head was
partly concealed by long and slightly-curling locks of
hair. His forehead was broad and fair for an Arab, and
his fine eyebrows were separated by a vein which swelled
up and became very conspicuous when he was angry.
His eyelashes were long, and his eyes dark and glowing.
His nose was large, prominent, and slightly hooked ;
his mouth was wide, but adorned with a fine set of
teeth. According to some accounts, he stooped, and was
slightly round-shouldered. His natural disposition ap
pears to have been in a high degree kindly and humane.
"He was naturally irritable," says Irving, "but had
brought his temper under great control." One of his
servants said, "I served him from the time I was eight
years old, and he never scolded me, though things were
sometimes spoiled by me." " lie was," says a writer*
who will scarcely be accused of exaggerating his virtues,
" kind to women, — never beat one, and entertained more
respect for them than is usual with nations addicted to
polygamy. He frequently protected women who came
to him for refuge. . . . He forbade the believers to beat
their wives ; but on the remonstrance of Omar, who said
that the wives would have the upper hand over their
husbands, he allowed it." Nevertheless, he insisted that
women should be fairly and justly treated, and not beaten
unless the occasion absolutely demanded it. His own
wives, having once become rebellious, were brought to
submission by a revelation from Heaven and the blows
of their relatives,! the prophet himself being disinclined
to such severity, either from kindness of heart or from
a regard to his apostolic dignity.
"He was," says Sprenger, "affectionate towards his
relations ; and, notwithstanding the gravity of his office,
he was playful with his wives. Ayeshah, being only nine
years of age when she married him, brought her toys
into his house, and he occasionally played with her. She
also used to race with him. . . . He would sometimes
tell stories to his wives, such as the adventures of the
man who had been carried away by the jinn (genii) and,
after along stay with them, returned to his family."
The intellectual powers of Mohammed were of a very
high order, and as a poet he ranks far above all others
who have ever written in the Arabic tongue. It was
usual tor his followers to point to the beauty and sub
limity of the Koran as an irrefutable proof of his divine
inspiration ; and he himself, in one of the chapters of
that sacred poem, boldly challenges men and angels to
produce anything to equal it, and confidently affirms
that God alone could have dictated so incomparable a
work. Probably no poet that ever lived more fully
realized the state of mind known as poetic furor than
Mohammed. It is said that while he was composing
certain portions of the Koran he was in a state of such
intense excitement as amounted almost to frenzy ; and,
if we may believe those accounts of his life which seem
best authenticated, some at least of the revelations of
the Koran were actually communicated (or were believed
by him to have been communicated) during his epileptic
paroxysms, while wholly unconscious of things around
* See SPRENGER, " Life of Mohammad," p. 93. t Idem., loc. cit.
him. With this view, there may have been no arrogance
or vanity in his claiming that to rival the Koran was
beyond the power of men or angels. Referring to the
prophet's tendency to poetic and elevated thought,
Sprenger says, " His mind dwelt constantly on the con
templation of God: he saw his finger in the rising sun,
in the falling rain, in the growing crop; he heard his
voice in the thunder, in the murmuring of the waters,
and in the hymns which the birds sing to his praise;
and in the lonely deserts and ruins of ancient cities he
saw the traces of his anger." But combined with all his
poetic and religious enthusiasm was a vein of strong
common sense. He was free from all ostentation and
parade : that he pretended to work miracles, is a cal
umny of his enemies. He considered it miracle enough
that he was inspired with the Spirit of God: this he
doubtless believed in all sincerity. One whom Heaven
had so highly honoured had no need of earthly dignity
or worldly splendour. He set a praiseworthy example
of indifference to earthly riches, of patriarchal simplicity
of manners, and of frugality in his diet and di;ss. With
his own hands he milked his goats, and afterwards at
tended to his person. The costly presents which he
received he gave to his friends. The riches which he
obtained from the spoils of war and from tribute were
spent in promoting the interests of religion and in re
lieving the wants of the poor. " His military triumphs,"
says Irving, "awakened no pride nor vain-glory. . . .
In the time of his greatest power he maintained the
same simplicity ot manners and appearance as in the
days of his adversity. So far from affecting regal state,
he was displeased if on entering a room any unusual
testimonial of respect were shown him."
The most glaring moral defect of Mohammed's char
acter was his passion for women, to justify which he pre
tended that he had received a special revelation from
heaven ;{ and, while only four lawful wives were allowed
to his followers, he himself had eleven wives, besides
several concubines. Mohammed's conduct in this re
spect, viewed in connection with his pretended revela
tions, would seem to go very far towards justifying those
who consider him to have been simply an artful and self
ish impostor. " But, however he betrayed the alloy of
earth," observes Irving, "after he had worldly power at
his command, the early aspirations of his spirit con
tinually returned and bore him above all earthly things.
. . . On the mercy of God he reposed all his hopes of
heaven." His wife Ayeshah once asked him if it were
indeed true that none could enter paradise except
through God's mercy. "None — none!" he replied, with
emphatic earnestness. And when she again asked if an
exception would not be made in his case, he answered,
with great solemnity, "Neither can I enter paradise
unless God clothe me with his mercy."
Until recently, the belief has universally prevailed in
Christendom that Mohammed was not merely the teacher
of a false religion, but a conscious impostor, an artful,
self-seeking charlatan. But such a theory of his life and
character will not bear examination. Not to mention
the thousand incidental proofs of his sincerity which are
scattered through the history of his early life, it is wholly
incredible that a mere self-seeking charlatan would have
exposed himself to universal obloquy and certain per
secution, in the wild hope that he might at last triumph
over those religious prejudices which had been for so
many ages gaining strength among his countrymen.
When Aboo-Talib, weary of defending his nephew
against the implacable hostility of the Koreishites, be
sought him to abandon a course attended with so much
peril to himself and his kinsmen, he replied, "O uncle,
I swear by God that if they put the sun on my right
hand and the moon on my left, I will not renounce the
career I have entered upon until God gives me success,
or until I perish." Aboo-Talib, touched with his heroic
spirit, solemnly promised that he would not give him up,
whatever he might preach.
In considering the question of Mohammed's sincerity,
it must not be forgotten that he possessed not only a
t. "This is a peculiar privilege granted unto thee above the rest cf
the true believers." (See SALK'S "Koran," chap, xxxiii.)
£, e, T, o,u, y, 1onp: 1, e. <">. =nme, 'ess prolonged; a,e, T, o, u, y. .<*•*••(: a. e, i, o. ohsrurc: fir, fall, fat; miM;not; good; moo
MOHAMMED
1603
MOHSIN-FANEE
vivid and powerful imagination, but a very peculiar phys
ical and mental constitution. It seems not unreasonable
to believe, as traditions relate, that in those nervous
paroxysms to which he was subject he had visions not
unlike those which his mother saw between sleeping and
waking. Such visions would be almost certain to par
take of the character of those earnest thoughts and
convictions with which his waking soul was filled; and
nothing could be more natural than for such a mind not
merely to regard those visions as a divine confirmation
of his peculiar views, but to employ them, modified as
they would necessarily be by his powerful imagination,
to give force and authority to his public teachings. Nor
will it appear at all unreasonable to those conversant
with human nature that one who was perfectly sincere
at the beginning of his career should afterwards — under
the stimulus of fear, lust, hatred, or ambition — pretend
to visions which he never had, for the purpose of giving
a divine sanction to his cherished opinions, or, it may be,
to his arbitrary caprices or selfish desires. How often,
indeed, have the professors of a far purer and higher
faith resorted to stratagem and deceit to promote what
they sincerely believed to be a good cause, which they
had not faith enough to trust to the care of Heaven or
to the legitimate operation of purely moral influences !
While we must admit, with one of the prophet's ablest
and most successful defenders, (Carlyle,) that in the
Moslem heaven and hell " there is enough that shocks all
spiritual feeling in us," we must also admit, on a candid
examination, that his religion, on the whole, made him
and his followers better, and not worse. In estimating
the influence of the Islam upon the nations which em
braced it, it would be obviously unjust to take as a
standard of comparison the highest forms of Christian
civilization. We should rather compare the condition of
those nations under the sway of Mohammedanism with
their condition as it was before the advent of the prophet.
If the religion of Mohammed was immeasurably inferior
to the religion of Christ, it was in most respects greatly
superior to every form of paganism of which we have
any knowledge, and probably also to much of that
spurious or half-spurious Christianity which it displaced
in Western Asia and Northern Africa.
"The general tenor of Mahomet's conduct," says
Irving, "up to the time of his flight from Mecca, is that
of an enthusiast acting under a species of mental de
lusion, — deeply imbued with a conviction of his being a
divine agent for religious reform ; and there is something
striking and sublime in the luminous path which his
enthusiastic spirit struck out for itself through the be
wildering maze of adverse faiths and wild traditions, —
the pure and spiritual worship of the one true God,
which he sought to substitute for the blind idolatry of
his childhood. . . . All the parts of the Koran supposed
to have been promulgated by him at this time — inco
herently as they have come down to us, and marred as
their pristine beauty must be in passing through various
hands — arc of a pure and elevated character, and breathe
poetical, if not religious, inspiration. They show that
he had drunk deep of the living waters of Christianity;
and if he had failed to imbibe them in their crystal
purity, it might be because he had to drink from broken
cisterns and streams troubled and perverted by those
who should have been their guardians."
See SPRENGER, "Life of Mohammad, from Original Sources,"
Allahabad, 1851, London, 1852, (a work of decided merit ;) WEIL,
" Mohammed der Prophet, sein Leben und sein Lehre," Stuttgart,
1843; IKVINC, "Mahomet and his Successors," New York, 2 vols.,
1850; GAGNIER, "Vie de Mahomet;" BOULAINVILLIERS, "Vie de
Mahomet ;" " Preliminary Discourse" prefixed to SALE'S translation
of the Koran; PKIDEAUX, "Life of Mahomet ;" MARACCI'S trans
lation of the Koran, (in Latin,) with notes; RELAND, " De Religione
Mohammedica ;" AUUI.KEDA, "Moslem Annals," (" Annales Mos-
lemici,") and translated into Latin by RKI.SKE; ABULFEDA, "Life of
Mohammed," rendered into Latin by GAGNIER, with the title " De
Vita et Rebus gestis Mohamedis," Oxford, 1732; GIBBON, "Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. 1. ; CARLYLE, "Hero and
Hero- Worship, "etc., article " Mahomet," (one of the best productions
of its author;) RAMPOLDI, "Vita di Maometto," 1822; NOEL DES
VKRGKRS, " Vie de Mahomet," 1833 ; GEORGE BUSH, " Life of Mo
hammed," New York, 1830; SAMUEL GRHEN, "Life of Mahomet,"
1840; CHARLES MILLS, " History of Mohammedanism," etc., Lon
don, 1812; K. R. TURPIN, " Histoirede la Vie de Mahomet," 2 vols.,
1773; DE BREQUIGNY, " Vie de Mahomet," 1754; L. ADDISON, " Life
of Mahomet," 1678.
Mo-ham'med II., (commonly pronounced in India
mo-Hurr/mSd,) Emperor of India, born about 1150, was
one of the founders of the Gaurian dynasty. He became
master of part of Hindostan in 1171, after which he ex
tended his dominions by conquest. He took Lahore
and Delhi between 1184 and 1192, and Benares in 1193.
He was assassinated in 1206.
Mohammed IV., Emperor of India, born at Delhi
in 1360, succeeded his father, Fyroz (or Feroze) III., in
1386. Died in 1394.
Mohammed V., born at Delhi in 1406, succeeded
Moobarek II. as Emperor of India in 1434. Died in
1443-
Mohammed VI. OF INDIA. See BAUER.
Mohammed VII. OF INDIA. See HOOMAYOON.
Mohammed IX. OF INDIA. See AKBAR.
Mohammed XI. See SHAH JEHAN.
Mohammed XIII., Emperor of India, of the dynasty
of Grand Moguls, was born at Agra about 1685. He
began to reign at Delhi in 1713. He granted the East
India Company the privilege of exemption from the pay
ment of duties. He was deposed in 1718, and died the
same year.
Mo'hammed XIV., often called Mohammed Shah,
Emperor of India, born at Delhi about 1700, wasacousin
of the preceding. He began to reign in 1720. In 1739
Nadir Shah invaded India, captured Delhi, massacred
an immense number of the people, and robbed Moham
med of the celebrated diamond Kohinoor. Died in 1748.
Mohammed, (Sultans of Turkey.) See MAHOMET.
Mohammed OF GAZNA. See MAHMOOD.
Mohedano, mo-a-da'no, (ANTONIO,) a Spanish
painter, born at Antequera in 1561, excelled in fresco-
painting. Died in 1625.
Mohl, von, fon m51, (Huco,) a German botanist, bro
ther of Julius, noticed below, was a native of Stuttgart.
He published "Contributions to the Anatomy and
Physiology of Plants," (1834,) and other similar works.
Mohl, von, (JULIUS,) a German Orientalist, born at
Stuttgart in 1800. He studied in Paris under Remusat
and Silvestre de Sacy, and in 1845 became professor of
the Persian language in the College of France. In 1852
,he was appointed secretary of the Asiatic Society, having
previously been chosen a member of the Academy of
Inscriptions. He made a number of valuable contribu
tions to the "Journal Asiatique," and published editions
of several Oriental works.
Mohl, von, (MoRrrz,) brother of the preceding, was
born at Stuttgart in 1802. He published "Results of
a Journey in France for the Purpose of studying Arts
and Trades," (1845.)
Mohl, von, (ROBERT,) a German jurist, brother of
the preceding, was born at Stuttgart in 1799. He be
came professor of law at Heidelberg in 1847, and after
wards filled several important civil offices. He published
a number of legal works.
Mohler or Moehler, mo'ler, (JOHANN ADAM,) a
German Catholic theologian, born at Igersheim in 1796,
published in 1825 a work entitled " Unity in the Church ;
or, The Principle of Catholicism." Died in 1838.
Mohn, mon, (GOTTLOH SAMUEL,) a German glass-
painter, born at Weissenfels in 1789. His most admired
productions are the painted windows of the Imperial
Chapel at Laxenburg, near Vienna. Died in 1825.
Mohnike, m5'ne"keh, (GOTTLIEB CHRISTIAN FRIED-
RICH,) a German writer and theologian, born in Pome-
rania in 1781, published a " History of the Literature of
the Greeks and Romans," (1813.) Died in 1841.
Mohs, mos, (FRIEDRICH,) a German mineralogist,
born at Gernrode in 1774. He succeeded Werner as
professor of mineralogy at Freiberg in 1817, and after
wards filled the same chair at Vienna. He became
counsellor of mines in 1838. He published, among
other works, " Elements of the Natural History of the
Mineral Kingdom," (1832.) Died in 1839.
Mbhsen or Moehsen, (JOHANN KARL WII.HELM,)
a German medical writer and numismatist, born in Ber
lin in 1722. He was physician to the King of Prussia.
Died in 1795.
Mohsin-Fanee or Mohsin-Fani, mon'sin fa'nee,
or Muhsiii-Fani, mooii'sin fa'nee, (MOHAMMED,) a
MOIGNO
1604
MOLESCHOTT
Persian poet, born on the coast of the Persian Gulf in
1615. His principal work is the "Dabistan," which gives
an account of ancient religious sects. Died in 1670.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" SIR JOHN MALCOLM,
" History of Persia," vol. i. chap. vii.
Moigno, mwan'yo', (FRANCOIS NAPOLEON MARIF.,)
a French mathematician, born at Guemene in 1804, pub
lished " Lessons in Differential and Integral Calculus,"
(1840,) a " Treatise on the Electric Telegraph," (1849,)
and other works.
Moine, Le. See LEMOINE.
Moine, Le, leh mwan, (ABRAHAM,) a French Protest
ant divine, born in the seventeenth century, became
pastor of a French church in London. He translated
Bishop Gibson's " Pastoral Letters" into French, and
published a "Sermon in Defence of the Sacred History,
in Answer to Lord Bolingbroke." Died in 1760.
Moir, (DAVID MACBETH,) a distinguished Scottish
writer and physician, born near Edinburgh in 1798. He
became at an early age a contributor to Constable's
and Blackwood's Magazines, and published a number
of poems in the latter, under the signature of the Greek
Delta, (A.) Among his other works may be named his
" Autobiography of Mansie Wauch," a novel, which had
great popularity, "The Bombardment of Algiers, and
other Poems," (1816,) "Outlines of the Ancient History
of Medicine," etc., (1831,) "Practical Observations on
Malignant Cholera," (1832,) and "Domestic Verses,"
(1843.) Died in 1851.
See DK. T. AIRU, " Notice of Moir," prefixed to his Poetical
Works: CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Kminent Scots
men," (Supplement ;) " Blackwood's Magazine for August, 1851.
Moira, EARL OF. See HASTINGS, MARQUIS OF.
Moirae, moi're, [Gr. Moipai,] a name applied to the
Fates. See PARC.E.
Mo'ise. See MOSES.
Moitte, mwat, ([KAN GUII.LAU.ME,) a French sculp
tor, born in Paris in 1747. He executed the large
bas-relief of the front of the Pantheon, and statues of
Cassini and General Cnstine. He was a member of
the Academy of Fine Arts, and a chevalier of the legion
of honour. Died in 1810.
See QUATKEMERE DK Qui.Nxv, " filoge de Moitte," in the " Mo-
niteur," 1810.
Moivre, de. See DEMOIVKE.
Mojon, mo'zhoN', (BIANCA Milesi — me-la'see,) an
Italian lady, distinguished for her talents, accomplish
ments, and elevated character, was born at Milan in
1790. She was married in 1825 to Dr. Mojon, physician
to the court in Paris. An interesting account of her was
written by her friend Emile de Souvestre. Died in 1849.
See, also, BESSIE R. PAKKE, "Twelve Biographical Sketches,"
London, 1866.
Moke, mo'keh, (HENRI GUII.LAUME, ) a Belgian
writer, born at Havre in 1803. He produced, besides
other works, a " History of Belgium," (2 vols., 1839-40.)
Moktader-Billah, mok'ta-der bil'lah, or Muktader-
(tnook'ta-der) Billah, (Abool-Fadhl-Jaafar, a'bool
fad'l ja'far,) an Abbasside caliph of Bagdad, was born in
894 A. ix, and began to reign in 909. He was defeated
and killed in 932 by Monnes or Mounes.
Mola, mo'la, (GIAMHATTLSTA,) a painter, of Italian
extraction, called MOLA m FRANCIA, born at Besai^on
in 1614. He was a pupil of Vouet, and excelled as a
landscape-painter. Died in 1661.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Mola, (PiETRO FRANCESCO,) sometimes called MOLA
ni ROMA, an eminent Italian painter, born about 1620,
was a pupil of Albano. He painted a number of his
torical works of great merit, but he excelled particularly
in landscapes. Among his master-pieces are his " Saint
John in the Desert," " History of Joseph," and "Saint
Bruno." Died in 1666.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy;" VIARDOT, " Musees
de 1' Europe."
Molai or Molay, de, deh mo'li',* (JACQUES,) last
grand master of the order of the Templars, was born in
B-jrgundy. The wealth and power to which this order
had arisen having excited the jealousy of Philippe le Bel,
* See Introduction, V., 7 and 9.
King of France, and Pope Clement IV., a plan was laid
by the two sovereigns for their destruction. Molai, being
invited to France in 1306, was arrested on his arrival,
together with all the Templars in that country, and, on
various criminal charges, condemned to death. Nearly
sixty of the knights perished at the stake ; and the grand
master, after seven years' imprisonment, shared their
fate, in 1314.
See PIERRE Dupiiv, " Histoire de la Condamnation des Tern-
pliers," 1751 ; G. (1. AKDISON, "The Knights Templars," 1852.
Molantis. See VEKMKULEN, (JAN.)
Molard, mo'lSu', (FRANCOIS EMMANUEL,) a French
inventor of machinery, born in 1774; died in 1829.
His brother CLAUDE PIERRE (1758-1837) also in
vented several useful machines.
Molbech, mol'beK, (CHRISTIAN,) an eminent Danish
historian, philologist, and bibliographer, born at Soroe
in 1.783. After travelling in England and other countries
of Europe, he became in 1823 professor of the history
of literature, and first secretary of the Royal Library,
at Copenhagen. Among his principal works are a
" History of the Wars of Ditmarschen," (1813,) " Danish
Dialect-Lexicon," (1837,) and " History of Erik Plogpen-
ning," (1846.) He published between 1814 and 1817 a
literary journal of great merit, entitled the "Athene,"
and subsequently became editor of the "Norclisk Tid-
skrift" and " Historisk Tidskrift," (1840.) Molbech also
had a share in the great "Dictionary of the Danish Lan
guage," (unfinished.) Died at Copenhagen in 1857.
See ERSLEW, " Forfatter- Lexicon. "
Molbech, (CHRISTIAN KNUD FREDERIK,) a Danish
poet, a son of the preceding, was born at Copenhagen
in 1821. He produced "Dante," a drama, and lyric
poems, (1846,) which are highly commended.
Mole, mo'la', (FRANCOIS RENE,) a celebrated French
comedian, born in Paris in 1734. He was a member of
the Institute, and director of the Academy at the Theatre
Fraiifais. Died in 1802.
Mole, (Louis MATHIEU,) COUNT, an eminent French
statesman, born in Paris in 1781, was descended from
Mathieu Mole, noticed below. He published in 1805
"Moral and Political Essays," which procured for him
the favour of Napoleon, by whom he was soon after ap
pointed master of requests, and prefect of the Cote-d'Or.
In 1813 he succeeded the Duke of Massa as minister of
justice. He was created a peer by Louis XVIII., and
in 1817 became minister of the marine. Under Louis
Philippe he was minister of foreign affairs from August
to November, 1830, and became in April, 1837, prime
minister ; but, overcome by the opposition of Guizot,
Thiers, and Berryer, he resigned his post, March 31,
1839. In 1840 he succeeded De Quelen in tue French
Academy. Died in 1855.
See Louis DE LOMENIE, "M. le Comte Mole, par un Homme de
Rien," 1840; A. DE CESENA. " Le Comte MoleV' 1842; "Nouvelle
Biographic GeneVale."
Mole, (MATHIEU,) an eminent French magistrate,
born in 1584. He was attorney-general in 1614, and in
1641 was appointed by Richelieu first president of the
Parliament of Paris. During the civil war of the P'ronde
he was conspicuous for his intrepidity and his energetic
measures in quelling the insurrections of Paris. In 1651
he became keeper of the seals. He left interesting " Me-
moires," (published in 4 vols., 1855.) Died in 1656.
See BARANTE, "Vie de Mole :" HENRION DE PANSEY. " filoge
de M. Mole," 1773: "Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Moleschott, mo'les-sKot', (JACOB,) a Dutch natural
ist and physiologist, born at Bois-le-Duc in 1822, studied
medicine and natural science at Heidelberg, and settled
as a physician at Utrecht. He was the author of a
"Critical Examination of Liebig's Theory of the Alimen
tation of Plants," (1845,) " Doctrine of Aliments," (1850,)
"Circular Motion of Life," (1852,) and other similar
works. He became professor of physiology and an
thropology at Heidelberg in 1847, and of physiology at
Zurich in 1855. Among his works are " Light and Life,"
("Licht und Leben," 1856,) and one on George Forster,
entitled "Georg Forster der Naturforscher des Volks,"
(1854.) He is ranked among the most prominent ad
vocates of the materialistic philosophy, (although he
recognizes a mixture of spiritual life with the material
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
MOLESWORTH
1605
MO LI NET
life of the universe.) He totally rejects the idea of crea
tion in the ordinary signification of the term, referring
the origin of all the species of animals to the operation
of universal and unchangeable physical laws.
Molesworth, molz'worth, (RoMERT,) VISCOUNT, a
statesman and diplomatist, horn at Dublin in 1656. He
was appointed by William III. a member of his privy
council, and in 1692 was envoy-extraordinary to Den
mark. He published, after his return, an " Account
of Denmark," a severe criticism on the government and
customs of the Danes, which gave great offence to that
people but was very popular in England. He was a
Fellow of the Royal Society, and numbered among his
friends Locke and Lord Shaftesbury. Died in 1725.
See WA I.POLE, " Royal and Noble Authors ;" LODGE, " Peerage."
Molesworth, (Sir WILLIAM,) an eminent English
statesman, born in Surrey in 1810. Having completed
his studies at a German university, he was elected to
Parliament for East Cornwall in 1832. He was for many
years associated with John Stuart Mill as editor of the
" Westminster Review." He represented Southwark in
Parliament in 1850, and was appointed first commissioner
of public works in 1853, and secretary of the colonies
in July, 1855. He died in October of the same year.
Besides his articles in the " Westminster Review," Sir
William published a complete edition of the works of
Hobbes.
Moleville, (.-\NTOIXK FRANQOIS BERTRAND.) See
BERTRAM) DE MOLLKVILLK.
Moliere, mo'le-aiii', a celebrated French comic au
thor and actor, whose original name was Jean Baptiste
Poquelin, (pok'la.x',) was born in Paris on the 151)1 of
January, 1622. He received instruction in private from
rhe philosopher Gassendi, and in his youth assisted his
father, who was a dealer in tapestry, (marchandtapissier.)
He became valet-de-chambre to the king, Louis XIII.,
about 1640. Having assumed the name of Moliere, he
adopted the profession of comic actor about 1644, and
a few years later appeared in the provinces at the head
of a small troupe which he had formed. His first regular
drama was "The Giddy-Head," (" L'Etourdi,") which
was performed with success by his troupe at Lyons in
1653. Attracted to the capital by a growing ambition,
and favoured with royal patronage, he opened there a
theatre in 1658. His' " Affected Ladies," (" Precieuses
ridicules,") a satire on the affected style and euphuism
which were then in fashion, was performed with great
applause in 1659. "Sganarelle" came out in 1660.
His fame was increased by his " School for Husbands,"
("ficole des Maris," 1661,) a comedy of manners, char
acter, and intrigue. He produced in 1666 "The Mis
anthrope," esteemed one of his master-pieces. "The
dialogue of this," says Hallam, "is uniformly of the
highest style ; the female and indeed all the characters
are excellently conceived and sustained." Still more
popular was the "Hypocrite," (" Tartuffe," 1667,) an
original creation in dramatic poetry, and generally con
sidered the greatest effort of his genius. He was the
author of about thirty other comedies, in verse or prose,
among which "The Bores," (" Les Facheux," i66t,j
the "School for Wives," ("ficole des Femmes," 1662,)
"Love (or Cupid) as Physician," ("L'Amour Medecin,"
1665.) " Le Medecin malgre lui," (1666,) " The Miser,"
('• L'Avare," 1667,) " Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme,"
(1670,) "Learned (or Pedantic) Ladies," (" Femmes sa-
vantes," 1672,) and "The Imaginary Invalid, (or Hypo
chondriac,") (" Le Malade imaginaire," 1673,) are greatly
admired. Died in 1673.
There is perhaps in the whole history of literature no
more remarkable instance of the triumph of genius than
is presented to us in the career of Moliere. Seldom, if
ever, were the pride and tyranny of rank more predomi
nant than in France in the latter half of the seventeenth
century. Yet many of the French nobility treated Mo
liere as a companion and equal. •' Come to me at any
hour you please," said the great Prince de Comic to our
author : " you have but to announce your name : your
visit can never be ill-timed." (See Scott's " Miscellanies.")
The success of " Tartuffe" was a signal victory achieved in
the face of an all-prevailing bigotry, which was strongly
entwined in the very spirit of the age and had struck
deep root into the heart of the king himself. But the
castle of prejudice, invincible to every other assault, was
fain to open its reluctant gates to the transcendent ge
nius of Moliere. He was remarkable not merely for his
wonderful comic talent, but for his admirable delineation
of human nature as it appears in all countries and all ages.
" In the more appropriate merits of comedy," says Hal-
lam, " in just and forcible delineation of character, skilful
contrivance of circumstances, and humorous dialogue,
we must award him the prize." The same eminent critic
thinks "that Shakspeare had the greater genius, but
perhaps Moliere has written the best comedies.'' He was
not a member of the French Academy. After Moliere's
death, that learned body placed his bust in their hall,
with this beautiful and appropriate inscription :
" Rien ne manque 4 sa gloire ; il manquait a la notre."*
See GKIMAREST, "Vie de J. B. Poquelin He Moliere," 1705;
VOLTAIRE, "Vie de Moliere," etc.. 1739: LA HARPK. " Idees sur
Moiiere ;" CAII.HAVA, " Etudessur Moliere," 1802 ; J. TASCHEREAU,
" Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de Mo'iere," 1825 ; JEAN SYLVAIN
BAII.I.V, " Eloge de Moliere," 1770; SAINTE-BEUVK, "Portraits
litteraires :" " Nonvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Lives of the Most
Eminent French Writers," by MRS. SHELLEY;" Essay on Moliere,
in Scott's "Miscellanies," vol. i., and the same article in the " Foreign
Quarterly Review" for April, 1828; PRESCOTT, "Miscellanies;"
LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Edinburgh Re
view" tor July, 1845.
Molieres, de, deh mo'le-aiR', (JOSEPH PRIVAT,) a
French philosopher and mathematician, born at Taras-
con in 1677, was a friend and disciple of Malebranche.
He succeeded Varignon as professor of philosophy in
the College of France in 1723, and was elected an
associate of the Academy of Sciences in 1729. He was
the author of several scientific works. It is related, as
an instance of his abstraction of mind, that when a
robber one day entered his apartment, Molieres showed
him where his money was kept, but begged him not to
disturb his papers. Died in 1742.
Molin, mo'lax', or Dumoulin, dii'moo'laN', (JAC
QUES,) a celebrated French physician, born near Mende
in 1666, was patronized by Louis XIV. and Louis XV.
He made free use of the lancet in his practice, and is
supposed by some to have been the original of " Dr. San-
grado" in Le Sage's "Gil Bias." On his death-bed he
said to his attendants, " I leave behind me three great
physicians, — Diet, Water, and Exercise." Died in 1755.
See " Eloge de M. Molin," 1761.
Molina, mo-lee'na, (GIOVANNI IGNAZIO.) a naturalist,
born in Chili in 1740, lived many years at Bologna. He
wrote an " Essay on the Natural History of Chili," (1782,)
and a "Civil History of Chili," (1787,) both in Italian.
Died in 1829.
Molina, mo-lee'na, (Luis,) a celebrated Spanish
Jesuit, born in New Castile about 1535, was professor
of theology at Ev'ora, in Portugal, for twenty years. His
principal work is entitled " De Concordia Gratiae et
Liberi Arbitrii," (1588,) in which he attempts to reconcile
the free will of man with predestination. This treatise
was severely assailed by the Calvinists, Dominicans, and
Jansenists, and a bitter controversy ensued, which was
partially suppressed by Pope Paul V. Died about 1600.
See BOSSUET, " Avertissement aux Protestants;" N. ANTONIO,
" Bibliotheca Hispana Nova."
Molina, de. See ARGOTE DE MOLINA.
Molina, de, COUNT. See CARLOS OF BOURUON.
Molinaeus, the Latin of DUMOULIN, which see.
Molinari. See MULINARI, (STKFANO.)
Molinari, mo-le-ni'ree, or Muliiiari, moo-le-na'ree,
(GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) an Italian painter, called also
CARACCINO, born at Savigliano in 1577; died in 1640.
Moline de Saint-Yon, mo'len' deh sa.\t'y6N',
(ALEXANDRE PIERRE,) a French general and writer,
bow in Lyons in 1786. He was minister of war from
November, 1845, until Ma>'» :^47- Among his works
is a " History of the Counts of Toulouse," (4 vols., 1859.)
Molinet, mo'le'ni', (JEAN,) a French poet and histo
rian of the fifteenth century. He was appointed librarian
to Margaret of Austria, and historiographer to the house
of Burgundy, and wrote numerous works in prose and
verse. Died in 1507.
See REIFFENBERG, " Memoire sur J. Molinet," 1835.
" Nothing is wanting to his glory; but he was wanting to ours."
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (fiJT'See Explanations, p. 23.)
MOLINET
1606
MOMBR1SIO
Molinet, du, du mo'le'ni', (CLAUDE,) a French an
tiquary, born at Chalons in 1620, was the author of a
" History of the Principal Popes, taken from Medals."
Died in 1687.
Moliuetti, mo-le-net'tee, (ANTONIO,) an eminent
Italian anatomist and physiologist, born at Venice. He
obtained the chair of anatomy at Padua in 1649. He
wrote " On the Senses and their Organs," (" De Sensibus
et eorum Organis," 1669.) Died in 1675.
Molinier, rm/le'ne-i', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French
ecclesiastic, celebrated as a pulpit orator, was born at
Aries in 1675. He published a translation of the Psalms
into French verse, and "Select Sermons." Died in
1745-
Molinos.mo-lee'nos, (MlGUEL,) a Spanish theologian,
founder of the sect of Quietists, was born at Saragossa
about 1630. His principal work is entitled " Spiritual
Guide," (1675,) and inculcates, as its leading doctrines,
the abstraction of the mind from external objects, and
the contemplation of the Deity. The book was con
demned by the Inquisition, and Molinos sentenced to
perpetual imprisonment, from which he was released by
death in 1696.
See HODGSON, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867 ;
PLUQiiET, "Dictionnaire des Heresies;" SCHARLING, " Mystikeren
M. Molino's Laere <>g Skjaebne," 1852.
Molitor, mo'le'toR', (GAHRIEL JEAN JOSKHI,) a
French marshal, born in Lorraine in 1770. He was
appointed Governor-General of Swedish Pomerania in
1807, and took an active part in the subsequent cam
paigns from 1808 to 1814. He gave in his adhesion to
the Bourbons after the restoration, and was made cheva
lier of Saint Louis. He commanded the second corps
of the army in the Spanish campaign of 1823, and by
his skill and decision soon put an end to the war. He
was created a marshal by Louis XVIII. Died in 1849.
See DE COURCELLES, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais."
Molleiidorf or Moellendorf, von, fon mol'len-
douf, (RICHARD JOACHIM HKINRICH,) a Prussian com
mander, born in 1725, served under Frederick the Great
in the principal campaigns of the Seven Years' war.
In 1794 he succeeded the Duke of Brunswick as com-
mander-in-chief of the Prussian army. Died in 1816.
Moller, mol'ler, [Lat. MOI.LK'RUS,] (DANIKL WIL-
HELM,) a German scholar, born at Presburg in 1642.
He became professor of history and metaphysics at
Altorf in 1674, and was made a count palatine by the
emperor Leopold. He wrote numerous Latin works,
in prose and verse. Among them are dissertations on
many Latin classic authors. Died in 1712.
See " Memoria Molleri," 1713.
Moller, (GEORG,) a German architect, born in Hano
ver in 1784. Among his best works are the opera-house
at Darmstadt and the theatre at Mentz. He published
"Monuments of German Architecture," (3 vols., 1815-
45,) and other architectural treatises. Died in 1852.
Moller 01 Moeller, mol'ler, (JoHN,) a Danish biog
rapher, born at Flensborg in 1661. He published "Cim-
bria Literata," containing biographies of authors born
in Sleswick-Holstein, (3 vols., 1744.) Died in 1725.
Moller 01 Moeller, (PETER LUDWIG,) a Danish poet
and critic, born at Aalborg in 1814. He became a resi
dent of Paris in 1851. Among his works are "Lyric
Poems," (1840,) and " The Fall of the Leaves," (1855.)
Mollerus. See MOU.ER.
Mollet, mo'li', (CLAUDE,) a French horticulturist,
was first gardener to Henry IV. and Louis XIII., and
gave the designs for the gardens of the Tuileries, Fon-
tainebleau, and Saint-Germain. Died about 1613.
Mollevaut, mol'vo', (CHARLES Louis,) a French lit
terateur, born at Nancy in 1776. He wrote elegies,
fables, and other original poems, and made successful
translations from the Latin of Virgil's " vlineid" and
"Georgics," Horace's "Art of Poetry," and the "Ele
gies" of Tibullus and of Catullus, (al'l in verse.) Died
in 1844.
Molleville, de. See P>KRTRAND DE MOLLEVII.I.E.
Mollien, de, deh mo'leJ^N', (NICOLAS FRANCOIS,)
COMTE, a French statesman, born at Rouen in 1758.
He was created minister of the treasury by Napoleon
in 1806. He published an account of his life, entitled
" Memoires d'un Ministre du Tresor public," (1780-
1845.) Died in 1850.
See PROSPER L>E BARANTE, " Notice sur M. le Comte Mollien,"
1850; " Nouvelle Biographic Gen^rale;" "London Quarterly Re
view" for July, 1852.
Mol-loy', (CHARLES,) an Irish dramatist and political
writer, born in Dublin, became editor of the London
journal called " Common Sense." He wrote comedies
entitled "The Coquette," " Half- Pay Officers," ami
"The Perplexed Couple." Died in 1767.
Mo'lo-eh or Mo'leeh, [lleb. ~\ 7D,j a heathen duty
worshipped by the Ammonites and other Oriental tribes,
who offered to him human sacrifices.
Molosse. See Moi.ossus.
Mo-los'sus, [Gr. Mo/loaaiic; Fr. MOLOSSE, mo']os>', ]
a son of Pyrrhns and Andromache, is said to have
reigned in Kpirus. Molossia is supposed to have de
rived its name from him.
Moltke, molt'keh, (A DAM WILHF.LM,) COUNT, a
Danish statesman, son of Joachim Godske, noticed
below, was born in 1785. He was minister of finance
under Christian VIII. tor many years. He resigned
in 1848, and was president of the ministry from 1848
to 1852.
Moltke, (JOACHIM GODSKE,) COUNT, a Danish states
man, and a liberal patron of learning, born at Nyegaard
in 1746, became minister of state in 1781. Died in 1818.
Moltke, (MAGNUS,) COUNT, a Danish jurist and
writer, born in 1783. He published a " fourney in Upper
and Middle Italy," (1833,) and several political treaties.
Moltke, von, fon molt'keh, (HELMUTH KARL LEO
NARD,) BARON, a Prussian general, eminent as a strate
gist, was bom in Mecklenburg in 1800. He became
major-general in 1856, and lieutenant-general in 1859.
He was chief of the royal staff, and planned the campaign
which resulted in the great and decisive victory of Sa-
dowa, July 3, 1866. He directed in person the operations
of the armies which, under the nominal command of the
king, gained in France, in 1870, a series of great and
memorable victories, for a notice of which see WILLIAM I.
Moltke, von, fon molt'keh, (KARL,) COUNT, a Danish
absolutist politician, born in 1800; died in 1858.
Moltzer, molt'ser, (JAKOH,) a learned German writer,
born at Strasburg in 1503. He translated Tacitus into
German, and edited Homer. Died in 1558-
Molyn, (PETER.) See TEMPESTA.
Molyneux, mol'e-nooks', (Wn.i.iAM,) an eminent
mathematician, born in Dublin in 1656. After studying,
law in the Middle Temple, London, for three years, he?'
returned to Ireland in 1678. In 1683 he aided in organ-x
izing the Dublin Philosophical Society, of which he1;
afterwards became president. For his attainments in hi
the exact sciences he was elected in 1685 a Fellow of ?"
the Royal Society, whose "Transactions" contain many ;[.
treatises composed by him on various subjects. In 1692 5
he produced his principal work, " Dioptrica Nova," a ^
treatise on optics, which was revised by Halley. It was ;.
the first English work on optics that had appeared, and ^<
was for a long time the principal manual of opticians. ~
He represented the University of Dublin in the Irish »
Parliament a few years before his death. Died in 1698. -
Molza, niol'/a, or Molsa, (FRANCESCO MARIA,) an
Italian poet, born at Modena in 1489. He wrote Latin
elegies of great elegance, and a number of poems in
Italian, chiefly of a licentious character. Died in 1544.
Molza, (TARQUINIA,) an Italian lady, distinguished
for her knowledge of mathematics, philosophy, and
languages, was a granddaughter of the preceding. She
made translations from Plato, and wrote poems in Latin
and Italian. The Roman senate conferred upon her the
right of citizenship, and Tasso gave the name of Molza
to his "Dialogue on Love." Died in 1617.
See HILARION DE COSTE, " filoges des Dames illustres ;" GIN-
GUENK, " Histoii-e litteraire d'ltalie."
Mombelli, mom-bel'lee, ( DOMENICO, ) an Italian
musician and composer, born near Vercelli in 1751. He
was noted as a tenor singer. Died in 1835.
Momboir. See MAUHURNE.
Mombrisio, mom-buee'se-o, [Lat. MOMBRI'TIUS,]
(Bo.NiNo,) an Italian scholar and writer, born at Milan
in 1424. He published several editions of the classics,
, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
MOMBRITIUS
1607
MONCRIEFF
which are highly esteemed, and "Lives of the Saints,"
(•• Sanctuarium.") Died about 1482.
Monibritius. See MOMBRISIO.
Momigny, de, deli mo'men'ye', (JEROME JOSEPH,) a
FYench composer and musician, born at Philippeville in
1766. lie published several works on the theory of
music. Died in 1838.
Mommsen, mom'sen, (JOHANNES TYCHO,) a German
scholar, brother of the following, was born in 1819. He
produced a good translation of Pindar into German
verse, (1846,) and "Essays on Shakspeare," (1855.)
Mommsen, (THEODOR,) a German jurist, historian,
and antiquary, born in Sleswick-Holstein in 1817. He
became professor of Roman law at Breslau in 1854.
Among his principal works may be named "The Mone
tary System of the Romans," "Collection of Neapolitan
Inscriptions," (1852,) and "Roman History," (" R6-
mische Geschichte," 3 vols., 1857.) He is an associate
of the French Institute, and a member of other foreign
Academies.
Momoro, mo'mo'ro', (ANTOINE FRANCOIS,) a French
Jacobin, born at Besai^on in 1756. He was guillotined
as a He'bertist in 1794.
Mo'mus, [Gr. Mw^of,] in classic mythology, was the
god of mockery, ridicule, and irony, and was called the
son of Night, (Nox.) He is said to have criticised the
gods with great audacity, and to have censured Vulcan
because, when he (according to one of the ancient myths)
formed a man, he did not place a window or door in his
breast, so that his secret thoughts might be perceived.
Mona, mo'na, Moui, mc/nee, or Monio, mo'ne-o,
( DOMEX ico.) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara in 1550;
died in 1602.
Monagas, mo-na'gas, (Don JACI.XTO,) a South Amer
ican commander, born in Venezuela in 1785, was one
of the principal liberators of Colombia. He was killed
in battle in 1819.
Monantheuil, de, delj mo'nS.x'tuI' or mo'nSN'tuh'-
ye, [Lat. MONANTHO'LIUS,] (HENRI,) a French mathe
matician, born at Rheims about 1536. He became
professor of mathematics in the Royal College, Paris,
where he numbered among his pupils Lamoignon and
De Thou. He was the author of several scientific treat
ises in Latin. Died in 1606.
See NICEKON, "Memoires."
Monantholius. See MONANTHEUIL.
Monardes, mo-nau'des, (NICOLAS,) a Spanish phy
sician and botanist, was a native of Seville. His prin
cipal work is a "Treatise on the Medicines of the
New World." Linnaeus named in his honour the genus
Mcnarda. Died in 1578.
Mon-bod'do, (JAMES BURNF.T,) LORD, a learned
Scottish jurist and eccentric writer, born in Kincardine-
shire in 1714. He studied at Aberdeen, and subsequently
at the University of Groningen, and was appointed, after
his return to Scotland, one of the judges of the court of
session, (1767.) He published (1774) his "Dissertation
on the Origin and Progress of Language," in which he
manifests an enthusiastic admiration for the literature
and philosophy of the ancient Greeks, and advances the
theory that the human race was originally a species of
monkey. In his "Ancient Metaphysics, or the Science
of Universals," (1779,) Lord Monboddo has still further
developed the same ideas. He was intimate with Dr.
Johnson and other eminent men of the time, by whom
he was highly esteemed for the excellence of his charac
ter. Died in 1799.
See the "Monthly Review" for Apiil, 1791, March, 1796, and
Januaiy, 1798; " Gentleman's Magazine," 1799; TYTLER, " Life of
Lord Kanies. "
Moiibron, de, deh mis-'bRoN', (N. Fougeret—
foozh'ra',) a French litterateur, born at Peronne, wrote
"La Henriacle travestie," (1745,) and " Le Cosmopol,"
(1750.) He was extremely censorious and misanthrop
ical. Died in 1761.
Mcncada, de, da mon-ka'na, (Don FRANCISCO,)
Count of Osuna, a celebrated Spanish general and his
torian, born at Valencia in 1586, was appointed general
issimo of the Spanish forces in the Netherlands. He
was killed at the siege of Goch, in 1635. He was the
author of a valuable "History of the Expedition of the
Catalans against the Greeks and Turks," (1623,) and othei
works.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature."
Moncada, de, written also Moncade, (Huco,) a
Spanish commander, born about 1466. He served with
distinction against the Moors and Turks, was appointed
Viceroy of Sicily by Charles V. about 1522, and was
defeated in July, 1524, in a naval battle, by Andrew
Doria, who commanded the French fleet. In 1526 he
marched to Rome and liberated the imprisoned pope,
Clement VII., on condition that he should abandon the
French party. He was killed in a sea-fight near Naples
in 1528.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Fran^ais ;" ROBERTSON, " Historv
of Charles V.," vol. ii. books iv. and v.
Moncalvo, II. See CACCIA.
Monceaux, de, deh m6N''s5', (FRANgois,) a French
writer, born at Arras, flourished about 1570-90. He
wrote " Bucolica Sacra," (1587,) and other works in
verse.
Moncel, du, dii mdx'sel', (THEODOSE ACHILI.E
Louis,) VICOMTE, a French savant, born in Paris in
1821. He published, besides other works, "Expose des
Applications de 1'filectricite," (3 vols., 1857.) He has
given special attention to electro-magnetism, and has
invented several sorts of electrical apparatus.
Moncey, de, deh mdN'sV, (BoN ADRIEN JEANNOT,)
Due de Conegliano, a French marshal, born at Besan-
5011 in 1754. He served in the campaigns of 1793 and
1794, and attained the rank of general of division. He
took an active part in the subsequent campaigns in
Spain, Austria, and Italy, and was made a marshal in
1804. He soon after obtained the title of Duke of Cone
gliano, and the grand cordon of the legion of honour.
Tie was elected to the Chamber of Peers under Louis
XVIII., and was appointed gouverneur des Invalides in
1834. Died in 1842.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" DE COURCEI.LES, " Dic-
tionnaire des Generaux Frangais ;" " £"loge du Mar^chal Moncej,"
by KARON C. DUPIN.
Monchy. See HOCQUINCOURT.
Monck, miink, (CHARLES STANLEY,) VISCOUNT, an
English peer, born in Ireland in 1819. He entered the
House of Commons as a Liberal in 1852, became a lord
of the treasury in 1855, anc^ was appointed Governor-
General of Canada and British America in 1861. He
was made a peer of the United Kingdom in 1866.
Monclar, de, deh m6N'kltR', (JEAN PIERRE FRAN
gois de Ripert — deh re'paik',) MARQUIS, an eminent
French magistrate and writer, was born at Apt, in Pro
vence, in 1711. He became procureur-general in 1732.
From about 1749 he distinguished himself by his zealous
assertion of the liberty of the Protestants, and in 1762
he exposed the tendencies of the Jesuits, in a work
which Villemain pronounces a master-piece. Died in
1773-
Monconys, moN'ko'ne', (BALTHASAR,) a French
traveller, born at Lyons in 1611, visited Palestine,
Egypt, and other parts of the East, and published, after
his return, an account of those countries. Died in 1665.
Monconiet, m6N/koR/n&', (BALTHASAR,) a French
engraver, born at Rouen about 1615 ; died after 1670.
Moncreiff or Moncrieff, mon-kreef, (Sir HENRY
WKI.LWOOO,) a distinguished Scottish divine, born in
Perthshire in 1750, became minister of Saint Cuthbert's,
Edinburgh, in 1775. ^e was a zealous Whig, and took
an active part in the ecclesiastical controversies of the
time, in relation to which he published several treatises.
He also wrote " Discourses on the Evidence of the
Jewish and Christian Revelations," (1815,) and an "Ac
count of the Life and Writings of John Erskine," (1818.)
Died in 1827.
See the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1828; CHAMBERS,
"Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Moncrieff, (JAMES,) a Scottish lawyer, son of the
following, was born about 1812. He was lord advocate
for Scotland from 1851 to 1858, and was re-appointed in
1859. In the latter year he was elected to Parliament,
as a Liberal, by the voters of Edinburgh.
Moncrieff, (Sir JAMES WELLWOOD,) an eminent
Scottish lawyer and judge, born about 1776, was a son
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MO NCR IF
1608
MONK
of the preceding. He became a judge of session, and
lord justiciary. Died in 1851.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement.)
Moncrif, de, deh m6N'kReP, (FRANgois AUGUSTIN
PARADIS,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1687,
was a favourite at the court of Louis XV., and became
secretary to Count d'Argenson. lie was elected to the
French Academy in 1733, and was intimate with Vol
taire, Marmontel, and other celebrated writers of the
time. He was the author of a humorous work entitled a
"History of Cats," etc., "The Rival Souls," a romance,
"Essay on the Necessity and Means of Pleasing," and a
number of operas, songs, and ballads. Died in 1770.
See GRIMM, " Correspondar.ee Litteraire ;" D'ALKMBERT, " His-
toire de 1'Acadt'mie Franchise.",
Moudejar, de, da mon-da-iiaR', (CASPAR IHANEZ DE
SKGOVIA, PERSALTA Y MENDO/A,) MARQUIS, a Spanish
historian, who wrote, besides other works, " Cronica del
Key Don Alonzo el Sabio," (1783.) Died after 1775.
Mondejar, de, (!NIOO Lopez de Meiidoza — lo'-
peth da men-do'tha,) MARQUIS, a distinguished Spanish
commander under the reign of Philip II., was appointed
Captain-General of Granada, and took an active part in
the war against the Moors.
See PRKSCOTT, "History of Philip II.," vol. iii. book v.
Mondino de Luzzi. See MUNDINUS.
Mondcmville. See C ASSAM KA.
Mondory or Mondori, miN'do're', a French actor,
born at Orleans about 1580, is called one of the founders
of the French theatre. Died in 1651.
Mondragoii, inon-dKa-gon', (CuisronAL,) a brave
Spanish general, surnamed THE GOOD MONDRAGON,
fought with distinction against the Netherlanders, and
rose to be governor of Antwerj). Died in 1596.
See MOTLEY, "United Netherlands," chap. xxxi.
Moiie, mo'neh, (FRANZ JOSEPH,) a German writer,
born near Heidelberg in 1792, became professor of his
tory in that city in 1819. He published a "History
of Paganism in Northern Europe," (1822,) and other his
torical works.
Monet, mo'nV, (PHILTBERT,) a French scholar and
philologist, born at Bonneville, in Savoy, in 1566. He
wrote " Ligatures des Langues Francoise et Latine,"
(1629,) and other works. Died in 1643.
Mo-ne'ta, a surname given by the Romans to Juno.
The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was used as a
mint, which in Latin is called moneta.
See SMITH, "Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology."
Moneti, mo-na'tee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian poet,
born at Cortona about 1635 ; died in 1712.
Monfalcon, mi.N'ftl'kox', (JEAN BAI>TISTE,) a French
physician and historian, born in Lyons in 1792. He
practised in his native city, and wrote, besides other
works, a "Code moral des Ouvriers," (1835,) and a
" History of Lyons," (2 vols., 1846-47.)
Moiigault, m6.\/go/, (NICOLAS HUHERT,) a French
litterateur, born in Paris in 1674. He made translations
of the " History" of Herodian and the "Letters of Cicero
to Atticus." The latter is particularly esteemed, and the
notes accompanying it are said to have furnished Mid-
dleton with important matter for his " Life of Cicero."
Moiigault was a member of the French Academy and
of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1746.
Monge, moNzh, (GASPAKD,) Comte de Peluse, a cele
brated French savant, and the creator of descriptive
geometry, was born at Beaune in 1746. Soon after he
left the College of Lyons he obtained a place in the col
lege of military engineers at Mezieres. Having by his
skill in geometry made an important improvement in
the process used in the art of fortification, he became,
about the age of twenty, professor of mathematics and
of natural philosophy at Mezieres. While he filled
these chairs with great credit, he gradually perfected
the application of geometry to the arts of construc
tion, which is now called descriptive geometry. In
1780 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sci
ences, and in 1783 removed to Paris, where he was
employed as examiner of candidates for the marine, for
whose use he wrote an able "Treatise on Statics." His
political affinities in the Revolution were with the re
publicans, who appointed him minister of the marine in
1792. He resigned in April, 1793, and distinguished
himself by his zealous services in the fabrication of arms,
gunpowder, and other materials, which were urgently re
quired for the national defence. In 1795 he published
the first edition of his excellent " Descriptive Geometry,"
and assisted in organizing the Polytechnic School, in
which he taught geometry and analysis. Monge, Fou
rier, and Berthollet were the directors of the scientific
commission which accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt in
1798. Aided by pupils of the Polytechnic School, they
executed the geodesic and monumental description of
that country. Having returned home with Bonaparte,
he presided over the arrangement and publication of the
great work by which French science and art illustrated
Egypt. During the Napoleonic regime he became a
senator, Count of Peluse, and grand officer of the legion
of honour. In 1816 he was expelled from the Institute
on account of his political antecedents. He died in 1818.
He left an important work called " Application of Analy
sis to Geometry." His discoveries in geometry form an
epoch in that science, lor which he is said to have done
more than any one since the time of Archimedes.
See D. F. ARAGO, "Biographic de G. Monce," 1853; CHARLES
DUPIN, " filoge de Monge," 1849: DUPIN AINE, " Essai historique
surles Services de Monge," i8ig; WAI.CKENAER, " Notice historique
sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. Monge," 1849; " Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generale."
Mongez, m6>i'zha', (ANTOINE,) a French archaeolo
gist, born at Lyons in 1747. He published a treatise
"On the Names and Attributes of the Infernal Deities,"
and other works. lie was a member of the Academy
of Inscriptions. Died in 1835.
Mongez, (MARIE JOSEPHINE ANGEUQUE LEVOI.,) a
French artist of great merit, born near Paris in 1775.
was the wife of the preceding. She studied painting
under Regnault and David. Among her best works are
"The Death of Astyanax," "Orpheus in Hades," and
"Perseus and Andromeda." -Died in 1855.
Mongitore, mon-je-to'ra, (ANTONIO,) nn Italian biog
rapher and priest, born at Palermo in 1663. lie pub
lished "Bibliotheca Sicula," (2 vols., 1708-14,) which
contains notices of Sicilian authors, ancient and modern.
Died in 1743.
Monglave, de, deh moN'glfv', (FRANC.OIS EUGENE
GARAY,) a French novelist and historian, bom at Bayonne
in 1796.
Moni. See MONA.
Mon'i-ca, | Fr. MONIQUE, mo'nek',] S AINT, the mother
of Saint Augustine, was born in 332 A.D. She was edu
cated in the Christian faith, and became eminent for her
virtue and piety. She lived at Tagaste, in Nmnidia, and
had several children. Died at Ostia in 387 A.I).
See SAINT AUGUSTINE, " Confessions ;" KARL BRAUNK. " Monica
nnd Augustinus," 1846: PETIT, " Histoire de Sainte-Monique,"
1848.
Monier, mo'ne-a', (PIERRE,) a French painter, born
at Blois in 1639; died in 1703.
Moniglia, mo-nel'ya, (GIOVANNI ANDREA,) an Ital
ian dramatic poet and physician, born at Florence about
1640; died in 1700.
Mon'i-ma, |Gr. Movi/ir/,] a beautiful Greek woman,
who became a wife of Mithridates the Great. She was
put to death by order of that king in 72 H.C., to prevent
her from being captured by the victorious Romans.
Moniiio. See FLORIDA BLANCA.
Monio. See MONA.
Monique. See MONICA.
Monk, miink, (GEORGE,) Duke of Albemarle, a suc
cessful English general, born in 1608, was the son of
Sir Thomas Monk, of Merton, Devonshire. After fight
ing in the service of Holland, he returned to England
about the age of thirty. In the civil war he bore arms
for Charles I., and had acquired some reputation as an
able officer when he was made prisoner at Nantwich in
1644 by the Roundheads, who confined him in the Tower
of London more than a year. Having accepted a com
mission from the Parliament, he commanded a repub
lican army in the north of Ireland between 1646 and
1650. He contributed to the victory of Cromwell at
Dtmbar, in 1650, and the next year was left in Scotland
as commander of an army, with which he speedily com-
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon;
MONK
1609
MONOD
pleted tne reduction of that country. Hume states that
he put to the sword all the inhabitants of Dundee, which
he had taken by assault ; though he elsewhere says his
temper was humane and his moderation remarkable.
In 1653 the government showed their confidence in his
skill by selecting him to co-operate with Admiral Blake
in a naval war against the Dutch. He commanded in
the sea-fight where Van Trump was defeated and killed.
In 16^4 he was successful in his efforts to enforce the
will and authority of the Protector in Scotland. At the
death of Oliver, in 1658, Monk proclaimed Richard
Cromwell as his successor. When the officers of the
army deposed Richard and restored the Long Par
liament, he acquiesced, and retained command of the
army in Scotland. The royalists and republicans so
licited his aid in the impending crisis ; but he kept all
parties in suspense by his dissimulation or irresolu
tion. About the beginning of 1660 he marched towards
London, ostensibly to support the civil power against
Lambert's army. "Cold-blooded and taciturn," says
Macaulay, "zealous for no polity and for no religion, he
maintained an impenetrable reserve" when he was im
plored to restore peace to the nation. Having cautiously
removed from command those whom he distrusted, and
prepared the way for the restoration, he declared for a
free Parliament, which soon assembled, amidst general
joy and exultation. Charles II. was proclaimed king
in May, 1660, and rewarded the services of Monk by
creating him Duke of Albemarle. In 1666 Monk main
tained his reputation in a great naval battle against the
Dutch. He died in 1670, leaving a son, at whose death
the family became extinct. Hume, after a eulogy of his
character, says, " I confess, however, that Dr. Douglas
has shown me an original letter of his, containing very
earnest and certainly false protestations of his zeal for
a commonwealth."
See "State Papers of Charles II. ."edited by MRS. GREEN, Lon
don, 1866: GUIZOT, "Memoirs of Monk;" "The Life of Genera]
Monk," by THOMAS SKEI.TON; T. SKINNER, "Life of General
Monk:" GUMBLE, "Life of General Monk," 1671; CLARENDON,
" History of the Rebellion;" HAI.I.AM, "Constitutional History;"
MACAUI.AY, " Histoiy of England ;" " Retrospective Review," vol.
xiii., (1826;) CAMPBELL, " Lives of the British Admirals."
Monk, (JAMKS HENRY,) an English clergyman and
author, born at Huntingford in 1784. He became Bishop
of Gloucester about 1830. He wrote a " Life of Bentley,"
(1831.) Died in 1856.
Monk, (MARY MOI.ESWORTH,) a distinguished writer,
was a daughter of Robert, Lord Molesworth, and was
married to George Monk, an Irish gentleman. She died
in 1715, leaving a collection entitled " Marinda : Poems
and Translations on Several Occasions," (1716.)
See CIDBER, " Lives of the Poets."
Monmerque, mo.N'meVki', (Louis JEAN NICOLAS,)
a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1780. He wrote
many articles for the " Biographic Universelle" of Mi-
chaud, edited the " Letters of Madame de Sevigne,"
(10 vols., 1819,) and published other works. He became
a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1833. l^ied
in 1860.
Monmorel, de, deh miN'mo'reK, (CHARLES le
Bourg — leh boon,) a popular French preacher, born in
Normandy; died in 1719.
Moumouth. See GEOFFREY OK MON MOUTH.
Moiimouth, EARL OF. See MORDAUNT, and CAREY,
(HENRY.)
Monmouth, mon'miith, (JAMES SCOTT,) DUKE OF,
born in 1649, was a natural son of Charles II. of Eng
land. His mother's name was Lucy Walters. He married
about 1665 Anne Scott, Duchess of Buccleuch, said to
have been the richest heiress in the kingdom, and as
sumed her name. He received the title of Duke of Buc
cleuch, and was loaded with royal favours. His personal
advantages and agreeable manners rendered him very
popular. "Though a libertine," says Macaulay, " he won
the hearts of the Puritans." A rivalry or jealousy arose
between him and the Duke of York, afterwards James
II., through whose influence Monmouth was discarded
from court. He was in Holland when Charles II. died,
(1684.) A report that Charles II. had married Lucy Wal
ters privately was credulously received by the populace,
who regarded Monmouth as the rightful heir to the
throne and the champion of the Protestant cause. With
a party of armed exiles he invaded England in June, 1685,
and raised the standard of rebellion. He was received
with enthusiasm by the people, and gained a victory over
the royal troops at Axminster; but he was completely
defeated at Sedgemoor, July 6, and captured a few days
later. Having been taken into the presence of King
James, he threw himself at his feet, and, with abject
spirit, begged for life at any price, but in vain. He was
executed in July, 1685.
See M ACAULAY, " Histoiy of England," vol. i. ; GEORGE ROBERTS,
" Life of the Duke of Monmouth," 1844.
Momiet, mo'ni', (ANTOINE GRIMOALD,) a French
chemist, born in Auvergne in 1734, was appointed in
spector-general of mines. He opposed and undervalued
the discoveries of Lavoisier, Berthollet, and others, and
thus injured his own reputation. He published a " Treat
ise on the Solution of Metals," (1775,) "Historical and
Political Memoir on tne Mines of France," (1791,) and
numerous other scientific works. Died in 1817.
Monnet, (Louis CLAUDE,) BARON, a French general,
born in 1766. He commanded at Flushing when it was
taken by the English in 1809. For this ill success he
was condemned to death ; but he was then a prisoner in
England. Died in 1819.
Monnier, mo'ne-a', (HENRI BONAVENTURE, ) a
French litterateur, comedian, and caricaturist, born in
Paris in 1805. He represented and caricatured the life
and manners of the common people with the pen, and
published several volumes of "Scenes populaires des-
sinees a la Plume," (1830-46.) Among his works is
"Memoires de M. Prudhotume," (2 vols., 1854.)
Momiier, (JEAN CHARLES,) COMTE, a French gen
eral, born at Cavaillon in 1758. He led a division at
Marengo in June, 1800. Died in 1816.
Monnier, (Louis GABRIEL,) a French engraver, born
at Besan£on in 1733; died at Dijon in 1804.
Monnier, de, deh mo'ne-^', (MARIE THERESE Ri
chard de Ruffey — re'shf u' deh ril'li',) MARQUISE, a
French lady, known under the name of SOPHIE, and
celebrated in consequence of her connection with Mira-
beau, was born at Pontarlier in 1754. Died in 1789.
(See MIRAHEAU.)
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Monnier, Le. See LEMONNIER.
Monnier, Le, leh mo'ne-i', ( PIERRE,) a French savant,
born in Normandy about 1675, published a work en
titled "Course of Philosophy." He was a member of
the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1757.
Monnoie or Monnoye, de la, deh It mo'nwa',
(BERNARD,) a French poet and critic, born at Dijon in
1641. He was the author of a poem entitled "The Duel
Abolished," which obtained the first prize ever awarded
by the French Academy. He was elected a member of
that institution in 1713. He also published poems in
Latin and French, and several critical treatises. Died
in 1728.
See R. DE JUVIGNY, "Memoire historique sur la Vie, etc. de La
Monnoye."
Monnoyer, mo'nwa'ya', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a cele
brated painter of flowers and fruit, born at Lille, in
Flanders, in 1635. Having visited Paris, he was em
ployed in the decoration of Versailles and the Trianon.
He afterwards repaired to England, where he executed
some of his best works. Among his master-pieces are
the flower-border of a mirror at Kensington, and the
decorations of Montagu House. His flower-pieces have
never been surpassed for brilliancy of colouring and free
and graceful grouping. He died in 1699, leaving a son,
ANTOINE, who was also a flower-painter.
See R. DUMESNII., " Le Peintre-Graveur Frangnis."
Monod, mo'nod', (ADOLi'HE, ) an eminent Swiss
Protestant minister, born about 1800. He lectured on
theology and Hebrew at the College of Montauban from
1836 to 1852, and be.came minister of the Reformed
Church of Paris in 1853. He acquired a wide reputation
a* a preacher and moralist, and wrote numerous religious
treatises. He belonged to the most orthodox school of
French Protestants. Died in 1856.
Monod, (FREDERIC,) a Swiss Protestant minister,
born at Monnaz, in the Canton de Vaud, in 1794, was a
* as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jt^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MONOD
1610
MONROSE
brother of the preceding. He became in 1832 pastor
of the Protestant sect called " fivangelistes libres," in
Paris. He edited for many years " The Archives of
Christianity," and published a number of sermons.
Died in 1863.
Monod, (JEAN,) a Swiss Protestant divine, born at
Geneva in 1765, was the father of the preceding. He was
pastor of a church in Paris, and in 1830 became presi
dent of the Consistory of the Reformed Church. He
contributed to the " Biographic Universelle" many
notices of eminent Swiss writers, etc. Died in 1836.
Moiipou, mi.N'poo', (IIipPOLYTK.,) a French com
poser and singer, born in Paris in 1804. He composed
popular ballads and operas, among which is " Les deux
Reines," (1835.) Died in 1841.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mon-ro', (ALEXANDER, distinguished as Primus, i.e.
the "first,") an eminent physician and anatomist, born
in London in 1697. He studied successively in London,
Paris, and at Leyden under Boerhaave, and was ap
pointed, after his return, demonstrator of anatomy to
the Surgeons' Company at Edinburgh. The lectures he
delivered at this time won for him a high reputation,
and were chiefly instrumental in founding the Medical
School of Edinburgh. Under his direction also was
established the Royal Infirmary of that city, in which
he gave clinical lectures on surgery. He published in
1726 his "Osteology, or Treatise on the Anatomy of the
Bones," which passed through numerous editions and
was translated into French and German. Among his
other works are an " Essay on Comparative Anatomy,"
(1744,) and "Account of the Inoculation of Small-Pox
in Scotland," (1765.) Dr. Monro was a Fellow of the
Royal Society of London, and a member of the Academy
of Surgery in Paris. Died in 1767.
See A. DUNCAN, "Account of the Life. etc. of Alexander Monro,"
1780; "Life of Alexander Monro," prefixed to his works ; CHAM
BERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Monro, (ALEXANDER Sccundus, or the "second,")
son of the preceding, was born at Edinburgh in 1732.
He succeeded his father in the chair of anatomy and
surgery in the University of Edinburgh in 1759. He
died in 1817, leaving a number of medical treatises of
great merit. Among these we may name "Observations
on the Structure, etc. of the Nervous System," (1783,)
and " Structure and Physiology of Fishes," (1785.)
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Monro, (ALEXANDER Terthis, or the "third,") a
physician, a son of the preceding, was born in Edin
burgh about 1774. He was professor of anatomy at
Edinburgh, and published several works on anatomy
and medicine. Died in 1859.
Monro, (DONALD,) brother of Alexander, (1732-1817,)
was born at Edinburgh in 1729. He was appointed chief
physician to the army, which he accompanied to Ger
many in 1761. He published, among other works, a
treatise "On the Means of Preserving the Health of
Soldiers." Died in 1802.
Monro, (JoHN,) an English physician, born at Green
wich in 1715, was the author of "Remarks on Battle's
Treatise on Madness." Died in 1791.
Monroe, mun-ro', (JAMES,) an American statesman,
and the fifth President of the United States, was born
in Westmoreland county, Virginia, April 28, 1758. lie
was a son of Spence Monroe, a planter, was educated at
William and Mary College, and entered the army as a
cadet in 1776. He soon became a lieutenant in the army
of Washington, and served at the battles of Harlem
Heights and White Plains. He was wounded in the
battle of Trenton, December, 1776, and for his conduct
there was promoted to the rank of captain. As aide-
de-camp to Lord Stirling, he served with distinction at
the battle of Brandy wine, September, 1777, and at that
of Monmouth, June, 1778. Having lost his rank in the
regular army by becoming an aide to Lord Stirling, he
retired from the service in 1778, and studied law under
Thomas Jefferson. He was elected a member of the
Assembly of Virginia in 1782, and a delegate to the
General Congress in 1783 for three years. He married,
about 1785, a Miss Kortright, of New York.
As a member of the Convention of Virginia, in 1788,
he opposed the adoption of the Constitution of the
United States, which, in his opinion, gave too much
power to the Federal government. He accordingly
united himself with the Anti-Federalists, or Republican
party, and was elected a Senator of the United States
for four years by the legislature of Virginia in 1790. In
1794 he was sent to France as minister-plenipotentiary.
He offended the heads of the home government by the
open expression of sympathy with the French repub
licans, or by a departure from a neutral policy, and
was recalled about the end of 1796. He was Governor
of Virginia three years, (1799-1802.) In 1802 he was
sent to France as envoy-extraordinary, to unite with
Edward Livingston, then the resident minister at Paris,
in a negotiation for the purchase of Louisiana, — i.e. the
whole valley of the Mississippi. They purchased that
vast territory from Bonaparte for $i5,ooo",ooo. In 1803
Mr. Monroe was sent as minister-plenipotentiary to
England, and in 1805 performed a diplomatic mission to
Spain in relation to the boundary of Louisiana. lie
returned to London in 1806, and, aided by Mr. Pinck-
ney, negotiated a treaty for the protection of maritime
interests and neutral rights ; but the government of
the United States refused to ratify this treaty, because
it did not provide against the impressment of seamen.
Fie returned home in 1808, and passed about two years
in a private station.
In 1811 he was elected Governor of Virginia. lie
was appointed secretary of state by President Madison
in November, 1811. lie acted as secretary of war during
the disastrous and gloomy period that followed the cap
ture of Washington, September, i8i4-March, 1815, and
rendered important services by his energetic measures
to restore the public credit and reinforce the army. He
did not cease to be secretary of state until March, 1817.
He was the Democratic candidate for the Presidency in
1816, and was elected by a large majority, receiving one
hundred and eighty-three electoral votes. His competi
tor was Rufus King, who received thirty-four votes. He
appointed John Q. Adams secretary of state, William
H. Crawford secretary of the treasury, John C. Calhoun
secretary of war, and Smith Thompson secretary of the
navy. The violence of party spirit abated during his
administration, which encountered no strong opposition.
In 1819 Spain ceded Florida to the United States. He
was re-elected President in 1820 without opposition,
receiving every electoral vote except one. During his
second term the independence of the South American
colonies of Spain was recognized by the United States.
In his message of December, 1823, he asserted the im
portant principle of foreign policy which forms the cele
brated "Monroe Doctrine," in these terms: "We owe
it, therefore, to candour and to the amicable relations
existing between the United States and those powers,
\i.e. the European powers,] to declare that we should
consider any attempt on their part to extend their sys
tem to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to
our peace and safety." He retired from office in March,
1825, after which he resided at Oak Hill, London county,
Virginia. He was elected president of the convention
which met in 1829 to revise the Constitution of Virginia.
A speech which lie made in that Convention contains
this incidental remark on slavery: — "No imputation can
be cast on Virginia in this matter. She did all that was
in her power to do, to prevent the extension of slavery
and to mitigate its evils so far as she could."* lie died
in the city of New York, at the residence of his son-in-
law, Samuel L. Gouverneur, on the 41)1 of July, 1831,
leaving the reputation of a discreet and successful states
man, more distinguished for administrative talents than
for oratorical powers.
See J. Q. ADAMS, "Eulogy on James Monroe;" HILDRETH,
" History of the United States," vols. v. and vi. ; "National Por
trait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii.
Monrose, moN'roz', the assumed name of CLAUDE
Louis BARRIZAIN, (bi're'zaN',) a French comic actor,
born at Besai^on in 1783; died in 1843.
* This remark, doubtless, has reference to the efforts of the English
government to introduce slaves into Virginia against the wishes of
many of the colonists.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, £, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
MONS
1611
MONTAGU
Mons, van, vSn niftns or m6;srss, (|EAN BAPTISTE,) an
eminent Belgian chemist and pomologist, was born at
Brussels in 1765. Having learned the art of pharmacy,
he was chosen in 1797 professor of chemistry, etc. in
Brussels. He founded the "Journal cle Chimie et Phy
sique," which for many years was a central depot of the
progress of science in Europe. Having a ruling passion
for the culture of fruit, he began at an early age to theo
rize and experiment on the production of new varieties.
About the age of twenty he adopted the theory that
seedlings of new varieties have more tendency to im
prove than those of old varieties, or, in other words,
while good old varieties mostly produce inferior sorts,
those which are recent and bad tend to change for the
better. Having planted a large nursery and devoted
his life chiefly to experiments on the pear, he was suc
cessful in producing many fine varieties, among which
was the Beurre Die!. Soon after 1815 he was appointed
professor of chemistry at Louvain. I le published " Prin
ciples of Electricity," (1802,) "Principles of Philosophic
Chemistry," (1818,) "Fruit-Trees and their Culture,"
(1835,) alu' other works. He was an associate of the
Institute of France. Died in 1842. "The constant
springing up of fine new sorts of fruit in the United
States," says Downing, "is given with much apparent
force as a proof of the accuracy of the Van Mons
theory."
See QUETEI.ET, " Notice historique sur J. B. van Mons," 1843;
J. S. STAS, "Notice sur J. H. van Mons," 1843.
Mons, van, (THEODORE,) a jurist, a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Brussels in 1801. He published
several legal works.
Monselet, moN'.seh-LV, (CHARLES,) a French littera
teur, born at Nantes in 1825. He wrote, besides various
other works, " Statues et Statuettes," (1851,) and " Figu
rines Parisiennes," (1854.)
Mon'sell, (WILLIAM,) M.P., was born in Limerick
county, Ireland, in 1812. He was appointed a privy
councillor in 1855, president of the board of health in
1857, was vice-president of the board of trade a few
months in 1866, and became under-secretary for the
colonies in December, 1868.
Monsiau, mo.s'se-o', (NICOLAS ANDRE,) a French
historical painter, born in Paris in 1754, worked with
remarkable facility. Died in 1837.
Moiisignori, mon-sen-yo'ree, (FRANCESCO,) some
times called BONSIGNORI, a skilful Italian painter, born
at Verona in 1455. He was a pupil of Andrea Man-
tegna, and worked mostly at Mantua. Died in 1519.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters."
Monsigiiy, moN'sen'ye', (PIERRE ALKXANDRE,) a
French composer, born at Artois in 1729. He produced,
besides other operas, " Le Maitre en Droit," and " Le
Cadi dupe," (1760,) the comic operas of " The King and
the Farmer" and " Rose and Colas," and was elected a
member of the Institute, (1813.) Died in 1817.
See KETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musicians ;" QIIATRB-
MERE HE QUINCY, " filoge He Monsigny," iSiS; PIERRE HioouiN,
"Noiice historique sur P. A. Monsigny," 1821.
Mcm'son, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English naval com
mander, born in Lincolnshire about 1569, served with
distinction against the Spaniards, Dutch, and French,
and attained the rank of vice-admiral. He was the
author of " Naval Tracts," which were published in
Churchill's "Collection of Voyages." Died in 1643.
See CAMPBELL, " Lives of British Admirals;" J. BARROW, " Me
moirs i,f the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign," 1845.
Monson, (WILLIAM JOHN,) LORD, an English peer
and antiquary, born in 1796. He entered the House of
Lords in 1841. Died in 1862.
Monstrelet, de, deh m6N'streh-li', (ENGUERRAND,
a French chronicler, born about 1390, wrote an account
of the wars of his time between the factions of Armagnac
and Burgundy. His " Chronicles," beginning in 1400
and brought down to 1444, fill the space between the
histories of Froissart and Comines, and are highly
esteemed for their accuracy and the perspicuity anc
simplicity of their style. Died in 1453.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Montagna, mon-tan'ya, (BARTOLOMMEO,) an Italiar
painter, born at Vicenza, lived about 1460-1500, anc
studied under Andrea Mantegna. Among his master-
nieces we may name the " Madonna on a Throne with
saint Andrew and other Saints," at the Museum of
Milan.
Montagna, (BENEDETTO,) an Italian engraver, a
relative of the preceding, was born at Vicenza about 1458 ;
died in 1530.
See BARTSCH, "Le Peintre-Graveur."
Montagne, moN'ttn', (JEAN FRANC.OIS CAMILLE,) a
French botanist, born at Vaudoy in 1784. Having
studied medicine, he was appointed in 1815 surgeon-in-
chief of the army of Murat. He was chosen a member
of the Academy of Sciences in 1852, and in 1858 was
made an officer of the legion of honour. He con
tributed to the " Archives de Botanique" and to other
scientific journals a number of valuable treatises on
the Cryptogamia, among which we may name "Notice
of the Cryptogamous ^Plants recently discovered in
France." Died in 1866.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Montagny, m6N/tSn'ye/, (firtENNE,) a French sculp
tor, born at Saint-fitienne in 1816. He obtained a medal
of the first class for a statue of Saint Louis, in 1859.
M5n'ta-gu, (BASIL,) an eminent English lawyer and
writer, born in London in 1770, was a natural son of
John Montagu, Earl of Sandwich. Having graduated
at Cambridge, he was called to the bar in 1798. He
practised with ability and success, and extended his
reputation by numerous legal publications, the most im
portant of which is a " Digest of the Bankrupt Laws,
with a Collection of the Statutes and of the Cases de
termined upon that Subject," (1805.) He was associated
with Romilly and Wilberforce in successful effort to
abolish hanging for forgery and for certain other crimes.
In 1825 he produced a valuable edition of Lord Bacon's
works, on which he expended the labour of many years ;
also a " Life of Bacon," in reference to which Macaulay
says, "About his merit as a collector of materials there
can be no dispute; and we are indebted to his minute
and accurate researches for the means of refuting what
we cannot but consider his errors." He published
Essays and Selections," and various other works.
Died in 1851.
Montagu, (CHARLES.) See HALIFAX, EARL OF.
Montagu, (EDWARD.) See MANCHESTER, EARL OF.
Montagu, (EDWARD WORTLEY,) son of Lady Mary
Montagu, noticed below, was born in Yorkshire in 1713.
At an early age he manifested a propensity to low vices,
and great eccentricity of character. When placed at
school he repeatedly ran away, and at length hired him
self as a cabin-boy in a ship bound for Spain. Being
discovered and sent back to his family, he travelled soon
after on the continent. After his return he was member
of two successive Parliaments. lie next went to Italy,
where he was converted to Catholicism, and not long
after visited Egypt, and there professed Mohammedanism.
He was the author of " Reflections on the Rise and Fall
of Ancient Republics." Died in 1776.
See "Memoirs of E. Wortlev Montagu," 2 vols., 1778: "Auto
biography of Edward Wortley Montagu," London, 1869; NICHOLS,
'• Literary Anecdotes."
Montagu, (HENRY.) See MANCHESTER, EARL OF.
Montagu, (Lady MARY WORTLEY,) a celebrated
English writer, born in Nottinghamshire about 1690.
She was the daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, Duke of
Kingston, and Lady Mary Fielding, and cousin to the
novelist Henry Fielding. She was early distinguished
for the brilliancy of her intellect and her rapid acquisition
of knowledge. In 1712 she was married to Edward
Wortley Montagu, Esq., and a few years after, on his
appointment to a place in the treasury, accompanied
him to London. Here she attracted general admiration
by her wit and remarkable beauty, and became intimate
with Addison, Pope, and other celebrated writers of
the time. In 1716 she accompanied her husband, on his
being appointed ambassador, to Constantinople. During
her residence of two years at the Porte, she wrote to
her friends in England a series of Letters containing
shrewd and lively descriptions of Oriental life and man
ners. On her return to England she became the means
of introducing the Turkish practice of inoculation, having
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MONTAGUE
1612
MONTALEMBERT
had the courage to have the experiment first tried on
her own son. The next remarkable event in Lady Mary's
life is her quarrel with Pope, the cause of which is not
with certainty known. In 1739 she left England for
Italy, where she resided upwards of twenty years. She
returned in 1761, and died the following year. Besides
the son mentioned above, she left a daughter Mary, who
was married to the Earl of Bute, minister of George III.
Lady Mary wrote a number of poems, of which the
"Town Eclogues" only are entitled to much notice.
Her literary reputation is owing chiefly to her " Let
ters," which are ranked among the finest specimens of
epistolary composition.
See "Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by L. S. COSTEI.I.O;
MRS. Ei.wooi), "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England;"
" Edinburgh Review" for July, 1803, and April, 1804, (by JEFFREY ;)
" London Quarterly Review" for February, 1837; " Blackwood's
Magazine" tor July, 1868, (" Historical Sketches of the Reign of
George II :") "Westminster Review" for April, 1837; "Monthly
Review" for May and June, 1763 et seq.
Montague, m6n'ta-gu, (Sir EDWARD,) an English
statesman, born in Northamptonshire. lie was ail-
pointed chief justice of the court of king's bench in
1 5 "59, and chief justice of the common pleas in 1546.
He was one of the counsellors designated in the will of
Henry VIII. to administer the government during the
minority of Edward VI. Died in 1556.
See FULLER, "Worthies of England;" COLLINS, "Peerage of
England."
Montague, (EDWARD,) Earl of Sandwich, an English
naval commander, born in 1625. He served for a time
on the side of the Parliament, but subsequently went
over to the royalists, and assisted General Monk in the
restoration of Charles II. For this service he was suc
cessively created an earl, a knight of the Garter, mem
ber of the privy council, and admiral of the Narrow
Seas. On the renewal of the war with Holland, in 1672,
Lord Sandwich commanded the squadron under the
Duke of York against De Ruyter, and perished in the
burning of the Royal James.
See CAMPBELL, "Lives of the Admirals;" CLARENDON, "Me
moirs."
Montague, (ELIZABETH,) a celebrated English lady,
born in Yorkshire in 1720. Her early studies were
directed by Dr. Conyers Middleton, who was connected
with her family. In 1742 she was married to Edward
Montague, Esq. After the death of her husband, in
1775, she resided in Portman Square, London, where
she numbered among her visitors the most eminent men
of the day, including Burke, Johnson, Goldsmith, and
Reynolds. She was also intimate with Mrs. Elizabeth
Carter and Hannah More. Mrs. Montague contributed
several "Dialogues of the Dead" to those published by
Lord Lyttelton; but her principal work is an " Essay on
the Genius and Writings of Shakespeare," which ob
tained for her a high reputation. In this production
she has ably refuted the false charges of Voltaire against
the great English poet. She is said to have been the
founder of the literary society called the "Blue-Stocking
Club." Her correspondence was published after her
death. Died in 1800.
See MRS. Ei.woon, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England."
etc.; " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1809; "London Quarter'y
Review" for October, 1813; "Mrs. Montague and her Friends," in
" Kramer's Magazine" for January, 1848; "Monthly Review" for
October, 1814.
Montague, (GEORGE,) an Eng'ish naturalist, born in
Wiltshire. In 1802 he published an "Ornithological
Dictionary, or Synopsis of British Birds," and soon after
his " Testacea Britannica," or "Natural History of
British Shells," illustrated. Both of these works are
highly esteemed. Montague was a member of the Lin-
nrcan Society of London. Died in 1815.
Montague, (JOHN,) Earl of Sandwich, an English
statesman, born in London in 1718. He was first lord
of the admiralty in 1749 and 1750, and obtained the
same office in 1763. He supported the administration
of Lord North, under whom he served as first lord of
the admiralty from 1771 to 1782. He was more deficient
in principle than in capacity. Died in 1792.
See J. COOKE, "Memoir of the Earl of Sandwich."
Montague, (RICHARD,) an English scholar and theo
logian. See MOUNTAGU.
Montaigne, mSn-tan', de, [Fr. pron. deh moN'tin',]
(MICHEL Eyquem — a'kox',) a celebrated French phi
losopher and essayist, born at the chateau de Mon
taigne, in Perigord, on the 28th of February, 1533. His
father, who was one of the noblesse, placed him, while
very young, under the tuition of masters who were
ignorant of French, and who conversed with him only in
Latin, which thus became his natural language. At the
age of thirteen he had finished his studies at a college
of Bordeaux. Having studied law, he became a judge
at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1565 or 1566 he married,
par fon-'enance, Frai^oise de la Chassaigne. In 1580 he
produced his celebrated " Essays," which have enjoyed
an almost unparalleled popularity. Soon after that date
he made a tour in Germany, Italy, etc., of which he
wrote a Journal. He often visited Paris, in order to
perform his duties as gentleman of the king's chamber.
From 1581 to 1585 he was mayor of Bordeaux. During
the civil war of the League his impartial moderation did
not exempt him from danger and persecution. He died
in September, 1592. "The Essays of Montaigne," says
Ilallam, "make in several respects an epoch in litera
ture, less on account of their real importance than of
their influence on the taste and opinions of Europe. . . .
No prose writer of the sixteenth century has been so
generally read, nor, probably, given so much delight.
Whatever may be our estimate of Montaigne as a phi
losopher, — a name which he was far from arrogating, —
there will be but one opinion of the felicity and bright
ness of his genius." (" Introduction to the Literature
of Europe.") "The author of these ' Essais,' " says Leo
Joubert, "is certainly the most independent spirit that
ever existed, — independent without revolt, and detached
from the systems of others without having any system
of his own. . . . We recognize in his 'Essays' a nature
well endowed, not heroic, perhaps, but generous, exqui
sitely sensible, not aspiring to the sublime, capable of
devotion, and incapable of a base act, — in fine, a model
of what we may call average virtue," (la vertn moyenne.)
(" Nouvelle Biographic Generale.") Sprightly humour,
independence, naivete, and originality are the character
istics of his mind ; and his style is admired for its graceful
simplicity. His works are highly seasoned with his own
individuality, and afford much insight into his character.
" The Essays," says Emerson, " are an entertaining
soliloquy on every random topic that comes into his
head, — treating everything without ceremonv, yet with
masculine sense. There have been men with deeper
insight, but, one would say, never a mnn with such
abundance of thoughts: he is never dull, never insin
cere, and has the genius to make the render care for all
that he cares for. . . . This book of Montaigne the
world has endorsed by translating it into all tongues
and printing seventy-five editions of it in Europe, — and
that, too, a circulation somewhat chosen, namely, among
courtiers, soldiers, princes, men of the world, and men
of wit and generosity." (See article " Montaigne," in
" Representative Men.")
See J. BOUHIKR, " Memoires sur la Vie de Montaitrne ;" VII.I.E-
MAIN, " E"!oge de Montaigne," 1812; PAYEN. "Notice sur Mon-
tiigne," 1837; GRUN, "La Vie publique de M. Montaigne," 1855;
BAVLE SAINT JOHN, "Montaigne the Essayist," iS:;S ; |)K THOU.
" Historia sui Temporjs ;" SAINTK- BKUVE. " Causeries du Lundi ;"
VICTORIN FABRK. " E"'oge de Montaigne." 1813: "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale;" MRS. SHKI.I.RY, "Lives of the Most Eminent
French Writers;" " Retrospective Review." vol. ii.,(iS2o:) " London
Quarterly Review" for October, 1856; "Westminster Review" for
July, 1838.
Montalbani, mon-tal-ba'nee, (Ovinio,) an Italian
naturalist, born at Bologna about 1602, became succes
sively professor of physical science, mathematics, and
medicine in the university of his native city. He pub
lished a number of scientific works under the pseudonym
of BUMAI.DI. Thunberg gave the name of Bumaldia to
a genus of Japanese plants. Died in 1671.
See Gnu. INI, " Teatro d'Uomini letterati ;" NICERON, "Me
moires."
Montalembert, (ANDRE.) See ESSE.
Montalembert, de, deh moN'tflSN'baiR', (CHARLES
FORMES,) COMTE, a distinguished statesman, orator, and
political writer, of French extraction, born in London
in 1810, was a son of Marc Rene Anne Marie, noticed
below. His mother was Miss Forbes, a Scottish lady.
a, e, i, o, \\,y,long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, o,u, y, short; a,e, j, o,obscttre; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
MONTALEMBERT
1613
MONTAUSIER
He studied in Paris, and in 1830 became associated with
Lamennais and Lacordaire as editor of " L'Avenir," in
which post he was conspicuous as an eloquent champion
of democracy and the Catholic Church. He entered the
Chamber of Peers in 1831, and married, in 1843, Made
moiselle de Merode, a Belgian lady. Devoted to the
Liberal Catholic party, of which he was regarded as the
most eminent leader, he was an earnest advocate of re
ligious toleration, popular rights, and general education.
He was a member of the Constituent Assembly in 1848,
and in 1849 was elected to the Legislative Assembly, in
which he opposed Victor Hugo in several brilliant efforts
of oratory, especially during the debate on the revision
of the constitution, in June, 1851. He was elected to
the French Academy in 1852, and was a member of the
legislative body from 1852 to 1857, during which period
he represented the opposition almost alone. In 1858 he
was condemned to a fine, and imprisonment for six
months, for a political essay entitled "A Debate on India
in the English Parliament;" but the penalties were not
actually inflicted. He published, among other works, a
"History of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary," (1836,) "On
Vandalism and Catholicism in Art," (1839,) "The Po
litical Future of England,'' (1855,) "The Monks of the
West, from Saint Benedict to Saint Bernard," (1860,) and
"The Free Church in the Free State," ("L'figlise libre
clans 1'Etat libre," 1863.) He sympathized with the
Unionists in the American civil war. In a letter to an
English friend, dated December, 1869, he wrote, "Tem
poral despotism has faded away in a most unexpected
manner; and I sincerely hope spiritual despotism will
follow, sooner or later. ... I am more convinced than '\
ever that freedom in the sphere of religion, still more
than in that of politics, is the vital condition of truth."
A great sensation was produced by his letter dated Feb
ruary 28, 1870, in which he protested — almost with his
latest breath — against the dogma of papal infallibility.
and those ultramontanes " who have immolated justice
and truth, reason and history, in one great holocaust
to the idol they have raised up for themselves at the
Vatican." Died in March, 1870.
See L. DE LOMEXIK. "M. cle Montalembert. par 1111 Homme He
Rien," 1841 ; SAINTK-|?RUVE. "Canseries du Lundi :" NKTTKMF.NT.
" Histoirede la Litterature Frnngaise ;" " Nouvel'e Biographic Gene
rale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for Apri1. iS^6. and July, iXftt ;
"Edinburgh Review" tor October. 1861 : '• British Q ;arter'y Re
view" for July, iS6S: "North British Review" for August. iS6i ;
and an interesting article on Montalembert in " Blackwood's M.iga-
zine" for April, 1870.
Montalembert, de, (MARC RENE,) MARQUIS, a
French general and distinguished military engineer,
born at Angouleme in 1714. His family was noble, and
had produced several distinguished captains. He entered
the army in 1732, and was admitted into the Academy
of Sciences in 1747. In the Seven Years' war (1756-63)
he was attached to the staff of the Russian and Swedish
armies, of whose operations he rendered an official ac
count to the French ministry. He published in 1776 an
extensive and important work, named "Perpendicular
Fortification, or the Defensive Art superior to the Offen
sive," (11 vols.) He wrote several memoirs inserted in
the "Collection" of the Academy, and other works, in
prose and verse. Died in 1800.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" " Eloge historique du
General Montalembert," 1801.
Montalembert, de, (MARC RENE ANNE MARIE,)
COMTK, a French nobleman, born in Paris in 1777, emi
grated in 1792. From 1800 to 1814 he served in the Eng
lish army, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel.
He returned to France in 1814, and in 1819 was created
a peer of France. Soon after that date he was appointed
minister to Denmark, but, having offended the ministers
by a liberal speech in the Chamber, he was deprived of
that post. From 1826 to the revolution of 1830 he was
minister from France to the court of Sweden. Died in
1831. His eldest son, CHARLES FORBES, noticed above,
was an eminent orator.
See DE COCRCEI.LES, " Genealogie de la Maison de Montalem
bert."
Montalivet, de, deh moN'tt'le'vl', (JEAN PIERRE
Bachasson — bf'sht'soN',) COMTE, a French states
man, born near Sarreguemines in 1766. He was made
councillor of state in 1805, and minister of the interior in
1809. He entered the Chamber of Peers under the
ministry of Decazes, in 1819. Died in 1823.
Montalivet, de, (MARTHE CAMILLE BACHASSON,)
COMTE, a French minister of state, a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Valence in 1801. He became min
ister of the interior in November, 1830, and minister of
public instruction in March, 1831. He served as minister
of the interior from April, 1837, to March, 1839.
Montalto. See DANEDI, (GIOVANNI STEFANO.)
Moiitalvan, de, da mon-tal-van', (JUAN PEREZ,) an
eminent Spanish dramatist, born at Madrid in 1602, was
a friend and disciple of Lope de Vega. Among his best
works are the comedies entitled " There is no Life like
Honour," (" No hay Vida como la Honra,") " The
Lovers of Teruel," ("Los Amantes de Teruel,") and
"La Lindona de Galicia." Died in 1638.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature:" A. F. VON
SCHACK, "Geschichte der dramatischen Literatur in Spanien."
Montalvo. See GALVEZ, (Luis DE.)
Montan. See MONTANUS.
Montanari, mon-ta-na'ree, (GKMINIANO,) an Italian
astronomer, born at Modena in 1632, was professor of
mathematics at Bologna, and in 1674 filled the chair ot
astronomy at Padua. He wrote a number of scientific
treatises, and is said to have discovered the method of
determining the height of mountains by the barometer.
He was a friend of the celebrated Cassini. Died in 1687.
See FABRONI, "Vitas Italorum doctrina excellentium."
Montanelli, mon-ta-nel'lee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian
jurist and litterateur, born in Tuscany in 1813, became
professor of commercial law at Pisa in 1839. He pub
lished a number of lyric poems and dramatic works.
Died in 1862.
Montano, mon-ta'no, [Lat. MONTA'NUS,] (GiAM-
BATTISTA,) ati Italian physician, of high reputation in his
time, born at Verona in 1488. He was for many years
professor of medicine at Padua, and published a number
of medical works in Latin. Died in 1551.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia delta Letteratura Italiana."
Montano, mon-ta'no, (REGINALD GONSALVO,) a
Spanish Protestant of the sixteenth century, was an
intimate friend of the Protestant martyr Juan Ponce
de Leon. He published an account of the Inquisition,
said to be the earliest on record.
Moiitanus. See ARIAS MONTANUS.
Montanus. See MONTANO, (GIAMBATTISTA.)
Mon-ta'nus, [Fr. MONTAN, m6N't6.N',] the founder
of the sect of Montanists, was a native of Phrygia, and
flourished in the second century. He pretended to be
divinely inspired, and that he was commissioned to com
plete the reformation which the Saviour had begun on
earth. Among those who embraced this delusion were
Tertullian and Theodotus.
See EUSHBIUS, "Ecclesiastical History;" PLUQUET, " Diction-
naire des Heresies."
Montarroyo, de, da mon-tar-ro'yo, (JozE FREIRK,)
a Portuguese writer, born in Lisbon in 1670. He pub
lished several historical works, and commenced an annual
compilation, entitled " Historia annual do Mundo das
Gazetas de Lisboa," (1714-58.) Died in 1730.
Montauban, moN/t5'b5N', a famous French captain
of buccaneers, was born about 1650. He inflicted great
damage on the Spaniards on the coasts of America.
Died in 1700.
Montausier, de, deh moN'to'ze-i', (CHARLES de
Sainte-Maure — deh saNt moR,) Duc^ a French noble
man and general, bom in Paris in 1610. He was loyal
to the king during the civil war of the Fronde. He was
appointed'by Louis XIV. governor to the dauphin, in
1688. In conjunction with Huet, he superintended the
editions of the classics called "adusum Delphini," ("for
the use of the dauphin.") He was distinguished for the
integrity of his character, and is supposed to have been
the original of Moliere's "Alceste" in " Le Misanthrope."
He died in 1690, and his funeral sermon was preached
by Flechier.
See PETIT. " Vie du Due de Montausier," 1729 ; PUGET DE SAINT-
PIFRRE, " Histoire du Due de Montausier," 1784; AMEDEE Roux,
" Montausier, sa Vie et son Temps," 1860; "Nouvelle Biographic
GeneVale."
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
See Explanations, p. 23.)
MONTAUSIER
1614
MONTEM4TOR
Montausier, de, (JunE LUCINE d'Angennes —
ddN'zhen',) DUCHKSSE, the beautiful and accomplished
wife of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1607. She was
a daughter of the celebrated Marquise de Rambouillet,
(see RAMBOUILLET,) and was an ornament of the bril
liant society of authors and wits who met in the Hotel
Rambouillet. She was married in 1645 to the Duke
of Montausier, who, aided by several poets and artists,
had composed the famous "Garland for Julie," ("Guir-
lande de Julie.") Died in 1671.
See A. Koi'x, "Montausier, sa Vie et son Temps," 1860; " Nou-
velle Hiographie Ge'nerale."
Montbarey, de.deh moN'bt'r.V, (AI.EXANDRE MARIE
LEONOK DE SAINT-MAURIS,) PRINCE, a French officer,
born at Besat^on in 1732. He became marechal-de-
camp in 1761, and was minister of war from September,
1777, till December, 1780. Died in 1796.
Montbel, de, deh ni6.\'bel', (GUILLAUME ISIDORE
BARON,) COMTE, a French politician and royalist, born
at Toulouse in 1787. He became minister of public
instruction under Polignac in August, 1829, minister of
the interior in November of that year, and minister of
finance in May, 1830. Died in 1861.
Moiitbeliard or Montbeillard. See GUENEAU.
Montboissier, de, deh moN'bwa'se-i', • (PIERRE,)
called PIERRE LE VENERAULK, a French ecclesiastic and
writer, born in Auvergne about 1092. He was chosen
abbe of Cluny in 1122. A translation of the Koran was
made under his auspices. Died in 1156.
See " Gallia Christiana;" " Nouve'Ie Biographic Ge'nerale."
Montbret, de. See COQUEBERT.
Moiitbrun, mAN'bRuN', ( AI.EXANDRE DU PUY,) Mar
quis de Saint- Andre, a French general, born in 1600.
He entered the French army as colonel in 1638. He
declined the baton of marshal, which was offered to him
if he would abjure Protestantism. Died in 1673.
Moiitbrun, (CHARLES DU PUY,) a French captain
and zealous Protestant, born in the diocese of Gap about
1530. He performed several daring exploits in the civil
wars. He was captured and executed in 1575.
See Gri AI.LAKD. "Vie du brave Moiitbrun," 1675 ; J. C. MAR
TIN, " Hi-itoire de Charles Dupuy," 1816.
Moiitbrun, (Louis PIERRE,) COMTE, a French gen
eral, born at Fl or en sac in 1770, served with distinction
at Eckmiihl, April, 1809, and at Raab, June, 1809. He
was killed at the battle of the Moskwa, September, 1812.
Montcalm (ni6nt-kam') de Saint-Veran, de, IFr.
pron. m6.N'kSlm' deh saN va'roN',] (Louis JOSEPH,)
MARQUIS, a French general, born near Nimes in 1712.
Having previously served in several campaigns in France
and the Netherlands, he was sent in 1756 to defend the
French colonies in North America. He gained a victory
over the English forces commanded by Lord Aber-
crombie in 1758, but was defeated by General Wolfe
at Quebec, and mortally wounded in the engagement,
(1759.) (See WOLFE.)
See MONTGOMERY MARTIN, " History of the British Colonies;"
GARNEAU, " Histoire du Canada."
Montchal. See BARENTIN-MONTCHAL.
Moiitchal, de, deh miN'shtl', (CHARLES,) a French
prelate, born at Annonay in 1589, was made Archbishop
of Toulouse in 1627. He was an accomplished scholar,
and a generous patron of literary men, and was the
author of " Memoires," (2 vols., 1718.) Died in 1651.
Montchrestien, de, deh moN'kRi'te^N', ( ANTOINE,)
a French poet and economist, born at Falaise about 1570.
He wrote several dramas, etc. He joined the Protestants
in revolt against the king, and was killed in 1621.
Monteagle, mSnt-ee'gel, OF BRANDON, (THOMAS
SPRING RICE,) LORD, a distinguished statesman of the
Whig party, born at Limerick, Ireland, in 1790. He
represented Limerick in Parliament from 1820 to 1832,
having been appointed secretary of the treasury in 1830.
He was a prominent advocate of the Reform and Test
Acts, and other liberal measures. He became chancel
lor of the exchequer in 1835, retired from that office in
1839, and was raised to the peerage in the same year.
Died in 1866.
Montebello. See LANNES.
Moiitecatino, mon-ti-ka-tee'no, (ANTONIO,) an Ital
ian philosopher, born at Ferrara in 1536, published
commentaries on the "Politics" and " Physics" of Aris
totle. Died in 1599.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Moiitecuccoli, mon-ta-kook'ko-lee, written also
Montecucculi, (RAIMONDO,) COUNT, one of the great
est military commanders of his time, was born at Modena,
in Italy, in 1608. Having entered the Austrian service,
he distinguished himself in the campaign of 1637 against
the Swedes ; but he was subsequently defeated by the
Swedish general Banner, (1639,) and made prisoner.
He was released after two years' captivity, and in 1664
gained a signal victory over the Turks at Saint Gothard,
for which he was made lieutenant-general. He was sent
in 1673 to oppose the celebrated Turenne ; but, although
consummate skill was displayed by both generals in
their manoeuvres, no decisive battle was fought. Mon
tecucculi regarded this his last campaign as the most
glorious of all, since he had encountered Turenne and
Conde without being defeated. He died in 1681, leaving
a "Treatise on the Art of War," which is highly es
teemed. He was a liberal patron of learning, and was
one of the founders of the Academy of Naturalists at
Vienna. He had been created by the King of Spain a
knight of the golden fleece, and obtained from him the
principality of Ainalfi.
See PARADISI, " Elogio del Conte Montecucculi," 1776; PKZZI.,
''Lebensbeschreibung Montecucculi's," 1792; " R. Montecucculi's
Leben," Leipsic, 1792.
Montecucculi. See MONTECUCCOLI.
Montefalcoiiius. See MONTFAUCON.
Montefeltro, di, de mon-ta-fel'tro, (FEDERIGO,)
COUNT, and first Duke of Urbino, was born about 1410.
He was distinguished as a patron of learning, and was
one of the most learned and eloquent princes of his
time. As an ally of Alfonso, King of Naples, he waged
war against Sigismund Malatesta about 1456-60. In
1467 he was chosen to command the army of Florence,
and fought an indecisive battle with the Venetian general
Coleoni. Died in 1482.
See ZUCCARDI, "Vita di Federigo Ducad'Urbino," 3 vols., 1824 ;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Moiitefiore, mon-ta-fe-o'ra, (Sir MOSES,) an English
few, distinguished for his philanthropy, was born about
1786. He became sheriff of London about 1837. He
performed missions to several. foreign countries for the
relief of people who were oppressed on account of
religion.
Monteggia, mon-ted'ja, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an
Italian surgeon, born at Lavcno in 1762, wrote several
treatises, one of which, entitled " Institutes of Surgery,"
is highly commended by Scarpa. Died in 1815.
Montegut, m6N/ta/gii/, (EMILE,) a French critic and
journalist of high reputation, born at Limoges in 1826.
lie became in 1857 associate editor of the " Revue des
Deux Moncles."
Monteil, min'til' or moN-'ti'ye, (AMANS ALKXIS,) a
French historian, born at Rodez in 1769. His princi
pal work is a "History of the French," etc., ("His
toire des Fran9ais des divers Etats," ^d edition, 5 vols.,
1848,) which the French Academy judged worthy to
share the Gobert prize with Auguslin Thierry. Died
in 1850.
See " Biographic Universelle," (new edition.)
Monteith, mon-teeth', or Monteth, (ROBERT,) a
Scottish historian, resided in Paris, and was patronized
by Cardinal de Retz. He published, in French, a " His
tory of the Troubles of Great Britain," which was trans
lated into English. Died about 1660.
Montelupo. See BACCIO DA MONTE-LUPO.
Moiitemagnc, da, da mon-ta-man'yo, (BuoNAC-
CORSO,) an Italian poet of the fourteenth century, wrote
sonnets which are greatly admired for the elegance and
purity of their style.
Monteniayor, de, da mon-ta-ma-y6R', (JORGE,) a
Portuguese poet and novelist, born near Coimbra about
1520, was patronized at the court of Philip II. of Spain.
His principal work is a pastoral romance entitled " Diana
in Love," (" Diana enamorada,") which is written in
Spanish. It is praised by Cervantes in his " Don
Quixote," and has been many times translated. Mon-
temayor is regarded as the founder of the Spanish pas-
i, ?. T, o, \\, v, ?("ig: a, b, 6. same, less prolonged: a. e. T. 6, u, v, skort: a, e, i. o. obscure: fSr, till, fat: in. i; mi . good: in.
MONTEMOLIN
1615
MONTEZUMA
toral ; and " his prose," says Bouterwek, " has served as
a model to all romance-writers of that kind."
See BOUTERWEK. " Histoire de la Litterature Espaenple ;"
LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" TICKNOR, " History
of Spanish Literature;" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1824.
Montemolin. See CARLOS, or, more fully, CARLOS
Luis MARIA FKRNANDO.
Montemont, moN'ta'moN', (ALBERT,) a French poet
and writer of books of travel, born at Remiremont in
1788. Among his works is "Letters on Astronomy," in
verse and prose, (4 vols., 1823.) Died about 1862.
Monten, mon'ten, (DIETRICH,) a German battle-
painter, born at Dusseldorf in 1799. Among his prin
cipal works we may name "The Death ot Gustavus
Adolphus." Died in 1843.
Montenault. See MONTHENAUI.T.
Montepin, de, deh moN'ta'paN', (XAVIER AYMON,)
a French novelist, born in Haute-Saone about 1820.
He produced several successful novels, one of which
was condemned in a court of law as subversive of good
morals.
Moiitereau, (PIERRE.) See PIERRE DE MONTERKAU.
Montesinos, mon-ta-see'nos, (FERNANDO,) a Spanish
historian, born at Osufia, wrote a " History of Ancient
Peru," which has been translated by Ternaux-Compans
into French, under the title of " Memoires historiques
de 1'ancien Perou," (1849.) Died about 1660.
See PRESCOTT, "History of the Conquest of Peru," vols. i. and ii.
Montespan, mon'tes-pan', de, |Fr. pron. deh m6\'-
teVp6N', (FRANCOIS ATHENAIS de Rochechouart —
deh rosh'shoo-tR',) MARQUISE, a French lady, of extra
ordinary personal beauty, born in 1641, was a daughter
of the Due de Mortemart. She was married in 1663 to
the Marquis de Montespan. She afterwards succeeded
Mademoiselle de la Valliere as mistress of Louis XIV.
She bore the king eight children, among whom were the
Due de Maine, Louis Cesar, the Comte de Vexin, and
the Comte de Toulouse, besides two sons who died
young. Died in 1707.
See SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires;" MADAME DE SEVIGNE, " Let
ters ;" VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Montesqtiieu, moN'teVke-uh', BARON, a grandson
of the following, was born in 1755. He served as an
officer, with distinction, in the United States, (1779-81.)
In 1792 he became a royalist emigre. He passed many
years in England, where he died about 1824.
Montesquieu, mfin'tes-ku', de, [Fr. pi on. deh moN'-
teVke-uh',] or, more fully, De la Brede et (deh IS bk<\d
a) de~Mcmtesquieu, (CHARLES de Secondat — deh
seh-ko.N'di',) BARON, a brilliant, original, and popular
French author, was born of a noble family near Bor
deaux on the i8th of January, 1689. In his childhood
he formed habits of intense application to study, and
became an insatiable reader. lie has declared that he
never felt a sorrow which an hour's reading would not
dissipate or relieve. Having been educated for the law,
he became a comeiller, or judge, in the parliament of
Bordeaux in 1714, and president a mortier of the same in
1716. The favourite studies of his mature powers were
historical and moral sciences.
In 1721 he acquired a rather sudden celebrity by his
" Persian Letters," a work which combines the attractions
of romance with the resources of rational philosophy,
and presents profound and luminous views of commerce,
law, and social phenomena. Its prodigious success was
due partly to its spirited, keen, and witty satire on French
manners, and its brilliant, piquant style, full of happy
reticences and unexpected contrasts. In 1726 he sold
his office of president, and in 1728 was admitted into
the French Academy. He then began a journey, in
which he visited nearly all the countries of Europe. He
passed two years in England, and was chosen a Fellow
of the Royal Society. In 1734 he produced an admired
work, "Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur
and Decadence of the Romans," the most complete
essay that had appeared on that subject. He afterwards
devoted fourteen years to the composition of his greatest
work, "The Spirit of Laws," ("L'Esprit des Lois," 1748,)
which excited almost universal admiration. In eighteen
months it ran through twenty-two editions. In this
arduous enterprise of exploring the labyrinths of history
and political science he was in advance of his age as an
advocate of liberty and humanity. In reference to this
work, Voltaire said, " The human race had lost its titles ;
Montesquieu found and restored them." He died in
Paris in February, 1755. He had married Mademoiselle
de I.artigues in 1715. His personal character was in a
high degree amiable and estimable.
See VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV et Louis XV ;" D'ALEM-
BERT, "Eloge de Montesquieu ;" VII.I.EMAIN, " Kloge de Montes
quieu," 1826; FRANCOIS RIAUX, " Notice sur Montesquieu." 1849;
MAUPERTUIS. " Eloge de Montesquieu," 1755; " Nouvelle li.o-
graphie Generate. "
Montesquiou, de, deh m6N'teVke-oo', (PIERRE,)
Comte d'Artagnan, a French general, born at the chateau
of Armagnac in 1645. He commanded the right wing
at the battle of Malplaquet, (1709,) soon after which he
became a marshal of France. Died in 1725.
Montesqulou-Fezeiisac, de, deh moN'tes'ke-oo'
feh'zdN'/tk', (AMBKOISE ANATOLE AUGUSTIN,) COUNT,
a French general and poet, born in Paris in 1788, was a
grandson of Anne Pierre, noticed below.
Montesquiou -Fezensac, de, (ANNE PIERRE,)
MARQUIS, a French general and writer, born in Paris in
1739. He was admitted to the French Academy in 1784,
and supported the popular cause in the Revolution. He
commanded the army which conquered Savoy in 1792.
Died in 1798.
See " Histoire de la Maison Montesquiou," Paris, 1847.
Montesquiou-Fezensac, de, (FRANC.OIS XAVIER
MARC ANTOINE,) ABBE, a French ecclesiastic, born near
Auch in 1757. He was a deputy from the clergy of Paris
to the States-General in 1789, and was twice elected
president of the National Assembly. During the reign
of terror he took refuge in England, and, after the second
restoration, was made a duke, and received the title of
minister of state. Died in 1832.
See GIUZOT, "Memoires."
Montesson, de, deh mc-N'ti'siN1', (CHARLOTTE
JEANNE Beraud — ba'ro',) MARQUISE, born in Paris in
1737, was married in 1773 to Louis Philippe, Duke of
Orleans. She was the author of numerous poems and
dramas. Died in 1806.
Monteth. See MONTEITH, (ROBERT.)
Monteverde, mon-ta-v§R'da, (CLAUDIO,) a celebrated
Italian composer, born at Cremona about 1565. He
introduced several great improvements into the science
of music, one of which was the employment of double
discords. His works include sacred music, operas, and
madrigals. The last-named are especially admired. In
1613 he was appointed chapel-master of Saint Mark, at
Venice. Died in 1649.
See FETIS, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens."
Montez. See LOLA MONTEZ.
Mon-te-zu'ma I., called also Moctheuzoma, Aztec
emperor of Mexico, ascended the throne about 1437.
Before this event he had been an eminent general. He
extended the boundaries of his dominions by the con
quest of several adjacent nations. He was a powerful
and despotic monarch, and multiplied human sacrifices.
Died about 1470.
Montezuma II., the last Aztec emperor of Mexico,
was born about 1470. He was elected sovereign in ico2
for his superior merit as a warrior and a priest. When
his election was announced to him, he was in the act of
sweeping the stairs of the great temple Teocalli. In the
former part of his reign he waged war with success
against several peoples, and extended the limits of the
empire. He offended his subjects by his haughty deport
ment, and oppressed them by the imposition of grievous
taxes which were required to support his sumptuous style
of living. In 1519 his empire was invaded by Cortez,
against whom he employed a temporizing policy. He
sent him a magnificent present, but forbade him to ap
proach the capital. "This was to reveal," says Prescott,
" both his wealth and his weakness." Cortez entered the
city of Mexico, without resistance, in November, 1519,
and found a hospitable reception. To secure himself
against contingencies, the audacious Spaniard next seized
Montezuma and held him as a hostage. His captors
tried to convert him to the Roman Catholic religion,
but without success. In compliance with the demand
Fxnlanations, p. 2;, :
MONTFAUCON
1616
MONTGOMERY
of Cortez, he formally recognized the supremacy of the
emperor Charles V., to whom he sent an immense quan
tity of gold as tribute. In May, 1520, Cortez absented
himself from the capital to fight his rival Narvaez, and
during his absence the Mexicans revolted against the
Spaniards. Montezuma was persuaded or compelled by
Cortez to address his subjects and try to appease the
tumult. lie was assailed with missiles by the insur
gents, was wounded, and died in June, 1520. "Stately
and decorous," says Prescott, "he was careful of his
own dignity, and might be said to be as great an 'actor
of majesty' among the barbarian potentates of the New-
World as Louis XIV. was among the polished princes
of Europe. . . . Monteznma's amiable and inoffensive
manners, together with his liberality, — the most popular
of virtues with the vulgar, — made him generally beloved
by the Spaniards."
See W. H. PRF.SCOTT, "History of the Conquest of Mexico;"
BERNAI, DIAZ, " Historia de la Conquista de la Nueva Espana :"
OVIEDO, "Historia de las Indias ;" CLAVIGEKO, " Storia antico del
Messico," i7So.
Montfaucon, de, deh moN'fd'koN', [Lat. MONTEFAL-
CO'NIUS,] (BERNARD,) an eminent French antiquary and
philologist, born in Languedoc in 1655, was a member
of the congregation of Benedictines of Saint- Maur.
Having visited Italy in 1698,116 published, after his re
turn, his " Diarium Italicum," an account of the libra
ries of Italy, " Palaeographia Graeca," a treatise on the
origin and progress of Greek letters, " Antiquity Ex
plained and Represented in Figures," (10 vols. fol., 1719,
in French and Latin,) and "The Monuments of the
French Monarchy," (5 vols., 1729.) He also published
excellent editions of Saint Chrysostom and other Greek
writers. He was a member of the Academy of Inscrip
tions. Died in 1741.
See D. TASSIN, " Histoire litte'raire de la Congregation de Saint-
Maur."
Montferrat, de, (CONRAD.) See CONRAD, Marquis
of Tyre.
Montferrat, de, deh miN'ft'ia", (BONIFACE,) MAR
QUIS, was a brother of Conrad, King of Jerusalem. He
became King of Thessalonica in 1183, and was chosen
the chief of the fifth or fourth crusade in 1202. He
was an able commander, and contributed greatly to the
conquest of Constantinople in 1204. Died in 1207.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Genernle."
Montferrat, de, (GUILLAUME,) MARQUIS, called
THE GREAT, was born in 1243, and began to reign in
1254. He was a turbulent prince and continually en
gaged in war with the neighbouring states. He married
Beatrix, a daughter of Alfonso X. of Castile, in 1271.
Having been taken prisoner in 1290, he was confined in
an iron cage, and died in 1292.
Montferrier, de, deh m6N'fi're-a', (ALEXANDRE
ANDRE VICTOR SARRAZIN,) a French mathematician,
born in Paris in 1792. He published, besides other
works, a " Dictionary of Mathematical Sciences, Pure
and Applied," (3 vols., 1834-40.)
Montfleury, de, deh moN'fluh're', (JEAN LE PETIT,)
a French poet, born at Caen in 1698 ; died in 1777.
Montfort, COUNT DE. See JOHN, Duke of Brittany.
Montfort, mSnt'fort, de, [Fr. pron. deh moN'fok',]
(SIMON,) COUNT, a French nobleman and military com
mander, born about 1 150, was conspicuous for his courage
and for his cruelty in the wars against the Albigenses,
(1208.) He was killed while besieging Toulouse, in 1218.
Montfort, de, (SlMON,) a son of the preceding, ob
tained at an early age the patronage of Henry III. of
England, who made him Earl of Leicester and gave to
him in marriage his sister, the Countess of Pembroke.
He was afterwards appointed lieutenant-general in
Gascony. In 1258, a rupture having occurred between
Henry and his barons, the latter, headed by Montfort,
compelled the king to consent to the regulations called
the Provisions of Oxford, which threw the legislative and
executive power into the hands of twenty-four barons.
Tn 1264 a battle took place at Lewes, in Sussex, in which
the royalists were defeated and the king taken prisoner.
Montfort summoned a Parliament in 1265, in which, in
addition to the two knights returned from every shire,
representatives were sent from the boroughs ; and in this
way was founded the English House of Commons. In
the battle of Evesham, the same year, Montfort was de
feated and slain by the royal troops under Prince Edward.
See R. PAUI.I.I, "Life of Simon de Montfort:" HUMK, " His
tory of England:" "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1866.
Montgaillard, m6N/ga''ytK', (Guiu.AUME HONORE
ROQUES,) a historian, born near Toulouse in 1772. He
wrote a " Chronological Review of the History of France,
etc., 1787-1818," (1820,) which was once popular. Died
in 1825.
Montgaillard, (JEAN GABRIEL MAURICE ROQUES,)
a French adventurer and political writer, a brother of
the preceding, was born at Toulouse in 1761. He was
employed as a secret agent by the Bourbons and by
their enemies. He published a "Memoir concerning
the Treason of Pichegru," etc., and several other works.
Died in 1841.
Montgelas, m6N'zheh-la', (MAXIMILIAN JOSEPH,)
COUNT, a German statesman, of Savoyard extraction,
born at Munich in 1759, was appointed minister of
foreign affairs in 1799, minister of the interior in 1806,
and minister of finance in 1809. Died in 1838.
Montgolfier, mont-g6l'fc-er, | Fr. pron. moN'gol'.
fe^A',] (JACQUES firiENNE,) an ingenious Frenchman, who
invented the air-balloon, was born at or near Annonay
(Ardeche) in 1745. After studying mathematics with
success at Paris, he became an architect. At the request
of his father, he quitted that profession in order to take
charge of the paper-manufactory at Annonay. He in
vented new machines and more simple processes in this
art. On reading Priestley's treatise " On Different Kinds
of Air," he conceived the possibility of aerial navigation,
and imparted the idea to his brother Joseph, who was ns
another self. Acting in concert and community, they
contrived the means of realizing this project. After
trying hydrogen gas and other fluids, they made the first
public experiment at Annonay in June, 1783, and sent
up a balloon about thirty-seven French feet in diameter,
inflated with air rarefied by heat. This successful ex
periment made a great sensation, and was soon repeated
at Paris. The brothers were admitted into the Acad
emy of Sciences. Their balloons were called Montgol-
fieres. The first who successfully used hydrogen gas in
balloons was M. Charles. Montgolfier died in 1799. (See
CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRIA)
See C. L. BKIGHTWEI.I., "Annals of Industry and Genius,"
London, 1863.
Montgolfier, (JOSEPH MICHEL,) an ingenious French
mechanician, born at Annonay in 1740, was one of the
inventors of the air-balloon. In his youth he assisted
his father, who was a successful manufacturer of paper.
In partnership with a brother, he carried on the same
business at Voiron and Beaujeu. He had made several
improvements in the fabrication of paper before his
aerostatic experiments blazoned his name throughout
Europe. (See the preceding article.) About 1792 he
made a valuable improvement in the hydraulic ram.
He also invented a hydraulic press and other mechanical
instruments. He was a member of the Institute of
France. Died in 1810.
See DKI.\MI;KK. '• Ivo-e de Joseph Mont-oltV-r."
Moiitgomerie, (ARCIIIHAI.D WILLIAM.) See EGI.IN-
TON.
Montgomery, mont-gum'e-re, (ALEXANDER,) a Scot
tish poet under the reign of James VI., was the author
of an allegorical piece entitled "The Cherry and the
Slae." Died about 1610.
See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Montgomery, mont-gum'e-re, (GEORGE WASHING
TON,) a native of Spain, settled in America, where he
published "Bernardo del Carpio," a historical romance,
and translated into Spanish Irving's "Conquest of
Granada." Died in 1841.
Montgomery, (Sir JAMES,) a Scottish politician, and
a chief of the Covenanters. He was appointed lord
justice clerk in 1689. "In parliamentary ability and
eloquence," says Macaulay, " he had no superior among
his countrymen except Sir John Dalrymple." He was
turbulent and perfidious. In 1690 he joined the Jacob
ites in plotting against William III.
See MACAULAY, " History of England," vol. iii.
I, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m&t; nftt; good; moon;
MONTGOMERT
1617
MONTIGNT
Montgomery, (JAMES,) a distinguished poet, born in
Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1771, was the son of a Moravian
preacher. He was sent at an early age to the Moravian
school at Fulneck, in Yorkshire, where his progress was
not very satisfactory to his teachers, as he spent the
greater part of his time in reading and writing poetry,
which was prohibited by the rules of the school. After
leaving Fulneck, he resided for a time, as shopman in a
book-store, in London, and in 1792 began to contribute
political articles tc 'he "Sheffield Register," edited by
Mr. Joseph Gales. He founded in 1794 a reform jour
nal, called the ".Sheffield Iris," of which he was editor
about thirty year;.. Several of his articles having been
denounced as revolutionary, he was twice fined and
imprisoned. He published in 1806 his " Wanderer of
Switzerland," which was followed by " The West Indies,"
(1809,) "The World before the Flood," (1812,) and "The
Pelican Island," (1827.) These poems are distinguished
for depth and tenderness of feeling, elevated moral
sentiment, and graceful description. He also wrote a
number of hymns of great beauty, which enjoy exten
sive popularity. One of Mr. Montgomery's last works
was a " History of Missionary Enterprise in the South
Seas," (1830.) Died in 1854.
See " Memoirs of tlie Life, etc. of James Montgomery," by J.
HOLLAND and JAMES EVKRKTT; "Lite of Montgomery," by MRS.
H. (_'. KNIGHT; CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent
Scotsmen," (Supplement :) "London Quarterly Review" for Decem
ber, 1811; "Blackwood's Maga/ine" ior October, 1827; "Eraser's
Magazine" for July, 1833, and October, 1856.
Montgomery, (RICHARD,) a distinguished general,
born in Ireland in 1737, served in Canada under Wolfe,
and subsequently entered the American army. Being
appointed commander of the forces in the Northern
department, he took Fort Chambly and Montreal. He
was killed in December, 1775, in an assault upon Quebec.
See " Lite of Richard Montgomery," by JOHN ARMSTRONG, in
SPAKKS'S "American Biography," vol. i., first series; "National
Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv.
Montgomery, mont-giim'e-re, (ROBERT,) an English
divine and poet, born at Bath in 1807. He was the
author of a poem entitled "The Omnipresence of the
Deity,'' (1828,) which had great temporary success, eight
editions being sold in as many months. . He became in
1843 pastor of Percy Street Chapel, London. The extra
ordinary success of his poetry was chiefly to be ascribed
to the nature of his subject and the favour of a large
portion of the religious community. Died in 1855.
See MACAUI.AY, in the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1830;
"Autobiography of Wiliiam Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. xvii. ; "New
Spirit of the Age," by R. H. HORNK.
Montgomery, (WILLIAM R.,) an American officer,
born in New Jersey, served in the Mexican war, became
brigadier-general of volunteers in the Union army in
1861, and military commandant of Philadelphia in 1862.
Montgomery, mont-giiir/e-re, de, [ Fr. pron. deh
moN'gom're',] (GABRIEL,) a French nobleman, of Scot
tish extraction, born about 1530. Being present at a
tournament given by Henry II. on the occasion of his
daughter's marriage with the King of Spain, Montgomery
was summoned by the French king to break a lance with
him. lie complied reluctantly, and had the misfortune
to inflict a mortal wound on his antagonist. He subse
quently went to England, where he became a Protestant,
and, after his return to France in 1562, distinguished
himself as a leader of the Huguenots in the civil war of
the time. Being made prisoner by Marshal Matignon
at the siege of Saint-Lo, in 1574, he was condemned to
death and executed, by order of Catherine de Medicis.
"The queen," says Sismondi, "had no great affection
for Henry II., or cause to regret him ; but she wished
that a man should not be considered innocent after
having, even by accident, caused the death of a king."
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Francais ;" BRANTOME, " Capi-
taines illustres."
Montgon.de, deh mdN'goN', (CHARLES AI.EXANDRE,)
a French priest, born at Versailles in 1690. He entered
the service of Philip V. of Spain, who sent him on a
secret mission to the court of Paris. He published
"Diplomatic Memoirs," (5 vols., 1742.) Died in 1770.
Monthenault or Montenault d'^gly, moN'teh'no'
da'gle', (CHARLES PHILIPPE,) a French writer, born in
Paris in 1696. His chief work is a "History of the
French Kings of the Two Sicilies," (4 vols., 1741.) Died
in 1749.
Monthion, de, deh m6N/te/6N/, (FRANCOIS GEDEON
BAII.I.Y,) COMTE, a French general, born in the Isle of
Bourbon in 1776; died in 1850.
Montholon, de, deh m6.N'to'16N', (CHARLES TRIS
TAN,) MARQUIS, a French general, born in Paris in 1782.
He entered the army in 1798, and accompanied Napo
leon in the subsequent campaigns in Italy, Austria, and
Prussia. He was sent in 1811 on an important embassy
to the archduke Ferdinand at Wurzburg, and in 1814
was made general of brigade. He shared the emperor's
exile at Saint Helena, and served him with unwearied
fidelity till his death, being appointed by him executor
of his will and keeper of part of his manuscripts. After
his return to France, Montholon published, in conjunc
tion with General Gourgaud, "Memoirs towards the
History of France under Napoleon, dictated by Himself
at Saint Helena," (1823.) He also wrote an "Account
of the Captivity of Napoleon at Saint Helena," (1847.)
Died in 1853.
See " Biographic du General Montholon," 1849; " London Quar
terly Review" for March, 1848.
Monthyon. See MONTVON.
Monti, mon'tee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian
poet, born at Bologna in 1688; died in 1766.
Monti, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian botanist, born at Bo
logna in 1682. He published several botanical works.
Died at Bologna in 1760.
Monti, (RAFAEI.LE,) an Italian sculptor, born at
Milan in 1818. Among his master-pieces may be named
the " Veiled Vestal," the " Boy catching a Grasshopper,"
and the "Circassian Slave." He was an active sup
porter of the popular cause in 1847-48, since which he
has lived as an exile in London.
Monti, (ViNCKNZO,) a celebrated Italian poet, born
near Ferrara in 1753. ^e studied in the university of
that city, and began at an early age to write Latin and
Italian poems. These compositions obtained for him
the notice and patronage of Cardinal Borghese, who took
Monti with him to Rome in 1778. He published in 1785
his tragedy of " Aristodemo," which was received with
great favour. His poem entitled " Bassvilliana," (1793,)
suggested by the murder of Hugo de Bassville, envoy of
the French republic at Rome, had also great popularity,
and passed through eighteen editions in six months.
Upon the French invasion in 1796, Monti repaired to
Milan, where, accommodating himself to the new order
of things, he wrote in favour of the Revolution. Some
of his writings, which originally contained bitter in
vectives against Napoleon, were now altered so as
to transfer the abuse to the allied sovereigns. On the
Russian invasion in 1799 he took refuge for a time in
France, and, soon after his return, published his tragedy
of " Caio Gracco," "La Mascheroniana," a poem on
the death of his friend Mascheroni, and his beautiful
and popular hymn beginning " Bell' Italia," etc. Monti
became in 1803 professor of eloquence at Pavia, and on
the coronation of Napoleon, in 1805, was appointed his
historiographer. He filled this office rather as court
poet than historian, and lavished a profusion of eulogistic
verses on the emperor and his family. He was created
by him a chevalier of the legion of honour and of the
iron crown, and was chosen a member of the Institute
of the kingdom of Italy. Died in 1828.
See " Notizie sulla Vita e suil'lnpiepno di Vincenzo Monti," 1828 :
ZUCCAI.A, " Klogio storico cii V. Monti," 1828; BOZOI.I, "Ragiona-
mento della Vita e delle Opere cli V. Monti," 1837 '• " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Ge'nerale :" TIPATDO. "Biogiafia degli Ita'.iani illustri ;"
LONGFF.I.I.OW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Blackwood's Maga
zine" for February. 18.26 ; " t raser's Magazine" for November, 1832.
Montiano y Lnyando, de, da mon-te-a'no e loo-
yan'do, (AUGUSTIN,) a Spanish dramatist, born in 1697 ;
died in 1759.
Monticelli, mon-te-chel'lee, (ANDREA,) a skilful
Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1640, painted land
scapes, flowers, fruits, etc. Died in 1716.
Montigny, moN'ten'ye', (FLORENCE de Montmo-
rency — deh mi.N'mo'roN'se',) LORD OF, a Flemish
nobleman, was ambassador to Spain in 1562. Being
sent on a second mission in 1566, he was arrested by
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
102
Explanations, p. 23.)
MONTIGNT
1618
MONTMORENCT
order of Philip II., accused of high treason, and exe
cuted in 1570.
See PRBSCOTT, " History of Philip II.," vol. i. book ii. and vol.
ii. book iii.
Montigny, miN'ten'ye', (ROSE MARIE Cizos,) a
popular French actress of comedy, known as ROSE
CHEKIE, was born at fitampes in 1824.
Montigny, de, deh moN'ten'ye', (JEAN,) a French
poet, born in Bretagne in 1637, was a member of the
French Academy, and Bishop of Leon. Died in 1671.
Moiitjoie, m6N'zhwa', ((JHiusToi'iiE FELIX Louis
VENTRE DE LA TOULOUHKE,) a French political writer,
born at Aix in 1746. lie was a royalist in the Revo
lution of 1789-95. He wrote, besides other works, a
"History of the Conspiracy of Robespierre," (1796.)
Died in 1816.
Montjosieu, de, deh moN'zho'ze-uh', (Louis,) a
French scholar and writer, born in Rouergue. He visited
Rome in 1583. Among his works is "The Frenchman
a Guest at Rome," (" Callus Romae Hospes," 1585.)
Montlosier, de, deh m6.N'lo'ze-i', (KKANC.OIS DO
MINIQUE Reynaud — i i'no',) CoMrTT, a French journal
ist, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1755. He was a deputy
to the States-General in 1789, and was a prominent ad
vocate of the aristocratic party. He repaired to London,
where he edited an anti-revolutionary journal called the
" Courrier de Loud res." On his return to France,
during the consulate, he modified or abandoned his roy
alist views. He was also for a time one of the editors
of the " Constitutionnel." Having attached himself to
the new dynasty on the revolution of July, he was
made a peer in 1832. He wrote a work " On the French
Monarchy from its Establishment to the Present Time."
Died in 1838.
See BARANTE, "Notice sur la Vie de M. le Comte de Montlo
sier," 1842; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1823.
Montluc, de, deh mdN'liik', (BuvisE de Lasseran-
Massencome — deh las'rfiN' mt'sSN'kom',) SEIGNEUR,
a French marshal, born in Gascony in 1501. He fought
against the Imperialists commanded by the emperor
Charles V., and assisted at the sieges of La Rochelle
and Calais. In 1573 he was made a marshal by Henry
III. He died in 1577, leaving "Memoirs of his Military
Life," (1592,) which were praised by Henry IV. and
often reprinted.
Montluc, de, QEAN,) a bishop, the brother of the
preceding, was born about 1508, and was distinguished
by the favour of Francis I. and Henry II., who employed
him in various embassies. He became Bishop of Valence
in 1553. He is said to have been secretly attached to
the Reformed religion ; but he retained the favour of
Catherine de Medicis. Died in 1579.
See BRANTOME, " Capitaines ilhistres."
Montluc, de, (JEAN,) Seigneur de Balagni, and mar
shal of France, a natural son of the preceding, was
born about 1545. After he had fought for the League
against Henry IV., he entered the service of the latter,
who made him a marshal of France in 1594. Died
in 1603.
Montmaur, de, deh miN'moR', (PIERRE,) a pedantic
and witty Frenchman, born in Limousin or Le Quercy
about 1564. He was professor of Greek in the College
de France, and was notorious as a parasite. Died in 1648.
See SALL.ENGRE, " Histoire de P. de Montmaur," 2 vols., 1715.
Montmorency. See LUXEMBOURG.
Montmorency or Montniorenci, m6nt-mo-ren'se,
[Fr. pron. mdN'mo'rSN'se',] the name of a noble French
family, whose celebrity dates as far back as the eleventh
century, and which has produced many famous princes,
peers, and generals. Among them were six constables
and eleven marshals of France.
Montmorency, de, deh miN'mo'rSN'se', (ANNE,)
Due, Constable of France, born at Chantilly in 1493,
was the first of his family that received the title of duke.
He was made a marshal in 1522, and was taken prisoner
at Pavia in 1525. In 1536, by skilful manoeuvres, he
defended Provence, which was invaded by Charles V. in
person. He was appointed constable in 1538, and was
chief minister of P'rancis I. from that date until 1541,
when he fell into disgrace. Henry II. restored him to
favour and power in 1547. Montmorency was defeated
and made prisoner at the battle of Saint-Quentin, in 1557.
The death of Henry II., in 1559, was fatal to his am
bitious prospects, and opened the way for the accession
to power of his rival the Due de Guise. He fought for
the Catholic party in the civil war, and in 1562 com
manded at Dreux, where he gained the victory, but
was made prisoner. He was mortally wounded at the
battle of Saint-Denis, in 1567. He has been censured
for austerity and excessive rigour, but had several great
qualities.
See DE THOU, " Histovia sui Temporis ;" BRANTOME, " Vies des
Homines illnstres;" LESCONVEI., "Anne de Montmorency," 1696;
DAVII.A, " History of the Civil Wars of France ;" " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Ge'ne'rale ;" TAVANNES, "Memoires;" ROBERTSON, " His
tory of Charles V.," vols. ii. and iii.
Montmorency, de, (CHARLES,) a French general,
who became a marshal of France in 1343. He fought
against the English at Crecy in 1346. Died in 1381.
Montmorency, de, (CHARLOTTE MARGUERITE,) a
French lady, born in 1594, was the sister of Duke Henri
II. de Montmorency. She was married to Henri, Prince
de Conde, about 1609. Her beauty made such an im
pression on the king, Henry IV., that her husband was
alarmed, and conducted her to a foreign country. She
was the mother of the great Conde, of the Prince of
Conti, and of the Duchess of Longueville. Died in 1650.
See BAZIN, "Histoire de Louis XIII ;" L'EsxoiLE, "Memoires,"
etc.
Montmorency, de, (HENRY I.,) Due, the second
son of Anne, noticed above, was styled COMTE DE
DAMVILLE in his youth. He was a cousin of Admiral
Coligni. At the battle of Dreux, in 1562, he took the
Prince of Conde prisoner, and in 1566 obtained a mar
shal's baton. He rendered important services to Henry
IV., who appointed him Constable of France in 1593.
Died in 1614. It is stated that a mutual passion was
felt by him and Mary Queen of Scots, whom he fol
lowed to Scotland in 1561.
Montmorency, de, (HENRI II.,) Due, a son of the
preceding, was born at Chantilly in 1595. His valour,
generosity, and name rendered him a great favourite with
the court, the army, and the people. He commanded
for Louis XIII. in the civil war against the Huguenots
which began about 1620, and defeated the Due de
Rohan in 1628. For his victory over the Imperialists at
Veillane, in 1629, he was made a marshal. Seduced by
Gaston, a brother of Louis XIII. and heir-presumptive
to the throne, and incited by enmity to Richelieu, he took
arms against the government, and encountered the royal
army at Castelnandary in 1632. With too impetuous
valour, he exposed himself at the head of his army, was
wounded, and made prisoner. He was tried for treason,
and beheaded in October, 1632. He left no issue, and
the first ducal branch of the Montmorencies then became
extinct. His sister was the mother of the great Prince
de Conde and of the Duchesse de Longueville.
See DESORMEAUX, " Histoire de la Maison de Montmorency."
Montmorency, de, (MATHIEU I.,) was appointed
Constable of France about 1130, and was the most pow
erful French seigneur of his time. He married first
Aline, daughter of Henry I. of England, and secondly
Alix or Adelaide, the widow of Louis le Gros and
mother of Louis VII. of France. He died in 1160,
leaving several children by his first wife.
See DESORMEAUX, " Histoire de la Maison de Montmorency."
Montmorency, de, (MATHIEU II.,) surnamed LE
GRAND, a grandson of the preceding, was born about
1174. He contributed greatly to the victory of the
French at Bouvines, in 1214. In 1218 he obtained the
office of constable, which his talents and merits raised
to be the highest office of the kingdom. The Constable
of France was thenceforth ex officio commander-in-chief
of the army. He had great influence in the reign of
Louis VIII. and in that of his successor. He was nearly
related to two emperors and six kings. His grand
daughter married Louis de Bourbon, a great-great
grandfather of Henry IV. Died in 1230.
See DESORMEAUX, "Histoire de la Maison de Montmorency."
Montmorency, de, ( MATHIEU JEAN FELICITE
de Montmorency-Laval — deh m6N/mo/r6N/se/ lt'-
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
MONTMORIN
1619
MONTTON
vfl',) Due, a French statesman, born in Paris in 1766,
was a friend of La Fayette, in company with whom he
served in the war of American Independence. He was
a deputy to the States-General in 1789, and was an ad
vocate of liberal reform. On the restoration he became
a zealous royalist, and was made a peer by Louis XVIII.
He was appointed minister of foreign affairs in 1821,
president of the cabinet, and governor to the Duke of
Bordeaux in 1823. He was also a member of the French
Academy. Died in 1826.
See DE GERANDO, " filoge de M. de Montmorency," 1826; CHA-
TEAUHRIAND, " Meiiioires d'Outre-Tombe ;" VETILLAKD, "Notice
sur la Vie de M. le Due de Montmorency," 1826.
Mcmtmoriu Saint-Herem, de, deh moN'mo'ra.N'
saN-/?a'i6N', (AuMANU MARC,) COMTK, a French states
man, born about 1745. He succeeded Count Vergennes
as minister of foreign affairs in 1787, and became min
ister of the interior in 1791. He was condemned to
death by the Revolutionary Tribunal, and executed in
September, 1792.
See DKOZ, " Histoire de Louis XVI;" LAMARTINE, "History
of the Girondists."
Montmort, de, deh moN'mon', (PIERRE REMOND,)
a French mathematician, born in Paris in, 1678, was a
pupil of Malebranche. He was the author of a popular
work entitled " Analytical Essay on Games of Chance."
He was a member of the French Academy of Sciences,
and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. He con
tributed to the " Philosophical Transactions" of that
institution a valuable essay "On Infinite Series." Died
in 1719.
See KONTENELLE, " filoges des Academiciens."
Moiitolieu, de, deh moN'tu'l.e-uh', (JEANNE ISAKELLE
PAULINE Polier de Bottens— po'le-4' deh bo't6N',)
Dame de Crousaz and Baronne, a Swiss novelist, born
at Lausanne in 1751 ; died in 1832.
Montorfano, mon-tou'fa-no, (GIOVANNI DONATO,)
an Italian painter of the latter part of the fifteenth
century.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Montorsoli, mon-toR'so-lee, (Fra GIOVANNI AN-
GELO,) a celebrated Italian sculptor and architect, born
at Montorsoli, near Florence, about 1500. He was
employed in several works by Michael Angelo, whose
lasting friendship he acquired. He was selected by
Pope Clement VII. to restore the famous group of
Laocoon and the Apollo Belvedere. Among his master
pieces we may name the fountain in front of the cathe
dral at Messina, and the grand altar of the Church dei
Servi della Nunziata at Bologna. Died in 1563.
See CICOGNARA, " Storia della Scultura ;" VASARI, " Lives of the
Painters, Sculptors," etc. ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale. "
Montpensier, de, deh moN'p6N'se-i', (ANNE MA
RIE LOUISE D'ORI.EANS,) DucHKSSE.^Tomrnonly called
MADEMOISELLE, was born in Paris in 1627. She was
the daughter of Gaston, Duke of Orleans, and cousin of
Louis XIV. Of a bold and energetic character, she
became a zealous adherent of the party of Conde in the
wars of the Fronde. She rendered several important
services to that faction, among which was the capture
of the town of Orleans. About 1670 she was married
to Count Lauzun. She died in 1693, leaving Memoirs
which possess much interest.
See VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" SAINT-SIMON, " Me-
moires ;" "Mademoiselle's Campaigns," in the "Atlantic Monthly"
for July, 1858.
Montpensier, de, (ANTOINE MARIK PHILIPPE Louis
D'ORLEANS,) Due, a younger son of King Louis Philippe
of France, was born at Neuilly in 1824. He served with
distinction in Algeria in 1844 and 1845, obtained the
rank of marechal de camp in 1846, and married in that
year Maria Luisa Fernanda de Bourbon, a sister of Isa
bella, Queen of Spain. In 1858 Queen Isabella gave
him the rank of captain-general. He was a candidate for
the vacant throne of Spain in 1869. In March, 1870, he
killed Prince Henry of Bourbon in a duel near Madrid.
Montpensier, de, (ANTOINE PHILIPPE D'ORI.EANS,)
Due, a younger brother of King Louis Philippe of
France, was born in 1775. He was arrested in April,
1793, and imprisoned until 1796. Died near London
in 1807.
Montpensier, de, (CATHERINE MARIE de Lorraine
— deh lo'rin',) DUCHESSE, a French lady, born in 1552,
was a sister of Henri, Due de Guise. She acted with
the League, and fomented rebellion against Henry III.
of France. Died in 1596.
Montpetit, de, deh moN'peh-te', (ARMAND VIN
CENT,) a French painter, born at Macon in 1713. He
was the inventor of a method of painting which he called
eludoriqite, (elydoric.) He published an account of his
invention in a work entitled "Note interessante sur les
Moyens de conserver les Portraits peints a 1'Huile,"
etc., (1776.) Died in 1800.
Montreuil, de, deh moN'tRu!' or moN'tRuh'ye,
(ISERNARDIN,) a French Jesuit and theologian, born
in Paris in 1596, wrote a "Life of Christ taken from
the Four Gospels," (1637,) and other religious works.
Died in 1646.
Montreuil, de, sometimes written Montereul, (MA-
THIEU,) a French poet, born in Paris in 1611; died in
1691.
Montrichard, miN're'shfR', (JOSEPH fii.iE DESIRE
PERRUQUET,)a Flench general, born in 1760. He com
manded the right wing at the battle of Trebbia, June,
1799. Died in 1828.
Montrond, de, deh miN'troN', (CLEMENT MELCHIOR
JUSTIN MAXIME FouRCHEUX,)a French writer, born in
Gard in 1805. He wrote, besides other works, a "His
tory of the Crusades," (2 vols., 1841.)
Montrose, mont-roz', (JAMES GRAHAME,) MARQUIS
OF, a celebrated Scottish general, born at Edinburgh in
1612. Having finished his studies in France, after his
return to Scotland he served for a time in the Pres
byterian army ; but he subsequently went over to the
royalists. He was appointed by Charles I., in 1644,
Marquis of Montrose, and commander-in-chief of the
Scottish forces. He signally defeated the Covenanters at
Tippermuir in 1644, also at Inverlochy and at Kilsyth
in 1645; but his army was surprised and totally defeated
by General Leslie at Philiphaugh in September, 1645.
Montrose soon after went to Germany, where he was
received with great distinction by the Austrian emperor
and made a marshal of the empire. Having collected
a small but ill-organized force, he returned to Scotland
in 1650, but was soon after defeated and taken pris
oner. He was executed, without a trial, at Edinburgh,
in May, 1650.
See CLARENDON, " History of the Rebellion;" MARK NAPIER,
" Montrose and the Covenanters," 1838 ; GRANT, " Life of Grahame,
Marquis of Montrose," 1859; GEORGE WISHART, "Memoirs of
Grahame, Marquis of Montrose ;" SIR EDWARD CUST, "Lives of
the Warriors of the Civil Wars," 1867 ; " London Quarterly Review"
for December, 1846 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for June, 1841.
Montucci, mon-toot'chee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian
philologist, born at Sienna in 1762, became in 1785
professor of the English language in the Tolomei Col
lege, and subsequently of Italian at Berlin and Dresden.
He died in 1829, leaving unfinished a Chinese Dictionary.
Montucla, moN'tu'ula"', QEAN ETIENNE,) a French
mathematician, born at Lyons in 1725. Having studied
philology and natural science at the Jesuits' College at
Lyons, he visited Paris, where he became associate editor
of the " Gazette de France" and formed an intimacy with
Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savants of the time. In
1764 he accompanied Turgot to Cayenne, as first secre
tary and astronomer to the expedition. After his return
he was appointed royal censor of mathematical books
and commissioner of the royal buildings. He was a
member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and of
the Institute of France. His most important work is
his "History of Mathematics," (1758,) which was com
pleted by Lalande. He also wrote a " History of the
Researches for Determining the Quadrature of the
Circle," and several other treatises. Died in 1799.
See A. SAVINIEN-LEBLOND, "Notice historique sur la Vie de J.
fi. Montucla," 1800.
Montureux. See BOURCIER.
Monty on or Monthyon, de, deh moN'te-fiN', (JEAN
BAPTISTE ROHEKT Auget — o'zhi',) BARON, a wealthy
and philanthropic P'rench nobleman, born in Paris in
1733. He bequeathed the greater part of his large
fortune to benevolent and learned institutions, and was
the founder of the "Montyon Prize of Virtue" given
c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MONPEL
1620
MOORE
by the French Academy. He published " Researches
and Considerations on the Population of France," and
other works. " His name," says Lamartine, " was the
foremost on the roll of the national nobility." Died
in 1820.
See B. V. FRANKLIN, "FJoqje historique de Montyon," Paris,
1834; CHAZET, "Vie de M. de Montyon," 1829: ANDRIEUX, "filoge
de A. J. B. R. Auget," etc., 1834; " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'-
rale. "
Monvel, mdN'veV, (JACQUES MARIE BOUTET,) a
French actor and dramatist, born at Luneville in 1745,
was the author of numerous comedies and comic operas.
Died in 1812.
Monville, de. See BOISSEL.
Monvoisin, mdN'vwa'zaN', ( RAYMOND AUGUSTE
QUINSAC,) a French historical painter, born at Bordeaux
in 1795, studied in Paris under Pierre Guerin.
Moojaert, mS'ytRt, written also Mooyaert, (CLAS,)
a Dutch landscape-painter and engraver, born at Am
sterdam about 1590. He was the master of Berghem
and Jan Weeninx.
Moollah-Firooz (or Moullah-Firouz) Ben-Ka-
woos, a Persian poet, born at Bombay in 1759. He
wrote an epic poem, entitled " George-Nameh," on the
conquest of India by the British. Died in 1831.
Moonen, mo'nen, (ARNOLD,) a Dutch theologian,
distinguished as a poet and grammarian, was born at
Zwolle in 1644. He became minister of a Protestant
church at Deventer. His poems were published in 2
vols., 1720. Died in 1711.
Moor, moor,? (EDWARD,) F.R.S., an English writer,
born about 1770. He served several campaigns in India,
and obtained the rank of major. He published, besides
other works, "The Hindu Pantheon," (410, 1810.) Died
in 1848.
Moor, van, vtu moR, Moro, or More, (ANTONIS or
ANTONIO,) a celebrated Dutch portrait-painter, born at
Utrecht in 1519, was a pupil of Jan Schooreel. He was
patronized by Cardinal Granvelle, the emperor Charles
V., and Philip II., and painted the portraits of the prin
cipal Sovereigns of Europe. His works in this depart
ment are of the highest order. He also executed several
historical pictures of great merit. Died in 1568.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Moor, van, (KAREL,) a Dutch portrait-painter, of high
reputation, born at Leyden in 1656, studied under Ge
rard Domv and Mieris. Among his best works are por
traits of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marl borough
on horseback. He was created a knight of the empire
by the Austrian emperor Joseph I. His "Assembly
of Notables," in the Hotel de Ville at the Hague, is also
esteemed a master-piece. Died about 1738.
See PII.KINGTON, " Dictionary of Painters;" DESCAMPS, "Vies
des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ; CHARLES BLANC, "His-
toire des Peintres."
Moorad-Alee or Mourad-Ali, moo-rSd a'lee, called
also Moorad Khan, (Kin,) King of Persia, of the Zend
dynasty, was born at Ispahan about 1746. He defended
himself for a time successfully against several rivals ; but
he was at length defeated by Jaafar Khan in 1784. Died
in 1785.
See MALCOLM, " History of Persia."
Moorad (Mourad or Murad) Bey, moo-rid ba, a
celebrated Mameluke chief, born in Circassia in 1750.
On the invasion of Egypt by the French, in 1798, he
opposed them with great bravery, but was at length
compelled to retreat. He subsequently made a treaty
with General Kleber, by which he became Prince of
Assouan and Djirdjeh, under the protection of France.
Died in 1801.
See GENERAL PIERTRAND. "Campagnes d'fipypte et de Syrie,"
1847; THIERS, "History of the French Revolution."
Mooravief or Mooraviev, moo-ra-ve-eT, written
in German Murawiew or Murawjew, but pro
nounced exactly like the preceding spellings, (ANDREW,)
a Russian writer and traveller, was a younger brother
of General Nicholas Mooravief. He published, in Ger
man, a "History of the Russian Church," (1845,) a
"Description of Armenia," (3 vols., 1848,) and other
works.
Mooravief or Murawiew, (MICHAEL,) a Russian
engineer and general, born about 1795, was a brother
of the preceding. He became a member of the imperial
council about 1850. Died in 1866.
Mooravief or Murawiew, (MICHAEL NIKITICH,) a
Russian litterateur, born at Smolensk in 1757, was ap
pointed preceptor to the grand dukes Alexander and
Constantiue. He was the author of" Historical Pieces,"
"Letters of Emilius," and several moral and literary
essays, which are ranked among Russian classics. Died
in 1807.
See GRETCH, " Essai sur 1'Histoire de la Litterature Russe."
Mooravief, Mouraviev, Muraview, or Mura-
vjeff, (NICHOLAS,) an able Russian general, born at
Moscow in 1793. He served as general in the war
against the Poles, (1830.) In 1854 he obtained com
mand of an army in Asia. He took Kars from the
British, after a long siege, in November, 1855. He
afterwards commanded with success against Schamyl,
the Circassian chief. Died in 1866.
Moorcroft, moor'kroft, ? (WILLIAM,) an English trav
eller, born in Lancaster about 1780, spent several years
in Hindostan, and explored parts of the country hitherto
unknown to Europeans. He was the author of " Travels
in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindostan," etc., (1841,)
"On the Purik Sheep of Ladakh," and other works.
Died in 1825.
Moore, mor, (ALFRED,) an American jurist, son of
Maurice, noticed below, was born in Brunswick county,
North Carolina, in 1755. He was appointed associate
justice of the supreme court of the United States in 1799.
Died in 1810.
Moore, (BENJAMIN,) an American clergyman, born
on Long Island in 1748, became Bishop of the Protestant
Episcopal Church of the diocese of New York. Died
in 1816.
Moore, (CLEMENT C.,) LL.D.,son of the preceding,
was born in New York in 1779. He was appointed
in 1821 professor of Hebrew and Greek literature in
the Protestant Episcopal Seminary in New York. He
published a " Hebrew-and-English Lexicon," and other
works.
Moore, mor, (EDWARD,) an English litterateur, born in
Berkshire in 1712. He was the author of "Fables foi
the Female Sex," which had great popularity, and "The
Gamester," a tragedy, which was also very successful.
He was one of the editors of "The World," a literary
journal having among its contributors Horace Walpole,
Soame Jenyns, and Lord Chesterfield. Died in 1757.
See WALPOLE, "Letters ;" JOHNSON and CHALMERS, "English
Poets."
Moore, (EDWARD M.,) M.D., an American surgeon,
born at Rahway, New Jersey, July 15, 1814, graduated
at the University of Pennsylvania in 1838. In 1838, in
conjunction with Dr. C. L. Pennock, of Philadelphia,
he performed a series of original experiments on the
physiological action of the heart, which excited much
attention among physiologists. About 1840 he removed
to Rochester, New York, where he soon acquired a high
reputation in his profession. For many years he has
filled the chair of surgery in the medical college at
Buffalo.
Moore, (FRANK,) son of Jacob Bailey, noticed
below, has published "Songs and Ballads of the Amer
ican Revolution," the " Rebellion Record, a Diary
of American Events," (11 vols., 1861-68,) and several
other works.
Moore, (JACOB BAILEY,) an American political writer
and editor, born at Andover, New Hampshire, in 1797.
He edited the " New Hampshire Statesman," a Whig
paper, and became librarian to the New York Historical
Society. Among his works is "The Laws of Trade in
the United States." Died iu 1853.
Moore or More, (JAMES,) an English writer, was the
author of a comedy entitled "The Rival Modes," and
was associated with the Duke of Wharton as editor of
"The Inquisitor." Moore is satirized by Pope in his
"Dunciad." Died in 1734.
Moore, QOHN,) an English prelate, born in 1644, be
came successively Bishop of Norwich and of Ely. He
died in 1714, leaving a library of thirty thousand volumes,
a, e, T, o, 11, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short ; a, e, i, o. obscure: far. fall, fat: m?t: not; good; moon;
MOORE
1621
MOOSA
which was purchased by George II. and presented to
the University of Cambridge.
Moore, mor, (JOHN,) a Scottish physician and distin
guished writer, born at Stirling about 1730. He studied
under Hamilton and Cullen at Glasgow, and afterwards
spent several years on the continent. He published,
after his return, "A View of Society and Manners in
France, Switzerland, and Germany," (1778,) which was
followed in 1781 by a similar work on Italy. They are
written in .a lively and attractive style, and had great
popularity at the time. His principal work is his novel
of "Zeluco," (4 vols., 1789,) which was received with
great favour and still enjoys a high reputation. Died
in 1802.
See CHAMBERS " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Moore, (JoiiN,) an English prelate, born at Gloucester
in 1733. He became Bishop of Bangor in 1776, and
Archbishop of Canterbury in 1783. Died in 1805.
Moore, (Sir JOHN,) a celebrated British general, born
at Glasgow in 1761, was the eldest son of Dr. John
Moore, noticed above. He entered the army at the age
of fifteen, and was sent in 1794 to Corsica, where he
acted in conjunction with Paoli, and was conspicuous
for his courage in the attack on Fort Morello and at the
siege of Calvi. As general of brigade, he served under
Sir Ralph Abercrombie in the West Indies in 1796, and
in 1798 assisted in quelling the Irish rebellion. He
accompanied General Abercrombie to Egypt in 1801,
and was severely wounded at the battle of Alexandria.
He was made a knight of the Bath on his return to
England, and, after various services in Sicily and Sweden,
was created lieutenant-general, and sent in 1808 to Spain
to unite with the forces in the north against the French.
On the news of the defeat of the Spanish troops along
the northern frontier, and of the numerous French armies
approaching, he made a rapid retreat to Coruna, which,
being performed in the depth of winter, was attended
with great suffering. On the i6th of January, 1809, an
engagement took place at Corunna, in which the English
claimed the victory but lost their brave commander.
His death has been commemorated by the poet Wolfe
in a beautiful and popular ode, which Byron pronounced
the most perfect in the English language.
See JAMES C. MOORE, " Life of Sir Jolin Moore," 2 vols., 1834 ;
R. SOUTHEV, "History of the Peninsular War ;" NAHIER, "His
tory of the War in the Peninsula;" CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dic
tionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Moore, (Sir JONAS,) an English mathematician, born
in Lancashire in 1617, was appointed tutor to Prince
James, son of Charles I., and subsequently became in
spector-general of artillery. He was a Fellow of the
Royal Society, and the author of several scientific works.
He was instrumental in founding a mathematical school
for sailors at Christ's Hospital, and in the construction
of an observatory at Flamstead House. Died in 1679.
See BIRCH, " History of the Royal Society."
Moore, (MAURICK,) an American jurist and patriot
of the Revolution, born in Brunswick county, North
Carolina; died in 1777. His son ALFRED served with
distinction in the Revolutionary war, and became asso
ciate justice of the United States supreme court in 1799.
Died in 1810.
Moore, (NATHANIEL F.,) LL.D., a nephew of Bishop
Benjamin Moore, noticed above, was born at Newtown,
Long Island, in 1782. He became professor of the
Latin and Greek languages in Columbia College in
1820, and in 1842 president of that institution. He has
published "Ancient Mineralogy," and other works.
Moore, (RICHARD CHANNING,) D.D., an American
prelate, born in New York in 1762. He became rector
of Saint Stephen's Church, in that city, in 1809, and in
1814 succeeded Bishop Madison as Bishop of Virginia.
Died in 1841.
See a " Memoir of the Rev. Richard Channing Moore," by J. P.
K. HENSHAW.
Moore, mor, (THOMAS,) a celebrated Irish poet, born
in Dublin in 1779. He entered Trinity College at an
early age, but, being a Catholic, he was unable to obtain
any of the university honours or offices. He afterwards
studied law at the Middle Temple, London. He pub
lished in 1801 his translation of the " Odes of Anacreon,"
which was very successful, and was followed by "The
Poetical Works of the Late Thomas Little," (1802.) In
1804 he visited the United States of America, on the
society and institutions of which he made many satirical
comments in his "Odes and Epistles," (1806.) His
other principal works are " Lalla Rookh," (1812,) an
Oriental poem, "The Twopenny Post-Bag, by Thomas
Brown, Jun.," (1813,) a witty satire directed against the
Tories, which had great popularity, "The Fudge Family
in Paris," (1818,) "Loves of the Angels," (1823,) and
" Irish Melodies," (1834.) In 1830 he published a " Life
of Lord Byron," his most important prose work, which,
although written entirely from the stand-point of friend
ship, has been highly commended by the critics. He
also wrote a "Life of Sheridan," (1825,) "The Epicu
rean," (1827,) a prose romance, and a " History of Ire
land," (1835.) Of his poems, his "Lalla Rookh" and
"Irish Melodies" enjoy the highest reputation. The
former, though deficient in the higher qualities of
poetry, is characterized by exquisite melody of versifica
tion and splendid imagery, and in its moral tone affords
a striking contrast to the frivolity and licentiousness
of his earlier productions. It obtained extraordinary
popularity, and was translated into many languages,
including Persian. Hazlitt, in his critique on Moore,
says '.hat "his is the poetry of the toilette, of the saloon,
of the fashionable world, — not the poetry of nature,
of the heart, or of human life. His imagination may
dally with insect beauties, but it should not attempt to
span the great outlines of nature, or keep pace with
the sounding march of events, or grapple with the strong
fibres of the human heart."
See "Memoirs, etc. of Thomas Moore," by LORD RUSSELL;
" Edinburgh Review" for November, 1817, and April, 1854 ; " Lon
don Quarterly Review" for July, 1853: " Blackwood's Magazine"
for September, 1827, and January, 1853: " Eraser's Magazine" for
October, 1830 ; "Monthly Review" for September, 1806.
Moore, (ZKPHANIAH SWIFT,) D.D., an American
divine and scholar, born at Palmer, Massachusetts, in
1770, became president of Williams College in 1815,
and in 1821 of Amherst College. Died in 1823.
Moor'spm, (Sir ROBKRT,) a brave English admiral,
born in Yorkshire in 1760. Being appointed in 1805
commander of the Revenge, he had a prominent part
in the battle of Trafalgar. He afterwards represented
Queensborough in Parliament, and was made an admiral
in 1830. Died in 1835.
Moosa. See MOSKS.
Moosa, Mousa, or Musa, moo'sa, third son of
Bayazeed I., was born at Brusa about 1376. He was
made prisoner with his father by Tamerlane after the
battle of Angora. Being afterwards appointed by the
latter governor of the Ottoman provinces of Asia Minor,
he carried on a war against his elder brother Solyman,
whose capital Adrianople he took in 1404, thus becoming
master of the European part of the Ottoman empire. In
1412 he besieged Constantinople, but, having been forced
to retire, he was taken prisoner, and strangled by order
of Mahomet I.
See VON HAMMER, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs."
Moosa, Mousa, or Musa, Ibn, Tbn moo'sa, (Aboo-
Abdallah-Mohammed, a'boo ab-dal'lah mo-ham'-
niScl,) an Arabian mathematician, was the author of a
treatise on algebra entitled " Al Jebr e al Mokabalah."
He is said to have been the first of his countrymen who
wrote on that science ; and Europe is indebted to him
for its introduction and its name.
Moosa-Ibn-Noseyr, moo'sa Tb'n no-sar', (or no-
sir',) (Aboo-Abd-er-Rahman, a'boo ab'der rah/man,)
a celebrated Arab conqueror, was born at Mecca about
660 A.D. He was appointed in 703 Viceroy of Africa,
and, having subjected the northern part of that country,
from Tripoli to Morocco, he turned his arms against
Spain. In conjunction with his lieutenant Tarik, he took
Seville, Merida, Saragossa, and other cities of Southern
and Central Spain, to which he subsequently added the
most important towns of Catalonia. Among other ar
ticles of great value of which he had possessed himself
was the emerald table called the table of Solomon, taken
at Medina-Celi. Moosa, having been summoned to Da
mascus by the caliph, presented to him this table, and,
« z&k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJQ^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MOOSA
1622
MORANT
on his expressing his surprise that it should have three
legs of emerald and one of gold, Moosa replied that he
had found it in this condition. Tarik, however, imme
diately exposed the falsehood of his rival by producing
the fourth leg of the table. For this offence he was
condemned to a heavy fine by Solyman, who afterwards
caused his son Abd-el-azeez to be assassinated. Moosa
died in obscurity in 718.
See ABOOLFKDA, " Annales Moslemici ;" MAKKARI, " History of
the Mohammedan Empire in Spain."
Moosa- (Mousa- or Musa-) Ibn-Shakir, moo'sa
ib'n sha'kir, an Arab writer of the early part of the ninth
century, wrote a work entitled "Sources of History."
He left three sons, the eldest of whom was eminent as
an astronomer and was the author of several valuable
works.
Mooyaert. See MOOJAERT.
Mop'sus, [Gr. Mo^of,] a famous soothsayer of classic
mythology, was called a son of Apollo and Manto.
According to tradition, he gained celebrity by the truth
of his prophecies at the siege of Thebes and at the
temple of Claros, and he triumphed over Calchas in a
trial of skill in divination.
Moquin-Tandon, mo'kaN' tSx'diN', (HORACE BENE
DICT A I. FRED,) a French physician and botanist, born at
Montpellier in 1804. He was appointed in 1853 pro
fessor of natural history in the Medical Faculty of Paris,
and in 1854 became a member of the Academy of Sci
ences. He published a " History of the Anomalies of
Vegetable Organization," (1841,) and "Essay on the
Multiplication of Organs in Vegetables."
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Mora, de, da mo'ra, (JosE JOAQUIN.) a Spanish lit
terateur, born at Cadiz in 1784. Having previously edited
a literary journal at Madrid, he repaired to South Amer
ica, and became editor of the "Cronica Politica" at
Buenos Ayres. He was appointed in 1838 consul-general
of Bolivia to London. He published a " History of
the Arabs," (1826,) "Spanish Legends," (1840,) and a
number of lyric poems and satires. He also trans
lated into Spanish Sir Walter Scott's romances of
" Ivanhoe" and "The Talisman."
See F. WOI.F, " Floresta de Rimas modernas Castellanas."
Morabin, mo'rS'baN', (JACQUES,) a French scholar,
born at La Fleche in 1687. He was the author of a
" History of Cicero," and translated into French Cicero's
"Treatise on Laws" and "Treatise on Consolation."
Died in 1762.
Moraes, de, da mo-ra'e's, ( CRISTOVAM Alao —
a-low.N',) a Portuguese writer, born in 1632, was the
author of a "Genealogy of the Families of Portugal,"
and a number of sonnets and other poems. Died in 1693.
Moraes.de, (FRANCISCO,) a Portuguese writer, born
at Braganza. He went to Paris as secretary of legation
in the reign of Francis I. His chief work is " Libro
del muy esfoi^ado Cauallero Palmerin de Inglaterra,"
which was translated into English by Sonthey. Moraes
was assassinated at Evora in I ^72.
Moraes Sarmento, mo-ra'e\s saR-men'to, ( JOAO
EVANGELISTA,) a Portuguese poet of the present time.
Among his works is an " Ode on War."
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Morales, mo-i a'les, (CRISTOVAL,) a Spanish musician,
and one of the greatest composers of his time, was a
native of Seville. He was appointed by Pope Paul III.
composer in the pontifical chapel. He lived about 1550.
Morales, (JiiAN BAUTISTA,) a Spanish missionary,
born in Andalusia about 1598. He went to China in
1633, but was compelled to quit that country in 1638
through the influence of the Jesuits, whom he censured
for permitting their converts to sacrifice to idols. He
returned to China, where he died in 1664.
Morales, de, da mo-ra'le's, (AMKROSIO,) an eminent
Spanish historian, born at Cordova in 1513. He studied
at Alcala, where he subsequently became professor, and
numbered among his pupils Don John of Austria. In
1570 he succeeded Ocampo as historiographer to Philip
II. His principal work is a continuation of Ocnmpo's
"Cronica general de Espafia," (3 vols., 1577,) bringing
the history of Spain down to 1037. Morales also pub
lished a valuable treatise "On the Antiquities of the
Spanish Cities." Died in 1591.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature ;" BOUTERWEK,
"Histoire de la Litterature Espagnole."
Morales, de, QUAN,) a Spanish poet, born in Anda
lusia, lived in the sixteenth century. He made admirable
translations of some odes of Horace, and wrote original
poems of much merit.
Morales, de, (Luis,) an eminent Spanish painter,
surnamed EL DIVINO, ("the Divine,") born at Badajoz
in 1509. lie was employed by Philip II. to decorate
the Escurial ; but he subsequently lost the king's patron
age and was reduced to great poverty. He was relieved
a few years before his death by a pension bestowed upon
him by Philip. His " Via Dolorosa," in the church of the
Hieronymites, at Madrid, is esteemed one of his master
pieces. Died in 1586.
SeeQim.i.iRT, "Dictionnairedes Peintres Espagnols ;" VIARDOT,
" Etudes sur I' Histoire des Beaux- Arts en Espa^ne," 1835.
Morali, mo-ra'lee, (OrTAVio,) ABBE, an Italian phi
lologist, born near Bergamo in 1763, became professor
of Greek at the College of Brera, in Milan. He pub
lished a good edition of Ariosto, (1818.) Died in 1826.
Mo-ran', (EDWARD,) an American painter of marine
views and landscapes, born about 1845. Among his best
works are "The Swallows' Cave, Nahant," and "Pulpit
Rock." His brother THOMAS is also distinguished as a
landscape-painter.
See TUCKKRMAN, " Book of the Artists."
Morand, mo'rftN7, (CHARLES ANTOINE Louis ALE
XIS,) COMTK, a French general, born at Pontarlier in 1771.
He served as general at Austerlitz, Jena, Eylau, Essling,
and Wagram, (1805-09.) Died in 1835.
Morand, QEAN ANTOINK,) a French architect, born
at Briai^on about 1727. He executed several important
works at Lyons, one of which is a wooden bridge over
the Rhone, which bears his name. He was condemned
by the Revolutionary Tribunal and put to death in 1794.
Morand, ([EAN FKANC.OIS CLEMENT,) a French phy
sician, son of Sauveur Francois, noticed below, was born
in Paris in 1726. He became librarian to the Academy
of Sciences, and was a member of several other learned
societies in Europe. Died in 1784.
Morand,(SAUVEUR FRANC.ois,)adistinguished French
surgeon, born in Paris in 1697, was the first who intro
duced into France Cneselden's method of lithotomy,
having previously learned it in London. He was a Fel
low of the Royal Society of London, and a member of
the French Academy of Sciences, and was appointed in
1730 royal censor and sur<jeon-in-chief of the hospital
of La Charite. He published a number of surgical
treatises. Died in 1773.
See fii.ov, "Dictionnaire historique de la Medecine."
Morand, de, deh mo'rft.N7, (PIERRE,) a French drama
tist, born at Aries in 1701, was the author of a comedy
entitled "The Spirit of Divorce," and several tragedies.
Died in 1757.
Moraude, de, deh mo'rdNd', (CHARLES Thevenot
or Theveneau — tav'nS',) a French advenlurer and
political writer, born at Arnay-le-l)nc in 1748, was the
author of "The Cynic Philosopher," and other works
of a libellous character. Died about 1803.
Morandi-Maiizolim, mo-ran'dee man-zo-lee'nee,
(ANNA,) a celebrated Italian anatomist, born at Bologna
in 1716, was the wife of G. Manzolini, a physician, from
whom she learned anatomy and the art of modelling in
wax. Her works in this department were regarded as
the most perfect of the kind, and obtained for her a
European reputation. She was a member of the Insti
tute of Bologna, and in 1758 became professor of anatomy
in that city. Died in 1774.
Morandini, nio-ran-dee'nee, (FRANCESCO,) called IL
POPPI, an able Italian painter, born at Poppi in 1544,
was a pupil of Vasari. He worked with great facility.
Died about 1584.
Morando, mo-ran'do, (FiLirro ROSA,) an Italian
poet, born at Verona in 1732; died in 1757.
Mo-rant', ? (PHILIP,) an English antiauary, born in the
isle of Jersey in 1700, published, among other works,
" History and Antiquities of Colchester," and "History
of Essex." Died in 1770.
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon;
MORARD
1623
MORE
Morard de Galle, mo'riK/ deh gSl, (JusxiN BONA-
VENTLKK,) a French admiral, born in Dauphine in 1741 ;
died in 1809.
Morata, mo-ra'ta, (OLYMPIA FULVIA,) an Italian lady,
esteemed one of the most learned women of her time,
was born at Ferrara in 1526. She was married about
1550 to Andrew Gundler, a German physician, whom
she accompanied to Germany. She died at Heidelberg
in 1555, leaving a number of works, including Latin
orations and Greek poems.
See TURN BUI. I., "Olympia Morata, her Life and Times," 1846;
NOLTKN, "Vita Oiympi.e Morata?," 1775; J. HONNKT, "Vied'Olym-
pia Morata," 1856; Wli.UBRMUTH, " O. Morata; ein christliches
Lebensbiid," 1854; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Moratin, de, da mo-ra-teen', (LEANDRO FERNANDEZ,)
an eminent dramatist, sometimes called "the Spanish
Moliere," was born at Madrid in 1760. He was ap
pointed in 1787, through the influence of Jovellanos,
secretary to the Spanish embassy in Paris, and published,
soon after his return, his comedy of "The Old Man
and the Young Girl," ("El Viejo y la Nina,") which
was very successful. Among the most popular of his
other works are "The Impostor," ("El Karon,") "Yes
of the Maidens," ("Si de las Ninas,") "The Young
Hypocrite," (" La Mogigata,") and " The New Comedy,"
("La Comedia nueva.") His "Origines del Teatro
Espanol," (1838.) a critical treatise, is also highly es
teemed. Moratin became first librarian to Joseph Bona
parte in 1811, and during the subsequent troubles in
Spain took refuge in France, where he died in 1828.
See KENNKDY, " Modern Poets and Poetry of Spain ;" PRKSCOTT,
"History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. li. part i. : OCHOA, No
tice of Moratin, prefixed to his "Origines del Teatro Espanol,"
1X38; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Foreign Quarterly Re
view" for June, 1828.
Moratin.de, (NICOLAS FERNANDEZ,) a Spanish poet
and dramatist, the father of the preceding, was born at
Madrid in 1737. He was the author of " Hormesinda,"
and several other dramas in the French style, also of an
epic poem entitled "The Ships of Cortez Destroyed,"
("Las Naves de Cortes destruidas,") which has a high
reputation. Died in 1780.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" LONGFELLOW,
"Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for
July, 1827.
Moray, EARI. OF. See MURRAY, (JAMES STUART.)
Moray or Murray, nun're, (Sir KOKERT,) one of
the founders of the Royal Society of London, was a
native of Scotland. Having resided for a time in France,
where he was patronized by Louis XIII. and Cardinal
Richelieu, lie was appointed, after the restoration, to
several important offices. He was the first president of
the Royal Society, which he assisted to found in 1661.
Died in 1673.
See BIRCH, " History of the Royal Society;" CHAMBERS, "Bio
graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Morazan, mo ra-san', (FRANCISCO,) a Central Amer
ican general, born in Honduras in 1799. He became
president or general-in-chief of the republic of Central
America about 1830, was driven into exile in 1840, and
put to death in 1842.
Morazzone. See MAZZUCHF.U.I.
Morcelli, moR-chel'lee, ( STEFANO ANTONIO,) a
learned Italian antiquary and Jesuit, born near Brescia
in 1737. Among his principal works (which are mostly
written in Latin) we may name "Africa Christiana."
(3 vols., 1816-17,) illustrating the history of the Church
in Africa, "Opera Epigraphica," (5 vols., 1818,) "Opus-
coli ascetici," (3 vols., 1820,) and a treatise "On the
Style of Latin Inscriptions," (3 vols., 1819-22.) He
founded an academy of archaeology at Rome, where he
passed many years. Died in 1821.
See P. LOTTIKRI. "Elogio storico di S. A. Morcelli," 1821;
BARU.DI, " Notizia di Morcolli," 1825.
Mordaunt, mor'dant, (CilARi.F.s,) Earl of Peter
borough, a famous English general, of chivalrous and
eccentric character, born in 1658, was the son and heir
of John, Lord Mordaunt. He first appears prominently
in history as a staunch Whig and opponent of James II.
In 1689 he was created Earl of M on mouth and placed
at the head of the treasury, but the next year he retired
from that office, which was ill suited to his volatile and
generous character. He afterwards inherited the title
of his uncle, the Earl of Peterborough. During the
war of the Spanish succession he commanded an Eng
lish army of 5000 men which arrived in Spain in 1705
and performed a series of brilliant exploits, among which
was the capture of Barcelona and Valencia, (1706.)
Thwarted in his plans by the archduke Charles of
Austria, he obtained leave to retire from the army, and
was recalled to England in 1707. Through hostility to
Marlborough, he supported the Tories in the political
contests which ensued, and after the accession of George
I. was consequently excluded from office. He died in
1735. His second wife was Anastasia Robinson, a cele
brated singer and actress. In the opinion of Macauiay,
he was " the most extraordinary character of that age,
the King of Sweden not excepted. His fertility and
activity of mind were almost beyond belief. He loved
to dictate six or seven letters at once. He was a kind
friend, a generous enemy, and a thorough gentleman.
But his splendid talents and virtues were rendered
almost useless to his country by his levilv, his restless
ness, his irritability, his morbid craving for novelty and
excitement." ("Essays.")
See MACAULAY, "History of England," vol. iii. chap, xi., and
his Review of LORD MAHON'S " Hi toryof the Wai of the Succes
sion in Spain;" FKIKND, "Account of the Earl ot Peterborough,
etc. in Spain;" BUKNF/T, "History of his Own Times;" LORD
MAHOK, "War ot the Succession in Spain;" WAI POLE, " Koyal
and Noble Authors;" "Eccentric Personages," by WILLIAM RUS
SELL, 1866.
More, moR, [Lat. MO'RUS,] (ALEXANDER,) a French
Protestant divine, of Scottish extraction, born at Castres
in 1616. He became professor of Greek at Geneva in
1639, and of history at Amsterdam in 1651. He was the
author of Latin poems and other works. Died in 1670.
See SYMMONS, "Life of Milton;" SENEBIER, " Hisloire litte-
raire de Geneve."
More, (ANTONIO.) See MOOR.
More, (HANNAH,) an English writer, whose moral
and religious works enjoyed great popularity in her time,
was born at Stapleton, near Bristol, in 1745. She pub
lished in 1773 a pastoral drama, entitled "The Search
after Happiness," and in 1774 "The Inflexible Cap
tive," a tragedy, which introduced her to the notice of
Garrick, Dr. Johnson, and other eminent men of that
period, by whom she was greatly esteemed for the excel
lence of her character. She was the author of several
other dramas, which were very favourably received ; but,
owing to her convictions of the immoral tendency of
the stage, she abandoned dramatic writing, and, while
her popularity was still at its height, devoted herself to
compositions of a moral and religious character. Among
the principal of these we may name "Thoughts on
the Manners of the Great," (1788,) "Strictures on the
Modern System of Female Education," (1799,) "Hints
towards Forming the Character of a Young Princess,"
(1805,) written for Charlotte, Princess of Wales, " Ccelebs
in Search of a Wife," (1809,) and several contributions
to the "Cheap Repository Tracts,'' one of which is
entitled "The Shepherd of Salisbury Plain." Died
in 1833.
See WILLIAM ROBERTS, "Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Hannah
More;" MRS. H. C. KNIGHT, " A New Memoir of Hannah More;"
H. THOMPSON, "Lite ot Hannah More," etc., 1838 : MRS. F.I.WOOD,
"Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England," eic ; " Monthly
Review" for Februaiy, 1*09, April, 1813, and February, 1820.
More, |Lat. MO'RUS.] (HENRY,) an English divine
and philosophical writer, born in Lincolnshire in 1614.
He studied at Christ's College, Cambridge, of which he
was chosen a Fellow. He refused several high prefer
ments in the church, and passed his life in retirement,
devoted chiefly to the study of philosophy. He was the
author of " Psychozoia, or the Life of the Soul," (1640,)
" Enchiridium Metaphysicum," "Conjectura Cabalis-
tica," "The Mystery or Godliness," "Discourse on the
Immortality of 'the Soul," and other works, in which he
favours the Platonic system. He was a man of fine
genius, profound learning, and rare excellence of char
acter. He was one of the first Fellows of the Royal
Society, and was a friend and correspondent of Des
cartes. Died in 1687.
See R. WARD. "Life of Henry More," 1710; BURNKT, "His
tory of his Own Times ;" "Retrospective Review," vol. v., (1822.)
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
MORE
1624
MOREAU
More, (JAMES.) See MOORE.
More, [Lat. MO'RUS ; It. and Sp. MO'RO,] (Sir
THOMAS,) an eminent English wit, philosopher, and
statesman, born in London in 1480, was a son of Sir
John More, a judge of the court of king's bench. He
received the first rudiments of his education at Saint
Anthony's School, London, where he learned Latin.
At the age of fifteen he became a page in the house of
Cardinal Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury and prime
minister, who was much pleased with the wit of young
More and predicted that he would prove " a marvellous
man." In 1497 he entered the University of Oxford,
where he studied Greek as a pupil of Grocyn and formed
an intimate and lasting friendship with Erasmus. He
gained distinction at Oxford as a writer of English and
of Latin verses. Having left college, he studied law at
Lincoln's Inn. "He manifested," says Mackintosh, "a
predilection for monastic life, and is said to have prac
tised some of those austerities and self-inflictions which
prevail among the gloomier and more stern orders."
He resolved, indeed, at one time to turn monk, and act
ually became a lay brother of the Carthusian convent
(the Charter-House) in London, where he is said to have
passed several years, devoting himself at the same time
to the study of the classics, the French language, and
music. He afterwards entertained thoughts of becoming
a priest ; but on further reflection, and influenced per
haps by the general corruption of the priestly orders, he
abandoned his design. In the words of Erasmus, " Ma-
luit maritus esse castus quam sacerdos impurus," ("he
preferred to be a chaste husband rather than an impure
priest.") About 1502 he married Jane Colt, the eldest
daughter of a gentleman of Essex. He had a slight
preference for her younger sister, but was so good-
natured that he sacrificed his inclination, that he might
not wound the feelings of the eldest. This union proved
very happy, but his wife died a few years after her mar
riage, leaving him a son and three daughters, of whom
Margaret, the eldest, inherited the features, goodness,
and genius of her father. His graceful and varied learn
ing was only surpassed by his sprightly, inexhaustible
'wit. "With him," says Erasmus, "you might imagine
yourself in the Academy of Plato." He attained great
eminence at the bar, and about 1502 became an under-
sheriff of London, — i.e. a judge of the sheriffs court. He
appears to have been the first Englishman that cultivated
oratory with any great success. " He is," says Mackin
tosh, " the first person in our history distinguished by
the faculty of public speaking, and remarkable for the
successful employment of it in Parliament against a
lavish grant of money to the crown." He was elected
to Parliament about 1504, and, by persuading the Com
mons not to grant a supply to Henry VII. on the occa
sion of the marriage of his daughter, deeply offended
that king. More had in consequence resolved to leave
the country ; but the death of Henry relieved him from
all apprehensions.
Having lost his first wife, he married a widow named
Alice Middleton. In 1513 he wrote a "History of
Richard III.," which, says Hallam, "appears to me the
first example of good English language, pure and per
spicuous, well chosen, without vulgarisms or pedantry."
(" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") He was
sent on a mission to Flanders in 1514, and about that
date became a favourite of Henry VIII., who not only
consulted him in affairs of state, but preferred him as
the companion of his amusements and convivial hours.
In 1516 he produced his famous Platonic fiction of
" Utopia," (in Latin,) describing an imaginary common
wealth in the island of Utopia, the citizens of which
had all things in common. He resigned the office of
under-sheriff in 1519, was appointed treasurer of the
exchequer in 1521, and chosen Speaker of the House
of Commons in 152}. He gave proof of his firmness
and independence by his answer to Cardinal Wolsey,
who demanded a very great subsidy for the king. About
1523 More began to write tracts against Luther.
In October, 11520, he was appointed lord chancellor
in place of Cardinal Wolsev. Although the Protestants
were persecuted while he held that office, it would appear
that he was not responsible for the persecution. " It is
a sufficient proof of his clemency," says Erasmus, " that
while he was chancellor no man was put to death for
these pestilent dogmas."*
Suitors were astonished at the contrast between the
affable More and the haughty Cardinal Wolsey. Sir
Thomas resigned the great seal in May, 1532, because
his conscience refused to sanction the divorce of Queeu
Catherine and the second marriage of the king. " Henry
had tried every possible means to obtain at least the
appearance of his spontaneous approbation." (Mackin
tosh.) In 1533 he wrote a work called "The Apology
of Sir Thomas More."
Having declined to take the oath by which he was re
quired to acknowledge the validity of the king's marriage
with Anne Boleyn, he was committed to the Tower in
April, 1534. After he had been in prison more than a
year, he was charged with denying the king's supremacy
as the head of the Church ; and, his answers not having
been found satisfactory, he was pronounced guilty of
treason, and was beheaded on the 6th of July, 1535.
" The scaffold had been awkwardly erected, and shook
as he placed his foot upon the ladder. ' See me safe up,'
he said to Kingston ; ' for my coming down I can shift
for myself.' . . . The executioner offered to tie his eyes.
' I will cover them myself,' he said ; and, binding them in
a cloth which he had brought with him, he knelt, and
laid his head upon the block. The fatal stroke was
about to fall, when he signed for a moment's delay, while
he moved aside his beard. ' Pity that should be cut,'
he murmured : ' that has not committed treason.' With
which strange words, — the strangest, perhaps, ever ut
tered at such a time, — the lips most famous through
Europe for eloquence and wisdom closed forever."
(Froude's " History of England," chap, ix.) Alluding
to his behaviour on the scaffold, Addison remarks,
" The innocent mirth which had been so conspicuous in
his life did not forsake him at the last. His death was
of a piece with his life ; there was nothing in it new,
forced, or affected. He did not look upon the severing
his head from his body as a circumstance which ought
to produce any change in the disposition of his mind ;
and, as he died in a fixed and settled hope of immor
tality, he thought any unusual degree of sorrow and
concern improper." (" Spectator," No. 349.) According
to the account of his great-grandson, More "was of a
middle stature, well proportioned, of a pale complexion,
his hair of chestnut colour, his eyes gray, his counte
nance mild and cheerful."
See "The Life and Death of Sir Thomas More," bv his great-
grandson, C. MORE, 1626; WII.I.IAM ROPER, "Vita T. Mori," 1626;
SIR JAMKS MACKINTOSH, " Life of Sir Thomas More." 1830; FKR-
N\N'DO DE HKKRKRA, " T. Moro," 1592; F. WARNER. "Memoirs
of the Life of Sir T More," 1758: C. MORE, " Life of Sir T. Move,"
1828; DOMENICO RRGHI, " Vita di T. More." 1675: ARTHUR CAY-
T.KV, "Memoirs of Sir T. More," 2 vols., i«o8; C. DARKSTE, "T.
Morns et T. Campanello," 1843 ; AUIMN, " Histoire de T. Moms,"
1^2; LORI> CAMPBELL, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors :" W. J.
WALTER. " Lite and Times of Sir T. More," 1847 : J HOIMJESDOM,
"T. Mori Vita," etc , 1652; FROUDE, " History of England ;" RUD-
HART. " T. Moms," 1829.
Moreau, mo'ro', (CESAR,) a French economist and
writer on statistics, was born at Marseilles in 1791. He
has published several works on commerce, etc.
Moreau, (FRANCOIS JOSKPII,) a French physician,
born at Auxonne in 1789, practised in Paris. He pub
lished a "Traite des Accouchements," (2 vols., 1838-41.)
Died in 1862.
Moreau, (HEGESIPPE,) a French poet, born in Paris
in 1810, was the author of songs, elegies, and satires, of
* This statement is contradicted bv Froude, who says, " Soon after
the seals changed hands, the Smithfield fires recommenced : and, the
chancellor acting in concert with them, the bishops resolved to ob
literate, in these edifying spectacles, the recollection of their neneral
infirmities." He afterwards cites the case of Bainham. who was
burned in April. 1532, a short lime before More resigned the office
of chancellor. The account of Bainham's execution appears to rest
nnon the single testimony of Foxe, who, though generally trust
worthy, micrht possibly ba mistaken, especially when he was obliged
to depend wholly on the statements of others. He was but a boy
when Bainham's death took place. More, whose word is not to be
light'y set aside, express'y denies in his "Apology" (nublished the
next year) tint he was guil'y of any cruel treatment of the heretics.
If the denial was false, there were doubtless many then living who
could prove it to be so. It appears, however, never to have been
contradicted. How far he was responsible for the acts of the bishops
it is difficult to sav.
i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, ^, short; a, ?, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; not; good; moon ;
MOREAU
1625
MORELIUS
considerable merit, and a prose work entitled "The
Mistletoe of the Oak," ("Le Gui de Chene.") He died,
in great poverty, in 1838.
Moreau, (JACOB NICOLAS,) a French writer, born at
Saint-Florentin in 1717, was appointed historiographer
of France under Louis XVI. He wrote a " Discourse
on the History of France," "Duties of a Prince," and
other works. Died in 1803.
Moreau, QEAN BAPTISTE,) a French musician and
composer, born at Angers in 1656, was patronized at the
court of Louis XIV., and was employed by Racine to
compose the choruses for his " Athalie" and "Esther."
Died in 1733.
Moreau, (JEAN MICHEL,) a French engraver and
designer, born in Paris in 1741, became draughtsman of
the royal cabinet, and a member of the Academy of
Painting. He executed one hundred and sixty plates
for the " History of France," and upwards of one hun
dred for editions of Voltaire and Moliere. Died in 1814.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Moreau, ([KAN VICTOR,) one of the most eminent
generals of France, was born at Morlaix, in Brittany,
August 11, 1763. He studied law, and was provost of
law at Rennes just before the Revolution. In 1792 he
enlisted in the republican army, and, as chef de bataillon,
served under Dumouriez. He became a general of
brigade in 1793, and a general of division in 1794. In
the latter year he commanded with eclat the right wing
of Pichegru's army, which conquered Holland. In the
spring of 1796 he succeeded Pichegrti as commander-in-
chief of the army of the Rhine and Moselle, and opened
the campaign which was the foundation of his military
fame. His passage of the Rhine at Strasbourg was greatly
applauded. He drove the Austrians back to the Danube,
and then, finding his army outnumbered, after several
indecisive actions he performed the famous and masterly
retreat through the Black Forest, which was one of his
chief exploits. He was suspended from the command
in 1 797 by the Directory, who probably suspected him
of complicity in the defection of his friend Pichegru.
The reverses of the French having rendered his ser
vices necessary, he was appointed general-in-chief of the
army of Italy in the spring of 1799. At the battle of
Novi he had three horses killed under him. and made a
skilful retreat, soon after which he was transferred to
the command of the army of the Rhine. In the political
crisis of i8th Brumaire, (November 9, 1799,) Moreau
was in Paris, and consented to support Bonaparte in
subverting the power of the Directory. Some suppose
that if he had been less modest, or more ambitious, he
might have acted the principal role in that great drama.
The First Consul intrusted to Moreau the command of
the army of Germany, and dictated to him a plan of the
campaign, which the latter refused to adopt. "Moreau
would not submit," says Alison, "to the indignity of
acting as second in command to his former rival, and
said, ' I have no notion of seeing a little Louis XIV. at
the head of my army.'" ("History of Europe.")
After an angry discussion, he persisted in his own plan,
and, while Bonaparte marched to the conquest of Italy,
he invaded the valley of the Danube in May, 1800, with
Jbout 100,000 men. Between the 1st and loth of May
he defeated the Austrians under Kray at Engen and
Biberach. In the next month he gained a decisive vic
tory at Hochstadt, near Blenheim. After an armistice
of a few months, the two armies met on December 3,
1800, at Hohenlinden, where Moreau won a very im
portant victory, which induced the Austrians to sue for
peace. The war being thus ended, he went to Paris,
and became the chief of a party composed of royalists
and republicans united bv their enmity to Napoleon.
In 1804 he was arrested as an accomplice in Pichegru's
conspiracy, and, although they failed to prove that he
had any active part in it, he was sentenced to two years'
imprisonment, which was commuted to exile in the
United States. He resided with his wife at Morrisville,
Pennsylvania, and in the city of New York, until over
tures from the Czar of Russia induced him to return to
Europe in July, 1813. He was caressed by the allied
sovereigns and received with triumphal demonstrations
by the people of Germany. The Czar said to Moreau,
(who, it appears, was still a republican,) "I know your
opinions; I will do nothing which can thwart them, and
will leave France perfectly free." With these views, he
co-operated with the allies against the French, and was
mortally worn, dec! at Dresden, August 27, 1813. He
announced the fact by letter to his wife in these terms:
"At the battle of Dresden, three days ago, I had both
legs carried off by a cannon-ball. That rascal Bonaparte
is always fortunate. Excuse my scrawl," etc.
See LEMAIRE, " Vie impartiale du General Moreau," 1814 ; " Me
moirs of General Moreau, " by J. PMII.IPPART; GARAT, " Kloge de
Moreau," 1814 ; " Life and Campaigns of Victor Moreau," (translated
from the French ;) A. DE BKAUCHAMP, "Vie politique, militaire et
privee du General Moreau," 1814; CHATEADNEUF, " Histoire du
General Moreau," etc., 1814; FAUCHE-BOKEL, "Notices sur les
Generaux Pichegru et Moreau," 1807; HASSE, "Moreau, sein
J.eben," etc., 1814; COUSIN D'AVAI.UJN, "Histoire du General
Moreau," 1814; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale:" THIERS, "His
tory of the French Revolution ;" " Edinburgh Review" lor January,
1814.
Moreau-Christophe, mo'ro' kRes'tof, (Louis MA-
THURIN,) a French economist, born near Tours in 1799.
He was sent to foreign countries to examine prisons,
and wrote several works on the discipline and reform
of prisons.
Moreau de la Rochette, mo'ro' deh IS ro'shgt',
(FRANC.OIS THOMAS,) a French horticulturist, born in
Champagne in 1720, founded near La Rochette an agri
cultural school. Died in 1791.
Moreau de Jomies, mo'ro' deh zho'neV, (AI.EXAN-
DRE,) a French writer, born near Rennes in 1778, was
the author of a number of treatises on mineralogy,
statistics, and other scientific subjects.
Moreau de la Sarthe, mo'ro' deh IS sSkt, (JACQUES
Louis,) a French physician and able writer, born near
Le Mans in 1771. He published several professional
works. Died in Paris in 1826.
Moreau de 1'Yonne, mo'ro' deh ICKJII', a French
politician, born near Tonnerre in 1750, was elected in
1798 to the Council of Ancients. Died in 1806.
Moreau de Saint-Mery, mo'ro' deh sa.v ma're',
(MEDERIC Louis ELIE,) born, of French parentage, in
the isle of Martinique in 1750, was administrator-general
of the duchies of Parma and Piacenza from 1802 to 1806.
He wrote several descriptive and scientific works. Died
in 1819.
Moreaux, mo'ro', (JEAN RENE,) a French general,
born at Rocroi in 1758. He commanded the army of
the Moselle in 1794, and took Treves and Coblentz.
Died in February, 1795.
Moreelze, mo-ral'zeh, (PAUL,) a Dutch painter, born
at Utrecht in 1571, was a pupil of M. Mirevelt. He
enjoyed a high reputation as a portrait-painter, and was
extensively patronized by the nobility. Died in 1638.
Morel, mo're'l', (Ci.AUUK,) a French printer, born in
1574, was a son of Federic the Elder, noticed below.
Died in 1626.
Morel, (FEDERIC,) called THE ELDER, a celebrated
French printer, born in Champagne in 1523, was ap
pointed printer to the king in 1571. Died in 1583.
Morel, (FEDERIC,) THE YOUNGER, son of the pre
ceding, was born in Paris in 1558. He was distinguished
as a Greek scholar, and the editions of the classics
issued from his press were conspicuous for their accu
racy and the beauty of the typography. He succeeded
his father as royal printer in 1583. Died in 1630.
Morel, (GuiLLAUMK,) a French printer, born at Til-
leul in 1505, was noted for the beauty and accuracy of
his editions of the classics. He became printer to the
king in 1555. Died in 1564.
Morel, (JEAN,) a French poet, born in Champagne in
1539; died in 1633.
Morel. (JKAN MARIE,) a French architect and gar
dener, born in Lyons in 1728. He had a high reputation
as a designer of gardens. Died in 1810.
See J. B. DUMAS, " Notice sur J. M. Morel," 1825.
Morel de Vinde, mo'rel' deh va.N'da', (CHARLES
GILBERT,) VICOMTE, a French writer and agriculturist,
born in Paris in 1759: died in 1842.
Morel-Fatio, mo'ieT ft'te'o', (ANTOINE LEON,) a
French landscape and marine painter, born at Rouen
in 1810.
Morelius. See MORELY.
€ as k; 5 as j; | hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Q^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
MORELL
1626
MORGAGNI
Morell, mo'reT, (ANDRE,) a Swiss antiquary, distin
guished for his profound knowledge of numismatics,
born at Berne in 1646. His principal work is entitled
"Thesaurus Morellianus," being a description of the
coins of the Roman families. It was left unfinished.
Died in 1703.
Mo-rell', (GEORGE W.,) an American general, born
at Cooperstown, New York, graduated at West Point in
1835. He was appointed a brigadier-general of Union
volunteers in 1861. He commanded a division at the
battles of Gaines's Mill and Malvern Hill, July i, 1862.
Mo-rell', (J. D.,) an English contemporary writer,
has published "An Historical and Critical View of the
Speculative Philosophy of Europe in the Nineteenth
Century," (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1846,) "The Philosophy
of Religion," (1849,) and other works. He contributed to
the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" the article on "National
Education."
See " Fraser's Magazine" for October, 1846; "British Quarterly
Review" for August, 1849; " North British Review," vol. xi.
Morell, (THOMAS,) an English scholar and critic,
born at Eton in 1703. He published an edition of Hede-
rich's "Greek Lexicon," (1762,) and was a contributor
to Hogarth's "Analysis of Beauty." lie also edited
Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," and several Greek and
Latin classics. Died in 1784.
See HAKWOOD, "Alumni Etonenses."
Morellet, rm/ri'Uy, (ANDRE,) AniiE, an eminent
French litterateur, born in Lyons in 1727, was educated in
the Sorbonne, at Paris. He became a friend of Voltaire,
Rousseau, Diderot, and D'Alembert, to whose " Ency
clopedic" he contributed. He translated into French
Beccaria's treatise "On Crimes and Penalties," ( 1766,)
and wrote several treatises on political economy, and
many other works, among which is " Melanges of Lite
rature and Philosophy of the Eighteenth Century," (4
vols., 1818.) In 1785 he was admitted into the French
Academy, the archives of which he concealed at the risk
of his life in the reign of terror. Died in 1819.
See LEMONTEY, " filoge de Morellet." prefixed to Morellet's
"Memoires," 2 vols., 1821; " Nouvelle Biogtanhie Ge'ne'rale ;"
" Morellet and his Contemporaries." in ihe " North American Re
view" for October, 1822, (by A. H. EVEKKTT.)
Morelli, mo-rel'lee, (CosiMo,) a distinguished Italian
architect, born at Iinola in 1732. He was employed by
Pope Pius VI. to construct the cathedrals of Macerata
and Imola, and other edifices in the Pontifical States.
Died in 1812.
See TIPALDO, "Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Morelli, (GlACOMo,) an eminent Italian critic and
bibliographer, born at Venice in 1745, became a priest,
and was appointed librarian at Saint Mark's, Venice, in
1778. He published, among other valuable works, a
"Historical Dissertation on the Library of Saint Mark,"
(1774,) and "Library of Greek and Latin Manuscripts,"
(1802.) Many of his minor works were published in
1820, under the title of "Operette," (3 vols. 8vo.) Died
in 1819.
See MOSCHINI, " Narrazione della Vita di G. Morelli." i^ig;
ZBNDKINI, "Eogio di Morelli," iSzi : TIPAI.DO, '• Biografia degli
Italian! illustri ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Morelli, (MARIA MADDAI.KNA,) an Italian poetess
and improvisatrice, born at Pistoiain 1740; died in 1800.
Morelly, mo'ri'le', a French writer on socialism,
born about 1750. He published an able work entitled
"The Code of Nature," which was attributed to Diderot,
"The Basiliade," a political romance, and a number of
treatises on various subjects.
Morelos, mo-ia'los, (Don JOSE MARIA,) a Mexican
patriot and general, born in New Mexico in 17^0. He
joined the insurgent army under Hidalgo in 1810, and
subsequently became leader of a band composed chiefly
of negro slaves, with whom he carried on a successful
guerilla warfare for a time against the Spaniards. He
was made prisoner in 1815, and soon after executed at
Mexico.
See DON Jos£ GUERRA. "Historiade la Revolucion de Nueva
Espaiia," 1813.
Merely or Morelly, mo'iVle', [Lat. MORF/I.IUS,]
(JKAN BAPTISTH,) a French Protestant, noted for his
efforts to organize the Church on democratic principles,
was born in Paris about 1510. His "Treatise on Chris
tian Discipline" (1561) was condemned by several Prot
estant synods.
See BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
" Memoires."
Morenas, mo'reh-nts', (JOSEPH EI.ZEAR,) a French
Orientalist, born near Carpentras in 1778. He wrote
"On the Castes of India," (1822,) and other works.
Died in Mingrelia in 1830.
Moreno, mo-ra'no, (JosE,) a Spanish painter, born at
Burgos in 1642; died in 1674.
See CEAN-BKRMUDEZ, " Diccionario Historico," etc.
Moreno, (JuAN,) a Spanish admiral, born at Cadiz
in 1743 J (necl '» 1817.
Moreri, mo'ra're', (Louis,) a learned French eccle
siastic, born in Provence in 1643. I 'e published in 1674
his " Historical Dictionary," ("Grand Dictionnaire His-
torique," i vol. fol.,) a work of rare merit, lie died in
1680, leaving unfinished his great work, which h;is been
extended by subsequent writers to ten volumes, (Paris,
I759-)
See NICKRON, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mores, morz, (EDWARD ROWK.,) an English antiquary,
born in 1730. He published several works on English
antiquities. Died in 1778.
Moret, mo-reV, (JosE,) a Spanish historian, bom at
Pampeluna in 1615. Among his works is a History of
Navarre, ("Annales del Regno de Navarra," 5 vols.,
1715.) Died in 1705.
Moret, de, deli mo'i.Y, (ANTOINE de Bourbon —
deh booR'bi.N',) COUNT, a natural son of Henry IV. of
France, was born in 1607, and legitimated in 1608. He
joined Gaston, Duke of Orleans, in his revolt against
Louis XIII. in 1631, and was killed or wounded at the
battle of Castelnaudary, in September, 1632. According
to some accounts, he survived till 1691.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Moreto y Cabana, mo-ra'to c ka-uan'ya, (Don Au-
GUSTIN,) a celebrated Spanish dramatist, bum about
1600. Among his best works we may name " The Brave
Justiciary," ("El valiente Justiciero',") " El Lindo Don
Diego," and "Disdain for Disdain," (" Desden con el
Desden." The last is said to have been the original
of Moliere's "Princesse d'filide." Died in 1669.
See TICKNOR, " Historyof Spanish Literature;" OCIIOA, " Tea-
tro Espanol ;" A. F. VON SOIACK, " Geschichte der drarrutisclien
Literatur in Spanicn."
Moretti, mo-ret'tee, (GAETANO,) an Italian astrono
mer, born at Bologna, was author of several scientific
treatises. Died in 1697.
Moretti, (GiusKi'i'K,) an Italian savanf, born at Pavia
in 1783, became professor of botany at that city in 1832.
Among his works is " Biblioteca Agraria." Died in 1853.
Moretto da Brescia. See BONVICINO.
Mor'fit, (CAMi'HEi.i.,) an American chemist, born at
Herculaneum, Missouri, in 1820. He was associated
with Professor Booth in 1848 as editor of the " Ency
clopaedia of Chemistry." He has published, among
other works, "Applied Chemistry in the Manufacture
of Soap and Candles," (1847,) "Chemical and Phar-
maceutic Manipulations," (1848,) and "Perfumery, it*
Manufacture and Use."
Morgagni, moR-gai/yee, (GlAMBATTISTA,) an eminent
Italian physician and anatomist, born at Forli in 1682.
He studied at Bologna, where he became the favourite
pupil of Valsalva, and in 1715 he was appointed pro-
lessor of anatomy at Padua. His principal work is
entitled " On the Seat and Causes of 1 >iseases discovered
by Anatomy," ("De Sedibtis et Causis Morbonmi per
Anatomen indagatis," 2 vols., 1762.) It was translated
into French, Italian, English, and German, and still en
joys a very high reputation. His "Adversaria Anato-
mica" is also highly esteemed. Morgagni made several
valuable discoveries, and he has been called the founder
of pathological anatomy. He was a Fellow of the Royal
Society of London, and a member of the principal
Academies of Europe. Died in 1771.
See FABRONI, "Vita; Italorum Hoctiina excellentium ;" FON-
TENKI.I.K, " Kloiie de Morgagni;" MOSCA, "Vita di G. B. Mor
gagni." 1768: TOKRKSINI, " E'oi'io storico di G. B. Morgagni,"
1X44; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
MORGAN
1627
MORILLO
Mor'gan, (CHARLES W.,) an American commodore,
born in Virginia in 1790; died in 1853.
Morgan, (DANIEL,) an American officer, born in
New Jersey in 1736, served with distinction in the war
of the Revolution. Me was present at the capture of
Burgoyne, and commanded a brigade at the battle of
Cowpens, (1781,) where he gained a signal victory, for
which a gold medal was awarded him by Congress.
Died in 1802.
See the "Life of Daniel Morgan." by JAMES GRAHAM, 1856, and
the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii.
Morgan, ( EDWIN D.,) an American Senator, born in
Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 1811. lie became
at an early age a merchant in the city of New York.
He was elected Governor of New York by the Repub
licans in 18^8, and again in 1860. lie was elected to
the United States Senate from New York in 1863 for
six years.
Mor'gan, (GEORGE CADOGAN,) born in Wales in
1754, became pastor of a dissenting church at Norwich,
England, in 1776, and subsequently professor of physics
at Hackney. He published "Lectures on Electricity,"
and other scientific works. Died in 1798.
Morgan, (GEORGE W.,) an American general, born
in Western Pennsylvania about 1820, practised law in
Ohio before the civil war. He became a brigadier-gen
eral of Union volunteers about November, 1861. He
took Cumberland Gap in June, 1862, and evacuated the
same in September of that year.
Morgan, (Sir 1 IENRY,) a Welsh buccaneer, born about
1637, commanded several expeditions against the Span
iards, and captured Porto Bello and Panama. He was
afterwards made a knight, and appointed Governor of
Jamaica by Charles II. Died in 1690.
See VAN TKNAC, " Histoire generate de la Marine."
Morgan, (JAMES D.,) an American officer, born in
Boston in 1810, removed in 1834 to Illinois, and in 1862
became brigadier-general of volunteers.
Morgan, (JoiiN II.,) an American guerilla chief,
born near Lexington, Kentucky, or, according to some
authorities, at Huntsville, Alabama, in 1826. He took
command of a troop of cavalry in 1801, and distinguished
himself by his audacity in several raids against the rail
roads and other public works in Kentucky and Ten
nessee. He was appointed a major-general in 1862. In
July, 1863, lie crossed the Ohio River with about 4000
men, and made a raid into Indiana and Ohio, where he
destroyed railroads, bridges, etc. He was captured in
Ohio and confined in the penitentiary, from which he
escaped, by digginer, about the end of November, 1863.
In September, 1864, he was surprised in the night at
Greenville, Tennessee, by the troops of General Gillem,
and was killed.
See a Sketch of his Life in "Southern Generals," iS6g.
Morgan, (Lady SYDNEY,) a distinguished authoress,
born at Dublin in 1789, was the daughter of an actor
named Owenson. At an early age she published several
romances, one of which, "The Wild Irish Girl," (1806,)
was very popular. In 181 2 she was married to Sir Charles
Morgan, whom in 1816 she accompanied to France and
Italy, and the result of her travels appeared soon after,
in her two works entitled " France," (1817,) and "Italy,"
(1821.) Among her other productions we may name
"Florence Macarthy," (1816,) "Absenteeism," (1825,)
"The O'Briens and O'Flahertvs," (1827,) "The Book
of the Boudoir," (1829,) and "Woman and her Master,"
(18^5.) In i8<;i she published a "Letter to Cardinal
Wiseman." Died in 1859.
ser's Magazine" for February. iS3i. and Noven ber, 1X33 : " Monthly
Review" for December, iSoS. and October and November, 1817.
Mor'gan, (Sir THOMAS CHARLES.) M.D., an English
physician,' born in London about 1783. In 1811 he was
made a baronet, and the next year married Miss Owen-
son, who was already known as an authoress. lie soon
after settled in Ireland, where he advocated Catholic-
emancipation. He wrote "Sketches of the Philosophy
of Life," and " Sketches of the Philosophy of Morals."
He also contributed to Lady Morgan's "France" and
"The Book without a Name." Died in 1843.
Morgan, (WILLIAM,) a learned divine, born in Wales,
was appointed in 1601 Bishop of Saint Asaph. He
assisted in translating into Welsh the Bible published
in 1588. Died in 1604.
Morgan, (WILLIAM,) a Welsh mathematician, born
in Glamorganshire, held the office of actuary to the
Equitable Assurance Company, London. He published
a " Review of Dr. Crasvford's Theory of Heat," and
other works. Died in 1833.
Morgan, (WILLIAM,) an American mechanic, born
in Virginia about 1775, removed subsequently to Batavia,
New York. In 1826 he was abducted from his home and
murdered by a band of Freemasons for having written a
work professing to disclose the secrets of their society.
See AI.I.EN. " American Biographical Dictionary ;" " New Amer
ican Cyclopaedia;" "Gazetteer of the State of New York," by J.
H. FKEXCH, p. 323.
Morgan, De. See DE MORGAN.
Morghen, moR'gen, (RAFAEI.LE SANZIO,) an eminent
Italian engraver, of Dutch extraction, born at Florence
in 1758, became professor of engraving in the Academy
of Arts in his native city. His prints are numerous and
of great excellence. Among his master-pieces are his
" Transfiguration," after Raphael, "The Last Supper,"
after Leonardo da Vinci, and Guido's "Aurora." He
was a member of the French Institute. Died in 1833.
See NAOI.KR. "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" PALMKRINI,
" Notice of R. Morghen," (in Italian.) 1824.
Morgues, de. See MOUKGUF.S, HE.
Morhof, moR'hof, [ Lat. MORHO'FIUS, | (DANIKI.
GEORG,) a German scholar, born at Wismar in 1639,
became professor of poetry and eloquence at Kiel in
1665, and obtained the chair of history at that place in
1673. He published, besides many other works in prose
and verse, a valuable contribution to literary history,
entitled "Polyhistor, sive de Notitia Auctorum et Rerum
Commentarii," (3 vols., 1688-92.) Died in 1691.
See his Autobiography, "Vita nropria ab Anno 1(139 ad 1671,"
1690: J. Moi.t.F.R. " De Vita, Mentis Scriptisque D. G. Morhofii,"
1710; NICERON, "Memoires."
Morhofius. See MORHOF.
Morice de Beaubois, mo'ress'dehbo'bwa', (PFERRE
HYACINTHK,) a French Benedictine monk and writer,
born at Qnimperle in 1693. He wrote a " History of
Bretagne," (2 vols., 1750-56.) Died in 1750.
Morier, mo'n-er, (JAMES,) a popular English novelist,
born about 1780. Having been appointed secretary to
the English embassy in Persia, he became versed in
the Oriental tongues. He published, after his return, a
"Journey through Persia, Armenia," etc., (1812,) "Ad
ventures of Haji Baba of Ispahan," (5 vols., 1824,) a
brilliant and 'entertaining romance, giving the experi
ences of a Persian in England, which had a wide popu
larity, "Zohrab the Hostage," (1832,) and " Ayesha, the
Maid of Kars," (1834.) Died in 1849.
See the "London Qnrterly Review" for December, 7872, and
June, 1834; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1832; "Monthly
Review" for April, 1824.
Morigia, mo-ree'ja, (GiACOMO ANTONIO,) an Italian
cardinal, born at Milan in 1632. He became Archbishop
of Florence about 1683. Died in 1708.
Morigia, (PAOLO,) an Italian historian, born at Milan
in 1^25, wrote on the antiquities of Milan, etc. Died
in 1604.
Morike or Moerike, mo're-keh, (EnuARD,) a Ger
man poet, born at Ludwigsburg in 1804. He was the*
author of the "Idyl of Lake Constance," (1846,) and
several novels and dramatic tales.
Morillo, mo rel'yo, (Don PABLO,) a Spanish general,
born in the province of Toro in 1777. Having carried
on a guerilla warfare agairst the French for several
years, he was sent in 1815 to subdue the revolted prov
inces of South America. He fought with varying suc
cess against Bolivar, with whom he concluded a truce in
1820. After Morillo's return to Spain he served for a
time in the royalist army. He died in 1838, leaving
Memoirs of his campaigns in America, which were
translated into French.
See MORII.LO'S " Memoirs, relating the Principal Events of his
Campaigns," translated into French by E. D. BLOSSEVII.I.E.
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as s; th as in Ato. ( Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MORIN
1628
MORLIERE
Morin, mo'raN', (ARTHUR JULES,) a French mathe
matician and general, born in Paris in 1795, was ap
pointed in 1852 director of the Conservatory of Arts and
Trades. He published numerous important treatises on
mechanics, hydraulics, mathematics, etc. He became a
member of the Institute.
See " Nouvelle Biograpliie GeneYale."
Morin, (firiENNE,) a French Protestant divine, born
at Caen in 1625. He studied at Leyden, and became in
1686 professor of Oriental languages at Amsterdam.
He published, among other works, "Exercises on the
Primitive Language," (in Latin, 1694,) in which he at
tempts to prove that the Hebrew was the language of
Paradise. Died in 1700.
See NIC£RON, "Memoires."
Morin, (FREDERIC,) a French writer, born at Lyons
in 1823, published a "Dictionary of Philosophy and
Scholastic Theology," (2 vols., 1857,) and other works.
He also contributed to the " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Morin, (JEAN,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Blois
in 1591. He was distinguished for his knowledge of the
Oriental tongues and biblical literature. Among his
principal works we may name " Biblical Exercises,"
("Exercitationes Biblicae,") and an edition of the "Sa
maritan Pentateuch," with a Latin veision. Died in 1659.
See PERRAULT, " Homines ilhistres;" NICERON, " Memoires."
Morin, (JEAN,) a French natural philosopher, born
at Meung-sur-Loire in 1705. He published, besides
other works, " Le Mecanisme universe!," (1735.) Died
in 1764.
Morin, (JEAN.) a French painter and engraver, born
in Paris about 1609. Among his best works are prints
of the "Madonna," after Raphael, and portraits of De
Thou and Marie de Medicis. Died about 1666.
Morin, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French savant, born at
Villefranche in 1583. was appointed in 1630 professor of
mathematics in the Royal College. He was devoted to
astrology, and he is said to have been consulted by Car
dinal Richelieu and other distinguished men. He wrote
" Astrolo«;ia Gallica," and a number of treatises on
mathematics and astronomy. Died in 1656.
See DRLAMRRK, " Histoire de 1'Astronomie inoderne ;" NICB
RON, "Memoires."
Morin, (Louis.) a French physician and botanist of
high reputation, born at Mans in 1636. He was the
author of several medical and scientific treatises. In
1707 he succeeded Dodart as botanist to the French
Academy of Sciences. Died in 1715.
Morin, (PIERRE,) a French philologist, born in Paris
in 15^1, was employed by Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V.
on editions of the Bible called Septuagint and Vulgate,
(1500.) Died at Rome in 1608.
Morin, (SiMON.) a French fanatic, born near Anmale,
in Normandy, published works of a visionary and pro
fane nature. He was condemned in 1663 to be burned
alive for having prophesied the death of the king.
See NICEKON, "Memoires."
Mor'I-son, (JOHN.) D.D., a Scottish Presbyterian
divine, born in Aberdeenshire in 1791. He became in
1816 minister of Trevor Chapel, London, and in 1824
was appointed editor of the " Evangelical Magazine,"
which post he occupied for thirty-two years. He was
the author of several popular works, amonsr which we
may name " Lectures on the Reciprocal Obligations of
'Life," etc., (1822,) " Book of Familv Worship," (1836.)
and "Counsels to a Newly-Wedded Pair." Died in 1859.
See RF.V. ROBERT STEEL, "Burning and Shining Lights," 1864.
Morison, (ROBERT,) a Scottish physician and emi
nent botanist, born at Aberdeen in 1620, was patronized
by Charles II., who made him his physician and be
stowed on him a pension. He became professor of
botany at Oxford in 1669. He was the author of a
"Universal History of Plants," "New Distribution of
Umbelliferous Plants," (1672,) and other works, (in
Latin.) Plumier named in his honour the genus Mori-
sonia. Died in 1683.
See WOOD. " Aihense Oxonienses :" CIWIFR, " Histoire Hes Sci
ences natnrelles;" CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent
Scotsmen."
Morisot, mo're'zo', (Ci.AUDE BARTHELEMI,) a French
writer, born at Dijon in 1592, wrote a historical romance
entitled " Pei uviana," or the secret history of Cardinal
Richelieu, Marie de Medicis, and Gaston, Duke of Or
leans. Died in 1661.
Moritz, mo'rits, (KARL PHILIPP,) known also by his
pseudonym of ANTON REISER, a German writer of
considerable genius but eccentric and unsteady char
acter, was born at Hameln in 1757. Having visited
England and Italy, he was appointed, after his return,
professor of archaeology and aesthetics at the Academy
of Fine Arts, Berlin, (1789.) Among his principal works
we may name " Anton Reiser," a psychological romance,
(1785,) said to be an autobiography somewhat idealized,
" Essay on German Prosody," (1786,) and " Fragments
from the Journal of a Visionary," (1787.) Moritz was a
friend of Goethe, and was the first, it is said, to recognize
and encourage the genius of Jean Paul Richter. Died
in 1793.
See KLISCHNIG, " Erinnerungen aus den zehn letzen Lebensjah-
ren meines Freundes A. Reiser," 1704.
Mork, Moerk, moRk, or Moerks, moRks, (JACOB
HENRIK,) a Swedish author and minister, born at Stock
holm in 1714; died in 1763.
Morla, mou'la, (Don TOM AS,) a Spanish general,
born in 1752. He surrendered Madrid to Napoleon in
1808, and entered the service of King Joseph. Died
in 1820.
Morlacchi, mor-lak'kee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
composer of sacred music and operas, born at Perugia
in 1784. He lived many years at Dresden. Died in 1841.
Mor'land, (GEORGE,) an English painter, bom in
London in 1764, excelled in delineations of rural land-
scaj>es, scenes in low life, and domestic animals, par
ticularly pigs. He spent his leisure time chiefly in
ale-houses, and died in 1804, a victim of intemperance.
His works are numerous, and command high prices.
See CUNNINGHAM, " Lives of Painters and Sculptors;" G. DAWK,
"Lite of Morland :" J. HASSEI., "Memoirs of George Morland :"
W. Cot. i. INS. "Memoirs of the Life of George Morland," 1806;
"Monthly Review" for August, iSoS.
Morland, (Sir SAMUEL,) an English mechanician and
inventor, born in Berkshire about 1625. He was sent in
1653 on an embassy to Sweden, and was subsequently
employed by Cromwell to intercede with the Duke of
Savoy on behalf of the persecuted Vaudois. After the
restoration he was made a baronet by Charles II., and
obtained other distinctions. He was the inventor of
the Tuba Stentorphonica, or speaking-trumpet, and an
arithmetical machine, and effected great improvements
in the fire-engine, steam-engine, etc. lie published a
"Description of the Tuba Stentorphonica," (1671,) and
other scientific works; also a "History of the Evan
gelical Churches of Piedmont." (1658.) Died in 1695.
See REES, " Cyclopaedia ;" CLARENDON, " History of the Re
bellion."
Mor'ley, (GEORGE,) born in London in 1597, became
chaplain to Charles I. After the restoration he was
created Bishop of Worcester by Charles II. in 1660,
and of Winchester in 1662. He was a liberal patron
of learning, and bequeathed large sums for charitable
purposes. Died in 1684.
See MII.NER, "History of Winchester ;" WOOD, " Athenae Ox-
on lenses."
Morley, (HENRY,) an English author and journalist,
horn in London in 1822. He published a "Life of
Palissy the Potter," (1852,) a " Life of Jerome Cardan,"
(1854,) "Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair," (1857,) and
other works. He became the editor of the " Examiner,"
a weekly paper.
Morley, (THOMAS,) an English musician and com
poser. His compositions include anthems, madrigals,
and canzonets. He was the author of a valuable work
ntitled " A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical
Musicke," (1597.) Died about 1604.
See BURNEY, " History of Music," etc. ; " Athenas Oxonienses."
Morliere, de la, deh It moR'le-aiR', (CHARLES JAC
QUES LOUIS AUGUSTE I)E LA RoCHKTTK,) CHEVALIER,
a French writer of romances, was born at Grenoble in
1701. Among his works is "Angola," (1746.) Died
in 1785.
S, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
MORLOT
1629
MORREN
Morlot, moR'Io', (FRANCOIS NICOLAS MADELEINE,)
a French prelate and writer, born at Langres in 1795.
He became Archl)ishop of Tours in 1842, a cardinal in
1853, and Archbishop of Paris in 1857. Died in 1862.
Mormando, moR-man'do, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,)
an Italian architect, born at Florence about 1455, was
patronized by Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. He
designed the beautiful church of San Severino, and other
buildings, in Naples. Died in 1522.
Mornac, moR'nik', (ANTOINK,) a French jurist, born
in 1554, enjoyed a high reputation in his time, and pub
lished several legal works. Died in 1619.
Mornand, moR'noN', (FELIX,) a French writer and
journalist, born at Macon in 1815. He became chief
editor of the " Courrier de Paris" in 1857.
Mornay, de, deh moR'ni', (PHILIPPE,) Seigneur du
Plessis-Marly, often called Du PLESSIS MORNAY, a noble
French Protestant, eminent for virtue and talents, was
born at Buhy, in Vexin, in 1549. He studied law, the
ology, and other sciences in Paris, Germany, and Italy.
In 1572 he narrowly escaped from the Massacre of Saint
Bartholomew, and in 1575 took arms for the Huguenots,
of whom he became one of the chiefs. He married in
1576. About this time he entered the service of Henry
of Navarre, who employed him in important negotiations
and reposed in him entire confidence. He took part in
the battle of Ivry in 1590, and then became a member
of Henry IV.'s council. Mornay retained the favour of
Henry after the latter had abjured his religion. In 1598
he published a "Treatise on the Institution of the Eu
charist," which provoked the Catholics to challenge him
to a dispute. At a public conference before the king, in
1600, he was foiled by Duperron. It appears that one of
his own party had as unwisely as dishonourably furnished
him with forged quotations from the Fathers, which his
antagonist easily exposed. He was for many years the
virtual chief or oracle of the French Reformed Church,
and was styled "the Pope of the Huguenots." He left
many able religious works. Died in 1623.
See "Memoires de Plessis-Mnrnav," 4 vols., 1624-52; M. CRU-
sius, "Sinpularia Plessica." 1724; DK THOU, "Historia sui Tem-
poris;" J. IMBKRT. "Duplessis-Mortiay," 1847: SI^MONOI, " His-
toire Hes Krangais :" L'EsTon.R. "Journal:" " Notivelle Biographic
Generale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1834.
Mor'ning-ton, (GARRET.) Earl of Wellesley, an Irish
nobleman, distinguished for his musical talent, born
about 1720, was father of the Duke of Wellington. He
became professor of music in the University of Dublin,
and composed a number of glees which are greatly ad
mired. Died in 1781.
Morny, de, deh moR'ne', (CHARLES AUGUSTS Louis
JOSEPH,) COMTE, a French statesman, born in Paris in
1811, was the reputed son of Hortense de Beauharnois
and Count Flahaut. He served for a time in Algeria,
and subsequently devoted himself to industrial and
financial speculations. He took an active part in the
coup d'etat of December, 1851, by which his half-brother,
Louis Napoleon, was made president, and was soon after
appointed minister of the interior. He resigned in 1852,
and became president of the legislative body in 1854.
Died in 1865.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Moro, (ANTONIO.) See MOOR.
Mo'ro, (CRISTOFORO,) was an old man when he was
elected Doge of Venice, in 1462. He waged war against
the Sultan Mahomet II., who conquered Negropont
from the Venetians in 1470. Died in 1471.
Morogues, de, deh mo'rog', (SEHASTIF.N FRANC.OIS
Bigot — be'go',) VICOMTE, a French naval officer, born
at Brest in 1705. He wrote a good work on naval tac
tics, "Tactique navale, ou Traite des Involutions," etc.,
(1763.) Died in 1781.
His grandson, PIERRE MARIE SEBASTTEN, Baron de
Morogues, (1776-1840,) wrote numerous works on rural
and political economy.
Morone, mo-ro'na, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian cardinal,
born at Milan in i;oq, was patronized by the popes
Clement VII., Paul III., and Julius III., who employed
him in several important missions. Suspected of favour
ing the Reformation, he was imprisoned by Paul IV. in
T557- Pius IV. sent him as his legate to the Council of
Trent, over which Morone presided when it closed, in
1563. He had been appointed Bishop of Novara about
1554. Died in 1580.
See JACOBRLU, " Vita diCardinale Morone ;" FREDERIC SCLOPIS,
" Le Cardinal Jean Morone," 1868.
Morone or Moroni, mo-ro'nee, (GIOVANNI BAT-
TISTA,) an Italian painter, born at Albino in 1510, was a
pupil of Buonvicino. He excelled in portraits, of which
he executed a great number. Died in 1578.
Morone, (GiROLAMO,) a celebrated and adroit Italian
diplomatist, born in the Milanese about 1450, was the
father of Giovanni, noticed above. He was employed
by the Dukes of Milan. In 1526 he became secretary
and chief counsellor of Constable Bourbon. He was one
of the negotiators of the treaty between Charles V. and
Pope Clement VII. in 1527. Died in 1529.
See ROBERTSON, " History of Charles V.," vol. ii. books ii. and iv.
Morosi, mo-ro'see, (GIUSEPPE,) a skilful Italian me
chanician, was born in Tuscany in 1772. He invented
an automaton chess-player, and constructed, at Milan,
hydraulic machines for spinning cotton. Died in 1840.
Morosini, mo-ro-see'nee, [Lat. MAUROCE'NUS,] (AN
DREA,) a Venetian senator, born in 1558, became a mem
ber of the Council of Ten, and was appointed in 1598
historiographer of the republic. His principal work is
entitled " Historia Veneta," being a history of Venice
from 1521 to 1615. It is distinguished for its accuracy
and the elegance of its style. Died in 1618.
See NICERON, "Memoires."
Morosini, (DOMENICO,) a Venetian admiral, born in
1080. He took part in the crusade in 1 122, and captured
Tyre. He was elected doge in 1148. Died in 1156.
Morosini, (FRANCESCO,) Doge of Venice, born in 1618,
was one of the first military commanders of his time.
Having defeated the Turks in several actions, he was
appointed in 1656 Governor of Candia. He afterwards
defended that island for nearly two years against the
grand vizier Mehemet Koprili, to whom he made an
honourable capitulation in 1669. For his subsequent
victories in the Morea he obtained the title of the Pelo-
ponnesiac. He was elected .Doge of Venice in 1688,
having been previously appointed procurator of Saint
Mark. Died in 1694.
See P*RU, " Histoire de Venise;" MARINO SAXUTO, " Vite de'
Duchi Hi Venezia :" NAVAGIERO, "StoriaVeneziana;" A. ARKIGHI.
"Vita di F. Morosini," 1749; G. GKAZIANI, " F. Mauroceni Gesta,"
etc., 1698.
Morosini, (PAOLO,) a Venetian linguist and able
diplomatist, born in 1406; died in 1483.
Morozzo, mo-rot'so, (CARLO LuiGi,) COUNT, an
Italian savant and writer on physical science, was born
at Turin in 1744; died in 1804.
Morpeth, LORD. See HOWARD, (GEORGE WILLIAM
FREDERICK.)
Morphee. See MORPHEUS.
Mor'pheus, [Gr. Mop^evf ; Fr. MORPHEE, moR'fa',]
an inferior deity of the Greek and Roman mythology,
regarded as the son of Sleep and the god of dreams
and also of sleep. The name is derived from [inp&r/,
(" form,") because he was supposed to give form to
the visions of the sleeper.
Mor'phy, (PAUL CHARLES,) a celebrated American
chess-player, born at New Orleans in 1837. At the
Chess Congress in New York in 1857 he defeated many
of the best American players, and in 1858 visited Lon
don and Paris, where the same success attended him
in his contests with the most distinguished players of
Europe.
Morrealese, H. See NOVELLT, (PIETRO.)
Mor'rell, (BENJAMIN,) an American navigator, born
in Worcester county, Massachusetts, in 1795. He l>e-
came captain of a whaling-ship, and published " Narra
tives of Four Voyages round the World,'' (1832.) Died
in 1839.
Morren, mor'ren or mo'rON', (CHARLES FRANC.OIS
ANTOINE,) a Belgian naturalist, born at Ghent in 1807.
He became professor of physics in that city in 1833, and
obtained the chair of botany at Liege in 1837. Among
his principal works we may name " Studies on Anatomy
and Vegetable Physiology," (1841,) and "Researches on
the Pubefaction of Waters and their Oxygenation by
« as k: c as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as z; th as in this,
anations, p. 23.)
MO R RES
1630
MORRIS
Animalcules and Algae." He also published valuable
treatises on palaeontology and zoology, and was a liberal
contributor to the scientific journals of his own and other
countries. Died in December, 1858.
See ED. MORKEN, " Notice sur C. Morren," r86o.
Morres, mor'riss ? (HARVEY REDMOND,) Viscount
Mountmorres, an English publicist. He was the author
of several political and historical works, among which we
may name "History of the Principal Acts of the Irish
Parliament from 1634 to 1666," etc., (1792,) and "The
Crisis : a Collection of Essays on Toleration, Public
Credit," etc., (1795.) He died by suicide in 1797.
See COLLINS, "Peerage of Ire'aml."
Mor'rill, (JusriN S.,) an American legislator, born
in Strafford, Vermont, in 1810. He represented the
second district of Vermont, from 1855 to 1865, in the
National House of Representatives, in which he served
(1864-65) as chairman of the committee of ways and
means. He was elected a Senator of the United States
for Vermont in October, 1866. Pie acts with the Re
publican party.
Morrill, (LOT M.,) an American Senator, born in
Kennebec county, Maine, in 1815, became a lawyer.
He was Republican Governor of Maine three years,
(1858-60,) and was chosen Senator of the United States
in 1861. He was re-elected Senator in 1863 for six
years, and again in 1869.
Mor'ris, (CHARLES,) an American commodore, born
in Connecticut in 1784. He was first lieutenant of the
Constitution when that ship captured the British frigate
Guerriere, in August, 1812. He had a high reputation
as a naval commander, commanded squadrons at several
foreign stations, and became chief of the ordnance
bureau. Died in 1856.
Morris, ( EDWARD JOY,) an American writer, born in
Philadelphia in 1817. He represented the second dis
trict of Pennsylvania in Congress from 1857 to 1861,
and acted with the People's party, which was afterwards
merged in the Republican party. About the end of
1861 he was appointed minister to Turkey. Among his
works is a " Tour through Turkey, Greece, and Egypt."
Morris, (FRANCIS ORPKN,) an English naturalist and
clergyman, born about 1810. He published a " History
of British Birds," (6 vols.,) "Anecdotes of Natural His
tory," and other works.
Morris, (GEORGE P.,) an American lyric poet and
journalist, born at Philadelphia in 1802. He became
associate editor of the "New York Mirror" in 1823, and
in 1844 one of the editors of the "Evening Mirror," a
literary journal. He founded, conjointly with N. P.
Willis, the "Home Journal," (1846.) He published
a number of beautiful and popular songs, among which
we may name "My Mother's Bible," " Woodman, Spare
that Tree," and " Long Time Ago." He also wrote
"The Deserted Bride," and other poems, and a drama
entitled " Briercliff," and edited, conjointly with Mr.
Willis, " The Prose and Poetry of Europe and America."
Died in 1864.
See R. W. GRISWOLD, " Poets and Poetry of America," p. 281 ;
DUYCKINCK, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; CLEVE
LAND, "Compendium of American Literature."
Morris, (GOUVERNF.UR,) an able American statesman,
born at Morrisiana, in Westchester county, New York,
in January, 1752, was a half-brother of Lewis Morris,
noticed below. He studied law, and was chosen a mem
ber of the Provincial Congress of New York in 1775.
He became a delegate to the Continental Congress in
1777, and acquired distinction as an eloquent public
speaker. About 1780 he removed to Philadelphia. He
was appointed assistant superintendent of finance by
Robert Morris in 1781, and served in that capacity for
three years or more. He was one of the Pennsylvania
delegates to the National Convention which framed the
Constitution of the United States in 1787. His services
in that convention were highly estimated by James
Madison. In December, 1788, he went on private busi
ness to Paris, where he passed several years and kept a
diary which possesses much historical interest. He was
appointed minister from the United States to France early
in 1792, and was recalled in October, 1794. He acted
with the Federalist party, and was a friend of General
Washington, whom he is said to have resembled in per
sonal appearance. In 1800 he was elected a Senator of
the United States by the legislature of New York. His
term in the Senate expired in March, 1803, after which
he returned to private life. He married Anne C. Ran
dolph, of Virginia, in 1809. He was one of the origin
ators or promoters of the Erie Canal. Among his
writings are a " Eulogy on General Hamilton," and a
" Discourse on the Liberation of Europe from Military
Despotism," (1814.) Died at Morrisiana in November,
1816. "Morris was endued by nature," says James
Renwick, "with all the attributes necessary to the ac
complished orator, — a fine and commanding person, a
most graceful demeanour, which was rather heightened
than impaired by the loss of one ot his legs, and a voice
of much compass, strength, and richness." ("Life of
Clinton.")
See JARKD SPARKS, " Life of Gouverneur Morris, with Selections
from his Correspondence," 3 vols., 1832; "Encyclopaedia Ameri
cana ;"" Nonvelle Biographic Generale :" DUYCKINCK, " Cyclopae
dia of American Literature," vol. i. ; " Foreign Quarterly Review"
for October, 1832, and "North American Review" for April, 1832.
Morris, (HKNRY W.,) COMMODORK, an American
naval officer, born in 1805, was a son of Thomas Morris,
a member of the New York bar. He is said to have been
a grandson of Gouverneur Morris. He obtained the rank
of captain in 1856, and took command in January, 1862,
of the new ste.imer Pensacola, with which lie contributed
to the victory gained by Captain Farragut below New
Orleans in April of that year. Died in New York in
August, 1863.
Morris, (JACOB,) an American officer, born in West-
Chester county, New York, in 1755, was a son °f Lewis
Morris, (1726-98.) He was aide-de-camp to General
Charles Lee, and distinguished himself at the defence
of Fort Moultrie. Died in 1844.
Morris, (LEWIS,) an American jurist, born in West-
Chester county, New York, became chief justice of that
State, and was elected in 1738 first Governor of New
Jersey. Died in 1746.
Morris, (LEWIS,) a Welsh poet and antiquary, born
in 1702, made a valuable collection of ancient manu
scripts, and published a number of poems in the Welsh
language. Died in 1765.
Morris, (LEWIS,) an American patriot and signer of
the Declaration of Independence, born in Westchester
county, New' York, in 1726, was a grandson of Lewis
Morris, (the first of the name,) and half-brother of Gou
verneur Morris, noticed above. He was elected to the
Congress of 1775, and resumed his seat the following
year. Died in 1798.
Morris, (ROBERT,) a distinguished statesman and
financier, born in Lancashire, England, in 1734. At an
early age he removed to America and entered into
mercantile business in Philadelphia. He was a delegate
to Congress in 1775, and the following year signed
the Declaration of Independence. He was appointed
superintendent of finance in 1781, being the first who
had filled that office in the United States, and by his
judicious and energetic measures rendered the most
important services to the cause of the patriots. "The
Americans," says a distinguished historian, "owe as
much acknowledgment to the financial operations of
Robert Morris as to the negotiations of Benjamin
Franklin, or even the arms of George Washington."
He pledged his private fortune to obtain supplies for
the army, and originated the Bank of North America in
1781. He resigned his office in 1784, was a member of
the Convention which framed the Constitution of the
United States in 1787, and was elected a Senator of the
United States in 1788. He was imprisoned for debt in
his old age. Died in Philadelphia in 1806.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
Morris, (THOMAS,) an American lawyer and states
man, born in Virginia in 1776. Having removed to
Ohio, he was elected in 1830 a judge of the supreme
court, and in 1832 a United States Senator. In this
post he distinguished himself by his opposition to slavery,
and in 1843 ne was nominated for Vice-President by the
Liberty party. Died in December, 1844.
See "Life of Thomas Morris," by his son, B. F. MORRIS.
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m§t; n&t; good; moon;
MORRIS
1631
MORTIMER
Morris, (THOMAS A.,) D.D., an American Methodist
divine, born in Kanawlia county, Virginia, in 1794, was
for a time editor of the " Western Christian Advocate,"
and in 1836 became Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal
Church.
Morris, (THOMAS A.,) an American general, born in
Kentucky about 1812, graduated at West Point in 1834.
He became a citizen of Indiana. He served as brigadier-
general of the Union army in Western Virginia in June
and July, 1861.
Morris, (WILLIAM,) an English contemporary poet,
who has published, among other works, "The Defence
of Guenevere," (London, 1858,) "Life and Death of
Jason," " Cupid and Psyche," and " Earthly Paradise,"
(1870.)
See the " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1870.
Mor'ri-spn, ([OHN ROHKRT,) son of Rev. Robert
Morrison, noticed below, born at Macao in 1814. He
succeeded his father as secretary and interpreter to the
British Factory at Canton, and was the author of a valu
able work entitled "The Chinese Commercial Guide,"
(1834.)
Morrison, (Sir RICHARD,) president of the Irish In
stitute of Architects, born at Cork about 1767; died
in 1849.
Morrison, (Rev. ROBERT,) D.D., an eminent English
Orientalist and missionary, born in Northumberland in
1782. Having previously studied the Chinese language,
he was sent by the London Missionary Society in 1807
to China, where he became translator to the East India
Company's Factory at Canton. His translation of the
New Testament came out in 1814, and was followed in
1815 by his "Chinese Grammar." In conjunction with
Rev. Mr. Milne, he next translated the Old Testament
into Chinese. It was completed in 1818, (in 21 vols.
I2mo.) His great "Chinese Dictionary," printed at the
expense of the East India Company, appeared in 1821.
He visited England in 1824, and, having remained there
two years, returned to his missionary labours in China,
where he had founded in 1818 an Anglo-Chinese Col
lege. Among Dr. Morrison's other works we may name
'•Horse Sinicae," (1812,) a "View of China for'Philo-
logical Purposes," etc., (1817,) and "Chinese Miscel
lany," (1825.) He was the first Protestant missionary
to China, and as a Chinese scholar he occupies the
highest rank. Died in 1834. Cii'ne**. S«/.*»«fi>y. *.-3.
See "Memoirs of Robert Morrison," by his widow, 1839; A.
REMI'SAT, in the "Journal des Savants," 1824.
Mor'row, (JEREMIAH,) born in Pennsylvania in
1770, became United States Senator from Ohio in 1813,
and was elected Governor of that State in 1822. Died
in 1852.
Mors, [Fr. LA MORT, If moR,] the Latin name of the
personification of Death, [Gr. Qavaro^,] said to be the
offspring of Night. According to Homer, Death was
the brother of Sleep.
Morse, ([EDEDIAH,) D.D., an American geographer
and divine, born at Woodstock, Connecticut, in 1761.
He graduated at Yale College, and in 1789 became pas
tor of the First Congregational Church at Charlestown,
Massachusetts. He is principally known by his geo
graphical works, which were the first of the kind pub
lished in America, and which also obtained a European
reputation. He likesvise published several historical
works, and a number of sermons. Died in 1826.
Morse, (SAMUEL FINLKY BREESE.) an American in
ventor and artist, born at Charlestown, Massachusetts,
in April, 170.1, was a son of the preceding. He gradu
ated at Yale College in 1810, and went to England,
where he studied painting under Benjamin West. He
returned home in 1815, and painted portraits at various
places. He visited Europe in 1829, and returned in
1832. During the passage homeward he suggested the
idea of an electric telegraph, in conversation with his
fellow-passengers. He constructed the apparatus of a
recording electric telegraph, by which he conveyed de
spatches through a small distance, in 1835. About the end
of 1837 ne applied to Congress for aid, without success.
He went to England in 1838 to obtain a patent, which
was refused. Wheatstone, an Englishman, had invented
a different apparatus, for the same purpose, about 1837.
In the spring of 1843, Congress voted thirty thousand
dollars to enable him to construct a line between Wash
ington and Baltimore. His invention was brought into
successful operation on that route in 1844, since which
it has been rapidly introduced into nearly all countries
of the civilized world. This result has been called the
greatest triumph which human genius has obtained over
space and time. Mr. Morse received gold medals and
insignia of honour from several European sovereigns.
The representatives of the principal European powers,
assembled in Paris about 1857, presented to him the
sum of 400,000 francs as a recompense for his invention.
Morse's system is generally preferred to that invented
in England, on account of its greater simplicity.
See DUNLAP, " History of the Arts of Design in' America." vol.
ii. chap, xxiii. : TUCKERMAN, " Book ol the Artists;" " North Amer
ican Review" for January, 1828.
Morse, (SIDNEY EDWARDS,) brother of the preced
ing, svas born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1794.
He graduated at Yale College in 1811, and about 1815
became editor of the " Boston Recorder," a religious
journal. In 1823 he founded, conjointly with his
brother, R. C. Morse, the " New York Observer." He
is the author of several popular school geographies, and
has invented a new method of engraving maps, called
cerotjraphy.
Morteniart, de, deh moRt'intR', (CASIMIR Louis
VICTURNIEN de Rochechouart — deh rosh'shoo-f R',)
Due, a French general and diplomatist, born in Paris
in 1787. During the revolution of July, 1830, Charles
X. requested him to form a new cabinet, of which he
was nominated president; but it was too late. He was
afterwards, in 1831, ambassador to St. Petersburg, and
was made a senator in 1852.
Mortier, mok'te-a', (fioouARD ADOLPHE CASIMIR
JOSEPH,) afterwards Duke of Treviso, a celebrated marshal
of France, born at Cateau-Cambresis in 1768. He served
with great distinction in the principal campaigns from
1792 to 1799, when he was made general of division.
In 1803 he was sent by Napoleon to Hanover, of which
he soon took possession. He was created a marshal in
1804, and the year following received the grand cordon
of the legion of honour. Being appointed in 1805 to
command a corps of the grand army in Germany, he
was attacked in November by the Russian general Koo-
toosof with 30,000 men, against whom he made a most
gallant defence with greatly inferior numbers until rein
forcements came up. For the signal bravery he displayed
at the battle of Friedland, June, 1807, he was made
Duke of Treviso. In the Spanish campaign of 1808 he
assisted at the siege of Saragossa, and defeated the
Spaniards at Ocafia and Gebora. He accompanied
Bonaparte to Russia in 1812, and was commissioned by
him to blow up the Kremlin. In 1814, in conjunction
with Marshal Marmont, he exerted himself to the utmost
to defend Paris from the allies, but, not succeeding in
this, gave in his adhesion to Louis XVIII. After the
revolution of 1830 he entered the service of Louis
Philippe, and in 1835, while accompanying that mon
arch to a review, was one of the victims of Fieschi's
" infernal machine."
See H. Bis, "Notice sur le Marechal Mortier;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale. "
Mor'tl-mer, (EDMUND.) Earl of March, an English
nobleman, who married Philippa, only child of Lionel,
Duke of Clarence. They had a son Roger, and were
ancestors of Edward IV. Died in 1381.
Mortimer, (EDMUND,) fifth Earl of March, born about
1390, was the son of Roger, and grandson of the pre
ceding. He was the lawful heir to the crown after the
death of Richard II. Died in 1424.
Mortimer, (Jon\ HAMILTON,) an English painter of
history, born at Eastbourne, Sussex, in 1739. Among
his works are "Saint Paul preaching to the Britons,"
and " King John signing Magna Charta." He was an
inferior colorist, but his design was admired by his
contemporaries. Died in 1779.
Mortimer, (ROGER,) Earl of March, the paramour
of Isabella, Queen of England, born about 1287. Having
been twice convicted of treason and pardoned by Ed
ward II., he conspired with the queen against the life of
« as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Jt^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
MORTIMER
1632
MORTON
the king, who was barbarously murdered. The guilty
pair reigned for several years in the name of the young
prince Kdward III. ; but Mortimer was at length made
prisoner by order of the prince, and executed in 1330.
See HUME, " History of England ;" FROISSART, " Chronicles."
Mortimer, (ROGER,) fourth Earl of March, was a
son of the third earl. He died in 1398, leaving a son
Edmund and a daughter Anne, who was married to
Richard, Earl of Cambridge, and was a grandmother of
Edward IV.
Mortimer, (THOMAS,) an English litterateur, born in
London in 1730. He published "The British Plutarch,"
(6 vols., 1762,) "Elements of Commerce," etc., (1772,)
"Compendium of History, Chronology, and Biography,"
(1777.) and other valuable works.
Morto da Feltro. See FELTRO, DA.
Mor'ton, (CHAULKS,) a learned English Puritan min
ister, born about 1626. He was ejected for noncon
formity in 1662, after which he taught school in London
about twenty years. He emigrated to New England in
1686, and became minister at Charlestown, Massachu
setts. He wrote several religious works. Died in 1698.
Morton, (CHARLKS,) an English physician and anti
quary, born in Westmoreland in 1716. Elected a Fellow
of the Royal Society in 1752, he became one of its secre
taries in 1760, and in 1776 succeeded Dr. Maty as libra
rian of the British Museum. He was also a member of
the Imperial Academy of Saint Petersburg. He made
several valuable contributions to the "Transactions" of
the Royal Society. Died in 1799.
Mor'ton, QAMES DOUGLAS,) EARL OF, Regent of
Scotland, born in 1530, was a nephew of the Earl of
Angus. He married Elizabeth, a daughter of James
Douglas, third Earl of Morton, and inherited the earl
dom in 1553, at the death of the third earl, who left no
male issue. He joined the Protestant party, and became
one of the lords of the congregation about 1558. In
1563 he was appointed lord high chancellor of Scotland.
lie lost that office by his complicity in the assassination
of Rizzio. He was invited by Bothwell to join him in
the plot for the murder of Darnley. He declined to act
in that affair, but failed to inform against Bothwell. For
this course he afterwards offered the excuse that the
queen was already aware ot the plot, so that it would be
useless to reveal the secret to her. He fought against
Bothwell and the queen at Carbery Hill. In 1567 he
was restored to the office of lord chancellor by Regent
Murray. He was appointed regent of the kingdom in
1572, and rendered himself odious by his rapacity and
oppressive acts, but was supported by Queen Elizabeth.
Having been accused as an accessory to the murder of
Darnley, he was convicted and beheaded in June, 1581.
See ROBERTSON, " History of Scotland ;" BURTON, " History of
Scotland."
Morton, (JAMES DOUGLAS,) EARL OF, a Scottish
astronomer, born in Edinburgh in 1707, was a Fellow of
the Royal Society of London, and an associate of the
Academy of Sciences, Paris. Died in 1768.
Mor'ton, (JAMES SAINT CLAIR,) an American general,
born in Philadelphia in 1829, was a son of Dr. Samuel
George Morton, noticed below. He was educated at
West Point, where he graduated as second of his class in
1851, after which he was employed as engineer at various
places. He was appointed chief engineer of the army
of the Ohio in May, 1862, and commanded the Pioneer
Brigade at the battle of Stone River, January 1-2, 1863.
For his services in this action he obtained the rank of
brigadier-general. He was killed in an assault on
Petersburg in June, 1864.
Morton, (JoHN,) an English prelate and statesman,
born in Dorsetshire in 1410. He held several high
offices under Henry VI., and, soon after the accession
of Edwaid IV., was appointed Bishop of Ely, and lord
chancellor of England. He was imprisoned by Richard
III., but, having effected his escape, repaired to the con
tinent, where he is said to have formed the plan, in con
junction with Henry, Earl of Richmond, of uniting the
parties of York and Lancaster by the marriage of Henry
to the daughter of Edward IV. Under Henry VII.,
Morton was created Archbishop of Canterbury, (1486,)
and a cardinal, (1493.) He was distinguished for his
learning and munificent spirit, and promoted several
public works of great utility. He was the patron of Sir
Thomas More, who has eulogized him in his "Utopia."
Died in 1500.
See J. BUDDEN, " Life of John Morton," 1607; COI.I.IER, "Ec
clesiastical History;" W. F. HOOK, "Lives of the Archbishops of
Canterbury," vol. v.
Morton, (JoHN,) one of the signers of the Declaration
of Independence, was born in Delaware county, Penn
sylvania, in 1724. He was for many years a member
of the General Assembly of his native State, and was
elected to the Congress of 1774. Died in 1777.
Morton, (MARCUS,) an American jurist and Governor,
born at Freetown, Massachusetts, in 1784. He was a
judge of the supreme court of Massachusetts from 1825
to 1840, and was elected Governor of that State by the
Democrats in 1840 and 1843. Died in 1864.
Morton, (NATHANIEL,) one of the early settlers of
Plymouth, born in England in 1612, was the author
of "New England's Memorial," and a "History of the
Church at Plymouth." Died in 1685.
Morton, (OLIVER P.,) an American Senator, born in
Wayne county, Indiana, in 1823. He studied law, and
was admitted to the bar in 1847. He was Governor of
Indiana from 1861 to 1865, and was elected a Senator
of the United States by the legislature of that State in
January, 1867, for a term ending in March, 1873. During
the civil war he was conspicuous for his zeal in the cause
of his country. He is a Republican, and an able speaker.
Morton, (RICHARD,) an English physician, born in
Suffolk about 1635, had a high reputation for skill and
learning, and became in 1670 physician to the Prince of
Orange. He was the author of " Exercises on Phthisis,"
and other medical works, in Latin.
See REKS, "Cyclopaedia of Medicine."
Morton, (SAMUEL GEORGE,) an eminent American
naturalist, ethnologist, and physician, was born in Phila
delphia, January 26, 1799. His father, George Morton,
who was descended from a large and highly respectable
family in Clonmel, Ireland, emigrated to America and
engaged in mercantile pursuits. The subject of out
sketch early evinced a passionate fondness for books and
thirst for knowledge, and combined with these a habit
of persevering and methodical industry. He graduated
at the University of Pennsylvania in March, 1820, and
in October of the same year entered as a matriculate the
University of Edinburgh, the diploma of which insti
tution was conferred upon him in August, 1823. He
returned to America in 1824, commenced the practice
of medicine in 1826, and in 1827 married Rebecca G.,
daughter of Robert and Elizabeth Pearsall, highly re
spected members of the Society of Friends. His first
scientific essay, entitled "Observations on Cornine, a
New Alkaloid," was published in the "Medical and
Physical Journal" for 1825-26. In 1827 he communi
cated to the Academy of Natural Sciences an "Analysis
of Tabular Spar from Bucks County, Pennsylvania, with
a Notice of Various Minerals found in the same Locality/'
During the same year he contributed to the "Journal
of the Academy of Natural Sciences," Philadelphia, a
" Description of a New Species of Ostrea Convexa of
.Say." These papers were followed in rapid succession
by many other scientific communications, and the Jour
nal of the Academy continued to be enriched by his
labours until within a short period of his death. There
were not less than forty of these contributions, besides
others published in the "Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society," and the "American Journal of
Science and Arts," edited by Professor Silliman. These
articles, by their varied range, exhibited great versatility
of talent, treating as they did upon subjects connected
with anatomy, ethnology, archaeology, geology, palaeon
tology, zoology, and mineralogy. His celebrated mono
graph on the "Cretaceous Group of the United States"
was received, at the time of its publication, with great
favour by the most eminent geologists of Europe. In
1834 he contributed to medical literature an important
work on the " Anatomical Character, Causes, Symptoms,
and Treatment of Pulmonary Consumption." He early
began to make his now celebrated collection of crania,
and up to 1840 had, with great labour and cost, succeeded
a e, T, o, u, y, long-; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, p, obscure; far, fall, fit; m§t; n5t; good; moon;
MORTON
1633
MOSELET
in collecting no less than 1468 crania. In 1839 he gave
to the world his "Crania Americana," and in 1844 his
" Crania Egyptiaca," both of which were very favourably
received. He was for some years president of the Phila
delphia Academy of Natural Sciences. He died in May,
1851. His name is often associated with Nott and Glid-
don's "Types of Mankind," (1854,) based to some extent
on Dr. Morton's researches ; but that work, published
after his death, and edited by those who very imperfectly
understood his views, gives no just idea of the modest,
impartial, and thoroughly scientific spirit with which he
conducted all his inquiries. In the annals of science his
name will always be associated with that of Blumenbach,
the founder of human craniography. To this study he
gave a powerful impetus, by demonstrating the precise
method in accordance with which it should be pursued,
and by indicating its capability of throwing light upon
the origin and affiliations of the various races of men.
Dr. Morton left several sons, of whom the eldest, an
officer of great merit, died fighting bravely for his country,
(see MORTON, JAMES SAINT CI.AIR;) another son,
THOMAS GEORGE, has become justly distinguished as
one of the most skilful surgeons in the United States.
See GROSS'S "American Medical Biography."
Morton, (THOMAS,) an English dramatist, born in
Durham in 1764, was the author of numerous comedies
and farces, which had great popularity in his time. His
dramas entitled "Town and Country" and "A Roland
for an Oliver" still retain their place on the stage.
Died in 1838.
See BAKER, " Biographia Dramatics."
Morton, (THOMAS,) an English prelate, born at York
in 1564, became successively Bishop of Chester, of Lich-
fieldr-and of Durham. He published several controver
sial treatises against papists and nonconformists. He
was an intimate friend of Casaubon, to whose memory
he erected a monument in Westminster Abbey. Died
in 1659.
See r.AiuvicK, "Life of Thomas, Bishop of Durham," 1660;
P.ADDII.Y and NAYI.OR, " Life of Thomas Morton," i66g.
Morton, (WILLIAM THOMAS GREEN,) M.D., an
Ameiican dentist and physician, born at Charlton, Mas
sachusetts, in 1819. He settled in Boston, as a dentist,
about 1842, and made some improvements in the fabrica
tion of artificial teeth. He afterwards studied medicine
and chemistry, to which he was attracted by a desire to
discover a substance that would render his patients in
sensible to painful operations on their teeth. He began
to use sulphuric ether as an anaesthetic in 1846. His
claim to this invention was disputed by Dr. Jackson.
Died in July, 1868. (See WELLS, HORACE.)
Mortonval, moR'tfiN'vtK, the assumed name of
Furcy G-iiesdon, fuu'se' gi'doN',) a French novelist,
born in Paris about 1780. He wrote, besides other
novels, "The Count of Villamayor," (5 vols., 1825.)
Morus. See MORE, (ALEXANDER, HENRY, and Sir
THOMAS.)
Morus, mo'rus, (SAMUEL FRIEDRICH NATHANAEL,)
a German scholar and theologian, born in Upper Lusa-
tia in 17^6. He published editions of Longinus, Plu
tarch, Isocrates, and other classics, and wrote several
original works, among which are "Theological and Philo
logical Dissertations," (1787,) and an "Epitome of
Christian Theology," (1789.) Died in 1792.
Morveau. See GUYTON r>E MORVEAU.
Morville, de, deh mou'vel', (CHARLES JEAN BAP-
TISTK Fleurian — flu're'S',) COMTE, a French diploma
tist, born in Paris in 1686, was ambassador to Holland
in 1718, and induced the States-General to sign the
Quadruple Alliance. He became minister of foreign
affairs in 1723, and was elected to the French Academy
the same year. Died in 1732.
See SAINT-SIMON, " Memoires."
Morvillier, de, deh mor've'ya', (JEAN,) a French ne
gotiator, born at Blois in 1506. He became Bishop of
Orleans in 1552, and was keeper of the seals about two
years, (1^68-70.) Died in 1577.
Mor'y-soii or Mor'I-son, (FYNES,) an English travel
ler, born in 1566. He visited the greater part of Europe,
and wrote an account of his travels, which was pub
lished after his death, under the title of "Itinerary,
containing his Ten Years' Travel," (1617.) Died about
1614.
See HARRIS, " Ireland ;" " Retrospective Review," vol. xi.,(i.?25.)
Morzillo. See Fox, (SEBASTIAN.)
Mosbourg or Mosburg. See AGAR, QEAN ANTOINF.
MICHEL.)
Mosca, mos'ka, (FRANCESCO,) called MOSCHINO,
(mos-kee'no,) an Italian sculptor and architect, born near
Florence about 1520 ; died after 1572.
Moscati, mos-ki'tee, (PlETRO,) COUNT, an Italian
physician and writer, born at Milan about 1740, was
made president of the Cisalpine republic in 1798. He
was afterwards created by Napoleon a count, and sena
tor of Italy. Died in 1824.
Moscheles, mosh'eh-les', (!GNAZ,) a celebrated Ger
man pianist and composer for the piano, born nt Prague
in 1794, was the son of a Jewish merchant. After visit
ing Holland, France, and England, he became in 182;
professor of music at the Academy in London. In 184*1
he was associated with his pupil, Felix Mendelssohn, as
director of the Conservatory at Leipsic. His principal
works are sonatas, songs, and instrument-pieces of
various kinds. Died in 1870.
See FETIS. "Biographic Universelle des Musicians. "
Moscheni, mos-ka'nee, (COSTANZA,) an Italian poet
ess, born at Lucca in 1786; died in 1831.
Moscherosch, mosh'eh-rosh', ({OHANN MICHAEL,)
a German writer, born at Wilstadt in 1600. He was
the author of "Wonderful and True Visions of Phi
lander von Sittewald," (1644,) a collection of allegorical
satires in the style of Quevedo, which are characterized
by great acuteness, originality, and powers of humour.
Died in 1660.
See GKKVINUS. " Geschiclite der Deutschen Nationalli'erntur."
Moschini, mos-kee'nee, (GiANNANTONio,)an Italian
writer, born at Venice in 1773. He wrote a " History
of Venetian Literature in the Eighteenth Century," (4
vols., 1807-09,) and other works. Died in 1840.
Mos'-ehl-on, [Mo<7£('«v,] a Greek medical writer,
supposed to have lived in the second century of the
Christian era, was the author of a treatise "On the
Diseases of Women," which was first published in Wolfs
"Gynaeciorum Commentarii," (1566.)
See FABKICIUS, " Bibliotheca Gr.-Eca."
Moschopule. See MOSCHOPUI.US.
Mos-eho-pu'lus, [Gr. Mocr^oTrwAoc ; Fr. MOSCHO
PULE, mo'sho'pu'K,] (MANUEL,) a Byzantine grammarian,
supposed to have lived in the thirteenth century, and to
have been a native of Crete. There was another writer
of the same name, said to have been a nephew of the
preceding, and born at Constantinople. Among the works
attributed to them, which are chiefly grammatical, we
may mention "Scholia on the Tragedies of Euripides,"
" Erotemata, or Grammatical Questions," and " Scholia
on Hesiod and Pindar."
See FABRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Graeca ;" MONTUCI.A, " Histoire
des Mathematiques."
Mos'-ehus, |Moo-,Yof,] a Greek pastoral poet, born in
Syracuse, flourished about 200 B.C. He was contempo
rary with Bion, to whose memory he wrote a beautiful
elegy. A few idyls are the only extant works of
Moschus.
See " Eraser's Maga/ine" for January, 1836.
Moscoso de Alvarado, de, da mos-ko'so da al-va-
ra'no, (Don Luis,) a Spanish soldier, born at Badaiox
in 1505. He served under Ilernando de Soto in the
conquest of Florida in 1539 and 1540. On the death r-f
De Soto, Moscoso was chosen general in his stead. I It-
died in Peru about 1560.
Moseley, moz'le, (BENJAMIN,) born in Essex, Eng
land, became physician to Chelsea Hospital. He pub
lished a " Treatise on the Diseases of the Tropics," anr!
other works ; but he is chiefly known from his violent
opposition to vaccination. Died in 1819.
Moseley, (HENRY,) F.R.S., an English clergyman
and scientific writer, born about 1800. He became pro
fessor of natural philosophy in King's College, Lender1,
and chaplain to Queen Victoria in 1855. Among his
works is "Mechanical Principles of Engineering and
Architecture," (1855.)
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttttral ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
See Explanations, p. 23.)
MOSELL4NUS
'634
MOSSOP
Mosellanus, mo-zgl-la'nus, (PETRUS Schade —
sha'deh,) a German scholar and promoter of classical
learning, born in the diocese of Treves in 1493. In
1514 he was appointed professor of Latin and Greek
in the University of Leipsic. He was intimate with
Melanchthon and Erasmus. Died in 1524.
Mosen, mo'zen, (JULIUS,) a German litterateur, born
in Saxony in 1803. He wrote "Andreas Hofer," and
other poems, also several novels and dramas.
See LONGFELLOW, '• Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Moseiigeil, mo'zen-gil', (FiUEDRiCH,) a popular Ger
man writer, born near Eisenach in 1773. He published
" Summer Evening Hours," " Liebenstein and the New
Arcadians," and other fictitious works, which have a
high reputation. Died in 1839.
Mo'ser, (GEORGK MICHAEL,) a Swiss artist, born at
Schaff hausen about 1705. In 1726 he settled in London,
where he soon acquired a high reputation for his orna
mental gold-work and enamelling. In 1768 he was ap
pointed keeper of the Royal Academy of Arts. " Moser,"
says Sir Joshua Reynolds, "had a universal knowledge
in all branches of painting and sculpture, and may truly
be said in every sense to have been the father of the
present race of artists."
See NAGLEK, " Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon."
Moser, mo'zer, (JoHANN JAKOB,) a German publicist,
born at Stuttgart in 1701, became in 1727 professor of
law in the Imperial College at Tubingen. In 1736 he
was appointed director of the University at Frankfort-
on-the-Oder. As a writer he was remarkable for his
indefatigable industry, the whole number of his works
amounting to upwards of four hundred. Died in 1785.
See J. J. Moser's Autobiography, (" Lebensgeschichte J. J. Mo-
ser's,") 1783 : LEDDERHOSE, "Ziige ans dem Leben J. J. Moser's,"
1843; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Moser or Moeser, mo'zer, (JUSTUS,) an eminent
German writer and jurist, born at Osnabriick in 1720,
was chief director of the government of Osnabriick for
about twenty years, (1761-81,) and rendered important
services to the state. He wrote, besides other works, a
good "History of Osnabriick," (1768,) and "Patriotic
Fancies," (3 vols., 1775,) which was very popular. His
complete works were published in 10 vols., 1843. Died
in 1794.
See F. Nicoi.Ar, "Leben J. Moesers," 1797: ABEKEN, " Re-
liquien von J. Moeser," 1837 : " Foreign Quarterly Review" for
April, 1843.
Moser, (MARY,) daughter of George Michael Moser,
noticed above, acquired great celebrity as a flovver-
painter. A room at Frogmore, which she adorned with
flowers, is called "Miss Moser's room." She was
chosen an Academician of the Royal Academy of Lon
don, and was the only lady besides Angelica Kauffman
who ever received that honour. She became Mrs. Lloyd
by marriage. Died in 1819.
Moser, von, fon mo'zer, (FRIEDRICII KARL,) a Ger
man jurist, born at Stuttgart in 1723, was a son of yohann
Jakob Moser, noticed above. He was successively aulic
councillor at Vienna, and member of the administration
of Hesse-Darmstadt, (1770.) He published several legal
works, a " History of the Waldenses," and " The Mas
ter and Servant," (" Der Herr und der Diener," 1759.)
The last-named production, illustrating the duties of a
sovereign and his minister, had great popularity. He
was for some years editor of the " Patriotisches Archiv."
Died in 1798.
See H. VON BUSCHE, " F. C. von Moser ausseinen Schrifien sein
Geist," etc., 1846.
Mo'ses, [Heb. HBO ; Gr. MWOT/C; Lat. MO'SKS; Fr.
MOYSE or Mo'isK, mo'ez' ; It. MOISE, mo-e-sa' ; Arabic,
MOOSA, moo'sa,] an eminent Hebrew legislator and
prophet, born in Egypt about 1570 B.C., was a son of
Amram, of the tribe of Levi. In consequence of a royal
edict that all male infants of the Hebrews should be
killed, he was deposited by his mother in an ark or
basket on the border of the Nile, and found by Pharaoh's
daughter, who adopted him as her son. He became
"learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and mighty
in words and deeds," and about the age of forty began
to meditate the liberation of the oppressed Hebrews.
Having incurred the anger of the king by his active
sympathy with his own race, he fled to Midian, where
lie served as a shepherd about forty years. He received
a divine mission to bring the children of Israel out of
Egypt to the land of Canaan. Under his guidance the
chosen people passed through the Red Sea into the
Wilderness. He was instrumental in composing for
them a code of laws called by his name, and is the re
puted author of the book of Genesis and other books
of the Pentateuch. The form of government which he
prescribed to the Hebrews was a theocracy. The funda
mental principles of the Mosaic law were that man must
worship the only true God exclusively, and love his
neighbour as himself. Having appointed Joshua as his
successor, and obtained a distant view of the promised
land, Moses died on Mount Pisgah, aged about one
hundred and twenty years. He was pre-eminent for
meekness.
See Exodus ii.-xl. ; Leviticus i.-xxvii. ; Numbers i.-xxxvi. ;
Deuteronomy i.-xxxiv. : Matthew xvii. 3; Luke xxiv. 27; John iii.
14, v. 45, vii. 19; Acts vii. 20-44; Hebrews iii. 2, 3, 5, xi. 23-29;
Revelation xv. 3; WARBURTON, "Divine Legation of Moses De
monstrated," 1788; J. J. HESS, "Geschichte Mosis," 1777; E. Bous-
QUET, "Histoire de sept Reformateurs, " 1853; D. W. MOM. ER,
" Dissertatio de Mose Philosopho," 1707; JOHN CAMPBELL, "Life
of Moses," 1738.
Mo'ses -Cho-re-neii'sis, (i.e. "of Chorene,") an Ar
menian writer and bishop, flourished about 460 A.D.
He wrote, besides other works, a " History of Armenia."
Mosheim, von, fon mos'him, [Lat. MOSHK'MIUS or
MOSHEI'MIUS,] (JoiiANN LORENZ,) an eminent Ger
man theologian, pulpit orator, and historian, born at
Lubeck in 1694. He studied at Kiel, and became pro
fessor of theology at Helmstedt in 1725. In 1747 he
obtained the chair of theology at Gottingen, with the
title of chancellor of the university. He was eminently
successful as a teacher, and acquired a wide celebrity for
his eloquence. His great work entitled " Institutes of
Ecclesiastical History," (2 vols. 121110, 1726,) originally
written in Latin, has been translated into French, Ger
man, and English. Among his other writings we may
name " Commentaries on Christianity before the Time
of Constantine the Great," (1753,) and "Morality of
the Holy Scriptures," (9 vols.) He also translated into
Latin Cud worth's "Intellectual System." Died in 1755.
See V. LUCKE, " Narratio de J. L. Moshemio," 1837; J. M.
GESSNEK, " Memoria J. L. Mosheimii," 1755; "Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generale."
Moshemius or Mosheimius. See MOSHEIM.
Moslemah, mos'le-mah, a famous Arabian captain,
a son of the caliph Abd-el-Malek. He commanded the
armies of his brothers, Waleed I., Soliman, Yezeecl II.,
and Hesham. He defeated the army of the Greek em
peror in 716 A.D. Died about 740 A.D.
Mosiieron-Delaunay, mus'neh-r6.\' deh-15'ni',
(JEAN BAPTISTE,) BARON, a French litth-atenr, born at
Nantes in 1738, translated Milton's "Paradise Lost"
into French. Died in 1830.
Mosquera, mos-ka'ra, (Don RUY GARCIA,) a Spanish
navigator, born in 1501, sailed with Sebastian Cabot on
his voyage to South America in 1526, and subsequently
became one of the founders of the city of Buenos Ayres.
SeeCHAKLEVoix, " Histoire du Paraguay;" SOUTHEY, "History
of Brazil."
Moss, (CHARLES,) an English theologian, a nephew
of Robert, noticed below, rose to be Bishop of Saint
David's in 1766. He wrote several theological treatises.
Died in 1802.
Moss, (ROBERT,) an English divine, born in Norfolk
in 1666. He obtained great popularity as a preacher,
and was successively chaplain-in-ordinary to William III.
and Queen Anne. He died in 1729, leaving a number
of sermons, and some Latin and English poems.
Mossen Jordi de San Jordi, mos-sen' hoR-dee' da
san hoR-dee', a Spanish poet, who wrote in the Catalonian
dialect, lived about 1230.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Mos'som, (ROBERT,) an Irish prelate, was created
Bishop of Londonderry after the restoration. He wrote,
among other works, "The Preacher's Tripartite," and
" Zion's Prospect in its First View." Died in 1679.
Mos'spp, (HENRY,) an Irish tragedian, born in 1729.
He obtained a high reputation as an actor, both on the
Dublin stage and in London, where he was regarded as
nearly equal to Garrick. Died in 1773.
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
MOSTAERT
MOTT
Mostaert, mos'tiut, (FRANCIS and GILKS,) Flemish
painters, born at Ilulst in 1525, were twins, and sons of
fan, noticed below. Francis painted landscapes with
success, and died in 1556. Giles, who was a historical
painter, died in 1601.
Moetaert, mos'tart, (J/\N,) a Dutch painter, born at
Haarlem in 1499, was a pupil of James of Haarlem. He
enjoyed a high reputation, and was patronized by the
archduchess Margaret of Austria. Among his master
pieces are a " Nativity," " Ecce Homo," and " Discord
throwing the Apple." Died in 1555.
See PILKINGTON, "Dictionary of Painters ;" DESCAMPS, ''Vies
des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Mostanser-Billah, mos'tan'ser bil'lah, sometimes
written Montaser-Billah, a caliph and patron of learn
ing, born at Cordova, Spain, in 910 A.n. He began to
reign in 961. He founded several colleges, and a library
of 600,000 volumes. Died in 976.
See ROMEY, " Histoire d'Espagne."
Mostasem-Billah, Al, tl mos'ta'sem bil'lah, (Aboo-
Ahmed-Abdallab, a'boo ah'med ab-dal'lah,) the last
Abbasside caliph (jf Bagdad, was born in 1221, and suc
ceeded his father Mostanser in 1242. lie was conquered
and put to death in 1258 by Hoolagoo.
See WEIL, " Geschichte der Chalifen."
Mostowsky, mos-tov'skee, (THADDEUS,) COUNT, a
distinguished Polish patriot and diplomatist, born at
Warsaw in 1766. He published a good edition of the
Polish classics, (25 vols., Warsaw, 1803-05.) He lived
many years in Paris, where he died in 1842.
Motanebby. See AL-MOOTENAHKKK.
Motasem- (or Motassem- ) Billah, mo'taVsem
bil'lah, Caliph of Bagdad, born near Samosata in 794
A.D., was a son of Haroun-al-Raschid. He succeeded his
brother Mamoon in 833. He is said to have been a cruel
tyrant. Died in 842.
See ABOOI.FKIJA, '' Annales Moslemici ;" WEIL, "Geschiclite
der Cha!ifen :" SANDENISURG MATTHIESSEN, "Historia Chalifatus
Al-Motacimi," iS49.
Motenabbi. See AI.-MOOTENABBEE.
Motenebbi. See AI.-MOOTENABBEE.
Mothe, La. See LA MOTHE.
Mothe le Vayer, de la, deh It mot leh vi'yi',
(F"KA.N\'ois,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1588, was
appointed preceptor to the Duke of Orleans, (1649,) and
to the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIV., (1652.) He
published a treatise " On the Virtue of the Pagans,"
(1642,) in answer to which Arnauld wrote his tract "On
the Necessity of Faith in Jesus Christ." He was the
author of other works on various subjects, which had
great popularity at the time. He had been elected in
1639 a member of the French Academy. Died in 1672.
See I,. ETIENNE, " Essai snr La Mothe le Vayer," 1849 ; BAYI.E,
"Historical andCritic.il Dictionary;" MORERI, " Dictionnaire His-
torique ;" " Xonvelle Biographie Generale."
Motherwell, muth'er-wel, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish
poet, born at Glasgow in 1798. He published in 1827
an interesting collection of ballads, entitled "Minstrelsy,
Ancient and Modern." He afterwards edited succes
sively the "Paisley Magazine." "Paisley Advertiser,"
and " Glasgow Courier." His " Poems, Narrative and
Lyrical," published in 1833, are remarkable for pathos
and earnestness of feeling. Died in 1835.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement ;) " Retros|>ective Review," vol. ii., second series, 1828 ;
"Democratic Review" for January, 1842.
Motin, nu/ta.N"', (PIERRE,) a French poet, bqjn at
Bomges, lived about 1570-1600. He wrote a number
of short poems, which are commended for grace and
delicacy of sentiment.
Mot'ley, (JoiiN LOTHROP,) an eminent American
historian, born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the
15111 of April, 1814. He graduated at Harvard in 1831,
studied about a year in the University of Gottingen, and
passed several years in visits to various countries of
Europe. Having returned home, he studied law, which,
however, he never practised to much extent. He pub
lished in 1839 a novel entitled "Morton's Hope, or the
Memoirs of a Young Provincial." In 1840 he was ap
pointed secretary of legation at Saint Petersburg, where
he remained but a short time. He contributed articles
to the " North American Review" and other periodicals,
aiid produced in 1849 "Merry Mount, a Romance,"
which had little success. Having resolved to write a
work on the history of Holland, he went to Europe in
1851 to collect materials and to make researches on
that subject. He passed several years at Dresden, Ber
lin, and the Hague, and published "The Rise of the
Dutch Republic: a History," (London, 3 vols. 8vo, 1856,)
a work of great merit and profound research, which ran
through several editions and was translated into French,
Dutch, and German. Commenting on Prescott's "Philip
II." and Motley's "Rise of the Dutch Republic," the
" Edinburgh Review" of January, 1857, says, " They do
honour to American literature, and they would do honour
to any literature in the world." His next work — a
continuation of the first — is entitled "The History of
the United Netherlands from the Death of William
the Silent to the Synod of Dort," (4 vols., 1860-67.)
" Mr. Motley's History of the Rise of the Dutch Re
public," says the "London Quarterly Review" for Janu
ary, 1861, "is already known and valued for the grasp
of mind which it displays, for the earnest and manly
spirit in which he has communicated the results of deep
research and careful reflection. Again he appears before
us, rich with the spoils of time, to tell the story of the
United Netherlands from the death of William the
Silent to the end of the eventful year of the Spanish
Armada; and we still find him in every way worthy of
this 'great argument.' . . . Many of Mr. Motley's char
acteristics as a historian will appear from the extracts
which we have made. It will be seen how vividly he
can depict the places, the men, the deeds, of other days.
But the work itself must be read to appreciate the vast
and conscientious industry which he has so lavishly
bestowed upon it. ... Diligent and painstaking as the
humblest chronicler, he has availed himself of many
sources of information which have not been made use
of by any previous historical writer. At the same time,
he is not oppressed by his materials, but has sagacity to
estimate their real value ; and he has combined and ar
ranged with scholarly power the facts which they contain."
In 1861 he was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to
Austria. He resigned this position early in 1867, in
consequence of an offensive letter which Mr. Seward,
secretary of state, addressed to him. In the spring of
1869 he was sent as ambassador to England by President
Grant.
See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1861 ; " Blackwood's
Magazine" for December, 1859, and May, 1861 ; " London Quarterly
Review" for October, 1869 ; " British Quarterly Review" for April,
iS6i ; '' North British Review" for May, 1861.
Mott, originally Coffin, (LUCRETIA,) an American
reformer and philanthropist, born on the island of
Nantucket in 1793. About 1808 her parents, who were
members of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, removed
to Philadelphia. In 1811 she was married to fames
Mott, of New York, who soon afterwards came to Phila
delphia and entered into mercantile business with her
father. While still very young, her attention had been
called to the iniquity of slavery, and she felt it her duty
to abstain from the products of slave labour. She trav
elled extensively as a minister, preaching the peculiar
doctrines of the society in which she had been educated,
inculcating obedience to the Divine light within the
heart, and exposing the sinfulness of slavery and war.
At the time of the separation in the Society of Friends,
in 1827, she joined those popularly known as " Hicks-
ites," (see HICKS, EI.IAS,) and distinguished herself by
the advocacy of Unitarian views of the most radical
kind. She took an active part (1833) in the organization
of the Anti-Slavery Society in Philadelphia, and in 1840
went as a delegate to the World's Anti-Slavery Conven
tion, held in London ; but, though otherwise treated with
the greatest respect and courtesy, she was not admitted
as a delegate, a majority of the convention having de
cided that women should be excluded from any active
participation in the business of the assembly.
Mrs. Mott has long been known as an earnest and
eloquent advocate of anti-slavery principles, of the rights
of women, and of other reformatory movements. As a
speaker she is characterized by an unaffected simplicity
and earnestness of manner, as well as by clearness and
propriety of expression. Her high moral qualities, her
s h: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in /Aw. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MOTT
1636
MOULIN
uncommon intelligence, the beauty and consistency of
her general character, — illustrated in her domestic as
well as in her public life, — are such as to command the
respect even of those who in opinion differ most widely
from her in regard to religious and social questions.
See " Eminent Women of the Age," 1868.
Mott, (VALENTINE,) a famous American surgeon,
born at Glen Cove, Long Island, New York, in August,
1785, was a son of Dr. Mott, of New York City. He
graduated as M.D. at Columbia College in 1806, and
afterwards pursued his studies in London and Edinburgh.
He became professor of surgery in Columbia College,
New York, about 1809. In 1826 he united with Dr.
Hosack and others in founding Rutgers Medical Col
lege. He acquired a wide celebrity by his skill as an
operator and by the original operations which he per
formed. It is said that he was the first that exsected
the entire right clavicle, and that he tied the common
carotid artery forty-six times. Sir Astley Cooper ex
pressed the opinion that Dr. Mott "had performed
more of the great operations than any man living." He
was for many years professor of surgery and relative
anatomy in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New
York. Among his writings are "Travels in Europe
and the East," (1842,) and " Mott's Cliniques," (1860.)
Died in 1865.
Motte, de la, deh If mot, (ANTOTNK Houdart —
7/oo'diR',) a French critic and dramatist, born in Paris in
1672. He was the author of the dramas of " Semele,"
"The Triumph of the Arts," and " Ine/. de Castro,"
(1723.) The last-named was very successful. He trans
lated Homer's " Iliad," which he abridged for the sake
of improving it, and thus, in the words of Voltaire,
"changed a form glowing with youth and health into a
fleshless skeleton." Among his other works we may
name his "Reflections on Criticism," (1715,) in which
he maintains the superiority of the moderns over the
ancients. It caused a great sensation, and excited
against him no little hostility among the literati. His
prose writings are esteemed models of elegant compo
sition. La Motte had been chosen in 1710 a member
of the French Academy, having Rousseau as his com
petitor. Died in 1731.
See H^RISSANT, "Vie de Houdart de la Motte ;" VII.I.EMAIN,
"Cours de Literature Francaise ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Motte, du Bois de la. dii bwa deh It mot, (EM-
MANUKI, AUGUSTE de Cahideuc — deh ktV/e'duk',)
COMTK, a French admiral, born at Rennes in 1683 ; died
in 1764.
Motte-Cadillac, de la, deh It mot kS'de'yfk', (Ax-
TOINE,) a French officer, noted as the founder of Detroit,
was born in Gascony about 1660. He formed a settle
ment at Detroit in 1701, and was appointed Governor
of Louisiana about 1711. Died after 1717.
Motte-Guyon. See GUYON, (JEANNE BOUVIER DE
I.A MOTTE.)
Motte, La. See LAMOTTE.
Motteux, mo'tuh', (PIERRE ANTOINE,) a French
litterateur, born at Rouen in 1660. On the revocation
of the edict of Nantes he settled in London, where he
acquired a thorough knowledge of English and pub
lished a nunTber of dramas. Among the principal of
these we may name " The Amorous Miser," and " Beauty
in Distress." He also made an English translation of
"Don Quixote," which is pronounced by Lord Wood -
houselee "by far the best version we have yet had of
the romance of Cervantes." Died in 1718.
See GIBBER, "Lives of the Poets;" BAKER, " Biographia Dra-
matica."
Motteville, de, deh mot'vel', (FRANgoisE Bertaut
— b§R'to',) a French lady, born in Normandy about
1621, was a favourite and companion of Anne of Austria,
queen of Louis XITT. She was the author of" Memoirs
towards the History of Anne of Austria." Died in 1689.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, " Causeries du Lundi."
Mottez, mo'ti', (Louis VICTOR,) a French painter of
history and portraits, born at Lille in 1809.
Mott'ley, (ToHN,) an English dramatic and his
torical writer, born in 1692. Among his works is a
drama entitled "The Imperial Captives," a " Life of the
Czar Peter the Great," " History of Catherine of Russia,"
and the collection of witticisms called "Joe Miller's
Jests." Died in 1750.
See BAKER, " Biographia Dramatica."
Moucheron, moosh'roN', (FREDERIK,) an eminent
Dutch landscape painter, born at Emden in 1633. His
pictures are remarkable for the graceful form and group
ing of the trees and the transparency of the water. The
figures and animals in his landscapes were painted by
Helmbreeker and Adrian van der Vekle. Among hi.s
master-pieces are "The Setting Sun," and "Morning."
Died in 1686.
See DESCAMI-S, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc.
Moucheron, (!/.AAK,) a painter and engraver, a son
of the preceding, was born at Amsterdam in 1670. He
painted in the same style as his father, and was regarded
as his equal. Died about 1740.
Mouchet, moo'sh.y, (FRANC.OIS NICOLAS,) a skilful
French painter of history and portraits, was born in
Franche-Comte in 1750; died in 1814.
Mouchon, moo'shoN', (PIERRE,) a Swiss litterateur,
born at Geneva in 1733, was a friend of I. [. Rousseau.
He published "Table analytique et raisonnee des Ma-
tieres contenues dans 1'Encyclopedie," (2 vols., 1780.)
Died in 1797.
Mouchy, de, deh moo'she', (Pini.ii'pK de Noailles
— deh no'jtl' or no't'ye,) Due, a French marshal, born
in Paris in 1715, was a son of the Due de Noailles. He
served in all the wars that the French waged between
1733 anfl J7?9- He defended the king when the palace
was attacked by a mob, in 1792, and was executed as a
royalist in 1794.
Mouette, moo'eV, (GERMAIN,) a French traveller,
born near Dourdan in 1652, was taken by the Aluerines,
and was kept in captivity for eleven years. He pub
lished a " History of the Conquests of Mouley Archy,
and his brother Mouley Ismael, Kings of Morocco,"
etc., (1683.) Died about 1690.
Moufet, pronounced, and sometimes written, Muf -
fett, (THOMAS,) an English physician and naturalist,
born in London about 1550. He was the principal
author of the work entitled "Theatre of Insects," (" Fn-
sectorum sive Minimorum Animalium Theatrum," 16^4,)
which is highly commended by Cuvier and Mailer. He
also published several medical treatises, among which
are "Health's Improvement," etc., and " De Jure et
Pnestantia Chymicorum Medicamentornm." Died in
1600.
See WOOD, " Athenae Oxonienses ;" CUVIER, " Histoire des
Sciences naturelles."
Mougin, moo'zhaN', (PIERRE ANTOINE,) a French
astronomer, born near Baume-les-Dames in 1735 ; died
in 1816.
Mouhy, de, deh moo'e', (CHARLES de Fieux — deh
fe-uh',) CHEVALIER, a French novelist, born at Metz in
1701. He wrote many works of inferior quality. Died
in 1784.
Moulac, moo'ltk', (VINCENT MARIE,) an able French
naval officer, born at Lorient in 1780; died in 1836.
Moulin, (JEAN FRANCOIS AUGUSTE.) See MOULINS.
Moulin, du, (CHARLES.) See DIJMOULIN.
Moulin, du, dii moo'laN1', (Louis,) a son of the fol
lowing, was born in 1606. He studied at Leyden, and
afterwards became a zealous partisan of Cromwell and
the Independents, through whose influence he was made
Camden professor of history at Oxford. Died in 1683.
See WOOD, "Athena: Oxonienses."
Moulin, du, \ Lat. MOLIN/F/US,] (PIERRE,) an eminent
French Protestant theologian, born in 1568, was ap
pointed professor of philosophy in the University of
Leyden. He afterwards filled the chair of theology
at Sedan. He was the author of a treatise " On the
Recent Origin of Popery," and of other works. Died
about 1658.
See MEURSIUS, "Athens Batavse."
Moulin, du, (PIERRE,) a son of the preceding, was
born in Paris about 1600. Having graduated at Leyden,
he repaired to England, where he subsequently became
chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles II. He is chiefly known
as the author of a work entitled " The Cry of Royal
*. e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sbor;: 4, i, \, o, obscure ; far, fall, fat: met; not; good: moon;
MOULINS
1637
MOXON
Blood to Heaven," written in reference to the execution
of Charles I. He died in 1680, leaving a number of
controversial treatises.
See MM. HAAG, "La France protestante."
Moulins. See DKSMOULINS.
Moulins or Moulin, moo'laN', (JEAN FRANCOIS
AUGUSTE,) a French general, born at Caen in 1752. He
was appointed general-in-chief of the army of England
in October, 1798. In June, 1799, he was elected one of
the Directors of the republic. He united with Gohier
to oppose Bonaparte in the coup d'etat of the i8th Bru-
maire, (November, 1799.) Died in 1810.
See DE BARANTE, "Histoire tin Directolre."
Moullah. See MOOI.LMI.
Moulton, mol'ton, (JOSEPH WHITE,) an American
antiquary and historical writer, born at Stratford, Con-
ticut, in 1789, published a "History of Early New
York," (1826,) and "New
Seventy Years Ago," (1849
Mount'ain, (GEORGE JEHOSHAPHAT,) a Protestant
prelate, born at Quebec, Canada, about 1789. He be
came Bishop of Quebec about 1837. Died in 1863.
Mouiit'fort, (WILLIAM,) a distinguished English
actor and dramatic writer, born in Staffordshire in 1659.
Among his principal plays are the tragedy of "Edward
III.," and a farce entitled "The Life and Death of Dr.
Faust." Died in 1692.
See BAKER, " Biographia Dramatica."
Moura, m5'i a, (Joz6 DE SANTO ANTONIO,) a Portu
guese Orientalist, born at Almodovar ; died about 1845.
Mourad. See MOORAD.
Mouradja d'Ohsson, moo-ra'jS dS'son, (IGNATIUS,)
born at Constantinople in 1740, was descended from an
Armenian family. In 1782 he was appointed ambas
sador-extraordinary from Sweden to the Porte. He
published "A General View of the Ottoman Empire," (in
Moultrie, moo'tre, ? (|OHN,) an English poet, born
about 1804. He became rector of Rugby, in Warwick
shire, and published a volume of poems in 1837. and
other works, among which is "The Dream of Life."
Moultrie, moo'tre, ( WILLIAM, ) a distinguished
general of the American Revolution, born in South
Carolina in 1731. In 1776 he received the thanks of
Congress for his gallant defence of the fort on Sullivan's
York One Hundred and 7 vols,) a work which is highly esteemed. Died in 1807.
Mouravief. See MOORAVIEF.
Island, which was named Fort Moultrie in his honour.
He assisted General Lincoln in the defence of Charles
ton in 1780, after which he was appointed major-general
Mouret, moo'rV, (JEAN JOSEPH,) a French composer,
born at Avignon in 1682, produced a number of popular
operas and songs. Died in 1738.
Mourgues, mooRg, (MiCHEL,) a learned French
Jesuit, born in Auvergne about 1642, became professor
of mathematics at Toulouse. Among his writings are
" New Elements of Geometry," and a " Parallel between
Christian Morality and that of the Ancient Philoso
phers." Died in 1713.
Mourgues, de, deli mooRg, or Morgues, moRg,
(M.vniiEU,) Sieur de Saint-Germain, a French writer
He was elected Governor of South Carolina in 1785. I and theologian, born in 1582. He became in 1620
He wrote "Memoirs of the Revolution in the Carolinas almoner to Marie de Medicis, whom he accompanied
and Georgia." Died in 1805.
her exile to Brussels, England, and Cologne.
He
See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," I published, among other works, a "Defence of the
vo!- '• I Queen-Mother and of Louis XIII.," (Antwerp, 1637.)
Mounier, moo'ne-i', (CLAUDE EDOUARD PHILIPPE,) Died in 1670.
BARON, a son of Jean Joseph, noticed below, was born j Mourlon, mooR'l6N', (FREDERIC,) a French jurist,
at Grenoble in 1784. In 1809 he was appointed by j ]Jorn at Chambon about 1814. He published several
Napoleon secretary of his cabinet, and in this capacity ]ega]
accompanied him in his campaigns. He was also
created a baron, and in 1812 master of requests. Died
in 1843.
See PORTAUS. "FJoge de M. le Baron Mounier," 1844; " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Mounier, (JEAN JOSEPH,) a French legislator, eminent
for his talents and virtues, was born at Grenoble in 1758.
He studied law, and, after he had served as judcre for
several years, was elected in 1780 to the States-Gene
ral, where he distinguished himself by the moderation
of his liberal opinions. He was chairman of the com
mittee appointed to form a new constitution, but his
plan was rejected. He wished a legislature divided
into two chambers. He presided with credit over the
National Assembly from September 28 to October 8,
1789, during which time the sessions of that body
were disturbed by a mob, and then hastily retired
from the capital. Being denounced as a royalist, he
emigrated in 1790. and lived in Switzerland, England,
and other countries, until 1801. Having returned to
France, he was appointed in 1802 prefect of Ille-et-
Vilaine. and about 1804 councillor of state. He died
in 1806, leaving several able political works, one of
which is "The" Influence ascribed to the Philosophers
and Free-Masons on the French Revolution."
See BKRRIAT SAINT-PRIX, " fi'oge li!sloriqne de Mounier," 1806 :
THIERS. " History of the French Revolution ;" MIGS-ET. " History
of the French Revolution;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Mount, (WILLIAM SIDNEY.) an American painter,
born in Long Island about 1808. His favourite subjects
were rural and domestic scenes, and h^ excelled in
humorous and comic delineations. His " Farmers Noon
ing," "Husking Corn," "Raffling for a Goose," and
"Dance of the Haymakers," enjoy a wide popularity.
Died in 1868.
See IH-NLAP, "Rise and Pro?ress of the Arts of Design in
America;" TUCKERMAX. " Hook of the Artists."
Mount'a-gu or Mont'a-eue, (RICHARD,) a learned
English prelate, born in Buckinghamshire in 1^78. He
was created Bishop of Norwich in 1638. He wrote
several treatises on church antiquities, and was also
engaged in many controversies with the Papists and the
Calvinists. Died in 1641.
Mousa. See MOOSA.
Mouskes, moosk, or Mus, (PHILIPPE,) a Flemish
historian, born at Ghent about 1215, became Bishop
of Tournay in 1274. He wrote, in verse, a History of
France, which was commended by Du Cange. It was
published at Brussels in 1836-38. Died in 1283.
Moustier, de, (CHARLES ALBERT.) See DEMOUSTIER.
Moustier, de, deli moo'te-i', (CLEMENT EDOU-
ARD,) MARQUIS, a French diplomatist, born at Coblentz
in 1779; died in Paris in 1830.
Moustier, de, (£LEONORE FRANCOIS ELIE,) MAR
QUIS, a diplomatist, born in Paris in 1751, was the father
of the preceding. He was an adherent of the Bourbons.
Died in 1817.
Mouton. See LOBAU.
Mouton, moo'tiN', (JEAN,) a French composer of the
sixteenth century, was a pupil of Josquin Desprez, and
was patronized by Louis XII. and Francis I.
Mouton-Fonteiiille de la Clotte, moo'toN' f6.Nt'-
nel' deh It klot, (MARIE JACQUES PHILIPPE,) a French
naturalist, born at Montpellier in 1769. He wrote on
botany and ornithology. Died in 1837.
Movers, mo'vers, (FRANZ KARL,) a learned German
Catholic theologian, born at Kosfeld, in Westphalia, in
1806. He became in 1839 professor of the theology of
the Old Testament in the Catholic faculty at Breslau.
His greatest work, entitled "The Phoenicians," (1850,)
illustrates the religion, history, and antiquities of that
nation. He also published several treatises on Biblical
antiquities, and wrote the article " Phoenicia" in Ersch
and Gruber's " Encyclopaedia."
Mowatt. See RITCHIE, (ANNA CORA.)
Mow'er, ? (JOSEPH A.,) an able American general in
the service of the Union. He commanded a brigade in
an attack on Vicksburg, May, 1863, and served under
General Banks in Louisiana in April, 1864. He com
manded a division of the army of General Sherman in
its march through the Carolinas, 1865. Died in Janu
ary, 1870.
Mox'on, (JOSEPH,) born in Yorkshire in 1627, was
hydrographer to Charles II. He published several
treatises on mathematics, navigation, etc., and carried
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Tli,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. G^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
MOT A
1638
MUCIANUS
on the manufacture of globes and maps. Died abou
1700.
Moya, de, da mo'ya, (Don PEDRO,) a skilful Span is!
painter, born at Granada in 1610, was a pupil of Jua
del Castillo. He excelled as a colorist. Died in 1666
See QUILLIET, "Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols."
Moyle, moil, (WALTER,) an English jurist and writer
born in Cornwall in 1672, was a friend of Congreve anc
Wycherly. He was the author of an " Essay on the
Roman Constitution," and other works, and translate
Xenophon's treatise " On the Revenues of Athens.'
Died in 1721.
See "Life of W. Moyle," prefixed to his works.
Moyreau, mwa'ro', (JEAN,) a French engraver, born
at Orleans in 1690. Among his best prints are "The
Lion-Hunt," after Rubens, and " Bacchus and Ariadne,'
after Boullongne. Died in 1763.
See BASAN, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs."
Moyse, the French for MUSKS, which see.
Moy'ses, (DAVID,) a Scottish historical writer, born
at Lanark in 1573. lie wrote "Memoirs of the Affair
of Scotland." Died in 1630.
Mozart, mo'zart', |Ger. pron. mSt'saRt,] (JoiiANN
CHKYSOSTOM WOLFGANG AMADEUS,) a celebrated Ger
man composer, born at Saltzburg on the 271)1 of January,
1756. Both his parents were distinguished for personal
beauty. He began to perform on the harpsichord when
he was about four years old, and manifested an exquisite
musical organization. His first teacher was his father,
who devoted much time to his education. At the age
of six years he composed short pieces of music, and
was regarded as a prodigy of musical genius. He had
a sister four years his senior, who in early childhood
was an excellent musician. In 1762 Leopold Mozart
took Wolfgang and his sister to Munich, where they
performed before the court and excited great admira
tion. They also visited Vienna, and exhibited their
skill before the emperor and his family, by whom they
were encouraged and caressed. In 1763 young Mozart
excited the astonishment of the Parisians by his per
formance on the organ and by his talent for improvisa
tion. He visited with his parents the principal cities of
Germany, and published two of his compositions in 1763.
The Mozart family passed the year 1764 in London,
where they gave public concerts. About 1766 they
returned to Saltzburg, where Wolfgang continued his
studies, taking for models the productions of Handel
and Emanuel Bach. He composed in 1768 an opera
called " La Finta semplice," which was not represented.
Accompanied by his father, he made the tour of Italy in
1769 and 1770, and was received with enthusiasm. He
produced at Milan the opera of " Mitridate," which was
performed with success in 1770. During his visit to
Rome the pope created him a knight (cavaliere) of the
Golden Spur. His next works were two serenatas, called
" Ascanio in Alba," and "The Dream of Scipio," (" II
Sogno di Scipione," 1772.) He composed in 1773 an
opera entitled "Lucio Silla," which was very successful.
He passed several years in travel, and solicited employ
ment in various foreign countries without success.
In 1779 he obtained the places of organist and chapel-
master to the Archbishop of Saltzburg. At the request
ot the Elector of Bavaria, he composed "Idomeneo," an
opera, (1781,) which was superior to his former works
and obtained immense applause. "This work," says
Denne-Baron, "was nothing less than a complete trans
formation of the art." He quitted the service of the
archbishop, — a coarse and sordid person, who required
him to eat with his menial servants, — and in 1781 settled
in Vienna. In 1782 he composed a German opera,
"The Abduction from the Seraglio," ("Die Entfuhrung
aus clem Serai],") and married Constance Weber. He
became a friend of Haydn, the great composer.
Mozart composed, with unremitting activity and in
rapid succession, symphonies, sonatas, quartets, motets,
waltzes, etc. About 1785 he produced "Davidde peni-
tente," an oratorio, which abounds in beauties of the
first order. His comic opera " The Marriage of Figaro"
("Le Nozze di Figaro," 1786) was performed with
unbounded applause, and, in the opinion of some critics,
formed an epoch in dramatic music. His master-piece
is the opera " Don Giovanni," or "Don Juan," which
was first performed at Prague in 1787. The King of
Prussia offered him 3000 crowns a year to attract him
to Berlin ; but he declined to quit the service of the em
peror Joseph, who paid him only 800 florins. He was
often reduced to painful distress for want of money while
he lived in Vienna. Among his later works is "The
Magic Flute," an opera, (1791.) Mozart, as a performer
on the piano, surpassed all the German musicians of his
time. His constitution was naturally delicate, and his
health rapidly declined in 1791, during which he was
employed to compose a requiem by a mysterious stranger,
or a person who wished his name to be a secret. This
person was an agent of Count Walsegg. To his morbid
and depressed imagination this seemed as a warning of
his own impending death. With this presentiment, he
composed his "Requiem," which is considered his most
sublime work. He died in Vienna in December, 1791
or 1792, leaving several children.
"Mozart occupies," says Denne-Baron, "a unique
place in the history of music, by the universality of his
genius. ... He excelled in all departments, and the
products of his radiant imagination improved the ait
in all its parts. ... In dramatic music he was un
rivalled. His enlightened mind and his exquisite sen
sibility enabled him to seize with equal tact and sagacity
the nuances and the true conditions of the lyrical drama."
(" Nouvelle Biographic Generale.")
See E. HOLMES, " Life of Mozart," 2 vols., 1845; NIHMETSCHEK,
"Mozart's Leben," 1798; ROKCHUTZ, "Anecdoies of Mozart," (in
German,) 1801 ; ARNOLD, "Mozart's Geist," Erfurt, 1X03; (',. N.
VON NISSEN, "Biographic W. A. Mozarts," 1X38: FKTIS, '" Biogra
phic Universelle des Mnsiciens ;" H. DOKING, " W. A. Mozart,"
and a French version of the same, Paris, i,S6o; HHKK OTTO JAHN,
"Mo/art's Leben," 1X56; J).\INES BAKKINCTON, " Notice of Mo
zart," in the "Philosophical Transactions," 1770; "Letters of
Mozart," translated l>y LADV WAI. LACK, 2 vols., 1865; "Foreign
Quarterly Review" for January, 1846.
Mozart, (LEOPOLD,) a German musician, born at
Augsburg in 1719, was the father of the famous com
poser. He performed on the violin, and became about
1762 vice-chapel-master of the Prince-Archbishop of
Saltzburg. He gave diligent attention to the education
and training of his son. He composed several oratorios,
etc. Died in I7.S7.
Mozier, mo'/her, (JoSKPH,) an American sculptor,
born at Burlingtc n, Vermont, in 1812. He passed many
years in mercantile business in the city of New York,
ul afterwards s-tuclied sculpture in Italy. Among his
works are "Esther." " Pocahontas," and ".Silence."
Mozin, mo'zaN', ( . . . ,) a French grammarian, born
n 1771, taught in Germany many years. lie published
several woi ks on grammar, and a good French-German
Dictionary, (1812.) Died in 1840.
Mozin, (CllARLKS Louis,) a French painter, born in
Paris in 1806, studied under Leprince. His works are
chiefly marine views, which have great merit. Among
:he best we may name "The Capture of the Isle of
Bommel by the French Army in 1794," and " The Poit
of Honfleur."
Mozzi, mol'see, (MARCANTONIO,) an Italian littera
teur and priest, born at Florence in 1678; died in 1736.
Muawia or Muawias. See MOAWEEYAH.
Muciauus, imi-she-a'nus, [Fr. MUCIEN, moo'se-a.N';
It. MUZIANO, moot-se-a/no,] (LiciNius,) an able Roman
eneral and orator, whose character was compounded
uf good and evil qualities. lie was chosen consul in 52
A.D., and at the dgath of Nero, in 68, commanded four
egions in Syria. •'"To promote the interest of his friend
Vespasian in his contest against Vitellius, he made a
apid march to Rome in 69 A.D., and acted the part of a
overeign until the arrival of Vespasian. Mucianus was
consul in 70 and in 75 A.D.
See TACITUS, " History of Rome."
Mucianus, (P. LicmusCuASsus DIVES,) an eminent
Ionian jurist and orator, was a son of P. Mticius Scae-
•ola. He was adopted by P. Licinius Crassus, suc-
eeded Scipio Nasica as pontifex maximus, and became
onsul in 131 li.c. Having led an army into Asia to
ippose Aristonicus, who attempted to obtain Pergamus,
ic was defeated and killed, in 130 B.C.
5, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; tic: ; good; moon;
MUCIEN
1639
MUIRHEAD
Mucien. See MUCIANUS, (LiciNius.)
M'-cius Scaevola. See SC/EVOI.A.
Miicke or Muecke, muk'eh, (HEINRICH KARL AN
TON,) a German historical painter, born at Breslau in
1806, was a pupil of Schadow. Among his master
pieces maybe named "Saint Ambrose and the Emperor
Theodosius," " Ulysses and Leucothea in the Tempest,"
and a " Saint Catherine."
See NAGI.KK, " Allgemeines Kiinstler Lexikon."
Mudee, mu'cLV, (GABRIKI. van der Muyden — vfn
der ml'den,) an eminent Flemish jurist, born near Ant
werp in 1500. He wrote " De Restitutionibus in Inte-
grum," (1586,) and other works. Died at Louvain in
1560.
See SPINNAEI., "Gabriel Mude'e et son Ecole," 1X44.
Mud'ford, ( WILLIAM,) an English editor and writer,
born in London in 1782. He published, besides other
works, a "Life of Oliver Goldsmith," (1804,) and a
" Life of Richard Cumberland," (2 vols., 1814.) Died
in 1848.
Mudge, muj, (JOHN,) F.R.S., an eminent optician
and surgeon, was a younger son of Zachary, noticed
below. He practised many years at Plymouth, and
wrote medical essays, some of which were inserted in
the " Philosophical Transactions." He was distinguished
as the improver of the reflecting telescope, and as author
of " Directions for Making the Best Composition for the
Mirrors of Reflecting Telecopes, with a Description of
the Process forgiving the Great Speculum the True Para
bolic Curve." For this lie received the Copley medal
from the Royal Society. Died in 1793.
Mudge, (THOMAS,) an excellent English mechanist,
born at Exeter in 1716, was a son of Zachary Mudge,
noticed below. He served an apprenticeship to Graham,
the famous watchmaker, and acquired great eminence
in that art. About 1771 he retired to Plymouth, where
he employed several years in perfecting chronometers.
In 1793 he received from Parliament a recompense of
three thousand pounds for his improvements in these
instruments. Died in 1794. His son THOMAS wrote a
"Description of the Time-Keeper invented by Thomas
Mudge," (Senior.)
Mudge, (WILLIAM,) F.R.S., a scientific English gen
eral, born at Plymouth in 1762, was a son of Dr. John
Mudge, noticed above. He served in the royal artil
lery, and obtained the rank of lieutenant. About 1798
he was appointed superintendent of the grand trigono
metrical survey of England and Wales, after he had
been employed for several years as assistant in that work.
During the progress of the survey he was raised to
the rank of major-general. The results of his survey
were published in the " Philosophical Transactions,"
and procured him much distinction. In the latter part
of his life he was lieutenant-governor of the Royal
Military Academy at Woolwich. Died in 1821.
Mudge, (ZACHARY,) an eminent clergyman of the
Anglican Church, was the father of John and Thomas
Mudge, above noticed, and an intimate friend of Dr.
Johnson. He became master of a free school at Bide-
ford about 1716, and rector of a church in Plymouth in
1736. lie was also prebendary of Exeter. His ser
mons, of which a volume was published in 1727, were
highly esteemed. Died in 1769.
Mu'die, (RoiiEKT,) a Scottish naturalist and popular
litterateur, born in Forfarshire in 1777, became a resi
dent of London. He published " Conversations in Moral
Philosophy," "The Feathered Tribes of the British
Islands," "Popular Mathematics," "The British Natu
ralist," " The Elements : The Heavens, the Earth, the
Air, and the Sea," and numerous other works. Died
in 1842.
Mudo, El, el moo'no, (JUAN FERNANDEZ XIMENES
de Navarete — da na-va-ra'ta,) a celebrated Spanish
painter, born at Logrono in 1526, received the surname
of KL MUDO ("the Mute") because he was deaf and
dumb. He was patronized by Philip II., and painted for
the Escurial a "Nativity," a " Holy Family," and other
works of great merit. lie has been called "the Spanish
Titian." Died about 1575.
Muecke. See MUCKF.
Mueffliiig. See MUFFLING.
Muegge. See MUGGE.
Muehlenbruch. See MUHLF.NBRUCH.
Muelenaere, de, deh mu'el-na'reh, ? (FF.LIX AMAND,)
COMTE, a Belgian statesman, born in 1793. He was
appointed in 1830 Governor of West Flanders, and
minister of foreign affairs in 1834.
Mueller. See MULLER.
Muellner. See MULLNER.
Muench. See MUNCH.
Muench-Bellinghausen. Sec MUNCH-BELLING-
HAUSFN.
Muenchausen. See MUNCHAUSEN.
Muennich. See MUNNICH.
Muenster. See MUNSTER.
Muenster-Ladeiiburg. See MUNSTER-LADENBURG.
Muenter. See MUNTER.
Muenzer. See MUNZER.
Muffling or Mueffling, muffling, (FRIEDRICH FER
DINAND KARL,) BARON, a Prussian field-marshal, born
at Halle in 1775. lie was appointed in 1815 governor
of Paris. In 1829 he negotiated a treaty of peace be
tween Russia and Turkey. He became governor of
Berlin in 1837, and president of the state council in 1841.
He died in 1851.
See " Passages from my Life," etc., by BARON WOFFLING.
Miigge or Muegge, mug'geh, almo.st muVkeh,
(THEODoR,) a German litterateur, born at Berlin in 1806,
wrote several romances, also political works entitled
" France and the Last of the Bourbons" and " Eng
land and Reform." He became in 1850 one of the
founders of the Berlin "National Zeitung," of which he
was afterwards editor. Died in 1861.
Muggleton, mug'g'1-ton, (LUDOWICK,) an English
fanatic, born in London in 1609, was the principal
founder of the sect called by his name. Muggleton and
his coadjutor, John Reeve, professed to be the last and
greatest prophets of Jesus Christ. Died in 1697.
Mugnoz. See MUNOZ.
Muguet de Nanthou, mu'g.V deh nfiN'too', (FRAN
COIS F^LIX HYACINTHK,) a French lawyer and repub
lican, born at Besai^on in 1760. He was an active and
influential member of the National Assembly in 1790-91.
He was one of the commissaries appointed to maintain
order in Paris on the flight of Louis XVI. to Varennes
in 1791. He died in 1808, leaving the reputation of a
worthy and honourable man.
Muhammed or Muhammad. See MOHAMMED.
Muhaut, mii'lio', (£TIENNF,) a French naturalist,
born at Thizy (Rhone) in 1797. He published, besides
other works, a " Natural History of the Coleoptera of
Fiance," (1839 et seq.}
Muhlenberg, mu'len-berg, (GorrHiLF HENRY
ERNST,) D.D., an American divine and botanist, son
of the following, was born in Montgomery county,
Pennsylvania, in 1753. He published, among other
works, a "Catalogue of the Plants of North America."
Died in 1815.
Muhlenberg, (HENRY MELCHIOR,) D.D., born in
Hanover, Germany, in 1711, emigrated to America,
where he founded the German Lutheran Church, and
settled as pastor at Philadelphia. Died in 1787.
See the " Life and Times of Henry M. Muhlenberg," by M. L.
STOEVER, 1856.
Muhlenberg, (PETER,) a general, son of the pre
ceding, was born in Montgomery country, Pennsylvania,
in 1746. He served with distinction in the Revolutionary
war, and was elected to the Senate of the United States
in 1801. Died in 1807.
See the " Life of General Peter Muhlenberg," by HENRY A.
MUIILENBERC;, 1849.
Miihleiibruch or Muehlenbruch, mu'len-bKooK',
(CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH,) an eminent German jurist,
born at Rostock in 1785. He filled the chair of law
successively at Konigsberg and Halle, and in 1833 be
came professor at Gottingen. Among his most important
works are a " Compendium of the Institutes of Roman
Law," and " Doctrine of the Pandects, for the Use of
Schools." Died in 1843.
Muirhead, mur'he'd, (JAMES P..) a British writer of
the present age, was a relative of James Watt, the great
inventor. He published "The Origin and Progress of
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g asj; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MUIS
1640
MULLER
the Mechanical Inventions of James Watt, illustrated
by his Correspondence," etc., (3 vols., 1854,) and a " Life
of James Watt."
Muis, de, cleh mii-e', (SIMEON Marotte — mt'rot',)
a French ecclesiastic and Orientalist, born at Orleans in
1587, became professor of Hebrew in the Royal College.
He published a number of valuable works, including a
" Commentary on the Psalms," (1630,) which is esteemed
one of the best that has appeared. Muis enjoyed the
reputation of one of the most learned Hebraists and
Biblical critics of his time. Died in 1644.
See DUPIN, " BibliotUeciue des Auteurs ecclesiastiques."
Mul'cas-ter, (RICHARD,) an English scholar, born at
Carlisle about 1535, became in 1561 master of Merchant
Taylors' School, then recently founded in London. He
wrote Latin verses, some of which were spoken before
Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth, also several educational
works. Died in 1611.
Mul'ci-ber, [supposed to be derived from mulceo, to
"tame," to "soften," because he softens iron and makes
it tractable,] a surname given by the Romans to VULCAN,
which see.
Mulder, mul'der, (GERARD JAN,) a Dutch physician
and chemist, born at Utrecht in 1802, became pro
fessor of chemistry in his native city. He published,
among other works, an " Essay on General Physiological
Chemistry," (1844,) and "Chemical Researches," (1847.)
Died in 1847.
Muley (or Mouley) Hassan, mu'lee has'san or
moo' I a' hSs'san, King of Tunis, began to reign in 1533.
He was driven from the throne by Barbarossa, but was
restored by the emperor Charles V. in 1535. Died in
1545-
Muley Ismail, moo'la' is-mt'eel', Emperor of Mo
rocco, born in 1646, began to reign in 1672. He took
Tangier from the English about 1680. In 1697 he
attacked the Algerines, by whom he was defeated. He
was extremely cruel. Died in 1727.
Muley Soliman, moo'la' so-li-mln', Emperor of
Morocco, began to reign in 1792. He abolished slavery,
and is said to have been a prudent and able ruler.
Under his reign Morocco enjoyed unusual tranquillity.
Died in 1822.
Mulgrave, EARL OF. See SHKFFIKI.D.
Mul'grave, (CONSTANTINE JOHN Pinrps,) LORD, a
distinguished navigator, born about 1740, was the
son of an Irish peer. In 1773 he made a voyage to
the Arctic regions in order to discover the Northwest
Passage, in which he was not successful. After his
return he was made a privy councillor, and raised to
the peerage in 1784. He published, in 1774, "J"ur-
nal of a Voyage towards the North Pole." Died in
1792.
Mulgrave, (HENRY PHILIP PHIPPS,) LORD, a brother
of the preceding, was born in 1755- He filled several
important offices, and became in 1806 first lord of the
admiralty. He exchanged this place in 1812 for that of
grand master of artillery, and received the title of Earl
of Normanby and Viscount Mulgrave. He died in 1831,
and left a son, who became Marquis of NORMANKY,
(which see.)
Muliuari, moo-le-na'ree, or Molinari, mo-le-na'ree,
(STEFANO,) a Florentine engraver, executed a great
number of prints after Michael Angelo, Raphael, and
other eminent Italian masters. He published in 1780
a work entitled "Essay on the Five Italian Schools of
Painting."
Miiller or Mueller, mul'ler, (ADAM HKINRICH,) a
German jurist and writer, born at Berlin in, 1779, became
aulic councillor at Vienna. Died in 1829.
Mul'ler, (ALBERT A.,) an American divine, born at
Charleston, South Carolina, about 1800, published a
number of lyrics and sacred poems.
Miiller, (AT.F.XANDF.R,) a German writer, born in the
bishopric of Fulda in 1780, was the author of "Archives
for the most Modern Legislation of all the German
States." Died in 1844.
Miiller, (ANDREAS,) a German divine and Orientalist,
born in Pomerania in 1630. He assisted Walton in his
Polyglot Bible, and contributed to Castell's "Lexicon."
He also published a "Treatise on Cathay," "Japanese
Alphabet," "Chinese Basilicon," and other works. Died
in 1694.
Miiller or Mueller, (AUGUST FRIEDRICH,) a Ger
man philosopher, born in 1684; died in 1761.
See J. A. EKNESTI, " Memoria A. F. Mueller!," 1761.
Miiller, mii'lain', (CHARLES Louis,) a celebrated
French painter, born in Paris in 1815. Among his prin
cipal works may be named "Christ's Entry into Jeru
salem," "Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew," "Lady
Macbeth," " Marie Antoinette at the Conciergerie," and
"The Sleeping Sylph." He obtained medals of the
first class in 1848 and 1855.
Miiller, (FRIKDRICH,) a German poet, born at Kreuz-
nach in 1750, was the author of " Ulrich von Kossheim,"
" Faust," and a drama entitled " Niobe." He was also
a painter and engraver. Died in 1825.
Miiller, (FRIKDRICII AUGUST,) a German epic poet,
born in Vienna in 1767, wrote poems entitled " Alfonso,"
(1790,) and "Richard Lowenherz," ("Richard Cceur-de-
Lion," 1790.) Died in 1807.
Miiller, (FRIKDRICH MAX,) an eminent German
Orientalist, a son of the poet Wilhelm, noticed below,
was born at Dessau in 1823. He studied the Sanscrit
language at Leipsic, Berlin, and Paris, and subsequently
visited England. In 1847 he was charged by the East
India Company to publish an edition of the " Rigveda."
He became Taylorian professor of modern languages at
Oxford in 1854. He published, besides other works,
" Buddhism and Buddhist Pilgrims," a " History of An
cient Sanscrit Literature," (1859,) and "Lectures on the
Science of Language," which were very popular. These
were first delivered at the Royal Institution in London
in 1861. He was chosen a Fellow of All Souls' College,
Oxford, in 1858.
Miiller, (GF.RHARD FRIEDRICH,) a German traveller
and historian, born in Westphalia about 1705. Having
visited Saint Petersburg, he accompanied Gmelin and
De 1'Isle, as secretary, on their expedition to Siberia in
1733- He was subsequently appointed historiographer
of Russia, (1747,) and keeper of the archives, (1766.)
He published a " History of Siberia," "Collection of
Russian Histories," and other works. He was a Fellow
of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1783.
See GRETCH, " Essai sur 1'Histoire de la Litterature Rnsse."
Miiller, ( HEINRICH,) a German Lutheran divine,
born at Lubeck in 1631, wrote numerous theological
treatises in Latin. Died in 1675.
Miiller, (JAKOB and GKORG,) brothers, and Swiss
artists, born in Grindelwald, lived about 1800, and were
celebrated for their skill in painting on glass.
Miiiler, (JAN.) See CADOVIUS.
Miiller, (TAN,) a Dutch engraver, born at Amsterdam
about 1570, imitated the style of Goltzius. His prints
are numerous and distinguished for great boldness and
facility of execution.
Miiller, (TOHANN.) See RF.GIOMONTANUS.
Miiller, (ToHANN,) a celebrated German physiologist
and zoologist, born at Coblentz on the I4th of July, 1801.
He entered the University of Bonn about 1819, studied
medicine and other sciences, and graduated as M.I), in
1822. In 1826 he published a remarkable treatise "On
the Comparative Physiology of the Sense of Sight."
He became professor of physiology, etc. at the Univer
sity of Bonn in 1830. His work on the secreting glands,
" De Glandularum secernentium Structura penitiori,"
etc., (1830,) is a valuable contribution to comparative
anatomy. He succeeded Rudolphi as professor of
anatomy in Berlin in 1833, and acquired a wide repu
tation as a lecturer. lie made several anatomical dis
coveries. His principal work is a "Manual of Human
Physiology," (" Handbuch (or Lehrbuch) der Physiologic
des Menschen," 2 vols., 1841-44,) which is considered
one of the best works ever written on that subject.
There are few points of physiology on which he has not
thrown light by numerous observations or new ideas.
Among his numerous works are a Latin treatise " On
the Respiration of the Foetus," (1823,) and "Grundriss
der Vorlesungen iiber allgemeine Pathologic," (1829.)
Many of his works are illustrated by figures designed
by himself. He edited a journal called " Archives of
Anatomy and Physiology," (1834-40.) In the opinion of
5,e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y\ short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
MULLER
1641
MULLER
some critics, M tiller was the first physiologist of Europe.
He died in Berlin in April, 1858.
See RODOLPH VIKCHOW, "Joannes Miiller," iSsS; " Nouvelle
Biographie Generale;" C. DARESTK, "Jean Miiller, ses Travaux,"
etc., in the "Revue Germaniqne" for February, April, and June,
1859 ; " Biographie Universelle."
Miiller, ([OHANN,) a German natural philosopher of
the nineteenth century. He was professor of physics
at Friburg, in Brisgau. He published "Elements of
Experimental Physics," (3d edition, 1852.)
Miiller, (Jon ANN FRIEDRICH WILHF.I.M,) a German
engraver, son of Johann Gotthard von Miiller, noticed
below, was born at Stuttgart in 1 782. Having completed
hi.s studies in Paris, he was appointed in 1814 professor
of engraving in the Academy of Arts at Dresden,
where he was charged with the execution of a plate
after Raphael's "Madonna di San Sisto." His severe
application to this work caused his death soon after the
completion of the print, (1816.) Besides the above-
named, which is esteemed his master-piece, Miiller
engraved "The Four Seasons," after Jordaens, "Saint
John," after Domenichino, and portraits of Schiller
and Hufelancl.
Miiller, (JOHANN GOTTWEKTH,) a German littera
teur, born at Hamburg in 1744, was the author of " Comic
Tales from the Papers of the Brown Man." Died in 1828.
Miiller, (JOHANN HF.INRICH,) a German astronomer
and natural philosopher, born at Nuremberg in 1671,
published many works on astronomy, etc. Died in 1731.
Miiller, ([OHANN JAKOU,) an excellent landscape-
painter, born at Riga in 1765. He worked at Stuttgart
and in Italy. Died in 1832.
Miiller, ([OHANN SEKASTIAN.) a German engraver,
born at Nuremberg in 1715. His plates for the "Sexual
System of Linnaeus Illustrated'' are among his best
works. Died in 1783.
Miiller, (KARL Otfried — ot'fReet,) a distinguished
German scholar, historian, and antiquary, was born at
Brieg, in Silesia, in 1797. He studied at Breslau, and j
subsequently devoted himself to philology at Berlin
under the celebrated Bockh. He became in 1817 pro- |
fessor of ancient languages in the Magdalenum at Bres- j
lau, and in 1819 obtained the chair of archaeology and
Grecian art at Gottingen. In this post his able and j
eloquent lectures, and the numerous admirable works
he published during the fifteen years following, gave a |
new impulse to the study of philology and antiquities '
in Germany. In 1839 Miiller visited Italy, and the next j
year arrived at Athens. Having greatly fatigued himself i
while making excavations -at Delphi, he was soon after
attacked by a fever, of which he died in 1840. He was
buried near the ruins of the Academy, and the Univer
sity of Athens erected a monument over his grave, j
Among his principal works are his " History of the
Hellenic Races and Cities," (1820,) "The Dorians,"
("Die Dorier," 2 vols., 1824-30,) "Introduction to a
Scientific System of Mythology," (1825,) " On the Origin
and Ancient History of the Macedonians," (1825,)
"The Etruscans," (2 vols., 1828.) "Manual of the Archae
ology of Art," (1830,) and "History of the Literature
of Ancient Greece," (1840.)
See BROCKHAI'S. " Conversations-Lexikon :" "Nouvelle Biogra
phie (lenera'e ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review'' for January, 1839.
Miiller, (Lumvic. CHRISTIAN,) a German engineer
and mathematician, born in the march of Pregnitz in
1744. He served for a time in the Seven Years' war,
and became in 1786 professor of mathematics in the
Academy of Engineers at Potsdam. He wrote several
valuable treatises on military tactics. Died in 1804.
Miiller, mul'ler, (()THO FRKDKRIK,) an eminent Danish
naturalist, born at Copenhagen in 1730. Being appointed
in 1753 tutor to a young nobleman, he availed himself,
while travelling with him, of the facilities for increasing
his knowledge of botany and zoology. In 1764 he pub
lished his "Fauna Tnsectorum Friedrichsdaliana," and in
1767 his "Flora Friedrichsdaliana," giving an account
of the insects and plants of Friedrichsdal. The great
merit of these productions caused him to be appointed
by King Frederick V. to continue the publication of the
" Flora Danica," a magnificent work, surpassing anything
of the kind that had hitherto appeared. Miiller added
two volumes to the three already published by Oeder. '•
In 1773-74 he brought out a treatise (in Latin) "On
Earth Worms and Fresh-Water Worms." In the first
part of this work he describes the infusoria, of which he
discovered many new species ; and he was the first
naturalist who distributed animalcules into genera and
species. In 1781 his treatise "On the Hydrachnae"
appeared, and in 1785 one "On the Monoculi," both
' written in Latin and illustrated with many plates. These
two works, together with a treatise on the Infusoria, (in
4to, with fifty plates,) published in 1786, are esteemed
his greatest productions. Miiller had begun in 1779 a
"Zoologia Danica," a superb work, of which he pub
lished two parts, each with forty coloured plates. Several
additions were made to it after his death, which took
place in 1784. Miiller is characterized by Cuvier as one
of the most laborious and accurate observers of the
eighteenth century; and the same writer adds, "The In
fusoria form, as it were, a new animal kingdom, which
he revealed to the world."
See HANXSRV, "Tal til Erindrins; af O. F. Miiiler," 1787;
HIRSCHIN-G, "Historisch-literarisches Handbuch."
Miiller, (PETER ERASMUS,) a learned Danish theolo
gian and antiquary, born at Copenhagen in 1776. Having
completed his studies in Germany, he was appointed in
1801 professor of theology in the University of Copen
hagen. In 1830 he succeeded Miinter as Bishop of
Seeland. Among his works are "Christian Moral
System," " Sagabibliothek," or "Library of the Sagas,"
and "Critical Examination of the Traditional History
of Denmark and Norway from 1805 to 1830." Died
in 1834.
See KRAFT og NVERUP, " Alinindeligt Litteraturlexicon," etc.
Miiller, (SOPHIE,) one of the most celebrated tragic
actresses of the German stage, born at Manheim in 1803.
She visited successively Vienna, Dresden, and Berlin,
where her performances elicited the warmest applause.
In private life she was highly esteemed. Died in 1830.
Miiller, (\\TKNZEL,) a popular German opera-com
poser, born in Moravia in 1767. He was appointed in
1786 chapel-master at Vienna. Among his numerous
works is "The Magic Guitar." Died in 18^5.
Miiller, (WII.HEI.M,) one of the most distinguished
lyric poets of Germany, born at Dessau in 1794. Having
visited Italy in 1817, he published, after his return,
" Poems from the Papers left by a Travelling Bugle-
Player," ("Gedichten aus den hinterlassenen Papieren
eines reisenden Waldhornisten," 2 vols., 1821,) "Songs
of the Greeks," ("Liedern der Griechen," 1821,) and
" Lyrical Promenades," (" Lyrischen Spaziergangen.")
He also published the " Library of the German Poets of
the Seventeenth Century." (1822,) and was a contributor
to Ersch and Gruber's "Encyclopaedia." Died in 1827.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Miiller, (Wiu.iAM TOHN,) an eminent landscape-
painter, of German extraction, born at Bristol, in Eng
land, in 1812. He studied under J. B. Pyne, and subse
quently visited Egypt and Greece, where he executed a
number of admirable pictures. Among these we may
name his " Memnon at Sunset," "Turkish Merchants,"
etc., " View of Athens," and " Prayer in the Desert."
Died in 1845.
Miiller, von, fon mul'ler, (JonANN GOTTHARD,) a
celebrated German engraver, born near Stuttgart in 1747.
He was patronized at an early age by Duke Charles
of Wiirtemberg, by whose assistance he was enabled
to study in Paris under Wille. He was chosen a
member of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1776, and sub
sequently became professor of engraving in the Academy
of Stuttgart, and obtained the order of the Wiirtemberg
Crown. Among his master-pieces we may name the
"Madonna della Seggiola," after Raphael, "Saint Ce
cilia," after Domenichino, and "The Battle of Bunker's
Hill," after Trumbull, also a number of excellent
portraits, including those of Moses Mendelssohn and
Schiller. Died in 1830.
See N.ACLER, " Allgenieines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Miiller, von, fon mtil'ler, (JOHANNES,) an eminent
Swiss historian, born at Schafifhausen, January 3, 1752.
He studied history at Gottingen under Schlozer, and
in 1772 published his " Cimbric War," ("Bellum Cim-
bricum.") He became, soon after, professor of Greek
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, gjittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MULLER
1642
MUNCHAVSEN
in the College of Schaffhausen, from which he removed
to Geneva in 1774. About this date he formed a friend
ship with Victor de Bonstetten. He published in 1780
the first volume of his " History of the Swiss," which
raised him to the first rank of historians. The second
edition of it was entitled "The History of the Swiss
Confederation," ("Die Geschichte der Schweizerischen
Eidgenossen," 1786.) He was appointed in 1786 aulic
councillor to the Elector of Mentz and librarian of the
University of Mentz. About 1790 he accepted from
Leopold II. of Austria the position of aulic councillor;
but, the publication of his Swiss history having been
prohibited by the Austrian court, he entered the service
of the King of Prussia, as privy councillor, in 1795. The
fourth volume of his great work appeared in 1805. In
November, 1806, he had a private interview with Napo
leon, who had invited him for that purpose, and who,
according to some authorities, effected some change in
Miiiler's political convictions. Through the influence
of Napoleon lie was appointed a councillor of state and
director of public instruction by the King of Westphalia
in January, 1808. lie died at Cassel in May, 1809.
Among his works are his correspondence with Bonstet-
ten, entitled "Letters of a Young Savant to his Friend,"
(iSoi,) and "Twenty-Four Books of Universal History,"
(3 vols., 1811.)
See his Autobiography, (" Selbstbiographie,") 1806; A. H. L.
HKKRKN, ''J. von Miiller der Historiker," 180} : C. G. HEYNK,
"Memoria J. de Mueller," 1810; HKINKICII DOKINC, " Leben J.
von Miiiler's," 1835 ; CHARLES MONAKD, "Biographic de J. de
Mueller," 1839; " Nouvelle Biopraphie Generale."
Miiller von Konigswinter, mtJl'Ier fon ko'nics-
(vin'ter, (Woi.FGANG,) a German litterateur, born at
Konigswinter in 1816. He published " Ballads and
Romances," "Voyage on the Rhine," "Lorelei," a
charming collection of legendary ballads, and "The
May Queen," an interesting village story.
Mul'li-gaii, (JAMKS A.,) an officer, born at Utica,
New York, in 1830. He removed in 1836 to Chicago,
where he became editor of the " Western Tablet," a
Catholic journal. He distinguished himself by his brave
defence of Lexington, Missouri, in 1861, and was made
a brigadier-general of Union volunteers in 1862.
Milliner or Muellner, mul'ner, (.\MADKUS GOTT-
KRIKD ADOLF,) a German critic and dramatic writer,
born near Weissenfels in 1774, was a nephew of the
poet Pliirger. He became in 1820 associate .editor of
the " Morgenblatt." Among his most popular dramas
are "The Confidants," "The Twenty-Ninth of Febru
ary," and "Die Schuld," (1816.) Died in 1829.
See F. K. J. SCHUTZ, " Milliner's Leben und Geist," 1830; F.
WAGKNRR, " Milliner in poetischer, kritischer und religibser Be-
ziehunj;," 1831.
Mullot or Mulot, rnii'lo', (FRANCOIS VALENTIN,) a
French litterateur, born in Paris in 1749. He was a
member of the Legislative Assembly in 1791. Among
his works is " I.e Museum de Florence, grave par David,"
(6 vols., 1788-05.) Died in 1804.
Mu'lo-eh, (I)iNAH MARIA,) an excellent and popular
English author, born in Staffordshire in 1826. Her
principal works are entitled "The Ogilvies," (1849,)
"Olive," "The Head of the Family," "Agatha's Hus
band," (1852,) "John Halifax, Gentleman," (1857,) "A
Life for a Life," " A Woman's Thoughts about Woman,"
"Studies from Life," "A Noble Life," (1866,) and "A
Brave Lady," (1870.) Miss Muloch has written admirably
upon a variety of subjects. In 1865 she was married to
George Lillie Craik, (noticed in this work,) who died in
June, 1866.
See the " British Quarterly Review" for July, 1866 ; " North
British Review" for November, 1858.
Mulot. See MULLOT.
Mulready, miil'red-e, ( WILLIAM, ) a celebrated
painter, born at Ennis, in Ireland, in 1786. He entered
the Royal Academy at an early age. and subsequently
formed his style on the model of the Dutch and Flemish
masters. His "Idle Boys," exhibited in 1815, caused
his election as associate of the Academy, and a few
months later he was made a Royal Academician. Among
his other works are "The Fight Interrupted," "The
Roadside Inn," "Lending a Bite," "The Wolf and the
Lamb," "Crossing the Ford," and "First Love." His
"Choosing the Wedding-Gown," and other illustrations
of the "Vicar of Wakefield," are also master-pieces of
the kind, and have placed him in the first rank of modern
British artists. Died in 1863.
Mulsant, muTsftN', (MARTIAL ETIKNNF.,) a French
naturalist, born at Marnard (Rhone) in 1797. He pub
lished several works on entomology.
Mum'mi-us, (Lucius,) an able' Roman general, sur-
named ACHA'ICUS, was noted for his integrity. He
became praetor in 154 K.C., and consul in 146. In the
same year he defeated the Achaean League, destroyed
Corinth, and reduced Greece to a Roman province.
Many works of art found at Corinth were carried to
Rome to adorn the triumphal procession of Mummius,
which occurred in 145 n.c. and formed an epoch in the
history of Roman art. He was censor in 142 it.c., when
Scipio Africanus the Younger was his colleague.
See POI.YBIUS, " History ;" Livv, " Kpitome."
Mummol. See MUMMOI.US.
Mum'mo-lus, [ Fr. MU.V.MOL, mii'mol',] (ENNIUS,)
an able Gallic general, became Count of Au.xerre about
560 A.D., and commander of the army of Gontran of
Burgundy. lie defeated the Lombards near Embrun
in 572, and Didier, Count of Toulouse, in 576. Having
revolted against Gontran, he was killed, by order of that
king, in 585 A.D.
Mun, (THOMAS,) an English writer on commerce,
lived about 1620-40. He was a merchant of London,
and wrote " England's Treasure by Foreign Trade ; or,
The Balance of our Foreign Trade is the Rule of our
Treasure."
Mvmari degli Aretusi, moo-na'ree daKyee a-i a-too'-
see, J'PF.LLEORINO,) an Italian painter of Moclena, was a
pupil of Raphael. Died in 152^5.
Munatius Plancus. See PI.ANCUS.
Muncer. See MUN/.KR.
Munch, moonk, ( ANDRKAS,) a Norwegian poet, cousin
of Peter Andreas, noticed below, was born in 1811. He
was author of " Poems, Old and New," and other works.
Munch or Muencli, munK, (ERNST HKRMANN JO
SEPH,) a Swiss historian and voluminous writer, born at
Rheinfelden in 1798. He became professor of ecclesias
tical history and canon law at Liege, (1828.) lie wrote
(in German) a " History of the House of Orange-Nassau,"
(1831-33,) "Universal History of Modern Times," (1833
-35,) and other works. Died in 1841.
See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, i$}S.
Munch, (PETKR ANDRKAS,) an eminent Norwegian
antiquary and philologist, born at Christiania in 1810,
became professor of history in the university of his
native city, (1841.) He published Grammars of the
Runic, the Gothic, and the so-called Old Norwegian
languages, "Historical and Geographical Description
of Norway in the Middle Ages," (1849.) " History of
the Norse Nations," (" Det Norske Folks Historic," 3
vols., 1853-59.) He also edited the "Ancient I/uvs of
Norway," and the ancient " Edda." Died in 186}.
Miinch-Bellirghauseu or Muench-Bellinghau-
seii, munK beKling-how'xen, (Ei.ioius FRANX. fosKrii,)
BARON, a German poet and dramatist, born in Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin in 1806, was known by the pseudonym
of FRIKDRICH HALM. He was the author of tragedies
entitled " Griseldis," (1835,) " The King and the Peas
ant," (1841,) "The Son of the Wilderness," (1842,) and
"The Gladiator of Ravenna," (1857.) The two last-
named were received with great favour. In 1845 he was
appointed keeper of the Imperial Library of Vienna.
Miinchausen or Muenchausen, mtfiiK'how'zen,
(GKRLACH Anoi.F,) BARON, a German statesman, born
at Hanover in 1688, was for many years curator of the
University of Gottingen. He made valuable contribu
tions to the library of that institution, and founded the
Society of Sciences at Gottingen. He was appointed
first minister of Hanover in 1765. Died in 1770.
Miinchausen, commonly pronounced in English
mun-chaw'sen, (HrERONYMUS KARL FRIEDRICH,) ISA-
RON, a famous German officer, whose name has become
proverbial as a synonym of extravagant boasting, was
born in Hanover in 1720. Having entered the Russian
service, he fought against the Turks in 1737. After his
return, he acquired great notoriety by his exaggerated
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
MUNCK
1643
MUNTER
stories of adventure, a. collection of which appeared
in England under the title of " Karon Munchausen's
Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in
Russia." It obtained great popularity, and was trans
lated into German by Burger. Died in 1797.
See EI.LISF.N, "Xachricht iiber den Freiherrn von Munchausen,"
prefixed to his "Adventures," Berlin, 1849; ALI.IBONE, "Diction
ary of Authors," article "Raspe."
Muiick. See MU.NK.
Mundaiiella, moon-di-nel'ii, (Luici,) an Italian phy
sician, born at Brescia, published "Theatrum Galeni,"
(1551.) Died about 1570.
Mun'day, (ANTHONY,) an English dramatist, born
in 1554, wrote "The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Hun
tingdon," and "The Widow's Charm," and published
an enlarged edition of Stowe's " Survey of London."
Died in 1633.
See COLLIER, " History of English Dramatic Poetry."
Mun'den, (JOSEPH S.,) an English comedian, born in
London in 1758; died in 1832.
Muii-di'nus or Mondiiio da Luzzi, mon-dee'no
di loot'see, an Italian physician and anatomist, born in
the latter part of the thirteenth century, became pro
fessor of medicine at Bologna. He is said to have
been the first among the moderns who dissected human
bodies. Died in 1326.
See PORTAL, " Histoire de 1'Anatomie."
Mundt, moont, (TliEODOR,) a German litterateur,
born at Potsdam in 1808. He was appointed professor
of general literature and history at Breslau in 1848, and
in 1850 librarian of the University of Berlin. He has
published numerous tales, romances, political essays,
and sketches of travel. His wife — originally LuiSE
MuiH.HACH, (mul'baK,) — has also written a number of
historical romances of a somewhat extravagant character.
Several of them have been translated into English and
have enjoyed great popularity.
See " Nonvelle Biographic Generale."
Mun'dy, (GEORGE RODNEY,) an English naval officer,
a grandson of Admiral Rodney, was born in 1805. He
served as captain against the pirates of Borneo in 1846,
and published a " Narrative of Events in Borneo," (2
vols.. 1848.)
Munk or Munck, moonk, (HAN or JOITANN,) a
Danish navigator, born about 1589. He was sent about
1620 to search for a Northwest Passage. Died in 1628.
Munk, moonk, (SALOMON,) a German Orientalist,
born at Glogau in 1802. He studied in Paris under Sil-
vestre de Sacy, and was appointed in 1840 one of the
keepers of the Oriental manuscripts in the Imperial
Library. He was elected a member of the Academy
of Inscriptions in 1860. Among his works is a "Geo
graphical, Historical, and Archaeological Description
of Palestine," (in French, 1845.)
Miiniiich or Muennich, mun'niK, ( BORKHARD
CHRISTOPH,) COUNT, a Russian general and statesman,
of German extraction, born in 1683. Having served
against the French in 1712, he was afterwards patron
ized by Peter the Great, and rose to be field-marshal
under the empress Anna. He subsequently gained a
series of victories over the Turks. He caused himself
to be made prime minister during the minority of Prince
Ivan ; but on the accession of Elizabeth he was exiled
to Siberia, in 1741. He was recalled by Peter III. in
1762. Died in 1767.
See HRMPRI., "Leben Miinnichs." 1742; VON- HAMMER, "Ge-
schichte des Osinanischen Re:chs;" G. A. VON- HAI.RM. " Lebensbe-
sclireibiiiiK des Grafen von Miimiich," 1803; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Mun'niks, (JAN,) a Dutch anatomist, born at Utrecht
in 1652 ; died in 1711.
Mmmiks, (\VINOI.D.) a Dutch physician, born in
Friesland in 1744; died in 1806.
Muiioz, moon-yoth', (EvARiSTA,) a Spanish painter,
of high reputation, born at Valencia in 1671, was noted
for his gallantry and adventures. Died in 1737.
See QL-II.LIET, "Die ionnaire des Ptintres Espagnols."
Muiioz, (FERNANDO,) Duke of Kianzares, a Spanish
officer, born at Tarancon about 1808. He was secretly
married to the queen-regent Maria Christina in 1833.
They were married publicly in 1844.
Muiioz, (JuAN BAUTISTA,) a Spanish historian, born
near Valencia in 1745, was appointed cosmographer
to the Indies. He published a " History of the New
World," (1793,) which is highly eulogized by Humboldt.
Died in 1799.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" PRESCOTT,
"History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ii. part 2.
Muiioz, sometimes improperly written Mugnoz, (SE
BASTIAN,) a Spanish artist, born at Naval Carnero in
1654, was one of the best Spanish fresco-painters of his
time. He was a pupil of Coello, and was appointed
painter to the king, Charles II., in 1688. Died in 1690
See QUILLIET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagno's," etc.
Muiioz, (ToMAS,) a Spanish naval officer and en
gineer, born about 1745. He defended the foundations
of Cadiz against the encroachments of the sea. Died
in 1823.
Mun-ro', (Sir THOMAS,) an able English general and
governor, born at Glasgow in 1760 or 1761. He weiu
to India about 1780, and entered the army of the East
India Company. Having served with distinction in
several campaigns, he was also employed in important
civil offices. In 1819 he was appointed Governor of
Madras, and raised to the rank of major-general. He
died in India in 1826 or 1827.
See G. R. GLEIC,. " Life of Sir Thomas Mnnro," 2 or 3 vols.,
1830; CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;"
"Edinburgh Review" for April, 1830.
Mun'sell, (JoEL,) an American printer and journalist,
born at Northfield, Massachusetts, in 1808, published
the " Evei y-Day Book of History and Chronology,"
"Annals of Albany," and other works.
Minister, von, fon mooi/ster, (ERNST FRIF.DRICH
HERBERT,) COUNT, a Hanoverian politician, born in
1766. He was a member of the Congress of Vienna
in 1814. Died in 1839.
Mun'ster, (GEORGE FITZCLARENCE,) EARL OF, an
English general, born in 1794, was a natural son of King
William IV. He served with distinction in the Penin
sular war, and afterwards in India. He wrote a "Journal
of Travels in India," (1819.) Died in 1842.
Minister or Mueiister, mun'ster, (SEBASTIAN,) a
German theologian and Orientalist, born at Ingelsheim
in 1489, became professor of Hebrew and Biblical litera
ture at Heidelberg. He published a Latin translation
of the Hebrew Bible, (with notes,) and a " Universal Cos
mography." " Minister," says De Thou, " was so learned
in theology and geography that he was styled the Esdras
and Strabo of Germany." Died in 1552.
Minister - Ledenburg, mtin'sier la'den -booRC/,
(ERNST FRIF.DRICH HERBERT,) a German statesman,
born at Osnabriick in 1766. He became minister of
finance in 1798, and was afterwards sent on missions to
England and Russia. Died in 1839.
Muntaner En Ramon, moon-ti-naiR' en rS-mon',
a Spanish chronicler, born in Catalonia in 1265. His
principal work is a "History of the Achievements of
the Princes of Aragon, from James the Conqueror to
Alfonso IV." The writer narrates, in a pleasing, un
affected style, events of which he was a witness, and his
chronicle is esteemed one of the best of the middle ages.
Miinter or Muenter, mun'ter, (BAI.THASAR,) a Ger
man pulpit orator and writer of sacred poetry, born at
Lubeck in 1735. His "Collections of Spiritual .Songs"
are greatly esteemed by his countrymen. In 1772 he
attended the unfortunate Count Struensee a short time
before his execution, and afterwards wrote an account
of his conversion. This work became widely celebrated,
and was translated into the principal European lan
guages. Died in 1793.
See FRIEDRICH MUNTER, "Leben und Character B. Miinters,"
1794.
Miinter, (FRIF.DRICH,) son of the preceding, born in
1761, became successively professor of theology at Co
penhagen (1790) and Bishop of Seeland, (1808.) He
also attained great distinction as an antiquary and
Oriental scholar. Among his most important works is
a treatise "On the Symbols and Art-Representations
of the Early Christians." Died in 1830. FREDERIKA
SOPHIA CHRISTIANA BRUN, sister of the preceding,
was likewise celebrated as an author.
. .* .
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z, th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
MUNTING
1644
MURCHISON
Munting, miin'ting, (ABRAHAM,) a Dutch physician
and botanist, born at Groningen in 1626, was professor
of botany and chemistry in the university of that place.
He wrote, among other treatises, a " Curious Descrip
tion of Plants." Died in 1683.
Miiiizer, Muenzer, or Miincer, munt'ser, (THOMAS,)
a German fanatic, who held principles similar to the
Anabaptists. Having collected forty thousand followers,
they committed many outrages ; but they were at length
defeated by the Landgrave of Hesse and his allies, and
Miinzer was executed, (1526.)
See STROBE!,, " Leben, Schiiften, etc. Thomas Munzers," 1785;
SKIDEMANN, "Thomas Munzer," 1842.
Mura, da, da moo'ra, (FRANCKSCO,) sometimes called
FRANCKSCHKTTO, (fran-ches-keYto,) an Italian painter,
born at Naples. He painted several works in the palace
of the King of Sardinia. Died about 1745.
Murad. See MOORAIX
Murad, (Sultans of Turkey.) See AMURATH.
Murad Bey. See MOORAD BEY.
Muraire, niii'ra"R', (HoNOu6,) COUNT, a French judge
and politician, born at Draguignan in 1750. He was
elected to the Council of Elders in 1795, was banished
in 1797, and was appointed first president of the court
of cassation in Paris in 1804. Died in 1837.
Muralt, de, deli moo'ralt, (B£.vr Louis,) a Swiss
litterateur, born at Berne. He wrote a " History of Fred
erick the Great of Prussia," and various other works.
Died in 1760.
Muralt, de, QK.AN,) a Swiss physician and naturalist,
born at Zurich in 1645. He became professor of physics
and mathematics at Zurich in 1645, and published several
scientific works. Died in 1733.
Muraiit, mil-rant', ? (EMMANUEL,) a Dutch landscape-
painter, born at Amsterdam in 1622. His works are
finely finished. Died at Leeuwarden in 1700.
Murat, mii'i'S', (JKAN,) a French painter, born at
Felletin in 1807. He gained the grand prize in 1837
for a picture of "Noah Offering Sacrifice."
Murat, [sometimes Anglicized in pronunciation as
mil-rat',] (JoACHiM,) a celebrated marshal of the French
empire, and King of Naples, was born near Cahors, in
the south of France, in 1771. His father was an inn
keeper. Soon after the Revolution began, young Murat
entered the guard of Louis XVI., from which he passed
into a regiment of chasseurs. As he was a warm parti
san of the popular cause, he was rapidly promoted, and
in the campaign of 1796 was a favourite aide-de-camp
of Bonaparte, whose fortunes he thenceforth followed
and shared. Having signalized his impetuous bravery
in the campaigns of Italy and Egypt, he was made a
general of division in 1799. Soon after Bonaparte ob
tained the chief power, he gave to Murat his sister
Caroline in marriage. Murat commanded the cavalry at
Marengo in 1800, and was appointed governor of Paris
in 1804, with the rank of general-in-chief. He received
a marshal's baton in 1804, and in 1806 was created Grand
Duke of Berg and Cleves. At Ansterlitz, Jena, and
Eylau he directed the cavalry with brilliant effect. He
was pronounced by Napoleon "the best cavalry officer
in Europe," and was admired for his handsome figure,
gorgeous costume, and chivalrous demeanour.
Murat commanded the army which invaded Spain in
1808, and in the same year was placed on the throne
of Naples, where he was received with general joy, and
reigned liberally and peacefully until 1812. He shared
the reverses of the Russian campaign, (1812,) and in
1813 again fought for Napoleon, whose cause he deserted
after the battle of Leipsic. He made a treaty with the
court of Vienna in January, 1814, and engaged to sup
port the allies with his army; but he failed to aid them
efficiently, and was accused' of duplicity. As the Con
gress of Vienna appeared indisposed to recognize his
claim, he secretly renewed his relations with the exiled
emperor, whose cause he openly espoused in March,
1815. Calling the Italians to rise for liberty, he com
menced hostilities against the Austrians in' Northern
Italy, but was repulsed and finally defeated at Macerata
in May, and then fled to France. In October, 1815, he
landed with about thirty men in his former kingdom, and
made a desperate attempt to recover it, but was soon
captured and shot. As a ruler, he appears to have been
mild and humane, but he was deficient in political ability
as well as moral courage. His wife survived him many
years, and took the title of Countess of Li pan o. (See
BONAPARTE, CAROLINE.) Murat left two sons, Napoleon
Achille and Lucien Charles Joseph.
See F. MACIKONE, "Interesting Facts relating to the Fall, etc.
ofj. Murat;" A. DE BEAUCHAMP, "Catastrophe de Murat ;" LEON
GAI.LOIS, " Histoire de Joachim Murat," iSaS ; A. SKRIBVS, "Vie
publique et privee de Joachim Murat," iSi6; A. BKUGGEMANS,
" Leven en Lotgevallen van Joachim Murat," 1816 ; C. MJRAMONT,
"Vie de J. Murat, Roi de Naples," iSj6; THIKRS, " History of the
French Revolution ;" " HIackwood's Magazine" for August, 1826.
Murat, (NAPOLEON ACHILLE,) a son of the preceding,
was born in Paris in 1801. lie emigrated to Florida
about 1822. He wrote a "Moral and' Political View of
the United States," (1832,) and several other short
works. Died in Jefferson county, Florida, in 1847.
Murat, (NAPOLEON LUCIEN CHARLES,) PRINCE, a
French senator, born at Milan in 1803, was a son of
Joachim Murat. He married Miss Fraser, an American,
about 1827. After a long exile, he was permitted to enter
France in 1848. He supported the policy of Napoleon
III., who appointed him a senator in 1852.
Muratori, moo-ra-to'ree, (LuDovico ANTONIO,) an
eminent Italian scholar, historian, and antiquary, born
near Modena in 1672. He became librarian and ar
chivist to the Duke of Modena in 1700, and continued in
this office till his death. He published in 1751 his great
work entitled "Writers of Italian History," (" Rerum
Italicorum Scriptores," 27 vols. fol., 1723-38,) which was
followed by his " Italian Antiquities of the Middle Ages,"
(6 vols., 1738,) " New Treasury of Ancient Inscriptions,"
(6 vols., 1739,) and "Annals of Italy," (in Italian, 12 vols.,
1744.) He died in 1750, with the reputation of one of
the most learned men of his time.
See G. F. MURATORI, "Vita del celebre L. A. Muratori," 1756;
TIPAI.DO, "Biografia de^li Itnliaui illnstri ;" FAKKONI, "Vit:c Itaio-
rum doctrina excellentium ;" SCHKDONM, " Elogiodi L. A. Muratori,"
1818; "Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Muravief. See MOORAVIEF.
Murawiew or Murawjew. See MOOKAVIEK.
Murazan, moo-ra san', (Ji)AN,) a South American
patriot, born at San Salvador in 1796, was president
of the republic of Guatemala from 1831 to 1838. Died
in 1852.
Mur'-ehl-son, (Sir RODERICK IMPEY,) an eminent
British geologist, born at Taradale, Ross-shire, Scotland,
on the igth of February, 1792, was a son of Kenneth
Murchison. He was educated at the Military College
of Marlow, entered the army in 1807, and served in seve
ral battles in the Peninsula. He was also on the staff of
his uncle, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in Sicily. He mar
ried a daughter of General Hugonin in 1815, and quitted
the army about 1816. By the advice of Sir Humphry
Davy, he applied himself to the study of natural science',
and attended lectures at the Royal Institution. AboutiSaj
he produced a "Geological Sketch of the Northwestern
Extremity of Sussex." He became a member of the
Geological Society in 1825, and of the Royal Society in
1826. In company with Sir Charles Lyell, he explored
in 1828 the geology of Auvergne, Provence, and Pied
mont, on which they wrote jointly three memoirs. In
1830 he began to examine the older sedimentary strata
of England and Wales, to which he gave the name of
Silurian system. He published the results of these
researches in an important work entitled "The Silurian
System." He was the first who discovered the relations
of these palaeozoic strata and classified them according
to the succession of organic remains. In 1845 Mr.
Murchison and M. de Verncuil published "The Geology
of Russia and the Ural Mountains," (2 vols. 4to.) The
former received the honour of knighthood in 1846. He
was elected president of the Royal Geographical So
ciety in 1844 and 1852, and received the Copley medal
in 1849, for the establishment of the Silurian 'system.
Among his numerous works is " Siluria : the History
of the oldest known Rocks containing Organic Remains,
with a Brief Sketch of the Distribution of Gold over the
Earth," (1854.) lie had been chosen president of the
Geological Society several times between 1830 and 1842.
In 1855 he was appointed Director-General of the Geo
logical Survey of the United Kingdom. He was elected
fu e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nfit; good; moon;
MURDOCH
1645
MURPHY
president of the Royal Geographical Society in 1864,
and received the Copley medal in 1866.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for
July, 1860; " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1868; "Eclectic
Matra/i'ne" for December, 1864, (with a portrait ;) " North British
Review" for August, 1854; "Men of the Time" for 1868.
Murdoch, mur'dok, ( JAMES EDWARD,) an American
actor and elocutionist, born in Philadelphia, January 25,
1811. His first public performance was in Philadelphia
in 1829. In 1833 he appeared successfully in the charac
ter of "Romeo," with Miss Fanny Kemble as "Juliet,"
and from that time became a leading actor in tragedy
and comedy. About five years later he retired from the
stage, and opened a school in Boston for mental and
physical training. He afterwards returned to the stage,
and in 1853 he visited California. In 1855 he went to
Kurope, and while in London performed at the I lay-
market Theatre with great applause. He returned to the
United States in 1857. Mr. Murdoch's style is strictly
original, his articulation distinct, and his versatility and
range of character remarkable. At the commencement
of the war of the rebellion he devoted his time and atten
tion to his country, giving readings and recitations in
the camps, caring for the sick and wounded, and rousing
the people to the aid of the suffering. He served for
some time on the staff of General Rousseau. Since the
close of the war he has devoted himself to his profession.
Mur'ctock, (JAMES,) D.D., a learned American Con
gregational divine, born at Westbrook, Connecticut, in
1776. lie graduated at Yale College, and was appointed
professor of ancient languages at the University of Ver
mont in 1815, and in 1819 of sacred rhetoric and eccle
siastical history in the theological seminary of Andover.
He translated from the German Mosheim's "Institutes
of Ecclesiastical History," and Miinscher's "Elements
of Dogmatic History," (1830,) and published several
original works. Died in 1856.
Mure, miir, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish critic and scholar
of great eminence, born at Caldwell in 1799. He studied
at Edinburgh, and subsequently at Bonn, in Germany,
and after his return was elected to Parliament for Ren
frew, in 1846. He published in 1850 his "Critical Ac
count of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece,"
(5 vols. Svo,) which is esteemed a standard work. He
was also the author of a "Calendar of the Zodiac of
Ancient Egypt," (1832,) and "Journal of a Tour in
Greece," (1838.) He was elected in 1855 lord rector
of the University of Glasgow. Died in 1860.
Mure, (Sir WILLIAM,) a Scottish poet, born in Ayr
shire about 1594, was the author of traditional "Ballads
and Songs." Died in 1657.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
" Edinburgh Review" for October. 1850.
Mu-re'iia, ( A. TKRENTIUS VARRO,) was consul sujjfectus
in 23 )!.C., and was put to death in 22 for complicity in
the conspiracy of Fannius Caepio.
Murena, moo-ra/na, (CARLO,) an Italian architect,
born in 1713, was a pupil of Vanvitelli. lie worked in
Rome. Died in 1764.
Murena, (Lucius LICINIUS,) a Roman soldier and
consul, was one of the lieutenants of Sulla, whom he
accompanied in his campaign against Mithridates. After
Sulla made peace with Mithridates, in 84 U.C., Murena
remained in Asia and renewed hostilities. Died about
So n.c.
Murena, (Lucirs LICINIUS,) a Roman general, who
served under Lucnllus in Asia. He was elected praetor
about 65, and consul in 63 B.C. Having been accused
of bribery in the year last named, lie was defended by-
Cicero and acquitted.
See CICERO, " Oratio pro Muraena."
Mures, moo'r?s, (Ai.ONZO,) a Spanish painter, born
in 1695. HC worked at Badajox, where he died in 1761.
Muret, mu'ri', [Lat. MURE'TUS,! (MARC ANTOINE,)
a French classical scholar, born at Muret, in Limousin,
in 1526. He lectured on philosophy and law at Paris,
which he quitted about 1552. He afterwards lived in
Venice and Rome, and was patronized by Ippolito
d'Este. In 1563 he opened a course of philosophy at
Rome, where he became professor of civil law about
1566. He was styled the "luminary and pillar of the
Roman school" by Pope Gregory XIII. He composed
commentaries on Aristotle, Cicero, Horace, Tacitus, and
other classic authors. Among his various works are
Latin poems and "Variae Lectiones." Died in Rome
in 1585.
See F. BENCI, " Oratio funebris Mureti," 1585 ; VOGT, "Apologia
pro Mureto ;" VITRAC, " E~loge cle Muret." 1775; " Menagiana ;"
LUNDBI.AD, "Dissertatio de M. A. Mureto," 1819; NICERON, " Me-
moires;" "Nouvelle Biographie Geuerale."
Muret, (THEODORE CESAR,) a French litterateur, born
at Rouen in 1808. He wrote a number of dramas and
histories, among which is a " History of the Wars of
the West," (5 vols., 1848.)
Muretus. See MURET.
Murger, muVzha', ( HENRI,) a French litteratetir,
born in Paris in 1822, contributed to the "Revue des
Deux Mondes" a number of tales and dramas. His
most popular work is entitled "Scenes in Bohemian
Life." Died in 1861.
See G. PLANCHE, in the " Revue des Deux Mondes," 1853.
Muriel, moo-re-SK, (ANDRES,) a Spanish litterateiir,
born in Old Castile in 1776, settled in Paris about 1812.
He wrote on Spanish history, and translated into French
Coxe's "Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House
of Bourbon," (Paris, 6 vols., 1827.)
Murillo, mu-ril'lo, [Sp. pron. moo-rel'yo,] (BAR-
TOLOM6 ESTEBAN,) the most celebrated painter of the
Spanish school, was born at Seville in 1618, and was a
pupil of his uncle, Juan del Castillo. About the age of
twenty-four he went to Madrid, where he derived ad
vantage from the friendly counsels of Velasquez and
perfected himself in his art. Having returned to Seville
in 1645, he soon acquired a high reputation in history,
portraits, and other branches of painting. He was pa
tronized by the King of Spain, and adorned the churches
of Madrid, Seville, and Cadiz with his works. As a
colorist he surpassed all other Spanish artists. His
productions are remarkable for originality, fidelity to
nature, freedom of touch, and softness, splendour, and
harmony of colour. He delighted and excelled in the
representation of virgin saints and of beggar-boys at
play. Among his master-pieces are "Moses Striking
the Rock," "The Marriage of Saint Catherine," "Saint
Elizabeth of Hungary," " Christ Feeding the Five
Thousand," a "Young Beggar " "The Prodigal Son," a
"Holy Family," and "Saint Anthony of Padua." He
died, in consequence of a fall from a scaffold, in 1682.
See CEAN-BERMUDEZ, "Diccionario Historico," etc. ; J. F. Boi'R-
fioiNR, " Tableau de 1'Espagne moderne ;" QUILI.IET, " Dictionnaire
des Peintrts Espagnols :" C. BLANC, " Hisioire des Peintres;" E.
DAVIES, " Life of B. E. Murillo," 1819 ; " Encyclopedia Biitannica ;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" " Eraser's Magazine" for April,
1846.
Muris, de, deh mu/ress', (JEAN,) a learned French
ecclesiastic, sometimes called MEURS or MURS, lived
about 1310-40. He was the author of a valuable treat
ise on music, entitled "Speculum Musicas," an abridg
ment of which has been published. Died after 1345.
Murner, mooR'ner, (THOMAS,) a famous German
satirist and controversialist, born at Strasburg in 1475.
He possessed uncommon abilities and caustic wit, and
the offensive personalities in which he indulged kept
him in constant warfare with his contemporaries. His
satires are chiefly directed against Luther and his asso
ciate Reformers ; and some of them are regarded as the
ablest which have been levelled at the Reformation.
He also wrote " The World of Fools," and " The Mill
of Schwinclelsheim," in which he keenly satirized the
follies of the time. Died about 1536.
See WAI.DAU, " Nachrichten von Murners Leben," 1775; Fi.6-
GEI,, " Geschiclite der komischen Literatur."
Mur'phy, (ARTHUR,) a dramatic and miscellaneous
writer, born in the county of Roscommon, in Ireland,
about 1728. He edited for a time "The Gray's-Inn
Journal," and wrote, among other plays, a tragedy
entitled "The Grecian Daughter," and "The Way to
Keep Him," a comedy. He also made a translation of
Tacitus, and wrote the Lives of Johnson and Garrick.
Died in 1805.
See J. FOOT, "Life of Arthur Murphy."
Murphy, (JAMES CAVANAGH,) a distinguished archi
tect and writer, born in Ireland about 1760. In 1788 he
<e as K: c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2£^==See Explanations, p. 23.)
MURPHY
1646
MURRAY
visited Portugal, and after his return published an ac
count of that country. Among his principal works we
may name "The Arabian Antiquities of Spain," with 97
plates, (1813-16.) Died in 1816.
Murphy, (ROBERT,) an excellent self-taught Irish
mathematician, born at Mallow in 1806. In 1825 he
entered Caius College, Cambridge, of which he was
chosen a Fellow in 1829. He became a resident of
London in 1836. Among his works are " Analysis of
the Roots of Equations," and "The Theory of Algebraic
Equations," published by the Useful Knowledge Society.
Died in 1843.
Mtirr, von, fon mooR, (CiiRisTOPH GOTTLIEB,) a
German scholar and antiquary, born at Nuremberg about
1734, published an "Essay on the History of the Greek
Tragic Poets," (1760,) "Antiquities of Hcrculaneum,"
(6 vols., 1777-82,) and a number of historical works,
among which is "Commentatio de Re diplomatica Fre
deric! II.," (1756.) He was noted for his various and
extensive learning. Died in 1811.
See MEUSEL, " Gelehrtes Deutschlaml ;" " Biographic Univer-
selle."
Murray, mur're ? (ADOLPHUS,) a Swedish physician,
born at Stockholm in 1 750. He was professor of anatomy
at Upsal. Died in 1803.
Murray, mur're, (ALEXANDER,) an eminent Scottish
linguist, born at Dunkitterick in 1775. The son of a
shepherd, his early instruction was very limited ; but,
with the aid of a powerful memory and his persevering
exertions, he acquired, before the age of twenty, the
French, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages. He
entered the University of Edinburgh in 1794, where he
studied theology and became versed in the Oriental
tongues. He was appointed professor of those languages
at Edinburgh in 1812, and soon after was created D. D.
He died in 1813, of consumption. His principal work
is a " History of the European Languages," etc., (1813.)
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots
men ;" "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. i.
Murray, mur're, (ALEXANDER,) an American com
modore, born at Chestertown, Maryland, in 1755. In
1802 he was commander of the Constellation, in the
Mediterranean, for the protection of American trade.
Died in 1821.
Murray, mur're, (CHARLES,) an English actor and
dramatist, born in Hertfordshire in 1754. His principal
plays are entitled "The Experiment," and "The New
Maid of the Oaks." Died in 1821.
Murray, (CHARLES AUGUSTUS,) an English diplo
matist, a son of the Earl of Dunmore, was born about
1806. He was sent as envoy to Persia in 1854, and as
minister to Saxony in 1859. He wrote "Travels among
the Indians of North America," (1839.) His Indian
tale or novel entitled "The Prairie Bird" (1844) has
been warmly praised.
Murray, (Sir GEORGE,) a British general, born in
Perthshire in 1772. He served in Flanders and Egypt
with distinction, and rendered important services as
quartermaster-general in the Peninsular war, (1808-14,)
after which he was employed in France as lieutenant-
general of the army of occupation. He was appointed
governor of the Royal Military College at Woolwich
about 1819, and secretary of state for the colonies in
1828. In 1841 he became master-general of the ord
nance. Died in 1846.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen.'1
Murray, (HUGH,) a Scottish geographer and miscel
laneous writer, born in East Lothian in 1779. Among
his principal works are "Discoveries and Travels in
America," (1829,) " Encyclopaedia of Geography," (1834,)
and " History of British India." Died in 1846.
See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1821.
Murray, (JAMES,) a Scottish writer, born at Dunkeld
in 1702, was the author of a work entitled "Aletheia;
or, A System of Moral Truths." Died in 1758.
Murray or Moray, (JAMES STUART,) EARL OF, often
called REGENT MURRAY, born about 1533, was a natural
son of James V. of Scotland and Margaret Erskine. In
1558 he joined the " Lords of the Congregation," as the
Protestant chiefs styled themselves, and in 1560 was sent
to France to invite Queen Mary (his half-sister) to return
to her kingdom. She returned in 1561, and he bee une
her most favoured and powerful minister, and was m ulc
Earl of Murray. His talents, firmness, and courage had
already caused the Reformers to regard him as the head
of their party. The marriage of Mary with Darnley,
(1565,) against the advice of Murray, caused a breach
between him and the queen, which was afterwards greatly
widened by the countenance she showed to Darnley's
murderers. Mary having been deposed, he was ap
pointed regent of the kingdom in August, 1567. In
1568 she escaped from Lochleven Castle, and raised an
army, which was quickly routed by the regent at Lang-
side. At the trial of Mary, which Queen Elizabeth in
stituted, the regent appeared as evidence against the
captive queen. By this and other acts he had incurred
the bitter hatred of the queen's party, and they resolved
upon his destruction. In January, 1570, he was waylaid,
shot, and mortally wounded by James Hamilton of
Botluvellhaugh, a notorious desperado, who was after
wards selected by the agents of Philip II. to assassinate
the Prince of Orange.
The character of the regent Murray has been estimated
very differently, according to the temper or prejudice of
those who have judged him. By his firmness, modera
tion, humanity, and impartial justice, he appears to have
well deserved the title of "the Good Regent," by which
he was known among the people of Scotland. "Those,"
observes Fronde, "who can see only in the Protestant
religion an uprising of Antichrist, and in the Queen
of Scots the beautiful victim of sectarian iniquity, have
exhausted upon Murray the resources of eloquent vitu
peration, and have described him as a perfidious brother,
building up his own fortunes on the wrongs of his in
jured sovereign. . . . But facts prevail at last, however
passionate the predilection ; and, when the verdict of
plain human sense can get itself pronounced, the 'good
regent' will take his place among the best and greatest
men who have ever lived."
Murray, (JOHAN ANDERS,) a Swedish physician and
botanist, born at Stockholm in 1740, was a pupil of Lin
naeus. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences
of Stockholm, and of the Royal Society of Gottingen,
and was created a privy councillor by the King of Eng
land. Linnaeus gave the name of Mitrrava exotica to
an East Indian tree. He was a brother of Adolphus,
noticed above. Died in 1791.
See C. G. HEYNE, " Elogium J. A. Murray," 1791.
Murray, (JOHN,) a Scottish physician, published a
" System of Materia Medica and Pharmacy," and " Ele
ments of Chemistry." Died in 1820.
Murray, (Jon.v,') a celebrated divine and preacher,
born in Hampshire, England, in 1741, is regarded as the
founder of Universalism in America. Having emigrated
to the United States in 1770, he was appointed in 1775
a chaplain in the army. He took part in the proceedings
of the Universalist Convention in 1785, and subsequently
became pastor of a church in Boston. Died in 1815.
See "Records of the Life of John Murray," written by himself.
Murray, (JoiiN,) an eminent English publisher, born
in London in 1778. He commenced in 1803 a career
of publication which is perhaps unrivalled in the annals
of literature. About 1807 he projected the "Quarterly
Review," in which he obtained the co-operation of Can
ning and Scott, and published the first number in 1809.
His sagacity in discerning the merits or talents of
authors, and his tact in anticipating the wants of the
public, rendered him very successful. He was a liberal
patron of literature, and a generous friend to Byron
and other eminent authors. Died in 1843.
See "Gentleman's Magazine" for August, 1843; "Autobiography
of Wiliiam Jerdan," vol. iii. chap. ii.
Murray, (LiNDLKY,) a distinguished American gram
marian and educational writer, born near Lancaster,
Pennsylvania, in 1745, was a member of the Society of
Friends. Having removed at an early age to New York,
he studied law, but he subsequently engaged in mercan
tile pursuits. The latter part of his life was spent in
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
MURRAY
1647
MUSCULUS
England, to which he removed about 1784. Among his
works, which obtained great popularity both in England
and America, we may name his " Power of Religion on
the Mind," etc., (1787,) "Grammar of the English Lan
guage," (1795,) "English Reader," "Introduction to the
English Reader," and " Duty and Benefit of a Daily
Perusal of the Holy Scriptures," (1817.) He also com
piled several French readers.
England, in 1826.
See the "Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Lindley Murray," written
He died near York,
Murray, (WILLIAM VANS,) an American diplomatist,
born in Maryland about 1762. Having studied law in
England, he was elected to Congress in 1791. He
was afterwards appointed by Washington United States
minister at the Hague. Died in 1803.
Mursinna, mooR-sin'na, (CHRISTIAN LUDWIG,) an
eminent German surgeon, born at Stolpe in 1744. He
became chief surgeon in the army in 1787, and published
several surgical works. Died in 1823.
Murtola, mooR'to-la, (GASPARO,) an Italian poet,
by himself; E. FRANK, " Memoirs of the Life of L. Murray," 1826; | born at Genoa. He wounded, with a pistol, Marini the
"National Portrait-Galleiy of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii
CLEVELAND, "Compendium of American Literature."
Murray, (NICHOLAS,) D.D., a Presbyterian divine,
born in Ireland in 1803, studied theology at Princeton,
New Jersey, and in 1834 became pastor at Eli/.abethtown,
poet, who had criticised one of his poems. Died in 1624.
Mus. See DKCIUS Mus.
Musa. See MOOSA.
Mu'sa, (ANTONIUS,) a celebrated Roman physician,
originally a slave of the emperor Augustus, and a brother
in that State. He published several theological works, j of ^ h£rb is said to ,'lave ^ the 'first who e.
'Letters to Bishop Hughes ' 1847-48,) under the j ^.^ the use of {he c<j]d bath Haying curedlthe
signature of KIRWAN, have enjoyed a great popularity, , ror b this remed he received his freedom, and
and have been translated into several foreign languages. ! J createc| k - h M , distinguished for
Died in 1861.
Murray, (PATRICK,) a Scottish writer, born in 1703, i
was the filth Lord Elibank. He published an " Inquiry
his literary tastes, and enjoyed the friendship of Virgil
into the Origin and Consequence of the Public Debts,"
" Thoughts on Money, Circulation," etc., and a " Let
ter to Lord Hailes on his Remarks on the History of
Scotland." His writings were highly esteemed. Died
in 1778.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Murray, (Sir ROUERT.) See MORAY.
Murray, (WILLIAM,) Earl of Mansfield, lord chief
justice, a British lawyer and orator of great merit and
celebrity, was born at Perth, Scotland, in 1704.
a younger son of Andrew, Viscount Stormont.
He was
Having
gained distinction as a classical scholar at Oxford, and
enlarged his mind by foreign travel, he was called to the
bar in 1731. He speedily rose into extensive practice,
and in 1743 was appointed solicitor-general. About this
time he entered the House of Commons, where he was
successful as an elegant and persuasive speaker, and
See ACKERMANN, "De Antonio Musa." 1786; ATTERBURY,
"Reflections on the Character of lapis, in Virgil, or the Character
of A. Musa," etc., 1740; HALI.ER, " Bibliotheca Botanica."
Musee, mu'ze, [Gr. MoCovu,] the Muses, sometimes
called PIER'IDES, in the Greek mythology, the daughters
of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, (Memory,) were supposed to
preside over poetry, the liberal arts, and the sciences.
According to the generally received opinion, there were
nine Muses, namely, Calliope, Clio, Euterpe, Erato, Mel
pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, and Urania.
(See these names under their separate heads.) The
places especially consecrated to the Muses were Mount
Parnassus, Mount Helicon, and the fountains of Castalia
and Aganippe.
Musaeus. See MUSAUS.
Musaeus, mu-zee'us, [ Gr. Movo-aZof; Fr. MUS£E,
mii'za',] a celebrated and ancient Greek bard, commonly
regarded as a semi-fabulous personage. He was said to be
defended the government when Mr. Pitt (Lord Chatham) : the son of Eumolpus and Selene, or, according to others,
was the leader of the opposition. "He surpassed Pitt," j of Orpheus, of whom he was a disciple. Tradition in-
says Macaulay, " in correctness of taste, in power of , forms us that he presided over the Eleusinian mysteries
reasoning, in depth and variety of knowledge ; but he jn the time of Hercules. He was the reputed author
wanted the energy, the courage, the all-grasping and all- j of several poetical works, among which were "Oracles,"
" and a hymn to Ceres. Pausanias regarded this hymn as
the only genuine poem of Musaeus that was extant in
risking ambition which make men great in stirring times.
(" Review of the Life of the Earl of Chatham.") He was
appointed attorney-general in 1754, and chief justice of
the king's bench in 1756. Over that great court he pre
sided with honour above thirty years. In 1756 he was
raised to the peerage, as Baron Mansfield. On more
than one occasion he refused high political positions,
among which was that of lord chancellor. He had,
however, a seat in the cabinet for more than a year. In
the trial of Woodfall for publishing " Junius's Letters,"
Lord Mansfield gave offence to the popular party, and
was censured for leaning against the freedom of discus
sion in cases of libel. During the riots of 1780, his house
in London was burned down by a mob. He died, with
out issue, in 1793. "His mind and his habits," says
Lord Brougham, " were eminently judicial ; and it may
be doubted if, taking both the externals and the more
essential qualities into the account, that go to form a
great judge, any one has ever administered the laws in
this country whom we can fairly name as his equal."
See the " Life of William, Earl of Mansfield," by JOHN HOLI.I-
DAY ; BROUGHAM, " Statesmen of the Time of George III. ;" Foss,
"The Judges of England ;" LORD CAMPBELL, " Lives of the Chief
Justices ;" CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots
men."
Murray, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish actor, born in 1791,
performed in Edinburgh for many years. Died in 1852.
Murray, (Rev. WILLIAM H. H.,) a popular and
eloquent Congregationalist minister, born at Guilford,
Connecticut, April 26, 1840, graduated at Yale in 1862.
Having been licensed to preach in 1863, he officiated
during several years as minister at Greenwich and other
places in Connecticut. In 1868 he accepted an invita
tion from Park Street Church, Boston, where he was
installed as pastor in November of that year. He pub
lished a work on the Adirondack Mountains, which has
attracted a good deal of attention.
his time. Onomacritus collected the Oracles of Musaeus
and mixed with them some of his own productions,
which he wished to pass for the work of Musaeus. For
this imposture he was banished by Hipparchus, the son
of Pisistratus.
See VIRGIL. " J£i\e\d," book vi. 666; ULRICI, " Geschichte der
Hellenischen Dichtkunst. "
Musaeus, surnamed GRAMMAT'ICUS, or " the Gram
marian," is supposed to have lived in the fifth century.
He is celebrated for his poem of " Hero and Leander,"
a production of rare merit, of which several good editions
have been published.
See KROMAYER, "De Musaeo Graminatico."
Musaus or Musaeus, moo-sa'us, QOHANN KARL
AUGUST,) a celebrated German writer, born at Jena in
1735. ^'s principal works are a novel entitled "The
German Grandison," (" Der Deutsche Grandison," 1760,)
" Physiognomic Travels," (1778,) a satire on the theories
of Lavater, "Popular Legends of Germany," (1782,)
which enjoy great popularity, and "Friend Hein's Ap
paritions, in Holbein's Manner," (1785.) His writings
are characterized by delightful humour, simplicity, and
genial satire. Musaus was a relative of Kotzebue, who
published in 1791 his posthumous works, with an inter
esting notice of the author prefixed. Died in 1787.
Muschenbroek. See MUSSCHENBROEK.
Muscher. See MUSSCHER.
Mus'cu-lus [Ger. pron. moos'koo-lus] or Meusel,
moi'zel, (ANDREAS,) a German Lutheran theologian, born
at Schneeberg in 1540. He preached at Frankfort-
on-the-Oder, and wrote "Compendium Theologicum."
Died in 1581.
Musculus, Miisslin, miis-leen', orMeusslin, moiss-
leen', (WOLFGANG,) a German Reformer and scholar, born
cas/c: cas s; g hard; gas/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
MUSEE
1648
MUSSO
in Lorraine in 1497, was a monk in his youth. He
was converted by Luther about 1520, became minister
of a church at Augsburg in 1531, and acquired a high
reputation as a preacher. Having been banished from
Augsburg in 1548, he settled at Berne. lie published
commentaries and other works. Died in 1563.
See CRAIK, "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties."
Musee. See MUS/EUS.
Muselli, moo-sel'lee, (GIOVANNI GIACOMO,) MAR
QUIS, an Italian antiquary and writer, bom at Verona in
1697 ; died in 1768.
Musemeci, moo-sa-ma'chee, (MARIO,) an Italian
architect and antiquary, born at Catnnea in 1778. He
wrote several works on antiquities and art, among which
is " Opere archeologiche ed artistiche," (2 vols., 1851.)
Died in 1852.
Mus'grave, (Rev. GKORGK.,) an English writer, born
about 1798. He published "Rambles in Normandy,"
and other books of travel.
Mus'grave, (Sir RICHARD,) an Irish historian, born
about 1758, published in 1801 a " History of the Irish
Rebellion's." Died in 1818.
Musgvave, (SAMUKI.,) a grandson of the following,
was a distinguished classical scholar. He published,
among other works, an edition of Euripides, and a treat
ise on Grecian Mythology. Died in 1782.
Musgrave, (WILLIAM,) an English physician and
antiquary, born in Somersetshire in 1657. He was a
Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1684 became its
secretary. He wrote several treatises on the gout, and
a number of dissertations on British and Roman An
tiquities. Died in 1721.
Mush'et, (DAVin,) a Scottish metallurgist and in
ventor, born at Dalkeith in 1772. He acquired distinc
tion by his improvements in the fabrication of iron and
steel, on which subject he wrote several treatises. He
originated the method of assaying iron ores which is
now generally used. Died in 1847.
Mush'et, (ROBERT,) an officer of the royal mint in
England, wrote able treatises on the currency and mint
regulations and the state of finances. Died in 1828.
Musis or Musi, de, (Aoosi'iNO.) See AGOSTINO
VKNEZIANO.
Musitano, moo-se-ta'no, (CARLO,) a learned Italian
medical writer, born in Calabria in 1635; died in 1714.
Musius. See MUYS, (CORNELIUS.)
Mu-so'm-us Ru'fus, (CAius,) a Stoic philosopher,
born in Etruria, flourished about 70 A.D. He was
banished from Rome by Nero, but he returned under
Vespasian, and was excepted by him from the sentence
of exile pronounced against the Stoics. He was highly
esteemed by Pliny, Tacitus, and other eminent writers.
Fragments of his works are to be found in Stobaeus.
See NIKUWLAND, " Dissertatio de C. Musonio Rufo," 1783;
TACITUS, " Annales," books xiv. and xv.
Muspell, mus'pel or moos'peM, written also Mus-
pel, Muspellheim, and Muspelheim, [etymology
unknown,] in the Norse mythology, the world of light
and heat, situated in the south part of the universe, —
Niflheim, the habitation of mist and cold, being situated
in the north. (See HF.I.A.) The inhabitants of this
world are called "the sons of Muspell," among whom
Surt, or Surttir, is chief, and the ruler of Muspellheim.
(See SURT.)
Mus'pratt, (JAMES SIIKRIDXN, ) a distinguished
chemist, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1821. He was a
pupil of Professor Graham at Glasgow and at London.
About 1843 he went to Giessen to pursue his studies
under Liebig. He produced at Giessen a remarkable
treatise on Sulphites. He founded a College of Chem
istry in Liverpool, and married Miss Susan Cushman, the
actress, in 1848. Among his works is a " Dictionary
of Chemistry ; or, Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and
Analytical," (2 vols., 1860.)
Muss, (CHARLES,) a painter in enamel. Among his
works is a picture of the " Holy Family." Died in 1824.
Mussato, moos-sa'to, (AI.HERTINO,) an Italian his
torian and poet, born at Padua in 1261. He wrote a
" History of the Life and Actions of Henry VII.," and a
number of eclogues, hymns, and tragedies. Died in 1330.
See Gis'CUENE, " Histoire Liiteraire d'ltalie."
Musschenbroek, van, vSn mus'Ken-bRook', (Pp.-
TKR,) a celebrated Dutch savant, born at Leyclen in 1692.
He studied medicine in the university of his native city,
but he subsequently devoted himself chiefly to experi
mental physics, in which he was eminently successful
and made important discoveries, especially in magnetism
and the cohesion of bodies. Having visited England in
1717. he made the acquaintance of Newton, whose sys
tem he was one of the first to introduce into Holland.
I le became professor of physics and mathematics at
Duisburg in 1719, and afterwards filled the same chair
at Utrecht. In 1740 he obtained the professorship of
philosophy at Leyden, where he resided till his death,
in 1761. Among his principal works are his "Physicae
Experimentales et Geonietriae Dissertationes," (1729.)
and " Elementa Physicae," or "Introduction to Natural
Philosophy," (1754.) He was a Fellow of the Royal
Society of London, and a member of the principal
learned institutions of Europe.
See SAVKRIKM, " Vies des Pliilosophes ;" CONDORCET, " Eloges ;"
" Nouvelle l.iograplrie Gsnerale."
Musscher or Muscher, van, vSn mus'Ker, (Mi-
CHAEL,) an eminent Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam
in 1645. He studied successively under Van Tempel,
Met/.u, and fan Steen, and painted landscapes, historical
subjects, and portraits. The last-named are most highly
esteemed. Died in 1705.
See DKSCAMPS, "Vi.-sdes Peint"es Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Musset, de, deh mu'sV, (Louis CHARLES ALFRED,)
a celebrated French poet, born in Paris on the nth of
November, 1810, was a son of Musset-Pathay, noticed
below. lie was educated at the College Henri IV. In
1830 he produced a volume entitled "Tales of Spain
and Italy," ("Contes d'Espagne et d' Italic.") which at
tracted much attention. His reputation was increased
in 1833 °y "The Cup and the Lips," (" La Coupe et les
Levres,") a drama, "A quoi revent les jeunes Filles?"
and " Namounn." He fell into a morbid state of mind,
and expressed misanthropic sentiments in several of his
works, which are censured for an immoral tendency. He
published " Rolla," a poem, in 18^5. and "Confessions
of a Child of the Age," ( Enfant 'tin Siifl?,) in 1836.
He contributed to the "Revue des Deux Mondes" a
number of prose tales, which were admired. Under the
reign of Louis Philippe he was librarian to the ministry
of the interior. lie was admitted into the French
Academy in 18^2. Among his finest works are four
poems entitled the "Nights," etc., ("Nuits: Li Nuit de
Mai, La Nuit d'Aout, La NTnit d'Octobre, et La Nuit
de De'cembre," 18^-37.) Died in Paris in May, 1857.
" None of his illustrious contemporaries," says Leo
foubert. "has surpissed him in spontaneity of poetical
genius, in the ardent and sincere expression of passion,
in vivacity, grace, and eclat of soul, (esprit :) no one
has represented with more fidelity the spiritual unrest,
the melange of skepticism and religious aspirations,
which characterize our epoch." (" Nouvelle Biographic
Ge'ne'rale."
See SAINTE-BKUVK, "Portraits contemnorains," and "Cause-
I.undi;" Ci.KMKNT DK Ris, "Portraits a la Plmne: A. de
: " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1857; " West-
ninster Review" for April,
Musset, de, (PAUL EDMF.,) a novelist, a brother of
the preceding, born in Paris in 1804. He published
numerous novels, which are said to be well written, and
among which we notice " Lauzun," (1835,) " The Brace
let," (1839,) "Mignard et Rigaud," (1839,) and "Les
Femmes de la Refjence," (2 vols., 1841.)
Musset, de, (VICTOR DONATIEN,) called MUSSET-
PATHAY, a French litterateur, born in the Vendomois
in 1768, was the father of the preceding. He wrote,
besides other biographies, histories, and tales, a "Life
of Jean Jacques Rousseau," (2 vote., 1821.) Died in
1832.
See "Souvenirs historiquesde Musset-Pathay," iSio; QU^RARD,
" La France LitteYaire."
Miisslin. See MUSCULUS, (WOLFGANG.)
Musso, moos'so, (CoRNELio,) an Italian bishop, dis
tinguished as a preacher, born at Piacenza in 1511. He
became Bishop of Bitonto. Died at Rome in 1574.
See G. Musso, " Vitadi Cornelio Musso," 1586.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long : a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; me't; n5t; good; moon;
MUSTAFA
1649
MYLNE
Mustafa, Mustapha, Moustapha, or Moustafa,
moos'ta-fa, I., succeeded his brother, Ahmed [., as Sul
tan of Turkey, in 1617. He was soon after deposed,
and his nephew, Osman, raised to the throne. Though
re-established as Sultan in 1622, Mustafa was again
deposed in 1623, and strangled, in 1639, by order of
Amurath IV.
See Vox HAMMER, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs."
Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha II., son of
Mahomet IV., was born in 1664, and succeeded Ahmed
II. as Sultan in 1695. He fought against the Austrians
and Venetians with varying success, and in 1699 con
cluded with those powers the peace of Carlowitz. Being
deposed in 1703, he died in a few months, and his
brother, Ahmed III., became Sultan.
See ''Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha HI., son of
Ahmed III., born in 1717, succeeded Osman HI. in
1757. He began in 1769 to wage war with the Russians,
who took possession of the Crimea and Bessarabia. He
died in 1774, and his brother, Abdool Hamid, succeeded
to the throne.
See VON HAMMER, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs."
Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha IV., son of
Abdool Hamid, became Sultan on the deposition of Se-
lim III., in 1807. Having caused Selim to be strangled,
Mustafa was deposed by Bairaktar, Pasha of Rudshuk,
and his brother, Mahmood, was raised to the throne.
During the revolt of the Janissaries, in 1808, Mustafa
was executed by the orders of Mahmood.
See F. MENGIX, " Histoire de I'figypte sous Mehemet Ali."
Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha Ben-Ismail,
moos'ta-fa ben is-mS-eel', an Arabian chief, born in
Algeria about 1770. He became an able adversary of
Abd-el-Kader, against whom, he fought in co-operation
with the French, who gave him the rank of general. He
was killed in battle in May, 1843.
Pee " Xouvelle Biographie Gsnera'e."
Mustapha. See MUSTAFA.
Mus-tox'y-dis or Mustoxidis, (ANDREAS,) a dis
tinguished modern Greek scholar, born at Corfu in 1785.
He studied at Pavi'a, and in 1804 was appointed histori
ographer for the republic of the Seven Islands. Among
his works, which are chiefly written in Italian, we may
name "Considerations on the Present Language of
Greece."
Mu-su'rus, (CONSTANTINE,) a Turkish diplomatist,
born in 1807. He became Turkish ambassador at Lon
don about 1856.
Mu-su'rus, (MARCUS,) a learned modern Greek, born
in Candia about 1470, was professor of the Greek lan
guage in the University of Padua. He assisted Aldus
Mamitius in the revision of Greek manuscripts, and
published, among other works, the " Etymologicum
Magnum Grsecum." In 1516 he was appointed by Leo
X. Archbishop of Malvasia. Died in 1517.
Mu'ta, (from miitus, "silent,") the name of the god
dess of silence among the Romans.
Mutiano. See MUZTANO.
Mutina. See MODENA.
Mutio. See Muzio.
Mutis, moo'tess, ? (Don TOSE CF.T.F.STINO,) a cele
brated Spanish botanist and physician, born at Cadiz
in 1732. He became professor of anatomy at Madrid
in 1757, and in 1760 accompanied the Spanish viceroy
to South America as his physician. He subsequently
devoted himself to scientific explorations, and was ap
pointed in 1 790 director of the Royal Academy of Natural
History at Santa Fe. He died in 1808, leaving un
finished his " Flora of New Granada," one of the most
valuable works of the kind that had then appeared. He
was the first who distinguished the various species of
Cinchona, (Peruvian bark,) the different properties of
which he has described in his "Historia de los Arboles
del Quina."
See HrMBoi.DT, "Voyage dar.s les Regions equinoxiales;"
WEDDKI.L, "Monographic du Quinquina."
Muy, du, du' mii-e', (Louis NICOLAS VICTOR DE FE
LIX,) COMTE, a French military commander, born at
Marseilles in 1711. He served in Germany in the prin-
cipal campaigns from 1741 to 1760. He enjoyed the
favour of Louis XV. and Louis XVI., and was appointed
by the latter minister of war, (1774,) and marshal of
France, (1775.) Died in 1775.
See BEAUVAIS, "Oraison funebre du Comte du Muy;" TRESSAN,
"filoge du Marechal du Muy."
Muys, mois, [Lat. Mu'sius,] (CORNELIS,) a Dutch
priest and Latin poet, born at Delft in 1503. He was
hung by some soldiers at Leyden in 1572.
Muys, (\VYER WILLEM,) a Dutch savant and writer,
born at Steenwyk in 1682. He was professor of medi
cine and chemistry at Franeker. He wrote, besides
other works, one " On the Matter of Light," (" De
Materia Luminis," 1722.) Died in 1744.
Muziano, moot-se-a'no, or Mutiano, moo-te-a'no,
(GiROLAMo,) one of the first Italian painters of his time,
born near Brescia in 1528, was the pupil of Romanino.
At an early age he visited Rome, where his admirable
landscapes obtained for him the name of "the landscape
youth." He also attained great excellence in historical
pictures, and his mosaics in the Gregorian Chapel are
esteemed the finest of modern times. Among his best
productions are " The Resurrection of Lazarus," in the
Quirinal palace, and "A Company of Anchorites listen
ing to a Preacher in the Desert," in the Church of the
Carthusians. Muziano completed the drasvings from
the Trajan column begun by Giulio Romano. He was
the founder of the Academy of Saint Luke. Died in
Rome in 1592.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" ORI.OFF, " Histoire de la
Peinture en Italic."
Muzio, moot'se-o, or Mutio, moo'te-o, (GIROLAMO
Nuzio,) an Italian litterateur, born at Padua in 1496.
He wrote polemical treatises against the doctrines of
Luther, which procured him the surname of the " Ham
mer of Heretics," ("Malleus Hereticorum,") also vari
ous other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1576.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italians."
Muz'zey, (ARTEMAS BOWERS,) an American Unita
rian divine and miscellaneous writer, born at Lexington,
Massachusetts, in 1802. He published "The Young
Man's Friend," (1836,) "Moral Teacher," (1839,) and
other works.
Myconius, me-ko'ne-us, (FRIEDRICH,) a German Re
former, born in Franconia in 1491, was a monk in his
youth. He became a friend of Luther, whose doctrines
he propagated with zeal and success. He preached many
years at Gotha, and wrote several religious works. Died
in 1546.
See ANTON PROBUS, "Vita F. Myconii," 1547 ; LOMMATZSCH,
" Narratio de F. Myconio," 1825.
Myconius, me-ko'ne-iis, (OSWALD,) or Geisshau-
ser, (gis'how'zer,) a Swiss Protestant divine, born at
Lucerne in 1488, was a pupil of Erasmus. He became
pastor of a church and professor of divinity at Bale.
He wrote a " Narrative of the Life and Death of Zuin-
glius." Died in 1552.
See KIRCHHOFEK, "Leben O. Myconius Reformators," 1814.
Mydorge, me'doRzh', (CLAUDE,) a French geometer,
born in Paris in 1585, was an intimate friend of Des
cartes, and furnished the glasses used' by that philosopher
in his optical experiments. He wrote several treatises
on optics and mathematics, and a defence of the works
of Descartes against the Jesuits. Died in 1647.
See BAH. LET, ''Viede Descartes."
My'ers, (ABRAHAM C.,) an American officer, born in
South Carolina about 1814, served in the Mexican war,
and became in 1862 brigadier-general in the Confederate
armv.
Myers, (PETER HAMILTON,) an American novelist,
born in Ilerkimer county. New York, in 1812, has pub
lished " The First of the Knickerbockers," (1848,) " The
King of the Hurons," (1850,) "The Van Veldens," and
several other historical romances.
Mylius, mee'le-us, (JoHANN CHRISTOPH,) a German
bibliographer, born in Weimar in 1710. He published
" Bibliotheca Anonymorum et Pseudonymorum," (1740,)
and "Historia Myliana," (1752,) which contains biog
raphies of many men named Mylius. Died in 1757-
Mylne, m?ln, (ROBERT,) a Scottish architect, born at
Edinburgh in 1734. He was appointed engineer to the
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
104
Explanations, p. 23.)
MTN
1650
NADAUD
N<;W River Company, London, and surveyor of Saint
PaJl's Cathedral. His principal work is Blackfriars'
Bridge, completed in 1769. Mylne was a Fellow of the
Royal Society, and a member of the Academy of Saint
Luke at Rome. Died in 1811.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Myn, van der, vin der mln, ( HERMAN, ) a Dutch
artist, born at Amsterdam in 1684, visited London, where
he gained a high reputation by his portraits. His fruit-
and flower-pieces were also admired. Died in 1741.
Mynsicht, von, fun min'siKt, (ADRIAN,) a German
chemist and physician, flourished between 1610 and 1650.
Mynster, mun'ster or min'ster, (JAKOB PETKR,) a
Danish theologian and pulpit orator, born at Copenhagen
in 1775, became in 1828 court chaplain. He was created
Bishop of Seeland in 1834. He published "Reflections
on Christian Doctrine," and other theological works.
Died in 1854.
My-rep'sus, (NICHOLAS,) [NocoAaof 6 Mupn/;'V,l a
Greek physician of the thirteenth century, practised in
Rome or Constantinople. He wrote a treatise " On the
Composition of Medicines," (" De Compositione Medi-
camentorum," etc.)
Myrick, (Sir SAMUEL RUSH.) See MEYRICK.
Myrmidon, mir'me-don, [Gr. yivp/Ltiduv,] in classic
mythology, was supposed to be a son of Jupiter and
Eurymedusa. According to one tradition, he was the
ancestor of the Myrmidons, a people of Thessaly, some
of whom Achilles led to the siege of Troy.
My'ron, [Mt'yKJi',] an eminent Greek sculptor, born in
Boeotia about 480 B.C., was celebrated for his skill in
representing the varied forms of animal life. He worked
with equal success in marble, brass, and wood. Among
his best productions are a "Cow lowing for its Calf," in
brpnze, which has been celebrated by the Latin and
G,ii»ik poets in numerous epigrams, a colossal group of
Jupiter, Athene, and Hercules, the "Discobolus, 01
Quoit-Thrower," and " Perseus killing Medusa." His
athletes, clogs, and sea-monsters were also greatly ad
mired.
See K. O. MULI.ER, " Handbuch der Arcliaologie der Kunst;"
GOETHE, " Propylaen ;" WlNCKELMANN, "Werke," vol. vi.
Myroiiide. See MYRON IDES.
My-roii'i-des, [Gr. Mvpuvutys ; Fr. MYRONIDK, me'-
ro'ned',] an Athenian general, who gained a victory over
the Corinthians in 457, and another over the Boeotians
in 456 u.C.
Myrtis, mir'tis, [Mr/me,] a Greek lyric poetess of high
reputation, was born at Anthedon, and flourished about
500 K.c. Pindar is said to have received instruction
from her.
Mytens, mT'te'ns, (ARNOLD,) a Flemish painter, born
at Brussels in 1541. Among his best works is an altar-
piece representing the " Assumption of the Virgin, with
the Apostles," at Naples. Died in 1602.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Mytens, (DANIEL,) THE ELDER, a Dutch artist, born
at the Hague about 1590. He was patronized by James
I. and Charles I. of England, and painted the portraits
of a number of the royal family and of the nobility. He
was regarded as second only to Van Dyck in portrait-
painting. Died after 1656.
Mytens, (DANIEL,) THE YOUNGER, born at the Plague
in 1636, was a son of the preceding. He became director
of the Academy at the Hague. His principal work is
the ceiling of the Painters' Hall. Died in 1688.
Mytens, mii'tens, (MARTIN,) a Swedish painter, born
at Stockholm in 1695. After visiting Rome, he settled in
Vienna, where he became painter to the court. Among
his best pieces is the " History of Esther and Ahasuerus."
Died in 1755.
N.
Na'a-man, [Ileb. pi'3-1 a Syrian general, commander
of the army of Benhadad, King of Damascus, lived
about 890 B.C. He was cured of leprosy by the prophet
Elisha.
See II. Kings v.
Nabaj or Nabadj, na-btj', a Hindoo poet, flourished
about 1580-1600. He wrote a poem entitled " Bhakta-
mala," which treats of the adventures and miracles of
Jayadeva and other ascetics.
Nabega - Ziad - Ibn - Moaweeah- Aldobiani, na'-
be-ga ze-ad' ib'n mo-a-wee'ah al-do-be-a'nee, an Arabian
poet, flourished in the latter part of the sixth century.
One of his poems, and several fragments, are given in
the "Chrestomathie" of Silvestre de Sacy.
Na'bis, [Gr. Xdftf,] tyrant of Sparta, succeeded Ma-
chanidas about 206 B.C., and signalized himself by his
cruelty and avarice. In conjunction with Philip II. of
Macedon, he subjected different parts of the Pelopon
nesus, but he was afterwards defeated by the Roman
consul Flamininus. He was assassinated by his own
allies, (192 B.C.)
Nab-o-nas'sar, [Gr. Nafovacrapof,] King of Babylon,
lived in the eighth century B.C. He is celebrated for the
chronological era which bears his name, and which was
employed as a point of departure in ancient astronomical
tables. This era began in 747 B.C.
Nab-o-po-las'sar, King of Babylon, was originally
a satrap of Sardanapalus, King of Assyria. He re
volted against that king, and, aided by Cyaxares, King
of the Medes, took Nineveh, the capital of Assyria.
He died in 605 B.C., and was succeeded by his son,
Nebuchadnezzar.
See EUSEBIUS, " Chronicles ;" HOEFER, "La Phenicie, la Baby-
lonie, " etc.
Nacchianti, nak-ke-an'tee, [Lat. NACLAN'TUS, ]
(GiACOMO,) an Italian theologian, born at Florence.
He was a member of the Council of Trent, and wrote
several works. Died in 1569.
Nachman, Ben, bgn naK/man, ? (MOSES,) a Spanish
rabbi, born at Girone in 1194, was versed in the science
of the Cabala. He wrote, besides other works, " Lex
Hominis," (1519,) and " Fons Jacobi," (1547.)
Nachtigail. See LUSCINIUS.
Nachtigall, naK'te-gal', [Lat. LUSCIN'IUS,] (OTMAR,)
a German scholar and writer, born at Strasburg about
1487. He preached against the doctrines of Luther at
Augsburg, and taught Greek at Strasburg. Among his
works is " Evangelica Historia e Graeco versa," (1523.)
Died about 1535.
See NICERON, "Memoires."
Nacke or Naecke, nek'keh, (GusTAV HEINRICII,) a
German historical painter, born at Frauenstein in 1785.
He became professor of painting in the Academy of
Dresden in 1824. His works are highly commended.
Died at Dresden in 1835.
Naclantus. See NACCHIANTI.
Na'dab, [Ileb. 2~!J:] son of Jeroboam, King of Israel,
succeeded him in 968 K.c. While engaged soon after in
fighting against the Philistines, he was slain by Baasha,
the son of Ahijah, who ruled in his stead.
Nadal, nS'daM', ( AUGUSTTN, ) ABBS', a mediocre
French author, born at Poitiers in 1664, wrote tragedies
in verse, criticisms, and moral essays. Died in 1740.
Nadasti, na-das'tee, ? written also De Nadzad,
(THOMAS,) a Hungarian general, was an ancestor of the
following. He distinguished himself by the defence of
Buda against the Sultan Solyman in 1529, and afterwards
rendered important military services to Charles V.
See ISTHVANKI, " Historia Hungaronim."
Nadasti, de, deh na-das'tee, ? (FRANCIS,) COUNT, a
patriotic Hungarian statesman, who opposed the des
potic policy of the emperor Leopold. He was accused
of a conspiracy against the life of Leopold, unjustly
condemned, and beheaded in 1671. He was author
of a " History of Hungary," (1664.)
See MAII.ATH, " Geschichte der Magyaren."
Nadand, n&'dS', (GUSTAVF.,) a French musician and
writer of songs, born at Roubaix in 1820. He produced
both the words and the music of many popular songs.
a,e, T, 6, u,y, lor<r; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; m§t; n5t;good; moon;
NADAULT
1651
NAKHIMOF
Nadault de Buffon, r.S'do' deh bii'fo.N', (BENJAMIN
HENRI,) a French engineer and writer, born at Mont-
bard in 1804. He published, besides other works, a
"Course of Agriculture," (4 vols., 1853-56,) and " The
Correspondence of Buffon," (2 vols., 1860.)
Nadezhdin, na'dezh-din, written also Nadeshdin,
(NICHOLAS IVANOVITCH,) a Russian litterateur, born in
Riazan in 1804. He became a councillor of state at
Saint Petersburg, where he died in 1856.
Nadir Shah, na'dir shSh, written also Nader Chah,
Nadir Schah, and Nauder Shah, also called Koolee
(or Kouli) Khan, koo'lee Kan, a celebrated Persian
conqueror, of Turkish extraction, born in Khorassan in
1688. His courage and abilities early gained him dis
tinction in the service of the governor of that province ;
but, in consequence of ill treatment, he left Khorassan
and became the head of a band of robbers. Being soon
after called upon by Tahmasp, Shah of Persia, to oppose
the Afghans, he succeeded, within two years, in expelling
them from the country, upon which he was made com-
mander-in-chief, (1729.) Tahmasp having in 1732 made
a disadvantageous treaty with Turkey, Nadir resolved
to prosecute the war, and gained such popularity by
the success of his arms that on his return he dethroned
the Shah and assumed the supreme power. In 1738
he conquered Candahar and Afghanistan. Having soon
after invaded India, he entered Delhi in 1739, and took
possession of the imperial treasures. The inhabitants,
on a false report of Nadir's death, attacked his soldiers.
After an ineffectual attempt to restrain them, he ordered
a wholesale massacre, in which, it is stated by Fraser,
120,000 perished. His many acts of tyranny and cruelty
at length caused him to be assassinated, (1747.) In the
early part of his career Nadir Shah appears to have been
not only an able, but, on the whole, a just and humane,
prince ; but later in life, having become a prey to avarice
and suspicion, his acts, it is said, "exceeded in barbarity
nil, that has been recorded of the most bloody tyrants."
r+s i.^'jlff"*si ¥••''}» ** *.•»*. mil <.~zwrisan. .8j,r?s)t-j**'<j.-a.(",<*i*>
See KRASER, "History of Nadir Shah," 1742; "Life of Nadir
Shall," by his secretary, MADHY KHAN", translated into French by
SIR WILLIAM JONES; MALCOLM, " History of Persia," vol. ii.
Naecke. See NACKE.
Naenia, nee'ne-a, [Fr. N6NIE, ni'ne',] a Roman god
dess that presided over funerals. This word signifies a
" dirge" or " funeral song."
Naerssen, van, vfn nlks'sen, [Lat. NARS'SIUS,]
([AN,) a Dutch writer of Latin poetry, born at Dort in
1580. He became physician to Gustavus Adolphus at
Stockholm, and wrote "Gustavidos Libri III.," (1632.)
Died in 1637.
Naevius, nee've-us, (CxEius,) a Roman poet, born in
Campania about 272 B.C., was the author of an epic poem
on the Punic War, and of several dramas. A few frag
ments only of his writings are extant. He is praised
by Cicero as being in some respects superior to Ennius.
Pie died about 204 K.C. "Cneius Naevius." says Pro
fessor Sellar, "is the first in the line of Roman poets
and the first writer in the Latin language whose frag
ments give indication of original power."
See CICF.RO, "De Oratore ;" SKI.I.AR, "Roman Poets of the
Republic," chap. iii. ; KLUSSMANN, '• C. Nxvii Poetae Vita," 1843.
Naga, na'ga, a Sanscrit word, signifying " snake," and
forming, in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a mon
ster regarded as a demi-god, having a human face, with
the tail of a serpent and the expanded neck of a cobra
de capello. The race of these beings is said to have
sprung from Kasyapa, in order to people Patala, or the
regions below the earth. (See PATALA.)
See Wn.sox, "Sanscrit Dictionary."
Nagele, na'geh-leh, (FRAN/, KARL,) a German medi
cal writer, born at Dusseldorf in 1778; died in 1851.
Nag'lee, (HENRY M.,) an American general, borrr in
Philadelphia about 1815, graduated at West Point in
1835. He became a brigadier-general early in 1862, and
commanded a brigade at the battle of Fair Oaks, May
31 of that year.
Nagler, na'gler, (KARL FERDINAND FRIEDRICH,) a
Prussian statesman, born at Anspach in 1770. Being
appointed in 1823 postmaster-general, he effected a great
reform in the postal system. He was made minister of
state in 1836. He made a very valuable collection of
works of art, which, with the exception of the pictures,
was purchased for the Museum at Berlin. Died in 1846.
Nagy Sandor, nocly (almost noj) sti/dor, (JosEi'H,)
a Hungarian general, born at Grosswardein in 1804. He
fought for the national cause in 1848, became a general
about April, 1849, and served with distinction in several
battles. Having been taken prisoner at Vilagos, he was
executed in October, 1849.
Naharro, na-ar'ro, (BARTOLOME de Torres — datoR'-
r£s,) a Spanish dramatic poet, born at Torres, flourished
about 1500-20. He wrote comedies, satires, epistles, etc.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature."
Nahl, nil, (Jon ANN AUGUST,) a German sculptor,
born in Berlin in 1710. He adorned the public buildings
of that city with his works. Died in 1781.
Nahl, (JOHANN AUGUST,) a German painter, born
near Berne in 1752, was a son of the preceding. lie
worked at Rome and Cassel. He painted subjects of
Greek mythology, and landscapes. Died in 1825.
Nahl, (JoHANN SAMUEL,) a German sculptor, born
at Anspach in 1664. He settled at Berlin, where he was
appointed court sculptor, and rector of the Academy of
Fine Arts. Died in 1728.
Nahl, (SAMUEL,) a sculptor, brother of Johann August,
(1752-1825,) was born at Berne in 1748; died in 1813.
Na'hum, [ Heb. Diru,] one of the twelve minor
prophets of the Hebrews, flourished under the reign of
Hezekiah, about 720 K.C. He is supposed to have been
born at Elkosh, in Galilee, from which he was surnamed
THE ELKOSIIITE. He foretells the destruction of the
Assyrian empire and the city of Nineveh in the most
glowing and forcible language, and in sublimity is equal
if not superior to any other of the minor prophets.
Nahuys, na'hois, (HUBERT GERARD,) BARON, a
Dutch writer and military officer, born at Amsterdr-n
in 1782. He rendered important services in Ja.d,
where he passed many years, and wrote, besides other
works, "Considerations on Dutch India," (1847.) Died
in 1858.
Naiades. See NAIADS.
Naiads, na'yads, [Gr. NowieJef or N??«5fc: Lat. NAI'A-
DES,] in classic mythology, were fresh-water Nymphs, or
inferior female divinities, supposed to preside over rivers,
lakes, brooks, and fountains, and to be daughters of
Jupiter. They were represented as young and beautiful
virgins leaning upon an urn from which flows a stream
of water.
Naigeon, nJi'zhoN', (JACQUES ANDRE,) a mediocre
French litterateur, born in Paris in 1738. He was a
friend of Diderot, whose skeptical opinions he shared,
and was one of the redacteurs of the "Encyclopedic."
He edited the works of Diderot and of other French
authors. DiediniSio.
See " Nonvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Dictionnaire des Sci
ences philosophiques."
Naigeon, (JEAN,) a French painter, born at Beaune
in 1757, was a pupil of David. Died in Paris in 1832.
Naigeon, (JEAN GUILLAUME EI.ZIDOR,) a French
painter, born in Paris in 1797, was a son of the pre
ceding. He became conservator of the Muse'e Egyptien
in 1861.
Naillac, de, deh nf'yfk', (PHII.TRERT,) a French
chevalier, born about 1340, became grand master of the
order of Saint John of Jerusalem in 1396. He fought
against Bayazeed (Bajazet) at the siege of Nicopolis,
(1396,) and took a prominent part in the Council of
Pisa. Died in 1421.
Naima, nl'ma, a Turkish historian, flourished about
1700. He wrote an "Ottoman History from 1591 to
i6;q," which was published in 2 vols., (1734.)
Nain, Le. See TILLEMONT.
Nairoiii, nl-ro'nee, (ANTONIUS FAUSTUS,) a learned
Maronite, born near Mount Libanus in 1631, was pro
fessor of the Chaldee and Syriac languages in the
College della Sapienza at Rome! Died in 1711.
See DI'PIM, " Auteurs ecclesiastiques," etc.
Naiven, ni'ven, (M.,) a Dutch painter, born in 1570 ;
died in 1651.
Nakhifnof, na'Ke-mof, written alsoNakhimow and
Nakhimov, (AKIM NIKOLAEVITCH,) a Russian poet,
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^T^See Explanations, p. 23. '
NAKE
1652
N A NT EVIL
born at Kharkof in 1782. His principal works are
satires in verse, fables, and a witty piece in prose entitled
"The Speaking Monkeys," on the subject of Napoleon's
attempted conquest of Russia. He died in 1814, at the
early age of thirty-one.
Nake or Naeke, na'keh, (AUGUST FRIEDRICH,) a
German philologist, born at Frauenstein in 1788. lie
produced "Opuscula Philologica," (2 vols., 1842-44.)
Died in 18.38.
Nakoola 01 Nakoula, na-koc/la, (Mooal'lem,) sur-
named KL TURK, an Arabian historian, born in Syria in
1763 ; died in 1828.
Nakwaska, nak-vas'ki, (ANNE,) a Polish novelist,
born in 1779, was the wife of senator Nakwaska. Died
at Warsaw in 1851.
Nal'a, [Hindoo pron. niil'a,] in the Hindoo mythology,
the name of a monkey chief, who, according to some
authorities, built for Rama the bridge from continental
India to the island of Ceylon. (See RAMA.)
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon,"
Naldi, nal'dee, [Lat. NAI/DIUS,] (MATTF.O,) a learned
Italian medical writer and linguist, born at Sienna. He
became chief physician to Pope Alexander VII. Died
at Rome in 1682.
Naldi, (NAI.DO,) an Italian poet, born at Florence
about 1420, was a friend of Politian. He wrote the
" Life of G. Manetti," and several admired poems.
Died about 1470.
Naldi, (SKHASTIANO,) an Italian singer, performed in
London. Died in Paris in 1819.
Naldini, nal-dee'nee, (H.vmSTA,) a skilful Italian
painter, born at Florence in 1537. He painted in oil
and fresco at Rome and Florence. Died after 1590.
Naldini, (PAOLO,) an Italian sculptor, born at Rome,
flourished about 1650. He was admitted into the
Academy of Saint Luke in 1654.
Naldius. See NAI.DI.
Nalian, na'le-an, ( JAMES,) an Armenian religious
writer, born at Zimara about 1695. He became Arme
nian Patriarch of Constantinople in 1741, and acquired
a high reputation by his writings. Died in 1764.
Nal'spn, ( JOHN.) an English clergyman, born about
1638. He became rector of Doddington and prebendary
of Ely. His chief work is "An Impartial Collection of
the Affairs of State from 1639 to the Murder of Charles
I.," (1683.) Died in 1686.
Naniur, nf'miiR', (JEAN PIF.,) a Belgian bibliographer,
born at Luxemburg in 1804, published several works.
Nana-Sahib, na'na sa'llib, a Hindoo chief of mu
tineers, born in Poonah about 1820. He committed
atrocious cruelties on English women and children at
Cawnpore in 1857.
See McLnoo TNNKS. " Rons;h Narrative of the Siepre of Lucknow,"
Calcutta, 1X57 ; K. D. FORGUES, " La Revoke des Cipayes;" " Nou-
veile Biographic Generale. "
Nancel, de, deh noN'sel', [Lat. NANCF/LIUS,] (Nico-
I.AS,) a French physician and writer, born in 1539. He
wrote, besides other works, a " Life of Peter Ramus,"
(ifioo.) Died in 1610.
Nancelius. See NANCEL.
Nan'di, [modern Hindoo pron. niin'dT,] in the Hindoo
mythology, the name of a white bull, regarded as the
vahan or vehicle of SIVA, which see.
Nanek, na'nek, or Nanak, sometimes written Na-
nuk, called also Yanaka, (ya'na-ka,) and Nirankar,
the founder of the sect of Sikhs, was born in Lahore
about 1468. He wrote a book called " Adi-Granth,"
and taught a species of monotheism. Died in 1539.
Nangis, de, deh n6.\'/he', (GUILLAUME,) a French
historian and Benedictine monk. He wrote a "Life of
Saint Louis," a general chronicle, and a " Chronicle of
the Kings of France." Died about 1302.
Nangis, de, (Louis ARMAND de Brichanteau— deh
bRe'shSx'to',) MARQUIS, a French general, was born in
1682. He served in several campaigns in Flanders, and
obtained the rank of marshal of France in 1741. Died
in 1742.
Nani, na'nee, (GIAMHATTISTA FELICE GASPARO,) a
Venetian historian, born in 1616. He was for twenty-
five years ambassador at the court of France, where he
enjoyed the confidence of Cardinal Mazarin. He was
successively appointed historiographer and archivist of
the republic, and procurator of Saint Mark, (1661.) His
principal work is a "History of the Venetian Republic
from 1613 to 1671," (2 vols., 1662-79.) D'etl m IO78.
See NICKRON, "Memoires."
Nani, (TOMMASO,) an Italian jurist, born at Morbegno
in 1757 ; died in 1813.
Nanini, na-nee'nee, (GIOVANNI MARIA,) an Italian
composer, born at Vallerano about 1540, served as a
chanter in the pontifical chapel in Rome. He composed
motets, madrigals, and canzonettas. Died in 1607.
Nan'na, or nan'na, [etymology uncertain ; according
to Keyser, it is derived from nenna, to "be inclined to,"
to "like,"] in the Norse mythology, the wife of Balder
"the Good." When her husband was slain, she grieved
so intensely that her heart burst, her spirit followed his
to Hela's realm, and her body was laid on the same
funeral pile with that of her beloved Balder.
See KEYSER, " Religion of the Northmen ;" THORPE, " North
ern Mythology," vol. i.
Nanni, (GIOVANNI.) See ANNIUS OF VITERTIO.
Naniii, nan'nee, (GIOVANNI,) called also GIOVANNI
DA UDINE, an Italian painter, born at Udine about 1490.
He was celebrated for the excellence of his stuccos and
grotesque ornaments. Many of his best works are at
Rome and Florence. Died in 1564.
Nanni, (PETER.) See NANMNG.
Nanni, (REMIGIO,) [sometimes called, in French,
REMI DE FLORENCE, ra'me' deh fiVrdNss',] an Italian
Dominican monk and writer in verse and prose, was
born at Florence about 1521. He edited Villani's " His
toric universal!," and Guicciardini's " Istoria d'ltalia."
Died in 1581.
See NICERON, " Memoires. "
Nanni di Baccio Bigio, nan'nee deebiU'chobee'jo,
a Florentine sculptor and architect, worked at Rome
about 1530-50. lie is chiefly remembered for his enmity
to Michael Angelo.
Nanni di Banco, nan'nee dee ban'ko, an Italian
sculptor, born at Florence in 1383 ; died after 1421.
Nanning, nan'ning, or Nanni, nan'nee, | Lat. NAN'-
Nius,] (PETER,) a Dutch philologist and critical writer,
born at Alkmaar in 1500. He was the author of " Ob
servations on the Institutes of Civil Law," and a trans
lation of the Psalms into Latin verse. Died in 1557.
Nannini, nan-nee'nee, (Aoxoi.o or GIOVANNINI,)
surnamed FlRENZUOLA, an Italian litterateur, born at
Florence in 1493, was trie author of satirical and bur
lesque poems, dramas, and a number of novels in the
style of Boccaccio's " Decamerone."
Nannius. See NANNING.
Nannoni, nan-no'nee, (ANGELO,) an eminent Italian
surgeon, born at Florence in 1715. He became pro
fessor and chief surgeon in the Hospital of Florence.
His success as an operator and as a lecturer attracted
patients and pupils from the most distant parts of
Europe. He wrote several esteemed works, among
which is "Delia Semplicita del Medicare," (1761-67.)
Died in 1790.
See Ar.osTiNO NANNONI, " Elogio del Professore A. Nannoni,"
1790.
Nannoni, (LORENZO,) a surgeon, born at Florence in
1749, was a son of the preceding. He wrote on anatomy
and surgery. Died in 1812.
Nansouty, de, deh nfiN'soo'te', (IvriENNE ANTOINE
MARIE Champion — shoN'pe-ON',) COUNT, a French
general, born at Bordeaux in 1768. He was made a
general of brigade about 1708, and a general of division
in 1803. According to Chateaubriand, he was one of
the best cavalry officers that the war of the Revolution
produced. The same writer states that he completed
the victory at Austerlitz, (1805,) and commenced that of
Wagram, (1809.) He was wounded at Borodino, (1812,)
and commanded the cavalry at Leipsic. In 1814 he
entered the service of the restored Bourbons. Died in
February, 1815.
See DF. CoUBCEI.I.KS, " Dictionnaire des Ge'neranx Frnngais."
Nanteuil, HON'U:!' or nSN'tuh'ye, (CEi.ESTiN,) a
French painter and lithographer, born in Rome in 1813.
He became a resident of Paris.
i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; me"t; n&t; good; moon;
NANTUEIL
1653
NAPIER
Nanteuil, (CHARLES FRANQOIS Lebceuf— leh'buf,)
a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1792. He gained
the grand prize in 1817. Among his works is "Eurydice
Dying."
Nanteuil, (ROBERT.) a French artist, born at Rheims
in 1630, painted excellent portraits in pastel, but was
chiefly distinguished as an engraver. Among his mas
ter-pieces are the portraits of the secretary of state,
Simon Arnaurl de Pomponne, and Van Steenbergen,
the Dutch advocate. In the department of portrait-
engraving Nanteuil has never been surpassed. He was
designer and cabinet engraver to Louis XIV. Died
in 1678.
See R. Dt'MEsNiL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Frangais ;" BASAN-,
" D ctlonnaire des Graveurs ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Nanteuil, de, deh nflx'tuT', (GAUGIRAN,) a French
dramatist, born at Toulouse in 1778 ; died after 1830.
Nantier-Didiee, r,6N'te-i' cle'de-a/, MADAMK, a
French operatic singer, born in the Isle of Bourbon in
18^2. She performed with success in Paris and London.
Nantigny or Nantie-ni, de, deh nSN'ten'ye', (Louis
CHASOT,) a French writer on genealogy, was born in
Burgundy in 1692. He published'" Historical Genealo
gies of Kings, Fmperors, and Sovereign Houses," and
other works of the kind. Died in 1755.
Napseae, na-pee'e, |Gr. Na-oTat; Fr. NAPEES, nt' pi'.]
in the classic mythology, were nymphs of forests, groves,
and glens. (See NYMPH/E.)
Napees. See NAP.-E.E.
Naper. See NAPIER, (JoHN.)
Na'pi-er, (Sir CHARLES JAMES,) a British general,
born at Whitehall in 1782, was the son of the Hon.
George Napier and Lady Sarali Lennox, a daughter of
the Duke of Richmond. He was a cousin of Admiral
Charles John Napier, and a brother of Sir William,
the historian. He gained the rank of major in 1806,
was wounded in several actions in Spain between 1808
and 1812, became lieutenant-colonel in 1811, and was
employed in ravaging the coasts of the United States
in 1813-14. He acted with credit for several years as
Governor of Cephalonia, from which he was recalled in
1830. Having risen to the rank of major-general, he
was appointed commander of the army in Bengal in
1841. He increased his reputation by the conquest of
Sincle, (184^.) in which he performed several exploits
that were highly extolled. His efforts to reform the
civil administration of Sincle are also commended. He
returned to England in 1847. and was again sent to
India in 1849, to oppose the Sikhs, but on his arrival
found that the war was ended. In 1850 he returned
home. He was the author of " Lights and Shadows
of Military Life," and 'other works. Died in 1853.
See SIR W. F. P. NAPIER. "Life and Opinions of Sir Charles
J. Napier ;" " Rlackwood's Magazine" for July and August, 1857.
Na'pi-er, (Sir CHARLES JOHN,) K.C.B., an eminent
British admiral, born in Stirling county, Scotland, in
1786, was the son of the Hon. C. Napier, of Merchiston
Hall, Scotland, and a descendant of the inventor of
logarithms. He entered the navy in 1790, and, after
fighting in several actions with the French, distinguished
himself at Baltimore and other places in the United
States in 1813 and 1814. After 1814 he passed about
fifteen years in inaction, on half-pay. He commanded
the Portuguese fleet which in 1833 gained a decisive
victory over the fleet of Don Miguel, for which he was
made a Portuguese grandee of the first class. As second
in command, Captain Napier served with distinction at
the reduction of Acre, in 1840, and was rewarded with
the title of knicht commander of the Bath. In 1841 he
became rear-admiral, and commanded the Channel fleet
for several years. He advocated naval reform in letters
which were printed, and as a member of Parliament
supported liberal, or rather radical, measures. After the
commencement of the Russian war, he was appointed
commander of the Baltic fleet, (1854,) and proposed to
take Cronstadt. but found it too well fortified, and re
turned without any remarkable achievement. After his
return to Parliament, in 1855, he imputed his failure to
the fault of the ministers. He attained the rank of
admiral in 1858. Died in November, 1860. "In his
name is summed up all that he was. A Napier is a man
possessed of high spirits, immense courage, great in
genuity, and prodigious egotism." (" London Times,"
November, 1860.)
See GENERAL E NAPIER, "Life and Correspondence of Admirai
Sir Charles J. Napier," 1861.
Napier, (FRANCIS,) LORD, a British diplomatist, a
son of the eighth Baron Napier, was born in 1819. He
became minister-plenipotentiary to the United States
about 1856. In December, 1860, he was appointed am
bassador-extraordinary to the court of Russia, and in
1864 was transferred to Berlin. In 1866 he became
Governor of Madras.
Napier, (HENRY EDWARD,) an English naval officer
and writer, born in 1789, was a brother of Sir Charles
James Napier. He published "Florentine History from
the Earliest Authentic Records," (6 vols., 1847.) Died
in 1853.
Napier, written also Naper, Neper, or Nepair, [Lat.
NAPIE'RUS,] (JOHN,) Baron of Merchiston, a Scottish
mathematician, celebrated as the inventor of logarithms,
was born at Merchiston Castle, near Edinburgh, in 1550.
He was the son of Sir Archibald Napier, master of the
mint. He entered the University of Saint Andrew's
about 1563, and a few years later travelled in France,
Germany, and Italy. He appears to have returned
about 1571, after which he devoted himself to mathe
matics, theology, and literature. In 1593 he published
an ingenious work called " A Plain Discovery of the
Revelation of Saint John," in which he labours to pro\-e
that popery is antichristian. It is probable that prior to
1594 he began the train of inquiry which resulted in the
discovery of logarithms. His tables were first published
in 1614, with the title of "The Description of the Won
derful Law of Logarithms." ("Mirifici Logarithmorum
Canonis Descriptio.") " The invention of logarithms,"
says Hallam, "is one of the rarest instances of sagacity
in the history of mankind ; and it has been justly noticed
as remarkable that it issued complete from the mind of
its author, and has not received any improvement since
his time." In solving the problems of trigonometry,
this invention is of immense utility, as it reduces the
labour of months to a few days, and liberates the ope
rator from the errors which are almost inevitable in long
calculations. He died in 1617, leaving several sons, the
eldest of whom, named Archibald, was raised to the
peerage in 1627, with the title of Lord Napier.
See " Life, Writings, and Inventions of John Napier," by EARL
OF BUCHAN and WALTER MINTO, 1787: MARK NAPIER, "Memoirs
of John Napier." 1834; HUTTON, "Mathematical Dictionary;"
CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;"
"Westminster Review" for July, 1835.
Na'pi-er, (JOSEPH,) an Irish lawyer and politician, born
at Belfast in 1804. He was called to the bar in 1831,
and elected to Parliament for the University of Dublin
in 1848. He became attorney-general for Ireland in
1852, and was lord chancellor of Ireland from March,
18^8, to June, 1859.
Napier, (MACVF.Y,) a Scottish editor, born in the
county of Stirling in 1776. He became professor of
conveyancing in the University of Edinburgh. He edited
the seventh edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica,"
and succeeded Lord Teffrey as editor of the " Edinburgh
Review" in 1829. He performed the duties of this po
sition with ability for about eighteen years. Among his
contributions to the " Edinburgh Review" is an article
on " Raleigh," (April, 1840.) Died in 1847.
See "Notice of Macvey Napier," London. 7*47; CHAMBERS,
" Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.)
Napier, (ROHF.RT,) a Scottish mechanical engineer,
distinguished forthe construction of steamships, was born
at Dumbarton in 1791. He served an apprenticeship to
a blacksmith, and in 1815 became master of a smithery
in Glasgow. A few years later he began to make engines
for steamboats ; and he has since become the head of the
large establishment of Robert Napier & Sons, of Glas
gow. He constructed the machinerv of the British
Queen, and about 1840 furnished Mr. Cunard with four
steamships which plied between England and the United
States. In 1856 he built the Persia, which was perhaps
unrivalled in strength and speed. Since 1859 he has
built several iron-clad ships for the royal navy.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (23T"See Explanations, p. 23.)
NAPIER
1654
NAPOLEON
Napier, (Sir ROBERT,) a British general, born in Cey
lon about 1810. He served as an officer of the army
in India, and became chief engineer of Bengal. During
the Sepoy mutiny of 1857-58 he rendered important
services as military engineer. He commanded an expe
dition sent against Abyssinia about the close of 1867. He
gained a decisive victory at Magdala in April, 1868, over
King Theodore, (who was killed in that action,) and
was rewarded with the title of Lord Napier.
Napier, (Sir WILLIAM FRANCIS,) a British general,
famous as the historian of the Peninsular war, was born
at Castletovvn, Kilclare county, Ireland, in 1785. He
was a brother of General Charles James Napier, and
cousin of Admiral Charles J. Napier. He entered the
army in 1800, and obtained the rank of captain in 1804.
From 1808 to 1814 he served in the Peninsular war,
during which he was frequently wounded. lie received
medals for his conduct at Salamanca, (1812,) and at the
battles of the Nivelle and Orthes, etc., and became
lieutenant-colonel in 1813. In 1828 he produced the
first volume of his " History of the War in the Penin
sula from 1807 to 1814," (6 vols.,) which was finished
in 1840, and found its way to the summit of public
favour, although its tenor was not in accordance with
the popular and political prejudices of the times, lie
disapproved the policy of the English government, and
estimated with candour the acts of Napoleon and his
army. The work is admired for dignity of tone, fidelity
to truth, and beauty of style. He was made major-
general in 1841, and lieutenant-general in 1851. His
wife was a daughter of General H. E. Fox, a relative of
Lord Holland. Sir William published a "History of
tiie Conquest of Scinde," and a few other works. Died
in February, 1860.
See HARRIET MARTINEAU, " Biographical Sketches," London,
1869; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1857 ; " London Quarterly
Review" tor December, 1836, and April, 1864.
Napierus. See NAPIKR, (JOHN.)
Napione, na-pe-o'na, (C. ANTONIO GALF.ANI,) an
Italian mineralogist, born at Turin ; died at Rio Janeiro
in 1814. His brother, J. GALKANI, Count de Napione,
was a dramatist and litterateur.
Napione da Cocconato, na-pe-o'na da kok-ko-na'to,
(GiAN FKANCKSCO Galeani — ga-la-a'nee,) COUNT, a
learned Italian writer on various subjects, was born at
Turin in 1748. He was a cousin-german of the eminent
author Joseph de Maistre. He held several high civil
offices. Among his numerous works are an essay on
the Italian language, (" Dell'Uso e dei Pregi della Lin
gua Italiana," 2 vols., 1791,) and "Lives of Illustrious
Italians," (3 vols., 1818.) Died in 1830.
See L. MARTINI, " Vita del Conte G. F. Napione," 1836 ; " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Napoleon I. See BONAPARTE.
Napoleon II. See RKICHSTADT, DUKE OF.
Na-po'le-on [Fr. NAPOLEON, nt'po'la'o.N'l III.,
(CHAULKS Louis NAPOLEON BONAPARTK,) Emperor of
France, a son of Louis Bonaparte and Hortense de Beau-
harnais, was born at Paris, in the Tuileries, April 20, 1808.
He was inscribed at the head of the register of the family
of the Napoleonic dynasty, the emperor having recog
nized Louis and his heirs as successors to the crown
in preference to his elder brothers. His mother, being
compelled to quit France in 1815, took this son with her
in her exile, and gave him for preceptors P. Lebas
and Colonel Armandi. He passed several years of his
youth at Arenenberg, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau.
On the accession of Louis Philippe, in 1830, Louis Napo
leon requested permission to return to France, which
was not granted. He and his brother then went to
Italy and enlisted in the army of insurgents, who at
first gained some advantages over the papal troops, but
were defeated and dispersed by the Austrians in 1831.
On the death of the Due de Reichstadt, in 1832, Louis
Napoleon became a pretender to the throne of France.
He published a work entitled "Political Reveries," and
a "Manual of Artillery," (1836.) His ambition, his
name, and his unscrupulous audacity urged him to enter
a career which presents the most wonderful vicissitudes
of fortune. Having secured the aid of Colonel Vaudrey
and other officers stationed at Strasbourg, he made an
attempt on that place, with a few adherents, in October,
1836. He failed, was arrested, and was banished or trans
ported to the United States in November of that year.
In 1837 he returned to Europe, attended Queen Hor
tense in her last illness at Arenenberg, and took refuge
in England, where he passed about two years. In 1839
he published his "Napoleonic Ideas," (" Idees Napo-
leoniennes,") which has been described as a "melange
of liberal principles and praetorian domination." It is
an apology for the regime of Napoleon I. The unpopu
lar measures of Louis Philippe encouraged Louis Napo
leon to engage in another rash and desperate enterprise.
Attended by about fifty partisans and a tame eagle,
which was expected to perch upon his banner as the
harbinger of victory, he sailed from England in August,
1840, and entered Boulogne, where he obtained but little
support, and was speedily arrested by the soldiers who
he had hoped would be induced to join his standard.
He was tried on a charge of treason by the House of
Peers, and, after he had made a speech in his own de
fence and professed his devotion to the principle of
popular sovereignty, was sentenced to perpetual impris
onment. He was confined in the Castle of Ham, where
he pursued his political studies and wrote several political
and historical treatises. Aided by his physician, Dr.
Conneau, and disguised as a labourer, he escaped from
Ham in May, 1846, and retired to England.
The revolution of 1848 afforded him an opportunity
to return to France, and thus opened a new field to his
irrepressible ambition. In June, 1848, he was elected
to the National Assembly for the department of the
Seine. He was excluded from that body by Lamartine
and his colleagues for a time, but he took his seat in
September, 1848, and became a candidate for the office
of president of France. On the loth of December, 1848,
he was elected president for four years, having received
5,562,834 votes. His chief competitor was General Ca-
vaignac, who obtained 1,469,166 votes. He soon became
involved in a contest with the Constituent Assembly, the
republican majority of which regarded him with hostility
or suspicion. In April, 1849, he sent an army to Rome
to intervene in favour of the pope, who had been ex
pelled by the republicans. The French army took Rome,
and continued to occupy that city until 1866.
The Constituent Assembly dissolved itself, and was
succeeded by the Legislative Assembly in May, 1849.
The president appointed the celebrated De Tocqueville
minister of foreign affairs in June, 1849. This minister,
perceiving that the president expected him and his col
leagues to be the pliant instruments of his will, resigned
in October of that year. De Tocqueville afterwards
remarked, " We were not the men to serve him on
those terms." Louis Napoleon encountered a strong
opposition in the Legislative Assembly, which in May,
1850, restricted universal suffrage and ordered that a
residence of three years in a commune must be a qualifi
cation of voters. A long and violent struggle between
the president and the representatives of the people
was terminated by the coup d'etat of December 2, 1851.
Having secured the support of the army, by a reckless
violation of his plighted faith he raised himself to
the supreme power. The Assembly was forcibly dis
solved, and the leading statesmen were arrested. Legis
lators and felons, statesmen and vulgar culprits, were
huddled together in the same vehicle and conveyed to
prison. Before the end of the year his acts were ratified
by the form of a popular election, and he was chosen
president for a term of ten years. A new constitution
was adopted in January, 1852, and the legislative func
tions were divided between two houses, the Senate and
the Corps Legislatif, which, however, were so organized
that they offered little or no check to his absolute power.
The question whether he should take the title of em
peror was submitted to the vote of the people in No
vember, 1852, when, according to the official report,
7,824,189 voted in the affirmative. He assumed the
title of Napoleon III., and married a Spanish lady of
great personal attractions, Eugenie Marie de Guzman,
Countess de Teba, in January, 1853. Having formed
an alliance with England and publicly announced that
his policy was peace, he, in conjunction with his new ally,
i, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;
NAPOLEON
1655
NARASINGHA
declared war against Russia in March, 1854, and sent an
army to the Crimea. After a long siege, the allies took
Sevastopol in September, 1855, and the war was ended
by the treaty of Paris in March, 1856. Among the events
of this year was the birth of the prince imperial, Napo
leon Eugene Louis, etc.
One great aim of Napoleon III. appears to have been
to reconcile the French people to the loss of liberty by
promoting their material prosperity, by splendid public
improvements, and by gratifying their passion for mili
tary glory. Accordingly, as an ally of the King of
Sardinia in the war caused by the aggressions of Aus
tria, he led a large army into Italy in May, 1859. He
commanded in person at the battle of Solferino, where
the Austrians were defeated, June 24, 1859, and in the
next month concluded the peace of Villafranca. (See
FRANCIS JOSEPH.) Among the results of this war was
the cession of Nice and Savoy to France by the King
of Sardinia, who had extended his own dominions by
the conquest of Lombarcly. In 1861 he availed himself
of the opportunity presented by the breaking out of the
civil war in America, to intervene in Mexico, and fitted
out against that republic an expedition which landed a
well-appointed army under General Forey early in 1862.
After several victories over the Mexican Liberals, the
French forces entered the city of Mexico in June, 1863.
Napoleon offered the imperial crown of Mexico to
Maximilian of Austria, who accepted the fatal gift and
was supported by a part of the native population. The
United States refused to acknowledge the Mexican em
peror, and intimated to Napoleon that European powers
would not be permitted to establish monarchies by arms
in North America. He accordingly withdrew his army
from Mexico about the end of 1866, so that the result of
the Mexican enterprise was the reverse of glorious for
France. It is well understood that he sympathized with
the slaveholders in their war against the Union, at least
so far as they sought the disruption of the confederation.
Before the commencement of the American war, Napo
leon was justly regarded as the most adroit and most suc
cessful sovereign in Europe. But his prestige was greatly
impaired by the events of 1866. He remained neutral
in the war between Austria and Prussia, which war he
probably might have prevented ; but in the diplomatic
contest which ensued between France and Prussia
he appears to have found more than a match in the
genius of Count Bismarck, who suddenly raised Prussia
to the rank of a first-rate power and united the Germans
in a determined attitude against the aggressiveness of
France. The French felt themselves humiliated by the
fact that so great changes in the map of Europe should
have been effected without their agency or concurrence,
and condemned the policy by which France was isolated
and excluded from the hope of extension towards the
Rhine. After the battle of Sadowa, July 3, 1866, Napo
leon offered himself as a mediator between the belligerent
powers. The Emperor of Austria ceded to him Venetia,
instead of surrendering it to the King of Italy, to whom
it seemed naturally to belong. About the loth of De
cember, 1866, the French army was withdrawn finally
from Rome, and the pope, finding himself in a critical
position, addressed to Napoleon language which was far
from complimentary. Napoleon and Bismarck were in
volved in a dispute about Luxemburg, which the former
purchased of the King of Holland ; but the Prussians
occupied a strong fortress in that province, which they
refused to relinquish. It was generally believed that
war was imminent ; but the difficulty was settled by a
European Convention which met in London in May,
1867, and decided that neither France nor Prussia should
retain possession of Luxemburg.
The exciting and warmly-contested elections of May
and June, 1869, showed so great an increase of votes
against imperial despotism, that Napoleon thought it
expedient to make large concessions to the people and
the legislative body. He gave the latter the right to
elect its own officers, to have partial control over the
expenditure of the public money, the right of interpel
lation, and the privilege to share with himself the power
of initiating laws. He proclaimed a general amnesty
for political offences in August, 186. In December of
that year he appointed Emile Ollivier prime minister,
and requested him to form a cabinet. " Designate per
sons," he said, " who will, associated with yourself, form
a homogeneous cabinet faithfully representing the legis
lative majority." This was regarded as the end of per
sonal government in France, and the beginning or resto
ration of a constitutional regime. He addressed to prime
minister Ollivier, March 22, 1870, an important letter, in
which he says, " I think it opportune, under present cir
cumstances, to adopt all the reforms required by the
constitutional government of the Empire, in order to put
an end to the immoderate desire for change which pre
vails in certain minds." He afterwards issued an address
and appeal to the people, asking their votes, in these
terms: "Do the people approve the liberal reforms
which have been effected in the Constitution since 1860
by the Emperor, with the concurrence of the great legis
lative bodies of the state, and ratify the senatus-consultum
of April 20, 1870?" On the eve of the election the
government detected or concocted an extensive plot to
assassinate Napoleon, and arrested many suspected per
sons. The result of the plebiscite of the 8th of May
was that about 7,000,000 voted yes, and 1,500,000 voted
no. Louis Napoleon has written a " History of Julius
Caesar," (1867,) in which he carries out the '' Idees Na-
poleoniennes," inculcating the doctrine that certain gifted
men are appointed by Providence or destiny to rule, and
that it is as necessary for the people as for themselves
that this destiny should be fulfilled.
Without a reasonable pretext or tangible cause, he
declared war against Prussia about July 15, 1870, and,
having appointed the Empress regent, took the com
mand of his army in person. The Germans crossed the
frontier early in August, and assumed the offensive. The
French were outnumbered and outgeneralled in a series
j of great battles at Worth, Metz, and near Sedan. On
i the 2d of September, Napoleon, who had displayed great
incapacity as a general, surrendered himself, with about
100,000 men as prisoners of war, at Sedan. The deche-
ance of Napoleon was passed in the corps legislatif, and
a republic was formed, without violence, by the citizens
of Paris, September 4, 1870.
See AMEDEE HENNEQUIN, " Histoire de Louis Napoleon Bona
parte," 1848 ; A. BOUDIN, " Histoire politique dii Prince Louis Napo
leon," etc., 1852; ADRIEN PASCAL, "Histoire de Napoleon III,"
1853 ; VICTOR HUGO, "Napoleon le Petit," 1852; PAUL LACROIX,
" Histoire de Napoleon III," 1853; J. B. FELLENS, "Louis Napo
leon, sa Vie," etc., 1853; W. L. WESCHE, "Napoleon III. Kaiser
der Franzosen," 1853; SCHOENHUTH, "Napoleon III. Kaiser," etc.,
1853; ABBOTT, "The History of Napoleon III.," 1869; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Nap'per-Taii'dy, (JAMES,) an Irish insurgent, born
near Dublin in 1747. He invaded Ireland with a body
of French troops in 1798, was taken prisoner and con
demned to death, but was released after an imprisonment
of two years. Died in 1803.
Narada, na'ra-da, written also Nareda, the name of
a celebrated Hindoo sage and lawgiver, supposed to have
been the son of Brahma and Saraswati. He was the
inventor of the Vina, a sort of lute, and is said to have
been an intimate friend of Krishna.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Nar'a-sing'ha, [modern Hindoo pron. nur'a-sing'ha
or nur'a-sing', from the Sanscrit nara, a " man," and
sing/id, a "lion,"] (the "Man-Lion,") the name, in the
Hindoo mythology, of the fourth Avatar of Vishnu. It is
related that Hiranyakasipu,* by his penances and sacri
fices in honour of Brahma, had obtained as a boon from
that deity that he should possess universal monarchy
and be wholly exempt from death or injury from every
god, man, or creature in existence. Having now nothing
for political offences in August, 1809. in December or
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z;
* Pronounced by the modern Hindoos hl-rfin'ya-kfls'a-poo. By
some blunder, as it would seem, on the part of the writers from whom
he has copied, Southey gives this name in a strangely corrupted
form, — Errenen :
" For often would Ereenia tell
Of what in elder days befell,
When other tyrants in their might
Usurped dominion o'er the earth,
And Veeshnoo took a human birth,
Deliverer of the sons of men,
And slesv the huge Ermaccasen,
And piecemeal rent with lion force
ER'RENEN'S accursed corse."
Curse of Kchama, vol. i., x.
; th as in this. (J^F^See Explanations, p. 23. )
NARATANA
1656
NARUSZEW1C2,
to fear, his arrogance and impiety became insufferable.
He had, however, a son of a wholly different character,
and remarkable for his piety and virtue. The son, re
proving his father's wickedness, once said to him that the
Deity was present everywhere. " Is he in that pillar ?"
said the angry tyrant. " Yes," replied his son. There
upon Hiranyakasipu, in contempt, struck the pillar with
his sword, when the stony mass fell asunder, and a being,
half man and half lion, issuing from its centre, tore to
pieces the impious wretch who had thus insulted and
defied the Divine Power.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Narayana, nS-ra'ya-na, a Sanscrit word of somewhat
uncertain etymology, commonly supposed to signify
" moving upon the waters," and applied, in the Hindoo
mythology, to the universal Divine Spirit, which existed
before all worlds. (Compare Genesis i. 2.) In this sense,
Narayana may be regarded as another name for BRAHM,
(which see;) but it is also frequently used as one of the
many appellations of Vishnu.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Narayaiii, nt-ra'ya-nee', the consort (or sakti) of Na
rayana, considered as Vishnu, and hence a name of
LAKSHM!, (which see.)
Nai bonne, de, deli ntR'bon', (Louis,) COUNT, a
French courtier and minister of state, was born of the
noble family of Narbonne-Lara at Colorno, in Parma,
in 1755. He was taken to Paris in 1760, and educated
at court, where his mother was a lady of honour. He
was handsome, accomplished, and witty, and a favourite
of the royal family. In the Revolution he acted with
the constitutional party, and became a confidential friend
of Madame de Stae'l, who regarded him with admiration.
"She exalted him in her imagination," says Lamartine,
" until she raised him to the height of her ideal." By
her influence, partly, he became minister of war in De
cember, 1791. He tried with success the policy of frank
ness and confidence towards the Assembly, and extorted
applause even from the stern and suspicious radicals.
He performed prodigies of activity in raising armies and
preparing for war. Inspired by his fervent, rapid, and
martial eloquence, a glow of patriotism pervaded France.
He was suddenly dismissed from office in March, 1792,
in consequence of a difference with his colleague and
rival De Lessart. About the loth of August he was
proscribed by the Assembly, but, by the efforts of Ma
dame de Stael, escaped to England. He returned to
P'rance in 1800, and was restored to his rank as lieu
tenant-general in 1809. Soon after that he was made
ambassador to Bavaria. He attended Bonaparte as aide-
de-camp in the Russian campaign, (1812.) Died in 1813.
See VILI.EMAIN, "Souvenirs contemporains ;" BIGNON, "His-
toire de France sons Napoleon ;" MAKMONT, " Memoires ;" " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale. "
Narborough, nar'biir'eh, ( Sir JOHN, ) an English
naval officer, distinguished himself in the war with the
Dutch in 1666. In 1672 he served as second captain
under the Duke of York against De Ruyter in the en
gagement of Solebay, where his bravery and skill were
conspicuous. He was created rear-admiral and made a
knight in 1673. In 1674 he was sent against the pirates
of the Mediterranean, and forced the Bey of Tripoli to
give up his British captives and pay a large sum of money
for previous injuries to British trade. Died in 1688.
See CHARNOCK, " Biographia Navalis. "
Nar-cis'sus, [Gr. Ndfi/cwoof ; Fr. NARCISSK, ntu'sess',]
a beautiful youth, in the Greek mythology. He is said
to have been insensible of amorous passion until he saw
his own image in the water, with which he fell in love.
Having died of disappointed love, he was changed into
the flower of the same name.
Narcissus, a profligate Roman courtier and favourite
of the emperor Claudius, was a slave in his youth. He
acquired unlimited influence over Claudius, and pro
cured the death of several innocent persons. He also
caused Messalina to be assassinated. He was put to
death, by order of Agrippina, in 54 A.D.
Nardi, naR/dee, (JACOPO,) a distinguished historian,
born at Florence in 1476. His principal work is a "His
tory of Florence from 1494 to 1531," (1582.) He also
wrote a comedy entitled " L'Amicizia," and made a
translation of Livy, (1540,) esteemed one of the best in
the Italian language. Died abou: 1555.
See C. NARDI, "Vita di Jacopo Nardi."
Nardin, naVdaN', QEAN FREDERIC,) a French Prot'
estant minister, born at Montbeliard in 1687. He
preached at Blamont. Died in 1728.
See DUVERNOY, "Vie dej. F. Nardin," prefixed to his Sermons
1754.
Nardin, (T.,) a French negotiator and litterateur,
born at Besai^on in 1540; died in 1616.
Nardini, naR-dee'nee, (PiETRO,) an Italian musician,
born at Leghorn in 1725, was esteemed one of the best
violinists of his time. He composed a number of pieces
for the violin and flute. Died in 1796.
Nareda. See NARADA.
Nares, narz, (Rev. EDWARD,) nephew of James Nares,
noticed below, was born in London in 1762. He became
professor of modern history at Oxford in 1814. He was
the author of a novel entitled " Thinks I to Myself," and
of the "Life and Administration of Lord Burghley,"
which is severely criticised by Macaulay in the " Edin
burgh Review," (1832.) Died in 1841.
Nares, (JAMKS,) an English composer, born in Mid
dlesex in 1715. His principal compositions are anthems
and other church music; he also published "Lessons
for the Harpsichord," and various treatises on music.
In 1756 he succeeded Green as organist and composer
to the king. He was the preceptor of the composer
Arnold. Died in 1783.
Nares, (ROBERT,) a distinguished critic and theolo
gian, a son of the preceding, was born in 1753. lie be
came Archdeacon of Stafford, and pastor of Allhallows
Church, London ; he also held the office of assistant
librarian of the British Museum. lie published, among
other works, "Elements of Orthoepy," (1784,) and a
"Chronological View of the Prophecies relating to the
Christian Church," (1805.) He was one of the founders
of the "British Critic." Died in 1829.
Narfi. See NORVI.
Narino, na-rcn'yo, (ANTONIO,) a South American
general, born at Santa Fe de Bogota in 1769. He fought
against the Spaniards in 1812-13, was in«ide prisoner,
and was confined at Cadiz, where he died about 1822.
See CAPTAIN BONNYCASTI.K, "Spanish America," i.SiS; L.-M.I.E-
MANT, "Histoire de la Colombie," 1826.
Narni, di, de nak'nee, (GiROi.AMo Mautin — mow-
teen',) an Italian monk and eloquent preacher, lived in
the seventeenth century.
Nai'ri-en, JOHN,) F.R.S., an English geometer, born
at Chertsey in 1782, was a maker of mathematical and
philosophical instruments in his youth. lie contributed
to the " Penny Cyclopaedia," and published, besides
several works on geometry, a "History of the Origin
and Progress of Astronomy," (1838.)
Nar'ses, [Gr. Nopov/c,] a celebrated general under the
emperor Justinian I., was a eunuch, and is supposed to
have been a native of Asia. He was early distinguished
by the favour of the emperor, and in 538 A.D. was ap
pointed to a command under Belisarius in Italy. Owing
to dissensions arising between them, Narses was recalled
in 539, but he was sent again in 552 as commander-in-
chief of the Italian army. He obtained a signal victory
over the Goths, led by Totila, and recovered Rome.
Having driven the barbarians from the country, he was
appointed in 553 Exarch of Italy. On the accession of
Justinus II., Narses was superseded in his command by
Longinus. Died in 558.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall, of the Roman Empire;'1 LB
BF.AU, "Histoire du Bas- Empire ;" PROCOIMUS, "Belium Gothi-
cum."
Nar'ses or Narsi, nar'see, [Gr. Na/w^f,] a Sassanide
king of Persia, a son of Varanes II., began to reign in
294 A.D. He waged war against the emperor Diocletian,
whose army he defeated in Mesopotamia in 296. Having
been defeated in the second campaign, Narses sued for
peace, and in 297 made a treaty by which he ceded
Mesopotamia and Armenia to Diocletian. Narses abdi
cated in favour of his son, Hormisdas II., in 303 A.D.
Narssius. See NAERSSEN.
Naruszewicz, na-roo-sha'vitch, (ADAM STANISLAS,)
a Polish historian and poet, born in 1733. He was ap-
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y", short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; m£t; nftt; good; moon ;
UARVAEZ
1657
N AS MYTH
pointed successively professor of poetry in the Jesuits'
College of Nobles at Warsaw, and Bishop of Smolensk.
His principal works are a " History of Poland," an ex
cellent translation of Tacitus into Polish, and a number
of lyrics, fables, and satires. Died in 1796.
See BENTKOWSKI, "Histoire de la Litterature Polonaise."
Narvaez, de, da nau-va-Sth', (PANFILO,) a Spanish
commander, born at Valladolid. He went to America
in or before 1510, and served in the army. When Ve
lasquez, Governor of Cuba, learned that Cortez disowned
his authority in Mexico, he sent an army against him,
and gave the command to Narvaez, in 1520. The latter
was defeated and made prisoner by Cortez at Zampoala.
He was killed by the Indians in Florida about 1527.
See PKHSCOTT, "Conquest of Mexico."
Narvaez, de, (RAMON MARIA,) Duke of Valencia, a
Spanish general and minister of state, born in Andalusia
about 1798. He fought against the Carlists in 1836-38,
and was the leader of the insurrection which drove Es-
partero from power in 1843. He was prime minister
from May, 1844, to February, 1846, and was restored to
power in 1849. He resigned in January, 1851, was again
appointed president of the council in October, 1856, and
retired from office in November, 1857. About Septem
ber, 1864, he again became prime minister. Died in
April, 1868.
See " Xouvelle Biograpliie Generale."
Nascimeiito, do, do nas-se-men'to, (MANOKL,) an
eminent Portuguese poet, born in Lisbon in 1734. He
was driven into exile by the persecution of the Inquisi
tion in 1778, after which he lived in Paris until his death.
Among his works, which he published under the assumed
name ot " Filinto Elysio," are a number of odes and a
translation of La Fontaine's Fables. Died in 1819.
See A. M. SANE, " Poesie lyrique Portugaise," etc., 1808 ; L.
DE MKNDOCA, " Memorias de Litteratura contemporanea."
Naseef-al-Yazajee or Nasif-al-Yazaji, na-seef al
ya'za-jee, a distinguished Arabic scholar and writer,
born in "the Lebanon," probably near the commence
ment of the present century. Although a Christian, he
is said to have devoted his life solely to the study of the
language, history, literature, and grammar of the Arabs.
In his treatise on grammar he has condensed, with rare
ability and skill, the whole system of the Arab gram
marians. " No more complete exposition of the subject,"
says Mr. Chenery, "has ever been brought into a vol
ume ot the same size." He has also written " Makamat,"
("Assemblies,") in imitation of Hareeree, (Hariri.)
" NaMt~," says the same critic, "has little of the poetical
power of his great original, but in curious learning he
almost equals him."
See " Assemblies of Hariri," Introduction, pp. gS-ioi.
Naselli, na-sel'lee, (FRANCKSCO,) an Italian painter,
born at Ferrara. The churches of Ferrara contain many
of his works. Died about 1630.
Nash, (AHNER,) an American statesman and lawyer,
born in Prince Edward county, Virginia. Having set
tled in North Carolina, he was elected in 1779 Governor
of that State. Died in 1786.
Nash, (FRANCIS,) an American brigadier-general,
brother of Abner Nash, noticed above, was mortally
wounded at the battle of Germantown, (1777.)
Nash, (FREDERICK,) an American jurist, born at
Newbern, North Carolina, in 1781, was a son of Abner
Nash. He resided mostly at Hillsborough. He became
a judsre of the supreme court of North Carolina in 1844.
Died in 1858.
Nash, (JoHN,) an English architect, born in London
in 1752. He was appointed in 1815 inspector of the
royal buildings. He furnished the designs for the Hay-
Market Theatre, Buckingham Palace, and the Pavilion
of Brighton, also the plans of Regent Street and Re
gent's Park. Died in 1835.
Nash, (JosF.i'H,) an English painter and designer,
born about 1812. He designed illustrations for "The
Architecture of the Middle Ages," (1838.) He is dis
tinguished as a painter of architecture.
Nash, (RICHARD.) usually called BEAU NASH, was
born at Swansea, Wales, in 1674. He entered the Mid
dle Temple as a student of law, but had an invincible
aversion to study and business. He distinguished him
self as a man of fashion, a master of the science of
gentility, and a paragon of effrontery. His skill as a
gambler yielded him an ample revenue. In 1704 he
found Bath a vulgar and mismanaged watering-place,
infested with ill-bred people. He got himself appointed
master of ceremonies, and, by enforcing the rules of good
bleeding at balls, public assemblies, etc., converted Bath
into a fashionable and elegant place of resort. His
person was coarse and ungainly, but his vivacity and
benevolent or prodigal habits rendered him popular.
He is said to have taken measures to guard the unwary
youth from falling victims to the designs of villains.
During a part of his long period of prosperity and
supremacy at Bath, he rode in a six-horse coach with a
retinue of servants. In his old age he was impoverished
by the act of Parliament which suppressed gaming.
Died in 1761.
See OLIVER GOLDSMITH, " Life of Richard Nash, "1763; ''Ec
centric Personages," by WM. RUSSELL, 1866.
Nash, (THOMAS,) an English wit and dramatist, born
in Suffolk about 1564. He was the author of '"The
Supplication of Pierce Penniless to the Devil," (1592,)
"Dido," a tragedy, (1594,) a comedy entitled "Sum
mer's Last Will and Testament," (1600,) and several
other works, which had great popularity in that age.
Died in 1601.
See WARTON, "History of English Poetry;" DISRAELI, "Ca
lamities of Authors."
Nash, (TKEADWAY RUSSKL,) an English divine and
antiquary, born in 1725 or 1726. He published "Col
lections for a History of Worcestershire," and a fine
edition of Hudibras, and contributed several papers to
the " Archasologia." Died in 1811.
Nasif-al-Yazaji. See NASEEF-AL-YAZAJEE.
Nasiiii, na-see'nee, (ANTOMo,) an Italian painter of
history and portraits, born at Sienna in 1641 ; died in
1716.
Nasiiii, (GIUSEPPE NiccoLd,) a skilful painter, born
near Sienna about 1655, was a brother of the preceding.
He painted in oil and fresco many works, the subjects
of which are mostly religious. Died in 1736.
See LAXZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Nasir - ed - Deen - Mohammed - Ibn - Hassan, or
Nassir-eddyn-Mohammed-Ibn-Ha9an, na'sir ed-
deen' mo-him'med ib'n ha'san, surnamed AL-TOO'SEE,
(or AL-Tnousi,) from the place of his birth, a celebrated
Persian astronomer, born at Toos, (Tus or Thous,) in
Khorassan, about 1200 A.D., became superintendent of
an observatory in Azerbaijan. He was the author of
"Ilchanic Tables," which are said by Delambre not to
differ essentially from those of Ptolemv. Died in 1274.
Nasir- (or Nasser-) Ledeen- (Ledin-) Illah, na'sir
le-deen' il'lah, (Abool- Abbas- Ahmed, a'bool ab-baV
rm'med,) an Abbasside caliph, began to reign at Bagdad
in 1 1 80, as successor of his father Mostadee. He founded
many colleges, hospitals, and mosques. Died in 1225.
Na'smith, (DAVID,) a Scottish philanthropist, born
in Glasgow in 1799, was distinguished for his zeal in
promoting religious and benevolent associations. He
founded in 1826 the Glasgow City Mission, and, having
subsequently visited England, Ireland, France, and the
United States of America, he established missions in
their principal cities. The London City Mission, which
began its operations in 1835 w'tn f°ur missionaries,
numbered in 1856 upwards of three hundred. Nasmith
also founded the London Female Mission, the Adult
School Society, and other similar institutions. Died
in 1839.
See DR. JOHN CAMPBELL, "Memoirs of David Nasmith," 1844.
Na'smith, (JAMES,) an English divine and antiquary,
born at Norwich in 1740, published editions of the
" Itineraries" of Simon and William of \Vorcester, and
Tanner's "Notitia Monastica." Died in 1808.
Na'smyth, (ALEXANDER,) a celebrated Scottish
painter, founder of the so-called Nasmyth school, was
born at Edinburgh in 1758. He painted landscapes and
portraits of great merit. Among the latter, that of Burns
is highly esteemed, and is said to be the only authentic
likeness of the poet. Died in 1840.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement.)
•e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/,- G, H, Ktguttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
NASMTTH
1658
N4UBERT
Nasmyth, QAMES,) a Scottish engineer and inventor,
son of the preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1808.
He commenced business for himself as a mechanical
engineer, at Manchester, in 1834. He invented a steam
hammer, a steam pile-driver, and other machines.
See SAMUEL SMILES, " Industrial Biography," etc., 1864.
Nasniyth, (PATRICK,) a brother of the preceding,
was born at Edinburgh in 1786. He enjoyed a high
reputation as a landscape-painter, and had five sisters
who were distinguished in the same department of the
art. Died in 1831.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement.)
Nassare, nas-sa'ra, (Bi.AS ANTONIO,) a Spanish writer
on various subjects, born at Alguezar in 1689; died in
I751-
Nassau, nas'saw, [Ger. pron. nas'sow,] HOUSE OF,
a noble family, of German origin, which produced many
great men, and derived its title from Nassau, on the
Rhine. In the sixteenth century the family acquired
the principality of Orange, in the southeast of France,
after which the Counts of Nassau took the title of Prince
of Orange. (See ORANGE, and WILLIAM III. of Eng
land.)
See KKEMKR, " Geschichte des Nassauischen Hauses."
Nassau, (HENRY,) COUNT OF, a Flemish nobleman,
inherited from his father large estates in Brabant, Flan
ders, and Holland. In 1515 he married the sister of
Philibert, Prince of Orange, by whom he had a son Rene.
Henry was a confidential friend of Charles V., whose
governor he had been in that emperor's boyhood. " It
was he," says Motley, "whose influence placed the im
perial crown upon the head of Charles." He was the
uncle of William of Orange, the founder of the Dutch
republic
Nassau, (MAURICE OF,) [Dutch, MAURITS VAN NAS
SAU, mow'rits vStn nas'sow ; Ger. MOKITZ VON NASSAU,
mo'rits fon nas'sow,] one of the greatest captains of
modern times, was born at the castle of Dillenburg in
November, 1567, and was the second son of William the
Silent, Prince of Orange, who founded the Dutch repub
lic. About the age of twenty he was elected Governor and
Captain-General of the Seven United Provinces, which
were then at war with Spain. In 1591 he took Deventer,
Zutphen, and other fortified towns. He defeated the
Spaniards in a great pitched battle at Turnhout in 1597,
and gained a decisive victory over the Archduke Albert
of Austria at Nieuwport in 1600. In the ensuing cam
paigns his skill as a tactician was exerted with uninter
rupted success until 1609, when Spa-in recognized the
independence of the Dutch, and a truce of twelve years
was signed by the two powers. The patriot Barneveldt,
by promoting this peace and opposing the ambitious pro
jects of Maurice, incurred his enmity, and finally became
a victim of his cruelty. (See BARNEVELDT.) Maurice
received the title of Prince of Orange at the death of his
elder brother, about 1618. In 1621 he renewed the war
against the Spaniards, who opposed to him the celebrated
general Spinola. " His great capacity in the military
art," says flume, " would have compensated the inferior
ity of his forces, had not the Spanish armies been com
manded by Spinola." Maurice compelled his rival to
raise the siege of Bergen -op-Zoom in 1622, but Spinola
took Breda in 1625. He died in 1625, and was succeeded
in the office of Stadtholder by his brother, Frederick
Henry, who was the grandfather of William III. of Eng
land. Maurice made important improvements in the
military art, and excelled especially in the reduction and
defence of fortified places.
See STOI.KEK, "Prins Maurits," 1827; OUDEMANS, " Het Leven
en de Dacien van Maurits Prlns van Oranje-Nassau," 1832 ; C. M.
VAN DER KEMP, " Manrits van Nassau Prins van Oranje," etc.,
1844; MOTI.KY, " History of the United Netherlands."
Nassau-Siegen, de, deh nas'sow see'gen, (CHARLES
HENRI NICOLAS OTHON,) PRINCE, born in Nassau in
1745, gained distinction by his adventures. He served
in the French army, and afterwards entered the service
of Russia. He gained a naval victory over the Turks
in 1788. Died about 1809.
Nassau-Siegen, de, (JAN MAURITS,) PRINCE,
called THE AMERICAN, a Dutch commander, born in
1604, was a grandson of John, Count of Nassau. He
was appointed captain-general of the Dutch possessions
in Brazil in 1636, and gained several successes over the
Portuguese. He returned to Holland in 1644, and was
made general-in-chief of the cavalry. He left in manu
script a work on the Animals of South America. Died
in 1679.
See VAN KAMPEN, "Johann Moritz von Nassau: eine Bio-
graphie," 1842; L. DRIESEN, " Leben des Fiirsten Moritz von
Nassau-Siegen," 1849.
Nast, (WILLIAM,) D.D., a native of Germany, emi
grated in 1828 to America, where he became a preacher
of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He has translated
numerous Methodist works into German, and published
several books in that language.
Natal, BISHOP OF. See COLENSO.
Natale, na-ta'la, [Lat. NATA'LIS,] (GERONIMO,) a
Spanish Jesuit, born in Majorca in 1507. He declined
the office of general of the order of fesuits in 1558. He
wrote "Commentaries and Meditations on the Gospels,"
(" Adnotationes et Meditationes in Evangelia," 1594.)
Died at Rome in 1580.
See H. FISQUET, "Notice snr Jerome Natalis," 1856.
Natali, na-ta'Iee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian poet and
physician, born at Messina in 1642 ; died about 1730.
Natali, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter, of the school
of Cremona, born in 1652 ; died in 1722.
Natalis. See NATALE.
Natalis, na-ta'lis, (MICHAEL,) a Flemish engraver,
born at Liege about 1609, worked at Rome and Paris,
lie engraved some works of Titian, Rubens, and Poussin.
Died in 1670.
Na'than, [Heb. jnj ; Gr. Nuflav,] a Hebrew prophet,
who lived in the reigns of Kings David and Solomon.
He wrote a Life of David, which is not extant.
See II. Samuel xii. ; I. Chronicles xxix. 29; I. Kings i.
Nathan, (ISAAC,) called also Mordecai, a Jewish
rabbi of the fifteenth century, published the first Hebrew
Concordance to the Bible. It is entitled " MairNetib,"
or " Light to the Path."
Na'than Ben Jechiel, (ben yek'e-cT,) a Jewish rabbi,
president of the synagogue at Rome. He wrote a Tal
mud ical Lexicon, which was printed about 1480. Died
in 1 1 06.
Nathanael, (of Scripture.) See BARTHOLOMEW.
Natoire, nf twau', (CHARLES,) a French painter, born
at Nimes in 1700, studied under Lemoine, whose un
finished works he completed. Some of his best pictures
are at Versailles and the Hotel de Soubise. Died neat
Rome in 1777.
See DUMKSNIL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Francais."
Natter, nat'ter, (JOHANN LORENZ,) a celebrated Ger
man gem-engraver, born in Suabia in 1705. After re
siding for a time at Rome, he visited the principal courts
of Europe, where his works were in great demand. His
imitations of the antique are so perfect as scarcely to be
distinguished from the original. Among his best pro
ductions are a medal in honour of Sir Robert Wai pole,
and a victorious Britannia, on a gem. Natter published
a "Treatise on the Antique Method of engraving Gems,
compared with the Modern." Died at Saint Petersburg
in 1763.
See NAOI.EK, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Natterer, nat'ter-er, (Jon ANN,) a German naturalist,
born at Laxenburg, near Vienna, in 1787. He travelled
in Brazil, and wrote several works on reptiles and mam-
mi fera. Died in 1843.
Nattier, nJt'tc-4', (JEAN MARC,) a French portrait-
painter, born in Paris in 1685. Among his master-pieces
are the portraits of Marshal Saxe and the Duke of
Richelieu. He was professor in the Academy of Arts.
Died in 1766.
Natzmer, von, fon nats'mer, (DUKISLAW GNEOMAR,)
a Prussian general, born in Pomerania in 1654. He
distinguished himself at Blenheim, (1704,) and com
manded the Prussian corpsat Malplaquet, (1709.) Died
in 1739.
Naubert, now'be'Rt, (CHRISTIANE BENEDICTS. EU
GENIE,) a celebrated romance-writer of Germany, born
at Leipsic in 1756. Among her most admired works
are "Conradin of Suabia," "Walter of Montbarry," and
"Thekla of Thurn." The latter, it is said, suggested to
3, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
NAUBRIGENSIS
1659
NAVEZ
Schiller many fine passages in " Wallenstein." Her
" Popular Legends of Germany" are also greatly esteemed.
Died in 1819.
Naubrigensis. See LITTLE, (WILLIAM.)
Nauclerus, now-kla'rus, (JoHANN VERGEN,) a chron
icler, born in Suabia about 1430. He wrote, in Latin,
a chronicle, which was printed in 1516. Died abouti5io.
Nau'cra-tes, |X«wvY>"~W,] a Greek orator, was a pupil
of Isocrates, and flourished about 350 B.C. He wrote on
rhetoric.
Nau-cy'des, [Xat'/cwfyc,] a celebrated Greek sculptor,
born at Argos about the 95th Olympiad. Among his
best productions were two statues of Chimon, a Mer
cury, and a bronze statue of Erinna.
Naudaeus. See NAUDE, (GABRIEL.)
Naude, no'cla', [Lat. NAUD/E'US,] (GABRIEL,) a dis
tinguished French bibliographer and savant, was born
in Paris in i6co. He was chosen physician-ordinary to
Louis XIII. in 1633, and librarian to Cardinal Richelieu
in 1642. Soon after the death of Richelieu (1642) he
became librarian to Mazarin. He had extensive learning
and an acute understanding, and was an intimate friend
of Gassendi. His principal works are an " Apology for
Great Men falsely accused of Magic," (1625,) "Biolio-
grnphia Politica," (1633,) and " Considerations on Coups
d'Etat." A collection of anecdotes entitled " Naudaeana"
was published in 1701. Died in 1653.
See Louis JACOB, "Gabrie'i^ Nauda;i Tumulus," 1659 ; NICERON,
" Memoires ;" SAINTK-I'KUVE, " Portraits litteraires," 1855 ; " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Naude, (PHILIPPE,) a French mathematician and
Protestant theologian, born at Metz in 1654. Having
removed to Berlin, he was appointed, in 1696, professor
of mathematics in the Academy of Arts, and subsequently
in the Academy of Sciences, soon after its foundation.
He was the author of a number of moral and theological
works, and of "Elements of Geometry," (1706.) Died
in 1729.
Naudet, no'di', (JOSEPH,) a French scholar and his
torian, born in Paris in 1786. He became a member of
the Academy of Inscriptions in 1817, and professor of
Latin poetry in the College cle France about 1821.
Among his works is a " History of the Monarchy of the
Goths in Italy," (1811.)
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Naudet, (THOMAS CHARLES,) a French landscape-
painter, born in Paris in 1774. He travelled over a
considerable part of Europe, and made a collection of
three thousand designs. Died in 1810.
Naugerins. See NAVAGERO.
Naumann, now'man, ([OHANN ANDREAS,) a German
naturalist, born near Kothen in 1744. lie published a
"History of the Birds of North Germany," (1795-1804.)
Died in 1826.
Naumann, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH,) an ornithologist,
born near Kothen in 1780, was a son of the preceding.
His chief work is a " Natural History of German Birds,"
(1822-44.) Died in 1857.
Naumann, (TOHANN GOTTLIEB or AMADEUS,) a Ger
man composer, born near Dresden in 1741. He pro
duced several popular operas ; but his reputation rests
chiefly on his church music. Died in 1801.
See MEISSNER, " Bruchstiicke aits J. A. Naumanns Lebensee-
schichte," 2 vols., 1804; FETIS, " Biographie Universelle des Mu-
siciens."
Naumann, (KARL FRIEDRICH,) a German mineral
ogist, born at Dresden in 1797, was a son of Johann
Gottlieb, noticed above. He published several suc
cessful works on mineralogy.
Naumann, (MORITZ ERNST ADOLPH,) a brother of
the preceding, and a medical writer, was born at Dresden
in 1798. He wrote an important work on clinic medi
cine, " Handbuch der medicinischen Klinik," (8 vols.,
1829-39,) and other works.
Naun'ton, (Sir ROBERT,) an English statesman, rose
to be secretary of state and master of requests under
James I. He was the author of " Fragmenta Regalia,"
or an account of the court of Queen Elizabeth. Died
in 1635.
Nausea, now'za-5, otherwise called Unrath, oon'rat,
and Eckel, ek'kel, (FRIEDRICH,) a German theologian,
born near Wurtzburg about 1480. He became preacher
to the court at Vienna in 1534, and Bishop of Vienna in
1541. He published several works on theology. Died
about 1550.
See DUPIN, " Bibliotheque des Auteurs ecclesiastiques."
Nau-sic/a-a, [Gr. Xawi/cda,] a daughter of Alcinous,
King of the Phasacians, showed kindness to Ulysses
when he was wrecked on the island of Phseacia, (Corfu.)
Tradition adds that she became the wife of Telemachus.
Nau-sic'ra-tes, [SavaiKparrif,] a Greek comic poet,
whose works are not extant. He is classed by some
critics among the writers of the middle comedy.
Nauze, La. See LA NAUZE.
Navagero, na-va-ja'ro,[Lat. NAUGE'RIUS,](ANDREA,)
an Italian scholar and eminent Latin poet, born in Venice
in 1483. He passed about four years (1525-28) at Madrid
as Venetian ambassador to Charles V., and exercised an
important influence on Spanish literature. Having been
sent on a mission to France, he died at Blois in 1529.
His Latin and Italian poems are admired for their ele
gance and purity of style.
See GINGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" MENEGIIELLI,
" Elogio di A. Navagero," 1813.
Navagero, (BERNARDO,) a Venetian statesman and
cardinal, born at Venice in 1507. He was sent as am
bassador to France and Germany, and attended the
Council of Trent. He wrote a "Life of Pope Paul IV."
Died in 1565.
See L. MANIN, "Elogio del Cardinale Navagero," 1814; Au-
BERY, " Histoire des Cardinaux."
Navailles, de, deli nt'vtl' or nt'vt'ye, (PHILIPPE de
Montault de Benac — deli moN'to'deh ba'ntk',) Due,
a French general, born in 1619. He obtained the rank
of marshal of France in 1675. Died in 1684.
See "Memoires de sa Vie," etc., written by himself, i6qi.
Navarre or Navarrese, DOCTOR. See AZPILCUETA.
Navarre, na-var'ri, (PEDRO,) a Spanish captain, born
in Biscay, was a skilful engineer. He invented or im
proved the art of undermining, and took the Castello
del Ovo at Naples in 1503. In 1514 he entered the
service of Francis I. of France. Died in 1528.
See BnANTdME, "Vies des grands Capitaines."
Navarrete or Navarete. See MUDO, EL.
Navarrete, na-var-ra'ta, (DOMINGO FERNANDEZ,) a
Spanish Dominican, born in Old Castile, was a mission
ary to China in 1646. After his return he was created
Archbishop of Saint Domingo in the West Indies. He
was the author of a valuable work on the moral, political,
and religious condition of the Chinese, entitled "Tra-
tados historicos, etc. de la Monarchia de China," (1676.)
Died in 1689.
See CHURCHILL, " Collection of Voyages and Travels."
Navarrete, (Don MARTIN FERNANDEZ,) an eminent
Spanish historian and geographer, born at Abalos in
1765. He was appointed in 1823 director of the Hydro-
graphic Institute at Madrid, and in 1837 was made a
senator and director of the Academy of History. His
principal work is entitled a "Collection of the Voyages
and Discoveries made by the Spaniards since the Close
of the Fifteenth Century." It is eulogized by Humboldt,
and has furnished Irving with material for his "Life of
Columbus." He also wrote a " Biography of Cervantes,"
and assisted in preparing a valuable "Collection of Un
published Documents for the History of Spain," (un
finished.) He was a member of the Spanish Academy,
and proposed a new system of orthography, which was
adopted by that institution. Died in 1844.
See D. DE MOFRAS, "Mendoza et Navarrete," 1845.
Navarro, na-vaR'ro, (AuousTiN,) a Spanish painter,
born at Murcia in 1754 ; died in 1787.
Navarro, (FELIPE,) a Spanish painter, born at Va
lencia about 1680.
See QUILLIET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols."
Nave or Naeve, na'feh, written also Nefe, (KASPAR,)
a German medical writer, born at Chemnitz in 1514;
died about 1580.
Navez, nt'va', (FRANC.OIS JOSEPH,) an eminent Bel
gian historical painter, born at Charleroi in 1787, was
a pupil of David. He worked mostly at Brussels, and
•€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
NAV1ER
1660
NESENIUS
painted many scriptural subjects. He was regarded as
the chief of the Academic school of Belgian artists.
Navier, nt've-a', (PIKRRK TOUSSAINT,) a French
physician and chemist, born at Saint-Dizier in 1712, was
the discoverer of nitrous ether. He was a corresponding
member of the Academy of Sciences, and published
several scientific works. Died in 1779.
Navieres, de, deh njt've^ik', (CHARLES,) a French
poet, born at Sedan in 1544; died in Paris in 1616.
Naville, nf'veK, (FKANC.OIS MARC Louis,) a Swiss
writer on education and moral philosophy, born at
Geneva in 1784. Among his works is a "Treatise on
Legal Charity," (2 vols., 1836.) Died in 1846.
Nay'lor, (JAMES,) an English enthusiast, born in
Yorkshire in 1616. He became an eloquent preacher
of the Society of Friends, after he had served in the
army of the Parliament, which he left in 1649. Having
fallen into delusions and received acts of worship from
some fanatical persons, he was convicted of blasphemy
by the Parliament in 1656. He was branded, pilloried,
and imprisoned several years. Died in 1660.
See SEWKI., " History of the Quakers ;" and article in the
"Democratic Review" for March, 1846, (by WHITTIKK.)
Nazianzen. See GREGORY NAZIANZEN.
Ne or Ni, a name sometimes given to CONFUCIUS,
which see.
Neagle, na'gel, (JOHN,) an American artist, chiefly
known as a portrait-painter, was born in Boston in 1799.
He practised his art in Philadelphia, where lie married
a daughter of Sully. Among his works are portraits of
Washington and Henry Clay. Died in 1865.
See DUNLAP, "History of the Arts of Design in America;"
TUCKERMAN, " Book of the Artists."
Neal, (ALICE B.) See HAVKN, (Ai.iCK.)
Neal, neel, (DANIKI.,) a celebrated English dissenter,
born in London in 1678. After completing his studies
at Utrech't, he became minister of a congregation in
Aldersgate Street, London. His principal works are a
" History of the Puritans," (in 4 vols.,) and a " History
of New England." Died in 1743.
See WILSON, "History of Dissenting Churches."
Neal, (JoHN,) an American poet and litterateur, born
at Portland, Maine, in 1793. His first publications were
a series of essays on the works of Byron, which ap
peared in " The Portico," a monthly magazine. These
were soon followed by his novel entitled " Keep Cool,"
(1817,) "The Battle of Niagara," (1818,) "Goldau, the
Maniac Harper," and other poems ; also " Logan,"
(1822,) "Seventy-Six," (1823,) and other novels. In
1824 lie visited England, where he contributed a num
ber of able and interesting articles on American litera
ture to " Blackwood's Magazine." After his return, he
published the novels of " Rachel Dyer," (1828,) "The
Down-Easters," (1833,) "True Womanhood," (1859,)
and several other works. In 1870 appeared his "Wan
dering Recollections of a Somewhat Busy Life." "The
elements of poetry," says R. W. Griswold, " are poured
forth in his verses with a prodigality and power alto
gether astonishing ; but he is deficient in the constructive
faculty."
See GRISWOLD, " Prose Writers of America :" DUVCKINCK, " Cy
clopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; ALLIBONE, "Dictionary
of Authors."
Neal, (JOSEPH C.,) an American journalist and hu
morous writer, born at Greenland, New Hampshire, in
1807. Having settled in Philadelphia, he became in 1831
editor of "The Pennsylvanian," and in 1844 of a literary
journal entitled " Neal's Saturday Gazette," which soon
acquired extensive popularity. He published in 1837
"Charcoal Sketches, or Scenes in a Metropolis," which
were received with great favour, and were republished
in London. They were followed by "Peter Ploddy, and
other Oddities," (1844,) and another series of "Char
coal Sketches." Died in 1848.
See GRISWOLD, " Prose Writers of America."
Ne-al'§es, [NeaAK^c,] a Greek painter, born about
213 B.C., is supposed to have been a native of Sicyon.
His works were highly esteemed by his contemporaries,
and are eulogized by Plutarch and Pliny. One of his
principal pieces represents a battle between the Egyp
tians and the Persians on the Nile.
Neale, neel, QOHN MASON,) an Ei^Hsh theologian
and historical writer, born about 1818. He published,
besides several books for children, u " History of the
Holy Eastern Church," and other works.
Neander, na-an'der, (Cir.usTOPH FRIEDRICH.)
(changed from Neumann,) a German divine and poet,
born in Courland in 1724. He was the author of
"Spiritual Songs," (" Geistliciie Lieder,") which are
ranked among the best compositions of that kind in the
language. Died in 1802.
See " Bruchstiicke von Neanders Le'oen," Berlin, 1804.
Ne-an'der, [Ger. pron. na-an'der,] (JoHANN AUGUST
WII.HELM,) an eminent German theologian and ecclesi
astical historian, of Jewish extraction, was born at Got-
tingen in 1789. lie became in 1812 professor of theology
at Berlin, where he devoted himself zealously to the
duties of his office and the advancement of Christianity
by his numerous writings. Of these the most important
is his "Universal History of the Christian Religion and
Church," (in 5 vols., 1843.) Among his other produc
tions we may name "The Emperor Julian and his Times,"
(1812,) "Memorable Occurrences from the History of
Christianity and Christian Life," (3 vols., 1822,) "His
tory of the Planting of the Apostolic Church," (1832,)
and "The Life of Jesus Christ in its Historical Rela
tions," (1837,) an able refutation of the well-known work
of Strauss. Neander was a member of the Consistory
of the province of Brandenburg. His writings have
obtained great reputation and influence in foreign coun
tries, as well as in Germany. Died in Berlin in July, 1850.
" Neander still remains beyond doubt the greatest
church historian, thus far, of the nineteenth century.
Great, too, especially in this, that he never suffered his
renown to obscure at all his sense of the sinfulness and
weakness of every human work in this world. With all
his comprehensive knowledge, he justly regarded him
self as, among many others, merely a forerunner of a
new, creative epoch of ever-young Christianity. . . .
'We stand,' he said, 'on the line between the old
world and a new, about to be called into being by the
ever-fresh energy of the gospel. For a fourth time
an epoch in the life of our race is in preparation by
means of Christianity.'" (Dr. Schaff's "History of
the Apostolic Church.")
See KRAHHK, "A. Neander," 1852; " Zum GedSchtniss A. Nean-
der's," Berlin, 1850: HEKZO<;, " Real-Encyklopadie ;" W. KARREI.L,
"Memorial of A. Neander," 1851; "North British Review" for
February, 1851 ; "British Quarterly Review" for October, 1868.
Neander, (MICHAEL,) a German Protestant divine
and classical scholar, born in Lower Silesia in 1525, was
a pupil of Melanchthon. He wrote a number of Greek
and Latin treatises. Died in 1595.
See REIN-HARD, "DeVila M. Neander," 1756: NICKR.-IN, "Me-
nioires ;" HAVEMANN, "Mittheilungen aus dem Leben M. Nean-
der's," 1841.
Neander, (MICHAEL,) a learned German physician,
born in Misniain 1529. Among his works we may name
a "Synopsis of Weights and Measures according to the
Romans, Athenians," etc. Died in 1581.
Ne-ar'-ehus, [Gr. Nea/^oc; Fr. NEARQUE, na'Skk',] a
celebrated admiral of Alexander the Great, was a native
of Crete, or, as some assert, of Amphipolis. About 327
i:.C. he set sail from the Indus for the Persian Gulf, and
discovered on his passage the mouths of the Euphrates
and the Tigris. A detailed account of this voyage is
given by Arrian, the accuracy of which has been
confirmed by Vincent and other modern geographers.
Nearchus, on his return, was received with distinguished
favour by Alexander, who assured him that he rejoiced
more in the success of the expedition than in having
conquered Asia. He also received from his sovereign
a golden crown. After the death of Alexander, Nearchus
was made governor of Pamphylia and Lycia.
See PLUTARCH, "Vita Alexandri ;" VINCENT, "Voyage of Near
chus to the Euphrates," etc., 1797; GOSSELIN, " Geographie des
Grecs."
Nearque. See NKARCHUS.
Nebel, na'bel, (DANIKI.,) a German botanist, born at
Heidelberg in 1664. He published several works on
botany. Died in 1733.
Nebeiiius, na-ba'ne-us, (KARL FRIEDRICH,) a Ger
man statesman and able writer on political economy,
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
NEBI
1661
NECKHAM
born near Landau in 1784. He was president of the
Council of Baden from 1846 to 1848. Among his works
is a "Treatise on Public Credit," (1820.) Died in 1857.
See HROCKHAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon."
Nebi, neb'ee, an admired Turkish poet of the seven
teenth century, flourished under the reign of Mahomet
IV.
Neb-ris-sen'sis, (.-\NTONIUS,) an eminent Spanish
scholar, whose proper name was ANTONIO DE LEBKIXA,
(da la-bkee'Ha,) was born at Lebrixa in 1444. He studied
the classics in Italy, and, returning to Spain in 1473, ')e~
came to that country what Erasmus was to Germany or
Bude (Budasus) to France. As professor in the Univer
sity of Salamanca, he initiated a reform in the method of
teaching Latin and Greek. He published a Latin Lexi
con, (1492,) a "Lexicon of Civil Law," (1506,) which is
highly commended, and grammars of the Latin, Greek,
and I iebrew languages. About 1514 he became professor
of ihetoric at Alcala. "The men to whom Spain chiefly
owes the advancement of useful learning," says Hallam,
" were Arias Barbosa and the more renowned Antonio
de Lebrixa." (" Introduction to the Literature of Eu
rope.") Died in 1522.
See PRKSCOTT, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. part i.
Ne'brus, [Gr. Xefywc,] an eminent Greek physician,
flourished about 580 B.C. He is supposed to have been
a native of Cos. When the Amphictyons besieged the
town of Crissa, in Phocis, Nebrus assisted in reducing
the town by poisoning the water.
Neb'u-ehad-nez'zar, [Heb. 1VHJ"'313J ; Fr. NA-
BUCHODOXOSOR, nt'boo'ko'do'no'zoR', or NABOKO-
PROSSOK, nt'bo'ko'dRo'soR7,] King of Babylon, succeeded
his father Nabopolassar. He took Jerusalem in 606
B.C., and carried to Babylon many captives, among whom
was the prophet Daniel. King Zedekiah having revolted,
Nebuchadnezzar took his capital in 588, destroyed the
great temple by fire, threw down the walls of the city,
and transported the Jewish people to Babylon. He
afterwards captured Tyre, conquered Egypt, and became
probably the most powerful monarch of that age in the
world. Having become too much elated by pride and
prosperity, he was, by divine visitation, deprived of his
reason and deposed from his throne. Restored to reason
and power a short time before his death, he published
a pious proclamation of his experience and of his recog
nition of the King of heaven.
See II. Kings xxv. i ; Daniel i., ii., iii., and iv. ; also, SAMUEL
CLARKE, " Life and Death of Nebuchadnezzar," 1664.
Necham. See NECKHAM.
Ne'-eho [Gr. Ne/cwf, Ne^aw, or Ne'^wf] or Pha'ra-oh
Ne'-eho, King of Egypt, a son of Psammeticus, reigned
from 617 to 601 B.C. He was a warlike prince, and
defeated Josiah, King of Judah, in battle at Megiddo,
but was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar in 606 B.C. at
Carchemish.
See Bi'xsEN, " Egyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte."
Neck, van, vSn nek, (JAN,) a Dutch painter, born at
Naarden in 1635. His master-piece is " Simeon in the
Temple holding the Infant Jesus in his Arms." Died at
Amsterdam in 1714.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc.
Necker, nek'ker or ni'kaiu', (ALBEKTI.NE ADRIENNE
de Saussure — deh sS'siiu',) a Swiss authoress, born at
Geneva in 1766, was a daughter of the naturalist, H. B.
de Saussure. She was married to J. Necker, a nephew
of the great financier, and a cousin of Madame de
Stael, of whom she was an intimate friend. She wrote a
"Notice of the Character of Madame de Stael," (1820,)
and "Progressive Education," (2 vols., 1828-32.) Died
in 1841.
See SENEBIER, "Histoire litteraire de Geneve."
Necker, nek'ker, [Fr. pron. ni'kaiu',] (JACQUES,) an
eminent Swiss financier, and prime minister of France,
born at Geneva in September, 1732. On leaving col
lege he became a clerk in a banking-house in Paris, and,
having acquired a large fortune as partner of the great
banker Thelusson, he retired from business in the prime
of life, and aspired to public honours and more brilliant
financial achievements. In 1773 he gained the prize
offered by the French Academy for a eulogy on Col
bert, and published a treatise on the corn-laws, " Sur la
Legislation des Grains." The disorder of the finances was
so alarming that, without regard to official routine, he
was appointed director of the treasury in 1776, and
director-general of the finances in 1777. By publicity,
order, and economy, he restored the public credit and
lightened the burdens of the people. His famous
comfte rendii of 1781 (which was the first public exposi
tion of the revenue and expenses of the State) was re
ceived with great favour ; but his reforms made for him
many enemies at court and elsewhere. To defend him
self against their intrigues, he asked for a seat in the
council, which was refused because he was a Protestant.
He immediately resigned, (1781,) and retired to Coppet,
on Lake Leman.
In 1784 he published his excellent work "On the Ad
ministration of the Finances," of which eighty thousand
copies were sold in a few days. The convocation of
the States-General was decreed by the royal council in
August, 1788. The court was convinced that the skill
of Necker was indispensable in the political and financial
crisis that followed. He succeeded Brienne as prime
minister, or controleur-geneial of finances, about Sep
tember i, 1788, and the next day the funds rose 30 per
cent. He favoured the Revolution by granting to the
Tiers-Etat a double number of deputies. He is censured
for this concession, and for temporizing in the contest
between the Ticrs-Etat and the other orders after the
meeting of the States-General in 1789. The court having
adopted more violent measures than he approved, he
tendered his resignation, (June 23,) which was not ac
cepted. On the nth of July he was suddenly dismissed
by a note from the king, who ordered him to leave the
kingdom privately ; and the same night he departed for
Brussels. Indignant at his dismissal, the populace of
Paris rose in arms, stormed the Bastille, and obtained a
bloody triumph over the court. Necker was recalled on
the 2ist of July, and, when he entered Paris, was received
with enthusiastic demonstrations by the people. His
first act was an amnesty for political offences. But he
was too conservative to satisfy the popular party, and
resigned his office in September, 1790. He passed the
rest of his life at Coppet, where he wrote several political
and religious treatises. Died in 1804. The highly-gifted
Madame de Stael was his daughter.
See MADAME UK STAEL, " Vie piivee de M. Jacques Necker,'
1804; DROZ, " Histoire du Regne de Louis XVI ;" THIERS, " His
toryoftlie French Revolution ;" LANJUINAIS, " fitudesbiographiques
stir Antoine Arnauld, P. Nicole etj. Necker," 1823 ; SAINTE-|>EUVE,
" Causeries du Lundi ;" A. L. DK STAEI.-HOLSTEIN, "Notice sur
Necker," 1821; " Noiivelle liiographie Generale ;" "Edinburgh
Review" for January, 1803, (by SYDNEY SMITH.)
Necker, (Louis ALBERT,) a Swiss naturalist, born at
Geneva in 1786, was a son of Albertine A. de Saussure-
Necker. He published " Le Regne mineral ramene aux
Methodes'de 1' Histoire naturelle," (2 vols., 1835.)
Nec'ker, (NoEL JOSEPH,) a botanist, born in Flanders
in 1729, gave special attention to mosses. He wrote,
besides other works, a Description of the Wild Plants
of France and Belgium, ("Deliciae Gallo-Belgicas Syl-
vestres," 2 vols., 1768,) and " Methodus Muscorum,"
(1771.) Died in 1793.
See P. R. WII.LEMET, "Notice sur la Vie de N. J. Necker," 1794.
Necker, (SUSANNE Curchod — kuu'sho',) an accom
plished and literary Swiss lady, born at Grassier in 1739.
She was intimate in her youth with Gibbon the historian,
who wished to marry her; but his father opposed the
match. She was married to M. Necker in 1764. Her
salon in Paris was the resort of the most eminent authors,
including Buffon, Diderot, and D'Alembert. She founded
a hospital in Paris which bears her name. She died in
1794, leaving manuscripts which her husband published
under the title of " Melanges," (5 vols., 1798-1802.)
See GIBBON, " Memoirs ;" GRIMM, " Correspondance ;" MARMON-
TEL, " Memoires."
Neck'ham or Nec'kam, written also Necham,
(ALEXANDER,) an English monk and Latin poet, born
at Saint Alban's or Hartford about 1150. He wrote, in
elegant Latin, several works, among which is a long
scientific and descriptive poem, " De Naturis Rerum."
Died in 1227.
See CAVE, " Historia Literaria," etc.
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; x, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
NECTAN4BIS
i662
NEHER
Nec-taii'a-bis or Nec-tan'e-bei, [Gr. Ne«ruva/3tc o:
Najnrave/fyf,] King of Egypt, began to reign about 360
li.c. He waged war against Artaxerxes III. of Persia
who invaded and conquered Kgypt about 350 H.C. Nee
tanabis was the last king of the Sebennite dynasty.
Nec-ta'ri-us, [Nf/crupraf,] a Greek prelate, became
Patriarch of Constantinople in 381 A.n. His moderation
is said to have been exemplary. He died in 397, anc
was succeeded by Chrysostom.
Nee, ni, (FRANCOIS DKNIS,) a French engraver, born
in Paris about 1732. He engraved many landscapes anc'
plates for illustrated works, among which is "Tableaux
pittoresques cle la Suisse." Died in 1818.
See BASAN, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs."
Neeb, nap, (JoHANN,) a German philosopher, born
near Hanau in 1767. He published several works on
philosophy. Died in 1843.
Needham, need'am, (foii.v TURBERVILLE,) F.R.S.,
an English naturalist, born in London in 1713, was a
Roman Catholic priest. He published "New Micro
scopical Discoveries," (1745,) and a treatise on genera
tion, in French, "Idee sommaire, ou Vue generale du
Systeme physique et metaphysique sur la Generation,'
(1780.) He became director of the Academy of Sciences
at Brussels, where he died in 1781.
See HUTTON, "Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary."
Needham, (MARCHMONT,) an English political writer,
born at Burford in 1620. He supported the cause of the
Parliament in his " Mercurius Britannicus," a weekly
journal, (1643-47,) and that of the king in his "Mercu
rius Pragmaticus." In 1649 he again changed sides,
and became editor of the "Mercurius Politicus," an
organ of the Independents. His most remarkable work
was a " Discourse on the Excellency of a Free State
over a Kingly Government." Died in 1678.
See WOOD, "Athens Oxonienses."
Needham, (WALTER,) an English anatomist, studied
it Oxford, and practised medicine in London. lie be
came a Fellow of the Royal Society about 1667. He
wrote an able treatise " De Formato Foetu." Died in
11691.
Neefs, nafs, or Neef, naf, (PETER,) THE ELDER, a
Dutch painter, born at Antwerp about 1565. He excelled
in perspective, and in representing the interiors of Gothic
churches and convents, illuminated. The figures in his
pictures are generally painted by Breughel, Teniers, and
others. His " Cathedral of Antwerp" is esteemed a
master-piece. Died in 1651. His son, PETER MARTIN,
THE YOUNGER, imitated his father's style, but did not
equal him.
See PILKINGTON, " Dictionary of Painters."
Neele, neel, (HENRY,) an English poet, born in Lon
don in 1798, was an attorney. He wrote "Dramatic
Scenes," " The Romance of History," and other works.
Died in 1828.
Neer, van der, vfn der nair, (AART or ARNOLD,) a
Dutch landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam about
1619. His moonlight scenes, winter landscapes, and
pictures into which water is introduced, are ranked
among the finest productions of the kind. Died in
1683.
Neer, van der, (EGLON HENDRIK,) son of the pre
ceding, was born at Amsterdam in 1643. He studied
under Vanloo, and attained eminence as a painter of
landscapes, portraits, and historical pieces. Died in 1703.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc.
Neercassel, van, vfn naiu'kas'sel, (JAN,) a Dutch
bishop and writer, born at Gorcum in 1623. lie was the
only Roman Catholic bishop in Holland. He wrote,
besides other works, " Amor Pcenitens, sen de recto Usu
Clavium," (1683.) Died in 1686.
Nees von Esenbeck, nas fon a'zen-beV, (CHRIS
TIAN GOTTFRIED,) a German botanist, born in 1776.
He became professor of natural history at Bonn about
1819, and afterwards lectured at Breslau. Among his
numerous works are a " Manual of Botany," (2 vols.,
1821,) and " Bryologia Germanica," (2 vols., 1823-1:1.)
Died in 1858.
See F. L. BLEV, " Leben und Wirken der Gebruder Nees von
Esenbeck," 1844.
Nees von Esenbeck, (THEODOR FRIEURICH LUD-
WIG,) a botanist, a brother of the preceding, was borii
near Erbach in 1787. He wrote several botanical works.
Died in 1837.
Neff, net, (FELIX,) a meritorious Swiss missionary,
called "the Apostle of the Alps," was born at Geneva
in 1798. He laboured as missionary among the Swiss
mountaineers. Died in 1829.
See a "Memoir of Felix Neff, Pastor of the High Alps," etc.,
by WILLIAM S. GILI.Y, London, 1832 ; " London Quarterly Review"
for April, 1833, (by SOUTHEY.)
Neffbzer, neft'ser, (AUGUSTS,) a French journalist,
born at Colinar in 1820. He was an assistant editor of
the " Presse," a daily paper of Paris, from 1844 to 1857.
Nefi, nef/ee, a distinguished Turkish satirist, who
flourished in the seventeenth century.
Negelein, na'geh-lin', QOACHIM,) a German theolo
gian and numismatist, born at Nuremberg in 1675 ; died
in 1749.
Neg'ley, (JAMES S.,) an American general, born in
Alleghany county, Pennsylvania, in 1826. In 1861 he
raised a brigade, which he commanded in Tennessee in
1862. He took command of the post of Nashville in
September of that year, and led a division at Stone
River, December 31, i862-January 2, 1863. For his
conduct in this battle he was raised to the rank of major-
general, in which capacity he served at the battle of
Chickarnauga, September 19 and 20, 1863.
Negrelli-Moldelbe, von, fon na-guel'lee mol-cleT-
beh, (ALOIS,) an engineer, born in the Tyrol in 1799.
He constructed the first railroad in Austria, (finished in
1841,) and other railroads. Died in 1858.
Negri. See NEGRO.
Negri, na'gRee, (FRANCESCO,) a learned Italian eccle
siastic of Ravenna. He travelled in Denmark, Sweden,
and Norway, and returned home in 1666. The results
of his observations appeared in a work entitled "Travels
in the North." Died in 1698.
Negri, (FRANCESCO VINCENZO,) an Italian scholar
and writer, born at Venice in 1769. He wrote a " Life
of Apostolo Zeno," (1816,) and other works. Died in
1827.
See TIPALDO, "Notizie della Vita di F. Negri," 1835; G. J.
FONTANA, "Elogiodi F. Negri," 1829.
Negri, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) an Italian antiquary
and artist, born at Bologna in 1593. He founded two
Academies, — namely, the Iiidistinti, devoted to the arts
of design, and the Indomiti, (1640.) Died in 1659.
Negri, (GIROLAMO,) an Italian classical scholar, born
at Venice in 1494. He died in 1577, leaving " Orationes
et Epistolae," (1579.)
Negri, (Giui.io,) an Italian Jesuit and biographer,
born at Ferrara in 1648. He rendered an important
service to literary history by his "Storia degli Scrittori
Fiorentini," ("History of the Florentine Authors," 1722.)
Died in 1720.
Negri or Neri, na'ree, (PiETRO MARTINE,) a skilful
Italian painter of history and portraits, born at Cremona,
flourished in 1600.
Negrier, na'gue-i', (FKANC.OIS MARIE CASIMIR,) a
French general, born at Mans in 1788. He served in
Algeria, and was killed in Paris by the insurgents in
June, 1848.
Negro, na'gRo, or Negri, na'gRee, (FRANCESCO,) an
Italian philologist and Reformer, born at Bassano in
1500, embraced Protestantism, and removed to Ger
many. He published several works. Died about 1560.
See G. B. ROBERTI, "Notizie della Vita e delle Opere di F.
Negri," 1839.
Negruzzi, na-gRoot'see, (CONSTANTINE,) a Moldavian
)oet, born in 1809. lie wrote, besides other works, a
listorical poem. .
Ne-he-mi'ah, [ Heb. iTOm ; Fr. NEHEMIE, na'-
a'me',] a Hebrew governor and writer, was cup-bearer
o Artaxerxes, King of Persia, who appointed him
jovernor of Judea about 445 B.C. He probably wrote
he book of the Old Testament which bears his name.
Nehemie. See NEHEMIAH.
Neher, na'er, (BERNARD,) a German historical painter,
jorn at Biberach in 1806. He painted frescos at Munich
and in the palace of the grand duke at Weimar. These
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; me"t; n6t; good; moon ;
NEIDHARDT
1663
NELSON
represent scenes from the dramas of Schiller and the
works of Goethe.
Neidhaidt. See GNEISENAU.
Neidhart von Neuenthal, nlt'haRt fon noi'en-tal',
one of the principal German lyric poets of the thirteenth
century, was a native of Bavaria. The best collection
of his songs is that published by Beneke in his "Contri
butions to the Knowledge of the Old German Language
and Literature."
Neigebaur, m'geh-bowR', (JOHANN DANIEL FERDI
NAND,) a German traveller and writer, born in Silesia
in 1783. He published books of travel and descriptions
of Italy, France, and other countries of Europe, which
are said to be well written.
Neikter, nlk'ter, (JOSEPH FREDERIK,) a Swedish
archaeologist and writer, obtained the chair of eloquence
at Upsal in 1787. Died in 1803.
Neill, neel, (JAMES GEORGE SMITH,) a British general,
born about 1810. He rendered important services in
India during the mutiny of the Sepoys, and was killed
at the siege of Lucknow, in September, 1857.
Neill, neel, (PATRICK,) a Scottish naturalist and hor
ticulturist, born in 1776. He followed the trade of a
printer in Edinburgh, and published a " Tour through
some of the Islands of Orkney and Shetland," (1806,)
and "The Fruit, Flower, and Kitchen Garden," (1839.)
Died in 1851.
Neipperg, von, fon nip'p^RO, (Ai.uRECirr ADAM,)
COUNT, an Austrian general, born about 1774. He dis
tinguished himself in several campaigns, and rose to a
high rank in the army. He was appointed cavalier
i^honneur to the empress Maria Louisa about 1815.
He is said to have married her secretly. Died in 1829.
Neipperg, von, (WiLHELM,) an Austrian field-mar
shal in the service of Francis I. and Maria Theresa, was
born in 1684, and was the grandfather of the preceding.
In 1739 he concluded the disadvantageous peace of Bel
grade, and in 1741 was defeated by Frederick the Great
at Mollwitz. He retained the favour of his sovereigns,
however, and was made imperial counsellor of war, and
commander of Vienna. Died in 1774-
Nelaton, na'li't6NT', (AucusTE,) an eminent French
surgeon, born in Paris in 1807, graduated in 1836, and
became professor of surgery to the Faculty of Medicine,
Paris, in 1851. He published, besides other treatises,
"Elements of Pathological Surgery," (5 vols., 1844-61,)
which is called a capital work. He was admitted into
the Academy of Sciences in 1867. He was employed
professionally by Napoleon III. about 1869.
Neledinsky' Meletzky, na-la-den'ske ma-let'skee,
(YoORli,) an eminent Russian lyric poet, born in Mos
cow in 1751. He was patronized by the emperor Paul,
who conferred upon him a valuable estate and several
honorary distinctions. His songs are among the most
admired productions of the kind in the language. Died
in 1829.
See GRETCH, " Essai historique sur la Litterature Russe."
Nelee. See NELEUS.
Ne'leus, [Gr. N^eif ; Fr. NELEE, na'la',] a mythical
personage, said to be a son of Neptune (or, according to
some authorities, of Crethens) and Tyro. Neleus and
his brother Pelias disputed for the throne of lolchos,
which the latter obtained. Neleus afterwards became
King of Pylos and the father of Nestor and other sons.
According to some writers, he was killed by Hercules.
Neller, nel'ler, (GEORGCHRISTOPH,) a German canon
ist and antiquary, born in 1710; died in 1783.
Nelli, nel'lee, (PiETRO,) an Italian satirical poet of
the sixteenth century, was a native of Sienna. His satires
were published in 1546.
Nelli, de', da nel'lee, (GIAMBATTISTA,) an Italian
architect, born at Florence in 1661. He wrote a "Treat
ise on Architecture," (1753.) Died in 1725.
Nelli, de', (GIAMBATTISTA CLKMENTE,) an Italian
writer, born at Florence in 1725, was a son of the pre
ceding. Among his works is a " Life of Galileo," (I793-)
Died in 1793.
Nel'son, (DAVID,) an American Presbyterian divine
and eloquent preacher, born near Jonesborough, Ten
nessee, in 1793. He became pastor of a church at Dan
ville, Kentucky, in 1828, and subsequently assisted in
founding a college in Marion county, Missouri, of which
he was appointed president. His work entitled " The
Cause and Cure of Infidelity" enjoys a high reputation,
and has passed through numerous editions. Dr. Nelson
was an earnest advocate for the abolition of slavery.
Died in 1844.
Nel'spn, (HORATIO,) LORD, a British naval hero and
admiral of the first order, born at Burnham Thorpe, in
Norfolk, on the 29th of September, 1758, was the son
of Rev. Edmund Nelson and Catherine Suckling. He
was endowed with great intrepidity and energy, and pos
sessed a generous, impetuous temper. He went to sea
about the age of thirteen, served a number of years in
the East Indies, and took part in several actions of the
American war. In 1779 he became a post-captain, and
in 1787 married the widow of Dr. Nisbet, of the island
of Nevis. He obtained command of a ship in the Medi
terranean fleet in 1793, contributed to the victory over
the Spaniards at Saint Vincent in 1797, and was raised
to the rank of rear-admiral in the same year. His next
enterprise was an attack on Teneriffe, where he was
repulsed, with the loss of his right arm.
In 1798 he attempted to intercept the passage of the
French armament to Egypt, but missed it, until he ovr-
took it in Aboukir Bay, where in August he gained i
decisive battle of the Nile. For this service he was
warded with the title of Baron Nelson of the Nik.
a pension of ^3000. While he was employed on I
coast of Naples, (1799,) he became fascinated by U,i_
pernicious influence of Lady Hamilton, and tarnished
his fame by executing Prince Carraccioli and other
publicans, who were sacrificed to the vengeance of t
court of Naples. Soon after these events he separat
from his wife, who was supplanted in his affections
Lady Hamilton. He was second in command under Sir
Hyde Parker of the armament sent against Copenhagen
in 1801 ; but the honour of the victory at the battle of
the Baltic is ascribed to Nelson. In the midst of the
battle, Parker having made a signal to retreat, Nelson
put a spy-glass to his blind eye and exclaimed, " I rea
don't see the signal." " He had won the day," sa
Southey, " by disobeying orders." For this success
was raised to the rank of viscount.
War against France having been renewed in 1803,
took the command of the Mediterranean fleet, hoist
his flag on the Victory, and watched the French fleet off
Toulon for more than a year. In May, 1805, he sail d
for the West Indies in pursuit of Admiral Villeneuv.
but was disappointed, and the hostile fleet returned salt
to Europe, followed by the English admiral. He th-
went home and proposed to suspend his active servii
but was re-appointed in September, 1805, in accordan
with the general wishes of the nation, by whom he w,i:-
more idolized than almost any /tnei
On the 2ist of October, (1805,) with tv<:
of the line and four frigates, he ittack.
French and Spanish fleets, of forty shi.
neuve, near Cape Trafalgar. Beiore th
gave the famous signal, " Englanc. ..., ever)
do his duty." The English gained a complete victoiy,
but Nelson was mortally wounded by a musket-ball fii
from the Redoutable, which was in close proximity
the flag-ship, the Victory. He is eulogized by South •
as "the greatest naval hero of our own and of all forn
times."
See R. SOUTHEY, "Life of Nelson," 1813; J. S. CLARKE, "1
of Admiral Lord Nelson," 1809; THOMAS PETTIGREW, "Men .
of Lord Nelson," 1840; J. M. TUCKER, "Memoirs of the I
Lord Nelson," 1847; JOSEPH AI.I.EN, "Life of Viscount N.
lS53 : JOHN CHAKNOCK, "Memoirs of Lord Nelson," 180'.
PHONSE DE LAMARTINE, "Nelson," 1853; E. FORGCKS, " I!
de Nelson," 1860 ; ALISON, " History of Europe ;" " London On M--
terly Review" for February, 1810, (by SOUTHEY;) " EdinburglSR*
view" for September, 1814 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for Deceml
1844; "Westminster Review" for January, 1848.
Nelson, (ROBERT,) an English devotional writer, 1 .
in London in 1656. Among his works we may na
"The Whole Duty of a Christian," and "Practice
True Devotion." In 1680 he was chosen a Fellow :
the Royal Society. He was an intimate friend of Arch
bishop 'Tillotson and of Dr. Halley. Died in 1715.
Nelson, (ROGER,) an American general, who served
in the Revolutionary war. He represented a district ol
e as k; 9 a?' „ ; • ~> km • , K, 1C, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: § as t: t-h as \~< tkii
See Explan;,
NELSON
1664
NEPOS
Maryland in Congress for several terms, (1804-10.) Died
in 1815.
Nel'son, (SAMUEL,) an Irish patriot, born in 1759, was
editor of'a political journal called the " Northern Star."
He was imprisoned six years, and released after the
treaty of Amiens, in 1802.
Nelson, (SAMUEL,) an American judge, born in the
State of New York. lie became an associate justice ot
the supreme court of the United States in 1845. He
concurred in the decision of the court in the Dred Scott
case, (1857.)
Nelson, (THOMAS,) an American patriot, and signer
of the Declaration of Independence, born at York, in
Virginia, in 1738. He was educated at Cambridge, Eng
land, and after his return was elected to the Congress
of 1775. He was subsequently appointed brigadier-
general and commander-in-chief of the forces of the
commonwealth. In 1781 he succeeded Jefferson as
Governor of Virginia. Died in 1789.
See GOOOKJOI, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of In
dependence."
Nelson, (\Vn.i.i.\M,) an American general, born at
Maysville, Kentucky, in 1825. He served in the navy,
and obtained the rank of master in 1854. In September,
1861, he was appointed a brigadier-general of the Union
army. He commanded a division at the battle of Shiloh,
April, 1862. I le was killed in a private quarrel at Louis
ville in September, 1862, by Jefferson C. Davis.
Ne-me-si-a'nus, [Fr. NtMAsiEN, na-'ma'ze^N',]
(MARCUS AURKI.IUS OLYMIMUS,) a Latin poet, born at
Carthage. He lived at the court of the emperor Cams
in 283 A. n. His works are lost, except fragments of a
poem on hunting, entitled "Cynegetica," the style of
which is commended for purity.
Nemesien. See NKMKSIANUS.
Nem'e-sis, [Gr. Ne/ztotf, from VK/J.U, to "deal out,"
to "distribute;" Fr. N&M&SIS, na'ma'sess',] a personage
of Greek mythology, represented as a daughter of Night
or Erebus. She was the goddess of retribution, and the
divinity who rectified the errors of partial and capricious
Fortune. At Rhammus, in Attica, there was a celebrated
temple dedicated to Nemesis.
Ne-me'si-us, [NtjUeotof,] a Greek philosopher, who
lived probably between 350 and 450 A.D. He is styled
Bishop of Emesa. He wrote an ingenious treatise on
physiology and psychology, entitled "On the Nature of
Man," ( flepl tivat-u? uv6pij~ov.) It contains a passage
which suggests an idea of the circulation of the blood.
See Hu.l.KR, " Bibliotheca Anatomica."
Nemours, de, (GASTON DE Foix,) Due. See Foix.
Nemours, de, deli neh-moou', (HKNRI de Savoie —
deli st'vwa',) I) re, a French general, a son of Jacques,
noticed below, (1531-85.) was born in Paris in 1572.
He joined the League about 1588, but entered the ser
vice of Henry IV. a few years later. Died in 1632.
Nemoursj de, (JACQUES d'Armagnac — daVmfn'-
ySk'.) Due, born about 1437, was a son of Bernard
d'Armagnac. In 1465 he joined the league of the Z>/<?«
public against Louis XI. He was executed, on a charge
of treason, in 1477.
St-e SISMOSIM, " Histoire des Francais;" BARANTE, " Histoire
des Dues de BourjEOgne."
Nemours, de, (JACQUES DE SAVOY,) Due, a distin
guished French general, born in Champagne in 1531,
was the son of Philip, Due de Genevois and de Ne
mours, whose sister Louise was the mother of King
Francis I. lie fought against the Protestants in the
civil war, and distinguished himself at the battle of
Saint-Denis, in 1567. He opposed the ambitious designs
of the Guise family, and took no part in the civil war be
tween the League and the king. Died in 1585.
Si-e BRAN-TOME, " Vies des grands Capitaines."
Nemours, de, (Louts D'ARMAGNAC,) Due, a French
military commander, born about 1472, was a son of
Jacques, noticed above. He served in Italy against the
Spaniards, and was made Viceroy of Naples by Louis
XII. He was killed in the battle of Cerignola, while
opposing Gonsalvo de Cordova, (1503.) He was the last
of the family of Armagnac, and the duchy of Nemours
was given to Gaston de Foix in 1505.
See SISMONDI. " Histoire des Francais;" SAINT-GELAIS, " His
toire de Louis XII."
Nemours, de, (Louis CHARLES PHILIPPE RAPHAEL
d'Orleans — dok'la'oN',) Due, a French prince, a son
of King Louis Philippe, was born in 1814. He was
chosen King of Belgium by a congress of that nation in
1831, but was compelled by his father to decline the
offer. He served in the army in Algeria, and obtained
the rank of lieutenant-general in 1837. After the death
of his elder brother (1842) he was recognized as future
regent in case the king should die during the minority
of his heir, the Count of Paris. On the abdication of
Louis Philippe (1848) he waived his claim to the re
gency in favour of the Duchess of Orleans, whom he
attended when she presented herself, with her son, before
the Chamber of Deputies.
See A. PASCAL, " Le L>uc de Nemours, son Passe et son Avenir
politique," 1842.
Nemours, de, (MARIE D'ORLEANS,) DUCHESSE,
daughter of the Duke of Longueville, was born in 1625,
and married in 1657 to Henry of Savoy, Duke of Ne
mours. She died in 1707, leaving interesting " Memoirs"
ot her life and times, which were published in 1709.
See Vn.i.EKoRK, "Vie de Madame de Longueville ;" SAINT-
SIMON, " Memoires."
Neii'm-us, one of the early British chroniclers, is
stated by some writers to have lived in the seventh, and
by others in the ninth, century. He was the author of
a " History of the Britons," ('" Historia Britonum," or
" Elogium Britannia?,") first published in Gale's "Col
lection of English Historians," (1691.)
See WKIGIIT, " Hiojjraphia Britannica Literaria."
Neobar, na'o'bSu', (CONRAD,) a learned printer, of
German extraction, was patronized by Francis I. in
Paris. Died in 1540.
Ne'o-phron, [Neo^puv,] an Athenian tragic poet,
flourished in the fifth century H.c. Only small frag
ments of his works are extant.
See CLINTON, " Fasti Hellenic!. "
Neoptoleme. See NEOPTOLEMUS.
Ne-op-tol'e-mus, [Gr. Nforn-oAwoc : Fr. NEOivro-
LEME, na'op'to'lam',1 also called Pyrrhus, a fabulous
Greek warrior, was a son of Achilles. He was one of
the heroes concealed in the wooden horse at the siege
of Troy. According to Virgil, he killed Priam at the
; capture of Troy, ("yEneid," book ii. 546.) In the dis
tribution of captives, he obtained Andromache, widow
of Hector.
Neoptolemus, a Macedonian general in the service
of Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander
he became governor of Armenia, and united with An-
tipater in a hostile movement against Perdiccas and
F.umenes. lie was killed in battle by Eumenes, whom
he encountered in single combat, about 320 n.C.
Neoptolemus, King of Epirus, was a cousin-german
of Alexander the Great. He began to reign in 302 u.c.
He was assassinated by order of the celebrated Pyrrhus,
who became king.
Nepair or Neper. See NAPIER, (JOHN.)
Nepomucene. See NEPOMUK.
Nepomucenus. See NKPOMUK.
Nepomuk, na/po-mook', or Nepomucky, na-po-
moots'kee, [Lat. NEPOMUCI-/NUS ; Fr. NEPOMUCENE.
na'iip'mu'sau',) (foiiN,) the patron saint of Bohemia,
born at Nepomuk about 1330. Having given offence tr>
King Wenzel, he was drowned, by his orders, in the
Molclau, (1383.) He was canonized by Pope Innocent
XIII. in 1721.
See BAI.BINUS, "Vita Nepomnceni." 1680; JOHANNEAUD, "Jean
Nepomucene," 1851; PASSI, "Vita di S. Giovanni Nepomuce'io,"
1729.
Ne'pos, (CORNELIUS,) a celebrated Roman historian
of the time of Julius Cassar. He was an intimate friend
of Cicero and Atticus, and dedicated to the latter his
"Vitffi Excellentium Imperatorum," (" Lives of the Illus
trious Generals.") This work, which is his only one
extant, is distinguished for the purity and graceful sim
plicity of its style, and has been generally adopted as a
class-book in schools and colleges.
See J. C. F. P.AEHR, " Geschichte der Rbmischen Literatur;"
"Nouvt:l!e Biographic GeneVale."
Nepos, (FLAVIUS JULIUS,) was created Emperor of the
West, A.D. 473, by Leo X., the Emperor of the East. He
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure ; &r,faVi,$t; m§t; ndt; gdpd; moon ;
NEPTUNE
1 66;
NERONI
concluded a peace with Euric, King of the Visigoths, to
whom he ceded a portion of Gaul. In 475 Orestes, a
native of Pannonia, marched against Nepos, defeated
him, and proclaimed his own son Romulus Emperor of
the West. In 480 Nepos was assassinated at Salona.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Nep'time, [Lat. NEPTU'NUS,] the god of the sea, a
Roman divinity, identified with the Posei'don of the
Greek mythology. He was said to be a son of Saturn
and Rhea, the brother of Jupiter, and the father of Triton.
His wife was Amphitrite. He was regarded as equal in
dignity to Jupiter, but inferior in power. The poets
feigned that he once conspired with Apollo and Juno
against Jupiter, that he built the walls of Troy for Lao-
meclon, and that he resented the perfidy of that king by
fighting against the Trojans at the siege of Troy. Nep
tune and Minerva disputed for the possession of Attic.i,
or for the honour of naming its capital, and the gods
decided that the preference should be given to the one
who should bestow on man the most valuable gift.
Neptune, with a stroke of his trident, produced the war-
horse, and Minerva created the olive, which was judged
to be the more useful of the two. He is also fabled to
have disputed with Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva for the
sovereignty of several other countries. The symbol of
his power was the trident, with which he shook the solid
land and controlled the stormy sea. The poets describe
him as riding in a chariot drawn by horses on the surface
of the sea, the waves of which subside at his approach,
and attended by a retinue of marine monsters which
play around him. Besides his residence on Olympus,
lie had a fine palace in the depth of the sea near /Egae.
Neptunus. See NEPTUNK.
Nera'tius (ne-ra'she-ns) Fris'cus, a Roman jurist
under the reigns of Trajan and Adrian, whose favour
and patronage he enjoyed. He was the author of nume
rous books on the Roman law, which have been often
quoted by later jurists.
See SICKF.I., " De Neratio Frisco," 1788.
Nerciat, de, deh neR'se'a',( ANDRE RORF.RT ANDREA,)
a French litterateur, born at Dijon in 1739. -He wrote
several licentious novels. About 1790 he emigrated to
Naples, and gained the favour of Queen Caroline. Died
in 1 800.
Neree. See NEREUS.
Neree, ni'ra', (R. J.,) a French poet, lived in the
time of Henry IV., and wrote a drama entitled "The
Triumph of the League," (1607.)
Ne're-ids, [Gr. N?;p??«5ff, sing. N7?p?iV ,• Lat. NERE'-
IDES ; Fr. NEREIDES, ni'r&'ed',] the daughters of Nereus,
were sea-nymphs or mermaids of Greek mythology. The
number of the Nereids was fifty. Among them were
Amphitrite and Thetis, the mother of Achilles. The Ne
reids were represented originally as beautiful maidens,
and sometimes as half woman and half fish.
Ne're-is or Ne-re'i-ne, a name given to each of the
NEREIDS, which see.
Ne'reus, [Gr. N7?pri>c; Fr. NEREE, na'ra',] a marine
divinity of classic mythology, called a son of Pontns and
the Earth, and the father of the Nereids. He was repre
sented as a wise and prophetic old man of the sea, at the
bottom of which he lived. The poets feigned that he
could assume various forms, like Proteus, and would only
reveal the future when, having exhausted his powers of
transformation, he was reduced to his original shape.
Hercules is said to have seized him and extorted from
him some secret respecting the golden apples of the
Hesperides.
Neri. See NEGRI, (PIETRO MARTINE.)
Neri, na'ree, (ANTONIO,) an Italian chemist, born at
Florence, lived about 1570-90. He wrote a work " On
the Art of making Glass," (1592,) often reprinted.
Neri, [Lat. NE'RIUS,! (FILIPPO,) called SAINT PHILIP
NERI, an Italian ecclesiastic, born at Florence in 1515.
He founded about 1548 the Congregation of the Priests
of the Oratory, the members of which, without taking
a monastic vow, were required to live in the exer
cise of devotion and charity and apply themselves to
theological studies. He was the first to introduce the
musical entertainments called nratorios, from their being
performed in a chapel or oratorio. He died in I595>
and Baronius, afterwards cardinal, succeeded him as
general of the order. Neri was canonized by Gregory
XV. in 1622.
See F. W. FABER, "Spirit and Genius of Saint Philip Neri,"
1850; A. GAI.I.ONIO, "Vita beati Philippi Nerii," Rome, 1600;
"Vita Ph. Nerii," Munich, 1611 ; L. BERTRAND, "Vida y Hechos
de S. Fe.ipe Neri," 1613; P. G. BACCI, "Vita di S. Filippo Neri,"
1622; A. VASQUKZ, " S. Felipe Neri Epitome de sua Vida," 1651 ;
L). M. MANNI, " RagKionamenti sulla Vita di F. Neri," 1786; "Vie
de Saint-Philippe de Neri," (anonymous.) 1847.
Neri, (GIAMBATTISTA,) an Italian dramatic poet, born
at Bologna about 1660; died in 1726.
Neri, (POMPEO,) an Italian jurist and political econo
mist, of high reputation, was born at Florence in 1707.
He was professor of public law at Pisa, from which he
removed to Florence in 1758. He founded the Tuscan
Academy of Botany, and wrote on currency, etc. Died
in 1776.
See A. RIDOI.FI, " Elogio di P. Neri," 1817.
Nericault-Destouches. See DESTOUCHES.
Nerius. See NERI, (Fn.ippo.)
Nerii, neR'lee, (FILIPPO,) an Italian historian, born
at Florence in 1485, was a senator and an adherent of
the Medici. He wrote a " History of Florence from
1215 to 1537," which was first published in 1728. Died
in 1556.
See a "Life of Nerii" prefixed to his History.
Ne'ro, [Fr. NERON, ni'roN'; It. NERONE, na-ro'na,]
(Lucius DOMITIUS.) the sixth of the Roman emperors,
born in 37 A.D., was the son of Domitius Ahenobarbus
and Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus. His mother,
after becoming a widow, having married her uncle the
emperor Claudius, the latter adopted Nero and gave to
him his daughter Octavia in marriage, adding to his
name that of Claudius Drusus. On the death of Clau
dius, who was poisoned by Agrippina, A.D. 54, Nero was
proclaimed emperor, to the exclusion of Britannicus, the
son of Claudius. The counsels of Seneca and Burrus,
who were placed at the head of government, had for a
time a salutary effect upon Nero, and the first years of
his rule were marked by kindness and justice ; but his
evil passions eventually prevailed, and the remainder of
his reign was signalized by a series of atrocities. Be
coming jealous of Britannicus, he caused him to be
poisoned, and, having soon after formed an attachment
to Poppasa, murdered his mother at her instigation and
made her his wife. He next caused Octavia, whom he
had divorced, to be put to death. In A.D. 64 Rome was
nearly destroyed by a fire which Nero was accused of
having kindled. It was said that he amused himself,
while viewing the conflagration, with reciting vers -;
descriptive of the fall of Troy. In order to remove sus
picion from himself, he charged the crime upon the
Christians, many of whom were in consequence subjects •!
to the most cruel tortures. A conspiracy formed agah •
the tyrant, A.D. 65, was discovered, and many distin
guished citizens were executed, among whom were
Lucan and Seneca. Soon after this, Vindex and Galba
revolted against the emperor, who, on hearing of their
defection and that of the praetorian guards, destroyed
himself, with the assistance of a servant, A.D. 68.
See TACITUS, "Annales;" SUETONIUS, "Vita Neronis ;" TII.I.F-
MONT, " Histoire des Empereurs :" MERIVAI.E, "History of the
Romans under the Empire;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;"
LENIS DIDEROT, " Essai sur les Regnes de Claude et de Neron,'
2 vols., 1782.
Nero, a Roman prince, born about 7 A.D., was the
eldest son of Germanicus and Agrippina. After the
death of Drusus, the son of Tiberius, Nero was the next
heir to the throne. He was put to death in 29 A.D., at
the instigation of Sejanus, who contrived to excite the
suspicion of Tiberius against Nero.
Nero, del, del na'ro, or Negro, na'gRo, (ANDALONE,)
an Italian astronomer, born at Genoa about 1270. He
taught astronomy at Rome and Naples. He is highly
praised by Boccaccio, who was his pupil. Died after
1342.
See GlNGUEMi, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie."
Neron. See NERO.
Neroiii, na-ro'nee, or Negroni, na-gRo'nee, (BARTO-
LOMMEO,) called RICCIO, an Italian painter, born at
Sienna; died in 1573.
e as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttura/; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
IDS
(S^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
NEROULOS
1666
NETTELSLADT
Neroulos, ne-roo'los, (YAKOVAKIS Rizos,) a moden
Greek poet and minister of state, was born in Constan
tinople in 1778. He wrote several tragedies, and a
"Modern History of Greece," (1828.) About 1834 he
became minister of public instruction in Greece, and in
1841 minister of foreign affairs. Died in 1850.
Nerva, (CoccEius.) See COCCKIUS.
Ner'va, (MARCUS COCCEIUS,) a Roman emperor, bon
in Umbria in 32 A.D. He was consul with Vespasiar
in 71, and with Domitian in 90 A.D. On the death of
Domitian, in the year 96, he was proclaimed emperor by
the army and the people. His administration was mile"
and liberal. He recalled exiles who had been banishec
by former emperors, and enforced penalties against in
formers. He made and performed a vow that he woulc
not put any senator to death. His mutinous praetorian
soldiers compelled him to permit the execution of the
assassins of Domitian. He adopted Trajan as his sot
and successor, and died in 98 A.D.
See Tii.LEMONT, " Histnire des Empereurs ;" AURELIUS VICTOR,
"DeViribus illnstribiis ;" J. J. DE BARRETT, " Histoire des deux
Regnes de Nerva et de Trajan," 1790.
Nerval, de, deli neVvtl', (GERARD,) or Gerard
Labrunie, (IS'bRii'ne',) a French litterateur, born in
Paris in 1808. lie made a good translation of Goethe't
"Faust," (1828,) wrote verses, comedies, etc., aidec
Alexander Dumas in several works, and contributed to
the "Revue des Deux Mondes." He fell in love with
Jenny Colon, an actress, and became subject to a modi
fied form ot insanity, which did not much impair his
genius. Among his works is " Les Illumines, ou les
Precurseurs du Socialisme," (1852.) He died by sui
cide in 1855. "That which he wrote," says fidouarcl
Thierry, " was simple and excellent, ingenious and
perfectly natural."
See " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Nervesa, neR-va''sa, (GASPARO,) an Italian painter of
the Venetian school, born in Friuli, was a pupil of Titian.
He lived about 1540.
Nes, van, vtn lie's, (JAN,) a skilful Dutch painter,
born at Delft in 1588; died in 1650.
Nes'bit or Nis'bet, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish anti
quary, born in Edinburgh in 1672. He wrote a work
"On Heraldry," (2 vols., 1722-42.) Died in 1725.
Nesimee or Nesimi, nes'e-mee, a celebrated Turk
ish philosopher and free-thinker, flourished in the fif
teenth century.
Nesle, de. See DKNESLE.
Nesmond, de, deh n£s'm6N', (HENRT,) a French
prelate and eloquent preacher, born at Bordeaux about
1645. He became Bishop of Montauban in 1687, and
Archbishop of Toulouse in 1719. In 1710 he succeeded
Flechier in the French Academy. He wrote agreeable
verses. Died in 1727.
See D'ALEMBERT, "Histoire des Membres de 1'Acadeime Fran-
caise."
Nesse, ness, (CHRISTOPHER,) an English noncon
formist minister, born in Yorkshire in 1621. Having
been ejected in 1662, he removed to London in 1675,
and preached in that city about thirty years. He wrote,
besides other works, "The History and Mystery of
the Old and New Testament," (4 vols., 1696.) Died
in 1705.
See WILSON, "History of Dissenting Churches."
Nessel, nes'sel, (EDMOND,) a distinguished Flemish
physician, born at Liege in 1658; died in 1731.
Nessel, nes'sel, [Lat. NESSE'LIUS,] (MARTIN,) a Ger
man teacher and Latin poet, born in Moravia in 1607;
died about 1680.
Nesselius. See NESSEL.
Nesselrode, von, fon nes'sel-ro'deh, (CHARLES
ROBERT,) COUNT, a Russian diplomatist, of German
extraction, was born in December, 1780, at Lisbon, where
his father was Russian minister. He acquired in the
early part of his life the confidence of Alexander I., and
was sent to Paris as councillor of the embassy in 1807.
Soon after this date he obtained a high office in the de
partment of foreign affairs. He took an important part
in the negotiations which united Russia and other powers
in_a coalition against Napoleon. In 1816 he became
minister of foreign affairs. Having held that post forty
years, under three successive emperors, he resigned in
1856. Died in March, 1862.
See CAPEKIGI'E, " Diplomates Europeans ;*' THIERS, " History
of the Consulate and the Empire ;" BAU.EYDIER, " Histoire de
I'Emperetir Nicolas;" L. DE LOMENIE, " M. de Nesselrode, par tin
Homme de Rien," 1844.
Nessi, nes'see, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian physician, born
at Cpmo in 1741. He wrote, besides other works, a
treatise on Obstetrics, which was translated into several
languages. Died in 1821.
Nes'sus, [Gr. Necraoc,] a Centaur, who, according to
the fable, attempted to ravish Dejanira, the wife of Her
cules, by whom he was killed with a poisoned arrow.
The tunic of Nessus was said to have caused the death
of Hercules.
Nes'tor, [Gr. Nt'arup ; ' It. NESTORE, nes-to'ra,] a
celebrated Grecian hero, said to have been a son of
Neleus, a grandson of Neptune, and a king of Pylos,
was sometimes called " the Pylian Sage." According
to tradition, he was an intimate friend of Hercules, took
part in the battle of the Lapithce against the Centaurs,
in the Calydonian hunt, and in the Argonautic expe
dition. He was a prominent leader in the Trojan war,
although he was then past his prime ; and he was highly
esteemed as a counsellor by Agamemnon and the other
chiefs. He is described by Homer as excelling alike in
courage, wisdom, and eloquence, and is said to have
ruled over three generations of men. He had several
sons, among whom was Antilochus.
Nestor, neVtor, a Russian chronicler, called "the
father of Russian history," was born at Kief about 1056.
Several editions of his " Chronicle" have been pub
lished, the best of which is that of Schlb/er, entitled
" Russian Annals," (" Russischer Annalen," 1802.) Died
about ii 16.
See POGODINE, " Recherches historiques stir Nestor," 1839;
GRKTCH, " Essai sur 1'Histoire de la Litterature Riisse."
Nestore, nSs-to'ra, (DiONisio,) an Italian scholar
of the fifteenth century, a native of Novara, was the
author of a vocabulary of the Latin tongue, entitled
" Onomasticon."
Nes-to'rI-us, the founder of the sect of Nestorians,
was born at Germanicia, in Syria, near the end of the
fourth century. Having become a popular preacher, he
was elected Patriarch of Constantinople in 428 A.D. He
occasioned a schism by objecting to call the Virgin
Mary the mother ofGnd. The dispute was fomented by
Cyril of Alexandria, who became a violent adversary
ot Nestorius. A council was called at Ephesus by the
emperor Theodosius in 431 ; and, before the arrival of
John of Antioch and several other -bishops, Nestorius
was deposed, on a charge of blasphemy. He was after
wards banished to an oasis in Egypt. The Nestorians
became numerous in the East, and still exist as a dis
tinct sect in Koordistan and Mesopotamia.
See PI.UQUET, " Dictionnaire des Heresies ;" SARTORIUS, " De
Nestorio Hajresiarcha ;" L. DOUCIN, " Histoire du Nestorianisme,"
1697. 2La^7«- • 3 Sc.'Grnavy ? ' :~JH .
Netscher, net'sher, (CONSTANTIN,) a Dutch painter,
born at the Hague in 1670, was a son of the following.
He painted portraits with success. Died in 1722.
Netscher, net'sher, (KASPAR,) an eminent German
painter, born at Heidelberg in 1639. He excelled in
portraits and conversation-pieces, and imitated to per
fection the lustre of velvet and satin. He is regarded
as equal in most points to Terburg and Douw. Died
in 1684. His sons, CONSTANTIN and THEODOKK, were
likewise good portrait-painters.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Alleinands, Hollandais," etc. ;
HARLES BLANC, "Histoire des Peintres ;" J. C. WKYERMAN, " De
Schilderkonst der Nederlanders."
Netscher, [Fr. pron. net'shaiR',] (THEODORE,) a por
trait-painter, son of the' preceding, was born at Bor
deaux about 1664. He worked in Paris and London.
Died in 1732.
See DESCAIMPS, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Nettelbladt, net'tel-blat', (DANIEL,) a German jurist,
)orn at Rostock in 1719. became director of the Uni
versity of Halle. He wrote, among other works, a " Sys-
em of Universal Natural Jurisprudence." Died in 1791.
See " Biographie des Raths Nettelbladt," Halle, 1791.
e, T, 6, \i, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short : a, e, i, p, obscure: far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
KETTELBLADT
1667
NEPIL
Nettelbladt, von, fon net'tel-blat', sometimes writ
ten Jlettlebladt, (CHRISTIAN,) BARON, a Swedish jurist,
born at Stockholm in 1696; died in 1775.
Nettement, net/moN', (ALFRED FRANCOIS,) a French
journalist, born in Paris in 1805. He published, besides
other works, a " History of the Revolution of July, 1830,"
(2 vols., 1833,) and a " History of French Literature
under the Reign of Louis Philippe," (2 vols., 1854.)
Net'ter, (THOMAS,) surnamed WALDENSIS, an Eng
lish monk, noted as an opponent of Wickliff. He was
privy councillor and confessor to Henry V. He wrote
several theological works. Died in 1430.
Nettleton, net'tel-ton, (ASAHEL,) D.D., an American
divine, born at Killingworth, Connecticut, in 1783, was
distinguished as a preacher and revivalist. Died in 1844.
See REV. ROBERT STEEL, "Burning and Shining Lights," Lon
don, i%4.
Neubauer, noi'bow'er, (ERNST FRIEDRICH,) a Ger
man Protestant minister and writer, born at Magdeburg
in 1705 ; died about 1748.
Neubauer, (FRANZ CHRISTIAN,) a German musician
and composer, born in Bohemia in 1760; died in 1795.
Neubeck, noi'bek, (VALERIUS WILHELM,) a German
poet and physician, born at Arnstadt in 1765, was the
author of a poem entitled " The Fountains of Health,
or Mineral Springs,'' ("Die Gesundbrunnen," 1794,)
esteemed one of the best didactic poems in the German
language. He practised for many years at Steinau. Died
in 1850.
See SCHI.EGKL, "Charaktere und Kritiken;" LONGFELLOW,
" Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Neuenar, von, fon noi'en-aR', [Lat. XUENA'RIUS or
XEVENA'RIUS,] (HERMANN,) Cor.vr, a learned German
prelate, born in the duchy of fullers in 1491. He was
a patron of literature, and wrote various works. Died
in 1530.
Neufchateau. See FRANCOIS DE XEUFCHATEAU.
Neuhauss, van, vSn noi'howss, [Lat. XEUHU'SIUS,]
(EnoN,) a German scholar and writer, born at Steinfurt,
in Westphalia, in 1581. Among his works are "Manes
Xassovii," a poem, (1620,) and " Fatidica Sacra," (1635-
48.) Died in 1638.
See REINER NEL-HL-SIUS, "Vita E. Neuhusii," 1677.
Neuhauss, van, (REGNIER,) a poet and philologist,
born at Leeuwarden in 1618, was a son of the preceding.
Died about 1680.
Neuhof, noi'hof, (THEonoR,) BARON OF, a German
adventurer, born in Westphalia. In 1735 he was in
vited by the Corsicans, at that time oppressed by the
Genoese, to assume the chief power in their country,
and the following year was crowned king. Being un
able, however, to maintain himself against the Genoese
and French, he took refuge in England, where he died
in 1756.
Neuhusius. See XF.UHAUSS.
Neukirch, noi'k£eRK, (BENJAMIN,) a German poet,
born in Silesia in 1665. He published "Select Poems,"
satires, and a poetical translation of Fenelon's " Tele-
maque." Died in 1729.
Neukomm, von. fon noi'kotn, (SiGiSMUNn,) a Ger
man musician and composer, born at Saltzburg in 1778,
was a pupil of the celebrated Haydn. He passed several
years in Paris in the service of Talleyrand. He was an
excellent organist. He composed a number of oratorios,
operas, and other works. Among his master-pieces are
the oratorios of "David"' and "Mount Sinai." Died
in 1858.
See FETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" "Nouvelle
Biographie Generate. "
Neumann, noi'man, (BALTHASAR,) a German archi
tect, born at Eger in 1687. He designed many churches
and palaces. Died in 1753.
Neumann, (CASPAR,) a German theologian and He
brew scholar, born at Breslati in 1648. He wrote " Gene
sis Linguae Sanctae Veteris Testament]'," (1696,) "Pith
or Marrow of all Prayers," (" Kern.aller Gebete,") and
other works. Died in 1715.
See TACKEN, " Leben Neumanns," 1741.
Neumann, (FRANZ ERNST,) a German natural philos
opher, born in Ukermark in 1798. He became professor
of physics at Konigsberg in 1826, and gained distinction
by his researches in crystallography, the theory of light,
etc.
Neumann, (FRIEDRICH WILHELM,) a German poet
and litterateur, born in Berlin in 1787. He was asso
ciated with his friend Varnhagen von Ense in the com
position of the " Almanac of the Muses," and other
works. He translated Macchiavelli's " History of Flor
ence." Died in 1834.
Neumann, QOHANN GEORG.) a German Lutheran
theologian, born at Hertz, near Merseburg, in 1661. He
was professor of theology at Wittenberg. Died in 1709.
See SCHONBACH, "Vita Xeumanni," 1716.
Neumann, (K.\RL FRIEDRICH,) a German Orientalist
and historian, born near Bamberg in 1798. He published
numerous works, among which are " Asiatic Studies,"
(1837,) a " History of the British Empire in India,"
(2 vols., 1857,) and a " History of the United States,"
(Berlin, 3 vols., 1865.) Died in March, 1870.
Neumann, (K.ARL GEORG,) a German medical writer
and poet, born at Gera in 1774. He became professor
of medicine in Berlin in 1818. Among his works is
"Specielle Pathologic und Therapie," (4 vols., 1837.)
Died in 1850.
Neumann, (KASPAR,) a German chemist, born in
1682 or 1683, became professor of chemistry in the Royal
College of Berlin. He wrote a number of scientific treat
ises, which were translated into English. He was a
Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1737.
See F. HOEFER, " Histoire de !a Chimie."
Neumark, noi'maRk, (GEORG.) a German poet and
musician, born at Miihlhausen (Thuringia) in 1621. He
was living in great destitution at Hamburg, when his
talents attracted the notice of Rosenkrantz, the Swedish
ambassador, who made him his secretary. He after
wards became librarian and secretary of the archives at
Weimar, where he died in 1681. He is chiefly celebrated
for the beautiful hymn " W.er nur den lieben Gott lasst
walten," a translation of which is to be found in the
" Lvra Germanica."
Neumayr von Flessen-Seilbitz, noi'miR fon fleV-
sen sll'b!ts, (ANTON,) a German critic and able writer on
art, was born in Vienna in 1772. He passed many years
in Italy, and wrote, in Italian, besides other works, a
"Historical and Critical Memoir on Painting," (1811.)
"The German Artists," (6 vols., 1819-23,) and a "Life
of Albert Diirer," (1823.) Died in 1840.
Neureuther, noi'roi'ter, (Ei'GEN,) an eminent Ger
man designer, born at Munich in 1806. Among his works
are illustrations of the poems of Goethe, Wieland, and
other German authors.
Neuville. See HYDE DE XEUVILLE.
Neuville, de, deh nrh'vel',(CHARi.ES FREY,)a French
Jesuit, eminent as a pulpit orator, born in the diocese of
Coutances in 1693; died in 1774.
Neuville, de, deh nuh've'ya', (DIDIER PIERRE CHI-
CANAU,) a French writer, born at Xancy in 1720. He
published "The Philosophic Dictionary," (1751,) and
other works. Died in 1781.
Nevenarius. See XEUENAR.
Nevers, de, deh neh-vaiR', (Louis de Gonzague —
deh goN'zig',) Due, a French commander, born in
1539. He fought against the Huguenots in the civil
war, and in the reign of Henry III. was one of the
chiefs of the League. In 1590 he entered the service of
Henry IV., who gave him command of an army. Died
in 1595.
See TURPIN, "Histoire de Louis de Gonzague," 1789; BRAN-
T$MK, "Vies des grands Capitaines."
Nevers, de, (PHILIPPE JULIEN MANCINI MAZARINI,)
Due, born in Rome in 1641, was a nephew of Cardinal
Mazarin, and a brother of Hortense Mancini. He en
joyed the favour of Louis XIV., who appointed him
lieutenant-general of Xivernais. He wrote agreeable
verses, and was noticed by Voltaire in his Catalogue
of the writers of the age of Louis XIV. Died in 1707.
See SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires."
Neveu, neh-vuh',(M.vrTHiAS,) a skilful Dutch painter,
born at Leyden in 1647, was a pupil of Gerard Douw
Died after 1718.
Nevil. See NEVILLE.
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Vi, guttural ; N, nasal: R, trilled: s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
NEVILE
1668
NEWM4N
Nevile or Nevyle, neVil, (ALEXANDER,) an English
classical scholar, horn in Kent in 1544, was secretary to
Archbishop Parker. His paraphrase of the "CEdipus"
of Seneca is highly eulogized by Warton. Died in 1614
See WARTON, " History of English Poetry."
Nevile or Neville, (HENRY,) an English writer, bon
in 1620, embraced the republican cause, and became a
member of the council of state, but resigned on the
usurpation of Cromwell. He was the author of " Plato
Redivivus, or a Dialogue concerning Government.''
Died ii\ 1694.
See WOOD, " Athens Oxonienses."
Neville, (RICHARD CORNWALLIS.) See BRAYBROOKE,
LORD.
Neville, neVil, (RICHARD GRIFFIN,) Baron Bray-
brooke, an English antiquary, born in Berkshire in 1783.
He edited the "Diary of Samuel Pepys," (1825.) This
was the first edition of that work ever printed. Died
in 1858.
Neville or Nevil, (THOMAS,) an English theologian,
born at Canterbury. He became a Fellow of Pembroke
Hall, Cambridge, in 1570, master of Trinity College in
I593> ar|d l^ea" °f Canterbury in 1597. He expended
^3000 or more on a building for Trinity College, called
Nevil's Court. Died in 1615.
Nev'in, (JoitN WILLIAMSON,) D.D., an American
Presbyterian divine and theological writer, born in
Franklin county, Pennsylvania, in 1803. He became
president of the theological seminary at Mercersburg in
1841. He has published "The Anxious Bench," (1843,)
"The Mystical Presence," (1846,) and "Anti-Christ, or
the Spirit of Sect and Schism," (1848,) and translated
several theological works from the German. He was
editor for a time of the " Mercersburg Review."
Nevizan, ni-ved-zan' or n^v-c-zan', (GIOVANNI,) an
Italian jurist, born at Asti. He published " Sylvae Nup-
tialis Libri sex," (1521,) a curious work, often reprinted.
Died in 1540.
Newborough or Newburgh, nu'biir-eh, [Lat. NEU-
RRIGENSIS,] (WILLIAM OF,) an English chronicler, born
in Yorkshire in 1136, wrote a " History of England,"
(in Latin,) beginning with the Norman conquest and
brought down to 1197.
Newcastle. See CAVENDISH, (WILLIAM.)
Newcastle, nu-kas'el, (HENRY PELHAM CLINTON,)
DUKE OF, born in London in 1811, was the eldest son
of Henry, Duke of Newcastle. He was styled Earl of
Lincoln until the death of his father, (1851,) and entered
Parliament in 1832. For a short time in 1846 he was
chief secretary for Ireland. In 1852 he became secretary
for the colonies in Lord Aberdeen's coalition ministry.
He was appointed secretary of war in 1854. As war
minister he was so much censured for the discomforts
and disasters of the army in the Crimea in 1854 that he
resigned, or was removed, in 1855. In June, 1859, he
accepted office as colonial secretary in the Liberal min
istry of Palmerston. He was the attendant and chief
counsellor of the Prince of \Vales in his visit to Canada
and the United States in 1860. Died in 1864.
See "Gentleman's Magazine" for December, 1864.
Newcastle, (HENRY PELHAM FIENNES PELHAM
CLINTON,) fourth DUKE OF, an English peer, born in
1785. He inherited the title of duke at the death of his
father. He was a Tory, and an opponent of the Reform
bill of 1832. He died in 1851, leaving a son, Henry,
fifth Duke of Newcastle.
Newcastle, (THOMAS PELHAM,) DUKE OF, an Eng
lish Whig minister of state, born in 1693, was the eldest
son of Sir Thomas Pelham, of Sussex. His mother was
a sister of John Hollis, Duke of Newcastle, who, dying
in 1711, left a princely fortune to the subject of this article.
In 1715 he was created Duke of Newcastle, and in 1724
appointed secretary of state. In 1754)16 was promoted
to the office of first lord of the treasury, (or premier,)
which was then vacated by the death of his brother,
Henry Pelham. He resigned reluctantly in November,
1756, and, after a ministerial crisis, formed a coalition
with Pitt, and was again prime minister, or co-ordinate
chief minister, from 1757 until May, 1762, when Lord
Bute became premier. " His love of influence," says
Macaulay, (in his Review of Walpole's " Letters to
Horace Mann,") "was so intense a passion that it 'sup
plied the place of talents, that it inspired even fatuity
with cunning. . . . All the able men of his time ridiculed
him as a dunce, a driveller, a child who never knew his
own mind for an hour together ; and he overreached them
all round." He died, without issue, in 1768, when the
title passed to Henry Clinton, Earl of Lincoln, who had
married a daughter and heiress of Henry Pelham.
See MACAUI.AY, Review of Thackeray's " History of Lord Chat
ham," 1834.
Newcomb, nu'kum, (THOMAS,) an English poet,
born in 1675, became rector of Stopham, in Sussex,
about 1734. He wrote, besides other poems, "The
Library," (1718,) and "The Last Judgment," (1723.)
Died about 1766.
New'cpme, (PETER,) an English clergyman, born in
1656, was vicar of Aldenham, in Hertfordshire. He pub
lished several volumes of sermons, etc. Died in 1738.
Newcome, (WILLIAM,) a learned prelate and eminent
biblical scholar, born in Bedfordshire in 1729. He be
came successively Bishop of Ossory and of Waterford,
in Ireland, and in 1795 Archbishop of Armagh. He
was the author of a "Historical View of the English
Biblical Translations," and " Harmony of the Gospels,"
(1778.) Died in 1800.
See the " Monthly Review" for October, 1779.
New-com'en, (MATTHEW,) an English nonconform
ist, was a member of the Westminster Assembly of
divines. He was one of the five persons who wrote
" Smectymnus," a controversial work against Bishop
Hall. Died at Leyden in 1666.
Newcommen or Newcomen, nu-kom'en, (THOM
AS,) an English locksmith, born in Devonshire, \v;is one
of the inventors of the steam-engine. In 1705 New
commen and Cawley (a glazier of that place) obtained
a patent for an engine combining for the first time the
cylinder and piston, with a separate boiler. The steam
admitted below the piston was condensed by the applica
tion of cold water, and the pressure of the atmosphere,
forcing down the piston, moved a working-beam, to one
end of which a pump-rod was attached. This engine was
much used in mines.
See J. ROHISON, "System of Mechanical Philosophy."
New'di-gate, (Sir ROGER,) an English gentleman of
fine taste and classical attainments, born in Warwick
shire in 1719. He was for many years representative
in Parliament for the University of Oxford. He was a
generous patron of that institution, to which he gave the
Florentine Museum, Piranesi's works, and the cande
labra in the Radcliffe Library. Died in 1780.
New'ell, (HARRIET,) wife of Samuel Newell, noticed
below, was born at Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1793.
She accompanied her husband to India in 1812, and died
soon after their arrival. Her "Memoirs" were written
by Dr. Woods, of Andover.
New'ell, (ROBERT HASSELL,) an English clergyman,
born in 1780. He edited the works of Oliver Gold
smith, (1811,) and wrote "The Zoology of the British
Poets corrected," etc., (1845.) Died in 1852.
Newell, (SAMUEL,) an American missionary, born
at Durham, Maine, in 1784. Having graduated at Har
vard College, he was ordained in 1812, and soon after
set sail for Calcutta, accompanied by the Rev. Adoniram
Judson. He published, conjointly with Mr. Hall, "The
Conversion of the World, or the Claims of Six Hun
dred Millions," (1818.) Died in 1821.
New'land, (JOHN,) an English monk and diplomatist,
was abbot of a monastery at Bristol. He was employed
by Henry VIII. in diplomatic missions. Died in 1515.
New'land, [Dutch, NIEUWLAND, nyo'lant,] (PKTKU,)
a Dutch mathematician and poet, born near Amsterdam
in 1764. He wrote, besides other works, a " Treatise on
Navigation." Died in 1794.
New'maii, (FRANCIS W.,) an English author, brother
of John Henry, noticed below, was born in London in
1805. He was educated at Oxford, and, after he left col
lege, passed three years in the Turkish empire, (1830-
33.) In 1840 he became professor of languages at Man-
hester New College. He was appointed professor of
Latin in University College, London, in 1846. Among
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y\ short; a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
NEWMAN
1669
NEWTON
his principal works are a " History of the Hebrew Mon
archy," (1847,) "The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspira
tions," (1849,) and " Phases of Faith, or Passages from
the History of my Creed," (1850.) His religious opinions
differ widely from those of his brother and from those
of the orthodox churches. In 1856 he produced a
metrical translation of Homer's " Iliad."
See "Westminster Review" for October, 1858.
Newman, (JoHN HENRY,) an eminent English theo
logian, born in London in 1801. He entered Trinity
College, Oxford, in 1816, and was elected a Fellow of
Oriel College in 1822. At Oriel College he formed a
friendship with John Keble the poet, and with Dr.
Whately. He was ordained a priest in 1824, and became
vice-principal of Alban Hall in 1825, and a tutor of
Oriel College in 1826. In 1828 he was appointed vicar
of Saint Mary's, Oxford, and of Littlemore. In 1833
Newman, Keble, and Pusey initiated the "Oxford move
ment" in favour of High-Church doctrines, which they
advocated in a series of " Tracts for the Times." He
manifested a growing tendency to Roman Catholicism
in his " Arians of the Fourth Century : their Doctrines,
Temper, and Conduct," (1833,) his "Tract No. 90,"
(1841,) and his "Essay on the Development of Chris
tian Doctrine." He became a member of the Roman
Catholic Church in 1845, and was the principal of the
Oratory of Saint Philip Neri at Birmingham from 1848
to 1852. In the latter year he was fined one hundred
pounds for a libel on Dr. Achilli. He defended or ex
plained his religious course in a work entitled "Apology
for his Life," ("Apologia pro Vita sua," 1864.)
See, also, JUI.ES CONDON, "Notice biographiqiie sur le P. New
man," 1853; "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1846. and
October, 1864; " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1864; ''North
British Review" for August, 1864.
New'port, (CHRISTOPHER,) an Englishman, com
manded the vessels which in 1606 conveyed the party
of emigrants that first settled at Jamestown, Virginia.
Newport, (GEORGE,) F.R.S., an English comparative
anatomist and entomologist, born at Canterbury in 1803.
He practised medicine, and devoted much time to the
study of the anatomy and physiology of insects, on which
subjects he contributed to the "Philosophical Trans
actions" a number of memoirs. One of these was " On
the Nervous System of the Sphinx." He was elected
president of the Entomological Society in 1844. Died
in 1854.
Newport, (Sir JOHN,) an Irish Whig politician, born
at Waterford about 1760. He became a member of
Parliament in 1803, and controller of the exchequer.
Died in 1843.
New'ton, (GILBERT STUART,)a distinguished painter,
of English extraction, born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in
1794. He painted numerous small pictures of great
merit, among which we may name " Shylock and Jes
sica" and "Portia and Bassanio." Died in 1835.
Newton, (Sir ISAAC,) an illustrious English philoso
pher and mathematician, born at Woolsthorpe, in Lin
colnshire, on the 25th of December, 1642, (Old Style.)
He was the posthumous and only chjld of Isaac Newton,
a farmer, who died in 1642. His mother, whose original
name was Hannah Ayscough, was married again to the
Rev. Barnabas Smith in 1645. He attended the schools
i>f Skillington and Stoke for several years, and about
the age of twelve entered the grammar-school of Grant-
ham. There he manifested much mechanical ingenuity
by the construction of a windmill, a water-clock, a sun
dial, and other pieces of mechanism. He also wrote
verses in his boyhood. He entered Trinity College,
Cambridge, as a sub-sizar, in June, 1661, before which
date it does not appear that he had been a profound
student of mathematics. It has been stated that he
commenced the study of Euclid's " Elements," but he
found the first propositions so self-evident that he threw
the book aside as too trifling. " When Newton entered
Trinity College," says Brewster, "he brought with him
a more slender portion of science than at his age falls
to the lot of ordinary scholars." Among the works
which he first studied at Cambridge were the "Optics"
of Kepler and the " Geometry" of Descartes. In 1664 he
read Wallis's " Arithmetica Infinitorum," and discovered
the method of infinite series, or the binomial theorem,
which enabled him to compute the area of curves and
to solve with ease problems which before were insoluble
or very difficult. He took the degree of B.A. in 1665,
and discovered the differential calculus, or method of
fluxions, probably in the same year. This important
method of mathematical investigation was discovered
by Leibnitz about the same time, and before Newton
had published anything on the subject. A controversy
arose between the English and foreign mathematicians
about the priority of the discovery. Sir David Brewster
gives this decision of the question : i. That Newton
was the first inventor of the method of fluxions ; that
the method was incomplete in its notation, and that the
fundamental principle of it was not published to the
world till 1687. 2. That Leibnitz communicated his
differential calculus to Newton in 1677, with a complete
system of notation, and that he published it in 1684.
As a precaution against the plague, he retired from
Cambridge to his native place in the summer of 1665.
He then and there began to speculate on the subject of
gravity. It was in the autumn of 1665 that the apple
which suggested to him the idea of gravitation is said to
have fallen from the tree at Woolslhorpe. " When sitting
alone in the garden," says Brewster, "and speculating
on the power of gravity, it occurred to him that as the
same power by which the apple fell to the ground was
not sensibly diminished at the greatest distance from the
centre of the earth to which we can reach, ... it might
extend to the moon and retain her in her orbit in the
same manner as it bends into a curve a stone or cannon-
ball when projected in a straight line from the surface
of the earth." He arrived at the conclusion that the
force of gravity by which the planets were retained in
their orbits varied as the squares of their distances from
the sun ; but, not being prepared to verify this hypothe
sis, he abandoned or deferred the subject for many years.
He returned to Cambridge in 1666, and applied him
self to the grinding of optic glasses, and began to study
the subject of colours in connection with the prismatic
spectrum. He was elected a Minor Fellow in October,
1667, and took his degree of M.A. in March, 1668, as
twenty-third on the list of one hundred and forty-eight
graduates. He made a small reflecting telescope in 1668,
and succeeded Dr. Barrow, as Lucasian professor of
mathematics, in 1669. About this date he made the grand
discovery that light is not homogeneous, but consists of rays
of different refrangibility. He also perceived that this
different refrangibility was the real cause of the imper
fection of refracting telescopes. In 1671 he constructed
with his own hands a second reflecting telescope, which
is preserved in the library of the Royal Society. New
ton read a course of lectures on optics, at Cambridge, in
1669, 1670, and 1671. He was the author of the theory
of light called the Emission theory, according to which
light is composed of, or produced by, material particles
of inconceivable minuteness, emitted by luminous bodies
in all directions. On this subject he was involved in a
controversy with Hooke and Huygens, who maintained
the undulatory theory. In a letter to Leibnitz, dated
December 9, 1675, he writes, " I was so persecuted with
discussions arising out of my theory of light, that I
blamed my own imprudence for parting with so sub
stantial a blessing as my quiet to run after a shadow."
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in January,
1672. In December, 1675, he communicated to that
body a discourse entitled a "Theory of Light and Col
ours." " The theory of Newton," says Sir John Herschel,
"gives a complete and elegant explanation of what may
be considered the chief of all optical facts, — the produc
tion of colours in the ordinary refraction of light by a
prism, the discovery of which by him marks one of the
greatest epochs in the annals of experimental science.''
(" Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Phi
losophy.") His optical discoveries are described in a
work entitled " Opticks, or a Treatise on the Reflexions,
Refractions, Inflexions, and Colours of Light," which
was published in 1704, but written many years earlier.
"To avoid being engaged in disputes about these mat
ters," says the author, "I have hitherto delayed the
printing." The only other optical work by Newton was
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
NEWTON
1670
NEWTON
his "Lectiones Opticae," (1728,) which contains the lec
tures he read at Cambridge in 1669-71.
Newton had abandoned the subject of gravity in 1665,
after an attempt to verify his theory by a calculation
which failed because he had employed an erroneous
measure of the earth's radius. About 1684 he resumed
his inquiries and calculations in relation to the moon,
and employed Picard's more accurate measure of the
earth's diameter. He thus demonstrated the great truth
that the orbit of the moon is curved by the same force
which causes bodies to fall on the surface of the earth.
According to a do-ibtful tradition, he became so much
agitated as his calculations drew to a close, that he was
obliged to ask a friend to finish them. "This anec
dote is not supported by what is known of Newton's
character." (Brewster's " Life of Newton.") He an
nounced this discovery to the Royal Society in 1685 by
his treatise " De Motu." This was the germ of his
greatest work, the " Principia," (composed in 1685-86,)
which Laplace regarded as " pre-eminent above all
other productions of the human intellect." The full
title of this work, which was published by the Royal
Society or by Halley in 1687, is "The Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy," (" Philosophise Na-
turalis Principia Mathematical') It consists of three
Books, of which the first and second are entitled " On
the Motion of Bodies," and the third "On the System
of the World." "The great discovery," says Brewster,
"which characterizes the ' Principia' is that of the prin
ciple of universal gravitation, that every particle of matter
hi the universe is attracted by, or gravitates to, every other
particle of matter, with a force inversely proportional to the
squares of their distances."
" The glory of these men," says Macaulay, referring to
Wallis and Halley, " is cast into the shade by the tran
scendent lustre of one immortal name. In Isaac New
ton two kinds of intellectual power, which have little in
common, and which are not often found together in a
very high degree of vigour, but which nevertheless are
equally necessary in the most sublime departments of
natural philosophy, were united as they have never been
united before or since. ... In no other mind have
the demonstrative faculty and the inductive faculty coex
isted in such supreme excellence and perfect harmony."
(" History of England," vol. i. chap, iii.)
In 1687 James II. sent an illegal mandamus to the
University of Cambridge, directing that a certain monk
should be admitted a master of arts without taking the
oath of allegiance. Newton took an active and influen
tial part in defending the privileges of the university on
this occasion. He represented Cambridge in the Con
vention Parliament, January, i689~February, 1690, and
maintained the principles of civil and religious liberty
in that critical period of revolution. In 1689 he became
acquainted with John Locke, with whom he associated
on friendly terms and corresponded until his death.
Newton, though satiated with fame, had gained no pecu
niary benefit by his writings, and had received no mark
of national gratitude for his discoveries. Locke and
Charles Montague endeavoured to procure for him some
permanent appointment, but without success.
In 1692 and 1693 he wrote to Bentley four celebrated
letters on thie formation of the sun and the planets, etc.,
in which he affirms that the motions of the planets
could not be produced by any natural cause alone,
but were impressed by an intelligent agent and Divine
power. A report was circulated, chiefly on the conti
nent, that Newton was insane, about 1692. The story
that his precious manuscripts were burned through the
agency of his little dog Diamond, seems to be equally
unfounded. " He never had any communion with dogs
or cats." (Brewster.)
In 1694 Newton was occupied by researches on the
lunar theory, and obtained from Flamsteed his observa
tions on the moon. Letters were exchanged between
them in relation to these observations, which became the
occasion of an intemperate and discreditable controversy.
Newton was appointed warden of the mint in 1695 or
1696 by his friend Montague, Earl of Halifax, who had
resolved on an important scheme of re-coinage of clipped
and debased coin. The salary of this office was about
^600. In 1699 he was promoted to be master of the
mint, with a salary of from j£ 1200 to ,£1500. In 1703 he
was returned to Parliament by the University of Cam
bridge, and was elected President of the Royal Society.
He continued until his death to occupy the latter po
sition, to which he was annually re-elected. He was
knighted by Queen Anne in 1705. Among his important
works are "The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms
Amended," (1728,) and "Observations upon the Pro
phecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of Saint John,"
(first published in 1733.) "That the greatest philoso
pher of which any age can boast," says Brewster, " was
a sincere and humble believer in the leading doctrines
of our religion and lived conformably to its precepts,
has been justly regarded as a proud triumph of the
Christian faith." Newton's religious opinions, however,
were not strictly orthodox : like Milton, he appears to
have had a decided leaning towards Arianism.
Newton was never married. His latter years were
passed in London, where he lived in a handsome style
and kept six servants. He was extremely generous and
liberal in the use of money, for which he is said to have
had a great contempt. On one occasion he offered Dr.
Cheselden, as a fee, a handful of guineas out of his coat-
pocket. He was often so absorbed in meditation that
he forgot to eat, and it was necessary for his servants
to remind him of his meals. He died at Kensington on
the 2Oth of March, 1727, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey. His collected works were published by Bishop
Horsley in 5 vols. 4to, (1779-85.)
Near the end of his life he said, " I know not what f
may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have
been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore and
diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother
pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great
ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me."
"Though there be few," says Dr. Chalmers, "who
comprehend or follow Newton in his gigantic walk, yet
all may participate in his triumphant feeling when he
reached that lofty summit where the whole mystery and
magnificence of nature stood submitted to his gaze, — an
eminence won by him through the power and patience
of intellect alone, but from which he descried a scene
more glorious far than imagination could have formed,
or than ever had been pictured and set forth in the
sublimest visions of poetry." ("Treatise on the Adap
tation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual
Constitution of Man.")
"Whichever way we turn our view," says Sir John
F. W. Herschel, "we find ourselves compelled to bow
before his genius, and to assign to the name of Newton
a place in our veneration which belongs to no other in
the annals of science. His era marks the accomplished
maturity of the human reason as applied to such objects.
. . . His wonderful combination of mathematical skill
with physical research enabled him to invent at pleasure
new and unheard-of methods of investigating the effects
of those causes which his clear and penetrating mind
detected in operation. Ascending by a series of close-
compacted inductive arguments to the highest axioms of
dynamical science, he succeeded in applying them to the
complete explanation of all the great astronomical phe
nomena." (" Preliminary Discourse on the Study of
Natural Philosophy.")
See SIR DAVID BRF.WSTER, "Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton," 2
vols., 1855; FONTENELI.E, " Eloge de Newton," i/2S; PRMRERTON,
"Account of Newton's Philosophy;" BIOT, article "Newton" in
the "Biographic Universelle ;" ARAGO, "Notices biographiques,"
tome iii. ; BIRCH, " History of the Royal Society." vols. iii. and iv. :
MACI.AURIN, "Exposition of the Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton,"
1748; RIGAUD, "Historical Essay on the Principia of Newton ;"
"Life of Newton" in the " Biographia Britannica :" PAOI.O FRISI,
"Elogio storico del Cavaliere I. Newton," 1778: WM. WHEWEI.L,
"Newton and Flamsteed," 1836: CARL SNKI.L, "Newton und die
mechanische Naturwissenschaft," 1843; VOLTAIRE, " Elements de la
Philosophic de Newton ;" " Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" " Edinburgh
Review" for October, 1832 ; " London Quarterly Review" for Octo-
b»>r, 1861 : "North British Review" for August, 1855; "Foreign
Quarterly Review" for July, 1833 2^2^, ^)f(^f^^"^y 7-'7Jt> •
Newton, (JOHN,) an English mathematician, born in
Northamptonshire in 1622, was the author of "Geo
metrical Trigonometry," " Astronomia Britannica," and
other works. Died in 1678.
See WOOD, " Athena; Oxonienses. "
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;
NEWTON
1671
N 1C ^E NET US
Newton, (JOHN,) an English divine, born in London
in 1725. Having for many years led a profligate life
as a sailor, and engaging in the African slave-trade, he
was converted, and distinguished himself thenceforth
by his zeal in the cause of religion. In 1764 he became
curate of Olney, where he acquired the friendship of
Cosvper, and wrote, in conjunction with him, the "Olney
Hymns." I Fe also published a " Review of Ecclesiastical
History," (1770,) " Cardiphonia," etc., and other works.
Died in 1807.
See a "Narrative of his Life," by himself, 1764: R. CECIL,
" Lite of John Newton ;" " Autobiography and Narrative of John
Newton," London, 1869; "London Quarterly Review" for Decem
ber, iS24.
New'tou, (Junx,) an American general, born in Vir
ginia, graduated at West Point in 1842. He became a
brigadier-general of Union volunteers in 1861, and com
manded a brigade in the battles before Richmond, June,
1862, and a division at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. He
served under General Sherman in G'eorgia in 1864, with
the rank of major-general.
Newton, (RICHARD,) an English divine, born about
1675, became canon of Christ Church, Oxford. He
published a work entitled "Pluralities Indefensible,"
(1744.) He was the founder of Hertford College, Ox
ford. Died in 1753.
See CHALMERS, " History of Oxford "
New'toii, (ROBERT,) a Scottish Methodist clergyman,
born in 1780. He preached in London and Liverpool,
and was appointed in 1839 a delegate to the General
Conference of the United States. He was a popular
preacher. Died in 1854.
Newton, (THOMAS,) an English divine, born at Lich-
field in 1704. rose through various preferments to be
Bishop of Bristol, (1761.) He published an excellent
edition of Milton's "Paradise Lost," with notes, (1749,)
and "Dissertations on the Prophecies," etc., (3 vols.,
1754-58,) which were translated into German and Danish.
Died in 1782.
See " Lite of Thomas Newton," prefixed to the second edition
of Ins Works; " Monthly Review" for February and March, 1783.
Newton, (Tuo.MAS,) an English litterateur, born in
Essex, became master of Macclesfield School. He was
the author of a "History of the Saracens," (1575,) of a
number of Latin poems, and other works. Died in 1607.
See WARTON-, " History of English Poetry."
Newton, (Wu.i.i AM,) an English architect and writer,
published an English translation of Vitruvius, (2 vols.,
I77L)
Ney, n i, (FRANCOIS,) a Flemish diplomatist, born at
Antwerp, became general of the order of Saint Francis,
in Spain, in 1607. He was the principal agent of the
Spanish king in the negotiation of the treaty of peace
which recognized the independence of the revolted Dutch !
provinces in 1609. Watson the historian speaks highly
of his talents and address.
See GROTIUS, " Histoire des Troubles des Pays-Bas."
Ney, ni, (JOSEPH NAPOLEON,) Prince of the Moskwa,
(in French, " de la Moskowa,") a French general, born
in Paris in 1803, was the eldest son of Marshal Ney. He
served in Algeria in 1837-38, and entered the Chamber
of Peers in 1841. After the revolution of 1848 he was
elected a member of the Legislative Assembly, in which
he was a partisan of Louis Napoleon. Died in 1857.
Ney, (MiCHKL,) Duke of Elchingen, Prince of the
Moskwa, a famous French marshal, born at Sarre-Louis
in January, 1769, was the son of a cooper. He entered
the army as a private in 1787, became adjutant-general
in 1794, and a general of brigade in 1796. As general
of division, he acquired a high reputation under Massena,
in Switzerland and Germany, in 1799. In 1800 he passed
into the army of Moreau, and contributed to the victory
of Hohenlinden. He obtained a marshal's baton in 1804.
For an important victory over the Austriansat Elchingen,
in October, 1805, he received the title of Duke of El
chingen. His impetuous courage rendered essential ser
vices at the battle of Jena, in 1806. In this year he took
Magdeburg, the garrison of which amounted to about
20,000 men. He commanded an army in Spain in 1809,
and obtained advantages at Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida
in 1810. In the Russian campaign of 1812 he received
9 as s; ghard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz;%h as in this.
from Bonaparte the appellation of the " Bravest of the
Brave." He commanded the centre at the great battle
of Borodino, or the Moskwa, from which he derived
his title of Prince. In the retreat from Moscow, Mar
shal Ney commanded the rear-guard, and maintained his
reputation by heroic conduct amidst the greatest dis
asters. " It was when danger was greatest and success
most doubtful," says Alison, " that his courage was most
conspicuous and his coolness most valuable." When
summoned to capitulate, in November, 1812, he replied,
" A marshal of France never surrenders !"
He took a prominent part in the battles of Lutzen,
Bautzen, and Dresden, in 1813, and wjs defeated at Den-
newitz by Bernadotte in September of that year. On the
abdication of Napoleon, in 1814, Ney submitted to Louis
XVIII., who permitted him to retain his titles and mili
tary rank. In March, 1815, he received orders to lead
an army against Napoleon, whom he promised to bring
back in an iron cage. His moral courage, however, was
not proof against the seductive offers of his former chief,
to whom he transferred the army, as well as his own
services. He fought with his usual resolution at Water
loo, where he led several charges of the Old Guard and
had five horses shot under him. He was tried for treason
by the court of the peers, and shot on the 7th of De
cember, 1815.
" When the Parisians awoke," says Lamartine, "and
found that Ney had been executed, bitter shame seized
on every soul. . . . We must say, however, in the de
fence of the king and the ministers, that they were re
pugnant, from moderation, honour, and sensibility, to
this useless, cruel, and shameful sacrifice. In their eyes,
and in those of the impartial portion of the world, Ney
was a great culprit, but his was a glorious life. His
fault was among those which are condemned but par
doned. He had redeemed it beforehand by exploits
which will be an eternal theme in the camps of France."
(" History of the Restoration.")
See " Memoires dn Mare'chal Ney," published by his family, 1833 ;
Rot.'VAL, "Vie du Marechal Ney," 1833: DUMOULIN, "Histoire
du Proces du Marechal Ney," 2 vols., 1815; J. NOLI.ET-FABERT,
"E"loge historique du Marechal Ney," 1852; CHARLEMONT, "Vie
du Marecha! Ney," 1814; VERGARA, " Vida del Mariscal Ney,"
1819: THIKRS, "History of the Consulate and the Empire;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale "
Ney, (MICHEL Louis F^LIX,) Due d'Elchingen, a son
of the preceding, was born in 1804. He served several
campaigns in Algeria, and became a general of brigade
in 1851. Died in 1854.
Ney, (NAPOLEON HT.NRI EDGAR,) Prince of the
Moskwa, a son of Marshal Ney, was born in Paris in
1812. He entered the army about 1830, was elected to
the Legislative Assembly in 1850, became aide-de-camp
to the emperor in 1852, and general of brigade in 1856.
Neyen, nl'en or ni'o.s', (AucusTE,) a Belgian his
torian, born at Luxemburg in 1809. Among his works
is "Biographic Luxembourgeoise," (2 vols., tS6i.)
Neyn, nln, (PiETEK,) a Dutch painter and architect,
born at Leyden in 1597 ; died in 1639.
Neyra. See MKNDANA.
Nezahualcoyotl, na-za-whal-ko-yotl', surnamed THE
GREAT, King of Tezcuco, born in 1403. He was dis
tinguished as a legislator and a patron of the sciences.
Died in 1470.
See PRESCOTT, " History of the Conquest of Mexico."
Ni or Ne. See CONFUCIUS.
Nibby, neb'bee, (ANTONIO,) an antiquary, born at
Rome in 1792. He became professor of archaeology in
the College of Rome in 1820. He was a corresponding
member of the French Institute, and the author of several
antiquarian works. He also published a translation of
Pausanias, with notes. Died in 1839.
See TIPAI.DO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Niboyet, ne'bwa'yi', (Euc.lLxiE,) a French authoress,
born about 1804. She wrote several educational works
and novels, and founded in 1844 a socialist journal.
Nicaenetus, ni-seVe-tus, [Gr. Nwcafverof ; Fr. Nic£-
NETE, ne'si'nit',] a Greek epigrammatic poet, born at
Abdera or Samos, probably lived in the third century
B.C. Several of his epigrams are inserted in Jacobs's
"Anthology."
lanations, p. 23.)
NICAISE
1672
NICER ON
Nicaise, ne'kiz', (CLAUDE,) a French antiquary, bon
at Dijon in 1623. He published a treatise " On the Music
of the Ancients," " On the Sirens," etc., and other works
He was a member of the principal Academies of Europe
Died in 1701.
See " Menagiana."
Nicaise, ne'kaz', [Lat. NICA'SIUS,] SAINT, a Christian
prelate and martyr, became Bishop of Rheims. He was
put to death by the Vandals when they sacked that city
in 407 A. IX
See FISQUET, "France pontificale."
Nl-caii'der, [Gr. Ninavdpof ; Fr. NICANDRE, ne'-
kftN'dR',] a celebrated Greek physician and poet, born
near Colophon, is supposed to have flourished about 175-
135 B.C. Of his numerous works only two have come
down to us entire. These are two poems, entitlec
"Theriaca" and " Alexipharmaca." The latter treats o:
venomous animals and the remedies for their wounds.
As a poet, he is eulogized by Cicero, but severely criti
cised by other writers. His works are said to be obscure
and pedantic. Among his lost works was a poem of
Georgics, which Virgil is said to have imitated.
See HALLER, " Bibliotlieca Botanica ;" CLINTON, " Fasti Hel-
lenici."
Nicander, a king of Sparta, of the family of Pro
cliclae, was a son of Charilaus. He reigned about 780 B.C.
Nicander, ne-kan'der, ( KARL AUGUST, ) a distin
guished Swedish poet, born at Strengnris in 1799. In
1826 he obtained the first prize from the Swedish Acad
emy for his "Death of Tasso." He visited Italy in
1827, and published on his return "Recollections of the
South." Among his other works we may name "The
Runic Sword, or the First Knight," a tragedy, in verse,
(1821,) "King Enzio," (1825,) and " Runor." These are
said to be excellent models, both in style and other
respects. Died in 1839.
See CRUSENSTOI.PK, "C. A. Nicander," 1840; G. H. MBLLIN,
" K. A. Nicander," 1839.
Nicandre. See NICANDKR.
Ni-ca'nor, [Gr. Nmuvup,] a Macedonian officer, com
manded the foot-guards of Alexander the Great at the
battles of the Grani'cus, Issus, and Arbela. He died
about 330. He was a son of the famous Pannenio.
Nicanor, a Macedonian general, who became gov
ernor of Cappadocia in 321 B.C. As a partisan or ally
of Antigonus, he fought against Eumenes. He was ap
pointed governor of Media about 316, and was defeated
in battle by Seleucus near the Tigris in 312 u.C.
Nicanor, a Greek general, commanded an army which
Demetrius I., King of Syria, sent to subjugate Judea.
He was defeated and killed by Judas Maccabaeus.
Nicanor, called Sivy^rm'af. an eminent Greek gram
marian of Alexandria or Hierapolis, lived in the reign
of Hadrian, (117-138 A.D.) He wrote a treatise on Punc
tuation, and annotations on Homer.
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotlieca Graeca."
Nicasius. See NICAJSK.
Niccoli, nek'ko-lee, or Nicoli, ne'ko-le, [Lat. Nico'-
LUS,] (NICCOL6,) a learned Florentine, born in 1364,
who rendered important services to literature by the
discovery of ancient authors and by transcribing manu
scripts. At hisdeath, in 1437, he bequeathed his valuable
library to the public. He is said to have been the first
man in modern times who founded a public library.
See VF.SPASIANO, " Vita Nicoli ;" TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Let-
teratura Italiana."
Niccolini, nek-ko-lee'nee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an
Italian poet and dramatist, born near Pisa in 1785. He
was appointed in 1807 professor of history and mythol
ogy in the Academy of Fine Arts at Florence. He was
the author of tragedies entitled "Antonio Foscarini,"
(1827,) "Polissena," "Giovanni da Procida," (1830,) and
"Filippo Strozzi," (1847.) Died in 1861.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe:" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale :" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1836.
Niccolo, the Italian for NICHOLAS, which see.
Niccolo, ne'ko'lo', or Nicolas, ne'ko'la', (IsouARD,)
a French dramatic composer, born at Malta in 1775. He
produced numerous operas, among which are " Joconde"
and " Jeannot et Colin/' He died in Paris in 1818.
See FETIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens."
Niccolo d'Arezzo, nek-ko-lo' da-ret'so, an Italian
sculptor, born at Arezzo about 1350. He worked at
Florence and Rome. Died in 1417.
Niccolo da Pisa, nek-ko-lo' da pee'sa, or Niccolo
Pisaiio, nek-ko-lo' pe-sa'no, an eminent Italian archi
tect and sculptor, lived in the latter part of the thirteenth
century. Among his best works are the church and
monastery of the Holy Trinity at Florence, and the
church of San Antonio at Padua. His bas-reliefs in the
cathedral of Sienna were esteemed superior to any sculp
tures of the kind since the antique. Died about 1278.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; QUATREMEKE DE
QUINCY, "Vies des plus illustres Architectes. "
Niccolo del Abate. See ABB ATE.
Niccols. See NICHOLS, (RICHARD.)
Ni'ce or Ni'ke, [Gr. Nk//,] the goddess of victory
in the Greek mythology, was, according to Hesiod, the
daughter of Pallas and' Styx, and corresponded to the
Victoria of the Romans.
Nicenete. See NIC/ENETUS.
Nicephore. See NICEPHORUS.
Ni-geph'o-rus [Gr. NiKi/<j>6pos ; Fr. NICEI-HORK, ne'-
sa'foK'l I., Emperor of Constantinople, became leader
in 802 of a conspiracy against the empress Irene, who
had usurped the throne, and, having banished her, was
made emperor. In 811 he was slain, while fighting the
Bulgarians.
See GIBBO.V, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Nicephorus II., surnamed PHOCAS, a distinguished
Byzantine commander, married about 963 the widow of
Romanus II., and assumed the title of emperor. He
gained several victories over the Saracens in Syria and
Cilicia, but was assassinated by John Zimisces in 969.
Nicephorus III., surnamed BOTANI'ATKS, a Byzantine
officer, having in 1078 revolted against Michael Ducas,
caused himself to be proclaimed emperor in his stead.
He was, however, soon compelled to give up the throne
to Alexis Comnenus, who banished him. Died in 1081.
See I,E BEAU, " Histoire du Bas-Empire."
Nicephorus, [Fr. NICEIMIOKK, ne'sa'foR',] Patriarch
of Constantinople, and a Byzantine historian, born about
758 A.D., was a zealous opponent of the iconoclasts.
lie obtained the office of patriarch in 806, and was de
posed in 815 by Leo V. He wrote, in Greek, besides
other works, a " History of the Eastern Empire from
602 to 770 A.D.," the Latin title of which is " Breviarium
Historicum." He was one of the best writers of his
time. Died in 828 A.D.
See CAVE, " Historia Literaria."
Ni-geph'o-rus Blem'mi-das, a Greek ecclesiastic
of the thirteenth century, lived at Nicasa. lie wrote
several works "On the Procession of the Holy Spirit."
See CAVK, " Historia Literaria."
NI-9eph'o-rus Cal-lis'tus, a learned Byzantine
monk of the fourteenth century, was the author of an
' Ecclesiastical History from the Birth of Christ to 911."
See CAVK, " Historia Literaria."
Ni-geph'o-rus Greg'o-ras, Patriarch of Constan
tinople, flourished in the fourteenth century. He was
he author of a " Byzantine History," in twenty-eight
3ooks, twenty-four of which are extant.
Ni-ggr'a-tus, [N«%>aroc,] a Greek physician who
lourishecl about 40 B.C. None of his writings are extant ;
Kit he is mentioned by Pliny, Dioscorides, and others.
Niceron, nes'r6.\', ?* (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a French
nathematician and optician, born in Paris in 1613.
:Ie was a friend of Descartes. He published "Thau-
maturgus Opticus : cle iis quae spectant ad Visionem
directam," (1646.) Died at Aix in 1646.
Niceron, ne'sa'riN' ?* (JEAN PIERRE,) a noted French
* Some of the best French authorities are not consistent with
hemselves in regard to the spelling of this name. In the early part
)f the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale" the name, whenever re-
erred to, appears to be invaiiably written with the accent on the second
yllable, — NTCERON, — but under the biographical notice it is spelled
VICERON, which is also the spelling of the " Biographic Universelle."
Jut this fact will not by any means be deemed decisive by those who
re aware of the exceeding negligence of most French writers in re-
ard to marking the accent. It has become very common in France
o omit the accent in certain names (e.g. PETION) in writing, but to
jronounce the name as if spelled with an accent. (See note under
' Petion" in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale.")
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not ; good ; m Jon ;
NIC ETAS
1673
NICHOLLS
litterateur, was born in Paris in 1685. His principal
work is entitled "Memoirs towards the History of
Illustrious Writers," (43 vols., 1727-45,) a production
of great value, partly original and partly compiled. He
died in 1738, having published thirty-nine volumes, to
which four were afterwards added. He was professor
of rhetoric and philosophy in several colleges.
See GOUJET, " filoge de J. P. Niceron," in vol. xl. of his " Me-
moires. "
Ni-9e'tas, [Gr. Nod/rac,] a Byzantine physician, sup
posed to have flourished in the eleventh century. lie
left a collection of surgical works in manuscript, copies
of which are preserved in Paris and Florence.
Ni-Qe'tas A-com-i-na'tus, ['A/cou«>u-oc,] surnamed
CHONI'ATES, a Byzantine historian of the twelfth century,
wrote a "History of the Greek Emperors from 1117
to 1203," in twenty-one books ; also a " Description of
the Monuments destroyed by the Franks at the Taking
of Constantinople." Died about 1216.
See FABRICIUS, " liibliotheca Grasca."
Ni-eh'ol, (JoH.\ PKINGI.E,) a British astronomer and
philosopher, born at Brechin, in Scotland, in 1804, was
educated for the ministry. He gained distinction as a
lecturer on science, and as a writer. About 1836 he was
appointed professor of astronomy in the University of
Glasgow. He published popular works entitled "The
Architecture of the Heavens," (1836,) "The Stellar
Heavens," "The Solar System," and a "Dictionary
of the Physical Sciences." His style is vigorous and
attractive. He wrote numerous articles for the " Im
perial Dictionary of Biography." Died in 1859.
Ni-eh'o-las | Lat. NICOLA'US ; Fr. NICOLAS, ne'ko'ld';
It. Niccoi.o, nek-ko-lo' ; Ger. NlKOLAUS, nik'o-lowss']
I., Pui'K, succeeded Benedict III. in 858 A.D. Not long
after, he was engaged in a broil with Photius, who had
intruded himself into the patriarchal see of Constanti
nople, and the result was a schism between the Greek
and Latin Churches. He died in 867, and was succeeded
by Adrian II.
Nicholas II., POPE, (called GERARD OF BURGUNDY,)
succeeded Stephen IX. in 1059. Under his rule a
decree was passed concerning the method of electing
popes. Nicholas bestowed upon Robert Guiscarcl the
duchy of Apulia and Calabria as a fief of the Roman see.
He died in 1061, and was succeeded by Alexander II.
Nicholas III. (GIOVANNI Gaetani — ga-a-ta'nee)
succeeded John XXI. as pope in 1277. He obtained
from the emperor Rudolph of Germany the confirma
tion of the Exarchate of Ravenna, and other grants of
territory, said to have been made by former emperors.
He died in 1280, and was succeeded by Martin IV.
Nicholas IV., POPE, (called JKROMK OF ASCOI.I,)
succeeded Honorius IV. in 1288. He wrote a number
of commentaries on the Scriptures. He died in 1292,
and was succeeded by Celestine V.
See J. Rossi, (RUBEUS,) "Vita Nicolai Papa; IV.," 1761.
Nicholas V. (called THOMAS OF SARZANA) succeeded
Eugenius IV. in 1447. Having persuaded Felix V., who
had been made pope by the Council of Bale in 1439, to
resign in his favour, he thus restored peace to the West
ern Church. He was a munificent patron of learning,
and the founder of the Vatican Library. Died in 1455,
aged about fifty-seven.
See MANETTI, "Vita Nicolai V.;" GIORGI, "Vita Nicolai V.,"
1742.
Nicholas [in Russian, NIKOLAI PAVLOVITCH, ne-ko-
la'e (or ne-ko-ll') pav'lo-vitch] I., Emperor of Russia,
born at or near Saint Petersburg in July, 1796, was the
third son of Paul I. His mother was Alary of Wiirtem-
berg. He was instructed in the languages, sciences, etc.
by the philologist Adelung and the counsellor Storch.
lie learned to speak French and German fluently. In
1817 he married a daughter of Frederick William, King
of Prussia, who, on joining the Greek Church, changed
her name to Alexandra. On the death of Alexander I.,
in December, 1825, Nicholas succeeded him without op
position from his elder brother, Constantine, who was
notoriously unfit to reign, and who had been induced by
Alexander to renounce his claim to the throne. His
accession, however, was the occasion of a dangerous
revolt among the troops of the capital, instigated by an
extensive conspiracy, or secret society, the design of
which was to make a radical change in the government.
This revolt was not suppressed without much blood
shed, and many nobles implicated in the conspiracy
were exiled to Siberia. This affair tended to confirm
his despotic propensities.
Among the first events of his reign was a war against
Persia, from which he conquered the province of Erivan
in 1827. In 1828 w.ar broke out between Russia and
Turkey. The Russian army, after several successes,
crossed the Balkan and took Adrianople. Peace was
restored in September, 1829, by the treaty of Adrianople,
in accordance with which a large territory on the eastern
coast of the Black Sea was added to the Russian empire.
In November, 1830, commenced a great insurrection of
the Poles, who were subjugated by the Russian armies
under Diebitsch and Paskevitch and were punished with
great severity. In 1832 order again reigned in Warsaw.
The ambition of Nicholas also involved him in a long
war for the conquest of Circassia, which he did not live
to complete. His disregard of the claims of liberty and
justice was palpably exhibited in his armed intervention
against the Hungarians, who were subjugated by the
Russian and Austrian armies in 1849.
Nicholas had long entertained ambitious designs
respecting Turkey, which at length involved him in a
disastrous war. In the spring of 1853 he demanded of
the Sultan the protectorate of all the Turkish subjects
who professed the Greek religion. The Sultan refused
to submit to this demand, and France and England
united to defend him against the aggressions of Russia.
Hostilities commenced in October, 1853. Nicholas, who
probably did not expect that France and England would
fight, was ill prepared for a war of such magnitude.
The Russian army crossed the Danube in the spring of
1854, and besieged Silistria without success. The Eng
lish and French fleets entered the Black Sea, and landed
the allied armies in the Crimea, in September, 1854.
The allies gained decisive victories at Alma and Inker-
man, and commenced the long and famous siege of
Sebastopol. In the mean time another English fleet
gained victories in the Baltic, and threatened the capital
of Russia. Nicholas was overtasked by the labours
which his imperious will and despotic policy imposed on
him as sole director and dictator of so vast an empire.
Before the end of the war he died, on the 2(1 of March,
1855, and was succeeded by his son, Alexander II. He
left four sons, Alexander, Constantine, Nicholas, and
Michael. Nicholas I. was a man of tall stature and
imposing presence, with great capacity of endurance.
See F. NORK, (anagram of KORN,) " Kaiser Nicolaus I.," etc.,
1848; AURIRK GII.SON, " Nicolas I et Abdul- Medjid," 1853 ; " Nou-
velle Biographie Generale ;" E. MICHEI.SKN, "Lite of Nicholas,
Emperor of all the Russias." 1854; HENRY CHRISTMAS, " Nicholas
I., Emperor," etc., 1854; "Biographical Sketches, " by HARRIKT
MAKTINEAU; " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1855; "Jahrbuch
zum Conversations-Lexikon" for 1858.
Ni-eh'o-las, (HENRY,) a fanatic, bom at Minister or
Leyden, founded about 1540 a sect called "The Family
of Love." He pretended that he was superior to Christ.
Ni-eh'o-las, (WILSON GARY,) an American officer and
statesman, served in the Revolutionary war, and was
elected a Senator from Virginia in 1799. He became
Governor of that State in 1814. Died in 1820.
Nicholas Damascenus. See DAMASCENUS.
Nicholas de Cusa. See CUSA.
Nicholas de Lyra. See LYRA.
Nicholas Paulovitch, ( or Pavlovitch. ) See
NICHOLAS I. OF RUSSIA.
Nicholle de la Croix, ne'shol' cleh It kRwa, (Louis
ANTOINE,) a French geographical writer, born in Paris
ill 1704; died in 1760.
Ni-eh'plls, (FRANK,) a distinguished anatomist and
physician, born in London in 1699. He married in
1743 a daughter of the celebrated Dr. Mead, and on the
death of Sir Hans Sloane became physician to George
II. He wrote several able scientific treatises, and was
a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1779.
Nicholls, (Sir GEORGE,) an English economist and
writer on poor-laws, was born in Cornwall in 1781. He
became secretary of the poor-law commission about 1847.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in /$«. (2^°See Explanations, p. 23.)
NICHOLLS
1674
NICOLAI
He wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Eng
lish Poor- Law," (1854.) Died in 1865.
Nicholls, (WiLHAM,) a learned English divine, born
in Buckinghamshire in 1664. Among his writings we
may mention " A Defence of the Qiurch of England,"
and " The Religion of a Prince." Died in 1712.
See WOOD, "Athenae Oxonienses."
Ni-eh'ols, (!CHABOD,) D.D., an American Unitarian
divine, born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1784.
He was the author of a treatise " On Natural Theology,"
and " Hours with the Evangelists," the latter published
after his death. He was distinguished for his mathe
matical attainments, and was for a time vice-president
of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Diet!
in 1850.
Ni-eh'ols, (JOHN,) an English litterateur, born at
Islington in 1744, was a partner of William Bowyer,
the eminent printer. He became in 1778 one of the
publishers of the "Gentleman's Magazine," and was
subsequently editor of that journal for many years. He
published, besides other works, the "History and An
tiquities of Leicestershire," (6 vols., 1795-1811,) and
"Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century," (8
vols., 1812-15.) Died in 1826.
See A. CHALMERS, "Memoir of J. Nichols," 1826; "Monthly
Review" for October and November, 1782, and November, 1X13.
Nichols, (JoHN BOWYKR,) an archaeologist, a son
of the preceding, was born about 1780. He succeeded
his father in business, and edited several volumes of the
" Illustrations of the Literary History of the Eighteenth
Century," which his father commenced. Died in 1863.
Nichols, (JoHN GOUGH,) an English antiquary, son
of the preceding, was born in London about 1807. He
was editor of the " Gentleman's Magazine" for many
years, ending in 1856. He published, besides other
works, " The Herald and Genealogist."
Nichols or Niccols, (RICHARD,) an English poet,
born in London in 1584. He wrote "The Cuckow,"
a poem, (1607,) and published a new edition of "The
Mirror for Magistrates," (1610,) to which he added a
" Winter Night's Vision," and a piece on the Life of
Queen Elizabeth.
Nich'ol-spn, (ALFRED OSBORN POPE,) an American
statesman and journalist, born in Williamson county,
Tennessee, in 1808. He has been successively editor of
the "Western Mercury," the "Nashville Union," and
the " Washington Union," an organ of President Pierce.
In 1857 he was elected to the United States Senate.
Nicholson, (JAMES,) an American naval officer, born
at Chestertown, Maryland, in 1737; died about 1804.
His brother SAMUEL attained the rank of commodore,
and became commander of the frigate Constitution.
Died in 181 1.
Ni-eh'ol-spn, (JOHN,) a British general, born in Ire
land in 1821 or 1822. He served with distinction in the
war against the Afghans and in the campaign against
the Sikhs. In the Sepoy mutiny he commanded a
column or division, and performed an important part in
the capture of Delhi. He died of wounds received at
Delhi in September, 1857.
See J. W. KAYE, " Lives of Indian Officers," vol. ii., London, 1867.
Nicholson, (WILLIAM.) See NICOLSON.
Nicholson, (WILLIAM,) an English chemist and sci
entific writer, born in London about 1755. He published,
among other works, a "Dictionary of Chemistry," (2 vols.,
1795,) and a "Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry,
and the Arts," (5 vols., 1797-1800.) Died in 1815.
Nicias, nish'e-as, or Nik'i-as, [Nwaof,] a celebrated
Athenian general, was the son of Niceratus, who left
him a large fortune. His moderate and cautious char
acter and conservative principles identified him with the
aristocratic party. On the death of Pericles he became
a prominent opponent of Cleon, the democratic leader.
By prudence rather than by skill, he generally obtained
success in his earlier military operations against the
Spartans. In 426 B.C. he commanded a successful ex
pedition against Melos, and in 425 invaded Corinth,
the army of which he defeated. Cleon, his principal
rival, having died, Nicias exerted his influence in favour
of peace, and a treaty was made between Athens and
Sparta in 421 B.C. This was called the peace of Nicias.
A long contest ensued between him and Alcibiades, the
leader of the democracy, who wished to renew the war,
and who prevailed in 415, when an expedition was sent
against Syracuse, the ally of Sparta. Nicias, Alcibiades,
and Lamachus were chosen joint commanders; but the
second was recalled before the fleet arrived at Syracuse.
In the spring of 414 Nicias blockaded the port of Syra
cuse, seized the heights of Epipolas, and had nearly en
closed the city on the land side by a wall, when Gylippus,
the Spartan general, arrived. Nicias was disabled by ill
health and wished to resign, but was compelled to retain
the command. The Athenians were defeated in several
actions on land and water, and the timidity or incapacity
of Nicias caused the total loss of his large army. lie
was made prisoner, and put to death in 414 or 413 u.c.
See PLUTARCH, "Life of Nicias;" GROTE, "History of Greece,"
vol. vii. chaps. Ivii., Iviii., lix.,lx. ; THUCYDIDES, "History;" THIRL-
WALL, " History of Greece."
Nicias, a celebrated Greek painter, born at Athens,
flourished probably between 350 and 300 u.c. He was
a pupil of Antidotus, and is also called the most eminent
disciple of Euphranor. According to Pliny, he was em
ployed by Praxiteles to colour or varnish marble statues,
(in statnis ciraimlinendis.) This was probably in his
youth, before he had attained celebrity. He painted chiefly
in encaustic, and was very skilful in representing female
figures. He excelled in design and chiaroscuro. His
master-piece was a picture of the infernal regions as
described by Homer, " Necromantia Homeri," which,
says Plutarch, he refused to sell to Ptolemy of Egypt,
although he was offered the enormous price of sixty
talents. Among his other works were a " Calypso," a
" Diana," and a " Hyacinthus."
See SILLIG, " Catalogus Artificum ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Nicias, physician to Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, pro
posed to Fabricius, the Roman general, to poison his
master for a sum of money. His treachery being dis
closed by Fabricius, he was put to death.
Ni-co-eh'a-res, [N«co.£up?/c,] an Athenian comic poet,
was a son of the poet Philonides, and a contemporary
of Aristophanes. He flourished about 375 u.c. His
works are lost.
Nic'o-cles, [ Gr. Nwco/cA^f, ] King of Salamis, in
Cyprus, was a son of Evagoras I. He began to reign
about 375 K.c. Isocrates wrote a panegyric on him.
Nicodeme. See NICODKMUS.
Nicodemo. See NICODEMUS.
Nic-o-de'mus, [Gr. Nt/c6(5////r/f ; Fr. NICODEME, ne'-
ko'clim' ; It. NICODKMU, ne-ko-da'mo,] a Pharisee and
ruler of the Jews.
See John iii. and xix. 39.
Nic-o-de'mus, | Fr. NICODEMK, ne'ko'dftm',] (ADAM
BUKCHARD SKI.LY,) a Russian monk and historian,
of Danish origin. His chief work is " l)e Rossorum
Hierarchia," (5 vols.) Died in 1746.
Nicolai, nee'ko-11', (CnuiSToi'H FRIKDUICH,) a cele
brated German litterateur, born at Berlin in 1733. Having
at an early age acquired the friendship of Lessing and
Moses Mendelssohn, he published, conjointly with the
latter, the first four volumes of the " Library of Belles-
Lettres," (1758.) "The Universal German Library,"
(" Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek,") in which he was
assisted by several eminent writers, came out in 1792,
in 106 vols. A continuation of this standard work was
published in 1805, making in all 162 vols. Among his
other writings may be named a " Description of Berlin
and Potsdam," " Life and Opinions of Sebaldus No-
thanker," (3 vols., 1773,) a "Tour through Germany and
Switzerland," (12 vols., 1783,) and " Anecdotes of Fred
erick II.," (1788.) The conservative spirit of Nicolai's
criticisms, and his hostility to all innovations in German
literature, exposed him to the severe strictures of Goethe,
Schiller, and other writers of the time. Died in 1811.
See COCKING, "Nicolai's Leben und literarischen Nachlass;"
J. G. FICHTE, " F. Nicolai's Leben und sonderbare Meinungen,"
1811: MKUSEL, "Gelehrtes Deutschland ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generate."
Nicolai, (ERNST ANTON,) a German medical writer,
born at Sondershausen in 1722. He became professor
at Jena in 1758, and wrote numerous works. Died
in 1802.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon;
NICOLAI
1675
N1COMACHUS
Nicolai, ne'ko'li'e', QEAN,) a French theologian, born
at Monza in 1594. He wrote several polemical works
against the Jansenists, and edited Thomas Aquinas,
(1663.) Died in 1673.
Nicolai, (JOHANN,) a German antiquary, born at Ilm
in 1665. He wrote numerous works on Jewish, Greek,
and Roman antiquities. Died in 1708.
Nicolai, (PHILIP?,) a German Lutheran theologian,
born at Mengeringhausen in 1556. He preached at
Hamburg, and published several works on theology.
Died in 1608.
Nicolai, de, deh ne'ko'lt'e', (ANTOINE CHRETIEN,)
CO.MTK, a French general, born in 1712, commanded a
corps at Rossbach, Crefeld, and Minden, (1758.) He
became a marshal of France in 1775. Died in 1777.
Nicolas, the French for NICHOLAS, which see.
Nicolas, ne'ko'la', (AuousTE,) a French writer and
judge, born at Bordeaux in 1807. His chief work is
" Philosophical Studies on Christianity," (4 vols., 1842-
45.) which obtained great success.
Nicolas, (AUGUSTIN,) a French poet and litterateur,
born at Besancon in 1622 ; died in 1695.
Nicolas, (MICHEL,) a learned French writer and
philosopher, burn at Ximes in 1810, is a Protestant
minister. He became professor of philosophy at Mon-
tauban about 1838. Among his numerous works are
a "Treatise on Eclecticism," (1840,) and a "Literary
History of Nimes," (3 vols., 1854.) He wrote many
articles for the " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Nic'o-las, (Sir NICHOLAS HARRIS,) a distinguished
English antiquary and biographical writer, born in Corn
wall in 1799. Among his most important works are
"Notitia Historica," or "The Chronology of History,"
(1824,) a "Life of Chaucer,'1 and the "History of the
Battle of Agincourt." He was a Fellow of the Society
of Antiquaries. He left unfinished a "History of the
British Navy," (2 vols.) Died in 1848.
Nicolas, (PiKKRE,) a French mathematician and Jes
uit, born at Toulouse in 1663. He wrote able works
on geometry. Died in 1708.
Nicolas, (PiKRRE FRANCOIS,) a French chemist and
medical writer, born at Saint-Mihiel in 1743; died in
1816.
Nicolas OK AMIENS, a French scholastic philosopher
and writer, lived about 1180—1200.
Nicolas OF MALE, a Swiss reformer, born at Bale.
He joined a society called "Friends of God," and was
an eminent witness to the spirituality of true religion.
About 1340 he was instrumental in the conversion of
John Tauler. He went to Rome in 1377, and openly re
buked the pope. He was burned at the stake about 1395.
See HODGSON, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867.
Nicolaus. See NICHOLAS I., Pope.
Nicolaus Damascenus. See DAMASCENES.
Nicolaus Myrepsus. See MYRKPSUS.
Nic-o-la'us Fraepositus, (pre-pos'e-tus,) surnamed
SALKRNI TA'NUS, a physician of the twelfth century, was
the founder of a celebrated medical school at Salerno.
His " Antidotarium" has often been confounded with
the work of Nicolaus Myrepsus on the same subject.
Nicolay, nee'ko-li', (LuDWiG HEINRICH,) BARON, a
German poet, born at Strasburg in 1737. He was ap
pointed, in 1769, preceptor to the grand duke Paul, after
wards Emperor of Russia, and subsequently became
director of the Academy of Sciences at Saint Petersburg.
He was made a privy councillor in 1801. His works
consist of elegies, epistles, narrative poems, and fables.
Died in 1820.
See P. vox GERSCHAU, "Aus dem Leben des H. L. Nicolay,"
1834.
Nicole, ne'kol', (CLAUDE,) a French poet, born at
Chartres in 1611, was a cousin-german of Pierre Nicole,
noticed below. He produced versions of the Odes of
Horace, the Elegies of Ovid, and of other classic poems.
Died in 1685.
Nicole, (FRANC.OIS,) a French mathematician, born
in Paris in 1683. He wrote, besides other works, a
"Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences," (1727.)
Died in 1758.
Nicole, (PIERRE,) an eminent French theologian and
philosopher, born at Chartres in 1625. He was a promi
nent member of the institution of Port-Royal, and an
intimate friend of Arnauld.in conjunction with whom he
wrote the treatise entitled "Perpetuity of the Faith of
the Catholic Church concerning the Eucharist," (1664.)
His most important work is a collection of treatises called
"Moral Essays and Theological Instructions," (25 vols.,
1671 et seij.) One of these, entitled "On the Means
of Preserving Peace," is styled by Voltaire "a master
piece of its kind, to which we can find nothing equal in
antiquity." Among his other productions we may name
his "Treatise on Human Faith," (1664,) and " Les
Imaginaires et les Visionnaires," (2 vols., 1667.) Died
in 1695.
See ABB£ GOUJF.T, "Vie de Nicole;" SAINTE-BEL'VE, " Port-
Royal," vol. iv. ; BAYLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;"
NICERON, "Me'moires ;" BESOIGNK, "Vie de Nicole," in his •' His-
toire de Port-Royal," vol. iv. ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Nicoliiii, ne-ko-lee'nee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian lit
terateur, born at Brescia in 1788. He wrote a didactic
poem "On the Culture of Cedars," and translated the
tragedy of "Macbeth" into Italian. Died in 1855.
Nic'oll, I ROBERT,) a Scottish poet, born in Perthshire
in 1814. He published in 1835 a collection of poems,
which were very well received. In 1836 he became
editor of the " Leeds Times," which, however, he did
not long have charge of, as he died the following year,
at the age of twenty-two.
See "Brief Biocraphies," by SAMTEL SMILES; CHAMPERS,
" Biographical Dictionary of Kminent Scotsmen," (Supplement :)
"Westminster Review" for October, 1842.
Nicolle. ne'kol', (CHARLES DOMINIQUE,) a French
teacher and educational writer, born in the department
of Seine-Inferieure in 1758. He was appointed in 1821
rector of the Academy of Paris. Died in 1835.
Nicolle, (GABRIEL HENRI,) brother of the preceding,
was born in 1767, and became successively associate
editor of the " Journal Fran9ais," " Courrier Universe!,"
and " L'ficlair." Died in 1829.
Nicollet, ne'ko'li', (JOSEPH NICOLAS,) a French as
tronomer and explorer, born in Savoy in 1786, or, as some
say, about 1795. He obtained the place of secretary and
librarian of the Observatory of Paris in 1817. About
1832 he emigrated to the United States. He made a
scientific exploration of the region drained by the Mis
souri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers. He was afterwards
employed by the government of the United States to
explore the country west of the Mississippi, of which he
produced a good map. He wrote, besides other work*,
a treatise on the geology of the valley of the Upper Mis
sissippi. Died at Washington in 1843.
See Qi'KRARD. "La France Litteraire ;" QUETELKT, "Notice
sur J. N. Nicollet," 1844.
Nic'olls, (JASPER,) an English officer, born about
1780, served with distinction in India in the campaigns
of 1817 and 1825, and was made lieutenant-general in
1841. Died in 1849.
Nicolls, (RICHARD,) COLONEL, an English officer,
who in 1664 compelled the Dutch Governor Stuyvesant
to surrender New Amsterdam, to which he gave the
name of New York. He was appointed first English
governor of that city. In the same year he took Fort
Orange, (or \Villiamstadt,) which was afterwards called
Albany, in honour of the Duke of York and Albany.
Nicolopoulo, ne'ko-lo-poo'lo, (CoNSTANTINK,) a
philologist, of Greek extraction, born at Smyrna in 1786.
He became professor of Greek literature at the Athe-
nreum in Paris, and was a contributor to the " Revue
encvclopedique." Died in 1841.
Nicolosi, ne-ko-lo'see, (GlAMBATTISTA,) a Sicilian
geographer, born at Paterno in 1610; died in 1670.
Nic'ol-son, (\YII.I.IAM,) an English prelate, born in
Cumberland in 1655, rose through various preferments
to be Archbishop of Cashel, in Ireland. He was the
author of three works, entitled "The English Historicnl
Library," (1696.) "The Scottish Historical Library."'
(1702,) and "The Irish Historical Library," (1724.)
Died in 1727.
Ni-com'a-ehus, [Gr. Nwcowa^oc; Fr. NICOMAQUF,
ne'ko'mtk',] a Greek tragic poet, born in the Troade,
wrote about 450—420 H.C., and was contemporary with
Euripides. His works are lost, except small fragments.
c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
NICOMACHUS
1676
NIEBUHR
Nicomachus, a Greek physician of Macedonia, who
flourished about 400 K.C., was the father ot Aristotle,
and was patronized by Amyntas II., King of Macedonia.
Nicomachus, a son of Aristotle, lived about 320
B.C. Little is known of his life. His mother was a
slave, named Ilerpyllis. Some critics have ascribed to
him certain ethical treatises which are generally included
among the works of Aristotle.
Nicomachus, a Greek mathematician, bom at Gerasa,
in Arabia, lived probably between 50 and 150 A.D. He
was a Pythagorean. He wrote several works on arith
metic, one of which is extant, and a Life of Pythagoras,
which is lost.
Nicomachus [Xwo/ia^of] OF THEBES, an excellent
Greek painter, was a son and pupil of the painter Aris-
todemus. He flourished about 350-300 B.C. His skill
is praised by Cicero, who classes him with Apelles.
Among his works noticed by Pliny were " Apollo and
Diana," the "Tyndaridae," and the "Rape of Proser
pine." He was renowned for rapidity of execution. His
brother ARISTIDES was also an eminent painter.
See CICERO, "Brutus."
Nicomaque. See NICOMACHUS.
Nicomede. See NJCOMEDES.
Nic-o-me'des [Gr. N//io/*//(5//f ; Fr. NICOMEDE, ne'-
ko'mAd'] I., King of Bithynia, began to reign at the
death of his father, 278 B.C. lie was opposed by his
brother Zipoetes, and took into his service an army of
Gauls, by whose aid he gained the victory. lie founded
the great city of Nicomedia. Died about 250 B.C.
See DKOYSEN, " Hellenisnuis."
Nic-o-me'des II. E-pipli'a-nes [Fr. NICOMEDE
fiptPHANE, ne'ko'mAd' a'pe'iSi/] was a son of Prusias
II., who sent him to Rome as a hostage. He gained
the favour of the Roman senate, and excited the jealousy
of his father, who sent an agent to assassinate him. In
formed of this design, Nicomedes dethroned and killed
Prusias in 149 B.C. He was afterwards an ally of the
Romans. Died about 90 B.C.
See JUSTIN, books xxxiv., xxxvii., etc.
Nicomedes III., surnamed PHILOP'ATOR, was a son
of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 91 B.C. In the
Mithridatic war, which ensued soon after, he was an ally
of Rome, but, having been defeated, he was driven from
his kingdom. Bithynia was subsequently restored to
Nicomedes, who, dying without children, (74 B.C.,) left it
to the Romans.
Nicomedes, a Greek geometer, the inventor of the
curve called the "conchoid," flourished about 100 B.C.
Ni'coii [Ni/cuv] OF PERGAMUS, a Greek architect and
geometer, was the father of the celebrated Galen. Died
about 150 A.D.
Ni'coii, SAINT, a monk, who preached in Armenia
about 960 A.D., and wrote a work "On the Impious Re
ligion of the Armenians." Died about 998.
Ni-coph'a-nes, [Noco^ai^c,] a Greek painter, who
is supposed to have lived about 300 B.C. His works are
praised by Pliny in high terms.
Nic'o-phon or Nic'o-phron, [N«o^wv or Noco</»pwv,]
an Athenian comic poet, lived about 400 B.C. Only
small fragments of his plays are extant.
Nicostrate. See NICOSTRATUS.
Ni-cos'tra-tus, [Gr. N«6arparoc; Fr. NICOSTRATE,
ne'ko'strtt',] an Athenian comic poet, was a son of
Aristophanes, and lived in the latter part of the fourth
century B.C. His works are lost.
Nicostratus, an. Athenian general, commanded in
the war against the Spartans about 425 B.C. He was a
colleague of Nicias in the expedition to Chalcidice.
Nicot, ne'ko', QEAN,) a French scholar, born at
Nimes in 1530. By his merit and talents he acquired
the confidence of Henry II. and his successor, and was
employed as secretary of the king. On his return from
an embassy to Lisbon, about 1560, he brought the tobacco-
plant, which was then unknown in France, and which
was named in his honour Nicotiana by the botanists.
The honour of producing the first model of a French
dictionary is ascribed to him. It was entitled " Treasure
of the French Language," (1606.) Died in 1600.
See F. HOEFER, " Dictionnaire de Botanique pratique."
Nicou-Choron, ne'koo'sho'roN', (STEPHANO Louis,!
a French composer, born in Paris in 1809. His works
are chiefly masses, oratorios, and other kinds of sacred
music.
Nicquet, ne'ki', (HONORAT,) a French Jesuit and
religious writer, born at Avignon in 1585; died in 1667.
Nicuesa, de, da ne-kwa'sd, (DlEGO,) a Spanish ad
venturer, born in 1464, accompanied the expedition of
Amerigo Vespucci to the Gulf of Urata in 1501.
See IRVING, "History of Christopher Columbus;" GOMERA,
"Histona general de las Indias."
Nidda, von, fon nid'da, (FiuEDRicii ALKRECHT
FRANZ KRUG,) a German poet, born near Querfurt in
1776. He wrote tales, ballads, etc. Died in 1841.
Nider, Nieder, or Nyder, nee'der, (JOHANNES,) a
German theologian, was appointed by the Council of
Bale (1531) to labour for the conversion of the Hussites.
Having tried argument without success, he resorted to
violent persecution, and was responsible for the death
of thousands. Died about 1440.
Nid'hogg (NitShoggr) or Nidhoger, [from niJ,
"malignity," and /toggi'ii, to "hew" or "cut,"] in the
Norse mythology, the name of a dragon or serpent which
dwells in the fountain of Hvergelmir,* (or Vergelmir,)
in Niflheim, and continually gnaws at the root of the
life-tree Yggclrasil. From Hvergelmir flow the rivers
of Hell. (See MELA.) According to some writers, Nid-
hogg typifies the original evil principle which forms an
element in the creed of so many of the Indo-Germanic
nations.
See THORPE'S "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; KEYSER'S "Re
ligion of the Northmen."
Niebelungeii-Lied. See SIF.GFRIED.
Niebuhr, nee'booR, (BARTHOI.D GF.ORG,) a cele
brated German historian and critic, born at Copenhagen
on the 27th of August, 1776, was the son of Carstens Nie
buhr, noticed below. He had a great facility for learning
languages, and he read the works of Shakspeare in the
original about the age of seven. In 1794 he entered
the University of Kiel, where he profoundly studied
Roman law, history, philosophy, and ancient languages.
He was appointed secretary to Count Schimmelmann,
minister of finance at Copenhagen, in 1796, made a tour
in Great Britain in 1798, and became an assessor in the
council of commerce at Copenhagen in 1800. In the
last-named year he married Amalie Behrens. In 1806
he passed into the service of Prussia, as joint director of
commerce, and in 1809 he became privy councillor and
member of the commission of finances at Berlin. Al
though he performed these various functions with much
ability and success, he soon retired from political life,
and in 1810 was chosen professor of history in the Uni
versity of Berlin. His lectures on Roman history, pub
lished in 1811-12, announced the important discoveries
and original ideas which have effected a great revolution
in the principles of Roman history, and constitute his
chief title to durable celebrity.
During the war of liberation (1813) he attended the
head-quarters of the allies, and was employed in nego
tiating loans. In 1816 he went as Prussian ambassador
to Rome, where he remained until 1822 and pursued
with ardour his researches in the history of ancient
Rome and the study of philology. He became a resident
of Bonn in 1823, and in 1825 opened there a course of
lectures on history and Roman antiquities. In 1827 he
published the first volume of a revised edition of his
" History of Rome," (" Romische Geschichte,") which
is considered the most original and profound work on
ancient history that any modern has produced. The third
and last volume appeared in 1832. The author died at
Bonn in January, 1831, leaving a son, Marcus, who held
a high position in the Prussian civil service. Niebuhr
had refused several titles of nobility. His character was
eminently truthful, upright, and generous. He had
* The etymology of this name is uncertain. It is probably derived
from a root cognate with the Anglo-Saxon hwerfan or hweorfan,
to "turn," to "whirl," and /»/**, (or «/»w.) a "bunch" or "mass,"
thus signifying the "whirling mass," | of waters. 1 According to Key-
ser, hver means a "hot spring" or "cauldron;" but the etymology
is not improbably the same, the term having been applied to a boiling
spring on account of the constant turning or whirling of its waters.
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y", short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
NIEBVHR
1677
N IE METER
noble features, and a graceful facility of elocution. His
attainments as a critic and philologist were of the highest
order.* He spoke all the languages of Europe, and was
master of the Hebrew, Greek, Arabic, and Persian.
Among his principal works are an edition of the
Byzantine Historians, (1828,) "Short Historical and
Philological Treatises," (1828,) "Lectures on Ancient
Ethnography and Geography," and "Lectures on An
cient History." In 1838 appeared an interesting col
lection of his Letters, with memoirs of his life, edited
by Madame Hensler, (" Lebensnachrichten iiber B. G.
Niebuhr," etc., 3 vols.) His reputation as a historian
continued to increase after his death, though several of
his positions are controverted by eminent critics. He
rejected as fabulous many stories which other historians
had credited, and aimed to construct a fabric of rational
probability out of the confused mass of traditions, con
jectures, and mythical legends. "He would have been
the first writer of his time," says Macaulay, "if his talent
for communicating truths had borne any proportion to
his talent for investigating them." (Preface to "Lays
of Ancient Rome.")
See "The Life and Letters of B. G. Niebuhr, with Essays on his
Character and Influence," by CHEVALIER BUNSEN-, London, 2 vols.,
1852; t-RANCis LIEBER, "Reminiscences of B. G. Niebuhr," 1835;
"Edinburgh Review" for January, 1833, and July, 1852; "Quar
terly Review," article on " Early Roman History," vol. xxvii. and vol.
xxxii . (by ARNOLD ;) "Westminster Review" for May, 1843 ; " Lon
don Quarterly Review" for September, 1840: "Foreign Quarterly
Review" for June, 1828, and July, 1831 ; " Kraser's Maga/.ine" for
Ju yand December, 1852 : " North American Review" for April, 1823,
(by E[J\V-IKD EVKRETT;) " North British Review" for August, 1852;
"Westminster Review" for December, 1843, (by G. H. LEWES.)
Niebuhr, (CARSTENS or KAKSTENS,) a German trav
eller of distinguished talent and energy, was born at
Liidingworth, in Hanover, in 1733. He entered the
Danish service as lieutenant-engineer in 1760, and was
appointed by Frederick V. in 1761 to accompany a sci
entific expedition to Arabia. Soon after their arrival at
Mocha, Von Haven, one of the company, died, and within
a year Niebuhr had the misfortune to lose his three re
maining companions. He now adopted the diet of the
Arabians, and his health, which had previously suffered,
continued good during the rest of his journey. He spent
six years in the country, taking upon himself all the
labours of the mission, and in 1767 returned to Den
mark. His "Description of Arabia" came out in 1772. j
The accuracy, research, and freedom from exaggeration
which characterize this production have caused it to be j
regarded as a standard work. In 1778 he brought out
" Travels in Arabia and the Surrounding Countries."
In addition to the above, he edited and published
the "Flora Egyptiaco-Arabica," and " Descriptions of
Animals" by Forskal, the naturalist of the expedition.
Niebuhr was a councillor of state, and a member of
the Academy of Sciences at Paris. Died in 1815.
See B. G. NIEBUHR, " Leben Carstens Niebuhr's," 1817;
"Monthly Review," vol. liii., 1776, (Appendix.)
Niebuhr, von, fon nee'booR, (MARCUS,) a son of
Barthold G. Niebuhr, was born at Rome about 1817.
He was carefully educated by his father, who declared
his determination that he should believe in the letter of
the Old and New Testament, and said, " I shall nurture
in him from his infancy a firm faith in all I have lost or
feel uncertain about." He obtained several high offices
in the Prussian government. He was opposed to the
Liberal party in politics. Died in 1860.
* It is interesting to know that he who was perhaps the most
thorough and searching of all historical critics, and whose intellect,
as he tells us himself, "early took a skeptical direction," felt himself
nevertheless obliged to accept the Gospel narratives as true history
in all essential points. He says, " He whose earthly life and sorrows
were depicted had for me a perfectly real existence, and His whole
history had the same reality even if it were not related with literal
exactness in any single point. Hence, also, the fundamental fact of
miracles, which, according to my conviction, must be conceded, un
less we adopt the not merely incomprehensible, but absurd, hypothesis
that the Holiest was a deceiver and His disciples either dupes or liars,
and that deceivers had preached a holy religion, in which self-renun
ciation is everything, and in which there is nothing tending towards
the erection of a priestly rule, — nothing that can be acceptable to
vicious inclinations. As regards a miracle in the strictest sense, it
really only requires an unprejudiced and penetrating study of nature
to see that those related are as far as possible from absurdity, and a
comparison with legends, or the pretended miracles of other religions,
to perceive by what a different spirit they are animated." (Niebuhr's
" Letters," vol. i. p. 340, Letter 148.)
Niederer, nee'deh-rer, QEAN,) a Swiss teacher, born
at Appenzell in 1778, published a treatise on the system
of Pestalozzi. Died in 1843.
Niedermeyer, nee'der-ml'er. (Louis,) a Swiss com
poser and musician, born in the canton cle Vaud in 1802.
Among his works are the opera of " La Fronde," and a
number of songs and religious pieces. Died in 1861.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Niel, ne-eT, (ADOLIMIK,) a French marshal, born at
Mu ret (Haute-Garonne) in 1802. He served in the
expedition to Rome in 1848, and became a general of
brigade in 1849, and general of division in 1853. As
general of engineers, he directed with success the opera
tions at the siege of Bomarsund, in 1854. In May, 1855,
he was appointed commander-in-chief of the engineers
and artillery at Sebastopol. He commanded a corps at
the battles of Magenta and Solferino, June, 1859. For
his services at Solferino he was raised to the rank of
marshal of France. He became minister of war in Feb
ruary, 1867, and showed himself an able administrator.
Died in August, 1869.
See BARON DE BAZANCOURT, " Campagnes de Crimee et d'ltalie ;"
"Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Nield, neeld, (JAMES,) an English philanthropist, born
in Cheshire in 1744. He devoted much time to the cause
of prison-reform. Died in 1814.
Nielly, ne'i'le', (JOSEPH MARIE,) BARON, a French
naval officer, born at Brest in 1751, served against the
English in several campaigns, and became vice-admiral
in 1815. Died in 1833.
Nielsen, neel'sen, (JOHAN MOSES GEORG,) a Danish
poet and lawyer, born near Nyborg in 1804; died in 1855
Nielsen, (NIKOLAUS PETER,) a popular Danish actor,
born in Seeland in 1795.
Niem, neem, (THIERRY,) a German historian, borr
near Paderborn, became Bishop of Cambray in 1396
He wrote the " Lives of the Roman Pontiffs," and other
historical works, in Latin. Died about 1417.
Niemann, nee'man, (AUGUST CHRISTIAN HEINRICH,)
a Danish publicist and writer on political economy, born
at Altona in 1761 ; died in 1832.
Niemami, nee'man, (JOHAXN FRIEDRICH,) a German
physician, born in Anhalt-Dessau in 1764, was the authoii
of several medical works. Died in 1846.
Niemcewicz, ne-e'm-tsa'vitch, (JULIAN URSIN,) a
celebrated Polish statesman, historian, and poet, born
in Lithuania in 1757. Being appointed a deputy to the
Constitutional Diet, he had the principal share in drawing
up the " Constitution of the 3d of May," 1791, and about
the same time became one of the editors of a popular
journal called " Gazeta Narodowa." After the battle of
Maciejowice, he was made piisoner with Kosciusko and
confined in the fortress of Saint Petersburg, from which
they were released on the accession of Paul, in 1796.
He accompanied Kosciusko to America in 1797, and in
1800 married Mrs. Livingston Kean, a lady of New York.
He returned to Europe on the entrance of Napoleon
into Poland, and when that country was united with
Russia he was appointed by the emperor Alexander
president of the committee of the constitution, and per
petual secretary of the senate. A short time previous
to the fall of Warsaw he visited England, and then went
to Paris, where he died in 1841. His principal works
are " Historical Songs of Poland," " History of the Reign
of Sigismund III.," " Memoirs towards the Ancient His
tory of Poland," and "John of Tenczyn," a romance.
He also wrote several dramas, which were successful,
and made some translations from the English poets.
See BROCKHAUS, "Conversations-Lexikon."
Niemeyer, nee'mi'er, (AUGUST HERMANN,) a Ger
man theologian, born at Halle in 1754. He was ap
pointed in 1799 director of the charitable institutions
founded by A. H. Francke, and became in 1808 chan
cellor and perpetual rector of the University of Halle.
He wrote educational and religious works in prose and
verse, and was highly esteemed for his virtue and learn
ing. Died in 1828.
See FRITSCH, " Ueber des verewigten A. H. Niemeyer's Leben."
1828: JACOBS und GRUBER. "A. H. Niemeyer: zur Erinnerung an
dessen Leben," 1831 ; A. H. REIN, " Erinnerungen an A. H. Nie
meyer," 1841.
€ as k: c as s: g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; *h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23,)
NIEMOJOWSKI
NIGHTINGALE
Niemojowski, ne-e"in-o-yov'skee, (JOSEPH,) a Polish
patriot, born about 1760, was appointed general of the
palatinate of Posnania. He was killed at the battle of
Polotzk, in 1813.
Niemojowski, (VINCENT,) born near Kalisch in
1784, distinguished himself by his zeal in the cause of
Poland, and held for a time the post of minister of the
interior at Warsaw. Died in 1834.
Niepce, ne-eps', (JOSEPH NICEPHORE,) a French
chemist and inventor of photography, born at Chalons-
sur-Saone in 1765. He served in the army in 1792-
95. About 1814 he began his researches on the action
of light on prepared surfaces. In 1822 he obtained
copies of engravings from polished metallic plates cov
ered with a bituminous varnish. He gave the name of
Heliograpkie to this art. He formed a partnership with
naguerre in 1829. It is stated that Niepce was the
first to fix permanently images formed by the camera.
Died in 1833.
See " Xouvelle Biocjraphie Generale."
Niepce de Saint- Victor, ne-eps' deh saN7 vek'toR',
(Cl.\ri)K FELIX AiiEL,) a French chemist and pho
tographer, a nephew of the preceding, was born near
Chalons-sur-Saone in 1805. He entered the army, in
which he gained the rank of captain. Having applied
himself to the task of perfecting the invention of his
uncle, he announced in 1847 to the Academy of Sci
ences an important discovery of a method of obtaining
images on glass prepared with starch or albumen. He
also invented a process of heliographic engraving on
metal covered with a varnish which consists chiefly of
benzh.e. In 1854 he was appointed commandant of the
Louvre. He explained his discoveries in numerous
memoirs, which he published collectively under the
title of "Photographic Researches," (1855.) Died in
April, 1870.
See a " Memoir of Niepce de Saint-Victor." prefixed to the work
just named, by M. E. LACAN; " Nouvelle Kingrapllie Generale;"
" British Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1866.
Nieremberg, nee'rem-beKg', [I. at. NIEREMHKR'GTUS,]
(JoilANN Ei'SEinus,) a learned Spanish Jesuit, of Ger
man extraction, born at Madrid about 1590. He was
the author of numerous theological and miscellaneous
works, in Latin and Spanish ; among the principal of
these is his " Historia Naturae maxima peregrinas,"
(1635,) being an account of the natural history of the
Indies. Died in 1658.
See "Vie du P. de Nieremlierfj," prefixed to liis "Opera Par-
then ica ;" A DE ANDKADA, " Vida del P. J. E. Nieremberg," 1658;
MOR£RI, " Dictiormaire Historique."
Nierembergius. See NIEREMBF.RG.
Nieritz, nee'rits, (KARi. GUSTAV,) a German littfra-
teitr, born at Dresden in 1795, has published several
works for children and youth.
Niethammer, neethilm'mer, (FRIEDRICH TMMA-
NUKI.,) a German philosopher, born at Beilstein, in
Wiirtemberg, in 1766. He was associated with Fichte
as editor of the " Philosophisches Journal" at Jena.
Died in 1846.
Nieto, ne-a'to, (DAVID,) a learned Jewish rabbi, born
at Venice in 1654 ; died in 1728.
Nieto, ne-a'to, (Don VINCK.NTE,) a Spanish general,
born in 1769, fought on the side of the royalists in the
civil war of 1810 in South America. Having been made
prisoner by the patriot General Balcarca in Upper Peru,
he was shot by his order in 1810.
Nieuhoff, noi'hof, (Jon ANN,) a German traveller, born
in Westphalia in 1630, visited China and Batavia, and
published in 1666 an account of his journey, (in Dutch,)
which was very popular at the time and wns translated
into Latin and several other languages. Having gone
ashore at Madagascar in 1672, he was lost, killed, or
disappeared mysteriously.
See MACARTNEY, "Travels in India, China," etc.
Nieulant, ne-uh'lant, (Wn.i.KM,) a skilful Flemish
painter and engraver, born in 1584, studied at Rome.
Among his works are engravings of Italian landscapes.
Died in 1635.
Nieupoort,ne-uh'poi<t,(WiLLEM HENDRiK,)a Dutch
historian and jurist, born about 1670, became professor
of law at Utrecht. Died about 1730.
Nieuport, de, deh ne-uh'poR', (CHARLES FRANCOIS
FERDINAND FLOKENT ANTOINE,) VICOMTE, a distin
guished mathematician, born in Paris in 1746, was ap
pointed in 1816 director of the Academy of Brussels.
He died in 1827, leaving numerous mathematical works.
Nieuwelandt, ne-uw'eh-lant', or Nieulandt, ne-
uh'lant, (ADRIAN,) a Flemish painter, was a native of
Antwerp. His works are chiefly landscapes and sea-
views. Died in 1601.
Nieuwelandt, (JAN,) son of the preceding, was born
at Antwerp in 1579. He studied painting under his
father, and produced a number of landscapes of superior
merit.
See DKSCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands. Hollandais," etc.
Nieuwelandt, van den, vtn den ne-uw'ch-lant,
(Wn.LEM,) a Flemish artist and dramatic writer, born at
Antwerp in 1584, was a son of Adrian, noticed above.
He painted architectural pieces of great meiit. and
was also a skilful engraver. He was the author of a
popular tragedy, entitled "Nero," and of other works.
Died in 1635.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Nieuweiityt, ne-uh'wen-tlt', (BEKNARD,) a Dutch
writer and mathematician, born in North Holland in
1654, became burgomaster of . Purmerencl. He wrote
treatises against the differential calculus, and a popular
work entitled "The Right Use of the Contemplation of
the World," (" Met regt Gebruik der Wereltbeschou-
ingen," 1715,) which was translated into several lan
guages. Died in 1718.
See NICKRON, " Memoires."
Nieuwerkerke, de, .leh ne-uh'wer-keR'keh, (AL
FRED EMILIEN,) COMTK, a French sculptor, of Dutch
extraction, born in Paris in 1811. He has executed
numerous busts and statues, among which we may name
those of Descartes and Isabella the Catholic.
Nieuwland, ne-uh/lant, (PIETER,) a Dutch poet and
savant, born near Amsterdam in 1764. He displayed in
youth great precocity and aptitude for learning languages
and sciences. He wrote several able scientific treatises,
and poems of great beauty, one of which is entitled
"Orion." In 1793 he became professor of natural phi
losophy, astronomy, and mathematics at Leyden. Died
in November, 1794.
See P. MICHKI.I,, "Jets ter Nagedacbtenis van P. Nieuwland,"
1794: J. H. VAN SWINDKN, " Lykrede op P. Nieuwland," 1795; C.
L. BRICHTWKI.I., "Annals of Industry and Genius," London, 1863.
Nifanius, ne-fa'ne-us, (CHRISTIAN,) a German theo
logian and scholar, born at Lelingen in 1629; died in
1689.
Niflheim. See HELA.
Nifo, nee'fo, | Lat. NI'PIUTS,] (AoosriNO,) an Italian
scholar and philosopher, born in Calabria about 1473,
published several Latin treatises and commentaries on
Aristotle. He was patronized by Leo X., and was a
professor at Rome and Naples. Died about 1538.
See GiNGUENii, "Histoire Litte'raire d'ltalie."
Nigel, m'jel, ? an ecclesiastic, born in Normandy, be
came treasurer to Henry I. of England, who subsequently
created him Bishop of Ely. Died in 1169.
Ni'ger, (CAius PESCENNIUS.) a Roman commander,
and governor of Syria. On the death of Pertinax, 193
A.D., he became a competitor for the empire, with Sep-
timius Severus and Clodius Albinus for his rivals. After
his army had been several times defeated by the former
in Asia Minor, he was made prisoner and put to death
in 194 A.D.
See TII.I.HMONT, " Histoire des Emperenrs. "
Nigetti, ne-jet'tee, (MATTEO,) an Italian architect and
sculptor, born at Florence about 1560; died in 1646.
Night'in-gale, (Miss FLORENCE,) a lady celebrated
for her philanthropy, the daughter of William E. Night
ingale, of Derbyshire, England, was born at Florence
in 1820. From her childhood she took a deep interest
in schemes of benevolence, and, after having visited the
hospitals and other similar establishments of England,
she went to Germany, with the view of inspecting the
institution at Kaiserswerth, founded in 1833 by Fliedner.
In 1849 she entered Kaiserswerth, in order to qualify
herself as a hospital nurse in the training-school which
forms a part of that establishment. The Crimean war
, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fill, fit; mgt; nftt; good; moon ;
NIGHTINGALE
1679
KIS4RD
having broken out soon after her return to England,
Miss Nightingale, accompanied by a number of volun
tary nurses, set out in 1854 for the East, where, in the
military hospitals at Scutari, they devoted themselves to
the care of the sick and wounded soldiers. In 1856 she
returned to England, where the queen conferred upon her
various distinctions in acknowledgment of her eminent
services. Miss Nightingale has published a pamphlet
entitled "The Institution at Kaiserswerth on the Rhine,
for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, under the
Direction of the Rev. Pastor Fliedner," (1850,) and
" Notes on Nursing," one of the best works that has
appeared on the subject.
See MRS. JAMESON, " Sisters of Charity ;" "London Quarterly
Review" for April, 1860.
Nightingale, (JOSEPH,) an English dissenting divine,
born in Lancashire in 1775. He wr°te> among other
works, "A Portraiture of Catholicism," and "English
Topography." Died in 1824.
Nighr/iri-gall,(Sir MILKS,) K.C.B., an English officer,
served under Sir William Meadows in India in 1791-92,
and was subsequently engaged in the continental war.
About 1820 he became a member of Parliament for Suf
folk. Died in 1829.
Nigidius. See FIGULUS.
Nigrisoli, ne-gue-so'lee, (GIOVANNI MARIA,) an Ital
ian physician, born at Ferrarain 1648, became professor
of medicine in his native city. Died in 1727.
Nigioiii, ne-gRo'nee, (Giui.io,) a learned Jesuit, born
at Genoa in 1553 ; died in 1625.
Nihus, nee'us, (BAKTHOLD,) a German Catholic theo
logian, born in the duchy of runswick in 1589, wrote a
number of controversial treatises. Died in 1657.
Nikitin, ne-ke-tin' or ne-ke-teen', (ATIIANASIUS,) a
Russian traveller, who visited Persia and Hindostan,
and wrote an account of those countries, which was dis
covered and published by Karamzin. Died in 14/2.
See GKETCH, " K-;s;>i liistorique sur la Litterature Russe."
Nike. See NICK.
Nikolai, nee'ko-li, (TzAAK,) a Dutch painter, born at
Leyclen in 1536. He died in 1619, leaving three sons,
all of whom were artists.
See DK-.CAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollapdais," etc.
Nikolaus, the German for NICHOLAS, which see.
Nikon or Nicon, nee'kon, a Russian .scholar and
theologian, born near Novogorod in 1605. He was ap
pointed Patriarch of Russia in 1652 ; but he afterwards
lost favour at court, and was deposed. He rendered
great services to Russian literature by correcting the
Slavonian ecclesiastical works from the Greek originals ;
and he is believed to have compiled the "Russian
Chronicles/' published by the Academy of Sciences at
Saint Petersburg, (1792.) Died in 1681.
See IVAN OmrcHKRix. "Vie du Patriarclie Nikon," 1817;
APOI.I.OS, ''Vie du Patriarclie Nikon," 1839.
Nil, SAINT, an ecclesiastic of the fifth century, be
longed to a noble family of Constantinople. He was
author of numerous theological works, only a part of
which are extant.
Nilakantha, a surname of SIVA, (which see.)
Niles, nilz, (HEZEKIAH,) an American journalist, and
founder of the " Register" called by his name, which
he edited for twenty-five years at Baltimore, was born
about 1777; died in 1839.
Niles, (JoHN MILTON,) an American journalist and
statesman, born at Windsor, Connecticut, in 1787. He
became editor in 1817 of the "Hartford Times," a
Democratic journal, and in 1840 was appointed post
master-general by President Van Buren. He was elected
to the United States Senate in 1842. He wrote the
"Lives of Perry, Lawrence, Pike, and Harrison," "His
tory of South America and Mexico," etc., and other
works. Died in 1856.
Niles, (NATHANIEL,) an American divine and inventor,
born at South Kingston, Rhode Island, in 1741, was a
member of Congress from Vermont in 1791. He was
the author of religious and miscellaneous works, and
wrote a popular war-song, called "The American Hero."
Died in 1828.
Niles, (SAMUEL,) an American divine, born at Brain-
tree, Massachusetts, in 1744. He graduated at Prince
ton College, and subsequently became minister of Abing-
ton, Massachusetts. Died in 1814.
Ni'leus or Neleus, [NftAcuc,] a Greek physician of
uncertain epoch, probably lived before 200 i;.c. He
invented a machine for the reduction of dislocations.
Nilson, ml'son, (JoHANN ESAIAS,) a German painter
and engraver, born at Augsburg in 1721 ; died in 1788.
Nilson, nil'son, or Nilsson, (SvEN,) an eminent
Swedish naturalist and physician, born near Landskrona
in 1787. Among his principal works are his "Swedish
Ornithology," (" Ornithologia Suecica,") "Scandinavian
Fauna," (" Skandinavisk Fauna," 1820,) and an antiqua
rian treatise "On the Primitive Inhabitants of Northern
Scandinavia," (1838.)
Nilsson, nll'son, (CHRISTINE,) a celebrated singer,
born in Smaland, Sweden, in 1843. She made her debut
in Paris in October, 1864, appeared in London in 1867,
visited the United States in 1870, and was everywhere
received with unbounded applause.
Nimeegen, van, vln ne-ma'nen, (ELIAS,) a Dutch
painter of landscapes, history, and still life, born at
Nymwegen in 1667; died about 1737.
Nina, nee'na, a Sicilian poetess of the latter part of
the thirteenth century.
Ninnin, ne'na.N1', (HENRI,) born at Poix, in Cham
pagne, in 1722, was one of the physicians of Louis XV.
He published a translation of the medical works of
Celsus, (2 vols., 1753.) Died in 1800.
Nino, nen'yo, (ANDRES,) a Spanish navigator, born
about 1475, made a voyage to the Molucca?, in 1522.
Nino, (PEDRO ALONZO,) a Spanish navigator, sur-
named EL NEGRO, ("the Black,") born in Andalusia in
1468, was one of the companions of Columbus in his
third voyage. He afterwards sailed as commander of a
caravel, and made several discoveries on and near the
South American coast. Died about 1505.
See IRVING, " Life of Columbus."
Nino de Guevara. See GCEVARA, DE.
Ninon. See I/ENCLOS, DE.
Ni'nus, [Gr. Ntrof,] a celebrated ruler of antiquity,
said to have been'the founder of the Assyrian monarchy,
flourished about 2*48 B.C. After having conquered the
greater part of Asia, he built the city of Nineveh, and at
his death left his kingdom to his warlike queen SEMI-
KAMLS, (which see.)
Nl'o-be, [Gr. Nw3r;; Fr. NIOBE, ne'o'ba',] a person
age of classic mythology, said to have been a daughter
of Tantalus, (or, according to some authorities, of Pe-
lops,) and the wife of Amphi'on. She was celebrated
for her numerous and beautiful offspring, and had seven
sons and seven daughters, or, according to some ac
counts, six of each. -The poets relate that she was so
proud of her children that she claimed superiority over
Latona, (Leto,) who had borne only two. Apollo and
Diana, (Artemis,) exasperated by her arrogance, slew-
all her children. The sons are said to have fallen by
the arrows of Apollo, the daughters by those of Diana.
Niobe was changed into a stone by her excessive grief.
Her story was a favourite subject of the ancient poets,
and has been commemorated by an admirable group
of statuary, which is now at Florence, and which is
variously ascribed to Praxiteles and Scopas. (See the
" Iliad," book xxiv.)
Niou, ne'oo', ( JOSEPH,) a French revolutionist, born
at Kochefort in 1751, was elected to the National Con
vention in 1792, and voted for the death of the king.
Died in 1828.
Niphus. See NIFO.
Nisami. See NIZAMEE.
Nisard, ne'zjR', (JEAN MARIE NAPOLEON- DESIRE,)
a French critic and litterateur, born at Chatillon-sur-
Seine in 1806. He became associate editor of the
"Journal des Debats" and of " Le National," (1831,)
and was subsequently appointed master of requests in
the council of state, and professor of Latin eloquence in
the College of France, (1844.) He was elected in 1850
to the French Academy, and in 1852 succeeded M. Vil-
lemain in the chair of French eloquence in the Faculty
of Letters. Among his works we may name his " Studies
of Morals and Criticism on the Latin Poets during the
Decline of Learning," (2 vols., 1834,) which is highly
« as k; c as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
NISARD
1680
NOAH
commended by Villemain and other critics, " History
of French Literature," (4 vols., 1844-61,) esteemed his
best production, and " Studies on the Revival of Let
ters," (1855.)
See SAINTE-BEUVE, "Portraits contemporains ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generate."
Nisard, (T. KAN MARIE NICOLAS AUGUSTS,) a French
scholar, brother of the preceding, was born at Chatillon-
sur-Seine in 1805. He published a translation of Horace's
" Art of Poetry" and of Virgil's works.
Nisard, (MARIE LEONARD CHARLES,) brother of the
preceding, was born at Chatillon-snr-Seine in 1808. He
published several original works, and made translations
from Ovid, Martial, and other Latin classics. Among
his works are " Les Ennemis de Voltaire," (1853,) a
" History of Popular Books since the Fifteenth Century,"
(2 vols., 1854,) and " Les Gladiateurs de la Republique
des Lettres an quinzieme, seizieme et dix-septieme Sie-
cles," (1860 )
Nisbet. See NKSBIT, (ALEXANDKR.)
Nissel, nis'sel, [Lat. NISSK'I.IUS,] ([OHANN GEORG,)
a German editor, born in the Palatinate, lived mostly at
Leyden. He published, at his own expense, a Hebrew
Bible, (about 1659,) which is said to be accurate. Died
in 1662.
Nisselius. See NISSEL.
Nissole, ne'sol', (GuiLLAUMK,) a French botanist,
born at Montpellier in 1647. The genus Nissolia was
named in his honour by Tournefort Died in 1734.
Ni'sus, [Gr. Ntoof,] in classic mythology, a son of
Pandi'on, and a king of Megara. The poets relate that
Megara was taken by Minos through the treachery
of Scvlla, a daughter of Nisus, who died because she
cut off the purple or golden hair on which his life de
pended.
Nisus, a Trojan warrior and friend of Euryalus, came
to Italy with .-Eneas, and was killed in the war against
Turnus. The story of Nisus and Euryalus forms the
subject of a beautiful episode of Virgil's " /Eneid,"book
ix., 175-448.
Nithard, ne'laV, a French historian, born in 790 A.n.,
was the son of Angilbert and Bertha, daughter of Charle
magne. His principal work is a "History of the Dis
sensions between the Sons of Louis le Debonnaire," (in
Latin.) Died in 853.
See " Histoire litte>aire de la France," vol. v.
Ni-to'cris, [Gr. Nrrw/cpjc,] a queen of ancient Egypt,
lived before the time of Herodotus, who says she was
the only female in a list of three hundred and thirty nion-
archs which the Egyptian priests showed to him. She
was celebrated as a heroine in the legends of ancient
Egypt-
See BCNSEN, "/Egyptens Stella in der Wehgeschichte."
Nitsch, nitsh, (PAUL FRIK.DRICH,) a German archae
ologist, born at Glauchau in 1754, published a "New
Mythological Dictionary," (1793,) and other learned
works. Died in 1794.
Nitzsch or Nitzch, nitsh, (GREGOR WII.HKI.M,) a
German philologist and antiquary, born at Wittenberg
in 1790, was a son of Karl Ludvvig, noticed below. He
became professor of ancient literature at Kiel in 1827,
and professor of archaeology at Leipsic in 1852. He
gained distinction by his speculations on the Homeric
poems. Among his works is "The Epic Poetry of the
Greeks," (2 vols., 1852.) Died in 1861.
Nitzsch, (KARL IMMANUEL,) a German theologian, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Borna, in Saxony,
in 1787. He became professor of theology at Bonn in
1822, and obtained the high office of Oberconsistorial-
rath in 1843. Tn 1847 ne was appointed preacher to
the University of Berlin. His opinions are said to be
liberal.
Nitzsch, (KARL LunwiG,) a German theologian, born
at Wittenberg in 1751, was the father of the preceding.
He was appointed professor of theology at the Univer
sity of Wittenberg about 1790. He wrote, besides other
works, " On the Salvation of the World," (" Ueber das
Heil der Welt," 1817.) He favoured a compromise or
reconcilement between orthodoxy and rationalism. Died
in 1831.
See HOPPE, " Denkmal des verewigten K. L. Nitzsch," 1837.
Nivelle, ne'vel', (GABRIEL NICOLAS,) a French Jan-
senist, born in 1687, was the author of " The Cry of the
Faith," and "The Constitution Unigenitus submitted to
the Universal Church." Died in 1761.
Nivelle de la Chaussee. See CHAUSSEE, DE LA.
Nivernais, de, deh ne'veVn.V, (Louis JULES Bar-
bon Mancini Mazarini — baVbo.N1' mox'se'iie' ma"'-
zS're'ne',) Due, a distinguished French litterateur and
diplomatist, born in Paris in 1716. He was employed
in several important missions, and in 1763 negotiated
the treaty between England and France. lie made
translations from the Latin, English, and Italian, and
wrote a number of fables, which are highly esteemed.
He was a member of the French Academy. Died in
1798.
See SAINTE-BEUVE," Causeries dn Lunrii ;" F. DE NEUFCHATRAU,
" filogedu Due de Nivermis," prefixed to his "CEuvres posthumes,"
1807 ; ANDR^ DUPIN, " filo.^e du Dnc de Nivernois," 1^40.
Nivers, ne'vaiit', (GUILLAUMK GAHKIKI.,) a French
musician and writer on music, born near Melun in 1617.
Nix'oii, (JOHN,) an American general of the Revo
lution, bom at Framingham, Massachusetts, in 1725.
He distinguished himself at the battles of Ticonderoga,
Lexington, and Bunker Hill, and rose to be brigadier-
general in 1776. Died in 1815.
Niza, di, de ned'za, (MARCO,) an Italian missionary,
is said to have first discovered the province of Sonora,
in New Mexico, (1540.)
Nizam-el-Molouk. See NIZAM-KL-MOOLK.
Nizam-el-Moolk, ne-/am' el moolk, written also
Nizam-el-Mulk and Nizam-al-Moulk or -Molook,
a Persian statesman, was grand vizier to the Sultan Alp-
Arslan. lie was a distinguished patron of learning, and
founded the College of Bagdad. He wrote a valuable
work containing precepts for government. Died about
1092.
Nizam -ool- Moolk or Nizam -ul-Mulk, (or
-Moulk.) ne-ztm/ ool moolk, a general and politician,
born at Delhi, in Ilindostan, about 1650. He is said
to have been daring, successful, and treacherous. lie
made himself master of the Deccan. Died in 1748.
Nizam-ul-Mulk. See NizAM-EL-MoOLK and Ni-
ZAM-OOI.-MOOI.K.
Nizimee, Nizami, or Nisami, ne-za'mee, written
also Nidhami, (Aboo- Mohammed -Ibii-Yoosuf,
a'boo mo-ham'med ib'n yoo'soof or yoo'suf.) a cele
brated Persian poet of the twelfth century. One of his
principal poems furnished the subject of Gozzi's drama
of " Turandot," which was subsequently imitated by
Schiller. Died in 1180.
Nizami. See NizAMF.E.
Nizoliua. See NIZZOLI.
Nizzoli, net'so-lee. [Lat. NIZO'I.TUS,] (MARIO.) an
Italian scholar, and one of the best Latin writers of his
time, was born near Modena in 1498. His principal
works are "The Ciceronian Treasure," ("Thesaurus
Ciceronianns,") and an essay "On the True Principles
of Philosophising."
Njord or Niord, nyord, (Njor'Sr,) [etymology very
uncertain ; some derive it from nordr, "north,"] the god
of winds, and the third in order (after Odin) among
the gods of the Norse mythology. He appears to be a
personification of trade or commerce, and dwells in
Noatun, (no'a-toon',) or " Ship-town." His wife is named
SKADI, (which see.) He is particularly worshipped by
sailors and fishermen. He is very rich, and can give
wealth in abundance to those who invoke him. He
rules the course of the wind, stills the ocean, and
quenches fire. He was originally an inhabitant of Vana-
heim, but was sent by the Vanir as a hostage to the
/Esir, among whom he is now numbered.
See THORPE'S "Northern Mvtho'opy." vol. i. ; KEYSER'S "Re
ligion of the Northmen ;" PETERSEN'S " Nordisk Mythologi."
No'ah, [Heb. PJ; Gr. Nwe; Fr. NOE, no'a',] the son
of Lamech, a patriarch of the tenth generation from
Adam, is supposed to have been born about 2950 B.C.
He was distinguished for his integrity and piety in an
age of almost universal corruption. (Genesis vi. 9 ; II.
Peter ii. 5.) He was six hundred years old when the
great Deluge destroyed all the human race except Noah
and his family, who were saved in the Ark (Genesis vii.,
a, e, T, o, fi, y, long: a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, v", short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; me"t; not; good; moon;
N04H
i68i
NODAL
viii., and ix.) and entered into a new and everlasting
covenant. He died at the age of nine hundred and fifty.
No'ab, (MoRDECAl MANUEL,) an American journalist
and politician, of Jewish extraction, born in Philadelphia
in 1785. He removed to New York, where he was
successively editor of "The National Advocate," "The
Enquirer," "Evening Star," and "Sunday Times." He
was appointed consul to Morocco in 1813. He pub
lished " Travels in England, France, Spain, and the
Barbary States." Died in 1851.
Noaille, no'!!' or no't'ye, (JACQUES BARTHELEMY,)
a French magistrate and revolutionist, of the royalist
party, born at Beaucaire in April, 1758; died in 1828.
Noailles, de, deh no'tF or no't'ye, ( ADRIEN
MAURICE,) Due, an eminent French general and states
man, born in Paris in 1678, was the eldest son of Anne
Jules, noticed below. He married Fran9oise d'Aubigne,
a niece of Madame de Maintenon. During the war of
the Spanish succession he served with distinction as
general and diplomatist in Spain from 1705 to 1712.
He was minister of finance from 1715 to 1718. In 1734
he became a marshal of France and commander-in-chief
in a war against the Emperor of Germany. He wrote
"Political and Military Memoirs," (6 vols., 1777.) He
is represented as a man of great talents and many virtues.
Died in 1766.
See MIU.OT, "Memoires du Due de Noailles," 1777; SAINT-
SIMON, "Memoires;" VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Mo-
REKI, " Dictionnaire Historique :" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;"
CESENA, " La Maison de Noailles," 1842.
Noailles, de, (ANNE JULES,) Due, an able French
general, born in 1650, was the eldest son of the first
Duke of Noailles, and father of the preceding. He
commanded in Catalonia between 1689 and 1695, and
gained several advantages over the Spaniards. He ob
tained the rank of marshal of France in 1693, and became
Viceroy of Catalonia. Died in 1708.
See SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires;" DE COURCELLES, "Dictionnaire
des Generaux Francais ;" CESENA, "La Maison de Xoailles," 1842.
Noailles, de, (AxroiNE,) a French admiral, born in
1504 ; died in 1562.
Noailles, de, (FRANC.OIS,) a French diplomatist,
brother of the preceding, was born in the department of
Limousin in 1519. He was employed by Henry II. in
missions to London, Venice, and Constantinople. Died
in 1:585.
Noailles, de, (JEAN PAUL FRANC.OIS,) Due, son of
Louis, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1739. He
served in the last campaigns of the Seven Years' war,
was made a knight of the golden fleece, and obtained the
rank of lieutenant-general. He wrote several scientific
treatises, and became a member of the Academy of
Sciences, (1777.) He was the father-in-law of General
La Fayette. 13ied in 1824.
See DE COURCELI.ES, " Histoire des Pairs de France ;" A. DE
CE>KNA. "La Maison de Noailles," 1842.
Noailles, de, (Louis,) Due, born in 1713, was a son
of Adrien Maurice. He was styled Due d'Ayen before
his father's death. He distinguished himself in the
campaigns of Flanders and Germany, and obtained the
rank of marshal in 1775. Died in 1793. When Louis
XV. said that the fermiers-genermtx support the state,
the Due de Noailles replied, " Yes, as the rope supports
a man who is hung."
See VOLTAIRE, "Precis du Regne de Louis XV," chap. Ixvii.
Noailles, de, (Louis ANTOINE,) a French cardinal,
born in 1651, was a son of the first Duke of Noailles,
and a brother of Anne Jules, noticed above. He suc
ceeded Harlay as Archbishop of Paris in 1695. In the
controversy which broke out soon after between the
Jesuits and the Tansenists, he endeavoured to act as
mediator ; but he lost the confidence and incurred the
displeasure of both parties. Having refused for a long
time to accept the papal bull Unigenitus, he gave in his
submission to the pope in 1728. Died in 1729.
See SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires;" "Hisu.ire de Port-Royal:"
"Gallia Christiana," tomes i., viii., and ix. ; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Noailles, de, (Louis JOSEPH ALEXIS.) son of Louis
Marie, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1783. He
was a zealous adherent of the Bourbons, and fought
against Napoleon in the army of the allies in 1813. At
the Congress of Vienna he was one of the ministers-
plenipotentiary of France, and in 1815 was appointed
minister of state and a member of the privy council.
Died in 1835.
See DE COURCELI.ES, " Histoire des Pairs de France ;" " Nou
velle Biographic Generale."
Noailles, de, (Louis MARIE,) VICOMTE, a French
statesman, born in 1756, was a son of Marshal de Mou-
chy. As a deputy to the States-General in 1789, he pro
posed, on the 4th of August, the suppression of feudal
rights and other privileges of the aristocracy. He mar
ried the sister of Madame La Fayette. Soon after the
commencement of the reign of terror he emigrated to
the United States. Having been sent by Napoleon to
Saint Domingo as general of brigade in 1803, he was
killed in a naval engagement with the English, in 1804.
See BAILI.V, "Memoires;" TRIERS, "History of the French
Revolution;" "Nouvelle Biographic Geuerale."
Noailles, de, (PAUL,) Due, a French litterateur, born
in Paris in 1802. He has published a "History of
Madame de Maintenon and the Principal Events of the
Reign of Louis XIV.," (1848.) and several other works.
In 1849 he succeeded Chateaubriand as a member of the
French Academy.
See A. UK CESENA, " Le Due de Noailles," 1842.
Noailles, de, (PHILIPPE.) See MOUCHY.
Noback, no'bak, (FKIEDRICH EDUARD,) born at
Crefeld, in Germany, in 1815, published a " Systematic
Manual of the Science of Commerce," (1848.)
Noback, (KARL AUGUST,) a German writer on com
merce, brother of the preceding, was born at Kolleda in
1810. He published a treatise "On Commercial Asso
ciations," (1842,) and other works of the kind.
Nobel, m/bel, written also Noble, (CONSTANTIN,)
a Dutch navigator, born about 1616, obtained a high
rank in the service of the Dutch East India Company.
Died after 1674, Van Hoorn and Nobel went on a mis
sion to Peking in 1665.
Nobili, no'be-lee, (LEOPOLDO,) an Italian botanist,
born in 1784 ; died in 1834.
See V. ANTINORI, " Elogio storico del Professore L. Nobili,"
1836.
Nobili, de', da no'be-lee, [Lat. DE NOBII/IBUS,]
: (RoKERTO,) a celebrated Italian Jesuit and missionary,
i born at Monte-Pulciano in 1577, was a nephew of Car-
' dinal Bellarmino. He resided many years in Southern
India, where he converted great numbers to Christianity.
He wrote several religious treatises in different Indian
dialects. Died in 1656.
See JOIJVENCV, " Histoire des Jesuites;" PARIGI, " Notizie de'
Cardinale R. de' Nobili," etc., 1836.
Nobilibus, de. See NOBILI, DE'.
Noble, no'b'l, (MARK,) an English divine and writer,
became rector of Barming, in Kent. He published
"Memoirs of the House of Medici," (1797,) " Lives of
the English Regicides," (1798,) and other works. He
was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and a con
tributor to the " Archaeologia." Died in 1827.
Noble, (MATTHEW,) an English sculptor, born about
1820. Among his works are a colossal statue of the
Duke of Wellington at Manchester, and a statue of
Lord Canning.
Noble, (SAMUEL,) an English theologian and engraver,
born in London in 1779. He practised engraving in his
early life, and became a Swedenborgian minister about
1826. He published, besides other works, " Plenary
Inspiration of the Scriptures," and a volume of Ser-
| mons, (1848.) Died in 1853.
Noble, Le. See LE NOBLE.
Nobleville. See ARNAULT DE NOBLEVILLE.
Noblot, no'blo', (CHARLES,) a French geographer,
born in Burgundy in 1668 ; died in 1742.
Nobrega, da,'d3. no-bRa'ga, (MANGEL,) a Portuguese
Jesuit, was one of the first band of missionaries that
laboured in Brazil, where they arrived about 1550. Died
in 1570.
Nocret, no'kRi', (JEAN,) a French painter and en
graver, born at Nancy in 1612; died in 1672.
See DUMESNIL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Francois."
Nodal, de, da no-dal', (Goxz.\i.o and BARTOLOME
GARCIA,) Spanish navigators, born in Galicia, were
as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (23T"3ee Explanations, p. 23.)
106
NODIER
1682
NO INTEL
brothers. They commanded two ships sent by the King
of Spain in 1618 to explore and fortify Le Maire Strait,
near Cape Horn. They discovered a group of small
islands in latitude 56° 40', which they called "Diego
Ramirez," and which was the most southern land marked
on maps for a century or more.
See DE BROSSES, "Histoire des Navigations aux Terres aus-
trales."
Nodier, no'de-i', (CHARLES,) a celebrated French
litterateur, was boTTf at Besai^on in 1783. He studied in
the Central School of his native city, and soon after
repaired to Paris, where he published his " Painter of
Saltzburg," (1803,) and "The Exiles," romances in the
style of Werther. About this time he also wrote a
satirical poem entitled " La Napoleone," for which he
was subjected to a short banishment. Having spent
several years in Switzerland and Illyria, he returned to
Paris, where he became associate editor of the "Journal
des Debats," and subsequently took charge of " La Quo-
tidienne." On 'the accession of Louis XVIII. Nodier
obtained a title of nobility and the cross of the legion
of honour. He was appointed in 1824 librarian of
the Arsenal, in Paris. His works are numerous and
on various subjects, including many compositions of a
brilliant and original character. Among these may be
named his "Entomological Bibliography," (1801,) " Dic
tionary of French Onomatopoeia," etc., (" Dictionnaire
raisonne des Onomatopees Francaises," 1808,) an etymo
logical treatise of great merit, and the romances of
"Jean Sbogar," (1818,) " Therese Aubert," (1819,) and
" Picturesque and Romantic Travels in Ancient France,"
(1820.) He was also a contributor to the "Biographic
Universelle." Nodier had been elected to the French
Academy about 1833. He died in 1844, leaving a volume
of " Souvenirs," in which he professes to narrate the
events of his early life ; but they are said to be mixed
with fiction.
See MEKIMEE, " FJoge de Nodier;" SAINTE-BKUVK, "Portraits
Litteraires ;" L.UE LOMENIK, " M. Nodier, par un Hommede Rien,"
1842; QUERAKD, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Bio^raphie
Generale;" NOUIEK, " Souvenirs," etc., 1832.
Nodot, no'do', (FRANCOIS,) a French litterateur, who
lived about 1680-1700.
Noe, the French for NOAH, which see.
Noe, de, deh no'a', (MARC ANTOINE,) a French prel
ate, born in 1724, was appointed in 1802 Bishop of
Troves. He died the same year.
Noel, no'el', (Ai.KXis NICOLAS,) a French landscape-
painter and designer, born near Paris in 1792, was a
pupil of David. He published in 1818 a " Picturesque
Tour in France and Germany."
No'el, (Rev. BAPTIST WRIOTHESLEY,) an eminent
English dissenting minister, a brother of the Earl of
Gainsborough, was born in 1799. He was in his youth
a minister of the Anglican Church, which he left and
joined the Baptists about 1849. He became popular as
a preacher and as a writer and a prominent promoter of
benevolent enterprises and liberal movements. Among
his works are "Christian Missions to Heathen Nations,"
an "Essay on Christian Baptism," (1849,) ancl "Letters
on the Church of Rome."
See the "British Quarterly Review" for February, 1849.
Noel, no'el', (FRANC.OIS,) a Flemish Jesuit, born in
Hainault in 1651, spent many years as a missionary in
China. He wrote several theological and scientific
works, in Latin. Died in 1729.
Noel, (FRANC.OIS JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French antiquary,
born at Nancy in 1783 ; died in 1856.
Noel, (FuANgois JOSEPH MICHEL,) a French litte
rateur and diplomatist, born at Saint-Germain -en- Laye
about 1755. He published a " Mythological Dictionary,"
(2 vols., 1801-23,) "Lessons in Literature and Morals,"
(2 vols., 1804,) several valuable dictionaries, and nume
rous other compilations. His " French Grammar" (1823)
passed through forty-six editions. He became minister-
plenipotentiary to Venice in 1793, minister to the Hague
i'1 r795> inspector-general of public instruction in 1802,
and inspector-general of the University in 1808. He
retained the last office under several reigns. Died in 1841.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Noel, (JEAN BAP'I ISTE,) a member of the French
National Convention, was born at Remiremont in 1727.
He voted against the death of the king, was condemned
to death by the Jacobins, and executed in 1793.
Noel, (J ULES,) a French painter, born at Quimper
about 1818.
Noel de la Moriniere, no'el' deh It mo're'ne-aiR',
(SIMON BARTHELEMY JOSEPH,) a French naturalist, born
at Dieppe in 1765, published, among other works, a
"General History of Ancient and Modern Fisheries,"
(1815,) which was translated into Russian and German.
He was a member of the Imperial Academy of Saint
Petersburg. Died at Drontheim, Norway, in 1822.
Noel des Vergers, m/eK di vek'zhi/, ([OSEPH
MARIN ADOLPHE,) a French Orientalist and antiquary,
born in Paris in 1805. He made a translation of Abool-
feda's "Life of Mohammed," (1837,) and contributed
numerous articles to the " Nouvelle Revue Encyclope-
dique," "Athenaeum Francais," and "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Noelting. See NOLTING.
Noet. See NOETUS.
No-e'tus, [Fr. NOET, no'i',] a schismatic among the
early Christians, flourished about 240 A.D., and is sup
posed to have been a native of Ephesus. He opposed
the doctrine of the Trinity, and his views were afterwards
promulgated by Sabellius, one of his disciples.
See FLEUKY, " Histoire ecclesiastique."
Nogaret, no'gi'ii', (FRANCOIS FELIX,) a French
litterateur, born at Versailles in 1740. He was the
author of poems, tales, dramas, and prose essays. Among
his works are an essay on natural history, entitled
" L'Apologie de mon Gout," (1771,) which was com
mended by Voltaire, a translation or imitation of Aris-
tpenetus, (" L'Aristenete Frai^ais," 1780,) and "Tales
in Verse," (5th edition, 1810.) Died in 1831.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Nogaret, (HENRI.) See CANDALE, (HENRI.)
Nogaret, de, deh no'gt'i-y, (GUILLAUME,) a French
statesman, born about 1260, became chancellor under
Philippe le Bel. Died in 1313.
Nogaret, de, (JACQUES RAMEI,,) a French statesman,
born at Carcassonne in 1760. As a member of the Na
tional Convention, he voted for the death of the king.
He afterwards entered the Council of Five Hundred,
and was minister of finance under the Directory from
February, 1796, to July, 1799. Died in 1819.
Nogaret, de, (JEAN Louis.) See EPERNON, DE.
Nogari, no-gS/ree, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter,
born at Venice in 1699 ; died in 1763.
Nogari, (PARIDE,) an Italian fresco-painter, born at
Rome about 1535 ; died about 1600.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Nogarola, no-ga-ro'la, (!SOTTA,) an Italian lady, cele
brated for her talents and learning, born at Verona about
1420 ; died in 1466.
See GINGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie."
Nogarola, (Luioi,) an Italian scholar and theologian,
born at Verona about 1509. He translated several
Greek works into Latin. He took a prominent part at
the Council of Trent. Died in 1559.
Noghera, no-ga/ra, (GIAMBATTISTA,) an Italian lit'c-
rateur and Jesuit, born in the Valtellina in 1719. He
published, besides other works, translations of the ora
tions of Demosthenes, (1753.) Died in 1784.
Noguez, no'g;y, (PIERRE,) a French physician and
medical writer, born at Sauveterre about 1685.
Nohden or Noehden, no'den, (Giam; HEINRICH,)
a German scholar and writer, born at Gottingen in 17/0,
published a " Gerrnan-and-English-Grammar," (1800,)
and a " German-and-English-Dictionary," (1814,) also
several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1826.
Nointel, de, deh nwaN'tel', (CHARLES FRANCOIS
Olier — o'le-a',) MAKQUIS, a French diplomatist in the
reign of Louis XIV., was sent as ambassador to Turkey
in 1670. He negotiated a treaty favourable to French
commerce in 1673. He owes his celebrity chiefly to the
medals, inscriptions, and specimens of ancient art which
he collected in the Levant. Died in 1685.
See D'ARVIEUX, "Memoires."
5, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; ndt; good; moon;
NO INFILL E
1683
NONNUS
Noinville, de, cleh nwaN'vel', (JACQUES BERNARD
DCREY,) a French historian, born at Dijon in 1682. He
wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Opera in
France," (1753.) I->ied in 1768.
Noir, le, leh nwaR, QEAN,) a French Jansenist priest
and writer, born at Aleiifon in 1622 ; died in 1692.
Noirlieu, de, cleh nwaR'le-uh', (Louis FRANCOIS
MARTIN,) a French theologian and religious writer, born
at Sainte-Menehould in 1792. He published, among
other works, a " Philosophic Catechism for the Use of
Men of the World,'1 (1860.)
Noirot, nwa'ro', (JOSEPH MATHIAS,) ABKE, a French
philosopher, born at Latrecey (Haute-Marne) in 1793.
He was professor of philosophy at Lyons about twenty-
five years. His "Lectures" were published in 1852.
Noisette, nwa'zet', (Louis CLAUDE,) a French horti
culturist, born near Paris in 1772, published several
valuable works on pomology, floriculture, and similar
subjects. Died in 1849.
Nola, da, dam/la, (GIOVANNI MARLIANO,) an Italian
sculptor and architect, born near Naples, lived about
1500-50.
See CICOGNARA, " Storia deila Scultura."
No'lan, (Captain LEWIS EDWARD,) a brave English
officer, served under Sir Henry Pottmger in India in
1839. He afterwards had a part in the Russian cam
paign of 1854, and was killed in the battle of Balaklava.
No'lan, (MICHAEL,) an Irish lawyer, was the author
of " Reports of Cases relating to the Duty and Office
of a Justice of the Peace," and other practical law
treatises. Died in 1827.
Nolasque. See PETER NOLASQUE.
Nolde, nol'deh, (Anoi-i-H FRIEDRICH,) a German
physician, born at Neustrelitz in 1764, became professor
of medicine at Halle in 1810. He published several
medical works. Died in 1813.
Noldius, nol'de-us, (CHRISTIAN,) a Danish divine
and biblical writer, born in Scania in 1626; died in 1683.
Noli, da, da no'lee, (ANTONIO,) sometimes called
Uso DI MARE, (oo'so de ma'ra,) a Genoese navigator in
the service of Prince Henry of Portugal, made a voyage
to the western coast of Africa, where he discovered the
Cape Vercl Islands. Having joined the fleet of Cada-
mosto, they pursued their discoveries together. Noli
also accompanied Cadamosto in his second voyage, in
1456.
See KAROX HUMBOLDT, "Histoire de la Geographic du nouveau
Continent ;" WAI.CKEXAKR, " Histoire generate des Voyages."
Noliii, m/laN', (DENis,) a French biblical critic, born
in Paris in 1648; died in 1710.
Noliii, ([KAN BAPTISTS,) a French engraver, born in
Paris in 1657 ; died in 1725.
Nol'le-kens, (JOSEPH,) a celebrated English sculptor,
born in London in 1737, was a son of Joseph Francis,
noticed below. In 1760 he visited Rome, where he re
sided many years and executed several woiks of great
merit. Among these were busts of Garrick and Sterne,
and a group representing "Timocleus and Alexander."
After his return he was chosen a Royal Academician, in
1772. He devoted himself chiefly to making portrait-
busts, and was extensively patronized by the nobility and
the fashionable world. His monument to Mrs. Howard,
at Corby Castle, and his statue of Venus, are ranked
among his master-pieces. Nollekens was noted for his
parsimony, and amassed a laige fortune. Died in 1823.
See J. T. SMITH, "Nollekens and his Times," 1829; CUNNING
HAM, " Lives of Painters, Sculptors," etc.
Nollekens, nol'ieh-kens, (JOSEPH FRANCIS,) a Flem
ish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp about 1690, set
tled in London, where he died in 1748.
Nollet, no'la', (DoMiNiCK,) a Flemish painter, born
at Bruges in 1640 ; died in 1736.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands."
Nollet, m/la', (JEAN ANTOINE,) ABBE, an eminent
French philosopher, born at Pimpre, in the diocese of
Noyon, in 1700. On leaving college he went to Paris,
where he studied natural philosophy and co-operated
with M. Dufay in electrical experiments. In 1739 he
was elected to the Academy of Sciences, and repeated
his experiments before the Duke of Savoy in Turin.
He published in 1743 the first part of his " Lectures on
Experimental Physics," (" Le9ons de Physique experi-
mentale,") the clearest and most methodical work that
had appeared on that subject. In this he gave the first
popular explanation of Newton's discoveries in light.
He obtained by the favour of the king the chair of ex
perimental philosophy in the College of Navarre in 1756,
and a brevet of master of philosophy and natural history
to the princes-royal. He published "Researches on the
Causes of Electric Phenomena," (1749,) and an "Essay
on the Electricity of Bodies," (1750.) Died in 1770.
See " Necrologe des Homines celebres de France;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Nolpe, nol'peh, (PiETER,) a Dutch engraver, born at
the Hague in 1601. Among his master-pieces is the
" Adoration of the Magi," after Rubens.
See HASAN, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs."
Nolteu, nol'ten, [Lat. NOLTE'NIUS,] (JOHANN AR
NOLD,) a German theologian, born in Westphalia in 1683 ;
died in 1740.
Nolteri or Nolte, nol'teh, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH ) a
German philologist, born at Eimbeck in 1694. He pub
lished "Lexicon Latinae Lingua; Antibarbarum," (1740.)
Died in 1754.
Nolten, (RUDOLPH AUGUST,) a brother of the pre
ceding, born in 1703, published "On the Genuine Sources
of Russian History," (" De genuinis Historian Russicas
Fontibus," 1739,) and other works. Died in 1752.
See BALLENSTADT, "Vita Noltenii," 1755.
Noltenius. See NOLTEN.
Nolting or Noeltiiig, nol'ting, (JOHANN HEINRICH
VINCENZ,) a distinguished scholar and philosopher, born
at Schwarzenbek, in Denmark, in 1735. He became
professor of philosophy and eloquence at Hamburg.
Died in 1806.
Nominee, no-min'o-a', written also Nomenoi, an
Armorican chief, who became King of Bretagne, was
born about 790 or 800 A.D. He was created Duke of
the Bretons by the emperor Louis le Debonnaire in 826
A.D. After the death of Louis, (840,) he raised the
standard of independence, and defeated Charles the
Bald, who led an army to reduce him to subjection.
Died in 851.
See A. DE COURSON, "Histoire des Peuples Bretons," 1846;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Nomsz, nomz, (JAN,) a Dutch poet and dramatist,
born at Amsterdam in 1738. He was the author of an
epic poem on \Villiam I., Prince of Orange, (1779,) and
tragedies entitled " Maria van Lalain," "Zoroaster," and
"Duchess de Coralli." The first of these dramas was
very popular. Died in 1803.
See DE VKIES, " Histoire de la Poesie Hollandaise."
Nonius, (Louis.) See NUNEZ.
No'ni-us, (MARCELLUS,) a Roman grammarian of the
fourth century, wrote a work entitled " De Proprietate
Sermonis," which is valued for the passages it contains
from Latin writers not extant.
Nonnos. See NONNUS.
Nomiotte, no'not', (CLAUDE FRANCOIS,) a French
Jesuit, born at Besai^on in 1711, published, besides
other books of little merit, a work entitled*' Errors of
Voltaire," (2 vols., 1762,) which elicited several bitter
rejoinders from that writer. Died in 1793.
Nomiotte, (DoN.vr,) a French painter, brother of
the preceding, born at Besancon in 1707 ; died in 1785.
Nou'lius or Nounos, [Notrof,] a Greek poet, who
lived about 410 A.D., was a native of Panopolis, in Egypt,
and probably a Christian. His only extant works are
a " Paraphrase of Saint John," and a long poem en
titled " Dionysiaca," or the History of Bacchus. It is
bombastic in style, and is chiefly valued for the infor
mation it contains on mythological subjects not to be
found elsewhere.
See WEICHEKT, " Dissertatio de Nonno," 1810; S. UWARROW,
" Nonnos von Panopolis,'' 1817; A. F. NAEKE, "De Nonno Imi-
tatore Homeri," 1835.
Nonnus or No'iius, (THEOPHANES,) a Greek phy
sician of the tenth century, was the author of a com
pendium of Medicine, ("Compendium totius Artis
Medicae,") which he dedicated to the emperor Con-
stantine Porphyrogenitus.
See FREIND, " History of Physic ;" HALLER, " Bibliotheca
Medica," etc.
, the first part of his " Lectures on Medica," etc.
gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasa; th as \nt/iis. (C^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard;
NOODT
1684
NORGATE
Noodt, not, (GERAERT,) one of the most eminent
jurists of his time, was born at Nymwegen in 1647. He
became successively professor of law at Franeker, (1679,)
Utrecht, (1684,) and Leyden, (1686.) He was also rector
of the University of Leyden. Among his principal
works, which are written in elegant Latin, we may name
his "Probabilia Juris Civilis," (1674-79,) and "On the
Rights of Sovereign Power," ("De Jure Summi Im-
perii," etc., 1707.) Died in 1725.
See BARBEYKAC, " Historica Vitas Auctoris Narratio," prefixed to
the collected works of Noodt, 1735.
Nooms, noms, (RKMI,) a Dutch marine painter and
engraver, surnamecl ZKKMAN, (" Seaman,") born at Am
sterdam in 1612 ; died about 1672.
Noor-ed-Deen, Nour-Eddyn, Noureddin, or
Nureddiii, noor-ed-deen', (" Light of the Faith,")
(Mahmood- (Mahmoud- or Malimud-) Malek-al-
Actel, maii'mood' mal'ek-al-a'del,*) a celebrated Sultan
of Syria and Egypt, was born at Damascus in 1116. In
1146 he successfully opposed the attempts of Louis VII.
of France and other crusading princes to recapture
Edessa and possess themselves of Damascus, which,
after he had conquered the greater part of Syria, he
made the capital of his dominions. He took advantage
of the dissensions which agitated Egypt in 1163 to es
tablish his power in that country, where he appointed
his general Shirakoh governor in 1168. The most im
portant event in the subsequent part of Noor-ed-Deen's
reign was the extirpation of the Sheeah heresy in Egypt.
Noor-ed-Deen was one of the most able and virtuous
of Oriental rulers, and his piety and integrity made him
the idol of his subjects, who gave him the surname of
" Light of the Faith." Died in 1173.
See MICHAUD, "Histoire des Croisades;" GUILLAUME DE TYR,
" Histoire des Croisades."
Noor-ed-Deen, Noureddin, or Nureddiii, (Ma-
lek-al-Mansoor, mal'ek-al-man'sdou',) second Sultan
of the dynasty of Tartar Mamelukes in Egypt, succeeded
his father Ibek in 1257. He was deposed at the end of
two years, on account of his youth and inexperience, and
the Emir Kotuz ruled in his stead.
Noor-eddin, Nour-eddiii, or Nureddiii, (Arslaii
Shah, ars-1 at/ shah,) Prince of Mesopotamia, was grand-
nephew of the celebrated Noor-ed-Deen, and ascended
the throne in 1193. He governed with wisdom and
ability, and recovered much of the power of which his
family had been deprived. Died in 1210.
Noort, van, van nont, sometimes written Oort,
(ADAM,) a skilful Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in
1557, was a son of Lambert, noticed below. He was a
good colorist. His habits were intemperate. He was
the master of Rubens, who expressed a high opinion of
his talents. Died in 1641.
See WEYERMAN, "De Schilderkonst der Nederlanders."
Noort, van, (LAMBERT,) a Flemish painter and
architect, born at Amersfoort in 1520. He settled at
Antwerp, and was admitted into the Academy of Ant
werp in 1547.
Noort, van, (OLIVER,) the first Dutch navigator who
sailed around the world, was born at Utrecht in 1568.
An account of his voyage, published in 1602, was trans
lated into several languages. Died after 1611.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Noot, van, vtn not, (HENDRIK NIKOLAAS,) leader
of the Belgian revolution of 1788, was born at Brussels
in 1750. The revolt against the Emperor of Austria
being suppressed in 1790, he was compelled to leave
the country. Died in 1827.
See DF.WEZ, "Histoire de la Belgique."
Noowairee or Nouwairi, noo-wT'ree, written also
Nowairi and Nuwayri, an eminent Arabian historian
and scholar, born in Egypt about 1283. He was the
author of a valuable work on history, chronology, moral
philosophy, and natural science.
See HAJI-KHALFA, " Bibliographic Lexicon."
Nop, nop, (GERRIT,) a Dutch painter, born at Haarlem
in 1570.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flainands, Hollandais," etc.
Nor. See NORVI.
Malek-el-Adel signifies "the Noble King."
Nor-ba'iius, (CAius,) a Roman general, was tribune
of the people in 95 H.C., and prietor in Sicily about
the year 90. In the civil war between Sulla and Marius
he was a partisan of the latter. He became consul in
83 K.C., and commanded an army which was defeated
by Sulla in Campania. He killed himself about 81 li.C.
See CICERO, " De Oratore."
Norberg. See NORDBERG.
Norberg, noR'beRG, (MATTHIAS,) a Swedish Orien
talist, born in 1747, became professor of the Oriental
languages at Lund. He wrote a treatise "On the Re
ligion and Language of the Sabaeans," (1780,) in Latin,
and other learned works. Died in 1826.
See LINDFORS, " Menioria M. Norberg," 1832; LINUGKEN, "Me-
moria M. Norberg," 1832.
Norbert, PERK. See PARISOT, (PIERRE.)
Nor'bert, [Fr. pron. noR'baiR',] SAINT, a French
ecclesiastic, born at Santen, was created Archbishop of
Magdeburg in 1 126. He had founded in 1120 a religious
association at Premontre, in the diocese of Laon, since
celebrated as the order of the Premonstrants. He died
in 1134, and was canonized by Gregory XIII. in 1582.
See HUGO, "Vie de Saint-Norbert," 1704; "Gallia Christiana."
Norblin, noR'blaN', (SEBASTIAN Louis WILLIAM,)
son of the following, was born at Warsaw in 1796, and
studied painting under Regnault. He produced a num
ber of historical pictures. He gained the first prize in
Paris in 1825.
Norblin de la G-ourdaine, noR'blaN' deh If gooR'-
din', (JEAN PIERRE,) a skilful French painter and en
graver, bom near Monterean in 1745, worked in Warsaw
from 1774 to 1804. Died in 1830.
Nordberg, mmd'beRg, or Norberg, noR'beRg,
(GKURG,) a Swedish historian, and chaplain to Charles
XII. of Sweden, was born at Stockholm in 1677. He
was the author of a " History of Charles XII., ' (2 vols.,
1740,) which, though unattractive in style, is valued for
its accuracy. Died in 1744.
Norden, noR'den, (FREDERICK Louis,) a Danish artist
and writer, born at Gliickstadt in 1708. Having studied
in Italy, he was sent by the government in 1737 to de
scribe and copy the monuments of Egypt. After his
return he entered the English service, and fought against
Spain in the campaign of 1740. He died in 1742, leav
ing " Travels in Egypt and Nubia," which were published
in French, (2 vols., 1755.) This work, containing one
hundred and fifty-nine plates, was translated into Eng
lish and German.
See MEUSEI, " Bibliotheca Historical" KRAFT og NYERUP,
"Litteraturlexicon ;" " Monthly Review" for September, 1756.
Nor'deii, (JOHN,) an English engraver and writer,
born in Wiltshire about 1548. He published the " Spe
culum Britannise," etc., and " The Surveyor's Dialogue,"
(1607.) Died about 1626.
See GOUGH, "Anecdotes of British Topography."
Nordenflycht, noR'clen - flukt', (HEDWIGE CHAR
LOTTE,) a Swedish authoress, born in 1718, published
poems entitled " The Passage of the Belts," " Victory
of the Duna," " Sweden Emancipated," (" Den fralsa
Swea,") and "An Apology for Women, against J. J.
Rousseau." Died in 1763.
See HOWITT, "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe;"
Runs, " Schicksale der schonen Redekiinste in Schweden."
Nordin, noR-deen', (KARL GUSTAF,) a Swedish prel
ate, born at Stockholm in 1749, became Bishop of Iler-
nosand. Died in 1812.
Nores, di, de no'res, (GIASONE,) born at Nicosia, in
the island of Cyprus, became professor of moral phi
losophy at Padua. He was the author of several critical
and philosophical works. Died in 1590.
Norfolk, DUKE OF. See HOWARD, (THOMAS,) and
HOWARD, (CHARLES.)
Norfolk, nor'fok, (HENRY GRANVII.LE Frrz ALAN
HOWARD,) DUKE OF, was born in London in 1815. He
was a member of the House of Commons before the
death of his father, (1856.) He was a Roman Catholic,
and advocated the cause of his fellow-believers in Parlia
ment. Died in 1860.
Nor'gate, (EDWARD,) an English artist, celebrated
for his skill in illuminating or colouring engravings. His
a. e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon;
NOR IS
1685
NORTH
performances are highly commended by Fuller. Died
in 1650.
See FULLER, "Worthies;" WALPOLE, "Anecdotes of Painting."
Noris, no'ress, (HENRY,) a learned Italian theologian,
of English extraction, was born at Verona in 1631. He
was appointed by Pope Innocent XII. chief librarian
of the Vatican, and was made a cardinal in 1695. He
wrote a " History of Pelagianism," and several valuable
antiquarian treatises. Died in 1704.
See FABROM, " Vita: Italorum doctrina excellentium."
Noris, (MATTKO,) a prolific Italian dramatic poet,
born in Venice about 1640; died about 1710.
Nor'man-by, (CONSTANT-INK HENRY PHIPPS,) MAR
QUIS OF, an English statesman, son of Henry, first Earl
of Mulgrave, was born in 1797. He studied at Trinity
College, Cambridge, and in iSiS became a member of
Parliament for Scarborough. He there distinguished
himself as the advocate of Catholic emancipation and
parliamentary reform. In 1831 he succeeded to the title
of Earl Mulgrave, and in 1832 was appointed Governor
of Jamaica. He became lord privy seal in 1834, lord
lieutenant of Ireland in 1835, and was secretary of
state for the home department from 1839 to 1841. He
received the title of Marquis of Normanby in 1838.
He was subsequently employed on embassies to France
and Italy. He published in 1857 "A Year of Revolu
tion, from a Journal kept in Paris in 1848." Lord Nor
manby was also the author of novels entitled " Matilda,"
(1825,) and "The Contrast." Died in 1863.
See CAPEFIGUE, " Diplomates Europeens."
Normanby, EARL OF. See MULGRAVE, (HENRY
PHILIP PHIPPS.)
Normand. See LE NORMAXD.
Normand, IIOR'HION', (ALFRED NICOLAS,) a French
architect, born in Paris in 1822. He obtained a medal
of the first class in 1855.
Normand, (CHARLES PIERRE JOSEPH,) a French
architect and engraver, born in the department of
Somme in 1765. He published several professional
works. Died in 1840.
Normand, (CLAUDE JOSEPH,) a French physician,
born in Franche-Comte in 1704; died in 1761.
Normand, (Louis MARIE,) a French engraver, a son
of Charles Pierre Joseph, noticed above, was born in
Paris in 1789. He engraved the "Marriage at Cana,"
after Paul Veronese, and published several illustrated
works, among which is " Monuments Francais," etc., (2
parts, 1830-47.)
Nor'man-dy, (Al.PHONSE,) an English chemist and
writer, born about 1810, was a coadjutor of Dr. Ure.
He published a " Hand-Book of Chemistry," and "The
Chemical Atlas," and invented a valuable apparatus for
the distillation of aerated fresh water from sea-water.
Died in 1864.
Normami, noR'man, (LARS,) a Swedish prelate, born
at Strengnas in 1651. He became professor of Oriental
languages at Upsal in 1681, and in 1703 Bishop of
Gothenburg. He died the same year.
See A. NORRELICS, "Vita L. Normanni," 1738.
Normann-Ehreiifels, noR'man a'ren-fe'ls', (KARL
FKIEDKICH LKBRKCHT,) son of the following, was born
in 1784. He entered the French service, and held a
command in the Russian campaign of 1812. He after
wards fought for the Greeks in 1822, and had a share
in the victory of Kombotti. Died in November, 1822.
Normaiin-Ehrenfels, (PuiLiPpCHRisTiAN,) COUNT,
a distinguished statesman, born in Swedish Pomerania
in 1756, entered the service of Duke Charles of Wiirtem-
berg. He rose to be minister of state in 1802, and was
created a count in 1806. Died in 1807.
Normant, noR'mSN', (ALEXIS,) an eloquent French
advocate, born in Paris in 1697; died in 1745.
Normant, (ANTOINE,) a benevolent French manu
facturer, born at Romorantin in 1783. He was propri
etor of a large manufactory of cloth at Romorantin.
Norn or Norna. See NORNAS.
Nor'nas or Norns, sometimes called in the English
plural Nor'nies, [Norse plural, Noriiir,*] three virgins,
* The etymology is unknown. "The word Norn," says Thorpe,
"does not occur in any kindred dialect."
called Urd, (Urdr, or Urda,) Verdandi, and Skuld, (or
Skulld,) — the Past, the Present, and the Future, — who
preside over the destiny of men and gods. They corre
spond to the Parcae (Motpcw) of classic mythology.
See THORPE, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; KEVSER, " Religion
of the Northmen."
Nornies, an English plural form of NORNA or NORN.
See NORNAS.
Norns. See NORNAS.
Norona, no-rdn'ya, (GASPAR MARIA DE NAVA AL
VAREZ,) a Spanish soldier and poet, born at Caslcllon
de la Plana in 1760, served against the French republic,
and attained the rank of lieutenant-general. He pub
lished an epic poem entitled "La Ommiada," an ode on
the death of the poet Cadalso, who fell, while fighting
by his side, at Gibraltar, and a number of lyrics. Died
in 1816.
Noronha, no-R6n'ya, (AFFONSO,) a Portuguese cap
tain, born in the fifteenth century, was a nephew of
Albuquerque. He captured Socotora in 1508. Died in
India in 1540.
See FARIA v SOUZA, " Asia Portugueza."
Nor'ris, ( EDWIN,) an English ethnologist and linguist,
born at Taunton in 1795. He was appointed in 1847
translator to the foreign office, and in 1856 principal sec
retary to the Royal Asiatic Society. He has contributed
a number of valuable treatises to the "Transactions" of
that society and to the "Penny Cyclopaedia." He is
also editor of the " Ethnographical Library."
Norris, (Sir JOHN,) an English general, was a son of
Lord Norris of Rycot. He was distinguished by the
favour of Queen Elizabeth, who sent him in 1585 to
assist the Dutch in their war against the Spaniards.
His skill and bravery were conspicuous in the principal
campaigns, and he won the reputation of one of the
best English soldiers of the time.
See MOTLEY, "United Netherlands," vol. i. chap, vi., and vol. ii.
chap. xiii.
Norris, (JOHN,) an English philosopher and mystical
divine, born in Wiltshire in 1657. He was educated at
Exeter College, Oxford, and became an admirer of Plato,
who was his favourite author. About 1690 he was ap
pointed rector of Bemerton, near Salisbury. He was a
disciple of Malebranche. He published "An Idea of
Happiness," (1683,) "The Theory and Regulation of
Love," (1688,) and other works on religion and philoso
phy. His principal philosophical work is "An Essay
towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World,"
(2 vols., 1701-04,) in which he develops the system of
Malebranche and controverts the opinions of Locke.
Died in 171 1.
See " Biographia Britannica."
Norris, (Sir JOHN,) an English naval officer of high
rank, entered the navy in 1689. He was called FOUL-
WEATHER JACK. Died in 1749.
Norris, (JOHN,) born in Norfolk in 1734, bequeathed
to the University of Cambridge one hundred and ninety
pounds per annum for the endowment of a divinity
professorship and prize essay which bear his name.
Died in 1777.
Norris, (ROBERT,) an English traveller, visited Daho
mey, and other parts of Western Africa, of which he
published an account in 1789. Died in 1792.
See WALCKEXAF.R, " Histoire generale des Voyages."
Norry, no're', (CHARLES,) a French architect, born
near Paris in 1756, accompanied the scientific expedition
to Egypt, and published in 1799 a description of some
of the monuments of that country. Died in 1832.
North, (CHRISTOPHER.) See WILSON, (JOHN.)
North, (DUDLEY,) LORD, an English writer and poli
tician, born in 1581, was an adherent of the Parliament
during the civil war. He died in 1666, leaving a collec
tion of poems and prose works.
North, (DUDLEY,) LORD, son of the preceding, born
in 1604, wrote the "Life of Edward, Lord North," and
several other works. Died in 1677.
See R. NORTH, "Lives of the Norths."
North, (Sir DUDLEY,) an English merchant and able
financier, born in 1641, was a brother of Lord-Keeper
Guildford. In his youth he passed many years in mer-
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
NORTH
1686
NOR THUMB ER LAND
cantile pursuits at Smyrna and Constantinople. Having
acquired wealth, he returned home, (1680,) and became
a London merchant. "He had meditated deeply on the
philosophy of trade," says Macaulay, "and thought out,
by degrees, a complete and admirable theory," substan
tially the same as that of Adam Smith. He was chosen
a commissioner of customs and of the treasury, and
elected to Parliament. About 1685 he was the person
on whom thelord treasurer chiefly relied for the conduct
of financial business in the lower House. He wrote a
" Voyage from Smyrna, with an Account of Turkey."
Died in 1691.
See ROGER NORTH, "Life of Sir Dudley North," 1740-42.
North, (Sir EDWARD,) a distinguished English lawyer
under the reigns of Henry VIII. and Queen Ma^y. Died
in 1564.
North, (FRANCIS,) Baron Gnildford or Guilford, com
monly styled LORD-KEEPER GUILFORD, was the son of
Lord Dudley North, and was born in 1637. About 1655
he entered as a student the Middle Temple. Soon after
he was called to the bar he went on the Norfolk circuit,
where his family interest lay, and relied for success on
sycophantic arts. He was appointed solicitor-general
in 1671, attorney-general in 1673, and chief justice of the
common pleas in 1675. He was the obsequious servant
of the court, and an ultra-royalist, or Tory, in politics.
"He was a party," says Macaulay, "to some of the
foulest judicial murders recorded in our history." In
1682 he obtained the great seal, with the title of lord
keeper. On the accession of James II. (February, 1685)
the great seal was left in his custody, but lie was super
seded in his political functions by his rival, Lord Jeffreys.
Lord Guilford died in September, 1685, leaving his title
to his son Francis.
See ROGER NORTH, " Life of Francis North;" LORD CAMPBELL,
"Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ii.,
(1820;) MACAUI.AV, " History of England," vol. i. chap. ii.
North, (FREDERICK,) second Earl of Guildford, an
English Tory statesman, better known as LORD NORTH,
was born in 1733. lie was a son of Francis, Earl of
Guildford, who died in 1790, and was a great-grandson
of the lord keeper of that name. In 1763 he was chosen
one of the lords of the treasury. He Ijecame chancellor
of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons
in 1769. He was a successful debater, and, on account
of his wit and suavity of temper, a great favourite with
the House. He also gained the extraordinary favour of
the king by his readiness to accept the responsibility
of prime minister in the emergency which arose on the
resignation of the Duke of Grafton in 1770. The prin
cipal event of his administration was the American war,
which he prosecuted with great pertinacity. Though
fiercely assailed by Burke, Fox, and Lord Chatham, he
maintained his power with eminent tact and ability, and
was supported by large majorities in the House, until
March, 1782, when he resigned, after the surrender of
Cornwallis had terminated the American war. He re
tained, however, the royal favour until he entered into
the ill-omened coalition with Fox against the Shelburne
ministry. In March, 1783, Lord North became secretary
of state in the coalition ministry of which the Duke of
Portland was the nominal head. He was dismissed in
December, 1783, when Pitt became premier. In 1790
he succeeded to the earldom of Guildford. Died in 1792.
" As a statesman," says Lord Brougham, " his merits
are confessedly far inferior to those which clothed him
as a debater and a man. The American war is the great
blot on his fame."
See LORD BROUGHAM, "Statesmen of theTime of George III. ;"
MACAUI.AY, "Essays," article "Chatham;" LODGE, "Portraits of
Illustrious Personages."
North, (GEORGE,) an English antiquary, born in
London in 1710, published several treatises on numis
matics. Died in 1772.
North, (JOHN,) D.D., a son of Lord Dudley North,
was born in 1645. He became professor of Greek at
Cambridge, and published editions of several works of
Plato. Died in 1683.
See ROGER NORTH, " Life of John North."
North, (ROGER,) a younger son of Lord Dudley
North, and a brother of Sir Dudley North, was born
about 1650. He studied law, and became steward of the
courts to Archbishop Sheldon. He was author of several
works, the most important of which is " The Lives of
Francis North, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, Sir
Dudley North, and Rev. John North," (1740-42.) This
is written in an affected, pedantic style, but contains
valuable matter. Died in 1733.
See ROGER NORTH, "Lives of the Norths."
North, (Sir THOMAS,) an English writer, translated
" The Dial of Princes" from the French, and the " Moral
Philosophy" of Don! from the Italian. He also made
the first translation of Plutarch's "Lives" into English,
(1579.) lie died after 1579.
Northampton, EARL OF. See HOWARD, (HKNRY.)
Nor-thamp'ton, (SPENCER JOSHUA ALWYNE COMP-
TON,) MARQUIS OF, an English patron of science and
literature, was born in 1790. He became president of
the Royal Society. Died in 1851.
North'cote, (/AMES,) an English artist, celebrated as
a portrait and historical painter, born at Plymouth in
1746. Having studied under Sir Joshua Reynolds, he
visited Italy in 1777, and, after his return, was made a
Royal Academician. Among his best productions are
"Hubert and Arthur" and "The Murder of the Princes
in the Tower." He also published "The Life of Sir
Joshua Reynolds," (1813,) and several able treatises on
Art. Died in 1831.
See CUNNINGHAM, "Lives of British Painters," etc.
Northcote, (Sir STAFFORD,) an English conservative
politician, born in London about 1818. He became
president of the board of trade in June, 1866, and sec
retary for India in March, 1867. He resigned with his
colleagues in December, 1868.
Northiiigtoii, LORD. See HENLEY, (ROBERT.)
Nor-thum'ber-laiid, (ALGERNON PERCY,) tenth
EARL OF, born in 1602, was a son of Henry, ninth earl.
lie was lord high admiral under Charles I. Died in 1668.
Northumberland, (ALGERNON PERCY,) DUKE OF,
a British peer, born in 1792. lie entered the navy in
his youth, and served against the French. In 1847 he
inherited the dukedom at the death of his brother Henry.
He obtained the rank of rear-admiral about 1850. Died
in 1865.
Northumberland, DUKE OF. See DUDLEY, (JOHN.)
Northumberland, (HENRY PERCY,) first EARL OF,
an English commander, was a son of Henry Percy. His
mother was Mary, a daughter of the Earl of Lancaster,
and a great-granddaughter of King Henry III. He was
a friend of Wycliffe, the Reformer. In 1377 he was
created Earl of Northumberland by Richard II. He
was one of the chief agents of the revolution which
raised Henry IV. to the throne in 1399. In 1402 Percy
defeated the Scotch under Douglas at Homildon Hill.
He united with his son Hotspur in rebellion against the
king in 1403, and was killed in battle in 1408.
Northumberland, (HENRY PERCY,) second EARL
OF, was a son of Hotspur. He succeeded his grand
father, the first earl, in 1408, and was restored to the
earldom by Henry V. In the civil war of the Roses he
fought for the house of Lancaster, and was killed at the
battle of Saint Alban's, in 1455. H's son> tne third earl,
fell at the battle of Towton, in 1460.
Northumberland, (HENRY PERCY,) ninth EARL OF,
surnamed THE WIZARD, born in 1563, was a son of
Henry, the eighth earl, who died in the Tower in 1585.
He commanded a ship in the battle against the Invin
cible Armada in 1588. He was a cousin of Thomas
Percy, an accomplice in the Gunpowder Plot, (1605,)
and, although the earl himself was a Protestant, he was
confined many years in the Tower on suspicion. He
acquired the appellation of " Wizard" by his study of
occult sciences in prison. Died in 1632.
See LODGE, "Portraits of Illustrious Personages;" CLARENDON,
"History of the Rebellion."
Northumberland, (HUGH PERCY,) DUKE OF, born
in 1742, was a son of Sir Hugh Smithson, who was au
thorized to take the name of Percy. He entered the
army, served at Bunker Hill, (1775,) and gained the rank
of general. In 1786 he inherited the title of duke. Died
in 1817.
See BURKE, "Peerage;" "Gentleman's Magazine," 1817.
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
NORTHUMBERLAND
1687
NOT 'A
Northumberland, (HUGH PERCY,) DUKE OF, son
of the preceding, was born in 1785, and inherited his
father's title in 1817. He favoured the Tory party. He
was a liberal patron of science, and was much interested
in botany and horticulture. Died in 1847.
Nor'ton, (ANDREWS,) D.D., an eminent American
theologian and scholar, born at Hingham, Massachusetts,
in 1786. He graduated in 1804 at Harvard College, and
in 1813 succeeded Dr. Channing as biblical lecturer in
that institution. He filled the chair of Dexter professor
of sacred literature at Harvard from 1819 till 1830. His
most important work is entitled " Evidences of the Gen
uineness of the Gospels," (3 vols., 1837-44.) He was
for a time editor of the " General Repository and Re
view," published at Cambridge, and contributed many
able articles to the religious and literary periodicals of
the time. Among these may be named articles on
"Franklin" and "Byron," in the "North American Re
view." In his theological views Dr. Norton was a
Unitarian of the conservative school. He married a
daughtet of Samuel Eliot, of Boston. Died at Newport
in 1853. He left a "Translation of the Gospels," pub
lished in 1856. " He displayed," says R. W. Griswold,
"exact and comprehensive learning and a style singu
larly clear, compact, and beautiful." (" Prose Writers
of America.") He also wrote poems which were much
admired.
Norton, (ASAHEI. STRONG,) an American minister,
born at Farmington, Connecticut, in 1766. He preached
at Clinton, New York, for many years. Died in 1853.
Nor'ton, (CAROLINE ELIZABETH SARAH,) an emi
nent English writer, bom in 1808, is a granddaughter
of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. She received a superior
education, and in her seventeenth year wrote a volume
of poetry entitled "The Sorrows of Rosalie," which was
published anonymously, (1829.) In 1827 she was mar
ried to the Hon. George Chappie Norton ; but this
union proved most unfortunate, and a divorce took
place between the parties in 1836. She had published
in 1830 her poem of "The Undying One," which was
received with great favour. It was succeeded by "A
Voice from the Factories," (1836,) "The Dream, and
other Poems," (1840,) "The Child of the Islands," (1845,)
and "Aunt Carry's Ballads," (1847.) She has also written
a romance, entitled "Stuart of Dunleith," (1847,) and
"Tales and Sketches in Prose and Verse," (1850,) many
of which are remarkable for their fidelity to nature,
pathos, and intensity of feeling. Among her more recent
works are a "Letter to the Queen on Lord Cranworth's
Marriage and Divorce Bill," (1855,) "Lives of the Sheri-
dans," "Lady of La Garaye," (1861,) and "Lost and
Saved," (1863.) Mrs. Norton is described by Mrs. Sedg-
wick, in her " Letters from Abroad," as the perfection
of intellectual and physical beauty, uniting masculine
force with feminine delicacy.
See MOIR, "Sketches of the Poeticnl Literature of the Past Half-
Century," 1851 ; RowToN. " Female Poets of Great Britain," (with
a portrait :) " Edinburgh Review" for June, 1831 ; " London Quar
terly Review" for September, 1840. and June. 1845: " F'raser's
Magazine" for September, 1830, (with a portrait;) "Westminster
Review" for June, 1845.
Norton, (Lady FRANCES,) an English moralist and
writer, born about 1650, was the wife of Sir George
Norton. She wrote " Memento Mori," and " The Ap
plause of Virtue," (1705.) Died in 1720.
See PRUDHOM.ME, " Biographic des Femmes celebres."
Norton, (JoHN,) an English writer of the seventeenth
century, published a work entitled " The Scholar's Vacle-
Mecum."
Norton, (JOHN,) a learned Puritan divine and theo
logical wiiter, born in Hertfordshire, England, in 1606,
emigrated in 1635 to America, and became a minister at
Boston. Died in 1663.
Norton, (JoHN P.,) an American chemist, was pro
fessor of agricultural chemistry at Vale College. Died
in 1851.
Norton, (THOMAS,) an English Calvinistic writer,
born in Bedfordshire in the sixteenth century, published
some tracts against popery. He is also said to have
assisted Sackville in his tragedy of " Ferrex and Porrex."
See W.ARTON. " History of English Poetry;" ELLIS, "Specimens
of the Eariy English Poets."
Norvi (nor've) or Nor, written also Narfi, [etymology
doubtful,] a giant mentioned in the " Edda" as 'the first
of all the inhabitants of Jotunheim. He had a daughter
named Night, who was married to Anar or Onar.* The
offspring of this union was the Earth. She afterwards
became the wife of Delling or Dellinger, (i.e. the " Dawn,")
and bore to him a bright and beautiful son called Day.
Then Odin took Night and Day and placed them in
heaven, and gave them two horses and two cars, that
they might journey in succession round the world. Night
rides first with her horse, called Rimfaxi or Hrimfaxi,
(hrim- (or hreem-) fak'se, — that is, " Frosty-mane,") who
every morning bedews the earth with foam from his
bit. The horse of Day is named Skinfaxi, (or " Shining-
mane, "J, because his radiant mane sends forth the light
which muminates heaven and earth.
See MALLET, " Northern Antiquities," vol. ii. fable vi. ; THORPE,
"Northern Mythology," vol. i.
Norvins, de, deh nou'vaN', (JACQUES Marquet —
mjti<'ki',) Baron de Montbreton, (moN'bKeh-tON',) a
French litterateur and politician, born in Paris in 1769.
lie wrote a "Picture of the French Revolution," (1819,)
a " History of Napoleon," (gth edition, 4 vols., 1839,) and
other works. Died in 1854.
Nor'wood, ( RICHARD,) an English geometer, who
lived about 1630-50, was the author of several treatises
on trigonometry, navigation, etc. He is chiefly celebrated
for having been one of the first who measured a degree
of the meridian.
See HUTTON, "Mathematical Dictionary."
Nosselt or Noesselt, nos'selt, (JOHANN AUGUST,) a
German theologian, born at Halle in 1734 ; died in 1807.
Nos'sis, a Greek poetess, born at Locris or Locri,
in Southern Italy, flourished about 310 B.C. She wrote
graceful epigrams, twelve of which are in the Greek
Anthology.
See BENTLEY, "Dissertation upon the Epistles of Phalaris."
Nostitz uiid Janckendorf, von, fon nos'tits oont
vSi/ken-doRf", (GoTTi.oi? ADOLF ERNST,) a German
poet, known under the pseudonym of ARTHUR VON
NORDSTERN, was born in Upper Lusatia in 1765. He
was the author of " Songs for Free-Masons," " Christian
Emblems," and other poems. Died in 1836.
His son, EDUARD GOTTI.OB, rose through various
offices to be minister of the interior for the kingdom of
Saxony.
Nos-tra-da'mus or Notre-Dame, not'R-dtm', (Mi-
CHEI,,) a famous French astrologer and physician, of Jew
ish extraction, born at Saint-Remi, in Provence, in 1503.
During the prevalence of the plague at Aix and Lyons
(1546-47) he acquired a high reputation from the cures
he effected with a medicine of his own invention. In
1555 he published a collection of prophecies, (in verse,)
entitled "Centuries," which caused a great sensation
and obtained for him the favour and patronage of Cathe
rine de Medicis. He was invited by her to Paris, loaded
with favours, and charged to draw the horoscope of the
princes, her sons. He afterwards became physician-in-
ordinary to Charles IX. He died in 1556. Several of
his predictions are said to have been fulfilled. Owing to
his having foretold the downfall of Romanism, his works
were interdicted by the pope, (1781.)
See E. J.AUHFKT, "Vie de M. Nostradamus," 1656: P. J. DE
HAITZE. "Vie de M. Nostradamus," 1712; "La Vie de Nostra
damus," (anonymous.) Paris. 1789: E. BARESTE, "Nostradamus,"
Paris, 1842; Tn. BOUYS, "Considerations sur les Sibyles et sur
Nostradamus," 1806.
Nota, no'ta, ( ALBERTO,) an Italian dramatist, born at
Turin in 1775, %vas tne author of several popular plays
of the class called sentimental comedy. Among these
may be named "The Duchess of La Valliere," "The
Widow in Solitude," and " Domestic Peace." They
have passed through numerous editions, and have been
translated into French, German, Spanish, Swedish, and
Russian. Died in 1847.
See " Vie d'Aiberto Nota," prefixed to the tenth edition of his
works; SCHEDONI. "Trattenimento sopra le Commedie di A. Nota,"
1826; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1828.
* Probably allied to the Anglo-Saxon an and the Norse einr, signi
fying "origin," and hence, as an adjective, "original," "primeval."
See Bosworth's "Anglo-Saxon Dictionary."
. .
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (g^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
NOTHNAGEL
1688
NO PA
Nothnagel, not/na-gel, QOHANN ANDREAS BENJA
MIN,) a German painter and engraver, born in Saxe-
Coburg in 1729; died about 1800.
Nothomb, HO'ION', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a Belgian states
man, born at Messancy in 1805. He was appointed min
ister of public works in 1837, and in 1841 minister of the
interior. His " Historical and Political Essay on the
Belgian Revolution" (1833) was translated into German
and Italian. He was president of the Council from 1843
to June, 1845.
See L. DK LOMENIE, "Galerie des Contemporains ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale. "
Notker, not'ker, surnamed PHYS'ICUS, a learned Ger
man monk and physician of the tenth century, was like
wise celebrated as an artist and poet. Died in 975.
Notker, a German ecclesiastic, was a nephew of the
emperor Otho I. He became dean of the convent of
Saint Gall, and Bishop of Liege, (972.) Died in 1007.
Notker, surnamed LA'HEO, and called also TEU-
TON'ICUS, born about the middle of the tenth century,
entered the monastery of Saint Gall, where he was
appointed principal teacher. He had a high reputation
for learning, and made numerous translations from
the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. His version of the
Psalms is esteemed one of the most important monu
ments of early German literature. Died in 1022.
Not'maii, (JoHN,) a distinguished architect, born in
Edinburgh, Scotland, July 22, 1810. In 1831 he emi
grated to the United States, and settled in Philadel
phia, where he continued to reside for the rest of his
life. He laid out the grounds of Laurel Hill Cemetery,
designed all the architectural embellishments, and su
perintended their execution. He devoted himself par
ticularly to church architecture, in which department he
had few if any superiors in the United States. He was
distinguished for his thorough acquaintance with me-
diasval architecture. He possessed great enthusiasm for
his art, as well as poetic sensibility, and in his works he
seemed to address himself not so much to the senses as
to the soul. He died March 3, 1865. Among his chief
works may be mentioned Saint Mark's Church, in Lo
cust Street, regarded as among the very best specimens
of the Gothic style in America, the fa£ade of the Roman
Catholic cathedral on Logan Square, and the Church of
the Holy Trinity, near Walnut and Nineteenth Streets,
of which the noble doorway is especially admired.
Notre, lie. See LENOTRE.
Notre-Darne, (MICHEL.) See NOSTRADAMUS.
Notre-Dame, de, deh notVdSm', (CESAR,) a French
writer, born at Salon in 1555, was a son of Michel Nos
tradamus. He obtained the title of gentleman of the
chamber to Louis XIII. He wrote several poems, and
a " History of Provence," (1614.) Died in 1629.
Nott, (ABRAHAM,) an American jurist and politician,
born at Saybrook, Connecticut, in 1767, settled in South
Carolina, and was elected to Congress in 1800. Died
in 1830.
Nott, (ELIPHALET,) D.D., LL.D., an American divine,
born in Windham county, Connecticut, in 1773. He
was for many years pastor of the Presbyterian church
at Albany, and in 1804 became president of Union
College, Schenectady, New York. He filled this post
for nearly sixty years, and was greatly instrumental in
promoting the prosperity and reputation of the college.
He published "Counsels to Young Men," "Lectures
on Temperance," etc. Died in 1866.
Nott, (HENRY JUNIUS,) son of Abraham Nott, noticed
above, was born in 1797. He graduated at South Caro
lina College, and was afterwards professor of logic
and the philosophy of language in that institution. He
published "Novelettes of a Traveller," etc., and was
a contributor to the "Southern Review." He was
wrecked in the steamer Home in 1837.
Nott, (JoHN,) an English poet, scholar, and physi
cian, born at Worcester in 1751. He made translations
from the Latin and Italian, and from the Persian of
Hafiz ; he also published an original poem, entitled
"Alonzo." Died in 1826.
Nott, (JosiAH CLARK,) brother of Henry Junius,
noticed above, was bofn at Columbia, South Carolina,
in 1804, and graduated as a physician in Philadelphia.
He has published "The Physical History of the Jewish
Race," "Types of Mankind," (1854,) and "Indigenous
Races of the Earth," (1857,) the last two conjointly with
G. R. Gliddon.
Nott, (Sir WILLIAM,) a distinguished officer, born in
Carmarthen, in Wales, in 1782, served in the Afghan
war, and attained the rank of major-general. Died in
1845.
Nottingham, EARI. OF. See FINCH, (DANIEL.)
Nottingham, not'ting-am, (HENEAGE FINCH,) first
EARL OF, an English lawyer and statesman, born in
Kent in 1621. He entered Christ Church, Oxford, about
1635, studied law in the Inner Temple, and became an
eloquent lawyer. On the restoration of Charles II.
(1660) he was appointed solicitor-general, and took part
in the prosecution of the regicides. He was chosen in
1661 to represent the University of Oxford in Parlia
ment, became attorney-general in 1670, and lord chan
cellor of England in December, 1675. In 1681 he was
created Earl of Nottingham. Died in 1682.
See LORD CAMPBELL, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" Foss,
"The Judges of England;" "Biographia Britannica."
Nouailher, noo'i'li', (JEAN BAPTISTF.,) a French
painter and enameller, born in 1742 ; died in 1804.
Noue, dela, deli It" noo, (FRANC.OIS,) called BRAS DE
FER, (bRil deh feu,) i.e. " Iron-arm," a celebrated French
commander and Huguenot, was born near Nantes in 1531.
He commanded the rear-guard at the battle of Jarnac,
in 1569, and was taken prisoner at Moncontour. Having
lost his left arm at the siege of Fontenay, he supplied its
place by an iron arm. In 1573 he took command of the
insurgents at La Rochelle, which he defended for four
years. After peace had been concluded between Henry
of Navarre and the Catholics, La Noue went in 1578 to
Flanders, where he fought against the Spaniards and
soon became general -in-chief. He was taken prisoner
in 1580, and detained as such for five years. Having
joined the army of Henry IV., he fought at the battle
of Ivry, (1590,) and was killed at Lamballe in 1591. He
had a high reputation for virtue and talents. His "Po
litical and Military Discourses" (1587) entitle him to a
place among the best prose writers of his time.
See BRANTOMF.. " Vies des grands Capitaines;" DAVILA, " His
tory of the Civil Wars of France:" SISMONDI, " Histoire des Fran-
cais ;" DE THOU, " Historia sui Temporis ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Ge"nerale ;" HAAG, "La France protestante ;" MOTLEY, "United
Netherlands," vols ii. and iii.
Noue, de la, (ODET,) Seigneur de Teligny, a French
officer and poet, was a son of the preceding. He fought
for Henry IV., and obtained the rank of marechal-cle-
camp, with the title of counsellor to the king. He wrote
an essay called a " Paradox that Adversity is more
necessary than Prosperity," (1588,) and "Christian
Poems," (" Poesies chretiennes," 1594.) Died in 1618.
Noue, La. See LANOUE.
Nonet, noo'i', (JACQUES,) a French Jesuit, born at
Mans in 1605, wrote a number of moral and religious
works. Died in 1680.
Nouet, (NICOLAS ANTOINE,) a French astronomer,
born in Lorraine in 1740; died in 1811.
Nougarede de Fayet, noo'gf'rkl' deh f&'yi', (AN-
DR6 JEAN SIMON,) BARON, a French jurist and magis
trate, born at Montpellier in 1765, published several
legal and historical works. Died in 1845.
Nougarede de Fayet, (.-\UGUSTE,) a French jurist,
son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1811. He
wrote a number of legal and miscellaneous treatises.
Died in 1853.
Nougaret, noo'gS'r<Y, (PIERRE JEAN BAPTISTK,) a
voluminous and mediocre French writer, born at La
Rochelle in 1742, was the author of poems, tales, dramas,
and historical works. Died in 1823.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Noulleau, noo'lo', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French eccle
siastic and theological writer, born at Saint-Brieuc in
1604 ; died in 1672.
Noureddin or Nour-Edclyn. See NOOR-F.D-DEEN.
Nourrit, noor'e', ( ADOLPHK,) a popular French singer
and actor, born at Montpellier in 1802; died in 1839.
Nova, de, da no'va, (JuAN,) a Spanish navigator,
born in Galicia, entered the service of Emanuel, King
of Portugal. He sailed for the Indies in 1501, and dis-
5,e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m£t; n&t; good; moon;
NO PALIS
i68g
NOT
covered on his route the Isle of Conception, and another
at no great distance, to which he gave his name. On his
return, in 1502, he discovered Saint Helena.
Novalis, no-va'lis, the assumed name of (FRIKDRICH)
Von Hardenberg, (fon hau'clen-beRC/,) a celebrated
German philosopher and mystical writer, born at Wider-
stadt, Saxony, May 2, 1772. He was a son of Baron
von Hardenberg, a member of the Society of Herrnhuters
or Moravians. He studied successively at the Univer
sities of Jena, Leipsic, and Wittenberg. Among the
intimate friends of his early youth were Frederick Schle-
gel, Fichte, and Schelling. About 1797 he produced his
" Hymns to the Night." He was affianced to Julia von
Charpentier in 1798, but their marriage was prevented
by his death. About this date he wrote the " Disciples
at Sais." His constitution had always been delicate. He
died of consumption, at Weissenfels, in March, 1801.
His most extensive work is a mystical romance entitled
" Heinrich von Ofterdingen," which, however, he left
unfinished. Tt is enveloped in a rather obscure sym
bolism, and displays a wild and eccentric imagination.
He also wrote a remarkable work called "Christianity
in Europe."
See a " Biography of Novalis," by TIECK, prefixed to his collected
works, ("Novalis Scliriften,") 2 vols., 1X02; CARLYLK, "Miscel
lanies," article " Novalis ;" MADAME DE STAEL, " De 1'Allemagne ;"
GKRVINUS, " Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtung ;" " Noiivelle
Biographic Generate."
Novara, no-va'ra, (DoMENico MARIA,) an Italian
astronomer, born at Ferrara in 1464, taught astronomy
at Bologna, and numbered among his pupils the cele
brated Copernicus. Died in 1514.
Novarini, no-va-ree'nee, (Luioi.) an Italian theo
logian, born at Verona in 1594, wrote "Commentaries
on the Gospels," and other works. Died in 1650.
Novat. See XOVATUS.
Novatian, np-va'she-an, [Lat. NOVATIA'NUS ; Fr.
NOVATIEN, no'vS'se^N', | the founder of a sect called
Novatians. He became a presbyter of the Church at
Rome, and insisted on a rigorous enforcement of the
discipline against the Lapsi, — i.e. those members of
the Church who under the pressure of persecution had
relapsed into idolatry or had been guilty of apostasy.
On this question the Church was divided into two par
ties, which in 251 A.D. elected two rival bishops of Rome,
Novatian and Cornelius, the latter of whom advocated
greater laxity or charity in the treatment of the weak
brethren. Novatian was condemned by a general
Council held at Rome, and his rival obtained the office.
The Novatians became numerous, and existed for more
than a century as a separate sect. Some writers con
found him with Novatus, mentioned below.
See Fi.EfRY. " Histoire ecclesiastique;" PLUQUET, "Diction-
naire des Heresies."
Novatianus. See NOVATIAN.
Novatien. See NOVATIAN.
No-va'tus, [Fr. NOVAT, no'vt',] a presbyter of Car
thage, called a heresiarch by Catholic writers, was an
adversary of Cyprian. He was excommunicated in 251
A.D., — probably because he resisted the assumption of
the bishops who wished to domineer over the Church;
for he is not charged with dogmatical heresy.
See FI.HUKY, " Histoire ecclesiastique."
Novella, no-vel'la, a learned and beautiful Italian lady,
born at Padua in 1312, was a daughter of the celebrated
jurist Giovanni d'. Andrea. She was profoundly versed
in philosophy and jurisprudence, and was accustomed,
in her father's absence, to lecture in his place. She is
said to have lectured with a curtain drawn before her,
" Lest the students
Should let their voting eyes wander o'er her,
And quite forget their jurisprudence."
Died in 1366.
See GINT.UENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Novell!, no-vel'lee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian sculptor,
born at Castel-Franco in 1600, worked at Florence. A
statue of Mary Magdalene is called his master-piece.
He also made telescopes so superior that Torricelli said
of him, "Behold, another Galileo flourishes!" ("En
virescit Galilaeus alter !") Died in 1662.
See BALDINUCCI, "Notizie.'
Novell!, (PiKTRO,) called IL MORREALESE, (el mor-
ra-a-la'sa,) an Italian painter and architect, born at Mor-
reale in 1608. He adorned the churches of Palermo
with many oil-paintings. He also painted some frescos.
According to E. Breton, in the "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale," he was the greatest painter that Sicily ever
produced. Died in 1647.
See LANZI, "History of Fainting in Italy;" TICOZZI, " Dizio-
nario."
Novell!, (PiETRO ANTONIO,) an Italian painter and
poet, born at Venice in 1729; died in 1804. His son
FRANCESCO, born in 1764, was an engraver.
Novello, no-vel'lo, (CLARA,) Countess Gigliucci, (jel-
yoot'chee, ) a famous singer, a daughter of Vincent
Novello, was born in London in 1818. She performed
in Paris and London. She was married to Count Gi
gliucci about 1845.
Novello, (VINCENT,) an eminent musician, born in
London in 1781, was the son of an Italian. He com
posed music for the Church, and published several col
lections of the works of other composers. He was the
father of Mary Cowclen Clarke, and Clara, Countess
Gigliucci. Died in 1861.
See "Life of V. Novello," by his daughter, MRS. CLARKE.
Noverre, no'vaiR', (JEAN GEORGES,) born in Paris in
1727, is celebrated for the improvements he introduced
into the ballet and the art of dancing. He was the
author of "Letters on the Imitative Arts," etc., (1807,)
and several dramatic works, and was appointed chief
ballet-master of the Royal Academy of Music, Paris.
Died in 1810.
See the "Monthly Review" for April, 1786.
Noves, de, deli nov, (or no'v£s,) (LAURA,) a French
lady, celebrated as the subject of Petrarch's sonnets,
was born near Avignon in 1307 ; died in 1348.
See DE SADE, " Memoires sur Petrarque," 1744.
Novikof, Novikov, or Novikow, nov'e-kof, (Nl-
KOLAI IVANOVITCM.) a Russian litterateur, born near
Moscow in 1744. He published a " Lexicon of Russian
Authors," and a work entitled "The Painter," which
was very successful. He established in Moscow a Ty
pographical Society for the cheap printing of valuable
books, and contributed in many ways to promote the
cause of education. Died in 1818.
See GRETCU, " Essai sur 1'Histoire de la Litterature Russe."
No'vi-us, (Q.,) a Latin comic poet, lived about So
B.C., and was contemporary with Sulla the dictator. He
wrote plays called Atellane.
Nowell, no'el, (ALEXANDER,) an English theologian,
born in Lancashire about 1508, was a zealous pro
moter of the Reformation. On the accession of Queen
Mary he went into exile. He became Dean of Saint
Paul's, London, in 1560, and took a prominent part in
the Convocation of 1563, at which the articles of re
ligion were revised. His most important work is his
"Catechism," which was published in Latin in 1570
and in English about 1571. This is the "Larger Cate
chism" adopted by the Anglican Church. He had a
high reputation for learning and candour. Died in 1602.
See CHURTON, " Lite of Alexander Nowell," 1809.
Nowell, (LAWRENCE,) a younger brother of the pre
ceding, graduated at Oxford in 1544. He became Dean
of Lichfield in 1559. He compiled a Saxon Vocabulary,
which he gave to William Lambarde in manuscript. Died
in 1576.
Nox or Nyx, [Gr. Ni'f ; Fr. NUIT, nii'e' ; It. NOTTE,
not'ta,] one of the most ancient deities in classic my
thology, is a personification of Night. She was supposed
to be the daughter of Chaos, the brother of Erebus, and
the mother of Day, (Hcmera.) Among her offspring
were Death, Sleep, Monius, Nemesis, and the Parcae.
Noy, (WILLIAM.) a celebrated English lawyer, born
about 1577. He was appointed attorney-general in 1631,
and thenceforth became the advocate of the royal pre
rogative, though he had previously been one of its
strongest opponents. It was at his suggestion that King
Charles I. levied the tax of ship-money, which was
one of the exciting causes of the civil war. He wrote,
among other legal works, " The Complete Lawyer," and
a "Treatise on the Rights of the Crown." Died in 1634.
See CLARENDON, "Memoirs;" FULLER, "Worthies."
See BALDINUCCI, "Notizie." See CLARENDON, "Memoirs;" FULLER, "Worthies."
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (fc^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
N OT DENS
1690
NUNEZ
Noydens, no-e-de'ns', ? (BENITO RKMIGIO,) a Spanish
philologist, born in Aragon about 1630, published a
Spanish Dictionary, (1674.) Died in 1685.
Noyer, du. See DUNOYER.
Noyes, noiz, (GEORGE RAPALL,) D.D., an American
scholar and divine, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts,
in 1798. He was elected in 1840 Hancock professor of
Hebrew and Oriental languages, and Dexter lecturer on
Biblical literature, at Harvard College. He published
translations of the Psalms, the book of Job, and other
parts of the Bible, and contributed to the " Christian
Examiner." Died in 1868.
See the " North American Review" for October, 1832.
Noyes, (WiLUAM CURTIS,) an American jurist, born
in Rensselaer county, New York, in 1805. He practised
law in the city of New York, where he died in December,
1864.
Nucci, noot'chee, (BENEDETTO,) an Italian painter,
of 'the Roman school, was born at Gubbio about 1520;
died in 1587.
Nuck, nook, (ANTON,) a skilful German anatomist
and physician, born about 1660. He was professor of
surgery and anatomy at Leyden, and subsequently presi
dent of the College of Surgeons. He made several valu
able discoveries relative to the lymphatic vessels and
glands, and published a treatise "On the New Salival
Duct," and one "On the Motion of the Circular Bile."
Died in 1692.
Nuenarius. See NEUENAR.
Nu'gent, the name of a noble family, originally from
Normandy, who settled in Ireland in the twelfth century.
RICHARD NUGENT was created by King James I. Earl of
Westmeath in 1621. GEORGE THOMAS JOHN NUGENT,
born in 1785, became Marquis of Westmeath in 1822.
He was a prominent leader of the Orange party. Sir
GEORGE NUGENT, grandson of Viscount Clare, born in
1757, served in America and the Netherlands. He was
successively appointed Governor of Jamaica and com-
mander-in-chief of the army in the West Indies, and in
1846 field-marshal. Died in 1849. His brother, Sir
CHARLES EDMUND NUGENT, served with distinction
under Rodney, and was created admiral of the blue in
1808. In 1833 he received the title of admiral of the
fleet. Died in 1844.
Nugent, (CHRISTOPHER,) an Irish physician of con
siderable reputation, was father-in-law of the celebrated
Edmund Burke. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society.
His principal work is an "Essay on Hydrophobia,"
(1753.) Died in 1775.
Nugent, (GEORGE NUGENT GRENVILLE,) LORD, an
English writer and liberal statesman, a son of the Mar
quis of Buckingham, was born in 1788. On entering
Parliament, in 1812, he became a prominent advocate of
the cause of the Greeks, and was also conspicuous in
the defence of Queen Caroline. In 1830 he was made
lord of the treasury, and soon after lord high commissary
of the Ionian Islands. He returned to England in 1835,
and died in 1850 or 1851. He published very interesting
" Memorials of John Hampden," and wrote, in conjunction
with his wife, "Legends of Lilies, by the Lord and Lady
thereof."
See tlie " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1846.
Nugent, (Comte LAVAL DE WESTMEATH,) a general,
born in Ireland in 1777. He entered the Austrian army
at an early age. He gained some advantages over the
troops of Mm at in 1815. About 1849 he was raised to
the rank of feld-marechal.
Nugent, (ROBERT CRAGGS,) EARL, a poet and poli
tician, born in Ireland. He married in 1736 Anne
Craggs, a daughter of Secretary Craggs, who was a
friend of Addison. He entered the House of Commons
in 1741, and became a lord of the treasury. About 1776
he obtained the title of Earl Nugent. Died in 1788.
He published a volume of poems in 1739.
Nugent, (THOMAS,) LL.D., a learned writer and com
piler, was a native of Ireland. He published, among
other works, "Travels through Germany," (1768,) and
a "French-and-English Dictionary," (1774,) often re
printed. Died in 1772.
Nu'ma Fom-pil'i-us, the second king of Rome,
celebrated in Roman legends or fables as the author of
the religious ceremonies of the Romans. According to
these legends, Numa was a Sabine, and was elected
king as successor to Romulus. Instructed by the Ca-
mena Egeria, he prescribed the rites of public worship,
and appointed pontiffs, augurs, flamens, and vestals.
His reign was pacific and prosperous. There was a
prevalent tradition among the ancients that Numa de
rived his wisdom from Pythagoras.
See PLUTARCH, "Lives;" NIF.BUHR, " Romische Geschichte ;"
J. MEYER, " Deiineatio Vita; Niun^e Pompilii," 1765.
Nu-me'ni-us, [Noiyt^vtof,] a Greek philosopher, born
at Apamea, in Syria, is called a Pythagorean, or rather a
professor of a Platonico-Pythagorean philosophy. He
lived in the second century of our era, and was favour
ably mentioned by Origen. He attempted to reconcile
the great Greek schools with the doctrines of the Brah-
nians, Magi, and Jews, and to restore the philosophy of
Plato to its original purity. His works are not extant.
See J. SIMON'. " Histoire de Pficole d'Alexandrie ;" RITTER,
" History of Philosophy."
Nu-me'ri-an, [Lat. NUMERIA'NUS ; Fr. NUMERIEN,
nu'ma'rex^N',]' (MARCUS AURELIUS,) son of Cams, suc
ceeded him as Emperor of Rome in 284 A.D., in conjunc
tion with his brother Carinus. He was afterwards put
to death in the same year, as is supposed, by his father-
in-law, An ins, and Diocletian was chosen emperor.
Numerianus was famed as an orator and a poet. His
character is said to have been excellent.
See VOPISCUS, "Numerianus."
Numerieii. See NUMERIAN.
Nu-me-si-a'nus or No-mis-i-a'nus, a physician of
Corinth, flourished in the second century of the Chris
tian era. He numbered the celebrated Galen among
his pupils.
Numitor. See ROMULUS.
Nunes-Barreto, noo'nes bar-ra'to, (BELCHIOR,) a
Portuguese missionary, born at Oporto in 1520. He was
employed many years in India, and wrote interesting
letters on Oriental affairs. Died in 1571.
Nunez, noon'yeth, ( ALVAREZ,) surnamed CAHF.QA DE
VACA, (ka-ba'tha da va'ka,) a Spanish explorer, was the
second in command of a party which discovered or ex
plored Florida in 1528. He was appointed adelantado
of Rio de la Plata about 1540. Died in 1564.
See OOMARA, " Historia general de las Indias;" " Nouveile
Biographic Generate."
Nuiiez, [Lat. NO'NIUS,] (FERNANDO DE GUZMAN,) a
distinguished Spanish scholar and promoter of classical
learning, was born at Valladolid about 1470. He was
descended from the noble family of Guzman, and was
surnamed PINCIANUS, from Pincium, the Latin name of
Valladolid. After having studied Greek in Italy, he was
appointed one of the professors of that language in the
University of Alcala. He afterwards filled the chair of
ancient languages and rhetoric at Salamanca. Nunez
had a share in the celebrated " Complutensian Poly
glot" of Cardinal Ximenes, and in the Latin version of
the Septuagint. He also published, among other works,
an excellent edition of Seneca. Died in 1553-
Nuiiez, [Lat. NO'NIUS or NON'NIUS,| (Luis,) a Flem
ish or Spanish medical writer, born about 1555, lived
at Antwerp. He was eminent for learning, and wrote
several works, among which is a treatise on diet, " Diae-
teticon, sive de Re Cibaria," (1627.) Died after 1645.
See N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana."
Nunez, noo'nez, or No'm-us, (PEDRO,) an eminent
Portuguese mathematician, born in 1492. He wrote a
number of very able treatises on navigation, geometry,
and the projection of maps ; and the improved scale
which he invented for reading an observed angle is
still called by his name. He is also said to be the in
ventor of the loxodromic curve. Nunez was professor
of mathematics at Coimbra, and royal cosmographer.
Died in 1577.
See MONTUCLA, "Histoire des Mathematiqnes ;" BARBOSA MA-
CHADO, "Bibliotheca Lusitaoa."
Nuiiez de Balboa. See BALTSOA, T>R.
Nuiiez de Villavicencio, noon'yeth da vel'ya-ve-
then'the-o, written also Nunnez de Villavicencio, a
Spanish painter, born at Seville about 1635, was a pupil
of Murillo. Died in 1700.
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
NUNNING
1691
O'BEIRNE
Nunning, noon'ning, (JODOCUS HERMANN,) a German
antiquary, born at Schuttorp in 1675 ; died in 1753.
Nunziante, noon-ze-an'ti, (Vrro,) MARQUIS, an Ital
ian general, born at Campagna in 1775. ^e commanded
the army which the King of Naples sent in 1820 against
his insurgent subjects, but was abandoned by that army.
He became commander-in-chief of all the Neapolitan
armies in 1831. Died in 1836.
See F. PALERMO, " Vita e Fatti di V. Nimziante," 1839.
Nureddin. See NOOR-ED-DKEN.
Nus, niis, (EunENK,) a French dramatist, born at
Chalons-sur-Saone in 1816.
Nushirwan or Nuschir-waii. See KHOSROO.
Nut'tall, (THOMAS,) an English botanist of high repu
tation, born in Yorkshire in 1786. He emigrated to the
United States about 1808, after which he explored the
country bordering on the Missouri River, and published
his valuable " Genera of North American Plants," (1818.)
He was professor of natural history at Harvard from
1822 to 1834. He performed an excursion to the Rocky
Mountains and Columbia River about 1834. Among his
works is a " Manual of the Ornithology of the United
States and Canada," (2 vols., 1834.) Died in 1859.
Nuvolone, noo-vo-lo'ni, (CARLO FRANCESCO,) an
Italian painter, born at Milan in 1608. He imitated the
style of Guido so successfully that he was surnamed THE
GUI no OF LOMBARDY. Among his master-pieces is
"The Miracle of Saint Peter at the Beautiful Gate."
Died in 1661.
See LAXZI. " History of Painting in Italy."
Nuvolone, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter, born at
Milan in 1619, was a brother of the preceding. He was
sometimes called PANFILO. Died in 1703.
Nuvolone, (PANFILO,) an Italian painter, born at
Cremona, was the father of the preceding. He worked
at Milan. Died, at an advanced age, in 1651.
Nuwayri. See NOOWAIREE.
Nuzzi, noot'see, (MARIO,) called MARIO DE' FIORI,
(ma're-o da fe-o'ree,) a celebrated Italian flower-painter,
born near Naples in 1603. His pictures enjoyed a great I
reputation in his time, and commanded high prices.
Died in 1673.
Nyberg, nii'beRg, (JULIA CHRISTINA,) a Swedish
poetess, whose assumed name is EUPHROSYNE, was
born in 1785.
Nyctee. See NYCTEUS.
Nyc'teus, [Gr. Nwrei'r .- Fr. NYCTEE, nek'ti',] a
fabulous king of Thebes, said to have been a son of
Neptune and the father of Antiope.
Nyder. See NIDER.
Nye, nl, (Pun, IP,) an English nonconformist divine,
born about 1596, was distinguished for his hostility to
the cause of Charles I. In 1647 he attended as chap
lain the commissioners sent to treat with that monarch
in the Isle of Wight. He died in 1672, leaving numerous
controversial treatises.
Nyerup, nii'er-up, (RASMUS,) an eminent Danish
scholar and antiquary, born at Funen in 1759. He was
appointed in 1796 professor of the history of literature
and librarian of the University of Copenhagen. Among
his numerous and valuable works we may name his
"Symbols to Illustrate Teutonic Literature," (1787,) and
"Historical and Statistical Account of the Condition of
Denmark and Norway in Ancient and Modern Times,"
(4 vols., 1802-06.) In conjunction with Rahbek and
Abrahamson, he published in 1812 an edition of old
Danish heroic songs, with historical explanations. He
published, conjointly with Kraft, a work on Danish, Nor
wegian, and Icelandic biography, entitled " Almindeligt
Litteraturlexicon for Danmark, Norge og Island," (2
vols., 1819.) Died in 1829.
See C. MOI.BF.CH, "Mindeord over R. Nyerup," 1830; "R. Ny-
enip's Levnetsibb beskrevet afhani selv," 1820: KRAFT og NYERUP,
"Litteraturlexicon;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Nymann.nee'man, (GKKGOR,) a German physiologist,
born at Wittenberg in 1594. He published " De Vita
Foetus in Utero," (1628,) which is commended. Died
in 1638.
Nymphae, nim'fe, [Gr. ~Svii$cu; Fr. NYMPHES, naMf, )
the name of a numerous class of female divinities with
which the imagination of the ancient Greeks peopled
the groves, the mountains, the lakes, the rivers, the
fountains, and the valleys. They may be described as
personifications of the genial and beneficent powers of
nature. Among their common attributes were youth
and beauty. They were divided into several classes or
species, namely, Oceanides and Nereides, sea-nymphs ;
Oreades, mountain-nymphs; Naiades, fresh-water
nymphs ; Dryades, wood-nymphs, or nymphs of trees ;
Limniades, nymphs of lakes ; and Napoeae, nymphs
of forests and groves. The poets feigned that the
Nymphs were the nurses of Bacchus, Jupiter, and Pan.
(See OCEANIDES, NEREIDES, OKEADES, etc.)
Nymphes. See NYMPH.-E.
Nym'phis, [Nty/cito,] a Greek historian, a native of
the Pontic Heraclea, lived about 250 B.C. He wrote a
" History of Alexander the Great and his Successors,"
and two other works. None of these are extant.
Nymphodore. See NYMPHODORUS.
Nym-pho-do'rus, [Gr. Nty/<j>o(5wpoc; Fr. NYMPHO
DORE, naM'fo'doR',] a Greek surgeon, mentioned by
Celsus and Galen, lived probably in the third century
B.C. He invented a machine for the reduction of dislo
cations.
Nymphodorus, a Greek historian of Amphipolis,
whose epoch is unknown. He wrote a work on the laws
and customs of Asia, called N6«t//a 'Am'ac.
Nysten, nls'ten, (PETER HUBERT,) a Dutch physician,
born at Liege in 1771. He was the author of a "Dic
tionary of Medicine and its Accessory Sciences," (1810,)
and "Researches in Physiology and Pathological Chem
istry," (1811.) Diedin'iSiS.
O.
O, d', do, (FRANC.OIS,) MARQUIS, a French financier, i
born in Paris in 1535. He became superintendent of i
the finances in 1578. Died in 1504.
Oakes, oks, (URIAN,) a learned nonconformist divine,
born in England in 1631, emigrated to America, and
settled as minister at Cambridge. Massachusetts, in 1671.
He became president of Harvard College in 1680. Died
in 1681.
Oates, ots, (Trrrs.) a notorious impostor, the in
ventor of the famous Popish Plot, was born in or near
London about 1620. He became a clergyman of the
Anglican Church, was deprived of his living for vicious
conduct, and turned a Roman Catholic. He passed
some time in a lesnit college at Saint-Omer, from which
he was expelled in 1677. In 1678 he appeared as an
informer, and swore that the pope and Jesuits had con
spired to massacre the prominent Protestants, make
themselves masters of the kingdom, and establish popery.
His story was generally credited, and produced a furious
excitement. Many Catholics were put to death for
alleged complicity in the plot. Oates received a pension
of ;£i2oo. After the accession of James II. he was
convicted of perjurv, severely whipped, and imprisoned
from 1685 to 1689. He died in 1705.
See MACAULAY, " History of England ;" BURNET, " History of his
Own Times;" HUME, " History of England;" EVELYN, "Diary."
Ob-a-di'ah, [Heb. mu;*,] one of the minor Hebrew
prophets, lived probably about 590 B.C. Nothing is
known respecting the events of his life. His prophecy
is comprised in a single chapter.
Obeidah. See ABOO-OBEIDAH.
O'Beime, o-beern', ? (THOMAS LEWis.Van Irish prel
ate and writer, born in the county of Longford in 1748.
He accompanied Lord Howe to America, as his chaplain,
in 1775, and was created, after his return, Bishop of
Meath. He was the author of a poem entitled "The
Crucifixion," (1776,) and of several prose works. Died
in 1823.
<; asxr; c as j; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2J3^='See Explanations, p. 23.)
OBELERIO
1692
OCAR1TZ
Obelerio, o-ba-la're-o, a Venetian doge, born about
760, began to rule in 804 A.D., soon after which Venice
was invaded by Pepin, King of the Lombards. He was
exiled in 809, and died in 831 A.D.
Obentraut, von, fon o'ben-tRowt', QOHANN MI
CHAEL,) a German general, born in the Palatinate in
1574. Me fought for Frederick, Elector Palatine, and
was second in command of the army which, under Ernst
of Mansfeld, gained advantages over Spinola and Tilly
in Flanders. He was killed in battle at Kalemberg in
1625.
See SCHILLER, " History of the Thirty Years' War;" C. G. DE
KOCH, "Tableau des Revolutions de 1' Europe."
Obereit, o'beh-rit', (|AKOH HKRMANN,) a German
or Swiss alchemist and mystic, born in Aargau in 1725,
practised medicine in his early life. He wrote, besides
other works, a "Defence of Mysticism," (1775,) and
"Promenades de Gamaliel, Juif Philosophe," (1780.)
Died at Jena in 1798.
Oberhauser, o'ber-hoi'zer, (BENEDICT,) a German
canonist, bom in Upper Austria in 1719 ; died in 1786.
See " Memoria B. Oberhauseri," Saltzburg, 1786.
Oberhauser, (GEORG,) a manufacturer of micro
scopes, was born at Anspach, in Bavaria, in 1798. He
became a resident of Paris about 1815, and made some
improvement in the form of microscopes. Between 1831
and 1856 he constructed a great number of these instru
ments, which were exported to all civilized nations.
Oberkampf, o'ber-kampf, (CHRISTOPH PHII.IPP,) a
distinguished German artisan, born at Weissenbach in
1738. Having removed to France, he established at
Jouy the first manufactory of printed cottons, (1759.)
He brought this art to a degree of excellence hitherto
unknown, and conferred an immense benefit upon his
adopted country. He received from Napoleon the cross
of the legion of honour. Died in 1815.
Oberlin, o'ber-lin, [Ger. pron. o'beK-leen' ; Fr. pron.
o'bek'laN',] (JKAN FREDERIC,) an eminent philanthropist
and reformer, born at Strasburg in 1740. In compliance
with his father's wishes, he studied theology, instead of
embracing the military profession, for which he had a
strong inclination. He became in 1766 Protestant pastor
of the Steinthal, or Ban de la Roche, a barren and rocky
valley in Alsace, the inhabitants of which, owing to their
country having been repeatedly laid waste during the
French and German wars, were in a state of wretched
poverty and ignorance. Oberlin now devoted himself
to the reform which had been begun by his predecessor,
Stouber, and, by his energy and mildness, succeeded in
overcoming the prejudices of the people, who at first
opposed all innovations. Besides great improvements
in agriculture and the mechanical arts, he introduced
many new employments, such as cotton-spinning, weav
ing, and straw-plaiting. He founded schools, to which
he gave competent teachers, originated infant-schools,
and took upon himself the principal religious instruction
of his parishioners. So highly was Oberlin esteemed
for the excellence of his character, and so deep was the
sense of the benefits he had conferred, that during the
troubles of the French Revolution the Ban de la Roche
remained undisturbed ; and he received from Louis
XVIII. the cross of the legion of honour, (1819.) After
the death of his wife, (1784,) Oberlin was assisted in his
benevolent labours by his housekeeper, Louisa Schepler,
formerly a servant in his family. She obtained from the
French Academy, in 1829, one of the Montyon Prizes
of Virtue, (five thousand francs.) Oberlin died in 1826,
after a short illness, at the age of eighty -six.
See AIT.UST NEANDKR, " Ziiue aus dem Leben und Wirken des
Pastors Oberlin," 1835; PAUL MKRI.IN, " Le Pasteur Oberlin," 1833;
ROTHKKT, " Leben j. F. Oberlins," 1847: "The Ban de la Roche
and its Benet'actor." London, 1820; " Le Pasteur Oberlin, Souvenir
d'Alsace," 1824 ; H LUTTKROTH, " Notice sur J. F. Oberlin," 1826 ;
D. E. STOF.BER, "Vie de J. F. Oberlin,'' 1834; G H. VON Scuu-
BRRT, " Ziipie aus dem Leben Oberlins," 1834 ; " Memoirs of J. F.
Oberlin," London, 8th edition, 1838.
Oberlin, (JEREMIE JACQUES,) a scholar and antiquary
of high reputation, born at Strasburg in 1735, was a
brother of Jean Frederic, noticed above. He became
professor of logic and metaphysics in the university of
his native city, (1782.) Among his principal works are
his " Tables of Roman Rites," (" Rituum Romanorum
Tabula;," etc., 1774,) and "On the Amatory Poets of
Alsatia in the Middle Ages," (" De Poetis Alsatiae Ero-
ticis Medii ^Evi," 1786.) lie also published excellent
editions of Horace, Tacitus, and other Latin classics.
Died in 1806.
Oberweg. See OvERWEG.
Obrecht, o'bRCKt, (El.lAS,) an antiquary, brother of
Uliich, noticed below, was born at Strasburg in 1654.
He wrote several treatises on Roman antiquities. Died
in 1698.
Obrecht, (GEORG,) a German jurist, bom at Stras
burg in 1547; died in 1612.
Obrecht, (Ui.Ricii,) a learned jurist, grandson of the
preceding, was born at Strasburg in 1646. He published
a number of legal works, and editions of Latin classics.
Died in 1701.
Obregon, o-l)Ra-g6n', (BERNARDINO,) a Spaniard,
born near Burgos in 1540, founded an order of monks
devoted to the service of the sick in hospitals. Died
in 1599.
See H. MALIJONAOO, " Vida de Bernardino de Obregon."
Obrenovitch or Obrenowitsch, o-bri-no'vitch,
(Mii.oscil,) styled Prince of Servia, born in 1780, was
originally a Servian peasant, lie became about 1815 a
leader of the Servian insurgents, and gained several vic
tories over the Turks. In i8i6or 1817 he was elected
prince. He afterwards made a compromise with the
Sultan, who permitted him to govern Servia as tributary
to the Turkish empire. His tyranny having provoked
his subjects to revolt, he abdicated in 1839. lie was
restored in January, 1859, and died in 1860.
See FOSSART, "Das Leben des Fiirsten Milosch und seine
Kriege," 1836.
O'Bii'en, an Irish family of rank, descended from the
famous chieftain Brian Boroimhe, who was slain at the
battle of Clontarf, in 1014. MURROUGH O'BRIEN was
created in 1800 Marquis ofThomond. Died in 1808. His
nephew, JAMES O'BRIEN, Marquis ofThomond, served as
a naval officer against the French, and in 1847 was made
an admiral. Sir Li;cius O'BRIEN, born in 1800, became
lord lieutenant of Clare in 1843. He was twice chosen a
member of Parliament for Clare, and was a zealous ad
vocate of conservative principles. His brother, Wn.i.i AM
SMITH O'BRIEN, born in 1803, was elected to Parliament
for the county of Limerick in 1832. Here he became
an earnest coadjutor of O'Connell in the Repeal move
ment. He was afterwards the leader of a party called
" Young Ireland," which, not satisfied with the legal
agitation of O'Connell, advocated a forcible separation
from England. Soon after the French revolution of
1848 he visited Paris, but, disappointed in his hopes of
assistance from France, he returned to Dublin, where he
summoned a national convention of three hundred mem
bers. This assembly was prohibited by the government,
and O'Brien, with other leaders, was arrested. He was
condemned to death ; but this sentence was afterwards
commuted to banishment, and in 1849 he was sent to
Australia. He was subsequently pardoned. Died in 1864.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1861.
Obry, o'bRe', (JKAN BAPTISTE,) a French Orientalist,
born at Albert (Somme) in 1793. He resided for many
years at Amiens.
Ob'se-queiis, (Juuu.s,) a Roman writet, of whose
personal history nothing is known. He was the author
of a work entitled " De Prodigiis," in which he recoids
the wonderful occurrences from the foundation of Rome
to the time of Augustus. Some parts of it which were
lost have been supplied by Lycosthenes, (Woolfhart.)
Obsopceus. See OPSOPIKITS.
Ocaiia, de, da o-kan'ya, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish poet,
born in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was the
author of religious poems.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Ocaritz, d', do-kil-rets', ? ( JOSE, ) CHEVAIJER, a
Spanish diplomatist, born in the province of Rioxa in
1750. He was charge-d'affaires at Paris in 1792, and
made great efforts to save the life of Louis XVI. In
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; me't; n8t; good; moon;
O'CAROLAN
1693
O'CONNOR
1805 he was sent as ambassador to Turkey. Died at
Varna in 1805.
See THIERS, " History of the French Revolution."
O'Car'o-laii, (TURLOUGH,) a famous Irish bard and
musical composer, born in 1670, was a skilful performer
on the harp. Died in 1738.
Oc'cam or Ockham, ok'kam, (\VILLIAM,) an Eng
lish philosopher and eminent logician, surnamed THE
INVIXCIHLK DOCTOR, born in Surrey in the thirteenth
century, was the founder of a sect called by his name.
He studied theology under Duns Scotus, whose tenets
of Realism he opposed, and aimed to restore those of
Nominalism. He was excommunicated by Pope John
XXII. for his bold defence of the emperor Louis of
Bavaria against the encroachments of the papal power.
Among his principal works is a treatise " On the Power
of the Sovereign Pontiff." Died at Munich in 1347.
See B. HAUREAU, "De la Philosophic scolastique."
Occleve. See HOCCLEVE.
Occo, ok'ko, (ADOLF,) a German physician and nu
mismatist, born at Augsburg in 1524. He published
"The Coins of the Roman Emperors," (" Imperatorum
Romanorum Numismata," 1579,) and other works. Died
in 1604.
See BKUCKER, "Vita A. Occoni."
Oc'cpm, (SAMSON,) a converted Indian, born in New
London countv, Connecticut, about 1723, became cele
brated as a preacher among his people, and in 1766
visited England. Died in 1792.
Ocean. See OCEAN us.
O-ce-an'i-des, [Gr. 'i2«eajv'<5ef ; Fr. OCEANIDES, o'si'-
f'ned',] sea-nymphs or ocean-nymphs, daughters of
Oceanus and Tethys. They were supposed to have
been several thousand in number. (See NYMPH/E.)
O-ce'a-nus, [Gr. 'fl/craror ; Fr. OCEAN, o'sa'ix',] in
classic mythology, was the god of the river Oceanus, by
which the ancient Greeks supposed the earth to be sur
rounded. According to Hesiod, he was the first-born
of the Titans, the son of Uranus and Ge, (or Ccelus and
Terra,) the husband of Tethys, and a parent of the
Oceanides and of several thousand rivers.
O-cel'lus Lu-ca'iius, so named from his birthplace,
Lucania, in Italy, is supposed to have been a disciple of
Pythagoras, and to have flourished about 500 B.C. His
treatise "On the Nature of the Universe" is the only
one of his works extant. It maintains the doctrine of
the eternity of the world.
See '' Nouve'le Biographic Generale."
Oceola. See OSCEOLA.
Ocheda, o-ka'da, (ToMMASO,) an Italian litterateur,
born at Tortona in 1757, became librarian to Lord Spen
cer in 1790. He wrote essays on philosophy. Died in 1831.
Ochin. See OCHINO.
Ochino, o-kee'no, [Lat. OCHI'NUS; Fr. OCHIN,
o'shax',] (BERNARDINO,) one of the most celebrated
Italian Protestants, was born at Sienna in 1487. He
became a popular preacher, and was chosen general of
the order of Capuchins in 1538. It is also stated that
he was confessor to Pope Paul III., and was venerated
as a saint. Having formed an acquaintance with Juan
Valdez, a Reformer, he avowed his conversion to the
Protestant faith, and escaped to Geneva in 1542. In
vited by Cranmer, he went to England in 1547, and
preached in London until the accession of Queen Mary,
in 1553, after which he lived at Zurich. He became a
Unitarian, and was banished from Zurich about 1562.
Died in Moravia in 1564. He had published several
volumes of sermons, and other works on theology.
See MARCHAND, " Dictionnaire Historique :" BAVLE, " Historical
and Crhical Dictionary ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" DANIEL
MEYKK, " Essai sur la Vie, etc. de 13. Ochin," 1851.
Ochinus. See OCHINO.
Ochoa, de, da o-cho'a, (Don EUGKNIO,) a Spanish
writer and translator, born in Madrid about 1812. He
wrote various works in prose and verse, and translated
many from the French and English.
Ochosias or Ochozias,* the French form of the
name AHAZIAH, which see.
Ochoziah or Ochozias. See OCHOSIAS.
* Cowley — followine, it would seem, the French spelling — writes
the name, in English, Ochoziah. (See " Davideis," book ii., line 595.)
Ochs, oks, (PETER,) a Swiss statesman and jurist,
born at Bale in 1749, was chancellor and grand tribune
of Bale. He was created by Napoleon a councillor of
state, and director of the Helvetic republic. He wrote
a " History of Bale," (" Geschichte von Basel," 6 vols.,
1785-1822,) and also published several dramas. Died
in 1821.
Ochsenbein, ok'sen-bin', (Ui.RiCH,) a Swiss poli
tician and general, born in the canton of Berne in iSil.
He was a leader of the radical party, and became presi
dent of the Federal Diet in 1847. He took a prominent
part in the war against the seven Catholic cantons,
which formed a separate confederacy, called the " Sun-
derbund," in 1847.
Ochterlony, oK'ter-lo'ne, (Sir DAVID,) a British gene
ral, born in 1758. He served in India, and distinguished
himself in the campaign of Nepaul in 1815-16. Died
in 1825.
Ockenfuss. See OKEN.
Ockenheim. See OKK.GHEM.
Ock'ley, (SIMON,) an English divine and Oriental
scholar, born at Exeter in 1678, became professor of
Arabic in the University of Cambridge in 1711. He
published in 1718 his " ?Iistory of the Saracens," a valu
able work, which is commended by Gibbon. He also
translated the second Apocryphal Book of Esdras from
the Arabic version, and wrote an "Introduction to the
Oriental Tongues," (1706.) Died in 1720.
See CHALMERS, " Biographical Dictionary."
O'Con'nell, (DANIEL,) a famous Irish orator and
political agitator, born near Cahirciveen, Kerry, in Au
gust, 1775, was educated as a Roman Catholic at Saint-
Omer, in France. He entered Lincoln's Inn as a student
of law in 1794, and was admitted to the bar in 1798. He
quickly attained the foremost rank in his profession, and
became pre-eminent as the advocate of Catholic eman
cipation, — i.e. the relief of Catholics from political dis
abilities. In the promotion of this cause he entirely
discouraged a resort to physical force. He married his
cousin, Mary O'Connell, about 1802. In 1823 he founded
the Catholic Association. He was elected a member
of Parliament for Clare in 1828, and refused to take the
oath which was designed expressly to exclude Roman
Catholics from the House. This affair caused a violent
excitement and agitation, which resulted in the passage
of the bill for Catholic emancipation in 1829, and O'Con
nell then took his seat in the House of Commons. He
represented Dublin in Parliament from 1832 to 1835,
and from 1837 to 1841. Having given up his lucrative
practice to devote himself to legislative duties, he was
indemnified by an annual subscription raised by his polit
ical friends under the name of "rent." About 1840 he
commenced an agitation for the repeal of the union, on
which subject he made speeches at monster meetings in
Ireland in 1842 and 1843. ^e vvas arrested, tried, and
found guilty of sedition or conspiracy, for which he was
sentenced in 1844 to imprisonment for one year, and
fined two thousand pounds. This judgment was reversed
by the House of Lords. He supported the Whig min
istry which came into power in 1846, after which he
witnessed a decline of his influence in Ireland and the
rise of dissensions among his followers. He died at
Genoa in May, 1847, in the course of a journey to Rome.
See " Life and Times of Daniel O'Connell," hy his son JOHN, 2
vols., 1846; FACAN, " Life and Times of Daniel O'Connell," 2 vols.,
1848; SCHIPPER, "O'Connell'sLebon," 1844; CONDON, "Biographic
de D. O'Connell," 1847: "Nouvelle Biographic Generale:" L. DE
!. OMEN IE. •' M. O'Connell, par un Hommede Rien," 1842 ; " Fraser's
Magazine" for May, 1841.
O'Con'nor, (ARTHUR,) an Irish general, born at Ban-
don, near Cork, in 1767, was a Protestant. He joined
the society of United Irishmen, who sent him on a secret
mission to Prance, where he negotiated with General
Hoche about the liberation of Ireland. In 1797 or 1798
he was tried on a charge of treason, and acquitted. He
entered the French service, and became a general of
division in 1804. About 1807 he married Elisa, a
daughter of the famous Condorcet. Died in 1852.
See THOMAS MOORE, "Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitz
gerald." 1831; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
O'Connor, (FEARGUS,) the celebrated leader of the
English Chartists, was born near Cork, in Ireland, in
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 2; th as in this. (2^"See Explanations, p. 23.)
OCTAVIA
1694
ODIER
1796. In 1832 he became a member of Parliament fo
the county of Cork, and acquired great popularity wit!
the radicals. Dissatisfied with the moderate policy o
O'Connell, he advocated the rights of the working-class
whom he succeeded in uniting into a numerous part}
called Chartists. In 1838 they summoned a nationa
convention in London, in order to prepare for a genera
insurrection. In November, 1839, after a sanguinar;
conflict at Newport, the Chartists were dispersed by th
government troops, and many of their leaders takei
and transported. O'Connor, however, who had carefnll
avoided any infringement of the law, escaped, and sooi
after founded a journal called " The Northern Star,'
which obtained an immense circulation. In 1843
returned to Ireland, where he engaged with ardour in the
repeal agitation, and in 1847 was elected to Parliamen
for Nottingham. After the French revolution of 1848
he called another convention, and presented to the
House of Commons a monster petition for the introdtic
tion of the national charter, which produced no effect
Disappointed in his hopes of reform both in Englanc
and Ireland, O'Connor fell into a state of hopeless
lunacy, and in 1852 he was taken to an insane-asylum
Died in 1855.
See " Fraser's Magazine" for February, 1848.
Oc-ta'vl-a, [Fr. OCTAVIK, ok'tt've',] a Roman lady
born about 70 li.c., was a daughter of C. Octavius, an'i
a sister of the emperor Augustus. She was marriec
first to Marcellus, who died in 41. Soon after his death
she became the wjfe of Mark Antony. This marriage
was intended to confirm amicable relations betweer
Antony and Augustus. By her beauty and virtue she
obtained a favourable influence over Antony for a short
time. She accompanied him in his expedition against
the Parthians as far as Corcyra; but, supplanted in the
affections of Antony by Cleopatra, she was sent back t
Italy. In 32 li.c. he sent her a bill of divorce. She
died in u n.c., leaving several daughters. Her son, M.
Mnrcellus, died before her. (See MARCELLUS.)
See PLUTARCH, "Lives," article "Antony:" DION CASSIUS,
" History of Romp," books xlvii.-li. ; SAINT-REAL, "Vie d'Oct.ivie.
Sceur d'Auguste," 1761.
Octavia, a Roman empress, born in 42 A.n., was a
daughter of the emperor Claudius and Messalina. She
was married in 53 to Nero, who became emperor. He
divorced her in 62 A.ix, and a few months later put her
to death.
Octaviaii or Octavianus. See AUGUSTUS, (Em
peror of Rome.)
Octavie. See OCTAVIA.
Octavius. See AUGUSTUS.
Oc-ta'vi-us, (CAius,) the father of the emperor Au
gustus. Me married Atia, a daughter of Julia, who was
a sister of Julius Caesar. Me became pritor in 6t i;.c.,
and was proconsul in Macedonia in 60. Died in 58 li.C.
His official conduct was highly commended by Cicero.
Velleius Paterculus characterizes him as "gravis, sanc-
tus, innocens, dives." He had a daughter, Octavia,
noticed above.
See SUETONIUS, "Augustus."
Octavius, (CNEius,) a Roman officer, was elected
praetor in 168 B.C., and commanded a fleet sent against
Perseus, King of Macedon, whom he took prisoner. He
was consul in 165 with Manlius Torquatus, and was
assassinated at Laodicea in 162 li.c.
Octavius, (C.NF.ius,) a grandson of the preceding,
was a partisan of Sulla. He became consul in 87 li.c.
as the colleague of L. Cornelius China, who was a
partisan of Marius. The soldiers of Cinna entered
Rome and killed Octavius in 87 B.C.
See APPIAN, " Bellum Civile."
Octavius, (MARCUS,) a Roman officer, was a partisan
of the senate in the civil war against Caesar. At the
battle of Actium (31 li.c.) he commanded a division of
the fleet of Antony.
Odazzi, o-dat'see, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian painter,
born at Rome about 1663, was a pupil of Giro Ferri.
Died in 1731.
Oddi, od'dee, (Muzio,) an Italian geometer, born at
Urbmo in 1569. He wrote " On Sun-Dials or Clocks,"
("Degli Orologi solari nelle Superficie piane," 1614.)
Died in 1639.
Oddi, degli, dal'yee od'dee, ( MARCO, ) an Italian
medical writer, born at Padua in 1526; died in 1591.
Oddi, degli, (Ono,) an Italian physician, born at
Padua, was the father .of the preceding. He was pro
fessor of medicine at Padua, and wrote several medical
works. Died in 1559.
Oddi, degli, (SFOKZA,) an Italian poet and jurist,
born at Perugia in 1540; died in 1611.
O-deir, (THOMAS,) an English dramatist, born in
Buckinghamshire, was the author of comedies entitled
"The Chimera" and "The Prodigal." Died in 1749.
See BAKER, "Biographia Dramatica."
Odenath. See ODKNATUS.
Odenathus. See ODKNATUS.
Od-e-na'tus or Od-e-na'thus, f Fr. Or>KN.\ni,
o'deh-nSt',] Prince of Palmyra, the husband of Zenobia,
was an able general. After the emperor Valerian had
been defeated and captured by the Persians, (260 A.n.,)
Odenatus raised an army, drove Sapor, the Persian king,
from Syria, and assumed the title of King of Palmyra.
He also invaded Persia, and pursued the King of Persia
to Ctesiphon. For these services he received the title
of Augustus from Gallienus, who recognized him as his
colleague in 264. lie was assassinated in 26601- 267 A.n.
(See ZKNOHIA.)
See TRKMEI.I.IUS Pot.i.io, "Trieinta Tyranni ;" G. HOYNS, " Dis-
sertatio tie Zenobi;e atque Odenathi Rebus," 1^47.
Oderborn, o'der-boRn', (PAUL,) a Lutheran minister,
born in Pomerania, lived about 1585. He wrote a work
on the Russian religion and customs, "De Russorum
Rcligione, Ritibus," etc., (1581.)
Oderic. See O OK RICO.
Oderico (o-da-rcc'ko) [Fr. ODF.RIC, o'deh-rek'j OF
PORDKNONK or PoRTF.NAU, an Italian monk, born at
Pordenone, in the Friuli, in 1286, travelled over a con
siderable part of Asia as a missionary. His " Life and
Travels" were published after his death, which took
place in 1331.
See VENNI, " Elogio storico del 15. Oderico," Venice, 1761.
Oderico, (GASPARO Lunovico,) an Italian antiquary,
and librarian of the University of Genoa, born in 1725.
He was the author of several learned treatises on nu
mismatics and inscriptions, and was a member of the
French Institute. Died in 1803.
S?e C.AKRKC, \, " F.Iogin storico di G. L. Oderico," Genoa, 1804.
Oderigo daGubbio. See Guiiiiio.
Odescalchi, (BKNF.DKTTO.) See INNOCT.NT XI.
Odescalchi, o-des-kal'kee, (MARCANTONIO,) an Ital
ian nobleman, eminent for his philanthropy, was a cousin
>f Pope Innocent XI. He founded several institutions
for the sick and the friendless, and at his death, in 1670,
left all his property for their benefit.
Odescalchi, (TOMMASO,) a relative of the preceding,
was almoner to Pope Innocent XI. In 1686 he founded
an asylum for the education and employment of poor
hildren. Died in 1692.
Odevaere, o-deh-va'reh, (JosF.rnus DIONYSIUS,) a
celebrated Belgian painter, born at Bruges in 1778. Hav-
ng studied under David in Paris, he visited Rome, where
ne executed two large frescos in the Quirinal palace,
and the " Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence," now in a
hurch of Bruges. lie was appointed court painter to
William L, King of the Netherlands, in 1815. Amr.ng
lis best works may be named the " Peace (if Utrecht"
and the " Battle of Nieuport." Died in 1830.
Odier, o'cle-i', (Louis,) a distinguished physician,
)orn at Geneva in 1748. He finished his studies at
Edinburgh under Dr. Cullen, and, on his return, intro-
luced vaccination into France and Switzerland. lie
was a corresponding member of the Institute of France,
ind filled several important offices in his native city.
le was the author of a "Manual of Practical Medicine/'
ind published, about 1798, in the " Bibliotheque Bri-
annique," a translation of one of Jenner's treatises
on vaccination. Died in 1817.
See Nf AUNOIR, " Notice de la Vie et des E"crits de L. Odier,"
SiS; PIHKRE PREVOST, "Notice de la Vie de L. Odier," iSiS.
Odier, (PIF.RRF.,) a Swiss jurist, born at Geneva in
803 ; died in 1859.
, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
ODILLON
1695
ODOACER
Odillon Barrot. See BARROT.
Odilo (o'de'lo'J or Odiloii de Mercceur, o'de'lox'
deh niCK'kuR', SAINT, a French monk, born in 962, was
eminent for learning. He was elected Abbot of Cluny,
which, under his direction, became one of the most
celebrated monasteries of Europe. Died in 1048 or
1049.
See " Histoire litteraire de la France ;" " Gnllia Christiana."
Odilon. See ODILO.
O'din or O'Sinn, (o'thin,) written also Othin, [called
by the Germans WO'DAN or WO'DKN ; Old German,
WllOTAN, derived from vafta, to " wade," to "go," to
"pervade,"] in the Norse mythology, the greatest of all
the gods, corresponding in the main to the Zeus or
Jupiter of the Greeks and Romans. His name is sup
posed to signify "mind" or "spirit." As the father of
the /Esir, (the ruling gods of heaven and earth,) he is
styled All-father, (Al-fdtSr or Al fafiir,) although he him
self was the son of Bor,* and the grandson of Buri.t
He is also called Val-father, (Val-fotJr, i.e. "father of the
fallen,") because all who fell in battle were supposed to
belong in an especial manner to him. Hence his hall is
called Valhalla, for Valholl,) the "hall of the fallen" or
"slain." Valhalla is situated in Odin's mansion, called
Gladheim or Gladsheim, (the "home or habitation of
gladness.") The roof of the hall is formed of spears and
shields. The hall itself is surrounded by a roaring river
called Thund, and has five hundred and forty gates,
through each of which eight hundred men can go abreast.
Here are assembled all the chosen warriors ( Einhcriai )
who have fallen in battle ; it is their pastime to fight and
slay each other every day, but the wounded are quickly
healed, and the dead are restored to life. They then
ride back to Valhalla, where they refresh themselves by
drinking mead (or beer) with the gods and feasting on
the flesh of the boar Ssehrimnir. The Valkyries (Val-
kyrjur or Valkyriur) wait upon the warriors, furnish
ing them with drink and food, (see VAI.KYKIA;) but
Odin himself lives on wine alone. Near Valhalla is
Vingolf, the hall where the goddesses assemble. Odin's
throne was called Hlidskjalf (hlid'ske-alf) or Lidskialf,
whence his eye is said to survey the whole world.
Regarding Odin as the living spirit which pervades
the universe, the Norse poets have represented living
nature under the symbol of the ash-tree, (Ygg'drasil or
Ig'drasil,) that is, the seat or abode of Oclin.j: "All
life," says Carlyle, "is figured by them [the Northmen]
as a tree. Igdrasil, the Ash-tree of Existence, has its
roots deep down in the kingdom of Hela, (or Death,) its
trunk reaches up heaven-high, spreads its boughs over
the whole universe. ... At the foot of it, in the Death-
kingdom, sit Three Nornas, Fates, — the Past, Present,
Future, — watering its roots from the sacred Well. . . .
Its boughs are histories of nations. The rustle of it is
the noise of human existence. ... I find no similitude
so true as this of a tree. Beautiful ; altogether beautiful
and great. The 'machine of the universe,' — alas, do
but think of that in contrast !"
Although Odin (Spirit or Thought) was the principal
creator of the heavens and the earth, he was assisted by
his brothers Vili (Will) and Ve, (Holiness.) " The gods,
having got the giant Ymir slain," says Carlyle, "deter
mined on constructing a world with him. His blood
made the sea, his flesh was the land, and the rocks his
bones ; of his eyebrows they formed Asgard, . . . his
skull was the great blue vault of immensity, and the
brains of it became the clouds. What a Hyper-Brob-
dignagian business !" It is, however, only in the creation
of the world that Vili and Ve are mentioned; they ap-
* In like manner Jupiter was called " Father of the gods and king
of men," ("Divum pater atqtie homimim rex,") although the son of
Saturn, (or Cronos,) \vho again was the son of Coelus (Uranus) and
Terra, (Ge.)
t BURI. (boo're.) written also PURE, [i.e. " producing," because, be
ing the first of the gods, lie was the progenitor of all the others.] is
described as a mighty and beautiful being in human form, who came
into existence soon after the mythic cow Audhumla began to lick the
frost-covered rocks of the primeval chaos. He had a son named Bor
(DDK) or Bore, [i.e. "born" or " produced," and hence " son,"] who
is said to have married the daughter of the giant BoUhorn, and to
have had by her three sons, — Odin, Vili, and Ve,
t Ycc or YGGR (i.e. the " terrible") is one of the many names of
Odin. Drasill or drosiill is said to signify '' chariot" or "seat."
pear afterwards to have become blended or absorbed
in Odin, the all-embracing World-Spirit. Among Odin's
possessions may be mentioned a horse of wondrous
powers, with eight legs, called Sleipnir, on which he
rides over land and sea ; and Gungnir, (gung'njr,) a
spear, which never failed to strike whatever it was aimed
at. He has also two ravens, named Hugin and Munin,
which he sends forth over the whole world to get intel
ligence. In addition to his other attributes, Odin was
supposed to possess marvellous powers as a magician.
Odin is to be considered to represent energy and
courage rather than knowledge. Hence it is said that
he once went to Mimir's§ well, at the root of Yggdrasil,
for a drink from the fountain of knowledge, but, in order
to obtain it, it was necessary for him to deposit one of
his eyes as a pledge, whence he is usually represented
as one-eyed.
War being almost the sole occupation of the ancient
Northmen, Odin, their principal deity, became of neces
sity the god of war, his character in this respect nearly
corresponding to that of the Mars (Ares) of classic my-
thology.ll He is represented as having first introduced
war and slaughter among mankind. Again, he differed
from Jupiter in not wielding the thunderbolt, this weapon
belonging to Thor ; but, in a region where thunder
storms are comparatively (infrequent, the possession of
the thunderbolt was less essential to the dignity of the
chief of the gods than in the countries where Olympian
Zeus was worshipped. (See THOR.)
Odin is not immortal in the fullest sense; at Ragna-
rock (the final destruction of the yEsir and the world)
he is fated to be destroyed by the wolf Fenrir, the off
spring of Loki. (See LOKI.)
See THORPE, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. : "Religion of the
Northmen," by RUDOLPH KEYSER, translated by BAKCLAY PEN-
NOCK, New York, 1854 : MAI.I.ET, "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii. ;
LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe," section "Icelandic
Language and Poetry;" PETERSEN, " Nordisk Mythologi," p. 30
et seq.
O'ding-toii, (WAI/PER,) a learned English monk under
the reign of Henry VIII., was called WALTER OF EVES-
HAM, from the monastery of that name in Worcester
shire. He was the author of valuable works on music,
astronomy, and mathematics.
Odiot,' o'de'o', ([EAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE,) a French
goldsmith, born in Paris in 1763. His works had a
European reputation. Died in 1850.
Odo, o'do', or Odon, o'cl6.\', ~[Lat. ODOAR'DUS,] a
French prelate of great learning and influence, was born
at Orleans. He was elected Bishop of Cambray in 1 105.
He wrote several works on theology, which have been
printed. Died in 1113.
See " Gallia Christiana ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
O'do, [Fr. OnoN, o'ddx',] SAINT, an English ecclesi
astic, was patronized by King Alfred and his immediate
successors, and was made Archbishop of Canterbury by
King Edmund in 944. Died in 958.
See W. F. HOOK, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
vol. i. ch. vii.
Odo or Odon, SAINT, Abbot of Cluny or Clugny,
was born in France about 879 A.D. He was distinguished
as a reformer of monastic discipline. Died in 943.
See B. HAUREAU, " Histoire litteraire du Maine."
Odo or Odon de Conteville, o'doN' deh k6xt'-
vel', born in Normandy in 1032, was a half-brother of
William the Conqueror. He became Bishop of Bayeux
in 1049. After the conquest of England he obtained
the title of Earl of Kent and Hereford, and was grand
justiciary. He is said to have been cruel and arrogant.
Died in 1097.
See PRBVOST, " Histoire de Guillaume le Conquerant ;" "Gallia
Christiana;" " Nonvelle Biographic Generale."
Odo of Kent, Abbot of Battle, an English theolo
gian, born in Kent, was a friend of Thomas a Becket.
He wrote several works. Died in 1200.
Od-o-a'cer, [Gr. 'O66aK,wf ; Fr. ODOACRE, o'do'iklt',]
a Gothic military commander in the service of the West
ern Roman empire. Soon after the deposition of the
§ Mimir signifies the "knowing one."
|| Saxo Grammaticus, writing in Latin, calls Odin Jlfurs.
c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
ODQACRE
1696
(EGIR
«
*
emperor Julius Nepos by Orestes, who had usurped the
throne in the name of his sou Romulus, Odoacer ad
vanced to Pavia, took Orestes prisoner, and caused him
to be executed, in 475 A.D. Having banished Romulus,
he was proclaimed King of Italy by his army; but he
refused the imperial titles, and the Western Empire was
thenceforth considered at an end. In 488, Theodoric,
King of the Ostrogoths, invaded Italy, and besieged
Odoacer in Ravenna. After a brave and protracted re
sistance, he was compelled to surrender, and was exe
cuted in 493, by order of Theodoric, who proclaimed
himself king.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" LE
BEAU, " Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" JORNANDKS, " De Rebus Goth-
icis;" PROCUPIUS, " Bellum Gothicum;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Odoacre. See ODOACER.
Odoardus. See Ono.
O-do-fre'dus, an Italian jurist of high reputation,
born at Bologna; died in 1265.
Odolant-Desnos, o'do'ldN' di'no', (Josr.PH, ) a
French savant, born at Aleii9on in 1797, wrote several
scientific and descriptive works.
Odolant-Desnos, (PIKKRK JOSEPH,) a French writer
on various subjects, born at Alen(Ot) in 1722, was grand
father of the preceding. Died in 1801.
Odon. See Ono.
O'Dou'nell, (LEOPOLD,) Count of Lucena and Duke
of Tetuan, a Spanish general, of Irish extraction, was
born in 1808 or 1809. He fought for the queen against
the Carlists in the civil war which began about 1833, and
defeated Cabrera at Lucena in 1839. He became the
enemy of Espartero, whom he drove from power in 1843.
In 1854 he instigated a revolt which resulted in a change
of the ministry, and he was appointed minister of war.
He was prime minister from July to October, 1856, and
was restored to the same office in June, 1858. He com
manded with success in a war against Morocco in 1859-
60. He died in exile at Biarritz in 1867.
O'Doii'nell or O'Don'el, (RODERICK,) was created
Earl of Tyrconnel by James I. in 1603. Several of his
descendants espoused the cause of James II., and, after
his defeat at the battle of the Boyne, settled in Austria,
where they rose to distinction in the State and the army.
CHARLES O'DONNKLL served in the Seven Years' war,
and became field-marshal lieutenant, and in 1768 was
made Governor-General of Transylvania. Died in 1770.
MAURICE O'!)ONNELL married Christine, daughter of
the Prince of Ligne, and rose to be chamberlain and
field-marshal lieutenant. Died in 1843. JOSEPH HENRY
O'Do.N'N'ELL entered the Spanish service about 1795,
and gained several advantages over the French. For
his victory at L'Abispal he received the title of Count
of Abispal. Having subsequently incurred the sus
picions of the constitutional party, he was deprived of
his command, and took refugt in France, where he
died in 1834.
O'Don'o-van, (Jonx,) an Irish archaeologist and
eminent Celtic scholar, born in Kilkenny county about
1808. He produced, besides other works, "The Annals
of Ireland, by the Four Masters, from the Earliest His
toric Period to A.D. 1616," etc., (3 vols. 410, 1848-51.)
Died in 1861.
See ALUBOXE. "Dictionary of Authors."
Odoraii, o'do'rSN', or Odoranne, o'do'rf n', a French
monk of Sens, born in 985. He wrote a general chron
icle from 675 to 1032. Died after 1045.
Odorico da Pordenone. See ODERICO.
O-dys'seus, [Gr. 'Odvaaevf; Fr. ODYSSEE, o'de'sa',]
the Greek name of the hero of Homer's "Odyssey."
(See ULYSSES.)
CEagre. See (EAGRUS.
CEagrus, ee'a-grus, [ Gr. Ola~/pog ; Fr. CEAGRE,
a'SgR', | a semi-fabulous king of Thrace, was the father
of Orpheus and Linus.
CEcolampade. See OZCOLAMPADIUS.
CBcolampadius, ek-o-lam-pa'de-us, [Ger. pron.
a-ko-lam-p.i'de-us ; Fr. CECOLAMPADE, a ko'lSn ptd';
Ger. OEKOLAMPAD, o-ko-lam-pat',] an eminent German
Reformer, whose original name was HAUSSCHEIN or
HUSGEN, was born in Franconia in 1482. He studied
theology at Heidelberg, and became in 1515 pastor of
a church at Bale, in Switzerland, where he strongly de
nounced the abuses of the Roman Church. About 1522
he openly declared in favour of the Reformed faith, and
in 1524 was appointed professor of divinity at Bale. In
the controversy between Luther and Zuinglius concern
ing the real presence, he adopted the views of the latter.
He was the author of numerous theological works, among
which may be named his Commentaries on Isaiah, Job,
Daniel, and Jeremiah, a treatise "On the Passover,"
(" De Ritu Paschali,") and "Annotations on Genesis."
He was one of the most profound scholars of his time,
and was remarkable for the moderation and general
excellence of his character. Died in 1531.
See W. CAPITO, "Vita J. Oecolampadii," 1793; GRYN^EUS, "Vita
J. Oecolampadii," 1536; S. HHSS, " Lebensbeschreibung des Dr. J.
Oecolampadius," 1793; WAGNKK, " Lebensbeschreibunj; des Oeco-
lampadius," 1804; J. J. HKKZOC, "Das Leben J. Oekolampads," 2
vols., 1843; " Nouvelie Biographic Generale."
CEcumenius, ek-u-mee'ne-us, Bishop of Tricca, in
Thessaly, is supposed to have nourished in the ninth or
tenth century. He wrote Commentaries on the Acts,
on Saint Paul's Epistles, and on the Apocalypse.
See CAVH, " Historia Literaria."
Oeder, 6'der, (GEORG LUDWIG,) a German exegetical
writer, the father of the following, was born near Anspach
in 1694. He published several commentaries on the
Scriptures. Died in 1760.
Oeder, (GEORG LUDWIG,) a distinguished German
botanist, born at Anspach in 1728. lie studied at Got-
tingen under Haller, through whose influence he was
appointed professor of botany at Copenhagen in 1752.
His most important work is his splendid " Flora Danica,"
(3 vols., 1762-72,) illustrated with upwards of sixteen
hundred figures of plants. It was afterwards continued
by Miiller. The gth and last volume was issued in 1814,
Oeder also wrote several able treatises on political econ
omy and finance. Died in 1791.
See HAI.EM, " Andenken an Oeder," 1793; KRAFT og NVERUP,
" Litteraturlexicon ;" HIKSCHING, " Hislorisch-literarisches Hand-
bucli."
CBdipe. See CEDIPUS.
CEdipus, ed'e-pus, [Gr. OMhnwf ; Fr. CEDIPE, a'dep',]
a son of Laius, King of Thebes, and Jocasta, was cele
brated in Greek mythology and tragic poetry as a type
or instance of the fatality which man cannot escape.
According to the legend, an oracle warned Laius that if
he ever had a son, that son should kill his father and
marry his mother. Laius therefore exposed his first
born son soon after his birth, in order that he might
perish ; but he was found by a shepherd of Polybus, King
of Corinth, was named CEdipus, and brought up as the
son of Polybus. Having consulted the oracle of Delphi,
he was informed that he should commit parricide. In
the course of a journey he met Laius in the road, with
attendants, who provoked a quarrel, in which (Edipus
killed the King of Thebes. Soon after this event the
throne of Thebes and the hand of Jocasta, the queen,
were offered to him who should solve the riddle of the
Sphinx. (See SPHINX.) CEdipus solved the riddle, ob
tained the throne, and became father of several children
by Jocasta. He afterwards discovered his guilt, and
suffered penalties and misfortunes of which contradictory
accounts are given by different writers.
See SOPHOCLES, "CEdipus Tyrannus-," "The Odyssey," book
xi. ; EURIPIDES, " Plireni^sss ;" SMITH, " Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology."
CGdman, od'man, (SAMUEL,) a Swedish savant and
theologian, born in Smaland in 1750. He became pro
fessor of theology at Upsal in 1806, and wrote com
mentaries on the Scriptures. Died in 1829.
Oedumla. See AUDIIUMLA.
Oefele, o'feh-leh, (FRANZ IGNAZ,) a skilful German
painter, born at Posen in 1721 ; died in 1797.
CCgir. See /EGIR.
CGgir, [from oga, to "shudder at," to "dread,"] or
HIer, hlair, i.e. the " Shelterer," [from hie, "lee,"] the
god of the sea or ocean. His wife Ran has a net, with
which, it is said, she catches seafarers. Their nu
merous daughters are the waves of the ocean. CEgir
and I Her appear to have been originally regarded as
two distinct personages, — the former ruling over the
stormy, the latter over the tranquil, sea. Ran (signifying
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
OEHLENSCHL4EGER
1697
OERSTED
•'robber}'," or "one who robs or bereaves") represents
the tendency of the sea to rob men of life and of their
most precious treasures. It is related in one of the Norse
legends that, the ^Esir having once paid a visit to CEgir,
he was in want of a kettle large enough to brew beer
for them. Thereupon Thor and Tyr went to the dwell
ing of the giant Hymir, who had a very spacious kettle,
a mile deep. Thor grasped the kettle by the rim and
threw it over his head, so that the rings came down to his
feet, almost hiding him from view. After that, CEgir and
the ALs\r had an ample supply of beer for their banquets.
See THORPR, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 67-69; KEYSKR,
"Religion of the Northmen;" PETERSEN, " Nordisk Mythologi."
Oehlenschlager or Ohlenschlager, 6'leii-shla'ger,
(An\M GOTTI.OH,) an eminent Danish poet, born in a
suburb of Copenhagen on the i/jth of November, 1779,
was the son of a German who had settled in Denmark.
He began at an early age to write plays, which he would
act in company with his sister and young associates. His
enthusiasm for the drama introduced him to the notice
and friendship of Rahbek and Rosing. He was after
wards attracted to the study of Scandinavian antiquities
and historical legends, which furnished material for
some of his most popular dramas. He published in
1805 a collection of poems, including the dramatic tale
of "Aladdin," which displays the splendid colouring of
Oriental fiction. The same year he visited Germany,
where he acquired the friendship of Goethe, Tieck, and
other celebrated writers of the time. While there he
composed several dramas in Danish, which he translated
into German and submitted to the criticism of his
friends. From Germany he proceeded to Paris, and
thence to Rome, returning to Copenhagen in 1810. He
had written during his absence his tragedies of " Pal-
natoke," (1809,) "Axel and Valborg," (1810,) and "Cor-
reggio," which are ranked among his best productions.
He was appointed soon after his return professor of
aesthetics in the University of Copenhagen, and the same
year married Christiana Heger, a sister of Rahbek's
wife. Among the most important of his other works are
the dramas of " Hakon Jarl," " Staerkodder," " Hagbarth
and Signa," (1814,) "The Normans at Byzantium,"
"Charlemagne," " Tordenskiold," and " Amleth," also
the poems entitled " Helge," (1814,) " Hroar's Saga,"
(1817,) and his splendid epic, "The Gods of the North,"
("Nordens Guder," 1819.) He died in January, 1850, and
his funeral was solemnized with great magnificence by
his countrymen, by whom he is generally regarded as
the great national poet of Denmark. " Few men," says
M. Marmier, "have been endowed with a genius as fer
tile and as facile as that of Oehlenschlager. The verses
fall from his pen like water from a fountain. Hence
his style is charming in its grace, flexibility, and abandon,
but it is frequently very negligent."
See his Autobiography, " A. Ohlenschlaeer's Levnet." 2 vols.,
1^31 : MARMIER." Histoire de la Litterature Danoise :" LE FEVRE-
DKI'MIER. " Oehlenschlsger ]e Poete national du panemarck," 1854 ;
C MOI.UKCH, " Stndier over Ohlenschlagers Poesie." 1^50; ERSLEW,
" Foi fatter- Lexicon ;" " Nonvelle Biographic Generate :" LONG
FELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" H; WITT. "Literature
and Romance of Northern Europe;'' " Blackwood's Magazine" for
December and April, 1820, and March. jS2i ; " Foreign Quarterly
Review" for June, 1^30, article " Danish and Norwegian Literature ;"
also the " Foreign Quarterly" for July, iS^i.
Oekolampad. See CEcoi. \MPADIUS.
Oelrichs, ol'rlks, (JoHANN.) a German writer and
clergyman, born at Bremen in 1724. Among his works
are contributions to the literary history of Germany,
Belgium, etc. Died in iSoi.
Oelrichs, [Lat. CEi.Ricu'sii's,] (JOHANN KAKI. CON
RAD,) a German scholar, born at Berlin in 1722, was
appointed in 1784 counsellor of legation at the court of
Prussia. lie was the author of" Historical and Literary
Miscellanies," (1760,) and other works on history and
bibliography. Died in 1798.
See MIIKROTTO, "Vita CElrichsii," 1799.
CElrichsius. See OKI.RICHS.
CEnee. See OZ.NEUS.
Qjueus, ee'nus, [Gr. O/m'c; Fr. CENEE, a'na',] a
king of Calydon, married Althaea, and was the father
of Meleager, Tydeus, and other children. According to
the fable, he offended Diana, who sent a wild boar to
ravage his dominions. This boar was the object of the
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
107
famous Calydonian hunt. CEneus is said to have been
the first whom Bacchus taught to cultivate the vine.
CEnomas. See GE.NOMAUS.
CEnomaus, e-no'ma-us, [Gr. Oivoftaoe; Fr. CENOMAS,
a'no'mas',] a king of Pisa, in Elis, was called a son
of Mars. The poets feigned that he promised to give
his daughter Hippodami'a to the man who should con
quer him in a chariot-race, with the annexed condition
that every one who tried and failed must suffer death.
After many suitors had failed and perished, Pelops
gained the victory, and CEnomaus killed himself.
QBiiomaus, [Otw/iooc,] a Greek philosopher of the
Cynic school, born at Gaclara, lived about 120-40 A.D.
He wrote, besides other works, a treatise in which he
exposed the impostures of Oracles. His works are not
extant.
CEnone, e-m/ne, [Gr. Olvuvr/; Fr. OENONE, a'non',]
a nymph of Mount Ida, who was said to have received
from Apollo the gift of prophecy, and to have been
married to Paris before he was known to be a son of
Priam.
GBnopides, e-nop'e-dez, [O/ro-^c,] a Greek astrono
mer, born at Chios, lived in the fifth century B.C. He is
said to have derived his knowledge from the Egyptian
priests. ^Elian attributes to him the invention of the
cycle of fifty-nine years to make the lunar year coincide
or accord with the solar year. He was acquainted with
the obliquity of the ecliptic.
CEiiopion, e-no'pe-on, [Gr. Olvrmiuv ; Fr. OENOPE,
a'nop', or OENUPION, a'no'pe'o.s',] in classic mythology,
a son of Bacchus, and King of Chios, (Scio.) His daugh
ter Merope, it is said, was ravished by Orion. (See
ORION.)
Oernhielm or Ornhielm, oRi/he-Slm', (CLAUDIUS
ARRHENIUS,) a Swedish historian, born at Linkoping in
1627. He wrote, besides other works, "On the Mon
archies of the World," ("De Monarches Orbis," 1683.)
Died in 1695.
Oersted or Orsted, or/ste'd, (ANDERS SANDOE,) an
eminent Danish jurist and statesman, born at Rudkjo-
bing in 1778. He married Sophia, a sister of the famous
poet Oehlenschlager, in 1802. He published numerous
legal works, one of which is entitled " Eunomia," (4 vols..
1815-22.) In 1841 or 1842 he became a minister of
state, and opposed the liberal or popular measures. He-
resigned in 1848, and was appointed prime minister in
1853. His policy having been condemned by the Diet,
he was removed about the end of 1854. He published
a " History of my Life and Times," (4 vols., 1851-56.)
Died in 1860.
See ERSLEW, " Forfatter-Lexicon."
Oersted, (ANDERS SANDOE,) a naturalist, a nephew
of the preceding, was born at Rudkjobing in 1816. He
travelled in the West Indies, and published several
works on natural history.
Oersted, (HANS CHRISTIAN,) a celebrated Danish
natural philosopher, the founder of the science of electro-
magnetism, was born at Rudkjobing, in the island of
Langeland, on the I4th of August, 1777. He was edu
cated with his brother, Anders Sandoe, the jurist, at the
University of Copenhagen. In 1806 he obtained the
chair of physics in that institution. He produced in
1812 an "Essay on the Identity of Chemical and Elec
trical Forces." In 1820 he announced his great dis
covery of the relation between magnetism and electricity,
in a short work entitled "Experimenta circum Effectum
Conflictus electrici in A cum magneticum." The electric
telegraph is one of the most direct practical results of
this discovery. He demonstrated that the electric cur
rent, according to a uniform law, " exercises determined
and similar impressions on the direction of a magnetic
needle" near which it passes. This discovery was re
ceived with great enthusiasm, as the revelation of an
important fact which had long escaped the researches
of so many sagacious minds. "Of all the philosophers
who had speculated (Mi this subject," says Sir John Her-
schel, "none had so pertinaciously adhered to the idea
of a necessary connection between the phenomena as
Oersted. Baffled often, he returned to the attack, and
his perseverance was at length rewarded by the complete
disclosure of the wonderful phenomena of electro-mag-
Explanations, p. 23.)
OERTEL
1698
OGGIONE
netism." (" Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natu
ral Philosophy.")
" The desideratum of a clear expression of the manifest
alliance between electricity and magnetism," says James
David Forbes, "had been so long and' so universally
felt that the discovery placed its author in the first rank
of scientific men. There was not even, so far as I am
aware, a suspicion that he had been, however remotely
or dimly, anticipated. The prize of the French Institute,
which had been awarded to Davy for his galvanic dis
coveries, was bestowed upon Oersted." (Sixth Disser
tation of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," vol. i.) "I
scarcely know," says Niebuhr, "another natural philoso
pher with so much intellect and freedom from prejudice
and esprit de corps." Oersted received for this discovery
the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London, and
was created a knight of the order of Danebrog. He
also made discoveries in chemistry, and wrote a number
of works on that science. Among these are " Materialien
zu einer Chemie des igten Jahrhunderts," (1803,) and
" Tentamen Nomenclature chemicae," (1814.) He wrote
a poem called "The Balloon," (" Lufskibet," 1836.)
His writings have contributed greatly to popularize
science. A selection of his works was published in 1850,
under the title of "The Spirit in Nature," (" Der Geist
in der Natur,") preceded by a biographical notice of
Oersted by P. L. Moller. Died in March, 1851.
See " H. C. Oersteds Leben," by HAUCII and FOKCHHAMMER,
(from tbe Danish,) 1853; BECQUEKEI., "Resume de 1'Histoire
d'FJectricUe," etc., 1858; CAI.I.ISKN, " Medicinisch.es Schriftsteller-
Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" " Memoir of Oersted,"
by ELIE DE BEAUMONT, in the "Smithsonian Report" for 1868.
Oertel, van. See ORTELIUS.
Oeser or Oser, 6'zer, (ADAM FRIEDRICH,) a distin
guished painter and sculptor, of German extraction,
born at Presburg, in Hungary, in 1717. He studied in
1739 at Dresden, where he formed an intimacy with
Winckelmann. He was subsequently director of the
Academy of Architecture, Painting, and Design at Leip-
sic. Among his pupils here was the celebrated Goethe,
who entertained a great regard for him. His best paint
ings are in fresco; and a number of them adorn the
church of Saint Nicholas at Leipsic. His monument
to Queen Matilda of Denmark is one of his most ad
mired pieces of sculpture. Died in 1799.
See ERSCH und GRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" NAGI.ER,
"Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Oeser or Oser, (JOHANN LUDWIG,) a landscape-
painter and engraver, born at Dresden in 1751, was a
son of the preceding. Died in 1792.
Oesterley or Osterley, os'ter-ll', (KARL,) a German
painter of history and portraits, born at Gottingen in
1805. He became court painter at Hanover.
Oetinger, 6'ting'er, sometimes written Ottiiiger,
(FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH,) a learned German theologian,
and prominent leader of the Pietists, was born in Wiir-
temberg in 1702. He wrote a number of commentaries
on the Scriptures, a treatise entitled "The Age of
Gold," and " Ancient Philosophy." He also translated
several of the works of Swedenborg, of whom he was
a warm admirer, and whom he much resembled in purity
of character and religious fervour. He was a friend of
Count Zinzendorf, whom he assisted in a new translation
of the Scriptures. Died in 1782.
See " Neues Gelehrtes-Europa ;" AUBERI.EN, "Die Theosophie
F. C. Oetinger's nach ihren Grundzugen," 1847 ; HIRSCIIING, " His-
torisch-literarisches Handbuch."
Oetter or Otter, ot/ter, (SAMUEL WILHELM,) a Ger
man antiquary, born at Goldcronach in 1720. He wrote
on history and antiquities. Died in 1792.
See F. G. OETTER, "Leben Getters," 1792.
Oettinger or Ottinger, ot'ting'er, (EDUARD MARIE,)
a German journalist and novelist, born at Breslau in
1808. He edited several satirical journals, and published
'A number of novels, among which is"Onkel Zebra," (7
vols., 1843.) He also wrote a work entitled "Rossini,"
(1847,) which is said to be a romance rather than a
biography, and "Bibliographic biographique univer-
selle," (2 vols., 1850-54,) the most complete work on
that subject.
See A. DE REUME, " Notice bio-bibliographique sur M. E. M.
Oettinger," 1854; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale. "
Ofalia, o-fa'le-a, (Don NARCISO DE HEREDIA,)
COUNT, a Spanish statesman, born in 1771, became min
ister of the interior under Zea Bermudez in 1832. lie
was appointed by Ferdinand VII. executor of his will
and a member ot the council of regency. He was presi
dent of the council of ministers in 1837. Died in 1843.
O'Far'rill, (Don GONZALO,) a Spanish general, born
at Havana in 1754, became minister of war under Joseph
Bonaparte. Died in Paris in 1831.
Of fa, a Saxon, who succeeded Kthelbald as King of
Mercia in 755 A.D. Having murdered Ethelbert, King
of East Anglia, he took possession of his kingdom.
See TURNER, "History of the Anglo-Saxons:" HENRY MAC
KENZIE, '.'Essay on the Lite and Institutions of Offa," 1840.
Offenbach, of'fen-baK', (ISAAC,) a popular composer
of comic operas, born at Cologne in 1822, studied in Paris.
Among his works are the " Grand Duchess of Gerolstein,"
" Orpheus in the Lower Regions, "(" Orphee aux Enfers,")
" La Belle Helene," " Blue-Beard," (" Barbe Bleue,") " La
Vie Parisienne," and "La Bavarcle de Saragosse."
Of fpr, (GEORGE,) an English writer, and a bookseller
in London, was born about 1786. He published a "Life
of John Bunyan," (1853.) Died in 1864.
O'Fihely, o-tee'le, ? (MAURICE,) an Irish prelate and
scholar, who was made Archbishop of Tuam by Pope
Julius II. in 1506. He was eminent for his learning, and
was surnamed FLOS MUNDI, (" Flower of the World.")
Died in 1513.
O-fil'I-us, (Aui.us,) a Roman jurist of high reputa
tion, was a friend of Cicero, and a pupil of Sulpicius.
His writings are cited in the Digest. Among his
pupils were Capito and Labeo.
O'Flaherty, o-fla'her-te, (Roi)EKiC,) born atMoycul-
lin, Ireland, in 1630, published in 1685 a Latin " History
of Ireland from the Deluge to the Year 1684." Died
in 1718.
Ofterdingeii, von, fon of'ter-ding'en, (HEINRICH,) a
famous German minstrel or minnesinger of the thirteenth
century, was a favourite of Leopold, Duke of Austria.
He is supposed by some writers to have been the author
of the " Nibelungenlied ;" but of this there appears to
be little evidence.
See HAGEN, "Museum fur Alt-Deutsche Literatur mid Kunst,''
1810.
Og'den, (AARON,) born at Elizabethtown, New Jer
sey, in 1756, served in the war of the Revolution, and
was elected Governor of New Jersey in 1812. Died in
1839.
Seethe " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. i.
Ogdeii, (DAVID B.,) a distinguished American lawyer
and resident of New York City, was born in 1769. He
removed from New Jersey to New York in 1802. Died
in 1849.
Ogden, (JACOB,) an American physician and medical
writer, born at Newark, New Jersey, in 1721 ; died in
1779.
Ogderi, (MATTHIAS,) an American brigadier-general
in the Revolutionary war. He died at Elizabethtown,
New Jersey, in 1791.
Og'den, (SAMUEL,) an English clergyman, born at
Manchester in 1716. lie became Woodwardian pro
fessor at Cambridge in 1764, and published several
volumes of sermons. Died in 1778.
Oge, o'zha', (VINCENT,) a creole of Saint Domingo,
who, having in vain solicited the French National As
sembly to grant equal rights to the coloured people,
became in 1790 the leader of an insurrection, with a
view of gaining his object by force of arms. His party
were soon overpowered by the French troops, and
Oge, together with his lieutenant, Chavannes, who had
been guilty of the principal outrages, was executed in
1791.
See DALMAS, "Revolution de Saint-Domingue;" MAI. ENFANT,
" Histoire des Colonies."
Oggione, d', dod-jo'na, (MARCO,) written also Ug-
gione, an eminent Italian painter, born in the Milanese
about 1470, was a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, whose
style he imitated successfully. Among his master-pieces
are his "Three Archangels," and an altar-piece at Milan.
His most important works are two copies of "The Last
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged », T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n&t; good; moon;
OGIER
1699
OJEDA
Supper" of Da Vinci, one of which is in the Academy
of Arts in London. The excellence of these pictures,
and the destruction by time of the original, have caused
them to be greatly prized. Died in 1530.
See VASAKI, " Lives of the Painters," etc.
Ogier, o'zhe-a', (CHARLES,) a French scholar, born
in Paris in 1595. He published notes of his travels in
Denmark, Sweden, etc., " Ephemerides, sive Iter Dani-
cuui, Suecicum et Pulonicum," (1656.) Died in 1654.
Ogier, ( FRANCOIS,) a French writer and ecclesiastic,
was a brother of the preceding. He published an
" Apology for M. de Balzac," (1627,) and other works.
Died in 1670.
O'gil-by or Ogleby, o'gel-be, (JoHN,) a Scottish lit
terateur and printer, born at Edinburgh in 1600, was
noted for the variety and versatility of his talent.--. In
1633 he accompanied Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, to
Ireland, in the capacity of dancing-master and copyist.
After his return to England he published, in 1650, a
poetical translation of Virgil, and, in conjunction with
fames Shirley, afterwards translated the "Iliad" and
"Odyssey" into English verse, having learned Greek for
that purpose when upwards of fifty years of age. These
versions were very popular at that time, and possessed
great typographical beauty. Ogilby was also appointed
royal cosmographer, and published a number of geo
graphical works. Died in 1676.
See CIBISEK, " Lives of the Poets ;" " Biographia Britannica."
Ogilvie, o'gil-ve, (JAMES,) a Scottish orator and
teacher of elocution, born about 1760, or, as others say,
1775. He delivered lectures as models of oratory in
the chief cities of the United States, and received much
applause. He died at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1820.
Ogilvie, (JOHN,) a Scottish divine and writer, born
in 1733. Among his works are "Britannia," an epic
poem, (1801,) and an "Examination of the Evidence
of Prophecy in Favour of Christianity," (1803.) Died
in 1814.
Oginski, o-gen'skee, (MICHAEL CASIMIR,) a Polish
nobleman, born at Warsaw in 1731. He constructed a
canal in Poland. Died in 1803.
Ogiiiski, (MiCHAKi. CLEOPHAS,) a Polish composer,
born at Warsaw in 1765, was a nephew of the preceding.
He settled in Italy about 1815, and gained distinction
as a musical composer. He wrote "Memoirs of Poland
from 1788 to 1815," (2 vols., 1826.) Died in 1831.
See the "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1829.
Ogive. See EDGIVA.
Ogleby. See OGILUY.
Oglesby, o'gels-be, (RICHARD J.,) an American gene
ral, born in Kentucky in 1824. He removed to Illinois,
and practised law in that State. He commanded a
brigade at Fort Donelson, February, 1861, and was
severely wounded at the battle of Corinth, October 4,
1862. He was elected Governor of Illinois for four
years, (1865-68.)
Oglethorpe, o'gel-thorp, QAMES EDWARD,) an Eng
lish general, born in London in 1698. Having served
for a time under Maryborough and Prince Eugene in
Germany, he obtained in 1733 the royal charter for
founding a colony in North America, which he called
Georgia in honour of the reigning king. Having passed
several years in Georgia, he returned to England in
1743, and commanded an army against the Pretender in
1745. He was a member of Parliament for many years.
Died in 1785. The virtues and talents of General Ogle
thorpe have been celebrated by Pope, Thomson, and
Dr. Johnson.
See "Memoirs of James Oglethorpe," by ROBERT WRIGHT,
London, 1867; HILORETH, " History of the United States," vol. ii.
chap. xxiv. ; BANCROFT, " History of'the United States," chap. xxiv.
Ogiiibuono di Lonigo. See LONICENUS, (OMNI-
BONUS.)
Og'y-ges or Og'y-gus [Gr. 'Qyijrig, 'Q^yoc, or
tyv-jT/f ; Fr. OGYGES, o'zhe'zheV] is said to have been
the first king or ruler of Thebes, which was sometimes
called Ogygia. According to some writers, he was also
King of Attica, and the father of Eleusis. In his reign
occurred a great inundation of Greece or Boeotia, which
is called the Ogygian deluge and is supposed to have
been anterior to that of Deucalion.
Ogygus. See OGYGES.
O'Hal'lo-ran, (SYLVESTER,) an Irish antiquary and
surgeon, born in 1728. He became surgeon of the Lim
erick Hospital. He published an " Introduction to the
Study of the History and Antiquities of Ireland," (1772,)
and a "General History of Ireland," (2 vols., 1772.)
Died in 1807.
See the " Monthly Review" for January and February, 1779.
O'Hara, o-ha'ra, QAMES,) a native of Ireland, emi
grated in 1772 to America, where he became quarter
master-general under General Wayne. He was one of
the founders of Pittsburg. Died in 1819.
O'Hara, (KANE,) a popular Irish dramatist, wrote,
among other plays, "The Golden Pippin,'1 "The Two
Misers," and "Midas." Died in 1782.
Ohlenschlager. See OEHI.ENSCHLAGER.
bhlmiiller, oi'mul'ler, (JOSEPH DANIEL,) an eminent
German architect, born at Bamberg in 1791. Among his
best works are the national monument at Upper Wittels-
bacli, the chapel at Kiefersfelden, and the Gothic church
near Munich. The last-named structure is esteemed
one of the most magnificent specimens of its style erected
in modern times. Died in 1839.
Ohm, 6m, (GEOKG SIMON,) a German natural phi
losopher, born at Erlangen in 1 787. He became professor
of mathematics in the Jesuits' College of Cologne in
1817. He gained distinction by the discovery of the
laws of electric currents, on which he published in 1827
a work called " Die galvanische Kette mathematische
bearbeitet." He received the Copley medal of the
Royal Society of London in 1841. Died at Munich
in 1854.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Ohm, (MARTIN,) a German mathematician, brother
of the preceding, was born at Erlangen in 1792, and
became professor of physics and mathematics at Berlin
in 1839. He was the author of an " Essay on a Perfect
System of Mathematics," and other works.
Ohmacht, o'maKt, (LANDOLIN,) a German sculptor,
born near Rotvveil in 1760, was a friend of the poet Klop-
stock, and of Lavater. Among his best works are the
"Judgment of Paris," a "Neptune," a "Flora," a
monument to General Kleber, and a bust of Klopstock.
Died in 1834.
See "Journal des Beaux-Arts,1' 1831.
Ohssoii, 6'son, (CoNSTANTiNK,) BARON OP', born at
Constantinople about 1780, was the son of Mouradja
d'Ohsson, an Armenian, (see MOURADJA D'OIISSON.)
He wrote a " History of the Mongols," (1835,) and a
" History of the Caucasians in the Tenth Century."
He also finished his father's " Picture of the Ottoman
Empire."
Oicoiiomos or CEconomos, e-kon'o-mos, (CoN-
STANTIN,) a learned Greek priest and writer, born in
Thessaly in 1780. He taught Greek at Smyrna for ten
years, and afterwards preached at Saint Petersburg and
at Athens. He wrote several works on language, and
"De la Version des Septante," (4 vols., 1843-50.) Died
in 1857.
See SIVINI, "Memoire compose a la Hate sur Oiconomos," 1857.
Oilee. See OILEUS.
Oileus, o-I'lus, [Gr. 'OiM-c; Fr. OILEE, wa'la',] a
king of the Locrians, and the father of Ajax the Less.
He is said to have been one of the Argonautae.
Oisel, oi'zel, [Lat. OISE'LIUS,] (jAKoH,) written also
Ouzel, ow'zel, a Dutch critic and jurist, born at Dant-
zic in 1631. He became professor of public law at
Groningen in 1667. He edited Aulus Gellius, and
published a work on numismatics, called "Thesaurus
selectorum Numismatimi antiquorum," (2 vols., 1677.)
Died in 1686.
See NICERON, " Memoires ;" MORHOF, " Polyhistor."
Oisel, (PHILIP,) a nephew of the preceding, was
born at Dantzic in 1671. He was an excellent Hebrew
scholar, and a Protestant minister. He published sev
eral theological works. Died at Frankfort-on-the-Oder
in 1724.
Oiselius. See OISEL.
Ojeda, de, da o-Ha'oa, (ALONZO,) a Spanish explorer
and lieutenant of Columbus, was born at Cuenca about
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled:'' -.; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
O'KEEFE
1700
OLDENBURG
1465 or 1470. He accompanied Columbus in his second
voyage to America in 1493, anc^ commanded an ex
pedition which Columbus sent to explore the interior
of Hispaniola, where he captured the chief Caonabo.
Having returned to Spain, he obtained command of an ex
ploring expedition sent out in 1499. Among his officers
or passengers was Amerigo Vespucci. He discovered a
part of the new continent, which he named Venezuela,
and returned to Spain in 1500. In 1508 he attempted
to colonize New Andalusia, and to conquer the natives,
but was not successful.
See OVIEDO, " Cronica de las Indias;" IRVING, "History of
Columbus;" CHARLBVOIX, " Histoire de Saint- Domingue ;" HBR-
RERA, " Historia general :" " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
O'Keefe, o-keef', (JOHN,) an Irish dramatist, born at
Dublin in 1747. The number of his plays amounted to
upwards of sixty, and, though their merits are not of a
high order, they enjoyed great popularity. Among the
most admired we may name "The Agreeable Surprise"
and "Wild Oats." Died in 1833.
See "Recollections of the Life of John O'Keefe," by himself,
1826.
Okeghem, o'Keh-hem, written also Ockenhein,
(/AN,) an eminent Flemish musician and composer, born
in Hainault about 1430; died after 1500.
Oken, o'ken, or Ockenfuss, ok'k$n-fooss',(LoRKN7,,)
an eminent German naturalist of the transcendental
school, was born at Bohlsbach, in Wtirtemberg, in Au
gust, 1779. He abridged the original name of his family.
OCKKNFUSS, into OKKN. He studied at Gottingen, and
became a privat-docent in that university. In a remark
able work, entitled " Elements of Natural Philosophy,
the Theory of the Senses, and the Classification of Ani
mals," ("Grtindriss der Nattirphilosophie," etc., 1802,)
he gave the outlines of a scheme that he afterwards de
voted himself to perfect, and advanced the idea that " the
animal classes are virtually nothing else than a represen
tation of the organs of sense." He accordingly divided
the animal kingdom into five classes. He was an ad
vocate of the theory of development in its largest sense.
Among his doctrines, as quoted by Professor Hitchcock,
are the following : " Plants and animals can only be
metamorphoses of infusoria. No organism has been
created of larger size than an infusorial point : whatever
is larger has not been created, but developed. . . . The
mind, just as the body, must be developed out of these
animals, [infusoria.] . . . Everything that is, is material."
("The Religion of Geology," p. 299.) He produced in
1805 a treatise on Generation, in which he maintained
that " all organic beings originate from and consist of
cells or vesicles." In 1807 he was appointed extraor
dinary professor of medical sciences in the University
of Jena, where he gained a high reputation by his lec
tures on zoology, physiology, etc. He developed his
peculiar system of natural science in his "Manual of
Natural Philosophy," (1809.) From i8i6to 1848 he was
editor of the " Isis," a journal of natural history. In 1832
he obtained a professorship at Zurich, where he died in
1851. Among his works is a "General Natural History,"
(13 vols., 1833-41.)
See CALLISEN, " Medicinisches SchriftsteKer- Lexicon ;"' "Ency
clopedia Britannica ;" BROCKIIAUS, " Conversations- Lexikon."
Okolampadius. See CEcoLAMPADius.
Okolski, o-kol'skee, (SiMON,) a Polish historian and
ecclesiastic of the seventeenth century. His principal
work is entitled " Orbis Polonus," (3 vols., 1641-45.)
which treats of the origin of the Sarmatians, etc.
Okoonef, Okounev, Okounef, Okunev, Okou-
new, or Okuiiew, o-koo-nef, (NIKOLAI AI.EXANDRO-
VITCH,) a Russian general and writer on military science,
born at Saint Petersburg in 1792, served in the campaign
of 1829 against the Turks. He became in 1840 lieu
tenant-general. He published, besides other works,
"Reflections on the System of Modern War," (1823,)
and a "History of the Second Epoch of the Polish
Campaign of 1831." Died in 1851.
Okounev. See OKOONEK.
Okunew. See OKOONEF.
Olaf, o'laf, or O-la'us, I., or Olof, o'lof, King of
Norway, born in 956, was surnamed TRYGVASON. He
was a corsair or sea-rover in his youth, and became king
about 996. He is said to have established Christianity
in his kingdom. Died in 1000.
See TOLLSTORP, " Norske Konungen Olof," etc., 1847.
Olaf or Olaus II., called THE SAINT, obtained the
throne of Norway about 1018. He waged war against
Canute, King of Denmark. Died in 1030.
See HAGEKUP, "Oni Oluf den Hcllige," 1805.
Olaf or Olaus III. became King of Norway about
1068. He ordered that one slave should be liberated in
each district every year, and made other reforms. Died
in 1093.
Olaf IV., born in 1098, was a son of Magnus III.
of Norway. Died in 1116.
Olaf V., a son of Haquin VII., King of Norway, was
born in 1371, and succeeded his father in 1380. ' Died
in 1387.
Olafsen, o'laf-sen, (EGGEKT,) a naturalist of Iceland,
born in 1721. He published, among other treatises,
"A Historical Account of the Nature and Constitution
of Iceland," and poems in Latin and Danish. Died
about 1770.
Olahus or Olaus, o-la'us, (Nicoi.AS,) a learned Hun
garian prelate, born at I lei mannstadt in 1493, r()se to
be chancellor, and Archbishop of Strigonia, (1552.) lie
wrote a treatise "On the Origin of the Hungarians,"
and a " History of Attila." Died in 1568.
Olaus. See OI.AF.
Olaus Magnus. See MAGNUS, (()I.AUS.)
Olavides, o la-vee'ogs, or Olavide, o-Ia-vee'na, | Kr.
OI.AVIDE, o'lt've'da',] (PAULO ANTONIO JOSE,) Count
of Pilos, was born at Lima, in South America, about 1725.
He was appointed intendant-general of Andalusia, and
colonized a part of the Sierra Morena, by introducing into
it an agricultural and manufacturing population. He was
subsequently imprisoned for a time in the Inquisition on
a charge of heresy, but, having made his escape, he took
refuge in France. He died in Spain in 1803, leaving a
religious work, entitled "Triumph of the Gospel," (" El
Evangelio en Triunfo.")
See L. BKIGHTVVF.M . "By-Paths of Biography ;" J. F. BOI-R-
COING, "Tableau de 1'Espagne moderne," 1^07; A. HKNNIM;S,
"Olavides," 1779; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Olbers, ol'bers, (HKiNRini WII.HKI.M MATIIIAS,) an
eminent German astronomer and physician, born at
Arbergen, near Bremen, in October, 1758. He studied
medicine nt Gottingen, and practised at Hremen, where
he constructed a private observatory. He gained dis
tinction by his observations on the comet of 1779, and
discovered an improved method of calculating the orbits
of comets. He published about 1797 a treatise on this
method, which is considered a very important contribu
tion to astronomy. In March, 1802, Olbers discovered
a new asteroid, which he named Pallas, the orbit of which
is nearly as distant from the sun as that of Ceres. I fe
adopted the hypothesis that Ceres and Pallas were frag
ments of a large planet which had been broken by an
internal convulsion, and predicted that other asteroids
would be found. In 1804 Harding discovered Juno, and
in March, 1807, Olbers discovered the fourth asteroid,
which he named Vesta. The mean distance of their
orbits from the sun is nearly the same as that of the
orbits of Ceres and Pallas. He was elected a Fellow
of the Royal Society of London in 1804. In 1815 he
discovered a comet whicli is called by his name, and
which performs a revolution in about seventy-four years.
Among the pupils of Olbers are Bessel and Gauss. lie
died at Bremen in 1840.
See DE ZACH, " A!l<remeine geographischen Epliemerideti :"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Oldcastle. See COBHAM, LORD.
Oldenburg, ol'den-b<56uG', HOUSE OF, an ancient
and noble family, from which the Emperors of Russia,
the Kings of Denmark, and one of the dynasties of
Sweden are descended. THEODORIC (DIETRICH) of
Oldenburg obtained by marriage Sleswick and Ilolstein.
Died about 1440. His son CHRISTIAN became King of
Denmark in 1448, and King of Sweden in 1458. ADOLF,
a grandson of Christian, was the founder of the house
of Holstein-Gottorp, ami an ancestor of the present
imperial family of Russia.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; not; good; moon;
OLDENBURG
1701
OLIER
Old'en-burg, (HKNKY,) a learned German writer,
born at Bremen about 1626. Having settled in England,
he acquired the friendship of Milton and Robert Boyle,
with whom he afterwards corresponded. On the forma
tion of the Royal Society, in 1662, he was appointed one
of its secretaries. He published the "Transactions" of
the Society from 1664 to 1677, and was the author of
several political and theological works. He sometimes
signed his name GUUEENDOL. Died about 1678.
See MARTIN, " Biographia Phi'osophica."
Oldeiiburger, ol'den-bdoK'ger, (PHILIPP ANDREAS,)
a German jurist ana! publicist, born in Brunswick or in
the duchy of Celle. He was professor of public law
at Geneva, and published several works, among which
is " Pandectae Juris public! Germanic!," (1670.) Died
in 1678.
Oldendorp, oKden-doRp', (JOHANN,) a German jurist,
born at Hamburg about 1480. He published, besides
other works, " An Introduction to the Law of Nature
and of Nations," (" Isagoge sen Introductio Juris Naturae
Gentium et Civilis," 1549.) Died in 1567.
Oldermann, ol'der-man, (JOHANN,) a German scholar
and writer, born in Saxony about 1686. He was pro
fessor of Greek at Helmstedt. Died in 1723.
Old'field, (ANNK,) a celebrated English actress, born
in London in 1683. She excelled both in tragedy and
comedy, and her talents are eulogized in the "Tatler."
Died in 1730.
See " Life of Anne Oldfield," London, 1731 ; BAKER, " Biograpliia
Dramatica."
Oldham, old'am, (HUGH,) an English bishop, born
probably near Manchester, was a patron of learning.
He became Bishop of Exeter in 1504. He founded a
free school at Manchester, and added to the endowment
of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Died in 1519.
Oldham, (JoiiN,) an English satirical poet, born in
Gloucestershire in 1653. He was a friend of Dryden,
who has eulogized him in some of his verses. He wrote
" Pindaric Odes," and " Four Satires against the Jesuits,"
and made translations from Juvenal. " His poems," says
Hallam, " are spirited and pointed, and he ranks perhaps
next to Dryden." Died in 1683.
See E. THOMPSON, " Life of John Oldham," and a Memoir, by
ROBERT BELL, prefixed to Oldham's Poems, 1854.
Old'is-worth, (WILLIAM,) an English poet and trans
lator, born in the seventeenth century, was one of the
first writers for the " Examiner." He translated the
Odes of Horace into verse, and wrote a few poems, and
other works, among which is " Timothy and Philotheus,"
(3 vols., 1709-10.) Died in 1734.
Old-mix'on, (Jon\,) an English historical and po
litical writer, born in Somersetshire in 1673. He wrote
a "Critical History of England," (3 vols., 1730-39,) a
" History of the Stuarts," and other works of little merit,
in which he manifests a decided partiality to the Whigs.
In his " Prose Essay on Criticism" he attacked Pope,
who took revenge in the " Dunciad." Died in 1742.
See GIBBER, "Lives of the Poets;" BAKER, "Biograpliia Dra
matica."
Oldoiiii, ol-do-ee'nee, (AGOSTINO,) an Italian biogra
pher, born at La Spezia in 1612. He wrote memoirs
of several popes, cardinals, etc. Died after 1680.
Oldys, ol'dis or oldz, (WILLIAM,) an English biogra
pher and bibliographer, born about 1690. He wrote a
" Life of Sir Walter Raleigh," prefixed to Raleigh's " His
tory of the World," (1738,) and a number of biographies
in the " Biograpliia Britannica," under the signature " G."
He also published "The British Librarian, exhibiting
a Compendious View of all Unpublished and Valuable
Books," (1737,) which is esteemed for its accuracy. Died
in 1761.
See CHALMERS, " Biographical Dictionary."
Olearius, o-la-a're-us, or Olschlager, 61'shla'ger,
(ADAM,) a distinguished German writer and traveller,
born at Aschersleben about 1600, was court mathema
tician and librarian to the Duke of Holstein. In 1633
he accompanied an embassy sent by the Duke of Hol
stein to Russia, and some years after visited Persia in
the same capacity. After his return he published, in
1639, a very interesting account of his travels in the East.
He also translated from the Persian the " Rose-Garden"
of Saadee, (Sadi.) Died in 1671.
See NICERON, " Memoires ;" MOLLER, " Cimbria Literata ;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Olearius, (GOTTFRIED,) a German Lutheran divine,
born at Halle in 1604. He preached in his native city,
and published several works on theology. Died in 1685.
Olearius, (GOTTFRIED,) a theologian and philosopher,
born at Leipsic in 1672, was a grandson of the preceding.
He was professor of theology at Leipsic. Among his
works is a " Logical Analysis of the Epistle to the He
brews," (1706.) Died in 1715.
Olearius, (JOHANN,) a German divine, born in 1639,
| was professor of theology at Leipsic. He wrote a num-
I ber of theological treatises, and was for a time editor of
I the " Acta Eruditorum." Died in 1713. He was a son
of Gottfried, noticed above, (1604-85.)
Olearius, (]Y>H ANN CHULSTOPH,) a German historian
and numismatist, born at Halle in 1668, was a son of
'•• Johann Gottfried. He became Protestant Bishop at Arm-
stadt in 1736. He wrote numerous works. Died in 1747.
See J. C. OTTO, " In Exsequias Olearii," 1747 '• ERSCH und GKU-
BER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Olearius, (TOHANN GOTTFRIED,) born at Halle in
1635, was a brother of Johann, noticed above. He was
pastor at Halle, and author of a work entitled "Abacus
Patrologicus," (1673.) Died in 1711.
O'Leary, o-lee're, (ARTHUR,) an Irish Catholic clergy
man, born at Cork in 1729, was the author of several
controversial works. Died in 1802.
Oleaster, o-la-as'ter, (JEROME,) a Portuguese monk
and linguist, born at Lisbon. He was versed in Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin, and wrote a " Commentary on Isaiah,"
(1623.) Died in 1563.
O'leg, |Russ. pron. o-le"g' or o-leK',] Prince of Russia,
was a native of Scandinavia, from which he emigrated
about 862 A.D. He was a relative of Rurik, who, dying
in 879, appointed Oleg guardian of his minor son, Igor.
Oleg usurped the sovereignty, and extended his do
minions by conquest. Died in 912.
See KARAMZIN, " History of the Russian Empire."
O'len, [Gr. 'Q.^r)v,\ a mythical Grecian bard, who is
said to have been the most ancient lyric poet of that
nation, and was called a prophet of Apollo, whose wor
ship he introduced into Delos. He was supposed to
have been born in Lycia, and to have lived before the
time of Orpheus.
Olenschlager, von, fon o'len-shla'ger, (JOHANN
DANIEL,) a German publicist, born at Frankfort in 1711.
He wrote on the public law of the German empire. Died
in 1778.
Oleszczynski, o-lgsh-chins'kee, (ANTONY,) a Polish
engraver, born in Lublin in 1796. He studied and worked
in Paris. Among his subjects are portraits of eminent
Poles.
Olevianus, o-la-ve-i'nus, (KASPAR,) one of the early
Reformers, was born in Treves, August 10, 1536. He
studied law at Paris and theology at Geneva, and adopted
the views of Calvin. He afterwards resided successively
at Treves, Heidelberg, and Herborn. He published sev
eral theological works, including sermons explanatory of
Paul's Epistles. Died in March, 1587.
See PIERER, " Universal- Lexikon."
Ol'ga, SAINT, a Russian lady, was married about 903
A.D. to tgor, a son of Rurik, Prince of Russia. On the
death of Igor (945) she became regent. She afterwards
adopted the Christian religion. Died in 969.
OH. See OLID.
Olid, de, da o-ler/, or Oli, o-lee', (CKISTOVAL,) a
Spanish officer, born about 1492. He served under
Cortez in the conquest of Mexico, (1519-21,) and after
wards attempted to make himself independent. He was
taken prisoner by the soldiers of Cortez, and executed
in Honduras in 1524.
See PRESCOTT, "Conquest of Mexico;'' OVIEDO, " Historia de
las Indias."
Olier, o'le-a', (JEAN JACQUES,) a French ecclesiastic
and reformer, born in Paris in 1608. He founded the
congregation of Saint-Sulpice, and several charitable
institutions. He also formed a society for the preven-
1039, a verv interesting account 01 nis iraveis in me n,asi. niaiii.ui.iui — j •-
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
OLIN
1702
OLIVIER
tion of duels, and wrote a number of devotional works.
Died in 1657.
See GIRY, "Vie de M. Olier," j687; NAGOT, "Vie de M. Olier,"
1818; DE BRETONVILI.IERS, " Memoires sur M. Olier," 2 vols.,
1841 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
O'lin, (STEPHEN,) D.D., LL.D.,an American Method
ist divine and pulpit orator, born at Leicester, Vermont,
in 1797, became president of the Wesleyan University,
Middletown, Connecticut. He died in 1851, leaving a
collection of sermons, "Travels in the East," "Greece
and the Golden Horn," etc. His "Life and Letters"
were published in 1853.
See the " North American Review" for October, 1843, (by EDWARD
ROBINSON.)
Ol'i-phant, (LAWRENCE,) an English traveller and
writer of books of travel, was born in 1832. He pub
lished in 1853 "The Russian Shores of the Black Sea,"
which was received with favour. lie afterwards travelled
in North America and the Caucasus, and published
several books, one of which is called "Minnesota."
About 1857 he went to China as secretary of Lord Elgin.
He wrote a "Narrative of the Earl of Elgin's Mission
to China and Japan," (1859.)
Ol'i-phant, (MAKGARKT,) a Scottish authoress, born
about 1820. She published several popular novels,
among which are "Harry Muir" and "Zaidee," also a
"Life of Edward Irving."
See the " British Quarterly Review" for April, 1869.
Oliva, o-lee'va, ( AI.KSSANDRO,) an Italian cardinal and
pulpit orator, born in 1408, preached at Rome, Naples,
and Venice. Died in 1463.
Oliva. (GioVANM,) an Italian antiquary, born at
Rovigo in 1689, was librarian to Cardinal de Rohan.
He wrote several treatises on medals and on Roman
antiquities. Died in 1757.
Oliva, de, da o-lee'va, (FRRNAN PEREZ,) a Spanish
scholar and writer, born at Cordova in 1497, was one °f
the founders of the University of Salamanca, (1528,) of
which he subsequently became rector. He died about
1530, having previously been appointed by Charles V.
preceptor to his son Philip. He was the author of a
" Dialogue on the Dignity of Man," and other prose
essays, which are esteemed the first models of a pure
and classical style in the Spanish language. He was
not, however, according to Ticknor, a man of genius in
the true sense of this word. His works, including a
number of poems and dramas, were published by his
nephew, Ambrosio de Morales, (1586.)
See N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova ;" TICKNOR, " His
tory of Spanish Literature."
Olivares, de, da o-le-va're">, (ENRIQUE de Guzman
— da gooth-man',) second COUNT, a Spanish general, born
in 1530. He took part in the battle of Saint-Quentin,
in 1558, and became major-domo of Philip II. in 1562.
He was afterwards Viceroy of Naples. Died in 1599.
See HERRERA, "Historia general."
Olivares, de, or Olivarez, o-le-va'rSth, (GASPAR DK
GUZMAN,) Duke of San Lucar de Harrameda, a cele
brated Spanish statesman, was born at Rome in 1587.
The heir of a wealthy family, he early obtained distinc
tion at the court of Philip III., and so thoroughly in
sinuated himself into the favour of his son that, on the
accession of the latter as Philip IV., in 1621, Olivares
soon found himself in possession of the most important
offices of the kingdom. He was appointed successively
first minister of state, grand chancellor of the Indies,
treasurer-general of Aragon, captain-general of the
cavalry, and Governor of Guipuscoa. During his ad
ministration Spain carried on war against France and
the Netherlands, and Olivares found in Richelieu an
adversary who was more than his equal. The Spanish
armies suffered reverses, and the prosperity of the king
dom declined. He was dismissed from power in 1643,
and died in 1645.
SeeCoMTE DE LA ROCCA. " Histoire du Ministere du Comte-Duc
d'Olivares," 1673; MAI.VEZZI, '' Ritratto de' Conte-Duca di San
Lucar," 1636: " Cadnta del Conte d'Olivares," Lyons, 1644; "Life
of Count Olivares," London, 1836.
Olivarez. See OLIVARES.
Olive, o'lev', (JEAN PIERRE,) a French monk and
writer, born at Serignan in 1247. He was zealous for
the enforcement of strict monastic discipline. After his
death he was condemned as a heretic by a council held
in 1312, and by Pope John XXII. Died in 1298.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale."
Olivecrantz, o-lee'veh-kRants', ? (JoHAN PAUI.IN,) a
Swedish statesman and Latin poet, born at Strengnas in
1633. He was appointed Governor of Revel in 1680,
and supreme judge of Gothland. He gained the favour
of Queen Christina, who corresponded with him after
her abdication. Died in 1707.
Ol'i-ver, (ANDREW,) an American magistrate, born
in 1707, was appointed in 1770 lieutenant-governor of
Massachusetts. Having become obnoxious to the colo
nists by favouring the designs of the British government,
they petitioned for his removal, as well as for that of his
brother-in-law, Governor Hutchinson. Died in 1774.
Oliver, (!)ANIEI.,) M.D., LL.D., an American phy
sician and scholar, born in Massachusetts in 1787,
published "First Lines of Physiology." Died in 1842.
Ol'i-ver, (GEORGE,) D.D., an English antiquary and
writer, born about 1782. He published several works
on Freemasonry. Died in 1867.
Oliver, (!SAAC,) an eminent English artist, born in
1556, excelled in miniature-painting. Among his mas
ter-pieces are portraits of Mary Queen of Scots, Queen
Elizabeth, and Sir Philip Sidney. Died in 1617. His
son PETER, born about 1600, became equally celebrated
for his portraits, and also produced a number of historical
pictures. Died about 1654 or 1664.
See WAI.POI.E, "Anecdotes of Painting. "
Oliver, (PETER,) LL.D., an American jurist, brother
of Andrew, noticed above, was born in 1713, and gradu
ated at Harvard College. He was appointed chief
justice of Massachusetts. Died in 1791.
Oliver, (Wiu.iAM,) of Bath, an English physician,
wrote on the Bath mineral waters. Died in 1764.
Oliver ov MAI.MESHURY, an English monk and able
mathematician of the eleventh century. His works, if
he wrote any, are lost.
Olivet, d', do'Ie'vi', (JOSEPH THOUIJER,) ABBE, a
celebrated French critic and scholar, born at Salins in
April, 1682. He entered the order of Jesuits at an early
age, but he renounced it about 1714. He was elected to
the French Academy in 1723, and subsequently visited
England, where he made the acquaintance of Pope. He
was the author of a "Treatise on French Prosody,"
" which," says Voltaire, " will subsist as long as the lan
guage," and " Essays on Grammar," ( 1 732.) He also wrote
a continuation of the " History of the French Academy,"
begun by Pellisson, and made excellent translations of
Cicero's " De Natura Deoruni" and his "Orations against
Catiline," and of the " Philippics" of Demosthenes. I Us
edition of Ciceio's works (9 vols. 410, 1742) is esteemed
one of the best that has appeared. The Abbe d'Olivet
was an intimate friend of Boileau and Voltaire, the latter
of whom he assisted and directed in his studies. Died
in 1768.
See MAIRET, " Lloje histnrique de 1'Abbe d'Olivet," 1839;
D'Ai.EMRERT, " Histoire des Menibres de 1'Academie Frangaise ;"
"Nouvelle Biographie Gdnerale."
Olivetan, o'lev'tdx', (PIERRE ROBERT,) a French
Protestant, born at Noyon in the fifteenth century, is
supposed to have been the first of his countrymen who
translated the Bible from the original Greek and Hebrew.
It is asserted, however, by some writers that he only
retouched the version of Lefevre d'Etaples. This work
was first published in 1535, and is said to have been
revised by Calvin, who was a relative of Olivetan. Died
in 1538.
See S^NEIMER, "Histoire Htteraire de Geneve."
Oliveyra, o-le-va'e-ra, (FRANCISCO XAVIKR,) a Por
tuguese gentleman, ^was born at Lisbon in 1702. Being
sent as secretary of the embassy to Vienna in 1732, he
was converted to Protestantism. He published a " Dis
course to his Countrymen on the Earthquake at Lisbon,"
(1756,) and "Familiar Letters." Died in 1783.
Olivier, o'le've-i', (Ci.AUDE MATIIIEU,) a French
litterateur, was born at Marseilles in 1701. He was one
of the founders of the University of Marseilles. As
counsellor to the Parliament of Paris, he gained a great
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
OLIVIER
'7°3
OLTMPUS
reputation as a pleader. He published a "Dissertation
on 1. .<_• Critias of Plato," and a " History of Philip, King
of Macedon," (2 vols., 1740.) Died in 1736.
Olivier, (FRANgois,) a French judge and statesman,
born in Paris in 1497. He became chancellor of France
in 1545. Died in 1560.
Olivier, (GUILLAUME ANTOINE,) an eminent French
naturalist, born near Toulon in 1756. In 1792 he accom
panied Bruguiere on a scientific expedition to Persia and
Turkey, where they made a valuable collection of objects
in natural history. He was chosen a member of the
Institute in 1800. He published a " Dictionary of the
Natural History of Insects, Butterflies, Crustaceans,"
etc., (7 vols., 1789-1825,) "Travels in the Ottoman
Empire, Egypt," etc., (6 vols., 1801,) and several other
works. Died in 1814.
See CUVIEK, " iSloges historiques ;" SILVESTRE, "Notice sur G.
A. Olivier," 1815.
Olivier, o'le've-a', (JusTK DANIEL,) a Swiss poet,
born in the cantoiiTof Vaucl in 1807. He became a
resident of Paris in 1842, and wrote, besides other
poems, "Chansons lointaines," (1847.)
Olivier, (NICOLAS THEODORE,) a French prelate,
born in Paris in 1798. He was appointed Bishop of
Evreux in 1841. Died in 1854.
See A. DE BOUCLON', " Histoire de Monseigneur Olivier," 1855.
Olivier, (SERAPHIN,) a French cardinal, born at
Lyons in 1538, was auditor de rota at Rome for many
years. Died in 1609.
Olivier, d', do'le've-i', (GABRIEL RAIMOND JEAN DE
DIEU FRANCOIS,) a French jurist, born at Carpentras in
1753. He published many legal works. Died in 1823.
Olivieri, o-le-ve-a'ree, (PiETRo PAULO,) an Italian
architect and sculptor, born at Rome in 1551 ; died in
I599-
Olivieri degli Abbati, o-le-ve-a'ree dal'yee ab-ba'-
tee, (A NX ir, ALE,) an Italian antiquary, born at Pesaro
in 1708. He published, besides other works, " Marmora
Pisaurensia Notis illustrata," (1737.) Died in 1789.
See MARIGXONI, " Klogio i'i A. Oiivieri," 1789.
Ollivier, o'le've-a', (CHARLES PROSPER,) a French
medical writer, born at Angers in 1796; died in Paris
in 1845.
Ollivier, ( D^MOSTHfcNK,) a French democrat, born
at Toulon in 1799, was the father of fimile, noticed be
low. He founded at Marseilles in 1831 a journal called
" Le Peuple Souverain," and was elected to the Con
stituent Assembly in 1848. He was banished about De
cember, 1851. Died in 1869.
Ollivier, (Ewil.E,) a French advocate and orator, born
at Marseilles in 1825. He practised law with success in
Paris, and was elected to the legislative body by the
voters of that city in 1857. He was re-elected in 1863.
He acted with the Liberal party for many years, but
became in 1869 an adherent of Napoleon, who in De
cember of that year appointed him prime minister, and
requested him "to name persons who will, associated
with yourself, form a homogeneous cabinet, faithfully
representing the legislative majority." He took the
position of minister of justice in the new cabinet formed
(January 2, 1870) partly of the leaders of the Left Centre
and partly of those of the Right Centre. The formation
of this coalition ministry was regarded as an important
event, and as the beginning of a constitutional regime.
The Corps Legislatif, after an excited debate, adopted a
resolution of confidence in the minister, April 5, 1870,
by a vote of 227 to 43. The most liberal members of
the cabinet resigned about the 1st of May, 1870; but
the policy of Napoleon and Ollivier was approved by
a majority of the popular votes, May 8. Olitvier was
elected to the French Academy in April, 1870. He
resigned the office of prime minister, August 9, 1870.
Ollivier, (FRAXC.OIS ANTOIXE JOSEPH,) a French
judge, born at Loriol in 1762 ; died in 1839.
Ollivier, (JuLES.) an antiquary, born at Valence in
1804, was a son of the preceding. He wrote on the
antiquities of Dauphine. Died in 1841.
Olmo, del, del ol'mo, (JosE VINCENT,) a Spanish
antiquary, born at Valencia in 1611. He wrote, besides
other works, a curious account of a grand auto de fe of
1680. Died in 1696.
Olivmtz, von, fun ol'moots, (\VENZEL,) a German
engraver and designer, flourished about 1500.
Olmsted, om'sted or un/sted, (DENISON,) LL.D., an
American chemist and geologist, born at East Hartford,
Connecticut, in 1791. He graduated at Yale College,
and became in 1817 professor of chemistry, mineralogy,
and geology in the University of North Carolina. He
made the first geological survey of that State. In 1825
he obtained the chair of mathematics and natural phi
losophy at Yale College. He was the author of a
"School Philosophy," "Rudiments of Natural Philoso
phy and Astronomy," (1842,) "Letters on Astronomy,"
and other valuable text-books. Died in 1859.
Olmsted, (FREDERICK LAW,) an American agricul
tural writer and architect, born at Hartford, Connecticut,
in 1822. He visited England in 1850, and published,
after his return, "Walks and Talks of an American
Farmer in England," (1852.) He has also written "A
Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, with Remarks
on their Economy," (1856,) and "A Journey thruugh
Texas," etc., (1857.) In 1857 Mr. Olmsted was ap
pointed chief engineer and architect of the New York
Central Park.
Olof. See OLAF.
Olozaga, ol-o-tha'ga, (Don SALUSTIAXO,) a Spanish
statesman, born at Logrono about 1803. He was the
chief of the monarchical opposition after the fall of
Mendizabal in 1836, and chairman or reporter of the
committee on the constitution in 1837. After the re
moval of Lopez, in 1843, he was commissioned to form
a new cabinet; but he was soon driven from power by
Narvaez. He was elected in 1855 a deputy to the
Cortes, in which he voted with the Progresistas. He
was appointed president of the council of state in
April, 1870.
Glschlager. See OLEARIUS.
Olshausen, ols'how'zen, (HERMANN,) a German Prol-
', estant theologian, born at Oldeslohe in 1796. In 1827
he was appointed professor of theology at Konigsberg.
He published a " Biblical Commentary on all the New
| Testament," (4 vols., 1830-40,) which 'has been highly
commended, and other religious treatises. Died at
Erlangen in 1839.
Olshausen, (JUSTUS,) a German Orientalist, born at
; Holstein in i8co. He was chosen a member of the
j Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen in 1845, and be-
| came professor of Oriental languages at Konigsberg
i in 1853. He published a work entitled "The Pehlevi
Legends on the Coins of the Last Sassanides," (1843.)
Olshausen, (TiiEODOR,) a brother of the preceding,
was born at Gliickstadt in 1802. In 1830 he founded at
Kiel a patriotic journal, entitled the " Correspondenz-
blatt," in which he advocated the independence of Hol
stein. In 1848 he was a deputy to the Assembly, and
in 1849 established the "North German Free Press" at
Hamburg. He was exiled in 1851 by the Danish gov
ernment to America.
Oltmanns, olt'mans, (JAKBO,) a German geometer,
born at Wittmund in 1783. He wrote the astronomical
part of Humboldt's "Travels in America," (1808-10.)
Died in Berlin in 1833.
Olug- (or Oloog-) Beg, o'loog beg, written also
Ooloogh-, Oulough-, and Ulugh-Beg, ^Meer'za Mo-
ham'med,) an eminent Mongol astronomer, a grandson
of Tamerlane, and King of Transoxana, was born in
1394. He began to reign in 1446, and was killed by his
son in 1459.
O-lyb'ri-us, (Axicius,) a Roman emperor. He be
came consul in 464 A.D., and married Placidia, the widow
of Valentinian III. Through the influence of Genseric
or Ricimer, he succeeded Anthemius, who was killed in
472. He died in the same year.
See GIBBON, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Olympe. See OLYMPUS.
O-lym'pi-as, [Gr. 'O/a^TUuc,] Queen of Macedon,
was a daughter of Neoptolemus, King of Epirus. She
was married about 357 B.C. to Philip II. of Macedon,
and became the mother of Alexander the Great. She
is said to have been a woman of violent temper. Philip
soon became alienated from her, and divorced her. After
the accession of her son Alexander, she put to death
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; %h as in //to.
Explanations, p. 23.)
OLTMPIODORE
1704
OMETTADES
Cleopatra, the second wife of Philip. She was put to
death by Cassander in 316 H.C.
See PLUTAKCH, "Vita Alexandii."
Olympiodore. See OI.YMPIODORUS.
O-lym-pI-o-do'rus, f Gr. 'Ofo^rrwdupof ; Fr. OI.YM-
ptODORE, o'laN'pe'o'doR',] a Greek historian, born at
Thebes, in Egypt, wrote a " Chronicle" of his time, from
407 to 425 A.D., being a continuation of that of Eunapius.
There are fragments of this work extant in the " Myrio-
biblon" of Photius.
See FABKICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graven."
Olympiodorus II., called THK YOUNGER, a Peripa
tetic philosopher, supposed to have flourished in the
sixth century, was a native of Alexandria. His chief work
is a Commentary on the " Meteorologica" of Aristotle.
Olympiodorus III., a Platonic philosopher, born in
Alexandria, is said to have lived in the sixth century.
He wrote commentaries on the " Phasdon," the " Phile-
bus," the "Gorgias," and the "First Alcibiades" of
Plato; also a "Life of Plato." As an interpreter of
Plato he is much esteemed.
Olympiodorus, a Greek commentator on the Scrip
tures, was a deacon of Alexandria, and lived probably in
the first half of the sixth century.
Olympus, (the habitation of the Grecian gods.) See
ZEUS.
O-lym'pus, [Gr. "O^vfi-of ; Fr. OI.YMPK, o'laMp',] a
celebrated Greek or Phrygian musician, supposed to
have lived about 650 n.C. He naturalized in Greece the
music of the flute, and invented the system or genus of
music called enharmonic.
See MULI.KR, " History of Greek Literature ;" PLUTARCH, " De
Jilusica."
Olzofski or Olzowski, ol-zof'skee, (ANDREW,) a
Polish prelate, born about 1618. lie wrote several
political treatises. After the election of Sobieski (1674)
lie was appointed Archbishop of Gnesen and Primate
of Poland. Died in 1678.
Omaiadae. See OMKYYADKS.
Omaides. See OMEYYADF.S.
Omajjaden. See OMKYYADKS.
Oma-jjah or Omajja. See OMEYYAH.
Omalius d'Halloy, d', do'int'le'iis' dS'lwa', (JEAN
HAPTISTE JUI.IKX.) a Belgian geologist, born at Liege in
178}. He published several works on geology.
O'mar (or O'mer) I., written also Oomur or Umar,
oo'mar, ( Aboo-Hafsah-Ibn-ool-Khatab or Abu-
Hafsah-Ibnul-Khattab, a'boo hafsah ll/nool Kit- j
til/,) the second caliph or successor of Mohammed the !
Prophet, was a cousin in the third degree to Abdallah,
the father of that legislator. After he had attempted to
kill Mohammed, Omar was converted to Islamism, about
615 A.n. He succeeded Aboo-Bekr in the vear6}4. His
army took Damascus in 635. defeated the Greeks at Yar-
mook or Yermuk, and besieged Jerusalem. This city in
637 or 638 was surrendered to Omar, who treated the
Christians with great lenitv. On the site of Solomon's
temple he built the magnificent mosque which bears his
name. About 638)16 completed the conquest of Syria
and of Persia, (see YF.ZDFJERD,) and founded the city of
Koofah. Amroo, one of Omar's generals, subdued Egypt
in 640 or 641, and consumed bv fire the great library at
Alexandria, after the caliph had decided, as we are told, |
that " if the books accord with the Koran, they are un
necessary ; and if they are contrary to the Koran, they
are pernicious, and should be destroyed." He was assas
sinated by a Persian slave. Firooz, in his capital, Medina,
in 644 A.n., at the age of sixty-three, and was sncceeeded
by Othman. Omar is praised for wisdom, justice, and
moderation, and is said to have contributed more to the
progress of his religion than Mohammed himself. His
name is greatly venerated by the orthodox sect of Mos
lems, called Sunnites.
See SIMON OCKI.RV, " History of the Saracen*." i7oS-iS; GIB
BON, " History of th" Dec'ine ami Fall of the Rnman Empire."
vol. ix. ; IRVIVG, "Mihomet anH his Successors;" WHII.. " Ge-
schichte rler Khalifen." vol. i. chap. ii. : Anoni.FKii \, "Annales
Moslemici ;" O VON PLATKN. " Geschichte cler Tbdtung des Cha-
HfenOmar;" " Nouvelle liio™rapliie Generate. "
Omar (or Omer) II., the eighth caliph of the Omevyade
dynasty, was the son of Abd-el-Azeez, (Abdelaziz,) and
the nephew of Abd-el-Malek. He was also a great-grand
son of Omar I., whom he resembled in his virtues. He
succeeded his cousin Solyman in 717 A.D. He suppressed
the maledictions which in former reigns were pronounced
in the mosques against the descendants of Alee. The
princes of his own race, fearing that he should bequeath
the empire to one of the race of Alee, poisoned him in
720 A.D.
Omar, a Moorish physician, born at Cordova in 990
A.n., was celebrated for his skill in surgery, and was also
a profound mathematician. Died in 1080.
Omar, an eminent physician, astronomer, and mathe
matician, supposed to have been a native of Hadramaut,
in Arabia. He settled in Spain, where he died in 1071.
Omar, ( Al-Mutawakkel-Billah, al moo-ta-wak'kel
b?l'lah,) the last king of Badajoz of the Beni-al-Aftas,
began his reign in 1082 A.D. In conjunction with his
ally, Yoosuf, King of Morocco, he gained a signal victory
over the Christian army at Zalaca in 1086 A.D. Yoosuf
soon after made war upon Omar, took him prisoner, and
had him put to death about 1090, after having promised
to spare his life.
Omar-Ibn-Hafsoon, (or-Hafsstm,) o'mar ib'n haf-
sdon', a famous Moorish chieftain, was a native of Ronda,
in Spain. In 859 A.D. he headed a rebel army, with
which he laid waste the kingdom of Cordova and other
parts of the empire. After having for a long time main
tained himself against Mohammed, King of Cordova, he
was totally defeated by him at Aybar in 882, and died
in 883 A.D.
O'mar (or O'mer) Pasha, (pa'sha',) Dey of Algiers,
began to reign in April, 1815. after a revolution in which
his predecessor had been killed. In 1816 the English
admiral Exmouth, after failing in his efforts to procure the
abolition of slavery in Algiers by negotiation, bombarded
that city with success. Omar was forced to submit to
the treaty dictated by the victor. In September, 1817,
he was killed by his own mutinous troops.
Omar (or Omer) Pasha, o'mer pa'sha', (MiciiAKL
Lat'tas,) a Turkish commander, born in Croatia about
1805. About 1828 he removed to Turkey, changed his
name to Omer, and adopted the Moslem religion. lie
became a colonel in the army in 1839, and a pasha about
1845. He suppressed a revolt in Bosnia in 1850-51.
When the Crimean war broke out, he was appointed
commander-in-chief of the Turkish army. lie defeated
the Russians at Oltenitza, November, 1853, and at Kalafat
in 1854. In the early part of 1855 he led an army to the
Crimea and formed a junction with the Anglo-French
army at Sebastopol. In 1868 he suppressed a formidable
insurrection in Crete.
O'Meara, o-ma'ra, (BARRY EDWARD,) the favourite
physician of Napoleon at Saint Helena, was born in Ire
land about 1780. Being on board the Bellerophon when
the emperor was made prisoner, the latter requested that
O'Meara might accompany him as his surgeon. lie re
mained in Saint Helena till 1818, when he was recalled.
In 1822 he published his "Napoleon in Exile; or, A
Voice from Saint Helena," which had great popularity,
and, though not entirely impartial, it is esteemed a valu
able contribution to Napoleon's history. Died in 1836.
See LAS CASAS, "Memorial de Sainte-Helene ;" "Monthly Re
view" for July, 1822.
Omeiadae. See OMKYYADES.
Omer. See OMAR.
Omero, the Italian for HOMER, which see.
Omeyyades or Omeyyads, o-ma'yadz, [Fr. pron.
o'mi'yt'l',] sing. Omeyyade or Omeiade, o-ma'yad ;
written less correctly Ommaiades and Ommyiades,
[Ger. O. \IF.JT\DF.N, o-mi-ya'den, or OMAJJADEN, o-ma-
ya'den ; Lat. OMF.I'AD/E or OMAI'FAD.'E,] the name
of a famous dynasty of caliphs, founded (660 A.D.) by
Moaweeyeh, the great-grandson of Omeyyah, (or Umey-
yah,) who was cousin-gentian to Abd-el-Moot'alib, the
grandfather of Mohammed ; whence the Omeyyade
princes are commonly styled " Benee- (I!eni-) Omeyyah,"
(i.e. "Sons, or descendants, of Omeyyah.") The imme
diate successors of Moaweeyeh continued to reign at
Damascus until 749 A.D., when their power was over
thrown, and all the princes of the house of Omeyyah, (it
is said,) except two, were put to death by order of
i, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moou:
OMETTAH
1705
OORT
Abool-Abbas-Abdallah, (surnamecl As-Seffah, or " the
shedder of blood,") the founder of the new dynasty of
Abbassides. Of the two Omeyyade princes who escaped
the vengeance of As-Seffah, one fled to a remote part
of Arabia; .the other, named Abd-er-Rahman-Ibn-Moa-
weeyeh, went first to Egypt, thence to Spain, and estab
lished at Cordova (756 A.rx) a dynasty which was destined
to rival in splendour and magnificence that of the Ab-
basside caliphs in the East. The power and glory of
the Benee-Omeyyah in Spain culminated in the reign of
Abd-er-Rahman I., who was the first of his line who
assumed the title of caliph ; but they began soon after to
decline, and they may be said to have terminated with
the reign of Hisham II., in 1013.
See AL-MAKKARI, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in
translated by GAYANGO
410, London, 1840-43;
HAMMER PURGSTALL, " Literatnrgescliichte der Anther."
Omeyyah, o-ma'yah, written also Omeyyeh, Om-
niaya, TJmeyyah, and in various other modes, was a
ouiMii of Mohammed's grandfather, Abd-el-Moot'alib.
His great-grandson, Moaweeyeh, was the first caliph of
the illustrious dynasty of the Benee-Omeyyah. (See
OMEYYADES.)
Ommaides. See OMEYYADF.S.
Ommajjaden, (more correctly, Omajjaden.)
OMEYYADES.
Ommaya. See OMKYYAH.
Ommeganck, om'meh-gank', (BAI.THASAR PAUL,) a
distinguished landscape-painter, born at Antwerp
See
H.C., and was a disciple of Diogenes the Cynic. He fol
lowed Alexander the Great in his expedition to Asia,
and was chief pilot of the fleet which descended the
Indus. He wrote a " History of Alexander," which is
lost. He was censured by \Aulus Gellius and other
ancient critics for mixing fables with his narrative.
See VIKSIUS, "De Historicis Graecis ;" ERSCH und GUUBER,
"Allgemeiue Encyklopaedie ;" SIUDAS, " Onesicriins. "
Ongaro, on-ga'ro, (ANTONIO,) an Italian poet, born
at Padua or Adria about 1569. He wrote " Alceo," a
pastoral or piscatorial poem, in which he substituted
fishermen for shepherds. Died in 1599.
Oiik/e-los, a learned Chaldee writer, of uncertain
era, supposed to have been a native of Babylon and
contemporary with Gamaliel. lie was the author of a
Targum, or Chaldee paraphrase of the Pentateuch,
which is highly esteemed for its accuracy.
Onomacrite. See ONOMACRITOS.
On-o-mac'ri-tos, [Gr. 'Ovo/MtKfUTOf; Fr. ONOMA-
CRiTE, o'no'mS'kKet',] a celebrated Greek poet and sooth
sayer, lived in the sixth century li.c. He was banished
by Hipparchus from Athens for having falsified or inter
polated the oracles of Musaeus for political purposes.
He is supposed by some writers to have been the author
of much that is attributed to Orpheus.
See EICHHOFF, " Commentatio de Onomacrito,'' 1840; K. O.
MiJLI.RR, " History of Greek Literature."
On-o-mar'-ehus, [Gr. 'OmiMpxof ; Fr. ONOMARQUE,
o'lio'intuk',] a general of the Phocians in the Sacred
1755. He also excelled in painting animals, particularly | w:ir. He obtained the chief command in 353 li.c., and
sheep. lie was a corresponding member of the Academy ; seixed the sacreci treasures of Delphi, lie defeated
Philip of Macedon in two battles, but was defeated and
killed by that king in 352 B.C.
Onomarque. See OXOMARCHUS.
On-o-san'der, [Gr. 'Ovoaavdpof ; Fr. OXOSANDRK,
o'no'zSNdR',] one of the principal military writers of
antiquity, lived at Rome under the reigns of Claudius
Om'pha-le, [Gr. 'O//^d/.?/. ] a queen of Lydia, cele- j and Nero. He was the author of a treatise on tactics,
brated for' her connection with the story of Hercules, entitled "Strategeticos," (written in Greek,) which has
She is said to have been mistress of the kingdom after , been translated into Latin, French, and Italian. He
the death of Tmolus, her husband. According to the j was a Platonic philosopher, and wrote a commentary on
fable, Hercules sold himself as a slave to Omphale, the " Republic" of Plato, which is not extant.
of Fine Arts in Paris, and chevalier of the order of the
Belgic Lion. Died in 1826.
See A. VOISIN, " Eloge du Peintre B. P. Ommeganck," 1826.
Ommiades or Ommiadee. See OMF.YYADKS.
Ommiyades or Omniyiades. See OMKYYADES.
Ommiyah. See OMKYYAH.
assumed the female attire, and assisted her servants in
spinning.
Om/ri, [Ileb. '~O>',1 King of Israel, began to reign
about 930 1J.C. He reigned eleven years, and founded
See SCHOEI.L, " Histoire de la Litteralnre Grecqui
Onosaridre. See ONOSANDKR.
Ons-en-Bray, (Louis LEON PAJOT.) See PA JOT.
Onsenoort, van, vSn on'seh-noiu', (Ai NTOON GK-
the capital city of Samaria. He was succeeded by his : RAAKD,) a Dutch surgeon and oculist, born at Utrecht
He wrote several professional works. Died
son Ahab.
See I. Kin.js xvi.
Onar. See NORVI.
O-na'tas, [Gr. "Ow-rac,] an eminent Greek sculptor
'
in 1782.
in 1841.
See F. CU.NMER. "Notice sur A. G. van Onsenoort." 1843.
Ons'Iow, (ARTHUR.) an English statesman, born
and painter, born at /Egina, was the son of Micon, and al)0ut 1690. He was chosen Speaker of the House of
flourished about 460 R.C. Amono- his best works were • Commons in 1727. "During thirty-three years," says
statues of Apollo, Hercules, and Mercury, and a picture I Lord Mahon, "'he filled that chair" with higher merit,
of the expedition of the Argives against Thebes. His probably, than any one either before or after him, — with
skill as a sculptor is highly extolled by Pausanias.
See K. O. MULI.ER, " Handbuch der Archaeologie der Kunst."
Oiidegardo, de, da on-da gau'do. (Poi.o,) a Spanish
Jesuit and historian of the sixteenth century, was the
author of historical memoirs of Peru, entitled " Rela-
ciones," which are still in manuscript.
See PRKSCOTT, " History of the Conquest of Pern," vol. i. hook i.
Oii'der-doiik, (1>KNJ\M1NTT.,) born in the city of New
York in 1791, became Episcopal Bishop of Eastern New
York about 1830, and \\as suspended for disgraceful
conduct in 1845. Died in 1861.
O'Neall, o-neel', (JoiiN BKI.TON,) LL.D., an Ameri
can jurist, born near Bush River, South Carolina, in
1793, rose through various offices to be chief justice of
his native State. He became in 1841 president of the
State Temperance Society. He has written " Biographi
cal Sketches of the Bench and liar of South Carolina,"
and other works.
unequalled impartiality, dignity, and courtesy." He re
tired from the chair and from public life in 1761. Died
in 1768. His son was created Earl Onslow about 1800.
Onslow, (GKORGK,) an eminent musician and com
poser, born at Clermont, in France, in 1/84, was de
scended from an English family of rank. His works
include symphonies, duets, quintets, sonatas, and operas.
His opera " Le Colporteur" was performed with great
success. Died in 1853.
See FRTI^. " Hio^rnphie Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Onslow, (Sir RICHARD,) an English admiral, born i:;
1741. He served with distinction against the Dutch, as
vice-admiral, in 1797. Died in 1817.
Onuphrius. See PANVINTUS.
Ooloogh-Beg. See OI.UG-]!KG.
Oomur. See OMAR.
Oorkhan orUrkhan, oor'kln', written also Orkhan,
O'Neil, o neel', (HF.NRY.) .an English historical and ! (sometimes surnamed GHAX.KK or GHAZY, ga'zee,) a
genre painter, born about 1818. Among his works are j Turkish Sultan, was the son of Osman (Othman) I., the
"Bvthe Rivers of Babylon," " A Scene from Hamlet," founder of the present Turkish dynasty. He began to
Eastward IIo ! August, 1857," " Home Again ! 1858,"
and "Mary Stuart's Farewell to France."
Onesicirite. See ONKSICUITUS.
On-e-sic'rl-tus, [Gr.
Fr. ONESICRITE,
o'na'ze'kRet',] a Greek historian, lived about 350-330
reign at Prusa in 1326, and made extensive conquests
from the Greeks in Asia Minor. He is said to have had
superior military and political talents. He died in 1360,
leaving the throne to his son Amurath (or Moor ad,) I.
Oort, van, (ADAM.) See NOORT, VAN.
« as k; c as s; g hard; g asj; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
OOST
1706
OPPUN
Oost, van, vin ost, (jACOii,) THE ELDER, one of the
most admired painters of the Flemish school, was born
at Bruges in 1600. lie studied at Rome, and formed
his style on the model of Annibal Caracci. His works
are numerous, and are principally on sacred subjects.
Among his master-pieces are a " Descent from the
Cross," a "Nativity," "Virgin and Child, with Saints,"
and "The Descent of the Holy Ghost on the Virgin
and Apostles." His copies of Rubens and Van Dyck
are so perfect as to deceive the most skilful connoisseurs.
Died in 1671.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Oost, van, (J.\co>s,) THK YOUNGER, son of the pre
ceding, was born about 1637. He studied under his
father, and afterwards visited Italy and France, where
he resided many years. He was esteemed one of the
best portrait-painters of his time, and also executed his
torical works of great merit, one of which, the "Martyr
dom of Saint Barbara," is regarded as his master-piece.
Died in 1713.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Oosterwyck, van, vin os'ter-wlk', (MARIA,) a
Dutch painter of flowers and fruit, born near Delft in
1630. She is placed in the first rank of painters of the
subjects above named. Died in 1693.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Oovarof, Ouvarof, or Uwarow, oo-va'rof, written
also Ouvarov, (TllEonoRK,) a Russian general, born
about 1770. He distinguished himself at the battle of
Borodino. Died in 1824.
Operman, o'per-maii', COUNT, a German general and
engineer, entered the Russian service about 1783. Died
in 1832.
O-phe'ii-pii, ['i20eA/wi',] an Athenian comic poet, sup
posed to have flourished in the fourth century H.c. His
works are not extant.
Ophelte. See OIMIEI.TES.
O-phel'tes, [Gr. 'Ope/.-7/r; Fr. OPHEI.TE, o'felt',] a
son of Lycurgus, King of Nemea, was killed in infancy
by a serpent, having been left alone on the grass by
his nurse, Hypsipyle, while she went to guide Adrastus
to a spring.
Opie, o'pe, (AMELIA,) a popular English writer, wife
of John Opie, noticed below, and daughter of Dr. James
Alderson, was born at Norwich in 1769. Her first pub
lications were a volume of poems, and a tale entitled
" Father and Daughter," which were very well received,
and were succeeded by the novel of " Adeline Mow-
bray," (1804,) " Simple Tales," (1805,) "The Orphan,"
" Valentine's Eve," " Madeline," and other works of
fiction, distinguished for their pathos and for their ele
vated moral and religious tone. In 1825 Mrs. Opie
became a member of the Society of Friends, and pub
lished the same year her " Illustrations of Lying."
Having visited Paris in 1830, she wrote an interesting
account of the revolution of July. Among the most
important of her other works may be named " Detrac
tion Displayed," (1828,) and " Lays for the Dead," (1833.)
She had also published her husband's " Lectures on
Painting," with a memoir, (1809.) Died in 1853.
See Miss C. BRIC;HTWEI.I.. " Memorials of the Life of Amelia
Opie," 1854: " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1806; "Monthly Re
view" for August, 1820; H. MAKTINBAU, "Biographical Sketches,"
1869.
Opie, (JOHN,) a distinguished English painter, born
near Truro, in Cornwall, in 1761. Some of his portraits
and sketches attracted the notice of Dr. Wolcott, the
satirist, who took the young artist under his protection
and introduced him into London society, where he en
joyed for a time the patronage of the fashionable world.
He married as his second wife, in 1798, Miss Amelia
Alderson, who afterwards obtained great popularity as
a writer. Opie gave particular attention to historical
subjects, and painted "The Death of Rizzio," " Jeph-
thah's Vow," and " Belisarius." He succeeded Fuseli
as professor of painting in the Royal Academy in 1806.
Died in 1807.
See the " Monthly Review" for February, 1810.
O-pil'I-us, (AuRKLlUS,) a Latin grammarian, who
taught philosophy and rhetoric at Rome. He went into
voluntary exile in 92 i!.C. as a companion of his intimate
friend Rutilius Rutus, who had been banished.
Opilius Macrinus. See MACKINUS.
O-pim'i-us, (Lucius,) a Roman politician, was a
leader of the aristocratic party, and adversary of Caius
Gracchus. He became consul in 121 B.C., and a violent
contest then ensued between the senate and the party
of Gracchus. Having been authorized by the senate
to decide the question by force, Opimius killed Grac
chus and about three thousand of his partisans. Ac
cording to Cicero, (" In Catilinam, Oratio I.,") Gracchus
was killed on suspicion of sedition. Opimius was cor
rupted by Jugurtha in 112, fell into disgrace, and passed
his latter years in exile. Died about 100 li.c.
See PI.UTAKCII, " C. Gracchus ;" SALMJST, "Jugurtha."
Opis. See Ors.
Opitius. See OIMTZ.
Opitz, o'pits, [Lat. OPI'TIUS,] (HEINRICII,) a German
Orientalist, born at Altenburg in 1642, was professor of
Greek and of divinity at Kiel. He published, besides
other works, "Bible in Hebrew," (" Biblia Ilebraica,"
1709.) Died in 1712.
See HiiTZKi., "Geschichte der Hebraischen Spraclie."
Opitz, [Lat. On'rius,] (MARTIN,) a celebrated Ger
man critic and writer, born at Bunzlau, in Silesia, in
1597, is called the founder of the modern school of Ger
man poetry.. He was crowned as poet-laureate by the
emperor in 1628, and was appointed in 1638 historiogra
pher to Ladislaus IV., King of Poland. His principal
work is entitled a "Poem of Consolation amid the Dis
asters of War," (1621.) lie also translated the Psalms,
the " Antigone" of Sophocles, and other classics. Died
in 1639. His essay on German versification (" Btichlein
von der Deutschcn Poeterei," loth edition, 1668) was
highly esteemed. He contributed greatly to the purity
of the German language, into which he introduced a
new prosody. "He is reckoned," says Hallain, "the
inventor of a rich and harmonious rhythm. . . . No
great elevation, no energy of genius, will be found in
this German Heinsius and Malherbe. Opitz displayed,
however, another kind of excellence. He wrote the
language with a purity of idiom in which Luther alone,
whom he chose as his model, was superior." (" Intro
duction to the Literature of Europe.")
See GOTTSCHED, " I.ob- und GecUichtnissredf auf M. Opit/.,"
1731': LINDNER, " Nachricht von des weltbertih mien SchlesL-rs .M.
Opitzen," etc., 2 vols., 1740; EKSCH und GRUBEK, " Allgemeiiie
Encyklopaedie."
Opoix, o'pwa', (CiiKisToPHE,) a French savant, born
at Provins in 1745, was a member of the Convention
of 1792-95. He wrote several scientific works. Died
in 1840.
See RAMON, "Notice sur C. Opoix," 1841.
Oporin, o-po-reen' or o'po'raN', [Lat. OPORI'NUS,]
(JoliANN,) a learned Swiss printer, whose original name
was KERBS'!', born at Bale in 1507. He became professor
ot Greek in his native citv, where lie afterwards estab
lished a printing-house, lie published many excellent
editions of the classics, corrected by himself, and wrote
annotations on Cicero and Demosthenes. Died in 1568.
See HEINZKL, " De Ortu, Vita et Obitu Oporini."
Oporinus. See OI*OKIN.
Oppede, d', do'pAd', (JKAN de Maynier — deh ma'-
ne-i',) BARON, a French judge, born at Aix in 1495,
was notorious for his cruel persecution of the Vaudois,
who were massacred, without distinction of age or sex,
about 1546. Died in 1558.
See GAUFFRIDI, '• Histoire de la Provence."
Oppeiiord, op'noK', (GiLi.ES MARIE,) a French archi
tect, born in Paris in 1672; died in 1742.
Oppert, op'peKt, (JULIUS,) a German Orientalist, of
Jewish parentage, was born at Hamburg in 1825. He
studied Arabic, Sanscrit, etc., and was naturalized as a
citizen of France. He was sent by the French govern
ment, with F. Fresnel and F. Thomas, on a scientific
mission to Mesopotamia in 1851, and began in 1857 to
publish an account of the same, entitled "Expedition
scientifique en Mesopotamia." He is distinguished as a
decipherer of cuneiform inscriptions.
Op'pi-an or Op-pl-a'nus, [Gr. 'O-mavoc; Fr. OP-
PIEN, o'peJ^N',] a celebrated Greek poet, born at Ana-
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; not; good; moon;
OPPI4NUS
1707
ORANGE
zarba, in Cilicia, is supposed to have lived in the second
century of the Christian era. Two poems, entitled "On
the Chase," (" Cynegetica,") and "On Fishing," (" Ha-
lieutica,") are ascribed to him. The great superiority
of the latter production to the former has led to the
supposition that they were written by different persons.
The author of the " Halieutica" is compared by Scaliger
to Virgil for the harmony and graces of his style. It is
said that Oppian was presented by the emperor Caracalla
with a gold piece for every verse in his "Halieutica."
Both poems display considerable knowledge of natural
history, mingled with many errors and absurdities.
See the article "Oppiaiuis" in KRSCH and GRUBKR'S " En-
cyklopacdle," by V. KITTKK; FABRICICS, " Bibliotlieca Graeca ;"
FOKRTSCH. " De Opplano Poeta Cilice," 1740; "Nouvelle Bio
graphic ( leneraie. "
Oppiamis. See OPPIAN.
Oppien. See OPPIAN.
Op'pi-us, (C-Mus,) a Roman writer, who was an inti
mate friend of Julius Caesar. It is stated that he was
cogni/ant of all the projects and plans of that dictator,
whose private affairs he managed. He wrote biographies
(which are not extant) of several eminent Romans. The
book of Crcsar's "Commentaries" which treats on the
war in Africa is attributed to Oppius by some critics.
See I)RL-MANN, "Geschichte Roms ;" Vossius, " De Historicis
Latinis ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Ops or O'pis, a Roman goddess of plenty and fertility,
was identified with the Rhea of the Greek mythology,
and was also called TKLI.US. She was supposed to be
the wife of Saturn, and was worshipped as the protec
tress of agriculture. Ofes, the plural of Ops, signifies
" riches, power, help."
Opsopoeus or Obsopous, op-so-po'us, QOIIANN,) a
German physician and scholar, born at Bretten in 1556,
became professor of physiology and botany at Heidel
berg. He published an edition ot the "Sibylline Ora
cles," and of several works of Hippocrates. Died in
1596.
Opsopoeus or Obsopous, (VlNCENZ,) a German
philologist, born in Franconia in the fifteenth century.
He was the author of a Latin poem "On the Art of
Drinking," (" De Arte Bibendi,") and made translations
from Dioclorus and other Greek writers. Died in 1539.
Opstal, van, van op'stal, (GASPAKD JACQUES,) a
Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1660. He painted
religious and mythological subjects. Died about 1724.
Opstraet, op'stRSt, (JAN,) a Flemish ecclesiastic,
born at Beringhen in 1651, was the author of several
religious works, one of which was entitled "The Chris
tian Theologian." Died in 1720.
Optat. See O IT AT us.
Optatianus, op-ta-she-a'nus, [Fr. OITATIEN, op'tf-
sej5>N',] (Puiii.ius PoRi'HYKius,) a degenerate Latin
poet, flourished about 325 A.D. He wrote a Panegyric
on Constantino the Great, the style of which is very bad.
See TILI.KMONT, " Histoire des Emperetirs."
Optatien. See OPTATIANUS.
Op-ta'tus, [Fr. OITAT, op'tS',] a saint of the Romish
calendar, born in Africa about 315. He was Bishop
of Milevia or Melevia, and is favourably mentioned by
Saint Augustine. He wrote a treatise against the Dona-
tists, which is extant. Died after 386 A.D.
See E. DUPIN, "Vie de Saint-Optat," prefixed to his works,
Paris. 1 700.
Opzoomer, op'/o'mer, (CARL WII.LEM,) a distin
guished Dutch jurist and philosopher, born at Rotter
dam in 1821, was the author of a "Commentary on the
Books of Civil Law in Holland," and a treatise "On
Conservatism and Reform," (1852.) He became pro
fessor of philosophy at Utrecht in 1846.
Or'ange, (FREDERIK HKNDKIK van Nassau — vfn
nas'sow,) PRINCK OF, born at Delft in 1584, was the
youngest son of William I. of Orange, sui named "the
Silent." His mother was a daughter of Admiral Co-
ligni. He served in the army under his half-brother,
Maurice of Nassau, and succeeded him as Stadtholder
of the United Provinces in 1625. He prosecuted with
ability the war against the Spaniards, from whom he
took Maestricht in 1632 and Breda in 1637. As a gen
eral, he was prudent and mostly successful. He died in
1647, and was succeeded by his son, William II., who
died in 1650, aged twenty-four. The latter had married
Mary, a daughter of Charles I. of England, and left a
son, who became William III. of England.
See ARNOLD MONTANUS, " Leven en Hedrijf van Frederik Hen-
drik,': 1652: COMMELIN, "Leven van Kred. Hendrik van Nassauw,"
1651-59; ZEKMAN, ''Leven van Fr. Hendrik Prins van Oranje,"
1832; D'AuBEKV, "Memoires."
Orange, (MAURICE,) PRINCF. OF. See NASSAU.
Or'aiige, [Fr. pron. o'i6.Nzh',J (PHILIHERT DE Cha
lons — sha'16-s',) PRINCE OK, a distinguished commander,
born in Burgundy in 1502, was the son of the Baron of
Arlay. He entered the service of Charles V. about 1521,
and fought against the French. When Constable Bourbon
was killed in the assault on Rome, in 1527, he succeeded
to the command of the army, and compelled the pope to
subscribe the conditions which he dictated. He became
Viceroy of Naples in 1528, and was killed at the siege
of Florence, in 1530. His nephew, Rene of Nassau, be
came his heir.
See LA PI*,K. " Histoire d.: la Maison d'Oranse."
Orange, (WILLIAM [PRINCF.] OF,) [Lat. GUILHEI/-
MUS (or GUIUEI/MUS) AURI'ACUS; Fr. GUILLAUME
D'ORANGK, gc'yom' do'rd.Nzh' ; Ger. WILHEI.M VON
ORANIKN, wil'helm fon o-ra'ne-en ; Dutch, WILLEM
VAN ORANJK, wii'lem vtn o-ran'yeh,] called also Wil
liam the Silent, [ Fr. GUILLAUME I.E TACITURN K,
ge'yom' leh ijt'se'tun/,] the illustrious founder of the
Dutch republic, was born at Dillenburg, in Nassau, in
April, 1533. lie was the eldest son of William, Count
of Nassau, and was descended from an ancient sovereign
family, one of whose members, Adolph of Nassau, had
occupied the imperial throne. From his cousin-german
Rene, who died in 1544, he inherited princely estates in
Brabant, Flanders, and Holland, besides the small prin
cipality of Orange, in the southeast of France. He was
educated as a Protestant by his parents; but about the
age of fifteen he became a page of the emperor Charles
V., who quickly discerned his excellent qualities and
admitted him into his secret councils. Charles testified
his confidence in the young prince by appointing him
general-in-chief of the army in 1554, in the absence ot
the Duke of Savoy, and leaned on his shoulder at the
ceremony of his own abdication, in 1555. William, who
was regarded as the greatest Flemish subject of Spain,
was one of the hostages given by Philip If. of Spain to
Henry II. of France in 1559 for the execution of the
treaty of Cateau Cambresis. Henry II., in conversation
with his hostage, (whom he supposed to be a Catholic
and to be privy to the secrets of the Spanish court,) im
prudently revealed to him a plot which those two kings
had formed to massacre all their Protestant subjects.
" William earned," says Motley. " the surname of 'The
Silent,' from the manner in which he received these
communications from Henry without revealing to the
monarch, by word or look, the enormous blunder which
he had committed. His purpose was fixed from that
hour." lie was a Catholic nominally and in outward
observance, but had then no dogmatic zeal, — perhaps
I no interest in questions of theology. Humanity and
j patriotism, however, determined him to counteract the
cruel and tyrannical designs of the court. He acted with
characteristic caution and secrecy in his opposition for
several years, and continued to serve as Stadtholder
of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, and councillor of
state. A mutual but dissembled enmity existed between
him and Philip II. In 1566 a great insurrection was
provoked by the attempt of Philip to establish the In
quisition in all its rigour in the Netherlands. William
refused to take a new oath of unlimited obedience, and
offered to resign all his offices, in 1567. In the same
year the famous Duke of Alva was sent with an army,
and with supreme civil power as governor, to complete
the subjection of the revolted provinces. In this crisis,
Egmont, who had been the friend of the Prince of Orange,
refused to co-operate with him in resistance to the im
pending invasion. By hastily retiring to Nassau, Orange
escaped the doom which had been pronounced on him
at Madrid. In February, 1568, a sentence of the Inqui
sition condemned to death as heretics all the inhabitants
of the Netherlands, with a few exceptions. (Motley.)
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^"See Explanations, p. 23.)
ORBIGNT
1708
OR ELL AN A
Having raised a large army, William entered Brabant in
1568, and offered battle to Alva, who declined to fight.
At the end of the campaign, Orange was forced to dis
band his army for want of money to pay them. In 1572
many cities of Holland raised the standard of Orange,
and the contest was maintained with desperate resolution
through long years of adversity. He founded a famous
republic by the union of the seven Protestant provinces
of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen,
Overyssel, and Guelderland, in 1579, and was chosen
Stadtholder. In 1584 he was assassinated by Balthazar
Gerard, a fanatical Catholic. He left three sons, Philip,
Maurice, (see NASSAU,) and Frederick Henry, the first
of whom was seized by Alva in 1568, sent to Spain as a
hostage, and detained many years in captivity.
"His enemies," says Motley, "never contested the
subtlety and breadth of his intellect, his adroitness and
capacity in conducting state affairs, and the profoundness
of his views. In many respects his surname of ' the
Silent' was a misnomer. William of Orange was neither
' silent' nor ' taciturn ;' — yet these are the epithets which
will be forever associated with the name of a man who
in private was the most affable, cheerful, and delightful
of companions, and who on a thousand public occasions
was to prove himself, both by pen and speech, the most
eloquent man of his age." To William the Silent is
due the honour of being the first among European states
men to make a practical application in government of
the principle of religious toleration.
See MOTLEY, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," passim, (especially
the remarks at the close of the third volume :) GKOTIUS, " Annales ;"
STRADA, "De Hello Helgico ;" HOOFT, " NederlaiuKche Historic :"
DE THOU, " Historia sui Temporis;" BKAUFORT, " Leven van Wil-
lem I., Plins van Oranje," 3 vols , 1732; Kri.fcxK MAIION, "Guil-
lavime le Taciturne," 1852; J. I?. CIIAMPA<;NAC, " Guillaimie le
Taciturne et sa Dynastic," 1851 ; SPANOAW, " I.ofrede op Wiileni
den Ersten," etc., 1821 ; AMELOT UE I.A HOUSSAVE, " Histoire de
Philippe Guillaume de Nassau," etc., 2 vols., 1754; MKURSIUS,
" Gtiillelmus Anriacus," 1621: " Nouvelle Kiosr.iphie Generale;"
R. BURTON, " History of the House of Orange,'' 1693.
Orbigny, d', doR'ben'ye', (AI.CIDK DF.SSAI.INES,) an
eminent French naturalist, bom at Coueron (Loire-In-
ferieure) in 1802. He was sent on a scientific mission
to South America in 1826 by the managers of the Mu
seum of Natural History. He spent eight years in the
exploration of Brazil, Chili, Peru, Bolivia, etc., and pub
lished the results in an important work entitled "Travels
in South America," (9 vols. 410, 1834-47.) In 1853 he
obtained a new chair founded in the Jardin des I'lantes
for the study of organic remains. Among his chief
works is "The Palaeontology of France," (" Paleonto-
logie Frai^aise," 14 vols., 1840-54, with 1430 plates,)
and " Cours elementaire de Paleontologie et de Geologic
stratigraphiques," (3 vols., 1849-52.) Died in 1857.
See DAMOI'R, " Discours aux Funerailles d'A. d'Orbig'ny:"
"Notice an.Vyiique snr les Travaux d'AIcide d'Orbigny," 1856;
"Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Orbigny, d', (CHARLES DESSALINES,) a French geolo
gist, a brother of the preceding, was born at Coueron in
1806. He published a "Universal Dictionary of Natu
ral History," (24 vols., 1839-49,) in which he was aided
by A i ngo, Jussieu, and other savants ; also, several works
on geology.
Or-bil'i-us Pu-pil'lus, a Roman grammarian and
teacher, famed for his severe discipline. He taught
languages at Rome, and numbered among his pupils
the poet Iiorace, who has immortalized him under the
name of " the flogging (plagosum) Oibilius."
See HORACE, " Epistolse ;" SUETONIUS, " De illustribus Gram-
maticis."
Orcagna, oR-kan'ya, (ANDREA DI CIONF.,) an emi
nent Florentine architect, painter, and sculptor, some
times called ORGAGNA, born about 1325. He built the
Loggia di Lanzi at Florence, which was commended by
Michael Angelo as a model of elegance. Among his
master-pieces in painting are the frescos of the "Last
Judgment," and the "Triumph of Death," in the Campo
Santo at Pisa. Died about 1385.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters, Architects," etc. ; QUATRE-
wfcKH OK QUINCY, " Vies des plus illustres Aichitectes ;" BAI.UINUCCI,
" Notizie ;" LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Or'cus, the Roman god of the lower regions, identi
fied with the Pluto or Hades of the Greek mythology.
(See PLUTO.)
Ord, (CRAVEN,) an English antiquary, born in 1756.
He furnished materials to Gough and John Nichols for
their works. Died in 1832.
Ord, (EDWARD O. C.,) an American general, born
in Maryland in 1818, graduated at West Point in 1839.
He became a captain in 1851, and served several years
in California and Oregon. He was appointed a briga
dier-general of volunteers about September, 1861, and
gained a victory at Dranesville, Virginia, December 20
of that year. In May, 1862, he was raised to the rank
of major-general. He served under General Grant at
the siege and capture of Vicksburg, July, 1863, soon
after which he was sent to Louisiana. He obtained
command of the eighteenth corps in July, 1864, and led
the same in a successful operation against Fort Harrison,
near Richmond, in September of that year. He suc
ceeded General Butler as commander of the department
of Virginia and North Carolina in January, 1865. lie
commanded a corps in the final assault on Petersburg,
April 2, 1865, and his command contributed greatly to
the success gained on the 6th of that month near the
Appomattox. He was commander of the fourth military
district, comprising Mississippi and Arkansas, from April,
1867, to December of that year.
Ord, (JoiiN W.,) an English poet and medical writer,
born in 1811. He produced, besides other works,
"England : an Historical Poem." Died in 1853.
Ordaz, ou-ddth', (Don DIEGO,) a Spanish captain
and explorer, served under Cortez in the conquest of
Mexico. He was the first white man that ascended
Popocatepetl. Having been authorized by Charles V.
to conquer the country between Cape Vela and the Bay
of Venezuela, he ascended the river Orinoco one hun
dred and sixty leagues about 1531. Died in 1533.
See PKESCOTT, " Conquest of Mexico;" LAS CASAS, "Historia
de las Indias."
Ordener, oRd'na', (MiciiEL,) a French general, born
at Saint-Avoid (Moselle) in 1755. He obtained the rank
of general of division for his services at Austerlitz, (1805.)
Died in 181 1.
Orderic Vital. See ORDERICUS VITAI.IS.
Or-de-ri'cus Vi-ta'lis, [ Fr. OKDKKIC VITAL, or'deh-
rek' ve'ttl',] one of the most distinguished early English
historians, born near Shrewsbury in 1075, was descended
from a French family. In 1107 he was ordained a priest.
He was the author of "The Ecclesiastical History of
England and Normandy" from the birth of Christ t i
1141, which, according to Guizot, contains more valuabV
information on the history of the eleventh and twelfth
centuries than any other single work. Died about 1141.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Ordinaire, or'de'naR', (CLAUDE NICOLAS,) a Freiu h
naturalist, born at Salins in 1736, published a " Natural
History of Volcanoes," (1802,) which is commended.
Died in 1808.
Oreades. See OREADS.
O're-ads, [Gr. 'Opstufcf; Lat. ORF/ADKS ; Fr. ORE
ADES, o'ra'a'd',] mountain-nymphs of classic mythology,
derived their name from the Greek o/jof, a "mountain."
They attended Diana in hunting-excursions.
Oregio, o-ra'jo, [Lat. ORE'GIUS,] (AGOSTINO,) a
learned Italian cardinal and theologian, born at Santa
Sofia, in Tuscany, in 1577. He was the author of
treatises "On the Trinity" and "On the Work of Six
Days." Died in 1635.
See OI.DOINI, " Vita; Pontificum et Cardinal! urn."
Oregius. See OK KG to.
O'Reilly, o-ii'le, (ALEXANDER,) a Spanish general, of
Irish descent, born near Chinchilla in 1725. He fought
for the French at Minden (1750) and Corbach, (1760.)
soon after which he returned to the Spanish service. 1 le
took possession of Louisiana in 1768, and afterwards
commanded an expedition against Algiers. Died in 1794.
See RoUKGOis'G, "Tableau de 1'Espagne morlerne."
O'Reilly, o-rl'le, (.\NDRE\V,) a general, born in Ire
land in 1740. He entered the Austrian service, and
fought against the French in many campaigns. lie
commanded a corps at Austerlitz, (1805.) Died in 1832.
Orellana, o-rel-ya'nS. (FRANCISCO.) a celebrated navi
gator, born at Truxillo. in Spain, in the sixteenth century.
a, e,T, 6, \\,y,long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n6t; good: moon;
ORELLI
1709
ORIENTIUS
In 1531 he set sail with the brothers Pizarro for Peru.
Having heard from the natives of a country in the east
producing gold, silver, and spices, he set out in 1540, in
company with Gonsalez Pizarro, on an exploring expe
dition. 'After following the course of the Napo, a branch
of the Maranon, for about two hundred leagues, their
provisions failed, and Orellana was directed to proceed
down the river, obtain supplies, and return immediately.
Instead of this, he continued his course along the main
stream, though suffering severely from famine and from
the attacks of the Indians. In August, 1541, he reached
the mouth of the Maranon, to which he gave the name
of Amazon, from the warlike women whom he states he
encountered on its shores. On his return to Spain he
obtained from Charles V. letters patent for colonizing
the country he had discovered ; but soon after reaching
the Amazon, in 1549, he was attacked with fever, and
died in 1550.
See A. vox HUMBOLDT, "Voyages aux Regions equitinxia'es du
uouveau Continent."
Orelli, o-rel'lee, (JOHANN CASPAR,) a distinguished
Swiss critic and scholar, born at Zurich in 1767. In
1819 he became professor of eloquence and hermeneutics
in his native city. He published excellent editions of
Cicero, (8 vols., 1826-37,) Horace, (2 vols., 1844,)
Tacitus, (2 vols., 1846-48,) and other Roman classics.
In conjunction with Baiter, he published an edition of .
Plato, (4 vols., 1839-41.) His " Onomasticon Tulli-
anum," (3 vols., 1837,) containing a life of Cicero, a !
lexicon of proper names, several indexes, etc., is a work j
of great value for the history of the period in which |
Cicero lived. Died in 1849.
See " Lebensabviss von J. C. von Orelli," Zurich, 1851; " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Oresme, o'rim', (XicoLAS,) a learned French prelate,
was a native of Normandy. He was appointed suc
cessively grand master of the College of Navarre, and j
Bishop of Lisieux, (1377.) He translated the " Kthics"
and " Politics" of Aristotle into French, and published
several scientific treatises. Died in 1382.
Oreste. See ORF.STKS.
O-res'tes, [Gr. 'Opearrif ; Fr. ORESTK, o're'st',] a son
of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, was an intimate friend
of Pylades. The poets relate that he avenged the death
of his father by killing his own mother and /Egisthus ;
that after this act he became insane, and was tormented
by the Furies; that he consulted the oracle of Delphi,
and was told that he might be relieved if he would
go to Tauris and bring away the image of Diana ; that
he and Pylades went to Tauris, where they were taken
captives, and would have been sacrificed, but they were
saved by Iphigenia, who was a sister of Orestes and
was the priestess of Diana at Tauris. With her aid,
he succeeded in his enterprise, and afterwards became
King of Mycenae.
See EfRiPiDKS, "Orestes;" SOPHOCLES, " Electra ;" j*Escim.us,
" Eimienicles."
Orestes, [Fr. ORF.STE, o'rest',] a Roman commander,
who became secretary to Attila, King of the Huns, about
446. Having deposed the emperor Julius Nepos, (475
A.I).,) he assumed the chief power, as Regent of Italy, in
the name of his infant son, Romulus Augustulus. Being
besieged soon after in Pavia by Odoacer, he was made
prisoner and put to death in August, 476 A.D.
See GIBBON', " Decline and Fall of the Roman Emrire."
Orfanel, oR-fS-ncl', (J.\ci.\TO,) a Spanish missionary,
born at Jana in 1578. He laboured in Japan about
fifteen years, and wrote an account of the progress of
Christianity in that country, (1633.) He was put to
death by the Japanese in 1622.
Orfeo. See ORPHEUS.
Orffyre, oit'fe'ra', or Orffyreus, ORf-fe-ra'us, (Jo-
HANN ERNST ELI AS,) a German mechanician, born at
Zittau in 1680. His proper name was BESSLER. Died
in I74v
Orfila, or'fe-la, [Fr. pron. ou'te'la',] (MATH I KIT Jo-
SLTH BONAVENTURE,) an eminent physician and chem
ist, born at Mahon, in the island of Minorca, in 1787.
Having been made a French citizen in 1818, he was ap
pointed professor of medical jurisprudence and toxicology
in the Faculty of Medicine in Paris in 1819. In 1823 he
obtained the chair of chemistry in the same institution,
which he continued to occupy for thirty years. He was
created successively by Louis Philippe grand officer «.l
the legion of honour, dean of the Medical Faculty, and
member of the Council of Hospitals. Among his mo>t
important works are his "Treatise on Poisons, or
General Toxicology,'' (1813; 4th edition, 2 vols., 1843,)
" Elements of Chemistry applied to Medicine and the
Arts," (2 vols., 1817-43,) "Treatise on Juridical Exhu
mations," (2 vols., 1830,) and "Treatise on Medical
Jurisprudence," (4 vols., 1847.) Orfila was an accom
plished and popular lecturer, and enjoyed the highest
reputation as a writer on toxicology and' legal medicine.
He died in 1853, leaving large sums to the Academy of
Medicine and the School of Pharmacy, for the promo
tion of science. He was the principal founder of the
anatomical museum in Paris called the Musee Orfila.
See MEMERE, " Necrologie : M. Orfila," 1853; SAOIAH.E, " Les
Medecins de Paris ;" " Nouvelle Biopraphie Geueiale ;" "Monthly
Review," vol. Lxxxv., i8iS, (Appendix.)
Orford, EARL OF. See RITSSELT., (EDWARD.
Orford, EARL OF. See WALPOLE, (ROBERT,) and
WAI. POLE, (HORACE.)
Or-get'o-rix, a rich and powerful chief of the Hel vetii,
whose intrigues are recorded in Caesar's " Commenta
ries," book i. He aspired to the sovereign power, and
persuaded the Helvetii to emigrate to Gaul. A judicial
process was instituted against him for his ambitious
projects; but before the decision he died, — as was sup
posed, by his own hand, — about 62 H.C.
Oriani, o-re-a'nee, (BARNABA,) an eminent Italian
astronomer, born near Milan in 1752. Having visited
London in 1786, he made the acquaintance of Herschel,
with whom he afterwards maintained a regular corre
spondence. On his return, he assisted Reggio and De
Cesaris in meastirint; an arc of the meridian and exe
cuting the triangulation for a new map of Italy. When
the astronomer Piazzi, in 1801, discovered Ceres, which
he mistook for a comet, Oriani, by calculating its orbit,
recognized it as a planet ; and lie was the first to deter
mine the orbit of Uranus. After Napoleon was crowned
at Milan, he created Oriani a count, and senator of the
kingdom of Italy, and one of the first members of the
Italian Institute. Among his principal works are "Tables
of Uranus," (1785,) "Theory of the Planet Mercury,''
(1798,) and " Spherical Trigonometry," (1806.) The last-
named is esteemed one of the most admirable treatises
of the kind. Oriani was a member of the Institute of
France and the Royal Society of London. Died in 1832.
See A. GABBA, " E'.op'o di Oriani," 1834; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Oribase. See OKIBASIU-S.
Oribasius, or-e-ba'she^-us, [Fr. ORTTIASR, o're'bfz',] a
celebrated physician, was a native of Sardis, in Lydia,
or of Pergamus. He enjoyed the friendship of the em
peror Julian, who made him his physician and in 36r
A.D. appointed him quaestor of Constantinople. On the
death of Julian, (363.) Oribasius was banished by Valen-
tinian and Valens, but was recalled about 370 on account
of his medical skill. Of his principal work, entitled
"Medicinalia Collecta," (in seventy books,) less than half
is extant. It was written at the request of the emperor,
and, though principally a compilation from Galen and
other physicians, contains some important original mat
ter. It is also highly valued for its explanations of many
passages in Galen's writings, and for the extracts it con
tains ifrom works not extant. Oribasius was the first who
described the salivary glands ; he also advanced new ideas
on dietetics and gymnastics. Died about 400 A.D.
See KKEIND, "History of Physics;" HALI.EK, " Bibliotheca
Medica ;" FABKICIUS, " Kibliotheca Grseca;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Gene'raie."
Oricellarius. See RUCELLAI.
Orichovius. See ORZECHOWSKI.
O'ri-ent. [Lat. ORIEN'TIUS,] SAINT, a Latin poet, who
became Bishop of Auch (Augusta) about 410 A.D. He
wrote a Latin poem, entitled " Commonitorium," which
has been printed. Died in 439 A.D.
Oriente, do, do o-re-en'ta, (FERNAO ALVAREZ,) a
Portuguese poet, born in Goa about 155°-
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Orientius. See ORIENT.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, n, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJjJ^See Explanations, p. 23.)
ORIGEN
1710
ORLEANS
Or'i-gen, [Gr. 'QptyeviK ,' I-at. ORIG'ENES; Fr. ORI
GENE, o're'zhin',] one of the most remarkable, eloquent,
and influential of the early Christian writers styled the
Fathers, was born in Egypt about 186 A.D. He was the
son of Leonides, a Christian martyr of Alexandria, and
bore the additional name of ADAMANTIUS. lie was a
pupil of Clement of Alexandria, and became versed in
grammar, rhetoric, logic, geometry, music, and philoso
phy. At the age of eighteen he was appointed by Bishop
Demetrius to the office of catechist, the duties of which
he performed with zeal and self-denial. He became
very ascetic in his course of life, and mortified himself
by a form of self-mutilation which he supposed to be
recommended in Matthew xix. 12. Having learned the
1 fcbrew language, he devoted himself to biblical studies.
While passing through Palestine on a journey, about
228 or 230, he was ordained a presbyter at Caesarea.
This is said to have aroused the jealousy of Deme
trius, Bishop of Alexandria, who excommunicated him
and induced the Bishop of Rome and of other churches
to concur in this sentence. In 231 Origen removed to
Caesarea, where he acquired a high reputation as a
preacher and commentator on Scripture.
That he might be better qualified to make proselytes,
he studied the Greek philosophy, of which he adopted
the more noble and beautiful dogmas, and attempted to
harmonize Platonism with Christianity. He made an
innovation (which many think dangerous) in the mode
of interpreting Scripture. His desire to find a mystical
sense led him frequently into a neglect of the historical
sense. In 235 he sought refuge from persecution in
Cappadocia. He compiled about this time a valuable
edition of the Old Testament, entitled " Hexapla," which
exhibits in six columns the Hebrew text and various
Greek versions. Fragments of the " Hexapla" have been
preserved in the writings of the Fathers. He afterwards
wrote an able defence of Christianity against Celsus,
an Epicurean philosopher, which is still extant. Decius
having renewed the persecution of the Christians in 250
A.D., Origen was imprisoned and subjected to torture,
but survived, and was released a short time before his
death, which occurred at Tyre in 253. The greater part
of his numerous works are lost. His opinions gave
rise to a great controversy long after his death. He held
the doctrine of the universal restoration of sinners, and
was charged with teaching the heretical notions which,
after his time, prevailed under the name of Arianism.
His defenders affirmed that the passages on which this
charge was founded had been interpolated in his works.
About the end of the fifth century, Origenism prevailed
in Egypt and Syria ; but it was condemned by the Council
of Constantinople, in 553 A.D.
iSai-46; RINGBERG, " Vita Origenis Adamantii," 1792 ; KARSTEN,
"Dissertatio de Origene," 1824; G. THOMASIUS, " Origenes Beitrag
iturDogmengeschichte," etc., 1837 ; FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;"
DR. HOEFKR, article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" " Lon
don Quarterly Review" for July, 1851. ja*y?*,.J3>'ct'-r>t • «.sv nitU*
Origen, a Platonic philosopher, was a disciple and
friend of Porphyry, and predecessor of Plotinus in the
chair of philosophy. He lived in the first half of the
third century.
Origene. See ORIGEN.
Oiigsnes. See ORIGEN.
Origny, d', clo'ren'ye', (ABRAHAM JEAN BAPTISTE
ANTOINE,) a French writer, born at Rheims in 1734.
He published " Dictionnaire des Origines," (6 vols.,
1776-78.) Died in 1798.
Origny, d', (PIERRE ADAM,) a French historian and
antiquary, born at Rheims in 1697. His principal works
are entitled "Ancient Egypt" and "Chronology of the
Kings of the Egyptian Empire." Died in 1774.
O-ii'on, [Gr. 'Qpiuv ; It. ORIONE, o-re-o'na,] a cele
brated giant and hunter of classic mythology, was a son
of Hyrieus. He loved Merope, a daughter of CEnopion,
and once, when intoxicated, offered violence to her. Her
father resented this act by depriving him of his eyes.
He was befriended by Vulcan, was guided by Cedalion
to the Sun-God, and recovered his sight. He was killed
by Diana, whose motive is variously represented, and
was placed among the stars. According to one legend,
Diana loved him, and wished to marry him, against the
will of Apollo, who one day questioned her ability to
hit a distant object on the sea. She discharged a shaft
and pierced the mark, which proved to be the head of
Orion, who was swimming or wading in the sea.
Orion, a Greek grammarian of Thebes, in Egypt,
lived about 450 A.D. He composed a " Lexicon Etyino-
logicum," which was published by Sturz in 1820.
Orlaiidi, or-lan'dee, (PELLEGRINO ANTONIO,) an Ital
ian litterateur, born at Bologna in 1660. He published
a "Dictionary of Artists," (1704,) and a "History of
Bolognese Writers," (1714.) I)icd in 1727.
Orlandin. See ORLANDINI.
Orlaiidini, oa-lan-dee'nee, or Orlandin, oR-lan-
deen', (Niccoi.6,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, born at
Florence in 1554. He wrote a Life of Loyola, entitled
" Historia Societatis Jesu Pars I., sive Ignatius," (1615.)
Died at Rome in 1606.
Orlando di Lasso. See LASSO, in.
Orlaiidus Lassus. See LASSO, in.
Orlay, van, (BERNARD.) See OK LEY.
Orleans, (CHARLES,) DUKE OF. See CHARLES D'OR
LEANS.
Or'le-aiis, DUKE OF, [Fr. Due D'ORLEANS, diik
doR'li'dN',] (FERDINAND PHILIPPE Louis CHARLES
HENRI,) a French prince-royal, born at Palermo in
1810, was the eldest son of King Louis Philippe. He
was educated at the College Henri IV., and in 1832
received a medal for his services to patients who had
the cholera in the hospital. In 1837 he married Helena
of Mecklenburg. He served with the rank of general in
Algeria in several campaigns between 1835 and 1840. lie
was thrown from his carriage and killed, near Neuilly, in
July, 1842. He left two sons, the Count of Paris and the
Due de Chartres.
See ADRIEN PASCAL, "Vie militaire, pohtique et privee du Due
d'Orleans," 1842 ; JULES JANIN, " Le Prince royal," 1842 ; LINDAI.L,
" Biographic du Due d'Orleans," 1^42; J. MKNDELSSOHN, " Ferdi
nand Philipp Her?
von Orleans, 1842; "Nouvelle Biographic
Orleans, MAID OF. See JOAN OF ARC.
Orleans, d', (GASTON JEAN BAPTISTE DE FRANCE,)
Due, a younger son of Henry IV. and Marie de Medicis,
was born at Fontaineblean in 1608. lie was created
Due d'Orleans in 1626, and married Mademoiselle de
Montpensier. In 1630 he was appointed lieutenant-
general of the kingdom. lie quarrelled with Richelieu,
by whom, according to Voltaire, he was persecuted. In
1632 he raised an army against the king, Louis XIII.,
and was supported by the Duke of Montmorency. The
latter having been defeated in battle, Gaston made peace
with the court, and was pardoned ; but, when he learned
that Montmorency was punished with death, he left
France in anger. In 1642 he engaged in a conspiracy
with Cinq-Mars and others against Richelieu, who
detected the plot and induced Gaston to betray his
accomplices or give evidence against them. At the
death of Louis XIII., (1643,) Gaston was appointed
lieutenant-general, and he commanded in several cam
paigns against the Spaniards. He took Gravelines in
1644, and Courtrai in 1646. In the civil war of the
Fronde (1648-52) he displayed his usual inconstancy,
and supported both sides by turns. He died, without
male issue, in 1660.
See RETZ, "Memoires;" RICHELIEU, "Memoires."
Orleans, d',( 1 1 EI.ENE LOUISE ELISABETH,) DUCHESSE,
born at Ludwigslust in 1814, was a daughter of Frederick
Lewis, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. She
married the prince-royal of France in 1837. After the
abdication of Louis Philippe, February, 1848, she pre
sented herself, with her minor son, the Count of Paris,
before the Chamber of Deputies, and made an unsuccess
ful effort to obtain the regency. She died at Richmond,
in England, in 1858.
See "La Vie de la Duchesse d'Orleans," (anonymous,) Paris
1858.
Orleans, d', (Louis.) See D'ORLEANS.
Orleans, d', (Louis,) Due, the second son of Charles
V. of France, and the head of the first house of Orleans,
was born in 1371. He married Valentina Visconti, a
daughter of the Duke of Milan. After his brother,
5, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fall, f&t; mSt; not; good; moon;
ORLEANS
1711
ORLOF
Charles VI., was rendered by insanity incapable of reign
ing, the kingdom was divided into two factions, of which
the Duke of Orleans and the Duke of Burgundy were
the rival chiefs. In 1407 the former was assassinated in
Paris by Jean Sans Peur, Duke of Burgundy. A civil
war followed between the Burgundians and Armagnacs,
the latter of whom were partisans of the house of Orleans.
Louis of Orleans left two sons, Charles and Jean. (See
CHARLES D'ORLEANS, and DUNOIS.) Louis, third Duke
of Orleans, the son of Charles just named, became king,
as Louis XII.
See ANSELME, " Histoire genealogique de la Maison de France
mix Dues d'Orleans."
Orleans, d', (Louis,) Due, a son of Philippe, (1674-
172^.) noticed below, was born in 1703, and was noted
fur his Christian virtues. He retired to a monastery in
1742, devoted much time to literature, and died in 1752,
leaving his title to his son, noticed in the next article.
Orleans, d', (Louis PHILIPPE,) Due, a grandson of
the regent d'Orleans, and son of the preceding, was
born in Paris in 1725. He was the grandfather of Louis
Philippe, King of the French. He served with distinc
tion at Dcttingen in 1743, was made lieutenant-general
in 1744, and fought at Fontenoy and at Hastenbcck in
I7S7- He died in 1785, leaving a son, Louis Philippe
Joseph, surnamed Egalite.
Orleans, d', (Louis PHILIPPE JOSEPH,) Due, sur-
named COALITE, born at Saint-Cloud in 1747, was the
son of the preceding, and was the first prince of the
blood. He was styled the Due de Charlies during the
life of his father, and married the daughter of the Due
de Penthievre. His fortune was immense. He courted
popularity with success, and became alienated from the
royal family, who appear to have treated him ill. He
signali/ed his courage in a sea-fight against the English
near Ushant in 1778. His Palais Royal in Paris became
the focus of the ideas which caused the Revolution, and
he came to be regarded as the chief of the popular party.
In 1789 he was elected to the States-General, and, with
the minority of the noblesse, joined the Tiers Etat. The
insurgents of July assumed the colours of his livery, —
red, white, and blue. Some historians affirm that he
instigated the attacks on the royal palace, and aspired
to the throne. Lamartine defends him from this charge,
but admits that he remains an enigma to posterity.
"Through lack of audacity or of ambition," says he,
'• the Duke of Orleans never took the attitude of the role
that opinion assigned to him. He respected or he de
spised the throne. Either of these sentiments exalts him
in the eyes of history." His popularity declined. Wish
ing to be reconciled to the king, he went to court in 1791,
but was insulted by the courtiers. He then allied him
self with Danton for the subversion of the monarchy,
renounced his title, assumed the name of EGALITE, and
voted for the death of the king. By order of the Con
vention, he was imprisoned at Marseilles in April, 1793,
and in November of that year he was executed at Paris
by the Jacobins, apparently without any just grounds.
His son, Louis Philippe, became King of the French.
See A. DrcoiN, "Etudes revolutionnaires : Philippe d'Orleans
tfealite," 1845; F. BACKHAUS, " Lndwig Philipp Joseph Orleans,"
etc., 1^43 ; W. COOKE TAYLOR, " Memoirs of the House of Orleans,"
iS49 ; THIERS, " History of the French Revolution."
Orleans, d', (MARIE.) See MARIE D'ORLEANS.
Orleans, d', ( PHILIPPE,) Due, the founder of the
present house of Orleans, was born in 1640. He was
the only brother of Louis XIV., and a nephew of Gas-
ton, Duke of Orleans, whose title he received in 1660.
He married Henrietta, daughter of Charles I. of Eng
land, in 1661. In 1672 he joined the army, and distin
guished himself in several campaigns against the Dutch.
He defeated the Prince of Orange (afterwards William
III.) at the battle of Cassel, in 1677. His daughter
Marie Louise became the queen of Charles II. of Spain.
He died in 1701, leaving his title to his son, Philippe,
Regent of France.
See SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires;" VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis
XIV ;" \V. COOKE TAYLOR, " Memoirs of the House of Orleans,"
3 vols., 1849.
Orleans, d', (PHILIPPE,) Due, Regent of France, a
son of the preceding, was born at Saint-Cloud in 1674.
He received at his birth the title of Due de Chartres.
He was endowed with superior talents, and made much
progress in learning; but his heart was corrupted by his
tutor, the Abbe Dubois. He entered the army at the
age of seventeen, and displayed courage and skill at
Steenkerke and Neerwinden. In 1706 he was appointed
commander of the army of Italy, and was defeated at
Turin by Prince Eugene. He had better success in
Spain in 1707 and 1708. At the death of Louis XIV.,
in 1715, the Duke of Orleans became regent, with nearly
absolute power, and in many respects reversed the policy
of the government. His regency, though less despotic
than the reign of Louis XIV., was a period of great
profligacy in politics and morals. (See Louis XV.)
The regent himself set the example of ineligion and
licentiousness. He died in December 1723.
See L. B. NEEI., "Histoire de Louis, Due d'Orleans," 1753;
SAINT-SIMON, " Memoires ;" LA MOTTE, " Vie du Due d'Orleans,"
1737: MAKMONTKL, " Histoire de la Regence," 1805; CAPEFIGUE,
"Histoire de Philippe d'Orleans, Regent de France," 2 vols., 1838;
LEMONTEY, "Histoire de la Regence," 2 vols., 1832; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generate. "
Orleans, d', (PIERRE JOSEPH.) See DORLEANS.
Orley or Crlay, van, vSn oii'll, (BERNARD,) also
called BARENT OF BRUSSELS, an eminent Flemish painter,
born in 1490. He studied at Rome under Raphael, in
several of whose works he had a part. On his return to
Brussels he was employed by Charles V. to execute a
number of models for tapestry, which were chiefly
hunting-scenes and landscapes of remarkable beauty.
Among his best historical pieces are a "Holy Family,"
a "Last Judgment," and "The Saviour Lamented by
his Friends." Died about 1560.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; MICHIELS,
"Histoire de la Peinture Flamande," 1845; WHYEKMAN, "De
Schi'.derkonst der Nederlanders. "
Orley or Orlay, van, (RICHARD,) a Flemish painter,
born at Brussels in 1652, was also an engraver. His
design is said to be correct. Died at Brussels in 1732.
His brother JAN, born about 1656, was a historical
painter and engraver.
Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, oR-lof/, (A LEXIS,) COUNT, a
Russian admiral, born about 1736. He was remarkable
for his large stature, personal strength, and audacity.
In 1762 he was an accomplice in the conspiracy which
made Catherine autocrat of Russia in place of her hus
band, Peter III., whom he strangled with his own hands.
He became an admiral, though he had not served in the
marine, and commanded a naval expedition sent against
the Turks, who were defeated by the Russians at Chesme
in 1770. It is said that he ordered a Russian frigate to
be blown up in 1772, merely to furnish a model to the
painter, Hackert, whom he employed to paint the battle
of Chesme. He died in 1808.
Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (ALEXIS,) COUNT, a famous
Russian diplomatist and general, born in 1787, was a
son of Feodor, noticed below. He entered the army
in his youth, and served as adjutant to the grand duke
Constantine in the war against Bonaparte. In 1825 he
commanded a regiment of guards in the capital, and
gained the favour of the Czar Nicholas by his zeal and
efficiency in suppressing a great revolt of the troops.
He was created a count, and received a high command
in the army. In 1829 he negotiated the treaty of Adri-
anople, and was sent as ambassador to the Ottoman
Porte. He was appointed commander of the army sent
in 1833 to aid the Sultan against the Viceroy of Egypt,
and negotiated the treaty of Unkiar-Skelesi. He was
the intimate companion of Nicholas in his journey to
England, Italy, and other countries. In 1856 he was
the representative of Russia at the Congress of Paris,
and signed a treaty of peace with France and England.
He became in 1856 president of the Grand Council of
the empire and ministry, — the highest functionary of
Russia. Died in May, 1861. He left one son.
Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (FF.ODOR,) a Russian officer,
born in 1741, was a brother of Alexis first above no
ticed, and father of the preceding. He distinguished
himself in the war against the Turks, from whom he
took Navarino in 1770, and afterwards rose to the rank
of general -in -chief. Died in 1796.
Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (GREGORY,) a Russian cour
tier and general, born about 1734, was a brother of
•C %S k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
ORLOF
ORMUZD
Alexis first above noticed. He served in the Seven
Years' war, (1755-62,) and was one of the principal
actors in the revolution which raised Catherine II. to
the throne in July, 1762. About that time he became
the favourite paramour of Catherine, and was appointed
grand master of the artillery. It is stated that she pro
posed a secret marriage with him, but his ambition to
reign with her as her acknowledged consort induced him
to decline the offer. She was offended by this refusal,
and supplied his place by a new favourite about 1772.
Died in 1783.
See FRKUDENREICH, "Die Familie Orloff als Mbrder der Rus-
gischen Kaiser," 18.52.
Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (GREGORY,) COUNT, born
in 1777, was a nephew of Alexis first above noticed. He
lived many years in Paris and Italy. He published, in
French, "Travels in Part of France," (1824,) and "Me
moirs, Historical, Political, and Literary, of the Kingdom
of Naples." Died in 1826.
Orlof, (MiciiAF.r.,) born in 1785, was a son of Feodor,
noticed above. He served in several campaigns against
Bonaparte, and in 1814 was one of the allied generals
who received the capitulation of Paris. Having taken
part in the secret associations formed in the Russian
army in the latter part of Alexander's reign, he was dis
graced in 1825, and passed the rest of his life in a private
station. Died in 1841.
Orlofski, Orlovski, or Orlowski, oR-lof'skee,
(BORIS IVANOVITCH,) a Russian sculptor, born in 1793,
was sent by the government in 1822 to Italy, where he
studied under Thorwaldsen. Among his master-pieces
are a statue of " Paris with the Apple," (of Discord,)
and a colossal bust of the emperor Alexander I. Died
in 1837.
Orlov. See ORLOF.
Orlow. See ORI.OF.
Orrne, onn, (ROBERT,) a distinguished historian, of
English extraction, born in 1728 at Anjengo, in Hin-
dostan. He was appointed in 1754 a member of the
Council at Fort Saint George, and was afterwards made
a commissary and accountant-general. In this capacity
he contributed greatly to establish British power in
India, and on his recommendation the celebrated Clive
obtained the military command in that country. He
became historiographer to the East India Company, and
in 1778 published his " History of the Military Trans
actions of the British in Hindostan." He also wrote
" Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire of the
Mahrattas," (1782.) Died in 1801.
See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1807.
Orrne, orm, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish minister and biog
rapher, born at Falkirk about 1787. He published a
"Life of John Owen, D.D.," (1820,) " Bibliotheca Bib-
lica," a select list of books on sacred literature, etc.,
(1824,) which is highly esteemed, and a "Life of Richard
Baxter," (1830.) Died in 1830.
Ormea, d', doR-ma'a, (CARLO FRANCESCO VINCENZO
Ferrero — fer-ra/ro,) MARQUIS, an Italian statesman,
born at Mondovi. He was the chief minister of Charles
Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, from 1730 until his death.
Died in 1745.
See VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XV."
Ormesson, d', don'mi'soN', (HENRI FRANC.OIS DE
PAULE LE FEVRE,) a French financier, bom in 1751.
He was appointed controller-general of the finances in
1783, and removed a few months later. He was very
incompetent for that office. Died in 1807.
Ormesson, d', (Louis FRANC.OIS DE PAULE LE
FEVRE,) a French judge, born in 1718, was a son of the
preceding, and a nephew of Chancellor d'Aguesseau.
He became first president of the Parliament of Paris
in 1788. Died in 1789.
Or'moud, (JAMES BUTLER,) first DUKF. OF, an
eminent statesman, bom of an ancient Irish family in
London in 1610, was the eldest son of Thomas Butler,
Viscount Thurles. On the death of his grandfather,
in 1632, he succeeded him as Earl of Ormond. The
next year he went to Ireland, and became the friend and
confidential adviser of the Earl of Strafford. In 1641 he
was appointed commander-iii-chief of the army designed
to suppress the Irish rebellion. He showed himself an
able general, and defeated the rebels at Kilrush and
Ross. He adhered constantly to the king during the
civil war, and in 1644 was appointed lord lieutenant of
Ireland, then a prey to fierce factions. He was com
pelled to surrender Dublin to the English Parliament in
1647, and retired to France.
Ormond was a favoured companion and adviser of
Charles II. in his exile, and soon after his restoration
he w;is created Duke of Ormond. In 1662 he was again
chosen lord lieutenant of Ireland, which he governed
with wisdom until 1668. In 1670 he was seized in Lon
don by a ruffian named Blood, who bound him and
designed to hang him at Tyburn ; but the duke was
rescued by his servants. He died in 1688. He had a
son who was Earl of Ossory, and a daughter who was
married to the Earl of Chesterfield. "His claims on
the royal gratitude," says Macaulay, " were superior
to those of any other subject."
See THOMAS CARTE, " History of the Life of James, Duke of
Ormond," 3 vols., 17 36: HUME, " History of England ;" CLAREN
DON, " History of llie Rebellion."
Ormond, (JAMES BUTLER,) second DUKE OF, born
in Dublin in 1665, was a grandson of the preceding, and
a son of the Earl of Ossory. He succeeded to the duke
dom in 1688, and in the same year joined the standard
of the Prince of Orange, who afterwards treated him
with favour and confidence. He commanded the Life
Guards at the battle of the Boyne, (1690,) and fought
several ensuing campaigns in Flanders. From 1703
to 1706 he was Viceroy of Ireland, and in 1712 was
appointed commander-in-chief of the British army in
place of Marlborough. In compliance with secret orders
from the ministry, he declined to co-operate with the
allies against the French iu Flanders. For this offence
he was impeached by the Whigs in 1715, and, having
escaped to France, was attainted. He then became a
partisan of the Pretender, and obtained command of an
armament which Spain sent against England, and which
was dispersed by a storm. He died in exile in 1745.
Ormuzd, or'miizdor or'moozd, [Gr. 'QfMfuiadr]^ ; Lat.
OROMAS'DKS, the AHURA-MAX.DA of the Zend-Avesta,]
written also Ormusd and Hormuzd, in the religion
of the ancient Persians, the principle of light, purity,
truth, and goodness, as opposed to Ahriman, (ah're-
man',) [in Latin, Arima'nes or Arima'nius,] the prin
ciple of evil and darkness. Ormuzd was considered to
be the creator of whatever was good or beautiful in
the universe. He not only created the world of light,
including the firmament and all the heavenly luminaries,
but also various orders of celestial or angelic beings,
among which were the Amshaspands, presiding over
the various kingdoms of the universe : one, for ex
ample, is the king of light, another the spirit of fire and
of life ; after these are the king of metals, the king of
the seasons, and, lastly, the creator and protector of
trees, flocks, and herds. Among the Amshaspands is
reckoned also Sapandomad, the daughter of Ormuzd,
and the mother of the human race. The next order
of beings are the Izeds, who have charge of particular
portions of nature. Some of these are male and some
female. Of the Izeds, the most worthy of mention is
Mithra or Mithras, the god of day, who presides over
the light which mortals enjoy on earth. He is often
identified with the sun ; but he is more properly regarded
as a being distinct and separate from the latter. Below
the Izeds are the Fervers, who may be regarded as the
original patterns or prototypes of all inferior beings.
They are emanations from the essence of Ormuzd. Ac
cording to Zoroaster, an incomprehensible being named
Zeruane- (or Zervane-) Akerene (or "time without
bounds") created both Ormuzd and Ahriman. The latter
was originally pure, but, becoming envious of Ormuzd,
he created orders of evil beings (Devs, or demons) cor
responding to the celestial orders of Ormuzd. And in
every part of the universe, even to the minutest particle
of matter, the principle of Evil opposes the principle of
Good. But after a certain period the power of Ahriman
will be utterly overthrown, and all evil will come to an
end. Some say Ahriman will be destroyed; others, that
he will continue to exist, without the power to do evil.
See GUIGNIAUT, " Religions de I'Antiquite," vol. i. book ii.
la, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
ORNANO
'713
ORSINI
Ornano, d', doR-na'no, called SAMPIERRO, (sam-pe-
£r'ro,) a general, born in Italy in 1497, entered the
French army in 1533. In 1^53 he defeated the Genoese
in Corsica, which was annexed to France in 1557. Henry
II. having restored it to the Genoese about 1560, D'Or-
nano invaded that island in 1564 and conquered part of
it. He was assassinated in 1567.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Ornano, d', (ALPHONSF.,) a son of the preceding, was
born in 1548. He fought against the Huguenots in the
civil wars of France, and afterwards rendered military
services to Henry IV., who raised him to the rank of
marshal of France. Died in r6io. His son, JEAN BAP-
TISTK. born in 1583, became a marshal of France. He
was imprisoned by Richelieu, and died in prison in 1626.
See DE THOU, "Memoire?."
Ornano, d', (PHILIPPE ANTOINF.,) COUNT, a French
general, born at Ajaccio in 1784. His mother was Isa-
belle Bonaparte. He obtained the rank of colonel for
his conduct at Jena, (1806,) and became a general of
brigade in 1811. As a general of division, he distin
guished himself at the battle of Borodino, (1812,) and
commanded the cavalry of the guard at Dresden, Baut
zen, and Leipsic, in 1813. He obtained the dignity of
senator in 1852, and became a marshal of France in 1861. |
Died in 1863.
See " Nouveile Biographic Generale."
Orobio, o-n/be-o, (BAI.TASAK,) a learned Spanish
few, was professor of philosophy at Salamanca. He
was the author of a work entitled "Certamen Philo-
sophicum," being a refutation of the doctrines of Spi
noza. Died in 1687.
O-ro'des I., King of Parthia, a son of Phraates III.,
began to reign about 56 B.C. He is also styled ARSACES
XIV. His dominions were invaded by the Roman gen
eral Crassus, who was defeated with great loss by the
Parthians, near Carrhae, in 53 B.C. About 40 B.C. he sent
an army under his son Pacorus to fight against Mark
Antony. (See PACORUS.)
See DION CASSIUS, "History of Rome ;" PLUTARCH, "Antony;"
SAINT-MARTIN, " Memoires historiques, etc. sur 1'Armenie."
Oromasdes. See ORMUZD.
Ororice. See FINE.
Orontius. See FINE.
Orose, (PAUL.) See OROSIUS PAULUS.
O-ro'si-us Pau'lus, |Fr. PAUL OROSE, p51 o'roz',] a
Latin historian and Christian presbyter, who lived about
410-30 A.D., was a native of Tarragona, in Spain. He
was a friend of Saint Augustine and Saint Jerome, and
in several theological treatises opposed the doctrines
of Origen and Pelagius. His principal work is entitled
" Historiarum Libri VII. adversos Paganos," being a
defence of Christianity against pagan writers, who as
serted that since the* overthrow of the old religion the
world had suffered greater calamities. This history,
though deficient in accuracy, contains much important
information, and quotes from various authors whose
writings are not extant. Among the translations of this
work is one made by Alfred, King of England.
See CEII.UER, " Histr ire des Auteurs ecclesiastiques ;" BAHR,
" Geschichte der Romischen Literatur ;" Vossius, " De Historicis
Latinis ;" MORNER, "De Orosii Vita," 1844.
Orphee. See ORPHEUS.
Orpheus, or'fus or or'fe-us, [Gr. 'Opori'f ; Fr. ORPHEE,
ok'fa'; It. ORFEO, oR-fa'o.] a mythical or semi-fabulous
personage, who was celebrated in the legends of the
ancient Greeks as a poet, musician, and inventor. His
name does not occur in the poems of Homer or Hesiod,
but is mentioned by Ibycus, Euripides, and Aristophanes.
Plato refers to Orpheus and his works, calls him the son
of CEagrus, and ascribes to him the origin of religious
mysteries. He is supposed to have lived in Thrace not
long before the Trojan war, or about 1200 B.C. Ac
cording to tradition, Apollo presented him with a lyre,
with which he enchanted wild beasts, trees, etc., lulled
asleep the dragon that guarded the golden fleece, and
rendered other important services in the Argonautic
expedition. Virgil has commemorated in an admirable
episode of his "Georgics" (book iv.) the descent of Or
pheus to the infernal regions after his lost Eurydice.
(See EURYDICE.) The poets relate that he was torn in
pieces by Thracian women in their Bacchanalian orgies,
because he neglected their sex or treated their charms
with contempt.
See TIEDEMANN, " Griechenlands erste Philosophen ; oder Le-*
ben und Systeme des Orpheus," etc., 1780; GROTE, "History of
Greece;" ULRICI, "Geschichte der Hellenischen Dichtkunst."
Orr, (JAMES L.,) an American lawyer and politician,
born at Craytonville, .South Carolina, in 1822. He
represented a district of that State in Congress from
1848 to 1860. He was elected Speaker of the House of
Representatives by the Democrats in December, 1857.
In the Convention of South Carolina held December,
1860, he voted for secession. He was one of three com
missioners sent by South Carolina to Washington to
negotiate in the winter of 1860-61. In February, 1862, he
was elected a Senator of the Confederate States. He was
elected Governor of South Carolina in October, 1865.
Orrente, or-re"n'ta, (PEDRO,) a Spanish painter, born
in Murcia about 1550. Among his finest productions
are a " Saint Sebastian" and a " Nativity." Died in 1644.
See QUM.LIET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols."
Orrery, EARL OF. See BOYLE, (ROBERT,) and BOYLE,
(CHARLKS.)
Orrizonte. See BLOEMEN, (JOHN FRANCIS.)
Orry, o're', (PHILIBERT,) Count de Vignori, a French
financier, born at Troves in 1689. He was controller-
general of the finances from 173010 1745. Died in 1747.
Orsato, oR-sa'to, (GIAMBATTISTA,) an Italian anti
quary and physician, born at Padua in 1673 ; died in 1720.
Orsato, [Lat. URSA'TUS.] (SERTORIO.) an Italian
antiquary, born at Padua in 1617. He published, among
other treatises, " De Notis Romanorum Commenta-
rius," (1672,) or an explanation of the abbreviations used
by the Romans, and a "History of Padua," (1678.)
The former work is highly esteemed by antiquaries.
Died in 1678.
See FABRONI, "Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium."
Orsay, d', doi'sa', [Fr. pron. dok'si',] (ALFRED GUIL-
LAU.ME GABRIEL,) COUNT, an artist and leader of fashion,
distinguished for his rare accomplishments and his fasci
nating manners, was born in France in 1801. He married
in 1827 Lord Blessington's daughter, from whom he
separated a few years later. He became an intimate
friend of Lady Blessington, in whose house he lived
many years, (in London.) His wit, his amiable temper,
and his brilliant personal qualities rendered him a general
favourite. Among his friends were Lord Byron, (of
whom he produced a good portrait,) Sir Edward Bulwer,
and Xapoleon III. Died in 1852.
See " Gentleman's Magazine" for September, 1852 : DR. R. R.
MADDEN, "Literary Life and Correspondence of the Countess of
Blessington." 3 vols., London, 1855.
Orseolo, oR-sa-o'lo, or Urseolo, ooR-sa-o'lo, (OTTO,)
Doge of Venice, was a son of Piero II., noticed below.
He was elected doge in 1009, and was banished in 1026.
Died in 1032.
Orseolo or Urseolo, (PiERO I.,) was elected Doge
of Venice in 976. He gained a victory over the Sara
cens in Apulia, and established a regular financial sys
tem. Died in 987.
Orseolo or Urseolo, (PiERO II.,) an able Venetian
commander, a son of the preceding, became Doge of
Venice in 991. He conquered Dalmatia, and annexed
it to the republic. Died in 1009.
See DARU, " Histoire de Venise."
Orsi, oR'see, (GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE,) MARQUIS, an
Italian author, born at Bologna in 1652, wrote verses
and several prose works, among which is " De Moralibus
Criticae Regulis Monita," (1706.) Died in 1733.
Orsi, (GIUSEPPE AGOSTINO,) an Italian cardinal, born
at Florence in 1692. His principal work is an "Eccle
siastical History of the First Six Centuries of the Church,"
(20 vols., 1746 et seq.) Died in 1761.
See FABRONI, "Vitas Italorum doctrina excellentium."
Orsi, (LELio, or LELIO da Novellara — da no-vel-
la'ra,) an Italian painter, born in Lombardy in 1511.
His copy of Correggio's "Night" is greatly admired.
Died in 1587.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy."
Orsiui, oR-see'nee, the name of an illustrious and
powerful Italian family, which for many years was hos
tile to the house of Colonna. GIOVANNI GAETANI OR-
€ as£; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this.
108
Explanations, p. 23.)
ORSINI
1714
OSCEOLA
srai was made pope in 1277, under the name of Nicholas
III. In 1503 FRANCESCO and PAOLO ORSINI were assas
sinated by order of Caesar Borgia, and about the same
time Cardinal Orsini was poisoned at Rome by Pope
Alexander VI.
Orsini, (FELICE,) an Italian revolutionist, born at
Meldola in 1819. He took an active part in the revolu
tionary movements of 1848, after which he continued to
conspire against the government. lie was confined in
prison at Mantua about 1854, but escaped in 1856 and
went to England. He was the chief of a band of con
spirators who attempted to assassinate Napoleon III. in
January, 1858, by bombs or explosive apparatus. He
was executed in March, 1858.
Orsini, (FULVIO.) See URSINUS FULVIUS.
Orsini, POPE. See BENEDICT XIII.
Orsted. See OERSTED.
Orta, (GARCIA DA.) See HORTO.
Ortega, oR-ta'ga, (CASIMIR GOMEZ,) a Spanish bot
anist, born at Madrid in 1730. He published an "Ele
mental Course of Botany," and other treatises of the
kind. The name of Ortegia has been given to a genus
of plants. Died in 1810.
Ortelius, van, vfn or-ta'le-iis, Ortel, or Oertel,
dR'tel, (ABRAHAM,) an eminent geographer and mathe
matician, apparently of German extraction, was born at
Antwerp in 1527. After travelling in England and on
the continent, he published in 1570 his "Universal
Geography," ("Theatrum Orbis Terrarum,") and in
1575 was appointed geographer to Philip II. He was
an intimate friend of Mercator, Justus Lipsius, and other
eminent men of the time. Besides the above-mentioned
work, which is still highly valued, and which obtained
for its author the name of the "Ptolemy of his age,"
Oertel wrote several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1598.
See F. SWEERT, " Insignium ejus /Evi Poetarum Lacrymas in
Obitum A. Ortelii," 1601.
Ortigue, d', doR'teg', (JOSEPH Louis,) a French jour
nalist and writer on music, born at Cavaillon in 1802.
He became professor de chant at the College Henri IV.,
Paris, in 1839.
Ortigue, d', (PIERRE,) a French novelist, born at Apt
in 1610. He wrote several novels, and "The Art of
Pleasing in Conversation," (1688.) Died in 1693.
Ortiz, oR-teth', (ALONZO,) a Spanish historian and
theologian, born at Toledo, lived in the early part of the
sixteenth century.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature."
Ortolan, OR'IO'I&N', (JOSEPH Louis ELZEAR, ) a
French jurist, born at Toulon (Var) in 1802. He pub
lished in 1827 his principal work, a "Historical Expli
cation of the Institutes of Justinian," (3 vols.,) which is
considered classic in several universities of Europe.
Or'ton, (Jon,) an English nonconformist minister,
born at Shrewsbury in 1717. He preached at Shrews
bury about twenty-four years, and removed to Kid
derminster about 1766. He wrote "Memoirs of Dr.
Doddriclge," " Sacramental Meditations," and other re
ligious works. Died in 1783.
Orton, (REGINALD,) an English surgeon and medical
•writer, born in 1810. He practised at Sunderland,
where he died in September, 1862.
Orts, oRts, (CHARLES,) a Belgian politician, born at
Brussels about 1815. He is an orator of the Liberal party.
Orus. See HORUS.
Orville, d', doR'vel', (JACQUES PHILIPPE,) a distin
guished critic and scholar, born at Amsterdam in 1696,
was descended from a French family. After having
visited England, Italy, and Paris, where he acquired the
friendship of Bentley, Muratori, Montfaucon, and- other
eminent men, he became professor of humanities at
Amsterdam about 1730. He published a number of
valuable criticisms on the classics, and a " Dissertation
on the Inscriptions of Delos," which is particularly
esteemed. Died in 1751.
Orvilliers, d', doR've'ye-i', (Louis GUILLOUET, )
COUNT, a French admiral, was born at Moulins in 1708.
He commanded a large fleet which fought an indecisive
battle against the English under Keppel, near Ushant,
in 1778. Died after 1791.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Francais."
Orzechowski, oR-za-Kov'skee, [Lat. ORICHO'VIUS,]
(STANISLAUS,) a Polish orator and historian, born in
1513, studied theology under Luther at Wittenberg.
He wrote, besides other works, " Annals of Poland
from the Death of Sigismund," ("Annales Poloniae,"
etc., 1611.) Died in 1567.
Os, van, vSn oss, (JAN,) a Dutch artist, born at Mid-
delharnis in 1744, excelled as a fruit- and flower-painter.
He was regarded as the most successful imitator of Van
Huysum. Died in 1808. His son PIETER GERARDUS,
born at the Hague in 1776, painted landscapes with
animals of various kinds, which are esteemed master
pieces. Died in 1839. GEORG JACOB JAN, younger
brother of Pieter, was born in 1782, and gained a high
reputation as a flower-painter. He visited France in
1812, where he painted for the porcelain-manufactory at
Sevres. In 1850 one of his flower-pieces sold at Am
sterdam for four thousand five hundred florins.
Osaibia, o-si'be-a, or, more fully, Ibn-Abi-Osaibia,
ib'n a'bee o-si'be-a, written also Osaiba, an Arabian
physician, born in 1203. He practised at Sarchad, in
Syria, and wrote " Fontes Relationum de Classibus
Medicorum," which contains biographical notices of
many ancient physicians, and is highly commended.
Died in 1269.
Osann, o-zan', (EMIL,) a German physician, born at
Weimar in 1787, was a relative of the celebrated Hufe-
land. After filling various professorships, he became in
1838 privy councillor of medicine at Berlin. He wrote
several treatises on mineral waters. Died in 1842.
Osann, (FRIEDRICH GOTTHILF,) a German antiquary
and philologist, born at Weimar in 1794. In 1825 he
became professor of ancient literature at Giessen.
Among his most important works we may name his
"Contributions to the History of Greek and Roman
Literature," (2 vols., 1835-39.) Died in 1858.
Osbeck, os'be'k, (PETER,) a Swedish naturalist and
traveller, born near Gottemburg in 1723. He published
a "Journal of a Voyage to the East Indies," (1757,)
which is a work of merit. Died in 1805.
Os'born, (JoHN,) an American physician, born in
1766. He was professor of medicine in the city of New
York. Died in 1819.
Osborn, (SELI.ECK,) an American poet and journalist,
born in Connecticut in 1783 ; died in 1826.
Os'born, (SHERARD,) CAPTAIN, a British naval officer
and writer, born about 1820. He wrote, besides other
works, " The Career, Last Voyage, and Fate of Sir John
Franklin."
Osborne, oz'burn, (FRANCIS,) an English writer, born
in Bedfordshire about 1589, was an adherent of Crom
well in the civil war. His "Advice to a Son," published
in 16^9, was very popular at the time. He also wrote
several historical and biographical works. Died in 1659.
See WOOD, " Athenae Oxonienses."
Osborne, oz'burn, (GEORGE,) a composer and pianist,
born at Limerick, Ireland, in 1806.
Osborne, (RALPH BERNAL,) an English Liberafmem-
ber of Parliament, noted for his wit and facetious
speeches. He entered the House of Commons in 1841,
was returned for Middlesex in 1847, f°r Dover in 1857,
for Liskeard in 1859, and for Waterford in 1870.
Osborne, (Sir THOMAS.) See DANBY, EARL OF.
Os'caror Os'kar I., King of Sweden, born in Paris in
1799, was the son of General Bernadotte, (Carl XIV. of
Sweden.) He married Josephine, a daughter of Eugene
de Beauharnais, in 1823, and acted as regent during
the illness of his father in 1828. He succeeded his father
in March, 1844. His reign was pacific. Died in 1859.
See G. H. MELLIN, "Oscar I. Historia," 1844; " Fraser's Maga
zine" for February, 1848.
Os-ge-o'la or As-se-h5'lar Nik-kan-o'chee, some
times written Oceola, an Indian chief of the Semi-
noles, born in Florida in 1803. His wife having been
claimed as a slave, and carried off by order of a slave
holder, in 1835, Osceola declared war against the whites,
and, after fighting two years with varying success, was
taken prisoner and confined in Fort Moultrie, where
he died in 1837.
See a " Narrative of the Early Days, etc. of Osceola Nikkanochee,"
by his guardian.
a, e, T, Q, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
OS CU LAT I
1715
OSSAT
Osculati, os-koo-la'tee, (GAETANO,) an Italian natu
ralist and traveller, born at Veclano, in Lombardy, in
1808. He visited many countries of Asia, Africa, and
South America, between 1830 and 1848. He published
a work called " Exploration of the Equatorial Region
near the Xapo," (1854.)
Osee, the French for HOSEA, which see.
Oserof, Oserov, or Oserow, o'seV-of, (VLADTSI.AF
ALEXANDROVITCH,) a Russian dramatist, born in 1770.
Among his best works are the tragedies of " Polixena,"
" Fingal," and "The Death of Olga." He also pub
lished a collection of lyric poems. Died in 1816.
See GRETCH, " Essai sur 1'Histoire de la Litterature Russe."
Os'good, (DAVID,) D.D., an American Congrega
tional divine, born at Andover, Massachusetts, in 1747,
settled as pastor at Medford, where he preached many
years. Died in 1822.
Osgood, (FRANCES SARGENT,) an American poetess,
born at Boston about 1812. At an early age she con
tributed a number of poems to the " Juvenile Miscellany,"
edited by Mrs. L. M. Child, and subsequently wrote for
'the "Ladies' Magazine." She was married in 1835 to
Mr. S. S. Osgood, a distinguished artist. While re
siding with her husband in London, she published a col
lection of poems entitled "A Wreath of Wild Flowers
from New England," which were favourably received.
After her return she edited the souvenirs entitled " The
Floral Offering" and " The Poetry of Flowers." Died
in 1850.
See GRISVVOLD, " Female Poets of America ;" CLEVELAND,
"Compendium of American Literature."
Osgood, (SAMUEL,) born at Andover, Massachusetts,
in 1748, was elected to Congress in 1781. He was ap
pointed first commissioner of the treasury, (1785,) post
master-general, (1789,) and naval officer for the port of
New York, (1803.) Died in 1813.
Osgood, (SAMUEL,) D.D., an American Unitarian
divine, born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1812,
became pastor of the Church of the Messiah, Xew
York, in 1849. He has published "Studies in Chris
tian Biography," (1851,) "God with Men," (1854,) and
" Milestones in our Life-Journey," (1855.) He has also
made translations from the German, and contributed to
the " North American Review," "Christian Examiner,"
and "Bibliotheca Sacra."
Osiander, o-ze-an'der, (ANDREAS,) originally Hose-
marin, a German theologian, and one of the first schol
ars of his time, was born near Nuremberg in 1498. He
was a devoted adherent of Luther, and was present at the
Conference of Marburg in 1529, and at the Diet of Augs
burg in 1530. He became subsequently professor of
theology in the University of Konigsberg. About 1549
he engaged in a controversy on the nature of repentance
and other points of doctrine with Martin Chemnitz and
Melanchthon. He died in 1552, leaving a number of
theological and controversial treatises.
See Wit.KEN', "Andreas Osianders Leben," 1844; M. ADAM,
"Viue Theologorum Germanorum."
Osiander, (ANDREAS,) a son of Lucas, noticed below,
was born in 1562. He was chancellor of the University
of Tubingen, and wrote several works on theology. Died
in 1617.
Osiander, (JOHANN ADAM,) born at Tubingen in
1626, was professor of theology in that city. He wrote
a Commentary on the Pentateuch, (1676—78,) and on
other books of Scripture. Died in 1697.
Osiander, (JOHANN ADAM,) a philologist, born at
Tubingen in 1701, was a grandson of the preceding.
Died in 1756.
Osiander, (LUCAS,) THE ELDER, a son of Andreas,
(1498-1552,) was born at Nuremberg in 1534. He was
appointed in 1567 court preacher to Duke Frederick of
Wiirtemberg, and published several polemical treatises.
Died in 1604.
Osiander, (LUCAS,) THE YOUNGER, a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Stuttgart about 1570. He became
chancellor of the University of Tiibingen. His writings
are chiefly controversial. Died in 1638.
Osinski, o-sens'kee, (LEWIS,) a distinguished Polish
poet and litterateur, born in 1775. He published in 1804
an excellent translation of Corneille's tragedies into
Polish. Among his poems, which are highly esteemed,
we may name the "Ode to Copernicus." Died in 1838.
Osio, o'se-o, [Lat. O'sius,] (FELICE,) an Italian litte
rateur, born at Milan in 1587, was professor of rhetoric
in the University of Padua in 1621. He published,
among other works, a "Eulogy of Illustrious Writers,"
and a number of "Orations." Died in 1631.
O-si'ris, [Gr. *Oai/uc,] the god of the Nile, and one
of the principal divinities of Egypt, was said to be the
husband of Isis and father of Horus. He was regarded
as the author of Egyptian civilization, and the first who
taught the arts and sciences to that nation. Tradition
adds that he visited and civilized India, Arabia, and
other countries, and after his return was murdered by
Typhon. He was worshipped under the form of the
bull Apis, into which it was supposed his soul migrated
when he was slain by Typhon. Osiris and Isis are to
be regarded as different manifestations of one divine
principle, the former representing the beneficent power
of nature in activity, the latter in passivity, so that
neither is complete without the other ; and hence Osiris,
according to some, represented the life-giving power of
the sun, and Isis the fertility of the earth.
See PLUTARCH, "Treatise on Isis and Osiris;" GUIGNIAUT,
"Religions de 1'Antiqtiite," Paris. 1825, book iii. chap. ii. ; "Bio
graphic Universelle," (Partie mythologique.)
Osius. See Osio.
O'sl-us, Bishop of Cordova, born in Spain in 256
A.n., enjoyed the favour and confidence of Constantine
the Great, who, on his recommendation, convoked the
Council of Nice. He was afterwards induced by the
threats of the emperor Constantius to subscribe to the
Arian confession of faith, for which he subsequently
testified sincere repentance. Died about 358 A.D.
Oskar. See OSCAR.
Osman. See OTHMAN.
Osman, os-min', I., written also Othman, Otrnan,
and Ottoman, the founder of the Ottoman empire, was
the son of Ortogrul or Ertogrul, a Toorkoman chief, who
founded a colony near the river Sangar, in Asia Minor.
Having, on the death of his father, (1280,) become chief
of the tribe, he first invaded Greece in 1299, and within
a few years possessed himself of a large portion of that
country and the whole of the province of Bithynia.
Osman never assumed the title of Sultan, though he had
money coined and public prayers given in his name.
As a ruler, he was distinguished for his wisdom, hu
manity, and military talents. He died in 1326, leaving a
valuable work containing maxims for government. He
was succeeded by his son, Oorkhan, (Orkhan.)
See Vox HAMMER. "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs."
Osman or Othman II., Sultan of Turkey, born in
1604, was tjie eldest son of Ahmed I. He began to
reign in 1618, and was assassinated in 1622.
Osman or Othman III., Sultan of Turkey, born in
1696, was a younger son of Mustafa II. He succeeded
his brother, Mahmood I., in 1754. Died in 1757.
Osmond, d', dos'miN', (RENE EUSTACHE,) MARQUIS,
a French diplomatist, born in Hayti in 1751. He was
sent by Louis XVIII. as ambassador to England in
1815. 'Died in 1838.
Os'muiid or Os'mond, SAINT, a celebrated ecclesi
astic, born in Normandy, accompanied William the Con
queror to England in 1066, and was created successively
chancellor, and Bishop of Salisbury. In 1099 he rebuilt
the cathedral of Salisbury, which had been destroyed
by fire. He was the compiler of the liturgy called the
" Usages of Sarum." Died in 1099.
See BUTI.ER, "Lives of the Saints."
Osorio, o-so're-o, [Lat. OSO'RIUS,] (JERONYMO,) a
learned Portuguese ecclesiastic, born at Lisbon in 1506,
was Bishop of Silves. Among his works (written in
Latin) are a " History of the Achievements of King
Emanuel," and a " Letter to Elizabeth, Queen of Eng
land," (1555,) on the Catholic religion. Died in 1580.
See the " Retrospective Review," vol. i., (1820.)
Osorius. See OSORIO.
Ossa, de, (JACQUES.) See JOHN XXII.
Ossat, d', do'sf, [Lat. OSSA'TUS,] (ARNAUD,) an able
French diplomatist and cardinal, born near Auch in
1536. Having accompanied the ambassador Paul de
as -6: c as s: g hard: g as /: G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal: R, trilled: s as z: th as in this.
xplanations, p.
OSSATUS
1716
OSTEN-SACKEN
Foix to Rome as his secretary, (1574,) he assisted in
promoting a reconciliation between Henry IV. and the
pope. He published a collection of "Letters," which
are esteemed models of diplomatic sagacity, and are
highly commended by Lord Chesterfield. De Thou
dedicated to Cardinal d'Ossat his poem on the death
of Henry III. Died in 1604.
See D'ARCONVILLE, "Vie du Cardinal d'Ossat," 1771 ; " Gailia
Chrisl>ana ;" NICERON, " Memoires ;"• " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Ossatus. See OSSAT, D'.
Osselin, os'la.N', (CHARLES NICOLAS,) a French Ja
cobin and lawyer, born in Paris in 1754. He became in
1792 a member of the Convention, in which he took a
prominent part in enacting laws against the emigrants.
He was guillotined in June, 1794.
Ossenbeeck, os'sen-bak', a skilful Dutch landscape-
painter and engraver, born at Rotterdam in 1627. He
worked many years in Italy, and adopted the Italian
style. Died in 1678.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais " etc.
Ossian, osh'e-an, a semi-fabulous Scottish bard and
hero of the third century, was said to be the son of Fin-
gal, King of Morven. A pretended translation of his
poems, which was published by James Macpherson in
1765, gave rise to a spirited controversy among the
English literati concerning the genuineness of these
productions. (See MACPHERSON.)
Ossoli, os'so-lee, (originally SARAH MARGARET FUL
LER,) MARCHIONESS, an American lady, whose talents,
rare individuality of character, and untimely death have
given to her history a peculiar and tragic interest, was
born at Cambridgeport, in Massachusetts, May 23, 1810.
Under the care of her father, a lawyer and member of
Congress, she was early and thoroughly instructed in
the classics. It is related that he used to say of her,
while still a child, that she " knew more Latin and Greek
than half the professors." At a very early age she
had also made great proficiency in French and Italian.
After the death of her father, in 1835. she became teacher
of languages in Boston, and subsequently principal of
a school at Providence, Rhode Island. In 1839 she
published a translation of Eckermann's "Conversations
with Goethe." She became in 1840 editor of "The
Dial," a periodical instituted for the advocacy and dif
fusion of Transcendentalism in America, and for which
she wrote a number of admirable articles on literature
and art. Her critique on Goethe especially, in the
second volume of the "Dial," has been greatly and
deservedly praised. " Nowhere," says Mr. Emerson,
"did Goethe find a braver, more intelligent, or more
sympathetic reader." Her " Summer on the Lakes," a
vivid and truthful picture of prairie-life, was published
in 1843. Soon after, she took charge of the literary
department of the New York "Tribune." In 1846 she
visited England, where she made the acquaintance of
Carlyle and other eminent men. From London she
journeyed through France to Italy. At Rome she acci
dentally became acquainted with the Marquis Ossoli, to
whom, though many years younger than herself, she
was married in December, 1847. She to°k the deepest
interest in the cause of Italian liberty, and during the
siege of Rome, in 1849, devoted herself with untiring
assiduity to the care of the sick and wounded. In May,
1850, she and her husband set sail for America; but, a
violent storm having arisen when they were near the
coast of the United States, the vessel struck on Fire
Island beach, Long Island, in the morning of the i6th
of July, and a few hours after went to pieces. Among
those who perished were the Marquis and Marchioness
Ossoli and their child.
See " Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli," by R. W. EMERSON,
WILLIAM H. CHANNING, and JAMES F. CLARKE, Boston. 1851 : AL-
LIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors ;" GRISVVOI.D, " Prose Writers of
America;" DCYCKINCK, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature."
Ossolinski, os-so-len'skee, (GEORGE,) a Polish states
man, born in 1595. He rose to be grand chancellor of
the kingdom of Poland, in which capacity he presided
over the religious conference at Thorn, where Vladislaus
IV. sought to unite the Catholics and Protestants. He
was also created by Ferdinand II. a prince of the Aus
trian empire. Died in 1650.
Ossolinski, QOZKF MAXIMILIAN,) Count of Ten-
czyn, a Polish litterateur, born in 1748. He removed to
Vienna in 1789, and was appointed by Francis I. super
intendent of the Royal Library. He was the author of
historical and critical treatises, and of a number of tales,
and founded at Lemberg the Institute called by his
name. Died in 1826.
Ossonne. See OSSUNA.
Os'so-ry, (THOMAS BUTLER,) EARL OF, a gallant
commander, born probably in Ireland in 1634, was a son
of the first Duke of Ormond. His biographer Locho
calls him a "model of almost universal perfection."
Soon after the restoration of 1660 he obtained the rank
of lieutenant-general, and in 1666 he was created ;i;i
English peer, as Lord Butler. Having served wit'i
distinction in several sea-fights against the Dutch, he
was raised to the rank of admiral about 1674. In
1677 he commanded the English troops that fought for
the Prince of Orange at the battle of Mons. Died in
1680. His son became Duke of Ormond.
See LODGE, " Portraits of Illustrious Personages."
Ossuna or Osuna, os-soon'ya, |Fr. OSSOXNE or
OSSONE, o'sor/,] (Don PEDRO Tellez y Giron — tel-
ye'th' e He-r6n',) DUKE OF, a celebrated Spanish states
man, born at Valladolid in 1579. After completing his
studies at Salamanca, he repaired to the court of Philip
II., from which, in consequence of indulging his caustic
wit, he was banished. Having spent some time in France
and Portugal, he returned to Spain on the death of Philip
II., but he again had the misfortune to be exiled from
the court. He was recalled to Spain in 1607, and was
created a member of the council and knight of the
golden fleece. Through his influence the independence
of Holland was acknowledged in the treaty of 1609, and
he opposed warmly, though unsuccessfully, the expulsion
of the Moors, which took place about this time. In
1611 he was sent as viceroy to Sicily, and in 1616 filled
the same office at Naples, where he defended the people
against the oppressions of the nobles and the clergy.
He gained a signal victory in 1617 over the Venetians,
who had claimed exclusive rule over the Adriatic Sea.
Having refused to introduce the Inquisition into Naples
when required to do so by Philip III., and being sus
pected of aspiring to supreme power, Ossuna was super
seded by Cardinal Borgia in 1620. He died in prison
in 1624, after three years' imprisonment in Spain.
See GRKC.ORIO-LKTF, " Vitadi P. Giron, Ducad'Ossunna," 3 vols.,
i6gS; " Biographic Universelle."
Ostade, van, vtn os'ta'deh, (ADRIAN,) a celebrated
painter and engraver, born at Lubeck in 1610, was a
pupil of Rembrandt and of Francis Hals. His subjects
were generally taken from low life, such as tavern scenes,
peasants drinking and smoking, and the interiors of cot
tages. His pictures are exceedingly spirited and true to
nature, and are distinguished for splendour and trans
parency of colouring. Among his best pieces are "The
Fish-Market," "A Smoker Lighting his Pipe," and
" The Family of Adrian van Ostade." He worked many
years at Amsterdam, where he died in 1685.
gee WRYF.RM AN," De Schilderkonst der Nederlanders :" CHARLES
P.LANC, " Histoire des Peintres;" DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres
Hollandais," etc.
Ostade, van, (ISAAC,) a painter, a younger brother
of the preceding, was born at Lubeck about 1615. His
style resembled that of Adrian. He worked at Amster
dam, and painted landscapes which are greatly admired.
He excelled in representing animals and in village
scenes. His death is variously dated from about 1654
to 1671.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ;
" Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Osteii-Sacken, os'ten-sak'ken, (DMITRI,) a Russian
general, born in 1790, served under Paskievitch in the
war against the Persians, (1826-29,) anc^ afterwards fought
with distinction against the Poles in 1831. He defended
Odessa with success against the allies in May, 1854.
Osten-Sacken, von der, fon der os'ten-sak'ken,
(FABIAN WILHELM,) PRINCE, a Russian field-marshal,
born in Livonia in 1752. He served under Suwarow
against the Turks and Poles, and took an active part in
the campaigns of 1812-15. In 1818 he succeeded Bar-
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, u, y, short : a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
OSTERHAUS
1717
OTHO
clay de Tolly as commander-in-chief of the first army,
and in 1826 was made a field-marshal. Died in 1837.
See BROCKHAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon."
Osterhaus, os'ter-howss', (PETER J.,) a general, born
in Prussia, entered the service of the United States in
1861, commanded a division or brigade at the battle
of Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and became a brigadier-
general in June of that year. He took part in the assault
on Vicksburg, May 22, 1863, and commanded a corps of
Sherman's army in the march from Atlanta to Savannah,
November-December, 1864.
Osterley. See OESTERI.EY.
Ostermann, os'ter-man', (HEINRICH JOHANN FRIF.D-
Ricif,) a celebrated diplomatist, born in Westphalia in
1686, assumed the name of ANDREI IVANOVITCH. In
1704 he entered the service of Peter the Great of Russia,
for whom he negotiated the peace of Xystadt in 1721.
After filling various high offices under Peter, he was, on
the death of that monarch, patronized by the empress
Catherine I., who made him vice-chancellor, and by her
will appointed him governor to her son Peter II. and a
member of the council of regency. In 1730 he was
created a count by Peter II. After the accession of
Elizabeth (1741) he was exiled to Siberia, where he died
in 1747.
See HEMPEL, " Leben und Fall des Grafen von Ostermann," 1742.
Ostermaim-Tolstoi, os'ter-man' tol'stoi, (ALEX
ANDER IVANOVITCH,) COUNT, a Russian general, born
at Saint Petersburg about 1770. He served in the cam
paigns of 1806 and 1812, and distinguished himself
particularly at the battle of Kulm, (1813.) He was
afterwards made general-in-chief of engineers by the
emperor Alexander. Died in 1837.
See THIERS, " History of the Consulate and the Empire."
Ostervald, os'ter-valt', (JEAN FREDERIC,) a Swiss
Protestant divine, eminent for learning and piety, bom
at Xeufchatel in 1663. He published an "Abridgment
of the History of the Bible," an edition of the Bible in
French, which is called by his name, " Christian Ethics,"
and a "Catechism." He preached many years at Xeuf
chatel. Died in 1747.
Ostrog, os'tRog, (CONSTANTINE,) DUKE OF, a Polish
nobleman, distinguished himself by his hostility to the
Jesuits and to the union of the Greek and Roman
Churches. He endeavoured at the Synod of Thorn to
effect a union with the Protestants of Poland. He pub
lished in 1581 the old Slavonian translation of the Bible
called by his name. Died in 1608.
Ostrog, ( CONSTANTINE VASILII, ) was created by
Sigismuncl, King of Poland, grand commander of Lithu
ania, and in 1514 obtained a brilliant victory over the
Russians at Orsza.
Ostrovsky or Ostrowski, os-trof'skee, (A. X.,) a
popular Russian dramatist of the present age. He
began his literary career about 1850. His works were
published in 4 vols., 1859-67.
See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1868.
Osuna. See OSSUXA.
Oswald, os'walt, (ERASMUS,) a German mathema
tician and biblical writer, born in Austria in 1511. He
was professor of Hebrew at Tubingen and at Freiburg.
He translated the Xew Testament into Hebrew. Died
in 1579.
Os'wald, SAINT, King of Xorthumbria, born in 604
or 605 A.n. He defeated Cadwalla, King of Wales, and
was killed in a battle against Penda, King of Mercia, in
642 A.D.
Os-y-man'dy-as, an ancient Egyptian king, to whom
the Memnonium and other magnificent structures of
Thebes are attributed, is supposed to have flourished
about 2000 B.C. His name, according to Strabo, is only
a variation of Ismandes. He is also famed for his con
quests over the Bactrians, and his exploits were repre
sented on the walls of an immense temple which he built
at Thebes. This edifice, which was esteemed one of the
most beautiful of antiquity, contained the first library of
which we have any account.
Ot-a-cil'i-a Se-ve'ra, (MARCIA,) wife of the Roman
emperor M. Julius Philippus, lived about 250 A.D.
Otfried, oVfRet, [Lat. OTFRI'DUS,] a learned German
monk of the ninth century, supposed to have been a
native of Franconia. His poetical version of the Gospels,
published about 868, is regarded as one of the most
valuable monuments of the old German language.
Otfridus. See OTFRIED.
Other. See OTTAR.
Othman, (Sultans of Turkey.) See OSMAN.
Othmau-Ibii-Affan, oth'm'tn' ib'n af tin', the third
of the caliphs who succeeded Mohammed, was a distant
relative and a devoted follower of the prophet. He
was invested with the caliphate in 644 A.D. He made
extensive conquests in Persia, Africa, and the island of
Cyprus, but he rendered himself unpopular by the favours
he lavished upon his relatives and friends. Through
the intrigues of Ayeshah, widow of the prophet, and a
number of disaffected nobles, a conspiracy svas formed
against his life, and he perished by the hand of Mo
hammed, son of the caliph Aboo-Bekr, in 656 A.D. Oth
man was married successively to two daughters of the
prophet Mohammed.
SeeOcKLEY, " History of the Saracens :" IRVING, " Mahomet and
his Successors;" WEIL, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. iii.
Othrnan-Ibn-Yahya-Alkaisee, (-Alcaisi,) oth'-
mtn' ib'n ya'he-3. al-ki'see, a Spanish Arab of distin
guished talents and learning, was born at Malaga in the
thirteenth century, and rose to be governor of that city.
He wrote treatises " De Haereditate" and " De Mensuris
Hispanis," and a work entitled " Grammatical Ques
tions," ("Quaesita Grammatica.") Died in 1334.
O'tho, [Fr. OTHON, o't6.\',] (MARCUS SALVIUS,) Em
peror of Rome, born about 32 A.D., was descended from
a patrician family. He was for a time an intimate asso
ciate of Xero, until the attachment of the latter for Pop-
paea, Otho's wife, caused a rupture between them. He
supported Galba in his revolt against Xero, in 68 A.D.,
but, disappointed that the former did not appoint him
his successor, he conspired with the guards, took the
life of Galba, and assumed the supreme power. He soon
after marched against Caecina, a general of Vitellius,
who had been proclaimed emperor by the legions in
Germany. His army having been totally defeated near
Bebriacum, Otho destroyed himself in April, 69 A.D.,
and was succeeded by Vitellius. Otho was a man of
profligate character.
See PLUTARCH, "Life of Otho;" MEI^VAI.E, "The Romans
under the Empire :" SUETONIUS, "Otho;" W. E. WEBER, "Kaiser
M. Salvius Otho," 1815; " Nouvelle Biographic Geuerale."
O'tho [Fr. OTHON, O'ION' ; Ger. OT'TO] 1, THE
GREAT, son of Henry I., was born in 912 A.D., and suc
ceeded his father as Emperor of Germany in 936. Soon
after his accession he was involved in a protracted war
with Boleslaw, Duke of Bohemia, whom he compelled to
acknowledge his supremacy, (950.) He repressed the
arrogance of the feudal barons, founded numerous bish
oprics, and was zealous in his efforts to propagate Chris
tianity. He defeated Harold, King of the Danes, whom
he obliged to be baptized and to become tributary to
Germany. In 951 he went to the assistance of the Ital
ians against the usurper Berengarius, who had murdered
King Lotharius and imprisoned Adelaide, his queen,
whom Otho married the same year. He was crowned
emperor at Rome by Pope John XII. in 962, and as
sumed the title of Caesar. The pope, having soon after
conspired with the enemies of Otho, was deposed by him,
and Leo VIII. elected in his place. In 972 his son,
Otho II., whom he had previously caused to be crowned
at Rome, married the princess Theophania, daughter of
Xicephorus Phocas, Emperor of the East. Otho died
'n 973- "He deserves," says Sismondi, "more than
Charlemagne the name of Great, because his reign had
a much more salutary influence on the nations whom he
subjected." Other historians, however, have expressed
a different opinion.
See VEHSE, "Leben Otto des Grossen," 1829; BOEHVIER, "Re
gesta Ottonum;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Otho (Otto) II., Emperor of Germany, born in 955,
succeeded his father, Otho I., in 973. King Lothaire
of France, having renewed his pretensions to Lorraine,
was opposed and signally defeated by Otho. In 980 he
concluded a treaty by which the investiture of Lower
Lorraine was given to Charles, the brother of Lothaire,
on condition of his doing homage to the German em-
€ as -6; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
OTHO
1718
OTTERBEIN
peror. He afterwards attempted the conquest of Cala
bria and Apulia, but was defeated in 982 by the combined
forces of the Greeks and Saracens. He died in 983,
and was succeeded by his son, Otho III.
See DIETMAR, " Chronicon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale."
Otho (Otto) III., Emperor of Germany, son of the
preceding, was three years of age at his father's death.
He was crowned at Rome by Pope Gregory V. in 996.
While he was engaged in a war with the Slavi, Crescen-
tius, a Roman patrician, deposed Gregory V. and elected
in his stead a Greek under the name of John XVI. Otho
advanced into Italy, (998,) defeated Crescentius and put
him to death, and restored the former pope. lie died,
without issue, in 1002, and was succeeded by Henry II.
of Bavaria.
See RICHER, "Chronicon;" F. D. RING, " Kaiser Otto III.;"
BOEHMER, "Re gesta Ottonum ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Otho (Otto) IV., Emperor of Germany, born about
1174, was the son of Henry the Lion, Duke of Bavaria,
and Matilda, daughter of Henry II. of England. He was
educated at the court of his uncle, Richard Cceur-de-
Lion, whom he assisted in his wars against Philip
Augustus of France. In 1197 he was chosen emperor
by a portion of the electors, while others declared for
Philip, Duke of Suabia, which gave rise to a ten years'
war. Pope Innocent III. having favoured the preten
sions of Otho, he was crowned at Rome in 1209, and in
return for this favour conceded to the papal see the right
of investiture. Otho soon quarrelled with the pope, at
whose instigation many German princes and prelates
revolted in 1212 and elected Frederick of Hohenstaufen
as emperor. Otho was defeated at the great battle of
Bouvines, in 1214, by Philip Augustus of France. He
died in 1218.
See ABEL, " Konig Philipp," 1852, and " Kaiser Otto," 1856 ; Wi-
CHERT, " DeOttonis IV. et Philippi Suevi Certaminibus," etc., 1834;
"Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
O'tho or Ot'to, King of Greece, born in 1815, was
a son of Lewis I., King of Bavaria. He was elected
king by the Greeks in 1832, and their choice was con
firmed by a treaty between France, England, and Russia.
He married Amalia, a daughter of the Grand Duke of
Oldenburg, in 1836^ His reign was unpopular, and was
disturbed by insurrections. He abdicated in October,
1862. Died in 1867.
See " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1854, and November,
1863.
O'tho, (Lucius SALVIUS,) a Roman commander, the
father of the emperor Otho, was a favourite of Tiberius.
He was consul in 33 A.D., and afterwards proconsul in
Africa. He detected a conspiracy against the life of
Claudius.
Otho, o'to, (VENius,) a Dutch painter, born at Ley-
den in 1556, was one of the instructors of Rubens. He
worked some years at Rome. Died in 1634.
Otho OF BRANDENBURG, a German poet, and Mar
grave of Brandenburg, was called OTHO WITH THE
ARROW. Died in 1304.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Otho (or Otto) von Preisingen, o'to fon fRi'zing'en,
one of the early German chroniclers, was the son of
Leopold IV., Margrave of Austria, and Agnes, daughter
of the emperor Henry IV. In 1137 he was appointed
Bishop of Freisingen by his half-brother, the emperor
Conrad III. He was the author of a "Chronicle of the
World from the Creation to his Own Time," in seven
books. The first part is chiefly a compilation from other
historians, but the last contains information of great
value relative to German history, being drawn from the
most authentic sources. He also wrote a " History of
the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa." Died in 1158.
Othon. See OTHO.
O'tis, (HARRISON GRAY,) an American statesman and
orator, born in Boston in October, 1765, was a nephew
of James, noticed below, and a son of Samuel Allyne
Otis. He graduated at Harvard College in 1783, prac
tised law in Boston, and was elected a member of Con
gress in 1796. He became a leader of the Federal party,
and was highly distinguished for his graceful eloquence.
He was president of the senate of Massachusetts for
several years between 1805 and 1812, was a member of
the Hartford Convention in 1814, and was a Senator of
the United States from 1817 to 1822. In 1820 he made
a speech in the Senate against the extension of slavery.
He retired from public life in 1832. Died in Boston in
October, 1848.
Otis, ( JAMES,) a celebrated American orator and
patriot, born at West Barnstable, in Massachusetts,
on the 5th of February, 1725, was a son of James Otis,
a judge and lawyer. He graduated at Harvard College
in 1743, studied law, and became a resident of Boston
about 1750. 'He was profoundly versed in classical litera
ture, and in 1760 published an able work entitled " Rudi
ments of Latin Prosody, with a Dissertation on Letters,"
etc. He acquired distinction in 1761 by an argument
against the writs of assistance for which the officers of
the customs had applied. Referring to this speech, John
Adams said, " Otis was a flame of fire : with a prompti
tude of classical allusions, a depth of research, a rapid
summary of historical events and dates, a profusion ot
legal authorities, a prophetic glance of his eyes into
futurity, and a rapid torrent of impetuous eloquence,
he hurried away all before him. American independence
was then and there born. Every man of an immense,
crowded audience appeared to me to go away, as I did,
ready to take up arms against writs of assistance." The
judges suspended or evaded the decision of the question,
lie was elected a member of the legislature in 1762, and
became the leader of the popular party. He was a dele
gate to the Congress which met at New York in 1765,
and which was called " the Stamp-Act Congress." He
wrote several pamphlets in defence of the colonies against
the arbitrary measures of the British ministry. In Sep
tember, 1769, he was assaulted by several ruffians of the
opposite party, and received a severe wound in the head,
in consequence of which he became partially deranged,
or permanently disqualified for usefulness. A man named
Robinson was sentenced to pay £2000 for this assault,
but the fine was remitted by Otis. He had married Ruth
Cunningham, of Boston. He was killed by lightning at
Andover in May, 1783.
See WILLIAM TUDOR, "Life of James Otis," 1823; FRANCIS
BOWEN, " Lite of James Otis," in SPARKS'S "American Biography,"
vol. ii., 2d series; " North American Review" for April, 1823.
Otis, (JOSEPH,) an American general of the Revolu
tion, born in 1728, was a brother of the preceding. Died
in 1810.
Otis, (SAMUEL ALLYNE,) a younger brother of James
Otis, and father of Harrison Gray Otis, noticed above,
became a member of Congress in 1788, and was secre
tary of the Senate of the United States for twenty-five
years, from 1789 to 1814. Died at Washington in 1814,
aged seventy-three.
Otranto, DUKE OF. See FOUCHE.
Ott, ot, (JOHANN BAPTIST,) a Swiss Orientalist and
antiquary, born in 1661. He became professor of He
brew at Zurich about 1702, and wrote several antiquarian
treatises.
Ott, ( JOHANN HEINRICH,) a Swiss divine and Orien
talist, the father of the preceding, was born in the canton
of Zurich in 1617. He became professor of eloquence
and Hebrew at Zurich about 1654. He wrote a number
of works on theology, etc. Died in 1682.
Ottar, ot'tar, written also Other and Ohther, a Nor
wegian traveller, who flourished in the ninth century,
visited the court of Alfred, King of England. Having
given to that monarch an account of his voyages to the
Arctic regions, it was inserted bv him in his Anglo-
Saxon version of Orosius. This narrative possesses
great interest, as giving the earliest information respect
ing those countries.
Otter, ot'ter, (JOHAN,) a Swedish philologist, born at
Christianstadt in 1707. After a residence of ten years
in Asia and Turkey, he was appointed interpreter for the
Oriental tongues at the Royal Library in Paris, and in
1746 was made professor of Arabic. He published
"Travels in Turkey and Persia." Died in 1748.
Otterbein, ot'ter-bln', (PHILIP WILLIAM,) born at
Dillenburg, Germany, in 1726, emigrated in 1752 to
Pennsylvania, where he founded the Church of the
United Brethren in Christ. Died in 1813.
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
OTTIN
1719
OUDINOT
Ottin, o'taN', (AucusTE Louis MARIE,) a French
sculptor, born in Paris in 1811. He gained the grand
prize in 1836, and a medal of the first class in 1846.
Ottinger. See OKTTINGER.
Ott'ley, (WILLIAM YOUNG,) an English artist, con
noisseur, and able writer on art, born in 1771. He re
sided for many years in Italy, where he made a large and
choice collection of paintings and engravings. After his
return he published a superb work entitled "The Italian
School of Design ; being Fac-Similes of Original Draw
ings by Eminent Italian Painters and Sculptors," (3 vols.,
1808-23.) In 1833 he became keeper of the prints in
the British Museum. He was a Fellow of the Royal
Society and of the Society of Antiquaries. Among his
chief works is " An Inquiry into the Origin and Early
History of Engraving on Copper and on Wood," (2
vols., 1816.) Died in 1836.
Ottmer, ot'mer, (KARL THF.ODOR,) an eminent Ger
man architect, born at Brunswick in 1800. In 1824 he
completed the new theatre at Berlin, and a few years
later the Academy of Singing in the same place. His
greatest work is the palace of William, Duke of Bruns
wick, finished in 1837, an edifice of great size and re
markable elegance, at Brunswick. Died in 1843.
Otto, the German for OTHO, which see.
Ot'to, (CARL,) a Danish medical writer, born in Saint
Thomas, West Indies, in 1795. He became professor
of pharmacy at Copenhagen in 1840.
Ot'to, (EvERARD,) a German jurist, born at Hamm
in 1685. He published "Treasury of Roman Law,"
("Thesaurus Juris Romani," 4 vols., 1725-29.) Died
at Bremen in 1756.
Otto, (FRIEDRICH JULIAN,) a German savant, born in
Saxony in 1809. He was appointed successively pro
fessor of chemistry (1835) and member of the College
of Health at Brunswick, (1836.) He published a " Manual
for the Rational Practice of Agriculture," (1849-50,) and
several chemical works.
Otto, o'to', (Louis GUILLAUME,) Comte de Mosloy,
(mo'lwa',) a distinguished diplomatist, born in the
duchy of Baden in 1754. Having studied at Strasburg,
he accompanied the French minister Luzerne to the
United States in 1779. After his return he was sent, in
1800, as minister-plenipotentiary to London, and in 1809
was appointed by Napoleon to negotiate his marriage
with the archduchess Maria Louisa, having previously
been made Count of Mosloy and grand officer of the
legion of honour. In 1813 he became minister of state.
Died in 1817.
See THIKRS, "History of the Consulate and the Empire;"
BIGNON, " Histoire de France sous Napoleon."
Ottocar, ot/to-kaR', (Ottokar,) II., King of Bohemia,
was a son of Wenceslas I., and began to reign in 1253.
He obtained Austria and Styria by marriage, and extended
his dominions from the Baltic to the Adriatic. His
ambition to be emperor involved him in a war with
Rudolph of Hapsburg. He was killed in battle in 1278.
Ottokar or Ottocar, ot'to-kak', [Lat. OTTOCA'RUS,]
a German poet and chronicler, born in Styria about
1250. He wrote, between 1300 and 1316, a rhymed
chronicle of Austria and Styria.
See T. JACOBI, "De Ottocaro Chronico Austriaco."
Ottokar, (AMADEUS,) the assumed name of GEORG
FRIEDRICH DAUMER. See DAUMER.
Ottokar von Horneck. See HORNECK, VON.
Ot'way, (Sir ROHERT,) an English admiral, born in
1772; died in 1846.
Otway, (THOMAS,) a celebrated English dramatist,
born in Sussex in 1651. Having been unsuccessful as
an actor, he applied himself to dramatic writing, and in
1675 published his tragedy of "Alcibiades." This was
soon followed by " Don Carlos," which was received
with great favour. In 1677 he obtained from the Earl
of Plymouth a situation as cornet of dragoons in the
army of Flanders ; but, soon becoming dissatisfied with
military life, he again gave his attention to the drama.
In 1680 the tragedy of "The Orphan" appeared, and in
1682 his "Venice Preserved." These two are charac
terized by Hallam as " having a deep pathos, a dramatic
eloquence rapid and flowing, and sometimes very grace
ful poetry ;" and he adds, " The ' Venice Preserved' is
more frequently represented than any tragedy after those
of Shakspeare." Among Otway's other plays we may
cite "Caius Marius,"and a comedy called "The Soldier's
Fortune." He also translated and remodelled the " Titus
and Berenice" of Racine, and Moliere's " Fourberies de
Scapin." He died in 1685, in a state of extreme desti
tution ; and some accounts state that his death was
caused by hunger.
See JOHNSON, " Lives of the Poets," and " Life of Otway," pre
fixed to the edition of his works, 1813; CAMPBELL, "Specimens of
the British Poets."
Oudenaerde. See AUDENAERDE.
Oudeiidorp, van, vSn ow'den-doRp', (FRANS,) an
eminent Dutch philologist, born at Leyden in 1696, was
for many years professor of history and rhetoric in his
native city. He published excellent editions of Julius
Obsequens, Lucan, Suetonius, and other classics, and
was the author of a treatise " On the Use of Ancient
Inscriptions." Died in 1761.
Oudet, oo'di', (JACQUES JOSEPH,) a French officer,
born at Meynal in 1773, was a zealous republican. He
was an active member of the secret society called Phila-
delphes. He was killed at Wagram in 1809.
See NODIER, " Histoire des Socie"tes secretes," 1814.
Oudin, oo'daN', (CASIMIR,) a French bibliographer,
born at Mezieres in 1638. He published a "Commen
tary on Ancient Ecclesiastical Writers," and several
other works. Died in 1717.
Oudin, (FRANCOIS,) a learned French Jesuit, born in
Champagne in 1673. He wrote a number of elegant
Latin poems, and theological and biographical treatises.
Died in 1752.
Oudine, oo'de'na', (EUGENE ANDRE,) an eminent
French sculptor and engraver of medals, born in Paris
in 1810. He gained the grand prize of Rome in 1831, a
medal of the first class in 1839 for engraving, and a
medal of the first class for sculpture in 1843. Among
his engraved works is a medal entitled the " Apotheosis
of Napoleon I."
Oudinet, oo'de'nk', (MARC ANTOINE,) a French an
tiquary, born at Rheims in 1643, was appointed keeper
of the medals in the Royal Cabinet in Paris. In 1701
he became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions.
He published several valuable treatises on medals. Died
in 1712.
Oudinot, oo'de'no', (CHARLES NICOLAS VICTOR,)
Due de Reggio, a general, a son of the following, was
born at Bar-le-Duc in 1791. He served as captain in
the Russian campaign, (1812,) and became a marechal-
de-camp in 1822. He commanded the French army sent
in 1849 to Rome to protect the pope against his subjects.
Having occupied the city after a short siege, July, 1849,
he returned to France. He opposed Louis Napoleon in
the coup (ftiatoi December 2, 1851, after which he was
not employed in public service. Died in 1863.
Oudinot, (NICOLAS CHARLES,) Due de Reggio, (r4'-
zho',) a distinguished French general, was born at Bar-
sur-Ornain in 1767. He obtained the rank of colonel
in 1793, and resisted about 10,000 Austrians with one
regiment for eight hours in 1794. For this service he
was raised to the rank of a general of brigade. He
took Treves in 1794, and received five wounds in an
action near Mannheim in October, 1795. In 1799 ne
became a general of division, and chief of the staff in
the army of Massena, under whom he served at the
siege of Genoa, in 1800. Having received command of
ten battalions of grenadiers in 1805. he performed a
prominent part in the capture of Vienna, and took a
bridge over the Danube which was defended by about
one hundred and eighty pieces of cannon. He rendered
important services at Austerlitz in 1805, and gained a
victory at Ostrolenka in 1807. At the battle of Fried-
land, June, 1807, he resisted for a number of hours an
army of about 75,000 Russians, and gave time to the
rest of the French army to gain the victory. He main
tained his reputation in 1809 at Landshut, Lobau, Vienna,
and Wagram. He was raised to the rank of marshal
of France in July, 1809, and received the title of Due
de Reggio in the same year. In 1813 he served at Lut-
zen and Bautzen, and was defeated by Bernadotte at
Gross-Beeren. During the Hundred Days he adhered
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g zsj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
OUDOT
1720
OVERBECK
to Louis XVIII., who gave him a high command in
1815. He commanded a corps of the army which in
vaded Spain and took Madrid in 1823. Died in 1847.
See " Victoires et Conquetes cles Francais ;" L. DE LomitNiE,
"M. le Marechal Oudinot, par un Homme cle Rien," 1844-; J. Noi.-
LET-FABERT, " Histoire de N. C. Oudinot," 1850; " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Ge'neVale."
Oudot, oo'do', (FRANC.OIS JULIEN,) a French jurist,
born at Ornans (Doubs) in 1804. He obtained a chair
of civil law in Paris about 1837.
Oudry, oo'dRe', (JEAN BAITISTE,) a French artist,
particularly distinguished as a painter of animals, was
born in Paris in 1686. He studied under Largilliere,
and attained considerable skill in portrait and historical
painting, but he subsequently devoted himself exclu
sively to hunting-scenes and animal pieces. He was
patronized by the King of Denmark and Louis XV. of
France ; and one of his best pictures represents the latter
on horseback with a dozen nobles of his court. Oudry
was also a skilful engraver, and furnished one hundred
and fifty designs for the splendid edition of La Fontaine's
Fables published in 1755. Died in 1755.
See DUMESNIL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Frangais."
Ouel le Bon, the French for HOWEL THE GOOD,
which see.
^ to- Oughtred, ot'red, (WILLIAM,) an English divine and
•? { eminent mathematician, born in Buckinghamshire in
\ »•> 1573. He wrote "The Description and Use of the
J $ Double Horizontal Dyall," " Clavis Mathematica," and
>y* a "Treatise on Trigonometry." He is styled by Fuller
r\ "the prince of mathematicians." Died in 1660.
Oultreman, d', dootR'mflN', [Lat. OULTREMAN'NUS,]
(HENRI,) a Flemish writer, born at Valenciennes in 1546,
was the author of a " History of the Town and County
of Valenciennes from its Origin to the End of the Six
teenth Century." Died in 1605.
Oultreman, d', (PIERRE,) a historian, a son of the
preceding, was born at Valenciennes in 1591- He wrote
a "Life of Peter the Hermit," (1632,) and a History
of Baldwin and Henry, Emperors of Constantinople,
(" Constantinopolis Belgica," etc., 1643.) Died in 1656.
Oultremannus. See OULTREMAN.
Ousel, (PiiiLiPP.) See OISEL.
Ouseley, ooz'lee, (Sir FREDERICK ARTHUR GORE,)
an English musician, a son of Sir Gore Ouseley, noticed
below, was born in London about 1825. He was noted
for the precocity of his musical genius, and composed
several anthems. In 1855 he was appointed professor
of music at Oxford.
Ouseley, ooz'lee, (GiDEON,) an Irish Methodist min
ister, born at Dunmore in 1762. He laboured as a mis
sionary among the Irish, and wrote against popery.
Died in 1839.
Ouseley or Ousely, (Sir GORE,) a diplomatist, born
in Ireland in 1769. He was sent as ambassador to
Persia about 1810, and published " Biographical Notices
of Persian Poets," (1846.) Died in 1844.
Ouseley or Ousely, (Sir WILLIAM,) Viscount Clara-
mont, an Orientalist, brother of the preceding, was born
in 1771. He published "Travels in Various Coun
tries of the East, more particularly Persia," (1831.)
Died in 1842.
Outhier, oo'te-i', (REGINALD or RENAULD,) a French
astronomer, born in Poligni in 1694. In 1736 he accom
panied Maupertuis and other savants on a scientific
expedition to Lapland, of which he afterwards published
an interesting account. He was a corresponding mem
ber of the Academy of Sciences, and member of the
Royal Society of Berlin. Died in 1774.
Outram, oo'tram, (Sir TAMES,) an English general,
born in Derbyshire in 1803, was a son of Benjamin
Outram, an eminent civil engineer, who died in 1805.
He went to India about 1820, served in the war against
Dost Mohammed, and became British resident at Hy
derabad and Lucknow. In 1856 he was appointed
commander of a successful expedition against Persia.
During the Sepoy mutiny of 1857 he returned to India,
and superseded Havelock as commander of the army
at Lucknow. (See HAVELOCK.) Died in 1863.
Outram, written also Owtram, (WILLIAM,) a learned
English theologian, born in Derbyshire in 1625. He
became prebendary of Westminster in 1670. He was
versed in rabbinical learning and in the writings of the
Fathers. His chief work is a treatise on sacrifices, "De
Sacrificiis Libri duo," (1677.) Died in 1679.
Ouvarof. See OOVAROF.
Ouvrard, oo'vuSu', (GAHKIKL JULIEN,) a French
financier, born near Clisson in 1770. He was a bold
and successful speculator, and enriched himself by his
operations as contractor during the war of the Revo
lution. He was prosecuted by Napoleon L, and im
prisoned some years. Died in 1846.
See his autobiographic " Memoires sur ma Vie," 3 vols., 1826;
" Biographic Uni verseile. "
Ouvrard, (RENE,) a French ecclesiastic, born at
Chinon about 1620, published treatises on music, the
ology, and mathematics. He was intimate with Arnauld
and other writers of Port-Royal. Died in 1694.
Ouvrie, oo'viie-i', (PIERRE JUSTIN,) a French land
scape-painter, born in Paris in 1806.
Ouwater, van, v&n ow'wa'ter, (ALBERT,) a Dutch
painter, born at Haarlem in 1444, was one of the first
artists in Holland who painted in oil. Among his mas
ter-pieces are "The Resurrection of Lazarus" and "The
Descent from the Cross." The latter was warmly
eulogized by Albert Diirer. Died in 1515.
See PILKINGTON, "Dictionary of Painters ;" DESCAMTS, "Vies
des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Ovalle, de, da o-val'ya, (ALFONSO,) sometimes writ
ten Ovaglie, a Jesuit, of Spanish extraction, born in
Chili in 1601. He published in 1646 a "Historical Ac
count of the Kingdom of Chili and the Jesuit Missions
in that Country." Died in 1651.
Ovando, o-van'do, (NICOLAS,) a Spanish officer, and
commander of the order of Alcantara, succeeded Boba-
dilla as governor of Hispaniola in 1501. While his rule
over the Spanish colonists was marked by justice and
kindness, he has incurred lasting reproach by the cruel
ties he perpetrated on the Indians, a great number of
whom were massacred at Xaragua by his orders. lie
also treated Columbus with great injustice, and availed
himself of every opportunity of thwarting his designs.
He was recalled to Spain in 1508, and succeeded by
Diego Columbus, son of the celebrated admiral. Died
in 1518, aged about fifty-eight.
See CHARLEVOIX, " Histoire de Saint-Domingue ;" OVIEDO,
" Cronica de las Indias."
O'ver-all, (JOHN,) a learned English prelate, bom in
1559. He rose through several preferments to be Bishop
of Norwich in 1619. His principal work is entitled
"The Convocation-Book," in which he maintains the
divine origin of government. Bishop Overall was es
teemed the best scholastic divine of his time in England.
He was the friend and correspondent of Grotius and
Gerard Vossius. Died in 1619.
Overbeck, o'ver-belv', (FRIEDRICH,) one of the most
illustrious German painters of the nineteenth century,
was born at Lubeck in 1789. After having studied for
a time at Vienna, in 1810 he visited Rome, where, with
Cornelius, Schnorr, and other German artists, he became
one of the founders of what has been styled the roman
tic or symbolic school of painting in Germany. Among
his earliest productions were the frescos at the villa of
the consul-general Bartholdy, representing "Joseph sold
into Captivity," and "The Seven Years of Famine." In
1817 he adorned the villa of Marquis Massimi with five
large frescos taken from Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered."
His magnificent fresco at Assisi, representing "The
Miracle of Roses of Saint Francis," is esteemed his
master-piece in that department. Among his best oil-
paintings are "The Entrance of Christ into Jerusalem,"
in the Marienkirche at Lubeck, "Christ on the Mount
of Olives," "The Death of Saint Joseph," and the large
picture in the Stadelschen Institut at Frankfort-on-the-
Main, entitled "The Influence of Christianity in the
Arts." He has also produced a number of elegant de
signs, among which are "Forty Illustrations from the
Gospels," since engraved by Keller, Bartoccini, and
others. Regarding art as the handmaid of religion,
Overbeck has almost exclusively chosen scriptural sub
jects, and his works are characterized by deep devotional
feeling, simplicity, and touching sweetness of expression.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; nftt; good; moon;
OPERBEEK
1721
OWEN
According to some writers, Overbeck's influence and
reputation in Germany have considerably declined of
latter time. Died in 1869.
SeeRACZYNSKi, " Histoire del' Art Allemand moderne ;" NACI.ER,
"Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" BROCKHAUS, "Conversations-
Lexikou."
Overbeek, van, vtn o'ver-bak', (BONAVENTUKF.,) a
Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1660. He went
to Rome, and made numerous designs of the antiquities
of that city. Having returned to Holland, he died in
1706, leaving a work entitled " Reliquiae antiquae Urbis
Romas," (1707-09.)
See DKSCAMI'S, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Overbury, o'ver-ber-e, (Sir THOMAS,) an English
author and courtier, born at Compton-Scorfen, Warwick
shire, in 1581. By his talents and learning he acquired
influence with Carr, who became the favourite of James
I. and was created Earl of Somerset. For advising
against the marriage of Carr with the infamous Countess
of Essex, Overbury was committed to the Tower, (1613.)
After a confinement of several months, he was poisoned
by order of Somerset and his wife, who were convicted
of the crime but pardoned. He left a popular poem
called "The Wife," (1614,) and a prose work entitled
" Characters," which is praised for wit and ingenuity.
''The Fair and Happy Milkmaid,' often quoted," says
Hallam, "is the best of his characters."
See E. F. RIMBAUI.T, "Life of Sir Thomas Overbury," 1856;
GARDINER, "History of England from 1603 to 1616," ch. xi. ; " Re
trospective Review," vol. ii., (1820.) ^)f,y><,J}'fZ'"^'a"y •"•*
Overskov, o'ver-skov', (THOMAS,) a Danish drama
tist, born at Copenhagen in 1798. He produced nume
rous comedies and operas ; also a " History of the Danish
Theatre," (1854-56.)
O'ver-stone, (SAMUEL JONES LOYD,) first BARON, an
English banker, born in London in 1796. He was raised
to the peerage in 1850. He had previousTy gained some
distinction as a financier.
Overweg, o'ver-wer/, (AnoLF,) a German traveller,
born at Hamburg in 1822. He was associated with Mr.
Richardson and Dr. Barth in a journey of exploration
to Lake Tchad, in Africa. They left Tripoli in March,
1850, and Overweg, with Dr. Barth, reached Lake Tchad
in 1851. He launched a boat on the lake and visited
the islands in it. He died of fever at Kuka, in Central
Africa, in September, 1852.
Ov'id, |Lat. Ovn/ius ; It. Ovinio, o-vee'de-o ; Fr.
OVIDE, o'ved',1 or, more fully, Pub'lius Ovid'ius
Na'so, a popular Roman poet, was born at Sulmo,
(Sulmona,) about ninety miles east of Rome, in 43 B.C.
lie studied rhetoric in Rome under Arellius Fuscus and
Porcius Latro, and made himself master of Greek at
Athens. His poetical genius was manifested in early
youth, and afterwards diverted him from the practice of
law, which, in compliance with his father's will, he began
to study. He held, however, several civil or judicial
offices at Rome, and became one of the Decemviri. He
sought and obtained the acquaintance of Propertius,
Horace, Macer, and other poets. He also enjoyed for a
time the favour of the emperor Augustus. Among his
earliest productions were three books of "Amores."
Before the age of fifty he had published "The Art of
Love," (" Ars Amatoria,") " Medea," a tragedy, and
" Heroic Epistles," (" He'roides.") He had also nearly
finished his celebrated " Metamorphoses," (" Metamor-
phoseon Libri XV.,") which display great poetical
genius. In the year 8 A.D. he was suddenly banished
by Augustus to Tomi, on the Euxine, near the mouth
of the Danube. The reason assigned for this penal
measure was the publication of his immodest poem
" The Art of Love ;" but this is believed to have been
a mere pretext, as that poem was published about ten
years earlier. Ovid in his later writings alludes to some
offence which he mysteriously conceals, and for which
he admitted that he deserved to suffer. This question
appears to have baffled the ingenuity and curiosity of
scholars. He has been censured for the abject terms
in which he petitioned Augustus for a pardon, which
was inexorably refused. He died at Tomi in 18 A.D.,
which was also the year of Livy's death. His " Me
dea," which some ancient critics esteemed his most
perfect work, is lost. During his exile he wrote, besides
other minor poems, "Twelve Books of Fasti," ("Fasto-
rum Libri XII.,") six of which have come clown to us.
This is a poetical Roman calendar, and has historical
value as well as literary merit. Ovid was thrice married,
and divorced his first wife and his second. He also loved
and courted a woman of high rank, whom he celebrated
under the fictitious name of Corinna. Some writers
suppose she was Julia the daughter, or Julia the grand
daughter, of the emperor Augustus. The best English
translation of Ovid is " Ovid's Metamorphoses, in Fifteen
Books, translated by the Most Eminent Hands," London,
1717. Among these translators were Dryden, Addison,
Congreve, and Garth.
See MASSON, "Vita P. Ovidii Nasonis," 1708; C. ROSMINI,
"Vitadi Public Ovidio Naso," 1789; VII.LENAVE, "Vie d'Ovide,"
Paris, 1809; BAYLE, '• Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Ovide. See OVID.
Ovidio. See OVID.
Ovidius. See OVID.
Ovieclo, de, da o-ve-a'DO, (ANDRES,) a Spanish
Jesuit and missionary, born at Ilhescas. He was sent
to Abyssinia about 1556. Died in 1577.
Oviedo y Valdes, de, da o-ve-a'DO e val-deV, (GoN-
SALO FERNANDEZ,) a celebrated Spanish historian, born
at Madrid in 1478, became at an early age one of the
pages at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. In 1513
he visited the West Indies, where he resided many
years, and obtained, among other important offices, that
of historiographer of the Indies. His principal work is
entitled " General History of the West Indies," (ist vol.,
1535,) which, though containing many errors, displays
extensive learning and has been of great value to sub
sequent historians. The last volume of it remains in
manuscript. He also published a "Treatise on the
Natural History of the Indies," and wrote a valuable
work, which is still in manuscript, entitled " Quinqua-
genas," or Fifty Dialogues. Died in 1557.
See TICKNOR. " History of Spanish Literature," vol. i. ; PRES-
COTT, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. ii. book iv., and
his " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. part i.
Oviiigtoii, uv'ing-ton, ? (JOHN,) an English ecclesi
astic and traveller, was chaplain to King James II. In
| 1689)16 sailed to the East Indies, and spent several years
in Surat. He published in 1698 his " Voyage to Surat
in the Years 1689-93," etc-> which was translated into
French.
Owen. See GORONWY-OWEN.
0'wen, ( DAVID DALE,) brother of Robert Dale, no
ticed below, was born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, in 1807.
In 1848 he was appointed to conduct the geological
survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota. The result
of his observations was published in a quarto volume,
with maps and illustrations, (1852.) He was appointed
in 1857 State geologist of Arkansas. Died in 1860.
O'wen, (GEORGE,) an English physician, born in Wor
cestershire, took his degree in 1527. He became phy
sician to Henry VIII. Died in 1558.
O'weii, (HENRY,) a learned Welsh divine and theo
logical writer, born in Merionethshire about 1716. He
published, among other works, " Remarks on the Four
Gospels," and "An Introduction to Hebrew Criticism."
Died in 1795.
Owen, |Lat. AUDOF/NUS,] (JOHN,) one of the best
Latin poets of modern times, was born in Caernar
vonshire, in Wales, about 1560. His " Epigrammata,"
published in 1612, are remarkable for elegance and
correctness of language and caustic wit. They have
been translated into several languages. Died in 1622.
See WOOD, " Athenae Oxonienses."
Owen, (JOHN,) an excellent English nonconformist
divine and Puritan, bom at Stadham, in Oxfordshire, in
1616, was a son of Henry Owen, a minister. He was
educated at Queen's College, Oxford, which he quitted
about 1637. After that date he was chaplain to Sir
Philip Dormer and to Lord Lovelace. He became a
resident of London in 1641 or 1642, and published his
"Display of Arminianism," (1642.) In the civil war he
was a constant adherent of the popular cause. He mar
ried early, was presented to the living of Coggeshall
about 1644, and united himself in fellowship with the
Independents. He published " Salus Electorum, San-
guis Jesu ; or the Death of Death in the Death of Christ."
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
OWEN
1722
OXENSTIERN
In January, 1649, he preached a sermon before the House
of Commons on the day after the execution of Charles I.
This sermon was characterized by a more liberal and
tolerant spirit than that which prevailed in his time. He
was appointed chaplain to Cromwell in 1649, and Dean
of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1651. He was vice-chan
cellor of the University of Oxford about five years, 1652-
56. In 1655 he wrote a work against Socinianism, called
"Vindiciae Evangelicae." After the restoration of 1660,
Owen preached in London for a number of years, and
wrote many works, among which are an " Exposition of
the Epistle to the Hebrews," (1668,) a "Discourse on
the Holy Spirit," (1674,) and "The Doctrine of Justifi
cation," (1677.) Died in 1683.
" As a theological thinker and writer," says the Rev.
Andrew Thomson, "he holds his own distinctly-defined
place among those Titanic intellects with which his age
abounded. Surpassed by Baxter in point and pathos,
by Howe in imagination and in the higher philosophy,
... he is unrivalled in his power of unfolding the rich
meanings of Scripture. In his writings he was pre
eminently the great theologian, and in his practical
counsels the Nestor, of the Puritans." (" Encyclopaedia
Britannica.")
See W. ORME, "Life of John Owen," 1820; REV. A. THOMSON,
" Life of John Owen," new edition, 1856; " Biographia Britannica ;"
WOOD, "Athenje Oxonienses;" WILSON, "Dissenting Churches;"
BURNET, " H'Storyof his Own Times ;" AI.LIHONE, " Dictionary of
Authors;" "North British Review" for November, 1851.
Owen, (JOHN,) an English divine, bom in London
about 1765. He was one of the earliest members, and
the principal secretary during his lifetime, of the IJible
Society. He wrote, among other treatises, " The Chris
tian Monitor for the Last Days," and a " Vindication
of the Bible Society." Died in 1822.
Owen, (LEWIS,) a Welsh theologian, born in Merion
ethshire in 1572. He wrote a book against the Jesuits,
"Speculum jesuiticum," (1629.)
Owen, (RICHARD,) an English zoologist, anatomist,
and palaeontologist of great eminence, was born at Lan
caster in 1804. He studied medicine, and entered the
University of Edinburgh in 1824. In 1825 he became
a pupil of John Abernethy, at Saint Bartholomew's
Hospital, London. Through the influence of Abernethy
he was appointed assistant curator of the Hunterian
Museum of the College of Surgeons. He expended
immense labour in the production of a catalogue of this
collection, and succeeded Clift as curator of the museum.
He published an excellent " Memoir on the Pearly Nau
tilus, (Nautilus Pompilius,") (1832,) and a "Descriptive
and Illustrated Catalogue of the Physiological Series
of Comparative Anatomy in the Hunterian Museum, "(5
vols., 1833-40.) He married in 1835 a daughter of Mr.
Clift, above mentioned. About 1836 he succeeded Sir
Charles Bell as Hunterian professor at the Royal Col
lege of Surgeons, and gave a series of lectures on com
parative anatomy, which were published in 1843. He
contributed numerous treatises or monographs on phys
iology and anatomy to the " Transactions of the Zoo
logical Society" and the "Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and
Physiology." Professor Owen has rendered important
services to palaeontology, and has exhibited remarkable
skill in the anatomy and reconstruction of extinct ani
mals, such as the Cheirotherium, the Glyptodon, Mylo-
don, and Plesiosaurus. He discovered a gigantic fossil
bird, the Dinornis. Among his chief works are " Odon-
tography," (2 vols., 1840,) a " History of British Fossil
Mammals and Birds," (1846,) and "On the Archetype
and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton," (1848.)
He received the royal medal in 1848, and the Copley
medal of the Royal Society in 1851. In 1856 he ceased
to be Hunterian professor, and became director of the
natural history departments of the British Museum.
He is one of the eight foreign associates of the French
Institute. In addition to the works above named, he
has published a treatise " On the Nature of Limbs,"
(1849,) "On Parthenogenesis," (1849,) and "On the
Anatomy of Vertebrates," (3 vols., 1866-68.) He was
one of the first who used the microscope in the investi
gation of the structure of animals, and was the first who
employed the word "homology" or"homologue" in com
parative anatomy. He admits the mutability of species,
but opposes the Darwinian theory of Natural Selection,
for which he substitutes his " hypothesis of Derivation."
He says, " Every species changes, in time, by virtue of
inherent tendencies thereto. ' Natural Selection' holds
that no such change can take place without the influence
of altered external circumstances educing or selecting
such change." ("On the Anatomy of Vertebrates," 3d
vol. chap, xl.) Humboldt is said to have expressed the
opinion that Owen was the greatest anatomist of his
age. He has been styled "the Cuvier of England" and
"the Newton of natural history."
See a review of his writings in the " London Quarterly Review"
for April, 1852, and July. 1853; "British Quarterly Review" for
July, 1860 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1856 ; " North British
Review" for May, 1858.
Owen, (RonF.KT,) a socialist and philanthropist, born
at Newton, in Wales, in 1771, was a son of poor parents.
He married about 1800 a daughter of David Dale, who
owned cotton-mills at New Lanark, on the Clyde. Owen
managed these mills for a time with success, and gave
much attention to the comfort of the operatives and the
education of their children. He published in 1812 a
"New View of Society," and afterwards "The Book of
the New Moral World," in which he advocated a modi
fied system of community of property. About 1824 he
purchased a large tract at New Harmony, Indiana, and
there tested by experiment his socialist theory, which
was entirely unsuccessful. He returned to England in
1827, and continued to propagate his projects of reform
by lectures and writings. His doctrines were adopted
by a large number of people, who were called Owenites.
Died in'iSsS.
See "Robert Owen and his Social Philosophy," by W. L. SAR-
r;ANT. London, 1860; "Life of Robert Owen," (by F. A. PACKARD,)
Philadelphia, 1866; "Biographical Sketches," by H. MARTINEAU;
RRYBAUD, " fitudes snr les Reformateurs contemporains ;" " Robert
Owen the Found* of Socialism in England," 1869, bv ARTHUK JOHN
BOOTH ; " Edinburgh Review" for October, iSig: "Fraser's Maga
zine" for December, 1830; "Westminster Review" for October, 1860.
Owen, (ROBERT DALE,) a distinguished political and
miscellaneous writer, son of the preceding, was born at
New Lanark, Scotland, in 1804. He came at an early
age to America, settled in Indiana, and was elected to
Congress by the Democratic party in 1843. He was
charge-d'affaires to Naples in 1853. He has published
| " New Views of Society," (1825,) "Hints on Public
Architecture," (1849,) " Footfalls on the Boundaries of
another World," (1859,) "The Wrong of Slavery, the
Right of Emancipation," etc., (1864,) and "Beyond the
Breakers," a novel, (1870.)
See the "North British Review" for February, 1861.
Owen, (THOMAS,) an English judge, born in Shrop
shire, gained a high reputation as judge of the common
pleas. Died in 1598. His Reports were published in
1656.
Owen, (WILLIAM,) an able English painter of por
traits and history, born in Shropshire in 1769. He was
patronized by the prince-regent, afterwards George IV.
Died in 1824.
Owen Glendower. See GLENDOWER.
Owen Meredith. See BULWER.
Owenson. See MORGAN, LADY.
Owtram, (WILLIAM.) See OUTRAM.
Ox'en-ford, (JOHN,) an English dramatist and trans
lator, born 'near London in 1812. Among his original
dramas are "My Fellow-Clerk," (1835,) and "A Dav
Well Spent," (1836.) He translated Moliere's "Tartuffe,"
and the " Conversations of Goethe," by Eckermann, and
other works, from the German.
Oxenham, ox'en-am, (!OHN,) an English seaman,
served under Sir Francis Drake in 1572. He soon after
sailed with one ship for the eastern shore of Darien,
and crossed over to Panama and the Pearl Islands, where
he was taken and put to death by the Spaniards.
See J. BARROW, " Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen
Elizabeth's Reign," 1845.
Oxenstiern, oks'en-stern', or Oxenstierna, oks'en-
shSR'na, (AxEL,) COUNT, chancellor of Sweden, and one
of the greatest statesmen of the seventeenth century or
of modern times, was born at Fano, in Upland, June
16, 1583. He was educated at Jena and Wittenberg.
At the age of twenty-six he was chosen a senator, after
a, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
OXENSTIERN
1723
PACCA
having been employed in important negotiations. In
1611 Gustavus Adolphus appointed him chancellor of
Sweden, or prime minister. The prudence, zeal, and
profound combinations of Oxenstiern contributed greatly
to the success of the Swedish hero. After Gustavus
was killed, in 1632, the chancellor was invested with full
power by the senate, and prosecuted the war against
the Emperor of Germany. He was recognized as the
head of the Protestant league, which gained several vic
tories under his direction. During the minority of Queen
Christina he governed Sweden with ability, restored the
finances to good order, and patronized learning. He
was prime minister after Christina began to reign, (1645,)
and strenuously opposed her abdication. He died in
August, 1654. Oxenstiern was the author of the often-
quoted observation, addressed to his son, "You do not
know, my son, with how little wisdom the world is
governed," (" Nescis, mi fili, quantilla prudentia homi
nes regantur.") He was the reputed author of the
second volume of " Historia Belli Sueco-Germanici,"
(" History of the Swedish-German War,") of which
Chemnitz wrote the first volume. He was considered
an equal match for Richelieu in diplomacy. He had
two sons, John and Erik, who obtained high offices in
the public service.
See J. F. LUNDBI.AD, " Svensk Plutarch," 2d vol., 1826-31;
JOHA.M GKZKI.IUS, " Aminnelse-Tal Sfver A. Oxenstierna," 1774;
C. P. HAGMKRG, " Areminne bfver A. Oxenstierna," 1808 ; PUKFE.M-
DORF, " De Rebus Suecicis ;" GKIJKR, " Histoire de la Suede:"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" RICHELIEU, " Memoires ;" E.
GYLLENSTOLPE, "Areminne ofver A. Oxenstierna," 1777.
Oxenstiern, (BENEDICT,) an able Swedish statesman,
of the same family as the preceding, was born in 1623.
He was appointed governor of Warsaw by Charles X.,
after whose death (1660) he returned to Sweden and
had great influence in the government. About 1672 he
obtained the confidence of Charles XL, who appointed
him chancellor and chief minister. The pacific system
of Oxenstiern was disturbed by the death of Charles XL,
in 1697. After Charles XII. had defeated the Danes
and conquered Poland, Oxenstiern advised him to make
peace, in a memoir which is called a master-piece of
wisdom. Died in 1702.
See SCHI.OZER, " Schwedische Biographic."
Oxenstiern, (ERIK,) a son of the celebrated states
man, was born in 1624. He became a senator in 1652,
and vice-chancellor in 1654, soon after which he con
ducted negotiations with the Elector of Brandenburg.
Died in 1656.
Oxenstiern, (|OHAN,) a brother of the preceding,
was born at Stockholm in 1611. He entered the army,
and obtained the rank of colonel. About 1639 he was
raised to the dignity of senator. He was employed for
several years as minister-plenipotentiary in Germany,
and represented Sweden in the negotiations which re
sulted in the peace of Westphalia, (1648.) Died at
Weimar in 1657.
Oxenstierna. See OXENSTIERN.
Oxenstierna, oks'en-sheVna, (GABRIEL THURESON,)
a Swedish diplomatist, born at Stockholm in 1641. He
wrote, in French, a " Collection of Thoughts," (" Recueil
de Pensees," 1725.) Died in 1707.
Oxford, EAKL OK. See DE VERE, (EDWARD,) and
HARLEY, (ROHERT.)
Ox-y-ar'tes or Ox-ar'tes, [Gr. 'O^vupTTjf,] a Bactrian
chief, whose daughter Roxana was married to Alexander
the Great. This king appointed him satrap of Paropa-
misus. Died after 316 H.C.
Ozanam, o'zS'nS.N', (ANTOINE FREDERIC,) a French
scholar and elegant writer, born at Milan in 1813. He
became a good classical scholar, and studied law. In
1844 he succeeded Fauriel as professor of foreign litera-
| ture at the Sorbonne, Paris. He attained eminence as
a lecturer, and published, besides other works, " Dante
and the Catholic Philosophy in the Thirteenth Century,"
(1839,) and " fitudes Germaniques pour servir a 1'His-
toire des Francs," (2 vols., 1847-49.) Died in Septem
ber, 1853.
See LACORDAIRB, "Notice sur A. F. Ozanam," prefixed to his
collected works, 8 vols., 1855; LEGEAY, " E*tude biographique sur
Ozanam," 1854; J. J. AMPERE, "Notice biographique sur A. F.
Ozanam," 1853; COLLOMBET, " Biographic de F. Ozanam," 1853.
Ozanam, (J. A. F.,) a French physician, born in
Bresse in 1772, was the father of the preceding. He
published a " History of Epidemic Diseases," (5 vols.,
1817-23.) Died at Lyons in 1836.
Ozanam, (JACQUES,) a distinguished French mathe
matician, born at Bouligneux in 1640. Among his nu
merous and useful treatises are " Mathematical Diction
ary," (1691,) "Mathematical and Physical Recreations,"
(1694,) and "Theoretical and Practical Perspective,"
(1711.) He taught mathematics in Paris, where he died
in 1717.
See FONTENELLE, " filoge d'Ozanam."
Ozaneaux, o'zt'no', (JEAN GEORGE,) a French writer
of prose and verse, was born in Paris in 1795. He wrote
a "History of France," (2 vols., 1846.) which gained a
prize of the French Academy, and "Erreurs poetiques,"
(3 vols., 1849.) Died in 1852.
Ozanne, o'ztn', (NICOLAS MARIE,) a French designer
and engraver, born at Brest in 1728; died in Paris in
1811.
O-zell', (JoHN,) an English litterateztr, of French ex
traction, was contemporary with Pope, who has given
him a place in the " Dunciad." He made translations
from Racine, Moliere, and Boileau, and from several
Italian and Spanish writers. Died in 1743.
See CIBBER, " Lives of the Poets."
Ozeretskofsko or Ozeretzkovsko, o-zeh-re't-skof'-
sko, sometimes written Ozeretzkoffsky, (NICHOLAS,)
a Russian scientific writer, born about 1750. He wrote
several treatises on zoology, botany, mineralogy, etc.
Died about 1827.
P.
Paalzow, von, fon palt'so, (AucusTE,) a German
lady, born at Berlin in 1788, was a sister of the painter
Wach. She was the author of a popular romance,
entitled "Godwie Castle," (1836,) and other fictitious
works. Died in 1847.
Paas. See PASS.
Paaw, (CORNELLS.) See PAUW.
Paaw, pa'oo or pow, (PIETER,) a Dutch physician and
naturalist, born at Amsterdam in 1564, was professor of
medicine at Leyden, where he also founded the botanic
garden. He published several valuable treatises on
botany and anatomy. Died in 1617.
Pabodie, pab'o-de, (WILLIAM JEWETT,) an American
poet, born at Providence, Rhode Island, about 1812.
He has published " Calidore, a Legendary Poem," and
a number of smaller pieces.
Pabst, ptpst, (HEINRICH WILHELM,) a German
agriculturist, born near Lauterbach, in Hesse, in 1798.
He published, besides other works, a " Treatise on Rural
Economy," (5th edition, 1860.)
Pabst, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) a German philosopher,
born at Lindau, in Thuringia, in 1785. Among his
works is "Man and his History," (1830.) Died in 1837.
Pa'ca, (WILLIAM,) one of the signers of the Ameri
can Declaration of Independence, was born in Harford
county, Maryland, in 1740. He was elected to the Con
gress of 1774, and continued in this office till 1778. He
became Governor of Maryland in 1782, and in 1789 was
appointed judge of the district court of the United States
for Maryland. Died in 1799.
See GOODRICH, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde
pendence."
Pacatianus, pa-ka-she-a'nus, [Fr. PACATIEN, pS'-
kS'se4,N',] (Trrus CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS,) a Roman
emperor, whose existence is indicated only by medals.
It is supposed that he assumed the title in 249 A.D.
Pacatien. See PACATIANUS.
Pacatus. See DREPANIUS.
Pacca, pak'kd, (BARTOLOMMEO,) an Italian cardinal,
born at Benevento in 1756. He became papal secretary
€as-£/9as s;%hard; gzsj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; th as in this,
Explanations, p. 23.)
PACCARD
1724
PACTHOD
of state (i.e. prime minister) in 1808, and was imprisoned
about three years by Napoleon, (1809-12.) Died in 1844.
He wrote " Historical Memoirs," which have been pub
lished, (London, 1850.)
See ARTAUD DE MONTOR, " Notice sur le Cardinal B. Pacca,"
1846.
Paccard, pS'ktk', (ALEXIS,) a French architect, born
in Paris in 1813. He gained the grand prize in 1841.
Pacchiarottcvpak-ke-a-rot'to, (JACOPO,) an eminent
Italian painter, born at Sienna in the fifteenth century.
He painted in oil and fresco with equal success. His
style resembles that of Perugino. Among his best works
in oil are an "Ascension," a "Nativity of the Virgin,"
and a Madonna, (at Munich.) His frescos may be seen
at Sienna. His heads are greatly admired. To- escape
the penalty of a political conspiracy, he left Sienna in
1535, and fled to France.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, " History of Paint
ing in Italy."
Pacchioni, pak-ke-o'nee, (ANTONIO,) an able Italian
anatomist, born at Reggio in 1665. lie removed to
Rome about 1700, and was associated in the scientific
labours of Lancisi. Died at Rome in 1726. His writings
were published under the title of " Opera Omnia," (1741.)
Paccioli, pat-cho'lee, or Pacioli, pa-cho'lee, (LucA,)
an Italian mathematician and monk, born at Borgo San
Sepolcro about 1450, was often called LUCA m BORGO
or DE BURGO. He taught at Perugia, Rome, Naples,
Pisa, and Venice. His chief work is " Summa de Arith-
metica, Geometria, Proportion!, " etc., (1494,) — the first
printed book in which the method of keeping accounts
by double entry was explained. He also wrote a work
" On Divine Proportion," (" De Divina Proportione,"
1509,) the plates of which were engraved by his friend
Leonardo da Vinci. He was living in 1509.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Pace, [Lat. PA'CEUS,] (RICHARD,) an English nego
tiator and priest, born in or near Winchester about 1482.
He was employed in important missions by Henry VIII.,
and sent to Rome about 1521 by Wolsey to urge his
claims to the papacy. He was a friend of Erasmus, who
addressed several letters to him. Pace obtained the
deanery of Saint Paul's, London, about 1520, and other
benefices. He incurred the ill will of Wolsey, by whom
he was confined in the Tower for two years, and became
insane. Died in 1532.
Pacetti, pa-chet'tee, (CAMILLO,) an Italian sculptor,
born in Rome about 1760, became professor of sculpture
in Milan. Died in 1827.
Paceus. See PACE, (RICHARD.)
Pache, pSsh, (JEAN NICOLAS,) a French revolutionist,
born in Paris in 1746. He was controller of the king's
household under the ministry of Necker. In October,
1792, he was appointed minister of war by the influence
of the Girondists, who removed him in February, 1793,
because he had joined the Jacobin party. He was
elected mayor of Paris in the spring of 1793, and took
a prominent part in the ruin of the Girondists. Died
in 1823.
Pacheco, pa-cha'ko, (FRANCISCO,) an eminent Span
ish painter and writer, born at Seville in 1571, was a
pupil of Luis Fernandez. He opened an academy in
Seville in 1611, and was appointed painter to King
Philip IV. after 1625. He designed well, and is com
mended for simplicity, but he was not a good colorist.
Among his chief works are "The Last Judgment,"
"Daedalus and Icarus," and "The Archangel Michael
expelling Satan from Paradise." He wrote a treatise on
the art of painting, entitled " Artede la Pintura," (1649,)
which is highly esteemed. Among his pupils were
Alonzo Cano and Velasquez. Died in 1654.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" CEAN-BER-
MUDEZ, " Diccionario Historico."
Pacheco, (MARIA.) See PADILLA.
Pa'-ehes, [Gr. Ilaj^f,] an Athenian general, com
manded the army which took Mitylene in 427 H.c.
Fa~eho'mi-us, [Gr. Ylaxufiiof ; Fr. PACOME, pi'kSm',]
an Egyptian ascetic of the fourth century, was born in
the Thebaid. He is reputed the founder of regular
monastic communities, or the first who prescribed fixed
rules of life to the monks and nuns. He founded a
monastery at Tabenna, on the Nile, and became so noted
for his piety that many others were built in the vicinity
by his disciples. Died about 348 A.D.
Fachymere. See PACHYMERES.
Fa-ehym'e-res, [Gr. FewpyMf 6 ITa^i^f p?V ; Fr.
PACHYMERE, pS'she'maiR',] one of the most eminent
of the later Byzantine historians, was born at Nicaea
about 1242. He lived in Constantinople, and was chief
justice of the imperial court. He wrote, besides other
important works, a " Historia Byzantina," which com
prises the reigns of Michael Palaeologus and his son
Andronicus. It is written with dignity, and is highly
prized for its fidelity. He died probably after 1310.
See FABKICIUS, " Bibliotheca Gra?ca."
Paciau, pa'she-an, [Sp. pron. p;W//e-an'; Lat. PA-
CIANUS, pa-she-a'nus ; Fr. PACIEN, pt'se^N',] a Spanish
saint and writer, who flourished about 375 A.D., and was
Bishop of Barcelona.
Pacianus. See PACIAN.
Paciaudi, pa-chow'dee, (PAOLO MARIA,) a learned
Italian antiquary, born at Turin in 1710, entered the
order of Theatines. He published, besides other works,
a " History of the Grand Masters of the Order of Malta,"
(3 vols., 1760, unfinished,) and " Peloponnesian Monu
ments," ("Monumenta Peloponnesiaca," 1761.) He
became librarian to the Duke of Parma about 1762.
Died in 1785.
See FABKONI, "Vitae Italorurn doctrina excellentium ;" " Nou-
velle Biographic Generate;" DACIER, "filoge de Paciaudi."
Pacichelli, pa-che-kel'lee, (GIAMHATTISTA,) an Ital
ian writer, born at Pistoia about 1640. He wrote "The
Kingdom of Naples," (" II Regno di Napoli," 3 vols.,
1703.) Died in 1702.
Pacieii. See PACIAN.
Pacifico. See PACIFICUS.
Pa-gif i-cus Max'i-mus, [ It. PACIFICO MASSIMO,
pa-chee'fe-ko mas'se-mo,] a Latin poet, born at Ascoli
in 1400. He wrote many poems, which were published
in 1489, under the title of "Jocose and Festive Elegies,"
("Elegiae Jocosae et Festivas.") Died about 1500.
Pacini, pa-chee'nee, (GIOVANNI,) a popular com
poser, born at Syracuse, Sicily, in 1796 or 1790. He
composed with a marvellous facility many operas, among
which is "Adelaide e Comingio," (1818,) and " Niobe,"
(1826.)
Pacio, pS'cho, sometimes written Pace, [Lat. PA'-
cius A BER'IGA,] (GiULio,) an eminent Italian jurist
and classical scholar, born at Vicenza in 1550. Having
been converted to the Protestant religion, he went into
exile, and was professor of philosophy at Heidelberg
and Sedan. About 1616 he obtained a chair of law
at Valence, in France. He wrote " On the Method of
Law," ("De Juris Methodo," 1597,) "On Contracts,"
(" De Contractibus,") and other works. Died at Va
lence in 1635.
See BERRIAT SAINT-PRIX, "Notice sur la Vie de J. Pacius,"
1840; EKSCH und GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" NICJ£-
RON, " Memoires."
Pacioli. See PACCIOLI.
Pacius a Beriga. See PACIO.
Pack, (RICHARDSON,) an English writer, born in Suf
folk about 1680. He rose to the rank of major in the
army. He published a volume of poems, (1718,) a "Life
of Pomponius Atticus," and other works. Died in 1728.
Pac6me. See PACHOMIUS.
Fac'o-rus, [Gr. HuKopof,] the eldest son of Orodes,
King of Parthia, was born about 66 K.c. At an early
age he was associated with his father on the throne. In
51 B.C. he led an army into Syria, where he was defeated
by Caius Cassius. After the battle of Philippi, the Par
thian king sent to Syria another expedition, commanded
by Pacorus and Titus Labienus, a Roman, who gained a
victory over an officer of Antony. After Pacorus had
subjected Syria, he was defeated and killed by the army
of Ventidius, in 38 B.C.
See DION CASSIUS, " History of Rome."
Pacorus, a king of Parthia, who reigned in the time
of Domitian and Trajan. Little is known respecting
him.
Pacthod, ptk'to', (MICHEL MARIE,) COUNT, a French
general, born in Savoy in 1764. He gained the rank of
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon-
PA curio
1725
PAGANI
general of division on the field of Espinosa, (1808,) and
commanded in Naples and Illyria from 1810 to 1812.
Died in 1830.
Pacuvio. See PACUVIUS.
Pa-cu'vi-us, [It. PACUVIO, pa-koo've-o,] (MARCUS,)
an eminent Roman tragic poet and painter, born at
Brundusium about 220 B.C., was a nephew of the poet
Ennuis. According to the judgment of Quintilian and
other ancient critics, his dramas had some merit. His
works are lost, except small fragments. He died at the
age of ninety. His epitaph, composed by himself, has
been preserved by Aulus Gellius.
See Vossius, " De Poetis Latinis;" ANNIBAI.E DE LEO, " Dis-
sertazinne imorno la Vila di M. Pacuvio," 1763; " Nouvelle Biogra-
phie Generale."
Paderna, pa-deViia, (PAOLO ANTONIO,) an Italian
painter of history and landscapes, was born in 1649.
His landscapes are highly praised. Died in 1708.
Padilla, de, da pf-nel'ya, (FRANCESCO,) a Spanish
historian, born at Antequera in 1527, was a nephew of
the following. He wrote an " Ecclesiastical History of
Spain." Died in 1607.
Padilla, de, (Don JUAN LOPEZ,) a Spanish patriot
and general, born in Castile, was a son of a nobleman.
He became in 1520 the leader of the malcontents whom
the extortions and misrule of the Flemish ministers of
Charles V. provoked to revolt. The insurgents elected
a council called Junta de las Comunidades. Padilla de
feated the royal troops at Segovia, took Vallaclolid, the
capital of Spain, and deposed the regent, Adrian of
Utrecht. Dissensions arose among the popular party,
Padilla was deprived of the command, and his successor
was defeated. About the end of 1520 he was restored
to the command. He was defeated and taken prisoner
at Villalar in April, 1521, and executed the next day.
See ROBERTSON, "Charles V.," vol. ii. book iii.
Padilla, de, (LORENZO,) a Spanish historian, born at
Antequera about 1485. lie was eminent for learning,
and leceived the title of historiographer to Charles V.
He left in manuscript a "General History of Spain,"
and a work on the antiquities of Spain, which was pub
lished in 1669. Died in 1540.
See N. ANTONIO, " Bibliolheca Hispana Nova."
Padilla, de, (Dona MARIA PACHECO,) the wife of
Juan Lopez, noticed above, was a woman of great energy
and talents, and devoted herself to the popular cause.
After her husband's death she took his place as leader,
and made heroic but unsuccessful efforts to defend
Toledo against the royalists. She escaped to Portugal,
where she remained until her death.
See MARIANA, " Hisloria de Espana."
Padilla, de, (PEDRO,) a Spanish poet, born at Linares,
was a friend of Cervantes. He published "Pastoral
Eclogues," (1582,) and other poems. He was one of
the best pastoral poets of his time. Died about 1600.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poels and Poelry of Europe."
Fad'ma', [modern Hindoo pron. pud'ma',] written
also Fedma, [from padmd, a "lotus,"] one of the names
of LAKSHMI, (which see.)
Padouan or Padovano. See CAVINO.
Padouanino. See LEONI, (OTTAVIO.)
Padouanino, pa-doo-a-nee'no, (FRANCESCO,) an ex
cellent Italian painter of history and portraits, was born
at Padua in 1552. He was correct in design and fertile
in invention. Among his works is a picture of the de
liverance of two persons who were condemned to death.
Died in 1617.
His son OTTAVIO was a skilful portrait-painter. He
died about 1634, at the age of fifty-two.
Padovano. See LEONI, (Luioi and OTTAVIO.)
Paean, pee'an, [Gr. Tlaiuv, HOITJGJV, or Tiaiuv : Fr.
PEAN, pa'SN'',] a name applied to Apollo, and also a
surname of /Esculapius, the god who had the power of
healing. It was afterwards applied to hymns sung in
honour of Apollo, and to martial songs by which a
victory was celebrated.
Paelinck, pa'link, (JOSEPH,) a Belgian painter, born
near Ghent in 1781. He worked at Rome five years.
Among his works is " The Discovery of the Cross."
Died at Brussels in 1839.
Paeonius, pe-o'ne-us, [LTajoivioc,] OFEPHESUS, a Greek
architect, probably lived about 400 li.c. He completed
(with Demetrius) the great temple of Diana at Ephesus.
Paeonius OF MENUE, an eminent Greek sculptor, of
whom little is known, is supposed to have lived about
430 B.C. He adorned with statues the temple of Jupiter
at Olympia.
Faer, pa-aiR', (FERDINANDO,) an eminent Italian
composer, born at Parma in 1771. Having produced
some successful operas, he was appointed chapel-master
at Dresden in 1801. He entered the service of Napoleon
in 1807 as imperial composer, and was employed to direct
the music of the court theatre. He was elected to the
Institute in 1831. Among his most admired operas are
"Griselda," (1796,) "Achille," (1806,) and "Agnese,"
(1811.) Died at Paris in 1839.
See FETIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Paesiello. See PAISIELLO.
Paez, pa-es', (FRANCESCO ALVAREZ,) a Portuguese
monk, asserted the temporal power of the pope in a
treatise " De Planctu Ecclesiae." Died in 1532.
Paez, pa-eth', (FRANCISCO,) a Jesuit missionary, born
at Olmedo, in Spain, in 1564. He entered Abyssinia in
1603, learned a native dialect, and converted the king,
Za-Denghel. He is said to have visited one of the
sources of the Nile in 1618. He died in Abyssinia in
1622, (as is supposed,) leaving a History of Abyssinia
in manuscript, and some letters.
Paez, pa-eth', (JosE ANTONIO,) a South American
general, born at Varinas about 1785. He served with
distinction in the army of Bolivar against the Spaniards.
The victory at the great battle of Carabobo, or Carabolo,
in 1821, is ascribed to him. In 1830 he was elected
President of Venezuela for four years. He was re-elected
in 1838 or 1839, and was appointed dictator in 1846.
Having failed in an armed contest with Monagas in
1848, he was taken prisoner and exiled in 1850. He is
represented as an able and respectable statesman.
See his Autobiography, " Antobioprafia del Jose" Antonio Paez,'
1867; "North American Review'' for July, 1827.
Pagan, de, deli pS'gSN', (BLAISE FRANCOIS,) COUNT,
an eminent French engineer and geometer, was born at
Avignon in 1604. He distinguished himself by skill and
courage in the war against the French Protestants, and
directed the siege of Nancy, in 1633. He had just been
made a marechal-de-camp. in 1642, when he was deprived
of sight by disease. Continuing to apply himself with
success' to mathematics, he gained a high reputation by
his writings. In 1645 he published in his "Treatise on
Fortifications" ("Traite des Fortifications") a new sys
tem of fortification, which quickly superseded all others.
He is reputed one of the greatest masters and improvers
of the art on which that work treats. Died in 1665.
See PERRAULT, " Homines illuslres."
Paganel, pt'gi'nel', (CAMILLE PIERRE ALEXIS,) a
tittjratfur,born in Paris in 1797. He was elected to the
Chamber of Deputies six times between 1834 and 1846,
and voted with the Centre. Among his works is a " His
tory of Frederick the Great," (1830.) Died in 1859.
Paganel, (PIERRE,) a French politician, the father of
the preceding, was born at Villeneuve d'Agen in 1745.
He was a moderate member of the Convention in 1792-
95. He voted, however, for the death and reprieve of
the king. He wrote an " Essay on the French Revolu
tion," (3 vols., 1810.) Died in 1826.
Pagani, pa-ga'nee, (FRANCESCO,) a Florentine painter,
born in 1531. He painted frescos in his native city.
Died in 1561.
Pagani, (GREGORIO,) a son of the preceding, was
born at Florence in 1558. He was a pupil of Cigoli,
whose style he imitated, was an excellent colorist, and
was one of the best masters that Florence possessed
at the end of the sixteenth century. His master-piece,
" The Discovery of the Cross," was destroyed by fire.
His extant works are not numerous. Died in 1605.
See LANZI, " History of Painling in Italy."
Pagani, (PAOLO,) a painter, born in the duchy of
Milan in 1661. He worked in Venice with success.
The gallery of Dresden contains his picture of a Mag
dalene in meditation. Died in 1716.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in //6«. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
PAGANI-CESA
1726
PAGNERRE
Fagani-Cesa, pa-ga'nee cha'sa, (GIUSEPPE URBANO,)
an Italian poet, born at Belluno in 1757. He wrote " La
ViHegiatura di Clizia," (1802,) and other poems of some
merit. He also produced a mediocre version of Virgil's
"/Eneid," (1822.) Died in 1835.
Paganini, pa-ga-nee'nee, (Niccoi.6,) acelebrated Ital
ian performer on the violin, was born at Genoa in 1784.
He received lessons from Rolfa, Ghiretti, and Paer,
and is said to have composed a sonata of merit at the
age of nine, about which time he began to perform in
public concerts, and by his wonderful powers produced
the most extraordinary excitement among the audience.
When not yet fifteen, he escaped from the control of his
father, and commenced business on his own account.
But, unhappily, the admiration and flatteries which he
received, and the control of large sums of money, which
he procured almost without effort, exerted a most in
jurious effect on his moral character, and he fell into
habits of gambling and into the practice of other vices.
About 1802 he retired for a time from public view ; but
his former habits of life, and the necessity of excitement,
soon induced or compelled him to return. After he had
given concerts in the great cities of Italy, he visited Vienna
in 1828, and was received with the wildest enthusiasm.
His performances created a furor wholly unparalleled
in the history of music. He gained enormous sums of
money in Paris and London. His marvellous perform
ance on a single string excited especial astonishment.
He composed sonatas, etc. for the violin, which display
an inventive genius. Died at Nice in 1840. With all
his rare gifts, he is said to have been sensual, extremely
avaricious, and excessively vain.
See SCHOTTKV, " Paganini's Leben nnd Treiben," Prague, 1830;
CONESTABH.K, " Vita del celebre N. Paganini;" J. IMKKKT DK LA
PH.M.feQUR, " Notice sur N. Paganini," Paris, 1830; G. E. AN'DEKS,
" Paganini. sa Vie. sa Personne," etc., 1831 ; FR. FAYOI.LK, " Paga
nini et Beriot." 1831 ; F^TIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musi-
ciens;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1831.
Pagano, pa-ga'no, (FRANCESCO MARIA,) a political
writer, born at Brienza, in the kingdom of Naples, in
1748. He obtained the chair of law at Naples in 1787.
His principal work is "Political Essays," (" Saggi po-
litici," 1792.) He was a partisan of the Neapolitan re
public formed in 1798. Having been taken prisoner by
the royalists, he was executed in 1800.
Paganucci, pa-ga-noot'chee, (JEAN,) a French mer
chant, born at Lyons in 1729, wrote an excellent "Mer
chants' Manual," (" Manuel des Negociants," 3 vols.,
1762.) Died in 1797.
Page, (Jons,) an American patriot and Governor,
born in Gloucester county, Virginia, in 1743. He ren
dered important services during the Revolution, was
a member of Congress from Virginia for eight years,
(1789-97.) and was elected Governor of Virginia in
1802. lie was a personal friend of Thomas Jefferson.
Died at Richmond in 1808.
Page, (THOMAS JEFFERSON,) an American naval
officer, born in Virginia about 1815. He was appointed
a commander in the United States navy in 1855.
Page, (WILLIAM,) an English divine, born at Harrow
in 1590, was master of a free school at Reading. He
wrote "The Peace-Maker, or a Brief Motive to Unity."
Died in 1663.
Page, (Wn.LiAM,) an American painter, born at Al
bany in 1811. He studied for a time under S. F. B.
Morse, in New York, and subsequently produced several
portraits and historical pieces which established his
reputation. He visited Rome about 1850, and returned
in 1860 to New York. Among his principal works are
the " Flight into Egypt," " Moses and Aaron on Mount
Horeb," and " The Infant Bacchus."
See TUCKER.MAN, "Book of the Artists."
Pagenstecher, pa'gen-steK'er, (ALEXANDER AR
NOLD,) a German jurisconsult, born at Bentheim in
1659. He became professor of law at Groningen, and
wrote many works. Died in 1716.
Pages. ' See GARNIER-PAGES.
Pages, pi'zhes', (FRANC.OIS XAVIER,) a French litti-
rateur, born at Aurillac in 1745. He published, besides
many novels, "Historical Tableaux of the French Revo
lution," (3 vols., 1791-1804.) Died in 1802.
Pages, (PIERRE MARIE FRANgois,)a French voyager,
born at Toulouse in 1748, was a captain in the navy.
He published in 1782 "Voyages around the World and
towards the Poles in 1767-1776." He was massacred
be the negroes in Saint Domingo in 1793.
Pages de 1'Ariege, pi'zhes' deh li're'.\zh', (JEAN
PIKRRE,) a French political writer, born in Ariege in
1784. He was an editor of several Liberal journals of
Paris after the restoration. In 1848 he was elected to
the Constituent Assembly. He published several works.
Pag'et, (Lord CLARENCE EDWARD,) a British ad
miral, a brother of the Marquis of Anglesey, was born
in 1811. He served as captain in the navy, and com
manded the Princess Royal in the Baltic in 1854. He
was elected to Parliament by the Liberals in 1847, ancl
again in 1857. In 1859 he was appointed secretary to
the Admiralty. He became a vice-admiral in 1865.
Paget or Pag'it, (EusEHiUS,) an English Puritan
minister and writer, born in Northamptonshire about
1542. He became rector of Saint Anne and Saint
Agnes, London, in 1604. His chief work is a "History
of the Bible." Died in 1617.
His son EPHRAIM (1575-1647) was noted as a linguist.
He wrote a " Christianographia," (1635.)
Paget, (GEORGE FREDERICK AUGUSTUS,) LORD, a
brother of Clarence Edward, noticed above, was born in
1818. He became lieutenant-colonel of dragoons about
1846, and distinguished himself at Balaklava, (1854.)
Paget, (HENRY WILLIAM,) LORD. See ANGLESEY.
Paget, (JAMES,) F.R.S., an English physiologist and
surgeon of high reputation, was born in Great Yarmouth
in 1814. He was admitted into the College of Surgeons
in 1836, and afterwards became Hunterian professor of
surgery. He wrote articles for several medical journals.
Among his works are " Lectures on Surgical Pathology,"
Paget, (WILLIAM,) BARON, an English statesman,
born in London in 1506. He became one of the secre
taries of state in 1543. Designated by Henry VIII. as
one of the executors of his will, Paget took a prominent
part in the events of the reign of Edward VI., and was
keeper of the seals in the following reign. In 1561 he
advised Elizabeth to make an alliance with the King of
Navarre and the Huguenots rather than the King of
Spain. Died in 1563.
Paggi, pad'jee, or Pagi, pa'jee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,)
an eminent Italian painter, born at Genoa in 1554, was
a pupil of Luca Cambiaso. He worked about twenty
years at Florence, and returned to Genoa in 1600, after
which he adorned the churches of that city with many
paintings. He was the master of a school in which sev
eral able artists were formed, and excelled as a colorist.
Among his master-pieces are " The Transfiguration" and
"The Massacre of the Innocents." Died in 1627.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy;" SOPRANI, " Vite de'
Pittori Genovesi."
Pagi, pf'zhe', (ANTOINE,) a French chronologist, born
in Provence in 1624. His reputation is founded on his
" Historical and Chronological Criticism on the Ec
clesiastical Annals of Baronius," ("Critica historico-
chronologica in Annales Ecclesiasticos Baronii," 4 vols.,
1705.) Died in 1699.
Pagi, (FRANCOIS,) a French historian, born at Lam-
besc in 1654, was a nephew of the preceding. Died
in 1721.
Pagi, L'AmsE, a French historian, born at Martigue
about 1690. He published a " History of the Revolu
tions of the Low Countries," (1727.)
Pagit. See PAGET, (EUSEHIUS.)
Paglia, pal'ya, (ANTONIO,) a distinguished Italian
painter, born in 1680. He was a skilful imitator of the
old masters. He worked in Brescia, the churches of
which contain many of his pictures. Died in 1747.
Paglia, (FRANCESCO,) the father of the preceding,
born at Brescia in 1636, was a pupil of Guercino. He
excelled in portraits and in the science of clair-obscur.
He died soon after 1700.
Pagnerre, paVyaiR', (LAURENT ANTOINE,) a French
republican, born in Seine-et-Oise in 1805. He was ap
pointed assistant to the mayor of Paris, Garnier-Pages,
in February, 1848, secretary-general of the provisional
I, e, T, o, u, y, /nig: 4. e, o, same, less prolonged: a, e, T, o, u,y, short: a. e, i, o. obscure: far. fall, fit; met; not: good; moon ;
P4GNEST
1727
PAINE
government on the 1st of March, and director of the
Comptoir national d'Escompte on the gth of March. He
was the first proposer of this institution, which rendered
great services to the public in that crisis. Died in 1854.
Pagnest, pSg'ni', ( AMABLE Louis CLAUDE,) a French
portrait-painter, born in Paris in 1790; died in 1819.
Pagnini, pan-yee'nee, [Lat. PAGNI'NUS,] (LucA AN
TONIO,) an Italian classical scholar and monk, born at
Pistoia in 1737. He wrote Greek and Latin epigrams,
" Epigrammi morali cento," (1799,) which were admired,
and produced good translations of Anacreon, (1766,)
Theocritus, (1780,) Hesiod, (1797,) and Horace's " Sa
tires and Epistles," (1814.) He corresponded with Alfieri,
Frugoni, and Cesarotti. In 1806 he became professor of
Latin at Pisa. Died in 1814.
See CiAMPij "Elogiurn L. A. Pagnini," 1814: TIPAI.DO, " Bio-
grafia degli Italian! illustri."
Pagnino, pan-yee'no, [Lat. PAGNI'NUS,] (SANTE,) an
Italian Orientalist, was born at Lucca about 1470. He
entered the order of Dominicans, and became a resident
of Lyons in 1525. He produced a Latin version of the
Bible from the original Hebrew and Greek, (1528,) which
was highly commended by Buxtorf, Huet, and other
critics. Among his works is a " Hebrew-Latin Dic
tionary," (1529.) Died about 1538.
See A. PERICAUD, " Notice sur S. Pagnino," 1850; TIRABOSCHI,
" Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Pagninus. See PAGNINO.
Pahlen, von der, fon der pa'len, (PETER,) BARON or
COUNT, a Russian general, born about 1744. He gained
the favour of the Czar Paul, who appointed him Gov
ernor-General of Saint Petersburg. He took an active
part in the assassination of Paul, in 1801, and is said to
have been the chief of that conspiracy. He retired to
his estate in Livonia, where he died in 1826.
Pahlen, von der, (PKTER,) COUNT, a Russian gen
eral, and son of the preceding, distinguished himself in
the campaigns of 1812 and 1813. He was ambassador
to Paris from 1835 to 1842.
Paice. See PACE, (RICHARD.)
Paillet, pS'yi', ( AI.PHONSE GABRIEL VICTOR,) an
eminent French advocate, born at Soissons in 1795,
settled in Paris about 1826, and acquired a very high
reputation for eloquence and probity. He displayed
consummate art in the statement and exposition of facts.
In 1849 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly.
Died in 1855. "Nature had given him," says the " Bio-
graphie Univer.selle," "in a just measure and in perfect
equilibrium, all the qualities which are requisite to form
a great advocate."
See, also, J. LARNAC, " Fjoge de M. Paillet," 1857.
Pailliet, pf'ye-a', or Paillet, pi'yi', OEAN BAP-
TISTE JOSEPH,) a^French jurist, born at Orleans in 1789.
lie published a "Manual of French Law," (gth edition,
1836,) which was perhaps more popular than any other
similar book. He also wrote other works. Died about
1860.
Paillot de Montabert, pt'yo' deh mdN'tf'baiR',
(JEAN NICOLAS,) a French painter, born at Troves in
1771. He wrote a " Complete Treatise on Painting,"
(9 vols., 1829.) Died in 1849.
Paine, pan, (ELEAZAR A.,) an American general, born
in Ohio about 1815, graduated at West Point in 1839.
He became a brigadier-general about September, 1861,
and served in Tennessee and Mississippi in 1862-63.
Paine, (ELIJAH,) LL.D., an American jurist, born at
Brooklyn, Connecticut, in 1757. He was elected to the
United States Senate in 1794, and in 1801 became judge
of the United States court for Vermont. He was a
member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
and of other learned institutions. Died in 1842.
Paine, (ELIJAH,) son of the preceding, was born at
Williamstown, Vermont, in 1796, and rose to eminence as
a jurist. He published, in conjunction with John Duer,
" Practice in Civil Actions and Proceedings in the State
of New York," (1830.) Died in 1853.
Paine, (MARTYN,) M.D., LL.D., brother of the pre
ceding, was born at Williamstown, Vermont, in 1794, and
graduated at Harvard College in 1813. He afterwards
settled in New York, where he gained a high reputation
and extensive practice. In 1841 he was one of the founders
of the University Medical College, in which he filled the
chair of therapeutics and materia medica. He has pub
lished, among other works, "The Cholera Asphyxia of
New York," " Medical and Physiological Commentaries,"
(1840,) and "Institutes of Medicine," (1847.) The two
last-named have a very high reputation. He has also
written a treatise on " Theoretical Geology."
Paine, (RoitERT TREAT,) an American jurist and a
signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born at
Boston in 1731. He was a member of Congress for about
four years, (1774-78.) In 1780 he was one of the com
mittee which formed the State Constitution of Massa
chusetts, and in 1790 became judge of the supreme
court of that State. Died in 1814.
See GOODRICH, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde
pendence."
Paine, (ROHERT TREAT,) a son of the preceding, was
born at Taunton, Massachusetts, in 1773. He graduated
at Harvard College in 1792, and, having subsequently
studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1802. He was
the author of a very popular political song, entitled
" Adams and Liberty," and of other works, in prose and
verse. Died in 1811.
See R. W. GRISWOLD, " Poets and Poetry of America," p. 75.
Paine, (THOMAS,) a political and deistical writer,
born at Thetford, in Norfolk, England, in January, 1737.
His father was a Quaker, and brought up his son to his
own trade, that of stay-maker. Paine married young,
and settled in 1759 at Sandwich. Having lost his wife
about 1761, he removed to London, where for a short
time he was employed as a school-teacher. After seve
ral changes of business and residence, he emigrated to
America in 1774, with a letter of recommendation from
Dr. Franklin, whom he met in London. He became
editor of the " Pennsylvania Magazine," and gave an
impulse to the Revolution by his famous pamphlet called
"Common Sense," in which he advocated the policy of
separation and independence. It was issued in January,
1776, and appears to have contributed in an extraordi
nary degree to the advancement of republican ideas.
He enlisted as a volunteer in the army in the autumn
of 1776. To counteract the depression of spirits which
prevailed in the winter of 1776-77, he published "The
Crisis," a periodical, which appeared at irregular in
tervals for some years and was very successful. The
phrase "These are the times that try men's souls" was
first used in the " Crisis." He was secretary to the
committee on foreign affairs in Congress from April,
1777, to January, 1779, and went to France in 1781, with
Colonel Laurens, to negotiate a loan for the United
States. His services in the Revolution were rewarded
by Congress in 1785 with a present of three thousand
dollars, and the State of New York gave him three
hundred acres of land.
In 1787 he visited France, from which he passed to
England. He invented an iron bridge, and procured the
construction of such a bridge at Rotherham, in York
shire. He returned to Paris in 1789, and, in answer to
Burke's "Reflections on the French Revolution," wrote
his " Rights of Man," (1791,) which obtained great popu
larity. In September, 1792, he was elected a member
of the French National Convention by the citizens of
the Pas-de-Calais. He acted with the Girondists, and,
in the trial of the king, voted for his banishment. About
the end of 1793 he was expelled from the Convention, as
a foreigner, by the Jacobins, who also issued a decree
that all natives of England found in France should be
imprisoned. He was accordingly cast into prison, and
narrowly escaped death in the reign of terror. In
November, 1794, he was released, through the influence
of James Monroe, (afterwards President of the United
States,) and resumed his seat in the Convention. He
produced in 1795 a deistical work entitled "The Age of
Reason," which gave great offence to many of his polit
ical friends.* This work, although characterized by a
certain vigour as well as flippancy of style, and though
from its very indecency calculated to obtain currency
among the less refined portion of society, yet, being
* See an interesting letter from Franklin to Paine on this subject,
in Sparks's edition of Franklin's works, vol. x. p. 281.
f. as k; c as s; g hard:gz&j; G, H, K,t^tMura!; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
POINTER
1728
PALAFOX
conspicuously wanting in a spirit of candour, and betray
ing an utter deficiency in true scholarship, is likely to exert
but little influence upon intelligent and reflecting minds,
and least of all on those whose learning qualifies them
to judge of the ignorance of the writer and the essential
shallovvness of most of his arguments. He returned to
the United States in 1802, and passed his latter years
in private life and comparative obscurity. He became
intemperate in the latter part of his life. Died in New
York in June, 1809.
See CHEETHAM, " Memoirs of Thomas Paine," iSog ; CARI.ILE,
"Life of Thomas Paine," 1814; G. CHALMERS, "Lite of Thomas
Paine," 1791; G. VALE, "Life of Thomas Paine," 1841; W. T.
SHERWIN, "Life of Thomas Paine," i8ig; WILLIAM COBBETT,
"Life of Thomas Paine;" DUYCKINCK, " Cyclopaedia of American
Literature," vol. i. ; ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors ;" " North
American Review" for July, 1843 ; "Atlantic Monthly" for July and
December, 1859; "Monthly Review" for May, 1791, and March,
1792; "New American Cyclopaedia."
Faint'er, (WILLIAM,) an English writer or translator,
lived in the reign of Elizabeth. lie published "The
Palace of Pleasure, beautified, adorned, and well fur
nished with Pleasant Histories and Excellent Novels,"
etc., (2 vols., 1566-69.) Died after 1590.
Paisiello, pi-se-el'lo, or Paesiello, pa-a-se-el'lo,
(GIOVANNI,) a celebrated Italian composer, born at
Tarento in 1741, studied five years under Durante at
Naples. About 1764 he produced operas entitled "La
Pupilla" and " II Mondo alia Rovescio," which extended
his reputation throughout Italy. He was chapel-master
to the King of Naples from 1786 to 1798. Having been
invited by Bonaparte, he went to Paris in 1802, and
officiated as chapel-master for two years. He returned
to Naples in 1804. Among his popular operas are " King
Theodore," (" II Re Teodoro,") " The Barber of Seville,"
" Frascatina," "La Locanda," " Pirro," and " lo son
Lincloro," (or " Hope told a Flattering Tale.") " He is
superior to his rivals," says Denne-Baron, " in the
suavity of his melody and the charm of his expression."
His works display verve, originality, an extreme fertility
of invention, and a grace and elegance which are almost
unequalled. Died in 1816.
See QUATRF.MERE DE QuiNcv, "Notice sur Paisiello;" Fitris,
"Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" LESUEUR, "Notice sur
G. Paisiello," 1816; Scmzzi, " Raggionamento della Vita di G. Pai
siello," 1837 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Paitoni, pl-to'nee, (GiACOMO MARIA,) an Italian
monk and bibliographer, born at Venice about 1710.
His reputation is founded on an accurate work entitled
"Library of Ancient Latin and Greek Authors," etc.,
("Biblioteca degli Autori antichi Greci e Latini vol-
garizzati," 5 vols., 1767.) Died in 1774.
FaLxhaiis, paks'anz or p&k'sd.N', (HENRI JOSEPH,) a
French general, born at Metz in 1783. He served in the
campaigns of Austria and Prussia, and at the battle of
Moskwa, (1812.) He represented Metz in the Cham
ber of Deputies many years, ending in 1848, and rose to
the rank of general of division. He made improvements
in artillery and projectiles, which bear his name, and
published several works on artillery and the art of war.
The Paixhan guns were first used in France about 1824.
Died in 1854.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale;" " Foreign Quarterly Re
view" for June, 1828.
Pajol, pt'zhoj', (CLAUDE PIERRE,) COMTE, a French
general, born at Besan9on in 1772. He signalized him
self at Ulm and Austerlitz, (1805,) was made a general
of brigade in 1807, and became a general of division
in 1812. His defence of Montereau was praised by Na
poleon, who appointed him grand officer of the legion of
honour in 1814. He fought against Charles X., and was
second in command of the Parisian troops in July, 1830.
Died in 1844.
Pajon, pi'zhdN', (CLAUDE,) a French Protestant
minister, born at Romorantin in 1626. He preached at
Orleans, and gained a high reputation by his writings,
among which is a defence of the Protestant faith against
Nicole, entitled "Examen des Prejuges legitimes," (de
Nicole,) (1675.) Died in 1685.
Pajot, pt'zho', (Louis LEON,) Comte d'Ons-en-Bray,
(doN SON bni,) a French mechanician and collector, born
in Paris in 1678. He collected a rich cabinet of machines
and rare works of art, etc. He invented an anemometer,
and wrote several scientific treatises. In 1708 he became
director-general of the post-office. Died in 1754.
Pajou, pa*'zhoo', (AuousTiN,) a French sculptor, born
in Paris in 1730, was a pupil of Lemoyne. He gained
the grand prize in 1748, and went as royal pensioner to
Rome, where he remained twelve years. He enjoyed
great celebrity in P'rance in his time. Among his works
are statues of Pascal, Descartes, Fenelon, Turenne, and
Bossuet. Died at Paris in 1809.
See LEBRETON, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. Pajou," 1810;
" Biographie Universelle."
Pajou, (JACQUES AUGUSTIN,) a historical painter, a son
of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1766 ; died in 1828.
Pakenham, pa'ken-am, (Sir EDWARD,) a British
general, who commanded the army which attacked New
Orleans and was defeated by General Jackson, January
8, 1815. He was killed in this action. He was a brother-
in-law of the Duke of Wellington.
Pakeiiham, (Sir THOMAS,) a British admiral, born in
1758. As captain of a ship of seventy-four guns, he took
part in Lord Howe's victory over the French in June,
1794- He became admiral about 1810. Died in 1836.
Pa'king-tpn, (DOROTHY,) a learned English lady,
was a daughter of Lord Coventry, and wife of Sir John
Pakington. Died in 1679. She was supposed to be the
author of "The Whole Duty of Man."
Pakington, (Sir JOHN SOMERSET,) an English con
servative politician, a son of William Russell, of Povvick
Court, Worcestershire, was born in 1799. He assumed
the name of his uncle about 1830. He entered Parlia
ment in 1837, and was colonial secretary for a short time
in 1852. From February, 1858, to July, 1859, he was
first lord of the admiralty. He became secretary of
war in March, 1867, and resigned in December, 1868.
Palacky, pa-lats'kee, sometimes Anglicized in pro
nunciation as pa-lak'kee, (FRANCIS,) an eminent Bohe
mian historian and critic, born at Ilodslawitz in June,
1798, is a Protestant. He was appointed historiographer
of Bohemia about 1830, and edited the "Journal of the
Bohemian Museum" from 1827 to 1837. He was an
active supporter of liberal principles in 1848, and pre
sided over a Congress of Slavonians -at Prague in that
year. His principal work is an excellent " History of
Bohemia," in German, (8 vols., 1836-60.)
Paladines. See PALLADINES.
Paladini, pa-la-dee'nee, (ARCANGEI.A,) a painter and
poetess, born nt Pisa in 1599 ; died in 1622.
Paladini, (FiLiPPO,) an able Florentine painter, born
about 1544, was the father of the preceding. His picture
of the "Death of John the Baptist" is admired. Died
in 1614.
Paleemon, pa-lee'mon, [Gr. Ua^ai/nuv ; Fr. PALEMON,
pi'li'mAx',] in the Greek mythology, the son of Athamas
and Ino, was first called MELICF.RTA. He was regarded
as a marine divinity, and the Isthmian games were insti
tuted in his honour. He was identified with the Roman
Portumnus. (See MELICERTA.)
Palaemon, pa-lee'mon, (QuiNTUS REMMIUS,) a Ro
man grammarian, who lived in the time of Tiberius,
about 45 A.D.
Palaeologus, pa-le-ol'o-gus, [Gr. LTa/WoAoyof ; Fr.
PALEOLOGUE, pt'la'o'log',] the name of an illustrious
Byzantine -family which acquired distinction in the elev
enth century. They reigned in Constantinople from
1260 until 1453, when that capital was taken by the
Turks. (See ANDRONICUS II., CONSTANTINUS XIII.,
MANUEL II., JOHN VI., and JOHN VII.)
Faleephatus, pa-lSf'a-tus, a Greek historian of Aby-
dos, was a friend of Aristotle, and lived about 350 B.C.
According to Suidas, he wrote on Attica, Arabia, and
Cyprus.
Paleephatus, a Greek writer of an uncertain period,
to whom Suidas attributes an " Explanation of Things
related in Mythology." By some critics this is identified
with an extant work "On Things Incredible," (7rep« ~uv
umaruv.) Suidas also mentions an Athenian epic poet
of this name, who lived before Homer.
Palafox, de, da pa-la-foH', (JUAN,) a Spanish bishop
and writer, born in Aragon in 1600. He became Bishop
of Osma in 1653. He wrote, besides works of devotion,
" The Shepherd of Christmas Eve," (" Pastor de Noche
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; n5t; good; moon;
PALAFOX
1729
PALET
Buena," 1655,) and " The Conquest of China by the Tar
tars," (1678.) Died in 1659.
See DINOUART, "Vie de J. de Palafox," 1767; CHAMPION,
" Histoire de J. de Palafox," 1688.
Palafox y Melzi, pa-la-fou' e mel'/Vfcee, (JosE,) com
monly called simply PALAFOX, (which in pronunciation
is usually Anglicized as pal'a-foks',) a Spanish general,
born in Aragon in 1780. He became in his youth a
member of the military household of the king. When
an attack on Saragossa by the French was expected, in
1808, he was nominated captain-general by popular ac
clamation, lie defended that -city obstinately for sixty
days, at the end of which term the French retired, August,
1808. Another force, under Lannes, renewed the siege
in November, and Palafox was forced to capitulate in
February, 1809. He supported the popular cause against
Ferdinand VII. in 1820. About 1836 he was made Duke
of Saragossa. Died in 1847.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Para-mas, [UaXa/Mf,] (GkEGOiuus,) a Greek monk
and mystical writer, lived about 1350. He was the
leader of a sect or party called Palamites, whose claims
to mystical light caused a great controversy.
Palamede. See PALAMEDES.
Fal-a-me'de§, [Gr. Ila/.a«r/<% ; Fr. PALAMEDE, pt'-
It'm&d',] a personage of classic mythology, supposed to
have been the inventor of scales, measures, chess, dice,
and several letters of the Greek alphabet. Having joined
the expedition against Troy, he exposed by an ingenious
stratagem the feigned insanity of Ulysses, and thereby
incurred his enmity. The poets relate that Ulysses
concealed in the tent of Palamedes a sum of money
and a forged letter from Priam, on the evidence of which
Palamedes was convicted of treason and put to death.
See VIRGIL, "^Eneid," book ii. 82.
Palaprat, pi'lt'pKJt', (JKAN DE BIGOT,) a French
dramatic poet, born at Toulouse in 1650. He was sec
retary to the grand prior of Vendome, and was noted
for wit. He wrote dramas entitled "The Secret Re
vealed" and " The Prude of the Time," (" La Prude du
Temps,") and assisted Brueys in the composition of
several plays. Died in 1721.
Pal-a-ti'nus, a surname given by the Romans to
Apollo, to whom a temple was erected on Mount Pala
tine.
Palazzi, pa-lat'see, (GiOVANM,) an Italian historian,
born at Venice about 1640. He wrote many mediocre
works, among which is a " History of the German Em
pire," (9 vols., 1671-79.) Died about 1702.
Paleario. See PALEAKIUS.
Fal-e-a'ri-us or Paleario, pa-la-a're-o, (AoNius or
AONIO,) a good Italian writer and scholar, was born in
the Campagna of Rome about 1500. His proper name
was DEI. LA PAGI.IA, (pai'va.) He acquired distinction
as a Latin poet, and became professor of eloquence at
Milan in 1555. His Latin poem on the immortality of
the soul (1536) was commended by Sadolet. Having
been converted to the doctrines of the Reformers, or
advocated religious liberty, he was tried for heresy and
hung at Rome in 1570.
See " Life and Times of Aonio Paleario," by M. YOUNG, 2 vnls.,
1860; GURLITT, " Leben des A. Palearius," 1805; BAYLE, " His
torical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON, "Memoires."
Palemoii. See PAL^MON.
Palencia, de, (ALFONSO.) See ALFONSO DE PA-
I.ENCIA.
Palencia, de, da pa-len'the-a, (FERNANDO,) a Spanish
soldier and writer, lived in the sixteenth century. He
served in the army in Peru, and published in 1571 a
" History of Peru."
See PRESCOTT, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. ii.
book v.
Paleologue. See PAL.<EOLOGUS.
Paleotti, pa-la-ot'tee, (GAKKIKL,) an Italian cardinal,
born at Bologna in 1524. He was sent to the Council
of Trent by Pius IV., and became a cardinal in 1565.
Among his works is " De Bono Senectutis," (1598.)
Died in 1597.
Fa'les, [Fr. PALES, pt'les',] a divinity who presided
over cattle, shepherds, and pastures among the ancient
Romans. Pales was represented by some as a male and
by others as a female deity, and was the personification
of the same idea as Pan among the Greeks.
Palestrina, da, da pa-les-tRee'na, (GIOVANNI PIER-
LUIGI,) an Italian composer of great celebrity, was born
at Palestrina, (the ancient Prasneste,) near Rome, about
1524. He studied at Rome under Claude Goudimel, a
Frenchman. In 1551 he was appointed chapel-master
to Pope Julius III. He produced in 1554 his first work,
four masses for four voices, and obtained a place among
the singers of the pontifical chapel, from which Paul
IV. removed him because he was married. From 1561
to 1571 he was chapel-master of Santa Maria Mag-
giore. During this period the pope resolved to reform
the music of the Church or to banish it. Palestrina
was directed to compose a mass which should be con
formed to a pure orthodox standard. The result was
the famous mass for six voices, called the "Mass of
Pope Marcellus," (1565,) which was received with great
admiration and determined his superiors to retain music
in the Roman Church. "The unrivalled genius of Pa
lestrina," says Denne-Baron, referring to this mass,
" created the only kind of music which comports with
the majesty of the Church ; and among the productions
of succeeding composers nothing has equalled the power,
the profound and simple accent, the mystic tenderness,
the ravishing sweetness, of his chants." (" Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale.") In 1571 he was appointed chapel-
master in Saint Peter's. Died in 1594.
See WINTKRFEI.D, "J. Pierlnigi von Palestrina." etc., 1832;
BAINI, " Memorie storico -critiche della Vita e delle Opere di Pales-
trina," 1828; FETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musicians."
Paletta, pa-leVta, or Palletta, pal-leYta, (GIOVANNI
BATTISTA,) an Italian anatomist and writer, born in the
valley of Ossola, in Piedmont, in 1747. He became
surgeon-in-chief of the grand hospital of Milan in 1787.
Among his works is " Pathological Exercises," ( " Exer-
citationes Pathologies," 2 vols., 1820.) Died in 1832.
See G. FERRARIO, "Vita del Professore G. B. Paletta," 1833.
Pa'ley, (FREDERICK APTHORP,) an English scholar,
a grandson of the famous author, William Paley, was
born near York in 1816. He edited the works of /Es-
chylus and Euripides, and was the author of several
works on church architecture.
Paley, (WILLIAM,) an eminent English writer, born
at Peterborough in 1743. He graduated in 1763 at
Christ's College. Cambridge, — where he does not appear
to have been distinguished for his application,* — took
holy orders, and was chosen a Fellow of his college in
1766. He was subsequently employed as a tutor at
Cambridge, and became rector of Mnsgrove, in West
moreland, in 1775, soon after which date he married.
In 1782 he was appointed Archdeacon of Carlisle. He
published in 1785 "The Principles of Moral and Political
Philosophy," regarded by some as the most important
of all his works. As a writer he excels in logical power
and in clearness of style. He denies the existence of a
moral sense, and adopts the maxim that " whatever is
expedient is right." He was liberal in theology, was
a friend of civil and religious liberty, and earnestly
advocated the abolition of the slave-trade. IP 1790 he
produced an admirable work entitled " Horu; Paulinje.
or the Truth of the Scripture History ct Saint Paul
evinced." He was appointed a prebendary of Saint
Paul's in 1/94, and was presented to the sub-deanery of
Lincoln Cathedral. About 1795 iie obtained the rec
tory of Bishop- Wearmouth. His other principal works
are '• A View of the Evidences of Christianity," (3 vols..
1704,) one of the best works ever written on the subject
of which it treats, and " Natural Theology, or Evidences
of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity," (1802,1
which has a very high reputation and has often been
reprinted. Died in 1805.
" This excellent writer," says Mackintosh, " who, after
Clarke and Butler, ought to be ranked among the
Koiuans. i aies svas represented uy some as a maie ana entirely changed his coi
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in
I eg
* It is said that during the early part of his term at Cambridge
he spent his time in agreeable idleness. One of his companiors
called on him early one morning, and told him he had been unable to
sleep, from the conviclion that he (Paley) was squandering talents
which, if properly directed, might be most useful to himself and to
the world, concluding with these words: " If you persist in ymir
indolence. I must renounce your society." The result was that Paley
entirely changed his course of life.
this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PALFY
•73°
PALIS QT
brightest ornaments of the English Church in the eigh
teenth century, is in the history of philosophy naturally
placed after Tucker, to whom, with praiseworthy libe
rality, he owns his extensive obligations. . . . His style
is as near perfection in its kind as any in our language.
. . . The most original and ingenious of his writings is
the 'Horae Paulinae.' 'The Evidences of Christianity'
are formed out of an admirable translation of Butler's
• Analogy' and a most skilful abridgment of Lardner's
'Credibility of the Gospel History.' . . . His 'Natural
Theology' is the wonderful work of a man who after
sixty had studied anatomy in order to write it ;* and it
could only have been surpassed by a man who to great
originality of conception and clearness of exposition
added the advantage of a high place in the first class
of physiologists. ... It cannot be denied that Paley
was sometimes rather a lax moralist, — especially on
public duties." (See Mackintosh's " Progress of Ethical
Philosophy.")
"On one great topic — that of Christian evidence —
he has shed new light. By felicity of arrangement and
illustration, he has given an air of novelty to old argu
ments, whilst he has strengthened his cause by important
original proofs. His ' Horae Paulinae' is one of the
few books destined to live. Paley saw what he did
see through an atmosphere of light. He seized on the
strong points of his subject with an intuitive sagacity,
and has given his clear bright thoughts in a style which
has made them the property of his readers almost as
perfectly as they were his own. . . . He was character
ized by the distinctness of his vision. He was not, we
think, equally remarkable for its extent. He was popular
rather than philosophical. He was deficient in that
intellectual thirst which is a chief element of the philo
sophical spirit. He had no irrepressible desire to sound
the depths of his own nature, or to ascend to wide and
all-reconciling views of the works and ways of God.
Moral philosophy he carried backward ; nor had he
higher claims in religious than in ethical science. His
sermons are worthy of all praise, not, indeed, for their
power over the heart, but for their plain and strong
expositions of duty and their awakening appeals to the
conscience." (See " Remarks on the Character and
Writings of Fenelon," in Channing's "Discourses.")
See G. W. MEADI.EY, "Memoirs of the Life of W. Paley," 1809:
AI.I.IBONE, "Dictionary of Authors ;" " London Quarterly Review"
for July, 1813 ; "Monthly Review" for August and December, 1785.
Palfy, pal'fe, (ALKERT,) a Hungarian litterateur and
publicist, born at Grosswardein in 1813. Soon after the
commencement of the republican movement in 1848, he
founded a daily paper called "The 151)1 of March,"
which obtained great popularity and had a marked in
fluence on the Hungarian revolution. In 1849 the journal
was confiscated, and its editor for a time imprisoned.
Palfy is the author of several novels, which rank among
the best in Hungarian literature.
Palfy, (JANOS,) COUNT OF, a Hungarian field-marshal,
born in 1659, served under Prince Eugene in the Italian
campaigns of 1701-2, and subsequently against the Turks.
He was appointed in 1741 commander-general in Hun
gary, where he was a zealous adherent of Maria Theresa.
Died in 1751.
* We do not attach any very great importance to the charge of
"stupendous plagiarism" brought against Paley for what he has
borrowed from Dr. Nieuwentyt. (See the article on this subject in
the "London Athenjeum," published in August, 1848.) Macaulay
well remarks that "the reasoning by which Socrates, in Xenophon's
hearing, confuted the little atheist Aristodemus is exactly the reason
ing of Paley's ' Natural Theology.' " (See article on " Ranke's His
tory of the Popes," in Macaulay's " Essays.") If, then, Paley's line
of argument is exactly like that of Socrates, and also the same as
that employed by Dr. Nieuwentyt, it is at least possible that Dr. Nieu
wentyt may have derived some of his ideas and arguments — if not his
particular illustrations — from Socrates. We should be very sorry to
say anything to encourage plagiarism ; but those who are best ac
quainted with what has been done in this department of philosophy
will probably be most ready to admit the impossibility of any one
claiming justly absolute originality, or anything near it, in this great
field of thought. The chief merit of Paley, who does not appear to
have made any especial pretension to originality as respects the in
dividual ideas or illustrations of his subject, consists in the admirable
skill and ability with which he combines and presents the whole
argument. Without being the creator, or even the first discoverer,
of many of the different points of evidence adduced by him, he may
be said to marshal them as a consummate general marshals his forces,
so as to render them in combination irresistible.
Palfyn, pill-fin', sometimes written Palfin, (JEAN,) a
skilful Flemish anatomist, born at Ghent in 1650. He
lectured on surgery at Ghent, made some improvements
in that art, and published a valuable work on " Surgical
Anatomy," (1710.) Died in 1730.
See DK MERSSEMAN, " Notice sur J. Palfyn," 1844.
Pal'frey, (JoHN GORHAM,) LL.D., an American divine
and historian, born at Boston in 1796. Having gradu
ated in 1815 at Harvard College, he studied theology,
and was appointed in 1831 Dexter professor of sacted
literature at Harvard. He became in 1836 editor of the
" North American Review." He published "Lectures
on the Jewish Scriptures and Antiquities," (4 vols.,
1838-52,) "Evidences of Christianity," (1843,) "Review
of Lord Mahon's History of England," (1852,) and "The
Relation between Judaism and Christianity," (1854.) He
was elected in 1847 to Congress, where he distinguished
himself as an advocate of emancipation, having pre
viously liberated a number of slaves bequeathed to him
by a relative in New Orleans. In 1851 he became asso
ciate editor of "The Commonwealth," a leading journal
of the Eree-Soil party. The second volume of his " His
tory of New England" came out in 1860.
See the " North American Review" for April, 1859, and October,
1860 ; ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Palfrey, (WILLIAM,) an American patriot, born at
Boston in 1741. He took an active part in the move
ments which preceded the Revolution, and visited Eng
land in 1771. In March, 1776, he became an aide-de-camp
to General Washington. He was appointed paymaster-
general, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, in April,
1776. Having been appointed consul-general in France
by a unanimous vote of Congress in November, 1780,
he embarked in a ship which was never heard of after
she left the Capes.
See " Life of William Palfrey," by his grandson, JOHN G. PAL
FREY, in SPARKS'S " American Biography," vol. vii., zd series.
Pal'grave, (Sir FRANCIS,) F.R.S., an English historian,
born in London in 1788. His family name was COHEN,
which he exchanged for that of Palgrave. In 1827 he
was admitted to the bar. He published in the " Family
Library," in 1831, "The History of England : Anglo-
Saxon Period," and in 1832 " The Rise and Progress of
the English Commonwealth : Anglo-Saxon Period," (2
vols.,) which were received with favour. A few years
later he was appointed deputy keeper of her Majesty's
public records. Among his principal works is a " His
tory of Normandy and England," (ist vol., 1851 ; 2d vol.,
1857.) Died in July, 1861.
See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1832, and October, 1837;
" Eraser's Magazine" for July, 1851, and July, 1857.
Palice. See CHABANNES, DE, (JACQUES.)
Palice, de la, deh It pS'less', (JACQUES de Cha-
bannes — deh shS'btn',) SEIGNEUR, an able French
general, whom Charles VIII. appointed lieutenant of
the kingdom of Naples about 1498. He was wounded
at Agnadel in 1509. When Nemours fell at Ravenna, in
1512, the army demanded La Palice for their general.
He was defeated at Guinegate in 1513, obtained a mar
shal's baton in 1515, and served under Lautrec in the
Milanese in 1521. In 1523 he opposed Constable Bour
bon with success in Provence. He was killed at Pavia
in 1525.
Palingenio. See MANZOLLI.
Palingeiiius Stellatus. See MANZOLLI.
Palinure. See PALINURUS.
Pal-i-nu'rus, [Gr. Uahtvovpoc; Fr. PALINURE, pS'le'-
niiR',] the pilot or helmsman of the ship which carried
tineas in his sea-voyage.
Palisot de Beauvois, pi'le'zo' deh b5'vwa', (AM-
BROISE MARIE FRANQOIS JOSEPH,) a French botanist
and zoologist, born at Arras in 1752. He explored Benin
and a part of Guinea in 1786-87, after which he visited
Saint Domingo. Escaping from the revolted slaves, who
were about to kill him, he took refuge in Philadelphia in
1793, after which he made a scientific excursion in the
interior. He returned to France in 1798, and succeeded
Adanson in the Institute in 1806. He published a " Flora
of Owara and Benin," (2 vols., 1804-21,) "Insects col
lected in Africa and America," (1805-21,) and other
works. His " Flora of Owara," etc. is described by
1,6, T, o, u, y, fon?:h, e, o, same. Hss prolonged: a, e, T, o, ii, y, short: a, e. i, o, obscure: far. fall, fat: met: n6t;good: moon;
PAL1SSOT
'73'
PALLAS
Depping as " a beautiful work, rich in discoveries."
Died in 1820.
See CUVIER, " filoge de Palisot de Beauvois," 1820: THIEBAUT
DE KERNEAUD, " filoge histoiique de Palisot de Beauvois," 1821.
Palissot, pt'le'so', (CHARLES DE Monteiioy — ITION'-
teh-nwa',) a French poet and prose writer, born at Nancy
in 1730. A caustic and satirical temper involved him
deeply in literary quarrels, especially against the En
cyclopedists. He ridiculed Rousseau in his comedy
entitled "The Circle," ("Le Cercle," 1755,) and Diderot
in " Little Letters on Great Philosophers," (" Petites
Lettres sur de grands Philosophes," 1757.) His comedy
of "The Philosophers" (" Les Philosophes," 1760) was
very successful ; but his satirical poem the "Dunciade"
(1764) was a failure. Died in 1814.
See " NouveHe Biographic Generale."
Pal'Is-sy, [Fr. pron. pi'le'se',] (BERNARD,) a cele
brated French potter and enameller, born near Agen
(Lot-et-Garonne) about 1506. He studied natural his
tory, chemistry, and other sciences. He expended many
years in experiments on the art of enamelling stone
ware or pottery, and, after great trials and sufferings, at
last succeeded, in 1555. During this period he was
converted to the Reformed religion, for which he was
arrested and imprisoned. About 1565 he was invited to
Paris, employed by the king, and lodged at the Tuileries.
By the favour of his noble or royal patrons, he escaped
the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, in 1572. In 1575 he
opened a course of lectures on physics and natural his
tory at Paris. He was the first in France who applied
sound methods and demonstrations in explaining the
phenomena of nature. He ornamented his ware, called
rustiques figiilines, with accurate coloured figures of ani
mals. Among his works is a " Treatise on the Origin
of Fountains, and on the Nature of Metals, Salts, Stones,"
etc., (1580.) He died in 1589, in the Bastille, where he
was confined for his religious principles. He was dis
tinguished no less for his virtue than for his talents.
See ALFRED DUMESNIL, " Bernard Palissy," Paris, 1851 ; HENRY
MORLEY, "The Life of B. Palissy, his Labours and Discoveries,"
London, 2 vols., 1852; CAMILI.E DUPLESSIS, " fitude sur Palissy,"
1855; "Biographie Universelle ;" "NouveHe Biographic Generale."
Palitzsch, pa'litsh, (JOHANN GEORG,) a German
astronomer, born near Dresden in 1723, was a cultivator
of the soil. He discovered with the naked eye Halley's
comet in December, 1758, before it had been seen by
any telescopic observer. Died in 1788.
Pal'la-das, [ria/./.d(5af,] a Greek poet, lived about 400
A.D. He wrote many epigrams, preserved in the Greek
Anthology. He ridicules some Christians who con
verted statues of the gods into images of the saints.
Pallade. See PALLADIUS.
Palladines or Paladines, de, deh pt'lt'den', (D'Au-
RELLES,) a French general, born about 1820. He served
in the Crimean war, and became a general of division in
1867. He commanded the army of the Loire, which de
feated the Germans near Orleans, November 10, 1870.
Palladino da Teranio. See TERAMO, DA.
Palladio, pal-la'de-o, [Lat. PALLA'DIUS,] (ANDREA,)
an illustrious architect, born at Vicenza, in Italy, in 1518.
It is not known who was his master; but he states in
one of his works that he chose Vitruvius as his guide in
architecture. He found a liberal patron in Trissino the
poet, and visited Rome several times to study the monu
ments of antiquity. Having settled in Vicenza, he ex
hibited his superior talents in the design of the Palazzo
della Ragione. He adorned his native city with many
private residences or villas, and built on the Brenta
the Foscari palace, which was much admired. The
Villa Capra, or Rotonda, near Vicenza, and the Teatro
Olimpico, in that city, are considered among his master
pieces. He built several fine edifices in Venice, among
which is the church of II Redentore, begun about 1577.
In 1570 he published a "Treatise on Architecture,"
which was often reprinted. He died in 1580. "He
combines," says Castellan, "in the style of his edifices,
simplicity and grandeur. . . . He seems to have derived
from the ancients the quintessence of their taste."
("Biographie Universelle.") It is, however, proper
to observe that while perhaps no other architect has
enjoyed a higher or more universal reputation for genius
and taste, so that the term " Palladian" has been exten
sively used throughout Europe as equivalent to beautiful
and excellent in architecture, his designs, in the opinion
of many critics, are very far from being faultless. For
some severe strictures on the style of Palladio, the
reader is referred to the article on " Architecture," by
Professor Hosking, in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica."
See P. GUALDO, "Vita di A. Palladio," 1749; T. TEMANZA,
"Vita di A. Palladio," 1763; A. RIGATO, " Osservazioni sopra A.
Paliadio," 1811 ; A. MAGMINI, "Memorie intorno la Vita e le Opere
di A. Palladio," 1845 ; MILIZIA, " Memorie degli Architetti anlichi e
nioderni:" TICOZZI, " Dizionario."
Palladio, (BIAGIO PAI.LAI,) called BLOSIO, (blo'se-o,)
a Latin poet, born at Castelvetro, in Italy. He became
Bishop of Foligno in 1540. Died in 1550.
Palladium. See MINERVA.
Palladius. See PALLADIO.
Pal-la'dl-us, [IIa/.Au<5wc,] surnamed IATROSOPHIS'TA,
a Greek medical writer of an uncertain epoch. As he
quotes Galen, he must have lived after 200 A.D. He left
I a short treatise on Fevers, (Trepi —vperuv ai'vropof ai'vaipif,)
and scholia on Hippocrates' book on Fractures. Both
of these are extant.
Palladius, Bishop of Helenopolis, in Bithynia, is
supposed to have flourished about 400 A.D. He wrote
a work, in Greek, called the " Lausiac History," which
contains biographies of some ascetics or saints of Pales
tine and Egypt.
Palladius, [Fr. PALLADE, pt'lSd',] a bishop, who
was sent by Pope Celestine to convert the Irish or
Scotch (Scotos) about 431 A.D. He is honoured as a
saint both by the Irish and the Scottish Romanists.
Palladius OF METHONE, a Greek Sophist, lived about
325 A.D. He wrote on the Festivals of the Romans.
Palladius,(RuTiLius TAURUS ^MILIANUS,) a Roman
writer on agriculture, lived probably between 300 and
400 A.D. His work "On Agriculture'' (" De Re Rustica")
was popular in the middle ages, and is still extant.
Pallajuolo. See POLLAJUOLO.
Pal'las, [Gr. Ila/v.uc,] an appellation of the goddess
Minerva or Athena. (See MINEKVA.) In Homer this
name always appears united with Athena, as Pallas
Athena.
Pal'las, a favourite of the Roman emperor Claudius,
was a slave in his youth. He was an accomplice of
Agrippina in the crime of poisoning Claudius. Died
in 63 A.D.
Pallas, a son of Evander, King of Arcadia, was an
ally of tineas in the war against Turnus. He was re
nowned for his courage, and was an intimate friend of
.#Lneas. He was killed by Turnus.
See VIRGIL'S "^Eneid," book viii. 104, x. 365-489.
Pallas, a son of Pandi'on, King of Athens, and a
brother of /Egeus. He was said to have been killed by
Theseus.
Pallas, pal'las, (PETER SIMON,) a distinguished Prus
sian naturalist and traveller, born in Berlin in 1741. He
was educated for the medical profession at Gottingen
and Leyden, and made himself master of Latin, French,
and English. He acquired reputation by his " Miscel
lanea Zoologica," (1766,) and at the invitation of Cathe
rine II. he became professor of natural history in the
Academy of Saint Petersburg in 1767. He wrote for
the Academy a "Memoir on the Fossil Bones of the
Huge Quadrupeds found in Siberia." Pallas was one of
the many scientific men whom the empress sent in 1768
to explore Siberia. He devoted his attention in this
great enterprise to zoology, botany, and geology, and,
after extending his researches to the frontier of China,
returned to Saint Petersburg in 1774. His "Travels
through Different Provinces of the Russian Empire"
(in German, 1771-76) is highly esteemed for its exact
descriptions and just observations. He discovered in
the mountain-ranges of Siberia the general law of the
succession of the three primitive orders of rocks, — the
granitic, the schistose, and the calcareous. "This great
fact," says Cuvier, "expressed in his Memoir read to
the Academy in 1777, has given birth to all modern
geology." He displayed his superior genius in many
other works, among which are a " History of the Mon
golian Nations," " Essays on the North in Relation to
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PALLAVICINI
1732
PALMER
Physical Geography, Ethnography," etc., (1781-96,) and
" Flora Rossica," (a " Flora of Russia," 1785.) In 1795
he removed for his health to the Crimea, the climate ol
which had appeared pleasant to him as he formerly
passed through it. Although he was disappointed by
finding the climate extremely variable, he remained there
about fifteen years, after which he removed to Berlin,
where he died in 1811. He left unfinished a great work
on the Zoology of the Russian Empire, of which 3 vols.
were published, entitled " Fauna Asiatico-Rossica." He
was a foreign associate of the French Institute.
See RUDOI.PHI, " Essai historique sur Pallas," 1812; CI'VIER,
" Eloges historiques;" MKI'SKI., "Gelelirtes Deutschland :" " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale;" "Monthly Review" for January, 1805.
Pallaviciiii, pal-la-ve-chee'nee, or Pelavicino, pa-
la- ve-chee'no, (OBKRTO,) MARQUIS, an able general, born
at Piacenza. He became the ally of the emperor Fred
erick against Gregory IX. in 1234, after which he gained
victories over the Guelphs and made himself master of
a large part of Northern Italy. His power was subverted
by Charles of Anjou in 1266. Died in 1269.
Pallavicini or Pallavicino, pal-la-ve-chee'no, (PiE-
TRO SFORZA,) an Italian historian and cardinal, was born
at Rome in 1607. He wrote a treatise on style, "Dello
Stilo," (1662,) and other works, the best-known of which
is a "History of the Council of Trent," (2 vols., 1656,
and 3 vols., 1664.) It is said to be well written. Died
in 1667.
See IRENEO AFFO, "Memorie della Vita del Cardinale S. Palla
vicino," 1794; TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Pallavicini, (STKFANO BENEDETTO,) an Italian poet,
born at Padua in 1672. He became a resident of Dres
den in his youth. He produced several original poems,
and a version of the Odes of Horace, (1736,) which is
elegant, but rather free. Died at Dresden in 1742.
P illavicini della Priola, pal-la-ve-chee'nee del'la
pRee'o-Ia, (E.MiLlo,) MARQUIS, an Italian general, born
at Ceva in 1823. He distinguished himself in the war
against Austria in 1859. He commanded the force which
captured Garibaldi at Aspromonte in August, 1862.
Pallavicino. See PALLAVICINI. zv"
Pallavicino, pal-la-ve-chee'no, (FERRANTE,) an Ital
ian monk and satirical writer, born at Piacenza about
1618. He wrote licentious works, and satires against
Pope Urban VIII. and the Barberini. Having impru
dently entered the papal territory, he was seized and
beheaded at Avignon in 1644.
Falliere, pt'lexjju', (ViNCKNT LEON,) a French his
torical painter, born at Bordeaux in 1787. He gained
the first prize at Paris in 1812, and went to Rome, with a
pension. Among his works is " Homer dictating his
Poems." He died prematurely in 1820.
Palliot, pt'le'o', (PiERRE,) a French genealogist, born
in Paris in 1608 ; died at Dijon in 1698.
Pal'lis-er, (Sir HUGH,) a British admiral, born about
1720. He was second in command under Keppel at
the battle off Ushant, in 1778, and was then involved
in a dispute with Keppel, which was referred to a court
of inquiry. Palliser was censured by this court. Died
in 1796.
See " Life of Sir Hugh Palliser," by R. M. HUNT, London, 1844.
Palloni, pal-lo'nee, (GAETANO,) an Italian medical
writer, born in 1770, was professor of medicine at Flor
ence. He was ennobled by the Grand Duke of Tuscany.
Died in 1830.
Palluel. See CRETTE DE PALLUEL.
Palm, palm, (JoiiANN GEOKG,) a German Lutheran
divine, born at Hanover in 1697, published several works.
Died in 1743.
Palm, (foil ANN PHILIPP,) a German publisher, born at
Schorndorf in 1766, lived in Nuremberg. For the publi
cation of a pamphlet against Bonaparte, he was tried by
a French military commission, and shot, in August, 1806.
Palma, pal'ma, (JACOPO,) styled IL VECCHIO, (el vek'-
ke-o,) or THE ELDER, an eminent painter of the Venetian
school, born near Bergamo. His birth is variously dated
from about 1480 to 1520. He is said to have been a
pupil of Titian. He excelled in vivacity and softness of
colouring. The galleries of Europe contain a great many
works attributed to him. Among his master-pieces are
a "Last Supper" and a Madonna at Vicenza. His works
exhibit good taste in composition, and such a union of
tints that no trace of the brush is perceptible. Died at
the age of forty-eight.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters;" Ronoi.Fi, "Vite degli il-
lustri Pittori Veneti ;" LANZI, " History of Pain ting in Italy."
Palma, (JACOPO,) THE YOUNGER, a nephew of the
preceding, was born at Venice in 1544. He imitated
Titian and Tintoretto, and acquired a high reputation.
In the opinion of some writers, he combined the best
principles of the Roman and Venetian schools. "The
distinctive mark of his talent," says the "Biographic
Universe! le," "is facility. His tints are fresh and trans
parent, and more agreeable than those of Tintoretto."
He is charged, however, with depraving the style of the
Venetian school. Among his works are an " Annuncia
tion" and "The Plague of the Serpents." Died in 1628.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, "History of
Painting in Italy."
Palmaroli, pal-ma-ro'lee,(PlETRO,) an Italian painter,
distinguished for his skill in transferring frescos to can
vas. He practised this art first with success in 1811.
He transferred and restored many pictures of the old
masters in Rome. Died in 1828.
Palmblad, palm'blad, (\VILHEI.M FREDRIK,) a Swe
dish editor and writer, born near Soderkoping in 1788.
He edited several literary periodicals, one of which was
the " Phosphorus," and became a member of a new
school, called Phosphorists, who preferred German lit
erature and influence to the French. He was professor
of history and of the Greek language at Upsal. His
chief production is a "Biographical Dictionary of Emi
nent Swedes," (23 vols.,) a work of much merit, com
menced about 1835 and finished in 1857. He wrote a
successful novel, called "Aurora Konigsmark," (6 vols.,
1846-51.) Died in 1852.
See " Biogtaphiskt-Lex'.con ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man."
Falmegiani, pSl-ma-ja'nee, or Palmezzano, pal-
me't-sa'no, (MARCO,) an able Italian painter, born at
Forli in the fifteenth century. His works are dated
from 1513 to 1537.
Palmella, pal-mel'la, (PEDRO DE Souza-Holstein
— so'za ol-stan', ?) DUKE OK, a liberal Portuguese states
man, born at Turin in 1786. lie was appointed min
ister of foreign affairs and president of the council by
fohn VI. of Portugal in 1823. lie was an adherent of
Don Pedro in his contest against Don Miguel, (1830-33.)
After the accession of Queen Maria (1834) he became
prime minister. Died in 1850.
See "Biographic Universelle."
Palmer, pa'mer, ( ERASTUS Dow,) a distinguished
American sculptor, born in Onondaga county, New
York, in 1817. Among his principal works are an
"Indian Girl Contemplating a Crucifix," " The White
Captive," the "Sleeping Peri," and the "Landing of
the Pilgrims." He has also executed a number of por
traits, busts, and bas-reliefs.
See TUCKRRMAN, " Book of the Artists."
Palmer, pa'mer, (HERBERT,) an English Puritan min
ister, born in Kent in 1601. He preached at Canter
bury, Cambridge, and London, and published a popular
work entitled "Memorials of Godliness," (1644.) Died
in 1647.
Palmer, (!NNIS N.,) an American general, born in
New York, graduated at West Point in 1846. He fought
as brigadier-general in the Union army at Fair Oaks,
and at Malvern Hill. July I, 1862. He commanded in
the district of North Carolina from April, 1864, to
March, 1865.
Palmer, QAMES S.,) an American rear-admiral, born
in New fersey, entered the navy in 1825. He com
manded the Iroquois in the passage of the batteries of
Vicksburg, June, 1862, and was captain of Farragut's flag
ship when she ran past the batteries of Port Hudson, in
March, 1863. Having gained the rank of commodore,
he was appointed commander of the Western Gulf
Blockadirg Squadron about the end of 1864. Died in
December, 1867.
See J. T. HFADI.EV, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders."
Palmer, (JoHN,) an English Unitarian minister, born
in 1729, preached in London many years. Died in 179°-
a, e, T, o, ii, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;
PALMER
'733
PALSGRAVE
Palmer, (JOHN,) the projector of mail-coaches in Eng
land, was born at Bath in 1742. He obtained the office
of controller-general of the post-office, but was removed
in 1792. Died in 1818.
Palmer, (Jonx,) an English actor, born in London
about 1740; died in 1798.
Palmer, (JoHN McAui.EY,) an American general,
born in Scott county, Kentucky, in 1817, was a lawyer
before the civil war, and practised in Illinois. He was
appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in December,
1861, and commanded a division at the battle of Stone
River, December 31, i862-January 2, 1863. For his
services in this action he was promoted to the rank of
major-general. He took part in the battle of Chicka-
maugn, September 19 and 20, 1863, and commanded a
corps under Sherman in the campaign against Atlanta,
May-September, 1864. He was elected Governor of
Illinois by the Republicans in November, 1868.
Palmer, (Sir ROUNDKT.L,) an eminent English lawyer
and legislator, born at Mixbury, Oxfordshire, in 1812.
He was called to the bar in 1837, elected to Parliament
in 1847, and appointed solicitor-general in 1861. He
was attorney-general from 1863 to June, 1866. He is
one of the ablest debaters of the Liberal party in Par
liament. He was returned to Parliament for Richmond
in 1861, in 1865, and in 1868. In 1869 he voted against
the disestablishment of the Irish Church.
Palmer, (SAMUEL,) an English printer, published a
"General History of Printing," (1733.) Died in 1732.
Palmer, (WILLIAM PITT,) an American poet, born at
Stockbridge, Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 1805.
He passed a large part of his mature life in the city of
New York, and was successively a medical student, a
teacher, a writer for public journals, and a clerk in a
public office. He wrote a hymn or ode entitled " Light,"
and other short poems.
Palmerston, pa'mer-ston, (HENRY JOHN TEMPLK,)
VISCOUNT, an eminent English prime minister, born
at Broadlands, near Romsey, in Hampshire, on the 2Oth
of October, 1784. He was the eldest son of Henry Tem
ple, second Viscount Palmerston, and was descended
from an ancient family, of which the famous Sir William
Temple was a member. He was educated at Harrow,
Edinburgh, and Saint John's College, Cambridge. At
the death of his father, in 1802, he succeeded to the
estate and title of viscount, (in the Irish peerage.) He
was elected a member of Parliament by the Tories in
1807, and was appointed a lord of the admiralty in the
same year. He soon distinguished himself by his talents
for business and his political tact. In 1809 he became
secretary at war in the ministry of Percival, and in 1811
he was returned to Parliament for the University of
Cambridge, which he continued to represent for about
twenty years.
He retained the office of secretary at war during the
long administration of Liverpool (1812-27) and under
the ministries of Canning and Goderich. As an advocate
of Catholic emancipation, he declined to serve under the
Duke of Wellington, and resigned office in 1828. Before
this date he had become an eminent debater, especially
on foreign affairs, in respect to which he favoured the
policy of Canning. Although he had hitherto been a
Tory, he accepted office as secretary of foreign affairs in
the Whig ministry formed in November, 1830. Having
resigned with his colleagues in November, 1834, he was
appointed to the same office in the Melbourne ministry
in April, 1835, and held it until the accession of Sir
Robert Peel, in September, 1841. During this term of
official service he had a prominent part in the settlement
of the Eastern question. He induced Russia, Austria,
and Prussia to unite with England in a treaty signed in
London in July, 1840, and to resist the progress of Me-
hemet AH in Syria. France, which favcured Mehemet
Ali, was thus ignored in the settlement of the question.
He married about 1839 the first Lord Melbourne's
daughter, who was the widow of Earl Cowper. On
the formation of a new ministry by Lord John Russell,
in 1846, Palmerston again became minister of foreign
affairs. He pursued the policy of neutrality towards the
revolutionary movements by which Europe was con
vulsed in 1848 and 1849, but he promptly recognized the
French republic, and favoured Napoleon's coup d'etat
in 1851. In consequence of a disagreement with Lord
John Russell, he was removed in December of that year.
In December, 1852, Lord Aberdeen formed a coalition
ministry, in which Palmerston was secretary for the home
department, while the ministry "drifted" into war against
Russia. He succeeded Lord Aberdeen as prime min
ister in February, 1855, and formed a cabinet chiefly
of Whigs or Liberals. Peace was restored with Russia
in March, 1856. Having been defeated in Parliament
on the subject of the Chinese war in March, 1857, he
appealed to the country, which sustained his policy by
a large majority. He failed in his effort to pass the
Conspiracy bill occasioned by Orsini's conspiracy against
Napoleon III., and was compelled to resign in February,
1858. In June, 1859, he succeeded Lord Derby as the
head of a ministry in which Russell was foreign secretary
and Gladstone chancellor of the exchequer. He con
tinued to be prime minister until his death, October j8,
1865. He had no children. Palmerston retained in
his old age much of the vigour and vivacity of youth.
He was an excellent master of parliamentary science
and political tactics, and enjoyed a high degree of
popularity. He represented Tiverton in the House
of Commons from 1835 to his death.
See G. H. FRANCIS, "Opinions and Policy of Viscount Palmer
ston as Minister, Diplomatist, and Statesman," 1852; "Thirty Years
of Foreign Policy: a History of the Secretaryships of Earl Aberdeen
and Lord Palmerston," 1855; COMTK DK FICQTELMONT, "Lord
Palmerston, 1'Angleterre et le Continent," 1852; L UK LOMENIE,
" Lord Palmerston, par un Homme de Rien," 1842 ; HARRIET MAR-
TINEAS, "Biographical Sketches," 1870; " Fraser's Magazine" lor
November, 1865 ; "Westminster Review" for January, 1866.
Palmezzano. See PALMEGIANI.
Palmieri, pil-me-a/ree, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter
of history and animals, born at Genoa in 1674; died
in 1740.
Palmieri, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian economist, born in
the province of Otranto in 1721. He was director-
general of the finances at Naples. He wrote a "Treatise
on the Art of War," (1761,) and "Thoughts on Economy,"
(" Pensieri economic), " 1789.) Died in 1793.
Palmieri, (MATTEO,) an Italian historian, born at
Florence in 1405. His chief work is a "General Chroni
cle from the Creation to his Own Time." Died in 1475.
Palmieri, (MATTEO,) an Italian philologist, born at
Pisa in 1423. He wrote a continuation of the chronicle
of Matteo Palmieri from 1449 to 1481, (1483.) Died in
1483.
Palmquist, pal m'k wist, (FREPERIK,) a Swedish ma
thematician, born in 1720, died in 1771.
Palmquist, (MAGNUS,) BARON, a Swedish military
officer, born in 1660. He was very skilful in fortifica
tions, and was president of the Council of Mines. Died
in 1729.
Palombi, pa-lom'bee, (GAETANO,) an Italian poet,
born near Spoleto in 1753, wrote "II Medoro coronato,"
(1828.) Died in 1826.
See MONTANA, " Elogio di G. Palombi," 1837.
Palomino de Castro y Velasco, pa-lo-mee'no da
kas'tro e va-las'ko, (Don ACISLO ANTONIO,) a celebrated
Spanish painter, born near Cordova in 1653. His name
is sometimes written PALOMINO DE VELASCO. He was
a pupil of Juan de Valdes Leal. Having painted the
story of Psyche for Charles II., he obtained, at an early
age, the title of painter to the king. His chief merits
are correct design, beautiful colour, and excellence in
perspective. "The Confession of Saint Peter" is called
one of his best works. His reputation is chiefly founded
on his treatise on painting, entitled "El Museo pictorico
y Escala optica," (2 vols., 1715,) and his "Lives of
Spanish Painters" contained in his " Parnaso Espanol
pictorico," (i vol., 1724.) Died at Madrid in 1726.
See QUILLIET, "Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols;" CEAN-
BERMUDHZ, " Diccionario. "
Fals'grave, (JoHN,) an English grammarian, born in
London. He gave lessons in French to Mary, a sister
of Henry VIII., in 1514, and published a French gram
mar, (1530.) This is the most ancient printed work on
that subject of which we have any knowledge, according
to Barbier, who praises his sagacity and taste. Died
in 1554.
; 9 as s;^hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; thasin^zj. (J[^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
PALU
1734
PANCKO UCKE
Palu, de la, deh It pi'lii', [ Lat. PALUDA'NUS, ]
(PiKRRE,) a French Dominican monk, born at Varam-
bon about 1280. He was appointed Patriarch of Jeru
salem about 1330, and wrote several works on theology.
Died in 1342.
Paludan-Muller, pal'66-dtn' mul'ler, (CARAPS
PETER,) a Danish historian, a brother of Frederic, was
born in 1805. He published several works on Danish
history, and "Researches on Machiavel," (1839.)
Paludan-Muller, ( FREDERIC, ) a popular Danish
poet, born in Fiinen in 1809. He produced in 1832
"Cupid at Court," a comedy, and in 1833 a poem called
"The Danseuse," (" Danclserinden,") which is much ad
mired. His most remarkable work, perhaps, is "Adam
Homo," (1841-49,) a humorous poem. He is commended
for happy images, noble ideas, and force of sentiment,
but is deficient in invention as a dramatist.
Paludanus. See PAI.U.
Paludanus, pa-lii-da'nus, (BERNARD Ten Broek —
ten bKook,) a Dutch philosopher and traveller, born at
Steenwyk in 1550; died in 1633.
Paludanus, (JEAN VAN DKN BROEK,) a Flemish
theologian, born at Malines in 1565. He was professor
at Louvain, and author of several works. Died in 1630.
Pamard, pjt'mtit', ([KAN BAPTISTS ANTOINE,) a
French surgeon, born at Avignon in 1763 ; died in 1827.
Pamele.de, deh pf mil', [ Lat. PAME'LIUS,] (JACQUES,)
a Flemish priest, born at Bruges in 1536. lie edited
the works of Cyprian (1568) and Tertullian, (1579,) and
wrote " Liturgica Latinorum," (1571.) Died in 1587.
Pamelius. See PAMELE.
Pam'me-nes, \Ylauttsv>if,] a Theban general, was a
friend of Fnaminondas. Philip of Macedon was in the
custody of Pammenes while he was a hostage at Thebes.
Pammenes commanded an army sent to Megalopolis
in 352 B.C.
Pammenss, an Athenian orator and teacher of
rhetoric, lived in the time of Cicero, who extols his
eloquence in high terms.
Pam'phi-la, [Gr. Hi/^wA??,] a Roman or Greek histo
rian, lived in the reign of Nero. She wrote a historical
work entitled v^o^tviiuara ivropiKu, which was highly es
teemed by some ancient critics. It is not extant.
Paniphile. See PAMPHH.US.
Pam'phl-lus, |riau0/?,oc,] one of the most eminent
Greek painters, was a native of Amphipolis, and flour
ished between 390 and 350 n.c. He was the pupil of
Eupompus, whom he succeeded as the master of the
Sicyonian school of painting. As a teacher of art, he was
probably surpassed by none of the ancients. His school
was remarkable for the importance which the master
attached to general learning and the great attention he
paid to accuracy in drawing. Pliny says that he was
the first artist who was well versed in all sciences, and
that he thought geometry necessary to the perfection of
his art. He excelled in composition, and in what Quin-
tilian calls ratio, or proportion. Pliny mentions four of
his works, among which was "Ulysses on his Raft."
Apelles and Melanthius were his pupils.
Famphilus, a grammarian of Alexandria, is supposed
to have lived in the first century of our era. He was
the author of a "Greek Lexicon."
Pamphilus, [Fr. PAMPHII.E, poN'fel',] SATNT, an emi
nent martyr, born at Berytus, (Beyroot,) in Syria, about
245 A. n. He became presbyter of Caesarea, in Pales
tine, where lie founded a large and renowned public
library. He was eminent for learning and piety. Hav
ing a high esteem for the works of Origen, he tran
scribed nearly all of them with his own hand. Pamphilus
and Kusebius composed jointly an " Apology for Origen."
He suffered martyrdom in the reign of Maxiniin, at
Caesarea, in 309 A.D. Eusebius testified his friendship
and honour for him by adopting the name of PAMPHII.I.
See SAINT JEROME, " De Scriptoribus Ecc'esiasticis ;" BARONIUS,
" Annales."
Pan, [Gr. Hav,] the god of flocks, shepherds, and
pastures, in classic mythology, was said to be a son of
Mercury, and was sometimes identified with the Roman
Lupercus. He combined the form of a man with that of
a goat, having horns and feet like the latter animal. He
was fond of music and riotous noise, and was the inventor
of the syrinx, the pastoral pipe or flute. The principal
seat of his worship was Arcadia. He was regarded by
some philosophers as the symbol of the universe ; for
Pan signifies "all." Panic terrors were ascribed to
Pan, who sometimes appeared to travellers and sur
prised them with a sudden alarm. The Romans ob
served an annual festival, called Liipcrcalia, in honour
of Pan, whose priests were styled Luperci.
See SMITH, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and
Mythology;" " Biographic Universelle," (Partie mytholopique.)
Pan-a-9e'a, |Gr. Ylai'UKeia ; Fr. PANACEE, pS'nJi'sa', |
(i.e. the "all-healing,") a daughter of /Esculapius, is
simply a personification of the healing power.
Fanacee. See PANACEA.
Panaeiius, pa-nee'nus, [Duvatt'Of,] an eminent Athe
nian painter, who lived about 450 H.C., was a brother of
Phidias, according to Pausanias, or his nephew, accord
ing to Strabo. He aided Phidias in the decoration of
the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, in which he painted,
among other subjects, "Atlas Upholding Heaven," and
the "Combat of Hercules with the Nemean Lion." His
master-piece was a series of pictures of the battle of
Marathon in the Poecile at Athens.
Panaetius, pa-nee'she-ns, [naramoc,] a Greek Stoic
or Eclectic philosopher, was born at Rhodes, and was a
pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and perhaps of Carneades.
About 140 or 150 K.c. he visited Rome, taught philos
ophy to Scipio Africanus and Laelius, and enjoyed the
intimate friendship of the former, lie was afterwards
the head of the Stoic school at Athens, and died, at an
advanced age, before ill u.c. lie is the representative
of a moderate stoicism, and appears to have rejected
the principle of apathy. None of his works are extant.
Among them was a treatise "On Duties," to which
Cicero was indebted for many principles of his book
" De Officiis." Cicero avowed this fact, and expressed
a very high esteem for Panaetius.
See Sum.As, "Pnnsetius:" VAN LIJNDKN, " Dispiitalio historico-
criticn de Panaetio," 1802; RITTKR, " History of Philosophy."
Panard, pjt'ntk', (CHARLES FKANC.OIS,) a French
chansonnier and dramatist, born near Charlies about
1694. He wrote successful songs, vaudevilles, comedies,
and pleasant satires. Died in 1765 or 1769.
Panartz. Sec P ANN ART/..
Panchamuki, one of the names of SIVA, which see.
Paiiciroli, pan-che-ro'lee, (Guioo,) an Italian jurist
and antiquary, born at Reggio in 1523. He was pro
fessor of Roman law at Turin (1571-82) and at Padua.
Among his important works is one on illustrious jurists,
" De Claris Legnm Interpretibus," (1637 ;) also one en
titled "Reruni Memorabilium Libri duo," (1599,) which
treats of ancient arts and inventions of which the secret
is lost. Died in 1599.
See ERSCII mul GKUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" NICE-
RON, " Me:noires."
Panckoucke, pflN'kook', (ANDRE JOSEPH,) a French
bookseller and compiler, born at Lille in 1700. He pub
lished a "Philosophic Manual," (2 vols., 1748,) a "Dic
tionary of French Proverbs," (1749,) and other works.
He also wrote "The Battle of Fontenoy," in burlesque
verse, a parody on Voltaire's poem on that subject.
Died in 175 v
Panckoucke, (CHARLES JOSEPH,) a son of the pre
ceding, born at Lille in 1736, was an eminent publisher
in Paris, and a writer of some merit. He was the pro
prietor or editor of the "Mercure de France," for which
lie procured 15,000 subscribers. About 1781 he formed
the plan of the " Encyclopedic Methodique," a very large
and important work. He founded the "Moniteur," a
daily journal, in 1789. He translated Lucretius, (1768.)
and "Orlando Furioso," (1798.)- He corresponded with
Buffon, Voltaire, and Rousseau. Died in 1798.
See Qt'EHARD, " La France Litteraire."
Panckoucke, (CHARLES Louis Fleury — fluh're',)
a son of the preceding, was born in. Paris in 1780. He
was distinguished as a publisher and translator. He
was the publisher of a " Dictionary of Medical Sciences,"
(60 vols.,) and of a collection of Latin classics, with
translations, entitled " Latin-French Library," (" Biblio-
theque Latine-Frai^aise," 174 vols., 1828 et seq.} He
translated Tacitus, (7 vols., 1830-38.) Died in 1844.
5j e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n5t; good; moon;
PJNCRJT1US
1735
P4NSERON
Pancratius, pan-kra'she-us, one of the early Chris
tians, suffered martyrdom under Diocletian.
Fandare. See PANDARUS.
Pan'da-rus, [Gr. Huv6apo<;; Fr. PANDARE, poN'dSR',]
a semi-fabulous warrior, who fought against the Greeks
in the Trojan war, and was an excellent archer. He was
killed by Diomede.
Fan-di'on, [Gr. Havdiuv,} a son of Cecrops, became
King of Athens, but was expelled from that country and
afterwards ruled over Megara. He was the father of
TEgeus, Pallas, and other sons.
Pantiioii, a mythical king of Athens, was a son of
Erichthonius, and the father of Erechtheus, Philomela,
and Procne. It was fabled that Ceres and Bacchus came
to Attica in the reign of Pandion.
Paiidolfe. See PANDOI.FO.
Fandolfi, pan-dol'fee, (GIANGIACOMO,) an Italian
painter, born at Pesaro, was a pupil of F. Zuccaro. He
flourished about 1630.
Pandolfini, pan-dol-fee'nee, (ANGELO,) an Italian
statesman, economist, and writer, born at Florence in
1360 ; died in 1446.
Fandolfo, pan-dol'fo, [Fr. PANDOI.FE, p&N'dolf;
Lat. PANDUI/PHUS,] Prince of Benevento and Capua,
began to reign in 961. He was one of the most power
ful princes of Italy. Died in 981 A.D.
Pan-do'i'R, [G'r. HawJwpa, from nuv, "every," and
dupov, "gift;" Fr. PANDORF., pS.N'doR',] the name given
in the Greek mythology to the first woman, who was
endowed by Minerva and Venus with every attractive
quality, — whence her name, which signifies possessing
"every gift." Jupiter gave her a beautiful box, which
she was" to present to the man who should marry her.
She became the wife of Epimetheus, who opened the
box, whereupon there issued from it the numerous evils
that have since infested human life. Pandora closed the
box in time to prevent the escape of Hope. According
to one account, Pandora herself, prompted by curiosity,
opened the box, though she had been forbidden to do
so. Another legend tells us that Pandora's box con
tained various blessings, which escaped when she opened
it. and could never be recovered.
See SCHOHMANN, " De Pandora Commentatio," 1853; "Biogra
phic Universelle," (Partie mythologique.)
Pandore. See PANDORA.
Pandulphus. See PANDOLFO.
Panel, pt'ncl', (A LEX ANDRE XAVIF.R,) a French nu
mismatist, born at Nozeroy in 1699. He became a pro
fessor in the Royal College at Madrid, and wrote many
works on ancient coins and other antiquities. Died
in 1777.
Paiietti, pa-net'tee, (DOMKNICO,) a skilful Italian
painter, born at Ferrara in 1460; died in 1530.
Panfili. See INNOCENT X.
Fan-hel-le'nI-us, [Gr. TlaveT^^viaf,] (i.e. " the god
worshipped by all the Hellenes or Greeks,") a surname
of Zeus or Jupiter.
Panicale, da, da pa-ne-ka'la, (MASOLINO,) a painter
of the Florentine school, born in 1378. Some of his
frescos still exist at Florence. He was one of the first
artists that attained skill in chiarosctt.ro. According to
Vasari, he died in 1440.
See VASAKI, " Lives of tbe Painters."
Panigarola, pa-ne-ga-ro'la, (FRANCESCO,) the most
eloquent Italian pulpit orator of his time, was born at
Milan in 1548. He entered the order of Cordeliers, and
became Bishop of Asti in 1587. In 1589 he perverted
his talents by advocating in Paris the cause of the League
against Henry IV. lie left many volumes of Italian and
Latin sermons, which have nearly passed into oblivion,
and other works. Died in 1594.
See ]!O\T,R\TIA DE VARENNA, "Vita di Panigarola," 1617;
UGHEI.I.I, " Italia sacra."
Panin or Panine, pa-neen', ? (NIKITA IVANOVITCH,
a Russian statesman, born in 1718. He became governor
of the grand duke Paul in 1760, and was appointed min
ister of foreign affairs by Catherine on the abdication of
Peter III., (1762.) Died in 1783.
See "Vie du Comte de Panine," London, 1784.
Panini, pa'm-m, the most celebrated of Sanscrit
philologists, lived at a very remote and uncertain period.
He is said to have been a grandson of the legislator
Devala. He is considered by some as the creator of
ammatical science and the inventor of the analytic
processes to which linguistics owes its discoveries. The
lies of his grammar amount to three thousand nine
hundred and ninety-six.
Panini, pa-nee'nee, or Pannini, pan-nee'nee, (Gio-
VANNI PAOLO,) an able painter of the Roman school,
born at Piacenza about 1694. He was very skilful in
perspective, and was an excellent painter of architecture
and landscapes, which he adorned with graceful figures.
Among his works are " Ruins of the Temple of Vesta
at Tivoli," " The Traders driven from the Temple." and
views of ruins at Rome. Died at Rome in 1764.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Fanis, pt'ness', (£TIENNK JEAN,) a French Jacobin,
born in Perigord in 1757. He was accessory to the
outrages of his party in Paris, and was elected to the
Convention in 1792. He joined the enemies of Robes
pierre on the gth Thermidor. Died in 1833.
Panizzi, pa-nlt'see or pa-net'see, (ANTONIO,) an
Italian bibliographer and litterateur, born in the duchy
of Modena in 1797. He became assistant librarian of
the British Museum in 1831, and principal librarian of
that institution in 1856. He resigned this position in
July, 1865. He has published editions of "Orlando
Furioso," (1830-34,) and other poems.
Panmure, pan'mur or pan-mur',(Fox MAULE,) LORD,
and Earl Dalhousie, a British politician, a son of the
first Baron Panmure, was born in Forfarshire in 1801.
He was elected to Parliament by the Whigs about 1835,
and was secretary of war from July, 1846, to February,
1852. He held the same office under Palmerston from
18^5 tf> February, 1858. He is a cousin of the late Earl
of Dalhousie, whose title he inherited in December, 1860.
Pannard. See PANARD.
Pannartz, pan'naiUs, (ARNOLD,) a German printer,
who was employed at Mentz by Gutenberg. He re
moved to Italy in 1462, and established a press at Su-
biaco. Died in 1476.
Pannini. See PANINI.
Pamionius. See CISLNGE, DE.
Faii-no'm-us, (JANUS,) a Hungarian bishop and
Latin poet, born in 1434 ; died in 1472.
Panofka, pa-nof'ka, (IlEiNRicn,)a German composer
and violinist, born at Breslau in 1808, has performed in
Paris with success.
Panofka, (THEODOR,) a German archaeologist, born
at Breslau in 1801. He published numerous works,
among which are " De Rebus Samiorum," (1822,) and
"Pictures of the Life of the Ancients," (" Bilder Antiken
Lebens," 1843 ) ^e became professor in the University
of Berlin in 1844. Died in 1858.
Fan'o-pe, [Gr. llavo/n;,] in classic mythology, was
one of the Nereids, and was invoked by mariners.
Fanormita, pa-noR-mee'ta, (ANTONIO Beccadelli
— bek-ka-clel'lee,) a distinguished Italian writer, born
at Palermo (the Panormus of the ancients) in 1394. He
was patronized by the Duke of Milan, and by Alphonso,
King of Naples, whom he served as an ambassador. He
wrote obscene epigrams, which were admired for wit
and elegance of style, and other works, among which
is "Familiar Letters," etc., ("Epistolae familiares ac
Campanae," 1553.) Died in 1471.
See F. COI.ANGELO, "Vita di A. Beccadelli," 1821; NJCERON,
" Memoires."
Pan'sa, (C. VIBIUS,) a Roman general, who was a
partisan of Caesar in the war against Pompey. As a
colleague of Hirtius, he obtained the consulship in 43
B.C. Hirtius and Pansa joined the party of the senate
and marched against Antony, and were both killed in
battle near Modena in 43 B.C.
Pansa, pan'sa, (Muzio,) an Italian philosopher and
writer, born in the Abruzzi about 1560. He wrote a
work on "The Library of the Vatican," ("Delia Libre-
ria Vaticana," 1590.)
Panseron, p5xss'r6N', ( AUGUSTF.,) a French musician
and composer, born in Paris in 1795. He gained the
grand prize in 1813, and became professor de chant
at the Conservatory of Paris in 1824. He composed
operas, masses, and requiems. His reputation is founded
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PANSERON
1736
PAPETY
chiefly on a great number of popular ballads, (romances,)
among which are " Au Revoir," "Vogue ma Nacelle,"
and " The Dream of Tartini."
See FETIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens."
Panseron, (PIERRK,) a French architect, born near
Provins about 1730. He published several good works,
one of which is entitled " New Elements of Architec
ture," (3 vols., 1775-80.)
Pantaenua, pan-tee'nus, [Gr. Ufanaivoq ; Fr. PAN-
TENE, p&N'tin',] a Christian philosopher, born about
155 A.D., was a Stoic before his conversion. He became,
about 180, the head of the celebrated school at Alexan
dria, where Saint Clement was one of his pupils. Ac
cording to an ancient tradition, he preached in India.
His works, if he wrote any, are not extant. Died about
216 A.D.
Pan-tag'a-thus, (OCTAVIUS,) [It. PANTAGATO, (Or-
TAVIO,)] an Italian monk of great erudition, born at
Brescia in 1494. He left some works in manuscript.
Died in 1567.
Pantaleon, pdN'tS'la'iN', written also Fantaleo,
(HENRI,) a Swiss historian, born at Bale in 1522, became
professor of dialectics and physics in his native city. He
obtained a wide reputation by his writings, among which
is a work on the illustrious men of Germany, (" Proso-
pographia Virorum illustrium Germanise," 3 vols., 1566.)
Died in 1595.
Pantene. See PANTVENUS.
Paiitiii, pdN'taN', (Pi-M'ER,) a Flemish classical scholar,
born at Thiel about 1555 ; died in 1611.
Pantoja, pan-to'na, (JUAN DE LACRUZ.) a Spanish
painter, born at Valencia about 1550, was a pupil of
Coello. He worked at the Escurial for Philip II. lie
excelled in design and in the expression of his figures.
Among his works is "The Adoration of the Shepherds."
Died in 1610.
Panviiiio, pan-vee'ne-o, (ONUFRIO,) [Lat. PANVIN'-
lus O.N'u'i'HRius,] an eminent Italian antiquary, born
at Verona in 1529. He collected many inscriptions and
medals, and was patronized by Cardinal Farnese. Among
his numerous treatises are " Festivals and Triumphs of
the Romans," (" Fasti et Triumph! Romanorum," 1557,)
"On the Roman Republic," (" De Republica Romana,"
1581,) and "On the Circus Games," (" De Luclis Cir-
censibus," 1600.) He was one of the first who applied
criticism to history, and confirmed his statements by
medals, inscriptions, etc. Died at Palermo in 1568.
See D. W. MOI.I.ER, " Disputatio circularis de Onuphrio Pan-
vinio," 1697 ; MAKFEI, " Verona illustra ;" NICERON, " Membires."
Panvinius. See PANVINIO.
Pa-ny'a-sis, [Gr. Uavvaau;,] a Greek poet of the fifth
century B.C., was, according to Suidas, an uncle of He
rodotus. He wrote an epic poem entitled " Heraclea,"
which is not extant. In the Alexandrian canon he was
ranked among the great epic poets. Died about 460 B.C.
See EKSCII und CRUDER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie :" MUM.KR,
"Histoire de la Literature Grecque;" FUNCKE, " Dissertatio de
Panyasidis Vita ac Poesi," 1837.
Paiizacchia, pan-zak'ke-a, (M ARIA EI.F.NA,) an Ital
ian painter, born at Bologna in 1668; died in 1709.
Panzer, pant'ser, (FuiKDRiCH,) a German antiquary,
born in Bavaria in 1794. He wrote "The Traditions
and Customs of Bavaria," (2 vols., 1848-55.) Died in
«854-
Panzer, (GEORG WOLFGANG,) an eminent German
bibliographer, born at Sulzbach in 1727. He preached
at Nuremberg, to which he removed in 1760. His most
important work is one in Latin, entitled "Annals of
Typography from the Origin of Printing to 1536," (11
vols., 1793-1803,) which is said to be the most complete
treatise on that subject. Died in 1804.
See EKSCII und ORUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" MEUSEI.,
"Gelelirtes Deutscli'.and."
Paoli, pa'o-lee, almost pow'lee, (GIACINTO,) a Cor-
sican general, born at Basti'a in 1702. He commanded
with success against the Genoese about 1734, and after
wards opposed the French until 1739, when he was com
pelled to submit. He retired to Naples, where he died
in 1768.
Paoli. (PAOLO ANTONIO,) an Italian antiquary, born
at Lucca about 1720, was a nephew of Sebastiano.
Among his works is an account of the ruins of Paestum,
(1784.) Died about 1790.
Paoli, (SEBASTIANO,) a learned Italian antiquary and
monk, born near Lucca in 1684. He wrote, besides
many other treatises, "On the Poetry of the Greek and
Latin Fathers in the First Century," (1714,) and "On
the Diplomatic Code of the Order of Malta," (" Codice
diplomatico dell'Ordine di Malta," 2 vols., 1733-37.)
Died in 1751.
Paoli, di, de pa'o-lee, (PASQUALE,) a celebrated Cor-
sican general, born at Rostino in 1726, was a son of
Giacinto, (noticed above,) who took him to Naples in
1740. In 1755 he vvas chosen general -in chief of the Cor-
sicans, who had revolted against the Genoese. He gained
many victories, rendered himself master of nearly all the
island, and organized a government with a representative
system. In 1768 the Genoese, baffled in their efforts to
reduce Corsica, ceded it to the French, whose army
Paoli defeated twice in that year. He was defeated in
a decisive battle at Ponte Nuovo in 1769, and retired to
England. In 1789 he was recalled from exile by the
National Assembly, and received from Louis XVI. the
title of lieutenant-general, with the command of Corsica.
He assumed an attitude of hostility to the dominant
party in France in 1793, and became an ally or partisan
of the English, to whom he transferred the sovereignty
of the island in 1794. Having been deprived of his
command by the British, he left Corsica in 1795 or 1796.
He died near London in 1807.
See BOTTA, " Storia d'ltalia ;" BOSWEU., " Journal of a Tour to
Corsica;" ARRIOIU, "Vie de Pascal Paoli;" POMPEI, " E°tat de la
Corse," 1821 : KARL L. KI.OSE, " Leben P. Paoli's," 1853; " Nou-
velle Biographie GeneVale."
Paolini, pow-lee'nee, (PiETRO or LUCA PIETRO,) an
Italian painter, born at Lucca in 1603. He painted
religious subjects. Died in 1681.
See LANZI, "History of Painting," etc.
Paolo, the Italian for PAUL, which see.
Paolo Sarpi. See SARPI.
Paolo Veronese. See CAGLIARI.
Paolucci, pow-loot'chee, (SIGISMONDO,) an Italian
poet, born in Umbiia about 1510. He wrote canzoni,
which were admired, and celebrated the African expe
dition of Charles V. in " The African Nights," (" Le Notti
d' Africa," 1535.) Died in 1590.
Paon, du, dii pf'oN1', sometimes called Le Paon, a
French painter of battles, born near Paris about 1740.
He was a pupil and rival of Casanova, whom he ex
celled in design and in fidelity as an imitator of nature.
Died in 1785.
Papa, del, del pa'pa, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian medical
writer, born at Empoli in 1649. He was physician to
the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Died in 1735.
Papacino. See ANTONI, D'.
Papadopoli, pa-pa dop'o-Iee, (Niccoi,6 COMNENO,)
a learned priest, born in Candia in 1655. lie became
in 1688 professor of canon law at Padua, and wrote a
"History of the University of Padua," (2 vols., 1726.)
Died in 1740.
Pape, de la, deh IS ptp, (Gui,) a French jurist, born
at Lyons about 1400; died about 1475.
Papebroch, pa'peh-bRoK', or Papebroeck, pa'peh-
bRook', (DANIEL,) a learned Flemish Jesuit, born at
Antwerp in 1628. He compiled a number of volumes
of the " Acta Sanctorum" commenced by Bollandis.
Died in 1714.
Papebroeck. See PAPEBROCH.
Papencordt, pa'| en-koiu', ( FELIX,) a German his
torian, born at Paderborn in 1811. Among his works
are a " History of the Domination of the Vandals in
Africa," (1837,) and a "Life of Cola di Rienzo," (1841.)
Died in 1841.
Papendrecht, van, vin pa'pen-dRe'Kt', (CORNELIS
PAUL HOYNCK,) a Dutch historian and priest, born at
Dort in 1686. He wrote a " History of the Church of
Utrecht," (1725,) and " Analecta Belgica," (3 vols., 1743.)
Died in 1753.
Papety, pfp'te', (DOMINIQUE Louis FEREOL,) a
French painter, born at Marseilles in 1815. He gained
the grand prize in 1836. Among his works is "Dream
of Happiness," (" Reve de Bouheur.") Died in 1849.
i, e, T, 6, u, y, long-; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; nd_; good; moon;
PAP1
1737
\ PARACELSUS
Papi, pa'pee, (LAZZARO,) an Italian historian and
translator, born near Lucca in 1763. He translated
"Paradise Lost" into Italian. Died in 1834.
Fa'pi-as, [Gr. Ilamac,] SAINT, was Bishop of Hie-
rapolis, in Phrygia, in the second century. He wrote an
" Exposition o'f the Words of the Lord," which is not
extant. According to Irenaeus, he had seen and heard
the apostle John. Several writers state that he suffered
martyrdom in 163 A.D.
See SMITH, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc.
Papillon, pi'pe'voN', (JEAN,) a French engraver,
born at Rouen in 1639; died in 1710. His son JEAN,
born at Saint-Quentin in 1661, was a skilful engraver
and designer. He especially excelled in designing horses.
Died in 1723.
Papillon, (TEAN MICHEL,) an eminent engraver on
wood, born in'Paris in 1698, was a nephew of the pre
ceding. He published a " Treatise on Wood-Engraving,"
(1766.) Died in 1776.
Papillon, (PHILIHERT,) a French biographer and
priest, born at Dijon in 1666. He wrote a good work
on Burgundian authors, " Bibliotheque des Auteurs de
Bourgogne," (2 vols., 1742.) Died in 1738.
Papillon, (THOMAS,) a French jurist, born in 1514,
gained distinction as a writer on law. Died in 1596.
Fapin, pap'in, [Fr. pron. pt'paN',] (DENIS,) a French
natural philosopher, born at Blois in 1647. He was the
associate of Robert Boyle in scientific experiments in
England, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society
in 1681. He invented an apparatus for softening bones,
called " Papin's Digester," and is ranked among the
inventors of the steam-engine. "Papin," says F. Arago,
" first conceived the idea of a steam-engine with a piston."
To escape persecution as a Protestant, he went into exile
in 1685, and obtained a chair of mathematics at Marburg.
Died about 1712.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Papin, (ISAAC,) a'French theologian, born at Blois in
1657, was a nephew of Claude Pajon, and was educated
as a Protestant. He wrote " Essays on Theology,"
(1687,) which subjected him to the enmity of Jurieu.
In 1690 he joined the Roman Catholic Church. Died
in 1709.
Papineau, pt'pe-no', (Louis JOSEPH,) a Canadian
revolutionist, born near Montreal in 1787. In 1814 he
represented Montreal in the Canadian Parliament, and
in 1815 became Speaker of the House. He was a leader
of the liberal or radical party, which revolted in 1837.
After the defeat and dispersion of the insurgents, he
took refuge in the United States.
Fa-pin'i-an, [Lat. /EMIJ/IUS PAPINIA'NUS ; Fr. PA-
PINIEN, pt'p'e'ne-aN',] a celebrated Roman jurist, born
about the middle of the second century. He was advo-
catus fisci in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, and after the
accession of Severus was libellornm magister ar.d preto-
rian prefect, (203 A.D.) He was put to death, by order
of Caracalla, in 212, probably because he had condemned
the execution of Geta. The Digest contains extract?
from his " Quaestiones," " Responsa," and "Defini-
tiones." He was considered by some persons as the
greatest jurist of antiquity. He had a high reputation
for integrity.
See KVKRHARD OTTO, "Papinianus," etc., 1718; ERSCH und
GRUBKR, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" G. L. MENCKE, "Papini
anus," 1715.
Papinianus. See PAPIN IAN.
Papinien. See PAPINIAN.
Papire-Masson. See MASSON, (JF.AN PAPIRE.)
Pa-pir'I-us, (JUSTUS,) a Roman jurist, lived in the
reigii of Marcus Aurelius. The Digest contains extracts
from his "Constitutions."
Papirius, (SEXTUS,) the author of a supposed collec
tion of the " Leges Regiae," (laws enacted during the
reigns of the Roman kings,) which was called "Jus Pa
pirianum." He is said to have lived in the time of
Tarquinius Superbus. Nothing certain is known abou
his compilation.
See PVPERS, "Dissertatio de Papirio," 1825.
Fa-pir'I-us Cras'sus, (Lucius,) a Roman commander
was 'appointed dictator in 339 B.C., to conduct the war
igainst the LatiiV, and was twice elected consi/ii 336
and 330 11. c. \% .X^
Pa-plr'i-us Cur<sor, (Lucius,) a famous Roman
;eneral, whom Livy represents as one of;^ln~e ablest men
of his time. He was appointed dict^'f to conduct the
var against the Samnites, in 332 H.dr Fabius Maximus,
,vho was master of the horse, in U** absence of his chief
ind in disobedience to his orders, attacked and defeated
he enemy. For this offenra/Papirius ordered him to be
finished with death; but Fabius appealed to the people,
and was pardoned or acquitted. Papirius prosecuted
the war with success until the Samnites sued for peace.
He was elected consul about 320, and soon after defeated
the Samnites at Luceria. In 313 he was chosen consul
for the fifth time, and in 308 B.C. was made dictator for
another war against the Samnites, over whom he gained
signal victory. History is silent respecting the sub
sequent events of his life. His son, of the same name,
was elected consul in 293, and again in 272 B.C. He
defeated the Samnites.
Papirius Massonus. See MASSON, (PAPIRE.)
Papon, pt'pdN', (JEAN PIERRE,) a French historian
and priest, born near Nice in 1734. He wrote a "His
tory of Provence," (4 vols., 1777-86,) which is com
mended, and a "History of the French Revolution from
1789 to the 1 8th Brumaire, 1799," (6 vols., 1815.) Died
in 1803.
Pappenheim, von, fon pap'pen-hlm', (GOTTFRIED
HEINKICH,) COUNT, a celebrated German general, born
at Pappenheim in 1594, was a zealous Roman Catholic.
After he had served with distinction in the army of
Bavaria, and received several wounds at Prague, (1620,)
he entered the service of the emperor, about 1630, as
field-marshal. The victory of the Imperialists at Magde-
.Mirg (1631) is ascribed to 'him. He commanded a corps
under Wallenstein in 1632, and was killed at the battle
of Lutzen, in November of that year.
See FOKSTER, "Wallensteins Briefe;" SCHILLER, "History of
the Thirty Years' War."
Pap'pus, [Gr. n«7T7n>c,] an eminent Greek geometer
of Alexandria, flourished about 380 or 400 A.I). He left
a work entitled " Mathematical Collections," (MafcftUE-
TCKal Zvvayu-yal,) which is extant, and of which Com-
mandino published a Latin version in 1588. Pappus
first gave the example of the quadrature of a curved
surface. He also furnishes important information of
the analytic methods of the ancients. He wrote other
works, which are lost.
See MONTUCI.A, "Histoire des Mathdmatiques ;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Pappus, pap'pus, (JoiiANN,) a Lutheran minister and
writer, born at Lindau, on Lake Constance, in 1549. He
preached at Strasburg. Died in 1610.
Paquot, pt'ko', (JEAN NOEI.,) a Flemish biographer,
born at Florennes in 1722, was a priest and a professor
of Hebrew. His chief work is " Memoirs towards the
Literary History of the Low Countries," ("Memoires
pour servir a 1'Histoire litteraire des Pays-Bas," 18
vols., 1763-70,) which contains biographies of Dutch and
Flemish authors. Died in 1803.
Pa'ra, called also BAB, King of Armenia, was the son
and heir of Arsaces III., who was deposed by Sapor,
King of Persia. By the aid of the Romans, Para ob-
tamed the throne about 365 A.D. He was killed by the
order of the Roman emperor Valens about 375 A.I).
Para du Phanjas, pS'rt' dii fdN'zhas', (FRANCOIS,) a
French Jesuit and philosopher, born in Dauphine in
1724. He published " Elements of Metaphysics, Sacred
and Profane," (1767,) and " Principes du Calcul et de la
Geometric," (1773.) Died in 1797.
Parabosco, pa-Ra-bos'ko, (GIROLAMO,) an Italian
poet and musician, born at Piacenza. He was author of
" Progne," a tragedy, (1548,) several comedies, and tales
entitled "Diversion's," (" I Diporti," 1552.) His works
were received with favour. Died at Venice in 1557.
Paracelse. See PARACELSUS.
Far-a-cel'sus, [Fr. PARACEI.SE, pf'rt'selss',1 (Pin-
I.TPPUS 'AUREOI.US THEOPHRASTUS BOMBASTUS von
Hohenheim — fon ho'en-him',) a famous alchemist and
charlatan, supposed to have been born at Einsiedeln, in
Switzerland, in 1493. In his youth he acquired a pro-
e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PARADIN
1738
PARENT
ficiemcy in tne jargon of alchemis/s, magicians,
quackb,^ whom he consulted in nearly every pa
and
part of
Europe. ..Having performed some 'famous cures, he was
appointed ^rpfessor of medicine at Bale in 1526. He
there burned tltf- works of Galen, styled himself the mon
arch of medicine, ^nd pretended to have discovered a
medicine capable oVvprolonging life indefinitely, (called
the Elixir of Life.) He became intemperate, and in 1527
or 1528 resumed a vagabond life. In his medical prac
tice he introduced mercury Kind opium into general use.
He died poor, at Saltzburg, in 1541. He had published
but little in his lifetime. After his death many volumes
ascribed to him appeared at various times between 1575
and 1658. His medical reputation is founded on the
importance which he gave to pharmaceutical chemistry.
His dogmatic and fantastic pseudo-philosophy found
many admirers, especially in Germany.
See M. B. LESSING, "Paracelsus: sein Lebenund Denken," Ber
lin, 1839 : FKANCK, " Sur la Vie et les £crits de Paracelse ;" MARX,
"Zur Wiirdigung des Theo. von Hohenheim," 1842; HOEFKR,
" Histoire de ia Chiinie ;" HRKMKR, " Dissertatio de Vita Paracelsi,"
1836; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Paradin, pi'rS'da.v', (GuiLLAUME,) a French priest
and historian, born near Chalons about 1510. Among
his works are a " History of his own Time," (1550,) and
"Annals of Burgundy," (1566.) Died in 1590.
Paradis de Moiicrif. See MONCRIF.
Paradis de Raymoiidis, pS'ra"de' deh ri'moN'dess',
(JEAN ZACHARIE,) a French moralist, born at Bourg-en-
Bresse in 1746. He wrote a "Treatise on Morality and
Happiness," (2 vols., 1784.) Died in 1800.
Paradisi, pa-ra-dee'see, (AcosriNO,) COUNT, an Ital
ian poet and prose writer, born at Vignola in 1736.
He was professor of civil economy and of history at
MrHena. He wrote vessi sciolti, ("blank verse,") which
were received with favour, and an excellent "Eulogy on
Montecuccoli," (1776,) in prose. He translated some
tragedies of Voltaire into Italian. Died in 1783.
See SCHEUONI, " Elogio del Conte A. Paradisi," 1789.
Paradisi, (GIOVANNI,) COUNT, ason of the preceding,
was born at Reggio in 1760. Bonaparte appointed him
a director of the Cisalpine republic in 1797, and council
lor of state in 1804. He presided over the Italian senate
from 1809 to 1814. Died in 1826.
Paradol. See PREVOST-PARADOL.
Pareeus. See PARE.
Paramo, de, da pa'ra-mo, (Luis,) a Spanish theo
logian, born near Toledo about 1545. He wrote "On
the Origin and Progress of the Inquisition," (1598,) said
to be one of the most curious works on that subject.
Parana, de, da pa-ra-na', (HONORIO HERMETO CAR-
NEIRO LF.AO,) MARQUIS, a Brazilian minister of state,
born in Minas-Geraes about 1802. He was a leader of
the conservative party, and became president of the
council in 1853. Died in 1856.
Par-a-su-ra'ma, [Hindoo pron. piir'a-soo-ra'ma and
pur'a-sdo rim', from the Sanscrit parasu m par ash u, an
"axe," and rdma, one " who delights in,") in the Hindoo
mythology, the name of the sixth avatar of Vishnu. He
was born as the son of Jamadagni. His mission appears
to have been to subdue or destroy the Kshatriya (or
warrior) race, who had become arrogant through their
unlimited power. He seems to have used his terrible
battle-axe with considerable effect, as some of the ac
counts represent the whole earth as filled with the blood
of his enemies.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon;" WILSON, " Sanscrit Dictionary. "
Paravey, de, deh pi'rt'vi', (CHARLES HIPPOLYTE,)
a French Orientalist, born in Ardennes in 1787. He
wrote several works on Oriental antiquities.
Paravia, pa-ra-vee'a, (PiETRO AI.ESSANDRO,) an Ital
ian litterateur, born in Dalmatia in 1797. He became
professor of eloquence at Turin in 1832. He gained
distinction by articles on national literature in the jour
nals, by a version of the " Letters of Pliny the Younger,"
(1830,) and other works. Died in 1857.
Parcee, par'se, or Moirae, moi're, [ Fr. LES PAROUES,
li pSkk,] the Fates of classic mythology, were said to
be daughters of Night, (Nox.) According to Hesiod,
they were daughters of Jupiter and Themis, and were
named CLOTHO, LACHESIS, and ATROPOS. Homer rec-
ognizes one Fate, ( Moira,) who spins out the thread of
human life and destiny. Other mylhographers feigned
that Clotho held the distaff, Lachesis spun the thread
of each person's life, and Atropos cut it off, as expressed
in the following hexameter line :
" Clotho coin in retinet, Lachesis net et Atropos occat."
Parcelles, ptn'sel', (JAN,) an able Dutch painter of
marine views, was born at Leyden in 1597. He painted
storms at sea and shipwrecks with great success and
rapidity. lie died at Leyerdorp in 1641. His son
JULIUS, born about 1628, was a skilful marine painter,
and nearly equalled his father.
Parcieux, de. See DEPARCIEUX.
Pardessus, paVda'sii', (JKAN MARIE,) a French
t Blois in 1772. He sat in the Corps
Legislatif from 1807 to 1811. He published a "Treatise
on Servitudes," (1806,) which has passed through eight
or more editions, a capital work entitled " Lectures on
Commercial Law," (4 vols., 1813-37,) and an important
"Collection of Maritime Laws anterior to the Eighteenth
Century," (6 vols., 1828-45.) Died in 1853.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pardies, ptu'de', (!GNACE GASTON,) an able French
geometer, born at Pan in 1636. He lectured at the
College of Louis le Grand, in Paris, and corresponded
with Sir Isaac Newton. Among his works are " Elements
of Geometry," (1671,) and "Statics, or the Science of
Moving Forces," (1673.) Died in 1673.
See BAYI.E, " Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Par'doe, (Jui.lA,) an English authoress, born at
Beverley, Yorkshire, about 1808. After a visit to Por
tugal, she produced a successful work entitled "Traits
and Traditions of Portugal." Among her other popular
works are "The City of the Sultan," (1836,) "The Ro
mance of the Harem," (1839,) "The City of the Maygar,"
(1840,) and novels, entitled " Reginald Lyle," and " The
Jealous Wife," (1855.) Died in 1862.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 18.52.
Pare, par're, |Fr. pron. pi'ra'; Lat. PAR^/US,] ( AM
BROSE,) an excellent French surgeon, born at Laval
(Mayenne) in 1509, (or in 1517, according to some
authorities,) is styled "the Father of French surgery."
His parents were poor, and his education was defective.
Having studied in Paris, he became a surgeon in the
army in 1536, and surgeon-in-ordinary to Henry II. in
1552. He reformed the treatment of gun-shot wounds,
which previously were cauterized with boiling oil, and
substituted the ligature of arteries for cauterization.
He served Francis II., Charles IX., and Henry III., as
chief surgeon. Brantome says that during the Massacre
of Saint Bartholomew the king sent for Pare (who was
a Protestant) and kept him in his own room for safety.
He wrote many professional works, which are highly
esteemed. The best edition is that of Malgaigne, (3
vols., 1840.) Died in 1590.
See VIMONT, " Elo.se de Pare1," 1814: WIM.AUME, " Recherches
bionjaphiques siir A. Pare." iSjS; "Retrospective Review," 1827;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Paredes. See GARCIA DE PAREDES.
Paredes, pa-ra'des, (MARIANO,) a Mexican general,
born about 1790. He fought against Santa Anna in 1844,
and was elected President of Mexico in Time, 1845. In
August, 1846, he was driven from power by Santa Anna
and Bravo. Died in 1849.
Pareja, de, da pa-ra'na, (JuAN,) an eminent Spanish
painter, born at Seville about 1608, was a pupil of Velas
quez, whom he served as a slave in his youth. According
tosome writers, he was born in the West Indies. Having
acquired skill by secret study and practice, he was libe
rated by Velasquez. lie painted portraits with success.
His master-piece is "The Calling of Saint Matthew."
Died in 1670.
See CE.AN-BERMUDEZ, "Diccionaiio Historico."
Parent, pt'rSN', (ANTOINE,) a French mathematician,
born in Paris in 1666. He wrote " Researches into Phys
ics and Mathematics," (2 vols., 1705,) and other works.
Died in 1716.
Parent du Chatelet, pt'roN' dii shat'li', (AT.F.XAN-
DRE JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French physician and writer on
hygiene, was born in Paris in 1790. He wrote valuable
works entitled "Essay on the Common Sewers of Paris,"
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;
PAREPA-ROSA
'739
PARISET
("Essai sur les Cloaques ou Egouts de Paris,'' 1824,)
"Hygiene publique," (2 vols., 1836,) and "On Prostitu
tion in the City of Paris," (2 vols., 1836.) Died in 1836.
Parepa-Rosa, pa-ra'pi ro'si, MADAME, a distin
guished vocalist and actress, born in Edinburgh about
1830, has performed with brilliant success in Boston,
New York, and Philadelphia. Her voice has extraor
dinary compass and power.
Paret de Alcazar, pa-ret' da al-ka'thaR, (Luis,) a
Spanish painter, born at Madrid in 1747. He was com
missioned by the king to paint the sea-ports of Spain
in 1780. Died in 1799.
Pareus, pa-ra'us, (DANIEL,) a philologist, born at
Neuhausen in 1605, was a son of Philipp, noticed below.
He published " Historia Palatina," (1633,) and editions of
Lucretius, Quintilian, and other classics. Died in 1635.
Pareus, (DAVID,) an eminent German divine of the
Reformed Church, born in Silesia in 1548. His German
name was WA.NGLER. He became professor of theology
at Heidelberg in 1584. His principles were Calvinistic.
He published the " Neustadt Bible," (1587,) Commen
taries on Scripture, and other works. Died at Heidelberg
in 1622.
See J P. PAREUS, " Narratio de Vita D. Parei," 1633; ERSCH
und GKUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Pareus, (PHILIPP or JOHAN.N PHILIPP,) a philologist,
a son of the preceding, was born near Worms in 1576.
He was rector of the colleges of Neustadt and Hanau.
He published "Selections from Plautus," (" Electa Plau-
tina," 1597,) an edition of the comedies of Plautus, with
notes, (1610,) and other works. Died in 1648.
Parfaict, pfk'fa', ( FRANCOIS,) a French writer, born
in Paris in 1698. He was author of a " History of the
French Theatre," (15 vols., 1734-49,) and other works.
Died in 1753.
Paride. See PARIS.
Parieu, de, deh pi're-uV, (MARIE Louis PIERRE
FELIX ESQUIROU,) a French lawyer, born at Aurillac
in 1815. He was minister of public instruction from
October, 1849, to February, 1851. In 1851 he became
president of the section of finances an conseil d'etat.
Parigi, pa-ree'jee, (Giui.io,) a Florentine architect
and etcher, born in the sixteenth century. He designed
some public edifices of Florence, and opened an academy
of art in that city. Among his pupils was Callot, the
engraver. Died in 1635. His son ALFONSO was an
architect. He built the Scarlati _palace in Florence.
Died in 1656.
Parijata, pa'rT-ja'ta, [from the Sanscrit pdri, "above,"
and jdtd, " produced,"] in the Hindoo mythology, one
of the trees of the paradise of Indra, said to produce as
fruit whatever was desired. (See KURMA.)
Parini, pa-ree'nee, (GiUSEPPK,) a popular Italian
poet, born in the Milanese in 1729. He became a good
Greek scholar, and distinguished himself as a critic by
his Examination of Bandiera's work, " Pregiudizi clelle
umane Lettere," (1756.) His principal work is "The
Day," (" II Giorno,") an ironical didactic poem, of which
the first part, "The Morning," (" II Mattino,") was pub
lished in 1763. It is a satire on the manners and morals
of the Italian nobility. He also wrote lyrical poems,
which are much admired. He became professor of elo
quence at the College of Brera, Milan, in 1769. Parini
is reputed one of the most eminent Italian poets of his
time. Died at Milan in 1799.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe :" "Lives of the
Italian Poets," by the REV. HENKV STKBBING : REINA, "Vie de
Parini," iSoi ; CRSARK C\NT{J, •' Parini et la Societe Lombarde ;"
POZZKTTI, "Vita di G. Parini," 1801 ; TIPALDO, " Biografia degli
Italiani illustri."
Par'is, [Gr. Dupic; It. PARIDE, pa're-da,] a son of
Priam, a Trojan prince, was celebrated for his beauty,
gallantry, accomplishments, and adventures. He was
sometimes called ALEXANDER. According to poetical
tradition, he seduced Helen, the wife of Menelaus, and
thus provoked the Greeks to wage the war which ended
in the destruction of Troy. The death of Achilles is
ascribed by some poets to a shaft from the bow of Paris.
The decision by which he awarded the prize of beauty
to Venus, when Juno and Minerva were competitors,
was a favourite theme of ancient writers, who relate the
following story : All the gods and goddesses were in
vited to the nuptials of Peleus and Thetis, except Dis
cord, who threw among the guests a golden apple, on
which was inscribed " For the most beautiful." Juno,
Minerva, and Venus disputed for this apple, and referred
the decision of their claims to Paris, who was then a
shepherd on Mount Ida. To influence his judgment,
Juno promised to give him power, Minerva martial
glory, and Venus the most beautiful of women. He
decided in favour of Venus, and received from her
Helen as his reward.
See HOMEK'S " Iliad ;" SMITH, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Biography and Mythology;" " Biographic Universelle," (Partie
myihologique.)
Paris, pt're', (ALEXIS PAULIN,) a French antiquary
and translator, born at Avenay (Marne) in 1800. He
wrote an "Apology for the Romantic School," (1824,) and
several essays on mediaeval literature. He produced a
version of Byron's Complete Works, (1830-32.) In 1837
he was elected to the Institute.
Paris, BROTHERS, French financiers, born in Dau-
phine : they were named ANTOINE, CLAUDE, JEAN,
and JOSEPH, who was called DUVERNEY. Joseph was
born in 1684. On the collapse of Law's system they
were employed to restore order in the public finances.
Voltaire extols the admirable talent which they exhibited
in this operation. Duverney died in 1770.
See MARQUIS DH LUCHET, " Histoire de MM. Paris," 1776.
Paris, (CLAUDE JOSEPH,) a French composer, born
at Lyons in 1804. He gained the first prize at Paris
in 1826. He has composed operas and sacred music.
Paris, (FRANgois,) a French priest and devotional
writer, born at Chatillon, near Paris. He wrote edify
ing works, among which are a " Martyrology," (1694,)
and " The Gospel Explained," (4 vols., 1693-98.) Died
in 1718.
Paris, (FRANCOIS,) a French ascetic priest, bom in
Paris in 1690; died in 1727. Crowds resorted to his
tomb, attracted by a report that miracles were per
formed there.
Paris, ( FRANCOIS EDMOND,) a French naval officer,
born at Brest in 1806. He wrote several works on navi
gation, and a "Dictionary of the Steam Navy," (" Dic-
tionnaire de Marine a Vapeur," 1848.) He became a
rear-admiral in 1858.
Par'is, (JoHN AYRTON,) F.R.S., an English physician
and chemist, born at Cambridge in 1785. He practised
some years at Penzance, from which he removed to
London about 1817. In 1819 he published a good
" Pharmacologia," (8th edition, 1833.) He was elected
president of the College of Physicians in 1844. Among
his works are a well-written "Memoir of Sir Humphry
Davy," (iSio,) a "Treatise on Diet," (1821,) and "Med
ical Chemistry," (1824.) Died in December, 1856.
Paris, (MATTHEW.) See MATTHEW PARIS.
Paris, (PHILIPPE NICOLAS MARIE,) one of the guards
of Louis XVI., born in Paris in 1763. He killed Lepel-
letier de Saint-Fargeau in 1793, because he had voted for
the death of the king. When the officers of justice were
about to arrest him, he shot himself, (January, 1793.)
Paris, (PIKRRE ADRIEN,) a French architect, born at
Besai^on in 1747. He was appointed designer to the
cabinet of the king in 1778. Among his works is the
portal of the cathedral of Orleans. He left in manu
script a valuable "Collection of Designs," and other
works. Died in 1819.
Paris, de, deh pi're', (Louis PHILIPPE,) COMTE, a
French prince, born in 1838. His father, the Duke of
Orleans, was the eldest son of King Louis Philippe, who
abdicated in favour of the Count of Paris in February,
1848. His title, however, was not recognized by the
revolutionists who dethroned Louis Philippe. Since
that event he has lived in exile. He served a campaign
in Virginia as an officer of the Federal army of the Po
tomac in the spring of 1862, and returned to Europe
about July i of that year. He is recogr.ved as the head
of the Orleans family.
Pariseau, pi're'z'o', (PIERRE GERMAIN,) a French
dramatic author, born in Paris in 1753. He wrote
comedies which were received with favour. He was
guillotined in 1794.
Pariset, pi're'zi', ( ETIENNE, ) a French medical
writer, born at Grand, a village among the Vosges, in
« as k; 5 as i; g hard; g asy; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
PARISETTI
1740
PARKER
1770. lie was chosen physician of the Hopital de
Bicetre in 1814. In 1842 he became perpetual secretary
of the Academy of Medicine. He wrote eloquent eulo
gies on members of this academy, (printed in 2 vols.,
1845,) treatises on contagious diseases, and other works.
Died in 1847.
See SACHAILE, " Les Me'decins de Paris;" SAINTE-BEUVE,
"Causeries du Lundi."
Parisetti, pa-re-set'tee, (Luicr,) an Italian writer of
Latin poetry, was born at Reggio in 1503. He wrote
" Theopeia," (1550,) and other poems, which were praised
by Sadolet and Bembo. Died in 1570.
Par'ish, (ELIJAH,) an American Congregational di
vine, was born at Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1762. lie
published a "History of New England," "System of
Modern Geography," and other works. Died in 1825.
Parisio. See PARRHASIUS, (Aui.us JANUS.)
Parisis, pt're'zess', (PIEKUE Louis,) a French prelate,
born at Orleans in 1795. He became Bishop of Arras
in 1851. He has published numerous theological works.
Parisot, pS're'zo', (PIERRE,) a French monk, born at
Bar-le-Duc in 1697, took the name of PERK NORBKRT.
He opposed the Jesuits, and wrote against them " Me
moirs of the East Indian Missions," (1744.) Died in 1769.
Parisot, (VALENTIN,) a French writer, born at Ven-
doine in 1800. He became professor of foreign litera
ture at Grenoble and at Douai, (1854.) He wrote many
articles for the "Biographic Universelle," a "Life of
Fourier," (1857,) and other works. Died in 1861.
Parisot- Valette. See V ALETTE.
Park, (EDWARDS A.,) D.D., an American Congre
gational divine, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in
1808, was appointed in 1836 Bartlett professor of sacred
rhetoric at Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1847
Abbott professor of Christian theology in that institution.
He has made several translations from the German, and
published a number of sermons and theological works.
Park, (Sir JAMES ALLAN,) an English lawyer and
writer on marine insurance, was born in Surrey; died
in 1839.
Park, (MuNGO,) an eminent and enterprising explorer
of Africa, was born near Selkirk, Scotland, in September,
1771. He chose the profession of surgeon, and studied
botany in his youth. As agent of the African Associa
tion, he undertook in May, 1795, to explore the course
of the Niger. Departing from a point on the Gambia,
he reached the Niger at Segoin TU'V, 1796, and ascended
the river to Bammakoo. He returned to England in the
autumn of 1797, and published, in 1799, "Travels in the
Interior of Africa," which excited great interest. Park
was chosen to command an expedition sent to renew the
enterprise, and left Pisania, on the Gambia, about the 4th
of May, 1805, with forty-five men, intending to descend
the Niger in boats to its mouth. He perished (probably
by drowning) a short distance below Yaouri, near the
end of 1805. The journal of his last expedition was
published in 1815.
See RKNNKLL, " Life of Mmicro Park," 1815: CHAMBERS, " Bio-
graphic.il Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Edinburgh Review"
for February, 1815; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1815;
" Monthly Review" for July, 1799.
Park, (THOMAS,) an English antiquary and poet, born
about 1760; died in 1834.
Parke, park, (JOHN,) an eminent English musician,
born in 1745, performed on the hautboy ; died in 1829.
Parke, park, (JOHN G.,) an American general, born
in Pennsylvania about 1828, graduated at West Point in
1849. He commanded a brigade at Roanoke Island and
Newbern in February-March, 1862, and served as major-
general at the siege of Vicksburg, May-July, 1863. He
Commanded a corps which assaulted the defences of
"etersburg on the 2d of April, 1865, and carried the
main line of the enemy.
Par'ker, (HENRY,) Lord Morley, was born in North
amptonshire in 1476. He wrote verses and dramas in
his youth. He was one of the barons who by letter
warned Pope Clement that he would lose his supremacy
in England if he opposed the divorce of Henry VIII.
Died in 1556.
Par'ker, (HENRY W.,) an American poet, born at
Danby, Tompkins county, New York, in 1825. He pub
lished a volume of "Poems," Auburn, 1850, and con
tributed frequently to the " North American Review."
He is, or was, pastor of a Presbyterian church in Brook
lyn, New York.
Parker, (Sir HYDE,) an English vice-admiral, served
with distinction against the French and Spaniards, and
in 1781 defeated the Dutch admiral Zoutman at Dog-
gerbank. Being appointed in 1783 commander of the
British fleet in the East Indies, he perished by ship
wreck on the passage.
Parker, (ISAAC,) an American jurist, born at Boston
in 1768, became chief justice of the supreme court ol
Massachusetts in 1814. He was distinguished as a
scholar. Died in 1830.
Parker, (MATTHEW,) a learned and meritorious Eng
lish prelate, born at Norwich in 1504, was educated at
Cambridge. He became dean of the College of Stoke
Clare in 1535, chaplain to Henry VIII. in 1537, master
of Bene't College in 1544, and Dean of Lincoln in 1552.
On the accession of Queen Mary (1553) he was deprived
of his benefices, because he was a Protestant, or because
he was married. He was appointed Archbishop of Can
terbury by Elizabeth in 1559. A revised version of the
Bible (called the Bishops' Bible) was published under
his direction in 1568. He presented many valuable
manuscripts to his college at Cambridge. Died in 1575.
See J. STRYPE, "Life of Archbishop Parker," 1711; BI'RNUT,
" History of the Reformation ;" W. F. HOOK, " Lives of the Arch
bishops of Canterbury."
Parker, (NATHAN,) a Unitarian minister, born in
Reading, Massachusetts, in 1782. He became pastor
of a church at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1808.
Died in 1833.
Parker, (Sir PETER,) an English admiral, born in
1716, served in the American war, and in 1782 took
prisoner the French admiral De Grasse. He was created
admiral of the fleet. Died in 1811.
Parker, (RICHARD,) an English sailor, born at Exeter,
was the ringleader of a mutiny at the Nore in May,
1797. He blockaded the port of London, and received
the title of admiral from the mutineers. He was hung
in June, 1797.
Parker, (ROBERT,) an English Puritan minister,
became Fellow of a college at Cambridge in 1584. He
preached at Amsterdam in the reign of James I., and
wrote several works.
Parker, (SAMUEL,) an English bishop, born at North
ampton in 1640. He was appointed prebendary of
Canterbury in 1672, and Bishop of Oxford in 1686. It
appears that he received this preferment from fames II.
because he favoured the cause of popery and absolutism.
He died in 1687, leaving several theological works, and
memoirs of his own times, entitled " De Rebus sui Tern-
poris Commentarius," (1726.)
See WOOD, " Athena; Oxonienses."
Parker, (THEODORE,) a distinguished American
scholar and rationalistic theologian, was born at Lex
ington, Massachusetts, on the 24th of August, 1810.
His education was begun on his father's farm, and there
he continued to carry on his studies even after he had
entered his name at Harvard in 1830. He appears to
have visited Cambridge only for the purpose of partici
pating in the examinations. Being a non-resident, he
was not entitled to a degree ; but subsequently (in 1840)
the honorary title of A.M. was conferred upon him by
the university. In 1834 he entered the theological
school, in which he remained about two years. He first
began to preach at Barnstable in 1836. In April of the
following year he married Miss Lydia D. Cabot, and
soon after was settled as Unitarian minister at West
Roxbury. His views had previously been but little in
advance of the average Unitarianism of the time ; but
his growing acquaintance with the German rationalists
De Wette, Eichhorn, Paulus, Bauer, and others was not
long in producing an important change in his theological
opinions, — a change, we need scarcely say, which he was
at no pains to conceal. His new doctrines gave great
offence to some of the more conservative of the New
England Unitarians ; and after his discourse (preached
at South Boston in 1841) on the "Transient and Perma
nent in Christianity," in which he assumed the absolute
humanity of Christ, His inspiration differing in no essen-
e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
PARKER
1741
PARMENTIER
tial respect from that of other men, the opposition to
him became much more decided. This opposition was
conspicuously manifested on the occasion of his ex
changing pulpits with other Unitarian ministers, some
of whom were severely censured by many of their breth
ren, who held that by such an interchange of courtesies
they gave a direct sanction to the new heresies. Parker's
translation of De Wette's " Introduction to the Old
Testament" appeared in the early part of 1843 ; later
in the same year he visited Europe, returning in the
summer of 1844. Soon after his return he began to
preach in Boston, at the Melodeon, where he was regu
larly installed in 1846. He was the principal editor of
the " Massachusetts Quarterly," which was commenced
in 1847 an(l continued three years. In addition to his
duties as minister, and his laborious intellectual pursuits,
which extended to almost every department of human
knowledge, he gave numerous lectures on various sub
jects. But the question which seems to have enlisted
most fully all the faculties of his ardent and powerful
mind was Southern slavery, with its attendant iniquities
and abominations. His health having become greatly
impaired by his unceasing and intense activity, in Feb
ruary, 1850, he visited the island of Santa Cruz, in the
West Indies, and in the following summer went to
Europe, spending the winter of 1859-60 at Rome. He
left Rome in April, 1860, and with difficulty reached
Florence, where he died on the loth of May. Of his
extensive collection of books, he left the principal part,
amounting to 11,190 volumes and 2500 pamphlets, to
the Boston Public Library. A complete edition of his
works, edited by Frances Power Cobbe, was published
in London in 1863-65, in 12 vols.
See " Life of Theodore Parker," by JOHN WEISS. 2 vols., 1864:
" T.ife of Theodore Parker." by ALBERT REVILLE, 186=; ; ALLIBON-R,
" Dictionary of Authors:" " New American Cyclopaedia:" "West
minster Review" for April. 1847, article "Dr. Strauss and Theodore
Parker." (by the REV. JAMES MARTINEAU :) " North American
Review" for April, 1864; " Fraser's Magazine" foi February, 1864.
Parker, (THOMAS,) Earl of Macclesfield, an English
judge, born at Leek in 1666. He became lord chancellor
in 1718. He was accused of selling some offices in
the court of chancery, and of other corrupt practices, of
which he was convicted in 1725, and was fined heavily.
Died in 1732.
Parker, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English admiral, born in
Staffordshire in 1781, was a relative of Lord Macclesfield.
He became a rear-admiral in 1830, and a lord of the
admiralty in 1834. In 1841 he was appointed com-
mander-in-chief of the operations against China. He
took Chusan and Ning-po, entered the Yellow River or
Blue River, and compelled the Chinese to sign the treaty
of Nanking. He obtained the rank of admiral of the
blue in 1851. Died in 1866.
Farkes, parks, (JosErn,) an English lawyer, born at
Warwick in 1796. He published, besides other works,
a " History of the Court of Chancery," (1828,) and "The
Equity and Real Property Laws of the United States
of North America," (1830.) He distinguished himself
as an advocate of parliamentary reform previous to 1832.
Died in 1865.
Parkes, (JosiAH,) a civil engineer, a brother of the
preceding, was born at Warwick in 1793. He became
draining-engineer under the board of works, in which
capacity he rendered important service to the public.
He published " Essays on the Philosophy and Art of
Land Drainage," (1848,) a "Treatise on Climate, Soils,"
etc., and other works.
Parkes, (SAMUEL,) an English chemist, born in WTor-
cestershire in 1759. He manufactured chemical products
in London. He published a "Chemical Catechism,"
(1806,) and "Chemical Essays, principally relating to
the Arts and Manufactures," etc., (8 vols., 1815.) Died
in 1825.
Park'hurst, (JOHN,) an English bishop, bom in
Surrey in 1511. He adhered to the Reformed religion,
and went into exile in the reign of Mary. In 1560 he
became Bishop of Norwich. He wrote some Latin epi
grams, (1560 and 1573.) Died in 1574.
Parkhurst, (Jonx, ) an English linguist, born in
Northamptonshire in 1728. He officiated without salary
as curate at Catesby for many years. In 1762 he pub
lished a " Hebrew-and-English Lexicon without Points,"
which was highly esteemed. His " Greek-and-English
Lexicon" (1769) was reprinted and extensively used.
He also wrote "The Divinity and Pre-Existence of Jesus
Christ demonstrated from Scripture," (1787.) Died in
1797.
Park'in-son, (Jonx,) a botanist and apothecary, born
in London in 1567. He received from Charles I. the
title of " Botanicus Regius Primarius." He published
" Paradisus Terrestris, or a Garden of all Sorts of Pleas
ant Flowers," (1629,) with 109 figures, and " Theatrum
Botanicum," (1640.) Died about 1650.
Parkinson, (TuoMAS,) an English mathematician
and parson, born in Lancashire in 1745. He published
a " System of Mechanics." Died in 1830.
Park'man, (FRANCIS,) an American writer, born at
Boston in 1823, published "The California and Oregon
Trail," (1849,) " History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac,"
etc., (1851,) "The Pioneers of France in the New World,"
(1865,) "The Jesuits in North America," (1866,) and
" The Discovery of the Great West," (1869,) which have
enjoyed a great and deserved popularity.
Par'kyns, (Sir THOMAS,) an English writer, born in
1636, was the author of " Progymnasmata, or a Treatise
on Wrestling," (1714.)
See "Retrospective Review," vol. xi., (1825.)
Parlatore, paR-la-to'ra, (Fn.ippo,) an Italian botanist,
born at Palermo in 1816. He obtained a chair of botany
at Florence in 1842. Among his works are a "Me
moir on Organography, Vegetable Morphology," etc.,
(1841,) "Comparative Botany," (1843,) and "Travels in
Northern Europe," (1854.) It is stated that he is en
gaged on a large work on botanical geography.
Parma, DUKE OK. See FARNESE.
Parma, DUKE OF. See CAMBACERES, (JEAN JACQUES
REGIS.)
Parmenide. See PARMENIDES.
Par-men'I-des, [Gr. na[>/m>iAr)f ; Fr. PARMENIDE,
ptk'ma'ned',] a distinguished Greek philosopher of the
Eleatic school, was born at Elea, in Italy. He is said
to have been a disciple of Xenophanes. Plato informs
us that Parmenides, at the age of sixty-five, visited
Athens^ in company with Zeno, who was twenty-five
years younger, and became acquainted with Socrates.
The date of this event is supposed to have been about
450 B.C. He developed his philosophy in a didactic
poem " On Nature," of which some fragments have
come down to us. Plato speaks of him with veneration,
and Aristotle preferred him to the other masters of the
Eleatic school. Zeno of Elea was one of his disciples,
among whom some writers also reckon Empedocles.
See F. RIAUX, " Essai snr Parmenide d'FJee," 1840; RITTER,
"History of Philosophy:" G. H. LEWES, "Biographical Hislory of
Philosophy:" PLATO, "Parmenides;" C. A. BRANDIS, "Commen-
tatiomun Eleaticarum Xenophams, Parmenidis, Pars I.," 1815;
FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Gr.-eca."
Far-me'nl-o, [Gr. Hapueviuv: Fr. PARMENION, pf K'-
ma'ne'oN',] an eminent Macedonian general, the son
of Philotas, was born about 400 B.C. He enjoyed the
highest place in the confidence of Philip as a councillor
and general. Parmenio and Attains commanded an army
which Philip sent to invade Persia in 336. He rendered
important services in Alexander's expedition against
Persia, and appears to have been regarded as second
in command to the king. He commanded the left wing
at the battles of the Grani'cus and Issus, (333,) and of
Arbela, (331.) His son, Philotas, was accused of com
plicity in a plot against the life of Alexander, and, though
he was probably innocent, he was induced by torture to
make a confession of guilt which implicated Parmenio,
who was put to death in 330 B.C. His death is considered
to have left one of the darkest stains on the character
of Alexander.
See ARRIAX, "Anabasis ;" GROTE, " History of Greece ;" THIRL-
WAI.L, " History of Greece."
Parmenio or Parmenion, a Greek architect, em
ployed by Alexander the Great at Alexandria.
Parmenion. See PARMENIO.
Parmentier, piR'mS.N'te-i', (ANTOINE AUGUSTIN,)
an eminent French philanthropist and writer on rural
economy, born at Montdidier in 1737. He became an
€ as /•; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; ih as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PAR MENTIER
1742
PARRHASIUS
apothecary of Paris, and distinguished himself by his
efforts to promote the cultivation and use of the potato,
against which the people were prejudiced. He wrote
treatises on the potato, chestnut, and maize. In 1790
he published " Rural and Domestic Economy," (8 vols.)
He was a member of the Institute. About 1803 he
became inspector-general of health, (inspecteur-glniraldu
service de saute.) He rendered many important services
to the public. Died in 1813.
See CUVIER, "filoge de Parmentier," 1815 : A. F. DE SILVESTRE,
"Notice sur Parmentier," 1815 ; MUTEL, "Vie de Parmentier."
i8ig; VIRKV, " De la Vie et des Ouvrages de Parmentier," 1814; L.
BRK;HTWKLL, " By-Paths of Biography."
Parmentier, (JACQUKS,) a French painter, born in
Paris in 1658. He resided mostly in England, and was
employed by William III. to adorn his palace at Loo.
Among his works is " Diana and Endymion." Died
in London in 1730.
Parmentier, QEHAN,) a French navigator, born at
Dieppe in 1494. He is reputed the first European who
navigated to Brazil, and the first who explored the In
dian Sea as far as Sumatra. He died at Sumatra in 1530.
Parmesan, Le. See MAZZOLA.
Parmigiano, II. See MAZZOLA.
Parnell, (HENRY BROOKE.) See CONGLETON, LORD.
Par'nell, (THOMAS,) a British poet, born in Dublin
in 1679. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
and was ordained a deacon in 1700. In 1705 he became
Archdeacon of Clogher. lie was intimate with 'Addison,
Congreve, Swift, and Pope. About 1712 he transferred
his support from the Whig to the Tory party. He ob
tained the living of Finglass, near Dublin, in 1716, and
died in July, 1717. It appears that after the loss of his
wife, in 1712, he became intemperate. Among his best
poems are a " Hymn to Contentment," "The Hermit,"
a night-piece on "Death," and an " Allegory on Man."
He wrote several essays in the " Spectator," and other
works in prose.
See GOLDSMITH, "Life of Parnell," prefixed to Parnell's Poems;
CAMPBKLL, " Specimens of the British Poets:" R. BELL, "Lives
of the British Poets."
Parny, de, deh paVne', (£VARISTE DESIRE Des-
forges — di'foRzh',) CHEVALIER and VICOMTE, a popular
French poet, born in the Isle of Bourbon in 1753, was
styled " the French Tibullus." He was educated in
France, chose the military profession, and returned to
his native island in 1773. A disappointed passion for a
Creole named FJeonore inspired his first and most grace
ful and natural poetical compositions, " Amatory Poems,"
("Poesies erotiques," 1775,) which were received with
great favour. He went to India as aide-de-camp to the
governor-general in 1785, but returned to France in 1786
and resigned his commission. After the Revolution he
served the public as clerk in one of the bureaux of
the government. His later poems, " The War of the
Gods," (" La Guerre des Dieux," 1799,) " Paradise Lost,"
and " Les Galanteries de la Bible," were generally cen
sured for their impiety, and have little literary merit.
He was admitted into the French Academy in 1803.
Died in 1814.
See P. F. TISSOT, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. de
Parny," 1826; SAINTE-BEUVE, "Portraits litteraires ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale. "
Parodi, pa-ro'dee, (DOMENICO,) an eminent painter
of history, born at Genoa in 1668, was also a sculptor.
He imitated the styles of Tintoretto and Paul Veronese.
His chief work is in the Negroni palace, Genoa. It
represents " Hercules killing the Nemean Lion," and
other fabulous subjects. A statue of Adonis, which he
made for Prince Eugene, is admired. Died in 174°-
Parodi, (FiLiPPo,) an able sculptor, born at Genoa
about 1640, was the father of the preceding. His works
may be seen at Genoa, Venice, and Lisbon. Died about
1708. His son BATTISTA, born in 1674, was a distin
guished pai.iter and a brilliant colorist. Died in 1730.
Parodi, MADAME, a celebrated Italian singer, born
about i?4<j. She has performed with great applause in
the principal cities of Europe and the United States.
Pavoletti, de, da pa-ro-let'tee, (VICTOR MODESTE,)
CHFVALIER, an Italian antiquary, born at Turin in 1765.
He sat in the French legislative body from 1807 to l8ll.
Air.ong his works is "Turin and its Curiosities," (1819,)
and "Lives of Sixty Illustrious Piedmontese," (1826.)
Died in 1834.
Parolini, pa-ro-lee'nee, (GiACOMO,) an Italian painter
of history, born at Ferrara in 1663, was a pupil of Carlo
Cignani. Died about 1735.
Faroy, de, deh pt'Rwa', (JEAN PHILIPPE GUY le
Gentil — leh zhdN'tel',) MARQUIS, a French painter and
engraver, born in Bretagne in 1750. His engraving of
"La nioderne Antigone" (1800) was very successful.
Died in 1822.
Parque-Castrillo, del, del paR'ka kas-trel'yo, DUKE,
a Spanish general, born at Valladolid in 1755. ^e com
manded an army which opposed the French invaders
in 1809-13. Died in 1832.
Parques, Les. See PARC/E.
Parr, (CATHERINE.) See CATHERINE PARR.
Parr, (RICHARD,) a minister of the Anglican Church,
born in the county of Cork, Ireland, in 1617, was chap
lain to Archbishop Usher, of whom he wrote a Life,
(1686.) Died in 1691.
Parr, (SAMUEL,) an English scholar and critic, re
nowned for his learning and colloquial powers, was born
at Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex, in 1747. He entered
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1765, but left it with
out a degree, and was an usher in Harrow School from
1767 to 1772. He was afterwards master of schools at
Colchester and Norwich, and obtained about 1785 the
living of Hatton, in Warwickshire. His promotion was
hindered by his rather violent partiality to the Whig
principles, and the richest benefice he enjoyed was a
prebend in Saint Paul's, London. He published several
sermons, "Characters of the Late Charles J. Fox, se
lected and in part written by Philopatris Varvicensis,"
(2 vols., 1825,) and other works, none of which is of
great extent or importance. Died in 1825. Macaulay
calls Parr the greatest scholar of that age, and speaks
of "his labours in that dark and profound mine from
which he had extracted a vast treasure of erudition, — a
treasure too often buried in the earth, too often paraded
with injudicious and inelegant ostentation, but still
precious, massive, and splendid." (" Essay on Warren
Hastings.")
See "Life of S. Parr," by JOHN JOHNSTONE; WILLIAM FIELD,
" Memoir of the Life of Dr. Parr," 2 vols., 1828 ; " Dr. Parr and his
Contemporaries," in " Blackwood's Magazine" for January, May,
and June, 1831; " Parriana, or Notices of the Rev. Samuel Parr,"
London, 1828.
Parr, (THOMAS,) an Englishman of great longevity,
was born in Shropshire in 1483. He was a cultivator of
the soil, and was married about the age of one hundred
and twenty. It is said that he was able to work after
he was one hundred and thirty years old. Died in 1635.
Parradin. See PARADIN.
Parrenin, pSit'iiaN', or Parennin, pt'ri'naN', (DOMI
NIQUE,) a French missionary, born near Pontarlier in
1665. In 1698 he went to China, where he obtained
the favour of the emperor. He translated some French
works into Chinese. His letters to Fontenelle and
others were published. Died at Peking in 1741. £'<*£'-*'
Parrhasius, par-ra'she-us, \ Tlafi/Maior;, ] one of the
most celebrated Greek painters, was born at Ephesus,
and was the pupil of his father, Evenor. Though he
belonged to the Ionic school, he practised his art chiefly
at Athens. He flourished about 400 B.C. His peculiar
merits consisted in accuracy of design, truth of propor
tion, and power of expression. In pictures of gods and
heroes he established a canon of proportion which was
recognized by succeeding artists. Quintilian styled him
the legislator of his art. In a trial of skill between him
and his rival Zeuxis, the latter painted a bunch of grapes,
which the birds took for reality. Flushed with this evi
dence of his success, Zeuxis called on his rival to draw
aside the curtain and show his picture. The picture of
Parrhasius was the curtain itself, which Zeuxis had mis
taken for real drapery. Among his master-pieces were
" Ulysses Feigning Insanity," and an allegorical picture
of the Athenian people, or the Demos personified.
See CARLO DATI, "Vite de' Pittori antichi," 1667; K. O. Mui.-
LER, " Handbuch der Archaeologie der Kunst ;" " Nouvelle Biogra-
phie GeneVale."
Parrhasius or Parisio, pa-ree'se-o, (AuLus JANUS,)
an Italian grammarian, born at Cosenza in 1470. He
a, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
PARR IS
1743
PARSONS
taught eloquence at Milan and Rome, and wrote notes
on Horace, Cicero, and Ovid. His chief work is named
"De Rebus per Epistolam qusesitis," (Paris, 1567,) in
which he explains passages of ancient authors. Died
in 1534-
Par'ris, ( ALBION K.,) an American Governor and
judge, born in Oxford county, Maine, in 1788. He was
elected Governor of Maine five times, (1822-27,) became
United States Senator in 1827, and was a judge of the
supreme court of Maine from 1828101836. Died in 1857.
Far'rish, (JOSEPH,) M.D., a distinguished physician
of Philadelphia, was born in that city, September 2, 1779.
His parents were members of the Society of Friends,
and he was educated in strict conformity with the princi
ples and habits of that sect. In early life he received
strong religious impressions, by which he was preserved
from the temptations incident to a lively and ardent
temperament. He had a good English education, and
acquired some knowledge of Latin and French. Later
in life, like George Fox, he commenced the study of
Hebrew, that he might the better understand the Scrip
tures. But his tastes were rather scientific than literary,
and inclined him to the medical profession, the study of
which he commenced, after he had completed his twenty-
first year, in the office of Dr. Caspar Wistar, of the Uni
versity of Pennsylvania. He took his degree of Doctor
of Medicine in 1805, and soon after entered with zeal
upon the duties of his profession. In the winter of
1807-8 he became favourably known to the public by a
popular course of lectures on chemistry, then a novelty
in Philadelphia. In 1808 he married Susanna Cox,
whose father, John Cox, of Burlington, was a well-known
and estimable minister of the Society of Friends. There
has, perhaps, been no example in Philadelphia of a more
rapid professional success than that which fell to the lot
of Dr. Parrish. To this result his devotion to his medical
duties, and the remarkable kindliness of his disposition,
which showed itself not merely in his manners but in in
numerable acts of benevolence, powerfully contributed.
Later in life he greatly distinguished himself as a surgeon,
and was deemed worthy to succeed Dr. Physick as sur
geon to the Pennsylvania Hospital, to which position he
was elected in 1816, and which he continued to hold, with
the highest credit to himself, for thirteen years. Apart
from his profession, Dr. Parrish took a deep interest in
all benevolent enterprises, and in every movement cal
culated to relieve the distresses or promote the happiness
of mankind. He was long a member, and ultimately
president, of the old Pennsylvania Abolition Society, in
which office he had been preceded by Drs. Wistar, Rush,
and Franklin. He died March 18, 1840. Among Dr.
Parrish's numerous pupils not a few have become distin
guished in medicine or surgery, or in general science. It
may suffice to cite the names of Dr. S. G. Morton, Dr.
G. B. Wood, Dr. Carson, and Dr. G. W. Norris.
Of Dr. Parrish's sons, the second, ISAAC, attained a
high reputation as a physician, and especially as a surgeon.
He died in 1852.
See "Memoir of Dr. Joseph Parrish," read before the Medical
Society of Philadelphia, by GEORGE B. WOOD, M.D., October, 1840;
JANNEY, "History of Friends," vol. iv. pp. 126-129; and "Memoir
of Dr. Isaac Parrish," read before the College of Physicians of Phila
delphia, February, 1853, by SAMUEL JACKSON, M.D.
Parrocel, pf 'ro'seT, (BARTH^LEMI,) a French painter,
born at Montbriscn. He worked in Spain and Rome
with success. Died in France in 1660.
Parrocel, (CHARLES,) a skilful painter of battles, born
in Paris in 1688, was a grandson of the preceding. He
was patronized by Louis XV., whom he attended in the
campaigns of 1744 and 1745. Died in 1752.
Parrocel, (JOSEPH,) a distinguished painter of battles,
father of the preceding, was born in Provence in 1648.
He worked at Paris, where he settled in 1675, and was
employed by Louvois and Louis XIV. to adorn the royal
palaces. He also left many etchings. Died in 1704.
Parrocel, (PIERRE,) a nephew of the preceding, was
born at Avignon in 1664. He was an able painter of
history, and worked in Paris. His chief work is "The
Coronation of the Virgin." Died in 1739. His son,
JOSEPH IGNACE, born in 1705, painted religious and
pastoral subjects, and received the title of painter to the
king. Died in 1781.
Parrot, pft'ro', (CiiRiSTOPHE FREDERIC,) a writer on
physical science, born at Montbeliard, in France, in 1751 ;
died about 1810.
Parrot, (GEORGE FREDERIC,) a distinguished writer,
brother of the preceding, was born at Montbeliard in
1767. He became professor of physics at Dorpat in
1800, and a member of the Academy of Sciences of Saint
Petersburg in 1826. Among his works is "Outlines
(Grutidriss) of Theoretical Physics,'' (2 vols., 1809-11.)
Died at Saint Petersburg in 1852.
Parrot, QOHANN JAKOB FRIEDRICH WILHELM,) a
traveller, son of the preceding, was born at Carlsruhe
in 1792. He published "Travels in the Crimea and
Caucasus," (2 vols., 1815-18,) a "Journey to Ararat,"
(1834,) and other works. He ascended Mount Ararat
about 1830. He was professor of medicine at Dorpat.
Died in 1841.
Far'ry, (CALEB HILLIER,) an English physician, born
at Bath in 1756. He practised many years at Bath, and
published several works, among which is " Elements of
Pathology," (1816.) Sir William Edward Parry was his
son. Died in 1822.
Parry, (RICHARD,) an English divine, born in London
in 1722, was rector of Wichampton. He published, be
sides other works, a " Harmony of the Four Gospels."
Died in 1780.
Parry, (Sir WILLIAM EDWARD,) an English navigator,
(usually called Sir EDWARD PARRY,) born at Bath in
1790, was a son of Caleb H. Parry, noticed above.
He served as lieutenant in the war against the United
States in 1814, and accompanied Captain Ross in an
exploring voyage in 1818. He obtained command of an
expedition for the discovery of a Northwest Passage, and
sailed with the Hecla and Griper in May, 1819. Having
passed through Lancaster Sound, he explored a con
tiguous strait, which he named Barrow's Strait, and
gained a reward of ^5000 offered to the navigator who
should penetrate beyond the meridian of 110° W.,
(within the Arctic circle.) He passed the winter at
Melville Island, returned home in November, 1820, and
wrote a journal of his voyage, published in 1821.
Captain Parry renewed the enterprise in 1821, without
success. He performed a third voyage to the Arctic
Ocean in 1824, with the Hecla and Fury, the latter of
which was wrecked, but failed to find the Northwest Pas
sage. In 1827 he attempted to reach the North pole
from Spitzbergen by boats and sledges drawn over the
ice. Having advanced to a point 82° 45' N., he was
forced by an adverse current to return. A journal of his
second voyage was published in 1824, a journal of the
third voyage in 1826, and a "Narrative of an Attempt
to reach the North Pole" in 1828. He was raised to
the rank of rear-admiral in 1852. Died at Ems, in Ger»
many, in 1855.
See " Memoirs of Sir W. E. Parry," by his son, EDWARD PARRY
1857 ; " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1821, and October
1823; "Monthly Review" for October, 1821.
Parseval-Deschdnes, pSRs'vfK di'shin', (ALEX-
ANDRE FERDINAND,) a French admiral, born in Paris
in 1790. He became a rear-admiral in 1840, and vice-
admiral in 1846. In 1854 he commanded the fleet
which co-operated with the British against the Russians
in the Baltic. He was made an admiral in 1854. Died
in 1806.
Farseval-Grandmaison, ptus'val' gRSN'mi'zdV,
(FRANCOIS AUGUSTS,) a French poet, born in Paris in
1759. He went to Egypt with the army in 1798 as poet,
of the expedition, and was one of the friends whom
Bonaparte received on board of the ship which conveyed
him to France. He wrote a " Dithyramb on the Mar
riage of Napoleon," (1810,) " Philippe Auguste," a heroic
poem, (1825,) and other works. Died in 1834.
Par'sons, (JAMES,) F.R.S., an English physician and
antiquary, born at Barnstaple in 1705. He practised in
London, contributed several treatises on physiology, etc.
to the " Philosophical Transactions," and wrote an anti
quarian work called "The Remains of Japhet," (1767.)
Died in 1770.
Parsons, (JOHN,) an English physician, born in
Yorkshire in 1742. He became professor of medicine
or anatomy at Oxford about 1780. Died in 1785.
< as k: c as <•; g hard: g ac j: G, H, K, guttural: N. nasal: R. trilled: s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PERSONS
1744
PAR^ATI
Par'spns, (JONATHAN,) an American Presbyterian
clergyman and scholar, born at West Springfield, Massa
chusetts, in 1705. He preached for many years at New-
buryport, and published several volumes of sermons.
Died in 1776.
Parsons, (MosKS,) an eminent American preacher,
born in Massachusetts in 1716, graduated at Harvard.
He was minister at Byfield, Massachusetts. Died in
1783.
Parsons, (PHILIP,) an English clergyman, born at
Dedham in 1729, was vicar of Wye. He wrote "New
market, an Essay on the Turf," (1774,) "Simplicity," a
poem, (1784,) and other works. Died in 1812.
Parsons, [Lat. PERSO'NIUS,] (RoUEirr,) an English
Jesuit, born in Somersetshire in 1546, was remarkable
for his subtlety as a disputant and his talent for intrigue.
As an emissary of the court of Rome, he went to Eng
land with Campian about 1580, and attempted to foment
a rebellion. He published several seditious writings.
He was turbulent, audacious, and unscrupulous. Died
at Rome in 1610.
Parsons, (SAMUEL HOLDKN,) an American general
and lawyer, born at Lyine, Connecticut, in 1737, was a
son of Jonathan, noticed above. He is said to have first
suggested a general Congress. Died in Ohio in 1789.
Parsons, (THEOPHILUS,) an eminent American jurist,
born in Essex county, Massachusetts, the 241)1 of Feb
ruary, 1750. He graduated at Harvard College in 1769,
and studied law at Falmouth, (now Portland,) in Maine,
where he was admitted to the bar in 1774 ; but he after
wards removed to Newburyport. He was a member of
the convention which, in 1779, framed the State Consti
tution of Massachusetts, and was also a member of the
convention called to ratify the Constitution of the United
States in 1789. In 1800 he removed to Boston. He was
appointed in 1806 chief justice of Massachusetts, in
which office he displayed signal ability. As a lawyer,
"he had," according to Justice Story, "no equal in
Massachusetts;" and he probably had few, if any, supe
riors in the United States. A collection of his judicial
opinions was published, under the title of "Commen
taries on the Law of the United States." Died in 1813.
See " Memoir of Chief Justice Parsons," by his son, THEOPHILUS
PARSONS, 1859.
Parsons, (THEOPHILUS,) a son of the preceding, was
born at Boston in 1797, and rose to distinction as a
lawyer and writer. He graduated in 1815 at Harvard
College, where he became in 1847 Dane professor of
law. He has been a contributor to the " North American
Review,'' and other periodicals, and published a number
of essays in favour of the doctrines of Swedenborg. He
has also written several legal works.
See AI.LIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Parsons, (THOMAS WILLIAM,) an American poet,
born in Boston in 1819. He produced in 1843 aversion
of "The First Ten Cantos of Dante's Inferno," which,
according to R. W. Griswold, "is executed in a very
masterly manner. The best critics have pronounced it
the most successful reproduction of the spirit and power
of the Dinna Commedia in the English language. His
original poems are variously admirable. . . . His 'Hud
son River' is the noblest tribute any stream on this
continent has received from a poet, and his lines 'On
the Death of Daniel Webster' are far better than any
thing else ever written in verse on the death of an
American statesman." ("Poets and Poetry of America,"
p. 559.) He published a volume of poems in 1854.
See ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Parsons, (WILLIAM,) an English comic actor, born
in 1736, was also a painter. Died in 1795.
Parthenay, de. See DF.SROCHES DE PARTHENAY.
Parthenay, de, deh ptut'iuV, ( CATHERINE, ) Vi-
comtesse de Rohan, a spirited and gifted French lady,
born in Bas-Poitou in 1554, was a Huguenot. She dis
tinguished herself at the siege of La Rochelle, in 1627.
She published some poems. The famous Duke of
Rohan was her son. Died in 1631.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" DE THOU, " Historia
sui Temporis."
Par-the'm-us [Uapdevutf] of Nicaea, a Greek poet,
who lived at Rome in the first century B.C. Suidas states
that he was taken prisoner by the Romans in the war
against Mithridates. He was a friend of Cornelius
Gallus, and a preceptor of Virgil. lie wrote " Meta
morphoses," elegies, and other poems, which are all lost
except one named Kept E{HJTLK.UV iraOiJudTuv, ("On Ama
tory Affections.")
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" ERSCII und GRUBKR,
" Aligemeine Encyklopaedie."
Parthenopaeus, par-then-o-pee'us, [ Gr. H'tpdevo-
atof ; Fr. PARTHENorEE, pin ta'no'pa ,] a mythical
personage, called a son of Milanion and Atalanta. lie
was one of the seven heroes under the command of
Adrastns engaged in the expedition against Thebes,
where he was killed.
Far-then'o-pe, [Gr. Uapdn-oTTTj ; Fr. PARTHENOPE,
pf u'ta'nop',] a famous Siren, from whom the city of
Naples derived its ancient name.
Parthenopee. See I'ARTHKNOIVEUS.
Par'the-nos, [Gr. Ilrt/jflei'of; Fr. PARTHENOS, paV-
ta'nos',] (i.e. " the Virgin,") a surname given by the
Athenians to Minerva, in whose honour they built the
Parthenon. (See MINERVA.)
Particelli. See EMERY.
Par'tpu, (JAMES,) an able and popular writer and
journalist, born at Canterbury, England, in 1822, became
a resident of New York, where he was for a time asso
ciate editor of the "Home Journal." He published
a "Life of Horace Greeley," (1855,) "Life of Aaron
Burr," (1857,) "Life of Andrew Jackson," (1860,) and
a "Life of General Butler," (1863,) all of which have
been eminently successful ; also, " P'amous Americans
of Recent Times," (1867.) He has contributed to the
"Atlantic Monthly" and the "North American Review."
See the " North American Review" for April, 1867.
Parton, (SARAH PAYSON WILLIS,) the wife of the
preceding, and sister of the poet N. P. Willis, was
born at Portland, Maine, in 1811. She has published,
under the pseudonym of FANNY FERN, "Fern Leaves,"
(1853,) "Little Ferns," (1853,) "Ruth Hall," (1854.)
" The Play-Day Book," (1856,) "Fresh Leaves," (1857,)
and "Rose Clark," (1857,) which obtained great popu
larity in the United States, and were republished in
England.
Partouneaux, paVtoo'no', (Louis,) COUNT, a French
general, born at Romilly, on the Seine, in 1770; died
in 1835.
Part'ridge, (ALDEN,) an American teacher of mili
tary schools, born at Norwich, Vermont, about 1785.
He graduated at West Point in 1806. He was the
leader of a party which surveyed and determined the
northwest boundary of the United States, in 1819. lie
opened a military academy at Norwich, Connecticut, and
afterwards established one at Portsmouth, in Virginia.
Died in 1854.
Paruta, pa-roo'ta, (Fn.iri'o,) an antiquary, born at
Palermo. He wrote " Sicily Described by Medals,"
("La Sicilia descritta con Medaglie," 1612,) reprinted
in 1649 and 1697. Died in 1629.
Paruta, (PAOLO,) an eminent Italian historian and
diplomatist, born at Venice in 1540. He was sent as
ambassador to the pope in 1592, before which he had
held several high offices. In 1596 he became procurator
of Saint Mark, the highest functionary in the state ex
cept one. He wrote " On the Perfection of Political
Life," ("Delia Perfezione della Vita politica," 1579,)
which was translated into English and French, and a
"History of Venice from 1513 to 1551," (" Storia Vene-
/iana," 1605,) which is highly commended. " He was
the first," says Daru, "who introduced the details of
civil history into his narrative." His " Political Dis
courses" (" Discorsi politici," 1599) are judicious, and
sometimes profound. Died in 1598.
See A. ZE,NO, "Vita rli P. Paruta," 17^8; A. M. MKNF.OHRLU,
"Elogiodi P. Paruta," 1812 ; NICERON. "Memoires ;" A. MEZIERES,
" fitudes sur les CEuvres politiques de Paruta," 1853.
Farvati, paR'va-tee', (i.e. the "mountain [goddess,"])
[from the Sanscrit parvata, a. "mountain,"] in the Hin
doo mythology, the name of the consort or Sakti of Siva,
was supposed to be the daughter of Himala, the sove
reign of the snowy mountains in the north of India.
She is known by a multitude of names, according to her
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mit; n6t; good; moon;
PAR TSATIS
1745
PASCAL
various characters, such as BHAVAN!, corresponding to
the " Venus genetrix" of the Romans ; DURGA, so called
in her character of active or militant virtue ; KALI, (i.e.
" black" or " terrible,") applied to her in her most terrible
form, when she appears as the destroyer of the enemies
of the gods ; and PARVAT?, as the devoted wife and
inseparable companion of Siva. She (like Juno) may be
reg.irded as a personification of femineity. (See SIVA.)
See M'n 'R, " Hindu Pantlieon ;" WILSON, " Sanscrit Dictionary."
Pa-rys'a-tis, [Gr. Hapvaartf,] a Persian queen, was a
daughter of Artaxerxes I., and the wife of her brother,
Darius Ochus, over whom she had great influence. She
abused her power by the execution of a number of per
sons, among whom were two brothers of Darius. She
was the mother of Artaxerxes Mnemon and of Cyrus
the younger.
Pas. See PASS.
Pas, de, (ANTOINE.) See FEUQUIEKKS, DE.
Pascal. See PASCHAL I.
Pascal, paVkfl', (ADRIEX,) a French military writer,
born about 1815. He published, besides other works,
"The Military Life of Louis Philippe," (1841,) a " His
tory of the Army, and of all the Regiments, from the
Thirteenth Century to our Times," (4 vols., 1845-49,)
and a "History of Napoleon III.," (1853.)
Pascal, pas'kal, [Fnpron. pis'kfl' ; Lat. PASCHA'LIS,]
(BLAJSE,) a celebrated French philosopher and mathe
matician, was born at Clermont-Ferrand, in Auvergne,
on the igth of June, 1623. He was the only son of
fitienne Pascal, president of the court of aids, and An
toinette Begon. He was very inquisitive in his early
childhood, and showed an extraordinary aptitude for
geometry ; but his father, who directed his education, j
wished him to study the ancient languages, to the ex- !
elusion of geometry, and carefully concealed from him !
all works on that science. In his twelfth year, however, I
he was surprised in the act of demonstrating proposi
tions, having privately discovered or learned the elements
of geometry without the aid of books. His father then
ceased to restrain him from the study of the science to
which he was so powerfully attracted. It is stated that
at the age of sixteen he wrote a treatise on Conic Sec
tions which astonished Descartes. He made rapid pro
gress in mathematics, and soon began to associate with
Mersenne and Roberval. About the age of eighteen he
invented an ingenious calculating-machine. His consti
tution wns always delicate, and his health was probably
impaired by excessive application to study. After the
age of eighteen he was a continual sufferer. In 1648 he
made with the barometer, on the mountain called Puy de
Dome, a celebrated experiment, which established the
theory of atmospheric pressure and exploded the ancient
error that nature abhors a vacuum. He wrote two treat
ises entitled "On the Equilibrium of Fluids," and "On
the Weight of the Atmosphere." In the experiment
just mentioned he was assisted by M. Perier, his brother-
in-law. Impressed by powerful religious convictions, he
renounced in 1649 the brilliant prospect of temporal re
nown towards which his genius was conducting him, and
turned his attention from scientific pursuits. In 1654 he
narrowly escaped from a dangerous accident to which he
was exposed by his unruly horses as he was riding in a
carriage on the Pont de Neuilly. This event confirmed
his resolution to devote himself to religions duties and
a life of retirement. He became very abstemious in his
diet, denied himself many innocent enjoyments, and
subjected himself to a severely ascetic discipline. It is
stated that he beggared himself by his prodigal bene
factions to the poor, and that he wore beneath his clothes
a girdle of iron armed with sharp points as an instru
ment of self-imposed penance. lie entered the cloister
of Port-Royal, to which his sister Jacqueline had retired
several years before, and there enjoyed the society of
Arnauld, Le Saci, Nicole, Saint-Cyran, (Duvergier,) and
other Jansenist writers.
In 1656 he produced his celebrated " Provincial Let
ters," the full title of which is " Lettres ecrites par Louis
de Montalte a un Provincial de ses Amis et aux Jesuites
sur la Morale et la Politique de ces Peres," (" Letters
written by Louis de Montalte to the Jesuits," etc.)
"Pascal," says Hallam, "by his 'Provincial Letters,"
did more to ruin the name of Jesuit than all the con
troversies of Protestantism or all the fulminations of
the Parliament of Paris. . . . He has accumulated so
long a list of scandalous decisions, and dwelt upon
them with so much wit and spirit, and yet with so
serious a severity, that the order of Loyola became a
byword with mankind." (" Intiodnction to the Litera
ture of Europe.") Voltaire expressed the opinion that
"Moliere's best comedies do not excel these Letters in
wit, nor the compositions of Bossuet excel them in sub
limity." The most competent French critics, including
Voltaire and D'Alembert, concur in the judgment
that the "Provincial Letters" contributes more, thaw
any other composition to form and polish the French
language. There is not a single word in these Letters
that has become obsolete. " The severely pure and
simple taste," says Henry Rogers, "which reigns in
Pascal's style seems, when we reflect on those vices
which more or less infected universal letters, little less
than a miraculous felicity. . . . Upon all the great fea
tures of his moral character one dwells with the serenest
delight. Greatly as he is to be admired, he is yet more
to be loved. His humility and simplicity, conspicuous
as his genius and acquisitions, were those of a very
child." (".Edinburgh Review" for January, 1847.) In
one instance he relapsed into the study of the abstract
sciences which he had renounced. About 1658 he di
verted his attention from the pain which deprived him
of sleep by entertaining a luminous idea which presented
itself to liim and led him to some important discoveries
in relation to the problem of the cycloid. Before he
made these public, he challenged the mathematicians of
Europe to solve the problem, and offered a prize to him
who should succeed. Several persons competed for the
prize, but the judges decided that none of their solutions
fulfilled the conditions of the challenge. He published
in 1659 a Treatise on the Cycloid, ("Traite general de
la Roulette.") He meditated and began to compose an
extensive and systematic work on the fundamental truths
of religion and the evidences of Christianity, which he
did not live to finish; but he left in manuscript nume
rous detached sentences which are supposed to be frag
ments of that work. They were published in 1670, under
the title of " Thoughts of Pascal," (" Pensees de Pascal,")
not without suppressions and alterations. A more cor
rect edition was published by M. Prosper Faugere in
1844. "The Thoughts of Pascal," says Hallam, "are
to be ranked, as a monument of his genius, above the
' Provincial Letters,' though some have asserted the
contrary. They burn with an intense light ; condensed
in expression, sublime, energetic, rapid, they hurry away
the reader, till he is scarcely able or willing to distin
guish the sophisms from the truth they contain. For
that many of them are incapable of bearing a calm
scrutiny is very manifest to those who apply such a
test. The notes of Voltaire, though always intended to
detract, are sometimes unanswerable ; but the splendour
of Pascal's eloquence absolutely annihilates, in effect
on the general reader, even this antagonist." ("Intro
duction to the Literature of Europe.")
Among his works are " New Experiments on the Va
cuum," ("Nouvelles Experiences touchant le Vide,")
" History of the Cycloid," (" Histoire de la Roulette,")
and " De 1'Esprit geometrique." He endured with for
titude the maladies which in his latter years were
aggravated by his ascetic habits, and died in Paris on
the igth of August, 1662. His complete works were
published by Bossut, (in 5 vols. 8vo, 1779.) Prosper
Faugere published in 1844 two volumes of "Thoughts,
Fragments, and Letters of Blaise Pascal," many of
which had never before been printed. " His intellectual
powers," says Macaulay, " were such as have rarely Ix-en
bestowed on any of the children of men ; and the vehe
mence of the zeal which animated him was but too well
proved by the cruel penances and vigils under which
his macerated frame sank into an early grave. His
spirit was the spirit of Saint Bernard ; but the delicacy
of his wit, the purity, the energy, the simplicity of his
rhetoric, had never been equalled, except by the great
masters of Attic eloquence. All Europe read and
admired, laughed and wept. The Jesuits attempted to
c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; y, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as 2; th as in ////j.
1 1C
Explanations, p. 23.
PASCAL
1746
PAS OR
reply, but their feeble answers were received with shouts
of mockery." ("History of England," vol. ii. p. 18.)
See BOSSUT, " Discours sur la Vie de Pascal," 1781 ; ANDRIKUX,
"filojte de Pascal," 1813: RAYMOND, " filoge de Pascal," iSib;
FAUGERE, " FJoge de Pascal;" SAINTK-BBUVB, " Port-Royal ;"
BORDAS-DEMOUI.IN, "Ge'nie et Ecrits de Pascal," 1847; COUSIN,
" Des Pense'es de Pascal," 1844 : VINET, " Etudes sur Pascal," 1848;
ARRE MAVNARD, "Pascal, sa Vie et son Caractere," 2 vols., 1850;
"Vie de Pascal," by MADAME PERIER, his sister; "Lives of the
Most Eminent French Writers," by MRS. SHELLEY; " Fraser's
Magazine" for December, 1840; " North British Review" for
November, 1861.
Pascal, (FRANgois MICHKL,) a French sculptor, born
in Paris about 1815. He gained a medal of the second
class in 1848.
Pascal, (JACQUELINE,) a sister of Blaise Pascal, was
born at Clermont in 1625. She was beautiful and highly
gifted. About the age of ten she began to write verses,
some of which were printed in 1638. The poet Corneille,
who often visited the family of Pascal, aided in the de
velopment of her poetic talent. She became religious in
1646, and entered the convent of Port-Royal in 1652.
She wrote a powerful letter on the formulary which the
nuns were required to sign, and which condemned Jan
senism. She died in 1661. "To annihilate self," says
M. Vinet, "and then to efface the most minute traces of
that very annihilation, had been the task of this heroic
girl for years. She had deemed it her especial duty to
mortify her noble intellect ; but she was unable to destroy
it: it still clung to her. And, though every thing which
she achieved or wrote bears the stamp of mental supe
riority, there is nothing comparable in this respect to
the ' Letter on the Formulary.' "
See "Jacqueline Pascal, or a Glimpse of Convent-Life at Port-
Royal," from the French of VICTOR COUSIN, M. P. FAU<;BKE, and
M. VINET.
Pascal, (JEAN BAPTISTE ETIENNE,) a French anti
quary and priest, born at Marvejols in 1789. lie wrote
" Gabalum Christianum," (1853,) and other works. Died
in 1859.
Pascal- Vallongue, pis'ktl' vS'loxg', (JosKi'H SE
CRET,) a French general, born at Sauve (Card) in 1763.
He served with distinction in Germany and Italy during
the empire, and was killed at Gaeta in 1806.
Pasch, pash, [Lat. PAS'CHIUS,] (GF.ORG,) a German
philosopher, born at Dantzic in 1661. He became pro
fessor of theology at Kiel about 1702. Among his works
is " Tractatus de novis Inventis quorum cultui facern
protulit antiquitas," (1695.) Died in 1707.
Pasch, pash, QOHAN,) a Swedish landscape and ma
rine painter, born at Stockholm in 1706 ; died in 1769.
Paschal. See PASQUAT.T.
Pas'-ehal [It. PASQUALE, pas-kwa'la ; Fr. PASCAL,
pfs'ktl' ; Lat. PASCHA'LIS] I., POPE, a native of Rome,
was elected as successor to Stephen V. in 817 A.D. He
crowned the emperor Lothaire in 823. Died in 824.
Paschal II., POPE, (RAINIERI,) born near Viterbo,
succeeded Urban II. in 1099. He maintained a contest
on the subject of investitures with the emperor Henry
V., who marched with an army to Rome in mo, arrested
the pope after a violent resistence, and extorted from
him a concession of the right of investiture. This con
cession of Paschal was condemned by a council which
he convoked. He was too feeble and irresolute to main
tain the supremacy of the papal power. He died in 1 1 18,
and was succeeded by Gelasius II.
Paschal III., ANTI-POPE, (Gumo m CREMA, gwee'-
do de kRa'ma,) was elected in 1164 or 1165 in opposition
to Alexander III., and was recognized by the emperor
Frederick I. He died at Rome in 1168.
Paschalis. See PASCAL, (BLAISE.)
Paschalia, (Popes.) See PASCHAL.
Paschius. See PASCH.
Pascoli, pas'ko-lee, (ALESSANDRO,) an Italian phy
sician, born at Perugia in 1669. He became professor
of anatomy in Rome, and published several works. Died
in 1757.
Pascoli, (LEONE,) an Italian biographer, brother of
the preceding, was born at Perugia in 1674. He wrote
" Lives of Peruvian Painters, Sculptors, and Architects,"
(1732,) and "The Lives of Modern Painters, Sculptors,
and Architects," (2 vols., 1736,) both in Italian. Died
in 1744.
Pas'I-cles, a Greek philosopher, lived probably be
tween 400 and 350 B.C. He was at one time the head
of the school of Megara.
Pasinelli, pa-se-nel'lee, or Passinelli, pas-se-nel'lee,
(LORENZO,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1629,
was a pupil of Cantarini. He imitated the noble man
ner of Paul Veronese, whom, it is said, he equalled in
design. " His colour is so fresh and brilliant," says the
" Biographic Universelle," "that one might take his
works for the productions of the best time of the Venetian
school." Among his master-pieces are "The Entrance
of Christ into Jerusalem," and a " Holy Family." Died
in 1700.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Pasini, pa-see'nee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian linguist,
born about 1690. He published a Hebrew Grammar,
(1721,) and a "Latin-Italian Dictionary," (" Vocabolario
Italiano e Latino," 1731,) often reprinted. Died about
1770.
Fa-siph'a-e, [Gr. Tlaaupdri; Fr. PASIPHAE, pt'ze'ft'a',]
a fabulous personage, said to be a daughter of Helios,
a sister of Circe, and the wife of Minos. Among her
children were Androgeos, Ariadne, Phaedra, and the
Minotaur, the last of whom was fabled to be the offspring
of a bull.
Pa-sit'e-les, \Haam ;/j/f,] an- excellent statuary and
silver-chaser, of Greek origin, who lived at Rome. He
was a minor when he obtained the right of Roman citi
zenship, about 90 K.C. He improved the art of modelling.
Pliny represents him as a great artist, and mentions one
of his works, — an ivory statue of Jupiter. He was also
an eminent writer on art. He appears to have been
living in 30 H.c.
Paskevitch or Faskewitsch, pas-ka'vitch, written
also Paskievitch, (!VAN FEODOROVITCH,) Prince of
Warsaw, (in French, " Prince de Varsovie,") a cele
brated Russian general, born at Poltava in 1782. lie
served at Austerlitz, (1805,) received several wounds
at Brailof, (1809,) and obtained command of a brigade
in 1811. In 1812 he distinguished himself at Borodino,
and gained advantages over the French in several actions.
Having been selected to conduct an armv against the
Persians in 1825, he gained a victory at Elizabethpol,
and took Erivan in 1827. For his successes in a war
against the Turks (1828-29) he obtained the rank of
field-marshal. In 1831 he took the command against
the revolted Poles, and ended the war by the capture
of Warsaw. For these services he was created Prince
of Warsaw and made Governor-General of Poland. He
was successful in his operations against the Hungarians
in 1849, but failed at the siege of Silistria, in 1854. Died
in 1856.
See TOI.STOI, " Essai biographique sur le Prince de Varsovie,"
1835: " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Fas'ley, (Sir CHARLES WILLIAM,) an English en
gineer, general, and writer, born about 1780. He served
at the battles of Corunna and Flushing, (1809,) and be
came a lieutenant-colonel about 1814. He published,
among other works, "A Course of Military Instruction
for the Royal Engineer Department," (1817,) "Obser
vations on Limes, Calcareous Cements, Mortars," etc.,
(1838,) and "Rules for conducting the Practical Opera
tions of a Siege," (1843.) ^e obtained the rank of
lieutenant-general in 1851. Died in 1861.
Pasolini, pa-so-lee'nee, COUNT, a liberal Italian
statesman of high reputation. He was minister of for
eign affairs of the kingdom of Italy in the cabinet of
Farini from December i, 1862, until March 24, 1863.
Pasolini, (SERAFINO,) an Italian friar, born at Ra
venna in 1649. lie wrote on the history of Ravenna,
" Lustri Ravennati," (7 parts, 1678-1713.) Died in 1715.
Pasor, pa'zor, (GF.ORG,) a German philologist, born at
Herborn in 1570. He became professor of Greek at
Franeker in 1616, and published a good "Greek-Latin
Lexicon," (1622, often reprinted.) He wrote other works
for students. Died in 1637.
Pasor, (MATTHAUS,) a son of the preceding, was born
at Herborn in 1599. He was professor of Oriental lan
guages at Oxford, England, from which he removed to
Groningen in 1629. He left a Journal, which was pub
lished in 1658. Died in 1658.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long;^., e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
P4SQUJLI
'747
P4SSIONEI
Pasquali, pis-kwa'lee, written alsoFaschal,(CARi,o,)
a negotiator and antiquary, born at Coni, Piedmont, in
1547. He served Henry IV. of France as ambassador
to England in 1589. He wrote many works, among
which are "The Ambassador," (" Legatus," 1598,) and
"Coronae," a treatise on crowns, (1610.) Died in 1625.
See MANSURTI, " C. Paschal, illustre Piemontese," 1844; NICE-
RON, " Memoires."
Pasqualini, pas-kwl-lee'nee, or Pascalini, pas-ka-
lee'nee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian painter and
engraver, born near Bologna about 1600.
Pasqualino, pas-kwa-lee'no, or Pasquelino, pas-
kwa-lee'no, (PASQUALE Rossi,) an Italian painter, born
at Vicenza in 1641. His design is correct and his colour
ing true. Died in 1700.
Pasquier, pfs'ke^/, (EriENNE,) a French historian
and lawyer, born in 1529, in Paris. He gained distinction
by a great speech for the University of Paris in a suit or
contest against the Jesuits in 1564. He opposed the fac
tion of the League, and served Henry III. and Henry IV.
with honour as advocate-general. His chief works are
" Researches on France," (" Recherches de la France,")
— in which the origin and history of civil and religious in
stitutions, customs, etc. are traced with ability, — and his
interesting Letters. The first part of his " Recherches"
appeared in 1560. Died in 1615.
See DUPIN, " Eloge de Pasquier," 1843 ; L. FEUGBRE, " Essai
sur laVieetles Ouvrages d'fitienne Pasquier," prefixed loan edition
of Pasquier's select works, 2 vols., 1849; C. GIRAUD, "Notice sur
E". Pasquier," 1848.
Pasquier, de, deh pts'ke-ji', (£TIENNE DENIS,) Due,
a French statesman, born in 1767, in Paris. He became
master of requests in 1806, and prefect of police in 1810.
At the restoration of 1815 he was appointed minister of
state and privy councillor, and united with the moderate
royalists. He was keeper of the seals under Richelieu
from January, 1817, to December, 1818, and minister of
foreign affairs from November, 1819,10 December, 1821.
During this period he made many eloquent speeches in
the Chamber, and defended his policy with admirable
adroitness and sang-froid. He was the virtual chief of
the cabinet after the retirement of Decazes, in February,
1820. Pasquier was president of the Chamber of Peers
from 1830 to 1848. In 1837 he obtained the title of
Chancellor of France. He was admitted into the Aca-
demie Fran£aise in 1842, and received the title of duke
in 1844. Died, without issue, in 1862.
See I.OMENIE, " Galerie des Contemporains," tome vi. ; " Nou-
ve!le Hiograpliie Generale."
Pass, van, vtn piss, or Paas, van, vin piss, written
also Passe, (CRISPIN,) an eminent Dutch designer and
engraver, born in Zealand about 1536, or, as some say.
1560. He worked at Paris and other foreign cities. His
works are highly finished. Among them are numerous
portraits, and the plates of the "Manege royal," (1618.)
He was alive in 1628.
Pass, van, (CRISPIN,) THE YOUNGER, born at Utrecht
about 1570, was an able engraver, and a son of the
preceding. Died after 1655.
Pass, van, (MADELEINE,) askilful engraver, daughter
of Crispin the Elder, was born in 1576. "Her land
scapes," says the " Biographic Universelle," "entitle her
to a rank among the ablest engravers." A print of the
" Wise and Foolish Virgins" is called her master-piece.
Pass, van, (SIMON,) an engraver, a brother of the
preceding, was born about 1580. He worked in London
with a high reputation. " The Pilgrims of Emmaus" is
called one of his best works.
Pass, van, (WILLEM,) born at Utrecht about 1585,
was a son of Crispin the Elder, whom he imitated. He
removed to England, and engraved portraits after Van
Dyck with great success.
Passaglia, pas-sal'ya, (CARLO,) ABBE, an Italian
theological writer of the present age. He wrote about
1861 a pamphlet in which he advised the pope to resign
his temporal posver. In 1863 he was elected a member
of the Italian Parliament.
Passarotti, pas-sa-rot'tee, written also Passerotti,
(HARTOLOHMEO,) an eminent Italian painter and en
graver, born at Bologna about 1535, was a pupil of
Vignola. He was master of a school in Bologna, which
produced some able artists. He excelled in portraits.
Among his works is "The Martyrdom of Saint Paul."
Died about 1594.
His sons, TIBURZIO, VENTURA, and AUREI.IO, were
also painters. Tiburzio was born in 1575, and died in
1612.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters;" LOMAZZO, " Idea del Tem-
pio della Pittura."
Passavant, pi'si'vfiN', ? (JoHANN DAVID,) a German
painter and writer upon art, born at Frankfort-on-the-
Main in 1787. He wrote, besides other works, a valua
ble memoir entitled "On Raphael of Urbino and his
Father," (1839,) "On Christian Art in Spain," (1853,)
and a good history of engraving, entitled " Le Peintre-
Graveur," (2 vols., 1860.) A French version of his
" Life of Raphael" was published in 1860. Died in 1861.
See NAGLER, " Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Passavanti, pas-si-van'tee, (JACOPO, ) an Italian
writer, born at Florence, gained celebrity by his " Mirror
of True Penitence," (" Specchio della vera Penitenza.")
Died in 1357.
Passe. See PASS.
Passemant, pJts'mflN', (CLAUDE SIMEON,) a skilful
optician and mechanician, born in Paris in 1702. He
made telescopes, time-pieces, and other astronomical
instruments, and wrote a treatise on the fabrication of
telescopes, (1738.) Died in 1769.
Passerat, paVrt', QEAN,) a French poet and excellent
Latinist, born at Troyes in 1534. He succeded Ramus
as professor of Latin at Paris, (1572.) He co-operated
with Rapin, Leroy, Durant, and other friends in the
" Satyre Menippee," a famous satire against the League.
He composed graceful verses in French and Latin.
Died in 1602.
See NICEKON, " Memoires."
Passeri, pas-sa'ree, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA.) an Italian
painter and biographer, born at Rome about 1610, was
a friend of Domenichino. He became president of the
Academy of Saint Luke, but was an artist of only
moderate ability. His reputation is founded on his
" Lives of Painters, Sculptors, and Architects who died
at Rome from 1641 to 1673," (1772,) which is highly
esteemed for accuracy. Died in 1679.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italians."
Passeri, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) a learned Italian
antiquary, born near Rome in 1694, chose the profes
sion of law. In 1741 he exchanged that for the church.
Among his numerous works are "Earthen Lamps,"
(" Lncernas Fictiles," 3 vols., 1739-51,) and "Pictures
on the Vases of the Etruscans," ("Picturas Etruscorum
in Vasculis," 3 vols., 1767-75.) Died in 1780.
See A. OI.IVIERI, " Memorie di G. B. Passeri," 1780.
Passeri, (GIUSEPPE,) an able painter, born in Rome
in 1654, was a nephew of Giovanni Battista, (1610-79,)
and a pupil of Carlo Maratta. He adorned many
churches of Rome with his works. "The Last Judg
ment" is called one of his master-pieces. Died in 1715.
Passeroni, pas-sa-ro'nee, (GiAN CARLO.) a popular
Italian poet, born at Condamine, near Nice, in 1713.
He was ordained a priest in 1738, and lived mostly at
Milan. Having learned to be content with little, he
declined the bounty of the rich. He wrote burlesque
satirical and humorous poems, which are admired for
their graceful simplicity and originality. They are en
titled "II Cicerone," (1750,) and " /Ksopian Fables,"
("Favole Esopiane," 6 vols., 1786.) Died at Milan in
1803.
See C. G. SCOTTI, " Elogio di Passeroni," 1814; UGONI, " Lette
ratura Italiana;" TIPAI.DO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri."
Passerotti. See PASSAROTTI.
Passignano, da, da pas-sen-ya'no, (DoMENico,) or
DOMENICO Cresti, (kRes'tee,) CAVALIERE, a painter of
high reputation, was born in Tuscany about 1555. He
worked at Venice, Rome, and Florence. At Rome he
painted " The Crucifixion of Saint Peter," and other
works for several popes. He contributed to reform the
Florentine school in respect to colouring. It is said that
Luigi Caracci was one of his pupils. Died in 1638.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Passionei, pas-se-o-na'ee, (DOMENICO,) a learned
Italian cardinal and patron of learning, born at Fossom-
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
PJSSOS
1748
PETERSON
l)rone in 1682. He was versed in classical literature
and in the study of antiquities, and corresponded with
many foreign scholars, among whom were Montfaucon
and Gronovius. He was appointed nuncio to Vienna in
1730, secretary for briefs in 1738, and librarian of 'the
Vatican in 1755. His hostility to the Jesuits was well
known. He wrote a funeral oration on Prince Eugene,
(1737.) Died in 1761.
See GOUJET, " filoge du Cardinal Passionei," 1763; L. GAI.ETTI,
" M-jiurrie per la Vita del Cardinale Passionei," Rome, 1762.
Passes, pas'sis, (MANOKL DA SILVA,) a Portuguese
politician, born near Oporto in 1802. He was the leader
of the radical or liberal party, which made a successful
insurrection in September, 1836, and then became min
ister of the interior.
Passot, pits'so', (G.-uiRiEL ARISTIDE,) a French min
iature-painter, bom at Nevers about 1798. He gained
a first medal in 1841, and the second medals in 1837
and 1848.
Passovius. See PASSOW.
Passow, pas'so, [Lat. PASSO'VIUS,] (FRAN/. LUDWIG
KARL FKIEDRICH,) a distinguished German scholar,
born at Ludvvigslust, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in 1786.
He studied at Leipsic under Hermann, and in 1815
became professor of ancient literature at Breslau. He
published "Elements of Greek and Roman Literature
and Art-History," an excellent " Lexicon of the Greek
Language," (1819-24,) and editions of Persius, Musreus,
and other classics. Died in 1833.
SeeWAOU.ER, "Passows Leben und Briefe," 1839; I,INC;E, " De
Passovii Vita et Scriptis," 1839; ERSCII mid GRUBKR, " Allgemeine
Encyklopaedie."
Passy, pt'se', (HIPPOLYTE PHII.IBERT,) a French
minister of state, born in Seine-et-Oise in 1793. He
entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1830, and became
a leader of the Left Centre. Commissioned by the
king to form a new cabinet, May, 1839, he reserved for
himself the portfolio of finance under the presidency
of Soult. He retired from office in March, 1840, and
was again minister of finance from December, 1848, to
October, 1849. He is a member of the Institute.
Pasta, pas'ta, (ANDREA,) an Italian physician, born
at Bergamo in 1706. He published several professional
works^ and " The Celebrated Pictures of Bergamo,"
(" Le Pitture notabili di Bergamo.") Died in 1782.
See A. VKNANZIO, " E!ogio di A. Pasta," 1843.
Pasta, (GiunKTTA,) a popular Italian vocalist, of Jew
ish extraction, born near Milan in 1798. She performed
operas at Paris, London, Vienna, etc. with great success
between 1824 and 1832, and displayed a superior dramatic
talent. Died in 1865.
Pasta, (GiuSEPPK,) a medical writer, born at Bergamo
in 1742, was a cousin of Andrea, noticed above. His
"Galateo dei Medici" (1791) was often reprinted. Died
in 1823.
Pasteur, pts'tUR', QAN DAVID,) a Dutch naturalist,
born at Leyden in 1753. He wrote a "Natural History
of Mammifera." Died in 1804.
Pasteur, pts'tUR', (Louis,) a French chemist, born
at Dole (Jura) in 1822. He received the Rumford medal
of the Royal Society of London in 1856 for his dis
coveries in rotary polarization and molecular chemistry.
He became director of the Ecole Normale of Paris in
1857. He is a prominent opponent of the doctrine of
spontaneous generation. The arguments and experi
ments of Pasteur and his opponent Pouchet on this
subject attracted much attention about 1862-65. M.
Pasteur was chosen a member of the Institute, and pro
fessor of geology, physics, and chemistry at the Ecole
des Beaux- Arts, in 1863.
Pastoret, pts'to'ri', (AM&D&R DAVID,) a French
legitimist politician, poet, and historian, born in Paris
in 1791. He became a councillor of state in 1824, and
senator in 1852. Among his works is a " History of the
Fall ot the Greek Empire," (1829.) Died in 1857.
Pastoret, de, deh pis'to'ri', (CLAUDE EMMANUEL
JOSEPH PIERRE,) MARQUIS, the father of the preceding,
was born at Marseilles in 1756. He was a royalist
member of the Assembly in 1791, emigrated in 1792,
and was created a peer of France in 1814. In 1820 he
succeeded Volney as member of the French Academy.
He wrote a " History of Legislation," (u vols., 1817-37,)
and other works. His treatise "On Penal Laws" (1790)
gained the Montyon prize of the French Academy. Died
in 1840.
See MICHEL BERK, " Notice biographique sur le Conite Pastoret,"
1841; QUERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Pastorius von Hirtemberg, pas-to're-us fon hgeV-
tem-be'Rc;', (JOACHIM,) a historian, born in Silesia in
1610. He received from Casimir V. the title of histo
riographer of Poland. Among his numerous works are
an "Epitome of Polish History," in Latin, (1641,) and
" Scythian and Cossack War," (" Helium Scythico-Cosac-
cicum," 1652.) Died in 1681.
Pastrengo, da, da pas-tuen'go, (GuouK.i.Mo,) a
learned Italian writer and jurist, born near Verona, was
a friend of Petrarch. He wrote a biographical dictionary
called " De Viris illustribus," which was printed in 1547.
Died about 136^.
Pasumot, pa'zu'mo', (FRANCOIS,) a French geogra
pher and antiquary, born at Beatine in 1733. He wrote
"Geographical Memoirs on some Antiquities of Gaul,"
(1765,) and " Scientific Travels among the Pyrenees,"
(1797,) which are works of much merit. Died in 1804.
Patala, pt-la'la, [etymology obscure,] in the Hindoo
mythology, the name of the lower regions, or Hell, re
garcled as the abode of the dead and the habitation of
the nagas, or serpents. (See YAMA.)
Patarolo, pa-ta-n/lo, ? (LORENZO,) an Italian littera
teur, born at Verona in 1674. He founded the first
botanic garden of Venice. Died in 1757.
Pataud, pjt'to', (JEAN JACQUES FRANC.OIS,) a French
writer of history and biography, was born at Orleans in
1752 ; died in 1817.
Patel, pit'tcl', ( PIERRE,) an excellent French land
scape-painter, born about 1650. He imitated Claude
Lorrain with some success. The forms of his trees are
elegant, the buildings are designed with taste, and* the
distances are admirably rendered. His touch is firm
and light, his colour generally clear and true. Accord
ing to some writers, he was killed in a duel in 1703.
Others date his death about 1676. His son PIERRE was
a landscape-painter of inferior ability.
See ROBKRT DUMESNIL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Francais."
Patenier, de, deh pS'teh-ne-i', or Patiner, pst'te'na',
(JoACHlM,) a Flemish landscaptT-painter, born at Dinant
about 1490. He worked at Antwerp, and had a high
reputation. Albert Diirer painted his portrait in 1520,
and is said to have admired his works. " His perspec
tives," says the "Biographic Universelle," "are charm
ing, and his figures touched in an exquisite manner."
Died about 1545.
Pater, pS'ti', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French painter,
born .-at Valenciennes in 1695, was a pupil and imitator
of Watteau. Died in Paris in 1736.
Pater, pa'ter, (PAUL,) a mathematician, born in 1656,
was professor aUDantzic. He wrote a treatise on the art
of printing, (1710,) and a work "On the Caspian Sea,"
("De Mari Caspio," 1723.) Died in 1724.
Pa-ter'cu-lus, (C. VELLEIUS,) a Roman historian,
born' about 20 H.C. He entered the army in the reign
of Augustus, and became a military tribune. He served
under" Tiberius, in Germany, as prefect or legatus, be
tween 4 and 12 A.D., and gained the favour of the future
emperor. On the accession of Tiberius, in the year 14,
he was chosen prrctor. He wrote a valuable historical
compendium, (" Historine Romance,") the object of which
is to give a brief view of universal history, in connection
with that of Rome. He is considered impartial, except
where he speaks of Augustus and Tiberius, whom he
flatters extravagantly. His style is admired for clear
ness, conciseness, and energy. He is supposed to have
died soon after 30 A.D.
See MOI.I.KR, " Disputatio de Vellejo Paterciilo," 1685; SPECK-
ERT, "Dissertation de la Since'rite de Vellejus Paterciilus," 1848.
Pat'er-son, (SAMUEL,) an English bibliographer, born
in London in 1728, was librarian to Lord Shelburne.
He published a "Universal Library," ("Bibliotheca
Universalis," 1786.) Died in 1802.
Pat'er-son, (WILLIAM,) a banker and projector, born
in Scotland about 1658. He is the reputed founder of
5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged: a, e, T, o, u, \, short : a. e. i, o. ob^cn^e: fir. fall, fiat: m5t; nftt; good; moon;
PAT1CCHI
'749
PATRQCLES
the Bank of England, established in 1694. He projected
the Darien expedition, and was one of the directors of
a company which planted a colony at Darien in 1698.
This enterprise was a failure. He was an advocate of
free trade.
See his " Life," by BANNISTER.
Paticchi, pa-t6k'kee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian painter,
born at Rome in 1762. He had a rare facility of in
vention, and a superior talent for the imitation of the
great masters. Among his works is " The Translation
ofKlijah." Died in 1788.
Patin, pa'ta.N', [Lat. PATI'NUS,] (CHARLES,) a phy
sician and numismatist, born in Paris in 1633, was a son
of Gui Patin, noticed below. He became professor of
medicine at Padua in 1677. He published, besides other
works, a " History of Medals," (1665,) often reprinted,
and "Brass Coins of the Roman Kmperors Described,"
(" Imperatorum Romanorum Numismata ex ^Ere cle-
scripta," 1671.) Died at Padua in 1693.
Patin, (GUI,) a French physician and writer, distin
guished for his learning and wit, was born near Beauvais
in 1601 or 1602. He became professor at the College de
France, Paris, in 1654, and wrote several medical works.
His reputation is founded chiefly on his Letters, (7 vols.,
1692,) which contain curious details, bon-mots, and anec
dotes.
See " Patiniana," 1703; REVEILLE PARISE, " Biosjraphie de G
Patin ;" SAINTE-BHUVE, " Causeriesdu Linidi ;" BAVI.K, " Historical
Patin, (IlKNRi JOSEPH GUILLAUMH,) a French writer
and critic, born in Paris in 1793. He was chosen to
supply the place of Villemain at the Sorbonne in 1830,
and succeeded Lemaire as professor of Latin poetry in
1833. In 1842 he was admitted into the French Acad
emy. His most important work is "Studies on the
Greek Tragic Poets," (3 vols., 1841-43.)
Patino or Fatinho, pa-ten'yo, (BAI.THASAR,) Mar
quis de Castellar, a Spanish diplomatist, born at Milan.
He was sent as ambassador to Paris in 1730, and died
there in 1733.
Patino or Patiiiho, (JosE, or GIUSEPPE,) a brother of
the preceding, was born at Milan in 1667. He became
minister of the marine and of the Indies in 1726, and
was the most powerful minister of Spain after the death
of La Paz, in 1734. Died in 1736.
Patinus. See PATIN.
Patkul, pat'kul, (JoiiANX RKINIIOLD,) a Livonian
patriot, born about 1660. He was condemned to death
by the Swedish court for sedition or treason in 1694, but
escaped, and entered the service of the Russian Czar, who
sent him as ambassador to the King of Poland. He ob
tained in 1702 command of a corps which fought against
the Swedes. In accordance with a treaty dictated by
Charles XII. to the King of Poland, Patkul was de
livered to the former, and executed in 1707.
See " Letzte Stunden Patkuls," Cologne, 1714; "Anecdotes con
cerning T. R. Patkul," London, 1761; VOLTAIRE, " Histoire de
Charles XII.
Fat'more, (COVENTRY,)
an English poet, born at
Woodford, Essex, in 1823. He published in 1853 " Ta-
merton Church Tower, and other Poems." His "Angel
in the House" (2 Parts, 1854-56) was very favourably
received. Among his later works is "Faithful Forever,"
(1860.)
His 'Angel in the House,'" says Ruskin,
is a most finished piece of writing, and the sweetest
analysis we possess of quiet, modern domestic feeling."
He became assistant librarian of the British Museum
about 1846.
See " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1844, and July, 1863;
" North British Review" for May, 1858.
Pat'on, (ANDREW A.,) An English traveller, born
'
He published, besides
the Danube and the
early in the ninet*: nth century.
other works, "Researches on
Adriatic."
Pat'on, (Sir JOSEPH NOEL,) a Scottish painter.of high
reputation, born at Dunfermline in 1823. He obtained
a premium of .£200 for a cartoon of "The Spirit of Re
ligion," (1845.) At tne Westminster Hall competition,
in 1847, he received a second-class prize (.£300) for his
"Christ bearing the Cross" and "The Reconciliation
of Oberon and Titania." Among his works, which are
finely finished, are "Luther at Erfurt," and "Pursuit of
Pleasure," (1855,) which was sold for two thousand
guineas. He was knighted in 1867.
Paton, (RICHARD,) an English painter and etcher,
born about 1720. He excelled in naval battles and other
marine pieces. Among his works is the " Defeat of De
Grasse in 1784."
Patouillet, pS'too'yi', (Louis,) a French Jesuit, born
at Dijon in 1699, wrote several controversial treatises
against the Jansenists and the philosophers. He was
one of the Jesuits against whom Voltaire directed his
sarcasm and ridicule. Died in 1779.
Patrat, pjt'tkt', (JOSEPH,) a French dramatist, born
at Aries in 1732. He wrote comedies which were re
ceived with favour. Died in i8ot.
Patrice. See PATRICK, SAINT.
Patricius. See PATRICK, SAINT, and PATRIZZI.
Pat'rick, [Lat. PATKIC/IUS; Fr. PATRICE, pt'tRess',]
SAINT, the apostle and patron saint of the Irish, was
born at Bannevan, a small village of Tabernia, in Scot
land, about 372 A.D. lie is supposed to have been one
of the first that preached Christianity in Ireland. His
death is variously dated from 454 to 493. A " Confes
sion" or autobiography, supposed to have been written
by him, is extant. The Irish observe the 171)1 of March
in his honour.
See BUTLER, "Lives of the Saints," 1779: J. H. TODD, "Life
of Saint Patrick," 1863 ; CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of
Eminent Scotsmen ;" " British Quarterly Review" for October,
1867.
Pat'rick, (MARSENA R.,) an American officer, born
in Jefferson county, New York, in 1811. He served in
the Mexican war, and in 1862 became brigadier-general
of volunteers in the Union army.
Pat'rick, (SAMUEL,) an English philologist, was one
of the masters of the Charter-House. He published
editions of Hederich's "Greek Lexicon," (1727,) and
Ainsworth's "Latin Lexicon." Died in 1748.
Patrick, (SiMON,) an eminent English divine, born
at Gainsborough in 1626. He became rector of Saint
Paul's, Covent Garden, in 1662, Dean of Peterborough
in 1679, Bishop of Chichester in 1689, and Bishop of Ely
in 1691. He wrote a Paraphrase and Commentaries on
teemed, and
The Heart's
Ease," (1659,) "Parable of the Pilgrim," (1668,) and
"Christian Sacrifice," (1671.) Died in 1707.
See his Autobiography, 1839; BURNETT, "History of his Own
Times;" "Biographia Britannica."
Patrin, pi'tnaN', (EUGENE Louis MELCHIOR,) a
French mineralogist, born near Lyons in 1742. He
was elected to the Convention in 1790, and voted for the
exile of the king. His chief works are a "Journey to
the Altai Mountains," (1783,) and a "Natural History
of Minerals," (5 vols., 1801.) Died in 1815.
Patrix, pt'tKeks', (PIERRE,) a French poet, born at
Caen in 1583; died in 1671.
Patrizzi, pa-tret'see, written also Patrizi, [[.at.
PATRIC/IUS,] an Italian historian, born at Sienna, be
came in 1460 secretary to Pope Pius II. Among his
works is an "Account of the Councils of Bale and
Florence," (" Summa Conciliorum Basiliensis et Floren-
tini.") Died in 1496.
Patrizzi, |Lat. PATRIQ'IUS,] (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
philosopher, born in Dalmatia in 1529. He obtained a
chair of philosophy at Rome about 1592, and taught the
philosophy of Plato under the patronage of Pope Clem
ent VIII. He was a zealous opponent of the doctrines
of Aristotle. Among his works are " Peripatetic Dis
cussions," ("Discussiones peripateticae," 1571,) and
"Military Parallels," (" Parallel! militari," 1594.) Died
in 1597.
See GiNGtiRNit, "Histoire Litte'raire d'ltalie ;" TIRABOSCIII,
" Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Patrocle. See PATROCI.US.
Pa-tro'cles, \HarpoifArif,] a Greek statuary, mentioned
by Pliny and Pausanias, lived probably about 400 n.c.
Patrocles, a Macedonian general, was appointed
commander at Babylon by Selencus I. about 312 B.C.
He was commander-in chief of the army of Antiochus I.
about 280 K.C. He wrote a work on the geography of
India, etc., which is not extant.
the Old Testament, which are highly e
other devotional works, among which are
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PATROCLUS
1750
PAUL
Pa-tro'clus, [Gr. ll«rpo/oloc; Fr. PATROCLE, pS'-
tRokl',] a Greek hero, a son of Mencetius, and the dearest
friend of Achilles, with whom he fought at the siege of
Troy. Having borrowed the armour of Achilles, he slew
a multitude of Trojans, but was killed by Hector, aided
by Apollo.
See the " Iliad."
Pa'tron, [Gr. Tlurpuv,] an Epicurean philosopher,
lived at Rome, associated with Cicero, and was a friend
of Atticus. He afterwards went to Athens, and became
the head of the Epicurean school in 52 B.C.
Patru, pt'tRii', (OLIVIER,) an eminent French advo
cate, born in Paris in 1604. lie made some reforms in
forensic eloquence, and polished his style with minute
attention. He had a high reputation as a critic, and has
been compared to Qtiintilian. In 1640 he was admitted
into the French Academy. The speech which he made
at his reception became a precedent for all such occasions.
His works were published in 1681. Died in 1681.
See PERONNE, "Barreau de Paris; Eloge d'O. Patrn," 1851;
NICERON, " Memoires."
Patte, pit, ( PIERRE,) a French architect, born in Paris
in 1723. He wrote several works on architecture. Died
in 1814.
Pat'ten, (ROBERT,) an English divine under the reign
of Queen Anne, born in Northumberland, was the author
of a " History of the Rebellion of 1715," (London, 1745.)
See "Retrospective Review," vol. xi., (1825.)
Patten, (THOMAS,) an English theologian, graduated
at Oxford in 1754. Died in 1790.
Pat'ter-son, (DANIEL T.,) a distinguished naval offi
cer, born in the State of New York, served in the war
of 1812, and in 1814 commanded the naval forces at New
Orleans. He received the thanks of Congress for the
part he took in the defence of that city. Died in 1839.
Patterson, (FRANCIS ENGLF.,) an American general,
son of General Robert Patterson, noticed below, was
born in Philadelphia in 1821. He served in the Mexi
can war, and, as brigadier-general of volunteers, fought
under General McClellan in 1862 in his campaign against
Richmond. He was killed by the accidental discharge
of his pistol in November of that year.
Patterson, (ROBERT,) LL.D., born in Ireland in 1743,
emigrated to America, and was appointed in 1779 pro
fessor of mathematics in the University of Pennsylvania.
He became director of the United States Mint in 1805,
and was also president of the American Philosophical
Society. Died in 1824.
Patterson, (KOKKRT,) a general, born in the county
of Tyrone, Ireland, in 1792; emigrated to Philadelphia in
his youth, and became a merchant. He commanded a
division at Cerro Gordo in 1847. In June, 1861, he ob
tained command of an army of about 20,000 men, which
he moved across the Potomac on the ad of July. He
was instructed to defeat or hold in check the army of
General J. E.Johnston near Winchester, but he failed to
effect this object, while Johnston marched to Bull Run
and decided the victory of ]uly 21. General Patterson
was, in consequence, severely censured bv many. On
the i8th of July, General Scott had written to him, " I
have certainly been expecting you to beat the enemy. . . .
You have been at least his equal, and, I suppose, supe
rior, in numbers." General Scott, however, appears
not to have been aware of the actual strength of John
ston's army, which is now admitted to have been superior
to that of his opponent in the field. General Patterson
was honourably discharged from service when the term
for which his troops had been enlisted had expired.
Patterson or Paterson, (WILLIAM,) an American
statesman and jurist, born in New Jersey, or at sea,
about 1744. He was one of the delegates representing
New Jersey in the Convention which formed the federal
Constitution in 1787. He was a United States Senator
in 1789-90, and was Governor of New Jersey from 1791
to 1794. In the latter year he was appointed a judge of
the supreme court of the United States. He is said to
have been an upright judge. Died in 1806.
Patti, pat'tee, (ADKLINA MARIA CLORINDA,) a popu
lar operatic singer, of Italian extraction, was born in
Madrid in 1843. ^ne performed at New York in 1859,
and in 1861 made her first appearance in London, and
became at once a distinguished favourite with the public.
She was received with equal applause in the chief cities
of the continent. Her voice is a high soprano. She is
distinguished for versatility and comic power. In 1868
she was married to the Marquis de Caux.
Patti, (CARLOTTA,) an excellent singer, a sister of the
preceding, has performed with success at concerts in
the United States. Her voice is said to be the highest
soprano ever known.
See " Men of the Times," London, 1868.
Pat'ti-son, (ROBERT EVERETT,) D.D., an American
Baptist divine, born at Benson, Vermont, in 1800, became
in 1846 president and professor of Christian theology at
the Baptist Theological Institute, Covington, Kentucky.
Pat'ti-son, (WILLIAM,) an English poet, born in Sus
sex in 1706; died in 1727. His poems (published in 2
vols., 1728) are commended.
Patu, pjt'tii', (CLAUDE PIERRE,) a French dramatic
poet, born in Paris in 1729; died in 1757.
Patuzzi, pa-toot'see, (GIOVANNI VINCENZO,) an Ital
ian theologian, born at Conegliano in 1700, was a Do
minican friar. Among his works is "Moral Theology,"
(7 vols., 1790) Died in 1769.
Patzke, pats'keh, (Jon ANN SAMUEL,) a German min
ister and poet, born near Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1727.
He became a popular preacher at Magdeburg. He
published sermons, hymns, dramas, and a translation
of Tacitus, (6 vols., 1765-77.) Died in 1787.
Paucton, pok'toN1', (Ai.EXis JEAN PIERRE,) a French
mathematician, born in Maine in 1732 or 1736. He
wrote an excellent work named " Metrologie, or a Treat
ise on the Measures, Weights, and Coins of Ancient
and Modern Nations," (1780.) Died in Paris in 1798.
Pauditz, pow'dits, (CuRiSTOPH,) a painter, born in
Lower Saxony about 1618, was a pupil of Rembrandt.
He was patronized by Albert Sigismund, Duke of Ba
varia. He painted history and genre. Died in 1646.
Paul, [Gr. riai'Aoc,- Lat. PAU'LUS ; Fr. PAUL, pol ;
It. PAOLO, pow'lo; Ger. PAULUS, pow'lus ; Sp. PAULO,
pS'ulo,] SAINT, the great Apostle of the Gentiles, origin
ally called SAUL, was a native of Tarsus, a city of Ci-
licia. He was a Jew and a Roman citizen by birthright,
and a rigid Pharisee by education. He probably studied
Greek literature at Tarsus, which was then a celebrated
seat of learning, and he learned the trade of a tent-
maker. He afterwards received instruction in the law
from Gamaliel, an eminent rabbi and jurist at Jerusalem.
(Acts xxii. 3.) He became a zealous supporter of the
Jewish religion and a violent persecutor of the Christians.
The first passage of Scripture in which he is mentioned
is Acts vii. 58, narrating the death of the martyr Stephen,
to which Saul was accessory. During a journey from
Jerusalem to Damascus, about 36 A.D., he was miracu
lously converted and ordained an apostle to preach the
gospel to the Gentiles. (Acts ix.) He went from Damas
cus into Arabia, and had an interview with Saint Peter
at Jerusalem about the year 39, after which he preached
for several years in Syria and Cilicia. He passed a
whole year at Antioch, where he "taught much people."
About 45 A.D. Saul and Barnabas departed from Antioch
on an extensive mission to the Gentiles. They traversed
the island of Cyprus, from which they passed into Asia
Minor, and Paul preached a memorable sermon at
Antioch in Pisidia. Though violently persecuted, they
converted many at Antioch, Iconium, and Lystra, and
returned in 47 A.D. to Antioch in Syria, where they
abode a long time. In the course of a second apostolic
journey he founded churches at Philippi and Thessa-
lonica, and uttered a remarkable discourse at Athens.
He also made many converts at Corinth, where he re
mained a year and a half, and where he wrote the Epis
tles to the Thessalonians. Much diversity of opinion
prevails among the learned about the date of the prin
cipal events of his life. The divine origin of his doctrine
was attested by many miracles, by "signs, and wonders,
and mighty deeds." (II. Cor. xii. 12.)
After he had visited Jerusalem the fourth time since
his conversion, he commenced a third apostolic tour.
He laboured for about two years at Ephesus, and after
wards revisited the churches of Macedonia and Greece.
About the year 59 he was again at Jerusalem, the popu-
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
PAUL
P4ULDING
lace nf which assailed him, and would have killed him,
but .in officer took him into custody and sent him to the
Roman governor Felix, at Caesarea. He was confined
in prison there for a long time, defended himself by a
noble and eloquent speech before King Agrippa, and
appealed to Caesar. He was taken by sea to Rome,
where he "dwelt two whole years in his own hired
house," and preached the gospel without hindrance. We
have no authentic record of his death ; but, according to
tradition, he suffered martyrdom at Rome about 66 A.D.
"In perusing the history and writings of Saint Paul,"
says W. L. Alexander, " it is impossible not to be struck
with the amazing energy of thought and action by which
he was characterized. . . . Removed alike from the
extremes of fanaticism on the one hand and apathy on
the other, his whole life was a noble instance of the
consecration, on sound and elevated principles, of the
highest powers and the most indefatigable energies to
a work in which he had no personal interest apart from
that of his fellow-Christians. ... In his peculiar ca
pacity as one of the founders of the Christian Church
and an inspired expositor of divine truth, he stands
without a rival in his claims upon our gratitude and rev
erence." ("Encyclopaedia Britannica," article "Paul.")
See the Acts of the Apostles, chaps, xi., xiii.-xxviii. ; Epistles
of Saint Paul; NEANDER, "History of the Church;" LEWINS,
"Life and Epistles of Saint Paul," 2 vols., London, 1851 ; CONY-
BEAKEand HOWSON, " Life of Saint Pau!," 2 vols., 1850: SCHRADER,
" Der Apostel Paulus," 5 vols., 1829-36; HEMSEN, " Der Apostel
Paulus," 1850; BAUR, '• Paulus," 1845; LUTZEI.BKRGER, "Paulus
und Johannes, " 1839; ERNEST RENAN, "Saint-Paul," 1869.
Paul [Lat. PAU'LUS; It. PAOLO, pow'lo] I., a native
of Rome, was elected pope, as successor to Stephen III.,
in 757 A.D. Died in 767 or 768. He was succeeded by
Stephen IV.
Paul II., POPE, (PiETRO Barbo — bau'bo,) a native of
Venice, and a nephew of Eugene IV., was born in 1418.
He succeeded Pius II. in 1464. He was unfavourable to
human learning, and suppressed an academy of literati
which was formed in Rome. He was the first who gave
the cardinals the privilege to wear purple. He died in
1471, and was succeeded by Sixttis IV.
See MICHEL CANESE, "Vie de Paul II." 1740.
Paul III., POPE, (ALESSANDRO Farnese — far-na'sa,)
was born at Canino about 1466. He succeeded Clement
VII. in 1534. He approved the newly-formed order of
the Jesuits about 1540. To oppose the progress of
Luther, he convoked a council, which, after a delay of
several years, met at Trent in 1545. Before the last
date he excommunicated Henry VIII. of England. lie
sent about 12,000 troops to fight for Charles V. against
the Protestant princes of Germany, and obtained for
his grandson, Ottavio Farnese, the hand of Margaret,
a daughter of the emperor. Paul protested against the
interim treaty of peace which Charles V. granted to the
Protestants in 1547. lie died in November, 1549, and
was succeeded by Julius III.
See QUIRINI. " Imago Pontificis Pauli III. ;" ONUFRIO PANVINIO,
" Vita Pauli III. ;" RANKE, " History of the Popes;" ROBERTSON,
" History of Charles V.," vols. ii. and iii.
Paul IV., POPE, (GiAN PIETRO Caraffa— ka-raf'fa,)
born at Capriglio about 1476, was elected pope in 1555.
He was intolerant and tyrannical. He quarrelled with
Philip II. of Spain, whose army under the Duke of Alva
blockaded Rome in 1557 and compelled the pope to
sue for peace. He refused to recognize Elizabeth as
Queen of England, and by his arrogant course promoted
the triumph of Protestantism in England. He died in
1559, and was succeeded by Pius IV., who put to death
two nephews of Paul IV. for their crimes.
See HROMATO, "Vita di Paolo IV.," 1748 ; RANKE, " History of
the Popes ;" ROBERTSON, " History of Charles V.," vol. iii. books
xi. and xii.
Paul V., POPE, (CAMILLO Borghese — boR-ga'si,)
born at Rome in 1552, succeeded Leo XI. in 1605. He
was involved in a contest with the Venetians respecting
the trial of ecclesiastics by lay tribunals, the foundation
of religious houses, etc., and placed Venice under in
terdict in 1606. The senate of Venice retaliated by
banishing the Jesuits. Through the mediation of Henry
IV. of France, a compromise was effected in 1607. He
died in 1621, and was succeeded by Gregory XV.
Paul [Russ. PAVLOF, pav'lof] I., (Petrovitch, pi-
tRo'vitch,) Emperor of Russia, born in 1754, was the son
of Peter III. and Catherine II. After the assassination
of his father by order of Catherine, Paul was treated by
her with great severity, and deprived of all participation
in public affairs. He married Mary of Wiirtemberg in
1776. On his accession to the throne, in 1796, he dis
tinguished himself for a time by his liberal policy towards
Poland, and in 1798 joined the coalition against France.
He sent an army under Suwarow (Soovorof) to Italy
to fight against the French. (See SUWAROW.) In a fit
of caprice, he left his former allies, and attempted to form
a coalition against England, in 1800. His numerous acts
of folly and tyranny at length caused a conspiracy to
take his life, at the head of which was Count Pahlen.
Under pretence of compelling him to sign an abdication
of the throne, the conspirators forced their way into his
chamber and put him to death, (March, 1801.) His death
was not regretted by his subjects. He was succeeded
by his son, Alexander I. He left three other sons, Con-
stantine, Nicholas, and Michael, and several daughters.
See VON TANNENBERG, " Leben Pauls I.," 1804; P. R. AUGUIS,
" Histoire de Catherine II et de Paul I," 1813; " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale. "
Paul, powl, (FRIEDRICH WILHEI.M,) Duke of Wiir
temberg, a German naturalist and traveller, born at
Carlsruhe in 1797. He visited North America, the
southern parts of Europe, and Egypt, and made valuable
collections of objects in natural history. Died in 1860.
Paul, (GABRIEL R.,) an American general, born in
Missouri about 1814, graduated at West Point in 1834.
He served as captain in the Mexican war, (1846-47,)
and became a brigadier-general of Union volunteers in
1862. He was severely wounded at Gettysburg, July,
1863, losing both his eyes.
Paul, (SAINT VINCENT DE.) See VINCENT.
Paul [Sp. PAKLO, pa'nlo] de Burgos, (da booR'gis,)
or Paul de Santa Maria, (da san'ta ma-ree'i,) a Span
ish bishop, born at Burgos about 1350, was converter'
from Judaism to Christianity. Died in 1435.
Paul (or Paulus) [Gr. LTafv.of] of Samosata, [Fi
PAUL DE SAMOSATE, p51 deh st'mo'zit',] a noted here
siarch of the third century. He was chosen Bishop of
Antioch about 260 A.D., and soon provoked general
censure by his rapacity, arrogance, and affectation of
worldly pomp. lie was also charged with heretical
opinions respecting the divinity of Christ, and was de
posed by a council in 269. According to Epiphanius, he
denied the distinct personality of Christ. By the favour
of Queen Zenobia, Paul kept possession of the church
at Antioch until about 272 A.D. His opinions were
afterwards maintained by a small sect called Pauliani.
Paul the Silentiary, a Greek poet, who was chief
of the Silentiarii in the palace of Justinian. He wrote,
about 562 A.D., a description of the church of Saint
Sophia at Constantinople, in verse.
Paul Veronese. See CAGLIARI, (PAOLO.)
Pau'la, SAINT, a Roman lady, noted for ascetic piety,
born in 347 A.D., was descended from the Scipios. She
was a disciple of Saint Jerome. Died in Palestine in 404.
Paul'ding, (HiRAM,) an American rear-admiral, a son
of John Paulding, noticed below, was born in Westches-
ter county, New York, about 1800. He became a captain
in 1844, and arrested Walker the filibuster at Punta
Arenas in 1857. For this act he was censured by Presi
dent Buchanan, who released Walker. In April, 1861, he
was appointed commander of the navy-yard of Norfolk,
and burned the shipping and other public property
which it seemed impossible to defend. The ships-of-war
had been scuttled before he took command there. He
commanded the Brooklyn Navy-Yard from 1862 to 1865.
See HEADLEY, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867;
GREELEY, "American Conflict," 1866.
Paulding, (JAMES KIRKE,) a popular American novel
ist and miscellaneous writer, born in Pawling, Dutchess
county, New York, in August, 1779. He published in
1807, 'conjointly with Washington Irving, a series of
witty and satirical papers, entitled " Salmagundi," which
were greatly admired at the time. His satire entitled
"The Diverting History of John Bull and Brother
Jonathan" appeared in 1816, and was followed by "The
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gutturat; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; %h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PAULDING
1752
PAULUS
Hack woodsman," a poem, (1818,) " Jolin Bull in America,
or the New Munc'hausen," (1824,) "Merry Tales of the
Three Wise Men of Gotham," (1826,) and "The Dutch
man's Fireside," the most admired of his novels, (1831.)
His more recent works are a " Life of Washington,"
and the novel entitled " The Old Continental," (1846.)
Mr. Paulding was appointed in 1837 secretary of the
navy by President Van Buren. Died in 1860.
See ORISWOI.D. " Prose Writers of America ;" DUYCKINCK, "Cy
clopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; AI.LIBONK, "Dictionary
of Authors."
Paulding, (JoHN,) one of the American soldiers who
in 1780 captured Major Andre. A monument was erected
to him near Peekskill. Died in 1818.
Paulet, po'li', (JKAN JACQUES,) a French physician,
born at Anduze in 1740. He wrote a good "Treatise
on Mushrooms," (2 vols., 1793,) and other works. Died
in 1826.
Pau'let or Paw'lett, (Wn.UAM,) Marquis of Win
chester, an English courtier, born about 1476. He held
a place at court in the reigns of Henry VIII. and his
successors. Died in 1572.
See his "Life," by ROWLAND BROUGHTON.
Pau'lett, (WILLIAM,) LORD, an English politician,
born in 1666, represented Lymington in Parliament.
Died in 1729.
Pauli, pow'lee, (K.ARL FRIEDRICH,) a German his
torian, born at Saalfeld, in Prussia, in 1723, became
professor of history at Halle. Among his works is
" Preussische Staatsgeschichte," (8 vols., 1760-69.) Died
in 1778.
Pauli or Paulli, powl'lee, (SiMON,) a German phy
sician and botanist, born at Rostock in 1603, became
first physician to Frederick III. of Denmark. He wrote
"Flora'Danicn," (1648.) Died in 1680.
Faulian, po'le-S.x', (AiM& HKNKI,) a French Jesuit,
born at Nimes in 1722. He wrote several works on
natural science. His "Dictionary of Physics" ("Dic-
tionnaire de Physique," 3 vols., 1761) was often re
printed. Died in 1801.
Paulin. See PA u LIN us.
Paulin de Saint - Barthelemi. See PAULINUS,
(JOIIANN PHILIPP WERKDIN.)
Pau-li'iius, [Gr. T\.avMvof,\ Bishop of Tyre, was a
friend of Eusebius of Caesarea. He became Bishop of
Tyre before 313 A.D., and was translated to the see of
Antioch about 325. He was charged with being an Arian.
Paulinus OK ANTIOCH was a leader of the Eusta-
thian party. He was ordained Bishop of Antioch about
362 A.I). Meletius was at the same time the bishop of
the opposite party. Died about 388.
Pau-li'iius, an Italian missionary, sent by Pope Greg
ory to England, is said to have converted King Edwin
of Northumbria. He became Archbishop of York about
627. Died in 644.
Fau-li'nus, [Fr. PAULIN, po'laN',] (PONTIUS MERO-
PIUS,) SAINT, Bishop of Nola, was born at Burdigala
(Bordeaux) about 353 A.D. He was a pupil of the poet
Ausonius, and became consul at Rome in 378. Having
been converted to Christianity, he renounced the world,
and was elected Bishop of Nola in 409 A D. He wrote
letters and poems, which are extant. Died in 431.
See F. A. GF.RVAISE, "Vie de S. Paulin," 1743: RABANIS, " S.
Paulin de Nole," 1841 ; TILLKMONT, " Me'moires eccleV ;ques."
Paulinus, SAINT, Patriarch of Aquileia, fov. n in
Friuli or Austrasia about 728 A.D., was noted as a zeal
ous defender of the doctrine of the Trinity. Died in 804.
Paulinus, pow-lee'nu>, (JoHANN PHILIPP WEKKDIN,)
or Paulin de Saint-Barthelemi, a German Orien
talist, was born at Hof, near Mannersdorf, in Austria,
in 1748. He was sent as a missionary to Malabar in
1774, and learned the Sanscrit langmge. He published,
besides other works, a "Sanscrit Grammar," (1790,)
and the " Liturgical, Mythological, and Civil System of <
the Brahmans," ("Systema Brahmanicum liturgicum,
mythologicum et civile," 1791.) Died at Rome in 1806.
Paulli. See PAULI.
Paullini, powl-lee'nee, (CHRISTIAN FRANZ,) a Ger
man physician and miscellaneous writer, born at Eise
nach in 1643 ! died in 1712.
Paulmier de Greiitemesnil, pS'me-a' deli gu6\t'.
mi'nel', (JULIEN LE,) a Protestant French physician,
born in the Cotentin in 1520. He practised in Paris,
and is said to have cured Charles IX. of inability to
sleep, (insomnia.) Died in 1598.
Paulmier, le, leh po'me-a', [ Lat. PALMF/RIUS, ]
(JACQUES.) a French philologist, born in Auge in 1587,
was a son of the preceding. He served against the
Spaniards under Maurice about eight years, (1620-28.)
He wrote "Exercises on the Best Greek Authors,"
(" Exercitationes in optimos Autores Graecos," 1668,) a
work of some merit, and a "Description of Ancient
Greece," (in Latin, 1678.) Died in 1670.
Paulmy. See ARI^ENSON, (MARC ANTOINE KKN&)
Paulo, (MARCO.) See POLO.
Paulus. See PAUL.
Pau'lus was elected Patriarch of Constantinople, by
the orthodox or Homoousians, in 336 A.I). The Arians
at the same time elected Macedonius. Paulus was ban
ished by the emperor, but was restored in 342, and was
supported by Julius, Bishop of Rome. He died in exile
about 350.
Paulus, pow'lus, (HEINRICH EDERHARD GOTTLOIJ,)
a German theologian, distinguished as the leader of the
old rationalistic school in Germany, was born near Stutt
gart in 1761. He became professor of Oriental languages
at Jena in 1789, and subsequently of exegesis and eccle
siastical history at Heidelberg. He was the author of
a " Philological, Critical, and Historical Commentary on
the New Testament." (4 vols., 1800-04,) " Exegetic
Manual on the First Three Gospels," (1850,) and other
similar works. He died in 1851. His wife, CAROLINE,
and his daughter, EMILIE, were also distinguished as
writers. The latter was married to A. W. Schlegel.
See BROCKHAUS, " Conversations- Lexikon."
Pau'lus, (JuLius,) one of the most eminent of the
Roman jurists. The place of his birth is not known.
Having been exiled by Elagabalus, he was recalled by
Alexander Severus about 222 A.n. and appointed pre-
torian prefect. He was remarkable for fertility as a
writer and for the extent of his legal learning. The
excerpts from Paulus in the Digest are more numerous
than those from any other jurist except Ulpian. His
great work is "Ad Edictam," in eighty books. lie also
wrote twenty-six books of "Qtiaestiones," and twenty-
three books of "Responsa." Died about 235 A.D.
See RITTERHUSIUS, "Vita J. Pauli ;" Kuscn und GRUHKK, "A1I-
gemeine Encyklopaedie."
Paulus, (L. /E.Mii.ius,) [Fr. PAUL-E'MILE, pol a'mel';
It. PAOLO EMILIO, pow'lo a-mee'le-o,] a Roman general
of a patrician family, was consul for the first time in
219 B.C. He was again elected consul for the year 216,
by the aristocratic party. Against his advice, his rash
colleague, Terentius Varro, offered battle to Hannibal
at Cannae, where ^imilius Paulus was killed, in 216 H.C.
His brave conduct on this occasion is applauded by
Horace. ("Carmina," Lib. I., Ode 12.) His daughter
./EMILIA was the wife of Scipio the Great, surnamed
Africanus.
See LIVY, " History of Rome," books xxii. and xxiii.
Paulus, (Lucius ^EMILIUS,) a son of the preceding,
was born about 230 H.C., and was the most celebrated
member of his family. He was a fine specimen of the
old Roman aristocracy, and was a brother-in-law of
Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hannibal. Elected
praetor for the year 191 B.C.', he obtained as his province
Farther Spain, where he defeated the Lusitani in a great
battle. In the year 189 he returned to Ronie,_and in 182
was elected consul, after having been defeaTecTat several
elections. With a view to finish the Macedonian war,
the people elected him consul in 168 K.c. He gained in
the same year a decisive victory over Perseus at Pvdna,
and afterwards took that king prisoner. He returned to
Rome in 167, and obtained the honour of a triumph, with
the surname of MACEDONICUS. He died in 160 H.C.,
'• 'aving a high reputation for honour and integrity.
Plutarch has written his life and drawn a comparison
between him and Timoleon. One of his sons was adopted
by the son of the great Scipio above named, and became
afterwards celebrated as Scipio Africanus the younger.
See LIVY, "History of Rome," books xxxiv.-xl. ; PLUTARCH,
" Paulus yE'.nilius ;" AURKMUS VICTOR, " De Viris illustribus."
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; nftt; good; moon;
P4ULUS
1753
TT
Paulus, pow'lus, (PIETER,) a Dutch statesman, born
at Axel in 1754. He was president of the Assembly
which abolished the office of Stadtholder in 1795. ^e
wrote a " Memoir on Equality among Men," (1792.)
Died in 1796.
Pau'lus ^Egine'ta, (ej-e-ne'ta,) [Fr. PAUL D'£GINE,
pol da'zhen',] a celebrated Greek medical writer, of
whose personal history little is known, except that he
was born in the island of yligina. lie is supposed to
have lived in the seventh century of our era. He trav
elled extensively, and wrote several medical works, one
of which, called " De Re Medica Libri septem," is still
extant. It is mostly compiled from Galen and other
writers. The sixth book ("On Surgery") is the most
valuable and original part of the work.
See SPKENGEL, "Histoirede la Medecine ;" HALLER, " Biblio-
theca Medica."
Paulus .ffimilius. See EMII.IO, (PAOLO.)
Pau'lus Di-ac'o-nus, [Fr. PAUL DIACRE, pol de'-
£ki<',] ('' Paul the Deacon,") a mediaeval historian, some
times called WARNEFRIDOS, was born at Friuli (Forum
Julii) about 735 A.D. He passed some years at the court
of Charlemagne. He wrote Latin verses, and a valuable
" History of the Lombards," in a clear and elegant style.
Died about 798 A. I).
Paumgarten, von, fon powm'gaR'ten, (MAXIMILIAN
SIGISMUND JOSEPH,) BARON, an Austrian general, born
in Styria in 1767. He took part in the battles of Aspern
and Wagram, (1809.) Died in 1827.
Paur, powR, ( THEODOR,) a German writer, born at
Neisse, in Silesia, in 1805. He became professor in the
College of Neisse in 1842.
Pau-sa'ul-as, [LTawjawac,] a Spartan general, was the
son of Cleombrotus, and a nephew of Leoniclas, who fell
at Thermopylae. In 479 i;.C. he became guardian of his
cousin Pleistarchus, for whom he exercised the functions
of royalty for several years. He commanded the Greek
army which defeated the Persians under Mardonius at :
Plateca in 479. In 477 the confederate Greeks sent out
a fleet under Pausanias, who captured Byzantium. -
Having formed ambitious and treasonable designs, he |
made secret overtures to the King of Persia. He also
offended the allies by his arrogant and domineering con
duct, and was recalled to Sparta. His intrigues with
the Persian court were detected a few years later by the
Ephori, who ordered his arrest. He then took refuge
in a temple, where he died of starvation, about 468 li.C.
See HKKODOTUS, " Histmy ;" CORNELIUS Ntpos, " Pausanias ;"
TH in I.WAI. I., " History of Greece."
Pausanias, King of Sparta, was a son of Pleistonax,
whom he succeeded in 444 R.C., being then an infant.
During the contest between Thrasybu'lus and the Thirty
Tyrants (403 K.c.) he intervened in favour of the former.
Died about 380 B.C.
Pausanias, a Greek traveller and author, who flour- j
ished between 150 and 200 A.D. He is supposed to have ;
been born in Lydia ; but nothing is known respecting him |
except what we learn from his writings. He was the au- |
thor of a valuable "Itinerary or Description of Greece,"
('E/./.d<5of n>p£^}7/aic. ) His description of places is minute \
and accurate, but mainly relates to objects of antiquity .
and works of art. If he mentions mountains and rivers, |
it is chiefly for the sake of legends or myths connected i
with them. He describes pictures, statues, etc. with
simplicity, and makes no pretensions to be a critic.
His work is the more highly prized for this reason.
" With the exception of Herodotus, "says George Long, i
"there is no writer of antiquity who has comprehended |
so many valuable facts in a small volume. The work of
Pausanias is full of matter, — mythological, historical,
and artistic; nor does he omit matters physical and eco
nomical." His work has been translated into English
by Thomas Taylor.
See KOENIG, " De Pausanis Fide et Auctoritatein Historia," etc.,
1832 ; SIEBF.I.IS, " Qtiaestio in Patisaniae Periegetae Patria," etc., 1819.
Pausias, pau'she-as, \Havaiar, ] an excellent Greek i
painter of Sicyon, flourished about 350 B.C. He was a
pupil of Pamphilus, and a contemporary of Apelles.
He excelled in painting in encaustic with the cestrum,
(graving- tool.) Pliny calls him "prinuim in hoc genere
iiobilem." The favourite subjects of Pausias were small
panel-pictures, chiefly of boys. He was the first who
decorated the ceilings and walls of houses with encaustic
paintings. Among his master-pieces was " The Sacri
fice of an Ox," in which the effects of foreshortening
and chiaroscuro were displayed with great success.
Pau'son, [nai'ffuv,] a Greek painter of uncertain
epoch, is mentioned by Aristotle, who says that Polygno-
tus painted figures more beautiful than nature, Dionysius
represented them as they are, and Pauson made them
appear inferior to the reality.
Pautet, po'ti', ( JULES,) a French writer of prose and
verse, born at Beaune in 1799.
Pauthier, pf/te-i', (JEAN PIERRE GUII.LAUME,) a
French Orientalist, was born at Mamirolle in 1801. He
published a French version of "Childe Harold," (1828-
30,) "The Four Books of the Moral and Political Philos
ophy of the Chinese," (4th edition, 1852,) "La Chine,"
(2 vols., 1837,) a "History of the Political Relations of
China with the Western Powers," (1859,) and other works.
Pautre, Le. See LEPAUTRE.
Pauw or Paaw, (PIETER.) See PAAW.
Pauw, van, vtn pow, (CORNELIS,) a Dutch writer,
born at Amsterdam in 1739, was a great-nephew of the
famous De Witt. He became canon of Xanten. He
displayed ingenuity and penetration in his works, among
which are " Philosophical Researches on the Egyptians
and Chinese," (2 vols., 1774,) and "Philosophical Re
searches on the Greeks," (2 vols., 1788.) Died in 1799.
Many of his ideas are considered paradoxical.
Pauw, van, (JAN CORNELIS,) a Dutch philologist,
born at Utrecht. He published editions of Anacreon,
/Eschylus, and Theophrastus ; also notes on Pindar.
Died in 1749.
Pavaka, pa'va-ka, [i.e. " purifying," or the " purifier,"]
one of the names of Ar.Ni, which see.
Pav'a-na or Fav'an, [modern Hindoo pron. piiv'a-
na or piiv'an,] written also Pawana and Fuwuii, a
Sanscrit word, signifying "air" or "wind," and forming
in the Hindoo mythology the name of the god or regent
of the winds, answering in several respects to the /Solus
of the Greeks and Romans. He was also regarded as
the regent of the northwest quarter of the heavens.
According to some, Pavana was the father of the cele
brated monkey king, HANUMAN, which see.
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon."
Pavesi, pa-va'see, (Sr'FANO.) an Italian composer,
born at Crema in 1778. He composed many operas,
among which are " Tancredi," (1812,) and "The Her
mit," ("II Solitario," 1826.) Died about 1846.
Pavie, pt've', (THEODORE,) a French Orientalist, born
at Angers in 1811. He became professor of Sanscrit at
the College de France in 1852, published a "Voyage to
the United States," (1827,) and translated some works
from Sanscrit, Chinese, etc.
Pavilion, pi've'yiN', (firiENNE,) a French poet,
born in Paris in 1632, was a nephew of Nicolas. He
was admitted to the French Academy in 1691, although
his verses scarcely reach mediocrity. Died in 1705.
Pavilion, (NICOLAS,) a French prelate and Jansenist,
born in Paris in 1597, was appointed Bishop of Aleth in
1637. He produced a Ritual which was condemned at
Rome but was widely used in France. Died in 1677.
Pavilion, du, dii pi've'y6N', (JEAN FRANQOIS du
Cheyroii — dii shi'rox',) CHEVALIER, a French naval
officer, K at Perigueux in 1730. He made important
improv nents in signals, and wrote a "Treatise on
Naval Tactics," (1778,) which is commended. He was
killed in battle with the British near Dominique in 1782.
Pavius. See PAAW, (PIETER.)
Pavlof, Pavlov, or Pawlow, pav'lof, (NICHOLAS
PHII.IPPOVITCH,) a Russian poet and novelist, born in
Moscow in 1802. He wrote lyric poems and dramas.
Died in 1854.
Pavoii, pa-v6n', (Don JOSE,) a Spanish botanist, born
' the last century. He went about 1778 to Pern, in the
exploration of which he spent many years, and aided
Ruiz in the composition of a " Flora Peruviana et Chi-
lensis." Died in 1844.
Pawaka. See PAVAKA.
Fawaiia. See PAVANA.
Pawlett. See PAULETT, (WILLIAM.)
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as^'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
lanations, p. 23.)
PAX
1754
PEALE
Pax, the Latin of EIKKNE, which see.
Fax'tpn, (EDWARD F.,) an American general, born
in Rockb'ridge county, Virginia. He served as brig
adier-general of the Confederate army at Antietam,
September, 1862, and was killed at Chancellorsville,
May 2, 1863.
Fax'tpii, (Sir JOSEPH,) an English architect and
gardener, born near Woburn, Bedfordshire, in 1803.
Having entered the service of the Duke of Devonshire
as a gardener, he remodelled after his own designs the
magnificent gardens and parks at Chatsworth, and
gained distinction as an architect by the erection of a
vast conservatory at that place. The Crystal Palace
built for the World's Fair of 1851 was designed and
superintended by Mr. Paxton, who was knighted for
this service. He was also the architect of the Crystal
Palace at Sydenham, which is much admired. He
published " The Cottage Calendar," and other works.
Died in 1865.
Payen, pi'yS.N', (ANSELME,) a French chemist, born
in Paris in 1795. He became professor of chemistry in
Paris, and a member of the Institute. Among his works
is a " Course of Elementary and Industrial Chemistry,"
(2 vols., 1831.)
Payen, (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a French medical writer,
born in Paris in 1800, has given special attention to
mineral waters.
Payer, pS'yi', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French botanist,
born at Asfeld (Ardennes) in 1818. He obtained the
chair of botany at the Normal School in Paris in 1841,
and supplied the place of Mirbel at the Sorbonne, (1841-
48.) He was secretary to Lamartine while the latter
was in power in 1848, and succeeded Aclrien de Jussieu
as professor of botany, etc. in 1852. His chief work is
a "Treatise on Comparative Vegetable Organogeny."
Paykull, de, deh pl'kul, ? (GusTAF,) BARON, a Swed
ish naturalist, born at Stockholm in 1757. He became
first secretary to the king in 1794, and marshal of the
court in 1815. He wrote monographs on Swedish cole-
optera, and several dramas. Died in 1826.
Payne, pan, (JOHN,) an English engraver and de
signer, born in London in 1608. He engraved portraits
with success. Died in 1648.
Payne, pan, (JoiiN HOWARD,) an American actor
and dramatic poet, born in New York in 1792. At the
age of sixteen he made his first appearance at the Park
Theatre, in the character of " Young Norval," with bril
liant success. He visited London in 1813, and founded
there a theatrical journal called "The Opera-Glass."
He was the author of several dramas, but he is chiefly
known by his beautiful and popular song of " Home,
Sweet Home." Mr. Payne was appointed in 1851 consul
to Tunis. Died in 1852.
See DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopjedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ;
"Monthly Review" for January, 1819.
Pays, (RENE LE.) See LE PAYS.
Pay'son, (EDWARD,) an American Congregational
divine, born in New Hampshire in 1783. He was the
author of a " Discourse before the Bible Society of
Maine," and a number of sermons. Died in 1827.
Paz, de, da pith, (JAGO ALVAREZ,) a Spanish Jesuit
and religious writer, born at Toledo in 1560; died in
1620.
Pazmaiiy or Pazniani, poz'mtn, (PETER,) a Hun
garian cardinal and writer on theology, born near Pres-
burg in 1570; died in 1637.
Pazzi, pat'see, (CosiMO,) an Italian prelate, born in
1467, was a nephew of Leo X., and a relative of Jacopo
Pazzi. He became Archbishop of Florence in 1508.
He translated Maximus Tyrius into Latin, (1517.) Died
in 1515.
Pazzi, (JACOPO,) was the head of a rich Florentine
family which was hostile to the Medici. He was one
of the chiefs of a conspiracy formed (in the name of
liberty) against them in 1478. The attempt to kill Lo
renzo de' Medici having failed, Pazzi and his accom
plices were taken and hung.
Peabody, pee'bo-de, (Rev. ANDREW P.,) D.D., an
American scholar and theologian, born at Beverly, Mas
sachusetts, in 1811. He graduated at Harvard in 1826,
and subsequently studied theology at Cambridge. He
became in 1833 pastor of the South Congregational
Church at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and in 1854
assumed the editorship of the "North American Review."
He is the author of " Lectures on Christian Doctrine,"
(1844,) of which numerous editions have been published,
and " Sermons of Consolation," (1846 ; 30! edition, 1857.)
He has also contributed to the "New England Maga
zine," "American Monthly," and "Christian Examiner."
In 1860 he became preacher and Plummer professor
of Christian morals at Harvard, — a position which he
has filled with the highest credit to himself and the
institution.
See ALUBONE'S "Dictionary of Authors."
Peabody, (GEORGE,) an American philanthropist,
born in Danvers, Massachusetts, in February, 1795, was
the son of poor parents. He engaged in trade in Balti
more, and, after many years of prosperity, removed to
England in 1837. He became a banker and broker in
London, and amassed an ample fortune. His banking-
house was for many years the head-quarters of Ameri
cans in London. About 1856 he gave $300,000 or more
to found a literary and scientific institute in Baltimore.
In 1862 he presented to the city of London £ 150,000, to
be expended in the erection of lodging-houses for the
working-classes, for which purpose he added ^150,000
more in 1866. He also gave to Harvard University
$150,000 for a museum, etc., and in 1867 gave two mil
lion dollars to found common schools in the Southern
United States. Died in London in 1869. His remains
were conveyed with great pomp to the United States
in the British ship-of-war Monarch.
Peabody, (NATHANIEL,) an American patriot and
physician, born at Topsfield, Massachusetts, in 1741.
He served as colonel of the army in 1778, and was sent
as a delegate to Congress in 1779. He filled several
other high offices. Died in 1823.
Peabody, (OLIVER W. B.,) twin-brother of W. B.
O. Peabody, noticed below, was associate editor of the
"North American Review," and in 1842 became pro
fessor of English literature in Jefferson College, Loui
siana. Died in 1847, aged fifty-seven.
Peabody, (Rev. WILLIAM B. O.,) an American poet
and Unitarian divine, born at Exeter, New Hampshire,
in 1799. He graduated at Harvard College in 1816,
and in 1820 became pastor at Springfield, Massachu
setts. Besides a number of small poems, he contributed
many able articles to the " North American Review"
and the " Christian Examiner," and wrote the " Life of
Alexander Wilson" in Sparks's "American Biography."
Died in 1847.
Peach'am, (HENRY,) an English writer, born in
Hertfordshire in the sixteenth century. He wrote, be
sides other works, "Minerva Britannita, or a Garden
of Heroical Devises," (1612,) and "The Complete Gen
tleman," (1622,) which was once popular.
See " Retrospective Review," vol. i., (1853.)
Pea'cock, (GEORGE,) an English mathematician, born
at Denton about 1790. He became professor of mathe
matics at Cambridge, and Dean of Ely. He wrote seve
ral works. Died in 1858.
See " Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1858.
Peacock or Pe'cock, (REYNOLD or REGINALD,) a
liberal English prelate, born about 1390. He became
Bishop of Chichester in 1449. Having questioned or
denied the infallibility of the pope or Church of Rome,
he was deposed in 1457. He was opposed to persecu
tion for opinion. Died about 1460.
See REV. JOHN LEWIS, " Life of R. Peacock," 1744.
Peacock, (THOMAS LOVE,) an English humourist and
poet, born at \Veymouth in 1785. He wrote, besides
other works, "Palmyra," a poem, (1806,) "The Genius
of the Thames," (1812,) "Headlong Hall," a humorous
and satirical novel, (1816,) and "Crotchet Castle,"
(1822,) which are highly commended. In 1819 he was
appointed to a situation in the Examiners' Office at the
India House. Died in 1866.
See " Recent Humourists," in the " North British Review" for
September, 1866.
Peale, peel, (CHARLES WILSON,) an American painter
and naturalist, born at Charlestown, Maryland, in 1741.
, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m£t; not; good; moon;
PEALE
1755
PECQUET
He studied for a time in England under West, and,
after his return, settled in Philadelphia, where he soon
acquired a high reputation as a portrait-painter. He
afterwards formed in that city a museum of natural
curiosities called by his name and containing the skele
ton of a mammoth. He was also one of the founders
of the Academy of Fine Arts, to which he contributed
numerous pictures. Died in 1827.
SeeTucKERMAN, "Book of the Artists."
Peale, (R KM BRA .NOT,) a son of the preceding, was
born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1778, studied
painting under West, and subsequently devoted him
self to portrait-painting in Paris. After his return to
Philadelphia, he produced, among other works, the
"Court of Death," and "The Roman Daughter." Died
in 1860.
See DUXLAP, "History of the Arts of Design in America," vol.
ii. chap. iv. ; TUCKERMAN, " Book of the Artists."
Peaii. See
Pearce, peerss, (JAMES A.,) an American Senator
and lawyer, born at Alexandria, Virginia, in 1805. He
represented a district of Maryland in Congress from
1835 to 1839, and was a Senator of the United States
from 1843 to 1862. Died in December, 1862.
Pearce, peerss, (NATHANIEL,) an English traveller or
adventurer, born at Acton in 1780. He spent several
years in Abyssinia, of which he wrote an account. Died
in 1820.
Pearce, (ZACHARY,) an eminent English divine and
critic, born in or near London in 1690. While he was
a student at Cambridge he wrote two papers for the
" Spectator," (Nos. 572 and 633,) and edited Cicero " De
Oratore," (1716.) He became vicar of Saint Martin's-
in-the-Fields, London, in 1723, Dean of Winchester in
1739, Bishop of Bangor in 1748, and Bishop of Rochester
in 1756. His principal work is a " Commentary, with
Notes, on the Four Evangelists and the Acts of the
Apostles," (2 vols., 1777,) which was received with favour.
He edited Longinus "On the Sublime," (1724.) Died
in 1774.
Pear'sall, (RICHARD,) an English dissenting minister,
born at Kidderminster in 1698. He preached many
years at Taunton, and wrote " Contemplations on the
Ocean." Died in 1762.
Fear'son, (EDWARD,) an English Arminian theolo
gian, born at Ipswich about 1758. He became rector of
Rempston, in Nottinghamshire, about 1798, and master
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1808. He
wrote treatises against Paley's theory of Moral Obliga
tion, and others against Calvinism. Some of his sermons
were published. Died in 1811.
See W. P. HUNT, "Memoir of the Life of E. Pearson," 1845.
Pear'son, (EUPHALET,) LL.D., an American scholar,
born in New England in 1752, became professor of He
brew and Oriental languages at Harvard College, and
subsequently of sacred literature at Andover. Died
in 1826.
Pearson, (GEORGE,) an English physician and chem
ist, born in 1751. He practised and lectured at Saint
George's Hospital, London, and wrote on the cow-pox,
etc. Died in 1828.
Pearson, (JOHN,) an eminent bishop of the Anglican
Church, was born at Snoring, Norfolk, in 1613. He
was educated at Cambridge, and obtained in 1650 the
living of Saint Clement, London. The sermons which
he preached there were published in his " Exposition
of the Creed," (1658,) a work of high reputation, which
has been reprinted and used as a text-book for students.
He became professor of divinity at Cambridge in 1661,
and Bishop of Chester in 1672. Died in 1686. He was
considered one of the most learned Englishmen of his
time in ancient languages, history, etc.
See " Biographia Britannica."
Pearson, (JoiiN,) an English surgeon and writer,
born in 1758, practised in London. He published, be
sides other works, "Principles of Surgery," (1788,) and
a " Life of William Hey." Died in 1826.
Pearson, (MARGARET EGLINTON,) an English painter
on glass, was a daughter of Samuel Paterson, noticed
in this work. Died in 1823.
Pearson, (RICHARD,) an English medical writer, born
in Birmingham in 1765. Among his works is "The
saurus Medicaminum," (1810.) Died in 1836.
Pecchia, pek'ke-a, (CARLO,) an Italian historian,
born at Naples in 1715. He wrote a "Civil and Political
History of the Kingdom of Naples," (3 vols., 1778.)
Died in 1784.
Pecchio, pek'ke-o, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian writer and
political economist, was born at Milan in 1785. He
was councillor of state for the section of finances (at
Milan) from 1810 to 1814. He became a political exile
in 1821, after which he lived mostly in England. Among
his works are a " History of Public Economy in Italy,"
("Storia deU'Economia pubblica in Italia," 1829,) which
presents an able critical analysis of Italian works on
political economy, and "Observations of an Exile on
England," (1831.) He was an elegant writer, and had
a good talent for observation. Died at Brighton in 1835.
See UGONI, "Vila di G. Pecchio," 1836.
Pechantre, pa'sh5N'tRa', (NICOLAS,) a French dra
matic poet, born at Toulouse in 1638. He wrote trage
dies named " Geta" (1687) and "Jugurtha," (1692.)
Died in 1708.
Peclilin, pe"K/lin, (JAN NIKLAAS,) an able Dutch phy
sician, born at Leyden in 1646. He wrote Latin poems,
a treatise on Tea, entitled " Theophilus Bibaculus,"
(1684,) and other works. Died at Stockholm in 1706.
Fechmeja, pesh'med'zha', (JEAN,) a French writer
of fiction, born at Villefranche in 1741. He wrote a
romance named "Telephe," (1784,) which had a tran
sient vogue. Died in 1785.
Peck, (FRANCIS,) an English antiquary, born at Stam
ford, Lincolnshire, in 1692. He obtained in 1736 a
prebend in the cathedral of Lincoln. Among his works
are "Desiderata Curiosa," (2 vols., 1732-35,) "Memoirs
of the Life and Poetical Works of John Milton," (1740,)
and "Memoirs of the Life of Oliver Cromwell," (1740.)
Died in 1743.
Peck, (GEORGE,) D.D., an American Methodist divine
and theological writer, born in 1797, has published
"Lives of the Apostles and Evangelists," "Christian
Perfection," and other works.
Peck, (JOHN T-,) an American general, born in Onon-
daga county, New York, in 1821, graduated at West
Point in 1843. ^e commanded a brigade at Williams-
burg and Fair Oaks in May, 1862, soon after which he
was raised to the rank of major-general of volunteers.
He repulsed General Longstreet, who attacked him at
Suffolk, in April, 1863.
Peck, (JoHN MASON,) D.D., an American Baptist
divine and missionary, born at Litchfield, Connecticut,
in 1789. He was one of the founders of the American
Baptist Home Mission Society in 1831, having previously
edited "The Pioneer," the first Baptist journal of the
West, (1829.) In 1835 he founded Shurtleff College, at
Upper Alton, Illinois. He afterwards settled at Phila
delphia as corresponding secretary and general agent of
the American Baptist Publication Society. He wrote
the " Life of Daniel Boone" in Sparks's " American Biog
raphy," and several other works. Died in 1858.
Peck, (PiETER,) a Dutch jurist, born in Zealand ; died
at Malines in 1589.
Peck, (WILLIAM DANDRIDGE,) an American natural
ist, born at Boston in 1763. He became, in 1805, pro
fessor of natural history at Harvard College. Died in
1822.
Peckham, pek'am, (JoHN,) an English prelate, born
about 1240. He was appointed Archbishop of Canter
bury in 1278. His " Perspectiva Communis" (1504) has
been often printed. Died in 1292.
Peclet, peh-kli', (JEAN CLAUDE EUGENE,) a French
writer on physical science, born at Besancon in 1793. He
was professor of physics at the Central School of Arts
and Manufactures. He wrote a " Course of Physics,"
(1826,) and a " Treatise on Heat and its Applications
to the Arts," (2 vols., 1829.) Died in 1857.
See Qi'ERARD, " La France Litteraire."
Pecock, (REYNOLD.) See PEACOCK.
Fecquet. pk'ki', (ANTOINE,) a French writer, born
in Paris in 1704. Among his works is a satire called
" Secret Memoirs towards the History of Persia," ("Me-
•e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
PECQUET
1756
PEEL
moires secrets pour servir a 1'IIistoire de la Perse,"
etc., 1745.) Died in 1762.
Pecquet, (JKAN,) a French anatomist, born at Dieppe
in 1622. He gained a European reputation by the dis
covery of the thoracic duct and the reservoir of chyle.
He wrote "On the Circulation of the Blood and Motion
of the Chyle," (" De Circulatione Sanguinis." etc., 1651,)
and " De Thoracis Lacteis," (1651.) Died in 1674.
See " Biographic Medicale."
Pecqueur, pi'kun', (CONSTANTIN,) a French writer
on social and political economy, was born at Arleux
(Nord) in 1801. He was a disciple of Saint-Simon and
Fourier. Among his works is a prize essay entitled
" Social Economy of the Interests of Commerce, In
dustry," etc., ("Economic sociale des Interets du Com
merce, de 1' Industrie," etc., 1838.) Died in 1859.
Pecqueur, (ONESII'IIORK,) a French mechanician,
born in 1792, invented an arithmetical machine, a dyna
mometer, and other machines. Died in 1852.
Pedianus. See ASCOMUS.
Peclma. See PA DM A.
Pedo. See ALBINOVANUS.
Pedro, DOM, (of Hra/.il.) See PETER.
Pedro of Aragon. See PETER.
Pedrusi, pa-di<oo'see, (PAOLO,) an Italian numis
matist, born at Mantua in 1644; died in 1720.
Peel, (FREDERICK,) a son of the statesman Sir Robert
Peel, was born in London in 1823. He was elected to
Parliament for Leominster in 1849, and re-elected for
Bury in 1852 and 1859. In politics he is called Liberal
Conservative. He was under-secretary for the colonies
from 1852 to February, 1855, under-secretary of war from
the latter date to 1857, and secretary to the treasury
from 1860 to 1865.
Peel, (JONATHAN,) a British general, a younger son
of the first Sir Robert, was born in 1799. He entered
the army young, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-
general. In 1826 he was elected to Parliament for Nor
wich. He was surveyor-general of the ordnance from
1841 to 1846, and secretary at war in the Derby ministry
from February, 1858, to June, 1859, and again from July,
1866, to March, 1867.
Peel, (Sir ROBERT,) an English manufacturer and
millionaire, born near Lancaster in 1750, was the father
of Robert Peel, prime minister. He became in 1773 a
partner in a large manufactory of cotton at Bury. By
his sagacity, enterprise, and remarkable aptitude for
business, he amassed an immense fortune. He repre
sented Tamworth in Parliament from 1790 to 1820, and
was a supporter of the ministry and Tory party. He
had six sons and five daughters. Died in 1830.
Peel, (Sir ROBERT,) a celebrated English statesman,
born near Bury, in Lancashire, on the 5th of February,
1788, was the eldest son of the preceding. He was
educated at Harrow (where Lord Byron was his class-
fellow) and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he gained
the honour of " double first-class," — i.e. pre-eminence
both in classics and mathematics. He left college in
1808, and entered Parliament as a member for Cashel,
and a supporter of the Tory ministry, in 1809. In Janu
ary, 1810, he seconded the address to the throne, and
made his first speech. He was appointed under-secretary
for the colonies in 1811, and chief secretary for Ireland
in 1812. In 1815 he challenged O'Connell for offensive
remarks in a public speech ; but the intended duel was
prevented by the police. His opponents nicknamed
him ORANGE PEEL, in allusion to his hostility to the
Catholics. He made a speech against the Roman Cath
olic claims in 1817. In 1818 he was elected to Parliament
for the University of Oxford, in preference to Canning,
and resigned his office of secretary. lie succeeded Mr.
Homer as chairman of the Bullion committee in 1819,
and acquired a high reputation as a financier by pro
curing the passage of an act for the resumption of cash
payments. He married in 1820 Julia, a daughter of
General Sir John Floyd.
In January, 1822, he became secretary for the home
department in the ministry of Lord Liverpool. For
several years ensuing, Canning and Peel were the most
able and prominent members of the ministry. Although
Peel was less brilliant as an orator than his colleague, he
was more solid and practical, and had equal or greater
influence with his party. When Canning became prime
minister, in April, 1827, Mr. Peel retired from office. He
accepted the place of home secretary in the new minis
try formed by the Duke of Wellington in January, 1828,
and made a powerful speech in favour of Catholic eman
cipation (which he had long opposed) in March, 1829.
By his change on this question he lost his seat as repre
sentative of Oxford, in 1829. The obstinate resistance
of the Tory ministry to parliamentary reform caused
them to be defeated and driven from power in Novem
ber, 1830. Earl Grey then formed a Whig ministry, and
Sir Robert became the leader of the opposition. At
the death of his father, in 1830, he inherited an immense
fortune and the title of baronet. He opposed the Re* )i,u
bill, (1831-32,) but declined to co-operate with Welling
ton in the formation of a new ministry when Lord Grey
resigned, in 1832. In 1833 he was elected to Parliament
for Tamworth, which he continued to represent until 1850.
Sir Robert at this period was the recognized leader of
the Conservative party, which he had organized, and the
principles of which were modified Toryism. The Whig
ministry having been dismissed, Peel and Wellington
united to form a cabinet, in which the former became first
lord of the treasury, (i.e. prime minister,) in December,
1834. Failing to obtain the support of a majority of the
new Parliament elected at this period, Sir Robert was
compelled to resign, in April, 1835, and was succeeded
by Lord Melbourne. On the resignation of Melbourne,
in May, 1839, Sir Robert was sent for by the queen, but
he failed to become prime minister, because he insisted
on the removal of certain ladies of the bed-chamber.
The general election of 1841 gave the Conservatives a
large majority in Parliament. Lord Melbourne resigned
in August of that year, and was succeeded by Sir Robert
Peel. In the new cabinet Lord Lyndhurst was lord
chancellor, Lord Aberdeen foreign secretary, Lord Stan
ley colonial secretary, Sir James Graham home secre
tary, and Lord Kllenborough secretary at war. Peel
himself was first lord of the treasury. The important
events of his administration were the settlement of the
questions of the corn-laws, tariff, and income-tax. In
1842 he proposed a sliding-scale, according to which the
duty on grain should be reduced in proportion as the
price increased. This bill became a law. He imposed
an income-tax of "]d. in the pound to supply the deficit
in the revenue, and passed a new tariff bill, by which
many articles were admitted free and the duties on others
were reduced, (1842.) A powerful pressure against the
duty on breadstuff's was produced by the Anti-Corn-Law
League, whose interests were advocated by Cobden and
Bright in public speeches. The case was rendered more
urgent by the potato-rot in Ireland in 1845. In Novem
ber, 1845, Sir Robert announced himself in favour of
the repeal of the corn-laws; but some of his colleagues
opposed the measure. Peel then resigned, and Lord
John Russell was called to form a new cabinet, but did
not succeed. About the 2oth of December, Sir Robert
resumed office with his former colleagues, except Lord
Stanley, who retired. The Tory party was divided on
this question into Peelites and Protectionists. By the
united votes of the Peelites and Liberals, the corn-laws
were repealed, after an eloquent speech by Sir Robert
in favour of the repeal, in January, 1846. Having been
defeated on the Irish Coercion bill, he resigned, June 29,
1846, and was succeeded by Lord John Russell. He had
acquired great popularity, which continued unabated, and
he would probably have been called again to the direction
of affairs if he had lived a few years longer. On the
2Qth of June, 1850, he was thrown from his horse and re
ceived injuries of which he died on July 2 of that year.
See TAYLOR and MACK AY, " Sir Robert Peel's Life and Times."
4 vols., 1846-51; THOMAS DOURI.EDAY, "The Political Life of S r
Robert Peel," 2 vols.. 1856: KUKNZKL, "Das Leben und die Rede'i
Sir R. Peels," 2 vols., 1850; GUIZOT, "Siu Robert Peel," 1859;
LAWKKNCB PKKI., " Lite of Sir Robert Peel," 1860: see, also, his
posthumous Memoirs, edited by LORD M AHON and MR CARDWKI.I. ;
GKOKGK H. FRANCIS, "The Late Sir Robert Peel ; a Critical liiog-
raphy," 1852; L. DE LOMKNTR, "Sir Robert Peel, par un Homme
de Rien," 1842: " Londo i Quirterly Review" for September, 1842,
and October, 1846: " Blackwood's Magazine" for September, 1850,
and September, 1860; "Westminster Review" for December, 1843,
and July, 1852; " Macmillan's Magazine" for 1869, (by GOLUWIN
SMITH.)
a, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
PEEL
'757
PELAriCINO
Peel, (Sir ROBERT,) the eldest son of the preceding,
was born in London in 1822. He was returned to Par
liament for Tamworth in 1850, and voted with the Liberal
party. In 1855 he was appointed one of the lords of the
admiralty by Lord Palmerston. Having resigned this
place in 1857, he became secretary for Ireland, without
a seat in the cabinet, in 1861. He retired from that
office a!»ut 1864, and voted with the Tories against the
Reform bill in April, 1866.
Peel, (Sir WILLIAM,) a naval officer, born in 1824,
was a younger son of Sir Robert Peel, prime minister.
He served with distinction at the siege of Sebastopol,
in 1855. As captain of the naval brigade, he fought
against the Sepoy mutineers in India in 1857. Died at
Cawnpore in 1858.
Peel, (WILLIAM YATES,) born at Bury in 1789, was a
son of the first Sir Robert Peel, and brother of the cele
brated statesman. He was for many years a member of
Parliament, which he entered in 1817. He became a lord
of the treasury in 1830, and again in 1834. Died in 1858.
Peele, peel, (GEORGE,) an English dramatist, born
in Devonshire, graduated at Oxford in 1579. He be
came a resident of London, and had the title of city
poet. His talent was much inferior to that of Marlowe.
Among his plays are "The Old Wives Tale" and "The
Battle of Alcazar." Died about 1598. His works were
published by Dyce in 1828, with a memoir of his life.
Peerlkamp, paul'kamp, (HoFMAN PIETER,) a Dutch
philologist and critic, born at Groningen in 1786. He
published several biographical works in Latin, and valu
able editions of Xenophon of Ephesus, Horace's " Odes,"
and " Letters to Piso."
Peet, (HARVEY PRINDLE,) LL.D., born in Litchfield
county, Connecticut, in 1794, became president of the
Institution for the Deaf and- Dumb in New York, (1845.)
He has published a " Course of Instruction," " Scripture
Lessons," and other works for deaf-mutes.
Pegase. See PEGASUS.
Feg'a-sus, |Gr. nf/^aaor.- FT. PEGASE, pa'gf//,] a
winged horse of classic mythology, was supposed to be
the offspring of Neptune and Medusa. The poets relate
that he carried liellerophon in his fight with Chimaem,
that with a stroke of his hoof he produced the foun-
. tain Hippocrene on Mount Helicon, that he was the
favourite of the Muses, and that he finally became a
constellation in the heavens.
Pegge, peg. (SAMUEL,) an English antiquary, born in
Staffordshire in 1704. He obtained the living of God-
mersham in 1731, and that of Whittington in 1751. His
chief work is a " Life of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln," (1793.) Died in 1796.
Pegge, (SAMUEL,) a son of the preceding, was born
in 1731. He wrote "Cuiialia," and " Anecdotes of the
English Language." Died in 1800.
Fe'gram, (Jonx,) an American general, born in South
Carolina. He graduated at West Point in 1855. ^e
served in the Confederate army in several battles in Vir
ginia, and was killed at Hatcher's Run, near Petersburg,
February 6, 1865.
Peignot, pan'yo', ( ETIENNK GABRIEL,) a learned
French bibliographer, born at Arc-en-Barrois in 1767.
He was principal of colleges at Vesoul and Dijon. He
wrote many antiquarian treatises, biographies, and works
on bibliography. His " Dictionary of Bibliology" (" Dic-
tionnaire raisonne de Bibliologie," 2 vols., 1802) is said
to be important. Died in 1849.
See QUEK ARD, "La France Litteraire."
Peile, peel, (Rev. THOMAS W.,) an English classical
scholar, born about 1806, graduated at Cambridge. He
published " Annotations on the Apostolical Epistles,"
(6 vols., 1848-52.) He subsequently obtained the living
of Saint Paul's, Hampsteacl.
Peirce, peerss, (BENJAMIN,) LL.D., an able mathema
tician, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1809, has written
various works on mechanics and kindred subjects.
See AI.LIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Peirce, (BRADFORD K.,) an American Methodist
divine and reformer, was born at Royalton, Vermont, in
1819. He founded in 1856, at Lancaster, Massachusetts,
a State Industrial School for Girls, which has succeeded
in reforming great numbers of those \\lio had been guilty
of petty offences. He has published a work entitled " The
Eminent Dead," and several religious books.
Peirce, (CYRUS,) an American teacher, born at Wali-
ham, Massachusetts, in 1790, became principal of the
first American normal school, founded at Lexington,
Massachusetts, in 1839. He published an essay entitled
" Crime : its Cause and Cure," and a " Letter on Normal
Schools." Died in 1859.
Peirce, peerss, (JAMES,) an English nonconformist
minister, born in London in 1673. He published ser
mons and controversial works. Died in 1726.
Peiresc, de, deli pi'r&sk', (NICOLAS CLAUDE Fabri
— fS'bue',) an eminent French antiquary, scholar, and
patron of learning, was born at Beaugensier, in Provence,
in 1580. He studied law at Padna, and became a coun
sellor of the parliament of Aix, He was an intimate
friend of Gassendi. In visits to Italy, England, etc., he
collected many books, medals, and specimens of nature
and art, which he freely distributed to his friends. He
maintained an active correspondence with many French
I and foreign savants. He wrote to his friends at Rome
in favour of Galileo when the latter was in prison.
Many of his letters have been published. It was at
Peiresc's suggestion that Grotius wrote his work " De
Jure Belli et Pads." Died at Aix in 1637.
See GASSKNDI, "Vita N. C. F. de Peiresc," 1641; REQUIER,
"Vie de Peiresc," 1770; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Peirithous. See PIRITHOUS.
Peirouse. See LA PEYKOUSE.
Peisander. See PISANDER.
Peisistratus. See PISISTRATUS.
Pe'kah, [Heb. HpS,] King of Israel, usurped the
throne in 758 B.C. In alliance with the King of Syria,
he waged war against Jotham and Ahaz, Kings of Judah.
lie was killed by Hosea in 738 or 739.
Pek-a-hi'ah, [Heb. nTOi\] King of Israel, began to
rei<rn about 760 P..C. He 'was killed by Pekah, 760 B.C.
Pelage. See PELAGIUS.
Pe-la'gl-us, [Gr. Ue'/jayios ; Fr. PELAGE, pi'ltzh',] the
| founder of the sect of Pelagians, or rather the chief
advocate of a system of doctrines called Pelagianism,
was born probably in Britain. He began to propagate
his doctrines at Rome about 400 A.D., and formed a
friendship with Celestius, who became his ardent disciple.
He was an admirer of Origen, and an adversary of Saint
Augustine in relation to grace and election. Pelagius
rejected the dogmas of original sin and absolute predes-
' tination. He maintained that the effects of Adam's first
' sin were confined to himself, and that man's salvation
! depends on his own exertions. He was condemned by-
several councils, and was banished from Italy in 418.
I The eminent purity of his life was freely admitted by
his opponents. A system called Semi-Pelagianism pre
vailed widely in the middle ages, and has many adherents
at the present day. As the numerous works of Pelagius
are nearly all lost, it is difficult to ascertain exactly what
doctrines he taught. His adversaries complained of
the haze of subtle dialectics with which he involved
every subject of dispute. Among his extant works is a
" Commentary on the Epistles of Saint Paul."
See NORKIS, " Historis Pelaa;iana ;" T,. PATOUIU.ET, "Vie de
Pelage," 1751 : RAVI.K, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" SAINT
AUGUSTINE, "De Gratia Christ!" and " De Peccato Original! ;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pe-la'gl-us [Fr. PELAGE, pi'ltzh'] I., a native of
Rome, became pope in 555 A.D., after the death of
Vigilius. He died in 559 or 560, and was succeeded by
John III.
Fela^ius II., POPE, a native of Rome, was born about
520. He succeeded Benedict I. in 578 A.D. He died
in 590, and was succeeded by Gregory the Great.
Pe-la'gi-us or Pelayo, pi-la'yo, [Fr. PELAGE, pa'-
Itzh',] King of Asturias, was a descendant of the Gothic
kings of Spain. He fought with success about 718 A.D.
against the Moors, who had conquered the greater part
of Spain, and founded a small kingdom, which he left
to his son-in-law, Alfonso. Died about 738 A.D."
Pelasgue. See PELASGUS.
Pe-las'gus, [Gr. ILr/vztTyoc: Fr. PELASGUE, pa'lfsg',]
j a mythical personage, supposed to have been the ances
tor of the Pelasgi, the most ancient inhabitants of Greece.
Pelavicino. See PALLAVICINI.
€ as£; 535 s; ghard: gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: sas ;: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PELATO
1758
PELLEGRINI
Pelayo. See PELAGIUS, (of Asturias.)
Felee. See PELEUS.
Pelet, peh-lk', (JEAN JACQUKS GKRMAIN,) BARON, a
French general, born at Toulouse about 1778. He
served with distinction as aide-de-camp of Massena in
Italy, Austria, and Portugal, (1805-12,) and commanded
a brigade at Waterloo. In 1830 he became a lieutenant-
general, lie was appointed a senator in 1852. lie
published " Memoirs of the War of 1809," (4 vols., 1824,)
and other able military works. Died in 1858.
Pelet de la Lozere, peh-LY deh la" lo'zain', (JEAN,)
COMTE, a French legislator, born at Saint-Jean-du-Gard
in 1759, was distinguished for his wisdom and modera
tion. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, and
to the Council of Five Hundred (by seventy-one de
partments) in 1795. During the empire he was coun
cillor of state. Died in 1842.
His son, PRIVAT JOSEPH CLARAMOND, born in 1785,
was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1827. He
distinguished himself as an orator of the Left Centre.
He was minister of finance under Thiers in 1840.
Peletier, pel-te-a', sometimes written Pelletier,
(JACQUES,) a poet ^nd mathematician, born at Mans, in
France, in 1517. He lived at many places, and followed
various pursuits. In 1572 he became principal of the
College of Mans. He translated Horace's " De Arte
Poetica" into verse, (1544,) and wrote original poems
of some merit. Died in 1582.
Peletier, Le, leh pel-te-V, (CLAUDE,) a French magis
trate, born in Paris in 1630 or 1631. He was provost of
the merchants in 1668, and constructed the qua! in Paris
which bears his name. In 1683 he succeeded Colbert
as controller-general of finance. He found himself
unequal to the task of raising funds for a long war, and
resigned in 1689. Voltaire calls him a good and just
man. Died in 1711.
Peletier de Sousi, Le, leh pel-te-S/ deh soo'ze',
(MiCHEL,) a brother of the preceding, was born in Paris
in 1640. He spoke many languages, ancient and modern,
and wrote memoirs on medals and inscriptions. He
served as intendant of finance from 1683 to 1701, and
was chosen a member of the council of regency at the
death of Louis XIV. Died in 1725.
Peleus, pee'lus or pee'lf^us, [Gr. IIr/?.ei>f ; Fr. PEL£E,
pa'la',] King of Thessaly, was a son of /Eacus, and
married the sea-nymph Thetis, by whom he became the
father of Achilles. The marriage of Peleus and Thetis
is said to have been attended by all the gods and god
desses except Discord. According to tradition, he took
part in the Argonautic expedition, but was prevented
by his great age from joining in the siege of Troy.
Pe'leus, [Fr. PILIEU, pe'le-uh',] (Jui.iEN,) a French
lawyer, born at Angers. He was appointed councillor
of state and historiographer by Henry IV., and wrote a
" History of Henry the Great," (4 vols., 1616.) Died
about 1625.
Pelham. See NEWCASTLE, DUKE OF.
Pelhani, peYam, (HENRY,) an English statesman,
born in 1694, was a brother of the Duke of Newcastle.
He became paymaster of the army in 1730, and an op
ponent of Walpole. On the defeat of Walpole, in 1742,
he obtained the office of chancellor of the exchequer. A
rivalry between him and Lord Carteret resulted in the
removal of the latter in 1743 or 1744, after which Pelham
and his brother were the chief ministers until 1754.
" Henry Pelham," says Macaulay, " was by no means a
contemptible person. His understanding was that of
Walpole on a somewhat smaller scale. Though not a
brilliant orator, he was, like his master, a good debater,
a good parliamentary tactician, a good man of business.
. . . For the first time since the accession of the Stuarts,
there was no opposition." Died in 1754.
See MACAULAY'S Review of "Walpole's Letters to Sir Horace
Mann," 1833; WILLIAM Coxn, "Memoirs of the Administration of
the Rt. Hon. Henry Pelham," 2 vols., 1829.
Pelham, (THOMAS,) Earl of Chichester, was born in
or near London in 1756. He was elected about 1780 to
the House of Commons, in which he voted with the
Tories. He was home secretary from April, 1801, to
1803, and inherited the title of Earl of Chichester at
the death of his father, in 1805. Died in 1826.
Pelhestre, peh-le"stR', (PIERRE,) a learned French
ecclesiastic and writer, born at Rouen in 1635 ; died in
1710.
Pe-ll'a-de§, (singular, Pe'li-as,) a name applied to
the daughters of PELIAS, which see.
Pe'll-as, [Gr. Ilt/Uaf; Fr. PELIAS, pi'le'ts',] a son
of Neptune and Tyro or of Cretheus and Tyro, was a
I brother of Neleus. He usurped the throne of lolcos
from yEson, a son of Cretheus, and sent Jason to Col
chis to bring the golden fleece. He was the father of
Acastus, Alcestis, and several other daughters. The
poets relate that Pelias was cut to pieces by his daugh
ters, called PELIADES, at the instigation of Medea, who
promised to restore him to youth.
Pelides. See ACHILLES.
Peligot, pi'le'go', (EUGENE MELCHIOR,) a French
chemist, born in Paris in 1812. He became professor
of chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers
in 1841.
Pelissier, pa'le'se-i', (AMAKLE JEAN JACQUES,) Due
de Malakoff, (deh mt'lt'kof,) a French general, born
at Maromme (Seine-Inferieure) in 1794. He entered
the army in 1815, and served as aide-de-camp of General
j Durrieu in the Morea in 1828-29. About the end of
I 1839 he was sent, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, to
Algeria, where he took part in many actions. He com-
' manded the left wing at Isly, in 1844, and in 1845 fixed
an indelible stain upon his memory by suffocating a party
of Arabs in a cavern, at the mouth of which he ordered
a large fire to be built. In 1850 he became a general of
division. He was Governor-General of Algeria ad interim
in 1851. In January, 1855, he was ordered to the Crimea,
to command the first corps of the army which co-operated
with the British in the siege of Sebastopol. lie suc
ceeded Canrobert as general-in-chief on the i6th of May,
1855. A victory was gained by the allies on the Tcher-
naia in August, and the French carried by storm the
fort of Malakoff on the 8th of September. For this
success Pelissier received a marshal's baton in 1855, and
the title of Duke of Malakoff in 1856. He was ambas
sador to England in 1858, and during the war in Italy
in 1859 he commanded the army of observation which
defended the eastern frontier. In November, 1860, he
became Governor-General of Algeria. Died in 1864.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pelisson. See PELLISSON.
Pell, (JoHN,) an eminent English mathematician, born
in Sussex in 1610, studied at Cambridge and Oxford.
He became professor at Amsterdam in 1643, and was
sent by Cromwell as agent to the Protestant Swiss
cantons in 1654. He returned home in 1658, became
rector of Fobbing, Essex, in 1661, and rector of Laing-
don in 1673. He published a refutation of Longomon-
tanus's discourse "On the True Measure of the Circle,"
(" De vera Circuli Mensura," 1644,) an "Idea of the
Mathematics," and other works. It was to Pell that
Newton first explained his invention of fluxions. Died
in 1685.
See MONTUCI.A, " Histoire des Mathematiques."
Pellat, pi'lf, (CHARLES AUGUSTS,) an able French
jurist, born at Grenoble in 1793. He obtained the chair
of Pandects in Paris in 1829, and published several suc
cessful works on Roman law.
FeUegrin, peTgRaN',(SiMON JOSEPH,) AKHE, a French
poet and dramatist, born at Marseilles in 1663. He
gained a prize of the French Academy for poetry in
1 704. His best works are " The New World," a comedy,
(1723,) and " Pelopee," a tragedy, (1733,) which were suc
cessful. Died at Paris in 1745.
Pellegrini, pel-la-gree'nee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian
painter of history, born at Venice in 1675. He worked
in England and Paris, and settled at Venice. Among
his master-pieces is "The Brazen Serpent." " He was
ingenious," says the " Biographic Universelle," "and
painted with great facility." Died in 1741.
Pellegrini, (CAMILLO,) an Italian historian, born at
Capua in 1598. He spent much time in collecting an
cient documents for the history of Italy, and published
a valuable "History of the Princes of Lombardy,"
(" Historia Principum Longobardorum," 1643.) Died
in 1663,
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
PELLEGRINI
1759
PELLISSOX
Pellegrini, (DOMKNICO,) an architect and engraver,
born in 1541, was a brother ot" Pellegrino, noticed below.
He designed the palace de Magnani at Bologna, and
other fine edifices of that city. His etchings are prized
by amateuis. Died in 1582.
Pellegrini, (GIUSEPPE LUIGI,) an Italian poet and
Jesuit, lie TII at Verona in 1718, was distinguished as a
pulpit orator. He published " Latin and Italian Poems,"
(" Poesie Latine ed Italiane," 1791.) Died in 1799.
Pellegrini, (PKLLEGRINO,) called also TIBALDI, te-
bal'dee, an eminent painter and architect, born in the
Milanese in 1527. He studied in Rome, and appears to
have taken Michael Angelo as his model. He acquired
a grandeur ot style which was less extravagant than that
of Michael Angelo. Among his best paintings are the
frescos in the Poggi Chapel, representing John the Bap
tist baptizing, and other subjects. He was appointed in
1570 chief architect of the Duomo (cathedral) of Milan,
and designed the facade of that great Gothic structure,
which was commenced about 1387. His design was
censured by many artists, but was partially executed.
He worked for Philip II. of Spain in the Escurial, both
as painter and architect. He died at Milan about 1595
or 1600.
See Z ANOTTI," Vita di Tibaldi ;" VASARI," Lives of the Painters ;"
QUATREMERE DE QuiNCY, " Dictioiinaire d'Architecture."
Pelleport, peTpoR', (PIERRE,) VICOMTE, a French
general, born in Haute-Garonne in 1773. He fought at
Jena, (1806.) at Eylau, (1807,) obtained the rank of
colonel at Essling, and the title of baron at Wagram,
(1809.) Died in 1855.
Pellerin, peTra.\', (JOSEPH,) a French numismatist
and linguist, born near Versailles in 1684. He became
commissioner of the navy in 1718, and chief clerk some
years later. He formed a cabinet of 32,500 medals,
which is said to have been the richest that ever belonged
to a private person, and published a description of them,
entitled " Collection of Medals of Kings, Nations, and
Cities," (" Recueil de Medailles de Rois, Peuples et
Villes," 10 vols., 1762-78.) He adopted an improved
system of classification. Died in 1782.
See CHAUDON et DELANDIXE, " Dictionnaire Universel."
Pellet, pi'li', (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a French poet and
advocate, born at Spinal in 1782 ; died in 1830.
Pelletan, peTtox', (EroENE,) an able French littera
teur, born in Charente-Inferieure in 1813. His father
was a Protestant minister. He wrote literary critiques
for the " Presse" for about ten years, (1839-50,) and con
tributed to other journals. In 1848 he was a republican,
and intimate with Lamartine. Among his popular works
are " The Profession of Faith of the Nineteenth Century,"
(1853,) and '• The Pastor of the Desert," (1855.) He was
elected to the corps legislatif in 1869, and became a mem
ber of the provisional government in September, 1870.
Pelletan, (PHILIPPE JEAN,) a French surgeon of
high reputation, was born in Paris in 1747. He suc
ceeded Desault as surgeon-in-chief of the Hotel-Dieu
in Paris, and was consulting surgeon to Napoleon I.
He lectured in Paris about thirty years, with such elo
quence that he was called the " Chrysostom of surgeons."
Died in 1829.
See " Bioeraphie Medicale ;" QUERAKD, " La France Litteraire;"
" Nfouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pelletan, (PIERRE,) a son of the preceding, was bom
in Paris in 1782, and was a distinguished physician. He
became professor of physique medicate at Paris in 1823.
In 1843 he resigned this chair. He published a "Dic
tionary of Medical Chemistry," (2 vols., 1823.) Died
in 1846.
Pelletier. See PELETIER, LK, (CLAUDE.)
Pelletier, peTte-i', (BERTRAND,) an eminent French
chemist, born at Bayonne in 1761. He became professor
of chemistry at the Polytechnic School in Paris in 1795,
and a member of the Institute. He wrote for the " An-
nales de Chimie," and made some important discoveries.
" He showed himself a man of genius," says Fournier-
Pescay, " in his researches on phosphorus and on its
combinations with metals." Died in 1797. His col
lected works were published, under the title of "Me
moirs and Observations," (2 vols.,) in 1798.
Pelletier, pSl'te-i, (CASPAR,) a Dutch physician and
botanist, was born at Middelburg ; died in 1659.
Pelletier, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French general, born
at ficlaron (Haute-Marne) in 1777. He became general
of brigade in 1809, obtained command of the artillery,
and served with credit at Moskwa, (1812.) Died in
1862.
Pelletier, (PIERRE JOSEPH,) a chemist, born in Paris
in 1788, was a son of Bertrand, noticed above. He dis
played a rare talent for observation and analysis, and
discovered several vegetable salifiable bases. The im
portant discovery of quinine (1820) was made by Pelle
tier and Caventou, who was his associate. For this
service the Academy of Sciences gave him a prize of
ten thousand francs in 1827. He published a "Memoir
on Quinine," (1821,) and other works. Died in 1842.
Pelletier, Le, (JEAN.) See LEPELLETIER.
Pellew, (EDWARD.) See EXMOUTH, LORD.
Pel'lew, (GEORGE,) D.D., a younger son of Lord
Exmouth, was born in 1793. He became Dean of Nor
wich in 1828. Among his works is "The Seven Ages
of a Christian Life," (1855.)
Pellican, pel'le-kan', [ Lat. PELLICA'NUS; Ger.
KURSCHNER, kuRsh'ner,] (CoNRAD,) a learned Reformer
and biblical critic, born at Ruffach, in Alsace, in 1478.
He took the monastic vows, learned Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew, and became superior of the convent at Ruffach
about 1517. Having been converted to the doctrines
of Luther, he was appointed professor of Hebrew at
Zurich in 1526. He was intimate with Erasmus. Among
his works are Latin Commentaries on the Bible, (5 vols.
fol., 1534-38,) which are highly esteemed. "Pellican,"
says Richard Simon, "is more exact than the other
Protestants. . . . He aimed to be useful to his readers
rather than to display his rabbinage."1 Died in 1556.
See " Chronicon Vit«e ipsius ab ipso conscriptum," inserted in
MEI.CHIOR ADAM'S ''Vita? Tlieo'osorum Germanorum ;" JOHANN
FABRICIUS, " Oratio historica de Vita C. Pellicani," 1608; SALOMON
HESS, "C. Peliicans Jugendgeschichte," 1705.
Pellicanus. See PELLICAN.
Pellicer, pgl-ye-thaik', (JosE de Ossau — da os-
sow',] a Spanish historian, born at Saragossa in 1602;
died in 1679.
Pellicer, (JuAN ANTONIO,) a Spanish antiquary, born
at Valencia in 1738. He wrote " Ensayo de una Bibli-
oteca de Traductores Espafioles," ("Library of Spanish
Translations," 1778,) and published a good edition of
"Don Quixote," (1797.) Died in 1806.
Pellicier or Pellissier, p.Yle'se-i', (GUILLAUME,) a
French diplomatist, born in Languedoc about 1490.
He became Bishop of Montpellier, and was employed
in important missions by Francis I. His vast erudition
is extolled by De Thou and Turnebus. Died in 1568.
Pellico, pel'le-ko, (SiLVio,) an Italian poet, born at
Saluzzo, Piedmont, in 1789. He became in 1810 teacher
of French in a college of Milan, where he formed
a friendship with Ugo Foscolo and Monti. He pro
duced " Francesca da Rimini," a tragedy, which was
performed with great applause. In Milan he became
acquainted with Lord Byron, Madame de Stael, and
Lord Brougham. He was the. principal founder of " II
Conciliatore," a literary periodical, first issued in 1818,
which was quickly suppressed by the Austrian govern
ment. In October, 1820, he was arrested as a member
of a secret society, and in 1822 was condemned to im
prisonment for fifteen years carcere dura. He was con
fined at Spielberg, in Moravia, until August, 1830, and
then released, having suffered with great resignation.
He wrote a narrative of his sufferings, entitled "My
Prisons," (" Le mie Prigioni," 1831,) which excited great
sympathy and was translated into all the languages of
Europe. His prose treatise " On the Duties of Man" is
praised for its good morality. Died at Turin in 1854.
See L. DE LOMENIE, "M. S. Pellico, par un Homme de Rien,"
1^42; V. CHIAI.A, "Vita di S. Peliico." 1852; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale ;" LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Foreign
Quarterly Review" for April and October, 183.-?.
Pellisson, pi'le'soN', or Pellisson-Fontanier, pi'-
le'sds' foN'ti'ne-i', (PAUL.) a French author, born,
of Protestant parents, at Beziers in 1624. He wrote a
"History of the French Academy," (1653,) which ob
tained such success that this society nominated him a
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (J^T^See Explanations, p. 23.)
PELLOUTIER
1760
PEN4TES
titular member and voted that lie should be admitted
to the first vacant seat. In 1657 lie became chief clerk
of Fouquet, minister of finance. He was confined for
four years (1661-65) in the Bastille on account of his
connection with Fouquet. Having been selected by
Louis XIV. to write the history of his reign, he abjured
Protestantism in 1670, entered into holy orders, and
obtained several benefices. He wrote a " History of
Louis XIV.," (3 vols., 1749,) and other works. His
writings were more admired in his own time than at
present. Died in 1693.
See FKNKLON, " fiioge de Pellisson ;" VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de
Louis XIV."
Pelloutier, p^'loo'te-i', (SiMON,) a French historian,
born at Leipsic in 1694. He became minister of a Prot
estant church at Berlin in 1725, and a member of the
Academy of Sciences of that city in 1743. His chief
work is a " History of the Celts, Gauls, and Germans
from Fabulous Times to the Capture of Rome by the
Gauls," (in French, 2 vols., 1740-50,) which, says the
"Journal des Savants," " is extremely curious and agree
able." Died at Berlin in 1757.
See HAAG, " La France protestante."
Pe-lop'I-das, [ Gr. He/ioTmiaf, j an eminent Theban
statesman and general, was a son of Hippoclus. He |
inherited a large fortune, of which he made a liberal
use, and became an intimate and constant friend ot
Epaminondas, who saved his life at the battle of Man-
tinea, (385 B.C.) As a leader of the popular party, he
went into exile when the Spartans made themselves
masters of Thebes, in 382. He was the master-spirit of
the small band of patriots who surprised by night and
expelled the Spartans and aristocrats from Thebes in
379 B.C. " It is not easy," says Plutarch, "to find an j
instance so remarkable of the few overcoming the many, j
merely by courage and conduct. . . . The war which
humbled the pride of the Spartans and deprived them j
of empire took its rise from that night." Pelopidas was \
chosen ger.eral-in-chief, and in 375 gained at Tegyrne a [
decisive victory over the Spartans, who then lost their \
prestige of invincibility. He was captain of the Sacred
band at the battle of Leuctra, where he gained as much ;
honour, says Plutarch, as Epaminondas, the commander- j
in-chief. In 369 B.C. Pelopidas and his friend com- >
manded jointly an army which entered Peloponnesus,
forced Argos and Arcadia to renounce the alliance of j
the Spartans, and ravaged a large parfof Laconia in a
winter campaign. (See EPAMINONDAS) He acted as
mediator between two sons of Amyntas, King of Mace-
don, and carried as a hostage to Tnebes another prince,
who was afterwards famous as Philip of Macedon. Having
been sent as ambassador to Persia in 367, he was re
ceived with great honour by the king and courtiers, who
said, "This is the man who deprived the Spartans of
the empire of the sea and land ;" and he induced Ar-
taxerxes to recognize the liberty of all the Greek states.
He commanded an expedition against Alexander, tyrant
of Pherae, in a battle with whom he was killed in 364 U.C.,
as he too rashly urged the retreating enemy.
See " Life of Pelopidas," by PLUTARCH, who compares him to
Marcellus, and says that Pelopidas was " inclined to every virtue ;"
CORNELIUS NEPOS, " Pelopidas;" THIRLWALL, " History o! Greece."
Pe'lops, [Gr. lle/.oip; Fr. PELOPS, pa'lops',] a demi-god
of Greek mythology, said to have been a son of Tanta
lus, a grandson of Jupiter, and a king of Pisa. Among
his children were Atreus and Thyestes, whose mother
was Hippodami'a, a daughter of CEnomaus. (See CENO-
MAUS.) The poets relate that Tantalus once entertained
the gods at his house, and offered them the flesh of
Pelops, whom he killed and boiled, that all the guests
refused to partake of that dish, except Ceres, who ate
one shoulder, and that Pelops was restored to life by
Mercury, with an ivory shoulder in place of that which
was devoured. Tradition adds that during the siege of
Troy an oracle declared that this city could not be taken
unless one of the bones of Pelops was brought to the
camp of the Greeks. According to another legend, the
Palladium at Troy was made of the bones of Pelops.
The southern peninsula of Greece is supposed to have
derived from him the name Peloponnesus, (or " island
of Pelops.")
Pelouze, peh-looz', (THEoriiiLE JUI.KS,) a French
chemist, born at Valognes (.vLn he) in 1807, was a pupil
of Gay-Lnssac. He obtained a chair of chemistry at
Lille in 1830, soon after which he became the assistant
(suppleant) of Gay-Lussac in the Polytechnic School.
He was admitted into the Institute in 1837, and was ap
pointed president of the Commission des Monnaies (or
director of the Mint) in 1848. His labours and memoirs
place him in the first rank of contemporary chemists.
Pelouze and Freiny published a "Treatise on Chem
istry," (6 vols., 1853-56.) Died in 1867.
Pels, pels, (ANDREAS,) a Dutch poet, who founded a
school or literary society which favoured the imitation
of French models. He wrote "The Death of Dido," a
tragedy, (1668,) and translated into Dutch verse Horace's
"Art of Poetry," (1667.) Died in 1681.
Peltan, de, deli pel'tan, or Pelte, pel'teh, [Lat. PEL-
TA'NUS.J (THEODORE ANTOINE,) a Flemish Jesuit, born
at Pelte. He wrote a " Commentary on the Book of
Proverbs," and other works. Died in 1584.
Peltaiius. See PKI.TAN.
Peltier, pei'tt>a/, o'- Pelletier, (JEAN GABRIEL,) a
French journalist, born at Nantes, lie began to issue
in London, in 1800, " L'Ambigu," in which he attacked
Bonaparte with virulence, lie was tried for libel in
1803, was defended in a famous speech by Sir James
Mackintosh, and was sentenced to pay a small fine.
Died in Paris in 1825.
Peluse, de, COMTE. See MONGE.
Felzel, pelt'sel, (FKANS MARTIN,) a Bohemian his
torian, born at Reichenau in 1735, wrote a "History
of Bohemia," (1774,) and other works. Died in 1801.
Pem'ber-toii, (EBENEZER,) an able American divine,
born about 1672, preached in Boston. Died in 1717.
Pembertoii, ( EBENEXER, ) LL.D., an American
teacher, born in 1746. He was tutor at Princeton Col
lege, and at Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts.
Died in Boston in 1835.
Fem'ber-ton, (HENRY,) an English chemist, anat
omist, and geometer, born in London in 1694, was a
pupil and friend of Boerhaave. He became a professor
of physic in Gresham College, (Oxford,) where he gave
lectures on chemistry, (published in 1771.) Among his
works are a " View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy,"
(1728,) and " Lectures on Physiology," (1733.) lie
edited Newton's " Principia," (1726.) Died in 1771.
Pembertoii, (JoiiN C.,) an American general, born
in Pennsylvania about 1818, graduated at West Point
in 1837. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) be
came a captain, and resigned his commission in April,
1861. Having taken arms against the Union, he ob
tained the rank of lieutenant-general, and commanded
at Vicksburg during the long siege of that place. He
was defeated by General Grant at Champion Hill, May
16, and retired to Vicksburg, which he surrendered, with
more than 25,000 prisoners, on the 4th of July, 1863.
Pemble, pem'bel, (Wll.LiAM,) a learned English Cal-
vinistic minister, born in Kent about 1590. He was an
able preacher and linguist. His works were published
in 1635. Died in 1623.
Pembroke, (ANNE,) COUNTESS OF. See CLIFFORD.
Pembroke, EARL OF. See HERBERT.
Pembroke, (MARY,) COUNTESS OF. See SIDNEY,
(MARY.)
Pembroke, pern 'brook, ( THOMAS,) an English
painter, born in 1702; died in 1730.
Pena, peh-na', ( PIERRE,) a French botanist of the
sixteenth century, was born at Narbonne, or in the
diocese of Aix. He was intimate with Lobel, to whom
he furnished materials for his work.
Feiialosa, de, da pan-ya-lo'sa, ( Don JUAN,) a Spanish
painter, born at Baeza in 1581 ; died in 1636.
Pe-iia'tes, [Fr. PENATES, pa'nit',] the household
gods of the Romans, so called, probably, because their
images were kept in the penetralia, the innermost part
or centre of the house. The number of these gods or
genii was indefinite. The Lares were included among
the Penates, and were sometimes represented as iden
tical with them. Vesta was regarded as one of the
Penates, which, according to some authors, were per
sonifications of the powers of nature.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, <>bseure; far, fall, fat: met: nit; good: moor.;
PEN4UD
PENN
Penaud, peh-no', (CHARI.KS,) a French rear-admiral,
born in 1800, commanded the squadron which operated
against Russia in the Baltic in 1855. Died in 1864.
Peiicz or Pentz, pe"nts, written also Pens and Feins,
(GuKGOR,) a German painter and engraver, was born
at Nuremberg about 1500. Among his master-pieces
are a "Crucifixion," in the gallery at Augsburg, and a
"Judith," in the Pinakothek at Munich. His engravings
are numerous and of great merit. Died about 1554.
Pen'der, (Wn.i.iAM D.,) an American general, born
in North Carolina, graduated at West Point about 1854.
He commanded a division of General Lee's army at the
battle of Gettysburg, where he was killed, July 3, 1863.
Pendleton, pen'del-tpn, (EDMUND,) an eminent
American statesman and judge, born in Virginia in 1721.
He was elected to the General Congress in 1774 and in
1775. In 1776 he was president of the Virginia Con
vention, and was the author of the resolutions by which
that body instructed their delegates in Congress to vote
for a declaration of independence. lie was appointed
presiding judge of the court of appeals about 1779. He
was president of the convention which met in Virginia
in 1788 to consider the new Constitution of the United
States, and he advocated the adoption of the same. His
ability as a debater was highly extolled by Thomas
Jefferson. Died at Richmond in 1803.
Pendleton, (GnoRGE H.,) an American politician, a
son of Nathaniel Greene Pendleton, formerly a member
of Congress, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in July, 1825.
He became a lawyer, and was elected a member of the
Senate of Ohio in 1854. He represented the first dis
trict of Ohio in the National House of Representatives
from December, 1857, till March, 1865. He acted in
Congress with the Democrats who opposed the coercion
of the secessionists, and was nominated as candidate for
Vice-President of the United States by the Democratic
Convention in August, 1864. He received twenty-one
electoral votes out of two hundred and thirty-three,
which was the whole number. About 1867 he began to
advocate the payment of the public debt in paper money,
— "greenbacks." As a candidate for the Presidency he
received, at the National Democratic Convention, July
8, 1868, one hundred and fifty-six and one-half votes out
of three hundred and seventeen, on the eighth ballot.
He was the Democratic candidate for Governor of Ohio
in 1869, but was not elected.
Pendleton, (HENRY,) an American jurist, and resi
dent of South Carolina, was one of the judges appointed
to make a digest of the laws of that State. Died in 1788.
Pene, de.deh pin, (HENRI,) a French litterateur, born
in Paris in 1830. He wrote for the " Figaro," and
offended the military by some remarks, for which he was
challenged by several subaltern officers in succession,
(1858.) In the second duel he was desperately wounded,
so that for a time he was not expected to live.
Pe-nel'o-pe, [Gr. Yli/re/M-rj or Hn'f/M~r/ ; Fr. PENE-
I.OPK, pi'na'lop',] the wife of Ulysses, King of Ithaca, and
a cousin of Helen, was renowned for conjugal fidelity.
During the long absence of her husband she evaded
the importunity of her suitors by a promise to decide
which she would accept when she had finished a shroud
for the aged Laertes. She ravelled at night what she
had woven by day, and thus postponed the decision
until the return of Ulysses. She was the mother of
Telemachus.
Penguilly 1'Haridon, de, deh pSx'ge'ye' It're'doN',
(OCTAVE,) a French painter, born in Paris in 1811.
Penhouet, peh-noc/a', (ARMAND Louis BON M.\u-
DKT,) a French antiquary, born in Bretagne in 1764.
He wrote " Researches on Bretagne," (1814,) and other
works. Died in 1839.
Penicaud, pa'ne'kS', (PIERRE,) a French enameller
and painter on glass, born in 1515, worked at Limoges.
He was an able artist.
Peii'ing-ton, (ISAAC,) an eminent minister of the
Society of Friends, was born about 1618. His father
was lord mayor of London and a member of the Long
Parliament. He married Mary, the widow of Sir Wil
liam Springett, (whose daughter became the wife of
William Perm,) and resided at dial font, Bucks. During
the reign of Charles II. he was imprisoned six times
for his religious principles. " He grew rich and fruitful
in all heavenly treasure," says William Penn, — "full of
love, faith, mercy, patience, and long-suffering. Insomuch
that I may say he was one of a thousand; zealous, yet
tender, wise, yet humble. . . . One that ever loved power
and life more than words." Died in 1679. He left "Let
ters" and other writings, which are highly prized.
See "The Penns and Peningtoni of the Seventeenth Century,"
by MARIA WEBB, London, 1867.
Penn, (GRANVILI.E,) an English author, born in Phila
delphia in 1761, was a son of Thomas Penn, and a
grandson of William Penn. He was a clerk in the
British war office. Among his works are "Remarks
on the Eastern Origin of Mankind and of the Arts of
Cultivated Life," and a "Life of Admiral Penn,"
(1833.) Died in 1844.
Penn, (foiiN,) an American patriot, and a signer of
the Declaration of Independence, was born in Caroline
county, Virginia, in 1741. Having removed in 1774 to
North Carolina, he was elected in 1775 to the Conti
nental Congress. Died in 1788.
Penn, (Sir WILLIAM,) an able English admiral, father
of William Penn, was born at Bristol in 1621. He
became a rear-admiral about 1644, obtained the rank
of admiral in 1653, and commanded the fleet which
co-operated with Venables in the capture of Jamaica
from the Spaniards in 1655. He promoted the restora
tion of Charles II. In 1660 he was appointed governor
of Kinsale. He was commander-in-chief, under the
Duke of York, of the fleet which gained a victory over
the Dutch in 1665. He retired from the service in 1669,
and died at Wanstead, Essex, in 1670.
See GRANVII.I.E PENN, " Memorials of the Life of Admiral Sir
William Penn," 1833.
Penn, (WILLIAM,) the founder of Pennsylvania, and
one of the most illustrious of Christian philanthropists,
was born in London on the 141)1 of October, 1644. He
was the eldest son of Captain (afterwards Admiral) Penn
and Margaret, the daughter of John Jasper, a merchant
of Rotterdam. At an early age he was sent to the Chig-
well School, in Essex. While here, before he was eleven
years old, his mind was deeply impressed with the im
portance of religion, and he believed that he was even
then divinely called to consecrate his life to the service
of God. When about fifteen, he was sent to Christ
Church, Oxford, where he became acquainted with John
Locke, afterwards so distinguished as the author of the
" Essay on the Human Understanding." While at the
university, Penn appears to have applied himself dili
gently to his studies, and to have made rapid progress
not only in the classics but likewise in several of the
modern languages. He is said also to have devoted
much of his attention to theology and history. Nor did
he neglect the cultivation of his physical powers. With
a handsome person, in which were united strength and
grace, he appears to have been well fitted to excel in
those out-door exercises which were then and are still
in vogue among the students of Oxford. He was, we
are told, a skilful boatman as well as an adventurous
sportsman. But, while he was thus applying himself
with youthful zeal to the pursuits deemed appropriate to
young gentlemen of his condition, a new influence arose,
which was destined to change entirely the current of his
future life. Thomas Loe, who had formerly belonged
to the university, but now one of the new sect of Friends
or Quakers, preached at Oxford. The views which he
promulgated made a powerful impression on the mind
of Penn. He, with several other students who had
beheld with displeasure the recent attempt to intro
duce into the university certain forms and observances
which they considered to be little better than papistical
mummeries, absented themselves from the established
worship, and began to hold meetings among themselves,
conducting their devotional exercises in their own way.
Thereupon they were fined by the heads of the college
for nonconformity ; but this, 'instead of deterring them
from the course they had taken, only added fuel to their
zeal. It happened soon after that an order came down
from the king that the surplice should be worn by the
students, according to the custom of former times. This
so exasperated some of them, among whom Penn appears
is A-: c as s; g hard: g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
I I I
ee Explanations, p. 23.)
PENN
1762
PENN
to have taken a leading part, that they not only refused
to wear the surplice themselves, but, falling upon those
who appeared in surplices, they forcibly tore off from
them the offensive badge. For this flagrant and open
violation of the laws of the university, Penn and sev
eral of his associates were expelled.
This disgrace was a bitter mortification to the admiral,
a worldly and ambitious man, who had built the greatest
hopes on his eldest and favourite son. When William
returned home, his father received him with cold and
stern disapprobation. His son, although for the time
carried away with a fanatical zeal, was perfectly sincere,
and, finding his conduct not disapproved by some men
of note who were jealous of what they considered the
encroachments of popery, would not admit that he had
done wrong in resisting the authority of the king with
respect to the surplice. His father, having tried in vain
to reclaim him by argument, proceeded next, like one
accustomed to arbitrary power, to blows, and at last, it
is said, turned him out-of-doors. It was not long, how
ever, before the admiral, who really loved his son and
was proud of his abilities, began to relent ; and at the
intercession of his mother, au amiable and excellent
woman, William was forgiven and recalled.
With a view to dissipate his son's religious impres
sions, the admiral at length resolved to send him to
France, in company with some other young gentlemen of
rank who were about to set out on a tour across the con
tinent. At Paris he was introduced to a brilliant circle,
including some of the most distinguished young noble
men of England, and was presented to the king, Louis
XIV., at whose court he is said to have been a frequent
and welcome guest. During his stay in the French
capital, as he was returning one night from a party, a
man, who seems to have been a total stranger, under
some imaginary affront, drew his rapier upon him, and,
in an angry tone, bade him defend himself. Penn expos
tulated with him, but in vain ; so that at last, to protect
himself, he was fain to use his sword. His hot-headed
antagonist was quickly disarmed ; but, instead of taking
any advantage of his vanquished foeman, he courteously
returned him his rapier, much to the surprise, it appears,
of the bystanders, who naturally enough supposed that
he would have used the opportunity thus afforded to
take ample revenge upon one who had so causelessly
attacked him.
After leaving Paris he spent several months at Saumur,
reading the works of the Fathers and studying theology
under the instruction of Moses Amyrault, one of the
ablest and most learned of the French Protestant di
vines. He afterwards commenced a tour through Italy,
but on reaching Turin he received a letter from his
father, recalling him to England, that he might take
charge of the affairs of the family while the admiral was
engaged abroad in the war against Holland. The ap
pearance of young Penn on his return from his conti
nental tour was well calculated to fill a father's heart
with joy and pride. He had grown into a tall, graceful,
and handsome man, with a countenance of singular gen
tleness and sweetness, yet expressing both intelligence
and resolution. His sojourn in the gayest and most
brilliant capital of Europe appears to have completely
effaced those serious impressions which, in his father's
judgment, were so unsuited to a youth of his rank and
accomplishments. All the hopes which the admiral
had formerly cherished of the future distinction of his
son were now revived. That his son might not relapse
into his former seriousness, he resolved to keep him
constantly employed. With this view, he had him entered
.at Lincoln's Inn as a student of law.
In the early part of 1665, Admiral Penn, accompanied
by the Duke of York, then lord high admiral of Eng
land, gained a decisive victory over the Dutch, com
manded by Admiral Opdam. The duke had the good
sense to intrust all the important movements of the
•fleet to the direction of Admiral Penn, who had the title
of Great Captain Commander. The plague having broken
out in London, it appears to have affected William Penn,
as it did thousands of others, and to have awakened in
his mind the most serious thoughts. His father, fearing
lest he should lose the fruit of all his former care,
resolved to send his son with letters to the gay and
brilliant court of the Duke of Ormond, Viceroy of Ire
land, with whom Admiral Penn was on terms of intimate
friendship. Soon after his son's arrival, a mutiny occurred
among the troops at Carrickfergus. Penn volunteered his
services in reducing them to obedience, and, in the siege
that followed, won by his courage and coolness general
applause; and the viceroy himself wrote to the admiral,
expressing his great satisfaction with young Perm's con
duct, at the same time proposing that he should join the
army. He himself was at first so much elated by the
distinction he had acquired, that he resolved to become
a soldier, and, under the influence of this new ambition,
caused himself to be painted in military costume. "It
is," says Dixon, "a curious fact that the only genuine
portrait of the great apostle of peace existing represents
him armed and accoutred as a soldier." The admiral,
however, disapproving his son's project, sent him to
take charge of the large estates which he possessed in
the south of Ireland. While on business at Cork, Wil
liam Penn had an opportunity of again hearing Thomas
Loe, by whose preaching he had been so strongly im
pressed some years before. His early convictions were
revived; and from that time he felt it to be his impera
tive duty, in defiance of ridicule and persecution, to
join his lot with the despised Quakers. Being at a
meeting at Cork in 1667, he was arrested, with several
other Quakers, and taken to prison. While here, he
wrote to the Earl of Orrery, setting forth the injustice
of his imprisonment and advocating universal toleration
in faith and worship. On receiving his letter, Lord Or
rery gave an order for his immediate release. A rumour
that Penn had become a Quaker reached his father. He
immediately ordered him home. When the admiral, on
seeing his son, observed that he was still dressed like a
gentleman, that he wore lace, plume, and rapier, he felt
reassured, and began to hope that he had been misin
formed. But these hopes were soon dispelled. His son
candidly acknowledged to him that his religious convic
tions had undergone a radical change, and that he was
now a Quaker. The disappointment and vexation of the
admiral were extreme. Yet, in the hope of winning
back his son, he made use of every argument, and even
condescended to entreat and implore ; but all in vain.
The refusal of his son to uncover in the presence of his
superiors in rank was especially mortifying to him.* Al
though his arguments and entreaties had proved alike
unavailing, he was unwilling to abandon all hope. As a
last resort, he proposed a compromise : he would yield
to the scruples and wishes of his son in every other re
spect, if the latter would only consent to take off his hat
in his father's presence and in that of the king and the
Duke of York. William asked time to consider this
proposition. After some time spent in reflection and
earnest prayer, he announced to his father that he was
unable to comply with his wishes. Thereupon the in
dignant admiral again expelled him from the house. For
some months he was dependent upon the hospitality of
his friends, and upon such pecuniary aid as his mother
could from time to time find an opportunity of sending
him. At length his father relented so far as to allow
him to return home ; but he still refused to see or hold
any intercourse with him. About this time (1668) Wil
liam Penn first began to preach and to write in defence
of the new doctrines which he had embraced. His first
work, entitled "Truth Exalted," was addressed to kings,
priests, and people, whom he earnestly exhorted to ic-
examine the foundation of their faith and worship, and
to inquire how far they were built upon the authority of
God, or whether they did not rest in a great measure on
the mere notions of men. A number of publications,
mostly controversial, followed. One of these, entitled
"The Sandy Foundation Shaken," attracted much at
tention. Pepys considered it too good to be the pro
duction of so young a man. In this work Penn had
attempted, among other things, to refute "the Notion
of one God subsisting in three distinct and separate
Persons." For this "heresy" he was apprehended and
* For a brief explanation of the views of the Quakers with respect
to taking off the liat, and some other of their prominent peculiarities,
see the article on GEORGE Fox.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
PENN
1763
PENN
sent to the Tower, where he was kept in solitary con
finement for more than eight months. While in the
Tower, a report reached him that the Bishop of London
had resolved that he should recant, or die in prison.
Penn replied, with the spirit of a martyr and a hero,
" that his prison should be his grave before he would re
nounce his just opinions ; for that he owed his conscience
to no man." During his confinement in the Tower he
composed " No Cross, No Crown," perhaps the most
popular of all his larger works. He also wrote to Lord
Arlington, then principal secretary of state, on the in
justice and absurdity of attempting to coerce men's
religious opinions. Learning that the views advanced
in his "Sandy Foundation Shaken" had been misrepre
sented, he wrote " Innocency with her Open Face," in
which he showed that to deny the existence in the God
head of " three DISTINCT and SKPARATK persons" did
net necessarily involve a denial of Christ's eternal
divinity, which he acknowledged to the fullest extent.
In this Penn took substantially the same ground as was
afterwards taken by Barclay and many other of the lead
ing Quakers. They felt that in speaking of the great
and awful mysteries of the Divine nature there was a
sort of presumption in going beyond the words of the
Holy Scriptures. They accordingly rejected the term
"Trinity," as not found in the Scriptures, and, on still
stronger grounds, as they conceived, they refused to
accept the doctrine of "three distinct and separate
persons" in the Godhead, as being neither expressed
nor necessarily implied in the language of inspiration.
The manly behaviour of his son while in prison ap
pears to have strongly excited the respect and sympathy
of the admiral. He used his influence at court, and,
after a time, William Penn was set at liberty.
In 1669, at the desire of his father, who intimated his
wishes to his son through Lady Penn, William went
again to Ireland, to take charge of the estates belonging
to the admiral in that island. He remained there about
eight months, when he was recalled on account of his •
father's failing health. His sister Margaret had been
married, and his younger brother Richard was then
travelling in Italy. Feeling that his days were drawing
to a close, the admiral was anxious to be reconciled to
his eldest son, who appears, before the recent disagree- j
ment, to have always been his favourite. As soon as I
William returned to England, the reconciliation took |
place, to the joy of all parties, especially of his mother, j
In August of the same year, William Penn preached at
a meeting in Grace Church Street, where he and William
Mead were arrested by warrants from the mayor of Lon
don. "The trial which followed was," says Dixon,!
" perhaps the most important trial that ever took place :
in England. Penn stood before his judges, in this cele- ;
brated scene, not so much as a Quaker pleading for the
rights of conscience, as an Englishman contending for j
the ancient and imprescriptible liberties of his race." j
The jury having brought in a verdict favourable to the !
prisoners, the recorder said they should be locked up, j
without meat, drink, fire, and tobacco, "till we have a j
verdict the court will accept, — or you shall starve for it." :
Though repeatedly menaced with starvation and other \
cruelties, such as slitting their noses, (a barbarous but |
not uncommon punishment for offenders in those days,)
the jury still persisted in their verdict. They were kept
for two days and nights without food, drink, or fire ; but
this, as well as the threats of the court, proving in
effectual, they were at last fined for their obstinacy, and,
on refusing to pay their fines, were sent to prison. " For
centuries," says Dixon, "it had remained an unsettled
question of law, whether the jury had or had not a right
so far to exercise its own discretion as to bring in a ver
dict contrary to the sense of the court." This important
question was now to be decided. Bushel and his fellow-
jurors, at Penn's suggestion, brought an action against
the mayor and recorder for unjust imprisonment. The
case was brought before the court of common pleas, con
sisting of twelve judges, and decided ail-but unanimously
in favour of the jurymen, who were accordingly set at j
liberty and left their prison in triumph. Although Penn j
and Mead had been declared not guilty by the verdict j
of the jury, yet they were still detained in prison, be- [
cause they refused to pay the fines which the mayor and
recorder had arbitrarily and most unjustly imposed on
them for contempt of court. At length, as the admiral,
from his increasing illness, became more and more anx
ious to have his son with him, he sent privately and paid
the fines both for him and his friend. He also sent a
dying request to the Duke of York that he would be a
friend to his son in the trials and sufferings to which,
while the persecuting laws of England continued in
force, he foresaw he would necessarily be exposed. On
his death-bed the admiral expressed entire satisfaction
with the course his son had pursued. He said to him,
among other things, " Let nothing in this world tempt
you to wrong your conscience. Have a care of sin : it
is that which is the sting both of life and death." On
his father's decease, William Penn came into the pos
session of an estate yielding an annual income of about
fifteen hundred pounds, a sum which was probably equal
to twice or three times the same numerical amount at the
present day. Rarely, if ever, has wealth fallen into better
hands. "There is abundant evidence," says Janney,
"that throughout life he made use of his wealth for the
benefit of others, rather than to promote his own ease
and indulgence."
The persecution against the Quakers continuing, Penn
published a number of books and tracts in vindication
of the peculiar views of the society, and in defence of
the great principle that in matters of faith men are ac
countable to Heaven only, and, provided their moral
conduct is blameless, no human government has a right
to inquire into or exercise any control over the religious
opinions of its subjects. The following are the titles of
some of the most important of these publications : " A
Seasonable Caveat against Popery," (1670,) "The Great
Case of Liberty of Conscience Debated and Defended,"
(1671,) "Truth Rescued from Imposture," (1671,) "The
Spirit of Truth Vindicated," (1672,) "Quakerism a New
Nickname for Old Christianity," etc., " England's Pres
ent Interest Considered," (1674,) — a most able work in
defence of freedom of conscience and the rights of Eng
lishmen. Several of his smaller works, as well as "The
Great Case of Liberty of Conscience," were written
while he was imprisoned in Newgate in 1671. In 1672,
when Penn was in his twenty-eighth year, he married
Gulielma Maria Springett, daughter of Sir William
Springett, who as a colonel had greatly distinguished
himself in the service of the Parliament, and who died
during the civil wars, at the early age of twenty-three.
His widow was afterwards married to Isaac Penington,
one of the most prominent of the early Quakers. In
1677, William Penn, accompanied by Robert Barclay and
others, made a journey into Holland and Germany, and
visited the princess Elizabeth of the Rhine, the grand
daughter of James I. and sister of the famous Prince
Rupert. She received them with great kindness. Hav
ing previously met with Penn, she was not unacquainted
with the religious views of the Quakers, which she
appears to have regarded with much favour.
Penn did not think that it was the duty of a Christian
to withdraw himself wholly from public affairs, but rather
to strive in every way to promote the freedom, enlight
enment, and happiness of mankind. The true friends
of liberty everywhere found in him a sympathizer and a
friend. A little previous to the election of 1679, when
the celebrated Algernon Sidney offered himself as a
candidate for Parliament, Penn issued a pamphlet show
ing the importance of electing to the great legislative
body of the kingdom wise men and such as feared God
and hated covetousness. He not only felt the deepest
interest, but he himself bore a very active part, in the
canvass for Sidney, the representative and devoted
champion of political freedom. Sidney was triumph
antly elected, in spite of much unfair opposition. But
soon after the assembling of the new Parliament it was
dissolved by the king, and another election became
necessary. Sidney was again duly returned, but he was
prevented from taking his place in Parliament by the
intrigues of the royalist party. It was a bitter disap
pointment to Penn ; but. in proportion as he lost hope of
freedom in England, he bent his thoughts more earnestly
towards realizing the dream of his youth, — the founding
€ as k: 9 as s; g-hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural: N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (2^^"See Explanations, p. 23.)
PENN
1764
PENN
of a new and more perfect commonwealth amid the
forests of North America. In 1675 'ie 'la<^ ''een chosen
umpire to settle a dispute between Edward Byllinge and
John Fenwick (both Quakers) respecting their claim
to a tract of land known as West Jersey. He decided
in favour of Byllinge ; but the latter, having become
much embarrassed in his affairs, in order to satisfy h
creditors gave up to them his interest in the territory.
At the earnest solicitation of Byllinge, Penn was asso
ciated with the creditors as a joint trustee. Within the
next two or three years several vessels came to West
Jersey, with about eight hundred emigrants, of whom the
greater number were Quakers. Through the influence
of Penn there was adopted a very liberal constitution,
among the provisions of which were the right of free
worship and the right of the people (with only very slight
restrictions) to legislate for themselves. There was to
be no imprisonment for debt : the property of the debtor
being given up to his creditors, he himself was to go
free. Penn had inherited from his father a claim against
the government of ^16,000. In 1680 he obtained from
the king, in payment of that claim, an extensive tract of
land immediately west of the river Delaware and north
of Maryland. In the patent given by the king the name
"Pennsylvania," contrary to Penn's wishes, was applied
to the territory. He had previously suggested Sylvattia,
on account of its being then a land of forests. Penn
offered twenty guineas to one of the secretaries to have
the name changed, but he was refused. He even applied
to the king; "for," says he, " I feared lest it should be
looked on as a vanity in me." But the king said it
should remain as it was, the Penn having been added
in honour of the admiral. The patent conferred upon
the people and governor a legislative power, so that
no law could be made nor money raised without the
people's consent, and they could pass what laws they
pleased, provided they did not interfere with the
allegiance which all the colonies owed to the crown.
Aided by the counsels of Algernon Sidney and others,
he drew up a masterly scheme cf government, the wis
dom of which has been amply vindicated by the expe
rience of two hundred years. The constitution which
Penn gave to his colony will compare advantageously
not merely with the plan of government formed by Locke
for Carolina, but with any of the systems of the wisest
lawgivers that have ever lived. "To understand," says
Di.xon, " how much Penn was wiser than his age, . . .
he must be measured not only against unlettered men
like Fox, but against the highest types of learning and
liberality which it afforded. Between John Locke and
William Penn there is a gulf like that which separates
the seventeenth and the nineteenth century. Locke
never escaped from the thraldom of local ideas."
About the beginning of September, 1682, Penn set sail
in the ship Welcome, and on the 271)1 of October cast
anchor in Delaware Bay, off New Castle. He was re
ceived by the inhabitants of that town with the greatest
enthusiasm. Soon after he proceeded to the site of
Philadelphia, then covered for the most part with lofty
trees. About the end of November, 1682, was held the
famous treaty with the Indians, under a magnificent
elm-tree, in what is now Kensington. Of this treaty,
Voltaire says it was "the only league between the abo
rigines and the Christians which was never sworn to
and never broken."
Referring the reader to other works for a more particu
lar account of the early colony, we shall for the future
confine ourselves chiefly to the personal history of Penn.
In 1684, having committed the government to the provin
cial council, he embarked for England, leaving behind
him in the colony a white population of about 7000 per
sons. He set sail on the I2th of August, and on the 6th
of October landed in Sussex, within seven miles of his own
house, after an absence from his family of rather more
than two years. He soon after visited the king and the
Duke of York, by both of whom, he says, he was received
very graciously. The first use he made of his influence
at court was to intercede for the persecuted Quakers,
against whom the recent oppressive enactments were at
that time enforced with a merciless rigour. Their con
scientious scruples against swearing exposed them to
peculiar hardships. When evil-disposed persons charged
them with being disaffected to the government, they
might in many instances have delivered themselves from
the hands of their persecutors by simply taking the oath
of allegiance and supremacy ; but this their religious
convictions would not permit them to do.
It is scarcely necessary here to do more than allude to
the charges made by Macaulay against the character of
Penn, as those charges have already been completely
and unanswerably refuted,* and are now rejected by all
candid and intelligent persons who have taken the trou
ble to give them a careful examination. But another
accusation, scarcely less formidable, though somewh.it
vague, has found supporters among men of great intel
ligence and respectability, — namely, that the fact that
Penn enjoyed such favour with fames II., and that he
continued at court after he had every opportunity of
knowing the character of that monarch, proves him to
have been either lax in principle or deficient in the firm
ness of true virtue. If this reasoning be correct, then
we ought to applaud the conduct of the early Christian
ascetics, who held that the Ijest mode of preserving
one's soul unspotted and preparing it for heaven, was to
abandon all intercourse with a corrupt world. But the
most virtuous and enlightened men of modern times
have usually taught a very different doctrine, — that they
who, without partaking of its sins, mingle with the world
for the purpose of reforming it, are far more praise
worthy than those who, leaving it to its fate, seek shelter
for their feeble virtue in inactivity and selfish seclusion.
If it shall be clearly shown that while at court Penn was
guilty of a single act inconsistent with the character of
an honest man and a true lover of his country, we shall
then be prepared to abandon his defence ; but if the
whole charge against him limits itself simply to this,
that he had favour and influence with a corrupt and
tyrannical monarch, when it is well known that he often
exerted that influence successfully to restrain the injus
tice, or to soften the severity, of fames, and when there
is not a shadow of evidence that he ever, even in a soli
tary instance, exerted it for any unworthy purpose, — if
this, we repeat, be the whole extent of the charge against
him, we cannot but regard such an accusation as con
ferring on the accused the highest honour.
It should be remembered that Admiral Penn had
made a dying request to the Duke of York (afterwards
James II.) that he would be a friend and protector to
his son. It is but just to say that fames, who seems to
have cherished the warmest regard for the admiral, not
only never forgot his friend's request, but appears to
have observed it with the most scrupulous fidelity. It
was but natural that William Penn should be sincerely
attached to a prince who had been his father's friend
nnd was to him a generous and faithful guardian. He
doubtless gave James far more credit for liberality and
sincerity than he deserved. But his gratitude and affec
tion towards a bigoted and, in some respects, an un
scrupulous prince, appears never for a single moment
to have warped him from the path of rectitude.
It would have been indeed wonderful if, in the vio
lent party excitements of those times, his character had
wholly escaped suspicion and calumny. But the various
charges made against him are found, on examination, to
be unsupported by a particle of real evidence. To have
absented himself from court at that time, when it was
in his power to do so much, not only for his persecuted
brethren, but for all, of whatever name, who suffered
from unjust laws or from the unjust suspicions of the
government, would have been a most culpable abandon
ment of duty. Yet the fact that he did not thus absent
himself has been the principal, if not the only, ground
:>f all the charges which the envious or the misinformed
have circulated against him. During the reign of Charles
II., Penn obtained for himself and his friends many
ravours from his sovereign through the mediation of the
* For the correctness of this statement, we confidently appeal to all
who have dispassionately and attentively read the evidence in the
case. See. on this subject, DIXON'S "Life of Penn;" W. E. FOR-
STER'S " William Penn and Thomas Babington Macaulay," 1850; J.
PAGKT'S " New Examen," London, 1861 ; and the " Quarterly Re-
'ew" for April, 1868.
a, e, T, o, n, y, 'wig: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a. e, T, o.xi, y, short: a, e, i, o. obscure; far, fill, fit; m&t; not; good; moon;
PENN
PENT HE US
Duke of York ; but after the accession of James IF. his
influence at court became very great. He removed his
residence to Holland House, at Kensington. "His in
fluence with the king," says Dixon, "was well known,
and every man with a real grievance found in him a coun
sellor and a friend.'1'' " If any fault," says the same writer,
in another place, "can be found with his conduct, it is
that his charity was a little too universal, a little too
indiscriminate." As his sympathies were chiefly with
the liberal party, he had often occasion to intercede for
mercy or indulgence to those who were regarded by the
king as his most determined enemies. And, though he
often failed in obtaining his request, he appears never to
have omitted an opportunity of interceding when there
was the slightest chance of success. He sometimes
excited the violent anger of James by his zeal in behalf
of the friends of liberty.* But nothing could deter him
from exercising that influence with his sovereign which
he believed Providence had given him for the most im
portant ends, — the promotion of justice and mercy.
In 1686, chiefly through Penn's influence, a proclama
tion was issued by which more than twelve hundred im
prisoned Quakers were set at liberty. Another proclama
tion in 1687 gave liberty of conscience to all, unrestricted
by any tests or penalties. After the accession of William
HI., in 1688, Penn, having incurred suspicion on account
of his intimacy with James, was tried before the royal
council for treason ; but, no evidence being found against
him, he was discharged. He was subsequently tried for
conspiracy, and was again honourably acquitted. In the
early part of 1694 he lost his wife Gulielma ; about two
years after he married, as his second wife, Hannah Cal-
lowhill. In 1696 his eldest son, Springett Penn, died
of consumption. He made in 1699 a second visit to
America. But, learning not long after his arrival in the
colony that there was a measure before the House of
Lords for bringing all the proprietary governments under
the crown, he returned to England in 1701. Happily,
the obnoxious measure was soon after abandoned.
In consequence of the bad management and dishonesty
of some of the agents to whom he had intrusted the
care of his property, he sustained great losses, and be
came so involved as to be unable to pay the claims of
his creditors. He preferred to go to prison rather than
attempt to satisfy certain unjust and extortionate claims
which the very agent who had mismanaged his affairs
brought against him. By the intervention of some of
his friends, a compromise was effected, and he was at
length released. It was a great sorrow to him in his
latter years that, although he had never spared himself
or his means to promote the interests of his colony,
when he desired of the colonial legislature a moderate
loan to relieve him from his difficulties it was refused.
Worn out at length with the incessant labours and cares
of a life spent almost wholly in the service of others, he
died, from the effects of paralysis, in 1718.
For a full account of William Penn's writings, and of
those which relate to him, see Joseph Smith's " Cata
logue of Friends' Books," vol. ii. pp. 282-326.
See W. HEPJVORTU DIXON, " Biographical History of William
Penn," 1X51 ; S. TANNF.Y. " Life of William Penn," i vol. 8vo, 1^52;
T. CI.ARKSON, "Life of William Penn," 2 vols. 8vo, 1813; J. MAR
SH. I. AC. "Vie de G. Penn," 2 vols., 1791: H. VAN Lit, " Leven,
C.evoelens en Lotgevallen van W. Penn," 2 vols.. 1826 ; JACOB POST,
•• Popular Memoir of W. Penn." iS5oLM. L. WEKMS, "Life of W.
Penn." 1829; W. A TELLER. " Lebensbeschreibung des beriihmten
W. Penn," 1779; " Westminster Review" for October, 1850, (article
" William Penn and Lord Macaulav ;") " The Penn and Locan Cor
respondence," published by the Pennsylvania Historical Society,
1870.
Pen'iiaut, (THOMAS,) an English naturalist and an
tiquary, born at Downing, in Flintshire, in 1726. He
published in 1761 the first volume of a large work on
British Zoology, which was translated into Latin and
German and oficn reprinted. A tour on the continent
in 1765 procured for him the acquaintance of Buffon,
Haller, and Pallas. In 1771 he published a "Synopsis
of Quadrupeds," an enlarged edition of which appeared
in 1781 as a " History of Quadrupeds." This work was
described byCuvier, about 1823, as "still indispensable."
Among his other works are the " Genera of Birds,"
* For a curious instance of this kind, see Dixox's" Life of Penn,"
PP. 230-40.
(1773, unfinished,) a "Second Tour in Scotland and a
Voyage to the Hebrides," (2 vols., 1774-76,) and "Arctic
Zoology," (3 vols., 1784-87,) which Cuvier commends
as precieux to naturalists. Died in 1798.
See "The Literary Life of T. Pennant." by himself, 1793; CI'VIER,
" Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" '' Monthly Review" for January
and February, 1772, and September and October, 1801.
Fennecuik or Pennicuick, pen'ne-kuk', ? (ALEX
ANDER,) a Scottish physician and writer on various
subjects, born in 1652 ; died in 1722.
Pennefather, pen'fa-ther, ? (Sir JOHN LYSAGHT,) a
British general, born in 1800. He served with distinc
tion as brigadier in India in 1843. I" tne Crimean war
he commanded a brigade at the Alma, and a division at
Inkerman, November, 1854.
Pennethorne, p§n'thorn, ? (JAMES,) an English archi
tect, born at Worcester in 1801, was a pupil of Nash
and Pugin. He designed many public buildings of
London, among which are the Museum of Practical
Geology, the General Record Repository, and an ad
dition to Somerset House. He was appointed, several
years since, architect and surveyor of her Majesty's
parks, palaces, etc.
Pennethorne, (JOHN,) a younger brother of the pre
ceding. He studied the principles of Grecian architecture
at Athens, and wrote a small work on "The Elements
and Mathematical Principles of the Greek Architects,"
(1844.)
Penni, pen'nee, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) a celebrated
Italian painter, surnamed II. FA'ITORE, ("the Steward,'")
was born at Florence in 1488. He was in his youth the
steward of Raphael, who was his friend. He aided Ra
phael in painting the cartoons of the Vatican, and, after
the death of his master, he and Giulio Romano finished
a " Coronation of the Virgin," designed by Raphael. He
excelled in landscapes. Died at Naples in 1528.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, "History of
Painting in Italy."
Penni, (LuCA,) a painter and engraver, a brother of
the preceding, was born at Florence about 1500. He
worked for Henry VIII. in England, and with II Rosso
in Paris.
Pennington. See PENINGTON.
Pen'ning-ton, (Wn.LiAM,) an American Governor,
born at Newark, New Jersey, in 1797. He was elected
Governor of New Jersey in 1837, and re-elected four or
five times between that year and 1843. He became a
member of Congress in December, 1859, and, after a
long contest, was elected Speaker of the House by the
Republicans in February, 1860. Died in February, 1862.
Fen'iiy, (EDWARD,) an English portrait-painter, born
in Cheshire in 1714. He was a professor in the Royal
Academy. Died in 1791.
Pen'rose, (THOMAS,) an English poet, born in Berk
shire in 1743. He was successively curate of Newbury
and rector of Beckington. Died in 1779. His poems
were published in 1781.
Pen-rud'dock, (JoiiN,) COLONEL, an English royal
ist, was one of the leaders of an insurrection against
Cromwell in 1655. He was beheaded in the same year.
Pen'ry, Feii'ri, or Ap Heii'ry, (JuH.x,) a Welsh
religionist, called MARTIN MAR-PRKI.ATK, was born
in 1559. According to Anthony Wood, he became a
Brownist or Anabaptist, and wrote against the Anglican
Church a tract entitled "Martin Mar-l'relate." He was
unjustly condemned for sedition or felony, and executed,
in 1593.
See " John Penry, the Pilgrim Martyr," by J. WADDINGTON, 1854.
Penthee. See PEN THEUS.
Penthesilee._ See PKNTHESII.EIA.
Pen-the-si-le'ia or Pen-the-si-ie'a, [Gr. \1evfcoi-
teLa; Fr. PENTHE\SII.EK, p6.N'ta'/.e'la',| the queen of the
Amazons. According to some traditions, she fought
against the Greeks at the siege of Troy, and was killed
by Achilles, who admired too late her beauty and valour
and lamented her fate.
Peii'theus, [Gr. flevflet'c; Fr. PEN THEK, pftN'ti',] a
mythical person, said to be a son of Echion, and King of
Thebes. He was killed by his mother and other women
because he opposed the worship of Bacchus and ascended
a tree to witness furtively their revels and orgies.
e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 0; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
PENTHIEPRE
1766
PER CEYAL
Penthievre, de, cleh poN'te'£vR'.(Louis JEAN MARIE
BE BOURBON,) Due, a French nobleman, born in 1725,
was a son of the Count of Toulouse. He served as
general at Fontenoy, (I745-) He "'as noted for his libe
rality or benevolence. His daughter was the mother of
King Louis Philippe. Died in 1793.
Fenzel, pgnt'sel, (ABRAHAM JACOB,) a German phi
lologist, born near Dessau in 1749, was professor of
poetry at Laybach. He translated Strabo's "Geog
raphy" into German, (1777,) and wrote several treatises.
Died in 1819.
Fepagomenus. See DEMKTKIUS PEPAGOMENUS.
Pepe, pa'pa, (Fi.ORESTAN,) a Neapolitan general, born
at Squillace in 1780, entered the French service about
1806, served in Spain and Russia, and received the
rank of lieutenant-general from Murat in 1815. Died
at Naples in 1851.
Pepe, (GAURIELLO,) an Italian officer, cousin of the
preceding, was born in 1781. He served in the French
army during the empire. About 1822 he fought a duel
at Florence with Lamartine, who had offended him by
some verses which Pepe regarded as injurious to the
Italian people. Died in 1849.
Pepe, (GUGLIELMO,) a general, born in 1783, was a
brother of Florestan, noticed above. He joined the
French party in 1799, and obtained the rank of marechal-
de-camp in 1813. In 1820 he was chosen commander-
in-chief by the insurgents who rose against the King of
Naples. His army was defeated or dispersed by the
Austrians in 1821', and he escaped to England. In
1848 King Ferdinand, constrained by public opinion,
gave him command of an army sent to aid the people
of Lombardy. He wrote a " History of the Revo
lutions and Wars of Italy in 1847-49," (1850.) Died
in 1855.
Pepin. See PEPYN, (MARTIN.)
Pepin, pep'in or pip'in, [ Fr. pron. peli-pax',] a son
of Louis le Debonnaire, was born about 802 A.D., and
was made King of Aquitania about 817. He joined his
brothers Lothaire and Louis in a revolt against his father
in 830. He died in 838 A.n., leaving a son Pepin, who
contested the succession with Charles the Bald and was
defeated.
See " Nouvelle Biograpliie GaneVale."
Pepin, King of Italy, a son of Charlemagne, was born
in 776 A. I)., and crowned by the pope in 781. He died
in 810, leaving a son Bernard.
Pepin, peh-paN'', (Ai.PHONSE,) a French historical
and political writer, born in Paris. Among his works
is "Two Years of Rule," (" Deux Ans de Regne," 1830-
32.) Died in 1842.
Pepin le Bref, pen-pax' leh biief, King of the Franks,
was a son of Charles Martel, at whose death he obtained
Neustria and Burgundy. Having propitiated the favour
of the pope, he confined the nominal king, Childeric HI.,
in a monastery in 751 A.n., and usurped the throne. He
assisted the pope in a war against the Lombards, and
waged war with success against the Saxons. He died in
768 A.D., and was succeeded by his son, Charlemagne.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des FraiiQais ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Gene>a1e."
Pepin le Gros, peh-pa\' leh gRo, or Pepin d'He-
ristal, (di'res'tal',) an ambitious French nobleman, be
came Duke of Austrasia in the reign of Dagobert II.
About 680 A.D. he assumed royal power as mayor of
the palace, and defeated Thierri III., King of Neustria.
He permitted Thierri to retain the title of king, and
the latter was the first of a succession of rois faineants,
("do-nothing kings.") Pepin died in 714 A.D., and
was succeeded by his son, Charles Martel.
Pepoli, pa'po-lee or pgp'o-lee, (ALESSANDROERCOLE,)
an Italian litterateur, born at Venice in 1757. He pub
lished a number of dramas, or dramatic essays, entitled
" Efforts of Italy," ("Tentativi dell'Italia," 6 vols., 1788.)
Died in 1796.
Pepoli, (CARLO,) an Italian litterateur, born at Bologna
in 1801. He was exiled for political reasons, and was
professor of Italian literature in the London University
from 18^9 to 1848. He composed for Bellini the words
of " I Puritani," an opera, and wrote other works, in
prose and verse.
Fep'per-ell, (Sir WILLIAM,) an American general,
born in Maine in 1696, commanded at the siege of
Louisburg, in 1745. He was made a baronet for his
services, and in 1759 was appointed lieutenant-general.
Died in 1759.
See PAKSONS, " Life of Sir W. Pepperell," 1856.
Pepusch, pa'poosh, QOHANN CHKISTOPH,) a German
musical composer and writer, born at Berlin in 1667.
He settled in England about 1700, and received from
the University of Oxford the degree of doctor in music.
He was also chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. His
"Treatise on Harmony" (1731) still enjoys a high repu
tation. Died in 1752.
Pepyn, pa-pin', sometimes written Pepin, (MARTIN,)
a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp about 1570. He
worked at Rome for some years, and painted religious
subjects. His works are highly praised. Died at Rome
in 1641.
Pepys, (CHARLES C.) See COTTENHAM.
Pepys, peps, (Lady CHARLOTTE MARIA,) a daughter
of Lord-Chancellor Cottenham, is the author of " Quiet
Moments," "Female Influence," and other works.
Pepys, (SAMUEL,) an English gentleman, gossip, and
connoisseur, celebrated as the writer of a diary, was
born in 1632, and educated at Cambridge. He was
appointed clerk of the acts of the navy in 1660, and
retained this important position until 1673. His official
duties brought him into the favourable notice of the
Duke of York, who was lord high admiral. He was
secretary to the admiralty for about four years, ending
at the revolution, (1688.) In 1684 he was elected presi
dent of the Royal Society. He svas well versed in naval
affairs, and was a connoisseur in the fine arts. His
reputation is founded on his " Memoirs, comprising a
Diary from 1659 to 1669," which was published in 1825.
Died in 1703.
See " Edinburgh Review" for November, 1825, and October,
1849; " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1849.
Pepys, (WILLIAM HASELDINE,) F.R.S., an English
chemist and philosopher, born in London in 1775. He
was one of the founders of the Askesian Society, and
an active member of the London Institution and of
the Geological Society. His skill in the construction
of chemical apparatus contributed to the progress of
science. He was associated with William Allen in
successful researches on respiration, and was a friend
of Sir Humphry Davy. Died in 1856.
Peranda, pa-ran'da, (SANTO,) a Venetian painter,
born at Venice in 1566, was a pupil of Jacopo Palma.
He learned to design correctly at Rome, and painted
many good portraits. Among his best works are "The
Children of Niobe," and a "Descent from the Cross."
Died in 1638.
Ferard-Castel, peh'rSR' kSs'teT, (FRANCOIS,) a
French canonist, born at Vire in 1647 ; died in 1687.
Perau, peh-ro', (GABRIEL Louis CALABRE,) a French
biographer and editor, born in Paris in 1700. He edited
the works of Bossuet, (20 vols., 1743-53,) and continued
the "Lives of Illustrious Men of France," begun by
D'Auvigny, to which Perau added thirteen volumes,
(17154-60.) Died in 1767.
Perceval. See CAUSSIN DE PERCEVAL.
Per'ce-val, (JOHN,) Earl of Egmont, was born at
Barton, Yorkshire, in 1683. He was one of the princi
pal founders of a colony planted in Georgia about 1732.
He wrote several small works. Died in 1748.
Perceval, (JoHN,) second Earl of Egmont, a son of
the preceding, was born in 1711. He entered the House
of Lords, with the title of Lord Lovel and Holland, in
1762, and was first lord of the admiralty from 1763 to
1766. He wrote a successful pamphlet named " Faction
detected by the Evidence of Facts." Died in 1770.
Perceval, (SPENCER,) a minister of state, born in
London in 1762, was a son of the preceding. He studied
law, and practised with success on the Midland circuit.
Having been returned to Parliament in 1796, he became
a supporter of Mr. Pitt, and an able speaker. He was
appointed solicitor-general in 1801, and attorney-general
in 1802. At the death of Pitt (1806) he went out of
office. He became chancellor of the exchequer in 1807,
and first lord of the treasury (prime minister) at the
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
PER CHE RON
1767
PEREFIXE
denf'i of the Duke of Portland, (1809.) He opposed
reform and liberal measures, and pursued the foreign
policy of Pitt. On the nth of May, 1812, he was as
sassinated with a pistol in the lobby of the House of
Commons by John Bellingham, a merchant, who had
resolved to kill some member of the ministry because
they had rejected or neglected a private claim which he
had preferred.
See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. i. chap, xviii. ;
CHARLES V. WILLIAMS, "Life of the Right Hon. S. Perceval,"
1812; HENRI DE LASALLH, " Essai biographique sur M. Perceval,"
1812.
Percheron, peRsh'riN', (ACHILLE REMY,) a French
naturalist, born in Paris in 1797.
works on entomology.
He published several
Percier, peR'se-a', (CHARLES,) a distinguished French
architect, born 111^7764, in Paris, was a pupil of Gisors.
At the age of twenty-two he gained a prize, which enabled
him to pursue his studies at Rome. He formed a friend
ship with the architect Fontaine, with whom he was
Percy, peVse', (PIERRE FRANCOIS,) BARON, an emi
nent French surgeon, born in Franche-Comte in 1754.
He became about 1792 surgeon-in-chief of the armies
of the Rhine and the Moselle, and organized in concert
with Larrey a corps mobile of surgeons with ambulances.
Attached to the grand army, he served in all the cam
paigns of the empire, except those of Russia and Saxony.
He was professor in the Faculty of Medicine, Paris, and
wrote several able treatises on surgery. Died in 1825.
See A. F. SILVESTRE, " Notice biographique sur Percy," 1825;
" Histoire de la Vie de Percy," by his nephew LAURENT, 1827:
" Biographic Medicale."
Percy, (THOMAS,) an Englishman of noble family,
was one of the leading conspirators in the famous Gun
powder Plot, (1604-05.) He was executed in the early
part of 1606.
Percy, (THOMAS,) an eminent English scholar and
writer, was born in Shropshire in 1728. He became
vicar of Easton Maudit in 1756, chaplain to the king in
1769, Dean of Carlisle in 1778, and Bishop of Dromore,
constantly associated in his professional labours until j Ireland, in 1782. His reputation is founded on an in-
his death. They were employed by Bonaparte to restore | teresting work, entitled " Reliques of Ancient English
and complete the palaces of the Tuileries and the Louvre.
Among their works are the triumphal arch of the Car
rousel, and the northern wing of the court of the Tuile- Antiquities," (1770.) Among his work-; are a " Key
ries. By their skill and taste in design they produced | to the New Testament," (1765,) and "Tne Hermit of
in their'art a reformation similar to that which David i \Varkworth," a poem, (1770.) Died in 1811. He was
effected in painting. They published some excellent j a friend of Dr. Johnson.
See NICHOLS, "Literary Anecdotes."
Perczel, peRt'sel, (MoRicz,) a distinguished Hunga
rian general, born at Tolna in 1814. He gained several
victories over the Austrians in 1848, but after the defeat
Poetry," (1765,) which has enjoyed a great popularity.
He translated from the French Mallet's "Northern
works, among which is " The Palaces, Mansions, and
other Modern Edifices designed at Rome," (1798.) (See
FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANCOIS.) Percier died in 1838.
Per'ci-val, (JAMKS GATES,) an eminent American
poet and scholar, born at Berlin, Connecticut, in 1795.
He graduated at Yale College in 1815, and, having sub
sequently studied medicine, took the degree of M.D. in
1823. He published in 1822 his " Prometheus," a poem
in the Spenserian stanza, also two volumes of miscella
neous poetry and prose. He was appointed in 1824
professor of chemistry in the Military Academy at West
of Temesvar he took refuge in Turkey, and afterwards
settled in the island of Jersey.
Fer-dic'cas [Gr. llepdiKKaf ] I., King of Macedon, was,
according to Herodotus, the founder of the Macedonian
monarchy. He is supposed to have lived about 750 B.C.
Ferdiccas II., King of Macedon, was the son and
successor of Alexander I. He waged war against the
Point. In 1827 he was employed by Dr. Webster to ; .Vthenia),s> Djeci about 413 B.C.
revise the manuscript of his Jarge^ Dictionary, and^in Perdiccas III., a son of Amyntas II. of Macedon,
began to reign about 364 B.C. He was killed in battle
against the Illyrians in 359, and was succeeded by his
brother, Philip II.
Perdiccas, [Gr. LTepifecac,] a prominent Macedonian
general, who commanded a division of the army of
1835 was appointed conjointly with Professor C. U.
Shepard to make a geological survey of Connecticut, a
report of which he published in 1842. He brought out
in 1843 "The Dream of a Day, and other Poems." He
was appointed in 18^4 State' Geologist of Wisconsin ;
but while preparing his second report his health declined,
Alexander the Great in his invasion of Asia, was a son
Per'ci-val, (THOMAS,) a popular English medical and
moral writer, born at Warrington in 1740. He settled
in 1767 at Manchester, svhere he practised with success,
and founded the " Manchester Philosophical Society"
about 1780. He wrote, besides other works, "Essays,
Medical and Experimental." (3 vols., 1767-78,) "A
Father's Instructions, consisting of Moral Tales," etc.,
(1788,) and "Medical Ethics," (1803.) He was a dis.-
senter from the Anglican Church. Died in 1804.
See " Life of T. Percival," by his son, prefixed to his works, 1807.
Percy. See NORTHUMBERLAND.
Fer'cy, the name of an ancient and noble English
family, descended from William de Percy, who, in the
reign' of William the Conqueror, possessed several
manors in the counties of Lincoln and York. He was
probably a Norman. In the reign of Edward I. a HENRY
DE PERCY acquired Almvick and other estates in North
umberland. Another HENRY DE PERCY, in the reign of
Edward III., married Mary Plantagenet, a great-grand
daughter of King Henry III., and had two sons, Henry,
Earl of Northumberland, and Thomas, Earl of Worces
ter. HENRY PERCY, surnamed HOTSPUR, a son of Henry
last named, rebelled against Henry IV., and was killed
at the battle of Shrewsbury, (1403.) A son of Hotspur
was restored to the earldom, fought for the house of
Lancaster, and fell at Saint Alban's, in 1455, leaving
several sons, who were killed in the war of the Roses.
In the reign of Elizabeth a Percy, Earl of Northumber
land, was executed for rebellion, (1572.)
power of reger
to secure the succession of Roxana's son, put her rival
Statira to death. He also put to death his rival Me-
leager. He failed in a matrimonial intrigue in relation
to Cleopatra, a sister of Alexander, and became the
enemy of Antigonus and Antipater, who formed with
Ptolemy a coalition against him. Perdiccas found an
able adherent or ally in Eumenes, (who opposed Antip
ater and Antigonus in Asia Minor,) and marched against
Ptolemy in Egypt. He met with a reverse near the
Nile, and was 'killed by his mutinous soldiers, in 321
B.C., leaving the reputation of a crafty, cruel, and am
bitious man.
See AKKIAN-, " Anabasis;" JUSTIN, books xii. and xiii. ; DROY-
SEN, " Geschichte Alexanders."
Per'dix, [Gr.
a nephew, or, as some say, a
sister, of Daedalus, was regarded as the inventor of the
saw, the compasses, and other implements. According
to the fable, Perdix was changed into a partridge.
Pereda, de, da pa-ra'Da, ( ANTONIO,) an eminent
Spanish painter, born at Valladolid in 1599. He painted
history and genre with success, and was patronized
by the Duke of Olivarez. He excelled in colouring.
Among his works is a picture of "Human Vanity."
Died in 1669.
Perefixe, de, deb pa'ra'feks', (HARDOUIN DE BEAU
MONT,) a French historian, born at Beaumont in 1605.
He was appointed preceptor to Louis XIV. in 1642,
succeeded Balzac in the French Academy in 1654, and
wrote a " History of Henry IV.," (1661,) which, says
c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (33f=See Explanations, p. 23.)
PEREGR1NO
1768
PERUNDER
M. Weiss, will assure him a durable reputation. He
became Archbishop of Paris in 1662, and required the
Port-Royalists to subscribe the formulary of Pope Alex
ander VII. Died in December, 1670, or January, 1671.
See " Gallia Christiana," tome vii.
Peregrino (or Peregrini) da Cesena, pa ra-gi<ee'-
no (or pa-ra-gRee'nee) eld cha-sa'na, a celebrated Italian
engraver and worker in niello, flourished about 1500 or
1520. Little is known of his life. Nagler gives a list
of many prints ascribed to him.
Per-e-gii'rms Pro'te-us, a Greek Cynic philosopher,
notorious for his vices and licentious life, was born at
Parium, on the Hellespont, and lived in the reign of
the Antonines. He committed suicide by fire at the
Olympic games, in 165 A.D.
See "De Morte Peregrini," by LUCIAN, (who witnessed his death.)
Pereira, pa-ra^e-ra, (BARTHOLOMEU,) a Portu luese
epic poet, flourished about 1640, and wrote "Paciecis."
Pereira, pa-ra^e-ra, ( GOMEZ, ) a Spanish physician
and writer, who lived about 1570.
Pereira, [Fr. PERKIKE, peh-rSR',} (JACOB RODRI
GUEZ.) a Spaniard, born in Estremadura in 1715, is
called the first instructor of deaf-mutes. He removed
to Bordeaux about 1742, and exhibited a pupil before
the king, who granted him a pension in 1751. Died
in 1780.
Pereira, pe-ree'ra or pa-ra'ra, (JONATHAN,) an Eng
lish physician and pharmacologist, born in London in
1804. He published an excellent work entitled " Ele-
mVnts of Materia Medica and Therapeutics," (2 vols.,
1839,) regarded as the most comprehensive and com
plete treatise on materia medicain the English language,
and a treatise "On Food and Diet," (1842,) which is
highly commended. In 1846,116 was appointed assistant
physician to the London Hospital. He became full phy
sician to the same hospital in 1851. Died in 1853.
Pereira, (MANUEL,) a Portuguese sculptor of high
reputation, was born in 1614. He worked in Spain,
and died at Madrid in 1667.
Pereira or Pereyra, (Nu5io ALVAREZ or NUNEZ AL
VAREZ,) a general and statesman, called " the Portuguese
Cid," was born in 1360. He gained victories over the
Spaniards. Died in 1431.
See A. DE ESCOBAR, " Heroe Portugiiez. Vida del Seiior N. A.
Pereyra," 1670; DA COSTA, " De Vita et Rebus gestis N. A. Pe-
reira," 1723.
Pereira de Figueiredo, pa-ra^e-ia da fe-gi-e-ra'do,
(ANTONIO,) a learned Portuguese writer, born at Macao
in 1725. He was an opponent of the Jesuits, and he
wrote an able work against the temporal power of the
pope, entitled "Theological Essays," ("Tentativa Theo-
logica," 1766.) He published a Latin Grammar, (1752,)
a Portuguese version of the Bible, (23 vols., 1778-90,)
and other works. Died at Lisbon in 1797.
Pereire. See PEREIRA, (JACOB RODRIGUEZ.)
Pereire, peh-r5.R', (EMILK and ISAAC,) French finan
ciers, grandsons of Jacob Rodriguez, noticed above, were
born at Bordeaux in 1800 and 1806 respectively. They
gained distinction as originators of the railway from
Paris to Saint-Germain in 1835, and other railroads.
They were the chief founders of the Credit Mobilier, a
joint-stock company, with a capital of sixty million
francs, which was established in 1852.
Perelle, peh-rel', (GABRIEL,) a French designer and
etcher, born at Vernon-sur-Seine,: died in 1675. His
sons, NICOLAS and ADAM, were e*v ,avers. Adam was
born in 1638, and died in 1695.
Perenna. See ANNA PERENNA.
Peres, pa'reV, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French litterateur,
who wrote a curious work, entitled " How Napoleon
never Existed," etc., ("Comme quoi Napoleon n'a ja-
mais existe, ou grand Erratum," etc., 1817, often re
printed.) Died in 1840.
Pereyra, pa-raVra, (Diooo,) a skilful Portuguese
Iandscape-painter7~was born about 1570. His favourite
subjects were the "Burning of Troy," and the "Com
bustion of Sodom." Died in 1640.
Pereyra, (MANOEL, and NUNO ALVAREZ.) See PE
REIRA.
Perez, pa'reth or pee'rez, (ANTONIO,) a Spanish
courtier, born about 1540, was a son of Gonzalo Perez,
who was secretary of state under Charles V. and Phi'ip
II. He succeeded his father in 1567, and obtained
the confidence and favour of the king, who used him
as his instrument in the assassination of Escovedo, the
intriguing secretary of Don John of Austria, (1578.)
Soon after this event, Perez and the princess Eboli were
arrested by order of Philip, who, it appears, induced
Perez to give up all the papers which would implicate
him in the death of Escovedo. Subjected to the rack,
Perez confessed his own share in that crime, and ac
cused the king of complicity in it. About 1590 he
escaped from prison, and sought refuge at Saragossa,
the citizens of which rose in arms to protect him ami
assert their own civil rights. He escaped to France,
published an account of his sufferings, (1594,) and
received a pension from Henry IV. Died at Paris in
1611, or, as others say, 1616.
See PKESCOTT, " History of Philip II.;" ANTONIO PKUEZ,
" Memorial y Relaciones," 1508; S. BKRMUDKZ \>K CASTKM. "An
tonio Pere/.." Madrid, 1841 ; MIGNKT, "Antonio Perez et Philippe
1 1," 1845 : MOTI.HV, " The Rise of the Dutch Republic ;" " Fraser's
Magazine" tor December, 1867.
Perez, (ANTONIO,) a Spanish painter, who lived about
1550, was one of the three founders of the Academy of
Seville.
Perez, (ANTONIO,) a Spanish jurist, born at Alfaro, on
the Ebro, in 1583. He became professor of civil law at
Lou vain in 1628, and wrote several works. Died at
Louvain in 1672.
Perez, pa'redz, (DAVIDE,) a composer, of Spanish
origin, born at Naples in 1711. He composed several
popular operas, among which is " Semiramide." Died
in 1778.
Perez, pa'rSs, (Don JOSE JOAQUIN,) an able Chilian
statesman, born at Santiago de Chili in 1801. He was
chosen a deputy to Congress in 1833, and was appointed
minister of finance in 1844. In 1849 he became foreign
minister. He was afterwards a senator, and held other
high offices. In the summer of 1861 he was elected
president for five years.
Perez, [Lat. PETKE'IUS,] (JuAN,) a Spanish poet,
born at Toledo in 1512, wrote an admired Latin poem
named " Magdalena," (1552,) and other works. Died
in 1545.
Perez de Pineda, pa'reth da pe-na'na, (FKANCISCO,)
a painter, born at Seville, was one of the best pupils of
Muiillo. Died about 1682.
Perfetti, peu-fet'tee, ( BERNARDINO,) an Italian im
provisator, born at Sienna in 1681. lie exercised in
public his talent of extempore versification on all sub
jects. He is said to have been the best improvisator of
Italy in his time. Died in 1747.
Fergamini, pSR-gil-mee'iiee, (JACOPO,) an Italian
writer, born at Fossombrone, lived about 1600. He
published a good " Treatise on Grammar," (1602.)
Pergola, della, del'la p£i<'go-la, (ANGELO,) an able
Italian general, born near the line between Tuscany and
the Romagna. He served the Duke of Milan against
the Florentines. Died in 1427.
Pergolese. See PEKGOLEST.
Fergolesi, pCK-go-la'see, or Pergolese, peR-go-la'sa,
[Fr. PERGOLESE, peVgo'liz',] (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) a
celebrated Italian composer, born at Jesi about 1708,
(some say in 1704.) He studied at Naples under Gae-
tano Greco and Durante. In 1731 he produced a dra
matic work called "The Servant Mistress," (" La Serva
Padrona,") which was warmly applauded. He devoted
himself chiefly to sacred music. Among his works is a
celebrated and pathetic " Stabat Mater," for two voices,
" Dixit Dominus," a motet, and " Salve Regina," a motet.
His death is variously dated 1736, 1737, and 1739.
See FETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musicians:" C. BI.ASIS,
" Biografia di Percrolese;" TIPAI.DO, " Biosrana de^li Italian! illus-
tri :" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Peri, pa/ree, (GiACOMO,) an Italian composer, born
at Florence in the latter half of the sixteenth century.
He composed the music of " Dafne," (1594,) and "The
Death of Eurydice," lyrical dramas. He entered the
service of the Duke of Ferrara in 1601.
Pgr-i-aii'der, [Gr. TLepiuvfyioc ; Fr. PERI ANDRE, pa'-
re'6NdR',| tyrant of Corinth, began to reign about 625
B.C. He is usually reckoned among the Seven Sages of
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
PERIANDER
1769
PERIGNON
'Political" SCHU-
Greece, — probably on account of his skill and success in
kingcraft. His rule was at first mild, but became severe
and arbitrary. It is reported that he consulted the tyrant
of Miletus in relation to the best mode of maintaining
his power, and that that tyrant answered by cutting off
the tallest ears in a field of corn. Periander followed
this advice by depressing the noble and rich. Died about
585 B.C.
See HERODOTUS, " History :" ARISTOTLE,
BERT, " Periander von Korinth," 1765.
Periander, pi-re-an'der, (Gn.LES,) a Latin poet, born
at Brussels about 1545, wrote the "Mirror of the Owl,"
("Noctuas Speculum," 1567.)
Periaiidre. See PEKIANDF.R.
Pericaud, pa're'kS', (MARC ANTOINE,) a French
antiquary and biographer, born at Lyons in 1782. He
published works on the antiquities of Lyons, and wrote
articles for the "Biographic Universelle." In'i827 he
was made keeper of the public library of Lyons.
FeVi-cles, [Gr. Hepi/Aw ; Ger. PERIKLES, pa're-kles,]
an illustrious Athenian statesman, and one of the great
est orators that ever lived, was a son of Xanthippus, who
defeated the Persians at Mycale. His mother, Agariste,
was a niece of Clisthenes. He studied various arts and
sciences under Damon the musician, Zeno of Elea, and
Anaxagoras. "The philosopher," says Plutarch, "who
gave him that force and sublimity of sentiment superior
to all the demagogues, who formed him to that admi
rable dignity of manners, was Anaxagoras." He kept
himself aloof from public affairs for some years after he
had arrived at manhood. About 470 B.C. he began his
public career as the leader of the democratic party, and,
lest he should make himself too cheap among the people,
reserved himself for great occasions. He had a grace
ful figure, a sweet voice, and complete self-command.
" Adorning his orations with the rich colours of philos
ophy," says Plutarch, "adding the loftiness of imagina
tion and all-commanding energy with which philosophy
supplied him, to his native powers of genius, and using
whatever he found to his purpose in the study of nature,
he far excelled all other orators."
He gained popularity by a law that the people should
enjoy theatrical amusements at the public expense, and
deprived the Areopagus of the judicial power which ren
dered it a dangerous engine of the aristocracy, (461 B.C.)
About this date he used his influence to procure the
ostracism of Cimon, the leader of the conservative or
aristocratic party. Pericles displayed courage at the
battle of Tanagra, in 457, and proposed the decree that
Cimon should be recalled from exile. After the death
of Cimon and the ostracism of Thucydides, (444 B.C.,)
Pericles directed the government with undisputed su
premacy. " He became sole master of Athens," says
Plutarch ; "he kept the public good in his eye, and pur
sued the strait path of honour." He commanded in the
Samian war, which ended in the conquest of Samos in
440 B.C., and extended the influence of Athens by plant
ing colonies at Chalcis, Sinope, Thurii, and other places.
He expended the public money profusely in the erection
of magnificent temples and monuments, which have
never been equalled as models of art and taste. Under
his auspices the Parthenon was built and was adorned
with the sculptures of Phidias. The age of Pericles was
the most brilliant period of Grecian art and dramatic
literature. He silenced those who murmured at his ex
travagance in building, by an offer to pay the expense
out of his own purse on condition that his name alone
should be inscribed on the new edifices.
The foreign policy of Pericles was not less far-sighted
than his internal policy. He constantly opposed the
ambitious schemes of foreign conquest which the Athe
nians were prone to entertain, and took effectual measures
to render the maritime power of Athens superior to that
of any other state. The long walls which connected
Athens with the sea, and protected it from the attack of
an army by land, formed an important part of his foreign
policy, continuing on a gigantic scale the plans of Themis-
tocles. This measure excited great alarm among the Spar
tans and their allies. Under his administration Athens
became an imperial state, with an extensive list of allies,
partly free and partly tributary, and attained the maxi-
mum of her power. To subvert this power, the Spartans
organized a league and involved all Greece in the great
Peloponnesian war, which began in 431 B.C. The mova
ble property of the Athenians was conveyed within the
walls of the capital, and, while the enemy ravaged Attica,
the fleet of Pericles made reprisals on the coast of the
Peloponnesus.
At the end of the first campaign, Pericles pronounced
a long and inimitable funeral oration on those who had
fallen in battle. "The eleven chapters of Thucydides
which comprise this funeral speech," says Grote, "are
among the most memorable relics of antiquity, consider
ing that under the language and arrangement of the
historian . . . we possess the substance and thoughts
of the illustrious statesman. . . . After a few words on
the magrnitude of the empire, and on the glorious efforts
as weli 48 endurance whereby their forefathers and they
had acquired it, Pericles proceeds to sketch the plan of
life, the constitution, and the manners under which such
achievements were brought about." (Chap, xlviii.)
In the second year of the war a great plague raged at
Athens. The people became so demoralized that they
deprived Pericles of command and punished him with
a fine. He had recovered his influence a short time
when he died, in the autumn of 429 H.c. " As a military
commander," says Grote, "though noway deficient in
personal courage, he rarely courted distinction, and was
principally famous for his care of the lives of the citizens.
His private habits were sober and recluse, . . . while
the tenderest domestic attachment bound him to the
engaging and cultivated Aspasia." (See ASPASIA.) To
use the language of a writer in the " Encyclopaedia
Britannica," "he wielded the powers of his majestic
intelligence and the stores of his spacious imagination
with consummate ease and mastery."
See PLUTARCH, "Lives;" THUCYDIUES, "History;" GROTE,
" History of Greece," chaps, xlv., xlvi., xlvii., xlviii., and xlix. ;
KUFFNER, " Perikles cler Olympier; biographische JJarstellung," 2
vols., 1809; CLARISSK, "Vita Periclis," Utrecht, 1833; THIRLWALL,
"History of Greece:" F. VON RAUMER, "Perikles und Aspasia,"
iSio; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pe-ric'ly-tus, a Greek sculptor, of whom little is
known, lived probably about 420 B.C. He is mentioned
by Pausanias as a pupil of Polycletus.
Perier. See PEKRIER.
Perier, pa're-i', (AUGUSTE C'ASIMIR VICTOR LAU
RENT,) a litterateur, born in Paris in 1811, was a son of
Casimir, noticed below. He was elected a deputy in
1846, and sat in the Legislative Assembly of 1849. He
voted with the majority, and protested against the coup
d'etat of December, 1851. He wrote for the " Revue des
Deux Mondes" on finance and other subjects.
Perier, (CASIMIR,) a French minister of state, was
born at Grenoble in 1777. He became about 1800 a
partner of his brother Scipion in a banking-house, (in
Paris,) which engaged in large industrial enterprises and
was prosperous. In 1817 he was elected to the Chamber
of Deputies, in which he acted with the opposition. He
gave an active support to the popular cause in the revo
lution of 1830, and succeeded Lafitte as prime minister
(president of the council) on the I3th of March, 1831.
He intervened with an army to aid the revolted Belgians,
but resisted the popular pressure which would have in
volved France in a war against the allied powers for the
liberty of the Poles. Died, of cholera, in May, 1832.
See LOMENIE, "Galerir '^s Contemporains ;" GUIZOT, " Me-
moires ;" "Nouvelle Biog . .lie Ge'iierale ;" " Blackwood's Maga
zine" for July and August, 1838.
Perier, (JACQUES CONTSTANTIN,) a French mechanician
and constructor of steam-engines, was born in Paris in
1742 ; died in 1818.
Periers, des. See DESPERIERS.
Peries, pa're'es', ([KAN VINCENT,) a French littera-
teur, born in 1785. lie produced a translation of the
complete works of Machiavel, (12 vols., 1823-26,) which
is commended. He wrote many notices of artists for
the "Biographic Universelle." Died in Paris in 1829.
Perignon, pa'ren'yC'N', (ALEXIS,) a French painter,
born in Paris in 1806. He gained a medal of the first
class in 1844.
Perignon, (PIERRE,) a French monk, born at Saint-
Menehould about 1640. He was procureur of the abbey
; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PERIGNON
1770
PER ON
of Hautvilliers, and is said to have rendered a great
service to Champagne by perfecting the quality of its
wine. He wrote a treatise on the culture of the grape
and the fabrication of wine. Died in 1715.
Ferignoii, de, deli pa'ren'y6N', (DOMINIQUE CATHE-
RINK,) MARQUIS, a French general, born near Toulouse
in 1754. He became a general of division in 1793, suc
ceeded Dugommier as general-in-chief of the army in
Spain, and gained a victory at Escola in November, 1794.
He negotiated a treaty of alliance with Spain at Madrid
in 1796. In 1804 he became a marshal of France. Died
in 1818.
Perigord. See TALLEYRAND.
Perikles. See PERICLES.
Perm, pa'ra.v', (HENRI CHARLES XAVIER,) a Belgian
economist, born at MODS in 1815, wrote a treatise "On
Riches in Christian Societies," (" De la Richesse clans
les Societes chretiennes," 2 vols., 1861.)
Perin, pa'raN', (LiE Louis,) a French portrait-painter,
born at Rheims in 1753, excelled in miniatures. Died
in 1817.
Perin, (RENE,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in
1774. He wrote dramas, biographies, and other works.
He published " The Thoughts and Maxims of Rousseau,"
(1820,) and "The Thoughts and Maxims of Voltaire,"
(2 vols., 1821.) Died in 1858.
Peringskiold, pii'rings-chdld', QOHAN,) a Swedish
antiquary, born at Strengnas in 1654. His original name
was PERINGER. He published " Monuments of Upland,"
("Monumenta Uplandica," 2 vols., 1710-19,) and other
works, of some value. Died in 1720.
Perino del Vaga, pa-ree'no del va'ga, written also
Pierino (pe-a-ree'no) del Vaga, an Italian painter,
whose proper name was PIETRO BUONACCORSI, (boo-6n-
ak-kor'see,) was born in Tuscany in 1500 or 1501. He
was a pupil of Raphael, whom he assisted in the decora
tion of ihe Vatican. According to Vasari, he was the
greatest designer of the Florentine school after Michael
Angelo. About 1528)16 removed from Rome to Genoa,
where he painted admirable frescos in the palace of Ad
miral Doria. Among his works are "The Creation of
Eve," a fresco, a "Holy Family," (in oil,) and "The
Combat of Horatius Codes." Died at Rome in 1547.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, "History of
Painting in Italy."
Perion, pa're'ox', ( JOACHIM,) a French monk and
linguist, born in Touraine about 1500. lie wrote "The
Lives of the Apostles," (1551,) and translated the works
of Aristotle, (7 vols., 1540-59.) Died in 1559.
Per'it, (PELATIAH,) an American merchant, born at
Norwich, Connecticut, in 1785. He settled in the city
of New York in 1809, acquired a fortune by trade, and
became president of the chamber of commerce in 1853.
He was distinguished for active benevolence. Died in
March, 1864.
See HUNT'S "Merchants' Maga/.ine" for April, 1864.
Perizonius, pa-re-zo'ne-us, (JAMES Voorbroek —
voR'bRook,) an eminent Dutch philologist and critic,
born at Dam, in the province of Groningen, in October,
1651. He studied under Graevius at Leyden, became
rector of the gymnasium of Delft in 1674, and professor
of history, etc. at Franeker in 1681. In 1685 he pub
lished an excellent critical work on the ancient writers
of Roman history, entitled " Animadversiones Histori-
cae," etc. He was professor of history and the Greek
language at Leyden from 1693 to 1715, and wrote many
dissertations on classical subjects. Died in 1715.
See "Life of Perizonius," prefixed to his " Opuscnla minors," 2
vols., 1740; WII.HEI.M KRAMER, " Elogium J. Perizonii," 1828.
Per'kins, (Ei.iSHA,) an American physician, known
as the inventor of the "Metallic Tractors," was born in
Connecticut in 1740. He practised at Plainfiekl, Con
necticut. His metallic tractors, and his system, called
Perkinism, were in high repute for a time, but soon
sunk into neglect. He died in 1799.
Perkins, (GEORGE ROBERTS,) LL.D., an American
mathematician and astronomer, born in Otsego county,
New York, in 1812, was appointed in 1858 deputy State
engineer and surveyor of the State of New York. He
has published, among other works, a "Treatise on Al
gebra," (1841,) "Elements of Geometry," (1847,) "Trigo
nometry and Surveying," (1851,) and "Plane and Solid
Geometry."
Perkins, (JACOB, ) an American mechanician and in
ventor, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1766.
Among his principal inventions are a machine for cut
ting and heading nails at once, a gun in which steam
was successfully used for propelling instead of powder,
the bathometer, for measuring the depth of water, and
the pleometer, to mark the speed with which a vessel
moves. He also substituted steel for copper plates in
engraving bank-notes. Died in 1841.
See HENRY HOWE, "Lives of Eminent American Mechanics,"
1847. •
Perkins, (JAMES H.,) an American writer, born about
1810, was a son of Samuel G. Perkins, of Boston. He
contributed to the "North American Review." Died at
Cincinnati in 1849.
Perkins, (NATHAN,) an American theologian, born
at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1749. He served as min
ister at West Hartford about sixty-five years. He pub
lished a volume of Sermons, (1795,) and other works.
Died in 1838, aged eighty-eight.
Perkins, (SlMON,) an American general, born at
Norwich, Connecticut, about 1770. He served in the
war of 1812-14. Died in Warren, Ohio, in 1844.
Perkins, (THOMAS HANDASYD,) a wealthy American
merchant, born at Boston in 1764. He gave his house
and grounds on Pearl Street, Boston, valued at fifty
thousand dollars, for the Massachusetts Asylum for the
Blind, called also the Perkins Institution, lie likewise
gave large sums to the Boston Athenaeum and General
Hospital. Died in 1854.
See " Memoir of T. H. Perkins," by T. G. CAREY.
Per'kins, (WILLIAM,) an eminent English Calvinistic
divine, born at Marston, in Warwickshire, in 1558. He
preached in Saint Andrew's, a parish of Cambridge.
Among his works, which were highly praised by Bishop
Hall, are "Foundation of the Christian Religion," and
commentaries on several books of the New Testament.
Died in 1602. His works were translated into French,
German, Italian, and Spanish.
Perkins, (WILLIAM,) an Englishman, celebrated for
longevity, died in New Hampshire in 1732, at the age of
one hundred and sixteen years.
Permoser, pek'mo-zer, ( BALTHASAR, ) a German
sculptor, born at Kammer, in Bavaria, in 1651. He
worked for the King of Prussia at Berlin, from which he
removed to Dresden in 1710. Among his works are an
" Ecce Homo," and a statue of Prince Eugene. Died
in 1732.
See ERSCH timl GRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Perne, peRii, (FRANgois Louis,) a French musician,
born in Paris in 1772. He was appointed inspector-
general of the Conservatory in 1816. He wrote on the
musical notation of the Greeks. Died in 1832.
Pernetti, peVni'te', or Pernety, pcrn'te', (JACQUES,)
a French priest and mediocre writer, born in Forez in
1696 ; died in 1777.
Pernety, pcun'te', (ANTOINE JOSEPH,) a French
litterateur, born at Roanne in 1716. He became libra
rian of Frederick the Great some time after 1766, and
returned to France in 1783. He published, besides
other works, a " Dictionary of Painting, Sculpture, and
Engraving," (1757,) and a "Voyage to the Falkland
Islands," (2 vols., 1769.) Died in 1801.
Pernety, (JOSEPH MARIE,) VICOMTE, a French gene
ral, born at Lyons in 1766. lie served as colonel at
Austerlitz and Jena. As general of division, he con
tributed to the victories of Wagram, Borodino, (1812,)
and Dresden, (1813.) Died in 1856.
Pernot, peR'no', (ALEXANDRE FRANCOIS,) a French
landscape-painter, born at Vassy (Haute-Marne) in 1793.
He gained a first medal in 1839.
Perofski or Perowski, pi-rov'skee, (LEON ALEXIE-
VITCH,) a Russian general and politician, born in 1791.
He became minister of the interior in 1841, and was
placed at the head of the Council of the Empire about
1852. Died in 1856.
Peron, pa'ro.N', (FRANQOIS,) a French naturalist, born
at Cerilly (Allier) in 1775. He accompanied Baudin in
his expedition to the South Sea in 1800, as physician
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
PER ONI
1771
PER RON ET
and zoologist, collected more than 100,000 specimens of
animals, and wrote a " Voyage of Discovery to Southern
Lands," (" Voyage de Decouvertes aux Terres aus-
trales," 4 vols., 1811-16,) a work of much merit. Died
in 1810.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for August, 1810.
Peroni, pa-ro'nee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter,
born at Parma about 1700; died in 1776.
Perotti, pa-rot'tee, (Niccol.6,) an eminent Italian
grammarian, born in Umbria in 1430. He became Arch
bishop of Siponto, or Manfredonia, in 1458. He wrote
a Latin grammar, (1473,) " Cornucopia, or Commentaries
of the Latin Language," ("Cornucopia, sive Commen-
taria Lingua; Latinae," 1489,) and other works. He
translated into Latin the first five books of Polybius.
Died in 1480.
Ferouse, pa'rooz', (JEAN FRANCOIS Galaup de la —
gS'lo' deh IS,) an eminent French navigator, born at or
near Albi (Tarn) in 1741. He entered the royal navy in
1756, became lieutenant in 1775, and fought against the
English in the American war, (1778-83.) In 1782 he
took the British fort York, on the west coast of Hudson
Bay. He svas selected by the government to command
an exploring expedition, and sailed with the Boussole
and Astrolabe in August, 1785. Having doubled Cape
Horn, he sailed northward to the sixtieth degree, and
explored the coast between that point and California.
In the autumn of 1786 he crossed the ocean to Macao.
He explored the eastern coast of Asia from China to
Avatsha in Kamtchatka, from which point he sailed to
Botany Bay. The last letter received from him by his
friends was dated at Botany Bay, February 7, 1788.
About 1826 it was ascertained that he and his party
perished by shipwreck at Vanicoro, (or Wanicoro).
See PIERRK DILLON, "Relation cle la Decouverte du Sort de La
Perouse." Paris, 2 vo!s., 1836: " Nouvelle Biographic GJnerale ;"
" Monthly Review" for November and December, 1791
Perowski. See PEROFSKI.
Per-pen'na or Per-per'na, (M. VEXTO,) a Roman
officer, was a partisan of Manns in the civil war. lie
served under Sertorius in Spain about five years.
He was one of the assassins of Sertorius, who was
killed in 72 i:.c. After the death of Sertorius he was
defeated by Pompey in Spain, taken prisoner, and put
to death, (72 n.c.)
Perpenia. See PERPENXA.
Perpinian, peK-pe-ne-in', [Lat. PERPINIA'NUS,] (PE
DRO JUAN,) a Spanish scholar, born in the province of
Valencia in 1530. He was professor of eloquence at
Rome. His " Eighteen Orations," (" Orationes duo-
deviginti," 1587,) arguments for the old religion, were
very popular. Died at Paris in 1566.
See LAZEKI, " De Vita et Scriptis P. J. Perpiniani," 1749.
Perpiniaiius. See PERPINIAN.
Perquit, peR'ke', (SEHASTIEN BIRGY,) a French gene
ral, born in the department of Bas-Rhin in 1768. He
served with distinction during the first empire. Died
in 1856.
Ferrache, pi'rtsh', (MICHEL,) a French sculptor,
born at Lyons in 1686; died in 1750.
Perraud, pi'rS', (JEAN JOSEPH,) a French sculptor,
born at Monay (fura) in 1821. He obtained a medal of
the first class in 1855.
Perrault, p&'ro', (CHARLES,) a French author, born
in Paris in 1628. Having obtained the favour of Col
bert, he was appointed controller-general of the king's
buildings, (bailments.) He was admitted into the French
Academy in 1671. He scandalized the admirers of
ancient classic authors by his " Parallel between the
Ancients and Moderns," (4 vols., 1688-98,) which was the
signal of a long literary contest. This work was refuted
by Boileau in his "Reflections on Longinus." Among
his other works is one entitled "The Illustrious Men of
the Age of Louis XIV.," (1696-1701.) " Perrault would
probably have been surprised," says the " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale," "if any one had predicted to
him that he should owe his immortality exclusively to
his 'Fairy-Tales,' ('Contes des Fees,' 1697,)" which
obtained great success in the nurseiy. Died in 1703.
See " Memoires de Perra'ilt." first published in 1759; SAINTE-
REUVE, "Causeries du Lundi," tome v. ; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Perrault, (CLAUDE,) a celebrated French architect,
born in Paris in 1613, was a brother of the preceding.
His reputation is founded on the design of the fa5ade of
the Louvre. Colbert having invited the artists of France
to compete for this work, the design of Perrault was
preferred. The colonnade of the Louvre, commenced in
1666 and finished in 1670, is considered one of the most
beautiful structures of the seventeenth century. He was
also the architect of the Observatory of Paris. He pub
lished a translation of Vitruvius, (1673,) and other works.
Died in 1688.
See FONTENAY, "Dictionnaire des Artistes;" CICOGNARA, " Storia
della Scultura ;" QUATKEMERE DE QUINCY, "Vies des plus illustres
Architectes."
Perray. See DUPERRAY.
Perreau, p.Vro', QEAN ANDRE,) a French writer and
jurist, born at Nemours in 1749. He was a member of
the Tribunal, (1800-04,) an<^ one °f tne rapporteurs of
the Code Civil. Among his works are "Elements of
Natural Legislation," (1801,) and "Elements of Roman
Civil Law," ("Juris civilis Roman! Elementa," 1809.)
Died in 1813.
Perreciot, peVse-o', (CLAUDE JOSEPH,) a French
antiquary, born at Roulans in 1728. He wrote "On the
Civil State of Persons, etc. among the Gauls, from the
Celtic Times to the Adoption of the Common Laws,"
(Continues,) (1784-86.) Died in 1798.
Perree, pi'ra', (JEAN BAPTISTS EMMANUEL,) a French
admiral, born in Picardy in 1761. He was killed in a
battle against Nelson in 1800.
Perrein, pi'rax', (JEAN,) a French naturalist, born
in 1750. He travelled in Africa and North America.
Died at New York in 1805.
Perrenot. See GRANVELLE.
Ferret, pi'ri', (JEAN JACQUES,) a French cutler and
writer, born at Beziers in 1730. He invented surgical
instruments, and wrote " On the Art of Shaving One
self," (1769.) Died in 1784.
Perrier. See PERIMR.
Perrier or Perier, pa're-i', (FRANC.OJS,) a painter and
engraver, was born in Burgundy about 1590. He worked
at Rome and Paris, and was one of the founders of the
Academy of the latter city. He painted the Hotel de la
Vrilliere, at Paris. His engravings of antique statues,
etc. are commended. Died at Paris about 1654.
Perriniezzi, per-re-met'see, (GIUSEPPE MARIA,) an
Italian prelate and writer, born in Calabria in 1670 ;
died in 1740.
Perrin, pi'rax', (ALPHOXSE,) a French painter of
history and landscapes, born in Paris in 1798.
Perrin, (CLAUDE.) See VICTOR, Duke of Belluno.
Perrin, (JEAN PAUL,) a French historian and Prot
estant minister, born at Lyons in the sixteenth century.
He wrote a " History of the Vaudois," (1619.)
Perrin, (MAXIMILIEN,) a French novelist, born in
Paris in 1796.
Perrin, (NARCISSE,) a French Orientalist, born at
Lyons in 1795. He wrote a work on Persia, entitled
"La Perse," (7 vols., 1823.)
Perrin, (OLIVIER STANISLAS,) a French painter, born
at Rostrenen in 1761 ; died in 1832.
Perrin, (PIERRE,) a French poet, born at Lyons, is
said to have been the first writer of French operas. He
produced a musical drama, entitled " Pastorale," in 1659,
and obtained letters-patent to open an academy of music
in Paris in 1669. Died in 1680.
Perrin des Vosges, pi'rax' di vozh, (JEAN BAP-
TISTE,) a Frenchman, born at fipinal. He was elected
in 1792 to the Convention, in which he opposed the
excesses of the royalists and terrorists. He sat in the
Council of Elders in 1798, and was the first president
of the corps legislatif, about 1800. Died in 1815.
Perron, Du. See DUPERRON.
Perrone, per-ro'na, (GIOVANNI,) an eminent Italian
theologian, born at Chieri (Piedmont) in 1794. He
wrote, besides other works, " Theological Lessons,"
(" Praslectiones Theologicae," 9 vols., 1835 et seq.,) which
ran through twenty-five editions. He became rector of
the Roman College in 1853.
Perronet, pi'ro'ni', ( JEAN RODOLPHE, ) an able
French engineer and architect, born at Suresne, near
as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PERROT
1772
PERSIUS
Paris, in 1708. He became first engineer of the roads
and bridges of France about 1750, and organized the
ficole des Fonts et Chaussees, which was frequented by
students from foreign countries. lie was a Fellow of
the Royal Society of London. Among his master-pieces
are the bridges of Neuilly, Nemours, and Pont Louis
XVI, Paris. He invented a number of machines. Died
in 1794. " Perronet," says A. Jadin, "was for bridges
one of those creative geniuses whose appearance makes
an epoch." (" Nouvelle Biographic Generale.")
See HERTRXND, "Notice sur Perronet ;" PRONY, "Notice histo-
rique sur Perronet," 1829.
Ferret. See AHI.ANCOUKT, i>'.
Perrot, p.Vro', (CHARLES,) a French Protestant min
ister, born in 1541, preached at Geneva, and advocated
toleration. Died in 1608.
Perrot, (FERDINAND VICTOR,) a French painter, born
at Paimboeuf in 1808. He removed in 1840 to Saint
Petersburg, where he was patronized by the imperial
family. Died in 1841.
FeVrot, (Sir JOHN,) an English courtier or states
man, born about 1527, was appointed lord lieutenant of
Ireland in 1583. Died in 1592.
Perrottet, pi'ro'ti', (G. SAMUEL,) a French bot
anist, born in 1793. He wrote narratives of voyages
to Senegal and other places, and a " Flora of Sene-
gambia," (1831.)
Fer'rjf, (JAMES,) an able British journalist, born at
Aberdeen in 1756. He became a resident of London
about 1776, and distinguished himself as a reporter for
the "General Advertiser." He was afterwards editor
of the "Gazetteer" and the "Morning Chronicle," a
Whig organ, which he edited more than twenty years.
He improved the method of reporting speeches, by
employing a succession or relay of reporters on the
same speech. Died in 1821.
See WILLIAM JERUAN, "Men I have known," London, 1866.
Perry, (JoHN,) an English engineer, born about 1670.
He entered the service of Peter the Great, as engineer,
in 1698, and published a work called "The State of
Russia under the Present Czar," (1716.) Died in Eng
land in 1733.
Fer'ry, (.MATTHEW GALKRAITH,) an American naval
officer, born at South Kingston, Rhode Island, in 1795,
was a brother of Commodore Perry. lie served in the
Mexican war of 1847, alul '" 1852 commanded the expe
dition to Japan, which opened the way to intercourse
between that country and the United States. An account
of this voyage was published, in 3 vols., in 1856. Died
in 1858.
Perry, (OLIVER HAZARD,) a distinguished American
commodore, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1785.
On the I3th of September, 1813, as commander of a
squadron on Lake Erie, he defeated the British under
Commodore Barclay, after an engagement of three hours.
For this brilliant victory he was made a captain and
received from Congress 'a gold medal. Having been
appointed commander of a squadron bound for the coast
of Columbia, he died of yellow fever, in the island of
Trinidad, in August, 1819.
See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"vol. ii.
Persceus, per-see'us, [Tlfpaaiof,] a Greek philosopher,
suniamed CITTIE'US because he was born at Cittimn, in
Crete. He was a favourite disciple of Zeno the Stoic,
and flourished about 260 B.C. He was patronized by
Antigonus Gonatas, who appointed him governor or
commander at Corinth. According to Pausanias, he
was killed at the capture of Corinth, in 243 li.c. He
wrote several works, which are lost.
Perse. See PERSIUS.
Persee. See PERSEUS.
Per-seph'o-ne, [Gr. Hepae^vn ; Fr. PERSEPHONE,
pe'R'sa'fon',] the Greek name of PROSERPINE, which see.
Perses^ See PERSEUS, Kinc; Of Macedonia.
Per'seus, [ Gr. nf,w«'c; Fr. PERSEE, peVsa',] a
famous hero and demi-god of classic mythology, was
called a son of Jupiter and Danae. (See DANAE.) Ac
cording to the fable, King Polydectes extorted from
him a rash promise to bring to him the head of Medusa.
To equip him for this enterprise, Minerva, Mercury,
and the Nymphs gave him winged sandals, a helmet
which rendered him invisible, and a mirror by means
of which he could see the image of the Gorgon and
avoid the petrifying effect of looking at the reality.
After he had cut off her head, he flew through the air
to Ethiopia, where he rescued Andromeda from a sea-
monster and married her.
Per'seus or Per'ses, [Gr. Uepaei^ ; Fr. PERSEK,
pen'si',] the last king of Macedonia, was the eldest son
of Philip V., whom he succeeded in 179 li.c. Before
this date, by perfidy and intrigues, he had procured the
death of his brother Demetrius. He began early to pre
pare for a renewal of hostilities against the Romans, who
declared war against him in 171 li.c. Several campaigns
were fought, without decisive results, until L. /Emilius
Paulus took command, in 168 li.c. He defeated Per
seus with great loss at Pydna, in June, 168, after which
the whole kingdom submitted to the victors. Perseus
escaped from this battle, but was soon taken prisoner,
and was kept in captivity at Alba until his death, about
164 li.c.
See Livv, " History of Rome," books xxxviii.-xlv.
Perseus, a Greek painter and disciple of Apelles,
flourished about 300 li.c. He is mentioned by Pliny.
Persian!, peu-se-a'nee, (FANNY Tacchinardi — tak-
ke-nau'dee,) an Italian operatic singer, born in Rome in
1818. She married a composer named Persian! about
1835. Died in 1867.
Persigny, (per-seen'ye,) de, [Fr. pron. deh peVsen'-
ye',] (JEAN GILIIKRT VICTOR de Fialin — deh fe'i'la.N',)
CoMTE, a French minister of state, born in the depart
ment of Loire in 1808. He became about 1833 a zealous
partisan of Louis Napoleon, and is said to have been the
instigator of the attempt made by him at Strasbourg in
1836. In 1840 he was arrested with Louis Napoleon at
Boulogne, and condemned to imprisonment for twenty
years. lie was, however, released before the revolution
ot 1848, and renewed his intrigues. In January, 1852,
he obtained the office of minister of the interior, which
he resigned in June, 1854. He was sent as ambassador
to London in 1855, was reappointed minister of the in
terior in November, 1860, and removed in June, 1863.
M. Delaroa has published a work entitled "Le Due de
Persigny et 1'Enipire," (1866.)
See H. CASTILLE, " Le Cointe de Persigny;" E. UK MIRECOURT,
" M. de Persigny."
Persil, peVsel', JEAN CHARLES,) a French politician
and advocate, born at Condom in 1785. He was minister
of justice in 1834 and 1835. He published a good work,
entitled "Regime hypothecate," (1809.)
Persio, peVse-o, (ASCAMO,) an Italian philologist,
born at Matera about 1550. He wrote a "Treatise on
the Conformity of the Italian Language with the Greek,"
etc., (1592.) His brother ANTONIO wrote several works
on philosophy. Died after 1608.
Persius, per'she-us, |Fr. PERSE, pilRss,] or, more fully,
Au'lus Fer'sius Flac'cus, [It. Aui.o PERSIO FI.ACCO,
ow'lo p^R'se-o flak'ko,] a celebrated Roman satirical
poet, was born of an equestrian family at Volaterrre,
in Etruria, in 34 A.D. He was a pupil of Cornutus
the Stoic, to whom he became attached by an intimate
friendship, which lasted until the death of Persius. He
associated with Lucan and Seneca. His moral character
appears to have been excellent. lie died prematurely
in November, 62 A.D., leaving six satires, extending
altogether to only six hundred and fifty hexameter lines.
Though his language is obscure, his style unpolished,
and his delineations of men and manners greatly inferior
to those of Horace and Juvenal, his sententious satires
have been very popular in ancient, mediaeval, and mod
ern times. His object is to inculcate the morality of
the Stoics. Among the chief merits of his satires is
the moral beauty of his doctrines. His dialogues are
remarkably spirited, and display much dramatic power.
The best English versions of Persius are those by Dryden,
Gifford, Brewster, and Howes. Among the best editions
of the text are those of Isaac Casaubon, (Paris, 1605,)
Kb'nig, (GSttingen, 1803,) and O. Jahn, (Leipsic, 1843.)
See " A. Persii Flacci Vita," attributed by some scholars to SUE
TONIUS; G. MASSA, "Osserva/ioni e Racconto della Vita di A. Per
sio Klacco," 1666; BAYI.R, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" N. J. SBLIS, "Dissertation sur
Perse," 1783.
a", e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
PERSON
'773
PESNE
Person, pek'soN', (FELIX,) a French writer, born at
Caen in 1795. He published several books on the breed
ing of horses.
Persona, peit-so'na, (CRISTOFORO,) an Italian Hel
lenist, born at Rome in 1416. He translated into Latin
some works of Athanasius, Origen, and Chrysostom.
Died in 1485.
Persona, peR-so'na, (GonEi.lN,) a German chronicler,
born in Westphalia in 1358; died after 1418.
Persoon, peR-son', (CHRISTIAN HKNDRIK,) a Dutch
botanist and physician, born at the Cape of Good
Hope about 1770. He settled at Paris about 1802,
and published, besides several interesting works on
cryptogamous plants, " Synopsis of Plants," (" Synopsis
Plantarum," 2 vols., 1805-07.) Died in 1836.
Persoz, pSk'so', (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a chemist, born in
Switzerland in 1805. He obtained a chair in the Con
servatoire des Arts et Metiers, Paris, in 1852. He has
published a "Treatise on the Printing of Tissues," (4
vols., 1846,) and other works.
Persuis, de, deh peVsii-e', (Louis Luc LOISF.AU,) a
French composer, born at Metz in 1769. He composed
operas and ballet-music. Died in Paris in 1819.
Perthes. See BOUCHER DK PERTHES.
Perthes, pe"u'tes, (FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH,) a learned
German bookseller and publisher, born at Rudolstadt
in 1772. He opened a bookstore in Hamburg in 1796,
married a daughter of the editor Claudius, and made
acquaintance with many literary men, among whom were
Voss, Stolberg, Niebuhr, and the Schlegels. In 1822
he removed to Gotha, where he published the " Alma-
nach de Gotha." He died in 1843, and was succeeded
in his business by his son JUSTUS.
See " F. Perthes Leben,"by his son CLEMENS THEODOR, 2 vols.,
i84S; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1856.
Perti, pSR'tee,. (GiACOMO ANTONIO,) an Italian com
poser, born at Bologna in i66t. He composed success
ful operas. Died in 1756.
Peiticari, pei<-te-ka'ree, (GiULio,) COUNT, an Ital
ian writer, born in the Romania in 1779. He married
a daughter of the poet Monti in 1812. His works, which
form two volumes of the " Biblioteca Scelta," (Milan,
1831,) are commended. Died in 1822.
See M >NTANARI, " Biografia di G. Perticari," 1^36.
Fer'ti-nax, (Hr.LVius,) a Roman emperor, born at
Alba Pompeia, on the Tanaro, in 126 A.D., was a son
of a dealer in charcoal. He was a teacher of grammar
before he entered the army. As prefect of a cohort, he
served with distinction against the Parthians. He was
admitted into the senate, and obtained command of a
legion in the reign of Marcus Aurelitis. In 179 A.D. he
was consul. He suppressed a mutiny in Britain in the
reign of Commodus, and was proclaimed emperor by the
senate at the death of Commodu>, in January, 193 A.n.
By the announcement of important reforms, and his
efforts to restore discipline, he made enemies among the
courtiers and praetorians, who murdered him in his
palace in March, 193 A.I).
See CAPITOI.INUS. " Pertinax ;" Diov CASSIUS, "History of
Rome;" GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Komin Empire."
Pertusier, de, deh peVtu'zeJi', (CHARLES,) a lit
terateur, born at Baume-les-Dames, in France, in 1779;
died in 1836.
Pertz, p^Rts, (GF.ORG HEINRICH,) a German historian,
born at Hanover in 1795. He became royal librarian
and councillor of the archives in his native city, and was
a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. His
most important work is entitled " Historical Monuments
of Germany," (" Monuments Germanize historica," 13
vols., 1854.)
Perugin, Le. See PKRUGINO.
Perugino, pi-roo-jee'no, [called in French LE PE
RUGIN, leh pa'rii'zha.N',] originally Pietro Vanucci,
(va-noot'chee,) written, also, Vannucci and Vanuzzi,
an eminent Italian painter, born at Castello della Pieve
in 1446. He painted some frescos for Sixtus V. in the
Sistine Chapel, Rome, about 1480, after which he worked
at Florence and Perugia, from which circumstance he
received his surname IL PERUGINO, or "the Perugian."
He was a good colorist, and surpassed most of his
contemporaries in the gracefulness of his heads and
figures. His style, however, is considered rather dry.
Among his best works are an " Infant Christ with the
Virgin," in the Albani palace, Rome, the frescos of
Scriptural subjects in the Sala del Cambio at Perugia,
and an oil-picture of "The Holy Family," and a " Dead
Christ," in the Pitti palace, Florence. He was the
master of Raphael. Died in 1524.
SeeVASARl, "Lives of the Painters;" I?. ORSIM, " Vita Hi Pietro
Perugino," 1804; LANZI, " History of Painting in Itay:" MRS.
JAMESON, " Memoirs of Earlv Italian Painters;" A. MKZZANOTTK,
"' Commentaiio storico della Vita di P. Vanmicci," 1836.
Peruzzi, pa-root'see, (BALDASSARK,) an able Italian
architect ami painter, born near Sienna in 1481. He
painted some frescos at Rome, and attained great skill
in perspective and scene-painting. His fresco of the
"Judgment of Paris," in the Villa Belcaro, is called
his master-piece. He designed the beautiful Palazzo
Massimi, Rome, and the celebrated Palazzo Farnesina,
in which he painted "Perseus and Medusa." Having
been appointed architect of Saint Peter's about 1520, he
made a design for that church ; but it was not executed.
His works are characterized by grandeur, purity of de
sign, and nobleness of expression. Died in 1536.
See YASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, "History of
Painting in Italy ;" QUATRKM&RE UE QuiNCV, " Vies des plus illus-
tres Aichitectes."
Peruzzini, pi-root-see'nee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian
historical painter, born in 1629; died at Milan in 1694.
Pesarese, IL See CANTARINI, (SIMONE.)
Pesaro, pa'sa-ro or peVa-ro, (GIOVANNI,) an able
Venetian diplomatist, born in 1589. He was elected
doge in 1658. Died in 1659.
Pescaire, de, MARQUIS. See AVALOS, D'.
Pescara, de, MARQUIS. See AVALOS, n'.
Pescatore, p£s-ka-to'ra, (GIAMBATTISTA,) an Italian
poet, born at Ravenna. He wrote a continuation of
Ariosto's "Orlando Furioso," (1548,) and other works.
Died in 1558.
Pesce, pa'sha, (XiCoi.A or COLA,) a Sicilian, who
was noted as a swimmer and diver, lived about 1360-
80. It is said that he dived into the whirlpool of
Charybdis and brought up a gold cup which Frederick
II. had thrown there to test his skill.
Pescermius Niger. See NIGER.
Peselli, pa-seKlee, or Pesellino, pa-se"l-lee'no.(FRAN-
CKSCO,) a painter, born in 1426, was a son of Pesello,
noticed below. Died in 1457.
Peselli, (FRANCESCO PESELLO,) an Italian painter,
born at Florence in 1380. He painted animals with
success. Died in 1457.
Peselli, (PESELLO,) an Italian painter of history and
animals, born at Florence in 1404; died in 1481.
Pesh-da'di-an or Pish-da'dl-au, [from the Persian
phliddd or pishdad, i.e. "lawgiver,"] the name of one of
the earliest of the ancient Persian dynasties, so called,
according to Sir William Jones, from Hoosheng, (Hu-
sheng,) who was distinguished for his justice and was
surnamed PESHDAD, or the "lawgiver." Kaioomers,
the grandfather of Hoosheng, is commonly called the
founder of the Peshdadian dynasty, and is said to have
been the first who established a code of laws and a regu
lar government in Persia. To this line of Persian kings
belonged the famous Jemsheecl, (or Jamschid,) who
occupies so prominent a place in the ancient legends of
the East.
See ATKINSON, " Abridgment of the Shall Nameh of Firdausi,"
London, 1832; "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of the works
of SIR WILLIAM JOMKS.
Pesmes, de, deh pirn, (FRANCOIS Louis,) a Swiss
general, called SAINT-SAPHORIN, (saN sS'fo'iaN',) was
born in the Pays de Vaud in 1668. He was sent by
the Swiss government to the Congress of Utrecht, and
signed the treaty of alliance in 1714. He entered the
service of George I. of England in 1716 as a general,
and was sent as minister to Vienna. Died in 1737.
Pesne, pin, (ANTOINE,) a French painter, born in
I Paris in 1683. He worked at Berlin, to which he was
invited by the king. He painted many portraits and
historical pieces, and received the title of first painter
to the king. Died in Berlin in 1757.
Pesne, (JEAN,) a painter and engraver, the father of
the preceding, was born at Rouen about 1624. He en-
€ as k; 9 as s: g hard: g as/; o, H, K, guttural: N, nasal: R, trilled: § asz: th as in thif.
Explanations,
PESSELIER
1774
PETER
graved many admirable prints after Nicolas Poussin,
whose style and spirit he reproduced with great success.
Died in Paris in 1700.
Pesselier, pes'lc^i', (CHARI.KS ETIENNE,) a French
litterateur, was borrT'in Paris in 1712. He wrote com
eclies, fables, and other works. Died in 1763.
Fessuti, pes-soo'tee, ( GIOVACCHINO, ) an Italian
mathematician, born at Rome in 1743. He obtained
in 1787 the chair of mathematics at the Roman Col
lege of Sapienza. He wrote treatises on hydraulics and
on the occultation of fixed stars by the moon, (1802.)
Died in 1814.
Pestalozzi, pes-ta-lot'see, (JoHANN HEINRICH,) a
Swiss teacher and educational reformer of great merit
and influence, was born at Zurich in 1746. He received
a liberal education, and became a cultivator of the soil,
but in this occupation he was not successful. He wrote
a popular novel, " Leinhardt und Gertrud," (4 vols.,
1781,) designed to promote the better education of the
poor, and " Inquiries into the Process of Nature for the
Development of the Human Race," (1797.) In 1798 he
opened a school for orphans at Stanz, where he adopted
a system of mutual instruction. Having been driven
from Stanz by the Austrians in 1799, he removed to
Burgclorf, where his school prospered and acquired a
wide reputation. In 1804 he removed to Yverdun.
He was distinguished for energy, philanthropy, and
originality, but was deficient in practical ability to
manage a large institution. Died in 1827.
See his Autobiography, entitled "The Fortunes of my Life," 1826 ;
OPPEU " J. H. Pestalozzi's Leben," 1*46; Life, by VON RAUMKR.
1855; BANDLIN, " Pestalozzi, seine Zeit, stine Wirkungen," 1X43;
BI.OCHMANN, " H. Pestalozzi." Dresden, 1X46; AHRENUS, "Pesta
lozzi, sein Leben und sein Wirken," 1846; E. BIBKR, " Beitrag znr
Biographic J. H. Pestalozzi." 1827; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1828; " Blackwood's
Magazine" for July, 1849.
Pestel, pes'tel, (FRIEIIKICH WIUIELM,) a German
jurist, born at Rinteln in 1724 ; died at Leyden in 1805.
Pestel, pes'tel, (PAUL,) a Russian revolutionist, born
in 1794, was a leader of a secret society or conspiracy
which designed to substitute liberal institutions for
absolutism in Russia. He was hung in 1826.
Petagna, pa-tan'ya, (VINCKNZO,) an Italian botanist,
born at Naples in 1734. He was professor of botany
in the University of Naples, and published "Botanic
Institutes," (" Institutions Botanicae," 5 vols., 1785.)
Died in 1810.
Petau, peh-tf/, or Petavu, peh-tt'vif, [Lat. PETA'-
vius,] ( DEN is,) a French scholar and Jesuit of great
learning, born at Orleans in 1583. He was professor of
theology at Paris from 1621 to 1644. He published a
great work on chronology, " De Doctrina Temporum,"
(2 vols., 1627,) which is highly esteemed. Among his
other works is "Theologica Dogmata," (=; vols., 1644-50.)
He wrote against Salmasius. Died in Paris in 1652.
See BAVI.H, "Historical and Critical Dicti >nary ;" HENKI DE
VAI.OIS, "Oratio in Obitum D. Petavii," 1653; LEON ALLATIIIS,
" Me'issolyra de Laudibus D. Petavii," 1653; NICKRON, "M£-
moires."
Petau, (PAUL,) an antiquary, born at Orleans in 1568.
He wrote on medals, etc. Died in 1614.
Petavius. See PETAU, (DENIS.)
Petavu. See PETAU.
Fe'ter, [Gr. Ilerpoc; Lat. PE'TRUS ; Fr. PIERRE, pe-aiu';
Ger. PETER, pa'ter ; Ital. PIKTRO, pe-a'tko ; Span.
PEDRO, pa'i)Ro,j SAINT, one of the twelve apostles, was
born at P>ethsaida, on the Sea of Galilee, and was a
brother of Andrew. His original name was SIMON ;
but when he became a disciple of Christ he received
the name of PETER, which in Greek signifies a "rock."
He was sometimes called CEPHAS. His occupation was
that of a fisherman. He was a man of ardent tempera
ment, affectionate and generous. He was favoured with
special manifestations of his Master's confidence, and
performed a more prominent part in the sacred history
than any other of the twelve disciples. Peter and An
drew were the first of the apostles in the order of time.
On several occasions Peter acted as spokesman for his
fellow-apostles ; and it is supposed by many that he
possessed some pre-eminent authority. When the Lord
Jesus was arrested, Peter drew a sword and cut off the
ear of the high-priest's servant; but, in the severe crisis
that followed, his faith and courage failed, so that he
denied his Master. Having recovered from this lapse
by hearty repentance, he became a zealous and powerful
minister, and spoke with great effect at Jerusalem on the
clay of Pentecost. He raised Tabitha, or Dorcas, from
the dead, and performed other miracles. He received a
divine mission to preach the gospel to Cornelius, a gen
tile. About 44 A.I), he was cast into prison by Herod
the king, but he was delivered by an angel. The last
passage of sacred history which mentions Saint Peter
is the account of a council held at Jerusalem about 50
A.n. (Acts xv.) Tradition adds that he preached in
Galatia, Cappadocia, Bithynia, and Pontus, and that he
suffered martyrdom in Rome about 65 A.I). He wrote
two epistles, which are included in the canon of Scrip
ture, and are highly prized.
See Matthew x. 2, xvi. 16-19, xvii., xxvi. 33-75; Mark i. 16, 29,
ix. 2, 5, x. 28, xiv. 29, 33, 54, 66-72; Luke v., vi. 14, xviii. 2S,
xxii. 31-34, 54-62, xxiv. 12; John i. 40-44, vi. 6S, xiii. 6-9, 24, 37,
xvi.i. 10, 15-18, 25-27, xx. 2-6, xxi. 2-21 ; Acts i., ii., iii., iv., v., viii.
14, 20, ix. 32-43. x. 5-48, xi. passim, xii. 3-17, and xv. 7. Also,
L. CUCCAGNI, "Vita di San Pietio," 1777.
Pe'ter, (or Pedro, pa'dRo,) often called Dom Pedro,
(ANTONIO J<>/,£ de Alcantara — da al-kan'ta-ra,) Em-
peror of Brazil and King of Portugal, a son of John VI.
of Portugal, was born at Queluz in 1798. On the con
quest of Portugal by the French, in 1807, he was taken
by his father to Brazil. He married Maria Leopoldina
of Austria about 1816, and became Regent of Brazil
in 1821. A revolution having rendered Brazil indepen
dent of Portugal, Dom Pedro was proclaimed emperor
on the I2th of October, 1822. He was recognized as
such by the Portuguese government in 1825. At the
death of his father (1826) he inherited the throne of
Portugal, which he soon abdicated in favour of his
daughter, Donna Maria da Gloria. The disaffection of
his subjects became so violent that he abdicated the
crown of Brazil in favour of his son in 1831, and re
turned to Portugal, from which he expelled his brother,
Dom Miguel, who had usurped the royal power. Died
in 1834.
See KIHJARD GROSSK, "Dom Pedro I., oder Geschichte der
neuesten Revolution von Brasilien und Portugal," 1836; "Nouvelle
Biographic Generate. "
Peter or Pedro II. de Alcantara, Emperor of
Brazil, born at Rio Janeiro in December, 1825, is a son
of the preceding, who abdicated in his favour in 1831.
He began to act as emperor on the 23d of July, 1840,
when he was declared of age. In 1843 'le married
Theresa Christina Maria, a daughter of the King of
the Two Sicilies. He cultivates literature, and has the
reputation of a liberal and popular ruler.
Peter, Emperor of Constantinople. See COURTENAY,
DE, (PIERRE.)
Peter j Russ. PETR, pe-dtr'] I., or Peter the Great,
[Fr. PIERRE I.K GRAND, pe-aik' leh gRON ; Ger. PETER
DER GROSSE, pa'ter dergRos'seh ; It. PlKTROlL GRANDE,
pe-a'tRo el gRan'da ; Lat. PE'TRUS MAG'NUS,] Czar of
Russia, born at Moscow, June 10, 1672, was the third son
of Alexis Mikhailovitch. His mother was Natalia, the
second wife of Alexis. Feodor, the eldest son of Alexis,
having died without issue, in 1682, Peter was recognized
as his successor, in preference to Ivan, who was a feeble
minded youth. Their ambitious sister Sophia, however,
fomented a bloody mutiny among the strelitzes, and
procured the proclamation of Ivan and Peter as joint
sovereigns. Sophia acted as regent until 1689, when
she was confined in a convent and Peter began to reign
as sole autocrat. He married Eudoxia Feodorovna in
1689. Some years before this date he had received
scientific instruction from Le Fort, a native of Geneva,
who became one of his advisers or ministers after his
accession.
Peter had received from nature violent passions and
an indomitable energy. In the early part of his reign
he determined to reform the institutions, governmental
system, and customs of Russia, which was far behind
other countries of Europe in civilization. His first care
was to organize an army with the European discipline;
and he set the example by entering the army himself as
a private soldier. He also gave much attention to the
construction of a navy, and learned practical seamanship
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; met; nftf; good; moon;
PETER
1775
PETER
by cruising on the White Sea. He procured the ser
vices of many foreign engineers, shipsvrights, artisans,
etc. In 1696 he captured Azof from the Turks by the
aid of his new navy.
Prompted by an irrepressible activity and desire of
knowledge, in 1697 he visited Western Europe incognito,
accompanied by several of his favourite officers or min
isters, who were accredited as ambassadors to Holland.
Tie took a lodging in a small house at Saardam, where
he worked for wages as a ship-carpenter, under the name
of Pieter Timmerman.
In January, 1698, he went to England, where he passed
about three months. Here, says Macaulay, "his stately
form, his intellectual forehead, his piercing black eyes,
his Tartar nose and mouth, his gracious smile, his frown,
black with all the stormy rage and hate of a barbarian
tyrant, . . . were during some weeks popular topics of
conversation." He returned to his capital, Moscow,
after an absence of seventeen months, and punished
with great severity the strelitzes, who had rebelled while
he was absent. He established naval and other schools,
caused useful works to be translated into Russian, re
quired his subjects to trade with foreigners, and made
various other innovations, against which a great number
of his subjects were deeply prejudiced. He also dis
banded the strelitzes, who had served as a body-guard
of the C/.ars. In 1700 he formed an alliance with the
Kings of Poland and Denmark against Charles XII.
of Sweden, who defeated the Russians at Narva in the
same year. Peter founded Saint Petersburg in 1703,
and prosecuted vigorously the war against Charles, who
was defeated at the decisive battle of Pultowa, in 1709.
(See CHARLES XII.) In 1711 he married Catherine,
a girl of obscure origin, who had been taken prisoner at
Marienburg. (See CATHHRINE I.)
The war between Russia and Turkey having been re
newed, Peter conducted an army in person across the
Pruth into the dominions of the Sultan. Hemmed in
by the Turkish army, and unable to obtain a regular
supply of provisions, he was reduced to a dangerous
situation, from which, it is said, the empress Catherine
rescued him by overtures of peace and rich presents to
the grand vizier. Peter obtained peace by restoring Azof
and Taganrog in July, 1711, after which he prosecuted
with success the war against the Swedes in Pomerania
and conquered Finland. He transferred the senate to
Saint Petersburg in 1713, soon after which the imperial
palaces of that city were finished. In 1716 he visited
Germany, Holland, Denmark, and France. During his
visit to Copenhagen he was appointed commander-in-
chief of the combined fleets of Russia, Holland, England,
and Denmark.
Alexis, the eldest son of Peter, had constantly opposed
his projects of reform, and had selected his favourites
and advisers among the enemies of his father's policy.
Having remonstrated without effect against this conduct,
Peter compelled him, in February, 1718, to renounce the
succession. Alexis was then tried for conspiracy by a
council of judges and bishops, who condemned him to
death. The circumstances attending the death of Alexis,
attested as they appear to be by unimpeachable wit
nesses, seem to prove beyond a doubt that he was
poisoned by order of his father. (See ALEXIS.)
In 1719 Peter was afflicted by the death of his second
son, Peter, the heir-apparent and the issue of Catherine.
He made, in September, 1721, at Nystad, (or Neustadt,\
a treaty of peace with the King of Sweden, who ceded
to him Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, Carlia, and Viborg.
Finland was restored to Ssveden by this treaty. Having
thus fortunately ended a war of twenty years, he assumed,
at the request of the senate, the titles of" Peter the Great,
Emperor of all the Russias, and Father of his Country."
He afterwards directed his attention to internal improve
ments, and founded the Academy of Sciences about 1724.
The public offices and tribunals had been removed in
1721 to Saint Petersburg, the population of which he
had rapidly increased by arbitrary measures. Among
his favourite ministers and courtiers were Mentchikof
and Galitzin. He died at Saint Petersburg on the 28th
of January or the 8th of February, 1725, leaving two
daughters, Elizabeth, who became empress, and Anna.
Catherine reigned until her death, in 1727, and was suc
ceeded by Peter II., a son of Alexis.
See JOHN MOTTI.EY, "Life of Peter the Great," 3 vols., 1739;
MAUVILI.OX, " Histoire de Pierre ler," 1742 : ALEX. GORDON, " His
tory of Peter the Great," 1755; VOLTAIRE, " Histoire cle Russiesous
Pierre le Grand," 1759-63 : CLAUDIUS, " Peter der Grosse," 3 vols.,
1798-1818; GOLIKOW, "Life of Peter the Great," (in Russian.) 12
vols., 1788-98; RABENER, " Leben Petri I.," 1725; VON HAI.EM,
" Leben Peters des Grossen," 3 vols., 1803-05 ; GROSSE, " Peter
der Grosse," 1836 : PH. DE SEGUK, " Histoire de Russie et de Pierre
le Grand," 1829 : REICHE, " Peter der Grosse und seine Zeit," 1841 ;
BENJAMIN BERGMANN, " Peter der Grosse a's Menschund Regent,"
3 vols., 1823-26; "North American Review" for October, 1845, (by
J. LOTHROP MOTLEY.) ?^7«. . H-'e77"'"*^-Yr s •
Peter II, (Alexievitch,) a grandson of Peter the
Great, was born in 1714 or 1715. He began to reign in
May, 1727. His accession was promoted by Mentchikof,
who expected to have great power or influence during
his minority. Ivan Dolgoruki, however, became the
favourite of Peter, who banished Mentchikof to Siberia.
Peter died in January, 1730, and was succeeded by Anna
Ivanowna.
Peter III, (Feodorovitch,) Emperor of Russia,
born in 1728, was a grandson of Peter the Great, and a
son of Anna, who was married to the Duke of Holstein-
Gottorp. He was recognized as heir to the throne by
Elizabeth in 1742, and married, in 1745, Sophia Augusta
of Anhalt-Zerbst, who assumed the name of Catherine.
He succeeded his aunt Elizabeth in January, 1762.
Among his first acts was a treaty of peace with Frederick
the Great. Having provoked the enmity of the nobles
and clergy by some innovations, he was dethroned and
strangled in July, 1762, by conspirators, of whom his
wife was an accomplice. (See CATHERINE II.)
See RANFT, " Lebensbeschreibung des Kaisers Peter III.," 1773 ;
THIEBAL'LT DE LAVEAUX, " Histoire de Pierre III," 3 vols., 1798;
GOLDERN-. "Biographic Peters III.," 1792 ; HELBIG, "Biographic
Peters III.," 2 vols., 1808-03.
Peter (or Pedro, pa'nRo) I., King of Aragon, was a
son of Sancho Ramirez. Died in 1104.
Peter (or Pedro) II., King of Aragon, born in 1174,
was a son of Alfonso II. Died in 1213.
Peter (or Pedro) III., surnamed THE GREAT, King
of Aragon, was born in 1236, and succeeded nis father,
James I., in 1276. He had married about 1262 Con
stance, a daughter of Manfred, King of Naples and Sicily.
After the death of Manfred, Peter asserted his claim to
the kingdom of Naples against Charles of Anjou, who
had possession of it and who was supported by the
pope. The interest of Peter was promoted by the mas
sacre of the French at the Sicilian Vespers, March 30,
1282, and by several naval victories gained by his ad
miral, Roger di Loria, over the fleet of Charles. He
died in 1285, and was succeeded by his son, Alfonso III.
See ZURITA, " Anales de Aragon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Peter (or Pedro) IV., surnamed THE CEREMONIOUS,
King of Aragon, born in 1317, was the son of Alfonso
IV. He began to reign in 1336. Died in 1387.
Peter (or Pedro) I., surnamed THE CRUEL, King of
Castile and Leon, born about 1334, succeeded his father,
Alfonso XL, in 1350. He married Blanche de Bourbon,
a French princess, in 1353, but he soon imprisoned her
and married Juana de Castro, whom he also maltreated.
The friends of these ladies revolted without success, and
Blanche was put to death by order of Peter. About
1366 he was driven out of Castile by Du Guesclin and
others, who supported Pedro's brother, Henry de Trans-
tamare, as king. Peter was restored by the English
Black Prince in 1367, and was assassinated by Henry de
Transtamare in 1369.
See LOPEZ DE AYAI.A, " Cronica de los Reyes Pedro I.," etc.,
2 vols., 1848; FROISSART, "Chronicles;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Peter (Pedro) I., King of Portugal, born in 1320,
was a son of Alfonzo IV., whom he succeeded in 1357.
Died in 1367.
Peter (Pedro) II., King of Portugal, a younger son
of John IV., was born in 1648. Having deposed his
brother, Alfonzo VI., in 1667, he became regent. lie
reigned as king from 1683 until his death, in 1706.
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal; R, trilled ' ; s as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PETER
1776
PETERS
Peter or Pedro IV. of Portugal. See PETER I.,
Emperor of Brax.il.
Peter or Pedro V., King of Portugal, born at Lisbon
in September, 1837, was a son of Queen Donna Maria da
Gloria, and a nephew of the preceding. lie succeeded
his mother in November, 1853, under the regency of his
father, and assumed the functions of royalty in Septem
ber or November, 1855. Fie was a popular prince. He
died in November, 1861, and was succeeded by his
brother, Louis I.
Peter (or Pierre, pe-aiiO I., surnamed MAUCLERC,
Duke of Brittany, and Count de Dreux, was a grandson
of Louis VI. of France. lie married, about 1212, Alix
de Thouars, the heiress of Brittany. He served under
Louis IX. in the crusade of 1249, and died in 1250.
Peter (Pierre) II., Duke of Ikittany, succeeded his
brother, Francis I., in 1450. Died in 1457.
Peter, [Gr. Her/jof,] Bishop of Alexandria, succeeded
Theonas in 300 A.I). He was beheaded in the reign of
Maximinus II., in 311. lie is eulogized by Eusebius.
Peter or Fe'trus OF ALEXANDRIA, the companion
and successor of Athanasius. Having been designated
by the latter, he was elected bishop by the orthodox
party in 373 A.D., but was quickly deposed by the Arians.
He was restored in 378, and died in 381 A.I).
Peter OK BUMS, [Lat. PE'TRUS BLESEN'SIS,] an emi
nent French ecclesiastic, born at Blois. He was ap
pointed Archdeacon of Bath by Henry II. of England.
He died in 1200, leaving many letters and other works,
which have been printed, (1519 and 1667.)
Peter or Pe'trus of SEHAS'TE. a bishop, born in
Cappadocia about 350 A.I)., was a brother of Basil the
Great, by whom he was ordained a presbyter. He
became Bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, about 380.
Died after 390 A.n.
Peter, | Lat. PE'TRUS,] surnamed CHRYSOI/OGUS, a
Bishop of Ravenna, who died in 450 A.n.
Peter de Bruys, (deh biui-e',) a French preacher,
who began about mo to speak against the corruptions
of the Church. He is said to have rejected masses, the
Lord's Supper, and other ordinances. He was burned
at the stake in 1130.
See HfiixisoN, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867.
Peter Coniestor. See COMESTOR.
Peter the Deacon, an Italian chronicler, born at
Rome in 1107 ; died after 1159.
Peter the Hermit, [Fr. PIERRE I.'ERMITE, pe-ain'
leR'met'; It. P o L'ERKMITA, pe-a'tRo li-ra-mee'ta,]
a famous enthu. , agitator, and crusader, was born in
the diocese of -A is about the middle of the eleventh
century. He pcr.jrmed a pilgrimage to Palestine about
1094, and Wc.~-> filled with indignation by the oppressions
to which the pilgrims were subjected. On his return
he received a commission from Pope Urban II. to preach
a crusade against the infidels. He traversed France
and other countries barefoot, and by his fervent appeals
enlisted a host of crusaders and outlaws estimated at
nearly 100,000. He led them as far as Constantinople,
and, after the defeat of this rabble near Nice, he accom
panied Godfrey to Jerusalem. Nearly all of the rabble
perished miserably. He died in Flanders in 1115.
See MICHAUD, "Histoire des Croisades ;" H. PRAT, "Pierre
1'Ermite et la premiere Croisade," 1840.
Pe'ter Lom'bard, a distinguished Italian theologian,
born in the district of Novara. He was elected Bishop
of Paris in 1 159. He produced a celebrated compilation
of sentences from the Fathers, (" Sententiarum Libri
IV.,") which was much used as a text-book, and often
reprinted and commented on. Died about 1160.
Peter Martyr. See ANGIIIEUA, DE.
Pe'ter Mar'tyr, [Ital. PIETRO MARTI RE, pe-a'tRo
maR'te-ra,] or PIETRO Vermigli, (veR-mel'yee,) an emi
nent Protestant theologian, was born at Florence in 1500,
and educated in the Catholic faith. Having been con
verted to the Reformed religion, he repaired in 1542 to
Zurich, where he acquired the friendship of Bullinger.
He afterwards became professor of theology at Stras-
burg, having the celebrated Bucer for his colleague. At
the invitation of Edward VI., he visited England, and
was appointed in 1549 professor of divinity at Oxford.
Soon after the accession of Mary, he left England, and
was invited to fill the chair of theology at Zurich. As a
Protestant writer he is esteemed second only to Calvin,
whom he is said to have surpassed in learning, and his
virtues and eloquence were eulogized by Catholics as
well as Protestants. He was the author of several com
mentaries on the Scriptures, and other theological works.
Died at Zurich in 1562.
See M'C'RIE, " History of the Reformation in Italy;" SCIU.OSSER,
"Leben Peter Martyrs," iSoq; WOOD. "Athens Oxom'enses ;"
SCHMIDT, "Vie de Pierre Martyr Vermigli," Strasbourg, 1835.
Pe'ter Mon'gus, [Gr. Tlsrpof 6 Moyydf,] became Mo-
nophysite Patriarch of Alexandria in 477 A.I). Having
been deposed by the emperor Zeno, he was restored in
482. By a compromise or temporizing policy he retained
his office until he died, in 490.
See SMITH, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc.
Peter Nolasque (no'ltsk') or Nolasco, (no-las'ko,)
the founder of the Order of Mercy, (for the redemption
of captives taken by the Moors,) was born in Languedoc
about 1189; died in 1256.
Peter the Venerable, a French monk, born about
1092, became Abbot of Clugny. Died in 1156.
Peter, pa'ter, (WENCESLAUS,) a Bohemian painter,
born at Carlsbad in 1742. He worked at Rome, and
was a skilful painter of animals. Died at Rome in 1829.
Peterborough. See MORDAUNT.
Feterman^pa'ter-man', (AUGUST HEINRICH,) a Ger
man geographer, born near Nordhausen in 1822. He
aided Johnston, of Edinburgh, in the " Physical Atlas,"
and T. Milner in the " Atlas of Physical Geography."
He became about 1854 editor of a monthly journal
devoted to geographical discovery, published at Gotha.
He wrote or edited " An Account of the Expeditions to
Central Africa." -/?— <*v '*/*
Feterneefs. See NEEFS, (PETER.)
Peters, pa'ters, (BONAVENTURK,) a Flemish painter,
born at Antwerp in 1614, was the best marine painter
of his time. His favourite subjects were storms and
shipwrecks. He also painted views of the sea in a
calm. Died at Antwerp in 1652.
Pe'ters, (CHARLES,) an English divine, born in Corn
wall. He became rector of Saint Mabyn in 1727, and
wrote a "Critical Dissertation on the Book of Job."
Died in 1777. A volume of his sermons was published
after his death.
Peters, (FRANCIS LUCAS,) a Flemish landscape-
painter, born at Mechlin (Malines) in 1606 ; died at
Brussels in 1654.
Peters, (GERARD.) See PIETERS.
Peters or Peter, (Huon,) an English dissenting
minister, born in Cornwall in 1599. tie preached in
Salem, Massachusetts, several years, between 1635 and
1641. On his return to England he became a par
tisan of the Parliament, acquired much influence, and
was a preacher to the army which fought against the
king. He was tried for treason and hung by the royalists
in 1660. His reputation is defended by some respectable
writers.
See S. PKTERS, " History of Hug!; Peters," 1807 ; BKOOK, " Lives
of the Puritans."
Peters, (JAN,) an excellent Flemish marine painter,
a brother of Bonaventure, noticed above, was born at
Antwerp in 1625. His figures are well designed and
his landscapes finely touched. Among his master-pieces
is the " Port of Oran." Died in 1677.
Pe'ters, (JoiiN CHARLES,) M.D.,an American homoe
opathic physician, born in New York in 1819, has pub
lished a" Treatise on Diseases of the Head," a " Treatise
on Diseases of the Eyes," and other medical works, and
was for a time editor of the " North American Journal
of Homoeopathy."
Peters, (PHILLIS WHEATLEY.) See WHEATLEY.
Peters, (RICHARD,) an American jurist, born in Phila
delphia in 1744. He was appointed in 1776 secretary
of the board of war, and was afterwards judge of the
United States district court for Pennsylvania. Died
in 1828. He was remarkable for his dry humour, ready
wit, etc.
Peters, (SAMUEL,) an Episcopal divine, born at
Hebron, Connecticut, in 1735. During the Revolution
he sided with the Tories, and took refuge in England,
i, e, T, o, u, v, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged: a, e, T, o, u, v, short : a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fill, fat; mSt; not: good: moon;
PETERS
1777
PETIT
where he published a "General History of Connecticut."
He is satirized in Trumbull's " McFingal" under the
name of " Parson Peter." Died in 1826.
Peters, (SAMUEL JARVIS,) an American merchant,
born in Canada in 1801, settled in New Orleans, and
became president of the State Bank of Louisiana. Died
in 1855.
Fetersen, pa'ter-seii, ( FREDERIK CHRISTIAN, ) a
Danish scholar, and professor of philology at ^Copen
hagen, was born in Seeland in 1786. Among his prin
cipal works are a "Manual of Greek Literary History,"
and an " Introduction to the Study of Archaeology,"
(1825.)
Petersen, (NIELS MATTHIAS,) an eminent Danish
historian and antiquary, born at Sanderum, in the isle
of Funen, in 1791. He was a fellow-student of Rask,
who became his friend. He published in 1829 a " His
tory of the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish Lan
guages," (2 vols.,) which is highly esteemed. In 1845
he became professor of Northern literature in the Uni
versity of Copenhagen. Among his important works
are a " History of Denmark in Heathen Times," (3
vols., 1834-38,) and "Contributions to the History of
Danish Literature," (ist vol., 1853.) He died in Copen
hagen in May, 1862.
See ERSLEW, " Forfatter-Lexicon."
Pe'ther, (ABRAHAM,) an English landscape-painter,
born at Chichester in 1756, was a son of William Pether,
noticed below. He painted moonlight scenes with suc
cess. Died in 1812.
His son SEBASTIAN, born about 1790, was also a
landscape-painter. Died in 1844.
Pether, (WILLIAM,) an English engraver in mezzotint,
and painter, born about 1730, flourished about 1770.
He engraved some works of Rembrandt, and some of
his own designs.
Pethion. See PETION, (JER6ME.)
Petiet, pa'te-i', (CLAUDE,) a French administrator,
born at Chatillon-sur-Seine in 1749. He was minister
of war from February, 1796, to July, 1797, and governor
of Lombardy, (1800-02.) Died in 1806.
Petigny, de, deh pa'ten'ye', (FRANgois JULES,) a
French antiquary, born in Paris in 1801. He received
a prize of nine thousand francs for his "Studies on the
History, Laws, and Institutions of the Merovingian
Period," (2 vols., 1842-44.) Died in 1858.
Pet'I-gru, (JAMES Louis,) an eminent American
lawyer and statesman, born in Abbeville district, South
Carolina, about 1789. He practised law at Charleston,
and was attorney-general of South Carolina from 1822
to 18^0. He differed from the large majority of the
people of his State on the subject of nullification about
1831. He also opposed the secession movement of
1860-61. Died in 1863.
See WM. J. GRAYSON, "James L. Petigrii ; a Biographical
Sketch," 1866.
Petion, pa/te-6N', (ALEXANDRE,) the first President
of the republic of Hayti, was born at Port-au-Prince in
1770. His father was a wealthy colonist, his mother a
mulatto. He was sent to France to be educated, and
served at an early age in the French army. Afterwards,
when the Revolution broke out, he took an active part
in the rising of the coloured people, and distinguished
himself as an officer of artillery. His humane disposi
tion and pleasing manners gained for him the favour of
all classes ; and during the period of terror he succeeded
in protecting many of the colonists. When the blacks,
under Toussaint, began to proscribe the whites and
mulattos, Petion resisted them by arms, but he was soon
forced to fly from the island. Returning with General
Le Clerc, he fought for some time under the French
standard ; but, disgusted at length by the cruelties of the
French, and especially by their treachery towards Tous
saint and their attempt to re-establish slavery, he again
joined Dessalines, and on the death of the latter was
elected President of the southern and western portion
of the island, while Christophe, who had been general-
in-chief under Dessalines, became ruler of the northern
part. Petion was a man of sincere and deep religious
convictions. As a ruler he was distinguished for the
republican simplicity of his manners and mode of life,
as well as for his humanity and impartial justice. But
the anxieties caused by the difficulties of his position, in
the midst of a population hitherto wholly unaccustomed
to self-control,— anxieties which were still further in
creased, on his part, by an extreme and almost morbid
conscientiousness, — proved too much for his health. He
died, universally lamented, on the 2gth of March, 1818.
As a military officer, he was remarkable for skill and
serene courage. For some very interesting particulars
respecting President Petion, the reader is referred to
numbers 48 and 49 of volume xxxix. of " The Friend,"
(1866,) published in Philadelphia. The article in ques
tion is from the pen of Stephen Grellet.
See SAINT-REMI, " Petion et Haiti," Paris, 5 vols., 1854-58.
Petion (or Pethion) de Villeneuve, pa'te-6N'*
deh vel'nuv', (JEROME,) a French revolutionist, born at
Chartres in 1753. He was a radical member of the
National Assembly in 1790. His abilities were mediocre.
He was one of the three deputies sent to conduct the
king from Varennes to Paris in 1791, and was censured
for his harshness or rudeness to the royal captives. In
November, 1791, he was elected mayor of Paris, in
preference to La Fayette, who was supported by the
moderate reformers. He appears to have been remiss
in his duties during the massacres of August and Sep
tember, 1792. Having been elected to the Convention,
he acted with the Girondists, and was proscribed about
the ist of June, 1793. He escaped to the department
of the Gironde, where he was found dead in a field in
June, 1794. The manner of his death was not ascer
tained.
See RKC;NAUI.T-\VARIN, "Vie de J. Petion, Maire de Paris,"
1796; LAMARTINE, " History of the Girondists."
Petis de la Croix, peh-te' deh It kiuva, (ALEXANDRE
Louis MARIE,) a French Orientalist, born in Paris in
1698, was a son of Frai^ois, (1653-1713.) He was pro
fessor of Arabic in the Royal College. Died in 1751.
Petis de la Croix, (FRANgois,) a French Oriental
ist, born in 1622. He was interpreter to the king, and
published a " History of Genghiz-Can," (Jengis Khan,)
(1710.) Died in 1695.
Petis de la Croix, (FRANCOIS,) an Orientalist, born
in Paris in 1653, was a son of the preceding. He studied
Arabic, Persian, and Turkish at Aleppo, Ispahan, and
Constantinople. As interpreter, he rendered important
services in the negotiations between the French court
and the Sultan and the Dey of Algiers. In 1695 he
became interpreter to the king. He translated from
the Persian "The Thousand and One Days," (5 vols.,
1710-12,) and a "History of Taimoor," (Tamerlane,)
(4 vols., 1722.) Died in 1713.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire."
Petit, peh-te' or p'te, (ALEXIS THERESE,) a French
natural philosopher, born at Vesoul in 1791, was a
brother-in-law of Arago. He became a teacher of phys
ics in the Polytechnic School in 1810, and titular pro
fessor in the same in 1815. He wrote an able " Memoir
on the Use of the Principle of Living Forces in the
Calculation of Machines," (1818.) Died in 1820.
See J. B. BIOT, " Notice sur Petit," 1821.
Petit, (ANTOINE,) an eminent French physician, born
at Orleans in 1718. He became professor of anatomy
at the Jarclin du Roi, Paris, in 1768, and. attracted a
large concourse of auditors. He published " Palfyn's
Surgical Anatomy, with Notes," (" Anatomic chirurgi-
cale de Palfyn, avec des Notes," 1753.) Died in 1794.
Petit, (JEAN Louis,) a celebrated surgeon, born in
Paris in 1674. lie served as army surgeon from 1692
to 1700, and then returned to Paris. His success was
great as a lecturer and a practitioner. He was for some
years the most celebrated surgeon in Europe. "The
services which he rendered to surgery." says a French
writer, "are immense." He was one of the founders of
the Academy of Surgery, (1731.) His chief work is an
excellent " Treatise on Surgery," (" Traite des Maladies
chirurgicales," etc., 3 vols., 1774.) Died in 1750.
See A. Louis, " filoge de J. L. Petit," 1750; "Biographic M^-
dicale."
* We are informed in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale" that,
although Petion generally wrote his name without the accent, it was
always pronounced Petion.
repuoncan simplicity ot nis manners ana mode ot lite, always pronounced Petion.
€ as k; <j as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (B^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
112
PETIT
1778
PETRARCH
Petit, (JEAN Louis,) a French historical and marine
painter, born in Paris in 1793. He gained a first medal
in 1841.
Petit, (JEAN MARTIN,) a French general, born in
Paris in 1772. He served as lieutenant-general at
Waterloo. Died in 1856.
Pet'it, (LEWIS HAYES,) F.R.S., an English gentle
man and patron of literature, was born in 1774; died
in 1849.
Petit, (MARC ANTOINE,) a French physician and
skilful surgeon, born at Lyons in 1766. He wrote
" Essai sur la Medecine du Coeur," (1806,) and several
poems. Died in 1811.
See BAUMES, "filoge de M. A. Petit," 1812.
Petit, (PIERRE,) a French mathematician, born at
Montlufon (Allier) about 1596. He obtained the offices
of engineer, counsellor to the king, and intendant-gene
ral of fortifications. He formed a friendship with Pas
cal, whom he aided in experiments on the vacuum and
barometer, (1646-47.) Among his works are a treatise
"On the Use of the Compass of Proportion," (1634,
and "Observations on the Vacuum," (1647.) He was a
Cartesian. Died in 1677.
SeeNlCERON, " Memoires ;" MOR^RI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
Petit, (PIERRE,) a learned P'rench writer, born in
Paris in 1617. Among his poems (in Latin) are "On
Tears," (" De Lacrymis Libri tres," 1661,) "Chinese
Tea," ("Thea Sinensis," 1685,) "On the Amazons,"
.("De Amazonibus," 1685,) and "On the Sibyl," ("De
•Sibylla," 1686.) He was one of the Latin poets who
formed the " Pleiade" of Paris. Died in 1687.
Petit, (SAMUEL,) a learned French Orientalist, born
at Nimes in 1594, was a Protestant minister. It is said
that he could speak Hebrew with ease. He wrote on
Jewish and Greek antiquities, chronology, etc. His
friendship was sought by Peiresc, Selden, Gassendi,
Vossius, and Gronovius. Died in 1643.
Petit, du, diip'te', (FRANgois POURFOUR,) a learned
French physician, born in Paris in 1664. He was suc
cessful in the treatment of cataract, and wrote several
treatises on the eyes. Died in 1741.
Petit-Didier, peh-te' cle'de-i', (MATHIEU,) a learned
French monk, was born in Lorraine in 1659. He wrote
" Remarks on the First Volumes of Dupin's Biblio-
theque Ecclesiastique," (3 vols., 1691-96,) and other
works. Died' in 1728.
Petit-Pied, peh-te' pe-i', (NICOLAS,) a French Jan-
senist, born in 1665. He~was a doctor of the Sorbonne,
and wrote many works in favour of Jansenism. Died
in 1747.
Petit-Radel, peh-te' rt'del', (Louis CHARLES FRAN
COIS,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1756. He
was a member of the Institute, and keeper of the Mazarin
Library. He published " Explanations of the Antique
Monuments of the Museum," (4 vols., 1804-06,) and
"Researches on Cyclopean Monuments," (1841.) Died
in 1836.
See QUERARD, "La France Litte'raire."
Petit-Radel, (Louis FRANCOIS,) a French architect,
born in Paris in 1740, was a brother of the preceding
Died in 1818.
Petit-Radel, (PHILIPPE,) a surgeon and medical
writer, born in Paris in 1749, was a brother of the pre
ceding. He obtained in 1798 the chair of surgical clinic.
He published " Medical Institutes," (" Institutions de
Medecine," 2 vols., 1801,) and compiled the " Dictionary
of Surgery," (3 vols., 1790,) which forms part of the
"Encyclopedic Methodique." Died in 1815.
See "Biographic Medicale."
Fetit-Thouars. See Du PETIT-THOUARS.
Petitain, peh-te'taN', (Louis GERMAIN,) a French
litterateur, born in Paris in 1765. He wrote some works
of fiction. Died in 1820.
Petitot, peh-te'to', (CLAUDE BERNARD,) a French
litterateur, born at Dijon in 1772. He translated the
dramatic works of Alfieri, (4 vols., 1802,) and edited
the works of Racine, (5 vols., 1805,) and the works of
Moliere, (6 vols., 1813.) Died in 1825.
Petitot, (JEAN,) an eminent painter on enamel, born,
of French parents, at Geneva in 1607. He visited Eng
land, where he obtained from the chemist Mayern some
important secrets respecting colours, and was patronized
by Charles I. He painted portraits of the royal family,
and copied some works of Van Dyck. About 1650 he
returned to France. He received a pension from Louis
XIV., whose portrait he painted many times. By order
of the king, Bossuet attempted to convert Petitot to
the Romish Church, but failed. His master-piece is a
whole-length portrait, in enamel, of the Countess of
Southampton, the dimensions of which are about nine
inches by five. His works are remarkable for delicacy
of design and harmonious richness of colour. Died at
Vevay in 1691.
See L. BRIGHT-WELL, " By-Pathsof Biography ;" " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie GihieVale."
Petitot, (Louis MESSIDOR LEBON,) a French sculptor,
born in Paris in 1794. He gained the grand prize in
1814, and went to Rome with a pension. Among his
works are many marble busts of Frenchmen. His capital
work is a colossal monument to Louis Bonaparte at
Saint-Leu. He was a member of the Institute. Died
in June, 1862.
Petitot, (PIERRE,) a sculptor, born at Langres in
1751, was the father of the preceding. Died in Paris
in 1840.
Pet'I-ver, (JAMES,) F.R.S., an English botanist, was
an apothecary of London. He furnished materials for
Ray's " History of Plants," published " Pterigraphia
Americana," (1712,) and other works, and forme'd a
rich collection of plants, minerals, and animals. Died
in 1718.
Fe'to, (Sir SAMUEL MORTON,) an English engineer
and contractor, born in Surrey in 1809. He constructed
the Grand Trunk Railway in Canada, with the tubular
bridge near Montreal, and several railways on the con
tinent of Europe. He was returned to Parliament for
Finsbury in 1859. Sir S. Morton Peto visited the United
States in 1865, and published "The Resources and Pros
pects of America," (1866.)
Petofi or Petoefi, pet'6-fee, (SANDOR, or ALEXAN
DER,) a Hungarian poet and litterateur, born in Little
Cumania in 1822. He published in 1847 a number of
patriotic songs, which enjoyed great popularity and had
a powerful influence in exciting the revolutionary feeling
of his countrymen. He also wrote several dramas and
prose works. His lyrics and odes display uncommon
genius, and have procured for him the name of "the
Hungarian Burns." He is supposed to have been
killed at the battle of Schassburg, (1849.)
See KERTBRNV, " Petoefy der Ungarische Nationaldichter;"
CHASSIN, " Petoefy et ses CEuvres," 1861.
Petrarca. See PETRARCH.
Fe'trareh, [It. PETRARCA, pa-tRaR'ka; Fr. P£-
TRARQUE, pa'tKSRk'; Lat. PETRAR'CHA,] (FRANCESCO,) a
celebrated Italian poet, was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany,
on the 2Oth of July, 1304. His father, a friend of Dante,
was banished from Florence in 1302 for his political
principles, and removed in 1313 to Avignon, which was
:hen the residence of the pope. He was sent to study
law at Montpellier, where he remained about four years,
(1318-22;) but he preferred the study of the classic au
thors, especially Cicero and Virgil. He made, however,
some progress in law under Cino da Pistoia at Bologna.
His fine personal and mental endowments procured for
him admission into the brilliant society of Avignon. He
was so handsome as to attract observation as he walked
in the streets. He was patronized by Cardinal Colonna,
and was an intimate friend of Giacomo Colonna, a
brother of the cardinal.
In 1327 his heart for the first time was touched by a
violent and profound passion. He has recorded the
place, the day, and the hour in which he first saw Laura
de Sade, a daughter of Audibert de Noves, and the wife
of Hugh de Sade, — a lady distinguished by her rank,
but more by her beauty and modesty. With consum
mate tact, she contrived, by a mixture of reserve, discre
tion, and sympathy, to preserve him and herself from the
fatal consequences of his wayward passion. "She took
my heart into her hand," he writes, "saying, 'Speak no
word of this.'" By her pure and excellent example his
passion appears to have been purified and exalted ; but
i, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon;
PETRARCH
1779
PETRIE
his admiration of her never abated, and the whole tenor
of his life was changed by her influence. He sought re
lief by the composition of the sonnets andcanzoni which
have rendered the name of Laura immortal. She ac
cepted this homage, which the usage of that age sanc
tioned, and was, perhaps, proud of his admiration. He
passed much time in collecting, collating, and copying
ancient manuscripts. We owe to him the preservation
of many Latin authors which were buried in the dust of
monastic libraries. About 1335 he visited Rome, the
ruins of which made a deep impression on him. He
also travelled in France, Germany, and Spain. He dis
covered two orations of Cicero at Liege, the " Institu
tions" of Quintilian at Arezzo, and Cicero's " Familiar
Letters" at Verona. Petrarch corresponded with the
most eminent scholars of his time, founded the library
of Saint Mark at Venice, and was one of the principal
revivers of classical literature in Italy.
About 1336 he retired to Vaucluse, a romantic valley
near Avignon, where he passed several years in solitude
and in vain efforts to forget his unhappy passion. Here
he meditated a great work which should be worthy of
his genius, and commenced a Latin epic poem, of which
Scipio Africanus was the hero. This poem, entitled
"Africa," is inferior to his Italian sonnets. In 1340 he
accepted an invitation from the Roman senate to come
to Rome and receive the laurel crown of poetry. He
was crowned at the Capitol in 1341. Petrarch appears
to have had much influence with several potentates of
his time. He exerted his eloquence to induce successive
popes to transfer the papal court from Avignon to Rome.
He was the colleague of the famous Rienzi in an embassy
sent by the Romans to Clement VI. for that purpose.
He became Archdeacon of Parma, and canon of several
cathedrals. His love of independence caused him to de
cline the office of apostolic secretary and the dignity of
bishop. In 1342 he met Laura, whose beauty had faded,
and who was not happy in her domestic relations. Her
husband was jealous and ill-tempered. Laura sang to
Petrarch, and parted from him with emotion and regret.
The death of Laura, which occurred in 1348, inspired
a new series of beautiful and exquisite sonnets, the
melody and pathos of which have probably never been
surpassed. It is reported that she died on the anni
versary of the day and hour that he first saw her.
Between 1350 and 1360 he resided at the court of Vis-
conti, Lord of Milan, who employed him in diplomatic
missions to Venice, to the Emperor of Germany, and
to the King of France. Among his intimate friends
at this period was Boccaccio. In 1370, for the sake
of retirement and the restoration of his health, he fixed
his residence at Arqua, among the Euganean Hills,
north of Padua. Fie was found dead in his library at
Arqua on the igth of July, 1374.* He left, besides other
prose works in Latin, a treatise "On Contempt of the
World," ("De Contemptu Mundi,") and many epistles,
which are highly prized as memorials of important events
which he witnessed. He had composed in praise of
Laura above three hundred sonnets and fifty canzoni.
Among his most perfect productions is " The Triumph
of Death," ("Trionfo delta Morte,") a poem, in which
he describes the death of Laura. The most complete
edition of Petrarch's works is that published at Bale, (2
vols. fol., 1581.) It contains, besides his Italian and
Latin poems, and the works already named in this notice,
"De Vera Sapientia," " De Officio et Virtutibus Impe-
ratoris," and " Vitarum Virorum Illustrium Epitome."
"The peculiar charm of Petrarch's character," says
one of his biographers, " is warmth of heart and a native
ingenuousness of disposition, which readily laid bare
his soul to those around." He was a believer in re-
* His epitaph, as given by some writers, is a curious specimen of
Latin versification, — rhyming hexameters:
" Frigida Francisci lapis hie tegit ossa Petrarchas.
Suscipe Virgo Parens animam : Sate Virgine parce;
Fessaque jam terris cceli requiescat in arce."
(See " Bibliotheca Vetus et Nova," by G. M. K.ONIG, Altdorf,
1678.)
The following is a nearly literal translation: "This stone covers
ihe cold bones of Francis Petrarch. Virgin Mother, receive his
soul ; O thou Son of the Virgin, have mercy ; and may [his soul,]
weary with earth, now find repose in the citadel of heaven."
vealed religion ; but he often protested openly agains
the corruptions of the papal court.
See I,. BECCADELLI, " Vita di Petrarca." (translated into English
by W. PVK, 1766;) L. ARETINO, "Vita di Petrarca," 1672; FKRNOW,
" F. Petrarca, nebst dem Leben des Dichters," 1818; TOMASINI,
" Petrarcha Redivivus," 1635 and 1650; ABBE DESADE, "Memoires
pour la Vie de Petrarque." 3 vols., 1764-67 ; FABRONI, " Petrarchae
Vita," 1799; LEVATI, " Viaggi di F. Petrarca," 5 vols., 1820: UGO
FOSCOLO, " Essay on Petrarch ;" LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry
of Europe," 1825; THOMAS CAMPBELL, "Life of Petrarch," 1841;
" Lives of Eminent Men of Italy," in LARDNER'S " Cabinet of Biog
raphy ;" GIBBON, "Decline and Fall," chap. Ixx. ; S. DOBSON,
"Life of Petrarch," 2 vols., 1775; MEINART, "Franc. Petrarca's
Biografie," 1794; LORD WOODHOUSELEE, "Essay, Historical and
Critical, on the Life and Writings of Petrarch," 1810; ERSCH nnd
GKUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" PRESCOTT, "Miscellanies,"
p. 616; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1843.
Petrarcha. See PETRARCH.
Petrarque. See PKTRARCH.
Petrazzi, pa-tkat'see, (ASTOLFO,) an Italian painter
of the Siennese school, was born in 1579 ; died in 1653.
Petre, pet'tr or pe'ter, (EDWARD,) an English Jesuit,
born about 1631. He was confessor or clerk of the closet
to James II., over whom he is said to have exerted an
evil influence in political affairs. Died in 1699.
Petre, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English statesman, born in
Devonshire. He became a Fellow of All Souls' College,
Oxford, in 1523, and afterwards master of requests.
About 1543 he was appointed secretary of state. He
held a high office in the reign of Edward VI., and was
secretary of state during the reign of Mary. Died in 1572.
Fe-tre'i-us, (MAKCUS,) a Roman general, to whom
the victory over Catiline (62 li.C.) is ascribed. He was
a partisan of the senate in the civil war, fought against
Caesar at Pharsalia, and commanded (with Afranius)
in Spain, where he was defeated by Caesar in 49 B.C.
He killed himself in Africa in 46 H.C., or was killed by
Juba in accordance with an agreement that they should
kill each other.
See DION CASSIUS, " History of Rome," books xli.-xliii.
Petrettini, pa-tret-tee'nee, (SPIRIDION,) an Italian
classical scholar, born at Corfu in 1777, became a resi
dent of Venice. He translated Velleius Paterculus into
Italian. Died in 1833.
Petri, pa'tRee, fin Flemish, PEETERS, pa'ters,] (BAR
THOLOMEW,) a Flemish theologian, born in Brabant
about 1545. He was professor at Louvain and Douai.
Died in 1630.
Petri, pa'tRee, (BERNHARD,) a German rural econo
mist, born at Deux-Ponts in 1767. He wrote several
works on the raising of sheep, and made improvements
in the rural economy of Germany. Died in 1842.
Petri, pa'tRee, (CHRISTIERN,) a Danish divine, who
published in 1529 a Danish version of the New Testa
ment.
Petri, pa'tRee, or Peterson, pa'ter-son, (LARS,) the
first Protestant Archbishop of Upsal, was born at
Oerebro in 1499. He studied under Luther at Witten
berg, and became archbishop in 1531. With the aid of
his brother Olaus and L. Andreae, he produced a Swedish
translation of the Bible, (1541.) He published several
works of theology. Died in 1573.
See " Biographiskt-Lexicon ofver narnnkunnige Svenska Man."
Petri, (OLAUS,) a brother of the preceding, was born
in 1497, and was a zealous preacher of the Reformed
religion. He became first minister of Stockholm in
1539. He published some religious works. Died in 1552.
Petri, pa'tRee, (SUFFKID or SUFFRIDUS,) a Dutch
philologist, born in Friesland in 1527. He obtained a
chair of law at Cologne in 1577. He was very learned,
but was deficient in taste and critical ability. Among
his works are "Orations on the Utility of the Greek
Language," (1566,) and "On the Writers of Friesland,"
("De Scriptoribus Frisiae Decades," 1593.) Died at
Cologne in 1597.
See NICERON, " Memoires ;" Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis."
Petrie, pee'tre, ? (Dr. GEORGE,) an Irish antiquary,
born at Dublin in 1791, was the author of an "Essay on
the Round Towers of Ireland," which obtained for him
the gold medal of the Royal Irish Academy. He also
published an "Essay on the Military Antiquities of Ire
land." Died in 1866.
See the "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1845; " Fra-
ser's Magazine" for July, 1858.
€ as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (B^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
PETRIE
1780
PETRARD
Petrie, pee'tre, ? (HENRY,) an English antiquary, born
in 1768, became keeper of the chancery records in the
Tower. He collected materials for the history of Great
Britain, of which two volumes were published, (1830-48.)
Died in 1842.
Petrini, pa-tuee'nee, (PiETRO ANTONIO,) an Italian
translator, born at Palestrina in 1722. Among his works
is a good version of Horace's " De Arte Poetica," (1777.)
Died in 1803.
Petrof, Petrov, or Petrow, pa'tnof, (VASSILI PE-
TROVITCH,) a Russian poet, born at Moscow in 1736. He
wrote odes and other poems, which have some merit,
and translated Virgil's " /Eneid" into Russian, (1781-86.)
He became imperial librarian about 1775. Died in 1799.
Petrone. See PETRONIUS ARBITER.
Petroni or Petronj, pa-tRo'nee, (STEFANO EGIDIO,)
an Italian poet, born near Perugia in 1770. Among his
works is "The Napoleonid : a Lyrical-Numismatical
Poem," ("La Napoleonide ; Poeme lyrique-numisma-
tique," 1810.) Died about 1845.
Pe-tro'nI-us, [Fr. PETRONE, pa'tRon',] or, more fully,
Fetro'nius Ar'biter, a licentious Latin writer, sup
posed to have lived in the reign of Nero. He described
the vices of his time in a satire or novel, in mingled
prose and verse, entitled " Satyricon," fragments of
which are extant. His style is classical, and the work
displays much talent, but is extremely licentious. The
author of this is supposed to be identical with Petronius,
a refined voluptuary who figured at the court of Nero as
arbiter elegantice, (umpire of fashion and taste,) and who
killed himself in 66 A.D.
See TACITUS, " Annales," book xvi. ; J. C. VON ORELI.I, "Lec-
tiones Petronianse," 1836; DUNLOP, " History of Fiction;" " Nou-
velle Biographic Generate."
Petrunti, pa-tRoon'tee, (FRANCESCO,) a skilful Italian
surgeon, born at Campobasso in 1785. He practised at
Naples, and wrote a "Treatise on Surgery," (2 vols.,
1822.) Died in 1839.
Petrus, the Latin for PETER, which see.
Petrus Aponis. See ABANO, ( PIETRO m.)
Petrus Blesensis. See PETER OF BLOIS.
Pe'trus Patricius (pa-trish'e-us) et Magls-ter, a
Byzantine historian of the sixth century, was born at
Thessalonica. He wrote a work on the history of the
empire under Tiberius and several of his successors,
some portions of which have been preserved.
Petter, pet'ter, (ANTON,) a German painter of history,
born at Vienna in 1783. He gained the grand prize for
his " Death of Aristides," and became director of the
Academy of Vienna in 1830. He painted many clas
sical subjects. He excels in harmony and brilliancy
of colouring.
Pettigrew, pet'te-gru, (THOMAS JOSEPH,) an English
surgeon, antiquary, and biographer, born in London in
1790. He was admitted to the College of Surgeons in
1812. He published, besides other works, a "History
of Egyptian Mummies," (1834,) a "Medical Portrait-
Gallery, or Memoirs of Celebrated Physicians and Sur
geons," a "Life of Lord Nelson," and a work "On
Superstitions connected with the Practice of Medicine,"
(1844.) Died in 1865.
Pettiti, pSt-tee'tee, COUNT, an Italian general, was
second chief of the staff in the army led by the king
against the Austrians in June, 1866.
Pettrich, peYtRiK, (FRANZ,) a Bohemian sculptor,
born in 1770, became professor in the Academy of Arts
at Dresden. Died in 1844. His son FERDINAND, born
at Dresden in 1798, studied under Thorwaldsen at Rome.
He has produced several works of superior merit.
Pet'tus, (Sir JOHN,) an English writer, born in Suf
folk. He became deputy governor of the royal mines,
and published "The History, Laws, and Places of the
Chief Mines in England and Wales," (1670.) Died
about 1690.
Petty, (HENRY.) See LANSDOWNE.
Petty, (WILLIAM.) See SHELBURNE.
Pet'ty, (Sir WILLIAM,) an eminent English political
economist, was born at Romsey, in Hampshire, in
1623. He became professor of anatomy at Oxford in
1650, and physician of the army in Ireland in 1652. He
served Henry Cromwell as secretary while he was lord
lieutenant of Ireland, about 1655. His reputation is
founded on his writings on commerce and political
economy, on which subjects he was in advance of his
age. Among his works are a "Treatise on Taxes and
Contributions," (1662,) "Political Arithmetic," (1682,)
and "The Political Anatomy of Ireland," (1692.) One
of his sons became Baron Shelburne. Died in 1687.
See a " Notice of Sir William Petty," prefixed to his " Political
Arithmetic," by his son ; WOOD, " Athena: Oxonienses."
Pet'tyt or Pet'yt, (WILLIAM,) an English writer on
law, born in Yorkshire in 1636. He was keeper of the
records of the Tower. Among his works is " Parliament
ary Law," ("Jus Parliamentarium," 1739.) Died in 1707.
Peucer, poits'er, [Lat. PEUCE'IUIS,] (KASPAR,) a
German scholar and physician of high reputation, born
at Bautzen in 1625, married a daughter of Melanchthon.
He became professor of medicine at Wittenberg about
1559. Having offended the Lutherans by advocating
some doctrines of Melanchthon, he was confined in prison
about eleven years, (1574-85,) and treated with rigour.
He wrote numerous works on geometry, theology, and
medicine; also an account of his imprisonment, "His-
toria Carcerum Peuceri," (1604.) Died in 1602.
See LEUPOI.D, " Lebensbeschreibung Peucers," 1745 ; HEIMBURG,
" De Gasp. Peucero," 1842; NICERON, "Memoires;" ERSCH und
GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Peucerus. See PEUCER.
Peu-ges'tas or Peu-kes'tas, [Gr. UevKearaf,] an offi
cer of Alexander the Great. lie attended that prince's
person in the expedition against Persia, and gained his
favour in a high degree. He was appointed satrap of
Persia in 331 or 330 B.C., and joined Alexander's army
at Babylon with about 20,000 Persians in 323. Having
co-operated with Eumenes against Antigonus, he was
deprived of his satrapy by the latter in 316 B.C.
Peuchet, puh'shcY, (JACQUES,) a French litth-atetir,
born in Paris in 1758. He published, besides other
works, "Statistics of France and its Colonies," (7 vols.,
1803,) "Commercial Library," (" Bibliotheque commer-
ciale," 12 vols., 1802-06,) and a "Dictionary of Political
Economy," (4 vols., 1810.) Died in 1830.
Peukestas. See PEUCESTAS.
Peurbach. See PURBACH.
Peut, puh, (FRANC.OIS MARIE HIPPOLYTE,) a French
publicist and economist, born at Lyons in 1809. He
published several journals and pamphlets,
Peuteman, puh'teh-man', (NIKLAAS or PIETER,) a
Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam about 1654. He
painted, with success, still life, cemeteries, and allegori
cal subjects. His death was hastened by fright. As he
was working in an anatomical cabinet, he fell asleep
among some skeletons. On awaking, he was horrified
by seeing them move rapidly and jostle against each
other. This was the effect of the earthquake of Sep
tember 18, 1692. He died the same month.
Peutinger, pu'tin-ger, [Ger. pron. poi'ting'er; Lat.
PEUTINGE'RUS,] (CONRAD,) an eminent German scholar
and antiquary, born at Augsburg in 1465. He was secre
tary of the city of Augsburg, and councillor to the empe
ror Maximilian. He was a diligent collector of statues,
medals, inscriptions, etc., and is called the founder in
Germany of the science of Roman and German antiqui
ties. He published "Convivial Discourses," ("Sermones
conviviales," 1506,) "Old Roman Inscriptions," ("In-
scriptiones vetustae Romanae," 1520,) and other works.
Died in 1547.
See J. C. WENDLER, " De Vita et Meritis Peutingeri ;" LOTTER,
"Vita Peutingeri," 1729; " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Peutingerus. See PEUTINGER.
Peyer, pT'er, (JOHANN CONRAD,) a Swiss anatomist,
born at Schaffhausen in 1653. He was professor of
logic and physical sciences at his native place, and
wrote several works on anatomy. He was the first who
described accurately the small bodies called Peyer's
glands. Died in 1712.
Peyrard, pA'rtR', (FRANCOIS,) a French mathema
tician, born at Vial (Haute-Loire) in 1760. He pub
lished a treatise " On Nature and its Laws," (4th edition,
1794,) and other works. His translations of the works
of Archimedes (1807) and of Euclid (3 vols., 1814-18)
are said to be the best in the French language. Died
in 1822.
8, e. T o u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
PETRAT
1781
PFE1FFER
Peyrat, pi'rSt', (Ai.PHONSE,) a French journalist and
political writer, born at Toulouse in 1812. He became
an assistant editor of Girardin's " Presse" about 1844.
Peyre, pSR, (AN TOINE FRANCOIS,) a French architect,
born in Paris in 1739. He gained the grand prize in
1763, and became a member of the Institute. He pub
lished some works on architecture. Died in 1823.
See QUATREMERE DE QuiNCY, "Notice sur A. F. Peyre," 1824.
Peyre, (ANTOINE MARIE,) an architect, born in Paris
in 1770, was a nephew of the preceding. He was ap
pointed architect of the Palais de Justice in 1809. Among
his works are the Salle de Spectacle of Soissons, and the
restorations or additions to the Palais de Justice in Paris.
Died in 1843.
Peyre, (MARIE JOSEPH,) a French architect, father
of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1730. He pub
lished "Architectural Works," ("CEuvres d'Architec-
ture,:' 1765.) Peyre and Wailly were architects of the
theatre of Paris called the Odeon. Died in 1785.
Peyrere, de la, deh It pi'rain', (ISAAC,) a French
writer, born at Bordeaux in 1594. He published, be
sides other works, one entitled " Pre- Adamites, "(" Prae-
adamitae," 1655,) in which he maintained that some men
were created before Adam. Died in 1676.
Peyrilhe, pi'Rel' or pi-re'ye, (BERNARD,) a French
physician, was born at Pompigiian in 1737; died in 1804.
Peyron, pi'r6N/, (JEAN FRANC.OIS PIERRE,) a French
historical painter, bom at Aix, in Provence, in 1744.
He gained the grand prize in 1773, studied the antique
in Rome, and promoted the reformation of the French
school. Died in 1814.
Peyron, pi'roN', (VICTOR AMEDEE,) ABBE, an Ori
entalist, born at Turin in 1785. He published a " Lexicon
of the Coptic Language," (1835,) and other works.
Peyronie. See LA PEYRON IE.
Peyronnet, de, deh pi'ro'ni', (CHARLES IGNACE,)
COUNT, a French politician and lawyer, born at Bor
deaux in 1778. He was minister of justice from 1821 to
January, 1828, and became minister of the interior in
May, 1830. He procured in 1825 the passage of a very
unpopular and odious law against sacrilege. Having
been convicted of treason in 1830, he was imprisoned
six years in the fortress of Ham. Died in 1854.
Peyssonel, pi'so'neT, (CHARLES,) an antiquary,
father of the following, was born at Marseilles in 1700.
He explored the coasts of Asia Minor, where he col
lected marbles. He wrote a "Memoir on the Kings
of Bosphorus," and " Travels in the Levant." Died
in 1757.
Peyssonel, (CHARLES,) a French political writer,
born at Marseilles in 1727. He was consul at Smyrna
and in the Crimea. He wrote, besides other works,
"The Numbers," ("Les Numeros," 4 vols., 1784,) and
"The Political Situation of France, and its Relations
with all the Powers of Europe," (2 vols., 1790.) Died
in 1790.
Peyton, pa'ton, (BAILLIE,) an American lawyer and
orator, born in Sumiier county, Tennessee. He repre
sented a district of Tennessee in Congress from 1833 to
1837, voted with the Whigs, and was sent as minister to
Chili about 1850.
Pezarese, II, a name of the painter Cantarini. (See
CANTARINI.)
Pezay, de, deh peh-zk', (ALEXANDRE FREDERIC
JACQUES Masson — ma"s6N',) MARQUIS, a French writer
of prose and verse, born at Versailles in 1741. He gave
lessons in tactics to Louis XVI. Among his works are
"Series of Trifles," ("Suite des Bagatelles," 1767,) and
"Helvetian Evenings," ("Les Soirees Helvetiennes,"
1771.) Voltaire addressed to him some verses. Died
in 1777.
Pezenas, peVna.' or peh-zeh-na', (ESPRIT,) a French
Jesuit and mathematician, born at Avignon in 1692.
He published " Memoirs on Mathematics and Physics,"
(5 vols., 1756,) an "Astronomy for Mariners," (1766,)
and other works. Died in 1776.
Pezet, pa-theV, (General JUAN ANTONIO,) a Peruvian
statesman, who became vice-president of Peru in Octo
ber, 1862, and at the death of San Ramon succeeded to
the presidency, in April, 1863. He was removed, or
ceased to be president, about the end of 1865.
Pezron, peVriN', (PAUL,) an able French chronolo-
gist and philologist, born in Bretagne in 1639. He wrote
" The Antiquity of the World (des Temps) Restored
and Defended," (1687,) in which he argued that the
world was created 5872 years before the Christian era.
Died in 1706.
Pfaff, pfaf, (CHRISTOPH MATTHAUS,) an eminent Ger
man Protestant theologian, born at Stuttgart in 1686,
was a man of great erudition. He became professor of
theology at Tubingen in 1717, and received the title of
count palatine in 1724. He wrote (in Latin) numerous
works, among which are " Institutions of Dogmatic and
Moral Theology," (1719,) remarkable for mental inde
pendence, and "Introduction to the Literary History of
Theology," (1720.) He became dean of the faculty at
Giessen in 1756. Died in 1760.
See LEPORIN, "Nachricht von C. M. Pfaffens Leben," etc., 1726;
HIRSCHING. " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch."
Ffaff, (JOHANN CHRISTOPH,) father of the preceding,
was born in Wiirtemberg in 1631. He was professor of
theology at Tubingen, and wrote several works. Died
in 1720.
Ffaff, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH,) a mathematician, born
at Stuttgart in 1765. He became professor of mathe
matics at Halle in 1810. Among his works are "Ana
lytic Essays mostly relating to the Integral Calculus,"
etc., (1797.) Died at Halle in 1825.
Pfaff, (KARL,) a German historian, a son of the pre
ceding, published a " History of Wiirtemberg," (2 vols.,
1818-21,) and other histories.
Pfanner, pfan'ner, (TOBIAS,) a German historian, born
at Augsburg in 1641. He was keeper of the archives at
Gotha. Among his works is a " History of the Peace
of Westphalia," (1679.) Died in 1716.
Pfeffel, pfeffel, (CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH von Krie-
gelstein — fon kRee'gel-stin',) a historian, born at Col-
mar, Upper Rhine, in 1726. His chief work is a
"Chronological Epitome of the History of the Public
Law of Germany," in French, (1754; 5th edition, 1766.)
Died in 1807.
Pfeffel, (GOTTLIEB KONRAD,) a distinguished Ger
man fabulist and poet, brother of the preceding, born
at Colmar in 1736, became blind while pursuing his
studies at Halle. He was appointed in 1803 president
of the Evangelical Consistory at Colmar. Died in 1809.
See RIEDER, " G. C. Pfeffel ; bio;;raphischer Versuch," 1820;
LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Pfefferkorn, pfef'fer-koRn', (JOHANN,) a German Jew,
who was converted to Christianity, and, in excess of zeal,
advised the emperor to burn all Jewish books except the
Bible. He lived about 1500.
Pfeiffer, pfif'fer, (AUGUSTUS,) a German scholar, and
professor of Oriental literature at Leipsic, was born in
Lower Saxony in 1640. He wrote a number of works
in relation to Jewish antiquities and Biblical criticism.
Died in 1698.
See J. E. PFEIFFER, " Memoria A. Pfeifferi," 1700.
Pfeiffer, (BURCHARD WILHELM,) a German jurist and
publicist, born at Cassel in 1777. He published "Prac
tical Deductions concerning all Parts of Jurisprudence,"
(8 vols., 1825-46,) and other works. Died in 1852.
Pfeiffer, fi'fer, (CARL,) a skilful architect, born in
Brunswick, Germany, in 1834. At the age of sixteen he
came to the United States, and passed several years as
assistant architect in Ohio and other parts of the West.
He afterwards spent four years in the same capacity in
the city of New York. In 1864 he commenced business
on his own account, and soon acquired a high reputation
as an excellent architect. Among the buildings designed
and erected by him are the church of the Messiah, the
Roosevelt Hospital, and the mansion of Mr. Barroda,
one of the largest houses in New York, and, for its
admirable arrangement, probably unsurpassed, if not
unequalled, by any other private dwelling in the United
States. His plans have recently been accepted for the
New City Hospital, and other public buildings belonging
to New York City.
Pfeiffer, pfif'fer, (FRANC.OIS Louis,) a Swiss general,
born at Lucerne in 1716. He served with distinction in
the French army, (1734-75.) Died in 1802.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as x; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PFEIFFER
1782
PHARNABAZVS
Pfeiffer, (IDA,) MADAME, a celebrated German trav
eller, born in Vienna about 1795. She set out in March
1842, for Asia Minor, where she spent nearly a year, an
in 1845 made the tour of Sweden, Norway, and Iceland
In 1846 she undertook a journey round the world, whicl
she accomplished in a little more than two years, aftei
encountering great hardships and dangers. She pub
lished in 1850 "A Woman's Journey round the World
from Vienna to Brazil, Chili, Tahiti, China, Hindostan,'
etc. In 1851 she entered upon a second journey, having
received for this purpose a sum of money from the Aus
trian government. Her account of this expedition ap
peared in 1855, under the title of " A Second Voyage
round the World, from London to the Cape of Gooc
Hope, Borneo, the Moluccas, California, Peru, and the
United States." Died in 1858.
Pfeiffer, QOHANN FRIEDIUCH,) a German economist
born at Berlin in 1718. He wrote many works on rura
and political economy, among which is a "Treatise on
all the Economical Sciences," (4 vols., 1770-78.) Dice
in 1787.
Pfeiffer, (Louis,) a Swiss general, born at Lucerne in
1530. He fought for Charles IX. of France against the
Huguenots. Died in 1594.
Pfeiffer, (Louis GEORG KARI.,) a German naturalist
and physician, a son of Burchard Wilhelm, noticed above,
was born at Cassel in 1805. He published a number
of treatises on botany and conchyliology, among which
maybe named "Monograph of Living Snails," ("Mono-
graphia Heliceorum Viventium," 3 vols., 1847-53,)
a " Flora of Hesse," (2 vols., 1847-55.)
Pfenninger, pfen'ning-er, (HKNRI,) a Swiss engraver,
born at Zurich in 1749. He engraved portraits for
Lavater's " Physiognomy," which are admired. Died
in 1815.
Pfenninger, (MATTHIAS,) a Swiss designer and en
graver, born at Zurich in 1739. He engraved Swiss
landscapes with skill. Died about 1810.
Pfmzing or Pfintzing, pflnt/sing, (MEI.CHIOR,) a
German poet, born at Nuremberg in 1481. He com
posed a dull poem called " The Adventures of Theuer-
dank," (1517.) This edition was adorned with more
than one hundred fine engravings, and was a master
piece of typography. Died in 1535.
Pfister, pf?s'ter, (ALBRECHT,) a German printer, born
about 1420. He made use of movable types; but it is
not known whether he was an assistant of Gutenberg or
invented them himself. His principal work is a Latin
36-line Bible, in 3 vols. fol. Died about 1470.
Pfister, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN,) a German historian,
born near Marbach in 1772. He wrote a "History of
Suabia," (5 vols., 1803-27,) and a "History of the Ger
mans," (5 vols., 1830-35.) He became minister of a
church at Stuttgart, where he died in 1835.
See ERSCH und CRUDER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
Pfizer, pfit'ser, (GuSTAV,) a German critic and littera
teur, born at Stuttgart in 1807. Among his principal
works are a "Life of Martin Luther," an "Essay on
Uhland and Riickert," (1837,) and a " History of Alex
ander the Great, for the Young," (1846.)
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Pfizer, ( PAUL ACHATIUS, ) a German publicist, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Stuttgart in
1801.
Pforr, pfoR, (JOHANN GEORG,) a distinguished Ger
man painter of animals, was born at Upfen, in Saxony,
in 1745. He painted horses, hunting-scenes, battles, etc.
with much skill. Died in 1798.
Phadl. See FADL.
Phaeax, fee'aks, [4>a«i£,] an Athenian orator, who
was sent as ambassador to Sicily in 422 B.C. He is men
tioned by Plutarch as one of the two persons capable
of competing in some degree with Alcibiades, — i.e. when
the latter first entered the public service.
Fhsedon, fee'don, or Phaedo, fee'do, [4>a«5wv,] a
Greek philosopher, born at Elis. He came to Athens
about 400 B.C., and was a disciple of Socrates, after whose
death he founded a school of philosophy at Elis. His
writings have not come down to us. The name of Phae-
don is the title of a celebrated dialogue of Plato.
See DIOGENES LAERTIUS ; SUIDAS, " Phsedon."
Phaedra, fee'dra, [Gr. Qaifya ; Fr. PHEDRE, ftdr:,] a
daughter of Minos and Pasiphae, was the wife of The
seus, King of Athens. She is said to have indulged a
guilty passion for her step-son Hippolytus, and to have
caused his death by a false accusation.
Phaedrus, fee'drus, [Gr. Qalfyms ; Fr. PHEDRE, ftclR,]
a Greek Epicurean philosopher, was a friend of Cicero.
He was the head of the Epicurean school at Athens from
80 to 70 B.C., and wrote a work which Cicero used freely
in composing the first book of his "Natura Deorum."
Fhaedrus, a Latin fabulist, who wrote about 20 or 30
A.D., was originally a slave. He was probably born in
Thrace or Macedonia. It is supposed that he belonged
to Augustus, and was liberated by him. He left ninety-
seven fables in iambic verse, the subjects and ideas of
which are partly borrowed from /Esop. They are ad
mired for the purity and simplicity of the style.
See LINDNER, " Bemerkungen liber den Phaedrus," 1782;
SCHWABE, "Vita Phajdri," 1806.
Fha'er, (THOMAS,) a Welsh poet and physician, born
in Pembrokeshire. He translated the first nine books
of Virgil's 'Mineid" into English verse. Died in 1560.
Pha'e-thon or Fha'e-ton, [Gr. Qaeduv; Fr. PHAE-
THON, fii'a'toN',] a mythical personage, called a son of
Helios (the Sun) or Phoebus. His name signifies "the
Shining." The poets feigned that, in his youthful pre
sumption, he persuaded his father to permit him to guide
for one clay the chariot of the sun, that he was unable
to control the fiery coursers, which ran out of the right
course and came too near the earth, that Jupiter killed
Phaethon with a thunderbolt, and he fell into the river Po.
Fhalanthe. See PHALANTHUS.
Pha-lan'thus, [Gr. Qi'iAavOof ; Fr. PHALANTHE, fi'-
loNt', ] a Spartan chief, who founded a Greek colony at
Tarentum about 708 B.C., and subdued the natives of the
adjacent country.
Phal'a-ris, [Gr. Quhapit;,] a ruler of Agrigentum, in
Sicily, notorious for his cruelty. He began to reign
about 570 B.C., according to Eusebius and Suidas. He
rendered his name infamous by burning his victims in
a brazen bull. Tradition adds that he was deposed by
Telemachus, the ancestor of Theron, and suffered the
same cruel death which he had inflicted on others. Cer
tain epistles ascribed to Phalaris were the subjects of
a celebrated controversy between Boyle and Bentley,
who demonstrated them to be spurious.
See SUIDAS, " Phalaris ;" CICERO, " De Officiis," ii. and iii.
Phalereus. See DEMKTKIUS PHALEREUS.
Fha'ni-as [bavins] or Phaeiiias, fee'ne-as, [$aivia<;,]
a Greek philosopher, born in Lesbos, was one of the
most eminent disciples of Aristotle, and was a friend of
Theophrastus. He wrote many works on logic, history,
etc.
See Vossius, "De Historicis Gratis;" FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca
Phan'o-cles, [<J>«VOK/%,] a Greek elegiac poet, who
ived probably between 350 and 300 B.C. He wrote a
poem called "Epwref ?/ KaAw, of which a fragment is
extant. This is much admired by some critics.
See SMITH, "Greek and Roman Biography," etc.
Phan-o-de'mus, [4>aaw5??wof,] an Athenian historian
of uncertain period. He lived before the Christian era.
Ele wrote a work on the antiquities of Attica, entitled
Ar0«'c, of which fragments are extant.
Pha'on, [Gr. 3>uuv,] a mariner or boatman of Lesbos,
celebrated as a favourite of Sappho. According to the
able, Venus endowed him with youth and beauty because
ic once carried her across the water without charge.
Phar'a-mond, a king of the Franks, who is sup
posed to have reigned in the first half of the fifth cen-
ury. His history is involved in obscurity, and is the
subject of some romances. The first historian who
mentions him is Prosper Tyro.
Pharnabaze. See PHARNABAZUS.
Phar-na-ba'zus, [Gr. QapvaSafa ; Fr. PHARNABAZE,
tR'nfbfz',] a Persian satrap, governed the provinces
icar the Hellespont, under Darius II. He was an ally
if the Spartans in the war against the Athenians, and
,vas defeated by Alcibiades, near Abydos, in 409 B.C. He
vas defeated in 395 by the Spartans, under Agesilaus,
who had invaded his province. Pharnabazus and Iphic-
I, e, I, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
PHARNACE
1783
PHILA
rates commanded an expedition to Egypt in 374, which
was a failure.
See XENOPHON, " Hellenica," books i., iii., and iv.
Pharnace. See PHARNACES.
Phar'na-ces [Gr. QapvuKijz ; Fr. PHARNACE, fa'R'-
nfs'] L, King of Pontus, was a son of Mithridates IV.,
whom he succeeded about 190 B.C. He invaded Galatia
in 181, and was opposed with success by Eumenes. He
was succeeded by his son, Mithridates V.
Pharnaces II., King of Pontus, was a son of Mithri
dates the Great. He conspired against his father after his
defeat by the Romans, (about 63 is.C.,) and was supported
by the army. He made peace with Pompey, who recog
nized him as King of the Bosphorus. During the civil
war of Rome he seized Pontus, and provoked the hos
tility of Caesar. He was defeated by the Romans and
killed in battle in 47 B.C.
Phavoriaus Varinus. See GUARINO.
Fhedre. See PH/EDRA and PH^DRUS.
Pheidias. See PHIDIAS.
Pheidon. See PHIDON.
Fhelippeaux, de, cleh feh-le'po', or Philippeaux,
fe'le'po, (ANTOINE le Picard — leh pe'kiR',) a French
officer, born in Poitou in 1768. He emigrated in 1791,
fought against the republic, and procured the escape of
Sir Sidney Smith from prison, (1797.) Having entered
the British service, he distinguished himself at the
defence of Acre, where he directed the artillery, in 1799.
Died at Acre the same year.
Phelps, ( ALMIRA HART LINCOLN,) an American
teacher and educational writer, born at Berlin, Connec
ticut, in 1793. She was for many years associated with
her sister, Mrs. Emma Willard, as teacher of the Female
Seminary, Troy, New York, and in 1841 took charge of
the Patapsco Institute, Maryland. Among her principal
works are "Familiar Lectures on Botany," " Geology
for Beginners," (1832,) "Lectures on Natural Philoso
phy," (1835,) and "Hours with my Pupils," (1859.)
Phelps, (ANSON GREENE,) an American merchant,
born at Simsbury, Connecticut, in 1781, became president
of the New York Blind Asylum, and of the American
board of commissioners for foreign missions. He died
in 1853, bequeathing to various charitable institutions
the sum of $371,000.
Phelps, (ELIZABETH STUART,) an American writer,
a daughter of Professor Moses Stuart, D.D., was born
at Andover, Massachusetts, in 1815. She published a
number of moral and religious tales, which obtained
great popularity. Among these we may name "The
Kitty Brown Series," (1850,) "The Sunny Side," (1851,)
"Peep at Number Five," (1851,) and "The Angel over
the Right Shoulder," (1851.) Died in 1852.
Her daughter, of the same name, has written, besides
other works, "The Gates Ajar," (1868,) which has had
an almost unexampled popularity, having in less than
one year passed through more than twenty editions.
Phelps, (JOHN S.,) an American politician, born in
Hartford county, Connecticut, in 1814. He emigrated
to Springfield, Missouri, in 1837, and was elected to
Congress in 1844. He also represented the sixth dis
trict of Missouri in Congress for several terms, ending
about 1862. He was appointed military Governor of
Arkansas by President Lincoln in 1862.
Phelps, (JOHN W.,) an American general, born at
Guilford, Vermont, in 1813, graduated at West Point in
1836. He became a captain in 1850, and resigned his
commission in 1859. He was appointed a brigadier-
general in 1861, and served under General Butler in the
expedition against New Orleans. In December, 1861,
he issued a proclamation against slavery, which was
disapproved by General Butler. He resigned in July
or August, 1862. t
Phelypeaux. See MAUREPAS and PONTCHARTRAIN.
Pherecrate. See PHERECRATES.
Phe-rec'ra-tes, [Gr. QepeKparw ; Fr. PH£R£CRATE,
fi'ra'kRit',] an Athenian poet of the old comedy, wrote
about 430 B.C., and was a contemporary of Plato and
Aristophanes. Small fragments of his plays are extant.
He invented a new metre, called Pherecratic. His dic
tion is elegant, and his plots are ingenious.
See MEINEKE, " Fragmenta Comicorum Grzcorum."
Pherecyde. See PHERECYDES.
Pher-e-9y'des, [Gr. QepeKvdrie ; Fr. PHERECYDE, fa'-
ra'sed',] a Greek philosopher, born at Syros about 600
or 570 B.C., was the teacher of Pythagoras. He is said
to have taught the doctrine of Metempsychosis, or the
transmigration of the soul.
Pherecydes, an Athenian historian, a contemporary
of Herodotus, lived between 490 and 450 B.C. His chief
work was a mythological history, in ten books, sometimes
entitled AtTo^flovec.
Phid'I-as, written also Pheidias, [4>e«5wzc,] regarded
by many as the greatest sculptor and statuary that ever
lived, was a son of Charmidas or Charmides. He was
probably born at Athens between 500 and 485 B.C. The
details of his personal history are very deficient, consid
ering his renown. His principal master was Ageladas,
a sculptor of Argos. Among his earlier vrorks were a
colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachos, dated about
460 B.C., which stood on the Acropolis for many centuries,
and an ivory or chryselephantine statue of Athena at
Pellene. Having formed a new style, characterized by
sublimity and ideal beauty, he obtained the friendship
and patronage of Pericles, who about /)4^ li.c. began to
adorn the Acropolis with works of art. " Phidias was
appointed by Pericles superintendent of all the public
edifices," says Plutarch, "although the Athenians had
other eminent architects."
The sculptured ornaments of the Parthenon, executed
by Phidias and his disciples, exhibited a perfection
which has never been surpassed, if equalled, by other
artists. He formed with his own hand the colossal
statue of Minerva which was enclosed within the Par
thenon and was dedicated in 438 B.C. It was chrysele
phantine, — that is, the naked parts were made of ivory
and the drapery of gold. The height of this statue was
nearly forty feet. It was his most celebrated work at
Athens. His other master-piece was a colossal ivory
and gold statue of Jupiter at Olympia, (Elis,) which was
enclosed in the temple dedicated to that god. He was
represented seated on a throne, holding in his right
hand a statue of Victory. This figure, in the opinion of
the Greeks, expressed and realized their highest ideal
of supreme majesty and divine complacency. It was
destroyed by fire at Constantinople about 475 A.D.
Some of the Elgin marbles in the British Museum are
considered to be works of Phidias.
In the latter part of his life, Phidias was accused of
defrauding the state of part of the gold appropriated to
the statue of Minerva ; but, as Pericles ordered the gold
to be taken off and weighed, this charge was abandoned ;
for Phidias, by the advice of Pericles, had artfully con
trived that the gold could be easily taken off. According
to Plutarch, he died in prison, into which he was thrown
on a charge of impiety, because he had sculptured on
the shield of Minerva images of himself and Pericles.
Some writers ascribe his death to poison, and others
doubt the truth of the statement that he was imprisoned.
His death, however, occurred about 432 B.C.
"The three greatest architects hitherto known in the
world," says Ruskin, " were Phidias, Giotto, and Michael
Angelo, — with all of whom architecture was only their
play, sculpture and painting their work." In the course
of his remarks on Repose as a test of greatness in works
of art, Ruskin says, "We shall see by this light three
colossal images standing up side by side, looming in
their great rest of spirituality above the whole world-
horizon, — Phidias, Michael Angelo, and Dante."
See K. O. MUI.LER, " De Phidias Vita et Operibus Commenta-
tiones tres." 1827; ERSCH und GRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklo-
paedie:" " Nouvelle Viiocraphie Generale."
Fhi'don or Phei'don, [Gr. 4>e/(5wv,] a king of Argos
and descendant of Hercules, is said to have changed the
government of that state to a despotism about 750 B.C.
He was the reputed inventor of weights and measures,
and is said to have been the first prince who coined
silver money. He was deprived of power or defeated
by the Spartans and Eleians.
Phila, [Gr. 4>//,a,] a daughter of Antipater, the Re
gent of Macedonia, was distinguished for her virtue
and wisdom. She was married to Craterus, and after
his death to Demetrius, the son of Antigonus. Died
in 287 B.C.
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 0; th as in A4»j.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PHIL^ENI
1784
PHILIP
Philseni, fe-lee'nl, [Gr. 4>//laaw,] two Carthaginians
and brothers, whose name was rendered memorable by
an act of patriotic devotion. When the boundary be
tween Carthage and Gyrene was disputed, the parties
agreed that two men of each state should start at the
same time and walk or run towards the other, and that
the place where they met should be the boundary. The
Philaeni traversed a greater space than the Cyrenians,
who accused the former of unfairness. The Philasni
then offered to prove their honesty by a sacrifice of their
lives, and were buried alive in the sand.
Fhl-la'grl-us, [^tAdypwf,] a Greek medical writer of
Thessalonica, lived probably in the third century of our
era. His works are lost, except small fragments.
Fhl-lam'mon, [4>t/la^//(jv,] a mythical Greek poet
and musician, was supposed to be the son of Apollo,
the inventor of choral music, and the institutor of the
Delphian worship of Apollo.
Philander. See PHILANDRIKR.
Philandrier, fe'ldN'dRe-a', [Lat. PHILAN'DER, ]
(Gun.l.AUMK,) a French scholar, born at Chatillon-sur-
Seine in 1505. He published "Notes on Quintilian,"
(1535,) and "Annotations on Vitruvius," (1544.) Died
in 1565.
Philarete. See PHILARETUS.
Philarete, fe'it'rit', or PhMar'e-tus, (VASIL DRO-
SOK,) Metropolitan of Moscow, was born near Moscow
in 1782. He became Bishop of Revel in 1817, and
Archbishop of Moscow in 1820. He published "Com
mentaries on Genesis," and other works. Died in 1867.
FhMar'e-tus, [ Fr. PHILARETE, fe'lt'rit',] the reputed
author of a small Greek treatise "On the Pulse," which
is sometimes attributed to Philotheus.
Phi'le or Phi'les, (MANUEL,) a Byzantine poet, born
at Ephesus about 1275. He wrote, in barbarous Greek
verse, a curious work, llepi tjJuv /AorriToc, ("On the
Nature of Animals,") which is extracted mostly from
./Elian's "Natural History." Died about 1340.
Phil'e-as, [4>iA«zf,] a Greek geographer, born at
Athens, lived probably several centuries before Christ.
He is quoted by Dicaearchus. He wrote a " Periplus."
Philelphe and Philelphus. See FII.KI.FO.
Phl-le'mon, [&CAJ/IMJV,] an eminent Athenian comic
poet, was born at Soli in Cilicia, or at Syracuse, about
360 B.C. He was a rival of Menander, and was the first
poet of the new comedy in order of time. He began
to exhibit comedies about 330 B.C., and obtained great
favour with the Athenians. He gained several victories
over Menander in dramatic contests. Fragments of his
works are extant. He was a witty and elegant writer.
Died about 262 B.C. His son, Philemon, was also a
comic poet, but less famous.
See SUIDAS, "Philemon ;" MEINEKE, " Menandri et Philemonis
Reliquiae," and " Fragmenta Comicorum Grascorum ;" HAUPT-
MANN, " Dissertatio de Philemone," 1745.
Philemon, a Greek grammarian, who lived probably
between 600 and 700 A. D., was the author of a "Lexicon
Technologicon," part of which is extant.
Philemon, one of the primitive Christians, was a
friend of the apostle Paul, who addressed to him an
epistle, which is included in the canon of Scripture.
Philepicus. See PHILIPPICUS.
Philetaerus, fil-e-tee'rus, [4>ite'ra(poc,] an Athenian
comic poet of the middle comedy. Little is known of
his life or works.
Philetaerus, the founder of the kingdom ofPergamus.
He became king about 280 B.C., and died about 262 B.C.,
leaving the throne to his nephew Eumenes.
Phi-le'tas [4>jX7?raf] OF Cos, an eminent Greek poet
and critic, who flourished between 350 and 290 B.C. He
was the preceptor of Ptolemy Philadelphia. He wrote
elegies and epigrams, and prose works on grammar.
Fragments of his poems have come down to us. He was
a favourite model of the poet Theocritus.
See ERSCH und GRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" N. BACH,
" Programma de Phileta Coo," 1828.
Phil'e-us, sometimes written Phiteus, Pytheus, or
Phileos, an eminent Greek architect, who lived about
25 B.C. He designed two magnificent edifices in Asia
Minor, — viz., the Mausoleum and the temple of Athena
Polias at Priene.
Fhil'i-bert |Fr. pron. fe'le'baiV; It. FILIBERTO, fe-le-
hSu'to; Lat. PHILIBER'TUS] I., Duke of Savoy, a son
of AiTKideus IX., was born in 1464; died in 1482.
Philibert II., Duke of Savoy, a son of Philip II.,
was born in 1480. He succeeded his father in 1497,
and died in 1504, leaving the dukedom to his brother,
Carlo III.
Philidor. See DANICAN.
Philieul, fe'le-ul', (VASQUIN,) a French litterateur,
was born at Carpentras in 1522. He published " Laure
d'Avignon," (1548,) and " Toutes les CEuvres vulgaires
de F. Petrarque," (1555.) Died about 1582.
Phl-11'iius, [tfu/ux'Of,! a Greek physician, born in
Cos, was a pupil of Herophilus. He lived about 250
B.C., and wrote a treatise on botany, which is not extant.
He was the reputed founder of the sect of Empirici.
Philimis, an Athenian orator, a contemporary of
Demosthenes.
Philinus, a Greek historian, who accompanied Han
nibal in his campaign in Italy, and wrote a History of
the First and Second Punic Wars, which is not extant.
He was a native of Sicily.
Phil'ip [Gr. ^'ACTTTOC] I., King of Macedonia, a son
of Argreus, reigned in the ninth century B.C. He was
succeeded by his son Aeropus.
Philip [Gr. 4>//lOT7rof ; Lat. PHILIP'PUS; Fr. PHILIPPE,
fe'lep'; It. FILIPPO, fe-lep'po; Sp. FELIPE, fa-lee'pi;
Ger. PHILIPP, fil'ipj II., a famous king of Macedonia,
a younger son of Amyntas, was born in 382 B.C. In his
youth he passed several years at Thebes as a hostage,
and enjoyed the society of Epaminondas. He succeeded
his brother Perdiccas in 359, and married Olympias,
a daughter of the King of Epirus. During the Social
war, which began in 358 B.C., he extended his do
minions by the capture of Amphipolis, Potidaea, and
Pyclna from the Athenians. He availed himself of
another civil war, called the Sacred war, to pursue his
ambitious projects against the independence of the
Grecian states, and became the ally of the Thebans
against the Phocians and Athenians. In 347 B.C. he
besieged Olynthus with success, and made a treaty of
peace with Athens. By the conquest of Phocis, in 346,
he acquired a vote in the Amphictyonic Council. The
continued aggressions of Philip again involved him in
a war with the Athenians, who were stimulated by the
powerful appeals of Demosthenes, and who in 339 B.C.
compelled him to raise the siege of Perinthus and
Byzantium. A league was then formed against him by
the Athenians, Thebans, and others. The decisive battle
of Chaeronea, where Philip, commanding in person,
defeated the allies in 338 B.C., rendered him master of
Greece. He treated the Athenians with clemency. He
called a general congress of deputies from the Greek
states, who resolved to unite in an aggressive war
against Persia, and appointed Philip commander-in-chief.
During the preparations for this enterprise he was as
sassinated, in 336 B.C., at the celebration of a marriage
between his daughter Cleopatra and the King of Epirus.
The assassin was Pausanias, A soldier of his own body
guard, who had been insulted by Attalus, an uncle of
Philip's queen, and whose claim for redress had been
neglected by the king. Philip possessed great military
and political talents, with some virtues, among which
we may name generosity. He was, on the other hand,
sensual, unscrupulous, and perfidious.
See PLUTARCH, "Life of Demosthenes;" LELAND, " History of
the Life and Reign of Philip of Macedon," 1758 : GROTE, " History
of Greece," vol. xi. ; BURY, " Histoire de Philippe et d'Alexandre le
Grand," 1760; BRUCKNER, " Kbnig Philipp Sohn des Amyntas,"
1837; THIRI.WALL, " History of Greece ;" DRUM ANN, "Geschichte
des Verfalls der Griechischen Staaten."
Philip III. OF MACEDON. This title was given to
Arrhidaeus, an illegitimate son of Philip II. (See AR-
RHID.^US.)
Philip IV. OF MACEDON, a son of Cassander, reigned
only a few months, and died in 296 B.C.
Philip V. OF MACEDON, born about 235 B.C., was
a son of Demetrius II. He succeeded his uncle, Anti-
gonns Doson, in 220 B.C. Having obtained command of
the army of the Achaean Ieague; he displayed superior
military talents, and defeated the /Etolians and Spartans,
(218-217.) The success of Hannibal at Cannae tempted
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; nftt; good; moon;
PHILIP
1785
PHILIP
Philip to form an alliance with him against the Romans
in 215 B.C. He is said to have poisoned Aratus, who
had been his friend. The Romans, having recovered
their ascendency, sent an army against Philip, who was
defeated completely by T. Q. Flamininus at Cynos-
cephalas in 197 B.C. He died in 179 B.C., leaving the
throne to his son, Perseus. Philip was an able monarch,
but was cruel and tyrannical.
See LIVY, " History of Rome," books xxii.-xl.
Philip or Fhilip'pus, a son of Herod the Great and
Cleopatra, became tetrarch of Gaulonitis, Trachonitis,
and Batanaea. Died about 34 A.D.
Philip [Lat. PHILIP'PUS] OF ACARNANIA, a physician,
was a friend of Alexander the Great, whom he cured of a
fever caused by bathing in the river Cyclnus, 333 B.C. On
this occasion Parmenio warned the king by letter that
Philip was bribed (by Darius) to poison him. The king,
however, confiding in his fidelity, drank the medicine
as he showed the letter to Philip. (See ALEXANDER.)
Philip, Emperor of Rome. See PHII.IPPUS.
Phil'ip, [Gr.
Lat. PHILIP'PUS; Fr. PHI
LIPPE, fe'lep',] SAINT, one of the twelve apostles, was a
native of Bethsaida, on the Sea of Galilee. He witnessed
the miracle of the loaves and fishes, (John vi. 5-7.) The
evangelist John records an interview between him and
certain Greeks, in chapter xii. 21. According to tra
dition, he preached in Phrygia, and suffered martyrdom
at Hierapolis.
Philip, [Ger. PHILIPP, fil'ip,] Duke of Suabia, Em
peror of Germany, a son of Frederick Barbarossa, was
born about 1170. He was elected emperor in 1198, but
his title was contested by Otho IV., and a civil war en
sued. The pope favoured Otho, and excommunicated
Philip, but was afterwards reconciled to him. Philip
was assassinated in 1208.
Philip [Sp. FELIPE, fa-lee'pa] I., surnamed THE
HANDSOME, King of Castile, a son of Maximilian I.,
Emperor of Germany, was born at Bruges in 1478. His
mother was Mary of Burgundy, from whom he inherited
the seventeen provinces of the Low Countries. He was
styled Archduke of Austria in his youth. In 1496 he
married Joanna, a daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella,
(of Castile and Aragon.) On the death of Isabella
(1504) the crown of Castile was inherited by Joanna,
but, in consequence of her mental imbecility, or insanity,
Philip exercised the royal power. He died at Burgos
in September, 1506, leaving two sons, who became
emperors as Charles V. and Ferdinand I.
See MARIANA, " De Rebus Hispanicis;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generate. "
Philip [Fr. PHILIPPE, fe'lep'] I., King of France, a
son of Henry I. and Anne of Russia, was born in 1052.
He succeeded his father in 1060, when Baldwin, Count
of Flanders, became regent. He abandoned himself to
disgraceful sensuality. In 1092 he married Bertrade,
the wife of Foulques, Count of Anjou, who was still
living. Philip was excommunicated for this offence. He
was involved in a war with William Rufus of England
during the first crusade. He died in 1108, and was
succeeded by his son, Louis VI.
See SISMONDI, "Histoire des Francais;" MICHELET, " Histoire
de France ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Philip II. OF FRANCE. See PHILIP AUGUSTUS.
Philip (Philippe) III., surnamed THE BOLD, (LE
HARDI, leh /;aVde' ; Lat. PHII.IP'PUS AU'DAX,] born in
1245, was the second son of Louis IX., whose eldest son
died in infancy. He married Isabella of Aragon in 1262,
and accompanied his father in the crusade to Tunis in
1269.
king.
Tunis, he returned to Paris in 1271. Although he was a
prince of little talent and of a weak character, the royal
domain and power were increased during his reign.
Among the chief events of his reign was a war against
Peter of Aragon. With the sanction of the pope, who
had offered the crown of Aragon to Charles, a son of
Philip, the latter invaded Catalonia in 1285, but was
soon forced to retreat. He died at Perpignan in October,
1285.
See GUII.LAUME DE NANGIS, "Gesta Philippi Audacis ;" " Nou
velle Biographic Generale."
At the death of Louis, in 1270, Philip became
Having made a treaty of peace with the King of
Philip IV., often called Philip the Fair, [Fr.
PHILIPPE LE BEL, fe'lep' leh be"! ; Ger. PHILIPP DER
SCHONE, fil'ip dSr sho'neh,] a son of Philip III. and
Isabella of Aragon, was born in 1268. He succeeded
his father in 1285, before which he had married Jeanne
of Navarre and acquired Navarre as her dowry. He
was ambitious to increase the royal power, and -un
scrupulous in the choice of means. "His favourite ad
visers were lawyers, who taught him how to substitute
despotism for the feudal system. In 1292 or 1293 he
summoned Edward I. of England to appear at Paris
and answer for the hostile acts of some of his sub
jects. Edward sent his brother Edmund, who offered
reparation, and delivered to Philip six fortresses in
Guienne, (1294.) Having occupied all Guienne by his
troops, Philip condemned Edward as contumacious, and
declared his domains in France confiscated. In the
war that ensued, Edward recovered part of Guienne.
To raise funds for his wars, Philip debased the coin, and
extorted money, by persecution, from the Jews. He in
vaded Flanders about 1300, but was successfully opposed
by the Flemings. By a treaty of 1303 he restored all
Guienne to Edward I. Some years before this date a
quarrel arose between Philip and the pope, Boniface,
whose person was outraged by the agents of Philip at
Agnani in 1303. In consequence of Philip's audacious
and successful efforts to humble the papacy, the court
of the pope was transferred to Avignon in 1308. Among
the last acts of his reign was his cruel persecution and
suppression of the order of Templars. He died in 1314,
and was succeeded by his son, Louis X.
See LESSMANN, " Konig Philipp der Schone," 1829 ; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Philip (Philippe) V., surnamed LE LONG, (leh 16N,)
the second son of Philip IV., was born about 1293. He
became king at the death of Louis X., in 1316. Louis
X. had left a daughter, who was excluded from the
throne. The important question of succession was
decided on this occasion, and the Salic law became
thenceforth one of the bases of the French consti
tution. The events of his reign were not remarkable.
He renewed the persecution of the Jews, many of
whom were massacred. He died in 1322, leaving four
daughters, but no son, and was succeeded by his brother,
Charles IV.
Philip (Philippe) VI, or Philippe de Valois, fe'
lep' deh vt'lwa', born in 1293, was a son of Charles de
Valois, who was a brother of Philip IV. He succeeded
his cousin, Charles IV. le Bel, in 1328, and became the
founder of the royal house of Valois. He was an in
capable and prodigal prince. His reign commenced a
period of disasters and confusion. He became involved
in war with Edward III. of England, who possessed
Guienne and claimed to be the rightful heir of the
French throne, through his mother Isabelle. Philip was
defeated with great loss at Crecy in 1346, and lost Calais,
an important strategic point, in 1347, soon after which a
truce was concluded. He died in 1350, and was suc
ceeded by his son John.
See FROISSART, "Chronicles;" DE CHOISY, "Histoire de Phi
lippe de Valois," 1688; SISMONDI, " Histoire des Francais."
Philip, [Fr. PHILIPPE,] King of Navarre, was a grand
son of Philip III; of France. He married in 1318
Jeanne, a daughter of Louis X., who was heiress of the
throne of Navarre. He died in 1343, leaving a son,
Charles the Bad.
Philip I. OF SPAIN. See PHILIP I. OF CASTILE.
Philip [Sp. FELIPE, fa-lee'pa; It. FILIPPO, fe-lep'po]
II., King of Spain, was the son of the emperor Charles
V. and Isabella of Portugal. He was born at Valladolid
on the 2ist of May, 1527. By education and character, as
well as birth, he was a Spaniard, and a thorough-paced
bigot. He married in 1543 Maria of Portugal, who died
about three years later. In 1548 he visited Brussels,
where Charles V. held his court. In 1554 he went to
London to celebrate his marriage with Mary Tudor,
Queen-Regnant of England, who was about eleven years
older than he. Having parted from her in September,
I5SS« he went to Brussels to meet his father, who, on the
25th of October, 1555, abdicated in his favour the sove
reignty of the Netherlands. Before the end of the year,
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
PHILIP
1786
PHILIP
Philip became King of Spain and the Indies by the
abdication of his father, and master of an empire "on
which the sun never set." His favourite minister, in the
early part of his reign, was Ruy Gomez de Silva, Count
of Melito and Prince of Eboli. Philip found himself,
against his will, in a position of hostility to the pope,
Pa»l IV., who in December, 1555, made a treaty with
the King of France, in order to drive the Spaniards out
of Italy. In 1557 his army gained a complete victory
over the French at Saint-Quentin. This war was ter
minated by the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, in 1559, and
Philip, having appointed Margaret of Parma Regent of
the Netherlands, returned to Spain, which he never
quitted again.
Soon after the death of Mary Tudor (1558) he mar
ried Elizabeth or Isabelle of France, a daughter of
Henry II., who had been betrothed to his son, Don
Carlos. He transferred his court from Toledo to Madrid,
which became about 1560 the permanent capital of
Spain. One of the first measures of his reign was to
re-enact the atrocious edict of 1550, condemning to
death every one who should print, write, copy, keep,
buy, sell, or give any book made by Luther or Calvin,
and all lay persons who should read or teach the Scrip
tures. His systematic efforts to suppress religious liberty
by the torments of the Inquisition, in all his dominions,
provoked a general revolt of the Flemings and Dutch
in 1566. (See ORANGE, WILLIAM OF.) In August, 1567,
the Duke of Alva arrived in Flanders with an army, and
with unlimited power to subdue and punish the insur
gents. Among the victims of his bloody regime were
the Counts of Egmont and Horn, executed in June, 1568.
"The execution of Egmont," says Motley, "remains an
enduring monument not only of Philip's cruelty and per
fidy, but of his dulness. The king had everything to
hope from him, and nothing to fear." Alva defeated the
insurgents in several battles, and massacred thousands
of non-combatants of both sexes and all ages, but was
baffled by the indomitable spirit of the people, and was
recalled in 1573. " It was beyond the power of man's
ingenuity to add any fresh features of horror to the
religious persecution under which the provinces were
groaning." (Motley.) In 1568 the king's eldest son,
Don Carlos, died mysteriously in prison, where he had
been confined for some months. According to De Thou
and other writers, he was put to death by the order
of Philip.
The effort to subdue the Netherlands was continued
by Don John of Austria and Farnese, Duke of Parma,
without success. This long war exhausted the finances
of Philip and hindered his projects for the conquest of
France and England. In 1580 he obtained the crown
of Portugal as successor of his uncle Henrique, who died
without issue. He instigated the French to rebel against
Henry IV., and furnished subsidies to the factious League.
For the invasion of England he equipped a fleet of one
hundred and thirty or, according to some writers, one
hundred and fifty vessels, which sailed in May, 1588,
and was called "the Invincible Armada." After this
fleet had passed through the Strait of Dover, it was
damaged by English fire-ships, and attacked on the 8th
of August by Admiral Howard, who sunk and captured
many ships. The Spanish admiral retreated northward,
and near the Orkneys encountered a violent storm, which
dispersed his fleet. About fifty of his vessels were
wrecked. (See ELIZABETH.) The war between Spain
and England continued many years. Philip died on the
I3th of September, 1598, and was succeeded by his son,
Philip III.
In person, Philip was meagre and below the middle
height. He had a fair complexion, blue eyes, aquiline
nose, and a very prominent lower jaw. His temper was
morose, his manners reserved and repulsive, but he had
great ambition and indefatigable industry.
See WATSON, " History of Philip II.," 1777 : MOTLEY, " History
of the Rise of the Dutch Republic," 1846; PRESCOTT, " History of
Philip II.," 3 vols., 1855-53; CAMPANA, "Vita del Don Filippo,"
1605; CABRERA, "Felipe II. Rey de Espana," 1619: C6RDOVA,
" Vida de Felipe II.," 1662; A. DUMESNIL, " Histoire de Philippe
II," 1822; G. LETI, "Vita del Re Filippo II.," 1679; SAN MICUEL,
" Historia del Rey Felipe II.," 4 vols., 1844-45 ; ANTONIO UK HER-
RBRA, "Historia del Mundo en el Reynado del Rey Don Phelipe
II.," 3 vols., 1606; CARDINAL GRANVELLE'S " State Papers."
Philip (Felipe) III. OF SPAIN, a son of Philip II.,
was born at Madrid in April, 1578. His mother was
Anne of Austria. He began to reign in September,
1598. He was timid, indolent, and incapable, but de
voted to the intolerant policy of his father. Passing his
time chiefly in hunting, in acts of devotion, or formalities
of etiquette, he abandoned the direction of affairs to his
favourite, the Duke of Lerma. This minister prosecuted
the war against the revolted provinces of the Nether
lands until the exhaustion of his finances forced him,
in 1609, to grant a truce of twelve years (see MAURICE
OF NASSAU) and to recognize the independence of the
Seven United Provinces. The issue of this long con
test demonstrated that Spain was no longer the most
powerful kingdom of Europe. The prosperity of Spain
was greatly impaired by the cruel expulsion of the Moors,
in 1610. The number of these exiles is estimated at
about one million. Philip had married Margaret of
Austria. He died in March, 1621, leaving the throne
to his son, Philip IV.
See WATSON, "History of the Reign of Philip III.," 1783;
CESPEDES, "Historia de Don Felipe III.," 1631; AVII.A, "His
toria de la Vida de Don Felipe III.," 1660; " Nouvelle Biographic
GeneVale."
Philip (Felipe) IV., a son of the preceding, was
born in April, 1605, and ascended the throne at the age
of sixteen. He submitted himself to the control and
ascendency of his favourite the Duke of Olivarez. He
renewed the war against the Dutch United Provinces
at the expiration of the truce, (1621,) and formed with
the Emperor of Germany a league against the Protest
ants. His intrigues involved Europe in a long war, in
which the Spaniards fought against the Dutch, Swedes,
French, and English. In maritime war the Dutch ob
tained a decided superiority. On land the Spaniards
were defeated by the French at Rocroy (1643) and other
places. Portugal revolted in 1640, and was finally sepa
rated from the Spanish monarchy. By the treaty of
Westphalia (1648) Spain made peace with her enemies,
except the French, who continued the war until 1659.
The results of these wars were disastrous to Spain,
which lost several colonies, islands, and cities. Philip
was twice married; in 1615 he espoused Elizabeth of
France, and in 1649 Marie Anne of Austria. He died
in September, 1665, and was succeeded by his son,
Charles II.
See CESPEDES Y MENEZES, " Historia de Don Felipe IV.," 1631 ;
MALVEZZI, " Successos de la Moimrquia de Espana en el Tiempo de
Felipe IV.," 1640; DUNI.OP, "Memoirs of Spain during the Reign
of Philip IV.," 2 vols., 1834.
Philip [Fr. PHILIPPE; Sp. FELIPE] V., King of
Spain, born at Versailles in December, 1683, was a
grandson of Louis XIV., and the second son of Louis,
Dauphin of France. In his youth he was styled the
Duke of Anjou. He was appointed heir to the throne
of Spain and the Indies by the will of Charles II., who
died, without a direct heir, in November, 1700. His
title was contested by the archduke Charles of Austria,
whose claim was enforced by the armies of England,
Holland, and Austria in the war of the Spanish succes
sion, which began in 1702. Philip was supported by the
French and the majority of the Spaniards, who gained a
decisive victory at Almanza in 1707. By the treaty of
Utrecht (1713) he was recognized as King of Spain;
but he gave up Flanders and Naples to the Emperor of
Germany. He married Elizabeth Farnese of Parma in
1714, and chose Cardinal Alberoni as prime minister.
Under the influence of a religious melancholy, he abdi
cated in favour of his son Louis in 1724; but the death
of Louis a few months later induced him to resume the
royal power. He died in July, 1746, and was succeeded
by his son Ferdinand VI.
See W. COXE, " Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of
Bourbon," 3 vols., 1813; CARVAJAL, "La Espana de los Borbones,"
4 vols., 1844; F. X. CONDE, " Elogio de Felipe V.," 1779: A. VIOL-
LET, "Histoire des Bourbons en Espagne," 1843; SAINT-SIMON,
€i Memoires ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Philip, [Ger. PHILIPP, fil'ip,] Landgrave of Hesse,
surnamed DER GROSSMUTHIGE, (de"r gRos-miit'iG-eh,)
("the Magnanimous,") born at Marburg in 1504, was
an able prince, and a constant friend of the Protestant
cause. He began to reign at the age of fourteen, and
introduced the Lutheran religion into Hesse in 1526. In
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y", short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
PHILIP
1787
PHILIP PUS
1531 he formed with the Protestant princes the league
Of Schmalkalden, which waged war against Charles V. ;
but he was forced to submit in 1547 to Charles, who
kept him a prisoner for five years. Philip was inclined
to toleration in religion. Died in 1567.
See HOFFMEISTER, " Leben Philipp des Grossmiithigen," 1846;
ROMMEL, "Philipp der Grossmiithige," 4 vols., 1828-35; RINCK,
" Erinnerungen an Philipp den Grossmiithigen," 1852.
Philip, [It. FILIPPO, fe-lep'po,] Duke of Parma, born
at Madrid in 1720, was the second son of Philip V. of
Spain. He invaded Italy with a Spanish army in 1742,
and attempted to obtain a throne by conquest, but failed.
The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, gave him the
duchy of Parma. Died in 1765.
Philip, a celebrated Indian chief, commonly called
KING PHILIP. He began a war with the English in
1675, but was killed the following year.
Philip the Bold, [Fr. PHILIPPE LE HARDI, fe'lep'
leh /rSK'de',] Duke of Burgundy, born in 1342, was a
younger son of John. King of France. He was one of
the most powerful French princes during the minority
of Charles VI., and was a rival of the Duke of Orleans.
He acted as regent while Charles VI. was disabled by
insanity. He died in 1404, and left the dukedom to his
son, Jean Sans Peur.
Philip the Deacon, one of the primitive Christian
ministers, was one of seven men appointed to a special
service, (Acts vi. 5.) He preached in Samaria, and in
structed the treasurer of Queen Candace of Ethiopia.
(See Acts viii. 5-40, and xxi. 8.)
See John i. 43-44, xiv. 8, 9; Matthew x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18; Luke
vi. 14 ; Acts i. 13.
Philip the Fair. See PHILIP IV. OF FRANCE.
Philip the Good, [Fr. PHILIPPE LE BON, fe'lep' leh
boN,] Duke of Burgundy, a son of Jean Sans Peur, was
born at Dijon in 1396. As a partisan or ally of Henry
V. of England, he fought against Charles VII. of France
from 1422 to 1435. At the latter date he entered into
alliance with Charles. Some years before this event he
had invaded the territory of Jacqueline, Countess of
Hainault, and compelled her to recognize him as her heir
in Holland, Zealand, and Hainault. He had inherited
Flanders and Artois in addition to Burgundy. He in
stituted the order of the Golden Fleece. His wife was
Isabella, a daughter of John I. of Portugal. He died in
1467 or 1457, and was succeeded by his son, Charles the
Bold. Philip was one of the most powerful sovereigns
of his time, but had little claim to the epithet of " Good."
" He was certainly neither a good nor a great prince,"
says Motley : " he was an adroit dissembler, a practical
politician."
See PERNEEI., " fipisodes du Regne de Philippe le Bon," 1847 ;
COMIXES, " Memoires ;" FROISSART, "Chronicles;" BARANTE,
" Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Philip of Orleans. See ORLEANS.
Phil'ip Au-gus'tus, [Fr. PHILIPPE AUGIISTE, fe'lep'
6'gu'st' ; Lat. PHILIP'PUS AUGUS'TUS,] called Philip II.,
King of France, born in 1 165, was the son of Louis VII.,
whom he succeeded in 1180. He married Isabella of
Hainault, a niece of the Count of Flanders. In the first
part of his reign he banished the Jews and confiscated
their property. He aided and abetted the sons of Henry
II. of England in rebellion against their father. Having
taken the cross in 1188, he raised an army and united
with Richard I. of England in a crusade. They embarked
at Genoa and Marseilles in 1190, passed the winter in
Sicily, and arrived at Acre in the spring of 1191. Dis
sensions or jealousies having arisen between Philip and
Richard, the former, on the pretext of ill health, aban
doned the enterprise, and arrived at Paris in December,
1191. (See RICHARD I.) A war ensued between Philip
and the English king for the possession of Normandy,
and lasted until the death of Richard, in 1199. The
crimes and incapacity of John of England afforded a
favourable opportunity to the ambition of Philip, who
extended his dominions by the conquest of Normandy,
Anjou, and Touraine, (1204-06.)
In 1213, at the instigation of Pope Innocent III., who
had deposed John, Philip prepared to invade England.
He was forced to renounce this enterprise by the abject
submission of John to the pope, and by the loss of his
fleet, which was defeated by the English. He invaded
Flanders, the chief towns of which surrendered to his
army, and gained in 1214 a decisive victory over the em
peror Otho IV. and the Flemings at Bouvines, where
he commanded in person. He died in 1223, leaving his
throne to his son, Louis VIII.
SeeRiooRD, "DeGestis Philippi Augusti ;" BAUDOT DE JUILLY,
"Histoire de Philippe Auguste," 1702; CAPEFIGUE, " Histoire de
Philippe Auguste," 4 vols., 1829; SISMONDI. "Histoire des Fran-
?ais;" RYMER, " Fcedera ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Philipon de la Madelaine, fe'le'pdN' deh If mtcl'-
l&n', (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Lyons in
1734. He published a "Dictionary of Homonyms,"
(" Dictionnaire des Homonymes," 1799,) a " Dictionary
of the French Language," (1809,) and other works,
which were received with favour. Died in 1818.
Phil'i-pot, (JOHN,) an English antiquary and herald,
born in Kent. Among the works attributed to him
is " Villare Cantianum, or Kent Surveyed." Died in
1645.
Phl-lip'pa OF HAINAULT, a daughter of William,
Earl of Hainault, was married to Edward III. of Eng
land about 1326. She saved the lives of six citizens of
Calais, whom Edward intended to put to death. Died
in 1369.
Philippar, fe'le'piV, (FRANCOIS AKEN,) a French
writer on agriculture, born at Peuving, Austria, in 1801.
He became director of the botanic garden at Versailles
in 1841.
Philippe, the French of PHILIPPUS, which see.
Philippe, (Kings of France.) See PHILIP.
Philippe de Mons, fe'lep' deh m6.N, a Belgian com
poser, born at Mons about 1522. He composed masses,
motets, etc., and was the most famous Belgian composer
of his time, except Orlando de Lasso.
Philippe de Neri. See NERI.
Philippe de la Sainte-Trinite, fe'lep' deh It saNt
tRe'ne'tk', (ESPRIT JULIEN,) a French missionary, born
in the Comtat in 1603. He preached in Syria, Persia,
etc., and published " Itinerarium Orientale," (1649.)
Died in 1671.
Philippe le Bon. See PHILIP THE GOOD.
Philippe le Hardi. See PHILIP THE BOLD.
Philippeaux. See PHELIPPEAUX.
Philippeaux, fe'le'po', (PIERRE,) a French revolu
tionist, born in the department of Orne in 1759. He
was elected in 1792 to the Convention, in which he
voted for the death of the king and an appeal to the
people. He was proscribed by Saint-Just, arrested as
an accomplice of Danton in March, 1794, and guillotined
in the ensuing month.
Philippi, fe'le'pe', (HENRI,) a French Jesuit, born at
Saint-Hubert, in the Ardennes, about 1575. He wrote
several works on Chronology. Died in 1636.
Fhl-lip'pi-cus or Phl-lep'I-cus, also called BAR-
DANES, Emperor of Constantinople, was a son of Ni-
cephorus Patricius. He began to reign in 711 A.D.,
and was deposed in 713. He was a partisan of Mono-
thelism.
Philippide. See PHILIPPIDES.
Phl-lip'pi-des, [Gr. QCfj.--'^ ; Fr. PHILIPPIDE, fe'-
le'ped',] an Athenian comic poet, flourished about 300 or
330 B.C. His works are not extant. He was considered
one of the best poets of the new comedy. He is said to
have died of joy because one of his plays had gained the
prize. His character is eulogized by Plutarch in the life
of Demetrius.
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graeca."
Philippon. See PHILIPON.
Philippon, fe'le'p6.N', (ARMAND,) a French general,
born at Rouen in 1761. He commanded at the siege
of Badajos, in 1811 and 1812. Died in 1836.
Philippoteaux, fe'le'po'to', (FELIX HENRI EM
MANUEL,) a French historical painter, born at Sedan
in 1815. He obtained a first medal in 1840. Among
his works is the "Last Banquet of the Girondists,"
(1850.)
PhilippUB OF ACARNANIA. See PHILIP OF ACAR-
NANIA.
Phl-lip'pus, an impostor, whose proper name was
ANDRISCUS, pretended to be a son of Perseus, King of
e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, gitttiiral '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
PHILIP PUS
1788
PHILLIPS
Macedon. He obtained some success, but was expelled
by the Roman general Q. Caecilius Metellus.
Philippus, a son of Antiochus VIII., became King
of Syria about 88 B.C., after fighting against Antio
chus X.
Philippus OF THESSALONI'CA, an epigrammatic poet,
who is supposed to have lived about 100 A.D. He com
posed many epigrams, which are in the Greek Anthol
ogy, and compiled a "Greek Anthology."
Philippus, a physician, who lived about 150 A.D. and
belonged to the sect of Empirici. He is mentioned by
Galen, his contemporary.
Philippus, [Fr. PHILIPPE, fe'lep',] (L. MARCIUS,) a
Roman general, who became consul in 186 B.C. and
again in 169. At the latter date he obtained the conduct
of the Macedonian war. He invaded the territory of
Perseus, King of Macedonia, without important results.
He was censor in 164 H.C.
Philippus, (L. MARCIUS,) a Roman orator, who be
longed to the popular party. He was consul in 91 B.C.
with Sextus Julius Caesar, and was an enemy of M. Livius
Drusus, the tribune of the people, by whose order Philip-
pus was dragged to prison in the year just named. In
86 n.c. he was censor. He remained neutral in the war
between Marius and Sulla, and was afterwards a friend
of Pompey. He was one of the most eminent orators
of his time, and was noted for his sarcastic wit. Horace
refers to him in his Epistle i. : " Stremms et fortis causis-
que Philippus agendis clarus." He died after 76 H.C.
Philippus, (L. MARCIUS,) a son of the preceding,
was consul in 56 B.C. He married Atia, a niece of Julius
Cassar, and thus became the stepfather of the emperor
Augustus. He was neutral in the civil war between
Caesar and Pompey.
Philippus, (M. JULIUS,) a Roman emperor, was a
native of Trachonitis. He obtained the imperial power
by the murder of Gordian, in 244 A.D. The senate
confirmed the choice of the army. He made peace with
Persia in 244. In 248 or 247 A.D. he celebrated the
thousandth anniversary of the origin of Rome. He was
killed at Verona in 249 A.D., in a battle against Decius,
who had usurped the title of emperor. According to
Eusebius and other writers, Philippus was a Christian.
His son, M. JULIUS PHILIPPUS, who had been asso
ciated with him in the empire, (247 A.D.,) was killed by
the partisans of Decius, in 249 A.D.
Philippus Augustus. See PHILIP AUGUSTUS.
Phil'ips, (AMBROSE,) an English poet and dramatist,
born probably in Leicestershire about 1670. Among
his early productions were six Pastorals, (about 1708,)
and a " Letter from Copenhagen," in verse, (1709,) which
was praised by Steele and others. His tragedy " The
Distressed Mother" was performed with applause in
1712. It was highly commended in the "Spectator"
by Addison and Steele, who were friends of the author.
He was an adherent of the Whig party, and an object
of Pope's ill-natured satire. He made a translation of
Sappho's " Hymn to Venus," which Addison printed in
the " Spectator," No. 223. His version of Sappho's
"Ode to Lesbia" is praised by Addison, as "written in
the very spirit of Sappho." (See " Spectator," No. 229.)
He became secretary to Dr. Boulter, Primate of Ireland,
in 1723, and for some time represented the county of
Armagh in the Irish parliament. In 1733 he became a
judge of the prerogative court in Ireland. Died in 1749.
The term " namby-pamby" is said to have been first
applied to his style.
See JOHNSON, "Lives of the English Poets."
Philips, (CATHERINE,) an English poetess, born in
London in 1631. Her maiden name was FOWLER. She
translated Corneille's tragedy of " Pompey," and wrote
poems, which were published in 1667. She was called
by her admirers " the Matchless Orinda." Died in 1664.
See " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by L. S. COSTEI.LO.
Philips or Philipps, (FAHIAN,) an English political
writer, born at Prestbury in 1601, was a lawyer and a
partisan of Charles I. Died in 1690.
Philips, ^JoHN,) an English poet, born at Bampton,
Oxfordshire, in 1676. His first successful work was
"The Splendid Shilling," a mock-heroic poem, (1703.)
He produced in 1705 "Blenheim," a poem in imitation
of the style of Milton. His principal work is a poem
"On Cider," (1706,) in which he imitated Virgil's
"Georgics" with some success. Died in 1708.
See JOHNSON, "Lives of the English Poets."
PW-lis'cus, [4>iAi'<7Koc,] an Athenian comic poet of
the middle comedy, wrote probably about 400 B.C. The
titles of some of his plays are given by Suidas.
Philiscus OF y£ciNA, a Cynic philosopher, who,
according to Suidas, was a disciple of Diogenes the
Cynic, and taught grammar to Alexander the Great.
Philiscus OF CORCYRA, lived about 290 B.C., and was
one of the seven poets that formed the "Tragic Pleiad."
His works are not extant.
Philiscus OF RHODES, a sculptor, who is believed to
have flourished about 146 B.C. ; though some suppose
him to have lived in the reign of Augustus. His works
were placed in the temple of Apollo at Rome, for which
they were probably originally designed. Meyer identifies
the statue at Florence called Apollino with the Apollo
of Philiscus.
Phi-lis'tl-on, [QdiaTiuv,] a Greek physician, born
in Sicily or Italy, lived in the fourth century B.C.
He was the teacher of Eudoxus the physician and
astronomer.
Fhi-lis'tus, [Gr. <J>/Awrof,] an eminent Syracusan his
torian and politician, born about 435 B.C. He aided
Dionysius to obtain power in Syracuse about 405 B.C.,
soon after which he was keeper of the citadel. About
396 he was banished, because he married a niece of
Dionysius without his consent. He was recalled from
exile by Dionysius the Younger, over whom he acquired
much influence. He used this influence against Plato
and Dion, and "employed his talents," says Plutarch,
" in defence of the despotic policy." Having been de
feated in a naval battle by the party of Dion, in 356 B.C.,
he was killed, or killed himself to avoid falling into the
hands of the victors. He wrote a " History of Sicily,"
which is lost. His style resembled that of Thucytlides.
Cicero characterizes him as "creber, acutus, brevis, paene
pusillus Thucydides."
See BAVI.E, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" GOEI.LER,
" Vita Philisti," in his " De Situ et Origine Syracusarmn."
Phil'H-more, (Jonx GEORGE,) M.P., an English
writer on law, born in 1809. He wrote a " History of
the Law of Evidence," and other works. Died in 1865.
Phil'lip, (ARTHUR,) an English navigator, born in
London in 1738, was the first governor of Botany Bay.
Died in 1814.
Phil'lip, (JoHN,) a Scottish painter, born at Aberdeen
about 1815, became a resident of London. Having
visited Spain about 1852, he painted numerous success
ful pictures of Spanish life. Among his works are a
"Scotch Fair," "The Letter-Writer of Seville," "El
Pasco," "The Spanish Contrabandistas," and "The
House of Commons." He was elected a Royal Acade
mician in 1859 or 1860. Died in 1867.
Phil'lips, (CHARLES,) an Irish barrister, born at
Sligo about 1788. He practised with success in criminal
cases in London, and gained a wide reputation by his
speeches, the style of which is rather florid. He was
for many years a commissioner of the insolvent debtors'
court in London. He published, besides other works,
"Recollections of Curran and some of his Contempo
raries," (1818.) Died in 1859.
See "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1817; " Monthly Re
view" for December, 1819.
Phil'lips or Philipps, (EDWARD,) a nephew and
pupil of the poet Milton, was born in London in 1630.
He wrote a "Life of Milton," (1694,) and published,
besides other works, " Theatrum Poetarum," or a com
plete collection of the most eminent poets of all ages,
with observations, etc., (1675.) It is supposed that he
was assisted by Milton in this work, which is highly
esteemed. Died about 1680.
See WIU.IAM GODWIN, "Lives of Edward and John Phillips,"
1815; " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1815.
Phillips, fil'lips, (GEORG,) a Prussian historian, born
at Kb'nigsberg in 1804. He was a Roman Catholic of
the ultramontane party. In 1851 he became professor
of the history of law at Vienna. Among his works are
a "History of Germany," (1834,) and a "Treatise on
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
PHILLIPS
1789
PHILO
Canon Law," (Kirchenrccht,) (5 vols., 1845-51.) Die
in 1860.
Phillips, (JOHN,) a brother of Edward, noticed above
was a pupil of Milton. He wrote " Maronides," a parodj
of part of Virgil's " /Eneid," (1672,) a " Defence of Mil
ton," (" Miltoni Defensio,") and a few other works.
See " Lives of Edward and John Phillips, Nephews and Pupil
of John Milton," by WILLIAM GODWIN, London, 1815.
Phillips, (JOHN,) a nephew of William Smith th<
geologist, was born December 25, 1800. He assisted this
uncle in the explorations and surveys which he made
in order to prepare geological maps of England. H
lectured on his favourite science with success at various
places. In 1844 he obtained the chair of geology a
Dublin. He wrote articles on geology, etc. for the
"Penny Cyclopaedia" and the "Encyclopaedia Britan
nica." Among his works are a "Treatise on Geology,'
(2 vois., 1837,) and "Palaeozoic Fossils of Cornwall
Devon, and West Somerset," (1841.) He became pro
fessor of geology at Oxford in 1853, and president of
the Geological Society in 1858.
Fhil'lips, (JOHN,) LL.D., an American merchant, borr
at Andover, Massachusetts, in 1719, founded an academy
at Exeter, New Hampshire, called by his name, and gave
a large sum to Phillips Academy, at Andover. Died
in 1795.
Phillips, (MORGAN,) or Philip Morgan, a Welsh
Catholic writer, graduated at Oxford in 1537. He was
so skilful in disputation that he was called " Morgan the
Sophister." He wrote in 1571 an answer to Knox's
" Blast of the Trumpet against the Regiment of Women."
Phillips, (Sir RICHARD,) an Engfish writer, born in
London in 1767 or 1768. He published the "Monthly
Magazine," which advocated liberal politics, and other
works. Died about 1840.
See " Memoirs of the Public and Private Life of Sir Richard
Phillips."
Phillips, (RICHARD,) F.R.S., an English chemist and
pharmacist, born in 1778. He learned his profession
with William Allen, of Plough Court, London, and ac
quired great skill as an analytic chemist. He wrote
articles on chemistry and mineralogy for the " Penny
Cyclopaedia." He lectured on chemistry at the London
Hospital, and became president of the Chemical Society
about 1850. Died in 1851.
Phillips, (SAMUEL,) nephew of John Phillips, noticed
above, (1719-95,) was born at North Andover in 1751,
and rose through numerous offices to be Lieutenant-
Governor of Massachusetts. He was the founder of
Phillips Academy, Andover. Died in 1802.
Phillips, (SAMUEL,) an English writer, born in Lon
don in 1815. He published "Caleb Stukely," a novel,
and wrote tales for " Blackwood's Magazine" and other
periodicals. He became an editor of the London
"Times," for which he wrote able literary criticisms and
reviews. In 1852 and 1854 he published two volumes
of " Essays from the Times." Died in 1854.
Phillips, (THOMAS,) an English Catholic priest, born
in Buckinghamshire in 1708. He published a "Life of
Reginald Pole," (1764.) Died at Liege in 1774.
Phillips, (THOMAS,) an English portrait-painter, born
at Dudley, in Warwickshire, in 1770. He was professor
of painting in the Royal Academy from 1824 to 1832.
Among his works are portraits of Sir Joseph Banks,
Lord Byron, the poets Scott, Coleridge, and Southey,
Lord Brougham, Sir Francis Chantrey, and Major Den-
ham. Died in 1845.
Phillips, (Sir THOMAS,) an English antiquary, born
in Worcestershire in 1792. He formed a great collection
of manuscripts, and wrote several antiquarian treatises.
Phillips, (WENDELL,) an American reformer, dis
tinguished for his uncompromising hostility to the in
stitution of slavery and to oppression in every form, was
born in Boston, Massachusetts, November 29, 1811. He
graduated at Harvard in 1831, studied law, and was ad
mitted to the bar in 1834. His sympathies were strongly
aroused by the persecution of the early abolitionists,
more particularly during the Boston mob, headed by
"gentlemen of property and standing," in October, 1835,
when Garrison narrowly escaped with his life. In 1836
he joined the abolitionists, relinquishing the practice of
law because he was unwilling to act under an oath to
the Constitution of the United States. In 1837 a meeting
of the citizens of Massachusetts was called in Faneuil
Hall for the purpose of expressing public condemnation
of the murder of Lovejoy, who fell (November 7) at
Alton, Illinois, in defence of the freedom of the press.
The pro-slavery feeling in Boston was at that time very
strong, and the object of the meeting was in imminent
danger of being defeated through the influence of Attor
ney-General Austin, who asked how Mr. Lovejoy had
merited the distinction of being thus commemorated, and
whether he had not died "as the fool dieth." At the
conclusion of his speech, Wendell Phillips arose, and, in
a burst of indignant and powerful eloquence, rebuked
the craven and sordid spirit of those who sought to
defend or excuse that great crime against the liberty of
the press and the rights of humanity. Dr. Channing,
who had been chiefly instrumental in calling the meeting
on that occasion, often referred to the speech of young
Phillips before that vast assembly, many of whom were
bitterly hostile to freedom, as "morally sublime." Be
lieving that the Constitution of the United States was
an unrighteous compact between freedom and slavery,
Mr. Phillips refused to recognize its authority by voting
or in any other manner, and maintained that a 'dissolu
tion of the Union would be the most effectual mode of
giving freedom to the slaves. In 1865 he succeeded Mr.
Garrison as president of the American Anti-Slavery
Society, which position he held until the dissolution of
the society, April 9, 1870. Mr. Phillips is an accom
plished scholar, and one of the most eloquent orators
in the United States. In addition to his labours in the
anti-slavery cause, he has devoted no inconsiderable
portion of his time and attention to the temperance
movement and other reforms. His principal speeches
and lectures have been published in an octavo volume,
^Boston, 1863.)
See MRS. STOWE, "Men of ourTimes," Hartford, 1868; "Golden
Age of American Oratory," by EDWARD G. PARKER, Boston, 1857.
Phillips, (WILLIAM,) F.R.S., an English mineralogist
and geologist, born in London in 1773, was a brother of
Richard, noticed above, and was a member of the Society
of Friends. He distinguished himself by the accurate
measurement of crystals by means of the reflective
oniometer. He published "Outlines of Mineralogy
and Geology," (4th edition, 1826,) and an "Introduction
0 the Knowledge of Mineralogy," (1816.) He aided
onybeare in an important work, — "The Geology of
England and Wales," (1822.) Died in 1828.
Phill'potts or Phil'pptts, (HENRY,) an English
ishop, was born at Bridge water in 1777 or 1778, and
ducated at Oxford. He obtained the living of Stanhope,
iccame Dean of Chester in 1828, and Bishop of Exeter
1 1830. He acted with the Tory party in the House
f Lords, in opposing many measures of reform. He
vrote many controversial works, among which is a
"Letter on Catholic Emancipation," (1827.) He was
regarded as the head of the extreme High-Church party
in the House of Lords. Died in September, 1869.
See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1852; "Blackwood's
Magazine" for June, 1827.
Phi'lo or Phi'lon, [
a son of Antipater, a Greek
statuary, who lived about 330 B.C. He made a statue
of Zeus Ourios, which stood on the shore of the Black
Sea, near Chalcedon.
Philo or Philon, an excellent Greek architect, worked
at Athens about 320 B.C. He built the portico of twelve
Doric columns of the great temple at Eleusis.
Philo, a physician of the sect of Methodic!, is men
tioned by Galen. The time in which he lived is unknown.
Philo or Philon THE ACADEMIC, a philosopher, born
at Larissa, was a disciple of Clitomachus. He taught
philosophy and rhetoric at Rome in the time of Cicero,
who was one of his auditors or pupils.
Philo, (Philon,) [<fo'/A)v,] an ancient Greek physician,
born at Tarsus in Cilicia, lived probably about the time
of Augustus. He wrote, in Greek verse, directions for
compounding an antidote called Philonium, which are
preserved by Galen.
Philo, (Q. PUBLILIUS,) a Roman general, who was
consul in 339 B.C. He procured the passage in that
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Igf See Explanations, p. 23.)
PHILO
1790
PHILOSTR4TUS
year of the important Publilian laws, which increased
the power of the plebeians. He was re-elected consul
in 327 and in 320 B.C. In the latter year he defeated the
Samnites.
Philo, (Philon,) [Gr. WMV,] called also Philo By-
zautius, (be-zan'she-us,) a Greek mechanician, who lived
in the second century B.C. He wrote a "Treatise on
Military Machines and Missiles," part of which is ex
tant, — i.e. the fourth and fifth books, — and a treatise on
mechanics.
Philo [Fr. PHILON, fe'loN'] OF BYBLOS, (HEREN-
NIUS,) a Greek historian and grammarian, who lived
between 50 and 125 A.D. Among his numerous works
was an account of the reign, or part of the reign, of
Hadrian. Suidas says he wrote pcrites basileias Adrianou.
Philo made a translation of the History of Sanchoniathon,
a Phoenician.
Fhi'lo(orPhi'lon) Judse'us, (ju-dee'us.)fFr. PHILON
LE JuiF, fe'l6.\' leh zhii-ef',] (" Philo the Jew,") a Greek
philosopher, born at Alexandria, lived between 20 B.C.
and 50 A.I). He was a member of the sacerdotal family,
and was distinguished for learning and eloquence. He
was a man of mature age when he was sent by the Jews
of Alexandria on an embassy to Caligula, (40 A.D.) It
appears that he was a believer in the Platonic philoso
phy. He wrote many works on the Jewish religion, on
the interpretation of the Pentateuch, and other subjects.
He is partial to figurative or allegorical interpretations.
See J. BRYANT, "The Sentiments of Philo Judaeus," 1798; Jo-
SEPHUS, "Jewish Antiquities;" FAH'KICIUS, " Bibliotheca Grjeca ;"
RITTKR, "History of Philosophy."
Fhi'lo or Fhi'lon Thy-a-n8ii'sis, an able geome
trician, whose period is unknown. He wrote on curved
lines, and lived before 100 A.D.
Fhl-lo-eh'a-res, a Greek painter, mentioned by Pliny.
He is supposed to be the same as the brother of ALs-
chines, who lived about 340 u.C.
Fhi-loeb/o-rus, [4>(/^-opoc,] a distinguished Athenian
writer, who states that he held an office at Athens in 306
B.C. He wrote a work on the antiquities, legends, and
history of Athens, entitled " Atthis," of which many frag
ments are extant. Suidas says he was put to death by
order of Antigonus. According to some writers, he
flourished between 306 and 260 B.C.
Phil'o-cles, [4>iAoK/.7/c,] an Athenian tragic poet, born
about 468 B.C., was a nephew of the poet /Eschylus, whom
he imitated. In 429 he gained a victory over Sophocles,
who on that occasion exhibited his much-admired "CEcli-
pus Tyrannus." None of the works of Philocles have
come down to us.
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graeca."
Philocles, an Athenian architect, (of Acharnse,) de
signed the admirable Ionic temple of Athena Polias,
built about 333 B.C.
Philocrate. See PHILOCRATES.
Phl-loc'ra-tes, [Gr. $iAOKpurt]f ; Fr. PHILOCRATE,
fe'lo'kRaV,] an Athenian orator, who was one of the
chief negotiators of the peace with Philip of Macedon
in 346 B.C. He was an opponent of Demosthenes, and
favoured the Macedonian party. Having been accused
of treason, he went into exile about 342 B.C.
Philoctete. See PHILOCTETES.
Fhll-oc-te'tes, [Gr. 4>i/.oK77/-7/c ,• Fr. PHILOCTETK,
fe'lok'tit',] a celebrated Greek archer, who, during the
Trojan war, was left on the island of Lemnos, because
he was wounded in the foot by a serpent or a poisoned
arrow. He is the subject of many legends, one of which
ascribes the death of Paris to a shaft from his bow. He
was said to have been a friend of Hercules, who be
queathed to him his bow and his poisoned arrows.
See SOPHOCLES, " Philoctetes," a tragedy.
Philodeme. See PHILODEMUS.
Phil-o-de'mus, [Gr. <I>i/Uxfy/zof ; Fr. PHILODEME, fe'-
lo'dim',] a Greek Epicurean philosopher and poet, born
in Palestine. He lived at Rome in the time of Cicero,
who mentions him in a speech against Piso. Cicero
condemns his conduct, but recognizes his literary merit.
He wrote epigrams, fragments of which are extant in
the Greek Anthology.
Phil-o-la'us, [Gr. 4>*/l6Aaoc,] a Pythagorean philoso
pher, born at Crotona or Tarentum, was a disciple of
Archytas. He flourished about 375 or, according to
some authorities, 450 B.C., and wrote on physics. Plato,
it is said, purchased some of his writings at a high price,
and derived from them materials for his "Timaeus."
See AUGUST BOCKH, " Philolaos des Pythagoraers Leben," 1819;
ERSOI und GRUDKK, "Allgemeine Kncyklopaedie."
Fhll'o-me'la, [Gr. QAo/ir/ha ; Fr. PHILOMELE, fe'lo'-
m;\l',] a daughter of Pandi'on, and a sister of Procne.
The poets related that she was ravished by Tereus,
and afterwards metamorphosed into a nightingale.
See OVID, "Metamorphoses."
Philomele. See PHILOMELA.
Philon. See PHILO.
Flri-loii'I-des, [4>iAww'(5?7c,] an Athenian comic poet
of the old comedy, lived in the fifth century B.C. He
is chiefly distinguished as one of the persons in whose
name the early plays of Aristophanes were produced.
In the opinion of some critics, he was one of the actors
to whom Aristophanes committed his chief characters.
Fhilopemen. See PHILOI-CEMEN.
Philopcemen, fil-o-pee'men, [Gr. Qdmroinriv ; Fr.
PHILOPEMKN, fe'lo'pa'mftN',] an eminent Greek general
and statesman, born at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, about
252 B.C., was a son of Craugis. He was instructed by
Demophanes and Ecdemus, and chose Epaminonclas
for his model. His favourite study was the art of war.
His name occurs in 222 B.C. as one of the few who re
sisted Cleomenes, the Spartan, when he attacked Mega
lopolis by night. The defeat of Cleomenes at Sellasia
(221 B.C.) was ascribed to Philopcemen. He was ap
pointed general of the cavalry about 210 B.C., and made
reforms in discipline and tactics. In 208 he was elected
stmtcffiis or general-in-chief of the Achaean League. His
reputation was greatly exalted by a victory over the
Spartan Machanidas at Mantinea. He defeated Nabis,
tyrant of Sparta, in 201 B.C., and again about 192. In
188 B.C. he was appointed commander in a war against
Sparta, which had seceded from the Achaean League.
He made himself master of the Spartan capital, razed
the walls, put to death the prominent men, and abolished
the laws of Lycurgus. For these acts of severity he was
censured by the Roman senate. In an attempt to reduce
Messene to allegiance by arms, he was taken prisoner
by the Messenians, and compelled to drink poison, in
182 B.C. He has been styled the last of the Greeks.
His memory was cherished with great veneration. Ac
cording to Pausanias, " Miltiades was the first, and Phi-
loposmen the last, benefactor to the whole of Greece."
See Pr.uTARCH, "Lives:" POLYBIUS, "History."
Phi-lop'o-iius, ( JOAN N us,) [Gr. 'luawrjs 6 4>i/l6-ovof,]
surnamed GKAMMAT'ICUS, a grammarian of Alexandria,
whose reputation was greater than his merit. His name
is chiefly memorable for his connection with the capture
of Alexandria by Amroo, 639 A.D. It is reported that
he requested the victor to grant him the great library
of that city, and that his request was refused.
Philostorge. See PHILOSTORGIUS.
Plul-o-stor'gl-us, [Gr. <bihoaT6pyu)£ ; Fr. PHILO
STORGE, fe'io'stoRzh',] an Arian writer, born in Cappa-
clocia about 360 A.D. He wrote an ecclesiastical history
of the period from 300 to 425 A. I)., which is lost. An
extract from it is preserved in a work of Photius.
Philostrat and Philostra. See PHILOSTRATUS.
Phl-los'tra-tus, [Gr. 4^/WCTrparof ; Fr. PHILOSTRATE,
fe'lo'stutt'; Ger. PHILOSTRAT, fee'los-tRat,] (FLAVIUS,)
a Greek biographer, born in Lemnos about 175 or 180
A.D. lie became a resident of Rome, where he taught
rhetoric in the reign of Septimius Severus. At the re
quest of the empress, Julia Domna, he wrote a " Life of
Apollonius of Tyana." This work, which has exercised
the ingenuity of many commentators, was printed in
1502. Among his extant works are "The Lives of the
Sophists," and a description of a collection of paintings,
which displays richness of fancy and beauty of style. He
was alive in the reign of Philip, (244-249 A.D.)
See RITTER, " History of Philosophy ;" FAHRICIUS, "Bibliotheca
Gra;ca ;" REHKUES, " Ueber den Jiingern Philostrat," etc., 1800;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Philostratus THE LK.MNIAN, a Sophist, born about
190 A.D. He is mentioned in the writings of the Philos
tratus noticed above, who was his friend and praises
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y> short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; mo5n;
PHILOT4S
1 79 1
PHORMION
his rhetorical skill. Suidas ascribes to him a work called
EiKovaz.
Phi-lo'tas, [Gr. 4>t?,&;raf,] a general of Alexander the
Great, was a son of Parmenio. He commanded the
Macedonian cavalry, or royal guards, in the expedition
against Persia, and stood high in the favour of the king.
Plutarch extols his valour and generosity, but adds that
"the loftiness of his port was altogether extravagant."
He received information of a plot against Alexander, but
neglected to mention it. His enemy Craterus used this
circumstance to excite the suspicion of the king. Phi-
lotas was tortured until he confessed his complicity, and
was put to death in 330 B.C. His guilt may reasonably
be doubted.
See ARRIAN, "Anabasis."
Philotas, a physician of Amphissa, in Locris, born
about 50 or 60 n.c. He once supped with Antyllus, (a
son of Antony,) who was so pleased with a syllogism of
Philotas that he gave him a rich present, (30 B.C.)
Fhl-lo'the-us, [4>i/io#e6c,] (CocciNUS,) a Greek writer,
was chosen Patriarch of Constantinople in 1355. He had
a high reputation, and wrote a number of works, some
of which have been printed. Died about 1373.
Phll-o-ti'nius, [$i/.oTi/Mf,] an eminent Greek phy
sician, who lived probably about 300 B.C., was a con
temporary of Herophilus. His works are mentioned
by Galen.
Philoxene. See PHILOXENUS.
Fhi-lox'e-nus, [Gr. <bi/M%Evof ; Fr. PHILOXENE, fe'-
loks'in',] an eminent Greek dithyrambic poet, born at
Cythera about 435 B.C. He passed some time at the
court of Dionysius of Syracuse, who treated him with
favour and afterwards sent him to prison. His chief
poems were "Cyclops or Galatea," and "The Feast''
or " Dinner," (A«-iw,) which were much admired.
Fragments of them are extant. He died in 380 B.C.
See BERGI.EIN-, " De Philoxeno Cytherio Poeta," 1843; KLING-
ENDER, " Dissertatio de Philoxeno Cytherio," 1845.
Fhiloxenus, an able Greek painter of Eretria, was
a pupil of Nicomachus of Thebes. He was noted for
rapidity of execution. His picture of a battle of Alex
ander with Darius is highly praised by Pliny. He lived
about 325 B.C.
Philoxenus, an Egyptian surgeon, mentioned by
Celsus as the author of several valuable works on
surgery. He probably lived before the Christian era.
Fhii'pot, (JoHN,) an English Protestant minister,
born at Compton, was tried for heresy, and burned at
Smithfield in 1555. He left several works on theology.
Philpotts, (HENRY.) See PHILLPOTTS.
Phinee. See PHINEUS.
Phi'neus or Phin'e-us, [Gr.
Fr. PHINEE,
fe'na',] a blind soothsayer of classic mythology, supposed
to be a son of Agenor, (or of Neptune.) According to the
ancient fabulists, he treated his children with extreme
severity, and the gods, to punish him, sent the Harpies,
who annoyed him exceedingly, by snatching and soiling
his food, until he was relieved by the Argonauts. In
return for this service, he gave them prophetic counsel to
direct them in their enterprise. The story of Phineus
is related with much variation by different authors, some
of whom call him King of Salmydessus in Thrace.
Pliiiitias. See DAMON.
PhippS, (CONSTANTINE.) See MULGRAVE.
Phipps, (CONSTANTINE HENRY.) See NORMANBY.
Phipps or Phips, (Sir WILLIAM,) an American ma
gistrate, born in Maine in 1651, became Governor of
Massachusetts in 1692. His " Life," by Francis Bowen,
is included in Sparks's " American Biography," vol. vii.
He commanded an expedition against Port Royal, which
he captured in 1690. Died in 1695.
See COTTON MATHER, "Life of Sir William Phipps."
Fhle'gcm, [4>/£}"wv,] a chronologer, born at Tralles, in
Lydia, lived in the first half of the second century. He
was a freedman of the emperor Hadrian. His most im
portant work is called 'OAiyz-iovwcwv KCU xpovmtiv owa-
yuy??. It is not extant. Saint Jerome cites him as a wit
ness to confirm the gospel narrative in relation to the
miraculous darkness which occurred at the death of
Christ. Phlegon states that in the fourth year of the
2O2cl Olympiad there was a great eclipse of the sun at
the sixth hour, and an earthquake in Bithynia.
Phlegyas, flee'jejis, [Gr. Qteyuaf ; Fr. PHLEGYAS,
fla'zhe'a',] a fabulous personage, said to be a son of
Mars, a king of the Lapithas, and the father of Coronis.
Having set fire to the temple of Apollo, he was killed
and doomed to a severe punishment in Tartarus.
See VIRGIL, "^Eneid," book vi. 618.
Pho'cas, [Gr. <buK<ir,] a native of Asia Minor, usurped
the empire of Constantinople in 602 A.D. He waged
war against Persia, in which he suffered great losses. He
rendered himself odious by his cruelty, and was deposed
and put to death by Heracli'us in 610 A.D.
Fhocion, fo'she-on, or Phokion, fo'ke-on, [Gr.
4>««o>v,] an Athenian statesman and general, born about
402 B.C., was a pupil of Plato and Xenocrates. He con
tributed to the victory of Naxos, in 376. In 340 he com
manded an army which operated with success against
Philip at Byzantium. He opposed Demosthenes on the
question of war against Philip of Macedon, and was the
leader of the conservative or aristocratic party. Accord
ing to Plutarch, he was elected general forty-five times.
In his speeches he was remarkable for conciseness and
sententious brevity. Demosthenes used to say, when
Phocion arose to speak, " Here comes the primer of my
periods."
Plutarch.
Many of his witty sayings are recorded by
He compared the speeches of a certain orator
"to cypress-trees, which are high and stately, but bear
no fruit." He opposed the war against Antipater in
323 B.C. Having been unjustly condemned on a charge
of treason, he was put to death by the popular party in
317 B.C.
" The influence of Phokion as a public adviser," says
Grote, " during the period embraced in this volume down
to the battle of Chaeronea, was eminently mischievous
to Athens, — all the more mischievous, partly (like that
of Nikias) from the respectability of his personal quali
ties, partly because he espoused and sanctioned the
most dangerous infirmity of the Athenian mind." (" His
tory of Greece," chap. Ixxxvii.)
See PLUTARCH, " Life of Phocion :" CORNELIUS NEPOS, "Pho
cion ;" DIODORUS SICULUS. books xvi.-xviii. ; THIRLWALL, " History
of Greece ;" G. LESS, " Res a Phocione in Republica Atheniensi
gestas," 1787; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pho-gyl'i-des [QuKv?d6w] OF MILETUS, a Greek
poet, who flourished about 540 B.C. He wrote didactic
and elegiac poems, of which small fragments are extant.
Phcebe, fee'be, [Gr. Qoify; Fr. PHEK.E, fa'ba',] a sur
name of ARTEMIS or DIANA, goddess of the moon. (See
DIANA.)
Fkoebidas, feb'e-das, [Gr. 4>oii5«5ac,] a Spartan gene
ral, who commanded in the Olynthian war, (382 B.C.)
He seized by treachery the Cadmeia of Thebes. He was
killed in a battle against the Thebans about 378 B.C.
Phoebus, fee'bus, [Gr. 4>oZSof ; Fr. PHEBUS, fa'biis',]
a name given by the Greeks to Apollo as god of the
sun. (See APOLLO.)
Fhcenix, fee'niks, [Gr. <^O'LVL~; Fr. PHENIX, fa'neks',]
a mythological personage, whom tradition represents as
King of the Dolopes, and preceptor of Achilles, whom
he accompanied to the siege of Troy. The invention
of the alphabet was ascribed to him.
Phcenix, [Gr. 4>om£,] a son of Agenor, and brother
of Cadmus. It was fabled that he went to Africa to
search for his sister Europa, and settled in a country
which was from him called Phoenicia.
Phceiiix is also the name of a fabulous bird, cele
brated among the ancient Greeks and Orientals. Accord
ing to one tradition, it attained the age of five hundred
years or more, and burned itself on a funeral pile, from
the ashes of which another Phoenix arose.
Phokion. See PHOCION.
Phor'sys or Phor'cus, [Gr. 4>6p/o>f or 4>6pKoc,] the
old man of the sea, in classic mythology, was said to
be the father of the Gorgons, the Grzeae, and the Hes-
perides. The first and second of these were called
PHOR'CYDES or PHOR'CIDES, [Gr. 4«op/«<5ec.]
Phor'mi-on, [Gr.
an able Athenian general,
who blockaded Potidaea in 432 B.C. He gained a deci
sive victory over the Peloponnesian fleet near Xaupactus,
in 429. Died in 428 B.C.
« as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
PHORMION
1792
PHTSICK
Phormion OF EPHESUS, a Peripatetic philosopher,
who is said to have excited the disgust of Hannibal by
discoursing in his presence for several hours on the
military art.
Phoronee. See PHORONEUS.
Pho-ro'neus, [Gr. <bopuvevs ; Fr. PHORONEE, fo'ro'-
na',] a son of Inachus, and a king of Argolis, was the
father of Agenor, Pelasgiis, and Niobe. According to
tradition, he discovered the use of fire.
Photius, fo'she-us, [Gr. •twrtof,] an ambitious and
highly-gifted Byzantine prelate and writer, was born of
a noble family probably at Constantinople. He was a
man of sound judgment and of profound and various
erudition. After he had held several high civil offices,
he was proto-secretarius under Michael III. He be
came in 857 or 858 A.D. Patriarch of Constantinople in
place of Ignatius, who was deposed by Bardas. The
cause of Ignatius was supported by Pope Nicholas, who
anathematized Photius in 862 or 863. A council as
sembled by Photius excommunicated the pope, and thus
originated the great schism between the Western and
Eastern Churches. In 867 the emperor Basil I. ban
ished Photius and restored Ignatius, whose rights were
confirmed by an oecumenical council in 869. Photius
gained the favour of Basil, and on the death of Igna
tius, in 877, was restored to his see, and was recognized
by the pope, John VIII. A dispute about the jurisdic
tion of Bulgaria, however, revived the schism between
the Greek and Roman Churches. Photius was banished
by the emperor Leo VI. in 886 A.D., and died in exile a
few years later. He is treated with more favour by Prot
estant writers than by the Roman Catholics. He was a
voluminous author. His most important work, " Myrio-
biblion, sen Bibliotheca," is a review or critical analysis
of ancient Greek authors, and is considered one of the
most precious monuments of ancient literature. He also
left a Greek Lexicon, which was published in 1808.
See KLOSE, " Geschichte und Lelire des Marcellus mid Photius,"
1837; LE BEAU, "Histoire du Bas- Empire ;" J. G. PHII.IPPI,
" Commentatio de Photio," 1699; CH. FAUCHER, '• Histoire de Pho
tius," 7762; MAULTROT, " Histoire de Saint-Ignace et de Photius,"
1791; FONTANI, "De Photio Novae Romas Episcopo ;" JAEGER,
" Histoire de Photius," 1844; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Phraates. See ARSACES.
Phra-a'tes, King of Parthia, a son of Orodes, began
to reign in 37 Ji.c. He restored to Augustus in 20 B.C.
the prisoners and ensigns taken from Crassus in 53 li.c.
Phrad'mon [^pw^uv] OF ARGOS, a Greek statuary,
who lived about 425 B.C. He produced an Amazon for
the temple of Diana at Ephesus, in competition with
other eminent artists, several of whom were more suc
cessful than he in this trial of skill.
Phran'za or Phran'zei, [Gr. 4>pavr^7) or Qpavr&K,]
the last Byzantine historian, was born in 1401. He
served the emperor Constantino XIII. as a diplomatist
and soldier, and was captured by the Turks in 1453.
He wrote a " Chronicon," or History, of the period from
1260 to 1477, which is highly prized.
Phra-or'tes, [Gr. 4>pa6pr7?f,] King of Media, reigned
from 656 to 634 B.C. He conquered Persia and other
parts of Asia. He was killed at the siege of Nineveh,
and was succeeded by his son Cyaxares.
Phreas or Freas, frees, ? (JOHN,) a learned English
man, born in London, studied medicine under Guarini
at Ferrara. He produced some translations and poems.
Died at Rome in 1465.
Phry-gil'lus, a very ancient and celebrated engraver
of precious stones, was probably a native or citizen of
Syracuse.
Phry'iie, [<I>pt>W7,] an Athenian courtesan, born at
Thespiae, in Boeotia, lived in the fourth century B.C.
She was the model of the statues of Venus produced
by Praxiteles.
Phryn'i-ehus, [4>piw^oc,] an Athenian tragic poet,
was a disciple of Thespis. He exhibited a play in 511
B.C., and made important improvements in the drama.
He introduced masks representing females, but admitted
only one actor. The chorus retained the principal place
in his dramas. He gained a prize in 476 B.C. for his
" Phoenician Women." His works are not extant.
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" K. O. MULI.ER, "History
of the Literature of Ancient Greece ;" J. G. DROYSEN, "Phrynichos,
^Eschylos und die Trilogie," 1841.
Phrymchus, a distinguished Athenian comic poet of
the old comedy, flourished about 430 B.C. His vigour
and elegance are attested by the small fragments of his
works which are extant.
See FABRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Graeca;" MEINEKE, " Fragmenta
Comicorum Grascorum."
Phrymchus, an Athenian general, had a high com
mand in 412 B.C. He co-operated with Theramenes
and Antiphon in the revolution by which the Four
Hundred came into power, in 411 B.C.
Phrynichus, a Greek grammarian, (called ARRHA-
BIUS by Photius,) lived about 180 A.D. He wrote
" Eclogues of Attic Names and Verbs," (" Eclogaj
Nominum et Verborum Atticorum,") in which he taught
the use of words as sanctioned by writers of the pure
Attic diction. This work has been printed.
Phryn'nis [Gr. 4>pwwf| or Phry'nis, an eminent
dithyrambic poet, born at Mitylene, lived about 425 B.C.
Phul or Pul, King of Assyria, reigned from 759 to
742 B.C. Menahem, King of Israel, was tributary to him.
See II. Kings xv. 19.
Phull, fool, (KARL Lumvic,) BARON, born in Wiir-
temberg, became a lieutenant-general in the Russian
service, and was the author of several military works.
Died in 1826.
Phy-lar'ehus, [Gr. <bitiapx<>£ ; Fr. PHYLARQUE, fe'-
Ituk',] a Greek historian, born at Athens or Naucratis,
in Egypt, lived about 215 B.C. He wrote a History of
Greece from 272 to 220 B.C., of which only fragments are
extant. His style was graphic and animated. Plutarch's
lives of Cleomenes and Agis are said to be copied, or
taken without much change, from Phylarchus.
See J. F. TIIOMS, " Dissertatio de Phylarchi Vita et Scriptis,"
'835 ; Voss, " De Historicis Graecis."
Phylarque. See PHYLARCHUS.
Phyl'lis, [Gr. 4>ivl/l/f,| in classic mythology, a daugh
ter of Sithon, King of Thrace, was betrothed to Demo-
phoon, a son of Theseus. The poets feigned that she
killed herself because he failed to come at the appointed
time, and she was changed into an almond-tree.
Phy-rom'a-ehus, [fctyjo^a^oc, ] an able Athenian
sculptor, lived about 410 B.C. He made the bas-reliefs
on the frieze of the temple Athena Polias. He is prob
ably the same as the Pyromachus mentioned by Pliny.
Phys'ick, (PHILIP SING,) one of the most eminent
of American surgeons, was born in Philadelphia in 1768.
His father, Edmund Physick, was keeper of the great
seal under the colonial government of Pennsylvania, and,
after the Revolution, had charge of the estates of the
Penn family. In 1785 he took the degree of A. B. in the
University of Pennsylvania. Soon after, he commenced
the study of medicine under Dr. Adam Kuhn. It is
said that the first time he witnessed the amputation of a
limb he fainted, and was obliged to be taken out of the
room ; but he afterwards succeeded so completely in
conquering this weakness of the nerves as to equal, if
not surpass, any other surgeon of his time in steadiness
of hand and perfect self-possession while performing
an important operation. During his attendance at the
Philadelphia College of Medicine, he had for his in
structors Dr. Shippen and Dr. Rush, who, with Dr.
Kuhn, were lecturers in that institution. Early in the
year 1789 Mr. Edmund Physick, accompanied by his
son, visited London, where the young student was placed
under the care of the celebrated John Hunter, by whose
recommendation he was subsequently appointed to the
post of house-surgeon at Saint George's Hospital. In
one of Hunter's papers he compliments Dr. Physick on
the accuracy of some physiological experiments which
he had performed while house-surgeon at the hospital ;
and such were the esteem and confidence which the great
anatomist entertained for him that he actually invited
him, we are told, to remain in London and take a share
in his own extensive professional business. But this
offer Dr. Physick thought proper to decline. Having
in 1791 received his license from the Royal College of
Surgeons, in London, he repaired to Edinburgh, where
he attended the medical lectures of the University, and
in May, 1792, took his degree of doctor of medicine.
He returned to Philadelphia in September of the same
year. He distinguished himself by his faithful atten-
i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
PIA
1793
PIC ART
tion to his professional duties during the frightful mor
tality caused by the yellow fever in 1793. The alarm
was so great on that occasion that not only nearly all
the citizens, who had it in their power to go away, fled
from the city, but many of the physicians left also. Dr.
Physick himself had an attack of fever ; but it appears
to have been comparatively light. In 1798 he received
a flattering testimonial to his courage and faithfulness
during the epidemic* of that and preceding years, from
the managers of the Marine and City Hospitals, ac
companied by a present of plate valued at more than
a thousand dollars. In 1800 he commenced, in Phila
delphia, a course of lectures on surgery, which were
continued for several years. His success induced the
trustees of the University to establish a professorship
of surgery in the medical department of that institution,
and to appoint Dr. Physick to the new chair. In 1819
he was transferred from the chair of surgery to that of
anatomy, made vacant by the death of Dr. Dorsey. lie
resigned this position in 1831 ; and the trustees of the
University, on accepting his resignation, unanimously
elected him " Emeritus professor of surgery and anat
omy." In 1825 he was elected a member of the French
Royal Academy of Medicine, and was, it is said, the
first American who received this honour. He closed
his long and useful life on the I5th of December, 1837.
He had married in 1800 Miss Emlen, of Burlington, by
whom he had four children.
See GROSS, "Medical Biography," pp. 351-459: " Memoir of Dr.
Physick," by his son-in-law, DR. JACOB RANDOLPH ; " Necrological
Notice of Dr. Physick," by DR. WM. E. HOKNER; "National
Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv.
Fia, pe't', (PHILIPPE NICOLAS,) a French chemist,
born in Paris in 1721. He introduced reforms in public
hygiene, and invented methods or apparatus for restoring
the drowned. Died in 1799.
Piacentini, pe-a-chen-tee'nee, (DiONisio GREGORIO,)
an Italian antiquary, born at Viterbo in 1684. He pub
lished an "Epitome of Greek Palaeography," (1735.)
Died in 1754.
Piacentino. See PLACENTINUS.
Piacenza, DUKE OF. See LEHRUN, (CHARLES FR.)
Piali Pasha, pe-a'lee pa'sha', an admiral, born in
Hungary about 1520. He became capudan pasha in
the service of the Sultan, who sent him in 1555 to aid
Francis I. of France. He gained in 1560 a decisive vic
tory over the fleet of Philip II. of Spain and his allies.
In 1570 he commanded a fleet which Selim II. sent
against Cyprus. Died in 1571.
Piarron. See CHAMOUSSET, DE.
Piazza, pe-dt'sa, (ANDREA,) a painter of the Venetian
school, born at Castelfranco ; died, at an advanced age,
in 1670.
Piazza, (CALISTO,) a painter of the Venetian school,
called CALISTO DA LODI, was born at Lodi. He was
a pupil and successful imitator of Titian, and was a
good colorist. His works are dated 1524-56. He ex
celled in fresco. Among his best works is "The Mar
riage at Cana," a fresco at Milan.
See LAXZI, " History of Painting in Italy;" RIDOLFI, " Vite degli
Pitton Veneti."
Piazza, (GIROLAMO BARTOLOMMEO,) an Italian Prot
estant, who taught French and Italian at Cambridge,
England, and published " An Account of the Inqui
sition," (1722.) Died about 1745.
Piazza, (PAOLO,) an Italian painter, born at Castel
franco in 1557. He was employed by the emperor Ru
dolph II. and by Pope Paul V. Having become a
monk, he took the name of COSIMO. Died in 1621.
Piazza, (VINCENZO,) MARQUIS, an Italian poet, was
born in the Romagna in 1670. Among his works is the
"Capture of Bona," ("Bona espugnata," 1694.) Died
at Parma in 1745.
Fiazzetta^pe-at-set'ta, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) a dis
tinguished painter, born at Venice in 1682. He was
skilful in chiaro-oscuro. His master-piece is " The Be
heading of John the Baptist." The shades of his pictures
have become too dark, from the effect of time. Died
in 1754.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
* Yellow fever.
Fiazzi, pe-at'see, (JOSEPH,) an eminent astronomer,
born at Ponte, in the Valtelline, Switzerland, in July,
1746. He entered the monastic order of Theatms, and
studied under Tiraboschi and Lesueur. In 1780 he
became professor of the higher mathematics at Palermo,
where he founded an observatory. He visited Paris
and London in 1787 and 1788. In 1803 he published a
"Catalogue of Fixed Stars," which obtained for him a
high reputation as an accurate observer. He discovered,
on the 1st of January, 1801, the first of the asteroids, or
small planets, whose orbit is between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter. He gave it the name of Ceres. Among
his works is a "Discourse on Astronomy," (1790.) He
became director of an observatory at Naples in 1817.
Died at Naples in 1826.
See SCROFANI, "Elogio del Piazzi," 1826; TIPALDO, "Biografia
degli Italian! illustri," vol. i.
Pibrac, de, deh pe'buik', [Lat. PIBRA'CHIUS,] (Gui
du Faur — dii foR,) SEIGNEUR, a French poet, orator,
and lawyer, was born at Toulouse in 1529. He was
sent as ambassador to the Council of Trent by Charles
IX. in 1562, and obtained the office of president a mor-
tier in 1577. He wrote a popular poem called "Fifty
Quatrains, containing Useful Precepts," etc., (1574,) and
other works. Died in 1584.
See PASCHAL, "Vidi Fabricii Pibrachii Vita," 1584; LEPINE na
GRAINVILLE and L'AflBE SEPHER, " Memoires sur la Vie de Pi
brac," 1761 ; MAYER, "Discours historique et critique sur Pibrac,"
1778: DE THOU, " Historia sui Temporis ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Pibrachius. See PIBRAC.
Pic de la Mirandole. See Pico.
Picard, pe'kf R', (ERNEST,) a French advocate and
radical politician, born in Paris in 1821. He was elected
to the legislative body by the voters of Paris in 1858, in
1863, and in 1869. He became minister of finance Sep
tember 4, 1870.
Ficard, (JEAN,) an eminent French astronomer, born
at La Fleche, July 21, 1620. He was a priest and prior
of Ville, in Anjou, when he observed with Gassendi
the solar eclipse of August 25, 1645. He succeeded
Gassendi as professor in the College de France in 1655.
He was the first who applied the telescope to the meas
urement of angles, and was the inventor of the lunette
d'eprenve. He is said to have invented the transit in
strument. His most important work was the measure
ment of an arc of the meridian of Paris between Amiens
and Malvoisine in 1669-70, of which he wrote an account,
entitled "La Mesure de la Terre," (1671.) "When he
had," says Delambre, "so good reason to regard himself
as the first astronomer of France, and even of Europe,
he used his influence with Colbert to attract to France
Cassini, whose reputation was already established."
Died in 1682.
See CONDORCET, " filoge de Picard;" ARAGO, "Notices bio-
graphiques," tome iii. ; DELAMBRE, " Histoire de 1'Astronomie
moderne."
Picard, (Louis BENOfr,) a popular French dramatist,
born in Paris in 1769. He produced in 1792 a comic
opera called " Visitandines," which had great success.
Among his popular comedies, in verse, are "The Col
lege Friends," ("Les Amis de College," 1795,) "Ordi
nary and Mean," ("Mediocre et Rampant," 1797,) and
" The Ambitious Husband." He wrote dramas, in prose,
entitled "The Small Town," ("La petite Ville," 1801.)
and "The Puppets," ("Les Marionnettes," 1805.) In
1807 he was admitted into the French Academy. He
delineates the manners of his time with much success,
and displays a rich fund of witty sallies. Died in 1828.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Ficart, pe'ktR', (BENOIT,) a French historical writer
and monk, born at Toul in 1663. He wrote a " History
of the City and Diocese of Toul," (1707,) and other
works. Died in 1720.
Picart, (BERNARD,) a French designer and engraver,
born in Paris in 1673. He had a talent for the imi
tation of various masters, and obtained a high reputation.
Having removed to Amsterdam in 1710, he worked for
the booksellers, and lapsed into a degenerate manner.
He engraved after his own designs, and after Poussin,
Le Brun, and others. Died in 1733.
« as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
• Explanations, p. 23.)
PIC ART
1794
P'ICHON
Picart, (firiENNE,) an eminent engraver, called LE
ROMAIN, born in Paris in 1631, was the father of the
preceding. He worked some years at Rome, and settled
at Amsterdam in 1710. His works, which consist of
portraits and history, display more firmness than har
mony. Died at Amsterdam in 1721.
Piccart, pik'kaRt, (MICHAEL,) a learned German
philologist and philosopher, born at Nuremberg in 1574.
He was professor of philosophy at Altdorf. He pub
lished, besides other works, a "Commentary on the
Political Works of Aristotle," (1615,) which is com
mended. Died in 1620.
Picchena, pek-ka'na, (CURZio,) an Italian philolo
gist, born in Tuscany about 1550. He published a
good edition of Tacitus, (1607.) Died in 1629.
Piccini, pet-chee'nee, (Luici,) a musician and com
poser, born at Naples in 1766, was a son of Niccolo. He
composed operas which obtained little success. He was
chapel-master to the King of Sweden from 1796 to 1801.
Died in 1827.
Piccini, pet-chee'nee, or Picciniai, pet-cheen'nee,
(NiccoiA) a popular Italian composer, born at Bari, in the
kingdom of Naples, in 1728. He studied under Leo and
Durante at Naples. His serious opera "Zenobia" (1756)
obtained a complete success. His reputation was widely
extended by the comic opera " Good Little Daughter,"
("La buona Figliuola," 1760,) which some consider his
master-piece. In 1776 he removed to Paris, where he
produced the operas of " Roland," (1778,) " Atys," etc.
A great commotion and wordy warfare was raised by
the rivalry between Piccini and Gluck. The French
literati and the general public were divided into two par
ties, the Piccinists and the Gluckists. Piccini became
singing-master to the queen Marie Antoinette about
1780. He returned to Naples in 1791. Among his
most admired works are " Olimpiade," and the French
opera of "Didon," (1783.) Died at Passy, near Paris,
in 1800.
See GINGUENE\ " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Piccinni,"
iSoo; FETIS. " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Piccinino, pet-che-nee'no, (Niccoi,6,) an able Ital
ian general, born at Perugia in 1375. He served some
years under Braccio da Montone. In 1425 he entered
the service of Filippo Maria Visconti, of Milan, to whom
he remained loyal to his death. He defeated Carmagnola
and the Venetians in 1431, and gained a decisive victory
over the Florentines and Venetians near Imola in 1434.
Died in 1444.
See SISMONDI, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes."
Piccinni. See PICCINI.
Piccinni, pet-cheen'nee,? (ALEXANDRE,) a French
composer, born in Paris in 1779, was a grandson of
Niccolo Piccini, noticed above.
Piccolo-mini. See Pius II.
Piccolomini, pek-ko-lom'e-nee, (ALESSANDRO,) an
Italian writer and prelate, eminent for learning, was
born at Sienna in 1508. He was the first who wrote on
philosophy in the Italian language. In 1574 he was
appointed Archbishop of Patras. Among his works are
a treatise "On the Sphere of the World," (1540,) and
"Commentaries on Aristotle," (1575.) Died in 1578.
See FABIANI, "Vita di Piccolomini," 1749.
Piccolomini, (ALFONSO,) Duke of Monte Marciano,
an Italian condottiere, born about 1550. He was the
leader of an army of brigands. In 1581 he defeated
the army of the pope. He was defeated by the Duke of
Tuscany, and hung, in 1591.
Piccolomini, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian scholar, born
at Sienna in 1520, was a professor of philosophy. He
wrote " Universal Philosophy of Morals," etc., (" Uni-
versa Philosophia de Moribus," etc., 1583,) and other
works. Died in 1604.
Piccolomini, (GiACOMO,) a cardinal, whose proper
name was AMMANATI, was born near Lucca in 1422.
He left "Commentaries and Epistles," (" Commentarii
«t Epistolse," 1506.) Died in 1479.
Piccolomini, (MARIA,) an Italian operatic singer,
born at Sienna about 1835. She performed in London
about 1856, and in Paris. In 1861 she married and re
tired from the stage.
Piccolomini, (OTTAVIO,) an Austrian general, of
Italian origin, was born in 1599. He led a regiment at
the battle of Lutzen, in 1632, and was one of the principal
agents in the conspiracy which procured the ruin of
Wallenstein. He contributed to the victory at Nord-
lingen, (1634,) and was defeated by Torstenson in Silesia
in 1641 or 1642. In 1643 he entered the service of
Spain, and obtained the chief command in Flanders.
He became a field-marshal of the Austrian army in 1648.
Died in Vienna in 1656.
See CRASSO, " Elogii di Capitani ilhistri ;" SCHILLER, " History
of the Thirty Years' War," and his tragedy of " Wallenstein."
Pichat, pe'shS', (LEON LAURENT,) a French poet,
critic, and novelist, born in Paris in 1823. He became
in 1854 editor and proprietor of the " Revue de Paris,"
which was suppressed by government in 1858. Among
his works are political verses entitled " Free Words,"
("Libres Paroles," 1847,) and "La Paienne," a novel,
(1857.)
Pichat, (MICHEL,) a French dramatic poet, born at
Vienne in 1786. Among his works is "Leonidas," a
drama, (1825.) Died in 1828.
Pichegru, pesh'gRoo or pesh'gRii', (CHARLES,) a
French general, born at Arbois (Jura) in 1761. He en
tered the army in 1783, and became a zealous partisan of
the Revolution in 1789. He was raised to the rank of
general of division in 1793, and obtained command of the
army of the Rhine in October of that year. About the end
of the same year he became general-in-chief of the united
armies of the Rhine and the Moselle. He was a favour
ite of the Jacobins at this period. In February, 1794,
he succeeded Jourdan as commander of the army of
the North, with which, by rapid and skilful movements,
he gained advantages at Cassel, Courtrai, and Menin.
In the winter of 1794-95 ne crossed the Waal on the
ice and reduced Holland to submission. Having taken
command of the army of the Rhine in 1795, he incurred
suspicion of treason, and was superseded by Moreau in
1796. He continued to intrigue against the Directory,
by which he was transported to Cayenne in September,
1797; but he escaped from that place in 1798. lie con
spired with Cadoudal and others against Bonaparte, and
was arrested by the police in Paris in February, 1804.
Before his trial was finished, he was found dead in prison,
in April, 1804.
See COUSIN D'AVALLON, " Histoire du General Pichegru," 1801 ;
FAUCHE-BOREI., "Notices sur Pichegru et Moreau," 1807; GAS
SIER, "Viedu General Pichegru," 1814; SAVARY, Due DE ROVIGO,
"Memoires sur la Mort de Pichegru," 1825; " Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Pichler, plK'ler, (CAROLINE,) originally named VON
GREINER, (fongRi'ner,) a popular German novelist, born
in Vienna in 1769. She was married in 1796 to Andreas
Pichler, and in 1802 produced " Idyllen." She illustrated
the salutary influence of Christianity in " Agathocles,"
a novel, (1808,) which was much admired. In 1814
she published "The Count von Hohenburg," the first
of numerous historical novels, the subjects of which
are taken from the national history. Among her later
works are "Pictures of the Times," (" Zeitbilder," 2
vols., 1840,) and "Memoirs of my Life," (4 vols., 1844.)
Died in 1843.
See " Edinburgh Review" for February, 1843.
Pichler or Pikler, (JOHANN,) a son of the following,
was born at Naples in 1734, and was probably the most
skilful engraver of gems of his time. He lived at Rome,
and engraved several pictures after Raphael. Among
his works are many portraits of modern persons, of which
the resemblance was the least merit. He was also a
painter. Died at Rome in 1791.
See JEAN GERARD DE Rossi, " Histoire de la Vie de J. Pikler,"
Rome, 1792.
Pichler, (JOHANN ANTON,) a celebrated engraver of
gems, born at Brixen, in the Tyrol, in 1697. He worked
at Naples and Rome. Died in 1779.
Pichon, pe'shiN', ( PIERRE AUGUSTE, ) a French
painter of history and portraits, was born at Sorreze
(Tarn) in 1805. He received a first medal (for history)
in 1846.
Pichon, (THOMAS,) a French litterateur, born at Vire
in 1700. He was the second husband of Madame Le
Prince de Beaumont. He published a work " On the
a, e, T, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, |, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
PICHON
«795
PICTET
Natural and Civil History of Cape Breton," ( 1760.)
Died in 1781.
Pichon, (THOMAS JEAN,) a French writer and priest,
born at Mans in 1731 ; died in 1812.
Pichot, pe'sho', (AMEDEE,) a French litterateur, born
at Aries in 1796. He became in 1843 chief editor of the
"Revue Britannique." Among his works are "Travels
in England," (1825,) and a "Chronicle of Charles V.,"
(1853-)
Pick'en, (ANDREW,) a Scottish writer of fiction, born
at Paisley in 1788. Among his works is "The Domi
nie's Legacy." Died in 1833.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement.)
Pick 'ens, (ANDREW,) a distinguished American
general, born at Paxton, Pennsylvania, in 1739. He
co-operated with General Marion in his partisan warfare
against the British, and commanded the militia at the
battle of Cowpens. He was elected to Congress in
1794. Died in 1817.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
Pickens, (FRANCIS W.,) a grandson of the preceding,
was born in Saint Paul's parish, South Carolina, in
1807. He was a member of Congress from 1834 to
1844. He was appointed in 1857 minister to Russia,
and in December, 1860, was elected Governor of South
Carolina for two years.
Pick'er-ing, (CHARLES,) M.D., an American natu
ralist, a grandson of Timothy Pickering, was born in
Susquehanna county, Pennsylvania, in 1805. Having
travelled in India and Eastern Africa, he published, after
his return, the " Races of Man and their Geographical
Distribution," (1848,) and "Geographical Distribution
of Animals and Man," (1854.)
Pickering, (JoHN,) LL.D., an American jurist and
scholar, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1777, was a
son of Timothy Pickering. He was the founder and
first president of the American Oriental Society, and
president of the American Academy of Arts and Sci
ences. He published a " Greek-and-English Lexicon,"
(1826,) "Remarks on the Indian Languages of North
America," (1836,) and "Vocabulary of Americanisms."
Died in 1846.
Pickering, (TIMOTHY,) an American statesman, born
at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 171)1 of July, 1745. lie
graduated at Harvard College in 1763, studied law, and
became a judge of the common pleas in 1775. In the
autumn of 1776 he joined the army of Washington as
colonel. He was appointed adjutant-general in 1777,
and took part in the battles of Brandywine and Ger-
mantown, October, 1777. He was elected a member of
the board of war by Congress in November, 1777, and
quartermaster-general in August, 1/80, as successor to
General Greene. He performed the arduous duties of
this office until 1785. During the Revolution he kept
a journal of public events. He was identified with the
Federal party, and was appointed postmaster-general
by Washington in August, 1791, and secretary of war in
January, 1794. In December, 1795, he became secre
tary or state. He was continued in the department
of state by President Adams, but did not obtain his
confidence or approve his measures. He was removed
from that office in May, 1800, and settled on a farm
which was situated near Salem, and which he cultivated
with his own hands. He was elected a Senator of the
United States by the legislature of Massachusetts in
1803, and continued to serve in the Senate until iSil.
From 1814 to 1817 he was a member of the national
House of Representatives. He had a fair reputation
for ability and moral character. He died at Salem in
January, 1829, leaving several sons.
See " Life and Correspondence of Timothy Pickering," by his son
OCTAVIUS, 2 vols., 1867 ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distin
guished Americans," vol. i.
Pick'ers-gilL, (FREDERICK RICHARD,) an eminent
painter of history, born in London in 1820. He gained
a prize of one hundred pounds for his ''Death of King
Lear." (1843,) and a prize of five hundred pounds for
his " Burial of Harold," (1847,) which was purchased for
the House of Lords. He was elected a Royal Acade
mician in 1857. Among his best works is " Samson
Betrayed," (1850.)
Fickersgill, (!!ENRY WILLIAM,) an English por
trait-painter, born about 1782. He painted many emi
nent authors, statesmen, etc., and won a high reputation.
He was elected Royal Academician in 1825. Died in 1861.
Pick'ett, (ALHERT JAMES,) an American writer, born
in Anson county, North Carolina, in 1810, was the author
of a " History of Alabama," (1851.) Died in 1858.
Pico della Mirandola, pee'ko del'la me-ran'do-li,
[Fr. Pic DE LA MIRANDOLE, pek deli It me'iS-Vdol',]
(GIOVANNI,) an Italian theologian and philosopher, born
in 1463. He had a prodigious memory and great learn
ing, but was rather superficial as a thinker. He offered
to dispute at Rome with all comers on a great number
of theses, " On all Things that may be known," (" De
Omni Re Scibili,") to which Voltaire added "and Some
Things besides," (" et de Quibusdam aliis.") Died in
1494. He left several works on theology, etc.
See a " Life of Pico della Mirandola," by his nephew, GIOVANNI
FRANCESCO DELLA MIRANDOLA; NICEROX, "Memoires;" GIN-
GUENE, "Histoiie Litteraire d'ltalie;" " Nouvelle Biocraphie
Generale."
Pico (orPicus) della Mirandola, (GIOVANNI FRAN
CESCO,) PRINCE, an Italian writer, nephew of the pre
ceding, was born about 1469. He wrote several work:;
on theology, and a "Life of Savonarola," (1530.) Died
in 1533.
Picot, pe'ko', (FRANCOIS SDOUARD,) a French his
torical painter, born in Paris in 1786. He gained a first
medal in 1819. The palaces of the Louvre and of Ver
sailles contain some of his works.
Picot, pe'ko', (JEAN,) a Swiss historian, born in 1777.
He was for many years professor of history at Geneva.
He published a " History of the Gauls," (3 vols., 1804,)
and a " History of Geneva," (3 vols., 1811.)
Picot, ( MICHEL JOSEPH PIERRE,) a French writer,
born near Orleans in 1770. He published, besides other
works, a " Memoir contributory to the Ecclesiastical
History of the Eighteenth Century," (3 vols., 1806.)
Died in 1841. He wrote many articles for the "Bio
graphic Universelle."
Picot, (PIERRE,) a Swiss writer, and professor of the
ology, born at Geneva in 1746, was the father of Jean,
noticed above. He published " On the Manifold Utility
of Mountains," (" De multiplici Montium Utilitate," 1790,)
and Sermons, (1823.) Died in 1822.
Pictet, pek'ti', (BENEDICT,) an eloquent Swiss Prot
estant minister, born at Geneva in 1655. He became
professor of divinity at Geneva in 1702, and a member
of the Academy of Berlin in 1714. His principal works
are "Christian Morality," (8 vols., 1695-98,) " Theologia
Christiana," (2 vols., 1696,) and a " History of the Church
and the World in the Eleventh Century," (1712.) Died
at Geneva in 1724.
See NICEKON, "Memoires."
Pictet, (FRANC.OIS JULES,) a Swiss naturalist, born at
Geneva about 1790. He became professor of anatomy
and zoology in his native city. Among his works are
" Itinerary to the Valleys around Mont Blanc," (1818;
3d edition, 1840,) and a "Treatise on Palaeontology," (4
vols., 1845.)
Pictet, (JEAN Louis,) an astronomer, born at Geneva
in 1739- He was employed by the Academy of Saint
Petersburg to observe the transit of Venus in Siberia,
and wrote " Observations on the Transit of Venus in
1769." Died at Geneva in 1781.
Pictet, (MARC AUGUSTE,) a Swiss natural philoso
pher, born at Geneva in 1752, was a brother of Charles,
(de Rochemont,) noticed below. He was a friend of
Saussure, whom he succeeded as professor of philosophy
in 1786. He wrote, besides other works, an "Essay
on Fire, (or Heat,") (1791,) and "Travels in England
and Scotland," (1803.) He founded in 1796 a periodical
entitled " Bibliotheque Britannique," and changed the
name in 1816 to " Bibliotheque Universelle," which still
exists. He gave special attention to meteorology. Died
in 1825.
See VAUCHER, " Necrologie de M. A. Pictet," 1825.
Pictet de Rochemont, pek'ti' deh rosh'moN',
(CHARLES,) a Swiss rural economist, born at Geneva in
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, Mi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PICTON
1796
PJERQUIN
1755. As envoy-extraordinary, he attended the Congress
of Vienna in 1814, and that of Paris in 1815. lie wrote
a " Picture of the Present Condition of the United States
of America," (1796,) and a "Treatise on Agriculture."
He was one of the editors of the " Bibliotheque Univer-
selle." Died in 1824.
Pic'tpn, (Sir THOMAS,) a British general, born in
Pembrokeshire about 1758. lie served with distinction
in Spain, at Badajos, Ciudad Rodrigo, and Vitoria.
Having obtained command of a division, he was killed
at Waterloo in 1815.
See H. B. ROBINSON, "Memoirs of Sir Thomas Picton," 1835.
Pictor. See FABIUS PICTOR.
Ficumne. See PICUMNUS.
Pl-cum'nus and Pi-luni'nus, [Fr. PICUMNE, pe'-
kiimn', and PILUMNE, pe'Iiimn',] two Roman or Latin
gods of matrimony, were regarded as brothers. To Pi-
cumnus was ascribed the discovery of the art of ma
nuring land.
Fi'cus, [Gr. TliKOf,] a fabulous king of Latium and
prophetic divinity, was represented as a son of Saturn,
the husband of Caucus, and the father of Faunus. Ac
cording to the fable, Circe was enamoured of him, and
changed him into a woodpecker (picits) because her
passion was not requited.
Picus della Mirandola. See Pico.
Pidou de Samt-Olon, pe'doo' cleh saNt'o'liN'',
(FRANCOIS,) a French diplomatist and writer, born in
Touraine in 1646. He wrote "An Account of the Em
pire of Morocco," (1694.) Died in 1720.
Piel, pe'el', (Louis ALEXANDRE,) a French architect,
born at Lisieux in 1808. He restored the church of
Saint-Nicolas at Nantes, and other churches, and wrote
several professional works. Died in 1841.
Fiemont, pe'a'moN', (NIKLAAS OPGANG,) a Dutch
landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam in 1659. He
worked some years in Rome. Died in 1709.
Pierce, perss or peerss, (BENJAMIN,) born in New
Hampshire in 1757, was elected Governor of that State
in 1827 and 1829. He was the father of President
Franklin Pierce. Died in 1839.
Pierce, peerss, (EDWARD,) an English painter of his
tory and portraits, lived in the reigns of Charles I.
and Charles II. Died near the close of the seventeenth
century.
Pierce, (FRANKLIN,) the fourteenth President of the
United States, was born at Hillsborough, New Hamp
shire, on the 23d of November, 1804. He was a son
of General Benjamin Pierce, who was Governor of New
Hampshire. He graduated at Bowdoin College, Maine,
in 1824, studied law under Levi Woodbury, and was
admitted to the bar in 1827. He practised first at Hills-
borough. In 1833 he was elected a member of Congress
by the Democrats. Having been re-elected, he served
in the House of Representatives until 1837, and in that
yer.r was chosen a Senator of the United States by the
legislature of New Hampshire. He became a resident
of Concord about 1838, and resigned his seat in the
Senate in 1842, after which he devoted himself to the
practice of law. He had married about 1834. He
favoured the annexation of Texas to the United States,
(1844-45,) ancl served in the Mexican war with the rank
of brigadier-general, (1846-47.)
At the National Democratic Convention, June, 1852,
the prominent candidates for the Presidency were Cass,
Buchanan, and Douglas. After thirty-five ballots with
out decisive result, the name of General Pierce was pro
posed, and he was nominated on the forty-ninth ballot.
His Whig competitor was General Winfield Scott.
General Pierce was elected President, receiving two
hundred and fifty-four electoral votes out of two hundred
and ninety-six, which was the whole number. He ap
pointed W. L. Marcy secretary of state, James Guthrie
secretary of the treasury, Jefferson Davis secretary of
war, Robert McClelland secretary of the interior, J.
Dobbin secretary of the navy, and Caleb Gushing attor
ney-general. In his inaugural address he denounced the
agitation of slavery. Among the important events of his
administration were the repeal of the Missouri Compro
mise and the passage of the Nebraska-Kansas bill, which
he approved and signed in 1854, and which produced
great excitement in the Free States, and the bombard
ment and destruction of Greytown, in Central America,
(July, 1854,) by Captain Hollins, acting under the in
structions of the United States Government. In August,
1854, Mr. Pierce directed the American ambassadors, J.
Buchanan, J. Y. Mason, and P. Soule, to meet in some
European city and confer on the best means of acquiring
Cuba. They met at Ostend and issued a document called
the " Ostend Manifesto," the purport of which was that if
Spain would not sell Cuba the Americans would take it by
force. He used his official influence to promote the de
signs of the pro-slavery party in Kansas. In the National
Democratic Convention of 1856, J. Buchanan and Presi
dent Pierce were the chief competitors. Pierce received
one hundred and twenty-two votes on the first ballot, but
failed to obtain the nomination. He retired to private
life in March, 1857. In a letter to his friend Jefferson
Davis, dated January 6, 1860, he says, "I have never
believed that actual disruption of the Union can occur
without blood ; and if, through the madness of Northern
abolitionists, that dire calamity must come, the fighting
will not be along Mason and Dixon's line merely. It
will be within our own borders, in our own streets,
between the two classes of citizens to whom I have
referred. Those who defy law and scout constitutional
obligations will, if we ever reach the arbitrament of
arms, find occupation enough at home." He delivered
an oration at Concord in the summer of 1863, in which
he opposed the coercion of the seceded States, and
called Vallandigham "that noble martyr of free speech."
Died in 1869.
See N. HAWTHORNE, "Life of Franklin Pierce," 1852.
Pierce, (GEORGE FOSTER,) D.D., an American Meth
odist divine, born in Greene county, Georgia, in 1811.
He was elected president of Emory College, Georgia, in
1848, and in 1854 was made a bishop.
Pierer, pee'rer, (HEINRICH AUGUST,) a German
bookseller, born at Altenburg in 1794. His principal
publication was the " Encyclopaedic Dictionary," (" En-
cyklopadischen Worterbuch," 26 vols., 1824,) begun by
his father. A fourth edition appeared in 1857-65, in
nineteen vols., under the title of " Universal-Lexikon."
Died in 1850.
Pierer, (JoiiANN FRIEDRICII,) a German physician,
born at Altenburg in 1767. He founded the "General
Annals of Medicine." Died in 1832.
Pi-er'I-des, [Gr. Uispldec ; Fr. PIERIDES, pe'a'red',]
a surname of the Muses, which they received because
they were born in Plena.
Pierino del Vaga. See PERINO.
Piermarini, pe-eR-ma-ree'nee, (GIUSEPPE,) an emi
nent Italian architect, born at Foligno in 1734. He be
came architect to the Archduke of Milan in 1769. He
designed at Milan many grant! public edifices, among
which are the magnificent theatre Della Scala, the Monte
di Pieta, the Porta Orientale, and the imposing fa9ade
of the Palazzo Belgiojoso. Died in 1808.
See TIPALDO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Pieron, pe'a'riN', (CHARLES PHILIPPE RENE,) a
French judge, born at Arras in 1793, was a liberal
member of the Chamber of Deputies from 1834 to 1848.
Pierpoiit, peer'pftnt, (JOHN,) an American poet and
Unitarian divine, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, in
April, 1785. He graduated at Yale College in 1804,
and afterwards studied law, which, however, he soon
abandoned. He published in 1816 his "Airs of Pales
tine," which immediately established his reputation. In
the same year he studied theology at Harvard, and in
1819 was ordained pastor of the Hollis Street Church,
Boston. In 1835 he made the tour of Europe, also
visiting Greece and Asia Minor. Mr. Pierpont was
a prominent advocate of temperance, anti-slavery, and
other reforms. In 1845 ne became minister of the
Unitarian church of Medford. "Many of his hymns,
odes, and other brief poems," says Griswold, "are
remarkably spirited and melodious." Died in 1866.
See R. W. GRISWOI.D, "Poets and Poetry of America ;" " North
American Review" for October, 1840; "Atlantic Monthly" for
December, 1866.
Pierquin, pe^aiR'kaN1', QEAN,) a French priest and
writer, was born at Charleville in 1672 ; died in 1742.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mgt; ndt; good; moon;
PIEROUIN
1797
PIGOROF
Pierquin de Gembloux, pe-aiR'kaN' deli zhoN'-
bloo', (CLAUDE CHARLES,) a French antiquary and mis
cellaneous writer, born at Brussels in 1798. He has
written many works on French antiquities, medicine,
philology, and other subjects.
Pierre, pe-aiR', QEAN BAPTISTE MARIE,) a French
painter, who was born in Paris in 1713. He became
first painter to the king in 1770. He was remarkable
for facility. Died in 1789.
Pierre, the French for PETER, which see.
Pierre, SAINT. See SAINT-PIERRE.
Pierre d'Auvergne, See AUVERGNE, n'.
Pierre de Montereau, pe-a.iR deh moNt'ro', a French
architect, was patronized by Louis IX., for whom he
built La Sainte-Chapelle, (1248.) His works are mostly
in the flamboyant ogival style. Died in 1266.
Pierre des Vignes. See PIETRO DELI.E VIGNE.
Pierron, pe-i'ro.N-', (EUGENE ATHANASK,) a French
actor and dramatic writer, born near Meulan in 1819.
Pierron, (PIERRE ALEXIS,) a French Hellenist, born
in Ilaute-Saone in 1814. He produced a version of
^ischylus, (1841,) which was crowned by the French
Academy, and a version of Plutarch's "Lives," (1843.)
Pierrot, pe-i'ro', (Jui.ES AMAKLE,) a French classi
cal scholar, was born in Paris in 1792. He published
a "Course of French Eloquence," (2 vols., 1822.) Died
in 1845.
Pierson, peer'son, (ABRAHAM,) an American divine,
and first president of Yale College, born about 1648.
He preached at Killingworth and Saybrook. Died in
1707.
Pierson, peea'son, (CHRISTOPH,) a Dutch painter,
born at the Hague in 1631. He settkd at Gouda in
1679. His design and colour are commended. He
painted history, still life, dead game, etc. with success.
Died in 1714.
Pierson, (JAN,) a Dutch philologist, born in Friesland
in 1631. He proposed corrections of the texts of Greek
and Latin authors in " Verisimilium Libri duo," (1752.)
Died in 1759.
Pieters, (BONAVENTURE.) See PETERS.
Pieters, pee'ters, or Peters, pa'ters, (GERAARD,) an
able Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam about 1580. He
worked at Rome, and returned to his native city. He
painted portraits, conversation-pieces, and interiors.
Pieters, pee'ters, (JACOB,) a Flemish painter, born at
Antwerp in 1648. He removed to England, and was
employed by Kneller to paint draperies and accessories
of portraits. It is said that he counterfeited some works
of Rubens with skill.
Pietri, pe-a'tRee, ( PIETRO, ) an Italian historical
painter, born about 1665, worked in Rome, where he
died in 1716.
Pietro da Cortona. See CORTONA.
Pietro della Francesca. See FRANCESCA.
Pietro delle Vigne, pe-a'tRo del'la ven'ya, [Lat.
PF/TRTS DE VIN'EIS; Fr. PIERRE DES VIGNES, pe-aiR'
di ven,| a distinguished Italian minister of state, was
chancellor of the emperor Frederick II. Died in 1249.
His "Letters," printed in 1566, have some historical
value.
Pieyre, pe-aiu', (PIERRE ALEXANDRE, ) a French
dramatist, born at Nimes in 1752. He composed the
" School for Fathers," (" Ecole des Peres,") a comedy,
(1782.) He was preceptor of the Due de Chartres,
(Louis Philippe.) Died in 1830.
Pigafetta, pe-ga-fet'ta, (ANTONIO,) an Italian voy
ager and geographer, born at Vicenza about 1492. He
sailed as a volunteer with the expedition of Magellan,
who departed from Seville in August, 1519. He wit
nessed the affray in which Magellan lost his life, and
wrote a daily journal of this voyage. In company with
Cano, he returned to Spain in 1522, having performed the
first voyage around the world. A complete copy of his
narrative, " First Voyage around the World," (" Primo
Viaggio intorno al Globo,") was found by Amoretti at
Milan, and was published in 1800. An abridgment, in
French, had been published in the sixteenth century.
Pigafetta, (FiLiPPO,) an Italian traveller and military
engineer, born at Vicenza in 1533. He was sent by
Sixtus V. to Persia to negotiate an alliance against the
Turks. He wrote a " Treatise on the History and Use
of the Compass," (1586,) and other works. Died in
1603.
Pigalle, pe'gtl', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) an eminent French
sculptor, born in Paris in 1714, was a pupil of J. B.
Lcmoyne. He studied at Rome, and after his return to
Paris produced a statue of Mercury, which opened to
him the doors of the Academy in 1744. He was pa
tronized by Louis XV., and received the title of sculptor
to the king. His master-piece is a monumental group
in honour of Marshal Saxe at Strasbourg. He imitated
nature with fidelity, or, as some say, with servility, and
had the sentiment of the true rather than of the beautiful.
Died in 1785.
See P. TARBE, " La Vie et les CEuvres de J. B. Pigalle;" "Nou-
velle Biographic Generate. "
Pigaiiiol de la Force, pe'gt'ne-ol' deh IS foRss,
(JEAN AIMAR,) a French litterateur, born in Auvergne
in 1673. He published a " Historical and Geographical
Description of France," (5 vols., 1715,) which was the
best work on that subject, and other works. Died in
1753-
Pigault-Lebrun, pe'go'leh-bRuN', originally Pigault
de L'lSpmoy, (deh la'pe'nwa',) (CHARLES ANTOINE
GUILLAUME,) a popular French novelist, born at Calais
in 1753. He wrote many successful novels, among which
is "The Child of the Carnival," (" L'Enfant du Carna-
val," 1792.) He held an office in the Custom- House,
Paris, from 1806 to 1824. Parisot calls him "the most
famous romancer of the imperial epoch." His works
display much fertility of imagination and an abundant
stock of gaiety. Died in 1835.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pigeau, pe'zho', (EUSTACHE NICOLAS,) a French
jurist, born near Senlis in 1750. He published " Intro
duction a la Procedure civile," (1784; 5th edition, 1833,)
which is regarded as a classic work. Died in 1818.
Pighius, pee'ge-us, (ALBERT,) a Dutch Catholic theo
logian, born at Kempen about 1490, was the author of
several controversial works against the Protestants. He
also wrote on mathematics. Died in 1542.
See BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
" Memoires."
Pighius, (STEPHANUS VINAND,) a Dutch historian
and antiquary, born at Kempen in 1520, was a nephew
of Albert. He was librarian to Cardinal Granvelle. He
published a work of great research, entitled " Roman
Annals," ("Annales Romanorum," 1599-1615,) in 3
vols., only one of which was published during his
lifetime. Died in 1604.
Pigna, pen'ya, (GiAMBATTlSTA,) an Italian historian
and poet, born at Ferrara in 1530. He wrote "The
Prince," ("II Principe," 1560,) to refute the famous
work of Machiavel, a " History of the Princes of Este,"
(1570,) and other works. Died in 1575.
Pignatelli. See INNOCENT XII.
Pignoiie, pen-yd'na, (Sl.MONE,) a Florentine painter,
born about 1614. He was a good colorist. Among
his works is a picture of " Saint Louis of France."
Died in 1698.
Fignoria, pen-yo're-a, (LORENZO,) an Italian antiquary
and priest, born at Padua in 1571. He wrote, besides
other works, "Egyptian Characters," ( "Characteres
^igyptii," 1608,) and "The Origin of Padua," (1655.)
Died in 1631.
See NICERON, "Memoires."
Pignotti, pen-yot'tee, (LORENZO,) an Italian historian,
poet, and physician, born at Figlini, in Tuscany, in 1739.
He became in 1774 professor of natural philosophy at
Pisa, where he remained many years. He wrote Fables
in verse, (1779,) which were received with much favour.
His chief work is a " History of Tuscany, with Essays
on Sciences, Letters, and Arts," (9 vols., 1813,) which
las some merit. He was chosen rector of the Univer
sity of Pisa in 1809. Died in 1812.
See ALUOBRANDO PAOUNI, " Elogio storico-filosofico di Pignotti,"
1817 ; TIPALDO, " Biogi-afia degli Italian! illustri."
Pigorof, Pigorov, or Pigorow, pee'go-rof, (NICHO
LAS,) a Russian surgeon and medical writer, born about
1810. He became chief surgeon to a military hospital
in Saint Petersburg.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
PIGOTT
1798
PIN^EUS
Pig'ptt, (Sir ARTHUR,) an English lawyer, born in
1750. Me became attorney-general in 1805. lie was a
friend of Edmund Burke. Died in 1819.
Pigray, pe'gui', (PIERRE,) a French surgeon, who
received the title of first surgeon to Henry IV. He
was the author of several professional works. Died in
1613.
Pus, de, deli pe'ess', (ANTOINE PIERRE AUGUSTIN,)
a French dramatist and song-writer, born in Paris in
1755. He wrote some popular vaudevilles, etc. Died
in 1832.
Pike, (ALBERT,) an American poet and journalist,
born at Boston in 1809. At an early age he removed to
the Southwest, and in 1834 became editor of the "Ar
kansas Advocate" at Little Rock, Arkansas. He has
published " Prose Sketches and Poems," " Hymns to the
Gods," etc. He commanded a body of Indians fighting
against the Union at Pea Ridge, March, 1862.
See GRISWOI.D'S " Poets and Poetry of America;" " Blackwood's
Magazine" for June, 1839.
Pike, (ZEHULON MONTGOMERY,) an American officer
and traveller, born in New Jersey in 1779. He set out
in 1805 to explore the sources of the Mississippi, and
subsequently visited the interior of Louisiana. He rose
to the rank of brigadier-general in the war of 1812, and
was killed during the attack upon York, (now Toronto,)
in 1813.
See HKNRY WHITING, "Life of Zebulon M. Pike," in SPARKS'S
"American Biography," vol. v., second series.
Pikler. See PICHLER.
Pilate, (LEONCE.) See LEO PILATUS.
Pi'late, (PONTIUS, poi/she-us,) (Lat. PON'TIUS PILA'-
TUS ; Fr. PONCE PILATE, p6\ss pe'ltt', a Roman governor
of Judea, before whom Christ was arraigned by the Jews,
and who, against his own convictions, consented to their
iniquitous design. (See Matthew xxvii., Mark xv., Luke
xxiii., John xviii. and xix.) According to Eusebius and
others, Pilate was banished, and killed himself, about
38 A.D.
Pilati, pe-la'tee, (CARLO ANTONIO,) an Italian pub
licist, born at Tassulo, near Trent, in 1733. He wrote
several treatises on natural and civil law, and a " His
tory of the German Empire and Italy from the Time of
Carolingi to the Peace of Westphalia," (2 vols., 1769-72.)
Died in 1802.
Pilatre de Rozier, pe'latu' deh ro'ze-i', (JEAN
FRANCOIS,) a French aeronaut, born at Metz in 1756.
He ascended in a balloon filled with heated air in No
vember, 1783, and attempted to cross the Channel in a
balloon of hydrogen gas surmounting a cylinder filled
with heated air. This apparatus fell to the ground near
Boulogne, and Pilatre and his companion were killed, in
June, 1785.
See TOURNON DE LA CHAPELLE, "Vie et Memoires de Pilatre
de Rozier," 1786.
Pilatus. See PILATE, (PONTIUS.)
Piles, de, deh pel, (ROGER,) a French painter, diplo
matist, and writer on art, born at Clameci (Nievre) in
1635. He went with Amelotcle la Houssaye to Venice,
as secretary of legation, in 1682, and was sent to the
Hague by Louvois about 1692, to negotiate in secret
while he seemed to be employed in painting. He wrote
"The Lives of the Painters," (1699,) and several treat
ises on painting, which display good taste. He painted
good portraits of Boileau and Madame Dacier. Died
ir. 1709.
Pilk'iiig-ton, (JAMES,) born in Lancashire, England,
in 1520, became Bishop of Durham in 1561, and pub
lished commentaries on Scripture. He was distinguished
as a promoter of the study of the Greek language. Died
i'1 1575-
Filkmgton, (LETITIA VAN LEW'IN,) an authoress,
born in Dublin in 1712, was the wife of the Rev. Mat
thew Pilkington, noticed below. She wrote poetry, and
" Memoirs of her own Life," (1749.) Died in 1750.
Pilkington, (MARY,) an English authoress, born at
Cambridge in 1766 ; died about 1840.
Pilkington, (MATTHEW,) an English biblical scholar,
was prebendary of Lichfield. He published, besides
other works, a " Rational Concordance ; or, An Index
to the Bible," (1749.) Died in 1765.
Pil'lans, (JAMES,) a British scholar, born at Edin
burgh in 1777. He became professor of humanity in,
the University of Edinburgh in 1820, and filled that
chair about forty-three years. He published, besides
other works, " Lectures on the Proper Objects and
Methods of Education," (1836,) and "Rationale of Dis
cipline," (1852.) Died in Edinburgh in 1864.
See "Gentleman's Magazine," 1864.
Pille, pel, (Louis ANTOINE,) COMTE, a French gene
ral, born at Soissons in 1749; died in 1828.
Pillemeiit, pe'ye-moN', (|EAN,) a French landscape-
painter, born at Lyons in 1728; died in 1808. His son
VICTOR, born at Vienna in 1767, was a skilful engraver
and etcher. Died in Paris in 1814.
Fillet, pe'y.V, (CLAUDE MARIE,) a learned French
litterateur, born at Chambery in 1771. lie wrote articles
for the "Biographic Universelle," and acted as chief
editor of that work from the sixth to the forty-fourth
volume inclusive. He devoted fourteen years to this
task. Died in 1826.
Fillet, (FAKIEN,) a French litterateur, born at Lyons
in 1772. He wrote dramatical critiques for the "Journal
de Paris" for many years, articles for the " Biographic
Universelle," and other works. Died in 1855.
Pilliard, pe'ye-aV, (JACQUES,) a French painter, born
at Vienne about 1815. He has worked in Rome for
many years.
Pilloii, pe'y6N', (ANNE ADRIEN FIRMIN,) a French
litterateur, born in Paris in 1766, wrote comedies and
poems. Died in 1844.
His son, ALEXANDRE JEAN BAPTISTE, was born at
Amiens in 1792. He became librarian of the Louvre
in 1858. Among his works are a "Greek-and-French
Dictionary," (1837,) and "Greek Synonyms," (1847,)
which obtained the Volney prize.
Pil'low, (GIDEON JOHNSON,) an American general,
born in Williamson county, Tennessee, in 1806. As brig
adier-general, he fought with distinction in the Mexican
war, (1847,) alK' was promoted to be a major-general.
He was second in command at Fort Donelson when it
was taken by General Grant, in February, 1862.
See LIVINGSTON, " Portraits of Eminent Americans."
Pilon, pil'lon, ? (FREDERICK,) a mediocre dramatist,
born in Cork, Ireland, about 1750; died in 1788.
Pilon, pe'loN', (GERMAIN,) an excellent French sculp
tor, born about 1515, was patronized by Henry II. and
Catherine de Meclicis. His master-piece is a marble
group (now in the museum of the Louvre) of three Graces
clothed, and supporting on their heads a gilded bronze
urn, which contained the heart of Henry II. He excelled
in the execution of drapery. Died about 1590.
Pilot, pe'lo', (JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE,) a French anti
quary, born in Piedmont in 1806.
Filpay, pil'pi or pil'pa'e, Filpai, or Bidpai, bid'pi, a
famous Oriental fabulist, of whom little is known. He is
supposed to have been a Brahman gymnosophist, and to
have lived several centuries before our era. Bidpai's
fables, originally written in Sanscrit, were translated
into Arabic and afterwards into almost every other lan
guage. The Sanscrit collection entitled " Hitopadesa"
(i.e. " Friendly Counsel") was translated into English by
Wilkins, (1787.) Several European fabulists, including
La Fontaine, have drawn largely from the fables of Pilpay.
Pils, pel, (ADRIEN AUGUSTS ISIDORE,) a French his
torical painter, born in Paris in 1813. lie gained the
grand prize of Rome in 1838. Among his works is " The
Battle of Alma."
Pilumnus. See PICUMNUS.
Pimeiitel, pe-m£u-te'l/, (MANOEL,) a Portuguese geog
rapher, born in Lisbon in 1650. He wrote on geography
and navigation. Died in 1719.
Pin, paN, (ELZEAR,) a French poet, born at Apt (Vau-
cluse) in 1813. He published a volume of poems in 1839.
Pina, de, da pee'ni, (Ruv,) an eminent Portuguese
historian, who held the office of historiographer in the
reigns of Emmanuel and John III. He wrote "Chroni
cles of the Reigns of Six Kings, from Sancho I. to Al-
fonzo IV., inclusive," which were published after his
death. Died about 1520.
Pinaeus. See PINEAU, (SEVERIN.)
a, e, 1, 5, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
PINAIGRIER
1799
PINEDA
Pinaigrier, pe'nJ'gRg-i', (ROBERT,) a French painter
on glass, was born in Touraine about 1490. He worked
in several churches of Paris. Died about 1550.
Pinas, pee'nas, (JAN,) a Dutch painter of landscapes
and history, was born at Haarlem in 1596. He painted
landscapes and figures with equal success. His colouring
is remarkably vigorous. Among his works is "Joseph
Sold by his Brethren." Died about 1660. His brother
JAMES, or JACOB, was a skilful painter. Died in 1659.
Pinciano, pen-the-a'no, (ALONZO LOPEZ,) a Spanish
poet, who lived about 1480-1530, was physician to Charles
V. He wrote " El Pelayo," an epic poem, and " Ancient
Poetical Philosophy," (" Philosophia antigua poetica.")
Finck'ney, (CHARLES,) an American statesman, born
at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1758. His father was
a first-cousin of Charles C. Pinckney. The subject of
this article was a member of the Convention which
formed the Constitution of the United States in 1787.
He was Governor of South Carolina from 1789 to 1792,
and again from 1796 to 1798. In the latter year he was
elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature
of South Carolina. He acted with the Republican party,
and was an eloquent speaker. He was minister to Spain
from 1802 to 1805. Died in 1824.
Pinckney, (CHARLES COTESWORTH,) an American
statesman, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in Feb
ruary, 1746, was a son of Chief Justice Pinckney. He
graduated at Oxford, England, and studied law. He
served as aide-de-camp to Washington at the battles of
Brandy wine and Germantown, September-October, 1777,
and obtained the rank of colonel. In October, 1779, he
took part in the battle of Savannah. He was taken
prisoner at Charleston in May, 1780, and detained until
the end of the war. He was a member of the Conven
tion which formed the Constitution of the United States,
(1787,) advocated the adoption of the same in the Con
vention of South Carolina, and became a leader of the
Federal party. General Washington offered him a place
in his cabinet, in 1795, as secretary of war, and afterwards
as secretary of state, both of which positions he declined.
He was sent as minister to France in 1796, but the
French Directory refused to receive him, and ordered
him to leave the country in February, 1797. He after
wards returned to Paris with John Marshall and E.
Gerry, who had been appointed his colleagues in an
embassy. He was appointed a major-general about 1798.
At the presidential election of 1800, General Pinckney
and John Adams were the Federal candidates ; but the
Republicans were victorious. He died at Charleston
in 1825.
See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
Pinckney, (HENRY LAURENS,) son of Charles Pinck
ney, born at Charleston in 1794, distinguished himself
as a lawyer and politician. He became in 1819 editor
of the "Charleston Mercury," an organ of the "State-
rights" party. He published the " Life and Services of
Andrew [ackson," and several political works. Died
in February, 1863.
Pinckney, (THOMAS,) an American officer and states
man, brother of Charles Cotesworth, noticed above, was
born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1750. As aide of
General Lincoln, he distinguished himself at the assault
on Savannah, and was severely wounded at Camden,
August, 1780. He became Governor of South Carolina
in 1787, and was appointed by Washington minister to
London in 1792. Having been afterwards sent on a
mission to Spain, he negotiated the treaty of Ildefonso,
and returned in 1796. Died in 1828.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
, paN'soN'', (PIERRE,) a French bibliographer,
born at Montauban in 1802. He published a "Manual
of Universal Bibliography," (3 vols., 1857.)
Piii'dar, [Gr. IL'vcSapof ; Lat. PIN'DARUS ; Fr. PIN-
DARE, pax'diR' ; Ger. PINDAR, pin'dar, and PINDAROS,
pin'da-ros ; It. PINDARO, pen'da-ro,| the greatest lyric
poet of Greece, was born near Thebes about 520 B.C.
He was a son of Daiphantus, or, according to some
writers, of Pagondas. It is stated that he studied poetry
and music at Athens under Lasus, and that he was a
pupil of the celebrated Corinna, who advised him to
choose themes for his muse from mythology. He after
wards composed an ode in which all the mythical legends
of Thebes were inwoven, and showed it to Corinna, who
reminded him that he " ought to sow with the hand, and
not with the whole sack." He became a professional
composer of choral odes, and was employed by various
states and princes of Greece to write odes for special
occasions. Among his patrons were Hiero of Syracuse,
Theron of Agrigentum, and Alexander of Macedon.
About 473 B.C. he visited the court of Hiero, where he
remained four years. His rival Simonides was at Syra
cuse at the same time. Pindar was a favourite of the
Athenians, whose city he praised in an ode, and who
presented to him ten thousand drachma. He appears to
have taken no part in the Persian war and other great
events of his time. The only poems of Pindar which
have come down to us entire are the "Epinicia," or
triumphal odes composed in honour of victors at the
public games. Fragments of his dithyrambs, pseans,
encomia, and dirges are extant. Horace attributes to
Pindar unrivalled skill in several forms of verse. The
best translations of Pindar into English verse are those
of H. F. Gary and Abraham Moore. Pindar excelled in
energy, picturesque effect, and sublimity. He had a son
Daiphantus, and two daughters. His death is variously
dated at 439 or 442 B.C.
See J. G. SCHNEIDER, " Versuch u'ber Pindar's Leben," 1774:
MOMMSEM, "Pindaros, zur Geschichte des Dichters," etc., 1845;
VII.I.EMAIN, " Essai sur le Genie de Pindare," 1857 ; K O. MULLHR,
"History of the Literature of Ancient Greece;" W. CAMENZ,
" Pindari Ingenium." 1804 ; CLAUSEN, " Pindaros der Lyriker,"
1834; BIPPARD, "Pindar's Leben," 1848; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Pindar, (PETER.) See WOLCOTT, (JOHN.)
Pindare. See PINDAR.
Pindar o. See PINDAR.
Pindarus or Pindaros. See PINDAR.
Piiidemonte, pen-da-mon'ta, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian
dramatist, born at Verona in 1751, produced several
tragedies. Died in 1812.
Piiidemonte, (IPPOLITO,) an Italian poet of high
reputation, born at Verona in November, 1753, was a
brother of the preceding. He entered the order of Malta
in his youth, but resigned his membership about the age
of thirty. He described the delights of the country in
poems entitled "Rural Poems," (" Poesie campestri,"
1785,) which were received with favour. He exhibited
a contemplative and ingenious philosophy in his "Rural
Prose," ("Prose campestri," 1795.) About 1805 he
published a volume of Horatian satires, entitled " Ser-
nioni." His translation of the "Odyssey," in blank
verse, (1809-22,) is commended. He was a friend of
Foscolo and Monti. Among his works is "Eulogies
of Literary Men," (" Elogj di Letterati," 2 vols., 1826,)
which contains biographies of Italian authors. Died at
Verona in 1828.
See MARIO FIERI, " Intorno alia Vita ed agli Scritti di Pinde-
monte," in his "Elogj di Letterati." 1826; B. MONTANAKI, "Delia
Vita e delle Opere d'Ippolito Pindemonte," 1834: DEI. BKNE,
" Elogio d'l. Pindemonte," 1829 ; LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry
of Europe;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1825.
Pindemonte, (MARCO ANTONIO,) a mediocre Italian
poet, born at Verona in 1694, was grandfather of the
preceding. Died in 1744.
Pine, (JoiiN,) a skilful English engraver, born in 1690.
He published an edition of Herace. illustrated, (1737.)
Among his works is "The Destruction of the Invincible
Armada." Died in 1756.
Pine, (ROBERT EDGE,) a son of the preceding, was
born in London about 1742, and was a painter of history
and portraits. A picture of "Canute on the Sea-Shore"
is one of his best works. Died at Philadelphia in 1790.
Pineau, pe'nS', [Lat. PIN^E'US,] (SEVERIN,) a French
surgeon, born at Chartres. He wrote some works on
anatomy, which had a high reputation. Died in 1619.
Pineau, du, clii pe'no', [Lat. PINEL'LUS,] (GABRIEL,)
a French jurist, born at Angers in 1573. He was noted
for integrity, and was called " the Cato of Anjou." Died
in 1644.
See NICERON, "Memoires."
Pineda, de, da pe-na'Da, (JuAN,) a Spanish theolo
gian, born at Seville in 1557, was a monk or Jesuit. He
« ask; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
PINEL
1800
PINTO
was a counsellor to the court of the Inquisition, and was
charged to search out dangerous or unsound books in
the libraries of Spain. He wrote commentaries on
Scripture, and a "Universal History," (5 vols., 1620.)
Died in 1637.
See N. ANTONIO, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova."
Pinel, pe'nel', (PHILIPPE,) a distinguished French
physician, born in the department of Tarn in 1745. He
published in 1791 a " Treatise on Mental Alienation,"
which promoted a reform in the treatment of the Insane.
He became in 1 793 chief physician of the Bicetre of Paris,
and was successful in the treatment of insanity by sub
stituting kindness for harshness. His most remarkable
work is " Philosophical Nosography," (" La Nosogra-
phie philosophique," 2 vols., 1798; 6th edition, 1818.)
He was admitted into the Institute in 1803. Died in
1826.
See CUVIER, "filoge de Pinel:" G. DUPUYTREN, "Notice stir
Pinel," 1826; "Nouvelle Biographic Generaie."
Pinelli, pe-nel'lee, ( BARTOLOMMEO, ) an eminent
painter and engraver, born at Rome about 1780. He
etched many plates representing scenery in the vicinity
of Rome, events in the history of ancient Rome, and
Roman costumes. He left designs which were highly
prized. Among his publications is " Istoria degli Im-
peratori," (1829.) Died in 1835.
See F'. GERARDI, "Biografia di B. Pinelli," 1835; C. FALCONIERI,
" Memoria intorno aila Vita di B. Pinelli," 1835.
Pinelli, (GiAN VINCENZO,) an Italian patron of learn
ing and bibliophile, born at Naples in 1535. His house
at Padua was a rendezvous of the learned men of all
countries. He was a diligent collector of books and
manuscripts. Died in 1601.
See PAOLO GUAI.DO, "Vita J. V. Pinelli," Augsburg, 1607.
Pinelli, (LucA,) an Italian theologian, born at Melfi.
He wrote several religious works, which were popular.
Died in 1607.
Pinelli, (MAFFEO,) an Italian bibliophile, born at
Venice in 1736. He collected medals and pictures, and
formed a rich library, of which Abbe Morelli made a
catalogue, (in 6 vols., 1787.) His library was sold at
auction in London in 1790. Died in 1785.
Pinellus. See PINEAU, (GABRIEL.)
Pinelo, y, e pe-na'lo, (ANTONIO DE LEON,) a Span
ish writer, born in Peru. He published, besides other
works, " Epitome of the Eastern and Western Nautical
and Geographical Library," ("Epitome de la Bibliotheca
oriental y occidental nautica y geografica," 1629.) Died
about 1675.
Pinet, Du. See DUPINET.
Pineton de Chambrun, pen't6.\'' deh shSN'bRuN',
(JACQUES,) a French Protestant minister, born at Orange,
was exiled about 1685. He died in London in 1689.
Pingel, ping'el, (CHRISTIAN,) a Danish naturalist,
born at Copenhagen in 1793. He contributed many
memoirs to the " Transactions" of the Academy of
Sciences.
Pingeron, paNzh'roN7', (JEAN CLAUDE,) a French
translator, born at Lyons about 1730. He translated,
from the Italian, Milizia's " Lives of the Architects,"
(1771,) and other works. Died in 1795.
Pingre, paN'gRa', (ALEXANDRE GUI,) a distinguished
French astronomer, born in Paris in 1711. He began
to study astronomy about the age of thirty-eight. His
observation of the transit of Mercury in 1753 procured
his nomination as correspondent of the Academy. In
1760 he was sent to the island of Rodrigo to observe
the transit of Venus, (1761.) His most important work
is " Cometography, or a Historical and Theoretical
Treatise on Comets," (1783.) Died in 1796.
See VENTENAT, "Notice sur la Vie d'A. G. Pingre"," 1796.
Pinheiro-Ferreira, pen-ya'e-ro fe>-ra^-ra, (SiLVF.s-
TRE,) a Portuguese writer, borrT'in Lisbon in 1769. He
wrote, besides other works in French, " Principles of
Public Law," (3 vols., 1834.) Died in 1847.
Pini, pee'nee, (ERMENEGILDO,) an Italian naturalist,
born at Milan about 1740. He was professor of natural
history at Milan, (1772-1812.) He wrote treatises on
mineralogy, geology, and natural history. Died in 1825.
Pink'er-toii, (JOHN,) a Scottish historian, poet, and
antiquary, born in Edinburgh in 1758. He became a
resident of London about 1780, and published a volume
of verses, entitled "Rimes," in 1781. In 1784 he pro
duced an "Essay on Medals," which was well received.
His reputation was increased by the publication of "An
cient Scottish Poems never before in Print," etc., (2
vols., 1786.) He published an ingenious "Dissertation
on the Origin and Progress of the Scythians or Goths"
in 1787. Among his other works are a "History of
Scotland from the Accession of the House of .Stuart to
that of Mary," (2 vols., 1797,) and "Modern Geography
Digested after a New Plan," (2 vols., 1802,) both of
which have some merit. He is censured for his arro
gance and his enmity to religion. Died at Paris in 1826.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;"
"Monthly Review" for May, 1797.
Pink'ney, (EDWARD COATE,) son of William Pink-
ney, noticed below, was born in London in 1802. He
published in 1825 " Rodolph, and other Poems." Died
in 1828.
See GRISWOI.D, " Poets and Poetry of America."
Piiikney, (WILLIAM,) an eminent American lawyer
and orator, born at Annapolis, Maryland, in March,
1764. He was admitted to the bar in 1786, and repre
sented a district of Maryland in Congress from 1789 to
1792. In 1796 he was sent to London as a commissioner
under Jay's treaty. He remained in London about eight
years, and was appointed minister to England in 1806.
Having returned home in 1811, he settled in Balti
more. He was attorney-general of the United States
from December, 1811, to February, 1814, was appointed
minister to Russia in 1816, and was elected a member
of the Senate of the United States in 1819. He advo
cated the Missouri Compromise in the Senate in 1820.
He was a man of brilliant talents, and was generally
considered the foremost American lawyer of his time.
His wife was a sister of Commodore Rodgers. He
died in February, 1822.
Pino, pee'no, (DOMENICO,) COUNT, an Italian gen
eral, born at Milan in 1760. He served in the French
army as general of division in Germany, Spain, and
Russia, (1805-13.) Died in 1826.
Pino, da, da pee'no, (MARCO,) an able Italian painter,
sometimes called MARCO DA SIENNA. He worked many
years at Naples, where he settled about 1560. Among
his chief works is a " Descent from the Cross."
Pinon, pe'no.N', (JACQUES,) a French lawyer and
writer of Latin poetry, wrote " On the Roman Year,"
(" De Anno Romano,") and other poems. Died, at an
advanced age, in 1641.
Pins, de, deh paN, [Lat. PI'NUS,] QEAN,) a French
diplomatist, born at Toulouse about 1470, became Bishop
of Rieux in 1523. He wrote, in elegant Latin, a number
of epigrams, and "On Court Life," (" De Vita anlica.")
His style was praised by Erasmus, who said, " Potest
inter Tullianae dictionis competitores numerari Johannes
Pinus." As ambassador to Venice and Rome, about
1520, he displayed superior diplomatic talents. Died
See CHARDON, " Memoires pour servir a Pfiloge de J. de Pins,"
1748-
Pinson, paNxs6N', (NICOLAS,) a French painter and
engraver, born at Valence about 1640, worked many
years in Italy.
Piiisson, paN'sdiV, (FRANgois,) a French jurist, born
at Bourges about 1612; died in 1691.
Pintelli, pen-tel'Iee, (BACCio,) an Italian architect,
born probably at Florence. He was employed by Pope
Sixtus IV., who reigned from 1471 till 1484. Among his
great works in Rome are the church of Santa Maria del
Popolo, the Sistine Chapel, (in which Michael Angelo
painted the fresco of the "Last Judgment,") the church
of Saint Augustine, and a bridge called the Ponte Sisto.
Died about 1492.
See VASARI," Lives of the Painters," etc. ; TICOZZI, " Dizionario."
Pinto, pen'to, ( FERNAO MENDEZ, ) a Portuguese
traveller, born near Coimbra about 1510. He wrote a
marvellous book of travels in India, etc., (1614,) which
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
PINTO
1801
PIRKHEIMER
was translated into many languages. His veracity has
often l)een questioned. Died in 1583.
Pinto, (HECTOR,) a Portuguese monk or priest, be
came professor at Coimbra about 1570. He wrote " Pic
ture of Christian Life," (" Imagem da Vida Christam,"
1565.) Died in 1584.
Pinto, (ISAAC,) a Portuguese Jew, born about 1715.
He wrote an " Essay on Luxury," (1762,) and an " Apol
ogy for the Jews," (1762.) He died at the Hague in
1787.
Piutor, pen-ton', (PEDRO,) a Spanish physician, born
at Valencia in 1423 ; died in Rome in 1503.
Pinturicchio, pen-too-rek'ke-o, (BERNARDINO BET-
TI,) an Italian painter, born at Perugia in 1454, was
a pupil or assistant of Perugino. He worked in the
Vatican for Alexander VI. Among his best works are
"Jesus before the Doctors," a portrait of Isabella of
Castile, and "The History of Pius II.," in the cathedral
of Sienna. It is said that Raphael assisted him in the
latter work. He painted portraits and landscapes with
success. Died in 1513.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, "History of Paint
ing in Italy."
Pinus. See PINS.
Piiizoii, pen-thdn', (MARTIN ALONZO,) a Spanish
navigator, who commanded the Pinta in the first voyage
of Columbus to America. He is said to have been en
vious towards his chief. Died in 1493.
Finzon, (ViNCENCio YANEZ,) a younger brother of
the preceding, commanded the Nina in the voyage of
Columbus, (1492.) He conducted an expedition in 1499,
and explored part of the coast of Brazil. He was living
in 1523.
Pio. See Pius, POPE.
Pio, pee'o, (ALBERTO,) Prince of Carpi, an Italian
scholar, born about 1475, was a nephew of Pico della
Mirandola. He was a patron of literary men, and author
of a treatise against Luther. Died in Paris in 1531.
Pio, (BATTISTA,) an Italian philologist, born at Bo
logna. He wrote notes on Horace, Lucretius, Ovid,
and other classic authors. Died at Rome about 1540.
Piobert, pe'o'baiR', (GuiLLAUME,) a French general
and mathematician, born in 1793. He was elected a
member of the Institute in 1840, in place of De Prony.
He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on Artil
lery," (2 vols.)
Piola, pe-o'la, (DoMENico.) a Genoese painter, born
in 1628. He painted infants with especial skill. Among
his works is a " Repose of the Holy Family." Died
in 1703.
Piola, (P.,) a painter, born at Genoa in 1617, was a
brother of the preceding. He was an artist of high
promise, but died young, in 1640.
Piombino. See BONAPARTE, (MARIE ANNE ELISA.)
Piombo, del, del pe-om'bo, (SEBASTIANO,) an emi
nent Italian painter, born at Venice in 1485, was also
called LUCIANO or VENEZIANO. He was a pupil of
Giorgione. In the early part of his life he went to
Rome, and painted in the Farnese palace a fresco in
competition with Raphael, and received instruction from
Michael Angelo. He painted in San Pietro in Montorio
a fresco of the "Transfiguration," which is remarkable
for beauty of colour. Among his master-pieces is a
" Raising of Lazarus," which now adorns the British
National Gallery. He excelled in portraits. About
1531 he obtained from Clement VII. the office of keeper
ot the seal, (iiffizio del piomko,) and assumed the name
of Fra Sebastiano del Piombo. Died in 1547.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" BIACI, " Memorie storiche
di F. Sebastiano del Piombo," 1826; RIDOLFI, "Vite degli Pittori
Veneti ;" LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy."
Piorry, pe'o're', (PIERRE ADOLPIIE,) a French medi
cal writer, born at Poitiers in 1794. He gained dis
tinction by a treatise "On Mediate Percussion," ("De
la Percussion mediate," 1828.) He obtained in 1840
a chair of internal pathology at Paris. Among his
works is a " Treatise on Diagnostics and Semeiology,"
(3 vols., 1836.)
Piozzi, pe-oz'ze, [It. pron. pe-ot'see,] MRS., an Eng
lish authoress, whose maiden name was ESTHER LYNCH
SALUSBURY, was born in Carnarvonshire in 1739. She
became the wife of Mr. Thrale, a brewer of London, in
1763, and was intimate with Dr. Johnson. Having lost
her husband, she was married in 1784 to an Italian
teacher of music, named Piozzi. She published in 1786
"Anecdotes of Dr. Samuel Johnson during the Last
Twenty Years of his Life," and in 1788 "Letters to and
from Dr. Samuel Johnson," (2 vols.) Among her other
works is a short poem, called "The Three Warnings."
Died at Clifton in 1821.
See "Piozziana; or, Recollections of the Late Mrs. Piozzi;"
"Atlantic Monthly" for June, 1861 ; MRS. EI.WOOD, "Memoirs of
the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement of the Last
Century," vol. ii., (1843;) "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1861 ;
" Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1861 ; " Blackwood's Magazine"
for April, 1862.
Fl'per, [Sw. pron. pee'per,] (CARL,) COUNT, a Swed
ish minister of state, was a man of superior talents.
He was councillor of state in the reign of Charles XL,
and became the principal minister of Charles XII.,
whom he accompanied in his campaigns. He was
taken prisoner at Pultowa (Poltava) in 1709, and kept
in prison until his death, in 1716.
See GEZELIUS, "Biographiskt-Lexicon."
Pi'per, lie, (FRANCIS,) an English comic painter,
noted for his skill in portraits of ugly and deformed
persons. Died about 1740.
Pippi. See GIULIO ROMANO.
Pipping, pip'ping, (HEINRICH,) a German theologian
and biographer, born at Leipsic in 1670; died in 1722.
Piquer, pe-kaiR', (ANDRES,) a Spanish medical writer,
born in Aragon in 1711. He received the title of first
physician of the kingdom in 1752. Among his works is
"Medicine Old and New," ("Meclicina vetus et nova,"
1735.) Died in 1772.
Firauesi, pe-ra-na'see, ( FRANCESCO,) an engraver,
born at Rome in 1748, was a son of Giovanni Battista,
noticed below. He succeeded his father as a dealer in
prints. About 1800 he removed to Paris, where he pub
lished a large number of plates of Roman antiquities,
partly executed by his father. Died in 1810.
Firanesi, (GIO'VANNI BATTISTA,) an excellent Italian
engraver and designer, born at Venice in 1720. He
studied architecture in his youth at Rome, where he
passed the greater part of his life. He was unrivalled
as an architectural draftsman and an engraver of archi
tecture and ruins, and had great facility of execution.
He etched nearly two thousand plates, which represent
the edifices of ancient and modern Rome, antique bas-
reliefs, vases, monuments, etc. Among the titles of his
works are " Architectura Romana," (208 plates,) and
"Magnificence of the Romans," ("Magnificenza dei
Romani," 44 plates.) Died at Rome in 1778. His
daughter LAURA was an engraver. She died in 1785.
See BIANCONI, " Elogio storico del Cavaiiere G. B. Piranesi,"
1779; P. BIAGI, " SulFIncisione e sul Piranesi," 1820.
Pirckheimer. See PIRKHEIMER.
Fire, de, deh pe'ra', (HIPPOLYTE MARC GUIL
LAUME de Rosnyvinen — deh ros'ne've'ndx',) COMTE,
a French general, born at Rennes in 1778. He com
manded the light cavalry of the left wing at Waterloo.
Died in 1850.
Piringer, pee'ring-er, (BENEDICT,) a German en
graver, born at Vienna in 1780. He went with Count
A. de Laborde to Paris in 1809. Among his works
are landscapes after Claude Lorrain and Poussin. Died
at Paris in 1826.
Fi-rith'o-us or Pei-rith'o-us, [Gr. Tlctpidoof,] a son
of Ixi'on, and a chief of the Lapithae. The celebrated
fight of the Lapithae and the Centaurs originated at
the marriage of Pirithous and Hippodami'a. He was
a friend of Theseus, whom he aided in the abduction of
Helen from Sparta. Theseus, in return, abetted him in
?.!! attempt to carry off Proserpine from the palace of
Pluto; but in this they failed, and Pirithous was killed
by Cerberus.
See VIRGIL, " jEneid," book vi. 393-397.
Firkheimer or Pirckheimer, pefRk'hi'mer, (WILT-
BALD,) a German historian and philologist, born at Nu
remberg in 1470. He learned the Greek language, and
translated into Latin some writings of Plato, Xenophon,
and others. He was a friend of Erasmus, and was dis-
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
e Explanations, p. 23. )
PIROLI
1802
PISO
tinguished for his efforts to diffuse learning in Germany.
Among his works is "Germanise perbrevis Explicatio,"
(1530.) Died in 1530 or 1531.
See PANZER, "W. Pirckheimer und Charitas Pirckheimer," etc.,
1802; NICERON, "Memoires;" F. CAMPE, "Zum Andenken W.
Pirckheimer's," 1828 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Piroli, pee'ro-lee or pe-ro'lee, (PROSPERO,) an Italian
painter, born in 1761. He worked in Russia from 1803
to 1817, and was patronized by the Czar. Died at Milan
in 1831.
Piroli, (TOMMASO,) a skilful Italian designer and en
graver, born at Rome in 1750, was a pupil of Piranesi.
He engraved the Prophets and Sibyls of the Sistine
Chapel, after Michael Angelo, "Cupid and Psyche,"
after Raphael, etc. Died in 1824.
Piromalli, pe-ro-mal'lee, (PAOLO,) a learned Italian
missionary, born at Siderno in 1591 or 1592, laboured in
Armenia, Persia, and India. He compiled a " Latin-
Persian Lexicon." Died in 1667.
See MACRI, " Memorie intorno alia Vita ed alle Opere di Piro
malli," 1824.
Piron, pe'riN', (AiME,) a French poet, born at Dijon
in 1640; died in 1727.
See AUGUSTE DE MASTAING, " Les Piron," 1844.
Piron, (ALEXIS,) a French dramatist and poet, born
at Dijon in 1689, was a son of the preceding. He had
a talent for bon-mots and epigrams. In his youth he
wrote comedies and licentious odes. Among his works
are several unsuccessful tragedies. He produced in
1738 a drama entitled "The Mania for Writing Verse,"
(" La Metromanie,") which is considered a master-piece
of intrigue, of style, and of comic genius. He married
Marie Therese Quenaudon when she had passed the
age of fifty. He was chosen a member of the French
Academy in 1753, but was rejected by the king. Died
in 1773.
See RIGOI.EY DH JUVIGNV, "Vie de Piron," 1776; AUGUSTE DK
MASTAING, "Les Piron," 1844; COUSIN D'AVALI.ON, "Pironiana,
ou Recueil des Aventures plaisantes, Bon-mots, etc. d'A. Piron,"
1800; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Piron, (BERNARD,) a French poet, born at Dijon in
1718, was a nephew of the preceding. Died in 1812.
Piron, (MARIE THERESE Quenaudon — keh-no'-
d6N',) called MADEMOISELLE DE BAR, born in 1688, was
a literary and witty lady. She was married in 1741 to
Alexis Piron. Died in 1751.
Pirro, per'ro, (Rocco,) a historian, born in Sicily in
1577, was chaplain to the king. He published a his
tory of the churches of Sicily, entitled "Sicilia Sacra,"
(3 vols., 1644-47,) which is esteemed valuable. Died
in 1651.
Pisa, (LEONARD OF.) See LEONARDO DA PISA.
Pisan, (CHRISTINA.) See CHRISTINE DE PISAN.
Pl-san'der or Pei-san'der, [n«<jav<5poc,] a Greek
poet of Rhodes, flourished about 650 B.C. He wrote an
epic poem on the exploits of Hercules, which is lost.
He was received into the epic canon with Homer by
the critics of Alexandria.
Pisander or Peisander, an Athenian demagogue,
•who was archon eponymus in 414 B.C. He was a promi
nent agent in the revolution which subverted the de
mocracy and raised the Four Hundred to power in
412 B.C.
Pisander, a Spartan, who was a brother-in-law of
Agesilaus II. He became admiral of the fleet in 395,
and was defeated and killed by the Athenians under
Conon in 394 B.C.
Pisanello, pe-sa-nel'lo, or Pisano, pe-sa'no, (ViT-
TORE,) a celebrated painter of the Venetian school,
flourished about 1450. He surpassed the artists of his
• time in painting horses and other animals, and was an
f excellent engraver of medals.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters."
Pisani, pe-sa'nee, (NiccoL6,) a Venetian admiral, who
acquired celebrity in the war against the Genoese which
began about 1350. He commanded in an indecisive
battle against Paganino Doria at the outlet of the Bos-
phorus in 1352.
Pisani, (VETTORE or VETTOR,) a famous admiral, a
son or nephew of the preceding, obtained command of
the fleet in 1378. He displayed skill in the defence of
Venice against the Genoese, whose fleet he captured at
Chiozza in 1380. He died in the same year.
See GIOVANNI MOI.IN, "Memorie per servire alia Storia di Vet-
tor Pisani ;" GRASSI, "Vita di Vettor Pisani," 1837.
Pisano, (ANDREA.) See ANDREA PISANO.
Pisano, pe-sa'no, (GIOVANNI,) called also GIOVANNI
DA PISA, an eminent sculptor and architect, born at Pisa
about 1238, was a son of the sculptor Niccolo. He was
architect of the famous Campo Santo (cemetery) of Pisa,
completed in 1283. It is a cloister of sixty-two arcades
or arches. He built the Castel Nuovo at Naples. Among
his master-pieces of sculpture are the high altar in the
cathedral of Arezzo, and a statue of the Virgin which
adorns the exterior of the cathedral of Florence. Died
in 1320.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors;" Cico-
GNARA, " Storia della Scultura ;" TICOZZI, "Dizionario."
Pisano, (GIUNTA,) an old Tuscan painter, was born
in the twelfth century. He was one of the most skilful
artists of his time. About 1235 he painted some works
in a church of Assisi. His works present the meagre
forms of the Byzantine style. A figure of Christ painted
on wood by Giunta still exists.
Pisano, (NiccoL6.) See NiccoL6 DA PISA.
Pisano, (VITTORE.) See PISANELLO.
Pisari, pe-sa'ree, (PASQUALE,) an Italian composer,
born at Rome about 1725 ; died in 1778.
Piscator. See FISCHER.
Piscinus. See MARSO.
Pise, (CHARLES CONSTANTINE,) D.D., a distinguished
Catholic clergyman, born at Annapolis, Maryland, in
1802. He was for some time chaplain of the United
States Senate, and in 1849 became pastor of the church
of Saint Charles Borromeo, Brooklyn, New York. He
has published a " History of the Church from its Es
tablishment to the Reformation," (1830,) " Aletheia, or
Letters on the Truth of the Catholic Doctrines," "Lives
of Saint Ignatius and his First Companions," and nume
rous hymns and other poems.
Pishdadian. See PESHDADIAN.
Pisistrate. See PISISTRATLIS.
Pisistratidae, pis-is-trat'e-de, an appellation given to
the sons of Pisistratus. (See HIPPIAS and HIPPARCHUS.)
Pi-sis'tra-tus or Pei-sis'tra-tus, [Gr. Ueujiarparof ;
Fr. PISISTRATE, pe'ze'stRJtt',] a tyrant or ruler of Athens,
born about 612 B.C., was a son of Hippocrates, and a
relative of Solon. He courted popularity by various
means, and obtained power by the following artifice.
Having inflicted wounds on himself, he presented him
self to the people, pretended that he had been attacked
by his political enemies, and persuaded them to grant
him a guard of fifty men, by whose aid he seized the
citadel, 560 B.C. He was the head of the party of the
highlands, which was the more popular or democratic
party. lie was twice expelled by a coalition of the party
of the coast with that of the plain, but was restored as
often. He made little or no change in the constitution,
and left the reputation of an able and rather liberal ruler.
He patronized literature, formed a library, and erected
fine public buildings. It is commonly supposed that we
owe to him the first written text of the whole of the
poems of Homer. Died in 527 B.C.
See HERODOTUS, "History;" GROTE, "History of Greece;"
JAN MEURSIUS, "Pisistratus, sen de ejus Vita Liber singularis,"
1632 ; THIRI.WAI.L, " History of Greece."
Pi'so, [Fr. PISON, pe'zoN',] (CAius CALPURNIUS,) a
Roman orator, who became consul in 67 B.C., and com
manded in Gallia Narbonensis in 66. He was defended
by Cicero, in 63 B.C., against a charge of extortion pre
ferred by Caesar, and urged the former to accuse Caesar
as one of the conspirators with Catiline. He probably
died before the civil war began, (49 B.C.)
See DRUMANN, "Geschichte Roms. "
Piso, (CAius CALPURNIUS,) the leader of a con
spiracy against Nero in 65 A.D. He was a patrician,
and very popular. Having been betrayed by one of his
accomplices, he killed himself.
Piso, (CNEIUS CALPURNIUS,) was consul in 7 B.C.,
with Tiberius, who, after his accession, used him as an
instrument to impair the influence of Germanicus. He
obtained command of Syria in 18 A.D., and was sus-
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; m5t; ndt; good; moon;
PISO
1803
PITT
pected of having poisoned Germanicus. He was found
dead in his room in 20 A.D.
Fiso, (Lucius CALPURNIUS,) was the father of Cal-
purnia, the wife of Julius Caesar. He was consul in 58
B.C., and promoted the banishment of Cicero. He mis
governed Macedonia from 57 to 55 n.C. His public con
duct and private character were denounced by Cicero in
a very vituperative speech, " Oratio in Pisonem," in 55
or 54 u.c. After the death of Caesar (44 K.C.) Piso made
a speech which was applauded by Cicero, (Philippic I.)
SeeAppiAN, " Bellum Civile ;" DRUMANN, "Geschichte Roms."
Piso, (L. CALPUKNIUS,) a son of the preceding, was
consul in 15 15. C. He was appointed prefect of Rome by
Tiberius. lie was one of the persons to whom Horace
addressed his Epistle "De Arte Poetica," according to
Porphyrion. Died in 32 A.D., at the age of eighty. His
virtue and integrity are attested bv several writers.
Piso, (Lucius CALPURNIUS FRUGT,) a Roman his
torian and consul, belonged to the aristocratic party.
He became consul in 133 B.C., and opposed the measures
of Caius Gracchus. He wrote " Annals of Rome,"
which are not extant.
Piso, (Lucius CALPURNIUS LICINIANUS,) a Roman
whom Galba adopted as heir to the throne in 69 A.D.
He was killed by the partisans, of Otho in the same year.
Pison. See Piso.
Pi'son, (JAKOB,) a Latin poet, born in Transylvania ;
died in 1527.
Pison, pee'son, (WiLLEM,) a Dutch naturalist and
physician, accompanied the Prince of Nassau in a voyage
to Brazil in 1637. The researches of Pison and his
companion Marcgraf were published, under the title of
"Natural History of Brazil," ("Ilistoria Naturalis Bra
silia?," 1648,) a work of some merit.
Pistoia, da, (CiNO.) See Cixo.
Pistoia, da, da pes-to'ya, (LEONARDO Grazia — gRat'-
se-a,) an Italian painter, born at Pistoia, lived about 1550.
He was a pupil of F. Penni, with whom he worked at
the Vatican and at Naples. He was skilful in portraits.
Pistorius, pis-to're-us, (JoHANN,) a German histo
rian, born at Nidda (Hesse) about 1544. He was con
verted from the Protestant faith to that of the Roman
Church, and was confessor to the emperor Rudolph II.
He wrote " German Historical Writers," (" Rerum Ger-
manicarum Scriptores,"3 vols., 1582-1607.) Died in 1608.
Pitagora. See PYTHAGORAS.
Pitaro, pe-ta'ro, (ANTONIO,) an Italian natural phi
losopher and writer, born at Borgia in 1774; died in
Paris after 1830.
Pitau, pe'to', (NICOLAS,) a skilful Flemish engraver,
born at Antwerp about 1633. He worked at Paris, and
engraved after Raphael, Gtiercino, and L. Caracci. His
master-piece is a " Holy Family," after Raphael. Died
in 1676. His son NICOLAS was also an engraver. Died
at Paris in 1724.
Pitaval, de. See GAYOT.
Pitcairne, pit'ka'rn, (ARCHIBALD,) a Scottish phy
sician, born at Edinburgh in 1652. Having finished his
education in Paris, he practised with great distinction
in his native city. His medical system was based partly
on mathematics. He was a zealous Jacobite. He was
professor of medicine at Leyden about one year, (1692,)
and was one of the teachers of Boerhaave. His principal
work is " Elementa Medicinze physico-mathematica."
He also wrote Latin verses. Died in 1713.
See CHARLES WEBSTER, " Life of A. Pitcairne," 1781 ; CHAM
BERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Pitho. See PITHON.
Fi'thon or Pi'tho, [IL'Owv,] a Macedonian officer,
who had a high command under Alexander in India.
He was appointed satrap of Babylon by Antigonus in
316 B.C., and was killed righting for Demetrius at Gaza,
in 312 B.C.
Pithon, [IIt'0«v,] an officer of Alexander the Great,
whose person he attended as a guard. He was the
leader of the mutineers who killed Perdiccas in 321
B.C., after which he was joint regent with Arrhidaeus for
a short time. He was second in command in the army
of Antigonus, to whom he rendered important services
in the war against Eumenes. He was put to death, by
order of Antigonus, in 316 B.C.
Pitbou, pe'too', (FRANC.OIS,) a learned French jurist,
born at Troyes in 1543, was a brother of Pierre, noticed
below. He wrote "Traite de la Grandeur, des Droits,
Pre-eminences des Rois et du Royaume de France,"
(1587.) Died in 1621.
Pithon, (PiERRK,) an eminent French jurist and
scholar, was born at Troyes in 1539. He was educated
as a Protestant, but became a Roman Catholic in 1573,
after a narrow escape from the massacre of 1572. He
supported the cause of Henry IV., and was one of the
authors of the "Satire Menippee," which had an im
portant influence in the political affairs of the time.
Among his works are "The Liberties of the Gallican
Church," (1594,) and "Body of Canon Law," ("Corpus
Juris canonici," 1687.) Died in 1596.
See GROSI.EY, "Vie de Pierre Pithon," 1756; LOISEI., "Vie de
Pierre Pithou;" NICERON, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generate. "
Pitiscus, pe-tis'kus, (BARTHOLOMAUS,) a German
geometer, born near Griinberg in 1561 ; died at Heidel
berg in 1613.
Pitiscus, pe-tis'kus, (SAMUEL,) a Dutch philologist,
born at Zutphen in 1637. He published a "Lexicon
Latino-Belgicum," (1704,) a "Lexicon of Roman An
tiquities," (1713,) and good editions of Quintus Curtius,
Suetonius, and Aurelius Victor. Died in 1727.
Pit/kin, (TIMOTHY,) an American lawyer and his
torical writer, born at Farmington, Connecticut, in 1765,
published a " Political and Civil History of the United
States, from 1763 to the Close of Washington's Ad
ministration," (1828.) Died in 1847.
See the " North American Review" for January, 1830.
Pitoni, pe-to'nee, (GIUSEPPE OTTAVIO,) an Italian
composer of sacred music, born at Rieti in 1657; died
at Rome in 1743.
Pitot, pe'to', (HENRI,) a French geometer, born at
Aramon in 1695. He contributed several memoirs to
the Academy of Sciences, and published a good work
on naval tactics, entitled " Theorie de la Manoeuvre des
Vaisseaux," (1731.) Died in 1771.
Pit'ri, [a Sanscrit word signifying "father,"] a title
applied in the Hindoo mythology to the deified pro
genitors of mankind, supposed to inhabit the orbit of
the moon.
Pits, [Lat. PIT'SEUS,] (JOHN,) an English biographer,
born at Alton in 1560, was a Roman Catholic. He be
came canon of Verdun, in Lorraine, and dean of Liver-
dun. He wrote "The Lives of the Kings, Bishops, and
Writers of England," (4 vols.) The last volume was
published in 1619. Died in 1616.
Pitseus. See PITS.
Pitt, (CHRISTOPHER,) an English poet, born at Bland-
ford in 1699. He became rector of Pimpern, in Dorset
shire, and published a volume of poems in '1727. He
produced a translation of Virgil's "/Eneid," (1740,)
which was received with favour. Died in 1748.
Pitt, (THOMAS,) a grandfather of the Earl of Chat
ham, was born at Blandford in 1653. He was for some
years Governor of Madras. He purchased in India for
.£24,000 a large diamond, (called the Pitt diamond,)
which he sold to the Regent of France for ^135,000.
Died in 1726.
Pitt, ( WILLIAM, ) Earl of Chatham, an illustrious
English statesman and orator, was born at Boconnoc,
in Cornwall, November 15, 1708. He was the second
son of Robert Pitt, and a grandson of Thomas Pitt,
Governor of Madras, who brought from India the Pitt
diamond, which is now esteemed the most precious of
the crown-jewels of France. His mother was Harriet
Villiers. He was educated at Eton, and at Trinity Col
lege, Oxford, which he entered at the age of seventeen.
The torments of the gout, to which he was subject nearly
all his life, induced him to leave college without taking
a degree, and to travel in France and Italy for his health.
On his return home he accepted a cornet's commission
in the army, and in 1735 was chosen a member of Parlia
ment for Old Sarum. He began his political life as an
opponent of the Walpole ministry, and addressed the
House for the first time in April, 1736, on the subject
of the marriage of the Prince of Wales. Soon after
this date he was appointed a groom of the bed-chamber
<j as k; c as j; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal- R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
PITT
1804
PITT
to that prince, and he continued t& declaim against
Walpole with increasing power. His figure was re
markably graceful and commanding, and his manner
highly imposing. " His play of countenance," says Mac-
aulay, "was wonderful: he frequently disconcerted a
hostile orator by a single glance of indignation or scorn.
Every tone, from the impassioned cry to the thrilling
aside', was perfectly at his command. . . . Yet he was
not a great debater. His merit was almost entirely
rhetorical. He did not succeed either in exposition or
refutation; but his speeches abounded with lively illus
trations, happy allusions, passionate appeals. His in
vective and sarcasm were tremendous."
Having been excluded from the new cabinet which
was formed on the resignation of Walpole, in 1742, he
continued to act with the opposition, and fiercely de
nounced Carteret for the favour shown to the German
dominions of George II. The offence which he thus
gave to the king retarded his own promotion when, in
1744, the Pelhams came into power. By tendering their
resignations in the critical period of the Jacobite rebel
lion, the ministers at last prevailed over the king, and
Pitt was appointed paymaster of the forces in 1746.
The rare disinterestedness which he showed in this
lucrative office convinced the public that he was proof
against all sordid temptations. He married Hester
Grenville, a sister of the Earl of Temple and of George
Grenville, in 1754. In this year the premier, Henry Pel-
ham, died, and was succeeded by his brother, the Duke
of Newcastle. Pitt, who was perhaps offended because
his rival Henry Fox was chosen secretary of state, be
came the leader of the opposition in November, 1755,
soon after which date war broke out between England
and France. Newcastle having been forced to resign, Pitt
was premier about five months, ending in April, 1757.
The king, who disliked Pitt and his colleague Temple,
dismissed them, but found great difficulty in forming a
new ministry, as Pitt was the most popular statesman
in England. After the nation had remained eleven weeks
without a ministry, a coalition was formed between Pitt
and Newcastle, the former of whom became secretary
of state, with the supreme direction of the war and of
foreign affairs. He infused new energy and ardour into
every branch of the service, and his fame was raised to
the highest point by a succession of victories in Canada,
India, and Europe. About 1760 he was almost idolized
by the people, who called him " the Great Commoner"
and regarded him as the foremost Englishman of his
time.
On the accession of George III., Pitt was supplanted
by Lord Bute, the royal favourite, the success of whose
intrigues was promoted by dissensions and jealousies
among the ministers, some of whom were offended by
the imperious demeanour of the premier. Pitt resigned
in October, 1761, and received an annual pension of
^"3000 for three lives, (i.e. his own, his wife's, and his
eldest son's.) In 1765 the king requested Pitt to resume
the direction of affairs ; but the latter declined the offer
because his friend the Earl of Temple refused to take
office with him. During the next session of Parliament
he condemned the Stamp Act in an eloquent speech,
and argued that England had no right to tax the colo
nies. The renewed overtures and insidious smiles of
the court prevailed on him, in 1766, to form a new ad
ministration, in which he took the office of privy seal.
At the same time he sacrificed his popularity by accepting
a peerage, with the title of Earl of Chatham. This was
the cabinet that Burke described as a " piece of joinery
so whimsically dovetailed ; a tesselated pavement with
out cement," etc. His mental and physical maladies
soon became so aggravated that he ceased to take any
part in the government, and he resigned in October,
1768. With improved health, he returned to public life
about 1771, and spoke often against the ministers. In
1775 he made a brilliant speech on the American war.
Alluding to the Boston Port bill, etc., he exclaimed,
"You must repeal these acts, and you WILL repeal
them. I pledge myself for it that you will repeal them.
I stake my reputation on it. I will consent to be taken
for an idiot if they are not finally repealed." In 1777
he made a memorable speech against employing Indians
to fight in the United States. As he rose to speak in
the House of Lords, in 1778, he was seized with an apo-'
plectic fit. He lingered a few weeks, and died in May,
1778, leaving three sons, the second of whom was the
celebrated statesman William Pitt the Younger.
"His eloquence," says Brougham, "was of the very
highest order : vehement, fiery, close to the subject,
concise, sometimes eminently, even boldly, figurative :
it was original and surprising, yet quite natural. The
fine passages or felicitous hits in which all popular as
semblies take boundless delight . . . form the grand
charm of Lord Chatham's oratory. ... A noble state
ment of enlarged views, a generous avowal of dignified
sentiments, a manly and somewhat severe contempt for
all petty and mean views, always pervaded his whole dis
course ; and, more than any orator since Demosthenes, he
was distinguished by the grandeur of feeling with which
he regarded, and the amplitude of survey which he cast
upon, the subject-matters of debate. He is the person
to whom every one would at once point if desired to
name the most successful statesman and most brilliant
orator that this country ever produced. Some fragments
of his speeches have been handed down to us ; but these
bear so very small a proportion to the prodigious fame
which his eloquence has left behind it, that far more is
manifestly lost than has reached us." Several volumes,
entitled "Chatham Papers: Correspondence from the
Original MSS.," were published in 1838-40, 4 vols.
See " History of W. Pitt, Earl of Chatham," by KKANCIS THACK-
KRAY, 2 vols., 1827; JOHN AI.MON, "Anecdotes of W. Pitt, Earl of
Chatham," 2 vols., 1792; BROUGHAM, "Statesmen of the Time of
George I IF. ;" MacAULAv's Review of Thackeray's " Life of Chat
ham," 1834; MACAULAY, " Essay on the Earl of Chatham," in the
"Edinburgh Review" for October, 1844; Louis Dii VIKLCASTEI.,
" Essai historique siir les deux Pitt," 2 vols., 1846.
Pitt, (The Right Honourable WILLIAM,) a celebrated
statesman and debater, was the second son of the pre
ceding, and was born at Hayes, in Kent, in May, 1759.
At the age of seven, when he heard that his father was
raised to the peerage, he said, " I am glad that I am not
the eldest son. I want to speak in the House of Com
mons, like papa." He received the rudiments of educa
tion at home, under the diligent supervision of his father,
and acquired great proficiency in Latin, Greek, and
mathematics, before he entered Pembroke Hall, Cam
bridge, in 1773. Having chosen the profession of the
law, he took chambers in Lincoln's Inn, and was called
to the bar in 1780. In 1781 he entered Parliament for
Appleby, as an opponent of the ministry, and before the
end of the second session assumed his place in the first
rank of debaters. His talents and conduct amply justi
fied and responded to the partiality with which the public
regarded the son of the Great Commoner. lie acquired
a new claim to public favour by a motion (in May, 1782}
for a reform in the representation, which was rejected
by a small majority. His principles at that time were
the same with those of the Whigs. On the formation
of the ministry of Lord Shelburne, in July, 1782, Mr.
Pitt was appointed chancellor of the exchequer. By a
coalition between Lord North and Mr. Fox, this ministry
was forced to resign in March, 1783, and Pitt became
the leader of the opposition in the House. The king,
after procuring the defeat of Fox's India bill, dismissed
Fox and Lord North, whose coalition was very unpopular,
and appointed Pitt first lord of the treasury (prime min
ister) in December, 1783. He had to contend against a
large majority in the House, led by Fox, Burke, North,
and Sheridan, who triumphed in sixteen divisions. This
important contest lasted until March, 1784, when Parlia
ment was dissolved. His appeal to the people resulted
in a great triumph of the minister, who, thus sustained
by the favour of the court and by that of the nation,
became at the age of twenty-five the most powerful
subject of Europe.
The first eight years of his administration were peace
ful and prosperous. A new constitution for the East
India Company was framed in 1784, and a new sinking-
fund established in 1786. He changed his course on the
question of parliamentary reform, which he opposed at
several periods after 1792. He supported with his elo
quence and his vote the motions of Wilberforce for the
abolition of the slave-trade. "All authorities agree,'1
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
PITT
1805
PIUS
says Brougham, "in placing his speech on the slave-
trade, in 1791, before any other effort of his genius."
Yet he permitted, for many years, every one of his col
leagues to vote against the abolition, and thus furnished
the ground of the gravest charge to which his memory
is exposed. His ascendency was confirmed by the ex
cesses of the French Revolution, and by the division
which that subject produced in the Whig party ; but the
tide of his success began to ebb when he involved Eng
land in a war with the French republic in 1793, — a war
which, according to Alison, added three hundred millions
to the national debt. (See BONAPARTE, and GEORGE III.)
"His conduct of the war," says Brougham, "betrayed
no extent of views, no commanding notions of policy.
To form one coalition after another in Germany, and
subsidize them with millions of free gift, or aid with
profuse loans, until all the powers in our pay were de
feated in succession, and most of them either destroyed
or converted into allies of the enemy, — such were all the
resources of his diplomatic policy." In 1800 an act for
the union of Ireland with Great Britain was passed in
the Parliament of the latter. He resigned office in
March, 1801, and was succeeded by Adclington. The
ostensible cause of his resignation was that the king
objected to the measures which Pitt proposed for the
relief of the Roman Catholics. Alison intimates that
he retired to make way for a pacific administration.
A combination of Whigs and Tories having been
formed against Addington, he resigned, and Pitt was
again appointed prime minister, in May, 1804. The new
ministry was formed exclusively of Tories. The pre
mature death of Pitt appears to have been hastened by
the vexation which he suffered from the failure of the
new coalition, and the victories of Bonaparte at Ulm and
Austerlitz. He died on the 23d of January, 1806, having
never been married.
" Unequalled in the ability with which he overcame
the jealousies and awakened the activity of cabinets,"
says Alison, "he was by no means equally felicitous in
the warlike measures which he recommended for their
adoption. Napoleon has observed that he had no turn
for military combinations ; and a retrospect of the cam
paigns which he had a share in directing, must confirm
the justice of the opinion. By not engaging England as
a principal in the contest, and trusting for land operations
to the continental armies put in motion by British sub
sidies, he prolonged the war for an indefinite period."
("History of Europe.") He is admitted by all parties
to have been a consummate debater, and almost un
equalled as a master of sarcasm. His declamation was
copious, polished, and impressive. He poured forth a
long succession of round and stately periods, with a full
and sonorous voice and with an unbending dignity of
manner. " Yet, with all this excellence," says Brougham,
" the last effect of the highest eloquence was for the
most part wanting : we seldom forgot the speaker, or
lost the artist in the work." His private character is
described as amiable. Pride appears to have been his
principal fault.
See BROUGHAM, " Statesmen of the Time of George III. ;" "Me
moirs of W. Pitt," by GEORGE TOMLIVE, 1821 ; MACAULAY, article
" William Pitt," in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica;" LORD STAN
HOPE, (MAHON,) "Life of William Pitt," 1862; JOHN' GIFFORD,
" History of the Political Life of William Pitt," 3 vols., 1809 ; PIERRE
CHANTM, "Viede-M. Pitt," 1805; AUGUSTE VIDALIN, "Etude sur
la Carriere de W. Pitt," 1851; ALISON, "History of Europe:"
"Edinburgh Review" for April, 1856, and "The Addington and Pitt
Administrations," in the " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1858.
Pit'ta-cus, [ILrraKof,] a celebrated Greek statesman,
philosopher, and poet, called one of the Seven Wise
Men of Greece, was born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, about
650 B.C. He distinguished himself in a battle against
the Athenians (whose leader, Phrynon, he killed) in 606
B.C. About 590 he was chosen supreme ruler by the
popular party, which had expelled the aristocratic party.
The poet Alcseus belonged to the latter, and was exiled
in the time of Pittacus. Having governed the state
wisely for ten years, he resigned his office in 580 B.C.
He was famous as an elegiac poet ; but only a few of his
lines are extant. Died in 569 B.C.
See DIOGENES LAERTIUS; SUIDAS, "Pittacus."
Pitthee. See PITTHEUS.
Pit'theus, [Gr. Utrdevr ; Fr. PITTHEE, pe'ta',] a son
of Pelops and Hippodami'a, was a king of Trcezene, the
father of /Ethra, and grandfather of Theseus. Pausanias
ascribes to him a work on the art of speaking.
Fit'tis, (THOMAS,) an English clergyman, born in the
Isle of Wight, entered Trinity College, Oxford, about
1652. Died in 1687.
Pittoni, pet-to'nee, (BATTISTA,) an Italian painter
and engraver, born at Vicenza about 1520; died after
IS8.V
Pittoni, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian painter,
born at Venice in 1687. Among his best works is "The
Miracle of the Loaves." Died in 1767.
Pittorio, pet-to're-o, or Pittori, pet-to'ree, [Lat.
PICTO'RIUS,] (Lonovico BIGI,) a Latin poet, born at
Ferrara in 1454. He wrote " Candida," (1491,) "Moral
Epigrams," (" Epigrammata moralia," 1516,) and other
poems. Died about 1524.
Pitts, ( WILLIAM,) an English sculptor, called "the
British Cellini," was born in London in 1790. He learned
the trade of gold-chaser. He displayed a fine fancy for
design, and remarkable executive skill. Among his
works are "The Creation of Eve," (1824,) "The Shield
of .Eneas," (1828,) "The Shield of Hercules," (1834,)
and the " Apotheoses of Spenser, Shakspeare, and Mil
ton," in bas-relief. He committed suicide in 1840.
Pi'us [It. Pio, pee'o ; Fr. PIE, pee] I., Pope or
Bishop of Rome, was born at Aquileia. He succeeded
Hyginus in 142 A.D., and died in 157. His successor
was Anicetus.
Pius (or Pio) II., POPE, (/£NE'AS SYL'VIUS Picco
lomini — pek-ko-lom'e-nee,) was born at Corsignano,
Tuscany, in 1405. He was liberally educated, and was
familiar with the ancient classics. In 1535 he produced a
history of the Council of Bale. He was a partisan of
this council in its contest against Pope Eugenius IV.,
and became the secretary of Felix V., who was elected
pope in place of Eugenius, whom the council deposed.
About 1442 he entered the service of the emperor Fred
erick III., of whom he wrote a history, " Historia Rerum
Friderici III." In the pontificate of Nicholas V., /Eneas
Sylvius was sent as nuncio to Germany. He distin
guished himself as a negotiator and orator on various
occasions. He became a cardinal in 1456, and was
elected pope in 1458, in place of Calixtus III. In 1459
he procured the meeting of a European congress on
the subject of a crusade against the Turks ; but the
jealousies and dissensions among the Christian powers
rendered his efforts abortive. He issued a bull in which
he retracted and condemned what he had formerly writ
ten in favour of the supremacy of councils. He died in
August, 1464, and was succeeded by Paul II. Pius II.
was an eminent historian and scholar. Among his nu
merous works are "Epistolse," (1473,) and a "History
of Bohemia," (1475,) which are highly prized.
See " Pii II. Commentarii Rerum memorabilium," an auto
biography, published by his secretary, GOBKLINUS. 1477 and 1614;
CAMPANUS or CAMPMANUS, "Vita Pii II.:" PLATINA, "Vita
Pontificum ;" HEI.WING, " De Pii II. Rebus gestis," 1825;
VOIGT, " Eneas Piccolomini," Berlin, 1859 ; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Pius III., POPE, (FRANCESCO Todeschini Piccolo-
mini — to-des-kee'nee pek-ko-lom'e-nee,) born at Sienna
in 1439, was a nephew of Pius II. He succeeded Alex
ander VI. in September, 1503, and died in October of
the same year. His successor was Julius II.
Pius IV., POPE, (GIOVANNI ANGELO de' Medici —
da mSd'e-chee,) was born at Milan in 1499, and was an
uncle of the eminent Carlo Borromeo. He was elected
pope, in place of Paul IV., about the end of 1559- He
convoked the Council of Trent which reassembled in
1561 and finished its labours in 1563. The decrees of
this council in relation to discipline, etc. were rejected
by the French. He is represented by some historians
as an able but rather unscrupulous pontiff. He died
in December, 1565, and was succeeded by Pius V.
See RANKE, " History of the Popes."
Pius V., POPE, (MICHELE Ghislieri — ges-le-a'ree,)
was born at or near Alessandria in 1504. He became
a cardinal in 1557, and Inquisitor-General of Christen
dom. In 1566 he was elected pope. He was a rigorist
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PIUS
1806
PIZARRO
m discipline, and a violent persecutor of dissenters.
Palearius, Zanetti, and other learned men were put to
death by his inquisitors. He published in 1568 the bull
"In Coena Domini," which asserts the extreme ultra
montane doctrines in relation to the papal supremacy.
The publication of this bull was forbidden by the Kings
of France and Spain and the Emperor of Germany.
Pius V. was one of the allies whose fleet gained the
victory of Lepanto over the Turks, in 1571. He died
in 1572, and was succeeded by Gregory XIII.
See RANKE, " History of the Popes;" AGATIO DI SOMMA, " Vida
di Pio Quinto ;" J. B. FEUILI.ET, "Vie du Pape Pie V," 1674 ; DE
FALI.OUX, " Histoire de Saint Pie V," 2 vols., 1844; "Life and
Pontificate of Saint Pius V.," by REV. JOSEPH MENDHAM, 1832.
Pius VI., POPE, (Cardinal ANGEI.O Braschi — bras'-
kee,) was born at Cesena in 1717. He succeeded Clem
ent XIV. in February, 1775. He drained the Pontine
marshes, and enriched the Museum of the Vatican.
In 1782 he went in person to Vienna to treat with the
emperor Joseph, who had suppressed convents and
meddled with spiritual affairs in a manner which dis
pleased the pope. He failed in his effort to change the
purpose of the emperor. The French Revolution in
volved him in a still greater trouble. He entered into
alliance with Austria and other powers against the
French republic. After his states had been invaded by
Bonaparte, he sued for peace, which he obtained by the
treaty of Tolentino, in 1797. To avenge the death of
General Duphot, (who was killed by a Roman mob,)
the French army entered Rome in February, 1798, and
deposed the pope, who was conveyed to Valence, in
France, where he died in August, 1799.
See FERRARI, "Vita Pii VI.," 1802; TAVANTI, " Fasti del Papa
Pio VI.," 3 vols., 1804; AKTAUD DE MONTOR," Histoire de Pie
VI," 1847; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pius VII., POPE, (Cardinal GREGORIO BARNABA Chi-
aramonti — ke-a-ra-mon'tee,) was born at Cesena in
August, 1742. He became a cardinal, and Bishop of
Imola, in 1785. After the French had become masters
of Imola, he exhorted his people to submit to the new
regime. He was elected pope by a conclave of car
dinals assembled at Venice in March, 1800, and ap
pointed Cardinal Consalvi secretary of state. The first
important event of his reign was a treaty with Bonaparte,
by which the Roman Catholic religion was re-established
in France. This treaty, called the Concordat, was signed
on the 151)1 of July, 1801. In compliance with the re
quest of Bonaparte, Pius went to Paris and crowned or
anointed him as emperor in December, 1804. He re
fused to comply with the will of Napoleon when the
latter required him to banish the English, Russians, and
Swedes from the Papal States, (1806,) and resisted him
in other designs. The French army occupied Rome in
February, 1808, but permitted the pope to retain some
temporal power. In May, 1809, Napoleon issued a
decree that the Papal States were united to the French
empire. The pope, having resorted to a bull of ex
communication against his adversaries, was seized and
abducted from Rome in July, 1809. He was detained at
Savona, near Genoa, until 1812, and was then removed to
Fontainebleau. In his captivity the pope firmly resisted
the will of the*emperor, who probably wished him to
transfer his court from Rome to Avignon. Pius refused
to give canonical institution to the bishops appointed
by Napoleon. In January, 1813, he was persuaded to
sign a new concordat and to make concessions, which,
however, by the advice of his cardinals, he soon re
tracted. In January, 1814, he received an order or
permission to return to Rome, which he entered in May.
He afterwards made some laudable reforms. He died
in August, 1823, and was succeeded by Leo XII. Pius
VII. left a fair reputation for moderation and other
virtues.
See ARTAUD DE MONTOR, " Histoire de Pie VII," 2 vols., 1836;
COHEN, " Precis historique sur Pie VII," 1823; A. DE BEAUCHAMP,
" Histoire des Majheurs de Pie VII," 1814; GUADET, " Esquisses
historiques et politiques sur Pie VII," 1823; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for October. 1858 ; " Recol
lections of the Last Four Popes," by CARDINAL WISEMAN, Lon
don, 1858.
Pius VIII., POPE, (Cardinal FRANCESCO Castiglioni
— kas-tel-yo'nee,) was born at Cingoli in 1761. He suc
ceeded Leo XII. in March, 1829, and issued an encyclical
letter in which he denounced religious toleration, the
freedom of the press, and civil marriage, as impious.
He died in November, 1830. His successor was Greg
ory XVI.
Pius IX., [Ital.Pio NONO, pee'o no'no,] POPE, (Gio-
VANM MARIA Mastai Ferretti — mas'ti fer-ret'tee,)
was born, of a noble family, at Sinigaglia, near Ancona,
on the 131)1 of May, 1792. He visited South America
in 1823 on a religious mission, and was made Archbishop
of Spoleto in 1827. In 1840 he obtained the dignity of
cardinal. He was elected by acclamation the successor
of Pope Gregory XVI. in June, 1846. He granted an
amnesty to political transgressors, and acquired gtcat
popularity by various measures of reform which he
commenced soon after his election. His first secretary
of state, Cardinal Gizzi, was a friend of progress and a
liberal policy. The expenses of the papal court were
reduced, the censorship of the press was modified, and
the Jews were relieved from some oppressive regulations.
His reforms were partly frustrated by the ill will of many
of his functionaries, who opposed innovation. His popu
larity began to decline before the end of 1847. Excited
and elated by the French revolution, the Italian liberals
required greater concessions than the pope was willing
to grant. After several violent demonstrations of the
populace, Pius IX. escaped from Rome in disguise in
November, 1848, and retired to Gaeta. A republic was
organized at Rome in February, 1849, but was subverted
by a French army which took the city in July of that
year and restored the pope. Among the later events of
his pontificate was the formal definition and recognition
of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception as a
part of the Roman Catholic creed, (1854.) During the
war which Austria waged against the French and Sar
dinians in 1859, the people of the Romagna and the
legations revolted against the pope, and the Papal States
were annexed to the kingdom of Victor Emmanuel. In
January, 1860, the pope issued an anathema, or bull,
against those who abetted the invasion of his dominions.
This was probably aimed at Napoleon III., who sup
pressed the journal in which it was published. Rome
was declared the capital of the new kingdom of Italy in
1860, since which the question of the pope's temporal
power has remained in suspense, as one of the great
problems of European diplomacy. The recognition of
the kingdom of Italy by the French court (1861) was
accompanied by the reservation that "French troops
shall continue to occupy Rome so long as the interests
which caused their presence shall not be protected by
sufficient guarantees." The pope was the only power
that recognized the " Confederate States of North Amer
ica." The results of the war between the Emperor of
Austria and the allied Kings of Prussia and Italy in 1866
were unfavourable to papal domination. About the loth
of December, 1866, the French army departed from
Rome, and Italy was relieved from the presence of for
eign soldiery, for the first time probably in a thousand
years. He convoked by an encyclical letter an cecu-
menical council which met at Rome in December, 1869,
to assert or define the dogma of the pope's infallibility,
which, after a long deliberation, was finally established
in July, 1870. The Italian army took Rome on the 2Oth
of September, without serious resistance, and the tem
poral power of the pope was then abolished. Pius pro
tested against this innovation, but he remained in Rome.
See A. BALI.EYDIER, "Rome et Pie IX," 1847; G. B. Nic-
COI.INI, "History of the Pontificate of Pius IX.," London, 1851 ;
BRETONNEAU, "Notice sur Pie IX," 1847; "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale;" "Quarterly Review" for December, 1847.
Fivati, pe-va'tee, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) an Ital
ian litterateur, born at Padua in 1689. He published
"Scientific Dictionary;" etc., ("Dizionario scientifico
e curioso," 10 vols., 1750.) Died in 1764.
Fix, (MARY,) originally GRIFFITH, an English drama
tist, born in Oxfordshire about 1665; died about 1720.
Pizarre. See PIZARRO.
Pizarro, pe-zar'ro, [Sp. pron. pe-thar'ro ; Fr. Pi-
ZARRK, pe'ztR'.JJFRANCISCO,) the conqueror of Peru,
was born at Truxillo, in Spain, about 1475. He was the
natural son of Gonzalo Pizarro, who was a colonel in
the Spanish army. He was employed as a swineherd in
his youth, and never learned to read or write. The date
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n5t; good; moon;
PIZARRO
1807
PL AN CHE
of his emigration to the New World has not been pre
served ; but in 1510 he took part in the expedition of
Ojeda from Hispaniola to Terra Firm a. He afterwards
served under Balboa, with whom he performed an ar
duous march across the mountains from Darien to the
Pacific Ocean. In 1522 Pizarro, who had risen to the
rank of captain, associated himself, at Panama, with
Alinagro and a rich priest named De Luque, in an enter
prise to explore and conquer the region which lies south
of the Isthmus of Darien. Having enlisted in his service
about one hundred desperadoes, he sailed from Panama
with one small vessel in November, 1524. His first ex
pedition was unsuccessful and attended with great hard
ships. He renewed the enterprise in 1526, but made
slow progress and lost many men. He landed at the
city of Tumbez without opposition, and was stimulated
to pursue his project by the sight of the gold trinkets
and utensils which the natives displayed in great pro
fusion. Having explored the coast as far as Truxillo,
about 9° south latitude, he found it inexpedient to pro
ceed with his reduced force, and returned to Panama
in 1528. With the consent of Almagro and De Luque,
Pizarro went to Spain to solicit aid from the king. In
this mission he was successful. He procured for himself
an appointment as governor and captain-general* of the
region which he might conquer for a distance of two
hundred leagues south of Santiago; but he neglected to
obtain any high office for Almagro, who was disgusted
with this perfidious conduct. In January, 1531, Pizarro
sailed from Panama with one hundred and eighty men
and about thirty horses, leaving Almagro behind to
muster reinforcements. A civil war which raged in Peru
between Atahualpa and Huascar presented a favour
able opportunity for his design. Having marched across
the sierra of the Andes to Caxamarca, he met the Inca
Atahualpa in November, 1532. The treacherous and
audacious Spaniard seized the Inca, who had come to
the Spanish camp for a friendly interview. To obtain
his liberty, the Inca offered to fill a room twenty-two
feet long and sixteen feet wide with golden vessels and
utensils, etc. up to a line as high as he could reach.
Pizarro assented to this proposal, and obtained about
1,326,000 pesos of gold, the value of which Prescott
estimates at over fifteen millions of dollars ; but he caused
Atahualpa to be put to death by the garote. "The
blood-stained annals of the conquest," says Prescott,
"afford no such example of cold-hearted and systematic
persecution, not of an enemy, but of one whose whole
deportment had been that of a friend and benefactor."
In November, 1533, Pizarro entered Cnzco, the capital,
and the conquest of Peru was virtually effected. Civil
war broke out in 1537 between Pizarro and Almagro,
who was defeated and executed in 1538. (See ALMAGRO.)
To avenge his death, a conspiracy was formed by Alma
gro the Younger, and Pizarro was assassinated at Lima
in June, 1541. "The name of Pizarro became a by-word
of perfidy," says Prescott, who, however, praises his
invincible constancy.
See PKESCOTT, "Conquest of Peru;" ROBERTSON, "History
of America ;" ZARATE, •" Historia de la Conquista de Peru ;" HER-
RERA, " Novus Orbis ;" GARCII.ASSO DE I.A VEGA, " Comentarios
Reales ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Pizarro, (GONZALO,) a brother of the preceding, was
born about 1506. He went to the New World in 1530,
and served under Francisco Pizarro in Peru. According
tq,IYescott, he was inferior in talent to his brother, but
quite as unscrupulous. He was appointed governor
of Quito in 1540, and discovered the river Napo. In
1544 he became the leader of malcontents who revolted
against the viceroy Nunez. About the end of 1545 the
latter was defeated and killed in battle by Pizarro, who
remained master of Peru. lie in turn was defeated near
Cuzco by the viceroy Gasca in April, 1548, and beheaded
in the same month.
See PRESCOTT, " History of the Conquest of Peru ;" HERRERA,
"Novus Orbis."
Pizarro, (HERNANDO,) was a half-brother of the pre
ceding. He left Spain in 1530, and took a prominent
part in the conquest of Peru. With a force of about
seven hundred men he defeated Almagro at Las Salinas
in April, 1538. He returned to Spain in 1539, and was
imprisoned twenty years, probably for the execution of
Almagro. Died about 1566.
See HERRERA, " Novus Orbis."
Pizarro, (JuAN1,) a brother of the preceding, was born
at Truxillo about 1505. He assisted in the conquest of
Peru, and became governor of Cuzco. He was killed
in battle at Cuzco in 1535.
Pizarro, (PEDRO,) a Spanish historian and soldier of
the sixteenth century, born at Toledo, was a relative of
the celebrated commander Francisco Pizarro. He wrote
a work entitled "Account of the Discovery and Con
quest of the Kingdoms of Peru," ("Kelaciones del Des-
cubrimiento y Conquista de los Reynos del Peru,")
published about 1847.
See PRESCOTT, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. ii. book
iii.
Pizzi, pet'see or pit'see, (GiOACCHiNO,) an Italian
poet, born in Rome in 1716. Among his poems is "The
Vision of Eden," (1778.) Died in 1790.
Plaas, van der, vtn der plSss, written also Plas,
(DAVID,) a Dutch portrait-painter, born at Amsterdam
in 1647. He passed some years at Venice. Died at
Amsterdam in 1704.
Placaeus. See LA PLACE.
Placcius, plat'se-us, (VINCENZ,) a German writer,
born at Hamburg in 1642. He published, besides other
works, "Atlantis Retecta," a poem, (1659,) and "Treat
ise on Anonymous and Pseudonymous Works and
Writers," (" De Scriptis et Scriptoribus anonymis et
pseudonymis Syntagma," 1674.) Died in 1699.
Place, (FRANCIS,) an English engraver and painter,
born in Durham. His etchings are highly commended.
Died in 1728.
Place, de la, (JosulL) See LA PLACE, DE.
Place, de la, deh ISplfss, (PIERRE,) a French Prot-
estant'jurist, born at Angouleme about 1520. He wrote
a journal or history of public events in Fiance from 1556
to 1561, (1565,) and other works. He became president
of the coiir des aides, Paris, in the reign of Henry II.
He was a victim of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew,
(1572.)
Place, de la, (PIERRE ANTOINE,) a mediocre French
writer of fiction and dramas, born at Calais in 1707; died
in 1793.
Place, La, (PIERRE SIMON.) See LAPLACE.
Pla-ceri-ti'nus, fit. PIACENTINO, pe-a-chen-tee'no,]
an Italian jurist of the twelfth century, born at Piacenza ;
died in 1192.
Placeiitius, plat-sen'se-us, (PETER,) or Joliann Leo,
a German writer, who lived about 1530, and wrote a
Latin poem entitled " The Battle of the Pigs," (" Pugna
Porcorum,") in which every word begins with P.
Placette, La. See LA PLACETTE.
Fla-cid'I-a, [Fr. PLACIDIE, plt'se'de',] a Roman
princess, borii about 390 A.D., was a daughter of Theo-
dosius the Great. She was taken captive by the Goths,
and became the wife of Ataulphus, King of the Goths,
(414.) Died in 450 A.I).
Plag'i-tus Fa-pyr-i-en'sis, ( SEXTUS, ) sometimes
called SEXTUS P'LATON'ICUS or SEXTUS EMPIR'ICUS, a
physician, who is supposed to have lived about the
fourth century. He wrote a work " On Medicaments
made from Animals," (" De Medicamentis ex Ani-
malibus."')
Plaisance, de, Due. See LEBRUN.
Plana, pla'na, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO AMEDEO,) BARON,
an Italian savant, born in 1781. He became director
of the observatory at Turin, professor of analysis, and
senator. He published, besides other work's, a "Theory
of the Motion of the Moon," (3 vols., 1832.)
Planard, de, deh plJt'naV, (FRANC.OIS ANTOINE EU
GENE,) a French dramatist, born in Aveyron in 1783.
He produced successful comedies and comic operas.
Died in 18^5.
Planche, ploN'sha', (JAMES ROBINSON,) an English
dramatist, born in London in 1796. He published about
1827 "Lays and Legends of the Rhine," and "The
Descent of the Danube." He composed numerous
successful extravaganzas and dramas, among which were
" Oberon," an opera, and "Charles XII.," (1828.) He
also wrote a " History of British Costume," (1834.)
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PL AN CHE
1808
PLATNER
Planche, p!6Nsh, (JEAN BAPTISTE GUSTAVE, ) a
French litterateur and critic, born in Paris in 1808. He
wrote many able criticisms on art and literature for the
" Revue des Deux Mondes," and published " Literary
Portraits," (4 vols., 1836-49.) Died in 1857.
Planche, (JOSEPH,) a French Hellenist, born at La-
dinhac (Cantal) in 1762, was professor at the College
Bourbon, at Paris. He published, besides other books
for students, a " Greek-French Dictionary," (1809,) which
was successful and was adopted in the university. Died
in 1853.
Flaiicher, plSx'sha', (URBAIN,) a French monk and
historian, born in Anjou in 1667. He wrote a " History
of Burgundy,'' (3 vols., 1739-48.) Died in 1750.
Plaiiciades. See FULGENTIUS.
Plaiicius, plai/se-us, (PIETER,) a Dutch theologian,
born in Flanders in 1552, was a zealous Calvinist. He
preached at Brussels and Amsterdam. By his astro
nomical and nautical science he rendered good service
to the commerce of Holland. Died in 1622.
Planck, plank, (GOTTLIEB JAKOB,) an eminent Ger
man theologian and church historian, born at Niirtingen,
in Wurtemberg, in 1751. He was professor of theology
at Gottingen from 1784 to 1833. His principal works
are a " History of the Protestant Doctrinal System,"
(" Geschichte der Bildung des Protestantischen Lehr-
begriffs," 6 vols., 1781-1800,) and a "History of the
Origin and Development of the Organization of the
Christian Church," (5 vols., 1803-05.) Died in 1833.
See LUECKE,«" Dr. G. J. Planck; biographischer Versuch."
Planck, (HEINRICH LUDWIG,) a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Gottingen in 1785. He wrote several
theological and exegetical works, and was professor of
theology at Gottingen. Died in 1831.
Flangoii, plSN'sox', (GUILLAUME,) a French phy
sician, born at Javron, in Maine. He translated Galen's
"Commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates,"( 1551.)
Died in 1611.
Flan'cus, (Lucius MUNATIUS,) a profligate Roman
politician, who was a partisan of Caesar in the civil war.
He took arms for the senate in 43 B.C., but soon deserted
to Antony, and was consul in 42 u.c. In 32 B.C. he
abandoned Antony and became a partisan of Octavitis.
He was the person to whom Horace addressed the
seventh ode of his first book.
His brother, TITUS MUNATIUS PLANCUS BURSA, was
tribune of the people in 52 B.C. He was a violent
enemy of Milo, and caused a popular riot at the funeral
of Cloclius, for which he was prosecuted by Cicero, and
condemned about 50 B.C.
Planer, pla'ner, (JoiiANN JACOB,) a German botanist
and physician, born at Erfurt in 1743. He translated
Linnaeus's " Systema Naturae" into German, (1774,) and
wrote several scientific treatises. Died in 1789.
Planque, p!6xk, (FRANQOIS,) a French physician,
born at Amiens in 1696. He published a good manual
of surgery, "Chirurgie complete," (2 vols., 1744,) and
" Select Library of Medicine," (" Bibliotheque choisie
de Medecine," 10 vols., 1748-70.) Died in 1765.
Plant, plant, (JoHANN TRAUGOTT,) a German writer,
born at Dresden in 1756. He wrote a " Biographical
and Critical Treatise on the History of German Poetry,"
(1782,) and other works. Died in 1794.
Planta, plan'ta, (JOSEPH,) a Swiss historian and phi
lologist, born in the Grisons in 1744. He became in
1799 principal librarian of the British Museum. He
was secretary of the Royal Society of London for twenty
years or more. He published a "History of the Hel
vetic Confederacy," (2 vols., 1800,) and other works.
Died in 1827.
See the " Monthly Review" for June, 1800.
Planta, de, deh plan'ta, (MARTIN,) a Swiss natural
philosopher, born in 1727. He is said to have been the
inventor of electrical machines with plates, (a plateaux.)
Died in 1772.
Plantade, de, deh pl6N'tfd', (FRANgois,) a French
astronomer, born at Montpellier in 1670. He wrote
"Observations on the Aurora Borealis," (1730.) He
made some good maps of Languedoc. Died in 1741.
Plantagenet. See EDMUND PLANTAGENET.
Plantagenet. See HENRY II. OF ENGLAND.
Plan tin, plSN'taf/, (CHRISTOPHE,) an eminent printer,
born near Tours, in France, in 1514. He became the
proprietor of a printing-office in Antwerp about 1550.
His publications were renowned for correctness and
beauty. He employed Kilian, Pulmann, (or Poelmann,)
and other learned men as correctors of the press. His
most remarkable performance was an edition of a Poly
glot Bible, superintended by Arias Montanus, (1568-72.)
Died in 1589.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Plantin, plS.v'taN', (Jr.AN BAPTISTE,) a Swiss histo
rian, born at Lausanne about 1625. He wrote a " His
tory of Switzerland," (" Helvetia antiqua et nova," 1656,)
and other works. Died about 1680.
Planude. See PLANUDES.
Pla-nu'des, [Gr. llA<zM5w% ; Fr. PLANUDE, plt'niid',]
(MAXIMUS,) a Byzantine monk, born at Nicomedia, was
sent by Andronicus II. on a mission to Venice in 1327.
He is chiefly noted as an editor of a Greek Anthology,
a collection of Greek epigrams, some of which he erc-
tracted from an Anthology compiled by Constantinus
Cephalas in the tenth century. Planudes was very
deficient in the judgment and taste required to edit
such a work, and is accused of literary forgeries. His
Anthology was printed at Florence in 1494.
See FABRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Grxca."
Plas, van der, vtn der plas, (PIETER,) a Dutch
painter, born in 1578; died at Brussels in 1634.
Platao. See PLATO.
Platea, pla-ta'a, (FRANCESCO PIAZZA,) an Italian
canonist, born at Bologna about 1390; died in 1460.
Plateau, plants', (JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND,) a
Belgian natural philosopher, born at Brussels in 1801.
He has written on optics and on the statics of liquids
removed from the effects of gravity.
Platen, von, fon pla'ten, (DuiusLAV FRIEDRICH,) a
Prussian general, born in 1714. He served with dis
tinction against the Russians and Swedes in the Seven
Years' war, and became a lieutenant-general about 1758.
Died in 1787.
Plateii-Hallermiinde, pla'ten hal'ler-muVdeh, (Au-
GUST,) COUNT, a German litterateur, born at Anspach in
1796. Among his works are a "History of the King
dom of Naples from 1414 to 1443," and a satirical poem
entitled "The Romantic CEdipus." Died in 1835.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" MINCKWITZ,
"Graf von Platen als Mench und Dichter," 1838.
Plater, plater, (EMILIE,) a Polish heroine, born at
Wilna in 1806. She fought, with the rank of captain,
against the Russians in the insurrection of 1830. Died
in 1831.
See " Emilie Plater, sa Vie et sa Mort," Paris, 1834, and " Life of
Countess E. Plater," New York, 1842; "Democratic Review" for
July, 1842.
Plater, pla'ter, (FELIX,) a Swiss physician, born at
Bale in 1536. He lectured and practised with success
in that place. He wrote " Medical Practice," (" Praxis
Medica," 1602,) often reprinted, and other medical
works. Died in 1614.
Plater, (FELIX,) a son of the preceding, was born in
1605, and became a physician of Bale. Died in 1671.
Plater, (STANISLAS,) COUNT, a Polish soldier, his
torian, and antiquary, born in Lithuania in 1782. He
published, in French, a " Historical Atlas of Poland,"
and several other works. Died in 1851.
Platina. See PAUL II.
Platina, pla-tee'na, (BARTOLOMMEO DE SACCHIS,)
an able Italian historian, born at Piadena, near Cre
mona, in 1421. He wrote, besides other works, "The
Lives of the Popes," (" In Vitas Summorum Pontificum
Opus," 1479,) a work of much merit, often reprinted,
and a "History of Mantua," (1675.) He became li
brarian of the Vatican about 1472. Died in 1481. He
was a member of the Academy founded at Rome by
Pomponius Loetus, and as such was persecuted by Pope
Paul II.
See BAYIJE, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" NICERON,
"Memoires;" TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Platner, plat'ner, (£DUARD,) a German jurist, born
at Leipsic in 1786. He wrote, besides many literary
essays, a treatise " On the Attic Races," (" De Gentibus
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n5t; good; moon;
PLATNER
\ 809
PLATO
Atticis," 1811,) and "Questions on the Roman Criminal
Law," ("Quaestiones de Jure criminum Romano," 1842.)
Platner, (ERNST,) a German philosopher and phy
sician, horn at Leipsic in 1744, was the father of the
preceding. He became professor of medicine at Leipsic
in 1770. He had a high reputation as a lecturer and a
writer. Among his works are "Anthropology for Phy
sicians and Philosophers," (2 vols., 1774,) and "Philo
sophic Aphorisms," (2 vols., 1776-82.) His style is
commended for precision and elegance. Died in 1818.
See " Biogra'phie Medicale."
Platner, (ERNST ZACHARIAS,) a writer, a son of the
preceding, was born at Leipsic in 1773. He published
a " Description of Rome," (3 vols., 1830-43.)
Platiier, (JOHANN ZACHARIAS,) a surgeon, born at
Chemnitz in 1694, was the father of Ernst, noticed above.
He taught at Leipsic, and was a skilful oculist. He
wrote, in elegant Latin, "Surgical Institutes," (" Insti-
tutiones Chirurgiae rationales," 1745,) and other works.
Died in 1747.
Pla'to* [Gr. flAuruv ; Lat. PLA'TO ; Fr. PLATON, pli'-
to.\'; Ger. the same as the Latin ; It. PLATON K, pla-to'na ;
Sp. PLATON, pli-t6n'; Port. PLATAO, pla-tosv.\'; Arab.
and Persian, AFLATOON, a-fla'toon',] one of the most younger Dionysius, and in establishing, through him, a
illustrious philosophers of all time, was born about 429
K.C. He belonged to one of the highest families of
Athens, being descended on the side of his father,
Aris'to, (or Aris'ton,) from Codrus, and on that of his
mother, Pericti'one, he was related to the celebrated
lawgiver Solon. As to the place of his birth there is
some dispute. Some svriters say that he was born at
Athens; others, in the island of /Egina. His original
name was Aris'tocles, after his grandfather : he was sur-
named PLATO, (from Tr/.ari'c, " broad,") on account of
nations of the East ; but of this there is not a partictn
of trustworthy evidence. While in Sicily he became
acquainted with Dion, (or Dio,) who introduced him ti,
Dionysius the Elder. But the philosopher, as might
well be supposed, was not likely to find much favour in
the eyes of an unscrupulous and reckless tyrant. They
soon quarrelled, and on one occasion Dionysius, it is
said, was so deeply offended with the freedom of some
of Plato's remarks, that, had not Dion interposed, he
would have punished him with death. Although the
tyrant was prevailed on to spare his life, he caused him to
be sold as a slave. He was, however, ransomed and set
at liberty, — some say by Dion, others, by Anniceris of
Cyrene. Having returned to Athens, he opened a school,
called the Academy, ( Academia.) in a grove, which had
formerly belonged to a citizen named Academus or
Hecademus. His school was numerously attended by
young men of the most distinguished families of Athens
and of all Greece. Even women were numbered, it
is said, among his disciples. After having taught in
Athens more than twenty years, he again visited Sicily,
at the solicitation of Dion, who hoped that Plato's influ
ence might be successful in winning to philosophy the
younger Dionysius, and in establishing, through him, a
model government in Syracuse. (For a most interesting
account of this experiment and its failure, see Grote's
" History of Greece," vols. x. and xi.) He afterwards
visited Syracuse for the third time, in order to effect a
reconciliation between Dionysius and Dion ;«but in this
attempt he was wholly unsuccessful. He returned to
Athens, where he continued to write and teach until his
death, which occurred 347 B.C., in his eighty-fourth year.
According to some writers, however, he died in his eighty-
first year. He was, as Cicero informs us, occupied in
the breadth of his forehead, or, as some say, of his writing at the very moment of his death. There is per-
shoulders. Very little is certainly known of the history haps in the history of the human intellect no example
of his life, and, as is usual in such cases, the absence of any one having dedicated himself with a more abso-
of positive information is liberally supplied by what is l 'ute devotion to philosophy (the "love or study of wis-
legendary or fabulous. It is related that while an infant, i dom") than Plato. He was never married ; and, from
as he was one day sleeping in a bower on Mount Hymet- tne time when he first became acquainted with Socrates,
tus, a number of bees dropping honey settled upon his I (about his twentieth year,) every moment of his long
lips, thus foreshadowing the extraordinary sweetness of life appears to have been spent in the interest of his
his eloquence. According to another story, his future j favourite pursuit.
greatness was foreshown 'by a dream of Socrates, who Tnis entire dedication of all his powers to one grand
saw in his sleep a young swan coming from the grove object has not been without results of the highest im-
of Academus; after nestling in his bosom, it soared i portance to mankind. Probably no other philosopher,
aloft, singing sweetly as it rose.. The next morning, j °f whatever age or nation, has contributed so much as
just as Socrates had finished relating his dream, Aristo j Plato towards the moral and intellectual culture of the
presented himself, leading by the hand young Plato, I human race. This pre-eminence is to be ascribed not
whom he wished to place under the instruction of that j solely to his transcendent intellect or to the marvellous
distinguished sage. j depth and comprehensiveness of his philosophic views,
Plato was a remarkable example of that universal ! but also in no small measure to his poetic power, and
culture which characterized the best period of ancient j to that unrivalled grace and beauty of style which led
Greece. He appears to have neglected no branch of ' the ancients to say that if Jove should speak Greek he
science or art which was considered to form any part | would speak like Plato. Macaulay, alluding to Plato's
of a liberal education. He studied music, rhetoric, and j wonderful power as a writer, speaks of him as "the
painting, and, after the manner of his countrymen, paid finest of human intellects, exercising boundless dominion
great attention to gymnastics, in which he was so ex- over the finest of human languages." (" Essay on Lord
pert, we are told, that he contended at the Isthmian and : Bacon.'") The charms of his style, indeed, by awakening
Pvthian games. In early life he is said to have turned I the interest and admiration of all lovers of literature,
his attention to poetry, and to have written an epic poem,
which, however, on comparing it with the " Iliad," he
burned in despair. He also composed some lyrics and
several tragedies. But "having once," as yEIian ex
presses it, "been captivated by the siren of Socrates,"
he gave himself up wholly to the study of philosophy.
He was in his twentieth year, as it appears, when he
began to attend the school of Socrates, where he con
tinued until his master's death, (399 B.C.) After this
event, in order to escape the persecutions which threat
ened them, he, with several other Socratic disciples,
withdrew to Megara, where they were received by the
philosopher Euclid, who had also been a pupil of Socra
tes. Plato is said subsequently to have travelled exten
sively, visiting Egypt, Sicily, and Magna Graecia, where
he became acquainted with the doctrines of Pythagoras.
Some writers speak of his having journeyed into the
interior of Asia for the purpose of enriching his mind
with the wisdom of the Persians, Babylonians, and other
* Chaucer gives the name PLATON, or PI.ATONE, and PLATO.
have doubtless been one of the chief causes of that state
of excellent preservation in which his works have come
down to us. For, by a singular good fortune, all his
philosophical writings, there is reason to Ijelieve, have
been preserved, not only unmutilated with respect to
the different parts, but with the text, comparatively
speaking, uncorrupted and unimpaired.
With respect to Plato's character as a man we know
scarcely anything except what is revealed in his works.
"Despite the disposition of the Greeks for calumny,"
says Ritter, "there are but few evil rumours against
which we have to vindicate the purity of his moral con
duct." The same writer not only rejects as unfounded
the charges against the purity of Plato's private char
acter, but regards as either wholly unjust or greatly
exaggerated the imputation against him of malice or
ill feeling towards certain other disciples of Socrates,
such as Xenophon, Euclid, Aristippus, and others,
whose views on many points differed widely from his
own. Plato has been accused by some modern writers
of being wanting in patriotism and in a sympathy for
-c. c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,gutturM: x, nasal: R. trilled: s as z; th as in this. (^
114
Explanations, p. 23.)
PLATO
1810
PLATO
humanity. Both of these charges seem to us unjust.
The state of political morals in his time was such that
he could scarcely hope to effect any good by taking an
active part in public affairs. By doing so, there is every
reason to believe, he would have only embroiled himself
in an endless conflict with men with whom his standard
of right would not permit' him to co-operate. Besides,
his talents do not appear to have fitted him for politics ;
and he is certainly not to be censured for confining him
self to that field of labour for which nature had best
qualified him. The charge that he was wanting in a
sympathy for human nature appears to have no other
foundation than the fact th-t he had no sympathy with
vice and ignorance, two niost conspicuous features in
the human nature which he saw around him. Yet the
great object, and, we may add, the tendency, of nearly
all his teachings was to make mankind happier by
making them wiser and better.*
With respect to Plato's philosophic system, it is im
possible to say with any precision how much of it was
properly his own, and how much svas derived from his
great master. (See SoCRATES.) It is a fine saying of
Mr. Emerson, that " Socrates and Plato are the double
star which the most powerful instruments will not en
tirely separate. ''t The plan and limits of the present
work will permit us only to glance at some of the most
striking characteristics of Plato's philosophy as we find
it unfolded in his writings. His system may be consid
ered from two points of view, — the one having reference
to the method, the other to the results, of his philosophic
investigations. His method, wL.ch appears to be scarcely
more than an extension of that of Socrates, was undoubt
edly a great improvement on the methods of previous
philosophers.
But the admirable lessons of his great teacher, re
specting the manner and spirit with which the search
after truth should be conducted, would in all probability
have been quickly forgotten and lost to the world, had
not Plato made them immortal by his writings. Re
ferring the reader to the article on SOCRATKS for a brief
notice of the Socratic method, we shall here limit our
selves to simply calling attention to some of the most
remarkable points in Plato's philosophic creed, without
attempting, in our narrow space, to give even a complete
outline of his system. He taught that God was the
supreme Idea or Essence of the universe, comprising
within himself all other beings, and was the Cause of all
things, celestial and terrestrial. He alone is good, with
out envy, willing good to all so far as each is capable of
receiving it : God alone is unchangeable. Plato strongly
condemned the views, then prevalent, which represented
the cods as having human passions and as influenced
by selfish human motives. While he taught the exist
ence of one supreme God, the so est'e and upholder of
all things, he appears to have recognized, at the same
time, a class of inferior deities, or beings with godlike
attributes, far superior to man. One of the most re
markable features of Plato's philosophy is his theory of
ideas. With him, an idea is not simply an image or
conception formed by the human mind: it is rather an
eternal thought of the Divine mind. lie held that the
* We need scarcely say that we utterly and totally dissent from
Macaulay's estimate of Plato's philosophic writings, (see " Essay on
Lord Bacon," second part,) which he compares to a magnificent tree,
full of beautiful leaves and flowers, but producing no fruit. Writings
which have inspired the souls of so many thousands with loftier aspi
rations and with a more earnest love of virtue, may be truly said to
have borne fruit of the most precious kind, compared witli which the
boasted products of the Baconian philosophy are little better than
the apples of the Dead Sea. That Plato's writings have often pro
duced the results which we have ascribed to them will scarcely be
denied, we think, by any one familiar with those writings or with the
history of antiquity. To cite one example out of many, Cato the
Younger, confessedly one of the noblest and most virtuous of all the
Romans, when surrounded with misfortunes on every hand, and
amid the ruins of his country, sought and found consolation and hope
in the subGme teachings of Plato's " Phajdo."
t See "Representative Men," article "Plato," the whole of
which is well worthy of perusal by those who would have a vivid
conception of Plato's power as a philosopher. This essay, it seems
to us, is one of Mr. Emerson's happiest efforts; and, if he some
times exaggerates the greatness and worth of his hero, the fault is
more than atoned for by a thorough and vivid appreciation of his
subject, — perhaps the most important, as it is the rarest, qualification
of a good critic.
human soul is not only immortal, but that it has always
existed.}: In its pre-existent state it has had a perception
of the eternal ideas (i.e. the perfect forms or patterns
of things) as they exist in the mind of God. A dim,
shadowy remembrance of those celestial patterns is what
sometimes enables us to form a conception of loveliness,
virtue, etc. far more perfect, more divine, than anything
our mortal eyes have ever beheld. It is thus that the
gifted painter is enabled to give us forms of beauty more
exquisite than any that can be found in this world. It
is thus, also, that on hearing of a generous action we
are enabled to form an idea of generosity; for it is ob
vious that such an action could have no significance to
one who had never known the feeling of generosity in his
soul : in a perfectly selfish man, if such a one could be
found, it would not awaken admiration, but simply con
tempt. Xenophon tells us, in the second book of his
"Anabasis," that Menon the Thessalian considered
honesty and truth to be nothing else than stupidity or
folly. A Platonist would explain this by saying that ail
traces of the Divine ideas of truth and justice had,
through the love of gain or love of power, become
obliterated from his soul. Plato taught that the only
way in which men can rise in wisdom and virtue is
by striving to restore the lost ideas and to make their
minds approximate the mind of God.
Plato appears to have made himself thoroughly ac
quainted with all the previous philosophic systems which
had appeared in Greece. He had not only diligently
studied the doctrines of Heracli'tus, Pythagoras, and
Socrates, but also those of Anaxagoras, Parmenides, and
others of less note. "He reduced," says Kilter, "into
a beautiful whole t!ie scattered results of the earlier
Greek philosophy, reconciling their seeming differences
and conflicting tendencies. . . . When, indeed, we com
pare the barrenness of the earlier philosophers with the
fertility of Plato, that love, which he knows so well how
to inspire in us, warms almost to veneration, so rich, so
varied, and so abundant arc his observations, and so
profound his knowledge of man and of the world. . . .
To such richness of materials Plato united the rarest
skill of language and composition to a degree which has
never since been equalled."
Respecting Plato's intellectual power as a philosopher,
Mr. Emerson grandly observes that "his strength is like
the momentum of a falling planet, and his discretion
the return of its due and perfect curve." Again he says,
"The way to know him [Plato] is to compare him, not
with nature, but with other men. How many ages have
gone by, and he remains unapproached !" (" Representa
tive Men.")
The philosophic writings of Plato are, with some
slight exceptions, in the form of dialogues, in all of
which, save one, ("The Laws,") Socrates is one of the
chief interlocutors. The different dialogues have been
distributed by Schleiermacher into three divisions.
The first division, in which the development of the
dialogistic method is the chief object, includes the
" Phaedrus," "Lysis," "Protagoras," "Laches," "Char-
mides," "Euthyphro," and "Parmenides," to which are
added, by way of appendix or supplement, the "Apology
of Socrates," " Critos," " Ion," " Ilippias Minor," "Hip-
parchus," "Minos," and "Alcibiades II." The second
division, in which the predominant subject is the expla
nation of knowledge, including the difference between
philosophical and common knowledge, comprises the
"Gorgias," "Theastetus," "Meno," " Euthydemus,"
"Cratylus," " Sophistes," "Politicus," ("Statesman,")
"Symposium," ("Banquet,") "Phoedo," (or " Phaedon,")
and " Philebus," with an appendix containing the "The-
ages," " Erastas," "Alcibiades I.," " Menexenus," " Hip-
pias Major," and "Clitophon." The third division
consists of such as contain an objective scientific ex
position, — in other words, combine practical science
with speculative philosophy: these are the "Republic,"
"Timaeus," and " Critias," to which may be added "The
He appears to have believed not that the soul has always existed
in its present form or condition, or anything like it, but that as God
is the source of all things, and as His thoughts and purposes are
eternal, the soul_may therefore be said to have always had an exist
ence in that infinite Being of whom it is an emanation.
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; me't; not; good; moon;
PLATO
181 1
PLEMP
Laws." The first edition of Plato's entire works was
that published in Venice by Aldus in 1513; the best
are perhaps — first, that of Ast, published at Leipsic, in
9 vols. 8vo, 1819-27, and, second, that of G. Stallbaum,
in 8 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 1821-25, (and the same text in 8
vols. I2mo, 1826.)
See FRI.KDRICH AST, " Plato's Leben und Schriften," Leipsic,
1816; STALLBADM, "Dispulatio de Platonis Vita, Ingenio et
Scripiis." prefixed to his edition of Plato's works ; RITTHK, " His
tory of Ancient Pliilosopliy," translated by A. J. W. MOKISOX, 4
'i. Oxr'urd, 1838 ; ScHUtiERMACHHR, " Introductions to the
Liff and Ilenvie in 1773, and professor of mathematics
in the University of Edinburgh in 1785. In 1805 he
succeeded Professor Robison as professor of natural
philosophy in the same university. He contributed to
the " Edinburgh Review" many articles, among which is
a review of La Place's "'i.-aite de Mecanique celeste,"
(1808.) He published "Elements of Geometry," (1795,)
which was extensively used in schools, " Illustrations
of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth," (1802,) and
"Outlines of Natural Philosophy," (2 vols., 1812.
s Lebsn, niit einer naliern Angabe seiner philosophise!]
<\'./.e, aus dem Kranzosischen," 1829; I. O<;IEN*;KI, "Pericles
et Plato: Inqtiisitio historica et phi'osophica," 1838; T. VAN SWIN-
DEKKN', ''Oratio de Platone nptimo in Legibus condendis Principe
mapistro." 1807 ; also the articles on " Plato " in the " Encyclopaedia
mica." Died in 1819.
" He possessed in the highest degree," says Jeffrey, "all
the characteristics both of a fine and powertul under
standin, at once penetrating and vigilant, but more
Hritannica," in SMITH'S "Greek and Roman Biographv," etc., and in distinguished perhaps for the Caution and sureness (or
the " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale," from tlie pen of DK. HoEFhR.
Plato, [Gr. Tl/MTur,] an eminent Athenian comic
poet of the old comedy, flourished about 428-390 B.C.,
and was contemporary with Aristophanes. He attacked
Cleon and other demagogues in his plays, which dis
played keen wit, vigour, and purity of style. Many
fragments of them have come down to us. According
to some critics, he was a writer of the middle comedy.
Platof, Platov, or Platow, pla'tof, Hetinan of the
success) of its march than for the brilliancy or rapidity
of its movements."
See a "Life of J. Play air," prefixed to bU collected works, 4
vois., 1822; CIIAMHKKS, '• biographical Dictionary;" JKFFKKY,
" -Miscellanies."
Play'fair, (Lvox,) an English chemist, born in Bengal,
in India, in 1819. He studied at Saint Andrew's, and at
Giessen under Liebig. He became in 1843 Professor of
chemistry in the Royal Institution in Manchester. For
Cossacks, was born on the Don about 1760. He served j his services as a commissioner of the Great Exhibition
as general in the Russian army which marched to the of r85> lle was macle a Qjpnpanion of the Bath. He was
aid of Prussia in 1806. He harassed the retreating
French army in 1812, and entered Paris with a troop
of Cossacks in 1814. Died in 1818.
Platon. See PLATO.
Platon, pla'ton, (LEKSIHN or LEFFSCHIN,) an eminent
Russian prelate, born near Moscow in 1737. He dis
tinguished himself as an eloquent pulpit orator, and be-
appointed professor of chemistry in the University of
Edinburgh in 1858. He has published a number of
treatises and lectures on chemistry.
Playfair, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish political writer and
ingenious inventor, born near Dundee in 1759, was a
brother of' Professor John Playfair. He made several
useful mechanical inventions. About 1814 he became
came court preacher to Catherine II. lie was appointed j editor of Galignani's " Messenger," in Paris. He after-
Archbishop of Moscow in 1775, and Metropolitan of the
Russian Church in 1787. He publisher! many sermons
wards resided in London. Among his numerous works
are a "History of Jacobinism," (I79v) and " P>ritish
and theological works, which are highly commended. I Family Antiquity," (9 vols., 1809-12.) Died in 1823.
Died in November, lSl2. See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Play'ford, (Joiix,) an English writer on music, born
in 1613 ; died in 1693. His son HENRY published
Platone. See PLATO.
Platte-Montagne, plSt'mdN'tin', (MATTHKW VAX
PI.ATHEX-BERCH or PLATTEXBKKG,) a Flemish painter
and engraver, born at Antwerp about 1606. He removed
to Paris, where he painted portraits and engraved land
scapes. Died in 1660. His son NICOLAS (1631-1706)
was also a painter and engraver.
Plaute. See PI.AUTUS.
Plauto. See PI.AUTUS.
" Orpheus Britannicus."
Pleas'pii-ton, (ALFRED.) an American general, born
in Washington, District of Columbia, in 1824, graduated
at West Point in 1844. He gained the rank of captain
I in 1855, and became a brigadier-general of volunteers
in 1862. He commanded a body of cavalry at Antietam,
September, 1862, and at Chancellorsville, May, 1863, and
Plau'tus, [Fr. PLAI:TE, plot; It. PI.AI:TO, plow'to,] i had the chief command of the Union cavalry at Gettys-
(MARCUS Acciusor ATTIUS,) the most celebrated of the ! burg, July 1-3, iS<^ He served in Missouri when that
Roman comic poets, was a native of Sarsina, in Umbria. j State was invaded uy General Price in October, 1864.
It is supposed that he was born about 254, or, as some ; Pleas'aiits, ( JAMES,) an American Senator, born in
say, in 224 li.c. In his youth he served a baker by I Virginia in 1769. He was a Senator of the United
grinding corn with a hand-mill. Little is known of his j States from 1819 to 1822, and Governor of Virginia
history. According to Cicero, he died in 184 B.C. His ! from 1822 to 1825. Died in 1836.
plays were very popular in his own time, and are gen- j Pleg'mund, an English prelate under the reign of
eraily admired by modern critics. His elegance, re- I Alfred the Great, was made Archbishop of Canterbury
finement, and wit are commended by Cicero and other j in 890 A.n. He was distinguished for his learning and
ancient critics. Horace censures his coarse jests and j virtues, and was honoured with the friendship of the
his versification. The titles of his extant plays are ! king. He is supposed to have had a part in the com-
" Amphitruo." " Asinaria," "Aulularia," " Bacchides," ! pilation of the "Saxon Chronicle."
"Captivi," "CurcuHo," "Casina," "Cistellaria," " Epi- I See W. F. HOOK, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
dicus," "Menaechmi," " Mercator," "Miles Gloriosus," vol. i. chap, vi., iS6o
" Mostellaria," " Persa," " Pcenulus," " Pseudolns," " Ru- Pleiades, nlee'va-dez, [Gr. UAEtu6e<; or Tle/.etu6ef ; Fr.
dens," "Stichus," " Trinummus," and "Truculentus." ; PLEIADES, pla'e-Jtl'; Eng. PLEIADS, plee'yads, ] the
There is a good English version of Plautus by Bonnel , daughters of Atlas and Pleione, were seven in number,
Thornton. The "Captivi" was pronounced the most and were said to be sisters of the Ilyades. Their names
perfect of comedies by Lessing, who, as a critic, had | were ELF.CTRA. MAIA, TAYGETK, ALCYONE, CEL.-EXO,
scarcely any superior.
See GRONOVIUS, " Lectiones Planting," 1740: LOMAN. "Spec!
men critico-literarium in Plantum et Terentium," 1845 > ANDRSKN,
" De Vita Plauti," 1843; LKSSING, "Von dem Leben nnd den
Werken des Plautus," in the third volume of his works, Berlin, 1838 ;
" Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review"
for April, 1843.
Flay'fair, (JoHX,) an eminent Scottish mathemati
cian and astronomer, born at Benvie, Forfarshire, on the
loth of March, 1748, was educated at the University of
Saint Andrew's. He became minister of the parishes of
STF.ROPE, and MEROPE. According to one legend, they
were attendants of Diana, and, to protect them from the
amorous pursuit of Orion, were changed into doves and
placed among the stars. They were sometimes called
ATI.AXTIDES.
Flemp, plemp, (CoKXEi.lS,) a writer of Latin poetry,
was born at .-Mnsterdam in 1574; died in 1638.
Plemp, [Lat. PI.EM'PIUS,] (Vonscus FORTUNATTS,)
a physician and writer, born at Amsterdam in 1601, be
came professor at Louvain in 1633. Died in 1671.
e as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PLEMPIUS
1812
PLOT IN US
Plempius. See PLEMP.
Plenck, von, fon plenk, (JOSEPH JAKOB,) a German
surgeon and botanist, born at Vienna in 1738. He pub
lished, besides other works, one " On Diseases of the
Eyes," (" De Morbis Oculorum," 1777,) and "Figures
of Medicinal Plants," (" Icones Plantarum medicina-
lium," 7 vols., 1788-1804.) Died in 1807.
See MEUSEI., "Gelehrtes Deutscliland."
Plessing, ples'sing, (FRIEDRICH VICTOR LEBRECHT,)
a German philosopher, born near Magdeburg in 1752.
He was professor of philosophy at Duisburg, and wrote
two works on the philosophy of the ancients, entitled
"Osiris and Socrates," (1783,) and "Memnonium, or
an Essay to Unveil the Mysteries of Antiquity," (1787.)
Dit-d in 1806.
Flessis. See DUPI.ESSIS and RICHEUKU.
Plessis d'Argentre. See ARGENTKE, D'.
Plessis-Mornay. See MUKNAY.
Plessis-Praslin. See CHOISKUL.
Pletho or Plethon. See GEMISTUS.
Pleville le Pelley, pli'vel' leh pi'KV, (GEORGE
RENE,) a French admiral, born at Granville in 1726. He
fought with distinction for the United States, (1778-83.)
He was minister of the marine in 1797. Died in 1805.
Pleyel, pli'el', (JOSEPH ETJENNE CAMILLE,) a com
poser and pianist, was born at Strasburg about 1790.
He became a partner of Kalkbrenner in the fabrication
of pianos in Paris. Died in 1855.
Pleyl, i)lll, or Pleyel, pli'el, (!GNAZ,) a celebrated
composer, father of the preceding, born at Rnppersthal,
near Vienna, in 1756 or 1757. Having studied under
Haydn and subsequently visited Italy, he was appointed,
after his return, chapel-master at Strasburg. In 1795
he settled in Paris, where he established a piano-manu
factory and published the " Bibliotheque Musicale." His
works are chiefly pieces of instrumental music, which
were very popular in his time. Died in 1831.
See F£TIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens."
Pliiie. See PLINY.
Plinio. See PLINY.
Pliiiius. See PLINY.
Plin'I-us Va-le-ri-a'nus, the reputed author of a
medical work called " Medicinae Plinianae Libri quinque."
It is supposed to have been compiled several centuries
after the Christian era.
Plln'y | Fr. PLINE, plen; It. PLINIO, plee'ne-o] THE
ELDER, (or, more fully, Ca'ius Plin'ius Secvm'dus,)
a celebrated Roman naturalist, was born at Verona, or,
according to some authorities, Novum Covnum, (the
modern Como,) in 23 A.D. He served in the army in
Germany, under Lucius Pomponius, and returned to
Rome about the age of thirty. He studied law, and
practised as a pleader for a few years. He was after
wards procurator in Spain in the reign of Nero, and
became a friend and favoured officer of Vespasian. We
possess but little other information of his public life,
except that at the time of his death he had command
of a fleet stationed at Misenum. In August, 79 A.D.,
occurred a great eruption of Vesuvius. Observing the
immense cloud of smoke which arose in the form of a
tree from the volcano, he embarked at Misenum on a
vessel and approached nearer to the scene of danger.
He calmly noted the variations of the portentous phe
nomenon, amidst the shower of cinders and pumice-
stones which fell around his vessel, and landed at Stabia.
In the ensuing night he attempted to return to the vessel,
but he perished on land, suffocated by ashes or sul
phurous exhalations. This was probably the eruption
which destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
He left historical and grammatical works, which are
lost. The only work of Pliny that has come down to us
is his " Natural History," (''Naturae Historiarum Libri
XXXVII.,") which is thus characterized by Cuvier, (in
the " Biographic Universelle :") " It is at the same time
one of the most precious monuments that antiquity has left
for us, and the evidence of an erudition very wonderful in
a warrior and statesman. In order to appreciate justly
this vast and celebrated composition, it is necessary to
direct our attention to the plan, the facts, and the style.
The plan is immense. ... He includes astronomy,
natural philosophy, geography, agriculture, commerce,
medicine, and the arts, as well as natural history properly
so called. . . . Pliny was not an observer like Aristotle;
still less was he a man of genius, capable, like that great
philosopher, of tracing the laws and relations ill ac
cordance with which the works of nature are formed
and arranged, (co-ordonnee.) In general, he is only a
compiler. ... A comparison of his extracts with the
originals which are extant, especially with Aristotle,
convinces us that Pliny did not prefer to take from the
authors he consulted that which was most important
or most exact. In general, he prefers the singular and
marvellous. ... If Pliny has for us little merit as a
naturalist and critic, it is far otherwise in respect to his
talent as a writer, and the vast treasury of Latin terms
and locutions which have made his work one of the rich
est depositories of the language of the Romans." He
was a decided pantheist, and had no faith in the future
existence of the human soul. His style is vigorous,
condensed, pointed, and abounds in antithesis. Among
the best editions of Pliny is that published by Sillig,
Hamburg. " His profound erudition," says Buffon, "is
enhanced by elevation of ideas and nobleness of style.
He not only knew all that could be known in his time,
but he had that large faculty of thinking which multi
plies science, he had that delicacy (finesse) of reflection
on which depend elegance and taste, and he imparts to
his reader a certain freedom of spirit and boldness of
thought, which is the germ of philosophy."
See SAI.MASIUS, " Exercitationes Plinianx," 1629: A. Jos. A
TUKRE RKZZONICO, " Disqiiisitiones Pliniana:," 2 vo!s., 1763-67;
PAUL EBHK. " Dissertatio de Vita C. Plinii," 1556; A. I,. A. KRK,
" Eloge de Pline le Naturaliste," 1X21; BAIIR, " Geschicltte der
Romischen Literatur:" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pliny HIE YOUNGER, [Fr. PLINE LE JEUNE, plen leh
zhun,] (or, more fully, Cai'us Plin'ius Caecil'ius Se-
cun'dus,) a Latin author and orator, born at Comum,
(now Como,) on Lake Larius, (Lake Como,) in 61 or 62
A. ix, was a nephew and adopted son of the preceding.
He was a son of Caius Cascilius and Plinia, a sister
of Pliny the Elder. At the age of fourteen he wrote a
Greek tragedy. He studied rhetoric under Quintilian,
and practised law at Rome. After he had held other
high offices, he became, in 103, governor or proconsul
of Bithynia. He wrote to Trajan a famous letter, in
which he bore testimony to the good morality of
the Christians and requested directions in relation to
their treatment. Although he was a man of humane
disposition, he enforced the law which condemned to
death those who refused to abjure their religion. He
was a friend of the historian Tacitus. Pliny wrote,
besides several works which are lost, a " Panegyric on
Trajan," which is greatly admired, and left a collection
of Letters, in ten books, which, after those of Cicero, are
perhaps the most precious relics of Roman epistolary
correspondence that have come down to us. They have
been translated into English by Lord Orrery and Mr.
Melmoth.
See MASSON, "Vita Plinii junioris," Amsterdam, 1700; CF.I.LA-
RIUS, "Vita Plinii;" ''Life of Pliny the Younger," prefixed to K.
THIRKFBLD'S German version of his Epistles, etc., 1828; Oi.i'K,
"Commentatio de C. Plinio Secnndo," etc., 1784; JIII.KS JAMIN,
" Pline le Jeune et Quintilien," 1838; "Nouvelle Biographic Gine-
rale."
Ploos van Anistel, plos vSn am'stel, (CoRNEi.is,) a
Dutch amateur engraver and designer, born at Amster
dam in 1726. He imitated many drawings of old Itilian,
Flemish, Dutch, and German masters, and made a rich
collection of the engravings of those artists. Died about
1800. A collection of his imitations was published in
1821.
Plot, (ROBERT,) an English naturalist and antiquary,
born in Kent in 1641. He became professor of chemistry
at Oxford about 1684, and historiographer-royal in 1688.
He published a " Natural History of Oxfordshire,"
(1677,) and a "Natural History of Staffordshire," (1686.)
Died in 1696.
Plotin. See PLOTIN us.
Flo-ti'na, (PoMPEiA,) the wife of the emperor Tra
jan, is represented as a woman of excellent character.
She died in the reign of Hadrian, who erected a temple
in her honour.
Flo-ti'nus, [Gr. IY/MTIVOC; Fr. PLOTIN, plo'taN'; Ger.
PLOTIN, plo-teen',] an eminent Greek philosopher of the
:, i, o, \\,y,/uny: a, e, A, same, less prolonged: a, e, T, 5, xi, y. short: a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fill, fat: m^t: ndt; good: moon;
PLOUCQUE7'
1813
PL L'TAR CH
Neo-Platonic school, was born at Lycopolis, in Egypt,
in 204 A.I). He was a pupil of Ammonius Saccas. In
order to become versed in the doctrines of the Oriental
sages, he accompanied the expedition of Gordian against
Parthia in 243. He taught philosophy at Rome from
245 A.I), until his death, and enjoyed the favour of the
emperor Gallienus. He had many disciples. He died
about 270 A.D., leaving fifty-four books on abstract sub
jects of philosophy and metaphysics, which are extant
and have exerted an important influence in modern
times. His life was written by Porphyry, who was his
disciple. Piotinus was preferred by Longinus, who knew
him well, to all other philosophers of that time. " He
was intensely religious," says Hallam, "and if he had
come a century later would, instead of a heathen phi
losopher, have been one of the first names among the
saints of the Church."
See PORPHVKY, " Life of Piotinus," (in Greek ;) KIRCHNER, "Die
Philosophic des Plotin," 1854; DAUNAS, ''Plotin et sa Doctrine,"
iS4S.
Ploucquet, ploo'ki', (GODEFROI,) a metaphysician,
born at Stuttgart in 1716. He obtained in 1750 the
chair of logic, etc. at Tubingen. Among his numerous
works is "Ground-Work of Speculative Philosophy,"
(" Fundamenta Philosophize speculative," 1759,) in which
he expounds the system of Leibnitz. Died in 1790.
See J. L. HUBKR, " Ploucquet's Deukmal," 1790.
Plougoulm, ploo'goolm', ( PIKRKE AMUROISE, ) a
French judge, born at Rouen in 1796. He was for many
years procureur-gene'ral, and became a counsellor to the
court of cassation in 1854.
FlSw'den, (EDMUND,) an eminent English lawyer,
born in Shropshire about 1517, was a zealous Roman
Catholic. He became a serjeant-at-law in the reign of
Queen Mary, and left " Reports or Commentaries" of
cases tried in the reigns of Edward VI., Mary, and Eliza
beth, — a work of high reputation. Died in 1585.
St?e Ai.MHOXK, "Dictionary of Authors."
Plowden, (FRANCIS,) an Irish historian and barrister,
wrote, besides other works, a " History of Ireland,"
(1812.) Having been prosecuted for libel, he retired to
France, where he died in 1829.
See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1804; " Monthly Review"
for May and January, 1796.
Pluche, pliish, (NoEL ANTOINK.,) an ingenious French
writer and naturalist, born at Rheims in 1688. lie
became a priest or abbe, and lectured on history and
geography at Paris. In 1732 he published a description
of the outward creation, entitled " Spectacle of Nature,"
(" Spectacle de la Nature," 9 vols.,) which had great
success and was often reprinted. He also wrote a work
on cosmogony, entitled " History of the Heavens,"
(" Histoire du Ciel," 2 vols., 1739,) and other works,
and produced a version of the Psalms, which is com
mended. Died in 1761.
See R. I^TIENNE, " FUoge de Pluche."
Pluk'e-net, (LF.ONARD,) an English botanist, born
in 1642. Little is known of the events of his life, except
that in his old age he was appointed by Queen Mary
director of the garden at Hampton Court. He published
a work of some merit, entitled " Phytographia," (1691-
96,) also " Al'nagestum Botanicum," (1696,) and " Amal-
theum Botanicum," (1705.)
Plum'er, (\VII.LIAM.) an American Governor, born
at Newbury, Massachusetts, in June, 1759. He studied
law, and was elected a member of the legislature of
New Hampshire eight times, was a Senator of the United
States from 1802 to 1807, and was chosen Governor of
New Hampshire in 1812. He was re-elected in 1816,
1817, and 1818. His latter years were devoted to lite
rary pursuits. Died at Epping, New Hampshire, in 1850.
See a " Life of WTiain Plumer," by his son WILLIAM, 1856.
Plumer, (WILLIAM,) a son of the preceding, was
born at Epping, New Hampshire, in 1790. He was a
member of Congress from 1819 to 1825. He published
two volumes of Poems. Died in 1854.
Plumier, plu'me-i', ( CHARLKS. ) a distinguished
French botanist, born at Marseilles in 1646, was a pupil
of Tournefort. He explored the West Indies with Su-
rian in 1689, and, soon after his return, published a
" Description of the Plants of America," (1693, with 108
good plates,) which was very favourably received, By
the order of the king, he revisited America in 1693 and
1695. In 1703 he produced "New Genera of American
Plants,"("Nova Plantarum Americanaium Genera.") He
was about to sail for Peru, to make researches on the
subject of quinquina, (Peruvian bark,) when he died
near Cadiz in 1704. Among his works is a "Treatise
on the Ferns of America," (1705, with 172 plates, ex
quisitely engraved.) "This magnificent collection," says
the "Biographic Universelle," "is one of the most
admirable monuments of skill and patience that can
be named."
See NICBRON," Memoires;" MOR^RI," Dicdonnaire Histcrique ;"
HALLER, " liibliotheca Botanica."
Plum'mer, (JoHN.) an English poet, born in London
in 1831, removed to Northamptonshire. He published
a volume entitled "Songs of Labour," (1860,) and is
author of numerous essays.
Plum'mer, (JosF.PH B.,) an American general, born
in Massachusetts about 1822, graduated at West Point
in 1841. He became a captain in 1852, and a brigadier-
general of volunteers in October, 1861. He served in
several actions in Missouri. Died at Corinth, Missis
sippi, in October, 1862.
Plump'tre, (JAMES,) an English clergyman and dram
atist, born in 1770. He obtained the living of Great
Gransden in 1812. He wrote "Osway," (1795,) and
other dramas, and "Discourses on the Amusements
of the Stage," (1810.) Died in 1832.
Plum'ridge, (Sir JAMES HANWAY,) an English ad
miral, born in London in 1787. He served as rear-
admiral in the Baltic during the Russian war, (1854-55.)
Died in 1863.
Pliink'et, /OLIVER,) a Catholic prelate, born in the
county of Meath, Ireland, about 1630. He received
from the pope the title of Primate of Ireland in 1669.
He was executed at Tyburn, on a charge of treason, in
1 68 1 : but his innocence was afterwards proved.
Plunk'ett or Plunket, (WILLIAM CONYNGHAM,)
first Lord Plunkett, an eminent Irish orator and judge,
was born at Enniskillen in July, 1764. He was educated
at Trinity College, Dublin, and was called to the bar in
1787. Having been elected to the Irish Parliament, he
acquired distinction by his impassioned speeches against
the union with England, in 1800. He acted as consul
for the insurgents who were engaged in the rebellion of
1798. He became solicitor-general for Ireland in 1803,
and attorney-general in 1805, but retired from office
with the Whigs in 1807. In the same year he was
elected to the British House of Commons, in which he
voted with the Whigs and made a. few speeches that
were greatly applauded. He was returned to Parlia
ment for the University of Dublin in 1812, and again in
1818. He was a zealous advocate of Catholic emanci
pation. He was lord chief justice of the common pleas
in Ireland for three years, (1827-30.) About 1827 he
was created a peer of the United Kingdom. He was
lord chancellor of Ireland from 1830 to 1841, excepting
an interval of some months in 1834-35. He died in 1854,
leaving the title to his son, who is Bishop of Tuam.
See the " Life, Letters, etc. of Lord Plunkett," London, 1867 ;
" Edinburch Review" for July and October, 1867 ; " Eraser's Maga
zine" for June, 1867.
Pluquet, plii'ki', (FRANCOIS ANDR£ ADRIEN,) a
learned and judicious French writer, born at Bayeux in
1716. He published in 1757 an " Inquiry into Fatalism,"
(3 vols.,) which is commended. His best or most popu
lar work is a "Dictionary of Heresies," (2 vols., 1762.)
He obtained in 1776 a chair of moral philosophy in the
College de France, Paris. He published a translation
of the classic books of the Chinese, collected by Pere
Noel, (7 vols., 1786.) Died in 1790.
See QU£RARD, " La France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generate. "
Pluquet, (FREDERIC,) an antiquary, born at Bayeux
in 1781, was a nephew of the preceding. He wrote
many works on French antiquities. Died in 1834.
Plu'tar-eh, [Gr. n/.orrap^of ; Lat. PLUTAR'CHUS; Fr.
PLUTARQUE, plu'ttak'; It. PLUTARCO, ploo taR'ko,] an
eminent Greek philosopher or moralist, and the greatest
biographer of antiquity, was a native of Chaeronea, in
c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
PLVTARCHUS
1814
POCHARD
Bceotin. He was born probably about 50 A.I)., as, ac
cording to his own statement, he studied philosophy
under Ammonius, at Delphi, in 66 A. n. He passed soni"
time at Rome, where he lectured on philosophy, in the
reign of Vespasian or of one of his sons. " When I
was in Rome and other parts of Italy," says Plutarch,
"I had not leisure to study the Latin tongue, on account
of the public commissions with which I was charged,
and the number of people that came to be instructed by
me in philosophy. It was not, therefore, until a late
period in life that I began to read the Roman authors."
("Life of Demosthenes.") Plutarch resided at his native
place in the latter part of his life, and filled several mu
nicipal offices. "As to myself," says he, "I live in a
little town, and I choose to live there, lest it should be
come still less." He had a wife named Timoxena, and
several children. On the death of his infant daughter
he wrote to his wife a consolatory letter, in which he
commemorated her conjugal and maternal virtues, with
an infusion of the antique sentiments and poetic allu
sions which render his writings so attractive. He was
an admirer of the philosophy of Plato, and a decided
opponent of Epicureanism. The date of his death
is not known ; but it is supposed that he attained the
age of seventy or more.
Plutarch was a very prolific writer. His works, by
their extent and variety, constitute perhaps the most
copious treasury of facts, ideas, and traditions which we
have inherited from antiquity. There is no uninspired
Greek prose author whose works have found in modern
times so many readers and admirers. His principal
work is his " Parallel Lives" (Bioi IIa/)aA/,7;Aot) of eminent
Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs. The biography
of each Greek is accompanied by the life of some Roman
as a pendant, and the latter is followed by a rather minute
comparison, in which the two persons are measured
together, trait for trait. The best English versions of
Plutarch's "Lives" are those of Sir Thomas North,
(1612,) of Langhorne, (1771,) and of Arthur Hugh
Clough, (1859.) Among the extant works of Plutarch
are many moral essays, which were translated into
French by Amyot. His morality, less rigid than that
of the Stoics and less speculative than that of Plato, is
generally pure and practical. Among his lost works are
a "Commentary on Homer," and biographies of Pindar,
Hesiod, Scipio, Epaminondas, Augustus, Tiberius, Ca
ligula, Claudius, and Nero.
Respecting Plutarch's merits as a writer, we extract
the following passage from an article in the " Biographic
Universelle," by M. Villemain. Alluding to Plutarch's
truthful and naive minuteness in the delineation of his
characters, that great critic remarks, " Perhaps this merit,
which all recognize in Plutarch, has diverted attention
from the picturesque beauty of his style ; but it is this
double character of eloquence and truth which has ren
dered him so powerful over all vivid imaginations. . . .
This immortal vivacity of the style of Plutarch, seconded
by a happy choice of the noblest subjects that can occupy
the imagination and the thoughts, explains the prodigious
interest excited by his historical works. He has painted
man as he is ; he has worthily recorded the greatest
characters and most admirable actions of the human
species. The attraction of such reading will never pass
away; it appeals to all ages and conditions of life; it
kindles the enthusiasm of youth, and commends itself
to the sober wisdom of age."
See HKF.REN, " De Fontibus et Anctoritate Plutarch!," 1810;
NITZSCH, " Disputatio de Plutarcho," 1X49; RITTKR, " History of
Philosophy ;" FABRICIUS, " Hibliotheca Grxca ;" SCHOEI.I., " His-
toire de la Literature Grecque ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;"
" London Quarterly Review" for October, 1861.
Plutarchus. See PLUTARCH.
Plutarco. See PLUTARCH.
Plutarque. See PLUTARCH.
Pluto, the Italian of PI.UTUS, which see.
Plu'to, [Gr. TIMVTUV ; Fr. PI.UTON, plu'tix' ; It.
PLUTONE, ploo-to'ni,] the god of the infernal regions,
was also called HADES, ORCUS, Dis, and AIDONEUS.
He was said to be a son of Saturn (Cronus or Kronos)
and Rhea, and a brother of Jupiter and Neptune. Ac
cording to the fable, these three brothers agreed to a
division of the world, and Pluto obtained as his portion
the subterranean region, the realm of shades, which was
called Erebus or Hades, and the entrance of which was
guarded by Cerberus, a dog with three heads. Some
poets imagined that the realm of Pinto was divided into
two regions, — namely, Tartarus, in which the wicked
were confined and punished, and Elysium, or the Elysian
Fields, the abode of the good.
The most remarkable features in the geography of the
infernal world were five rivers, — namely, Ach'eron, Co-
cy'tus, Styx, Phleg'ethon, and Le'the, (Gr. A7/0;;,) the river
of Oblivion. Departed souls about to enter Elysium
drank of the river Lethe and forgot all their troubles, or,
as some say, forgot all the past :
" Secures latices et longa oblivia potant."*
VIRGIL: sEtieitt, book vi. 715.
The Styx was said to encompass the kingdom of Pluto
seven or nine times with its circumvolutions, and was
described as a sluggish stream, for which reason it was
sometimes called the Stygian pool or lake. The souls
of the dead were carried across the Styx in a boat by
Charon. The gods usually swore by the river Styx.
Phlegethon was described as a river of fire, and Cocytus
as a branch or affluent of the STYX, which see.
Among the most celebrated adventures ol Pluto was
the abduction of Proserpine, whom he married. The
poets feigned that he possessed a helmet which rendered
the wearer invisible. (See an ample and admirable de
scription of Pluto's dominions in Virgil's "/Lucid,"
book vi. passim.)
Pluton. See PLUTO.
Plutone. See PLUTO.
Plu'tus, [Gr. IIAoDrof,- It. PLUTO, ploo'to,] in the
Greek mythology, the god of riches, was said to be a son
of lasion and Ceres. The poets relate that Jupiter de
prived him of sight in order that he might distribute
riches blindly and bestow his favours indiscriminately
on the evil and the good. He was represented as lame,
because he generally comes so slowly to those who seek
him ; yet he had wings, to indicate how swiftly he often
forsakes those whom he seems most to favour. (See
KUVEKA.)
Pluvinel, de, deh plii've'ne'l', (ANTOINE,) a French
man, noted for his skill in horsemanship, was born in
Dauphine in 1555- He was under-governor (soiis-
gouverneur) of the dauphin, (Louis XI IF.,) and wrote a
work called "Manege Royal," (1623.) Died in 1620.
Plu'vi-us, (i.e. "the rainy,") a surname of Jupiter
among the Romans, who invoked him during long
droughts.
Pluymer, ploi'mer, (JAN,) a mediocre Dutch poet,
born at Amsterdam, wrote during the reign of William
III. of England, and published a volume of verses in
1691.
Po, del, d§! po, (PiETRO,) an Italian painter and en
graver, born at Palermo in 1610, was a pupil of Domeni-
chino. Died at Naples in 1692. His son GIACOMO,
born at Rome in 1654, was a painter. He worked at
Naples with success. Died in 1726.
Po-ca-hon'tas, daughter of Powhatan, an Indian
chief of Virginia, is celebrated for her heroism in inter
ceding for the life of Captain Smith, who was con
demned to death by her father. She was afterwards
converted to Christianity, and married to John Rolfe,
an English gentleman. Among her descendants in Vir
ginia was the celebrated John Randolph. Died in 1617.
Poccetti, pot-chet'tee, properly BERNARDINO Bar-
batelli, (baR-ba-tel'lee,) a skilful Italian painter, born at
Florence about 1542. He painted figures, landscapes,
flowers, and draperies with success, and displayed a
great fertility of invention. Among his works is " The
Mission of the Apostles." " He was considered," says
Peries, " the Paul Veronese of his school." Died at
Florence in 1612.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Pocci, pot'chee, (FRANZ,) COUNT, a poet and de
signer, of Italian origin, was born at Munich in 1807.
He has written verses and tales.
Pochard, po'shaV, (JKAN,) a French ecclesiastic,
born near Pontarlier in 1715. He wrote " Method for
* "They quaff profound oblivion, secure from pain and woe."
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; nAt; good; moon;
POCHOLLE
POGGIO
the Guidance of Souls," (" Methode pour la Direction
des Ames," 1772.) Died in 1786.
Pocholle, po'shol', (PIERRE POMPONNK AMEDEE,) a
French revolutionist, born at Dieppe in 1764, was a
member of the Convention of 1792. Died in 1832.
Pockels, pok'kels, (KARL FRIEDRICII,) a German
moralist, born near Halle in 1757. He wrote, besides
other works, "An Essay on the Character of Women,"
(5 vols., 1799-1802,) and "Man," ("Der Mann," 4 vols.,
1805-08.) Died in 1814.
Po'cock, (EDWARD,) an eminent English divine and
Orientalist, born at Oxford in 1604, studied in Corpus
Christi College. He passed about six years at Aleppo
as chaplain to the English merchants, (1630—36,) and
learned Arabic, Syriac, Hebrew, etc. In 1636 he be
came the first professor of Arabic at Oxford. Pocock is
said to have been the best Arabic scholar of his time in
England. He was presented to the rectory of Childrey
in 1643, and obtained the chair of Hebrew at Oxford in
1648. lie published in 1648-50 " Specimen Historiae
Arabum," consisting of extracts from the History of
Aboolfaraj, (Abulpharagius,) with a Latin version and
notes. His most important work is a Latin translation
of the entire History of the same author, which was pub
lished (with the original text) in 1663, in two volumes.
Died at Oxford in 1691.
See a "Life of E. Pocock," prefixed to his theological works, by
LEONARD TwEi.t.s, 1740.
Pocock, (EDWARD,) an Oriental scholar, a son of the
preceding, was born about 1646. He published in 1671
the Arabic text, with a Latin version, of a work of
Ibn-Tofayl, "Self-Taught Philosopher," (" Philosophus
autodidactos.")
Focock, (ISAAC,) an English painter and dramatist,
born at Bristol in 1782 ; died in 1835.
Pococke, po'kok, (RICHARD,) an English traveller,
born at Southampton in 1704. He travelled in Egypt,
Palestine, Syria, etc. in 1734-41, and published a " De
scription of the East and of Some Other Countries," (3
vols., 1743-45,) which was highly esteemed. He became
Bishop of Ossory in 1756, and Bishop of Meath in 1765.
Among his other works is a " Description of the Giants'
Causeway." Died in 1765.
Poczobut, de, cleh potch'o-boot, (MARTIN,) a Polish
astronomer, born near Grodno in 1729 ; died in 1810.
Fodesta, po-des-ta', ( GIAMHATTISTA, ) an Italian
Orientalist, born in Tstria. lie became professor of
Arabic at Vienna in 1674, and published "Grammatical
Course of Oriental Languages," (" Cursus grammaticalis
Linguarum Orientalium," 3 vols., 1687-1703.)
Podiebrad, pocl-ya'brad, (GEORGE,) King of Bo
hemia, born in 1420. He commanded an army of
Hussites in the civil war about 1450, and was elected
king in 1458, with the concurrence of the Catholic
nobles. In 1466 he was excommunicated by Pope Paul
II. , because lie maintained the right of communion
under two forms. The pope also caused a crusade to
be preached against him. In 1467 he was involved in
a war against Matthias Corvinns, whom he defeated.
He is said to have been an able and patriotic ruler.
He died in 1471, and was succeeded by Ladislaus of
Poland.
See M. JORDAN, "Das Konisthum Georgs Podiebrad," 1861 ;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Foe, po, (EDGAR ALLEN,) a distinguished American
poet, born at Baltimore in iSn. He graduated at the
University of Virginia in 1826, and, having spent a year
in Europe, became successively editor of the " Southern
Literary Messenger" at Charleston, and the "Gentle
man's Magazine" and "Graham's Magazine" at Phila
delphia. In 1844 IIG took charge of the "Broadway
Journal," New York. lie died at Baltimore, in 1849,
of delirium tremens. Among his principal prose works
are "The Fall of the House of Usher," " Tales of the
Grotesque and Arabesque," and " The Gold Bug." His
" Raven" and other small poems have been much admired.
He also wrote a collection of critical essays. " His
poems," says R. W. Griswolcl, "are constructed with
wonderful ingenuity and finished with consummate art.
They illustrate a morbid sensitiveness of feeling, a
shadowy and gloomy imagination, and a taste almost
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
faultless in the apprehension of that sort of beauty most
agreeable to his temper."
See GRISWOLD, " Poets and Poetry of America," and a " Memoir
of Poe," prefixed to a 'collection of his works pub'ished by R. W.
GRISWOI.D, in 3 vols. ; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1X58 ; " North
American Review" for October, 1856; "Eraser's Magazine" for
June, 1857.
Foel, van der, vfn der pool, (EGBERT,) a Dutch
painter, born at Rotterdam about 1620. He painted
landscapes, interiors, and nocturnal conflagrations with
success. Died about 1690.
Foelemburg, poo'lem-buRc', (CORNELIS,) surnamed
IL BKUSCO and IL SATIRO, an eminent Dutch painter,
born at Utrecht in 1586, was a pupil of Abraham Bloe-
maert. After spending many years at Rome and Florence,
he was invited to England by Charles I., for whom he
painted some works. He excelled in landscape-painting,
and also produced several historical pictures. Died at
Utrecht in 1660.
See CHARLES BLANC, " La Vie des Peintres."
Poelitz. See POLITY,.
Poellnitz. See POLLNITZ.
Foeppig. See POPPIG.
Poerio, po-a're-o, (CARLO,) a liberal Italian politician,
born at Naples in 1803. He was minisu-r of public in
struction at Naples for a short time in 1848. He was
arrested by order of the Neapolitan government in
July, 1849, and condemned to twenty-four years' im
prisonment and hard labour. The cruel treatment
inflicted on him and others was denounced by Mr.
Gladstone in a famous letter to Lord Aberdeen. He
escaped, or was released, about 1858, after which he
was a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies.
Died in 1867.
Poerio, (GIUSEPPE,) an eloquent Italian advocate,
born at Catanzaro, was the father of the preceding. He
was an active supporter of the republic formed at Naples
in 1799. In 1808 he was appointed procureur-general
by Murat. Died at Florence in 1843.
Poernsr. See PORNKR.
Poerson, po'eR's6N', (CHARLES FRANCOIS,) a French
painter of history, born in Paris about 1652 ; died at.
Rome in 1725.
Pogge, Le. See POGGIO.
Poggendorf, pog'gen-doRf, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN,) a
German savant and professor of natural philosophy at
Berlin, was born at Hamburg in 1796. He became in
1824 editor of the " Annals of Physics and Chemistry."
Among his principal works is a treatise "On the Mag
netism of the Voltaic Pile," in which he was the first
to explain the principles of the multiplicator and its
application.
Poggi, de', da pod'jee, (GIUSEPPE,) CHEVALIER, an
Italian writer, born near Piacenza in 1761. He was a
member of the French legislative body from 181 1 to 1814.
He wrote " On Sincere Reformation," (" Delie Emende
sincere," 3 vols., 1791,) and other works. Died in
France in 1842.
Poggiani, pod-ja'nee, (GiULio,) an Italian scholar,
born at Suna, on Lake Maggiore, in 1522. He was
secretary of Carlo Borromeo. He left " Epistles and
Orations," in Latin, (4 vols., 1756-62,) which are said to
be elegant. Died in 1568.
Poggio Bracciolini, pod'jo brat-cho-lee'nee, [Fr.
LE POGGE, leh pozh,] (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) a dis
tinguished Italian scholar and reviver of learning, was
born near Florence in 1380. He was a pupil of John of
Ravenna, was appointed apostolic secretary about 1413,
and served several successive popes in that capacity.
He rendered important services to literature by the dis
covery of ancient manuscripts, for which he searched in
monasteries. He discovered seven orations of Cicero,
twelve plays of Plautus, the commentaries of Asconius
Pedianus, the history of Ammianus Marcellinus, and
other classic works. He wrote satires against the monks
and clergy, and against Filelfo, with whom he was in
volved in a long and acrimonious controversy. In 1435
he married a young lady named Selvaggia Buondelmonti.
After this event he resided many years at Florence, and
published in 1437 a collection of letters, which were
greatly admired. Having passed several years in Rome,
: Explanations, p. 23.)
POHL
1816
P01SSONKIER
he returned to Florence about 1450, and was appointed
chancellor there in 1453. Among his works, which are
all in Latin, are a "Dialogue on Nobility," (" De No-
bilitate Uialogus,") a " History of Florence from 1350
to 1455." (" Historia Florentina," etc., 1476,) and "On
the Mutability of Fortune," (" De Varietate Fortunae.")
He died in Florence in October, 1459.
See WILLIAM SHEPIIKKD. "Life of Po^io BraccioHni," 1802:
THORSCHMIDT, " Dissertatio de F. Poggii Bracciolini Vita," 1713;
J LENKANT, "Poggiana," etc, ^ vols., 1720: NH£KON, "Me-
nxiires ;" C. NISARD, "Les Gladiateurs de la Republique des Let-
tres;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for
October, 1836.
Pohl, p51, (JoifANN CHRISTOPH,) a German physician,
born near Liegnitz in 1706; died in 1780.
Pohl, (JuiiANN EMANUKI.,) a German botanist, born
at Vienna in 1784. He published, in Latin, " Descrip
tions and Figures of Brazilian Plants," (2 vols., 1827-31,)
and, in German, " Travels in Brazil," (2 vols., 1832.)
Died in 1834.
Poilly, de, deh pwa'ye', (FRANCOIS,) an eminent
French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1622. He worked
in Rome and Paris, and engraved some works of Raphael,
Gitilio Romano, and Poussin. In 1664 he received the
title of engraver to the king. Died in Paris in 1693. '
Poilly, de, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a skilful engraver, a
nephew of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1669 ;
died in Paris in 1728.
Poilly, de, (Xicoi.AS,) an engraver, born at Abbe
ville in 1626, was the father of the preceding. He was
not equal to his brother Frai^ois. Died in 1696.
Poin'dex-ter, (GEORGE,) an able American states
man and jurist, bom in Louisa county, Virginia. Hav
ing removed to Mississippi, he was appointed in 1813
United States judge for that district, and was elected
to Congress in 1817. He there distinguished himself
by his eloquent defence of the course of General Jack
son in the Seminole war. He was afterwards elected
Governor of the State, and in 1831 a Senator of the
United States. He became an opponent of President
Jackson, and ceased to be a Senator in 1835. Died
in 1853.
Poin'sett, (Josi. ROBERTS,) a distinguished Ameri
can statesman and diplomatist, born at Charleston, South
Carolina, in 1779. Having been several times elected
to Congress, he was sent in 1825 as minister to Mexico
by President Adams. In the contest between the Nul
lification and Union parties he became the leader of the
latter. He was appointed secretary of war by President
Van Buren in March, 1837. lie retired from that office
in March, 1841, after which he was not employed in the
public service. He wrote "Notes on Mexico." Died
in December, 1851.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans."
vol. i. ; " Democratic Review" for February and March, 1838, (with
a portrait.)
Poinsinet, pwaN'se'n^', ( ANTOINE AI.EXANDRE
HENRI,) a French dramatist, born at Fontainebleau in
1735. He wrote several successful comedies and comic
operas, among which is "The Circle, or Soiree a la
Mode," (1771.) He was accidentally drowned at Cor
dova, in Spain, in 1769.
Poinsiuet de Sivry, pwa.N'se'ni' deh se'vue',
(Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Versailles in 1733.
He produced a popular tragedy, named " Briseis,"
(1759,) and various other works of little merit. He
translated Pliny's "Natural History," (1771-81.) He
was a brother-in-law of Palissot. Died in 1804.
Poinsot, pwaN'so', (Louis,) a French geometer, born
in Paris in 1777. He published in 1803 "Elements
of Statics," which presents new and ingenious ideas.
Among his other works is a "Memoir on the Applica
tion of Algebra to the Theory of Numbers," (1820.)
He was elected to the fnstitute,' in place of La Grange,
in 1813. In 1852 he became a senator. Died in De
cember, 1859.
Foiret, pwa'ri', (JEAN Louis MARIE,) a French
naturalist, born at Saint-Quentin about 1755. ^e Pl'b-
lished "Travels in Barbary," (2 vols., 1789,) a work of
merit, a "Botanical Dictionary," (20 vols., 1789-1823.)
which forms part of the "Encyclopedic Methodique,"
and "The Philosophical, Literary, and Economical
a, e, I, 5, fi, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; rruTou;
History of the Useful Plants of Europe," (7 vols., ib-!5
-29.) Died in 1834.
See QUEKARD, " La Franca Litteraire."
Poiret, (PIERRE,) a French philosopher and mystical
writer, born at Metz in 1646. He became a Protestant
minister, and preached at Hamburg and Amsterdam. It
is stated that he rejected the light and guidance of
reason. He wrote, in Latin, besides many other works,
"The Divine Economy," (7 vols., 1687.) Died in 1719.
See NICEKON, " Me'moires;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Poirier, pwa're-i', (GERMAIN,) a French monk, was
born in Paris in 1724. He wrote a "History of the
Reign of Henry I. of France." Died in 1803.
Poirson, pwaR'siN', (AUGUSTE SIMON JEAN CIIRY-
SOSTOME,) i a French historian, born in Paris in 1795. He
was principal of the College Charlemagne from 1837 to
1853. His chief works are a "History of Rome," (2
vols., 1824-26,) and a " History of Henry IV.," (2 vols
1857.)
Poirson, (JEAN BAPTISTE, ) a French geographer,
born in the Vosges in 1760. lie excelled in the con
struction of terrestrial globes. Died in 1831.
Pois, Le, leh pwa, (ANTOINE,) a French numismatist,
born at Nancy in 1525 ; died in 1578.
Pois, Le, (CHARLES,) [Lat. CAKO'LUS Pi'so,] a dis
tinguished physician, born at Nancy, France, in 1563.
He published a work entitled " Book of Select Observa
tions and Counsels," ("Selectiorum Observationum et
Consiliorum Liber," 1618,) which, says Weiss, "assures
to him the reputation of a great physician." Died in 1633.
Pois, Le, (NICOLAS,) the father of the preceding,
born at Nancy in 1527, was a skilful physician. lie
published a good work "On the Knowledge and Cure
of Diseases," (" De Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis,"
1580.) Died in 1587.
Poiseuille, pwa'/ul' or pwa'zul/ye, (JEAN Louis
MARIE,) a French physician and physiologist, born in
Paris in 1799. lie wrote, besides other works, "Re
searches on the Course of the Blood in the Veins "
(1831.)
Foissant, pwa'soN', (Tim? AUT,) a French sculptor,
born near Crecy in 1605 ; died in 1660.
Poisson, pwa'sc-N', (NICOLAS JOSEPH,) a French
ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1637, was a disciple of Des
cartes. He published "Delectus Actorum Ecclesiae
Universalis," (2 vols., 1706.) Died in 1710.
Poisson, (RAYMOND,) a popular French comedian,
born in Paris in 1633; died in 1690. His grandson,
FRANCOIS ARNOUL, (1696-1753,) was a favourite comic
actor of the Parisian stage.
Poisson, (SIMEON DENIS,) an excellent and profound
French geometer, born at Pithiviers (Loiret) on the 2ist
of June, 1781. He entered the Polytechnic School in
1798, and attracted the notice of La Grange and La
Place. He became professor in the same school in
1802, a member of the Bureau of Longitudes in 1808. a
member of the Institute in 1812, and counsellor of the
University in 1820. In 1811 he published an excellent
treatise on mechanics, " Traite de Mecanique," (2 vols.)
In his "New Theory of Capillary Action" (1831) he
completes the researches of La Place by superadding
the consideration of the variation of density. He pub
lished a " Mathematical Theory of Heat," (2' vols., 1835,)
and a treatise on the theory of probabilities applied to
judicial trials, " Recherches stir la Probabilite des Jnge-
ments," etc., (1837.) He also contributed more" than
three hundred memoirs to various journals and periodi
cals. Among these is a remarkable treatise "On the
Invariability of the Mean Movements of the Grand
Planetary Axes." It was in the domain of mathematical
physics that the genius of Poisson was most signally
displayed. He brought this science to great perfection,
especially in its application to static electricity and mag
netism. In 1837 he was raised to the dignity of a peer
of France, although he never was a politician. Died in
April, 1840.
See AKAOO, "Notices biogrnphiques," tome ii. : "Notice sur
Poisson," Orleans, 1840: "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Foissomiier, pwa'so'ne-i', (PIERRE,) a French
chemist and physician, born at Dijon in 1720. He was
POITEVIN
1817
POLI
sent by the king about 1760 on a secret mission to Eliza
beth of Russia, and, on his return, received the title of
councillor of state. He invented an apparatus or pro
cess to convert sea-water into fresh water. In 1764 he
became inspector and director of medicine for all the
hospitals and maritime arsenals of France. Died in 1798.
Poiteviu, pwat'vaN',(jACQUES,) a French astronomer,
born at Montpellier in 1742. He published " An Essay
on the Climate of Montpellier," (1803.) Died in 1807.
Poitevin, (PIERRE ALKXANDRK,) a French architect,
born at Bordeaux in 1782; died in 1859.
Poitevin, (ROBERT,) a French physician, born proba-
blv
Poitou about 1390. He was employed by the
queen, and by Agnes Sorel. Died in 1474.
Poitevin de Maureillan, pwat'va.s' cleh mo'ri'ydN',
(CASIMIR,) VICOMTE, a French general, born at Mont
pellier in 1772. He distinguished himself at Austerlitz,
in 1805, and at Borodino, in 1812. Died in 1829.
Poitiers, de, (DIANE.) See DIANE.
Poivre, pwavR, (PIERRE,) a French traveller, born at
Lyons in 1719. lie visited China in 1740, after which
he became an agent of the French East India Company,
and went to the Moluccas, from which he transplanted
the nutmeg-tree and other spices to the Isle of France.
He was intendant of the Isles of France and Bourbon
from 1767 to 1773. He is said to have exhibited there
an almost perfect model of an administrator and public
benefactor. Died in 1786.
See DUFONT DE NEMOURS, " Notice stir la Vie de M. Poivre,"
1786; A. BOUI.I.EE, "Notice sur Poivre," 1835.
Poivre, Le, leh pwavR, a geometer, born at Mons,
Belgium, lived about 1700. He wrote a "Treatise on
Sections of a Cylinder and Cone," (1704.)
Poix, pwa, (A.NTO1NE CLAUDE DOMINIQUE JUST,)
Comte de Noailles and Prince de Poix, a French diplo
matist, born in Paris in 1777 ; died in 1846.
Poix, de, deh pwa, (Louis,) a learned French monk,
born in the diocese of Amiens in 1714. He published
a new version of the Psalms, (1762,) and •' Principles
works, which are not extant. Among his disciples
were Zeno the Stoic, and Arcesilaus. Died about
272 B.C.
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" DIOGENES LAP.RTII/S.
Polemo, a Greek writer, who is supposed to have
lived between 100 and 250 A.D. He left a work on
Physiognomy, which is extant. He is quoted by Origen.
Polemo or Polemon, sui named PERIKGE'TES, |Fr.
POLEMON I.E PERIEGETE, po'la'm6N' leh pa're'a'zhat',]
a Greek geographer, born at Samos or Sicyon, obtained
the citizenship of Athens, and lived about 200 H.c. He
wrote many works on geography, etc., of which fragments
are extant.
Polemo, or Polemo the Sophist, a celebrated
Greek rhetorician, born at Laodicea, flourished about
130 A.I). He taught rhetoric at Smyrna, and obtained
the favour of Trajan and Hadrian. He wrote several
works, which are lost, except two orations. He died
at the age of fifty-six.
See PHILOSTRATUS, " Vitae Sophistarum ;" FABRICIUS, " Biblio-
theca Grsca."
Polemoii. See POLEMO.
Poleni, po-la'nee, (GIOVANNI,) MARQUIS, an Italian
natural philosopher, born at Venice in 1683. He be
came professor of physics at Padua in 1715, and suc
ceeded X. Bernoulli as professor of mathematics in 1719.
Among his numerous works are a " Dialogue on Celes
tial Vortices," (1712,) and "On the Mixed Motion of
Water," ("De Motu Aquae mixto," 1717.) He was a
Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1761.
See P. COSSALI, " Elogio del Professor Poleni," 1813; KABRONI,
"Vita? Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" G. GENNARI, " Elogio del
Marchese G. Poleni," 1839.
Polenta, da, da po-len'ta, (Gumo NOVELLO,) became
Lord of Ravenna in 1275. He befriended the exiled
Dante, who came to his court in 1319 and remained
there until his death in 1321. Died in 1323.
Polentone, po-len-to'na, [Lat. PoLKNTCTNUS,] (SEC-
CO or XiCCO,) an Italian scholar and writer, l>orn at
r .,- , , , „ i Padua about n>QO. Among his works are a "Life of
discussed to facilitate the Study of the Prophetic Books, o „ j j if i ,«/- .- • »»/.o._\ TV i
(16 vols., 1755-64.) Died in 1782. : Seneca, ' and a comedy called "Catima, (1842.)
Pojarski. See POZHARSKI.
Polain, po'laN', (MATHIEU LAMBERT,) a Belgian
historian, born at Liege in 1808. His chief work is a
about 1462.
See J. E. KAPP, " Dissertatio de X. Polentono," 1733.
Polevoi, po'leh-voi', ( NIKOLAI AI.EXIEVITCH, ) a
"History of Liege," (" Histoire de Fancien Pays de Russian litterateur and journalist, born in Siberia in 1796,
Liege," 2 vols., 1844-48,) which is commended. became in 1825 editor of the "Moscow Telegraph, ' a
Polanco, po-lan'ko, the name of three good Spanish j periodical of great ability and influence, which was after-
painters, who were brothers and native's of Seville. ' wards suppressed by the government on account of its
The latest work of Carlos Polanco is dated 1686. I liberal views. Among his works, which are very mime-
Pole, [Lat. PO'LUS,] (REGINALD,) a celebrated Eng- , roiis> we maY liame a " Llfe of Soovorof, i
lish cardinal and scholar, was born in Staffordshire 'in a " Llfe of Peter tlie Great," (4 vols., 1843,) regarded as
1500. His mother, Margaret Plantagenet, was a niece the best llfe of that sovereign that has been written, the
of Edward IV., a daughter of George, Duke of Clar- dramas of " Parasha the Siberian Girl and '
ence, and cousin-german to Queen Elizabeth who was Grandfather of the Russian Fleet, and a "
the mother of Henry VIII. He was educated at Oxford, the Russian People," a part of which only has been
and became Dean of Exeter at the age of nineteen. He published. He also translated " Hamlet, and wrote
pursued his studies at Padua, where he formed friend-
a number of valuable critical essays on Russian litera
ture. Died in 1846.
See " NouveHe Biographic General
ships with Erasmus, Bembo, and Sadolet, and returned
to England in 1525. About 1531 he lost the favour of
Henry VIII. by his opposition to the divorce of Queen I Polhem, pol'hem, or Polhelm, pol'helm, (KRISTO-
Cathe'rine. Having retired to the continent for safety, ! FER,) a Swedish engineer and mechanician, born in
he wrote a famous treatise "For the Unity of the i Gothland in 1661. He invented several useful machines,
Church," ("Pro Unitate Ecclesias,") printed at Rome
without date, in which he controverted the pretensions
of Henry to be the head of the Church. His mother
and brother were executed by order of the king, and he
constructed the docks at Carlscrona, and obtained a title
of nobility. Died in 1751.
Poll, po'lee, (GIUSEPPE SAVERIO,) an Italian natural
ist and physiologist, born at Molfetta, in the kingdom of
was attainted. On the accession of Queen Mary (1553) i Naples, in 1746. He became professor of geography and
he was sent by the pope as legate to England. He sue- history in a military school at Napjes about 1776, after
ceeded Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1555
or 1556. Historians are divided in opinion in relation
to his complicity in the persecutions of this reign ; and
his character is commonly represented as mild and
humane. Died in 1558.
See P>ECCADEI.I.I, "Vita Poll Cardinalis," 1553; an English ver
sion of the same, published by PYE in 1766: FKOUDE, " History of
England;" THOMAS PHII.LIPPS, "Life of R. Pole," 1764; HUME,
" History of England ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Folemburg. See POELEMBURG.
Pol'e-mo or Pol'e-mon, [Gr. llo/^uuv; Fr. POLE
MON, po'la'mc-N',] a Greek philosopher, born at Athens,
or in Attica. He succeeded Xenocrates as the head
of the old Academy about 315 B.C., and wrote several
which he was sent by the king to France and England
to examine educational institutions and procure scientific
apparatus. He was the preceptor of the prince who
reigned as Francis I. His reputation is chiefly founded
on an excellent work on testaceous mollusca, " History
and Anatomy of the Testacea of the Two Sicilies,"
(" Testacea utriusque Siciliae eorumque Historia et
Anatome," 2 vols., 1791-95.) The third volume was
published in 1826. "This magnificent work," says Cu-
vier, " represents their anatomy with much accuracy, and
throws new light on their physiology." Died in 1825.
See P. N. GIAMPAOI.O, "Elogio di S Poli," 1825; SERAFINO
GATTI, " P.iografia di G. S. Poli," 1825: TIPAI.UO, " Biografia degli
Italiani illustri."
« as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
POLI
1818
POLK
Poll, (MARTINO,) an Italian chemist, born at Lucca
in 1662; died at Paris in 1714.
Fo'H-as, [Gr. EOAWC, from TroAtc, a "city,"] (the " protec
tress of cities,") a surname of Athena, (Minerva.) There
was at Athens a celebrated temple of Athena Polias.
Polibio. See POI.YBIUS.
Polidoro. See CARAVAGGIO.
Polier, po'le-i', (ANTOINE NOE,) a Swiss writer,
born in 1713, was a friend of Voltaire. Me became
pastor of Lausanne in 1754, and wrote articles for the
"Encyclopedic." Died in 1783.
Polignac, de, deh po'len'yaV, (AUGUSTE JULES AR-
MANU MARIE,) PRINCE, a French minister of state, born
at Versailles in 1780. His mother, the Duchess of Po
lignac, was a favourite of Marie Antoinette. He became
minister of foreign affairs in August, 1829, and the chief
minister before the end of the year. His ultramontane
and absolutist policy rendered him very unpopular. In
consequence of the victory of the liberals and insurgents
over Charles X. in 1830, he was arrested, tried for treason,
and condemned to imprisonment for life. He was re
leased in 1836, and retired to England. Died in 1847.
See " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1832, (by SOUTHKY.)
Polignac, de, (MELCHIOR,) a French diplomatist and
Latin poet, born at Puy-en-Velay (Upper Loire) in 1661.
He was sent in 1695 as ambassador to Poland, where
by his address he induced a majority of the electors to
choose the French prrnce De Conti as king in 1697. lie
succeeded Bossuet in the French Academy in 1704. In
1712 he was sent as plenipotentiary to the Congress of
Utrecht. He became a cardinal in 1713. He acquired
a high literary reputation by his Latin poem (in refu
tation of Lucretius) entitled "Anti-Lucretius, sive de
Deo et Natura Libri novem," (1745.) Died in 1742.
Voltaire, in his "Temple du Gout," praises Polignac
as a successful opponent of Lucretius, and as one who
combined the qualities of Virgil and Plato :
"Reunissant Virgile avec Platon,
Vengeur du Ciel et vainqueur de Lucrece. "
See CHRYSOSTOME FAUCHER, " Histoire du Cardinal de Po
lignac," 2 vols., 1777; DORTOUS DE MAIRAN, " filoge du Cardinal
de Polignac," 1742; SAINT-SIMON, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Poliniere, po'le'n.fXi.iR', (PIERRE,) a French natural
philosopher, born near Vire in 1671. He gained dis
tinction at the College of Harcourt as a teacher of natural
philosophy by the experimental method, and published
"Experiments in Physics," (1709.) Died in 1734.
Poliorcetes. See DEMETRIUS POLIORCETES.
Polit, po'le', Polite, po'let', or Le Poll, leh po'le',
[Lat. POLI'TUS,] (JEAN.) a Flemish poet, born at or
near Liege about 1554; died after 1601.
Politi, po-lee'tee, (ALESSANDRO,) an Italian scholar,
born at Florence in 1679. He became professor of
eloquence at Pisa in 1733. He published, besides other
works, an edition of Eustathius's "Commentary on
Homer," with a Latin version and notes, (3 vols., 1730-
35.) Died in 1752.
See FABRONI, " Vitae Italornm doctrina excellentinm."
Politi, (LANCELOT.) See CATHARINUS.
Politian, po-lish'e-an, fit. POLIZIANO, po-let-se-a'no ;
Lat. POLITTA'NUS ; Fr. POLITTEN, po'le'se^N',] (AN-
GEI.O,) a celebrated Italian classical scholar and poet,
born at Montepulciano, (Mons Politianus,) in Tuscany, in
July, 1454. His family name was AMHROOINI. He studied
Latin under Cristoforo Landino, and Greek under An-
dronictis of Thessalonica. About 1468 he wrote stanzas,
in Italian, in honour of Giuliano de' Medici, which were
much admired. lie was patronized by Lorenzo de'
Medici, who employed him as preceptor of his sons and
treated him as a friend as long as he lived. As pro
fessor of Greek and Latin at Florence, he acquired a
high reputation. He produced elegant Latin versions
of the History of Herodian, of the Manual of Epictetus,
and of the " Charmides" of Plato. He wrote notes on
Ovid, Catullus, Pliny the Younger, and other Latin
authors. Among his works are Latin odes and epi
grams, and a Latin poem called " Rusticus." " In his
Latin poems," says Ginguene, " we find the fire of an
imagination truly poetic, and that taste and elegance
which were the natural attributes of his mind." Died
at Florence in 1494.
" In 1480 or 1483," says Hallam, " Politian was placed
in the chair of Greek and Latin eloquence at Florence,-
a station perhaps the most conspicuous and the most
honourable which any scholar could occupy. It is
beyond controversy that he stands at the head of that
class in the fifteenth century. The envy of some of his
contemporaries attested his superiority. In 1489 he
published his once celebrated 'Miscellanea,' consisting
of one hundred observations illustrating passages of
Latin authors."' ("Introduction to the Literature of
Europe.") He was characterized by Erasmus as " rarum
naturae miraculum," ("a rare miracle of nature.")
See SERASSJ, "Vita di A. Poliziano;" F. OTTO MENCKEN, " His-
toria Vita; A. Politiani," 1736; WILLIAM P. GRESWHLL, "Memoirs
of Angelus Politianus," etc., 1801 ; FABRONI, " Elogj di Dante, di
A. Poliziano," etc., 1800; D. MOM.ER, " De Politiano," 1698 ; LONG
FELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" N. A. BONAHOUS, " De
A. Politiani Vitn et Operibus," 1845; BAVI.K, " Historical and
Critical Dictionary;" TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Ita-
liana;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Lives of the Italian
Poets," by REV. HENRY STEBBINO ; "Italian Narrative Poetry."
in the " North American Review" for October, 1824, (by PKESCOTT.)
Politianus or Politiano. See POLITIAN.
Politien. See POLITIAN.
Politus. See POLIT.
Politz or Poelitz, pc/lits, (KARL HEINRICH Lun-
WIG,) a German historian, born at Ernstthal in 1772.
He became professor of history and statistics at Leipsic
in 1815. Among his numerous works are a "History
of Saxony and the Duchy of Warsaw," (3 vols., 1808-10,)
and "Political Sciences according to the Ideas of our
Epoch," (5 vols., 1823-28.) Died in 1838.
See KROCKHAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon."
Poliziano. See POLITIAN.
Polk, pok, (JAMES KNOX,) the eleventh President
of the United States, was born in Mecklenburg county,
North Carolina, on the 2cl of November, 1795, and re
moved with his father to Middle Tennessee in 1806.
He graduated in the University of North Carolina
about 1816, and studied law. He was elected a member
of Congress from Tennessee in 1825 and at several suc
ceeding elections. In 1835 he was chosen Speaker of
the House of Representatives by the Democrats. He
was also Speaker of the twenty-fifth Congress, (1837-38.)
In 1839 he was elected Governor of Tennessee for two
years. At the election of 1841 he was defeated by the
Whig candidate for Governor. In 1844 Polk and Dallas
were nominated for the offices of President and Vice-
President by the Democratic National Convention, which
on the first ballot had not given Mr. Polk a single vote.
His competitor was Henry Clay. The principal issue in
this election was the annexation of Texas, which Mr.
Polk was pledged to promote. lie was elected, receiving
one hundred and seventy electoral votes out of two
hundred and seventy-five, which was the whole number.
lie appointed James Buchanan secretary of state, and,
after the formal annexation of Texas to the Union,
(1845,) involved the country in an aggressive war against
Mexico, which began in May, 1846. The army of the
United States, commanded by General Scott, after
several victories, took the city of Mexico in September,
1847. Tne Mexicans obtained peace by the cession of
Upper California and New Mexico. A dispute with the
British government about the boundary of Oregon was
settled during his administration, by an agreement thai
the parallel of 49° should be the dividing line. He re
tired from office in March, and died at Nashville in
June, 1849.
See L. CHASE, " History of the Administration of James K.
Polk," 1850; LEVI WOODBURY, " Eulogy on James K. Polk," 1850.
Polk, (LEONIDAS,) an American who became famous
for his twofold character of bishop and general, was
born at Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1806, and graduated
at West Point in 1827. He was ordained an Episcopal
clergyman about 1831, and was chosen Bishop of Loui
siana in 1841. In 1861 he took arms against the Union,
with the rank of major-general, and distinguished him
self by his activity and zeal in the Confederate service.
He occupied Columbus, Kentucky, in September, 1861,
and evacuated it about the ist of March, 1862. lie
commanded a division at the battle of Shiloh, April,
1862, and served as lieutenant-general at the battle of
Stone River, which ended January 2, 1863. He led a
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
POLLAJUOLO
1819
POLO
corps at the battle of Chickamauga, September 19-20,
1863. He was killed near Kenesaw Mountain, Georgia,
in June, 1864.
See a notice of General Bishop Polk in "Southern Generals,"
1865.
Pollajuolo, pol-la-yoo-o'lo, (ANTONIO,) an eminent
Italian painter and sculptor, born at Florence in 1426 or
1431, was also a skilful goldsmith. His master-piece of
painting is "The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian." He
was invited to Rome by Innocent VIII., for whom (with
the aid of his brother Pietro) he made a monument to
Sixtus IV. He excelled in composition and in knowledge
of anatomy. Died in 1498.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters."
Pollajuolo, (PiK.TKo,) a painter and sculptor, born at
Florence about 1434, was a brother of the preceding,
whom he aided in many of his paintings and sculptures,
but was less eminent than he. Died in 1498.
Pollajuolo, (Si.Mo.NE. ) See CRONACA.
Pollet, po'Ly, (JOSEPH MICHEL ANGK,) a French
sculptor, born at Palermo in 1814. He became a resi
dent of Paris about 1844, and obtained a first medal in
1850. His works adorn the Tuileries and other imperial
palaces.
Pollet, (VICTOR FLORENCE,) a French painter and
engraver, born in Paris about 1810. He gained by his
engravings the prize of Rome in 1838, and a medal of
the first class in 1849.
Pol'lex-fen, (Sir HENRY,) an English judge, born
probably in Devonshire. He was counsel for the bishops
in their famous trial, (1688.) He was appointed chief
justice of the common pleas in 1689. Died in 1692.
See Foss, "The Judges of England."
Pollicll, pol'liK, (JoHANN ADAM,) a German natural
ist, born at Lantern in 1740. He published a good Flora
of the Palatinate, " Historia Plantarum in Palatinatu
Electoral! sponte nascentimn," (1776.) Died in 1780.
Pollich, [I.at. POLLICH'IUS,] (MARTIN,) a German
physician, eminent for learning, born at Mellerstadt,
was an ancestor of the preceding. lie became in 1503
professor of theology in the University of Wittenberg,
of which he was the first rector. He published " La-
conismi," (1504,) and other works. Died in 1513.
See P>OERNER, "Vita Pollichii," 1751 : BISMARK, " Vita Pollichii,"
1614.
Pollichius. See POLLICH.
Fol'li-o, (AsiNius,) a sophist or philosopher, born at
Tralles, in Asia Minor. He taught at Rome about 50
B.C., and, according to Suidas, wrote a commentary on
Aristotle's treatise "On Animals."
Pol'li-o, |Fr. POLLION, po'le'6N'M (CAius ASINIUS,)
an eminent Roman orator, author, and patron of litera
ture, was born at Rome in 76 «.c. He was a partisan
of Caesar in the civil war which began in 49 H.C., and
crossed the Rubicon with that chief. He took part in
the battle of Pharsalia, in 48, and commanded in Spain
against Sextus Pompey at the time of Caesar's death, 44
)!.C. Having taken arms for Antony and Octavius, he
obtained the office of consul by their influence in 40
li.c. and saved the patrimony of Virgil from confiscation.
Virgil addressed to him the fourth eclogue in 40 B.C.,
and the eighth eclogue .soon after that date. Pollio
retired from the public service about the year 38, and
remained neutral in the war between Octavius and An
tony. He founded the first public library at Rome, and
patronized Virgil, Horace, and other poets. He wrote a
valuable history of the civil wars of Rome, and several
poems, which were praised by Virgil. None of these
works are extant. His excellence as an orator is attested
by Quintilian and other ancient writers. He was also
distinguished as a critic. He had a son named C. Asi-
nius Gallus. (See CALLUS.) Died in 4 A.D.
See THORBECKE, "Commentatio de C. A Pollionis Vita et Stu-
diis," 1820: EKKRMAN, " Pissertatio de C. A. Pollione," 1745:
APPIAN, "De Hello Civil! ;" DK BUGNY, " Pnllinn, on le Siecle
d'Auguste," 4 vols., 1808 ; " Nonvelle Biographic (janerale. "
Pollio, (TREHF.I.T.IUS,) a Roman historian who lived
in the reign of Constantino I. He was one of the
authors of the " Historia Augusta," to which he con
tributed the lives of the two Valerians, of the two
Gallieni, of the Thirty Tyrants, and of Claudius.
Pollion. See POLLIO.
Pollnitz or Poellnitz, pol'nits, (KARL LUDWIG,) a
German adventurer and historical writer, born at Isso-
inin (Prussia) in 1692. He sought fortune at several
courts of Europe, and was appointed grand master of
ceremonies by Frederick the Great. He wrote, besides
other works, " Saxe galante," (1737,) which narrates the
amours of king Augustus, and Memoirs of his own
life and times, ("Memoires du Baron de Poellnitz," 3
vols., 1734.) Died in 1775.
Pol'lock, (Sir FREDERICK,) an English judge, born
in London in 1783. He became attorney-general in 1834,
and lord chief baron of the exchequer in 1844, which
position he held until 1866. Died in 1870.
See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. ; "Autobiography
of William Jerdan," vol. i. chaps, iii.-iv.
Pollock, (Sir GEORGE,) an English general, a brother
of the preceding, was born in London in 1786. He
commanded an army which defeated the Affghans
in 1841.
Fol'lock, (JAMES,) an American Governor, born in
Pennsylvania, graduated at Princeton College in 1831.
He represented a district of Pennsylvania in Congress
from 1843 to '849. and was elected Governor of that
State by the People's party, or Republicans, for three
years, (1855-58.)
Fol'lok, (ROBERT,) a British poet, born at Muirhouse,
in Renfrewshire, Scotland, in 1798 or 1799. He studied
at the University of Glasgow, and chose the profession
of minister of the gospel. He obtained a license as
minister in the United Secession Church in 1827, but
his health was already fatally impaired by excessive
study. His reputation is founded on "The Course of
Time," (1827,) a didactic poem, which found many ad
mirers, especially among those who take an interest in
religious poetry. It contains some beautiful and many
powerful passages, but it has great defects, and is not
considered very attractive as a poem, apart from its
religious and moral doctrines. "The Course of Time,"
says Moir, " is a very extraordinary poem, vast in its
conception, vast in its plan, vast in its materials, and
vast, if very far from perfect, in its achievement." " The
Course of Time," says Professor Wilson, " for so young
a man, was a vast achievement. . . . He had much to
learn in composition. . . . But the soul of poetry is
there, though often dimly enveloped ; and many passages
there are, and long ones too, that heave and hurry
and glow along in a divine enthusiasm." lie wrote,
in prose, "Tales of the Covenanters." Died near
Southampton in September, 1827.
See "Life of R. Pollok,'' by his brother, 1842; CHAMBERS,
" Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Blackwood's
Magazine" for June, 1827.
Polluche, po'liisl/, (DANIEL,) a French antiquary,
born at Orleans in 1689. He wrote a " Description of
Orleans," (1736.) Died in 1768.
Pol'lux, a demi-god of classic mythology, and a
brother of Castor. See CASTOR and POLLUX.
Pol'lux, ( JULIUS,) a Greek grammarian, whose proper
name was POLYDELICES, was born at Naucratis, in Egypt,
about 130 A.D. He enjoyed the favour of Marcus Aure-
lius and Commoclus, and taught rhetoric at Athens in
the reign of the latter. His works are all lost, except
his " Onomasticon," a kind of dictionary of Greek words,
(not in alphabetical order,) which is highly prized. lie
died at the age of fifty-eight.
See FABRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Graeca."
Pol'lux, (Jui.ius,) a Byzantine writer, who lived in
the tenth or eleventh century. He wrote a "Chronicle,
or Universal History from the Creation to the Time of
Valens," which is extant.
Po'lo, (GASPAR Gil.,) a' Spanish poet and novelist,
born at Valencia about the middle of the sixteenth
century. He was a lawyer and a professor of Greek.
He gained celebrity by a poetical romance, entitled
" Diana in Love," (" Diana enamorada,") which was
translated into English, French, and Latin.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Polo, (TAYME,) called THE ELDER, a Spanish painter,
born at Burgos in 1560, was a good colorist. Died
in 1600.
€ as/£; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v*,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JST^ee Explanations, p. 23.)
POLO
1820
POLY CARP
Polo, (JAYMK,) THE YOUNGER, a painter, born at
Burgos in 1620 ; died at Madrid in 1655.
Fo'lo, (MARCO,) [Fr. MAKC POL, mink pol, (or PAUL,
pol,)j a famous Venetian traveller, born about 1252,
was a son of Niccolo Polo, a merchant of jioble rank.
About 1255 Niccolo and his brother Matteo, or Maffeo,
commenced an extensive expedition, with a stock of
precious stones, which they sold to a Tartar chief on
the Volga. They arrived in 1261 at Bokhara, where
they learned the Mongol language. Accepting the in
vitation of a Persian envoy whom they met at Bokhara,
they accompanied him to the court of Kooblai Khan,
the Great Mogul, who ruled over China and Tartary.
This prince received them favourably, and accredited
them as his ambassadors to the pope, whom he desired to
send to him a hundred learned men to teach his Mongol
subjects. They returned home in 1269, and found that
the pope had died in 1268. His successor, who was
not elected until 1271 or 1272, gave them letters to
Kooblai Khan, to whom they returned accompanied by
young Marco. They arrived at the court of Kooblai
in 1275. Marco learned several Asiatic languages, and
obtained the favour of the Khan, who sent him on im
portant missions to China and other provinces. He
was the first European that entered China, in which
he passed several years. Having obtained the consent
of Kooblai Khan, the three Venetians quitted his ser
vice about 1292, and, embarking on the coast of China,
came to Ormuz by water, and reached Venice in 1295,
with many diamonds, rubies, etc. of great value. Marco
commanded a galley in a battle against the Genoese, by
whom he was taken prisoner. Dining his long cap
tivity he composed a narrative of his adventures, by the
aid of notes which he had written previously. It is said
that a French version of his book was made under his
direction. His narrative produced a great sensation,
and was translated into many languages, but for several
ages was regarded as a tissue of fictions or gross ex
aggerations. The researches and revelations of suc
cessive centuries have more and more confirmed his
veracity; and it is now recognized that his services had
great influence on the progress of navigation and com
merce. "When in the long series of ages," says M.
Walckenaer, " we search for three men who by the
grandeur and influence of their discoveries have con
tributed most to the progress of geography or of our
knowledge of the globe, the modest name of the
Venetian traveller presents itself in the same line with
the names of Alexander the Great and Christopher
Columbus." He died about 1324. Among the best
editions of his book is that of Baldelli, " II Milione di
Messer Marco Polo," (4 vols., 1827.) An English ver
sion, by Marsden, was published in 1818.
See PI.ACIDO ZURLA, "Di M. Polo e degli aliri antichi Viag-
giatori," etc., 1818; STEIN, " Ueber den Venetianer M. Polo," 1821 ;
G. B. BAI.DELU. "Vita di M. Polo," 1827; G. PAUTIIIER, article
"Polo," ill the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "London Quar
terly Review" for January, 1819, and July, 1868.
Polonceau, po'los'so', (ANTOINE REMI,) a French
engineer, born at Rheims in 1778. As engineer-in-chief
of the department of Mont Blanc, he constructed a road
over Mont Cenis about 1812. Among his works is the
Pont du Carrousel at Paris, (1834.) He wrote several
professional works. Died in 1847. His son, JEAN BAR-
THELKMY CAMILLE, (1813-59,) was distinguished as a
railway engineer and director.
Poltrot de Mere, pol'tRo' deh meh-ra/, (JEAN,) a
French fanatic, who assassinated Francis, Duke de
Guise, in 1563. He was executed the same year.
Polus. See POLE.
Po'lus, a Sophist of Agrigentum, lived about 400 B.C.,
and was a disciple of Gorgias. He wrote a work on
rhetoric.
Polus, (MATTHEW.) See POOI.E.
Polwhele, pol'wheel, (Rev. RICHARD,) an English
antiquary and poet, born at Truro in 1759 or 1760.
Among his works is a " History of Cornwall." Died
in 1838.
Polyaenus, pol-e-ee'nus, [ITo/a'atvof,] OF LAMPSACUS,
was an eminent mathematician ; but, having become a
friend and disciple of Epicurus, he renounced geometry,
as unworthy of his notice.
Polyaenus, a Macedonian writer, who lived about
150 A.I). He wrote a work on "Stratagems in War,"
which he dedicated to Marcus Aurelius and Verus. It
is extant, and is prized for the numerous anecdotes and
facts which he has collected, and which are not found
elsewhere.
Polybe. See POI.YIUUS.
Polybius. See POLYBUS.
Po-lyb'I-us, [Gr. Ilo~Ai>6ioc ; Fr. POLYHE, po'leb'; It.
POLIHIO, po-lee'be-o,] a celebrated Greek historian, born
at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, about 206 B.C. lie was a
son of Lycortas, who succeeded his friend Philopoemen
as general of the Achaean League in 182 B.C. Polybius
obtained in 169 B.C. command of the cavalry raised to
fight for the Romans against Perseus; but his ser
vices were declined by the Roman general. In 167 the
Romans transported to Italy, as hostages or exiles, one
thousand Achaeans, among whom was Polybius. lie
found a home in the house of Paulus /Kmilius, and
became the preceptor of his son Scipio, afterwards the
famous Scipio Africanus the younger. A warm friend
ship was formed between this pupil and Polybius, who
accompanied him in all his campaigns. /He witnessed the
conquest and destruction of Carthage, (146 B.C.,) soon
after which he went to Greece and exerted his influence
with some success to procure favourable terms for the
conquered Achnsans. lie afterwards devoted himself
to the completion of a general history, for which he had
been preparing himself for some years by studies and
by journeys to Egypt, Spain, Gaul, etc. The exact date
of his death is unknown. Lucian states that he died at
the age of eighty-two. His great work, entitled KaOo-
T^iKri, Kou'ij ianpia, ("Universal History,") comprised the
period from 220 to 146 B.C., and consisted of forty
books, the greater part of which are lost. We have the
first five books entire, and many fragments and extracts
of several other books. His impartiality, his love of
truth, his sound judgment and experience in military
and civil affairs, render this one of the most valuable
and reliable histories that have ever been written by an
uninspired writer. He is thus briefly characterized by
Cicero: "Polybius bonus auctor in primis." Livy's
account of events after the second Punic war appears
to be much like a translation from Polybius. The latter
despised or neglected rhetorical ornaments, and was
deficient in imagination. His style, consequently, is
not attractive. He aimed only to instruct, and, accord
ing to some critics, carried too far his didactic and
moralizing tendency. He wrote, also, a " Life of Phi
lopoemen," and a "Treatise on Tactics." "Polybius
and Arrian," says Macaulay, "have given us authentic
accounts of facts ; and here their merit ends. They
were not men of comprehensive minds; they had not
the art of telling a story in an interesting manner."
("Essay on History," 1828.) An English version of
Polybius, by Hampton, (1772,) is commended.
£ee K. W. NITZSCH, "Polybius ?.ur Geschichte antiker Politik,"
etc., 1842; L. F. HEYD, "Vita Polybii," 1812; VAN HRUSDE,
" School van Polybius of Geschiedkunde voor the negentientie
eeuw," 1841: F. H. BOTHE, "Polybiana," 1844; "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Fol'y-bus, [Gr. UoAvSo^ ; Fr. POLYBE, po'leb',] a
king of Corinth, who was said to have educated or
adopted CEdipus.
Polybus [IloAu5of] or Polybius, a pupil and son-in-
law of Hippocrates, lived in the island of Cos about 400
B.C. He was one of the founders of the sect of Dogmatic!.
Several treatises usually printed with the works of Hip
pocrates are ascribed to Polybus by many critics.
Pol'y-carp, [Gr. noAwcnpTOf ; Lat. PoLYCAR'PUS ; Fr.
POLYCARPE, po'le'utup',] an eminent martyr and Father
of the Christian Church, of whose early history we
have no authentic record. Irenaeus states that Polycarp
had intercourse with John and others of the apostle*,
and was appointed Bishop of Smyrna by the apostles.
According to some writers, he was ordained by Saint
John. He was Bishop of Smyrna when Ignatius of
Antioch passed through that city on his way to Rome,
which occurred between 107 and 116 A.n. Polycarp
visited Rome in his old age, and had a conference with
Anicetus, the Bishop of Rome, who differed from the
Eastern churches in relation to the time for the obser-
a,e, i, o,\\,y,long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short: a, e, j, o, obscure: fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;
POLTCARPE
1821
POLTNICES
vance of Easter. He suffered martyrdom by fire at
Smyrna about 166 A.D. A letter from the church of
Smyrna on the subject of his death is still extant. The
only work of Polycarp that remains is a short Epistle
to the Philippians, which is prized because numerous
passages of the New Testament are quoted in it.
•SeeTiLt.EMONT, " Memoires ecclesiastiques ;" CRUCIGER, "Ora-
tio de Polycarpi Vita," 1543 ; " Lite of Po'.ycarp, Bishop of Smyrna,"
London, 1X47 ; COMTE DE COETI.OSQUET, " Vie de i>. Ignace et de
S. Poiycarpe," 1852.
Polycarpe or Folycarpus. See POLYCARP.
Pol-y-ehar'mus, [tto/.i'xap/Mf,] a Greek sculptor of
unknown date. Pliny mentions his statue of " Venus
washing herself," which was at Rome in his time.
Polycleitus. See POLYCLETUS.
Pol'y-cles, [Ylo'/.vKAf/f,] a Greek sculptor, who lived
about 370 B.C., was probably an Athenian. He is men
tioned by Pliny, who says he made a celebrated statue
of a hermaphrodite.
Another sculptor named POLYCLES is mentioned by
I'iiny as flourishing about 155 B.C. Pausanias notices
some works of Polycles ; but it is doubtful which of these
two he refers to.
Folyclete. See POLYCLETUS.
Pol-y-cle'tus or Pol-y-cli'tus, [Gr. YloAvKteirof ;
Fr. POLYCLETE, po'le'kl^t',] a Greek statuary of great
celebrity, was also a sculptor and architect. 'He was a
native ot Sicyon or Argos, and was a pupil of Ageladas,
the Argive statuary, who was at the same time the mas- I
ter of Phidias. The works of Polycletus were probably
executed between 452 and 412 li.'c. He surpassed all
statuaries of his time except Phidias, and equalled the
latter in beauty if not in sublimity. He once gained
the first prize for a statue of an Amazon, in competition
with Phidias and other artists. His master-pieces in
bronze were a statue of a young man called " Diadu-
menos" binding his head with a fillet, " Doryphorus the
Spear-Bearer," the Amazon noticed above, and a statue j
called the Kavuv, (-"Canon,") because it was recognized |
as a perfect model of the human figure. Some critics !
maintain that this last statue was the " Doryphorus." j
None of his works was more celebrated than a colossal
ivory and gold statue of Juno, which adorned a temple
near Argos. He was architect of a theatre at Epidaurus,
which was, according to Pausanias, the most beautiful
in the world. Cicero and Pliny agree in the opinion
that Polycletus brought the art of statuary to perfection.
Among his pupils were Aristides, Canachus, Atheno-
clorus, and Phrynon.
See PUNY, "Natural History;" £MERIC DAVID, "Vies des
Artistes aiiciens et modernes ;" K. O. MULI.ER, " Haudbuch der
Archaologie der Kunst."
Polycletus, another statuary of Argos, is mentioned
by Pausanias as a different person from him " who made
the statue of Juno," and as a pupil of Naucydes, (who
flourished about 410 B.C.) Several works are variously
attributed to this Polycletus and to his more celebrated
namesake.
Polycletus OK LARISSA, a Greek historian of un
known date. He wrote a history of Alexander the Great,
which is not extant.
Polycrate. See POLYCRATES
Po-lyc'ra-tes, [Gr. HoMKpurrjf • Fr. POLYCRATE,
po'le'kutt',] tyrant of Samos, usurped the royal power
about 532 K.c. He formed a powerful navy, and con
quered some other islands. He patronized literature
and the arts, and constructed some grand public works.
His court was the resort of eminent artists and poets,
among whom was Anacreon. He defended Samos with
success against an attack of the Spartans and Corinthians.
In 522 B.C. he was induced to go to Sardi? by the satrap i
Oroetes, who treacherously put him to death.
See HEKODOTUS, " History," book iii. ; VEEGENS, " Dissertatio
histnrica de Polycrate Samio," 1839. Fora popular legend respecting
Po'.ycrates, see SCHILLER'S poem entitled " L)er Ring des Po ykrates."
Polycrates, an Athenian orator and Sophist, who
was a contemporary of Socrates. He taught at Athens
and Cyprus.
Fol-y-dec'tes, [Tlo/MfeK7jj£,] a Greek sculptor, who
worked at Rome in the first century after Christ.
Polydeuces. See POLLUX.
Polydore. See POLYDORUS.
Polydore Vergil. See VERGIL.
Fol-y-do'rus, |Gr. UoAiidcjpof • Fr. POLYDORK, po'-
le'dok',] a son of Cadmus and Harmonia, was King of
Thebes, and the father of Labdacus.
Folydorus, [Eng. POLYDORE, pol'e-dor,] the youngest
son of Priam, was, according to the ancient poets, com
mitted to the care of Polymestor, King of Thrace, by his
father, who sent with him a large sum of money. Poly
mestor killed the young prince and appropriated the
money.
Polydorus, a king of Sparta, was a son of Alca-
menes, and the father of Eurycrates. He lived about
725 B.C.
Polydorus, a sculptor of Rhodes, aided Agesander
(who is supposed to have been his father) in the execu
tion of the famous group of Laocoon. He is mentioned
by Pliny.
Pol-y-euc'tus, [Gr. rio/imiKroc ; Fr. POLYEUCTE, po'-
le'ukt'.j an Athenian orator, lived about 325 B.C. He
was a political friend of Demosthenes, and an adversary
of Phocion.
Polygnote. See POLYGNOTUS.
Fol-yg-no'tus, |Gr. JIoAv/vwrof; Fr. POLYGNOTE,
po'leg'not'; Ger. POI.YGNOTOS, po-lig-no'tos,] an excel
lent Greek painter, born in the island of Thasos, was a
son and pupil of Aglaophon. He flourished from about
460 to 430 B.C., was a contemporary of Phidias, and was a
brother of the painter Aristophon. He became a citizen
of Athens and a friend of Cimon, who employed him to
ornament the temple of Theseus. He painted gratui
tously the Poecile or portico of Athens. After the death
of Cimon (449 B.C.) Polygnottis probably retired from
Athens, and applied himself to the decoration of the
great temple at Delphi. He is styled "the Homer of
painting," because he treated his subjects in an epic
rather than a dramatic spirit. Pliny represents him as
the first who painted women with transparent or shining
drapery, (Incida veste,) and the first who contributed
much to the progress of the art. He had imagination
in the highest degree. In allusion to the ideal charac
ter and moral expression of his works, Aristotle calls
him an ethic painter. The same critic says, in another
passage, Polygnotus represented men better than they
are, (or superior to nature.) Among his works were
the "Capture of Troy," and the "Visit of Ulysses to
the Lower World."
See PLINY, "Natural History;" PAUSANIAS, i., ix., and x. ;
SILLIG, "Catalogus Artificum ;" SUIDAS, "Polygnotus;" OTTO
JAHN, "Die Gemalde des Polygnotos in der Lesche zu Delphi,"
1841 ; " Nouveile Biographic Generate. "
Fol-y-his'tor, [no/.worup,] (ALEXANDER, or ALEX
ANDER CORNELIUS,) a Greek geographer and historian,
born in Phrygia or Miletus, lived at Rome about 80 B.C.
He was surnamed POLYHISTOR on account of his great
learning, and is often quoted by Pliny the Elder. He
wrote a description of many countries, in forty books.
None of his works are extant.
Polyide. See POLYIDUS.
Fol-y-hyrn'ni-a or Po-lym'nl-a, [from iro?.i'f,
"much," or "many," and iym>c, a "hymn," or "song,"]
the name of the muse who presided over singing and
rhetoric, and was supposed to be the inventress of
harmony.
Pol-y-I'dus, [Gr. Uo7.vi6of ; Fr. POLYIDE, po'le'ed',] a
soothsayer of classic mythology, who was fabled to have
restored to life Glaucus, a son of Minos. This story
was a favourite subject of ancient poets and artists.
Polyidus, [no/.i'«Soc,] an Athenian poet, musician, and
painter, lived about 400 B.C. His productions (dithy
rambs) were very popular.
Pol-y-mes'tor or Pol-ym-nes'tor, a fabulous king
of Thrace, was said to have been a son-in-law of Priam.
He murdered POLYDORUS, which see. His story is related
with much variation by different writers, some of whom
say that he killed his own son by mistake instead of
Polydorus.
Pol-ym-nes'tus [IIoAtyu^ffTOf] or Fol-ym-nas'tus
OF COLOPHON, an epic and lyric poet, and musician, lived
about 660 B.C.
Polynice. See POLYNICES.
Pol-y-m'ces or Pol-y-nei'ces, [Gr. HO'/MVELK^ ; Fr.
POLYNICE, po'le'ness',] a son of CEdipus, King of Thebes,
t: as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; th as in this.
xplanations, p. 23.)
POLTPHEME
1822
POMPEIUS
and Jocasta. He made an agreement with his brother
Eteocles that they should each reign one year alternately.
Eteocles, having reigned the first year, refused to resign
the throne. The cause of Polynices was espoused by
Adrastus, King of Argos, who led the famous expedition
against Thebes. Polynices and Eteocles killed each other
in single combat.
See SOPHOCLES, " CEdipus et Co!onus ;" EURIPIDES, "Phoe-
nissa;."
Folypheme. Sec POLYPHEMUS.
Pol-y-phe'mus, [Gr. H<MIX/»;//OC ; Fr. POLYPI IEME,
po'Ie'l'im , | a Cyclops or giant of Sicily, who was said
to have one eye in his forehead, and was called a son of
Neptune. Homer relates in the "Odyssey" a famous
adventure of Ulvsses in the cave of Polyphemus. (See,
also, Virgil's " ^ineid," book iii. 617-676.)
Pol-ys-per'ehon, [Gr. YlohvaxEpxuv,] a Macedonian
general, who in 332 B.C. obtained command of a division
in the phalanx of Alexander. He served in the cam
paign of India, and was second in command of a body
of veterans which Craterus conducted home in 323 B.C.
During the absence of the regent Antipater in 321, he
had the chief command in Macedonia and Greece.
He became regent in 319 B.C., at the death of Antipater,
who designated him as his successor. A coalition was
formed against him by Antigonus and Cassander, who
expelled him from Macedonia in 316 K.c. In 310 he
raised an army to obtain the crown for Heracles, (a son
of Alexander and Barsina,) but, having been corrupted
by Cassander, he procured the assassination of that
youth. Died after 303 B.C.
See GROTE, "History of Greece;" DlODORUS Sicui.us, books
xvii.-xx. ; DROYSEN, " Geschicl'.'; cler Nachfolger Alexanders."
Polystrate. See POI.YSTRATITS.
Po-lys'tra-tus, [Gr. ITo/wrporof ; Fr. POLYSTRATE,
po'le'stuSt',] a Greek Epicurean philosopher, who suc
ceeded Hermarchus as the head of the school. He
lived probably about 2^0 B.C.
Po-lyx'e-na, [Gr. UOAV^SVJJ; Fr. POI.YXENE, po'lek'-
s£n',j a daughter of Priam, King of Troy, was beloved
by Achilles. According to one tradition, she was sacri
ficed by the Greeks on the tomb of Achilles.
Folyxene. See POI.YXENA.
Pomarancio, po-ma-ran'cho, the surname of Nrccoi.6
CIRCIGNA.NI, (cheu-chen-ya'nee,) an Italian painter, born
at Pomarancio, near Volterra. lie worked in Rome, and
aided Titian in the Belvedere of the Vatican. One of
his latest works is dated 1591.
See LANZI, " Historv of Painting in Italy."
Pomare, po-ma'ra, (.\IMATA,) Queen of Tahiti, was
born about 1822. Several chiefs having in 1842 placed
the island under the protection of France, she protested
against the act. The French admiral I)u Petit-Thouars
attempted to depose her by force, but his act was dis
avowed by the French court. She abdicated in favour
of her son, Tamaton, in 1852. 27//'«. /V/y7-':-'«,^ v--rr«,»^s
Pomarius, po-ma're-us, the Latin name of SAMUEL
BAUMGARTKN, (bown/gaK/ten,) a German Protestant
minister and writer, born in 1624; died in 1683.
Pombal, de, da pom-ba'/ or p6x-bal', (Dom SKBAS-
TIAO JozE de Carvalho — da kaR-val'yo,) MARQUIS,
Count of Oeyras, an eminent Portuguese statesman, born
at Soura, near Coimbra, in 1699. He studied law at
Coimbra, and was sent as envoy-extraordinary to London
in 1739. He married a niece of the Austrian general
Daun, who gained the favour of the Queen of Portugal.
Bv her influence Carvalho became minister of foreign
affairs in 1750. He greatly increased the prosperity of
Portugal, by the promotion of education, manufactures,
commerce, etc. He reduced the power of the Inquisition,
and banished the Jesuits in 1759. His administrative
talents appear to have been of a high order. Tn 1770 he
received the title of Marquis de Pombal. His reforms
and his severity towards some of the nobility, who were
suspected of complicity in a plot against the king's life,
rendered him unpopular. He was deprived of power at
the death of Joseph I., in 1777. Died in 1782.
See " Life of Pombal," by T- SMITH, 1843; GUSTA, " Vita di
Sebastiano Giuseppe di Carvalho," 4 vols., 1781; " Memoires du
Marquis de Pombal," 4 vols., 1784: " Administration dn Marquis de
Pombal," 4 vols., 1787; OPPERMANM, "Pombal nnd die Jesiiiten."
1845; CHAMPRORKKT, " Choiseul et «Pomba'.," 1836; "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Pomerancio. See RONCALLI.
Pomeranus. See BUGENIIAGEN.
Pomet, po'mi', (PIERRE,) a French botanist, born in
Paris in 1658. He published a "Description of Drugs,"
(etc., (1694,) which was then the best French work on
; materia medica. Died in 1699.
Pomey, po'mi', (FRANCOIS ANNE,) a French Jesuit
j and classical teacher, b >rn at Perncs in 1619. He pub
lished a work on mythology, "Mythological Pantheon,"
(r6^Q,) and other works. Died in 1673.
PSuv'fret, (JoiiN,) an English poet, born in Bedford
shire in 1667, became rector of Maiden. lie wrote,
besides other poems, "The Choice," which was once
popular. "He pleases many," says Dr. Johnson ; "and
he who pleases many must have merit." Died in 1703.
Pommayrac, de, deh po'ini'iaV, (PIERRE PAUL,) 'a.
French painter of miniatures, was born in Porto-Rico
about 1818. He worked in Paris, and obtained a medal
of the first class in 1842.
Pommer, pom'mer, (CHRiSTOPH FRIEDRICH,) a Ger
man physician, born in 1787; died in 1841.
Pommeraye, pom'nV, (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a French
monk, born at Rouen in 1617. He wrote a "History
of the Archbishops of Rouen," (1667.) Died in 1687.
Pommereul, de, deli pom'rul', ( FRANCOIS RKNE
JEAN,) BARON, a French general and politician, born in
Bretagne in 1745 ; died in 1823.
Pommier, po'me-i', (VICTOR Louis AMEDEE,) a
French poet, was born at Lyons in 1804. He obtained
several prizes of the French Academy for poems on the
"Discovery of Steam Power," (1848,) and other sub
jects. He published "Poesies," (1832,) " Oceanides et
Fantaisies," (1839,) and other collections. Died in 1862.
See QUSRARD, " La France Litteraire."
Po-mo'na, [Fr. POMONE, po'mon'; horn pomitm, an
"apple,") a Roman divinity supposed to preside over
the fruit which grows on trees.
Pomone. See POMONA.
Pompadour, de, deh poN'pf'dooR', (Madame JEANNE
ANTOINETTE POISSON,) MARQUISE, was born in Paris
in 1721. She was married in 1741 to M. d'Etioles, a
publican. About 1744 her beauty and accomplishments
attracted the favour of Louis XV., who gave her the title
of Marquise de Pompadour in 1745. She retained a
dominant influence over him until her death, in 1764,
She appointed ministers and generals, received ambas
sadors, and maintained correspondence with foreign
courts. Among her diplomatic acts was the coalition of
France with Austria against Frederick the Great, in 1756.
See "History of the Marchioness de "Pompadour," London, 2
vo!s., 1758; SOUI.AVIK, "Memoires de la Cour de France pendant
laFaveurde Madame de Pompadour," 1802; CAPEFIGUK. "Madame
de Pompadour." 1858; VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XV;" L. DS
CARN'K, " Le Gouvernemeut de Madame de Pompadour," in the
"Revue des Daux Mondes," January 15, 1859.
Pompee, the French for POMPEY, which see.
Pompei, pom-pa'ee, (GiROLAMO,) an Italian Hellenist
and translator, born at Verona in 1731. He produced
some successful verses, entitled "Pastoral Songs," ("Can-
/oni pastoral!," 1766,) and several tragedies. His repu
tation is founded chiefly on an Italian translation of
Plutarch's "Lives," (1772,) which is the best in that
language, and probably equal to the best version in any
language. Died at Verona in 1788.
See FOXTAXA. " Ds Vita et Scrintis Hier. Pompei," 1790; PIN-
DILMONTE. " E'ogio storico di G. Pompei," 1789; TIPALDO, " Bio-
grafia deg!i Italian! illustri."
Pompeius, (C-NEIUS.) See POMPEY THE GREAT.
Pom-pe'ius, (QuiNTUS,) a Roman general and orator,
was consul in 141 B.C. He commanded in Spain in 140,
and was defeated. In 131 B.C. he was elected censor.
Pompeius, (RuFus Q.,) a son or grandson of the
preceding, was tribune of the people in 100 B.C., and
praetor in 91. He became consul with L. Sulla in SS
B.C., and was a partisan of Sulla in the civil war. lie
was killed by his mutinous soldiers in 88 or 87 B.C.
Pompeius Festus. See FESTUS.
Pompeius Magnus. See POMPEY THE GREAT.
Pom-pe'ius Stra'bo, (CNEius,) an able Roman
general, was the father of Pompev the triumvir. He
ained several victories in the Social war, and was a
partisan of the aristocracy in the civil war between Sulla
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short'; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; m5t: not; good: moon;
POM PEWS
1823
POMPONIUS
and Marius. His avarice and cruelty rendered him
odious. He was killed by lightning in 87 B.C.
Pompeius Trogus. See TKOGUS.
Pompeo. See POMPEY.
Pom'pey, [Lat. POMPE'HTS; Fr. POM PEE, po.v'pa' ;
It. POMPEO, pom-pa'o,] (CNF.rus,) the eldest son of
Pompey the Great, was born about 78 B.C. His mother
was Mucia. He commanded a fleet for his father in 48
H.C., and after the death of the latter sailed to Spain,
where he raised an army of thirteen legions. In 45 li.C.
this army encountered at Munda another, commanded
by Cassar in person, who gained a complete but not an
easy victory. Pompey was overtaken in his retreat
and killed.
Pompey, (Pompeius,) (SF.XTCS,) a son of the trium
vir, was born in 75 u.C. He waged war with some suc
cess against Cxsar in Spain after the battle of Munda.
Soon after the death of Caesar (44 i:.c.) he was appointed
chief admiral of the fleet by the senate ; but he was
proscribed as an outlaw by Antony and Octavius. He
made himself master of Sicily, and, by means of his
formidable fleet, obstructed the supply of corn which
the Romans received by sea. The officers of Sextus
gained several victories over the fleet of Octavius. In
36 is.c. Agrippa defeated Pompey, who fled to Asia and
was put to death in 35 li.c. by the officers of Antony.
See APPIAN, " Belltim Civile."
Pompey the Great, [Lat. POMPE'IUS MAG'NUS ;
Fr. POM PEE LE GRAND, pox'pa' leh gRON,] (C.NEius,)
a famous Roman general and triumvir, was born on
the 30th of September, 106 li.C., in the same year as
Cicero. lie fought under his father in the Social war,
(89 li.C.,) and saved his lather's life when China attempted
to assassinate him in 87 li.C. He raised, without a com
mission, three legions to fight for Sulla against the
party of Marius in 83 u.C., and began to display his
great military talents in the defeat of a hostile force
under Brutus. For this success Sulla sainted him with
the title of imperator. He gained another victory over
the legates of Carbo in 82 B.C., reduced Xumidia in 81,
and obtained the honour of a triumph, although he
was but a simple eqiies.
In 76 B.C. he obtained command of an army sent to
Spain against Sertorius, who defeated Pompey in two
b.ittles, but was assassinated in the year 72, soon after
which Spain was reduced to subjection. With a high
decree of popularity, Pompey returned to Italy in 71 B.C.,
and was elected consul (with Crassus) for the year 70,
although he had not held any of the losver civil offices
and was not legally eligible for other reasons. Among
the important acts of his administration was the restora
tion of the power of the tribunes, by which he signalized
his defection from the aristocratic party. He remained
at Rome inactive during 69 and 68 B.C. In the next
year his friends procured the passage of a law by which
he was selected to conduct a war against the pirates
(who infested the Mediterranean in great numbers) and
was invested with irresponsible power for three years.
He performed this service with complete success in less
than one year, and, it is said, took 20,000 prisoners.
The next enterprise to which he was called by his own
ambition and the favour of the people was the termina
tion of the Mithridatic war, which had been protracted
for years. His claims having been advocated bv Cicero
in a long oration, (" Pro Lege Manilla,") he superseded
Lucullus in 66 B.C. He defeated Mithridates in Lesser
Armenia in the same year, and after that king had
escaped to the Crimea, which was difficult of access
to the Roman army, Pompey turned southward, and
reduced Syria to a Roman province in 64 B.C. After a
siege of three months, he captured Jerusalem in 63, and
entered the sanctuary of the Temple. Having received
intelligence of the death of Mithridates, and having re
duced Pontus and Bithynia to subjection, he returned to
Italy in 62 B.C., and was received with general enthusiasm.
The triumph which he obtained on this occasion was the
most brilliant which the Romans had ever witnessed.
Offended by the refusal of the senate to sanction his
public acts in Asia, he identified himself with the popu
lar party, and formed with Caesar and Crassus a coalition
'>\- triii m v.rate, (59 B.C.) Pompey, having divorced ^Mucia,
his third wife, married Julia, a daughter of Caesar. He
made no effort to prevent the banishment of Cicero, but
he supported the bill for his restoration, in 57 B.C. His
popularity was now on the decline. He had lost the
confidence of the senate by his coalition with Cajsar, who
was his successful rival in respect to the favour of the
people. Pompey could only obtain the consulship in 5^
B.C. by the aid of Caesar, with whom he and Crassns had
formed another secret treaty or bargain.
Anticipating the open hostility of Cresar to his ambi
tious projects, Pompey renewed his connection with the
aristocracy, who accepted him as their leader in 51 B.C.
About the end of the next year the friends of Pompey
obtained a decree of the senate that Csesar should dis
band his army. In defiance of this decree, Caesar marched
to Rome with a force which Pompey was unable to resist.
His self-confidence was such that he had neglected t >
levy troops, and he was compelled to retreat to Epirus,
where he collected an army. (See Cv£SAR.) Urged on
by the civilians and nobles of his camp, against his own
judgment he offered battle to Caesar in the plain of
Pharsalia in August, 48 B.C. and was completely defeated.
He escaped by sea, with his wife Cornelia, and sought
refuge in F,gvpt, but was murdered in the act of landing,
by order of Theodotns and Achillas, the chief ministers,
in September, 48 B.C. His moral character is repre
sented as better than that of the majority of Roman
generals in his time. He was deficient in political
abilities, and was guided by no fixed principles as a
statesman.
See PLUTARCH, " Life of Pompey:" G. LONG, "The Decli»» of
the Roman Republic :" Drox CASSIUS, " History;" CICKKO, "Ora-
tio pro Lese Manilla :" DRUMANN-. "Geschichte Roms ;" APPIAV,
" tisllum Civile ;" J. Ui'MARCK. " Dissertatio de Pompejo Magno,"
170); " Nouvelle Biosraphie Ginerale."
Pompignau, de, deh poN'pen'yfix', ( JEAN GEORGES
LE FRANC,) a French prelate, born at Montauban in
1715. lie became Archbishop of Vienne in 1774, and
a member of the States-General in 1789. He was the
head of that party of the clergy which united with the
Tiers-fitat. Pied in 1790.
Pompigiian, de, ([KAN JACQUES LE FRANC,) MAR
QUIS, a French poet, born at Montauban in 1709, was a
brother of the preceding. He produced in 1734 a suc
cessful tragedy of "Dido," (" Didon,") and in 1740 a
poem entitled "Voyage de Languedoc et de Provence."
His "Sacred Poems" ("Poesies sacrees sur divers
Sujets," 1751) were admired. He was admitted into the
French Academy in 1759, and pronounced a discourse
against the skeptical philosophers which provoked the
satire of Voltaire. He wrote various other poems,
among which is a beautiful "Ode on the Death of J.
B. Rousseau." Died in 1784.
See RSIJTR \xn BARERR, " Eio;e de Le Franc rle Pompiinan,"
17^5 ; G \KKT% " Notice de L» Franc de Pomnic;nan," prefixed to his
SJtioot-.Workj^z vols , iS22 ;-M ARMONTEI., " Memoires ;" L* HARPE,
" Conrs <le Litterature ;" " NouveUe Biographic Generate."
Pomponace. See POMPONA/./.I.
Pomponatius. See POMPONAZ/.L
Pomponazzi, pom-po-nat'see, [Lat. POMPONA'TIUS ;
Fr. POMPONACE, pAx'po'ni^s',] ( PIETRO. ) an Italian
philosopher, born at Mantua in 1462. He taught the
philosophy of Aristotle at Padua, Ferrara, and Bologna.
In his treatise "On the Immortality of the Soul" (1516)
he gave offence by affirming that Aristotle did not teach
that doctrine. Among his works is a "Treatise on Fate,
Free Will," etc., (1567.) Died about 1524.
See T. G. Ot.KARius. "T~>e Pomponatio." Jena. 1705; NICERON,
"Mamoires;" BAVI.E, " Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Pompone. See POM PON NE.
Pomponio Leto. See POMPON i us L.-'Erns.
Pom-po'ni-us, (SFXTUS,) a Roman jurist, who is
supposed to have lived in the reigns of Hadrian and
Antoninus Pius. Many extracts from his works are
found in the Digest.
Pomponius Atticus. See ATTICUS.
Pom-po'ni-us Lae'tus,(lee'tus,) [It. POMPONIO LETO,
pom-po'ne-o la'to,] ( JULIUS,) an Italian antiquary and
scholar, born in Upper Calabria in 1425, was sometimes
called PIETRO ni CALABRIA. He succeeded Professor
Lorenzo Valla at Rome in 1457, and founded there an
academy for the cultivation of Roman antiquities and
e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this.
xplanations, p. 23.)
POMPON! US
1824
PONIATOWSKI
classic learning, which was suppressed by Paul II. in
1468. He and other members of this academy were
persecuted by Paul II. on a charge of treason and heresy.
Pope Sixtus IV. permitted him to resume his chair in
the Roman College in 1471. He wrote a "Compendium
of Roman History from the Death of Gordian to Justinus
III.," (1498,) and other works. Died in 1497.
See M. A. SABKI.UCUS, "Vita Ppmponii Lseti," 1510; TIRA-
BOSCHI, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" GINGUENE, " Histoire
Litteraire d'ltalie."
Fompcmius Mela. See MELA.
Fomponne, de, deh po.s'pon', (SiMON ARNAULD,)
MARQUIS, a French minister of state, born in 1618, was
a son of Robert Arnauld d'Andilly. He became min
ister-secretary of state for foreign affairs in 1671, and
was removed in 1679. He was recalled at the death of
Louvois, in 1691. He left a high reputation for probity
and for skill in diplomacy. Died in 1699.
See SAINT- SIMON, "Memoires;" SISMONDI, "Histoire des
Franfais."
Fona, po'na, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian physician and
writer, born at Verona in 1594. He gained distinction
as a writer of numerous works, among which were some
romances, dramas, scientific treatises, etc. He received
the title of historiographer from the emperor Ferdinand
III. Died after 1652.
Ponce, pdxss, (NicoLAS,)a French engraver, born in
Paris in 1746. He wrote nodces of several artists for
the "Biographic Universelle." Died in 1831.
Ponce, p6n'tha, (PEDRO,) a Spanish Benedictine
monk, bom at Valladolid about 1525. He is the reputed
inventor of the art of teaching the dumb to converse.
According to Ambrosio Morales, he was very successful,
and trained his pupils to speak riva voce. No account
of his method is extant. Died in 1584.
Ponce de Leon, pon'tha da la-6n', [sometimes
Anglicized in pronunciation as p6nss de le'on,] QUAN,)
a Spanish discoverer of Florida, was born in Leon.
He accompanied Columbus in his second voyage,
(1493,) and served in Hispaniola under Ovando. In
1508 lie commanded an expedition to Porto Rico, which
he conquered. Having heard an Indian tradition of
a fountain of rejuvenescence in one of the Bahama isles,
he searched for that fountain in 1512 without success, but
he discovered Florida the same year. He was mortally
wounded in a fight with some natives of Florida in
1521, and died in Cuba.
See HEKRERA, " Novus Orbis ;" OVIEDO, " Historia general."
Ponce de Leon, (Luis,) a Spanish lyric poet, born
at Granada in 1528. lie became professor of theology
at Salamanca about 1562. He translated Virgil's "Ec
logues," two books of the "Georgics," and many odes
of Horace. He wrote odes remarkable for beauty of
style and elevation of thought, which are highly praised
by Mr. Ticknor. He is called by a critic in the "Edin
burgh Review" "the greatest of the Spanish poets of
this age, and perhaps one of the noblest lyric poets that
ever existed." Died in 1591.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature ;" LONGFELLOW,
"Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Lyric Poetry of Spain," in the
"Edinburgh Review" for July, 1824.
Ponce de Leon, (RoDRir.o,) Marquis de Cadiz, a
famous Spanish general, born in 1443. ^e served in
many campaigns against the Moors, surprised the for
tress of Alhama in 1482, and took a prominent part in
the conquest of Granada, which was effected in 1492.
Died in 1492.
Ponce Pilate. See PILATE.
Poncelet, pdxss'li', ( FRANC.OIS FREDERIC,) a French
jurist, born at Mouzay (Meuse) in 1790. He pub
lished several works on Roman law. Died in Paris
in 1843.
Poncelet, (JEAN VICTOR,) an eminent French geom
eter and engineer, born at Metz in 1788. He served in
the army in Russia, (1812.) He became a member of
the Institute, and, about 1834, professor of mechanics at
the Faculty of Sciences, Paris. In 1848 he obtained the
rank of general of engineers, and was elected to the
Constituent Assembly. Among his works are "Traite
des Proprietes projectives des Figures," (1820,) and
a "Course of Mechanics applied to Machines," (1826.)
He rendered great service to the industrial arts by his
improvements i;i hydraulics and practical mechanics.
See " Nouvelle Biographic GJnerale."
Poncelet, (POLYCARPK,) a French rural economist,
born at Verdun, lived in the second half of the eighteenth
century. He wrote a "Natural History of Wheat,"
(1779,) and other works.
Foiicelin, pA.Nss'laN', (/KAN CHARLES,) a French
editor and compiler, born in Poitou in 1746; died in
1828.
Poncet de la Grave, poN's.V deh It gntv, (GuiL-
LAUME,) a French writer, born at Carcassonne in 1725,
wrote a " History of the Royal Navy," (2 vols., 1780,)
and other works. Died in 1803.
Poncher, po.x'sha', (£TIENNE,) a French prelate,
born at Tours in 1446. lie became Bishop of Paris in
1503, and keeper of the seals of 'France in 1512. He
was employed as a diplomatist by Francis I. Died
in 1524.
Poiichino, pon-kee'no, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an
Italian painter, sometimes called Bozz\TTOor BAZZACCO,
was born at Castel- Franco about 1500. He was a pupil
of Titian. Died in 1570.
Foiigol, de, deh p6.\'sol', (HENRI SIMON JOSEPH
ANSQUER,) a French writer, born at Kemper in 1730;
died in 1783.
Policy, pix'se', (Louis CHARLES,) a French poet,
born at Toulon in 1821. He worked at the trade of
stone-mason, and published " Les Marines," (1842.)
Pond, (ENOCH,) D.D., an American Congregational
divine, born at Wrentham, Massachusetts, in 1791. In
1828 he edited the "Spirit of the Pilgrims," a religious
journal, in which he engaged in a controversy with the
Unitarians. He became in 1856 president and professor
of ecclesiastical history, etc. at Bangor Theological Semi
nary, Maine. He has published a " Memoir of Count
Zinzendorf,"(i839,) " Memoir of John Wickliffe," (1841,)
"The Morning of the Reformation," (1842,) "Plato, his
Life, Works, Opinions, and Influence," (1846,) and
numerous other works.
Pond, (JoiiN,) an English astronomer, born in Lon
don about 1767, studied at Trinity College, Cambridge.
After he left college he passed several years at West-
bury, near Bristol, where he made observations. He
was the first astronomer who depended on masses of
observations for the determination of all fundamental
data. He succeeded Maskelyne as astronomer-royal in
1811, and directed his attention chiefly to a determina
tion of the places of fixed stars. In 1833 he completed
a standard catalogue of 1113 fixed stars. He has a high
reputation as an observer. Died in 1836.
Pongerville, de, deh po.N'zhCR'vel', (JEAN BAPTISTE
AIME SANSON,) a French poet, born at Abbeville in
1792. He produced in 1823 an excellent translation of
Lucretius's " De Rerum Natura" into verse, and was
admitted into the French Academy in 1830. Among
his other publications are prose versions of Lucretius,
(1829,) Milton's "Paradise Lost," (1838,) and Virgil's
"/Kneid," (1846,) which are commended.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Poniatowski, po-ne-a-tov'skee, (JOSEPH ANTONY,)
PRINCE, an able Polish general, born at Warsaw in 1762,
was a nephew of Stanislas Augustus, King of Poland.
His father, Andreas, was a general in the Austrian ser
vice, lie commanded the Polish army in the war against
Russia in 1792, and served under Kosciusko in 1794.
In 1806 he raised an army of Poles to fight for Napoleon,
who had persuaded him that he intended to restore
the independence of Poland. He and his army of Poles
fought against the Russians in 1807, and opposed the
Austrians with success in 1809. He commanded a corps
of the grand army which invaded Russia in 1812, and
••endered important services in that campaign. In Oc
tober, 1813, he became a marshal of France. He was
wounded at Leipsic, and, in the retreat from that battle,
was drowned in the Elster, (1813.)
See BOGUSI.AWSKI, " Biographic c!e Poniatowski," 1831 ; L.
CHODZKO, " La Pologne iilustree ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gine-
rale."
Poniatowski, . (STANISLAS,) COUNT, a celebrated
Polish statesman, born in 1677. He espoused the cause
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolo • -d; a, e, T. 5, fi, y. short: a, e, i, o, obscure: far. fill, fit: met: not: good: moon;
PONUTOirSKI
1825
PONTEDERA
of Charles XII. of Sweden, and Stanislas Le zczynski,
against Augustus II. of Poland, and accompanied Charles
in his Russian campaign. After the defeat at Poltava
he was sent on a mission to Constantinople, where he
promoted the interests of the Swedish king by inducing
the Sultan to make war upon Russia. He was subse
quently appointed to several high offices by Augustus
III. of Poland. Died in 1762.
See VOLTAIRE, " Histoire de Charles XII :" L. CHODZKO, "La
Pologne iilustree."
Foiiiatowski, (STANISLAS AUGUSTUS.) See STAN
ISLAS AUGUSTUS, King of Poland.
Poninski, po-nen'skee, (A. L.,) a Polish poet, born
in the seventeenth century. He wrote Latin poems,
"Opera Heroica," (1739.) Died in 1742.
Ponroy, pox'Rwa', (PIKRRK GABRIEL ARTHUR,) a
French litterateur, born at Issoudun in 1816. He pro
duced several poems, dramas, and other works.
Pons, pox, (ANDRE,) Comte de Rio, a French his
torical writer, born at Cette in 1772. He was prefect
of Lyons in 1815. Among his works is a " History of
the Residence of Napoleon at Elba." Died in 1853.
Pons, ([KAN Louis,) a French astronomer, born at
Peyres (ifautes-Alpes) in 1761. lie became director of
the' Observatory of Marseilles, where (according to the
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale") he discovered twenty-
three comets. In 1825 he was appointed director of an
observatory at Florence. Died in 1831.
Pons, de, deh p6.N, (JK.AN FRANC.OIS,) a French ec
clesiastic and writer, born at Marly-le-Roi in 1683 ;
died in 1732.
Pons de Verdun, p6x deh vea'duN', (ROBERT,) a
French revolutionist, born at Verdun in 1749, acquired
some distinction as a poet. He was a member of the
Convention, (1792-95.) Died in 1844.
Ponsard, pox'stR', (FRANCOIS,) a French dramatic
poet, born at Vienna (Isere) in 1814. He produced a
successful tragedy of " Lucrece," (1843,) and another
called "Charlotte Corday," (1850,) which is admired.
Among his most popular works is a comedy of " Honour
and Money," ("L'Honneur et 1' Argent,]1 1853,) which
opened to him the French Academy. Died in 1867.
Ponsludon, de, deh pAx'lii'ctox', (JOSEPH AXTOINE
HEDOUIN.) a French litterateur, born at Rheims in 1739 ;
died in 1817.
Pon'son-by, (Sir FREDERICK CAVENDISH,) an Eng
lish officer, born in 1783, was a brother of the Earl of
Besborough. He distinguished himself in Spain-, and
led a regiment of dragoons at Waterloo, where he was
wounded. Died in 1837.
Foiisonby, (GEORGE,) a lawyer, born in Ireland in
1755. He became leader of the opposition in the Irish
House ot Commons, and in 1806 was appointed lord
chancellor of Ireland. About 1807 he entered the British
House of Commons, in which he was the leader of the
Whig party. Died in 1817.
Poiisonby, (Jonx,) BARON, a diplomatist, born in
1770. He entered the British House of Lords in 1806,
and acted with the Whig party. He performed diplo
matic missions to Brazil, Belgium, and Naples between
1828 and 1832, and negotiated a treaty of commerce
with Turkey about 1838. He was minister at Vienna
from 1846 to 1851. Died in 1855.
Poiisonby, (Sir WILLIAM,) a British general, born
in 1782, was a younger brother of the preceding. He
was aide-de-camp of Wellington, and commanded a
brigade of cavalry at Waterloo, where he was killed
in 1815.
Pontano, pon-ta'no, [Lat. PONTA'NUS,] (GIOVANNI
GIOVIANO,) an eminent Italian author and statesman,
born at Cereto, in Umbria, in 1426. He became secre
tary of Ferdinand I. of Naples about 1458, and prime
minister about 1487. He had the reputation of an able
negotiator, and an elegant writer in prose and verse.
His " History of the War between Ferdinand I. and the
Duke of Anjou" (1519) is called a master-piece. He
wrote, in Latin, moral essays, elegies, odes, and other
poems, among which is " Urania," an astronomical
poem. Died in Naples in 1503. " A far superior name,"
says Hallam, " is that of Pontanus, to whom, if we attend
to some critics, we must award the palm above all the
Latin poets of the fifteenth century." (" Introduction to
the Literature of Europe.")
SeeRoBKKTO DASARNO, "Vita J. J. Pontani," 1761 ; F. COLAN-
GELO, " Vita di G. G. Pontano," 1820; TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della
Letteratura Ita.iana;" NICERON, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biogra-
phie Generale."
Pontanus. See DUPOXT, POXTE, and PONTANO.
Pontanus, pon-ta'nus, (JAKOB,) a Jesuit and philolo
gist, born in Bohemia in 1542. He published " Progym-
nasmata Latinitatis," (4vols., 1588,) "Poetic Institutes,"
(" Institutiones Poeticae," 1594,) and other works. Died
in 1626.
Pontanus, pon-ta'nus, QOHAN ISAAC,) a Danish phi
lologist and historian, born at Elsinore about 1570, be
came professor of physics and mathematics at Harderwyk
in 1604. He wrote a " History of Denmark," (in Latin,
1631,) and several criticisms on the classics. Died in 1639.
See "Vita Pontani," anonymous, 1640; NICERON, "Memoires."
Pontas, poN'ta', (JEAN,) a French casuist, born in
the diocese of Avranches in 1638. His principal work
is a " Dictionary of Cases of Conscience," (3 vols., 1715,)
which was highly esteemed. Died in 1728.
Fontault,"de. See BEAULIEU, DE, (SEBASTIEX.)
Pontchartrain, de, deh poN'shiR'tRiN', (Louis
PHELYPEAUX,) COMTK, a French minister of state, born
in 1643. He was appointed controller-general of the
finances about 1690, and chancellor of France in 1699.
His talents and virtues are eulogized by Saint-Simon,
who says " he performed more than he promised." He
was grandfather of the prime minister Maurepas. Died
in 1727.
See SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires;" MORERI, " Dictionnaire His-
torique."
Pontchartrain, de, (PAUL PHELYPEAUX,) SEIGNEUR,
born at Blois, France, in 1569, was grandfather of the
preceding. He became secretary of state in 1610, and
wrote memoirs of events from 1610 to 1620, (1720.)
Died in 1621.
Pont de Veyle, de, deh p6x deh vil, (ANTOIXE DE
Ferriol — fer're'ol',) COMTE, a French dramatist, born
in 1697, was a brother of the Count of Argental. He
wrote three successful comedies, one of which is called
"The Somnambulist," ("La Somnambule," 1739.) He
was a member of the literary council of Voltaire. Died
in 1774.
Ponte, da. See BASSANO, (FRANCESCO and JACOPO.)
Poiite, da, da pon'ta, (GiuVAXNi,) an eminent Ital
ian architect, born in Venice in 1512. He built the
famous bridge of the Rialto across the Grand Canal,
the church of Santa Croce, and other fine edifices in
Venice. Died in 1597.
Ponte, da, | Lat. PON'TICO VIRU'XIO,! (Looovico,)
an Italian scholar, born at Belluno in 1467. He wrote
a " Secret History of Italy," and other works. Died
in 1520.
Ponte, da, (LORENZO.) See DA PONTE.
Ponte, de, da pon'ta, (Luis,) a Spanish religious
writer, born at Valladolid in 1554. He wrote several
popular works, among which is " Meditations on the
Mysteries of the Faith," (1605.) Died in 1624.
Ponte, de, deh p6.xt, [Lat. POXTA'NUS,] (PIERRE,)
a Flemish philologist, born at Bruges about 1480, was
blind from infancy. He published several works. Died
after 1529.
Pontecoulant, de, deh pAx'ta'koo'lSx', (GUSTAVE
Doulcet — dool'si',) COMTE, a French astronomer, born
about 1795. He served as an officer in the army, from
which he retired about 1830. He published "Analytic
Theory of the System of the World," (4 vols., 1829-46,)
and other works on astronomy, etc.
See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for November, 1830.
Pontecoulant, de, (Louis GUSTAVE Doulcet,)
COMTE, a French Girondist, born at Caen in 1766, was
the father of the preceding. He was elected to the
Convention in 1792, was proscribed and outlawed in
1793, became a member of the senate in 1805, and a
liberal member of the Chamber of Peers in 1819. He
left "Memoires," which were published in 1862. Died
in 1853.
Poiitedera, pon-ta-da'ra, (GiULio,) an Italian bota
nist, born at Vicenza in 1688. He became in 1719 director
e as * • c as <•• g hard; g zsj; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^="See Explanations, p. 23.)
PONT I AC
1826
P 008 H KIN
of the botanic garden and professor of botany at Padua.
He published a " Compendium of Botanical Plates,"
("Compendium Tabularum botar.icarum," 1718,) and
" Anthology, or, On the Nature of the Flower," (" An-
thologia, sive De Floris Natura," 1720.) The genus
Pontederia was named in his honour by Linnaeus. Died
in 1757.
See FABRONI, "Vitas Italorum doctrinaexcellentium ;" GENNARI,
" Lettera intorno la Vita del fu G. Pontedera," i75».
Fon'ti-ac, a North American Indian chief, of the
Ottawa tribe, born about 1712, was an ally of the French.
In 1762 he formed a coalition of many western tribes,
which, at his instigation, attacked various English gar
risons and frontier settlements. He besieged Detroit
without success in 1763. He was killed in Illinois in
1769.
See PARKMAN, " History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac," 1851.
Pontianus, pon-she-a'nus, [Fr. PONTIEN, poN'se'aN',]
became Bishop of Rome in 230 A.D.. He was banished
by Maximin in 235, and died in exile soon after that date.
Pontiqo Virunio. See PONTE, n.\, (Lonovico.)
Pontien. See PONTIANUS.
Pontier, poN'te-i', (PIKRRE,) an able French surgeon,
born at Aix (Provence) in 1711; died at Aix in 1789.
His son, PIKRRE HKNRI, was a chemist, and wrote
several scientific treatises. Died at Aix in 1826.
Poiitin, de, deh pon-teen', (MAGNUS MARTIN,) a Swe
dish physician, born at Askeryd in 1781. He became
first physician to the king in 1825. He published several
works in prose and verse.
Poiitis, de, deh p6.N'tess', (Louis,) a French gentle
man, born in Provence in 1583, was an officer in the
army. He left interesting Memoirs, (2 vols., 1676,) often
reprinted. Died in Paris in 1670.
Pontius, pon'she-us, a deacon of the church of Car
thage, lived about 2^0 A.D. He was the author of a
" Life of Cyprian."
Pontius, pon'te-us, or Du Pont, (dii p6\.) (PAUL.) an
eminent Flemish engraver, born at Antwerp in 1596 or
1603, was a pupil of Vosterman. He engraved many
works after Rubens, among which is the " Massacre
of the Innocents," and many portraits after Van Dyck.
These prints are greatly admired.
Pontius de la Fuente, pon'te-oos'da la fwSn'ti. f Lat.
PON'TIUS FON'TIUS,] (CONSTANTINE,) a Spanish Prot
estant, who wrote in defence of the reformed doctrines,
and was sentenced to death, but died in prison (before
the sentence was executed) in 1559.
Pontius Pilate. See PILATE.
Pontniartin, de, deh poN'mtR'tax', (.-\RMAND Au-
GUSTIN JOSEPH MARIE,) a French litterateur, born at
Avignon in 1811. He published several novels, and
"Causeries litteraires," (1854.)
Pontoppidan, pon-top'pe-dan, (Euic, ) a Danish
poet and prelate, born in Funen about 1620. He wrote
many Latin poems, among which are ' Ancupium Se-
landiae," (1636,) " Sacred Pastorals," (" Bucolica Sacra,"
1643,) and "Florilegium Cimbricum," (1646.) He be
came Kishop of Drontheim in 1673. Died in 1678.
See KRAFT og NVKRUP, " Litteraturlexicon."
Pontoppidan, (ERIK,) THE YOUNGER, a celebrated
Danish prelate, historian, and antiquary, born at Aarhuns,
in Jutland, in 1698. He was successively appointed
professor of theology at Copenhagen in 1738, Bishop
of Bergen in 1748, and chancellor of the University
at Copenhagen. Among his principal works are his
"Annals of the Danish Church," "Theatre of Den.nark,
Ancient and Modern," (1730,) "Achievements of the
Danes out of Denmark," (1740,) and a "Description
of Copenhagen," (all in Latin,) also a treatise on the
natural history of Norway, and a "Danish Atlas,"
("Danske Atlas," in 7 vols.,) in the Danish language.
Died in 1764.
See "Danische Bibliotliek." vol. vi.. (nntobioTanhy :) "Retro
spective Review," vol. xiii.. (1826:) "Monthly Review" for July,
1755; KRAFT OR NVHRUP, " Almindelist L'tteraturlexiccm ;"
HIRSCHING, " Historisch-literarisclies Handbtich."
Pontorino, da, da pon-toR'mo, (TACOPO CARUCCI or
CARRUCCI,) an eminent Florentine painter, born at Pon-
tormo about 1498, was a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci and
Andrea del Sarto. He imitated Michael Angelo. He
had three manners, the last of which was an imitation
of that of Albert Diirer. Among his works are a
" Descent from the Cross," a " Holy Family," and "The
Deluge," a fresco at Florence. Died in 1558.
SeeVASARi, "Livesofthe Painters;" LANZI, " History of Paint
ing in Italy;" TICOZZI, " Dizionario. "
Pontoux, de, deh pov'too', (CLAUDE,) a French
poet, born at Chalons-sur-Saone about 1530; died in
I579-
Ponz, pAnth, (ANTONIO,) a Spanish painter, distin
guished as a writer on the fine arts, was born in Valencia
in 1725. He passed about ten years at Rome (1751-60)
in the study of art and antiquities. Having returned to
Madrid, he was commissioned by Charles HI. to paint
portraits of Spanish authors for the Escurial. He pub
lished a valuable work entitled " Viage de Espana," (18
vols., 1771-94,) which treats of Spanish works of art,
topography, etc. Died in 1792.
See MADOZ, " Diccionario geografico."
Ponzio, pon'ze-o, a Tuscan sculptor, called by the
French MAJTRE PONCE, worked in France from 1530
to 1571.
Ponzio, (Fi.AMiNio,) an Italian architect, born about
1575. He designed the Capella Borghese at Rome, and
the Palazzo Sciara on the Corso. He was employed by
Pope Paul V. to continue the works of the Quirinal,
in which he constructed the double staircase. Died
about 1620.
Poogatchef, Foxigatchef, Pugatschew, or Puga-
tschev, poo-ga-cheT, (YKMEI.IAN,) a Cossack rebel and
impostor, born in 1726. Having been told that he re
sembled Peter III., he undertook to pass himself off for
that Czar, and incited the Cossacks to revolt in 1773.
He raised a large army, took several towns, gained
some victories, and massacred thousands of people. He
was taken prisoner and executed in 1775.
See POOSHKIN, "History of the Rebellion of Pnonatchef." iS^.
Poole, pool, [Lat. Po'i.us,] (MATTHEW,) a learned
English nonconformist divine, born at York about 1624.
He was rector of the church of Saint Michael-le-
Qnerne, London, from which he was ejected in 1662.
His principal work is "Synopsis Criticorum Biblico-
nim," (5 vols., 1669-76,) in which he designed to present
a synopsis or abridgment of the writings and labours
of former biblical critics of all ages and countries. It
is esteemed a valuable work. lie also left "Annota
tions on the Holy Bible," (2 vols., 1685.) He died at
Amsterdam in 1679.
See A. Woon. " Fasti Oxoniensis ;" NIC^KOM, " Me'moires. "
Poole, (PAUL FALCONER.) an English historical
painter, born at Bristol in 1810. lie is accounted one
of the most original and successful English artists of the
present time. Among his works nre "The Beleaguered
Moors," (1844,) "The Suppression of Sion Monastery,"
(1846,) " Job receiving Tidings of his Losses," (1850,) and
"The Goths in Italy," (1852.) He received in 1847 a
prize of three hundred pounds for his picture of " King
Edward's Generosity to the People of Calais." He
was elected a Royal Academician about 1861.
Poole, van, vfn pol, (JURIAN.) a Dutch portrait-
painter, born at Amsterdam in 1666; died in 1745. His
wife, RACHEL, born in 1664, was an excellent painter of
flowers, fruits, etc. She was a daughter of Ruysch the
anatomist. Died in 1750.
Poor, (DANIEL,) an American missionary, born at
Dinvers, Massachusetts, in 1780, spent many years in
TTindostan and Ceylon, where he established schools.
Died in 18?$.
Pooshkin, Pushkin, Pouchekine, Ptischkin, or
Pouschkin, poosh'kin or poosh'ken, (ALEXANDER
SKRGEIVITCH,) a celebrated Russian poet, born at Saint
Petersburg in 1799. Having published several poems
of a too liberal tendency, he was banished to Odessa,
where he held an office under the governor-general, Co-nit
Vorontsof. During his presence in Southern Russia
he studied the Spanish and Italian languages, and the
works of Byron, upon whose model he may be sai 1 to
have formed himself. His first considerable poem, en
titled "Ruslan and Liudmila," (1821,) was very well
received ; it was followed by the "Prisoner of the Can-
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged: a, e, T. o, it, \\shnrt: a, e, i, o. obscure: fat. fall, fat: m&t: not; good: moon;
POOST
1827
POP HAM
casus," (" Plennik Kavkaskoi," 1822,) "The Fountain
of Bakhtcliisarai," (1824,) which brought him three
thousand rubles, " Eugene Onegin," a metrical romance,
the "Gypsies," ("Tsigani,") and the narrative poem of
" Poltava." After the accession of Nicholas, Pooshkin
was recalled to Moscow and appointed historiographer.
His only historical production is an account of Poo-
gatchefs rebellion. Besides the above, he published
" Boris Godoonof," a dramatic poem, esteemed one of
his master-pieces, and a " History of the Iron Mask."
He was mortally wounded in a duel in 1837. A critic
in " Blackwood's Magazine" calls him " one of that small
but illustrious band whose writings have become part of
the very household language of their native land, and
whose expressions may be said, like those of Shakspeare,
of Moliere, and of Cervantes, to have become the natural
forms embodying the ideas which they have expressed,
and, in expressing, consecrated. In a word, Pooshkin is
undeniably and essentially the great national poet of
Russia."
See GALATHOF, " Chrestomathie Russe ;" PKINCE E. METCHER-
SKI, " Les Poetes Russes ;" " N'ouvelle Biographie G^nerale;"
"Sketch of Pushkin's Life and Works." by T. B. SHAW. iS45;
" Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1832 ; " Blackwood's Maga
zine" for June and July, 1845.
Poost or Post, post, (FRAN'S,) a Dutch painter, born
at Haarlem about 1615. He passed some years in Bra
zil, the scenery of which he painted. Died in 1680.
Foot, p5t, (HUBERT,) an eminent Dutch poet, born
near Delft in 1689, was a cultivator of the soil. He
published a volume of poems in 1716. He excelled in
Anacreontic poetry. Died in 1733.
See PAQUOT, "Me'moires;" DE VRIES, " Histoire de la Poesie
Hollandaise."
P5pe, ( ALEXA?H)KR, ) a popular English poet and
critic, born in London on the 22d of May, 1688, was a
son of a linen-draper. His parents were Roman Cath
olics. In consequence of his sickly constitution and
deformed person, he was unfitted for active life. During
his childhood he resolved to be a poet. His precocity
was remarkable. He says himself that he began to write
verses farther back than he could well remember. At
the age of eight he read with interest Ogilby's transla
tion of Homer. He wrote his " Pastorals" at the age
of sixteen ; but they were not published until 1709.
Among his early productions are the " Essay on Criti
cism," (1710,) which was praised by Addison, and "The
Rape of the Lock," (1711,) a mock-heroic poem, which
was much admired. His "Messiah," an exquisite poem
in imitation of Virgil's fourth eclogue, appeared in Ad-
dison's "Spectator" in 1712. In 1713 he issued pro
posals for a subscription to a translation of Homer's
"Iliad," which was completed in 1718-20 and obtained
a great popularity. It is, however, far from being a
faithful translation. "It is a fine poem," says Bentley,
"but not Homer." About 1715 he became estranged
from Addison, whom he accused of conspiring with
Tickell, who had produced (in part) a rival translation
of the "Iliad." Pope revenged himself by writing the
keen, not to say malicious, satire on " Atticus." " He
was," says Macaulay, "a great master of invective and
sarcasm. He could dissect a character in terse and
sonorous couplets brilliant with antithesis." ("Essay
on the Life and Writings of Addison.") His talent for
satire is conspicuous in the "Dunciad," (1728,) a poetical
work of much critical merit. He published in 1733 his
"Essay on Man," a philosophic poem, which has en
joyed an extraordinary popularity, and which Bulwer
pronounces " unequalled in didactic solemnity and splen
dour since Lucretius set to music the false creed of Epi
curus." With the aid of Broome and Fenton, he translated
the "Odyssey," (1725.) He also produced admirable
"Imitations of Horace." He wrote, in prose, a number
of essays and letters, the style of which is considered
excellent. "Pope's epistolary excellence," says Dr.
Johnson, "had an open field: he had no English rival,
living or dead." In the latter part of his life he lived at
Twickenham, where he had purchased a house. He fa
voured the Tory party and the Roman Catholic Church.
Among his intimate friends were Swift, Atterbury, and
Lord Bolingbroke. Died in May, 1744. He possessed
little originality or creative imagination1; but he had a
vivid sense of the beautiful, and an exquisite taste. He
owed much of his popularity to the easy harmony of his
verse, the keenness of his satire, and the brilliancy of
his antithesis.
"The Essay on Man," says Dr. Johnson, "affords an
egregious instance of the predominance of genius, the
dazzling splendour of imagery, and the seductive powers
of eloquence. Never was penury of knowledge and
vulgarity of sentiment so happily disguised. The reader
feels his mind full, though he learns nothing, and, when
he meets it in its new array, no longer knows the talk
of his mother and his nurse." The same critic pro
nounces the "Rape of the Lock" "the most airy, in
genious, and delightful of his compositions, and the most
exquisite example of ludicrous poetry. . . . He was
sometimes wanton in his attacks, and before Chandos,
Lady Wortley, and Hill, was mean in his retreat. His
malignity to Philips, whom he had first made ridiculous
and then hated for being angry, continued too long."
He was extremely addicted to artifice and insidious de
signs. It has been said that "he hardly drank tea
without a stratagem." An edition of his works, with a
commentary, was published by Warburton, (9 vols.,
1751-60.)
See JOHNSON, " Lives of the Poets;" a "Memoir of Pope." by
BOWLES, 1*07; a "Memoir" prefixed to W. ROSCOE'S edition
of Pope's Works, 1824; R. CAKUTHERS, "Life of Alexander Pope,"
1857 ; " Life of Pope," by OWEN RUFFHEAD, 1767 ; WILLIAM AYRE,
" Memoirs of the Life of A. Pope," 2 vols., 1745; JOSEPH WARTON,
" Essay on the Genius and Writings of Pope," 2 vols.. 1756-82 ; M.
MENDELSSOHN, "Pope em Metaphysiker," 1757; LORD BYRON,
"Letter to Murray on Bowles's Strictures," 1821; THACKERAY,
"The English Humourists:" ALI.IBONE, " Dictionary of Authors ;"
" Encyclopaedia Kritannica," article " Pope," (by DE QUINCEY,) also
" Biographical Essays," by the same; CAMPBELL, "Specimens of
the British Poets;" "Works and Character of Pope," in the
"London Quarterly Review" for October, 1825; "Pope and his
Contemporaries," in the " British Quarterly Review'' for August,
1847; SPENCK, "Anecdotes, Observations," etc., 1820.
Pope, (JoHN,) an American general, born at Kas-
kaskia, Illinois, in March, 1823. He graduated at West
Point in 1842, served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and
commanded an expedition sent to survey the route of
the Pacific Railroad in 1854-59. He obtained the rank
of captain in 1856, and became a brigadier-general of
volunteers in May, 1861. He captured New Madrid in
March, and Island No. 10 in April, 1862, with several
thousand prisoners. In June, 1862, he was appointed
commander of the Army of Virginia, composed of three
corps. He was promoted to be a brigadier-general in
the regular army in July, 1862. His army was defeated
by Stonewall Jackson at Manassas, or Bull Run, on the
2gth and jOth of August, 1862. He retreated to Wash
ington, and resigned the command about September 3,
after which he was employed against the Indians in
Minnesota. He commanded in the third military dis
trict, comprising Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, from
March or April to December, 1867.
Pope, (Sir THOMAS,) an English politician, born at
Declington about 1506, was a patron of learning. He
held several offices in the reign of Henry VIII., and
had the care or custody of the princess Elizabeth in the
reign of Mary. He founded Trinity College, Oxford.
Died in 1559.
See WARTON, "Life of Sir Thomas Pope "
Pope, (WALTKR,) an English physician, born in
Northamptonshire about 1630. He was professor of
astronomy at Oxford from 1660 to 1687, and Fellow of the
Royal Society. He wrote "The Old Man's Wish." a
poem, (1693,) a "Life of Seth Ward," (1697,) and other
works. Died in 1714.
Popeliniere, de la, deh If pop'le'ne-aiR', (LANCE
LOT Voisin — vwa'zax',) SIF.UR, a French historian,
born in Poitou about 1540. He was an officer in the
Huguenot army, and wrote a " History of the Civil
War which began in 1562," (1571,) a work of some merit.
Died in 1608.
Popham, pop'am. (Sir HOME RIGGS,) a British naval
officer, born in 1762. He commanded the naval forces
employed in the capture of the Cape of Good Hope and
Buenos Ayres in 1806. He became a rear-admiral in
1814. Died in 1820.
Popham, (Sir JOHN,) an English judge, born in
Somersetshire in 1531, became chief justice of the king's
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal: R, trilled: s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
POPMA
1828
PORSON
bench about 1592. He had a high reputation as a lawyer.
Died in 1607.
Popma, pop'ma, (AusoNius,) a Dutch philologist
and jurist, born in Fries! and in 1563. He published a
good work on Latin synonyms, (" l)e Differentiis Ver-
borum," 1635,) and other works. Died in 1613.
See D. RICHTEK, "Vita Ausonii a Popma," 1746.
Poppae'a (pop-pee'a) Sa-bi'na, a Roman empress,
the wife of Nero, was more remarkable for beauty than
modesty. Died in 65 A.D.
Poppe, von, fon pop'peh, (JOHANN HEINRICH Mo
RITZ,) a German scientific writer, born at Gottingen in
1776. He published numerous works, among which are
a "Technological Lexicon," (5 vols., 1816-20,) and
" Neueste Handwerks- und Fabrikschule," (9 vols., 1827-
36.) Died in 1852.
Foppi, II. See MORANDINI.
Foppig or Poeppig, pop'pio, (EnuARD,) a German
naturalist and traveller, born at I'lanen, in Saxony, in
1797. He visited the West Indies and North and South
America, where he made valuable zoological and botan
ical collections. He published in 1835 his " Travels in
Chili, Peru, and on the Amazon." In 1845 he became
professor of zoology at Leipsic. Died in December,
1868. Poppig and Endlicher published a work on the
plants of Chili and Peru, "Nova Genera et Species
Plantarum," etc., (3 vols., 1835-45.)
See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1836.
Poppo, pop'po, (ERNST FRIEORICH,) a German
scholar, born in Lower Lusatia in 1794, published
editions of Thucydides and other classics, and several
critical svorks.
Poquelin. See MOLIERE.
Porbus, poR'bus, (FRANS,) a Flemish painter, born
at Bruges in 1540. He painted portraits, history, and
genre with success. Died about 1582.
His father, PETER, born at Gouda about 1510, was a
painter of history and portraits. Died in 1584.
Porbus, (FRANS,) THE YOUNGER, a skilful painter of
portraits and history, a son of Frans, noticed above, was
born at Antwerp in 1570. He worked mostly in Paris.
" His picture of the Last Supper," says the " Biographic
Universelle," " is one of the finest productions of the
Flemish school." Died in Paris in 1622.
See FELIBIEN', " Entretiens stir la Vie des Peintres."
Porcacchi, poR-kak'kee, (To.MMASo,) an Italian litte
rateur, born in Tuscany about 1530. Among his works
are "The Most Famous Islands of the World," (1572,)
and "Ancient Funerals of Divers Nations," (1574.) Died
at Venice in 1585.
Porcellio, poR-chel'le-o, (PiKTRO,) an Italian poet
and historian, was secretary of Alfonso, King of Naples,
in 1452.
Porchat, poR'sht', (JEAN JACQUES,) a Swiss writer
and translator, born near Geneva in 1800. He wrote
"The Mission of Joan of Arc," a drama, in verse,
(1844,) and translated the complete works of Goethe
into French.
Forcheron, poRsh'r6N', (Doni PI.ACIDE,) a French
Benedictine monk, born at Chiteauroux in 1652. He
edited a few old works. Died in 1694.
Porcia or Portia, por'she-a, [Fr. PORCIE, poit'se',]
a Roman matron, eminent for her magnanimity, pru
dence, and fortitude, was the daughter of Cato, and
the wife of Marcus Brutus. Plutarch relates that she
inflicted a wound on herself to prove that she was
worthy to be the confidante of her husband in respect
to affairs of state. Died in 42 B.C.
Porden, (ELEANOR ANNK.) See FKANKI.IN.
Fordeiione, II, el poR-da-no'na, an excellent Italian
painter, whose proper name was GIOVANNI ANTONIO
Licinio (le-chee'ne-o) or Licino, (le-chee'no,) born at
Pordenone, in Friuli, in 1483. He assumed the name
of REGM.LO. He was an imitator of Giorgione, and a
rival of Titian. It is not known who was his master.
He was a good colorist, and had great skill in design.
He painted frescos in Venice, Mantua, Cremona, and
Piacenza. His frescos (which represent subjects from
the New Testament) in the cathedral of Cremona are
highly praised. Among his best oil-paintings is his " San
Lorenzo Giustiniani with John the Baptist," etc., at
Venice. He died at Ferrara in 1540.
See YASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, "History of
Painting in Italy;" Riuoi.n, " Vite degli illustri Pittori Veneti."
Pordenone, (Giui.io LICINIO,) a skilful painter, a
nephew and pupil of the preceding, was born at Venice
in 1500. He painted some frescos at Augsburg, where
he died in 1561.
Poree, po'ri', (CHARLES,) a French Jesuit, born near
Caen in 1675, was professor of rhetoric at Paris for
thirty years. Voltaire was his pupil. He published
Latin tragedies and orations. Died in 1741.
Poree, (CHARLES GABRIEL,) a brother of the pre
ceding, was born at Caen in 1685. He wrote " Histoire
de Don Ranuccio d'Aletes," (1736,) and other works.
Died in 1770.
Porfirio. See PORPHYRY.
Poiiier, poR-le-aik', (Don JUAN DIAZ,) Marquis de
Matarosa, a Spanish general, born in 1775. He fought
for the Cortes against the absolutists, by whom he was
taken prisoner and shot in 1815.
Porner or Poerner, poR'ner, (KARL WILHELM,) a
German chemist, born at Leipsic in 1732. He published
several works on chemistry and the art of dyeing. Died
in 1796.
Porphyre. See PORPHYRY.
Porphyrius. See PORPHYRY.
Porphyry, por'fe- re, [Gr. Uoj^vpiog ; Lat. PORPHYR'-
lus ; Fr. PORPHYRE, poR'feR'; It. PORKIRIO, por-fee're-o,]
a celebrated Neo-Platonic philosopher, born at Bata-
nsea, (Bashan,) in Syria, in 233 A.D. His original name
was MALCHUS or MELECH, the Hebrew and Syriac
for "king." Porphyrius signifies "purple," or "wearer
of purple." He was a pupil of Longinus, and perhaps
of Origen. About the age of thirty he went to Rome,
where he became a disciple and friend of Plotinus,
whose doctrines and mysticism he adopted. He edited
(or corrected) and arranged the works of Plotinus, at
his request. He wrote (in Greek) a famous work, in
fifteen books, against the Christians, which is not extant,
the emperor Theodosius having ordered it to be burnt
in the fourth century. Among his extant works are a
"Life of Plotinus" and a "Life of Pythagoras." Died
at Rome about 304 A.I).
See HOLSTHNIUS, " De Vitaet Scriptis Porpliyrii," 1711 ; RITTER,
"History of Philosophy ;" VAI.EKIEN PARISOT, " Dissertatio his-
torica de Porphyrio," 1845 ; FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" F.
H DEFER, article in ihe " Nouvelle Biographic Generale. "
Porpora, poR/po-ra,(NiccOL6,)a distinguished Italian
musician and composer, born at Naples about 1686. He
composed successful operas, among which is " Ariana e
Teseo," (1717,) also oratorios, masses, symphonies, and
cantatas. About 1730 he went to London to direct the
Italian Opera, and became a competitor of Handel. He
obtained much success in England, where he remained
several years. Died at Naples in 1767.
See FETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens ;" BURNEV,
" Histoiy of Music ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Ginerale."
Porporati, poR-po-ra'tee, (CARLO ANTONIO,) an Ital
ian engraver of high reputation, born near Turin in 1740
or 1741. He was admitted into the Academy at Paris in
1773. He engraved some of the works of Raphael, Cor-
reggio, and other masters. Died at Turin in 1816.
Porquet, pon'ki', (PIERRE CHARLES FRANC.OIS,) a
mediocre French poet, born at Vire in 1728 ; died in 1796.
Porro, por'ro, (GlROLAMO,) an Italian engraver, born
at Padua about 1520, worked at Venice.
Porro, (iGNAZio,) an Italian engineer, born at Pi-
gnerol in 1795. He settled in Paris about 1850. He
published a "Traite de Tachometrie," (1847.)
For'se-na or For-seii'na, (LARS,) a famous prince of
Clusium, in Etruria. According to tradition, he marched
against Rome to restore the Tarquins about 508 H.C., but
was checked by Horatius Codes, who defended a bridge
over the Tiber. It is the opinion of the best historians
that Porsena actually made himself master of Rome.
See MACAUI.AY," Horatius: a Lay of Ancient Rome;" NIEBUHR,
" History of Rome."
Porsenna. See PORSENA.
Por'son, (RICHARD,) a pre-eminent Greek scholar
and critic, born in Norfolk, England, December 25,
a,e,T, 6, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fill, fat; n.e:; 1.6:; good; moon;
PORT A
1829
PORTER
1759. He was educated at Eton, and at Trinity College,
Cambridge, of which he was elected a Fellow in 1782.
He became regius professor of Greek at Cambridge in
1790 or 1792, with a salary of forty pounds per annum.
His scruples against subscription to the Thirty-Nine
Articles induced him to decline holy orders, and he was
compelled to resign his Fellowship in 1791. He had
a prodigious memory and great critical acumen, and was
remarkable for probity and love of truth. About 1795
he married Mrs. Lunan, a widow. He edited " Seven
Tragedies of /Eschylus," (1795,) and the "Hecuba,"
"Orestes," " Phcenissas," and "Medea" of Euripides,
(1797-1801.) In 1805 he was appointed librarian of the
London Institution. Among his works are " Letters to
Archdeacon Travis," (1790,) in which he maintained that
the seventh verse of the fifth chapter of John's First Epistle
is an interpolation, "Notes and Emendations on the
Greek Poets," (" Adversaria Notas et Emendationes in
Poetas Graecos," 1812,) and an edition of the " Lexicon"
of Photius, (1822.) Died in London in September, 1808.
He is considered by the English scholars, and perhaps
by foreigners, the greatest verbal critic of modern times.
" It may safely be conceded to common fame and partial
friendship," says Dr. Thomas Young, "that he was one
of the greatest men, and the very greatest critic, of his
own or any other age." Porson was, according to
several authorities, addicted to intemperance in drink.
Like Dr. Johnson, he could practise abstinence more
easily than a moderate use of wine or ardent spirits.
Wonderful stories are told of his powers of memory.
He could repeat several pages of a book after he had
read them once.
See " Life of Porson," by J. S. WATSON, 1861 ; article on Porson
in the " Encyclopedia Britannica," by DK. THOMAS Yot'No; ''A
Vindication of the Literary Character ot" Porson," by CRITO CANTA-
BRIGIENSIS, 1827 ; ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors ;" •' Edinburgh
Review" for November, iSti, and July, 1861 : '• Poison iana." Lon
don, 1814; STEPHEN WESTO.V, "Short Account of the Late R.
Porson," 1808.
Porta, pok'ta, (BERARDO or BKRNAKDO,) an Italian
composer of operas, was born at Rome about 1755 ; died
in Paris in 1829.
Porta, (CARLO,) an Italian poet, born at Milan in
1776, wrote several popular poems. Died in 1821.
Porta, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) a skilful Italian sculp
tor, born at Porlizza in 1542 ; died at Rome in 1597.
He is said to have been a son of Guglielmo, noticed
below.
Porta, (GIUSEPPE SALVIATI,) an Italian painter, born
at Castel-Nuovo about 1530, was a pupil of K. Salviati,
whose name he assumed. He settled at Venice, where
he painted frescos with success. He was employed by
Titian to decorate the library of Saint Mark. Among
his best oil-paintings is a " Descent from the Cross."
Died in 1570, or, as some say, in 1585.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" TICOZZI, "Dizio-
nario."
Porta, (SIMON.) See PORZIO.
Porta, della. See BACCIO.
Porta, della, del'la poR'ta, (GiACOMO,) a distin
guished Italian architect and sculptor, born at Milan
about 1525. He built in Rome the portal of Saint
John Lateran, (about 1574,) the College della Sapienza,
and the facade of Santa Maria de' Monti, (1579.) He
was subsequently employed to finish the basilica of
Saint Peter's, and, with the aid of Domenico Fontana,
constructed the vault (or roof) of the dome, after the
plans of Michael Angelo, (1588-90.) He died in the
pontificate of Clement VIII., (1592-1605,) aged about
seventy-five.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors ;" FONTENAV,
" Dictionnaire des Artistes ;" CICOGNARA, "Storia della Scultura ;"
QUATREMERE DE QuiNCY, " Dictionnaire d'Architecture."
Porta, della, ( GIAMBATTISTA, ) an eminent Italian
natural philosopher, was born at Naples about 1540.
He promoted the progress of physical science by found
ing schools, and by experiments in optics, etc. He
was versed in the ancient languages. His house was the
seat of an academy called " I Segreti," which he founded
for the promotion of physical science. He invented
the camera obscura, and made improvements in lenses.
His principal works are " Perspective," (1555,) " Natural
Magic," (" Magiae Naturalis Libri XX.," 1558-89,) " Phy-
tognomonica," (1583, a treatise on plants,) an able
"Treatise on Physiognomy," (1586, often reprinted,)
" Villae Libri XII.," (on rural economy, 1592,) and " On
Refraction a Part of Optics," (" De Refractione Optices
Parte," 1593.) Died at Naples in 1615.
See NICERON, "Memoires ;" GINGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire
d'ltalie;" TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" G. H.
DUCHESNE, " Notice siir la Vie et les Ouvrages de J. B. Porta,"
1801 ; COLANGEI.O, "Vita di G. B. Porta," 1818; "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Porta, della, (GUGLIELMO,) an able sculptor, born
near Como about 1512, was a nephew of Giacomo, noticed
above. He worked at Rome about 1550, and made the
mausoleum of Paul III. He was a favourite pupil of
Michael Angelo. Died about 1577.
Portaels, poR-ttls', (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a Belgian
painter, born at Vilvorde (Brabant) in 1820. He gained
the grand prize of Rome in 1843.
Portal, poR'ttl', (ANTOINK.) BARON, a distinguished
French physician and anatomist, born at Gaillac (Tarn)
in 1742. He began to practise in Paris about 1765, and
obtained the chair of medicine in the College of France
in 1770. He published an important work on the " His
tory of Anatomy and Surgery," (7 vols., 1770-73,) and
became professor of anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes
in 1775. He was first physician to Louis XVIII. and
Charles X. Among his chief works is "Course of
Medical Anatomy," (" Cours d'Anatomie medicale," 5
vols., 1803.) Died in 1832.
See PARISET, " filoge de Portal ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale. "
Portal, (PIERRE BARTHELKMI,) BARON, a French
administrator, born near Montauban in 1765. He was
minister of the marine from December, 1818, to Decem
ber, 1821. Died in 1845.
Portalis, poR'tt'less', (AUGUSTE,) a French writer
and liberal legislator, born at La Ciotat in 1801, was a
nephew of Jean fitienne Marie. He wrote " Essays in
favour of Liberty of Worship." Died in 1855.
Portalis, (JEAN ETIENNE MARIE,) a distinguished
French jurist and minister of state, was born at Bausset
(Var) in 1745. He was an eloquent advocate before
the Revolution, and was imprisoned for his moderation
in the reign of terror. In 1795 he became a member of
the Council of Elders, in which he advocated humane
measures. lie was one of the committee charged with
the redaction of the Civil Code in 1800, and became
minister of worship in 1804. Before this date he had
acquitted himself with credit in the task of reorganizing
the Roman Catholic Church in France. He published
several able political and legal works, and was a member
of the French Academy. Died in 1807.
See BI.ESSIG. " Gedachtnissrede auf den Minister Portalis," 1807 ;
F. HACQUIN, " Eloge historique de Portalis," 1845; Louis LAI.I.E-
MANT, "Eloge de J. E. M. Porlalis," 1861 ; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale;" RENE LAVOLLEK, " Portalis et ses CEuvres."
Portalis, (JOSEPH MARIE,) COUNT, an eminent states
man and judge, a son of the preceding, was born at Aix
in February, 1778. He became councillor of state in
1808, and director-general of the press and book-trade
(librairie) in 1810. In 1819 he was raised to the peerage.
In the moderate ministry of Martignac he was keeper
of the seals from January, 1828, to May, 1829. He was
minister of foreign affairs from that date to August 7,
1829, and then became first president of the court of
cassation. He retained until 1852 this office, (the highest
judicial position in France,) for which he was qualified
by profound knowledge of public law and a union of
dignity in manner with suavity of temper. Died in 1858.
See MIGNET, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. le Comte de
Portalis," 1860 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Porte, de la, deh 18 poRt, (PIERRE,) a French courtier,
born in 1603, was a favourite agent of Anne of Austria,
and a valet-de-chambre of Louis XIV. He wrote "Me
moires," which were printed in 1736. Died in 1680.
Porte, La. See LA PORTE and LA PORTE.
For'ter, (ALEXANDER,) born in Tyrone county, Ire
land, in 1786, settled in Louisiana, where he acquired a
high reputation as a lawyer. He was appointed a judge
of the supreme court in 1821, and in 1833 was elected to
the United States Senate. Died in 1844.
€ as«; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; x, nasal ; R, trilled ' ; s as z; th as in this. (^Jf^See Explanations, p. 23.)
PORTER
i8?o
PORTE US
Por'ter, (ANDREW,) an American general, born in
Pennsylvania about 1810. He served as colonel at Hull
Run, July 21, 1861, and a few days later was appointed
provost-marshal of Washington.
For'ter, (ANNA MARIA,) an English novelist, born at
Durham about 1781, was a sister of R. Ker Porter.
She resided successively in London, at Thames Ditton,
and at Esher. She wrote many popular novels, among
which are "The Hungarian Brothers," (1807,) "Don
Sebastian," (1809,) "The Recluse of Norway," (1814,)
"The Fast of Saint Magdalene," and "The Barony."
Died in 1832.
See MRS. EIAVOOD, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England
from the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. ii., 1843.
Porter, (BENJAMIN ¥.,) an American jurist, born at
Charleston, South Carolina, in 1808, translated the " Ele
ments of the Institutes" of Heineccius, and published
a collection of poems.
Porter, (DAVID,) an American commodore, born at
Boston in 1780. He became captain of the frigate Essex
in July, 1812, and in the same year captured the vessel-
of-war Alert and a number of British trading-vessels.
He performed a cruise in the Pacific Ocean with the
Essex in 1813, and took many prizes. In March, 1814,
the Essex was attacked near Valparaiso by two British
vessels, and, after a long and desperate resistance, was
captured. Porter served as a naval commissioner from
1815 to 1823, was sent as charge-d'affaires to Turkey in
1831, and became minister resident at Constantinople
in 1839. He died at Pera in 1843. He was the father
of Admiral D. D. Porter and Commodore William D.
Porter.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1815.
Porter, (DAVID D.,) an admiral, a son of the preced
ing, was born in or near Philadelphia in June, 1813. He
entered the navy as midshipman in 1829, and became a
lieutenant about 1841. He served in the naval operations
against the Mexicans in 1846-47. In 1861 he was pro
moted to the rank of commander. He commanded the
mortar-boats, twenty-one in number, which bombarded
Forts Jackson and Saint Philip, below New Orleans,
April 18-24, 1862. These forts were surrendered to him
on the 28th. In September or October, 1862, he took
command of a flotilla of gunboats on the Mississippi
River. He aided the land army in the capture of Arkan
sas Post, January, 1863, and co-operated with General
Grant in his operations against Vicksburg. For his
services in the reduction of the last-named place he was
promoted to the rank of rear-admiral by a commission
dated July 4, 1863. Co-operating with General Banks
in an expedition against Shreveport, he ascended Red
River with a fleet of iron-clad gunboats to a point many
miles above Grand Ecore, in April, 1864. He com
manded the naval forces in the attack on Fort Fisher
in December, 1864, and bombarded the same fort with
success on the I4th and I5th of January, 1865. Ac
cording to General Grant, this was " the most formidable
armada ever collected for concentration upon one given
point." He was appointed vice-admiral July 25, 1866,
and admiral in August, 1870. He holds a higher rank
than any other officer in the navy of the United States.
See J. T. HEADLEY, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders,''
1867; GREELEV, "American Conflict."
Porter, (EBENEZER,) an American Congregational
divine, born at Cornwall, Connecticut, in 1772, was ap
pointed in 1812 professor of sacred rhetoric at Andover
Theological Seminary, of which he was afterwards presi
dent. He wrote an " Analysis of the Principles of Rhe
torical Delivery," (1827,) and other works. Died in 1834.
Porter, (Fixz-JOHN,) an American general, born in
New Hampshire, graduated at West Point in 1845. H£
became a captain in 1856, and a colonel in 1861. He
commanded a corps at the battle of Gaines's Mill, June
27, and at Malvern Hill, July i, 1862, and for his bravery
in these engagements, in which he had to sustain the
brunt of the enemy's attack, was appointed a major-
general of volunteers the same month. His corps took
no part in the battle of Bull Run, August 29 and 30,
1862, although it was "within sight and sound of the
battle." For this delinquency he was censured by Gen
eral Pope, tried by a court-martial, cashiered in January,
1863, and dismissed from the service. In 1870 he ap
pealed to President Grant for a reversal of the decision
of the court-martial : the grounds for this appeal are
succinctly stated in "Old and New" for June, 1870, pp.
816-820.
Porter, (FRANCIS,) an Irish Catholic priest and writer,
became a resident of Rome, where he died in 1702.
Porter, (GEORGE RICHARDSON,) an English writer on
trade, manufactures, etc., was born in London in 1792.
He wrote a valuable work on "The Progress of the Na
tion in its Social and Commercial Relations," (3 vols.,
1836-39.) In 1841 he became a secretary to the board
of trade. He was the author or compiler of statistical
tables issued annually by that board, and wrote a treatise
"On the Manufacture of Porcelain and Glass," (1842.)
Died in 1852 or 1855.
Porter, (JANE,) an English novelist, born at Durham
in 1776, was a sister of Sir Robert Ker Porter. Slu
lived with her mother and her sister Anna Maria until
the death of the former, in 1831. She published in 1803
her first novel, "Thaddeus of Warsaw," which was very
successful. Her historical novel of " The Scottish
Chiefs" (1809) also found many admirers, although it is
very defective as a delineation of character and manners.
She succeeded in mystifying the public by her anony
mous story "Sir Edward Seaward's Diary," (1831.)
Died in 1850.
See " Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1835, (with a portrait.)
Porter, (NoAH,) D.D., an able American writer on
psychology, was born in Farmington, Connecticut, in
1811. He graduated at Yale College in 1831, and in
1846 became professor of moral philosophy and meta
physics in that institution. He has published, besides
other works, "The Human Intellect : with an Introduc
tion upon Psychology and the Soul," (i vol. 8vo, 1868;
2d edition, 1869,) which has been highly praised by-
several competent critics, among whom we may name
Dr. McCosh, the distinguished president of Princeton
College.
See ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Porter, (PETER BUEL,) an American general, born at
Salisbury, Connecticut, in 1773. On the breaking out
of the war of 1812 he was appointed quartermaster-
general of New York. He distinguished himself in the
battles of Chippewa, Lundy's Lane, and the other prin
cipal actions of the war, and obtained a gold medal from
Congress for his services. He was appointed secretary
of war in May, 1828. General Porter was one of the
commissioners who explored a route for the Erie Canal.
Died in 1844.
Porter, (Sir ROBERT KER,) an English painter and
traveller, born at Durham about 1775, was a brother of
Anna Maria and Jane Porter. He became a student
of the Royal Academy, London, in 1790, and acquired
distinction as a painter of battles. Among his works are
"The Siege of Acre" and "The Battle of Agincourt,"
and an "Ecce Homo." He went to Russia in 1804, and
received the title of historical painter to the emperor.
Having traversed several countries of Asia from 1817 to
1820, he published "Travels in Georgia, Persia, Arme
nia, Ancient Babylonia," etc., with engravings, (2 vols.,
1822.) Died at Saint Petersburg in 1842.
See the "Gentleman's Masja/.ine" for July, 1842; " Monthly Re
view" for September, 1821, and January and February, 1823.
Porter, (WILLIAM D.,) an American naval officer,
born in New Orleans in 1809, was a son of Commodore
David Porter, noticed above. He entered the navy in
1823. In 1861 he took command of the iron-clad F^ssex
on the Mississippi River. He fought at Fort Henry,
where the Essex was disabled and Captain Porter was
severely scalded, in February, 1862. In August, 1862,
having repaired the Essex, he destroyed the strong
iron-clad ram Arkansas, between Baton Rouge and Vicks
burg. He was promoted to the rank of commodore.
Died in 1864.
See J. T. HEADLEY, "Farragut and our Naval Conmanders,"
1867.
Fortes, Des. See DESPORTES.
Por'te-tis, (BEILBY.) an English prelate of high repu
tation, was born at York in 1731. He was educated
at Cambridge, where he gained the Seaton's prize for an
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o. obscure: far. fall, fat: m£t; not; _;\/6a; moo ;
PORTIA
1831
POSSEflNO
English poem "On Death." He was successively rector |
of Hunton, prebendary of Peterborough, and rector of
Lambeth, (1767.) In 1769 he was appointed chaplain
to George III. He became Bishop of Chester in 1776,
and Bishop of London in 1787. His principal work is
a series of "Lectures on the Gospel of Matthew," which
are highly esteemed. His works were published in five
volumes (iSll) by his nephew, Robert Hodgson. Died
in 1808.
See "Life of Bishop Porteus," by R. HODGSON, 1811.
Portia. See PORCIA.
Portland, DUKE OF. See BENTINCK.
Port'lock, (JOSEPH ELLISON,) LIEUTENANT-COLO-
NEL, an English engineer and geologist, born about
1795. He assisted Colby in the trigonometrical survey
of Ireland commenced about 1824, and produced an
able " Report on the Geology of the County of London
derry and of Parts of Tyrone and Fermanagh," (1843.)
He also wrote on Geognosy and Palaeontology. He
was elected president of the Geological Society in 1856.
Died in 1864.
Portogallo, poR-to-gal'lo, (MARCO ANTONIO SIMAO,)
a Portuguese composer, born at Lisbon in 1763. He
lived many years in Italy, and composed successful
operas. " Fernando in Messico" is called his master
piece. Died in 1829.
Port-Royalists, a name popularly given to the mem
bers of the celebrated convent or society of Port-Royal-
des-Champs, near Versailles. It fills a prominent place
in the history of the Jansenist controversy. The nuns
were removed to Paris about 1638, (or 1644, according
to Hallam,) after which the old convent of Port-Royal-
des-Champs became the residence of a community of
religious and learned men, who practised some monastic
austerities and were called "Les Solitaires de Port-
Royal." Among these recluses were Claude Lancelot,
Antoine Arnauld, Le Maistre de Sacy, Pierre Nicole,
and Blaise Pascal. They were leaders of the Jansenist
party. They opened a boarding-school which became
celebrated, and published several good works on gram
mar. The convent of nuns was suppressed by Louis
XIV. in 1709. The history of Port-Royal has been
written by Racine, Reuchlin, Sainte-Beuve, and others.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1841 ; SAINTE-BEUVE,
" Histoire de Port-Royal," 4 vols., 1840-62; MARY ANNE SCHIM-
MELPENNINCK, " History of Port-Royal."
Portsmouth, DUCHESS OF. See KEROUAL.
Portugal, de, da poK-too-gal', (FRANCISCO,) Count
of Vimioso, a Portuguese nobleman and poet, born at
Ev'ora about 1490; died in 1549.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Portumne. See PORTTMXUS.
Por-tum'nus or Por-tu'nus, [Fr. PORTUMNE, poR'-
tiimn',] a marine deity or genius among the Romans,
was regarded as the protector of ports and harbours,
and was identified with the PAL^EMON of the Greek
mythology.
Portuhus. See PORTUMNUS.
Portus, poR'toos, (/EMILIUS,) an eminent critic and
editor, born at Ferrara in 1550. He was professor of
Greek at Lausanne from 1581 to 1591, soon after which
date he obtained the chair of Greek at Heidelberg. He
produced good editions (with Latin versions) of Thu-
cydides, Aristotle on Rhetoric, Xenophon, Euripides,
and other Greek authors. Among his works is "Lexi
con Doricum-Graeco-Latinum," (1603.) Died in 1610.
Portus, (FRANCIS,) an eminent philologist, father
of the preceding, was born in Candia (Crete) in 1511.
He became professor of Greek at Modena in 1536, and
teacher of the sons of Renee, Duchess of Ferrara, in
1542. Having been converted to the Protestant faith,
he removed to Geneva in 1561, and obtained there
a chair of Greek in 1562. He wrote commentaries
on Aristotle, Pindar, Longinus, Thucydides, and other
Greeks. Died at Geneva in 1581.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia delta Letteratura Italiana ;" SAX,
" Onomasticon."
Po'rus, [Gr. Dupoc,] a king of India, who reigned
between the Hydaspes and Acesines when that country
was invaded by Alexander the Great, 326 B.C. He op
posed the Macedonians with an army composed partly
of elephants, was defeated in a great battle, and taken
prisoner. When asked by the victor how he wished to be
treated, he answered, " Like a king." (Plutarch.) He was
restored to his kingdom by Alexander. He was killed
by Euclamus (or Eudemus) in 317 B.C. Another Porus
reigned at the same time east of the Acesines, (Chenab.)
See ARKIAN, "Anabasis."
Pory, por're, ? (JoHN,) an English geographer born
about 1570. He published a "Geographical History
of Africa, translated from Leo Africanus," (1600.) In
1616 he went to Virginia and became secretary to that
colony. Died after 1623.
Porzio, poiu'se-o, (Luc ANTONIO,) an Italian phy
sician, born near Amalfi in 1639. He taught in Rome,
and published a work on the diseases and treatment of
soldiers, (1685, often reprinted.) Died in 1723.
Porzio or Porta, poR'ta, [Lat. POR'TIUS,] (SiMONE,)
an Italian philosopher, born at Naples in 1497. He pub
lished a treatise "On the Human Mind," (" De Humana
Mente," 1551,) and other works. Died in 1554.
Posadas, de las, da las po-sa'Das, (MIGUEL,) a
Spanish painter, born at Segorbe in 1711 ; died in 1753.
Po-sei'don or Fo-si'don, [Gr. Tloaaduv,] the Greek
name of the god of the sea. (See NEPTUNE.)
Poseidonius. See POSIDONIUS.
Po'sey, (THOMAS,) an American general, born on the
banks of the Potomac, in Virginia, in 1750. He became
a captain in 1775, and served with distinction at the
battles near Saratoga and Stillwater, September 19 and
October 7, 1777. He took part in the capture of Stony
Point, July, 1779, and commanded a brigade of the army
which General Wayne led against the Indians in 1792.
He was Governor of Indiana from 1813 to 1816. Died
in 1818.
See JAMES HALL, "Memoir of Thomas Posey," in SPARKS'::
" American Biography," vol. ix. of new series.
Posidippe. See POSIDIPPUS.
Pos-i-dip'pus, [Gr. Iioai6i--of ; Fr. POSIDIPPE, po'-
ze'dep',] a Greek comic writer, born at Cassandria, in
Macedonia. He began to write about 290 B.C. His
works are lost.
Pos-i-do'iii-us or Pos-ei-do'm-us, [Hoaeiduvtof,]
a Greek Stoic philosopher, born at Apamea, in Syria,
about 135 B.C., was a disciple of Panaetius, whom he
succeeded as head of the school. He taught at Rhodes,
had a high reputation, and wrote works on astronomy,
history, geography, moral philosophy, etc., all of which
are lost. He was visited at Rhodes by Pompey about
68 B.C. Cicero, who was one of his pupils, expresses a
very favourable opinion of him. Like many other Stoics,
Posidonius held that pain is not an evil. According to
Suidas, he removed to Rome in the consulship of M.
Marcellus, (52 B.C.) " Was it not a fine acknowledgment
of the inherent supremacy of wisdom, when the impe-
ratorial fasces were lowered, by command of Pompey,
before the person of Posidonius ?" (Arthur H. Hallam.)
See RITTER, " History of Philosophy ;" FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca
Grxca ;" DIOGENES LAERTIUS.
Posidonius OF ALEXANDRIA, a mathematician, often
confounded with the preceding. He is said to have been
a pupil of Zeno.
Possel, pos'sel, (JOHANN,) a German philologist, born
at Parchim in 1528. He published " Syntaxis Graeca,17
(1560,) and other works. Died at Rostock in 1591.
Posselt, pos'selt, (ERNST Lumvu;,) a German his
torian, born at Durlach, in Baden, in 1763. He began
to issue in 1795 "The European Annals," a periodical,
which he edited until 1804, and which, says Depping,
" was the best German periodical work on history and
politics." He also published several works on German
and French history. Died in 1804.
See SCHUBART, " Leben Posselt's," 1805; GEHRES, " Lebenbe-
schreibung Posselts." 2 vols., 1827.
Possevin. See POSSEVINO.
Possevino, pos-sa-vee'no, [Lat. POSSEVI'NUS ; Fr.
POSSEVIN, pos'vaV or pos'seh-vaN'',] (ANTONIO,) an Ital
ian Jesuit, negotiator, and writer, was born at Mantua in
1534. He was sent by the pope on important missions
to Germany, Hungary, Sweden, Poland, and Russia.
Among his chief works are "Select Library on the
Method of Study," (" Bibliotheca selecta de Ratione
Studiorum," 2 vols., 1593,) and "Apparatus sacer," (3
€ as k; c as j; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
POSSEFINUS
1832
POTTER
vols., 1603-06,) in which he gives a list and review of
the works of all ecclesiastical writers. Died in 1611.
See JEAN D'ORIGNY, "Vie de Possevin," 1712; NICKKON, " Me"-
moires ;" GINGUENE, " Histoire Lilteraire d'ltalie;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Geuerale."
Possevinus. See POSSEVINO.
Post, (FRANCIS.) See POOST.
Postel, pos'tel', [Lat. POSTEL'LUS,] (GuiLLAUME,) a
French visionary, born in Normandy in 1510, is said to
have been one of the most learned men of his time. He
became professor of Oriental languages at Paris in 1539,
but soon resigned, and led a wandering life. It appears
that he asserted the power of reason to be sufficient to
demonstrate the dogmas of religion and to convert all
nations. His book " On the Harmony of the World"
("De Orbis Terrae Concordia," 1544) is called his best
work. Died in Paris in 1581.
See DESBM.LONS, " Nouveaux ficlaircissemens snr la Vie cle Pos
tel," 1773; CHAUFBPIE, "Remarques sur Postel ;" A. PKKICAUD,
" F. Wilson, G. Postel et Louis Castelvetro," 1850; NICERCJ.N,
"Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Postellus. See POSTEL.
Postlethwayt, pos's'l-thwat, (MALACHI,) an English
writer on commerce, of whom little is known. It is
supposed that he was born about 1707. He published,
besides other books, " The Merchant's Public Counting
House," (1750,) and "Great Britain's True System,"
(1757,) which are works of merit. Died in 1767.
Pos'tu-mus or Post'hu-mus, a Roman general,
whom Valerian appointed governor of Gaul. He was
proclaimed emperor by his army in 257 A.IX lie waged
war against Gallienus, and continued to rule Gaul until
he was murdered by his mutinous soldiers, in 267 A.D.
He is represented as an able and virtuous ruler.
See MERMET, " Notice sur Posthumus," 1827.
Pot'a-mo or Fot'a-mon, [Uoru/Mv,] a Platonic or
Eclectic philosopher of Alexandria, is supposed to have
lived in the second or third century after Christ. lie
is sometimes called the founder of the Eclectic school.
His works are not extant.
Potamon. See POTAMO.
Pote, (JOSEPH,) an English printer of Eton, wrote a
" History of Windsor Castle." Died in 1787.
Po-tSm'kin, [Russ. pron. pot-yom'kin,] (GREGOR
ALEXANDROVITCH,) PRINCE, a Russian field-marshal and
favourite of the empress Catherine II., was born near
Smolensk in 1736. He rose rapidly to the highest offices
and honours of the empire, and exercised almost un
bounded influence in political affairs. He induced the
empress to engage in the Turkish war of 1771, and in
the campaign of 1787 was appointed to the chief com
mand of the Russian army. As a reward for his services
in taking several provinces from the Turks, Catherine
bestowed upon him a superb palace at Saint Petersburg,
which she called Taurida, the name previously given to
the conquered provinces. Died in 1791.
See MADAME DE CERENVII.LH, "Vie de Potemkin," 7807-08;
" Privatleben des Fiirsten von Potemkin," Gratz, 1793; "Memoirs
of Prince Potemkiu," London, 1X14; "Monthly Review" for
January, 1813.
Pot'eu-ger or Pot'tin-ger, (JoHN,) an English poet
and barrister, born at Winchester in 1647 ; died in 1733.
Pothier, po'tjj-i', (ROBERT JOSEPH,) a celebrated
French jurist, born at Orleans in 1699. He was ap
pointed professor of French law at Oilcans in 1749,
before which he had served as conseiller an ch&telet. He
published a great work on Roman law, entitled " Pan
dects of Justinian digested into New Order," (" Pandectae
Justinianae in Novum Ordinem digestae," 3 vols., 1748-
52,) and several treatises on contracts. The compilers
of the Napoleonic Civil Code availed themselves of the
works of Pothier to a large extent. Died at Orleans
in 1772.
Vie et les Ouvrages de Pothier," 1827; FREMONT, " Recherches bio-
graphiques sur Pothier," 1859.
Pothoven, pot'ho'ven, (HENRI,) a Dutch painter of
portraits and cabinet-pictures, born at Amsterdam in
1725; died about 1795.
Potter, po'te-i', (CHARLES GABRIEL,) a French
comedian, was born in Paris in 1774; died in 1838.
Potocki, po-tots'kee, (CLAUDIA,) COUNTESS, a patri
otic Polish lady, born in Posen in 1802, was noted for
her benefactions to the sick and wounded during the
war in 1830-33. Died in 1836.
Potocki, (IGNATIUS,) COUNT, a Polish patriot, born
about 1750. He was a coadjutor of Kosciusko in 1794.
Died in 1809.
Potocki, (JAN,) COUNT, a Polish historian, born in
1761, was the author of a " Primitive History of the
Russian People," "Chronicles, Memoirs, and Researches
towards the History of all the Slavic Nations," and
other works of the kind, in French. Died in 1815.
Potocki, (STANISLAS FELIX,) COUNT, a Polish noble
man, born in 1750, took sides with Russia in the Polish
revolution of 1791, and was made a field-marshal by
Catherine II. Died in 1803.
Potocki, (STANISLAS KOSTKA,) COUNT, a Polish
patriot and statesman, born in 1757. As a member of
the Diet of 1788-92, he was celebrated for his eloquence.
He Was appointed in 1815 minister of public instruc
tion. He wrote an admired treatise "On Eloquence and
Style." Died in 1821.
See LEI.EWEL, "Histoire de Pologne," 1844.
Pott, pot, (AUGUST FUIEDRICH,) a German philolo
gist, born near Minden, in Hanover, in 1802. lie be
came professor of philology at Halle in 1833. Among
his works are " Researches in the Etymology of the Indo-
Germanic Languages," (2 vols., 1833-36,) and " Personen-
Namen," (a treatise on proper names, 1853.)
Pott, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) a German chemist, born
at Halberstadt in 1692. He was professor of chemistry
in Berlin, and was chiefly noted for his successful ex
periments in search of clay for the manufacture of
porcelain. Died in 1777.
Pott, (PKUCIVAL,) F.R.S., an eminent English sur
geon, born in London in 1713. He was surgeon of
Bartholomew's Hospital from 1749 to 1787, and made
important improvements in the practice of surgery. He
wrote many able works, among which arc a "Treatise
on Ruptures," (1756,) "Observations on Injuries of the
Head," (1760,) "Remarks on Fistula in Ano," (1765,)
and " Remarks on Fractures and Dislocations," (1768.)
The style of his writings is much admired. Died in
1788.
See JOHN EARLK, "Short Account of the Life of P. Pott/' 1790.
Fot'ter, ( ALONZO,) D.D., LL.D., an American Episco
pal bishop, born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1800.
He graduated at Union College, where he was elected in
1821 professor of mathematics and natural philosophy.
Having been ordained the same year, he became rector
of Saint Paul's Church, Boston, in 1826, and in 1831
vice-president and professor of moral philosophy at
Union College. He was consecrated Bishop of Penn
sylvania in 1845. He published "Political Economy,
its Objects, Uses, and Principles considered," (1841,)
" Hand-Book for Readers and Students," (1847,) and
other works. Died in 1863.
Fot'ter, (BARNABAS or BARNABY,) an English prelate,
born in Westmoreland in 1578. He was appointed
Bishop of Carlisle in 1628. lie was an eloquent preacher,
but was regarded by the high-church party as a Puritan.
Died in 1642.
Potter, (CHRISTOPHER,) a nephew of the preceding,
was born near Kendal in 1591. He became Dean
of Worcester in 1635, and vice-chancellor of Oxford
University in 1640. He was a partisan of Charles I. in
the civil war. He translated Sarpi's " History of the
Quarrels of Pope Paul V. with the State of Venice,"
(1626.) Died in 1646.
Potter, (CIPRIANI,) an eminent English musician
and composer, born in London in 1792. He was prin
cipal of the Royal Academy of Music in London for
many years. He composed overtures, symphonies, duets,
trios, and sonatas for the piano, on which he was a skilful
performer. His style is represented as purely classical.
He became professor of composition in the Royal Acad
emy soon after it was founded.
Potter, (FRANCis,)an English mechanician and clergy
man, born in 1594; died in 1678.
Potter, (HAZARD ARNOLD,) an American physician
and surgeon, born in Yates county, New York, in 1811,
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fall, fit; met: not; good: moon;
POTTER
'833
POURCHOT
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1835. He subsequently
settled at Geneva, New York, where he acquired a high
reputation as a surgeon.
Potter, ( HORATIO,) U.D., LL.D., brother of Alonzo
Potter, noticed above, was born in Dutchess county, New
York, in 1802. He graduated at Union College, and in
1828 was appointed professor of mathematics and natu
ral philosophy at Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut.
He became Bishop of the diocese of New York in 1861.
Potter, (JOHN,) Archbishop of Canterbury, was born
at Wakefield, Yorkshire, in 1674. While a student at
Oxford he published ''Antiquities of Greece," ("Ar-
chaeologia Graeca," 2 vols., 1698,) often reprinted. He
became Bishop of Oxford in 1715, and Archbishop of
Canterbury in 1737. He was author of some works
on theology, and editor of a good edition of Clemens
Alexandrinus, (1715.) Died in 1747.
See ANDERSON and DUXBAR, "Life of John Potter;" HOOK,
" Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury." (
Potter, pot'ter, (PAUL,) a celebrated Dutch painter
of animals, was born at Enkhuysen in 1625. Among his
master-pieces are a " Herdsman with Cattle," in the
gallery of the Louvre, a " Bear-Hunt," in the Amster
dam Museum, and a landscape with cattle and figures,
in the collection of the Marquis of Westminster. His
pictures are generally of cabinet size, and are remark
able for accuracy of design and exquisite finish. He
also produced a number of excellent engravings. Died
in 1654.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands :" LKCARPEN'TIER,
"Paul Potter," 1818; NAGF.ER, " Allgemeines Kiiustler-Lexikon."
Potter, (ROBERT,) an English poet and translator,
horn in 1721. He became vicar of Seaming, prebendary
of Norsvich, and vicar of Lowestoft and Kessingland.
He published a volume of poems in 1774, and a trans
lation of /Eschylus in 1777, which is commended. lie
also translated Euripides (1782) and Sophocles, (1788.)
Died in 1804.
Potter, de, cleh pot'ter, (Louis JOSEPH ANTOINE,) a
Belgian historian and liberal politician, born at Bruges
in 1786. He published a rationalistic history of the
Church, entitled "Esprit de 1'Eglise," (6 vols., 1821,)
which produced a great sensation. He was a chief
promoter of the union of Catholics with Liberals which
secured the success of the revolt against the King of
Holland in 1830. Among his works is a " Philosophical,
Political, and Critical History of Christianity," (8 vols.,
1836.) Died in 1859.
See " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pettier, po'tej-i', (ANDR£ ARIODANT,) a French an
tiquary and savant, born in Paris in 1799, lived manv
years at Rouen.
Pettier, (FRANCOIS,) a French missionary, born at
Loches in 1718, laboured in China. Died in 1792.
Pot'tin-ger, (Sir HENRY,) Bart., G.C.B., a British
administrator, born in Down co.mty, Ireland, in 1789.
He entered the service of the East India Company in
his youth. About 1840 he was sent to China as am
bassador and superintendent of the British trade. He
negotiated in 1842 a treaty which ended the opium war
in China. In 1846 he became Governor of the Cape
of Good Hope, and in 1847 Governor and commander-
in-chief of Madras. He returned to England in 1854,
and died at Malta in 1856.
See "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 7856.
Pottinger, (JOHN.) See POTENGER.
Pouchard, poo'shtR', (JuLiyx,) a French classical
scholar, born near Domfront in 1656. He was chief
editor of the "Journal des Savants." Died in 1705.
Pouchet, poo'shi', (FELIX ARCHIMEDE,) an eminent
French naturalist and physiologist, born at Rouen in
1800. He acquired distinction by his numerous works,
among which are an " Elementary Treatise on Botany,"
(1835,) a "Natural History of the Animal Kingdom,"
(2 vols., 1841,) and a " Theory of Spontaneous Ovulation
and Fecundation of Mammifera," (1847.) He is an
advocate of the doctrine of spontaneous generation, on
which he wrote "Traite de la Generation spontanee,"
(1859,) and " Nouvelles Experiences sur la Generation
spontanee et la Resistance vitale," (1863.) " His works,"
says the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale," "are distin
guished for scrupulous accuracy, extent of views, and an
excellent method. To him belongs the honour of having
formulated in a neat and precise manner the fundamental
laws of fecundation among the mammifera. His experi
ments on spontaneous generation, in opposition to those
of M. Pasteur, had a great celebrity ( rctentissement ) in
the scientific world." One of his works has been trans
lated into English, with the title " The Universe : the
Infinitely Great and Infinitely Little," (1870.)
See the " British Quarterly Review," 1869.
Pouchkin or Pouschkin. See POOSHKIN.
Pougatchef or Pougatchev. See POOGATCHEF.
Pougens, de, cleh poo'zh6.\', (MARIE CHARLES JO
SEPH,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1755. He
became blind at the age of twenty-four. lie wrote,
besides other works, "The Four Ages," a poem, (1819,)
and " Philosophical Letters," (1826.) He was a mem
ber of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1833.
See T. LORIN', "Notice sur Charles de Pougens," 1836; SIL-
VESTKE DE SACY, " Notice sur la Vie de M. le Chevalier de Pougens,"
1837-
Pouget, poo'zhcY, (FRANCOIS AIME,) a French priest,
born at Montpellier in 1666, was vicar of Saint-Koch,
in Paris. He published a " Catechisme de Montpellier,"
(1702,) which was adopted in all France. Died in 1723.
Pouillet, poo'vi', (CLAUDE SERVAIS MATTHIAS,) a
French natural philosopher and elegant writer, born in
the department of Doubs in 1791. He was elected to
the Academy of Sciences in 1837, and obtained the
chair of physics at the Sorbonne in 1838. He pub
lished, besides other works, " Elements of Experimental
Physics and Meteorology," (2 vols., 1827 ; 7th edition,
1856,) which is said to be the most complete and best-
written treatise on that subject in French. Died in 1868.
Fouilly, de. See LEVESQUE.
Poujoulat, poo'zhoo'lt', (JEAN JOSEPH FRANCOIS,) a
French litterateur, born at La Fare (Bouches du Rhone)
in 1808. He accompanied Michaud on a visit to the
Levant, (1830,) and wrote, in partnership with him,
'• Oriental Correspondence," ( " La Correspondance
d'Orient," 7 vols., 1832-35.) He received prizes from
the French Academy for his " History of ferusalem"
(1840) and " History of Saint Augustine," (3 vols., 1844.)
Poullain-Duparc, poo'laN' dii'pfR', (AUGUSTIN
MARIE,) a French jurist, born at Rennes in 1703, was
a brother of Poullain de Saint-Foix. He wrote on the
laws of Bretagne. Died in 1782.
Poullain de Grandprey, poo'laN' deh gRoN'pRa',
(JOSEPH CLEMENT,) a French politician, born near
Mirecourt in 1744. He was a moderate republican
member of the Convention, 1792-95. Died in 1826.
Poullain de Saint-Foix. See SAINT- Foix.
Poulle, pool, ( NICOLAS Louis, ) a French pulpit
orator, born at Avignon in 1703. He obtained the title
of preacher to the king. Died in 1781.
Poulletier de la Salle, pool'te-i' cleh ItsSl, (FRAN-
QOIS PAUL LYON,) a French physician and chemist, born
in Lyons in 1719. He founded three hospitals in Paris,
and aided Macquer in a " Dictionary of Chemistry,"
(1766.) Died in 1788.
Poultier-Delmotte, pool'te-i' deTmot', (FRANCOIS
MARTIN,) a French revolutionist, born at Montreuil-sur-
Mer in 1753. He voted for the death of the king in the
Convention, and edited the "Ami des Lois," a journal,
(1795-1800.) Died in 1826.
Pounds, (JOHN,) an English philanthropist, born at
Portsmouth in 1766, was a shoemaker, and the founder
of ragged schools. He collected a number of poor
children in his workshop and taught them gratis. Died
in 1839.
Poupart, poo'pfR', (FRANCOIS,) a French naturalist
and anatomist, born at Mans in 1661 ; died in 1709.
Pouqueville, pook'vel', (FRANCOIS CHARLES Hu-
GUES LAURENT,) a French writer of travels, was born
in Orne in 1770. He published a work entitled "Travels
in the Morea," etc., (" Voyage en Moree, a Constanti
nople et en Albania," 1805,) and "Travels in Greece,"
(" Voyage en Grece," 5 vols., 1820-22.) Died in 1838.
Pourchot, pooR'sho', (£DME,) a French philosopher,
born at Poilly, near Sens, in 1651. He became about
1678 professor of philosophy in the University of Paris,
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^"See Explanations, p. 23.)
POURBUS
1834
p or NET
of which he was chosen rector seven times. He was a
friend of Boileau and Racine. He published "Philo
sophical Institutes," ( " Institutiones Philosophical, "
1695,) which was highly esteemed. It is said that he
was one of the first who taught philosophy by a rational
method. Died in 1734.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
Pourbus. See PORBUS.
Pourfour. See PETIT, DU.
Poussin, (CASPAR.) See DUGHET.
Poussin, poo'saN', (NICOLAS,) an excellent French
painter of history and landscapes, called "the Raphael
of France," was born at or near Andelys, on the Seine, in
Normandy, in 1594. He studied design with Quentin
Varin, of Amiens, and at the age of eighteen went to
Paris, where he received lessons from Ferdinand Elle.
His early efforts were embarrassed by poverty. He made
several attempts to visit Rome, which failed for want of
funds. His long-cherished desire to see that metropolis
of art was gratified in 1624. He there formed an inti
macy with the sculptor F. Duquesnoy, and studied the
works of Raphael with ardent admiration. He also
made designs or models of antique statues and bas-reliefs.
For Cardinal Barberini, who became his patron, he
painted " The Death of Cermanicus," and " The Capture
of Jerusalem by Titus."
Poussin married in 1630 Anne Marie Dughet, a sister
of the eminent painter Caspard Dughet surnamed Pous
sin. Among the works which he painted (in oil) at Rome
are a series of "The Seven Sacraments," "The Rape
of the Sabine Women," "The Triumph of Flora," and
"The Passage of the Red Sea." He had acquired a
wide celebrity when, about the end of 1640, he returned
to France at the request of the king, who appointed him
his first painter. He painted for the king a beautiful
altar-piece of "The Last Supper," but soon became dis
gusted with the intrigues of the court and the jealousy
of rival artists. In 1642 he returned to Rome, where
he remained until his death, November, 1665.
" With a laborious and mighty grasp," says Hazlitt,
"he put Nature into the mould of the ideal and antique,
and was among painters (more than any one else) what
Milton was among poets. There is in both something
of the same pedantry, the same stiffness, the same ele
vation, the same grandeur, the same mixture of art and
nature, the same richness of borrowed materials, the
same unity of character." ("Table-Talk.")
" His life," says Delacroix, " was reflected in his works,
and accorded with the beauty and nobleness of his in
ventions." He is considered the greatest historical
painter that France has produced. " Poussin has a far
greater power," says Ruskin, " and his landscapes, though
more limited in material, are incomparably nobler, than
Claude's." The same critic calls him "the principal
master of the classical landscape." ("Modern Painters.")
See CHARLES BLANC, " fitudes sur N. Poussin ;" MARIA GRA
HAM, "Memoirs erf N. Poussin," 1820; CASTKI.LAN, "Vie de N.
Poussin," 1811 ; E"MERIC-DAVID, " Discours sur la Vie de Poussin, "
1812; RAOUI.-ROCHETTE, "Discours sur N. Poussin," 1843; PAS-
SERI, " Le Vite de' Pittori," 1772; BOUCHITTE, "Le Poussin, sa
Vie et son CEuvre ;" GANDAR, "Les Andeiys et N. Poussin;" FE-
LIBIEN, " Entretiens sur la Vie des Peintres ;" "Nouvelle Biogra-
pliie Generale. "
Poussiues, poo'sen', (PIERRE,) a French Jesuit, born
at Laurac in 1609. He edited and translated several
Greek works, among which was Anna Comnena's
" Alexias." Died in 1686.
Fouteau, poo'to', (CLAUDE,) a French surgeon, born
at Lyons in 1724. He published several volumes on
surgery. Died in 1775.
F6w'ell, (The Rev. BADEN,) F.R.S., an English phi
losopher and geometer, bom in or near London about
1798. He became in 1827 Savilian professor of geometry
at Oxford, of which he was a graduate. He contributed
to the " Philosophical Transactions" and " Philosophical
Magazine" able memoirs on optics and other sciences.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1824.
Among his principal works are " A Historical View of
the Progress of Physical and Mathematical Sciences,"
(i vol., 1834,) "The Connection of Natural and Divine
Truth," (1838,) a "View of the Undulatory Theory as
applied to the Dispersion of Light," (1841,) "The Unity
of Worlds and of Nature : Three Essays on the Spirit
of the Inductive Philosophy, the Plurality of Worlds,
and the Philosophy of Creation," (1856,) "Christianity
without Judaism," (1857,) and "The Order of Nature
considered with Reference to the Claims of Revelation,"
(1859.) Died in 1860.
See the " North British Review" for November, 1859.
Pow'ell, (DAVID,) a Welsh historian, born in Den
bighshire about 1552, was vicar of Ruabon and rector
of Llanfyllin. He published Caradoc's "History of
Cambria," with notes, (1584.) Died in 1598.
Powell, (EDWARD,) an English Roman Catholic
priest, wrote against the divorce of Henry VIII. and
Catherine, and was hung in 1540 for that offence.
Powell, (GABRIEL,) a son of David, noticed above,
was born in 1575. He was distinguished for learning,
and was author of some polemical works on theology.
Died in 1611.
Powell, (GEORGE,) an English actor and dramatist,
wrote "Alphonso,"a tragedy. Died in 1714.
PSw'ell, (GEORGE,) an American historical painter,
born in New York in 1823. Among his works is "The
Discovery of the Mississippi."
Powell, (GRIFFITH,) was born in Wales in 1561.
He became principal of Jesus College, Oxford. Died
in 1620.
Powell, (Sir JOHN,) a British judge, noted for his
honesty, was born in Carmarthenshire. He was de
prived of office by James II. about 1688 for his conduct
in the trial of the seven bishops. Died in 1696.
Powell, ( WILLIAM,) an English actor, who performed
with success at Drury Lane from 1763 until 1767. Died
in 1769.
Powell, (WILLIAM SAMUEL,) an English parson,
born at Colchester in 1717, became archdeacon of that
place about 1766. Died in 1775.
PSw'er, (TYRONE,) an Irish comic actor, born in the
county of Waterford in 1795. He performed in the
United States in 1840, and took passage in the steamer
President, which left New York in March, 1841, and
was never heard of afterwards.
F6w'ers, (HiRAM,) an eminent American sculptor,
born at Woodstock, Vermont, in 1805. Having re
moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, he employed himself for a
time in modelling busts in plaster, and subsequently
engaged in the same occupation at Washington. In
1837 he was enabled to visit Italy, where he has resided
many years. His statue of " Eve" was exhibited in 1838,
and was at once acknowledged as a master-piece. It
was followed soon after by his "Greek Slave," which
became widely celebrated and has placed the artist in
the first rank of living sculptors. Among his other
works may be named "II Penseroso," "The Fisher-
Boy," "California," "America," statues of Washington
and Calhoun, and busts of Chief-Justice Marshall,
Adams, Webster, and Van Buren.
See TUCKERMAN, "Book of the Artists;" "Living Age" for
October, 1847, by EIJWARD EVERETT.
Pbw'hat-aii', an Indian sachem who ruled over a
tract of country in the vicinity of James River, Virginia.
Died in 1618. (See POCAHONTAS.)
F6w'is, (WILLIAM HERBERT,) EARL OF, an English
peer, who in his youth fought for Charles I. against the
Parliament. He was regarded as the chief of the Roman
Catholic aristocracy. He was sworn of the privy council
in 1686, and, according to Macaulay, gave James II.
judicious and patriotic advice.
Powlett. See PAWLETT and PA u LET.
Pbw'nall, (THOMAS,) an English governor and an
tiquary, born at Lincoln in 1722. He became Governor
of Massachusetts Bay in 1757, and of New Jersey in
1759. He returned to England in 1761. Among his
works is a " Description of the Antiquities of the Pro-
vincia Romana of Gaul," (1788.) Died at Bath in 1805.
Poyet, pwa'yi', (BERNARD,) a French architect, born
at Dijon in 1742; died at Paris in 1824.
Poy'net or Po'net, (JOHN,) an English bishop, born
in Kent about 1516, was a zealous advocate of the
Reformation. He became Bishop of Rochester in 1549,
and Bishop of Winchester in 1551. He wrote, besides
other works, a book called " King Edward's Catechism,"
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, it, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
POrKINGS
1835
PR4SLIN
(1553.) Having gone into exile on the accession of Mary,
in 1553, lie died at Strasburg in 1556.
Poyn'ings, (Sir EDWARD,) an English gentleman,
who in the reign of Henry VII. performed an important
part in the suppression of the Irish rebellion of which
Desmond and Kildare were the leaders. Died in 1512.
Pozharski or Fojarski, po-zhaR'skee, (D.MUKI,)
PRINCK, a Russian general, born in 1578, drove out the
Poles from Moscow in 1612. He is called by Prince
A. Gallitsin " one of the most popular heroes of Russia.'7
Died in 1642.
See MALINOWSKY, "Life of Pozharski," (in Russian,) 1817.
Pozzetti, pot-set'tee, (PoMPiuo,) a Florentine writer
of biography, etc., born in 1769; died in 1816.
Pozzi, pot'see, ( GIOVANNI BATTTSTA, ) an Italian
painter, born at Milan, flourished about 1585. Died at
the age of tsventy-eight.
Pozzi, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian poet and physician,
born at Bologna about 1695 ; died in 1752.
Pozzo, pot'so, (ANDREA,) an Italian painter and
architect, born at Trent in 1642, was a Jesuit. He
excelled in colouring and perspective, and adorned the
ceiling of Sant' Ignazio, Rome, with pictures, which
are commended. He published a "Treatise on Per
spective," (2 vols., 1693-1702.) Died at Vienna in 1709.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy ;" MILIZIA, " Memorie
degli Architetti."
Pozzo, (MoDESTA.) See FONTE, (MODERATA.)
Pozzo, dal, dal pot'so, (CASSIANO,) an Italian an
tiquary, born at Turin in 1584. He formed at Rome a
rich cabinet of antiquities, and was a friend and patron
of X. Poussin. Died in 1657.
Pozzo, dal, (FEKDINANDO,) COUNT, an Italian lawyer
and political writer, born in Piedmont in 1768. He was
elected to the French legislative body in 1803, and be
came first president of the imperial court at Genoa in
1809. Died at Turin in 1843.
Pozzo, dal, (GiKOLAMo,) COUNT, an Italian archi
tect, born at Verona in 1718, was a skilful amateur.
Pozzo di Borgo, pot'so de boR'go, (CARLO AN
DREA,) an eminent diplomatist, born at or near Ajaccio,
in Corsica, in 1764. He entered the service of Paoli
about 1790, and was elected to the French Legislative
Assembly in 1791. He was secretary of state in the
new government formed by Paoli in 1793. In 1803 he
entered the service of Russia, and devoted himself to
diplomacy, for which he was qualified by his penetration
and address. He performed a mission to Vienna in
1804 or 1805, and another to Turkey in 1807. He re
garded Napoleon as a personal enemy, and contributed
to his overthrow. In 1813 he took a prominent part at I
the Congress of Frankfort, and composed the famous I
declaration of the allies. He acted as Russian commis- i
sioner with the army of the allies in 1815, and signed ',
the treaty of Paris. He was Russian ambassador at !
Paris from 1815 to 1835. Died in 1842.
See Yl'HRER, "Notice biographique sur Poz/.o di Borgo," 1842;
CAPKFIGI'E, '' Notice sur la Vie du Comte Pozzo di Borgo," 1844 ;
LAMARTIXE, " History of the Restoration ;" " Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Pradel, de, deh pRt'del', (PIERRE MARIE MICHEL
COUTRAY,) a French poet and improvisateur, born in
Paris in 1787. He produced many short poems. Died
at Brussels in 1857.
Pradier, pri'de-i', (JACQUES,) a French sculptor of
high reputation, was born at Geneva in 1792. He gained
the grand prize of Rome (at Paris) in 1813, and studied |
at Rome for five years. He became a member of the
Institute in 1827. His works are remarkable for soft
ness and grace. His imagination was vivid, his design
correct, his execution good ; and with more elevation of
stvle he would have raised himself to the highest rank
of' French sculptors. Among his best works are a
" Psyche," (1824,) "The Three Graces," (1831,) a mar
ble group of "Venus and Cupid," (1836,) and a marble
statue of Sappho, (1852.) Died near Paris in 1852.
See GEORGE BELL, "Pradier," Paris, 1852; "Nouvelle Biogra
phie Generale."
Prado, pRa'oo, (IcNAClo,) a Peruvian general, was
appointed president or dictator of Peru about the end
of 1865.
Prado, del, del pRa'Do, (BLAS,) a Spanish painter,
born at Toledo in 1544, was patronized by Philip II.
Died about 1605.
Pradon, pxa'doN', (NICOLAS,) a mediocre French
tragic poet, born at Rouen in 1632. He produced in
1674 " Pyramus and Thisbe," and attempted to rival
Racine in " Phedre et Hippolyte," (1677,) which was
applauded by a certain party or cabale. Died in 1698.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pradt, de, deh pRat, (Abbe DOMINIQUE DUFOUR,) a
French diplomatist and political writer, born in Auvergne
in 1759. He became almoner of Xapoleon about 1804,
Bishop of Poitiers in 1805, and Archbishop of Malines
in 1808. In 1812 he was sent as ambassador to Warsaw,
and, according to some writers, incurred the displeasure
of Xapoleon, with whom he had a curious conversation
during his retreat from Moscow. He published many
political and historical works, among which is a " His
tory of the Embassy to Warsaw," (1815.) Died in 1837.
See QUERAKD, "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Generale;" " London Quarterly Review" tor January, 1816 ;
"Monthly Review," vol. Ixxx., 1816, (Appendix.)
Praed, prad, (Wi.viHROP MACKAVOKTH,) an English
poet and lawyer, born in London in 1802. He was the
chief contributor to " The Etonian," a monthly paper
issued in 1820; after which he entered Trinity College,
Cambridge. He gained prizes for the Greek ode and
epigram, and for English poems, entitled " Australia,"
(1823,) and "Athens," (1824.) In 1829 he was called to
the bar. He was returned to Parliament about 1830,
opposed the Reform bill, and was re-elected in 1835.
lie became a successful debater and a zealous conserva
tive. Died in 1839. His poems are highly commended
for wit and elegance.
See the "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1865; "British
Quarterly Review" for 1866.
Praet, van, vin ptlt, (JOSEPH BASILE BERNARD,) a
Belgian bibliographer, born at Bruges in 1754. He
became in 1784 an assistant in the Royal Library at Paris.
About 1795 Van Praet and Capperonnier were appointed
keepers of the same. He published a " Catalogue of
the Books printed on Vellum in the Royal Library,"
(5 vols., 1822-28.) Died in 1837.
See DAI; NOW, " Notice sur Van Praet;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Frajapati, pra-ja'pa-ti, [from the Sanscrit prdjd,
"people," or the "world," and pati, "master,"] in the
Hindoo mythology, a title given to certain divine per
soiiages, called also BRAH.MADIKAS, among whom are
Marichi, Bhrigu, Daksha, and Narada.
See WILSON, "Sanscrit Dictionary."
Pram, pRam, (CHRISTIAN HENRIKSEN,) a distin
guished litterateur and journalist, born in Guldbrands-
clal, in Norway, in 1756. He founded at Copenhagen,
conjointly with Rahbek, the periodical entitled " The
Minerva," and in 1811 became president of the Scandi
navian Literary Society. Among his principal works,
which are written in Danish, are "Emilias Kilde," a
poem, (1782,) a heroic poem entitled " Starkodder,"
(1785,) and the tragedy of "Damon and Pythias." He
also published several treatises on political economy
and statistics. His genius and character are eulogized
by Oehlenschlager. Died in 1821.
See ERSI.EW, " Forfatter-Lexicon ;" J K. HOEST, " C. H. Pram :
biografisk Onirids," 1820 ; HOWITT, " Literature and Romance of
Northern Europe."
Piarond, pRt'rAN', (ERNEST,) a French writer of
verses, fiction, etc., born at Abbeville in 1821.
Praslin, de, deh pRi'lax', (CESAR GAHRIEL de
Choiseul — deh shwa'zul',) Due, a French minister of
state, born in Paris in 1712, was a cousin of the Due
de Choiseul. He obtained in 1748 the rank of lieutenant-
general, became minister of foreign affairs in 1760, and
minister of the marine in 1766. He was removed in
1770. Died in 1785.
See COXUORCET, " FJoge du Due de Praslin."
Praslin de Choiseul, prt'la.\' deh shwa'zul',
(CHARLES RAYNARD LAURE FELIX,) Due, a French
peer, born in Paris in 1778 ; died in 1841.
See NESTOR ARONSSOHN, " Notice sur M. le Due de Praslin,"
1844-
€as£; 9 as s; ghard; gas/; G, H, K., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; th as \nthis. (E^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
PRAT
i3;6
PRENTICE
Prat, du. See DUPRAT.
Prati, pRi'tee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian lyric poet, born
at Uascindo, in the province of Trent, in 1815. He
composed " Edmenegarda," a poem, (1841,) which was
received with favour. Among his other popular poems
are "A Hymn to Italy," "The Song of the Future,"
"Rodolfo," and "Count Riga," ("11 Conte Riga," 1856.)
In 1861 he published a poem called " Ariberto," (2 vols.)
Pratilli, pRa-tel'lee, (FRANCESCO MARIA,) an Italian
antiquary, born at Capua about 1700; died about 1766.
Frat'i-nas, [Ilparivac,] an Athenian dramatic and
lyric poet, lived about 500 B.C., and made an improve
ment in the tragic art. He is regarded by some as the
inventor of the satiric drama.
Pratt, (BENJAMIN,) an American judge, born at Bos
ton in 1709. He gained distinction as a lawyer, and
became chief justice of New York. Died in 1763.
Pratt, (CALVIN E.,)'an American lawyer and soldier,
born near Worcester, Massachusetts:, in 1828. He
practised law for a time in New York City, and in 1861
commanded the Thirty-first regiment of New York
volunteers at the battle of Bull Run. He became
brigadier-general of volunteers soon after the battle of
Antietam.
Pratt, (CHARLES.)
See CAMDEN, EARL OF.
Pratt, (Sir CHARLES,) a British general, born in 1771,
served in the Peninsular war at Vitoria, Nivelles, Or-
thes, etc. Died in 1839.
Pratt, (SAMUEL JACKSON,) an English poet and novel
ist, born in Huntingdonshire in 1749. He published,
under the assumed name of COURTNKY MKLMOTH,
" Sympathy," and other poems, and several successful
novels, among which are "The Pupil of Pleasure,"
(1779,) and "Emma Corbett," (1781.) Died in i8[4.
Praun, von, fon pRown, (GEORG ANDREAS SEPTI
MUS,) BARON, a German numismatist, born in Vienna in
1701. He published a " Treatise on Coins or Numis
matics," (1739.) Died in 1786.
Prax-ag'o-ras, [Hpafajopac,] an eminent Greek phy
sician of Cos, lived about 300 n.c. He was noted for his
skill in anatomy, and appears to have been the first who
Pray, pi<oi, (GEORGE,) a Hungarian historian, born at
Presburg in 1723 or 1724. He published " Annals of the
Ancient Huns," (" Annales veterum Hunnorum," 1761,)
and a " History of Hungary from 997 to 1564," (5 vols.,
1764-70.) Died in 1801.
Freau. See DUPREAU.
Preault, pRa'o', (AUGUSTE,) a French sculptor, born
in Paris in 1809. Among his works are a bust of N.
Poussin in the Louvre, Charlemagne, (1836,) and "Ophe
lia," a bas-relief, (1849.)
Preble, preb'l, (EDWARD,) a celebrated American
commodore, born in Maine in 1761. Having been made
a captain in 1799, he sailed in the Essex to Batavia,
whence he convoyed home a fleet of fourteen merchant-
vessels. In 1803 he was appointed to command a
squadron sent against Tripoli, having for his flag-ship
the Constitution. He attacked the batteries and gnn-
boats which defended Tripoli several times in August
and September, 1804. He captured three gun-boats,
and sunk four others. For these services he received a
gold medal from Congress. Died in 1807.
See SPARKS, "American Biography;" "National Portrait-Gal
lery ot Distinguished Americans," vol. ii.
Precipiano, di, de pRa-che-pe-a'no, ( HUMBERT
GUILLAUME,) COUNT, a prelate, born at Besanjon in
1626. He became Archbishop of Malines in 1690, and
was an opponent of Quesnel. Died in 1711.
Precy, de, deb. pRa'se', (Louis FRANCOIS Perrin —
pi'uaN'',) COMTE, an able French general, born near
Semur in 1742. He was chosen general-in-chief by the
insurgents of Lyons who revolted against the Conven
tion in 1793. He defended Lyons for about sixty days
against the besieging army, and escaped to Switzerland.
Died in 1820.
Preisler or Preissler, pRTs'ler, (GEORG MARTIN,) a
German engraver and painter, born at Nuremberg in
1700; died in 1754.
Preisler or Preissler, (JOHANN DANIEL,) a German
painter and designer, the father of the preceding, was
born at Dresden in 1665. Died in 1737.
Preisler or Preissler, (JOHANN GEORG,) an engraver,
explained the difference between veins and arteries. He born at Copenhagen in 1757, was a son of fohann Justin!
wrote sevpmi vvnrL-Q nt which rmlv i ff\\r fmrrti\£kt\ta it-** *.• . .1 i i TV i • ,-, n J
wrote several works, ot" which only a few fragments are
extant. Among his pupils was Herophilus.
See SPRENGEI., " Histoire de la Medecine."
Prax-il'la, \Tlpu^iA^a,] a Greek lyric poetess, born at
Sicyon, lived about 450 K.c. Her works are lost.
Fraxiphane. See PRAXIPHAM.S.
Prax-iph'a-ne§, [Gr.
Fr. PRAXIPHANE,
--, . . ,
pRtksVftn',] a Greek philosopher, born at Mitylene,
was a pupil of Theophrastus, and a teacher of Epicurus.
See PKELLER, "De Praxiphane," 1842
Fraxitele. See PRAXITELES.
Prax-it'e-les, [ Gr.
Fr. PRAXITELE,
pRiksVtil',] one of the greatest of Grecian sculptors,
flourished about 360 B.C. The time and place of his
birth are unknown. He was probably a contemporary
of Apelles, and an Athenian. According to Pausanias,
he lived three generations after Alcamenes. The name
of his master has not been preserved. Praxiteles is
regarded as the founder of a school, or the author of a
new style of art. Ancient writers represent him as cele
brated for refinement and softness of contour, grace in
attitude, and delicacy in the expression of tender affec
tions. Cicero considered the expression which animated
the heads of Praxiteles as one of the most admirable
and difficult results which human skill could attain.
Among his best works in bronze were a statue of Bac
chus, a Satyr or Faun, and a statue of Apollo, called
" Sauroctonos." An ancient copy (in marble) of the last
work is preserved in the Vatican. His master-piece was
a marble statue of Venus (of Cnidos) without drapery,
which was destroyed by fire at Constantinople about 475
A.D. No work of Grecian sculptors, except the Jupiter
of Phidias, appears to have been so celebrated as this
Venus of Cnidos. He produced also a statue of Venus
draped, and a marble statue of Cupid, which was praised
by Pliny. He was one of the lovers of the celebrated
courtesan Phryne.
See PLINY, " Natural History ;" K. O. MtJLLER, " Archaologie
der Kunst ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale. "
noticed below. Died in 1808.
Preisler or Preissler, (JOHANN JUSTIN,) an engraver
and painter, born at Nuremberg in 1698, was a brother
of Georg Martin, noticed above. He etched some works
of Rubens. Died in 1771.
Preisler or Preissler, (JOHANN MARTIN,) a skilful
engraver, a brother of the preceding, was born at Nu
remberg in 1715- He was appointed court engraver at
Copenhagen, to which he removed in 1744. His en
graving of " Frederick V. on Horseback" is esteemed
a master-piece. He executed some works of Raphael
and other masters. Died in 1794.
Preissler. See PREISLEK.
Preller, pRel'ler, ( LUDWIG, )
a German classical
scholar and antiquary, born at Hamburg in 1809. He
became professor at Jena in 1846. Among his works are
a "History of Greek and Roman Philosophy," (1838,)
and a "Greek Mythology," (2 vols., 1854.) Died in 1861.
Premare, pRi'mta', (JOSEPH HENRI,) a French mis
sionary, born about 1670. He went to China in 1698,
and studied Chinese literature with success. He wrote
" Account of the Chinese Language," ("Notitia Linguae
Sinicae,") and " Letters on China." Died at Peking
about 1735.
Premontval, pRa/m6N/vSK, the assumed name of
ANDRE PIERRE LE GUAY, (gi,) a French writer, born at
Charenton in 1716. He removed to Berlin in 1752, and
was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of
that city. He wrote " Monogamy," (" La Monogamie,"
3 vols., 1751,) and other works. 'Died in 1764.
Premier, von, fon pRen'ner, (ANTON JOSEPH,) a Ger
man painter and engraver, born at Wallerstein in 1683.
He engraved the pictures of the Belvedere gallery of
Vienna. Died in 1743.
Premier, von, (GEORG CASPAR,) a' painter and en
graver, a nephew of the preceding, was born in 1708.
He worked at Rome, where he died in 1766.
Prentice, pren'tiss, (GEORGE DENISON,) an American
poet and journalist, born at Preston, Connecticut, in
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, y\ short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, ail, fat; met; n5t; good; moon;
PRENTISS
1837
PRESCOTT
1802, graduated at Brown University in 1823. He
founded in 1828 "The New England Review," and,
having removed to Kentucky, became in 1831 editor of
the " Louisville Journal," which soon acquired the repu
tation of one of the ablest and most brilliant journals
in the country. He published a number of small poems
of great beauty. A collection of his witticisms, entitled
" Prenticeana," appeared in 1860. Died in 1870.
See GRISWOI.D, " Poets and Poetry of America."
Pren'tiss, (BENJAMIN M.,) an American general, born
in Wood county, Virginia, in 1819. He became a citi
zen of Illinois about 1842, and was appointed a brigadier-
general in 1861. He was taken prisoner at Shiloh, April
6, 1862. About July 3, 1863, he defeated Generals Holmes
and Price, who attacked him at Helena, Arkansas.
Prentiss, (SERGEANT SMITH,) an American orator,
born at Portland, Maine, in 1808. He studied law, and
became about 1832 a resident of Vicksburg, Mississippi,
where he practised with success. He was elected a
member of Congress by the Whigs in 1837. In 1840 he
advocated the election of General Harrison by several
public speeches. He had a high reputation as an
orator, and as an advocate in jury-trials was equal or
superior to any lawyer in the Southwestern States.
Died near Natchez in 1850.
See a '• Memoir of S. S. Prentiss," by his brother, 1855.
Pres'cott, (GEORGE,) COLONEL, an American officer,
born in Littleton, Massachusetts, in 1829. He served
as colonel at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, and at the great
battles in Virginia in Slay, 1864. He was killed near
Petersburg, June 18, 1864.
Frescott, (OLIVER,) M.D., an American physician
and patriot of the Revolution, born at Groton, Mas
sachusetts, in 1731. He served as an officer in the
Revolutionary war. Died in 1804.
Prescott, (OLIVER,) an American physician, a son of
the preceding, was born in 1762. He practised at Gro
ton, and wrote several medical treatises. Died in 1827.
Prescott, (WILLIAM,) COLONEL, an American officer
of the Revolution, born at Groton, Massachusetts, in
1 725, was a brother of Oliver, noticed above. He fought
with distinguished bravery at the battle of Bunker Hill,
where he appears to have had the chief command, and
in other important engagements. Died in 1795.
Prescott, (WILLIAM,) LL.D., an American jurist,
son of the preceding, was born at Pepperell in 1762. He
was appointed in 1818 a judge of the court of common
pleas. He enjoyed a high reputation for legal attainments.
He was the father of William H. Prescott, the historian.
Died in 1844.
Prescott, ( WILLIAM HICKLING,) an eminent American
historian, a son of the preceding, and grandson of Colonel
Prescott who commanded at Bunker Hill, was born at
Salem, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May, 1 796. Both his
parents were remarkable for their high moral qualities.
His father was distinguished for his manly beauty, as
well as for the dignity and gentleness of his character, i
His mother, originally Miss Catherine Greene Hickling,
was a woman of great energy, vivacity, and active be
nevolence ; and to her influence her son appears to have
owed not only much of the happiness of his life, but also \
some of those admirable moral traits which formed the !
crowning ornament to his rare intellectual endowments, j
In the summer of 1808 his father removed to Boston, !
and the following autumn sent his son to what was then
regarded as the best classical school in New England. It '
was kept by Dr. Gardiner, an excellent scholar, who had
been educated in England under the celebrated Dr. Parr, j
In 1811 young Prescott entered the Sophomore class \
at Harvard College. In his knowledge of Greek and i
Latin he was far in advance of most of the members of |
his class; but he had no fondness for mathematics, and :
never attained any proficiency in mathematical studies. !
During his Junior year at college an accident befell him
which was destined to influence the whole of his subse- \
quent life. One day in the Commons Hall, while the |
students — as too often happened after the professors had |
left the table — were indulging in a rnde frolic, Prescott
rose to go out of the room, but, attracted by the tumult
behind him, suddenly turned his head to see what it j
was. At that instant a hard piece of bread, thrown at j
random, struck him on his left eye, which, under the
peculiar circumstances, having no warning, was open,
so that nothing — not even the eyelid — was interposed
to mitigate the blow. He instantly fell prostrate and
powerless, as if the brain itself had received a severe
concussion. After some weeks he was able to resume
his studies ; but the sight of his left eye — though this
was to appearance unchanged — was gone forever.
This early misfortune, while it tended to check his
somewhat exuberant vivacity, far from discouraging him
in the pursuit of his studies, seemed to excite in him
a more earnest and determined resolution to become
a respectable scholar. He graduated in August, 1814,
and soon after commenced the study of law. But the
excessive use of his remaining eye induced a severe
inflammation in the organ, followed by opacity of the
cornea, so that for some weeks the power of vision was
completely lost.
Among the many interesting and admirable traits
in Mr. Prescott's character, perhaps none is more re
markable than the invincible cheerfulness and heroic
resignation with which he bore the frequent and severe
suffering and the life-long privations to which he was
subjected in consequence of the injury of his sight.
In the hope of improving his general health, which
had been seriously impaired by confinement, and also of
indirectly benefiting his eyes, he was induced to under
take a voyage to Europe. He set out in the autumn of
1815. He remained abroad nearly two years, visiting
England, France, and Italy. His sight, though not
strong enough to permit him to read much, seems to
have been sufficient to give him a vivid enjoyment of
the various scenes and places through which he trav
elled ; but his health appears not to have been benefited
by his foreign tour, and in the summer of 1817 he re
turned to his native country. He now decided to aban
don the law and devote himself wholly to literature.
His eye, however, was so irritable and feeble that he was
obliged to pass much of his time in a darkened room,
with barely light enough to admit of some one reading
to him, — this being now his only means of cultivating
an acquaintance with his favourite authors.
In May, 1820, Mr. Prescott was married to Miss Susan
Amory ; and the union appears to have been a singularly
happy one. About 1821 he commenced a systematic
course of reading, (by the ear,) which was to embrace
the works of the best English prose writers from Roger
Ascham to the present day, and afterwards the best
productions of the literatures of France and Italy. He
appears to have enjoyed with a peculiar zest the great
works of Italian genius, and especially the " Divina Coin-
media" of Dante. He seems to have taken less delight
in the celebrated authors of France, though he admired
Montaigne and Pascal, and, above all, La Fontaine and
Moliere. In the autumn of 1824 he commenced in
earnest the study of that magnificent language and lite
rature which have been immortalized by the genius of
Lope de Vega and Cervantes. " This," says Mr. Tick-
nor, " was the opening of the Spanish campaign, which
ended only with his life." He had at one time enter
tained the design of writing a sort of general history
ot Italian literature ; but this was now abandoned for
labour in a different field. After "long choosing," to
adopt the words of Milton, "and beginning late," he at
last decided, in January, 1826, to write the " History of
Ferdinand and Isabella," which, eleven years later, was
published, in three 8vo volumes, simultaneously in Bos
ton and in London. The success of the work was of the
most flattering kind, and at once placed him in the very
highest rank of contemporary historians. After six
years of additional labour, appeared his " Conquest of
Mexico," (3 vols. 8vo, 1843.) Four years afterwards he
gave the world his " Conquest of Peru," (2 vols. 8vo.)
In 1845 appeared a volume of his "Miscellanies," con
sisting of contributions to the " North American Review."
In 1850 he made a short visit to Europe. Soon after his
return he commenced the " History of the Reign of
Philip II. of Spain," a work which he did not live to
complete, although the first three volumes were published
in his lifetime, the first two having appeared in 1855,
the third in 1858. The entire work was designed to
€ as k: c as s: g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural: x, nasal: K, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PRESL
1838
PREflLLE
be included in 6 vols. 8vo. The third volume was pub
lished in the summer of 1858, after the occurrence of
his first slight apoplectic attack, (February 4, 1858,) from
which he seemed speedily to recover. He resumed his
literary labours, but was forced to limit himself to the
lightest kind of work ; and he never afterwards had that
enjoyment in his studies which he had experienced in
previous years. On the 28th of January, 1859, he was
seized with a second attack of apoplexy, of which he
died in about three hours.
In person Mr. Prescott was tall and well formed, with
light-brown hair, a fine clear complexion, and an ex
pression of countenance singularly bright, genial, and
attractive. " His smile," says Mr. Ticknor, " was abso
lutely the most contagious I ever looked upon." His
disposition was in the highest degree social, generous,
and kindly. " Indeed, take him for all in all," says Mr.
Ticknor, " I think no man ever walked our streets, as
he did day by day, that attracted such regard and good
will from so many ; for, however few he might know,
there were very many that knew him, and watched him
with unspoken welcomes as he passed along."
Mr. Prescott's merits as a historian are of the very
highest order. In vigour of thought and in grandeur of
style he has undoubtedly been surpassed by many of
the great masters of historical composition ; but he pos
sessed other qualities, which, if less imposing, are far
more essential to the character of a perfect historian.
In that spirit of thorough research which never rests
satisfied until every field has been explored and every
accessible source of information consulted and ex
hausted, he has had few if any superiors ; while in that
impartiality which proceeds from a high and scrupulous
sense of justice and unswerving devotion to truth, he
has perhaps never been equalled — certainly never sur
passed — by any historian, of whatever age or country.
His style, moreover, is for the most part remarkable for
its animation, clearness, and grace ; and in the general
treatment of his subject he exhibits in an eminent de
gree the " eloquence" and " lucid order" which the great
poet-critic of ancient Rome tells us will not be wanting
to him who knows how to choose his subject wisely.*
(For the opinions of various eminent critics on the
works of Mr. Prescott, the reader is particularly re
ferred to Allibone's " Dictionary of Authors.")
See, also, the admirable " Life of William Hickling Prescott." by
GEORGE TICKNOR, Boston, 18-4; R. W. GRISWOLU, "Prose Writers
of America;" DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature,"
vol. ii. ; " New American Cyc'opjedia ;" "London Quarterly Re
view" for December, 1843, and September, 1847 ; •' North American
Review'" for January, 1864.
Presl, pR&sl, (JAN SVVATOPI.UK,) a Bohemian botanist,
born at Prague in 1791. He wrote " Symbolas Uotanicas,"
(1832,) and other works. Died in 1849.
Fresle, de, deh pR§1, (CMARI.KS MARIK. WI.ADIMIR
BRUNET,) a French Hellenist, born in Paris in 1809.
He published, besides other works, a "Critical Inquiry
into the Succession of Egyptian Dynasties," (1850,) and
" Greece since the Roman Conquest," (" La Grece depuis
la Conquete Romaine," 1859.)
Pressense, de, deh pRi'sfix'sa', (Emioxn,) an emi
nent French Protestant divine and pulpit orator of the
present age. Among his works are a "History of the
First Three Centuries of the Church," "The Religions
before Christ : being an Introduction to the History of
the First Three Centuries of the Church," (1862,) and
"Jesus Christ: his Times, Life, and Work," (1866.)
The second and third of these have been translated into
English. With respect to faith he is evangelical.
Prestel, pReVtel, (Jon ANN GOTTLIKB.) a German
engraver and portrait-painter, born at Griinbach, in
Suabia, in 1739. He worked at Nuremberg for some
years. Died in 1808.
Fres'ter John or Joao, [Fr. LE PRETRE JEAN,
leh pratR zhox,] ("the Priest form,") the title of an
imaginary personage whom the Europeans of the middle
ages supposed to reign in the interior of Asia and to
have been converted to Christianity. Rubruquis, a friar,
was sent by Louis IX. of France to search for Prester
*_" Cui lecta potenter erit res,
Non facundia deseret hunc, nee hicidns ordo."
HORACE : De A rte Poctica.
John, in 1253, and explored Central Tartary, but did not
rind him. The general belief in his existence originated
perhaps in a report of some Nestorian missionaries that
Oong, (or Oungh,) a Khan of Tartary, had been con
verted by them.
See S. BARING-GOUI.D, "Curious Myths of the Middle Ages;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Prestet, pri'ti', QKAN,) a French mathematician, born
at Chalons-sur*Saone in 1648; died in 1690.
Pres'ton, (JoHN,) an eminent English divine and
Puritan, born at Heyford, in Northamptonshire, in 1587.
adopted Calvinistic opinions. He was chosen master of
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, about 1622. He was the
author of a "Treatise on the Covenant," and other
works. By the favour of the Duke of Buckingham, he
obtained the lectureship of Trinity Church, Cambridge.
According to Fuller, he was "an excellent preacher, a
celebrated disputant, and a perfect politician." Died
in 1628.
Pres'ton, (JOHN S.,) an American politician, brother
of W. C. Preston, was born near Abingdon, Virginia, in
1809. lie removed to South Carolina, where he was
elected to the State legislature. Soon after the election
of Mr. Lincoln to the Presidency, he joined the seces
sionists.
Preston, (THOMAS,) an English dramatist, was a
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. He wrote about
1=164 "A Lamentable Tragedy, mixed full of Pleasant
Mirth, containing the Life of Cambyses, King of Persia."
Died in 1598.
Preston, ( WILLIAM,) an American general, born near
Louisville, Kentucky, in 1816. He practised law in
Louisville, and was sent as minister to Spain in 1858.
He joined the disunionists in 1861, and was appointed a
brigadier-general.
Preston, (WILLIAM C.,) an American Senator and
orator, born in Philadelphia in 1794. His grandmother
was a sister of Patrick Henry. He studied in Edin
burgh. About 1822 he removed to Columbia, South
Carolina, where he practised law and gained much dis
tinction. He was elected a Senator of the United States
by the legislature of South Carolina in 1832. He op
posed the policy of John C. C'alhoun, and resigned his
scat about 1842. He was afterwards president of the
South Carolina College. Died at Columbia in 1860.
Pretender, The First. See JAMES FRANCIS ED
WARD.
Pretender, The Second. See CHARLES EDWARD
STUART.
Preti, pRa'tee, (GlROLAMO,) an Italian poet, bom in
Tuscany in 1582 ; died in 1626.
Preti, (MATTIA,) called Ii. CALABRESE, an Italian
painter, born in Calabria in 1613, was a pupil of Lan-
franc and Guercino. He worked in Rome, Naples, and
other places, preferring scriptural and tragical subjects.
Among his works are frescos of the life of Saint An
drew, at Rome. His design was vigorous rather than
graceful, and his colouring sombre. Died in 1699.
See PASCOI.I, "Vite de' Pittori moderni ;" LANZI, " History of
Painting in Italy."
Preuschen, pRoi'shen, (A. T.,) a German litth-iitcur
and theologian, born in Hesse in 1734. Among his
works is "Monuments of Ancient Physical and Political
Revolutions in Germany," (1787.) lie invented typoml-
trie, or the art of printing plans and maps with movable
types. Died in 180^.
Preuss, pRoiss, (JOHANN DAVID ERDMANX,) a Ger
man historian, born at Landsberg, on the Warthe, in
1785. He published several works relating to Frederick
the Great and his times, among which is a "Biography
of Frederick the Great," (9 vols., 1832-34.)
Preval, de, deh pR.Vvtl', (CLAUDE ANTOINE HIP-
POLYTE,) ViCoMiE, a French general, born at Salins
(Jura) in 1776. He became a lieutenant-general in 1814,
and president of the committee of war in the council
of state in 1837. He gained distinction as a writer on
military affairs. Died in 1853.
See Da HAII.I.AN, " Biographic du General Preval," 1842;
QU^RARD, "La France Litteraire."
Preville, pRa'veK, (PIERRE Louis DUBUS,) a popular
French comic actor, born in Paris in 1721. He performed
in Paris from 1753 to 1786. Died in 1799.
a, e, !, 5, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged: a, e, T, o. u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;
P REV IT ALE
'839
PRICE
Frevitale, pRa-ve-ta'la, (ANDREA,) an Italian painter,
born at Bergamo, was a pupil of Giovanni Bellini. He
painted Madonnas, which are highly commended. Died
about 1528.
Prevost, pRa'vo', (CLAUDE JOSEPH,) a French jurist,
born in Paris in 1674; died in 1753.
Prevost, preVost, ? (Sir GEORGE,) an English gen
eral, born in 1767. He distinguished himself at the
attack on Martinique in 1809, and became Governor-
General of the British possessions in North America in
1812. He was defeated at Plattsburg in 1814, soon after
which he was recalled. Died in London in 1816.
See "Some Account of the Public Life of General Sir George
Prevost," London, 1823.
Prevost, pRa'vo', (!SAAC BENofr,) a Swiss natu
ral philosopher, born at Geneva in 1755. He became
professor of philosophy at Montauban in 1810. His
chief work is a " Memoir on the Cause of the Caries of
Wheat, and of other Diseases of Plants," (1807.) Died
in 1819.
See P. PREVOST, "Notice sur I. B. Prevost,." 1820.
Prevost, (JEAN,) a Swiss medical writer, born near
Bale in 1585. He succeeded Alpini as professor of
botany at Padua in 1617, and wrote many works, which
were often reprinted. Died at Padua in 1631.
Prevost, (Louis CONSTANT,) an eminent French
geologist, born in Paris in 1787. He published in 1820
an important work " On the Geological Constitution of
the Basin of Vienna," (in Austria,) and became professor
of geology at the Sorbonne in 1831. Among his works
are " Chronology of Rocks and Synchronism of Forma
tions," (1845,) and "Bearing of Ancient Fossils in the
Basin of the Gironde." Died in 1856.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Prevost, (PIERRE,) a Swiss natural philosopher, born
at Geneva in 1751, was eminent for the variety and pro
foundness of his learning. Me became professor of
philosophy at Berlin in 1780, and professor of belles-
lettres at Geneva about 1784. In 1788 he published a
work "On the Origin of Magnetic Forces." He obtained
the chair of philosophy at Geneva in 1793, and that of
general physics in 1810. He published, besides other
works, " Researches on Heat," ( 1 792,) " Radiant Caloric,"
(1809,) and an " Exposition of the Principles of Radiant
Heat," (1832,) which were highly esteemed. Died in 1839.
See A. P. PECANDOLLE, "Notice sur P. Prevost," in the "Bi-
bliotlieque universelle de Geneve," 1839.
Prevost, (PiKRRE,) a French painter of landscapes
and panoramas, born near Chateaudun in 1764. He
designed or painted from nature panoramas of Rome,
Naples, Jerusalem, Athens, etc. " He would perhaps
have obtained," says Peries, "only the second rank of
landscape-painters, if a new discovery had not induced
him to adopt a kind of painting in which he remains un
rivalled.'' The invention of the panorama is ascribed
both to Prevost and to Robert Fulton. Died in 1823.
Prevost, (ZACHEE,) an eminent French engraver, born
in Paris in 1797. He obtained a medal in 1827 for
" Corinne at Cape Misenum," after Gerard, and a medal
of the first class in 1839. He engraved "The Wedding
at Cana," after Paul Veronese. (1852.) Died in 1861.
Prevost d'Exiles, pna'vS' dek'sel', ( ANTOINE FRAN
COIS,) a French writer, born in Artois in 1697. He took
the monastic vows in his youth, but soon became dis
gusted with that life, and fled to Holland. He wrote
nearly two hundred volumes, including many works of
fiction, among which his novel entitled " Manon Les-
caut" (1733) was especially celebrated. He published a
"General History of Voyages," (2ovols., 1745-70.) Died
in 1763.
See LE BI.ANC, " Essii sur la Vie et les Ouvrat;es de 1'Abbe Pre
vost." 1810 ; J. JANIN, " Notice sur Prevost," prefixed to an edition
of '• Manon Lescaut," iS^ ; P. BKRNAKD, " Essai sur la Vie de
1'Abbe Prevost," iSio; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Prevost d'Exmes, Le, leh pui'vo' cldksm, (FRAN-
(jois,) a French litterateur, born near Argentan in 1729;
died in 1793.
Prevost-Faradol, pRa'vo' pi'it'dol', (LrciEN ANA-
TOI.E,) a French litterateur and orator of great eminence,
born in Paris in 1829. He obtained from the French
Academy in 1851 the prize of eloquence for an "Eloge
de Bernardin de Saint-Pierre." In 1856 he began to
write for the "Journal cles Debats," of which he was
for many years one of the ablest editors. He was ad
mitted into the French Academy in 1865, in place of
Ampere. On this occasion Guizot addressed him in a
very complimentary speech. He published a volume of
" Essais de Politique et de Litterature," (1859,) " Essais
de Politique et de Morale," (1862,) and "Etudes sur les
Moralistes Frai^ais," (1864.) He had a great talent for
irony and raillery. In June, 1870, he was appointed
minister to the United States. He committed suicide at
Washington, July 20 of the same year.
Fri'am, [Gr. 'Upia^of ; Lat. PRI'AMUS; Fr. PRIAM,
pKe'6N',] a famous king of Troy, in whose reign occurred
the siege of Troy, which is the theme of Homer's " Iliad."
Fie was a son of Laomedon, and the father of Hector,
Paris, and other heroes. According to Virgil, he was
killed by Pyrrhus at the capture of Troy.
See the "vEneid," book ii. 506-55?.
Friamus. See PRIAM.
Priape. See PRIAPUS.
Pri-a'pus, [Gr. Upia-of; Fr. PRTAP^L, pRe'tp',] an
obscene idol of the Greek and Roman mythology, repre
sented as a son of Bacchus and Venus, and worshipped
as the protector of flocks of sheep and goats, of grape
vines and gardens, and as the god of fertility.
Price, (DAVID,) an English Orientalist, born in 1762.
He served as a major in the army of the East India
Company, and published a " Chronological Retrospect ;
or, Memoirs of the Principal Events in Mohammedan
History from the Death of the Arabian Legislator to
the Accession of the Emperor Akbar," (4 vols., 181 1-21.)
Died in 1835.
Price, ( TAMES,) an English chemist or alchemist, born
in 1752. He committed suicide in 1783.
Price, (Sir JOHN,) an English or Welsh antiquary,
wrote a " Defence of British History," in answer to
Polydore Vergil, (1573.) Died about 1553.
Price, (JoH.\,) an English critic, born in London in
1600. He published commentaries on Scripture. Died
in a convent at Rome in 1676.
Price, (JoHN,) an English divine, who was chaplain
to General Monk, and became rector of Petworth, in
Sussex, under the reign of Charles II. He published
"The Mystery and Method of his Majesty's Happy
Restauration," etc., (London, 1660.) Died in 1691.
See "Monk's Contemporaries," by GUIZOT.
Price, (RICHARD,) an eminent English dissenting min
ister and speculative philosopher, was born at Tynton,
in Glamorganshire, in 1723. He was chaplain to Mr.
Streathfield, or Streatfield, from 1743 to 1756, after
which he preached at Newington Green Chapel and the
Gravel-Pit Meeting-House, at Hackney. He married
in 1757 a Miss Blnndell. He advocated the cause of
American liberty in his "Observations on Civil Liberty
and the Justice and Policy of the War with America,"
(1776,) which was a popular work. In 1778 he was in
vited by Congress to become a citizen of the United
States ; but he declined. He was an intimate friend of
Dr. Franklin and Dr. Priestley. Among his chief works
are a "Review of the Principal Questions and Diffi
culties in Morals," (1758,) "Four Dissertations, on
Providence, Prayer, the State of Virtuous Men after
Death, and Christianity,'' (1766-68,) and Sermons. Died
in London in 1791.
See "Life of R. Price," by W. MORGAN, 1815.
Price, (STERLING,) an American general, born in
Virginia. He emigrated to Missouri, and represented a
district of that State in Congress from 1845 to '^47- He
was Governor of Missouri from 1853 to 1857, and joined
the disunionists in 1861. He served as major-general at
Wilson's Creek in August, 1861, took Lexington, Sep
tember 20, and retired to Springfield. He commanded
a division at Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and at Corinth, in
October of that year. In September, 1864, he entered
Southeastern Missouri with an army, made a successful
raid to Lexington, and, after several fights, returned by
a different route to Arkansas about the end of October.
Died in 1867.
See a notice of Sterling Price in " Southern Genera's," 1865.
€ as k; c as s; g hard: g asy; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal: R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
See Explanations, p. 73.1
PRICE
i 840
PRIEUR
Price, (Rev. THOMAS,) a distinguished Welsh scholar,
born at Pencaerelin, near Builth, in 1787. He became
vicar of Cwmdu in 1825. He wrote, besides other works,
"A Critical Essay on the Language and Literature of
Wales," and (in Welsh) a " History of Wales and the
Welsh Nation from the Early Ages to the Death of
Llewelyn ap Gruffydd," (1836-42,) which is said to be
the best work on the subject. Died in 1848.
Price, (Sir UVEDALE,) an English gentleman, born in
Herefordshire in 1747. He made some improvements
in landscape-gardening, and wrote a work on that sub
ject, entitled "An Essay on the Picturesque as compared
with the Sublime and Beautiful ; and on the Use of
Studying Pictures for the Purpose of Improving Real
Landscape," (1794.) An enlarged edition was published
in 2 vols., 1797. Died in 1829.
Price, (WILLIAM,) an English Orientalist, born in
1780. He went to Persia in 1810 as secretary of the
British embassy. He published a " Grammar of the
Hindostanee, Persian, and Arabic Languages," (1823,)
and other works. Died in 1830.
Prichard, pr?tch'ard, (JAMKS COWI.KS,) an eminent
English ethnologist and physiologist, born at Ross,
Herefordshire, in 1785. He graduated as a physician at
Edinburgh, and began to practise at Bristol about 1810.
In 1813 he published "Researches into the Physical
History of Mankind," (i vol. ; 3d edition, 5 vols., 1849,)
a work of high reputation. He wrote a more popular
treatise on the same subject, entitled "The Natural His
tory of Man," (1843.) Among his important works are
"The Diseases of the Nervous System,'' (1822,) "The
Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations," (1831,) and a
"Treatise on Insanity," (1834.) He removed from Bristol
to London in 1845. Died in December, 1848.
See CALLISEN, "Medicinisches Scliriftsteller L-.-xikon ;" "Lon
don Quarterly Review" for September, 1836; " Eraser's Magazine"
for November, 1844.
Prichard, pritch'ard, (Rev. RKKS,) a Welsh poet,
bom in Carmarthenshire; died in 1644.
Prideaux, prld'o or prld'iix, (HUMPHREY,) a learned
English divine and historian, bom at Padstow, in Corn
wall, in 1648. He was educated at Oxford, where he
published the inscriptions of the Arundel marbles in
1676. He became prebendary of Norwich in 1681, rector
of Bladen in 168}, rector of Saham in 1686, archdeacon
of Suffolk in 1688, vicar of Trowse in 1696, and Dean
of Norwich in 1702. He opposed the acts of James II.
which caused the revolution of 1688. His principal
works are "A Life of Mahomet," (1697,) once held in
high esteem, but now admitted to be very deficient in
impartiality as well as in true historical research, and a
" History of the Connection of the Old and New Testa
ment," (6 vols., 1715-17,) which was much esteemed
and often reprinted. Died in 1724.
See "Life of H. Prideaux," anonymous, 1748; " Biogrnphia
Bvitannica."
Prideaux, (JoHN,) an English divine of great learn
ing, was born at Stowford, in Devonshire, in 1578. He
became in 1615 regius professor of divinity at Oxford,
canon of Christ Church, and rector of Ewelme. In 1641
he was appointed Bishop of Worcester. He suffered
much loss in consequence of his adherence to the royal
ist party in the civil war. He left many works on the
ology, logic, and other subjects. Died in 1650.
See WOOD, "Athenae Oxonienses."
Prieriaa. See MAZOLINI.
Priessnitz, pRees'nits, (ViNCF.N/,,) celebrated as the
founder of the system of hydropathy, ( Kaitwasserctir,
"cold-water cure,") was born at Grafenberg, in Austrian
Silesia, in 1799. Having been severely injured by a
loaded cart passing over his body, he was enabled to
effect a cure by the application of»cold water, which he
subsequently made use of as a healing agent in various
diseases when consulted by his neighbours. In 1826
he opened a hydropathic institution at Grafenberg, which
was soon resorted to by invalids from different parts of
Germany and other countries of Europe. The fame
of his successes became at length so great that the num
ber of his annual guests exceeded one thousand. His
system excluded all medicine and stimulants of whatever
kind, as well as blistering and depletion in any form,
relying only on the various applications of water, abun
dant out-door exercise, wholesome diet, etc. He died
in 1851. The water-cure has been received with favour
in the principal countries of Europe, and in the United
States.
See DECKEN-HIMMELREICH, "V. Priessnitz und die Wassercur,"
1845; SELINGER, " Vincenz Priessnitz," 1852.
Priestley, preest'le, (JOSEPH,) an eminent English
philosopher, chemist, and theologian, was born at P'ield-
head, near Leeds, on the 131)1 of March, 1733. He
studied at a dissenting academy at Daventry about three
years, (1752-55,) and became versed in Latin, Greek,
and Hebrew. At an early age he admitted doubts re
specting some doctrines of the orthodox creed, though
he had been educated as a Calvinist. He preached to
a small company of dissenters at Needham-Market from
1755 to 1758, and then removed to Nantwich, Cheshire.
In 1761 he became tutor of languages and belles-lettres
in the academy of Warrington, and published "The
Scripture Doctrine of Remission," in which he rejects
the dogma of the atonement.
During a visit' to London he formed an acquaintance
with Dr. Franklin, who encouraged him to write a "His
tory of Electricity." He published in 1767 a work with
this title, which was favourably received. He was elected
a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1766. In 1767 he took
charge of a dissenting congregation at Leeds, where he
wrote several works on theology and found recreation
in experiments on pneumatic chemistry. He obtained
in 1773 the Copley medal for his "Observations on Dif
ferent Kinds of Air." He discovered the effect of respi
ration on the blood, and the tendency of vegetation to
restore to vitiated air its vivifying principle. He also
discovered nitrous gas, muriatic gas, and oxygen, which
he called "dephlogisticated air." He obtained the last
in 1774 from red precipitate of mercury. "As a physicist
and chemist," says Cuvier, "the talents of Priestley were
of the first order. His researches and writings have
contributed much to the progress of the science."
He published in 1772-74 " Institutes of Natural and
Revealed Religion." He was librarian and literary
companion of the Earl of Shelburne from 1773 to 1780,
during which period he published " Experiments and
Observations on Air," (5 vols., 1774-80,) a "Defence of
Socinianism," and other works. In 1780 he settled at
Birmingham as minister of the principal dissenting con
gregation. He incurred public odium by the heterodox
and liberal opinions expressed in his " History of the
Corruptions of Christianity," (1782,) "Familiar Letters
to the Inhabitants of Birmingham," (1790,) and " Reply
to Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution," (1791.)
In Jnly, 1791, his house was attacked and set on fire by
a mob, who inflicted great damage on his library, appa
ratus, etc., while he and his family escaped by flight.
For the sake of a more tranquil life, he emigrated with
his wife and children in 1794 to Northumberland, Penn
sylvania, where he was coldly received, especially by the
Anti-Gallican party. Died in February, 1804.
See JOHN CORRV, "Lite r>f Priestley," iSoj : "Autobiographic
Memoirs," iSo6; CUVIER, " filoge de Priestley," 1805: THOMSON,
" Annals of Philosophy," vol. i., 1813 ; J. P. SMITH, " Discourse on
the Death of J. Priestley," 1805 ; English translation of CUVIER'S
eulogy, in the " Smithsonian Report" for 1858, pa?e 138 ; DR. HOKFER,
" Histoire de la Chimie:" T. KEI.SHAM, "Discourse on the Death
of Joseph Priestley ;" AI.I.IBONK, " Dictionary of Authors ;" " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for October.
iSo1}, (by JEFFREY;} "Monthly Review" for August, October, and
December, 1767, et seq.
Prieur, pre'uR', (BARTHET.KMY,) a French sculptor
and Huguenot. His chief work was a monument to
Constable Anne de Montmorency. Died in 1611.
Prieur de laMarne, pue'iiu'deh It mSun, a French
revolutionist and lawyer, born in Champagne about
1760. He was an active democratic member of the
Convention, and voted for the death of the king. In
June, 1794, he became a member of the committee of
public safety. Died at Brussels in 1827.
Prieur-Duvernois, pRe'iik' difveVmva', (Ci.AUDE
ANTOINE,) a French republican, born at Auxonne in
1763. He was chosen a member of the Convention in
1792, and of the committee of public safety in 1793.
He is said to have shared with his friend Carnot the
honour of having organized victory. The reform which
I, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, v\ short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit: met; n6t; good; moon;
PRIEUR
1841
PR10LO
rendered weights and measures uniform in France is
ascribed mostly to him. Died in 1832.
Prieur, Le, leh pue'i;i<', (PHILIPPE,) a French scholar,
born at Saint- Vaast, published a work "On Canonical
Letters," (" De Literis canonicis," 1675.) Died in 1680.
Friezac, de, cleh pue'zik', (DANIEL,) a French advo
cate and writer on law, politics, etc., was born in Bas-
Limousin in 1590. He was a member of the French
Academy. Died in 1662. Mis son SOLOMON was author
of numerous works, among which is a " History of Ele
phants," (1650.)
Prilesky, pne-leVkee, (JOHN BAPTIST,) a Jesuit, born
in Hungary in 1709. lie wrote several works, among
which is "Account of the Holy Fathers who flourished
in the Two First Centuries," ("Notitia SS. Patrum qui
duobus primis Seculis flonicrunt," 1753.)
Prim, puem, (JuAN,) Count de Kens and Marquis
de los Castillejos, a Spanish general, born in Catalonia
about 1814. He took arms against Espartero in 1843,
and acted with the party of Progresistas. In 1859 or
1860 he obtained command of a division of the army
sent against Morocco, and was rewarded for his services
at Marabout with the title of Marquis de los Castillejos.
lie commanded the Spanish army which co-operated
with the French and British in the invasion of Mexico in
1861, and returned to Spain in 1862. He was a leader
of the insurgents who deposed Queen Isabel in Septem
ber, 1868, and he became in the next November minister
of war and commander-in-chief of the army of Spain.
Prim and Serrano were the most powerful and promi
nent members of the provisional government formed by
the insurgents ; and the former was the virtual dictator of
Spain in 1869-70. He was assassinated, December, 1870.
Frimaticcio, pKe-ma-tet'cho, [Fr. LE PKIMATICE,
leh pRe'mt'tess',] (FRANCESCO,) an Italian painter, sculp
tor, and architect, born at Bologna in 1490. He studied
design under Innocen/.io da Imola, Bagnacavallo, and
Giulio Romano. In 1531 he went to France, and was
employed by Francis I. to adorn the chateau of Fon-
tainebleau, in which he painted a number of large frescos.
Among these were pictures of scenes from the "Odys
sey," which were much admired. He was patronized
by Henry II. and Francis II. Died at Paris in 1570.
Frimatice, Le. See PRIMATICCIO.
Prime, (SAMUEL IKEN/EUS,) D.D., an American Pres
byterian divine, born in Saratoga county, New York, in
1812. He became editor of the " New York Observer"
in 1840. He has published "Travels in Europe and the
East," (2 vols., 1855,) "The Power of Prayer," (1859,)
and various other works.
Prime, (WILLIAM COWPER,) a lawyer, a brother of
the preceding, was born in Washington county, New
York, in 1825. He has published, among other works,
"The Old House by the River," (1853,)"" Boat-Life in
Egypt and Nubia," (1857,) and "Tent-Life in the Holy
Land," (1857.)
Primerose or Primrose, prlm'roz, (GILBERT,) an
ecclesiastic, born in Scotland. lie became chaplain to
the king, and canon of Windsor. Died in 1643.
Primerose, (JAMES,) a physician, a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Bordeaux. He practised in York
shire, and wrote several medical works, which are
commended. Died about 1660.
Pri'mus, (MARCTS ANTONIUS,) a Roman general,
born at Tolosa, (Toulouse,) in Gaul. He raised an
army for Vespasian in 69 A.n., and gained victories
over the troops of Vitellius at Verona, Bedriacum,
and Rome.
Prince, (HENRY,) an American officer, born at East-
port, Maine, in 1811, fought with distinction in the
Mexican war, and was made brigadier-general of volun
teers in the United States army in 1862.
Prince, (Jonx,) an English biographer, born at Ax-
minster in 1643, was vicar of Totness. He wrote "The
Worthies of Devon," (1710.) Died in 1723.
Prince, (OLIVER H.,) an American jurist and United
States Senator from Georgia, perished in the wreck of
the steamboat Home in 1837.
Prince, (THOMAS,) an American divine, born in New
England in 1687, was the author of several historical
and religious works. Died in 1758.
Prince de Beaumont. See LE PRINCE.
Prince, Le. See LE PRINCE.
Pringle, pring'g'l, (Sir JOHN,) a British physician,
born in Roxburghshire, Scotland, in 1707. He studied
at Leyden and in Paris, settled in Edinburgh about 1734,
and became physician to the Earl of Stair, who was
commander of the army on the continent, in 1742. In
1743 he was appointed chief physician to the army in
Flanders. He held this office until the peace of 1748,
after which he resided in London. He gained a Euro
pean reputation by a valuable work "On the Diseases
of the Army," (1752.) In 1763 he was appointed phy
sician to the queen. He was elected president of the
Royal Society in 1772, and became physician-extraor
dinary to George III. in 1774. In 1778 he succeeded
Linnaeus as member of the Academy of Sciences of
Paris. He corresponded with the most eminent scien
tific men of Europe. Among his works was a treatise
entitled "Experiments on Septic and Antiseptic Sub
stances," (1750,) which obtained the Copley medal.
Died in 1782.
See A. KIHPIS, "Life of Sir John Pringle," 1783: CONDORCET,
''Eloge de Pringle :" VICQ-D'AZVR, " filoge de J. Pringle," 1787;
"Biographic Medicale;" CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of
Eminent Scotsmen."
Pringle, (THOMAS,) a meritorious Scottish poet, born
at Blaiklaw, in Teviotdale, in January, 1789. During
his infancy an accident occurred which compelled him
to use crutches for life. He wrote in 1816 "The Au
tumnal Excursion," a poem, which procured for him the
friendship of Sir Walter Scott. In 1817 he united with
Lockhart, Wilson, and others in founding the " Edin
burgh Monthly Magazine," of which for a short time
he was the editor. During his connection with it the
name was changed to " Blackwood's Magazine." He
emigrated in 1820 to the Cape of Good Hope, where
he edited the " South African Journal" and founded an
academy. His success having been hindered by the
enmity of the governor, he returned to England in 1826,
and published a very interesting "Narrative of a Resi
dence in South Africa." He wrote a number of poems,
which are admired for elegance. Died in 1834.
See L. RITCHIE, " Life of Thomas Pringle," prefixed to his Poems ;
CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Sup
plement ;) J. CONDER, " Biographical Sketch of T. Pringle," 1835.
Prills, pR?ns, (J. H.,) a Dutch painter, born at the
Hague in 1758 or 1759. He painted views of the in
teriors of cities. Died about 1805.
Prin'sep, (CHARLES ROBERT,) an English political
economist, born about 1788, published an "Essay on
Money," (1818,) and translated Say's " Political Econ
omy" from the French. Died in 1864.
Prinsep, (HENRY THOBY,) an English Orientalist,
born in 1792, was a son of John Prinsep, M.P., of Lon
don. He entered the civil service of the East India
Company, and became a director of the same in 1849.
Prinsep, (JAMES,) an eminent English Orientalist,
born in 1800. lie entered the service of the East India
Company in his youth, passed some years at Benares
as assay-master, and wrote "Sketches of Benares."
Having removed to Calcutta, he became in 1832 editor
of the " Journal of the Asiatic Society," for which he
wrote valuable articles on chemistry, Indian coins, and
Indian antiquities. He succeeded H. H. Wilson as
secretary of the Asiatic Society in 1832. He made some
important discoveries in the history of India by the aid
of inscriptions, which he deciphered, and which had
baffled other antiquaries. lie died at sea, during a
voyage to England, in 1840.
Printz, pRints, (WOLFGANG CASPAR,) a German
composer, born in the Palatinate in 1641. He published
a "Historical Description of Song and Music," (1690,)
and other works. Died at Sorau in 1717.
Priolo, pRe'o'lo', or Prioli, pRe'o'le', (BENJAMIN,) a
French historian, of Italian extraction, was born in
Saintonge in 1602. He wrote, in Latin, a " History of
France from the Death of Louis XIII.," (1662,) which
is praised by Bayle. Died in 1667.
See J. RHODIUS, "De Vita B. Prioli," 1672.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
1 16
Explanations, p. 23.)
PRIOR
1842
PROCACCINI
Pri'pr, (Sir JAMKS,) an English biographer and sur
geon, born in 1790, served many years in the navy. He
wrote a " Life of Edmund Burke," (1824,) regarded as the
best life of that great statesman that has yet appeared,
•>nd a " Life of Oliver Goldsmith," (1836.) Died in 1869.
See ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Prior, (MATTHEW,) an English poet and diplomatist,
was born in Dorsetshire on the 2ist of July, 1664.
He was educated, at the expense of the Earl of Dorset,
in Saint John's College, Cambridge, where he was ad
mitted to his bachelor's degree in 1686, and obtained a
Fellowship. To ridicule Dryden's " Hind and Panther,"
Prior and Charles Montague wrote a poem entitled
"The City Mouse and Country Mouse," (1687.) About
1690 he was initiated into public business as secretary
to the embassy which was sent to the Congress of the
Hague. He was secretary to the embassy which nego
tiated the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, and under-secretary
of state for a short time in 1699. In 1700 he produced
"Carmen Seculare," a poetical panegyric on William
III., which Johnson calls "one of his most splendid
compositions." He entered Parliament in 1701, and,
deserting the Whigs, joined the Tory party, which,
having attained power, sent Prior to Paris privately with
propositions of peace in July, 1711. He was accredited
as ambassador at Paris in August, 1713, and obtained
the reputation of a skilful diplomatist. The Whigs,
having come into power, recalled him in August, 1714,
and charged him with treason. He was imprisoned
about two years, (during which he wrote " Alma," a
poem,) and was then released without trial. He died at
Wi in pole in September, 1721. Among his poems are
" Solomon, "an "Ode on the Battle of Ramillies," (1706,)
and several tales. " Prior has written with great variety,"
says Dr. Johnson, " and his variety has made him popu
lar. ... If his poetry be generally considered, his praise
will be that of correctness and industry rather than of
compass of comprehension or activity of fancy. He
never made any effort of invention."
See JOHNSON, " Lives of the Poets ;" CAMPBEI.T, " Specimens of
the British Poets;" " Biographia Britannica ;" THACKERAY, "The
English Humourists;" " North British Review" for November, 1857.
Pri'or, (THOMAS,) an Irishman, noted for public
spirit, was born at Rathdowney, Queens county, in 1679.
He founded the Royal Dublin Society, and published
" A List of Absentees, with Observations on Trade,"
etc., (1729.) Died in 1751.
Priscian, prish'e-an, (Lat. PRTSCIA'NUS ; Fr. PRIS-
CIEN, pRe'se^x',] a distinguished Roman grammarian,
is supposed to have been a Christian, and native of
Caesarea. He taught grammar at Constantinople about
525 A.D., and left several works, which are extant. His
work " De Arte Grammatica," or " Commentaria Gram-
matica," is the most complete and philosophic treatise
on that subject that has come down to us from antiquity.
Its value is enhanced by many quotations from works
which are lost.
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Latina :" BAHR, "Geschichte der
Romischen Literatur."
Priscianus. See PRISCIAN.
Friscien. See PRISCIAN.
Fris-cil'li-an, [Lat. PRISCILLIA'NUS; Fr. PRISCIL-
LIEN, pRe'se'le^N',] a Spanish ecclesiastic, born near
Corduba, (Cordova,) is said to have professed the doc
trines of the Gnostics and Manicheans. He was charged
with heresy and beheaded by Maximus about 385 A.I).
See BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Priscillianus. See PRISCILLTAN.
Priscillien. See PRISCILLIAN.
Pris'cus, [Gr. UpiaKOf,] an able Byzantine historian,
born at Panium, in Thrace. He was sent by Theodosius
on an embassy to Attila in 445 A.n. He wrote an
account of this embassy, and of the life of Attila, frag
ments of which are extant. His style is commended,
and his history is esteemed for veracity. Died about
470 A.D.
See FABRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Grseca."
Priscus, (C. LUTORIUS,) a Roman poet, composed a
poem on the death of Germanicus, which was very popu
lar. Died about 21 A.D.
Priscus, (HELVIDIUS,) a Roman senator, distinguished
for his love of liberty and his boldness of speech. He
was banished by Nero in 66 A.n., and became praetor in
70, soon after which he was put to death by Vespasian.
Priscus, (TARQUINIUS.) See TARQUINIUS.
Pritch/ard, (ANDREW,) an English naturalist and
microscopist of the present century. He published a
number of valuable works, among which are " The Mi
croscopic Cabinet," (1832,) a " Natural History of Ani
malcules," (1834,) " Micrographia : Essays on Micro
scopes," (1837,) and a " History of Infusoria, Living and
Fossil," (1841 ; 4th edition, 1861.)
Pritz, puits, (JOHANN GEORG,) a German Lutheran
minister, born at Leipsicin 1662. He preached at Leip-
sic, Zerbst, and Frankfort, and published several works.
Died in 1732.
Proaeresius, pro-e-ree'she-us, [Gr. Hpoaipeau>(; , ] a
teacher of rhetoric, born in Armenia about 275 A.D. He
taught at Athens with a high reputation. Died about
365 A.D.
Pro'bus, (MARCUS AUREUUS,) an excellent Roman
emperor, born at Sirmium about 235 A.D. He served
with distinction in the armies of Valerian and succeeding
emperors, in Egypt, Arabia, Persia, and Germany. He
received the command r>f all the legions in the East from
Tacitus, at whose death, in 276 A.D., Probus was pro
claimed emperor by his army. The senate confirmed
their choice. He defeated the Germans in Gaul, and
his rivals Saturninus, Proculus, and Bonosus. He was
killed by mutinous soldiers in 282 A.D., and left a very
high reputation for virtue and ability. It is said that
he had offended his troops by the expression of a hope
that the time was near when armies would be no longer
necessary.
See GIHBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" AURE-
LIUS VICTOR, "De Cxsaribus" and " Epitome."
Probus, (MARCUS VALERIUS,) a Roman grammarian,
born at Berytus, (Beyroot,) lived in the first century of
our era. He is identified by some with the Probus of
the next article.
Probus, (VALERIUS,) an eminent Roman grammarian,
who flourished probably about 100 A.D. lie wrote a
commentary on Virgil, often cited by Servius, and other
works.
Procaccini, pRo-kat-chee'nee, (ANDREA,) an Italian
painter, born in Rome about 1675. He became painter
to the King of Spain in 1720. Died in Spain in 1734.
Procaccini, (CAMii.i.o,) a painter, born at Bologna
in 1545 or 1546, was a son and pupil of Ercole the Elder.
He was remarkable for facility and for fecundity of in
vention. "He had," says Lanzi, "a simplicity, grace,
and spirit which charm the eye, if they do not always
satisfy the judgment." Among his works are a fresco
of " The Last Judgment," at Reggio, and an oil-picture
of " Saint Rocco curing the Sick." Died in 1626.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" TICOZZI, " Dizio-
nario."
Procaccini, (CARLO ANTONIO,) a painter, was a
younger brother of the preceding. He painted land
scapes, fruits, and flowers with success. Some of his
works are dated 1605.
Procaccini, (ERCOLE,) THE ELDER, a painter, born at
Bologna in 1520, was the father of the preceding. His
style was accurate and free from mannerism, but his
design was rather minute. Among his disciples were
Sabbatini, Bertoja, his three sons, and other eminent
artists. He was living in 1591.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Procaccini, (ERCOLE,) THE YOUNGER, a son of Carlo
Antonio, was born at Milan in 1596. He was an able
painter of flowers and history. Died in 1676.
Procaccini, (Giui.io CESARE,) a brother of Camillo,
noticed above, was born at Bologna in 1548, and was the
ablest painter of the family. He was one of the best
imitators of the style of Correggio. Among his works
are a " Virgin and Child" and " The Passage of the Red
Sea." His design was correct, his composition inge
nious, and his style noble, or grandiose. He worked
mostly at Milan, where he died in 1626.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy ;" TICOZZI, " Dizio-
nario. "
fi, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
PROCIDA
PROKOPOl'ITCH
Procida, di, de puo'che-cli, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian
conspirator, born at Salerno about 1225, was a partisan
of the house of Hohenstaufen. He entered the service
of Pedro of Aragon, and was engaged in intrigues or
conspiracies against Charles of Anjou, who had made
himself master of Sicily. He is said to have been the
master-spirit of that massacre of the French called the
Sicilian Vespers, (March 30, 1282.) Died after 1302.
See N. BUSCEMI, " Saggio de!la Vita di Giovanni di Procida,"
1836; AMARI, " La Guerrn del Vespro Siciliano;" " Xouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Pro-cil'li-us, a Roman historian, was a contemporary
of Cicero. His works are not extant.
Pro'cles, [Ilpo/i/tyf,] a skilful Greek engraver of
medals, whose period is unknown. His name is found
on coins of Xaxos and Catana.
Fro'clus, [Gr. UpijK/Mf, Ger. PRO'KI.US,] an eminent
Greek philosopher of the Xeo-Platonic schi)ol, was born
at Constantinople in 412 A.D., and was simiamed DIA-
noCHL'S, (" the Successor.") He studied tinder Hero
and Olympiodorus at Alexandria, and under Plutarchus
at Athens, where he afterwards succeeded Syrianus as the
head of the Neo-Platonic school. He was very deficient
in judgment. Among his numerous works are a treatise
"On the Sphere," commentaries on the " Parmenides"
and "Timceus" of Plato, a treatise against the Chris
tians, and " Institutio Theologica," (Srot^e/watf Qeo/.oyiKrj,)
all of which are extant, (except part of the commentary
on the "Timaeus.") He died in 485 A.I). According to
the extravagant estimate of M. Cousin, all the philo
sophic rays which emanated from Pythagoras, Plato,
Aristotle, etc. were concentrated in Proclus.
See BRUCKER, " History of Philosophy ;" RITTER, " History of
Philosophy;" TEN'NEMANN, " Geschichte der Philosophie ;" " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Proclus, SAINT, was Patriarch of Constantinople
from 434 A.IX until his death, in 446. He left homilies
and epistles, which are extant.
Froc'ne, [Gr. Tlponvi] ; Fr. PROGNE, pRog'na',] a.-
daughter of Pandi'on, King of Athens, a sister of Philo
mela, and wife of Tereus. She was said to have been
changed into a swallow.
Procope. See PKOCOPIUS.
Frocope-Couteau, pko'kop' koo'td', a French phy
sician and comic author, born in Paris in 1684. His real
name was MICHEL COLTKLLI. Died in 1753.
Pro-co'pi-us, a Roman general, born in Cilicia. He
aspired to supreme power in the East in 363 A.D., and
waged war against Valens, by whom he was put to death
in 366.
Pro-co'pi-us, [ Gr. UpoKo-ioc ; Fr. PROCOPE, pRo'-
kop',] an eminent Byzantine historian, born at Caesarea,
in Palestine, about 495 A.D. He became in 527 A.D.
secretary to Belisarius, whom he attended in his cam
paigns against the Persians, the Vandals, (in Africa,)
and the Goths. In the Gothic war he had a high com
mand in the navy. He returned to Constantinople about
^41 A.D., and obtained the favour of Justinian, who ap
pointed him a senator and in 562 prefect of the capital.
The question whether he was a Christian or a Pagan has
been disputed by many modern writers. His principal
work is a " History of his Own Times," in eight books,
which is highly esteemed for veracity. His style is com
mended for vigour and elegance. There is extant a secret
and scandalous history of the Byzantine court, entitled
'Arewfera, which is ascribed to him ; but his authorship
is doubted. Died about 565 A.D.
See FABRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Grasca ;" CAVE, " Historia Lite-
raria ;" HANKIUS, " Scriptores Byzantini;" " Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Procopius, (ANTHEMIUS.) See ANTHEMIUS.
Procopius, (DEMETRIUS,) a biographer, born atMos-
copolis, in Macedonia, lived about 1730. He wrote, in
Greek, a series of biographies of Greek scholars of the
seventeenth century, which is commended. It was
published by Fabricius in 1722 in his "Bibliotheca
Graeca."
Procopius OF GAZA, a biblical commentator, flour
ished about 550 A.D.
Pro-co'pi-us Ra'sa, an able Bohemian general, suc
ceeded Ziska in 1424 as the leader of the Hussites or
Taborites. He defeated the Austrians in a number of
battles, and ravaged Moravia, Austria, and Saxony. In
1431 he routed an imperial army which had invaded
Bohemia. He was killed in battle in 1434.
Fro-crus'tes, [Gr. npoKpvoTT/s ; Fr. PROCRUSTE, puo'-
kkiist',] (i.e. "the Stretcher,") a surname of DAMASTKS
or POLYPEMON", a famous robber, who compelled his
captives to lie on a bed, and made them coincide with
it in length by cutting off their legs or stretching them
in case they were too long or too short. He was killed
by Theseus.
Proc'ter, (ADELAIDE ANNE,) an English poetess,
born in London in 1825, was a daughter of Bryan
Waller Procter. She became in 1853 a contributor to
"Household Words" and "All the Year Round," and
published in 1858 "Legends and Lyrics." A second
volume of "Legends and Lyrics" came out in 1861.
Died in 1864.
See an article, by CHARLES DICKENS, in the "Atlantic Monthly"
for December, 1865.
Procter, (BRYAN WAI.LKR,) an English poet, who
wrote under the assumed name of BARRY CORNWALL,
was born about 1790. He studied law, and was called
to the bar in 1831. He acquired distinction by a volume
entitled "Dramatic Scenes, and other Poems," (1819.)
His tragedy of " Mirandola" (1821) was performed with
success. Among his other works are " The Flood of
Thessaly," "English Songs, and other Small Poems,"
(1832,) "Essays and Tales in Prose," (1851,) and
"Charles Lamb: a Memoir," (1866.) His songs have
obtained much popularity.
See "Edinburgh Review" for January and November, 1820;
" Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1820, and May, 1823.
Proc-u-le'ius, (CAius,) a Roman knight, was an in
timate friend of Octavian, (Augustus.) After the battle
of Actium he was sent by the victor to Antony and
Cleopatra. He is mentioned favourably by Horace,
(Carm. ii. 2.)
Proc'u-lus, an eminent Roman jurist, was a contem
porary of Nerva. He gave his name to a school or sect,
(Proculiani or Proculani.) Among the jurists cited in
the Digest he is the second in order of time.
Proculus, a Roman officer, who attempted to usurp
imperial power in Gaul in 280 A.D. He was defeated
by Probus, and put to death.
Prod'i-cus, [HpoiWoc,] an eloquent Greek Sophist or
philosopher, born in Ceos, lived about 430 B.C. He
lectured at Athens and other places. Among his pupils
or auditors were Isocrates, Euripides, and perhaps Soc
rates. He was accused of atheism without sufficient
evidence. He wrote a beautiful apologue entitled "The
Choice of Hercules," an outline or abridgment of which
has been preserved by Xenophon.
See XENOPHON, "Memorabilia:" HUMMEL, " Dissertatio his-
torica de Prodico Sophista," 1847; PLATO, "Protagoras."
Progne. See PKOCNE.
Prcetides, preYe-dez, the daughters of Proetus, King
of Argolis or Argos, were named Lysippe, Iphinoe, and
Iphianassa. According to the fable, they became insane
and imagined that they were cows.
Proetus, pree'tus, [Gr. II/wZYoc,] a king of Argos, was
a twin-brother of Acrisius, by whom he was defeated in
a contest for the throne. He afterwards recovered a
share of the kingdom, by the aid of Jobates. He is
said to have given Melampus a part of his kingdom
for curing his daughter of insanity.
Frokesch-Osten, von, fon pRo'kesh os'ten, (ANTON,)
BARON, an Austrian diplomatist, general, and able writer,
born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1795. He was sent as am
bassador to Athens' in 1834,10 Berlin in 1849, and to
Constantinople in 1855. He published "Memoirs and
Souvenirs of the Orient," (1836,) which is said to be a
work of much merit. Died in 1867.
Proklus. See PROCLUS.
Frokne. See PKOCNE.
Prokofief or Prokophief, pro-ko'fe-eT, (!VAN PRO-
KOFIEVITCH,) a Russian sculptor, born in Saint Peters
burg in 1758, was a pupil of Julien, of Paris. He worked
with success at his native place. Died in 1828.
Pro-ko'po-vitch, (THEOPHANES,) a Russian prelate,
born at Kiev in 1681. He became Bishop of Pskof in
1715, and composed, at the request of Peter the Great,
•C as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (~3T=See Explanations, p. 23.)
PROMETHEE
1844
PROTOGENE
an ecclesiastical code, in which priests are treated as
employees of the civil power. Died in 1736.
See TCHISTOVITCH, "Theophane Prokopovitch et Theophilacte
Lopatinski," 1861.
Promethee. See PROMETHEUS.
Fro-me'the-us, [Gr. Hpopt)6evs ; Fr. PROMETHEE,
pRo'ma'ta',] a personage of the Greek mythology, was a
son of lapetus. According to one tradition, he stole fire
from heaven, for which offence Jupiter chained him to
a rock or pillar, and an eagle daily devoured his liver,
which was nightly restored. /Eschylus represents him
as an immortal being, a benefactor of men, the giver of
fire, and a heroic sufferer, who was oppressed by the
power of Jupiter, but maintained an inflexible spirit
until he was liberated by Hercules. His name signifies
"forethought." Some authors relate that he created a
man out of clay and animated him with fire which he
stole from heaven, and that he was the husband of Pan
dora. (See ^Eschylus, " Prometheus Bound.")
See, also, LASSAULX, "Prometheus; die Sage und ihr Sinn,"
1843!
Pro-mo'tus, (^Euus,) a physician of Alexandria,
whose period is unknown. It is supposed that he lived
before the Christian era. Some of his works are extant
in manuscript.
Prompsault, pRi.N'so', (JEAN HENRI ROM/UN,) a
French ecclesiastical writer, born at Montelimart in
1798. He published a "Dictionary of Canon Law,"
and several works on grammar. Died in 1858.
Prony, de, deh pRo'ne', (GASPAUD CLAIR FRANCOIS
MARIE RICHE,) a French mathematician and engineer,
born at Chamelet (Rhone) in July, 1755- He was ap
pointed in 1791 director of the Cadastre, and received
an order to compose logarithms or mathematical tables
adapted to the decimal division of the circle, a work of
great labour and utility. In 1791 he was appointed chief
engineer of bridges and causesvays. He became about
1794 professor of mechanics in the Polytechnic School, a
member of the Bureau of Longitudes, and a member of
the Institute. In 1798 he was invited by Bonaparte to
join the expedition to Egypt, but declined. He received
the title of baron in 1828, and became a peer of France
in 1835. Among his principal works are "Hydraulic
Architecture," (2 vols., 1790-96,) "Philosophical Me
chanics," (1800,) "Lectures on Analytical Mechanics,"
(1810,) and a " Hydrographic and Statistical Description
of the Pontine Marshes," (1823,) which is a work of
much merit. He wrote a number of articles for the
"Biographic Universelle." Died in 1839.
See ARAGO, " Notices biographiques," tome iii. ; " £loge de
Prony," by C. DUPIN; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Properce. See PROPERTIUS.
Propertius, pro-per'she-us, [Fr. PROPERCE, pRo'-
peRss'; It. PROPERZIO, pRcvpeRt'se-o,] (SEXTUS AURE-
Lius,) an eminent Roman elegiac poet, born in Umbria
about 50 B.C. He informs us that he was born in Umbria,
on the border of Etruria. His paternal estate was confis
cated by Octavius because his father had been a partisan
of Antony. He began early to write poetry, became a resi
dent of Rome, and obtained the patronage of Maecenas.
His life appears to have been that of "a man of wit
and pleasure about town." His career as a poet was
influenced by a passion for Cynthia, a poetess and lady
of superior talents, who furnished a theme for his early
elegies. He chose Callimachus as his model, and be
came a rather pedantic imitator of the Greeks. His
style is censured as too artificial. Both ancient and
modern critics, however, assign to him a high rank as
a poet. He enjoyed the friendship of Ovid. The time
of his death is unknown. Four books of elegies are the
only works of Propertins that are now extant. A cor
rect English version of his first book was published
anonymously in 1781. Among the best editions of the
text is that of Lachmann, (Leipsic, 1816.)
See "Vita Propertii," in LACHMANN'S edition, 1816 ; GILLET DE
MOIVRE, "La Vie et les Amours de Properce," 1744; "Nouvelle
tiographie Generale ;" " Westminster Review" for January, 1854.
Froperzio. See PROPERTIUS.
Propiac, de, deh pro'pe'tk', (CATHERINE JOSEPH
FERDINAND GIRARD,) a French litterateur, born at
Dijon in 1759; died in 1823.
Pros'er-pine, [Gr. HepaE<j>6vrj, ( Perscph' one ; ) Fr.
PROSERPINE, pRo'zeR'pen'; Lat. PROSERPI'NA,] the
goddess and queen of the infernal regions, was said
to have been a daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, and the
wife of Pluto. The poets feigned that as she was gather
ing flowers near Enna she was abducted by Pluto ; that
Ceres, not knowing what had become of her, searched
for her with torches in all parts of the earth for nine
days; that Helios revealed the secret of her abduction ;
that Jupiter, induced by the importunity of Ceres, re
quested Pluto to restore her, and that Pluto consented
that she should spend two-thirds of the year with the
gods above, and the other third in the lower world.
Later writers say that she was to pass the half of her
time in Hades and the other half in the regions of light.
She is supposed to be a symbol of vegetation, and of
the creative and destructive power of heat.
Prosper, pRos'paiR', surnamed AQUITA'NUS, ("of
Aqnitaine,") a theologian, born at Bordeaux, in Gaul,
about 404 A.D. He was a zealous opponent of the Semi-
Pelagians, and wrote in defence of the doctrines of Saint
Augustine. His wovlcs^ among which are some poems,
are still extant. Died atter 463 A.D.
Pros'per Ti'ro or Ty'ro, a poet, who is often con
founded with Prosper Aquitanus, was born in Gaul, ami
lived about 400 A.D. He wrote a " Poem of a Husband
to his Wife," (" Poema Conjugis ad Uxorem.")
Prost, pRo, (CLAUDE,) BARON, a French general,
born at Auxonne in 1764 ; died in 1834.
Prost de Royer, pRo deh rwa'ya', (ANTOINE FRAN-
gois,) a French jurist, born at Lyons in 1729; died in
1784.
Pro-tag'o-ras, [Gr. Hpurayopas ; Fr. PROTAGORE,
pRo'tt'goR.',] an eminent Greek philosopher and Sophist,
born at Abdera, in Thrace, flourished about 440 B.C. He
is said to have been a pupil of Democritus ; but this
is doubted by some, because Protagoras was probably
older than his supposed master. According to Plato
and Diogenes, he was the first who adopted the name
of Sophist and taught for pay. lie taught oratory at
Athens and other cities. He was banished from Athens
because he said that he did not know whether the gods
existed or not. His works, which treated on ethics,
physics, etc., are lost, but his peculiar doctrines are ex
plained in the "Theaetetus" of Plato. He reached the
age of seventy or more, and died about 410 B.C. It was
a maxim of Protagoras that "man is the measure of the
universe or of all things, and that whatever he judges to
be true is true." Cicero says, " Putet id cuique verum
esse quod cuique videatur." (" Quasstiones Academical. ")
See PLATO'S dialogue entitled " Protagoras ;" GROTE, " Plato and
the other Companions of Socrates." 3 vols., 1865; HKRUST, "Des
Protagoras Leben und Sophistik," etc., 18^2; J. FKEI, " Quxstiones
Protagorese," Bonn, 1845; VITKINGA, " Disquisitio de Protagoras
Vita et Philosophia," 1853; C. MALLET, " fitudes philosophiques,"
tome ii. ; GROTE, "History of Greece," chap. Ixvii.
Protagore. See PROTAGORAS.
Protain, pRo'taN', (JEAN CONSTANTIN,) a French
architect, born in Paris in 1769. He was employed in
Egypt in 1798-99 as architect to the commission of arts
and sciences, and became a member of the Institute of
Cairo in 1801. Died in 1837.
Protee. See PROTEUS.
Protet, pRo'ti', (AUGUSTE LEOPOLD,) a French rear-
admiral, born at Saint-Servan about 1810. He was
Governor of Senegal from 1850 to 1855, during which
period he made an exploration of that region. He was
killed in a battle against the Taepingsof China, in 1862.
Pro'te-us, [Gr. Hpuraif ; Fr. PROTEE, pRo'ta', | a
divinity of the Greek mythology, was sometimes called
a son of Neptune and a king of Egypt. He was repre
sented as a prophetic old man, who lived in the sea and
could foretell future events, but eluded those who seized
and importuned him to prophesy, by transforming him
self into a great variety of shapes. If his efforts to
escape were baffled, he resumed his original or usual form
and revealed his secret knowledge. His occupation was
to tend the flocks of seals or sea-calves belonging to
Neptune.
See HOMER, "Odyssey," book iv. ; VIRGIL, "Georgics," book
iv. 387-529.
Protogene. See PROTOGENES.
a, e, T, o, \\,y,long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
PROTOGENES
.845
PR US US
Pro-tog'e-nes, [Gr. n/jwroyei^o ; Fr. PROTOGENE,
pRo'to'zhin',] a Greek painter of great celebrity, was a
native of Cannus, in Caria. He flourished about 332
B.C., was a contemporary of Apelles, and lived mostly
at Rhodes. The name of his master is not known. His
advancement in fame and fortune was retarded by his
modesty, until Apelles visited Rhodes and purchased, at
the enormous price of fifty taleiUs each, several of his
pictures, which he proposed to sell as his own works.
(See APELLES.) In the opinion of some, Protogenes
carried the elaboration of his works to a fault ; but
Cicero speaks of his works as perfect in every respect.
His master-piece was a picture of lalysus, on which he
is said to have expended seven years. One of the ad
mirable parts of this picture \vas the foam at the mouth
of a hound, " which," says Pliny, "he produced, after
many vain efforts, by throwing a sponge at the place,
under the impulse of vexation or despair."
See PUNY, "Natural History," book xxxv. ; SL'IDAS, "Proto
genes;" K. O. MULI.ER, "Archaologie der Kunst."
Proudhon, pRoo'dix', sometimes written Prudhon,
(JEAN BAPTISTE VICTOR,) a French jurist, born in
Franche-Comte in 1758. He was for many years pro
fessor of law at Dijon. He published, besides other
works, an excellent treatise on the laws of Usufruct,
etc., "Traite cles Droits d'Usufruit, d'Usage, d'Habita-
tion et de Superficie," (9 vols., 1823-25,) said to be the
best work on that subject. Died in 1838.
See LORAIN-, " FJoge historique de M. Proudhon," 1839; J. Cu-
RASSON, "Kloge de M. Proudhon," 1839.
Proudhon, (PIERRE JOSEPH,) a French socialist and
political writer, born at Besancon in 1809. In 1848 he
became editor of "The Representative of the People,"
and was elected to the Constituent Assembly. He made
a motion which a large majority of the Assembly rejected
as "an odious attack on public morality and subversive
of the rights of property." He published several works
on social and political economy. In his essay entitled
"What is Property?" ("Qu'est-ce que la Propriete?")
he affirms that "property is robbery," ("La propriete,
c'est le vol.") Died in 1865.
See J. VHAU, " Proudhon et son Economic politique," 1853;
QUERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1849.
Proust, pRoo, (Louis JOSEPH,) a French chemist,
born at Angers about 1760. He was admitted into the
Institute in 1816. He contributed many memoirs on
chemistry to various periodicals, and distinguished him
self as a supporter of the theory of equivalents or definite
proportions. Died in 1826.
Prousteau, pRoo'to', (GUILLAUME,) a French jurist,
born at Tours in 1628. lie founded a public library at
Orleans, and wrote legal works. Died in 1715.
Prout, FATHER, the assumed name of FRANCIS MA-
HONEY. (See MAHONEY.)
Prout, prowt, (SAMUEL,) a skilful English painter
of architecture, scenery, etc., was born at Plymouth in
1783. He published about 1816 "Views in the North
and West of England," "Rudiments of Landscape," and
other successful works. He acquired distinction as a
painter in water-colours, a delineator of mediaeval archi
tecture, and a lithographer. After a tour on the conti
nent, he published lithographic " Fac-Similes of Sketches
made in Flanders and Germany," and " Sketches in
France, Switzerland, and Italy," (1839.) Died 1111852.
Ruskin pronounces him " a very great man, who, though,
partly by chance and partly by choice, limited in range
of subject, possessed for that subject the profoundest
and noblest sympathy. ... In reality he is to be num
bered among the true masters of the nobler picturesque."
("Modern Painters.")
See J. RUSKIN, " Memoir of S. Prout," in the "Art Journal,"
1849.
Prout, (WILLIAM,) an eminent English chemist and
physician, was born in 1786. He practised in London,
and was probably the first physician who applied the
doctrines of chemistry to the explanation of the phe
nomena of disease. Among his important works are
one " On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach an-1
Renal Diseases ; being an Inquiry into the Connection
of Diabetes, Calculus, etc. with Indigestion," and
"Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Diges
tion considered with Reference to Natural Theology."
The latter is one of the " Bridgewater Treatises." Died
in London in 1850.
Provana, pRo-va'na, (ANDREA,) an Italian admiral,
born in Piedmont in 1511 ; died in 1592.
Frovenzale, pRo-vdn-za'la, (MARCKLLO,) an Italian
painter in mosaic, born at Cento in 1575. Among his
works is a portrait of Paul V. Died in 1639.
Provoost, pro'vost, ? (SAMUEL,) D.D., an American
divine, born in New York in 1742, was chaplain to the
Continental Congress and subsequently to the United
States Senate. He was elected Bishop of New York in
1786. Died in 1815.
Frovostaye, de la, deh \% pRo'vo'st.V, (FERDINAND
HERVE,) a French natural philosopher, born at Redon
in 1812. He has written on optics, heat, etc.
Proyart, piiwa'ya'R', (Abbe LIEVIN BONAVENTURE,)
a French historian, born at Arras in 1743, published,
besides other works, a " History of Stanislas, King of
Poland," (2 vols., 1782,) which' is commended. Died
in 1808.
Prudence. See PRUDENTIUS.
Prudent, pru'dS.N', (fiMiLE,) a French composer and
pianist, born at Angouleme in 1817. Among his works
is "Fantaisie sur Lucie," (1842.)
Prudentius, pru-den'she^us, or Fru'deiice, SAINT,
a learned bishop, born in Spain. He became Bishop of
Troyes about 846. 1 le wrote against Erigena on pre
destination. Died in 861.
See LE CI.ERC, "Vie de Saint-Prudence," 1689; BREYER, "Vie
de Saint-Prudence," 1725.
Pruden'tius (pru-dgn'she-us) [Fr. PRUDENCE, pRii'-
d6.\ss'| Clem'eiis, (AURKLlDsJ a Latin Christian poet,
was born in Spain in 348 A.D. He practised law, and
became a judge of a civil and criminal court. He wrote,
in barbarous or unclassical Latin, hymns, and other re
ligious poems, which procured for him a high reputation
in the middle ages and are admired by some modern
critics. He visited Rome about 405, and passed his
latter years in Spain. Erasmus thought that his piety
and learning entitled him to a place among the doctors
of the Church.
See LUDEWIG, " Dissertatio de Vita A. Prudentii dementis,"
1692; TILLEMONT, " Memoires ecclesiastiques."
Prudhomme, pKu'dom', (Louis MARIE,) a French
revolutionist, born at Lyons in 1752. He issued an ultra-
republican journal in Paris in 1789. Among his works
is a "History of the French Revolution," (6 vols., 1796,)
which is of little value. Died in 1830.
Prudhon, (JEAN BAPTISTE VICTOR.) See PROU
DHON.
Prud'hon, prii'dAN', (PIERRE PAUL,) a French histor
ical painter, was born at Cluny (Saone-et-Loire) in 1758.
Having studied in Rome, he settled in Paris in 1789,
and obtained a high reputation. Among his works are
"Venus and Adonis," "The Abduction of Psyche," and
"Justice and Divine Vengeance pursuing Crime." The
gracefulness of his style has procured for him the sur
name of "the French Correggio." Died in 1823.
See ARSENE HOUSSAVE, " Philosophers and Actresses," vol. ii. ;
VOIART. "Notice historique sur la Vie de Prud'hon," 1824; QUA-
TREMEKE DE QuiNCY, " Notice sur P. P. Prud'hon," 1824; "Nou-
velle Biographic Generale. "
Prunelle, pRti'nel', (CLEMENT FRANC.OIS VICTOR
GABRIEL,) a French physician, born at La Tour du Pin
(Isere) in 1777. He lectured at Montpellier from 1807
to 1819, and published several medical works. Died
in 1853.
See A. F. F. POTTON, " Le Docteur Prunelle," 1855.
Pruner, pRoo'ner, (FRANZ,) a German physician and
ethnologist, born in Bavaria in 1808. He became chief
physician of Abbas Pasha of Egypt in 1847, before
which he had visited Syria and other parts of the Le
vant. He afterwards returned to Europe. Among his
works is "Man in Space and Time," (" Der Mensch im
Ratmi mid in der Zeit," 1859.)
Prusias, pru'she-as, [Gr. LTpowf'ac, ] I., King of Bithy-
n ia, was a grandson of Nicomedes I. He began to reign
about 228 H.C., and gained a great victory over the Gauls
in 216. He aided Philip of Macedon in his first war
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y^gutiural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jJ^f^See Explanations, p. 23.)
PR US US
184.6
PTOLEMT
against the Romans, but became the ally of the latter
about 190 B.C. The power and prosperity of the king
dom were increased by his ability as a ruler. He
lacked the virtue or courage to refuse when the Romans
demanded the surrender of Hannibal, who had taken
refuge in his dominions.
See POLYBIQS, "History;" APPIAN, "Syrinca."
Prusias II. OF BITHYNIA was the son and successor
of the preceding. He began to reign about 180 B.C. He
was neutral in the war between the Romans and Perseus,
his brother-in-law. In 156-154 he waged war against
Attains of Pergamus. Having rendered himself odious
by his cruelty, he was killed by his subjects in 149 B.C.
Prutz, pRoots, (ROBERT ERNST,) a German poet and
prose writer, born at Stettin in 1816. He became pro
fessor of literary history at Halle in 1849. Among his
works are "Poems," (1841,) "Political and Literary
Kssays," (2 vols., 1847,) and "Dramatic Works," (4
vols., 1847-49.)
Prymie, prin, (WILLIAM,) an English Puritan poli
tician and antiquary, was born near Hath in 1600. He
published in 1632 a scurrilous pamphlet, entitled " His-
trio-Mastix, or a Scourge for Stage-Players," for which
the court of the Star-Chamber sentenced him to pay a
large fine, to be exposed in a pillory, to lose his ears,
and to be imprisoned for life. He was released by a
warrant from the Speaker of the Commons in 1641, and
elected to the Long Parliament. He was an opponent
of Cromwell's, and was ejected from the House of
Commons by the army in 1648. He compiled several
volumes of Records. Died in 1669.
See ANTHONY WOOD,'' Athense Oxonienses;" DISRAELI, " Ca
lamities of Authors." ^rtyle. Z> t&tf'>r*i.**y g.-Jt,2-,
Fry'pr, (ROGER A.,) an American general, born at
Richmond, or in Dimviddie county, Virginia, about 1826.
He was editor of several papers issued at Petersburg
and Richmond, and was elected to Congress in 1859.
He challenged John F. Potter, M.C., in 1860, but refused
to fight with the weapons which the latter selected. He
fought against the Union, with the rank of brigadier-
general, in the civil war.
Przipcovius, pzhlp-kc/ve-us, (SAMUEL,) a Polish
Socinian writer, born about 1592; died in 1670.
Przybylski, • pzhip-b!l'skee, (HYACINTH,) a Polish
writer and translator, born at Cracow in 1756. He pro
duced versions of Homer, Milton, Virgil, Horace, etc.
Died in 1819.
Psalmaiiazar, sal-ma-na'zar, (GEORGE,) the assumed
name of a literary impostor, born about 1679, probably
in the south of France. He passed his youth as a vaga
bond, pretended to be a native of Formosa, and pub
lished in England a fictitious account of that island, (1704.)
About the age of thirty-two he renounced his evil habits,
became religious, and applied himself diligently to study.
He obtained considerable success as an English author.
He wrote for a work entitled "Universal History" nearly
all of the ancient history except that of Rome, and left
memoirs of his own life, (1765.) His proper name re
mains a secret. Died in London in 1753 or 1763.
See " Memoirs of * * *, commonly known by the name of George
Psalmanazar," 1765 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Monthly
Review" for November and December, 1764.
Psammeiiitus, sam-me-nl'tus, [Gr. ^a/^wroi; ; Fr.
PSAMMENITE, psl'nia'net',] King of Egypt, succeeded
his father, Amasis, in 526 B.C. He was conquered and
deposed in 525 B.C. by Cambyses. Soon after this event
he was accused of inciting the Egyptians to revolt, and
was put to death.
Psammetichus or Psametik. See PSAMMTTICHUS.
Fsammis, sam'mis, [Gr. "Pu/^uic,] King of Egypt, a
son of Necho, reigned from 601 to 595 B.C., and was
succeeded by his son Apries.
Fsammitichus, sam-mit'e-kus, or Psammetichus,
sam-met/e-kus, [Gr. ^a/j/nirixof or ^rafifj^rixof ; Fr. PSAM-
MITIQUE, pst'me'tek' ; Egyptian, PSAMETIK,] a king of
Egypt, and founder of the Saitic dynasty, began to reign
about 670 B.C. According to Herodotus, he reigned fifty-
four years. During his reign, which was an important
epoch, the Greeks were first introduced into Egypt.
See HERODOTUS, " History;" GROTE, " History of Greece."
Psammitique. See PSAMMITICHUS.
Psellus, sel'lus, [i'tvlAoc,] (MICHAEL,) a Greek scholar
of the ninth century, was a native of Andros, and emi
nent for learning.
Psellus, (MICHAEL CONSTANTINUS, ) a celebrated
Greek writer, born at Constantinople in 1020 A.D. He
is said to have been the most excellent scholar of his
time. He wrote in prose and verse on various subjects,
and received from several emperors the title of " Prince
of Philosophers." He was living in 1105.
Psyche, sl'ke, [Gr. i^?/; Fr. PSYCHE, pse'ka',] the
name given by ancient Greek poets and fabulists to a
personification of the human soul. Having gained the
affections of the god of Love, (Amor,) she lived happily
with him until her curiosity to know who he was de
prived her of his presence. Wandering in search of
Amor, she entered the palace of Venus, who reduced
her to slavery, from which she was finally liberated by
the return of her first love. According to a beautiful,
allegory of Apuleius, Psyche was a daughter of a king,
and her beauty excited the jealousy of Venus, who per
secuted her. She was represented in works of art as a
maiden with the wings of a butterfly.
See THORI.ACIUS, " Disquisitio mythologies de Psyche et Cu-
pidine," iSon
Psychristus, si-kris'tus, or Psycochristus, sl-ko-
kris'tus, (JACOBUS,) an eminent physician of the fifth
century, was a native of Alexandria. lie became phy
sician to Leo the Great, who reigned at Constantinople
from 457 to 474 A.D.
Ftoiemaeus. See PTOLEMY.
Ptolemaus and Ftolemaer. See PTOLEMY.
Ptolemee. See PTOLEMY.
Ptolemy, tol'e-me, [Gr. nroAfua;or ; Lut. PTOLK-
M/E'US ; Fr. PTOLEMEE, pto'kVma' ; Ger. PTOLEMAUS,
pto-leh-ma'us, plural PTOLEMAKK, pto-leh-ma'er ; It.
TOLOMEO, to-lo-ma'o, plural TOLOMKI, to-lo-ma'ee,] I.,
surnamed SOTEK, or "Saviour," the son of Lagus, was
the founder of the dynasty of Greek kings of Egypt.
It is supposed that he was a son of Philip II. of Mace-
don, as his mother was a concubine of that king. He
had a high command in the army of Alexander, and
displayed great abilities as a general in India. He was
one of the personal attendants of Alexander, who ap
pears to have regarded him with great favour. At the
distribution of provinces which followed the death of the
king, (323 B.C.,) Ptolemy obtained the government of
Egypt. lie raised a large army, and for.ned a secret
alliance with Antipater against Perdiccas, who invaded
Egypt in 321 and 'was defeated. As the ally of Cas-
sander, Seleucus, and Lysimachus, he waged by sea
and land a long war against Antigonus. This war began
in 315, and was ended by the defeat of Antigonus at
Ipsus, in 301 B.C. I!y his able administration Ptolemy
rendered the kingdom prosperous and powerful. He
promoted commerce, science, and literature, and invited
many Greek philosophers and authors to his court.
Historians generally represent him as eminent for po
litical wisdom. He died in 283 B.C., and was succeeded
by his son, Ptolemy Philadelphia.
See GRIER, " De Ptolemaei I.agidas Vita et Scriptis;" AKRIAN,
" Anabasis, " books ii.-vii. ; DIODOKUS Sicui.us, " History," bonks
xvii.-xx. ; DRUMANN, "Dissertatio de Rebus Ptolemaeoruin," 1X21.
Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) II., commonly called Ptol
emy Philadelphus,* [Fr. PTO I.E. MI-IK Pini.Ani'.i.rni:,
pto'li'ma' fe'lt'delf.] a son of the preceding, was
born at Cos in 309 B.C. His mother was liereni'ce.
The partial favour of his father secured the throne for
him in preference to the eldest son, P. Ceraunus. He
pursued a pacific policy, promoted foreign commerce,
and employed his vast resources in the patronage of
literature and science and the construction of public
works. He founded a great library at Alexandria, and
a museum which was the resort of eminent philosophers.
He had received a learned education, and manifested a
special interest in natural history. Among the celebrated
* I.e. "brother-loving," so called in irony, because he had ex
cluded his brother Ceraunus from the throne and put to death two
other of his brothers. Some writers, however, suppose that lie
received the surname (which may also mean "loving one's sister")
from his having married his sister Arsinoe, to whom he appears to
have been tenderly attached, and to whose memory he caused a
temple to be erected after her death.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long ; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
PTOLEMY
1847
PTOLEMT
men whom he attracted to his court were the poet The-
oe.itus, Hegesias the philosopher, Euclid the geometer,
and Aratus the astronomer. According to a tradition
which is credited by many, the Holy Scriptures were
translated into Greek by his command. His dominions
included Cyprus, Lycia, Caria, Ccele-Syria, and parts
of Arabia and of Libya. During his reign Egypt was
raised to a high degree of power and prosperity. lie
died in 247 B.C.
See JUSTIN, " History," books xvii. and xviii. ; DROVSEN. " Hel-
lenismus ;" GEORG GREEN-, " Dissertatio de Ptolemaeo (II.) Phila-
delplio," 1676; DRUMANN, "Dissertaiio de Rebus Ptolemaeorum,"
1821.
Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) III., surnamed EUER/GETES,
(the "Benefactor,'') [Fr. Proi.EMEE EVEKGETE, pto'li'-
ma' a'veu'zhit',] was a son of the preceding, whom he
succeeded in 247 i'..C. To avenge the death of his sister
Berenice, he invaded Syria about 245 B.C., defeated
Seleucus Callini'cus, took Babylon, and subjected many
large provinces of his enemy. His victorious career was
interrupted by a sedition in Egypt, to which he re
turned about 243 n.c. He was distinguished as a patron
of literature, and made large additions to the library of
Alexandria. His reign was eminently prosperous. lie
died in 222 B.C. According to Justin, he was poisoned
by his son, Ptolemy Philopator.
See JUSTIN, " History," book xxvii.
Ptolemy (Ftolemaeus) IV., surnamed PHII.OP'A-
TOK,* the eldest son of the preceding, began to reign in
222 H.c. He was greatly inferior to his predecessors in
ability, and was notorious for cruelty and sensual vices.
He put to death his mother and his brother Magas. His
army defeated Antiochus the Great at Kaphia, near
Gaza, in 217 B.C. He died in 205 B.C., leaving one son,
Ptolemy V.
See POLYBIUS, " History," books v., xiv., and xv.
Ptolemy (Ftolemaeus) V., surnamed EPIPH'ANES,
(the " Illustrious,"') succeeded his father in 205 B.C., when
he was only five years old. During his minority Antio
chus the Great conquered Ccele-Syria, Phoenicia, and
Judea, but was checked in his encroachments by the
intervention of the Romans. At his coronation, in 196
B.C., a decree was issued which has been preserved in
the famous inscription of the Rosetta Stone. In his
reign the power of the Egyptian monarchy declined
rapidly. lie died (it is said, by poison) in 181 B.C.
See Poi.YBiL'S, "History," books xv., xvi., xvii., etc.
Ptolemy (Ftolemaeus) VI., surnamed PHILOMK'-
TOK, was an infant when he succeeded his father, Ptolemy
V., in 181 B.C. His mother, Cleopatra, was regent until
her death, in 173. Antiochus of Syria invaded Egypt
in 171 B.C., reduced several cities, and took the young
king prisoner. The title of king was then assumed by
a younger brother, Ptolemy Euergetes or Physcon.
Philometor was soon released, and reigned jointly with
his brother for several years. Dissensions having arisen
between them, about 164 B.C. Philometor invoked the
mediation of the Roman senate, who restored him to the
sole sovereignty of Egypt. As an ally of Demetrius II.,
he led an army into Syria, took Antioch, and defeated
Alexander Balas, in 146 B.C. At this battle he was fatally
injured by a fall from his horse.
See Pdi.YBii's, " History," books xxvii.-xxxiii.
Ptolemy iPtolemaeusi VII., surnamed EUER'GETES
or PIIYS'CON, obtained the throne in 146 B.C., and put to
death Ptolemy Eu'pator, the infant heir of the late king.
Provoked by his cruelty and vices, the people revolted,
burnt his palace, and drove him out of Egypt in 130 B.C.
He recovered the throne in 127, and died in 117 B.C.
See JL-STIX, " History," books xxxviii. and xxxix.
Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) VIII., surnamed SO'TER II.,
and more frequently called LATH'YRUS, [Fr. PTOI.EMEE
LATHYRE, pto'li'ma' It'ten', ] succeeded his father,
Ptolemy VII., in 117 B.C. He reigned jointly with his
mother, Cleopatra, until 107, when she procured his ex
pulsion in order to raise to the throne her favourite son,
Alexander. Ptolemy reigned in Cyprus until the death
* I.e. " father loving," so styled ironically because he was sus
pected (though probably without sufficient grounds) of having poisoned
his lather.
of his mother, (89 B.C.,) and was then restored to the
throne of Egypt. He died in 81 B.C., leaving a daughter,
Berenice, w:ho succeeded him, and a natural son, Ptolemy
Auletes.
The ALEXANDER mentioned in the preceding para
graph is styled Ptolemy IX. by some writers.
See JUSTIN, " History," book xxxix.
Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) X., (sometimes called Alex
ander II.,) the son of Ptolemy VIII., was killed by the
Alexandrians on account of his cruelty.
Ptolemy (Ftolemaeus) XL, surnamed AUI.F/TES,
(i.e. the "Piper,") [Fr. PTOLEMEE AUI.ETE, pto'li'ma'
5'iAt',] also surnamed NE'US DIOXY'SUS, was a son of
Ptolemy VIII. He began to reign in 80 B.C. He was
one of the worst kings of the race of Ptolemies, and
was dethroned by his subjects in 58 B.C. In 55 lie was
restored by the Roman proconsul Gabinius. He had
two sons named Ptolemy, and a daughter, the famous
Cleopatra. Died in 51 B.C.
See DION CASSIUS, " History of Rome."
Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) XII. of Egypt was the
eldest son of the preceding. According to his father's
will, he reigned jointly with Cleopatra from 51 to 48 B.C.
Dissensions between the minister Potl.inus and the
young queen resulted in her expulsion. Ptolemy was
involved in war with Caesar, who entered Egypt in 48
B.C., and he was drowned in a retreat from a fight with
the Romans about the end of that year.
His brother PTOLEMY received from Caesar the title
of king in conjunction with Cleopatra; but his reign was
merely nominal. He was put to death by Cleopatra in
43 »-c".
See C>USAR, " BelKim Civi'e."
Ptolemy, (Ptolemaeus,) a nephew of Antigonus,
King of Asia. He obtained in 315 B.C. command of one
of the armies of Antigonus, and defeated the generals of
Cassander in Asia Minor and Greece. He was put fo
death by Ptolemy Soter in 309 B.C.
Ptolemy, (Ptolemaeus,) a son of Pyrrhus, King of
Epirus, born in 295 B.C., was a prince of great promise.
He was left in charge of Epirus when his father led the
expedition against Italy, in 280. He was slain in a
combat against the Spartans, in 272 B.C.
Ptol'e-my (Ftolemee'us) Qe-rau'nus, [Gr. oKepav-
vor,\ King of Macedonia, was a son of Ptolemy I. of
Egypt by his wife Eurydice. Having been disinherited
by his father, he retired to Thrace. He murdered
Seleucus of Macedonia, and usurped his throne, in 280
B.C. About a year later he was killed in battle by the
Gauls, who had invaded Macedonia.
Ptol'e-my (Ptolemae'us) Clau'di-us, [Gr. Tlro?^-
fialo^ K/.ar&oc ; Fr. PTOI.EMEE CLAUDE, pto'la'ma'
k!5d,] a celebrated Greek astronomer and geographer,
was a native of Egypt, and lived at Alexandria. His
mature life probably extended from 125 to about 160
A.D. Of his personal history we know nothing. He
was the most celebrated, but not the greatest, astronomer
of antiquity. His contemporaries and commentators
usually added to his name the epithet " admirable" or
" divine." He was also a great mathematician. His prin
cipal work is a treatise on astronomy, entitled Meya^Tj
Zw-offf rrif '\arpovouiac, to which the Arabian translators
gave the name of "Almagest," composed of the Arabic
article al and the Greek //ey/or*?, i.e. " greatest." In this
work he availed himself of the observations and dis
coveries of Hipparchus, to whom he gives the credit with
commendable candour. Indeed, it is chiefly through the
medium of the "Almagest" that the merit of Hipparchus
has been recognized by the moderns. Ptolemy main
tained that the earth is a snhere, and that the sun ami
stars revolve daily around the earth, which is fixed in
the centre of the universe. " We find in the Almagest,"
says Delambre, "a clear exposition of the system of the
world, of the arrangement of the celestial bodies and
their revolutions, a complete treatise of rectilinear and
spherical trigonometry, and all the phenomena of diur
nal motion explained and calculated with remarkable
precision. . . . Such was the ' Syntaxis,' (' Almagest,') a
monument of great value at the present day, since it
alone contains the verified (avere) history of the science,
e as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^='?ee Explanations, p. 23.)
PTOLEMY
1848
PUG IN
and the whole astronomical knowledge of his times."
His astronomical theory is called the Ptolemaic system.
He also wrote a work on general geography, (Teu-
ypifyLKri 'ytyrj-yiiaic,) which for many ages was the chief
authority on that subject, and did not become obsolete
until the fifteenth century. He gave special attention
to the determination of the latitudes and longitudes
of places by mathematical processes, but neglected the
descriptive part of geography.
See SCHAUBACH, "Ueber den Griecliischen Astronnmen C.
Ptolemzeus," 1825; FARRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Gneca;" HEEREN,
" Commentatio de Fontibus Geographicorum Ptolemaei," etc., 1828;
DR. HOEFKR, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Ptolemy Lagi, (or the son of Lagus.) See PTOL-
KMY I. SOTF.R.
Pub-lic'o-la, (L. GELLIUS,) a Roman general, was
elected consul 'in 72 i?.c., and was defeated in battle by
Spartacus. He supported Cicero in opposition to Cati
line. Died soon after 55 B.C.
Publicola, (PuBLius VALERIUS,) one of the founders
of the Roman republic, was consul with Brutus in 509
B.C., and was author of laws which protected the liber
ties of the common people, who gave him the surname
of PUBLICOLA, " the people's friend." He was re-elected
consul in 508 and 507 B.C., and fought against Porsena,
who attempted to restore the Tarquins. It is supposed
that he was killed at the battle of Regillus, (496 B.C.)
See NIEBUHR, " History of Rome ;" CICKRO, " De Republic.!."
Fub-lil'I-us, (Voi/ERO,) a Roman, who effected a
change in the constitution. lie was tribune of the
people in 472 B.C., and procured for the plebeians
greater freedom in the election of tribunes.
Pub'li-us Sy'rus, an eminent mimographer, born in
Syria, lived at Rome in the time of Julius Caesar. He
was a slave in his youth. At games exhibited by Cassar
in 45 B.C. Publius excelled all competitors as a composer
of mimes. There is extant a collection of proverbs or
moral sayings ascribed to him.
Pucci, poot/chee, [Lat. Puc'cius,] (FRANCESCO,) an
Italian theologian, born at Florence ; died in 1600.
Puccinelli, poot-che-nel'lee, (Pi.ACino,) an Italian
biographer, born in Tuscany about 1609; died in 1685.
Puccius. See Pucci.
Pucelle, pu'sel', (RENE,) a French lawyer, born in
Paris in 1655, was a nephew of Marshal Catinat. Died
in 1745.
Pucelle d'Orleans. See JOAN OF ARC.
Pu-chta, pooK/ta, (GEOKG FKIEDRICH,) a German
jurist, born at Cadol/burg in 1798. He published an
excellent work on Roman law, " Cursus der Institu-
tionen," (3 vols., 1841-47,) and a " Manual of the Pan
dects," (5th edition, 1854.) Died at Berlin in 1846.
Puchta, (WOLFGANG HKINRICH,) a German jurist,
father of the preceding, was born near Erlangen in 1769 ;
died in 1845.
Piickler-Muskau, puk'ler moos'kow, (HERMANN
LUDWIG HEINRICH,) PIUNCF. OF, a German writer of
travels, born at Muskau, in Lusatia, in 1785. He visited
England, France, Northern Africa, and Asia, and gave
an account of those countries in a work entitled " Let
ters of a Defunct," (" Briefe eines Verstorbenen," 1830.)
This was followed by " Semilasso in Africa," (1836,) and
other sketches of travel.
See the "London Quarterly Review" for June. 1837; "Foreign
Quarterly Review" for May, 1832, May, 1834, and July, 1836.
Puech-Dupont, push du'pox', (LEONARD,) a French
naturalist and anatomist, born at Bayeux in 1795; died
in 1828.
Pufendorf, poo'fen-doRf, written also Puffeiidorf,
(EsAiAS,) a German writer, born in 1628, was a brother
of Samuel. He is supposed to be the author of a satirical
work entitled "Anecdotes of Sweden." Died in 1689.
Pufendorf, (SAMUEL.) See PUFFENDORF.
Puf'fen-dorf, [Ger. PUFENDORF, poo'fen-doRf'; Lat.
PUFENDOR'FIUS,] (SAMUEL,) BARON, an eminent Ger
man jurist and publicist, born near Chemnitz, in Saxony,
in 1632. He studied at Leipsic and Jena, giving his
attention chiefly to the political works of Grotius and
Hobbes. He published in 1660 his "Elements of Uni
versal Jurisprudence," (in Latin,) which was received
with general favour. Puffendorf was soon after appointed
by the Elector-Palatine, Charles Louis, professor of the
law of nature and of nations at Heidelberg, that chair
having been created expressly for him. He exposed the
absurdities of the constitution of the Germanic empire
in his work " De Statu Imperii Germanici," published
under the name of " Severini de Mozambano," (1667,)
which attracted great attention. On the invitation of
Charles XI. of Sweden, he accepted a similar professor
ship at Lund in 1670. He brought out in 1672 his
greatest work, entitled "On the Law of Nature and of
Nations," (" De Jure Naturae et Gentium.") This treat
ise is regarded as superior in some respects to that of
Grotius. The new principles which he advocated were
violently opposed by some of his contemporaries ; but
the work procured for him a durable European reputa
tion. He was subsequently appointed historiographer
to the King of Sweden, and made a baron. Died at
Berlin in 1694.
See JENISCH, "Vita Pufendorfii," 1802; DANIEL MUI.I.ER,
" L^udes Pufendorfii," 1723; NICERON, "Memoires;" SAX, " Ono-
masticon. "
Pugatchef. See POOGATCHEF.
Fugatschew. See POOGATCIIKF.
Puget, pii'zhy, (FRANCOIS,) a French painter and
architect, was a son of Pierre, noticed below. He excelled
in portraits. Died in 1707.
Puget, (IIn.ARioN PAUL FKANC.OIS BIENVENU,) a
French general, born in Paris in 1754. lie had a high
command in the campaign against Spain in 1793. Died
in 1828. ,
Puget, (Louis,) a French naturalist, born at Lyons in
1629. He gained distinction by researches on magnetism.
Died in 1709.
Puget, (PiEKRE,) an eminent French sculptor, archi
tect, and painter, born at Marseilles in 1622, was a pupil
of Pietro da Cortona, with whom he worked at Rome.
lie worked as architect at Marseilles, where he also
painted some historical pieces. About 1655 he renounced
painting, on account of ill health, and devoted himself to
sculpture, on which his celebrity is founded. At Geno;i,
where he passed some years, he executed an admirable
statue of Saint Sebastian, abas-relief of the Assumption,
and other works. Having been invited by Colbert, he
returned to France in 1669, after which he produced, as
sculptor, " Alexander and Diogenes," and " Milo of Cro-
tona," which is regarded as his master-piece. He has
been called "the Michael Angelo of France." Died at
Marseilles in 1694.
S'Je CICOGNARA, " Storia della Scultura ;" JiMHRic-DAVin, "Vie
de P. Puzet, Peintre." etc., 1840: FERAUD. " filoge liistorique <le
P. Pnset," 1807; A. R.ABHE, "filoge de P. Puget," 1807; " Xou-
velle ISiographie Generale."
Pughe, pfi, (WILLIAM OWEN,) a Welsh philologist
and antiquary, born in Merionethshire in 1759. lie
published a " Welsh-and-English Dictionary," (1703-
1803,) a collection of old Welsh poetry and chronicles,
entitled " Myvyrian Archaiologv of Wales," (1801-07,)
and "Cambrian Biography," (1803.) Died in 1835.
Pugin, pii'zhaN', (AUGUSTUS,) an eminent architec
tural draftsman, born in Normandy about 1765, emi
grated to London in his youth. He published, besides
other works, " Specimens of Gothic Architecture, se
lected from Various Ancient Edifices of England," (2
vols., 1821-23,) an(l "Specimens of the Architectural
Antiquities of Normandy, " (1825-28.) Died in 1832.
Pu'gin, (AUGUSTUS NORTIIMORE WEI.BY,) an' able
English architect, born in London in 1811, was a son
of the preceding. He was a zealous Roman Catholic,
and an admirer of the mediaeval Gothic style of archi
tecture. He designed the Cathedral of Saint Marie at
Derby, and a great number of Roman Catholic churches
at Liverpool, Oxford, Cambridge, Reading, Newcastle,
and other places. It appears that his zeal would not
permit him to build a Protestant church. His writings,
one of which is entitled " The True Principles of Pointed
or Christian Architecture," (1841,) contributed much to
the prevalence of the Gothic style of churches. He
ruined his constitution by excessive labour, was sent to
a lunatic-asylum, and died in 1852.
See B. FERREV. "Recollections of A. N. Welby Pugin and Au
gustus Pugin ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1861.
Pugin, (^EDWARD WELBY,) an architect, and a son of
the preceding, was born in 1834. He designed several
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; nfit; good: melon;
PUG L 10
1849
PULTENET
large churches of Liverpool, and completed some works
which his father had commenced.
Puglio. See PUI.IGO.
Pugnani, poon-ya'nee, (GAETANO,) an Italian com- j
poser, born at Turin in 1728 ; died in 1798.
Pugnet, piin'yi', QEAN FRANQOIS XAVIKR,) a French |
medical writer, born at Lyons in 176$, was chief phy
sician of a hospital at Dunkirk from 1805 to 1821. Died
in 1846.
Puibusque, de, deh pii-e'biisk', (Anoi.PHE Louis,)
a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1801. He obtained j
a prize of the French Academy for his "Comparative '
History of the Spanish and French Literatures," (2 ,
vols., 1843.)
Puisaye, de, deh pu-e'zi', (JOSEPH GEXEVIEVE,) I
COUNT, a French royalist general, born in 1754. He \
commanded the army of emigrants and Chouans which j
was completely defeated at Quiberon in 1794. He died
in England in 1827.
Fuiseux, pu-e'zuh', (VICTOR AI.EXANDRE,) a French
mathematician, born at Argenteuil in 1820. He became
in 1857 professor of astronomy at the Faculty of Sciences
in Paris. He has written several memoirs on astronomy.
Puisieux, de, deh pii-e'ze-uh', (MADELEINE n'Au-
S\NT,) <i French authoress, bom in Paris in 1720, wrote
" Les Caracteres," and other works. Died in 1798.
Puisieux, de, (PIERRE BRUI.ART,) VICOMTE, Marquis
de Sillery, a French diplomatist, born in Paris in 1583.
He was employed in important missions in the reign
of Louis XIII. , with whom he had much influence.
Died in 1640.
Puissant, pti-e'sflx', (Louis,) a French mathemati
cian, born near Chatelet (Seine-et-Marne) in 1769. He
devoted himself chiefly to geodesy, in which he acquired
eminence, and succeeded LT Place in the Academy of
Sciences in 1828. Among his works is a "Treatise on
Geodesy," (1805.) Died in 1843.
Pujati, poo-ya'tee, (GIUSEPPE ANTONIO,) an Italian
physician, born in Friuli in 1701. He became professor
at Padua in 1754. Died in 1760.
Pujol, pii'zhol', (Ai.KXANDRE DENIS ABET.,) called
AISEL DE PUJOL, a French historical painter, born at
Valenciennes in 1785, was a pupil of David. He gained
the first prize in iSir, and went to Rome with a pension.
Among his best works are "Saint Stephen preaching
the Gospel," "Caesar on the Ides of March," and a large
picture of the " Renaissance of the Arts," painted on a
ceiling in the Louvre. He was chosen a member of the
Academy in 1835. Died in 1861.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Ganerale."
Pujol, (Ai.EXis,) a French medical writer, born near
Be/iers in 1 739. His best work is an " Essay on Chronic
Inflammations of the Viscera," (1791.) Died in 1804.
Pujoulx, pii'zhoo', (!EAN BAPTTSTE,) a mediocre
French litterateur, born in Gironde in 1762 : died in 1821.
Pulaski, pu-las'ke, [Polish pron. poo-las'kee,l (Count
CASIMIK,) a celebrated Polish officer, was born in 1747.
He was a son of the patriotic Count Pulaski who
formed the Confederation of Barr in 1768. Casimir
took arms in that year against the Russian invaders,
commanded in many battles and sieges, and performed
many daring exploits. "Never was there a warrior,"
says Rulhiere, "who possessed greater dexterity in every
kind of service." He went into exile in 1772, and en
tered the service of the United States in 1777. Four
days after the battle of Brandvwine he was appointed
commander of the cavalry, with the rank of brigadier-
general. He resigned this command in March, 1778, and
raised a body called Pulaski's Legion, which was ordered
to South Carolina in February. 1779. He was killed in
the autumn of that year, at the siege of Savannah.
See SPARKS, "American Biography"" vol. iv. of second series.
Pul-ehe'rI-a, [Gr. Hov7-\Fpta ; Fr. PITLCHERIE, puT-
shi're',] Empress of the E-\st, born in 399 A.D., was a
daughter of Arcadins. She croverned the empire in the
name of her brother Theodosius from 414 until his
death, in 450 A.D.,and in her own name from that event
until her death, in 453 A. n. She was canonized as a
saint by the Greek Church.
See GIIIBOV, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" CON--
TUCCI, "Vita deirimperatrice Pulcheria," 1754.
Pulci, pool'chee, (BERNARDO,) an Italian poet, born
at Florence about 1425, was a brother of Luigi, noticed
below. He translated Virgil's " Bucolics," (1481.) and
wrote several elegies. He was living in 1494.
Pulci, (LuCA.) an Italian poet, was a brother of the
preceding. He wrote " II Ciriffo Calvaneo," and other
poems.
Pulci, (LuiGi,) an Italian poet, was born at Florence
in 1431. He lived on familiar terms with Lorenzo de'
Medici, to whom his wit rendered him an agreeable com
panion. His principal work is"Morgante Maggiore,"
(1481,) a romantic poem, in which the serious and ludi
crous are blended, and which contains some beautiful
passages. It is sometimes styled a heroico-corr.ic poem.
He employed the idioms and niceties of the Tuscan
language with much skill. His style was commended
as a model by Machiavel. Died about 1487.
See TIR^BOSCHI, "Storia della Letteratura Italians ;" LONG-
FEI.I.OW. "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" GINGUEN'K. " Histoire
Litteraire d'ltalie;" " Lives of the Italian Poets," by REV. HENRY
STEBBI.NG : "North American Review" for October, 1824, article
"Italian Narrative Poetry," (by PRESCOTT.)
Pulgar, del, del pool-gan', (HERNANDO,) a Spanish
historian of high reputation, was born at Pulgar, near
Toledo, about 1436. He was appointed in 1482 histo
riographer of Castile by Queen Isabella, whom he served
as secretary and attended in various journeys and cam
paigns. He wrote a " History of the Reign of Ferdinand
and Isabella," (1565,) which, however, does not extend
quite to the capture of Granada. Among his works is
a collection of biographies, entitled "Claros Varones de
Espana," ("Illustrious Men of Spain," 1524.) He died
about 1490.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" PRESCOTT,
" History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. part i. ; N. ANTONIO,
" Bib'.iotheca Hispana Nova."
Puligo, poo-lee'go, or Puglio, pool'yo, (DoMENiCO,)
an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1475 ; died in
1527.
Pul'lus or Pul'leii, (ROBERT,) an English cardinal,
noted as a promoter of learning. Died about 1150.
Fulmann, pool'man, [written in Dutch POK.LMANN,]
(THEODOR,) a German philologist, born in the duchy
of Cleves about 1510; died about 1580.
Pulszky, pool'ske, (FRANCIS AURELIUS,) a Hunga
rian writer and patriot, born at Eperies in 1814. Having
made the tour of Great Britain and Ireland, he published
in 1837 "Extracts from the Journal of a Hungarian trav
elling in Great Britain," (in German.) He took a promi
nent part in the revolution of 1848, and was appointed
uncler-secretary of state for Hungary. After the defeat
of the Hungarians he accompanied Kossuth as an inti
mate friend to America, and published in 1851 an account
of the journey, entitled " Red, White, and Black," (in
English,) in which his wife had a part. She was also a
contributor to his "Tales and Traditions of Hungary,"
(3 vols., 1851.)
See the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1851.
Pulszky, (THERESA,) an authoress, the wife of the
preceding, was born in Vienna in 1815. She was mar
ried about 1845. ^ne published " Memoirs of a Hunga
rian Lady," (in English, 2 vols., 1851.)
Pulteney, piilt'ne, (RICHARD,) an English botanist
and physician, born in Leicestershire in 1730. He wrote
a "General View of the Writings of Linnaeus," (1782,)
and " Sketches of the Progress of Botany in England,"
(2 vols., 1790.) Died in iSoi.
Pulteney, (WILLIAM,) Earl of Bath, an English
•statesman and orator, born in 1682, descended from an
old family of Leicestershire. He began his public life
as a Whig, entered Parliament about 1705, was appointed
secretary at war on the accession of George I., in 1715,
and became abrilliant debater in Parliament. He ceased
lu act with the ministry in 1725, after which he was a
determined opponent of Walpole. As the leader of
the opposition, or the " patriots,'' he enjoyed great
popularity for a number of years. He contributed to
"The Craftsman," edited by Lord Bolingbroke. " He
became," says Lord Macaulay, " the greatest leader of
opposition that the House of Commons had ever seen."
(Review of Thackeray's "Life of Chatham.") When
Walpole was removed from power, in 1742, Pulteney
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttttral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (!Jlf='See Explanations, p. 23.)
PULTOCK
i8;o
PUTNAM
might have been his successor. The formation of a new
ministry was intrusted to him, but, from timidity or some
other reason, he declined the office of prime minister,
and recommended the incompetent Lord Wilmington.
At the same time he sacrificed his own popularity by
accepting the title of Earl of Bath. The composition
of the new cabinet was unsatisfactory to his party and
to the public. His rival, Walpole, meeting him in the
House of Lords, said, " Here we are, my lord, the two
most insignificant fellows in England." " He was," says
the "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1840, "one of the
most accomplished debaters, perhaps one of the finest
speakers, that ever appeared in our senate. . . . His
style was correct and classical beyond that of all other
men, and his unpremeditated compositions were as
correct and elegant as his most prepared." lie died in
1764, and left no issue.
See CHALMERS, " Biographical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generate."
Pul'tock, (ROBERT,) an English author of the eigh
teenth century. Very little is known of his life. He
published in 1750 "The Life and Adventures of Peter
\Vilkins," a romance, which was praised by Southey.
Pulzoiie, pool-xo'na, (SciPiONE,) a skilful Italian
painter, born at.Gaeta in 1550; died about 1590.
Fu-pi-e'iius Max'i-mus, (Ci.onius,) a Roman
officer, who was elected (238 A.n.) emperor with Balbinus.
He was killed in 239 by his mutinous soldiers.
Purina, poo-ra'na, a Sanscrit word, signifying " an
cient," and applied to certain sacred books of the Hin
doos, treating of the creation, destruction, and renovation
of worlds, and of the history of gods and heroes. There
are eighteen recognized as eminently sacred. The pu-
ranas are very voluminous, comprising, according to
Professor Wilson, four hundred thousand stanzas.
See WILSON'S Preface to his translation of the Vishnu Purana.
Purbach, pooR'baK,or Peurbach,poiR'baK,(GEORG,)
an eminent German astronomer, born at Peiirbach, in
Austria, in 1423. He studied at Vienna and subsequently
in Italy, and, after his return, succeeded Gnunulen as
profess'or of astronomy at Vienna. He wrote an ex
planation of the first six books of the "Almagest" of
Ptolemy, and a work entitled " New Theories of the
Planets," (" Theorise novae Planetarum,") which had a
high reputation in his time. The celebrated Muller
(Regiomontanus) was his pupil. Died in 1461.
Fur'cell, (HENRY,) an eminent English musician and
composer, born, probably in Westminster, in 1658, was
a pupil of Captain Cook. lie became organist of West
minster Abbey in 1676, and one of the organists of the
chapel royal in 1682. His first compositions were an
thems, which were greatly admired. He displayed
greater genius in dramatic music and other secular
music. In 1690 he produced the music of Lee's "The-
odosius ; or, The Force of Love," and that of the
"Tempest" as altered by Dryden. He composed many
songs, cantatas, sonatas, duets, glees, etc. Among his
popular works are the song "Genius of England,"
"Britons, strike Home," (in "Bonduca,") the cantata
of "Mad Bess," and several songs in Dryden's "King
Arthur." He is considered by some critics the most
excellent composer that England has produced. Died
in November, 1695.
See BURNEV, " History of Music;" FETIS, " Biographie Univer-
selle des Musiciens."
Purcell, (THOMAS,) an English musician and com
poser, was an uncle of the preceding, lie became a
gentleman of the chapel royal in 1660. Died in 1682.
Fur'chas, (SAMUEL,) an English compiler of travels,
was born at Thaxted, in Essex, in 1577. He became
rector of Saint Martin's, Ludgate, in London, and chap
lain to Archbishop Abbott. He published " Purchas
his Pilgrimage ; or, Relations of the World and the Re
ligions observed in all Ages and Places," etc., (1613,)
and "Purchas his Pilgrimes," (1625,) which are collec
tions of great research and some value. Died in 1628.
See " Biographia Britannica."
Puri, poo'ree or pii're', (DAVin,) a Swiss philanthro
pist, born at Neufchatel in 1709. He founded a hospital
at his native town, to which he bequeathed about five
million francs for charitable objects. Died in 1786.
Puricelli, poo-re-chel'lee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
poet, born at Milan about 1657; died in 1738.
Puricelli, (GIOVANNI PIETRO,) an Italian scholar and
priest, born in the Milanese in 1589. He published
" Ambrosianae Mediolanx Basilicas Mouumenta," (1645.)
Died in 1659.
Pursh, (FREDERICK,) a distinguished botanist, born at
Tobolsk, in Siberia, in 1774. He resided in the United
States from 1799 to 1811, and in the latter year went to
England. He published a valuable work on the plants
of North America, entitled "Flora Americas Septentrio-
nalis," (London, 1814.) Died at Montreal in 1820.
Fur'ver, (ANTHONY,) an English linguist, born in
Hampshire about 1702, was a minister of the Society
of Friends. He studied Greek and Hebrew, and pro
duced a new version of the Old and New Testament,
which he published (1764) by the aid of Dr. Fothergill.
Died in 1777. Purver's translation of the Bible has
been pronounced superior to all others for "closeness to
the original." (For an interesting account of Purver's
life, see " Social Hours with Friends," New York, 1867,
PP- 75-77-)
See "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. i., 1839.
Puschkin. See POOSIIKIN.
Pu'sey, ( EDWARD BOUVERIE,) D.D., the founder of
Puseyism, was born in 1800. Ills father, Philip Bou-
verie, was a brother of the Earl of Radnor, and assumed
the name of PUSEY. He graduated at Oxford in 1822,
became Fellow of Oriel College, canon of Christ Church,
'and Regius professor of Hebrew in 1828. In conjunction
with John Henry Newman, he wrote "Tracts for the
Times," (1833,) which produced great excitement. He
was suspended from his pastoral functions on account
of a sermon on the eucharist, which he preached in 1843.
lie favours auricular confession and several doctrines
and practices of the Roman Catholic Church.
S^e R. H. HOUNR, "New Spirit of the Age," 1844.
Pusey, (Pmi.iP,) an agriculturist, a brother of the
preceding, was born in 1799. He inherited an estate
in Berkshire, which county he represented in Parliament
from 1834 to 1852. His political principles were con
servative, lie wrote several essays on agriculture, and
edited the "Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society."
Died in 1855.
Pushkin. See POOSHKIN.
Futeaiius. See DUPUY.
Puteauus, pii-ta-a'nus, (EkYClus,) originally HEN-
DRIK van der Putten, (vtn cler put/ten,) a Flemish
antiquary and historian, born at Venloo in 1574. He
became in 1606 professor of ancient literature at Lou-
vain. Died in 1646.
Puthod, pii'tod', (JACQUES PIERRE MARIE Louis
JOSEPH,) a French general, born in Bresse in 1769'; died
in 1837.
Putlitz, poot'lits, (GusTAV HEINRICH CANS,) a Ger
man nobleman and litterateur, born in 1821, has published
several dramas, and a collection of charming tales, en
titled "What the Forest tells Itself," ("Was sich cler
Wald erzahlt.")
Put'nam, (ISRAEL,) a celebrated American general
of the Revolution, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in
1718. He distinguished himself in the French war by
his reckless courage and adventurous spirit, and, being
captured by the Indians in the neighbourhood of Ticon-
deroga in 1758, was only saved from being burned alive
by the interposition of a French officer. On the breaking-
out of the Revolutionary war, he embraced with ardour
the cause of the patriots, and was conspicuous for his
skill and bravery at the battle of Bunker Hill. He
was made a major-general in 1775- In May, 1777, he
was appointed commander of the army of the Highlands
in New York. He superintended the construction of
the fortifications at West Point. Died in 1790. Among
his exploits was a fight with a wolf, which he followed
into a dark cavern with a torch and killed with a gun.
The aperture of the cavern being very small, he crept
in head-foremost, and had a rope fastened to his legs, by
which his companions drew him out. This occurred at
Pomfret, Connecticut, where he resided. According to
President Dwight, he was a "man whose generosity was
singular, whose honesty was proverbial, who raised him-
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nflt; good; moon;
PUTNAM
1851
PYM
self to universal esteem and offices of eminent distinction
by personal worth and a useful life."
See " Essay on the Life of General Putnam," byD. HUMPHREYS;
O. W. PEABODY, " Life of Israel Putnam," in SPARKS'S " American
Hiosraphy," vol. vii. ; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished
Americans," vol. i.
Putnam, (Rurus,) an American general of the Revo
lution, born at Sutton, Massachusetts, in 1738, was one
of the first settlers of the State of Ohio. In 1788, in
company with a considerable number of colonists from
New England, he founded the city of Marietta. He
was appointed in 1796 surveyor-general of United States
lands. Died in 1824.
Putnam, (WILLIAM LOWELL,) an American officer,
born in Boston in 1840. was a nephew of the poet James
R. Lowell. He graduated at Harvard College, and gave
promise of extraordinary genius. Having enlisted as
a lieutenant, he was killed at the battle of Ball's Bluff,
October, i86r.
Putschius, put'sKe-us, (El.iAS.) a Flemish philolo
gist, born at Antwerp about 1580. He published a
valuable work on the ancient grammarians, entitled
'•Grammatics Latina; Auctores antiqui," (1605.) Died
at Stade in 1606.
Putte, van, (HENRY.) See DUPUY, (HENRY.)
Putteuham, put'ten-am, (GEORGE,) an English poet,
born about 1533. He wrote " Partheniades," and "The
Art of Poesie," (1589.) Died about 1600.
Putter or Puetter, put'ter, (JOIIANN STEPHAN,) a
celebrated German publicist, born at Iser!ohn,in West
phalia, in 1725. He became in 1757 professor of public
law at Gottingen, where he lectured more than forty
years. Among his numerous works are " Institutes
of German Public Law," (" Institutiones Juris public!
Germanici," 1770,) and a " Historical Development of
the Constitution of the German Empire," (3 vols., 1786.)
Died at Gottingen in 1807.
See "Putters Selbstbiographie," 179?. TfMit-<S(**fs*'- •*•' J"a<'-
Puvis, pii'vess', (MARC ANTOINE,) a French agricul
turist, born at Cuiseaux (Saone-et-Loire) in 1776. He
rendered important services by his experiments and
writings on agriculture. Died in 1851.
Puy, du. See DrruY.
Fuymaurin, de, deh pii-e'ino'i ax', (NICOLAS JOSEPH
DE MARCASSU.S,) a French administrator and painter,
born at Toulouse in 1718; died in 1791. His son, JEAN
PIERRE CASIMIR, (1757-1841,) was a useful member of
the Chamber of Deputies, and wrote some scientific
treatises.
Puysegur, de,. deh pu-e'za'guR', (ANTOINE HYA-
ciN'i'HE ANNE,) a French naval officer, born in 1752;
died in 1809.
Puysegur, de,( ARM AND MARIE JACQUES de Chaste-
net — deh shat'iuY,) MARQUIS, a French general, born
in 1751. He was a zealous advocate of animal magnet
ism, on which he wrote several works. Died in 1825.
Puysegur, de, (JACQUES FRANCOIS DE CHASTENET,)
MARQUIS, an able French general, born in Paris in
1656. He was sent to Spain in 1703, with the title of
director-general of the troops, and was raised to the
rank of lieutenant-general in 1704. In 1734 he received
a marshal's baton. Died in 1743. He left a " Treatise
on the Art of War." His father, JACQUES, born in 1602,
was a general of some distinction. Died in 1682.
See DF. COI'RCEI.LES, " Dictionnaire cles Generaux Francais. "
Puzos, pii'/o', (NICOLAS,) a French physician, born
in Paris in 1686, excelled in obstetrics. Died in 1753.
Pyat, pe'3', (FEi.ix,) a French litterateur, born at
Vierzon (Cher) in 1810. He has composed several
dramas and contributed to various journals. He is a
radical in politics. He joined Ledru-Rollin in a se
ditious plot in June, 1849, since which he has been an
exile.
Pye, pi, (HENRY JAMES,) an English poet, born in
London in 1745. He translated Aristotle's "Poetics,"
and wrote many poems, among which are "The Progress
of Refinement," (1783.) and "Alfred,'' an epic poem,
(1802.) He became poet-laureate in 1790, and was a
member of Parliament. Died in 1813.
Pye, (Tonx,) an English engraver of landscapes, was
born at Birmingham in 1782. He engraved with success
some pictures of Turner, among which are " Pope's
Villa" and "The Temple of Jupiter." He published a
work entitled " Patronage of British Art," (1845.)
Fyg-ma'li-on, [Tlv/na'/j.uv,] in Greek mythology, a
king of Cyprus, who is said to have fallen in love with
an ivory image of a young woman which he had formed,
and which Venus at his request endowed with life.
Pygmalion, King of Tyre, and a son of Belus, is
supposed to have lived about 800 K.C., and to have been
the brother of Dido, who founded Carthage.
See VIRC.IL'S "yEneid," book i.
Pygmees or Pygmaei. See PYGMIES.
Pyg'mies, [Gr. Hv^ncuoi ; Lat. PYGM.-EI, pig-mee'i ;
Fr. PYGMEES, peg'ma',] a fabulous nation of dwarfs,
whom the ancients supposed to live near the sources of
the Nile, or in India. According to Homer, they waged
against the cranes a warfare which was annually re
newed. Some writers relate that an army of pygmies
once assailed Hercules when he was asleep.
Pylade. See PYLADES.
Pyl'a-des, [Gr. Hv/ju6?jf : Fr. PYLADE, pe'ltd',] a son
of Strophius, King of Phocis, was a cousin and intimate
friend of Orestes, whose sister Electra he married. The
friendship of Pylades and Orestes was proverbial. (See
ORESTES.)
Pyle, pil, (THOMAS,) an English theologian, born in
Norfolk in 1674. He was prebendary of Salisbury, and
vicar of Saint Margaret, at Lynn. He wrote paraphrases
on the Acts, Epistles, and some other books of the Bible.
Died in 1756.
Fym, (JOHN, ) an eminent British statesman and
orator, born at Brymore, in Somersetshire, in 1584. He
entered Broadgate Hall, now Pembroke College, Oxford,
in 1599, and was elected to Parliament in 1614, after he
had acquired financial skill by a service of some years
in the Exchequer. He became a leader of the country
party, and so strenuously opposed the measures of the
court that King James I. stigmatized him as "a very ill-
tempered spirit." He represented Tavistock in all the
Parliaments held in the reign of Charles I. In 1626 he
was one of the managers of an impeachment against the
Duke of Buckingham, and made a speech for which he
was imprisoned by the court. He was released on his
election to the third Parliament. He was once a friend
of Wentworth, who, having resolved to desert the pop
ular cause, obtained a private interview with Pym and
began to sound him in a set speech. Pym, understand
ing his drift, stopped him short with these words : " You
need not use all this art to tell me that you have a mind
to leave us ; but, remember what I tell you, I will never
leave you while your head is on your shoulders!" In
the Parliament which met in April, 1640, Pym made a
long and celebrated speech on grievances. "A more
massive document," says Forster, "was never given to
history." Pym and Hampden were the most eminent
leaders of the popular party when the Long Parliament
met, in November, 1640. He attacked Wentworth (now
Earl of Strafford) in a powerful speech, which had such
an effect that he was unanimously, and without delay,
impeached of high treason. "The result," says Forster,
"proved this to have been, what Pym anticipated, the
master-stroke of the time. It struck instant terror into
every quarter of the court, and left the king, for a time,
powerless and alone." At the trial of Strafford he ap
peared as accuser. His influence is thus estimated by
Clarendon: "I think Mr. Pym was at this time [1641]
the most popular man, and the most able to do hurt,
that hath lived in any time." On the 22d of November,
1641, he presented to the House the Grand Remon
strance, a final appeal to the people. In January, 1642,
the king attempted to arrest Pym. and four other mem
bers of the House ; but they escaped. (See CHARLES
I., and HAMPDEN.) Pym had received, through Lady
Carlisle, timely notice of this attempt. At a conference
of the two Houses on the subject of grievances, in the
same month, Pym made a celebrated speech. He was
nicknamed "King Pym" by the royalists. He was ap
pointed lieutenant-general of the ordnance of the king
dom in November, 1643. He d;ed in December of that
year, leaving several children. Pym was a consummate
master of parliamentary science and political tactics. He
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PYM
PTRRHUS
was not extreme in his opinions, and did not partake
of the Puritanic formality and rigorism which prevailed
among the members of his party. "There is nothing
more remarkable in the speeches of Pym," says Forster,
"than what maybe emphatically termed their -wisdom.
. . . The wisdom I have spoken of was, as it always
is with the greatest men, a junction of the plain and
practical with the profound and contemplative ; to such
an extent, however, in his case, and in such perfection,
as may not be equalled in that of any other speaker of
ancient or modern times, with the single exception
of Burke."
See FORSTER, " Lives of Eminent British Statesmen ;" CLAREN
DON, "History of the Rebellion;" HUME, "History of England."
Pym, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English physician, born in
Edinburgh or in Warwickshire about 1775. He served
as surgeon in the army, and was appointed inspector-
general of the army hospitals about 1816. He wrote
a "Treatise on the Yellow Fever," (1815.) Died in
1861.
Pynacker. See PYNAKER.
Pynaker or Pynacker, pi'na'ker, (ADAM,) a skilful
Dutch landscape-painter, born at Pynaker, between Delft
and Schiedam, in 1621. lie studied at Rome, and re
turned to Holland. " In his small compositions," says
the " Biographic Universelle," "he shows himself a skil
ful artist. We distinguish the form and aspect of the
different species of trees ; his colour is always beautiful
and true ; his distances and skies are vapory," etc.
Died about 1676.
See DKSCAMPS, "Vies des Peiatres Hollandais."
Pyn'chon, (Wn.i.iAM,) an Anglo-American writer
on theology, born about 1591. He emigrated from
England in 1630, and was one of the first settlers of
Springfield, Massachusetts. Died in Buckinghamshire
in 1662.
Pyne, pin, QAMES 1!.,) an able English landscape-
painter, born at Bristol in 1800. He became a resident
of London about 1835, and visited Italy and Switzerland
in 1846. In 1853)16 published some beautiful landscapes
in a volume entitled "The English Lake District." His
style is vigorous a:ul brilliant, but not free from manner
ism. Ife was vice-president of the Society of British
Artists for many years. Died in 1870.
Pyne, (WILLIAM HKNKY,) an English painter and
writer, born in London in 1770. He painted portraits
and landscapes with some success, but gained more
distinction by his publications, viz., "The Microcosm,
or a Picturesque Delineation of the Arts, Manufactures,
etc. of Great Britain," (1803,) a " History of the Royal
Residences," (3 vols., 1819,) and " Wine and Walnuts,"
(1823.) Died in 1843.
See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iii. chap. vii.
Pyn'son, (RiCHAKD,) an early printer, who was born
in Normandy, and lived in England about 1500. He was
king's printer in the reign of Henry VII.
Pyot, pe'o', (JE.\\ JACQUES RICHARD,) a French phy
sician, born at Isomes (Haute-Marne) in 1792; died in
1841.
Pypers, pl'pers, (PIETKK,) a Dutch poet, born at
Amersfoort in 1749. He wrote several short poems,
and produced many dramas, some of which were trans
lated or imitated from the French. Died in 1805.
See VAN DEK AA, " Biographisch Woordenboek."
Pyra, pee'ra, QACOB EMANUKL,) a German poet, born
in Lusatia in 1715. He wrote "The Temple of True
Poetry," and other poems. Died in 1744.
Fyr'a-mus, [Fr. PYKAME, pe'rfm'. ] See THISBE.
Pyrard, pe'rtii', (FitANgois,) a French voyager, born
at Laval about 1570. He published a "Narrative of a
Voyage to the East Indies," (1611,) which is highly
commended. Died in 1621.
Py-re'i-cus, a Greek painter of unknown period, is
supposed to have lived after Alexander the Great. He
painted low subjects with success.
Pyr-got'e-les, [IIvpyoreA^f,] an excellent Greek en
graver of gerns, lived about 330 B.C. An edict of Alex
ander the Great designated him as the only artist who
was permitted to engrave the royal seal-rings or gems.
The extant works ascribed to him are probably forgeries.
Pyrker, peeR'ker, (JOHANN LADISLAW,) a German
poet, born at Langh, in Hungary, in 1772. He became
Archbishop of Erlau in 1821. Among his poems is one
entitled " Pearls of the Good Old Time," (" Perlen der
heiligen Vor/eit," 1823.) Died in 1847.
Py-rom'a-ehus, [ llvp<>/m,\of, ] sometimes written
Phyromachus or Philomachus, a Greek statuary,
who is supposed to have flourished about 300 or 250
K.C. A famous statue of Asclepius is ascribed to him.
Pyr'rha, a daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora, was
the wife of Deucalion. According to tradition, she and
her husband were saved in an ark when mankind were
generally drowned by a deluge. (See DEUCALION.)
Pyr'rho or Fyr'rhon, [fli^wv,] a Greek philosopher
and skeptic, was a native of Elis, and was born about
380 n.c. He was a pupil of Anaxarchus or Anaxan-
drus. It is said that he accompanied Alexander the
Great to India. His writings, if he left any, arc nut
extant. He had numerous disciples, and is regarded as
the founder of a skeptical school, the doctrines of which
are called Pyrrhonism. lie recommended a suspension
of judgment, and cultivated a habitual composure or
tranquillity of mind, (u-atifia.) After his return from
India he became high-priest at Elis. Died about the
See C. MAI. LET, " fittides philosophiques," tome ii. ; DIOGKNKS
LABKTIUS; MUNCH, " I)e Notione et Indole Scepticism! nominatim
Pyrrhonism!," 1797; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Pyirhcm. See PVRRIIO.
Pyrrhus. See NKOPTOI.KMUS.
Pyr'rhus, [rb'yW;-,] King of Epirns, a son of King
/Eacides and Phthia, was born about 318 B.C. His
father was killed in battle while Pyrrhus was a child.
The young prince himself was expelled by the Epirotes
at the age of seventeen, and then joined the army of
Demetrius, who was his brother-in-law. He signali/.ed
his courage at the battle of Ipsus, (501 i:.c.) I laving
raised a small army, he entered Epirus, and obtained
the throne in 295 B.C. His courage and generosity
rendered him very popular. Ambition appears to have
been his ruling passion. In 291 i:.c he was involved in
a war against Demetrius, his brother-in-law, for the pos
session of Macedonia, which he invaded in 287 n.c. The
army which Demetrius led against him, impelled by ad
miration of the character of Pyrrhus, deserted to him in
a body, and Demetrius fled from the kingdom. Pyrrhus
divided his conquest with his ally Lysimachus, who soon
made himself master of all Macedonia. An irresistible
temptation was presented to the ambition of Pyrrhus by
the Tarentines, who in 281 B.C. solicited his aid in a war
against the Romans. His wise minister Cineas could
not prevail on him to renounce his vast projects of for
eign conquest. In 280 n.c. he crossed over to Italy with
about 25,000 men and a number of elephants. The
frivolous and unwai like Tarentines failed to support him
with the large army which they had promised, lie en
countered the superior numbers of the Romans on the
river Siris, and defeated them after a long and obstinate
contest. His victory was so clearly bought that he is
reported to have said, " Another such victory, and I must
return to Epirus alone." He made overtures of peace,
which were rejected by the Roman senate.
In 279 R.c. another battle was fought, near Asculum,
where the Romans lost 6000 and Pyrrhus 3500 men.
Pyrrhus was unable to improve his victory, and, having
received an invitation to aid the Greeks of Sicily against
the Carthaginians, he concluded a truce with the Romans
in 278 n.c. He remained two years in Sicily, and gained
some victories, but failed to conquer the island. " Hav
ing returned to Tarentum to renew the war against the
Romans, he was defeated by M. Curius Dentatus near
Beneventum. He retired from Italy to Epirus in 274.
B.C., and invaded Macedonia, of which he soon became
master in consequence of the desertion of the Macedonian
army from Antigonus Gonatas. At the request of Cle-
onymus, he engaged in a new enterprise, a war against
the Spartans, who repulsed his attack on their capital.
He was killed in Argos, in battle, in 272 B.C., after hav
ing been stunned by a tile thrown from a house by a
woman. He was the greatest general of his time, and
Hannibal is reported to have said that he was the great-
ii, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
PYTHAGORAS
•853
PYTHON
est of any age. "He was reputed," says Plutarch, "to i
excel in military experience and personal prowess all the
princes of his time. But what he gained by his achieve
ments he lost by vain hopes ; his desire of something
absent never suffered him effectually to persevere in a
present pursuit."
See PLUTARCH, "Life of Pyrrhus;" J. B. JOURDAN, " Histoire
de Pyrrhus," 2 vols., 1749, and English version of the same ; LIVY,
"History of Rome," book xxxv. ; JACOB ABBOTT, "History of
Pyrrhus," 1853.
Fy-thag'o-ras, [Gr. Uv9a-/6pac : Fr. PYTHAGORE, pe'-
ti'goR' ; It. PITAGORA, pe-ta'go-ra,] one of the most
celebrated philosophers of antiquity, was born in Samos |
about 600 B.C. Very little is known with certainty re- i
specting his personal history. His father was Mnesar- |
cnus, a merchant, and generally believed to have been
a foreigner, (not a native of Samos,) but whether a
Phcenician or Pelasgian is uncertain. He is said to have
been first instructed in his own country by Creophilus,
and afterwards by Pherecydes in Syros. There was a
prevailing belief among the ancients that Pythagoras
travelled very extensively, visiting Egypt, Babylon, and
even India. That he visited Egypt seems very probable,
and it is perhaps not improbable that he journeyed
as far as Babylonia. The notion that he included India
in his travels would seem to have no other ground than I
the circumstance that certain doctrines of his bear a |
striking resemblance to some of those held by the Indian j
Brahmans or Booddhists. He not only taught the doc- |
trine of metempsychosis, (or transmigration of souls,)
but, like the Hindoos, made this the ground for incul
cating the duty of kindness and tenderness towards
animals, and of abstinence from their flesh. It is related
that on a certain occasion he interceded to prevent a
clog from being beaten, saying that he recognized in its
cries the voice of one of his friends who had died. Py
thagoras attached a great importance to the study of
mathematics. He is regarded as the inventor of several
important geometrical theorems, among which may be
named the following : that the three angles of a triangle
are together equal to two right angles, and that in any
right-angled triangle the square formed on the hypo
tenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two
sides. He is said also to have been the inventor of
stringed musical instruments.
It is said that Pythagoras first made use of the word
philosopher, (4>i/.6cro0of,) applying it to himself. He had,
we are told, witnessed the various public games of
Greece, and came at length to Phlius, in Achaia. Leon,
the king of that country, was delighted with his ingenuity
and eloquence, and asked him what art or profession he
followed. He replied that he was a philosopher. Leon
asked him wherein philosophers differed from other men.
Pythagoras answered that as at the public games some
were contending for glory and others were buying and
selling for the sake of gain, but there was one class
who came simply as spectators, so in human life there
were those who, regarding as unworthy of a wise man
the desire of fame or of gain, sought above all to be
come wise : those he called philosophers, or lovers of
wisdom.
Pythagoras differed essentially from the other cele
brated teachers of wisdom among the ancient Greeks,
in that he combined the character of priest with that of
philosopher. He appears to have given great attention to
the means of acquiring influence over the minds of men,
and for this purpose established a secret brotherhood
among his disciples and followers. He had certain doc
trines of which he spoke only to his chosen disciples,
which, as being strictly limited to those within the
favoured circle, were called esoter'ic, (iaurfpiKu.) Other
doctrines were treely communicated to those "without, or
to the people at large : these were called exoter'ic, (i^u-s-
(Mia.) One of the necessary parts of the discipline of his
pupils was the practice of absolute silence. According
to some authorities, they were required to maintain
silence for five years, and during that period were not
allowed once to behold the face of Pythagoras ; but this
is probably an exaggeration.
So great %vas his authority with his disciples that when
any one asked why they believed this or practised that,
they were wont to answer, arrdf ifyrj, (or tya,) i.e. " he
himself said so," (in Latin, ipse itixit,) which was re
garded as the most efficient mode of silencing all cavils
or doubts.
Pythagoras, on returning from his travels, settled at
Crotona, in Italy, where for a time he seems to have pos
sessed an almost boundless influence over the minds of
the people. Many of the most wealthy and influential
among the citizens of Crotona joined the brotherhood,
which soon became the controlling power in the state.
Its extraordinary success appears to have rendered its
members so arrogant that they became objects of jeal
ousy and bitter hatred to those who were not admitted
to the favoured circle, — that is, to the large majority of
the populace. An attack was made upon them while
assembled in one of their general meetings. The building
in which they met was set on fire, so that a great number
of them perished in the flames : only the younger and
more active, it is said, were able to escape. According
to one account, Pythagoras himself perished with the
others on this occasion, though some writers state that
he died at Metapontum soon after the expulsion of his
disciples from Crotona. A similar reaction took place
in other parts of Italy; many of the Pythagoreans were
killed, and many others were driven into exile. The
brotherhood as an organization was completely sup
pressed. Amid the uncertainty which prevails in regard
to the history of Pythagoras and his doctrines, we can
form only an imperfect conjecture respecting the greater
number of his religious and philosophic tenets. None
of his writings are extant ; and what we know of his
philosophy is derived mainly from writers who under
stood it very imperfectly.
See ANDRE DACIER, " Vie de Pythagore," 1706; A. POSTEI.MAN,
" Leveii van Pythagoras," 1724; HAMBEKGER, " Dissertatio de Vita
et Symbolis Pythagorae," 1678; EILSTOCK, " Historisch-kritisches
Leben des weltweiseu Pythagoras," 1756; TIEDEMANN, " Griechen-
lands erste Philqsophen, oder Leben des Orpheus, Pythagoras," etc.,
1780; HEINKICH RITTER, "Geschichte der Pythagoraischen Philo
sophic," 1826 ; REINHOI.IJ. " Beitrag zur EHautening der PythagorS-
ischen Metaphysik," 1827; RITTER, " History of Philosophy;" G
H. LEWES, " Biographical History of Philosophy."
Fyth'e-as [Gr. Uvdeas ; Fr. PYTHEK, pe'ta'j of Mas-
silia, in Gaul, an ancient Greek navigator of unknown
period. He probably lived between 350 and 200 is.c
He sailed to the western and northern parts of Europe,
and wrote an account of his discoveries, which is not
extant. He described a place called Thule, composed
of a mixture of earth, sea, and air. His statements were
credited by Hipparchus, but discredited by Strabo and
others.
Fythee. See PYTHEAS.
Fyth'i-a, the name of the priestess of Apollo at
Delphi, where she uttered oracles.
Pythias. See DAMON.
Pyth'i-us, [fltftof,] a surname of Apollo, applied to
him because he was worshipped at Delphi, the ancient
name of whi.-.h was Pytho.
Fy'thon, [Ili'flwv,] the name of a fabulous dragon of
Delphi, killed by Apollo.
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
QU4CKENBOS
1 854
QUATREMERE
Q.
Quack'en-bos, (GEORGE PAYNE,) an American
teacher and educational writer, born in New York in
1826, has published an " Advanced Course of Compo
sition and Rhetoric," (1854,) "Primary History of the
United States," (1860,) "English Grammar," (1862,) and
other works.
Quade, kwa'deh, (MICHAEL FRIEDRICH,) a German
philologist, born in Pomerania in 1628. lie wrote much
of what the Germans call micrologic, — i.e. treatises on
minute or unimportant subjects. Died in 1757.
See OEI.KICHS, " Memoria M. F. Quade," 1758.
Quaden, kwa'den, (MATTHIAS,) a German geogra
pher, born at Kilkenbach ; died at Cologne in 1609.
Quad-ra'tus, |Gr. Kofya-oc,] an early Christian min
ister, who, according to Saint Jerome, was chosen Bishop
of Athens in 125 A.D. He presented an Apology for
the Christian religion to Adrian in 126 A.I).
Quadri, kwa'dnee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian writer on
statistics and political economy, was bom at Vicenza in
1777. He obtained in 1815 the office of secretary of the
government at Venice.
Quadri, (GIOVANNI Lonovico,) an Italian architect
and engraver, born at Bologna in 1700; died in 1748.
Quad-ri-ga'ri-us, (QuiNTtis CLAUDIUS,) a Roman
historian, lived about 80 li.c. He wrote Roman Annals,
some extracts from which are preserved by Aulus
Gellius.
Quadrio,kwa'dRe-o, (FRANCESCO SAVERIO,) a learned
Italian Jesuit and critic, born in Valtellina in 1695. IIG
was employed as professor at Padua, Bologna, Venice,
etc. He published, besides other works, a general his
tory of poetry of all nations, (" Storia e Ragione cl'ogni
Poesia," 7 vols., 1739-59,) a work of great labour and
some value. It contains extracts from a great number
of poets. Died in 1756.
Quaglio, kwal'yo, ( ANGELO,) an able scene-painter,
was a brother of the following. Died in 1815.
Quaglio, (DoMENiCO,) a painter, born at Munich in
1786, was surnamed THE GERMAN CANALETTO. He
acquired a wide reputation as a painter of architecture.
Among his works is a picture of the Ratisbon Cathedral.
He contributed much to revive a taste for the archi
tecture of the middle ages. Died in 1837. His father.
GIUSEPPE, born in 1747, was a skilful scene-painter.
Died at Munich in 1828.
See NAGLER, "Allgemekies Kikistler-Lexikon."
Quaglio, (GiULlo,) an Italian fresco-painter, born at
Laino, was the ancestor of several artists, noticed above
and below. Died in 1800.
Quaglio, (LORENZO,) an architect, born at Laino in
1730, was a son of Giovanni Maria, an architect, who
worked at Vienna. Lorenzo designed theatres at Man-
heim and Frankfort. He died at^Munich in 1804. He
was an uncle of Giuseppe, noticed above, and father of
GIOVANNI MARIA, a painter of architecture and dra
matic scenery, who was born in 1772.
Quain, kwan, (JoNES,) a skilful anatomist, born at
Mallow, Ireland, studied in Paris. He distinguished
himself as professor of anatomy and physiology in the
London University, now called University College, and
resigned this position in 1836. His chief work is " Ele
ments of Anatomy," (6th edition, 1856,) which is said to
be better than any English work previously published
on systematic anatomy. Died in 1865.
Quain, (RICHARD,') a younger brother of the pre
ceding, and a distinguished anatomist and surgeon, was
born at Mallow. He became professor of anatomy at
University College, London, about 1836. lie was ap
pointed professor of clinical surgery at the University
College Hospital in 1848. He published an excellent
work entitled "The Anatomy of the Arteries of the
Human Body," (1845.)
Quain, (RICHARD,) a cousin of the preceding, became
a physician to the Consumption Hospital, Brompton,ancl
invented an instrument called the Stethometer.
Quaini, kwi'nee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian painter,
born at Bologna in 1611, was particularly successful in
painting architectural views. Died about 1680.
Quaini, ( Lonovico,) a son of the preceding, was bom
at Bologna in 1643, and was a pupil of Carlo Cignani,
whom he imitated. He is said to have painted the land
scapes and architecture of some of Cignani's great works.
He worked in partnership with Franceschini at Rome,
Genoa, etc., and painted some historical pictures com
posed by himself'. Died in 1717.
Quaiidt, kwant, QOHANN GOTTLOB,) a German writer
on fine arts, born at Leipsic in 1787, became distin
guished as an amateur and collector of pictures. Among
his works are ''Excursions in the Domain of Art," and
"Lectures on /Esthetics." Died in 1859.
Quanz, kwants, (JoilANN JOACHIM,) a German com
poser, born near Gottingen in 1697; died in 177^.
Quarenghi, kwa-ren'gee, (GIACOMO n, CAVALIERE,)
an Italian architect, born at Bergamo in 1744. Invited
by the empress Catherine, he went to Saint Petersburg,
and acquired a high reputation by works erected in that
city. Among these are the Exchange, and the Theatre
of the Hermitage. Died in 1817.
See NAGI.EK, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Quarin, kwa-reen', (JOSEPH,) a German physician,
born at Vienna in 1733. He gained distinction by
his writings on Fevers and Inflammations, (1774,) and
became first physician to the emperor Joseph II. Died
in 1814.
Quarles, kwfirlz, (FRANCIS,) a quaint but popular
P^nglish poet, born in Essex in 1592. lie was secretary
to Archbishop Usher before 1641, and was then deprived
of his situation by the Irish rebellion. In the civil war
he favoured the royalist party. His most popular poem
is entitled "Emblems," (1635,) and has been often re
printed. Among his other works are "Divine Poems,"
"Hadassa," and a " History of Samson." "We find in
Quarles," says Ileadley, "original imagery, striking
sentiment, fertility of expression, and happy combina
tions." Died in 1644.
See "Retrospective Review," vol. v., (1822;) WOOD, "Athene
Oxonienses ;" AI.UBON'E, "Dictionary of Authors."
Quarles, (JOHN,) a son of the preceding, was born
in Essex in 1624. He wrote several poems. Died in
1665.
Quarre, kS'ri', (ANTOINETTE SUZANNE,) a French
poetess, born at Recey-sur-Ource in 1813; died at Dijon
in 1847.
Quatrefages de Breau, de, deh kttR'fSzh' deh buo,
(JEAN Louis ARM AND,) a French naturalist, born in the
department of Gard in 1810. He became professor of
anatomy and ethnology at the Museum of Natural His
tory, Paris. His favourite science is zoology. He has
written numerous works, among which are "Souvenirs
of a Naturalist," (2 vols., 1854,) and "Anatomical and
Zoological Researches made during a Voyage to Sicily."
See " Noiivelle Biographic Generale ;" " North British Review"
for February, 1858; " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1858.
Quatremere, kStn'maiR', (£TIENNE MARC,) an emi
nent French Orientalist, born in Paris, July 12, 1782. He
was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1815,
and became professor of Hebrew, Syriac, etc. at the
College of France in 1819. Among his principal works
are " Researches on the Language and Literature of
Egypt," (1808,) "Geographical and Historical Memoirs
of Egypt," (2 vols., 1810,) and a " History of the Mon
gols of Persia," (1836.) Died in 1857. He had a library
of about 50,000 volumes. His father was first-cousin
to Quatremere de Quincy. " Few savants," says Ernest
Renan, "can be compared to him for extent and accuracy
of erudition."
See KENAN'S article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale."
Quatremere de Quincy, kitn'maiR' deh kaN'se',
(ANTOINE CHRYSOSTOME,) a French archaeologist and
art-critic, was born in Paris in October, 1755. He pub-
a, e, I, o, u, y, long, \, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon ;
QUATREMERE
•> 1
QUESNEL
lished the first volume of his "Dictionary of Architec
ture" in 1788. In 1791 he was elected to the Legislative
Assembly, and in 1797 was condemned to deportation
as a loyalist ; but he escaped. He was appointed in-
tendant of arts and public monuments in 1815, and
perpetual secretary of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1816.
Among his works are "Letters to Canova on the Elgin
Marbles," (1818,) an " Essay on the Nature, Object, and
Means of Imitation in the Fine Arts," (1823,) and a
" History of the Life and Works of Raphael," (1824.)
Died in 1849.
See QCERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" " Xouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Quatremere-Disjonval, kftR'maiR' de'zhox'vfl',
(DENIS BERNARD,) a naturalist, born in Paris about
1754, was a brother of Quatremere de Quincy. He was
very eccentric, and was confined for some years in an
asylum for the insane. Died in 1830.
Quatremere -Roissy, kftR'maiR' Rwa'se', (JEAN
NICOLAS,) a French writer of biography and tales, born
in Paris in 1754, was an uncle of fitienne Marc, above
noticed. Died in 1834.
Quattromani, kwat-tRo-ma'nee, (SERTORIO,) an Ital
ian writer, born at Cosenza in 1541 ; died in 1611.
Queens'ber-ry, (\Yn.i.iAM DOUGLAS,) fourth DUKE
OF, and Earl of March, a Scottish peer, born about 1724,
was notorious for his vices. He became Duke of Queens-
berry about 1778, and inherited a large fortune. Died,
without issue, in 1810.
See " Life of George Selwvn," by J. H. JESSE.
Queiros, de, da ka/e-ros, or Quiros, de, da kee'ros,
(PEDRO FERNANDEZ^I Spanish or Portuguese navi
gator, born about 1560, commanded an exploring
expedition sent from Callao in 1605. He discovered
Tahiti, the New Hebrides, and other small islands of
the Pacific, and wrote a narrative of his voyage. Died
at Panama in 1614.
Quekett, kwek'et, (Jonx,) an English microscopist,
born in Somersetshire in 1815. He published a "Treat
ise on the Use of the Microscope," and " Lectures on
Histology," (1854.) He succeeded Professor Owen as
conservator of the Hunterian Museum in London. Died
in 1861.
Queleu, de, deh keh'lox', (HYACIXTHE Louis,) a
French prelate, born in Paris in 1778. lie became
Archbishop of Paris in 1821, and a member of the
French Academy in 1824. Died in 1839.
See HENRION', " Vie et Travanx de M. de Quelen," 1840 ; BELLE-
MARE, "M. de Quelen pendant dix Ans," 1840.
Quellinus. See QUF.LI.YN.
Quellyn, kwel-lin', (Airrus,) a Flemish sculptor, born
at Antwerp in 1630, was a nephew of Erasmus, noticed
below. Died in 1715.
Quellyn, [Lat. QUELLI'NUS,] (ERASMUS,) an eminent
Flemish painter of history and landscapes, born at Ant
werp in 1607. His design, colour, and distribution of
light and shade are commended. Among his works
are a "Repose in Egypt," a "Last Supper," and "The
Guardian Angel." Died in 1678.
Quellyn, (J.\x ERASMUS,) a son of the preceding,
was born at Antwerp in 1629 or 1630, and was a good
painter of history. He worked in his native city and
other towns of Flanders. A picture of "Christ healing
the Sick" is called his master-piece. "Some of his
works," says Descamps, "may be compared to those
of Paul Veronese." Died in 1715.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Quenstedt, kwen'ste't, (JOHANN ANDREAS,) a Ger
man Lutheran theologian, born at Quedlinburg in 1617.
He was professor of theology at Wittenberg, and pub
lished several works. Died in 1688.
Quental, do, do kex-tal', (BARTHOLOMEW,) a Por
tuguese theologian, born in one of the Azores in 1626.
He was the author of works which are said to be well
written. Died in 1698.
Queiitel or Queiitell, kwen'tel, (HEINRICH,) a cele
brated printer of Cologne, flourished in the fifteenth
century.
Quentin, kSx'tax', (NICOLAS,) a French painter, born
at Dijon, where he died in 1636.
Quer y Martinez, kaiR e maR-tee'nSth, (JosE,) a
Spanish botanist, born at Perpignan in 1695. lie pub
lished a Flora of Spain according to the system of Tourne-
fort, — " Flora Espanola, o Historia de las Plantas que
se crian en Espafia," (6 vols., 1762-84.) He is said to
have been the first Spaniard who published a work on
Spanish plants. Died in 1764.
Querard, ka'rtit', (JOSEPH MARIE,) a French bibli
ographer, born at Rennes in 1797. He published an
important work on French bibliography, entitled " La
France Litteraire, ou Dictionnaire bibliographique," (10
vols., 1826-42.) He left several unfinished works. Died
about December i, 1865.
See " Life and Works of J. M. Querard," by O. HAMST, London,
1867; QUEKARU, i;La France Litteraire," tome xi.
Querbeuf, de, deh keVbuf, (YVES MATHURIN MA-
RIK,) a French litterateur, born at Landerneau in 1726;
died about 1799.
Quercetanus, the Latin of DUCHESXE, which see.
Quercia, della, del'Ia kw^R'cha, (JACOPO,) an able
Italian sculptor, born near Sienna about 1378. He
decorated the Duomo or Cathedral of Florence with
some bas-reliefs, and sculptured the ornaments of the
door-way of San Petronio at Bologna. Died in 1442.
Querenghi, kwi-ren'gee, (Axroxio,) an Italian poet,
born at Padua in 1546. He was secretary of the Sacred
College at Rome under five popes. He wrote verses in
Latin and Italian. Died in 1633.
Querini, kwa-ree'nee, or Quirini, kwe-ree'nee, [Lat.
QUERI'XUS,] (AxGELO MARIA,) CARDINAL, an eminent
Italian writer, born of a noble family at Venice in 1680.
He published on the liturgy of the Greek Church a
work entitled " Officium Quadrigesimale Graecorum,"
(1721.) About 1722 he was made Archbishop of Corfu,
lie was translated to the see of Brescia in 1728, soon
after which he became librarian of the Vatican. Among
his works are "Specimen of Bresciau Literature,"
("Specimen Literatures Brixianae," 1739,) and many
Latin Epistles, (1742-49.) Voltaire dedicated his " Semi-
ramis" to Querini, who was remarkable for his amiable
virtues. Died in 1755.
See his autobiography, " Commentarius de Rebus pertinentib'.is
ad A. M. Qiierinuni,'' 2 vols., 1749: BREITHAUPT, "Geschichte des
Cardinal Querini," 1752 ; C. F. HOFFMAN, "Programma de Quirino
glorioso," 1753; SAMBUCA, " Lettera intorno alia Morte del Cardinal
Qnirir.i," 1757 ; TIPAI.DO, " Biografia degii Ita.iani illustri ;" " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Querlon, de, deh keR'lox', (ANNE GABRIEL MEUS-
XIEK,) a French editor and compiler, born at Nantes in
1702. He edited the works of many ancient and mod
ern authors, and was for twenty years editor of a journal
entitled "Les Petites Affiches." Died in 1780.
Querno, kwCR'no, (CAMILLO,) ai1 Italian poet, born
at Monopoli about 1470. He wrote a Latin poem en
titled " Alexias." Died at Naples in 1528.
Querouaille. See KEROUAL, DE, ( LOUISE.)
Quesnay, ki'ni', (FRAxgoiS,) a French physician,
distinguished as a political economist, was born at Merei,
near Montfort 1'Amaury, in 1694. He was self-educated,
and settled in Paris about 1737. He purchased the
office of physician-in-ordinary to the king about 1745.
He advocated the abolition of coruees, free trade in grain,
and other reforms, which have been since adopted.
Among his works was one entitled "Economic Pic
ture," ("Tableau economique," 1758.) He was called
the chief of the sect of economistes, whose favourite maxim
was " Laissez faire et laissez passer," ("Let things take
care of themselves.") Died in 1774. Turgot was one
of his disciples.
See "Vie de Quesnay," prefixed to his works ; GRANDJEAN DK
FOUCHV, " E!loge de Quesnay;" AI.BON, "fiioge historique de M.
Quesnay," 1775 ; " Xouvelle Biographie Generaie."
Quesne, ki'na', (JACQUES SALUTGOTON,) a French
litterateur, born at Pavilly in 1778; died in 1859.
See "Confessions de J. S. Quesne," 3 vols., 1828-35.
Quesne, du. See DUQUESNE.
Quesiiel, ki'neY, (FRANC.OIS,) a painter, of French
origin, born at Edinburgh about 1544; died in Paris in
1619.
Quesiiel, (FRANC.OIS JEAN BAPTISTE,) BAROX, a
French general, born at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1765 ;
died in 1819.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural ': x, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
QUESNEL
1856
QUINCr
Quesnel, (Louis FRANCOIS,) a French general, born
in Paris in 1773. He distinguished himself in Spain,
(iSoS-ii.) Died in 1815.
Quesnel, (PASQUIER,) a French Jansenist writer, born
in Paris in 1634. He became a priest of the Oratory,
from which he was expelled in 1684 because he refused
to sign a formulary which condemned Jansenism. To
escape persecution, he retired to Brussels in 1685, and
published his work on the New Testament, called " Re
flexions morales," etc., (1694,) which was condemned
by the spiritual and temporal powers and anathematized
by the pope in the famous bull " Unigenitus," (1713.)
Quesnel wrote other works, and, after the death of Ar-
nauld, was regarded as the chief of the Jansenists. He
died at Amsterdam in 1719.
See "Causa Quesnelliana," Brussels, 1704; MOKERI, " Diclion-
naire Historiqne ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale ."
Quesnel, (PIERKK,) a French writer, born at Dieppe
about 1699. He wrote a " History of the Jesuits," (4
vols., 1740,) in which he shows himself hostile to that
society. Died about 1774.
Quesiioy, du. See DUQUESNOY.
Questel, ki'tel', (CHARLES AUGUSTE, ) a French
architect, born in Paris in 1807. He obtained medals
of the first class in 1852 and 1855.
Quetant, keh-t6.\', (ANTOINE FRANCOIS,) a French
dramatic author, born in Paris in 1733; died in 1823.
Quetelet, ket-li', (LAMBERT ADULPHE JACQUES,) a
Belgian astronomer, born at Ghent in 1796. He became
director of the Royal Observatory of Brussels in 1828,
and perpetual secretary of the Royal Academy in 1834.
Among his numerous works are " Criminal Statistics
of Belgium," (1832,) "Elements of Astronomy," (4th
edition, 1848,) and "Annals of the Royal Observatory,"
(14 vols., 1843-59.) lie contributed many scientific
articles to various journals.
See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale."
Quetif, keh-tef, (JACQUES), a learned French Do
minican monk, born in Paris in 1618. He wrote
"Scriptores Ordinis Pnedicatorum recensiti," (2 vols.,
1719-21,) which contains notices of many Dominicans
who were authors. Died in 1698.
Quevedo. See MAUZINHO.
Quevedo y Villegas, de, da ka-va/Do e vel-ya/gas,
usually called simply Quevedo, (FRANCISCO Gomez —
go'meth,) an eminent and original Spanish author and
satirist, born in Madrid in September, 1580. He was
brought up in the royal palace by his mother, who was a
lady of the bed-chamber, and learned the ancient lan
guages at A leal a. He was distinguished for his gallantry,
was an expert swordsman, and fought several duels. In
the prime of life he was employed in important affairs
at Naples by the viceroy, the Duke of Ossuna. He
wrote i;i prose and verse a variety of works, which were
very popular. Among his prose works are " Sueiios,"
(" Visions," or "Dreams," 1649,) which are greatly ad
mired for their wit and bumour, and " Life of the Great
Knave," (" Vida del gian Facano,") a romance. He
wrote dramas, (which are lost,) odes, sonnets, satires, etc.
He is said to have resembled Voltaire in his talent
for ridicule, his versatility, and the skill with which he
arraigned abuses before the tribunal of public opinion.
He suffered much political persecution, and was im
prisoned several years. Died in 1645.
See DOM PABLO ANTONIO DK TARSIA, "Vida de Don Fr.de
Quevedo y Villegas," Madrid. 1663; '• Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale;" TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature," vol. ii. ; BAENA,
"Hijos de Madrid," vol. ii.
Queverdo, keh-veVdo', (FRANC.OIS MARIE ISIDORE,)
a French designer and etcher, born in Bretagne in 1740;
died in 1808.
Quicherat, kesh'Ra"', (JiiLES,) a French antiquary,
born in Paris in 1815, has written several works on
French antiquities and on the history of Joan of Arc.
Quicherat, (Louis,) a lexicographer, a brother of the
preceding, was born in Paris in 1799. lie published an
excellent " Poetical Treasury of the Latin Language,"
("Thesaurus poeticus Linguae Latinas," 1836,) and a
Latin-French Dictionary, (1844,) which is said to be the
best work of the kind published in France.
Quick, (JOHN,) an English nonconformist minister,
born at Plymouth in 1636. He wrote, besides other
works, " Synodlcon in Gallia reformata," (1692.) He
preached in London for many years. Died in 1706.
Quick, (JoHN,) an English comedian, born in London
in 1748 ; died in 1831.
Quieii. See LEQUIEN.
Qui-e'tus, a Roman, who in 260 A.D. was supported
by part of the army as emperor or partner of his brother
Macrianus in imperial power. He was put to death in
Asia by Odenatus in 262 A.I).
Quignones. See QUINONES.
Quillet, ke'yi', (CLAUDE,) a French writer of Latin
poetry, sometimes called CAI.VIDUS L/ETUS, was born at
Chinon, in Touraine, in 1602. He wrote a poem entitled
" On the Method of having Beautiful Offspring," (" Calli-
pasclia, seu de pulchrae Prolis habendae Ratione," 1655,)
which was generally admired. Died in 1661.
Quilliard, ke'e-ytu/, (PIERRE ANTOINE,) a French
painter and etcher, born in Paris in 171 1 ; died in Lisbon
>" 1733-
Quill, (JAMES,) an eminent English actor, born in
London in 1693, was a grandson of Mark Quin, a lord
mayor of Dublin. He began to perform at Dairy Lane
about 1716, obtained great success in the role of "Fal-
staff " in 1720, and was the most popular actor of England
until he was surpassed by Garrick. He taught elocution
to Prince George, (afterwards George III.) On hearing
that king's first speech from the throne, Quin exclaimed,
" I taught the boy to speak." He once released the poet
Thomson from prison by payment of the debt for which
he was confined. He retired from the stage in 1748.
Died at Bath in 1766.
See a " Life of Quin," anonymous, 1766.
Quinault, ke'no', (JEAN BAPTISTE MAURICE,) a
French comic actor, born in Paris about 1690; died
in 1744.
Quinault, ( JEANNE FRANC.OISE, ) a comic actress,
a sister of the preceding, was born about 1700; died
in 1783.
Quinault, (PHILIPPE,) a French dramatic poet, born
in Paris in 1635. lie produced in his youth several
tragedies and comedies, among which is "La Mere
Coquette," (1664,) and was admitted into the French
Academy in 1670. His reputation is founded chiefly on
his operas, the music of which was composed by Lulli.
Between 1672 and 1686 Quinault and Lulli produced
fourteen operas, among which " Armide" (1686) is the
master-piece. Others are entitled " Cadmus," " Alceste,"
" Isis," " Persee," " Roland," etc. He is called by
some the first writer of French operas. " What can be
more beautiful, and even sublime," says Voltaire, "than
this chorus in ' Alceste,' ' Tout mortel doit ici paraitre' ? "
etc. Died in 1688.
See "Vie de Quinault," prefixed to his Works, 5 vols., 1739;
CRAPEI.ET, "Notice sur la Vie de Quinault," 1824; PERRAULT,
" Les Homines illustres;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Quiiiault-Dufresne, ke'n5' clu'fi<iNT/, ( ABRAHAM
ALEXIS,) a popular French actor, born at Verdun-sur-
le-Doubs in 1693. He performed in tragedy and high
comedy. He was a brother of Jean B. M. Quinault,
noticed above. Died in 1767.
Quin'by, (ISAAC F.,) an American general, born in
New Jersey, graduated at West Point about 1843. lie
became a brigadier-general of volunteers early in 1862,
and commanded a division of General Grant's army in
the operations against Vicksburg in 1863.
Quincey, De. See DE QUINCEY.
Quinctilianus. See QUINTILIAN.
Quin'cy, (EDMUND,) an American writer and oppo
nent of slavery, a son of Josiah Quincy, noticed below,
was born in Boston in 1808. He contributed to several
newspapers and periodicals, and wrote " Wensley, a
Story without a Moral," (1854.)
Quin'cy, (JoHN,) an English medical writer, practised
medicine in London. Among his works is "Lexicon
Physico-Medicum." Died in 1723.
Quincy, (JosiAH,) an American orator and patriot,
born in Massachusetts in 1744, was a son of Josiah
Quincy, a merchant of Boston. He became a lawyer,
and began about 1767 to write political essays against
the measures of the British ministry. He also rendered
important services to the popular cause by his fervid
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n&t; good; moon;
QUINCT
1857
QUINTUS
and powerful eloquence. His chief political svork is
"Observations on the Boston Port Bill, with Thoughts
on Civil Government," etc., (1774.) He gave proof of
moral courage by defending Captain Preston and several
soldiers in their trial for killing certain citizens in the
Boston massacre of March, 1770. To promote the public
welfare and the cause of liberty, he made a voyage to
England in October, 1774. He heard and reported a
celebrated speech made by Lord Chatham in defence
of the Americans, January 20, 1775. He conferred with
Dr. Franklin and other friends of the cause in England,
and hastened to return with counsels and plans which it
was not prudent to commit to writing; but before the
end of his voyage he died at sea, April, 1775. He was
deeply lamented by the public.
See a " Life of Josiah Quincy, Jr.," by his son JOSIAII, 1825.
Quincy, (JosiAH,) an eminent statesman and scholar,
born in Boston on the 4th of February, 1772, was a son
of the preceding. He graduated at Harvard College in
1790, and studied law. He joined the Federalist party,
and represented Boston in Congress from 1804 to 1813.
During this period he opposed the measures of the
dominant party with great energy and decision. He
made a celebrated speech against the bill for the admis
sion of Louisiana in iSn, and opposed the war of 1812.
" He was equal to the emergency," says R. W. Griswold,
"and sustained himself on all occasions with manly in
dependence, sound argument, and fervid declamation."
He was a member of the Senate of Massachusetts from
1814 to 1820, became a judge of the municipal court of
Boston in 1822, and served as mayor of Boston from
1823 to 1829. In 1829 he was elected president of Har
vard University. He published, besides other works,
a "Memoir of Josiah Quincy, Jr.," (1825,) a "History
of Harvard University," (2 vols., 1840,) "Speeches in
Congress and Orations," and a " Life of John Q. Adams,"
(1858.) He resigned the presidency of Harvard in 1845.
In 1856 he publicly advocated the election of Colonel
Fremont to the Presidency. He died in July, 1864, aged
ninety-two.
See " Lite of Josiah Quincy," by bis son, EDMUND QUINCY ; R.
W. GRISWOI.D, "Prose Writers of America;" DUYCKINCK, "Cyclo
paedia of American Literature." vol. i.
Quincy, de, deli kaN'se', (CHARLES Sevin — seh-
V&N',) MARQUIS, a French general and military writer,
born near Meaux in 1666. He wrote a "Military His
tory of the Reign of Louis XIV.," (8 vols., 1726.) Died
in 1736.
Quincy, de, (QUATREMERE.) See QUATREMERE.
Quiiiet, ke'n.V, (EDGAR,) a French writer and phi
losopher, born at Bourg (Ain) in 1803, became a friend
of Michelet. He obtained in 1842 in the College of
France a chair of southern literatures, (litteratures meri-
dionales.) He acted with the republicans ( 'extreme gauche)
in the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies of 1848-9.
Among his various works are " Prometheus," a poem,
(1838,) "Germany and Italy: Philosophy and Poetry,"
(1839,) "The Genius of Religions," (1843,) and "The
Revolutions of Italy," (3 vols., 1852.) He was banished
from France in 1852.
See CHASSIN, " E. Quinet, sa Vie et son CEuvre," 1859; G.
Pr.ANCHK, " Portraits Litieiaires ;" BATAH.I.ARD, "GEuvre philoso-
phique et sociale d'E. Quinet," 1845; QUINKT, "Histoire de mes
Idees," 1858; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Quinette, ke'net', (NICOLAS MARIE,) a French revo
lutionist, born at Soissons in 1762. He was elected to
the Convention in 1792, and was one of the four com
missaries sent to arrest Dumouriez, who seized and
delivered them to the Austrians, (April, 1793.) He was
minister of the interior for a short time in 1799. Died
in 1821.
Quinones, de, da ken-yo'nes, sometimes written
Quigiionez, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish cardinal, born in
the kingdom of Leon, became confessor to Charles V.
He negotiated the release of Pope Clement VII., de
tained or besieged by the Spanish army, in 1527. He
published "Breviarium Romanum," (1535.) Died in
1540.
Quinsonas, de, deh kaN'so'nas', (FRANCOIS DUGAS,)
a French poet, born at Lyons in 1719, wrote epigrams
against Voltaire. Died in 1768.
Quiiitana, ken-ta'n3, (MANUEL JOSE,) an eminent
Spanish poet and patriot, was born in Madrid in Apiil,
1772. lie studied law at Salamanca, where he formed
a friendship with Melendez and Cienfuegos. He began
to write verses about 1790. His "Ode to the Sea"
(1798) is one of the most beautiful in the Spanish lan
guage. He wrote other excellent odes, one of which
is "On the Battle of Trafalgar." In 1807 he published
the first volume of the " Lives of Celebrated Spaniards,"
(3 vols., 1807-34,) which is highly commended. Between
1808 and 1814 he employed his talents and influence
against the French invaders, and wrote several eloquent
manifestoes for the national party. These services were
rewarded with rigorous imprisonment for six years
(1814-20) by Ferdinand VII., who was offended because
Quintana advocated liberal principles. He propitiated
the king by an ode in honour of his marriage in 1828,
and was permitted to return to Madrid. In 1835 he
was appointed director-general of public instruction,
and became a senator. He directed the education
of the young queen in 1840-43. He was publicly
crowned with laurel by the queen in 1855. Died in
March, 1857.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature:" KENNEDY,
" Modern Poets of Spain ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Quinte-Curce. See QUINTUS CURTIUS.
Quiii -til'i-an, [Lat. QUINTILIA'NUS or QUINCTILIA'-
NUS ; Fr. QUINTILIEN, kaN'te'leJ^N',] (MARCUS FABIUS,)
a celebrated Roman critic and teacher of rhetoric, was
born probably between 40 and 50 A.D. ferome states
that he was a native of Calagurris, (Calahorra,) in the
northern part of Spain ; but some modern writers think
he was born in Rome. He obtained a high reputation
as a pleader, and was the first public instructor who
received from the imperial treasury a regular salary.
Among his pupils was the Younger Pliny. He taught
rhetoric for twenty years, and retired from that pro
fession in the reign of Domitian, who appointed him
preceptor of his grand-nephews, "is chief work is a
treatise on the education of an orator, " Institutio Ora-
toria," divided into twelve books. 'This is the most
complete and methodical treatise on rhetoric that has
come down to us from antiquity. An entire copy of it
was found by Poggio at Saint Gall in 1417. His style
is clear, elegant, and highly polished. His practical
ideas are good, but his criticisms are rather superficial.
He gives judicious precepts for students, and interesting
details of the education and classic studies of the an
cients. His merit consists in sound judgment, propriety,
and good taste, rather than in originality or elevation of
mind. He is supposed to have died about 118 A.D. He
wrote a work on the corruption or decadence of elo
quence, "De Causis Corruptae Eloquentias," which is
not extant. His "Institutio" has been translated into
English by Guthrie (1756) and Patsall, (1774.)
See RUDIGER, "De Quintiliano Paedagogo," 1850; V. OTTO,
"Quintilian nnd Rousseau," 1836; J. JANIN, "Pline le Jeune et
Qiiintilien," 1838; HUMMEL, " Quintiliani Vita," 1843; "Nouvelle
Biographic Geuerale."
Quintilianus. See QUINTILIAN.
Quintilien. See QUINTILIAN.
Quintinie, de la, deh \& kaN'te'ne', (JEAN,) an emi
nent French gardener and writer on gardening, was born
at Chabanais (Angoumois) in 1626. He was appointed
intendant of the fruit-gardens of the king at Versailles
in 1673. He made much improvement in the cultivation
of fruit-trees, and left a work which was for a long time
the guide of French cultivators. It is entitled " Direc
tions for Fruit and Kitchen Gardens," (" Instructions
pour les Jardins fruitiers et potagers," 1690.) Died in
1688.
Quiiito Curzio. See QUINTUS CURTIUS.
Quin'tus Cal'a-ber or Q. Smyr-nae'us, (smir-
nee'us,) [Fr. QUINTUS DE CALABRE, kaN'tiiss' deh kt'-
Itba', or QUINTUS DE SMYRNE, kaN'tiiss' deh smeRn,]
a Greek poet, known only as the author of one po-em, is
supposed to have lived about 500 A.D. He is called
CALABER because a manuscript of his work was found
in Calabria. According to his own statement, he was a
native of Smyrna. He wrote a continuation of Homer's
"Iliad," ('O/n?}pov Hapct7.nr6fi.eva,) which contains some
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in MM.
117
xplanations, p. 23. )
QUINTUS
1858
RABELAIS
beautiful passages. The subjects of it are those events
of the Trojan war which are not related by Homer.
Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius. See QUADRI-
GARIUS.
Quin'tus Cur'tius (kur'she-us) Ru'fus, [Fr. QUINTE-
CURCE, kaNt kuRss ; It. QuiNTO CURZIO, kwen'to
kooiU'se-o,] a Roman historian of uncertain period, is
supposed to have lived after the Augustan age. Nothing
is known of his birthplace or personal history. We
find in ancient writers no passage which certainly refers
to him. He is the author of a " History of Alexan
der the Great," (" De Rebus Alexandri Magni Regis
Macedonum,") in ten books, of which the first and second
are lost. The merit of this history is variously estimated.
His style is easy, clear, and rhetorical. He is deficient
in critical judgment and in a knowledge of geography
and military tactics. Among his modern admirers are
Vossius, Bayle, Rapin, Tiraboschi, and La Harpe. His
work has been translated into English by Brende and
Digby.
See BUTTMANN, " Ueber das Leben des Geschichtschreibers
8uintus Curtius Rufus," 1820; J. E. MUI.I.ER, " Program ma de
. Curtio Rufo," 1695; ADOLPII HIKT, "Ueber das Leben des
Geschichtschreibers Q. Curtius Ruius," 1820; NIEBUHR, "Kleine
Schriften," i.
Quintus de Calabre or de Smyriie. See QUIN
TUS CALABER.
Quiot du Passage, ke'o' dii pt'stzh', (JER6ME
JOACHIM,) a French general, born at Alixan (Drome) in
1775 ; died in 1849.
Qtiirini. See QUERINI.
Quirinus, a surname of ROMULUS, (which see.)
Quiroga, ke-ro'ga, (JosE,) a Spanish Jesuit, born in
Galicia in 1707. About 1745 he was sent by the King
of Spain to explore Patagonia. He wrote a journal of
his voyage, which was inserted by Charlevoix in his
"History of Paraguay." Died in 1784.
Quiros, kee'ros, (LORENZO,) a Spanish painter, born
in Estremadura in 1717. He worked at Seville, and
imitated Murillo with success. Died in 1789.
Quiros, (PEDRO.) See QUEIKOS.
Quirot, ke'ro', (JEAN BAPTISTS,) a French advocate,
born in Franche-Comte about 1760, was a moderate
member of the Convention, (1792-95.) In the trial of
the king he voted for imprisonment. Died in 1830.
Quistorp, kwis'toRp, (JoiiANN,) a German Lutheran
divine and biblical commentator, born at Rostock in
1584. He became professor of divinity in his native
city in 1614. Died in 1648.
Quistorp, von, fon kwis'toRp, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN,)
a German jurist, born at Rostock in 1737, became pro
fessor of law at Biitzow. Died in 1795.
Quita, kee'ta, (DOMINGOS DOS REIS,) a Portuguese
poet, born in 1728. He wrote "Inez de Castro," and
other tragedies. Died in 1770.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Quit'man, (JoiiN ANTHONY,) an American general
and Democratic politician, born in Dutchess county,
New York, in 1799. Appointed to the command of a
brigade in 1846, he fought with distinction in the prin
cipal engagements of the Mexican war, and was subse
quently elected Governor of Mississippi. He was chosen
a member of Congress in 1855 and in 1857. Died in 1858.
See CLAIBORNE, " Life of J. A. Quitman," 1860.
B.
Rabanis, rf 'bt'ness', (JEAN,) a French historian, born
about 1800. He wrote a " History of Bordeaux," (ist
vol., 1837.)
Raban Maur. See RABANUS.
Rabanus Maurus Magnentius, ra-ba'mis mow'-
rus mag-n§n'se-us, [Fr. RABAN MAUR, rf'bSx' moR,] a
German theologian, born at or near Mentz about 786 or
776 A. D. He became Archbishop of Mentz in 847. He
wrote commentaries on Scripture, and was regarded as
one of the greatest scholars and writers of his time.
Died ill 856 A.D.
See "Gallia Christiana ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Rabaut, rt'bo', (PAUL,) an eminent French Protestant
minister, born at Bedarieux in 1718. He preached many
years at Nimes, and was much persecuted. Died at
Nimes in 1794.
See J. PONS, " Notice sur P. Rabaut," 1808.
Rabaut-Pommier, rf bo' po'me-a', (JACQUES AN-
TOINE,) a French Girondist, born atTTJimes in 1744, was
.1 son of the preceding. He was elected to the Conven
tion in 1792, was proscribed in 1793, and imprisoned
until the gth Thermidor, 1794. In 1801 he became pas
tor of the Protestant Church of Paris. Some French
writers claim for him the honour of the discovery of
vaccination. Died in 1820.
See HAAG, "La France protestante."
Rabaut-Saint-^tienne, rt'bo' saN'ta'te-Sn', (JEAN
PAUL,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Nimes in
1743, and was a Protestant minister before the Revolu
tion. He distinguished himself by his eloquence in the
Constituent Assembly, (1789-92,) and voted against the
death of the king in the Convention. Having taken side
with the Girondists, he was outlawed in July, and exe
cuted in December, 1793. He left several able historical
and political works.
See COI.I.IN DE PLANCV, " Notice de Rabaut-Saint-fitienne,"
prefixed to his works, 1826; HAAG, "La France protestante;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Rabbe, rtb, (ALPHONSE,) a French litterateur, born
at Riez, in Provence, in 1786. He was one of the editors
of the " Biographic universelle des Contemporains," by
Rabbe, Boisjolin, and Saint-Preuve. Died in 1830.
Rabel, rt'bel', (DANIEL,) a French painter of por
traits and flowers, was born about 1578; died after 1630.
Rabel, (JEAN,) a painter and engraver, born at Beau-
vais, was the father of the preceding. lie painted
portraits of several kings and queens. Died in Paris
in 1603.
Rabelaesius. See RABELAIS.
Rabelais, ri'beh-l.V or ril/LY, [Lat. RABEL.-F/SIUS,]
(FRANQOIS,) a famous and humorous French satirist,
born at Chinon, in Touraine, in 1495, or> as some say, in
1483. At an early age he joined the order of Franciscans,
but, finding the monastic life incompatible with his genial
disposition, he quitted the convent without the consent
of his superiors. He had made himself master of Greek,
Latin, and other languages. He was also versed in
several sciences. It is difficult or impossible to distin
guish the real events of his life amidst the multitude of
strange adventures and ludicrous anecdotes which are
told respecting him. He began to study medicine at
Montpellier about 1530, after which he practised at
Lyons. In 1536 he accompanied to Rome the ambas
sador Cardinal Du Bellay, who had been his friend in
early life. He obtained absolution from the pope for his
neglect of the monastic vows, and took his degree in
medicine at Montpellier in 1537. His chief work is a
humorous romance, entitled "The Pleasant Story of the
Giant Gargantua and his Son Pantagruel," ("Les Fails
et Diets du Geant Gargantua et de son Fils Panta
gruel,") in which he satirizes all classes of society, es
pecially the monks. He obtained from Francis I. in
1545 a privilege to print the third part of this work.
The first part had been published anonymously in 1535.
The work was denounced as heretical by the clergy and
monks, but the author was protected by Francis I. He
became curate of Meudon about 1545. Died about 1553.
"The most celebrated," says Hal lam, "and certainly
the most brilliant performance in the path of fiction that
belongs to this age is that of Rabelais. Few books are
less likely to obtain the praise of a rigorous critic ; but
few have more the stamp of originality, or show a more
redundant fertility always of language and sometimes of
imagination." (" Introduction to the Literature of Eu
rope.") " Beyond a doubt," says Coleridge, " he was
among the deepest as well as boldest thinkers of his
age. ... I class Rabelais with the great creative minds,
Shakspeare, Dante, Cervantes, etc."
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
R4BENER
1859
R4CINE
A good edition of his chief work was published by
Burgaud des Marets and Rathery, (2 vols., 1858.)
See DELECLUSE, " F. Rabelais," 1841; P. LACROIX, " Vie de
Rabelais," 1859; E. NOEL, " Le.aendes Francaises ; Rabelais,"
i85Q; ALMQUIST, " Dissertatio de Vita et Scripiis F. Rabelaesii,"
1838; "Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by MRS.
SHELLKV; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;"" Foreign Quarterly
Review" for July, 1843 ; " British Quarterly Review" for November,
1840; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1839.
Rabener, ra'beh-ner, (GOTTLIEB WILHELM,) a popu
lar German writer, born near Leipsic in 1714, was an
intimate friend of Gellert. He published a collection
of satires in the form of letters, (1751,) also "Friendly
Letters." He was employed many years at Dresden as
counsellor in the department of customs. Died in 1771.
See MURR, "An Rabeners Schatten," 1771 ; GERVINUS, " Natio-
naUiteratur."
Ra-bir'i-us, (CARTS,) a Roman poet, was a contem
porary of Virgil. He wrote a poem on the battle of
Actium, fragments of which are extant.
Rabirius, (CAius,) a Roman, who was accused of
complicity in the death of SaUirninus. He was defended
by Cicero (63 K.c.) in a speech, part of which is extant.
Raboteau, rt'bo'to', (PIKRRE PAUL,) a French poet,
born at La Rochelle in 1765 ; died in 1825.
Rabou, ri'bou', (CHARLES,) a French novelist and
journalist, born in Paris in 1803.
Rabuel, rit'bu-el', (CLAUDE,) a French mathematician,
born at Ponte-de-Vesle in 1669 ; died at Lyons in 1728.
Rabus, rd'bus, (PIETER,) a Dutch poet, born at Rot
terdam in 1660. He wrote "Britain Delivered," (" Ver-
lost Britannic," 1689,) and some prose works. Died in
1702.
Rabutin. See BussY-RABUTlN.
Rabutin, de, deli rt'bii'taN', (FRANCOIS,) a French
historical writer, was a grandfather of Bussy-Rabutin.
He wrote a " History of the War between Henry II.
and Charles V.," (1555.) Died in 1582.
Racagui, ra-kan'yee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian pro
fessor of physicaf sciences, born near Voghera in 1741.
He wrote "Theory of Fluids," ("Teorica de' Fluidi,"
1779.) Died at Milan in 1822.
Racan, de, deh rS'ko.v', (HoxoRAT de Bueil — deh
bul or bub/ye,) MARQUIS, a French poet, born in Tou-
raine in 1589, was a friend of Malherbe. He wrote
" Les Bergeries," (" Pastorals," 1628,) and other ]>oems.
" Racan had more genius than Malherbe," says Boileau,
" but he was more negligent." He was a member of the
French Academy. Died in 1670.
See " Xouvelie Biographie Generale."
Racchetti, rak-ket'tee, (BERNARDO,) an Italian
painter, born at Milan in 1639; died in 1702.
Ra'chel, [Heb. ^m ; It. RACHELE, ra-ka'la,l a He
brew matron, was a daughter of Laban, and the favourite
wife of the patriarch Jacob.
See Genesis xxix., xxx., xxxi., and xxxv.
Rachel, rt'shel', ( ELISABETH RACHEL FELIX, ) a
French tragic actress, born in the canton of Argovie,
Switzerland, in 1821, was a daughter of a Jewish ped
lar. She made her debut at the Theatre Frai^ais
of Paris in 1838, and performed parts in the tragedies
of Corneille and Racine with great success. Her gait,
attitudes, gestures, and voice concurred to produce power
ful effects with a great simplicity of means. She was
much applauded in the rSles of "Marie Stuart" and
"Joan of Arc." In 1855 she performed in New York,
Boston, and Philadelphia. She died near Cannes (Var)
in 1858.
See EUGENE DEMiRECOURT, " Mademoiselle Rachel ;" L. BEAU-
VALLET, •' Rachel et le Nouveau- Monde," 1856; " Nouvelle Bio
graphie Generale."
Rachel, rait'el, (JOACHIM.) a German satirical poet,
born at Lunden, Holstein, in 1618. He was rector of
colleges at Xorden and Sleswick, and wrote ten satires,
(1664,) in which he imitated Juvenal and Persius with
some success. Died in 1669.
See GERVIXUS, " Nationailiteratur."
Rachetti, ra-ket'tee, or Racchetti, rak-ket'tee,
(VlNCENZO,) an Italian physician, born at Crema in
1777. He wrote a "Theory of the Physical Prosperity
of Nations," (1802.) Died in 1819.
See CORNELIANI, " Elogio del Professore V. Rachetti," 1832.
Racine, i t'sen', (BoXAVENTURE,) a French Jansenist
ecclesiastic, born in the diocese of Noyon in 1708, was a
relative of the poet Racine. He published an " Eccle
siastical History," (13 vols., 1748-56.) Died in 1755.
Racine, ras'seen' or rt'sen', (JEAN,) an excellent
French dramatic poet, born at Ferte-Milon (Aisne) De
cember 21, 1639. His parents, who were bourgeois, died
before he was four years old. lie studied at the College
of Beauvais, and afterwards at the famous school of Port-
Royal, in which he passed three years, (1655-58.) He
became a good Latin and Greek scholar. lie began his
poetical career by " La Nymphe de la Seine," (1660,) an
ode on occasion of the marriage of Louis XIV., which
procured for him a small pension. Having become dis
gusted with the study of theology, which an uncle had
persuaded him to pursue, he went to Paris, and formed
friendships with Boileau and Moliere. He produced in
1664 the tragedy of " La Thebaide, ou les Freres enne-
mis," which had some success. The first work which
revealed the power and peculiar character of his genius
was " Andromaque," (1667.) In 1668 he surprised the
public by a comedy called " The Litigants," (" Les Plai-
deurs,") which was very successful. He afterwards pro
duced the tragedies of " Britannicus," (1669,) " Bere
nice," (1670,) " Bajazet," (1672,) " Mithridate," (1673,)
" Iphigenie," (1674,) and " Phedre," (1677.) " I avow,"
says Voltaire, " that I regard ' Iphigenie' as the chef-
d'a'iivre of the stage." He was admitted into the
French Academy in 1673.
At the age of thirty-eight he resolved to renounce
dramatic composition' This resolution is variously
ascribed to religious scruples, wounded sensibilities, or
disgust excited by envious intrigues and malicious criti
cisms. He married in 1677 a pious young woman of
Amiens, named Catherine Romanet, and was appointed
historiographer by Louis XIV. In compliance with the
wish of Madame cle Maintenon, Racine wrote " Esther,"
a drama, (1689,) and "Athalie," (1691,) which was his
last, and, in the opinion of Boileau, his best, drama. In
the latter part of his life he was gentleman-in-ordinary
to the king, who often conversed with him, and treated
him with favour. Among his intimate friends were
Boileau, La Fontaine, and La Bruyere. Racine wrote
about 1695 a " History of Port-Royal," the style of
which is so neat and perspicuous that it entitles him to
rank in the list of those authors who have succeeded
both in verse and prose. His natural disposition was
rather melancholy and tender. During the last twenty
years of his life he was a devout member of the Church.
He died on the 2ist of April, 1699.
It is usual to compare Racine with Corneille as a rival
poet. "Voltaire, La Harpe, and in general the later
French critics," says Hallam, "have given the prefer
ence to Racine. I presume to join my suffrage to theirs.
Racine appears to me the superior tragedian ; and I
must add that I think him next to Shakspeare among
all the moderns. The comparison with Euripides is so
natural that it can hardly be avoided. Certainly no
tragedy of the Greek poet is so skilful or perfect as
'Athalie' or 'Britannicus.' . . . The style of Racine is
exquisite. Perhaps he is second only to Virgil among
all poets. But I will give the praise of this in the words
of a native critic : ' If we consider that his perfection in
these respects may be opposed to that of Virgil, and
that he spoke a language less flexible, less poetical, and
less harmonious, we shall readi.ly believe that Racine is,
of all mankind, the one to whom nature has given the
greatest talent for versification.' (La Harpe.)"
See " Memoirs of J. Racine," by his son Louis, 1747; LA HARPE,
" filoge de Racine," 1772; SAINTE-BEUVE, " Causeries du Lundi ;"
LONGFELLOW, " Poetsand Poetry of Europe ;" " Nouvelle Biographie
Generale ;" L. A. C. BEYLE, "Racine et Shakspeare," 2 vols., 1823-
25; NAIGEON, "Notice sur la Vie de Racine," 1783; VILLEMAIN,
"Cours de Litterature ;" "Lives of the Most Eminent French
Writers," by MRS. SHELLEY.
Racine, (Louis,) the second son of the preceding,
was born in Paris in 1692, and was a poet and critic of
considerable merit. Boileau advised him not to write
verse ; for, said he, " since the world began there has
been no instance of two great poets related to each other
as father and son." He wrote a poem entitled " La
Grace," (1720,) and another entitled "La Religion,"
€ as k; c as s: g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
See Explanations, p. 23.)
RACK
1860
RADOW1TZ
(1742,) which was highly praised by J. 15. Rousseau,
and passed through sixty editions. lie was employed
for many years as clerk or collector of taxes, (directeur
des fermes. ) In 1755 his son was drowned at Cadiz by
the earthquake which nearly destroyed Lisbon. Died
in 1763.
See LE BEAU, " E"loge de Louis Racine," 1763; ADRIEN DE LA
ROQUE, "Vie de L. Racine," 1852; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Rack, (EDMUND,) an English poet, born in Norfolk
in 1735 ; died in 1787.
Racle, rfkl, (LEONARD,) a French architect, born in
Dijon in 1736. He was employed at Ferney by Voltaire,
who recommended him to the prime minister Choiseul.
Died in 1791.
Raczynski, ra-chin'skee, (ATHANASIUS,) a Polish
•writer on art, born in 1788. He was Prussian minister
at Copenhagen, Lisbon, and Madrid from 1840 to 1853.
He wrote (in French) a "History of Modern Art in
Germany," (3 vols., 1836-42,) which is a work of some
merit.
Raczynski, (EDUARD,) a Polish count and writer,
born at Posen in 1786, was a brother of the preceding.
He presented to his native city a library of twenty thou
sand volumes. Among his publications are "Travels in
the Ottoman Empire," (1821,) and a "Cabinet of Polish
Medals," (4 vols., 1841-45.) He committed suicide in
1845-
Rad'bert, [Fr. pron. rid'baia',] (PASCIIASE,) a.French
monk, born near Soissons. He wrote several works,
one of which is "On the Eucharist." He advocated
the dogma of transubstantiation. Died in 865 A.D.
Radcliffe or Radclyffe, rad'klif, (ANN,) a popular
English novelist, born in London in 1764. Her maiden
name was WARD. She was married about 1786 to Wil
liam Radcliffe, editor of the "English Chronicle." Her
most successful works are "The Romance of the Forest,"
(1791,) and "The Mysteries of Udolpho," (1794.) The
terrible, sombre, mysterious, and marvellous predomi
nate in her compositions. Died in 1823.
See SIR WALTER SCOTT'S Miscellaneous Prose Works; MRS.
EI.WOOD, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the
Commencement of the Last Century," vol. ii., 1X43: "Edinburgh
Review" for July, 1834; "Monthly Review" for May, 1792, and
March, 1797.
Radcliffe, (JAMES.) See DERWENTWATER.
Radcliffe, (JOHN,) a successful English physician,
born at Wakefield, Yorkshire, in 1650, was educated at
Oxford. He settled in London in 1684, and soon ob
tained a large practice, to which his talent for pleasantry
and witticisms is said to have contributed. He became
chief physician to the princess Anne in 1686, after which
date he was employed professionally by King William,
whom he once offended by his rudeness or freedom of
sneech. He died in November, 1714. He bequeathed
^40,000 to build or found a library at Oxford which
bears his name, and other large sums for charitable uses.
See W. PITTIS, " Radcliffe's Life and Letters," 1715 ; " Biogra-
phia Britannica."
Radcliffe or Ratcliffe, (THOMAS,) Earl of Sussex,
an English statesman, born about 1526, was a son of
Henry, Earl of Sussex. He was sent to Spain to nego
tiate the marriage between Queen Mary and Philip II.,
and on his return became lord deputy of Ireland. In
1569 he was appointed president of the North. He
rendered important services in the suppression of the
northern rebellion. He became lord chamberlain about
1572. Died in 1583.
Raddi, rad'dee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian botanist, born
at Florence in 1770. He was associated in 1828 with
Rosellini and Champollion in a mission to Egypt. When
about to return home, he died at Rhodes in 1829.
See G. SAVI, " Alia Meinoria di G. Raddi," 1830.
Radegunde, ra'deh-goon'deh, or Radegonde, rf-
deh-goN'd', a Thuringian princess, whom Clothaire I.
made captive and forced to become his wife. She was
noted for piety, and abounded in works of charity to the
poor. She' escaped from Clothaire about 544 A.D., be
came a nun, and founded a large convent at Poitiers.
Died in 587 A.D.
See ED. DE FLEURY. "Viede Sainte-Radegonde," 1843; "Nou
velle Biographic Generale."
Rademacher, ra'deh-maK'er. or Radermacher, ra'-
der-maK'er. (J. C. M.,) a Dutch geographer, born in 1741.
He founded the Society of Sciences at Batavia in 1778.
Died at sea in 1783.
Rademacher, ra'deh-maK'er. (JOHANN GOTTFRIED,)
a distinguished German physician, born at Hamm in
1772 ; died in 1849.
Rademacker. See RADEMAKER.
Rademaker, ra'deh-mak'er, written also Rade
macker, (ABRAHAM,) a Dutch landscape-painter and
engraver of high reputation, born at Amsterdam in 1675.
He painted in oil and in water-colours. His landscapes
are adorned with figures, ruins, and buildings. He pro
duced after his own designs many engravings, which are
highly prized. Died in 1735.
See DESCAMPS, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Rademaker or Rademacker, (GERARD,) an emi
nent painter of history and architecture, born at Amster
dam in 1673, is supposed to have been a brother of the
preceding. He studied in Rome, and returned to Holland.
He excelled in invention, in facility of execution, and in
perspective. Died in 1711.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Rader, ra'der, [Lat. RADE'RUS,] (MATTHAUS,) a
learned Jesuit, born in the Tyrol in 1561. He wrote
notes on Quintus Curtius and Martial, and several
original works, among which is " Bavaria Sancta," (3
vols., 1625-27.) Died at Munich in 1634.
Rader or Raeder, ra'der, (JACOB TODK,) a military
writer, born in Norway in 1798. He wrote a "Military
and Political History of Denmark," (3 vols., 1845-52.)
Raderus. See RADER.
Radet, rS'di', (ETIENNE^) a French general, born at.
Stenay in 1762. He was made a general of brigade in
1800 by Bonaparte, who gave him the chief command
of all the gendarmerie, (armed police.) In 1809 he was
ordered to Rome. In July of that year he arrested the
pope in his palace and conducted him to Florence. He
received the title of baron, (1809,) and'became a general
of division in 1813. Died in 1825.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Radet, (JEAN BAFTISTE,) a French dramatist, born
at Dijon in 1752. He wrote vaudevilles. Died in 1830.
Radetzky, ra-deYskee, (JOSEPH WENZEL,) a cele
brated field-marshal in the Austrian service, born in
Bohemia in 1766. He served in the Turkish campaigns
of 1788-89, and subsequently against the French on the
Rhine and in Italy. For his distinguished bravery at
the battle of Wagram he was made lieutenant-field-mar
shal, and he took an active part in the campaigns from
1813 to 1815. In the revolution of 1848 he effected a
masterly retreat from Milan, then in open revolt against
Austria, and, having soon after gained several advantages
over the Sardinians under Charles Albert, signally de
feated them at Novara in March, 1849. He next took
possession of Venice, after an obstinate siege, and was
appointed governor-general and military commander of
Upper Italy. He had been created a field-marshal in
1836, and had received the order of Maria Theresa and
the principal military orders of Europe. Died in 1858.
See GRAF RADKTZKY, " Biographische Skizze nach den eigenen
Dictaten," etc., Stuttgart, 1858; PKINCK TKUBKTZKOI, " Les Cam-
pagnes de Radetzky," 1861; "Jahrbiich zum Conversations-Lexi-
kon," 1860.
Rad'ford, (WILLIAM,) an American naval officer,
born in Virginia. He entered the navy in 1825. He
adhered to the Union in 1861, and commanded the
Ironsides in the attack on Fort Fisher in December,
1864. He was appointed rear-admiral in July, 1866.
Radier, du. See DREUX DU RADIKR.
Rad'nor, (WILLIAM PLEYDELL BOUVERIE,) EARL
OF, an English peer, born in 1779. He acted with the
Liberal party.
Radonvilliers, de, deh ri'doN've'ye-a', (CLAUDE
FRANgoiS LYSARDE,) a French writer, born in Paris in
1709. He became sub-preceptor of the princes in 1757,
and was admitted into the French Academy in 1763.
Among his works is a "Treatise on Grammar," (1768.)
Died in 1789.
Radowitz, von, fon ra'do-wits', (JOSEPH,) a Prussian
statesman and general, born at Blankenburg in 1797,
a, e, T, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m§t: n5t; good; moon;
RADZIWILL
1861
RAGNAR
became professor of mathematics at the military school
at Cassel, and was subsequently appointed teacher to
Prince Albert. He was minister-plenipotentiary to the
Diet at Frankfort in 1836. He published several works
on mathematics and military affairs. Died in 1853.
Radziwill, rad'ze-wil, (CHRISTOPHER,) a Lithuanian
general, born in 1585. He commanded a Polish army
which held Gustavus Adolphus in check in Livonia and
Courland. Died in 1640.
Radziwill, (GEORGE,) a Lithuanian general, born in
1480. He gained a number of victories over the Mus
covites and Tartars, and in 1533 obtained the rank of
grand general. Died in I541-
Radziwill, (NICOLAS,) a Lithuanian nobleman, born
about 1515. He was palatin of Wilna, and a zealous
supporter of the Reformation. Died about 1561.
Rae, ra, (Sir WILLIAM,) a Scottish lawyer, born in
1772, was a son of Sir David Rae, a judge. He became
a conservative member of Parliament, and lord ad
vocate of Scotland. Died in 1842.
Raeburn, ra'burn, (Sir HENRY,) a British portrait-
painter, born at or near Edinburgh in 1756. He studied
in Italy, from which he returned to Edinburgh in 1787.
He was afterwards the most' eminent portrait-painter
of that city or of all Scotland. In 1815 he was chosen a
member of the Royal Academy of London. Among his
works are portraits of Sir Walter Scott, Lord Jeffrey,
and James Watt. The heads of his portraits are es
pecially admired. Died in 1823.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Raeder. See RADER.
Raemond. See REMOND.
Raepsaet, r&p'sSt, (JEAN JOSEPH,) a Belgian histo
rian, born in 1750. He sat in the corps Ifgislatif ol France
from 1803 to 1813. His chief work is " An Analysis of
the Origin and Progress of the Civil, Political, and Re
ligious Laws of the Belgians and Gauls." Died in 1832.
See CORNEUSSEN-, "Notice sur M. Raepsaet," 1836.
Raethel. See RATHEL.
Raffaelle or Raffaello. See RAPHAEL.
Raffaelli, raf-fa-el'lee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian advo
cate and jurist, born in Calabria in 1750. He succeeded
Beccaria in the chair of public law at Milan in 1801. His
chief work is "Nomotesia Penale," (5 vols., 1820-25.)
Died at Naples in 1826.
Raffaellino dal Colle. See COLLE, DAL.
Raffaellino del Garbo, raf-fa-el-lee'no del gaR'bo, a
painter, born at Florence in 1466. His style is said to
have degenerated in consequence of the haste with which
he worked after he began to be pressed with the care
of a family. Died in 1524.
Raffei, raf-fa'ee, (STEFANO,) an Italian antiquary, born
in Tuscany in 1712 ; died in 1788.
Raffeneau-Delile, rtf'no' deb-lei', ( ALIRE,) a French
botanist, born at Versailles in 1778. He was associated
with the savants who accompanied the expedition to
Egypt in 1798, and performed a scientific mission to the
United States in 1803. He wrote a "Flora of Egypt,"
and other works. Died at Montpellier in 1850.
Raffenel, rtf'nel', (ANNE JEAN BAPTISTF.,) a French
traveller, born at Versailles in 1809. He published
" Travels in Western Africa, comprising the Exploration
of the Senegal," (1846,) and a description of Soodan,
entitled " New Journey in the Country of the Negroes,"
(" Nouveau Voyage dans le Pays des Negres," 2 vols.,
1856.) Died in Madagascar in 1858.
Raffenel, (CLAUDE DENIS,) a French litterateur, born
in 1797 ; died at Athens in 1827.
Raffet, rt'fi', (DENIS AUGUSTE MARIE,) a French
designer and pninter, born in Paris in 1804. He pub
lished many lithographs of battles and other martial
scenes. Died in 1860.
Raffles, raf'felz, (THOMAS,) D.D., LL.D., an English
dissenting minister, born in London in 1788, was a
cousin of Sir Stamford Raffles. He became minister
of a Congregational church in Great George Street,
Liverpool, about 1812, and acquired a wide reputation
as a preacher. He continued to occupy that pulpit
about fifty years. He published a number of sermons
and lectures. Died in Liverpool in 1863.
See BALDWIN BROWN', " Life ofThomas Raffles," 1863.
Raffles, (Sir THOMAS STAMFORD,) an English natu
ralist and administrator, born at sea, off Jamaica, in
1781. He was appointed secretary of the government
of the East India Company at Pulo-Penang about 1806,
and became in 1811 lieutenant-governor of Java, to the
capture of which he had greatly contributed. He made
researches into the geography and natural history of
that island, and published a "History of Java," (2 vols.,
1817.) In 1818 he was appointed lieutenant-governor
at Bencoolen, in Sumatra, in the zoology of which he
made some discoveries. He made a large collection
of animals, plants, etc., many of which, with his papers
and drawings, were destroyed by fire on board of a ship,
(1824.) His loss was estimated at ,£20,000. He re
signed in 1824, and died in England in 1826.
See "Memoir of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles," by his wifei
1830: " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale :" "London Quarterly Re
view" for March, 1830; " Monthly Review" for August, 1818.
Rafmesque, rt'fe'nesk', (C. S.,) born near Constan
tinople, of French parents, in 1784, became professor of
botany and natural history at Transylvania University,
Lexington, Kentucky, and subsequently settled in Phila
delphia. He published a book of travels and several
botanical works. Died about 1840.
Raffort, rf'foR', (fi-riENNE,) a French painter, born
at Chalons-sur-Saone about 1805. He painted land
scapes, sea-ports, etc.
Rafh, rafn, (CARL CHRISTIAN,) a Danish antiquary,
distinguished as a lover of Icelandic literature, was
born in the island of Fiinen in 1796. He published
" Heroic Traditions of the North," (3 vols., 1825-30,)
"Nordlanda," (3 vols., 1829-30,) and "American An
tiquities," (" Antiquitates Americanae," 1837,) which
contains evidence that the Icelanders or Scandinavians
discovered America in the tenth century. He resided
at Copenhagen. Died in 1865.
See ERSI.EW. '• Udsigt over C. Rafn's Levnet," 1840, and " For-
fatter-Lexicon."
Raggi, rad'jee, (NICOLAS BERNARD,) a sculptor, born
at Carrara in 1791, worked at Paris. Among his works
are statues of Henry IV., " Bayard dying," and "Meta-
bus, King of the Volsci." Died in 1862.
Rag'laii,(jAMES HENRY FITZROY SOMERSET,) BARON,
an English general, born in 1788, was a younger son of
Henry, fifth Duke of Beaufort. His mother was a
daughter of Admiral Boscawen. He served as aide-de
camp to the Duke of Wellington in the Peninsula from
1809 to 1814, and at Waterloo, where he lost his right
arm. In 1819 he became military secretary to the Duke
of Wellington, whom he accompanied to the Congress
of Vienna and that of Verona, (1822.) He was appointed
master-general of the ordnance in 1852, and raised to
the peerage as Baron Raglan. Before this promotion
he was styled Lord Fitzroy Somerset. He commanded
the British army in the Crimean war, which began in
1854, and co-operated with the French at Alma in Sep
tember. His army suffered great disasters during the
long siege of Sebastopol, (1854-55,) for want of pro
visions, etc. He was painfully affected by the repulses
and losses of the allies, and died in the camp in Tune,
1855, leaving his title to his son, Richard Henry Fitzroy.
See E. TEXIER, " Les Homines de la Guerre d'Orient: Lord
Raglan," 1854; "Biographical Sketches," by H. MARTINEAU;
"London Quarterly Review" for January, 1857.
Ragnar, rag'nar, (or Ragnar Lodbrok — lod'brok,)
written also Reg'ner, a famous legendary hero of the
Northmen, is supposed to have been the son of King
Sigurd of Sweden, and to have lived about 800 A.:D.
Matthew Arnold calls him*
" No god, but of the hero troop the chief, —
Regner, who swept the northern sea with fleets,
And ruled o'er Denmark and the heathy isles:
A king whose fame then filled the vast of Heaven ;
Now time obscures it, and men's later deeds."
He is regarded as the most striking type of the ancient
vikings of the North. There is a legendary history of
him, entitled " History of King Ragnar Lodbrok and his
Sons," (" Saga af Ragnari Konungi LoSbrok ok Sonum
hans,") which is supposed to have been written in the
* In the poem entitled " Balder Dead."
. , , . .
€ as k; c as s; g, hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. (JST^See Explanations, p. 23.)
RAGNAROCK
1862
RAINS
fourteenth century, although it contains many poems of
an older date, belonging to the golden age of Skaklic
literature, — that is, about the tenth century. (For an
account of some of the principal events of the life of
Ragnar, the reader is referred to Thorpe's " Northern
Mythology," vol. i. pp. 108-113; see, also, the Intro
duction to Keyser's " Religion of the Northmen.")
Ragnarock. See LOKI.
Ragon, ri'goN', (F.,) a French historian, born about
1795. He published a "General History of Modern
Times," (3 vols., 1846,) and other works.
Ragotzky. See RAndczv.
Ragueau, rS'go', (FkANgoiS,) a French jurist, born
at Bourges ; died in 1605.
Raguenet, rSg'ni', (FRANCOIS,) a French priest and
litterateur, born at Rouen about 1660. He published a
" Life of Cromwell, "(1691,) " The Monuments of Rome,"
(1700,) and a " Life of Turenne," (1738.) Died in 1722.
Raguet, ri'gi', ? (Coxnv,) an American diplomatist
ai.d writer, born at Philadelphia in 1784, was appointed
in 1822 consul at Rio Janeiro. He was the author of a
treatise "On Currency and Banking," "Principles of
Free Trade," and other works. Died in 1842.
Ragusa, DUKE OF. See MARMONT.
Ragusa, ra-goo'sa, (GERONIMO,) a learned Jesuit,
born in Sicily in 1655; died about 1715.
Rahbek, ra'be'k, (KN'un LYNE,) a Danish author and
critic, born at Copenhagen in 1760. lie became pro
fessor of aesthetics in his native city in 1790. He wrote
dramas, tales, and lyric poems, and translated many
English svorks. Among his best works is "The Danish
Spectator," a periodical, (1791-1806.) He was a judi
cious and candid critic. His writings are said to have
exerted a happy influence on Danish literature and the
public taste. He resigned the chair of aesthetics in 1825.
Died in 1830.
See his Souvenirs, " Erindringer af mit Liv," 4 vols., 1824-29 : J.
P. MYNSTER, " Ved Ktatsraad Professor K. L. Rahbek's Jorde-
faerd," etc., 1830; KKEKEN, " Ktatsraad Professor og Ridder K. L.
Ralibek's," etc., 1838; ERSI.EW, " Forfatter- Lexicon ;" HOWITT,
"Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," vol. ii. ; " Foreign
Quarterly Review" for June, 1830, article " Danish and Norwegian
Literature ;" LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Rahl, rSl, (KARI,,) a historical painter, son of the
following, was born at Vienna in 1812.
Rahl, (KARI, HEINRICH,) a German engraver, born
near Heidelberg in 1779, was a member of the Academy
of Arts at Vienna. Among his master-pieces are prints
after Raphael's " Saint Margaret," Correggio's " Night,"
and the "Madonna"' of Perugino. Died in 1843.
Rahn, rin, (Joii\\\ HEINRICH,) a Swiss physician,
born at Zurich in 1749, was noted for his beneficence.
He published numerous works. Died in 1812.
See USTERI, " Denkrede auf Rahn," 1812.
Rahn, (JOHANN HKINRICH,) a Swiss historian, born
at Zurich in 1646. He wrote in German, besides other
works, a "History of Switzerland," (1690.) Died in
1708.
Rahu, ra'hoo, in the Hindoo mythology, a mighty
giant, the son of Kasyapa and Diti, (or, according to
some authorities, the son of Sinhika,) was supposed to
cause eclipses by swallowing the sun or moon. This
fable is doubtless astronomical in its origin : rdhu
signifies also the "ascending node."
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon," p. 282.
Raibolini. See FRANCIA.
Raidel, rl'dSl, [Lat. RAIDF/LTUS,] (GEORG MARTIN,)
a German savant, born at Nuremberg in 1702, wrote
a work " On the Geography of Ptolemy," etc., (" De
Ptolemaei Geographia ejusque Codicibus," 1737.) Died
in 1741.
See A. GOTZ, "Vita Raidelii," 1741.
Raikes, raks, (ROBERT,) an English philanthropist,
born at Gloucester in 1735 or 1736, was a printer, and
the editor of the " Gloucester Journal." He is noted as
the founder of Sunday-schools. In 1781 he employed
several women to teach a number of ragged children
found in the streets of Gloucester. Died in 1811.
Raim'ba-eh, (ABRAHAM,) an English line-engraver,
born in London in 1776, was a pupil of J. Hall. He
became an intimate friend of Wilkie, who employed him
to engrave a number of his paintings, among which are
"The Village Politicians," " The Rent-Day," (1816,) and
"Blindman's Buff." These engravings are highly prized.
Died in 1843. He left an autobiography, published in
1843, entitled "Memoirs and Recollections."
Raimond. See RAYMOND.
Raimoiidi, li-mon'dee, (ANNIBALE,) an Italian
mathematician, born at Verona in 1505. He published
a " Treatise on the Flow and Ebb of the Sea,"
("Trattato del Flusso e Reflusso del Mare," 1589.)
Raimoiidi, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian Ori
entalist, born at Cremona about 1540. He was director
of an establishment of Oriental typography at Rome,
and printed in Arabic the Gospels (1591) and Euclid.
(1594.) Died about 1610.
Raimoiidi, (MARCANTONIO,) an excellent Italian en
graver, born at Bologna about 1475, or, as some say, in
1488. He studied design under Raibolini called Francia.
He went to Rome about 1510, and formed a friendship
or acquaintance with Raphael, who employed him to
engrave some of his paintings. He engraved for that
master "The Death of Lucretin," "The Judgment of
Paris," "The Massacre of the Innocents," "Saint Ce
cilia," " The Last Supper," "Parnassus," "Saint Paul
preaching at Athens," and other works. lie was the
first Italian engraver who acquired great celebrity. He
was a correct designer, and rendered the outlines with
fidelity. When Rome was taken and pillaged by the
army of Constable Bourbon, in 1527, Raimoiidi lost his
property and removed to Bologna, where lie continued
until his death, which is variously dated 1534 and 1546.
One of his prints is dated 1539.
See VASAKI, " Lives of the Painters," etc.; DKI.ESRERT, "No
tice sur la Vie de M. A. Raimoiidi," 1853; N. HEI.LONI, "Vita di
M. Raimoiidi," 1815; MALVASIA, " Felsina Patrice ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Raimund, ri'moont, (FERDINAND,) a German litte
rateur, born at Vienna in 1791, published a number of
dramatic works and poems. Died in 1836.
Raiiialdi, ri-nal'dee, (CARLO,) an Italian architect,
born at Rome in 1611. He designed the old Acade
mic de France at Rome, the church of Saint Agnes, the
church of Santa Maria di Miracoli, and that of Santa
Maria del Monte Santo. The last two are on the Piazza
del Popolo at Rome. Died in 1691.
Rainaldi, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian Jesuit, born in
the march of Ancona in 1600. He published "Food
for the Soul," ("Cibo dell'Anima," 1637,) and other
works. Died in 1677.
Raiiialdi, (Giuoi.AMo,) an architect, born at Rome
in 1570, was the father of Carlo, noticed above. Among
his works were the ducal palace of Parma, and the
Palazzo Pamfili (or Pamphili) at Rome. Died in 1655.
See MII.IZIA, " Memorie degli Architetti."
Raiiialdi, (ODERIC.) See RINAI.DI.
Rainaud. See RAYNAUD.
Raiiie, ran, (JAMES,) an English antiquary, born at
Ovington, Yorkshire, in 1791, became rector of Meldon
in 1822. He published a "History of North Durham,"
(1830-52.) Died in 1858.
Raiiie, (MATTHEW,) an English scholar, born in 1760,
became preacher of Gray's Inn in 1809. Died in 1810.
Rainer, ri'ner, (JOSEPH JOHANN MICHAEL FRANZ
HIERONYMUS,) Archduke of Austria, and seventh son
of the emperor Leopold II., was born in 1783. He
became Viceroy of Austrian Italy in 1818. On the
breaking out of the insurrection at Milan in 1848, he
left Lombardy for the Southern Tyrol, where he died in
1853. He had married in 1820 Elizabeth, sister of
Charles Albert, King of Sardinia.
Raiiiolds, re'i/oldz, (JOHN,) an English theologian,
born near Exeter in 1549. He was professor of divinity
at Oxford, and favoured the Puritan doctrines. lie was
one of the persons who assisted in translating the Bible
into English by order of James I. Died in 1607.
Raiiiolds, (WILLIAM,) a brother of the preceding,
became a Fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1562. lie
was afterwards professor of Hebrew at Rheims, France.
Died in 1594.
Rains, (JAMES,) an American general, born in North
Carolina, graduated at West Point in 1827. He com-
1, e, T, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moonj
RAINSSANT
1863
RALEIGH
mantled a division of the army of General Bragg, when
he was killed at the battle of Stone River, which ended
Jaiiuary 2, 1863.
Rainssant, rax'sS.N', (PiERRE,) a French numis
matist, born at Rheims about 1640. He became keeper
of the royal cabinet of medals. Died in 1689.
Rais or Retz, de, deli riss, (GiLLEs de Laval — deh
It'vtK,) LORD, a Frencli baron, notorious for his prodi
gality and crimes, was born about 1406, and inherited a
great estate. He entered the army, and became a mar
shal of France about the age of twenty-three. He was
accused of sorcery and of sacrificing children in dia
bolical rites. He was executed in 1440.
See AKMAND GUERAUD, " Notice sur Gilles de Rais," 1855.
Raissoii, ri'soN', ( HORACE NAPOLEON,) a French
litterateur, born in Paris in 1798. He published a " His
tory of Napoleon," (10 vols., 1830,) and other works on
recent Frencli history. Died in 1854.
Raitch, ra'itch or rltch, a Servian historian, born
at Karlovitz in 1726. lie published a "History of
the Slavonians and Servians," (4 vols., 1795.) Died in
iSot.
Rakoczy, ra'kot-se, written also Racoczi and
Ragotzky, (FRANZ LEOPOLD,) Prince of Transylvania,
bom near Patak in 1676. He commanded the Hun
garian insurgents who revolted against Austria in 1703.
lie was defeated in a decisive action in 1708. Died in
exile at Rodosto in 1735.
See HORN, " Fr. Rakoc/.y," Leipsic, 1854.
Rale or Rasle, ral, (SEKASTIEN,) a French Jesuit and
missionary, born in Franche-Comte in 1658. He was
sent on a mission to the Indians of Canada in 1689, and
laboured nearly thirty years at Norridgevvock, on the
Kennebec River. He gained great influence over the
Indians, and, according to some authorities, instigated
them to hostile acts against the English colonists of
Massachusetts, who regarded him as their worst enemy.
He was killed by a party of English soldiers who sur
prised the village at Norridgevvock in 1724.
See CONVERS FRANCIS, "Life of Sebastian Rale," in SPARKS'S
'American Biography," vol. vii., new series.
Raleigh, raw'Ie, (CAKKW,) a son of Sir Walter, was
born in the Tower of London in 1604. He was educated
at Oxford. After the accession of Charles I. an act was
passed to " restore him in blood ;" but he failed to obtain
the paternal estate. He wrote a vindication of his father,
(1645.) and a "Brief Relation of Sir Walter Raleigh's
Troubles." In 1659 he was appointed Governor of
Jersey. Died in 1666.
Raleigh or Ralegh, (Sir WALTER,) a famous English
navigator, author, courtier, and comn ander, was born
at Hayes, in Devonshire, in 1552. He was a son of
Walter Raleigh, Esq., and Catherine Champernon, who
by a former marriage was the mother of Sir Humphrey
Gilbert. He studied for a short time at Oriel College,
Oxford, and in 1569 joined a company of volunteers,
with whom he fought for the Huguenots in France for
five years. He took part in several great battles of that
war. In 1580, as commander of a company, he served
with distinction against the Irish insurgents. He is
supposed to have gained the favour of Queen Elizabeth
by an act of gallantry, of which we have no evidence but
tradition. According to this tradition, the queen, in her
progress from the royal barge to the palace, came to a
spot where the ground was so wet that she hesitated.
Raleigh immediately covered the place with his richly-
embroidered cloak, on which she stepped with much
complacency. It is stated that he received a grant of
twelve thousand acres of forfeited land in Ireland soon
after he attracted the notice of the queen. One of his
biographers observes that "all the more important and
interesting transactions and occurrences of his life are
involved in obscurity or perplexed with doubt."
In 1584 he obtained a royal patent investing him with
ample powers to colonize and govern any territories he
might acquire in the unoccupied parts of North America.
An exploring party in his service discovered in 1584 a
region to which the queen gave the name of Virginia.
He sent out in 1585 a body of colonists who attempted
to settle on or near Roanoke Island, but failed, and re
turned before the end of 1586. He renewed the enter
prise in 1587 ; but this colony did not prosper, and those
colonists who escaped disease and famine were killed
by the natives. In 1589 he transferred his patent and
colonial privileges to a company of merchants. Accord
ing to some writers, he distinguished himself in several
contests with the Spanish Armada in 1588, and rendered
important services to the queen as a member of Parlia
ment. The introduction of the potato and tobacco into
Europe is generally attributed to him.
About 1590 he became intimate with the poet Spenser,
and married privately a daughter of Sir Nicholas Throg-
morton. She was a maid of honour to the queen, who
showed her resentment by confining Raleigh in the
Tower for several weeks. Being excluded from the
royal favour through his marriage, his ambitious and
adventurous spirit was attracted by a project for the
discovery and conquest of El Dorado, a fabled paradise
of gold-seekers, which was supposed to exist in South
America. He sailed from Plymouth with five vessels in
February, 1595, and ascended the Orinoco in boats about
sixty leagues, but his farther progress is said to have
been prevented by the sudden rise of the water. Having
returned to England before the end of 1595, lie published
a rather fabulous narrative, entitled "The Discovery of
the Large, Rich, and Beautiful Empire of Guiana."
Raleigh was restored to the royal favour soon after
his return, and served as rear-admiral at the capture
of Cadiz, in 1596, to which his skill greatly contributed.
He had the chief command of the fleet which took Fayal
in 1597. He was appointed Captain of the Guard and
Governor of Jersey about 1597. It is stated by some of
his biographers that he received large sums of money
from the condemned partisans of the Earl of Essex, who
bribed him to intercede for them with the queen. The
death of Elizabeth terminated the prosperity of Raleigh,
who had rendered himself very unpopular by his enmity
to Essex and perhaps by his habitual haughty demeanour.
Ft appears that James I. was prejudiced against him by
the insinuations of his rival Cecil. Accused of com
plicity in Lord Cobham's treason, Sir Walter was
arrested in July, 1602, and convicted, without sufficient
proof, in 1603. During his trial the public sentiment
was converted from hostility to warm sympathy and
admiration.
In expectation of a speedy death, he wrote to his wife
an affecting letter, which is praised by William Penn.
Near the close of it he writes thus : " I can say no
more : Time and Death call me away. The everlasting
God, powerful, infinite, and inscrutable, God Almighty,
who is goodness itself, the true light and life, keep thee
and thine, have mercy on me, and send us to meet in his
glorious kingdom." He was, however, reprieved, and
confined in the Tower, where he remained thirteen years
and wrote his chief work, "The History of the World,"
(from the creation to the year 150 B.C.) "The Greek
and Roman story," says Hallam, " is told more fully and
exactly than by any earlier English writer, and with a
plain eloquence which has given this book a classical
reputation in our language." Another eminent critic
(Hume) pronounces Raleigh "the best model of our
ancient style." He wrote several short poems, which are
admired.
In 1615 he obtained his release by bribery and by an
offer to open a mine of gold in Guiana. He conducted
a fleet of thirteen vessels to Guiana in 1617, and sent an
exploring party up the Orinoco. They encountered at
Saint Thomas a body of Spaniards, in a fight with whom
Raleigh's son Walter was killed ; but their search for
the gold-mine was unsuccessful. Raleigh sailed for New
foundland, intending to refit and to obtain provisions ;
but he was forced by his mutinous crew to return to
England, where he arrived in July, 1618. He was soon
after arrested, and a demand was made by the Spanish
court that he should be punished for the attack on Saint
Thomas. The king at that time courted the alliance of
the Spanish monarch, and sacrificed the required victim
to promote his policy. He resolved to execute the
sentence which had been passed on him in 1603, and
for which pardon had never been granted. Raleigh was
beheaded in October, 1618. His stature was tall, his
features handsome, and his presence imposing. His
as K; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
RALPH
1864
RAM EL
moral character seems to have been deformed by several
vices. Impartial writers agree that trufti and probity
were not always his guiding principles.
"The name of Sir Walter Raleigh," says the " Edin
1'iirgh Review," "is unquestionably one of the most
renowned and attractive, and, in some respects, the most
remarkable, in English story. . . . His mind presents a
surprising union of strength and versatility, of intellect
ual and practical power, and of an observing, reflective,
and philosophical with a highly imaginative or poetical
temperament."
An able French critic and geographer, M. Walckenaer,
defends Raleigh from the charge of falsehood and ex
aggeration : "The details which he has published on
his voyage [to Guiana in 1595] include nothing which
has not been confirmed by subsequent explorers : they
are definite, exact, important, and do honour to his
sagacity as well as his truthfulness."
See MACVEV NAPIER, "Lord Bacon and Sir Waller Raleigh,"
1853; EDWARD EDWARDS, "Life of Raleigh," 1868 : ARTHUR CAY-
I.KV, " Life of Sir W. Raleigh," 1805 ; W. Oi.ovs, " Life of Sir W.
Rileigh," 1740; MRS. A. T. THOMSON, "Memoirs of the Life of Sir
W. Raleigh," 1830; P. FRASER TYTLER, " Life of S;r W. Raleigh,"
etc., 1833; J. HARROW, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen
Elizabeth's Reign," 184=;; CAMPBELL, "Lives of the British Ad
mirals;" DE THOU, " Histoire universelle ;" HUME, "History of
England," particularly chaps, xlv. and xlviii. ; GARDINER, " History
of England from 1603 to 1616," chap. ii. ; " Edinburgh Review"
for April, 1840; " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1832; SOUTHKV,
"Lives of British Admirals," vol. iv., 1837.
Ralph OF ESCURES, an English prelate, who was
elected Archbishop of Canterbury in 1114. He had a
high reputation for learning and virtue. Died in 1122.
See W. F. HOOK, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
vol. ii. chap. iv.
Ralph, (JAMES,) an English pamphleteer and poetas
ter, born at Philadelphia. He emigrated to England
in 1725 in company with Benjamin Franklin, and pub
lished a poem on "Night" in 1728, which was ridiculed
by Pope in these lines of the " Dunciad :"
"Silence, ye wolves, while Ralph to Cynthia howls
And makes night hideous : answer him, ye owls !"
He afterwards wrote several dramas and political pam
phlets. His continuation of Guthrie's "History of
England" (2 vols., 1744-46) is a work of some value.
Died in 1762.
Ram. See RAMA.
Ram, de, deh roN, (PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER,) a
Belgian historian, born at Louvain in 1804, published " Sy-
nodicon Belgicnm," (4 vols., 1828-58,) and other works.
Rama, ra'ma, often called Ram (rtm) by the modern
Hindoos, [a Sanscrit word signifying " pleasing," "dear,"
"beloved," from the verb ram, to "play,] called also
Rama Chandra, (chiin'dra,) in the Hindoo mythology,
the name of the seventh avatar of Vishnu, who on this
occasion appeared as a great hero and warrior. It is
generally supposed that, with the exception of Krishna,
this is the most glorious of all the manifestations of the
preserving deity. The great Hindoo epic entitled Ra-
mayana (rt-ma'ya-na) is chiefly occupied with the ad
ventures and exploits of Rama and his famous minister
Hanuman, the monkey king. The consort of Rama was
Sita, (see'tS,) eminent for her purity and other virtues.
Her deliverance from the power of the great giant Ra-
vana, and the triumphant issue of the ordeal by fire, by
which her perfect virtue was completely established, form
perhaps the most interesting portion of the great poem
or romance above named. They are also among the
most popular subjects for pictures among the Hindoos.
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon."
Ramage, ram'ej, (ADAM,) a distinguished mechani
cian, born in Scotland in 1770, settled in America. He
was the inventor of a printing-press called by his name.
Died in 1850.
Ramanuja or Ramanoudja, ra-ma-noo'ja, a Hindoo
philosopher, a votary of Vishnu and adversary of Bood-
dhism. He is supposed to have lived in the tenth century.
Ramayana. See RAMA, and VALMIKI.
Ramazzini, ra-mat-see'nee, (BERNARDO or BERNAR
DINO,) an eminent Italian physician, born at Carpi in
1633. He became professor of medicine at Modena
about 1680, and removed to Padua in 1700. He ob
tained the first chair of medicine at Padua in 1708. lie
wrote, besides other works, a popular treatise " On the
Diseases of Artisans," (" De Morbis Artificum," 1701,)
which was often reprinted, and was translated into
French by Fourcroy. Died in 1714.
See ETTMULT.ER, "Viede B. Ramazzini," 1711; a "Memoir of
Ramazzini," prefixed to his collected works (" Opera Omnia") by
his nephew, BART. RAMAZZINI, London, 1716; FABRONI, " Vita;
Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" NICERON, "Memoires."
Rambaldi, ram-bal'dee, (CARLO,) an Italian painter
of history, born at Bologna in 1680 ; died in 1717.
Ramberg, ram'beRC, (JOHANN HEINKICII,) a German
painter and engraver, born at Hanover in 1763, studied
in London under Sir Joshua Reynolds. He was after
wards appointed court painter at Hanover. He excelled
in caricature, and produced, among »ther works, illus
trations of "Reineke Fuchs." Died in 1840.
Ram'bha' or Rem'bha', .[ modern Hindoo pron.
riimb'ha',1 sometimes incorrectly written Rhemba, [ety
mology obscure,] the name, in the Hindoo mythology,
of a famous Apsara, produced by the churning of the
ocean. (See APSARA and KUKMA.) Rambha is some
times identified with Lakshmi.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon. V
Rambouillet, de, deh rox'boo'y.V, (CATHERINE de
Vivomie — deh ve'von',) MARQUISE, a French lady,
born in 1588, became rnistress of the Hotel Rambouillet,
in which she presided over a celebrated reunion of the
elite of Paris, the first which in France united the aris
tocracy of rank and of genius in one circle. Her house
was frequented by Malherbe, La Rochefoucauld, Voiture,
Balzac, Corneille, and many other literati of successive
generations. The court over which she presided was
recognized as the arbiter of taste and propriety in
language, manners, etc. Died in 1665. Her daughter,
JULIA D'ANGENNKS, (d&N'/hen',) was celebrated for
her beauty and accomplishments. She was married to
the Duke of Montausier. (See MONTAUSIKK.)
See " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Rambour, roN'boon', (.\HKAHAM,) a French Prot
estant minister, born at Sedan about 1590. He became
professor of Hebrew at Sedan in 1620, and published
several works. Died in 1651.
Rambuteau.de, deh rdN'lw'to', (CLAUDE PHIUHERT
Barthelot — biiu'lo',) COUNT, a French administrator,
born at Charnay in 1781. He was prefect of the depart
ment of Seine from 1833 to 1848. „
Rameau, rS'mo', (JEAN PHILIPPE,) a celebrated
French composer and writer on music, was born at
Dijon in October, 1683. He received his first lessons
in music from his father, and visited Milan in 1701.
Having joined a company of itinerant actors or singers,
he performed on the violin in various cities of France.
He became organist of the cathedral of Clermont (An
vergne) about 1718, and settled in Paris in 1722. He
established his reputation as a theorist by a " Treatise
on Harmony," (1722,) and "New System of Theoretic
Music," (1726,) in which he developed his theory of
basse fondamentale. In 1733 he composed the music
of the opera " Hippolyte et Aricie," which was very
successful and produced a great excitement in the
musical world. The partisans of Lulli were indignant
at the innovations of Rameau. He produced in 1737
the opera of " Castor and Pollux," which is called his
master-piece. Among his numerous operas are " Dar-
danus," (1739,) and "Zoroaster," (1749.) Died in 1764.
SeeMARET, "filoge historicjue de Rameau," 1766; Friris, " I?io»
graphic Universelle des Musiciens :" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Ramee, rit'ma', (DANIEL,) an architect, born at Ham
burg in 1806, was a son of Joseph Jacques, noticed below.
He restored the cathedrals of Noyon, Senlis, and Beau-
vais. He published a " Manual of the History of Archi
tecture," (2 vols., 1843,) and other works.
Ramee, (JOSEPH JACQUES,) a French architect, born
at Charlemont in 1764. He designed the Exchange of
Hamburg, and Union College, at Schenectady, in the
United States. Died near Noyon in 1842.
Ramee, La. See RAM us.
Ramel. See NOGARET, DE, (JACQUES.)
Ramel, rft'mel', ([E\N PIERRE,) a French general,
born at Cahors in 1768, was assassinated in August, 1815,
at Toulouse, of which he was then the commandant.
S,e, T, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, it, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; goo 1; moor.;
RAMELLI
1865
RAMSDEN
Ram'elli, rd-mel'lee, (AGOSTINO,) an Italian mecha
nician, born at Milan about 1530, served as engineer in
the army of Charles V. Died in 1590.
Ramelli, (FELICE,) an Italian priest and. painter in
miniature, born in Piedmont in 1666. He wofkecl at
Rome. Died in 1740.
Ramenghi. See BAGXACAVALLO.
Ram'e-ses or Rarn'ses, written also Ramesses,
a name common to several kings of ancient Egypt.
RAMESES III. became king about 1550 B.C., and
reigned nearly sixty years. He was succeeded by his
son Rameses, (also called Amenophis II.,) who, ac
cording to some historians, was the father of Rameses
the Great, otherwise called Sesostjis.
See BUNSEN, " Egypt's Place in Universal History."
Raniey, rl'mi', (CLAUDE,) a French sculptor, born
at Dijon in 1754. He gained the grand prize in 1782.
Among his works are statues of Napoleon and Riche
lieu. Died in Paris in 1838. His son, ETIENNE JULES,
born in 1796, was also a successful sculptor. He adorned
the Louvre with several works, and was admitted into
the Institute in 1829. Died in 1852.
Ramirez, ra-mee'r£th, (JosE,) a Spanish painter, born
at Valencia in 1624; died in 1692.
Ramiro (ra-mee'ro) I., King of Asturias, was a son
of Hermudez. • He began to reign in 842 A.D., and
defeated the Normans in 843. Died in 850.
Ramiro H., King of Asturias and Leon, began to
reign about 930 A.D. He defeated a large army of the
caliph Abderrahrnan III. in 939 A.D. on the plain of
Simancas. Died in 950 A.D.
Ramler, ram'ler, (KARL WILHELM.) a German poet,
born at Kolberg, on the Baltic Sea, in 1725. He was for
many years professor of belles-lettres at Berlin. His
works are chiefly lyrics, and are remarkable for elegance
of language. His "Death of Jesus," one of his most
esteemed pieces, was set trt music by Graun. He also
translated Horace, Martial, Catullus, and Sappho's odes.
Died in Berlin in 1798.
See HKINSIUS, " Biographische Sliizze Ramlers," 1798; LONG-
FEU.ITW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" GKRVINU<=, "Geschichte
tier Deutschen Dichtung:" HIRSCHINO, " Historisch-literarisches
HaiHibuch ;" " Xonvelie Biographic Ge'nerale."
Ram'mo-kun'Roy, a Hindoo reformer and linguist,
was born in Bengal about 1776. His parents were Brah-
mans of high rank. He was master of Sanscrit, Persian,
Arabic, Hindostanee, and English. At an early age he
renounced the Brahmanical religion. He believed in
Christ as a divine teacher, but held Arian or Unitarian
views. He wrote several works against the prevailing
superstitions of India, and published in 1820 " The
Precepts of Jesus the Guide to Peace and Happiness,"
which consists of selections from the New Testament.
In 1830 he was sent by the King of Delhi as ambas
sador to London. Died near Bristol in 1833.
See LANT CARPENTER, " Review of the Labours. Opinions, and
Character of Rainmohnn Roy ;" " Last Days in England of the
Rajah Rammohiin Roy," edited by MARY CARPENTER, London,
1867; " Blackwood's Magazine" for November, iSi8.
Ramond de Carbonnieres, rt'mox' deh kf rt'bo'-
ne-aiK/, (Louis FKAXC.OIS, ) BAROX, a distinguished
French savant and politician, born at Strasburg in 1755.
He was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791,
and sat in the corps legislatif from iSoo to 1806. He
wrote several able scientific and descriptive works,
among which is "Travels in the Pyrenees," (1801,)
which treats of geology, etc. Died in 1827. Cuvier
wrote a eulogy on him.
See, also, QUERARD, " La France Litteraire."
Ramondini, ra-mon-dee'nee, (VIXCEXZO,) an Italian
naturalist, born at Messina in 1758, was professor at
Naples. Died in 1811.
Ramorino. See REMOKINO.
Ramos, ra'mos, (ENRIQUE,) a Spanish writer, born
at Alicante in 1738, was an officer of the army. He
wrote successful tragedies, named "Guzman," (1780,)
and '• Pelagius" or " Pelayo," (1784.) Died in 1801.
Rampalle, rox'pfl', (ST.,) a French poet, whom Boi-
leau, in his "Art Poetique,'' mentions among authors
who were no longer read in his time. Died about 1660.
Rampeii, ram'pen, (HENDRIK,) a Flemish theologian,
born at Hni in 1572 ; died at Louvain in 1641.
Rampinelli, ram-pe-nel'lee, (RAMIRO,) an Italian
mathematician, born at Brescia in 1697 ; died at Milan
in 1759-
Rampon, rSx'poN', (ANTOINE GUII.LAUME,) COUNT,
a French general, born at Saint-Fortunat (Ardeche) in
1759. He distinguished himself as general of brigade
at Montenotte, Roveredo, and Arcola, (1796.) For his
services at the battle of the Pyramids and in Syria he
was made general of division in 1800. Died in 1842.
Ramsay, ram'ze, (ALEXANDER,) born in England
about 1760, emigrated to America, where he died in
1824. He published an " Anatomy of the Heart, Brain,
etc.," (1813.)
Ramsay, ram'ze, (ALLAN,) a distinguished Scottish
poet, born of poor parents in Lanarkshire in 1685. He
was successively a barber and bookseller in Edinburgh.
He published in 1721 a volume of poems, which were
well received. His principal work is a pastoral poem
called "The Gentle Shepherd," (1729,) which has been
greatly admired. Died in 1758.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
CAMPBELL, "Specimens of British Poets;" AI.LIBONE, "Dictionary
of Authors;" "Monthly Review" for March, 1762.
Ramsay, (ALLAN,) a portrait-painter, a son of the
preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1713. He became
principal painter to George III. in 1767, and surpassed
most of his British contemporaries in his art. He wrote
several political tracts, and visited Rome four times.
On his return from his last journey he died at Dover, in
1784, leaving a son, who became a general in the army.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Ramsay, [Fr. pron. rSx'zi',] (ANDREW MICHAEL,)
called CHEVALIER RAMSAY, was born at Ayr, in Scot
land, in 1686. He was converted by Fen el on from
skepticism to Roman Catholicism about 1709, and be
came tutor to the Prince de Turenne. He acquired
distinction by his writings, which are in French and
are admired for purity of style. His chief works are
"Travels of Cyrus," ("Voyages de Cyrus," 1727,) which
is an imitation of Fenelon's " Telemachus," a valuable
"Life of Fenelon," (1723,) and a "Life of Turenne,"
(1735.) Died in France in 1743.
See CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
" Biographia Britannica."
Ramsay, ram'ze, (DAVID,) an American historian and
physician, born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in
1749. Having graduated in 1765 at Princeton College,
he studied medicine in Philadelphia under Dr. Rush.
He soon after removed to Charleston, and became a
member of the legislature of South Carolina, and in 1782
was elected to the Continental Congress. He published
in 1785 his "History of the Revolution in South Caro
lina," which was followed in 1790 by the "History of
the American Revolution." His "Life of Washington"
appeared in 1801. He also wrote a "Eulogium on Dr.
Rush," and other works on various subjects. lie was
mortally wounded by a lunatic in the streets of Charles
ton in 1815. His work entitled "Universal History
Americanized" was published after his death. He wrote
" Memoirs of Martha Laurens Ramsay."
See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iii. ; ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Ramsay, (EDWARD BAXNERMAN,) a Scottish writer,
born about 1793. He became an Episcopal minister in
Edinburgh in 1830. Among his works are "Reminis
cences of Scottish Life and Character," (1857,) and
"Thomas Chalmers, D.D., a Biographical Notice,"
(1867.)
Ramsay, (GEORGE and JAMES.) See DALHOUSIK.
Ramsay, ([AMES,) a clergyman, born in Aberdeen-
shire, Scotland, in 1733. He published Sermons, and
other works. Died in 1789.
Ramsay, (WILLIAM.) an eminent classical scholar,
born at Edinburgh in 1806. He became professor of
humanity in the University of Glasgow in 1831, and
published, besides other works, a "Manual of Roman
Antiquities," (1851.) He was one of the principal con
tributors to Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Biography." Died in 1865.
Rams'den, ( JESSE,) an eminent English optician and
maker of astronomical instruments, was born near
e as k; 9 as s; | hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (33P"See Explanations, p. 23.)
RAMSES
1866
RANDOLPH
Halifax, Yorkshire, in 1735. He settled in London
about 1755, married a daughter of Mr. Dollond, and
became master of a manufactory of instruments about
1764. He improved the sextant, and invented a dividing
machine for the graduation of instruments, for which he
received a premium of six hundred and fifteen pounds
from the board of longitude in 1777. Among his re
markable productions were telescopes erected at the
Observatories of Blenheim, Paris, Gotha, and Dublin.
He improved the theodolite, equatorial, micrometer,
barometer, etc. lie was elected Fellow of the Royal
Society in 1786. Died at Brighton in 1800.
See THOMSON, "History of the Royal Society;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Ramses. See RAMF.SES.
Ranius, rt'mils', (JOSEPH MARIUS,) a French sculp
tor, born at Aix in 1805. He obtained a first medal in
1839. His works are praised for elevation of style.
Ranius, rSt'miis', (PKTKR,) or Pierre de la Ra-
mee, pe-aiR' deh It r&'ma', a French philosopher and
classical scholar, born in Vermandois in 1515, or, as
others say, in 1502. He was a son of poor parents,
who employed him to tend sheep in his boyhood.
Prompted by a thirst of knowledge, he ran away from
home and entered the College of Navarre, in Paris, as
a servant. He showed his independence of mind at
college by writing a thesis to prove that Aristotle was
not infallible. He incurred much persecution from the
partisans of Aristotle, and was accused of impiety. In
1543 he published a "Treatise on Logic," which ob
tained great success. He was appointed by the king
professor of philosophy and eloquence in the College of
France in 1551. About 1562 he avowed his attachment
to the Reformed religion. He published many works
on grammar, mathematics, philosophy, theology, etc.,
among which is " Dialectiqne," (1555.) His disciples,
called Ramists, were numerous in France and L'ngland.
He perished in the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, at
Paris, in 1572. He is called the precursor of Descartes.
See WADDINGTON, "Ranius, sa Vie, ses ficrits et ses Opinions,"
1855 : LKNTZ, " Historin P. Rami," 1713 ; TKNNKMANN, "Geschichte
der 1'hilnsophie;" BKEITHAUPT, " Dissertatio de tribtis Logicas
Restanratoribus, Ramo. Verulaniio et Cartesio," 1712; E. SAISSKT,
" Les Precurseurs de Descartes," 1862; BAYI.E, "Historical and
Critical Dictionary ;" NICKKON, " Me'moires ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Ramusio, ra-moo'se-o, or Rannusio, ran-noo'se-o,
(GlAMBATTlSTA,) an Italian compiler and translator,
was born at Treviso in 1485. He was for many years
secretary to the Venetian Council of Ten. He pub
lished a valuable collection of narratives of voyages and
discoveries made in ancient and modern times, entitled
"Collection of Navigations and Journeys," ("Raccolta
di Navigazioni e Viaggi," 3 vols., 1550-59.) He trans
lated into Italian those narratives which were written in
other languages, and inserted some prefaces and dis
courses written by himself. Died in 1557.
See NICERON, " Me'moires ;" TIRABOSCHI, "Storia della Lettera-
tura Itali.ina ;" DE THOU, " filches."
Ran. See CEom.
Ranc, r6\, (JEAN,) a French painter, born at Mont-
pellier in 1674. He was patronized by Philip V. of
Spain. Died at Madrid in 1735.
Ranee, de, deh rS.x'sa', (ARMANI) JEAN le Bouthil-
lier — leh boo'te'ye-i',) a French abbe, born in Paris in
1626, was noted as the reformer ot the monks of La
Trappe. He subjected them to the practice of great
austerities and the endurance of extreme privations.
Died in 1700.
See LE NAIN r>E TII.LEMONT, "Vie de Ranee," 1719; MARSOL-
LIER, ''Vie de 1'Abbe de Ranee," 1703 ; CHATEAUBRIAND, "Vie de
Ranee," 1844; CHARLES BUTLER, "Lives of A. J. le Bouthillier,
Thomas a Kempis," etc.
Ranchin, rfiN'shaN', (FRANgois,) a French physician,
born at Montpellier in 1564 ; died in 1641.
Ranconet, de, deh roN'ko'ni', (AiMAR,) a learned
French jurist, born at Periguenx about 1498, was a
Greek and Latin scholar. He wrote " Treasure of the
French Language," (" Tresor de la Langue Frai^aise,"
1606.) Died at Paris in 1559.
Randa, ran'da, (ANTONIO,) an Italian painter, born
at Bologna, painted sacred history. Died in 1650.
Raii'dall, (JOHN,) an English divine, born in Bucks.
He was chosen a Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, in
1587, after which he preached in London. He pub
lished Sermons and other works. Died in 1622.
Ran'dolph, (EDMUND,) a son of John Randolph,
(who left the country with Lord Dunmore at the breaking
out of the Revolution,) was elected Governor of Virginia
in 1786, and was a member of the Convention which
formed the Federal Constitution in 1787. In 1789 he was
appointed attorney-general. lie was a political friend
ot Jefferson, whom he succeeded as secretary of state in
January, 1794. Having been accused of bribery and a
corrupt intrigue on the evidence of an intercepted de
spatch from Fauchet, the P'rench envoy, he resigned in
August, 1795, and published a vindication of his course.
Died in 1813.
Randolph, (GEORGE W.,) an American politician,
born in King George county, Virginia, about 1812, was a
son of Governor Thomas M. Randolph. He was a
lawyer before the civil war, took arms against the Union
in 1861, and became a brigadier-general. He was secre
tary of war of the Confederate States from March to
November, 1862. Died in 1867.
Raii'dolph, (Joi-iN,) an English prelate, born in 1749,
was a son of Thomas, (1701-83.) He became Bishop
of Oxford in 1799, of Bangor in 1807, and of London
(or York) in 1809. Died in 1813.
Randolph, ( JOHN,) OF ROANOKE, an American orator,
born at Cawsons, in Chesterfield county, Virginia, in
[tine, 1773, was a son of John Randolph. He claimed to
be a descendant of Pocahontas the Indian princess. He
studied at Princeton and Columbia College, New York,
for short periods. In 1799 he was elected a member of
Congress to represent the Charlotte district, lie was
a Democrat, a partisan of State rights, and a political
friend of Jefferson. He was re-elected many times to
Congress, and gained a high reputation as a debater.
About the end of 1804 he was appointed chief manager
to conduct the trial of [uclge Chase, who was impeached
before the Senate. He became estranged from Jefferson
about 1806, separated from his political associates, tried
to defeat the election of Madison, and opposed the war
of 1812. He was defeated at the next election, (1813,)
but was again elected in 1814 or 1815. He opposed the
charter of the United States Bank in 1816. In a letter
dated September, 1818. he says, " When I speak of my
country, I mean the commonwealth of Virginia." He
spoke against the Missouri Compromise bill of 1820,
because it prohibited the extension of slavery north of
the line 36° 30'. At the same time he stigmatized the
Northern members who voted for it as "dough-faces,"
a term which has since come into general use in the
United States. He was elected a Senator of the United
States in December, 1824,10 fill a vacancy for two years.
In a speech against the President in 1826, he insulted
Mr. Clay by allusion to a "combination of the Puritan
with the blackleg." His apologist Garland admits that
"he indulged in language of the grossest personal in
sult." He was challenged by Mr. Clay, and a duel ensued.
Randolph's pistol went off before the word, Clay fired
without effect, and his adversary then threw away his
fire. He was defeated in the election of Senator in 1827.
In a letter dated May 27, 1828, he wrote, "The country
is ruined, thanks to Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Ritchie." He
supported General Jackson for the Presidency in 1828,
and was appointed minister to Russia in 1830. He re
turned home, in very feeble health, in the autumn of 1831.
He sympathized with the nullifiers of South Carolina,
and in December, 1832, denounced the proclamation of
President Jackson, which he called "the ferocious and
bloodthirsty proclamation of our Djezzar Pacha." He
died, in 1833, in Philadelphia, to which he went to take
passage for Europe. He was never married. He owned
about three hundred slaves, whom he manumitted by his
last will. In 1803, as chairman of a committee of Con
gress, he reported against the introduction of slaves into
Indiana, as not calculated to promote the prosperity of
the territory. He was a man of decided genius, and was
distinguished for his ready wit, which, joined to his
mastery of the weapons of sarcasm and invective, ren
dered him a formidable opponent in debate. " He was
• ei i> °> u> y» long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; me"t; n6t; good; moon;
RANDOLPH
1867
RAOUL
like an Tshmaelite," says Garland, — " his hand against
every man, and every man's hand against him."
See HUGH A. GARLAND, "Life of John Randolph," 2 vols..
1850; JAMES PARTON, "Famous Americans of Recent Times,'
1867 ; '" National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol
iv. ; " Jvlinburgh Review" for October, 1807; "North American
Review" for July, 1866.
Randolph, (PEYTON,) an American jurist and states
man, born in Virginia in 1723, was first president of
the American Congress which met in 1774. He was
re-elected president of that body in May, 1775. Died
in Philadelphia, October, 1775.
Randolph, (Sir THOMAS,) an able British diploma
tist, born in Kent about 1525. He performed many
missions to Scotland, France, and Russia in the reign
of Elizabeth, and was an adept in political intrigues.
He married a sister of Walsingham. Died in 1590.
His Letters, which are of great historical importance,
are preserved in the British Museum, and are largely
quoted by Froude in his " History of England."
Randolph, (THOMAS,) an English poet, born in
Northamptonshire in 1605. On leaving college he be
came a resident of London and a friend or protege of
Ben Jonson. He wrote, besides other poems, several
dramas, among which is " The Muses' Looking-Glass,"
(1638.) His habits were dissipated. Died in 1634.
See " Retrospective Review," vol. vi., (1822.)
Randolph, (THOMAS,) an English theologian, born
at Canterbury in 1701. He became professor of divinity
at Oxford in 1768. He published several works on
theology, among which is "Christian Faith," (1744.)
Died in 1783.
Randon, r6x'd6N', (CHARLES JOSEPH,) Comte de
Pullv, a French general, born in Paris in 1751 ; died
in 1832.
Randon, (JACQUES Louis CESAR AI.EXANDRE, )
COUNT, a French general, born at Grenoble in I79>
He became a colonel in 1838, served in Algeria, and
obtained the rank of general of division in 1847. HC
was appointed minister of war in January. 1851, and
Governor-General of Algeria in December of that year.
In 1856 he was made a marshal of France. He was
minister of war from 1859 to 1867. Died in 1871.
Randon-Dulauloy, rftx'dAx' dii'lo'lwa', (CHARLES
FRANCOIS,) COUNT, a French general, born at Laon in
1764. As general of division, he distinguished himself
at Eylau, Friedland, Lutzen, and Dresden. Died in 1832.
Rangabe. See Rizo RANT. USE.
Ranieri, ra-ne-a'ree, (Avroxio,) an Italian writer,
born at Naples in 1806. He wrote " Ginevra," a tale,
(1838,) and a "History of Italy from Theodosius to
Charlemagne," (1841.)
Ranieri-Biscia. ra-ne-a'ree bee'sha. (LuiGi,) an Ital
ian poet, born in Tuscany in 1744. He wrote a poem
" On the Cultivation of Anise," (1772,) and other works.
Died about 1824.
Rank, rank, (JOSEPH,) a German writer of tales, born
near Xeumark, Bohemia, in 1815. He wrote, besides
other works, " Aus dem Boehmerwalde," (3 vols., 1851,)
and " Florian," (1853.)
Raiike, rank'eh, (FRIEDRICH HEIXKICH,) a distin
guished Protestant theologian and preacher, brother of
the historian Leopold, was born in 1707. He became
professor of dogmatics at Erlangen in 1840.
Ranke, (KARL FF.RDINAXD,) a brother of the pre
ceding, was born in 1802. He published several
educational and philological works.
Ranke, (LEOPOLD.) one of the most eminent German
historians of recent times, was born at Wiehe, in Thurin-
gia, in 1795. He published in 1824 a "History of the
Roman and German People from 1494 to 1535, "and was
appointed the following year professor-extraordinary of
history at Berlin. To this succeeded his " Princes and
Nations of Southern Europe in the Sixteenth and Seven
teenth Centuries," (1827.) "The Servian Revolution,"
(1829,) and "The Conspiracy against Venice in 1688,"
(1831.) His "Popes of Rome, their Church and State
in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," (3 vols.,
1834,) and "German History during the Reformation,"
(5 vols., 1839-43,) are among his most popular works,
and have become widely known by the admirable trans
lations of Mrs. Austin. Besides the above-named, he
published "Nine Books of Prussian History," (3 vols.,
1847,) which has been translated by Sir Alexander and
Lady Duff Gordon, a " History of France in the Six
teenth and Seventeenth Centuries," (1852,) and other
similar works. Ranke was appointed historiographer
of Prussia in 1841. His " History of the Popes" is
highly commended by Macaulay.
See MACAULAY'S review of {lie same, first published in the
"Edinburgh Review" tor October, 1840; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generate ;" BROCXHAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" "Foreign
Quarterly Review" for October, 1840.
Rankine, rank'in, ( WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORX, )
F. R.S., a British civil engineer, distinguished as a
writer on heat, elasticity, mechanics, etc. He became
professor of civil engineering and mechanics at Glas
gow about 1855. Among his works are a "Manual of
Applied Mechanics," (1858,) and "On Energetics."
Rannequin, rtn'neh-kin, Reii'kin, or Rennequiii,
(S\VALM,) a hydraulic engineer, born at Liege in 1644.
He constructed the machine of Marly, near Versailles,
in France. Died in 1708.
Ran'som, (THOMAS EDWARD GREENFIELD,) a brave
and skilful American general, born at Norwich, Ver
mont, in November, 1834. He was a civil engineer in
Illinois before the civil war. In July, 1861, he became
a lieutenant-colonel, and in February, 1862, he was sc>
verely wounded at Fort Donelson. He commanded a
regiment at Shiloh in April, 1862, obtained the rank of
brigadier-general in January, 1863, and served under
General Banks in the Red River expedition. He was
disabled by a wound at Sabine Cross-Roads, Louisiana,
in April, 1864. He joined the army of Sherman after
his wound had healed, and took command of a division
or corps just before the capture of Atlanta, (September 2.)
He died ^t Rome, Georgia, in October, 1864.
See TENXEV. "Military History of the Rebellion," p. 793;
" Sherman and his Campaigns," by COLONELS BOWMAN and IRWIN.
Ransonnette, rSx'so'net', (CHARLES NICOLAS,) a
French engraver, born in Paris in 1797. He engraved
plates for several books of travel.
Rantoul, ran'tool, (ROBERT,) a distinguished states
man of the Democratic party, was born in Beverly,
Massachusetts, in 1805. He studied law, was admitted
to the bar in 1827, and was elected in 1834 to the legis
lature, in which he advocated the abolition of capital
punishment. In 1845 he was appointed a district attor
ney of the United States by the President, and in 1851
succeeded Daniel Webster as Senator of the United
States for a short term. Having avowed himself a
decided opponent of the extension of slavery, he was
elected to Congress by the united votes of the Demo-
rats and Free-Soilers. Died in August, 1852.
See " Memoir" prefixed tn a volume of his speeches, published
t>y L. HAMILTON in 1854 ; " Democratic Review" for October, 1850,
ith a portrait.)
Rantzau, de, deh roxt'so', (JosiAS,) COUNT, a mar
shal of France, born in Denmark in 1609. He com
manded a French army with success in Flanders from
1642 to 1649. Died in 1650.
Rantzau, von, fon rant'sow, (JoHANN,) COUNT, a
German general, born in 1492. He entered the service
if the Duke of Holstein, (afterwards Frederick I. of
Denmark,) for whom he conquered Denmark about
1525. Died in 1565.
Raiizani, ran-za'nee, (CAMILLO ABBATE,) an eminent
Italian naturalist, born at Bologna in 1775. He was
appointed professor of natural history in the university
of his native city in 1803. About 1810 he visited Paris,
where he was treated with much attention by Cuvier.
He began in 1819 to publish a great work entitled "Ele
ments of Zoology," which he was not able to finish.
About twelve volumes of it have been published. Died
n 1841.
See CORRADO POI.ITI, " Elogio di C. Ranzani," 1842; TIPALDO,
' Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Raoul, ri'ooK, or Rodolphe, ro'dolf, [Lat. RA-
DUI/FUS,] Duke of Burgundy, married Emma, a daughter
of Robert, Duke of France. In 923 he was chosen king
jy the barons who deposed Charles III. He waged war
against the Normans under Rollo. Died in 936.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2(^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
RAOUL
1868
RAPIN
Raoul. See ROI.I.O.
Raoul-Rochette. See ROCHETTE.
Raoux, rjt'oo', (JKAN,) a French painter, born at
Montpellier in 1677. He obtained some vogue as a
portrait-painter. Died in 1734.
Raoux, (SciPioN EDOUAKD,) a Swiss litterateur, born
at Mens (Isere) in 1817, became professor at Lausanne.
Rapetti, ra-pet'tee, (Louis NICOLAS,) a distinguished
jurist and biographer, born at Bergamo in 1812. He
wrote for the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale" a notice
of Napoleon I., and other articles. He lectured on
Roman law in the College of France from 1841 to 1848.
Raphael (ra'fa-el or>tf'a-el) [It. RAFFAEI.I.E, ilf-ia-
el'la] Sanzio, san'ze-o, (RAFFAELLO,) the most illus
trious of modern painters, was born at Urbino, in the
Papal States. April 6, 1483. He was the only son of
Giovanni di Santi (or Sanzio) and Magia Ciarla. After
he had received the first lessons in design from his
father, who was a painter of moderate talents, he became
about 1495 a pupil of Perugino, whom he imitated so
well that when that master and Raphael worked on the
same canvas the result seemed to be the product of one
hand. Among his earliest works are a "Holv Family,"
(1500,) the "Adoration of the Magi," "The Coronation
of the Virgin," (now in the Vatican,) and "The Marriage
of the Virgin," (" Sposalizio,") dated 1504, which is now
at Milan. "The Virgin," says Lanzi, "is a model of
celestial beauty." In the autumn of 1504 he visited
Florence, where he painted several works and formed
friendships with Fra Bartolommeo and Ridolfo Ghir-
landaio. During the period from 1505 to 1508, which
he passed at Perugia and Florence, he produced a
Christ in glory, the "Madonna del Gran Duca," and
other Madonnas. These works show that his style had
been modified by his studies in Florence.
Having received from Julius TI. an invitatiorfto orna
ment the Vatican, he went to Rome in 1508. Here lie
studied the remains of Grecian genius, associated with
eminent scholars, among whom were Bembo, Ariosto,
and Sadoleto, and entered into a rivalry with Michael
Angelo. Raphael painted in the Vatican (in fresco) the
large and noble composition called "Disputa del Sacra
mento," the admirable " School of Athens," " Parnassus,"
(1511,) "The Miracle of Bolsena," " Attila repelled from
Rome," and other frescos. " In the composition and
execution of the 'School of Athens,'" says Quatremere
de Quincy, "Raphael had recovered, so to speak, the
long-lost thread of the manner and taste of antiquity,
and had at length connected with the eternal models of
the true and beautiful the chain of modern inventions."
He also painted in oil numerous works, among which
are the "Madonna di Foligno," (1511.) and a portrait
of Julius II. Soon after his arrival at Rome he adopted
what is called his third style.
Like all great painters of the sixteenth century,
Raphael was a skilful architect. In 1515 the pope ap
pointed him chief architect of Saint Peter's Church, in
compliance with the dying request of Bramante. Raphael
made a model or design for this edifice ; but it was not
executed. He designed the Pandolfini palace at Flor
ence, of which an able critic remarks, "There is not in
architecture a palatial design more noble, of a purer
style, of a more judicious distribution." About 1515 he
produced the celebrated Cartoons, ten designs for the
tapestry of the pope's chapel, seven of which are now
at Hampton Court, England. They represent " The
Charge to Peter," " Saint Paul preaching at Athens,"
and other scenes from sacred history.
Among his later oil-paintings are " Saint Cecilia," (at
Boloqjna.) the "Madonna del Pesce," (or "del Pez,") (at
the Escurial,) the "Madonna di San Sisto," (the glory
of the gallery of Dresden,) and the " Transfiguration,"
which some consider his master-piece, and which is
now in the Vatican. His great power was in the ex
pression of passion and character. He also excelled in
composition, invention, and design ; but as a colorist
he was inferior to Titian and others. It is asserted that
in all his endless inventions a single repetition of him
self is not to be found. He died at Rome on the 6th
of April, 1520, at the age of thirty-seven. He was
never married. He had a delicate constitution, brown
hair and eyes, regular and handsome features. His
modest, amiable, and noble character rendered him a
general favourite.
" The bent of his genius," says Lanzi, " led him to
that ideal beauty, grace, and expression, the most
refined and difficult province of painting. . . . Raffaelle
is by common consent placed at the head of his art."
" RafFaelle was solely a painter," says Hazlitt ; " but in
that one art he seemed to pour out all the treasures and
various excellence of nature, — grandeur and scope of
design, exquisite finishing, force, grace, delicacy, the
strength of man, the softness of woman, the playfulness
of infancy, thought, feeling, invention, etc. He received
his inspiration from without, and his genius caught the
lambent flames of peace, of truth and grandeur, which
are reflected in his works with a light clear, transparent,
and unfading." " If Michael Angelo is the first of
draughtsmen," says Quatremere de Quincy, " Raphael
is the first of painters. . . . His 'Galatea' is a work
which explains, far better than any language of ours,
the diversity between Michael Angelo and Raphael,
manifesting the exquisite refinement of the latter, and
his tendency towards that pure, noble, graceful manner
which constituted the beau-ideal of the ancient Greeks."
Among the numerous eminent pupils of Raphael were
Giulio Romano, Penni called II Fattore, Perino del
Vaga, Pellegrino da Modena, Garofalo, and Polidoro da
Caravaggio.
SeeV.ASAKi. "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, " History of Paint
ing in Italy;" DUPPA, "Lite of Raphael," 1815; PASSAVANT, "Ra
phael d'Urbino," 1839; G. C. BRAUN. " Raphael Sanzio's Lcben,"
1815; QUATKKMEKK IIP. QUINCY. "Vie Me Raphael," 1824, (trans
lated into English bv HAZI.ITT, 184(1:) VON WOI.ZO<;EN, "Raphael
Santis Leben," (an English version of which was published in 1866;)
NAGLER, " Raphael als Mensch und Kiinstler;" LAN-DON. " Vie et
fEnvres de Raphael ;" C. I1'. VON RUMOUR. " Ueber Raphael von
Urbino;" PuN(;n.Rovi. " Elogio storico di Raffaello." 1829: HAI.IH-
NUCCI, "Noti/.ie;" Auoi.i'u SIRKT, "Raphael et Rubens," 1849:
CAKI.O FEA, " Noti/.ie intorno Raffaello San/io," 1822 ; F. RKIIIIKKG,
" Raphael San/.ioans Urbino," 2 vols., 1824; " Nonvelie Biographic
Oanerale;" " Raphael and his Times," in the "London Quarterly
Review" for April, 1870.
Raphael of Volterra. See MAFFF.I, (RAPHAEL.)
Raphall, ra'fal, (MoKRis JACOH,) a Jewish rabbi and
theological writer, born at Stockholm, in Sweden, in 1798.
He studied in Germany, and subsequently resided many
years in England, where he edited in 1834 "The He
brew Review, or Magazine of Rabbinical Literature."
Having removed to New York in 1849, he became
rabbi-preacher of the first Anglo-German Hebrew con
gregation in that city. He published " Post-Biblical
History of the Jews," (1856,) and other works, and made
translations from the Hebrew.
Rapheleng, ra'feh-leng', Rapheling, ra'feh-ling',
written also Raulengien, (FRANCIS,) a learned printer,
born near Lille in 1539, was a son-in-law of Plantin.
He worked at Antwerp, taught Hebrew at Leyden, and
published an Arabic Lexicon. Died in 1597.
Rapheling. See RAPIIELF.NG.
Rapin, rS'paN', (NICOLAS,) a French poet, born at
Fontenay-le-Comte about 1540. He fought for Henry
IV. against the League, and wrote part of the famous
"Satire Menippee." (See LF.ROY, (PiKURE,) and Du-
RANT.) He produced, in Latin and French, a number
of odes, epigrams, elegies, etc., which were admired.
Died in 1608.
See BAYI.K, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nonvelie
Biographic Generale."
Rapin, (RKN&) a French Jesuit, distinguished as a
Latin poet, was born at Tours in 1621. He composed,
besides many other works, a series of " Parallels of
Great Men of Antiquity," (Homer, Virgil, Demosthenes,
Cicero, Plato, and Aristotle,) (1669-71.) His chief pro
duction is an ingenious Latin poem "On Gardens,"
(" Hortorum Libri IV.," i66>) which was translated into
English by Evelyn. "For skill in varying and adorning
his subjects," says Hallain, "for a truly Virgilian spirit
of expression, for the exclusion of feeble, prosaic, or
awkward lines, he may perhaps be equal to any poet, — •
to Sannazarius himself," (" Introduction to the Litera
ture of Europe.") Died in Paris in 1687.
See I? \vr.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary:" ROUHOURS,
" Vie de Rapin," in his " Poemata," 1723 ; NIC^KON, " Memoires ;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale."
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; nftt; good; moon-
RAP IN
1869
RATH IE R
Rapin, de, deh rap'in or rf'paN', (PAUL,) Sieur de
Thoyras, a French historian, born of a Protestant family
at Castres in 1661. He entered the service of William,
Prince of Orange, with whom he went to England in
1688. He served as captain in the war in Ireland about
1690. In 1724 he published, in French, a "History of
England from the Roman Conquest to the Death of
Charles I.," (8 vols.,) a work of considerable merit.
According to Voltaire, it was the best history of Eng
land that had then appeared. It was translated into
English by Tindal, who also wrote a continuation of
Rapin's work. (See TINDAL.) Died at Wesel in 1725.
See HAAG, "La France protestante ;" " Nouveile Biographic
Gene-rale."
Rapoport, ra'po-poRt/, (SOLOMON JEHUDAH,) a Jew
ish scholar and rabbi, born at Lemberg, in Germany,
in 1790. He published, in Hebrew, a number of his
torical and antiquarian treatises, and translated Racine's
" Esther" into Hebrew.
Rapp, (GEORGE,) the founder of the sect of Har
monists or Rappites, born at Wiirtemberg, Germany,
in 17/0. He emigrated in 1803 to the United States,
and founded a community at Economy, Beaver county,
Pennsylvania. Died in 1847.
Rapp, rfp, (JEAN,) COUNT, an able French general,
born at Colmar in 1772. He was aide-de-camp of De-
saix at Marengo, and on his death became an aide to
Bonaparte, whose confidence he acquired. For his ser
vices at Austerlitz (1805) he was raised to the rank of a
general of division. He received his ninth wound at
Golymin, (1806,) obtained the chief command at Dant-
zic in 1807, and distinguished himself at Essling in 1809.
He received four wounds at the battle of Moskwa,
(1812.) In 1815 he was appointed by Napoleon com
mander of the army of the Rhine, and fought several
actions against the allies. He is said to have been
noted for his humanity and moderation. Died in Paris
in 1821.
See " Memoirs of General Count Rapp, First Aide-de-Camp to
Napoleon, by himself:" "Nouveile Biographic Generale."
Ra'rey, (JOHN S.,) a celebrated American horse-
tamer, burn at Madison, Franklin county, Ohio, about
1825. He was very successful in subduing the most
vicious animals by substituting kindness and scientific
skill for the harshness usually employed on such occa
sions. Died in 1866.
Rasario, ra-sa're-o, [Lat. RASA'RIUS,] (GIAMBAT-
TISTA,) an Italian physician, born in the province of
Novara in 1517. He was professor of Greek and rhetoric
at Venice for twenty-two yeais. He translated from
Greek into Latin some works of Pachymeres, Oribasius,
and Galen. Died at Pavia in 1578.
See GHIUNI, " Teatro d'Uomini letterati."
Rasarius. See RASARIO.
Rascas, rts'kas', (PIERRE ANTOINE,) Sieur de Bagar-
ris, a French antiquary, born at Aix about 1567. He
was keeper of the cabinet of Henry IV., and wrote a
treatise on medals. Died in 1620.
Rasche, rash'eh, (Jon ANN CHRISTOPH,) a German
numismatist, born near Eisenach, in Saxony, in 1703.
He published, besides other works, "Lexicon of the
Monetary Affairs of the Ancients," ("Lexicon universal
Rei nuniariae Veterum," 6 vols., 1785-94.) Died in 1805.
Raschi, ras'Kee, ? ( RABKI SOLOMON,) an eminent Jew
ish writer, born at Troyes, in France, in 1040. He
wrote commentaries on the Pentateuch and Talmud.
Died in 1 105.
Raschid, Al. See HAROUN-AL-RASCHID.
Rasheed-Eddeen or Raschid-Eddin, ra-sheed'
ed deen', a Persian historian, born at Hamadan in the
thirteenth century. Died about 1320.
Rasis. See RAZES.
Rasis or Rases. See RAZKE.
Rask, rask, (RAMUS or RASMUS CHRISTIAN,) an emi
nent Danish linguist, was born near Odense, in the isle
of Fiinen, in 1787. He gave much attention to com
parative philology, in the prosecution of which study he
visited Russia, Persia, India, etc., (1817-21.) He be
came professor of literary history at Copenhagen in 1825,
and professor of Oriental languages at the same univer
sity in 1828. Among his works are an "Anglo-Saxon
Grammar," (1817,) "Researches on the Origin of the
Icelandic Language," (1818,) and "On the Age and
Authenticity of the Zend-Avesta," (1826.) He possessed
a rare talent for linguistic researches. Died in 1832.
See P. L. MOEI.I.ER, " R. K. Rask;" EKSI.EW, " Forfatter- Lexi
con ;" "Nouveile Biographic Generale."
Rasmussen, ras'moos'sen, (JANUS LASSEN,) a Dan
ish Orientalist, born at Vestenkov in 1785. He published
a " History of the Kingdoms of the Arabs," (" Historia
Arabum Regnorum," 1817,) "Annals of the Moslems,"
("Annales Islamicae," 1825,) and other works. Died
about 1828.
Rasori, ra-so'ree, (GIOVANNI,) an eminent Italian
physician, born at Parma in 1766 or 1767. He became
professor at Pavia about 1796, and settled at Milan in
1800. He was author of a new medical doctrine, called
"theory of the Counter-Stimulus," and wrote several
medical works. He died in 1837.
See G. PKRIN-I, " Cenni sulla Mente di G. Rasori," 1837; CHI-
APPA, "Delia Vita di G. Rasori," 1838; "Nouveile Biographic
Generale."
Raspail, rts'ptl' or rfs'pf'ye, (FRANgois VINCENT,)
an able French chemist and politician, born at Carpen-
tras in 1794. He took arms against Charles X. in 1830,
and became a leader of the republicans. In 1831 he
published the first volume of his able " Course of Agri
culture and Rural Economy." At the revolution of
February, 1848, he proclaimed a republic at the Hotel
de Ville before the formation of a provisional govern
ment. In March, 1849, he was condemned to six years'
imprisonment for conspiracy against the new regime.
Among his works is a "New System of Organic Chem
istry," (2d edition, 3 vols., 1838,) which has been trans
lated into English, and " The Natural History of Health
and Disease of Plants and Animals, especially Man,"
(3 vols., 1846.) He was elected to the corps legislatij
in 1869.
See CHARLES MARCHAI., " Biographic de F. V. Raspail," 1848;
Qt'KRARD, " La France Litteraire ;" "Nouveile Biographic Gene'-
rale."
Raspe, ras'peh, (RonoLPH ERIC,) a German anti
quary, born at Hanover in 1737 ; died in Ireland in 1794.
Rasponi, ras-po'nee, (CK.SARE,) an Italian cardinal
and negotiator, born at Ravenna in 1615 ; died in 1675.
Ras'tall or Ras'tell, (JOHN,) an English printer,
was a native or citizen of London. One of the first
books which he printed is dated 1517. He was con
verted to the Protestant religion by J. Frith. He was the
reputed author of " Chronicle of the Kings of England,"
(" Anglorum Regum Chronicon," 1529.) Died in 1536.
His son WILLIAM, born in 1508, was a printer and
lawyer. He emigrated to Louvain in 1558, and died
there in 1565.
Rast-Maupas, ras-mo'pa', (!EAN Louis,) a French
rural economist, born at La Voulte in 1731. He founded
the Condition des Soies, and made several useful inven
tions. Died at Lyons in 1821.
Rastopchin. See ROSTOPCHIN.
Rastrelli, rds-tRel'lee, (JOSEPH,) a German composer
and musician, born at Dresden in 1799. He composed
" Salvator Rosa," (1832,) and other operas.
Rataller, ra-ta'ler, (GEORGE,) a Dutch philologist
and jurist, born at Leeuwarden in 1528. He translated
into Latin verse Hesiod's great poem and the tragedies
of Sophocles. He became president of the council at
Utrecht about 1570. Died in 1581.
See RAYI.E, " Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Ratazzi. See RATTAZZI.
Ratcliffe, (THOMAS,) Earl of Sussex. See RAD-
CI.IFFE.
Ratdolt. See RATHOLD.
Rathel or Raethel, ra'tel, (WOLFGANG CHRTSTOPH,)
a German scholar, born at Selbitz in 1663 ; died in 1729.
Ratherius. See RATHIER.
Rathery, rtt're', (EmiE JACQUES BENofr,) a French
litterateur, born in Paris in 1807. He became assistant
keeper of the Imperial Library in 1859. He has con
tributed to the " Nouveile Biographic Generale," the
"Revue des Deux Mondes," and other periodicals.
Rathier, ri'te-i'. [Lat. RATHE'RIUS,] a learned ec
clesiastic, was born at Liege. He became Bishop of
Verona in 931 A.D. Died about 974 A.D.
e as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanation s, p. 23.)
RAT HOLD
1870
RAVAISSON
Rathold, rat'holt, written also Ratdolt, (EKHARD,)
a German printer, born at Augsburg. He settled at
Venice in 1475, where lie published excellent editions
of Appian, Euclid, and other classics. Died about 1516.
Rat/i, written alsoReti, [modern Hindoo pron. rut'i,]
a Sanscrit word signifying " passion," " sexual desire,"
and forming, in the Hindoo mythology, the name of the
consort of Kamadeva, or the Indian god of love.
See WILSON, " Sanscrit Dictionary."
Ratier, it'te-a', (FEi.ix SEVKIUN,) a French medical
writer, was bonTin Paris in 1797. He published nu
merous works.
Ratramne. rttrSm', [Lat. RATRAM'NUS,] a learned
French monk of the ninth century, belonged to the
abbey of Corbie. He wrote a treatise "On the Body
and Blood of the Lord," (" De Corpora et Sanguine
Domini,") which was printed in 1532 and 1712. He
is sometimes called BERTRAM. Died after 868 A. D.
Ratranmus. See RATKAMNK.
Ratschky, ratsl/kee, (JOSEPH FRANZ,) a German
poet, born in Vienna in 1757. He published a volume
of poems in 1785, which were somewhat popular. He
became a councillor of state. Died in Vienna in 1810.
Rattazzi, rat-tat'see, or Ratazzi, (URBANO, ) an
Italian minister of state, born at Alessandria about 1810.
He gained distinction as an advocate, was elected to the
Chamber of Deputies at Turin in 1848, and became a
leader of the democratic party. About the end of 1848
he was intrusted with the formation of a new ministry,
which was dissolved in consequence of the disastrous
battle of Novara, March, 1849. He was appointed min
ister of justice in 1854, was prime minister a short time
in 1859, and succeeded Ricasoli as prime minister about
March i, 1862. His opponents denounced him as sub
servient to the policy of the French emperor. He went
out of power about December I, 1862, and became prime
minister again in April, 1867. He is the leader of the
"left centre." He resigned in October, 1867.
See "Westminster Review" for January, 1863; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Ratte, de, deh rft, (EriENNE HYACINTHE,) a French
astronomer, born at Montpellier in 1722. He wrote
scientific articles for the " Encyclopedic," and observed
the transit of Venus in 1761. Died in 1805.
See J. POITEVIN, " filose d'E". H. de Ratte," 1805.
Ratti, rat'tee, (Xiccoi.A,) an Italian antiquary, born
at Rome in 1759, published several biographies and
antiquarian treatises. Died in 1833.
Rau, (CHRISTIAN.) Sec RAVIUS.
Rau, row, QOHANN JAKOB,) a German physician,
born at Baden, in Suabia, in 1668, was a successful
lithotomist. He became professor of anatomy at Leyden
in 1713. Died in 1719.
Rau, (KARL HEINRICII,) a German political econo
mist, born at Erlangen in 1792, became in 1822 professor
of political economy and financial science at Heidelberg.
His principal work is a "Manual of Political Economy,"
(3 vols., 1826-32,) which is highly commended. Died
in 1870.
Rau, (SEBALD,) a German Orientalist, born at Herborn
in 1724. He obtained the chair of Oriental languages
at Utrecht in 1749. Died about 1810.
Rau, (SEBALD FOULQUES JAN,) an Orientalist, a son
of the preceding, was born at Utrecht in 1765. He be
came minister of a church at Leyden in 1788. Died in 1807.
See TEISSEDRE L'ANGE, "Vie de Ran," 1810.
Rauch, rovvK, (CHRISTIAN,) one of the most eminent
German sculptors, born at Arolsen, in the principality
of Waldeck, in 1777. He studied for a time under Pro
fessor Ruhl, at Cassel, and in 1804 was enabled to visit
Rome, where he was patronized by W. von Humboldt
and acquired the friendship of Thorwaldsen. While at
Rome he executed the bas-reliefs of " Hippolytus and
Phaedra," and "Mars and Venus wounded by Diomecl,"
also a colossal bust of the King of Prussia, a life-size
bust of his queen Louise, and a portrait bust of Raphael
Mengs. In 1813 he completed the monument of the
Queen of Prussia, at Charlottenburg, which is esteemed
one of the most admirable works of the kind. During
a second visit to Rome he executed statues of Generals
Scharnhorst and Billow, and a great number of busts of
celebrated persons. After his return to Prussia he pro
duced two colossal bronze statues of Marshal Bliicher,
a statue of Goethe, regarded as the most perfect re
semblance to that great writer, a monument to Albert
Diirer, and statues of Luther, Schiller, and other eminent
Germans. In 1851 he finished his monument to Fred
erick the Great, with an equestrian statue, at Berlin,
upon which he was employed more than ten years, and
which is esteemed his greatest work. Died in 1857.
See NAGI.KK, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale ;" " Jahrbuch 7.11111 Conversations- Lexikon," 1859.
Raulengieu. See RAPHELKNG.
Raulin, ro'laN1', (FEi.ix VICTOR,) a French geologist,
born in Paris in 1815. He has written several treatises
on geology.
Raulin, (JEAN,) a French professor of theology at
Paris, born at Ton! in 1443 > diet! in 1514.
Raulin, (JOSEPH,) a French physician, born near Auch
in 1708. lie became physician to the king, and wrote
several able medical works. He was a Fellow of the
Royal Society of London. Died in Paris in 1784.
Ratimer, von, fon row'mer, (FRIEDRICII LUDWIG
GKOKG,) an eminent German historian, born near Des
sau in 1781. He studied law and financial science at
Halle and Gottingen, and in 1819 became professor of
history and political economy at Berlin. He published
in 1810 a treatise "On the British System of Taxation,"
and in 1813 a " Manual of Remarkable Passages from
the Latin Historians of the Middle Ages." His "His
tory of the Hohenstattfen and their Times" (6 vols.,
1823) was very well received, and is esteemed a standard
work. Among his other productions may be named a
"History of Europe from the End of the Fifteenth Cen
tury," (1832,) " England in 1835," which was translated
by Mrs. Austin, and "The United States of North
America," (1845.)
See "Nouvelle Biographic Genera!e ;" BKOCKUAUS. " Conver-
sations-Lexikon ;" "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835;
''Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1829, and April, 1833.
Raumer, von, (GKOKG WII.HEI.M,) a German jurist
and historical writer, born at Berlin about 1790; died
in 1856.
Raumer, von, (KARI. GKOKG,) a German geologist,
born at Worlitz in 1783, became professor of natural
history and mineralogy at Erlangen. lie was a brother
of the eminent historian.
Raumer, von, (RUDOLF,) son of the preceding, was
born at Breslau in 1815. lie was professor of the Ger
man language and literature at Erlangen in 1852.
Raupach, row'paK, (ERNST BENJAMIN SOLOMON',) a
popular dramatic poet, born near Liegnitz. in Silesia, in
1784. After residing several years in Russia as a teacher,
he became professor of German literature at Saint Peters
burg in 1817. His works, which are very numerous
and include both tragedy and comedy, were published
in 18 vols., 1830-44. Died in 1852.
See PAUI.INK RAUPACH, " Raupach ; biographische Skizze," 1854 ;
" Blackwood's Magazine" for February, i83S.
Ranter, row'ter or ro'taiii', (jAd^UKS FREDERIC, ) a
French jurist, born at Strasburg in 1784. He was pro
fessor of law in his native city. Died in 1854.
Rauwolf, row'wolf, (LEONIIARD,) a German botanist,
born at Augsburg. He visited the Levant in 1573, in
order to study and identify the plants noticed by Pliny,
Galen, Dioscbrides, etc. After his return he published
a valuable "Narrative of a Journey in Syria, Judea,
Arabia, Mesopotamia," etc., (1582.) Died in 1596.
See M. ADAM, "Vitae Medicorum ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Ravaillac, ri'vil'ytk' or rt'vS'ya'k', (FRANCOIS,) a
French assassin and fanatic, born at Angouleme in 1578.
He approached the royal carriage, which was stopped
in the street by a number of wagons, and stabbed Henry
IV. mortally, in May, 1610. At his examination he de
nied that he had any accomplice. He was executed in
May, 1610.
Ravaisson, ri'v.Ys6N', (JEAN GASPARD FELIX.) a
French philosopher, born at Namur in 1813. lie was
admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1849, and
became a member of the imperial council of public
instruction in 1852. He wrote an "Essay on the Meta
physics of Aristotle," (2 vols., 1837-46.)
5, e, T, o, u, y, long': a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moor.;
R Ay AN A
1871
RAT
Ravana,* ra'va-na, or Ravanen, in the Hindoo my
thology, the name of a famous many-headed giant, King
of Ceylon, who was killed by Kama. (See RAMA.)
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Raveiiel, rtv'r.51', ( JULES AMEDEE DESIRE,) a French
bibliographer, born in Paris in 1801. He became keeper
of the printed works of the Royal Library in 1848.
Raveiiet, raVna', (SiMON FRANC.OIS,) an eminent
French engraver, born in Paris about 1708, removed to
England in 1750. Died in 1774.
Raveiiet, ( SIMON FRANCOIS,) an engraver, born in
London about 1755, was a son of the preceding. He
went to Parma, and engraved the works of Correggio.
Died about 1812.
Ravenna, da, da ra-ver/na, (MARCO,) an able Italian
engraver, born at Ravenna about 1496, was a pupil of
Raimondi. He engraved some works of Raphael. Died
at Rome in 1527.
Ravenna, di, de ra-v§n'na, ( GIOVANNI MALPA-
GHINO,) an Italian classical scholar, born at Ravenna.
He was employed by Petrarch as a copyist, and after
wards taught the classics at Florence. Died about 1420.
Ra'vens-croft, (JoiiN STARK,) born in Prince George
county, Virginia, in 1772, was elected in 1823 Bishop of
the diocese of North Carolina. Died in 1830.
Ra'vens-croft, ( THOMAS, ) an English composer,
born in 1592. He published in 1611 a collection of
songs called "Melismata, Musical Phansies," etc., and in
1621 "The Whole Book of Psalms, composed into Four
Parts by Sundry Authors to such Several Tunes as are
usually sung in England," etc. He was the composer
of some of these tunes.
Ravesteyn, van, vtn ri'veh-stTn',(HuBERT,) a Dutch
painter, born at Dort about 1645, painted fairs, interiors
of shop?, etc.
Ravesteyn, van, (TAN,) a Dutch portrait-painter,
born at the Hague about 1575. His works are highly
praised by Descamps and others. Died at the Hague in
16^7. His son ARNOLD (1615-67) was a portrait-painter.
See CHARLES BLANC, " Histoire des Peintres."
Ravesteyn, van, (NIKOLAAS,) a relative of the pre
ceding, was born at Bominel in 1661. He painted por
traits and history with success. Died at Bommel in 1750.
Ravignan.de, deh rf'ven'yS.x', (GUSTAVE FRANCOIS
XAVIKR DELACROIX,) a French Jesuit, noted as a pulpit
orator, was born at Bayonne in 1795. He preached in
Notre-Dame, Paris, for ten years, (1837-48,) and wrote
a book in defence of the Jesuits, (7th edition, 1855.)
Died in 1858.
See P. DE POM.EVOY, " Le Pere de Ravignan," 2 vo!s., 1850; H.
DE SAINT-AI.MX, "Vie du Pere de Ravignan."
Ra-vis'i-us Tex'tor, the Latin name of JEAN TIXIER
DE RAVISI, (te'se-a/ deh rt've'ze',) a French classical
scholar, born in Nivernais about 1480. He published
"Latin Epithets,'' (''Epitheta Latina," 1518,) and other
works. Died in 1524.
Ravius, ra've-us, Rave, ra'veh, or Ran, row, (CHRIS
TIAN.) a German Orientalist, born at Berlin in 1603, or,
as others say, in 1613. He went to the Levant in 1639,
and studied the Turkish, Persian, Italian, Modern Greek,
etc. at Smyrna. In 1644 he obtained the chair of Oriental
languages at Utrecht, and in 1651 became professor of
Arabic at Upsal. Among his works are a Latin version
of part of the Koran, " Primre tredecim Partium Alcora-
ni," etc., (1646,) and a " Grammar of the Hebrew, Syriac,
Arabic, andChaldaic Languages," (1650.) Died in 1677.
See B['RMAX>;, "Trajectum eruditum ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Ravizza, ra-vet'sa or ra-vit'sa, (DoMENico,) an Ital
ian writer, born in the Abruzzi in 1707; died in 1767.
Rawdon, LORD. See HASTINGS, MARQUIS OF.
Rawle, rawl, (WILLIAM,) a distinguished American
jurist, born in Philadelphia in 1759, was appointed by
Washington district attorney of Pennsylvania. He drew
up the new civil code of Pennsylvania, and wrote several
legal works. Died in 1836.
Rawleigh. See RALEIGH.
Raw'ley, (WILLIAM,) an English clergyman, born at
Norwich about 1588. He became chaplain to Lord
Bacon and to Charles I. He wrote a " Life of Bacon,"
* He is called RAVEXEX in SOUTHEY'S " Curse of Kehama."
which Hallam calls "the best authority we have," and
edited the works of Bacon, (1657.) Died in 1667.
Raw'lins, (ToHN A.,) a distinguished American
general, born in Jo Daviess county, Illinois, in 1831, was
a lawyer before the civil war. He became assistant
adjutant-general of General Grant in September, 1861,
and served as such in the campaigns of 1862 and 1863.
In March, 1865, he was appointed chief of General
Grant's staff, with the rank of brigadier-general in the
regular army. He became secretary of war in March,
1869. Died in September, 1869.
Raw'lin-son, (CHRISTOPHER,) an English antiquary,
born in Essex in 1677. He published an edition of King
Alfred's Saxon version of I5oethius"De Consolatione
Philosophic," (1698.) Died in 1733.
Rawlinson, (Rev. GEORGE,) an English scholar, born
about 1815, was educated at Oxford, and was chosen a
Fellow of Exeter College in 1840. He became professor
of ancient history at Oxford in 1861. He published a
translation of Herodotus, (4 vols., 1858-60,) in which
he was assisted by his brother Sir Henry, and " The
Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World,"
(4 vols., 1862-68,) which is highly esteemed.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1860 ; " North British
Review" for June, 1866.
Rawlinson, (Sir HENRY CRESWICK,) an English
Orientalist, a brother of the preceding, was born in
Oxfordshire in 1810. He entered the military service
of the East India Company about 1826, and served in
Persia some years, during which he studied the Persian
cuneiform inscriptions with success. In 1843 he became
political resident, or agent, at Bagdad. He deciphered
the cuneiform inscriptions at Nineveh, and wrote " An
Outline of the History of Assyria as collected from
the Inscriptions," etc., (1852.) He was sent as British
ambassador to the court of Persia in 1859, and obtained
the rank of major-general.
Rawlinson, (RiCHARD,) an English antiquary, born
in London about 1690. He published a " Life of Anthony
Wood," (171 1,) and "The English Topographer," (1720.)
Died in 1755.
Rawlinson, (THOMAS.) a brother of the preceding,
was born about 1680. He was noted as a collector of
books, and is supposed to have been the original of
A dclison's character of "Tom Folio." (See the "Taller,"
No. 158.) Died in 1725.
Raw'son, (Sir WILLIAM.) an English surgeon and
oculist, born in Cornwall. His family name was ADA>!S,
which he exchanged for Rawson when he became heir
to a person of that name. He settled in London in 1810.
Died in 1820.
Raxis, rSk'sess', (GAETAN,) Comte de Flassans, a
French publicist, born at Bedouin in 1760. He pub
lished, besides other works, a " History of French
Diplomacy," (6 vols., 1808.) Died in Paris in 1845.
Ray, (ISAAC,) M.D., an American physician, born at
Beverly, Massachusetts, in 1807, was appointed in 1841
superintendent of the State Insane Hospital at Augusta,
Maine, and in 1845 °f tne Butler Hospital for the In
sane at Providence, Rhode Island. He has published
"Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity," (1838,) which is
highly commended.
Ray or Wray, (JOHN,) an eminent English botanist
and zoologist, born near Braintree, in Essex, on the
2gth of November, 1628, was the son of a blacksmith.
He studied in Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
became Greek lecturer at the age of twenty-three. In
1660 he published a " Catalogue of Plants growing
around Cambridge." He was ordained as a priest, but
declined to subscribe to the Act of Uniformity of 1662,
and never performed clerical functions. He found a
friend and patron in Francis Willoughby, in company
with whom he made scientific excursions in France,
Germany, and Italy in 1663-66. In 1667 he was chosen
a Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a "Cata
logue of the Plants of England," ("Catalogus Plan-
tarum Angliae," 1670 or 1677,) and in 1682 a " New
Method of Plants," ("Methodus Plantarum Nova,") in
which he proposed a new method of classification. Of
this work Cuvier and Du Petit-Thouars (" Biographic
Universelle") remark, " We find the natural families of
e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
RAT
1872
R4TNAUD
plants better defined, and the grand division of mono
cotyledons and bicotyledons fully established ; he gave
the' characters of many classes with much precision, and
introduced several technical terms which are very use
ful ; finally, he established many principles and general
laws of classification which have since been adopted."
His principal or largest botanical work is " Universal
History of Plants," (" Historia Plantarum Universalis,"
3 vols., 1686-1704.) Ray is said to have been the first
modern zoologist who made use of comparative anat
omy. He published in 1693 " Synopsis of Quadrupeds
and Serpents," (" Synopsis Animalium Quadrupedum
et Serpentini Generis.") " His works on zoology," says
Cuvier, " are even more important than those on botany,
for their utility has been more durable. They may be
considered as the foundation of all modern zoology. . . .
His distribution of the classes of quadrupeds and birds
has been followed by the English naturalists almost to
our own days." He wrote other works. Died in 1705.
See DR. DERHAM, "Select Remains of J. Ray," 1760; "Memo
rials of J. Ray." by EDWIN LANKESTER, 8v<>, 1844; " Biograpliia
Britannica ;" DR. HOEFER'S article in the " Nouvelle Biographic
Ge'nerale ;" ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Ray, (JOSEPH,) an American mathematician, born in
1807. He was an eminent teacher, employed in various
places, and published several works on algebra and
arithmetic. Died in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1855.
Ray, (YVn.i.iAM,) an American poet, born at Salis
bury, Connecticut, in 1771 ; died in 1827.
Rayer, ri'ya', (PIERRE FRANCOIS OLIVE,) a French
physician, born at Saint-Sylvain (Calvados) in 1793. He
practised in Paris, and in 1852 was comprised in the
medical service of the household of the emperor. lie
published several works.
Ray'moiid (or Raimond) I., Count of Toulouse,
succeeded his brother Fredelon in 852 A.I). Died in
864 or- 865.
Raymond (or Raimond) II. succeeded his father,
Eudes, in 918. He gained a victory over the Normans
in 923 A.I). Died the same year.
Raymond III., called RAYMOND PONS, a son of
the preceding, began to reign in 923. His dominions
included the large territory extending from the Loire
to the Pyrenees and eastward to the Rhone. Died
about 950.
Raymond IV., called RAYMOND DE SAINT-GII.LES,
became Count of Toulouse about 1090, about the age of
forty-five. He was one of the most powerful princes of
Southern Europe, and was a famous leader in the first
crusade. In 1096 he led a large army (about 100,000
men) by land to Asia. Jerusalem was taken in 1099 by
the crusaders, who appreciated so highly the talents and
merit of Raymond that they offered him the throne ; but
he declined it. He died at Tripoli in 1105, and was
succeeded by his son Bertrand.
See MOMNK DE SAINT-YON, " Histoire des Comtesde Toulouse,"
4 vols., 1862 ; "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Raymond V., a grandson of the preceding, born in
1134, became Count of Toulouse in 1148. He married
Constance, a sister of Louis VII. of France. Henry II.
of England invaded his dominions and besieged Tou
louse about 1160, but Raymond, aided by Louis of
France, made a successful resistance. Died in 1194.
Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, born in 1156,
succeeded his father, Raymond V., in 1194. His reign
was disturbed by wars and crusades instigated by the
pope in order to exterminate the Albigenses, who were
very numerous in Provence. Raymond was disposed to
protect or tolerate these subjects, and was excommu
nicated several times. His dominions were invaded by
a large army of crusaders under Simon de Montfort
in 1210. Raymond opposed them bravely in several
battles, but was decisively defeated in 1213, and lost
his throne. He was restored in 1217. Died in 1222.
See MOI.INEDE SAINT- YON, " Histoire cles Comtes de Toulouse,"
4 vols., 1862 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale."
Raymond, the last Count of Toulouse, a son of the
preceding, made peace with the pope and became a
persecutor of the Albigenses. Died in 1249.
Raymond, ri'miN', (GEORGE MARIE,) a meritorious
teacher and writer, born at Chambery, in Savoy, in 1769.
He published a variety of works on education, morality,
etc., and wrote many articles for the "Biographie Uni-
verselle." Died in 1839.
Ray'moiid, (HENRY JARVIS,) an able American jour
nalist, born in Livingston county, New York, in 1820.
He became associate editor of the "New York Courier
and Enquirer" in 1843, anc' m '851 founded the "New
York Times." He was elected Lieutenant-Governor
of the State in 1854, and, as a leader of the Republican
party, favoured the election of Mr. Lincoln in 1860.
The " New York Times," which he continued to edit
until his death, was very successful. In 1864 he was
elected a member of Congress by the Republican voters
of New York City. He published "The Life, Public
Services, and State Papers of Abraham Lincoln," (1865.)
He took a prominent part in the National Conven
tion of the friends of Andrew Johnson which met in
Philadelphia in the summer of 1866 for the purpose of
forming a new political party, and wrote the address to
the people of the United States which that convention
issued. This enterprise proved a complete failure.
Died in June, 1869.
See " Henry J. Raymond and the New York Press for Thiily
Years," by AuiiUSTUS MAVERICK, 1870.
Raymond, ri'moN1', (JEAN ARNAUD, ) a French
architect, born at Toulouse in 1742, was a member of
the Institute. Died in 1811.
Raymond, ([KAN MICHEL,) a French chemist, born
at Saint- Vallier (Drome) in 1766. He was professor of
chemistry at Lyons. About 1810 he discovered a colour
called bleu- Raymond, for which he received a present of
8000 francs from the government. Died in 1837.
Raymond, (MICHEL JOACHIM MARIE,) an able
French general, born near Audi in 1755. He entered
the service of the Nizam of Deccan about 1786, and
fought against the English and Mahrattas. Died at
Hyderabad in 1798.
Raymond, (ROBERT,) LORD, an English judge, born
about 1673, was chief justice of the king's bench in
the reign of George L, and a privy councillor. His
"Reports" were published in 3 vols. Died in 1733.
See LORD CAMPIIKI.I., " Lives of the Chief Justices.''
Raymond, (\AVIER,) a French journalist, born in
Paris in 1810 or 1812. He became an editor of the
"Journal des Debats" about 1838, and published works
entitled " L'Afghanistan," (1843,) and "L'Inde," (1845.)
Sec the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1863.
Raymond-Berenger. See BEKENGER.
Raymond Lulli. See LUI.I.I.
Raymond (Raimond, i i-moiu!'. orRamon, ra-rnfin')
de Penafort, (Pegnafort,) da pai/ya-foiu', a Spanish
canonist and Dominican, born at Barcelona in 1175 or
1186. He compiled the "Decretals." Died in 1275.
Raymond!. See RAIMONDI.
Raynal, ri'nSK, (Guiu.AUME THOMAS FRANCOIS,)
L'AliliE, a French philosopher and historian, born at
Saint-Genie/, in Rouergue, in 1711. He was a priest in
his youth, but renounced that profession soon after his
removal to Paris, (1747.) He published several mediocre
histories, and became intimate with Helvetins and Baron
Holbach. He acquired temporary celebrity by a " His
tory of the Colonies planted by Europeans in America
and India, and of their Influence on the Political Con
dition, Commerce, and Prosperity of Europe," (" His
toire philosophique et politique des fitablissements ct
du Commerce des Europeans dans les deux Indes," 4
vols., 1770.) It is said that Diderot wrote some of the
ablest passages of this work, which abounds in declama
tions against the political and religious institutions of
France. The Parliament in 1781 ordered the book to
be burnt and the author to be arrested ; but he escaped,
and passed about six years in exile. Died in Paris in
1796.
See A. JAY, " Notice biographique sur Raynal," 1821 ; CHKRHAL-
MONTREAL, " filoge philosophique de Raynal," 1796; "Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
Raynal, de, deli ri'nSK, (Louis HECTOR CIIAUDRU,)
a French historian of the present age. His chief work
is a "History of Bern'," (4 vols., 1844-47.)
Raynaud, rji'no', written also Rainaud and Rai-
naudo, (ri-now'do,) (TiiEOPHlLE,) an Italian Jesuit,
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
JLAYNEVAL
1873
REAGAN
born in the county of Nice in 1583. He wrote many
works on theology, which obtained success, though
they are said to be trivial and prolix. Died in 1663.
See MORF.RI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
Rayneval, de, deh lin'vil', (ALPHONSE GERARD,) a
French diplomatist, born in Paris in 1813. He was ap
pointed to represent the French government at the court
of Pius IX. after his flight to Gae'ta, (1849,) and entered
Rome with the army which restored the pope. He was
raised to the rank of ambassador in 1851, and remained
at Rome in that capacity six years. Died in 1858.
Rayneval, de, (FRANC.OIS MAXIMILIEN GERARD,)
the father of the preceding, was born in 1778. He was
sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1829, and to Madrid in
1832. Died at Madrid in 1836.
His father, JOSEPH, (1746-1812,) was author of a
"Treatise on the Law of Nature and of Nations," (3d
edition, 1832,) and "On the Liberty of the Seas," (2
vols., 1811.)
Raynolds. See RATNOLDS.
Raynouard, ri'noo-tu', ( FRANCOIS JUSTE MARIE,) a
French author and philologist, born at Brignoles (Pro
vence) in 1761. He practised law in his youth, was im
prisoned as a Girondist in 1793, and became a resident
of Paris about 1800. He produced in 1805 a tragedy
(in verse) entitled "The Templars," ("Les Templiers,")
which was very successful, and opened to him the doors
of the French Academy, (1807,) of which he became
perpetual secretary in 1817. He was a member of the
legislative body from 1806 to 1813. He wrote other
dramas, and philological treatises, among which is a
" Dictionary of the Language of the Troubadours," (6
vols., 1838-44.) Died in 1836.
See C. LABITTE, notice of Raynouard in the " Revue des Deux
Mondes," February i, 1837; REIFFENBERG, "A la Memoire de
r. J. M. Raynouard," 1839; " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Razee or Razi, Al, al-ra'zee or ar-ra'zee, [written in
I ,atin R A'zis.RA'sis.or R A'SES,] ( Ahmed-rbn-Moham-
med-Ibu-Moosa,(or-Musa,) aH'medib'n mo-ham'med
ili'ii moo'sa,) an Arabian historian, born at Cordova, in
Spain, about 866 A.D. He wrote a "History of the
Conquest of Spain by the Arabs." Only portions of his
works are extant. There appears to have been another
Arabian or Moorish historian bearing the same name.
See AL-MAKKARI, "History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in
Spain," translated by GAVANGOS, vol. i. p. 314.
Ra'zes, Rha'zes, or Ra'sis, Latin forms of the sur
name RAZEE, ra'zee, (or, rather, AR-RAZEE or AR-RAZ!,)
<>f~ a celebrated Arabian physician, whose proper name
was MoiIAMMED-IlJN-ZAKARIA-ABOO-BEKR, (mo-h3m'-
ined ib'n za-ka-ree'a a'boo bekr'.) He was born in
Irak-Ajemee about the middle of the ninth century. He
practised at Bagdad, and travelled into several foreign
countries. Among his numerous works are " Al-Hawi,"
or "Continens," and a treatise on the smallpox and
measles. He is said to have been the first who de
scribed the smallpox accurately. Died about 930 A.D.
See IBV-KHALLIKAN, "Biographical Dictionary ;" SPRENGEL,
" Geschichte der Medicin ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Razis. See RAZEE.
Razoomofski or Razoumovski, ra-zoo-mof'skee,
written also Razumowskij, (GREGORY,) a Russian
savant, published in French several works on mineralogy,
and " Coup-d'CEil geognostique sur le Nord de 1'Europe,"
(1816.) Died in Moravia in 1837.
Razout, rt'zoo', (JEAN NICOLAS,) a French general,
born at Paris in 1772. He distinguished himself as
ueneral of division at Borodino (iSi2) and at Dresden,
(1813.) Died in 1820.
Razzi, rit'see, or Bazzi, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,)
CAVALIERE, surnamed IL SODOMA, (el so-do'ma,) an
able Italian painter, born at Vercelli, in Piedmont, or at
Yergelli, near Sienna, about 1479. He painted in the
Vatican some works which were effaced by order of
Julius II. to make room for those of Raphael. The
palace called Farnesina, at Rome, contains his picture
of "The Marriage of Roxana." He afterwards worked
at Sienna. A picture of "The Scourging of Christ" (at
Sienna) is called his master-piece. Died about 1550.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters ;" LANZI, " History of Paint
ing in Italy."
€ as K; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, in, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 3; th as in rt/j.
Il8
Razzi, (GiROLAMO,) afterwards called Silvano, sel-
va'no, an Italian monk and writer, born at Florence
about 1530. He produced several dramas and biogra
phies. Died in 161 1.
Re, ra, (FiLiPPO,) an Italian agriculturist, born at
Reggio in 1763. He published in 1798 an excellent
work on agriculture, "Elementi d'Agricoltura," (2 vols.,)
and became professor of agriculture at Bologna in 1803.
He was author of other works on rural economy, etc.
Died in 1817.
See A. FAPPANI, " Elogio del Conte F. Re," 1820.
Re, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) an Italian botanist and
physician, born near Susa in 1773. He published a
"Flora of Susa," (1805,) and a "Flora of Turin," (2
vols., 1825,) both in Latin. Died at Turin in 1833.
Reach, (ANGUS BETHUNE,) a Scottish author and
journalist, born at Inverness in 1821. He wrote a novel
entitled "Clement Lorimer,"and contributed to various
periodicals. Died in 1856.
Read, (ABNER,) an American naval officer, born in
Ohio about 1820. He served in the civil war with dis
tinction, and gained the rank of commander. He was
killed near Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July, 1863.
See TENNEY, " Military History of the Rebellion," p. 763.
Read, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish medical writer, grad
uated at Oxford in 1620; died about 1680.
Read, (GEORGE,) an American patriot and signer of
the Declaration of Independence, born in Maryland in
1734. He was elected to the Congress of 1774, and
was subsequently a member of the Convention which
framed the United States Constitution, and chief justice
of the supreme court of the State of Delaware. Died
in 1798.
Read, (JOHN MEREDITH,) an American lawyer, born
in Philadelphia in 1797, was a grandson of the pre
ceding. He was called to the bar in 1818, and became
a district attorney of the United States. In 1851 he was
associated with Thaddeus Stevens as counsel for the
defence in the celebrated trial of C. Hanway for con
structive treason. About 1854 he began to advocate the
principles of the Republican party by his speeches and
writings. About 1860 he was elected a judge of the
supreme court of Pennsylvania.
Read, (NATHAN,) an American mechanician, born in
Worcester county, Massachusetts, in 1759. He invented
a machine for cutting nails which formed heads on the
nails by the same operation. In 1800 he was elected a
member of Congress. He made ome improvements
in the steam-engine about 1790. Died in Maine in 1849.
Read, (THOMAS BUCHANAN,) a distinguished Amer
ican poet and artist, born in Chester county, Pennsyl
vania, in 1822. He visited Italy in 1850, and subsequently
spent some time in England, Where he published a col
lection of poems, which were very favourably received.
He afterwards resided several years at Florence and
Rome, whence he returned in 1858. Among his works
may be named his prose romance "The Pilgrims of the
Great Saint Bernard," and his poems of " The House
by the Sea," " The New Pastoral," (1855,) " Sylvia, or the
Lost Shepherd," etc., (1857,) and "The Wagoner of the
Alleghenies, a Poem," (1862.) His group of " Longfel
low's Children" is esteemed one of his best pictures.
See "Quarterly Review" for October, 1857; "North British
Review" for August, 1852 ; TUCKERMAN, " Book of the Artists."
Reade, reed, (CHARLES,) a popular English novelist,
born in 1814, graduated at Magdalene College, Oxford,
in 1835. He established his reputation by "Peg Wof-
fington," (1852.) In 1856 he published "Never too Late
to Mend." Among his other novels are " Love me Little,
Love me Long," (1859,) " The Cloister and the Hearth,"
(1861,) "Very Hard Cash," (1863,) "Griffith Gaunt,"
(1866,) "Foul Play," (1868,) (written conjointly with
Boucicault,) and "Put Yourself in his Place," (1870.)
See "Atlantic Monthly" for August, 1864; " Blackwood's Maga
zine" for October, 1869.
Reading, red'ing, (JoHN,) an English clergyman, born
in Buckinghamshire in 1588. He was chaplain to Charles
I., and favoured the royalist cause in the civil war. He
wrote several works on theology. Died in 1667.
Reagan, ree'gan, ? (JOHN H.,) an American politician,
born in Sevier county, Tennessee, in 1818. He emi-
Explanations, p. 23.)
REAL
1874
RECHBERGER
grated to Texas, and became a member of Congress in
1857. He was re-elected in 1859. He was postmaster-
general of the Confederate States from March, 1861,
to April, 1865.
Real, de, cleh ra'SK, (GASPARD,) Seigneur de Curban,
a French publicist, born at Sisteron in 1682. lie wrote
an able work "On the Science of Government," (8
vols., 1751-64.) Died at Paris in 1752.
Real, de, (!'IERRK FRANCOIS,) COUNT, a French poli
tician and lawyer, born near Paris about 1760. He was
a partisan of Danton in 1793, and contributed actively
in 1799 to the success of Bonaparte, who appointed him
a councillor of state and gave him in 1808 the title of
count. Died in 1834.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Real, Saint. See SAIN T-REAL.
Realino, ri-a-lee'no, (BERNARDINO,) a learned Italian
Jesuit, born at Carpi in 1530. He wrote notes on Catul
lus and other ancient authors. Died in 1616.
Reaumur, de, deh ra'5'miiR', (RENE ANTOINE FER-
CHAULT,) a celebrated French natural philosopher and
entomologist, born at Rochelle in February, 1683. He
inherited an easy or independent fortune, and became
a resident of Paris in 1703. By some memoirs on
geometry he obtained admission into the Academy of
Sciences in 1708. His favourite studies were general
physics, natural history, and the industrial arts. lie
made important discoveries or improvements in the fab
rication of steel, and published in 1722 a "Treatise on the
Art of Converting Iron into Steel," for which he received
a pension of 12,000 livres. He made successful experi
ments on the artificial incubation of eggs and on the
manufacture of tin wares. His most important contribu
tion to general physics was the thermometer, which he
invented in 1731. He divided the interval between the
freezing and boiling points of water into eighty degrees.
" The most remarkable of the works of Reaumur," says
Cuvier, "are his 'Memoirs Illustrating the History of
Insects,' ('Me'moires pour servir a PHistoire des In-
sectes,' 6 vols., 1734-42.) The author here exhibits the
highest degree of sagacity in the observation and dis
covery of all those instincts, so complicated and so
constant in each species, which maintain these feeble
creatures. He constantly excites our curiosity by new
and singular details. . . . Unfortunately, it is not quite
finished." Died in 1757.
See HALLER, " Bibliotheca Botanica ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Rebecque. See CONSTANT.
Rebecqui, reh-bi'ke', ( FRANQOTS TROPHIMK, ) a
French Girondist, born at Marseilles about 1760. He
was a member of the Convention, was proscribed in
June, 1793, and escaped to Marseilles. Having learned
the fate of his colleagues, he drowned himself in the sea
in June, 1794.
Rebentisch, ra'ben-fltsh', (JOHANN FRIEDRICH,) a
German botanist, born at Landsberg in 1772. He pub
lished a Catalogue of Plants growing near Berlin, (1805.)
Died in 1810.
Reber, ra'baiR', (NAPOLEON HENRI,) a French mu
sician and composer, born at Mulhouse in 1807. He
composed melodies for a single voice, and comic operas,
entitled "Christmas Eve," (1848,) and " Le Pere Gail-
lard," (1852,) which are highly commended.
Rebkow or Repkow, von, fon re"p'ko, [Lat. REP-
KO'VIUS,] (EvKE,) a German jurist, born in Thuringia,
flourished about 1210-40. He compiled a code or col
lection of laws, entitled "Speculum Saxonicum," which
was extensively used in Germany. His German trans
lation of it, called " Sachsenspiegel," was printed in the
fifteenth century.
Rebolledo, de, da ra-bol-ya'Do, ( BERNARDINO, )
COUNT, a Spanish poet and commander, born at Leon
in 1597. He distinguished himself at the capture of
Nice, (1626,) commanded a corps of lancers in Flanders
in 1632, and was the leader of a force sent in 1636 to
aid the emperor Ferdinand II., who rewarded his ser
vices with the title of count of the empire. He was sent
as ambassador to the court of Denmark about 1650 or
1648. He showed respectable talents as a poet in his
"Military and Political Groves,"? ("Selvas militares y
politicas," 1652,) "Selvas Danicas," (1655,) and "Selvas
sagradas," (1657'.) Died at Madrid in 1676.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature;" BOUTHKWEK,
" Geschichte tier Poesie. "
Reboul, reh-bool', ( HENRI PAUL IRENEE,) a French
savant, born at Pezenas in 1763. He assisted Lavoisier
in his scientific labours, and wrote several treatises on
geology and other sciences. He was appointed admin
istrator of Lombardy by Bonaparte about 1798. Died
in 1839.
Reboul, (|EAN,) a French poet, born at Nimes in
1796. He produced in 1828 a poem called "The Angel
and the Infant," which was much praised. He after
wards wrote other successful poems. Died in 1864.
See COU.OMBET, " fitude biographique sur Reboul," 1839.
Reboulet, reh-boo'li', (SlMON,) a French historian,
born at Avignon in 1687. He wrote a mediocre " His
tory of the Reign of Louis XIV.," (3 vols., 1742-44.)
Died in 1752.
Rebuffi, reli-bii'fe', (PIERRE,) an eminent French
jurist, born near Montpellier in 1487. He lectured on
law at Bourges and Paris, and published several works.
Died in Paris in 1557.
Recamier, ra'Ua'me-a7, (JEANNE FRANCHISE JUI.IE
ADELA'I'DE BERNARD, )~~"a beautiful and accomplished
French lady, born at Lyons in 1777. She was married
to M. Recamier, a rich banker, in 1793, after which she
became an intimate friend of Madame dc Stae'I. She
was courted in vain by Napoleon in 1805. In conse
quence of the bankruptcy of her husband, (1806,) she
went to reside with Madame de Stae'I at Coppct. There
she captivated the heart of Prince August of Prussia, and
gave him a promise of marriage ; but her compassion
for her first husband, who was living, prevailed on her
to break the engagement. In 1811 she was banished
from Paris by Napoleon, on account of her intimacy
and sympathy with Madame de Stae'I and other enemies
of the emperor. Having returned to Paris after the
restoration, she lived in intimate relations with Cha
teaubriand until his death. Her salon at L'Abbaye-aux-
Boi's was the most celebrated of those which flourished
between 1815 and 1840. There was a remarkable dis
proportion between the modesty of her life and the
greatness of her fame. Died in 1849. " We think with
infinite respect of one who, having an unequalled in
fluence over the hearts and wills of men, scorned to ask
a favour, and endured poverty . . . and exile, which fell
with tenfold severity on one so beloved and admired,
without the smallest sacrifice of dignity and independ
ence." (" Edinburgh Review" for January, 1860.)
See " Memoirs and Correspondence of Madame Recamier," trans
lated from the French and edited by MKS LUVSTKK, Boston, 1867 ;
an eloquently-written article on "Madame Recamier and her
Friends," in the " Christian Kxamincr" for May, 1^7 ; "Atlantic
Monthly" for October, 1864; W. H. ADAMS, "Famous Beauties
and Historic Women ;" " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1860 ;
" Fraser's Magazine" for September. 1849.
Recamier, (JOSEPH CLAUDE ANTIIELME,) a French
physician, born near Bel ley (Ain) in 1774. He was
physician ( incited n ordinaire) at the IIotel-Dieu, Paris,
for forty years, (1806-46,) and succeeded Laennec as
professor at the College of France in 1827. He was
deprived of this place by the revolution of 1830. Died
in 1852.
See SACHAH.E, " Les Medecinsde Paris."
Recchi, rek'kee, (NARDO ANTONIO,) an Italian bota
nist and physician, born at Montecorvo, lived about
1550-80. He prepared an abridgment of the manuscripts
left by Hernandez. After the death of Recchi this work
was published under the title of "Treasury of the Ma-
teria Medica of New Spain," (" Rerum medicinalium
Nov?e Hispaniae Thesaurus," 1651.)
Receveur, res-vuR', (FRANQOIS JOSEPH XAVIER,) a
French ecclesiastic, born at Longueville (Doubs) in 1800.
He published, besides other works, a " History of the
Church from its Foundation until the Pontificate of
Gregory XVI.," (8 vols., 1840-47.) Died in 1854.
Rechberger, re'K'beRC/er, (FRANZ,) an eminent Ger
man designer, landscape-painter, and etcher, born in
Vienna in 1771. His etchings of landscapes are said
to be beautiful and spirited. Died about 1842.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
RECKE
1875
REED
Recke, von der, fon der rek'keh, (ELISABETH
CHARLOTTE CONSTANTIA,) a German authoress, born
in Courland in 1754. She was for a time a believer
in Cagliostro's pretensions of holding intercourse with
the dead, but subsequently wrote a work entitled
"Cagliostro Unmasked," (1787.) She also published
"Travels in Italy," and several poems. Died in 1833.
See BROCKITAUS, "Conversations-Lexikon."
Reclam, leVlam, (FRIKDRICH,) a German painter
and engraver, born at Magdeburg in 1734; died in 1774.
Reclam, (PIERRE CHRETIEN FREDERIC,) a Protest
ant minister, of French origin, born at Magdeburg in
1741. He became minister of a church in Berlin in 1767.
Died in 1789.
Recorde, rek'ord, ? (ROBERT,) an eminent British
mathematician, born in Pembrokeshire about 1500. He
studied at Oxford, and took the degree of M.D. at Cam
bridge in 1545. He also taught mathematics at Oxford,
and published several works, among which are " The
Ground of Arts, teaching the Work and Practice of
Arithmetic," (1540,) and "The Castle of Knowledge,"
(1556.) The latter treats on astronomy. He was phy
sician to Edward VI. and to Queen Mary. He is said
to have invented the sign of equality in algebra. Died
in 1558.
See WOOD, " Athens Oxonienses ;" HUTTOK, "Mathematical
Dictionary."
Recupero, ri-koo-pa'rp, (ALESSANDRO,) an Italian
numismatist, born at Catania about 1740; died in 1803.
Recupero, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian mineralogist, born
at Catania in 1720, was a brother of the preceding. He
wrote a "Natural History of Etna," (1815.) Died in
1778 or 1787.
Recurt, reh-kuR', (AniUKN BAKNAIIE ATHANASE,)
a French physician and republican, born at Lassalle
(Hautes-Pyrenees) in 1797. He was elected to the
Constituent Assembly in 1848, and became minister of
the interior on the nth of May. He was minister of
public works from June to October, 1848.
Red-Beard, (Barbarossa.) See FREDERICK I.
Red'ding, (CYRUS,) an English journalist and poet,
born at Penryn about 1785. He was associated with the
poet Campbell in the editorship of the " New Monthly
Magazine" from 1820 to 1830. He published, besides
other works, a "History of Modern Wines," (1833.)
" Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas
Campbell," (2 vols., 1859,) and "Past Celebrities whom
I have known," (2 vols., 1865.) Died in 1870.
See " Eraser's Magazine" for February, 185?.
Reden, von, fon ra'den, (FRIEDRICH WII.HELM
OTTO LunwiG,) BAUON, an eminent German writer on
statistics, was born in Lippe-Detmold in 1804. Among
his works are " General and Comparative Statistics of
Finances," (2 vols., 1851-56,) and "Statistics of the
Products and Commerce of Prussia," (3 vols., 1854.)
Died in 1857.
See BROCKHAUS, "Conversations-Lexikon."
Redern, von, fon ra'dern, (SioiSMOND EHRENREICH,)
COUNT, a Prussian diplomatist, born in Berlin in 1755.
He became a partner of Saint-Simon, the French so
cialist, in speculations. Died in 1835.
Redesdale, reeds'dal, (JOHN FREEMAN MITFORD,)
BARON, an English lawyer, born in 1748. As solicitor-
general, he conducted the state trials in 1794. He
became attorney-general in 1799, and Speaker of the
House of Commons in 1801. Died in 1830.
Red'field, (WILLIAM C.,) an American geologist and
meteorologist, born in Middletown, Connecticut, in
1789, became a resident of New York about 1825.
He contributed articles on meteorology to several
periodicals, and wrote on steam-navigation. Died in
February, 1857. "The ingenious theories of Mr.
Redfield and Mr. Espy," says R. W. Griswold, "have
commanded the respect and admiration of scholars."
("Prose Writers of America," p. 27.)
Red'grave, (RICHARD,) an English painter of land
scapes, domestic scenes, etc., was born in London in
1804. He exhibited in 1837 a successful picture of
" Gulliver on the Farmer's Table." His favourite subjects
in a subsequent period ,were illustrations of the trials
, of the poor, such as "The Sempstress" and "The Poor
, Teacher." He also acquired popularity as a painter of
j landscapes. He was elected a Royal Academician in
j 1851. Among his works are "The Country Cousins,"
| "Ophelia," and " Little Red-Riding-Hood."
Redi, ra'dee, (FRANCESCO,) an eminent Italian natu
ralist and poet, born at Arezzo in 1626. He practised
medicine at Florence with a high reputation, and wrote
poetry with success. In philosophy he belonged to the
school of Galileo. He is ranked among the greatest
observers of his age. Among his works are "Experi
ments on the Generation of Insects," (1668,) a poem on
\ the wine of Tuscany, called " Bacchus in Tuscany,"
I (" Bacco in Toscana," 1685,) and " Letters on Philoso-
' phy, Natural History," etc., (2 vols., 1724-27.) " Few
! have done so much in any part of science," says Hal-
| lam, "who have also shone so brightly in the walks
| of taste. The sonnets of Redi are esteemed ; but his
j famous dithyrambic ' Bacco in Toscana' is admitted to
[ be the first poem of that kind in modern language."
j ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died at
Pisa about 1695.
See GORANI, " Elojrj di due illustri Scopritori, (Redi e Bandini,")
1786; A. FABRONI, "Vita: Italorum illustrium ;" LONGFELLOW,
" Poets and Poetry of Europe :" NICKRON, " Memoires ;" G. V. M.
FABRONI, " Elogio storico di F. Redi." 1796; TIRABOSCHI, " Storia
della Letteratura Italiana ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Geuerale."
Redi, (TOMMASO or GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter of
history and portraits, born at Florence in 1665, was a
pupil of Carlo Marattn. Died in 1726.
Reding, von, fon ra'ding, ( ALOYS,) a Swiss officer,
born in 1755. He commanded the Swiss troops that
checked the French army at Morgarten in May, 1798,
and was elected Landamman in 1801. He was the chief
of the confederes, the aristocratic and anti-Gallican party.
Died in 1818.
Red Jack'et, or Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, ( " Keeper-
Awake,") a celebrated Indian chief of the Senecas, born
in Western New York about 1759. He was noted for
his eloquence, and earnestly opposed the treaty between
the Six Nations and the United States for the cession
of lands. General Washington bestowed upon him a
silver medal. Died in 1830.
See the "Life and Times of Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, or Red Jacket,"
i?4i, by WILLIAM L. STONE.
Red'maii or Red'mayne, (JOHN,) an English divine,
born in Yorkshire in 1499. He was chosen master
of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1547, and became
archdeacon of Taunton. He wrote several works on
theology. Died in 1551.
Red/mall, (JOHN,) an American physician, born in
Philadelphia in 1722, graduated at Leyden. He acquired
a high reputation in his profession, and was the first
president of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia.
Died in 1808.
Redmayne. See REDMAN.
Redoute, reh-doo'ta', (PIERRE JOSEPH,) an eminent
French painter of flowers, born at Saint-Hubert, near
Liege, in 1759. He worked mostly in Paris, and received
the title of painter of the cabinet of Queen Marie An
toinette. He published an admirable " Monography of
the Roses," (" Monographic des Roses," 3 vols., 1817-
24.) In 1832 he became professor of iconography at
the Jarclin des Plantes, Paris. Died in 1840.
See BOUCHARD, " Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux de M Re
doute," 1840 ; M. BONAFOUS, " Notice historique sur P. J. Redoute."
Redschid. See RESHEED PASHA.
Redwitz, rid'wits, (OsKAR,) BARON, a German poet
and litterateur, born near Anspach in 1823. He became
in 1851 professor of literary history at Vienna. Among
his principal works are the poem of " The Amaranth,"
and "Tales of the Forest-Brook and Fir-Tree," (1850.)
Reed, (ANDREW,) D.D., an English dissenter and
philanthropist, born in London in 1787. He was sent
on a mission to the churches of the United States in 1834
by the Congregationalists. He preached at Wycliffe
Chapel, Stepney, for fifty years, and founded two orphan-
asylums and a hospital for incurables. Died in 1862.
See " Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Andrew Reed," London, 1863.
Reed, (HENRY,) a distinguished American scholar
and writer, born in Philadelphia in 1808. He graduated
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
REED
1876
REGIS
in 1825 at the University of Pennsylvania, became assist
ant professor of moral philosophy in 1831, and in 1835
professor of rhetoric and English literature, in that insti
tution. In 1854 he visited Europe, and, having embarked
in the steamship Arctic, was lost on the voyage home.
He was the author of " Lectures on English Literature
from Chaucer to Tennyson," (1855,) "Lectures on the
British Poets," (2 vols., 1857,) " Lectures on English His
tory," etc., and the "Life of Joseph Reed" in Sparks's
"American Biography." He also prepared editions
of Graham's "English Synonymes," Arnold's "Lec
tures on Modern History," Lord Marion's " History of
England," and the " Poetical Works of Thomas Gray."
See DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ;
AI.LIHONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Reed, (ISAAC,) an English editor, critic, and biogra
pher, born in London in 1742. He wrote biographical
notices for Dodsley's "Collection," (6 vols., 1782,)
contributed to the "Gentleman's Magazine," and
edited, among other works, " Biographia Dramatica,"
(1782,) and Shakspeare's Works, (10 vols., 1785.) Died
in 1807.
Reed, (JOSEPH,) an English dramatist and miscella
neous writer, born at Stockton-upon-Tees in 1723.
Among his works are "Dido," a tragedy, (1767,) and
"Tom Jones," an opera, (1769.) Died in 1787.
Reed, (JOSEPH,) an American officer of the Revo
lution, born at Trenton, New Jersey, in 1741. He was
president of the first provincial convention held in Penn
sylvania, (1775,) and was subsequently aide-de-camp
and secretary to General Washington. He was made
adjutant-general in 1776, and in 1778 became president
of the supreme executive council of Pennsylvania. He
died in 1785. His Life, written by his grandson, Pro
fessor Henry Reed, is included in Sparks's "American
Biography."
Respecting President Reed's character as a man and a patriot,
very different opinions have prevailed from his own time to the
present day. See, on this subject, BANCROFT'S " History of the
United States," vols. viii. and ix. ; a pamphlet by WILLIAM K. REED,
(WILLIAM B.,) in AI.LIBONE'S " Dictionary of Authors.'
Reedtz, rats, (Hoi.c.F.R CHRISTIAN,) a Danish min
ister of state, born at Odense in 1800. He was minister
of foreign affairs from August, 1850, to December, 1851.
Died in 1857.
Rees, reess, (ABRAHAM,) an English encyclopaedist,
born in North Wales in 1743. He became minister of
a dissenting congregation in London about 1768. He
edited "Chambers's Cyclopaedia," (4 vols., 1778-85,)
and used that as the basis of a more extensive and
extremely valuable work published under the title of
" Rees's Cyclopaedia," (45 vols., 1802-20.) Died in 1825.
See "Gentleman's Magazine" for August, 1825.
Reeve, reev, (CLARA,) an English authoress, born
at Ipswich in 1725. She produced in 1778 a romance
called "The Old English Baron," which was often
reprinted. Among her works is "The Progress of Ro
mance through Times, Countries, and Manners," (2
vols., 1785.) Died in 1803.
Reeve, (LovELL, ) an English conchologist, born
about 1814. He published "Conchologia Systematica,
or a Complete System of Conchology," (London, 2 vols.
4to, 1842,) and "Conchologia Iconica, or Figures and
Descriptions of the Shells of Molluscous Animals, with
Critical Remarks," etc., (1856.) Died in 1865.
Reeve, reev, (TAPPING,) an eminent American lawyer,
born on Long Island in 1744. He began to practise at
Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1772, and married a sister
of Aaron Burr. In 1792 he opened a law school, which
he taught for many years at Litchfield. He became a
judge of the superior court in 1798. Died in 1823.
Reeves, reevz, (JOHN,) an English lawyer, born in
London in 1752. He wrote, besides other works, a
" History of English Laws," (1783.) He was a deter
mined opponent of reform. Died in 1829.
Reeves, (WILLIAM,) an English clergyman, born in
1668. He was vicar of Saint Mary's, Reading. Several
volumes of his sermons were published, (1704-29.) Died
in 1726.
Rega, ra'ga or ra'na, (HENRI JOSEPH,) a Flemish
physician, born at Louvain in 1690. His reputation is
founded on a work "On Sympathy," (" De Sympathia,"
1721.) Died at Louvain in 1754.
See MARTENS, " Notice sur la Vie de H. J. Riga," 1840; MAL-
COKPS, " Rega, sa Vie et ses ficrits," 1846.
Reganhac, de, deh reh-gS'nSk', (G&RAUD VALET,) a
French lyric poet, born at or near Cahors in 1719 ; died
in 1784.
Reggio, DUKE OF. See OUDINOT.
Reggio, red'jo, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian astronomer,
born at Genoa in 1743. He wrote several memoirs on
astronomy, and aided in the triangulation of Northern
Italy, finished in 1794. Died in 1804.
Reggio, da, (LucA.) See FERRARI.
Regillo. See PORDENONE.
Re-gi'no, [Fr. REGINON, ra'zhe'noN',] alearned monk
of the ninth century, was Abbot of Prum, in the diocese
of Treves. He wrote a chronicle, which has been printed.
Died in 915 A.D.
Regio, ra'jo, (RAFFAEI.LO,) an Italian classical scholar,
born at Bergamo ; died in 1520.
Regiomoiitan. See RKGIOMONTANUS.
Re-gi-o-mon-ta'nus or Regiomoiitaii, ra'ge-o-mon-
tan', a celebrated German astronomer, whose proper
name was JOHANN MULI.ER, (mul'ler,) was born in June,
1436, probably near Konigsberg, (Saxe-Hildburghausen.)
The Latin name Regiomontanus is derived from Konigs
berg. Doppelmayer and others give Konigshofen, in
Franconia, as the place of his birth. He wrote his
own name sometimes JOHANNES GERMANUS DE REGIO-
MONTE. About the age of fifteen he began to study
astronomy under Purbach, in the University of Vienna.
In 1462 he went to Rome, where he studied Greek and
bought or copied Greek manuscripts on his favourite
science. He passed several years in Rome, Padua, and
Venice, whence he returned to Vienna and became
professor of mathematics. About 1471 he removed to
Nuremberg, where, by the liberal aid of a rich citizen,
Bernard Walter, he was enabled to construct instru
ments, and made a series of observations. He published
there, with his own press, his " Ephemerides" for thirty
years, (1475-1506,) and other works, among which was a
" New Calendar" (" Kalendarium Novum") for the years
1475, J494i and I5'[3- This is supposed to have been the
first almanac published in Europe. Pope Sixtus IV. in
vited him to Rome to reform the calendar, and offered him
the bishopric of Ratisbon. About a year after his arrival
in Rome he died there, in 1476. "He was a man of
great sagacity and enterprise," says Delambre, " by whose
premature death astronomy sustained a loss which for a
long time was not repaired." A treatise " On Triangles,
Plane and Spherical," ("De Triangulis Planis et Spheri-
cis Libri V.,") composed about 1464, but not published
until more than fifty years after his death, is pronounced
by Delambre his most interesting work.
See E. RHKINHOLT, "Oratiode J. Regiomontano," 1549; PAN
ZER. " Bmchstiicke zu J. Regiomontan's Leben," 1796.
Regis, ra'jess, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian professor of
Greek, born near Mondovi. He produced a good Ital
ian version of Xenophon's " Cyropaedia," (1809.) Died
at Turin in 1811.
Regis, ri'zhess', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French Jesuit,
born about 1665, was a missionary to Peking, in China.
He spent several years in executing a map of China for
the emperor. Died in China in 1737.
Regis, (|EAN FRANCOIS,) a French Jesuit, born in the
diocese of Narbonne in 1597. He gave to the poor
large sums of money which he collected by begging.
Died in 1640. He was canonized in 1737.
See D'AUBENTON, " Vie de Saint- Frarxpois-Regis," 1716; A.
BONNET, "Vita J. F. Regis," 1692.
Regis, (PiERRF.,) a French physician, born at Mont-
pellier in 1656; died at Amsterdam in 1726.
Regis, (SYLVAIN, or JEAN SYLVAIN,) a French Car
tesian philosopher, was born near Agen in 1632. He
propagated the doctrines of Descartes by lectures at
Toulouse and Paris. His chief work is a "System of
Philosophy according to the Principles of Descartes,"
(3 vols., 1690.) Died in Paris in 1707. "No one has
left," says Hallam, "so comprehensive a statement and
5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscitre; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;
REG JUS
1877
REGNIER
defence of Cartesianism as Jean Sylvain Regis." ("In
troduction to the Literature of Europe.")
See BAYLE, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
"Memoires;" FONTENEI.LE, " filoge de Regis."
Regius. See LEROY.
Regnard, reh-ntR', (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a popular
French comic poet, born in Paris in 1655, was a son of
a merchant, who left him a handsome fortune. On a
voyage between Civita Vecchia and Toulon, Regnard
and a lady whom he loved were captured in 1678 by
Algerine pirates, who sold them as slaves. They were
ransomed after a captivity of two years. It is said he
was on the point of marrying the lady when the fact
transpired that her first husband was living. In 1681
and 1682 he performed a tour through Sweden and Lap
land as far as the Frozen Ocean. Having returned to
Paris, he purchased the office of treasurer, (tresorierde
France.) He was much addicted to the vice of gambling.
" Regnard," says Hallam, " is always placed next to
Moliere among the comic writers of France in this, and
perhaps in any, age. The plays, indeed, which entitle
him to such a rank are but few. Of these the best
is acknowledged to be ' The Gambler,' (' Le Joueur,'
1696.) Regnard, taught by his own experience, has
here admirably delineated the character of an inveterate
gamester." (" Introduction to the Literature of Eu
rope.") Among his most admired works are " The
Absent-Minded, " (" Le Distrait," 1697,) and "The Uni
versal Legatee," (1708.) His comedies are characterized
by an inexhaustible fund of humorous sallies. Died in
September, 1709.
See GILBERT, " filoge de Regnavd," 1857; "Atlantic Monthly"
for June, 1865: SAINTE-BEUVE. "Causeries d» Lundi ;" NICERON,
"Memoires;'' LA HARPE, "Cours de Litterature ;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generate. "
Reguaud, reh-no', (PIERRE ETIENNE,) a French
political writer, born in Paris in 1736, was a constant
adherent of the Bourbons. Died about 1820.
Regnaud (or Regnault) de Saint-Jean-d'An-
gely,* reh'no' deh sax zh6x dSx'zha'le', (AUGUSTE
MICHEL ETIENNE,) COUNT, a French general, born in
Paris in 1794. He served as a volunteer in the Morea
in 1828, became general of brigade in 1841, and general
of division in July, 1848. He commanded the imperial
guard at the battle of Magenta, June 4, 1859, and on
the next day was made a marshal of France. Died in
December, 1869.
Regnaud (or Regnault) de Saiiit-Jean-d'Angely,
(MiCHEL Louis ETIENNK,) COUNT, the father of the
preceding, was born at Saint-Fargeau (Yonne) in 1762.
He was a moderate member of the Assembly in 1790,
and became a member of the council of state in 1800.
He was employed in important affairs during the em
pire as procureur-general and secretary de Fetal of the
imperial family. In 1803 he was chosen a member of
the French Academy. Died in 1819.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Regnauldin or Regnaudin, reh'no'dax', (THOMAS,)
a French sculptor, born at Moulins in 1627. He exe
cuted some works for Louis XIV. at Versailles. Died
in 1706.
Regnault. See REGNAUD.
Regnault, reh-no', (fii.iAS,) a French historian, born
in Paris about 1802. He published, besides other works,
a " History of Napoleon," (4 vols., 1847.)
See the " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1850.
Regnault, (HENRI VICTOR,) a distinguished French
chemist and natural philosopher, was born at Aix-la-
Chapelle in 1810. He was admitted into the Academy
of Sciences in 1840, and obtained a chair of physics in
the College of France in 1841. He has written memoirs
on the compressibility of elastic fluids, on the elastic
forces of aqueous vapour at different temperatures, and
on the laws and numerical data which enter into the
calculations respecting the construction and power of
steam-engines. He published a good "Elementary
* Authorities are divided in regard to the proper mode of writing
this name ; formerly it was universally written ANG£LV, but at pres
ent many respectable works systematically omit the accent, and some
say that the e should be suppressed in pronunciation. (See note
under PETION (or PETHION) DE VILLENEUVE.)
Treatise on Chemistry," (4 vols., 1849,) which has been
translated into English. Jjidet, s&7f
Regnault, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) BARON, a French painter
of history, born in Paris in 1754. He gained the first
prize in 1776. Among his best works are a "Descent
from the Cross," and the "Education of Achilles,"
(1783.) He was a member of the Institute. Died in
1829.
See C. BLANC, " Histoire des Peintres."
Regnault, (JEAN BAPTISTE ETIENNE,) a French phy
sician, born at Niort in 1759, was consulting physician
to Louis XVIII. Died in 1836.
Regnault, (NOEL,) a French natural philosopher and
Cartesian, born at Arras in 1683. He wrote a popular
work entitled " Conversations of Ariste and Eudoxe on
Philosophy," (" Entretiens physiques d'Ariste," etc., 3
vols., 1729.) Died in 1762.
Regnault- Warin, reh'no' vt'raN', (JEAN BAPTISTE
JOSEPH,) a mediocre French litterateur, born at Bar-le-
Duc about 1772. He wrote "Memoirs of La Fayette,"
(1824,) and many other works. Died in 1844.
Regner. See RAGNER.
Regner van Oosterga, rec/ner vtn os-t§R'ga, (or os-
tCR'na,] (CYPRIAN,) a Dutch jurist, born in Friesland in
1614; died at Utrecht in 1687.
Regnier, reh-ne_-4/, (CLAUDE AMBROISE,) Due de
Massa, (mt'st',) a French minister of state, born at
Blamont, in Lorraine, in 1736. As a member of the
Council of Elders, he supported Bonaparte on the i8th
Brtimaire, 1799. During the consulate he was one of the
redacteurs of the Civil Code. He was appointed grand
ju«e (minister of justice) in 1802, and received the title
of Due de Massa in 1809. Died in 1814.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Regnier, (EmiE,) a French mechanician, born at
Semur-en-Auxois in 1751. He invented a number of
machines or instruments. Died in Paris in 1825.
Regnier, GENERAL. See REYNIER.
Regnier, (JACQUES AUGUSTE ADOLPHE,) a French
philologist, born at Mentz in 1804. He became in 1843
preceptor of the Count de Paris, whom he followed into
exile in 1848. He was admitted into the Institute in
1855. Among his works are a " German Dictionary,"
(1841,) in which he was aided by Sinister, and the " Pra-
ti'9akya" of the " Rig-Veda," Sanscrit text, with French
version, (3 vols., 1856-58.)
Regnier, (JACQUES AUGUSTIN,) a French landscape-
painter, born in Paris in 1787.
Regnier, (Louis,) Sieur de la Planche, a French
Hucuenot, noted as a negotiator and writer. He wrote
a " History of France in the Reign of Francis II.," (1576,)
which is commended. Died about 1580.
Regnier, (MATHURIN,) a French satirical poet, born
at Chartres in 1573, was a nephew of the poet P. Des-
portes. He obtained a canonicate at Chartres in 1604,
but he was licentious in morals. His works consist of six
teen satires, and some elegies, odes, etc., the first edition
of which was dated 1608. He imitated Horace, Juvenal,
and Martial. His style is natural and remarkable for
facility. "The satires of Regnier," says Hallam, " have
been highly praised by Boilean, — a competent judge, no
doubt, in such matters. Some have preferred Regnier
even to himself, and found in this old Juvenal of France
a certain stamp of satirical genius which the more pol
ished critic wanted." (" Introduction to the Literature
of Europe.") Died at Rouen in 1613.
See BROSSETTE. " Notice sur Regnier," prefixed to an edition of
his works, 17215; MORERI, " Dictionnaire Histonque;" NICEKON,
" Memoires ;" SAINTE-RF.UVE, " Tableau de la Poesie Francaise;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Regnier-Desmarais, reh-ne-a'di'mt'ri', (FRANC.OIS
SERAPHIN,) a French poet and"' grammarian, born in
Paris in 1632. He was appointed prior of Grammont
by the king in 1668, and admitted into the French Acad
emy in 1670. He was one of the principal authors or
editors of the Dictionary of the French Academy.
Among his works are a good " Treatise on French
Grammar," (1705,) and "Poems in French, Italian,
Spanish, and Latin," (1707.) Died in 1713.
See D'ALEMBERT, "Histoire des Membres de 1'Academie Frnn-
caise."
€ as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled : s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
REGNIER
REID
Regnier-Destourbet, reh-ne-i' di'tooR'bi', (Hippo-
LYTE FRANC.OIS,) a French litterateur, born at Langres
in 1804, wrote dramas, tales, etc. Died in Paris in 1832.
Reg'u-lus, (MARCUS ATILUUS,) a Roman general,
distinguished in the first Punic war. lie was consul
for the second time in 256 B.C., and gained a naval vic
tory over the Carthaginians. Having invaded Africa,
he defeated the enemy and advanced nearly to Carthage.
He was defeated in turn, and taken prisoner, in 255.
The victors sent him with some ambassadors to Rome
to negotiate a peace, on condition that he should return
if the Roman senate should reject their terms. He
advised the senate not to make peace, and returned to
Carthage. This act of patriotism was much celebrated
by ancient writers, according to whom Regulus died a
victim to the cruelty of his captors.
See EKNESTI, " Dissertatio de M. A. Regulo," 1684; NIEBUHK,
"History of Rome;" J. REV, "Dissertation sur Regulus," 1836;
CICERO, ""De Officiis."
Rehberg, ra'beRG, (AUGUST WII.IIKT.M,) a German
publicist, born at Hanover in 1757; died in 1836.
Rehfues, von, fon ra'fiis, (PmLiPP JosKi'H,) a Ger
man writer and journalist, born at Tubingen in 1779.
He was for a time associate editor of the " Morgenblatt."
He published in 1813 his work on Spain, which was
translated into French by Guizot. Died in 1843.
Rehni, ram, (FKIKDRICH,) a German historian, born
in Hesse in 1792. He wrote a " History of the Middle
Ages," (8 vols., 1820-38.) Died in 1847.
Rehnskjold, ran'chold, (CARL GUSTAV, ) COUNT
OK, a Swedish general, born at Stralsund in 1651. He
gained a victory over the King of Poland at Frauen-
stadt, (1703,) and accompanied Charles XII. in the
invasion of Russia. After Charlrs was wonndcd at
Ptiltowa, (1709,) Rehnskjold took command of the army,
and was made a prisoner. Died in 1722.
Re-ho-bo'am, [Heb. D^OTTI ; Fr. ROISOAM, ro'-
bo'oN',] King of Judah, succeeded his father Solomon
in 975 li.c. By his rash and ungracious answer to a
petition that he would lighten the yoke which his father
had imposed, he provoked ten tribes to revolt. He
waged a long war against Jeroboam, the leader of the
ten tribes. His reign lasted seventeen years.
See I. Kings xii. and xiv. ; II. Chronicles x., xi., and xii.
Reicha, n'xa, (ANTON,) a German composer and
eminent writer on music, was born at Prague in 1770.
He produced a symphony which was performed with
success at Paris in 1799. About 1802 he went to Vienna,
where he became intimate with Haydn and Beethoven,
and composed, besides other works, thirty-six fugues for
the piano. He resided in Paris from 1808 until his
death. His reputation is founded chiefly on his "Treat
ise on Melody," ("Traite de Melodic," 1814,) and his
"System of Harmony," ("Traite complet et raisonne
d'Harmonie pratique," 1818.) Died in 1836.
_ See FETIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale ;" DEI.AIRE, "Notice sur Reicha, Musicien ,"
1837.
Reichard, rl'KaRt, (CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB,) a Ger
man geographer, born at Schleiz in 1758. He published
a number of valuable maps and charts, among which
we may name the "Chart of the World according to
Mercator's Projection," and "Chart of Gaul" for the
explanation of Caesar's writings. Died in 1837.
Reichard, (HEINRICH AUGUST,) a German litterateur,
born at Gotha in 1751. He wrote dramas, political
treatises, descriptive works, and a "Traveller's Guide"
for Europe, (1793,) which was very successful. Died
in 1828.
Reichard, (HF.INRICH GOTTFRIED,) a German phi
lologist, born at Schleiz in 1742. He produced a Latin
version of the New Testament, (1799,) the style of which
is praised for purity. Died in 1801.
Reichardt, rl'KaRt, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH,) a Ger
man composer and writer on music, was born at Konigs-
berg in 1751. He was patronized by Frederick the
Great, who appointed him chapel-master at Berlin on
the death of Graun. Among his master-pieces is a
funeral hymn ( Tratiercantate ) for Frederick the Great.
Died in 1814.
See FETIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens."
Reicheiibach, n'Ken-baK', (ANTON BENEDICT,) a
German naturalist, a brother of th,e following, was born
at Leipsic in 1807. He has published several works on
animals, etc.
Reicheiibach, (HEINRICH GOTTLIEP, LUDWIG, )
professor of natural history in the Surgical Academy at
Dresden, was born at Leipsic in 1793. He published a
"Flora Germanica," (in 15 vols., 1853,) and the first
part of a great work devoted to birds and mammalia.
His son GUSTAV, born in 1822, a botanist, aided in
the composition of the "Flora Germanica."
Reicheiibach, von, fon ri'Ken-baK/, ( GKOKG, ) a
German mechanician, born at Durlach in 1772. He
established at Munich a great manufactory of telescopes
and other optical and philosophical instruments of su
perior quality. Fraunhofer was his assistant or partner.
Died in 1826.
Reicheiibach, von, ( KARL, ) BARON, a German
chemist, born at Stuttgart in 1788. He discovered
paraffin and creosote, and wrote, besides other works,
"Geological Researches in Moravia," (1834.) He main
tained the existence of an imponderable agent, which
he calls Qd, and which he supposes to be widely diffused
in nature. Died in 1869.
Reichstadt, nK/stat, DUKK OF, (NAPOLEON II.,)
King of Rome, the only son of Napoleon I. and Maria
Louisa, was born in Paris on the 2Oth of March, 1811.
His lull name was NAPOLEON FRANC.OIS CHARLES
JOSEPH. In 1814 Napoleon I. abdicated in favour of his
son; but Louis XVIII. was preferred by the senate,
and the young Napoleon was taken to Austria by Maria
Louisa. He received the title of Duke of Reichstadt
from the Emperor of Austria in 1818. lie entered the
Austrian army, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-
colonel in 1831. His physical organization was feeble,
but his intellect was active, and he is said to have pos
sessed a rare aptitude for the acquisition of languages.
Died near Vienna in July, 1832.
See DE MONTBEL, " Le Due de Reichstadt," 1^32; FK. LE-
COMTE, "Histoire de Napoleon II," 1X42, J. DE SAINT-FELIX,
"Histoire de Napoleon II," 1856.
Reid, reed, (DAVID BOSWKLL,) M.I)., a Scottish
chemist and writer, born in Edinburgh in 1805. He
began to lecture on chemistry in Edinburgh in 1833.
He invented an improved method of ventilation, and
was employed about five years in the ventilation of the
new Houses of Parliament. He published, besides other
works, a "Text-Book for Students of Chemistry," (1834.)
About 1856 he removed to the United States. Died in
Washington in April, 1863.
Reid, reed, (MAYNE,) a novelist, born in the north of
Ireland in 1818. He began about 1838 a tbur in Mexico,
Texas, etc., and passed some months among the savages.
In 1846 and 1847 he fought as captain in the army of the
United States against the Mexicans. He wrote several
successful novels, among which are "The Rifle Rangers,"
(1849,) and "The War-Trail," (1857.)
Reid, reed, (SAMUEL CHESTER,) CAPTAIN, an Ameri
can naval officer, born at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1783.
He commanded the brig General Armstrong in a fight
against three British vessels at Fayal in September, 1814.
Died at New York in 1861.
Reid, (THOMAS,) a Scottish divine and eminent writer
on mental philosophy, was born at Strachan, in Kin-
cardineshire, in April, 1710. He studied at Marischal
College, Aberdeen, and became minister of New Machar
'n T737- I'1 *752 ne was appointed professor of moral
philosophy at King's College, Aberdeen. He succeeded
Adam Smith as professor of moral philosophy at Glas
gow in 1763, and published an " Inquiry into the Human
Mind," (1764,) which was designed to neutralize the
skeptical doctrines which Hume had advocated as de
ductions from the ideal system of Berkeley. His other
principal works are " Essays on the Intellectual Powers
of Man," (1785,) and "Essays on the Active Power of
the Human Mind," (1788.) Died at Glasgow in October,
1796. In reply to some writers who are disposed to
deny the name of philosopher to Reid, Mackintosh
observes, " As there are too many who seem more wise
than they are, so it was the more uncommon fault of
Reid to appear less a philosopher than he really was."
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
REID
1879
RE IN ESI US
In another place he calls Reid "a patient, modest, and
deep thinker." Hume himself appears to have enter
tained a similar estimate of Reid, although differing from
him so widely in his philosophical views.
See a ''Life of Dr. Reid," by DUGALD STEWART, prefixed to a
posthumous edition of his "Essays;" CHAMBERS, "Biographical
Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" MACKINTOSH, "View of the
Progress of Ethical Philosophy," in his preliminary remarks on
Dugaicl Stewart; ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Monthly
Review" for May and July, 1764, and February, 1X04; "Edinburgh
Review" for January, 1804; "British Quarterly Review" for May,
1847.
Reid, (Sir WILLIAM,) MAJOR-GENERAL, F.R.S., a
British engineer and scientific writer, born in Fifeshire
in 1791. He served as an officer of engineers in Spain,
America, etc., became Governor of Bermuda in 1838,
and commanding engineer at Woolwich in 1849. He
published a work entitled "An Attempt to Develop the
Law of Storms by Means of Facts arranged according
to Place and Time," (1838,) which attracted much at
tention. In 1849 he produced "The Progress of the
Development of the Law of Storms," etc. He was
Governor of Malta from 1851 to 1858. Died in London
in October, 1858.
Reiffenberg, de, deh rlf fen-be" RC/, (FREDERIC Au-
GUSTK FERDINAND THOMAS,) BARON, a Belgian litte
rateur, born at Mons in 1795. He wrote a "History of
the Order of the Golden Fleece," (1830,) and several
works on the history of Flanders. Died in 1850.
See LUTHEKEAU, " Notice sur M. le Baron de Reiffenberg." 1850 ;
QUF.TELKT, " Notice sur F. A. F. T. Baron de Reiffenberg," 1852.
Reigny, rin'ye', (Louis AKF.L BEFFROI, ) called
COUSIN JACQUES, an eccentric French writer of plays
and burlesque works, was born at Laon in 1757; died
in 1810.
Reil, ril, (JoHANN CHRISTIAN,) a Dutch or German
physician, born at Rauden, in East Friesland, in 1758.
He became professor of therapeutics at Halle in 1788.
He published a number of- esteemed medical works.
Died in 1813.
Reille, ril or ri'ye, (HoNORE- CHARLES MICHEL
JOSEPH,) COUNT, a French general, born at Antibes
(Var) in 1775. He commanded a brigade at the battle
of Jena, (1806,) soon after which he became a general
of division, and aide-de-camp to Napoleon. He con
tributed to the victory at Friedland, (1807,) distinguished
himself at Wagram, (1809,) and obtained command of
the army of Portugal in 1812. In 1815 he fought for
Napoleon at Waterloo, where he commanded a corps-
d'armee. He became a marshal of France in 1847. Died
in 1860.
-See " Xouvelle Biographic Genera'e."
Reiraar. See REIMARUS.
Reimarus, rl-ma'rus, [Fr. RF.IMAR, ri'miR',] (HER
MANN SAMUEL,) a German philologist, born at Hamburg
in 1694, became professor of Hebrew and mathematics
in his native city. He was the author of the celebrated
" Wolfenbiittel Fragments," a series of essays published
by Lessing in 1777. (See LESSING.) Reimarus was a
son-in-law of J. A. Fabricius, whom he assisted in sev
eral of his philological works. He also wrote a treatise
"On the Principal Truths of Natural Religion," (1754,)
and "Observations on the Instinct of Animals," (1762.)
Died in 1765 or 1768.
See J. G. BtiscH, "Memoria Reimari," 1769; HIRSCHING,
" Historisch-iiterarisches Handbuch."
Reimarus, (JOHANN ALBRECHT HEINRICH,) a Ger
man philosopher and economist, born at Hamburg in
1729, was a son of the preceding. He practised medi
cine at Hamburg, and wrote several works on commerce
and political economy. Died in 1814,
See EBELING, " Memoria Reimari," 1815 ; and "Autobiography,"
1814.
Reimer, ri'mer, (GEORG ANDREAS,) a German book
seller, born at Greifswalde in 1776, founded at Berlin, in
1800, a publishing-house which rose to be one of the
most important in Germany. Among the works issued
from this establishment were the writings of Jean Paul,
Novalis, W. von Humboldt, Niebuhr, Ranke, Lach-
mann, and other Germans most eminent in literature
and science, to which we may add Schlegel's transla
tion of Shakspeare. Died in 1842.
Reimmann, i im'man, (JAKOB FRIEDRICH,) a German
bibliographer, born at Groningen in 1668. He became
minister of a church at Hildesheim in 1717. Among
his works are "An Essay of an Introduction to Literary
History," (6 vols., 1703-13,) and "Idea of the Literary
System of Antiquity," (" Idea Systematis Antiquitatis
literariae," 1718.) Died in 1743.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" REIMMANN, Autobiog
raphy, (" Eigene Lebensbeschreibung," eic.,) 1745.
Reina, ra^e-na, ? (FRANCESCO,) an Italian litterateur,
born in the province of Coino in 1772. He edited the
works of Ariosto, Zanotti, and other Italian authors.
Died in 1826.
Reinagle, rin'a-gel, ? (GEORGE PHILIP,) an excellent
English marine painter, born in London about 1802, was
a son of R. Ramsay Reinagle. Among his works is
" The Battle of Navarino." He witnessed this action.
Died in 1833 or 1835.
Reinagle, (PHILIP,) an able English painter of land
scapes, hunting-scenes, and animals, born about 1750,
was a pupil of Allan Ramsay. lie was elected a mem
ber of the Royal Academy in 1811. Among his works
is the " Sportsmen's Cabinet." Died in 1833 or 1834.
Reinagle, (RICHARD RAMSAY,) a son of the preceding,
born about 1772, painted portraits and landscapes with
success. He was elected Royal Academician in 1822.
Reinaud, ri'no', (JOSEPH TOUSSAINT,) a French
Orientalist, bom at Lambesc (Bouches-du-Rhone) in
1795. He was admitted into the Academy of Inscrip
tions in 1832, and succeeded Silvestre de Sacy as pro
fessor of Arabic at Paris in 1838. In 1854 he became
keeper of the Oriental manuscripts of the Imperial
Library. Among his works is "The Invasions of the
Saracens in France, Savoy, and Piedmont in the Eighth,
Ninth, and Tenth Centuries," (1836.) Died in June,
1867.
See " Xouvelle Biographie Generale."
Reinbeck, rln'bek, (JOHANN GUSTAV,) a German
Lutheran divine, born at Zell in 1683. He became first
minister of the church of Saint Peter, Berlin, (or at Co
logne on the Spree,) in 1717. He wrote, besides other
works, " Considerations on the Divine Truths contained
in the Confession of Augsburg," (4 vols., 1731-41.) Died
in 1742.
Reindel, rin'del, (ALBRECHT,) a German engraver,
born at Nuremberg in 1784, numbered among his pupils
Wagner, Miiller, and other distinguished artists. He
was professor in the Academy of Fine Arts of Nurem
berg. Died in 1853.
Reineccius. See REINECK.
Reineccius, ri-neYse-us, (CHRISTIAN,) a German
theologian, born in the principality of Anhalt-Zerbst in
1668. He wrote, in Latin, a " Hebrew Key (Janua) to
the Old Testament," (1733.) Died in 1752.
Reineck, rl'iiSk, [Lat. REINEC'CIUS,) (REINER,) a
German historian, born at or near Paderborn in 1541.
He taught belles-lettres at Frankfort and Helmstedt.
Among his works is " Syntagma heroicum, continens
Historiam Chaldaeorum, Assyriorum," etc., (3 vols.,
1594,) which treats of the history of the Chaldeans and
Assyrians. Died in 1595.
See HABERLIN, " De Reineccii Meritis," etc., 1746 ; TEISSIER,
" filoges."
Reinecke, rl'nek-keh, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH,) a noted
German actor, born at Helmstedt in 1747 ; died in 1787.
Reineggs, ri'nlgs or ri'ne'ks, (JAKOB,) a German
physician, born at "Eisleben in 1744. He practised at
Tiflis, in Georgia, and wrote a " Description of Cau
casus." Died at Saint Petersburg in 1793.
Reiner, rl'ner, (\VENZEL LORENZ,) a German painter,
born at Prague in 1686. He painted history and land
scapes with success, both in oil and fresco. His design
and colour are much praised. Died at Prague in 1743.
Reinesius, ri-na'ze-us, (THOMAS,) a German phy
sician and scholar, born at Gotha in 1587, was styled by
Haller " a miracle of learning." He was for several
years public physician at Altenburg, and subsequently
removed to Leipsic. About the same time he was made
a councillor by the Elector of Saxony. Among his
numerous works may be named "On the Syrian Gods,"
(1623,) "Syntagma of Ancient Inscriptions," (1682,)
,
•c as k; 5 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^P^See Explanations, p. 23.)
RE IN HARD
1880
R EL AND
"Critical Dissertation on the Sibylline Oracles," (1702,]
and "Observations on Suidas," (all in Latin.) He also
wrote an account of his life, (in German.) Died in 1667.
See BAYLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
" Memoires."
Reinhard, rin'haRt, (CHRISTIAN TOBIAS EPHRAIM,)
a German physician, born at Camenz in 1719; died in
1792.
Reinhard, (FRANZ VOLKMAR,) a Protestant theolo
gian and distinguished pulpit orator, born at Vohen-
strauss, in Bavaria, in 1753. He became professor of
theology at Wittenberg in 1782, and in 1792 chief court
preacher at Dresden. He died in 1812, leaving a num
ber of sermons and religious treatises. His "System of
Christian Morality" (5 vols., 1788-1815) is regarded as
a valuable and profound work.
See KARL. AUGUST BOTTIGER, " F. V. Reinhard," etc., 1813;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" POLITZ, "Reinhard nach seinem
Leben und Wirken," 1813.
Reinhard, (KARL FRIEDRICH,) a diplomatist, born in
Wiirtemberg in 1761. He became French minister of
foreign affairs in July, 1799, and was employed in several
missions by Bonaparte from 1800 to 1814. He owed his
promotion to the favour of Talleyrand. Died in Paris
in 1837.
Reinhard, von, fon rin'haut, (ADOLF FRIEDRICH,
a German philosopher, born at Strelitz in 1726. He
wrote a treatise "On Optimism," (1755,) and other
works. Died at Wetzlar in 1783.
Reinhart, rln'haRt, (JoiiANN CHRISTIAN,) a German
landscape-painter and engraver, born at Hof in 1761.
Some of his best pictures are to be seen in the Mass! mi
palace at Rome. His " Landscape in a Storm," one of
his master-pieces in engraving, was dedicated to Schiller.
Died in 1847.
Reinhold, rin'holt, (CHRISTIAN ERNST GOTTLIEB
JENS,) a philosopher, a son of Karl Leonhard, noticed
below, was born at Jena in 1793. He became professor
of logic and metaphysics in his native city, and wrote,
besides other works, a "History of Philosophy," (2
vols., 1828-29.) Died in 1855.
Reinhold, [Lat. REINHOI/DUS,] (ERASMUS,) a Ger
man astronomer, born at Saalfeld, in Thuringia, in
October, 1511. He taught astronomy and mathematics
for some years at the University of Wittenberg, from
which he removed in 1552. He published a "Com
mentary on Purbach's New Theory of Planets," (" Com-
mentarius Theoricae novae Planetarum G. Purbachii,"
1542,) and tables formed from the observations of
Copernicus compared with those of Hipparchus and
Ptolemy, "Tables of the Motions of the Heavenly
Bodies," (" Prutenicas Tabulce Ccelestium Motuum,"
1551,) in which he clearly explains the equation of time.
Died in 1553. His son, ERASMUS, was a physician and
astronomer.
See DELAMBRE, " Astronomie moderne."
Reinhold, (KARL LEONHARD,) a German philoso
pher, born at Vienna in 1758. Having married the
daughter of Wieland, he became associated with him as
editor of the " Deutschen Mercur." In 1794 he became
professor of philosophy at Kiel. He was the author of
" Letters on the Philosophy of Kant," and other works.
Died in 1823.
See " K. L. Reinholds Leben," by his son, 1828; KUNO FIS
CHER, "Die neuere Philosophic seit Kant;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Reinholdus. See REINHOLD, (ERASMUS.)
Reinick, ri'nik, (ROBERT,) a German painter and
poet, born at Dantzic in 1805 ; died in 1852.
Reinoso, ra-e-no'so, (ANTONIO GARCIA,) a Spanish
painter, born at Cabral in 1623, was also an architect.
He died at Cordova in 1677.
Reinsberg, von, fon rins'be'RG, (!DA von Diirings-
feld — fon du'rings-fe'lt',) BARONESS, a German authoress,
born in Silesia in 1815. She has written many tales
and novels, which are said to display a rich imagination
and much knowledge of human nature. Among them
are "Sketches of the Great World," (1845,) "Antonio
Foscarini," (1850,) and "Clotilda," (1855.)
Reinwardt, rln'waRt, (CASPAR GEORG CARL,) a
naturalist, born at Liittringhausen, in Germany, in 1772.
He wrote "Observations on the Gold-Mines and Natural
History of the Moluccas." Died at Leyden in 1854.
Reisch, rlsh, (GEORG,) a German savant and ecclesi
astic, lived in the second half of the fifteenth century.
He was confessor to the emperor Maximilian I. He
wrote "Margarita philosophica," ("Philosophic Pearl,"
1496,) often reprinted.
Reisen, rl'zen, (CHARLES C.,) an able engraver of
gems, born in London about 1695, was the son of a
Danish artist. Died in London in 1725.
Reiser, (ANTON.) See MORITZ, (KARL PHILIPP.)
Reiset, de, deh ri'zi', (MARIE ANTOINE,) VICOMTE,
a French general, born at Colmar in 1775. He distin
guished himself at the battle of Dresden, (1813.) Died
in 1836.
See " Notice sur Jacques et Antoine de Reiset," 1851.
Reisig, ri'ziG, (KARL CHRISTIAN,) a German philolo
gist, born at Weissensee in 1792. lie was professor of
ancient literature at Halle. He wrote " Vorlesnngen
iiber Lateinische Sprachwissenschaft," ( " Projections
on Latin Philology.") Died at Venice in 1829.
Reiske, ns'keh, (JoiiANN,) a German teacher and
writer on various subjects, born at Gera in 1641 ; died
in 1701.
Reiske, [Lat. REIS'KIUS,] (JOIIANN JAKOB,) a Ger
man physician and Orientalist, born near Leipsic in
1716. At the University of Leipsic he devoted himself
chiefly to the study of Arabic, and subsequently visited
Leyden, where he was patronized by Burmann and other
learned men. On his return to Leipsic he obtained
the title of professor of Arabic, and became rector of
the College of Saint Nicholas. Among his works are
Latin translations of the "Geography" of Abulfeda, the
"Moslem Annals" of the same writer, and a German
translation of the poems of Mootenabbee, (Motenabbi,)
(unpublished,) also editions of Theocritus, (1766,) "The
Greek Orators," (12 vols., 1770-75,) Plutarch's Works,
(12 vols., 1774-79,) Dionysius of Halicarnassus, (6 vols.,
1 774-77,) and other Greek and Latin classics. Died
in 1774.
His wife, ERNESTINE CHRISTINE MULI.ER, born near
Wittenberg, was distinguished for her love of learning,
and rendered him important assistance in his literary
labours. After his death she completed several of his
works. She also published a work entitled " Hellas,"
(2 vols., 1778.) Died in 1798, aged about sixty-three.
See Reiske's Autobiography, Leipsic, 1783; S. F. N. MORUS,
"Vita Reiskii," 1777; MEUSEI., " Gelehrtes Deutschland :" HIR-
SCHING," Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ;" " Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Reiskius. See REISKE.
Reissiger, ri'sic-er, (KARL GOTTLIEB,) a German
musician and composer, born near Wittenberg in 1798.
He was appointed first chapel-master at Dresden in
1827. He composed religious music, and a number
of operas, among which are " Didone," (1823,) and
" Turandot." Died in 1859.
Reiz, rits, (FRIEDRICH WOLFGANG,) a German phi
lologist, born at Windsheim, Franconia, in 1733. He
became professor of Greek and Latin at Leipsic in 1782,
and edited some works of Aristotle, Persius, and other
classics. Died in 1790.
Reiz or Reitz, rits, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH,) a German
philologist, born at Braunfels in 1695 > cnec' at Utrecht
in 1778. •
Reland, ra'lant, [Lat. RELAN'DUS,] (ADRIAAN,) an "^
eminent Dutch Orientalist, born at Ryp, near Alkmaar,'*
in 1676. He was versed in Greek and Roman antiquities-/'
as well as in many Oriental languages. He became pra:
fessor of Oriental languages and ecclesiastical historyJft
Utrecht in 1700. His principal works are an " AccJJmt
f the Moslem Religion," (" De Religione Mohamrrypica
Libri duo," 1705,) and " Palestine illustrated by flKmu-
ments," (" Palestinaex Monumentis veteribus illustrata,"
2 vols., 1714,) which is highly commended. He died at
Utrecht in February, 1718.
See NICERON, "Memoires;" PAQUOT, "Memoires;" " Nou-
•el!e Biographie Generale ;" SERRURIER, " Oratio in Obitum A
Relandi," 1718.
Reland, (PIETER,) a brother of the preceding, was a
magistrate of Haarlem. He wrote a work entitled
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mgt; n8t; good; moon;
RE LAND US
1881
REMT
"Consular Calendars," (" Fasti Consulares,") published
in 1715. He died before that date.
Relandus. See RELAND.
Relhan, rel'an, (RICHARD,) an English botanist, born
about 1755. He became rector of Hunningsby, Lin
colnshire, in 1791. He wrote a " Flora Cantabrigensis,"
(1785.) Died in 1823.
Rellstab, rel'stlp, (LuowiG,) a German litterateur,
born at Berlin in 1799, published romances, dramas,
and critical essays. Died at Berlin in 1860.
See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1837.
Rem-ber'tus, [Ger. pron. re'm-b£R/tus,] Archbishop
of Hamburg, born in Flanders, was a disciple of Ansgar.
He laboured as a missionary in Denmark. Died in 888.
Rembha. See RAMBHA.
Rembrandt van Ryn or Rijn, ren/buant vtn rin,
or Rembrandt Gerritz, reWbRant ner'rits, (PAUL,)
a celebrated Dutch painter of history and portraits, was
born on the Rhine, near Leyden, June 15, 1606. He was
a son of a miller named Hermann Gerritz. His masters
in design were P. Lastmann and Jacob Pinus, to whom
some add George Schooten. He became a citizen of
Amsterdam in 1630, and soon acquired celebrity by the
originality of his style, formed by the study of nature.
In 1632 he painted " The Lecture on Anatomy of Dr.
Tulp." He married in 1634. He became the master
of a numerous school, and, it is said, sold the copies
painted by his pupils as original works, after he had
retouched them. His biographers represent him as
avaricious, and some of them affirm that he contracted
the habits of a miser ; but this charge is not substantiated.
He derived a very large income from the sale of his
etchings, the fees of his pupils, and the sale of copies
of his works made by his pupils ; yet he became insol
vent in 1656.
Rembrandt was a brilliant colorist, and a consummate
master of chiaroscuro. He imitated the effects of light
with great success, but was deficient in design and taste.
He neglected or despised the antique. Among his cele
brated pictures are "Tobit and the Angel Raphael,"
"The Woman taken in Adultery," "The Round of the
Night," "The Syndics of the Merchant Drapers," and
a portrait of himself with his wife. His portraits are
by some critics considered more admirable than his his
torical works. He produced a great number of etchings,
some of which command enormous prices, (100 guineas
each.) As an engraver in aquafortis he has never been
surpassed. Among his engravings are a " Descent from
the Cross," "Christ healing the Sick," "The Raising
of Lazarus," and portraits of Van Coppenol and Van
Thol. He died at Amsterdam in October, 1669.
See a " Life of Rembrandt," by J. BURN'ET, 1848 ; P. SCHELTE.MA,
" Redevoerin™ over het Leven en de Verdiensten van Rembrandt
van Rijn," 1853; DF.SCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Fiamands," etc. ;
J. IMMERZEEI,, " Lofrede op Rembrandt," 1841; NAGI.ER, '; Leben
und Werke des Malers Rembrandt von Ryn," 1843; J. REXOUVIER,
" Des Types et des Manieres des Maitres-Graveurs ;" HOUBRAKEN,
"Vies des Pcintres;" DAULBV, "Descriptive Catalogue of the
Works of Rembrandt," 1796; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Rembrantz, rlm'bRants, (THIERRY,) a Dutch as
tronomer, born near the Zuyderzee about 1615; died
( after 1677.
Remer, ra'mer, QULIUS AUGUST,) a German historian,
. born at Brunswick in 1736. He published a " Manual of
.Universal History," (3 vols., 1783,) which was received
* '-with favour. Died in 1803.
/' Rerni, ra'me, or Re-migl-us, Archbishop of Rheims,
Clovis to Christianity. Died in 533 A.D.
or Remigius, a French prelate, was Arch-
of Lyons. Died in 875 A.D.
i (or Remigius) OF AUXERRE, a French monk,
rote on theology and grammar. He is said to
n the first doctor who taught publicly in Paris,
fcut 908.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Remi, ra'me', (JOSEPH HONORE,) a French litterateur,
born at Remiremont in 1738; died in Paris in 1782.
Remigio, ra-mee'jo, (FlORENTiNO,) an Italian Do
minican and writer, born at Florence about 1518. He
translated Ovid's "Heroic Epistles," and Cornelius
Nepos. Died in 1580.
Remigius. See REMI.
Remilly, reh-me'ye', (OviDE,) a French politician,
born at Versailles in 1800. He was elected mayor of
Versailles seven times between 1837 and 1855, and was
a member of the Chamber of Deputies from 1839 to
1848. He was a moderate republican in the Constituent
Assembly of 1848.
Remond, ri'm6N', (FRANCOIS,) a French Jesuit and
Latin poet, born at Dijon in 1558; died at Mantua in
1631.
Remond, de, deh ra'm6N', written also Raemond,
(Fi.ORiMOND,) a French historian, born at Agen about
1540. He wrote a " History of the Rise and Progress
of Heresy in this Century," (1605.) Died in 1602.
Rernond de Sainte-Albine, ra'mix' deh saNt
tl'ben', (PIERRE,) a French critic, born in Paris in 1699.
He wrote a work entitled " Le Comedien," (1747.)
Died in 1778.
Remond de Saint-Mard, ra'moN' deh sax mf R,
(TOUSSAI.NT,) a mediocre French writer, born in Paris
in 1682 ; died in 1757.
Remondini, ra-mon-dee'nee, (BALDASSARE MARIA,)
an Italian antiquary, born at Bassano in 1698, was
Bishop of Zante. He wrote a work "On the Antiqui
ties of Zante," (1756.) Died in 1777.
Remoriiio, ri-mo-ree'no, (GIOVANNI PIETRO, )
sometimes improperly written Ramorino, (JEROME,)
an Italian general, born at Genoa about 1790. He com
manded a division of the Sardinian army at Novara in
1849. He was tried for disloyalty by a military court,
and shot, in May, 1849.
Re'mus, one of the founders of Rome, was a brother
of ROMULUS, which see.
Remusat, ra'mu'zS', (JEAN PIERRE ABEL,) an emi
nent French Orientalist, born in Paris in September,
1788. He studied medicine in compliance with the
wish of his father, and learned the Chinese language
without a teacher. In i8n he published an "Essay on
the Chinese Language and Literature." He obtained an
exemption from the conscription of 1813 by the influence
of his friend Silvestre de Sacy, and became professor of
Chinese in the College of France in 1814. In 1822 he
founded the Asiatic Society of Paris. Among his chief
works are " Researches into the Tartar Languages,"
(1820,) and " Elements of the Chinese Grammar," (1822.)
" This vast and important work," says Henri Thiers, " is
the true monument of the reputation acquired by Abel
Remusat." He wrote articles for the "Biographic
Universelle." Died in 1832.
See SILVESTRE DE SACY, " filoge d'Abel Remusat;" AMPERE,
"Notice sur Abel Remusat" in the "Revue des Deux Mondes,"
November i, 1832, and November 15, 1833; •" Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Remusat, de, deh ra'mii'zi', (AUGUSTE LAURENT,)
COUNT, a French politician and advocate, born in
Provence in 1762. He became first chamberlain of
Napoleon in 1804. Died in 1823.
Remusat, de, (CHARLES,) COUNT, a French philoso
pher and minister of state, born in Paris in 1797, was a
son of the preceding. He was elected in 1830 to the
Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted with the con
servatives. He was minister of the interior from March
to October, 1840. In 1842 he published "Essays on
Philosophy," which were received with favour. He was
admitted into the French Academy in 1846, in place of
Royer-Collard. In the Constituent and Legislative As
semblies of 1848 and 1849 he voted with the friends of
order, (droite moderee.) He has been a frequent con
tributor to the "Revue des Deux Mondes." Among
his works is a "Treatise on German Philosophy," (1845,)
" Abelard," (2 vols., 1845,) and "Bacon, sa Vie, son
Temps," etc., (1858.)
See SAINTE-BEUVE, "Derniers Portraits ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Remusat, de, (CLAIRE ELISABETH JEANNE,) COUNT
ESS, the mother of the preceding, was born in Paris in
1780. She was a companion (dame du palais) of the
empress Josephine, and wrote an "Essay on the Edu
cation of Women," (1824.) Died in 1821.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, " Portraits des Femmes celebres."
Remy, reh-me', (JULES,) a French traveller and
naturalist, born near Chalons-sur-Marne in 1826. He
spent several years in the exploration of Brazil, Peru,
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
REN AN
1882
RENDU
Chili, the Sandwich Isles, California, Utah, etc. He
has published, besides other works, a " Journey to the
Country of the Mormons," (2 vols., 1860,) and a " His
tory of the Sandwich Isles," (1862.)
Renan, reh-n6N', (ERNEST,) an eminent French
writer, Orientalist, and critic, born at Treguier (Cotes
du Nord) in 1823. He began to study for the priesthood,
but renounced that profession because lie doubted the
truth of the orthodox creed. He displayed much learn
ing in his "General History of the Semitic Languages,"
(1855,) was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions
in 1856, and was sent to Syria in 1860 to search for relics
of ancient learning and civilization. Soon after his return
he was appointed professor of Hebrew in the College of
France, but he was suspended in 1862, in deference to the
will of those who considered him unsound in faith. He
admits the excellence of the Christian religion, but dis
credits its supernatural origin and rejects the miracles.
Among his works is a "Life of Jesus," (1863,) the suc
cess of which is attributed partly to the perfection of his
style. It has been denounced as impious by several
French prelates. Among his later works is " Histoire
des Origines de Christianisme," "The Apostles," ("Les
Apotres," 1866,) and "Vie de Saint-Paul," (1869.) "It
is not easy," says M. de Pressense, " to grasp the He
gelian atheism athwart the sensibilities, the lyric and
mystic effusions, the prayers to the Celestial Father,
which abound in M. Kenan's books; but under this
unctuous surface is soon perceived the hollow void,
the abyss whence we have emerged, the impersonal
ideal of which the name of God is a heavy and vulgar
translation."
See SCHERER, "Melanges;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;"
"Edinburgh Review" for April, 1864: " Blackwood's Magazine" for
No%-ember, 1861 ; " British Quarterly Review" for July and October,
1863, and October, 1866 ; "Westminster Review" for October, 1866;
"North British Review" for February, 1864.
Renard, reh-nf R', (JEAN AUGUSTIN,) a French archi
tect, bom in Paris in 1744.
was patronized by the kin
He studied in Rome, and
Among his works was the
glass roof (comblc) of the Salon d Exposition of the
Louvre. Died in 1807.
Renard, (JEAN BAPTISTE BRUNO,) a Belgian military
writer, born at Tournai in 1804. Among his works is a
" Political and Military History of Belgium," (2 vols.,
1847-51.)
Renard, (SiMON,) a diplomatist, born at Vesoul, in
France, entered the service of Philip II. of Spain, who
employed him as an ambassador. He was an enemy of
Cardinal Granvelle. Died at Madrid in 1575.
Renata. See RENEE.
Reiiatus. See RK.NE.
Renau d'£li9agaray, reh-no' da'le'sf'glW, (BER
NARD,) a French naval officer and military engineer,
born in Beam in 1652. He made improvements in the
construction of vessels, and invented bomb-vessels or
mortar-boats, (galiotcs,) with which Algiers was bom
barded in 1680. He directed the siege of Gibraltar in
1704, in the service of Philip V. of Spain. He published
a "Theorie de la Manoeuvre des Vaisseaux," (1689.)
Died in 1719.
See VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV ;" FONTENELLE, " E°loges ;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Renaud. See REGNAUD.
Reiiaudie, de la, deh If reh-no'de', (GODEFROI,) a
French Huguenot, was the leader of a conspiracy against
the family of Guise, called " the conspiracy of Amboise."
The design having been betrayed, he was killed in a
fight with the partisans of the Guises, in 1560. .
See DAVILA, "The Civil Wars of France;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Renaudiere, La. See LA RENAUDIERE.
Reiiaudin, reh-nS'daN', (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a French
admiral, born in Saintonge in 1757. He distinguished
himself as captain of Le Vengeur in a battle against the
English on the ist of June, 1794.
in this action. Died in 1809.
His ship was sunk
See VAN TEN-AC, " Histoire de la Marine ;" " Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generale."
Renaudin, (LEOPOLD,) a French Jacobin, born in
Lorraine in 1749, was a partisan of Robespierre. He
was guillotined with Fouquier-Tinville in 1795.
Renaudot, reh-no'do', (CLAUDE,) a French historian,
jorn at Vesoul about 1730, wrote "The Revolutions
of Empires," (2 vols., 1769,) and other works. Died
about 1780.
See QUERARD. " La France Litteraire."
Renaudot, (EusEKE,) ABBE, a French Orientalist
and writer on the history of the Eastern Church, a
grandson of Theophraste, noticed below, was born in
Paris in 1646. He was versed in the Syriac and Arabic
languages. In 1689 he was chosen a member of the
French Academy. Among his principal works are a
"History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria," (1713,)
which is said to be the most complete work on the
ecclesiastic history of Christian Egypt, and a " Col
lection of Oriental Liturgies," (2 vols., 1716.) Died
in 1720.
SeeNicKRON, " Memoires;" MORERI," Dictionnaire Historique ;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Renaudot, (THEOPHRASTE,) a French physician and
journalist, born at Loudun in 1584, was the grandfather
of the preceding. He founded in 1631 the "Gazette de
France," the first of French newspapers, which he
continued to publish in Paris until his death, in 1653.
After his death it was published by his sons, Eusebe
and Isaac.
See "Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Renauldin, reh-no'daN', (LEOPOLD JOSEPH,) a French
physician, born at Nancy in 1775. He served as phy
sician in the army during the empire, and was one of
the consulting physicians of King Louis Philippe. He
wrote articles for the " Biographie Universelle," and a
"Sketch of the History of Medicine," (1812.) Died
in 1859.
See SACHAILE, " Les Medecins de Paris."
Renazzi, ra-nat'see, (FILIPPO MARIA,) an Italian
jurist, born at Rome in 1742. He was professor of
criminal law at Rome about thirty-four years. He pub
lished "Elements of Criminal Law," (3 vols., 1773-81,)
which was highly esteemed and often reprinted. Died
in 1808.
See MONTANARI, "Elogio delPAvvocato F. M. Renazzi," 1836;
CANCELLIERI, " Elogio di F. M. Renazzi," 1819.
Ren'del, (JAMES MEADOWS,) an English civil engi
neer, born near Dartmoor, in Devonshire, in 1799. He
was distinguished as a constructor of bridges, clocks,
harbours, and hydraulic works. He settled in London
in 1838. Among his works are the harbours of H
head and Portland, and the docks at Birkenhead
1855 he was employed by the senate of Hamburg to
protect the port of that city from the accumulation of
sand. Died in November, 1856.
Rendu, rdN'dii', (AMKROISE MARIE MODESTK,) a
Frenchman, noted as the organizer of primary instruc
tion in France, was born in 1778. He was appointed a
member of the council of the university in 1809, and
was for many years superintendent of primary schools.
He v^rote several works on education, morals, etc. Died
in 1860.
See EUGENE RENDU, "Ambroise Rendu et PUniversite' de
France," 1861 ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Rendu, (EUGENE,) a publicist, a son of the preceding,
was born in Paris in 1824. He has written on educa
tion, and on the political relations of France, Italy, and
Germany.
Rendu, (JEANNE MARIE,) called SISTER ROSALIE, a
French nun and philanthropist, born at Comfort in 1787.
She lived in Paris, and was eminent for her charitable
deeds. Several sovereigns selected her as the dispenser
of their alms. Died in 1856.
See EUGENE RENDU, " Notice sur
1856; VICOMTE DE MELUN,
BESSIE R. PARKES, "Twelve Biographical Sketches;" "Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
Rendu, (Louis,) a French prelate and writer, born
at Meyrin in 1789, was a first-cousin of the preceding.
He became Bishop of Annecy in 1843. He wrote sev
eral scientific works, and a "Treatise on the Influence
of Laws on Morals, and of Morals on Laws," (1833.)
Died in 1859.
Rendu, (VICTOR,) a French writer on rural economy,
born in Paris about 1800, is a son of Ambroise Marie,
oy-
. In
Sceur Rosalie Rendu,"
de la So2ur Rosalie,"
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
RENE
1883
RENOU
noticed above. Tie wrote "Nouveau Spectacle de la
Nature," (10 vols., 1839.)
Rene, reh-na', [Lat. RENA'TCS,] OK Axjou, Duke of
Anjou and Lorraine, King of Naples, etc., called "the
good King Rene" by his subjects, was born in 1409.
He was a son of Louis II., Duke of Anjou and Count of
Provence. He succeeded his brother, Louis III., in 1434,
and by the will of Queen Joanna, who died in 1435,
he became heir to the throne of Naples. This throne,
however, was claimed by Alfonso of Aragon, who drove
Rene out of Naples in 1442 and remained master of
that kingdom. Rene was an ally of Charles VII. of
France in his war against the English. He found recrea
tion in art and literature; he was a painter and a poet.
His daughter Margaret was the wife of Henry VI. of
England. He died in 1480, after which Provence was
annexed to France.
Reneaulme, reh-ndm', ( MICHEL Lours,) a French
botanist, born at Blois about 1675. He became a mem
ber of the Academy of Sciences, and was charged by
his colleagues to revise and publish the manuscripts of
Tournefort, but appears not to have performed that task.
Died in 1739.
Reneaulme, de, deh reh-nom', (PAUL,) a French
botanist and physician, born at Blois about 1560. He
published " Specimen of the History of Plants," ("Speci
men Historian Plantarum," 1611.) Died in 1624.
Renee, [It. RKNATA, ri-na'ta,] or Renee de France,
reh-na' deh fRSxss, a daughter of Louis XII., was born
in 1510. and was married in 1527 to the Duke of Ferrara.
She was eminent for talents and learning, and was a
liberal pitron of literary men. She was converted to
Protestantism by Calvin about 1535. After the death
of her husband (1559) she resided in France, at Mon-
targis, where she displayed firmness and courage in
protecting the persecuted Huguenots. Died in 1575
or 1576.
See CATTEAU-CALI.EVIM.E, "Vie de Renee cle France," 17^1;
MUXCH, " Renee von Est," 1831 ; " Memorials of Renee of France,
Duchess of Ferrara," London, 1855.
Renee, reh-na', (AMEDEE,) a French litterateur, born
at Caen in 1808. He became librarian of the Sorbonne
in 1849, and chief editor of the "Constitutionnel" in
1857. He wrote articles for the "Nouvelle Biographie
Ge'ne'rale," and published several works, one of which
is entitled "The Nieces of Mazarin," (2 vols., 1856.)
Died in November, 1859.
Reni, (Gumo.) See Guino.
Renter, reh-ne-i', (CHARLES ALPHOXSE LEOX,) a
French antiquary7""born at Charleville (Ardennes) in
1809. He became a member of the Academy of In
scriptions in 1856. His researches in Latin inscriptions
were so successful that a chair of Roman antiquities and
epigraphy was founded for him at Paris in 1861. In
1855 he was elected president of the Imperial Society
of Antiquaries.
Reiner, ra-ne-aia', (STEFANO ANDREA,) an Italian
naturalist, born at Chioggia, near Venice, in 1759. He
obtained the chair of natural history at Padua in 1806.
He wrote "Tables of Zoology," a "Catalogue of Shell-
Fish," (1802,) and "Elements of Mineralogy," (1825-28.)
Died in 1830.
See CALCAGNO, " Elogio storico di S. A. Renier," 1830.
Renieri, ra-ne-a'ree, (VixcExzo,) an Italian astron
omer, was born at Genoa. He was a pupil of Galileo,
who, when his sight failed in 1637, committed to his care
some observations on the satellites of Jupiter. Renieri
published these, under the title of "Tabulae Mediceae
universales," (2 vols., 1639-47.) Died at Pisa in 1648.
Renkin, (SWALM.) See RANNEQUIN.
Remiefort, de, deh ren'fok', (URBAIN SOUCHU,) a
French traveller, born about 1630. He published a
"Narrative of a Voyage to Madagascar," (1668,) and a
" History of the East Indies," (1688.)
Rennel. See RENXELL.
Reii'nell or Ren'nel, (JAMES,) a British engineer
and eminent geographer, was born near Chudleigh, in
Devonshire, in 1742. As an engineer of the East India
Company, he served in the campaigns of Lord Clive,
obtained the rank of major, and became surveyor-gene
ral of Bengal. Having returned to England about 1782,
lie published an excellent map of Hindostan, accom
panied by a Memoir, (1783.) He was elected about
1783 a Fellow of the Royal Society. His reputation
was widely extended by "The Geographical System of
Herodotus Examined and Explained," (1800,) a work of
great merit. Among his other works are " Illustrations,
chiefly Geographical, of the History of the Expedition
of the Younger Cyrus from Sarclis to Babylon, and the
Retreat of the Ten Thousand," (1816,) and a "Treatise
on the Comparative Geography of Western Asia," with
an Atlas, (1831.) Died in London in 1830.
See AVALCKENAER, "Notice *ur !a Vie et les Ouvrac;es de
M. Rennell," 1842; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Monthly
Review" for December, 1800.
Rennell, (THOMAS,) an English portrait-painter, born
in Devonshire in 1718; died in 1788.
Rennell, (THOMAS,) an eloquent English preacher,
born in 1753. He became Dean of Winchester in 1805.
It is said that William Pitt called him the "Demos
thenes of the pulpit." A volume of his sermons was
published. Died in 1840.
Rennell or Reiinel, (THOMAS,) a learned English
theologian, born at Winchester in 1787. He became
vicar of Kensington in 1816, and prebendary of Salis
bury in 1823. He wrote several works on theology.
Died in 1824.
Rermeville, de, deh ren'veK, (RENE AUGUSTS CON-
STANTIX,) a French litterateur, born at Caen about 1650.
He was confined in the Bastille from 1702 to 1713, on a
charge that he was a spy. He wrote a " History of the
Bastille," (1715,) and several poems. Died in 1723.
Rermie, ren'ne, (GEORGE,) a civil and mechanical
engineer, born in Surrey in 1791, was a son of John,
I noticed below. He formed a partnership with his
! brother John. They built docks at Deptford, Chatham,
and Plymouth, the East and West India Docks at
London, the harbour of Liverpool, and other harbours.
They constructed steam-engines for many vessels-of-
war and for the steamers of the Peninsular and Oriental
Navigation Company. Among their works are several
iron ships, the dock-gates of Sebastopol, and a number
of railroads. George Rennie wrote treatises " On the
Friction of Solids," and "On Hydraulics." Died in 1866.
Rennie, (JOHN,) a distinguished British civil engineer,
architect, and mechanician, born at Phantassie, in Had-
dingtonshire, Scotland, in June, 1761. He removed to
London about 1782, and was first employed in the fabri
cation of steam-engines and other machinery. About
1800 he erected a fine bridge at Kelso. He was after
wards employed as engineer of many public works,
among which are the Kennet and Avon Canal, the South-
wark Bridge over the Thames, the London Docks, the
pier at Holyhead, and the Waterloo Bridge, which is
considered his best work of that class. It was finished
about 1817. Died in 1821.
See SMILES, " Lives of the Engineers ;" CHAMBERS, " Biographi
cal Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Rennie, (Sir JOHX,) F.R.S., a younger son of the
preceding, was born about 1796. He was architect of
the London Bridge, which was finished in 1831. He
ceased to be a partner of his brother in 1845, after
which he devoted his time to architecture.
Ren'ni-ger, written also Rhanger, (MICHAEL,) an
English clergyman and Latin poet, born in Hampshire
in 1529. He was one of the chaplains of Queen Eliza
beth, and Archdeacon of Winchester. Died in 1609.
Re'no, (JESSE L.,) an American general, born in Vir
ginia in 1825, graduated at West Point in 1846. He
served as an officer in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and
became a captain in 1860. He commanded a brigade
of the Union army at Roanoke Island and at Newbern,
March, 1862. He served with the rank of major-gene
ral at the second battle of Bull Run, August 29 and 30
of the same year. He rendered important services at
South Mountain, where he was killed, September 14,
1862.
Renou, reh-noo', (AXTOIXE,) a French painter and
versifier, born in Paris in 1731. He translated Dufres-
e as k; c as s; g hard;^-zs,j; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (£^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
RENOUARD
1 884
RESENDE
noy's Latin poem on Painting, (1789,) and Tasso's "Je
rusalem Delivered." Died in 1806.
Renouard, reh-noo'ta', (ANTOINE AUGUSTIN,) a
French bibliographer, born in Paris in 1765, was a book
seller. He published, besides other works, "Annals of
the Printing-Press of Aldus, or a History of the Three
. Manutii and their Editions," (1803,) and a " History of
the Family of Estienne (Stephanus) and of their Edi
tions," (1838.) Died in 1853.
See QUERARD, "La France Litte'raire."
Renouard, ( AUGUSTIN CHARLES,) an advocate, a
son of the preceding, was born in 1794. He became a
peer of France in 1846. He published a " Treatise on
the Rights of Authors in Literature," etc., (2 vols., 1838,)
and other works.
Renouard, (NICOLAS,) a French translator, born in
Berry, lived about 1615-40. He produced a version
of Ovid's "Metamorphoses," (1615,) which was very
popular.
Renouvier, reh-noo've-i', (CHARLES BERNARD,) a
French writer on politics and philosophy, born in 1815,
joined the radical party. Among his works are a
"Manual of Ancient Philosophy," (2 vols., 1844,) and
" Essays of General Criticism," (" Essais de Critique
generale," 1854.)
Renouvier, (JULES,) a French archaeologist, born at
Montpellier in 1804. He was a republican member of
the Constituent Assembly of 1848, and an opponent of
Louis Napoleon in 1850. He wrote, besides other works,
" Notes on the Gothic Monuments of Pisa, Florence,
Rome, and Naples," (1841,) and a valuable treatise on
engraving, entitled " Des Types et des Manieres des
Maitres-Graveurs," (4 parts, 1853-56.) Died in Paris
in 1860.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge^ie'rale."
Reii'shaw, (WILLIAM B.,) an American naval officer,
born in New York State, entered the navy in 1831. He
became a lieutenant in 1841, and a commander in 1861.
In the latter part of 1862 he obtained command of a
squadron which blockaded Galveston. He blew up
his ship, which had run aground near Galveston, rather
than surrender it, and was killed by the explosion, in
January, 1863.
See TENNEV, " Military and Naval History of the Rebellion."
Renti or Renty, de, deh r6N'te', (GASTON JEAN
BAPTISTE,) BARON, a French ascetic, born near Bayeux
in 1611, was noted for piety. Died in 1648.
See P. DE SAINT-JURE, "Vie de M. de Renty," 1651. (This
was abridged by JOHN WESLEY.)
Renty, de. See RENTI, DE.
Renucci, ra-noot'chee, (FRANCESCO OTTAVIANO,) an
Italian historian, born in Corsica in 1767. He wrote a
" History of Corsica from 1789 to 1830," (1834.) Died
in 1842.
Renusson, de, dehreh-nii'soN', (PHILIPPE,) a French
jurist, born at Mans in 1632 ; died in 1669. The French
biographer who gives the dates as above says, " At the
age of forty-nine he passed for one of the ablest jurists."
Ren'wick, (JAMES,) a Scottish preacher, called a
martyr of the Covenant, was born in Dumfries -shire
about 1662. He was an active and uncompromising
promoter of the cause of the Covenanters. He was
executed in 1688.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Ren'wick, (JAMES,) LL.D., an American savant,
born in 1792, became in 1820 professor of chemistry and
physics at Columbia College, New York. He published
"Treatise on the Steam Engine," (1830,) "Outlines
of Natural Philosophy," (1832,) "Outlines of Geology,"
(1838,) a "Memoir of De Witt Clinton," (1840,) and
Lives of Robert Fulton, David Rittenhouse, and Count
Rufnford, in Sparks's "American Biography." Died in
New York in 1863.
See ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Renzi, ren'zee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian scholar and
critic, born at Castelsalfi in 1780. He edited the works
of Dante, Ariosto, and Petrarch. Died in 1823.
Repelaer van Driel, ra'peh-ltR' vSn dReel, (OK-
K.ER,) a Dutch statesman, born at Dort in 1759; died
in 1832.
Repfold, re"p'folt,(JoHANN GEORG,) a German mecha
nician, born in the kingdom of Hanover in 1770, became
noted for the excellence of his astronomical and other
instruments. Died in 1830.
Repuin, r£p-nen' or r£p-neen', written also Repnine,
(NICHOLAS VASILIEVITCH,) PRINCE, a Russian general
and diplomatist, born in 1734, was a nephew of Count
Panin. He was sent as ambassador to Poland in 1764,
and gave much offence to the Poles by his arrogance
and by his efforts to destroy their nationality. In 1774
he signed with the Turkish vizier the treaty of Koutchouk-
Kainardji. Having obtained command of the army of
the Ukraine, he defeated the Turks at Matzin in 1791.
He was raised to the rank of field-marshal in 1796.
Died in 1801.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Repp, rep, (THORLEIF GUDMUNDSSON,) an Icelandic
linguist, born at Reykiadal in 1794. He was versed in
nearly all the modern languages of Europe, and in
Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. About 1825 he became
under-Iibrarian of the Advocates' Library of Edinburgh.
He removed to Copenhagen in 1837. Among his works
are a " Historical Treatise on the Trial by Jury," in Eng
lish, (1832,) and "Dano-Hungarian Discoveries," (1843.)
See ERSI.EW, " Forfatter-Lexicon."
Rep'toii, (HUMPHRY,) an English landscape-gardener,
born at Bury Saint Edmund's in 1752. He was a mer
chant in his youth, but, having failed in business, he
adopted the profession of landscape-gardener, in which
he found little or no competition. He was author of
"Sketches and Hints on Landscape-Gardening," (1795,)
and other professional works. Died in 1818.
See the " Monthly Review" for July, 1804.
Requeiio y Vives, ra-ka'no e vce'ves, (ViNCENCio,)
a Spanish antiquary and writer on fine arts, was born at
Granada about 1730. (Another writer says he was born
at Calatraho in 1743.) He became a resident of Rome
about 1767. lie produced a treatise on ancient painting,
entitled " Essay on the Restoration of Ancient Art,"
(" Saggio sul Ristabilimento dell'antica Arte," etc., 1784.)
Died about 1805.
Requesens, ra-ka-sens', (Luis DK Zuniga — thoon-
yee'ga,) a Spanish commander, born in 1522. He dis
tinguished himself as lieutenant of Don John of Austria
at the battle of Lepanto, and succeeded the Duke of
Alva in 1573 as Governor of the Netherlands, the people
of which were then in arms against the Spanish domi
nation. His army gained a victory over Louis of Nassau
near Nymwegen ; but this advantage was neutralized by a
mutiny of the Spaniards. While his army was besieging
Ziriczee, he died, in 1576. lie was an able general, and
inclined to moderation in the use of power.
See MOTLEY'S " History of the Dutch Republic," vol. ii.
Requier, reh-ke-i', ? (AUGUSTUS JULIAN,) an Ameri
can politician and~writer, was born at Charleston, South
Carolina, in 1825. On the secession of Alabama, in 1861,
he was appointed district attorney for the southern
district of that State. He has written several poems
and dramas.
Requier, reh-keji', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French writer
and translator, borrTat Pignans in 1715 ; died in 1799.
Requin, reh-kax', (Acmi.LE PIERRE,) a French medi
cal writer, born at Lyons in 1803 ; died in Paris in 1855.
Reresby, reers'be, (Sir JOHN,) an English loyalist
and member of Parliament, wrote " Memoirs containing
several Private and Remarkable Transactions from the
Restoration to the Revolution inclusively," (1734.)
See " Memoires de Sir John Reresby," Paris; "Monk's Con
temporaries," by GUIZOT; "Retrospective Review," vol. viii., (1823.)
Resbecq, de, deh r£s'beV, (ADOLPHE CHARLES
THEODOSE FONTAINE,) a French writer, born at Lille
in 1813. He published many juvenile books.
Reschid. See RKSHEED.
Resende, de, da ra-sSn'da, (GARCIA,) a Portuguese
historian, born at Evora about 1470. He wrote a " His
tory of John II.," (1545.) Died in 1554.
Resende, de, (L. ANDREA,) a Portuguese antiquary
and poet, born at Evora in 1498. He wrote, besides
other works, "Antiquities of Portugal," (" Antiquitates
Lusitaniae," 1593.) He opened a school at Evora, in
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, t, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon;
RES EN JUS
1885
REUCHLIN
which many eminent scholars were educated. According
to M. Weiss, he was "the restorer of learning in Por
tugal." Died in 1573.
Resenius, ra-sa'ne-us, (JoHAN PAUL,) a Danish theo
logian, born in Jutland about 1560. He was professor
of theology at Copenhagen, and translated the Bible
into Danish. Died in 1638.
Resenius, (PETER,) a grandson of the preceding, was
born at Copenhagen in 1625. He obtained a chair of law
in the University of that city in 1662. He published
" Copenhagen Inscriptions, Latin, Danish, and German,"
(" Inscriptiones Hafnienses, Latinae, Danicae et Germa-
nicse," 1668,) and some legal works. Died in 1688.
See XICERON, "Memoires."
Resheed (or Reschid) Pasha, reh-sheed' pa'sha',
called also Mustafa (moos'ta-fa) Resheed, a Turkish
grand vizier and reformer, born at Constantinople about
1 800, was a brother-in-law of Alee Pasha. He obtained
the rank of pasha in 1834, and was sent as ambassador
to Paris and London. He was grand vizier for a short
time in 1837, and was appointed minister of foreign
affairs in 1839, and afterwards ably and constantly
promoted the political and social reforms begun by
Mahmood II. Died in 1858.
Resnel du Bellay, du, clii ri'nel' dii bill', (JEAN
FRANCOIS,) ABBE, a French poet and translator, born at
Rouen in 1692, became canon of a church in Paris in
1724. He produced poetical versions of Pope's " Essay
on Criticism" (1730) and "Essay on Man," (1737,) in
which, it is said, he was aided by Voltaire. He was ad
mitted into the French Academy in 1742. Died in 1761.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Restaurand, reVto'rox', (RAYMOND,) a French
medical writer, born at Pont Saint-Esprit about 1627 ;
died in 1682.
Restaut, res'tS', (PIERRE,) a French grammarian and
advocate, born at Beauvais in 1696. He wrote an ele
mentary "Treatise on French Giammar," (1730,) which
the University adopted as classic. Died in 1764.
Restout, fes'too', (JEAN,) a French painter, born at
Rouen in 1692, was a pupil and nephew of Jouvenet.
His works were more admired by his contemporaries
than they are now. Died in 1768.
Restout, (JEAN BERNARD,) a painter, born in Paris
in 1732, was a son of the preceding. He gained the
lirst prize in 1758, after which he studied at Rome.
Died in 1796.
Rethel, ra/tel, (ALFRED,) an eminent German his
torical painter, born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1816. He
studied at the Academy of Dusseldorf, and there painted
" Daniel in the Lions' Den," and a picture of " Nemesis,"
both of which were greatly admired. About 1840 he
removed to Frankfort. Among his chief works are a
series of frescos at Aix-la-Chapelle, representing the
exploits of Charlemagne, and "The Passage of the Alps
by Hannibal." He was an excellent designer. His last
years were passed at Rome, where he died in 1859.
Reti. See RATI.
Retif or Restif de la Bretonne, ra'tef' deh It bReh-
ton', (XiCOLAS EDME,) a prolific and licentious French
writer of fiction, born near Auxerre in 1734; died poor,
in Paris, in 1806.
Rettberg, ret'beRO, (FRIEDRICH WILHELM,) a Ger
man theologian and professor of theology at Marburg,
born at Celle in 1805. His principal work is an " Eccle
siastical History of Germany," (1846.) Died in 1849.
Retz, riss, (N.,) a French medical writer, born at
Arras. He obtained the title of physician to the king
about 1790. Died about 1810.
Retz, de, deh riss, (ALBERT de Gondi — deh goN'-
de',) a French courtier and general, born at Florence in
1522, was a grandfather of Cardinal de Retz. He be
came a favourite of Charles IX., and was one of the
instigators of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, (1572.)
Died in 1602.
See BRANT6ME, "Grands Capitaines ;" MORERI, " Dictionnaire
Historique. "
Retz, de, (GiLLES.) See RAIS.
Retz, rets, de, [Fr. pron. deh riss,] (JEAN FRANCOIS
PAUL DE GONDI,) CARDINAL, an ambitious French prel
ate, distinguished for his talents and factious intrigues,
was born of a noble family at Montmirail in 1614. He
attempted, by debaucheries and scandalous actions, to
frustrate the purpose of his family, who destined him
for the church. He studied, however, with ardour,
gained distinction as a disputant, and courted popularity
by profuse donations to the poor. In 1643 he was
nominated coadjutor of the Archbishop of Paris, who
was his uncle. The civil war of the Fronde, which
began in 1649, afforded him an opportunity to gratify
his ambition to be the chief of a party. He became
the master-spirit of the Frondeurs, but is said to have
opposed the more violent tendencies of that faction.
He was nominated a cardinal by the queen-regent, who
wished to conciliate him. Mazarin having recovered
his power in Paris, De Retz was arrested in December,
1652, and confined at Vincennes. He was transferred
to the chateau of Nantes, from which he escaped in
1654. He went to Rome and took part in the election
of a new pope. After he had passed some years in the
Low Countries, he was permitted to return to France.
He paid his debts, which were very large, and spent the
rest of his life in retirement. It appears that his moral
character was somewhat reformed after his imprison
ment. He died in 1679, leaving some interesting " Me
moires," (1717,) which have been translated into English.
"Their animated style," says Hallam, "their excellent
portraitures of character, their acute and brilliant re
marks, distinguish their pages as much as the similar
qualities did their author." "They are written," says
Voltaire, "with an air of greatness, an impetuosity, and
an inequality which are the image of his life."
See " Memoires du Cardinal de Ret?.." first printed in 3 vols.,
1717; VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" MUSSET- PATHAY,
" Recherches historiqnes sur le Cardinal de Retz," 1807, and 4 vols.,
1859; English translation of Retz's "Memoires," 1723; SAINTB-
BEUVE, " Canseries da Lundi :" MICHEI.ET, " Histoire de France ;"
SISMONDI, "Histoire des Francais;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene-
rale."
Retzius, ret'se-us, (ANDERS JOHAN,) a Swedish natu
ralist, born at Christianstadt in 1742, was a pupil of
Linnaeus. He became professor of natural history at
Lund in 1777, and published a good work on the plants
of Sweden, Norway, etc., entitled "Florae Scandinavian
Prodromus," (1779.) His treatise on botany, " Obser-
vationes botanicae," (1779-91,) is called his capital work.
Died in 1821.
See GEZEI.IUS, " Biographiskt- Lexicon."
Retzius, (ANDERS OLOFor ADOLF,) a Swedish phy
sician, born at Lnnd in 1796, was a son of the preceding.
He became professor of anatomy at Lund about 1824.
He wrote important works on medicine and natural
history. Died at Stockholm in 1860.
Retzius, (MAGNUS CHRISTIAN,) an able medical
writer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Lund
about 1794. He became professor of chemistry at
Stockholm about 1820.
Retzsch, i-e"tsh, (MoRirz,) an eminent German de
signer and painter, born at Dresden in 1779. He studied
at the Academy of Arts in that city, where he became
professor of painting in 1824. His etchings illustrating
Goethe's "Faust," published in 1812, established his
reputation both in Germany and other countries. They
were followed by illustrations of Schiller and Shakspeare,
of Burger's " Lenore" and " Ballads," and other popular
works. As a portrait-painter, also, Retzsch is highly
esteemed. He was pre-eminent as an original designer
in outline among the artists of his time : his illustra
tions of Goethe's " Faust," in particular, have probably
never been surpassed by any works of the kind. Died
at Dresden in 1857.
See NAGI.ER, "Allgemeines Kiinstler- Lexikon ;" "Foreign
Quarterly Review" for June, 1828, October, 1833, and October,
1836.
Reubell. See REWBELL.
Reu'ben, [Heb. pixi ; Fr. RUBEN, rii'bSN',] the
eldest son of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob, was the an
cestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel.
See Genesis xxix. 32, xxxv. 22, and xxxvii.
Reuchlin, roiK-leen'JLat. REUCHLI'NUS,] Hellenized
as Capnio, kap'ne-o, (TOHANN,) an eminent German
writer, born at Pforzheim in 1455. He became an
excellent Greek and Latin scholar, and studied law at
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
REUCHLINUS
1886
REWBELL
Orleans. He was patronized by Eberhard, Duke of
WUrtemberg, who employed him as secretary. Having
accompanied Eberhard to Rome, he became acquainted
with Politian and other eminent Italian literati. He
resided mostly at Stuttgart, where he was appointed
assessor of the supreme court about 1484. He was sub
jected to persecution because he opposed a proposition
to burn all Hebrew books except the Bible, and was
involved in a long controversy with the monks and bigots
on this subject. He defended his opinions in relation
to Hebrew books in his "Ocular Mirror," ("Speculum
Oculare," 1511.) Between 1518 and 1522 he taught
Hebrew and Greek at Ingolstadt and Tubingen. He
published a " Hebrew Lexicon," and several other works.
lie contributed much to the revival of classical learning.
Died at Stuttgart in 1522.
See MEI.ANCHTHON, " Historic Renchlini," 1552; J. H. MAJUS,
"Vita Reuchlini," 1687; MAYERHOFF, •' Reuclihn und seine Zeit,
1830; LAMEV, "Johann Reiichlin," iS;s : F. BARUAM, "Lite and
Times of Reucliiin," 1X43; GABI.KR, " Dissertatio cle J. Reiichlmo,
1822; M. ADAM, "Vita Philosophorum ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generate."
Reuchlinus. See RKUCHLIN.
Reuilly, rul/ye', (JHAN,) a French traveller, born in
Picardy in 1780. He published "Travels in the Crimea
in 1803," (1806.) Died at Pisa in 1810.
Reumont, von, fon roi'mont, (Ai.FRF.n,) a German
diplomatist and litterateur, born at Aix-la-Chapelle in
1 808, was employed on missions to Florence and Rome.
He wrote several works on Italian history and art, among
which are " Roman Letters," (" Romische Briefe," 4 vols.,
1840-44,) and "Bcnvenuto Cellini," (1846.)
Reusner, rois'ner, [Lat. REUSNE'RUS,] (NiKOLAUS,)
a German poet and jurist, born at Lemberg, in Silesia, in
1545. He was professor of law at Strasburg and at Jena.
He published numerous poems and treatises on law.
Died at Jena in 1602.
See JOHANN WKITZ, "Vita N. Reusneri," 1603 ; "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Ge'nerale."
Reuss, roiss, (EDUARD WILHELM EUGEN,) a Prot
estant theologian, born at Strasburg. He wrote a " His
tory of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age," (in
French,) and other works.
Reuter, roi'ter, ( FRITZ, ) a distinguished German
poet, born at Stavenhagen, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
November 7, 1810. He studied jurisprudence at Ros
tock, and in 1832 went to Jena, where he joined the
Biirschenschaft* (the association of German students,)
ami the next year was arrested in Prussia and con
demned to death ; but the sentence was commuted to
thirty years' imprisonment. He was, however, released
in i8'40, having been included in the general amnesty.
He has written, in the Low German ( Plattdeutsch)
dialect, various poems, comedies, and novels, which are
much admired. Among his works are " Lauschen
un Riemels," (1853; 3d edition, 1856,) " Polterabendge-
dichte," (1855,) " Reise na Belligen," (1855,) a poetical
romance, " Bliicher in Treptow," etc., (1857,) a comedy,
"Kein Hiisung," (1858,) a poem, and "Olle Kamellen,"
(1860,) a novel.
See PIERER, "Universal-Lexikon."
Reuter, ( JULIUS,) a German, born about 1815, gained
distinction as the institutor of a telegraphic system. He
was the first who furnished telegrams of political or
general news to the public journals of Europe. He
established his office in London in 1851.
Reuterdahl, roi'ter-dal', (HENRIK,) a Swedish theo
logian, born at Malmo in 1795. He was appointed
professor of theology at Lund in 1844. Among his works
are an "Introduction to Theology," (1837,) and a "His
tory of the Swedish Church," (1838 et seq.}_
Reuven, ruh'ven, (PiETER,) a Dutch painter, born at
Leyden in 1650; died in 1718.
Reuvens, roi'vens, (CASPAR JACOB CHRISTIAN,) a
Dutch antiquary, born at the Haeue in 1793. He
became professor of history and archaeology at Leyden
* The Bnrschenschaft was very obnoxious to the government on
account of its political character, and also on account of some of its
overt acts. It was as a member of the Burschenschaft that Sand
assassinated Kotzebue, who had shown himself a determined enemy
of the association.
in 1818, and wrote several antiquarian treatises. Died
in 1837.
See LEEMANS, " Epistola de Vita Reuvensii," 1838.
Reuvens, (JAN EVKRAARD,) an eminent Dutch jurist,
born at Haarlem in 1763, was the father of the preceding.
He became a counsellor of the supreme court at Paris
about 1810, and was author of the criminal code of Hol
land. Died in 1816.
Revay, ra'voi, (NICHOLAS,) a Hungarian poet and
philologist, born in 1751. He was professor of litera
ture at Pesth. Died in 1807.
Reveille-Parise, ra'va'ya' ps'rez', (JOSEPH HENRI,)
a French medical writer, born at Nevers in 1782. He
practised in Paris, and wrote, besides other works,
"Researches on the Physique, Habits, and Diseases of
Literary Men," (1834,) which gained the Montyon prize
in 1835 and is called a model treatise. Died in 1852.
See CAI.LISEN, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon."
Revel, reh-veK, (GABRIEL,) a French painter, born
at Chateau-Thierry in 1643 ; died in 1712.
Rev'e-ley, (WiLLEY,) an English architect and an
tiquary. According to several authorities, he completed
the "Antiquities of Athens," left unfinished by Stuart.
Died in 1799.
Revelliere-Lepaux. See LAREVEILLERE.
Rever, reh-va', (MARIE FRANQOIS GILLES,) a French
antiquary, born at Dol in 1753 ; died in 1828.
Reve'rchoii, reh-vek'shoN', (JACQUES,) a French
Jacobin, born in 1746, was a member of the Convention,
(1792-95,) of the Council of Five Hundred, and of the
Council of Elders. Died in 1828.
Revere, ra-va'ra, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian writer, born
at Trieste in 1812. He published between 1829 and
1840 four dramas, which were popular, and one of which
is entitled " Lorenzo de' Medici." He has also written
some sonnets.
Revere, re-veer', (PAUL.) an American patriot of
the Revolution, and one of the earliest American en
gravers, was born at Boston in 1735. Among his best
prints are "The Seventeen Rescinders," and "The
Boston Massacre." He took an active part in the
destruction of the tea in Boston harbour, and was con
spicuous for his patriotism in the political movements
of the time. His midnight expedition to Concord, to
give notice of the intended attack of General Gage,
forms the subject of one of the poems in Longfellow's
" Wayside Inn." Died in 1818.
Revere, (PAUL JOSEPH,) COLONEL, an officer, born
in Boston in 1832, was a grandson of the preceding. He
was severely wounded at Antietam, September, 1862,
and was killed at Gettysburg, July 3, 1863.
See P. C. HEADI.EY, "Massachusetts in the Rebellion," p. 634.
Reveroni, ra-va-ro'nee, (JACQUES ANTOTNE,) a French
military engineer, born at Lyons in 1767. He wrote sev
eral dramas, novels, and military works. Died in 1828.
Reves, de, deh ra'ves, [Lat. RE'VHJS,] (JAKOB,) a
Dutch Protestant divine, born at Deventer in 1586. He
became professor of theology at Leyden about 1640, and
wrote several works. Died in 1658.
Rev'ett, (NICHOLAS,) an English antiquary and archi
tect, was born in Suffolk in 1722. In company with
James Stuart, he went to Greece about 1750 and spent
two years in exploring and delineating the ruins of
Athens. He was a partner of Stuart in the important
work entitled the " Antiquities of Athens," (3 vols.,
1762, 1790, 1794.) He also produced, with Chandler,
"Ionian Antiquities," (1769.) After his return to Eng
land he practised as an architect. Died in 1804.
Reviczky, ra'vits-ke, ? (KARL EMERICH,) COUNT OF,
a Hungarian linguist and diplomatist, born in 1737. He
published an edition of Petronius, (1784,) and a Cata
logue of his own library, (Berlin, 1784.) Died in 1793.
Revius. Sec REVES, ( JAKOB.)
Revoil, reh-vwal', (PIERRE HENRI,) a French painter
of history and genre, born at Lyons in 1776, was a pupil
of David. He was professor of design in the Academy
of Lyons. He composed songs and other verses with
some' success. Died in 1842.
Rewbell or Reubell, ruh'bel', QEAN BAPTTSTE,) a
French republican and Director, born at Colmar, near
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nflt; good; moon;
RET
1887
RETNOLDS
the Rhine, about 1746. He was a member of the Con
stituent Assembly and of the Convention, in which he
mostly voted with the radicals ; but after the gth Ther-
miclor he became an opponent of the Jacobins. In 1795
he was chosen a member of the Directory, and assumed
control of foreign affairs. He acted with the victorious
party in the coup d'etat of i8th Fructidor, 1797, and was
dismissed from office by lot in May, 1799. Died in 1807.
See DK BARAN-TE, " Histoire du Directoire ;" THIERS, "History
of the French Revolution."
Rey, ri, (ANTOINE GABRIEL VENANCE,) a French
general, born in Rouergue in 1768. He became a gene
ral of division in 1793 or 1794, and commanded with
success in several actions in Spain between 1808 and
1813. Died in 1836.
Rey, (Gun.i.AUME,) a French medical writer, born in
1687, practised in Lyons. Died in 1756.
Rey, (JEAN,) a French physician and chemist, born
at Bugue, in Perigord. He published in 1630 "Essays
to ascertain the Cause why Tin and Lead increase in
Weight when they are calcined." He maintains that
this increase is the result of a combination of the metal
with atmospheric air. Died about 1645.
Rey, (JEAN,) a French writer and manufacturer, born
at Montpellier in 1773. He substituted the forms of
flowers for the fantastic designs of the Orientals in the
fabrication of Cashmere shawls. Among his works is a
" Histoire des Chales," (1823.) Died in 1849.
Rey, (JEAN BAPTISTS,) a French composer, born in
1734, became director of the emperor's chapel in 1804.
Died in 1810.
Rey, (JOSEPH AUGUSTE,) a French writer on law,
education, etc., was born at Grenoble in 1794. Among
his works is " Theory and Practice of Social Science,"
(3 vols., 1842.)
Reybaud, ri'bo', (CHARLES,) a French litterateur,
born at Marseilles in 1800, was a brother of Marie Roch
Louis, noticed below.
Reybaud, (HENRIETTE Arriaud,) a French novel
ist, born at Aries about 1800, became the wife of the
preceding.
Reybaud, (MARIE ROCH Louts,) a popular French
author, born at Marseilles in 1799. He began life as
a merchant, and settled in Paris about 1830. In 1841
he gained the Montyon prize of the French Academy
(5000 francs) for his " Studies on Modern Reformers
or Socialists," (2 vols., 1840-43.) His most original
and popular work is a novel called "Jerome Paturot in
Search of a Social Position," (3 vols., 1843.) He has
written other novels.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale ;" "London Quarterly Re
view" for September, 1848; "Eraser's Magazine" for September,
i8«.
Reyher, n'er, (SAMUEL,) a German professor of law
and mathematics, was born in Saxony in 1635. He pub
lished " Mathesis Mosaico-Biblica," (1678,) and other
works. Died at Kiel in 1714.
Reyn, de, deh rin, (JEAN,) a Flemish painter, born
at Dunkirk about 1610, was a pupil of Van Dyck, whom
he is said to have imitated with success. lie worked in
England for Van Dyck; but after the death of the latter
he returned to Dunkirk. " The majority of his pictures,"
says Peries, " have often passed for the works of his
master." Died in 1678.
Reyna, de, da ra'na or ra^e-na, (CASSionoRUS,) a
Spanish translator of the Bible, born at Seville, is said
to have been a Protestant. His version of the Bible,
printed at Bale in 1569, was the first in the Spanish
language. Died at Frankfort in 1594.
Reyiiaud, r.Yno', (ANTOINE ANDRE Louis,) BARON,
a French mathematician, born in Paris in 1771. He was
employed about thirty years in the Polytechnic School
as teacher and examiner. He published a number of
standard 'works on geometry and algebra, which were in
troduced as text-books into public schools. Died in 1844.
See QUERARD, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Reynaud, (JEAN ERNEST,) a French philosopher,
born at Lyons in 1806. In 1836 he became associated
with Pierre Leroux as editor of the " Encyclopedic Nou
velle." He was a moderate democrat in the Assembly
of 1848, and supported Cavaignac. His chief work,
entitled "Earth and Heaven," ("Terre et Ciel," 1854,)
had great success.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Reyneau, ri'nS', (CHARLES RENE,) a French ge
ometer, born at Brissac, in Anjou, in 1656. He was
professor in a college at Angers. He published
"Analysis Demonstrated," (1708,) and "Elements of
Mathematics," (1714.) Died in 1728.
Reyner, ra'ner, ? (EDWARD,) an English Puritan
minister, born in Yorkshire in 1600. He preached at
Lincoln. Died about 1670.
Reynier, ri'ne-4', (AccusTiN BENOIT,) a Belgian
poet, born at Liege in 1759 ; died at Cologne in 1792.
Reynier, r«Vne-i', (JEAN Louis,) a French general,
was born at Lausanne in 1771. As chief of the staff of Mo-
reau, he displayed skill at Rastadt, Friedberg, Biberach,
and in the famous retreat of 1796. He commanded at
the siege of Acre in the temporary absence of Bonaparte,
and is said to have decided the victory at Heliopolis,
(1799.) In 1807 he had command of the army of Joseph,
King of Naples. He was taken prisoner at Leipsic,
(1813.) Died in 1814.
Reynier, ri'ne-i', (JEAN Louis ANTOINE,) a Swiss
naturalist, born at Lausanne in 1762, was a brother of
the preceding. He accompanied the expedition to
Egypt in 1798. Among his works are " Egypt under the
Domination of the Romans," (1807,) and "Treatises
on the Public and Rural Economy of the Celts and
Germans," (1808,) of the "Arabs and Jews," (1820,) of the
"Persians and Phoenicians," (1829,) etc. Died in 1824.
See L\ HARFE, "Notice sur L. Reynier," 1825; "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Reynold de Chauvancy, de, deh ri'nol' deh sho'-
vdN'se', (CHARLES,) a French naval officer, born at Pont
de Veyle (Ain) in 1810. He produced a work on mari
time signals, entitled "Code de Signaux, Telegraphic
nautique polyglotte," (1856,) which has been adopted
by seventeen maritime powers.
Reynolds, reVolz, (ALEXANDER W.,) an American
officer in the Confederate service, born in Virginia, was
made a brigadier-general in 1861.
Reynolds, r§n'olx, (EDWARD,) an English bishop,
born at Southampton in 1599. He favoured the Pres
byterians during the civil war, and took the Covenant.
In 1648 he became Dean of Christ Church and vice-
chancellor of the University of Oxford. He was ejected
from these positions about 1650, after which he preached
in London. He was appointed Bishop of Norwich in
1660. He published a number of religious works, which
are highly esteemed. Died in 1676.
Reynolds, (JOHN.) See RAINOLDS.
Reynolds, (JOHN FULTON,) an American general,
born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1820, graduated at
West Point in 1841. He "served as first lieutenant in
the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and obtained the rank of
captain in 1855. ^e commanded a brigade in the Seven
Days' battles near Richmond in June, 1862, and for his
services there received brevets as colonel and brigadier-
general in the regular army. In January, 1863, he was
appointed a major-general of volunteers. His corps
formed the vanguard of the army at Gettysburg, where
he was killed on the 1st of July, 1863.
See TENNEY, " Military and Naval History of the Rebellion,"
p. 760.
Reynolds, (JoHN HAMILTON,) an Englrsh poet, born
in 1795, was a member of the legal profession. He
wrote a poem called " Safie." Died at Newport in 1852.
Reynolds, (Sir JOSHUA,) the most celebrated por
trait-painter that England has produced, was born at
Plympton, in Devonshire, on the i6th of July, 1723. He
was a son of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds. At the age of
eighteen he became a pupil of Hudson in London, with
whom he remained about two years. He afterwards
worked at Plymouth as a portrait-painter until 1746,
when he settled in London. About 1750 he visited
Rome, Florence, Venice, and other cities of Italy.
When he first saw the works of Raphael in the Vatican,
he felt much disappointment, — which he attributed to
his own ignorance. The works of Titian and Tintoretto
contributed more to the formation of his style than those
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23 .)
RETNOLDS
1888
RHET1CUS
of the Roman school. He returned to England in the
autumn of 1752, soon after which he acquired a high
reputation by a portrait of Commodore Keppel. In
1760 he raised his price to twenty-five guineas for a
head, and one hundred guineas for a whole-length por
trait. He painted in 1762 a picture of " Garrick between
Tragedy and Comedy."
In 1764 Mr. Reynolds and Dr. Johnson, who had
become intimate friends, founded the Literary Club,
composed of twelve members, among whom were Burke
and Goldsmith. He was chosen president of the Royal
Academy in 1768, and was knighted on that occasion.
He delivered before the Academy a series of " Lectures
on Painting," which were generally admired and were
translated into several languages. In 1784 he produced
a beautiful allegorical portrait of " Mrs. Siddons as the
Tragic Muse," and received the title of principal painter
to the king. He painted for the Empress of Russia a
picture of " The Infant Hercules strangling the Ser
pents," (1786,) which is one of his best historical works.
He was never married. His career was a remarkable
instance of continual prosperity. He died in February,
1792, leaving an estate of about ,£80,000.
Sir Joshua is considered as the founder or the head
of the British school of painting. He obtained powerful
effects by a rich and harmonious colour and by his
distribution of light and shade. His historical pieces
indicate that he was deficient in the grand style of design.
"Sir Joshua Reynolds is the most invulnerable man I
know," says Dr. Johnson, — " the man with whom if you
should quarrel, you will find the most difficulty how to
abuse." " Reynolds, swiftest of painters, was gentlest
of companions," says Ruskin ; "so, also, Velasquez,
Titian, and Veronese."
See JAMES NORTHCOTE, " Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds,"
1818 ; MAI.ONE, "Life of Sir J. Reynolds;" THOMAS REVNOLUS,
"Life of Sir J. Reynolds," by his son, 2 vols., 1839; "Life of
Sir J. Reynolds," commenced by C. R. LESLIE and completed by
TOM TAYLOR, 2 vols., 1865; "Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds,"
byJosKi-H FARRINGTON, London, 1819: "London Quarterly Re
view" for April and July, 1866 ; " .Edinburgh Review" for August, 1820.
Reynolds, (RICHARD,) an English benefactor, born
in Bristol in 1735, was a member of the Society of
Friends. He married Hannah Darby in 1757, and be
came a partner in the iron and coal works at Ketley.
In 1763 he removed to Coalbrook Dale, where he super
intended a large manufactory of iron. He is said to have
been the first who employed iron instead of wood in the
construction of railways. His business afforded him a
large income, a great part of which he expended in deeds
of charity. He removed to Bristol in 1804. Died in 1816.
See " Letters of Richard Reynolds, with a Memoir of his Life,"
Dy his granddaughter, HANNAH MAKV RATHBONE, Philadelphia,
iSSS.
Reynolds, (SAMUEL WILLIAM) an eminent English
engraver in mezzotint, was born in 1774. He engraved
many portraits and historical pieces after Sir Joshua
Reynolds, also Rubens's "Chapeau de Faille," and a
number of the works of Horace Vernet. Died in 1835.
Reynoso. See RKINOSO.
Reyrac, de, deh ri'rtk', (FRANCOIS PHILIPPE Du-
LAURENS,) a French poet and priest, born in Limousin
in 1734. He wrote "Rural Poems," and a "Hymn to
the Sun," (1777,) in poetical prose, which was often
reprinted. Died in 1782.
See BERENGEK, " Eloge de Reyrac," 1783.
Reyre, raiR, (Abbe JOSEPH,) a French teacher and
writer of juvenile books, was born in Provence in 1735 ;
died in 1812.
Reys, dos, d6s ras, (ANTONIO,) a Portuguese priest
and Latin poet, born near Santarem in 1690 ; died in
1738.
Rezzano, ret-si'no, (FRANCESCO,) a mediocre Italian
poet, born at Como in 1731 ; died in 1780.
Rezzonico, ret-so-nee'ko, (ANTONIO GIUSEPPE,)
Count de la Tour, (or della Torre, del'la tor'ra,) an
Italian litterateur, born at Como in 1709, became an
officer in the Spanish army. His chief work is " Re
searches into the Life and Writings of Pliny," (" Disqui-
sitiones Plinianae," 2 vols. in fol., 1763-67,) which is
praised as a model of criticism. Died at Parma in 1785.
See TIPALDO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Rezzonico, (CARLO.) See CLEMENT XIII.
Rezzonico, (CARLO GASTON DELLA TORRE,) COUNT,
an Italian poet and prose writer, born at Como in 1742,
was a son of Antonio Giuseppe, noticed above. Among
his works is a poem entitled "The Ruin of Como,'
which is admired. Died at Naples in 1796.
See G. B. GIOVIO, "Della Vita di G. Rezzonico," 1802.
Rhadamante. See RHADAMANTHUS.
Rhad-a-maii'thus, [Gr. 'Patiuftavdoc ; Fr. RHADA
MANTE, ra:/da'/m6Nt/,] a son of Jupiter and Europa, and
a brother of Minos. According to tradition, he married
Alcmena, the mother of Hercules, was eminent for his
justice, and after death became one of the chief judges
of the lower world, or Elysium.
Rhallis, ral'lis, (GEORGE ALEXANDER,) a modem
Greek jurist, born at Constantinople in 1804. lie be
came minister of justice of Greece in 1841, and after
wards president of the Areopagus, or court of cassation.
He published several legal works.
Rhani, rain, (Rev. WILLIAM LEWIS,) an eminenr
writer on agriculture, born at Utrecht in 1778. He was
educated at Edinburgh and at Cambridge University,
and became rector of Fersfield, Norfolk. He wrote
many articles for the "Penny Cyclopaedia, " which were
published separately under the title of "Dictionary of
the Farm." Died in 1843.
Rhangabe. See Rizo RANGAK^.
Rhe'a, [Gr. Teia, 'Pea, 'Pdjj, or 'Peri; Fr. RHEA, ra'a',]
a goddess of classic mythology, whom the Romans
called Ops or Cybele. According to Hesiocl, she was a
daughter of Uranus and Ge, or Ccelus and Terra, the
wife of Cronos, (Saturn,) and the mother of Jupiter,
Neptune, Pluto, Juno, Ceres, and Vesta. She was
called "the Great Mother," and "the Mother of the
Gods." The principal seat of her worship was Pessinus,
in Galatia. (See CYBELE.)
See SMITH'S " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and
Mythology."
Rhe'a Sil'vl-a, orlll-a, [Fr. REA (or RHEA) SILVIA,
ra'a' sel've'S', or ILIE, e'le',] in Roman mythology, was
a daughter of Numitor, and mother of Romulus and
Remus, whose father was supposed to be Mars. The
king Amulius had compelled her to become a vestal
virgin to prevent her from having offspring, and after
the birth of her sons he drowned her in the river. The
poets feigned that she was changed into a goddess and
became the wife of the Anio.
Rheede, van, va~n la'deh, (HENDRIK ADRIAAN
Draakeiistein — dRa'ken-stin',) a Dutch naturalist, who
became Governor-General of the Malabar coast. He
collected materials for a costly work on the plants of
India, entitled " Hortus Indicus Malabaricus," (12
vols., 1670-1703,) in which he was aided by Casearius,
Commelin, and others. He died about 1700.
Rhegas. See RHIGAS.
Rheinek, li'nek, (CHRISTOPH,) a German musical
composer, born at Memmingen in 1748, was author of
several operas. Died in 1796.
Rheita, von, ton ri'td, (ANTON MARIA SCHYRLE,) a
German astronomer, born in Bohemia about 1597. He
constructed a telescope with four lenses. Died at Ra
venna in 1660.
Rhenanus, (BEATUS.) See BEATUS.
Rhenferd, ren'feiU, (jAKOii,) a German Orientalist,
born in 1654. He became professor of Oriental lan
guages at Franeker. Died in 1712.
Rhese, rees, ? (JOHN DAVID,) M.D., a philologist,
born in the island of Anglesey in 1534. He taught
school in Italy, and published a number of works in the
Italian language. Died in 1609.
Rhet'l-cus, [Ger. pron. ra'te-kus,] the surname of an
astronomer, whose proper name was GEORGE JOACHIM.
He was born at Feldkirch, near the Rhine, in 1514. He
became a pupil and assistant of Copernicus in 1539 or
1540, and advocated the Copernican system in his " Nar-
ratio de Libris Revolutionum Copernici," (1540.) In
1541 he obtained a chair of mathematics at Wittenberg.
He left a work of great labour, entitled " Opus Palatinum
de Triangulis," (1596,) which contains, besides a treatise
on trigonometry, a table of sines, cosines, tangents, etc.
Died in 1576.
a,e, 1,6, u, y,/0«£ya, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
RHETT
1889
RIBER4
Rhett, (ROBERT BARNWELL,) an American politician,
born at Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1800. Being elected
in 1833 attorney-general of the State, he acted with the
Nullification party, and in 1850 became a United States
Senator. On the election of Mr. Lincoln, in 1860, he was
a member of the State Convention which passed an
ordinance of secession, and drew up the address giving
reasons for this measure.
Rhi-a'nus, a Greek poet, born in Crete, lived about
250 or 225 K.C. He wrote five or more poems, two of
which are entitled " Heracleia" and " Thessalica." Frag
ments of his works are extant.
Rhigas, ree'gas, written also Rhegas and Rigas,
a modern Greek patriot and writer, born in Thessaly
about 1760. He formed in early life a design to liberate
Greece from the Turkish yoke, and, in order to promote
tiiis design, organized a secret society, wrote popular
songs, founded a journal, published educational works,
etc. All these were in the modern Greek language.
In 1798 he was arrested at Trieste, delivered by the
Austrians to the Turks, and drowned in the Danube
by the latter.
See KEYBAUD, "Memoires sur la Grece;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Rhin'thon, ['Pivduv,] a Greek dramatic poet, born at
Syracuse or Tarentum, lived about 300 B.C. His works
are not extant.
Rhizos Rhangavis. See Rizo RANGABI*.
Rho, ro, (AI.ESSANDRO,) an Italian jurist, born at
Milan in 1543 ; died in 1627.
Rhode, ro'deh, or Rhodius, ro'de-us, (Jon A NX,) a
Danish medical writer and antiquary, born at Copen
hagen about 1587; died at Padua in 1659.
Rhode, ro'deh, QOHANN GKOKG,) a German Orien
talist of Breslau, was noted for his researches in the
antiquities and natural history of India. Died in 1827.
Rhodes, rodz, (ROBERT E.,) an American general,
born at Lynchburg, Virginia, commanded a division of
General Lee's army at Gettysburg, July, 1863. He was
killed at the battle of Winchester, September 19, 1864.
Rhodes, de, deh rod, (ALEXANDKE,) a French mis
sionary, born in 1591. He preached in Cochin China
and Tonquin. He published a " History of Tonquin,"
(1650,) and other works. Died in Persia in 1660.
Rhodiginus, ro-de-jee'noos, (CcELius, ) an Italian
philologist, whose family name was RICCHIERI (rek-ke-
a'ree) or RICCHERI, (rek-ka'ree,) was born at Rovigo
about 1450. He became professor of Greek and Latin
at Milan in 1515. His chief work is " Ancient Readings,"
(" Antiquae Lectiones," 1516.) Died in 1525.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Rhodius. See RHODE, QOHAN.)
Rhodomami. See RHODOMANNUS.
Rhodomaiinus, ro-do-man'nus, or Rhodomann,
ro'do-man', (LAURENTIUS,) a German Hellenist, born
at Sassawerf, in Saxony, in 1546. He was professor of
Greek at Jena, and afterwards lectured on history at
Wittenberg. He wrote Greek verse with facility, and is
called one of the restorers of the Greek language in
Germany. Among his works are a " Life of Luther, in
Greek Verse," (1579,) and "Christian Poem on Pales
tine, '; (" Poesis Christiana Palestine," 1589.) Died in
1606.
See LANGE, "Vita Rhodomanni," 1741 ; NICERON, "Memoires."
Rhunken. See RUHNKEN.
Rhy'mer, Thomas the, or Thomas of Ercil-
doune, a Scottish poet, flourished betsveen 1250 and
1300. He had the reputation of a prophet.
Rhyudaceiius or Rhyndaconus. See LASCARIS.
Rhyne, Ten, ten rl'neh, (\\~ILLEM,) a Dutch natu
ralist, born at Deventer about 1640. He practised
medicine at Batavia, explored the plants of Java, and
aided Van Rheede in composing his " Hortus Mala-
baricus."
Rhyzelius, re-za'le-us, (ANDREAS,) a Swedish an
tiquary, born in Westgothland in 1677. He became
Bishop of Linkoping, and wrote several works on
Swedish antiquities. Died about 1758.
Riancey, de, deh re'SN'si', (HENRI LEON CA-
MUSAT,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1816. He
published, besides other works, a "History of the
World," (4 vols., 1838-41.) In 1852 he became chief
editor of "L'Union," a journal.
Rianzares, DUKE OF. See MUNOZ, (FERNANDO.)
Riario, re-a're-o, (GiROLAMO,) Seigneur of Forli and
Imola, a nephew of Pope Sixtus IV., was born about
1442. He was an enemy of Lorenzo de' Medici and of
the family of Colonna. He was assassinated by his own
guards in 1488.
Riario, (PIETRO,) CARDINAL, a brother of the pre
ceding, was born in 1445. -He was a corrupt favourite
of Sixtus IV., who appointed him Archbishop of Flor
ence. He had great influence at the papal court, and was
notorious for his debauchery. Died in 1474.
Ribadeneira, re-Ba-cla-na^e-ra, (PEDRO,) a Spanish
Jesuit and biographer, was bom at Toledo in 1527. He
gained some distinction as a preacher, and was employed
by Loyola to propagate Jesuitism in Flanders and Spain.
He wrote, besides other works, a "Life of Loyola,"
(" Vida de San Ignacio," 1570.) He is said to have
been deficient in judgment. Died at Madrid in 1611.
See N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Ribalta, re-uaKta, (FRANCISCO,) an eminent Span
ish painter, born at Castellon de la Plana in 1551. He
studied the works of Raphael and Sebastian del Piombo
in Rome, and settled in Valencia. His design, colour,
and composition are highly commended. Among his
works are a " Last Supper," a " Holy Family," and
"The Entombment of Christ." He was a skilful anato
mist. Died in 1628.
Ribalta, de, da re-Bal'ta, (JuAN,) a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Valencia in 1597. He was a painter
of great promise, and died prematurely in 1628.
Ribas, de, deh ree'bas, (JOSEPH,) born at Naples
about 1735, entered the service of Russia, and became
an admiral. He commanded a fleet which operated
against the Turks in 1790.
Ribault or Ribaut, re'bo', (JEAN,) a French Prot
estant navigator, born at Dieppe about 1520. He com
manded a party sent by Coligni in 1562 to explore and
colonize some parts of North America. He explored
Port Royal, South Carolina, built a fort there, and re
turned to France. In 1565 he obtained command of a
fort and colony which the French had planted on the
Saint John's River, Florida. He had seven vessels under
his command. The French were attacked by a Spanish
fleet just after the arrival of Ribault. He was about to
bring his vessels into action, when a storm drove them
ashore. Ribault and his men escaped to land, but were
massacred by the Spaniards. " John Ribault," says
Sparks, "was the pioneer of a great enterprise; . . .
and, although he was assisted by brave and able asso
ciates, yet his energy and zeal were the chief springs of
the whole."
See SPARKS, " Life of Ribault," in the seventh volume of his
" American Biography," second series ; HILDRETH, " History of the
United States," vol. i. chap. iii.
Ribault, re'b5', (J. F.,) a French engraver, born in
Paris in 1767; died in 1820.
Ribbing von Leuven, ril/bing fon loi'ven, ? ( ADOLPH
LUDWIG,) a Swedish conspirator, born at Stockholm
in 1764. He was an accomplice of those who killed
Gustavus III., and was banished for life. Died in
Paris in 1843.
Ribeiro or Ribeyro, re-baVro, (BERNARDIN,) a
Portuguese pastoral poet of the~~sixteenth century, was
born at Torrao, in Alemtejo. He is pronounced by
Longfellow " one of the best poets of Portugal, and the
first Portuguese writer who gained a high reputation as
a pastoral poet."
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Ribeiro dos Santos, re-baVro d6s san'tis, (ANTO
NIO,) a Portuguese poet of the^present century, has pub
lished, among other works, an " Ode to the Infante Dom
Henrique," which is greatly admired.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Ribera. See SPAGNOLEITO.
Ribera, re-Ba'ra, (CARLOS Luis,) a Spanish painter,
the son of a distinguished artist, was born in Rome
about 1812.
c as^; 9 as s; ghard; gas/; G,H,K,guttura!; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz/th as in this. (JJf^See Explanations, p. 23.)
RIBERA
1890
RICCIARDI
Ribera, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish Jesuit and commen
tator, born in Segovia in 1537. He wrote Commentaries
on the minor prophets and on the Gospel of John. Died
at Salamanca in 1591.
Ribera, de, da re-Ka'ra, (ANASTASIO PANTALEON,) a
Spanish wit and burlesque poet, bom at Saragossa in
1580. He was assassinated at Madrid in 1629.
Ribes, reb, (FRANCOIS,) a French surgeon, born at
Bagneres de Bigorre in 1770. He succeeded Desgenettes
as chief physician at the Hotel des Invalides in 1837.
He wrote on anatomy, etc. Died in 1845.
Ribes, de, deh reb, (ANNE ARNAUD,) a French
officer of engineers, born in 1731 ; died in 1811.
Ribeyro. See RIUEIRO.
Riboud, re'boo', (THOMAS PHILIBERT,) a French
litterateur and judge, born at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1755.
He was a member of successive legislative bodies be
tween 1791 and 1814. Died in 1835.
Riboutte, re'boo'ta', ( FRANCOIS Louis,) a French
dramatist, born at Lyons in 1770; died in 1834.
Ricard, re'ki'R', (DOMINIQUE,) a French abbe and
translator, born at Toulouse in 1741. He translated
Plutarch's "Moral Works," (17 vols., 1783-95,) and his
"Parallel Lives," (13 vols., 1798-1803.) He wrote a
poem on the Sphere. Died in 1803.
Ricard, (£TIENNE PIERRE SILVESTRE,) a French
general, born at Castres in 1771. He won the rank of
general of division at Borodino in 1812. Died in 1843.
Ricard, QEAN MARIE,) an eminent French jurist,
born at Beauvais in 1622 ; died in Paris in 1678.
Ricardo, re-kar'do, (DAVin,) an eminent political
economist, born in London in April, 1772, was a son of
a Jewish broker. He became a member of the Stock
Exchange in London, and a partner of his father. In
consequence of his marriage with a Christian, in 1793,
this partnership was dissolved. He published in 1809 a
pamphlet called " The High Price of Bullion a Proof of
the Depreciation of Bank-Notes." His reputation is
founded on "The Principles of Political Economy and
Taxation," (1817,) which is highly esteemed. He was
elected to Parliament in 1819, and spoke frequently on
financial subjects. Died in September, 1823.
See J. R. McCuLLOCH, " Life of Ricardo," prefixed to Ricardo's
Works, 1846; ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generate ;" " Kdinburgh Review" for June, 1818;
"Monthly Review'' for December, 1820.
Ricardo, (Tons1 LEWIS,) an English writer on inter
national law, born in 1812. He was elected a member
of Parliament in 1841, and greatly promoted the suc
cessful operation of the electric telegraph. Among his
works is a " History and Anatomy of the Navigation
Laws." Died in London in 1862.
Ricardos, re-kaR'd6s, (Don ANTONIO,) a Spanish
general, born at Seville in 1727. He commanded the
army which opposed with some success the French
invaders in 1793, and he was promoted to be captain-
general in 1794. Died in 1794.
See J. M. HERVAS DE AI.MENAKIA, " Elogio historico del Gene
ral A. Ricardos," 1798.
Ricardus Corinensis. See RICHARD OF CIREN-
C ESTER.
Ricasoli, re-ka'so-lee, (Baron BETTING,) an eminent
Italian statesman, born of an ancient noble family in
Tuscany about iSoffl He was a prominent advocate of
the independence And unity of Italy in 1848, and acted
as dictator of Tuscany in 1859. In June, 1861, he suc
ceeded Cavour as prime minister of Italy. The policy
of his administration was similar to that of Cavour. He
resigned about the 1st of March, 1862, and was succeeded
by Ratazzi. In June, 1866, he again assumed the direc
tion of the government as president of the council and
minister of the interior. He retired from office about
April 7, 1867. •»C«a '***
See F. DALL'ONGARO, " Bettino Ricasoli;" "Nouvelle Biogra-
phie Geuerale."
Ricaut. See RYCAUT.
Riccaltoun or Riccalton, rik'al-ton,? (ROBERT,) a
Scottish divine, born near Jedburgh in 1691. He
preached for many years at Hobkirk, and wrote several
able and suggestive religious works, among which is the
"Sober Inquiry," etc. Died in 1769.
Riccati, di, de rek-ka'tee, (JACOPO FRANCESCO,)
COUNT, an Italian mathematician, born at Venice in
1676, was the father of Vincenzo, noticed below. Died
in 1754.
His son GIORDANO, born in 1709, was a mathema
tician and writer. Died in 1790.
See TIPAI.DO, " Biografia degli ItaKaui illustri."
Riccati, di, (VINCENZO,) an Italian mathematician,
born at Castel-Franco in 1707; died in 1775.
Ricchieri, (Lonovico.) See RHODIGINUS.
Ricci, ret'chee, (ANTONIO,) called BARHAI.UNGA,
(baR-ba-loon'ga,) an Italian painter, born at Messina in
j 1600 ; died in 1649.
Ricci, (BARTOLOMMEO,) an Italian Latinist, born at
, Lugo in 1490. He wrote, besides other works, a Dic
tionary of the Latin language, entitled "Apparatus
Latinae Locutionis," (1533.) Died in 1569.
See G. DELI.A CASA, " Discorso sulla Vita di ]'.. Ricci," 1834-
Ricci, (CAMILLO,) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara
in 1580; died at Ferrara in 1618.
Ricci, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian painter,
born at Novara in 1545. He was employed by Pope
Sixtus V. in the Vatican and Quirinal. Died at Rome
in 1620.
Ricci, (LORENZO,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Florence
in 1703, was elected general of the order of Jesuits in
1758. He opposed the proposition to reform that order,
which was suppressed by Pope Clement XIV. in 1773.
Died in prison at Rome in 1775.
See SAINTE-FOI, " Vie du Pere Ricci ;" CARACCIOU, " Vie du
Pere Ricci," 1776.
Ricci, (MARCO,) a painter, born at Bclluno in 1676.
He worked some years as assistant of his uncle Se
bastian in England. According to the " Biographic
Universelle," he was one of the most skilful landscape-
painters of the Venetian school. Died at Venice about
1728.
Ricci, (MATTEO,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Macerata
in 1552. He was one of the first missionaries who went
to China, (1583.) In 1600 he was admitted into Peking,
where he gained the favour of the emperor. lie wrote
interesting Memoirs and Letters on China. Abel Re-
musat calls him the founder of the mission of China.
Died in Peking in 1610.
See D'ORLEANS, " Viede M. Ricci," 1693 ; " Nouvelle Biographic
Geuerale."
Ricci, (MiCHEi.ANGEl.O,) an Italian cardinal and
mathematician, born at Rome in 1619; died in 1682.
Ricci or Ricchi, rek'kee, (PiETRo, ) an Italian
painter, born at Lucca in 1606, worked at Milan and
Venice. Died in 1675.
Ricci, (SCIPIONE,) an Italian reformer, born at Flor
ence in 1741. He became Bishop of Pistoia and Prato
in 1780, and co-operated with the grand duke Leopold
in his projects of religious reform. He was opposed to
monastic orders, to indulgences, and other practices of
the Church of Rome. In consequence of the riotous
demonstrations of the populace against him, he resigned
in 1790. Died in 1810.
See DE POTTER, "Vie et Memoires de Scipion Ricci," 4 vols.,
1825, (translated into English by THOMAS ROSCOE, 1829;) " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Ricci or Rizzi, ret/see, (SEBASTIANO,) an Italian
painter, born at Cividal di Belluno (Venetia) in 1660.
He worked at Rome, Vienna, Florence, and London, to
which he was invited by Queen Anne. .Having passed
ten years in England, he returned to Venice, and prac
tised his art with success. He was a skilful imitator ot
the styles of many masters. Among his remarkable
works are "The Abduction of the Sabines," at Rome,
and "The Assumption of the Virgin." Died at Venic<;
in 1734.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" TICOZZI, "Di/.io-
nario."
Ricciardi, ret-chaR'dee, (FRANCESCO,) Count de
Camalcloli, an Italian statesman, born at Foggia in 1758.
lie was minister of justice under Murat from 1809 to
1815. He made some reforms in the penal code. Died
in 1842.
See CEVA-GRIMALDI, " Elogio storico del Conte F. Ricciardi,"
1834-
a, e, i, 5, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon;
R 1C CURD I
1891
RICHARD
Ricciardi, (!RKNE,) an Italian poetess, a sister of
Joseph Napoleon Ricciardi. She was married in 1831
to a composer named Capecelatro.
Ricciardi, (JOSEPH NAPOLEON,) an Italian poet
and politician, a son of Francesco, noticed above, was
born in Xaples in 1808. A liberal in politics, he has
lived in exile since 1848. He has written a "History
of the Italian Revolution," (1850,) and several political
poems.
Ricciarelli See VOLTERRA, DE, (DANIELE.)
Riccio, (BARTOLOMMEO.) See NERONI.
Riccio, (DAVID.) See RIZZIO.
Riccio, ret'cho, (DOMEN1CO,) an eminent painter of
the Venetian school, surnamed BRUSASORCI, ("Rat-
Burner,") was born at Verona in 1494. His father in
vented a rat-trap and burned rats : hence the Surname,
lie studied the works of Titian, and perhaps was his
pupil. He painted in the Palazzo Ridolfi, in Venice, a
fresco called the "Cavalcade of Clement VII. and
Charles V.," (in Bologna.) Died in 1567.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" RIDOI.FI, "Vite degli
iilustri Pittori Veneti ;" LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Riccio, (FELICE,) a son of the preceding, born at
Verona in 1540, was a skilful painter, especially of
portraits. Died in 1605.
Riccioli, ret'cho-lee, ( GIOVANNI BATTISTA, ) an
Italian astronomer and Jesuit, born at Ferrara in 1598.
He was professor of philosophy, theology, etc. at
Bologna and Parma. His superiors authorized him to
devote himself to astronomy, that he might confute the
Copernican system. This he attempted to do in his
"Almagestum Xovum," (2 vols., 1651.) According to
his theory, the sun, moon, Jupiter, and Saturn revolve
around the earth, while Mercury, Venus, and Mars are
satellites of the sun. He also published an able treatise
on mathematical geography and hydrography, (1661,)
and " Improved Astronomy,"' ("Astronomia Reformata,"
1665.) Died in 1671.
See FABRONI, " Vits Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" TIRA-
BOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Riccoboni, rek-ko-b'/nee, (ANTOINE FRANCOIS,) a
son of Luigi, noticed below, was born at Mantua in
1707, and lived in Paris. He wrote an ingenious work
called "Theatrical Art," (" L'Art du Theatre," 1750.)
Died in 1772.
His wife, MARIE JEANNE LAUORAS DE MEZIERES,
born in Paris in 1714, was a successful novelist. Among
her novels are "The Letters of Julia Catesby," (1758,)
"Krnestine," and "Sophie de Valliere," (1771.) M.
Weiss calls her one of the most spirituelle women of her
time. Died in 1792.
Riccoboni, (ANTONIO,) an Italian philologist, born
at Rovigo in 1541. He translated into Latin Aristotle's
" Rhetoric," " Ethics," and " Poetica," (1579,) and wrote
several works. Died in 1599.
Riccoboni, (I.ciGi, ) an Italian comic writer and
actor, born at Modena about 1675. Among his works is
a poem " On Representative Art," (" Della Arte repre-
sentativa," 1728.) Died in Paris in 1753.
Rice, ( LUTHER,) an American Baptist divine and
missionary, born at Northborough. Massachusetts, in
1783. He was one of the founders of the American board
of commissioners for foreign missions, arid-assisted in
the establishment of the Columbian College, at Wash
ington, District of Columbia. Died in 1836.
Rich, (CLAUDIUS JAMES,) an Orientalist and traveller,
born at Dijon, in France, in 1787, was educated at Bris
tol. He learned Arabic, Syriac, Persian, etc. in his early
youth, became an excellent linguist, and entered the
service of the East India Company in 1803. In 1808 he
married a daughter of Sir James Mackintosh, at Bombay,
and was appointed the East India Company's resident
at Bagdad. He collected in that vicinity many Oriental
manuscripts, medals, and coins, and wrote a "Memoir
on the Ruins of Babylon," which he had visited in 1811.
A second edition of it was issued in 1839. He visited
the ruins of Nineveh and Persepolis, and made an ex
cursion into Koordistan. He died of cholera, at Shiraz,
in October, 1821, leaving a "Narrative of a Residence in
Koordistan," (1836.)
See a brief notice of his life, prefixed to the work last named.
Rich, (RICHARD,) BARON, an English judge, born in
London about 1498. He became solicitor-general in
1533, and lord chancellor in 1547. He united with Pro
tector Somerset in measures for the conviction and exe
cution of Lord Seymour. In 1551 he resigned his office
on pretext of ill health. Died in 1568. According to
Lord Campbell, he was "a very consistent character
in all that was base and profligate." One of his sons
became Earl of Warwick.
See LORD CAMPBELL'S "Lives of the Lord Chancellors, " vol. ii.
Rich'ard [Lat. RICHAK'DUS ; It. RICARDO, re-kaR'do)
I., King of England, surnamed CCEUR DE LION, (kuR
deh IC'ON',) was the third or second son of Henry II.
and his queen Eleanor. He was born at Oxford in
1157, and was invested in the duchy of Guienne. He
united with his brother Henry in a revolt against his
father in 1173. On the death of Prince Henry, in 1183,
Richard became the heir-apparent- to the throne. He
formed in 1188 a secret alliance with Philip, King of
France, the enemy of Henry II., and openly revolted
against the latter in 1189. The allies waged war with
success against Henry in France, and induced him to
accept their terms of peace. At this juncture Henry
died, in July, 1189. Richard showed compunction for
his undutiful conduct, and chose for his ministers the
faithful servants of his father. Having agreed a short
time before his accession to join the King of France in
a crusade, he appointed his mother regent of the king
dom. "Impelled more by the love of military glory
than by superstition," says Hume, "he acted from the
beginning of his reign as if the sole purpose of his
government had been the relief of the Holy Land and
the recovery of Jerusalem from the Saracens."
The combined army of Richard and Philip, amounting
to 100,000 men, began to march in 1190. They em
barked on ships at Marseilles and Genoa, and sailed to
Sicily, where they passed the winter, during which serious
dissensions arose between Richard and Philip, who re
garded each other with jealous rivalry. Richard married
Berengaria, Princess of Navarre, at Cyprus, in 1191, and
in the summer of that year arrived at Acre, which had
been besieged by the crusaders for two years and was
still defended by Saladin. The French and English
kings were incited by emulation to extraordinary acts
of valour at this siege. "Richard in particular," says
Hume, "animated with a more precipitate courage than
Philip, . . . acquired a great and splendid reputation."
Acre surrendered in July, 1191, soon after which Philip
returned to France. In September, Richard defeated
Saladin in a great battle, in which " he performed," says
Hume, "the part both of a consummate general and
gallant soldier."
Having concluded a truce with Saladin for three years,
three months, three weeks, and three days, he sailed
homeward in October, 1192, and was wrecked on the
coast of Istria. Attempting to pass through Germany
in disguise, he was arrested by Leopold of Austria, who
transferred him to the emperor, Henry VI., who was an
enemy of the captive prince. He was confined in a
dungeon, and subjected to many insults, until February,
1194, when he obtained his liberation by paying a large
ransom. In the mean time his brother John had at
tempted to usurp the royal power, but svas resisted with
success. The rivalry between Richard and Philip after
wards involved them in several wars, the results of which
were insignificant. Hostilities were suspended in 1198
by a truce of five years. At the siege of the castle of
one of his vassals near Limoges, Richard was mortally
wounded by an arrow, in March, 1199. He left no lawful
issue, and was succeeded by his brother John. "Of an
impetuous and vehement spirit," says Hume, "he was
distinguished by all the good as well as the bad qualities
incident to that character : he was open, frank, generous,
sincere, and brave ; he was revengeful, domineering,
ambitious, haughty, and cruel." Richard I. 'forms a
prominent and brilljant character in Scott's novel of
" Ivanhoe."
See P. J. BRUNS, " De Rebus gestis Richardi Angliae Regis,"
ijSo; J. WHITE, "Adventures of Richard Cceur de Lion," 3 vols.,
1791 ; G. P. R. JAMES, " Life of Richard I.," 1843 ; HCME, "History
of England," chap. x. ; W. E. AVTOUN, " Life of Richard I. of
England," 1840.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
RICHARD
1892
RICHARD
Richard II., King of England, horn at Bordeaux in
1366, was a son of Edward the ISlack Prince. Me suc
ceeded his grandfather, Edward III., in June, 1377.
Among the remarkable events which occurred during
his minority was the rebellion of Wat Tyler, (1381,)
which was provoked partly by the tax imposed to sup
port a war against France. The insurgents, who were
peasants or common people, entered London, massacred
many persons of the higher class, among whom was the
Archbishop of Canterbury, and committed other out
rages. Richard acted with much presence of mind, and
persuaded the rioters to disperse. A great number of
them were afterwards executed. Edward III. had left
the kingdom involved in wars against the French and
the Scotch. In 1385 Richard invaded Scotland and
reduced to ashes Edinburgh, Perth, Dundee, etc. The
Scots offered no resistance, but at the same time made
a successful raid into England. The power of Richard,
who was indolent and incapable, was nullified for a time
by his uncle the Duke of Gloucester, who put to death
the king's favourites and ministers in 1388. The wars
against France and Scotland were conducted with little
vigour, and suspended by frequent truces. In 1396
Richard concluded a long truce with the French court,
and was affianced to Isabella of France, who was seven
years of age. In 1398 he banished the Dukes of Here
ford and Norfolk, who had met to fight a duel. Here
ford (who at the death of his father became Henry, Duke
of Lancaster) had gained the favour of the people by his
conduct and abilities. Taking advantage of the absence
of Richard, who was in Ireland, Henry landed in Eng
land in July, 1399, raised a large army, and made him
self master of the kingdom without serious opposition.
The troops which Richard brought from Ireland nearly
all deserted. " His personal character had brought him
into contempt," says Hume. He was deposed by Par
liament, which recognized his rival as King Henry IV.,
and ordered or advised that Richard should be impris
oned in some secret place. He died mysteriously in the
thirty-fourth year of his age. " It is more probable,"
says Hume, "that he was starved to death in prison."
He left no posterity. Richard II. gives name to one of
Shakspeare's tragedies.
See J. EVESHAM, "Historia Richard! II.," 1729; HUME, " His
tory of England," chap. xvii. : "Life and Reign of Richard II.,"
London, i6Si ; R. HOWARD, " History of the Reigns of Edward III.
and Richard II.," 1690.
Richard III., King of England, a younger son of
Richard, Duke of York, and a brother of Edward IV.,
was born in Northamptonshire on the 2d of October,
1452, and was styled the Duke of Gloucester. He took
part in the battle of Tewksbury, in 1471, and, according
to a report which obtained currency, was instrumental
in the death of Henry VI. In 1472 he married Lady
Anne Nevil, a daughter of the Earl of Warwick. He
became regent or protector at the accession of his
nephew, Edward V., who was a minor, (April, 1483.)
"His exorbitant ambition," says Hume, "unrestrained
by any principle either of justice or humanity, made him
carry his views to the possession of the crown itself."
By dissimulation and professions of loyalty he obtained
possession of the king's person. He arrested and exe
cuted the Earl of Rivers, Edward's maternal uncle and
tutor, with other friends of the young king. About the
end of June, 1483, he usurped the royal power openly
and without resistance. Soon after this date Edward
V. and his brother were put to death in the Tower by
the order of Richard. His authority was recognized by
a Parliament which met in 1484. " But the crimes of
Richard were so horrid and so shocking to humanity
that the natural sentiments of men, without any political
or public views, were sufficient to render his government
unstable." (Hume.) Many nobles and malcontents as
sembled in Brittany and offered their services to Henry,
Earl of Richmond, who was regarded by the Lancas
trians as the rightful heir to the crown. Henry landed
at Milford Haven in August, 1485, with a small army,
which was increased to 6000 men. The rivals met at
Bosworth on the 2ist of August. In number of men
Richard had the advantage ; but, soon after the battle
began, Lord Stanley, whose conduct had been equivocal,
joined Richmond with about 7000 men and decided the
victory. Richard fought with the energy of despair,
and was slain as he was rushing forward to attack Henry
in person. Richard was of small stature, humpbacked,
and had a disagreeable countenance. Several modern
writers have appeared as his apologists. Richard III.
furnishes the name to one of Shakspeare's most popular
dramas.
See SIR GEORGE BUCK, "Life of Richard III. ;" JESSH, "Life
of Richard III.," 1860: BEAI.K, "Richard III. and his Times,"
1844; SIR THOMAS MORE. " History of Edward V. and the Duke of
York," 1641 ; HUME, " History of England," chap, xxiii. ; HORACE
WAI.POLE, "Historic Doubts on Richard III.," 1768; J. REV,
'• Essais historiques et critiques stir Richard III," 1818.
Richard (re'shln') I., Duke of Normandy, surnamed
SANS PEUK, ("without fear,") was born about 933 ; died
in 996.
Richard II., Duke of Normandy, was the son of the
preceding, whom he succeeded. He died in 1027 or 1026,
and was succeeded by his son, Richard III., who died
in 1028.
Richard, a native of Normandy, was a friend of
Thomas a Becket, whom he succeeded as Archbishop
of Canterbury in 1174. Died in 1184.
See W. F. HOOK, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
vol. ii. chap. viii.
Richard, a learned and liberal prelate, whose family
name was Frrz-RAU'H. He became Archbishop of
Armagh in 1347, and denounced the superstition and
licentious habits of the mendicant friars. For this
offence he was arraigned before Pope Innocent VI.,
and condemned. Died at Avignon in 1360.
Richard, re'shtit', (AcniLLE,) a French botanist,
born in Paris in 1794, was a son of Louis Claude Marie,
noticed below. lie wrote many monographs, and con
tributed greatly to popularize the science of botany.
His " Elements of Botany and Vegetable Physiology"
(1819; 7th edition, 1846) is highly commended as a text
book for students. It has been translated into many
languages. Died in 1852.
See BOUCHARDOT, " iSioges de Royer-Collard et d'A. Richard,"
1853 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Richard, (CHARLES Louis,) a French theologian,
born in Lorraine in 1711. He published a "Diction
ary of Ecclesiastical Sciences," (6 vols., 1760.) Died
in 1794.
Richard, (Fi.EURY FRANCOIS,) a French historical
painter, born in Lyons in 1777. He received the title
of painter to Charles X. about 1824.
Richard, (FRANCOIS,) called RICHARD LENOIR, a
French manufacturer, born in Calvados in 1765. He
and his partner Lenoir introduced the manufacture of
fine cotton stuffs into France about 1795. Died in 1839.
See his autobiographic " Memoires," 1837.
Richard, (FRANgois MARIE CLAUD?:,) BAROX, a
French physician, born in the eighteenth century. He
was the author of" Observations on the Medicine of the
Military Hospitals," (" Observations de Medecine des
Hopitaux militaires," 1766.) He died in the reign of
Louis XVI.
Richard, (JEAN,) a French moralist and religious
writer, born at Verdun in 1638. His chief work is
" Universal Science of the Pulpit, or Moral Dictionary,"
(" La Science universelle de la Chaire, ou Dictionnaire
morale," etc., 5 vols., 1700-12.) Died in 1719.
Richard, (JOSEPH CHARLES,) a French revolutionist,
born at La Fleche in 1752, was a moderate member of
the Convention. He was specially excepted from the
operation of the law which exiled regicides in 1816.
Died in 1834.
Richard, (Louis CLAUDE MARIE,) an eminent French
botanist, born at Versailles in 1754. He passed about
eight years (1781-89) in exploring the botanical and
other productions of Guiana and the Antilles. After
his return he was admitted into the Institute, and was
professor of botany in the Ecole de Medecine, Paris. He
was a good observer, and was versed in various branches
of natural history. He wrote, besides several memoirs
or monographs, an excellent " Analysis of the Fruit,
considered in general," (1808.) Died in 1821.
See Ct'viHR, " filoge de L. C. M. Richard;" KUNTH, "Notice
snr L. C. M. Richard," 1824; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
RICHARD
1893
RICHARDSON
Richard, (RENE,) a French historian, bom at Sau-
mur in 1654, obtained the office of royal censor, (of
books.) Died in 1727.
Richard, (THEODORE,) a French landscape-painter,
born at Milhau (Aveyron) about 1805.
Richard de Bury, an English prelate and patron of
learning, whose family name was RICHARD ANGERVILLE
or ANGARVILLE, was born at Bury Saint Edmund's in
1287. He was tutor to Prince Edward, (afterwards Ed
ward III.) Having been sent on a mission to the pope,
he formed a friendship with Petrarch, was appointed
P>ishop of Durham in 1333, and chancellor of England
in 1334. He collected a great number of books, which
he bequeathed to a company of scholars at Oxford. It
is stated that he owned more books than all the other
English bishops together. He was eminent for learning.
Died in 1345.
See an account of liis life in his " Philobiblon," an English ver
sion of which was published in London, 1833.
Richard de Saint- Victor, re'shi R' deh san vek'-
IOR', a mystical theologian and philosopher, born in
Scotland, was a pupil of Hugh de Saint- Victor. He
became prior of the abbey of Saint-Victor, at Paris, in
1164. He was an eloquent and celebrated writer on
theology, ethics, etc. An edition of his works was pub
lished by John of Toulouse in 1650. Died in 1173.
See JOANNES DE TOLOSA, "Vita Richardi," prefixed to the edi
tion of his works, 1650.
Richard of Cirencester, (sis'e-ter,) an English his
torian and monk, called RiCAR'DUsCoRlNF.x'sis, or THE
MONK OK WESTMINSTER. He entered a monastery at
Westminster in 1350. He wrote, besides several works
on Saxon and British history, a celebrated " Description
of Britain," (" De Situ Britannia?,") the manuscript of
which was first found in 1747 by Charles Julius Bertram,
of Copenhagen. The authenticity of this work is
doubted by many critics.
Richard of Hexham. See ROGER.
Richard Plantagenet. See YORK, third DUKE OF.
Rich'ard Plaii-tag'e-net, Earl of Cornwall, a son
of John, King of England, was born in 1208. "His
ruling passion was to amass money, — in which he suc
ceeded so well as to become the richest subject in Chris
tendom,'' (Hume.) According to Michaud, he fought I
as a crusader in Palestine about 1240. He was elected j
King of the Romans in 1256. "He was tempted," says
Hume, "to expend vast sums of money on his election."
Though he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, his reign
was only nominal. He died in England in 1272.
See RYMER, " Fcedera ;" GEBAUER, " Leben und Thaten Herrn
Richards," etc., 1744.
Richardot, re'shaR'do', (FRANCOIS,) Bishop of Arras,
a learned French prelate, born in 1507; died in 1574.
Rich'ards, ( WILLIAM,) an American missionary, born
at Plainfield, Massachusetts, in 1792. He sailed in 1822
to the Sandwich Islands, where he became interpreter
and chaplain to the king, and in 1845 was appointed
minister of public instruction. Died in 1847.
Richards, (W. T.,) a distinguished American land
scape-painter, is a resident of Philadelphia. He is one
of the most successful cultivators of the pre-Raphaelite
style in landscape-painting. His works are remarkable
for their accuracy of detail and the perfection of their
finish.
See TCCKKRMAX, "Book of the Artists."
Rich'ard-son, (CHARLES,) an eminent English lexi
cographer, born in 1775. He published in 1805 "Illus
trations of English Philology," in which he advocated
the philological opinions of Home Tooke. His chief
work is a "Dictionary of the English Language," (2
vols. 4to, 1835-37, reissued in 1838, 1839, 1844, ^49, and
1855; with Supplement, 1856 and 1859,) which is very
highly esteemed. It was pronounced by Dean Trench
the best dictionary in the language. Died in 1865.
See AI.UBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Rich'ard-son, (ISRAEL B.,) an American general,
born at Burlington, Vermont, about 1818, graduated at
West Point in 1841. He served with distinction in the
Mexican war, became a captain in 1851, and resigned
his commission in 1855. He commanded a division in
the Chickahominy campaign, (May-July, 1862,) was ap
pointed a major-general in July, and rendered important
services at Antietam, September 17, 1862. He received
in this battle a wound of which he died, November, 1862.
S^e TENNEY, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion."
Richardson, (JAMES,) an English traveller, bom in
Lincolnshire in 1806. He engaged in an expedition to
Lake Tchad, in Africa, and departed from Tripoli in
1850 with Barth. He died at Ungouratona in March,
1851, leaving a "Narrative of a Mission to Central
Africa," (1853.)
See " Nonvelle Biographie Generale. "
Richardson, (JOHN,) a learned English theologian,
born at Chester. He became Bishop of Ardagh, Ire
land, in 1633. Died in London in 1654.
Rich'ard-son, (Sir JOHN,) a British naturalist and
traveller, born at Dumfries, Scotland, in 1787. He
served as surgeon to Captain Franklin's expedition to
the Arctic Ocean in 1819, and to the second expedition
of that navigator in 1825. He published " Zoology of
the Northern Parts of British America," (" Fauna Bo-
reali-Americana," 3 parts, 1829-37,) in which he was
assisted by William Swainson and William Kirby. In
1848 he conducted an expedition sent to search for Sir
John Franklin. His route was through the lakes of
British America to Slave Lake, and thence down the
Mackenzie River, the mouth of which he reached in
August, 1848. After his return he published a "Journal
of a Boat- Voyage through Rupert's Land to the Arctic
Sen," etc., (1851.) Died in 1865.
See "Life of Sir John Richardson," London, :86S; "Bio
graphical Sketches," by H. MAKTINEAU.
Richardson, (JOHN PETER,) an American statesman,
grandson of Richard, noticed below, was born in Sumter
district, South Carolina, in 1801. He was a prominent
leader of the Union party in the Nullification contest
of 1835, was elected to Congress in 1836, and became
Governor of the State in 1841. Died in 1850.
Richardson, (JONATHAN,) an English portrait-
painter and writer on art, was born about 1665. He
painted heads with great success, but failed in attitudes,
draperies, and backgrounds. After the death of Knel-
ler he was considered the foremost portrait-painter of
England. His durable reputation is founded on an
" Essay on the Whole Art of Criticism as it relates to
Painting, and an Argument in behalf of the Science of
a Connoisseur," (1719,) which is highly commended.
Died in 1745.
Richardson, (JOSEPH,) an English poet, born in
Northumberland. He studied law, and was called to
the bar in 1784. He was one of the writers of the
satires of the " Rolliad" and the " Probationary Odes."
Died in 1803.
Richardson, (RiCHARn,) an American soldier and
patriot, born near Jamestown, Virginia, in 1704, served
in the Revolutionary war, and was made a brigadier-
general. Died in 1780.
Richardson, (SAMUEL,) an eminent English novel
ist, born in Derbyshire in 1689, was a son of a joiner.
At the village school which he attended he began to dis
play his faculty for invention. He has informed us that
in his boyhood he was a favourite of young women, who
availed themselves of his talents in the composition of
letters to their lovers. About the age of seventeen he
was apprenticed to a printer of London, named Wilde.
He served as foreman in the printing-office about five
years, and then became a master-printer in Fleet Street.
He married Miss Wilde, a daughter of his former
master. In 1740 he published his first novel, " Pa
mela," which was very popular and opened a new era in
English romantic literature. Fielding's novel "Joseph
Andrews" was an avowed burlesque of " Pamela."
Richardson acquired a European reputation by his
"History of Clarissa Harlowe," (1748,) which is con
sidered his capital work. " His personages have all
the reality possible," says Diderot; "his incidents are
realized in the manners of all polished nations. What
fertility in the invention of personages ! what variety
in the delineation of characters !" He afterwards
produced the novel of "Sir Charles Grandison," (1753.)
which was less successful. Richardson was prosperous in
; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; thasin this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
RICHARDSON
1894
RICHELIEU
business. By the favour of Speaker Onslovv he obtained
the lucrative privilege of printing the Journals of the
House of Commons. He wrote No. XCVII. of the
" Rambler" of Dr. Johnson, who was his friend and a
warm admirer of his works. Died on the 4th of July,
1761.
See FRANCIS JEFFREY, "Swift and Richardson," 1853; DIDE
ROT, "E"logede S. Richardson," 1762; MRS. BARBAULD, "Life of
S. Richardson," prefixed to his " Correspondence," 6 vols., 1803;
SIR WALTER SCOTT, " Memoirs of Eminent Novelists ;" E. MAN-
GIN, " Life and Writings of S. Richardson," i8n ; ALUBONE, " Dic
tionary of Authors;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1804;
" Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1869, article "Historical
Sketches of the Reign of George II. ;" "Westminster Review" for
January, 1869; " Monthly Review" for January, 1805.
Richardson, (Sir THOMAS,) an English judge, born
in Norfolk in 1569. He was elected Speaker of the
Commons in 1621, and became chief justice of the court
of common pleas in 1625 or 1626. He decided that
torture was an illegal mode of obtaining evidence when
it was proposed to apply it to Felton the assassin, (1628.)
In 1631 he was appointed chief justice of the king's
bench. He was a noted jester. Died in 1635.
See LOUD CAMPBELL, "Lives of the Chief Justices;" Foss,
"The Judges of England."
Richardson, ( WILLIAM,) an English clergyman, born
near Bedford in 1698. lie became chaplain to the king
in 1746. Some of his sermons were published. Died
in 1775.
Richardson, (WILLIAM,) a British writer and critic,
born in Perthshire in 1743. He was professor of hu
manity at Glasgow from 1773 to I8i4, and was a
contributor to the "Mirror." Among his works are
" Anecdotes of the Russian Empire," and "Essays on
the Characters of Shakspeare," (3 vols., 1775,) which
was received with favour. Died in 1814.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Riche, resh, (CLAUDE ANTOINK GASI>ARD,) a French
naturalist, born in Bcaujolais in 1762. He was a coad
jutor of VTicq d'Azyr in the " Encyclopedic Me'thodique."
He accompanied as a naturalist the expedition which
was sent in search of La Perouse in 1791. On their
arrival at Java, in 1793, tne collections and journal of
Riche were seized by the Dutch. He died in 1797,
leaving many memoirs on natural history. He was a
brother of De Prony, the great engineer and geometer.
See CUVIER, " E"loge du Citoyen Riche," 1798.
Riche, re'sha', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) President of Hayti,
was born at Cap-Haitien about 1780. He served as a
general under Christophe, and became President in
March, 1846. Died in February, 1847.
Riche de Prony. See PRONY, DE.
Richelet, resh'li', (PiERKE,) a French grammarian,
born at Cheminon in 1631. He published, besides other
works, a " Dictionary of the French Language," (1680,)
the success of which was promoted by many satirical
remarks contained in it. Died at Paris in 1698.
See " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Richelieu, de, deh resh'le-uh', ( ALPHONSE Louis
du Plessis— dii pli'se',) caffec! CARDINAL DE LYON,
born in Paris in 1582, was a brother of the great states
man. He became Archbishop of Lyons in 1628, and
cardinal in 1629. He meddled little with the intrigues
of the court. Died in 1653.
See ABBE DE PURE, "Vie de Richelieu, Cardinal de Lyon."
Richelieu, de, (ARMAND EMANUEL DU PLESSIS,)
DUKE, a statesman, born in Paris in 1766, was a grand
son of Marshal Richelieu, (1696-1788.) He emigrated
in 1789 or 1790, entered the Russian army, and became
governor of Odessa in 1803. Having returned to France
in 1814, he was appointed minister of foreign affairs and
president of the council (i.e. prime minister) in Sep
tember, 1815. He negotiated with the allies a treaty
which secured the territorial integrity of France. He
resigned office about the end of 1818, and was recalled
to the presidency of the council February 20, 1820. In
November, 1821, he retired because the majority of the
Chamber opposed his policy. He was a man of estimable
character. Died in May, 1822.
See L. F. DE BAUSSET, "Notice sur M. le Due de Richelieu,"
1822; LAMARTINE, " History of the Restoration;" GUIZOT, " Me-
moires," tome i. ; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Richelieu, resh'e-loo, de, [Fr. pron. deh resh'le-uh', ]
(ARMAND JEAN DU PLESSIS,) CARDINAL, a celeljrated
and ambitious French statesman, born at Paris or in
Poitou on the 5th of September, 1585, was a son of
Frai^ois du Plessis and Susanne de la Porte. He
studied at the College of Navarre and that of Lisieux,
and chose the clerical profession. In 1607 he was
consecrated at Rome as Bishop of Lujon. Having been
selected by the States-General to harangue the king in
1614, he acquitted himself so well that he was appointed
almoner to the queen-regnant. He was secretary of
state for a short time in 1616, and acted as mediator
between the king and his mother, Marie de Medicis,
by whose influence he obtained the dignity of cardinal
in 1622. About two years later he was admitted into
the royal council, which he entered as a master rather
than an adviser. Even the king was overawed by the
intensity of his imperious will. Richelieu soon became
prime minister, and pursued a policy which tended
to humble the powerful nobility, to centralize the ad
ministration, to render the monarchy absolute, and
to restore the balance of power in Europe, -which the
ascendency of the House of Austria had disturbed.
His most powerful opponents were Marie de Medicis
and the king's brother Guston, who incited an armed
revolt, which was suppressed without difficulty. Among
the important achievements of Richelieu was the subjec
tion of the Calvinists, who had attempted to gain their
independence or defend their rights by arms, and whose
head-quarters were at Rochelle. He directed in person
the siege of this city, which surrendered in 1628 on
condition that a general pardon should be granted, with
| religious toleration to the Protestants. A contest for
ascendency between Richelieu and Marie de Medicis
ended in the exile of the latter in 1630. He maintained
the independence of the civil power against the usurpa
tions of the Romish Church. He exhibited excessive
severity in the execution of Marillac, Montmorency,
Cinq-Mars, and other noblemen, who were implicated
in a conspiracy against him. The first two of these
were executed in 1632.
In the pursuance of his design to reduce the power
of Austria, he supported with a subsidy the Protestants
of Germany, who were waging war against the emperor,
and used his influence to defeat the negotiations for
peace. He also ordered a large body of French troops
to co-operate with the Swedes on the Rhine in 1635.
About this time his armies opposed the Spaniards in
Flanders and Italy, but without much success. In 1635
he founded and endowed the French Academy, the most
splendid literary institution of Europe. In the same
year he made a treaty with Holland, which became his
ally in a war against Philip IV. of Spain. The French
gained several victories in Germany and Italy in 1640-
42. During his administration Alsace, Artois, and Rous-
sillon were annexed to France. Richelieu detected a
dangerous conspiracy formed by Cinq-Mars and Gaston
of Orleans, the former of whom was executed in Sep
tember, 1642. He died in Paris on the 4th of December,
1642. The people expressed by bonfires their joy for
his death.
Richelieu had some literary taste, and was a liberal
patron of authors, artists, etc. He was the reputed
author of several works, among which are " Memoires
du Cardinal de Richelieu," first printed in 1823, and his
"Political Testament," ("Testament politique,") the
authenticity of which was discredited by Voltaire and
defended by Foncemagne. Although Richelieu was a
great and successful statesman, he is not a general
favourite with the French, like Henry IV. or Louis XIV.
Many modern French writers argue that his policy did
not conduce to the real and durable prosperity of the
nation. His system is severely criticised by De Tocque-
ville, (in his "Ancien Regime et la Revolution,") by
Quinet, and by Charles de Remusat.
SeeAuBERY, "Memoires du Cardinal de Richelieu," 1660 ; JAY,
" Histoire du Ministere de Richelieu;" CAPEFIGUE, "Richelieu et
Mazarin," 1836; HENRI MARTIN, "Histoire de France;" MICHE-
I.ET, "Histoire de France;" VIOI.ART, "Histoire du Ministere de
Richelieu," 1649; J. CAII.I.ET, " L' Administration en France sous
Richelieu," 2 vols., 1861 ; " Life of Cardinal Richelieu," by WILLIAM
ROBSON, 1854; SULLY, "Memoires;" CARDINAL DE RETZ, "Me
moires;" "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
a, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; nit; good; moon;
RICHELIEU
1895
RICHTER
Richelieu, de, (Loins FRANCOIS ARMAND r>u PLES-
Sis,) a brilliant and profligate courtier, born in 1696, was
a grand-nephew of Cardinal Richelieu. He was a son
of Armand Jean Vignerod, Due de Richelieu. His in
trigues and libertinism caused him to be thrice confined
in the Bastille. He obtained the favour of Louis XV.,
and distinguished himself as a general at Fontenoy in
1745. About 1748 he was made a marshal of France.
He disgraced himself by his cupidity, arrogance, and
scandalous vices. Died in 1788.
See FAUR, "Vie privee du Marechal de Richelieu," 1790: Sou-
r.AviK. " Memoires du Marechal de Richelieu;" VOLTAIKE, " Cor-
respondance gesierale ;" SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires; CAPEFIGUE,
'•Le Mareclial de Richelieu," 1857; DANGBAU, "Journal;" " Nou-
e Biographie Generale.
Riohemont, de, deh resh'moN', (Louis AUGUSTS
CAMUS,) a French general, born in 1770; died in 1853.
Richepaiise or Richepaiice, resh'pS.vss', (AN-
TOINE,) a French general, born at Metz in 1770. He
became a general of brigade in 1796, and a general
of division in 1799. Having obtained command of a
division of the army of Moreau, he contributed to the
victory of Hohenlinden, (1800.) Died at Guadeloupe
in 1803.
See NOLLET-FABERT, " Le General Richepance," 1853.
Richer, re'sha', [Lat. RICHK'RUS,] a French chroni
cler, who flourished about 980-1000. He wrote (in
Latin) a history of the period from 888 to 995, which
is highly prized. The manuscript of this work was dis
covered in 1833 by Pertz and Boehmer.
Richer, ( ADRIEN,) a French biographer and historian,
born at Avranches in 1720. He wrote "The Lives of
Celebrated Mariners," (13 vols., 1780-86,) and other
works. Died at Paris in 1798.
Richer, (CLAUDE,) a French mathematician, born at
Auxerre in 1680; died in 1756.
Richer, (EDMOND,) a French canonist, born in Cham
pagne in 1559 or 1560. He became an adherent of
Henry IV. about 1590, and syndic of the Faculty of
Theology at Paris in 1608. He defended the privileges
of the Gallican Church, and published a work "On
Ecclesiastical and Political Power," (1611,) which sub
jected him to persecution. Died in 1631. "His fame,"
says Hallam, "has risen in later times."
See BAII.I.ET, "Vie de Richer," 1714; PERAU, "Vie d'E.
Richer," 1748; NICERON, "Memoires."
Richer, (EooUARD,) a French author, born in La
Vendee in 1792. He produced a poem entitled "Victor
et Amelie," (1816,) and a " History of Brittany," (1821,)
which is commended. Having been converted to the
doctrines of Swedenborg, he published a work called
"The New Jerusalem," (8 vols., 1832-36.) Died at
Nantes in 1834.
See PIET, "Memoires sur la Vie de Richer," 1836.
Richer, (FRANgois,) a French jurist, a brother of
Adrian, noticed above, was born at Avranches in 1718.
He wrote a "Treatise on Civil Death," (" De la Mort
civile," 1755,) and "Celebrated Trials," (22 vols., 1772
-88.) Died in 1790.
Richer, (HENRI,) a mediocre French writer, born at
Longueil in 1685. Among his works are " Fables in
Verse," (1729,) and a " Life of Maecenas," (1746.) Died
in 1748.
Richer, (JEAN,) a French astronomer, was sent to
Cayenne in 1671 to observe the parallax of the sun.
Died in 1696.
Richer d'Aube, re'sha' dob, (FRANgois,) a French
jurist, born at Rouen in 1686, was a nephew of Fonte-
nelle. Died in 1752.
Richerand, resh'r&N', (ANTHELME,) an eminent
French physician and surgeon, born at Belley, in Bugey,
in 1779. He published "Elements of Physiology,"
(1801 ; loth edition, 1832,) which had great success, and
became professor in the Faculty of Medicine in Paris
in 1806. He wrote articles for the " Biographie Uni-
verselle." Died in 1840.
See DUBOIS D'AMIENS, " filoge de Richerand," 1851 ; " Nouvelle
Kiographie Generale."
Richerus. See RICHER.
Richier, re'she-i', (LiGiER,) a skilful French sculptor,
born in Lorraine about 1500. He studied in Rome,
and returned to Lorraine while he was still young.
Died about 1572.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Richmann, riK/man, or Rickman, rik'man, (GEORG
WILHELM,) born in Livonia in 1711, became professor
of natural history at Saint Petersburg in 1745. He was
killed by lightning, while repeating the experiment of
Dr. Franklin, in 1753.
Rich'moiid, (CHARLES GORDON LENNOX,) DUKE
OF, born in London in 1791, was a son of Charles
Lennox, (1764-1819.) He was a member of the privy
council, and of the cabinet formed by Earl Grey in 1831.
Died in 1861.
Richmond, (CHARLES HENRY GORDON LENNOX,)
DUKE OF, an English peer, born in 1818, was educated
at Oxford. He was appointed president of the poor-
law board in 1859, resigned the same year, and succeeded
his father as duke in 1860. He was president of the
board of trade in 1867 and 1868. In 1870 he became
leader of the Conservatives in the House of Lords.
Richmond, (CHARLES LENNOX,) DUKE OF, born
in 1672, was a son of Charles II. and the Duchess of
Portsmouth. He served in the army under William
III. in Flanders. He died in 1723, and left the title to
his son Charles.
Richmond, (CHARLES LENNOX,) DUKE OF, a British
! general, born in 1735, was a grandson of a natural son
| of King Charles II. He was a friend of liberty and
reform, and a man of superior talents. In 1778 he pro
posed to recognize the independence of the revolted
American colonies. He became master of the ordnance
in 1782. Died in 1806. His sister, SARAH LENNOX,
became the wife of George Napier and mother of the
famous commanders of that name.
Richmond, (CHARLES LENNOX,) DUKE OF, a British
peer, born in 1764. He entered the army in his youth.
In 1806 he inherited the dukedom at the death of his
uncle. He was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland in
1808, and governor-general of the British possessions in
North America about 1816. He died in Canada, of
hydrophobia, in 1819, and was succeeded by his son
Charles.
Richmond, EARL OF. See HENRY VII. of Eng
land.
Richmond, (GEORGE,) an English portrait-painter,
born about 1809. He became popular as a painter in
water-colours in London. His more recent works are
chiefly portraits in oil. He was elected an associate of
the R'oyal Academy in 1857.
Richmond, (JAMES STUART,) fourth DUKE OF, born
in 1612, was a nephew of Ludovic Stuart, noticed below.
He inherited the title of duke about 1641. He was a
devoted adherent of Charles I. in the civil war. Died
in 1655.
Richmond, (LEIGH,) an English clergyman, born in
Liverpool in 1772. He was educated at Cambridge, and
obtained a curacy in the Isle of Wight, from which he
removed to London in 1805 and became chaplain of the
Lock Hospital. He was presented to the rectory of
Turvey, in Bedfordshire, about 1808. He published
"Annals of the Poor," containing "The Dairyman's
Daughter" and other narratives, which obtained a wide
circulation ; also, "The Fathers of the English Church,"
(8 vols., 1807-11.) Died in 1827.
See " Memoir of the Rev. Leigh Richmond," by REV. T. S.
GRIMSHAW.
Rich'mpnd and Len'nox, (LUDOVIC STUART,) sec
ond DUKE OF, born in 1574, was a son of the first Duke
of Lennox, and a cousin of James I. of England. He
gained the favour of that king, who created him Duke of
Richmond in 1623. He died, without issue, in 1624.
Richomme, re'shom', (JOSEPH THEODORE,) an emi
nent French engraver, born in Paris in 1785. He gained
the grand prize in 1806 or 1816. He engraved a number
of works after Raphael. Died about 1850.
Richter, riK'ter, (AooLi'H,) a German painter, born
at Thorn in 1813.
Richter, (ADRIAN LUDWIG,) an eminent German
painter and engraver, born at Dresden in 1803. His
works are chiefly landscapes representing German and
Italian scenes.
•e as k; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
RICHTER
1896
Richter, (/EMILIUS LUDWIG,) professor of canon law
at Marburg, born at Stolpen in 1808, published a
" Manual of Catholic and Evangelical Canon Law,"
(1841.)
Richter, (AUGUST GOTTLOB,) a German surgeon, born
in Saxony in 1742. He was professor of surgery at Got-
tingen for more than forty years, and wrote several works
on that subject. Died in 1812.
Richter, (GEOKG GOTTLOB,) a German physician,
born at Schneeburg, in Misnia, in 1694. He became
professor of medicine at Gottingen in 1736, and pub
lished many medical treatises. Died in 1773.
Richter, rik'ter, (HENRY,) an English painter of
genre and occasionally of history, born in 1772, was
of German extraction. He resided mostly in London,
where he died in 1857. His most important historical
work is "Christ Restoring Sight to the Blind," now in
a church at Greenwich, England.
Richter, (HERMANN EBERHARD,) a German phy
sician, born at Leipsic in 1808, published a number
of medical and botanical works.
Richter, (JEAN PAUL FRIEDRICH,) commonly called
Jean Paul, a popular, 'quaint, and original German
author, born at Wunsiedel, near Baireuth, (Bavaria,) on
the 2ist of March, 1763. His father was a subaltern
teacher in the gymnasium of that place, and afterwards a
clergyman. His early education was defective. He had,
however, made good progress in Latin and Greek when
he entered the University of Leipsic, in 1780. He was
destined for theology, but a strong predilection for poetry
and philosophy caused him to neglect, and at length to
abandon, his appointed profession. During his attend
ance at the university he was reduced to extreme indi
gence. To supply his urgent want of funds, he wrote a
work entitled "Greenland Lawsuits," (1783,) which but
slightly improved his pecuniary affairs. He also wrote
a "Selection from the Papers of the Devil," ("Auswahl
aus des Teufels Papieren," 1788.) He quitted Leipsic
in 1785, after which he lived some time with his mother
at 1 1 of. He was afterwards a tutor in a family of rank,
and in 1793 became teacher of a school at Schwarzen-
bach. He produced in 1793 "The Invisible Lodge,"
(" Die unsichtbare Loge,") which was received with
favour. His " Hesperus," a novel, (4 vols., 1794,) was
greatly admired. " By degrees," says Carlyle, "Jean
Paul began to be considered, not a strange crack-brained
mixture of enthusiast and buffoon, but a man of infinite
humour, sensibility, force, and penetration." He changed
his residence frequently, living successively at Leipsic,
Weimar, Meiningen, etc. In 1798 he published "The
Valley of Campan, or a Discourse on the Immortality
of the Soul," (" Das Campanerthal, oder die Unsterb-
lichkeit der Seele.") He married Caroline Mayer, of
Berlin, in 1801, soon after which he settled at Baireuth.
The prince-primate Carl von Dalberg granted him in
1809 an annual pension of 1000 florins. According to
Carlyle, he received a pension from the King of Bavaria
in 1802. Richter is represented as having been eminently
happy in his domestic relations. Died at Baireuth in
November, 1825.
Among his principal works are novels entitled " Quin-
tus Fixlein," (1796,) "Parson in Jubilee," ("Der Jubel
Senior," 1797,) "Titan," (1800-03,) and " Flegeljahre,"
(which may be translated "Wild Oats," 1805.) "Titan,"
which he considered his master-piece, has been trans
lated into English, (1863.) He also wrote two works
of high order, entitled " Introduction to /Esthetics,"
("Vorschule der /Esthetik," 3 vols., 1804,) and " Le-
vana," (1807,) a profound philosophical essay on educa
tion. He left an autobiography, " Wahrheit aus Jean
Paul's Leben, (8 vols., 1826-33,) tne 'ast Part °f wn'ch
was written by Dr. Otto. " Except by name," said Car
lyle in 1827, " Richter is little known out of Germany.
The only thing connected with him, we think, that has
reached this country is his saying imported by Madame
de Stae'l and thankfully pocketed by most newspaper
critics: 'Providence has given to the French the empire
of the land, to the English that of the sea, and to the
Germans that of — the air !' Of this last element, indeed,
his own genius might easily seem to have been a denizen.
His thoughts, his feelings, the creations of his spirit,
walk before us embodied under wondrous shapes, in
motley and ever-fluctuating groups; but his essential
character, however he disguised it, is that of a philoso
pher and moral poet, . . . whose delight and best
endeavour are with all that is beautiful and tender and
mysteriously sublime in the fate or history of man." As
a humourist, he is pre-eminent among the Germans.
Sec CARI.YLE, " Essays," vols. i. and ii. ; E. FORSTER, "Life of
Jean Paul Richter," 1863; DOKING, "Leben und Charakteristik J.
P. Richters," 1830; R. O. SPAZIEK, "Jean Paul Richter; ein bio-
graphischer Com men tar 7.11 seinen Werken," 5 vols., 1833; Z.
FU.NCK, "Notice sur Jean Paul Richter," 1839; L. BOERNE,
"Denkrede auf J. P. F. Richter," 1826; " Nouvelle Biographic
Gene'rale ;" EI.IZA LEE, " Life of J. P. F. Richter," Boston, 1842 ;
" Edinburgh Review" for June, 1827; "British Quarterly Review"
for November, 1847; " Blackwood's Magazine" tor July, 1847, a»d
September, 1863.
Richter, (JEREMIAS BENJAMIN,) a Prussian chemist,
born at Hirschberg, in Silesia, in 1762. He published,
besides other works, " Rudiments of the Art of Measuring
Chemical Elements," (4 vols., 1792-94.) It is stated that
he discovered the law of multiple proportions. Died
in 1807.
See MEUSEL, "Gelelirtes Deutschland."
Richter, (KARL FRIEDRICH,) a German Orientalist,
born at Freyberg in 1773 ; died in 1806.
Richter, von, fort riic'ter, (Orro FKIEDRICH,) a
Russian traveller, born in 1792. He visited Egypt,
Syria, etc. Died at Smyrna in 1816 or 1817.
Ri9'I-mer, an ambitious general of the Roman army,
was a Gothic chief. He deposed Avitus about 457 A.D.,
and raised to the throne Majorian, whom he put to
death in 461. He obtained imperial power, though he
did not assume the title of emperor. In 472 A.n. he
captured Rome, and caused Anthemius to be killed.
He died the same year.
See GIBBON, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire;" LE BEAU, "Histoiredu Bas- Empire ;" "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Rick'etts, (JAMES B.,) an American general, born in
the city of New York. He graduated at West Point in
1839, and became a captain in 1852. lie commanded a
division at the battle of Antietam, September, 1862, and
at that of the Wilderness, May 5 and 6, 1864. He was
disabled by a severe wound at the battle of Cedar Creek,
Virginia, October 19, 1864.
Rickman, (GKOKG WILHEI.M.) See RICHMANN.
Rick'man, (Jons',) F.K.S., an English statistician,
born in 1771, was assistant clerk of the House of Com
mons. Died in 1841.
Rickman, (THOMAS,) an English architect and emi
nent writer on Gothic architecture, was born at Maiden
head in 1776. He became a clerk in the service of an
insurance-broker of Liverpool about 1808, after which
he began to study design in his leisure hours. Having
adopted the profession of architect, he removed to Bir
mingham, and published " An Attempt to discriminate
the Styles of Architecture in England," (1817,) which
is esteemed a standard work. He was the architect of
many Gothic churches erected at Bristol, Birmingham,
Carlisle, Liverpool, etc. Among his best works is the
New Court of Saint John's College, Cambridge. Died
in 1841.
Ricord, re'koR', (PHILIPPE,) a skilful physician, of
French parentage, born at Baltimore, United States, in
1800. He became chief surgeon of the Hopital du
Midi, Paris, in 1831, and gave special attention to vene
real diseases, on which he has written with great suc
cess. His practice is said to br. immense : it is probably
not surpassed by that of any other physician in Paris.
Among his works are " Letters on Syphilis," (1854.)
Ri'der, (JoiiN,) a Protestant bishop, born in Cheshire
about 1562. He became Bishop of Killaloe, in Ireland,
in 1612. Among his works is "An English-Latin and
Latin-English Dictionary," (1589.) Died in 1632.
Rider, (Rev. WILLIAM,) an English historian, pub
lished a "History of England." Died in 1785.
Ridg'ley, (THOMAS,) a dissenting minister, born in
London about 1666. He succeeded Thomas Gouge in
London about 1700, and became tutor in an academy of
the Independents in 1712. He published a "Body of
Divinity," (1731.) Died in 1734.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; me"t; n6t; good; moon;
RIDIXGER
1897
RIEKZI
Ridinger. See RIKDINGER.
Rid'ley, (GLOUCESTER,) an English clergyman, born
at sea, on board the "Gloucester" East Indiaman, in
1702. He wrote a "Life of Dr. Nicholas Ridley, Bishop
of London," (1763,) and several poems, one of which
was called " Psyche," (1782.) Died in 1774.
Ridley, (JAMES,) a son of the preceding, was a chap
lain in the army. He wrote " Tales of the Genii,"
often reprinted. Died prematurely in 1765.
Ridley, (\ICHOLAS,) an eminent English Reformer
and martyr, born in Northumberland near the beginning
of the sixteenth century. He was educated at Pembroke
College, Cambridge, and obtained a high reputation as
a preacher. About 1540 he became chaplain to the
king. He was appointed Bishop of Rochester in 1547,
and succeeded Bonner as Bishop of London in 1550.
He assisted Cranmer in composing forty-one or forty-
t\vo articles of faith in 1551, attempted to convert the
princess Mary, and induced King Edward to found
several hospitals in London. On the death of Edward
VI. he advocated the claim of Lady Jane Grey. He
was committed to the Tower by Queen Mary in July,
1553, and was removed in 1554 to Oxford, where he
took part in a disputation on the questions which divided
the Protestants from the Roman Catholics. Having
been condemned as a heretic, he suffered death by fire
with fortitude on the i6th of October, 1555.
See GLOUCESTER RIDLEY, " Life of Bishop Ridley," 1763; Hi: MR,
"History of England;" " Monthly Review" for December, 1763,
and January, 1764.
Ridley, (Sir THOMAS,) an English civilian, born at
Ely. He wrote a "View of the Civil and Ecclesiastical
Law.'' Died in 1629.
Ridolfi, re-dol'fee, (CARLO,) an able painter of the
Venetian school, was born at or near Vicenza about
1598. He avoided the degenerate style which prevailed
among his contemporaries. A " Visitation" which he
painted for a church in Venice is especially admired.
He wrote "The Lives of the Venetian Painters," (2
vols., 1648,) which is a work of much literary and critical
merit. Died about 1660.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Ridolfi, (CLAUDIO,) an Italian painter, born at Ve
rona in 1560, was a pupil of Paul Veronese. He is
said to have been a good colorist. Died in 1644.
Ridolfi, (LORENZO,) a popular Florentine statesman,
who in 1425 rendered an important service to the re
public by inducing the Venetians to form an alliance
with Florence against the Duke of Milan.
Ridolfi, di, de re-dol'fee, (CosiMO,) MARQUIS, an
Italian agriculturist, born at Florence in 1794. He
founded an agricultural school at Meleto, and wrote
articles for the "Journal of Agriculture," founded by
himself and a few others in 1827. He was minister of
the interior and president of the council for a short
time in 1847 and 1848.
Riedel, ree'del, (AUGUST,) a German painter, was
born at Baireuth in 1800. He worked some years in
Rome.
Riedel, (FRIEDRICH JUSTUS,) a German litterateur,
born near Erfurt in 1742. Among his works are Satires,
(3 vols., 1786.) Died in Vienna in 1785.
Riedesel, ree'deh-zel', (JOSEPH HERMANN,) a German
traveller, born in 1740. He published an account of
his travels in Greece, etc., (" Remarques d'un Voyageur
au Levant," 1773.) Died in 1785.
Riedesel, von, fon ree'deh-zel', (FREDERIKA,) BAR
ONESS, a German lady, born at Brandenburg in 1746.
She went to the United States in 1777 with her husband,
an officer in the British service. She wrote Letters on
the campaign which she witnessed in New York. Died
in Berlin in 1808.
See the " North American Review" for January, 1828.
Riedesel, von, (FRIEDRICH ADOLPH,) BARON, a
German officer, born in 1738, was the husband of the
preceding. He served in the British army against the
Americans, (1777-82,) and obtained the rank of general.
Died in 1800.
See " Memoirs, Letters, and Journals of Major-General Riede
sel," translated from the German by WILLIAM L. STONE, (New
York, 1868.)
Riedinger or Ridinger, ree'ding-er, ( JOHANN
ELTAS,) an eminent German designer and engraver,
born at Ulm in 1695. His delineations of animals, es
pecially wild ones, are unsurpassed for accuracy and
fidelity to nature. Among his master-pieces are "Obser
vations on Wild Animals," (40 copper-plates,) "Fables
of Animals," (16 plates,) and "Paradise," (12 plates.)
He worked mostly at Augsburg. Died in 1767.
See NAGLER, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" HIRSCHI'NG,
" Hibtorisch-literarisches Handbuch."
Riegger, von, fon reeg'ger, (JOSEPH ANTON,) a Gei-
man jurist and writer on canon law. He became
professor of law at Vienna in 1764. Died in 1795.
Riego y Nunez, del, del re-a'go e noon'yeth, a Span
ish general and patriot, born in Asturias about 1785.
He was a leader of the insurgents who in January, 1820,
took arms for the Constitution of 1812. He was after
wards appointed Captain-General of Asturias, or of
Aragon, and president of the Cortes. He resisted the
French army of intervention in 1823, was taken prisoner,
and executed in November of that year.
See MIGUEL RIEGO, "Memoirs of the Life of Riego," 1823;
NARD Y PIRALA. " Vida miiitar y politica de Riego," 1844; ED.
BURCKHAKDT, " Riego uiid Mina," 1835.
Riem, reem, (JoHANN,) a German rural economist,
bom at Frankenthal, on the Rhine, in 1739. He wrote
on the methods of raising bees and obtaining honey.
Died in 1807.
Riemer, ree'mer, (FRIEDRICH WILHELM,) a German
scholar and writer, born at Glatz in 1774. He was
employed as a tutor in the family of W. von Hnmboldt,
and subsequently in that of Goethe. He became first
librarian at Weimar in 1828. He published a " Greek-
German Hand-Lexicon," and a number of poems. Died
in 1845.
Riencourt, de, deh re4.N'kooR', (SiMON,) a French
historian, born about 1605, in Paris, published a " His
tory of the French Monarchy under the Reign of Louis
XIV.," (2 vols., 1688,) and a "History of Louis XIII.,"
(1695.) Died in 1693.
Rienzi, re-e"n'zee, or Rienzo, re-e"n'zo, (Nicoi.A GA-
IJRINI,) called COLAS DI RIENZI, ko'lasdee re-eVzee, an
eloquent Roman tribune, was born probably at Rome.
He received a liberal education, and became a friend of
Petrarch about 1340. At that period anarchy prevailed
in Rome, the citizens of which were robbed and out
raged by barons who occupied fortified castles. Rienzi
was a colleague of Petrarch in a deputation sent by the
Romans to Avignon in 1342 to persuade the pope to
return to Rome. In 1347, by the popular favour, he
obtained power, with the title of tribune, and made some
reforms. He soon became elated with success, and dis
gusted the people by his vain pomp and extravagance.
" He degenerated," says Gibbon, "into the vices of a
king." He was driven out of the city about the end of
1347, after he had been anathematized as a rebel and a
heretic by the legate of the pope. Having passed seven
years as a fugitive in Germany, etc., he was arrested and
taken to Avignon, as a captive or culprit, in 1352. In
1354 he was sent to Rome, with the title of senator, by the
pope, who proposed to use the talents and influence of
Rienzi for the restoration of order in that capital. Before
the end of the year he Was killed in a tumult fomented
by the barons. " Never, perhaps," says Gibbon, " has the
energy and effect of a single mind been more remarkably
felt than in the sudden though transient reformation
of Rome by the tribune Rienzi. . . . More eloquent
than judicious, more enterprising than resolute, the
faculties of Rienzi were not balanced by cool and com
manding reason." Byron apostrophizes Rienzi as the
" Redeemer of dark centuries of shame, —
The friend of Petrarch, — hope of Italy, —
Rienzi! last of Romans !"
Childe Harold, canto iv. stanza cxiv.
The history of Rienzi forms the basis of one of Bul-
wer's most popular novels.
See GIBBON', " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," vol. iv.
chap. Ixx. ; SCHILLER, "History of Rebellions;" " Life of Rienzi,"
in French, by Du CERCEAU, 1733: GABRINI. " Osservazioni sulla
Vita di Rienzo," 1806; ZEFIRINO RE, " La Vita di Rienzi," 1828;
PAPENCORDT, "Rienzi et Rome a son fipoque," 1841; "The Life
and Times of Rienzi," Philadelphia, 1836; F. BENEDETTI, "Vita
di Rienzi," 1831; " Nouvelle Biographic Geneiale;" "London
Quarterly Review" for March, 1843.
€ as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
RIENZO
1898
RIM IN AID I
Rienzo. See RIENZI.
Riepenhausen, ree'pen-how'zen, (FRANZ,) an emi
nent German painter of history, and engraver, born at
Gottingen in 1786. He went to Rome about 1807 with
his brother Johann. They produced several oil-paintings,
and designs to illustrate the poems of Goethe and Schil
ler ; also a " History of Painting in Italy," (3 vols., 1820,
with twenty-four engravings after Italian masters.) He
died at Rome in 1831.
Riepenhausen, (JoiiANN,) a painter and engraver,
a brother of the preceding, was born at Gottingen in
1788. He worked many years at Rome. After the
death of Franz, he published a series of engravings
illustrative of the life of Raphael, under the title of
"Vita di Raffaello," (1834.)
Ries, reess, (FERDINAND,) a German composer and
pianist, born at Bonn in 1784, was a pupil of Beethoven.
He visited Paris, Stockholm, Saint Petersburg, and
London, and in the last-named city was received with
distinguished favour. His compositions include sym
phonies, instrument pieces, and operas; also an oratorio
called "David." Died in 1838.
See F^TIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens."
Rieter, ree'ter, (HENRI,) a Swiss landscape-painter,
born at Winterthur in 1751. He worked at Berne, and
painted Swiss scenery with success. He published col
oured engravings of the same subjects. Died in 1818.
Rietschel, reet'shel, (ERNST,) an eminent German
sculptor, and professor in the Academy of Arts at Dres
den, was born at Pulsnitz in 1804. He studied under
Ranch at Berlin, and subsequently in Italy. Among his
master-pieces we may name " Mary Kneeling over the
Dead Body of Christ," a bust of Luther, a "Ceres,"
colossal statues of Goethe and Schiller, (at Weimar,)
and the " Christ- Angel." Died at Dresden in 1861.
See " Biographic Universelle."
Rietschoof, reet/sKof, (HENDRIK,) a skilful Dutch
painter of marine views, was born in 1678.
Rietschoof, (}AN KLAASZ,) a Dutch painter of ma
rine views, born at Hoorn in 1652, was father of the
preceding. Died in 1719.
Rieux, de, deh re-uh', (JEAN,) a marshal of France,
who was born in 1342?^ He served with distinction under
Charles VI., and became marshal in 1397. Died in 1417.
Rieux, de, (PIERRE,) a French general, a son of the
preceding, was called MARECHAL DE ROCHEFORT, and
was born at Ancenis in 1389. He fought for Charles
VII. against the English. Died in 1438.
Riffault, re'fo', (JEAN RENE DENIS,) a French chem
ist, born at Saumur in 1752. He improved the method
of making gunpowder, and wrote, besides other works, a
" Manual of Chemistry," (1825.) Died at Paris in 1826.
Riffaut or Riffault, re'fo"', ( ADOLPHE PIERRE,) a
French engraver, born in Paris in 1821. He obtained
a medal of the first class in 1855. Died in 1859.
Rigal, re'gtK, (JEAN JACQUES,) a French surgeon and
writer, born at Cussac in 1755 ; died in 1823.
Rigaltius. See RIGAULT.
Rigas. See RHIGAS.
Rigau or Rigaud, re'go', (ANTOINE,) a French gene
ral, born at Agen in 1758. He commanded the depart
ment of the Marne when Napoleon returned from Elba.
Having been condemned to death for his defection from
the cause of the Bourbons in 1815, he escaped to the
United States. He died in 1820.
Rigaud, (HYACINTHE,) an eminent French portrait-
painter, born at Perpignan in 1659, was a pupil of Ranc
and of other masters. He painted Philip V. of Spain
in 1700, and Louis XIV. in 1701,50011 after which he
received the title of court painter. Among his works
are portraits of Bossuet and Lebrun. His touch is bold
and free and his design correct. He has been called
" the French Van Dyck." His portraits have been
engraved by Edelinck and Audran. Died in 1743.
See FONTENAY, "Dictionnaire des Artistes;" C. BLANC, " His-
toire des Peintres. "
Rigaud, (PIERRE AUGUSTIN, often called AUGUSTE,)
a French fabulist and .merchant, born at Montpellier in
1760. He published, besides several poems, a volume
of Fables, (1823,) by which he is said to have acquired
a durable reputation. Died in 1835.
Rigaud, re'go',? (STEPHEN PETER,) F.R.S., an able
English astronomer, born at Richmond, Surrey, in 1774.
He became Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford
in 1810. In 1827 he was appointed director of the Rad-
cliffe Observatory, and Savilian professor of astronomy
at Oxford. He wrote papers for several scientific pe
riodicals on astronomy and other physical sciences, and
edited the " Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence
of Bradley," (1831.) He was eminent as a mathematical
antiquary. Died in 1839.
Rigault, re'go', (ANGE HIPPOLYTE,) an able French
litterateur, born at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1821. He
became an editor of the "Journal des Debats" in 1853.
He wrote a " Histoire de la Querelle des Anciens et
des Modernes," (1856,) which gained the prize of the
French Academy. Died in December, 1858.
Rigault, [Lat. RIGAI/TIUS,] (NICOLAS,) a French
philologist and able critic, born in Paris in 1577. He
succeeded Casaubon as keeper of the King's Library
about 16104 and obtained the office of procureur-general
at Nancy after 1633. He edited Martial, Juvenal, and
Tertullian. Among his works are an ingenious satire
called " Funus Parasiticum," (1601,) and a continuation
of the "History" of De Thou, (1620.) Died in 1654.
See BAYL.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" MOUERI,
"Dictionnaire Historique;" NICERON, "Memoires."
Rigault de Geiiouilly, re'go' deh zheh-noo'ye',
(CHARLES,) a French admiral, born in 1807. He ob
tained the rank of rear-admiral in 1854, and served in
the Crimean war. lie commanded the naval division
which co-operated with the British in the capture of
Canton in 1857.
Rig'by, (EDWARD,) an English physiologist, born at
Norwich in 1747. He produced, besides other works,
an "Essay on the Theory of the Production of Animal
Heat," (1785.) Died in 1821.
Righini, re-gee'nee, (ViNCENZo,) an able Italian
composer, born at Bologna about 1758. He composed,
besides other operas, "Armida" and "Tigrane," which
are commended. Died in 1812.
Rigny, de, deh ren'ye', ( HENRI GAUTHIER,) COMTE,
an able French admiral, born at Toul in 1782. He
commanded the French fleet which defeated the Turks
at Navarino in October, 1827. lie became minister of
the marine in March, 1831, and was minister of foreign
affairs from April, 1834, to March, 1835. Died in 1835.
See " Biographic Universelle."
Rigoley de Juvigny, rc'go'LY de zhii'ven'ye', (JEAN
ANTOINE,) a mediocre French litterateur, wrote " On the
Decadence of Letters and Morals since the Times of
the Greeks and Romans," (1787.) Died in 1788.
Rigollot, re'go'lo', (M.VRC JEROME,) a French anti
quary and physician, born at Donllens in 1796, wrote
several treatises on French antiquities. Died in 1854.
Rigord, re'goR', [Lat. RIGOR'DUS,] a French chron
icler, born in Languedoc, wrote a history of the reign
of Philip Augustus of France. Died in 1207.
Rigord, (JEAN PIERRE,) a French antiquary, born at
Marseilles in 1656 ; died in 1727.
Ri'ley, (JAMES,) an American sea-captain, bom at
Middletown, Connecticut. He was wrecked on the
western coast of Africa in 1815, and afterwards pub
lished a "Narrative" of his captivity among the Arabs,
which enjoyed a great popularity. Died in 1840.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1817.
Ri'ley, (JOHN,) an English portrait-painter, born in
London in 1646, took Van Dyck as his model. He
was patronized by Charles II., James II., and William
III. He is considered the best English portrait-painter
before Sir Joshua Reynolds. Died in 1691.
Rileyef, re-la'ef, written also Rylejew, Rilieff, and
Rileef, (KONRAD,) a Russian poet and republican, was
a leader of a secret society formed about 1820 to liberate
Russia from absolute power. He was hung in 1826.
See the "Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1832.
Rilieff. See RILEYEF.
Rimfaxi or Rimfaxe. See NORVI.
Riminaldi, re-me-nal'dee, (DOMENICO,) an Italian
sculptor in wood, was born at Pisa in 1595; died in
1637-
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, !, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
RIMINALDI
1899
RIPLET
Riminaldi, (ORAZIO,) an Italian painter of sacred
history, born at Pisa in 1598, was a promising artist
when he died, in 1630.
Rilialdi, re-nal'dee, (ODERICO,) an Italian ecclesi
astical historian, born at Treviso in 1595. He wrote a
continuation of Baronius's " Ecclesiastical Annals," to
which he added ten volumes, (1646-77,) extending the
narrative to 1564. Died in 1671.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Rinck or Rink, rink, (FRIEDRICH THEODOR,) a
German Orientalist, born at Slave in 1770; died in 1811.
Riiicon, del, del ren-kdn', (ANTONIO,) a Spanish
painter, born at Guadalaxara about 1446. He aban
doned the Gothic style, promoted a revolution in Spanish
art, and was considered the best Spanish painter of his
time. He was court painter to Ferdinand the Catholic.
Died at Seville in 1500. His son FERNANDO was also a
skilful painter.
See PALOMINO, " El Museo pictovico."
Ring, (JoHN,) an English surgeon and" writer, born
near Salisbury in 1751. He published a "Translation
of the Works of Virgil," partly original and partly
altered from Dryden and Pitt, (1820.) Died in 1821.
Ring, van, vtn ring, (PIETER,) a Dutch painter of
still life, flourished about 1650.
Ringelbergh, van, vtn ring'el-beRC/, [Lat. RINGF.L-
BKR'GIUS,] (JOACHIM STERCK or JOACHIM FORTIUS,) a
Flemish philosopher and professor of Greek, born at
Antwerp about 1500. He was the author of various
well-written works. Died in 1536.
See NICERON, " Memoires."
Ringelbergius. See RINGELBERGH.
Ring'gold, (Major SAMUEL,) an American officer,
born in Washington county, Maryland, in 1800, served
with distinction in the Mexican war. He was mortally
wounded at the battle of Palo Alto, (May 8, 1846,) and
died a few days after.
Ringli, ring'lee, written also Ringly and Ringgli,
(GOTHARD,) a Swiss painter and engraver, born at
Zurich in 1575, passed most of his life at Berne. His
works are highly commended. Died in 1635.
Ringwaldt, ring'walt, (BARTHOI.OMAUS,) a German
preacher and sacred poet, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder
in 1530 ; died in 1598.
Rink or Rinck, rink, (EucHARius GOTTLIEB,) a
German biographer and numismatist, born in Saxony in
1670. Among his works are a treatise "On the Value
and Quality of Ancient Money," (" De veteris Numis-
matis Potentia et Qualitate," 1701,) and a "Life of
Leopold the Great," (1708.) Died in 1745.
See HEUMANN, " Lebensbeschreibung E. G. Rinkens," 1749.
Rink, (JoHANN CHRISTIAN HEINRICH,) a German
organist and composer, born in the duchy of Saxe-Gotha
in 1770. He became court organist at Darmstadt in
1813. His reputation is founded on his compositions
for the organ. Died in 1846.
Rinmann, rin'man, (SVEN,) a Swedish mineralogist,
wrote a "History of Iron," (1782,) and other works.
Died in 1792, aged seventy-three.
Rintoul, rin'tool, (ROBERT STEPHEN,) a British editor,
born near Perth in 1787, became a resident of London
about 1825. He was the founder and editor of the
"Spectator," a liberal journal. Died in 1858.
See " Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1858.
Rimiccini, re-noot-chee'nee, (ALAMANNO,) an Italian
scholar and translator of Greek authors, was born at
Florence in 1426; died in 1504.
Rinucciiii, (OrrAVio,) an Italian poet, born at Flor
ence about 1565. He was one of the inventors of the
lyrical drama, and excelled in the anacreontic verse.
Among his works are pastorals or operas entitled "Eu-
ridice," (1600,) and "Arianna," (1608.) Died in 1621.
See GINGUENE, " Histoire I.itteraire d'ltalie;" TIRABOSCHI,
"Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Rio, di, de ree'o, (Xiccoi.6,) COUNT, an Italian
geologist, born in 1765. He was president of the Faculty
of Philosophy in the University of Padua. Died in 1845.
See SAINT-MAURICE-CABANY, "Le Comte N. de Rio," 1845.
Rioja, de, da re-o'na, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish poet,
born at Seville in 1600. He was librarian to the Duke
i of Olivares while he was prime minister. lie wrote a
j number of short poems which are regarded as models
I of elegance. Died in 1658.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Rioja, de, (PEDRO SOTO,) a Spanish poet, born at
Granada about 1590, was a friend of Lope de Vega.
Died in 1658.
Riolan, re'o'lS.N', (JEAN,) a learned French physician
and writer, born at Amiens in 1539. He practised in
Paris. Among his works is a " Compendium of Universal
Medicine," (" Universse Medicinae Compendium," 1598.)
Died in 1606.
Riolan, (JEAN,) an able anatomist and medical writer,
born in Paris about 1578, was a son of the preceding.
He was chief physician to Queen Marie de Medicis. He
wrote, besides other works, "Anatomy of the Human
Body," ("Anatome Corporis humani," 1610,) and was
an adversary of the doctrine of the circulation of the
blood. Died in 1657.
See "Biographic Medicale."
Rions, de, deh re'oN', (FRANCOIS HECTOR D'ALBERT,)
COMTE, a French naval officer, born at Avignon in 1728;
died in 1802.
Rioomantsof or Rjumanzow, ryoo-man'tsof,
sometimes written Rioumiantzof, Romanzof, and
Romaiitzof, (ALEXANDER,) a Russian diplomatist,
born in 1680, was a favourite of Peter I. Died in 1749.
Rioomantsof or Romanzof, (written in Polish
RUMIANCOW,) (NICHOLAS,) a minister of state and
patron of learning, born in 1754, was a son of the fol
lowing. He became minister of foreign affairs in 1807.
At his expense Kotzebue sailed on a scientific and
exploring expedition in 1815-18. Died in 1826.
Rioomantsof-Zadoonaiski, ryoo-man'tsof za-doo-
nl'skee, written also Rioumiantzof- (or Rumian-
cov-) Zadunaiski, (PETER,) COUNT, a Russian general,
born in 1725, was surnamed THE RUSSIAN TURENNE.
He gained a great victory over the Turks on the Kagool
in 1770, and negotiated the famous treaty of Koutchouk-
Kainardji. Died in 1796.
See "Vie du Comte Rioumiantzof," Moscow, 1803.
Rioumiantzof. See RIOOMANTSOF.
Rios, de los, deh 16s ree'ds, (JEAN FRANQOIS,) a
Flemish bibliographer, born at Antwerp in 1728. He
published notices of rare books in a work called " Biblio
graphic instructive," etc., (Lyons, 1777.) Died in 1820.
Rios y Rosas, de los, da los ree'os e ro'sas, (AN
TONIO,) a Spanish politician and minister of state,
born at Ronda in 1812. He opposed Espartero and
the progresistas. He became minister of the interior
in 1856.
Riouffe, re'oof, (HONORE,) BARON, a French poli
tician, born at Rouen in 1764, was a member of the
Tribunal, (1800-1804.) Died in 1813.
See PARISET, " Notice sur Riouffe ;" BERR, " Notice sur le
Baron Riouffe," 1823.
Rioult, re'oo', (Louis EDOUARD,) a French painter,
born at Montdidier in 1790; died in 1855.
Ripamonte, re-pa-mon'ti, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian
historian, born at Tignone in 1573 ; died in 1641.
Ripault. See DESORMEAUX.
Ripault, re'po', (Louis MADELEINE,) a French litte
rateur and Orientalist, born at Orleans in 1775, was a
nephew of Desormeaux. He was a member of the
scientific commission of Egypt in 1798, and wrote " An
Abridged Description of the Monuments of Upper
Egypt," (1800,) also a " History of Marcus Aurelius,"
(4 vols., 1820.) Died in 1823.
Ripert. See MONCLAR, DE.
Rip'ley, (ELEAZAR WHEELOCK,) an American officer,
born at Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1782, served with
distinction in the war of 1812, and was made a major-
general. Died in 1839.
Rip'ley, (GEORGE or GREGORY,) an English poet and
alchemist, wrote "A Compound of Alchemic." Died
in 1490.
Ripley, (GEORGE,) an able American editor and
scholar, born at Greenfield, Massachusetts, in 1802.
Among his publications are "Edited Specimens of
Foreign Standard Literature," (14 vols., 1838-42,) and
"Hand-Book of Literature and the Fine Arts," (1852-
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, gtittitral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
R1PLET
1900
KITS ON
54,) conjointly with Bayard Taylor. In 1849 he became
literary editor of the New York " Tribune." He was
associated as chief editor with Mr. C. A. Dana in the
publication of Appleton's " New American Cyclopaedia,"
(16 vols. large 8vo, 1858-63.)
See ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Ripley, (HENRY JONES,) D.D., an American Bap
tist divine, born at Boston in 1798, became professor of
biblical literature at the Newton Theological Institution,
Massachusetts. He has published " Notes on the Four
Gospels," and other theological works.
Ripley, (JAMES W.,) an American general, born in
Connecticut in 1797, graduated at West Point in 1814.
He became a captain in 1825, a lieutenant-colonel in
1854, and a brigadier-general in 1861. Died in 1870.
Ripley, (RoswELL S.,) an American general, born in
Ohio about 1824, graduated at West Point in 1843. He
published "The War in Mexico," (2 vols., 1849.) He
fought against the Union at Antietam, September 17,
1862. Died at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1863.
Rip'on, (FREDERICK JOHN ROBINSON,) first EARL
OF, an English minister of state, born in London in
1782, was a younger son of Lord Grantham. He began
public life as a moderate Tory. lie became a member
of the board of admiralty in 1810, and vice-president of
the board of trade in 1812. In January, 1823, he was
appointed chancellor of the exchequer. When Canning
became prime minister, in 1827, he obtained the office of
colonial secretary, and entered the House of Lords, with
the title of Lord Goderich. He was prime minister
from the death of Canning, August, 1827, to January,
1828. In the Whig ministry formed in 1830 he was
colonial secretary and lord privy seal. He was created
Earl of Ripon about 1833, and resigned office in 1834.
In 1841 he accepted the presidency of the board of trade
from Sir Robert Peel, who appointed him president
of the Indian board in 1843. He resigned with Peel in
1846. Died in 1859.
See WILLIAM JERDAN, " Men I have known," London, 1866.
Riposo, II. See FICHERELLI.
Ripperda, de, deh rip-p§R'da, (J/\N WILI.EM,) DUKE,
an adventurer and diplomatist, was born at Groningen
(Holland) in 1680. He served in the Dutch army, and
attained the rank of colonel. About 1715 he was sent
as envoy to Madrid to negotiate a commercial treaty.
Having acquired the favour of Alberoni and the King
of Spain, he abjured the Protestant religion in 1718, and j
was appointed director of the royal manufactories. He |
negotiated a secret treaty between the King of Spain j
and the emperor Charles VI. in 1725, and %vas rewarded
with the title of duke. He was prime minister of Spain
for a few months in 1726-27, and his next step was into
prison, from which he escaped about 1729. He entered
the service of the King of Morocco about 1732. Died
at Tetuan in 1737.
See "Vie du Due de Ripperda," par P. M. B., 1730, which was
translated into English by JOHN CAMPBELL, 1739: " Vidadel Duque
de Ripperda," Madrid, 1740; G. MOORE, "Lives of Cardinal Albe
roni and the Duke de Ripperda," 1806.
Rippingill, rip'ing-gil, ? (EDWARD VILLIERS,) an
English painter, born at King's Lynn in 1798; died in
18^9-
Riquet. See CARAMAN, DE.
Riquet, re'ki', (PIERRE PAUL,) Baron de Bonrepos,
a French engineer, born at BeV.iers in 1604, was a rela
tive of the famous Mirabeau. He acquired honourable
distinction as the projector and engineer of the great
canal of Languedoc, which extends from the Garonne
to the Mediterranean. It was commenced in 1667 and
finished about 1680. Died in 1680.
See ANDREOSSY, " Histoire du Canal du Midi ;"DECAMPE, " filoge
de P. Riquet," 1812.
Riquetti. See MIRABEAU.
Risbeck, ris'bek, (CASPAR,) a German publicist, born
near Mentz in 1749 or 1750. His reputation is founded
on " Letters of a French Traveller about Germany," (2
vols., 1783,) in which he exposed with ability the political
and social evils which prevailed in that country. Died
in 1786.
See J. PEZZL, " Biographisches Denkmal J. C. Risbeck's," 1786;
HIRSCHING, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch."
, (TRISTRAM,) an English topographer, born
in Devonshire in 1580; died in 1640.
RIsh'I, a Sanscrit word, signifying "saint" or "sage,"
and applied in the Hindoo mythology to certain sages
or demi-gods, among whom Kasyapa, Viswamitra, and
Gautama are perhaps the most worthy of mention.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Ris'ley, ( THOMAS,) an English Puritan preacher,
born near Warrington in 1630. He was ejected as a
nonconformist in 1662. Died in 1716.
Risso, res'so, (ANTONIO,) a distinguished Italian
naturalist, born at Nice in 1777. lie made discoveries
in the zoology of the Mediterranean, and published, be
sides other works, "The Ichthyology of Nice," (1810,)
and a " Natural History of the Principal Productions
of Southern Europe," etc., (5 vols., 1826,) both in French.
Died in 1845.
Rist, rist, (JoHANN,) a once popular German poet,
born near Hamburg in 1607. lie wrote dramas and
religious poems, which are said by a French critic to be
elegant in style but devoid of sentiment. Died in 1667.
Ristori, r6s-to'ree, (ADELAIDE,) a celebrated Italian
actress, born in Venetia in 1821. She has performed
with great applause both in tragedy and comedy. She
visited the United States in September, 1866. " In ac
cording to Ristori the highest order of dramatic genius,
we merely allow what has long since been decided beyond
appeal by the critical tribunals of France, Italy, Ger
many, England, and Spain. What Shakspeare is among
dramatists, Ristori is among actors." (" Atlantic Monthly"
for April, 1867.)
Risueiio, re-swan'yo, written also Risvenno, (Joss,)
a Spanish painter and sculptor, born at Granada in
1652, was a pupil of Alonzo Cano. Died in 1721.
Ritchie, ritch/e, originally Ogden, (Mrs. ANNA CORA
MOWATT,) an American authoress and actress, born in
Bordeaux, France, of American parents, about 1822.
She was married first to a Mr. Mowatt, and afterwards
to Mr. W. Ritchie, an editor, of Richmond, Virginia,
about 1854. She published, besides other works,
" Pelayo, or the Cavern of Covadonga," a poem, a
comedy entitled "Fashion," (1845,) and " Armand," a
drama, (1847.) She made her debut as an actress about
1845. Died in 1870.
See "Autobiography of an Actress," by ANNA C. RITCHIE;
GRISWOLD, "Female Poets of America."
Ritchie, ritch'e, (JOSEPH,) an Englishman who ac
companied Captain Lyon in an expedition to Central
Africa. He died during the journey, in 1819.
Ritchie, ritch'e, (LEITCH,) a British journalist and
novelist, born at Greenock about 1800. Among his
novels are " Schinderhannes, or the Robber of the
Rhine," (1848,) "The Game of Life," (1851,) and "The
Magician," (3 vols., 1853.) He contributed to several
London journals and magazines. In the latter part of
his life he was an editor of " Chambers's Journal" of
Edinburgh. Died in 1865.
Ritchie, (THOMAS,) an American journalist and poli
tician of the Democratic party, was born at Tappahan-
nock, Virginia, in 1778. In 1804 he became editor of the
"Richmond Enquirer," over which he continued to
preside for forty years, and which, under his editorship,
was, for a time, the most influential journal of his party.
Died in 1854.
Rit'ner, (JOSEPH,) an American Governor, born near
Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1780. He served in the legis
lature of that State from 1820 to 1827, and was nomi
nated for the office of Governor by the Anti-Masonic
party in 1829, but was not elected. In 1835 he was
chosen Governor for three years. He was an efficient
promoter of common schools, and was distinguished for
his opposition to slavery. Died in 1869.
Ritschl, rltsh'l, (FRIEDRICII WILHELM,) a German
philologist, and professor of classical literature at Bonn,
was born in Thuringia in 1806. He published several
critical treatises on the classics, and a number of anti
quarian works. His edition of Plautus (3 vols., 1848-
53) is highly praised.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Rit'spn, (ISAAC,) an English writer, born near Pen-
rith in 1761, resided in London. Died in 1789.
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ti, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; me" t; n6t; good; moon;
R ITS ON
1901
RWAUD
Ritson, (JOSEPH,) an English antiquary and poetical
critic, born at Stockton (Durham) in 1752, resided mostly
in London. He published many works, among which
are " Observations on (Warton's) History of English
Poetry," (1782,) "Ancient Songs from the Time of
Henry III. to 1688," (1790,) and " Robin Hood," (1795.)
Died in 1803.
See SIR X. HARRIS NICOLAS, " Life and Letters of J. Ritson,"
1833; HASI.EWOOD, "Life of J. Ritson," 1824: "Edinburgh Re
view" for January, 1806: " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1834;
" Monthly Review" for September, 1803.
Rit'ten-house, (D.\vin,) an eminent American as
tronomer and mathematician, born at Germantown, near
Philadelphia, on the 8th of April, 1732. He worked on
his father's farm in his early youth, learned to make
clocks without instruction, and made himself master of
Newton's "Principia" about 1750. It is stated that he
discovered the method of fluxions before the age of
nineteen. He learned Latin after he was nineteen or
twenty years old. He worked for some years at the
trade of clock-maker at Norriton, in Montgomery
county, Pennsylvania. About 1767 he constructed an
orrery, which was purchased by Princeton College.
He also made mathematical instruments of a superior
quality. His first communication to the American
Philosophical Society was a calculation of the transit
of Venus which occurred on the 3d of June, 1769, and
which he observed with success. In 1764 he married
Eleanor Colston. He was elected treasurer of Penn
sylvania in 1777, and continued to fill that office until
1789. During this period he was employed to determine
the boundaries of Pennsylvania. He was chosen presi
dent of the American Philosophical Society hi 1791,
and became first director of the Mint, at Philadelphia,
in 1792. In 1795 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal
Society of London. Having lost his first wife, he mar
ried Hannah Jacobs, of Philadelphia, about 1774. On
account of ill health, he resigned in 1795 the direction
of the Mint, which he had organized by arduous and
successful efforts. He contributed numerous scientific
treatises to the "Transactions of the American Philo
sophical Society." Died in Philadelphia, June, 1796.
" Were we called upon," says Renwick, " to assign him
a rank among the philosophers whom America has
produced, we should place him, in point of scientific
merit, as second to Franklin alone. . . . He had shown
himself the equal, in point of learning and skill as an
observer, to any practical astronomer then living."
See JAMES RENWICK, "Life of David Rittenhouse," in SPARKS'S
"American Biography," vol. vii. ; \V. BARTON, "Life of David
Rittenhouse," 1813; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished
Americans," vol. ii.
Ritter, rit'ter, (HEINRICH,) a German philosopher
and historian, born at Zerbst in 1791. He became pro
fessor of philosophy at Berlin about 1824, and removed
to Gb'ttingen in 1837. He published a number of works
on philosophy, etc. His principal work is a " History
of Philosophy," (" Geschichte der Philosophic," 12 vols.,
1829-53,) which is highly esteemed. It has been well
translated into English by A. J. W. Morrison, (4 vols.
8vo, 1838-46.) Ritter is called an Eclectic philosopher.
See BROCKHAUS, " Conversations- Lexikon."
Rit'ter, ( HENRY,) an artist, born at Montreal, in
Canada, about 1815, studied painting at Hamburg and
Dusseldorf. Among his principal works may be named
"Indians Flying from a Burning Prairie." Died in 1853.
Ritter, (Jon ANN DANIEL,) a German scholar and
writer on Roman antiquities, etc., was born near Bres-
lau in 1709; died at Wittenberg in 1775.
Ritter, (JOHANN WM.HELM,) a German natural phi
losopher, born at Samitz, in Silesia, in 1776. He wrote
"Memoirs on Physics and Chemistry," (3 vols., 1806,)
and an autobiography, (2 vols., 1810.) Died at Munich
in 1810.
Ritter, (JOSEPH IGNAZ,) a German Catholic theo
logian, born near Griineberg in 1787. He became in
1823 professor of ecclesiastical history at Bonn. Died
in 1857.
Ritter, (KARL,) an eminent German geographer, born
at Quedlinburg in 1779. Having travelled in Switzer
land, France, and Italy, he succeeded Schlosser as pro
fessor of history at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1819. His
" Portico of a History of the European Nations before
Herodotus" came out in 1820. In 1822 he published
the first volume of the second and enlarged edition of
his "Geography in Relation to the Nature and History
of Man," ("Die Erdekunde im Verhaltniss zur Natur
und zur Geschichte des Menschen," 18 vols., 1822-59,)
which is esteemed his greatest work. Among his other
productions we may name "A Glance at Palestine and
its Christian Population," "The Colonization of New
Zealand," (1842,) and "The Jordan and the Navigation
of the Dead Sea," (1850.) Ritter was a member of the
Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and of the Royal So
ciety of London. He has been called the founder oi
the science of comparative geography. Died in Berlin
in 1859.
See W. L. GAGE, "Life of Karl Ritter," New York, 1867;
"Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1837; "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Rittershuys, rit'ters-hois', or Rittershausen, rit/-
ters-how'zen, |Lat. RITTERSHU'SIUS,) (CONRAD,) a Ger
man jurist and able critic, born at Brunswick in 1560.
He became professor of law at Altorf. He was a good
classical scholar, and wrote commentaries on Phsedrns,
Oppian, and other authors. Died in 1613.
See "Vita C. Rittershusii," by his son GEORG ; M. ADAM,
" Vitae Germanorum Jurisconsultoruin."
Rittershuys, (NIKOLAUS,) a son of the preceding,
was born at Altorf in 1597. He wrote "Genealogy of
Emperors, Kings," etc., ("Genealogia Imperatorum,
Regurn, etc., 1400-1664," 1674.) Died in 1670.
Ritzio. See RIZZIO.
Rivail. See Ri VAULT.
Rivallius. See Ri VAULT.
Rivalz, re'vil', (ANTOINE,) a French painter and
engraver, born at Toulouse in 1667 ; died in 1735.
His father, JEAN PIERRE, born in 1625, was a painter
at Toulouse, where he died in 1706.
Rivard, re'va^R', (DENIS,) a French surgeon and
lithotomist, born at Neufchateau, practised at Luneville.
Died in 1746.
Rivard, (DOMINIQUE FRANCOIS,) a French mathe
matician, born at Neufchateau in 1697. He was professor
in the College of Beauvais for forty years, and published
several valuable works on geometry and mathematics.
Died in Paris in 1778.
Rivarol, re'vf'rol', (ANTOINE,) a witty and satirical
French writer, born at Bagnols, in Languedoc, in 1753,
assumed the title of Count de Rivarol. He was cele
brated for his colloquial powers, and abounded in that
ready wit which goes far to justify all pretensions and
to excuse all excesses of audacity. He produced in
1784 an able "Essay on the Universality of the French
Language," and a free translation of Dante's " Inferno,"
which had a great success. His talent for satire, irony,
and persiflage was displayed in a series of lampoons
against living authors, entitled "Little Almanac of
Great Men," (" Petit Almanach des grands Hommes,"
1788.) He also gained distinction as a journalist. He
married an English lady named Flint. Having identi
fied himself with the royalist party, he emigrated in
1792. Died in Berlin in 1801.
See CUBJERE.S-PAI.MEZEAUX. "Vie de Rivarol," 1803: IMBERT
DE LA PLATIERE, "Vie de Rivarol," iSoS; LEONCE-CURNIER,
"Rivarol, sa Vie et ses Ouvrages," 1858; SAINTE BF.UVE, " Cause-
ries du Lundi," tome v. ; LHSCUKE, "Rivarol, sa Vie et ses Ou-
vrages," 1862; " Notice sur Rivarol," by his wife, 1802; "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Rivarol, (CLAUDE FRANCOIS,) a brother of the pre
ceding, was born at Bagnols in 1762. He was a captain
in the army, and a royalist emigrant in 1791. Having
returned to Paris as a secret agent of the Bourbons,
he was imprisoned twenty-two months, (1795-97.) He
wrote dramas, verses, etc. Died in 1848.
Rivarola, re-va-ro'la, (ALFONSO,) a promising Italian
painter, born at Ferrara in 1607, was a pupil of Carlo
Bononi. Among his works is "The Brazen Serpent."
Died in 1640.
Rivas, de, DUKE. See SAAVEDRA.
Rivaud de la Raffiniere, re'v5' deh It rt'fe'ne-aiR',
(OLIVIER MACOUX,) a French general, born in P^Sitou
in 1766. He served with distinction at Marengo and
Austerlitz. Died in 1839.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
RIVAULT
1902
R1ZZIO
Rivault, re'vo', [Lat. RIVAI/LIUS,] (AYMAR,) written
also Rivail, a French jurist, born about 1490. He was
counsellor to the parliament of Grenoble, and wrote a
" History of the Civil or Roman Law," (" Historia Juris
civilis," 1527.)
Rivault, (DAVID,) a French writer, born at Laval
about 1571. He was appointed preceptor to the young
king Louis XIII. in 1612. He published, besides other
works, " Minerva Armed, or the Union of Literature
and Arms," ("Minerva armata, sive de Conjungendis
Literis et Armis," 1610,) and "Archimedis Opera,"
(1615.) Died in 1616.
Rivaz, de, deh re'va', (PIERRE JOSEPH,) a Swiss
mechanist and inventor, born at Saint Gingolph, on the
Lake of Geneva, in 1711 ; died in 1772.
Rive, rev, (JOSEPH JEAN,) a French bibliographer,
born at Apt in 1730. He wrote numerous works, and
was librarian to the Due de la Valliere. Died in 1791.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Rive, de la, (AUGUSTS.) See LA RIVE, DE.
Rivera, re-va'ra, (JosE FRUCTUOSO,) a South Amer
ican general, born about 1790, was a Gaucho. lie was
elected president of the republic of Uruguay in 1830
for four years. Died in 1854.
Riverius. See RIVIERE.
Riv'ers, (ANTHONY \Voonvn.i.K or WYDEVILI.E,)
EAKL OF, an accomplished English peer, born in 1442,
was a brother of the queen of Edward IV. After the
death of that king he had charge of the young heir to
the throne. He was beheaded by Richard III., without
a form of trial, in 1483. He left some original poems
and translations from the classics, which are commended.
(Cunningham's "History of England," vol. i.)
Riv'ers, (Wn.i.iAM J.,) born at Charleston, South
Carolina, in 1822, became professor of Greek literature
at South Carolina College in 1856. He has published
several works, in prose and verse.
Rives, reevz, (JoHN C.,) an American editor, born
in Kentucky about 1796. With F. P. Blair, he founded
at Washington "The Congressional Globe" about 1830.
He continued to publish that journal until his death,
in 1864.
Rives, (WlLUAM C.,) an American Senator, born in
Nelson county, Virginia, in May, 1793. He studied law,
and was elected a member of Congress in 1823. He was
sent as minister to France in 1829, returned in 1832, and
was then elected to the Senate of the United States by the
legislature of Virginia. Having resigned his seat in 1834,
he was re-elected in 1835. In 1840 he was elected a
Senator for a third term. He was minister to France
again from 1849 to 1853. He published the "Life and
Times of James Madison," (3 vols., 1850-68, unfinished.)
He was a member of the Confederate Congress from
February, 1862, until the end of the rebellion. Died in
April, 1868.
See the " Democratic Review" for January, 1838. (with a por
trait.)
Rivet, re'vi', [Lat. RIVE'TUS,] (ANDRE,) a French
Protestant minister and biblical critic, born at Saint-
Maxent in 1572 or 1573. He became professor of
theology at Leyden in 1620, and was governor of the
young Prince of Orange, (William III. of England.)
He wrote several works on theology. Died at Breda
in 1651. " Rivet," says Hallam, " was the highest name
among the Calvinists," (i.e. in the department of sacred
criticism.)
See DAUBF.R, "Oratio ftmebris in Excessum A. Riveti," 1651 ;
HAAG, "La France protestante."
Rivet de Champveriion, re'vi' deh SHON^R'HON',
(Gun.LAUME,) a Protestant minister, born at Saint-
Maxent in 1580, was a brother of the preceding. He
wrote on theology. Died in 1651.
Rivet de la Grange, re'vi' deh It gR6Nzh,( ANTOINE,)
a learned French Benedictine, born at Confolens in 1683.
He was punished for opposition to the bull " Unigenitus"
by confinement in a monastery at Mans. He projected
a great work entitled "The Literary History of France,"
of which he composed 9 vols., (1733-50.) He died in
1 749. His work was continued by Clemencet and others.
See C. L. TAILI.ANDIER, " filoge historiqne de Dom Rivet," in
the ninth volume of the "Literary History of France."
Rivetus. See RIVET, (ANDRE.)
Riviere. See MEKCIEK and LARIVIERE.
Riviere, re-ve-aiit', [Lat. RIVK'RIUS, | (LAZARE,) a
French medical writer, born at Montpellier in 1589.
His "Praxis Meclica" ("Medical Practice," 1640) was
often reprjnted. Died in 1655.
Riviere, de, deli re've-ajk', (CHARLES FRANCOIS de
Riffardeau — deh re'faVdf/,) Due, a French royalist
officer, born at Ferte-sur-Cher in 1763. He was sen
tenced to death as an accomplice of Pichegru in 1804,
but his life was saved by the empress Josephine. Died
in 1828.
Riviere, de la, deh It re've^ani', (Rocn LE BAILLIF,
rosh leh btl'yef',) Si EUR, a French physician, born at
Falaise ; died in Paris in 1605.
Rivieren, van, vSn re-vee'ren, [Lat. RIV'IUS,] QEAN,)
a Belgian monk, born at Louvain in 1599. He wrote a
"Life of Saint Augustine," (1646.) Died in 1665.
Riv'ing-ton, ( JAMES,) an English printer and book
seller, born in London about 1724, emigrated to Amer
ica, and founded in New York a journal entitled the
"New York Gazetteer, or the Connecticut, New Jersey,
Hudson's River, and Quebec Weekly Advertiser." In
consequence of his denunciations ot the patriots, his
press was destroyed in 1775 by a party of American
soldiers. He subsequently resumed the publication of
his journal, under the title of the " Royal Gazette." After
the evacuation of New York by the British he changed
the name of his paper to " Rivington's New York Ga
zette and Universal Advertiser." Died in 1802.
See Duvck'iNCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i.
Rivimis, rc-vee'nus, (ANDREAS,) a German philolo
gist and physician, born at Halle in 1600 or 1601. His
proper name was BACIIMANN. He was professor of
poetry and medicine at Leipsic. Died in 1656.
See KROMAYER, " Programing ad Funus A. Rivini," 1656.
Riviiius, (AunusT QUIRINUS.) an eminent botanist
and anatomist, son of the preceding, was born at Leipsic
in 1652. He became professor of physiology and botany
in his native city in 1691. His chief work is "General
Introduction to Botany," (" Introductio generalis in Rem
Herbariam," 1690,) in which he proposed a classifica
tion of plants founded on the form of the corolla. Died
in 1723.
See (.',. F. JI.NIC-HKN', " Programma in A. Q. Rivini Obitnm,"
1724; " Biographic Universelle ;" NICEKON, " Me moires ;" " Bio
graphic Medicale."
Rivius. See RIVIEREN.
Rivoli, DUKE OF. See MASSENA.
Rizi, re-///ee', ? (FRANCISCO,) DON, a Spanish painter,
born in Madrid in 1608, was a pupil of Carduccio. He
became first painter to Philip IV. about 1656. lie had
great fertility of invention and facility of execution, but
contributed to the decline of art bv his superficial habits.
Died in 1685.
Rizi, (JuAN,) a Spanish painter, born at Madrid in
1595, was a brother of the preceding. Died in 1675.
Rizo-Rhangabe, ree'zo ran'ga-be, (ALEXANDER,)
also written Rhizos-Rhangavis, an eminent Greek
poet, orator, and statesman, was born about 1810. He
published in 1837 a collection of poems, among which is
a drama called "The Eve," ('II Tlapafiovij,) and in 1842
"Hellenic Antiquities," ("Antiquites Helleniques,") in
French. In 1845 ne was appointed professor of archae
ology at Athens. He was minister of foreign affairs
from April, 1856, to June, 1859. The second volume
of "Hellenic Antiquities" appeared in 1855. He was
appointed minister to the United States in 1867.
Rizzio or Ritzio, rit'se-o, written also Riccio,
(DAVID,) an Italian musician, born in Piedmont about
1540. He went to Edinburgh about 1563, in the train
of the ambassador from Savoy, and gained the favour
of Mary Queen of Scots, who employed him as her
French secretary. "He became," says Froude, "the
queen's inseparable companion in the council-room and
the cabinet. She kept late hours, and he was often alone
with her till midnight. He had the control of all the
business of the state." The same historian, alluding to
the injurious influence of Rizzio over Mary Stuart, says,
" The counsels of David Ritzio were worth an army to
English liberty." (" History of England," vol. viii. chap.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; m£t; not; good; moon;
ROBE I A
ROBERT
ix.) He was dragged from the queen's presence and
assassinated by Lord Darnley and others, in 1566.
See BURTON, " History of Scotland," vol. iv. chaps, xliii. and
xliv. ; ROBERTSON, " History of Scotland."
Robbia, della, del'la rob'be-a, (ANDREA,) an Italian
sculptor, born at Florence in 1444. He worked in
marble and enamelled terra-cotta. Died in 1527.
His son GIOVANNI, born in 1470, was a sculptor.
Another son, GlROLAMO, went to France, and was
employed by Francis I. He made a marble statue of
Catherine de Medicis at Saint-Denis.
See BARBET DE JOUY, " Les Della Robbia, ]5tude."
Robbia, della, (LucA,) a famous sculptor and
worker in enamelled terra-cotta, born at Florence about
1390 or 1400, was a brother or an uncle of Andrea,
lie adorned with bassi-rilievi the Campanile of the
Cathedral of Florence, and made a bronze door for the
sacristy of the same. He invented the enamelled terra
cotta, and acquired a European reputation by the fabri
cation of figures of this material, which are called " della
Robbia" ware. Died in 1463, or, as some say, 1482.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Rob'bins, (Asui'R,) an American lawyer and states
man, born at Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1757, settled
in Rhode Island, and was elected to the United States
Senate in 1825. He served in the Senate fourteen years.
Died in 1845.
Roberjot, ro'ben'zho', (CLAUDE,) a French diplo
matist, born at Macon in 1753, was a republican member
of the Convention, (1793.) With Bonnier and Debry, he
represented France at the Congress of Rastadt, in 1799.
He was assassinated by Austrian soldiers just after he
departed from Rastadt, in April of that year.
Rob'ert OF BAVARIA, born in 1352, was elected Em
peror of Germany in 1400. He attempted to conquer
the Milanese, but was defeated by Visconti in 1401.
Died in 1410.
Rob'ert [Fr. pron. ro'baik' ; Lat. ROBEK'TUS ; It.
ROBERTO, ro-beR'to] I., King of France, was the second
son of Robert the Strong, Duke of France. After the
death of his brother Eudes, 898 A.D., the throne was
obtained by Charles the Simple. In 922 the malcontent
barons revolted against Charles, and proclaimed Robert
as his successor. In 923 the army of Robert gained a
victory over that of his rival ; but Robert was killed in
the action.
Robert II., King of France, born at Orleans in 971,
was a son of Hugh Capet, whom he succeeded in 996.
He was reputed to be very devout, but was excommu
nicated by the pope for his marriage with a cousin in
the fourth degree. In 1024 he refused the imperial
crown, offered to him by the Italians. His reign was
pacific. He died in 1031, and left the throne to his son
Henry.
See RAOUL GLABER, "Chronique;" " Nouve'ile Biographie
Generale."
Robert OF ANJOU, King of Naples, born about 1275,
was a son of Charles II. He began to reign in 1309,
and waged war against the emperor Henry VII. He
was the judge selected to decide whether Petrarch was
qualified to receive the crown of poet-laureate. Died
in 1343-
Robert I. OF SCOTLAND. See BRUCE, (ROBERT.)
Rob'ert II., King of Scotland, born in 1316, was the
first king of the House of Stewart or Stuart. The family
name was originally ALLAN, or ALAN. (See STUART
FAMILY.) His mother, Marjory, was a daughter of
Robert Bruce, and his father, Walter Allan, was the
high steward of Scotland. He acted as regent from
1338 to 1341, and again while David II. was held as
a prisoner by the English, (1346-57.) He succeeded
David II. in 1371. Among the important events of his
reign were a war against the English, and the battle of
Otterburne, (1388.) Died in 1390.
See BURTON, " History of Scotland," vol. iii. chap. xxvi.
Robert III., King of Scotland, born about 1340, was
a son of Robert II. His baptismal name was John ;
but John Baliol (called "King John") had rendered this
so unpopular that it was changed to Robert. He began
to reign in 1390. Hostilities were renewed between the
Scotch and English in 1399, and the former were de
feated at Homildon Hill, in 1402. Robert died in 1406,
leaving the throne to his son, James I.
See BURTON, "History of Scotland," chap. xxvi.
Robert [Fr. pron. ro-baiR'] I., Duke of Normandy,
surnamed LE DIABLE, leh de'Sbl', ("the Devil,") was a
son of Richard II. He succeeded his brother, Richard
III., in 1027. In 1035 he made a pilgrimage to the
Holy Land, on his return from which he died at Nicaea
in July, 1035. He was succeeded by his son, William
the Conqueror of England.
See DEPPING, " Histoire de Normandie;" A. DEVILLE, "Notice
historique sur Robert le Diable," 1836.
Robert II., Duke of Normandy, surnamed CURT-
HOSE or SHORT-SHANKS, born about 960, was the eldest
son of William I. surnamed the Conqueror. He was
brave, but imprudent and unstable. He obtained the
dukedom of Normandy in 1087. In 1096 he went to
Palestine as a leader of the first crusade. He distin
guished himself at the siege of Antioch and at the battle
of Dorylseum, (1097,) and returned home in iioo. In
his absence his younger brother, 'Henry, obtained pos
session of the throne of England, left vacant by the
death of William Rufus. In the war that ensued between
Robert and Henry, the former was defeated and taken
prisoner in 1106. He was confined at Cardiff until his
death, in 1 134.
See DEPPING, "Histoire de Nonnandie ;" ORDERICUS VITALIS,
" History of Normandy."
Robert I., Count of Artois, born in 1216, was a son
of Louis VIII. of France. He accompanied his brother,
Saint Louis, in a crusade against the Saracens, and was
killed at Mansourah in 1250.
His son ROBERT, born in 1250, gained a victory over
the English near Dax in 1296, and over the Flemings
at Fumes in 1297. He was killed in battle in 1302.
Robert III., Count of Artois, a grandson of the pre
ceding, was born in 1287. He was banished by Philip
VI. of France in 1332, and entered the service of Edward
III. of England. Died in 1343.
Robert, ro'baiR', (CESAR ALPHONSE,) a French sur
geon and medical writer, born at Marseilles in 1801.
He became a resident of Paris.
Robert, (CLAUDE,) a French ecclesiastical historian,
born near Bar-sur-Seine in 1564 or 1565. His chief
work is "Christian Gaul," ("Gallia Christiana," 1626,)
which was continued by the Benedictines and extended
to thirteen volumes, (1785.) Died in 1637.
See E. SOCARD, " Notice historique sur Claude Robert."
Robert, ro'beRt, (ERNST FRIKDRICH LUDWIG,) a
German litterateur, of Jewish extraction, born at Berlin
in 1778, was a brother of Rahel Varnhagen von Ense.
He was the author of poems, tales, and dramas. Died
in 1832.
Robert, (FRANC.OLS,) a French geographer, born near
Chalons-sur-Saone in 1737. He published, besides other
works, a "Geographical Dictionary," (1818.) Died in
1819.
Robert, (HUBERT,) an excellent French painter of
architecture, etc., was born in Paris in 1733. He studied
in Rome, and passed twelve years in Italy, (1753-65-)
He painted views of the monuments and ruins of Rome.
After his return to Paris he was appointed keeper of
the royal cabinet and dessinateur of the royal gardens.
Died in Paris in 1808.
See " Nouvelle Biosraphie Generale."
Robert, (Louis LEOPOLD,) an eminent painter, born
at Chaux-le-Fonds, in the canton of Neufchatel, in 1794.
He was a pupil of Girardet and of David. In 1818
he went to Italy, in which he passed the remainder of
his life. He represented Italian life and scenery with
fidelity in numerous works, among which are " The
Neapolitan Improvisator," (1824,) "The Vintage in
Tuscany," " The Reapers of the Pontine Marshes," and
"The Departure of the Fishermen of the Adriatic,"
(1835.) He committed suicide at Venice in 1835. This
act is ascribed to a passion for Charlotte, a daughter of
Joseph Bonaparte.
See E. DEI.ECLUZE, " Notice sur la Vie de L. Robert," 183^ ;
FF.UILI.ET DE CONCHES, " L. Robert, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," 1848 ;
"Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
•e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
ROBERT
ROBERTSON
Robert, (Louis VALENTIN ELIAS,) a French sculp
tor, born at Etampes about 1818.
Robert, (NiCOi.AS,) a French miniature- and flower-
painter, born at Langres about 1610. He commenced a
work called " Recueil de Velins." Died in Paris in 1684.
Robert, (PAUL PONCE ANTOINE,) a French painter
and engraver, born near Rheims in 1686; died in 1733-
Robert, (PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH,) a French regi
cide, born at Gininee in 1763, was a friend of Danton.
He married Mademoiselle de Keralio, the authoress.
Died in 1826.
Robert de Courtenay, ro'baiR' deh kooRt'ni', a
French prince, a son of Pierre de Courtenay, became
Latin Emperor of Constantinople in 1220. Died in 1228.
Robert de Vaugondy, ro'baiR' deh vo'gc-N'de',
(DiDiER,) a French geographer, born in Paris in 1723.
He published an "Atlas of France and Europe," (1785,
and other works. Died in 1786.
Robert de Vaugondy, (GlLLES,) a French geogra
pher, born in Paris in 1688, was the father of the pre
ceding, and a grandson of Nicolas Sanson. lie produced
a "Universal Atlas," (1758.) Died in 1766.
Robert of Avesbury, an English chronicler, author
of an unfinished " History of the Reign of Edward III.,"
which conies down to 1356. Died about 1360.
Robert of Bavaria. See RUPERT, PRINCE.
Robert of Geneva, (Anti-Pope,) born in 1342, was
elected pope in 1378, in opposition to Urban VI. He
took the name of Clement VII., reigned at Avignon,
and was recognized by the French and Spaniards. Died
in 1394.
Robert of Gloucester, an English chronicler of
the thirteenth century. He wrote, in verse, a chronicle
or history of England from fabulous times down to
the death of Henry III. De Quincey speaks of this
chronicle as "the very earliest of all English books."
See tlie interesting account of De Quincey's interview with George
III., in his "Autobiographic Sketches."
Robert the Strong, [Fr. ROHF.RT LE FORT, ro'baiR'
leh foR,] Count of Anjou and Duke of France, was
noted as a military chief. He was killed in a fight with
some Normans, led by the famous sea-king Hastings,
in 866 A.D. He was great-grandfather of Hugh Capet.
Robert Grosstete. See GKOSSETESTE.
Robert-Fleury, ro'baiK' fluh're', (JOSEPH NICOLAS,)
a popular French historical painter, was born at Co
logne in 1797. He was elected a member of the
Institute in 1850. Among his works are " Benvenuto
Cellini" and "Charles V. at the Monastery of Saint
Just." About 1855 he became professor in the Ecole
des Beaux- Arts.
Robert!, ro-beVtee, (ALUERT,) a Belgian painter,
born at Brussels in 1811.
Robert!, ro-beVtee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) a me
diocre Italian poet and essayist, born at Bassano in
1719. He was professor of philosophy at Bologna. Died
in 1786.
Robert!, (JEAN,) a learned Belgian Jesuit, born at
Saint-Hubert in 1569 ; died in 1651.
Roberto, the Italian for ROUERT, which see.
Rob'erts, (BENJAMIN S.,) an American general, born
at Manchester, Vermont, about 1811, graduated at West
Point in 1835. He was serving with the rank of major
in New Mexico when the civil war began. In July, 1862,
he was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers in the
Union army.
Rob'erts, (DAVID,) an eminent British painter of
landscapes and architecture, was born at Stockbridge,
Edinburgh, in 1796. Between 1838 and 1840 he travelled
in Egypt and Syria, in which he sketched many scenes
which he afterwards reproduced on canvas. He was
elected a Royal Academician in 1841. Among his works
are "Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives," (1841,)
"Pyramids of Ghizeh," (1844,) "Ruins of the Great
Temple of Karnak," "The Destruction of Jerusalem,"
(1849,) and "Rome," (1855.) The splendid work entitled
" The Holy Land, Syria, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia"
(4 vols., 1842) is illustrated by lithographs of his
sketches. Died in 1864.
See WILLIAM JERDAN, "Men I have known." London, 1866;
"Biographical Sketches," by HARRIET MAKTINK.AU.
Roberts, (EMMA,) an English authoress, wrote
"Memoirs of the Rival Houses of York and Lancas
ter," and "Oriental Scenes, Sketches, and Tales." Died
at Poonah, in India, in 1840.
Roberts, (FRANCIS,) an English Puritan minister and
writer, born in Yorkshire in 1609, became rector of
Wrington in 1649. He wrote "Key to the Scriptures,"
("Clavis Bibliorum," 1649,) "The True Way to the
Tree of Life," (1673,) and other works. Died in 1675.
Roberts, (WILLIAM,) an English writer, born in 1768.
Among his works is a "Life of Hannah More." Died
in 1849.
Robertson, ro'baiR'sd.N-', (£TIENNE GASPARD RO
BERT,) a Belgian aeronaut and natural philosopher, born
at Liege in 1763. It is stated that he made fifty-nine
ascensions in balloons. Died in 1837.
Rob'eit-son, (FREDERICK WILLIAM,) an eloquent
minister and original thinker of the Anglican Church,
was born in London on the 3d of February, 1816. He
was the eldest son of Captain Frederick Robertson, of
the royal artillery. After preparatory studies at Edin
burgh, he entered Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1836.
Among his fellow-students at Oxford was John Ruskin,
in whom he found a congenial spirit. He would have
preferred the profession of a soldier ; but, in compliance
with the wishes of his father, he devoted himself to the
church. After he left college he improved his health by
a pedestrian tour among the Alps, and on that occasion
became acquainted with Miss Helen Denys, whom he
married in 1842. He served as curate at Cheltenham
about four years, and became incumbent of Trinity
Chapel, Brighton, in August, 1847. Though he rather
shunned than courted popularity, his eloquence and
originality soon excited general admiration. The libe
rality and independence of his principles, however,
subjected him to persecution from some members of his
own communion. He belonged to what is called the
Broad Church. Three series of his sermons have been
published, and have passed through about eight editions.
He delivered several "Lectures and Addresses on Lit
erary and Social Topics," which have been printed. He
died August 15, 1853, and was buried at Brighton.
See STOPFOKD A. BKOOKE, "Life and Letters of F. \V. Robert
son," 2 vols., 1865; " Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 1866.
Robertson, (GEORGE,) an English landscape-painter,
born in London about 1742; died in 1788.
Rob'ert-son, QAMES,) called RAHHI ROBERTSON, was
born at Cromarty, in -Scotland. He became professor of
Oriental languages at Edinburgh in 1751. Died in 1795.
Robertson, (JAMES,) D.D., a Scottish divine, born in
1803. He became professor of ecclesiastical history at
Edinburgh. Died in 1860.
Robertson, (Rev. JOSEPH,) an English writer, born
in 1726. He wrote an "Essay on Punctuation," and
translated "Telemachns," (1795.) Died in 1802.
Robertson, (PATRICK,) a Scottish judge, versifier,
and lawyer, noted for his wit and humour, was born in
1794. He was elected Dean of the Faculty of Advocates
in 1842. Died in 1855.
Robertson, (THOMAS,) an English grammarian, born
at or near Wakefield. He became a Fellow of Magda
lene College, Oxford, in 1532, and Dean of Durham about
1557. Died about 1560.
Rob'ert-son, (WILLIAM,) an Irish divine, born in
Dublin in 1705, is reputed to have been an Arian or
Unitarian. He wrote "An Attempt to Explain the
Words Reason, Substance, Person, Creed, Orthodoxy,"
etc. Died in 1783.
Robertson, (WILLIAM,) often called PRINCIPAL ROB
ERTSON, a celebrated Scottish historian, was born at
Borth\vick,in Edinburghshire, (Mid-Lothian,) September
19, 1721. His father, the Rev. William Robertson, was
minister at Borthwick when his son was born. He
afterwards removed to Edinburgh. Young Robertson
manifested an ardent devotion to literature from a very
early age. He began to preach before he was twenty
years old. He was presented to the living of Gladsmuir,
in East Lothian, in 1743, and acquired a high reputation
as an eloquent pulpit orator. He took a prominent part
in the debates of the General Assembly of the Church
of Scotland, and obtained great influence in ecclesiastical
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, it, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon;
ROBERVAL
1905
ROBESPIERRE
affairs. He was the leader of what was called the mode
rate party, and was more inclined to liberality and tole
rance than many other members of his church. He has,
however, been charged, perhaps not without reason, with
preferring the interests of literature to those of religion.
In 1759 he published a " History of Scotland during the
Reigns of Mary and of James VI. till his Accession to
the Crown of England," which was received with great
and general favour. It was extolled by Hume, Burke,
and other eminent critics. He removed to Edinburgh
about 1759, became one of the king's chaplains in 1761,
and principal of the University of Edinburgh in 1762.
His reputation was increased by his " History of the
Emperor Charles V., with ;t Sketch of the Political and
Social State of Europe," f:tc., (3 vols., 1769.) which is
considered his capital w^k. He afterwards published
a " History of America," (2 vols., 1777.) He is gene
rally accurate and impartial in the narration of events
and judicious in the estimation of character. His style
is elegant, clear, and vigorous, with occasional passages
of great beauty. As a writer he is remarkable for a
sustained unimpassioned dignity of manner, which, how
ever, too often approaches monotony. In politics he
was a Whig, with a strong leaning towards republicanism.
He died in June, 1793.
See DUGALD STEWART, "Account of the Life and Writings of
W. Robertson," 1801 ; SUARD, "Notice sur la Vie et les ficrits de
Dr. Robertson;" " Memoirs of Adam Smith, W. Robertson, and
Thomas Reid," 1811 ; BISHOP GLEIG, "Memoir of W. Robertson,"
prefixed to his works ; BROUGHAM, " Men of Letters in the Time of
George III.;" CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent
Scotsmen;" ALI.IBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Monthly Re
view" for Juiy and August, 1769.
Roberval, de, deh ro'beR/viK, (Gn.ES Personne —
pe'u'son', or Personier, pe'tt'so'iie^-i',) a French mathe
matician, was born at Roberval, near Senlis, in 1602.
He removed to Paris in 1627, and formed an intimacy
with Mersenne. About 1632 he obtained the chair of
mathematics founded by Ramus at the College de
France. He discovered about 1636 a method to deter
mine the area of a cycloid, and a method to determine
the direction of a tangent at any point of a curve line.
Among his works are a "Treatise on Indivisibles,"
("Traite des Indivisibles,") and "On the World's Mo
tions and Parts, according to the System of Aristarchus
the Satnian," ("Aristarchi Samii de Mundi Systemate
Partibus et Motibus," 1644.) It is related that, having
been asked how he liked a dramatical performance
which he had just witnessed, he answered, "Qu'est-ce
que cela prouve?" (" What does that prove?") Died in
Paris in 1675.
Robespierre, ro'bes'pe-aiR', (AucusxiN Box JO
SEPH,) called THE YouNcTa brother of the dictator,
was born at Arras in 1764. He was elected to the
National Convention in 1792. When the Convention
ordered the arrest of his brother, he exclaimed, "In
clude me with him ; I partake his crimes !" He was
executed July 28, 1794.
Robespierre, rob'es-peer, [Fr. pron. ro'beVpe-aiR',]
(MAXIMILIEN MARIE ISIDORE,) a French demagogue
and Jacobin, was born at Arras on the 6th of May,
1758. He was sent to the College of Arras, from which
he passed in 1770 to the College Louis-le-Grand, in
Paris. His habits at college were studious and regular.
He studied law, acquired some distinction as an advo
cate at Arras, and was sent to the States-General in
May, 1789, as one of the sixteen representatives of the
province of Artois. He was a person of small stature,
and had nothing attractive or imposing in his aspect.
His voice wras weak, his complexion "sea-green," his
disposition reserved and timid, and his moral habits tem
perate and regular. According to M. fitienne Dumont,
he had a sinister aspect, and a continual blinking
( clignotement ) of the eyes. In political opinions he was
a radical democrat. He spoke often in the Constituent
Assembly and in the Jacobin Club, over which he
soon acquired a predominant influence. While men of
greater talents wasted their energies in vain efforts to
reform the old regime by half-way measures and tem
porizing expedients, he seems to have perceived the
necessity of a radical revolution. " He will go far," says
Mirabea'u ; " for he believes all he says."
In the Constituent Assembly he maintained a position
somewhat independent of party. He defended with zeal
the interests of the inferior clergy, advocated the abo
lition of the death-penalty, (May, 1791,) and made a
vehement speech against the re-election of the members
of the Constituent Assembly to the Legislative Assem
bly, on which question he differed from the other chiefs
of \.\\& gauche. On critical occasions he usually presented
himself to the people as a resigned and devoted victim
whom nefarious persons designed to immolate because
he loved the people too well. Thus, after he had de
nounced the king, the ministry, etc., June 21, 1791, he
said, "I know that I sharpen against myself a thousand
daggers ; but if in the first stage of the Revolution, when
I was scarcely known in the National Assembly, I offered
my life as a sacrifice to truth, now that the approbation
of my fellow-citizens has rewarded me for this sacrifice,
I should receive almost as a benefit a death which shall
prevent me from witnessing the public calamities which
I foresee to be inevitable." In December, 1791, he
opposed in a speech the declaration of war against
the Emperor of Germany which was proposed by the
Girondists. Although not a great orator, he was
always plausible, and more logical than the most of his
competitors. He never took an active or open part
in the violent acts and outrages of the populace, such
as the attack on the Tuileries, August, 1792.
In September^ 1792, he was elected to the Convention
as a deputy from Paris. A few clays after the session
began, several Girondist deputies accused him of aspiring
to a dictatorship, and cast on him the responsibility of
the recent massacre in the prisons of Paris. These
charges were repeated by Louvet in a long speech,
(October 29,) to which Robespierre read an artful
and successful defence. The result of this affair was
that Robespierre became the accepted chief of the
Mountain and the implacable enemy of the Girondists.
The first victim of his unscrupulous policy was the
king, whom the Girondists wished to save. He said,
(December 2, 1792,) "I pronounce with regret this
fatal truth ; but Louis must die that the country may
live," ("Louis doit mourir parcequ'il faut que la patrie
vive.") Aided by the commune of Paris and the mob,
he triumphed over the Girondists about June I, 1793.
Then began the Reign of Terror, during which, as presi
dent of the committee of public safety, (or salvation,)
Robespierre exercised almost unlimited power. Two
of his partisans, Couthon and Saint-Just, were associated
with him in the triumvirate of Robespierre. It is
just to admit that they defended France with great
vigour and ability against the allied armies of nearly
all Europe and the Vendean royalist insurgents.
In March, 1794, Hebert and the Hebertists were
guillotined as exageres or ultra-revolutionary. It is stated
that when the committee of public safety determined
to destroy Danton and his friends, Robespierre at first
opposed the measure ; but he supported, by a speech in
the Convention, Saint-Just's motion for their arrest, and
Danton, with Desmoulins and others, was executed in
April, 1794. But the death of a powerful rival did not
render his own position secure. His statesmanship was
not adequate to solve the enigma of the Revolution. He
presided as a high-priest and pronounced an oration at
a public ceremony called the Festival of the Supreme
Being, in June, 1794. In the mean time, multitudes ot
innocent persons, of both sexes, perished daily by the
guillotine. This excessive cruelty provoked against him
a combination of various parties, afterwards called
" Thermidoriens," including Tallien, Barras, Billaud-
Varennes, Fouche, and Carnot. The Convention ordered
the arrest of Robespierre on the gth Thermidor. His
partisans rallied in the night and released him from
arrest. He was then declared an outlaw by the Conven
tion, and was guillotined, with twenty of his partisans, on
the loth Thermidor, (28th of July,) '1794. He was sur-
named " the Incoi ruptible," because he was proof against
pecuniary temptations. " Robespierre," says Macaulay,
in his article on Barere, "was a vain, envious, and sus
picious man, with a hard heart, weak nerves, and a
gloomy temper. But we cannot with truth deny that he
was, in the vulgar sense of the word, disinterested, tha'
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural ': N, nasal: R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
I 2O
Explanations, p. 23.)
ROBILANT
1906
ROBINSON
his private life was correct, or that he was sincerely
zealous for his own system of politics and morals."
See LODIKU, " Biographic de Robespierre ;" VII.ATK, "Causes
secretes de la Revolution du 9 Tliermidor," 1796 ; PKOYART, " Vie de
Ri.bespierre," 1794; GEORGE H. LEWES, "History of Maximilian
Robespierre," 1849; LAMARTINE, " Histoire des Girondins ;" EK-
NEST HAMEI,, " Histoire de Robespierre," 3 vols., 1867; CARI.YI.E,
" History of the French Revolution;" P. V. TISSOT, " Histoire de
Robespierre," 2 vols., 1844: OPITZ, " Robespierre's Triumph und
Sturz," 1850; MIGNET, "Histoire de la Revolution Franchise ;'
" Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" " London Quarterly Review" tor
September, 1835.
Robilant, de, deh ro'be'loN', ? (ESPRIT BENO!T NICO
LAS,) an engineer and writer on metallurgy, etc., born at
Turin in 1724. He was a son of Count Joseph Robilant,
author of an able work on Strategy, (I744-) 1)iecl >» J8oi.
Robin, ro'bax', (CHARLES PHILIPPE,) a French anato
mist and microscopist, born at Jafferon (Ain) in 1821.
Me became professor of anatomy at Paris (profisseur
agrege&la Facnlte) in 1847. He applied the microscope
to the study of anatomy and the intimate structure of
tissues. He published a number of professional works,
among which is "Traite de Chimie anatomique et phy-
siologique, normale et pathologique," (1852.)
Robin, (JEAN,) a French botanist, born in Paris in
1550. He was patronized by Henry IV., and planted a
garden which was the finest in Paris. He published a
work on the plants which grow near Paris, " Catalogus
Stirpium tain indigenarum quam exoticarum," etc.,
(1601.) The genus Robinia was named in his honour.
Died in 1629.
See HALI.ER, " BibHotheca Botanica."
Robin, (VESPASIEN,) a botanist, born in Paris in 1579,
was a son of the preceding. He succeeded his father in
the title of arboriste dn roi, and lectured on botany at the
Jardin Royal. Died in 1662.
Robin Hood. See HOOD, (RoniN.)
Robineau. See BKAUNOIU.
Robinet, ro'be'ni', (EoMOxn,) a French litterateur,
born at Saint-Pol-de-Leon in 1811. He wrote several
historical works.
Robinet, (JKAN BAPTISTE RENE,) a French writer
on various subjects, born at Rennes in 1735 ; died in 1820.
Robinet, (STEPHANE,) a French chemist, born in
Paris in 1796.
Rob'ins, (BENJAMIN,) an eminent English mathema
tician, born at Bath in 1707, is called the founder of the
science of gunnery. He was chosen a Fellow of the
Royal Society at the age of twenty. His chief work is
"New Principles of Gunnery," (1742.) He was ap
pointed chief engineer of the East India Company in
1749, and died at Madras in 1751.
See DR. WILSON, "Lite of Benjamin Robins;" " Biographia
Britannica," (Supplement )
Robins or Robyns, (JoiiN,) an English astronomer,
born in Staffordshire about 1500. He was canon of
Windsor, and chaplain to Henry VIII. He left in manu
script several treatises on the Fixed Stars. Died in
1558.
Rob'in-spn, (ANASTASIA,) an English singer, who
was married to the Earl of Peterborough before 1735.
Died in 1750.
Rob'in-son, (EDWARD,) an eminent American bibli
cal scholar, born at Southington, Connecticut, in 1794.
He graduated at Hamilton College, New York, in 1816,
and went to Europe in 1826, after which he studied
Oriental languages at Paris and Halle. About 1828 he
married a daughter of Professor Jacob! or von Jakob,
of Halle. He began to edit the " Biblical Repository"
in 1831, was appointed professor of biblical literature
in the Union Theological Seminary, in the city of New
York, in 1837, and travelled in Palestine in 1838. In
1841 he published his principal work, " Biblical Re
searches in Palestine, Mount Sinai, and Arabia Petrasa,"
(3 vols.,) which is considered the best that had then
been published on that subject. " The work was recog
nized," says R. W. Griswold, "as one of the most
learned and judicious produced in the world in this
century." He received for this work the gold medal of
the Royal Geographical Society of London. Among his
other works is "The Harmony of the Four Gospels," in
Greek, (1845,) a"d " I\ibliotheca Sacra." Died in New
York in January, 1863. "The names of Edward Robin
son and Moses Stuart," says R. W. Griswold, " stand
at the head of the catalogue of learned men who have
cultivated biblical literature in America." (" Prose
Writers of America," p. 382.)
See the " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1841 ;
"North American Review" for April, 1851.
Robinson, (FREDERICK JOHN.) See RIPOX, EARL
OE.
Robinson, (HENRY CRAHH,) an English lawyer and
writer, born at Bury Saint Edmund's, was an intimate
friend of Coleridge, Wordsworth, and other eminent per
sons of his time. He died in London in 1867, at the age
of ninety-one, leaving a very interesting "Diary, Remi
niscences, and Correspondence," (3 vols., London, 1869.)
See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, iS6g ; " British Quar
terly Review" for October, 1869; " Fraser's Magazine" tor October.
1869; "Macmillan's Magazine" for August, 1869, (by PROFESSOR
MAURICE.)
Robinson, (JoiiN,) an English dissenting minister,
born in 1575, was educated at Cambridge. To escape
from persecution, he emigrated to Holland with the con
gregation of which he svas pastor, in 1608. He and they
settled at Leyden, where they remained eleven years.
A portion of his society emigrated to Plymouth, Massa
chusetts, in 1620, in the Mayflower. lie intended to
follow them, but was prevented by death. He was an
Independent, and a man of superior talents. He wrote
several religious works. Died at Leyden in 1625.
Robinson, (Jon.\,) an English prelate, born in York
shire in 1650. He became Bishop of Bristol in 1710,
and was one of the plenipotentiaries who formed the
treaty of Utrecht, (1713.) He was transferred to the see
of London in 1714. Died in 1723.
Robinson, (JoiiN1 C.,) an American general, born at
Bingharrtton, New York, in 1817. He was appointed a
brigadier-general about April, 1862, and served at the
battle of Gaines's Mill, June 27, and at Malvern Hill,
July i, 1862. He commanded a division at the battle
of Gettysburg, July, 1863, and at that of the Wilderness,
May, 1864. In the advance from the Wilderness to
Spottsylvania Court-House he was severely wounded,
May 7.
Robinson, (Jonx II.,) an able English line-engraver,
born at Bolton, Lancashire, in 1796. lie engraved a
portrait of Sir Walter Scott, after Lawrence, Leslie's
"Mother and Child," Murillo's "Flower-Girl," etc.
Robinson, (M.\RV or MARIA,) an English poetess
and actress, born at Bristol in 1758. Her maiden name
was DARUY. She was a mistress of the Prince of \Vales,
(afterwards George IV.) Died in 1800.
See "Autobiography of Mrs. Robinson," London, 1827;
"Monthly Review" for September and December, 1801.
Robinson, (RICHARD,) Archbishop of Armagh, and
Baron Rokeby, was born in Yorkshire in 1709. He
founded a public library and a school at Armagh. Died
in 1794.
Robinson, (ROBERT,) an English Baptist minister,
born at Swaffham, in Norfolk, in 1735. He preached
at Cambridge from 1759 to 1773, and then removed to
Chesterton. He was an eloquent preacher. In the
latter part of his life he adopted Socinian doctrines.
He wrote, besides other religious works, a "History of
Baptism," (1790.) Died in 1790.
See GEORGE DVER, " Life of R. Robinson," 1796.
Robinson, (TANCRED, ) an English physician and
writer, received the title of physician-in-ordinary to
George I. Died in 1748.
Robinson, (THERESE ALHERTINE LOUISE,) wife of
Dr. E. Robinson, noticed above, was born at Halle,
Germany, in 1797. She published a collection of tales
under the signature of TALVI, and translated a number
of poems from the Servian language, entitled " Volks-
lieder der Serben." She has also translated into Ger
man Pickering's treatise " On the Indian Tongues of
North America." Among her other works may be
named a " Historical View of the Languages and Lite
rature of the Slavic Nations, with a Sketch of their
Popular Poetry." Died in 1870.
Robinson, (Rev. THOMAS,) an English naturalist,
wrote an " Essay toward the Natural History of West
moreland and Cumberland." Died in 1719.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long: a, e, 6. same, less prolonged; a,e, T, o, u, y, short: a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fall. fAt: mSt; nftt; good; moon;
ROSINS ON
1907
ROCHEFOUCAULD
Robinson, (THOMAS,) an English divine, born at
Wakefield in 1749. He preached at Leicester for many
years, and published "The Christian System Unfolded."
Died in 1813.
See EDWARD T. VAUGHAN, " Life of T. Robinson."
Robiquet, ro'be'k.V, (PIERRE JEAN,) a French
chemist, born at Rennes in 1780. He was professor of
chemistry and materia medica in Paris, and succeeded
Chaptal in the Academy of Sciences in 1833. Died in
Paris in 1840.
See " Biographic Universelle."
Rob'i-son, (JOHN,) a Scottish mathematician and
natural philosopher, born at Boghall, county of Stirling,
or at Rosehall, near Glasgow, in 1739. He succeeded
Dr. Black as professor of chemistry at Glasgow in 1767,
and was appointed professor of natural philosophy at
the University of Edinburgh in 1774. His principal
work is "Elements of Mechanical Philosophy," (4 vols.,
1822.) Died in Edinburgh in 1805.
See DAVID BREV.-STER, " Notice of J. Robison," prefixed to the
work above named; CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Emi
nent Scotsmen."
Roboam. See REHOBOAM.
Robortello, ro-boR-tel'lo, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
philologist and antiquary, born at Udine in 1516. He
was professor of rhetoric at Venice, and taught Greek
and Latin at Padua. Among his works are "Annotations
of Various Passages," ("Variorum Locorum Annota-
tiones," 1543,) and " De Facultate historica," (1548.)
Died in 1567.
See GIIH.IM, "Teatro d'Uomini letterati ;" TIRABOSCHI, " Storia
delia Letteratura Italiana."
Rob Roy, a Scottish adventurer, whose original
name was MACGREGOR, born about 1660, was a partisan
of the Pretender in the rebellion of 1715. The Duke
of Montrose having seized his lands, Rob Roy carried
on a war of reprisals for many years, and became widely
celebrated for his exploits. He is the hero of one of
Sir Walter Scott's most popular novels. Died in 1743.
See K. MACI.EAY, "Historical Memoirs of Rob Roy," 1818;
" I'lnckwood's Magazine" for October, November, and December,
1817.
Rob'soii, (FREDERICK,) an English comic actor, born
at Margate in 1821. He performed in London and
Dublin with success. Died in 1864.
Robson, (GEORGE FENNEL,) an English landscape-
painter, born at Durham, worked in London. Died in
iS33-
Robust! See TINTORETTO.
Robusti, ro-boos'tee, (DoMENico,) a painter, some
times called TINTORETTO, born at Venice in 1562, was
a son and pupil of the great painter Tintoretto. He
painted history and portraits with success. Among his
works are au "Annunciation" and a " Nativity of Christ."
Died in 1637.
See LAXZI, ''History of Painting in Italy."
Robusti, (MARIETTA,) an excellent Italian portrait-
painter, born in 1560, was a daughter of Tintoretto. She
died in 1 590.
Ro'by, (JOHN,) an English writer of prose and verse,
born in Lancashire, became a banker of Rochdale. lie
wrote "Sir Bartram," a poem, (1815,) and "Traditions
of Lancashire." (2 vols., 1829.) He perished in the
wreck of the Orion, in June, 1850.
Rocaberti, de, da ro-ka-bei<'tee, (JuAN TOMMASO,)
a Spanish prelate, born at Perelada about 1625. He
advocated the infallibility of the pope in his work "On
the Authority of the Roman Pontiff," ("De Roman!
Pontiricis Auctoritate," 1693.) Died in 1699.
Rocca, rok'ka, (ANGELO,) an Italian scholar, born at
Rocca Contrata in 1545. He founded at Rome a public
library called Bibliotheca Angelica. Died in 1620.
Roch, rok, SAINT, born at Montpellier, in France, in
1295, was renowned for his charity and his humane
attentions to the sick. Died in 1327.
See DE SAIXT- AI.BAN, "Vie de Saint-Rocli," 1849 ; COFFINIERES.
"Saint-Roch. fitude historique." 1855 ; MKS. JAMESON, "History
of Sacred and Legendary Art."
Rochambeau, de, deh ro'shoN'bS', {DONATIEN (do'-
nS'se^N') MARIE JOSEPH de Vimeur — deh ve'muR',)
VICOMTE, a French general, born near Vendome in
1750. He went to Saint Domingo with Leclerc, at
whose death, in 1802, he became commander-in-chief.
He was killed at Leipsic in 1813.
Rochambeau, de, (JEAN BAPTISTE DONATIEN DE
VIMEUR,) a French marshal, born at Vendome in 1725,
was the father of the preceding. He served with dis
tinction in Minorca, at Crevelt, and at Minden, (1759.)
He commanded an army of six thousand men sent to
the United States in 1780, and contributed to the victory
at Yorktown in October, 1781. In 1791 he obtained the
baton of marshal. He commanded an army against the
Austrians in 1792, but resigned in the same' year. Died
in 1807.
See "Memoires de Rochambeau." by himself, 1809; " Nonvelle
Biographie Generale ;" "Biographic Universelle"
Roche, rosh, (ACHU.i.E,) a French political and his
torical writer, born in Paris in 1801, was a republican.
He wrote "Albert Renaud," (4 vols., 1825,) and a " His
tory of the French Revolution," (1825.) Died in 1834.
Roche, (CHARLES Louis,) a French medical writer,
born at Xevers in 1790. Among his works is " Elements
of Medico-Surgical Pathology," (5 vols., 1825-28.)
Roche, rotch, ? (MARIA REGINA,) an English novelist,
born in 1764. She wrote "The Children of the Abbey,"
and other tales. Died in 1845.
Roche- Ay men, de, deh rosh 4'm6x', (ANTOINE
CHARLES ETIENNK,) MARQUIS, a French general and
writer on the art of war, born in Paris about 1775. HC
was aide-de-camp of Prince Henry of Prussia, (1794-
1802.) Died in 1862.
Rochechouart. See MONTESPAN, DE, and MORTE-
MART, DE.
Rochefort, rosh'foR', (GUII.LAUME,) Chancellor of
France, was noted for wisdom. Died in 1492.
Rochefort, (HENRI,) Vicomte de Lucay, (deh lii'si',)
a French republican agitator, born about 1835. He be
came editor of the " Lanterne," in which he so violently
assailed the imperial policy that he was banished.
Having returned to Paris, he began to issue a journal
called " The Marseillaise," and was elected a member
of the legislative body in 1869. He published offensive
remarks and lampoons on Napoleon III., for svhich he
was in 1870 sentenced to an imprisonment of six months.
He became a member of the provisional government, Sep
tember 4, 1870, but resigned about the 1st of November.
Rocheforb, de, deh rosh'foR', (GUILLAUME DUBOIS,)
a French writer and translator, born at Lyons in 1731.
He wrote against the Materialists, and translated Ho
mer's " Iliad" (1770) aiid "Odyssey," (1777,) also the
works of Sophocles, (1788.) Died in 1788.
Rochefort, de, (HENRI Louis D'ALOIGNY,) MAR
QUIS, a French general, who became marshal of France
in 1675. Died in 16.76.
Rochefoucauld, de la, deh It rosh'foo'ko', (FRAN
COIS,) Prince de Marsillac, (maR'se-ySk',) a French
Huguenot leader, was a brother-in-law of the Prince of
Conde. He fought at Chartres and Jarnac, (1569.) He
perished in the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, in Paris,
August 24. 1572.
Rochefoucauld, de la, (FRANCOIS.) Due, Prince de
Marfiillac, a celebrated French moralist and courtier,
born in December, 1613. He married Mademoiselle de
Vivonne about 1637. In his youth he was engaged at
court as the confidential agent of the queen in intrigues
against Richelieu. He formed in 1646 a liaison with
Madame de Longueville, and in the war of the Fronde
was one of the chiefs of the party which opposed the
court. He was severely wounded at the battle near
Paris in 1652, after which he renounced intrigues and fac
tious enterprises. He produced in 1665 his "Maxims,"
(" Reflexions, ou Sentences et Maximes morales,") which,
according to Voltaire, is one of the works whicli con
tributed most to form and rectify the national taste.
The essential principle of this book is that self-love or
interest is the chief motive of human actions. In his
latter years he enjoyed the friendship of Madame de La
Fayette and Madame de Sevigne. Died in 1680.
See his autobiographic "Memoires." 1662: St'ARO, "Notice snr
La Rochefoucauld," 17.82 ; MADAMEDP. SEVIGNE," Lettres ;" SAINTE-
BEITVE, " £tudes stir La Rochefoucauld." 1^53: G. B. DEITIXG,
".Notice stir la Vie et les Onvrages de La Rochefoucauld." 1822;
"Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by MRS. SHELLEY.
€ as k; c as s: g kard;gzs,j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled ' ; s as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
ROCHEFOUCAULD
1908
RODGERS
Rochefoucauld, de la, (FREDERIC CHARLES,) Earl
of Lifforcl, a French general, born in 1633, was a zealous
Protestant. Died at Bath, England, in 1690.
Rochefoucauld, de la, (Louis ALEXANDRE,) Due
de la Roche»Guyon, (den IS rosh ge'iN7,) a French
patriot, born in 1743. He favoured the popular cause in
the Revolution, and was an active member of the States-
General in 1789. He was massacred at Gisors in 1792.
Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, de la, deli It rosh'-
foo'ko' le'fiN'kooR', (FRANCOIS ALEXANDRE FREDERIC,)
Due, a liberal French peer and philanthropist, born in
1747, was a cousin of the preceding. He was a member
of the Constituent Assembly in 1789-90, and went into
exile in 1792, after which he travelled in the United
States. He returned to Paris in 1799. He founded the
school of Arts et Metiers, (at Chalons,) and the first
saving-fund in France. He published "Travels in the
United States of America," (8 vols., 1800.) Died in 1827.
His son, FREDERIC GAETAN, Marquis de la Rochefou
cauld-Liancourt, born at Liancourt in 1779, is author
of several poems, dramas, and historical works.
See GAETAN DE LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, "Vie dii Due de la Roche
foucauld-Liancourt," 1827; ''Biographic Universelle."
Rochejaquelein, de la, deh IS rosh'zhSk'laN',
(HENRI du Verger — dii veR'zha',) COUNT, a French
royalist chief of the Vendean war, was born in Poitou in
1772. He took command of a band of peasants in 1793,
and was victorious in several small battles. He said to
his men, " If I advance, follow me ; if I retreat, kill me ;
if I die, avenge me." In October. 1793, he was appointed
general-in-chief of the insurgents, lie gained a victory
at Entrames, October 27, but was defeated with great
loss at Mans, December 13. He was killed in battle at
Nouaille in March, 1794.
See THEODORE MURET, "Vie populaire de H. de la Rochejaque
lein," 1845.
Rochejaquelein, de la, (Louis,) a brother of the
preceding, was born in 1777. He was an officer in the
army, and served against the negroes in Hayti. In May,
1815, he raised a body of Vendeans to fight for Louis
XVIII. He was killed in an action at Pont des Mathis
in June of that year.
See MADAME DE LA ROCHEJAQUELEIN, "Memoires;" "London
Quarterly Review" for April, iSi6.
Rochejaquelein, de la, (MARIE LOUISE VICTOIRE
de Doniiissan — deh do'ne'sd.N',) MARQUISE, was born
at Versailles in 1772. She married in 1790 the Marquis
de Lescure, who was killed at the battle of Choi let.
About 1800 she became the wife of Louis de la Roche-
iaquelein, noticed above. She wrote " Memoires" of
her own life and of the exploits of those whose name
she bore, (1815.) Died in 1857.
See ALFRED NETTEMF.NT, " Vie de Madame de la Rochejaque
lein," 1859; "Edinburgh Review" for February, 1816.
Rochers, Des. See DESROCHKRS.
Roches, Des. See DESROCHES.
Rochester. See HYDE, (LAWRENCE.)
Rochester, BISHOP OF. See FISHER.
Roch'es-ter, (JOHN WII.MOT,) EARL OF, a witty and
profligate English courtier, born in Oxfordshire in 1647,
was a son of Henry, Earl of Rochester. He became a
favourite of Charles II., and indulged in debauchery and
drunkenness to such excess that his constitution was
eventually ruined. In 1665 he entered the navy, and
signalized his courage in several actions. He wrote a
number of songs, satires, etc. He died in 1680, professing
penitence for his sins.
See JOHNSON, " Lives of the English Poets ;" BURNET, " Some
Passages of the Life and Death of John, Earl of Rochester, " 1681.
Rochet, ro'shi', (Louis,) a French sculptor, born in
Paris in 1817.
Rochette, ro'shet', (DESIRE RAOUL,) an eminent
French archaeologist, born at Saint-Aniand (Cher) in
1790. He married a daughter of Houdon the sculptor,
and succeeded Guizot as professor of modern history in
1815. He became professor of archaeology in Paris in
1826, and acquired much popularity as a lecturer. In
1838 or 1839 he was elected perpetual secretary of the
Academy of Fine Arts. He published, besides other
works, a "Critical History of the Greek Colonies," (4
vols., 1815,) and "Memoirs of Comparative Archaeology,
Asiatic, Greek, and Etruscan," (1848.) He left unfinished
a " History of Ancient Art." Died in 1854.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale;" " Biographic Universelle. "
Rochlitz, roK'lits, (FRIEDRICH,) a German litterateur,
born at Leipsic in 1769 or 1770, published a number of
tales and musical treatises, among which is "Blicke in
das Gebiet der Ku'nste." Died in 1842.
Rochon, ro'shiN', (ALEXIS MARIE,) a French as
tronomer and navigator, born at Brest in 1741. He was
appointed astronomer of the marine in 1766, and made
a voyage to the East Indies, of which he published an
account, (3 vols., 1791.) He wrote an "Essay on An
cient and Modern Coins," (1792,) treatises on optics,
etc. Died in 1817.
See DEI.AMBUK, "Notice sur Rochon," 1818; "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Rochon de Chabannes, ro'shoN' deh shS'baV,
(MARC ANTOINE JACQUES,) a French dramatist, born
in Paris in 1730. He wrote some successful comedies.
Died in 1800.
Rochow, von, fon ro'Ko, (GUSTAV ADOLF ROCHUS,)
a Prussian statesman, born in Rathenow in 1792, became
minister of the interior and of the police in 1834. Died
in 1847.
Rockingham, lok'ing-am, (CHARLES WATSON WENT-
WOKTH,) second MARQUIS OF, an English Whig states
man, was born in 1730. He succeeded to the marquisate
in 1750, and inherited a large fortune, which, joined with
an honourable character, rendered him a person of great
influence. He became prime minister in July, 1765, and
took Edmund Burke into his service as private secretary.
The notorious Stamp Act was repealed by this ministry,
which by the enmity of the king was driven from power
in July, 1766. He opposed the measures by which Lord
North provoked the American colonies to revolt. When
North resigned, (in March, 1782,) the king was reduced
to the painful necessity of accepting a Whig ministry,
of which Lord Rockingham was premier. He died July
I, 1782, leaving no issue.
See LORD ALREMARI.E, "Memoirs of the Marquis of Rocking
ham," 2 vols., 1852; LORD MAHON, "History of England;"
"Edinburgh Review" for July, 1852.
Rock'well, (JAMES OTIS,) an American poet, born
in Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1807. He became associate
editor of the Boston "Statesman," and in 1829 assumed
charge of the "Patriot," a journal published at Provi
dence. He died in 1831, of an illness caused chiefly, it
is supposed, by pecuniary embarrassment. Among his
poems we may name "The Lost at Sea," and lines "To
the Ice-Mountain." The former is of remarkable beauty
and pathos. Rockwell was a friend of Whittier, who
has written an eloquent tribute to his memory.
See GRISWOLD, "Poets and Poetry of America."
Rocoles, de, deh rc/kol', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French
historian, born at Beziers in 1620. He changed sides
three or four times in religion, being a Catholic in France
and a Protestant in Holland. Died in 1696.
Rode, n/deh, (CHRISTJAN BERNHARD,) a German
painter and engraver, born at Berlin in 1725. He painted
history and portraits. Among his prints are illustrations
of Gellert's " Fables." Died in 1797.
Rode, rod, (PiERRE,) a French violinist and com
poser, born at Bordeaux in 1774. He composed con
certos, which are much admired. Died in 1830.
Rod'er-ic or Roderick, [Fr. RODRIGUE, ro'dReg';
Lat. RODKRI'CUS,] King of the Visigoths in Spain, re
belled against Witiza and usurped the throne in 709 or
708 A.D. Soon after this event his dominions were invaded
by an army of Arabs or Berbers, under Tarik, whose aid
was perhaps solicited by the sons of Witiza. Roderic
was defeated and killed by these invaders in 711. He
was the last of the Visigoths that reigned in Spain. His
story forms the subject of one of Southey's most popular
poems, entitled " Roderick the Goth."
See CONDE, "Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes ;" MAS-
DEU, " Historia critica."
Rodericus. See SANCHEZ DE AREVALO, and RO
DRIGUEZ.
Rodg'ers, (JOHN,) an American commodore, born in
Maryland in 1771. Being appointed to the command of
RODGERS
1909
ROGER
a squadron on the breaking out of the war of 1812, he
captured seven British merchantmen. He was after
wards president of the board of navy commissioners,
and commander of the squadron in the Mediterranean.
Died in 1838.
Rodgers, (Jon\,) a brave American commodore, born
in Maryland about 1809. He entered the navy in 1825.
He served with distinction at the battle of Port Royal,
in November, 1861. In May, 1862, he attacked Fort
Darling, or Drury's Bluff, on the James River, with the
iron-clad Galena and other gun-boats, but was repulsed.
He commanded the Weehawken in the attack on Fort
Sumter in April, 1863, and captured the iron-clad At
lanta near Savannah in June of that year. He was
complimented by the secretary of the navy "for these
heroic and serviceable acts." In 1870 he was raised to
the rank of rear-admiral.
See HEADLEY, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," p. 542.
Rod'man, (ISAAC PEACE,) an American general, born
at South Kingston, Rhode Island, in 1822. He served
as captain at Bull Run, July 21, 1861, and as colonel at
the cap'-^re of Roanoke Island and at Newbern, North
Carolina. He became a brigadier-general in 1862, com
manded a division at Fredericksburg, and was killed at
the battle of Antietam, in September of the same year.
See TEN-NEY, " Military History of the Rebellion," p. 737.
Rod'iiey, (C^ESAU,) one of the signers of the Decla
ration of American Independence, was born at Dover,
in Delaware, about 1730. He became a member of the
Continental Congress of 1774, and in 1777 was elected
President of the State of Delaware. Died in 1783.
See " Lives of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence."
Rod'ney, (GEORGE BKVDGES,) LORD, a British ad
miral, born at Walton-upon-Thames in 1718. He obtained
the rank of rear-admiral in 1759, and that of admiral of
the white in 1778. He defeated a Spanish fleet near Cape
Saint Vincent in 1780. Having been raised to the rank
of vice-admiral of England, he gained an important vic
tory over the French admiral De Grasse in the West
Indies, April 12, 1782. He was raised to the peerage, as
Baron Rodney. Died in 1792.
SeeMrxDV, "Life of Lord Rodney;" CAMPBELL, "Lives of the
British Admirals."
Rodolph OK HAPSRUKG. See RUDOLPH.
Rodolphe, the French for RUDOLPH, which see.
Rodon, de. See DF.RODON.
Rodrigues, ro'dReg', (BENJAMIN OLINDE,) a French
socialist, born at Bordeaux in 1794. He became a favour
ite disciple of Saint-Simon, who bequeathed to him his
manuscripts. Died in iS^o.
Rodriguez, ro-clRee'geth, [Lat. RODERI'CUS,] (AL
FONSO,) a Spanish theologian, born at Valladolid in 1526.
He wrote a work on "Christian Perfection," (1614,)
which was often reprinted and translated. Diedini6i6.
Rodriguez, (VENTURA,) an eminent Spanish archi
tect, born at Cienpozuelos in 1717. He designed or
constructed churches, palaces, and colleges at Saragossa,
Toledo, Malaga, Granada, etc. He became professor of
architecture at Madrid in 1752. Died in 1785.
See Poxz, "Viage de Espana."
Roe, ro, (AZEL STEVENS,) an American novelist, born
in New York in 1798. Among his principal works are
" The Star and the Cloud," " A Long Look Ahead,"
" Time and Tide, or Strive and Win," (1852,) and " True
to the Last," (1859.)
Roe, ro, (Sir THOMAS,) an English ambassador, born
in Essex about 1580. He was sent on an embassy to
the Great Mogul in 1614, and to Constantinople in 1621.
Died in 1644.
Roe'buck, (JoHN,) an English chemist and iron
master, born in Sheffield in 1718, practised medicine in
Birmingham. He invented a method of procuring sul
phuric acid at a greatly-reduced cost, and about 1760
established at Carron extensive iron-works, in which he
improved the method of smelting iron. He was con
nected with James Watt in his early experiments on the
steam-engine. Died in 1794.
Roebuck, (JoHN ARTHUR,) a British politician, a
grandson of the preceding, was born at Madras in 1801.
He was elected member of Parliament for Bath in 1832,
and again in 1841. After 1849 he represented Sheffield
in the House of Commons until he was defeated in 1868.
He originated the motion on the conduct of the Crimean
war which resulted in the defeat and removal of the
Aberdeen ministry. He displayed a violent hostility to
the United States and sympathy with the slaveholding
Confederacy during the great civil war.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1852 ; " Fraser's
Magazine" for November, 1846, (article "Contemporary Orators.")
Roederer, i6'deh-rer or ra'deh-raiR',(jEAN GEORGES,)
a French physician, born at Strasburg in 1726. He
became professor of midwifery at Gottingen in 1751.
He published "Elements of the Obstetric Art," ("Ele-
menta Artis obstetrician," 1752,) "On Mucous Disease,"
("De Morbo mucoso," 1762,) and other works. Died
in 1763.
See " Biographie Medicale."
Roederer, (PIERRE Louis,) COMTE, a French states
man, was born at Metz in 1754. As a member of the
National Assembly, (1790,) he advocated liberty and
equality. He was elected a member of the Institute
in 1796- promoted the accession of Bonaparte to power
in 179-., and became a senator in 1802. In 1806 Joseph
Bonaparte appointed him minister of finance in Naples.
He held no office under the Bourbons. He wrote an
able "Memoir on Polite Society in France," (1835.)
Died in 1835.
See MIGNET, " Roederer, sa Vie et ses Travaux," 1838 ; SAINTE-
BHUVE, "Causeries duLundi," and "LeComtede Roederer," 1853;
" Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Roelas, de las, da las ro-a'Ias, (JuAN,) an excellent
Spanish painter, born at Seville about 1560, was called
EL CLERIGO ROELAS. He worked for some time in
Madrid, and removed to Olivares about 1624. The
churches of Seville are adorned with many of his works.
Among his master-pieces are " El Transito" of San Isi-
cloro, a " Holy Family," and "Santiago." Died in 1625.
See CEAX-BERMUDEZ, "Diccionario Historico."
Roell. See ROLL.
Roemer. See ROMER.
Roenne. See RONNE.
Roepel, roo'pel, (CONRAD,) a Dutch painter of flowers
and fruits, born at the Hague in 1679 ; died in 1748.
Roer or Roeer, ro'er, (HANS HEINRICH EDUARD,)
a German Orientalist, born at Brunswick in 1805. In
1839 he visited Calcutta, and became in 1846 one of
the secretaries of the Asiatic Society. About the same
time he founded the " Bibliotheca Indica," to which he
contributed a number of translations from the Sanscrit,
Arabic, and Persic.
Roestraten, roos'tRa'ten, (PIETER,) a Dutch painter
of portraits and still life, born at Haarlem in 1627. He
worked for some years in London, where he died in
1698.
Roetscher. See ROTSCHER-.
Roffensis. See FISHER, Bishop of Rochester.
Rog'er, [It. RUGGIERO, rood-ja'ro,] Count of Sicily,
born in Normandy in 1031, was an enterprising warrior.
He conquered Sicily from the Saracens. Died in 1101.
See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Roger I., King of Sicily, born about 1096, was a
son and successor of the preceding. At the death of
his cousin, Duke of Apulia, he obtained possession of
Apulia and Calabria, (1127.) He took arms against
Pope Innocent II., and made him prisoner, in 1139.
By recognizing Roger as King of Sicily, etc., the pope
obtained his liberty. Roger was an able and powerful
prince. Died in 1154.
See MITRATORI, "Annali d'ltalia ;" ORDERICUS VITALIS, "His-
toria Ecclesiastica ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Rog'er, Bishop of Salisbury, a powerful English prel
ate, became prime minister of Henry I. about 1107.
Died in 1139.
Roger, ro'zhi', (ADOI.PHE,) a French painter of his
tory, born at Palaiseau (Seine-et-Oise) about 1797.
Roger, (GUSTAVE HIPPOLVTE,) a French vocalist,
born in Paris in 1815. His voice is a pure tenor.
Roger, (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a French dramatist, born
at Langres in 1776. He produced "The Lawyer,"
(" L'Avocat," 1806.) and other successful comedies. In
1816 he became secretary-general of the post-office. He
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
ROGER
1910
ROGNETTA
was admitted into the French Academy in 1817. Died
in 1842.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Roger, (PIERRE.) See CLEMENT VI.
Roger Ducos. See Ducos.
Roger di Loria. See LORIA, pi.
Roger (or Richard) of Hexham, an English chroni
cler, was prior of a convent at Hexham about 1150.
Roger of Hoveden. See HOVEDEN, DE.
Roger of Wendover, an English chronicler, wrote
" Flowers of History," (" Flores Historiarum,") which
commences at the creation. Died in 1237.
Rog'ers, (BENJAMIN,) an English composer of sacred
music, born at Windsor; died about 1698.
Rogers, (CHARLES,) an English antiquary, born in
Westminster in 1711 ; died in 1784.
Rogers, (DANIEL,) an English scholar and diplo
matist, born at Aston about 1540, was a pupil of Me-
lanchthon. He was employed by Queen Elizabeth in
embassies to Germany, etc. Died in 1590.
Sec WOOD, "Athena; Oxonienses."
Rogers, (GEORGE,) an English theological writer,
born in 1741. He was rector of Sproughton for about
fifty years. Died in 1835.
Rogers, (IlEXRY,) a distinguished English essayist,
born at Saint Alban's in 1806, was an Independent min
ister in early life. He contributed to the " Edinburgh
Review" a number of essays and biographical notices,
which were republished in 1850. He is author of "The
Eclipse of Faith," (1852,) and of other works, some of
which are designed to prove that philosophy and re
vealed religion are in accordance with each other. He
became principal of an Independent College near Man
chester in 1857. In 1866 he published "Reason and
Faith, with other Essays."
Rog'ers, (HENRY DARWIN,) an eminent American
geologist, born at Philadelphia in 1809. He made a
survey of the State of New Jersey, of which he published
a report, and a geological map, in 1835. His report on
the geology of Pennsylvania came out in 1858, (2 vols.
410.) It enjoys a high reputation for thoroughness and
accuracy. He was appointed in 1857 regius professor
of geology and natural history at Glasgow, Scotland.
He also became associate editor of the " New Philo
sophical Journal," Edinburgh, and contributed to various
other periodicals. Died in Glasgow in May, 1866.
Rogers, (JAMES BI.YTHE,) M.D., an American phy
sician, brother of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia
in 1803. He was appointed in 1847 professor of chem
istry in the University of Pennsylvania. He was author
of several valuable scientific treatises. Died in 1852.
Rogers, (JoHN,) an English martyr, was in his youth
a Roman Catholic priest. Having been converted at
Antwerp, he settled at Wittenberg as pastor of a Prot
estant church. He retifVned to England in the reign of
Edward VI., and became prebendary of Saint Paul's.
He was committed to prison in 1553 or 1554, condemned'
as a heretic by Bonner and Gardiner, and burned at
Smithfield in 1555, refusing to save his life by apostasy
from the truth.
See CHESTER, "Life of John Rogers."
Rogers, (Rev. JOHN,) an English writer on theology,
born at Ensham, in Oxfordshire, in 1679, lived some
time in London. He published a "Discourse of the
Visible and Invisible Church of Christ," (1719,) and
other controversial works. Died in 1729.
See SAMUEL MILLER, "Memoirs of John Rogers."
Rogers, (JOHN,) an American sculptor, born at Salem,
Massachusetts. Among his works are the "Slave Auc
tion," " The Returned Volunteer," "The Picket Guard,"
" The Wounded Scout," " The Union Refugees," and
other spirited illustrations of the war of 1861-65, anc'
of common life.
See TUCKERMAN, "Book of the Artists."
Rogers, (ROBERT EMPIE,) M.D., brother of Henry
Darwin, noticed above, was born at Baltimore in 1814.
He graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, where
he became in 1852 professor of chemistry. He was
subsequently appointed dean of the medical faculty
in that institution.
Rogers, (SAMUEL,) an eminent English poet, born at
Ne wing ton Green, a suburb of London, on the 3oth of
July, 1763. He was the third son of Thomas Rogers, a
London banker. After leaving school he became suc
cessively a clerk and a partner in his father's banking-
house. He published in 1786 a volume entitled "An
Ode to Superstition, and other Poems," which attracted
little notice. In 1792 he produced his "Pleasures of
Memory," a beautiful and highly-finished poem, which
was received with much favour. lie removed in 1803
to a fine house in Saint James Place, in which he passed
the rest of his long life. This house was celebrated as
a resort of eminent literary and political characters,
including Scott, Byron, Moore, Wordsworth, Southey,
and Coleridge. He retired from business in the prime
of life, with an ample fortune, of which he made a gen
erous use. He gave liberally to artists and literary men
who were in pecuniary distress. His reputation was fully
maintained, or perhaps increased, by "Human Life,"
a poem, (1819.) In 1822 he produced the first part of
an admirable poem, entitled "Italy," which is his most
extensive work. It is stated that lie spent _^io,ooo in
the illustration of this poem, the complete edition of
which, with engravings after Prout and Turner, appeared
in 1836. He was never married. Died in December,
1855, over ninety-two years of age.
See "Recollections of the Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers," 1856;
JF.FFKKY, "Miscellanies;" " Nouvellt; Biographie Generale;" " Kd-
inbnrgh Review" for October, 1813, and March, iSig; "London
Quarterly Review" for March, iSi3 ; " Fraser's Magazine'1 for April,
1856; AI.LIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors;" "North British Review"
for August, 1X56; "Biographical Sketches," by li. MARTINKAU.
Rogers, (THOMAS,) an English theologian, entered a
college at Oxford in 1568. Died in 1616.
Rogers, (WILLIAM,) D.I)., an American Baptist di
vine, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1751. He was
appointed in 1778 a chaplain in the Continental army,
and in 1792 became professor of English and oratory in
the University of Pennsylvania. Died in 1824.
Rogers, (WILLIAM BARTON,) brother of Henry Dar
win, noticed above, born in Philadelphia in 1805, was
appointed professor of natural philosophy and geology
in the University of Virginia. He has published, among
other works, "Elements of Mechanical Philosophy,"
(1852,) and has contributed to various scientific journals,
both American and foreign.
Rogers, (WooDES,) CAPTAIN, an English navigator
and buccaneer, commanded an expedition against the
Spaniards in the South Sea about 1709. Died in 1732.
Roget, ro'zha', (PETER MARK,) V. R.S., an English
physiologist and physician, of French extraction, born
in 1779, graduated as M.D. at Edinburgh in 1798. He
settled in London, and was secretary to the Royal
Society. His reputation is founded on an able work
entitled "Animal and Vegetable Physiology," (1834,)
which is one of the " Bridgewater Treatises." He is
author of other scientific works, and of a "Thesaurus
of English Words and Phrases," (1853.) Died in
September, 1869.
See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1834.
Roggeweeri, rog'geh-wan', (JACOB,) a Dutch navi
gator, born in Zealand in 1669. He commanded an
exploring expedition sent from Holland to the South
Sea in 1721. Died in 1733.
Roghman, roo'man, (ROLAND,) a Dutch landscape-
painter, born at Amsterdam in 1597. He painted Dutch
and German scenery. He also produced some fine
etchings of landscapes. Died in 1686.
Rogier, ro'zhe-i', (CHARLES LATOUR, ) a Belgian
statesman, was born at Saint-Quentin in 1800. He was
a prominent member of the provisional government
formed in 1830. In 1832 he was appointed minister of
the interior, and in 1840 minister of public works.
He became again in 1847 minister of the interior in a
cabinet of which the king confided to him the formation.
Having retired in 1852, he was reappointed to the same
office in 1857, and became minister of foreign affairs in
1861. He is a leader of the Liberal party.
See L. DE LOMENIE, " M. Rosier, par un Hoinme cie Rien," 1843.
Rognetta, r6n-yet'ta, (Fn.ii'PO,) an Italian medical
writer, born about 1805, practised in Paris. Died at
Naples in 1857.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon;
ROGNUT
191 1
ROLAND
Rogniat, ron'ye-J', (JOSEPH,) BARON, a French gene
ral of engineers, born at Saint-Priest in 1776. He was
chief engineer of the grand army in 1812. Died in 1840.
Rohan, de. See SOUBISK.
Rohan, de, deh ro'6x', (ANNE,) a French Protestant
lady, distinguished for her piety and learning, born in
1584, was a sister of Henri, Due de Rohan. She was
mistress of the Hebrew and other ancient languages.
Died in Paris in 1646.
Rohan, de, (HENRI,) Due, Prince de Leon, an able
French Huguenot chief, born in Brittany in 1579, was a
son of Renee, noticed below. He married in 1605
Marguerite de Bethttne, daughter of the Due de Sully.
He commanded an army which fought for religious
liberty in the civil war which began in 1621, was sus
pended by a treaty in 1623, renewed in 1627, and ended
in 1629. Having retired to Venice, he was appointed
general-in-chief of the Venetian army in 1630, and was
chosen by Cardinal Richelieu to direct the war in the
Valtelline. He defeated the Imperialists in 1635 at
Luvino and Tirano. He was mortally wounded at
Rheinfelden, where he fought for his friend Bernard
of Saxe- Weimar, in 1638. He left Memoirs of events
which occurred in France from 1610 to 1629, and a
treatise on war, — " Le parfait Capitaine," (1636.)
See COURTII.Z DE SANDRAS, "Histoire secrete du Due H. de
Rohan," i(-ffj: HAAG, "La France protestante ;" I'.XZIN, "Histoire
de L'Hiis XIII ;" " Xouvelle Biographic Generale.'1
Rohan, de, (Louis,) PRINCE, a Frenchman, noted
for his gallantry and intrigues, was born about 1635.
He was a son of Louis de Rohan, Prince de Guemene.
Having engaged in a conspiracy against Louis XIV., he
was executed in 1674.
Rohan, de, (Louis RENS £DOUARI>,) PRINCE CAR
DINAL, was born in Paris in 1734. He was sent as
ambassador to Vienna in 1772, but, having offended
Maria Theresa, he was recalled in 1/74. He became
a cardinal in 1778. He was a patron of Cagliostro,
and was scandalously implicated in the affair of the
"Diamond Necklace," (1784,) in which he was the dupe
of Madame La Motte, who, by forged letters, signed
" Marie Antoinette," persuaded the cardinal to buy a
necklace as a present to the queen. For this he was
tried and acquitted. Died in 1803.
See "Nonvelle Biographic Generale."
Rohan, de, (MARIE.) See CHEVREUSE, DE.
Rohan, de, (RENEE,) VICOMTE, Sieur de Pontivy
et de Frontenay, a French Protestant, born in 1550,
was one of the most valiant captains of his time. He
married the celebrated Catherine de Parthenay-Larche-
veque. Died in 1586.
See BAVLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" HAAG, "La
Fiance protestante."
Rohault, ro'6', (JACQUES,) a French natural philoso
pher, born at Amiens in 1620, was a teacher of Cartesian
philosophy. He wrote a " Treatise on Physics," (" Traite
de Physique," 1671,) which was for a long time a standard
work on that subject. Died in 1675.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
Rohault de Fleury, ro'o' deh fluh're', (CHARLES,)
a French architect, born in Paris in 1801. The govern
ment committed to him the construction of the Museum
of Natural History about 1830.
Rohini, ro'hi-nee', [etymology obscure,] in the
Hindoo mythology, the name of one of the daughters
of Daksha, said to be the favourite wife of Chandra, (or
the moon.*) She is the bright star in the bull's eye,
called in Arabic Aldebaran, (or Al Dabaran.) Other
stars regarded as the sisters of Rohini are also num
bered among the wives of Chandra.
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon."
Rohmann, ro'man, (JOROF.N LINDEOAARD,) a Danish
historian and poet, born in the island of Seeland in 1797.
He published several works on Danish history, and be
came Bishop of Fiinen. Died in 1855.
Rohr or Roehr, roR, (JoH ANN FRIEDRICH,) a Ger
man theologian, born near Naumburg in 1777. He was
identified with the rationalistic school, and published
* The moon in Sanscrit (as in German) is masculine, — not feminine,
as in the languages of Greece and Rome.
several works on theology. He resided at Weimar,
where he died in 1848.
Rohrbacher, roK'ba'shaiu', ( REN£ FRANC.OIS, ) a
French ecclesiastical writer, born at Langatte in 1789.
He wrote a "General History of the Catholic Church,"
(29 vols., 1849-53.) I>ied in 1856.
Rojas or Roxas, de, da ro'Has, (FERNANDO,) a cele
brated Spanish author, who flourished about 1500. His
dramatic romance "Celestina" obtained great popu
larity. The first edition of it was dated 1500.
Rojas or Rojas-Zorilla, de, da ro'Has tho-rel'yS,
(FRANCISCO,) an eminent Spanish dramatist, born at
Toledo in 1601. Among his dramas are " Garcia del Cas-
tanar,""El Desden vengado," ("The Insult Avenged,")
" Progne y Filomena," and " Entre Bobos anda el Juego."
Rokes, ro'kes, (HENRY,) called ZORG, a skilful Dutch
painter, born at Rotterdam in 1621, was a pupil of
David Teniers. Died in 1682.
Rokitansky, ro-ke-tan'ske, (KARL,) a distinguished
physician and pathologist, born at Koniggratz, in Bo
hemia, in 1804. He became in 1844 professor of patho
logical anatomy at Vienna, and subsequently a member
of the Academy of Sciences and rector of the University
in that city. He was the projector of the great Vienna
Hospital. He has published a " Manual of Pathological
Anatomy," (5 vols., 1842,) which is regarded as a stand
ard work and has been translated into English. -Z><eo^ /S
Rokmeny. See RUKMINI.
RoTand, [Lat. RUTLAN'DUS; It. ORLANDO or RO
LANDO,] a hero celebrated in the romances of chivalry,
was supposed to have been a nephew of Charlemagne.
He was killed at the battle of Roncesvalles, in 778 A.D.
See ARIOSTO, "Orlando Furioso."
Roland, ro'loN', a brave and able leader of the
French Camisards, was born in Gard in 1675. He
gained several victories about 1702 over the royal forces,
; who could not capture him until he was betrayed by one
| of his party. He was shot in 1704.
Ro'land, [Fr. pron. ro'lSN"',] MADAME, (originally
| MARIE JEANNE Phlipon (fle'p6N') or Fhilipoii, (fe''-
le'poN',) also called MANON PHLIPON,) one of the most
noble and highly-gifted women that France has produced,
was born in Paris, March 17, 1754. She was the only
child of an engraver, and was liberally educated. Latin
and music were included in the list of her studies. She
was fond of books in early childhood, and received a
lasting influence from Plutarch, who was her favourite
author when she was nine years of age. In youth she
was an enthusiastic devotee of the Catholic Church, and
about the age of twelve persuaded her parents to send
her to a convent for one year. Her mature opinions
; about religion are thus indicated in a passage of her
j Memoirs: "I can still attend with interest the celebra
tion of divine worship when it is conducted with dignity.
I forget the quackery of the priests, their ridiculous
fables, and their absurd mysteries. . . . The woes of
mankind, the consoling hope of an all-powerful Remune-
rator, occupy my thoughts ; all other fancies vanish ; the
sense of duty is quickened," etc. After she had arrived
at womanhood, though her faith in the Church was
shaken, she preferred studious retirement to the hollow
and frivolous pleasures of the gay world. She rejected
many successive suitors, whom her beauty attracted in
such numbers that she compared them to & levee en masse,
and resolved to marry none but a philosopher.
About 1775 she was introduced to M. Roland, whom
she characterizes as "un veritable homme de bien," ("a
| truly good man.") He took several years to consider
the subject, and when he offered his hand her father
refused his consent, although he (M. Phlipon) was re
cently ruined in fortune by his dissipated habits. Before
this time, it appears, she had lost her mother, who was
an excellent woman. Her father's house having ceased
to be a desirable, or even tolerable, residence, she retired
to the convent in Paris in which she had formerly passed
a year. After she had lived here five months, M. Roland
renewed his offer, which was accepted. They were mar-
! ried in 1780, after which they resided successively at
Paris, Amiens, and Lyons. She visited England with
her husband in 1784, and Switzerland in 1787. She
was an enthusiastic votary of republican liberty, and in
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
ee Explanations, p. 23. )
ROL4ND
1912
ROLLI
the first stage of the Revolution enlisted in the cause
with ardour, although she expressed a presentiment that
she would be placed in the forlorn hope of the army.
By her fascinating manners, commanding genius, and
great conversational powers, she acquired such an influ
ence in the councils of the Girondists that she has been
called the "inspiring soul" of that party. She assisted
M. Roland in his official duties while he was minister of
the interior, in 1792. He found that the literary success
of his reports, etc. was in an exact ratio to the part that
she took in their composition, and people were surprised
at the amount of work which he despatched. She com
posed the important letter addressed by her husband to
Louis XVI. in May, 1792.
About this time she became deeply interested — too
deeply for her own peace — in Buzot, a young Girondist
of noble character and handsome person, to whom she
alludes in this passage of her "Memoires:" "I honour
and cherish my husband as a sensible girl loves a vir
tuous father, to whom she would sacrifice even her
lover ; but I have found a man who might be this lover ;
and, remaining faithful to my duties, my ingenuity has
failed to conceal the feelings or passion which for the
sake of duty I subdued." She adds that her husband
became jealous, and they were both unhappy.
M. Roland, having been proscribed by the Jacobins,
retired to the country in May, 1793; but his wife pre
ferred to remain in Paris, and was committed to prison
about the ist of June. She seems to have considered
the prison as an asylum from the suspicion of a jealous
husband, and her imprisonment as a relief from the
struggle of passion against duty. In a letter to Buzot
she says, " I owe to my persecutors the possibility of
combining love and duty. Ah ! do not pity me ! Others
may admire my courage, — you alone can appreciate my
joy." She improved her time in prison by writing her
" Memoires," which are enlivened by many anecdotes
and portraits of eminent persons. Her style is admi
rable and graceful in the highest degree. " I never
heard any woman," said Count Beugnot, " speak with
so much accuracy and elegance." In the passage from
the prison to the scaffold she had a full view of the
house in which she had spent many happy years in
youth. There was the window from which she had often
gazed on the sun setting behind the distant hills. Her
last words, according to a popular statement, were, " O
Liberty ! what crimes are committed in thy name !" She
was beheaded on the gth of November, 1793. She left
one child, Euclora, born in 1781.
" According to our modern notions," says the " Edin-
buigh Review" for April, 1865, " she was neither gentle,
nor pious, nor delicate, nor even virtuous. . . . Hut,
viewed by that strange light of her own times, she stands
out in noble and lofty pre-eminence. Of her greatness,
if heroism is greatness, there can be no doubt."
See C. A. DAUBAN, " E"tude sur Madame Roland et son Temps,
suivie des Lettres de Madame Roland a Buzot," 1864 ; " Memoires
de Madame Roland ecrites dnraut sa Captivite"," nouvelle Edition,
revue et completee par M. P. FAUC;ERE, 1864; LOUISE COLKT,
" Charlotte Corday et Madame Roland," 1842; " Memoires de Ma
dame Roland," edition entierement confonne au mannscrit auto-
graphe, etc., publie'e avec des notes par C. A. DAUBAN, 1864;
SAI MTE-BEUVE, " Portraits ;" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1865 :
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Memoires de Madame Roland,"
by MM. BERVII.I.K and BARRIERS ; "Appeal to Impartial Posterity,"
etc., by MADAME ROLAND; "Lives of the Most Eminent French
Writers," by MRS. SHELLEY.
Roland, (PHILIPPE LAURENT,) an able French sculp
tor, born at Marcq-en-Barceul (Nord) in 1746. He was
a member of the Institute of Paris, and was commissioned
by the government to make statues of Homer, Solon, and
Malesherbes. Died in Paris in 1816.
Roland d'Erceville. See HOLLAND.
Roland de la Platiere, ro'l&N' deh It plt'te-aiR',
(JEAN MARIE,) a French Girondist minister of stateTwas
born near Villefranche (Beaujolais) in 1734. He was
inspector-general of manufactures before the Revolution.
His house in Paris was the head-quarters of the party
of the Gironde in 1791-92. He became minister of the
interior in March, 1792, but was dismissed from office in
June of the same year, in consequence of a famous letter
addressed to the king. This letter was composed by
his wife. (See ROLAND, MADAME, noticed above.) He
again acted as minister of the interior from August 10,
1792, to January 23, 1793, when he resigned, having
vainly striven against the reign of anarchy and violence.
He retired to Rouen in May, and, on hearing of the
death of his wife, committed suicide, in November, 1793.
See MADAME ROLAND, "Memoires;" LAMARTINE, "History
of the Girondists;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Rolander, ro-lan'der, (DANIEL,) a Swedish natural
ist, born in Smiland, explored the botany and /.oology
of Surinam in 1755, and returned home in 1756. He died
soon after, before he could publish his manuscripts.
Rolandino, ro-lan-dee'no, an Italian chronicler, born
at Padua about 1200. He wrote a Latin chronicle of
events which occurred from 1200 to 1260. Died in 1276.
Rolando, ro-lan'do, (LuiGl,) an eminent Italian anat
omist, born at Turin in 1773, became professor of anatomy
in the university of that city about 1814, and wrote
several able works, etc. Died in 1831.
See CARLO BEI.I.INGERI, " Elogio storico del Professore L. Ro
lando;" "Biographie Universelle."
Roldan, rol-dan', (PEDRO,) a Spanish sculptor, born
at Seville in 1624, worked at Rome, Madrid, and Seville,
where he died in 1700.
Rolewinck, ro'leh-wink', (WERNER,) a German
monk, born in 1425, wrote a popular history of the world,
called " Fasciculus Temporum," (1474.) Died in 1502.
Rolfe, (R. MONSEY.) See CKANWORTH, LORD.
Rolfink, rol'fink, (WERNER,) a German medical
writer, born at Hamburg in 1599; died at Jena in 1673.
Roll or Roell, rol, (HERMANN ALEXANDER,) a Ger
man Protestant divine, born at Doelberg in 1653. He
was professor of theology at Utrecht, (1704-18,) and
wrote several commentaries on Scripture. Died in 1718.
Rolland (or Roland) d'Erceville, ro'ldN'clcuss'vel',
(BARTHELEMI GAHRIEI.,) a French writer and judge,
born in 1734, was an adversary of the Jesuits. He was
executed by the terrorists in 1794.
Rolle, rol, ? (DENIS,) M.P., an opulent Englishman,
born in Devonshire in 1725. He purchased a large tract
in Florida, and there planted a colony, (about 1766,)
which was soon abandoned. Died in England in 1797.
Rolle, (HENRY,) an English judge, born in Devon
shire in 1589. He compiled a digest, which was published
with the title of "Rolle's Abridgment." In 1648 he was
appointed chief justice of the king's bench by the Parlia
ment, which he had supported in the civil war. He re
fused to preside at the trial of Charles I. Died in 1656.
" He was," says Sir Matthew Hale, "a person of great
learning in the common law, profound judgment, great
moderation, justice, and integrity." (Preface to " Rolle's
Abridgment.")
See LORD CAMPBELL, "Lives of the Chief Justices," vol. i. ;
Foss, "The Judges of England."
Rolle, rol'leh, (JoiiANN HEINRICH,) a German com
poser of church music, born at Quedlinburg in 1718.
He succeeded his father as director of music at Mag
deburg in 1752. Among his principal works are the
oratorios of the " Death of Abel" and " Abraham on
Mount Moriah." Died in 1785.
Rolle, (JoiiN,) LORD, an English Tory politician, born
in Devonshire in 1751. He was raised to the peerage
in 1796. He is said to have used a large fortune liberally,
and to have been the subject of" The Rolliad," a political
satire, written by several Whigs. Died in 1842.
Rolle, rol, (MiciiEL,) a French mathematician, born
at Ambert in 1652 ; died in Paris in 1749. " He ren
dered," says Fontenelle, "great service to science."
Rolle, (PIERRE NICOLAS,) a French writer, born at
Chatillon-sur-Seine in 1770, was author of" Researches
into the Worship of Bacchus," (3 vols., 1824.) Died in
1855. His son, JACQUES HIPPOLYTE, born at Dijon in
1804, became an able journalist of Paris.
Rollenhagen, rol'len-ha'gen, ( GEORG, ) a German
fabulist and didactic poet, born at Bernau in 1542; died
in 1609.
Rolli, rol'lee, (PAOLO ANTONIO,) an Italian poet, born
in 1687. He went to England about 1725, and taught
Italian to the princesses of the royal family. He trans
lated "Paradise Lost" into Italian verse, (1729,) and
wrote some original poems, which were popular. Died
in Italy in 1767.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
ROLLIN
ROMBERG
Rollin, rol'lin or ro'laN', ( CHARLES,) an eminent
French historian and professor of belles-lettres, was
born in Paris in January, 1661. He became professor
of rhetoric at the College du Plessis in 1687, and ob
tained the chair of eloquence at the College cle France
in 1688. He was rector of the University about two
years, (1694-96.) He revived the study of Greek, and
made reforms in the system of education. In 1726 he
published a good work on the Study of Belles-Lettres,
("Traite de la Maniere d'etudier et d'enseigner les
Kelles-Lettres.") He also wrote a " History of Rome,'
O7j8,) and an " Ancient History," ("Histoire ancienne,"
12 vols., 1730-38,) which enjoyed much popularity, es
pecially with the young. It has been translated into
English. According to Voltaire, Rollin was one of the
first French authors who wrote a good style in prose.
His character was amiable and virtuous. Died in 1741.
See GUENKAI; DE Mussv, "Vie de Roliin ;" TROGNON, " Eloge
de Roliin," 1818; SAINTE-BEUVE, "Causeriesdu Lmidi,!' tome vi. ;
BOUSSDN DE MAIRET, " Essai sur la Vie de Rollin;" NICERONJ
" Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Rollin, (Ledru.) See LKDRU-ROLLIN.
Rol'lo, Rou, roo, or Hrolf, [Fr. ROLI.ON, ro'16N',
and RAOUL, ri'ool',] first Duke of Normandy, born
about 860 A.D. He was originally a Norwegian viking or
pirate, and was noted for strength and martial prowess.
In the reign of Charles the Bald he ascended the Seine
and took Rouen, which he kept as a base of operations.
He gained a number of victories over the Franks, and
extorted from Charles III. in 912 the cession of the
province since called Normandy. By the famous treaty
which Charles and Rollo signed at this time the latter
agreed to adopt the Christian religion. Died about 930.
See LE CAXUT, " Raoul I, Due de Normandie," 2 vols., 1781;
ORDERICUS VITALIS, " Historia."
Rol'lock, (ROBERT,) a Scottish divine and scholar,
born near Stirling in 1555. He was the first principal
of the University of Edinburgh, founded about 1582.
He wrote commentaries on Scripture. Died in 1598.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Rollon. See ROLLO.
Rolph, (JoHN A.,) an English artist and engraver
cf landscapes, born in Essex in 1798. He emigrated
to the United States in 1833, and worked in New York
City._ Died in Brooklyn in 1862.
Rolt, (RICHARD,) an English writer of history, biog-
rsphy, etc., was born in 1724 or 1725. Among his
w^rks is a " History of the General \Var" which ended
in 1748, 4 vols., and "Cambria," a poem, (1749.) Died
in 1770.
Romagnosi, ro-min-yo'see, (GIOVANNI DOMENICO,)
an eminent Italian jurist and publicist, born near Pia-
cerza in 1761. He published in 1791 an able work on
petal legislation, "Genesis of Penal Law," ("Genesi
delDiritto penale.") About 1806 he and other jurists
forned a new Italian criminal code at Milan. He wrote
nurrerous legal works, and lectured on law at Milan for
many years. Died in 1835.
Se CANTII, " Notizia di G. D. Romagnosi," 1835; FERRARI,
"Viudi Romagnosi," 1835; G. SACCHI, " Biografia di G. D. Ro-
magncsi," 1835; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Remain. See ROMANUS.
Remain, n/max', (ADRIAN,) a Flemish geometer
and physician, born at Louvain in 1561. He wrote on
geometry, etc. Died at Mentz in 1615.
Remain, (JULES,) the French name of GIULIO RO
MANO.
Remain de Hooghe. See HOOGE.
Romaine, ro-man', (\VILLTAM,) an eminent English
Calviniiic theologian of the Anglican Church, born at
Hart!ep)ol in 1714. He became a popular preacher in
London,married a Miss Price in 1755, and was appointed
rector ofBlackfriars' in 1764. He preached at this place
about thrty years. Among his most popular works are
"The \\fclk of Faith, "(1771,) and "The Triumph of
Faith," (£795.) Died in 1795.
See W. V CAOOGAN-, "Life of W. Romaine," 1796; THOMAS
HAWIES, " life of the Rev. W. Romaine," 1797.
Roman ro'moN', (JEAN BAPTISTS Louis,) a French
statuary, btrn in Paris in 1792, gained the grand prize
in 1816. Lied in 1835.
Roman, ro'man, (JoHAN HELMICH,) a Swedish mu
sician and composer, born at Stockholm in 1694 ; died
in 1758.
Romana, de la, da la ro-ma'na, (Don PEDRO Caro
y Sureda — ka'ro e soo-ra'i>a,) MARQUIS, a Spanish
general, born in Majorca in 1761. He served with dis
tinction in the war against the French, (1793-95 and
1809-10.) DiediniSn.
Romanelli, ro-ma-nel'lee, (DOMENICO,) an Italian
antiquary, born in the Abruzzi in 1756; died in 1819.
Romanelli, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) an eminent
painter of the Roman school, born at Viterbo in 1617,
was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. He was employed
at Paris by Louis XIV. and Cardinal Mazarin. He
also adorned several churches of Rome with his works.
Died in 1663. His son URBANO, born in 1652, was a
painter. Died in 1682.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Romanet, ro'mS'ni', (ANTOINE Louis,) a French
line-engraver, born in Paris in 1748. He engraved
successfully some works of Raphael and Titian. Died
in 1807.
Romani. See ROMANINO, (GIROLAMO.)
Romanino, ro-ma-nee'no, (GIORGIO,) an able Italian
painter, born at Rome about 1500. He was invited to
France, and painted some frescos in the Louvre. His
design and colour are highly praised.
Romanino or Romani, ro-ma'nee, (GIROLAMO,) an
Italian painter, born at Brescia about 1490, imitated
Titian, and was a good colorist. He painted some
frescos in the Louvre, Paris. Died about 1560.
Romano. See GIULIO ROMANO.
Romano, da, da ro-ma'no, (EZZELINO, e"t-sa-lee'no,
or ECCELINO, £t-cha-lee'no,) an able commander and a
famous Ghibeline leader, remarkable for his reckless
courage and for his cruelty, was born in 1194. As an
ally or partisan of the emperor Frederick II., he fought
against the Marquis d'Este, and captured Padua in 1237.
He was excommunicated by the pope about 1252, and a
league was formed against him by several cities and
princes of Lombardy. He died, or was killed in battle,
in 1259.
Romanof, Romanov, or Romanow, ro-mi'nof,
(MICHAEL FEODOROVITCH,) the founder of the reigning
dynasty of Russia, was a son of the Metropolitan of
Rostof. He was elected Czar or emperor in 1613, when
he was only fifteen or sixteen years old. He made peace
with the Swedes by the cession of Ingria and Karelia,
and afterwards waged against the Poles a defensive war,
which ended in 1619. He promoted the civilization of
his subjects, and made reforms in the laws. He died in
1645, and was succeeded by his son Alexis.
See WICHMANN, " Urkunde iiber die Wahl Michael Romanows,"
etc., 1819.
Ro-ma'nus I., Emperor of the East, called LECA-
PENUS, [Fr. ROMAIN LECAVENE, ro'maN*' la'ki'pin',]
was a native of Armenia, and father-in-law of Constan-
tine VII., who made Romanus his colleague in the
empire in 919. Died in 948.
Romanus II., a grandson of the preceding, and son
of Constantine VII., was born in 939. He poisoned his
father and obtained the throne in 959. Died in 963.
Romanus III., Argy'rus, f Fr. ROMAIN ARGYRE, ro'
maN' tR'zheR',] was born about 968. He married Zoe,
a daughter of Constantine IX., whom he succeeded in
1028. He was poisoned by Zoe, his wife, in 1034.
Romanus IV., Diogenes, obtained the throne by
marriage with Eudocia, the widow of Constantine Ducas,
in 1067 or 1068. He gained several victories over the
Turks in Asia Minor, but was defeated by Alp Arslan
in Armenia. He was deposed by Michael VII., by
whose order he was put to death about 1072.
See LE BKAU, "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" GIBBON, "Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Romanus, (^EGIDIUS.) See COLONNA, (EGIDIO.)
Ro-ma'nus, [Fr. ROMAIN, ro'maN',] POPE, born near
Civita Castellana, in Italy. He was elected pope in
September, 897 A.D. Died in 898.
Romanzof. See RIOOMANTSOF.
Romberg, rom'be'RG, (ANDREAS,) a German violinist
and composer, born in 1767, became director of music
€ as k; c as f g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23. )
ROME ERG
1914
ROM NET
at Gotha in 1815. He produced several sacred pieces
and operas, and set to music Schiller's "Song of the
Bell" and other poems. Died in 1821.
Romberg, (BKRNHARD,) a cousin of Andreas, born
at Bonn in 1770, was celebrated for his performance on
the violoncello. He was appointed professor at the
Conservatory of Music in Paris in 1801. Died in 1841.
Rombout, rom'bowt, (].,) a Dutch landscape-painter,
lived about 1670.
Rombouts, rom'bowts, (THEODORE,) an excellent
Flemish painter of history, born at Antwerp in 1597,
was a pupil of A. Janssens. He worked in Rome and
Florence, from which he returned to Antwerp in 1625.
Among his works are "The Sacrifice of Abraham,"
"The Oath of Hannibal," and a "Descent from the
Cross." Died in 1637.
See DESCAMHS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Rome de Lisle, (or de 1'Isle,) ro'ma' deh lei', QF.AN
BAITISTE Louis,) a French mineralogist, bom at Grai
in 1736. He visited India and China, and returned to
France in 1764. He wrote a work on " Crystallography,"
(4 vols., 1783,) and "Metrologie," (1789.) Died in 1790.
" He first ascertained the important fact of the constancy
of the angles at which the faces of crystals meet, and,
observing further that many of them appear in several
different shapes, first conceived the idea that these
shapes might be reducible to one, appropriated in a
peculiar manner to each substance and modified by strict
geometrical laws." (Sir John V. W. llerschel, "Dis
course on the Study of Natural Philosophy.")
See LA METIIERIE, " filoge de Rome^ de Lisle," 1790; " Bio
graphic Universelle."
Romegas, ro'ina'gts', (MATHURIN n'Aux-LEscotrr,
mit'tu'ra.N' do'Ies'koo',) a brave French knight of the
order of Malta, which he joined in 1547. He distin
guished himself in battle against the pirates and the
Turks. He was appointed commander of the galleys,
and lieutenant-general. Died in 1581.
Romer or Roemer, ro'mer, (Oi.AK or OLAUS,) a
Danish astronomer, born at Aarhuus on the 251)1 of
September, 1644. lie went to Paris in 1672, and aided
Picard, who procured for him the office of tutor to the
dauphin. In 1675 he made (at Paris) the important
discovery of the velocity of light by observations of the
eclipses of Jupiter's satellites. He became professor of
mathematics in the University of Copenhagen in 1681.
He first applied the epicycloidal curve in the formation
of the teeth of wheels. Romer held several high civil
offices. Died in 1710.
See a notice of Romer prefixed by HORREBOW to Romer's
"Basis Astronomix," 1735; NYERUP, " Litteraturlexicon ;" DE-
I.AMBRE, "Histoire de 1'Astronomie moderne;" " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Romer or Roemer, von, fon ro'mer, (FRIKDRICH,)
a German statesman, born in the Wiirtemberg Alps in
1795. He was appointed minister of justice for Wiir-
temberg in 1848, and resigned office in October, 1849.
Died in 1861.
Romey, ro'mi', (CHARLES OCTAVE,) a French his
torian, born in Paris in 1804. He produced, besides
other works, a "History of Spain," 10 vols., (1838-48.)
Romeyn, ro'mln, (THEODORIC D.,) an influential
minister of the Dutch Reformed Church, was born at
New Barbadoes, New Jersey, in 1744. He preached
many years at Schenectady, New York, to which he
removed in 1784. He is said to have been the principal
founder of Union College, Schenectady. Died in 1804.
Romieu, de, deh ro'me-uh', (MARIE,) a French poet
ess and prose writer, lived at Viviers. Died after 1584.
Romiguieres, ro'me'ge-aiR', (JEAN DOMINIQUE JO
SEPH Louis,) a French advocate, born at Toulouse in
1775, was a constant adherent of the liberal party. Died
in Paris in 1847.
Romilly, ro'me'ye', QEAN EDME, ) a Swiss Protest
ant minister, born at Geneva in 1739, was a friend of
Rousseau. Died in 1779. His father, JEAN, born in
1714, was a skilful watchmaker. Died in Paris in 1796.
Rom'il-ly, (JOHN,) BARON, an English lawyer, a son
of Sir Samuel Romilly, was born in London in 1802.
He was elected to Parliament as a Liberal in 1832, was
appointed solicitor-general in 1848, and attorney-general
in 1850. In 1851 he became master of the rolls, and was
raised to the peerage, as Baron Romilly, in 1866.
See Foss, " The Judges of England," vol. ix.
Romilly, (Sir SAMUEL,) a celebrated English lawyer
and statesman, born in London on the ist of March,
1757. He was a son of Peter Romilly, a jeweller, whose
father was a French Protestant exiled for his religion.
His education at school was defective, but he studied
Latin after he was fifteen years of age, and became a
good self-taught scholar. He entered himself at Gray's
Inn as a student of law in 1778, and was called to the bar
in 1783. In 1784 he became acquainted with the famous
Mirabeau, who introduced him to a Mr. Vaughan. By the
favour of the latter, Romilly made the acquaintance of
Lord Lansdowne, in whom he found a friend and patron,
lie obtained an extensive practice in the court of chan
cery. In politics he was a Whig and advanced liberal.
In 1806 he was elected to Parliament and appointed
solicitor-general. He acquired great reputation by his
eloquent speech against the slave-trade. In 1807 he was
removed from office in consequence of the dissolution
of the Whig ministry. He afterwards directed his efforts
to the reform of the penal code, which at that period was
very severe. Nearly three hundred crimes of various
grades were punishable by death. He procured the pas
sage of a bill, about 1809, to repeal the statute which
made stealing from the person a capital crime. In this
enterprise he encountered strong opposition from igno
rance, prejudice, and party spirit. He made an unsuc
cessful effort in 1810 to repeal the statute which punished
with death the crime of stealing from a shop goods valued
at five shillings. He opposed in an eloquent speech the
declaration of war against Napoleon on his return from
Elba in 1815. He was a zealous advocate of Roman
Catholic Emancipation. In his profession he is said to
have been more successful and more distinguished than
any other Englishman of his time. Although his style
was remarkable for plainness and simplicity, the im-
pressiveness of his speeches was, we are told, almost
unparalleled. In 1818 he was returned, at the head of
the poll, by the voters of Westminster. His wife died in
October, 1818. In a fit of delirium or insanity, he put
an end to his own life in November, 1818. He was
author of " Observations on the Criminal Law of Eng
land," (1810.)
See "The Life of Sir Samuel Romilly, written by himself," edit.-d
by his sons, 3 vols., 1840; BENJAMIN CONSTANT, " Eioge de Sir
Samuel Romilly," 1819; ROSCOE, " Lives of Eminent British Law
yers ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Edinburgh Reviev"
for February, 1X12; " Westminster Review" for June, 1840; " Lin
den Quarterly Review" for September, 1840.
Romme, rom, (CHARLES,) a French geometer, burn
at Riom about 1744. He wrote several useful works on
navigation, etc. Died in 1805.
Romme, (GILHERT,) a brother of the preceding, torn
at Riom in 1750, was a Jacobin and an active meirber
of the Convention. Having been condemned to d;ath
by the Thermidoriens, he killed himself in 1795.
Rommel, rom'mel, (DIETRICH CHRISTOPH,) a Ger
man historian, born at Cassel in 1781, became in 1815
professor of history at Marburg. He wrote a " History
of Hesse since the Peace of Westphalia," (1853.) Died
in 1859.
Rom'iiey, (GEORGE,) an eminent English his.orical
and portrait painter, was born at Dalton, in Lancishire,
in December, 1734. In his youth he worked in tie shop
of his father, a cabinet-maker. He married Mcry Ab
bot in 1756. After he had studied and practised paint
ing at Kendal for five years, he settled in Londonin 1762,
but left his wife and children in the country, wlrre they
remained neglected while he was prosperous anr famous.
He obtained rapid success in his profession, am became
the rival of Reynolds. He passed about tvo years
(1773-75) in visits to several cities of Italy. At Rome
he painted a " Wood Nymph," which was g eatly ad
mired. He gradually raised his price for a jortrait to
thirty-five guineas for a head and sixty guiieas for a
whole-length. Among his works are "MilDn and his
Daughters," "Nature unveiling herself to Slakspeare,"
and portraits of Cowper the poet, Warrei Hastings,
Lord Chatham, and William Pitt. About 798 he was
compelled to desist from work by ill health ind nervous
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; notjgood; moon;
ROM NET
1915
ROOMOFSKI
dejection. He removed in 179910 Kenclal, where he
was nursed by his patient and forgiving wife until he
died, in November, 1802.
See HAYI.EY, "Life of G. Romney," 1809; J. ROMNF.Y, (his
son,) "Memoirs of the Life and Works of G. Romney," 1830;
ALLAN CUNNINGHAM, "Lives of British Painters;" "London
Quarterly Review" for November, 1809.
Romiiey, (HENRY SIDNEY,) EARL OF. See SIDNEY.
Rom'u-lus, called also Qui-ri'iius, the founder of
Rome, a semi-fabulous personage, supposed to have
lived about 750 B.C. According to tradition, Romulus
and Remus were the twin sons of Mars and Rhea Silvia,
who was a daughter of Numitor, King of Alba. Amu-
lius dethroned Numitor and ordered the young twins to
be exposed to destruction ; but they were stickled by a
wolf and educated by Faustulus, a shepherd of the king.
After they were grown up and informed of the secret of
their birth, they killed Amulius, restored Numitor, and
founded the city of Rome. Remus was punished with
death by Romulus for jumping, in derision, over the wall
of the new city, and Romulus became the first and sole
king of Rome, the population of which was increased
by exiles, outlaws, and fugitive slaves invited from ad
jacent states. The deficiency of wives was remedied
by the abduction of Sabine maidens who assembled at
Rome as spectators of a public festival. The Sabines
waged war against Rome on this account, but peace was
restored by the mediation of the Sabine wives, and the
Romans and Sabines were united into one state, which
Romulus and the Sabine Tatius ruled jointly. Romulus
reigned about thirty-seven years, and, after death, was
worshipped under the n.ime of Quirinus. According
to tradition, he disappeared mysteriously during a thun
der-storm which occurred as he was reviewing his army
in the Campus Martius, and the opinion prevailed that
he was carried up to heaven.
See XIEBUHR, " History of Rome ;" T ANNEGUY-LKFEVRK,
" Discours sur Romulus," 1666; PLUTARCH, "Life of Romulus;"
J. GKONOVIUS, " Oratio de Origine Roniuli," 16^4.
Romulus Augustulus. See AUGUSTULUS.
Roncaglia, ron-kai'ya, (CONSTANTINO,) an Italian
writer on theology, etc., born at Lucca in 1677; died
in 1737.
Roncalli, ron-kal'lee, ( CRISTOFORO,) called POME-
RANCIO or POMARANCIO, an excellent painter of the
Florentine school, born at Pomerance in 1552, was a
pupil of N. Circignani. He worked at Rome, Genoa,
etc., and painted the cupola of the church of Loretto.
Died at Rome in 1626.
Rondaiii, ron-da'nee, (FRANCESCO MARIA,) an Ital
ian painter, born at Parma about 1490, was a pupil of
Correggio. Died about 1548.
Rondel, du, dii roN'del', (JACQUES,) a French phi
losopher, born about 1630, was professor of Greek at
Sedan from 1664 to 1681. He published a "Life of
Epicurus," (1679,) and other works. Bayle, who was
his friend, calls him (under the article "Epicurus") a
good poet and a good Greek scholar. Died at Maastricht
in 1715.
See HAAG, "La France protestante."
Rondelet, roxd'li' or r6N'deh-li', (GLMLLAUME,) a
French naturalist, born at Montpellier in 1507. He
practised medicine and lectured in that city. He pub
lished a treatise " On Sea-Fish," (" De Piscibus marinis,"
1554,) and several medical works. Died in 1566.
See NICERON, " Memoires ;" SAINTE-MARTHE, "E~loges;"
"Biographie Medicale."
Rondelet, (JEAN,) a French architect, born in Lyons
in 1734, or, as some say, in 1743. He was a pupil of
Soufrlot, and became in 1781 his successor as architect
of the Pantheon, or church of Sainte-Genevieve, at Paris.
He built the dome of this edifice. He published an
important treatise on architecture, " Traite de 1'Art de
Batir," (5 vols., 1802-17,) which is called a classical
work. Died in Paris in 1829.
See VAUDOYER, "Discours sur la Tombe de J. Rondelet," 1829.
Rondet, ron'di', (LAURENT ETIENNK.) a French
writer on religion and morality, born in Paris in 1717;
died in 1785.
Rondot, r6NT/do', (NATALIS,) a French economist and
editor, born at Saint-Quentin in 1821.
Roiige, rong'eh, (JOHANNES,) a celebrated reformer
among the Catholics, born in Silesia in 1813. He was
ordained a Catholic priest in 1840; but he was soon
after suspended for his heretical opinions, and in 1844
published a letter denouncing the exhibition of the
"holy coat," which Arnold!, Bishop of Treves, had just
proclaimed. Although excommunicated by the chapter
of Breslau, Rouge rapidly gained adherents, and in
1845 a German Catholic Church, independent of that of
Rome, was founded. In the revolution of 1848 he took
refuge in England, and many of the new societies were
suppressed.
See " Vindication of J. Ronge," translated from the German by
ROBERT TAYLOR, 1845; EDUAKO DULLER, " J. Ronge und die freie
Kirche," 1849; " Autobiography of J. Ronge," translated from the
German by JOHN LORD, London, 1846; "Westminster Review" lor
December, 1845, (article "German Theology.")
Ronne or Roenne, von, ton ron'neh, (LunwiG
MORITZ PETER,) a German jurist, born in Ilolstein in
1804. He became about 1843 a Juclge or councillor in
Berlin. Among his important works is "The Political
Law of the Prussian Monarchy," (ist vol., 1850.)
See " Jahrbuch zum Conversations- Lexikon," 1857.
Ronsard, de, deli ro.N'stR', (PIERRE,) an eminent
French poet, born in the Vendomois in 1524. He learned
to speak English, German, and Italian, and was instructed
in Greek by Dorat and Turnebe. He wrote odes, epi
grams, hymns, eclogues, etc., and was considered the
most popular poet of his time. Malherbe and Boi-
leau, however, did not appreciate him highly. Ronsard
conceived the idea of grouping seven French poets,
including himself, into a constellation called the Pleiade.
The other six were his imitators. Died in 1585.
See CLAUDE BINET, "Vie de Ronsard," 1586; GUILI.AUME COL-
I.ETET, "Vie de Ronsard," prefixed to an edition of his works, 1854;
LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" E. GANDAR, "Ron
sard considere coinme Imitateur d'Homere et de Pindare," 1854;
" Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 33ajy}e.,ZJi<£t?">UL*-y f .-74^ .»£
Ronsin, r6.N/saN', (CHARLES PHILIPPE,) a French
Jacobin and dramatist, born at Soissons in 1752. He
became a general in 1793, and was one of the most
violent agents of his party. He was executed with
Hebert in 1794.
Ron'tho, (MATTHEW,) a monk and Latin poet, born
in Greece, translated Dante's " Divina Commedia" into
Latin verse. Died at Sienna in 1443.
Roodtseus, rot'se-iis, (JAN ALBERT,) a Dutch portrait-
painter, born at Hoorn in 1615 or 1617; died in 1674.
Rooke, rook, (Sir GEORGE,) an English admiral, born
near Canterbury in 1650. He obtained the rank of
post-captain about 1680, and that of vice-admiral of the
blue in 1692. In this year he burnt ten or more French
ships at La Hogue. He was appointed "vice-admiral
and lieutenant of the admiralty" by Queen Anne in 1702.
Sir George Rooke and Sir Clouclesley Shovel captured
Gibraltar in July, 1704. He commanded the combined
English and Dutch fleets in the war of the Spanish
succession, which began about 1702. Died in 1709.
See CAMPBELL, "Lives of British Admirals;" " Biographia Bri-
tannica."
Rooke, (LAWRENCE,) an English mathematician and
astronomer, born at Deptford in 1623, was one of the
original Fellows of the Royal Society. He became
professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London, in
1652. Died in 1662.
Roo'ker, (MICHAEL ANGELO,) an English landscape-
painter and engraver, born in London in 1743, was a
son of Edward Rooker, an engraver. Died in 1801.
Rook'wood, (AMHROSK,) an accomplice in the Gun
powder Plot, was the head of an old and wealthy English
family. He was induced by his friendship for Caiesby
and by his sectarian zeal to take part in that conspiracy.
He was put to death in 1606, aged about twenty-eight.
Roonie, room, (EDWARD,) an English lawyer and
satirist. He offended Pope by a satire entitled "Pas-
quin," and wrote " The Jovial Crew," a drama. Died
in 1729.
Roomofski, Roumovsky, or Rumowsky, roo-
mof'skee, (STEPHEN,) a Russian astronomer, born in
Vladimir in 1734. lie became professor of astronomy
at Saint Petersburg in 1763, and vice-president of the
Academy of Sciences in 1800. He published several
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
See Explanations, p.
ROON
1916
ROSA
mathematical works, and translated the " Annals" of
Tacitus into Russian, (1808.) Died about 1814.
Rooii, von, fon ron, (ALBRECHT THKODOR EMU.,) a
Prussian general and writer, born at Kolberg about 1803.
He became a major-general in 1856, and minister of war
in 1859. He rendered important services by the re
organization of the army. The Prussian Chambers in
1866 voted 1,500,000 thalers as a national recompense to
six men, among whom was Von Roon. He has published
several valuable treatises on geography and ethnology.
Roorda van Eysinga, roR'cla vSn I'sing-a, (PIETKR
THEODORE,) a Dutch Orientalist, born at Leeuwarden
about 1790. He published, besides other works, a Dutch-
Javanese Dictionary, (1855.) Died in 1860.
Roore, de, deh ro'reh, (jACOi;,) a Flemish painter,
born at Antwerp in 1686, was a pupil of Van Opstal.
Among his works are "The Capitol besieged by Bren-
nus," and "The History of Pandora." Died in 1747.
Roos, ros, (JoHANN HEINRICH,) a celebrated German
painter of landscapes and animals, and a skilful engraver,
born at Otterndorf in 1631. Both his prints and paintings
command high prices. Died at Frankfort in 1685.
Roos, (JoHANN MELCHIOR,) a painter of landscapes
and animals, born at Frankfort in 1659, was a son of the
preceding. He was not equal to his brother Philip Peter.
Died in 1731.
Roos, (PHILIP PETER,) surnamed ROSA DA TIVOLI, a
skilful painter of animals and landscapes, born at Frank
fort about 1655, was a son of Johann Heinrich, noticed
above. He worked many years at Tivoli : hence his sur
name. He painted with great facility. His touch is said
to be broad and mellow. Among his works are many
pastoral landscapes. His backgrounds and skies are
admirable for fidelity to nature. Died at Rome in 1705.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy ;" " Biographic Univer-
selle."
Roos, (THEODOR,) a German painter, born at Wesel
in 1638, was a brother of [ohann Heinrich, noticed above.
He painted portraits and landscapes. Died in 1698.
Roose. See LIEMAECKEK, (NIKOLAAS.)
Roose, ro'zeh, (THEODOR GEORG AUGUST,) a Ger
man medical writer, born at Brunswick in 1771. He
published "Principles of Legal Medicine," (1802,) and
other works. Died in 1803.
Roostam, Roostem, Roostum, Rustem, or Rus-
tam, roos'tem, written also Roustem, Roustam, and
Rostam, the most illustrious of Persian heroes, is sup
posed to have lived about 600 years B.C. He was the
son of the celebrated warrior Zal or Zalzer and an Indian
princess named Ruclaba. The exploits of Roostam form
the favourite theme of the Persian poets and romance-
writers ; and it is difficult to determine what is historical
and what is fiction in the accounts of him which have
come down to us. Sir William Jones says, " Rostam
was certainly a commander under Cyrus, [the Great.]"
Roostam forms the most prominent figure in Firdousee's
great epic, the "Shah Nameh," or "Book of Kings."
See "A Short History of Persia" in volume v. of SIR W. JONES'S
Works ; J. ATKINSON, " Abridgment oftheSliah Namehof Firdausi,"
London, 1832; "Memoirs of Celebrated Characters," by LAMAR-
TINE, 1856.
Roostam- (Roustam- or Rustam-) Pasha, roos'-
tam pa'sha', an able and unscrupulous Turkish minister
of ^.ate, became grand vizier under Solyman the Mag
nificent, who reigned from 1520 to 1566.
Root, (ERASTUS,) an American politician, born at
Hebron, Connecticut, in 1772. He removed to Delhi,
New York, about 1796, and was elected a member of
Congress four times between 1802 and 1817. He was a
political friend of De Witt Clinton. Died in 1846.
Ro'per, (WILLIAM,) an English biographer, married
in 1528 Margaret, a daughter of Sir Thomas More, a
learned and accomplished lady. He wrote a "Life of
Sir Thomas More," which is commended.
Roque, de la, deh It rok, (ANTOINE,) a French lit
terateur, born at Marseilles in 1672, edited the "Mercure
de France" from 1721 until 1744. Died in 1744.
Roque, de la, (GiLLES ANDRE,) a French genealogist,
born near Caen about 1598. Among his works is a
valuable "Treatise on the Nobility," ("Traite de la
Noblesse," 1678.) Died in 1686.
Roque, de la, (JEAN,) a French traveller, born at
Marseilles in 1661, was a brother of Antoine, noticed
above. He published several books of travels in Arabia,
Palestine, and Syria, (1716, 1717, 1722.) Died in 1745.
Roquefort, de, deh rok'foii', QEAN BAPTISTE BON A-
VENTURE,) a French philologist and antiquary, born at
Mons in 1777. He published an "Etymological Dic
tionary of the French Language," (1829.) Died in 1834.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Roquelaure, de, deh rok'loR', (ANTOINE,) BARON,
a French marshal, born in 1544, was a constant adherent
of Henry IV. He was in the carriage with that king
when the latter was killed, (1610.) Died in 1625.
SeeMoRERi, "Dictionnaire Historique ;" L'EsroiLE, "Journal."
Roquelaure, de, (GASTON JEAN BAPTISTE,) Due, a
son of the preceding, was born in 1617. He served in
the army, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-generai.
He was noted for his facetious sayings. Died in 1683.
His son ANTOINE GASTON JEAN BAPTISTE, born in
1656, became marshal of France. Died in 1738.
Roqueplan, rok'plo.N', (CAMILLE JOSEPH ETIENNE,)
an eminent French painter of landscape;-: and genre, born
at Marlemort in 1802, was a pupil of Gros and Abel de
Pujol. He obtained a medal of the first class in 1828.
Many of his works are illustrative of Rousseau's "Con
fessions" and Sir Walter Scott's Novels. Died in 1855.
Roqueplan, (Louis VICTOR NESTOR,) a litterateur,
a brother of the preceding, was born at Marlemort in
1804. He became editon of the "Figaro" about 1827,
and was director of the Opera of Paris from 1847 to
1854. Died in 1870.
Roques, rok, (PiERRE,) a French Protestant writer,
born at La Caune in 1685. He became pastor of a church
at Bale in 1710, and published, besides other works, " The
Evangelical Pastor," (1723,) and anew edition of Moreri's
"Dictionary," (6 vols., 1731.) Died in 1748.
See FREV, "Vie de Pierre Roques," 1784.
Roquette, de, deh ro'keV, (GABRIEL,) a French
ecclesiastic, born at Toulouse in 1623, became Bishop
of Autun in 1666. He was notorious as the prototype
of Moliere's " Tartuffe." Died in 1707.
Rorario, ro-ra're-o, [Lat. RORA'RIUS,] (GIROLAMO,)
an Italian ecclesiastic and writer, born at Pordenone in
1485. He wrote a curious treatise " That Brutes often
reason better than Man," (" Quod Animalia bruta saepe
Ratione utantur melius Homine," 1648.) Died in 1556.
Rorarius. See RORARIO.
Rosa, ro'sa, (CRISTOFORO,) a painter of the Venetian
school, born at Brescia. He excelled in perspective,
and painted the architecture in some works of Titian.
Died in 1576.
Rosa, (PiETRO,) a son of the preceding, was a favour
ite pupil of Titian. He was a good colorist. He died
young, in 1576.
Rosa, (SALVATOR,) [Anglicized in pronunciation as
sal-vd'tor ro'za,] a famous Italian painter of history,
landscapes, and battles, was born at Arenella, near
Naples, on the 2Oth of June, 1615. He received lessons
in art from F. Francanzani, his brother-in-law, and was
a diligent student of nature. About 1635 he went to
Rome, where he worked and attained a high reputation.
In 1647 he took part in the revolt at Naples, and fought
for Masaniello. After the final defeat of the insurgents,
Salvator escaped to Florence, where he was patronized
by the grand duke. He was partial to wild, romantic,
and desolate scenery. His imagination was morbid,
gloomy, and extravagant. After he had worked at
Florence for several years, he returned to Rome, where
he exhibited some pictures in 1663. He produced at
Rome his "Conspiracy of Catiline," which is accounted
his master-piece. He made for himself enemies at
Rome by his poetical satires. Died in March, 1673.
" Salvator possessed real genius," says Ruskin, " but
was crushed by misery in his youth. ... In heart
disdainful, in temper adventurous, conscious of power,
impatient of labour, ... he fled to the Calabrian hills,
seeking not knowledge, but freedom. . . . He had not
the sacred sense, — the sense of colour : all the loveliest
hues of the Calabrian air were invisible to him. He
saw only what was gross and terrible. ... I see in him,
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat- m£t; n6t; good; moon:
ROSA
i9'7 ROSE
notwithstanding his baseness, the last traces of spiritual
'ife in the art of Europe."
See CANT<;, "Salvaior Rosa," 1844; LADY MORGAN, "Life of
Salvator Rosa," London, 2 vols., 1824, which is said to be a romance,
or romantic biography; LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;"
RUSKIN, "Modern Painters;" PASSERI, " Vite de' Pittori ;" Do-
MENICI, "Vite de' Pittori Napoletani ;" " N'ouvelle Biographic
Generate ;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1824.
Rosa da TivolL See Roos, (PHILIP PETER.)
Rosa, de la, (F. MARTINK/,.) See MARTINEZ.
Rosalba Carriera, ro-sii'ba kar-re-a'ra, a famous
Italian portrait-painter, often called simply ROSALHA, was
born at or near Venice about 1674. She is said to have
been the most excellent artist of her time in the use of
the crayon or pastel. Her Madonnas were much ad-
niiied. She visited Paris in 1720, and obtained there great
success. About 1746 she became blind. Died in 1757.
Rosamel, de, deli ro'st'ineT, (CLAUDE CHARLES
MARIE Ducampe — du'kS.Np',) a French admiral, born
at Trencq in 1774. He was minister of marine from
September, 1836, to March, 1839. Died in 1848.
Ros'a-mond, [Fr. KOSEMONDE, roz'moNd', or ROSA-
MONDE, ro'zi'md.Nd',] often called THE FAIR ROSAMOND,
was a daughter of Walter, Lord Clifford. She became a
favourite of Henry II. of England, and mother of two
Roscoe, (THOMAS,) an English author and translator,
a brother of the preceding, was born about 1790. He
produced several poems and tales, a "Tour in the Isle
of Wight," and other illustrated works. Among the
works translated by him are Sismondi's "Literature of
Southern Europe," and Silvio Pellico's "Memoirs."
Roscoe, (WILLIAM,) an eminent English historian
and poet, born at or near Liverpool on the 8th of March,
!753- He practised as an attorney in his early life, and
married Miss Griffiths in 1781. He wrote several pam
phlets against the slave-trade, and a poem on the same
subject. His reputation is chiefly founded on his " Life
of Lorenzo de' Medici, called the Magnificent," (2 vols.,
1796,) which was very successful and was translated into
French, German, and Italian. He retired from business
as an attorney about 1800, became partner in a banking-
house, and purchased an estate in land. In 1805 he pub
lished an interesting and popular work, "The Life and
Pontificate of Leo X." He became a Whig member of
Parliament (for Liverpool) in 1806. He was the prin
cipal founder of the Royal Institution of Liverpool.
In 1816 the banking-house with which he was connected
failed, and he was under the necessity of parting with
his magnificent library. He died in June, 1831, leaving
sons, William Longsword, and Jeffery, Archbishop of *°ur sons. noticed in this work. As a historian, Roscoe
has been censured by some critics for a too great indul
gence shown to the character of Leo X. and to the vices
of his court, and particularly for his defence of Lucretia
Borgia. (See, on this subject, the " Edinburgh Review"
for January, 1806 ; also Dr. Hoefer's article on ALEX-
ANDRE VI, in the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale.")
See HENRY ROSCOE, "Life of William Roscoe," 2 vols., 1833;
"Lives of Distinguished Northerns," by HARTLEY COLERIDGE;
AU.IBONK, "^Dictionary of Authors:" "Edinburgh Review" for
portrait.)
Roscoe, (W. S.,) an English poet, born in 1781, was
a son of the preceding. He was author of a volume of
York. Died in 1177.
Rosapina, ro-sa-pee'na, or Rosaspiiia, ro-sa-spee'-
n a, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian engraver, born at Bologna
about 1 762. Among his chief works is " La Pinacoteca,"
a series of seventy-two engravings of the finest pictures
of the gallery of Bologna. Died in 1841.
Rosas, de, da ro'sas, (Ju.\N MANUEL Ortiz— OR-
teth',) a South American dictator, born in Buenos Ayres
in 1793. He lived as a Gaucho in his youth, and was an
active partisan of the Federals in the civil war against
the Unitarians. In 1829 he was elected Governor of
the Argentine Republic, or Buenos Ayres.
dictator in 1835. By some writers he is
lie became
represented j poems. Died in 1843.
as a monster of cruelty. His administration, however, j Ros-com'mon, (\VENT\VORTH DILI ON ) EARL OF
"•> '"" an English poet,' born in Ireland about 1633, was the son
of James Dillon, third Earl of Roscommon, and a Ro
man Catholic. His mother was a sister of the famous
Earl of Strafford. When the latter was impeached, young
Dillon was sent to study at Caen, under Bochart. He
returned to England about 1660, became master of the
horse to the Duchess of York, and married Frances,
was beneficial in respect to trade and finance. He was
defeated in battle by an army under General Urquiza
in February, 1852, after which he lived in exile.
See " Noiivelle Biographic Generale;" "Eraser's Magazine" for
May, 1852; "Democratic Review'' fur May, 1846.
Roscelin, ros'laN', written also Ruzelin, [Lat. Ros-
CELI'NUS or ROSCELLI'NUS,] a famous French theologian
and schoolman, born at or near Compiegne. He was a j daughter of the Earl of Burlington. He wrote odes,
Nominalist, and was for some time regarded as the j prologues, epilogues, and an "Essay on Translated
inventor of Nominalism. In 1092 he was condemned Verse," (1680.) He also translated Horace's " Art of
Poetry" into blank verse, (1680.) Died in 1684.
See JOHNSON, "Lives of the English Poets."
Rose, (GEORGE,) a British politician, born at Brechin,
Scotland, in 1744, was noted for business talents and
practical sagacity. He was secretary of the treasury
from 1782 to 1801, and was a constant adherent of Mr.
He was a grandfather of General Sir Hugh Henry Rose'
Died in 1818.
3 vols.,
cotsmen •"
as a heretic by a council at Soissons. Died about 1122.
See P>. HAUK£AU, " De la Philosophic scolastique ;" CHLADEN,
" De Vita et Ha-resi Roscelini," 1756.
Roscelinus or Roscellinus. See ROSCEI.IN.
Roscher, rosh'er, (\VILHKLM,) a German political
economist, born at Hanover in 1817. He became pro
fessor of political science, etc. at Leipsic in 1848. He j Pitt, who in 1804 appointed him joint paymaster-general
published, besides other works, "The Life and Times j of the forces. In 1807 he became treasurer of the navy
of Thucydides," (1842.)
Roschid, (or Roschd.^ Ibn. See AVERROES.
Roschlaub or Roeschlaub, rosh'lown, (ANDREAS,)
a German medical writer, born in 1768; died in 1835.
Roscius, rosh'e-us, (QlMNTUS,) a celebrated Roman
actor, was born near Lanuvium. lie amassed a large
fortune by his performance on the stage. His name
was so proverbial for excellence that Garrick was stvled
"the British Roscius." An oration which Cicero pro
nounced for Roscius in a civil suit is extant. Died
about 60 r,.c.
Ros'coe, (HENRY,) an English lawyer and writer,
born in 1800, was a son of the historian. He wrote
a " Life of William Roscoe," (1833,) and "The Lives of
Eminent British Lawyers," in Lardner's "Cyclopaedia."
Died in 1836.
Roscoe, (JAMES,) an English poet and lawyer, born
about 1791. He resided at Knntsford, Cheshire, for
nearly fifty years. He contributed to "Blackwood's
Magazine" and other periodicals. Died in May, 1864.
Roscoe, (ROBERT,) a banister, a brother of Henry,
noticed abcve, was born about 1790. He wrote poems
of some merit. Died in 1850.
See "Diaries and Correspondence of George Rose,"
1860; CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Sc
"Edinburgh Review" for July, 1860.
Rose, roz, [Lat. ROSS/F/US,] (GUILLAUME,) a French
prelate, notorious for his factious violence, was born at
Chaumont about 1542. He was a partisan of the League
against Henry III. and Henry IV. Died in 1602.
Rose, ro'zeh, (GusrAV, )' a distinguished German
mineralogist, a brother of Heinrich, noticed below, was
born at Berlin in 1798. He became (1822) keeper of
the mineral collection and professor of mineralogy (1839)
at Berlin. He wrote " Elements of Crystallography,"
and contributed the geognostic and mineralogical part
to the " Journey to the Ural and Altai Mountains,"
etc., which he made with Humboldt and Ehrenberg
in 1829.
Rose, (HEINRICH,) son of Valentin the Younger, born
at Berlin in 1795, was a pupil of Berzelius at Stockholm.
He became, after his return, professor of chemistry in
his native city, in 1835. His principal work, entitled
"Manual of Analytical Chemistry," (2 vols., 1851,) has
« as k; 9 as s; g hr->-d: g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; x, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
ROSE
1918
ROSENMULLER
been translated into several languages. As a practical
analyst in the department of inorganic chemistry he is
highly distinguished. He discovered in 1844 tne sub
stance called Niobium.
Rose, (Sir HUGH HENRY,) an able British general,
born in 1803. His father, Sir George H. Rose, was
British minister at Berlin. He commanded a division
in India, (1857-60,) and contributed to the suppression
of the mutiny of the Sepoys. In 1866 he was raised to
the peerage, as Baron Strathnairn.
Rose, (HUGH JAMES,) an English divine and volumi
nous writer, born in Surrey in 1795. He became vicar
of Horsham in 1821, and rector of Hadleigh in 1830.
In 1836 he was appointed principal of King's College,
London. He published numerous sermons and contro
versial works, and a new edition of Parkhurst's "Greek
Lexicon." He projected the '• Biographical Dictionary"
which bears his name, but did not live to finish it. Died
at Florence in 1838.
Rose, ( | KAN B.UTLSTE.) a French priest and writer on
morals, born in Franche-Comte in 1714; died in 1805.
Rose, (SAMUKL,) an English lawyer and biographer,
born at Chiswick in 1767. lie wrote a "Life of Oliver
Goldsmith." Died in 1804.
Rose, (VALKNTIN,) THK ELDER, a German pharma
cist, born at Neu-Ruppin in 1735, was assessor of the
medical college at Berlin. Dieil in 1771.
Rose, (VALENTIN,) THK YOUNGER, a son of the
preceding, was born at Berlin in 1762. He studied
chemistry under Klaproth, and was author of several
useful chemical treatises. Died in 1807.
Rose, (WILLIAM STEWART,) a distinguished scholar
and translator, born in the latter part of the eighteenth
century, was a friend of Sir Walter Scott. He was the
author of a "Naval History of the Late War," (1802,)
and translated " Amadis de Gaul" from the French,
and the "Orlando Innamorato" (1823) and "Orlando
Furioso" (1823-31) from the Italian. These translations
are highly commended. Died in 1843.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for October, 182-? ; " Black-
wood's Magazine" for [lily, 182^; " North American Review" for
October, 1824, (by W. H. PRESCOTT.)
Rosecraiis, rdz'krans, (Wn.i.iAM SPARK,) an Ameri
can general, born at Kingston, Delaware county, Ohio, in
September, 1819. He was educated at West Point, where
he graduated in 1842. He was employed as engineer
until 1854, when he resigned his place in the army.
In the summer of 1861 he was appointed a brigadier-
general and sent to Western Virginia. He defeated the
insurgents at Rich Mountain in July, 1861, after which
he commanded in West Virginia for several months. He
obtained command of the army of the Mississippi in
June, 1862, and gained a decisive victory at Corinth
(October 4) over Van Dorn and Price. He commanded
the Union army at the great battle of Stone River, near
Murfreesboro', which ended on the 2c\ of January, 1863.
General Bragg retreated by night, leaving Rosecrans
master of the field. The Union loss was 1533 killed
and 7245 wounded. General Rosecrans in June moved
his army southeastward in pursuit of Bragg, who retired
into Georgia, and the Union army occupied Chattanooga
about the gth of September. Bragg, having been rein
forced, turned back and attacked Rosecrans on the igth
and 2Oth of September at Chickamauga. This battle
was disastrous to the Union army, which retreated to
Chattanooga. Rosecrans was relieved from the com
mand about the 2Oth of October, 1863, and was appointed
commander of the district of Missouri in January, 1864.
He was sent as minister to Mexico in July, 1868, but was
recalled a few months later.
See "The Army of the Cumberland;" TE.NNEV, "Military and
Naval History of the Rebellion," 1865.
Roseingrave, ro'zin-grav, ? (THOMAS,) an Irish mu
sician, went to Rome to study in 1710. He became
organist of the church of Saint George, London, in 1725.
Died in 1750.
Rosel or Roesel, ro'zel, (AUGUST JOHANN,) a Ger
man painter and naturalist, born near Arnstadt in 1705.
He received the title of VON ROSEN HOP. He published
a periodical on insects, with good figures, (4 vols., 1746
-61.) Died in 1759.
Roselli, ro-sel'lee, or Rosselli, (CosiMO,) an emi
nent Florentine painter, born at Florence in 1439. He
painted frescos in the Sistine Chapel at Rome, which
gained the prize offered by the pope, when among his
competitors were Perugino and Ghirlandaio. He suc
ceeded by a profuse use of gold and ultramarine,
although he was inferior to his competitors. Di^d
after 1506.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, " History of Paint
ing in Italy;" BAI.DINUCCI, "Noti/.ie."
Roselli or Rosselli, (MATTEO,) an Italian painter,
born at Florence in 1578, was a pupil of Pagani. He
opened at Florence a school, in which several able artists
were formed. Died in 1650.
Rosellini, ros'el-lee'nee or ro-sSl-lee'nee, (Ippoi.rro,)
CAVALIERE, an eminent Italian antiquary and writer on
Egyptian antiquities, born in August, 1800. He became
professor of Oriental languages at Pisa in 1824. In 1827
he was commissioned by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to
explore the monuments of Egypt, assisted by six com
panions, some of whom were artists. He cooperated
with Champollion, who at the same time was sent to
Egypt by the French government. They returned in
1830, and, Champollion having died in 18^2, the results
of their researches were published by Rosellini in a
capital work entitled "The Monuments of Egypt and
Nubia Explained and Illustrated," (" I Monument! dell'
Egitto e della Nubia," etc., 10 vols., 1832-40.) He
obtained the chair of universal history at Pisa in 1840.
Died in June, 1843.
See BAKDEI.I.I, " Biografia del Professore I. Rosellini," 1843:
G. I)KI, " Biosjrafia del Professove I. Rosellini," 1843; C. CAVEDONI,
" Biografia d'l. Rosellini," iS4^.
Rosemonde. See ROSAMOND.
Rosen, ro'/en, (FRIEDRICH AUGUST,) a celebrated
German Orientalist and philologist, born at Hanover
on the 2d of September, 1805. He was educated at the
University of Leipsic and that of Berlin, the latter of
which he entered in 1824. lie gave special attention
to Sanscrit and the Semitic languages, and published an
important work entitled "Sanscrit Roots," ("Radices
Sanscritee," 1827.) In 1828 he became professor of
Oriental languages in the University of London, since
called University College. He was appointed secretary
to the Oriental Translation Committee, and in the latter
part of his life was professor of Sanscrit in the college
above named. He wrote the articles relating to Oriental
literature for the " Penny Cyclopaedia." Among his
numerous publications is " Rig-Vedae Specimen," (1830,)
and a valuable fragment of the "Rig- Veda," "Sanhita
Liber primus, Sanscrite et Latine." (1838, unfinished.)
He died prematurely in September, 1837.
See "Biographic Universelle," (new edition.)
Rosen, (GEORG, ) a German Orientalist, born at
Detmold in 1821.
Rosen, ro'/.en, (NiKOLAUS,) a Swedish medical writer,
born near Gothenburg in 1706. He was ennobled in
1762, and his name was then changed to ROSENSTEIN.
Died in 1773.
Rosen, von, fon ro'zen, (GEORGE,) BARON, a Russian
poet, born in Saint Petersburg about 1805, was an inti
mate friend of Pooshkin. He produced, besides other
poems, "Ivan the Terrible," (1833,) and "Basmanof,"
(1836.) Died in 1860.
Rosenblut, ro'zen-bloot', (IL\NS,) sometimes called
RoSENER, a German poet and dramatic writer of the
fifteenth century.
Rosenhof, von. See ROSEL.
Rosenkranz, ro'zen-kRants', (TOHANN KARL FRIED-
RICH,) professor of philosophy at Konigsberg, was burn
at Magdeburg in i8o> lie published a number of
works in favour of Hegel's philosophy. Among his
works is a "General History of Poetry," (3 vols., 1833,)
and a " Life of Hegel," (1844.)
Rosenmuller, ro'zen -mui'ler, ( ERNST FRIEDRICH
KARL,) an eminent German Orientalist, born near Hild-
burghausen in 1768. He studied at Leipsic, where he
became in 1813 professor of Oriental literature. !fe
was the author of " Scholia on the Old Testament,"
("Scholia in Veins Testamentum," 23 vols., 1788-1835,)
"Manual for the Literature of Biblical Criticism and
Exegesis," (4 vols., 1797-1800,) " Institutes of the Arabic
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long ; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; m£t; not; good: moo.i
ROSENMULLER
1919
ROSS
Language," ( 1 818,) and " Manual of Biblical Antiquities,"
(4 vols., 1823.) Died at Leipsic in 1835.
See " Biographic Universelle," (new edition.)
Rosenmiiller, QOHANN CHRISTIAN,) a distinguished
anatomist, a brother of the preceding, was born at Hess-
berg in 1771. lie became professor of anatomy and
surgery at Leipsic, and prosector at the Anatomical
Theatre. He published several anatomical and scientific
works. Died in 1820.
Rosenmiiller, (JOHANN GKORG,) a German Prot
estant theologian and pulpit orator, born at Ummer-
stadt in 1736, was the father of the preceding. He
became successively professor of theology at Erlangen,
at Giessen, and at Leipsic. He published "Scholia in
Novum Testamentum," (6 vols., 1777-1807,) and a " His
tory of the Interpretation of the Sacred Books in the
Christian Church from the Age of the Apostles to the
Restoration of Letters," (in Latin, 5 vols., 1795-1814;)
also several religious treatises in German. Died at
Leipsic in 1815.
See CUR. Doi.z, "J. G. Rosenmiiller's Leben," 1816; "Biogra
phic Universelle."
Rosenstein. See ROSEN, (NIKOLAUS.)
Rosmini-Serbati, ros-mee'nee se'R-ba'tee, (ANTO
NIO,) an eminent Italian ecclesiastic and philosopher,
born at Roveredo in 1787 or 1797. He produced " New
Essay on the Origin of Ideas," ("II nuovo Saggio
suH'Origine delle Idee," 1830,) and propounded a new
system of philosophy. He wrote numerous other works,
on ethics, theology, education, etc. Died in 1855.
SeeV. GIOEERTI, " Degli Errori filosofici di A. Rosmini-Serbati,"
Svois., 1844; "Biographic Universelle."
Rosny, de. See SULLY.
Rospigliosi. See CLEMENT IX.
Ross, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish theologian, born
about 1570, became minister at Aberdeen in 1636. He
was an adversary of the Covenanters. Died in 1639.
Ross, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish divine and writer,
born at Aberdeen in 1590. He was a zealous partisan
of Charles I. in the civil war, (1642-49.) Among his
numerous works are a "View of All Religions," and
" Virgilii Evangelizantis Christias," (1634.) Died in
1654.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Ross, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish poet and teacher,
born in^Abercleenshire in 1699. He wrote " Helenore,
Rosenthal, rp'zen-til', (FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN,) a or the Fortunate Shepherdess," (1768.) Died in 1784.
German anatomist and writer, born at Greifswalde in
1779. lie published several professional works. Died
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen.'
Ross, (FREDERICK AUGUSTUS,) a Presbyterian min
Rosenviiige, ro'zen-ving'eh, QANUS LARS ANDREAS
Kolderup — kol'der-dop',) a Danish jurist, born at
Copenhagen in 1792. He published "Elements of
the History of Danish Law," (1823.)
Rosetti. See ROSSETTI.
ister, born at Richmond, Virginia, in 1796. ' He became
pastor of a church at Huntsville, Alabama, in 1855, and
published "Slavery ordained of God," (1857.)
Ross, (GEORGE,) an American patriot and signer of
the Declaration of Independence, was born at New Cas-
AV^OCUUJ.. occ l\. »J :•>:•> r. l l l. *.l» Tk I • ,- ^
Rosetti, ro-set'tee, (CONSTANTINE,) a poet, born at ' £ e> P"'™"'.,™ I73°' „ He was a mem,ber of Con&™* *
Bucharest (Wallachia) about 1816. He was democratic i l!?^1^."^ f777;__He_was appointed jn_I779 a judge
or liberal in .politics, was exiled about ^48, and took
IGIllliG 111 1 tiriS.
Rosetti, ro-set'tee, (DOMENICO,) an Italian painter
and engraver, born at Venice about 1690. He is chiefly
known as an engraver.
Roshd, (or Roshed,) Ibii. See AVERROES.
Rosier, n/xe-i', ( N.,) a French dramatic author,
born in Paris about 1805. Among his works is a comedy
** **
Ross, (Sir JAMES CLARK,) ADMIRAL, F.R.S., an emi-
'Ufl1' n^nt English Arctic navigator, born in London in April,
'' 1800. He served his uncle, Sir John Ross, as midship
man in his first voyage in search of a Northwest Passage,
called " Le Mari de ma Femme," (1830.
Rosin. See ROSINUS.
Rosini, ro-see'nee, (CARLO MARIA,) an
archaeologist and bishop, born at Naples in 1748. He
deciphered and published some manuscripts of Hercu-
laneum, and wrote other works. Died in 1836.
See PROSPERO DEI.LA ROSA, "Vita di C. M. Rosini," 1837.
Rosini, (GIOVANNI,) a distinguished Italian poet and
(1818.) Between' 1819 and 1825 he made three voyages
under Captain E. Parry. He took a prominent part in
Sir John Ross's second voyage, (1829-33,) and was
raised to the rank of post-captain in 1834. In 1839 he
was appointed commander of an expedition sent with
Italian • - — - - —
two vessels, the Erebus and Terror, to explore the Ant
arctic regions with special reference to the science of
magnetism. He reached the seventy-eighth degree of
south latitude, and discovered an ice-bound continent,
to which lie gave the name of Victoria Land, and the
coast of which his party traced for seven hundred miles.
novelist, born at Lucignanp, in Tuscany, in 1776. He | After a highly successful voyage of four years, he arrived
was professor of Italian literature at Pisa from 1803 ! at England in September, 1843. He published a "Voy-
until 1849. Among his numerous works are " Luisa age of Discovery and Research in the Southern and
Strozzi," (4 vols., 1833,) "Torquato Tasso," a drama,
(1835,) anci a "History of Italian Painting," (7 vols.,
1838-54.) He wrote an "Essay on the Life and Works
of Canova," (1825,) and published a good edition of
Tasso's works, (30 vols., 1820-30.) Died in 18.55.
See POZZOI.INI, "Vita di G. Rosini," 1855; ALFRED vox REI>
MONT, "G Rosini's Leben," 1860: "Biographic Universelle;"
" Foreign Quarterly Review" for August, 1829.
Ro-si'nus, [Ger. pron. ro-zee'nus ; Fr. ROSIN, ro'-
zd.N'',| (JoH\NN,) a German antiquary, whose proper
name was ROSSFELD or ROSZFELD, was born at Eisenach
in 1551. He published a " Complete Body of Roman
Antiquities," ("Antiquitatum Romanorum Corpus abso-
lutissimum," 1583.) Died in 1626.
Roslin, ros-leen', (ALEXANDER,) a Swedish portrait-
painter, born at Malmo about 1718. He worked for
many years in Paris, where he obtained great success.
He was admitted into the French Academy of Art in
1753. Died in Paris in 1793.
Rosmini, de', da ros-mee'nee, (CARLO,) an Italian
biographer, born at Roveredo in 1758. He published,
besides other works, a "Life of Ovid," (1789,) a "Life
of Seneca," (1793,) a " Life of Victorino da Feltro," (4
vols., 1801,) and a "History of Milan," (" Storia di Mi
lan
4 vols., 1820.) His works are commended as
accurate and impartial. Died at Milan in 1827.
See TIPAI.DO, " | Biografia degli Ita'.iani illustri ;" A. M. ME.NE-
GHELLI. "Rosmini e sue Opere," 1827.
Antarctic Regions," etc., (2 vols., 1847.) He was raised
to the rank of rear-admiral in 1856. Died in 1862.
See WII.UAM JERDAX, "Men I have known," London, 1866;
"Edinburgh Review" for March, 1819, and July, 1835; "London
Quarterly Review" for January, 1819, July, 1835, and June, 1847;
'• North British Review" for November, 1847.
Ross, (Sir JOHN',) REAR-ADMIRAL, a famous Arctic
navigator, born at Balsarroch, (county of Wigton,) Scot
land, in 1777, was an uncle of the preceding. He served
as an officer in several naval actions against the French
and Spaniards between 1800 and 1814. In 1818 he was
appointed commander of the first expedition sent to
search for a Northwest Passage. Lieutenant Parry was
the second in command. lie passed through Baffin's
Bay to Lancaster Sound, where he imagined he saw
a barrier of mountains interposed, and he returned
home in the same year. (See PARRY, CAPTAIN.) In
1829 he renewed the enterprise in the Victory, entered
Prince Regent Inlet, and was frozen up in the Gulf of
Boothia in October, 1829. His party passed about four
years of privation and peril in the Arctic seas, and
abandoned the Victory in 1832. Captain Ross dis
covered in 1831 a point which he believed to be the
Northern Magnetic Pole. He and his party returned
by boats to Lancaster Sound, where they were rescued
by a whaling-vessel, and arrived home in September,
1833. He published in 1835 a narrative of his second
voyage. Died in 1856.
-e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
ROSS
1920
ROSSI
Ross, written also Rouse and Rows, (JoHN,) known
as "the Antiquary of Warwick," wrote " History of the
Kings of England," (in Latin, 1716.) Died in 1491.
Ross, (JoHN,) Bishop of Exeter, an English writer,
born in Herefordshire. He edited Cicero's " Familial-
Letters," ("Epistolas Familiares," 1749.) Died in 1792.
Ross, (JoHN,) [called Koo'wes-koo'we in the
Cherokee language,] a noted half-breed Indian, and
head chief of the Cherokees, was born in Georgia about
1790; died at Washington in 1866.
Ross, (LEONARD FULTON,) an American officer, born
in Fulton county, Illinois. He served in the Mexican
war, and was made brigadier-general of Union volun
teers in 1862.
Ross, ross, (LuowiG,) a German antiquary, born in
Holstein in 1806, became in 1837 professor of archae
ology in the Otto University at Athens, in Greece. He
subsequently filled the same chair at Halle.
Ross, (Sir WILLIAM CHARLKS,) R.A., a popular
English miniature-painter, born in London in June,
1794, was a nephew of Anker Smith, the engraver. In
the early part of his career he painted history and por
traits. He excelled in miniature, and became in this
department the most fashionable artist of his time. In
1837 he was appointed miniature-painter to the queen.
He gained a prize of ;£ioo for a picture of "The Angel
Raphael discoursing with Adam," (1843.) Died in 1860.
Rossaeus. See ROSE, (GUILLAUME.)
Rosse, ross, (WILLIAM PARSONS,) third EARL OF, an
eminent English practical astronomer, born in June, 1800,
was educated at the University of Oxford. He became
a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1831, and succeeded
his father in the peerage in 1841. He acquired a wide
reputation by the construction of a telescope which was
finished about 1844 and is unrivalled in dimensions and
space-penetrating power, and by his discoveries in
sidereal or nebular astronomy. This telescope, which
has an aperture of six feet and a length of fifty-six feet,
is located near Parsonstown, Kings county, Ireland. He
was elected president of the Royal Society in 1849.
Died in October, 1867.
Rossel, de, cleh n/sel', (ELISABETH PAUL EDOUARD,)
CHKVALIER, a French navigator, born at Sens in 1765.
He accompanied D'Entrecasteaux in his expedition in
search of La Perouse, and succeeded to the chief com
mand in 1794. He was taken prisoner by the English
in 1795, .and released about 1802. In 1809 he published
the " Voyage of D'Entrecasteaux in Search of La Pe
rouse," (2 vols.,) containing a good treatise on nautical
astronomy. Died in 1829.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Rosselli. See ROSKLLI.
Rossellino, ros-s£l-lee'no, or Rossellini, ros-sel-
lee'nee, (ANTONIO,) an able Italian sculptor, whose
family name was GAMBAKKLLI, was born at Florence
about 1427. Among his works are several statues of
the Madonna. Died in 1490.
Rossellino or Rossellini, (BERNARDO,) an architect
and sculptor, born at Florence in 1409, was a brother of
the preceding. He was patronized by Pope Nicholas
V., and designed or restored several churches of Rome.
Died about 1470.
Rosset, ro'si', (JOSEPH,) a French sculptor, born at
Saint-Claude in 1706; died in 1786.
Rossetti, ros-set/tee, (CHRISTINA,) an English con
temporary poetess, sister of Dante Gabriel, noticed
below, has written "Goblin Market," (1862,) "The
Prince's Progress," (1866,) and other works.
Rossetti, (DANTE GABRIEL,) an English painter and
poet, born in London about 1828, is a son of Gabriel
Rossetti, noticed below. He was the leader of the
movement called Pre-Raphaelitism, an attempt to revive
the style of Italian painters who preceded Raphael. He
prefers religious subjects, and finishes his works with
great minuteness. In 1862 he produced "The Early
Italian Poets, from Cuillo d'Alcamo to Dante, (1100-1200
-1300,) in the Original Metres, together with Dante's
' Vita Nuova,' translated by D. G. Rossetti." He pub
lished a volume of original poems in 1870.
See " Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1870; " Putnam's Magazine"
for July, 1870.
Rossetti or Rosetti, (GABRIEL,) an Italian poet and
critic, born in 1783. He became professor of Italian in
King's College, London, and well known as a commen
tator on Dante. Died in 1854.
Rossetti, (WILLIAM M.,) an English writer, a son
of the preceding, was born in London. He wrote an
article on "English Opinion on the American War"
for the "Atlantic Monthly" for February, 1866. He
contributed to the "Imperial Dictionary of Universal
Biography." Among his works is a "Life of Percy
Bysshe Shelley," (2 vols., 1869.)
Rossfeld. See ROSINUS.
Rosshirt, ros'hee'Rt, (KONRAD FRANZ,) a German
jurist, born at Bamberg in 1793, was professor of law
at Heidelberg. He wrote a number of legal works.
Rossi, ros'see, (ANTONIO,) an Italian painter, born
at Zoldo about the end of the fourteenth century. He
is said to have been the first master of Titian.
Rossi, (ANTONIO,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna
about 1700; died about 1750.
Rossi, (FRANCESCO.) See SALVIATI.
Rossi, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) an Italian architect,
born at Rome in 1616. Among his works are the
Palazzo Rinuccini, and the church of San Pantaleon,
Rome. Died in 1695.
Rossi, [Lat. ERYTHR^E'US,] (GIOVANNI VITTORIO,)
an Italian scholar, noted as a Latinist, was born at Rome
in 1577. Among his works is " Pinacotheca Imaginum
ilhistrium Virorum," (" Gallery of Portraits of Illustrious
Men," 1643-48.) Died in 1647.
See NICEKON, "Me'moires;" TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Lettera-
tura Italians."
Rossi, (GlROLAMO,) an Italian historian, born at
Ravenna in 1539. His Latin name was RUBKUS or
DE RUBEIS. He wrote, in Latin, a good " History of
Ravenna," (1^72.) Died in 1607.
Rossi, ros'see, (JoHN CHARLES FELIX,) an English
sculptor, born at Nottingham in 1762, was of Italian
origin. He gained the gold medal at London in 1784,
after which he studied at Rome, and returned in 1788.
He became sculptor to William IV. His best works
are monuments of Lord Cornwallis, Lord Heathfield,
Captain Riou, Captain Faulkner, and Lord Rodney, in
Saint Paul's Cathedral. Died in 1839.
Rossi, (Luu;i,) an Italian musician, born at Naples
about 1590. lie composed cantatas, etc. Died after
1640.
Rossi, (OiTAVio.) an Italian writer, born nt Brescia
in 1570. Among his works is " Brescian Memoirs,"
(" Memorie Bresciane," 1616.) Died in 1630.
Rossi, (PASQUALE.) See PASQUALINO.
Rossi, (PELLEGRINO LUIGI ODOARDO,) COUNT, an
Italian orator, minister of state, and writer on law, was
born at Carrara in 1787. As a partisan of the French
regime and of Murat, he was exiled in 1815. He became
professor of Roman law at Geneva in 1819, and estab
lished his reputation as a jurist by his "Treatise on
Penal Law," (Paris, 3 vols., 1825.) In 1832 he was
appointed professor of political economy in the College
de France, Paris. He was nominated a peer of France
in 1839, and sent as ambassador to Rome in 1845. I'1
September, 1848, he was appointed chief minister of
state by the pope. He was assassinated, November 15,
1848, by his political enemies.
See J. GARNIER, "Notice sur la Vie de Rossi," 1849; HURER-
SAI.ADIN, " M. Rossi en Suisse de 1816 a 1833," 1849; MIGNET,
" Noiice historique sur la Vie de M. Rossi," 1849; " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Rossi, de', da ros'see, fin Latin, DE RU'BEIS,] (BER
NARDO MARIA,) a learned Italian monk, born in Friuli
in 1687. He wrote, besides other works, "On the Life,
Writings, and Doctrine of Thomas Aquinas," (" De
Gestis et Scriptis ac Doctrina Thomae Aquinatis," 1750.)
Died in 1775.
See FABRON-I, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium."
Rossi, de', (GIOVANNI BERNARDO,) an Italian Ori
entalist, born in Piedmont in 1742. Among his numerous
works is " Various Readings of the Old Testament,"
(" Varias Lectiones Veteris Testament!, " 4 vols., 1784-
88.) He was for many years professor of Oriental
languages at Parma. Died in 1831.
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m§t; r.ftt; good; moon;
ROSSI
1921
ROSZFELD
Rossi, de', (GIOVANNI GHEUARDO,) an Italian writer
and antiquary, born in Rome in 1754. He displayed
imagination, learning, and taste in numerous works,
among which are several comedies, a " Life of G. Pi Ic
ier," (1792,) and "Poetical and Pictorial Sports,"
(" Scher/.i poetici e pittorici," 1795.) Died in 1827.
See TIPALDO, "Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Rossi, de', (PROPER/.IA,) a skilful Italian sculptor and
musician, born at Bologna about 1490. Her master
piece is a bas-relief of "Joseph rejecting the Overtures
of Potiphar's Wife." She made beautiful cameos of
peach-stones. Died in 1530.
Rossi, de', (Rosso.) See Rosso.
Rossignol, ro'sen'yol', (JEAN ANTOINE,) a French
Jacobin, born in Paris in 1759. He obtained command
of an army sent against the Vendeans in 1793, but was
removed for incapacity in 1794. He was banished in
1801, and died on the African island of Anjonan in 1802.
Rossignol, (JEAN JOSEPH,) a French Jesuit and
writer, born in 1726. He wrote several scientific works.
Died at Turin in 1817.
Rossignol, (JtAN PIERRE,) a French scholar, born
at Sarlat about 1805. He became a member of the
Institute in 1853, and professor of Greek in the College
de France in 1855. He produced, besides other works,
" Virgile et Constantin le Grand," (1846,) and a Latin
poem called "Scholastic Life," ("Vita Scholastica,"
1836.)
Rossini, ros-see'nee, (GlOACCHlMO,) the most cele
brated composer of music of the present time, was born
at Pesaro, in the Papal States, on the 291)1 of February,
1792. His father was a horn-blower, and his mother
an actress or singer, in an itinerant opera-company. He
received some instruction in music from Padre Mattei,
of Bologna ; but he formed his style chiefly by the study
of Mozart and Haydn. In 1812 he produced "The
Fortunate Deceit," ("L'Inganno felice,") and several
other operas. His first famous work was the opera of
"Tancredi," (1813,) which, performed first at Venice,
was received with great enthusiasm and announced the
advent of anew epoch in dramatic music. In 1815 he was
engaged for a term of seven years as musical director
of the theatre of San Carlo at Naples. He produced
many operas in rapid succession. In 1816 appeared
"The Barber of Seville," ("II Barbiere di Seviglia,")
which is perhaps the most popular of all his works, and
has been performed in many languages and in every
theatre of the civilized world. His "Mose in Egitto"
(1818) was performed with success. He married Made
moiselle Colbran or Colbrand, a singer, about 1822,
and left Italy in 1823. He was director of the Italian
Opera in Pans from 182410 1830. In 1829 he produced
the original and incomparable opera of " William Tell,"
which, says Dr. Hoefer, "was pronounced by all con
noisseurs the most beautiful of all the works of Rossini."
It was also his last, except the " Stabat Mater," (1842.)
He resolved to compose no more, saying, "Another
success would add nothing to my celebrity, and a failure
might impair it." The revolution of 1830 deprived him
of the office of director or intendant-general in Paris,
for which his indolence rendered him incompetent. In
iS}6 he returned to Italy, and resided for many years at
Bologna. After 1855 he lived in Paris, where he died
in November, 1868.
See BEYLE, (or STENOAHI.,) "Vie de Rossini," 2 vols., 1823,
and English version of the same, 1824: "Life of Rossini," by H. S.
EDWARDS. 1869; ADOI.PHE ADAM, "Derniers Souvenirs d'un Musi-
cien," 1859; L. DE LOMENIE, "M. Rossini, par mi Homme de Rien,"
1842 ; FE'TIS, " Biographic Universelle des Mtisiciens ;" DR. HOEFER,
article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "British Quarterly
Review" for July, 1869.
Rosslyn, EARL OF. See WEDDERBURN.
Ross'lyn, (JAMES SAINT CI.AIR EKSKINE,) EARL
OK, a general, born about 1762, was a son of General
Harry Erskine, and a nephew of A. Wedderburn, Earl
of Rosslyn. He became a major-general in 1798, and
lieutenant-general in 1805, after which he served in
Portugal, Holland, etc. He inherited the title of earl
in 1805. In 1829 he was appointed keeper of the
privy seal. He was president of the council in the
cabinet of Peel from December, 1834, to April, 1835.
Died in 1837.
Rossmassler or Rossmaessler, ross'mSss'ler,
(EMIL ADOLF,) a German naturalist, born at Leipsic in
1806. He has published "Iconography of the European
Land and P'resh-Water Mollusks," (with sixty plates
1835.)
Rosso, del, dgl ros'so, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian archi
tect, born in Rome in 1760, lived for many years in
Florence. He published many works on architecture.
Died in 1831.
Rosso, del, (PAOLO.) an Italian writer, born at Flor
ence, was author of "Physics," ("La Fisica," 1578,) a
poem. Died in 1569.
Rosso, II, el "ros'so, or del Rosso, del ros'so,
or Rossi, (GIOVANNI BATTLSTA,) an eminent Italian
painter, born at Florence in 1496, was called by the
French MAITRE Roux. He studied the works of Mi
chael Angelo. About 1535 he went to France. He was
patronized by Francis L, and adorned the palace of
Fontainebleau with his works. His style is remarkably
bold. Died in France in 1541.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, "History of
Painting in Italy;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Rossotto, ros-sot'to,(ANDKEA,)an Italian biographer,
born at Mondovi in 1610, wrote " Index of Piedmontese
Writers," ("Syllabus Scriptorum Pedemontii," 1667.)
Died in 1667.
Rost, rost, (FRIEDRICH WILHEI.M EHRENFRIER,) a
German philologist, born at Buclissin in 1768. He
became rector of the "Thomasschule" at Leipsic, and
published several critical works on the Greek and Latin
classics. Died in 1835.
Rost, (JoiiANX CHRISTOPH,) a German litterateur,
born at Leipsic in 1717, published a number of tales,
poems, and satires. Died in 1765.
Rost, (VALENTIN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH,) a German
lexicographer, born near Gotha in 1790. Among his
principal works are a "Greek Grammar," a "Greek-
German Dictionary," and a " German-Greek Dictionary,"
(1832.) Died in 1862.
Rostan, ros'tSx', (Louis LEON,) a French medical
writer, born at Saint-Maxitnin (Var) in 1790. He be
came professor of medicine in Paris in 1833.
Rostgaard, de, deh rost'goRd or rost'gauR, (FRED
ERIC,) a learned Danish writer, born at Kraagerup in
1671. He held several high civil offices. He published,
besides other works, " Beauties of the Danish Poets,"
("Deliciae Poetarum Danorum," 2 vols., 1693.) Died
in I74>
See KRAFT og NYERUP, " Litteraturlexicon."
Rostolan, de, deh ros'to'lfix', ( Louis,) a French
general, born at Aix in 1791. He served in several
campaigns in Algeria, and distinguished himself at
the siege of Rome in 1849. Died in 1862.
Rostoptchin, ros-top-chen' or ros-top-cheen', written
also Rastopchin and Rostoptschin, (FEODOR VASI-
LIEVITCH,) COUNT, a Russian general, born in the
province of Orel in 1765. He was minister of foreign
affairs for a short time under Paul I. In May, 1812, he
was appointed governor of 'Moscow. According to the
French accounts, he was the author of the conflagration
of that city. He disclaimed his responsibility for that
event, and affirmed that it was burned partly by the
French and partly, perhaps, by some Russians acting
without orders. He was removed from the office of
governor in 1814. He published, besides other works,
" Memoirs of Count Rostoptchin, written in Ten Min
utes," (in French,) and "Truth about the Burning of
Moscow," (1823.) Died in 1826.
See GENERAL SCARROW, "Notice sur le Comte Rostoptchine,''
1854; GLINKA, " History of Russia," (in Russian;) "Nouvelle
Biographic Gene'rale."
Rosweide or Rosweyde, ros'wi'deh, (HERIBERT,)
a Dutch Jesuit, born at Utrecht in 1569. He wrote, be
sides other works, " Lives of the Fathers," etc., (" Vitae
Patrum, sive Historia eremitica," 1615,) and planned
the " Acta Sanctorum," which was continued by Bolland
and others. Died in 1629.
See FOPPENS, " Bibliotheca Belgica."
Rosweyde. See ROSWEIDE.
Roswitha. See HROTSVITHA.
Roszfeld. See ROSINUS.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
121
anations, p. 73.)
ROTA
1922
ROU
Rota, ro'ta, (BERNARDINO,) an Italian poet, born at
Naples in 1509. He wrote Latin elegies, Italian sonnets
in imitation of Petrarch, and eclogues of the sea, entitled
"Piscatorie," (1560.) Died in 1575.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura ItaMana;" LONG
FELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Rota, (MARTIN,) a skilful engraver and designer,
born at Sebenico, in Dalmatia, flourished between 1550
and 1590. lie worked at Rome and Venice. He en
graved some works of Titian and Raphael, and " The
Last Judgment," after Michael Angelo. Bryan says he j
was born about 1540.
Rota, (ViNCF.NZO,) an Italian poet, born at Padua in
1703 ; died in 1785.
See F. FANZAGO, "Memorie intorno ail'Abbate V. Rota," 1708.
Rotari, ro-ta'ree, (PiKTRO,) COUNT, an Italian painter
of history and portraits, born at Verona in 1707. He
worked at Vienna, Dresden, and Saint Petersburg.
Died about 1762.
Rotembourg, ro'toN'boou', ( HENRI, ) BARON, a
French general, born at Phalsbourg in 1760. He served
with distinction at Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden, with
the rank of general of brigade, in 1812-13. 1^'ed m i857-
Rotgans, rot'gans or rot/Hans, (LuCAS,) an eminent
Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam in 1645. He wrote
"The Life of William III.," in verse, and some other
poems. Died in 1710.
See CHALMOT, " Biographisch Woordenboek."
Roth, rot, (JOHANN RUDOLF,) a German naturalist,
born at Nuremberg in 1815, travelled in Syria and
Hindostan, and subsequently accompanied Harris's
expedition to Abyssinia. lie contributed the botanical,
geological, and zoological portions to " The Highlands
of Ethiopia," published by Major Harris. He died in
Palestine in 1858, while on another journey to the East.
Roth'a-ris, King of the Lombards, began to reign
in 636 A.f>. He conquered Genoa and Liguria. Died
in 652.
Rotheliii, de, deh rot'laN', (CHARLES D'ORLEANS,)
ABHE, a French antiquary, noted as a collector of medals
and manuscripts, born in Paris in 1691 ; died in 1744.
Rothenhamer. See ROTTF.NHAMMK.R.
Roth'er-am, (JoiiN,) a minister of the Anglican
Church, was' born in Cumberland. He wrote several
religious works. Died in 1788.
Rotheram, (Toiix,) an English physician, wrote a
"Philosophical Inquiry into the Nature and Properties
of Water." Died in 1787.
Rotherham, roth'er-am, alias Scott, (THOMAS,)
Archbishop of York, was born in 1423. He became lord
chancellor of England in 1474. Died in 1500.
Roth'er-mel, ( PF.TF.R F.,) an eminent American
painter, born in Luzerre county, Pennsvlvania, in 1817.
Among his principal works are " De Soto discover
ing the Mississippi," "Columbus before Isabella the
Catholic," "Christabel," and the "Christian Martyrs,"
finished in the early part of 1864, and exhibited at the
great Sanitary Fair held in Philadelphia in June and
July of that year. This has been greatly admired, and
is regarded as his master-piece.
See TUCKEKMAN, " Book of the Artists."
Roth'say or Rothesay, (DAVID,) first DUKE OF,
born in 1378, was the eldest son of Robert HI. of Scot
land. He contracted profligate and disorderly habits.
His uncle the Duke of Albany procured from the aged
king an order for his confinement in prison, where he
died in 1402. It is supposed that he died of starvation.
Roth'say, DUKKOF, one of the titles of Prince Albert,
the heir-apparent to the throne of Great Britain.
Rothschild, ros'child, [Ger. pron. rot'shllt,] (MAYF.R
(or MEYKR) ANSF.I.M,) a famous Jewish banker, and the
founder of the great monetary house of Rothschild, was
born at Frankfort in 1743. He commenced business on
a small scale as an exchange-broker, and acquired a
high reputation for probity. He died in 1812, leaving
five sons, — ANSEI.M, who was born in 1773, settled at
Frankfort, and died in 1855 ; SOLOMON, who was born
in 1774, became banker at Vienna, and died in 1855;
NATHAN MAYKR, (see separate article;) CARL, who was
born in 1788, and died at Naples in 1855 ; and JAMES,"
born in 1792, died in November, 1868. These brothers
operated as members of one firm.
See " Notice sur la Maison Rothschild," Paris, 1831.
Rothschild, (NATHAN MAYER or MEYKR,) an emi
nent financier and millionaire, born at Frankfort-on-the-
Main in 1777. He settled in London about 1800, and
after the death of his father was the head of the house
of Rothschild. He engaged in large financial opera
tions, was very successful as negotiator of loans for
various European powers, and became the foremost
capitalist of the world. He died in 1836, and was
succeeded by his eldest son, LIONEL NATHAN, Baron de
Rothschild, born in 1808. Lionel was elected several
times a member of Parliament for London, but was not
admitted to a seat until 1858, because the oath adminis
tered to members was such as a Jew could not take.
See TRKSKOW, " Riographische Notizen liber Nathan Meyer
Rothschild," 1837; MICHAUD et VIU.KNAVE, " Histoire de Saint-
Simonisme et de'la Famille de Rothschild," 1X47.
Rotrou, de, deh ro'tRoo', (JEAN,) a popular French
dramatic poet, born at Dreux in 1609, is styled " the
founder of the French theatre." He produced numerous
successful tragedies and comedies, and was patronized
by Cardinal Richelieu. His tragedy of "Venceslas"
was highly commended by Voltaire. Among his other
works are "Cosroes" and "Antigone." He was a
friend of Corneille, who called Rotrou his master. Died
in 1650.
See HI.IN DF. SAINMORE, " Kssai sur In Vie de J. Rotrou," 1805 ;
NICERON, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Genernle."
Rotscher or Roetscher, rot'sher, (HEINRICH THE
ODORE,) a German dramatic poet and critic, born in the
duchy of Brandenburg in 1804. He published, besides
other works, " Dissertations on the Philosophy of Art,"
(4 vols., 1837-42.)
Rotteck, von, fon rot'tSk, (KARL,) an eminent Ger
man historian, statesman, and jurist, born at Freiburg
in 1775. He studied in his native town, where he
became in 1798 professor of history. In 1819 he repre
sented his university in the first chamber of the States
of Baden, where he distinguished himself by his liberal
views and his eloquent advocacy of political reform.
Having excited the hostility of the conservative party,
he was forbidden by the government to edit any news
paper for five years, and to lecture in the university.
The persecution to which he was exposed hastened his
death, which occurred in 1840. Rotteck's " Universal
History" (9 vols., 1827) is perhaps the most popular
work of the kind that has yet appeared, and in 1841
had reached fifteen editions. It was translated into the
principal languages of Europe, and a continuation, in
two volumes, was published by Hermes in 1841. Rot
teck also wrote a number of valuable treatises on legal,
historical, and political subjects.
See MUNCH, "Carl von Rotteck peschildert," etc., 1831 ; BROCK-
HAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" " Life of Rotteck," (in German,)
by his son HERMANN, 1842.
Rotteiihammer, rot'ten-ham'mer, written also Ro-
theiihamer, (JOHANN,) a celebrated German painter,
born at Munich in 1564. lie studied for a time under
Tintoretto at Venice, and afterwards visited Rome,
where he produced several historical pieces of great
excellence. Among his master-pieces is "The Feast
of the Gods," painted for the emperor Rudolph II.
Died about 1620.
See NAGLER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Rottmann, rot'man, (KARL,) a distinguished Ger
man landscape-painter, born near Heidelberg in 1798.
He adorned with frescos the arcades of the Hofgarten
at Munich, and painted several works for the Pina-
kothek. His "Field of Marathon" is much admired.
Died in 1850.
Rou, roo, (JEAN,) a French Protestant writer, born
in Paris in 1638, lived in England and Holland. lie
became in 1689 secretary and interpreter to the States-
General. He published, besides other works, " Seduction
Avoided," ("La Seduction eluclee,") a series of letters
exchanged between Bossuet, on the one hand, and De
Vrillac and Rou on the other. Died in 1711. He left
"Memoires," which were first published in 2 vols., 1857.
See HAAG, " La France protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
.1,6, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ij, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
ROUBAUD
ROUSSEAU
Roubaud, roo'bo', (PIF.RKE JOSF.PH ANDRE.) a
Frencli writer on grammar and history, was born at
Avignon in 1730. Among his works is "New French
Synonyms," ("Nouveaux Syflonymes Francais," 4 vols.,
1785,) which is commended. Died in 1791.
Roubiliac, 1-oo'be'le-f.k', sometimes written Rou-
billac, (L(juis FRANCOIS,) an eminent French sculptor,
born at Lyons in 1695. He passed a large part of his
life in England, where he worked with great success.
Among his works, which are remarkable for minuteness
of finish, are a statue of Sir Isaac Newton, at Cambridge,
the monument of the Nightingale family, in Westminster
Abbey, and a statue of Shakspeare, executed for Garrick
and given by him to the British Museum. Died in Lon
don in 1762.
See ALLAN CUNNINGHAM, "Lives of Painters," etc. ; WALFOLE,
"Anecdotes of Painting."
Roubiliac. See ROUBILIAC.
Roucher, roo'sha', QEAN ANTOINE,) a French poet,
born at Montpellier in 1745. He published a poem en
titled "On the Months," ("Des Mois," 1779.) He was
imprisoned in Paris for seven months, and guillotined,
with his friend Andre Chenier, in July, 1794.
See RIGAUD, ''filoge de Roucher," iSoj ; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Rouelle, roo'el', (GUILLAUME FRAxgois,) a French
chemist, born near Caen in 1703, was the father-in-law
of J. Darcet. The celebrated Lavoisier was one of his
pupils. lie contributed greatly to popularize chemistry
by his lectures in Paris, and exerted, says Dr. Hoefer, a
great influence on the progress of that science. He was
professor or demonstrateur at the Jarclin du Roi. Died
in 17/0.
See " Biographie Universeile ;" PAUL ANTOINE CAP, " Biogra
phic Chimique ; Rouelle," 1842; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;"
HOEFER, "Histoire de laChimie."
Rouelle, (HII.AIRE MARIX,) a French chemist, born
in 1718, was a brother of the preceding, whom he suc
ceeded in 1768 at the Jardin du Roi. Died in 1779.
Rouge, de, deh roo'zha', (OLIVIER CHARLES CA-
MILI.E,) a French archaeologist, born in Paris in 1811.
He distinguished himself as an Egyptologist, and was
admitted into the Institute in 1853. Among his works
is "Chrestomathie figyptienne." lie became professor
of Egyptian archaeology, etc. in the College of France
in 1860.
Rouget, roo'zhi', (GEORGES,) a PYench painter of
history and portraits, born in Paris in 1781. He gained
a medal of the first class in 1855.
Rouget de Lisle, (or Delisle,) roo'zhi' deh lei,
(Ci.AUOE JOSEPH,) a French poet and musician, born at
Lons-le-Saulnier in 1760. He was an officer of engineers
in the army when the Revolution began. Just after the
declaration of war in April, 1792, he dined with the
mayor of Strasbourg, where a wish was expressed that
some poetical inspiration might respond to, or appeal
to, the national enthusiasm. In the ensuing evening
he composed for this purpose the famous war-song
called the "Marseillaise." He was imprisoned during
the reign of terror, and wounded at Quiberon, in 1795.
T fe was author of numerous ballads, musical airs, etc.
Died near Paris in 1836.
See LONGKF.LLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Eurone;" MIRAMONT,
"Biographic de Rouget-Delisle," 1842; FELIX PYAT, "La Mar
seillaise, avec line Notice litteraire sur Rouget-Delisle," 1842;
" XouveUe Biographic Generale."
Rougier, roo'zhe-i', (Louis AUGUSTF,) a French
medical writer, born at Lyons in 1793. He published
several valuable medical works. Died in 1863.
Rougier de la Bergerie, roo'zhe-i' deh IS beRzh're',
(|F.AX BAPTISTE,) a French writer on agriculture, was
born at Beaulieu in 1757. Among his numerous works
are " French Georgics," a poem, (2 vols., 1804,) and a
"History of the Ancient Agriculture of the Romans,"
(1834.) Died in 1836.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Rougnon, roon'y6N', (NICOLAS FRANCOIS,) a French
medical writer, born in Franche-Comte in 1727; died
in 1799.
Rouher, roo'i', (EUGENE,) an eloquent French ad
vocate and minister of state, born at Riom in 1814.
Having made profession of republican principles, he was
elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848. He suc
ceeded Odillon-Barrot as minister of justice in October,
1849, a"d retired from office in October, 1851. He was
afterwards vice-president of the council of state, and in
February, 1855, was appointed minister of agriculture,
commerce, and public works. In June, 1863, he ex
changed that office for the position of president of the
council. He became minister of state October 19, 1863,
and as such had precedence of all the other ministers.
In January or February, 1867, he was appointed minister
of finance. Rouher was the chief organ of the govern
ment in the corps legislatif. In April, 1867, he made
a rather passionate speech in reply to Thiers on the
foreign policy of Napoleon III. In July, 1869, he ceased
to be minister of state, and became president of the
senate, which was abolished in September, 1870.
Rouille, roo'ya', (PIERRE,) Seigneur de Marbeuf, a
French diplomatist, born in Paris in 1657. He was
sent as ambassador to Portugal in 1697, and negotiated
a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, between
France and that power. In 1709 he was sent to Holland
to treat secretly for a general peace ; but he failed in
this mission. Died in 1712.
Rouille, (PIERRE JULIEX,) a French Jesuit, born at
Tours in 1681. He was one of the authors or compilers
of the "Memoires de Trevoux." Died in 1740.
Roujoux, de, deh roo'zhoo', (PRUDEXCE GUIL-
LAUME,) BARON, a French historian, born at Lander-
neau in 1779. He published, besides other works, a
translation of Lingard's " History of England," (14
vols., 1825-31.) Died in 1836.
Rouland, roo'lSx', (GusTAVE,) a French minister
of state, born at Yvetot in 1802. He was appointed
advocate-general of the court of cassation in 1847, and
was minister of public instruction and worship from
August, 1856, to June, 1863.
Roulin, roo'la.\', (FRAXC.OIS DESIRE,) a French nat
uralist, born at Rennes in 1796. He contributed to
several scientific journals, and was one of the editors
of a new edition of Cuvier's " Regne animal."
Roullet, roo'li', (JEAN Louis,) a French engraver,
born at Aries in 1645. He engraved after the Italian
masters. Died in Paris in 1699.
Roulliard, roo'le-SR', (SEBASTIEN,) a French lawyer
and pedantic writer, was born at Melun. He died in
Paris, at an advanced age, in 1639.
Rouquette, roo'ket', (ADRIAN,) an American poet,
born at New Orleans about 1808, has published poems
in French and English. His brother, Francois Domi
nique, has written a work on the Choctaw nation, and a
number of poems.
Rourik. See RURIK.
Rous or Rouse, (FRANCIS,) an English republican
legislator and writer on theology, was born at Hal ton
in 1579. lie was a friend of Pym, the great orator, and
was a member of several Parliaments. He became a
supporter of Cromwell, and obtained a seat in the House
of Lords in 1657. Died in 1659.
Rouse, (JOHN.) See Ross,
Roussat, roo'st', (JEAX,) a French patriot, born at
Langres in 1543, was noted for his devotion to Henry
IV. and his hostility to the League. Eighty letters
written to him by that king are extant, and were printed
in 1816. Died in 1613.
Rousseau, roo'sd', (GEORG LunwiG CLAUDE,) a
German chemist, born near Wiirzbunr in 1724, was
professor of chemistry at Ingolstadt. Died in 1794.
Rousseau, roo'so', (JACQUES,) a French painter and
engraver, born in Paris in 1630, was a Protestant. He
worked some years for Louis XIV. at Versailles and
Saint-Cloud ; but after the revocation of the edict of
Nantes (1685) he went into exile. Died in London in
1693 or 1694.
Rousseau, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French lyric poet of
great eminence, was born in Paris on the 6th of April,
1670. He was the son of a shoemaker, by whom he
was liberally educated. His first productions were come
dies, which were not successful. About 1698 he served
Marshal Tallard as secretary in his embassy to London.
His reputation is founded on his odes, sacred and pro-
€ as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
xplanations, p. 23.)
ROUSSEAU
1924
ROUSSEAU
fane, epigrams, and cantatas. He was admitted into
the Academy of Inscriptions in 1701. He made many
enemies by his satires and couplets. In 1712 he was
banished for life for anonymous satires against La Motte
and Saurin. It seems that he was convicted on circum
stantial evidence only, lie passed the rest of his life
in exile at Brussels, Vienna, London, etc., and found
powerful patrons, among whom was Prince Eugene.
About 1717 he declined the offer of a pardon from the
French court, and insisted on a formal recognition of
the injustice of his sentence. He died at Brussels in
March, 1741. By some critics he is considered the
greatest lyric poet of France. According to the " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale," his reputation has declined
since the eighteenth century. " Rousseau is extremely-
skilful in versification," says Fournel, "a very adroit
artisan of lyrical strophes. It was by calculation and
not by inspiration that he became a lyrical poet." (" Nou-
velle Biographic Generale.")
See SEGUY, "Notice sur la Vie et les CEnvres de J. B. Rous
seau," 1743; AMAK-DURIVIER, " Nouvel Essai sur la Vie et les
ficrits de j. B. Rousseau," prefixed to his works, 5 vo's., iS2o;
" Vie de J. B. Rousseau," 1748, attributed to VOLTAIRK ; VAI.MONT
BOUREY, " J. 15. Rousseau ; Etude litteraire," 1852 ; SAINTE-BKUVK,
" Portraits litteraires."
Rousseau, (JEAN FKANC.OIS XAVIER,) a French
diplomatist, born at Ispahan in 1738. He was consul
at Bagdad, and was employed in negotiations with the
Persian court. Died at Aleppo in 1808.
His son, JEAN BAPTISTE Louis JACQUES, born in
1780, was an Orientalist. He wrote a "Historical
Notice of Persia," (1818,) and other works. Died at
Tripoli in 1831.
Rousseau, (JEAN JACQUES,) a celebrated Swiss phi
losopher and eloquent writer, born at Geneva on the 28th
of June, 1712, was a son of Isaac Rousseau, a watch
maker. His mother, whose maiden name was Bernard,
and who is said to have been amiable and highly gifted,
died during the infancy of the subject of this article,
who was not fortunate in his education. His favourite
author in childhood was Plutarch, to whose influence
Rousseau ascribed his own republican tendencies and his
love of independence. Jean Jacques had one brother,
who in early youth went to seek his fortune in a foreign
country and was never heard of afterwards. In conse
quence of a quarrel with a military officer, Isaac Rous
seau fled or removed to Nyon in 1722, leaving his son at
Geneva in the care of his uncle, M. Bernard. About
1726 he was placed as an apprentice with an engraver,
named Ducommun, a coarse man and harsh master, by
whom he was so ill treated that in March, 1728, he ran
away in the direction o( Savoy. He was received as a
guest at the house of Madame de Warens, of Annecy, a
benevolent and frail lady, to whom he formed a lasting
attachment. Having become an outcast and wanderer
in a strange country and without resources, he changed
his relig'on by a formal abjuration at Turin. He was
employed for a short time at Turin as a servant of the
Countess de Vercellis and the Count de Gouvon ; but his
success was hindered by irregular habits and instability.
He returned and became a second time an inmate in
the house of Madame de Warens, who procured for
him a situation as clerk in the bureau of the cadastre.
Finding this employment uncongenial, he soon aban
doned it, and adopted the profession of a teacher of
music, (of which he was very fond,) although he was
scarcely qualified to teach it. He obtained, however, a
number of pupils.
In the summer of 1736 Rousseau and Madame de
Warens removed to a rural residence called Charmettes,
near Chambery, where they passed two or three years,
which, he informs us, were among the happiest of his
life. His early career presents a series of bizarre ad
ventures, absurd vagaries, and surprising vicissitudes, of
which he has given an extremely candid and unreserved
narrative in his " Confessions." He was subject to hy
pochondria and morbid imaginations even in his youth.
Having invented a system of musical notation by figures,
(chiffres,) which he hoped would promote his interest
and reputation, he went to Paris in the autumn of 1741,
with only a few silver coins in his purse. He was
presented to the Academy of Sciences by Reaumur, and
read a memoir on his system of notation to that body,
which decided that it was neither new nor practicable.
He lived in great indigence until he obtained, in 1743,
the place of secretary to M. de Montaigu, French
ambassador to Venice, whom Rousseau represents as an
incompetent and villanous person. After he had passed
about eighteen months at Venice, Rousseau returned
to Paris in 1745, and formed intimacies with Diderot,
Grimm, Madame d'fipinay, and Therese Le Vasseur.
The last was an illiterate woman, of low birth, whom he
married after they had lived together as husband and
wife for many years. They had five children, whom
Rousseau sent to the foundling-hospital. He received
a small legacy from his father, who died in 1747, after
which he served as secretary to Madame Dupin of Paris,
and her son, M. de Francueil, receiver-general of finances.
In 1750 he gained the prize offered by the Academy of
Dijon for an essay on the question whether the progress
of the sciences and arts had contributed to corrupt
morals. He took the affirmative ; and never was a
paradox supported with greater eloquence.
Rousseau's physical infirmities, his fondness for para
dox, and his hostility to conventional maxims and usurp
ation, combined to render him eccentric and singular
in his manners and mode of living. He simplified his
costume, renounced fashionable and convivial parties,
and affected a stern and sententious tune. According
to his own confession, a peculiar contempt for the riches
and pleasures of the world was one of the prominent
traits of his character. About 1750 he was appointed
cashier to M. de Francueil ; but he soon resigned that
place, because it seemed fatal to his health and incom
patible with his principles, — " for with what grace could
the cashier of a receiver-general preach disinterest
edness and poverty?" He afterwards earned a scanty
subsistence by copying music. In 1752 he produced
his opera " Le Devin du Village," which was performed
before the king at Fontainebleau and had a great success.
The king expressed a wish to see the author ; but the
timidity of Rousseau caused him to decline the honour.
He produced in 1753 a "Discourse on the Origin of
Inequality among Men," in which he maintains that all
men are born equal. " He was the father of modern
democracy," says Professor Lowell, in the "North
American Review" for July, 1867. "and without him
our Declaration of Independence would have wanted
some of those sentences in which the immemorial long
ings of the poor and the dreams of solitary enthusiasts
were at last affirmed as axioms in the manifesto of a
nation, so that all the world might hear." He offended
the national vanity by his " Letter on French Music,"
(1753,) but in many respects he was a typical French
man. In 1754 he visited Geneva, where he was received
with honour and was formally admitted into the Prot
estant communion. He passed seven days in a tour or
promenade, by means of a boat, around Lake Geneva.
In 1756 he was persuaded by Madame d'Kpinay to
occupy the Hermitage, a rural residence which she
built for him in the valley of Montmorency, near Paris.
He resided there about two years, and began to write a
novel entitled " Julie, or the New Heloise," (" Nouvelle
Heloise," 1760,) which was greatly admired for its elo
quence and sensibility. Before this work was finished
he became enamoured of Madame d'Houdetot, who was
a sister of Madame d'Epinay and was a married woman.
He was alienated from Diderot, Grimm, and other friends,
whom he accused of perfidious intrigues against his peace
and reputation. " It was not so much my literary celebrity
as my personal reformation that excited their jealousy.
They could not pardon me for giving, in my conduct, an
example which seemed to testify against them." (Rous
seau, " Confessions.") It appears certain that Grimm
became a malevolent calumniator of Rousseau. His
next important works were "The Social Contract,"
(" Du Contrat social, on Principes du Droit politique,"
1762,) and "fimile, ou de rEducation," (4 vols., 1762,)
which, considered as a speculative philosophical treatise,
is a work of a high order. It produced some useful re
forms in the treatment of young children ; but its tend
ency was considered so dangerous that it was burned at
Geneva, and the Parliament of Paris issued an order for
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;
ROUSSEAU
1925
ROUX
the arrest of Rousseau, who escaped by flight. He found
refuge in the principality of Neufchite), the governor of
which, Lord Keith, received him with kindness. In 1765
David Hume, who was then in Fiance, offered the exiled
author of " Emile" an asylum in England. Rousseau
accepted the invitation, arrived in London in January,
1766, and went to reside at Wootton, in Staffordshire.
He was annoyed by an offensive and libellous letter pub
lished in the journals with the signature of the King of
Prussia; but the real author of it was Horace Walpole.
Having become possessed by a suspicion that Hume
was not his true friend, he returned to France in May,
i 767. It is stated by M. Morin in the " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale" that Hume avowed, in a letter pub
lished in 1820, that he co-operated in the redaction of
the forged letter from the King of Prussia. Rousseau
married Therese Le Vassetir in 1768, resided in Paris
from 1770 until 1778, and was always on the verge of
poverty. Among his later works were a " Dictionary of
Music," (1767,) and his autobiographic "Confessions,"
which he began to write about 1766 and which were not
published before 1782. Botany was one of his favourite
pursuits when in the country. In the spring of 1778 he
removed to Ermenonville, where he died on the 2d of
July in the same year. He was a man of middle stature
and well proportioned. "It was perhaps his sensibility
to the surrounding atmosphere of feeling and specula
tion which made Rousseau more directly influential on
contemporary thought (or perhaps we should say senti
ment) than any other writer of his time." (" Rousseau
and the Sentimentalists," in the " Xorth American
Review" for July, 1867, written by Professor Lowell.)
The same critic observes, "There was a faith and nn
ardour of conviction in him that distinguish him from
most of the writers of his time. Nor were his practice
and his preaching always inconsistent. He contrived to
pay regularly, whatever his own circumstances were,
one hundred livres a year to a maternal aunt who had
been kind to him in childhood." " Though I see," says
I lume, " some tincture of extravagance in all his writings,
I also think I see so much eloquence and force of
imagination, such an energy of expression, and such
a boldness of conception, as entitle him to a place
amongst the first writers of his age." (Quoted in the
" Encyclopaedia Britannica.")
See BARRURI.-BBAUVERT, "Vie de J. J. Rousseau," 1789; HEN--
NMNT.S, "Rousseau," Berlin, 1797; MUSSET-PATIIAV. " Histoire de
la Vie et des Ouvrages de J. J. Rousseau," 2 vols., 1821 ; LORD
BROUGHAM, "Voltaire and Rousseau," 1X45: (',. H. MOKIV, '• Es-
sa! surla Vie et le Caractere de T. J. Rousseau." 1851 : P. H. AZAI'S
"Jugement pliilosophique sur j. j. Rousseau." etc., 1^17; ZOI.I.KK,
" Pestaloz/i und Rousseau," 1851: SAINTE-BEUVE. " Causeries du
Lundi ;" BROCKERHOFF, "J. f. Rousseau," {in German,) 3 vols.,
iSfis: "Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by MRS.
SHELLEY : " Nouvelle Biographie Generale :"' " Blackwood's Maga
zine" for February. 1822; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October,
1843: " Westminster Review" for October, 1859 ; " North American
Review" for July, 1822, (by A. H. EVERETT.)
Rousseau, (Louis FRANCOIS EMMANUEL,) a French
naturalist, born at Belleville (Seine) in 1788.
Rousseau, roo'so', (LovELL H.,) an American general,
born in Lincoln county, Kentucky, about 1820. He was a
lawyer, and a resident of Louisville before the civil war.
He commanded a brigade of the Union army at Shiloh,
April, 1862, and a division at the battle of Stone River,
which ended January 2, 1863. He became a member
of Congress about 1865. Died in January, 1869.
Rousseau, (PHILIPPE,) a French landscape-painter,
born in Paris about 1808. He obtained a medal of the
first class in 1848.
Rousseau, (SAMUF.I.,) an English Orientalist, born
in London in 1765. He published "The Flowers of
Persian Literature, in Prose and Verse," (iSoi,) and
other works. Died in 1820.
Rousseau, (THEODORE,) an excellent French land
scape-painter, born in Paris in 1812. He gained a medal
of the first class in 1849. His works are commended
for harmony of colour and for the transparency of the
skies. Died in 1867.
Roussel, roo'sSK, [Lat. RU'FUS,] (GERARD,) written
also Ruffi, a French Protestant Reformer, born near
Amiens. He became in 1526 chaplain to Marguerite, a
sister of Francis I., and in 1536 Bishop of Oleron. He
wished to propagate Reformed doctrines without a
separation from the old Church. Died in 1550.
See CH. SCHMIDT, "Gerard Roussel," 1845; "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Roussel, (GuiLLAUMF.,) a French Benedictine and
writer, born at Conches in 1658. He produced a French
version of the "Letters of Saint Jerome," (3 vols., 1704-
07.) Died in 1717.
Roussel, (HENRI PIERRE ANSELME,) a French
medical writer, born near Domfront in 1748; died at
Caen in 1812.
Roussel, (NAPOLEON,) a French Protestant minister,
born about 1805. He preached for many years at Saint-
Etienne, from which he removed to Paris. He published
numerous works on theology.
Roussel, (PIERRE,) a French physician and able
writer, born at Aqs, near Foix, in 1742. He produced
in 1775 "The Physical and Moral System of Woman,"
; which passed through many editions. He explained
j the organization of woman with great penetration
j and subtlety. " Roussel writes with elegance and in
terest," says La Harpe : "his observations are truly
philosophic." Died in 1802.
See AI.IBERT, " filoges de Spallanzani, Galvani, Roussel et
Bichat," 1806; " Biographic Medicale."
Rousselet. See CHATEAU-REGNAUD.
Rousselin. See SAINT-ALBIN.
Rousselot de Surgy, roos'lo' deh su'R'zhe',
(JACQUES PHILIBERT,) a French litterateur, born at Di
jon in 1737, obtained the office of royal censor at Paris.
Rousset de Missy, roo'si' deh' me'se', (TEAM,) a
French historical writer, born at Laon in 1686, was
exiled for his religion (Protestantism) and settled in
Holland about 1705.' He published numerous mediocre
works, among which are "Memoirs of the Reign of
Peter the Great," (4 vols., 1726.) Died in 1762.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Roussin.roo'saN', (ALBIN REINE,) BARON, a French
admiral, born at Dijon in 1781. He was ambassador at
Constantinople from 1832 to 1839, and was minister of
marine from March to October, 1840. Died in 1854.
Roustain, roo'stax', ( ARON JEAN BAPTISTE PIERRE,)
a French jurist, born in Paris in 1804. He obtained a
chair of Roman law in Paris in 1855. Died in 1856.
Roustam. See ROOSTAM.
Roustan, roo'stSN', (originally Roustain, roos'tam,)
a Mameluke, born probably in Georgia in 1782. Having
rendered some service to Napoleon in Egypt, the latter
brought him to France in 1799. Roostan became a
favourite personal attendant of Napoleon, and accom
panied him in his campaigns and journeys. Died in
France in 1845.
Roustan, roo'stSN', (ANTOINE JACQUES,) a Swiss
Protestant minister and writer, born at Geneva in 1734.
He was minister of a Swiss church in London for twenty-
six years, (1764-90.) He was author of several religious
and moral works, which were highly esteemed, and of
an "Abridgment of Universal History," (9 vols., 1790.)
Died at Geneva in 1808.
Roustem. See ROOSTAM.
Routh, rowth, (Rev. MARTIN JOSEPH,) an English
scholar and writer, born near Beccles, in Suffolk, in Sep
tember, 1755, was educated at Oxford. He became
president of Magdalene College in 1791, and rector of
Tylehurst, near Reading, in 1810. In 1814 he published
a work of superior merit on the fragments of authors
of the second and third centuries, most of whose writ
ings are lost, entitled "Sacred Relics," etc., ("Reliquiae
Sacrae," etc., 3 vols.) Died in 1854, aged ninety-nine.
Rouviere, roo've-aiR', (PHILIBERT,) a French painter
and actor, born at Nimes in 1809.
Roux, roo, (AuousTiN,) a learned French physician,
born at Bordeaux in 1726, settled in Paris about 1750.
He obtained the chair of chemistry in the Faculty of
Medicine in 1770, and published "Typographic Annals;
or, Account of the Progress of Human Knowledge,"
("Annales typographiques, ou Notice du Progres des
Connaissances humaines," 10 vols., 1758-62,) which is a
work of merit. Died in 1776.
See J. DARCET, " E"loge de Roux," 1777.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
ROUX
1926
ROT
Roux, ([OSEPH PHILIBERT,) an eminent French sur
geon, born at Auxerre in April, 1780, was a favourite
pupil of Bichat. He published in 1812 a "Treatise on
Resection," ("Traite sur la Resection,") and invented
in 1819 an operation called Staphyloraphy. In 1820 he
obtained the chair of pathology at the ficole de Mede-
cine in Paris, and in 1835 succeeded Dupuytren at the
Hotel-Dieu. He was author of several surgical treatises.
Died in 1854.
See SACIIAII.E, " Les Me'decins de Paris;" "Biographic Medi-
cale ;" MAI.GAIGNE, " filoge de M. Roux," 1855; "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Roux, MA!TRE. See Rosso, IT,.
Roux de Fazillac, roo deli ft'ze'yfk', (PIERRE,) a
French revolutionist, born at Excideuil in 1743. He
was a member of the Convention, and voted for the
death of Louis XVI. He wrote a "History of the War
in Germany in 1756," (2 vols., 1803.) Died in 1833.
Roux-Lavergne, roo It've'Rn', (PIKRRE CELESTIN,)
a French publicist, born at Figeac in 1802. He aided
M. Buchez in the "Parliamentary History of the French
Revolution," (40 vols., 1833-38.)
Roux. La. See LEROUX.
Rovelli, ro-veyiee, (GIUSEPPE,) MARQUIS, an Italian
historian, born at Como in 1738. He published a
" History of Como," (5 vols., 1789 ef sey.) Died in 1813.
Rovere, de la. See SIXTUS IV. and JULIUS II.
Rovere della, del'la ro'vi-ra, (FRANCESCO MARIA,)
Duke of Urbino, an Italian general, born in 1490,
was a nephew of Pope Julius II. He commanded the
papal army, and took several towns from the French, in
It;i2. Having been appointed captain-general of the
Venetian armies about 1526, he displayed great military
skill in the war against Charles V. Died in 1538.
See DENNISTOUN, "Memoirs of the Dukes of Urbino," iRji ;
UGOI.INI, "Storia del Conti e Duclii d'Urbino," 2 vols., 1859;
" Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Rovere, della, (FRANCESCO MARIA,) born in 1548,
was a grandson of the preceding, and was eminent as a
patron of learning. He was the last Duke of Urbino.
He died in 1631, when Urbino was annexed to the Papal
States.
See UGOI.INI, "Storia dei Conti e Duchi d'Urbino," 1859.
Rovigo, de, Due. See SAVARY.
Row, ro, (JOHN,) a Scottish divine, born near Stirling
about 1526. He was agent of the Scottish clergy at the
Vatican, Rome, in 1550, and afterwards became a Prot
estant minister. He was one of the six ministers who
composed the Scottish Confession and " First Book of
Discipline." Died in 1580.
Row, (fonN,) a son of the preceding, was born at
Perth in 1568. It is stated that he could read the Old
Testament in Hebrew at the age of seven. He was
minister of the parish of Carnock for about fifty years,
and wrote a " History of the Kirk of Scotland from 1558
to 1637." Died in 1646.
Row, (ToilN,) a Hebrew scholar, born at Carnock
about 1598, was a son of the preceding. He was a
Covenanter in the civil war, and, while Cromwell was
in power, held the office of principal of King's College,
Aberdeen. lie published a Hebresv Grammar in 1644.
Died about 1672.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Rowan, ro'an, (STEPHEN C.,) a rear-admiral, born in
Ireland. He came to the United States in early yont!\
and entered the navy in 1826. He gained the rank of
commander about 1855. In February, 1862, he defeated
and destroyed six gunboats near Elizabeth City, North
Carolina. He commanded the fleet which co-operated
with General Burnside in the capture of Newbern,
March 14, 1862. In July, 1863, Captain Rowan took
command of the New Ironsides, which performed a
prominent part in the operations against the defences
of Charleston harbour, August-September, 1863. It is
stated that the New Ironsides was hit ninety-four times
in the actions of September 7 and 8. He was raised to
the rank of rear-admiral in July, 1866, and that of vice-
admiral in 1870.
See J. T. HEADI.KY, " Farragnt and our Naval Commanders. "
Rowe, ro, (El. iz \BKTH SINGER,) an English authoress,
born at llchester in 1674, became in 1709 the wife of
Thomas Rowe, noticed below. She wrote several works,
in prose and verse, one of which is entitled " Friendship
in Death," (1728.) Died in 1737. J^e^l^,^'^'"^-^ "
Rowe, (NICHOLAS,) an English dramatic poet, born
at Little Beckford, in Bedfordshire, in 1673. He studied
law in the Middle Temple, but did not practise. In
1698 he produced "The Ambitious Step-Mother," and
in 1702 the tragedy of "Tamerlane," which was very
popular. His other chief works are "The Fair Penitent,"
(1703,) "Ulysses," (1706,) "The Royal Convert," (1708,)
"Jane Shore," (1714,) and "Lady Jane Grey," (1715.)
He was under-secretary of state for three years while
the Duke of Queensberry was secretary of state. Rowe
produced a version of Lucan's " Pharsalia," which was
praised by Dr. Johnson, and an edition of Shikspeare's
works, with a life of the author, (1709.) He became
poet-laureate in 1714. Died in 1718.
See JOHNSON, " Lives of the English Poets;" B \KFU. " l!:o-
praphia Dramatics ;" CAMPBELL, "Specimens of the Mriiish Poets ;"
ALLIHONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Rowe, (THOMAS,) an English poet and historian,
born in 1687, married Elizabeth Singer, an authoress.
He wrote a Supplement to Plutarch's "Lives," (1728.)
Died in 1715.
Rowe, (THOMAS,) an English nonconformist minister,
born in Devonshire, wrote "The Christian's Work."
Died about 1698.
Row'lands, (HENRY,) a Welsh antiquary, born in
Anglesey. He published an account of that island,
called "Mona Restored," (" Mona Restaurata.") Died
in 1722.
Row'laiid-son, (THOMAS,) an English artist, noted
as a caricaturist, was born in London in 1756. Among
his works are the plates of "Doctor Syntax." Died
in 1827.
Rowley, row'le, (Sir Jos IAS,) a British admiral, born
in Ireland in 176^ ; died in 1842.
Rowley, row'le, (WILLIAM,) an English dramatist,
who flourished in the reign of James I. and was a
contemporary of Shakspeare. Among his plays are
a " Match at' Midnight," and "The Birth of Merlin."
Rowley, (Wn.i.iAM,) an English physician, born in
London in 174^, wrote "New School of Universal Medi
cine." ( " Schola Medicinae universalis nova," 1793.)
Died in 1806.
Row'ning, (Rev. JOHN',) an English mathematician,
born in 1699. He wrote on philosophy and mathe
matics. Died in 1771.
Rox-a'na, | Fr. ROXANE, rok'stn',] a beautiful Bac-
trian or Persian princess, was captured by the Macedo
nians in 327 li.c. Soon after this date she became the
wife of Alexander the Great. She had a son, Alexander,
(born in 323,) who was recognized as one of the heirs
of the king. She procured the death of Statira, one
of the wives of Alexander, and was put to death by
Cassander in 311 B.C.
See JUSTIN, books xii.-xv. ; ARKIAN, "Anabasis," books iv., vi.,
and vii.
Roxane. See ROXANA.
Roxas. See ROJAS.
Roxas or Rojas, de, da ro'iias, (DOMINGO,) a
Spanish Protestant, was originally a Dominican monk.
Having been condemned to death by the Inquisition,
he was burned at an auto de fe in Valladolid in 1559.
See PRRSCOTT, " History of Philip II.," vol. i. book ii.
Roxburgh, DUKK OF. See KER, (JoiiN.)
Roxburgh, rox'biir-eh, (WILLIAM,) an eminent bota
nist, born in Scotland in 1759, was employed for many
years as a physician in the service of the East India
Company. He introduced the culture of coffee, the
nutmeg, the breadfruit-tree, etc. into India. He was
superintendent of the botanic garden of Calcutta from
1793 to 1814. His chief works are entitled "Coroinan-
del Plants," and "Flora Indica," (3 vols., 1832.) Died
in 1815.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Roy, Rwa, (ANTOINE,) COUNT, a French financier
and legislator, born at Saviguy (Haute-Marne) in 1764.
He became a member of the Chamber of Deputies
in 1815, and was minister of finance from November,
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
ROT
1927
ROZIERE
1819, to December, 1821. lie obtained the same office
in [.'tnuary, 1828, and resigned in August, 1829. Died
in 1847.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Roy, (PIERRE CHARLES,) a French dramatic poet of
little merit, born in Paris in 1683 ; died in 1764.
Roy, (R.VMMOHUN.) See RAMMOHUN ROY.
Roy, (Major-General WILLIAM,) F.R.S., a British
surveyor, who acquired distinction by a trigonometrical
survey of Great Britain. lie received the Copley medal
in 1785 for his measurement of a base on Ilounslovv
Heath. Redirected the triangulation by which a portion
of the British arc of the meridian was measured in 1788.
He wrote "The Military Antiquities of the Romans in
North Britain," (1793.) Died in 1790.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Roy, de, deh Rwa, [-Lat. RE'GIUS,] (HENRI,) a Dutch
writer on medicine and philosophy, born at Utrecht in
1598. He published " Principles of Physics," (" Funda-
nienta Physices," 1648,) and other works. Died in 1679.
Roy, de, (JE.\\ BAPTISTS,) a Flemish painter of land
scape and cattle, born at Brussels in 1759; died in 1839.
Roy, lie. See LE ROY, (JULIEX DAVID.)
Roy, Le, leh kwa, [Lat. RE'GIUS,] (Louis,) a French
scholar, who became professor of Greek at Paris in
1570. He. wrote a "Life of Budaeus." Died in 1577.
Roye, de, deh Rwa, (Guv,) a French prelate, born
near Soissons about 1345. He became Archbishop of
Rheiins, and founded the College of Rheims at Paris.
Died in 1409.
Royen, vail, vtn roy'en, (ADRIAN,) a Dutch botanist,
born in 1705. He succeeded Boerhaave as professor of
botany at Leyden, and published " Floras Leidensis Pro-
dromus." (1740.) Died in 1779.
Royer, Rwa'ya', ( ALPHONSE,) a French dramatist,
born in Paris in 1803. He produced, besides other
works, "The Constable Bourbon," (2 vols., 1838,) " Don
Pasquale," an opera, (1843,) "The janissaries," (2 vols.,
1844,) and several comedies.
Royer, Kwa'ya', (Louis,) a Belgian or Dutch sculptor,
born at Malines in 1793. He became director of the
Royal Academy of Amsterdam.
Royer, de, deh Rwa'ya', (PAUL HENRI ERNEST,) a
French minister of state, born about 1808. He studied
law, and became a partisan of Napoleon III., who ap
pointed him procureur-general to the court of cassation
in 1853, and minister of justice in November, 1857.
Royer-Coliard, Rwa'ya' ko'l^K', (ALBERT PAUL,) a
French jurist, born in Paris in 1797, was a nephew of
the eminent statesman of that name. He obtained the
chair of the law of nations in Paris in 1829.
Royer-Collard, ( ANTOINE ATHANASE, ) an able
French physician, born at Sompuis in 1768, was a
brother of Pierre Paul, noticed below. He founded in
1803 the " Bibliotheque Medicale," a periodical. In
1806 lie was placed at the head of the institution for
the insane at Charenton. He became professor of legal
medicine in Paris in 1816, and physician-in-ordinary
to Louis XVIII. He wrote some able treatises on
insanity, etc. Died in 1825.
See PHILIPPE, " Royer-Collard," 1861 ; "Biographie Medicale;"
" Xouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Royer-Collard, (Hii'i'OLYTE Louis,) a French phy
sician, born in Paris in 1802, was a son of the preceding.
He succeeded Desgenettes as professor of hygiene in
1838. Died in 1850.
See BOUCHARDOT, "filoges de Royer-Collard et d'A. Richard,"
1853.
Royer-Collard, (PIERRE PAUL,) an eminent French
philosopher and statesman, born at Sompuis (Marne) on
the 2ist of June, 1763. His father's family name was
Royer, to which he joined the name of his wife, Mademoi
selle Collard. He chose the profession of an advocate,
and favoured the popular cause in the Revolution, but
was always a moderate royalist. From 1790 to 1792 he
acted as a clerk ( ' secretaire-greffier ) of the municipality
of Paris. He retired for safety to the country in June,
1793, and remained in privacy during the reign of terror.
About 1810 he was appointed professor of philosophy in
the LTniversity of France. He adopted an eclectic sys
tem of philosophy, and became the founder of a school
called the Doctrinaire. His system of philosophy is the
same as the Spiritualism of Reid. Jouffroy and Cousin
were his most eminent disciples.
In 1815 he was appointed president of the commission
of public instruction, and elected to the Chamber of
Deputies, in which he supported liberal measures. He
preferred a moderate and middle course between that
of the ultra-royalists and that of the Bonapartists and
democrats. He was admitted into the French Academy
in 1827, and was elected president of the Chamber of
Deputies in 1828. In 1830 he presented to Charles X.
the address of two hundred and twenty-one deputies
who protested against the arbitrary measures of the
court. He died in September, 1845, leaving a fair repu
tation for integrity, firmness, and civic virtues. His last
words were, "There is nothing solid or substantial in
this world except religious ideas."
See BARAXTE, "Vie politique de Royer-Collard," 2 vo's., 1861 ;
PHIUPPK, "Royer-Collard," 1861 ; DE REMUSAT, "Eloge de
Royer-Collard;" M. DE LACOMBE, ''Vie de Royer-Collard," 1863:
GKNTV JJE HUSSY, " Memoires sur Royer-Collard ;" L. DE LOMENIE,
" M. Royer-Collard, par un Homine de Rien," 1842; "Nouvelle
Biographic Generate ;" "North British Review" for August, 1863.
Royle, roil, (JoiiN FORBES,) M.D., an English bota
nist, born at Cawnpore about 1799. He was educated
at Edinburgh, and entered the service of the East India
Company as assistant surgeon. He made a large collec
tion of the plants of Hindustan. Having returned to
England about 1831, he published an important work
entitled " Illustrations of the Botany and other Branches
of Natural History of the Himalaya Mountains," (2 vols.,
1839.) He was professor of materia inedica in King's
College, London, and published a "Manual of Materia
Medica." Died near London in 1858.
Royou, Rwa'yoo', (JACQUES COKENTIX,) a French
historian and advocate, born at Quimper about 1745.
He published a " Roman History," (4 vols., 1806,) a
" History of France," (6 vols., 1819,) and other histories ;
also the " Fault- Finder," (" Frondeur,") a comedy,
(1819.) Died in 1828.
Royou, (THOMAS MAURICE,) ABBE, a journalist, born
at Quimper about 1740, was a brother of the preceding.
He was professor of philosophy at the College Louis-le-
Grand for twenty years, and editor of the " Ami du Roi,"
a royalist journal of Paris, (1790-92.) Died in 1792.
Roze, roz, (NICOLAS,) a French philanthropist of
Marseilles, born in 1671, was a merchant in his youth.
His name was rendered memorable by his devoted and
courageous conduct during the prevalence of the plague
at Marseilles in 1720. Died in 1733.
Roze, (NICOLAS,) ABBE, a French composer of sacred
music, born at Bourg-Neuf in 1745. He was appointed
maitre de chapelle to the First Consul, but declined the
office because he was an ecclesiastic. Died in 1819.
Rozee, ro'za', MADEMOISELLE, a Dutch artist, born
at Leyden in 1632. She produced landscapes, portraits,
etc. embroidered with silk floss. Died in 1682.
Rozet, ro'zV, (CLAUDE ANTOINE,) a French geolo
gist, born at Chauvart (Marne) in 1798. lie published,
besides other works, " Travels in Algeria," (3 vols.,
1833.) Died in 1858.
Rozier, ro'ze-a', (FRANgois,) ABBE, a French bota
nist and writer on agriculture, born at Lyons in 1734.
He edited at Paris the "Journal de Physique" for ten
years, (1771-80.) His principal work is a treatise on
agriculture, "Cours complet d'Agriculture theoriquc et
pratique, "(9 vols., 1781-93,) which was highly esteemed.
He was killed in his house by a bomb during the siege
of Lyons, in September, 1793.
See A. DE BOISSIEU, " filo^e de F. Rozier," 1832; COCHARD,
"Notice histonque sur M. 1'Abbe F. Rozier," 1832; "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Roziere, de la, deh It ro'ze-aiR', (Louis FRAN
gois Carlet — kaVLV,) MARQUIS, a French general
and writer on military tactics, was born near Cliarleville
in 1735. He served in the Seven Years' war with
distinction, became marechal-de-camp in 1781, and
emigrated in 1791, after which he fought against the
French republic. He wrote, besides other works, "The
Campaign of the Prince of Conde in Flanders in 1674,"
(1765.) Died at Lisbon in 1808.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
t: as k: c as s; g hard; g as^'; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JjJ^See Explanations, p. 23.)
ROZOI
1928
RUCHRATH
Rozoi, de, deh ro'zwi', (BARNAKE FARMAIN, ) a
mediocre French litterateur, born in Paris in 1743, was
a royalist in the Revolution. He was guillotined in
1792.
Rozoir, du. See Du ROZOIR.
Rualdus. See RUAULT.
Ruar, roo'ir, [Lat. RUA'RUS,] (MARTIN,) a learned
German controversial writer, born in Holstein in 1588,
was a Protestant minister. Died near Dantzic in 1657.
"His 'Epistles,'" says Hallain, " throw much light on
the theological opinions of the age.'' ("Introduction to
the Literature of Europe.")
See BAYLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Ruarus. See RUAR.
Ruault, rii'o', [Lat. RUAI/DUS,] (JEAN,) a French
classical scholar, born at Coutances about 1575. He was
twice elected rector of the University of Paris, and he
became professor of belles-lettres at the College Royal
in 1629. He published a good edition of Plutarch,
(1624.) Died in 1636.
Rubbi, roob'bee, (ANDREA,) an Italian scholar and
mediocre poet, born at Venice in 1738. He edited
" Parnasso Italiano," (56 vols., 1784-91,) which is a col
lection of Italian poetry. Among his best works is a
"Dictionary of Sacred and Profane Antiquities," (16
vols., 1793-1805.) Died in 1817.
See TIPALDO, " I'iografia degli Italian! illustri."
Rubeis or Rubeus. See Rossi.
Ruben, the French of RKUBKN, which see.
Ruben, roo'ben, (CHRISTOPH,) director of the Acad
emy of Arts at Vienna, was born at Treves in 1805. He
studied painting under Cornelius.
Rubens, roo'benz, [Fr. pron. rii'bSN',] (ALBERT,) an
antiquary, born at Antwerp in 1614, was a son of the
great painter. He wrote " On the Clothing Material
of the Ancients," (" De Re Vestiaria Veterum," 1665,)
which was edited by Graevius. Died in 1657.
Rubens, (PETER PAUL,) the most celebrated of the
Flemish painters, was born at Siegen (not, as often stated,
at Cologne) in 1577. His birth is variously dated in
May and on the 2gth of June. lie was the son of John
Rubens, a lawyer, and Mary Pypeling, both natives of
Antwerp, to which, after the death of John Rubens, his
widow returned with her children in 1587. His early
masters in art were A. van Noort and Otto van Veen,
(or Otto Venius.) In 1600 he went to Italy, where he
passed about eight years at Venice, Mantua, Rome,
Florence, and Genoa, and painted numerous works.
He returned to Antwerp in 1608, was appointed court
painter to the archduke Albert, and married Isabelle
Brant or Brandt in 1609. Soon after this date he pro
duced his "Descent from the Cross," which is con
sidered by many his master-piece and is now in the
cathedral of Antwerp. He rose rapidly to fame and
affluence, and was employed in diplomatic missions by
the Flemish court. In 1629 he was sent as ambassador
to England, where he painted for Charles I. the alle
gorical picture of "War and Peace." lie succeeded
in his mission, the object of which was to restore peace
between England and Spain. Having lost his first
wife, he married Helena Forman or Fourment, (1630,)
who was only sixteen years of age. He received
the honour of knighthood in 1630 from Charles I. of
England, and also from Philip IV. of Spain. He was
simple and temperate in his habits. Rising early, he
went in the morning to church to hear mass. In the
evening he often took a ride on horseback.
Rubens painted history, portraits, landscapes, and ani
mals with equal success, lie was a magnificent colorist,
was unsurpassed in technical skill and facility of execu
tion, but was deficient in a taste for form. Among his
famous productions are "The Last Judgment," at Mu
nich, " The Battle of the Amazons," " The Rape of the
Sabines," and " The Judgment of Paris," in London. It
is stated that the gallery of Munich contains no less than
ninety-five of his works. He died at Antwerp in May,
1640. His principal pupils were Van Dyck, Jordaens,
Van Thulden, Diepenbeck, and Quellyn. " Rubens,"
says Ruskin, "was an honourable and entirely well-
intentioned man. He is a healthy, worthy, kind-hearted,
courtly-phrased — Animal, — without any clearly per
ceptible traces of a soul, except when he paints chil
dren. . . . We saw how Veronese painted himself and
his family as worshipping the Madonna. Rubens also
painted himself and his family in an equally elaborate
piece. But they are not worshipping the Madonna :
they are performing the Madonna and her saintly
entourage." (" Modern Painters.")
See A. VAN HASSKI.T, "Histoire tie Rubens," 1840; G. AI.YIN,
"Vie de Rubens," 1840; WAAGKN, "P. P. Rubens, sein Leben und
Genius," iS^o.Ctranslated into English by R. R. NOEL ;) A. MICHIEI.S,
"Rubenset 1'Ecole d'Anvers," 1854; G. PLANCHK, " Rubens, sa Vie
et ses CEuvres," 1854 : A. SIRF.T, " Raphael et Rubens," 1849; W.
NOEL SAINSBURY, "Original Unpublished Papers illustrative of the
Life of Sir Peter Paul Rubens,'* 185(1 ; WIKKTZ, "P. P. Rubens,"
1840; MICHEL, " Histoire de Rubens," 1771 ; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale ;" "Edinburgh Review" 1'or January, 1841, and January,
1863.
Rubens, (PHILIP,) a Flemish philologist, born at
Cologne in 1574, was a brother of the preceding. He-
was appointed secretary of state by the senate of Antwerp
in 1609. Died in 1611.
Rubini, roo-bee'nee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) a popu
lar Italian vocalist, born at Romano, near Bergamo, in
1795. "e performed with success in Paris and London.
He was reputed the first Italian tenor of his time. Died
in 1854.
See " Biographic Universelle," (new edition.)
Rubini, (PiETKO,) an Italian medical writer, born at
Parma in 1760. He was professor of medicine at Parma.
Died in 1819.
Rubio, roo'be-o, (LuiGi,) an Italian painter of history,
born at Rome in 1797. He settled at Geneva about
I8.S7-
Rubruquis, de, deh ru'biui'kess', ( GUILT.AUME, )
sometimes called De Ruysbroek (rois'brook) or Rys-
bruck, (ns'l)Rook,) a mediaeval traveller and missionary,
born in Brabant about 1220 or 1230. In 1253 he and
two other friars were sent to Tartary by Louis IX. of
France, who charged them to propagate Christianity
among the Tartars, to search for Prester John, and to
visit Sartach, a Tartar chief who was reported to be a
Christian. Rubruquis performed this arduous enterprise
bravely, and, returning through Persia and Asia Minor,
reached home in August, 1255. He wrote a narrative,
in which the Caspian Sea is correctly described.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Rucellai, roo-chel-11', | Lat. ORICEI.LA'RIUS,] (BER
NARDO,) an Italian writer, born of a noble family at
Florence in 1449. He married Nannina, a sister of
Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was a liberal patron
of the Platonic Academy. His chief work is entitled
"On the City of Rome," ("De Urbe Roma,") written
in elegant Latin. Died in 1514.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Rucellai, (GIOVANNI,) an eminent poet, born at
Florence in 1475, was a son of the preceding, and a
cousin-german to Pope Leo X. lie wrote " Rosmunda,"
a drama, (1525,) and a poem on bees, (" Le Api,") which
is regarded as his finest production. It was printed in
1539. He was sent as nuncio to France by Leo X.
Died in 1525.
See NICERON, " Memoires ;" GINGUKNR, "Histoire Litteraire
d'ltalie."
Ruchat, rii'sha"', (ABRAHAM,) a Swiss writer, born
about 1680, taught theology at the Academy of Lau
sanne. He published a "History of the Reformation
of Switzerland, 1516-56," (6 vols., 1727-40.) Died
in 1750.
Ruchel, von, fon rooK/el, (ERNST FRIEDRICH Wi'.-
HK.LM,) a Prussian general, born in Pomerania in 1/54.
He commanded a division at the battle of Jena, (1806.)
Died in 1823.
Ruchrath, rooic'rSt, (called JOHANN von Wcsel —
fon wa'zel,) a German Reformer, born at Ober-Wesel,
on the Rhine, about 1410. He became a professor of
divinity at Erfurt, and afterwards preached at Worms
for seventeen years. He wrote a " Treatise against
Indulgences," and a work "Concerning the Authority,
Duty, and Power of Pastors." He was accused of
heresy, tried before the Inquisition in 1479, and, to
escape death or torture, recanted. Died in 1481.
See HODGSON, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867.
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; mS :; n6:; good; moon;
R UCKER T
1929
RUDOLPH
Riickert, ruVkert, (FRIEDRICH,) a popular German
lyric poet and Oriental scholar, born at Schweinfurt in
1789. He studied at Jena, and in 1818 visited Rome.
In 1826 he became professor of Oriental languages at
Erlangen. His "German Poems" came out in 1814,
and were followed by "Napoleon; a Political Comedy,"
(1816,) "The Crown of the Time," (1817,) and "Eastern
Roses," (1822.) He also published " Legends and Tales
of the East," (1837,) "Brahman Tales," (1839,) and a
translation of Hareeree's (Hariri's) " Makamat," under
the title of " Metamorphoses of Abu-Seid." His poems
are remarkable for beauty of versification as well as the
great variety of forms of which he is a master, and he
resembles in glowing fancy and inventive power the
Eastern poets whom he made his study. He was pro
fessor in the University of Berlin from 1840 to 1849.
] )ied in 1860.
See LONG FBI. i.ow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Atlantic
Monthly" for July, 1866; G. PFIZKR, "Uhiand und Riickert;
kritischer Versueh," 1837; "Biographic Universelle."
Riickert, (HEINRICH,) a German historian, son of
the preceding, was born at Coburg in 1823. He pub
lished "Annals of German History," (1850,) and other
works.
Rudbeck, rood'bek, [Lat. RUDBECK'IUS,] (JOHAN,)
a learned and meritorious Swedish prelate and Re
former, born at Oerebro about 1580. He was chaplain
to Gustavus Adolphus, and Bishop of Westeras. Died
in 1646.
Rudbeck, [Lat. RUDBECK'IUS,] (OLAUS or OLAF,)
an eminent Swedish anatomist and botanist, born at
Westeras in 1630, was a son of the preceding. He dis
covered the lymphatic vessels about 1650, after which
he became professor at Upsal. His principal works are
'• Atlantica," (4 vols., 1675-98.) in which, with great
learning and ingenuity, he maintains that Sweden is the
"Atlantis" of Plato, and a botanical treatise called
" Elysian Fields," (" Campi Elysii," 2 vols., 1701.) He
was remarkable for versatility and activity of mind.
The genus Rudbeckia was named in his honour. Died
in 1702.
See XICERON', " Memoires ;" S \x, " Onnmasticon ;" " Biogra-
phiskt-Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man."
Rudbeck, (OLAUS,) THE YOUNGER, a naturalist and
philologist, born at Upsal in 1660, was a son of the pre
ceding. He succeeded his father as professor of botany
and anatomy at Upsal, and published some works on
botany, etc. He assisted his father in writing the
"Campi Elysii." Died in 1740.
See C. R. BERCH, " Olaus Rudbeck's Lefvernesbeskrifning,"
1798.
Rudberg, rood'beug, (FKEDRIK,) a Swedish natu
ral philosopher, born at Norrkjoping in 1800. He
became professor of physics at Upsal about 1828. He
was the author of a number of able treatises on phi
losophy, and ascertained the rate of the expansion of air
by heat. Died in 1839.
Rud'borne or Rod'burne, (THOMAS,) an English
prelate and skilful architect. lie was chaplain to Henry
V., and became Bishop of Saint David's in 1433. He
built the tower and gateway of Merton College, Oxford.
Died about 1442.
Rudder, de, deh rii'daiR', (Louis HENRI,) a French
painter of history, born in Paris in 1807. He gained a
medal of the second class in 1848.
Rud'di-maii, (THOMAS,) an eminent Scottish gram
marian and critic, born in the parish of Boyndie, county
of Banff, in October, 1674, was educated at King's Col
lege, Aberdeen. He published in 1714 his " Rudiments
of the Latin Tongue," a popular school-book. Among
his other works is " Institutes of Latin Grammar,"
(" Grammaticas Latinae Institutiones," 1725-32.) Died
in 1757.
See GEORGE CHALMERS. " L;!e of Ruddiman," 1794; CHAMBERS,
" Biographical Dictionary of Imminent Scotsmen."
Rude, riid, (FRAxqois,) an eminent French sculptor,
born at Dijon in 1784. He went to Rome in 1812 to
pursue his studies, and returned to Paris about 1827.
He adorned with some figures the Arc de 1'fitoile at
Paris. At the Exposition of 1855 he gained the grand
medal of honour. Among his works are a marble
statue of Joan of Arc in the Luxembourg, and bronze
statues of Monge and Marshal Ney. Died in 1855.
See " Rude, sa Vie, ses QEuvres," etc., (anonymous,) Paris, 1856 ;
"Biographic Universelle."
Rudel, rii'clel', (GEOFFROI,) a French poet of the
latter part of the twelfth century, was Prince of Blaye
and a favourite of Geoffrey Plantagenet.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Rudelbach, roo'del-baK', (ANDREAS,) a Danish the
ologian, born at Copenhagen in 1792. He published
a number of dogmatic works, in which he advocates the
orthodox Lutheran creed. He became superintendent
at Glanchau, Saxony, in 1829. Died in 1862.
Riidiger, ru'dic-er, (FEODOR VASILIEVITCH,) COUNT,
a Russian general, born about 1790. He commanded a
division in the war against the Turks in 1828, and gained
several victories over the Poles in 1831. Having obtained
command of a corps-d'armee in the Hungarian war, he
defeated Gorgei, who surrendered to him at^VUagos in
August, 1849. Died in 1856.
Ru'ding, (Rev. ROGERS,) an English antiquary and
numismatist, born at Leicester in 1751. He became
vicar of Maldon, in Surrey, in 1793. He published an
important work, entitled " Annals of the Coinage of
Britain and its Dependencies," (4 vols., 1817.) Died
in 1820.
Rudolf. See RUDOLPH.
Rudolph or Rudolf OF EMS, a mediaeval German
poet or minnesinger, born in Switzerland, flourished
between 1220 and 1250. His works are highly extolled
by so'.ne critics.
'Ru'dolph (or Ru'dolf) [Lat. RUDOL'PHUS ; It. Ri-
DOLFO, re-dol'fo] OF HABSIHIRG, |Fr. RODOLPHE DE
HABSBOURG, n/dolf deh hibs'booR',] Emperor of Ger
many, and founder of the Austrian empire, was born in
1218. He was the son of Albert IV., Count of Habs
burg, and at an early age fought under Frederick II. in
Italy. In 1255 he assisted Ottocar, King of Bohemia,
in his crusade against the pagans of Prussia. On the
j death of his father, in 1240, he had succeeded to his
possessions, and was involved in many contests with the
feudal barons of the country, in which he was generally
victorious. His high reputation for courage and love
of justice caused him to be elected in 1273 Emperor
of Germany, and he was soon after crowned at Aix-la-
Chapelle. He procured from Pope Gregory X. the
ratification of his right, which had been contested by
Alfonso of Castile and Ottocar of Bohemia; and, after
a war with the latter, a treaty was concluded by which
Rudolph confirmed him in the possession of Bohemia and
Moravia. He had previously given two of his daughters
in marriage to Albert, Duke of Saxony, and the Count
Palatine Louis of Bavaria. Having secured himself on
the throne, he gave his attention to various reforms in
the government and to restraining the power of the
turbulent nobles, nearly seventy of whose castles in
Thuringia he is said to have destroyed. He afterwards
gave one of his daughters in marriage to Wenzel, the
young king of Bohemia. He died in 1291, having been
unable to secure the election of his son Albert as emperor,
and was succeeded by Adolphus of Nassau.
See J. J. FISCHEK, " Biographic Rudolph's I. von Habsburg,"
1784: HUNKI.ER. " Rodolpha de Habsbourg Empereur," etc., 1843;
E. M. VON LICHNOWSKY, " Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg," 8
vols., 1836-42; L. MEISTER. "Kaiser Rudo'ph von Habsb'Tg,"
17^3; M.ULATH, " Histoire d'Autriche;" " Nouvelle Biogr, phie
Generale."
Rudolph (Rudolf) II., Emperor of Germany, born
in 1552, was the son of Maximilian II., and was educated
at the Spanish court. He ascended the throne in Oc
tober, 1576, and, through the influence of the Jesuits,
prohibited the exercise of the Protestant religion and
gave all the principal offices to the Catholics. He was
an intolerant and incapable ruler. Absorbed in the
study of astrology and alchemy, he neglected the affairs
of his empire, which was subject to much disorder during
his reign. To protect themselves against persecution,
the Protestant princes of Germany formed in 1608 a
confederation, of which the Elector Palatine Frederick
IV. was the head. Between 1608 and 1611 his brother
Matthias extorted from Rudolph successively the sove
reignty of Austria, Moravia, Hungary, Bohemia, etc.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
RUDOLPH
1930
RUFUS
He died, without issue, in January, 1612, and was suc
ceeded by Matthias.
See P. SANTORIO, "Vite di Ridolfo II. e Mattias Imperatori,"
1664; F. S. KURZ, "Oesterreich unter Rudolph," 1821; IMMANUEL
WKUER, " Dissertatio de Rudolpho II.," 1707.
Rudolph von Rothenberg, roo'dolf fon ro'ten-
beRG', a German soldier and minnesinger, lived under
the reign of the emperor Frederick II.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Rudolphi, roo-dol'fee, (CARL ASMUND,) an able
Swedish naturalist and physiologist, born at Stockholm
in 1771. He became professor of anatomy and physi
ology at Berlin in 1810. Among his numerous works
are "The Anatomy of Plants," (1807,) "The Natural
History of Entozoa," (2 vols., 1808-10,) and "The Prin
ciples of Physiology," (3 vols., 1821-28.) Died in Berlin
in 1832.
See J. MUI.LER, "Gedachtnissrede auf C. A. Rudolphi," 1837;
"Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Rudra, rdod'ra, [etymology uncertain,] in the Hindoo
mythology, a name of Siva, also applied to certain mani
festations of Siva in his character of fate or destiny.
The eleven Rudras appear to correspond in the main,
though not in number, to the Parcas of the Romans
and the Moira: (Nlolpai) of the Greeks. (See SIVA.)
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon ;" WILSON, " Sanscrit Dictionary."
Rud'yard, (Sir BENJAMIN,) an English gentleman
and elegant scholar, born in 1572. He became an influ
ential and eloquent member of the Long Parliament, in
which he acted with Hampden and Pym. In the civil
war which began in 1642 he was a moderate partisai
of the Parliament, and often raised his voice for peace.
Some of his speeches and poems have been published.
Died in 1658.
See "Memoirs of Sir Benjamin Rudyard," by J. A. MANNING,
1841.
Rue, de la, (CHARLES.) See LA RUE.
Rue, de la, deh It rii, (CHARLES,) a French Bene
dictine and eminent scholar, born at Corbie, Picardy, ii
1684. He published a good edition of the works of
Origen, (3 vols., 1733.) Died in Paris in 1739. His
nephew, VINCENT DE LA RUE, born in 1707, published
the 4th volume of Origen in 1759. Died in 1762.
Rue, de la, (GERVAIS.) See DELARUE.
Rueda, de, (LOPE.) See Lori-: DE RUEDA.
Ruediger. See RUDIGER.
Ruehle von Lilienstern. See RUHLF.
Ruel, rii'el', [Lat. RUEI/I.IUS,] (|EAN,) a French phy
sician and botanist, born at Soissons in 1479. He was
physician to Francis I., and wrote, besides other works,
"On the Nature of Plants," ("De Natnra Stirpium,"
1536.) Died in Paris in 1537.
Ruellius. See RUEL.
Rueppell. See RUN-ELL.
Riite or Ruete, rii'teh, (CHRISTIAN GEORG, ) a
German medical writer and oculist, born near Bremen
in 1810. He settled at Leipsic in 1852.
Ruff'head, (OWEN,) an English barrister and writer,
born in Westminster about 1723. Among his works is
a "Life of Alexander Pope." Died in 1769.
Ruffi or Ruffy, de, deh rii'fe', (ANTOINE,) a French
historian, born at Marseilles in 1607, wrote a " History
of Marseilles," (1643.) Died in 1689.
Ruffi or Ruffy, de, (Louis ANTOINE,) a historian, a
son of the preceding, was born at Marseilles in 1657;
died in 1724.
Ruffin, rii'faN', (FRANCOIS,) COUNT, a French gene
ral, born at Bolbec in 1771. He served with distinc
tion at Austerlitz in 1805, and at Eylau. He became
a general of division about 1808, after which lie was
employed in Spain. He was mortally wounded near
Cadiz in 1811.
Ruffin, [Lat. RUFFI'NUS,] (PIERRE JEAN MARIE,) a
diplomatist and linguist, of French extraction, born at
Salonica, in Turkey, in 1742. He became interpreter
to the king for Oriental languages at Paris in 1774,
and charge-d'affaires at Constantinople in 1798. Died
in 1824.
See BIANCIII, " Notice historique sur M. Ruffin," 1825.
Ruffini, roof-fee'nee, an Italian patriot, known under
the pseudonym of LORENZO BENONI, was born at Genoa
about 1800. In 1833 he took refuge in England, where
he wrote interesting Memoirs. He was appointed am
bassador to Paris by Charles Albert in 1848.
See the "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1854; "Edin
burgh Review" for June, 1853; " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1853.
Ruffini, (PAOLO,) an Italian mathematician, born at
Valentano (Papal States) in 1765. He was professor
of mathematics and medicine at Modena, and author of
several works on algebra, which were highly esteemed.
Died at Modena in 1822.
See LOMBARDI, "Notizie sulla Vita di P. Ruffini," 1824.
Ruffmus. See RUFINUS, and RUFFIN.
Ruffo, rooffo, (DiONioi FAKRIZIO,) an Italian cardinal
and general, born at Naples, or in Calabria, about 1744.
He raised in Calabria a large body of royalists, called
the army of the Holy Faith, which, under his command,
expelled the French and republicans from the country
in 1799 and restored King Ferdinand TV. to the throne.
He took at Naples a number of republican chiefs as
prisoners of war, who were treacherously put to death
by order of the king. Died in 1827.
See LACCHINEI.M, "Memorie sulla Vita di F. D. Ruffo," 1836;
" Nouvelle Biographic Genera'e."
Ruffo, (FABRIZIO,) Prince of Castelcicala, an Italian
diplomatist, born at Naples about 1755. He was ac
cessary to the judicial murder of the republicans who
were taken prisoners and executed in 1799. He was
Neapolitan ambassador at Paris from 1815 until his
denth, which occurred in 1832.
Ruffy. See RUFFI.
Rufin. See RUFINUS.
Rufino, roo-fee'no, (CASIMIR RUFIXO Ruiz,) a Span
ish economist, born at Soto de Cameras in 1806. He
published, besides other works, "The Universal History
of Commerce," ("La Historia mercantil universal," 2
vols., 18^2-53.)
Ru-fi'nus, [Fr. RUFIN, rii'faN',] an ambitious Roman
courtier, born at Elusa, in Gaul, about 335 A.D. He
gained the favour of the emperor Tlieodosius at Con
stantinople, and became in 394 chief minister. He
rendered himself odious by his cruelty, and engaged in
a disloyal intrigue with Alaric the Visigoth, in order to
thwart Stilico, who was his rival. lie was assassinated
in 395 by a soldier, at the instigation of Gainas, a friend
of Stilico. He was the subject of Claudian's poem
" In Rufinum."
Rufinus, surnamed TORA'NIUS, TORA'NUS, TYRAN'-
NIUS, or TURRA'NIUS, a theologian and monk, born
about 350 A.D. He is supposed to have been a native
of Aqnileia. In earlv life he was a friend of Saint
Jerome. He went to Palestine in 377, and built a mon
astery on Mount Olivet, where he passed many years,
and translated some works of Origen, whose doctrines
he favoured. On this subject he was involved in a con
troversy with Saint Jerome, who denounced him with
extreme animosity. Rufinus wrote, besides other works,
nn " Explanation of the Apostles' Creed," and translated
into Latin several works of the Greek Fathers. lie
was an able writer. Died in 410.
S';e FONTANINI, "Historia literaria Aquilejensis;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Rufinus, (LiciNius,) a Roman jurist, who flourished
about 215 A.D.
Ru'fus or Ru'phus, an ancient Greek medical writer
>f Ephesus, called RUFUS EI-HESIUS, of whom little is
known. According to Suidas, he lived in the reign of
Trajan, (98-117 A.D.) He wrote, besides other works,
an interesting treatise on anatomy, entitled "On the
Names of the Parts of the Human Body," which is
extant and was printed at Paris in 1554.
See SPRENGEL, " Histoire de la Medecine."
Rufus, (M. Ccelius,) a Roman orator, born at Puteoli
in 82 H.C., was a friend of Cicero, who calls him " adoles-
centem illustri ingenio." In the year 56 he was accused
)f an attempt to poison Clodia, a woman of depraved
morals. He was defended by Cicero and acquitted. lie
Became tribune of the people in 52 K.C., and supported
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
RUFUS
RUM 3 OLD
Milo against Clodius. In 49 B.C. he .was a partisan of
Caesar. Died in 48 B.C.
See CICERO, " Oratio pro M. Ccelio."
Rufus. ( RUTILIUS,) a Roman orator, who became
consul in 105 n.c. and was banished unjustly in 92 B.C.
Rufus Fes'tus or Sex'tus Ru'fus, a Latin his
torian, lived between 350 and 400 A.n. He wrote an
Abridged History of Rome, (" Breviarium cle Victoriis
et Provinces Populi Roman!.")
Ruge, roo'geh, (ARNOLD,) a German scholar and
journalist, born at Bergen, on the island of RUgen, in
1802, studied at the University of Jena. During a five
years' imprisonment to which he was condemned for
his liberal opinions, he translated the " CEdipus in
Colonos" of Sophocles. After his release he became
associated with Echtermeyer as editor of the " Halli-
schen Jahrbiicher," which was suppressed in 1843. I'1
1848 he published at Leipsic a radical journal entitled
" Reform," and represented Breslau in the Frankfort
Parliament. In 1850 he repaired to London, where he
wrote a German translation of the " Letters of Junius"
and the works of P. Courier.
Rugendas, roo-geVdas, (GEORG PHII.TPP,) one of
the greatest battle-painters of Germany, was born at
Augsburg in 1666. He visited Rome and Venice, and
alter his return became director of the Academy of
Augsburg in 1710. He also produced a number of en
gravings, among which is "The Siege of Augsburg,"
of which he was an eye-witness. Died in 1742.
See J. C. FiisST.i. " Leben Georg Philinp Rugendas," 175^: C.
BLANC, " Histoire dss Peintres ;" NAGLER, " Ailgemeines Kiinstler-
Lexikon."
Rugendas, (GEORG PHILIPP,) a painter and engraver,
born at Augsburg in 1701, was a son of the preceding.
Died in 1774.
Rugendas, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN,) a skilful engraver,
born at Augsburg in 1708, was a brother of the pre
ceding. Died in 1781.
Rugendas, (JOHANN MORITZ,) a German painter
and designer, a relative of the preceding, was born at
Augsburg about 1800. He spent many years in South
America, and published in 1827 " A Painter's Journey
in Brazil." His collection of nearly three thousand
pictures and designs was purchased by the Bavarian
government. Died in 1858.
See NAGI.EK, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexi'con."
Ruggieri, rood-ja'ree, (CoxsTANTiN,) an Italian phi
lologist and antiquary, born near Ravenna in 1714;
died in 1766.
Rug'gle, (GEORGE.) an English dramatist, born at
Lavenham in 1575, was a Fellow of a college at Cam
bridge. He wrote a satirical play entitled " Ignoramus,"
(1614.) Died in 1622.
Ruggles, rug'gelz, (DANIEL,) an American general in
the Confederate service, born in Massachusetts about
1814.
Ruhl, rool, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN,) a German sculptor
and painter, born at Cassel in 1764; died in 1842.
Ruhl, riil, (PHILIPPE JACQUES,) a French Jacobin and
member of the Convention, was born near Strasburg.
He killed himself in May, 1795.
Riihle von Lilienstern, riih'Ieh fon lee'le-en-ste'Rn'.
(JOHANN JAKOB OTTO AUGUST,) a Prussian general and
distinguished writer, born at Berlin in 1780, served in
the campaigns of 1813-15. He published several mili
tary and historical works, among which is a " Historical
Sketch of the Prussian Nation," (1837.) Died in 1847.
Se'> BROCK HAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon."
Ruhmkorff, room'koRf, (NT.,) a mechanician, born in
Germany. He settled in Paris, and gained distinction as
a maker of electro-magnetic apparatus, coil-machines, etc.
Ruhnken, roon'ken, or Rulineken, roo'neh-ken,
[Lat. RUHNKE'NIUS,] (DAVID.) an eminent German
philologist and critic, born at Stolpe, in Pomerania, in
1723. He studied history, law, and classical literature
at Wittenberg. Through the influence of his friend
the celebrated Hemsterhuys, he was appointed in 1757
lector of the Greek language in the University of I^ey-
den, and in 1761 succeeded Oudendorp as professor of
history, eloquence, and antiquities in that city. Among
his numerous and valuable works are editions of the
"Lexicon of Timasus," of Velleius Paterculus, Homer's
" Hymn to Ceres," with a Latin translation and com
mentary, (1780,) and the works of Muretus, (4 vols.,
1789.) He also wrote several Latin essays of remark
able elegance, among which we may name his " Epistolae
Critics," (1751,) "Eulogy on Hemsterhuys," (1768,) and
" Dissertation on the Life and Writings of Longinus,"
(1776.) He died at Leyclen in 1797, with the reputa
tion of one of the first critics and Latin writers of the
eighteenth century.
See D. WYTTENBACH, "Vita Ruhnkenii," 1799; RINK, " T.
Hemsterlniys und D. Rulineken," iSoi ; MEUSEL, " Lexikon ;"
HIKSCHING, " Historiocli-literarisches Handbuch;" "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Genera'ie."
Ruhnkeiiius. See RUHNKEN.
Runs or Ruehs, riis, (CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH,) a
German historian, born in Pomerania in 1780, became
professor of history in Berlin. He wrote, besides other
works, a " History of Sweden," (5 vols., 1803-13,) which
is commended, and a " Manual of Mediaeval History,"
(1816.) Died in 1820.
Ruinart, rii-e'ntR', (TuiERRi,) DOM, a learned French
writer and Benedictine monk, born at Rheims in 1657.
He became a pupil and coadjutor of Mabillon. In 1689
he published the " Acts of the First Martyrs," (" Acta
primorum Martyrum." He took a large part in the
composition of Mabillon's "Acta Sanctorum," (1700.)
Died in 1709.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Ruisch or Ruysch, roisK, (FREDERIC,) an eminent
Dutch anatomist, born at the Hague in 1638. He was
professor of anatomy at Amsterdam from 1665 until his
death. He discovered a mode of preserving dead
bodies for many years. He made several discoveries
in anatomy, and published an "Anatomical Treasury,"
("Thesaurus anatomicus," 1701-15,) which is said to
be a capital work. Peter the Great purchased his
anatomical collection for 30,000 florins. Died in 1731.
See FONTENF.LLE, " filoge cle Ruisch;" SCHREIBER, "Vita F-
Ruisch," 1732; NICERON, "Memoires."
Ruisch or Ruysch, (RACHEL,) a skilful Dutch
flower-painter, born in Amsterdam in 1664, was a
daughter of the preceding. She married a painter
named Juriaen Pool in 1695. Her works command
high prices. Died in 1750.
Ruisdael. See RUYSDAEL.
Ruiter, de. See RUYTER, DE.
Ruiz, roo-eth', (JuAN,) Archpriest of Hita, a Spanish
poet and satirist, born probably at Alcala de Henares.
He was imprisoned thirteen years, (1333-47.) One of
his principal poems is entitled " Praise of Little Women."
Sie LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Rukmeiii. See RUKMIXI.
Rukmini, rook'ml-nee', written also, but less cor
rectly, Rokmeny and Rukmeni, [i.e. "golden" or
" possessing gold," in allusion perhaps to Lakshnu
being the goddess of riches,] the name of an avatar of
Lakshmi, who under this form was the favourite wife
of Krishna, (an avatar of Vishnu.)
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Ruland, roo'lant, (MARTIN,) a German physician and
philologist, born at Freisingen in 1532; died in 1602.
Rulhiere, de, deh rii'le-aiR', (Ci.AUDE CAKLOMAN,)
a French historian, was born at Bondy, near Paris, in
1735. He accompanied the Baron de Breteuil to Russia
as secretary of embassy in 1760, and wrote " Anecdotes
of the Revolution of Russia in 1762," (1797.) In 1787
lie was admitted into the French Academy. His chief
work is a " History of the Anarchy of Poland and of
the Partition of that Republic," (4 vols., 1807.) Died
in 1791.
See DAUNOU. "Notice stir Rulhiere:" QUERARO, "La France
Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ginerale."
Rulliere, ru'le-ajR', ( JOSEPH MARCEI.I.IN,) a French
general, born in Haute-Loire in 1787. He commanded
an army in Algeria in 1838. and was minister of war
from December, 1848, until October, 1849.
Rnmancow. See RIOOMANTSOF.
Rum'bold. (Colonel RICHARD,) an English repub
lican, was implicated in the Rye-House Plot, (1683,) and
was owner of the building from which that plot derived
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
RUMFORD
1932
R UNJEET
its name. He escaped to Holland, and in 1685 followed
Argyll in his expedition to Scotland, where he was mor
tally wounded, and, after a hurried trial, executed.
Rtim'ford, (BENJAMIN' Thompson,) COUNT, a cele
brated natural philosopher and economist, born at
Woburn, Massachusetts, March 26, 1753 or 1752.
His mother was named Ruth Simonds. After he left
school, about the age of fourteen, he was employed for a
short time as a clerk by a merchant in Salem. In 1770
he attended lectures on experimental philosophy at
Harvard University. He was school-master at Rnmford,
(now Concord,) New Hampshire, for about two years,
(1770-72.) In 1772 he married a rich widow of Rum-
ford, named Mrs. Rolfe, and removed with her to Wo
burn. He was a person of tall stature, a model of manly
beauty in form and feature, and had the manners of a
courtier. According to Renwick, he fought at Lexington,
and applied for a commission in the Continental army
in 1775, but his services were rejected. Renwick speaks
of his "loyalty, manifested by actual service at the
battle of Lexington," but does not say on which side
he fought. His arguments, however, seem designed to
prove that Rumford would have fought for independence
if prejudice and persecution had not driven him into the
ranks of the royalists. He was regarded as a tory by his
fellow-citizens, and was pursued by a mob with threats
of violence. Having resorted for safety to the royalist
camp at Boston, he was sent to England in the autumn
of 1775 as a bearer of despatches to Lord George Ger
main, who appointed him a clerk in the foreign office.
lu the course of four years he rendered such services
that he obtained in 1780 the important position of under
secretary of state. He returned to the United States in
1781 or 1782 with a commission as major or lieutenant-
colonel in the British army, but never took part in any
action of the war.
The next scene of his eventful and prosperous career
opens at Munich, whither he went in 1784. He soon
became aide-de-camp and chamberlain to the reigning
prince of Bavaria. Having reformed the military es
tablishment and rendered important public services,
he was rewarded with the rank of major-general, and
appointed a councillor of state. Rising by rapid gra
dations, he became successively lieutenant-general, com-
mander-in-chief, minister of war, and in 1790 a count of
the Holy Roman Empire. On this occasion he assumed
the title of Rumford, from the town where he resided in
early life. He suppressed mendicity at Munich by the
establishment of work-houses in which beggars were
compelled to earn their subsistence. In devising the
means to warm and clothe the poor with economy, he
was led to experiments on heat and light which resulted
in important discoveries. He proved that gases are
non-conductors, and fluids very imperfect conductors, of
heat, — explained that heat is propagated in liquids only
by convection, or the continuous transposition of the
particles of the liquid, and that a flame in open air gives
but little heat except to bodies placed above it. He made
improvements in the construction of chimneys and in
the apparatus for heating and lighting houses. In 1795
he visited London, where he published some essays on
the subjects above mentioned. He returned to Munich
in 1796, and was appointed ambassador to London in
1798; but the English court would not receive him in
that capacity, because he was a British subject. He
formed the plan of the Royal Institution of London,
founded about 1800. His power and influence at the
court of Munich having ceased, in consequence of the
death of the Elector, in 1799, he removed to France.
His first wife, whom he left in the United States when
he first crossed the Atlantic, was no longer living. He
married the widow of Lavoisier, the great chemist, in
1805; but they soon separated, from mutual repulsion.
He died at Auteuil in August, i8f4- His "Essays, Po
litical, Economical, and Philosophical," were published
in 3 vols., (1798-1806.) The Rumford medal of the Royal
Society derives its name from him.
" It is a matter of just national pride that the two men
who first demonstrated the capital propositions of pure
science, that lightning is but a case of common elec
tricity, and that heat is but a mode of motion, — who first
converted these conjectures of fancy to facts of science,
— were not only Americans by birth and education, but
men eminently representative of the peculiarities of
American character, — Benjamin Franklin and Benjamin
Thompson." (Edward L. Youmans, "The Correlation
and Conservation of Forces.")
See CUVIKR, " Eloge He Rimiford ;" JAMF.S RENWICK, "Life of
Count Rumford," in SPARKS'S "American Biography," vol. v.,
second series; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Edinburgh
Review" for July, 1804.
Rumford, de, deh ruVfoR',(MARiE ANNE Pierrette
Paulze — pe'.VreV pol/,) COUNTESS, a French lady of
superior talent, was born at Montbrison in 1758. She
was married to Lavoisier, the chemist, in 1771. She
aided him in experiments, and, having learned the art
of engraving, she engraved plates for his treatise on
Chemistry. In 1805 she became the wife of Count
Rumford, from whom she separated in 1809. Died
in 1836.
See GUIZOT, " Madame de Rumford," 1841, and bis article in the
" Biographie Universelle."
Rumiantzov or Rumiantzow. See RIOOMANTSOF.
Riimker, rum'ker, (!YARL.) a German astronomer,
born at Stargard in 1788. He made observations at
Paramatta, in Australia, from 1822 to 1831, and was
afterwards director of the Observatory at Hamburg
for many years. Among his works is a "Manual of
Navigation," (5th edition, 1850.) Died in 1862.
Rumohr, roo'moR, (KARL FRIEDRICII LUIHVIG FE
LIX,) a German writer on art, born near Dresden in
1785, was a pupil of Fiorillo, a painter. He made the
tour of Italy in 1804, and revisited that country in 1816
and 1828. His " Italian Researches" (3 vols.) came out
in 1827. It is a critical history of the origin and de
velopment of modern painting, composed from original
documents, and is esteemed a standard work. He like
wise published a " History of the Royal Collection of
Engravings at Copenhagen," (1835,) and other treatises
on art; also a number of poems and prose essays on
various subjects. Died at Dresden in 1843.
See H. W. SCHIII.ZK, "C. V. von Rumohr, sein Leben und seine
Schriften," 1844; BKOCKHAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon."
Rumowsky. See ROOMOKSKL
Rumph, roomf, [Lat. RUM'PHIUS,] (GEORC EVE-
KARD,) a German naturalist, born at Hanau in 1637. lie
passed some years at Ambovna, where he was consul
or counsellor to the Dutch East India Company. He
was author of a botanical work entitled "Herbarium
Amboinense," (7 vols., 1741-55.) Died in 1706.
Rumphius. See RUMPH.
Rum/say, (J\MES,) an American mechanician, born
in Cecil county. Maryland, in 1743, was the inventor of
a steamboat, which he exhibited on the Potomac in 1786.
A company called by his name was formed in Philadelphia
for the purpose of promoting his projects. In 1702 he
made a successful trial of his steamboat on the Thames,
and was preparing for another, when he died in Decem
ber of the same year.
Run'ci-man, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish historical
painter, born in Edinburgh in 17^6. Among his works
are "The Ascension," "King Lear." and a series of
pictures of scenes from Ossian. His style is extrava
gant. Died in 1785.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Runeberg, roo'neh-beKg', ([OMAN Lumvio,) a very
popular Swedish poet, born at lacobstad, in Finland,
in 1804. He was educated at the University of Abo.
About 1840 he became a teacher of Greek at Borga, (<>r
Borgo.) Among his principal productions are "Na-
deschda," a poetical tale, (1841,) "Kung Fialar," (1844 )
and "Stories of Ensign Std.1," ("Fanrik Stals Sagner.1')
An edition of his collected works appeared in 1852.
See HOWITT, "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe."
Runge, rdong'eh, (Orro PHILIPI>,) a German painter,
born in the latter part of the eighteenth century, fur
nished illustrations to "Ossian." His son, Otto Sieg-
muncl, studied sculpture under Thorwalclsen at Rome.
Ruriius, roo'ne-us, (J"oiiA\,) a popular Swedish poet,
born in West Gothland in 1679 ; died in 1713.
Runjeet Singh, run-jeet' sing, (or sing'h,) called
MAHA RAJAH, ma-ha' ra'ja, (i.e. "Great Rajah,") an am-
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon;
RUNNINGTON
'933
RUSH
bitious East Indian prince, born at Giigaranwala, in the
Punjab, in 1780, is called the founder of the Sikh empire.
By a series of aggressions against feeble and umvarlike
chiefs he extended his dominions. He received the
province of Lahore as a gift from the Shah of Afghan
istan in 1799, and obtained Cashmere by conquest in
1819. In 1809 he made a treaty with the British, with
whom he always maintained peaceful relations. Died
in 1839.
See H. T. PRINSEP, "Origin of the Power of the Sikhs and the
Political Life of Runjeet Singh," 1839 ;W. L. MACGRKGOR, " Runjeei
Singh: History of the Sikhs;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Run'ning-ton, (CHARLES,) an English lawyer and
writer, born in Hertfordshire in 17^1. He edited some
legal works of Hale, Gilbert, etc. Died in 1821.
Rupert, roc/pert, [ Ger. RUPRECHT, roo'pR^Kt, ]
PRINCE, sometimes called ROUKRT OF BAVARIA, son
of the Elector Palatine Frederick V. and Elizabeth,
daughter of James I. of England, was born at Prague in
1609. Having previously served against the Imperialists
in the Thirty Years' war, he entered the royalist army
in England, and was appointed by his uncle, Charles I.',
commander of a regiment of cavalry. He distinguished
himself by his energy and headlong courage at Worcester
and Edgehill, and took Bristol ; but he was signally de
feated at Marston Moor in 1644. Being made general
of all the royal forces, he commanded the left wing at
Naseby in 1645. Owing to his rash pursuit of a part of
Cromwell's army while the main body remained on the
field, the day was lost, and he soon after surrendered
Bristol, after a short defence. He was, in consequence,
deprived of his command by the king ; but in 1648 he
obtained command of the fleet, and assisted Lord Or-
mond on the coast of Ireland. In 1649 he was blockaded
in the harbour of Kinsale by the parliamentary squadron
under Blake. Having forced his way out, he steered for
Portugal, where he was protected by the king of that
country. In 1651 Blake attacked his fleet and destroyed
all but five of his vessels. Rupert subsisted for some
time by piracy in the West Indies. After the restoration
of 1660, he served as admiral against the Dutch. Died
in 1682.
See " Historical Memoirs of Prince Rupert," London, 1683 ; E.
WARBURTON, "Memoirs of Prince Rupert," 3 vols., 1849; CI.AR-
F.XDON-, "History of the Great Rebellion ;" HUME, "History of
England ;" " Lives of the Warriors of the Civil Wars of France and
England," by SIR EDWARD CUST, London, 1867.
Ru-per'tus or Ruprecht, roo'pReKt, called also
Rhodbert, one of the early apostles of Christianity
in Germany, was Bishop of Worms, and lived in the
seventh century.
Riippell or Rueppell, rup'pel, (WILHELM PKTER
EDUARD SIMON,) a German naturalist, born at Frank- j
fort-on-the-Main in 1794. He visited Arabia, Nubia, !
and other parts of Africa, and published in 1829 " Travels ]
in Nubia, Kordofan, and Arabia Petraea." He also gave j
an account of the birds of Northern and Eastern Africa,
and made valuable contributions to the Senkenberg j
Museum, at Frankfort.
Rupprecht, roop'preKt, (FRIEDRICH KARL,) a Ger- !
man landscape-painter and etcher, born near Anspach j
in 1779 ; died in 1831.
Ruprecht. See RUPERT.
Rurik, roo'rik, [Fr. ROURIK, roo'rek',] the founder j
of the Russian empire, was originally a Scandinavian.
He invaded Russia about 862 A.D., defeated the natives,
who were commanded by Vadim, and selected Novogo-
rod as his capital. He died in 879, leaving a son, Igor,
a minor.
Rusbroek. See RUYSBROEK.
Rusca, roos'ka, (CARLO FRANCESCO,) an Italian
portrait-painter, born at Lugano in 1701 ; died in 1769.
Rusca, ru's'kt', (F. DOMINIQUE,) born near Nice in
1761, became a general in the French army. He con
tributed to the victory at Lodi, and was made a general
of division in 1796. He was commander of F.lba from
1802 to 1805. He was killed at Soissons in 1814.
Rusca, (GIOVANNI ALESSANDRO,) a learned Italian
monk and writer, born at Turin about 1600 ; died in 1680.
Ruscelli,roo-shel'lee, (GIROLAMO,) an Italian scholar
and prolific writer, born at Viterbo. Among his works
are "On the Art of making Verse," ("Del Modo di
comporre in Versi," 1559,) and "Illustrious Enterprises,"
(" Imprese illustri," 1566.) Died at Venice in 1566.
Ruschenberger, roo'shen-ber'ger, (WILLIAM S. W.,)
M.D., an American physician and naturalist, born in
Cumberland county, New Jersey, in 1807, was appointed
in 1843 superintendent of the United States Naval Hos
pital at Brooklyn, New York. He has published a
"Voyage round the \Vorld, including an Embassy to
Muscat and Siam," (1838,) also "Elements of Natural
History," (1850,) and other scientific works.
Ruscheweyh, roosh'eh-w!'. (FERDINAND,) an emi
nent German engraver, born at Mecklenburg, commenced
his studies about 1802, and went to Rome in 1808. He
engraved some works of Raphael, Giulio Romano, Over-
beck, and others.
Rusconi, roos-ko'nee, (CAMILLO,) a skilful Italian
sculptor, born at Milan about 1658. Among his works
is the mausoleum of Gregory XIII. in Saint Peter's at
Rome. Died in 1728.
Rush, (BENJAMIN,) an eminent American physician
and philanthropist, born near Philadelphia, December
24, 1745. He graduated at Princeton College, New
Jersey, in 1760, and afterwards studied medicine in
Edinburgh, London, and Paris. He was elected pro
fessor of chemistry in the Medical College of Philadelphia
in 1769. He was an active supporter of the popular
cause in the Revolution, was elected a member of Con
gress in 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independ
ence. In the same year he married Julia Stockton, a
daughter of Judge Richard Stockton, of New Jersey.
In 1777 he was appointed surgeon-general and phy
sician-general of the army. He acquired distinction as a
writer on medicine, philosophy, political affairs, etc. He
voted for the adoption of the Constitution of the United
States in the State convention which met in 1/87. In
1789 he became professor of the theory and practice of
medicine in the medical college of Philadelphia. He
was appointed professor of the institutes of medicine in
the University of Pennsylvania in 1791, when the medical
college was united with the University. He was a popu
lar lecturer, and was eminently qualified as a teacher of
medical science by his fluency of expression as well as
his profound learning. His reputation was increased by
his successful treatment of cases of yellow fever, which
prevailed in Philadelphia in 1793. It is stated that he
visited and prescribed for one hundred patients in one
day. His remedies for yellow fever were purging and
bleeding. He was treasurer of the Mint during the last
fourteen years of his life, was president of the society
for the abolition of slavery, and vice-president of the
Bible Society of Philadelphia. He was distinguished
for his industry, benevolence, and piety. In 1811 the
Emperor of Russia sent him a diamond ring as a testi
monial of respect for his medical skill. Among his
writings are "Medical Inquiries and Observations," (2
vols., 1788-93,) and a "Treatise on Diseases of the
Mind," (1812.) He died in Philadelphia in April, 1813,
leaving about nine children, among whom was Richard
Rush, the statesman.
See THACHER. "Medical Biography;" S. D. GROSS, " Lives of
American Physicians." 1861 ; DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of Ameri
can Literature," vol. i. ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished
Americans," vol. iii.
Rush, ( JACOB,) LL.D., an American jurist, born in
1746, was a brother of the celebrated Dr. Rush. He was
president of the court of common pleas for Philadelphia.
Died in 1820.
Rush, (JAMES,) a son of Dr. Benjamin Rush, born in
Philadelphia in 1786, was author of a treatise entitled
" Philosophy of the Human Voice," (1827 ; 6th edition,
1867,) which has been highly commended, and of other
works. About 1840 he married Miss Ridgway, daughter
of Jacob Ridgwav, a noted millionaire. He died in 1869,
leaving by his will about one million dollars for the pur
pose of establishing a free public library in Philadelphia.
Rush, (RICHARD,) an American statesman, born in
Philadelphia in August, 1780, was a son of Dr. Benjamin
Rush. He graduated at Princeton College in 1797,
studied law, and was appointed comptroller of the treas
ury by President Madison. He was attorney-general of
the United States from February, 1814, to March, 1817.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, gjittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
R USHTON
'934
R USSELL
In the latter year he was sent to England by President
Monroe as minister-plenipotentiary. After he had ne
gotiated several important treaties, he returned in 1825.
He served as secretary of the treasury from March, 1825,
to March, 1829. lie was nominated for the Vice-Presi
dency by the friends of John Quincy Adams in 1828, and
received eighty-three electoral votes, but was not elected.
In 1836 he was sent to England as a special agent or
commissioner by the President. He was appointed min
ister to France in 1847, and was the first of the foreign
ministers at Paris to recognize the French republic
formed in 1848. lie resigned his office in 1849, and
retired from the public service. He published in 1833
" Memorials of a Residence at the Court of Saint
James." another volume on the same subject in 1845,
and " Washington in Domestic Life," (1857.) Died in
Philadelphia in July, 1859.
See tlie " Foreign Quarterly Rev lew" for July, 1833 ; " Edinburgh
Review" for July, 1833, article "Richard Rush at the Court of
London ;" " Democratic Review" for April, 1840.
Rush'ton, ( EDWARD,) an English Roman Catholic
priest, born in Lancashire, graduated at Oxford in 1572.
He published Sanders's work "On the Anglican Schism,"
(" De Schismate Anglicano," 1585,) with additions. Died
at Lotivain in 1586.
Riish'worth, (JoHN,) an English lawyer, distin
guished as a compiler of materials for history, was born
in Northumberland about 1607. He was assistant clerk
to the House of Commons during the Long Parliament.
He diligently pursued the practice of taking notes of
public transactions, and reported, in short-hand, the
speeches of members of Parliament. He served Sir T.
Fairfax as secretary from 1645 to '650, during which
period Fairfax was commander-in-chief. He published
"Historical Collections of Private Passages of State,
Weighty Matters in Law," etc., (8 vols., 1659- -1701.)
Died in 1690.
See " Biographia Britannica."
Rusk, (THOMAS J.,) an American officer and politician,
born in South Carolina in 1803. He removed to Texas
about 1835, was the first secretary of war of the republic
of Texas, and commanded the army after General Hous
ton was wounded at San Jacinto, April, 1836. In 1845
he was elected a Senator of the United States by the
legislature of Texas. He was re-elected Senator about
1851. Died at Nacogdoches in 1856.
Rus'kin, (Jonx,) an English artist and eloquent
writer on art and nature, was born in London in Feb
ruary, 1819. He was the only child of a wine-merchant,
and inherited an ample fortune. "The first thing which
I remember as an event in life," says he, " was being
taken by my nurse to the brow of Friar's Crag on Der-
wentvvater." In his childhood he enjoyed other excur
sions to the country, on which subject he remarks, " In
such journeyings, whenever they brought me near hills,
and in all mountain ground and scenery, I had a pleasure,
as early as I can remember, and continuing till I was
eighteen or twenty, infinitely greater than any which has
been since possible to me in anything. . . '. Although
there was no definite religious sentiment mingled with
it, there was a continual perception of sanctity in the
whole of nature, from the slightest thing to the vastest,
— an instinctive awe mixed with delight ; an indefinable
thrill such as we sometimes imagine to indicate the
presence of a disembodied spirit." ("Modern Painters,"
vol. iii. chap, xvii.) He was educated at Christ Church,
Oxford, gained the Newdigate prize in 1839 for an
English poem entitled " Salsetto and Elephanta," and
graduated in 1842. He received lessons in drawing and
painting from Copley, Fielding, and J. D. Harding, and
became an ardent admirer of Turner. To defend Turner
from hostile critics, he wrote the first volume of his
"Modern Painters," (1843, ^Y a Graduate of Oxford.)
This work, which was expanded into a treatise on art,
nature, etc. and extended to five volumes, established
his reputation as the greatest art-critic of England,
although many of his opinions are paradoxical. It dis
plays a rare faculty of observation, a 'rich imagination,
and great mastery of language. He discusses many
questions of ethics and philosophy in an earnest but
rather impulsive and wayward spirit. He devoted sev
eral years to the study of art in Italy, especially in Venice.
In 1849 he produced "The Seven Lamps of Architec
ture," and afterwards an eloquent and brilliant work
on "The Stones of Venice," (3 vols., 1851-53.) He
advocated the cause of the Pre-Raphaelites in a pam
phlet entitled " Pre-Raphaelitism," (1851.) In 1854 he
published "Lectures on Architecture and Painting,"
(delivered at Edinburgh.) In 1860 he contributed to the
"Cornhill Magazine" a series of essays on political
economy. Among his recent works are "Sesame and
Lilies," (1864,) "The Ethics of the Dust: Ten Lectures
to Little Housewives on the Elements of Crystalliza
tion," (1865,) "The Crown of Wild Olive: Three Lec
tures on Work, Traffic, and War," (1866.) and "The
Queen of the Air: being a Study of the Greek Myths
of Cloud and Storm," (1869.) lie built a number of
model houses for the poor, in London. He was elected
Slade professor of art at Oxford in 1869.
" Mr. Ruskin," said Charlotte Bronte, " seems to me
one of the few genuine writers, as distinguished from
book-makers, of this age. ... He writes like a con
secrated priest of the Abstract and Ideal."
See " Blackwood's Maga/ine" for September, 1851, and
856; "London Quarterly Review" for April, i8<;6; Eraser's
M.ma/.ine" fur Anril, 1854; "North British Review" for Fe
862; "British Quarterly Review" for May, 1847; "Westminster
Review" for April, 1856; AI.UBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Riiss, (JOHN DENISON,) M.D., an American physician
and philanthropist, born at Essex, Massachusetts, in
1801. He was appointed in 1832 superintendent of the
New York Institution for the Blind. He was also one
of the vice-presidents of the New York Prison Associa
tion, and was connected with various other charitable
institutions.
Russ, rooss, (KARL,) a German historical painter,
born in Vienna in 1779, was patronized by the archduke
John of Austria. He etched some of his own pictures.
Died in 1843.
Rtis'sell, (ALEXANDER,) F.R.S., a Scottish physician
and naturalist, born in Edinburgh. He was appointed
physician to the English Factory at Aleppo in 1740. In
1754 he returned to England, and published a " Natural
History of Aleppo," (1755,) which was received with
favour. He afterwards practised in London. Died
in 1768.
See " Essay nn the Character of Alexander Russell ;" CHAMBERS,
"Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
RuVsell, (BENJAMIN,) an American journalist of the
Revolution, was born at Boston in 1761. In 1784 he
founded the " Columbia Centinel," a leading journal of
the Federal party. Died in 1845.
Russell, (DAVID A.,) an American general, a son of
David Russell, M.C., of Salem, New York, was born
about 1822. He graduated at West Point in 1845, served
in the Mexican war, and became a captain in 18^4. lie
commanded a division at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863,
and at the battle of the Wilderness, May 5 and 6, 1864.
He was killed at the battle of Opequan Creek, near
Winchester, in September, 1864.
See TENNEY, " Military History of the Rebellion," p. 790.
Rus'sell, (EDWARD,) Earl of Orford, an English
admiral, born in 1651, was a nephew of the first Duke
of Bedford. He was a prominent Whig chief in the
revolution of 1688. About 1690 he was appointed
commander of the combined navies of England and
Holland ; but, not satisfied with this honour, he is said
to have secretly conspired to restore James II. In
1692 he gained a great victory over the French off La
Hogue. He became first lord of the admiralty in 1693,
after which he commanded with success in the Mediter
ranean. He was created Earl of Orford and Viscount
Barfleur in 1697. Died in 1727.
See MACAUI.AY, " History of England."
Russell, (FRANCIS,) seventh Duke of Bedford, born
in 1788, was a brother of Lord John (Earl) Russell. He
was an active supporter of the Whig measures in Par
liament. He devoted much attention to agriculture, in
which he is said to have made important improvements.
Died in 1861.
Russell, (GEORGE,) an English poet and parson,
born in Minorca in 1728; died in 1767.
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
RUSSELL
1935
RUSSELL
Russell, (Sir HENRY,) an English judge, born in
1751. He was appointed chief justice of Bengal in
1797. Died in 1836.
Russell, (JOHN,) first Earl of Bedford, obtained a
high position at court in 1505. He served with distinc
tion in the expedition which Henry VIII. led against
France in 1513, and was rewarded with lands attached
to the abbey of Tavistock and the monastery of Wolnirn.
He was appointed lord high admiral and created Earl
of Bedford in 1550. Died in 1555.
See T. H. WIFFEN, "Historical Memoirs of the House of Rus
sell," 1333.
Russell, (|OHN,) fourth Duke of Bedford, an Eng
lish statesman, born in 1710, succeeded to the dukedom
in 1732. He became secretary of state in 1748, and ne
gotiated in 1762 a treaty of peace with France. He was
president of the council in the Grenville ministry, (1763-
65.) He was a man of good intentions, but was misled
by a set of political jobbers, called the " Bloornsbury
gang." Died in 1771.
See DAVID Ross, " Sketch of the History of the House of Rus
sell," 1848.
Russell, (Lord JOHN,) afterwards EARL RUSSELL,
an eminent Britisli Whig statesman, born in London on
the i^th of August, 1792. He was the third son of the
sixth Duke of Bedford. His mother was a daughter of
the fourth Viscount Torrington. He studied first at the
Westminster School, from which he passed to the Uni
versity of Edinburgh, where he attended the lectures of
Dugald Stewart and Thomas Brown and was a pupil of
Play-fair. He was elected to Parliament for Tavistock in
1813, and began his career as a member of the Whig party,
which was then in the opposition. He soon became
a zealous advocate of Parliamentary reform, and made
motions for the suppression of rotten boroughs, which
he repeated year after year. In 1821 he published " An
Essay on the History of the English Government and
Constitution," and in 1822 "Don Carlos, or Persecu
tion," a tragedy. He procured in 1828 the repeal of the
Test acts which subjected Protestant dissenters to civil
disabilities. On the accession of the Whig party to
power in 1830, Lord John was appointed paymaster of
the forces, and a member of the committee of four by
which the celebrated Reform bill was prepared. Russell
is reputed to be the principal author of this bill, which
was introduced in March, 1831, and was rejected by a
small majority. The ministers, having dissolved Parlia
ment and appealed to the country, obtained a large ma
jority in the new House of Commons, and, after a long
and violent crisis, caused by the hostility of the House
of Lords, the Reform bill became a law in 1832. Lord
John was the leader of the Whig party in the House of
Commons after 1834, and was appointed secretary for
the home department by Lord Melbourne in April, 1835.
He married in 1835 Adelaide, the widow of Lord Ribbles-
dale and the daughter of Thomas Lister. He represented
Stroud in Parliament from 1834 to 1841, and was secre
tary for the colonies from August, 1839, to September,
1841. In the latter year he was chosen one of the mem
bers for the city of London, and resigned office with his
colleagues. He contributed in 1845 to the repeal of the
Corn Laws. The Whig party having been restored to
power by the defeat of Sir Robert Peel, Russell became
prime minister in July, 1846. He resigned office in
February or March, 1852, and in December of that year
entered the ministry of Lord Aberdeen as secretary for
foreign affairs. Having retired from this position in
February, 1853, he was president of the council from
April or June^ 1854, to January, 1855. He served tinder
Palmerston as colonial secretary for a short time in 1855.
On the formation of a new ministry by Lord Palmer
ston in June, 1859, Lord John was appointed secretary
for foreign affairs. In July, 1861, he was raised to the
peerage, as Earl Russell of Kingston-Russell, and passed
into the House of Lords. During the civil war in Amer
ica he pursued a policy of neutrality and non-interven
tion. Like many other European statesmen, he hastily
judged that the Union was doomed, to a premature
dissolution. In October, 1865, he was called by public
opinion and the will of the queen to the office of prime
minister, vacated by the death of Lord Palmerston. The
cabinet on this occasion was reorganized by the admis
sion of a few new members. His principal colleagues
were W. E. Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer,
Lord Clarendon, secretary for foreign affairs, Lord Gran-
ville, president of the council, the Duke of Somerset,
first lord of the admiralty, Edward Cardwell, secretary
for the colonies, and Milner Gibson, president of the
board of trade. In the early part of the session of 1866
the ministry introduced a bill for the extension of the
elective franchise, with which they pledged themselves
to stand or fall. In this Reform bill they proposed to
give the franchise to every citizen of a borough who
occupied, as owner or tenant, a house of the clear
yearly value of seven pounds. A long and excited
debate followed. Although the professed Liberals
were a large majority of the House, the bill was de
feated by a majority of eleven, June 18, 1866, and the
ministry resigned. JJ^'t-, /ays .
See ALISON, "History of Europe;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale;" L. L>E LOMENIE. "Lord J. Russell, par un Homme de
Rien," 1840; S. SMILES, " Brief Biographies;" " London Quarterly
Review" for July, 1823; " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1838, June,
1845, December, 1852; "Westminster Review" for October, 1848.
Russell, (JOHN SCOTT,) F.R.S., a British engineer
and naval architect, was born in the Vale of Clyde, in
Scotland, in 1808. lie settled in London in 1844. He
distinguished himself by his experiments to ascertain the
form of ships which will encounter the least resistance,
and adopted the theory that a ship should resemble in
form a " wave of translation." The Great Eastern is
constructed according to his system.
Russell, (MICHAEL,) LL.D., Bishop of Glasgow, an
able writer, born in Edinburgh in 1781. He became
incumbent of Saint James's Chapel, Leith, about 1810.
His principal work is "The Connection of Sacred and
Profane History," (3 vols., 1821-27,) which is highly
esteemed. He became Bishop of Glasgow in 1837. Died
in 1848.
Russell, (PATRICK,) M.D., born in Scotland in 1726,
was a brother of Alexander, noticed above. He suc
ceeded his brother in 1754 as physician at Aleppo, where
he witnessed the prevalence of the great plague of 1760.
He published in 1791 an excellent "Treatise on the
Plague." Died in 1805.
Russell, (Lady RACHEL Wriothesley — rot'es-le,)
born about 1636, was a daughter of the Earl of South
ampton, and one of the most lovely and noble of women.
Her first husband was Lord Vaughan. In 1669 she was
married to Lord William Russell, at whose trial she
served him as amanuensis. Her conduct on this occa
sion excited general admiration and sympathy. Died
in 1723.
See "Letters of Lady Russell;" "Lady Russell: an Historical
Study," translated from the French of GUIZOT. whose work is entitled
" L' Amour Hans le Maria^e," 8th edition, 1862; "Some Account of
the Life of Rachel Wriothesley, Ladv Russell ;" " Memoirs of Emi
nent Englishwomen," by LOUISA S. COSTELLO, 1844.
Russell, (WILLIAM,) fifth EARL, and afterwards Duke
of Bedford, born about 1614, inherited the earldom at
the death of his father, in 1641. He was an adherent
of the Parliament in the beginning of the civil war, but
became a royalist in 1643. He was the father of Lord
William Russell who was beheaded in 1683. In 1694
he was created Duke of Bedford. Died in 1700.
Russell, (Lord WILLIAM,) an English patriot, son of
the preceding, was born in 1639. He entered Parliament
in 1660, and married in 1669 the widow of Lord Vaughan,
(see RUSSELL, LADY,) with whom he passed many happy
years. By his honourable character and high rank he
acquired great political influence, which he employed in
defence of civil and religious liberty. He was appointed
by Charles II. a member of a new council of ministers
formed in 1679. In 1680 he and his friends procured
the passage of a bill for the exclusion of the Duke of
York from the throne because he was a papist. The
bill was rejected by the peers. A conspiracy against the
king,, called the Rye-House Plot, was formed by some
inferior partisans. This plot having been detected, Lord
Russell was accused of complicity in it, and unjustly
condemned to death. lie was beheaded on the 22cl of
July, 1683. He left a son, who became Duke of Bedford.
He had given such proofs of an undaunted courage and
€ as K; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; K, trilled ' : s as 3; th as in ///;>. (J^^See "Explanations, p. 23.)
R USSELL
1936
R UXTON
unshaken firmness," says Burnet, "that no man of that
time had so entire a credit in the nation as he had."
See LORD JOHN KUSSEI.L, " Life of William Lord Russell," iSig;
J. H. WIFFEN, "Memoirs of the House of Russell," 2 vols., 1X33;
"Lord Russell's Case, with Observations upon it," by HKNKY
I.OKD L>E LA MERE; BURNKT, " Historv of liis Own Time;" D.
Ross, "Sketch of the History of the House of Russell," 184*;
"Monthly Review" tor March, 1820.
Russell, (WILLIAM,) LL.IX, a British historian, born
in the county of Selkirk in 1741. He became a resident
of London in 1767, and published various works in
prose and verse. His most popular work is a " History
of Modern Europe," (5 vols., 1779-84.) Died in 1793.
See IRVINE, "Life of William Russell," 1801 ; " Blackwood's
Magazine" for July, iSiS.
Russell, (.WILLIAM,) a teacher and educational writer,
born at Glasgow, Scotland, in 1798. Having emigrated
to the United States, he became in 1826 editor of the
"American Journal of Education." He has published
several text-books for schools.
RuVsell, (WILLIAM HOWARD,) an Irish writer, noted
as correspondent of the London "Times," was born in
Dublin in 1821. He accompanied the British army to
the Crimea in 1854, and wrote letters on the Crimean
war, which attracted great attention and were collected
in two volumes, (1856.) In 1861 he was sent to the
United States to report for the "Times" the progress
of the rebellion.
Rust, (GEORGE,) an English divine, born at Cam
bridge. He became Bishop of Dromore in 1667, and
published several religious works. Died in 1670.
Rustani or Rustem. See ROOSTAM.
Rustic!, roos'tee-chee, (FRANCESCO,) an able Italian
painter, born at Sienna about 1595. He died prema
turely in 1625.
Rustic!, (GIOVANNI FRANCESCO,) a skilful Italian
sculptor, born at Florence about 1460 or 1470, was a
pupil of Leonardo da Vinci. He executed three colossal
bronze statues — Saint John, a Pharisee, and a Levite —
for the baptistery of Florence. He removed to France
about 1528. In the latter part of his life he worked in
Paris for Francis I. Died about 1550. " He was without
an equal for the casting of works in metal," says Vasari,
who also praises his character in high terms.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors."
Rut'gers, (Colonel HENRY,) an American patriot,
born about 1746, fought in the Revolutionary war, and
was afterwards a citizen of New York City. He was very
rich, and gave large sums for charity. Died in 1830.
Rutgers, rut'gers or rut' Hers, (JoHN,) an able Dutch
critic, born at Dort in 1589, was a brother-in-law of
Daniel lleinsius. He was appointed a councillor of
state by the King of Sweden in 1614, after which he
was employed by Gustavus Adolphus in diplomatic mis
sions. Among his works are " Variae Lectiones," (1618,)
and an autobiography, (1646.) Died in 1625.
See NICERON, "Memoires."
Ruth, [Heb. nn,] a Moabite woman, who was mar
ried to Mahlon, a Hebrew, and afterwards to Boaz. She
was a great-grandmother of King David. Her story is
the subject of the canonical book of Ruth.
Ruth'er-ford, (DANIEL,) a Scottish physician and
botanist, born in Edinburgh in 1749. He is regarded as
the discoverer of nitrogen, on which he wrote a thesis,
" l)e Acre mephitico," (1772.) He became professor of
medicine and botany at Edinburgh in 1786. Died in 1819.
Rutherford, (SAMUEL,) a Scottish minister and Cov
enanter, born in the parish of Nisbet, Roxburghshire,
about 1600, was an eloquent and zealous preacher. lie
was ordained minister at Anworth in 1627, and became
professor of divinity at Saint Andrew's in 1639. He
wrote against the divine right of kings, in a work en
titled "Law is King," ("Lex Rex.") Among his
works are "The Trial and Triumph of Faith," (1645,)
and religious " Letters." Died in 1661.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
CHAKLES THOMSON, "Letters and Life of the Rev. Samuel Ruther
ford," 2 vols., 1846.
Riith'er-forth, (THOMAS,) D.D., F.R.S., an English
writer, born in Cambridgeshire in 1712. He became
rector of Barley and Archdeacon of Essex. He wrote
several works on religion, philosophy, etc. Died in 1771.
Ruth'er-furd, (ANDREW,) a learned and able Scot
tish lawyer and judge, born in 1791, was an intimate
friend of Lord Jeffrey. He was appointed lord advocate
of Scotland in 1839, retired from that office in 1841, and
was restored in 1846. In 1851 he became a lord of
session. Died in 1854.
Ruthven. See GOWRIE, EARL OF.
Ru-til'i-us Lu'pus, a Roman rhetorician of an un
certain epoch. He was author of a work "On the
Figures of Sentences and Elocution," ("De Figuris Sen-
tentiarum et Elocutionis,") which is accounted valuable.
Some suppose he was a son of Rutilius Lupus who was
tribune of the people about 55 it.C.
Rutil'ius Numatia'nus, (nu-ma-she-a'nus,) (CLAU
DIUS,) a Roman poet, born in Gaul about the end of the
fourth century, was a pagan. He became prccfccttts url>i
at Rome, and described a journey from Rome to Gaul
in a poem called " Itinerarium," which is a work of
much merit. Nearly half of it is lost.
Rut'land, (CHARLES CKCIL JOHN MANNERS,) DUKK
OF, eldest son of John Henry Manners, fifth Duke of
Rutland, was born in 1815. lie was styled Marquis of
Granby before he succeeded to the dukedom, in 1857.
He is a conservative in politics.
Rutland, (CHARLES MANNERS,) fourth DUKE OF, was
the eldest son of the general, Marquis of Granby. lie
succeeded his grandfather, the third duke, in 1779. He
was a personal and political friend of William Pitt, and
was a patron of the poet Crabbe. He was eminent for
generosity and benevolence. Died in 1787.
Rutland, EARL OF, an English peer, whose family
name was MANNERS, was a favourite ot Henry VIII.
He held important offices in the reign of that king, and
was created Earl of Rutland in 1525. One of his de
scendants, JOHN MANNERS, the tenth earl, was created
Marquis of Granby and Duke of Rutland about 1702.
Rut'ledge, (EDWARD,) an American jurist, and signer
of the Declaration of Independence, was born at Charles
ton, South Carolina, in 1749. At the age of twenty-five
he was elected to the Congress of 1774, and in 1798
became Governor of South Carolina. He enjoyed a high
reputation as a lawyer and orator. Died in 1800.
Rutledge, (JoHN,) an American jurist and orator,
born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1739, was a
brother of the preceding. He became in 1774 a member
of the General Congress, in which he was a bold and
prominent supporter of independence. He was elected
president of South Carolina in 1776, and Governor of
that State in 1779. In 1787 he was a member of the
National Convention which framed the Constitution of
the United States, the adoption of which he afterwards
advocated. He was appointed a judge of the supreme
court of the United States in 1789, and chief justice of
South Carolina in 1791. He was nominated chief justice
of the United States in July, 1795, but was rejected by
the Senate in December of that year. He was an elo
quent orator, and a man of eminent talents. Died in
July, 1800.
See th.,5 "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
Rut'ty, (JOHN,) a physician and writer, born in Dub
lin in 1698, was a member of the Society of Friends.
He practised in Dublin, and wrote, besides some medical
works, a " History of the Rise and Progress of the
People called Quakers in Ireland," (1751,) and a "Spir
itual Diary and Soliloquies," (2 vols., 1776.) Died in
1775-
Ruvigny, de, deh ru'ven'ye', (HENRI de Massue —
deli mS'sii',) MARQUIS, a French Huguenot general and
able diplomatist, born in 1610, was an uncle of the excel
lent Lady Rachel Russell. He fought for the king in the
war of the Fronde. Having been sent by Louis XIV. on a
mission to Charles II. in 1675, he induced the latter for
a pecuniary consideration to become subservient to the
designs of the French king. He emigrated to England
in 1686, and died in 1689, leaving a son, who was a
famous general. (See GALWAY, EARL OF.)
See HAAG, "La France protestante. "
Riix'toii, (GEORGE FREDERICK,) an English traveller,
born in 1820, became a lieutenant in the British army.
He wrote " Adventures in the Rocky Mountains and
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
RUTSBROEK
»937
RTS BRACK
Mexico," and "Life in the Far West." Died at Saint
Louis, Missouri, in 1848.
Ruysbroek. See RUBRUQUIS.
Ruysbroek, de, deh rois'buook, (JAN,) called THE
ECSTATIC DOCTOR, a Flemish mystic and writer, born
about 1294; died in 1381.
See ENGELHAROT, "Richard von St. Victor und Jan Ruysbroek."
1838.
Ruysch. See Rriscn.
Ruysdael, Ruysdaal, or Ruisdael, rois'dll, QA-
Coi;,) a Dutch landscape-painter of high reputation, was
born at Haarlem about 1630. His birth is variously
dated 1625, 1630, and 1635. lie was a friend of Nicholas
Berghem, from whom perhaps he received instruction
in art. He imitated nature with fidelity. His favourite
subjects were sylvan scenes, cascades, and marine views.
Among his master-pieces is "The Stag-Hunt," in the
gallery of Dresden. Died in 1681.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc.
Ruysdael, (Soi.OMON,) a painter, born at Haarlem
in 1616, was a brother of the preceding. He invented
a composition which was a good imitation of variegated
marble. Died in 1670.
Ruyter or Ruiter, de, deh ri'ter, [Dutch pron. deh
roi'ter,] (MICHAEL ADRIAANZOON,) a celebrated Dutch
admiral, born at Flushing in 1607. He obtained the
rank of rear-admiral in 1645, and fought an indecisive
battle against the English near Plymouth in 1652. In
1653 he distinguished himself in a great battle between
the Dutch, under Van Tromp, and the English, under
Blake. In the service of the King of Denmark he de
feated the Swedes in 1659. He sailed up the Thames
in 1667 and destroyed the shipping at Sheerness. In
1671 he commanded a fleet which the combined fleets
of England and France were not able to defeat. He
was mortally wounded in a fight against the French
admiral Duquesne in the Mediterranean in 1675.
See G. BRANDT, " Leven en Bedrijf van M. van Ruiter," 1687:
OTTO KI.OPP, " Leben und Tliaten des Admirals de Ruiter," 1852 ;
LAST, "Leven van M. A. de Ruyter," 1842; "Life of M. A. de
Ruyter," London, 1687; BRAND, "Hulde aan den Admiraal de
Ruyter," 1827.
Ruyven, van, vtn voi'ven, (PETER,) a Dutch his
torical painter, born in 1650, was a pupil of Jordaens.
Died in 1718.
Ruzeea- (or Razia-) Begum, rilz-ee'a ba'giim, the
eldest daughter of Altmish Shems-ood-Deen, ascended
the throne of Delhi in 1236. On one occasion her father
1 ad appointed her regent during his absence on a dis
tant campaign. When asked by his officers why he
preferred his daughter to any of his sons, he replied that
his older sons gave themselves up to wine and every
excels, — that she, though a woman, was better than
twenty such sons. At first she ruled the empire with
great prudence as well as ability. But her partiality to
one of her officers, who was an Abyssinian, greatly
offended her nobles, in consequence of which she was
dethroned and put to death in 1239, after a reign of only
three years and six months. "She was," says Perish ta,
"possessed of every good quality which usually adorns
the ablest princes ; and those who scrutinize her actions
most severely will find in her no fault but that she was a
woman." Ruzeea-Begum was a half-sister of the able
but eccentric Mahmood-Nasir-ood-Deen.
See FKKISUTA, " History of the Mahomedan Power in India,"
translated by BRIGGS, vol. i. pp. 214-222.
Rybaut or Ribaut, re'bo', (PAUL,) an excellent
French Protestant minister, born near Montpellier in
1718. He lived in caves and huts in the forest, where
he preached for many years while the law denounced
death as the penalty of preaching the Protestant doc
trines. He had great influence, and restrained his peo
ple from rash and desperate measures. Died in 1795.
Rycaut or Ricaut, re'kf/, ? (Sir PAUL,) F.R.S., an
English diplomatist and historical writer, borrt in London,
graduated at Cambridge in 1650. He was secretary
of embassy at Constantinople from 1661 to 1669. He
published "The Present State of the Ottoman Empire,"
(1670,) a "History of the Turkish Empire from 1623
to 1677," (1680,) and other works. In 1690 he was
appointed resident at the Hanse Towns. Died in 1700.
Ryckaert, nk'SiU, (DAVID,) a skilful Flemish painter,
born at Antwerp in 1615. He painted interiors, fairs,
rustic gatherings, musical parties, etc. Died in 1677.
Ryckaert, (MARTIN,) a landscape-painter, born at
Antwerp in 1591, was the father of the preceding.
He studied in Italy, and returned to Antwerp. Died
in 1636.
Rycke,de,deh ri'keh, [Lat. Ric'QUiusorRYc'Qinus,]
(JosSE,) a Flemish poet and antiquary, born at Ghent in
1587. Among his works are "Two Books of Odes,"
("Odarum Libri duo," 1614,) and "On the Roman
Capital," ("De Capitolio Romano," 1617.) Died in
1627.
Rycke, van, vtn ri'keh, (THEODORE,) a Dutch critic,
born at Arnhem in 1640. He was professor of history
at the University of Leyden, and published an edition
of Tacitus, (1687.) Died in 1690.
Rycquius. See RYCKE.
Ry'der, (Sir DUDLEY,) an English judge, born in
London in 1694. He became attorney-general in 1737,
and lord chief justice of the king's bench in 1754. He
was an ancestor of the Earl of Harrowby. Died in 1756.
See LORD CAMPBELL, "Lives of the Chief Justices ;" Foss,
" The Judges of England."
Ryder, (HENRY,) D.D., an English prelate, born
in 1777, was a younger son of the Earl of Harrowby.
He became Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1824.
Died in 1836.
Rydqvist, rid'kwlst, (JoHAN ERIK,) a Swedish
critic and writer, born at Gothenburg in 1800. He
published, besides other works, " The Laws of the
Swedish Language," (2 vols., 1852-57.)
Ryer, Du. See Du RYER.
Ry'er-spn, (ADOLPHUS EGERTON,) D.D., LL.D., a
Canadian Methodist divine, born in Upper Canada in
1803. He was appointed in 1844 superintendent of
public schools in Upper Canada.
Ryk, rlk, (Jui.ius CONSTANTINE,) a Dutch naval
officer, born in Amsterdam in 1787. He became .a
rear-admiral in 1838, minister of the marine in 1842,
and vice-admiral in 1844.
Ry'land, (JoHN,) an eminent English Baptist minis
ter, born at Warwick in 1753, was a son of Rev. J. C.
Ryland. principal of the Enfiekl Academy. He became
pastor of the Broadmead Chapel, Bristol, in 1793, and
wrote a "Life of Andrew Fuller," (1816.) Died in 1825.
Ry'land, (JoHN,) a Baptist minister, preached at
Northampton. He wrote "The Christian Student and
Pastor," and other works, and was principal of an
academy at En field, where he died in 1792.
Rylaiid, (WILLIAM WYNNE,) an able English en
graver, born in London in 1732, was a pupil of Le Bas,
of Paris. He was appointed engraver to George III.
with a pension of ^200 per annum, and engaged in busi
ness as a dealer in prints. He introduced the chalk or
stipple method into England. He was convicted of
forgery of a bill of ^"210 on the East India Company,
and was executed in 1783. He asserted his innocence
to the last. According to Strutt, " he was a man re
spected and beloved by all that were acquainted with
him." He excelled in the use of the graver and needle
combined.
See STRUTT, "Dictionary of Engravers."
Rylejew. See RILEYEF.
Rymer. See HRYM.
Ry'mer, (THOMAS,) an English antiquary and editor,
born in Yorkshire in 1638 or 1639, was a son of Ralph
Rymer, who was executed for insurrection in 1663. He
was appointed historiographer to William III. in 1692,
with a salary of ^"200, and was charged to collect and
edit, under the auspices of Lord Somers and Mr. Mon
tagu, the documents relating to transactions between
England and foreign powers. The first volume of this
important work, called " Rymer's Foedera," appeared
in 1703, and was followed by sixteen other volumes.
Died in 1714.
See " Nouvelle Biosraphie Generale ;" CHAMBERS, "Biograph
ical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Rysbrack, rls'bRak, written also Rysbraeck, (Mi-
CHAEL or JOHN MICHAEL,) an eminent Flemish sculp-
€ as K: c as s: g hard; g asy; G, H, K. guttural: N, nasal: R. trilled: s as z: th as in this.
1 22
Explanations, p. 23.)
RTS BRACK
'938
SAAVEDRA
tor, born at Antwerp about 1694, was a son of Peter,
noticed below. lie settled in London in 1720,3110! soon
became the most popular or successful sculptor in Eng
land except Roubiliac. Among his best works are a
monument to Sir Isaac Newton in Westminster Abbey,
and a monument to the Duke of Marl borough at Blen
heim. Died in 1770.
Rysbrack, Rysbraeck, or Rysbraech, some
times written Rysbrechts, (PKTKR,) an able landscape-
painter, born at Antwerp in 1657, was the father of the
preceding. He imitated the style of N. Poussin with
success. He excelled in colouring and in boldness and
freedom of touch. Died in 1716.
Rysbraeck. See RYSHRACK.
Rysbrechts. See RYSUKACK.
Ryves, rlvz, (BRUNO,) a minister of the Anglican
Church, born in Dorsetshire, became chaplain of Mag
dalene College, Oxford, in 1616. lie was afterwards
chaplain to Charles I., and was persecuted during the
civil war. Died in 1677.
Ryves, (Sir THOMAS,) an English civilian, became a
Fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1598, and a master
in chancery in 1618. He was in the civil war a zealous
partisan of Charles I., whom he assisted in the treaty of
the Isle of Wight. He wrote " Ancient Naval History,"
(" Historia navalis antiqua,") and other works. Died
in 1651.
Rzewuski, Rzewusky, zha-woos'ke, written also
Rzewiesky, (\VKNCKSI.AS,) a Polish general and noble
man, born in 1705, was noted for his literary attainments.
He was imprisoned six years at Smolensk and Kalonga
for his opposition to the election of Stanislas Ponia-
towski, in 1767. He wrote poems, dramas, etc. Died
in 1779.
S.
Saa, de, da sS, (EMANUEI.,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born
in 1530, became professor of divinity at Rome, and was
employed by Pius V. to superintend a new edition of the
Vulgate. Died in 1596.
Saa de Miranda. See MIRANDA.
Sa da Bandeira, de, da sa da ban-da'e-ra, (BiCR-
NAKDO,) a Portuguese soldier and statesman, born in
1796, fought against the French in the Peninsular war,
and subsequently became a partisan of Dom Pedro, who
made him a peer and minister of the marine.
Saad-ed-Deeii or Saad-Eddiii, sa'ad ed-deen',
( Mohammed Effendi, mo-ham'med ef-fen'dee,) an
eminent Turkish historian, born in 1536, was educated
at the court of the Sultan Selim I. He became pro
fessor of theology and jurisprudence in the college
attached to the mosque of Saint Sophia, and in 1573 was
appointed by Selim II. khoja or preceptor to his son,
Amurath III. He also enjoyed the favour of Mohammed
III., the successor of Amurath, and in 1598 was raised
to the dignity of grand mufti. He had previously been
appointed by Amurath imperial historiographer, — an
office created expressly for him. His principal work,
entitled "The Crown of Histories," ( " Taj-al-Towa-
rikh,") is regarded by the Turks as a model of elegance
in style, and is highly commended by Sir William Jones.
It was translated into Italian by Vincenzo Bratutti. Died
in 1599.
Saadee, Saadi, or Sadi, sa'a-dee or sa'dee, (Mus-
lih-ed-Deen,* (or -eddin,) moos'liii ed-deen',) a cele
brated Persian poet, born at Shiraz about 1184. He
early manifested a remarkable spirit of devotion, and he
is said to have made during his life no fewer than fifteen
pilgrimages to Mecca, besides which he visited in his
travels Bagdad, Damascus, Jerusalem, Morocco, Egypt,
Abyssinia, Hindostan, and other countries. Among his
other adventures, he was taken prisoner in battle with
the crusaders, by whom he was held for some time in
captivity. On his return from his extended peregrina
tions he took up his abode in his native city, where,
chiefly on account of his religious character, he appears
to have been regarded with the highest respect and
veneration. Princes and nobles are said often to have
visited him, bringing him presents. He died in 1291,
having, it is said, attained the extraordinary age of one
hundred and seven years, or, as the Moslem writers
state it, of one hundred and ten (lunar) years. After his
death he was regarded as a saint, and tradition ascribed
to him the power of working miracles.
The works of Saadee are probably more extensively
read than those of any other Persian writer, Firdousee
(the Homer of Persia) not excepted. His "Gulistan"
(" Rose-Garden") is deservedly the most popular of all
his works. It consists of stories, anecdotes, and moral
observations and reflections, partly in prose and partly
in verse, and possesses, besides other merits, the charm
* Muslih (or Moslih) signifies "mediator," "pacificator." Mus-
lih-ed Deen maybe translated "pacificator, friend, or promoter of
the Faith."
of endless variety. The religious character of his mind
is conspicuous in his writings ; he appears, moreover, to
have possessed a kindly and humane spirit, and his
moral sentiments may be said to be for the most part
elevated and pure, with one important exception, his
encouraging or conniving at deceit, which, like most
other Asiatics, he seems to have regarded as often a
venial fault and sometimes as a virtue of high order.
Among Saadee's other writings is the " Bostan," (" Fruit-
Garden,") which is a religious and moral poem, divided
into ten books. Saadee is greatly admired by his coun
trymen as a lyric poet.
The style of Saadee is usually clear, simple, and ani
mated ; he is sometimes eloquent and highly poetical.
According to the opinion of some eminent critics, he
makes a more sparing use of hyperbole and metaphor
than most other Oriental writers. His language, how
ever, differs from that of Firdousee in containing fewer
words from the original Persian, and a much larger
admixture of Arabic terms and phrases.
See L. M. LANGLfcs, " Notice sur la Vie et les Onvrages de
Sa'ady," about 1X20; D'HHKHHI.OT, " liibliothuque Orientale :"
Oi'SKi-EY, "Biographical Notices of the Persian Poets;" SILVKSTKE
UK SACY, "Notices;" VON HAMMKK, " (jeschichte der schunen
Redekiinste Persiens."
Saadia, sa'dee'a, (Bi«:N JOSKI'II,) a celebrated Jewish
theologian and philosopher, sometimes called SAADIAS-
GAO.N, born at Fayoom, in Egypt, in 892. He was teacher
of the Jewish academy at Sura, and made an Arabic
translation of the Pentateuch. He also wrote, in Arabic,
a treatise "On Religions and Doctrines." Died in 942.
Saas, sas, (jEAN,)a French ecclesiastic and bibliogra
pher, born at Rouen in 1703 ; died in 1774.
Saavedra, de. See CKRVANTKS.
Saavedra, de, da si-va'DRa, ( ANGKL,) Duke of Rivas,
a distinguished Spanish poet, statesman, and soldier,
born at Cordova in 1791. He fought against the French
at Talavera, and was severely wounded at the battle of
Ocana, in 1809. On the French invasion of 1823, he
repaired to London, and subsequently to Malta, where
he devoted himself to the study of English literature.
Soon after his return he was appointed procer of the
kingdom, and became a member of the ministry under
Isturiz in 1836. He was afterwards ambassador to
Naples, and filled other important offices. Among his
principal works are the poem of "The Moorish Found
ling," (" El Moro Exposito," 1834,) the tragedy of " Don
Alvaro," (1835,) "La Morisca de Alajuar," a drama,
(1842,) and a history of Masaniello's insurrection at
Naples.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" KEN-TIDY,
"Modern Poets of Spain."
Saavedra y Fajardo, (or Faxardo,) sS-va'DKae fa-
Hau'do, ( DIKGO,) a Spanish diplomatist and distinguished
writer, born in the province of Murcia in 1584. He was
sent on diplomatic missions to several courts of Germany
and Italy. His principal works are an "Idea of a Chris
tian Prince," (" Idea de un Principe politico Christiano,"
etc., 1640,) consisting chiefly of a collection of political
, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, \, 6, \\, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon;
'939
SACADAS
maxims, and an ingenious critique of ancient and
modern writers, entitled " Republica Literaria," (1670.)
Died in 1648.
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature;" G. MAYANS v
SISCAR, "Oracion en Alabanza de las Obias de Don D. de Saavedra
y Kaxardo," 1725.
Sa'ba or Sa'bas, [SuSac,] a Greek monk of high
reputation, born in Cappadocia about 439 A.D. He
founded a monastery near the river Jordan. lie was an
opponent of the Monophysites. Died in 532 A.D.
Sab'a-cou or Sab'a-cp, [Gr. ZaCaKuiv,] King of
Ethiopia, invaded Egypt, dethroned its king, and reigned
many years over that country. He lived probably about
750 or 800 B.C.
Sabas. See SABA.
Sabatei Sevi, sa-ba-ta'ee sa'vee, a Jewish impostor,
born at Smyrna in 1626, claimed to be the Messiah.
Being made prisoner by the Turks, he saved his life by
embracing Mohammedanism. Died in 1676.
Sabatier, sS'bt'te-i', (ANDRE HYACINTHK.) a French
lyric poet, was borrT at Cavaillon in 1726; died at
Avignon in 1806.
Sabatier or Sabbathier, sfbt'teji', (PIERRE,) a
French Benedictine monk, was born at Poitiers in
1682. He prepared an edition of all the Latin versions
of the Scriptures. Died in 1742.
Sabatier, (RAPHAEL BIK.NVKNU,) a French surgeon,
born in Paris in 1732, was royal censor of the Academy
of Sciences, and received from Bonaparte the cross of
the legion of honour. lie published several able surgical
treatises. Died in 1811.
Sabatier de Castres, st'bt' te-i' deh kSstu, (Ax-
TOINK,) a French writer, was born at Castres in 1742.
He published a work entitled "The Three Ages of
French Literature," etc., (3 vols., 1772,) in opposition
to the doctrines of Helvetius. lie also wrote "The
Heathen Ages, or Mythological, Political, Literary,
and Geographical Dictionary of Pagan Antiquity," (9
vols., 1784,) and other works. Died in 1817.
See QUEKAKD, "La France Litteraire ;" " Nouve'le Biographic
Generale."
Sabatini, sa-ba-tee'nee, (FRANCESCO,) a distinguished
Italian architect, born at Palermo in 1722, was a son-
in-law of Vanvitelli, whom he assisted in building the
palace of Caserta near Naples. He afterwards settled
at Madrid, where he built the custom-house, (Aduana,)
the gate of Alcala, and that of Saa Vincente. Died
in 1798.
Sabbathier, st'ba-'te-i', (FRANC.OIS,) a French mis
cellaneous writer, born^ at Condom in 1735. His
chief work is " Dictionnaire pour ITntelligence des
Auteurs Grecs et Latins," (37 vols., 1766-1815,) which
treats of ancient history, geography, mythology, etc.
and presents a copious analysis of the Greek and Latin
historians. Died in 1807.
Sabbathier, (PIERRE.) See SABATIER.
Sabbatini, sab-ba-tee'nee, ( ANDREA, ) an Italian
painter, sometimes called ANDREA DA SALERNO, born
about 1480, was a pupil of Raphael. He settled at
Naples, where several of his master-pieces are to be
seen. He is regarded as the best painter of the Nea
politan school. Died in 1545.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Sabbatini, (LORENZO,) an Italian painter, called
I.IIRI-.NX.A DA BOLOGNA, was born in that city about
1540 ; died in 1577.
Sabbatini, (P. Lrnovico ANTONIO,) an Italian
musician and writer of the eighteenth century, is some
times called SABBATINI OF PADUA. Died in 1809.
Sa-bel'li-cus, (M.\Rcrs ANTONIUS Coccius,) origin
ally KfARCANTONlO Coccio, (kot'cho,) an Italian histo
rian and scholar, born in the Campagna di Roma in
1436. He became professor of eloquence at Venice.
His principal work is a "History of the Republic of
Venice," (in Latin, 1487.) Died in 1508.
See Vossirs. " De Historic!* Latinis :" BAYLE, " Historical and
Critical Dictionary;" NICEKON, "Memoires."
Sa-bel'li-us, an African bishop or presbyter, who
lived about 250-270 A.D. and dissented from the ortho
dox creed in relation to the Trinity. His doctrines were
adopted by a numerous sect, called Sabellians. Little is
known of his personal history. He taught that there is
only one hypostasis, or person, in the Divine nature.
See SMITH, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography."
Sa-bi'na, a Roman empress, was married to the
emperor Hadrian about 100 A.D., and received the
title of Augusta. Having been ill treated by Hadrian,
she committed suicide about 137 A.D.
Sabina, (Poi>p.-E\.) See POI-IVEA.
Sab'ine, (EDWARD,) an English mathematician and
Fellow of the Royal Society, born in October, 1788,
accompanied Parry's expedition to the Arctic regiors
in 1819. He published in the " Philosophical Trans
actions," after his return, the result of his observations
on the action of the magnetic needle. In 1822 he made
a voyage to Africa and North and South America, of
which he gave an account in his " Pendulum Expe
dition," (1825.) He has also written "Reports on
Magnetic and Meteorological Observations," and other
similar works. He became vice-president of the Royal
Society in 1850, and president of the same in 1861.
Sabine, (JosEi'H,) an English savant, born in 1770,
was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and filled the post
of vice-president of the Zoological Society, and other
important offices. Died in 1837.
Sa-bin-i-a'nus [Fr. SABINIEN, st'be'ne-^N''] suc
ceeded Gregory I. as Pope of Rome in 604 A.D. He
survived his election only eighteen months, and Boni
face III. was his successor.
Sa-bi'nus, (AULUS,) a Roman poet, was the friend
of Ovid, and the author of Epistles, or " Heroides," in
reply to those of Ovid. Only three of them are extant.
Sabinus, (CALVisius,) a Roman commander, was an
adherent of Caesar in the civil war. He obtained the
province of Africa in 45 B.C., was consul in 39, and
commanded the fleet of Octavius in 38 B.C.
Sabinus, (CcELius M.,) a Roman jurist, flourished in
the reign of Vespasian, and became consul in 69 A.D.
Sabinus, (FLAVIUS,) a Roman general of high repu
tation, \vss a brother of the emperor Vespasian. He held
the high office of prtzfectus urbis from 58 to 69 A.D.
Having been taken prisoner by the soldiers of Vitellius,
he was massacred at Rome in 69 A.D.
Sabinus, sa-bee'mis, (GKORG,) a German scholar and
Latin poet, whose original name was SCHULER, (slui'ler,)
I was born at Brandenburg in 1508. He was a son-in-law
of Melanchthon. He became professor of poetry and
i eloquence at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and in 1544 rector
of the University of Konigsberg. Among his works we
I may name his Latin elegies, entitled " Sabini Carmina."
! Died in 1560.
See P. AI.BINUS, "Vita G. Sabini," 1724: M. W. HEFFTER,
I " Erinnerung an G. Sabinus," 1844; A. FUKSTENHAUPT, "Georg
Sabinus," 1849.
Sabinus, (JuLius,) a Gallic chieftain of the district
of the Lingones, caused himself to be proclaimed Caesar
about 70 A.D., and invaded the territory of the Sequani.
j He was soon after arrested and put to death by order of
Vespasian.
Sabinus, (MASSURIUS or MASURUTS,) an eminent
Roman jurist, lived in the reigns of Tiberius and Ca
ligula. He was a pupil of Capito, and the founder of
a school of jurists called Sabiniani. He wrote an im-
| portant treatise on civil law, on which Pompon ins,
Paulus, and Ulpian wrote commentaries.
See GROTIUS, " Vitae Jurisconsultorum ;" ARNTZEN, "De Ma-
I surio Sabino," 1768.
Sablier, sjfble-a/, (CHARLES,) a French writer, born
in Paris in 1693" He wrote, besides several dramas,
" An Essay on Languages in general, and the French
in particular," (1777.) Died in 1786.
Sabliere, de la, deh It sf'ble-aiR', (ANTOINE Ram-
bouillet — rS.N'boo'ya',) a French poet, born about
1615, inherited a large fortune. He wrote a number of
madrigals, which were praised by Voltaire, (" Siecle de
Louis XIV," 1751, tome ii.) He died in 1680.
His wife, MADAME DE LA SAKLIEKE, was celebrated
for her talents and accomplishments. She was a friend
and benefactor of La Fontaine. Died in 1693.
Sac'a-das [2rt/td<5af] OF ARGOS, an eminent Greek
musician and poet, lived about 600 B.C. He excelled as
a flute-player.
€ as c; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, gtfttural ; N, nasal: R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SACCHETTI
1940
SADE
Sacchetti, sak-ket'tee, (FRANCO,) an Italian novelist
and poet, born at Florence about 1335, was contempo
rary with Boccaccio. As a novelist, he was regarded
by his countrymen as only second in genius to that
celebrated writer. Died in 1410.
Sacchetti,, (GIAMKATTISTA,) a distinguished archi
tect, born at Turin in 1736. He was patronized by
Philip V. of Spain, who employed him to build the new
palace at Madrid. He afterwards became director of the
public school of architecture in that city. Died in 1764.
Sacchi, sak'kee, (ANDREA,) an eminent Italian
painter of the Roman school, was born near Rome
about 1598. He was patronized by Urban VIII., who
employed him to paint one of the great altar-pieces of
Saint Peter's. Among his other works we may name a
fresco in the Barberini palace representing " Divine
Wisdom," eight pictures from the life of John the
Baptist, the "Miracle of Saint Anthony," and "Saint
Romualdo relating his Vision to Five Monks of his
Order." The last-named is esteemed his master-piece,
and one of the best productions of the Roman school.
Sacchi numbered among his pupils Carlo Maratta and
N. Poussin. Died in 1661.
See PASSERI, "Vite de' Pittori;" LANZI, " History of Painting in
Italy."
Sacchi, (PiETRO FRANCKSCO,) an Italian painter,
born at Pavia. He began to work in Milan about 1460.
Many years after that date he lived at Genoa.
Sacchi, or Sacchini, .sak-kee'nee, (JUVENAL,) an
Italian writer on music, born at Milan in 1726, was a
monk or priest. He wrote, besides other works, an
" Essay on the Music of the Ancient Greeks," (1778.)
Died in 1789.
Sacchini, sak-kee'nee, (ANTONIO MARIA GASPARO,)
an Italian composer of great celebrity in his time, born
at Naples in 1735, was a pupil of Durante. Among his
best works are the operas of "CEdipe a Colone," " Mon-
tezuma," "The Cid," and "Olympia." He passed about
eight years in England, whither he went in 1772. lie
wrote with purity and elegance, and accomplished great
effects by simple means. Died in Paris in 1786.
See FRAMKHV, " FJoge cle Saccliini," 1787; F^TIS, "Biographic
Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sacchini, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian Jesuit, born
near Perugia in 1570, was professor of rhetoric in the
Jesuits' College at Rome. He wrote a continuation
of Orlandino's History of his Order, and other works.
Died in 1625.
Sacheverell, sa-shev'e-rel, (HENRY,) an English
churchman, notorious as a partisan of Toryism, was born
about 1672, and was educated at Oxford. He was ap
pointed preacher at Saint Saviour's, Southwark, in 1705,
and preached in 1709 two political sermons which were
offensive to the ministry and the majority of Parliament.
J le was impeached for libel by the House of Commons,
and convicted in 1710 by the peers, who sentenced him
to suspension from the ministry for three years. The
clergy and country squires sympathized with him as the
champion of the Church. The excitement occasioned
by his trial contributed to the defeat of the Whigs in the
next general election, and to the removal of Goclolphin
and his colleagues from power, (1710.) Queen Anne
rewarded him with the valuable rectory of Saint An
drew's, Holborn, in 1713. Died in 1724.
See " The Life of Dr. H. Sacheverell," London, 1710.
Sachs. See HANS SACHB.
Sachseii, von, (Moiurz.) See SAXE, (HERMANN
MAURICE.)
Sachtleven, saKt-la'ven, or Zachtleven, zaKt-la'-
ven, (CoRNEi.is,) a Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam
in 1606 or 1612. His subjects are generally taken from
low life, and painted in the style of Brauwer and Teniers.
Died in 1685.
Sachtleven, (HERMAN,) a Dutch landscape-painter
of great merit, born at Rotterdam in 1609, was a pupil
of J. van Goyen. He painted many scenes on the Rhine
and Meuse. Died in 1685.
Saci. See LEMAISTRE DE SACI.
Sack, sak, (FRIEDRICH SAMUEL GOTTFRIED,) a Ger
man theologian, born at Magdeburg in 1738, was the
author of a treatise "On the Union of the Two Prot
estant Church Parties," (1812,) which was chiefly in
strumental in promoting the union of the Lutheran and
Reformed Churches in Prussia. He also translated the
principal part of Blair's " Sermons" into German. Died
in 1817.
Sack, (JoiiANN AUGUST,) an able Prussian adminis
trator, born at Cleves in 1764. He was appointed in
1800 privy councillor of finance at Berlin, (Oberfinanz-
rath,) and in 1813 became civil governor of all the country
between the Elbe and the Oder. Died in 1831.
Sack, (KARL HEINRICH,) a son of Friedrich Samuel
Gottfried, noticed above, was born at Berlin in 1790.
He became professor of theology at Bonn in 1823, and
published several theological works.
Sackborn. See SAXIUS, (CHRISTOPH.)
Sacken. See OSTEN-SACKEN.
Sackville, (CHARLES.) See DORSET, EARL OF.
Sackville, (EDWARD.) See DORSET, EARL OE.
Sack'ville, ( GEORGE, ) VISCOUNT, called LORD
GEORGE GERMAIN, son of the Duke of Dorset, was born
in 1716. He served in the Seven Years' war, and at
the battle of Minden, in 1759, commanded the British
forces under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. Having
disobeyed the prince's orders, he was tried in England
by a court-martial and dismissed the service. Under
George III. he became in 1775 secretary of state for
the colonies. In this capacity he directed the military
operations in the American war. Having inherited
the estates of Lady Germain, he assumed that name in
1770. Died in 1785.
See R. CUMBERLAND, " Character of Lord G. Germain," 1785;
LORD STANHOPE, (MAHON.) "History of England."
Sacro-Bosco. See HOLYWOOD.
Sacy, de, deh st'se', (ANTOINE ISAAC SILVESTRE,)
BARON, often called simply SILVESTKE DE SACY, an
eminent French Orientalist, born in Paris on the 2ist
of September, 1758. He was a son of J. Abraham Sil-
vestre, a notary. After he had become a good classical
scholar, he studied Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, Arabic,
and Persian. He was also versed in German, English,
Italian, and Spanish. In 1785 he was admitted into
the Academy of Inscriptions, and wrote a " Memoir on
the History of the Arabs before Mohammed." He con
tributed to the Academy four able "Memoirs on Divers
Antiquities of Persia," printed in 1793. He was ap
pointed professor of Arabic in a school founded at Paris
in 1795. In 1799 he published his "Principles of Gen
eral Grammar," which is one of his best works. He
became professor of Persian in the College of France
in 1806, and published in the same year a work called
" Chrestomathie Arabe," consisting of extracts from
Arabian authors, with French versions and notes. He
wrote many articles for the "Biographic Universelle"
and the "Journal Asiatique." In the reign of Louis
XVIII. he was a member of the council of public in
struction. S. de Sacy and Abel Remusat founded the
Asiatic Society in 1822. He became a member of the
Chamber of Peers in 1832, and perpetual secretary of
the Academy of Inscriptions in 1833. Among his works
are an Arabic Grammar, (1810,) and " Pend-Nameh,"
in Persian and French, (1819.) Died in February, 1838.
See REINAUD, " Notice liistorique et litteraire sur Silvestre de
Sacy," 1838; DAUNOU, " FJoge de Silvestre de Sacy," 1838; "Nou
velle Biographic Generale;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for
September, 182?.
Sacy, de, deh st'se', (Louis,) a French advocate and
litterateur, born in 1654, was a member of the French
Academy. He published a "Treatise on Friendship,"
and translated some works of Pliny the Younger. Died
in 1727.
Sacy, de, (Louis ISAAC.) See LEMAISTRE.
Sacy, de, (SAMUEL USTAZA SILVESTRE,) a French
journalist, a son of the eminent Orientalist, was born in
Paris in 1801. He was one of the principal contributors
to the "Journal des Debats." In 1854)16 was elected to
the French Academy. It is stated that during a period
of twenty years (1828-48) he furnished two-thirds of the
political articles of the "Journal des Debats."
Sade, de, deh std, (DONATIEN AI.PIIONSE FRANgois,)
MARQUIS, a profligate French novelist, a nephew of the
following, was born in Paris in 1740; died in 1814.
, T, o, u, y, long- ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon;
SADE
'941
SAHAG UN
Sade, de, (JACQUES FRANCOIS PAUL ALPHONSK,)
AKHE, a French ecclesiastic, born in 1705, wrote " Me
moirs of the Life of Petrarch," (3 vols., 1764,) which
is said to be a work of much merit. Died in 1778.
Sadeel, (ANTOINE.) See CHANDIEU.
Sadeler, sa'deh-ler, (GILES,) a Flemish engraver,
born at Antwerp in 1570, was a brother or nephew of
Jean, noticed below. He engraved after the Italian
masters. Among his works are "Vestiges of Roman
Antiquities." Died in 1629. He is said to have been
the best engraver of the family.
Sadeler, (JEAN,) an able Flemish engraver and
designer, born at Brussels in 1550. He studied and
worked in Italy, and engraved many works of Italian
masters. Among his prints are scriptural subjects, por
traits, and landscapes. He died at Venice about 1600
or 1610.
Sadeler, (RAPHAEL,) a skilful Flemish engraver,
a brother of the preceding, was born in 1555 ; died
in 1616.
Sadi. See SAADEE.
Sad'ler, (ANTHONY,) an English divine, born in Wilt
shire, became chaplain to Charles II. He published a
number of sermons, and a work entitled a " Divine
Masque." Died in 1680.
Sadler, (JoHN,) an English writer, born in Shropshire
in 1615. He published " Rights of the Kingdom, or
Customs ot our Ancestors." Died in 1674.
Sadler, (MICHAEL THOMAS,) an English philanthro
pist and statesman, born in Derbyshire in 1780. He
was twice elected to Parliament for Newark-upon-Trent,
and in 1831 represented Aldborough, in Yorkshire. He
laboured earnestly to improve the condition of the poor
and of the children employed in factories. He wrote a
work entitled " Ireland : its Evils and their Remedies,"
and "The Law of Population." Died in 1835.
See "Memoirs of the Lite of M. T. Sadler," 1842; "Black-
wood's Magazine" for February, 1831; " Maltlnis and Sadler." in
the '• London Quarterly Review" for April, 1831 ; " Fraser's Maga
zine" for September, 1835.
Sadler, (Sir RALPH,) was born in Middlesex, Eng
land, in 1507. At an early age he obtained the notice
and patronage of Henry VIII., who employed him in
various important missions. For his courage at the
battle of Pinkie he was made knight-banneret on the
field. After the accession of Elizabeth he became a
member of her first Parliament, and, on the imprison
ment of Mary Queen of Scots at Tutbury, was appointed
her keeper. He died in 1587. His "State Papers and
Letters," edited by Arthur Clifford, appeared in 1809.
See SIR WALTER SCOTT. Miscellaneous Prose Works; FROUDE,
"History of Knglanrl;" BITRTOX, "History of Scotland ;" " Edin
burgh Review'' for August, 1810; " London Quarterly Review" for
November, 1810.
Sadler, (\VILLIAM WINDHAM,) an English aeronaut
and chemist, who crossed the Irish Channel from Dub
lin to \Vales, and made many other voyages of the kind.
He was subsequently killed by a fall from his balloon, in
1824, at the age of about twenty-eight.
Sadlier, std'le-i', ? (MARY ANNK,) a writer of fiction,
whose original name was MADDEN, was born in the
county of Cavan, Ireland, in 1820. Having emigrated
to Canada, she married a Mr. Sadlier, and published a
luimber of tales in favour of Catholicism.
Sa'doc or Za'dok, a learned Jew, who lived about
250 ii. c., was the disciple of Antigonus Sochaeus, and
became the principal founder of the sect of Sadducees.
Sadolet. See SADOLETO.
Sadoleto, sa-do-la'to, or Sadoletti, sa-do-let'tee,
[Fr. SADOLET, st'do'li',] (JACOPO,) an eminent Italian
writer and cardinal, born at Modenain 1477, was a friend
of Bembo. He became secretary to Leo X. about 1514,
and was appointed Bishop of Carpentras in 1517. He was
employed as secretary by Clement VII., and was made a
cardinal by Paul III. about 1536, after which he passed
the most of his time at Rome. In 1542 he was sent as
ambassador to Francis I. of France. He is represented
as a man of noble character, pious, modest, and liberal.
Among his principal works are a treatise on education,
entitled " De Liberis recte Instituendis," (1533,) "On
the Merits of Philosophy," (" Phaedrus, sive de Laudibus
Philosophise," 1538,) and " Latin Poems," (1548.) Died
at Rome in 1547. "There were two," says Hallam,
" Bembo and Sadolet, who had by common confession
reached a consummate elegance of style, in comparison
of which the best productions of the last age seemed
very imperfect." (" Introduction to the Literature of
Europe.")
See F. G. CANCEI.LIERI, " Elogio storico di J. Sadoletti," 1828;
A. PEKICAUD, "Fragments biographiques sur J. Sadolet," 1849;
Joi.v, " fitude sur Sadolet," 1857; NICERON, " Mcmoires ;" " Nou-
velle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Sadoleto or Sadolet, (PAOLO,) a poet and bishop,
born at Modena in 1508, was a cousin-german or nephew
of the preceding. He became Bishop of Carpentras
in 1547. He wrote Latin Poems and Epistles. Died
in 1572.
Saeed (or Said) Pasha, sa'eed' pa'sha', Viceroy of
Egypt, and fourth son of Mehemet Alee, was born in
1822, and succeeded Abbas Pasha in 1854. He died in
January, 1863.
Saehrimnir, sa-rim'nir, written also Serimner, the
boar on whose flesh the heroes who are admitted to
Valhalla feast. Although boiled and served up every
day, the boar is always whole again at evening.
See THORPE'S "Northern Mythology," vol. i.
Saemund. See SAMUND.
Saenredam, sin'reh-dam', (JAN,) an able Dutch
designer and engraver, born at Leyden about 1565.
He engraved historical and scriptural subjects after
various masters, also some of his own designs. Died
in 1607.
Saenredam, (PIETER,) a painter, born at Assendelft
about 1597, was a son of the preceding. He painted
architecture and interiors of churches. His works are
highly praised. Died in 1666.
Safarik. See SCHAFARIK.
Saga, sd'ga, [from saga or saga, to "say," to "re
late,"] according to the Norse mythology, the goddess
or muse of history. She is the intimate, companion of
Odin, (or " Mind.")
Sage, sfzh, (BALTHASAR GEORGES,) a French chemist
and natural philosopher, born in Paris in 1740. He pub
lished numerous treatises on chemistry, mineralogy, and
electricity. He was the principal founder of the School
of Mines, (1783,) and contributed much to the art of
docimasie in France. In 1801 he was admitted into the
Institute. Died in 1824.
See his "Autobiography," 1818 ; " Biographic Universelle."
Sage, (JoHN,) a bishop of the Scottish Episcopal
Church, born in Fifeshire in 1652, was" eminent for
learning and talents. He preached at Edinburgh, wrote
several polemical works against the Presbyterians, and
became a bishop in 1705. Died in 1711.
See J. On. LAN, "Life of John Sage," 1714; CHAMBERS, " Bio
graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Sage, Le. See LE SAGE.
Sagittarius. See SCHUTZ, (HEINRICH.)
Sagittarius, sa-git-ta're-iis, (CASPAR,) a German his
torian and Lutheran minister, born at Lunenburg in
1643. He became professor of history at Jena in 1674.
He wrote several works on German history, and an
" Introduction to Ecclesiastic History," (1694.) Died
in 1694.
Sagittarius, (TOHANN CHRISTFRIED,) a German
writer, born at Breslau in 1617, became professor of
history at Jena. He wrote many dissertations, and
edited the works of Luther, (9 vols. folio, 1661-64.)
Died in 1689.
Sagoskin. See ZOGOSKIN.
Sagra, de la, da la sa'gRJi, (Don RAMON,) a Spanish
writer, born at Corunna in 1798, published "The
Physical, Political, and Natural History of the Island
of Cuba," (1837,) and several treatises on political
economy.
Sagredo, sa-gRa'do, (GIOVANNI,) a Venetian diplo
matist and historian, published " Historical Memoirs
of the Ottoman Monarchs from 1300 to 1646," (1677,)
said to be well written. He became procurator of Saint
Mark's about 1668. Died after 1691.
Sahagun, de, da sa-a-goon', (BERNARDINO,) a Frar-
ciscan friar, born at Sahagun, in Spain, was a missiorary
to Mexico in 1529. He wrote a valuable history entitled
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
SAID
1942
SAINTE-AULAIRE
" Historia universal de Nueva Espafia," first published
at Mexico in 1829. Died in 1590.
See PRESCOTT, "History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i.
book i.
Said. See SAEED.
Said-lbn-Batric. See EUTYCHIUS.
Saigey, si'/hi', (JACQUES FREDERIC,) a French
savant, born at Montbeliard in 1797, published a num
ber of scientific treatises.
Sailer, si'ler, (JOHANN MICHAEL,) a German Catholic
theologian, born near Schrobenhausen, in Bavaria, in
1751. He was successively professor of divinity at
Ingolstadt and at Landshut, and Bishop of Ratisbon,
(1829.) He published a "Prayer-Book for Catholic
Chri'stians," (1831,) and other religious works. Died
in 1832.
See E. VON SCHENK, " Die Bischofe J. M. von Sailer und G. M.
Wittinann." 1838.
Saillet, de, deh st'y4', (ALEXANDRE,) a French litte
rateur and educational writer, born about 1805.
Sainctes, de, deh saxkt, (CLAUDE,) a French prelate
and controversial writer, born in 1525, became a deputy
to the Council of Trent. lie was made Bishop of Evreux
in 1575, and distinguished himself by his zeal in the cause
of the Catholic League. Died in 1591.
Saint-Aignan, de, deh stx'tin'yS.x', (PAUL de
Beauvillier — deh bo've'ya',) Due, a French nobleman,
born at Saint-Aignan in 1648. He was appointed presi
dent of the council of finances in 1685, and governor of
the Duke of Burgundy in 1689. He was a friend of
Fenelon, whom he selected as preceptor of that prince,
and to whom he remained faithful after Fenelon had
lost the royal favour. He was a favourite counsellor of
Louis XIV. Died in 1714.
Saint- Albin, de, deh sax'titl'bax', (ALEXANDRE
CHAKLKS OMER Rousselin de Corbeau — roos'lax'
deh koR'bS',) COMTE, a French writer and epigram
matist, born in 1773. He became in 1816 editor of the
" Constitutionnel," a liberal journal of Paris. Among
his works are lyric poems, epigrams, and a " Life of
General Hoche," (2 vols., 1798.) Died in 1847.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Saiiit-Aldegonde. See MARNIX.
Saint-Allais, de, deh sax'tt'li', (XICOLAS Vitoil —
ve'tox',) a French genealogist and litterateur, born at
Langres in 1773. lie published, besides many works
on genealogy, a new edition of "The Art of Verifying
Dates," (6 vols. 410, and 23 vols. 8vo, 1818-20.) Died
in 1842.
Saint- Alphouse, de, deh sax'tSl'fdxs', ( PIERRE
WATHIER,) born at Laon, in France, in 1770, served
under Napoleon in several campaigns, and rose to be
general of division in 1811. He was afterwards made a
count of the empire, and grand officer of the legion of
honour. Died in 1840.
Saint Am'and, (J AMES,) an English scholar, made
a valuable collection of books and manuscripts, which
at his death, in 1754, he bequeathed to the Bodleian
Library.
Saiiit-Amans, de, deh saN'tt'mox', (JEAN FLO-
RIMOND BOUDON,) a French antiquary and naturalist,
was born at Agen in 1748. He published numerous
treatises on agriculture, botany, and antiquities. Died
in 1831.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire."
Saint-Amant, sax'tf'mSx', (MARC ANTOINE GE
RARD,) a French poet, born at Rouen in 1594, became
a member of the French Academy in 1633. He wrote
odes, idyls, satires, etc. Died in 1661.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Saint-Amour, sax'tt'mooa', (Louis,) a doctor of
theology of the Sorbonne, and a distinguished advocate
of Jansenism, was born in Paris in 1619; died in 1687.
Saint- Amour, de, deh saN'tS'inoou', (GUILLAUME,)
a French philosopher and theologian, born at Saint-
Amour, in Franche-Comte. He became professor of
philosophy in Paris, and rector of the University. His
name is chiefly memorable on account of the prominent
part he performed in defending the privileges of the
University against the Dominicans, who were favoured
by the pope. He was the author of a work entitled
"Perils of the Latter Times," ("De Periculis novissi-
morum Temporum.") Died in 1272.
See DUPIN, " Histoire des Controverses dans le treizieme
Siecle."
Saint-Andre, (JEAN BON.) See JEAN BON SAINT-
ANDRE.
Saint- Andre, de, deh sax'toN'dRa', (JACQUES d'Al-
bon — diTboN',) MARSHAL, a French commander, who
united with the Due de Guise and Constable Mont-
morency to form a triumvirate against the Huguenots.
He was killed in battle in the civil war in 1562.
Saiiit-Aiige, de, deh saN'tdxzh', (ANGE FRANCOIS
FARIAU,) a French poet, born at Blois in 1747. He
produced a French version of Ovid's " Metamorphoses,"
(1778-89,) which was received with favour. He trans
lated other poems of Ovid, and was admitted to the
French Academy in 1810. Died in Paris in 1810.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Saint-Arnaud. See LKROY DE SAINT-ARNAUD.
Saint-Aubin, sax'tf/bax', (]>.AN,) a physician of
Metz, assisted Foes in his translation of Hippocrates,
and wrote a work on the plague. Died in 1597.
Saint-Aubin, de, deh sax'to'bax', (AccusriN.) a
French engraver, born in Paris in 1736. He engraved
fine portraits and vignettes for books. His works are
extremely numerous. Died in 1807.
Saint-Aubin, de, (CHARLES GERMAIN,) a designer
and engraver, born in Paris in 1721, was a brother of
the preceding. Died in 1786.
Saint-Aubin, de, (GABRIEL JACQUES,) a painter and
engraver, born in Paris in 1724, was a brother of the
preceding. Died in 1780.
Saint-Aubin, de, (JEAN,) a French Jesuit, born in
1587, wrote a " History of the City of Lyons, Ancient
and Modern." Died in 1660.
Saint-Bris. See LAMHERT, DE, (HENRI.)
Saint-Chamaiis, de, deh sax'shS'md.x', (AUGUSTS,)
VISCOUNT, a French jurist and statesman, born in Peri-
gord in 1777, published several political and miscel
laneous works.
Saint-Clair, sent klar, (ARTHUR,) a general, born in
Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1735. He became a citixcn of
Pennsylvania, and served as brigadier-general at the
battles of Trenton and Princeton, in the winter of 1776
-77. He was appointed a major-general in February,
1777, elected a member of Congress in 1785, and Presi
dent of Congress in 1787. In 1789 he was appointed
Governor of Ohio. He commanded an army which
was sent against the Miami Indians, and was defeated
in Ohio, near the Miami River, with heavy loss, in No-
i vember, 1791. He ceased to be Governor of Ohio in
1802. Died in 1818.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iii.
Saint-Clost, de, deh sax'klost', or Saint-Cloud,
de, deh sax'kloo', (PERROSor PIERRE,) a French writer
of the thirteenth century, whose principal work is an
allegorical poem entitled "The Romance of the Fox."
Saint-Cyraii. See DUVERGIER.
Saint-Didier. See LIMOJOX.
Sainte-Aulaire, de, deh sax'to'laV, (COME JOSEPH
de Beaupoil — deh bo'pwal',) COUNT, a French royal
ist, born about 1742, served against France during and
after the Revolution, and attained the rank of lieutenant-
general in 1814. Died in 1822.
Sainte-Aulaire, de, (FRANCOIS JOSEPH DE BEAU
POIL,) MARQUIS, a French poet and member of the
French Academy, born in the Limousin in 1643. UG
wrote madrigals and amatory verses. Died in 1742.
Sainte-Aulaire, de, (Louis CLAIR DE BEAUPOIL,)
COMTE, a French writer and diplomatist, born in Peri-
gord in 1778. He was a member of the Chamber of
Deputies from 1818 to 1824, entered the Chamber of
Peers about 1830, and was sent as ambassador to Vienna
in 1833. In 1841 he was elected a member of the
French Academy. He was minister at London from
1841 to 1847. His chief work is a "History of the
Fronde," (3 vols., 1827.) Died in 1854.
See DE BAH ANTE, " F!tiides historiques et biographiques ;" " Nou
velle Biographic Generale."
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, it, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon;
SAINTE-AVLAIRE
'943
SAINT-GELAIS
Sainte-Aulaire, de, (MARTIAL Louis DE BEAU-
POIL,) a French prelate, born in 1720, becr.me Bishop of
Poitiers, and was a deputy of the clergy from Poitou to
the States-General in 1789. Died in 1798.
Sainte-Beuve, saxt'buv', (CiiARi.KS AUGUSTIX,)
one of the most eminent of French critics, was born at
Boulogne-sur-Mer on the 23d of December, 1804. He was
educated in several colleges of Paris, and studied medi
cine, which he practised several years. Me was succes
sively a contributor to the "Globe," the " Revue des Deux
Mondes," and the " National." Me published in 1828 his
" Historical and Critical Picture of French Poetry and the
French Theatre in the Sixteenth Century," and in 1829
poems entitled "Life, Poetry, and Thoughts of Joseph
Pelorme." His other principal works are "Consola
tions," a collection of poems, (1830,) "Literary Por
traits," (8 vols., 1832-39,) a series of criticisms which
first appeared in the reviews, an excellent " History
of Port-Royal," (4 vols., 1840-62,) and a series of able
critiques entitled "Causeries du Lundi," (13 vols., 1851—
57,) which first appeared in the " Constitutionnel." He
was admitted into the French Academy in 1845. In
1852 he was appointed professor of Latin poetry in the
College of France, and in 1857 maitre des 'conferences
in the Normal School. In 1865 he was raised to the
dignity of a senator. Among his other works are " Etude
sur Virgile," (2 vols., 1857.) and " Nouveaux Lundis,"
(1863.) Died in October, 18 9.
"The peculiarity and excellence of his criticism is
its disinterestedness, its singular power of appreciating
whatever may be good in the most opposite schools,
and its wonderful faculty for penetrating into the secrets
ot the most strangely different natures. And now, if we
turn from the man's works to the man himself, we see
great natural power, a mind originally pliable, subtle,
and comprehensive to the very highest degree, curious
and penetrative, impartial to a fault." ("Quarterly
Review" for January, 1866.)
See L. DE LOMEXIE, " M. Sainte-Beuve, par un Homme de
Rien." 1841; PI.ANCHE, "Portraits litteraires ;" " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Geuerale."
Sainte-Beuve, (JACQUES,) a French casuist, born in
Paris in 1613. He was professor of theology in the
Sorbonne from 1643 to 1654. Died in 1677.
Sainte - Claire - Deville, saNt'kliu' deh-vel',
(CHARLES,) a French geologist, born at Saint Thomas,
in the Antilles, in 1814. Me has published a "Geo
logical Voyage to the Antilles and the Island of Tene-
riffe," etc., and other scientific works.
Sainte-Claire-Deville, ( HENRI,) a French chemist,
brother of the preceding, was born at Saint Thomas in
1818. He studied in France, and in 1851 succeeded
Balard as professor of chemistry in the Normal School.
He is chiefly distinguished for having invented a
method of producing in considerable quantities the
metal aluminum, first discovered by Wohler in 1827.
lie published an account of his experiments in the "An-
nales de Chimie et de Physique," (vols. xliii. and xlvi.)
Sainte-Croix, de, cleh saxt'kRwd', (GUILLAUME
EMANUEL JOSEPH Guilhem de Clermout-Lodeve —
ge'lfix' deh kleVmox' lo'div',) BAROX, a French anti
quary and scholar, born at Mormoiron in 1746. He
published, besides other works, " Historical Researches
into the Mysteries of Paganism," (1784,) and a "Critical
Examination of the Historians of Alexander the Great,"
(1804,) which are praised by Silvestre de Sacy. He was
a member of the Institute. Died in 1809.
See DACIER, " filoge de Sainte-Croix;" SILVESTRE r>E SACY,
" Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. de Sainte-Croix," 1809;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sainte-Edme, sax'tedm', (properly EDME THEO
DORE Bourg — booR,) a French political writer and
biographer, born in Paris in 1785. He wrote against
the Bourbons and Louis Philippe. In conjunction
with Sarrut, he published " Biography of Living Men,"
(" Biographic des Hommes du Jour," 6 vols., 1835-42.)
He committed suicide in Paris in 1852.
See Qi'ERARD, "La France Litteraire."
Sainte-Elme, sax'telm', (!DA,) a French courtesan,
whose real name was ELZELINA TOLSTOI VANAYL DE
YONGH, was born in 1778. She was the author of
" Memoirs of a Contemporary, or Recollections of the
Principal Personages of the Republic, the Consulate,
the Empire, and the Restoration," (8 vols., 1827.) Died
in 1845.
Sainte-Foi, saxt'fwa', (£LOI JOURDAX,) a French
theologian, born at Beaufort in 1806, has published
several religious works.
Saiiite-Marie, saNt'mS're', (£TIEXNE,) a French
physician, born near Lyons in 1777, published several
medical works. Died in 1829.
Sainte-Marthe, de, deh saxt'ma'Rt', ( AHEL,) a French
lawyer and Latin poet, born at Loudun in 1566, was
a son of Scevole, noticed below. He was appointed a
councillor of state by Louis XIII. Died in 1652.
Sainte-Marthe, de, (An EL Louis,) a French theo
logian, bom in Paris in 1621, was a son of Scevole the
Younger. He became general of the Oratory in 1672.
He wrote a work entitled "The Christian World,"
("Orbis Christianus,"9 vols., manuscript.) Died in 1697.
See NicEKON1, "Memoires."
Sainte-Marthe, de, (CHARLES,) a French poet, born
at Fontevrault He taught Hebrew and Greek at Lyons,
after he had been imprisoned two years on suspicion of
being a Lutheran. Died after 1562.
Sainte-Marthe, de, (I)EXis,) a theologian, born in
Paris in 1650. He published, besides other works,
"Gallia Christiana," (4 vols., 1715-28.) Died in 1725.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
Sainte-Marthe, de, [Lat. SAMMARTHA'XUS,] (ScE-
VOLE or GAUCHER,) a French writer and Latin poet,
born at Loudun in 1536, was a nephew of Charles. He
| held several high offices under Henry III. and Henry
j IV., and was an opponent of the League. He wrote
; " Paedotrophia," and other Latin poems, which were
j much admired. Died fn 1623.
See LA ROCHE-MAII.I.ET, "Vie de Sainte-Marthe," 1629: LEON
FEUGERE, " fitude sur S. de Sainte-Marthe," 1853; "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Sainte-Marthe, de, (SCEVOLE and Louis,) twin
brothers, born at Loudun in 1571, were sons of the pre
ceding. They produced an account of French bishops,
entitled "Gallia Christiana," (4 vols., 1656.) Scevole
died in 1650; Louis died in 1656.
See NICERON, "Memoires."
Sainte-Maure. See MOXTAUSIER, (Due DE.)
Sainte-Palaye, de, deh saxt'pt'li', QEAX BAPTISTE
, DE LACURXE,) a distinguished writer, and a member of
| the French Academy, was born at Anxerre in 1697. He
published "Memoirs of Ancient Chivalry," (3- vols.,
1759-81,) which was translated into English, and col
lected materials for a "History of the Troubadours,"
which was published by Millot, (1774.) Died in 1781.
See SE'GUIER, " filoee de Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye," 1782;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sahite-Suzamie, de, deh saxt'sii'zin', (GILHERT
JOSEPH MARTIN Bruneteau — bRiin'to', ) COMTE, a
; French general, born near Poivre (Aube) in 1760. He
became a general of division in 1796, and count in 1809.
Died in 1830.
Saint-fitienne. See RAHAUT.
Saint-Eve, sax'tiv', (JEAX MARIE,) a skilful French
engraver, born in Lyons in 1810. Having gained the
grand prize in 1840, he went to Rome with a pension,
and engraved some works of Raphael, Andrea del Sarto,
and Ary Scheffer. Died in 1856.
Saint-Evremond. See £VREMOXD.
Saint-Fargeau. See LE PELLETIER.
Saint-Felix, de, deh sax'fa'leks', (Jui.ES,) called
also FELIX D'AMOREUX, a French poet and novelist,
born at Uzes in 1806.
Saint-Foix, de, deh sax'fwa', (GERMAIN FRANCOIS
POUI.LAIN,) a French litterateur, born at Rennes, in
Brittany, in 1698, was the author of "Turkish Letters,"
(1730,) and several dramas and other works. He was a
famous duellist. Died in 1776.
See DUCOUDRAV, " filoge de Saint- Foix," 1777; " Nouvelle Bio-
grnphie Generale."
Saint-Fond. See FAUJAS DE SAINT-FOND.
Saint-Gelais, de, deh sax'zheh-li', (MELLLV, ) a
French ecclesiastic, born at Angouleme in 1491, pub-
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SJINT-GEL4IS
i944
S41NT JOHN
lished a number of poems in Latin and French. Died
in 1558. He was a nephew (or, as some say, a son) of
Octavien, noticed below.
See NICERON, "Memoires;" CASTAIGNE, "Notice sur les Saint-
Gelais," 1836.
Saiiit-Gelais, de, (OCTAVIEN,) a French poet and
prelate, born at Cognac in 1466. He was appointed
Bishop of Angouleme in 1494. His principal work is
"The Abode of Honour," ("Le Sejour d'llonneur.'')
Died in 1502.
See E. CASTAIGNE, " Notice sur les Saint-Gelais," 1836.
Saint -Geiiies, saN'zheh-ne-i', (JEAN,) a French
scholar and Latin poet, was born at Avignon in 1607.
He wrote elegies, idyls, and satires, (1654,) which are
commended. Died in 1663.
Saint-Georges, siN'zhoRzh', (N.,) CHKVAUKK, a
composer and violinist, born at Guadeloupe in 1745.
His mother was a mulatto. He was an expert fencer.
He composed several operas. Died in Paris in 1799.
Saint-Georges, de, deh sa.N'zhoRzh', CHEVALIER,
a French naval officer, who, as commander of the
Invincible, was defeated by Lord Anson off the coast of
Spain, in 1747, while assisting to convoy a fleet of
merchant-vessels. Died in 1763.
Saint-Georges, de, ( JULES HENRI VERNOY, ) a
French dramatist, born in Paris in 1801, has published
numerous dramatic works and romances.
Saint-Germain, saN'zheR'maN', COUNT, a notorious
adventurer, sometimes called THE MARQUIS DE BETMAR,
is supposed to have been a Portuguese. About 1770
he appeared at the Parisian court, where he made a
great sensation by his various accomplishments and
pretended skill in alchemy. He professed to be three
hundred and fifty years old, and to possess the elixir of
life and the philosopher's stone. Died in 1795.
See " Nachrichten vom Giafen Saint-Germain," 1780.
Saint-Germain, de, deh saN'zheR'maN', (Cr.AUDE
Louis,) COMTE, a French general, born near Lons-le-
Saulnier in 1707. He served as general in the Seven
Years' war, (1755-62,) and afterwards passed several
years in the Danish service, in which he obtained the
rank of field-marshal. lie became minister of war in
France in 1775, and made important reforms in that
department. He resigned in 1777. Died in 1778.
See ABBE DE LA MONTAGNE. " Memoires du Comte de Saint-
Germain," 1779; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" SISMONUI,
" Histoire des Francais."
Saint-Ger'man or Ger'main, (CHRISTOPHER,) an
English jurist, published a work entitled "The Doctor
and Student, or Dialogues between a Doctor of Divinity
and Student in the Laws of England," (1523, in Latin.)
Died in 1540.
Saint-Haouen, saN'7/t'wflN', (YVES MARIE GABRIEL
PIERRE Lecoat — leh-ko't',) BARON, born in Brittany in
1 756, entered the navy at an early age, and served against
the English in several campaigns of the Revolution. He
was made an officer of the legion of honour in 1804, and
subsequently a rear-admiral. Died in 1826.
Saint-Hilaire. See GEOFFROY SAINT-HII.AIRE.
Saint-Hilaire, saN'te'laR', (JEAN HENRI,) sometimes
called JAUME SAINT-HILAIRE, a French botanist, born
at Grasse in 1772. A genus of composite plants was
named Jaumea in his honour. Died in 1845.
Saint-Hilaire, (JULES BARTHELEMY.) See BARTHE
LEMY.
Saint-Hilaire, de, deh saN'te'laR', (AUGUSTE,) a
French naturalist, bom at Orleans in 1779, (some author
ities say 1799,) spent six years in a botanical exploration
of Brazil, to which he went in 1816. His principal
works are his "Flora Brasilise Meridionals, " (1825,
with 192 coloured plates,) "Travels in the Provinces
of Rio Janeiro and Minas Geraes," (1830,) "History of
the Most Remarkable Plants of Brazil and Paraguay,"
"Journey to the Diamond District of Brazil," (1833,) and
"Lectures on Botany," (" Le9ons de Botanique," 1841.)
He became a member of the Institute in 1830. Died
in 1853.
See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale."
Saint-Hilaire, de, (£MILE MARC HILAIRE,) some
times called MARCO DE SAINT-HILAIRE, a French
writer, born about 1790, became at an early age one
of the pages of the emperor Napoleon. He published
" Recollections of the Private Life of Napoleon," (1838,)
"History of the Imperial Guard," (1845,) ancl other
works illustrating the history of his time.
Saint-Hilaire, de, (Louis JOSEPH VINCENT LE-
HLOND,) a French general of division, born at Ribemont,
in Picardy, in 1766, served in the army of Napoleon in
Italy, and in the principal Austrian campaigns. He died
of a wound received at Essling in 1809.
Saint-Huberti, sa.\'//u'beR'te', (ANNE ANTOINETTE
CLAVEL,) a favourite French actress, born about 1756.
She performed operas with great success in Paris. About
1790 she was married to the Count d'Entraigues. who
became an exile in England. They were assassinated
near London in 1812.
Saint-Hyaciiithe. See CHARRIERE, DE, (MADAME.)
Saint-Hyacinthe, saN'te'S'saNt', (HYACINTHE COK-
DONNIER,) called also CHEVAI.IKR DE THEMISEUL, (deh
ta'me'zuK, ) a French litterateur, born at Orleans in
1684. lie wrote, besides other works, a satire called
"The Master-Piece of an Unknown Author," ( " Le
Chef-d'CEuvre d'un Inconnu," 1714.) lie was a Prot
estant, and an adversary of Voltaire. Died in 1746.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" MM. HAAG, " La France
protestante."
Saintiiie, saN'ten', (JOSEPH XAVIER BONIFACE,) a
distinguished French writer, born in Paris in 1790. lie
published dramas, poems, and romances, a collection
of philosophical stories, entitled "Jonathan the Vision
ary," (1827,) and " History of the Wars in Italy." His
most popular work is the tale of " Picciola," for which
he received the Monthyon prize in 1837. It passed
through ten editions in eight years, and was translated
into several languages.
See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January. 1838.
Saint-Ives or Saint- Yves, sa.Vtev', (CHARLES,) an
eminent French oculist, born near Rocroy in 1667. His
principal work, entitled " New Treatise on Diseases of
the Eye," (1722,) was translated into English and Ger
man. Died in 1733.
Saint-Jacques de Sylvabelle, de, deh saN'zhaV
deh sel'vt'bel', (Guii.LAUME,) a French savant, and
director of the observatory at Marseilles, was born in
that city in 1722. He published numerous treatises on
mathematics, astronomy, etc. Died in 1801.
Saint-Jean, saN'zhoN', (SlMON,) a French flower-
painter, born at Lyons in 1812.
Saint John. See BOLTNGHROKE.
Saint John, popularly called sin'jen, (BAYLE,) son
of James Augustus, noticed below, was born in London
in 1822. He published, among other works, " Adven
tures in the Libyan Desert, ""The Subalpine Kingdom,"
" Purple Tints of Paris," and "The Turks in Europe,"
(1853.) Died in 1859. His brother HORACE has written
a " History of British Conquests in India," and several
other works.
Saint John, (JAMES AUGUSTUS,) a distinguished
writer and traveller, born in Caermarthenshire, in Wales,
about the beginning of the nineteenth century. He was
for a time associated with |. S. Buckingham as editor
of the "Oriental Herald," for which he wrote a history
of British dominion in India. Having visited Egypt,
Malta, and Italy, he published in 1834 a "Description
of Egypt and Nubia." Among his other works we may
name "The Lives of Celebrated Travellers," (1830,) a
" History of the Manners and Customs of the Ancient
Greeks," (3 vols., 1842,) and " Philosophy at the Foot
of the Cross," (1855 ;) also the novels of "Margaret
Ravenscroft" and " Sir Cosmo Digby."
Saint John, (OLIVER,) an English judge and re
publican, born in Bedfordshire about 1596, was an able
lawyer. He was elected to Parliament about 1628, and
became a leader of the country party. He was counsel
for Hampden in the Ship-money case, (1637,) and then
" delivered the finest argument that had ever been heard
in Westminster Hall." (Lord Campbell.) In 1640 he
became a member of the Long Parliament. According
to Lord Campbell, "he was the first Englishman that
seriously planned the establishment of a republican form
of government in this country." He was appointed
solicitor-general in 1641, and was influential in procuring
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
S4INT-JORRT
'945
S41NT-M4RTIN
the condemnation of the Earl of Strafforcl. In 1648 he
became chief justice of the common pleas. He retained
that position till the restoration, (1660.) He was ap
pointed a member of Cromwell's House of Lords in
1657. His life was spared at the restoration, on condition
that he should never hold any office. He died in 1673.
Clarendon says " he was a man reserved, and of a
dark and clouded countenance, very proud, and con
versing with very few." He was a great-grandfather of
Henry Saint John, Lord Bolingbroke.
See LORD CAMPBELL, "Lives of the Chief Justices," vol. i. ;
Foss, "The Judges of England ;" CLARENDON, " History of the
Great Rebellion."
Saint-Jorry, de, deh sax'zho're', (PIERRE du Faur
— dii foR,) [Lat. PE'TRUS FA'BER,] a French jurist, born
at Toulouse in 1540; died in 1600.
Saint-Jullien, saN'zhii'leJ^N', (BARTHELKMI £ME,)
BARON, a French diplomatist, was patronized by Fran
cis I., who employed him in several embassies. Died
in 1597.
Saint-Just. See FRETEAU.
Saint-Just, de, deh saN'zhiist/, (ANTOINE Loris
LEON,) a French revolutionist, born at Decize in 1767
or 1768, was an intimate friend of Robespierre, through
whose influence he became a member of the National
Convention in 1792. He voted for the death of the king
without delay or appeal to the people, and distinguished
himself as one of the most violent of the Jacobin party.
He had a prominent part in the downfall of the Giron
dists, and, as a member of the committee of public safety,
was sent with Lebas to the Rhine, where he established
the guillotine and put to death great numbers of the
people. Appointed president of the Convention in 1794,
he contributed mainly to the defeat of Danton's party,
and became, with Robespierre and Couthon, one of the
triumvirate of the reign of terror. He was involved
in the ruin of Robespierre and his associates, with whom
he was executed in July, 1794. He left a number of
political works.
See FI.EURV, "Saint-Just et la Terreur," 2 vols.. 1852; E. HA-
MEL, Histoire de Saint-Just," 1850; THIERS, " History of the
French Revolution;" LAMARTINE, "History of the Girondists;"
(t XT ii~ T>: i. • r* '_'_!_ »
Nouvelle Biographic Generale.
Saint-Just, de, (C. GODARD d'Auccmr — do'kooR',)
BARON, a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1769, was
the author of tragedies, comedies, and comic operas.
Among the last-named the " Caliph of Bagdad" was
very successful. Died in 1826.
Saint-Lambert, de, deh saN'Io.x'baiR', (CHARLES
FRANgois,) MARQUIS, a French poet and infidel phi
losopher, born at Vezelise, in Lorraine, in 1716 or
1717. He was a contributor to the " Encyclopedic, "
and an intimate friend of Voltaire, who commends his
poems in extravagant terms. The principal of these,
entitled "The Seasons," (1769,) procured for him ad
mission to the French Academy. lie also published
" Universal Catechism," (1798,) and other philosophical
works. Died in 1803.
See PrvMAiGRE, " Saint-Lambert," 1840 ; QUERARD, " La France
Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Saint-Laurent, sax'lo'rSN', (NOMBRET, n6x'bRi',)
a French dramatist, published a number of popular
vaudevilles. Died in 1833.
Saint-Leger. See MERCIER.
Saint-Legier, de, deh saN'la'zhe-i', (JEAN GEORGES
LAURENT,) a French litterateur, born in the latter part
of the eighteenth century.
Saint Leonards, sent leVardz, (EDWARD BURTEN-
SHAW SUGDEX,) BARON, an English jurist and statesman,
born in London in 1781. He became a member of Par
liament for Weymouth in 1828, and in 1829 was appointed
solicitor-general under the Duke of Wellington, and made
a knight. He was lord chancellor of Ireland from 1841 to
1846, and in 1852 was created a peer and lord chancellor
of England. Among his principal works are " Practical
Treatise on Powers," (1808,) "A Series of Letters to a
Man of Property on Sales, Purchases, Mortgages," etc.,
(1809,) and "Treatise on the Law of Property as admin
istered in the House of Lords," (1849.) Died in 1870.
Saint-Leu, de, DUCHESSE. See HORTEXSE BEAU-
HARXAIS.
Saint-Lo, de, deh sax'lo', (ALEXIS,) a French Ca
puchin friar, born in Normandy, visited America and
Africa as a missionary, and published in 1637311 "Ac
count of a Voyage to Cape Verd." Died in 1638.
Saint Loe, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English diplomatist,
born about 1520, was captain of the guard to Queen
Elizabeth, and held other important offices. Died about
I565-
See "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 2d series, 1828.
Saint Louis. See Louis IX. OF FRANCE.
Saint-Luc, de, deh sax'ltik', (FRANgois D'ESPINAY,}
a French soldier of the sixteenth century, was appointed
grand master of artillery by Henry IV. He was killed
at the siege of Amiens, in 1597.
Saint-Luc, de, (TiMOLEo.x D'ESPINAY,) a French
marshal, son of the preceding, was born about 1580;
died in 1644.
Saint-Marc, de, deh sax'miRk', (CHARLES HUGUES
LEKEBVRE,) a French svriter, born in Paris in 1698. His
principal work is a "Chronological Abridgment of the
History of Italy from the Downfall of the Western
Empire," (6 vols., 1761-70.) Died in 1769.
Saint-Marc, de, (JEAN PAUL ANDRE des Rasins —
cli rt'zax',) MARQUIS, a French lyric and dramatic poet,
born in the province of Guienne in 1728. His opera
of "Adele de Ponthieu" met with brilliant success, and
was set to music by Piccini. Died in 1818.
Saint - Marc - Girardiu, sax'mtuk'zhe'ra'R'dax', a
French writer and statesman, born in Paris in 1801. He
succeeded Guizot as professor of history in the Faculty
of Letters about 1830, and was appointed minister of
public instruction in 1848. He has published "Essays
on Literature and Morals," and other works, and has
contributed to the "Journal des Debats" and the
" Revue des Deux Mondes." He was elected to the
French Academy in 1844.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Saint-Marcellin, sax'mtRs'laN', (JEAN VICTOR,) a
French officer and litterateur, born in 1791, served in the
Russian campaign of 1812. He fell in a duel in 1819.
Saint-Mard. See REMOXD DE SAINT-MARD.
Saint-Marsaii, de, deh sax'miK'sSN', ( ANTOINE
MARIE PHILIPPE Asiiiari — t'ze'ni're',) MARQUIS, born
at Turin in 1761, was appointed by Napoleon in 1809
minister -plenipotentiary to Berlin, and was subse
quently minister of war under Victor Emanuel. Died
in 1828.
Saint-Martin, saN'mSit'taN', (ANTOINE JEAN,) a
French Orientalist, born in Paris in 1791, was a disciple
of Silvestre de Sacy, through whose influence he became
in 1820 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He
was afterwards associated with Abel Remusat as editor
of the absolutist journal " L'Universel." He was the
author of " Historical and Geographical Memoirs on
Armenia," (1818,) "New Researches on the Epoch of
the Death of Alexander and the Chronology of the
Ptolemies," (1820,) "Historical Notice on the Zodiac
of Denderah," (1822,) and several other works. He
published a good edition of Lebeau's " Histoire du Bas-
Empire," (21 vols., 1824-36.) Died in 1832.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire;" " Biographic Univer-
selle. "
Saint-Martin, (JEAN BAPTISTE Pasinato — pa-se-
na'to,) an Italian savant, born in the province of Treviso
in 1739, published a number of treatises on agriculture
and natural science. Died in 1800.
Saint-Martin, de, deh sax'mSR'tax', (JEAN DIDIER,)
a French missionary to China, born in Paris in 1743,
translated into Chinese the " Imitation of Christ," and
other works. Died in 1801.
Saint-Martin, de, (Louis CLAUDE,) MARQUIS, a
French mystic, sometimes called "the Unknown Phi
losopher," (" Le Philosophic inconnu,") was born at Am-
boise in 1743. He was a warm admirer of the writings
of Jacob Bohme, a number of which he translated into
French. Among Saint-Martin's principal works are his
treatise "On Errors and on Truth," (1775,) " Natural
View of the Relations which exist between God, Man,
and the Universe," (1782,) "The New Man," (1792,)
and "On the Spirit of Things," (1800.) Died in 1803.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SAINT-MARTIN
1946
SAINT-PRIEST
Chateaubriand characterized him as "a man of great
merit."
See GENCE, "Notice sur L. C. de Saint- Martin," 1824; CARO,
" Essai sur la Vie et la Doctrine de Saint-Martin," 1852 ; MATTER,
" Saint-Martin, le Philosophe inconiui," 1862 ; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Saint-Martin de la Motte, de, deh
deh 13 mot, (FELIX,) COMTE, a Piedmontese jurist and
naturalist, born at Turin, was created by Napoleon a
count and senator. Died in 1818.
Saint-Maur. See DUPRE DE SAINT-MAUR.
Saint-Maurice, de, deh saN'mo'ress', (CHARLES
R. E.,) a French historian and novelist, born about 1796.
Among his works is a " History of the Crusades," (1824.)
Saint-Mauris, de, deh saN'mo'ress', (JEAN,) a
French jurist, born at Dole about 1495, became pro
fessor of law in his native city. Died in 1555.
Saint-Morys, de, deh sa.\'mo're', ? (fi'riENNE Bour-
gevin- Vialart — booRzh'vaN' ve't'ltV, ) COMTE, a
French writer, born in Paris in 1772, published several
political and miscellaneous works. Died in 1817.
Saint-Non, de, deh sa.x'noN', (JEAN CLAUDE RI
CHARD,) Ann6, a French amateur artist, born in Paris
in 1727. He published in 1781 "Voyage pittoresque
de Naples et de Sicile," in 5 vols., illustrated with fine
engravings. Died in 1791.
Saint-Olon. See PIDOU.
Saintonge, saN'toNzh', (LOUISE GENEVIEVE Gillot
— zhe'yo',) born in 1650, was the author of dramatic
works and poems on various subjects. She was the
daughter of Madame de Gomez, also a distinguished
writer. Died in 1718.
Saint-Ours, de, deh saN'toon', QEAN PIERRE,) a
Swiss painter, born at Geneva about 1756; died in 1809.
Saint-Pard, de, deh sax'paV, (PIERRE NICOLAS
van Blotaque — vin blo'tSk',) A HUE, born near Liege
in 1734, studied in Paris, where he was appointed hon
orary canon. lie wrote a number of religious works.
Died in 1824
Saint Paul, (the Apostle.) See PAUL, (SAINT.)
Saint-Paul, de. See SAINT-POL, DE.
Saint-Paul, de, deh saN'pol', (FKANC.OIS PAUL BAR-
LETTI,) a French scholar, born in Paris in 1734, became
professor of belles-lettres at Segovia, in Spain, in 1770.
He was the author of several educational works. Died
in 1809.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Saint-Pavin, de, deh saN'pI'vaN', (DENIS SANGUIN,)
a French poet, born in Paris, was a priest or abbe. His
works are chiefly sonnets, epistles, and epigrams. Died
in 1670.
Saint-Peravi, de, deh saN'peh-rt've', (JEAN NICO
LAS MARCELLIN GUERINKAU,) a French poet and mis
cellaneous writer, born at Janville in 1732 ; died in 1789.
Saint-Pern, de, deh saN'peiui', (BERTRAM),) a
French soldier, born in Brittany, was a friend and
companion-in-arms of the famous Du Guesclin. He
lived about 1330-60.
Saint-Peru, de, (JUDES VINCENT,) MARQUIS, a
French lieutenant-general, born in 1694, served in Flan
ders under Marshal Saxe, and subsequently in the Seven
Years' war. Died in 1761.
Saint Philip, MARQUIS OF. See BACCALAR Y SANNA.
Saint-Pierre, de, deh saN'pe-a.iR', (CHARLES IRE-
NEE CASTEL,) a French writer "and priest, born near
Barfleur, in Normandy, in 1658, was a friend of Fon-
tenelle. He was eccentric and eminently benevolent.
It is said that he was the first who used the word bien-
faisance, ("beneficence.") In 1695 he was admitted into
the French Academy. He wrote a number of works on
politics, morality, and political economy. His favourite
hobby was a project to maintain perpetual peace by
a congress or European Diet. Having censured the
policy of Louis XIV. in his " Polysynodie," (1718,) he
was expelled from the Academy. J. J. Rousseau ex
pressed the opinion that " he was an honour to his age
and to his species." Died in 1743.
See D'ALEMBERT, " £"loge de 1'Abbe de Saint- Pierre," 1775;
Saint-Pierre, de, (EUSTACHE,) a noble citizen of
Calais, who, as Froissart relates, when that city was
besieged by Edward III. of England, offered himself
with five others to the English, on condition that the
rest of the inhabitants should be spared.
See FROISSART, "Chronicles."
Saint-Pierre, de, (JACQUES HENRI Bernardm—
beR'ntR/daN',) a celebrated French writer, was born at
Havre on the igth of January, 1737. Having finished
his studies with distinction at the College of Rouen, he
entered the army as a military engineer, but he was soon
after dismissed the service for an act of insubordination.
He subsequently went to Russia, where he remained
four years, employed as an engineer. Having returned
to France in 1766, he obtained a commission as engineer
for the Isle of France. After a residence of three years
in that country, he set out in 1771 for Paris, where he
resolved to devote himself to literature, and formed an
intimacy with Rousseau and other distinguished writeis
of the time. He published in 1773 his "Voyage to
the Isle of France," etc., and in 1784 his "Studies of
Nature," which was very favourably received. It was
followed in 1788 by the charming tale of "Paul and
Virginia," which passed rapidly through numerous edi
tions and was translated into the principal languages
of Europe. Among his other works are "The Desires
of a Solitary," (" Les Vceux d'un Solitaire," 1789,)
"The Indian Cottage," (1791,) " Harmonies of Nature,"
and "Essay on J. J. Rousseau." Saint-Pierre enjoyed
Jhe patronage of Louis XVI., Joseph Bonaparte, and
the emperor Napoleon. He died in January, 1814. He
is regarded as one of the best prose writers of France,
and his "Paul and Virginia" is pronounced by a French
critic not only the chef-cTaiivre of the author, but one
of the chcfs-irccnvre of the language. He married a
daughter of Pierre F. Didot, book-publisher of Paris,
and had two children, named Paul and Virginie.
See Louis AIME MARTIN, "Vie de Bernardin de Saint-Pierre,"
prefixed to his complete works, 12 vols., 1817-20, also, '• Memoires
sur la Vie de B. de Saint-Pierre," 1826; PATIN, "filoge de B. de
Saint- Pierre," 1816; SAINTE-BKUVE, "Portraits litte'raires ;" A.
FI.EURY, "Vie de Bernardin de Saint-Pierre," 1844; "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale;" "North American Review" tor July, 1821,
(by A. H. EVERETT;) "Monthly Review" for February and March.
1816.
Saint-Pol, de. See LUXEMBOURG, DE, (Louis.)
Saint-Pol, de, deh saN'pol', (ANTOlNEMoNTBETON,)
a French marshal of the sixteenth century, was an ad
herent of the Guises, and took an active part in the
wars of the League. He was treacherously assassin
ated by the Duke of Guise, son of Henry of Lorraine,
about 1594.
Saint-Pol or Saint-Paul, de, (FRANQOIS de Bour
bon- Vendonie — deh booR'bo.N1' vS.N'dom',) CO.MTE, a
French soldier, born in Picardy in 1491, was a friend of
the Count of Angouleme, afterwards Francis I., whom
he accompanied in his principal military expeditions.
Died in 1545.
Saint-Prest or Saint-Fret, de, deh saN'piii', (JEAN
YVES,) a French jurist, was director of the political
academy founded at Paris in 1710 by M. de Torcy. He
wrote for the pupils of this institution a "History
of the Treaties made between the Different European
Powers, from the Reign of Henry IV. to the Peace of
Nymwegen, in 1679." Died in 1720.
Saint-Priest, de, deh s&N'pKe'est', (ALEXIS,) COUNT,
a diplomatist and litterateur, of French extraction, born
at Saint Petersburg in 1805, was a nephew of Guillaume
Emmanuel, noticed below. He was successively French
ambassador to Brazil, Portugal, and Copenhagen be
tween 1833 and 1841. He wrote a "History of the Fall
of the Jesuits in the Eighteenth Century," (1844,) "His
tory of the Conquest of Naples by Charles of Anjou,"
(1847,) which procured him admission to the French
Academy in 1849, and "Diplomatic and Literary
Studies," (1850.) Died at Moscow in 1851.
See DE BARANTE, " Notice sur M. le Cornte A. de Saint-Priest,"
1852; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Saint-Priest, de, (EMMANUEL Louis MARIE Gui-
gnard — gen'ySR',) VICOMTE, a general and diplomatist,
born in Paris in 1789, was a son of Frai^ois Emmanuel,
noticed below. He fought in the Russian army at Aus-
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
SAINT-PRIEST
'947
SAINT-SIMON
terlitz and Lutzen. He became French ambassador at
Berlin in 1825, and was minister at Madrid from 1827
to 1831.
See DE BARANTE, " Etudes historiques et biographiques ;" " Nou-
velle Biographie Generale."
Saint-Priest, de, (FRANCOIS EMMANUKI.,) COMTE, a
French diplomatist and statesman, horn at Grenoble in
1735, was employed before the Revolution in important
embassies to Portugal, Constantinople, and the Hague.
He succeeded Villedeuil as secretary of state or minister
of the interior in 1789, and resigned in December, 1790.
Died in 1831.
Saint-Priest, de, (GUILLAUME EMMANUEL,) COMTE,
son of the preceding, was born at Constantinople in 1776.
Having entered the Russian service, he fought against
the French at Austerlitz and in other engagements, and
obtained the rank of general. He was mortally wounded
at Rheims in 1814.
Saint-Prix, sa.x'pRe', (JEAN AMAIILK FUUCAULT,) a
French actor, born in Paris in 1759; died in 1834.
Saint-Prosper, de, deh S&N pRos'paiR', (ANTOINE
JEAN CASSE,) a French journalist and political writer,
born in Paris in 1790 ; died in 1841.
Saintrailles or Xaiiitrailles, de, deh saN'tKaT or
sa.N'tRt'ye, (PoTON,) a French warrior, born about 1395,
fought for Charles VII. against the English, and became
marshal of France in 1454. Died in 1461.
Saiiit-Rambert, de, deh sa.N'rO.N'baiR', (GABRIEL,)
a French philosopher of the school of Descartes, born
at Pontarlier, was the author of " Physical Explana
tions of the First Chapter of Genesis," (1713.) Died
about 1720.
Saintre, de, deh sax'tRa/, written also Xaintre,
(JEAN or JEHAN,) a brave French soldier, born at
Vendome in 1320, distinguished himself at the battle
of Poitiers, where lie was severely wounded. Died
in 1368.
Saint-Real, de, deh sax'ia'iK, (CESAR VICHARD,
sa'zSa' ve'shf R',) AliKE, a distinguished historical writer,
born at Chambery, in Savoy, in 1639. He published
a treatise "On the Use of History," (1671,) the his
torical romance of " Don Carlos," (1672,) a " History
of the Spanish Conspiracy against the Republic of
Venice in 1618," (1674,) and several other works. lie
resided mostly in Paris, and was intimate with Hor-
tense Mancini. Died in 1692. His work on the
" Conspiracy against Venice" was ranked among the
chcfs-d'a'iti'rc of the French language by Voltaire, who
says that " his style is comparable to that of Sallust."
(" Siecie de Louis XIV.") A large part of this work
is fictitious.
See F. ui BAROLO, " Memorie spettanti alia Vita di Saint-Real,"
1788; NICERON-, " Memoires ;" MOKEKI, " Dictionnaire Histo-
rique;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Saiiit-Remy, de, deh sa.N'ri'me', (PIERRE SURIREY,)
a French general, born about 1650, was the author of
" Memoirs of Artillery." Died in 1716.
Saint-Ruth, saN'riit', a French general, and perse
cutor of the Huguenots, notorious for his cruelty. He
was sent to Ireland in 1691 as commander-in-chief of
the army which fought for James II., and was opposed
by General Ginkell. He was defeated and killed at
Aughrim in 1691.
See MACAULAY'S " History of England," vol. iv.
Saint-Samson, de, deh saN'sdN'si.N', (JEAN,) a
French Carmelite monk and devotional writer, who
became blind in infancy, was born at Sens in 1571;
died in 1636.
Saint-Saphorin, de, deh saN'si'fo'raN', (ARMAND
FRANC.OIS Louis,) a French diplomatist, born in 1738,
entered the service of Frederick V. of Denmark, who
made him a privy councillor and conferred upon him
other distinctions. Died in 1805.
Saint-Silvestre, de, deh sax'sel'vestR', QUSTE
Louis du Faure — dii for,) MARQUIS, a French lieu
tenant-general, born in Paris in 1627. He served under
Turenne in 1672, and subsequently in the Spanish cam
paign of 1693. "Died in 1719.
Saint-Simon, de, deh saN'se'mdV, ( CHARLES
FRANCOIS Vermandois de Rouvroy-Sandricourt
— veR'md.N'dwa' deh roo'vRwa' sdN'dre'kooR',) a French
prelate, born in Paris in 1727, became Bishop of Agde
and a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He
was executed in 1794, by order of the Revolutionary
Tribunal.
Saint-Simon, de, (CLAUDE ANNE,) MARQUIS, a
French commander, born in 1743, entered the Spanish
service, and was created captain-general by Ferdinand
VII. Died about 1820.
Saint-Simon, de, (CLAUDE DE ROUVROY,) Due,
a French general, born in 1607, was the father of the
famous writer of Memoirs. Died in 1693.
Saint-Simon, de, (CLAUDE DE ROUVROY,) a French
prelate, of noble family, born in Paris in 1695, became
Bishop of Metz in 1733. Died in 1760.
Saint-Simon, sant si'mon, de, [Fr. pron. deh saNx-
se'moN',] (CLAUDE HENRI,) COUNT, a famous French
socialist and philosopher, born in Paris in October,
1760, was a nephew of Charles Frai^ois, Bishop of
Agde, and a relative of the Due de Saint-Simon. He
was endowed with great energy of character. Having
entered the army young, he served under Washington
in the United States. After the end of the American
war he passed several years in travel. He took little
part in the French Revolution, but, in partnership with
Count de Redern, speculated in confiscated property.
They realized a large fortune; but Redern appropriated
all of it except $30,000. Saint-Simon entertained or
professed a conviction that his mission was to be a social
reformer, for which he qualified himself by various
studies. In 1801 he married Mademoiselle de Champ-
grand, whom he divorced in 1802 because he wished to
marry Madame de Stael ; but she declined his offer. He
soon dissipated his money in projects, experiments, etc.
In 1807 he published an " Introduction to the Scientific
Labours of the Nineteenth Century." With the aid
of his disciple Augustin Thierry, he produced " The
Reorganization of European Society," (1814.) Among
his most remarkable works is " New Christianity,"
(" Nouveau Christianisme," 1825,) in which he maintains
that Christianity is progressive. His doctrines exerted
great influence in France, and attracted many eminent
disciples, among whom were Auguste Comte, Michel
Chevalier, Hy'ppolite Carnot, and O. Rodrigues. He
died in 1825. After his death, Bazard, Rodrigues, and
Entantin were chief priests of the Saint-Simonian sect,
which was very numerous until divergent tendencies
produced its dissolution.
See VII.LENAVE, " Histoire du Saint-Simonisme," 1847; *J-
HUBBARD, " Saint-Simon, sa Vie et ses Travaux," 1857 '• LOMEXIE,
"Galerie des Conteniporains," vol. x. ; F. W. CAROVE, "Der Saint-
Simonismus," etc., 1831 ; " Nonvelle Biographie Generale ;", " Doc
trines of Saint-Simon," in " London Quarterly Review" for July,
1831, (by SOUTHEY;) "Westminster Review" for July, 1863.
Saint-Simon, de, (HENRI JEAN VICTOR DE ROU
VROY,) MARQUIS, a French general and statesman, born
at Prereuil in 1782. He served under Marshal Ney in
Spain, and, after the second restoration, was appointed
minister-plenipotentiary to Copenhagen, (1820.) He
was afterwards created lieutenant-general and senator,
and obtained the grand cross of the legion of honour.
Saint-Simon, de, (Louis DE ROUVROY,) Due, a
celebrated French writer and diplomatist, born in 1675.
He entered the army at an early age, and took part in
several important engagements under Marshal Luxem
bourg. At the court of Louis XIV., who had never
regarded him with favour, Saint-Simon became a partisan
of the Duke of Orleans and an opponent of the legiti
mate princes. He was also a zealous Jansenist and friend
of Fenelon. After the death of the king he was appointed
by the regent Orleans one of his council, and in 1721 was
sent to Spain to negotiate the marriage of Louis XV.
with the Infanta. Though unsuccessful in this affair, he
was made a knight of the Golden Fleece, and obtained
other distinctions. On the death of the regent, Saint-
Simon applied himself to the composition of his "Me
moires," portions of which were first published in 1788.
A complete edition came out in 1830, entitled " Complete
and Authentic Memoirs of the Duke of Saint-Simon on
the Age of Louis XIV. and the Regency," (20 vols.)
They are distinguished by great independence of thought
and expression, fearless satire, and fine delineation of
character, and rank among the most valuable and attract-
c as K; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SAINT-SIMON
'948
SAL AD IN US
ive works of the kind. An abridged English version was
published by Bayle Saint John in 1857. Died in 1755.
See A. LEFEVRE-PONTAI.IS, " Discours sur la Vie et les CEuvres
de Saint-Simon," 1855; SAINTK-BEUVE, " Causeries du Lundi ;" V.
TREMBI.AV, " Biographic du Ducde Saint-Simon," 1850 ; " Nouvelle
Biographie Generate;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January,
1832; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1857.
Saint-Simon, de, (MAXIMILIEN HENRI,) MARQUIS,
a French litterateur, born about 1720, was a brother of
Charles Francois, Bishop of Agde. He published sev
eral historical works, and translated Pope's "Essay on
Man." Died neai Utrecht in 1799.
Saint-Scrim. See DESMARKTS DE SAINT-SORLIN.
Saint-Ursin, de, deh saN'tiiR'saN', (MARIE,) a French
physician and medical writer, born at Chartres in 1763 ;
died in 1818.
Saint-Vallier, saN'vf le-a', QEAN DE POITIERS,) a
French soldier of noble family, born in Dauphine about
1475, served in the Italian wars of Charles VIII. and
Louis XII.
Saint- Veiiaiit, de, deh saN'veh-nfiN', MADAME, a
French novelist, born in the eighteenth century; died
in 1815.
Saint- Victor, de, deh sax'vek'toR', (JACQUES BEN
JAMIN BINSSE,) COMTE, a French litterateur, born in
1772. He published various works in prose and verse,
and translated the Odes of Anacreon into verse, (1810.)
Died in 1858.
Saint- Vincens, de, deli saN'vaN'sdN', (AI.EXANDRE
JULES ANTOINE Fauris — fo'ress',) son of the following,
was born at Aix in 1750. He made large additions to
the valuable collection of medals formed by his father,
and wrote numerous treatises on numismatics and the
ancient monuments of France. Died in 1819.
Saint- Vincens, de, (Junes FRANCOIS PAUL FAU
RIS,) a French antiquary, born at Aix in 1718, published
several treatises on numismatics. Died in 1798.
Saint Vincent, EARL OF. See JKRVIS, (JoiiN.)
Saint- Vincent, sa.\'vaN's6.N', (GREGORY,) a Flemish
mathematician, born at Bruges in 1584, was a pupil of
Clavius. His " Opus Geometricum Quad rat u roe Circuli,"
etc. (1647) is highly commended by Montucla. Died in
1667.
Saisset, s.Ysi', (£MILE EDMOND,) a French philo
sophical writer, born at Montpellier in 1814. He became
in 1856 professor of the history of philosophy at the
Sorbonne. Among his principal works is a complete
history of skepticism, entitled "/Enesideme," (1840;)
he also contributed to the " Dictionnaire des Sciences
philosophiques" and to other periodicals a number of
philosophical essays of great merit. Died in 1863.
See the "North British Review" for May, 1863.
Saisseval, de, deh sis'vil', (CLAUDE Louis,) MAR
QUIS, born in 1754, attained the rank of marechal-de-
camp in the French army. He wrote a number of
treatises on politics and finance. Died about 1820.
Saissy, si'se', QEAN ANTOINE,) a French surgeon
and anatomist, born near Grasse, in Provence, in 1756;
died in 1822.
Saiva, si'va, written also Shaiva, the name applied
by the Hindoos to the worshippers of SIVA, which see.
Saix, du, diisi, [Lat. SAXA'NUS,] (ANTOINE,) a French
ecclesiastic, born at Bourg in 1515, wrote several re
ligious and moral works. Died about 1579.
Sakawee, (Sakawi,) sa-ka'wee, ? written also Sa-
kavi, an Arab writer of the fourteenth century, was the
author of a "History of Great Men from 1340 to 1383."
SAK' TI or SHAK'TI, written also SA CTI, [modern
Hindoo pron. siik'tee or shiik'tee,] a Sanscrit word de
noting " power" or " energy," often applied in the Hindoo
mythology to the wives or consorts of the chief deities ;
or, to speak more definitely, the power of each of the
male deities was supposed to be personified in his consort.
Thus, Lakshmi was the Sakti (" power" or "energy") of
Vishnu ; Parvati or Kali was the Sakti of Siva ; and so on.
Sakya Muni or Sakya Singha. See GAUTAMA.
Sala, sa'la, (ANGIOLO,) an Italian chemist, born at
Vicenza, nourished about 1610-40. He lived in Holland
from 1613 to 1617, removed to Hamburg about 1620,
and became physician to the Duke of Mecklenburg about
1632. He wrote numerous chemical works, which were
highly commended by Haller. They were published
collectively in 1647, under the title of "Opera Medico-
Chymica."
See HALLER, " Bibliotheca Botanica."
Sa'la, (GEORGE AUGUSTUS,) an English litterateur,
born in London in 1827, has contributed numerous
articles to " Household Words." Among his principal
works are "Twice round the Clock, or the Hours of
the Day and Night in London," (1859,) "The Badding-
ton Peerage; a Story of the Best and Worst Society,"
(1860,) "The Seven Sons of Mammon," (3 vols., 1861,)
"Quite Alone," (3 vols., 1864,) "My Diary in America
in the Midst of War," (2 vols., 1865,) and "Rome and
Venice, with other Wanderings, 1866-67," (1869.)
Sala, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian composer and writer on
music, born at Naples about 1702. He produced " Re-
gole del Contrapunto pratico," (1794.) Died in 1800.
Sala, (ViTALE,) an Italian painter, born near Cano in
1803 ; died in 1835.
Sala y Berart, sa'la e ba-raiu', (GASPAR,) a Spanish
theologian and preacher, born at Saragossa ; died in
1670.
Salaberry, de, deh sa'/la'/bi/re', (CHARLES MARIE
d'Yrumberry — de'niN'b.Vre',) COMTE, a French roy
alist, born in Paris in 1766, became a member of the
Chamber of Deputies in 1815. He was afterwards as
sociated with Chateaubriand as editor of the " Conser-
vateur." He published several political and historical
works, and was a contributor to the " Biographie
Universelle." Died in 1847.
See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Sal'a-din, [Fr. pron. sf'lt'daN',] the common English
and French form of Salah-ed-Deen or Salah-eddin
— sa'lan ed-deen', i.e. the " Integrity of the Faith," | Lat.
SALADI'NUS; It. SALADINO, sa-la-clee'no,] I.. (Malek-
Nasir-Yoosuf, (or -Yousouf,) mSl'ek na'sir yoo'-
soof,) a famous Sultan of Egypt, born at the castle of
Tekrit, on the Tigris, in 1137, was a son of Aiyoob, a
| Koord, who had a high rank in the army of Noor-ed-
Deen. In 1168 he became vizier of Egypt, then under
Noor-ed-Deen. Saladin, however, refused to obey him,
and assumed the sovereign power. After the death of
Noor-ed-Deen, (1173,) he made himself master of South
ern Syria. His ambitious efforts to extend his conquests
soon brought him into collision with the Christians of
Palestine, whom he defeated in the great battle of Tibe
rias or Hitten in July, 1187. Jerusalem surrendered to
Saladin in October of the same year. His victorious
progress was arrested by the armies of the third crusade,
led by Richard I. of England and Philip Augustus of
France. The crusaders commenced in 1189 the memo
rable siege of Acre, which was defended by Saladin with
great valour, but was taken in July, 1191. He excited
the admiration even of his enemies by his chivalrous
spirit and magnanimity. In September, 1192, Saladin
and Richard Cceur de Lion suspended hostilities by a
truce of three years. The former remained master of
Jerusalem. lie treated with humanity the numerous
Christian prisoners that fell into his power. He died at
Damascus in March, 1193, leaving three or more sons,
among whom his vast dominions were divided.
See ABOOI.KEUA, " Life of Saladin ;" BOIIADIN, " Saladini Vita et
Res gesta; ;" MARIN, " Histoire de Saladin," 2 vols. , 176-? ; RKINAUD,
" Noiice sur la Vie de Saladin," 1824; A. SCHUI.TKNS, "Saladini
Vita," 1755: WEIL, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. iii. ; MICH ADD,
" History of the Crusades ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Giiierale."
Saladin or Salah-ed-Deeii II., Sultan of Aleppo,
born in 1229, was a great-grandson of the preceding.
His dominions were invaded by the Mongols, who took
Aleppo in 1260. Saladin was killed by Hoolagoo, the
chief of the Mongols, in 1261.
Saladin, sS'lJt'daN', (JEAN BAPTISTS MICHEL,) a
French lawyer, was a member of the Convention, (1792-
95,) and opposed the excesses of the Jacobins. Died
in 1813.
Saladin, (NICOLAS JOSEPH,) a French mathematician,
born at La Bassee in 1743. He became professor of
mathematics and physics at Douai in 1792. Died in
1829.
Saladino. See SALADIN.
Saladinus. See SALADIN.
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, y, short ; a, e, \, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; me"t; nftt; good; moon;
SJLAGNT
1949
SALFI
Salagny, de, deh st'iSn'ye', (GEOFFROI,) a French
jurist, born in 1316; died in 1374.
Salah-ed-Deen, (or -eddin.) See S A I.ADI N.
Salai, sa-11', or Salaino, sa-li'no, (ANDREA,) an
Italian painter, of remarkable personal beauty, was born
at Milan about 1475. ^e was a pupil of Leonardo da
Vinci, whom he frequently served as a model. He pro
duced several admired works in the style of Da Vinci.
See V ASARI, " Lives of the Painters ;" LANZI, " History of Paint
ing in Italy."
Salamanca, sa-la-man'ka, ( ANTONIO, ) an Italian
dealer in prints, flourished at Rome about 1540-50. He
published many engravings, and is supposed to have
engraved a " Pieta" of Michael Angelo.
Salamee or Salami, sa-la'mee, (Abool-Hassan-
Mohanimed,) an Arab poet, born at Bagdad in 915;
died in 1002.
Salamon, de, deh st'lt'moN', (Louis SIFREIN Jo-
SEPH FoNCROs6,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Carpen-
tras in 1759, was appointed Bishop of Belley in 1817,
and of Saint-Flour in 1823. Died in 1829.
Salandri, sa-lan'ditee, (PELLEGRI.NO,) an Italian poet,
born at Reggio in 1723. He wrote sonnets and other
short poems, the style of which is said to be pure and
elegant. Died in 1771.
Salas, sa'las, (GREGORIO FRANCISCO,) a Spanish pas
toral poet, born in Estremadura in 1740; died in 1808.
Salat, sa'lat, (JAKOI!,) a German philosopher and
Catholic priest, born at Abbtsgmiind in 1766. He be
came professor of moral philosophy at Landshut in
1807, and published numerous works on philosophy,
psychology, etc. Died in 1851.
Salat, sa-lat', (Don JOSE\) a Spanish jurist and writer,
born at Cervera in 1762 ; died about 1828.
Salaville, st'is'vel', (JEAN BAPTISTS,) a French
writer, born at Saint-Leger in 1755, published an
" Essay on Duelling," and several political works.
Died in 1832.
Salaza, de, da sa-la'tha, (CASTRO Luis,) historiogra
pher of Charles II. of Spain, lived about 1680. He
published, among other works, a "Genealogical History
of the House of Silva," (1685.)
Salazar, de. See MENDOZA, DE, (PEDRO.)
Salazar y Torres, de, da sa-la-thau' e tor're's, (Au-
GUSTIN,) a Spanish poet, born at Soria in 1642. He
\.rote comedies, one of which is entitled " Segunda
Celestina," and lyric poems. Died in 1675.
Saldanha Oliveira e Dauri, sal-dan'ya o-le-va^e-ra
a down, ( TOAO CARLOS,) DL'KK OF, a Portuguese states-
mini and marshal, was born at Arinhaga about 1785. He
was a grandson of the famous Marquis de Pombal. In
1825 he was appointed minister of foreign affairs, and
subsequently minister of war under Dom Pedro. After
the breaking out of the insurrection at Oporto, he
became conjointly with Palmella commander-in-chief
of the constitutional army. \\ ith the assistance ot the
Duke of Terceira, he gained several victories over the
Miguelists in 1833. He was prime minister from 1851
to June, 1856. lie recovered power by a coup d'etat in
May, 1870.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Salden, sal'den, [ Lat. SALDE'NUS, ] ( WILI.EM, ) a
Dutch theologian, was a native of Utrecht. He pub
lished a number of learned works in Latin and Dutch.
Died in 1694.
Saldenus. See SAI.DKN.
Saldern, von, fon sal'deRn, (FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH.)
a Prussian general and skilful tactician, born in 1719,
served in the Seven Years' war. He published "In
fantry Tactics," and other military works. Died in 1785.
Sale, (Gr.ORGE,) an English Orientalist, born in 1680.
His principal work is an excellent English translation
of the Koran, (1734,) with explanatory notes from the
most approved commentators. He also contributed to
the "Universal History'' edited by S win ton and others,
and to the "General Dictionary" published in London
in 1734. Died in 1736.
Sale, (Sir ROBERT HENRY,) an eminent British gene
ral, born in 1782. He became a captain in 1806, and a
major in 1813. After he had served many years in India,
he gained distinction in the Afghan war, which began
about 1838, and became a major-general in 1840. He
commanded the army which stormed the Khoord Cabool
Pass in 1841, and defended Jelalabad in a long siege,
from November, 1841, till April, 1842. For his conduct
at the capture of Cabool he was knighted. He was killed
in a battle against the Sikhs at Mookee in 1845.
Saleh-Ibii-Nahala. See SALIH-IHN-NAHALA.
Salel, st'lel', (HucuES,) a French poet and ecclesi
astic, born in 1504, was patronized by Francis I.
Salemon or Salmon, saTmi.N', (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a
French litterateur, born at Nancy in 1744; died in 1814.
Salemon, sa-li-min', or Salmon, sal-m6n', (Don
MANUEL GONZALES,) a Spanish statesman, born at
Cadiz in 1778, was employed in important missions to
Portugal, France, and Saxony, and was appointed by
Ferdinand VII., in 1830, first secretary of state, and
minister of foreign affairs. Died in 1832.
Salerne, st'liRn', (FRANgois,) a French physician
and naturalist, born at Orleans, translated Ray's "Orni
thology." Died in 1760.
Sales, de, deh sal, (CHARLES,) brother of the fol
lowing, was born at Thorens in 1625. In 1665 he was
appointed by Louis XIV. Viceroy of Saint Christopher
and the adjacent islands. He was killed in an engage
ment with the English in 1666.
Sales, de, (CHARLES AUGUSTE,) nephew of Saint
Francis de Sales, born in Savoy in 1606, became Bishop
and Prince of Geneva. He wrote "The Life of Saint
Francis de Sales," (in Latin and French,) and other
works. Died in 1660.
Sales, de, deh stl or sa'les, [sometimes Anglicized
in pron. as salz,] (Saint FRANCIS,) an excellent bishop
and writer, born at Sales, in Savoy, on the 2ist ot"
August, 1567, was a son of the Count de Sales. He
entered the College of the Jesuits, in Paris, in 1578,
and studied Greek, with philosophy and theology. He
afterwards studied law at Padua, where he also became
a pupil of Antonio Possevino. Having resolved to
renounce the world, he was ordained a priest in 1593,
and became not only an eloquent preacher but a model
of humility and other Christian virtues. He was soon
employed as a missionary among the Calvinists of Ge
neva and Chablais, many of whom he is said to have
converted. About 1602 he visited Paris and preached
before Henry IV. He was appointed Bishop of Geneva
in 1602. He enforced strict discipline, reformed the
monasteries, and abounded in works of charity to the
poor. In 1608 he published an "Introduction to a
Religious Life," which was highly esteemed. He was
offered the dignity of a cardinal, but he declined it.
Among the eminent persons converted by him was
Marshal Lesdiguieres. He wrote, besides other works,
a "Treatise on the Love of God," ("Traite de FAmour
de Dieu," 1616.) He died at Lyons in December, 1622,
and was canonized in 1665.
See " Histoire de Francois de Sales," by his nephew, CHARLES
AUGUSTE DE SALES, 1634; JEAN PIERRE CAMUS, "Esprit de
Saint- Francois de Sales," 1641 ; Louis DE LA RIVIERE, "Vie de B.
Francois de Sales," 1634; GAI.I.IZIA, "La Vita di S. Francesco de
Sales," 1711; MARSOLLIER, "Vie de Saint- Francois de Sales,"
1700, (and English version of the same, 1737;) RF.NSING, " Lebens-
gescliichte des heiiigen Franz von Sales," 1818.
Sales, de, (Louis,) a Catholic theologian, born in
Savoy in 1564, was a cousin of the celebrated Saint
Francis de Sales. Died in 1625.
Sales, de, (Louis,) COMTE, a brother of Saint Fran
cis de Sales, was born in Chablais in 1577. He served
as general of the army of the Duke of Savoy. His
character is represented as excellent. Died in 1654.
See HUFFIER, " Vie de Louis de Sales," 1718.
Salfi, sal'fee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian philosopher
and litterateur, born at Cosenza, in Calabria, in 1759.
He became professor of history and philosophy at Milan
in 1800, and subsequently of public law. He published
a number of dramas, among which are "Medea," " Ido-
meneo," and "Saul," and critical essays, and wrote a
continuation of Ginguene's "Literary History of Italy,"
(1834.) He was also a contributor to the " Biographic
Universelle." Died near Paris in 1832.
See ANGKLO RENZI, " Memnire sur la Vie politique et litteiaire de
F. Salfi," 1832 ; L. GRECO, " Vita letteraria ossia Analisidelle Opere
di F. Salfi," 1839.
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
S4LGUES
1950
S4LLENGROS
Salgues, stlg, (JACQUES BARTHELF.MY,) a French
litterateur and journalist, born at Sens about 1760.
Among his works is " Memoirs towards the History of
France under Napoleon," (9 vols., 1814-28.) Died in
1830.
Saliaii, st'le'SN1', (JACQUES,) a French Jesuit, born in
'557' was rector of the College of Besai^on. He wrote
" Ecclesiastical Annals," (in Latin.) Died in 1640.
Salicet. See SAUCKTO.
Saliceti, sa-le-cha'tee, (AuRKi.io,) an Italian jurist,
born in the Abruzzo in 1804, filled several important
offices under the government.
Saliceti, [Fr. pron. st'le'si'te',] (CHRISTOPHE,) born
at Bastia, in Corsica, in 1757, was a deputy to the French
National Convention in 1792, and voted for the death of
the king. He was subsequently a member of the Coun
cil of Five Hundred, and minister of war at Naples under
Joseph Bonaparte. Died in 1809.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Saliceto, sa-le-cha'to, [ Lat. PLACKNTI'NUS ; Fr.
SALICET, st'le's.V,] (GuGi.iF.i.Mo,) an Italian physician,
born at Piacenza, was the author of a treatise "On Sur
gery," (14/6.) and other medical works, in Latin, which
were highly esteemed in his time. The celebrated Lan-
franc was one of his disciples. Died in 1280.
Salieri, sa-le-a'ree, ( ANTONIO.) a celebrated Italian
composer, born at Legnano, in the Venetian States, in
1750. He studied under Gnssmann at Vienna, where
he made the acquaintance of Gluck, at whose request
he composed the opera of " Les Dana'ides," for the Royal
Academy of Music in Paris. This work was received
with the greatest favour, and was followed by " La Grotta
de Trofonio," "Tarare," "Assur Koi d'Ormus," and
other popular operas. Died in 1825.
See MOSEI., "Life and Works of Salieri," (in German,) 1827;
FRTIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Salies or Saliez, de, deh sjt'lcjt'. (ANTOINETTE
SALVAN,) a French authoress, barn at Alby in 1638.
Her works comprise poems, historical romances, and
religious essays. Died in 1730.
Salignac, de, deh sflen'yak', (BF.RTRAND,) a French
diplomatist, was a great-uncle of the illustrious Fenelon.
He was ambassador at London from 1572 to 1575, and
was afterwards sent on a mission to Madrid by Henry
IV. Died in IS99-
Salih-Ibn-Nahala, sa'iiii ib'n ni'ha-la, sometimes
written Salih- (or Saleh-) Ben-Bahleh, a celebrated
physician of Bagdad, lived in the reign of Haroun-al-
Kaschid. According to Abulpharagius, (Aboolfaraj,) he
was a native of India.
Salimbeiii, sa-lem-ba'nee, written also Salimbene,
(ARCANGtOLO,) an eminent Italian painter, born about
15^6, was a native of Sienna.
Salimbeni, (VENTURA,) a painter, a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Sienna in 1557. He executed a
number of fine frescos at Rome. Among his works is
"Abraham and the Angels." He is sometimes called
BEVILACQUA, after his patron the cardinal of that name.
Died in 1613.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" TICOZZI, "Dizio-
nario. "
Salinas, de, da sa-lee'nas, (FRANCISCO.) a Spanish
musician and writer on the theory of music, was born at
Burgos about 1512, and was blind from his infancy. He
published in 1577 his celebrated treatise " De Musica,"
in seven books. Died in 1590.
Salinas y Cordova, de, da sa-lee'nas e koR'do-va,
(BoNAVKNTURA,) a Franciscan monk, born at Lima, in
Peru, became vicar-general of his order for the provinces
of New Spain, Florida, and the Philippines. Died in
1653. His brother DIEGO was historiographer of his
order in South America.
Sal-i-na'tor, (M. Livnis,) a Roman general, was
consul with L. /Emilius Paulus in 219 B.C. He was
again elected consul in 207, as a colleague of C. Claudius
Nero, who was his personal enemv. The consuls, how
ever, co-operated in opposing the Carthaginian invaders,
and gained a decisive victory over Hasdrubal on the
Metaurus, (207 B.C.) He became censor in 204 B.C.,
and put a tax on salt : hence his surname SAUNATOK.
Saliiis, de, deh s&'laN', (HuGUK.s,) a French phy
sician and antiquarian writer, born at Beaune in 1632 ;
died in 1710.
Salio, sa'le-o, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian litterateur, born
at Padua in 1700. His principal work is a sacred poem
on the Messiah. Died in 1737.
Sails, de, deh sJt'less', (CHARLES UI.YSSE,) a Swiss
writer, born at Marschlins in 1728. He was appointed
French minister for the Orisons in 1768. He published
several historical works. Died in 1800.
Salis, de, deh st'less', (Ronoi.i'iiK ANTOINE HU
BERT,) BARON, born in 1732, entered the French service,
and obtained the rank of marechal-de-camp. Died in
1807.
Salis, de, (TATIUS RODOLIMIE GILBERT.) a French
royalist, born in Lorraine in 1752, became a member of
the Chamber of Deputies for Ardennes. Died in 1820.
Salis, de, (ULYSSE,) BARON, a Swiss soldier and
writer, born in 1594, distinguished himself at the siege
of La Rochelle and in other important engagements.
He died in 1674, leaving a collection of "Memoirs,"
written in Italian, which are highly commended by
Haller.
Salisbury, EARL OK. See CKCII,, (KOHKRT.)
Salisbury, (Joif.N OK,) THE ELDER. See JOHN OF
SALISBURY.
Salisbury, saulx/ber-e, (JOHN OF,) THE VOUNGER,
an English fesuit, born about 1575, translated several
religious works into Welsh. Died in 1625.
Salisbury, MARQUIS OF. See CRANBORNE.
Salisbury, (RICHARD ANTHONY,) an English bot
anist, born in 1762, contributed a number of treatises
to the " Acts" of the Linnaean Society, of which he
was a member.
Salisbury or Salesbury, saulz'ber-e, ? (\Vu.i, IA.M,)
a Welsh writer, born in Denbighshire, published a
" Dictionary in English and Welsh," (1547,) and assisted
Bishop Davies in translating the New Testament into
Welsh. lie also translated into that language the Lit-
urgv of the Church of England.
Salis-Seewis, sa'lis sa'wis or s&'less' sa'vess', (Jo-
HANN GAUDENZ,) BARON, born at Malans, (or Seewis,)
in Switzerland, in 1762, published a collection of lyric
poems, (in German.) He was an intimate friend of the
poet Matthisson. Died in 1834.
See I,ON<;FKI.I.OW, "Poets nnc! Poetry of Europe."
Salis-Soglio, von, fon sa'less sol'yo, (JoiiANN UL-
RIC,) a general, born at Chnr, Switzerland, in 1790. lie
commanded the army of the Snnderlwiid — i.e. the league
formed by the seven Roman Catholic cantons — in 1847.
He was reduced to subjection in November of that year.
Died in 1855.
Salle, sJt'la', (JACQUES ANTOINE,) a French jurist,
born in Paris in 1712, was the author of "Spirit of the
Statutes of Louis XV.," and other legal works. Died
in 1778.
SaJle, de la, deh IS sSl, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French
ecclesiastic, born at Rheims in 1651, was founder of the
Institution of Brethren of the Christian Schools, having
for its object the gratuitous instruction of the poor. Died
in 1719.
Salle, de la, (PHILIPPE,) an ingenious French artisan
and mechanician, born at Seyssel in 1723. lie obtained
in 1783 a gold medal for his improvements in the silk-
loom. Died in 1804.
Salle de Letang, de la, deh IS sSl deh la'toN', (Si-
MON PHILIBERT,) a French agricultural writer, bom at
Rheims about 1700; died in 1765.
Salle, La. See LA SALLE.
Sallengre, sal-leng'Greh, ? (ALBERT HENDKIK,) a
Dutch writer, born at the Hague in 1694. He pub
lished, among other works, a "New Treasury of Roman
Antiquities," (3 vols., 1716-19,) and was a contributor
to the " Literary Journal of the Hague." He died in
1723, leaving a "History of the United Provinces for
the Year 1621," which came out in 1728.
See NICERON, "Memoires."
Sallengros, st'lo.N'gRo', (A. BENOIT FRANCOIS.) a
French Jacobin, was a deputy to the National Conven
tion in 1792, and voted for the death of the king. Died
about 1816.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
S4LLES
1951
SALM-DTCK
Salles, sit!, (EusEliE FRANCOIS,) a French physician
and Oriental scholar, born at Montpellier in 1799. He
was appointed in 1835 professor of Arabic at Marseilles.
Among his principal works are a "General History
of Legal Medicine,1' " Peregrinations in the East," and
"General History of the Human Races, or Ethnographic
Philosophy/'
Salles, '( JEAN BAFTISTE,) a French revolutionist and
member of the National Convention. During the trial
of the king he voted for the appeal to the people, which
he was the first to propose. He was executed at Bor
deaux in 1794.
Salles, de, deh stl, (CHARI.KS MARIE,) COMTE, a
French general, born about 1804. He commanded a
division at Sebastopol in May-September, 1855. Died
in iS^S.
Sallet, von, fon sf'li', (FRIEDRICH,) a German poet
and litterateur, of French extraction, born at Neisse, in
Silesia, in 1812. His principal work, entitled " Laien-
evangelium," is a poem in praise of Pantheism. Died
in 1843.
Sallier, st'lej-i', (CLAUDE,) a French philologist,
born at Saulieu in 1685. In 1719 he succeeded Sarrazin
as professor of Hebrew in the Royal College, and was
afterwards appointed keeper of the manuscripts in the
Royal Library. He was elected to the French Academy
in 1729, and was a member of the Royal Societies of
London and Berlin. His works are chiefly critical and
antiquarian treatises. Died in 1761.
Sallier-Chamcmt, st'le-i' shS'inox', (Gui MARIE,)
a French writer, born about 1750. He was appointed
in 1814 master of requests, and chevalier of the legion
of honour. Died about 1840.
Salliii, si'lix', (MAURICE,) a Savoyard artist, skilled
in sculpture and engraving, born in 1760; died in 1809.
Sallior, st'le'oR', (MARIE FRANCOIS,) a French poli
tician and writer, born at Versailles about 1740; died
in 1804.
Sallo, de, deh st'lo', (DENIS,) Sieur de La Coudraye,
born in Paris in 1626, is called the founder of modem
literary journals. He brought out in 1665, conjointly
with other writers, the "Journal des Savants," which
was at first very successful, but subsequently gave great
offence by the freedom and severity of its criticisms.
The Abbe Gallois afterwards became editor of the
" fournal," which was continued till 1792. Died in 1669.
See MOKERI, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" XICEROK, " Me-
moires."
Sal'lust, [Lat. SALLUS'TTUS; Fr. SAT.LUSTE, st'lust';
It. S AI.I.USTIO, sal-loos'te-o,] (or, more fully, Caius Sal-
lustius Crispus,) a celebrated Roman historian, who
was born of a plebeian family at Amiternum in 86 li.c.
He was elected tribune of the people in 52 is.c., and was
expelled from the senate by the censors in 50 for alleged
immoral conduct. He was a partisan of Caesar in the
civil war. In the year 47 he obtained the office of praetor,
and accompanied Caesar in his African campaign. He
was appointed governor of Xumidia by Caesar in 46 li.c.
According to Dion Cassius, he enriched himself by the
oppression and plunder of the people of that province.
After the death of Julius Caesar he returned to Rome,
and built a sumptuous palace on the Quirinal, with
large gardens, still called Horti Sallustiani. Having
retired from public life, he devoted his latter years to
literary pursuits. He died in 34 H.C. The scandalous
charges against the character of Sallust, made by several
ancient and modern writers, may have been true, but, in
the opinion of some of the best critics, they are far from
having been established by any decisive evidence. He
was much influenced by party spirit, and probably
hated the aristocratic party more than he loved the ple
beians. Sallust wrote a " History of the Conspiracy of
Catiline," (" Bellum Catilinarium,'') and a "History of
the War between the Romans and Jugurtha," (" Bellum
Tugurthinum.") The speeches which he ascribes to
Cato, Caesar, and others in his histories, though proba
bly expressed in the language of Sallust, give us, there
is reason to believe, the substance of what was said by
those eminent men. He also wrote a history of Rome
for the period included between 78 and 66 B.C., which
is lost. "The ancient critics," says Macaulay, "placed
Sallust in the same rank with Livy ; and unquestionably
the small portion of his works which has come down to
us is calculated to give a high opinion of his ta'ents.
But his style is not very pleasant ; and his most power
ful work, the account of the conspiracy of Catiline, has
rather the air of a clever party pamphlet than that of a
history." (Essay on History in the "Edinburgh Re
view," 1828.)
See DES BROSSES, "Vie de Salluste ;" D. W. MOLI.ER, "De C.
Salliistio," 1684; MULLHR, " C. Sallustius, oder liistorisclie Un-
tersuchung," etc., 1817; F. D. GERLACH, " Ueber den Geschichts-
schreiber C. Sailustius Ciispus," 1831 ; E. C. DE GERI.ACHE,
"Etudes sur Salluste." etc., 1847; BREGOLINI, "Vita di C. C.
Sallustio," 1802; '' Nouveile Biographic Generale;" " Fraser's
Magazine" for February, 1846.
Salluste, the French for SALLUST, which see.
Sallustio. See SAI.LUST.
Sallustius. See SALLUST.
Sal-lus'ti-us or Salus'tius, surnamed THE PHILOSO
PHER, a Roman officer, and a pagan, was pretorian pre
fect under the emperor Julian. Me dissuaded the latter
from persecuting the Christians. He is supposed to
have been the author of an extant work " On the Gods
and the World."
Sallustius, a Cynic philosopher, born in Syria, lived
probably between 450 and 500 A.D. He gained distinc
tion as an orator.
Sallus'tius Cris'pus, (CAius,) a Roman knight and
courtier, was a grand-nephew of Sallust the historian,
| whose large fortune he inherited. He was a man of
superior talents for public affairs, and became one of the
most favoured and influential advisers of Augustus. Ife
also obtained the confidence of Tiberius. Died in 20 A.D.
Salm, stlm, a French general, born in the depart
ment of Vosges in 1768, served under Pichegru in 1794,
| and subsequently in Italy and Spain. He was mortally
wounded at the siege of Olivo, in 1811.
Salmanasar. See SHALMANESER.
Salmasius, sal-ma'she-us, (CLAUDIUS,) [Fr. CLAUDE
DE SAUMAISE, klod deh so'maz',] a celebrated French
scholar, born at Semur in 1588. He is said to have
written Latin and Greek verses and to have read Pin
dar at the age of ten. While pursuing his studies in
Paris, he acquired the friendship of Casaubon, by whom
he was induced to become a Protestant. He subse
quently studied at Heidelberg, where he became ac
quainted with Gruter, to whom he dedicated his edition
of Florus, published in 1609. This was succeeded by
his "Historiae Augustas Scriptores Sex," (1620,) a con
tinuation of the "Twelve Caesars" of Suetonius ; edi
tions of Tertullian's " De Pallio," of Achilles Tatius, and
other classics. His greatest work is entitled " Plinianae
Exercitationes in C. J. Solini Polyhistoria," (2vols., 1629.)
The immense and varied learning displayed in this
production raised his reputation to the highest point,
and he received invitations from several princes of
Europe to settle in their respective countries. In 1632
he became honorary professor at Leyclen, where he con
tinued chiefly to reside till he visited Sweden in 1650 at
the invitation of Queen Christina. At the request of
Charles II., then in Holland, Salmasius wrote his " De-
fensio Regia pro Carolo I.," (1649,) being a defence
of monarchy and of the king Charles I., who had just
been put to death. This called forth Milton's celebrated
reply entitled " Defensio pro Populo Anglicano," which
Salmasius was about to answer, when he died, in 1653.
"But the greatest," says Hallain, "in this province of
literature [philology] was Claude Saumaise, best known
in the Latin form Salmasius, whom the general suffrage
of his compeers placed at their head. An incredible
erudition, so that it was said what Salmasius did not
know was beyond the bounds of knowledge, — a memory
such as none but those great scholars of former times
seem to have possessed, — a life passed, naturally enough,
in solitary labour, — were sufficient to establish his fame
among the learned." (" Introduction to the Literature of
Europe.'')
See A. CLEMENT, "Vita Salmasii,"or "Vie de Saumaise," 1656;
M»KERI, "Dictionnaire Historique;" "Nouveile Biographic Gene-
rale."
Salm-Dyck, sflm'dek', (CONSTANCE MARIE,) PRIX-
CESS OF, a French poetess and miscellaneous writer,
€ as K; 9 as s • g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ' ; s as z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
SALMEGGIA
1952
SALTONSTALL
whose original name was THEIS, born at Nantes in 1767,
was the author of the lyric tragedy of " Sappho," set to
music by Martini, "Epistle to Women," " Eulogy on
Lalancle," and "My Political and Literary Reminis
cences," (1833.) Died in 1845.
See MICHEL. BERR, " Notice sur la Princesse de Salm ;" A. MON-
T£MONT, " Notice sur la Princesse de Salm-Dyck," 1845; " Nouvelle
Biogvaphie Generale."
Salnieggia, sal-med'ja, (£NF.A,) an Italian painter,
surnamed IL TALPINO, was a native of Bergamo. He
studied at Rome under Raphael, and became one of his
most successful imitators. Among his best productions
are the altar-pieces in the churches of Santa Marta and
Santa Grata at Bergamo. He wrote a "Treatise on
Painting." Died in 1626, at an advanced age.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Salmeron, sal-ma-r6n', (ALFONSO,) a Spanish Jesuit,
bora at Toledo in 1515, was one of the chief disci pies of
Ignatius Loyola. He published several theological works,
and had a prominent part in founding the order of Jesuits.
He was one of the orators of the Council of Trent, to
which he was sent by Pope Paul III. Died in 1585.
See RIBADENEIRA, " Vita Salmeronis ;" N. ANTONIO, " Biblio-
tbeca Hispana Nova."
Salmerou, (CRISTOVAI. GARCIA,) a Spanish painter,
born at Cuenca in 1603 ; died in 1666.
Salm-Kyrburg, de, deh saMm-keK'buV, (FREDERIC
ERNEST OTTO,) PRINCE, born in Paris in 1789, served
in the army of Napoleon in the campaign of 1807, and
afterwards in Portugal, Spain, and Italy. Died in 1835.
Salmon, stl'mA.N', (FRANCOIS,) a doctor of the Sor-
bonne, born in Paris in 1677, published a "Treatise on
the Study of the Councils," (1724.) Died in 1736,
Salmon, (JEAN,) surnamed MAIGRET (m.VgRi') or
MACRI'NUS, a French scholar, born at Loudun in 1490,
was the author of Latin odes, which were highly esteemed
in his time. Died in 1557. His son CHARLES was like
wise noted for his learning, and was preceptor to Cathe
rine of Bourbon, sister of Henry IV. He perished in
the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, in 1572.
Salmon, (Louis ADOLPHE,) a French engraver, born
in Paris in 1806. Among his works are plates after
Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Da Vinci.
Salmon, sa'mon, (NATHANIEL,) an English divine
and antiquary, born in Bedfordshire. He published a
" History of Hertfordshire," " Survey of the Roman
Stations in Britain, according to the Roman Itinerary,"
(1721,) "Survey of the Roman Stations in the Midland
Counties," (1726,) "Antiquities of Surrey," (1736,) and
other works. Died in 1742.
Salmon, (ROHKRT,) an English mechanician, born in
Warwickshire in 1763; died in 1821.
Salmon, (THOMAS,) brother of Nathaniel, noticed
above, was the author of " The Chronological Histo
rian," "Examination of Burnet's History of his Own
Times," and other similar works. Died about 1745.
Salmon, (WILLIAM,) a celebrated English empiric,
published "A Universal Herbal," "Compendium of the
Theory and Practice of Physic," and several other works.
Died in 1700.
Salmonee._ See SALMONEUS.
Sal-mo'neus, [Gr. ^a^uuvEvf ; Fr. SALMON£E, stl'-
mo'iii',] in classic mythology, a son of ^£olus, a brother
of Sisyphus, and a king of Elis. The poets relate that he
claimed divine honours, imitated thunder and lightning
by driving his chariot over a brazen bridge, and by
throwing burning torches, etc., for which impiety he was
killed by a thunderbolt from Jupiter.
See VIRGIL, "/Eneid," book vi., 585.
Salm-Reifferscheidt, salm ri'fer-shlt', (NICHOLAS,)
COUNT, a distinguished general in the Austrian service,
was present at the battle of Pavia, and took prisoner the
French king, Francis I. In 1530 he defended Vienna
against the Turks under Solyman II., but he was mor
tally wounded during the last attack.
Salm-Salm, salm salm, (FELIX,) PRINCK, was born
of a distinguished Austrian family, December 28, 1828.
In 1862 he married Mademoiselle Le Clerq, of New
York, which act offended his family and caused his
exclusion from the Austrian court. He served with
distinction in the Federal army during the civil war,
towards the close of which he was made post-commander
at Atlanta. He accompanied Maximilian to Mexico in
1864, and was appointed by him aide-de-camp and chief
of his household. After the downfall and death of Maxi
milian, to whom he remained faithful to the last, he re
turned to Europe. Having entered the Prussian service,
as major in the fourth regiment of grenadiers, he was
killed at the battle of Gravelotte, August 16-17, 1870.
Salnove, de, deh s&l'nov', (ROHKRT,) a French writer
on the art of hunting, was a favourite at the court of
Louis XIII. His principal work is entitled " Venerie
royale," (1655.)
Sa-lo'me, [Gr. Sa/l<j/.«?,] an artful and cruel woman,
who was a sister of Herod the Great. By calumnious
accusations she induced Herod to put to death her own
husband, Josephus, and Mariamne the wife of Herod.
Died about 12 A.D.
Salomon, the French for SOLOMON, which see.
Salomon, sa^'lo'inoN', (FRANCOIS HENRI,) a French
litterateur of little merit, born at Bordeaux in 1629, be
came a member of the French Academy in 1646, having
for his competitor the great Corneille. Died in 1670.
Sal'o-mou or Sol'o-mon, (FREDERICK,) a general,
born in Prussia in 1826. He emigrated to the United
States, and worked as an engineer in Wisconsin before
the civil war. lie was appointed a brigadier-general
about July, 1862.
Salomon, sa'lo-mon', (GoTTHOi.n,) a Jewish theo
logian and preacher at Hamburg, born in 1784, wrote
commentaries on the prophets Ilaggai and Zechariah.
Salomon, (JOHANN PETER,) a celebrated German
composer and violinist, born at Bonn in 1745. After
visiting Berlin and Paris, he settled in London, where
he began about 1790 a series of subscription concerts,
for which Haydn produced his twelve grand symphonies,
generally known as " composed for Salomon's Concerts."
Haydn's oratorio of "The Creation" was brought out
in 1798 by Salomon at the Opera concert-room. Died
in 18115.
Sal'o-monii, (DAVin,) a Jewish magistrate and states
man, born in London in 1801. He was elected to Par
liament for Greenwich in 1851, and in 1855 became
lord mayor of London, being the first Jew who had
ever filled that office.
Sal-o-m'na, (Pmu.iA LICINIA JULIA CORNELIA,) a
Roman empress, was the wife of Gallienus, to whom
she was married about 240 A.D. Died about 268.
Sa-lo'ni-us, a French prelate of the fifth century, was
the son of the Bishop of Lyons.
Salornay, de, deh sit'IoR'ni', (JEAN,) a French eccle
siastic, who became Bishop of Macon. Died about 1445.
Salt, (HENRY,) an English antiquary and savant, born
in Yorkshire, accompanied in 1802 Lord Valentia as
secretary and draughtsman on an expedition to Egypt,
Abyssinia, and Hindostan. He discovered the cele
brated inscription at Axoom, in Abyssinia, and gave
an accurate description of the grand obelisk and other
monuments of that city. About 1815 he was appointed
English consul in Egypt, where he prosecuted his anti
quarian researches, and was treated with distinguished
favour by Mehemet Alee. He died in 1827, while en
gaged on a work relating to Egyptian antiquities and
hieroglyphics. He had previously published a splendid
atlas of engravings, entitled "Twenty- Four Large Views
taken in Saint Helena, the Cape, Abyssinia, Egypt,
etc.," (1809,) and an "Account of a Voyage to Abys
sinia, and Travels in the Interior of that Country," (1814.)
See J. J. HAM., "The Life and Correspondence of H. Salt,"
1834; "Monthly Review" for December, 1814, and January, 1815.
Sal'ter, (SAMUEL,) an English . divine and Greek
scholar, was born at Norwich. He became rector of
Saint Bartholomew, London, in 1756, and master of the
Charter-House in 1761. He was one of the writers of
the "Athenian Letters." (See YORKE, CHARLES.) Died
in 1778.
Salt/marsh, (JOHN,) an English divine, born in York
shire, wrote several treatises in favour of Antinomianism,
which were replied to by Gataker. Died in 1647.
Sal'toii-stall, (QuRDON,) an American Presbyterian
divine, born at Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1666, was
elected Governor of Connecticut in 1707. Died in 1724.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, ~-, <:hn>--; a, e, i. o, onsrnre: fir, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
SALTONST4LL
'953
Saltonstall, (LEVERETT,) LL.D., an American jurist,
and member of Congress, a relative of the preceding,
was born at Haverhil!, Massachusetts, about 1782. He
served in Congress from 1839 to 1843. Died at Salem
in 1845.
Saltoun, sil'toon or sal'ton, (ALEXANDER GEORGE
FRASKR,) LORD, a British general, born probably in
Scotland in 1785. He served in the Peninsula, 1808-
13, and distinguished himself in the defence of Hougou-
mont, near Waterloo, in June, 1815. Died in 1853.
Saluces. See SALUZZO.
Saluces, de, deh si'liis', (DIEUDONNEE,) Countess
of Revel, an Italian poetess, born at Turin in 1774,
wrote both in French and Italian. Her principal work
is entitled " Hypatia," ("Ippazia," 1817.) Died in 1840.
Salutato. See COLUCCIO.
Saluzzo di Menusiglio, sa-loot'so de mi-noo-
sel'yo, [Fr. SALUCES, sS'liis',] (GIUSEPPE ANGELO,)
COUNT, an Italian chemist and general, born at Sa
luzzo in 1734. He made discoveries in gases, and was
one of the founders of the Academy of Sciences of
Turin, for which he wrote several able memoirs. Died
in 1810.
See GRASSI, " Elogio storico del Conte G. A. Saluzzo di Menu
siglio," 1813.
Salva, sal'va, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish physician, born
at Tortosa in 1747, was the first to introduce inoculation
into Cataloirta. He published several medical and sci
entific works. Died about 1808.
Salva y Perez, sal'va e pa'reth, (Don VINCENTE,) a
learned Spanish bookseller of recent times, was a native
of Valencia. He became professor of Greek at the
University of Alcala. He published editions of Men-
doza's " History of the Wars of Granada," and other
standard works in Spanish, and a translation of Cor
nelius Xepos, with notes. Died in 1851.
Salvador, sIl'vS'doR', (JOSEPH,) a French writer, of
Jewish extraction, born at Montpellier in 1796, pub
lished a treatise " On the Law of Moses, or the Reli
gious and Political System of the Hebrews," and other
works.
Salvador, sal-va-D6R', (JuAN,) born at Barcelona in
1683, wrote a number of botanical treatises, (still in
manuscript.) Died in 1726. His brother JOSE was also
a distinguished botanist and anatomist, and was a mem
ber of the Royal Medical Academy of Spain. Died in
1771. The genus Salvadora was named in honour of
this family of naturalists, who rendered great service to
botanical science in Spain.
Salvador y Bosca, sal-va-DOR' e bos'ka, (Don
TITAN,) a Spanish botanist, born in Catalonia in 1598,
was the father of the preceding. Died in 1681.
Salvador y Pedrol, sal-va-o6R' e pa-DRdl', (JAYME,)
son of Don Juan Salvador, the first of that name, was
born at Barcelona in 1649. He enjoyed a high reputa
tion as a naturalist, and was a friend of Tournefort,
Boerhaave, and other eminent savants. Died in 1740.
Salvandy, de, deh sSl'v&N'de', (NARCISSE ACHILLE,)
COMTE, a French statesman and Litterateur, was born at
Condom in 1795. He became master of requests in
the State Council in 1819, having previously published
" The Coalition and France," and other political pam
phlets. He was elected to the French Academy in 1835,
and was minister of public instruction from April, 1837,
to March, 1839. Among his principal works are "Don
Alonzo, or Spain," a political romance, (1824,) a " His
tory of Poland before and under the Reign of John
Sobieski," (3 vols., 1827-29,) and "Sixteen Months, or
the Revolution of 1830." Died in 1856.
See L. DE LOMEN'IE, " M. de Salvandy, par un Homme de Rien,"
1841; CHARLES ROBIN, ''Biographic de M. de Salvandy," 1848;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for
June, 1832.
Salvemini. See CASTILLON, DE.
Salverte, saTve"Rt', (ANNE JOSEPH EUSEBE BACON-
NIERE,) a French litterateur and statesman, born in
Paris in 1771. He became a member of the Chamber
of Deputies for the department of Seine in 1828, and
voted with the opposition. He was the author of a
" Literary Picture of France in the Eighteenth Century,"
(1809,) " Historical and Philosophical Essays on the
Names of Men, Nations, and Places," etc., (1824,) and
other works. Died in 1839.
See QiiERAKi), " La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1830.
Salvi, sSl'vee, (GIAMBATTISTA,) an Italian historical
painter, surnamed SASSOFERRATO, born in that place in
1605. His pictures of the Virgin and Child are particu
larly admired ; also the altar-piece in the cathedral of
Montefiascone representing the death of Saint Joseph.
Died in 1685.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Salvi, (NiccoL6,) an Italian architect, born in 1699.
His greatest work is the fountain of Trevi, at Rome,
executed by order of Clement XII. Died in 1751.
Salviani, sal-ve-a'nee, (!PPOLITO,) an Italian natural
ist, and physician to Pope Julius III., was born at Citta
di Castello in 1514. His principal work is entitled
" History of Water Animals," (" Aquatilium Animalium
Historia," 1554.) Died in 1572.
See CUVIER, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles."
Sal-vl-a'nus, [Fr. SALVIEN, stl've^N',] a presbyter
of Marseilles, supposed to have been a native of Cologne,
flourished in the fifth century. He was the author of a
"Treatise against Avarice," and one "On the Govern
ment of God," which are written in elegant Latin.
Salviati, sal-ve-a'tee, (BERNARDO,) an Italian cardi
nal, born at Florence before 1500; died in 1568.
Salviati, (FRANCESCO Rossi da — ros'see di,) called
also CECCO (che"k'ko) Rossi, an eminent Italian painter,
born at Florence in 1510, was patronized by Cardinal
Salviati, who conferred upon him his name. He was a
pupil of Andrea del Sarto and of Bandinelli. He was
also the intimate friend of Vasari, who was his fellow-
student at Rome. Among his master-pieces are "The
Battles and Triumph of Camillus," in the Palazzo Vec-
chio at Florence, "The Taking down from the Cross,"
in the church of the Celestines in Paris, and the frescos
representing the history of Psyche in the Palazzo Gri-
mani. Died at Rome in 1563.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, " History of
Painting in Italy;" Ticozzr, " Dizionario."
Salviati, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian cardinal, born at
Florence in 1490, was a brother of Bernardo, noticed
above, and a grandson of Lorenzo the Magnificent. He
was a liberal patron of learning and the arts. Died in
1553-
See PAOLO Giovio, " Elogia."
Salviati, (GIUSEPPE.) See PORTA.
Salviati, (LEONARDO,) an Italian scholar and littera
teur, born at Florence in 1540, was an adversary of
Tasso, and caused the Academy Della Crusca to share
his hostility against that poet. He wrote comedies and
treatises on language, rhetoric, etc. His " Avvertimenti
della Lingua sopra'l I>ecamerone" (2 vols., 1584-86) was
highly esteemed. Died in 1589.
See NEGRI, "Scrittori Fiorentini:" TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della
Letteratura Italiana ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Salvien. See SALVIANUS.
Salvini, s51-vee'nee, (ANTONIO MARIA,) an Italian
philologist and writer, born at Florence in 1653. He
translated several Greek and Latin authors into Italian.
In 1676 he became professor of Greek at Florence. He
wrote, besides many other works, " Academic Dis
courses," (3 vols., 1695-1733,) "Prose sacre," (1716,)
and " Sonetti," (1728.) Died in 1729.
See FABRONI, " Vitae Italorum," etc.; PERUZZI, " Orazione in
Morte di A. M. Salvini," 1731 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Salvini, (SALVINO,) a brother of the preceding, was
born at Florence in 1667. He was the author of several
learned works, among which is " Fasti consolari dell'
Accademia Fiorentina," (1717.) Died in 1751.
Sal vino degli Arrnati, sal-vee'no dal'yee aR-ma'tee,
born at Florence about the middle of the thirteenth cen
tury, is supposed by many to have been the inventor of
spectacles, — though the Chinese appear to have used
them ages before.
Salvolini, sal-vo-lee'nee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
Orientalist, born at Faenza in 1809, was a pupil of the
celebrated Mezzofanti. He published a "Grammatical
Analysis of the Different Ancient Egyptian Texts,"
(1836.) Died in 1838.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled'; s as z; th as in this.
12.3
Explanations, p. 23.
N i
1954
SAX CUES
Salvoiii, sal-vo'nee, (PiERo BERNARDO,) an Italian
poet, born at Parma in 1723; died in 1784.
Saly, st'le', (JACQUES FRANC.OIS JOSEPH,) a French
sculptor, born at Valenciennes in 1717, worked about
twenty years at Copenhagen. His chief work is an
equestrian statue of Frederick V. of Denmark. Died
in 1776.
Salza, von, fon salt'sa, (HERMANN,) a German diplo
matist and soldier, born about 1180; died in 1239.
Salzmann, sdlts'mdn, (CHRISTIAN GOTTHILK, ) a
German Protestant divine and educational writer, born
near Erfurt in 1744. He founded in 1784, at Schnep-
fenthal, a school on the system of Basedow and Rous
seau, which became widely popular. Died in 1811.
Salzmanu, (FRIEDRICH ZACHARIAS,) a German
horticulturist, born in 1730, was gardener to Frederick
the Great of Prussia. He published several works on
gardening and fruit-culture. Died in 1801.
Samacchiiii, sa-mak-kee/nee, (OkA/.io,) an Italian
painter, born at Bologna in 1532, was a pupil of Pelle-
grino. His picture of the " Purification," in the church
of Saint James at Bologna, is esteemed a master-piece.
Died in 1577.
Samau or Samani. See SAMANIDES.
Samanidee. See SAMANIDES.
Samaiiiden. See SAMANIDES.
Samaiiides, sam/a-rmk or sd-man'idz, sing. Sam'a-
nide, [Fr. pron. si'mS'iied'; Ger. SAMANIDEN, sd-md-
nee'den ; Lat. SAMAN'ID.*:,] the name of a Persian
dynasty, which ruled in the tenth century. Its founder
was Saman, (sa'man',) who flourished about 930. The
last prince of this line was assassinated in the reign of
Mahmood the Gaznevide, about the beginning of the
eleventh century.
Samaiiiego, sd-md-ne-a'go, (FELIX MARIA,) a dis
tinguished fabulist, sometimes called "the Spanish La
Fontaine," born at Bilbao about 1742. His works are
entitled "Fables in Verse." Died about 1804.
See TICKXOR, " History of Spanish Literature."
Samary, sjt'mt're', (PHILIPPE,) a French Jesuit and
poet, born at Carcassonne in 1731 ; died in 1803.
Sambhu, a surname of SIVA, (which see.)
Sambiasi, sdm-be-d'see, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian mis
sionary to China, born at Cosenza in 1582 ; died in 1649.
Sambiii, s&N'ba.v', (HuGUEs,) a French architect,
and pupil of Michael Angelo, was born at Dijon. lie
wrote "On the Terms used in Architecture," (1572.)
Samblansai, de, deh s&N'bldN'sV, (JACQUES DE
Beaune — bon,) BARON, a French statesman, born in the
fifteenth century, was superintendent of finance under
Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I. Being ac
cused of peculation by the queen-mother, the Duchess
of Angouieme, he was executed in 1527.
Sam-bu'cus, (JOHN,) a distinguished scholar, born
at Tyrnau, 'in Hungary, in 1531. He was historiogra
pher to the emperor Maximilian II., and was also
patronized by his successor, Rudolph II. He wrote, in
Latin, a continuation of the " History of Hungary" of
Bonfinius ; also commentaries on various classics. Died
in 1584.
See HORANYI, " Memoria Hutigarorum ;" SAX, " Onomasticon."
Sa-me'ri-us, (HENRY,) a Jesuit, born in France in
1540, was for a time confessor to Mary Queen of Scots.
He was the author of a work entitled "Sacred Chro
nology," (in Latin.) Died about 1610.
Sammarthaiius. See SAINTE-MARTHE.
Sammartino, sam-maR-tee'no, (MATTEO,) Count of
Vische, born in Piedmont in 1494, was the author of
" Eclogues" and other poems ; also " Grammatical and
Poetical Observations on the Italian Language."
Sammes, samz, (AYLETT,) an English antiquary, who
wrote "The Antiquities of Ancient Britain derived from
the Phoenicians." Died in 1679.
Sammicheli. See SANMICHELI.
Sa-mon'i-cus or Sam-monl-cus, (QUINTUS SE-
RENUS,) a Roman writer, of whom little is known, ex
cept that he was put to death by Caracalla about 212
A.D. A medical treatise, in verse, entitled " Carmen de
Medicina," is ascribed to him.
See REUSS, " Lectiones Sammonics," 1837.
Sampietro, sdm-pe-a'tito, a Corsican soldier, born
in the district of Ajaccio about 1500, served with dis
tinction in the French army under Francis I. and Henry
II. lie perished by assassination in 1567.
Samp'spn, (HKNRY,) an English physician and non
conformist divine, born in Nottinghamshire, studied at
Leyden and Padua, and became a member of the College
of Physicians. Died in 1705.
Sampson, (THOMAS,) an English Puritan divine and
theologian, born in Suffolk in 1517; died in 1589.
Sam Slick. See HAI.IHURTON.
Samsoe, stm-so'eh, (Oi.E JOHAN,) a Danish writer,
born at Nestved in 1759. His principal works are
" FrithioP and other Scandinavian tales, and the tragedy
of" Dyvecke," which was very successful. Died in 1796.
Sam'son, [Heb. jlKOjy,] one of the judges of Israel,
of the tribe of Dan, and the son of Manoah, was
born about 1155 is.C., and at an early age gave proof
of supernatural bodily strength. After performing
several wonderful actions, he was made prisoner and
deprived of his sight by the Philistines, a great number
of whom he subsequently destroyed, along with him
self, by pulling clown the temple in which they were
assembled.
See Judges xiii., xiv., xv., xvi.
Sam'son, (GEORGE WHITFIEI.D,) D.I)., an American
Baptist divine, born in Worcester county, Massachusetts,
in 1819, was elected in 1859 president of Columbian
College, Washington. He has published letters on
Egypt, Palestine, etc., and a treatise entitled "Spiritual
ism Tested."
Samson, SON 'SON', (JOSEPH ISIDORE,) a French actor
and dramatist, born at Saint-Denis in 1793.
Samuel, [ I leb. Sxi'Djyil a Hebrew prophet and judge,
born about 1155 or 1170 li.C., was the son of Elkanah
and Hannah. About the age of forty he became judge
or chief ruler of Israel. Having been urgently requested
by the elders to give them a king, he anointed Saul to
reign over Israel. He afterwards prophesied against
Saul, and anointed David as his successor. lie died
about the age of ninety-five. His name has been given
to two historical books of Scripture. He is supposed
to have written the first twenty-four chapters of the first
book of Samuel, which see.
See " Life and Times of Samuel," London, 1843.
Samund, sa'moond, a distinguished scholar and his
torian, born in Iceland about 1056. His principal work
was a " History of the Norwegian Kings from Harold
Haarfager to Magnus the Good," which was highly
esteemed by his contemporaries. He is supposed by
some writers to have been one of the authors ot the
" Edda." Died in 1133.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Sam'well, ( DAVID,) a native of Denbighshire, Wales,
accompanied Captain Cook on his last voyage, and was
a witness of his murder, of which he published an ac
count. Died in 1799.
San, s6.N or san, (GERARD XAVIER,) a Belgian his
torical painter, born at Bruges in 1754 ; died in 1830.
Sanadon, sa'nt'doN', (NoEL ETIENNE,) a learned
French fesuit, born at Rouen in 1676, was appointed
in 1728 librarian of the College of Louis le Grand in
Paris. He is chiefly known by his French translation
of Horace, (in prose, 1728,) which was highly esteemed
at that time. He also wrote elegant Latin poems. Died
m 1733-
See MOR£RI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
Sanatroces, (Sanadrug.) See ARSACES XI. of
Parthia.
San Carlos, san kaR'Ios, QOSEF MIGUEL DK Carva-
jal — kaR-vd-Hal',) DUKE OF, a statesman and diploma
tist, born at Lima, in South America, in 1771. Having
been educated in Spain, he was appointed governor to
the Prince of Asturias, afterwards Ferdinand VI I. , and
in 1807 became Viceroy of Navarre.
Sanche. See SANCHO.
Sanches, sdn'shSs, (ANTONIO NUNHEZ RIBEIRO,) a
Portuguese physician, born in 1699, studied at Leyden
under Boerhaave, and subsequently became physician
to the Empress of Russia, (1731.) Died in 1783.
a, e, i, 6, \i,y,/o»g; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6,u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fdr, fall, fat; m£t; nftt; good; .noon;
SANCHEZ
1955
SJND
Sanchez, sSn'chSth, [Lat. SANC'TIUS,] (FRANCISCO,)
an eminent Spanish scholar, born at Las Brocas, in
Estremadura, in 1523, became professor of the Greek
and Latin languages and rhetoric at Salamanca. Me
published editions of several Latin classics, and a num
ber of original treatises in Latin, among which we may
name his "Minerva, seu de Causis Linguae Latinas Com-
mentarius," ("Commentary on the Principles of the
Latin Tongue,") which was esteemed a standard work.
Died in 1601.
See N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova."
Sanchez, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish physician, of Jew
ish extraction, was the author of a "Commentary on the
Physics of Aristotle," (in Latin,) and several medical
works. Died in 1632.
Sanchez, (GASPAKD,) a Spanish Jesuit and biblical
critic, born at Cifuentes about 1553, became professor
of theology at Alcala. Died in 1628.
Sanchez, (PKDRO ANTONIO,) a Spanish ecclesiastic,,
born in Galicia in 1740, was celebrated for his eloquence.
He wrote a number of religious works, and filled the
chair of divinity in the University of Santiago de Coin-
postella. Died in 1796.
Sanchez, (ToMAS,) a Spanish Jesuit and theologian,
born at Cordova in 1550. His principal work is en
titled "Disputations concerning the Holy Sacrament of
Marriage," (" Disputationes de Sancto Matrimonii Sa
cramento," 1602.) Died in 1610.
Sanchez, (ToMAS ANTONIO,) a Spanish scholar and
antiquary, born in 1730, published a "Collection of
Castilian Poetry before the Fifteenth Century." Died
in 1798.
Sanchez de Arevalo, san'cheth da a-ra-va'lo, (Ro-
DRIGO,) [Lat. RODERI'CUS SANC'Tius,] a learned Spanish
ecclesiastic, born in the diocese of Segovia in 1404. He
was appointed by Pope Paul II. governor of the castle
of Sant' Angelo, and Bishop successively of Zamora,
Calahorra, and Palencia. He wrote a number of works
in Latin, among which may be named his " Mirror of
Human Life," ("Speculum Vitas Humana?,") and a
"History of Spain." Died in 1470.
See X. ANTONIO, "Bibliotheca Hispana Vetns."
Sanchez Coello. See COELI.O.
Saucho, san'cho or san'chd, [Fr. SANCHE, sfiNsh,] I.,
King of Leon, succeeded his brother, Ordono III., in
955 A.D. Died in 967.
Sancho II., King of Castile and Leon, born about
1035. He succeeded his father, Ferdinand I., in 1065.
Died in 1072.
Sancho III., a son of Alfonso VIII., born about 1130,
began to reign over Castile in 1157. Died in 1158.
Sancho IV., surnamed EL BRAVO, ("the Brave,")
King of Castile and Leon, born in 1258, was a son of
Alfonso X. He revolted against his father in 1282, and
involved the country in a long civil war. He became
king at the death of Alfonso, in 1284. Died in 1295.
He was succeeded by his son, Fernando IV.
See MARIANA, " Historic de Espana ;" " Xouvelle Biograpbie
Generale."
Sancho III, King of Navarre, called THE GREAT,
was born about 965 A.D., and succeeded his father,
Garcia II., about loco. He was a warlike prince, and
extended his dominions by conquest. Died in 1035.
San'cho [Port. pron. san'sho] I., King of Portugal,
born in 1154, succeeded his father, Alfonso I., in 1185.
He is said to have been a prudent and beneficent ruler.
Died in 1212.
Sancho, san'cho or sank'o, (IGNATIUS,) a negro
poet and miscellaneous writer, born on board a slave-
ship in 1729, was taken to England, where he was
educated, and acquired the friendship of Dr. Johnson,
Garrick, and other distinguished persons. He published
poems, dramatic works, and " Letters." Died in 1780.
See the " Monthly Review" for December, 1783.
San-eho-m'a-thon or San-ehu-ni'a-thon, [Gr.
'SayxawiaOuv,] a Phoenician writer, supposed to have
been a native of Ber'ytus, and to have flourished about
fourteen centuries B.C. His principal work is a " His
tory of Phoenicia," which was translated into Greek from
the Phoenician by Philo of Byblus. The manuscript of
this translation is said to have been found in Portugal in
1835 ; but it is now generally believed to he spurious.
It was translated into German by Wagenfeld, (1836.)
See FABRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Graeca ;" F. L. VIBE, "Comnien-
tatio de Sanchoiiiathone," 1842 ; " Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale."
San Concordio, da, da san kon-koR'de-o, (BAKTO-
LOMMEO,) an Italian ecclesiastic, born near Pisa in 1262.
His work entitled " Ammaestrnmenti degli Antichi" is a
translation from the maxims of the ancient philosophers,
and is esteemed a model of elegance in style.
San'croft, ( WILLIAM,) an eminent English prelate
and nonjuror, born in Suffolk in 1616, lose through
various preferments to be Archbishop of Canterbury in
1678. After James II. had issued his edict of toleration,
Sancroft and six other bishops presented a petition
against it, and were, in consequence, imprisoned for a
time in the Tower. Having refused to take the oaths
on the accession of William and Mary, (1689,) he was
superseded in his office by Archbishop Tillotson. Died
in 1693.
See the " Life of William Sancroft," by GEORGE D'Ovi-EY, Lon
don. 1866; MACAUI.AV, " History of England ;" Miss STRICKLAND,
"Lives of the Seven Bishops."
Sanctius. See SANCHEZ, (FRANCISCO.)
Sanc-to'ii-us, an eminent Italian physician, whose
original name was SANTOUIO, (sin-to'te-o,) was born at
Capo d'Istria in 1561. He was appointed in 1611 pro
fessor of the theory of medicine at Padua. He published
several valuable medical works, the most important of
which is entitled "Ars de Statica Medicina Sectionibus
Aphorismorum Septem Comprehensa." This treatise,
which was translated into several languages, gives the
result of a series of experiments on insensible perspira
tion. Died in 1636.
See A. CAPF.LLI, " De Vita Sanctorii," 1750: HAI.I.ER, "Biblio
theca Medica ;" notice in the " Biographic Meciica'e," (by BOISSEAU.)
Saricy, de, deli SON'SC', (NICOLAS HARLAY, ) a
French statesman, born in 1546, rose to be superintend
ent of finance under Henry III. Died in 1629.
Sand, sant, [Lat. SAN'DIUS,] (CnuisroPii,) a Ger
man theologian, born at Kb'nigsberg in 1644, published
several works in favour of Socinianism. Died in 1680.
Sand, [Fr. pron. soNd,] (GEORGE,) the assumed name
of AMANTINE* LUCILE AURORE DUPIN, (JTmSN'tei/
lii'sel' o'rou'dii'paN',) Madame Dudevant, (du'deh-vSN',)
a celebrated French novelist, born in Paris on the 1st
of July, 1804. Her father, Maurice Dupin, an officer of
the army, was a son of M. Dupin de Francueil, who mar
ried a daughter of the famous Maurice de Saxe. The
subject of this article is thus a great-granddaughter of
Maurice de Saxe, who was a natural son of Augustus
II. of Poland. Her father having died in 1808, she was
educated by her grandmother, Madame Dupin, at the
chateau de Nohant, in the department of Indre, where
she had full liberty to indulge and develop her romantic
and wayward tendencies. She passed three years (1817-
20) in the convent of the Augustines Anglaises, Paris,
and was for a time a zealous devotee, accepting the
mysteries of Catholicism with ecstasy, which was fol
lowed by a morbid reaction. She tormented herself
with scruples, accused herself of constant sin, and be
came very despondent. In 1820 she left the convent
and returned to Nohant, where her love and taste for
natural scenery were fostered and developed. She
delighted in horseback-excursions, and studied philos
ophy in the works of Aristotle, Leibnitz, and Locke ;
but Rousseau was her prime favourite among authors.
She inherited the estate of Nohant on the death of her
grandmother, in 1821, and was married in 1822 to M.
Dudevant, a retired officer of the army. They had two
children, Maurice and Solange. After living together
about ten years, they separated by mutual consent, be
cause their tastes or tempers were incompatible. She
became a resident of Paris, and, having given up her for
tune to her husband, adopted the profession of literature
for a subsistence. In conjunction with her friend Jules
Sandeau, she wrote '' Rose et Blanche," a tale, (5 vols.,
1831.) She alone produced in 1832 a novel called " In-
* The " Nouvelle Biographic Generale" gives this name as
ARMAMMNE; Pierer's " Universal-Lexikon" has AMANDINE; nearly
all the other authorities, including Vapereau, have it as given above.
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gitttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SAND
1956
SANDFORD
diana," which appeared under the pseudonym of George
Sand and had great success. Her celebrity was in
creased by "Valentine," (2 vols., 1832,) and a paradoxi
cal work of fiction, entitled " Lelia," (2 vols., 1833,) which,
says the " National Review," " is the most famous and
the most typical of her novels. It is to an English
reader, and judged of from the point of view of common
sense, one of the most incoherent, foolish, morbid, blas
phemous, and useless books that have been sent across
the Channel during the present century." The same
critic remarks, "She has a true and a wide appreciation
of beauty, a constant command of rich and glowing
language, and a considerable faculty of self-analysis
and self-reflection. ... In spite of all her defects, she
awakens an admiration which cannot be reasoned away."
(See article "George Sand" in the "National Review,"
reprinted in the "Living Age" of February 27, 1858.)
She afterwards produced " Metella," (1833,) "Leone
Leoni," (1834,) "Jacques," (1834,) and "Mauprat," (2
vols., 1836,) which, with other tales, appeared first in the
"Revue des Deux Moncles." Her " Spiridion" (1839)
and "Consuelo" (1844) are said to have been written
under the inspiration of her friend Pierre Leroux.
Between 1844 and i85oshe published pastoral romances
entitled "La Mare au Diable," (1846,) " Franfois le
Champi," (1849,) and "La petite Fadette," which were
much admired, as models of a new style of fiction.
" They are free," says the " National Review," " from all
that provokes censure in her other writings, — from theo
ries, from declamation, from indelicacy. They move as
with a quiet flow that is irresistibly fascinating, and are
full of beauties of language to which it is impossible to
do justice."
George Sand is an advanced liberal in politics. About
the beginning of her literary career she assumed the
costume of the male sex. She professes to be a socialist,
and denounces the conventional system of marriage. She
was an ardent partisan of the revolution of 1848, after
which she edited a democratic weekly paper for a short
time. She is author of a number of dramas, among
which are " Claudie," (1851,) " Moliere," (1853,) " Fla-
minio," (1854,) and " Lucie," (1856.) In 1854 she pub
lished her autobiography, " Histoire de ma Vie,'' (10
vols.,) in which the disappointed public found too little
of personalities and anecdotes and too much of psychol
ogy. Among her recent works are " Constance Ver-
rier," (1860,) " Flavie," (1860,) "Tamaris," (1861,)
" Antonia," (1861,) and " Laura," (1864.) " G. Sand,"
says the "Nouvelle Biographic Generale," "stands in
the first rank among contemporary novelists. Her com
positions are in general magnificently planned or ar
ranged, (ordonnees.) . . . She has had the original
merit to perceive and express the poetry of the land
scapes of France. . . . But it is by her style that she
especially excels."
See R. WALSH, "George Sand," 1837; SAINTE BEUVE, "Can-
series du Liindi ;" LOMENIE, " Galerie des Contemporains ;"
" Foreign Quarterly Review" for December, 1834, January, 1843,
July, 1844, and April, 1846.
Sand, sand or zant, (KARL LUDWIG,) the murderer of
Kotzebue, born at Wunsiedel in 1795. While a student
at Jena he embraced with ardour the cause of the patriots,
and, exasperated by Kotzebue's ridicule of the liberal
party, stabbed him at his residence in Mannheim in 1819.
He was executed in 1820.
See " Memoir of Charles Louis Sand;" " Monthly Review'' for
February, 1820.
Sandberg, sand'bgRg, (JoHAN GUSTAF,) a Swedish
historical painter, born in 1782, worked at Stockholm,
where he died in 1854.
Sand'by, (PAUL,) R.A., a celebrated English painter
and engraver, born at Nottingham about 1730. He
was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1768,
and the same year appointed chief drawing-master to
the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. He was the
first of his countrymen to execute aquatint engravings ;
and among his master-pieces of this kind are "The
Carnival at Rome," after David Allan, and " Views of
Windsor and Eton." As a painter in water-colours he
occupies a high rank, and he is regarded as the founder
of that school of art in England. Died in 1809.
Saiidby, (THOMAS,) brother of the preceding, was
born at Nottingham in 1721. On the foundation of the
Royal Academy, in 1768, he became first professor of
architecture in that institution. As deputy ranger of
Windsor Great Park, he planned the construction of
Virginia Water, (1754,) and in 1775 he furnished the
design of Freemasons' Hall, London. Died in 1798.
Sande, van den, vSn den sSn'deh, (JAN,) a Flemish
jurist and historical writer, born in Geklerland in the
; sixteenth century ; died in 1638.
Sandeau, s6.\'d5', (LEONARD SYLVAIN JULES,) a
French novelist, born at Aubusson in 1811. He began
his literary career as an associate of George Sand, (Du-
devant,) in conjunction with whom he wrote " Rose et
Blanche," (5 vols., 1831,) and other novels. Among
his works are "Mariana," (2 vols., 1839,) "Valcreuse."
(1847,) "Un Heritage," (1849,) and "Olivier," (1854.)
lie was admitted into the French Academy in 1858, and
became keeper of the Mazarin Library in 1859.
Sand'e-mau, (ROBERT,) born at Perth, in Scotland,
in 1718 or 1723, was the founder of the sect called by
his name. He emigrated in 1764 to New England,
where he died in 1771. He was a son-in-law of John
Glass, the founder of the Glassites.
Sander, san'der, (ANTONY,) a Flemish ecclesiastic,
born at Antwerp in 1586, was the author of several re
ligious and historical works, (in Latin.) Died in 1664,
Sander, san'der or zan'der, (HKINKICH,) a German
naturalist, born in 1754; died in 1782.
See FKDDERSEN, " Leben H. Sander's," 1784; GOETZ, " Leben
H. Sander's," 17X6.
San'ders, (WILLIAM P.,) an American general, born
in Kentucky about 1833, graduated at West Point in
1856. He fought for the Union as an officer of cavalry
in several campaigns, and was killed near Knoxville,
Tennessee, in November, 1863.
San'ders or Saun'deis, [Lat. SANDE'RUS,] (NICH
OLAS,) an English Catholic theologian, born in Surrey
in 1527, published several controversial works. Died
about 1580.
San'ders, (ROBERT,) a Scottish litterateur, born at
Breadalbane in 1727. He published "The Newgate
Calendar." (1764,) and other works. Died in 1783.
San'der-sou, (JoHN,) an American litterateur, born
at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in 1785. He was one of the
authors of the "Biography of the Signers of the Decla
ration of Independence," (1827.) In 1835 he visited
France, and published, after his return, "Sketches of
Paris," etc., which was afterwards enlarged and entitled
"The American in Paris." It was very favourably re
ceived, and was translated into French by Jules Janin.
About 1836 he was appointed professor of the Latin
and Greek languages in the Philadelphia High School.
Died in 1844.
See GKISWOLD, " Prose Writers of America."
San'der-son, (ROBERT,) an English prelate, born
at Rotherham, in Yorkshire, in 1587. He graduated
at Lincoln College, Oxford, was afterwards appointed
chaplain to Charles I., and in 1642 became regius pro
fessor of divinity at Oxford. He refused to sign the
covenant. He was made Bishop of Lincoln in 1660,
after the accession of Charles II. Among his principal
works are his treatise "On the Obligation of Oaths,"
("De Juramenti Obligatione," 1647,) and "Nine Cases
of Conscience Resolved," (1678.) Died in 1663.
See ISAAC WALTON, "Life of Bishop Sanderson," 1678.
Sanderson, (ROBERT,) an English antiquary, born in
Durham in 1660. lie assisted in the compilation of
Rymer's " Fcedera," and wrote a " History of Henry V."
Died in 1741.
Sanderus. See SANDERS.
Sand'fprd, (Sir DANIEL KEYTE,) a Scottish professor
of Greek, born about 1798, was a son of Bishop Sand-
ford of Edinburgh. He was professor in the University
of Glasgow, also a popular orator and advocate of the
Reform bill. Died in 1838.
Sand'ford, (FRANCIS,) an Irish writer and herald,
born in the county of Wicklow in 1630, published a
"Genealogical History of the Kings of Portugal/' and
other similar works. Died in 1693.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; not; good; moon;
SANDIFORT
'957
SAN GALLO
Sandifort, san'de-fort', (EuuARD,) a Dutch anato
mist, born at Dort in 1742, became professor of anatomy
at Leyden, and published several works on that science.
Died in 1814.
His son GERARD, born at Leyden in 1779, was pro
fessor of anatomy and physiology in his native citv.
Died in 1848.
Sandini, san-dee'nee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian writer,
and professor of ecclesiastical history at Padua, born at
Vicentino in 1692. He was the author of the "Lives
of the Roman Pontiffs," (in Latin,) and other works.
Died in 1751.
Sandius. See SAND, (CHRISTOPH.)
Sandoval, de, di san-do-val', (GoNZAT.o,) a brave
and able Spanish general, who fought under Cortez in
Mexico and was distinguished by his especial favour.
" He was," says Prescott, " in many respects the most
eminent of the great captains formed under the eye of
Cortez." Died in 1528, soon after his return to Spain.
See PRESCOTT, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vols. ii.
and iii.
Sandoval, de, (Fray PRTDKNCKJ,) a Spanish prelate
and historian, born at Valladulid about 1560. He was
appointed historiographer to Philip III., who employed
him to continue the "Cronica General" of Ambrosio
Morales, which appeared under the title of " History
of the Kings of Castile and Leon." Among his other
works are a " History of the Life and Deeds of the
Emperor Charles V".," which is esteemed a standard
work, and has been translated into English, and a
"Chronicle of the Illustrious Emperor of Spain, Don
AlonzoVII." Sandoval was created Bishop of Pampe-
luna in 1612. Died in 1621.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" N. ANTONIO,
" Bibiiotheca Hispana Nova."
Sandiait, von, fon san'drirt or zan'dt<iRt, ( JOA
CHIM,) a German painter, engraver, and art-historian,
born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1606. He studied
painting at Utrecht under Gerard Honthorst, and sub
sequently spent several years in Italy, where he executed
a number of works for Cardinal Barberini. After residing
for a time at Amsterdam, he settled at Nuremberg, where
he died in 1688. Sandrart's pictures and engravings had
a high reputation in his time ; but his fame rests chiefly
on his work entitled "German Academy of Architecture,
Sculpture, and Painting," (" Die Deutsche Academic
der Bau, Bildhauer und Malerkunst," 2 vols., 1675,) a
part of which has been translated into Latin, under the
title of "Academia Artis Picturae."
See his Autobiography. " Lebenslauf Joachims von Sandrart,"
1675: CHARLES BLANC. " Histoire des Peintres ;" NAGLER, " All-
gemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Sandras. See COURTII.Z.
Sandras, so.x'dRa's', (CLAUDE MARIE STANISLAS,) a
French physician, born at Rocroy in 1802. He pub
lished a " History of the Cholera," and other medical
works. Died in 1856.
San-dro-cot'tus, [Gr. SavApoKOTTOf; Sanscrit, CHAN'-
DRAGUP'TA, modern Hindoo pron. chiin-dra-goop'ta,] an
Indian king, who reigned over the region watered by
the Ganges about 310-300 n.C. His capital was Pali-
bothra. He resisted, with success, Seleucus Nicator,
who invaded his dominions. He is the Chandragupta
of Sanscrit writers. He was a man of low caste, and
his history is especially interesting as marking the
progress of that great revolution which accompanied
the introduction of Booddhism into India. (See GAU
TAMA.)
Sands, (ROBERT CHARLES,) a distinguished Ameri
can journalist and litterateur, born in New York City or
at Flatbush, Long Island, in 1799. He graduated at
Columbia College, and published in 1820 the poem of
" Yarnoyden," written conjointly with his friend Tames
Wallis Eastburn. He subsequently became associated
with the poet Bryant and Mr. G. C. Yerplanck as a
writer for "The Talisman," a literary annual of a high
character. He was editor for a time of the "Atlantic
Magazine," and in 1827 became associate editor of the
New York " Commercial Advertiser." Among his other
works are a " Historical Notice of Hernan Cortez," and
the "Life and Correspondence of John Paul Jones." He
was also a contributor to the "Tales of Glauber Spa,"
published in 1832. Died in 1832.
See G. C. VEKPLANCK, "Life of R. C. Sands;" GRISWOLD,
" Poets of America ;" DUYCKINCK, " Cyclopaedia of American Lite
rature," vol. ii. ; "Knickerbocker Magazine" for March and May,
iS.34-
Sandwich, EARL OF. See MONTAGU, (EDWARD.)
San'dys, (EDWIN,) an English prelate, born in Lan-
' cashire in 1519. He rose to be vice-chancellor of the
j University in 1553, but he was deprived of this office on
the accession of Queen Mary, on account of his refusal
to proclaim her. Under the reign of Elizabeth he was
successively created Bishop of Worcester, (1559,) of
London, (1570,) and Archbishop of York, (1576.) He
! assisted in the translation of the Scriptures known as
; the Bishops' Bible, and was one of the commissioners
appointed to revise the Liturgy. Died in 1588.
See WHITAKER, "Life of Edwin Sandys."
Sandys, (Sir EDWIN,) son of the preceding, was born
in Worcestershire about 1561. He was employed by
James I. on several missions, and was the author of a
work entitled " Europae Speculum," being an account
1 of his travels. Died in 1629.
Sandys, (GEORGE,) an English poet, born at York
in 1577, was a son of Dr. Sandys, Archbishop of York,
: noticed above. In 1610 he visited Palestine, Egypt, and
Turkey, of which he published an account after his re
turn. Among his other works are paraphrases upon the
I Psalms, the book of Job, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, the
j Song of Solomon, etc., and a translation of Ovid's
| " Metamorphoses." His poetry is eulogized by Dryden,
'. Pope, Warton, and other eminent writers. Died about
1644.
See H. J. Tonn, " Memoir of the Life of G. Sandys," 1839; SIR
E. HKYDGES, "Censura Literaria;" WILI.MOTT, "Lives of the
English Sacred Poets."
Sane, st' na', (JACQUES NOEL,) BARON, an eminent
French naval engineer, born at Brest in 1740. He was
called "the Vauban of the navy." Died in 1831.
Saii'fprd, (EDWARD,) an American poet, born in the
I city of New York in 1805, was a son of Nathan, noticed
I below. He studied law, but declined to practise. He
I was editor of the " Standard," a Democratic journal of
i New York, and afterwards one of the editors of the
i "Globe" at Washington. Among his poems, which are
' distinguished for grace, vivacity, and delicate humour,
we may name the "Lines to a Mosquito," and the ad
dress "To Black-Hawk."
See DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ;
GRISWOI.D, "Poets and Poetry of America."
Sanford, (NATHAN,) an American jurist and states
man, born on Long Island in 1779. He was elected
to the United States Senate in 1816, and in 1823 be
came chancellor of the State of New York. Died in
1838.
San Gallo, da, da sin gal'lo, (ANTONIO,) an eminent
Italian architect, whose original name was PICCONI,
(pek-ko'nee,) a nephew of Antonio Giamberti, was born
at Mugello about 1482. Under the patronage of Alex
ander Farnese, afterwards Paul III., he constructed a
number of magnificent edifices at Rome, among which
we may name the Palazzo Sacchetti, and the church of
Madonna di Loretto. In 1536 he was appointed sole
architect of Saint Peter's, for which he prepared a
model at great cost ; but it was not approved by Michael
Angelo, and was finally rejected. The Palazzo Farnese,
in which he was assisted by Michael Angelo, is e^eemed
one of his best works. Died in 1546.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc. : Qi'ATRF.MiKE DE
QUINCY, "Vies des Architectes ;" TICOZZI, " Dizionaiio."
San Gallo, da, (ANTONIO BATTISTA GOBBO,) brother
of the preceding, was also distinguished as an architect,
and assisted in most of the important works of his
brother.
San Gallo or Sangallo, da, (ANTONIO GIAMRF.RTI,)
an Italian architect and sculptor, born at Florence in the
fifteenth century. Among his best works are the church
of the Madonna at Montepulciano, the fortress of Civita
Castellana, and the castle of Sant' Angelo, formerly the
mausoleum of Hadrian. He was a brother of GiuliariO,
noticed below. Died in 1534.
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
SAN GALLO
1958
SANTA ANA
San Gallo, da, (BASTIANO,) an Italian painter, and
relative of the preceding, born at Florence in 1481 ;
died in 1551.
San Gallo, da, or Sangallo, (GlUMANO,) an emi
nent Italian architect, whose proper name was GIULIANO
GIAMHEKTI, was born at Florence in 1443. He was
patronized by Lorenzo de' Medici, for whom he built a
palace or villa at Poggio Cajano, and a large convent at
Florence, near the gate of San Gallo, from which he
derived his name. Among his works was a palace at
Savona for Pope Julius II. lie was selected by Leo X.
to succeed Bramante as architect of Saint Peter's ; but
he declined the honour. He was a brother of Antonio
Giamberti da San Gallo. Died in 1517.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; CICOGNARA, "Storia
della Sciiitura;" QUATREMERE UE QUINCY, " Dictiomiaire d'Ar-
chitecture."
Sangro, da, dd san'gRo, (RAIMONDO,) Prince of San
Severo, an Italian savant, born in Naples in 1710. lie
was versed in various sciences, arts, and languages, and
displayed much inventive genius. Died in 1771.
See " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Sanlecque, de, deh s&N'lek', (Louis,) a French
satirical poet, born in Paris in 1652, was also a priest.
Died in 1714.
San Micheli, san me-ka'le, written also Sammi-
cheli or San Michele, (GiAN GIKOI.AMO,) an able
Italian architect, born about 1514, was a nephew and
pupil of the following, whom he aided in his works.
Died in I ^59.
San Micheli, san me-ka'lee, or Samniicheli, sam-
me-ka'lee, (MiCHEi.K,) a celebrated civil and military
architect, born at Verona, in Italy, in 1484. Having
resided for several years at Rome, where he acquired
the friendship of Michael Angelo, Bramante, and other
artists of the time, he was employed about 1525 to con
struct the new fortifications of Verona, in which he first
introduced the angular bastions, since generally adopted
by engineers. Among his other works may be named
the Grimani and Cornaro palaces at Venice, and the
Cappella Pellegrini and church of the Madonna di Cam-
pagna at Verona. Died in 1559.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; A. SEI.VA, " Klosio di
M. Saninicheli,'1 1814; MII.IZIA, " Vite degli Architetti;" CICO
GNARA, " Storia della Scultura ;" "Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale."
San Miguel, san me-gel', (Don EVARISTE,) a Span-
ish general and statesman, born in the Asturias in 1780,
served in the campaigns of 1808 and 1820, and subse
quently was appointed military governor of Aragon.
He was afterwards made captain-general of Madrid, and
president of the revolutionary junta. Died in 1862.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Gsnerale."
Sannazar. See SANNAZARO.
Sannazarius. See SANNAZAKO.
Saimazaro, san-nad-za'ro, [ Lat. SANNAZA'RIUS ;
Fr. SANNAZAK, st'iifzin', | (JACOPO,) a distinguished
Italian poet, born at Naples in 1458, was descended
from a noble family in Spain. While on a visit in France
he composed his "Arcadia," (1504,) a pastoral in prose
and verse, which is esteemed a model of elegance and
purity of style. He also wrote a number of Latin poems
which were greatly admired, and several dramatic works
and sonnets in Italian. Sannazaro was patronized by
Frederick, King of Naples, and accompanied that mon
arch in his exile to France. He died at Naples in 1530,
having attained the rank of one of the best classics of
his country.
See " Lives of the Italian Poets," by REV. H. STEBBING; LONG-
graphic Generale ;" TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italian.i ;"
"Retrospective Review," vol. x., (1824.)
San-iiyr'i-on, [SawiyKo/i',] an Athenian comic poet,
flourished about 400-375 B.C., and was a contemporary
of Aristophanes.
San Roman, san-ro-man', (MIGUEL,) a Peruvian
general, born in 1802. He had obtained a high rank in
the army, when he was elected President of Peru in
1862. Died in April, 1863.
San Severo. See SANGRO, DA.
Sans-Malice. See AKAKIA.
Sanson, s6.\/s6N/, (AnuiEN,) a French geographer,
was a son of Nicolas, noticed below. He had the title
of geographer to the king. Died in 1708 or 1718.
Sanson, (GuiLLAUMK,) a geographer of Paris, was a
brother of the preceding. He published several works.
Died in 1703.
Sansoii, (Louis JOSEPH,) a distinguished French
surgeon, born in Paris in 1790. He succeeded Dupuy-
tren as professor of clinical surgery in the Hotel-Dieu
in 1836. He was eminent as a practitioner and a writer.
Among his works are "New Elements of Medico-Sur
gical Pathology," (4 vols., 1825,) and"Des Ht:morrhagies
traumatiques," (1836.) Died in 1841.
See " Biographic Universelle," (new edition.)
Sanson, (NICOLAS,) one of the earliest French geog
raphers, born at Abbeville in 1600. His first work was
a map of ancient Gaul, which obtained for him the
patronage of Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIII., and
he was employed by the latter as an engineer in Picardy.
He was treated with marked distinction by the king,
who appointed him his geographer about 1640. Besides
his numerous maps, he published a work entitled "Bri
tannia, or Researches concerning the Antiquity of Abbe
ville," (1638.) Died in 1667.
Sanson, (NicoLAS,) a son of the preceding, was born
about 1626. He rescued Chancellor Seguier from the
fury of a mob in Paris, but was killed himself on that
occasion, in 1648.
Saiisovino, san-so-vee'no, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
litterateur, son of Jacopo, noticed below, was born at
Rome in 1521. Among the most important of his works
are his " Hundred Novels from the Most Eminent Italian
Writers," ("Cento Novelle scelti de' piu nobili Scrittori
della Lingua volgare,") "Turkish Annals," (1573,) and
a "Description of Venice," (1604.)
See FONTANINI and ZENO, " Bihlioteca Italiana;" NICEKON,
" Memoires ;" TIRAHOSCHI, " Storia della Letteraturn Italiana."
Sansovino, (JACOPO TATTI,) an eminent Italian
sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 1479. He
studied sculpture under Contucci da Monte Sansovino,
whose surname he assumed. He afterwards visited
Rome, where he acquired the friendship of Bramante
and other artists and was patronized bv Pope Julius II.
After the sack of Rome he repaired to Venice, where he
constructed numerous public and private edifices. Among
these may be named La Zecca, or Mint, the Palazzo Cor
naro, and La Scuola della Misericordia. His colossal
statues of Mars and Neptune in the Doge's palace, and
the Four Evangelists in the chapel of Saint Mark, are
ranked among his master-pieces in sculpture. Died
about 1570.
See GIORGIO VASARI, "Vita di J. Sansovino," 1785; TEMANZA,
"Vita di J. Sansovino," 1752; MII.IZIA, "Vite dejili Architetti;"
QUATREMERE DE QUINCY, " Vies des Architectes ;" Ticozzi, "Dizi-
onario."
Sansovino, da, da san-so-vee'no, ( ANDREA CON-
j TUCCI,) an eminent Italian sculptor and architect, born
in 1460. lie worked at Rome and Loretto. He was
the master of Jacopo Sansovino. Died in 1529.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors;" Cico-
GNARA, "Storia della Scultura."
Santa Ana, (or Anna,) de, da san'ta an'na, (ANTO
NIO LOPEZ,) a Mexican President and general, born in
Mexico or Jalapa about 1798. He fought against Itur-
bicle in 1823, against Pedra/.a in 1828, and against Bus-
tamente in 1830. lie was chosen President in 1833, and
became dictator in 1835. The Texans revolted against
Santa Anna, who was defeated and taken prisoner at
San Jacinto in April, 1836, by General Houston. He
was released in 1837, and lost a leg in a battle against
the French in December, 1838. He recovered power in
1841, was banished in 1845, but returned in 1846, and
became general-in-chief. lie was defeated by General
Taylor at Buena Vista in February, 1847, and a' Cerro
Gordo by General Scott in April of that year. About
this time he was again chosen President ; but, the
American army having taken the capital of Mexico in
September, 1847, he went into exile. In 1853 he re
turned, and was appointed dictator for life. After he
had ruled with despotic power about two years, he was
compelled to abdicate in August, 1855, after which he
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; ndt; good; moon;
SANTA CRUZ
'959
SAPOR
passed many years in exile. Soon after the death of
Maximilian, June, 1867, Santa Anna returned and made
an attempt against the republic, but failed, and was made
a prisoner.
See " Xouvelle Biographic Generale;" "North American Re
view" for July, 1836.
Santa Cruz, san'ta ICROOSS, (or kuooth,) (ANDRES,) a
South American statesman and soldier, born in Peru
about 1800, served in the war of independence in 1823,
and in 1829 succeeded General Sucre as President of
Bolivia. He was defeated at Yungai in 1839, and com
pelled to leave the country. In 1849 he became minister-
plenipotentiary from Bolivia to London, Paris, Rome,
and Madrid.
Santa Cruz, de, da san'ta KRooth, or Sainte-Croix,
saxt'kRwi', (Don ALVAREZ de Bassano — da ba-sa'-
110,) MARQUIS, a Spanish admiral, born about 1510,
distinguished himself at the battle of Lepanto. lie
was appointed about 1587 to the chief command of the
Invincible Armada, but died before it was ready for
action.
Santa Cruz de Marzenado, de, da sai/ta kRooth
di maR-tha-na'Do, (Alvar de Navia Osorio, al-van'
da na-vee'a o-so're-o,) MARQUIS, a Spanish officer and
military writer, born in 1687, served in the war of the
Spanish succession, and became governor of Oian. He
was killed in an action near that town in 1732.
Santafede, san-ta-fa'da, (FAHRIZIO,) a skilful Italian
painter, born at Naples in 1560. He worked mostly in
his native city. Died in 1634.
Santander, san-tan-daiRr, (FRANCISCO de Paula —
da pow'la,) a South American statesman, born in New
Granada in 1792. He fought against Spain in the war
of independence, and was elected Vice-President of the
republic of Colombia in 1821. Having conspired against
Bolivar about 1828, he was banished. In 1832 he was
elected President of New Granada. Died in 1840.
Santarelli, san-ta-rel'lee, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) an
Italian engraver, born in the Abruzzi in 1759, worked
in Rome and Florence. Died in 1826.
Santarem, san-ta-r§Nr, (MANGEL FRANCISCO de
Barros y Souza — da bau'ros e so'za,) VISCOUNT, a
Portuguese diplomatist and writer, born at Lisbon in
1790, was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to Copen
hagen, and in 1827 became minister of state. He was
the author of an " Essay on the History of Cosmography
and Cartography during the Middle Ages," (1849,) and
other works. Died in 1856.
Santen, van, vtn san'ten, (LAURENT,) a Dutch phi
lologist, born at Amsterdam in 1746. He resided mostly
at Leyden. He edited several ancient Greek and Latin
works, on which he wrote critical notes. Died in 1798.
See BERGMAN, " Levensschets van L. van Santen," 1840.
Saiiterre, sS.x'taiR', (.\NTOINE JOSEPH,) a French
revolutionist of the Jacobin party, born in Paris in 1752,
had acquired a large fortune as a brewer in the Faubourg
Saint-Antoine. He took an active part in the storming
of the Bastille, and in the subsequent insurrections of
the 2Oth of June and the loth of August. As com
mander of the National Guard, he caused the king to be
conveyed to the tower, and afterwards presided at his
execution. He was defeated by the Vendeans, under
Piron de la Varenne, in September, 1793. Died in 1808
or 1809.
See CARRO, " Saiiterre, sa Vie pubh'que et prive'e," 1847.
Saiiterre, (JEAN BAPTISTE, ) a French historical
painter, born near Pontoise in 1651 ; died in 1717.
Santeul, SON'IU!', (CLAUDE,) a French ecclesiastic
and Latin poet, born in Paris in 1628, was a brother of
Jean, noticed below. Died in 1684.
Saiiteul, sSN'tul', or Santeuil, de, deh sS.v'tuF,
(JEAN,) |Lat. SANTO'LIUS,] an excellent Latin poet,
born in Paris in 1630, was a canon regular of Saint-Vic
tor. He wrote Latin hymns with great success. " A
nobleness of thought and splendour of language," says
Hallam, "distinguished the poetry of Santeul, who fur
nished many inscriptions for public monuments." (" In
troduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1697.
See "Vieetbons mots de Santeul," Cologne, 1735; DINOUART,
"Santoliana," 1764 ; MoNTALANT-BouGLEUX, " Santeul, oula Poesie
Latine sous Louis XIV," 1854 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Santi, san'tee, or Sanzio, san'ze-o, (GIOVANNI,) an
Italian poet and painter, born at Colbordolo, was the
father of Raphael. He painted Madonnas and other
religious subjects. Died in 1494.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" PASSAVANT, " Rafael von
Urbino und sein Vater, G. Santi."
Santi di Tito or Titi. See TITO.
Santillana. See MENDOZA, (!NIGO LOPEZ.)
Santini, san-tee'nee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian savant,
born in Tuscany in 1786. He became rector of the
University of Padua in 1825, and was afterwards ap
pointed professor of astronomy and director of mathe
matical studies in that institution. He is a corresponding
member of the French Institute, and has published
several scientific works.
Saiitolius. See SANTEUL.
Santorini, san-to-ree'nee, (GIOVANNI DOMENICO,)
an Italian anatomist, born at Venice in 1681. He wrote
several able works on anatomy and medicine. Died in
1736.
See HAI.I.ER, " Bibliotheca Anatomica ;" POI.I.AROI.I, " Notizie
per servire alia Storia della Vila di G. D. Santorini," 1763.
Santorio. See SANCTORIUS.
Saiiuto, sa-noo'to, (Livio,) an Italian geographer of
the sixteenth century ; died before 1588.
Sanuto, (MARINO,) called TORSELLO, (toR-sel'lo,) a
Venetian traveller, who visited the Levant and wrote the
" Book of Faithful Secrets concerning the Recovery
of the Holy Land," ("Liber Secretorum fidelium super
Terrse Sanctae Recuperatione.") Died after 1330.
See POSTANSQUE, "De Maiino Sanuto,'' 1856; TIRABOSCHI,
"Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Sanuto, (MARINO,) THE YOUNGER, an Italian his
torian, born in Venice in 1466, was a member of the
Academy founded by Aldus Mann tins. He wrote, in
Italian, a history of the Republic of Venice, which was
published in 1733 in Muratori's " Italiae Scriptores,"
under the title of "Lives of the Doges of Venice,"
(" Vit^e Ducum Venetorum.") Died in 1535.
See RAWDON BROWN, "Ragguagli sr.lla Vita e suile Opere di M.
Sanuto," 3 vols., 1837-38; TIRABOSCHI, "Storia deila Lstteratura
Italiana."
Sanvitale, san-ve-ta'la, (GIACOMO ANTONIO,)COUNT,
an Italian poet and diplomatist, born at Parma in 1699.
He published numerous poems, one of which is entitled
" Poema Parabolica," (1746.) Died in 1780.
Sanz, santh, (AucusriN,) a Spanish architect, born
at Saragossa in 1724, was appointed in 1792 director of
the Academy of San Luis. Among his best works are
the church of Santa Cruz and the theatre at Saragossa.
Died in 1801.
Sanzio, (RAPHAEL.) See RAPHAEL.
Saphir, sa'feeR, (MORITZ,) a distinguished writer, of
Jewish extraction, born at Pesth in 1794, successively
edited the journals entitled "Berliner Schnellpost,"
" Der Deutsche Horizon!," and " Der Humorist."
Among his works, which are chiefly of a humorous and
satirical character, we may name his " Humoristische
Damenbibliothek," and his " Dictionary of Wit and
Humour," (" Conversations-Lexikon fur Geist, Witz und
Humor.") Died in 1858.
See F. FORSTER, " M. G. Saphir und Berlin," 1828; BROCK-
HAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon."
Sapieha, sap-ya'ha, (JOHN PETER,) a Polish military
commander, born in 1569, distinguished himself in the
wars with Sweden and Russia. Died in 1611.
Sapieha, (LEO,) high chancellor of Lithuania, born
in 1557, served against the Russians under Stephen
Bathori in 1579, and subsequently concluded a peace of
twenty years with the Czar. After the death of Bathori
he promoted the election of the Swedish king, Sigis-
mund III., to the throne of Poland. Died in 1633.
Sa'por [Persian, SHAPOOR or SHAPUR, sha'poor'] I.,
son of Artaxerxes, succeeded to the throne of Persia in
238 A.D. He conquered Mesopotamia and Syria, and
caused the emperor Valerian to be put to death. He
was eventually assassinated by his satraps, (269 A.D.)
Sapor II. succeeded Hormisdas II. as King of Persia.
He was engaged in wars with the Romans, and distin
guished himself by his persecution of the Christians.
Died in 380 A.D.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SAPPHO
1960
SARMIENTO
Sappho, saph'o, [Gr. 2a;r0a>, genitive ZanQovf ; Lat.
SAPPHO, genitive SAPPHUS ; Ital. SAFFO, saf'fo,] written
also Sapho, a Greek lyric poetess of great celebrity, was
born at Mitylene or Eresos, in the island of Lesbos, about
625 B.C. We have little positive knowledge of the
events of her life, but it is known that she lived about
600 B.C. and was a friend of the poet Alcaeus. The
popular tradition that she cherished an unrequited love
for Phaon, and that she threw herself in despair from
the Leucadian rock into the sea, is rejected by modern
critics. She belonged to the ^£olian race, the women
of which were not kept in so strict seclusion as the
lonians. She wrote hymns, elegies, and erotic odes ot
exquisite beauty. It is admitted that she has never been
surpassed in sweetness and grace by any lyric poet,
ancient or modern. Her works are lost, except a hymn
to Venus and short fragments of other poems. "Among
the mutilated poets of antiquity," says Addison, "there
is none whose fragments are so beautiful as those of
Sappho. . . . One may see, by what is left of them, that
she followed nature in all her thoughts, without descend
ing to those little points, conceits, and turns of wit with
which many of our modern lyrics are so miserably in
fected. Her soul seems to have been made up of love
and poetry. She felt the passion in all its warmth and
described it in all its symptoms. She is called by ancient
authors the tenth muse." (See the " Spectator," No.
223, which contains an English version of her hymn to
Venus.) Versions of her ode to Lesbia, by Catullus,
Boileau, and A. Philips, may be found in the " Spectator,"
No. 229.
See K. G. WELCKER, '' Sappho von einem herrschenden Vornr-
theil befreit," 1816; MULI.ER, "Literature of Ancient Greece,"
vol. i. ; E. TEGNER, " Sapphus Vita et Carmina," 1817; RICHTER,
"Sappho und Erinna," 1833; C. M. DE SALM-DVCK, " Precis de la
Vie de Sapho," 1810; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Saracino, sa-ra-chee'no, or Saraceni, sa-ra-cha'nee,
(CARLO,) an Italian painter, born at Venice in 1585,
painted frescos in the Vatican at Rome. Died in 1625.
Sa'rah or Sarai, [Ileb. mjy, originally ^V,} a He
brew matron, was the wife of Abraham, and the mother
of Isaac. Her name signifies "princess."
See Genesis xi. 29, xii., xvi., xvii. 15-21, xviii., xx., xxi.
Sarapis. See SERAPIS.
Sarasin. See SARRASIN.
Sar'as-wat'i, [modern Hindoo pron. sur'iis-wiit'ee,
from Saras-Mat, a Sanscrit word, signifying "juicy,"
"racy," "flowing," also "elegant,"] the name of the
consort of Brahma, and the goddess of speech, elo
quence, and music. She was regarded as the inventress
of the Sanscrit language and of the Devanagari alphabet.
(See Introduction, p. 21.) As the patroness of music,
she has by some writers been identified with Minerva,
('AOrjvu,) who was sometimes surnamed Musice, (/lovamr/,)
and who is said to have been the inventor of the flute.
Sir William Jones addressed to Saraswati a hymn, in
which he speaks of her as one
" Whose sigh is music, and each tear a pearl."
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon," p. 125 et seq.
Sara via, sa-ra-vee'a or st'rt've'S', (HADRIAN A.,) a
Protestant theologian, of Spanish extraction, born at
Artois, in France, in 1531, became professor of divinity
at Leyden. Having settled in England in 1587, he was
made prebendary of Westminster. He was an intimate
friend of the celebrated Hooker, and was one of the
divines employed by James I. in the translation of the
Bible. Died in 1613.
See PAQUOT, "Memoires;" MEURSIUS, "Athena? Batavae."
Sarazin or Sarrazin, si'ri 'zars1', (JACQUES,) a French
sculptor, born at Noyon in 1590. He resided many
years at Rome, where he was patronized by Cardinal
Aldobrandini, for whom he executed the colossal statues
of Atlas and Polyphemus at the Villa Frascati. Among
his master-pieces in Paris may be named the Mauso
leum of Cardinal Berulle, "Group of Children playing
with Goats," "The Four Cardinal Virtues," in the
church of Saint Louis, and the Mausoleum of Henri de
Bourbon-Conde. Died in 1660.
SeeV. TREMBLAY, " Notice sur Sarrazin," 1848: " Biographic de
J. SarraziD," Noyon, 1851 ; CICOGNARA, " Storia della Scultura."
Sarazin, (JEAN.) See SARRAZIN.
Sarbievius. See SARKIEWSKI.
Sarbiewski, saR-be-£v'skee, [Lat. SARHIK'VIUS,]
(MATTHIAS KASIMIR,) a Polish Jesuit and poet, born in
1595, became court preacher to Ladislaus IV. He was
the author of Latin lyrics and other poems, which ob
tained for him the name of the Sarmatian Horace. Died
in 1640.
See LANGBEIN, " Commentatio de M. C. Sarbievii Vita," 1753.
Sarcey, stu'si', (FRANCISQUE,) a French litterateur,
born at Donrdan (Seine-et-Oise) in 1828. Among his
works is a collection of tales entitled " Le Nouveau
Seigneur," (1862.)
Sarcmasius. See SCHURTZFI.F.TSCH.
Sarcoue, saR-ko'na, (MiCHKi.F,) an Italian medical
writer, born in Apulia in 1732 ; died in 1797.
Sardanapale. See SARDANAPALUS.
Sar-da-na-pa'lus, [Gr. ZapJawtTraAof ; Fr. SARDANA-
PALF.,* saVdS'nt'pal', | a king of Assyria, noted for the
weakness and effeminacy of his character, is supposed
to have lived about 880 B.C. His satrap Ai baces having
conspired with the Medes against him and besieged
Nineveh, Sardanapalus defended his capital with great
courage and resolution nearly two years. At length,
finding resistance vain, he is said to have set fire to his
palace and consumed himself, together with his women
and his treasures. He is supposed to have been the
last king of Assyria. His fortunes have been made the
subject of one of Lord Byron's best tragedies. The
story of Sardanapalus is probably fabulous : it is sup
ported by no authority except Ctesias. It does not
seem probable that such a man would die like a stoic.
See KOOPMANS, " Disputatio de Sardanapalo," 1819.
Sardi, saa'dee, (Al.ESSANDRO,) an Italian antiquary,
born at Ferrara about 1520. Among his works is a
"Treatise on Coins," ("De Nummis Tractatus," 1579.)
Died in 1588.
Sardou, sa'k'doo', (VlCTORlF.N,) a French dramatist,
born in Paris in 1831. He produced numerous suc
cessful dramas, among which are "Nos Intimes," " Les
Ganaches," (1862,) and "La Patrie," (1869.)
Sar'gent, (El'ES, £ps,) an American journalist and
miscellaneous writer, born at Gloucester, Massachusetts,
in 1812. He has been successively editor of the New
York "Mirror" and the Boston "Evening Transcript."
1 le has published " Velasco," a tragedy, and several other
dramas, "Songs of the Sea, and other Poems," "Arctic
Adventures by Sea and Land," (1857,) and a number of
excellent educational works.
See GKISWOLD, " Prose Writers of America."
Sargent, (JOHN OSBORNF.,) a brother of the preceding,
was born at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in 1810. He
became associate editor of the New York "Courier
and Enquirer" in 1837, and subsequently of the " Re
public" at Washington.
Sargent, (Lucius MANLIUS,) an able and popular
American writer, born at Boston in 1786. He pub
lished a series of "Temperance Tales," which were
very favourably received, a work entitled " Dealings
with the Dead, by a Sexton of the Old School," (2
vols., 1856,) and a number of poems. Died in 1867.
Sar'gon, a king of Assyria, ascended the throne in
721 B.C. He conquered several adjoining nations, cap
tured Samaria, and carried away many Israelites as
captives. Died in 704 B.C.
Sar'jeant or Serjeant, (JoiiN,) a Catholic priest,
born in Lincolnshire about 1621, became secretary of
the secular clergy in England. He published a great
number of controversial works. Died in 1707.
Sarmiento, saR-me-en'to, ( MARTIN, ) a Spanish
scholar and teacher, born at Segovia in 1692. He wrote
several literary works. Died at Madrid in 1770.
Sarmiento, de, da saR-me-eVto, (JuAN,) a Spanish
historian, who lived about 1550, travelled in Peru, and
wrote a work entitled " Account of the Government of
the Incas," (" Relacion de la Sucesion y Govierno de las
Ingas," etc., in manuscript.) He is praised by Prescott
for his candour and accuracy and the humane spirit he
* In Sir David Lindsay's "Three Estates" the name is written
SardanapM.
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
SARNELLI
1961
manifests towards the natives. He held the office of
president of the Council of the Indies.
See PRESCOTT, "History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. i.
book i.
Sarnelli, saR-nel'lee, (PoMPEO,) an Italian writer and
ecclesiastic, born at Polignano in 1649. He wrote various
works, in prose and verse. Died in 1724.
See NICERON, "Memoires."
Saron or Sarron. See BOCHART DE SARRON.
Sar-pe'don, [Gr. 2ap-f/6<jv ; Fr. SAKPEDON, stR'pa'-
d6.N',] a personage in the Greek mythology, regarded
as the son of Jupiter and Europa, and a brother of Mi
nos. Having been expelled from Crete by Minos, he
retired to Lycia, of which he became king.
Sarpedon, a hero and prince of Lycia, mentioned
in the " Iliad," supposed to have been a son of Jupiter
and Laodami'a. According to Homer, he fought for the
Trojans and was killed by Patroclus.
Sarpi, saR'pee, (PAOLO,) an eminent Italian writer
and theologian, born at Venice in 1552, is generally
known as FRA PAOLO, or FATHER PAUL. He entered
the order of Servites at an early age, was subsequently
appointed professor of philosophy at Venice, and in
1579 was elected general of his order. Being made
procureur-general in 1585, he went to reside at Rome,
where he acquired the friendship of Cardinal Bellarmine
and other distinguished men ; but, having been suspected
of heretical opinions and threatened with the Inquisi
tion, he returned to Venice. He was chosen in 1605
consulting theologian of the republic during its contest
with Pope Paul V., and defended its cause with signal
ability and success. Repeated attempts on his life, and
the entreaties of his friends, induced him to retire to a
convent, where he died in 1623. His "History of the
Council of Trent" (" Istoria del Concilio Tridentino,"
1619) is his most celebrated work, and was translated
into Latin and several other languages. In his writings
Father Paul has boldly attacked the infallibility of the
pope and condemned his usurpations of temporal power.
He is also supposed to have favoured Protestantism.
See MICANZIO, "Vita di Sarpi," 1646; GRISEI.INI, " Memorie
spettanti alia Vita di Sarpi," 1760; BlANCHl-Giovim, " Biografia
di Fra Paolo," 2 vols., 1836; G. FONTANINI, " Storia arcana della
Vita di Fra Paolo Sarpi," 1805: DR. JOHNSON'S Works, vol. xii.,
1812; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale:" "Westminster Review"
for April, 1838. (bv TAMES MAETINEAU.)-®*** j2yoC*»^f,v.*.vfi .
-o 5$ "- *V-f ';~y-rZ£ *k *"•?•• '^"J\f •'" ^ - 1 • . i
Sarrans, sa rON , (BERNARD,) a French journalist and
political writer, born near Toulouse in 1795, became
editor of "La Nouvelle Minerve" about 1830. He
published a treatise " On the Spanish War and the
Tyranny of the Bourbons," " History of Bernadotte,
King of Sweden," etc., (1845,) and other works.
Sarrasin or Sarasin, sS'rf'zaN', (JEAN FRANCOIS,)
a facetious French litterateur, born near Caen in 1603,
was the author of a "History of the Siege of Dunkirk,"
(1649,) "The Conspiracy of Wallenstein," and other
works, in prose and verse. He was secretary to the
Prince de Conti, and a literary rival of Voiture. Died
in 1654.
See NICERON, "Memoires;" " Menagiana ;" "Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generale."
Sarrazin, (JACQUES.) See SARAZIN.
Sarraziii, sa'rS'zax', (jE.vx,) a French general, born
in 17/0. He obtained the rank of general of brigade
about 1800, after which he served in several campaigns.
In 1810 he deserted to the British. Died about 1840.
Sarrus, sf'riis', (P. F.,) a French mathematician,
born in the department of Aveyron about 1795. He
became professor of analysis at Strasbourg.
Sarrut, st'ru', (GERMAIN,) a French litterateur and
democrat, born at Toulouse in 1800, has published a
number of political and miscellaneous works.
Sars, (MICHAEL,) an eminent zoologist, born at Ber
gen, in Norway, August 30, 1805. In 1830 he was
pastor of Kinn, and in 1840 of Manger, on the coast of
Norway. He published in 1846 the first part of his
"Fauna Littoralis Norvegias," which established his
reputation. In 1854 he became professor of geology in
the University of Christiania, which office he filled with
great honour to his country until his death. His " Me-
moire pour servir a la Connaissance des Crinoides vi-
vants" attracted much attention by showing that the
crinoids, or "stone-lilies," supposed to have been long
extinct, occur in a living state in the abysses of the
Atlantic Ocean. Died October 22, 1869.
Sars'field, (PATRICK,) an able Irish commander and
Roman Catholic, who was a partisan of James II. He
took a prominent part in the battle of the Boyne, (1690.)
He won the confidence of the Irish Jacobites in an emi
nent degree, induced a large part of his army to accom
pany him to France in 1691, and entered the service of
Louis XIV. He was killed at the battle of Landen,
in 1693.
See MACAULAV, " History of England," vol. iv. chap. xvii.
Sartain, sar-tan', (JOHN,) a distinguished engraver,
born in London in 1808, emigrated to America in 1830,
and settled in Philadelphia. He was the first to in
troduce mezzotinto engraving into the United States.
In 1 849 he established " Sartain's Union Magazine," (pub
lished monthly,) of which he was for some time editor.
Besides engraving, Mr. Sartain has given considerable
attention to painting in oil and to architecture. Among
I his works in the latter field we may mention the lofty
] granite monument in Monument Cemetery, near Phila-
| delphia, in which, also, the colossal medallion portraits
of Washington and La Fayette were cast in bronze from
his models.
Sarti, saR'tee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian composer, born
at Faenza about 1730. He became successively chapel-
master at the court of Copenhagen, the Conservatorio
della Pieta, at Venice, and the Conservatory of Kate-
rinoslaf, in Russia. The empress Catherine II. also
conferred upon him a munificent salary, and created him
a noble of the first rank. His works are principally
sacred music and operas: of the latter, his "Giulio Sa-
bino" is most esteemed. Died in 1802.
See FETIS, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Sarti, (MAURO,) an Italian scholar, born at Bologna
in 1709, was a monk of the order of Camalclules. He
wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Univer
sity of Bologna," in Latin, (2 vols., 1769-71.) Died in
1766.
Sartine, de, deh sfR'ten', (ANTOINE RAYMOND JEAN
GUALBERT GABRIEL,) Comte d'Albv, a French adminis
trator, born in 1729. He became lieutenant-general of
police (in Paris) in 1759, and was minister of marine
from 1774 until 1780. Died in 1801.
Sarto, del, del saR'to, (ANDREA Vanucchi — va-
nook'kee,) a celebrated painter of the Florentine school,
born at Florence in 1488. He studied under Pietro di
Cosimo, and subsequently visited Rome. Among his
master-pieces at Florence are his "Madonna di San
Francesco," in the Florentine gallery, "The Last Sup
per," (a fresco,) and " Descent of the Holy Ghost," in
the monastery of the Salvi. He also executed several
works for the French king, Francis I. Sarto is distin
guished for correctness of design, harmonious colouring,
and skill in chiaroscuro. Died in 1530.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc.: MRS. JAMESON,
" Memoirs of Early Italian Painters :" A. REUMONT, " A. del Sarto,"
1835; L. BIAGI, " Notizie inedite della Vita d'A. del Sarto," 1830.
Sartorius, saR-to're-us, (ERNST WILHELM CHRIS
TIAN,) a German theologian and religious writer, born
at Darmstadt in 1797 ; died in 1859.
Sartorius, (GEORG,) Baron von Waltershausen, born
at Cassel in 1765, wrote a " History of the Hanseatic
League," (1802,) and other works. Died in 1828.
Sartorius, saR-to're-oos, (Luis JOSE,) Count de San
Luis, a Spanish journalist and statesman, of German
extraction, born about 1810. He was appointed in 1847
minister of the interior in the cabinet of Narvaez.
Sas'nett, (WILLIAM J.,) D.D., an American Method
ist divine and writer, born in Georgia in 1820.
Sass, sas, (FREDERICK,) a Russian general, born in
Courland in 1798; died in 1852.
Sassanid, (plural Sassaiiids.) See SASSANID^E.
Sassariidse, sas-san'e-de, [Fr. SASSANIDES, sS'sS'-
ned' ; Ger. SASSANIDEN, sas-sa-nee'den : the English
form SASSAN'IDS is also used,] the name of a celebrated
dynasty which reigned in Persia from 226 to 651 A.D.
It was founded by Ardsheer Babegan, a grandson of
Sassan, (or Sasan,) from whom it took its name. Among
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this. (B^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
S4SS4N1DES
SAURAU
the chief rulers of this dynasty were Sapor (Shapoor)
and Chosroes I., (Noushirvan.)
See SMITH, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc.
Sassanides or Sassanideu. See SASSANID^E.
Sassi, sas'see, [Lat. SAX'IUS,] (GIUSKPPE ANTONIO,)
an Italian scholar and writer, born at Milan in 1673 or
1675. He wrote on the antiquities of Milan, and aided
his friend Muratori in his great work. Died in 1751.
Sassi, (PANFILO,) an Italian poet, born at Modena
about 1455 ! died in 1527.
Sassoferrato. See SALVI, (GIAMBATTISTA.)
Sassoiie, II. See HASSE, (JOHANN ADOLF.)
Sat'i, Sut'ee, or Sut'tee, [modern Hindoo pron.
siit'ee', the feminine form of the Sanscrit adjective sat,
" true," " good," " virtuous," " pure,"] the name given by
the Hindoos to those widows who burn themselves on
the funeral pile of their husbands, from the belief not
merely that no true or good wife will marry a second
time, but that no devoted wife ought to survive her hus
band. According to one of the Hindoo legends, Sati
was the name of a daughter of Daksha and wife of
Siva: through indignation on account of some disre
spect shown by her father to Siva or to herself, she cast
herself into a sacrificial fire, and was consumed.
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon."
Sat'urn, [Gr. Kporof ; Lat. SATUR'NUS or CKO'NUS;
Fr. SATURNE, si'tttRn',] a god of classic mythology,
and a mythical king of Italy, was called a son of Uranus
and Ge, (or Ccelus and Terra,) the husband of Rhea,
and the father of Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, Ceres,
and Vesta. The poets feigned that he dethroned Uranus,
and devoured his own children as soon as they were
born ; but Rhea deceived him by giving him stones,
(wrapped in a cloth,) which lie swallowed, and she thus
saved the lives of those above named. He was de
throned by Jupiter, took refuge in Italy, and was kindly
received by Janus, the king of that country, who gave
him a share of the royal power. Saturn is said to have
civilized the people of Italy and to have taught them agri
culture and useful arts. His reign was so mild, pacific,
and beneficent that it was called the Golden Age.
The Romans, in honour of Saturn, celebrated an an
nual festival called Saturnalia, during which general
mirth and license prevailed and slaves were waited on
at table by their masters, with whom they were allowed
to jest with impunity. Saturn was represented as an
old man, holding in his hand a scythe or priming-knife,
with a serpent biting its own tail, (the emblem of eternity.)
Saturnalia. See SATURN.
Saturne. See SATURN.
Saturnin. See SATURNINUS.
Sat-ur-ni'nus or Saturnilus, one of the earliest
of the Syrian Gnostics, flourished about 125 A.D.
Sat-ur-ni'nus, (CLAUDIUS,) a Roman jurist, the time
of whose birth is unknown, is the supposed author of a
work entitled " De Pcenis Paganorum."
Saturninus, [Fr. SATURNIN, st'tu'R'naN',] (Lucius
APPUI.EIUS,) a celebrated Roman demagogue, who
became a formidable enemy of the senate and aristo
cratic party. He was tribune of the people in 102 B.C.,
and again in the year 100. He proposed an agrarian
law, which was passed. His conduct was so seditious
and violent that he was killed, by order of the senate, in
99 B.C.
See SMITH, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc.
Saturniiius, (VENULIUS,) a Roman jurist, supposed
to have lived in the time of Alexander Severus.
Saturnus. See SATURN.
Sat'yr, [Gr. Zarvpor ; Lat. SAT'YRUS ; Fr. SATYRE,
st'tek'. j The Satyrs were fabulous beings, or demi-gods,
associated with the worship of Bacchus, and supposed
to have been -the offspring of Mercury. They were rep
resented as having a body like a man, with the legs and
feet of a goat, and small horns on the head. They were
fond of wine, sleep, and sensual pleasure, and were con
founded or identified by some with the Fauni of the
Roman mythology. The older Satyrs were called Silent.
Satyre or Satyrus. See SATYR.
Saucerctte, sSs'rot', (NICOLAS,) a French surgical
writer, born at Luneville in 1741, was chief surgeon of
a French army from 1794 to 1798. Died in 1814.
His grandson, ANTOINE CONSTANT SAUCEROTTE,
born at Moscow in 1805, became a physician at Lune
ville. He wrote several works on medicine and natural
history.
Saul, [Heb. blNE?,] the son of Kish, and of the tribe
of Benjamin, was anointed first king of the Israelites, by
Samuel. He waged war successfully against the Am
monites and Philistines, and in a battle with the Amalek-
ites took captive their king, Agag. Having through
disobedience incurred the displeasure of Jehovah, he
was killed in an engagement with the Philistines, to
gether with three of his sons, B.C. 1056.
See I. Samuel ix.-xxxi.
Saul of Tarsus. See PAUL, SAINT.
Saulcy, de, deh so'se', (Louis FELTCIEN JOSEPH
Caignart — k.in'y&R',) a French archaeologist, born at
Lille in 1807. He published in 1836 an "Essay on the
Classification of Byzantine Coins," which obtained the
prize from the French Institute. In 1842 he succeeded
Mionnet as a member of the Academy of Inscriptions,
and in 1859 became a senator. Having visited Pales
tine in 1850, he published his " Travels around the Dead
Sea and in the Biblical Lands," (1852.) He has written
other works on numismatics, etc.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Saulx de Tavarmes. See TAVANNES.
Saumaise. See SALMASIUS.
Saumarez or Sausmarez, de, deh so'mi'ia',
(JAMES,) LORD, a British admiral, of French extraction,
born on the island of Guernsey in 1757. Having served
for a time in America, and subsequently against the
Dutch in 1781, he was appointed in 1793 to the com
mand of the Crescent, and distinguished himself in
several engagements with the French. As commander
of the Orion, he assisted in gaining the victory over the
Spanish fleet off Saint Vincent in 1797, and was after
wards second in command at the battle of the Nile.
Having been made rear-admiral of the blue in 1801, he
was appointed to command the squadron off Cadiz, and
soon after gained a signal victory over the united French
and Spanish fleet, for which achievement the order of
the Bath was conferred upon him. In the subsequent
war with Russia he commanded the Baltic fleet, and
after peace was restored was created in 1821 vice-ad
miral of Great Britain. He was made a peer, with the
title of Baron de Sausmarez, in 1831. Died in 1836.
See SIR JOHN Ross, "Memoirs, etc. of Admiral Lord de Sau
marez," i83S ; CAMPBELL, " Lives of the British Admirals."
Saun'ders, (Sir EDMUND,) an English jurist under
the reign of Charles II., rose to be chief justice of the
court of king's bench in 1682. Died in 1683.
Saunders, (JoiiN CUNNINGHAM,) an English sur
geon and oculist, born in Devonshire in 1773, published
treatises " On the Diseases of the Eye" and " On the
Anatomy and Diseases of the Ear." Died in 1810.
Sauii'ders, (PRINCE,) an American negro, born at
Thetford, Vermont, about 1775, was for a time teacher
of free coloured schools in Connecticut and at Boston,
lie afterwards studied divinity and became pastor of a
church at Philadelphia. He was subsequently appointed
attorney-general of the republic of Hayti, where he died
in 1840.
Saunders, (WILLIAM,) M.D., born in 1743, was ap
pointed senior physician to Guy's Hospital, London.
He wrote several medical works. Died in 1819.
Sauii'der-soii, (NICHOLAS,) an English scholar and
mathematician, born in Yorkshire in 1682. He lost his
sight at the age of twelve months, but, notwithstanding
this misfortune, he made rapid progress both in the
classics and the exact sciences. In 1711 he succeeded
Whiston as Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cam
bridge, having previously received the degree of M.A.,
and in 1728 he was made Doctor of Laws. He was the
author of treatises on the " Elements of Algebra" and
"On Fluxions." He was a friend of Newton and other
eminent philosophers of the time. Died in 1739.
See "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. i., 1839.
Saurau, von, fon so'r5', (FRANZ,) COUNT, an Aus
trian statesman, born in Vienna in 1760. lie was ap
pointed governor of the province of Austria in 1810, and
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
SAURIN
1963
SAVAGE
governor of Lombardy in 1815. In the last-named year
he became the chief of all the chanceries of the empire.
Died about 1830.
Sauriii, so'ra.v', (BERNARD JOSEPH,) a French drama
tist, born in Paris in 1706, was a son of Joseph Saurin,
noticed below. He was the author of "Spartacus," a
tragedy, (1760.) "The Manners of the Time," ("Moeurs
du Temps,") and other comedies. Me was a member of
the French Academy, and numbered among his friends
Voltaire and Montesquieu. Died in 1781.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Saurin, (EtiAS,) a French Protestant divine, born in
1639, was the author of "Reflections on the Rights of
Conscience," and other similar works. Died in 1703.
Saurin, (JACQUES,) a French Protestant divine and
eloquent pulpit orator, born at Nimes in 1677. Having
studied at Geneva, he became in 1701 pastor of the
Walloon church in London, and subsequently resided
at the Hague, in Holland, where he preached for twenty-
five years with the highest reputation. He published
a large collection of sermons, some of which have been
translated into English, a treatise " On the State of
Christianity in France," (1725,) and " Discourses, His
torical, Theological, and Moral, on the Principal Events
of the Old and Xew Testaments." Died in 1730.
See CHARLES WKISS, "Notice stir la Vie de J. Snurin," 1854;
J. P. ROMAN-. " Essai sur Saurin," 1836; HAAC, " Li France pro-
testante;" "Monthly Review" for March, 1785; "Xouvelle Bio-
grapliie Generale."
Saurin, (JOSEPH,) a French mathematician, brother
of Elias, noticed above, was born at Courtaison in 1659.
In 1707 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, to
which he contributed a number of valuable scientific
essays. He was originally a Calvinist minister, but sub
sequently became a Catholic. Died in 1737.
See HAAG, "La France protestante."
Sau'riii, (WILLIAM,) an Irish jurist and statesman,
born in 1767, became attorney-general for Ireland in j
1807. Died in 1840.
Sausmarez. See SAUMAREZ.
Saussay, so's.Y, (ANDRE,) a French ecclesiastic, born '
in Paris about 1595, was appointed preacher-in-ordinary
to Louis XIII., and made Bishop of Toul in 1649. He
published a work entitled "Martyrologium Gallicanum." I
Died in 1675.
Saussaye, La. See LA SAUSSAYE, DE.
Saussure, (.\LBERTINE ADRIKNNE.) See NECKER. i
Saussure, de, deh SO'SUK', (HORACE BENEDICT,) an ;
eminent Swiss naturalist, born at Geneva in February, :
1740. He was assisted in his scientific studies by his !
maternal uncle, Bonnet, and by the celebrated Haller, j
and at the age of twenty-two became professor of philos- !
ophy in the College of Geneva. Having made numerous :
excursions among the Alps, Jura, and other mountain- ;
chains, with the view of exploring their natural phe- i
nomena, he ascended in 1788 to the summit of Mont '.
Blanc. His most important work, entitled "Voyages
dans les Alpes," was published in 4 vols. in 1796.
Among his other writings we may name a " Physical ,
Dissertation on Fire," (1759, in Latih,) " Essays on Hy- j
grometry," (1783,) and "Relation abregee d'un Voyage
a la Cime du Mont Blanc en Aout, 1787," (1787.) He j
was the inventor of instruments called the cyanometer j
and the diaphanometer, for ascertaining the transparency !
of the air at different heights, and also made improve- '•
ments in the thermometer, hygrometer, etc. Of Saus- I
sure, Cuvier observes, "The' new facts which he has!
signalized, and the errors he has destroyed, will always
render his labours infinitely valuable to naturalists, and
will make of them the principal base and true touch- j
stone of the systems one can imagine for the future."
Died at Geneva in 1799.
See CUVIER, " FJoge de Saussure ;" SENEBIER, " Memnires his-
toriques sur la Vie et les ficrits de Saussure," 1801 ; " Nouvelle j
Biographie Generale."
Saussure, de, (XICOLAS,) a Swiss rural economist, !
born at Geneva in 1709, was the father of the preceding.
He published several works on rural economy. Died
in 1790.
Saussure, de, (NICOLAS THEODORE,) a chemist and
naturalist, born at Geneva in 1767, was a son of Horace |
Benedict, noticed above. He published " Chemical Re
searches on Vegetation," (1804,) and contributed many
memoirs to several scientific journals. In 1810 he was
elected a corresponding member of the French Institute.
Died in 1845.
Sautel, so'tel', (PIERRE JUST,) a French Jesuit and
Latin poet, born at Valence in 1613. He wrote several
elegant Latin poems. Died in 1662.
Sauvage, so'vtzh', (DEMS,) Sieur Du Pare, a French
litterateur, born about 1520, became historiographer to
Henry II. He edited the works of Froissart, Comines,
and Monstrelet. Died about 1587.
Sauvage, so'vizh', (£TIENNE NOEL JOSEPH,) a Bel
gian advocate, born at Liege in 1789. He was minister
of the interior from March to August, 1831, and became
president of the court of cassation in 1832.
Sauvages, de, deh so'vizh', (FRANCOIS BOISSIER,) a
French medical writer and botanist, born at Alais (Gard)
in 1706. He became professor at Montpellier about
1740, and published, besides other works, "Methodical
Nosology," ("Nosologia Methodica," 5 vols., 1763.)
Died in 1767.
See BARBASTE, " fittide sur Boissisr de Sauvages," 1791 ; " Bio
graphie Medicate;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Sauval, so'vil', (HENRI,) a French historian, born
in Paris about 1620. He wrote a " History of the An
tiquities of Paris," (3 vols., 1724.) Died in 1669 or 1670.
Sauveur, SO'VUR', (JOSEPH.) a French mathematician
and philosopher, born at La Fleche in 1653. He was
appointed in 1680 teacher to the pages of the dauphin-
ess, and in 1686 professor of mathematics in the Royal
College at Paris. He was elected to the Academy of
Sciences in 1696. He was especially distinguished for
his improvements in the science of acoustics, upon which
he published a number of essays. Died in 1716.
See FONTENELLE, " filoges ;" MONTUCLA, " Histoire des Mathe-
matiques."
Sauzet, so'zi', (JEAN PIERRE PAUL,) an eloquent
French advocate and politician, born at Lyons in 1800.
He gained distinction as counsel for the defence in
political trials, and was elected to the Chamber of
Deputies in 1834. He was minister of justice from
February to September, 1836. Between 1839 and 1848
he was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies
ten times. He presided during the revolution of Febru
ary, 1848, and resisted the insurgents who invaded the
chamber. Since that event he has taken no part in
public life.
See CORMENIN, "Livre des Orateurs ;" Louis BLANC, "Histoire
de dix Ans ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Sav'age, (EDWARD,) an American painter and en
graver, born at Princeton, Massachusetts, in 1761, was
a pupil of Benjamin West. He painted the family of
Washington. Died in 1817.
Sav'age, (HENRY,) an English divine, born in Wor
cestershire about 1604, was chaplain-in-ordinary to
Charles II., and rector of Bladon, in Oxfordshire. He
published a " History of Baliol College." Died in 1672.
Savage, (JOHN,) an English divine of the eighteenth
century, published a "Collection of Letters of the An
cients, whereby is discovered the Morality, Wit, Hu
mour, etc. of the Greeks and Romans." Died in 1747.
Savage, (Jonx,) an American jurist, born about 1780.
He was chief justice of the supreme court of New York
for fourteen years. Died at Utica in October, 1863.
Savage, (RICHARD,) an English poet, noted for his
misfortunes and for his dissolute habits, was born in
London in 1698. lie is believed to have been a natural
son of the Countess of Macclesfield and the Earl of
Rivers. He was abandoned by his mother and placed
with a nurse, who was charged to bring him up in ig
norance of his birth. Having subsequently discovered
the secret of his parentage, he made many ineffectual
attempts to obtain recognition and support from Lady
Macclesfield. He was befriended by Sir Richard Steele
and Dr. Johnson. Among his works were "The Wan
derer," a poem, (1729,) and several dramas. He killed
a man in a brawl in 1727, and was condemned to death,
but was pardoned. Died in 1743.
See JOHNSON, "Lives of the Poets."
as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
SAfARON
1964
SAVONAROLA
Savaron, st'vi'riN', (JEAN,) a French historian and
political writer, born at Clermont in 1550. He was an
advocate of the rights of the tiers-etat, (third estate,) and
wrote, besides other works, a " History of the States-
General," (1615.) Died in 1622.
See NICERON," Memoires;" MORBKI," Dictionnaire Historique;"
H. COCHON, " fitudes historiques et litteraires sur J. Savaron,"
1847.
Savart, si'viV, (FELix,) a French savant, born at
Mezieres in 1791, was a physician. He succeeded Am
pere as professor of physical philosophy in the College
of P'rance. He wrote on the vibrations of bodies and
the laws of their communication. Died in Paris in 1841.
See "Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Savary, st'vf re', (ANNE JEAN MARIE RENE,) Due
de Rovigo, an able French general and diplomatist,
born at Marcq (Ardennes) in 1774. He entered the
army in 1790, served as captain under Moreau in 1796,
and was aide-de-camp of Desaix in Egypt in 1798-1800.
He became aide-de-camp to Bonaparte in 1800, a gen
eral of brigade in 1803, and general of division in 1805.
Having obtained command of a corps, he gained a vic
tory over the Russians at Ostrolenka in 1807. In 1808
he received the title of Due de Rovigo, and was sent on
a diplomatic mission to Madrid. He succeeded Fouche
as minister of police in June, 1810. He adhered to Bona
parte after his defeat at Waterloo, and offered to accom
pany him to Saint Helena, but was detained in prison
at Malta seven months. He wrote autobiographic " Me
moires," (8 vols., 1828.) In 1831 he obtained the chief
command of the army in Algeria. Died in 1833.
See ACHII.I.E ROCHE, "De MM. le Due de Rovigo et le Prince
de Talleyrand," 1823 ; THIERS, " History of the Consulate and the
Empire;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "London Quarterly
Review" for July, 1823.
Savary, (FRANCOIS.) See BRAVES, DE.
Savary, (JACQUES,) a French writer on commerce,
born in Anjou in 1622. He published a work entitled
"The Complete Merchant," (" Le parfait Negociant,")
which was translated into the principal European lan
guages. Died in 1690.
Savary, (NICOLAS,) a French traveller, born at Vitre,
in Brittany, in 1750. He set out in 1776 for Egypt, where
he passed three years, and subsequently visited the
Grecian Archipelago. On his return to France he pub
lished a translation of the Koran, accompanied with
notes, and a Life of Mohammed, which is esteemed the
best in the French language. His " Letters on Egypt"
came out in 1785, and obtained great popularity, having
been translated into English, German, Dutch, and Swed
ish. His " Letters on Greece" came out a short time
after his death, which took place in 1788. He also trans
lated from the Arabic a tale entitled " The Loves of
Anas Eloujoud and Ouardi," (1789.)
Savary des Brulons, s&'vt're' di buii'liN',
(JACQUES,) a son of Jacques Savary, noticed above, was
born in 1657. He was appointed inspector-general of
manufactures in 1686. With the aid of his brother
Philemon Louis, he compiled a " Dictionary of Com
merce, Arts, and Trades," (3 vols., 1723-30.) Died in
1716. PHILEMON Louis was born in 1654 ; died in 1727.
Savelli. See HONORIUS III.
Saverien, siv're^N', (ALEXANDRE,) a French savant
and writer, born at Aries about 1722, was a naval en
gineer, (ingenieur de marine.) He wrote, besides other
works, a " Marine Dictionary," (" Dictionnaire de Ma
rine," 1758,) and a " History of Modern Philosophers,"
(4 vols., 1760-73.) Died in Paris in 1805.
See "Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Saverio. See XAVIER, (FRANCIS.)
Savery, stv're', (ROLAND,) an eminent Flemish
landscape-painter, born at Courtray in 1576, was a pupil
of his father. He was patronized by the emperor Ru
dolph II., for whom he worked at Prague. He removed
to Utrecht in 1612. Many of his pictures are rocky land
scapes adorned with figures of animals. Died in 1639.
Sa'ver-y, (THOMAS,) CAPTAIN, an English engineer,
and one of the inventors of the steam-engine. He was
associated with Newcomen as patentee of the invention
for producing a vacuum under the piston. Died in 1715.
Savigny, von, fon sS'ven'ye', (FRIEDRICH KARL,) an
eminent German jurist, of French extraction, born at
Frankfort-on-the Main in 1779. He published in 1803
an important work entitled " Right of Possession,"
("Rechtdes Besitzes.") In 1804 he married Miss Bren-
tano, a sister of the poet of that name. He became
professor of law at Landshut in 1808, and obtained in
1810 a chair in the University of Berlin, which he filled
thirty-two years. He was appointed a member of the
council of state about 1817. His principal works are
a " History of Roman Law during the Middle Ages," (6
vols., 1815-31,) and "System of Modern Roman Law,"
(" System des heutigen Romischen Rechts," 8 vols.,
1840-48.) In 1842 he was appointed minister of justice
of Prussia. " His ideas have made the tour of the world,"
says Laboulaye ; " they have transformed the science."
Died in October, 1861.
See LABOUI.AYE, " F. C. de Savigny," 1842; RUDORFF, " Erin-
nerung an Savigny," 1862; STINZING, " F. C. von Savigny," 1862 ;
" Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Savile or Saville, (GEORGE.) See HALIFAX, MAR
QUIS OF.
Savile, sav'il, (Sir HENRY,) an English mathemati
cian and classical scholar, born in Yorkshire in 1549.
He graduated at Oxford in 1570, and, after his return
from a tour on the continent, became tutor in the Greek
language and mathematics to Queen Elizabeth. He was
made provost of Eton College in 1596, and was subse
quently knighted by James I. He was the founder of two
professorships in the University of Oxford, besides other
liberal donations to that institution, to which he also
bequeathed a valuable library. Among his principal
publications are " Lectures on the First Book of Euclid's
Elements," a collection of English historians, entitled
" Rerum Anglicarum Scriptores post Bedam," (1596,)
and an excellent edition of the works of Saint Chrys-
ostom, (1613.) He died in 1622, having acquired the
reputation of one of the most profound and accomplished
scholars of his time. "We may justly deem him," says
Hallam, "the most learned Englishman in profane liter
ature of the reign of Elizabeth."
See WOOD, "Athens Oxonienses ;" ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of
Authors."
Savioli, sa-ve-o'Iee, (Luict VICTOR,) an Italian poet,
born at Bologna in 1729. He wrote Anacreontic poems,
entitled " Amori," (1795.) Died in 1804.
Savonarola, sa-vo-na-ro'la, (GIOVANNI MICHELE,)
an eminent Italian physician, born at Padua in 1384. was
a grandfather of Girolamo, noticed below. He became
professor of medicine at Ferrara, and published several
medical works. Died in 1461.
Savonarola, [Fr. SAVONAROLE, si'vo'ni'rol',] (Gi-
ROLAMO,) a celebrated Italian reformer and pulpit
orator, born at Ferrara in 1452. lie became a Dominican
monk in 1475. H's nrst attempts to preach proved a
failure ; but he persevered until he became an eloquent
and popular preacher. He boldly denounced the cor
ruptions of the Church, and the vices of priests and
monks. He also advocated republicanism or political
liberty. In 1491 he was chosen prior of the convent of
Saint Mark at Florence, where he effected important
reforms. He acquired great political influence at Flor
ence, and after the expulsion of the Medici (1494) was
the leader of the liberal party, called " Piagnoni," (pe-an-
yo'nee,) by which a new constitution was adopted on
Christian principles. Having refused to submit to papal
authority, he was excommunicated by Alexander VI. in
1497. The popular, enthusiasm grew cool, a reaction
ensued, and the enemies of Savonarola gained the ascend
ency in Florence. He was arrested, tortured, condemned,
and strangled in May, 1498. A few years later, Raphael
painted his portrait in the Vatican among the saints and
doctors of the Church. Savonarola published, besides
other works, "The Triumph of the Cross," etc.,
(" Triumphus Crucis de Veritate Ficlei," 1497.) " His
absolutely blameless moral character, his wonderful
abilities, his command of all the knowledge of his time,
his power of communicating his own holiness to others,
even his rigid authority as regards the great doctrines
of his Church, who will impeach?" ("Quarterly Re
view," article on Savonarola, reprinted in the " Living
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; not; good; moon;
SAVQT
1965
serous
Age," vol. 1. p. 641, 1856.) Mis complete works were
published at Lyons, (6 vols., 1633-40.)
See T.NERI, "Apologiain Difesa della Dottrina cli G. Savonarola,"
1564; Pico DELI.A MIKANDOLA, "Vita Savonarolae," 1674; SPANG-
ENBERG. "Leben. Lehre und Tod Savonarola," 1557; BURI.AMAO
CHI, "Vita di G. Savonarola," 1764; RUDEI.HACH, " Savonarola und
seine Zeit," 1835; FR. KAKL MEIER, " G. Savonarola," 1836; E.
MARION or MARIN, "Viede J. Savonarole," 1839; P. J. CARLE,
'• Histoire cle Savonarole," 1842; MADDEN, "Life and Martyrdom
of Savonarola," 2 vols., 1853 ; PERRENS, " Savonarole, sa Vie," etc.,
1854; P. VU.I.ARI, "Storiadi G. Savonarola," 1860. (translated into
English by HORNER, 1863;) W. HODGSON, "Reformers and Mar
tyrs," Philadelphia, 1867; "London Quarterly Review" for July,
1856; " Blackwood's Magazine" tor June, 1863 ; " British Quarterly
Review" for November, 1849.
Savot, sf'vo', (Louis,) a French physician and anti
quary, born at Saulieu in 1579, was physician to Louis
XIII. He published several treatises on medicine and
numismatics. Died in 1640.
Savoy, COUNTS and DUKES OF. See AMADEUS and
CHAKI.ES EMMANUEL.
Saw'yer, (CAROLINE M. FISHER,) wife of T. J. Saw
yer, noticed below, was born at Newton, Massachusetts,
in 1812. She lias published several religious works, and
made numerous translations from the German and
French. In 1861 she became editor of the "Ladies'
Repository."
Saw'yer, (Sir ROBERT,) an English lawyer and
statesman, rose to be attorney-general in 1680. He
was afterwards a member of Parliament for the Univer
sity of Cambridge. He was accessory to the death of
Lord Russell. Died in 1692.
Sawyer, (THOMAS JEFFERSON, D.D.,) an American
Universalist preacher, born in Windsor county, Ver
mont, in 1804. He published a "Discussion of the
Doctrine of Universal Salvation," (1854.)
Sax, stks, (ANTOINE JOSEPH ADOLPHE,) a Belgian
maker of musical instruments, born at Dinant in 1814.
He invented the saxophone and other brass instruments
of military music. He became professor of music in the
Conservatory of Paris in 1857.
Sax, saks, [Lat. SAX'IUS,] (CHRISTOPH,) a German
scholar, born in Saxony in 1714. He became in 1753
professor of history at Utrecht. His chief work is his
"Onomasticon Literarium, sive Nomenclator historico-
criticus prsestantissimorum omnis yEtatis, Populi, Arti-
umque Formulae Scriptorum," etc., (8 vols., 1775-90.)
This is a dictionary of the eminent authors of all ages
and countries. Died in 1806.
Saxe, saks, (HERMANN MAURICE,) [Ger. MORITZ
VON SACHSEM, mo'rits fon saks'en,] COUNT OF, a fa
mous general, born at Goslar or Dresden, in Saxony,
October 28, 1696, was a son of Augustus II., Elector
of Saxony and King of Poland, and the Countess von
Konigsmark. He entered the army in 1708, and dis
tinguished himself in several battles against the Swedes
and French. About 1720 he entered the French ser
vice. He was elected Duke of Coin-land in 1726, but
was soon driven out of that duchy by the Russians and
Poles. He was for a time the favoured lover of Anna
Ivanovna, who became Empress of Russia in 1730. In
1734 he fought against the Austrians and obtained the
rank of lieutenant-general in the French army. He
captured Prague in 1741, was raised to the rank of
marshal of France in 1744, and obtained command of
the army in Flanders in 1745. He gained victories over
the allies at Fontenoy, (1745,) Raucoux, (1746,) and
Laufeld, (1747.) He had married a Countess of Loben
about 1712, but he obtained a divorce from her a few
years later. He wrote a work on military affairs, en
titled "My Reveries," ("Mes Reveries," 5 vols., 1757.)
Died in 1750. His daughter, Madame Dupin, was a
grandmother of George Sand the authoress.
See BARON D'ESPAGNAC, " Histoire dn Marechal Saxe;"RANFT,
"Leben des Grafen von Sachsen," 1746; LA BARRE DU PAKCQ,
" Biographic et Maximes du Marechal de Saxe," 1851 ; C. VON
WEBER, " Moritz von Sachsen," 1863: MAJOR-GENERAL J. MIT
CHELL, "Biographies of Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Cen
turies," 1865 ; A, THOMAS. " filoge de Maurice Comte de Saxe,"
1759; " Nouvelle Biographie Genera'e ;" "Edinburgh Review" for
October, 1864; " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1841.
Saxe, saks, (JOHN GODFREY,) a distinguished Ameri
can humorous poet, born in Franklin county, Vermont,
in 1816. He graduated at Middlebury College, Vermont,
in 1839, and subsequently became editor of the " Bur
lington Sentinel." He was elected State's attorney in
1851. A collection of his poems appeared in 1849.
They rank among the most successful productions of
their kind, and have obtained extensive popularity. A
new edition of his collected poems Jvas published in
1864. He produced in 1866 "The Masquerade, and
other Poems."
See ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Saxe-Coburg, DUKE OF. See ERNEST.
Saxe-Coburg, PRINCE OF. See COBURG.
Saxe-Weimar, DUKE OF. See BERNHARD.
Saxius, (CHRISTOPH.) See SAX.
Sax'o Gram-mat' i-cus, (genitive, Saxo'nis Gram-
mat'ici,) an eminent Danish historian, born in the first
halt of the twelfth century, was a priest, and secretary
of Absalom, Archbishop of Lund. He wrote (in Latin)
a "History of Denmark," which is one of the most cu
rious documents of the middle ages. It abounds in
traditions and romantic or fabulous legends. Died
about 1204.
See REIMER, "De Vita Saxonis Grammatici," 1762; G. L.
BADEN, "Om vor Danske Histories Fader Saxo Grammaticus,"
1809; J. B. CAKPZOV, " Dissertatio de Vita et Scriptis Saxonis
Grammatici," 1762.
Sax'ton, (RuFus,) an American general, born at
Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1824, graduated at West
Point in 1849. He was appointed a brigadier-general
of volunteers about April, 1862, and defended Harper's
Ferry with success in May of that year. He was assigned
to the command at Port Royal about the end of 1862,
and was employed in South Carolina until 1865.
Say, si, (HORACE EMILE,) a French writer on politi
cal economy, son of Jean Baptiste, noticed below, was
born near Paris in 1794. He has published a "History
of the Commercial Relations between France and Bra
zil," etc., and other works.
Say, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a distinguished French writer
on political economy, born at Lyons in 1767. At an
early age he visited England, where he became conver
sant with the writings of Adam Smith. In 1794 he was
one of the founders of "La Decade philosophique," a
literary and political journal in Paris, of which he was
principal editor for six years. He was appointed in
1799 a- member of the Tribunate, but resigned on Napo
leon's becoming emperor. He was a member of the
Academy of Sciences at Saint Petersburg, and of other
learned institutions. Among his principal works are a
"Treatise on Political Economy," (2 vols., 1803,) which
has been translated into the principal European lan
guages, a "Catechism of Political Economy," (1815,)
and "On England and the English." Died in 1832.
See A. P. DECANDOLLE, " Notice stir J. B. Say," 1832; BLANQUI,
"Notice sur la Vie de J. B. Say," 1841; " Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Say, (SAMUEL,) an English dissenting divine, born in
1675, became pastor at Westminster in 1734. He was
the author of a number of poems and prose essays.
Died in 1743.
Say, (THOMAS,) an American naturalist, born at
Philadelphia in 1787, was one of the founders of the
Academy of Natural Sciences in that city. In 1819 he
accompanied Long's expedition to the Rocky Mountains
as chief zoologist. His principal work is an "American
Entomology," illustrated. Died in 1834.
See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
Say, (WILLIAM,) an English mezzotinto engraver,
born at or near Norwich in 1768. He engraved history,
landscapes, etc. Died in 1834.
Saye and Sele. See FIKNNES, (WILLIAM.)
Say'ers, (FRANK,) an English physician and writer,
born in London in 1763. He published "Dramatic
Sketches of the Ancient Northern Mythology," (1790,)
"Disquisitions, Metaphysical and Literary," (1793,) and
other works. Died in 1817.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1827, (by
SOUTH EV.)
Sayous, sS'yoo', (PIERRE ANDRE,) a Swiss littera
teur, born at Geneva in 1808. He published, besides
other works, a " History of French Literature among
Foreign Nations," ( a T Stranger,) (2 vols., 1853.)
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SCACCHI
1966
SCANDERBEG
Scacchi, skak'kee, (FoRTUNATO,) an Italian anti
quary and monk, born at Ancona about 1572. He pub
lished " Sacrorum Elseochrismatum Myrothecia," (3 vols.,
1625-37.) Died in 1643.
Sccevola, seVo-la. [Fr. SCEVOI.E, si'vol',] (C. Mu-
CIUS,) a Roman, who, according to the ancient legends,
went to the camp of Porsena, then besieging Rome,
and attempted to kill him with a dagger. He was seized
by the guards of the king, who ordered him to be put to
death. Scasvola, it is said, held his right hand in a fire,
which was at hand, until it was consumed, so that Por
sena, struck with admiration at his extraordinary forti
tude, spared his life. From this circumstance he is said
to have received the surname of Scaevola, or "left-
handed."
Scaevola, (Puni.ius Mucius,) a Roman jurist, was
elected consul in 133 is.c., and two years after was created
pontifex maximus. lie was the author of several legal
works.
Scgevola, (QuiNTUS CKRVIPIUS,) a Roman jurist,
lived under the reigu of Marcus Antoninus. He num
bered among his pupils Septimius Severtis, afterwards
emperor. There are extracts from his works contained
in the Digest of Justinian.
Scaevbla, (QUINTUS Mucius,) surnamed THE AUGUR,
became a Roman consul, with L. Cecilius Metellus, 117
Ji.C. He was eminent as a jurist, and was one of the
teachers of Cicero, who has introduced him into his
treatises " De Oratore," " De Amicitia," and " De Re-
publica." His wife was a daughter of C. Lrelius Sapiens.
Died after 88 B.C.
Scaevola, (QUINTUS Mucius,) surnamed PONTIFEX,
was the son of Pub! ins, noticed above. He was chosen
consul in 95 u.c., and was subsequently proconsul of
Asia, and pontifex maximus. He enjoyed a high repu
tation as a jurist and orator, and wrote several legal
works, which are not extant. Having been proscribed
by the younger Marius, he was killed in the temple of
Vesta, 82 B.C. His virtues are highly extolled by Cicero.
Scala, ska'la, (BARTOI-OMMEO,) an Italian writer,
born in 1430, published a " History of the Florentine
Republic." His daughter Alessandra was distinguished
as a classical scholar, and became the wife of the poet
Manillas. Died in 1497.
Scala, della, del'la ska'la, or Scaligeri, ska-le-ja'-
ree, (CAN FRANCKSCO,) an Italian military commander,
born about 1290, was a prominent leader of the Ghibe-
line faction in Lombardy. He died in 1329, having been
ruler over Verona nearly twenty years. He was a liberal
patron of literature and the fine arts, and has been cele
brated by Dante, who found an asylum at his court.
Scala, della, (MASTING,) an uncle of the preceding,
became Podesta of Verona about 1260. He was assas
sinated about 1275.
Scal'i-ger, [I, at. SCAI/IGER, genitive SCAI/IGERI,]
(JOSEPH JUSTUS,) a celebrated philologist, a son of Julius
Caesar, noticed below, was born at Agen, in France, in
August, 1540. Under the instruction of his father he
early became a proficient in the Latin language, and
subsequently studied Greek and the Oriental languages
in Paris. He became professor of belles-lettres at the
University of Leyden in 1593, and numbered among his
pupils the celebrated Grotius. Among his numerous
works, which are characterized by the most profound
learning and critical acumen, we may name his treatise
" De Emendatione Temporum," (1583.) being an ex-
planaiion of the Julian period, "Thesaurus Temporum,"
(1606,) Latin poems and epistles, a Latin translation of
Arabian proverbs, besides commentaries on Ausonius,
Varro, and other classics. He adopted the Protestant
religion in his youth, and took an active part in the civil
war about 1568. He was generally recognized as the
most eminent scholar of his time. Died at Leyden in
1609. " Scaliger," says Niebuhr, " stood on the summit
of universal solid philological learning in a degree that
none have reached since ; so high in every branch of
knowledge, that from the resources of his own mind he
could comprehend, apply, and decide on whatever came
in his way." (Quoted in the " Quarterly Review," 1860.)
"The two greatest scholars of the sixteenth century,"
says Hallam, " are yet unnamed; Joseph Scaliger and
Isaac Casaubon. The former, son of Julius Cassar
Scaliger, and, in the estimation at least of some, his in
ferior in natural genius, though much above him in
learning and judgment, was perhaps the most extraordi
nary master of general erudition that has ever lived. . . .
He was, in fact, conversant with all ancient, and very
extensively with modern, literature. ... In the depart
ment of philology he was conspicuous as an excellent
critic, both of the Latin and Greek languages; though
Hayle, in his own paradoxical but acute and truly judi
cious spirit, has suggested that Scaliger's talents and
learning were too great for a good commentator, — the
one making him discover in authors more hidden sense
than they possessed, the other leading him to perceive
a thousand allusions which had never been designed."
(" Introduction to the Literature of Kurope.")
See HKINSIUS, " Orationes II. in Obituin J. J. Scaligeri," 1600;
J. BKKNAYS, "J. J. Sc.iliger," Merlin. iS^; " Scaligerana," Am
sterdam, 1695; CMAKI.KS NISAKP. " Le Trhimvirat litteraire an
XVI Siecle ;" JUSTK LIPSH, "J. Scaliger et I. Casaubon," 1X52;
NICEKON, " Memnires :" " Nouvelle Biographic Gent-rale ;" "Quar
terly Review" for July, 1860.
Scaliger, ( JULIUS C/ESAR, ) a celebrated Italian
scholar and critic, father of the preceding, was born on
Lago di Garda or at Padua' on the 23(1 of April, 1484.
His real name is said to have been BOKDONK. He pre
tended to be descended from the noble family Delia
Scala. lie studied medicine, and practised some years
in Italy. According to his own account, he served sev
eral campaigns in the army of the emperor Maximilian
in his youth. In 1525 he removed to Agen, France, to
which he had been invited by the bishop of that diocese.
There he practised medicine and passed the rest of his
life. lie married Andiette de Roques-Lobejac about
1528. Scaliger published, besides other works, " An
Oration against Krasmus," (" Adversus I). Krasmum
Oratio," 1531,) "On the Principles of the Latin Lan
guage," (" De Causis Linguae Latinre," 1540,) "Seven
Books of Poetry," (" Poetices Libri septem," 1561,) and
"On the Art of Poetry," (" DC Arte Poetica.") He was
an excellent classical scholar, and was considered one of
the greatest intellects of his time. His stature was tall,
his presence dignified and imposing. He died at Agen
in October, 1558.
See J. [• SCAI.IGKR, " De Vetustate et Splendore gentis Scaligerae
et Vita \. C. Scaligeri," j ^94 : BAYI.K, " Historical and Critical Dic
tionary:" BKIQUKT, " ftloge de J. C. Scaliger," 1812; NICEKON,
" Meim.ires ;" "Nmivelle Biographic Generale."
Scaligeri. See SCAI.A, DKI.I.A.
Scam'mon, (Ei.iAKiM P.,) an American general,
born in Maine, graduated at West Point in 1837. He
became a captain in 1853, and a brigadier-general of
volunteers in October, 1862. He was taken prisoner
on the Kanawha River in February, 1864.
Scamozzi. See BKRTOTTl-SCAMOZzr.
Scamozzi, ska-mot'see, ( VINCENZIO, ) an Italian
architect and writer, born at Vicenza in 1552. Having
spent some time at Rome and Naples, he settled at
Venice, where he was employed to finish some works
left incomplete bv Sansovino and Palladio, who had
recently died. He afterwards constructed the church
of San Niccolo di Tolentino, and the range of buildings
called the Procuratie Nuove at Venice. He was em
ployed in 1604 by the Archbishop of Salzburg to design
the cathedral in that city, which is esteemed one of his
master-pieces. His work entitled " Architettura Uni-
versale" came out in 1616, a few months before his
death.
See SCOI.ARI, "Vita di Scamozzi," 1^37; MII.IZIA, " Memorie
degli Architetti ;" CICOGNARA, " Storia della Scnhura :" THMANZA,
" Vita di V. Scamozzi," 1770; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Scan'der-beg, [from Scantier or Iska»der* " Alexan
der," and beg, "lord" or "chief,"] a celebrated Eastern
warrior, born in Albania in 1404, was originally named
GEORGE CASTRIOTA, (or CASTRIOTO.) At an early age
he was sent by his father, a prince of Albania, who was
tributary to the Turks, to the court of Amurath II.,
* Byron speaks of him under the name of ISKANDER :—
" Land of Albania ! where Iskander rose,
Theme of the young, and beacon of the wise,
And he, his namesake, whose oft-baffled foes
Shrunk from his deeds of chivalrous emprise."
Childe Harold, canto ii., stanza xxxviii.
a, e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e. T, o. u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; m£t: n6t; good: moon
SC4PINELLI
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where he soon acquired the favour and confidence of
that monarch. His father having died in 1432, his prin
cipality was seized by the Sultan, upon which Scander-
beg entered into an agreement with Huniades, com
mander of the Christian army in Transylvania, to betray
into his hand the Turkish forces under his command.
Me soon after took possession of his hereditary do-
works
".-Enei
selle
i are "The Comic Romance," (1651,) and the
:id Travestied." He married in 1652 Mademoi-
d'Attbigne, afterwards known as Madame de
Maintenon. (See MAINTENON.) Died in 1660.
See COUSIN D'AVALON, " Scarroniana," 1801 ; BAILLET, " Juge-
ments des Savants;" TALI.EMANT DF.S REAUX, " Historiettes ;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" "Retrospective Review," vol.
minions, and renounced Mohammedanism, in which he
had been educated. He subsequently carried on a
successful war with the Turks, and in 1462 assisted
Ferdinand, King of Naples, against the Count of Anjoti. ! Ferrara about 1560.
Died in 1467.
See MAJOR-GENERAL J. MITCHELL, "Biographies of Eminent
Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries," 1865: HAMMER I'URGSTAI.L,
" Geschichte des Osmanisches Reichs;'' C. G. MOORE, "George
Castriot, surnamed Scanderbeg ;" MONARDO, " Vita di G. Castrioto,"
1591; S. PUFFENDORF, " G. Castriotae Historia," 1684; PAGANEI,
" Histoire de Scanderbeg," 1855: M. BARLESIO, "DeVita, Mori-
bus ac Rebus gestis G. Castrioti," 1537; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Scarsella, skaR-sel'la, or Scarsellino, skaR-sgl-
lee'no, (IPPOLITO,) a skilful Italian painter, born at
lie imitated Paul Veronese with
success. Died in 1621.
Scars'gill or Scar'gill, (W. P.,) an English writer,
published, among other works, "Provincial Sketches,"
" The Usurer's Daughter," and " The Puritan's Grave."
Died in 1836.
Scau'rus, (M. /EMILIUS,) a Roman soldier and states
man, born in 163 B.C. After serving for a time in
Spain, he became successively praetor urbanus, consul,
Scapinelli, ska-pe-nel'lee, (Lonovico,) an Italian ' and princeps senatus. His talents and virtues are eulo-
poet, born at Modena in 1585, was blind from his birth, i gized bY Cicero. He died about 90 B.C., and his widow
Died in 1634. j afterwards married the celebrated Sulla.
Scapula, ska'poo-la, (JoiiAXX,) a German philologist, j See DRUMAXX, " Geschichte Roms."
born about 1545, was employed as a proof-reader in the > Scaurus, (M. ^EMILIUS,) a son of the preceding,
printing-office of Henry Estienne at Geneva. He pub- I served as quaestor under Pompey in the Mithridatic
lished a "Lexicon Graeco-Latinum," (1579,) an abridg- j war, and afterwards filled several offices in the republic.
ment of Stephanus's (Estienne's) "Thesaurus."
He was chiefly noted for his profligacy and extrava-
Scaramuccia, ska-ra-moot'cha, (LoDOViCO,) an Ital- gance, and was twice brought to trial for his crimes,
ian painter and engraver, born at Perugia in 1616, was a being on both occasions defended by Cicero.
pupil of Guido Reni. Died in 1680. Scaurus, (MAMERCUS,) a grandson of the preceding,
Scarborough, skar'bur-eh, (Sir CHARLES,) an Eng- was distinguished as a poet and orator. Accused of high
lish physician, born about 1616. He succeeded Harvey > treason and other crimes, he committed suicide, 34 A.D.
as Lumleian lecturer on anatomy in 1656. He was after- ! Sceve, siv, (MAURICE,) a French poet, born at Lyons,
wards appointed first physician to Charles II., James II., was an advocate by profession. Among his works are
and William III. He was the author of several medical "La Saulsaye," (1547,) and " Le Microcosme, ou petit
and mathematical treatises, and was a Fellow of the ' Monde," (1562.) Died in 1564.
College of Physicians. Died in 1693. Scevole. See SC.'EVOLA.
Scarcellin'o. See SCARSELLA. Schaaf, shlf, (CHARLES,) a German Orientalist, born
Scarlatti, skaR-lat'tee, (ALESSAXDRO,) a celebrated in 1646, became professor of the Oriental languages
Italian composer and musician, born at Xaples about at Leyden. He published several grammatical works.
1656, was a pupil of Carissimi. His productions are Died in 1729.
very numerous, including one hundred operas and three Schack, von, fon shak, (ADOLF FRIEDRICH,) a
thousand cantatas, and he is said to have originated German litterateur, born near Schwerin in 1815. He
ritornels and violin accompaniments. Died in 1725. j published a " History of Dramatic Literature and Art
See FETIS, " Biographic Universelle des Musicians." : '» Spain," (1845,) which has a high reputation, and made
Scarlatti, (DoMEXico,) a son of the preceding, was i Se^ fi*"?!??0118 ^T ^ Pe^
Schad, shat or shad, (JOHANN BAPTIST,) a German
He succeeded
17-5 i - ~ -" r-_-~
born in 1683. He was appointed in 1735 chapel-master - "' * ' r T u •
to the Queen of Spain. His principal work is a collec- ' £h' f'Pher, born at Mursbach in 1758 H,
tion of pieces for the harpsichord. Died about 1755. FlC'lt^ a* P™fes*or of philosophy at Jena
Scarlatti, (GIUSEPPE,) a composer, born at Xaples in i and .obta'"ed a <^'r of philosophy at Kharkof in Rus-
1718, was a son or nephew of the preceding. He com- i *'a>. in j^4' Hf published several esteemed works
posed numerous operas. Died at Vienna in 1796. designed to popularize the philosophy of Fichte. Died
C£<-1~1*- 1«4-4- / T » •» »¥-C- \ C^n \ T1 T»'^-,-» "^ 1^.14*
Scarlett, (JAMES.) See AKIXGER.
Scar'lett, (Sir JAMES YOKKE,) an English general,
born in 1799. He served in the Crimean war of 1854,
and attained the rank of major-general, and commander
of the cavalry.
Scarpa, skaR'pa, (ANTONIO,) a celebrated Italian
See his Autobiography, 2 vols., 1804.
Schadow, sha'do, (JoHANN GOTTFRIED,) a cele
brated German sculptor, born at Berlin in 1764. Having
spent several years in Italy, he returned to Berlin in
1788, and was subsequently appointed director of the
anatomist and surgeon, born at La Motta, in Friuli, on i Academy of Arts. Among his master-pieces are statues
the I3th of June, 1747. He studied under Morgagni, | °( Frederick the Great, Marshal Bliicher, and General
at Padua, and was appointed professor of anatomy at
Modena in 1772. After a journey to France and Eng
land, he obtained the chair of anatomy in the University
of Pavia in 1783. He acquired a European reputation
by his researches and treatises on the anatomy of the
ear, the organs of smell, the nerves of the heart, etc.
In 1801 he produced an able treatise on the diseases of
the eye. He received the title of surgeon to Napoleon
in 1805. Among his numerous works is an excellent
"Treatise on Hernia," (" Sull' Ernie Memorie," 1809.)
He was an accomplished scholar, and a very skilful
draughtsman. He was never married. Died in 1832.
See TAGLIAFERRI, " Ragionamento intorno la Vita del Cavaliere
A. Scarpa," 1834 ; TIPAI.DO, " Biocrafia degli Italian! illustri ;"
BEGIN, notice in the " Biographie Medicale ;" " Nouvelle Bio
graphie Generale."
Scarron, ska"r6x', (PAUL,) a French dramatist and
comic writer, born in Paris about 1610. After leading
a very dissolute life, he was deprived of the use of his
limbs by an accident, at the age of twenty-seven, and
henceforth devoted himself to literature. His principal
Ziethen, a group of Queen Luise and her sister, the
Duchess of Cumberland, the monument of Luther at
Wittenberg, and that of Tauenzien at Breslau. He
numbered among his pupils Dannecker, Ranch, and
other eminent sculptors, and he is regarded as the
founder of the modern school of sculpture in Germany.
He was the author of several valuable treatises on art.
Died in 1850.
See his autobiography, entitled " Kunstwerke tind Kunstan-
sichten," 1849; NAGLER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Schadow, (RUDOLF,) a sculptor, a son of the pre
ceding, was born in 1785. He was instructed by his
father, and afterwards visited Rome, where he died in
1822. He left several portrait-busts and statues of great
beauty. Among the latter may be named " The Girl fast
ening her Sandal."
Schadow-Godenhaus, von, fon sha'do go'den-
howss', (FRIEDRICH WILHELM,) an eminent painter of
history and portraits, a brother of the preceding, was
born at Berlin in 1789. He studied at Rome under
Cornelius and Overbeck, whose peculiar views of art
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
xplanations, p. 23.)
SCHAEFFER
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SCHEFFER
he adopted. (See CORNELIUS and OVKRBECK.) Having
joined the Catholic Church while at Rome, he returned
to Berlin, where he became professor in the Academy of
Fine Arts, and in 1826 succeeded Cornelius as director
of the Academy at Dusseldorf. Among his principal
historical pictures are the Four Evangelists, in the
Werder Church at Berlin, an " Ascension of Mary," in
the Paulskirche at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a series repre
senting " Paradise," " Purgatory," and " Hell." Schadow
numbers among his pupils Lessing, Schroter, and other
distinguished German artists. Died in 1862.
See NAGI.ER, " Allgemeines Kiinstier- Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Schaeffer. See SCHAFFER.
Schaeffer, sha'fer, (CHARLES FREDERICK,) an Ameri
can divine and scholar, born at Germantown in 1807,
graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1827.
He has been chairman of the faculty in the Lutheran
Seminary in Philadelphia since its organization in 1864.
He has published, besides numerous other works, an
excellent translation from the German of Lechler's "Acts
of the Apostles : an Exegetical Commentary, "etc., (1866.)
Schafei. See SHAIEY.
Schafarik, sha'fa-rik, written also Safarik, (PAUL
JOSEPH,) a distinguished philologist and antiquary, born
in Northern Hungary in 1795. Among his works are a
" History of the Slavonic Language and Literature,"
etc., (in German, 1826,) "Slavonic Ethnology," and
"Bohemian Antiquities." Died in 1861.
Schaff, shaf, (PHILIP,) D.D., a theologian and divine
of the German Reformed Church, was born in Switzer
land in 1819. He graduated at Berlin in 1841, and in
1844 emigrated to America, and was appointed professor
of theology at Mercersburg, Pennsylvania. He pub
lished "The Principles of Protestantism," (in German
and English, 1845,) a "History of the Apostolic Church,"
(in German, 1851,) a " History of the Christian Church
from the Birth of Christ to the Reign of Constantine,
A.D. 1-311," (1859,) "The Person of Christ the Miracle
of History," (1865,) and many other works. He became
in 1870 professor in the Union Theological Seminary,
New York.
See AI.UBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Schaffer or Schaeffer, shei'fer, (JAKOB CHRISTIAN,)
a German naturalist, born at Querfurt, Prussia, in 1718.
He wrote on entomology, botany, etc., and was skilful
in the fabrication of optical instruments. Died in 1790.
See HIRSCHING, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ;" "Nou
velle Biographic Generale."
Schaffner, shaf'ner, (MARTIN,) a German historical
and portrait painter of Uhn, flourished from 1508 to
1539. His works are highly praised.
Schagen, van, vtn sKa'gen or sKt'fien, (^Eoioius,)
a Dutch historical painter, born at Alkmaar in 1616.
Among his works are interiors and conversation-pieces.
Died in 1668.
Schalcken, sKal'ken, (GODFREY,) a Dutch painter
of genre, born at Dort in 1643, was a pupil of Gerard
Dow. He painted the effects of candle-light with suc
cess. Died at the Hague in 1706.
Schaldemose, shal'deh-mo'seh, (FRIEDRICH JU
LIAN,) a Danish litterateur, born in the island of Fionia
in 1782, made numerous translations from the German,
English, French, and other languages, and published
several original works.
Schall, shal, (JoHANN ADAM,) a German Jesuit and
missionary, born at Cologne in 1591. He went to China
in 1622, and obtained favour at the court of Peking by
his skill in astronomy and other sciences. Died in
Peking in 1669.
Schall, (KARL,) a German dramatist, born at Breslau
in 1780, was the founder, and for many years the editor,
of the "Breslau Zeitung." Died in 1833.
Schaller, shal'ler, (ANTON,) a German painter, born
at Vienna in 1772 ; died in 1844.
Schaller, (JoHANN,) a brother of the preceding, was
born in 1777. He became in 1823 professor of sculp
ture in the Academy at Vienna. Died in 1847.
Schaller, (JULIUS,) a German writer, born at Magde
burg in 1810, publishec. a "History of Natural Philos
ophy from Bacon to the Present Time," (1844.)
Schammai, sham'mT, a celebrated Jewish doctor of
law, lived at Jerusalem about 80-50 B.C., and was a rival
of Hillel the Elder.
See GEIGER et GEISSMANN, " Brevis Commentatio de Hillela et
Schammai," 1707.
Schamyl. See SHAMYL.
Schanfari. See SHANFAREE.
Schank, shank, ?(JoiiN,) a Scottish naval officer and
engineer, born in Fifeshire in 1740. He served in the
American war, and was subsequently employed in the
defence of the British coast against the French. lie was
made admiral of the blue in 1821. Died in 1823.
Scharmat, shan'nat, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH,) a Ger
man historian, born at Luxemburg in 1683. He wrote
several works on German history. Died in 1739.
Schard, shaRt, (SiMON,) a learned German lawyer
and compiler, born in Saxony in 1535, published "Opus
historicum de Rebus Germanicis," (4 vols., 1574.) Died
'" 1573-
Scharling, shau'ling, (CARL EMII.E,) a Danish theo
logian, born at Copenhagen in 1803. He published,
besides other works, "The Theological Review," (1837
-49-)
Scharling, (EDWARD AUGUSTUS,) a chemist, a brother
of the preceding, was born at Copenhagen in 1807.
Scharnhorst, von, fon shain/hoRst, (GERHARD
DAVID,) a Prussian commander and military writer,
born at Hamelsee, in Hanover, in 1756. lie was pres
ent at the battle of Auerstadt, in 1806, and, as chief of
Bliicher's staff, distinguished himself at Eylau, in 1807.
Having been made lieutenant-general, and retaining the
position of chief of the staff of BHicher, he was severely
wounded in the battle near Grossgorchen, and died from
the effects of his wound, in June, 1813.
See BOYEN, " Beitra^e zur Kenntniss von Scharnhorst," 1833;
CI.AUSEWITZ, " Leben von Scharnhorst," iS32.
Schatz, shats, (GF.ORG,) a German writer, born at
Gotha in 1763, published fables, sonnets, and critical
essays ; he also made a translation of Machiavelli's
"History of Florence," (unfinished.) Died in 1795.
Schauflein or Schauffelein. See SCHKUFFEI.IN.
Schaumbourg. See LIITE-SCHAUMBOURG.
Schedone. See SCHIDONI.
Schedoni, ska-do'nee, (PiETRo,) an Italian philoso
pher, born in the duchy of Modena in 1759, published
several works on moral philosophy. Died in 1835.
Scheele, sheel, [Sw. pron. snii'leh,] (CARL WIL-
HELM,) an eminent Swedish chemist, born at Stralsund
in December, 1742. lie served an apprenticeship to an
apothecary of Gothenburg, and devoted his leisure and
his nights to the study of chemistry. About 1770 he re
moved to Upsal, where he formed friendships with Gahn
and Bergman. In 1 774 he produced a remarkable treatise
on Manganese. He discovered tartaric acid, fluoric (or
fluo-silicic) acid, barytes, chlorine, and several other
substances. He settled as an apothecary at Koping in
1775. I'1 !777 ne published his discovery of " empyreal
air," (oxygen.) This gas had been previously discovered
by Priestley ; but Scheele was not aware of the fact.
He was the first that ascertained the composition of
prussic acid. Among his works is a "Treatise on Air
and Fire," (1777.) He was an excellent observer and
experimenter. Died at Koping in 1786.
See VICQ-D'AZYR, " tfloge de Scheele," 17^7 ; GKZELIUS,
" Biographiskt-Lexicon ;" F. HOEFER, " Histoire de la Ctiimie ;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Scheelstrate, van, vtn sKal'stRa'teh or shil'stRat,
or Schelstraate, sKel'stui'teh, (EMANUEL.) a Flemish
antiquary and priest, born at Antwev in 1649, was a zeal
ous asserter of papal supremacy. Died in Rome in 1692.
Scheemakers, sKa'ma'kers, (PIETER,) a distin
guished sculptor, born at Antwerp in 1691, studied at
Rome, and subsequently resided many years in England.
Among his principal works are the monuments to Shak-
speare and Dryden in Westminster Abbey, and the statue
of Lord Clive in the India House. Died about 1770.
Schefer, sha'fer, (LEOPOLD,) a German physician
and litterateur, born in Lower Lusatia in 1784, published
numerous poems and novels. Died in 1862.
Scheffer, shef'fer, (ARNOLD,) a brother of Ary
Scheffer, was born in Holland in 1796. lie was for a
i, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat;m§t; nftt; good; moon;
SCHEFFER
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time associated with Armand Carrel as editor of the
" National" in Paris. He published (in French) " Po
litical Pictures of Germany," "Essays on Four Political
Questions," and other works. Died in 1853.
Scheffer, (ARY,) an eminent painter, of French ex
traction, born at Dort, in Holland, in 1795, studied under
Guerin in Paris. He painted portraits of La Fayette,
Beranger, and Lamartine. He worked chiefly in Paris.
Among his master-pieces are " Francesca da Rimini,"
(1835,) Byron's "Giaour," "Christ the Comforter,"
(1836,) Goethe's "Faust," "Margaret at the Spinning-
Wheel, " and "Margaret at Church." He married the
widow of General Baudrand about 1850. His works
are characterized as sentimental and poetical. Died
near Paris in 1858.
See I?TEX, "Ary Scheffer," 1859; MRS. GROTE, "Life of Ary
Scheffer," 1860; " Nonvelle Biographic Generale;" "London
(Quarterly Review" for July, 1860; " Blackwood's Magazine" for
November, 1860.
Scheffer, ( HENRI,) a painter, a brother of the pre
ceding, was born at the Hague in 1798. He studied in
Paris under Guerin. Among his works we may name
"Charlotte Corday protected by the Members of the
Section against the Fury of the People," and " Parents
Weeping for the Death of their Child." Died in 1862.
Scheffer, shef'fer, (HENRY THKOPHILUS,) a grandson
of Johann Scheffer, noticed below, was born at Stock
holm in 1710. He acquired considerable reputation
as a chemist, and was a member of the Academy of
Sciences in his native city. Died in 1759.
See CRONSTEDT, "Aminnelse Tal ofver H. T. Scheffer," 1760.
Scheffer, (JOHANN,) a German scholar, born at
Strasburg in 1621, published editions of numerous
classics, and a treatise " On the Naval Militia of the
Ancients." Died in 1679.
Scheibel, shi'bel, (JOHANN GOTTFRIED,) a German
Protestant theologian, born at Breslau in 1783. He be
came professor of theology in his native city in 1818.
Died in 1843.
Scheid, sKit, [Lat. SCHEI'DICS,] (EVERARD,) an
eminent Dutch philologist, born at Arnhem in 1742,
became professor of Oriental literature at Leyden,
Among his principal works are an Arabic Grammar,
" Minerva, sen de Causis Latinse Linguae," and " Ebn-
Doreydi Kassida, sive Idyllium Arabicum," etc. Died
in 1795.
Scheidius, See SCHEIDT.
Scheldt, shit, (BALTHASAR,) a German schofar and
theologian, born at Strasbnrg in 1614, became professor
of Oriental languages in his native city. He was the
author of several learned works. Died in 1670.
Scheldt, [Lat. SCHEI'DIUS,] (CHRISTIAN Lunwir,,)
a German jurist, born at Waldenburg in 1709. He
studied at Gottingen, and became professor of the law
of nature and of nations at Copenhagen. He was the
author of several legal works, in Latin. Died in 1761.
Scheiner, shl'ner, (CHRISTOPH,) a German Jesuit
and savant, born near Mundelsheim, in Suabia, in 1575,
became professor of mathematics and astronomy at In-
golstadt. He observed the spots on the sun in 1611,
wrote a number of scientific works, and was the in
ventor of the instrument called the pantograph. Died
in 1650.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Schelhammer, shel'ham'mer, (GUXTHF.R CHRIS
TOPH,) a German physician and writer, born at Jena in
1^49, became professor of medicine at Kiel, in Holstein.
Died in 1716.
Schelhorn.shel'hoRn, (JOHANN GEORG,) THE ELDER,
a German theologian and scholar, born at MenV.ningen
in 1694. He became pastor of that town in 1734, and
published, besides other works, "Literary Amenities,"
(" Amcenitates Literariae," 7 vols., 1725.) He was dis
tinguished as a bibliographer. Died in 1773.
Schelhorn, (JOHANN GEORG,) THE YOUNGER, born
at Memmingen in 1733, published several historical and
theological works. Died in 1802.
Scheller, shel'ler, (!MMANUEL JOHANN GERHARD,)
a German lexicographer, born at Jhlow, in Saxony, in
1735. ^e published a "Complete Latin-German and
German-Latin Dictionary," (3 vols., 1783,) a "Small
Latin Dictionary," a " Latin Grammar," and other simi
lar works. Died in 1803.
Schelling, von, fon shgl'ling, (FRIEDRICH WIL-
HELM JOSEPH,) an eminent German philosopher, born
at Leonberg, near Stuttgart, on the 271)1 of January,
1775. His early education was directed by his father, a
distinguished Orientalist, who became prelate at Manl-
bronn. About 1790 he entered the University of Tu
bingen, where he studied philosophy and theology and
remained until 1795. In the latter year he published a
treatise " On the Possibility of a Form of Philosophy,"
(" Ueber die Moglichkeit einer Form der Philosophic,"
etc.,) and " On the Ego as the Principle of Philosophy,"
("Vom Ich als Princip der Philosophic.") He removed
about 1795 to Leipsic, where he was employed as tutor
to a young nobleman, and in 1798 became professor-
extraordinary at Jena, which was then the great focus
of German philosophy. Here he associated with Fichte
and Hegel, and delivered lectures on philosophy which
excited great enthusiasm and displayed a remarkable
beauty of style. He produced, in rapid succession,
" Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature," (" Ideen zu einer
Philosophic der Natur," 1797,) "On the Soul of the
World," etc., ("Von der Weltseele, eine Hypothese der
hohern Physik," etc., 1798,) a "First Sketch of a System
of the Philosophy of Nature," (" Erste Entwurf eines
Systems der Naturphilosophie," 1799,) and a "System
of Transcendental Idealism," (" System des transcen-
dentalen Idealismus," 1800.)
In 1803 he was appointed professor of philosophy at
Wiirzburg, and in 1808 became secretary to the Academy
of Arts in Munich, where he remained until 1841. He
obtained the chair of philosophy in the University of
Munich about 1826. His celebrity as a lecturer attracted
multitudes of students from various countries of Europe.
He was appointed president of the Academy of Sciences,
and was ennobled by the King of Bavaria. Having lost
his first wife, Caroline Michaelis, in 1810, he married
Pauline Cotter. He succeeded Hegel as professor of
philosophy at Berlin in 1841.
Schelling is one of the four chief metaphysical philoso
phers of Germany. His system, like those of Fichte and
Hegel, was originally a sort of idealistic pantheism; but
in his later writings his views seem to approximate more
and more nearly to those which may be said to form
the philosophic basis of Christianity. On his succeeding
Hegel, in 1841, he was hailed as one who was destined
to deliver Philosophy from the logic of pantheism and
lead her back to Christ. Schelling is distinguished from
the other great philosophers of Germany by his com
bining with rare intellectual powers poetic gifts of a
high order.
Among his works, besides those already mentioned, are
" Bruno, or the Divine and Natural Principle of Things,"
("Bruno, oder iiber das gottliche und natiiiliche Princip
der Dinge," 1802,) " Philosophy and Religion," ("Phi
losophic und Religion," 1804,) and "On the Relation of
Art to Nature," ("Ueber das Verhaltniss der bildenden
Kiinste zu der Natur," 1807.) He regarded art as the
perfect union of the real with the ideal. He also wrote
" Philosophic Researches on the Essence of Human
Liberty," (" Philosophischen Untersuchungen iiber das
Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit," 1809.) He died at
Ragaz, in Switzerland, in August, 1854, leaving several
sons and daughters. His collected works were pub
lished at Stuttgart, in 14 vols. 8vo, 1856-61.
See ROSENKRANZ. " Schelling, Vorlesungen geha'ten im Sommer
1*42," etc., 1843; MATTER, " Schelling. on la Philosophic de la
Nature," etc., 1845 : L. DE LOMENIK, " M. Schelling, par un Homme
de Rien," 1844 : COI.KRIDGE, " Biographia Literaria ;" RITTER,
"History of Philosophy;" Appleton's "New American Cyclo
paedia."
Schellinks, sK^l'links, (DANIEL,) a Dutch landscape-
painter, born at Amsterdam in 1633 or 1638; died in
1701.
Schellinks, sKel'links, (WiLLEM,) a Dutch painter
of landscapes and sea-ports, born at Amsterdam in 1632,
was a brother of Daniel. lie worked in England. Ac
cording to Bryan, he was a first-rate artist. Died in 1678.
Schemmelpenninck, sKem'mel - pen'nink, or
Schimmelpennmck, sKim'mel-pen'nink, (RUTGER
JAN,) a Dutch statesman, born at Deventer in 1761,
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
124
Explanations, p. 23.)
SCHENCK
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was grand pensionary of Holland in 1805. He refused
to hold office under King Louis Bonaparte. Died in
1825.
See M. C. VAN HALL, "R. J. Schiramelpenninck," etc., 1847;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Schenck, shSnk, (JoHANN,) a German medical writer,
born in Brisgau in 1531, practised at Friburg. Died in
1598.
Schenck, (JOHANN GEORG,) a medical writer, a son
of the preceding, born at Friburg; died about 1620.
Schenck, skenk, (ROBERT C.,) an American lawyer
and general, born in Warren county, Ohio, in 1809. He
represented a district of Ohio in Congress from 1843 to
1851, and was minister to Brazil in 1852-53. lie com
manded a brigade at Bull Run, July 21, 1861, was
wounded at the second battle of Bull Run, August 30,
1862, and was raised to the. rank of major-general about
October of that year. He was a Republican member
of Congress for the third district of Ohio from 1863 to
1869, and was chairman of the committee of ways and
means in the Fortieth Congress and the Forty-first
Congress. He was re-nominated as a member of Con
gress in 1870.
Scheuk, sKenk, (MARTIN,) a Dutch soldier of for
tune, noted for his courage and ferocity, was born in
Gelderland in 1549. He served for a time under William
of Orange, but subsequently went over to the Duke of
Parma. Dissatisfied, however, with his treatment, and
thinking his services ill rewarded, he joined the patriots
in 1585, and performed many daring exploits, among
which was the capture of Bonn. Having attempted to
take Nymwegen in 1589, he was drowned while making
his retreat.
See MOTLEY, "United Netherlands," vol. ii. chaps, ix.-xx.
Schenkels, shenk'els, (LAMBKRT THOMAS,) a Dutch
grammarian, born at Bois-le-Duc in 1547. He wrote on
grammar and mnemonics. Died about 1630.
Schenkendorf, von, fon shenk'en-doRf, (MAX,)
born at Konigsberg about 1784, wrote "Christian
Poems," and other poetical works. Died in 1817.
Scherer, sha'raiR', (BARTH^LEMI Louis JOSEPH,) a
French general, born at Delle (Haut-Rhin) in 1747. lie
obtained the chief command of the army of the Pyrenees
in 1795, and defeated the Austrians at Loano in Novem
ber of that year. He was minister of war from July,
1797, to February, 1799, after which date he commanded
in Italy for a few months. Died in 1804.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" DE COURCELI.ES, "Dic-
tionnaire des Generaux Kranipais."
Scherr, sheR, (THOMAS IGNAZ,) a German teacher
and educational writer, born at Hohenrechberg, in
Wiirtemberg, in 1801, was the founder of the Institute
for the Deaf and Dumb at Zurich.
Scherz, sheRts, (JOSEPH GKORG,) a German jurist
and antiquary, born at Strasburg in 1678, became pro
fessor of law at Halle in 1711. Died in 1754.
Scheuchzer, shoiit'tser, (JOHANN,) a Swiss natural
ist, born at Zurich in 1682, became professor of natural
history in his native city. He published a number of
botanical works, in Latin. Died-in 1738.
Scheuchzer, (JOHANN JAKOB,) a Swiss naturalist and
physician, brother of the preceding, was born at Zurich
in 1672. He was the author of several scientific works,
among which we name a "Natural History of Ssvitzer-
land," (in German, 3 vols., 1708,) and "Physica Sacra,"
or natural history of the Bible, (8 vols., 1732-37,) written
m German and translated into French and Latin. Died
in 1733-
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Scheuchzer, (JOHANN KASPAR,) son of the pre
ceding, was born at Zurich in 1702. He translated
Kampfer's " History of Japan" into English, and pub
lished a "Treatise on Inoculation." Died in 1729.
Scheuffeliii, shoif'teh-leen', or Scheuffelein, shoif-
feh-lln', (HANS,) an eminent German painter and wood-
engraver, born at Nuremberg about 1490, was a favourite
pupil of Albert Diirer. His engravings resemble those
of Diirer. He worked at Nordlingen, where he died in
*539 or 1540.
See RENOUVIER, "Des Types et des Manieres des Maitres-
Graveurs."
Scheureii, shoi'ren, (KASPAR,) a German landscape-
painter of the Dusseldorf school, was born at Aix-la-
Chapelle in 1810.
Scheutz, shoits, (GEORGE and EDWARD,) two scien
tific Swedes of the present century, distinguished as
inventors of a machine which calculates mathematical
tables and prints the results. Edward is a son of George.
Their machine is said to be a success. A gold medal
was awarded to the inventors by a committee of the
Exposition of Paris in 1855.
Schiavone, ske-a-vo'ni, (ANDREA,) an Italian
painter, surnamed MEDULA, was born at Scbenico, in
Dalmatia, in 1522. Among his master-pieces are "The
Nativity of Christ," and the "Assumption of the Virgin."
He excelled as a colorist, and was employed by Titian
in painting the ceilings of the Library of San Marco, in
Venice. Died in 1582.
See VASAKI, "Lives of the Painters;'' LANZI, "History ol
Painting in Italy;" RIDOLFI. " Vite degli Pittori Veneti."
Schiavonetti, ske-a-vo-net'tee, (LuiGi,) an Italian
engraver, born at Bassano in 1765, was a friend of Bar-
tolozzi, whose style he imitated successfully. He resided
many years in London, where he died in 1810. Among
his best works are a " Mater Dolorosa," after Van Dyck,
and the " Nativity of Christ," after Correggio.
Schicht, shlKt, (JoHANN GOTTFRIED,) a German
composer and writer on music, was born near Zittau in
1753. His works are principally oratorios and other
sacred music. Died in 1823.
Schick, shlk, (GOTTMKH,) a German painter, bom
at Stuttgart in 1779, studied in Paris under David. lie
painted history and portraits, and acquired a high repu
tation. Died in 1812.
Schickard, shik'kaRt, or Schickhard, shik'haiU,
(WiLHKLM,) a German Orientalist and astronomer, born
at Herrenberg, near Tubingen, in 1592. He became
pastor at Nurtingen in 1616, and professor of Hebrew
at Tubingen in 1619. He also learned Arabic, Persian,
and Turkish without a master. He published several
works on Oriental languages and on astronomy. Died
at Tubingen in 1635.
See SCHNURRER, " Schickard's Leben," 1792; "Nonvelie Bio-
grapliie Generale."
Schidoni, ske-do'nee, or Schedone, ska-do'ni,
(BARTOLOMMEO,) an Italian painter, born at Modena in
1560. He painted both historical pieces and portraits
with success, and is esteemed one of the best imitators
ofCorreggio. Died in 1615.
Schikaneder, shee'ka-na'der, (EMANUF.L,) a Ger
man dramatist, born at Ratisbon in 1751. His principal
work, the " ZauberflSte," ("Magic Flute,") was set to
music by Mozart, and enjoyed great popularity. Died
in 1812.
Schilder, shil'der, (CHARLES ANDRF.IEVITCH,) a Rus
sian general, born about 1795, was distinguished as a
military engineer. Died in 1857.
Schill, von, fon shll, (FERDINAND,) a Prussian par
tisan officer, born near Pless in 1773. He commanded
a regiment or free corps, with which he fought against
the French and performed daring exploits. He was
attacked by the Dutch and Danes at Stralsund, and was
killed in the defence of that place, in 1809.
See " Schilliana," 1810-19; HAKEN, "Ferdinand von Schill,"
1824; DAERING, "Leben Schill's," 1838.
Schiller, von, fon shil'ler, (JOHANN CHRISTOPH
FRI EDRICH,) the great national poet of Germany, was born
at Marbach, November 10, 1759. His father was for a time
an army-surgeon, and was afterwards employed by the
Duke of Wiirtemberg as inspector of his nurseries' and
ornamental gardens. From his mother, whose maiden-
name was Kodweis, the poet appears to have inherited
his sensitive and enthusiastic temperament and his love
for poetry. His parents having removed to Ludwigs-
burg, he was sent to the Latin school of that town. His
mother wished him to become a minister ; but his tastes
led him in a different direction. At first he made choice
of the legal profession, but soon after turned his attention
to medicine. Later the works of Shakspeare, Rousseau,
and Goethe appear to have determined the direction of
his mind to the drama and general literature. Lessinar,
Herder, and Klopstock seem to have had no unimportant
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;
SCHILLER
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S CHINK EL
influence in the formation of his literary character. Among
his earliest essays in composition were an epic poem
entitled " Moses," and two dramas, " Der Student von
Nassau" and " Cosmo von Medici," of which only a few
fragments have been preserved. In 1777, when only
eighteen years of age, he wrote " The Robbers," (" Die
Kauber,") a tragedy of extraordinary power, though he
himself, at a later day, characterized it as a "monster for
which fortunately there was no original." It was trans
lated and read in every part of Europe, and, having been
remodelled, was brought out on the stage at Mannheim
in 1782. The author, having gone incognito to witness
the representation, was arrested, and the Duke of Wiir-
temberg sternly forbade him to write anything except
what related to the medical profession. To escape from
this intolerable thraldom, he fled to Mannheim, and after
wards spent some time in Franconia, near Meiningen ;
subsequently (in 1783) he was naturalized as a subject of
the Elector-Palatine, and was thus freed from all control
of the Duke of Wiirtemberg. He took up his residence
at Mannheim, where he became poet to the theatre. About
this time he wrote his tragedies of " Fiesco" and " Cabale
und Liebe." He began in 1784 to edit the "Thalia,"
a literary journal, chiefly devoted to the stage, in which
were published the first parts of his tragedy of "Don
Carlos." In 1785 he left Mannheim for Leipsic, where he
made the acquaintance of Huber and the elder Korner,
and wrote his beautiful " Ode to Joy," (" Lied an die
Freude.") His tale entitled the " Ghost-Seer" ("Geist-
Sieher") was never finished. Having visited Weimar
in 1787, he acquired the friendship of Goethe, Herder,
and Wieland, and, on the recommendation of Goethe,
was appointed in 1789 professor of history at Jena. The i
next year he married Charlotte von Lengefeld, a lady of [
fine intellect and culture. In 1791 he brought out his
" History of the Thirty Years' War," (pronounced by '
Carlyle in 1824 as the best historical performance which
Germany could boast of,) and soon after commenced his
" Wallenstein," which was completed in 1799. It is per
haps his greatest work, and is regarded by many as the
finest tragedy in the German language. It consists of
three parts, "The Camp of Wallenstein," (" Wallen-
stein's Lager,") "The Piccolomini," and the "Death of
Wallenstein," (" Wallenstein's Tod.") The second and
third parts, rendered into English blank verse by Cole- j
ridge, constitute one of the most admirable and perfect j
translations to be found in our language. In 1799 Schiller i
removed to Weimar. His growing intimacy with Goethe |
appears to have exercised a most happy influence upon j
the productions of his genius. Between 1799 and 1801
he composed, besides smaller works, his dramas entitled
" The Maid of Orleans." (" Die Jungfrau von Orleans,") j
" Mary Stuart," and " The Bride of Messina," (" Die
Braut von Messina.") He was associated with Goethe
in contributions to the " Musen-Almanach," of which
for a time Schiller was the editor. Among his minor
poems "The Song of the Bell" (" Das Lied von der
Glocke," iSoi) may claim the first place. Nothing more
admirable in its way has ever been written in any lan
guage, ancient or modern. In it the three great events
of human life — Birth, (or Christening,) Marriage, and
Death, all marked by the ringing of the bell — are touched
upon with an exquisite beauty and pathos which, had
the author composed nothing else but this single poem,
would have secured him a place among those rare poets
whose fame seems destined to be coeval with the exist
ence of the human race. In 1804 Schiller produced his
" William Tell," the most popular of all his dramas.
He died on the gth of May, 1805, of an affection of the
lungs, under which he had suffered for many years. His
last words, uttered a little before he expired, were,
"Many things are growing plain and clear to me."
As a poet, Schiller is characterized by strong feeling
and intense ideality. His mind is eminently subjective,
all his representations being strongly coloured with his
own individuality, and in this one respect he is much
inferior as a dramatist to Goethe ; but his enthusiastic
faith in ideal excellence, and his deep and earnest sym
pathy with all human joy and sorrow, have given him
an influence over the common heart of mankind not
possessed by his many-sided and more gifted rival.
There is indeed between Schiller and Goethe something
of the same kind of difference that exists between Byron
and Shakspeare, the one being characterized by intense
concentrated feeling, the other by endless variety. The
comparison, however, fails to do justice to Schiller, who,
if he had less passion, had far greater wealth of thought
and far higher moral endowments than Byron. On the
other hand, Goethe, though scarcely yielding to Shak
speare in his profound knowledge of the human heart
or in the inexhaustible riches of his ideas, was yet infe
rior to the great English dramatist in the very point in
which he was inferior to Schiller, viz., in a deep and
earnest sympathy with universal humanity; and this
will explain why the dramatic works of Goethe, though
giving proof of genius of the richest and rarest order,
have never possessed that strong hold upon the popular
heart for which the dramas of Schiller and Shakspeare
are so remarkable.
See THOMAS CARLVI.K, "Life of Schiller," 1825; E. LYTTON
BULWER, "Life and Works of Schiller," 1847: H. DORING, " F.
von Schiller: biographisches Denkmal," 1832; VIANA, "Schiller's
Leben und Werken," 1836; HOFFMEISTER, "Schiller's Leben," 5
vols., 1838-42; E. BOAS, "Schiller und Goethe im Xenienkampfe,"
2 vols., 1851 ; CAROUNE VON WOI.ZOGEN, " F. von Schiller's Le
ben," 2 vols., 1830; G. SCHWAB, "Urkunden iiber Schiller und seine
Familie," 1840; the article in "Eraser's Magazine" for March, 1831,
(by CAKLYLK ;) "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1841; translations
from Schiller's Poems in " Biackwood's Magazine" for September,
1842. February and April, 1843, (by BUI.WER;) "North American
Review" for October, 1823, (by BANCROFT.)
Schilling, shilling, (FRIEDRICH GUSTAV,) a German
novelist and dramatic writer, born at Dresden in 1766,
became a captain in the Saxon army. His works display
much originality and talent for invention. Died in 1839.
Schilling, (GUSTAV,) a German writer on music, born
in Hanover in 1805, published a " Universal Dictionary
of Music," (" Universal Lexikon der Tonkunst,") and
other similar works. Died in 1860.
Schilter, shll'ter, (JOHANN,) a German jurist, born
at Pegau in 1632, published a number of legal and anti
quarian works, in Latin. Died in 1705.
Schimmelpenniiick. See SCHEMMF.LPENNINCK.
Schimmelpenniiick, shim'mel-pen'nink, (MARY
ANNK,) an English authoress, originally named GALTON,
was born at Birmingham in 1778. Her mother was a
Barclay, highly gifted and a good scholar. Mary Anne
Gallon was a cousin of Priscilla Gurney and of Mrs.
Fry. She was well versed in Latin, German, and French.
In 1806 she married a Dutchman named Lambert Schim-
melpenninck, who is said to have been a brother of the
pensionary or chief ruler of Holland. She joined the
Moravian Church about 1818. She wrote, besides other
works, "Memoirs of Port-Royal," (2 vols., 1853.) Died
in 1856.
See " Life of M. A. Schimmelpenninck," 2 vols., 1859, the first
volume of which is autobiography ; " Living Age", for April 16, 1859.
Schimper, sha.N'paiR', (GUII.LAU.ME PHILIPPE,) a
French naturalist, born in Alsace in 1808, has published
a number of botanical treatises, and " Palasontologica
Alsatica."
Schimper, sMm'per, (WILHELM,) a German natu
ralist and traveller, born at Mannheim in 1804, visited
Egypt, Arabia, and Abyssinia, and published in 1834
his "Travels in Algeria."
Schinderhannes, shln'der-han'nes or Schmder-
hans, shln'der-hanss', a German robber-chief of the
eighteenth century, who for several years infested with
his band the shores of the Rhine. He was taken and
executed, with a number of his companions, in 1803.
His adventures form the subject of a novel by Leitch
Ritchie.
Schindler, shind'ler, (VALENTINE,) a German
scholar, and professor of Oriental languages at Witten
berg, was the author of " Instittitiones Hebraicae," and
other works. Died in 1611.
Schinkel, shink'el, (K.\RL FRIEDRICH,) a German
architect of great celebrity, born at Neu-Ruppin, in
Brandenburg, in March, 1781, was a pupil of David
Gilly, of Berlin. He practised landscape-painting in
his early life. About 1804 he visited Italy. Having
returned to Berlin in 1806, he became about 1815 archi
tect of the king, who employed him in the erection of
public edifices in his capital. He designed the Royal
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (S^^ee Explanations, p. 23.)
SCHINNER
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SCHLEIERMACHER
Museum, a large building of the Ionic order, which was
greatly admired, and the theatre in Berlin. Among his
other works was a theatre at Hamburg. He preferred
the Greek style of architecture. Died in 1841.
See F. KUGLER, " K. F. Schinkel ; eine Charakteristik," etc.,
1842.
Schinner, shin'ner, (MATTHEW,) a German or Swiss
bishop, called CARDINAL DE SION, was born in the
Valais about 1470. He became a cardinal in 1511. He
instigated the Swiss to fight against Francis I. of France,
and took an active part in the battle of Marignano,
(1515.) Died in 1522.
Schirach, von, fon shee'raK, (GorrLOB BENEDICT,)
a German historian, born in Upper Lusatia in 1743.
In 1770 he became professor of philosophy at Helni-
stedt. He published, among other works, a " Biography
of the Emperor Charles VI.," (1776,) for which he was
ennobled by the empress Maria Theresa. He trans
lated Plutarch's "Lives" into German. Died in 1804.
Schirmer, she~e"Rrmer, (JOHANN WILHELM,) a Ger
man landscape-painter of great merit, and professor at
the Academy of Dusseldorf, was born at Julich in 1807.
Schischkow. See SIUSHKOF.
Schlagiritweit, shla'gin-twTt', (ADOLF,) a German
traveller, born at Munich in 1829. Having explored
the Alps in company with his brother Hermann, he pub
lished in 1850 an account of their researches. In 1854 he
set out for India, accompanied by his brothers Hermann
and Robert, for the purpose of making scientific investi
gations. Adolf was killed at Kashgar in 1857 or 1858.
An account of their travels and researches in India was
published about 1861.
Schlatter, sblat'ter, (MICHAEL,) a Swiss divine and
missionary, born at Saint Gall in 1716, emigrated to
America, where he assisted in organizing the synod of
the German Reformed Church. Died in 1790.
Schlegel, shla'gel, (JOHANN ADOLF,) a German
divine and pulpit orator, born at Meissen in 1721,
became professor of theology at Zerbst. He published
"Fables and Tales," in verse, and "Spiritual Songs."
Died in 1793.
Schlegel, (JOHANN ELI AS,) elder brother of the pre
ceding, was born at Meissen in 1718. He published the
tragedies of "Hermann" and "Canute," and the com
edy of " Dumb Beauty," (" Stumme Schonheit.") Died
in 1749.
See J. H. SCHLEGEI., "Leben J. E. Schlegels," 1770.
Schlegel, (JOHANN FRIEDRICH WILHKLM,) son of
the following, was born at Copenhagen in 1765, and
became professor of law in his native city in 1800. He
wrote several legal works in Danish. Died in 1836.
Schlegel, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) a younger brother
of Johann Adolf, noticed above, was born at Meissen in
1724. He became professor of history and royal his
toriographer at Copenhagen. He wrote a " History of
the Danish Kings of the House of Oldenburg," and
translated several of Thomson's dramas into German.
Died in 1780.
Schlegel, (JOHANN KARL,) fourth brother of August
Willielm von Schlegel, noticed below, was born at Zerbst
in 1758. He wrote "Ecclesiastical History of North
ern Germany," (1828,) and other works. Died in 1831.
Schlegel, (KARL GUSTAV MORITZ.) brother of the
preceding, was born at Hanover in 1756. He became
superintendent-general and first preacher at Harburg,
and wrote several theological works. Died in 1826.
Schlegel, von, fon shla'gel, (AUGUST WILHKLM,) a
celebrated German poet, Orientalist, and critic, born at
Hanover on the 8th of September, 1767, was a son of
Johann Adolf, noticed above. He was a pupil of Heyne
at the University of Gottingen, which he quitted in 1793.
In 1797 he became professor or teacher of Greek and
Latin at Jena. In the early part of his life he formed a
friendship with Schiller. About 1798 Schlegel and his
brother Friedrich began to edit the "Athenaeum," a
critical review, which had great influence in propagating
the principles of the romantic school. He was a warm
admirer of Shakspeare's works, of which he produced
a translation, (n vols., 1798-1810.) He resided in Ber
lin from 1802 to 1805, and became a friend of Madame
de Stael, whom he accompanied in her travels, as her
instructor and as tutor to her children. He passed a
number of years in her society, and exercised a decided
influence over her literary character. In 1808 he de
livered at Vienna a course of lectures on dramatic
literature and art, which were greatly admired both in
Germany and foreign countries. They were translated
into English by John Black, (1840.)
" I was at Vienna," says Madame de Stael, " when W.
Schlegel gave his public course of lectures. I expected
only good sense and instruction, where the object was
only to convey information. I was astonished to hear a
critic as eloquent as an orator." In another place she
calls him "the first literary critic of Germany." (De
Stael's " Germany.")
Schlegel served as secretary to liernadotte, Crown -
Prince of Sweden, in 1813-14, and wrote several polit
ical pamphlets. After the end of the war, in 1815, he
remained with Madame de Stael until her death. He
was appointed professor of history at Bonn in 1819, ami
applied himself rather late in life to the study of San
scrit, in which he became proficient. He founded about
1820 the " Indische Bibliothek," a review devoted to
Indian languages and antiquities. Having lost his first
wife, whose name was Michaelis, he married a daughter
of the eminent Professor Paulus, from whom he was
soon divorced. Among his remarkable productions are
a poem entitled " Arion," and a German version of some
of Calderon's dramas, (1803-09.) lie also wrote, in
French, "Literary and Historic Essays," (" Essais litte-
raires et historiques," 1842.) Died at Bonn, in May, 1845.
His complete works were published by Bocking, (13
vols., 1846.)
See Louis DE LOMENIE, "M. A. W. cfe Schlegel, par un Homme
de Rien," 1842; " Noiivelle Biographic General*;" "London
Quarterly Review" for October, 1814; " Edinburgh Review" for
February, 1816; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1833, and
October, 1843.
Schlegel, von, (KARL WILHELM FRIFDRICII,) an
eminent German scholar and writer, a brother of the
preceding, was born at Hanover on the loth of March,
1772. His first important work was "Greeks and
Romans," ("Griechen and Romer," 1797,) which was
received with favour. In 1799 he published the first
volume of " Lucinde," a novel, which has been cen
sured as immoral. It was never finished. About 1800
he married Madame Veit, a daughter of Mendelssohn.
Her first husband was living, but she obtained a divorce
in order to marry Schlegel. In 1802 he produced a
tragedy called "Alarkos." Having been converted to
the Roman Catholic religion about 1808, he removed to
Vienna, where he became secretary to the archduke
Charles in 1809. He composed the proclamations which
were issued to excite the Atistrians against Napoleon.
He delivered at Vienna several courses of lectures,
(which were published,) and edited "The German Mu
seum," (1812-13.) Among his works are a " History of
Ancient and Modern Literature," (2 voJs., 1815,) "Lec
tures on the Philosophy of Life," (1828,) and " Lectures
on the Philosophy of History," (2 vols., 1829.) He
was an admirer of medieval Jife and institutions, and
belonged to the romantic school in literature. He was
an intimate friend of Schleiermacher. Died at Dresden
in 1829.
See "Noiivelle Biographic General e;" " Blackwood's Magazine"
for August, i$iS.
Schleiden, shli'den, (MATTHIAS JAKOB,) a German
physician and botanist, born at Hamburg in 1804, pub
lished *' Elements of Scientific Botany," (1842,) "Plants
and their Life," (1850,) and other works. He became
professor-extraordinary at Jena in 1839.
Schleiden, (RUDOLF,) a brother of the preceding,
was born at Hamburg. He became in 1853 minister for
Bremen at Washington.
Schleiermacher, shli'er-maK'er, (FRIEDKICH ERNST
DANIEL,) a distinguished German author, critic, and
pulpit orator, was born at Breslau on the 2ist of No
vember, 1768. He was sent to a Moravian school at
Barby to study for the ministry. About 1786 he entered
the University of Halle, where he devoted himself to
theology, philosophy, and the ancient languages. He
quitted the university in 1790, after which he was em
ployed several years as a tutor in a private family and
a,e. T, 5, u,y, long; a, e, b, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moor.;
SCHLESINGER
'973
SCHMID
in a seminary in Berlin. In 1796 he was appointed
preacher to the hospital of Charite in Berlin. He pub
lished in 1799 an excellent work entitled "Discourses
on Religion," the doctrines of which were approved by
pious and orthodox readers. He removed to Stolpe in
1802, with the title of court preacher, and wrote there a
"Critique of all Past Systems of Ethics," ("Grundlinien
einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre," 1805,) which is
highly esteemed. In 1804 he became professor of theology
and philosophy at Halle. He acquired great influence
as a theologian. The conquests of Napoleon having
separated Halle from the kingdom of Prussia, Schleier
macher removed to Berlin about 1806. He produced an
excellent translation of a large portion of Plato's works,
(published in 3 vols., 1804-28,) with an introduction,
which may be pronounced one of the most important
contributions towards the elucidation of Plato's philo
sophic system that have been made in modern times.
In 1809 he was appointed preacher of Trinity Church,
Berlin, and in 1810 became professor of theology in the
new university of that capital. His profound learning,
eloquent language, and original thoughts rendered him
very popular as a professor and preacher. He was
chosen secretary to the philosophical section of the
Academy of Sciences in 1814.
Among his most important works are "A Critical
Essay on the Writings of Luke," ("Ueber die Schriften
des Lukas, ein kritischer Versuch," 1817,) and "Exhibi
tion of the Christian Faith according to the Principles
of the Evangelical Church," (" Darstellung des Christ-
lichen Glaubens nach den Grundsatzen der Evange-
lischen Kirche," 2 vols., 1821-22.) "To his vast sweep
of thought, now ranging round the outposts of theological
systems, and again darting upon the smallest detail and
opening it up to the light, he united immense learning,
not of the cumbrous bibliographical sort so peculiar to
the Germans, but of the living facts and principles of
all times, combined with a grand faculty of utterance
which gave the most musical form to the most golden
thoughts, holding his hearers in raptures while he spoke,
and carrying them breathless away with him in his airy
chariot of fire." (" Encyclopaedia Britannica.") Died in
Berlin in February, 1834.
See a collection of his letters, entitled " Aus Schleiermachers
Leben in Briefen," 2 vols., 1858 ; " Life of Schleiermacher." trans
lated from the German; E. BOMNELT., " Erinnerung an Schleier
macher als Lehrer," 1838: F. DKLRKUCK. " Der verewigte Schleier
macher," 1837; "British Quarterly Review" for May, 1849;
" Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1861; "Westminster Review"
for July, 1861.
Schlesinger, shla'zing-er, (WILHELM HEINRICH,) a
German painter, born at Frankfort-on-the-Maiu about
1814. He became a resident of Paris.
Schlichtegroll, shllK'teh-gRol', (ADOLF HEINRICH
FRIEDRICH,) a German antiquary, bom at Wakershausen
in 1765, became secretary-general of the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Munich. He published the "Obituary of
the Germans," ("Nekrolog der Deutschen," 28 vols.,
1791,) and other similar works. Died in 1822.
Schlichtiiig, schliK'ting, or Schlichtingius, shl?K-
ting'ge-us, (Jo.VAS,) a Polish Socinian, apparently of
German extraction, was born at Bucowiec in 1596. He
wrote a "Confession of Faith," for which he was ban
ished, and the work was publicly burnt. Died in 1664.
Schlik or Schlick, shlik, (FRANZ,) an Austrian
general, born at Prague in 1789. He served in the
campaign of 1813 against the French, and in the Hun
garian war of 1849.
Schloetzer. See SCHLOZER.
Schlosser, shlos'ser, (FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH,) a
celebrated German historian, born at Jever in 1776. In
1793 he entered the University of Gottingen, where,
in addition to theology, history, and mathematics, he
applied himself to the study of English, Italian, and
Spanish literature. He published in 18(2 his " History
of the Iconoclast Emperors of the East Roman Empire."
In 1817 he became professor of history at Heidelberg.
His chief works are a " History of the World in a Con
nected Relation," (4 vols., 1817-41,) and the " History
of the Eighteenth Century and Nineteenth till the Fall
of the French Empire," (8 vols., 1846,) which has been
translated into English. He also wrote a "Critical
Examination of Napoleon," and other works. As a his
torian, Schlosser occupies a high rank and has acquired
extensive popularity. Died at Heidelberg in 1861.
See BROCKHAUS, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" "Jahrbuch zum
Conversations- Lexikon," 1862; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for
April, 1X43; "Westminster Review" for September, 1845; GERVI-
NUS, '' Necrolog Schlosser's," 1862.
Schlosser, (JOHAN.N GKORG,) a German writer, born
at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1739, was a brother-in-law
of Goethe. He published several prose essays, and
made translations from yEschylus, Plato, and Aristotle.
Died in 1799.
See NICOLOVIUS, " J. G. Schlosser's Leben," 1844.
Schlotheim, von, fon shlot/hlm, (ERNST FRIED-
RICH,) BARON, a German savant, born in 1764, published
several works on mineralogy. Died in 1832.
Schlozer or Schloezer, von, fon shlot'ser, ( AU
GUST LUDWIG,) an eminent German historian, born in
the principality of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg in 1735. He
In
here he
wrote a "History of Commerce," (in Swedish.) He
was appointed in 1765 professor of Russian history at
the Academy of Saint Petersburg, and in 1767 of political
science at Gottingen. His principal works are entitled
" General History of the North," (2 vols., 1772,) " Pre
paratory History of the \Vorld for Children," (1790,)
and •' History of the World in Extracts and Connection,"
(2 vols., 1792.) He also translated, from the Russian,
Nestor's " Chronicle" to the year 980, and wrote several
able political treatises. He was ennobled by the Em
peror of Russia in 1804. He died in 1809. His daughter
DOROTHEA was highly distinguished for her talents and
acquirements, and the degree of doctor was conferred
upon her in 1787. Died in 1825.
See "A L. von Schlozer's Leben," b'
DOKIXG. " Leben A. L
L. Schlozer," 1^44.
studied theology at Wittenberg and Gottingen.
1755 ne went as a private teacher to Sweden, whe:
izer's Leben," by his son, 1828; HEINRICH
von Schlbzer's," 1836 ; ADOLPH BOCK, "A.
Schlozer or Schloezer, von, (CHRISTIAN,) son of
the preceding, was the author of " Elements of Political
Science," (1804, in German and Russian,) and published
a life of his father. Died in 1831.
Schliiter or Schlueter, shiii'ter, (ANDREAS,) a
German architect and sculptor, born about 1662, was
patronized by Frederick I. of Prussia. He built several
edifices at Berlin, where he also executed a number of
admirable works in sculpture. Died in 1714.
Schlyter, shlii'ter, (CARL JOHAN,) a Swedish jurist
and legal writer, born at Carlscrona in 1795.
Schmaltz, shmilts, (MORITZ FERDINAND,) a German
Protestant theologian, born near Dresden in 1785, has
published numerous sermons and other religious works.
Schmalz, (THEODOR ANTON HEINRICH,) a German
jurist, born at Hanover in 1760, published treatises on
law and political economy. Died in 18^1.
Schmauss, shmowss, (J"OHANN JAKOK,) a distin
guished German writer on public law, was born at
Landau, in Alsatia, in 1690. He became in 1734 pro-
tessor of the law of nature and of nations at Gottingen.
Among his works are a "Life of Charles XII. of
Sweden," (1720,) and "Corpus Juris Gentium Academi-
cum," (2 vols., 1730.) Died in 1757.
Schmeller, shmel'ler, ({OHANN ANDREAS,) a Ger
man philologist, born at Tirschenreuth in 1785, pub
lished "The Dialects of Bavaria," (1821,) and a "Bava
rian Dictionary," (1827.) Died in 1852.
Schmerling, von, fon shmeVling, ( A.NTOM, ) an
Austrian jurist and statesman, born at Vienna in 1805,
rose to be president of the first tribunal and court of
cassation at Vienna, (1851,) and was appointed prime
minister in 1861. lie resigned or was removed in 1866.
Schmettau, von, fon shmet'tow, (SAMUEL,) a Prus
sian commander, born in 1684. He served under Prince
Eugene and Marlborough, and subsequently entered
the Austrian army and fought against the Spaniards in
Sicily. He was made a field-marshal in 1741, and was
afterwards employed by Frederick the Great in several
embassies. Died in 1751.
See "Lebensgeschichte des Grafen von Schmettau," Berlin, 1806,
Schmid, shm?t, (KARL CHRISTIAN ERHARD,) pro
fessor of philosophy at Jena, was born near Weimar in
€ as K; c as s; g hard; g a.-/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
SCHMID
1974
SCHNORR
1761. He wrote several works in favour of the system
of Kant. Died in 1812.
Schmid, (KARL ERNST,) a nephew of the preceding,
was born at Weimar in 1774. He became professor of
law at Jena in 1809, wrote a number of legal treatises, and
contributed to Brockhaus's "Conversations-Lexikon."
Died in 1852.
Schmid, (REINHOLD,) a German jurist, born at Jena
in 1800. He published a work "On the Theory of
Civil Law," (1848,) which is esteemed.
Schmid, von, fon shmlt, (CHRISTOPH,) a German
writer, born at Dinkelsbiihl in 1768, published a number
of moral and religious works for children and youth.
Schmidel,shmee'del, (CASIMIR CHRISTOPH,) a Ger
man botanist, born at Baireuth in 1718. He published
" Icones Plantarum et Analyses Partium," (1747.) Died
in 1792.
Schmidt, shm!t, (CHRISTOPH,) a German jurist and
writer, born at Nordheimer in 1740, wrote "Letters on
Russia," and several historical works. Died in 1801.
Schmidt, (EBERHARD KARL KLAMKR,) a German
poet and fabulist, born at Halberstadt in 1746, was an
intimate friend of Gleim. He translated the " Odes and
Epodes" of Horace. Died in 1824.
See " E. K. Schmidt's Leben."
Schmidt, (ERASMUS,) a German scholar, born in
Misnia in 1560, became professor of Greek and math
ematics at Wittenberg. He published a "Concordance
to the Greek Testament," an edition of Pindar, with a
Latin version and notes, and other works. Died in 1637.
Schmidt, (GEORG FRIEDRICH,) a German engraver,
born at Berlin, executed numerous portraits of great
merit. He was a member of the Academy of Fine Arts
in Paris. Died in 1775.
Schmidt, (!SAAK JAKOB,) a German Orientalist, born
in 1779, published a Grammar and a Dictionary of the
Mongol Language, also a "Thibetan Grammar," and
made several translations from the Mongol and Thibetic.
He was a member of the Academy of Saint Petersburg.
Died in 1847.
Schmidt, (JOHANN ANDREAS,) a German Lutheran
divine, born at Worms in 1652, became professor of the
ology and ecclesiastical history at Helmstedt. He
translated Paidie's "Elements of Geometry" from
French into Latin, and wrote several controversial
works. Died in 1726.
Schmidt, ( MICHAEL IGNAZ,) a German historian,
born at Arnstein in 1736, was appointed director of the
archives at Vienna. lie wrote a good " History of the
Germans," (22 vols., 1778-1808.) which was very pop
ular, and other works. He was appointed aulic coun
cillor at Vienna in 1780. Died in 1794.
Schmidt, (SEBASTIAN,) a German scholar of the
seventeenth century, was professor of Oriental lan
guages at Strasburg. Died in 1697.
Schmith, shmft, (NICHOLAS,) a Hungarian Jesuit
and historical writer, was rector of the college at Tyr-
nau. Died in 1767.
Schmitthenner, shmlt'hen'ner, (FRIEDRICH JAKOB,)
professor of political science at Giessen, was born in
1796. He published several works on philology, his
tory, and political economy. Died in 1850.
Schmitz, shmlts, (LEONARD,) a historian and philol
ogist, born near Aix-la-Chapelle in 1807. He removed
to England about 1836, and became rector of the High
School of Edinburgh in 1845. He published a " History
of Rome," a " Manual of Ancient History," and other
works. He also contributed to W. Smith's " Classical
Dictionary of Biography."
Schmuck'er, (SAMUEL M.,) an American writer,
born at New Market, Virginia, in 1823. He practised
law in Philadelphia. He wrote a number of historical
works and biographies. Died in 186}.
Schmutzer, shmoot'ser, (JAKOB MATTHIAS,) a Ger
man engraver, born at Vienna in 1733, became director
of the Academy of Design in that city, and court en
graver. His prints after Rubens are highly esteemed.
Died in 1813.
Schnaase, shna'zeh, (KARL,) born at Dantzic in
1798, published a " History of the Plastic Arts," (1843,)
and other similar works.
Schneb'be-lie, (JACOB,) an English artist, born at
Westminster in 1760, was appointed draughtsman to
the Society of Antiquaries. Died in 1792.
Schneider, shni'daiit', (ANTOINE VIRGILE,) a French
general, born in 1780. He was minister of war from
May, 1839, to March, 1840. Died in 1847.
Schneider, shm'der, (CONRAD VICTOR,) a German
physician, born at Bitterfeld, in Saxony, in 1610, was
the author of a valuable work entitled " De Catarrhis,"
in which he gives an anatomical description of the in
terior structure of the nose. The lining of the cavities
of the nose, which he first described, has been named,
in his honour, the Schneiderian membrane. Died in
1680.
Schneider, (EUGENE,) a French manufacturer, born
at Nancy in 1805. He became proprietor of a very
extensive manufactory of machinery, locomotives, etc.,
at Creuzot. He was elected in 1852 and in 1857 a
member of the legislative body, of which he was presi
dent from 1867 until September 4, 1870.
Schneider, shm'der, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIED-
RICH,) a German composer, born near Zittau in 1786.
His works comprise oratorios, operas, and instrument-
pieces. Died in 1853 or 1854.
Schneider, (JOHANN GEORG, called afterwards Eu-
LOGius,) a German poet and monk, born at Wipfeld, in
Bavaria, in 1756. Having removed to Strasburg in 1791,
he became a violent revolutionist, and caused many
persons to be put to death. He was guillotined in Paris
in April, 1794.
See HEITZ, " Notes sur la Vie d'Euloge Schneider," 1862.
Schneider, (JOHANN GOTTLOB,) a brother of Johann
Christian Friedrich, noticed above, was born near Zittau
in 1789. He was appointed court organist at Dresden
in 1825, and composed a number of pieces for the organ.
DJed in 1864.
Schneider, (JOHANN GOTTLOB,) a German philolo
gist and naturalist, born near Wurzen, in Saxony, in
1750. He studied under Heyne at Gottingen, and in
1776 became professor of ancient languages and elo
quence at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He published edi
tions of Nicander's " Alexipharmaca," /Elian's " De
Natnra Animalium," Xenophon's Works, the " Ar-
gonautica" of Orpheus, the " Politics" of Aristotle,
/Esop's " Fables," and the Works of Theophrastus.
He also wrote numerous treatises on natural history,
among which we may name " Ichthyology of the An
cients," (1782,) and " Physiology of Amphibious Ani
mals," (1790.) His "Greek-and-German Lexicon" (1797)
is esteemed a standard work. Died in 1822.
See CUVIKR, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale. "
Schneider, (KARL ERNST CIIRISTOPH,) a German
scholar, born at Wiehe, in the duchy of Saxony, in 1786.
He translated some of Plato's works into German, and
published an edition of Caesar's "Commentaries."
Schueidewin, shm'deh-win', (FRIEDRICH WIL-
HELM,) a German scholar, born at Helmstedt in 1810.
He was appointed in 1842 professor of classic literature
at Gottingen. He published "Critical Observations on
the Lyric Poets of Greece," "Commentaries on Sopho
cles," and other original works; also editions of several
Greek and Latin classics. Died in 1856.
Schneller, shnel'ler, (JULIUS FRANZ BORGIAS,) a
historian, born at Strasburg in 1777, was the author of
several historical and dramatic works. Died in 1833.
Schnetz, shne'ts, (Jp.AN VICTOR,) a French painter,
born at Versailles in 1787. He became director of the
French school of painting at Rome in 1840. Among his
works we may name " The Sack of Rome by the Con
stable de Bourbon," and " Christ calling Little Children,"
for which, at the Universal Exposition of 1855, he gained
a medal of the first class.
Schnitzler, shn!ts'ler, (JEAN HENRI,) a litterateur,
born at Strasbourg in 1802. He published, besides
other historical and statistical works, " General Statistics
of the Empire of Russia," (1829,) "General, Methodi
cal, and Complete Statistics of France," (4 vols., 1846,)
and "Ancient and Modern Russia," (1854.)
Schnorr, shnoR, (LuowiG FERDINAND,) an artist, a
brother of the following, was born at Leipsic in 1789.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
SCHNORR
'975
SCHOMBERG
He is chiefly known from his illustrations of Goethe's
" Faust" in the Belvedere Gallery at Vienna. Died in
I853-
Schnorr von Karolsfeld, shnoR fon ka'rols-felf,
(JULIUS,) an eminent painter, son of Veit Hans, noticed
below, was born at Leipsic in 1794. After studying for
a time at Vienna, he visited Rome in 1818, and during
his residence there executed the frescos in the Villa
Massimi in conjunction with Cornelius and Overbeck ;
he also painted a " Madonna and Child," " The Marriage
in Cana," " The Flight into Egypt," and other oil-pic
tures of great excellence. In 1827 he was appointed
professor of historical painting in the Academy ot Arts
at Munich, and was commissioned by Ludwig, afterwards
King of Bavaria, to decorate the new palace with frescos
illustrating the poem of the " Nibelungen." His next
productions were a series of paintings in encaustic in
the Fest-Saalbau, representing events from the history
of Charlemagne, Frederick Barbarossa, and Rudolph
of Habsburg. He became in 1846 professor in the
Academy of Fine Arts and director of the Picture-
Gallery at Dresden. Schnorr also executed a series
of Bible pictures, (" Die Bibel in Bildern,") which have
been engraved. He has been censured by some critics
for his mannerism.
See " Biographic Universelle," (new edition ;) BROCKHAUS,
" Conversations- Lexikon."
Schnorr von Karolsfeld, (VEIT HANS,) a German
painter, and professor in the Academy of Art at Leipsic,
born at Schneeberg in 1764, was the author of " In
struction in the Art of Design." Died in 1841.
Schnurrer, shnoor'rer, (CHRISTIAN FRIEDKICH,) a
German Orientalist, born at Cannstadt, in Wtirtemberg,
in 1742. He became professor of philosophy at Tubin
gen, (1770,) and chancellor of the university, (1805.) He
published, among other works, a " Biblictheca Arabica."
Died in 1822.
Schoeffer. See SCHOFFER.
Schoelcher, shol'Ker or sho'eTshaiR', (VICTOR,) a
French journalist and litterateur, born in Paris in 1804,
has published several treatises on African slavery and
in favour of emancipation. He has also written a " Life
of Handel," (in English,) and other works.
Schoell. See SCHOLL.
Schoemann. See SCHOMAXX.
Schoeiibein. See SCHOXBEIN.
Schoeiilein. See SCHOXLEIN.
Schoenning. See SCHOXXIXG.
Schoepf. See SCHOPF.
Schoepflin. See SCHOPFLIX.
Schoffer or Schoeffer, shof'fer, (PETER,) celebrated
for his improvements in the art of printing, was born at
Gernsheim, in Hesse-Darmstadt. He invented punches
in types while in the employ of Gutenberg and Faust at
Mentz, and after their separation became the partner
of Faust, who was his father-in-law. Schoffer continued
the business after the death of Faust, and published,
among other books, a Latin Bible, the Institutes of
Justinian, and some of the works of Saint Thomas
Aquinas. Died about 1502.
See A. F. Diner's article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Schoffer, (PETER,) a printer, a son of the preceding,
worked at Worms several years, (1513-20,) removed to
Strasburg about 1521, and to Venice in 1541.
See HEI.BIG, "Notice sur P. Schoffer fils," 1846.
S-eho'field, QOHX MCALLISTER,) an American gene
ral, born in Chautauqua county, New York, in 1831.
He was educated at the Military Academy at West Point,
where he graduated in 1853, in the same class with
P. H. Sheridan and J. B. McPherson. He obtained the
rank of captain in May, 1861, soon after which he be
came the chief of the staff of General Lyons, with
whom he served in Missouri. In November, 1861, he
was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers, and
in the spring of 1862 he was selected to command the
district of Missouri. He resigned this position in Sep
tember, but was restored to it in May, 1863, with the
rank of major-general. The forces under his command
operated with success in Arkansas after the capture of
Vicksburg, and took Little Rock. In February, 1864,
Schofield was appointed commander of the army of the
Ohio. He contributed to the success of Sherman's
brilliant campaign which resulted in the capture of At
lanta on the 2d of September, 1864.
About the end of October he was sent with the
Twenty-third corps to Chattanooga, with orders to report
to General Thomas at Nashville. He commanded at
the battle of Franklin, where he was attacked by Hood
on the 3Oth of November, and, having repulsed the
enemy, fell back towards Nashville during the night. In
this action Hood lost 1750 killed and 3800 wounded;
the entire loss of the Union army was 2300. This
campaign was ended by the decisive victory gained by
General Thomas near Nashville on the I5th and i6th
of December. In February, 1865, the State of North
Carolina was constituted into a military department,
of which General Schofield was appointed commander,
with instructions to co-operate with General Sherman,
He captured Fort Anderson, occupied Wilmington on
the 22<i of February, and formed a junction with Sher
man at Goldsborough, where he arrived on the 2ist of
March. In the spring of 1867 he was appointed com
mander of the first military district, which was created
by an act of Congress passed in March, 1867, and which
comprised the State of Virginia. He became secretary
of war in May, 1868, resigned in March, 1869, and was
then promoted to be a major-general of the regular
army.
Scholarius. See GEXXADIUS.
Scholefield, skol'feld, ? (JAMES,) an English divine
and scholar, born in Oxfordshire in 1789. He graduated
at Cambridge, and in 1825 became regius professor of
Greek in that university. Among his publications are
an edition of ^Eschylus with notes, an edition of Middle-
ton's "Treatise on the Greek Article," and "Hints for
an Improved Translation of the New Testament." Died
in 1853.
See " Life of J. Scholefield," by his widow, 1855.
Scholl or Schoell, shol, (ADOLF,) a German scholar,
born at Briinn in 1805, became professor of archaeology
at Halle, in 1842. He published a translation of Hero
dotus, and of the "Ajax" of Sophocles, and has written
several critical essays.
Scholl or Schoell, (MAXIMILIAX SAMSOX FRIED-
RICH,) a German historian and publicist, born in the
duchy of Saarbriick in 1766. He was Prussian secre
tary of legation at Paris, (1816-18,) and became privy
councillor at Berlin in 1819. He, published, besides
other works, a " History of Roman Literature," in
French, (Paris, 4 vols., 1815,) a " History of Greek Lit
erature from its Origin," etc., (" Histoire de la Littera-
ture Grecque profane depuis son Origine jusqu'a la Prise
de Constantinople," 8 vols., 1823-25,) and "A Course
of History of the European States to 1789," (46 vols.,
1830—34,) which is commended as accurate and impartial.
Died in Paris in 1833.
See PIHAN DE I.A FOREST, " Essai snr la Vie de Schoell," 1834 ;
"Biographie F. Schoell's," Leipsic, 1821; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generate ;" "Biographie Universelle."
Scholz, sholts, (JOHAXX MARTIX AUGUSTIX,) a Ger
man Catholic theologian and scholar, born near Breslau
in 1794. He visited Palestine and Syria in 1821, and
published in 1822 an account of his journey. He became
professor of theology at Bonn in 1823. Among his
other works we may name his " Novum Testamentum
Graece," (2 vols., 1830,) and "Manual of Biblical Archae
ology," (1834.) Died in 1853.
Schbmanii or Schoemann, sho'man, ( GEOKG
FRIEDRICH,) a German philologist, born at Stralsund
in 1793, became professor of ancient literature and elo
quence at Greifswalde. He has published a number of
critical essays (in Latin) on the Greek classics.
Schomberg, shom'berg, (ALEXAXDER CROWCHER,)
an English divine, born in 1756, published a "Chrono
logical View of the Roman Laws," and other similar
works. Died in 1792.
Schomberg, (ISAAC,) an English naval officer,
served under Admiral Rodney in the American war,
and subsequently under Lord Howe in 1794. He was
the author of "Naval Chronology," (5 vols.) Died
in 1813.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; x, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SCHOMBERG
1976
SCHOQNJ4NS
Schomberg, de, de shom'berg or deh shoN'baiR',
(CHARLES,) Due d'Halluin, a marshal of France, liorn
in 1601, was a son of Henry, noticed below. He gained
in September, 1637, a victory over the Spaniards at
Lucate. Died in 1656.
Schomberg, de, DUCHESS. See HAUTEFORT, n'.
Schomberg, shom'berg, de, [Fr. pron. deh sh6.\'-
baiR',] (HENRI,) COUNT, an eminent French general
and statesman, born in Paris in 1575, (or, as some say
in 1583,) was a son of the following. He was ap
pointed superintendent of the finances in 1619, soon
after which he gained victories over the Huguenots.
He became a marshal of France in 1625, repulsed the
English at the Isle of Rhe in 1627, and defeated the
insurgents under Montmorency at Castelnaudary in 1632.
Died in 1632.
See BACHOT, " Tpmbeau du Marechal de Schomberg," 1633 ; DE
COURCEU.ES, " Dictionnaire des GeneVaux Frangais ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Schom'berg, von, [Ger. pron. fonshom'beuo,] (CAS
PAR,) a German general, born in Saxony in 1540. He
entered the service of the French king, and fought
against the Huguenot* about 1567-75. In 1597 Schom
berg and De Thou prepared the bases of the edict of
Nantes. Died in 1599.
Schomberg, von, fon shon/beuc, (FRIKDRICH AR-
MAND HERMANN,) a celebrated Protestant military
commander, was born at Heidelberg in 1616. Having
served in the Swedish army in the Thirty Years' war,
he fought successively in the armies of the Netherlands,
France, and Portugal, and attained the rank of marshal
of France in 1675. He was driven from France by per
secution in 1685. In 1688 he accompanied William,
Prince of Orange, to England, and, as commander-in-
chief of the forces in Ireland, was killed at the battle of
<the Boyne, in 1690. " He was generally esteemed," says
Macaulay, " the greatest living master of the art of war.
His rectitude and piety, tried by strong temptations and
never found wanting, commanded general respect and
confidence. Though a Protestant, he had been during
many years in the service of Louis, and had, in spite of
the ill offices of the Jesuits, extorted from his employer,
by a series of great actions, the staff of marshal of
France." (" History of England.")
See KAZNER, " Leben F. von Schomberg," 2 vols., 1789 : " Abrege
de la Viede F'. von Schomberg," by BEAUCUATEAU, 1690 ; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Schomburgk, shom'booRk, (OTTO,) a German writer,
born about 1810, was a brother of Sir Robert Hermann,
noticed below. He translated into German his brother's
"Description of British Guiana." Died in 1857.
Schomburgk, shom'burk, [Ger. pron. shom'boouk,]
(Sir ROBERT HERMANN,) a celebrated German traveller,
born at Freiburg in 1804. Having been sent in 1835
by the Geographical Society of London to explore the
interior of Guiana, he discovered the magnificent water-
lily to which he gave the name of the Victoria Regia.
He published, after his return, a " Description of British
Guiana," which was followed in 1847 by a " History of
Barbadoes." Appointed in 1848 British consul to Saint
Domingo, he contributed to the Journal of the Geo
graphical Society a number of valuable articles on the
physical geography of that island. Schomburgk was
elected a member of various learned societies in Europe,
created a chevalier of the legion of honour, and knight
of the Prussian order of the Red Eagle, and obtained
other similar distinctions. Died in 1865. The plant
called Schomburgkia Orchida was named in his honour.
Schon or Sclioen, shon, or Schongauer, shon'-
gow'er, (MARTIN,) an eminent German painter, was a
native of Kolmbach or Ulm, and is supposed to have
been a pupil of Franz Stoss. He was called BUON MAR-
TINO by the Italians, and was a friend of PietroPerugino.
His principal works are at Colmar, Vienna, Munich, and
Nuremberg. His " Madonna," in the minster at Colmar,
ranks among the most admirable productions of early
German art. He also executed a number of excellent
engravings. Died in 1488.
See GALICHON, "Martin Schongauer," 1859; "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Schonaeus. See SCHOON.
Schonbein or Schoenbein, shon'bin, (CHRISTIAN
FRIKDRICII,) a German chemist, and the inventor of
gun-cotton, born at Mitzingen in 1799. He became pro
fessor at the University of Basle in 1828. In 1839 he
discovered ozone, and subsequently made the discovery
of nitro-saccharin and nitre-fibrin or gun-cotton. He
published "Contributions to Physical Chemistry," (1844,)
and other works. Died in September, 1868.
See "Smithsonian Report" for 1868.
Schoner, sho'ner, (JOHANN,) a German mathema
tician and astronomer, born at Carlstadt in 1477, was
professor of mathematics at Nuremberg. Died in 1547.
Schongauer. See SCHON.
Schoning or Schoeiiing, sho'ning, (GERHARD,) a
Norwegian scholar, born in Nordland in 1722, became
professor of history and eloquence at Soroe. Died in
1780.
Schonlein or Schoenlein, shbn'lin, (JOHANN
LUKAS,) an eminent German physician, born at Bam-
berg in 1793. He was appointed professor of pathology
and therapeutics at Berlin in 1840, and acquired a high
reputation by his lectures.
See G. W. SCIIARI.AU, "Dr. Schonlein und sein Anliang," i$43;
RICHTKR, "Dr. Schonlein und sein Verhaltniss zur neuern Heil-
kunde," etc., 1843.
Schoockius, sKo'ke-us, or Schoock, sKok, (MAR
TIN,) born at Utrecht in 1614; was professor of languages,
history, etc. in his native city, and at Frankfort-on-the-
Oder. He published several critical and historical
works. Died in 1669.
See NICERON, "Memoires."
Schoolcraft, skool'kraft, (HENRY ROWE,) LL.D., a
distinguished American traveller, ethnologist, and scien
tific writer, born near Albany, New York, in 179^;. In
1818 he made a geological survey of Missouri and
Arkansas, and published in 1819 his " View of the Lead-
Mines of Missouri," etc. In 1820, as geologist, he accom
panied General Cass on his expedition to the Lake
Superior copper-region, of which he published a narra
tive in 1821. Being appointed in 1822 agent for Indian
affairs, he resided several years in the vicinity of Lake
Superior, and in 1832, while on an embassy to some
Indian tribes near the head-waters of the Mississippi,
discovered the sources of that river in the Itasca Lake.
An account of this tour was published, entitled a " Nar
rative of an Expedition to Itasca Lake," etc., (1834.) In
1828 he founded the Michigan Historical Society, of
which he was afterwards elected president. Among his
numerous and valuable works we may name "Notes
on the Iroquois, or Contributions to American History,
Antiquities, and General Ethnology," (1848,) " Algic
Researches," etc., " Personal Memoirs of a Residence
of Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes on the Ameri
can Frontiers," (1853,) and "The Myth of Hiawatha, and
other Oral Legends of the North American Indians."
He married about 1823 a daughter of John Johnston,
of Saulte Sainte-Marie. She was the granddaughter of
an Indian chief. Died in 1864.
"Mr. Schoolcraft's ethnological writings," says R. W.
Griswold, "are among the most important contributions
that have been made to the literature of this country. . . .
His works abound in materials for the future artist and
man of letters, and will on this account continue to be
read when the greater portion of the popular literature
of the day is forgotten."
See R. W. GRISWOI.D, "Prose Writers of America ." "North
American Review" for July, 1822, and October, 1839.
Schoolcraft, (LAURENCE,) COLONEL, an American
officer, born in 1760, was the father of the preceding.
He fought in the Revolutionary war. It is stated that
the original family name was Calcraft. Died at Verona,
New York, in 1840.
Schoon, van, vtn sKon, [Lat. SCHON/E'US,] (CORNE
LIUS,) a Dutch dramatist and Latin poet, born at Gouda
about 1540. He published " Carminum Libellus,"
(1570,) and "Terentius Christianus," (1614.) The latter
is a collection of dramas in imitation of Terence. Died
in 1611.
Schoonjans, sKon'yans, (ANTHONY,) a Flemish
painter, born at Antwerp about 1650. He worked in
Vienna and England. Died in Vienna in 1726.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; nSt; good; moon;
SCHOOTEN
'977
SCHRODER
Schooten, sKo'ten, (FRANS,) a Dutch mathematician
and professor of mathematics at Leyden. He published
among other works, " Principia Matheseos," and "Ma
thematical Exercises." Died in 1659.
Schopenhauer, sho'pen-how'er, (ARTHUR,) a cele
brated pessimist philosopher of Germany, a son ol
Johanna, mentioned below, was born at Dantzic in 1788
He published "The World as Will and Appearance
or Representation," ("Die Welt als Wille und Vor
stellung," 1819,) " The Two Ground-Problems of Ethics,'
(1841,) " On the Freedom of the Will," and a collectior
of essays entitled " Parerga und Paralipomena," (1851.
According to Schopenhauer, Will is the one reality in the
universe, all else is mere appearance. He taught, among
other things, that the world is essentially and radically
evil. Died in 1860.
See GWINNER, " Schopenhauer's Leben ;" " Edinburgh Review'
for February, 1843.
Schopenhauer, (JOHANNA,) a German authoress
born at Dantzic in 1770, published a number of tales
and romances, the most popular of which are " Gabri-
ele," " Die Tante," (" The Aunt,") and " Sidonia." Dice
in 1849.
See "Youthful Life and Pictures of Travel; Autobiography of
Madame Schopenhauer."
Schopf or Schoepf, shopf, (Al.iUN,) a general, born
in Hungary about 1822. He fought against Austria in
1848 and 1849, after which he emigrated to the United
States. He was appointed a brigadier-general in 1861,
and defeated a body of insurgents at Camp Wild-Cat,
Kentucky, October 21 of that year.
Schopflin or Schoepflin, shop'fieen, (JoiiANN
DANIEL,) a German historian, born at Sulzburg in 1694,
became professor of history and eloquence at Strasburg,
(1720.) He was the author of " Alsatia Illustrata," (2
vols., 1751-61,) and other historical works. Died in 1771.
"Without any close contact," says Goethe, "he had
had a deep influence on me. . . . He was one of those
happy persons who are able to unite the past and the
present, and know how to knit the interests of life and
historical knowledge together. . . . He came into con
tact with all the scholars of his time ; he entertained
princes; he gained the confidence of statesmen, elabo
rated for them the most profound deductions, and thus
found everywhere a theatre for his talents." ("Auto
biography," vol. ii. p. 24.)
See RING, "Vita J. D. Schoepflini," 1764: LOBSTEIN, "Leben
J. D. Schopflins," 1776; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Schopin or Chopin, sho'paN', (HENRI FREDERIC,)
a painter, of French extraction, born at Lubeck in 1804,
was a pupil of Baron Gros. His works are principally
historical pictures.
Schopp. See SCIOPPIUS.
Schoppe, shop'peh, (AMALIA EMMA,) born on the
island of Femern, on the coast of Holstein, in 1791,
published romances, tales, and historical works. Died
in 1858.
Schoreel, sKo-ral', ? Scoorel, or Schorel, sKo'rel,
(JAN,) a Dutch painter, born near Alkmaar in 1495.
Having previously visited Palestine, he spent several
years at Rome in studying the works of the Italian
masters. His pictures enjoy a high reputation, but they
are very rare, owing to the destruction of many of them
by the Iconoclasts in the disturbances of 1566. Died
in 1562.
Schorel. See SCHOREEL.
Schorn, von, fon shoRn, (JOHANN KARL LUDWIG,)
a German writer upon art, born in Franconia in 1793,
became professor of aesthetics and the history of art at
Munich. Died in 1842.
Schorn, von, (!VARL,) a historical painter, nephew
of the preceding, was born at Dusseldorf in 1802.
Schotanus, sKo-ta'nus, (CHRISTIAN,) a Dutch divine,
born in Friesland in 1603, became professor of Greek and
ecclesiastical history at Franeker. He was the author
of a " History of Friesland down to 1558," and several
other works. Died in 1671.
Schott, sKot, (ANDREAS,) an eminent Dutch scholar,
born at Antwerp in 1552. He studied at Louvain, and
subsequently visited Paris and Spain. He was appointed
in 1584 professor of Greek and rhetoric at Saragossa,
and, having entered the order of Jesuits, was afterwards
invited to fill the chair of rhetoric in the Jesuits' College
at Rome. His works are very numerous, and display
profound learning ; among the most esteemed we may
name " Hispania Illustrata," etc., a collection of the his
torians of Spain, Portugal, India, etc., (4 vols., 1603-08,)
"Hispania Bibliotheca," (1608,) being an account of the
libraries and state of letters in Spain, " Selecta Variorum
Commentaria in Orationes Ciceronis," (3 vols., 1621,)
and " Adagia sive Proverbia Grascorum ex Zenobio,"
etc. He also edited the works of Pomponius Mela,
Saint Basil, and other classics. Died in 1629.
See NICE'RON, " Memoires ;" FELIX VAN HULST, "A. Schott,"
1847; FOPPENS, " Bibliotheca Belgica."
Schott, shot, (HEINRICH AUGUST,) a learned writer,
born at Leipsic in 1780, became successively professor
of philosophy and theology in his native city, and of
theology at Wittenberg and Jena. Died in 1835.
Schott, (KASPAR,) a German Jesuit and experimental
philosopher, born in 1608. He published a number of
scientific works, in Latin. Died in 1666.
Schott, (WILHELM,) a German Orientalist, born at
Mentz in 1807.
Schottgen or Schoettgen, sh6t'c,en or shot'gen,
(CHRISTIAN,) a German philologist, born in Saxony in
1687, published "Horse Hebraicag." Died in 1751.
Schouvaloff. See SHOOVALOF.
Schouw, skow, (JOACHIM FREDRIC,) a Danish botan
ist, born at Copenhagen in 1789. He was appointed in
1821 professor of botany in his native city. In 1835 ne
represented the University in the Danish Assembly, of
which he was afterwards president. He was the author
of "Elements of a Universal Geography of Plants,"
(1822,) " Delineations of Nature," (1839,) "Earth, Plants,
and Man," and other works. Died in 1852.
Schrader, shRa'der, (HEINRICH ADOLF,) a German
physician, botanist, and writer, born near Hilclesheim in
1761 ; died in 1836.
Schrader, (HEINRICH EDUARD SIEGFRIED.) a Ger
man jurist and writer on law, was born at Hilclesheim
in 1779; died in 1860.
Schrader, (Junus,) a German painter, born at Berlin
in 1815. Among his principal works are "The Death
of Leonardo da Vinci," " The Temptation," and " Milton
Dictating to his Daughter."
Schramm, shRam, (JEAN PAUL ADAM,) COMTE, a
French general, born at Arras in 1789. He commanded
an army in Algeria in 1840, was minister of war from Oc-
tobe: to December, 1850, and became a senator in 1852.
Schraudolph, shRovv'dolf, (JOHANN,) a German his-
;orical painter, born at Obersdorf in 1808. He painted
a number of frescos at Munich.
Schreber, von, fon shRa'ber, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN
DANIEL,) a German naturalist, born in Thuringia in
1739, studied under Linnaeus at Upsal. He became
professor of medicine and botany at Erlangen in 1769.
Among his works is a "Description of the Grasses," (in
"erman, 1769-74.) Died in 1810.
Schreiber, shRi'ber, (ALOYS WILHELM,) a German
listorian and miscellaneous writer, born in the grand
duchy of Baden in 1763 ; died in 1841.
Schreiber, (HEINRICH,) a theological writer, born at
Fribourg, in Belgium, in 1793, was appointed in 1826
professor of moral theology in his native city.
Schrevel. See SCHRKVELIUS.
Schrevelius, skre-vee'le-us, [Dutch pron. sKRa-va'-
e-us,] originally Schrevel, sKRa'vel, (CORNELIS,) a
distinguished classical scholar, born at Haarlem, in Hol-
ancl, about 1615, was rector of a school at Leyden. His
most important work is his "Lexicon Manuale Graeco-
atinum," (1645,) which has passed through many
editions. He also published editions of numerous Latin
:lassics. Died about 1665.
Schrockh or Schroeckh, shRok, (JOHANN MAT-
HIAS,) a German scholar, born at Vienna in 1733, was
a contributor to the " Acta Eruditorum," and wrote two
aluable works on ecclesiastical history. Died in 1808.
Schroder or Schroeder, shRo'der, (FRIEDRICH
^UDWIG,) a celebrated German actor and dramatist, born
t Schwerin in 1744. He wrote a number of comedies,
and made translations from Shakspeare, whose works
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
SCHRODER
1978
SCHULTZE
he contributed to make popular in Germany. Died in
1816.
See MEYER, " F. L. Schroder," 1819; LOBNER, " F. L. Schroder,
biografisk Skizze," 1847.
Schroder or Schroeder, (JOIIANN JOACHIM,) a
German Orientalist, born in Ilesse-Cassel in 1680. He
visited Armenia, and published, after his return, his
"Thesaurus Linguae Armenicae." Died in 1756.
Schroder or Schroeder, (SOPHIE,) a German
actress, born at Paderborn in 1781, attained the highest
reputation in her profession, particularly in tragic parts.
Her daughter, Wilhelmine Schroder-Devrient, was one
of the most distinguished vocalists of Germany. Sophie
died about 1856.
Schroder-Devrient, (deVre-SN',) (WILHELMINE,) a
popular singer, a daughter of the preceding, was born in
Hamburg in 1805. She was married in 1823 to Karl
August Devrient, an actor. She performed in Paris,
London, and Saint Petersburg. Died in 1860.
Schroderus. See SKYTTK.
Schrodter or Schroedter, sliKot'ter, (ADOLF,) a
German comic painter, bom at Schwedt in 1805.
Schroeckh. See SCHROCKH.
Schroeder. See SCHRODER.
Schroter or Schroeter, sliRo'ter, (CHRISTOPH
GOTTLIEB,) the inventor of the piano-forte, was born at
Hohenstein, in Saxony, in 1699. He became organist
a1: Minden, and afterwards at Nordhausen, where he died
in 1782.
Schroter or Schroeter, QOIIANN HIERONYMUS,)
a German astronomer, born at Erfurt in 1745. He con
structed a telescope which Lalande declared one of the
best that had been made, and published several astro
nomical works. Died in 1816.
Schryver, sKrl'ver, [Lat. SCRIVE'RIUS,] (PETER,) a
Dutch writer, born at Haarlem in 1576, published a
number of poems and critical treatises, in Latin; also
" Antiquitatum Batavicarum Tabularium," (1609.) Died
in 1660.
Schubart, shoo'baRt, (CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH DAN
IEL,) a German litterateur and poet, born in 1739, founded
in 1774 a literary and political journal, entitled the
"Deutsche Chronik." He was the author of a "Hymn
to Frederick the Great." Died in 1791.
See DAVID F. STRAUSS, "Schubart's Leben in seinen Briefen,"
1849; L. A. SCHUBART, " C. F. D. Schubart's Charakter," 1789.
Schubart von Kleefeld, shoo'baRt fon kla'felt,
(JOHANN CHRISTIAN,) a German agriculturist, born at
Zeitz, in Prussia, in 1734; died in 1787.
See ROCKSTROH, " J. C. Schubart von Kleefeld," 1846.
Schubert, shoo'beRt, (FRANZ,) an eminent German
composer, born at Vienna in 1797. He became at an
early age one of the singers of the court chapel, and
was subsequently instructed in music by Ruziczka and
Salieri. He exercised himself in almost every species
of musical composition ; but his reputation rests chiefly
on his songs and ballads, which are ranked among the
most exquisite productions of the kind. Died in 1828.
See " Franz Schubert: a Musical Biography," by DR. KREISSLE
VON HEI.LBORN, London, 1866.
Schubert, (FRIEDRICH WILHELM,) a German writer
on history and statistics, was born at Konigsberg in 1799.
Schubert, von, fon shoo'beRt, (FRIEDRICH THEO-
DOR,) a German astronomer, born in 1758. He removed
to Saint Petersburg about 1785, and became in 1805
director of the observatory of the Academy of Sciences
in that capital. In 1816 he was appointed councillor
of state by the Czar of Russia. Among his works is a
"Treatise on Theoretical Astronomy," (in German, 3
vols., 1798.) Died in 1825.
Schubert, von, (GOTTHILF HEINRICH,) a German
naturalist and philosophical writer, born at Hohenstein,
in Saxony, in 1780. He studied at Leipsic and Jena,
and became professor of natural science at Erlangen.
He published "Views of the Night Side of Natural
Science," (1808,) "History of the Soul," (1830,) and
Manuals of Natural Historv, Mineralogy, etc. Died in
1860.
Schiicking or Schuecking, shiik'king, (CHRISTOPH
BERNHARD LEVEN,) a German litterateur, born in 1814,
has published poems, dramas, and romances.
Schuetz. See Scuiirz.
Schulenburg, von, fon shoo'len-booRG', or Schu-
lemberg, shoo'lem-beRG7, (ADOLF FRIEDRICH,) COUNT,
a Prussian general, born at Wolfenbiittel in 1685, was a
nephew of Johann Matthias, noticed below. He was
killed at the battle of Mollwitz, where he commanded
the cavalry, in April, 1741.
Schulenburg, Schulenburg, or Schulembourg,
von, (JOHANN MATTHIAS,) COUNT, a Prussian general,
born at Magdeburg in 1661, served in the Polish wars
under Sobieski, and subsequently became commander-
in-chief of the Venetian army, and defended Corfu
against the Turks. Died about 1745.
See "Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries," by J.
MITCHELL, 1865 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1840.
Schiller. See SAHINUS, (GEORG.)
Schuler, shoo'ler, (CHARLES AUGUSTE,) an engraver,
born at Strasbourg in 1804; died in 1859.
Schultens, sKul'tens, (ALBERT,) an eminent Dutch
Orientalist and theologian, born at Groningen in 1686.
He was ordained a minister in 1708, and became pro
fessor of Hebrew and other Oriental languages at Ley-
den about 1720. He filled this chair until his death.
He published, besides other works, " Hebrew Roots,"
("Origines Hebraeas," 2 vols., 1724-38,) "Older Monu
ments of Arabia," (" Monumenta vetustiora Arabias,"
1740,) and a "Life of Saladin," in Arabic and Latin,
(1755.) Died in 1750.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Schultens, (HENDRIK ALBERT,) grandson of the
preceding, was born at Herborn in 1749. He studied
the classics and the Oriental tongues at Leyclen, and
afterwards spent some time in England. He was ap
pointed in 1778 professor of the Oriental languages at
Leyden, and became rector of the university in 1787.
He published "On the Diligence of the Belgians in cul
tivating Arabic Literature," ("De Studio Belgarum in
Literis Arabicis Excolendis," 1779,) "Part of the Arabic
Proverbs of Meidan, with. Notes," ("Meidanii Prover-
biorum Arabicorum Pars, Latine, cum Notis," 1795,)
and other works. Died in 1793.
See F. T. RINCK, " H. A. Schultens," 1795 ; KANTELAAR, " Lof-
rede op H. A. Schultens," 1794.
Schultens, (JAN JACOB,) an Orientalist, born at
Franeker in 1716, was a son of Albert, and the father
of the preceding. He succeeded his father as professor
at Leyden. Died in 1778.
Sc'hultet, shool'tet, J Lat. SCULTF/TUS,] (ABRAHAM,)
a German Protestant divine, born in Silesia in 1556 or
1566, became professor of theology at Heidelberg. He
was the author of several moral and theological works.
Died in 1625.
Schulting, sKiil'ting, (ANTONIUS,) a Dutch jurist and
legal writer, born at Nymwegen in 1659. In 1713 he was
associated with Noodt as professor of law at Leyden.
His greatest work is entitled "Jurisprudence before the
Time of Justinian," (" Jurisprudentia Vetus ante-Justi-
nianea.") Died in 1734.
Schulting, (CORNELIUS,) a Dutch theologian, born
at Steenwyck about 1540. He published, besides other
works, " Bibliotheca Catholica contra Theologiam Cal-
vinianam," (2 vols., 1602.) Died in 1604.
Schultz, shoolts, [Lat. SCULTE'TUS,] (BARTHOLO-
MAUS,) a German astronomer, born at Gorlitz in 1540,
contributed to the reform of the calendar. Died in 1614.
Schultz, (DAVID,) a German Protestant theologian,
born near Freistadt in 1779. He published several
commentaries on the Scriptures. Died in 1854.
Schultz, (FRIEDRICH,) a German novelist and his
torical writer, born at Magdeburg in 1762 ; died in 1798.
Schultz-Schultzenstein, shoolts-shoolt'sen-stln',
(KARL HEINRICH,) a German physiologist, born at Alt
Ruppin in 1798. He studied at Berlin, where he became
professor of medicine in 1833. Among his principal
works are a treatise (in French) " On the Circulation and
Lactiferous Vessels in Plants," (1839,) and "Discovery
of the True Nourishment of Plants." He has also
published the "Universal Doctrine of Disease," (1844,)
and other valuable medical treatises.
Schultze, shoolt'seh, (JOHANN ABRAHAM PETER,)
a German composer, born at Liineburg in 1747. His
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon;
SCHULZ
1979
SCHWANTHALER
works include oratorios, hymns, and songs. His ballad
"Am Rhein" enjoys great popularity. Died in 1800.
Schulz, shoolts, (WiLHELM,) a German political
writer, born at Darmstadt in 1797.
Schulze or Schultze, shoolt'seh, (ERNST,) a Ger
man poet, born at Celle in 1789. While a student at
Gottingen, he published his narrative poem of " Psyche,"
and subsequently " Cecilia, a Romantic Poem, in Twenty
Cantos." His "Enchanted Rose" ("Die bezauberte
Rose," 1818) is esteemed his master-piece, and has
taken its place among German classics. It was trans
lated into English by Caroline von Crespigny. He died
in 1817. A collection of his works, with a biography
prefixed, was published in 1822 by his friend Bouterwek.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" "Foreign
Quarterly Review" for November, 1827.
Schulze, (FRIKDRICH AUGUST,) a German novelist
and poet, born at Dresden in 1770, assumed the syno
nym of FRIEDRICH LAUN. Died in 1849.
Schulze, (FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB,) a German econo
mist, born near Meissen in 1795. He published several
works on political economy. Died in 1860.
Schulze, (GoTTLOi! ERNST,) a German philosopher,
born at Heldrungen, in Thuringia, in 1761, published
several treatises against the systems of Kant and Rein-
hold. Died in 1833.
Schulze, (JoHANN,) a German scholar, and reformer
in education, born in 1786. He entered the Prussian
civil service, and became privy councillor. He directed
for many years, ending in 1840, the administration of
the Prussian colleges, universities, and public libraries,
and was the principal manager of great scientific enter
prises and voyages of exploration. In these services
he displayed wisdom and great activity.
Schulze, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) a German physician
and anatomist, born in the duchy of Magdeburg in 1687,
wrote " Historia Medicinas ad Annum Romae 535,"
(1728,) and other works. Died in 1745.
Schumacher, shoo'maK'er, (CHRISTIAN ANDREAS,)
a Danish mathematician and natural philosopher, born
in Seeland in 1810, is a nephew of Ileinrich Christian,
noticed below. He translated Ilumboldt's " Cosmos"
into Danish.
Schumacher, (HEINRICH CHRISTIAN,) an able
astronomer, born at Bramstedt, Holstein, in 1780. He
became professor of astronomy at Copenhagen in 1815,
a few years after which date he was appointed director
of the Observatory of Altona. He edited for many
years a valuable periodical entitled " Astronomische
Nachrichten." Died in 1850.
See QUETELET, "Notice sur H. C. Schumacher," 1851.
Schumann, shoo'man, (ROBERT,) a German musician
and composer, born at Zwickau in 1810, became in 1850
chapel-master at Dusseldoif. Among his best works is
the oratorio of " Paradise and the Peri." He died in
1856. His wife, CLARA WIECK, is one of the most dis
tinguished female pianists of the time.
Scliuppen, van, vtn sKup'pen, (PiETER,) a Flemish
designer and engraver, born at Antwerp about 1625, -was
a pupil of Nanteuil. He worked in Paris, where he died
in 1702. His son JACQUES (1670-1751) was a portrait-
painter.
Schurmann, von, fon shoon'man, (ANNA MARIA,) a
German lady, distinguished for her talents, learning, and
piety, was born at Cologne in 1607. She became a con
vert to the doctrines of the mystic Labadie, and after his
death retired to a religious association near Leeuwarden,
where she died in 1678.
See NICKRON, " Memoires ;" MORERI, " Dictionnaire Histo-
rique ;" SCHOTEL, "A. M. von Schurmann," 1854.
Schurtzfleisch, shooRts'fllsh, [Lat. SARCMA'SIUS,]
(CONRAD SAMUEL,) a German scholar, born in 1641,
became professor of Greek and of history at Wittenberg.
Died in 1708.
Schurz, shoorts, (CARL,) a German orator and gen
eral, born near Cologne in 1829, was liberally educated.
He took part in the revolutionary movements of 1849,
and when they were defeated he went into exile. About
1852 he emigrated to the United States, and settled at
Madison, Wisconsin. In 1856 he advocated the election
of Fremont by public speeches in the German language.
He afterwards made political speeches in English, and
acquired a high reputation as an orator. In 1860 he
addressed the people of various States in favour of the
election of Lincoln. He was appointed minister to Spain
in 1861, and brigadier-general in 1862. He commanded
a division at Chancellorsville, May, 1863, and a corps at
Gettysburg, July 1-3 of that year. In 1869 he was
elected a Senator of the United States from Missouri.
Schuselka, shoo'zel-ka, (FRANZ,) a German publicist,
born at Budweis in 1811, has written a number of politi
cal and miscellaneous works.
Schuster, shoo'ster, (!GNAZ,) a German comic actor
of great popularity, born about 1780, was a resident of
Vienna. Died in 1835.
Schut, sKiit, (CORNELIUS,) a Flemish painter, born
at Antwerp about 1600, was a pupil of Rubens. He
had a brilliant imagination and great facility of execu
tion. Died in 1649.
Schiitz or Schuetz, shuts, (CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED,)
a German scholar, born at Duderstadt in 1747, was one
of the founders of the " Allgemeine Literaturzeitung"
at Jena, (1785.) He published editions of ^schylus
and Cicero. Died in 1832.
Schiitz, [Lat. SAGITTA'RIUS,] (HEINRICH,) a German
composer and musician, born in Voigtland in 1585. He
studied at Venice, and became first chapel-master at
Dresden. His church music was highly esteemed by
his contemporaries, and he is said to have first intro
duced the Italian Opera into Germany. Died in 1672.
Schiitze or Schuetze, shut'seh, (JOHANN STE-
PHAN,) a German litterateur, born near Magdeburg in
1771, wrote tales, travels, and dramatic works. Died
in 1839.
Schuur, van der, va*n der sKiiR, (THEODORUS,) a
Dutch historical painter, born at the Hague in 1628.
He worked at Rome fourteen years, and returned to the
Hague in 1665. Died in 1705.
Schuyler, skl'ler, (PHILIP,) an able American gen
eral and Senator, born at Albany in November, 1733.
He served in the war against the French and Indians in
1756. In June, 1775, he was appointed commander of
an army in New York, with the rank of major-general.
He was about to move the army into Canada, but he
was taken sick, and the command devolved in Septem
ber on General Montgomery. In August, 1777, he was
superseded by General Gates, in consequence of the un
reasonable jealousy with which Congress regarded him.
His conduct was vindicated by a court of inquiry. He
afterwards rendered important services in military affairs,
although he declined to take command of an army. He
was a member of the General Congress from 1778 to
1781, and was elected a Senator of the United States by
the legislature of New York in 1789. He was again
elected a Senator, in place of Aaron Burr, in 1797. One
of his daughters was the wife of Alexander Hamilton.
Died at Albany in November, 1804.
See BENSON J. LOSSING, " Life and Times of Philip Schuyler,"
1860; BANCROFT, "History of the United States;" "National Por
trait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii.
Schwab, shwap, (GusTAV,) a distinguished German
litterateur, born at Stuttgart in 1792. He became in
1817 professor of ancient literature in his native city.
He published a number of popular songs and ballads,
also prose essays on various subjects, and an excellent
" Life of Schiller." He was for a time associated with
Chamisso as editor of the "Musenalmanach." Died in
1850.
See WASSERMANN, "G. Schwab, der edle Barde Schwabens,"
1851.
Schwanthaler, shftan'ti'ler, (Luowic MICHAEL,)
an eminent German artist, born at Munich in 1802.
He studied for a short time at Rome, and on his return,
in 1826, executed two bas-relief friezes for the Glypto-
thek, and a statue of Shakspeare for the theatre. He
became in 1835 professor of sculpture at the Academy
of Munich. Among the numerous works which he
produced within about twelve years, we may name the
relievo frieze, over two hundred feet long, in the Barba-
rossa Hall, the twelve colossal statues of the ancestors
of the house of Wittelsbach, the "Myth of Aphrodite,"
and the fifteen statues of the " Battle of Arminius," ( Her-
•e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SCHWARTZ
1980
SCIOPPIUS
manns-schlacht,) in the northern pediment of the Wai-
halla at Ratisbon. His colossal bronze statue of " Ba
varia," in the Hall of Fame at Munich, esteemed one of
his master-pieces, is of greater magnitude than any other
group of modern sculpture, the main figure being fifty-
four feet high. Schwanthaler also executed statues ot
the emperor Rudolph, of Goethe, Mozart, and Jean Paul
Richter, as well as numerous subjects from Grecian
mythology. He died in 1848. Among his most distin
guished pupils are Brugger, Widmanh, and Kriesmeyer.
See BROCKHAUS, "Conversations-Lexikon ;" PIERER, " Univer
sal- Lexikon."
Schwartz, shwaiUs, (CHRISTOPH,) a German painter,
born at Ingolstadt about 1550, worked at Munich. Died
in 1594.
Schwarz, shwaRts, (BF.RTHOLD,) called also CON-
STANTINE ANCKLITZEN, (ank'klifsen,) a German chemist
and Franciscan monk, born at Freiburg, is said to have
invented gunpowder about 1330. A monument was
erected to him at Freiburg in 1853.
Schwarz or Schwartz, shwftKts, (CHRISTIAN FRIED-
RICH,) an eminent German missionary, born at Sonnen-
burg, Prussia, in 1726. He went to India in 1750, and
laboured many years about Tranquebar, Tanjore, and
Trichinopoly with great success. He gained the confi
dence of Hyder Ali. His character was highly com
mended by Bishop Heber. Died in India in 1798.
See PEARSON, "Life of Schwarz," 1834.
Schwarz, (CHRISTIAN GOTTMKB,) a learned German
writer and bibliographer, born in Misnia in 1675, was
professor of eloquence at Altorf. Died in 1751.
Schwarz, (FKIEDRICH HEINRICH CHRISTIAN,) pro
fessor of theology at Heidelberg, was born at Giessen
in 1766. He married a daughter of Jung-Stilling, and
published several educational works. Died in 1837.
Schwarzenberg, shwaRt/sen-beRG', (FELIX LUIHVIG
JOHANN FRIEDRICH,) an Austrian statesman and mili
tary commander, born at Krumau, in Bohemia, in 1800.
He was made lieutenant-field-marshal in 1848, and sub
sequently became prime minister. Died in 1852.
Schwarzenberg, von, fon shwart/sen-beRG', (FRIED-
RICH JOHANN JOSEPH,) PRINCE, an Austrian prelate,
born in 1809. He became Archbishop of Salzburg in
1836, cardinal in 1842, and Archbishop of Prague in
1850. He was a member of the Council of Rome in
1869-70.
Schwarzenberg, von, (KARL PHILIPP,) PRINCE,
an Austrian field-marshal, born at Vienna in 1771. He
served against the French in the campaigns of 1794 and
1799, and was present at the battle of Hohenlinden,
where he succeeded in saving his own corps. In 1808
he was sent as ambassador to Saint Petersburg, and in
1810 became general of the Austrian cavalry. After the
peace of Vienna he was appointed to negotiate the
marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa. On the alli
ance of Austria with France, he was placed by Napoleon
at the head of the Austrian forces in the Russian cam
paign of 1812, and obtained for his services the rank
of field-marshal. In 1813 he was made commander-
in-chief of the allied armies, and, having defeated the
French at Leipsic, advanced to Paris. After the battle
of Waterloo he was appointed president of the imperial
council of war, and obtained many other distinctions.
Died in 1820.
See PROKESCH VON OSTEN, " Leben des Feldmarschalls Karl zu
Schwarzenberg," 1822; "Nouvelle Kiographie Generale."
Schwegler, shwSc'ler, (ALUKECHT,) a German theo
logian and disciple of Baur, born at Michelbach, in
Wiirtemberg, in 1819. He published a "History of
Philosophy," and "Roman History," (1853,) also Ger
man translations of Aristotle's "Metaphysics" and the
"Church History" of Eusebius. Died in 1857.
Schweidel, shwl'clel, (GEORG JAKOB,) a German
bibliographer, born at Nuremberg about 1690, published
"Thesaurus Bibliothecalis," (4 vols., 1739.) Died in
1752.
Schweigaard, shwi'gaRd, (ANTONY MARTIN,) a
Norwegian jurist, born at Krageroe in 1808, was ap
pointed professor of political economy and statistics at
the University of Chi istiania. He has published several
works on law, finance, and statistics.
Schweighauser, shwir/hoi'zer, (JEAN GEOFFROI,)
an antiquary, a son of the following, was born at Stras-
burg in 1776; died in 1844.
Schweighauser or Schweighaeuser, shwic'hoi'-
zer, (JoHANN,) a German scholar, born at Strasburg in
1742, became in 1778 professor of Greek and Oriental
languages in his native city. He published editions of
Appianus, Polybius, Herodotus, and other classics. Died
in 1830.
See CUVIER, " filoge de Schweiphaenser," 1830; STIEVENART,
"ElogedeJ. Schweighaeuser," 1830; "Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Schweiiiitz, von, fon shwl'nits, (LEWIS DAVID,) an
American botanist and Moravian minister, was born at
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in 1780. He discovered more
than a thousand new species of plants, and wrote several
treatises on Fungi. Died in 1834.
Schweizer, shwTt/ser, (ALEXANDER,) a German the
ologian of the Reformed Church, was born at Murten
in 1808.
Schwenkfeld, shwenk'fclt, (KASPAR,) founder of a
sect called by his name, was born at Ossig, in Silesia, in
1490. He embraced with zeal the cause of the Refor
mation, but differed from the other Protestants in his
views of the eucharist, (he deified the body of Christ,)
and in other points of Christian doctrine. lie died about
1560. A number of his followers took refuge in North
America in 1733.
Schwerin, von, fon shweh-reen', (KURT CHRIS
TOPH,) COUNT, a distinguished commander, born in
Swedish Pomerania in 1684. He served under Eugene
and Marlborough, and subsequently in the army of
Frederick the Great of Prussia, who raised him to the
rank of field-marshal and made him a count. He gained
a signal victory over the Austrians at Moll \vitz, in 1741.
He was killed at the battle of Prague, in 1757.
See VARNHAGEN VON ENSE, "Leben des Grafen von Schwerin,"
1841; KOENIG, " Lebensbeschreibiing des Grafen von Schwerin,"
i?qo; PAULI, "Leben grosser Helden ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Schwilgue, shvel'ga', (JEAN BAPTLSTE,) a French
mechanician, born at Strasburg in 1776. He invented
several useful instruments, and reconstructed the ad
mirable mechanism of the clock of the Strasburg Cathe
dral. Died in 1856.
Schwind, von, fon shw?nt, (MoRrrz,) professor of
painting in the Academy of Arts at Munich, was born
at Vienna in 1804. He was a pupil of Cornelius, and
has produced a number of frescos and oil-paintings.
Schyrle. See RHEITA, VON.
Scialoia, sha-lo'ya or she-a-lo'ya, (ANTONIO,) an
Italian jurist, born near Naples in 1817, has published
" Principles of Social Economy," and other works.
Sciarpelloni. See CREDI, ni.
Scina, she-na', (DoMENico,) an eminent Italian
mathematician and scientific writer, born at Palermo in
1765, became professor of physics in his native city. He
was the author of a " Report on the Fossils of Mar-
dolce," etc., " Introduction to Experimental Physics,"
(1803,) "Memoirs of the Life and Philosophy of Em-
pedocles," (1813,) "Topography of Palermo and its
Environs," (1818,) "View of the Literary History of
Italy in the Eighteenth Century," (3 vols., 1827,) "Ex
periments and Discoveries in Electro-Magnetism," and
other works, which are highly esteemed. Died in 1837.
See S. COSTANZO, " Vida publica y privada de D. Scina," 1846 :
MALVICA, " Elogio di D. Scini," 1838; D. AVELLA, " Esequie alia
Memoria di D. Scina," 1838.
Scioppius, stse-op'pe-iis, [Ger. SCHOPP, shop,] (CAS
PAR,) a celebrated classical scholar, born at Neumark,
in the Palatinate, in 1576. Having visited Rome, he
was patronized by the pope and renounced the Prot
estant religion. He was afterwards created a count
palatine by the Emperor of Austria. Among his numer
ous works we may name his " Elements of Stoic Mornl
Philosophy," (" Elementa Philosophise Stoicae Moralis,")
" De Arte Critica," etc., " Paradoxa Literaria," and
"GrammaticaPhilosophica," or Institutesof Latin Gram
mar. He also wrote a number of controversial works
against the Protestants and their leaders, particularly
Henry IV. of France and James I. of England. Sciop
pius was one of the most learned men of his time; but
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
SCIPIO
1981
SCIPIO
he was equally conspicuous for his intolerance and
quarrelsome propensities. Died in 1649. ^,
See HAYI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ; NICERON,
" Memoires :" C. NISARD, " Les Gladiateurs de la Republique des
Lettres;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^neiale."
Scipio, s!p'e-o, [Gr. I^KL-'IUV ; Fr. SCTPION, se'pe'iN"';
It. SCIPIONK, she-pe-o'na,] the name of an illustrious
Roman family of the patrician gens Cornelia. The word
Scipio signifies a "staff" or "stick." The first member
of this family that appears in history was PUBLIUS
CORNKLIUS SCIPIO, who was appointed master of the
horse by the dictator Furius Camillas in 396 B.C. He
was consular or military tribune in 394, and interrex in
389 B.C. A PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, probably a
son of the preceding, was one of the curtile sediles
appointed in 366 B.C. Lucius CORNELIUS SCIPIO was
consul in 350 B.C. PuBi.ius CORNELIUS SCIPIO BAR-
HATUS was chosen dictator in 306 and pontifex maximus
in 305 H.C. Lucius CORNELIUS SCIPIO BARHATUS was
consul in 298 H.C., and defeated the Etruscans. He
was the father of CNEIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO ASINA
(see separate article) and of Lucius CORNELIUS, who
was consul in 259 B.C. and defeated the Carthaginians
in Sardinia and Corsica.
Scipio, [Fr. SCIPION, se'pe'iN',] (Puiii.ius CORNE
LIUS,) a Roman commander, father of the great Scipio,
(surnamed " Africanus,") was consul in the first year of
the second Punic war, 218 B.C. He commanded the
army of Northern Italy when Hannibal crossed the Alps
on his way to Rome. Scipio met the enemy near the
Ticino, where lie was defeated and severely wounded.
Soon after this event the other consul, Sempronius, took
command uf the army, which was again defeated, with
great loss, on the Trebia, 218 B.C. Scipio was sent to
Spain in 217, and fought many battles against the Car
thaginians in that peninsula. He was defeated and
killed in 211 B.C.
See Livv, " History of Rome."
Scipio, or, more fully, Scip'I-o Af-ri-ca'nus*
Ma'jor, [Fr. SCIPION L'AFRICAIN, se'pe'ox' li'fRe'-
ka.x',] (PUBLIUS CORNELIUS,) an illustrious Roman com
mander, a son of the preceding, was born in 235 or 234
B.C. After he had assumed the togavirilis, he was accus
tomed to pass several hours each morning in the Capi
tol in solitary devotion or meditation. He gained in his
youth the confidence of the people, who were persuaded
that he was a special favourite of the gods. It is also
stated that he professed to seek and receive divine coun
sel, by which his public conduct was directed. He fought
at the' battle of the Ticino, and rescued his wounded father
there, in 218 B.C. In 216, as military tribune, he took
part in the battle of Cannas. Scipio and Appius Claudius
were appointed commanders of the troops which escaped
from that battle. He was elected ajdile in 212 B.C., and
appointed commander-in-chief of the army in Spain in
210. He took New Carthage (Cartagena) in the first
campaign, and his personal influence or liberal policy
induced many native chiefs to become allies of Rome.
In 209 he gained a great victory over Hasdrubal in the
south of Spain. Another decisive victory at Silpia,
Carmo, or Elinga, in 207, rendered him master of nearly
all Spain. Soon after this event he crossed over to
Africa with a few attendants, and attempted to gain the
alliance of Syphax. Having completed the conquest of
Spain, in 206 n.c. he returned to Rome, and was elected
consul for 205, although he was under the legal age. He
at once resolved to carry the war into Africa, although
Hannibal still remained in Italy. This plan was opposed
by Fabius Maximus and other senators. Scipio obtained
Sicily as his province, with permission to cross into
Africa ; but the senate refused to grant him an army for
that purpose. He thereupon raised an army of volun
teers, invaded Africa in 204, and was joined by King
Massinissa. He defeated Hasdrubal (son of Cisco) and
Syphax in several battles, after which the Carthaginians
recalled Hannibal for the defence of their capital. The
question of peace was discussed by Scipio and Hanni
bal in a personal interview ; but they failed to agree on
* Chaucer calls him simply AFFKIKAN, obviously a corruption of
Africanus. (See "Assembly of Foules.")
the terms. In October, 202, Scipio defeated Hannibal
in the memorable battle of Zama, which decided the
fate of Carthage. On his return to Rome, in 201, he
was received with great enthusiasm, and obtained the
surname of AFRICANUS. The people proposed to make
him dictator for life ; but he declined the honour. He
was chosen censor in 199, and consul in 194 B.C.
In the year 190 he volunteered to serve as legate of
his brother, Lucius Scipio, who was then consul, and
who commanded in the war against Antiochus of Syria.
The two Scipios defeated Antiochus, and ended the war
by a treaty of peace. About 187 B.C. Africanus and his
brother were publicly accused of receiving biibes from
Antiochus. Lucius was first tried, and condemned to
pay a large fine. Africanus, in defiance of the law, res
cued his brother from the officer who was dragging him
to prison. He was afterwards prosecuted, and made a
speech in his defence, which was partially successful, as
his enemies and judges abandoned the case. Deeply
affected by the ingratitude of the people, he left Rome,
never to return, and died at Liternum in 183 B.C., in the
same year as Hannibal. He had married yEmilia, a
daughter of L. /Emilius Patilus, and left two sons and
two daughters, one of whom was the famous Cornelia.
With the exception of Julius Caesar, (and perhaps of
Sertorins,) Scipio was probably the greatest military
genius that Rome ever produced. He cultivated the
Greek language and literature. He had a high repu
tation for generosity and clemency, but is censured by
some for his disregard of the forms of law.
See POI.VBIUS, "History," books x.-xxiv. ; Livv, " History of
Rome," books xxi.-xxxix. ; SERAN DE I.A TOUK, " HistoiredeScipion
FAfricain," 173!*; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Memoirs of
the Life of the Elder Scipio Africanus," by REV. EDWARD BER
WICK.
Scip'io .ZEmilia'nus Africa'nus Mi'nor, (PUBLIUS
CORNELIUS,) a famous Roman general, born about 185
B.C., was a son of /Emilius Paulus, and an adopted son
of Publius Cornelius Scipio, whose father was the great
Scipio. He was liberally educated, and was well versed
in Greek literature and philosophy. In 168 B.C. he fought
at the battle of Pydna, where his father commanded.
He formed an intimate friendship with the historian
Polybius, who became the companion of his studies and
military expeditions. As military tribune, he went to
Spain in 151 B.C., and signalized his courage in a single
combat with a gigantic Spanish chief, whom he killed.
In the third Punic war, which began about 149, he dis
played great military ability in Africa. Having returne'd
to Rome in 148, he was elected consul for 147, and ob
tained Africa as his province. He finished the Punic war
by the capture and destruction of the city of Carthage in
146 B.C., and was granted a splendid triumph at Rome for
this victory. In the year 142 he became censor with L.
Mummius. He endeavoured to restrain the growing
love of luxury of the Romans and to maintain the simple
habits and austere virtues of their ancestors ; but in this
he was not successful. Having been elected consul, 134
B.C., he obtained the chief command in Spain, and took
Numantia, after a long and obstinate defence, in 133. He
was an inflexible supporter of the aristocratic party, and
approved the execution of Tiberius Gracchus, although
his wife Sempronia was a sister of that tribune. He lost
his popularity by his course in this affair. He was found
dead in his bed in 129 B.C. The public suspected thai-
he was murdered ; but no person was convicted of the
crime. Scipio was eminent for his learning, and was
one of the most eloquent Roman orators of his time.
Cicero expresses a high opinion of him in his book
"De Republica." A report prevailed among the an
cients that he assisted Terence in the composition of
his plays.
See POLYBIUS, books xxxii.-xxxix. ; CASI.O SIGONIO, "De Vita et
Rebus gestis P. Scipionis," 1569; F. D. GERI.ACH, "Tod des P.
Z. Scipio jdniliaiitis," 1839; L. NORMANN, " Scipio Africanus Mi
nor," Upsala, i6SS ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sgipl-o A-sI-atl-cus or A-sI-ag'e-ne§, [Fr. SCI
PION L'ASIATIQUE, se'pe'o.s' It'ze't'tek',] (Lucius COR
NELIUS,) was a brother of Africanus Major. He was
chosen praetor in 193 B.C., and consul in 190, when he
obtained the province of Greece. With the aid of his
brother, he defeated Antiochus at Mount Sipylus in 190,
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
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a few years after which he was fined for taking a bribe
from that king.
Scipio Asiaticus, (Lucius CORNELIUS,) was a par
tisan of Mai ins in the civil war, and became consul with
C. Norbanus in 83 B.C. He marched against Sulla in
that year, but was deserted by his troops, and went into
exile in 82 B.C.
Scip'io As'I-na, (CNEius CORNELIUS,) a Roman
commander, was consul with C. Duilius in 260 B.C. He
obtained command of a fleet, and was taken prisoner by
the Carthaginians. He became consul again in 254 B.C.
His son PUBLIUS CORNELIUS was consul in 221 B.C., and
interrex in 217.
Scip'io Cal'vus, (CNEIUS CORNELIUS,) a Roman
general, became consul with M. Claudius Marcellns in
222 B.C. He went to Spain in 217 B.C. as legate of his
brother, Publius Cornelius Scipio, with whom he served
about eight years against the Carthaginians in the second
Punic war. He was killed in Spain in 211 B.C.
Scip'io His-pal'lus, (CNKIUS CORNELIUS,) a nephew
of the preceding, was consul in 171 B.C. He had a son
of the same name, who was praetor in 139 B.C.
Scip'io Na-si'ca, (PuHi.ius CORNELIUS,) a Roman
consul and jurist, was a ir".i of Cn. C. Scipio Calvus, who
was killed in Spain in 211 B.C. He was praetor in 194,
and served with distinction in Spain in 193. Having
been chosen consul for 191 B.C., he gained a victory over
the Boii. He died after 171 B.C.
Scip'io Nasi'ca Cor'cu-lum, (PUBLIUS CORNE
LIUS.) a son of the preceding, was an able jurist, lie
married a daughter of Scipio Africanus Major. He was
censor in 159 B.C., and consul in 155. During his con
sulship he procured the demolition of a new theatre, as
injurious to the public morals. He became pontifex
maximus in 1150 B.C.
Scip'io Nasi'ca Se-ra'pi-o, (PUBLIUS CORNELIUS,)
a son of the preceding, was a violent partisan of the
aristocracy. lie became consul in 138 B.C. with I).
Junius Brutus, and was the leader of the party which
assassinated Tiberius Gracchus in 133.
His son, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS Scirio NASICA, was
consul in in B.C. He was greatly distinguished for wit
and humour. He left a son of the same name, who was
praetor in 94 B.C. This last was the father of Q. Metellus
Pius Scipio, the father-in-law of Pompey the Great. (See
METELLUS.)
Scipion, the French for SCIIMO, which see.
Scla'ter, (PHILIP L.,) F.R.S., an English naturalist,
born in 1829. He published several treatises on birds,
and edited "The Natural History Review."
Sclater, (WILLIAM,) an English clergyman and poet,
born in Somersetshire. He obtained the living of Otter-
den, Kent, and wrote verses in Latin and English. Died
in 1647. Another William Sclater was vicar of Pitmin-
ster. Died in 1626.
Sclo'pis, (Count FEDERIGO,) an Italian senator and
lawyer, born in Turin in 1798. He became a senator
in 1849, and president of the senate in 1857. He pub
lished, besides other works, a " History of Italian Legis
lation," (3 vols., 1840-57.)
Scolari, sko-la'ree, (Fiurro,) Count of Ozora, called
PIPPO SPANO, (pep'po spa'no,) an Italian general, born
at Florence in 1369. He rendered important services
to the emperor Sigismund. Died in 1426.
See MKLLINI, "Vita di F. Scolari," 1570.
Scoorel. See SCHOREEL.
Sco'pas, [2/c6;T-af,] an eminent Grecian sculptor and
architect, born in the island of Paros, is supposed to
have flourished after 400 B.C. Among his master-pieces
in sculpture Pliny mentions a number of figures, repre
senting Neptune, Thetis, the Nereids, etc., mounted on
dolphins, and statues of Venus, Vesta, and Apollo. He
also assisted in executing the celebrated monument to
Mausolus about 350 B.C. The temple of Minerva Alea
at Tegea was constructed by Scopas.
See PLINY, "Natural History ;" Sn.ur,, " Catalogus Artificnm ;"
NAGI.ER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generate."
Scopoli, skop'o-lee, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) a cele
brated naturalist, was born at Cavalese, in the Tyrol, in
1723. He became professor of mineralogy at Schemnitz
in 1766, and in 1777 filled the chair of natural history at
Pavia. He was the author of " Entomologia Carniolica,"
"Flora Carniolica," (1769,) "Crystallographia Hunga-
rica," (1776,) and other scientific works. He was a friend
of Linnaeus, who named a plant in his honour. Died
in 1788.
See MAIRONI DA PONTE, " Elogio del Dottore G. A. Scopoli,''
iSn ; TIPAI.DO, "Biografia clegli Italian! illustri."
Scores'by, (WILLIAM,) a celebrated English navi
gator, born in Yorkshire in 1760. Having engaged in
the Greenland whale-fishery, he made his first voyage
in 1791. His voyages, amounting to thirty in all, were
eminently successful, — he having returned from one of
them with thirty-six whales. He made a number of
improvements in the apparatus for whale-fishing, and
invented the cylindrical observatory attached to the main
top-mast, called the "round top-gallant crow's-nest."
Died in 1829.
See a " Life of W. Scoresby," by his son, 1851.
Scoresby, (WILLIAM,) D.D., F.R.S., an Arctic navi
gator, a son of the preceding, was born in 1790. In
1806 he served as chief mate to his father in a voyage
which extended to latitude 81° 12', a point nearer the
north pole than any other navigator had reached. lie
j published in 1820 a valuable "Account of the Arctic
i Regions, with a History of the Northern Whale-Fish
ery." He ceased to follow the sea, studied at Cam
bridge, graduated in 1834, and was ordained a priest. 1 le
became vicar of Bradford, Yorkshire. Among his works
are "Memorials of the Sea," and "My Father: being
Records of the Adventurous Life of William Scoresby,"
(1851.) lie wrote several papers on magnetism and the
influence of iron ships on the mariner's compass. Died
in 1857.
See "Monthly Review" for November and December, 1820.
Scorza, skmul'za, (SINIHALDO,) an Italian painter,
born at Voltaggio in 1589. He painted landscapes with
animals; also mythological subjects. Died in 1631.
Scot, (REGINALD,) a learned English writer and Re
former, published a work entitled "The Discoverie of
Witchcraft," in which he boldly condemns the super
stitions of the time. It was against this book, and that
of Wierus, that James I. of England wrote his " Demon-
ologie," in which he says that Scot "is not ashamed in
public print to deny that there can be such a thing as
witchcraft." Died in 1599.
Scot, (THOMAS.) See ROTHERHAM.
Scott, (BENJAMIN,) an English writer, born probably
1 in London in 1814. He published several educational
I works, and became chamberlain of London about 1858.
Scott, (DAVID,) a Scottish writer, born in East Lo
thian in 1675, was author of a " History of Scotland."
! Died in 1742.
Scott, (DAVID,) a Scottish painter, born at Edin
burgh in 1806. He resided for a time at Rome, where
he produced several large pictures. Among his best
works may be named " Vasco da Gama encountered by
the Spirit of the Storm in passing the Cape," "The
Genius of Discord," and " Orestes pursued by Furies."
| He published " Essays on the Characteristics of the
Great Masters," and other works on art. Died in 1849.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement.)
Scott, (Sir FRANCIS EDWARD,) an English writer on
art, born in 1824, lived near Birmingham. He devoted
much time to the study and promotion of art. Died
in 1863.
Scott, (GEORGE GILBERT,) an eminent English archi
tect, born near Buckingham about 1810. Among his
most admired edifices are the Gothic church of Saint
Nicholas at Hamburg, in Germany, and the cathedral
of Saint John, in Newfoundland. He furnished the
design for the Hotel de Ville at Hamburg, which when
completed will probably be one of the finest Gothic
structures of recent times. Mr. Scott was elected an
associate of the Royal Academy in 1855. He published
" A Plea for the Faithful Restoration of oar Ancient
Cathedrals," (1850,) and "Some Remarks on Secular
and Domestic Architecture, Present and Future," (1857.)
See the " North British Review" for May, 1858. 3)iHtt ,'%?&
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon;
SCOTT
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Scott, (GEORGE LEWIS,) a mathematician, born at
Hanover, was appointed one of the preceptors of George
III. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in
1780.
Scott, (HELF.NUS,) a Scottish physician and writer,
who resided for some time in India, was the author of
a romance entitled " The Adventures of a Rupee." Died
in 1821.
Scott, (JAMES,) an English divine, born at Leeds in
1733, became rector of Simonburn, in Northumberland.
He was distinguished as a pulpit orator, and was the
author of political essays published under the signature
of " Anti-Sejanus" and "Old Slyboots." Died in 1814.
Scott, (JOHN.) See ELDON, LORD.
Scott, (JoHN,) an English divine, born in Wiltshire
in 1638, became prebendary of Saint Paul's, London.
He published a work entitled "The Christian Life."
Died in 1694.
Scott OF AMWELL, (JOHN,) an English poet, born at
Bermondsey, near London, about 1736, was a member of
the Society of Friends. He wrote, besides other works,
" Amwell, a Descriptive Poem," (1776.) Died in 1783.
Scott, (JoHX,) an English journalist, and first editor
of the " London Magazine," was killed, in 1821, in a
duel resulting from a dispute with the editor of " Black-
wood's Magazine." He published " A Visit to Paris in
1814."
Scott, [Lat. SCO'TUS,] (Sir MICHAEL,) a Scottish
writer, celebrated for his learning, is supposed to have
been a native of Fifeshire. He passed several years
in France, and at the court of the German emperor
Frederick II. Among the principal works attributed
to him are the " Philosopher's Banquet," ("Mensa Phi-
losophica,") " Questio curiosa de Natura Solis et Luna,"
a treatise on the transmutation of silver and gold, and
a " History of Animals," (in Latin.) His uncommon
attainments in science caused him to be regarded as a
magician by his contemporaries ; and Sir Walter Scott
has introduced the legends concerning him, with great
effect, into his " Lay of the Last Minstrel." He is also
alluded to in Dante's " Inferno." Died about 1290.
See G. NAUDE, "Apologie des grands Hommes accuses de Ma-
gie;" CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Scott, (SAMUEL,) a skilful English painter of land
scapes and marine views. Died in 1772.
Scott, (THOMAS,) an English dissenting divine and
resident of Ipswich, published a poetical version of the
book of Job, (1774.)
Scott or Scot, (THOMAS,) an English prelate. (See
ROTHERHAM.)
Scott, (THOMAS,) an English Calvinistic divine and
commentator, born in Lincolnshire in 1747. He became
curate of Olney in 1781, and rector of Aston-Sandford in
1801. He associated with Cowper and Newton at Olney.
He published, besides other religious works, a " Com
mentary on the Bible," (1796,) which had an extensive
circulation, and a defence of Calvinism, (2 vols., 1811.)
Died in 1821.
See " Life of T. Scott," (partly autobiographical.) by his son,
JOHN SCOTT, 1822; ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Scott, (Sir WALTER,) a celebrated novelist and poet,
was born in Edinburgh, August 15, 1771. He was de
scended from Walter Scott, the famous freebooter, known
in border story as " Auld Wat." His father, named also
Walter Scott, was a writer to the signet; his mother,
Anne Rutherford, was the daughter of Dr. John Ruther
ford, medical professor in the University of Edinburgh.
Walter was the seventh child in a family of twelve.
When he was about eighteen months old, he was attacked
with a fever, which left him, after a few days, with a
lameness that proved incurable. In 1779 he was sent to
the Edinburgh High School. In addition to the instruc
tion received at school, he had a tutor at home, by whom
he was taught writing, arithmetic, and French, and from
whom he may be said to have also taken lessons in the
art of disputation. The pupil was a Tory and Cavalier,
the tutor a Whig and Roundhead, so that they never were
at a loss for subjects about which to argue. " I took up
my politics at that period," says Scott, "as King Charles
II. did his religion, from an idea that the Cavalier creed
was the more gentlemanlike persuasion of the two." He
studied Latin under the celebrated Dr. Adam, then rec
tor of the High School ; and, though he seems to have
had but little relish for the details of syntax or prosody,
he was not, even at that age, without an appreciation of
the beauties of the Roman classics. "This was really,"
he observes in his autobiography, "gathering grapes
from thistles ; nor shall I soon forget the swelling of my
little pride when the rector pronounced that, though
many of my school-fellows understood Latin better,
Giialterus Scott was behind few in following and enjoying
the author's meaning." " In the intervals of my school-
hours," says he, " I had always perused with avidity such
books of history or poetry, or voyages and travels, as
chance presented to me, — not forgetting the usual, or
rather ten times the usual, quantity of fairy-tales, East
ern stories, romances, etc." He left the High School, he
says, "with a great quantity of general information, ill
arranged, indeed, and collected without system, yet
deeply impressed upon my mind, and gilded, if I may
be permitted to say so, by a vivid and active imagina
tion." About this time he read Hoole's translation of
Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered;" he likewise became
acquainted with Richardson's novels, and other works
of imagination. Having spent some months at the
house of a relative living at Kelso, the beauties of that
romantic spot, with the neighbouring ruins, appear to
have awakened in his mind that passionate love for the
beautiful and picturesque in nature, for which he was
afterwards so distinguished.
In 1783 he entered the university, and commenced
! Greek under the learned and accomplished Professor
Dalzell. But, having no previous acquaintance with that
tongue, he found himself far behind the rest of the class.
"I could," he says, "hit upon no better mode of vindi
cating my equality than by professing my contempt for
the language, and my resolution not to learn it." He
afterwards excited the utmost indignation of the pro
fessor by writing a composition in which he endeavoured
to show that Ariosto was superior to Homer. In some
of his other collegiate studies he appears to have been
more successful. In moral philosophy he had the good
fortune to be instructed by Dugald Stewart, " whose
striking and impressive eloquence riveted the attention
even of the most volatile student."*
In 1786 he was indentured as an apprentice to his
father, and "entered upon the dry and barren wilderness
of forms and conveyances." He did not, however, dis
continue the perusal of works of imagination. He even
studied Italian, and added an acquaintance with several
eminent authors in that tongue, as Dante, Boiardo, Pulci,
etc., to his previous stores of romantic and historic lore.
About the second year of his apprenticeship, in conse
quence of an attack of hemorrhage, he was for several
weeks confined to his chamber ; during this time he
amused himself by representing the battles and sieges of
which he had read, by means of shells, pebbles, or other
objects. His recovery, though interrupted by one or two
relapses, was at length complete ; and from that time
until near his death he enjoyed the most robust health.
In 1792 Scott began the study of German, in which he
afterwards made such proficiency that (in 1796) he pub
lished poetical translations of Burger's " Lenore" and
"Wild Huntsman." This was his first appearance be
fore the public as an author.
In December, 1797, he married Charlotte Margaret
Carpenter, daughter of Jean Charpentier, of Lyons, a
devoted French royalist. She had been educated in the
Protestant religion, and when her father died, at the be
ginning of the French Revolution, she and her mother
fled to England, where they found a friend and protector
in the Marquis of Downshire, who had previously be
come acquainted with the family during his travels on
* The following testimony from Scott's autobiography, in favour of
a solid and thorough education, is too important to be omitted. "If,"
says he, " it should ever fall to the lot of youth to peruse these pages,
let such a reader remember that it is with the deepest regret that I
recollect in my manhood the opportunities of learning which I neg
lected in my youth : that through every part of my literary career I
have felt pinched and hampered by my own ignorance ; and that I
would at this moment give half the reputation I have had the good
fortune to acquire, if by doing so I could rest the remaining part upon
a sound foundation of learning and science."
€ as k; c as s: g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^==See Explanations, p. 23.)
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the continent. In 1798 Scott became acquainted with
M. G. Lewis, by whom he was prevailed on to furnish
several contributions to the " Tales of Wonder," a mis
cellany gotten up under the auspices of Lewis. Scott's
translation of Goethe's famous historical drama, " Goetz
von Berlichingen of the Iron Hand," appeared in 1799.
The first two volumes of the " Minstrelsy of the Scot
tish Border," a collection of ancient ballads that had
occupied his attention for many years, were published
in 1802. In the following year appeared the third vol
ume of the "Border Minstrelsy," consisting of original
ballads by Scott and others. lie contributed during
the years 1803-04 several articles to the " Edinburgh
Review." His poem " Sir Tristrem" was given to the
public in 1804. The " Lay of the Last Minstrel," which
had been commenced several years before, made its ap
pearance in January, 1805, and at once gave its author
a place among the most distinguished poets of the age.
Its popularity was so great that more than forty thousand
copies were sold in Great Britain before 1830. " In the
history of British poetry," says Lockhart, (writing about
1833,) "nothing has ever equalled the demand for the
'Lay of the Last Minstrel.'" In November, 1806, he
began "Marmion;" it was finished and ready for publi
cation by the middle of February, 1808. "Constable,"
says Lockhart, " offered a thousand guineas for the poem
shortly after it was begun, and without having seen one
line of it ; and Scott, without hesitation, accepted this
proposal." Two other booksellers, however, Miller and
Murray, were admitted to the honour of sharing in the
publication of the new poem.
Scott was zealously engaged, in the latter part of 1808,
in starting a new review, which, while espousing different
political views from those of the " Edinburgh, "should, if
possible, rival that journal in literary ability and surpass
it in moderation and impartiality. The result of these
efforts was the " London Quarterly," the first number
of which appeared in January, 1809. The " Lady of
the Lake," the last of "Scott's three great poems, was
published in May, 1810. In a critical notice of it in
the " Edinburgh 'Review," Mr. Jeffrey says, " Upon the
whole, we are inclined to think more highly of the ' Lady
of the Lake' than of either of its author's former publi
cations. . . . There is nothing so fine, perhaps, as the
battle in ' Marmion,' or so picturesque as some of the
scattered sketches of the ' Lay,' but there is a richness
and a spirit in the whole piece which does not pervade
either of those poems, — a profusion of incident and a
shifting brilliancy of colouring that reminds us of the
witchery of Ariosto." According to Lockhart, " the
' Lay' is generally considered as the most natural and
original, ' Marmion' as the most powerful and splendid,
and the ' Lady of the Lake' as the most interesting, ro
mantic, picturesque, and graceful, of his great poems."
" The Lady of the Lake," says Prescott, " was welcomed
with an enthusiasm surpassing that which attended any
other of his poems. It seemed like the sweet breathings
of his native pibroch stealing over glen and mountain
and calling tip all the delicious associations of rural soli
tude, which beautifully contrasted with the din of battle
and the shrill cry of the war-trumpet that stirred the
soul in every page of his ' Marmion.' " Twenty thou
sand copies of the " Lady of the Lake" were disposed
of within a year after its publication, and not less than
fifty thousand were sold in Great Britain before the mid
dle of 1836. In 1811, encouraged by the extraordinary
success of the " Lady of the Lake," Scott resolved, in
stead of remaining a " tenant at will under a heavy rent,"
to purchase a freehold estate for himself. After some
deliberation, he fixed upon Abbotsford, (in the county
of Roxburgh, about twenty-eight miles southeast from
Edinburgh^) a beautiful site, commanding a view of the
Tweed, and of Melrose Abbey, the most graceful and
picturesque of all the monastic ruins in Scotland. The
great expense which he was tempted to incur in order
to improve and beautify this place became afterwards the
chief source of his pecuniary difficulties. The " Vision
of Don Roderick," a poem in the Spenserian measure,
came out in 1811. " Rokeby" appeared towards the
close of 1812 ; it was followed within two months by an
other smaller poem, entitled the " Bridal of Triermain."
The latter, having been composed pari passtt with
" Rokeby," was published anonymously. Coming out as
it did so soon after the other, many persons were led
to believe it must be the production of a different author.
Some eminent critics, indeed, regarded it as a very suc
cessful imitation of Scott's style of composition, and.
while it was admitted that, as a whole, it fell below the
best works of the great master, it was pronounced to be
in some respects fully equal, if not superior, to them.
The popularity enjoyed by " Rokeby" was far from equal
ling that of Scott's earlier poems. This was probably
due in part to the public having become, in consequence
of the great number of wretched imitations which had
appeared, surfeited with that kind of poetry, and per
haps still more — as Scott himself believed — to the rising
influence of Byron's bolder and more impassioned genius.
The position of poet-laureate was offered to Scott on
the part of the prince regent in August, 1813, but was
respectfully declined. In July, 1814, was published
"Waverley, or 'Tis Sixty Years Since," the first of that
marvellous series of novels which were destined to form
a new era in the history of romance, and to place the
name of Scott on the highest pinnacle of literary fame.
Contrasting " Waverley" with the coarse prosaic or
gossiping character of some of the previous popular
novels, Prescott observes, " But a work now appeared in
which the author swept over the whole range of charac
ter with entire freedom as well as fidelity, ennobling the
whole by high historic associations, and in a style varying
with his theme, but whose pure and classic flow was tinc
tured with just so much of poetic colouring as suited the
purposes of romance. It was Shakspeare in prose."
" Waverley" had been commenced nine years before,
but, discouraged by the criticism of one of his friends, Scott
had laid the work aside. Me appears, however, not to
have wholly lost sight of it ; for in 1810 be sent a por
tion of it to his friend James Ballantyne the publisher,
desiring his opinion. Ballantyne, although severely
criticising some parts, warmly praised the humour and
spirit of the work ; and in reply to the question, " Should
the author go on ?" said, " Certainly : I have no doubt
of success, though it is impossible to guess how much."
In a letter to a friend, Scott says, " I had written a
great part of the first volume, and sketched other pas
sages, when I mislaid the manuscript, and only found it
by the merest accident as I was rummaging the drawers
of an old cabinet ; and I took the fancy of finishing it,
which I did so fast that the last two volumes were written
in three weeks."
The work was published anonymously. Five editions
of it (in all, 6000 copies) were called for within less than
seven months. "'Guy Mannering,' by the author of
'Waverley,'" followed in February, 1815. The name
" Waverley Novels" was afterwards applied to the en
tire series of those wonderful fictions ; and their anony
mous author was popularly styled " the Great Unknown."
The " Lord of the Isles," which Scott had had for some
time in preparation, was published a month before "Guy
Mannering." This is one of the most delightful of his
minor poems. If in its general tone it is not equal to
" Marmion" or the " Lady of the Lake," it has occasional
passages which are scarcely if at all inferior to the finest
in those poems. "The Field of Waterloo," generally
considered as among the least successful of Scott's
poetical works, made its appearance in October, 1815.
" Harold the Dauntless," another poem, published in
1817, maybe regarded as the last of his efforts in this
line. He appears afterwards to have directed all his
energies towards working the new and richer mine of
prose fiction, which his genius had so lately opened.
Next to his ail-but unrivalled skill in the delineation of
character, and the graphic power and wonderful vivid
ness of his pictures, — whether of the scenes of tranquil
nature, or of the intense excitement and wild tumult of
battle, — what most amazes us is the marvellous fertility
of his genius. There is in the whole history of literature
no other example of such rapid and inexhaustible pro
ductiveness, if we take into consideration the character
as well as the number and extent of his writings, — Lope
de Vega alone excepted. " Guy Mannering" was followed
by "The Antiquary," in May, 1816, "The Black Dwarf"
•i, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n5t; good; moon;
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and "Old Mortality'' appeared in December of the same
year, "Rob Roy" was published in 1817; and thus for
more than ten years he continued to pour forth, appa
rently without effort, those brilliant and fascinating
fictions which quickly spread his fame not merely
wherever the English language was spoken, but to the
utmost limits of the civilized world. A list of his novels
and other prose writings will be given in another place.
In 1820, without any solicitation on his part or that
of his friends, the rank of a baronet was conferred on
Scott by the king. Up to his fifty-fifth year Scott ap
pears to have experienced a degree of prosperity rarely
vouchsafed to mortals. His success as a writer had
been without example in the history of literature. He
had enjoyed in the largest measure not merely the ap
plause of the multitude and the friendship of the great,
but what was far more, — the universal esteem of those
whose esteem was most to be valued. His good sense,
his manly modesty, his unaffected kindness of heart,
and his nobleness of spirit, commanded the respect
and admiration of those who, from religious or party
prejudice, were the most opposed to him, — for personal
enemies he had none. Perhaps the only considerable
weakness in his character was his ambition to found a
new family, which should constitute a distinct branch
of the famous house or clan from which he boasted his
descent. To accomplish this grand aim was the goal
of all his aspirations, — the object of all his plans and
labours. ]!y his friendship for the Ballantynes, whom he
had known from boyhood, he was induced not only to
intrust to them the publication of his works, but to be
come a secret partner in their firm. He was thus com
plicated in commercial speculations which were destined
to involve him in irretrievable disaster. He appears
to have reposed unlimited confidence in the prudence
and mercantile ability of the Ballantynes, as well as in
that of Constable, with whom they were commercially
connected. But Constable, though an able man, was
sometimes rash ; and James Ballantyne appears to have
been wanting in thorough business habits. The final
catastrophe was hastened by the commercial excitement
of 1825. After some months of painful suspense, the
storm at length burst, in all its fury, in January of 1826.
On examining into the state of their affairs, it was found
that Constable & Co. were able to pay only two shillings
and ninepence on the pound. The firm of Ballantyne
& Co., by allowing itself to be declared bankrupt, might
readily have come to a settlement with its creditors, had
not Scott been a partner. He would listen to no terms
of compromise ; all he asked for was time. He was
resolved to devote the remainder of his life, if necessary,
to the payment of his debts, even to the uttermost far
thing. His heroic purpose was at last crowned with
success ; but it cost him his life. To be brief, from this
time forward he applied himself to his literary labours
with an assiduity and zeal such as even he had never
exhibited before. Neither the attacks of severe indis
position nor the overwhelming grief caused by the death
of his wife, (which occurred in May, 1826,) in the midst
of the other misfortunes, were allowed to interpose more
than a temporary interruption to the arduous task which
he had undertaken. In consequence of these unre
mitting and unparalleled exertions, he had a severe
paralytic attack on the I5th of February, 1830; but he
recovered in a fesv weeks so far as to be able to resume his
labours. He had, however, another attack in Novem
ber, 1830, and one still more severe in April, 1831. As
his health continued to fail, it was at length resolved, in
the autumn of 1831, that he should pass the winter in
Italy. He arrived in Naples in December, and re
mained there till the middle of April, 1832. In one of
his letters, written while at Naples, he says, "My plan
of paying my debts has been — thank God — completely
successful ; and, what I think worth telling, I have paid
very near one hundred and twenty thousand pounds, with
out owing any one a halfpenny, — at least, I am sure this
will be the case by midsummer." After spending a short
time in Rome, he manifested a great anxiety to return
to his native country. He reached London on the I3th of
June. Four weeks later he arrived at Abbotsford, where
he died on the aist of September, 1832.
Scott has the rare distinction of uniting with his fame
as an eminently successful author a character as a man
remarkable not only for modesty, manliness, and com
mon sense, but for a genuine kindliness towards all with
whom he came in contact.
" As to Scott," says Washington Irving, " I cannot
express my delight at his character and manners. He
is a sterling, golden-hearted old worthy, full of the
joyousness of youth, with an imagination continually
furnishing forth pictures, and a charming simplicity of
manner that puts you at ease with him in a moment. It
has been a constant source of pleasure to me to remark
his deportment towards his family, his neighbours, his
j domestics, his very clogs and cats ; everything that
I comes within his influence seems to catch a beam of
that sunshine which plays round his heart." (" Life and
Letters," vol. i. pp. 381-2.)
Referring to a conversation about Goethe, which
Scott had with Mr. Cheney in Rome in the spring of
1832, the latter remarks, " He did not seem, however, to
be a great admirer of some of Goethe's works ; . . .
much of his popularity, he observed, was osving to
pieces which in his latter moments he might have
wished recalled. He spoke with much feeling. I
answered, he must derive great consolation in the re
flection that his own popularity was owing to no such
cause. . . . He added, ' It is a comfort to me to think
that I have tried to unsettle no man's faith, to corrupt
no man's principles, and that I have written nothing
which on my death-bed I should wish blotted.' "
The following is a list of Scott's novels, with the dates
of their publication: " Waverley," July, 1814; "Guy
Mannering," February, 1815; '"'The Antiquary," May,
1816; "The Black Dwarf and "Old Mortality," (forming
the first series of the "Tales of my Landlord,") Decem
ber, 1816; "Rob Roy," December, 1817; "The Heart
of Midlothian," (" Tales of my Landlord," second series,)
June, 1818; "The Bride of Lammermoor" and "Legend
of Montrose," (third series of "Tales of my Landlord,")
June, 1819; " Ivanhoe," December, 1819; "The Mon
astery," March, 1820; "The Abbot," September, 1820;
" Kenil worth, "January, 1821 ; "The Pirate," December,
1821 ; "The Fortunes of Nigel," May, 1822; " Peveril
of the Peak," January, 1823 ; " Quentin Durward,"
June, 1823; "Saint Ronan's Well," December, 1823;
"The Red Gauntlet," June, 1824; "The Talisman" and
"The Betrothed," ("Tales of the Crusaders,") June, 1825 ;
" Woodstock," June, 1826; "Chronicles of Canongate,"
(containing the "Highland Widow," and other tales,)
November,' 1827 ; "Fair Maid of Perth," April, 1828;
"Anne of Geierstein," May, 1829; "Count Robert of
Paris" and " Castle Dangerous," (fourth series of " Tales
of my Landlord,") November, 1831. Scott had written
in the department of history "The Life of Buonaparte,"
of which two editions yielded to the author's creditors
the enormous sum of ^"18,000. Of the "Tales of a
Grandfather," a popularized history of Scotland, (dedi
cated to his little grandson, John Hugh Lockhart,) the
first series appeared in December, 1827, the second was
completed in December, 1828, and the third in Decem
ber, 1829. A "History of France," constituting a fourth
series of the "Tales of a Grandfather," was published
in 1830. In addition to his poems, novels, and histories,
Scott wrote many books of less importance, among
which the following are the principal : a " Life of Dry-
den," prefixed to his works in eighteen volumes, edited
by Scott, 1808; "Swift's Life," prefixed to his works in
nineteen volumes, 1814; "Paul's Letters to his Kins
folk, written from the Continent after the Battle of
Waterloo," January, 1816; "Letters of Malachi Mc-
Growther,'' March, 1820; "Letters on Demonology and
Witchcraft," December, 1830; miscellaneous writings,
including critical notices of various authors, etc.
Among those writers, of whatever age or country,
who have successfully attempted the delineation of char
acter, Scott may justly claim to stand in the foremost
rank. Shakspeare, it must be confessed, surpassed him
in versatility as well as in depth and power; Goethe was
undoubtedly his superior in that exquisite art which
seems to be only another name for nature herself; Field
ing may perhaps be allowed to have excelled him in
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the occasional representation of some individual char
acter; Victor Hugo, Bulwer, and many others may
sometimes rise above him in that sort of interest which
is due to an artfully-devised plot or to the eloquent ex
pression of intense passion. But if we take into account
Ai.L those qualifications which properly belong to this
kind of writing, such as the power of vivid description,
a just appreciation of the nice shades of character, an
easy and exquisite humour, a sustained interest, not
dependent so much on marvellous or startling occur
rences, or on unheard-of and harrowing complications of
calamity, as upon the power and vividness of the repre
sentation and the depth of genuine feeling evinced by the
author, — if to such qualifications be added a healthy,
pure, and elevated moral sentiment, as far removed from
narrowness and bigoted austerity on the one hand, as
from affectation and extravagance on the other, we
cannot deny that, although many writers may have ex
celled Scott in some one or two points, yet, "take him
for all in all," few have equalled and scarcely any have
surpassed him.
"Sir Walter Scott," says a writer in "Blackwood,"
"did for literature what Shakspeare did for the drama,
— provided a long and gorgeous gallery of great, noble,
and sublime characters, that live in all memories, and
become, though they are fictitious, as real as if we all
of us had actually seen and conversed with them." (See
article on Charles Kean in " Blackwood's Magazine"
for April, 1868.)
Scott has often been called, on account of his marvel
lous power of creating illusions, " the Great Enchanter/'
"Great and good enchanter," says Miss Edgeworth ; " for
in his magic there is no dealing with unlawful means.
... In his writings there is no private scandal, no per
sonal satire, no bribe to human frailty, no libel upon
human nature. . . . His morality is not in purple patches
ostentatiously obtrusive, but woven in through the very
texture of the stuff." (See Miss Edgeworth's "Helen,"
vol. i. chap, xii.) It has often been urged as a reproach
to Scott that he had, on the one hand, such a high re
spect for royalty and aristocracy, and, on the other,
such an aversion to everything like democracy. This
peculiarity — or weakness, as some may call it — was due
in part to an innate reverence for antiquity, which seemed
indeed to be an essential element of his mental consti
tution, and in part to the influence of the French Revo
lution, which occurred at that period of his youth when
the character is peculiarly susceptible of being moulded
by external circumstances. Indeed, not a few persons who
could boast of a cooler temperament, if not of stronger
intellect, were powerfully influenced by that strange and
terrible phenomenon, and some who otherwise would, in
all probability, have been ardent republicans, appear to
have lost by that event all confidence in the power of
the common people to govern themselves.
Walter Scott had two sons and two daughters; his
eldest daughter, Sophia, was married in 1820 to Mr.
!,ockhart, afterwards editor of the "Quarterly Review."
Their daughter was married a few years since to Mr.
Robert Hope, who, by act of Parliament, took the name
of Scott, and whose daughter, Miss Hope Scott, is the
possessor of Abbotsford, and the only surviving descend
ant of Sir Walter. The eldest son, Walter, born in 1799,
entered the army, and on the death of his father inherited
his title. He died on his return from India in 1847, and
with .him the title became extinct. His younger
brother, Charles, born in 1805, had died previously.
See LOCKHART, " Life of Sir Walter Scott," 3 vols.. 1835 : GKORGE
ALLAN, "Life ot' Sir W. Scott ;" JAMES Hoco. " Famili-ir Anecdotes
of Sir W. Scott," 1834; AMEDEF. PICHOT, " Notice sur la Vie de W.
Scott," 1821 : C. G. JACOB, " \V. Scott; biograplu'sch-literarischer
Versncli," 1820; NAYI.KR. "Memoirs of ihe Life of W. Scott,"
1833; I,. r>B LOMENIE. "Sir W. Scott, i>ar un Homme de Rien,"
i84I; S. ROBERTS, "W. Scott's JunKendleben." 1837; C. P. HAG-
BFRG, " Cervantes et W. Scott," 1838 ; G. VON KRAMHR, " Leben mid
Werke W. Scotts," 1833 ; PRRSCOTT. "Biographical and Critical
Miscellanies;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1808. February,
1815, and March, 1817, (by JEFFREY;) "Quarterly Review" for
Mav, iSio. December, 1812, April, 1816, January and April, 1868;
" Westminster Review" for January, 1838, (by CARI.VI.E :) " North
American Review" for April, 1838, (by PRRSCOTT:) " Domestic
Manners of Sir W. Scott," in " Fraser's Magazine" for August,
1834, (by JAMES HOGG.)
Scott, (WILLIAM.) See STOWET.L, LORD.
Scott, (WiNFiKi.n,) one of the most distinguished
of American generals, was born near Petersburg, Vir
ginia, on the 131)1 of June, 1786. His paternal grand
father, a native of Scotland, took part in the rebellion
of 1745, and, after the disastrous battle of Culloden, in
which his elder brother was slain, emigrated to Vir
ginia, where he married, and engaged in the profession
of law. His son William married Ann Mason, — a lady
of one of the most respectable families in the State. Of
the two sons of William Scott, who died in 1701, Win-
field, the subject of the present article, was the younger.
He studied law at William and Mary College, and was
admitted to the bar in 1806. In 1807 he became a
volunteer in a troop of horse, called out under the pro
clamation which President Jefferson issued after the at
tack on the Chesapeake, forbidding English war-vessels
to enter the harbours of the United States. During the
next session of Congress (1807-08) a bill was passed for
increasing the army ; and Scott was soon after appointed
a captain of artillery. In 1809 he was ordered to New
Orleans, to join the army under General Wilkinson.
Having indiscreetly censured the conduct of his gene
ral, and even intimated his complicity with the treason
of Burr, Scott was tried by a court-martial, and sen
tenced to be suspended for one year. What was de
signed as a punishment proved, it would seem, a real
advantage to him. He spent the term of his suspension
in the diligent prosecution of studies connected with his
profession, and laid the foundation of that thorough
acquaintance with military science for which he became
afterwards so distinguished. On the breaking out of
the war of 1812 he was made a lieutenant-colonel and
ordered to the Canada frontier. In October, General
Van Rensselaer planned an attack on the British forces
then occupying Queenstow* Heights. Some time after
the action had commenced, Scott crossed over from
Lewiston, and arrived on the field. Colonel Van Rens
selaer, who had the chief command of the American
troops on the Canada side, having been severely
wounded, Scott succeeded to the command. His ex
hortations, supported by his heroic example, so in
spirited his men that they drove back the enemy with
great loss ; and even after the British had been largely
reinforced by the arrival of General Sheaffe, they still
for a time bravely maintained the fight, though out
numbered by more than three to one. Unhappily, at
this critical juncture, the main body of the American
army, which had not yet crossed the river, was seized
with a panic, and could not by any considerations be
prevailed upon to enter the boats. All hope of succour
being thus cut off, Scott was compelled to surrender his
entire force ; whii h he did with the honours of war.
Having been excl-anged in the early part of 1813, he
soon after joined, with the rank of colonel, the army
under General Dearborn, in the capacity of adjutant-
general. He especially distinguished himself at the
capture of Fort George, Upper Canada, in May, 1813.
After braving incredible perils, he carried the place,
which he was the first to enter, and with his own hands
took down the flag that was waving over it. We cannot
here forbear to relate an incident which, while it shows
the magnanimity of Scott's character, may serve to re
lieve for a moment the harsh and repulsive features of
" grim-visaged war." After Scott had been taken pris
oner at Queenstown, a British officer asked him if he
had -ever seen the neighbouring Falls. Scott answered,
"Yes; from the American side." The other remarked,
"You must have a successful fight before you can see
them in all their grandeur," (the finest view being from
the Canada shore.) Scott rejoined, " Sir, if it be your
intention to insult me, honour should have prompted
you first to return me my sword." The officer was re
buked by General Sheaffe, and the subject was dropped
for the time. At the capture of Fort George, this
same officer was taken prisoner in turn. Scott treated
him with every mark of attention and kindness, and at
last obtained permission for him to return to England
on parole. Overcome by this generosity, he said, with
feeling, " I have long owed you an apology, sir. You
have overwhelmed me with kindnesses. You can now
at your leisure view the Falls in all their glory."
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In March, 1814, Scott was made a brigadier-general.
Soon afterwards, the troops of three brigades were
placed in a camp of instruction at Buffalo, under his
immediate supervision, and for three months were
thoroughly drilled in the modern French system of
tactics. The discipline thus acquired was of the greatest
importance in the operations of the ensuing campaign.
On the 3d of July, the American army, consisting of
Scott's and Ripley's brigades and Hindman's artillery,
crossed the Niagara River and captured Fort Erie. On
the 5th, the battle of Chippewa was fought, and the
British army under General Riall was driven beyond the
Chippewa River. The 25th of July witnessed the hard-
fought battle of Lundy's Lane, (otherwise called " the
battle of Niagara,") on which occasion General Scott
had two horses killed under him, and was twice wounded,
the second time severely, by a musket-ball passing
through the left shoulder. It was after eleven o'clock
P.M. when the fighting ceased, the Americans remaining
for the night in possession of the field of battle, al
though, unhappily, for the want of water, they were
compelled to abandon it early the next morning. Several
months elapsed before Scott had recovered from his
wounds. For his eminent services he was raised to
the rank of major-general, and, not long after, Congress
passed a vote of thanks, (November 3, 1814,) at the
same time requesting the President to bestow upon him
a gold medal " for his distinguished services" and for
his "uniform gallantry and good conduct in sustaining
the reputation of the arms of the United States." The
medal was afterwards presented to him by President
Monroe. The treaty of peace having been ratified by
the Senate in February, 1815, Scott was offered a seat
in the cabinet as secretary of war, which position, how
ever, he declined. In the summer of 1815 he visited
Europe in a diplomatic as well as military capacity;
and he afterwards received a letter of thanks from the
President, through the secretary of state, for the success
with which he had fulfilled his mission. lie returned
to the United States in 1816 ; and the following year he
was married to the daughter of John Mayo, Esq., of
Richmond, Virginia.
In 1832 a war broke out between the Sac Indians,
under their chief Black Hawk, and the whites on the
northwestern frontier. Scott was ordered by the war
department to proceed to the scene of action ; but
Black Hawk was taken prisoner and the war virtually
brought to a close before he reached the place of his
destination. During the passage the cholera broke out
among his troops with a fearful fatality. On this oc
casion General Scott exhibited traits of character more
rare, and certainly not less glorious, than those which
had won for him so brilliant a reputation on the battle
field. Not satisfied with merely making such general
arrangements as were required for the proper attendance
of the sick, and such as were deemed necessary to pre
vent the spread of infection, he visited and comforted
the suffering, and by his courageous example sought
to inspire the well with hope and confidence, — which
was the more difficult because at that time the cholera
was almost universally regarded as contagious. When,
towards the end of 1832, the nullification difficulties
began in South Carolina, General Scott was sent by
President Jackson on a confidential mission to Charles
ton, that he might take the proper measures to prevent,
or, if need be, to quell, the threatened insurrection. In
this difficult enterprise he displayed great tact as well as
prudence and firmness, and was completely successful.
On the death of General Macomb, in June, 1841, Scott
succeeded to the position of commander-in-chief of the
army of the United States.
After the commencement of the war with Mexico, in
the spring of 1846, the first campaign was made, and
the battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and
Buena Vista were fought, under the conduct of General
Taylor. In 1847 vigorous preparations were made for
prosecuting the war on a more extensive scale, and
General Scott was directed to take the chief command
of the army in Mexico. A particular account of the
operations which followed belongs rather to history than
to a biography. Suffice it to say that if Scott had ac
quired on the fields of Chippewa and Niagara the most
brilliant reputation as a gallant and skilful soldier, in the
Mexican war he gave proof of strategic talents of the
highest order, and won for himself a place in the front rank
of the most distinguished generals of the age. He began
the campaign in March, 1847, by investing the city of
Vera Cruz, which, with the Castle of San Juan d'Ulloa,
capitulated on the 26th of that month, — the garrison,
which consisted of about five thousand men, surren
dering on parole. The army of the besiegers amounted
to about twelve thousand men. On the i8th of April
Scott attacked and took Cerro Gordo, — a mountain-
fastness of great strength, defended by fifteen thousand
Mexicans under the command of Santa Anna himself.
Subsequently were fought the battles of Churubusco,
(August 20,) Molino del Key, (September 8,) and Cha-
pultepec, (September 13,) — all in the immediate vicinity
of the city of Mexico. Early in the morning of Sep
tember 14 the army of General Scott entered the city
in triumph ; and at seven A.M. the American flag floated
over the National Palace. The treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo was signed February 2, 1848, and the Mexican
capital was soon after evacuated by the American forces.
In 1852, Scott was nominated by the Whig party as
their candidate for the Presidency ; but, in the subse
quent election, General Pierce, the Democratic nominee,
was chosen President, Scott receiving the electoral vote
of but four States. In 1855 the honorary rank of lieu
tenant-general was conferred upon Scott, with the pro
vision that the title should cease at his death.
He worthily closed his long and illustrious public
career, by casting his powerful influence into the trem
bling scale of his country's fortunes, at a time when not
only his native State, but a large number of his former
friends and comrades, in whom the nation once trusted
with unwavering confidence, were doing everything in
their power to strengthen the cause of rebellion. In
November, 1861, Scott resigned his active duties at
Washington, and retired to private life, though he re
tained his full pay, according to a special provision
passed by Congress in the summer session. Having
sailed to Europe for his health, a few days after he
landed, the news of Mason and Slidell's capture arrived
in England. The danger of a war between Great
Britain and the United States appearing imminent, that
his country might not be deprived of his counsels or
services at so critical a moment, regardless of all merely
personal considerations, he at once returned to his
native shores. He soon after retired to his residence
in New York. He died at West Point in May, 1866.
See " Memoirs of Lieutenant-General Scott, written by Himself,"
2 vois., 1864; MANSFIELD, " Life 01 'General Scott," 1846 : HEADLEY,
" Li.e ot Scott," 1852 ; '* National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished
Americans," vol. iv. ; MAN-.FIKI.U, ". \lexic in War," 1848.
Scotti, skot'tee, (Giuuo CI.EMENTE,) an Italian
writer, born at Piacenza in 1602. He joined the order
of Jesuits, but afterwards became their enemy. Among
his works is " Monarchia Solipsorum," (1645,) directed
against the Jesuits. Died in 1669.
Scotti, (M. \RCF.I.I.O,) a political writer, born at Naples
in 1742 ; died in 1800.
Scotus. See SCOTT and DUNS SCOTUS.
Scotus, (Duxs.) See DUNS SCOTUS.
Scotus, (JoHX.) See ERIGENA.
Scougal, skoo'gal, (HENRY,) a Scottish divine and
professor of philosophy at Aberdeen, was born in East
Lothian in 1650. His principal work is entitled "The
Life of God in the Soul of Man," etc. Died in 1678.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Scoutetten, skoo"t4't6N', (ROBERT JOSEPH HENRI,)
a French surgeon, born at Lille in 1799, has published a
number of medical works.
Scran'ton, (GEORGE W.,) an American manufacturer,
born in New Haven county, Connecticut, in 1811. He
removed to Pennsylvania, and established iron-works at
Scranton, which was named in his honour. He repre
sented the twelfth district of Pennsylvania in Congress
from 1859 until his death. He died in 1861.
Scribani, skRe-ba'nee, (CHARLES,) a Flemish Jesuit,
born at Brussels in 1561. He wrote many theological
and polemical works. Died in 1629.
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SCRIBE
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Scribe, skReb,(AuGUSTiN EUGENE,) a popular French
comic dramatist, born in Paris in 1791. lie wrote comic
operas and vaudevilles in which the character and foibles
of the middle classes of Paris are well represented. He
employed many collaborators in the production of his
works, which are very numerous. In 1835 he was ad
mitted into the French Academy, where Villemain re
ceived him with a complimentary speech. Among his
works are "The Solicitor," (" Le Solliciteur," 1817,)
" Fra Diavo'o," (1830,) "The Crown Diamonds," (1841,)
" The Glass of Water," (1842,) and " Bertrand et Raton."
His plots are ingenious, and his dialogues natural and
animated. Died in 1861.
See L. DK LOMENIE, "Galerie des Contemporains ;" SAINTR-
BF.UVE, "Portraits contemporains ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene"-
rale ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1832.
Scri-bo'nl-us Lar'gus Des-ig-na-ti-a'nus, (des-
ig-na-she-a'nus,) a Roman physician in the time of Tibe
rius and Claudius, was the author of a work entitled
"On the Composition of Medicaments," (" De Compo-
sitione Medicamentorum.")
Scrim'zeor or Scrim'ger, (HENRY,) a Scottish
critic, eminent for learning, was born at Dundee in
1506. He became professor of philosophy and civil
law at Geneva, where he died in 1571 or 1572.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Scriv'en, (EnwARD.) an English engraver in the
chalk and dotted manner, was born at Alcester in 1775.
He engraved portraits and illustrated various expensive
works tor the booksellers. Died in 1841.
Scriver,skRee'ver,(CHRiSTiAN,) a German divine, born
at Rendsburg in 1629, was court preacher at Quedlinburg
in 1690. He was the author of "Gotthold's Emblems,"
and other works. Died in 1693.
Scriverius. See SCHRYVEK.
Scroggs, (Sir WILLIAM,) a English judge of ill repu
tation, born in Oxfordshire in 1623. He was appointed
chief justice of the king's bench in 1678. Suspected of
collusion with Titus Oates in the Popish Plot, he was
removed in 1681. Died in 1683.
See LORD CAMPBELL, " Lives of the Chief Justices."
Scrope, (GEORGE POULETT THOMSON,) an English
geologist, Fellow of the Royal Society, and a brother
of Lord Sydenham, was born in 1797. He published,
among other works, a treatise " On the Geology of Cen
tral France," (1827,) and a "Life of Lord Sydenham,"
(1843.) HC was elected to Parliament, as a Liberal, for
the borough of Strond, in 1833.
See " Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1847.
Scud'der, (HENRY,) an English Presbyterian divine
of the time of Cromwell, was the author of a popular
work entitled "The Christian's Daily Walk."
Scud'der, (JOHN M.,) M.D., an American physician
and divine of the Dutch Reformed Church, was born at
New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1793. In 1819 he sailed
as a missionary to Ceylon, where he resided nineteen
years. He was the author of " The Redeemer's Last
Command," "Letters to Children on Missionary Sub
jects," and other religious works. Died in 1855.
Scuderi or Scudery.de, deh skii'da're', (GKORGE,)
a French dramatist, was born at Havre about 1601. He
was patronized by Cardinal Richelieu, and his works
had great popularity in his time, but are now forgotten.
He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1667.
Scuderi or Scudery, de, (MADELEINE,) sister of the
preceding, was born in 1607. She wrote numerous ro
mances, which were greatly admired by her contempo
raries. Among these we may name " Artamene, ou le
Grand Cyrus," (10 vols.,) "Clelie," (10 vols.,) and " Ibra-
ham, ou 1'illustre Bassa." She also published numerous
tales, fables, and poems. Mademoiselle de Scuderi was
the most distinguished member of the society which
met at the Hotel de Rambouillet, and which has been
immortalized by Moliere in his " Precieuses ridicules."
Died in 1701.
See TALLEMANT DES REAVX, " Historiettes;" NICERON, "Me-
moires;" " Nouvell" Biographic Generale."
Scudery. See SCUD£RI.
Scultetus. See SCHULTET, SCHULTZ, and SCULTZ.
Scultz, skoolts, [Lat. SCULTE'TUS,] (JOHANN.) a
German surgeon, born at Ulm in 1595, was a pupil of
Spigelius. He was the author of " Armamentarium
Chirurgicum," a surgical work highly esteemed at the
time. Died in 1645.
Scylax, si'laks, [S/ci'/la^,] a Greek mathematician and
geographer, was a native of Caryanda, near Halicarnas-
sus, and is supposed to have lived about 500 B.C. He
was the author of a " Periplus of the Parts beyond the
Columns of Hercules," which was first published by
Hoeschel in 1600.
S9y-lit'zes or Sgy-lit'za, | S/nwrfj??,] (JOHN,) a
Byzantine historian, sometimes called CUROPALA'TES,
flourished about 1050-80. He wrote a valuable history
of the Greek Empire, Zvvaipif iarofHuv.
See SMITH, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography."
S9yl'la [Gr. 2/c{'/ia] and -eha-ryb'dis, of classic
mythology, were represented as two monsters which in
fested the strait between Italy and Sicily and rendered
the navigation of that passage very dangerous. They
were located one on each side of a narrow channel,
through which ships must pass, so that the mariner who
avoided one was apt to become a victim of the other,
as the proverb says, —
" Incidit in Scyllam qui vult vitare Charybdim "
The poets feigned that Scylla was a maiden transformed
by Circe into a monster that barked like a dog. Scylia
is, perhaps, the personification of a rock, and Charybdis
of a whirlpool.
Scymnus, sim'nus, [S/«ym)f,] OF CHIOS, a Greek
geographer, who lived about 80 li.c., was the author of a
description of the earth, in Iambic verse, of which only
fragments are extant.
Seabury, see'ber-e, (SAMUi'.i.,) D.D., an American
divine, born at Groton, Connecticut, in 1729. lie grad
uated at Yale College, and was chosen Bishop of Con
necticut in 1783. Died in 1796.
Seabury, (SAMUEL,) D.D., an American divine of
the Episcopal Church, grandson of the preceding, was
born in 1801. He became editor of the New York
"Churchman" in 1834. He published " American Sla
very Justified by the Law of Nature," (1861,) and other
works.
Seals'field, (CHARLES,) a litterateur, of German ex
traction, resided many years in the United States, and be
came associate editor of the "Courrier des fitats-Unis,"
New York, in 1829. He published (in English) "Tokeah,
or the White Rose," and "Sketches of Transatlantic
Travels," "Pictures of Life from both Hemispheres,"
and "South and North," (in German, 3 vols., 1842.)
Translations of portions of the three last-named works
appeared in " Blackwood's Maga/ine." Died in 1864.
See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1846.
Sea'man, (LAZARUS,) an English dissenter of the
seventeenth century, was one of the divines of the
Westminster Assembly. Died in 1675.
Sears, seerz, (BARNAS,) D. D., an American divine
and scholar, born at Sandisfield, Massachusetts, in 1802.
Having studied at several German universities, he be
came, after his return, president of Brown University,
at Providence, (1855.) He has published, among other
works, "Ciceroniana ; or, The Prussian Mode of In
struction in Latin," and a "Life of Luther, with Special
Reference to its Earlier Periods," etc., (1850.) He has
also contributed to the "Bibliotheca Sacra" and the
"Christian Review."
Sea'ton, (JOHN COLHORNE,) BARON, an English
general and statesman, born in 1776. He served with
distinction in the Peninsular war, and was afterwards
appointed Governor of Canada. He obtained the
grand cross of the order of the Bath in 1838, was
made a general in 1854, and. in 1855 commander of the
military forces in Ireland. Died in 1863.
Sea'tpii, (WILLIAM WINSTON,) an American jour
nalist, born in King William county, Virginia, in 1785,
was editor successively of the Petersburg "Republican"
and the "North Carolina Journal," and in 1812 became
associated with his brother-in-law, Mr. Gales, as editor
of the "National Intelligencer," at Washington. Died
in 1866.
Seba, sa'ba, (AIJSERT,) a Dutch amateur naturalist,
born in East Friesland in 1665, acquired a large fortune
a,e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
SEBASTIAN
1989
SEDAINE
in the service of the Dutch East India Company, which
he spent in forming a museum of objects in natural his
tory. This collection having been purchased by Peter
the Great of Russia, Seba made another, still larger,
which was esteemed the finest in Europe. He pub
lished a description of his museum, in Latin and French,
(4 vols. fol.) He died in 1736, soon after which his col
lection was sold at auction.
Sebastian, se-bast'yan, [Port. SEBASTIAO, sa-bas-te-
OWN'; Fr. SEBASTIEN, sa'bis'te^N'; Sp. SEBASTIAN,
sa-bas-te-an' ; Lat. SEBASTTA'NUS,] DOM, King of Por
tugal, and grandson of the emperor Charles V., was
born at Lisbon in 1554. He manifested at an early age
a passion for military adventure and romantic exploits.
In 1578 he took advantage of the dissensions which had
broken out in Morocco to invade that country, under
the pretext of assisting Muley Mohammed to recover his
throne, which had been usurped by his uncle, Abdul-
Melek (or -Malek.) He invaded Morocco, and was op
posed by Abdul-Melek in a battle near Alcazar-quivir,
where Sebastian was defeated and killed in 1578.
See BERNARDO DA CRUZ, "Chronica de L)om Sebasiiao," 1837 ;
BARBOSA MACHADO, "Memorias para a Historia de Portugal," 4
vols., 1736-51; "Nonvelle Biographic Generale;" BAENA PAREDA,
" Vida de D. Sebastian," 1691.
Sebastian, [Lat. SEBASTTA'NUS ; Fr. SEBASTIEN, sa'-
bts't.e^N' ; It. SEBASTTANO, sa-bas-te-a'no,] SAINT, a
celebrated Christian martyr of the third century, is sup
posed to have been a native of Xarbonne, in France.
He served as a captain in the praetorian guard under
Diocletian. Having refused to abjure his faith, he was
tied to a tree and pierced with arrows, A.n. 288. His
martyrdom has been a favourite subject with the painters
of the middle ages, and his protection is invoked by the
Catholics against pestilence.
See MRS. JAMESON, " Sacred and Legendary Art."
Sebastian del Fiombo. See PIOMBO.
Sebastiani, sa-bas-te-a'nee or sa'bis'te't'ne', (HOR
ACE FRANCOIS,) COUNT, a distinguished general and
diplomatist in the French service, was born in Corsica
about 1775. He took part in the Italian campaigns of
1796 and 1799, and rose to be general of brigade in 1802.
He afterwards served in Austria, Spain, and Russia.
1 le was appointed minister of marine after the revolution
of 1830 by Louis Philippe, and subsequently minister of
foreign affairs. In 1835 he was ambassador to London,
and was made a marshal of France in 1840. Died in 1851.
See L. DE LoMEN'iE, " M. le Comte de Sebastiani," 1841;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sebastiani, (JEAN ANDRE TIKURCE,) VISCOUNT, a
general, a brother of the preceding, was born in Cor
sica in 1788. He took part in the Spanish campaigns
from 1808 to 1811, and accompanied the grand army to
Russia in 1812. He was made a lieutenant-general after
the revolution of 1830, and received the grand cross of
the legion of honour in 1845.
Sebastiano. See SEBASTIAN.
Sebastianus. See SEBASTIAN.
Sebastiao. See SEBASTIAN.
Sebastien. See SEBASTIAN.
Seber, sa'ber or za'ber, (WOLFGANG,) a German
scholar and divine, born at Sula in 1573, published an
•'Index of all the Words in Homer," ("Index omnium
in Hotnero Verborum,") and editions of several Greek
classics. Died in 1634.
Sebonde, de, da si-bon'da, or Sabunde, sa-boon'-
da, (RAYMOND,) a Spanish physician and theologian,
born at Barcelona, became professor of medicine, phi
losophy, and divinity at Toulouse. He was the author
of "Theologia Naturalis," (1496,) which was translated
into French by Montaigne. Died about 1432.
See BAYLE, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" J. HOLBERG,
"De Theologia Naturali R. de Sebonde," 1846.
Sebron, sa'bRox', (HIPPOLYTE,) a French painter,
born in 1801, was a pupil of Daguerre.
Seckelles. See HERAULT DES SECHELLES.
Seckendorf, von, fon sek'en-doKf or zek'en-doRf,
(CHRISTIAN ADOLF,) BARON, a German dramatist and
poet, born in 1767; died in 1833.
Seckendorf, von, (FRIF.DRICH HEINRICH,) COUNT,
a German commander and diplomatist, born at Konigs-
berg, in Franconia, in 1673, was a nephew of Veit Lud-
wig, noticed below. He served against the Turks under
Prince Eugene, and in the war of the Spanish succes
sion, and subsequently entered the army of Augustus
II. of Poland. As Polish ambassador at the Hague, he
assisted in negotiating the peace of Utrecht, in 1713.
Created fiekl-marshal-lieutenant in 1717, he fought under
Eugene at the battle of Belgrade, and was soon after
made a count of the empire, general of ordnance, and
governor of Leipsic. He concluded the treaty of Wus-
terhausen, in 1726. On the death of Eugene he became
commander-in-chief of the Austrian army at Belgrade.
Died in 1763.
See THERESIUS VON SECKENDORF, " Lebensbeschreibung des
Grafen von Seckendorf," 1792-94 ; "Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Seckendorf, von, (GUSTAV,) BARON, a German
writer, known by the pseudonym of PATRICK PEALE,
born near Altenburg in 1775, was author of a number
of dramas and prose essays. He died in America
in 1823.
Seckendorf, von, (LEO,) BARON, a German litte
rateur, brother of Christian Adolf, noticed above, was
born near Hassfurt about 1773 ; died in 1809.
Seckendorf, von, (VEIT LUDWIG,) an eminent
German statesman, scholar, and theologian, born near
Erlangen in 1626. In 1691 he was appointed by the
Elector Frederick III. (afterwards Frederick I. of Prus
sia) his privy councillor, and made chancellor of the
University of Halle. He was the author of a political
work entitled " Deutsche Fiirstenstaat," (1665,) "His
torical and Apologetical Commentary on Lutheranism,"
"Compendium of Ecclesiastical History," (both in
Latin, 1666,) and " Christenstaat," a defence of Chris
tianity against the infidel philosophers. Died in 1692.
See SCHREBER, " Historia Vitae V. L. a Seckendorf," 1733 ;
PIPPING, "Memoriae Theologorum."
Seck'er, (THOMAS,) an eminent English prelate, born
at Nottingham in 1693. He studied at an academy for
dissenters at Tewkesbury, where Butler, the author of
the " Analogy," was one of his fellow-students. He
afterwards conformed to the Church of England, entered
Exeter College, Oxford, and was ordained in 1723. He
was made Bishop of Bristol, (1735,) of Oxford, (1737,)
and Archbishop of Canterbury, (1758.) He died in 1768,
leaving a number of sermons, lectures, etc.
See BEILBY PORTEUS, " Review of the Life and Character of
Archbishop Seeker."
Second, (JEAN.) See EVERARD, QOANNES.)
Secondat, de. See MONTESQUIEU, DE.
Secondat, de, deh seh-koN'dt', (JEAN BAPTISTE,)
BARON, a son of the celebrated Montesquieu, was born
near Bordeaux in 1716. He wrote several scientific
treatises. Died in 1796.
Secondo, sa-kon'do, (GIOVANNI MARIA,) an Italian
lawyer and litterateur, born at Lucera in 1715. Among
his works is a " Life of Julius Caesar," (" Storia della
Vita di C. Giulio Cesare," 3 vols., 1777.) Died in 1798.
Secousse, seh-kooss', (DENIS FRANCOIS,) a French
historical writer, born in Paris in 1691. He was a
member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and held the
office of censor royal. He published " Memoires de
Conde," (5 vols., 1743,) "Memoirs towards the History
of Charles the Bad," (1755-58,) a "Collection of Royal
Ordinances," and other works. Died in 1754.
Secretan, sa'kreh-tan' ? (Louis,) a Swiss writer and
politician, born at Lausanne in 1758. He was a member
of the executive directory in 1799. Died in 1839.
Secundus, (JOANNES.) See EVERARD, (JOANNES.)
Sedaine, sa'din', (MICHEL JEAN,) a popular French
dramatist, born in Paris in 1719. Among his principal
works are the comedies entitled " The Philosopher with
out knowing it," (" Le Philosophe sans le savoir,")
"The Unexpected Wager," ("La Gageure imprevue,")
and " Raimond, Count of Toulouse ;" also the operas
of "Aline, Queen of Golconda," "Amphitryon," " Rich
ard Coeur-de-Lion," and " William Tell." He was
chosen a member of the French Academy in 1786.
Died in 1797.
See MADAME DE SAI.M-DYCK, " filoge de Sedaine," 1797;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" LA HARPE, " Cours de Lit-
tsrature.'
€ as k; c as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in rt/j. (!^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
SEDANO
1990
SEDLET
Sedano, de, da sa-da'no, (Don JUAN Jos£ LOPEZ,)
a Spanish antiquary, born at Alcala de Henares in 1729,
published a " Dissertation on the Medals and Ancient
Monuments found in Spain," a compilation of poems
entitled " The Spanish Parnassus," and other works.
Died in 1801.
Sed'doii, (JAMES A.,) an American politician and
lawyer, born in Virginia. He was elected a member of
Congress in 1845 and in 1849. He was appointed secre
tary of war of the Confederate States about November,
1862, and retained that office until January, 1865.
Sedecias, the French for ZEDEKIAH, (King of Judah,)
which see.
Sedg'wick, (ADAM,) an eminent English geologist,
born at Dent, in Yorkshire, in 1785 or 1786. He was
educated at Cambridge, and became a Fellow of Trinity
College in 1809. He obtained in 1818 the- chair of
geology founded at Cambridge by Dr. Woodward, and
became a canon of Norwich in 1834. Professor Sedgwick
gave much attention to the crystalline and palaeozoic
rocks, and contributed greatly to the progress of geology
in England. Among his works is a " Synopsis of the
Classification of the British Palaeozoic Rocks." He is
reputed to have written an able criticism which appeared
in the "Edinburgh Review" on a book called " Vestiges
of Creation."
Sedgwick, (AMY,) (Mrs. PARKES,) a popular Eng
lish actress, born at Bristol in 1835.
Se"dg'wick, (CATHERINE MARIA,) an eminent Amer
ican writer and moralist, daughter of Judge Sedgwick,
noticed below, was born at Stockbridge, Massachusetts,
in 1789. Her first publication, entitled " The New Eng
land Tale," (1822,) was received with great favour, and
was followed by " Redwood," a novel, (1824.) Her tale
of " Hope Leslie" came out in 1827, and soon obtained
a wide popularity in America and Europe, having been
translated into German. Her other novels are entitled
" Clarence, or a Tale of our Own Times," (1830,) " The
Limvoods," (1835,) and "Married or Single," (1857.)
She also wrote numerous popular tales for the young,
which are among the most valuable and attractive works
of the kind. Among these may be named the " Love- |
Token for Children," " Poor Rich Man and Rich Poor |
Man," " Live and Let Live," " Means and Ends of Self-
Training," and " Morals of Manners." Having visited
Europe, Miss Sedgwick published in 1841 " Letters from
Abroad to Kindred at Home." She contributed to
Sparks's " American Biography" the " Life of Lucretia
Maria Davidson," and wrote a number of tales for the
leading periodicals. Died in 1867.
See GRISWOLD, " Prose Writers of America ;" HARRIHT MAR-
TINEAU, article in " Westminster Review" for October, 1837 ; " North
American Review" for April, 1825. April, 182*. January, 1831. and
October, 1837 ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Ameri
cans," vol. i.
Sedgwick, (JOHN,) an able American general, born
in Connecticut about 1815, graduated at West Point in
1837. He served in the Mexican war as first lieutenant,
(1846-47,) and was a lieutenant-colonel in the regular
army when the civil war began. He obtained command
of a brigade in August, 1861, distinguished himself at
Fair Oaks, May 31 and June I, 1862, and took part in
the Seven Days' battles, June 26 to July I. Having
displayed great courage and skill at Antietam, Septem
ber 1 6 and 17, he was raised to the rank of major-general
in December. He commanded a corps at the battle of
Gettysburg, July 2 and 3, 1863, and in the army which
Grant moved towards Richmond. He was killed near
Spottsylvania Court-House on the gth of May, 1864.
See TENNEY, " Military and Naval History of the Rebellion," p.
777-
Sedgwick, (OHADIAH,) an English Puritan divine,
born in Wiltshire in 1600. He was preacher at Saint
Paul's, London, and a member of the Westminster
Assembly. He was the author of "The Anatomy
of Secret Sins," and other religious works. Died in
1658.
Sedgwick, (ROBERT,) an ancestor of Theodore Sedg
wick, was a major-general in the army of Cromwell.
He was one of the early settlers of Charlestown, Mas
sachusetts. He took Port Royal from the French. Died
in Jamaica in 1656.
Sedgwick, (SUSAN RIDI.KY,) wife of Theodore Sedg
wick, (the second of the name,) has published several
fictitious works and juvenile tales, among which we may
name "The Young Emigrants," "The Morals of Pleas
ure," (1829,) "The Children's Week," (1830,) "Allen
Prescott," (1834,) and " Walter Thornley," (1859.)
Sedgwick, (THEODORE,) an able American jurist
and statesman, born at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1746.
He entered the army on the breaking out of the Revo
lutionary war, pii d in 1785 was elected to the Continental
Congress, in which he served until 1796. He became a
United States Senator in 1796, and was chosen Speaker
of the House of Representatives in 1799. He was ap
pointed in 1802 judge of the supreme court of Massa
chusetts. In this post he was conspicuous for his earn
est opposition to slavery; and to his efforts was owing,
in a great degree, the abolition of that institution in Mas
sachusetts. He resided many years at Stockbridge. to
which he removed in 1785. He" was an active member
of the Federal party, and was a communicant in the
church of Dr. Channing in Boston, where he died in
January. 1813.
Sedgwick, (THEODORE,) an American jurist, born at
Sheffield, Massachusetts, in 1780, was a son of the pre
ceding. He was the author of a work entitled " Public
and Private Economy, illustrated by Observations made
in Europe in 1836-7." As a member of the State legis
lature, he was an earnest advocate of the anti-slavery,
temperance, and other reforms. Died in 1839.
See the " Democratic Review" for February, 1840.
Sedgwick, (THKODORK,) a son of the preceding,
was born at Albany in iSit. He graduated at Columbia
College in 1829, and subsequently made the tour of
Europe. He obtained a hiuh reputation and extensive
practice as a lawyer, and published several legal works
of great merit. Among these we may name his "Treat
ise on the Measure of Damages, or an Inquiry into the
Principles which govern the Amount of Compensation
recovered in Suits at Law," (1847.) In 1858 he was
appointed United States attorney for the southern dis
trict of New York. Died in 1859.
Sedgwick, (Wn.i.iAM.) an English Puritan, was
called "the Apostle of Ely," also " Doomsdav Sedgwick,"
from his prophecies of the end of the world being near.
Died about 1660.
Sedillot, si'de'yo', (CHARLES EMMANUEL,) a skilful
French physician and surgeon, born in Paris in 1804,
was appointed in 1841 professor of surgical clinics in the
Faculty of Medicine at Strasbourg. He published a
"Manual of Legal Medicine," (1830,) and other works.
Sedillot, (JEAN,) a French physician, born near
Rambouillet in 1757. He founded in 1797 the '• Journal
of Medicine, Snrgerv, and Pharmacy," which he edited
for twenty years. Died in 1840.
Sedillot, (JEAN JACQUES EMMANUEL,) a French
Orientalist, the father of Charles Emmanuel, noticed
above, was born at Montmorency in 1777; died in 1832.
Sedillot, (Louis PIERRE EUGENE AMEI.IE,) a French
Orientalist, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris
in 1808. He was successively appointed professor of
history in the Colleges of Bourbon and Saint Louis,
secretary in the College of France, and of the school for
living Oriental tongues. Among his numerous works
we may name " Letters on some Points of Oriental
Astronomy," (1834,) "New Researches towards the
History of Mathematical Science among the Orientals,"
(1837,) and a "History of the Arabs," (1854)
Sed'ley, (CATHERINE,) a daughter of Sir Charles
Sedley, "whose abilities and impudence," says Mac-
aulay, "she inherited." She became the mistress of
James II., who gave her the title of Countess of Dor
chester. She co-operated with the king's ministers in
resisting his infatuated purpose to hazard the loss of the
throne by his zeal for popery. Died in 1692.
See MACAULAV, "History of England," chap. vi.
Sedley, (Sir CHARLES,) an English poet and drama
tist, born in Kent in 1639, was distinguished at the
court of Charles II. for his wit and profligacy. He was
a member of Parliament from New Romney, Kent, and
after the revolution of 1688 he joined the party of the
;!, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; not; good; moon;
SEDULIUS
1991
SEGUIER
Prince of Orange. He was the author of tragedies
entitled " Antony and Cleopatra" and " The Tyrant
King of Crete," also a number of comedies and licen
tious poems. Died in 1701.
Se-du'li-us, (C/ELius,) a Roman poet and Christian
of the fifth century, was the author of "Mirabilium Di-
vinorum," being portions of the history of the Bible, in
hexameter verse, a " Hymnus" in praise of Christ, and
other similar works.
Seebach, sa'baK or za'baK, (MARIE,) a popular Ger
man actress, born at Riga in 1837. After she had
acquired a European reputation, she visited the United
States in 1870.
Seebach, von, fon za'baK, (ALBIN LEO,) a German
diplomatist, born at Langensalza in 1811. He became
ambassador from Saxony to Saint Petersburg in 1847,
and to Paris in 1853.
Seebeck, sa'bek or za'bek, QOHANN THOMAS,) a
German natural philosopher, born at Reval in 1770, be
came a resident of Nuremberg about 1812. He afterwards
removed to Berlin, and was a member of the Royal
Academy of that city. He made discoveries in optics, and
invented the thermo-electric pile, (1821.) Died in 1831.
See "Biographic Universelle," (new edition.)
Seebode, sa'bo'deh or za'bo'deh, QOACHIM GOTT
FRIED,) a German philologist, born in 1792. He edited
the works of Tacitus and Thucydides. Died in 1860.
Seed, (JEREMIAH,) an English divine, born in Cum
berland, published a number of Sermons, Letters,
Essays, etc. He preached at Twickenham and Enhani.
Died in 1747.
Seekatz, sa'kats or za'kats, (JOHANN KONHAD,) a
German painter of superior merit, born at Griinstadt in
1719 ; died in 1768.
Seelen, von, fon sa'len or za'len, (J. H.,) a German
philologist, born at Bremen in 1687; died in 1762.
Seeta. See SITA.
Seetzen, sat 'sen or zat'sen, (Ui,RiCH JASPER,) a
German naturalist, born near Oldenburg in 1767,
travelled in Palestine, Egypt, and Arabia, and made a
valuable collection of manuscripts and objects in natural
history, now in the museum at Gotha. He is said to
have adopted the Moslem religion. He died near Mocha,
Arabia, in 1811.
Seeva. See SIVA.
Sefi, sef'ee, written also Suffee, originally Sam-
Meerza, (Mirza,) sSm meer'zi, Sultan of Persia, was
a grandson of Abbas the Great. He began to reign in
1628, and committed great excesses of cruelty. He was
involved in war with the Turkish Sultan Amurath IV.,
who took Bagdad. Died in 1642.
Sefstrom or Sefstroem, set'strbm, (Nn.s GABRIEL,)
a Swedish chemist, born at Helsingland in 1787. He dis
covered the metal Vanadium about 1830. Died in 1854.
Segalas, sa'gt'lts', (PIERRE SALOMON,) a French
physician, born at Saint-Palais in 1792, published a
number of medical works.
Se'gar, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English magistrate and
writer, held the office of Garter king-at-arms. He pub
lished a work entitled " Honour, Civil and Military."
Died in 1633.
Seghers or Segers, sa'gers or sa'Hers, (DANMEL,) a
Dutch painter of fruit- and flower-pieces, born at Antwerp
in 1590, was a pupil of Breughel. He attained great ex
cellence in his department of the art, and was employed
by Rubens to paint the flowers in some of his historical
pictures. Died in 1660.
Seghers, (GERAART,) brother or cousin of the pre
ceding, was born at Antwerp about 1589. He studied
painting at Rome, and afterwards visited Spain, where
he was patronized by the court. His works are chiefly
historical. Died in 1651.
Segneri, san-ya'ree, (PAOLO,) an Italian Jesuit and
celebrated pulpit orator, born near Rome in 1624. He
filled the post of preacher to Pope Innocent XII. His
''Quaresimale," or sermons for Lent, are esteemed
among the best productions of the kind in the language.
Died in 1694.
See G. MASSEI or MAFFEI, "Vita del P. Segneri," 1717; ME-
NEGHELLI, " Elogio storico di P. Segneri," 1815; NICERON, "Me-
moires ;" TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Segneri, (PAOLO,) a nephew of the preceding, was
born at Rome in 1673. He was a Jesuit and a noted
preacher. Died in 1713.
See GALUZZI, " Vita del P. Segneri Juniore," 1716.
Segni, san'yee, (BERNARDO,) an Italian historian,
born at Florence in the fifteenth century. His principal
work, a " History of Florence from 1527 to 1555," has
a high reputation. He also translated several works of
Aristotle into Italian. Died in 1559.
Segrais, de, deh seh-gki', (JEAN REGNAULD,) a
French poet and novelist, born at Caen in 1624. He
was secretary of Mademoiselle de Montpensier for many
years. He translated Virgil into verse, and wrote pas
toral poems, the style of which was praised by Boileau.
Died in 1701.
See BRKDIF, "Segrais, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," 1863; NICERON,
" Memoires ;" A. GALLAND, " Segraisiana," 1720; "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Geuerale."
Seguier, sa'gc-a', (ANTOINE,) a French judge, born
in Paris in i552T~was a son of Pierre, (1504-80.) He
was appointed advocate-general in 1587, was loyal to
the king during the League, and defended the liberty
of the Gallican Church against Pope Gregory XIV.
Died in 1624.
Seguier, (ANTOINE JEAN MATHIEU,) a French judge,
born in Paris in 1768. He was appointed president of
the court of appeal, Paris, in 1802, and retained that
position more than forty years. Died in 1848.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Seguier, (ANTOINE Louis,) a celebrated French jurist
and orator, born in Paris in 1726, was the father of the
preceding. Appointed advocate-general in the Parlia
ment of Paris in 1755, he soon acquired the highest
reputation for eloquence, legal knowledge, and integrity.
In 1757 he succeeded Fontenelle as a member of the
French Academy. Died in 1792.
See PORTAMS, " Eloged'A. L. Seguier," 1806 ; VOLTAIRE, " Let-
tres:" SAPEY, " Les Seguier ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Seguier, (ARMAND PIERRE,) BARON, a French ad
vocate, a son of Antoine Jean Mathieu, noticed above,
was born at Montpellier in 1803. He became about
1830 a councillor at the royal court of Paris. In 1848
he resigned his functions and devoted himself to works of
mechanism. He is noted for his mechanical skill and
knowledge of machines, and is a member of the Institute.
Seguier, (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a French antiquary and
naturalist, born at Nimes in 1703, was related to the
eminent jurists of that name. He was an intimate friend
of Scipio Maflfei, in conjunction with whom he made a
large collection of ancient inscriptions. He died in 1784,
leaving his museum of medals and objects in natural
history to the Academy of Nimes. He translated into
French the " Memoirs of Alexander, Marquis of Maffei,"
and wrote a work entitled " Bibliotheca Botanica."
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Seguier, (NICOLAS MAXIMILIEN SIDOINE,) Marquis
de Saint-Brisson, a French writer, born at Beauvais in
1773. Among his works is an " Essay on Polytheism,"
(2 vols., 1840.) Died in 1854.
Seguier, (PIERRE,) an eminent French jurist and
magistrate, born in Paris in 1504. He rose through
several important offices to be president a morticr in
1554, and, while filling this post, was chiefly instrumental
in preventing the introduction of the Inquisition into
France. He died in 1580, leaving six sons, who were
distinguished for their legal attainments.
See MORERI, "Dictionnaire Historique."
Seguier, (PIERRE,) an eminent French statesman
and patron of learning, born in Paris in May, 1588, was
a grandson of the preceding, and a son of Jean Seguier.
He became chancellor of France in 1635, and retained
that office (except for short intervals) until his death.
He was a friend of Richelieu, with whom he shares the
honour of being the founder of the French Academy, of
which he was president. Voltaire praised his fidelity in
these terms, — " Toujours fidele dans 1111 temps oil c'etait
un merite de ne pas 1'etre," (" Always faithful in a time
when it was a merit not to be so.") Died in 1672.
See FLOQUET, " Diaire du Chancelier Seguier," 1842; SAPEY,
" Les Seguier ;" F. TALLEMANT, " Eloge funebre de P. Seguier,"
1672; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Biographic Universelle."
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SEGUR
1992
SELDEN
Segur, de, deh sa'giiK', (HENRI FRANCOIS,) COMTE,
a French soldier, bom in 1689, served with distinction
in Spain and Italy, and was made lieutenant-general in
1738. Died in 1751.
Segur, de, (JOSEPH ALEXANDRE,) VICOMTK, brother
of Count Louis Philippe, was born in Paris in 1756.
He was the author of " Romances and Songs," " Women :
their Condition and Influence in the Social Order,"
(1820,) and numerous comedies, operas, and romances.
Died in 1805.
See QU^RARD, "La France Litteraire."
Segur, de, (Louis PHILIPPE,) COMTE, a French diplo
matist and litterateur, born in Paris in 1753, was a son
of Philippe Henri, noticed below. He served under
Rochambeau in the American war, and after its ter
mination was appointed in 1784 ambassador to Saint
Petersburg, where he was treated with great distinc
tion by Catherine II. He was elected to the National
Assembly after the breaking out of the French Revolu
tion, and in 1792 was sent on a mission to the court
of Prussia. He was chosen a member of the French
Academy in 1803, and was subsequently made a peer
by Louis XVIII. He published a " Historical and
Political Picture of Europe from 1786 to 1796," " Moral
and Political Tales," " Universal History, Ancient and
Modern," (1819,) "Moral and Political Gallery," and
"Memoirs, Souvenirs, and Anecdotes," (3 vols., 1824.)
The last-named, a very entertaining and attractive work,
obtained great popularity. Died in 1830.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" SAINTK-BEUVE, notice in
the "Revue des Deux Mondes" for May 15, 1843.
Segur, de, (PHILIPPE HKNKI,) MARQUIS, son of
Henri Fran9uis, noticed above, was born in 1724. He
served with distinction in the Italian and German cam
paigns of Louis XV., and attained the rank of lieutenant-
general. He was appointed minister of war in 1780, and
marshal of France in 1783. Died in 1801.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Segur, de, (PHILIPPE PAUL,) COMTE, a general and
historian, born in Paris in 1780, was a son of Louis
Philippe, noticed above. lie became an officer of Bo
naparte's staff, and obtained the confidence of that chief,
who employed him in several foreign missions. He
served as a general of the imperial staff in the campaign
of Russia. He wrote a " History of Napoleon and the
Grand Army in 1812," (1824,) which had great success,
and a " History of Russia and Peter the Great," (1829.)
In 1830 he was admitted into the French Academy.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Segur d'Aguesseau, de, deh sa'gtiR' dt'gi'so',
(RAYMOND JOSEPH PAUL,) COMTE, born in Paris in
1803, studied law, and became a senator in 1852.
Seguy, seh-ge', (JOSEPH,) a French preacher and
poet, born at Rodez in 1689, became a member of the
French Academy in 1736. Died in 1761.
Seidl, sid'l or zid'l, (]OHANN GAHKIEL,) an Austrian
litterateur and antiquary, born at Vienna in 1804, was
appointed in 1840 keeper of the cabinet of coins and
antiques at Vienna.
See " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1852.
Seignelay, de. See COLBERT, (JEAN BAPTISTS.)
Seller, sl'ler or zl'ler, (GEOKG FRIEDRICH,) a German
writer, born near Baireuth in 1733, became in 1770 pro
fessor of theology at Erlangen. Died in 1807.
Seiss, seess, (JOSEPH AUGUSTUS,) D.D., a learned
Lutheran divine, born near Emmetsburg, Maryland, in
1823, became in 1858 the pastor of Saint John's Church,
Philadelphia. He has published, besides many other
works, sermons, etc., "The Last Times and the Great
Consummation," (1856 ; 6th edition, 1864.)
Seissel, de, deh si'sel', (CLAUDE,) a French histo
rian, born in Savoy about 1450. He became Bishop of
Marseilles in 1509. He wrote, besides other works, " La
grande Monarchic de France," (1519.) Died in 1520.
Sejan. See SEJANUS.
Sejan, sa'zh&N', (NICOLAS,) a French composer and
excellent organist, born in Paris in 1745 ; died in 1819.
Se-ja'nus, [Fr. S&JAN, sa'zh6\',] (Lucius /ELIUS,)
a celebrated Roman courtier and favourite of the em
peror Tiberius, was born at Vulsinii, in Etruria. He
rose through various promotions to be commander-in-
chief of the praetorian cohorts, and, aiming at the im
perial power, soon after effected the death of Drusus, son
of the emperor, by poison, in 23 A.D., having previously
seduced Livia, the wife of Drusus, and made her an
accomplice in his crime. With a view of obtaining the
sole direction of public affairs, he induced Tiberius to
retire to the island of Capreae, and subsequently caused
Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, and her sons, to be
put to death. The emperor, aroused at length to sus
picion, deprived Sejanus of his office, and ordered him
to be arrested and executed, 31 A.I).
See TACITUS, " Annales ;" J. ARRHENIUS, " Dissertatio de Se-
jano," 1696; MERIVALE, "The Romans under the Empire."
Sejour, sa'zhooR', (VICTOR,) a French dramatist,
born in Paris about 1816.
Sel'by, (PRIDEAUX JOHN,) an English ornithologist,
was the author of " Figures of British Birds," (Edin
burgh, 1821,) which, says Professor Wilson, "is perhaps
the most splendid work of the kind ever published in
Britain," and of a "History of British Forest-Trees,"
(London, 1842.) Died in 1867.
See " Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1826, and June,
1828.
Sel'den, (DUDLEY,) an American lawyer, practised
his profession in New York with distinction, and was
elected to Congress in 1833. Died in Paris in 1855.
Sel'den, (JoHN,) a celebrated English lawyer and
statesman, born at Salvington, in Sussex, or. the i6th
of December, 1584. He was educated at Oxford, which
he quitted about 1602, and entered the Inner Temple,
London, in 1604. He was an intimate friend of Ben
Jonson. He was profoundly versed in history, lan
guages, antiquities, etc. His first work was " Analecton
Anglo-Britannicon," (1606.) In 1614 he published a
work " On Titles of Honour," which was highly esteemed.
His reputation was augmented by a learned treatise
"On Syrian Divinities," (" De Diis Syris," 1617.) In
1623 he was elected to Parliament, in which he acted
with the country party, or opposition. He was one of
the managers of the prosecution of the Duke of Buck
ingham, in 1626-28. In the session of 1629 Selden was
a prominent opponent of the arbitrary measures of the
king, who committed him, with other leaders, to the
Tower. After he had passed eight months in prison, the
court offered to release him if he would give security for
his good behaviour, which he refused to do. He was
then transferred to another place of confinement, and
detained until 1634. In 1635 he published a celebrated
work entitled the "Closed Sea," (" Mare Clausum,") in
which he claimed for England the exclusive use of the
sea. This was written to refute the work of Grotius
called " Open Sea," (" Mare Liberum.") He represented
the University of Oxford in the Long Parliament, which
met in 1640. In the contest between the king and the
Parliament he pursued a moderate or irresolute course.
He opposed the execution of the Earl of Strafford, but
subscribed the Covenant in 1643, and was one of the lay
members of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster.
Among his important works are one "On the Law of
Nature and of Nations according to the Teaching of
the Hebrews," (" De Jure naturali et Gentium juxta
Disciplinam Hebrasorum," 1640,) and " A Commentary
on English Law," (" Fleta, seu Commentarius Juris
Anglican!, " 1647.) Selden remained in Parliament until
1650 or later. His latter years were passed in the house
of the Countess-dowager of Kent, to whom it was re
ported he was married. He died in November, 1654.
His character is highly extolled by men of both parties,
including Clarendon, who says, "Mr. Selden was a
person whom no character can' flatter or transmit in any
expressions equal to his merit and virtue." "His say
ings," says Hallam, "are full of vigour, raciness, and a
kind of scorn of the half-learned far less rude but more
cutting than that of Scaliger. It has been said that
the Table-Talk of Selden is worth all the Ana of the
Continent. In this I should be disposed to concur."
'" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.")
See WILKINS, " Life of Selden," 1726 ; J. AIKIN, " Life of John
Selden," 1812; G. W. JOHNSON, "Memoirs of J. Selden," 1835 ;
'' Selden's Table-Talk," 1689: "London Quarterly Review" for
January, 1856; ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
ii, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, xi. y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
SELDJOUKIDES
'993
SELWTN
Seldjoukides. See SELJOOKIDES.
Seldschuken or Seldschukiden. See SEIJOO-
KIDKS.
Se-le'ne, [Gr. IK/JJV*I ;. Fr. SELENE, si'lin'; Lat.
LU'NA,] the goddess of the moon, sometimes called
MF.NE or PHCEHE. She was said to be a daughter of
Helios or Hyperion, and by some writers was identified
with DIANA, (which see.)
Seleucidee, se-lu'si-de, the name of the dynasty
founded by Seleucus Nicator. (See next article.)
Se-leu'cus [Gr. I,EAEVKO<;] I., surnamed NICA'TOR,
fcjuncler of the dynasty of the Seleucidae, was the son
of Antiochus, a general in the service of Philip of Mace-
don. He rose to the highest rank in the army of Alex
ander the Great, and, after the death of that sovereign,
became Satrap of Babylonia about 321 B.C. He subse
quently carried on a war against Antigonus and his son
Demetrius, which resulted in his obtaining possession
of Media, Bactria, and other large portions of Asia, and
forming thereby the Syrian monarchy. Having set out
on an expedition against Macedonia, he was assassinated
by Ptolemy Ceraunus, 280 B.C. He founded the cities
of Antioch and Seleucia, (or, more correctly, Seleuceia,)
and was a liberal patron of learning. He was highly
distinguished for military ability. He was succeeded by
his son, Antiochus I.
Se-leu'cus Cal-li-m'cus, son of Antiochus II., as
cended the throne of Syria in 246 B.C. He carried on
wars with the Egyptians and Parthians. Died about
226 B.C.
Seleu'cus III. Qle-rau'nus, King of Syria, was a
son of Seleucus Callinicus, whom he succeeded in 226
B.C. He died in 223, and was succeeded by his brother,
Antiochus III.
Seleu'cus IV. Fhilop'ator, a son of Antiochus III.,
became King of Syria in 186 or 187 B.C. He paid a
large sum of money to the Romans, who had defeated
Antiochus. Died in 175 B.C.
Seleucus V., a son of Demetrius Nicator, began to
reign in 124 B.C. He was put to death by his mother,
Cleopatra, in the same year.
Seleucus VI., snrnamed EPIPH'ANES, was a son of
Antiochus VIII. lie became king in 96, and was killed
in 95 or 94 B.C.
Se'lim [Turk. SELEKM or SELIM, seh-leem'] I., a son
of Bayazeed (Bajazet) II., was born in 1467, and became
Emperor of Turkey in 1512. Having put to death his
two brothers, he invaded Persia, took its capital, and
subsequently carried on a successful war against Egypt
and Syria. He was preparing for another invasion of
Persia, when he died, in 1520.
See VON HAMMER, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs."
Selini (Seleem) II., grandson of the preceding, and
son of Solyman the Magnificent, was born about 1524,
and ascended the throne in 1566. Among the principal
events of his reign were the conquest of Cyprus from
the Venetians, and the signal defeat of the Turks in the
naval battle of Lepanto, (1571.) Died in 1574.
See Vox HAMMER, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs."
Selim (Seleem) III., son of Mustafa III., born in
1761, became Sultan of Turkey in 1789. Having an
earnest desire to reform the government, he had, before
his accession, corresponded with the French ambassador,
Count Choiseul, and with other distinguished statesmen.
After the termination of the wars in which Turkey had
been engaged with Russia, Austria, and France, Selim
entered upon his various reforms, among the most im
portant of which was the Nizam Jedeed, (or Jedid,) i.e.
the "new order," or organization of the army after the
European manner. In 1806 war again broke out between
Turkey and the allied armies of Russia and England,
and the Janissaries, availing themselves of the dissatis
faction of the army with the new arrangements, openly
revolted, and took possession of the arsenal. The Sultan
was deposed, and succeeded by Mustafa IV., who soon
after caused him to be strangled in prison, (1808.)
See LAMARTINE, " Histoire de la Turquie ;" " Nnuvelle Bio-
graph ie Generate. '°
Sells, sa'less', (NICOLAS JOSEPH,) a French poet,
born in Paris in 1737, became professor of Latin poetry
in the College of France in 1796. He produced a good
translation of the Satires of Persius. Among his works,
which are commended as elegant in style, are "Epistles
in Verse on Various Subjects," (1776.) Died in 1802.
Seljookides or Seljukides, tel-joo'kidz, sing.
Seljukide or Seljookide, sel-joo'kid, [Fr. SELDJOU
KIDES, seTjoo'ked'; Ger. SELDSCHUKEN, sel-joo'ken, or
SELDSCHUKIDEN, sSl-joo-kee'den ; Lat. SELGIU'KID,-E
or SELJU'KID^E,] the name of a celebrated dynasty,
which was established in the latter half of the eleventh
century. Its founder was Togrul Beg, whose grand
father Seljook, (Seljuk,) having been expelled from
Toorkistan by the ruling prince, accompanied by a
powerful tribe, (of which he was the head,) settled in
Bokhara and embraced the Mohammedan religion.
Seljook, when over a hundred years of age, was killed
in battle, and was succeeded by his grandson, Togrul
Beg. This chieftain overran a large part of Central
Asia, took Bagdad, and obtained possession of the per
son of the Caliph, whom, however, he treated with
profound respect. The prince of the faithful afterwards
appointed Togrul the lieutenant of his vast empire, and
gave him his daughter in marriage. Togrul Beg was
succeeded by his nephew, the famous ALP-AusLAN,
(which see.) Under him and his son, Malik Shah, the
Seljookian empire attained its highest point of power
and glory. It soon after began to decline, and ended
with the 'death of Togrul III.
Seljuk. See SEIJOOKIDKS.
Seljukides. See SELJOOKIDES.
Sel'kirk, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish sailor, born at
Largo in 1676. Having in one of his voyages quar
relled with his captain, he was left on the uninhabited
island of Juan Fernandez in 1704, with only his gun,
axe, ammunition, and a few other necessaries. Here
he remained more than four years, living on game
and clothing himself with the skins of goats. He was
taken off in 1709, by Captain Vvoodes Rogers, who made
him his mate. He died in 1723, having attained the
rank of lieutenant in the navy. Selkirk's adventures
suggested to Defoe the celebrated romance of" Robinson
Crusoe."
See JOHN HOWELL, " Life and Adventures of Alexander Selkirk."
Selle, sel'leh or zel'leh, (CHRISTIAN THEOPHILUS,)
a German physician and writer, born at Stettin, in Pome-
rania, in 1748, became physician to Frederick the Great
of Prussia. He was the author of several valuable medi
cal works, and treatises against the philosophy of Kant.
Died in 1800.
Sel'ler, (ABEDNEGO,) an English divine, born at
Plymouth, wrote " Tracts against Popery," " The Devout
Communicant," and other works. Died about 1720.
Sellius, sel'le-us, (GODFREY,) a German writer, born
at Dantzic, published a " Dictionary of Monograms,"
" Geographical Description of Dutch Brabant," and
other works. Died in 1767.
Sel'lon, (BAKER JOHN,) an English lawyer, born in
1762, was the author of an "Analysis of the Practice of
the Court of King's Bench and Common Pleas," which
is highly esteemed. Died in 1835.
Sellon, (PRISCILLA LYDIA,) an English philanthro
pist, born about 1820, established in 1849 a Protestant
sisterhood, corresponding with the religious ?)rders of
the Catholic Church, their chief employment being the
care of the sick and the education of poor children.
Selmer, seTmer, (HANNIBAL PKTF.K,) a Norwegian
writer, born at Gaarden-Mein, in Norway, in 1802.
Selva, sel'va, (GIANANTONIO,) an Italian architect,
born at Venice in 1753 ; died in 1819.
Selve, de, deh selv, (JEAN,) a French judge and
negotiator, born in Limousin. He was sent to Madrid
is 1525 to negotiate for the liberation of Francis I., who
had been taken prisoner at Pavia. Died in 1529.
Sel'wyn, (GEORGE,) an English gentleman, distin
guished for his wit, was born in 1719. He became a
member of Parliament. Died in 1791.
See J. H. JESSE, " George Selwyn and his Contemporaries,"
1843-
Selwyn, (WILLIAM,) an English jurist, born in
Surrey in 1774, published, among other works, an
" Abridgment of the Law of Nisi Prius." Died in 1855.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
lanations, p. 23.)
SELWTN
1994
SENARMONT
Selwyn, (WILLIAM,) a son of the preceding, was
born in 1806. He became Lady Margaret professor of
divinity at Cambridge in 1855, and published several
works on theology, etc.
Selys-Loiigchamps, de, deh seh-less' liN'shSN1',
(MiCHKL EDMUND,) BAKON, a naturalist, born in Paris
in 1813. He published, besides other works, a "Belgian
Fauna," (1st vol., 1842.)
Seni, the French for SHEM, which see.
Sem'e-le, [Gr. Se/ue/.^ ; Fr. SEMELE, sa'ma'la',] a
daughter of Cadmus, and sister of Ino, was said to have
been beloved by Jupiter, and to have been by him the
mother of Bacchus. The poets feigned that she re
quested Jupiter to appear to heV with his greatest
splendour, and that he came with flashes of lightning,
by which she was consumed, and that Bacchus rescued
her from Erebus and raised her to Olympus, where she
was called Thyo'ne.
Semiiii, sa-mee'nee, (ANDREA,) an Italian painter,
born at Genoa in 1510; died in 1594.
Seniini, (ANTONIO,) a painter, the father of the pre
ceding, was born at Genoa in 1485 ; died in 1550.
Semiiii, (OTTAVIO,) a painter, a son of the preceding,
was born in 1520; died in 1604.
Semiramide. See SKMIRAMIS.
Se-niir'a-mis, [Gr. Sefripa/ue ; It. SKMIRAMIDE, sa-
me'ra-mee'da,] a celebrated queen of Assyria, whose
history is greatly obscured by fables, supposed to have
reigned about 1250 li.C. She was, according to Dio-
dorus, the wife of Omnes, a general in the Assyrian
army; but, having attracted the notice of Ninus, King
of Assyria, he made her his queen. Having succeeded
to the throne on the death of Ninus, she built Babylon
and several other cities, and planned a number of mag
nificent works. She invaded Persia and Ethiopia, and
conquered large portions of those countries. She was
less successful in her invasion of India, where her army
was overthrown, chiefly, as it would appear, by means
of the war elephants which her enemies possessed. She
is stated by some writers to have been murdered by
her son Ninyas, and by others to have been killed in
battle.
See NIEHUIIR, "Geschiclite Assurs mid Babels," 1857: RAWMN-
SON, "The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World."
Semler, sSm'ler or zSm'ler, QOHANN SALMON,) an
influential and liberal German theologian, was born at
Saalfeld in December, 1721, (or, as some writers say,
1725.) He studied in the University of Halle, and
became professor of theology there in 1751. He has
been called "the father of German rationalism." In
1757 he succeeded Baumgarten as director of the theo
logical seminary. He acquired distinction by his method
of historical hermeneutics. He wrote, besides many
other works, " Apparatus ad Liberam Novi Testament}
Interpretationem," (1767,) and a "Treatise on the
Examination of the Canon," ("Abhandlung von der
Untersuchung des Kanons," 4 vols., 1771-75.) Died
at Halle in 1791.
See his Autobiography, entitled " Semlers Lebensbeschreibung,"
2 vols., 1781-82; F. A. WOLF, " Ueber Semler's letzte Lebenstage,"
1791 : H. _SCHMIU, "Theologie Semler's," 1858; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Semines, s£mz, (RAPHAEL,) an American naval
officer, born in Maryland, entered the navy about 1826.
He obtained the rank of commander about 1855. In
the summer of 1861 he took command of the steamer
Sumter, which captured many merchant-vessels owned
by citizens of the United States. In August, 1862,
he became captain of a swift war-steamer, called the
"290," or Alabama, just built in England, and manned
by British subjects. He inflicted immense damage on
the American mercantile marine. On the igth of June,
1864, he encountered, near Cherbourg, France, the
Kearsarge, Captain \Vinslow. In the battle that ensued,
both vessels moved rapidly in circles, swinging around
an ever-changing centre. After they had described
seven circles, the Alabama began to sink, and Semmes
escaped in the English yacht Deerhound. He lost nine
killed and twenty-one wounded, while Captain Winslow
lost only one killed and two wounded.
See TENNEY, " Military and Naval History of the Rebellion," pp.
276-81.
Semolei. See FRANCO, (BATTISTA.)
Seinonville, de, deh seh-miN'vel', (CHARLES Louis
Huguet — /ni'gi',) MARQUIS, a French diplomatist, born
in Paris in 1759. Having been sent on a mission to
Italy in 1793, he was imprisoned by the Austrians for
two years. He became a member of the senate in 1805,
and sat in the Chamber of Peers from 1815 to 1830.
Died in 1839.
See MOUNIKK, " E~loge de Seinonville;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Semper, sSm'per or ze'm'per, (GOTTFRIED,) a Ger
man architect, born at Hamburg in 1804. Among his
.best works is the new theatre at Dresden. He pub
lished two esteemed works, entitled "The Four Elements
of Architecture," (1851,) and "Science, Industry, and
Art," (1852.)
Semple, sem'p'l, (ROBERT BAYLOR,) an American
Baptist divine, born in King and Queen county, Virginia,
in 1769. He published a " History of Virginia Baptists,"
and other works. Died in 1831.
Sem-pro'm-a, a Roman lady, was the sister of the
celebrated Gracchi, and the wife of Scipio Africanus the
Younger.
Sempronia, the beautiful but profligate wife of D.
funius Brutus, who was consul in 77 li.c. She was
distinguished for her literary talents, and was an ac
complice in the conspiracy of Catiline.
Semprcmia Gens, an ancient Roman gens, was
divided into many families, known as the Atratini,
Gracchi, Longi, Rufi, Tuditani, etc. A. SEMPKONIUS
ATRATINUS, who was consul in 497 B.C., belonged to this
gens.
Sem-pro'nl-usTu-di-ta'mis, (CAius,) a Roman his
torian, became consul in 129 B.C. His works are not
extant.
Seiiac, seh-ntk', (JEAN,) a French physician and
medical writer, born at Lombez in 1693, became phy
sician to the king in 1752. He was author of a treat
ise on the structure and diseases of the heart, which
was esteemed a standard work at the time. Died in
1770.
Senac de Meilhan, seh-nSk' deh m-VISx', (GA
BRIEL,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1736, was a son
of the preceding. He published fictitious " Memoirs
of Anne de Gonzague," (1786,) and "Considerations
on Mind (or Intellect) and Manners," ("Considerations
sur 1'Esprit et les Mceurs," 1787.) Died at Vienna in
1803.
See CRAUFURD, " Essai biographique sur Senac de Meilhan,"
1803; SAINTE-BEUVE, " Causeries du Lundi ;" "Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generale."
Senan, sC-nSn', a celebrated physician and astron
omer, born in Mesopotomia, flourished in the tenth
century. He was appointed archiater or chief of the
physicians by Moktader, Caliph of Bagdad. He wrote
several works on geometry and astronomy, and on the
doctrines of the Sabians. He died in 942 A.M.
Senancour, de, deh seh-nSx'kooK', (firiENNE PI-
VERT,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1770, was a
melancholy and meditative person. He published, be
sides other works, "Reveries on the Primitive Nature
of Man," (1799,) "Obermann," a tale, (1804,) and "Free
Meditations of a Recluse," (" Libres Meditations d'un
Solitaire," 1819.) M. Villemain procured for him a
pension from the state. Died in 1846.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, "Portraits contemporains ;" QUERARD,
"La France Litternire ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Senarmont, de, deh seh-naVindx', (ALEXANDRE
ANTOINE Hureau — /lu'vo',) BARON, a French general,
born at Strasburg in 1769. He distinguished himself
at Jena, Eylau, and Friedland, where ha directed the
artillery, (1807.) He was killed at the siege of Cadiz,
in 1810.
See MARION, " Memoires sur General de Senarmont," 1846.
Senarmont, de, (HENRI HUREAU,) a mineralogist
and engineer, born at Broue in 1808, was a nephew of
the preceding. He wrote a "Treatise on the Modifica
tions which Reflection at the Surface of Crystals produces
in Polarized Light," (1840,) a "Geological Description
of the Department of Seine-et-Marne," (1844,) and other
works. Died in 1862.
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, u, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon;
SEN4R T
1995
SENNERT
Senart, sa'naV, (ANTOINE MARIE JULES,) a French
advocate and republican, born at Rouen in 1800. He
became president of the Constituent Assembly about
May, 1848, and was minister of the interior for a short
time in that year.
Senault, seli-no', ([OHN FRANCIS,) a Flemish ecclesi
astic, born at Antwerp about 1600. He settled in Paris,
where he became celebrated as a pulpit orator. He
published several moral and religious works. Died in
1672.
Senebier, sen'be-i', QEAN,) a Swiss naturalist and
litterateur, was bornatGeneva in 1 742. I le was ordained
a minister about 1762, and preached several years at
Chancy. In 1773 he was appointed keeper of the public
library of Geneva. He wrote numerous and various
works, among which are " Essay on the Art of Observing
and Making Experiments," (2 vols., 1775,) a " Literary-
History of Geneva," (3 vols., 1786,) and "Vegetable
Physiology," (5 vols., 1800.) Died in 1809.
See MAUNOIK, " filoge de J. Senebier," 1810; •' Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Sen'e-ca, [Fr. SENEQUE,*savnek/,]( Lucius ANN.-EUS,)
an eminent Roman Stoic, philosopher, and moralist, born
at Corduba, in Spain, about 5 B.C. He was educated in
Rome, whither he was brought by his parents in his child
hood. Having studied rhetoric, philosophy, and law, he
gained distinction as a pleader. Accused by Messalina
of improper intimacy with Julia, a niece of Claudius, he
was banished to Corsica in 41 A.I). During his exile he
composed his " Consolatio ad Helviam." (Helvia was
the name of his mother.) Through the influence of
Agrippina, he obtained permission to return to Rome in
49 A.D., was raised to the prsetorship, and appointed
tutor to L. Domitius, (commonly known as Nero,) who
became emperor in 54 A.D. According to Tacitus, Sen
eca endeavoured to reform or restrain the evil propensi
ties of his pupil. Some writers, however, censure his
conduct in this connection, by arguments which derive
plausibility from the immense wealth which Seneca
amassed. About the year 56 he wrote a treatise on
clemency, addressed to Nero, " De dementia, ad Nero-
nem." Seneca consented to the death of Nero's mother,
Agrippina, who was killed by order of her son in 60 A. I).,
and wrote the letter which Nero addressed to the senate
in his justification. He was afterwards supplanted in
the favour of Nero by Tigellinus and Rufus, who sought
to ruin Seneca by exciting the suspicion of the tyrant
against him. He was accused of being an accomplice
of Piso, (who had conspired against the emperor,) and
was ordered to put himself to death. Having opened
his veins, he died in a warm bath in 65 A.D. He was
an uncle of the poet Lucan.
Seneca was an eloquent and popular writer. His style
is aphoristic, antithetical, and somewhat inflated. Among
his numerous works are a treatise "On Anger," (" De
Ira,") "A Book on Providence," (•' De Providentia
Liber,") "On Tranquillity of Mind," ("De Animi Tran-
quillitate,") "On the Brevity of Life,"("De Brevitate
Vitas,") essays on natural science, entitled " Quaestiones
Naturales," and numerous epistles, " Epistolae ad Lu-
ciliuni," which are a collection of moral maxims. We
have also ten tragedies in verse which are attributed to
Seneca, and which, though not adapted to the stage,
have considerable literary merit.
There has been great diversity of opinion respecting
the character and 'writings of Seneca. He has been
quoted as an authority by councils and fathers of the
Church. He was highly extolled as a writer by Mon
taigne. Quintilian observes that his writings "abound
in charming defects," (dulcibusvitiis.) Macaulay is among
those who take the least favourable view of the character
and influence of the great Stoic. He says, "It is very
reluctantly that Seneca can be brought to confess that
any philosopher had ever paid the smallest attention
to anything that could possibly promote what vulgar
people would consider as the well-being of mankind.
. . . The business of a philosopher was to declaim in
praise of poverty, with two millions sterling out at
usury ; to meditate epigrammatic conceits about the
* Chaucer usually has SKNKK, with the accent on the last syllable ;
sometimes, though rarely, SENEC.
evils of luxury, in gardens which moved the envy of sove
reigns ; to rant about liberty, while fawning on the
insolent and pampered freedmen of a tyrant." ("Essay
on Lord Bacon.'')
See ROSMINI, "Vita di Seneca," 1793; JUSTUS LIPSIUS, "Vita
L A. Seneca:," 1607; KLOTZSCH, "Seneca," 2 vols., 1799-1802;
RRINHARDT, " De Seneca Vita et Scriptis," 1817; VEKMIER, " Vie
de Seneque," 1812; AM. FI.F.UKY, " Seneque et Saint-Paul," 2
vols., 1853; P. EKEKMAN, "Vita et Dogmata L. A. Seneca;," 1742;
RITTKK, " History of Philosophy;" UIKSCHIG, " Dood en Gedach-
tcnis van Seneca," 1831; DENIS DIDKKOT, " Essai sur la Vie de
Seneque." 1779: F. SAI.VADOKI. "II Filosofo cortigiano, o sia
il Seneca," 1674; TACITUS, "Annales;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Seneca, (MARCUS ANN/EUS,) a Latin rhetorician,
born at Corduba (Cordova) about 61 B.C., was the father
of the preceding, and the grandfather of Lucan. He
wrote " Book of Persuasives," (" Suasoriarum Liber,")
and "Ten Books of Controversies," (" Controversia-
rum Libri decem,") which are extant, but have little
merit.
Seiiecai or Senece, de, deh sa'neh-sa' or san'sa',
(ANTOINE BAUDEKON,) a French poet, born at Macon
in 1643. lie wrote "Kaimac; Les Travaux d'Apollon,"
and other works. Died in 1737.
Seiiecio, se-nee'she-o, (HKRENNIUS,) a native of
Spain, was put to death by order of Domitian. The
charges against him were that he was a candidate for
no public office, and that he had written the life of Hel-
vidius Priscus.
Senefelder, sa'tieh-feld'er, (ALOIS,) the inventor of
lithography, was born at Prague in 1771. He became a
play-actor in his youth, but did not succeed in that pur
suit. He also wrote several dramas. Being poor, he
meditated various new modes of printing his works
cheaply, and tried experiments in etching, and writing
backwards on calcareous stone. One clay it was neces
sary to make a memorandum in haste, but he had no
white paper : so he wrote it on a smooth stone with a
peculiar ink. It afterwards occurred to him to apply
diluted nitric acid, which etched away the stone where
there had been no ink, the part on which the ink had
been placed being protected from the action of the acid,
so that the letters were left in relief. He invented about
1798 the process of lithography which is now generally
used, and was appointed director of the royal lithographic
office at Munich in 1809. He published a " History of
Lithography," (1819.) Died in 1834.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Senek. See SENECA.
Senior, seen'yor, (NASSAU WILLIAM,) an English
lawyer, born in Berkshire in 1790, became in 1826 pro
fessor of political economy at Oxford. He published
"On Foreign Poor-Laws and Labourers," (1840,) a
"Treatise on Political Economy," (1850,) and other
works. Died in 1864.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1859.
Senkenberg, von, fon senk'en-beuo' or zenk'en-
beRr/, (HEINRICH CHRISTOPH,) BARON, a German
jurist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1704, became
professor of law at Gottingen. Died in 1768.
Senkenberg, von, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN,) brother of
the preceding, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in
1717. He founded in that city a hospital, with a library,
botanical garden, anatomical theatre, etc. Died in 1772.
The Senkenberg Museum of Natural Plistory was estab
lished in his honour in 1817.
Sen-na-eh'er-ib, [Heb. TTUD,] King of Assyria,
was a son of Sargon, whom he succeeded about 702 B.C.
He invaded Judea in the reign of Hezekiah, defeated
the Egyptian allies of the King of Judah, and extorted
from him a large amount of gold and silver. His army
besieged Jerusalem, but was overthrown by the angel of
the Lord," who " went forth and smote in the camp of
the Assyrians an hundred and four score and five thou
sand," so that Sennacherib returned in haste to Nineveh.
He reigned twenty-two years.
See II. Kings xviii., xix. ; NIEDUHR. " Geschichte Assurs und
Babels."
Sermert, sen'neRt, [Lat. SENNER'TUS,] (ANDREAS,)
a German Orientalist, born at Wittenberg in 1606, was
a son of Daniel, noticed below. He became professor
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SENNERT
1996
SERGIUS
of Hebrew at Wittenberg in 1638. He published a
number of works. Died in 1689.
See NICEKON, "Memoires."
Sennert or Sen-ner'tus, [Fr. SENNERT, si'naiR',]
(I)ANIKL,) a German physician, born at Breslau in 1572,
became professor of medicine at Wiirtemberg. He was
the author of numerous works, and enjoyed a high repu
tation in his profession. Died in 1637.
See BAVI.E, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" NICERON,
" Memoires."
Semiertus. See SENNERT.
Senneterre. See FERTE-SENNETERRE.
Sen'ter, (ISAAC.) an eminent American physician,
born in New Hampshire in 1755. He served as surgeon
in the Revolutionary war, and afterwards practised at
Newport, Rhode Island. Died in 1799.
Seona. See SIOFN.
Sepp, sep or zep, (JoHANN NEPOMUK,) a Catholic
theologian, born at Toltz, in Bavaria, in 1816, became
professor of history at Munich. He wrote a " Life of
Jesus," in answer to that of Strauss, and " Paganism
and its Signification for Christianity," (1853,) in which
he favours the system of Scheliing.
Sep'pings, (Sir ROBERT,) an English naval architect,
born in 1768, made several important improvements in
ship-building, among which was the system of diagonal
bracing and trussing. In acknowledgment of his ser
vices he was elected to the Royal Society in 1814, and
obtained the Copley medal from that institution. He
published a treatise "On a New Principle of construct
ing Ships in the Mercantile Navy," and other similar
works, in the " Philosophical Transactions." Died in 1840.
Septalius. See S ETT ALA.
Septimius Severus. See SEVERUS.
Sepulveda, de, da sa-pool'va-oa, (JUAN GINEZ,) a
celebrated Spanish historian and scholar, born near
Cordova about 1490. lie studied at the University
of Alcala, and subsequently at Rome, where he was
patronized by Cardinal Carpi. In 1536 he became his
toriographer to the emperor Charles V., and was after
wards appointed tutor to his son Philip. Among his
principal historical works are his " History of the Em
peror Charles V.," " History of Philip II.," and " His
tory of the Spanish Conquests in Mexico," all in Latin.
He also wrote a treatise entitled " Democrates Se-
cundus," in which he attempts to justify the barbarous
treatment of the Indians by the Spaniards, and to refute
the arguments of Las Casas in their favour. The work
was condemned by the principal Spanish universities,
and was never printed. Sepulveda translated portions
of Aristotle into Latin, and published a number of
learned essays in that language. He was one of the
most accomplished scholars and writers of his time.
Died in 1574.
See N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova ;" ANDRE SCHOTT,
" Vita Sepulvedse," prefixed to Sepulveda's works, Cologne, 1602;
NICERON, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sepulveda, de, (LORENZO,) a Spanish writer of the
sixteenth century, was the author of" Romances nueva-
mente sacadas de Historias antiguas de la Cronica de
Espana," and other works of the kind, which had a high
reputation at the time.
Sequard. See BROWN-S^QUARD.
Serao, sa-ra'o, [Lat. SERA'US,] (FRANCESCO,) an
Italian physician, born near Aversa in 1702. He be
came professor of medicine at Naples, and chief physician
to Ferdinand IV. Died in 1783.
See FASANO, " De Vita et Scriptis Serai," 1784.
Se-ra'pi-on, [Sepam'wv,] a physician of the sect of
the Empiric!, who lived at Alexandria about 250 n.C.
Serapion, a Syrian physician, called SERAPION SE
NIOR, is supposed to have flourished in the tenth century.
Two of his medical works are extant.
Serapion, an Arabian physician, commonly called
JUNIOR, is supposed to have lived in the eleventh century.
He was the author of a work " On Simple Medicaments/'
which has been translated into Latin.
Se-ra'pis or Sa-ra'pis, [Gr. 2«pam? : Fr. S^RAPIS,
si'rt'pess',] the name of an Egyptian divinity, was
regarded by some writers as another title of Osiris.
Clemens of Alexandria, Macrobius, and others mention
Serapis and Isis as the great divinities of Egypt. Ac
cording to Apolloclorus, Serapis was a name given to
Apis after his death.
Se-ra'ii-us or sa'ri're'iis', (NICOLAS,) a learned
French Jesuit, born in Lorraine about 1550. He wrote
several works against Luther ; also, commentaries on
Scripture. Died in 1609 or 1610.
Seiassi, sa-ras'see, (PIETRO ANTONIO,) an Italian
biographer and critic, born at Bergamo in 1721. He
became secretary to Cardinal Furietti at Rome about
1760. He edited the poems of Petrarch, Dante, and
other Italian poets. His chief work is a " Life of Tor-
quato Tasso," (" Vita di T. Tasso," 1785,) which is
highly esteemed, and presents a vivid picture of the
literary history of Tasso's time. Died in 1791.
See TIPAI.DO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustli;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie (jenerale."
Serbelloiii, seR-bel-lo'nee, (GABRIEL,) an able Italian
general, born at Milan in 1508. He fought for Charles
V. and Philip II. of Spain. He distinguished himself
at the battle of Lepanto, (1571.) Died in 1580.
Sercey, de, deh sek'si', (PiKRRE CE\SAR CHARLES
GUILLAUME,) MARQUIS, a French vice-admiral, born
near Autun in 1753. He commanded in the East Indies
with success in 1796-99. Died in 1836.
Se-re'mis, (AULUS SEPTIMIUS,) a Roman lyric poet,
and contemporary of Martial, was the author of" Opus-
cula Ruralia," on the enjoyments of country life. A few
fragments only of this work are extant.
Serenus, (QUINTUS.) See SAMONICUS.
Sergardi, seK-gaR'dee, (Lonovico,) an Italian satiri
cal poet, born at Sienna in 1660, called himself QUINTUS
SECTANUS. He attacked Gravina in a series of satires
entitled "Satires of Quiiitus Sectanus against Philode-
mus," ("Quinti Sectani Satyrae in Philodemum," 1694.)
Died in 1726.
See FAHKONI, "Vitas Italorum doctrina excellentium."
Serge. See SERGIUS.
Sergeant, sar'jant, (JOHN.) an eminent American
jurist and statesman, born in Philadelphia in 1779. He
was a son of Jonathan Dickinson Serjeant, who was
attorney-general of Pennsylvania. He graduated at
Princeton College in 1795, and practised law in Phila
delphia. He was retained as counsel in the most impor
tant cases in the supreme court of his own State and
in that of the United States. He represented a district
of his native city in Congress from 1815 to 1823, from
1827 to 1829, and from 1837 to 1842. In 1832 he was
the Whig candidate for the office of Vice-President,
(Henry Clay being the Presidential candidate,) but re
ceived only forty-nine electoral votes. He took an
important part against the extension of slavery in the
contest which resulted in the Missouri compromise of
1820, and delivered on that occasion a speech of rare
eloquence and power. He was a man of high integrity
and great personal influence in the community. Died in
Philadelphia in November, 1852. His "Select Speeches"
were published in Philadelphia in 1832.
See W. M. MEREDITH, " Eulogy on John Sergeant," 1853.
Sergei or Sergell, seu'gel, (JoHAN TOBIAS,) an emi
nent Swedish sculptor, born at Stockholm in 1740. He
visited Rome in 1767, where he resided many years, and,
after his return, was appointed by Gustavus III. court
sculptor and professor in the Academy of Arts. Among
his master-pieces are "Cupid and Psyche," "Othryades
the Spartan," and " Diomedes carrying off the Palla
dium." Died in 1814.
Sergent, seVzhftN', (ANTOINE FRANCOIS,) a French
Jacobin, born at Chartres in 1751. He was a violent
member of the Convention, (1792-95,) and published
several works. Died in 1847.
, See NOEI. PARFAIT, "Notice sur A. F. Sergent," 1848.
Ser'gl-us [Fr. SERGE, sgRzh ; It. SERGIO, seVje-o or
sek'jo] I., Pope of Rome, born at Palermo, succeeded
Conon in 687 A.D. He sent missionaries to convert the
Saxons. Having refused his consent to the canons
issued by the council assembled in Constantinople by
Justinian II., the latter ordered his arrest ; but, the
soldiers taking sides with the pope, he remained in pos
session of his see. He died in 701, and was succeeded
by John VI.
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, 11, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure: far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon;
SERG1US
'997
SERTORIUS
Sergius II., born at Rome, was elected pope in 844
A.I>. During his pontificate the Saracens invaded Italy
and ravaged the country near Rome, but did not enter
the city. Died in 847.
Sergius III. succeeded Christopher as pope in 904
A.D., being clewed through the influence of the Marquis
of Tuscany and the profligate Theodora and her daugh
ter Marozia. His son by Marozia was afterwards Pope
John X. Sergius died 'in 913, and was succeeded by
Anastasius IV.
Sergius IV. was elected successor to John XVIII.
in 1009 A.I). He died in 1012, and Benedict VIII. was
chosen to succeed him.
Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, born probably
in Syria, was a Monothelite. He became patriarch in
6ic, and died in 639 A.D.
Serieys, seh-re-i', (AXTOINE,) a French compiler of
histories, etc., born in Kouergue in 1755 > d'ed in 1829.
Serimnir. See SAKHRIMNIR.
Seripandi, sa-re-pan'dee, or Seripando, sa-re-pan'-
do, (GlROLAMO,) a learned Italian prelate and writer,
born at Naples in 1493, distinguished himself at the
Council of Trent. Died in 1563.
Serizay, de, deh seh-re'zi', (JACQUES,) a French
poet, born in Paris about 1590, was one of the first
members of the French Academy. Died in 1653.
Serle, *en, (.AMBROSE,) an English devotional writer,
born about 1740. Among his works is "Christian Hus- |
bandry." (1804.) Died in 1812.
Serlio, sek'le-o, (SEBASTIANO,) an Italian architect !
and writer upon art, born at Bologna in 1475. He was j
appointed in 1541, by Francis I., King of France, archi- '
tect at the palace of Fontainebleau. He was author of
"Treatises on Architecture," ("Opere di Architettura.'') i
Died in 1552.
Sermoneta, da. See SICIOI.ANTK.
Seroux d'Agincourt. See D'AGINCOURT.
Serrano, ser-ia'no, ( FRANCISCO,) a Spanish general
and politician, born in the eighteenth century. He was I
appointed captain-general of the artillery in 1854. He '
opposed Narvaez in 1857, and was Captain-General !
ot Cuba from 1860 to 1862. He was president of the
provisional government formed by the insurgents who
deposed Isabel in September, 1868, and was elected
Regent of Spain by the Cortes in June, 1869.
Serrarms. See' LAMBERT, (FRANC.OIS,) and SERRES,
DE, (JEAN.)
Serrao, ser-ra'o, (GiovAN ANDREA,) a learned Ital
ian ecclesiastic, born in Calabria in 1731. He became
Bishop of Potenza in 1782. In 1799 he was massacred
by the royalists because he was a Liberal.
See DAVANZATI, "Vie d' Andrea Serrao," 1806.
Serre, de, deh sain, (PIERRE FRANCOIS HERCUI,E,)
COM rr., a French orator and minister of state, born near
Pont-a-Mousson in 1776. He was appointed first presi
dent of the court of Colmar in 1815, and president of
the Chamber of Deputies in 1816. He was a moderate
royalist and doctrinaire in politics. In December, 1818,
he became keeper of the seals, or minister of justice.
He resigned office in December, 1821. Died in 1824.
See GL'IZOT, " Memoires," tome i. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Serres, saiR or sairz, ? (DoMixic,) a painter of ma
rine views and naval battles, was born at Auch, in
France. He went to England about 1764, and worked
in that country many years. Died in 1793.
Serres, saiR, (ExiENNE RENAUD AUGUSTIN,) a French
physiologist, born at Clairac in 1787. He became pro
fessor of comparative anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes
in 1839. He produced, besides other works, "The
Laws of Osteogeny," (1815,) and "The Comparative
Anatomy of the Brain in the Four Classes of Vertebrate
Animals," (2 vols., 1824-26.) He discovered that the
development of animals and their organs proceeds from
the circumference towards the centre.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" CALLISEN," Medicinisches
Schriftsteller-Lexikon."
Serres, sairz,? (OLIVE,) an English artist, wife of
Dominic, noticed above, was born at Warwick in 1772,
and was appointed landscape-painter to the Prince of
Wales. In 1815 she publicly claimed the title of Princess
of Cumberland, pretending that she was the daughter
of Henry Frederick, Duke of Cumberland, by his mar
riage with a Miss Wilmot. In 1822 a motion was made
in the House of Commons to investigate her claims,
which was successfully opposed by Sir Robert Peel.
She died in poverty in 1834.
Serres, de, deh saiR, [Lat. SERRA'NUS,] (JEAN,) a
French Protestant minister and historian, born at Ville-
neuve de Berg about 1540. He wrote, besides other
works, "Memoirs of the Third Civil War," (1569,) and
"History of France in the Reigns of Henry II., Francis
II., Charles IX., and Henry III.," (1595.) He received
from Henry IV. the title of historiographer in 1597.
Died at Geneva in 1598.
See NIC£RON, "Memoires;" MM. HAAG, "La France protes-
tante;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Serres, de, (MARCEL,) a French naturalist, born at
Montpellier in 1782. He was appointed professor of
geology and natural history in his native city in 1820,
and wrote numerous works on geology, palaeontology,
etc., among which is "The Cosmogony of Moses com
pared with Geological Facts," (1838.) Died in 1862.
Serres, de, (OLIVIER,) Seigneur de Pradel, a French
Protestant and writer on agriculture, born near Ville-
neuve de Berg (Ardeche) about 1539, was a brother of
the preceding. He published a valuable work on rational
and methodical agriculture, entitled " Le Theatre d'Agri-
culture," (1600,) often reprinted. His style is admirable
anil finely adapted to the subject. Died in 1619.
See K. DF. NEUFCHATEAU, " Eloge hislorique d'O. de Serres,"
1790; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" MM. HAAG, "La France
protestante."
Serret, si'ri', (JOSEPH ALFRED,) a French mathe
matician, born in 1819, has written on analysis, etc.
Serrigny, si'ren'ye', (DENIS,) a French jurist, born
at Savigny-sur-Beaune about 1804. He published a
" Treatise on the Public Law of the French," (2 vols.,
1845,) and other works.
Sertorio. See SERTORIUS.
Ser-to'ri-us, [It. SERTORIO, s£R-to're-o,] (QuiNTus,)
a famous Roman general, born at Nursia, in the country
of the Sabines. He was liberally educated. He displayed
courage and capacity in the war which Marius conducted
against the Cimbri and Teutones about IOI B.C. Just
before the Marsic war began, he was appointed quaestor
in Cisalpine Gaul, 91 B.C. " His martial intrepidity did
not abate," says Plutarch, " when he arrived at the de
gree of general. His personal exploits were still great,
and he faced danger in the most fearless manner ; in
consequence of which he had one of his eyes struck
out." He offered himself as a candidate for the office
of tribune, but was defeated by Sulla's faction, and
became an enemy of that great leader. In the civil war
which began about 88 he fought with Cinna against the
partisans of Sulla. After Marius returned from Africa,
the troops of the popular party were divided into three
equal parts, commanded respectively by Marius, Ser-
torius, and Cinna, who, acting in concert, defeated the
enemy and made themselves masters of Rome. Ser-
torius was the only one of the three that treated the
vanquished with humanity, and he reproached Marius
for his cruelty. The return of Sulla with a large army
from the East, in 83 B.C., put an end to the ascendency
of Marius. Sertorius, having obtained the office of pro
consul, retired with a few troops to Spain, from which he
soon passed over to Africa. Having been invited by
the Lusitanians to command their army, he returned to
Spain, where he acquired great popularity. He defeated
several Roman generals, and extended his power over a
great part of Spain. " He subdued several great nations,"
says Plutarch, who expresses the opinion that he was
not inferior to Hannibal in capacity. About 76 B.C.
Pompey arrived in Spain with a new army. Sertorius
defeated Pompey at Sucro, and again near Saguntum.
" When he was victorious he would make an offer to
Metellus or Pompey to lay down his arms on condition
that he might be permitted to return in the capacity of
a private man. He said he would rather be the meanest
citizen in Rome, than an exile with the command of all
the other countries in the world. . . . The magnanimity
of Sertorius appeared in every step he took." (Plu-
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SERULLAS
1998
SESSI
tarch.) He was assassinated by Perpenna and several
accomplices in 72 K.c. It may well be doubted whether
he had any superior in military genius among all the
great generals that Rome ever produced, with the single
exception of fulius Caesar.
See PLUTARCH, "Life of Sertorius ;" DRUMANN, " Geschichte
Roms;" APFIAN, " History ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Serullas, sa-i ii'lts', (written also without the accent,)
(GEORGES SIMON,) a French chemist and apothecary,
born at Poncin (Ain) in 1774. He discovered some
compounds of iodine and bromine, and wrote a number
of memoirs on chemistry. He succeeded Vauquelin
in the Academy of Sciences in 1829. Died in Paris
in 1832.
See VIREY, " Notice : stir SeVullas," 1832; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale;" " Biographie Universelle."
Serurier, seh-rii-re-a', ([KAN MATHIEU PHILIHERT,)
COMTE, a French general, born at Laon in 1742. He
became a general of brigade in 1793, a general of di
vision in 1795, and served with distinction in the Italian
campaigns of 1796-97. As commandant at Saint-Cloud,
he supported Bonaparte on the l8th Brumaire, 1799.
He became a marshal of France in 1804. Died in 1819.
See DK COURCEI.I.ES, "Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais ;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Servan, SCR'V&N', (ANTOINE JOSEPH MICHEL,) an
eloquent French advocate and publicist, born at Romans
in 1737. He wrote many works on legislation, politics,
etc., and promoted legal reforms. Died in 1807.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Servan de Gerbey, seVvoN' deh zheR/b£/,(JosEPH,)
a French Girondist and general, born at Romans in 1741,
was a brother of the preceding. lie was minister of
war from May to October, 1792, and commanded the
army of the Pyrenees from the latter date to May, 1793.
Died in 1808.
Servan de Sugny, seVvflx' deh siin'ye', (PIERRE
FRANCOIS JULES,) a French poet, born at Lyons in 1796 ;
died in 1831.
Servandoni, seR-van-do'nee, (]EAN JEROME,) a dis
tinguished painter and architect, born at Florence in
1695. At an early age he visited Paris, where he ac
quired great celebrity as a scene-painter. The most
important of his architectural works is the facade of the
church of Saint-Sulpice in Paris. Died in 1766.
See QUATREMRRE DE QUINCV, "Vies des Architectes ;" TICOZZI,
" Di/.ionario ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Servet. See SERVE/PCS.
Ser-ve'tus, [Fr. SERVET, seR'vi' ; It. SERVKTO, SC"R-
va'to,] (MlCHAKi.,) a Spanish theologian and physician,
born in Aragon in 1509. His family name is said to have
been REVES, (ra'ves.) He opposed the dogma of the
Trinity, in a work entitled " On the Errors of the Trin
ity," (" De Trinitatis Erroribus," 1531.) About 1533 he
studied medicine at Paris. He published a treatise on
syrups, "Universal Theory of Syrups," (" Syrnporum
universa Ratio," Paris, 1537.) After he left Paris he
practised medicine at Lyons, and had a doctrinal con
troversy with Calvin. He published anonymously hin
"Christianity Restored," (" Christianismi Restitutio,"
etc., Vienne, 1553.) Calvin having informed against
him, Servetus was arrested on a charge of heresy by
the Inquisition in France ; but he escaped from prison
and sought refuge in Geneva. Cilvin caused him to be
again arrested, and took an active part in the prosecu
tion which led to the death of Servetus, who was burned
at Geneva in October, 1553. (See CALVIN.)
See BOYSEN, " Historia M. Served," 1712; "Impartial History
of Michael Servetus," London, 1724; AI.WORDKN, "Historia M.
Serveti," 1727; MOSHEIM. " Gescliichte M. Serveti," 1748; W. H.
DRUMMOND, "Lite of Michael Servetus," 184^; J. JAIRO, "Life of
Servetus, "• 1771 ; PAUL HENRY. "Life of Calvin," 1835; ''Nouvelle
Biographic Ginerale;" " British Quarterly Review" tor May, 1849.
See, aisci, COI.UKIUUK'S "Table-Talk," (January 3, 1834.)
Servien, SCR'VC-^N', (Amu.,) Marquis de Sable, a
French diplomatist, born at Grenoble in 1593. He lie-
came secretary of state for war in 1630, and resigned in
1636. Servien and Avaux represented France at Mini
ster in 1643 anfl tne ensuing years. The former signed
the treaty of Westphalia, in 1648. Died in 1659.
See G. MENAGE, " Histoire de Sable1 ;" MOR£RI, "Dictionnaire
Historique;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Ser-vil'I-a, [Fr. SERVILIE, seVve'le',] a Roman lady,
was a niece of the celebrated M. Livius Drusus, and the
wife of Marcus Junius Brutus, and mother of M. Junins
Brutus the younger, who killed Caesar. She was a fa
vourite mistress of that dictator.
Servilia Gens, a Roman gens, originally patrician,
was highly distinguished in the early ages of the republic.
Among the families into which it was divided were Ahala,
Crepio, Cascn, and Prisons.
Servilie. See SKKVIUA.
Ser-vil'I-us, (CAius,) a Roman statesman, who be
came praetor in 206 H.C., consul in 203, dictator in 202,
and pontifex maximus in 183. Died in 180 K.C.
Servin, seK'va.\', (Louis,) a French magistrate, born
in the Vendomois in 1555. He was appointed advocate-
general in 1589, and was a strenuous asserter of the
liberties of the Gallican Church, on which subject he
wrote a work called " Defence of the Liberty of the
Gallican Church," ("Vindiciae secundum Libertatem
Ecclesiae Gallicanas," 1590.) Died in 1626.
See " Le Tombeau de L. Servin," Paris, 1626; GRANGIER, "Ora-
tioin Lauclem L. Serviui,"i626: MORERI, "Dictionnaire Historique."
Ser'vl-us, (M.u/KUS HONORA'TUS,) a Roman gram
marian, supposed to have lived between 300 and 400
A.D. He wrote, besides several grammatical works, com
mentaries on the " Eclogues," " Georgics," and " /Eneid''
of Virgil, which are highly valued for the variety of in
formation they contain relating to the Romans.
Ser'vl-us Tul'li-us, the sixth King of Rome, began
to reign about 578 B.C. According to tradition, he was
a son of Ocrisia, a female slave of Queen Tanaquil, and
was adopted as a son by King Tarquin, whom he suc
ceeded. His reign, which lasted forty-four years, was
pacific. He granted a new constitution to the Romans,
and formed a federal union or league between Rome and
the towns of Latium. His constitution is supposed to
have been beneficial to the plebeians. He was killed
by Tarquinius Superbus, with whom his own daughter
Tullia was an accomplice.
See NIEBUHR, " History of Rome ;" MOMMSEN, "Histoire Ro-
maine ;" F. D. GKRI.ACH, " Die Vcrfassung des Servius Tul'ius,"
1837; CICKRO, " De Kepublica ;" " Nouveile Biographie Generate."
Sdsha, sa'sha, or Shesha, sha'sha, [etymology ob
scure,) in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a vast
thousand-headed serpent, the emblem of eternity, on
which Vishmi is believed to repose. (See VISHNU.)
He is often called ANANTA, which signifies "without
end." Sesha is regarded as the great king of the serpent
race. He is also called VASUKI (va'sdo-kl) or VASOKY,
and is fabled to have been used as the churn-string when
the gods and giants (Asurs) churned the ocean. (See
K0RMA.)
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Seso, de, d<\ sa'so, (CARLOS,) a Protestant Reformer,
born at Florence, resided in Spain, where he was pa
tronized by the emperor Charles V. He was one
of the chief champions of the Reformation in Spain,
and perished at the stake, by order of the Inquisition,
in 1559.
See PRESCOTT, " History of Philip II.," vol. i. book ii.
Se-sos'tris, [Gr. Zeoua-ptf,] written also Sesoosis,
a celebrated king of Egypt, also called Ranieses, is
supposed to have reigned about 1400 or 1350 K.c. He
was a powerful and warlike monarch. According to
tradition, he conquered Ethiopia, Thrace, and several
countries of Southern Asia. He also made canals in
Egypt, built a great wall from Pelusium to Ifeliopolis,
and erected several obelisks and temples. Monuments
bearing his name are still extant in Egypt, of which he
was the great national hero.
See HERODOTUS, "History;" BUNSEM, "Egypt's Place in Uni
versal History;" " Biographie Universelie."
Sessa, seVsi, an Indian mathematician, to whom is
attributed the invention of the game of chess, is sup
posed to have lived in the eleventh century.
Sessi, ses'see, (ANNA MARIA,) an Italian vocalist,
born at Rome in 1793. She performed with success at
Vienna and other cities of Germany, and assumed, after
her marriage, the name of Neumann-Sessi. Her sister
IMPERATRICE, born at Rome in 1783, also acquired a.
high reputation as a vocalist. Died in 1808.
a, e, T, 5, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat: met: n5t; good: moon;
SESTINI
1999
SEVER US
Sestiiii, s§s-tee'nee, (DoMENico,) an eminent Italian
antiquary and traveller, born at Florence about 1750.
Having successively visited Constantinople, the Levant,
Germany, and France, he was appointed in 1814 honor
ary professor in the University of Pisa. Among his
works on numismatics, which are ranked among the
most valuable of their kind, we may name his "System
of Numismatics," (" Sistema Xumismatico," 14 vols.
fol.,) "General Classes of Numismatic Geography, or
Coins of the Cities, Nations, and Kings, in Geographical
Order," (" Classes generales Geographies Numismaticas,
sen Monetae Urbium, Pnpulorum et Regum, Ordine
Geographico," etc., 1797,) and "Numismatic Letters and
Dissertations," (9 vols., 1813.) He also published a
"Journey from Constantinople to Bucharest/' (1794,) a
"Scientific and Antiquarian Voyage through Wallachia,
Transylvania, and Hungary to Vienna," (1815,) and
other works of travels. Sestini was a member of various
learned societies in Europe. Died in 1832.
See MONALDI. " Elngio di D. Sestini," 1835; " Biographic Ur.i-
verse'le," (new edition.)
Sesto, da, dases'to, (CESARK,) an able Italian painter,
called also Cesare Milanese, born at Milan, was a
pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, whom he imitated with
success. Died about 1524.
Sethos, a name of SESOSTRTS, which see.
Se'thos, King of Egypt, was a son of Rameses, and
the father of Rameses the Great, (Sesostris.) He is sup
posed to have reigned about 1425 H.C., and is said to
have gained victories over several neighbouring nations.
He adorned Egypt with fine monuments, temples, etc.
Se'toii, (ANN EI.IZA,) an American lady, born in
New York in 1774, founded at Emmet tsburg, Maryland,
in 1809, the first establishment of Sisters of Charity in
the United States. Died in 1821.
Settala, set-ta'ia, [Lat. SKPTA'LIUS,] (Lonovrco,) an
Italian physician, born at Milan about 1550. He pub
lished several medical works, and was professor at
Milan. Died in 1633. His son MANFREDI, born in
1600, was distinguished for learning and inventive talent
as a mechanician. Died at Milan in 1680.
Settimo, set'te-mo, (RUGGIERO,) an Italian patriot,
born at Palermo in 1778, inherited a large estate. He
served in the navy, and gained the rank of admiral. He
was one of the chief agents of the revolutionary move
ment which in 1820 extorted some reforms from the
king. In 1848 he became the chief of the Sicilian in
surgents, and organized a provisional government. He
was chosen president by the new parliament, which gave
him royal power to appoint ministers, etc. He was very
popular, and was saluted as the father of his country.
On the restoration of the king, Ferdinand II., he retired
to Malta. Died in 1863.
Settle, set't'l, (ELKANAH,) an English dramatic poet,
born at Dunstable in 1648, is noted for having been
for a time the successful rival of Dryden. Under the
patronage of Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, the enemy of
Dryden, he brought out his tragedies of "Cambyses"
and the " Empress of Morocco," which, though pos
sessing little merit, were received with great applause.
He was afterwards engaged in a controversy with Dry
den, who satirized him under the name of " Doeg" in his
" Absalom and Achitophel." He was also introduced
into Pope's " Dunciad." He died in poverty in 1723.
Seunie, soi'meh or zoi'meh, (|OHAXN GOTTFRIED,)
a German poet and miscellaneous writer, born in 1763.
He travelled extensively on foot. Among his works is
" Obolen," (2 vols., 1797.) Died in 1810.
See his Autobiography, " Mein Leben," 1813; H. DORING,
" Lebcnsimirisse von Carl August von Sachsen- Weimar, von Moe-
ser, Fnik, Seume," etc., 1840; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Seun-King. See SIUN-KING.
Seurre, SUR, (BERNARD GABRIEL,) a French sculptor,
born in Paris in 1795. He gained the grand prize of
Rome in 1818, and was admitted into the Institute in
1852. Among his works is a statue of Napoleon I. for
the Colonne Vendome.
Seurre, (CHARLES MARIE EMII.E,) a sculptor, a
brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1797.
He obtained the grand prize in 1824. His master-piece
is a statue of Napoleon I. Died in 1858.
Sevajee or Sivaji, se-va'jee, the founder of the
Mahratta empire in India, was born at Poonah in 1627.
He was ambitious and warlike. By a series of conquests
he made himself master of a large part of Southern
India. About 1670 he was involved in war with Aurung-
Zeb, whose army he defeated. Died in 1680.
Severe. See SEVERUS, (ALEXANDER.)
Severino, sa-va-ree'no, (MARCO AURELTO,) an emi
nent Italian physician, born in Calabria in 1580, is said
to have been the principal restorer of surgery in Italy.
He became professor of anatomy and medicine at Na
ples, and published a number of professional works.
Died in 1656.
See MAGI.IARI, " Elogio di M. A. Severino," 1815; " Nouvelle
Biographic Geuerale."
Sev-er-i'nus, [Fr. SEVERIN, sav'rax',] POPE, was a
native of Rome. He succeeded Honorius I. in 640 A.IX,
and died the same year.
Se-ve'rus, a Gnostic, who lived about 180 A.D. and
founded a heretical sect called Severiani. Their doc
trines were similar to those of TATIAN, (which see.)
Se-ve'rus, [¥r. SEVERE, sa'vaiR',] (ALEXANDER,) a
Roman emperor,. born in Phoenicia about 205 A.D., was
a son of Gessius Marcianus and Julia Mammaea. In
221 he was adopted by his cousin Elagabalns, then em
peror, who also gave him the title of Cassar. He was
called M. Aurelius Alexander before his accession to
| the throne. Elagabalus soon became jealous, and made
| several unsuccessful efforts to destroy Alexander. He
succeeded Elagabalus in March, 222 A.D , and assumed
the name of Severus. During the first nine years he
reigned in peace, and applied himself to the reform of
' abuses. The King of Persia having renewed hostilities,
i Severus marched across the Euphrates, defeated the
I Persians in 232, and returned to Rome. He was pre
paring to repel an irruption of the Germans, when he
was killed by his mutinous troops in 235 A.D. He was
greatly distinguished for his wisdom, justice, clemency,
and other virtues.
See GIBBON, " Decline and Fail of the Roman Empire ;" TILI.E-
| MONT, •' Histoire des Empereurs ;" LAMPRIDIUS, "Alexander
[ Severus."
Severus, (ALEXANDRINUS,) a Greek writer of the
fifth century, was the author of "Narratives" and
j " Ethopceiae," or speeches attributed to supposed per-
I sons. The latter are contained in Gale's "Rhetores
I Selecti."
Severus, (CORNELIUS,) a Roman poet under the
reign of Augustus, was the author of an epic poem on
the " Sicilian War," (" Bellum Siculurn,") and an account
1 of the death of Cicero, (in verse.) A fragment of the
latter is extant.
Severus, [Fr. SEVERE, sa'vaiR',] (Lucius SEPTIMIUS,)
a Roman emperor, born at Leptis, in Africa, in 146 A.D.
i He was educated at Rome, and, after filling various
offices, became proconsul of Africa. While commander
of the Pannonian legions in Germany, he heard of the
death of Commodus, upon which he hastened to Rome,
and was proclaimed emperor by the army in 193 A.D.
in opposition to Didius Julianus, who was soon after
assassinated. He next marched against Pescennius
Niger, commander of the Syrian legions, who had lately
been proclaimed emperor by his troops. He defeated
Niger at Issus or Cyzicus in 194, after which he waged
war with success against the Parthians. In 197 he
gained a decisive victory over Albinus (a rival claimant
of the throne) near Lyons. He renewed the war against
Parthia in 198, defeated the Parthians, and took Ctesi-
phon, their capital. In 208 he led an army to Britain
to subdue the Caledonians, and built a rampart, called
the wall of Severus, extending across the island. He
died at York in 211 A.D., leaving two sons, Caracalla
and Geta.
See DION CASSICS, " History of Rome," books xxiv.-xxvi. :
GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Severus, (Sui.Picius,) [Fr. SUI.PICE SEVERE, sur
pass' sa'vaiR',] a Christian historian, born in Aquitania,
Gaul, about 363 A.D., was the author of" Historia Sacra,"
and a "Life of Saint Martin," in Latin. He has been
stvled "the Christian Sallust." Died about 410.
€ as k: c as s: g hard: g as j; G, H, K.guttural; x, nasal: R, trilled: s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SEXIER
SEWARD
Sevier, se-veer', (AMBROSE II.,) an American Senator,
bom in East Tennessee in 1802. Me removed to Ar
kansas at an early age, and was elected to the Senate
of the United States by the legislature of that State
in 1836. In 1848 he resigned his seat in the Senate,
and went on a special mission to Mexico, where he
negotiated a treaty of peace. Died at Little Rock in
December, 1848.
Sevier, (JoHN,) an American Governor, born in Ten
nessee in 1744. He served with distinction at the battle
of King's Mountain, in 1780. He was elected Governor
of Tennessee in 1796, and again in 1803, and was a mem
ber of Congress from 1811 to 1815. Died in 1815.
Sevigne, de, deli sa'ven'ya', (MARIE de Rabutin-
Chantal — deli ri'bii'tiN' shdN'ttl',) MADAME, a cele
brated French writer and beauty, born in Burgundy
about 1626. Left an orphan at an early age, she re
ceived an excellent education from her maternal uncle,
the Abbe de Coulanges, and learned Latin, Italian, and
Spanish. She was married in 1644 to the dissolute
Marquis de Sevigne, who was killed in a duel in 1651,
leaving one son and one daughter. She was courted by
Turenne, the Prince of Conti, and the poet Menage, but
declined all overtures for a second marriage. She was
one of the most admired ladies of the circle of the Hotel
de Rambouillet, and was celebrated for her epistolary
talent. Her letters display a fertile imagination, a re
fined sensibility, a graceful and na'ive vivacity, and are
much admired for their charming and picturesque style.
She has been pronounced the most admirable letter-
writer that ever lived. Died in 1696. Among the best
editions of her Letters is that of Adolph Regnier, (12
vols., 1862-64.)
See MADAME ACHU.I.E COMTE, " filoge de Madame de Sivigne,"
1840; J. A. WAI.SH, "Vie de Madame de Sevij-ne," iS42 : WAI.C-
KKNAER, " M&moires touchant la Vie de Marie de R ibtitin Chantal,"
4 vols.. 1842-48; AUBRNAS, " Histoire de Madame de Sevigne,"
etc., 1842; SAINTE-BKUVR, " Causeries du Lundi ;" LAMAKTINK,
" Memoirs of Celebrated Characters;" " Edinburgh Review," vol.
Ixxvi. ; " Nouvelle Hiographie Generale ;" " Madame de Sevigne
and her Contemporaries," London, 1841 ; " Edinburgh Review"
for October, 1842; "Quarterly Review" for 1864.
Sevin, seh-vaN1', (FRANCOIS,) a French philologist,
born at Villeneuve-le-Roi in 1682, was a collector of
Oriental manuscripts. Died in 1741.
Sewall, sii'al, (JOSEPH,) a clergyman, born in 1688,
was a son of Samuel, the chief justice of Massachu
setts. He preached in Boston for many years. Died
in 1769.
Sewall, (SAMUEL,) a judge, born at Bishop-Stoke,
England, in 1652. He was brought to America in his
childhood. He became a judge in 1692, and chief justice
of the supreme court of Massachusetts in 1718. He is
said to have been eminent for wisdom and learning.
He resigned his office in 1728, and died in 1730.
Sewall, (SAMUEL,) a jurist, born in Boston in 1757,
was a grandson of Joseph Sewall, noticed above. I le
was a member of Congress from 1796 to 1800, and was
appointed chief justice of Massachusetts in 1813. Died
at Wiscasset, Maine, in 1814.
Sewall, (STEPHEN,) an American judge, born in
Massachusetts about 1702, was a nephew of Samuel,
(1652-1730.) He became chief justice of the superior
court in 1752. Died in 1760.
Sewall, (STEPHEN,) an American scholar, born at
York, Maine, in 1734. He became professor of Hebrew
at Harvard College about 1765, and published various
works. Died in 1804.
Sew'ard, (ANNA,) an English writer of considerable
reputation in her time, was born at Eyam, in Derbyshire,
in 1747. Her metrical novel entitled " Louisa" (1782)
was very successful, and was followed by a collection of
sonnets, and a " Life of Dr. Darwin," (1804,) in which
she claims to have written the first fifty lines of his
"Botanic Garden." She died in 1809. Her poems
and part of her literary correspondence were, at her
request, published by Sir Walter Scott, (1810.) Her
works possess little merit of any kind, and are now
nearly forgotten.
See WALTER SCOTT'S Miscellaneous Prose Works; "Monthly
Review" for October and November, 1811 ; MRS. ELWOOD, "Me
moirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement
of the Last Century," vol. i., 1843.
Seward, (THOMAS,) an English poet, the father of
the preceding, was born in 1708. lie became canon-
residentiary of Lichfield. Died in 1790.
Seward, (WILLIAM,) an English writer, and friend
of Dr. Johnson, born in London in 1747. He published
" Biographiana," and "Anecdotes of Distinguished Per
sons." Died in 1799.
Seward, su'ard or soo'ard, (WILLIAM HENRY,) an
eminent American statesman, born at Florida, Orange
county, New York, on the i6th of May, 1801, was a son
of Samuel S. Seward, M.D. His mother's maiden-
name was Mary Jennings. He was educated at Union
College, Schenectady, which he entered in 1816. His
favourite studies were rhetoric, moral philosophy, and
the ancient classics. He taught school in one of the
Southern States for six months in 1819, and returned to
Union College in 1820. Having studied law under John
Duer and Ogden Hoffman, he was admitted to the bar
in 1822. He became a resident of Auburn, Cayuga
county, in 1823, and married in 1824 Frances Adeline, a
daughter of Judge Elijah Miller, lie acquired a high
reputation as a lawyer, and in criminal trials acted
almost exclusively as counsel for the defendant.
In 1828 he was president of a State Convention of
young men who favoured the re-election of John Quincy
Adams to the Presidential chair. Soon after this date
he joined the Anti-Masonic party, by which he was
elected to the Senate of New York, in 1830, by a large
majority. In the session of 1832 he made an able speech
in favour of the United States Bank. He became the
leader of the opposition party in his own State, and a
supporter of the national party which afterwards adopted
the name of Whig. In 1833 he crossed the Atlantic,
and made a rapid tour through Great Britain, Ireland,
Holland, Germany, and France. He published some
observations on those countries, in a series of letters.
He was nominated as the Whig candidate for Governor
of New York in 1834, but was defeated by William L.
Marcy. He joined the Protestant Episcopal Church in
1837. In 1838 he was elected Governor of the State by
a majority of 10,000, being the first Whig that was ever
elected to that office. In the exercise of his official
power he favoured internal improvements, reform in the
courts of law and chancery, and the extension of edu
cation among the people. Among the events of his ad
ministration was a controversy with the executive of
Virginia, who claimed the surrender of three coloured
seamen charged with abetting a slave to escape from
his master. Governor Seward refused to comply with
this requisition, and argued that no State can force
a requisition on another State, founded on an act
which is only criminal according to its own legislation,
but which compared with general standards is humane
and praiseworthy. Through his influence the legislature
repealed the law which permitted a slaveholder, travel
ling with his slaves, to hold them for nine months in
the State of New York.
Mr. Seward supported General Harrison for President
in 1840, and at the same time was re-elected Governor
for two years. He declined to be a candidate in 1842,
and resumed the practice of law in the courts of his own
State and in those of the United States. He displayed
much courage and coolness in the defence of Free
man, a negro who massacred a family near Auburn in
1845, ancl ne provoked a violent explosion of popular
indignation by his effort to prove that Freeman was
insane. Although his argument failed to convince the
jury, it was confirmed by a post-mortem examination
of the brain of Freeman. In the Presidential election
of 1844 he was an active supporter of Henry Clay, and
opposed the annexation of Texas to the United States.
He wrote a " Life of John Quincv Adams," (published
in 1849.)
In 1848 he advocated the nomination and election of
General Taylor to the Presidency. In February, 1849,
Mr. Seward was elected by the State legislature to the
Senate of the United States, receiving one hundred and
twenty-one votes against thirty for all others. He soon
became an intimate friend and favourite counsellor of
President Taylor, and distinguished himself by his firm
resistance to the extension of slavery. In March, 1850,
a, e, i, 5, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; n &:; n&t; good; moon;
SEWARD
SEXTVS
he made a speech in favour of the admission of Cali
fornia into the Union, in which occurs his famous phrase
"the higher law." "The Constitution," he said, "de
votes the national domain to union, to justice, to defence,
to welfare, and to liberty. But there is a higher law
than the Constitution, which regulates our authority
over the domain, and devotes it to the same noble pur
poses." He opposed the "Compromise Bill" (July,
1850) in an elaborate and eloquent speech, asserting
that "the love of liberty is a public, universal, and un
dying affection." For his course on the slavery question
he was denounced as a seditious agitator. It was his
habitual practice never to notice the abusive person
alities which were often applied to him by his opponents
in the Senate.
In 1852 he voted for General Scott, the Whig candi
date for President. He constantly opposed the Native
American or Know-Nothing party, which was secretly
organized about 1854, " on a foreign and frivolous issue,"
and he was one of the chief founders of the Republican
party, which was formed about the same period, wkh
a view to prevent the extension of slavery. lie was
re-elected a Senator of the United States in 1855. In
a speech at Rochester in October, 1858, he declared
that the antagonism between freedom and slavery " is
an irrepressible conflict between opposing and endur
ing forces ;" but this oft-quoted phrase ("irrepressible
conflict") is said to have been first used by Abraham
Lincoln.
About this time he predicted that the Democratic
party would be fatally damaged by its support of slavery.
In a memorable speech delivered in the Senate, March
3, 1858, he said, " All parties in this country that have
tolerated the extension of slavery, except one, have
perished for that error already. That last one — the
Democratic party — is hurrying on irretrievably to the
same fate."
Mr. Seward visited Europe a second time in 1859.
At the Republican Convention which met in 1860 to
nominate a candidate for President, Seward received I
one hundred and seventy-three votes on the first ballot,
(more than any other candidate,) two hundred and !
thirty-three votes being necessary for a choice. His |
failure to obtain the nomination was attributed to the hos- j
tility of Horace Greeley. During the session of 1860-
61 he made an able speech in the Senate against dis
union. He was appointed secretary of state in March,
1861. It is generally admitted that he displayed much
ability in the direction of the foreign policy during the
civil war. Among the important acts of his ministry
was the liberation of Mason and Slidell, who were
arrested on board the British steamer Trent in Novem
ber, 1861, and were demanded by the British govern
ment. "To his admirable skill, foresight, and good
judgment," says the " North American Review" for
April, 1866, "the country owes its deliverance from
perils and embarrassments such as it never before
encountered. His fairness and good temper have been
more than a match for the plausible insincerity of
Thouvenel and Drouyn de Lhuys and the haughty arro
gance of Earl Russell. . . . Some of his despatches,
especially that relating to the Trent case, have a world
wide renown, and there are sentences scattered through
his published volumes which deserve to live forever."
A different and far less favourable view, however, is
taken of his despatches and his policy in a number of
the same periodical published October, 1866.
The invasion of Mexico by the French in 1862 raised
another important subject of diplomacy. In despatches
dated September and October, 1863, Mr. Seward dis
claimed the right and the disposition to intervene by
force in Mexico. He persisted in recognizing the
government of Juarez, and after the House of Repre
sentatives (April, 1864) declared, by a unanimous vote,
against the recognition of the Mexican empire, he
affirmed that this resolution "truly interprets the unani
mous sentiment of the people." In November, 1865,
he wrote to Mr. Bigelow, the American minister at
Paris, "The United States regard the effort to establish
permanently a foreign and imperial government in
Mexico as disallowable and impracticable." The result
of this despatch, and of others of the same import, was
that the French army was withdrawn about the end
of 1866, and Napoleon HI. witnessed the disastrous
and humiliating failure of his costly and ill-judged
enterprise.
In the spring of 1865 Secretary Seward was thrown
from his carriage with such violence that his arm and
jaw were broken. While he was lying in this crippled
condition, on the I4th of April, 1865, Lewis Payne,
alias Powell, — an accomplice of J. Wilkes Booth, — pre
sented himself at the door of his house, rushed past the
porter, broke the skull of Frederick Seward, and in
flicted with a knife several severe wounds on the neck
and face of the secretary of state. The assassin was
then grasped by Mr. Robinson, so that he failed to effect
his purpose, but stabbed two other men as he ran out
of the house.
Mr. Seward was retained in the office of secretary of
state by President Johnson, and supported his policy in
relation to reconstruction, against the almost unanimous
sentiment of the Republican party. In August and
September, 1866, President Johnson, accompanied by
his secretary of state, made an extensive electioneering
tour, on which occasion Mr. Seward gave great offence
even to the most moderate and impartial of his former
friends. At Niagara, in attempting to answer the charge
that he had deserted his party, he said, in addition to
many other things still more objectionable, " Must I
desert my course, my government, and my country
to follow a party divided, distracted, weak, imbecile?"
The next ensuing elections, however, gave a decisive
and unanswerable refutation to the misstatement that
the party was weak and distracted. (See, on this
subject, the " North American Review" for October,
1866.)
That historic impartiality which belongs to the biogra
phy of public men, forbids us wholly to pass over those
errors and foibles which have disappointed so many of
Mr. Seward's former friends ; but we gladly turn from
the consideration of such topics to the contemplation of
his long life of usefulness, and especially of his eminent
services to his country in her late hour of trial.
See "Memoir of W. H. Seward," prefixed to bis works, by
GEORGE E. BAKER, 3 vols., 1853; BARTI.ETT, " Modern Agitators."
Sew'el, (WILLIAM,) M.D., a historian and linguist,
of English extraction, born at Amsterdam in 1654, was
a member of the Society of Friends. He published a
"Dictionary of the Dutch and English Languages,"
(1690,) and a "History of the Origin and Progress of
the Society called Quakers," (1717,) which is highly
esteemed. Died about 1725.
Sew'ell, (GEORGE,) an English physician and miscel
laneous writer, born at Windsor, was a pupil of Boer-
haave. He published a "Vindication of the English
Stage," " Sir Walter Raleigh," a tragedy, and trans
lations from Lucan and other Latin poets. Died in
1726.
Sewell, (Rev. WILLIAM,) an English writer and
teacher, born in the Isle of Wight about 1805. He
was a tutor or professor at Oxford University. He
published, besides other works, "Christian Morals,"
(1840,) "Christian Politics," and a version of the Odes
of Horace.
Sex'ti-us, (CAius,) was elected Roman consul in 124
B.C., and was afterwards proconsul in Southern Gaul,
where he gained a victory over the Arverni. Near the
warm springs, where one of his battles was fought, he
founded the city of Aquae Sextiae, now Aix-la-Chapelle.
Sex'tj-us, Etex'tus, or Six'tus, (QuiNrus,) a
Roman Stoic philosopher, who lived about 50 B.C. and
is highly praised by Seneca. He is supposed to have
been the author of a book of moral aphorisms, ("Sen-
tentioe,") which Rufinus translated from Greek into
Latin.
Sex'tus [2e£roc] OF -€HKRON/E'A, a Greek Stoic
philosopher of the second century, was a nephew of
Plutarch, and a preceptor of Marcus Aurelius.
Sex'tus Em-pir'i-cus, [Se?rof 6 'Efi-eipvicof,] a cele
brated Greek skeptical philosopher and physician, whose
birthplace is unknown, flourished about 200 A.D. He
belonged to the medical sect of Empiric!. He wrote
e as k; c as s; g hard; g as ; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; §*as 2; th as in this.
126
Explanations, p. 23.
SETBERT
SFORZA
two works which have come down to us, namely, "Against
the Mathematicians or Dogmatists," (" Adversus Mathe-
maticos,") and " Pyrrhonistic Sketches," (" Pyrrhonre
Hypoty poses.") These works are highly prized as docu
ments for the history of philosophy. They contain all the
arguments and maxims of the ancient skeptics, and tend
to involve in doubt all the doctrines of science, religion,
and philosophy. The former work has been described
as "a perfect store-house of doubts regarding every
imaginable phasis of human knowledge." ("Encyclo
paedia Britannica.")
See C. JOURDAIN, "Sextus Empiricus et la Philosophie scolas-
tique," 1858; TENNEMANN, " Geschichte der Philosophie ;'' " Nou-
velle Biographic GeneVale."
Seybert, sl'bert, (ADAM,) an American mineralogist
and physician, born in Philadelphia in 1773, studied
in Paris, Edinburgh, and Gottingen. He was a member
of Congress from 1809 to 1815. He published " Statis
tical Annals of the United States from 1789 to 1818."
Died in Paris in 1825.
Seydelmaiin, si'del-man' or zl'del-man', QAKOH
CRKSCENZ,) a German artist, celebrated for his admira
ble drawings in sepia, was born at Dresden in 1750.
Among his master-pieces is a copy of Correggio's
"Night." Died in 1829.
Seydelmaiin, (KARL,) a celebrated German actor,
born at Glatz, in Silesia, in 1795 ; died in 184.3.
Seydlitz, von, fon sid'lits or zid'lits, (FRIEDRICH
WILHKI.M,) a Prussian general, born near Cleves in
1721, served in the Seven Years' war. For his distin
guished bravery at the battle of Rossbach, in 1757,
he received from his sovereign the order of the Black
Eagle. He became general of cavalry in 1767. Died
in 1773.
See VARNHAGEN VON ENSE, " Leben des Generals von Seydlitz,"
1834; COUNT VON BISMAKK, " Der General F. von Seydlitz," 1837;
BLANKENBURG, "Charakter des Generals von Seydlitz," 1797-
Seyflarth, sif'faRt or ziffaRt, (GusTAV,) a German
antiquary and professor of archaeology at Leipsic, was
born at (jebigau, in the duchy of Saxony, in 1796. He
was the author of " Rudimenta Ilieroglyphices," (1826,)
and of "Principles of Mythology," and wrote a continua
tion of Spohn's treatise'" On the Language and Letters
of the Ancient Egyptians." In 1855 he became professor
in the Lutheran College of Saint Louis, in the United
States. Died in 1860.
See AM.IBONE. "Dictionary of Authors."
Seyfried, sT'fRet or zi'fRet, (!GNAZ,) a German com
poser, born at Vienna in 1776 ; died in 1841.
Seymour, (EDWARD.) See SOMERSET, DUKE OF.
Seymour, see'mur, (EDWARD,) an English Tory
politician, was a lineal descendant of the Dnke of Som
erset, who was Protector in the reign of Edward VI.
He was one of the most skilful debaters in the kingdom.
He joined the party of William, Prince of Orange, in
1688. In 1692 he was appointed a commissioner of the
treasury and member of the cabinet. He was removed
in 1694. He was factious in politics and licentious in
morals. Died in 1707.
See MACAULAY, " History of England," vol. i.
Seymour, (Sir GEORGE HAMILTON,) an English di
plomatist, born about 1797. He was sent to Saint
Petersburg in 1851 as envoy-extraordinary and minister-
plenipotentiary. In 1853 Nicholas I. made to him over
tures on the subject of Turkey, offering, it is said, to
co-operate with England in the spoliation of "the sick
man." His mission in Russia ended in 1854.
Seymour, see'mur, (HoRATro,) an American poli
tician, born in Onondaga county, New York, in 1811.
He studied law, which he practised for several years in
Utica. He was nominated for the office of Governor of
New York by the Democratic party in 1850, but was
defeated by Washington Hunt. Having been nominated
again in 1852, he was elected Governor for two years
by a large majority. In 1854 he was an unsuccessful
candidate for the same office. In the crisis of 1861 he
opposed the coercion of the secessionists. According
to Mr. Greeley, he was understood to urge the adhesion
of New York to the Southern Confederacy. (" American
Conflict," vol. i. p. 438.) He was elected Governor of
New York in 1862. About the 1st of August, 1863,
he urged President Lincoln to suspend the draft, and
insisted that the enforcement of the draft should be
postponed till the courts decided the question of its
constitutionality. He was president of the National
Democratic Convention which met at Chicago in August,
1864, and then made a speech, in which he declared,
"This administration cannot now save this Union if it
would. It has by its proclamations, by vindictive legis
lation, by displays of hate and passion, placed obstacles
in its own pathway which it cannot overcome, and has
hampered its own freedom of action by unconstitutional
acts." He was again presented as a candidate for the
office of Governor in November, 1864, and was defeated.
He was president of the National Democratic Convention
which met in New York, July 4, 1868, and was nomi
nated as the candidate for the Presidency of the United
States on the 9th of that month, although he had an
nounced his resolution to decline the honour, and had
declared in that convention that "he could not be nomi
nated without putting himself and the Democratic party
in peril." He received only eighty electoral votes, and
was defeated by General Grant.
Seymour, (|ANE,) was a sister of Edward, Duke of
Somerset, and the third wife of Henry VIII., to whom
she was married in 1536. She was the mother of Ed
ward VI. Died in 1537.
Seymour, (Sir MICHAEL,) an English vice-admiral,
born in 1802. He became a rear-admiral in 1855, and
commanded the naval force which operated against
Canton in 1857.
Seymour, (THOMAS,) Lord Sudely, lord high ad
miral of England, was a brother of Edward, Dnke of
Somerset. He married Catherine Parr, a widow of
Henry VIII., and, after her death, became a suitor of
the princess Elizabeth. He aspired to be governor of the
young king, and to supplant the Duke of Somerset as
regent or protector. Having been convicted of treason,
he was beheaded in 1549.
See HUME, "History of England."
Seymour, (TRUMAN,) an American general, born at
Burlington, Vermont, about 1824, graduated at West
Point in 1846. He was a captain in Fort Sumter when it
was bombarded in April, 1861, and became a brigadier-
general of volunteers about April, 1862. He served at
the battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862, and com
manded a small army which w.is defeated at Olustee,
Florida, on the 2oth of February, 1864.
Seymour, (WILLIAM,) Duke of Somerset, was a
great-grandson of Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset.
I le offended James I. by his marriage with Arabella
Stuart, who was a cousin of the king. In the civil war
he fought for Charles I. Died in 1660. (See STUART,
ARABELLA.)
Seyssel. See SETSSEL.
Seze, de, deh siz, (RAYMOND,) COUNT, a French ad
vocate and royalist, born at Bordeaux in 1748. He was
one of the counsel selected by Louis XVI. to defend
him in his trial, and made an eloquent plea before the
Convention. He became first president of the court of
cassation in 1815, and a member of the French Acad
emy in 1816. Died in 1828.
See CHATEAUBRIAND, " fi oge d'i Comte de SV.e," 1861 ; MAR-
MONTEI., " Memoires ;" " Nmivelle Biographic Ginerale."
Sfoiidrati, sfon-dRa'tee, (CELESTINO,) an Italian
cardinal and writer, born at Milan in 1644; died in
1696.
Sfondrati, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian cardinal, born at
Cremona in 1493, was an influential adviser of Pope
Paul III. He wrote a Latin poem " On the Rape of
Helen," ("De Raptu Helenae," 1559.) Died in 1550.
Sforce. See SFORZA.
Sforza. See BONNA SFORZA.
Sforza, sfoRt'sa, [Fr. SFORCE, sfoRss,] (FRANCESCO,)
son of Giacomuzzo, noticed below, was born in 1401,
and was equally distinguished as a warrior. After he
had for a time assisted the Florentines against Filippo
Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan, the latter gave him in
marriage his daughter Bianca. On the death of Visconti
he took possession of Milan, with the assistance of the
Venetians, and was proclaimed duke in 1450. He dis
played great ability and moderation as a ruler, and.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e,"i, o, \\, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
SFORZA
2003
SHAFTESB UR T
among other valuable public works, constructed the
Naviglio della Martesana, or canal between Milan and
the Adda. Died in 1465.
See HOVER, " Franz Sforza," 2 vols., 1846: "The Life and Times
of Francesco Sforza," by W. P. UKQUHART, 1852; G. SIMONETTA,
•' De Rebus gestis F. Sforza," 1480; ROBKRTSON, "History of
Charles V.," vol. ii. books iv.-vi. ; SISMONDI, " Histoire des Repiib-
liques Itaiiennes ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Sforza, (FRANCESCO MARIA,) the last Duke of Milan,
a son of Ludovico " il Moro," was born in 1492. He
obtained the dukedom by the aid of the emperor Charles
V., about 1525, and died, without issue, in 1535.
Sforza, (G.M.EAZZo MARIA,) a son of Francesco, was
born in 1444. He became Duke of Milan in 1465.
Having made himself odious to the people by his tyranny
and licentiousness, he was assassinated in 1476.
Sforza, (GiACOMUZZo ATTENDOI.O, ja-ko-moot'so
at-tSn'do-lo,) an Italian soldier of fortune, born near
Faenza about 1370. At an early age he entered the
service of Alberico da Harbiano, one of the most noted
of the " condottieri," or party leaders of the time, who
were striving for the deliverance of Italy from foreign
mercenaries. By his distinguished bravery and energy
he contributed to the success of Alberico's enterprises,
and received from him the surname of "Sforza," from
his great strength. He afterwards assisted the Floren
tines against the republic of Pisa, and, having entered
the service of Joanna, Queen of Naples, attained the
rank of Commander-in-chief. Having marched against
Braccio da Montone, he was drowned while attempting
to ford the river Pescara, in 1424.
See RATTI, "Memorie della Famiglia Sforza," 2 vols., 1795; Sis-
VIOXDJ, " Histoire des Republiques Itaiiennes."
Sforza, (GIOVANNI GALKAZZO MARIA,) Duke of
Milan, the son of Galeazzo Maria, noticed above, was
born in 1468. He succeeded his father in 1476, his
mother acting as regent ; but the power was usurped
about 1480 by his uncle Ludovico. Died in 1494.
Sforza, ( LUDOVICO,) surnamed IL MORO, ("the
Moor,") brother of Galeazzo Maria, was born in 1451.
He imprisoned his nephew, the legitimate heir, and
usurped the government of Milan, about 1480. In order
to strengthen himself against Ferdinand, King of Xaples,
who had espoused the cause of the young duke, he in
vited Charles VIII. of France to attempt the conquest
of Naples, thus originating the devastating wars which
afflicted Italy in the sixteenth century. The French,
having taken Naples, soon roused the people to resist
ance by their oppression, and were expelled from Italy
by the united efforts of Ludovico, the pope, and the
Venetians. On the invasion of Italy by the French
king, Louis XII., in 1499, Ludovico, after opposing him
with varying success, was taken prisoner, and died in
France in 1510. He was a liberal patron of learning
and the arts, and made numerous improvements in the
city of Milan.
See MOSTI, "Vita di Ludovico Sforza," 1653; SISMOXDI, " His
toire des Republiqiies Itaiiennes ;" ROSCOE, " Pontificate of Leo X. ;"
" Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sforza, (MASSIMILIANO,) a son of the preceding,
enjoyed for a time the rank of Duke of Milan, but was
deposed by the French king, Francis I., after the battle
of Marignano, in 1515. Died in 1530. His brother
FRANCESCO was made Duke of Milan by the emperor
Charles V., to whom, on his dying without issue in
1535, he bequeathed the dukedom.
Sgravesande. See GRAVESANDE.
Sgricci, sgRet'chee, (TOMMASO,) a celebrated Italian
improvisatore, born in the latter part of the eighteenth
century. His productions entitled "The Death of
Charles T." ("La Morte di Carlo I.") and "L'Ettore"
were published in 1825.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Shad'well, (THOMAS,) an English dramatist, born in
Norfolk in 1640, was for a time a friend of Dryden, who
subsequently satirized him in his poem of " MacFleck-
noe." He succeeded Dryden as poet-laureate in 1688,
through the influence of the Earl of Rochester. He
published, among other comedies, "The Humourist,"
"The Sullen Lovers," "The Lancashire Witches," and
"The Volunteers." Died in 1692.
See "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., second series, (1828.)
Shafey, sha'fa' or sha'fi', [Lat. SHAFEI'US,] written
also Shafay and Schafei, (sometimes called Aboo-
Abdallah- Mohammed -Ibn-Idrees, <or -Edris,)
a'boo ab-dal'lah mo-ham'med ib'n e-drees',) a cele
brated Mohammedan doctor, born at Gaza in 767 A.D.,
was the founder of one of the four orthodox sects of
Moslems, and one of the most learned men of his time.
I Fe lived for many years at Mecca, and wrote treatises
on canon and civil law. Died about 820.
Shaftesbury, shafs'ber-e, ( ANTHONY ASHLEY
COOPER,) Lord Ashley, and first EARL OF, an English
politician, famous for his talents, intrigues, and versa
tility, was born at Wimborne Saint Giles, Dorsetshire,
on the 22d or 23d of July, 1621. He was a son of Sir
John Cooper, and a grandson of Sir Anthony Ashky.
from each of whom he inherited a large estate.
He was a member of the Short Parliament of 1640.
In the civil war he first supported the cause of the king,
but in 1643 he joined the popular party, and took Ware-
ham in 1644. He became a member of Parliament in
1653, after which he was appointed a member of Crom
well's council of state. Between 1654 and 1660 he sat
in several Parliaments, was an opponent of Cromwell,
and very efficiently promoted the restoration. Charles
II. rewarded him in 1660 with the office of chancellor
of the exchequer, and raised him to the peerage, as
Baron Ashley, in 1661. Lord Ashley was a political
opponent of Lord Clarendon while the latter was prime
minister. He became in 1670 a member of the famous
and notorious Cabal ministry, whose domestic -policy
was arbitrary, and whose foreign policy was basely sub
servient to the will of Louis XIV. " Ashley, with a far
stronger head [than Buckingham], "says Macaulay, "and
with a far fiercer and more earnest ambition, had been
equally versatile ; but Ashley's versatility was the effect
not of levity, but of selfishness. He had served and
betrayed a succession of governments ; but he had timed
all his treacheries so well that through all revolutions
his fortunes had been constantly rising." (" History
of England.") He was created Earl of Shaftesbury in
1672, and held the office of lord chancellor from No
vember, 1672, till November, 1673. After the seals had
been taken from him, he went over to the opposition or
country party, and signalized his zeal against popery. A
majority of the Commons having opposed the measures
of the court, the king prorogued that House from time
to time. When it assembled in 1677, Shaftesbury as
serted that it was dissolved. For this offence he was
confined in the Tower for more than a year. This affair,
and his officious action in relation to the Popish Plot,
rendered him so popular that he was appointed president
of the new council formed in 1679. While he held this
high position, he procured the passage of the famous
Habeas Corpus act, of which he was the author. Having
been dismissed from the presidency of the council in
October, 1679, he presented the Duke of York to the
grand jury as a popish recusant. Suspected of conspir
ing with the Duke of Monmouth, he was seized in July,
1681, and confined in the Tower on a charge of treason ;
but the bill of indictment was ignored by the grand jury.
Dryden satirized him, under the name of " Achitophel,"
in his admirable poem of " Absalom and Achitophel."
It is said that Shaftesbury advised his party to revolt
openly against the court, but the other leaders refused
to follow this advice. He therefore left England in 1682,
and died at Amsterdam in June, 1683, leaving one son.
See ITORD CAMPBELL, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors:" "Life
of Lord Shaftesbury," by B. MARTIN and DR. KIPPLS. new edition,
by C. \V. COOK, 1836: also "Memoirs, Letters, and Speeches,"
edited by W. D. CHRISTIE.
Shaftesbury, (ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER,) seventh
EARL OF, an English philanthropist, the eldest son of
the sixth Earl, was born in 1801. He was styled LORD
ASHLEY in his youth. He graduated at Oxford, as first
class in classics, in 1822, and entered Parliament in 1826.
He procured the passage of the " Ten Hours' Bill," which
requires that children in factories shall not work more
than ten hours in a day. He distinguished himself as
an advocate of the "Evangelical party" of the Anglican
Church, and as a promoter of benevolent enterprises.
At the death of his father, in 1851, he inherited the
earldom.
€ as k: c as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal: R, trilled: s as z; th as in this. (^=366 Explanations, p. 23.)
SHAFTESBURT
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SHAKSPEARE
Shaftesbury, (ANTHONY COOPER,) third EARI. OF,
a celebrated English writer, born in London in 1671,
was a grandson of the first Earl. He was educated by
John Locke, the philosopher, who was a friend of his
grandfather. According to a statement of the pupil
himself, Locke "had the absolute direction of his educa
tion." In 1693 he entered Parliament, where he acted
with the Whigs. During a residence in Holland, to
which he went in 1698, he became acquainted with
Bayle and Leclerc. On the death of his father, in 1699,
he passed into the House of Lords. He was a political
friend of William III., who consulted him in important
affairs. After the death of William (1705) he retired
from public service. He published a " Letter on Enthu
siasm," (1708,) "Moralists, a Philosophical Rhapsody,"
(1709,) and " Sensus Communis, or Essay on Wit and
Humour," (1709.) His style as a writer was greatly ad
mired, though it is wanting in ease and simplicity. He
died at Naples in February, 1713, leaving one son, An
thony. His collected works were published in 1713,
under the title of "Characteristics of Men, Manners,
Opinions, and Times." Leibnitz warmly applauded his
" Characteristics." " His fine genius and generous spirit,"
says Sir J. Mackintosh, "shine through his writings;
but their lustre is often dimmed by peculiarities, and, it
must be said, by affectations, which are peculiarly fatal to
the permanence of fame." Referring to his " Moralists,"
the same critic says, " Perhaps there is scarcely any
composition in our language more lofty in its moral and
religious sentiments and more exquisitely elegant and
musical in its diction. . . . 'The Inquiry concerning
Virtue' is nearly exempt from the faulty peculiarities of
the author; the method is perfect, the reasoning just,
the style precise and clear. . . . This production is un
questionably entitled to a place in the first rank of
English tracts on moral philosophy. It contains more
intimations of an original and important nature on the
theory of ethics than perhaps any preceding work of
modern times. His demonstration of the utility of vir
tue to the individual far surpasses all attempts of the
same nature, — being founded not on a calculation of
outward advantages or inconveniences, alike uncer
tain, precarious, and degrading, but on the unshaken
foundation of the delight which is of the very essence
of social affection and virtuous sentiment, ... on the
all-important truth that to love is to be happy and to
hate is to be miserable, that affection is its own reward
and ill will its own punishment. . . . The relation of
religion to morality, as far as it can be discovered by
human reason, was never more justly or more beauti
fully stated." (See "General View of the Progress of
Ethical Philosophy.")
SHAH, shah, a Persian word, signifying "king," and
forming part of the name or title of many Oriental sove
reigns ; as, SHAH ABBAS, i.e. "King Abbas," NADIR
SHAH, " wonderful king," etc.
Shah-Alam, shah a'lam, ("King of the World,")
written also Schah-Alam (-Alem or -Alim) and
Shah- Alum, (or -Allum,) sometimes called Bahadur
Shah, ba-ha'door shSh, ("Brave King,") a son of
Aurung-Zeb, Emperor of India, whom he succeeded in
1707. He died in 1712, while carrying on a war against
the Sikhs.
Shah-Alam (or Schah-Alem) II. ascended the
throne of India in 1759. In order to strengthen his
authority over his empire, he had recourse to the British,
to whom he gave a grant of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa,
in return for the city and district of Allahabad which
they assigned him. Died in 1806.
Shah-Jehan or Shahjehan, shah je-han', written
also Shah-Jahan and Schah- (or Chah-) Djehan,
("King of the World,") the fifth Mogul Emperor of
India, the son of Jehan-Geer, whom he succeeded in
1627. His reign was disturbed by the rebellion of his
sons, one of whom, the famous Aurung-Zeb, put to death
two of his brothers and deposed his father. Fie died in
1666 at Agra, where a large establishment had been
granted him. The court of Shah-Jehan was celebrated
for its splendour. The " peacock throne," formed of
jewels valued at ,£6,500,000, was constructed by him.
He also founded the city of Shah Jehanabad, or New
Delhi, and erected many magnificent public buildings,
among which the Taj-Mahal, a mausoleum, erected in
honour of his favourite wife, called Taj-Mahal, ("the
Crown of the Palace,") near Agra, is justly regarded
as one of the wonders of the world, and, in the opin
ion of several competent judges, is the most elegant
and splendid edifice on the globe. It is said to have
cost — in a country where almost every kind of labour
is marvellously cheap — not less than sixty millions
of dollars.
Shah-Rokh-Behadur, shth roK be-ha'door, or
Shah-Rokh-Meerza, a son of Tamerlane, succeeded
him on the throne in 1405. He rebuilt the fortress of
the city of Herat, and constructed other public edifices.
Died about 1450.
Shah-Temaii, shah te-man', or Shah-Temaun,
(" King of the Age,") succeeded his father, Timoor Shah,
as King of Cabul and Afghanistan in 1793.
Shaiva. See SAIVA.
Shakhovsky or Schachowski, sha-Kov'ske,
(Ai.KXANDKR AI.KXANDROVITCH,) PRINCK, a celebrated
Russian dramatist, born in the government of Smolensk
in 1777. Among his numerous and popular works may
be named his " Aristophanes," a comedy, and " A Lesson
to Coquettes." Died in 1846.
Shakespear, shak'speer, (Joux,) an English Orien
talist, born at Lount, Leicestershire, in 1774. He was
professor of Hindostanee at the Royal Military College,
and published, among other works, an excellent "Dic
tionary of the Hindustani Language," (1817,) and a
"Grammar of the Hindustani Language," (6th edition,
1855, Svo.) Died in 1858.
Shakspeare or Shakespeare,* shak'speer, (WIL
LIAM,) the greatest dramatic genius that ever lived,
was born at Stratford-upon-Avon in April, (probably
on the 23d.) 1564. His father, John Shakspeare, was a
glover. His mother's maiden-name was Mary Arden ;
she belonged to a respectable and ancient family of
Warwickshire. William was the eldest of four brothers ;
he had four sisters, two of whom were older and two
younger than himself. The materials for writing the
life of Shakspeare are extremely meagre. Of his child
hood, after his christening, (which took place on the
26th of April,) and his early youth, we know absolutely
nothing. It is certain, however, that he was married in
his nineteenth year to Anne Hathaway. He appears
soon after his marriage to have gone to London, where
he followed the profession of an actor, and, if Aubrey's
statement may be trusted, he " did act exceedingly well."
There is a pretty generally received tradition that he
fled from Warwickshire in consequence of having been
detected in deer-stealing. Rowe, in his Life of Shak
speare, relates the story as follows : " He had, by a
misfortune common enough to young fellows, fallen into
ill company ; and amongst them some that made a fre
quent practice of deer-stealing engaged him with them
more than once in robbing a park that belonged to Sir
Thomas Lucy, of Charlecote, near Stratford. For this
he was prosecuted by that gentleman, as he thought,
somewhat too severely; and in order to revenge that ill
usage, he made a ballad upon him. And though this,
probably the first essay of his poetry, be lost, yet it is
said to have been so very bitter that it redoubled the
prosecution against him, to that degree that he was
obliged to leave his business and family in Warwickshire
for some time, and shelter himself in London." It
seems very probable that the passage in the first scene
of the " Merry Wives of Windsor," in which the " luces"
(or "louses") on Justice Shallow's coat are spoken of,
was intended as a hit at Sir Thomas Lucy. A similar
play upon the name of Lucy occurs in a coarse ballad
which tradition ascribes to Shakspeare. After having
taken up his abode in London, he appears to have acted
by turns at the Globe and at Blackfriars' Theatre.
Speaking of Shakspeare soon after his arrival in Lon
don, Rowe says, " He was received into the company
then in being, at first in a very mean rank ; but his ad
mirable wit, and the natural turn of it to the stage, soon
* Respecting the spelling of this name, see ALMBONE'S " Diction
ary of Authors."
a, e, T, 5, \\,-y,long; a, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, p, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
SHAKSPEARE
2005
SHAKSPEARE
distinguished him, if not as an extraordinary actor, yet
as an excellent writer. His name is printed, as the
custom was in those times, amongst those of the other
players, before some old plays, but without any particu
lar account of what sort of parts he used to play ; and,
though I have inquired, [ could never meet with any
further account of him this way than that the top of his
performance was the ghost in his own ' Hamlet.'"
It is not known when Shakspeare first began to write
plays, or which he wrote first. '• He began early," says
Aubrey, "to make essays at dramatic poetry, which at
that time was very low, and his plays took well." In
his dedication of "Venus and Adonis," which appeared
'n !593> Shakspeare calls this poem \\-\zfirst heir of his
invention. It is, however, not impossible that he might
have commenced the work many years earlier. His first
published play appeared in 1594, the same year that his
" Lucrece" was given to the world. From this time
there is reason to suppose that, although he may have
continued to act occasionally, his principal attention was
directed to the composition of his dramas ; since, accord
ing to Meres, he had written the "Two Gentlemen of
Verona," "Comedy of Errors," " Love's Labour's Lost,"
"Love's Labour's Won," (i.e., perhaps, "All's Well
that Ends Well,") " Midsummer Night's Dream," " Mer
chant of Venice," "Richard II.," "Richard III.,"
"Henry IV.," "King John," "Titus Anclronicus," and
"Romeo and Juliet" before the end of 1^98.
There is much evidence to show that the genius of
Shakspeare was greatly admired by his contemporaries.
The Earl of Southampton was so captivated with his
accomplishments that " he gave him a thousand pounds
to enable him to go through with a purchase which he
heard he had a mind to." (Rowe's " Life of Shakspeare.")
In order properly to appreciate the munificence of this
gift, it should be borne in mind that a thousand pounds
at that day was, in all probability, equal to five or six
thousand at the present time, if not more. The poet
dedicated to the Earl of Southampton his earliest works,
— " Venus and Adonis," and " Lucrece." In the dedica
tion of the latter, he says, among other things, "The
love I dedicate to yonr lordship is without end."
In 1596 Shakspeare lost his only son. In 1598 he
became acquainted with P.en Jonson. as Rowe tells us,
in the following manner: "Jonson, who was at that
time altogether unknown to the world, had offered one
of his plays to the players in order to have it acted, and
the persons into whose hands it was put, after turning it
carelessly and superciliously over, were just upon return
ing to him an ill-natured answer, that it would be of no
use to their company, when Shakspeare luckily cast his
eye upon it, and found something so well in it as to
engage him first to read it through, and afterwards to
recommend Mr. Jonson and his writings to the public.
After this they were professed friends." The play
referred to was "Every Man in his Humour." If any
thing could be wanting to the honour thus conferred
upon Jonson's play by the approbation of the greatest
dramatic genius the world ever saw, it was surely sup
plied in the fact that Shakspeare himself was one of the
actors in the piece which he had already recommended
to the public.
The great dramatist appears to have enjoyed a large
measure of the favour ot his sovereigns. Queen Eliza
beth and King James I. " Besides the advantages of his
wit," says Rowe, " he was in himself a good-natured
man, of great sweetness in his manners, and a most
agreeable companion. . . . Queen Elizabeth had several
of his plays acted before her, and without doubt gave
him many gracious marks of her favour. . . . She was
so well pleased with that character of Falstaff, in the
two parts of 'Henry IV.,' that she commanded him to
continue it for one play more, and to show him in love."
This is said to have been the occasion of his writing
the "Merry Wives of Windsor." It is stated that
King James I., who was fond of dramatic exhibitions,
had six of Shakspeare's plays acted before him at White
hall between the beginning of November, 1604, and the
end of March, 1605, and that the monarch, as a mark
of his particular favour, wrote the poet a letter with his
own hand.
Shakspeare had lost his father in 1601. In 1607 his
daughter Susanna was married to Dr. Hall, a highly
respectable physician of Warwickshire. In the year
following, his mother died. The great poet passed, it is
said, the last years of his life in his native Stratford in
honour and affluence. One writer (the Rev. John Ward,
Vicar of Stratford) says he had heard that " in his elder
days he lived at Stratford, and supplied the stage with
two plays every year ; and for it had an allowance so
large that he spent at the rate of ^1000 a year." He
closed his earthly career on the 23d of April, (supposed
to be the anniversary of his birth,) 1616, at the age of
fifty-two.
In regard to Shakspeare's intellectual and moral
attributes, we have far less difficulty in coming at the
truth, than we meet with in seeking to trace the events
of his life. Respecting his mental endowments, indeed,
the data furnished by his dramas, added to the testimony
of Jonson and other writers living at or near his time,
would seem to be ample and explicit. We are warranted
in inferring from his writings that he was, as Rowe in
forms us, not merely a "good-natured" man, and "of a
free and open nature," as we are told by Jonson, but
that he was of an extremely generous and forgiving dis
position. In his imaginative dramas (in which he was
under no obligation to follow the facts of history) he
shows a disinclination to treat with severity even the
most flagrant offences. Thus, for example, in " The Tem
pest," Prospero, as it appears, not only freely pardons
Alonzo and Antonio, by whom he had been expelled
from his dukedom, but the monster Caliban, though
detected in an attempt to take the life of his master, is
let off with a very slight punishment. A similar example
of clemency occurs in the " Two Gentlemen of Verona,"
in which Valentine, after freely forgiving Proteus, who
had been the author of all his calamities, uses these
words :
" Who by repentance is not satisfied,
Is nor of heaven nor earth."
But perhaps the most remarkable instance is found in
"Cymbeline," the plot of which is from Boccaccio. The
Italian novelist makes the wretch, who has so cruelly
destroyed the reputation of a lovely and innocent lady, .
expiate his crime at last by a death of lingering torture.*
Shakspeare, while taking many other of the leading
incidents of his plot from the Italian story, changes the
issue entirely. When lachimo kneels beseeching Post-
humus to take his life, the latter replies,
'' Knee! not to me ;
The power that I have on you, is to SPARE YOU ;
The malice towards you, to FOKGIVE you."
We have no means of determining the exact order
in which Shakspeare composed his different plays. To
those already mentioned, on the authority of Meres,
as having been produced before 1598, we may add the
second and third parts of " Henry VI.," published pre
viously to 1596. It is probable that "Taming of the
Shrew," the " Twelfth Night," " Hamlet," (as first writ
ten,) " Henry V.," " Much Atlo about Nothing," and
the " Merry Wives of Windsor" were composed before
1600. His other dramas are as follows: "King Lear,"
"Macbeth," "Timon of Athens," "Hamlet," (altered
and enlarged,) " Cymbeline," " The Winter's Tale,"
"The Tempest," " Sleasure for Measure," "Antony and
Cleopatra," "Julius Caesar," "Troilus and Cressida,"
" Coriolanus," (and "Pericles, Prince of Tyre.") Of
Shakspeare's tragedies, " Macbeth," " King Lear,"
"Othello," "Hamlet," and "Romeo and Juliet," are
especially remarkable for the power with which the
mightiest passions of the human soul are portrayed.
But he was scarcely, if at all, less successful in comedy.
Of the character of Falstaff in " Henry the Fourth," it
is not too much to say that there is nothing superior to
it in the whole range of comedy, ancient or modern.
Among his best comic pieces may also be mentioned
"Twelfth Night," " Much Ado about Nothing," "Mid
summer Night's Dream," " Merry Wives of Wind
sor," and " Taming of the Shrew." Of Shakspeare's
dramas which cannot properly be classed under the
* See Giornata II., Novella IX.
€ as*; 533*; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; K, trilled: s as 0; th as in this. (3^=S2e Explanations, p. 23.)
SHAKSPEARE
2CO6
SHAKSPEARE
head either of comedy or tragedy, "The Merchant ot
Venice," " The Tempest," and " As You Like It" are
perhaps the most admirable. Two of the plays com
monly printed with Shakspeare's works are believed by
a large majority of the best critics not to be his, viz. ^:
" Titus Andronicus" and " Pericles, Prince of Tyre.
In " Titus Andronicus," both the thoughts and the style
seem very unlike and inferior to Shakspeare's. The
same is true, though perhaps not in the same degree, ot
"Pericles, Prince of Tyre." Some passages in both
plays may probably have been retouched by the great
dramatist, and thus his name may have become asso
ciated with them.
Shakspeare appears to have taken the plots of his
plays, for the most part, from other writers, making little
or no change in the general conduct of the story, but
exhibiting the different dramatis persome, and their end
less variety of character, with that inimitable grace and
power which are so peculiarly his own. His historical
dramas, generally speaking, correspond very exactly, in
regard to the principal persons and events, to the actual
histories from which they are derived. There is the
same exact conformity in some of his plays which are
not properly historical. Thus, " All's Well that Ends
Well," taken from the "Decameron," (Giornata III.,
Novella IX.,) not only follows the plot of the story as,
related by Boccaccio, but even the names of the chief
personages are the same, with such modifications only
as the difference of the languages requires.
"If ever any author," says Pope, "deserved the name
of an original, it was Shakspeare." " He is not so much
an imitator as an instrument of nature ; and it is not so
just to say that he speaks from her, as that she speaks
through him. His characters are so mucli nature her
self, that it is a sort of injury to call them by so distant
a name as copies of her."
" Widely excelling," says Warburton, " in the know
ledge of human nature, he hath given to his infinitely
varied pictures of it such truth of design, such force of
drawing, such beauty of colouring, as was hardly ever
equalled by any writer, whether his aim was the use, or
only the entertainment, of mankind."
. " Never, perhaps," says Schlegel, the great German
| critic, "was there so comprehensive a talent for the
* delineation of character as Shakspeare's. It not only
, grasps the diversities of rank, sex, and age down to the
' dawnings of infancy, not only do the king and the beg
gar, the hero and the pickpocket, the sage and the idiot,
speak and act with equal truth, but he opens the gates
of the magical world of spirits, calls up the midnight
ghost, peoples the air with sportive fancies and sylphs ;
and these beings existing only in the imagination pos
sess such truth and consistency that, eve.n when deformed
monsters like Caliban, he extorts the conviction that if
there should be such beings they would so conduct
themselves." The following observation, by the same
writer, is not less strikingly just than the foregoing : " If
Shakspeare deserves our admiration for his characters,
he is equally deserving of it for his exhibition of passion,
taking this word in its widest signification, as including
every mental condition, every tone from indifference or
familiar mirth to the wildest rage and despair."
"Of all poets," says Lessing, "perhaps he alone has
portrayed the mental diseases, melancholy, delirium,
lunacy, with such wonderful and in every respect definite
truth,' that the physician may enrich his observations
from them in the same manner as from real cases."
But, among all the critics who have treated of the
merits of Shakspeare, none has portrayed his character
istics as a poet more admirably than Dryden :
" He was the man who, of all modern and perhaps
ancient poets, had the largest and most comprehensive
soul : all the images of nature were still present to him,
and he drew them, not laboriously, but luckily : when
he describes anything, you more than see it, — you feel it
too. Those who accuse him to have wanted learning,
give him the greater commendation : he was naturally
learned ; he needed not the spectacles of books to read
nature, — he looked inwards and found her there. lean-
not say he is everywhere alike. . . . But he is always
great when some great occasion is presented to him ; no
man can say he had a fit subject for his wit and did not
then raise himself as high above the rest of poets
" ' Quantum lenta solent inter viburna cupressi.' "'
From the data, imperfect as they are, which we pos
sess concerning the life of Shakspeare, we seem war
ranted in inferring that his scholastic education must
have been extremely defective. This inference is sup
ported by the direct testimony of Ben" Jonsgn, who says
that Shakspeare had " small Latin and less Greek."
That one with so little opportunities of learning should
have exhibited not merely a wonderful mastery of the
human heart, with its infinitely complex affections and
motives, but also a familiar acquaintance with many of
the operations" of external nature, and, what is perhaps
still more remarkable, with some of the nicest points of
English law, has "to not a few appeared strange and
inexplicable, if not absolutely incredible. In attempting
to solve the difficulty, some have adopted the extraor
dinary hypothesis that the dramas going under the name
of Shakspeare must have been written by some other
person. The late Ddia Bacon appears to have been the
first to start this, hypothesis. She publicly announced the
idea in an article published in " Putnam's Magazine"
for January, 1856. In the following year appeared her
" Philosophy of the Plays of Shakspeare unfolded," in
which she states in full her reasons for believing that
Lord Bacon was the true " Shakspeare." Since then,
Mr. Nathaniel Holmes, late of Saint Louis, Missouri,
I now professor of law at Harvard, availing himself of
j the suggestion given by Miss Bacon, but taking a some-
what different view of the question, has published a
well-written and highly readable book entitled "The
Authorship of Shakspeare." in which he sets forth with
elaborate ingenuity the various arguments against the
claims of William Shakspeare and in favour of those of
Lord Bacon.
Here is not the place to enter into a particular con-
| sideration of this question. We may, however, observe
! that Mr. Holmes adduces as by far his strongest argu-
' ment the great number of coincidences which are found
to exist between the ideas and expressions of Shak
speare and those occurring in the works of Bacon,
(or, as he states it, " that general, inwrought, and all-
i pervading identity which is found in these writings ;'') a
| very large proportion of these coincidences or proofs of
I identity being, as it seems to us, just such as might by dili-
! gent search be discovered in the voluminous works of any
! two authors living in the same age and writing on a great
variety of subjects: though some of them are clearly the
I creation of the writer's fancy, as when, in pointing out the
! similarity between the leading ideas of "The Tempest"
and those of the " New Atlantis" of-Bacon, he says, " Like
the island of Atlantis, Prospero's isle is situated afar
off in the midst of the ocean, somewhere near the 'still-
vexed Bermoothes.' " Now, this supposition is not
improbable merely, — it is simply impossible. For, in
the first place, there is not the slightest intimation in
the words of the poet of Prospero and his daughter
having made a long voyage in " the rotten carcass of a
boat" without tackle, sail, or mast ; on the contrary,
the inevitable inference is that it was a very short one ;
and, in the second place, it was clearly impossible that
the brief storm which wrecked the king and his com
panions on their return from Tunis to Naples, could
have carried their fleet not only out of the Mediter
ranean through the Straits of Gibraltar, but more than
half-way across the Atlantic. (See "The Tempest," Act
I. Scene 2, and Act II. Scene I.) Add to this that
Bacon distinctly and repeatedly tells us that the New
Atlantis was in the " South Sea,'' and not in the At
lantic Ocean.
But were Bacon's claims to the authorship of Shak
speare's dramas a hundred times stronger than they are,
they could scarcely outweigh the direct and uniform
testimony of the contemporaries of those illustrious
men. Can it be believed that Ben Jonson, who was
personally and, as it appears, intimately acquainted with
Shakspeare, would have spoken of him in the manner
* Literally, " A* the cypresses are wont [to raise themselves]
among the pliant viburnums." (See VIRGIL, " Eclogue I.")
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moor.;
SHAKSPEARE
2007
SHAO-KANG
that he has done had he been a mere man of straw,
whose only use was to conceal from public view the
greatest genius the world had ever known ? For, in
addition to these well-known lines, —
' To draw no envy, Shakspeare, on thy name,
Am I thus ample to thy book and fame ;
While I confess thy writings to be such
As neither Man nor Muse can praise too much.
*******
Triumph, my Britain ! thou hast one to show
To whom all scenes* of Europe homage owe.
He was not of an age, but for all time !
******
Nature herself was proud of his designs,
And joyed to wear the dressing of his lines ;
Which were so richly spun and woven so fit,
As since she will vouchsafe no other wit."
— Written in the Folio edition of Shakspeare ' s Plays, published in
1623,—
Jonson says, in another place, "I loved the man, and do
honour his memory — on this side idolatry — as much as
any. He was indeed honest and of an open and free
nature, had an excellent phantasy, [fancy,] brave notions,
and gentle expressions, wherein he flowed with that fa
cility that sometimes it was necessary that he should be
stopped." How strikingly descriptive is this of Shak-
speare's most remarkable peculiarity ! It is this excess
ive "facility" or exuberance of expression, joined with
his "excellent phantasy," which perhaps more than any
other quality distinguishes him above all other writers,
ancient or modern. Or are we to suppose that Jonson
was in the secret, and composed this lying eulogy of
Shakspeare for the express purpose of deceiving pos
terity, and also that the poet Spenser, Mr. Meres, the Earl
of Southampton, the queen, the managers of the thea
tres, besides many others, (see the conversation, reported
by Rowe, between Ben Jonson and Sir John Suckling,
Sir William D'Avenant, and others,) were all in the same
conspiracy, and kept the secret so faithfully that not a
line or a word tending to expose the stupendous decep
tion has come down to us ? But this is not all ; the new
hypothesis would require us to believe not merely that,
in all the works that go under his name, Bacon was at
the pains to curb and repress that "excellent phantasy"
and wonderful " facility" of expression, and to exhibit
them in his dramatic writings only, but that he pur
posely affected ignorance about things with which he
must have been perfectly acquainted, as, for example,
when he makes Cassius (in "Julius Caesar") speak
of the " eternal devil, "t when he gives the names of
Bottom, Quince, Snug, and Snout (in " Midsummer
Night's Dream") to Athenian mechanics, or when (in
" Winter's Tale") he represents Bohemia as a maritime
kingdom !
There might be good reasons why Bacon should not
wish to be known as a dramatic writer in the early
part of his career, when he was aspiring to the highest
honours in the state ; but it is inconceivable that he
should have taken such extraordinary pains to keep the
secret of his poetic genius from posterity. But the
advocates of the new hypothesis lose sight of the most
essential point of all. The great wonder is not that a
man without learning should have written such plays
as those which go under the name of Shakspeare : the
wonder is that any man should have written them. The
works of a great genius must always seem marvellous in
our eyes ; and, if the genius be transcendent, the con
templation of its productions must fill us with a sort of
bewildering astonishment. It would, however, be still
more miraculous if it could be proved that Bacon, and
not Shakspeare, had written those wonderful dramas ;
for examples have repeatedly occurred of men in whom
a rare genius has supplied the want of almost every
external advantage, but no well-authenticated instance
can be found in the whole history of the human intel
lect, of one and the same man belonging to the highest
rank of philosophers and the highest rank of poets.
Nor can a single example be cited of any one author
* I.e. all the " Stages" of Europe.
t The reader need scarcely be told that not only the word "devil,"
(diabolus,) but all idea of a devil, as understood in modern times, was
wholly unknown to the Romans before the Christian era.
writing in two styles so totally different as those of
Bacon and Shakspeare.
See MALONE, "Life of Shakespeare," 1821 ; N. DRAKE, "Shak
speare and his Times," 2 vols., 1817; CHARLES KNIGHT, " Shak-
spere; a Biography," 1845: J. O. HAI.LIWELL, "New Life of W.
Shakespeare," 1X47 ; GEOKG G. GERVINUS, "Shakespeare," 4 vols.,
1849-50; R. G. WHITE, " Memoirs of the Life of W. Shakespeare, ''
1865; W. HAZLITT, "Characters of Shakspeare's Plays," 1817;
GUIZOT, " Shakspere et son Temps," 1851 : RICHARD FARMER,
"Essays on the Learning of Shakespeare," 1767; J. BRITTON.
" Remarks on the Life and Writings of Shakespeare, " 1814; FRANZ
HORN, "Shakespeare's Schauspieie erlautert," 5 vols., 1822-31 ; J.
P. COLLIER, " Life of Shakespeare," 1841 : J. MKYER, " Leben
Shakespeare's," 1825 ; S. T. COLERIDGE, " Notes and Lectures on
Shakespeare," etc., 2 vols., 1849; S. NEIL, "Critical Biography of
Shakespeare," 1861 ; P. CHASI.ES, " Eludes sur Shakspere," 1852;
VICTOR HUGO, "William Shakespeare." 1864; A. DYCE. " Life of
Shakespeare," 1857 ; A. SKOTTOWE, "Life of Shakespeare, " 1824;
R. WHEI.ER, " Life of Shakespeare," 1806 : JOSEPH HUNTER, "New
j Illustrations of the Life of Shakespeare," 2 vols, 1845; F. DOUCE,
I " Illustrations of Shakespeare and of Ancient Manners," 2 vols.,
: '807: J- J- ESCHENBURG, " Ueber W. Shakespeare," 1787; NA-
I THANIEL DRAKE, "Memorials of Shakspeare, or Sketches of his
Character and Genius," 1828; CHARLES KNIGHT, "Studies and II-
1 lustrations of Shakspere," etc., 1850; HUDSON, " Lectures on Shake-
| speare," 1848; HAGBERG, " Shakspeare och Skalderna," Lund,
i 1848; N. DELIUS, "Der Mythus von W. Shakspeare," 1851; DE
QUINCEY, " Life of Shakspeare," in the " Encyclopedia Britannica,"
republished in his works, vol. xv. ; HALLAM, " Introduction to the
! Literature of Europe;" A. W. VON SCHLEGEL, "Lectures on Dra-
I matic Art and Literature," (translated into English by JOHN BLACK,
! 1815 ;) SIR WALTER SCOTT, " Essay on the Drama ;" " Biographia
Dramatica ;" CIBBER. "Lives of the Poets;" article, by LORD
JEFFREY, in the "Edinburgh Review" for August, 1817: " Shake-
speariaua: a List of Works illustrative of the Life and Writings of
Shakespeare,'' etc., by J. O. HAI.LIWELL, 1867; MARY COWDEN
CLAKKK, "Complete Concordance to Shakspeare," 1844-45; DR.
JOHNSON, Preface to his edition of Shakespeare, 1765 ; also the
excellent and elaborate article on Shakspeare in ALLIBONE'S "Dic
tionary of Authors."
, Shaller, shal'ler, (Lunwio,) a German sculptor, born
at Vienna in 1804. He worked at Munich for the King
of Bavaria.
Sharium, [Heb. D'7ty,] King of Israel, obtained the
throne by killing Zachariah, in 770 B.C. He was assas
sinated by Menahem in the same year.
See II. Kings xv.
Shambhu. See SIVA.
Shamul, sha-mooK, written also Samoul, a learned
Jewish physician, born in Spain, was converted to Mo
hammedanism. He was the author of treatises on medi
cine, astronomy, and mathematics. Died about 1175.
Shamyl or Schamyl, sham'il, a famous Circassian
chief, born at Himry in 1797, was a man of great energy.
In religion he was a Mohammedan. He fought bravely
against the Russian invaders in 1828 and the ensuing
years. In 1834 he was chosen Imam of Circassia. He
displayed much political as well as military ability in
the long contest against Russia. Avoiding regular
battles, he wasted the enemy by ambuscades, surprises,
and partisan warfare. After a heroic defence against
superior numbers, he surrendered about the end of 1859.
From that time the emperor assigned him a residence
(with a pension) at Kalooga, in Russia.
See ROUNOVSKI, "Schamyl;" "Schamyl, the Sultan, Warrior,
and Prophet of the Caucasus," (translated from the German of WAG
NER and BODENSTEDT, 1854 ;) " Blackwood's Magazine" for Feb
ruary, 1855; "Westminster Review" for April, 1854; E. TEXIER,
" Les Hoinmes de la Guerre d'Orient: Schamyl," 1854; MAJOR
WARNER, "Schamyl, le Prophete du Caucase," 1854; " Nouvelle
Biographic G^nerale."
Shanfaree or Schanfari, shiin-fa'ree, an Arabic
poet, who lived a short time before Mohammed, was
the author of a poem called " Lamayat el-Arab," which
is admired for richness of imagery. A French version
of it was published by Silvestre de Sacy in 1806.
Shao-Hao or Chao-Hao, shi'o h&'o, almost show-
how', second Emperor of China, was the son of Hoang-
Tee, whom he succeeded in 2597 B.C. He is censured
for having tolerated the rise and progress of idolatry in
his reign, from a lack of firmness and energy. He died,
it is said, after a reign of eighty-four years.
See PAUTHIER, "Chine."
Shao-Kang or Chao-Kang, sha'o kang, a Chinese
emperor, supposed to have been born 2118 B.C., was the
son of Tee-Siang, who was killed in battle the same year.
A usurper then obtained the throne, and the young
prince lived disguised as a shepherd until he was about
forty years old. He raised an army, defeated the usurper,
and reigned in peace until he died, at the age of sixty-one.
t: as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as a; th as in /Aw. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23 J
SH4POOR
2008
SHATS
Shapoor or Shapur. See SAPOR.
Sharp, (ABRAHAM,) an English mathematician and
mechanist, born near Bradford in 1651. He became an
assistant to Flamsteed, royal astronomer, about 1688.
He graduated, with extraordinary accuracy, a mural
quadrant or sector for the Observatory of Greenwich,
and calculated excellent logarithmic tables. Died in 1742.
Sharp, (DANIEL,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born at
Huddersfield, England, in 1783. He became pastor of
a church at Boston in 1812, and subsequently one of
the editors of the "American Baptist Magazine." He
published a number of sermons, etc. Died in 1853.
Sharp, (GkANViu.E,) an eminent English philanthro
pist, born in Durham in 1734, was a &on of Dr. Thomas
Sharp, noticed below. He early distinguished himself
by his earnest opposition to negro slavery, and published
in 1769 "A Representation of the Injustice and Danger
ous Tendency of tolerating Slavery in England," etc.
About the same time, having met with a negro named
Somerset, who, being ill, had been turned into the
streets of London by his master, he took him under his
care, and, on his recovery, procured him employment.
Two years after, Somerset was claimed by his former
owner ; but, the case being brought before the lord
mayor on the application of Sharp, it was decided
against the master, who, however, insisted upon retain
ing his slave. After a trial before the court of king's
bench in 1772, it was finally decided that a slave could
not be held in England. Granville Sharp was one of
the originators of the Association for the Abolition of
Negro Slavery, and took a prominent part in founding
the colony of Sierra Leone, in Africa. He published,
besides numerous treatises against slavery, a "Declara
tion of the People's Natural Rights to a Share in the
Legislature," etc., (1778,) " Remarks on the Prophecies,"
and "Remarks on the Uses of the Definitive Article in
the Greek Testament." Died in 1813.
See PRINCE HOARR, "Memoirs of Granville Sharp," 1810:
CHARLES STUART, "Memoirs of G. Sharp," New York, 1836.
Sharp, QAMKS,) a Scottish prelate, born in 1618,
studied at the University of Aberdeen, and was after
wards professor of philosophy in Saint Leonard's Col
lege, at Saint Andrew's. In 1660 he was sent by several
leading Presbyterians as their representative to General
Monk, and, after a conference with Charles II. at Breda,
went over to the Church of England. 1 le was-rewarded
for his apostasy by being created Archbishop of Saint
Andrew's, and obtaining other distinctions. In 1679,
while travelling from Kennoway to Saint Andrew's, he
was assassinated by a party of Presbyterians, who were
lying in wait for another person.
See HUME, " History of England;" CHAMBERS, "Biographical
Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Sharp, (JOHN,) a learned English prelate, born in
Yorkshire in 1644. He graduated at Oxford in 1669,
became Dean of Norwich in 1681, and was subsequently
chaplain to Charles II. and his successor, James II.
Having given great offence to the latter by a sermon
which he preached against popery, he was suspended
for a time from his functions. In 1689 he succeeded
Tillotson as Dean of Canterbury, and was created Arch
bishop of York MI 1691. He died in 1714, leaving
numerous sermons, often reprinted.
See "Life of Archbishop Sharp," by his son, THOMAS SHARP,
1829.
Sharp, (RICHARD,) an English litterateur and Whig
member of Parliament, born about 1759, obtained the
sobriquet of " Conversation Sharp," from his extra
ordinary colloquial powers. He published " Letters
and Essays in Prose and Verse." Died in 1835.
Sharp, (TnuMAS,) a son of John Sharp, Archbishop
of York, was born about 1693. He rose through several
preferments to be Archdeacon of Northumberland and
prebendary of Durham. He published "Discourses on
the Hebrew Tongue," and other works. Died in 1758.
Sharp, (WILLIAM,) acelebrated English line-engraver,
born in London about 1745. Among his master-pieces
are the " Virgin and Child," after Carlo Dolce, " Saint
Cecilia," after Domenichino, the portrait of John Hunter,
after Sir Joshua Reynolds, and the " Sortie from Gibral
tar," after Trumbull. Sharp was remarkable for his
credulity, and became a dupe to the impostures of Joanna
Southcott and other fanatics. Died in 1824.
Sharpe, sharp, (DANIEL,) F.R.S., an English geolo
gist, born in London in 1806, was a nephew of Samuel
Rogers the poet. He visited Portugal, and wrote several
treatises on the geology of that country. Among his
works are f Memoirs on the Silurian Rocks and Old
Red Sandstone of Wales," (1842-44.) Died in 1856.
Sharpe, (GREGORY,) an English divine and Orien
talist, born in Yorkshire in 1713. He published "Dis
sertations on the Origin of Languages and the Powers
of Letters, with a Hebrew Lexicon," "Defence of Dr.
Clarke against Leibnitz," and other works. Died in 1771.
Shar'pey, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish physician and phys
iologist, born at Arbroath. In 1837 he became professor
of anatomy and physiology in University College, Edin
burgh. He has contributed several valuable treatises to
the " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology."
Shars'wood, (GEORGE,) an eminent jurist, born in
^Philadelphia, July 7, 1810, graduated with the highest
honours at the University of Pennsylvania in 1828. Ad
mitted to the bar in 1831, he became in 1845 associate
judge, and in 1848 president judge, of the district court
of the city and county of Philadelphia. He was after
wards elected one of the judges of the supreme court
of the State, and was for many years professor of law
in the University of Pennsylvania. Judge Sharswood's
legal writings enjoy the very highest character with the
profession. His " Byles on Bills of Exchange" has
been adopted as a text-book at Harvard.
Shaw, (CiJTHHKRT,) an English poet, born in York
shire in 1738. He was the author of " Odes on the Four
Seasons," " Liberty," " The Race," a satire, " Address to
a Nightingale," and other poems. Died in 1771.
Shaw, (GEORGE,) an English naturalist, born in Buck
inghamshire in 1751. He studied medicine at Edinburgh,
and was afterwards appointed keeper of natural history
at the British Museum. He was elected a Fellow of the
Royal Society in 1789. He wrote "General Zoology, or
Natural History," (9 vols.,) "The Naturalist's Miscel
lany," and other works. Died in 1813.
See CUVIHR, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale :" " Monthly Review" for September and
October, 1802, et seq.
Shaw, (Sir JAMES,) a British merchant, born in Ayr
shire in 1764, became lord mayor of London in 1805, and
was afterwards a member of Parliament. Died in 1843.
Shaw, (LEMUEL,) an able American jurist, born at
Barnstable, Massachusetts, in 1781. He was many years
a member of the State legislature, and in 1830 was ap
pointed chief justice of Massachusetts. lie performed
the duties of that office with great credit for thirty years,
and resigned in 18.10. His reported decisions have been
published by Pickering, Cashing, and others. He died
in Boston in 1861.
Shaw, (PETER,) an English physician, edited Bacon's
"Philosophical Works." Died in 1763.
Shaw, (ROBERT GOULD,) COLONEL, an American
officer, born about 1836, was a son of Francis G. Shaw,
of Staten Island. He commanded the first coloured
regiment organized in a free State. He was killed in the
assault on Fort Wagner, Sojith Carolina, July, 1863.
Shaw, (S TEiiiii.NG,) an English divine, born in Staf
fordshire in 1762. wrote a " History of Staffordshire,"
"Tour in the West of England," and "The Topogra
pher." Died in 1802.
Shaw, (THOMAS,) an English divine and scholar, born
at Kendal about 1692, became chaplain to the English
factory at Algiers. [le was afterwards appointed regius
professor of Greek at Oxford, and elected a Fellow of
the Royal Society. He published " Travels or Obser
vations relating to Several Parts of Barbary and the
Levant," (1738.) Died in 1751.
Shaw, (THOMAS BUDD,) an English writer, born in
London in 1813. He became professor of English
literature in the Imperial Lyceum of Saint Petersburg in
1842. He published "Outlines of English Literature,"
(1848,) and translated several Russian works into Eng
lish. Died in 1862.
Shays, (DANIEL,) an American soldier, born in 1740,
was the leader of a rebellion which broke out in Massa-
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; nftt; good; moon;
SHEA
2009
SHELLET
chusetts in 1786 and was called by his name. T
insurgents gave as reasons for their revolt the high taxes
the extortions of the lawyers, etc. The rebellion was
suppressed by an' armed force in 1787. Died in 1825.
Shea, sha, ? (DANIEL,) a distinguished Orientalist
born at Dublin in 1772, became professor at Haileyburj
College. He made a translation of Mirkhond's " His
tory of the Early Kings of Persia." Died in -1836.
Shea, sha, (JoHN AUGUSTUS,) an Irish poet, born ii
Cork about 1802, emigrated to New York in 1827. He
wrote for several journals and magazines, and severa
volumes of poems. Died in 1845.
Shebbeare, sheb-beer', ? (JOHN,) an English phy
sician and political writer, born in Devonshire in 1709
published " Letters on the English Nation," " History
of the Sumatrans," a satire, and other works. Died in
1788.
Shee, (Sir MARTIN ARCHKR,) a distinguished portrait-
painter, born at Dublin in 1770. Having visited London
in 1788, he acquired the friendship of Burke and Sir
Joshua Reynolds, and became a student in the Royal
Academy. He was elected an associate in 1798, and in
1800 an Academician. Though inferior as an artist to
Sir Thomas Lawrence, he obtained extensive patronage
among the aristocracy. In 1830 he succeeded Lawrence
as president of the Royal Academy. Sir Martin wa
the author of " Rhymes on Art, or the Remonstrance of
a Painter," " Alasco," a tragedy, and other poems. Died
in 1850.
See "Life of Sir Martin Archer Shee," by his son, 1860; " Edin
burgh Review" for April, 1806.
Sheep'shanks, (JOHN,) a collector of books and
pictures, was a brother of Richard, noticed below.
About 1857 he presented to the English nation his
large collection of the pictures of British artists. Died
in 1863.
Sheepshanks, (Rev. RICHARD,) F.R.S., an English
astronomer, born at Leeds in 1794, inherited an easy
fortune. He was ordained a priest, but devoted his time
chiefly to science. He contributed to the " Penny Cyclo
paedia" several articles on astronomical instruments, and
aided Professor Airy in his operations with the pendulum
in Cornwall. Having been appointed a member of a
commission for the restoration of the standards of weight
and measure, (which had been destroyed by fire,) he
expended the labour of several years in determining the
standard of measure. Died at Reading in 1855.
Sheffield, (Joiix.) See BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, DUKE
OF.
Sheil, sheel, (RICHARD LALOR,) a celebrated Irish
orator and patriot, born at Dublin in 1793, studied at
Trinity College, in his native city. As a member of the
Catholic Association, he was active in promoting the
election of Mr. O'Connell to Parliament for the county
of Clare. Mr. Sheil was elected in 1829 to represent
the borough of Milborne Port, and soon became con
spicuous for his brilliant eloquence. In 1832 he was
returned to Parliament for the county of Tipperary. He
became vice-president of the board of trade, and a
member of the privy council, in 1839, was appointed
master of the Mint under Lord Russell's ministry in
1846, and British minister at Florence in 1850. Mr.
Sheil was the author of several popular dramas, and
"Sketches of the Irish Bar." Died at Florence in 1851.
See M'Cuu.AGH, "Memoirs of R. L. Siiiel," 1855; THOMAS
McGEE, "Sketches of O'Connell and his Friends;" ALUBONE,
" Dictionary of Authors."
Shel'burne, (WILLIAM PETTY,) EARL OF, and Mar
quis of Lansdowne, an English statesman, born in 1737,
was the second son of the Earl of Shelburne. He in
herited the earldom at the death of his father, in 1761,
and was appointed president of the board of trade in
1763. He opposed the measures by which the ministers
endeavoured to coerce the American colonists, and soon
resigned his office. He became a political friend of
William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, who in 1766 appointed
him secretary of state. In this office he had the direc
tion of the American colonies, and pursued a liberal or
conciliatory policy ; but he was counteracted by other
members of the cabinet, and by the king. He was dis
missed from office in October, 1768, by the Duke of
Grafton, who had become prime minister. In conse
quence of this event Lord Chatham resigned.
Lord Shelburne accjuired a high reputation as a debater,
and was distinguished for his political knowledge. He
opposed the administration of Lord North on the most
important questions, and after the death of Lord Chatham
formed a political connection with Rockingham, who in
March, 1782, succeeded Lord North as prime minister.
Lord Shelburne was secretary of state in this ministry,
which was dissolved by the death of its chief, and the
favour of the king enabled him to become prime minister
about July i, 1782. During his administration Howe and
Rodney gained decisive naval victories over the French,
and a treaty of peace was negotiated which recognized
the independence of the United States. He was driven
from power by the coalition of Fox and Lord North,
February, 1783, after which he never returned to office.
In 1784 he received the title of Marquis of Lansdowne.
He afterwards supported the ministry of Pitt, but op
posed the war against the French republic. He was a
liberal patron of learned men, and had one of the finest
private libraries in the kingdom. About 1765 he had
married Sophia Carteret, a daughter of the Earl of Gran-
ville. He died in May, 1805, leaving two sons, one of
whom was an eminent statesman. (See LANSDOWNE,
MARQUIS OF.)
See BKOUGHAM, "Statesmen of the Time of George III.;"
" Quarterly Review" for January, 1854.
Shel'by, (ISAAC,) ah American officer of the Revolu
tion, born near Hagerstown, Maryland, in 1750, became
Governor of Kentucky in 1792, and again in 1812. He
distinguished himself at the battle of King's Mountain,
1780. Died in 1826.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. i.
Shel'don, (DAVID NEWTON,) D. D., an American
divine, born at Sulfield, Connecticut, in 1807, was origi
nally a Baptist, but subsequently became a Unitarian.
He published a work entitled "Sin and Redemption."
Shel'don, (GILHKKT.) an English prelate, born in
Staffordshire in 1598. He graduated at Trinity College,
Oxford, in 1620, and, having taken orders, rose through
various preferments to be chaplain - in -ordinary to
Charles I. O.i the accession of Charles H. he was made
Bishop of London, (1660,) and in 1663 succeeded Juxon
as Archbishop of Canterbury. Dr. Sheldon was distin-
uished for his liberality and his extensive charities, and
constructed, among other public works, the theatre at
Oxford called by his name. Died in 1677.
Shel'ley, (PERCY Bysshe — bish,) an eminent Eng-
ish poet, born at Field Place, near Horsham, in the
county of Sussex, August 4, 1792. He was the eldest
son of Sir Timothy Shelley, Bart. At the age of thir-
:een he was sent to school at Eton, where his refusal to
ag exposed him to the anger and persecution of the
other boys. His painful experiences at this period con-
ributed much, no doubt, to the development of that
n tense hatred of established wrong which afterwards
jecame the ruling passion of his life. Shelley was early
distinguished for his romantic and speculative turn of
nind, as well as for a remarkable facility in the acquisi-
:ion of every kind of knowledge in which he took any
nterest. When he was about sixteen, he composed two
'omances, the one entitled "Zastrozzi," the other " Saint
'rvyne ; or, The Rosicrucian." In 1810 he went to
Oxford, and was entered at University College. Here
ic published a small pamphlet on the necessity of athe-
sm. The authorities, in consideration, it Would seem,
f Shelley's youth and peculiar character, at first resolved
o take no notice of it. But this did not satisfy the
oung enthusiast : " so he sent," says De Quincey, " his
pamphlet, with five-and-twenty separate letters, addressed
o the five-and-twenty heads of colleges, courteously
nviting all and every of them to notify, at his earliest
)nvenience, his adhesion to the enclosed unanswerable
arguments for atheism." Thereupon he was summoned
Before the master and some of the Fellows of the col-
ege, and, as he could not deny that he was the author
f the pamphlet, he was expelled. Shelley and some
f his friends have bitterly complained of his expulsion,
is an act of injustice and cruelty ; but it is difficult to see,
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (23^See Explanations, p. 23.)
SHELL ET
2010
S HEN STONE
if De Quincey's account of the transaction be correct,
how he could with any propriety have been treated with
greater lenity than was shown him on that occasion. As
he refused to make any concessions, his father also
rejected him, and forbade his appearance at Field Place.
Shelley then went to London, where he composed
"Queen Mab," which, however, he did not publish, but
only distributed a few copies of it among his friends.
While in London, money is said to have been furnished
for his support by his sisters, who employed one of their
school-mates, Harriet Westbrook, (the daughter of a re
tired hotel-keeper,) as the medium of communication with
their brother. After a very short acquaintance, Shelley
eloped with Miss Westbrook, and married her at Gretna
Green in August, 1811. They soon discovered that they
were not suited to each other, and in 1813 they separated,
it is said, by mutual consent. The next year Shelley
visited the continent in company with Miss Mary God
win, (a daughter of William Godwin and Mary Woll-
| stonecraft,) who all considered marriage a useless 'or
. tyrannical institution. In 1816 he learned that his wife
had drowned herself. His sorrow, perhaps not unmin-
gled with remorse, is said to have rendered him for a
time almost insane. But the same year he was formally
married to Miss Godwin, and settled at or near Marlow,
in Buckinghamshire. • His first wife had borne him two
children, of whom he now claimed the custody, but
their grandfather, Mr. Westbrook, refused to give them
up. This led to a suit in chancery; and in March,
1817, Lord Eldon gave his decision, that, on account of
Shelley's demoralizing and atheistical opinions, he was
unfit to have charge of the children, who were, accord
ingly, committed to the care of Mr. Westbrook.
While at Marlow, in 1817, Shelley wrote the "Revolt
of Islam," the longest of all his poems, and the one in
which he has most fully developed his political senti
ments and his peculiar views respecting the regenera
tion of society. It abounds in passages of surpassing
beauty, but, as a story, is deficient in connection, and,
we may add, in human interest. Amid the wilderness
of luxuriant imagery, and of subtle, vague, or visionary
though sometimes glorious thoughts, the reader often
finds it difficult to trace his way and retain the thread
of the narrative.
•" In 1818, fearing lest his son by Mary Godwin should
be taken from him, as his other children had been, he
left England, never to return. He went to Italy, where
he composed "The Cenci," (1819,) perhaps the most
successful of all his larger works, the " Witch of Atlas,"
(1819,) "Prometheus Unbound," (1820.) "Adonais," an
elegy on the death of John Keats, (1821.) and many
minor poems, some of which are of exquisite beauty.
In July, 1822, he set sail from Leghorn for Lerici.
The boat, having been overtaken by a sudden squall,
disappeared. Two weeks afterwards, Shelley's body was
washed ashore, with a copy of Keats's poems in one of
his pockets. The Tuscan quarantine regulations at that
time required that whatever came ashore from the sea
should be burned. Shelley's body was accordingly
placed on a pile and reduced to ashes, in the presence
of Lord Byron, Leigh Hunt, and Mr. Trelawney. His
ashes were collected, and interred in the Protestant
burying-ground at Rome, near the grave of his friend
Keats.
There is perhaps no writer (as De Quincey intimates)
of whom it is so difficult to speak with a proper regard
.for the interests of society, and at the same time making
! that charitable allowance for his eccentricities and errors
which his peculiar temperament and his amiable and
jnoble traits of character seem justly to claim, as Percy
Bysshe Shelley. We cannot, however, agree with De
Quincey in the opinion that " harsh treatment had no
concern in riveting his fanaticism." What is more prob
able than that his bitter experience at Eton, where he
was exasperated almost to madness by the galling
"chain of Custom," acting on a mind so sensitive yet so
resolute and withal so speculative as his, should, at that
susceptible and most critical age, have led him first to
question, and then to deny and spurn, every custom
'that would impose the slightest restraint upon his free
dom or his pleasure ? It was but another step for him
to reject or adopt opinions or systems according as he
conceived them to favour or oppose the power of the
hated tyrant, which he also styles the " Anarch Cus
tom." That he was influenced by such motives in the
choice of his pursuits clearly appears from the follow
ing lines :
"And from that hour did I with earnest thought
Heap knowledge from forbidden mines of lore ;
Yet nothing that my tyrants knew or taught
I cared to learn."*
In his poetry he repeatedly associates " Faith" and.
" Custom," (or " Tyranny ;") he evidently considered
the former the chief support of the latter, and cherished
towards them both an equal hatred. Whatever may
have been his early opinions, he would appear not to
have been an atheist when he wrote the preface to his
" Revolt of Islam ;" for he there says, " The erroneous
and degrading idea which men have conceived of a Su
preme Being is spoken against, — not the Supreme Being
itself. . . . The belief which some persons entertain of
the Deity is widely different from my own."
Speaking of Shelley's poetry, Bulwer observes, " Each
line is a separate thought; the effort glitters on the eye
till it aches with the glare ; it is the mirror broken into
a thousand pieces, and the representation it would give
is rendered confused and phantasmagoric by the mul
tiplication of the images." " La Cenci," however, is
expressly excepted from the above criticism.
The intimacy that subsisted between Shelley and
Byron, and the supposed similarity of their principles,
have led to frequent comparisons between these eminent
poets. But they had in fact scarcely anything in com
mon, except a vivid and intense feeling of poetic beauty.
The mind of Shelley was singularly speculative, and he
had a great facility in persuading himself of the truth of
whatever he wished to believe. Byron, on the other hand,
with an equally intense ideality, (i.e. feeling or sentiment
of beauty,) was by the constitution of his mind restricted
far more within the limits of the actual, — or, it may be,
the conventional. It would seem to have been one of the
great efforts of his life to cast off the trammels imposed
upon him by his religious education ; but in this he was
never wholly successful. To this deep-rooted respect
for the actual, or the established, must be ascribed the
intense feeling of reality which pervades his poetry, as
well as the strong, practical common sense evinced in
his actions when not under the influence of passion. But
if we compare the moral attributes of the two men,
phelley will be found to stand immeasurably higher than
pyron. Whatever may have been the errors of his head,
Jiis heart appears, by the testimony of all who knew him,
to have been eminently kind, generous, and unselfish.
And if his conduct seems occasionally to contradict this
view, it was a rare exception to the general rule, while
with Byron the reverse was true, — pride and selfishness!
were the rule, disinterestedness the exception.
See THOMAS MEUWIN, "Life of P. B. Shelley," 2 vols., 1847;
CHARLKS S. MIDDI.KTON, " Shelley and his Works," iS?8; T. J.
HOGG, "Life of P. B. Shelley," 1858; WILLIAM M. ROSSKTTI,
"The Life of Percy Hvsshe Shelley," 2 vols., i86g; E. J. TRE-
I.AWNRY, " Recollections of the Last Days of Shelley and Byron,"
185* : DE QriNCEY, " Essays on the Poets," Koston, 1853 ; " Quar
terly Review" for October. 1861 ; article on Shelley in the " Atlantic
Monthly" for February, 1863. " by one who knew him," (i.e. THORN
TON HUNT ;) " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1824, and July, 1839;
ALLIBONE. "Dictionary of Authors;" ••Memoir" prefixed to his
works by MRS. SHELLEY, 1830; "The Shelley Memorials, from
Authentic Sources," edited by LADY SHELLEY, 1859.
Shel'ton, (FKKDERICK WILLIAM,) an American
writer and Episcopalian divine, born at Jamaica, Long
Island, about 1814. He has published " Salander and
the -Dragon," a romance, "The Rector of Saint Bar-
dolph's, or Superannuated," (1853,) a"d other works.
Shem, [Heb. DP ; Gr. ZTJ/U ; Fr. SKM, sem,] a pa
triarch, the eldest son of Noah, and one of the survivors
of the deluge. He was the ancestor of the Semitic (or
Shemitic) nations.
Sse Genesis v. 32, ix. 18-27, x '. 21. 31.
Shen'stone, (WILLIAM,) an English pastoral poet,
born in Shropshire in 1714. He was the author of odes,
elegies, and pastorals, and a poem entitled " The School-
* See the lines addressed to his wife, prefixed to the " Revolt of
Islam."
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fa-; met; ndt; good; moon;
SHEPARD
201 I
SHERIDAN
mistress," which, Dr. Johnson observes, " is the most
pleasing of Shenstone's performances." In the latter
part of his life .he became involved in debt, owing to
expenses incurred in the embellishment of his grounds.
" He was always wishing," says Gray, " for money, for
fame, and other distinctions, and his whole philosophy
consisted in living, against his will, in retirement, and in
a place which his taste had adorned, but which he only
enjoyed when people of note came to see and commend
it." Died in 1763.
See JOHNSON, "Lives of the Poets;" "Monthly Review" for
May and June, 1764.
Shep'ard, (CHARLES UPHAM,) M.D., LL.D., an
American naturalist, born at Little Compton, Rhode
Island, in 1804, graduated at Amherst College. He was
appointed professor of chemistry in the Charleston Medi
cal College in 1834, and professor of natural history in
Amherst College. He wrote a " Report on the Geo
logical Survey of Connecticut," (1837,) and other works.
Shepard, (SAMUEL,) M.D., a physician and Baptist
divine, born at Salisbury, Massachusetts, in 1739, pub
lished a number of controversial treatises. Died in 1815.
Shepard, (TnoM.\s,) an English Puritan divine, born
in 1605, emigrated to New England, and was one of the
founders of Harvard College. Died in 1649.
Shep'herd, (\YILUAM,) a general, born in Massachu
setts in 1737, fought in twenty-two battles. He was a
member of Congress from 1797 to 1803. Died in 1817.
Shep'herd Kings, called by the Egyptians Hyk'sos,
[from /£}'/£, "king," and .TAT, a "shepherd,"] a race of kings,
probably of Tartar origin, supposed to have ruled over
Egypt from about 22OO to 1550 li.C. The only account
we have of them is given in a fragment of Manetho,
preserved by Joseph us.
See article " Hyksos," in the "New American Cyclopaedia."
Shep'ley, (GEOKGK F.,) an American general, born
at Saco, Maine, about 1820. He served under General
Butler, with the rank of colonel, and was appointed
military governor of New Orleans about May i, 1862.
Shep'pard, (ELIZAHKTH SARA,) an English novelist,
born at Blackheath about 1830. She wrote, besides other
works, "The Double Coronet," a novel, (2 vols., 1856,)
and " Rumour," a novel, (3 vols., 1858.) Died in 1862.
Shep'reve, (JuiiN,) an English scholar, became pro
fessor of Hebrew at Oxford about 1538. Died in 1542.
Sher'ard, (WILLIAM,) an English botanist and ama
teur, born in Leicestershire in 1659. Having visited
various parts of Europe, he was appointed in 1702 Brit
ish consul at Smyrna, where he made collections for his
valuable " Herbarium." While travelling on the con
tinent, he had acquired the friendship of Tournefort and
Dillenius, and on his invitation the latter came to Eng
land, where he subsequently filled the chair of botany
at Oxford, endowed by Mr. Sherard. Sherard died in
1728, leaving his Herbarium of more than 12,000 species
to the University of Oxford.
Sher'burne, (Sir EDWARD,) an English scholar and
writer, born in London in 1618, was clerk of the ord
nance under Charles I. He translated several works
from the Latin, among which we may name Seneca's
" Troades" and " Medea." Died in 1702.
Shereef-ed-Deen-Alee or Scherif-Eddiia-Ali,
sheh-reef' ed-deen' a'lee, a Persian author, whose style
is compared to pearls and diamonds of the first water,
was a native of Yezd. He composed, about 1425, a
"History of Tamerlane."
See PKTIS DE I.A CKOIX, " Histoire de Timur Bey."
Sher'i-dan, (FRANCES,) wife of Thomas Sheridan,
(the second of the name,) born in Ireland in 1724,
was the author of an Oriental romance entitled " Nour-
jahad," " Sidney Biddulph," a novel, highly commended
by Dr. Johnson, and the comedies of "The Dupe" and
"The Discovery," the latter of which Garrick pro
nounced "one of the best he ever read." Died in 1766.
See MRS. Ei.woon, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England
from the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. i. ; "Monthly
Review" for April, 1761.
Sher'I-daii, (PHILIP HENRY,) an eminent American
general, born in Perry county, Ohio, in 1831. He en
tered the Military Academy at West Point in 1848, and
graduated with honour in 1853, as a classmate of McPher-
son and Schofield. He served several years in Oregon,
and, having returned to the East, was appointed a captain
in the regular army in May, 1861. In March or May,
1862, he became chief quartermaster under General
Halleck. He was appointed colonel of the Second
Michigan cavalry in May, and obtained command of a
cavalry brigade in June, 1862. Having defeated a troop
superior in number to his own, at Booneville, Mississippi,
he was raised to the rank of brigadier-general in |uly.
He took command of a division of the army of the Ohio
in September, and distinguished himself at the battle of
Perryville, October 8, 1862. For his gallant conduct at
the great battle of Stone River, which ended on the 2d
of January, 1863, he was rewarded with the rank of
major-general of volunteers. He commanded a division
at Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, and at the battle
of Chattanooga or Missionary Ridge, November 25, 1863.
In April, 1864, he was appointed commander of all
the cavalry of the army of the Potomac, which crossed
the Rapidan and began operations against Lee's army
on the 4th of May. On the gih Sheridan started on a
raid against the enemy's lines of communication with
Richmond. He destroyed the depots, etc. at Beaver
Dam and Ashland, advanced to the outer defences of
Richmond, defeated the rebel cavalry under General
Stuart, and rejoined the army of General Grant on the
251)1 of May. On the 7th of June he led an expedition
against the Virginia Central Railroad, from which he
returned to the White House on the iQth, after he had
routed the enemy's cavalry at Trevilian Station and
destroyed part of the railroad. About the 7th of August
he was assigned to the command of the " Middle Mili
tary Division," which was then constituted in order to
oppose the incursions of the rebels from the Shenandoah
Valley into Maryland and Pennsylvania.
His operations during the month of August and the
first part of September were of both an offensive and
defensive character, resulting in many severe skirmishes
with the army of General Early. On the ijth of Septem
ber General Grant left City Point to visit Sheridan and
confer with him. " I saw," says Grant, "there were but
two words of instruction necessary — Go in !" Sheridan
attacked Early on the igth near Winchester, defeated
him, and took several thousand prisoners. He gained
another victory at Fisher's Hill on the 2Oth, and pur
sued the enemy with great energy through Harrisonburg
and Staunton. Soon after this battle he was appointed
a brigadier-general in the regular army. During a brief
absence of Sheridan, who was called to Washington,
General Early, having been reinforced, attacked suddenly
the Union army near Cedar Creek and Strasburg on the
igth of October, and at first was victorious. Alter the
Federals had retreated about three miles with much
loss, Sheridan, riding at full speed, arrived on the field,
rallied his men with words of magical power, and con
verted the disaster of the morning into a complete vic
tory. General Early lost here the most of his artillery
and trains, besides 1500 prisoners. In a letter dated
October 20, General Grant wrote thus: "Turning what
bid fair to be a disaster into a glorious victory, stamps
Sheridan, what I have always thought him, one of the
ablest of generals." He was appointed a major-general
of the regular army in place of McClellan, resigned,
November, 1864.
Sheridan moved from Winchester on the 27th of
February, 1865, took Staunton on the 2d of March, and
defeated Early near Waynesborough. Having inflicted
much damage on several railroads and the James River
Canal, he reached his base at the White House about
the igth of March. On the 27th he joined the main
army of General Grant near Petersburg, and on the
2gth commenced, with nine thousand cavalry, a move
ment for the destruction of the Danville and South Side
Railroads, the only remaining avenues of supply to
Lee's army. He was supported by a corps of infantry.
He encountered near Five Forks a superior force on
the 3ist of March, and was driven back towards Din-
widdie Court-House. " Here," says General Grant,
"General Sheridan displayed great generalship. In
stead of retreating with his whole command on the main
army to tell the story of superior forces encountered, he
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SHERIDAN
2012
SHERMAN
deployed his cavalry on foot, leaving only mounted men
enough to take charge of the horses." On the 1st of
April, Sheridan, having been reinforced, drove the enemy
back on Five Forks, assaulted and carried his strongly
fortified position, and captured over five thousand pris
oners. He pursued Lee's army retreating from Rich
mond and Petersburg, attacked it near Sailor's Creek
on the 6th of April, and took about six thousand pris
oners. A few days after this action the war was virtu
ally ended by the surrender of General Lee. In the
spring of 1867 Sheridan was appointed commander of
the Fifth Military District, comprising the States of
Louisiana and Texas. He removed the Governors of
those States because they were impediments to recon
struction, and he supported Congress in its contest with
President Johnson. He was removed from his command
by Johnson in August, 1867, against the advice of Gene
ral Grant, who declared that Sheridan " lias pei formed
his civil duties faithfully and intelligently," and protested
against his removal, for military, pecuniary, and patriotic
reasons. Sheridan was then ordered to take command
of the Department of the Missouri. In March, 1869, he
was raised to the rank of lieutenant-general.
See a notice of General Sheridan in Rein's " Ohio in the War,"
pp. 495-560; GKKKI.KV. "American Conflict;" P. C. HEADI.EV,
" Lite of Sheridan ;" " Life of Sheridan," by G. VV. DKNISON.
Sheridan, (RICHARD BRINSLKY BUTLER,) a celebrated
Irish orator and dramatist, born at Dublin in 1751. He
studied in his native city, and at Harrow, where he was
chiefly noted for his indolence ; and he left school with
the reputation of an " impenetrable dunce." He mar
ried Miss Linley in 1772. His first important publica
tion was the comedy of "The Rivals," (1775,) which,
though at first coldly received, soon acquired great popu
larity. It was followed in the same year by the opera
of "The Duenna," which also met with brilliant success,
being acted seventy-five times during the season. His
" School for Scandal," published in 1777, established his
reputation as a dramatic genius of the highest order.
He soon after purchased a share in the Drury Lane
Theatre. His farce of " The Critic" came out in 1779.
In 1780 he represented Stafford in Parliament, where he
soon became conspicuous as an orator, and supported
the measures of Fox and the opposition party. He also
filled for a time the post of under-secretary of state. On
the impeachment of Warren Hastings, in 1787, he de
livered his celebrated Begum speech, which made an
extraordinary sensation at the time, and is still regarded
as one of the most splendid displays of eloquence in
ancient or modern times. The Whigs having come into
power on the death of Pitt, (1806,) Sheridan was ap
pointed treasurer of the navy and a privy councillor.
He was returned to Parliament for Westminster in 1806.
His style of living was so extravagant that he was much
embarrassed by debts in the latter part of his life. Died
in July, 1816.
" Mr. .Sheridan," says Hazlitt, " has been justly called
a dramatic star of the first magnitude; and, indeed,
among the comic writers of the last century he shines
like Hesperus among the lesser lights. The ' School for
Scandal' is, if not the most original, perhaps the most
finished and faultless comedy which we have." It must
be confessed, however, that the moral tone of this drama
(reflecting, as it doubtless does, the morals of the upper
classes of English society at that time) is not very ele
vated. Byron observes, " Whatever Sheridan has done,
or chosen to do, has been,/#r excellence, always the best
of its kind."
See THOMAS MOORK, " Memoirs of the Life of R. B. Sheridan,"
1825: W. SMYTH, "Memoir of Mr. Sheridan," 1840; AI.I.IBONE,
"Dictionary of Authors ;" "Edinburgh Review" for December,
1826 ; " Blackwond's Magazine" for February, July, and August,
1826; "Eraser's Magazine" for July, 1842.
Sheridan, (Dr. THOMAS,) born in the county of
Cavan, Ireland, in 1684, studied at Trinity College,
Dublin, and subsequently became teacher of a free
school at Cavan. He published prose translations of
the " Satires" of Persius. He was an intimate friend
of Dean Swift. Died in 1738.
Sheridan, (THOMAS,) a son of the preceding, and
the father of R. B. Sheridan, was born at Quilca, Ire
land, in 1721. He graduated at Trinity College, and,
having embraced the profession of an actor, obtained
considerable reputation and success. He was after
wards for many years manager of the Dublin Theatre.
He published a "Course of Oratorical Lectures," an
essay entitled "British Education," (1756,) a "Pro
nouncing Dictionary of the English Language," (2 vols.,
1780,) and a " Life of Swift," (1784.) Died in, 1788.
See the " Monthly Review" lor September and October, 1762, and
October, 1780.
Sher'tock, (RICHARD,) an English clergyman, born
in Cheshire in 1613. He became rector of Winwick,
and published "The Practical Christian." Died in 1689.
Sherlock, (THOMAS,) a learned English prelate, born
in London in 1678, was a son of William Sherlock,
noticed below. He studied at Cambridge, became vice-
chancellor of that university in 1714, anil in 1715 Dean
of Chichester. lie was afterwards created successively
Bishop of Bangor, Salisbury, and London, (1748.) He
published several works in opposition to Dr. Hoaclly
in the Bangorian controversy ; also a number of valu
able religious treatises, among which we may name his
"Use and Intent of Prophecy" and "Trial of the Wit
nesses of the Resurrection of Jesus." Died in 1761.
Sherlock, (Dr. WILLIAM,) an English theologian,
born at Southwark, London, in 1641. He studied at
Cambridge, became master of the Temple in 1684, and
Dean of Saint Paul's in 1691. "No name," says Mac-
aulay, " was in 1689 cited by the Jacobites so proudly
and fondly as that of Sherlock." But in 1690 lie took
the oaths to William III., and published in his justifi
cation "The Case of Allegiance to Sovereign Powers
Stated." "The sensation produced by this work was
immense. The rage of the nonjurors amounted almost
to frenzy." (" History of England.") His chief work is
a "discourse on Death," (1690.) Died in 1707.
See " Biographia Britannica ;" BUKNKT, " History of his Own
Times."
Sher'man, (JollN,) an English Puritan minister, born
in 1613. lie emigrated to Massachusetts in 1634, and
preached at Watertown from 1644 until his death. He
was an eminent mathematician. Died in 1675.
Sher'maii, (JollN,) an American Senator, a brother
of General William T. Sherman, was born at Lancaster,
Ohio, in May, 1823. lie studied law, and was admitted
to the bar in 1844. He was elected a member of Con
gress in 1854, in 1856, and again in 1858. He was the
Republican candidate for Speaker of the House in De
cember, 1859 ; but he lacked a few votes of being elected,
and, after a contest of eight weeks, his party elected an
other candidate. He served as chairman of the commit
tee of ways and means in 1860-61. In 1860 he was again
chosen to represent the thirteenth district of Ohio in Con
gress. He was elected a Senator of the United States by
the legislature of Ohio for a term of six years, (1861-67.)
Thaddeus Stevens and Senator Sherman were the au
thors of the bill which Congress enacted in the winter
of 1866-67 for the reconstruction of the seceded States.
By this act those States were reduced to the condition
of territories, to be governed by military power until
they should have passed through a certain process ot
restoration to the Union. Fie was re-elected a Senator
of the United States in 1867. He is one of the ablest
debaters in the Senate, has acted a prominent part in
financial affairs, and is now (1870) chairman of the com
mittee on finances.
Sherman, (ROGER,) an American statesman, born at
Newton, Massachusetts, on the igtli of April, 1721. He
worked at the trade of shoemaker in his youth, removed
to New Milford, Connecticut, in 1743, and soon after
that date became a partner of his brother, who was a
merchant. He studied law. was admitted to the bar in
1754, and settled at New Haven in 1761. About 1765
he was appointed a judge of the superior court or com
mon pleas. He was elected a member of the General
Congress in 1774, and continued to serve in that body
for nineteen years. He signed the Declaration of Inde
pendence in 1776, and was a member of the Convention
which framed the Constitution of the United States in
1787. During the Revolutionary war he rendered im
portant services on committees of Congress. " Roger
Sherman," said Mr. Macon, " had more common sense
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; goo :i; moon;
SHERMAN
2OI
SHERMAN
than any man I ever knew." He was elected a Senator
ot the United States in 1791. Died at New Haven in
July, 1793.
See SANDKRSOM, " Biography of the Signers to the Declaration
of Independence," iS4S.
Sherman, (RoGKR MINOTT,) a lawyer, born in Wo-
burn, Massachusetts, about 1772, was a nephew of the
preceding. He practised law with distinction at Nor-
\valk and Fairfield, in Connecticut. Died in 1844.
Sherman, (THOMAS W.,) an American general, born
in Rhode Island about 1818, graduated at West Point
in 1836. He served as brigadier-general at Bull Run,
July 21, 1861, and commanded the land-forces which,
aided by the fleet, took Port Royal in November of that
year. He commanded a division under General Banks
in Louisiana in 1863.
Sherman, (WILLIAM TECUMSEH,) a distinguished
American general, born at Lancaster. Ohio, on the 8th
of February, 1820, is a son of Charles Robert Sherman,
once a judge of the superior court of Ohio, and a brother
of John Sherman, a Senator of the United States. His
mother was named Mary Hoyt. After the death of
his father, which occurred in 1829, he was adopted as
a son by Thomas Ewing, M.C., through whose infiiience
he was admitted into the Military Academy of West
Point in 1836. He graduated there in June, 1840, stand
ing sixth in the order of general merit among a class of
forty members, including George H. Thomas and Rich
ard S. Ewell. Immediately after his graduation he was
appointed second lieutenant in the artillery and ordered
to Florida. He became a first lieutenant in January,
1842, a few months after which his company was sta
tioned at Fort Moultrie, near Charleston. He went
with his company to California by sea in 1846, returned
to the Atlantic States in 1850, and in May of that year
married Ellen Ewing, a daughter of Thomas Ewing,
then secretary of the interior. In 1851 he obtained the
rank of captain, and in 1853 ne resigned his commission
in the army and engaged in the business of banker at
San Francisco.
In the early part of 1860 he accepted the position of
superintendent of a new military academy founded by
the State of Louisiana. He proved himself so eminently
qualified for the duties of this place that the leaders of
the secession movement in Louisiana wished to secure
his services in the impending conflict, and made efforts
to pervert his loyalty to the Union, but without success.
He resigned his office in January, 1861. In March he
went to Washington, and endeavoured in vain to con
vince the authorities, who were then unable to realize
the greatness of the crisis, of the necessity of preparing
for war on a large scale.
He received a commission as colonel of the thirteenth
regiment of infantry in June, 1861, and commanded a
brigade at the battle of Bull Run, July 21. On the 3d
of August ensuing, he was promoted to the rank of
brigadier-general of volunteers, and in the next month
he was ordered to Kentucky. In consequence of the
ill health of General Anderson, the chief command of
the department of Kentucky devolved on Sherman in
October, 1861. When asked by the secretary of war
how many men he should require, he replied, " Sixty
thousand to drive the enemy out of Kentucky, and two
hundred thousand to finish the war in this section."
His estimate was considered as wildly extravagant, and
he was removed from the command, with orders to
report to General Halleck, who was commander of the
department of the West.
In March, 1862, Sherman obtained command of the
fifth division of General Grant's army of the Tennessee.
He displayed great coolness, energy, and skill in the
sanguinary battle of Shiloh, (Pittsburg Landing,) on the
6th and 7th of April of that year. His services were
acknowledged by General Grant in these terms: "At
the battle of Shiloh, on the first day, he held, with raw
troops, the key-point of the landing. . . . To his indi
vidual efforts I am indebted for the success of that
battle." (Letter to the War Department, July 26, 1863.)
He was wounded in the hand on this occasion, and had
three horses shot under him. His division took a
prominent part in the siege of Corinth, which the enemy
evacuated on the 2gth of May. A few days before that
date he received a commission as major-general. He
was appointed commander of the military post of
Memphis in July, 1862. In the campaign against
Vicksburg, which began in December, Sherman, who
commanded the first division of the army, was ordered
to proceed to the mouth of the Yazoo River and attempt
to capture Vicksburg from the north side. This enter
prise was not successful. General Sherman rendered
important services in several battles which were fought
in Mississippi during the months of April and May, and
which preceded the siege of Vicksburg. He commanded
one of the three corps which made an unsuccessful as
sault on the works at Vicksburg on the 22d of May.
After the surrender of that fortress, July 4, 1863, Sherman
marched against General Johnson, and occupied Jack
son, from which the enemy were driven on the 171)1 of the
month. About this date he wrote a letter in which these
sentences occur: "The people of the North must con
quer or be conquered. There can be no middle course."
He was appointed commander of the department of
the Tennessee in October, 1863, and, moving his army
by rapid marches, joined the army of General Grant
at Chattanooga about the I5th of November. Sher
man occupied Missionary Ridge on the 24th, rendered
important services at the battle of Chattanooga on
the 251)1 of November, and, three days later, began to
move his army, with the utmost celerity, to the relief
of Burnside, who was besieged at Knoxville. His cav
alry reached Knoxville on the 3d of December, before
which date the enemy had raised the siege and fled.
Sherman returned to Chattanooga, and thence to Mem
phis, where he arrived in January, 1864. Having or
ganized a large column, he marched from Vicksburg
eastward, destroying the railroads, and entered Meridian
about the 141)1 of February. After he had destroyed
the depots, arsenals, etc. at Meridian, he returned to
Vicksburg. In March he received a letter from General
Grant, 'who mentioned his own nomination to the rank of
lieutenant-general, and said, " I express my thanks to you
and McPherson as the men to whom, above all others,
I feel indebted for whatever I have had of success."
When Grant was transferred to Virginia, in March,
1864, Sherman was appointed to the command of the
military division of the Mississippi, embracing all the
armies between the Mississippi River and the Alleghany
Mountains. He was instructed to move against the
army of General Joseph E. Johnston, who occupied a
strong position at Dalton, Georgia, covering and defend
ing Atlanta, which was the objective point of General
Sherman. On the 6th of May he moved from Chatta
nooga with the armies of the Cumberland, Tennessee,
and Ohio, commanded respectively by Generals Thomas,
McPherson, and Schofield. His force amounted then
to 98,797 men and 254 pieces of cannon. He com
menced operations by turning the enemy's position with
a part of his army, so that General Johnston, finding his
retreat likely to be cut off, fell back to his fortified post
at Resaca, where he was attacked on the I5th of May.
After a severe battle, Johnston retreated during the
night towards the south, and made another stand at
Allatoona. Sherman again turned the flank of the enemy
by moving his army to Dallas, through a rugged and
densely-wooded country. Severe actions were fought
at Dallas and New Hope Church about the 28th of
May, and on the 4th of June the rebels retreated to the
strong positions of Kenesaw, Pine, and Lost Mountains.
On the 27th of Tune the Union army assaulted the works
of Kenesaw Mountain, but were repulsed with severe
loss. In consequence of another flank movement of
Sherman's army, General Johnston abandoned his posi
tion at Kenesaw on the 3d of July, and retreated across
the Chattahoochee. After resting several days, the Union
army crossed that river on the tyth of July, and drove
the enemy to Atlanta. At this date General Hood took
command of the insurgents and assumed the offensive-
defensive policy. On the 22d of July Hood attacked
Sherman near Atlanta, and was repulsed with great loss.
In August, 1864, Sherman was appointed a major-general
in the regular army. About the 28th of August he
moved his main force round by the enemy's left flank,
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; X, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SHER-SHAH
2014
SHI RLE T
and gained victories at Jonesborough and Lovejoy's.
These actions forced Hood to evacuate Atlanta on the
1st of September. The capture of Atlanta excited great
exultation among the Unionists. "General Sherman's
movement from Chattanooga to Atlanta," says General
Grant, "was prompt, skilful, and brilliant."
By moving his army northwestward for the inva
sion of Middle Tennessee, in October, Hood opened
the way for Sherman to march through Georgia to the
sea without much resistance. Abandoning his com
munications with Chattanooga, and leaving Atlanta in
ruins, Sherman began his famous march on the I4th
of November, with about 65,000 men. His plan was
to obtain subsistence from the country through which
he passed, and to destroy the railroads and other public
property. His army, moving in three columns, passed
between Macon and Augusta, had several skirmishes
with the enemy's cavalry, and arrived, after a very safe
and successful march, at the outworks of Savannah on
the loth of December. " We have not lost a wagon
on the trip," says Sherman, "and our trains are in a
better condition than when we started." On the 2Oth of
December General Hardee evacuated Savannah, which
Sherman occupied on the 2ist. In this march of three
hundred miles he had lost 63 killed and 245 wounded.
Sherman left Savannah with his veteran army on the
1 5th of January, 1865, marched northward, and took
Columbia on the I7th of February. This operation
compelled the enemy to evacuate Charleston, which was
occupied by the Federal army on the i8th. Proposing
to co-operate or unite with the army of Grant, which
was then near Petersburg, Virginia, Sherman moved,
by way of Cheraw and Fayetteville, towards Goldsbo-
rough, North Carolina. He met and defeated a body
of rebels at Averysborough about the i6th of March.
On the 1 8th the combined forces of the enemy, under
General J. E. Johnston, attacked the Union army at Ben-
tonville. Having repulsed this attack, Sherman entered
Goldsborough on the 23(1 of March, and there formed
a junction with the army of Schofield. After he had
received the news of the capture of Richmond, April 3,
he moved against the army of Johnston, then " the only
remaining strategic point." He entered Raleigh on the
131)1, had an interview with General Johnston on the
1 7th, and agreed with him on a memorandum or basis
of peace, which was disapproved by the President and
cabinet. The terms offered by Sherman were deemed
too liberal. On the 26th of April Johnston surrendered
his army on the same terms as were granted to Lee, and
the war ended. Sherman was appointed lieutenant-
general in place of U. S. Grant, promoted, in July or
August, 1866. He was nominated general by brevet
in February, 1868, by President Johnson ; but he de
clined. When General Grant became President, in
March, 1869, Sherman succeeded him as general and
commander-in-chief of the army. General Sherman is a
man of nervous temperament and intense energy. His
stature is tall, his hair brown or auburn, his eyes dark
hazel, large, and piercing.
See " Sherman and his Campaigns," by COLONEL S. M. P.OWMAN
and LIEUTENANT COLONEL R. B. IRWIN, 1865 ; REID, ''Ohio in the
War," 1868.
Sher-Shah, shair shah, (i.e. "the Lion King,") an
Indian prince, whose original name was Fereed, (or
Feryd.) He acquired the chief power in Bahar and
Bengal, defeated the Sultan Humayoonin battle in 1540,
and became master of Hindostan. He is said to have
been an able and popular ruler. Died in 1545.
Sher'win, (JoHN KEYSE,) an eminent English en
graver, born in Sussex about 1751. He was of humble
parentage, and was employed in his youth as a wood
cutter on the estate of Mr. Mitford, near Petworth.
Having produced a drawing which obtained the silver
medal from the Society of Arts, he became a pupil of
Bartolozzi in London, and soon attained great excellence
in his art. In 1785 he succeeded Woollett as engraver
to the king. Died in 1790.
Sher'wood, (Mrs. MARY MARTHA,) a popular Eng
lish writer, born in Worcestershire in 1775, published
tales of a moral and religious character, among which
we may name " The Lady of the Manor," " Roxobel,"
" Ermina,'' and " Little Henry and his Bearer." She
also wrote "Chronology of Ancient History," and
" Dictionary of Scripture Types." Died in 1851.
See "Life of Mrs. Sherwood," by her daughter; "Quarterly
Review" for May, 1X43.
Shesha. See SESHA.
Shew, (JoF.i,,) M.D., an American physician, born
in Saratoga county, New York, in 1816, was one of the
earliest hydropathic practitioners in America, and the
founder of the "Water-Cure Journal," New York. He
published the "Water-Cure Manual," (1850,) "Hydro
pathic Family Physician," (1854,) and other similar
works. Died in 1855.
Shield, sheeld, (WILLIAM,) an English composer
and musician, born in the county of Durham about
1750. Among his most popular works are the operas
of" Rosina," "Robin Hood," "The Poor Soldier," and
"The Woodman." Died in 1829.
Shields, sheeldz, (JAMES.) a general, born in Tyrone
county, Ireland, in 1810, emigrated to the United States
about 1826. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,)
and was elected a Senator of the United States by the
legislature of Illinois in 1849. In 1857 he was elected
a Senator for the State of Minnesota. He commanded
the division which defeated Stonewall Jackson near
Winchester, March 23, 1862.
Shil'li-toe, (THOMAS,) an English philanthropist and
missionary, born in London in 1754, was a minister of
the Society of Friends. lie travelled on the continent
of Europe and in the United States. Died in 1836.
See the "Journal of the
Shillitoe," etc., London, iS}<
Missionary and Temperance
TAI.LACK.
Life, Labours, and Travels of Thomas
>. and "Thomas Shillitoe, the Quaker
Pioneer," London, 1867, by WILLIAM
Ship'ley, (JONATHAN,) an English prelate, born in
1714, rose through several preferments to be Bishop of
Saint Asaph in 1766. One of his daughters was the
wife of Sir William Jones. Died in 1788.
Shipley, (Wn.i.iAM,) the originator of the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, and a brother <>f the
preceding, was born about 1715. He was a teacher
of drawing in London. Died in 1804.
Shipley, (WILLIAM DAVIKS,) born in Berkshire in
1745, was a son of Dr. Shipley, Bishop ot Saint Asaph,
and a brother-in-law of Sir William Jones. He became
Dean of Saint Asaph in 1774. Died in 1826.
Ship'pen, (EDWAKD,) a native of England, who emi
grated to Massachusetts and settled at Boston about
1669. He was a member of the Society of Friends, and
was driven from Boston by persecution. He removed
to Philadelphia, of which city he became the first mayor.
Ship'pen, (EDWARD,) an able American lawyer and
jurist, born at Philadelphia in 1729. He became chief
justice of Pennsylvania in 1799. Died in 1806.
See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i.
Shippen, (WILLIAM,) an American physician, born
in Pennsylvania in 1734, was a descendant of Edward
Shippen, (the first of the name.) He studied medicine
in Edinburgh, and commenced in 1764 a course of lec
tures on anatomy at Philadelphia. In 1765 he became
was one of the founders.
Shippen, (WILLIAM,)
professor of anatomy in the medical school of which
Died in 1808.
an English Jacobite member
of Parliament, was a son of the rector of Stockpnrt.
He was an opponent of Wai pole, and was characterized
by Pope as "downright Shippen." Died about 1742.
Shir'ley or Sher'ley, (Sir ANTHONY,) an English
traveller and navigator, bom in 1565. In 1598 he visited
Persia, where he was treated with great distinction by
Shah Abbas, by whom he was sent on a mission to the
different European courts, to induce them to form a
league with him against the Turks. He died in Spain
about 1630, having been previously created admiral of
the Levant Seas, by the King of Spain. His principal
works are entitled "A True Relation of the Voyage
undertaken by Sir Anthony Shirley, Knight, in 1596,"
etc., and " Relation of Sir Anthony Shirley's Travels in
Persia," (1632.)
See " Retrospective Review," vol. ii., (1820.)
Shirley, (JAMES,) an English dramatist, born in Lon
don about 1594. Among his plays, which amount in ail
a, e, T, 5, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fa'l, fat; m§t: not; good; moor.;
SHIRLET
2O I
SHVTTLE1TORTH
to about forty, we may name " The Traitor," a tragedy.
He also wrote a poem, entitled " The Echo, or the Un
fortunate Lovers." Died in 1666.
See BAKER, " Biographia Dramatical" WOOD, " Athenas Oxo-
nienses;" CAMPBELL, " Specimens of the British Poets."
Shirley, (ROBERT,) brother of Sir Anthony, noticed
above, was born about 1570. He served for a time in
the army of Shah Abbas, and was afterwards employed
by him in several missions. Died in 1628.
'Shirley, (THOMAS,) eldest brother of the preceding,
was born in 1564. He visited Turkey, and published an
account of his travels in that country.
Shirley, (WILLIAM,) an Anglo-American Governor,
born in England about 1705. lie became Governor of
Massachusetts in 1741, and was commander-in-chief of
the British forces in America in 1755. He ceased to be
Governor in 1757. Died in 1771.
Shishkof, Schischkow, or Chischkof, shish'kof,
(ALEXANDER SEMENOVITCH,) a Russian writer and
minister of state, born in 1754. He rose gradually in
the navy to the rank of admiral. He published a "Mari
time Dictionary, English, French, and Russian," an ex
cellent "Treatise on the Old and New Russian Style,"
(1802,) and other works. In 1816 he was chosen presi
dent of the Russian Academy, which he enriched with
philological essays. He was appointed a member of
the council of the empire in 1820, and was minister of
public instruction from 1824 to 1828. Died in 1841.
See " Memoiren des Admirals A. Schischkoff u'ber die Zeit seines
Aiifenthaltes," etc., 1832.
Shiva. See SIVA.
Shoovalof, Chouvalof, or Schuwalow, shoo-vi'-
lof, (ANDREI PETROVITCH,) a Russian poet and courtier,
who, in the reign of Catherine II., became a member of
the imperial council and a senator. He was intimate
with Voltaire and other French authors. He wrote, in
French verse, an "Epistle to Voltaire" and an "Epistle
to Ninon de Lenclos." Died in 1789.
His son PAUL, born about 1775, became a general at
the age of twenty-five. In the campaign of 1813 he was
a persona] attendant of the Czar Alexander, and in 1814
he accompanied, in the name of Russia, Bonaparte to
Elba. Died in 1823.
See LEVESQUE, " Histoire de Russie ;" VOLTAIRE, " Correspon-
dance Generale."
Shoovalof or Chouvalof, (PETER,) a Russian gene
ral, was the inventor of a kind of cannon which bears
his name. lie was the father of Andrei Petrovitch,
noticed above. Died in 1762.
Shore, (JANE,) the wife of a London jeweller, subse
quently became the mistress of Edward IV., King of
England. After his death she formed a connection with
Lord Hastings. She was tried for witchcraft by order
of the Duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III.
Died about 1525.
See HUME, " History of England."
Shore, (JOHN.) See TEIGNMOUTH, LORD.
Short, (JAMES,) a Scottish mathematician and op
tician, born at Edinburgh in 1710, was employed to I
make a survey of the Orkney Islands. He was a Fellow I
of the Royal Society, and acquired a high reputation as
a constructor of telescopes. Died in 1768.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Short, (THOMAS,) a Scottish physician, was the au
thor of the " Natural History of Mineral and Medicinal
Waters," and other similar works. Died in 1772.
Shovel, shiiv'el, (Sir CLOTDESLEY,) a distinguished |
English admiral, born in Norfolk in 1650. In 1688 he
became an adherent of William III., who made him a
knight for his services at the battle of Bantry Bay. He
had a prominent share in the victory of La Hogue, and
was soon after appointed vice-admiral of the red. In
1705 he commanded the fleet sent against Spain, and
subsequently assisted at the siege of Toulon in 1707,
but, while on his voyage home, was wrecked off the
Scilly Isles, and all on board perished.
See CAMPRELL, " Lives of the British Admirals;" HUME, " His
tory of England."
Shbw'er, (Sir BARTHOLOMEW,) an English lawyer
under the reign of James II., was a native of Exeter.
He became recorder of London, and published a work
entitled "Cases in Parliament Resolved."
Shower, (Jon\,) a Puritan divine, born at Exeter in
1657, was a brother of the preceding. He wrote " Re
flections on Time and Eternity," and other works. Died
in 1715.
Shrap'nel, (HENRY,) an English general, entered the
army about 1779. He invented the case-shot called
shrapnel-shells. Died in 1842.
Shrewsbury, sliroz'ber-e or shruz'ber-e, (CHARLES
TALHOT,) DUKE OF, an English peer and scholar, born
in 1660, was educated as a Roman Catholic. He became
a Protestant and Whig, promoted the revolution of
1688, and was appointed one of the secretaries of state
in 1689. He resigned about 1691. In 1694 he was again
j appointed to that office, and was created Duke of Shrews
bury. He was very popular. "Before he was of age,"
says Macaulay, " he was allowed to be one of the finest
gentlemen and finest scholars of his time. He was
early called the king of hearts, and never, through a
long, eventful, and checkered life, lost his right to that
name." ("History of England," vol. ii.) He resigned
office in 1700, became Viceroy of Ireland in 1713, and
lord treasurer in 1714. Died in 1718.
See " Life of Charles, Duke of Shrewsbury," 1718.
Shrewsbury, EARL OF. See TALBOT, (JOHN.)
Shu'brick, (JoHN TEMPLAR,) an American naval
officer, born in South Carolina in 1778. He served as
first lieutenant under Commodore Decatur against the
Algerines in 1815. After peace was concluded with Al
giers, he sailed as commander of the Epervier for the
United States, and the vessel was lost at sea in the
same year.
Shuck'burgh-Ev'e-lyn, (Sir GEORGE,) F.R.S., an
English classical scholar and natural philosopher, born
in 1750, resided in Warwickshire. He determined the
relation between the British unit of measure (i.e. the
yard) and the length of a pendulum which makes a cer
tain number of vibrations in a given time. He also
wrote on the measurement of altitudes by the barome
ter, etc. Died in 1804.
Shuck'fprd, (SAMUEL,) an English divine, became
prebendnry of Canterbury. He published a " History
of the World, Sacred and Profane." Died in 1754.
Shukowski. See ZHOOKOFSKL
Shun or Chun, shuv, an ancient Chinese sage and
ruler, who, according to Pauthier, was raised to the im
perial throne 2285 B.C. (See YAO.) On account of his
rare wisdom and virtue, he was selected by Yao to be
his successor; but Shun, deeming himself unworthy, at
first declined the proffered honour, and was with diffi
culty prevailed on to accept it. Like Yao, he introduced
many useful regulations, encouraged science and the
arts, and was particularly distinguished by the attention
which he paid to music. He materially modified the
penal code of China, rendering it more humane, and
making the various punishments bear a just proportion
to the grade of the offence. Every three years he made
an examination into the conduct of his officers, punishing
the culpable and rewarding those who had properly per
formed their duties. He died (according to Pauthier,
2208 B.C.) after a long and prosperous reign, and was
succeeded by Yu.
See PAUTHIER'S "Chine," pp. $'y-42.
Shun-Tchee or Chun-Tchi, shuN-chee, the first Chi
nese emperor of the present Tartar or Mantchoo dynasty,
obtained the throne in 1644 in consequence of a revolu
tion. He was the heir of the Khan of Tartary, and was
born about 1637. He retained the ancient laws and
institutions of the Chinese. To the Dutch embassy,
which came in 1656 to open commercial intercourse, he
accorded permission to enter his ports once only in eight
years. He died in 1691, and was succeeded by his son,
Kang-Hee, (or Kang-Hi.)
Shute, (JosiAS,) an English clergyman, became Arch
deacon of Colchester. He published a volume of Ser
mons on Genesis xvi. Died in 1643.
Shu'ter, (EDWARD,) a popular English comedian,
died in 1770.
Shut'tle-worth, (PHILIP NICHOLAS,) an English
prelate, born in 1782. He was appointed Bishop of
€ as -c: c as s: g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal: R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23. ^
SIBAUTEH
2016
S1CKLER
Chichester in 1840. He published several works on
theology. Died in 1842.
SibVuyeh.se-bow'yeh, or Sibooyeh, (or Sibfiyeh,)
se-boo'yeh, written also Sibcmieh orSibouyeh, (Am-
roo (Amru) Ibn Othniaii, am'roo ib'n oth-maV,) a
celebrated Arabian grammarian, born in Farsistan about
750 A.D. ; died about 800. He is sometimes called AL-
FARSKE, (-FAKsf,) i.e. " the Persian."
Sib'bald, (Sir ROBERT,) a Scottish physician, born
in Fifeshire, was one of the founders, and the first presi
dent, of the College of Physicians at Edinburgh. He
was the author of " Scotia lllustrata," and other works,
and filled the post of physician and geographer to
Charles II. Sibbaldia, a genus of plants, was so named
in his honour. Died in 1712.
See "Autobiography of Sir R. Sibbald," 1833; CHAMBERS,
"Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Sibbern, sib'bern, (FREDERIK CHRISTIAN,) a Danish
jurist and philosophical writer, born at Copenhagen in
1785. After visiting Germany, he was appointed in 1813
professor of philosophy in his native city. Among his
numerous works, which favour the system of Schelling,
we may name his " Psychology introduced through Bi
ology," (1849,) and "On Poetry and Art, or Discourses
on Universal ./Esthetics and Poetry," (1853.) Died in
1859.
Sibbes or Sibbs, (RICHARD,) an eminent English
Puritan minister, born in Suffolk in 1577, was a Fellow
of Saint John's College, Cambridge. lie became
preacher of Gray's Inn in 1618, and master of Cathe
rine's Hall about 1625. He wrote, besides other works,
" The Bruised Reed." Died in 1635.
Sibbs. See SIBBES.
Sibert, de, deh se'baiu', (GAUTIF.R,) a French his
torian, born at Tonnerre about 1720. Among his works
is "The Variations of the French Monarchy in its Po
litical, Civil, and Military Government," (4 vols., 1765.)
Died in 1798.
Sibilet, se'be'li'i (THOMAS,) a French litterateur,
born in Paris about 1512. His chief work is " L'Art
poetique Fran9ois," (1548.) Died in 1589.
Sib'ley, (HENRY,) an American general, born in
Louisiana about 1815, graduated at West Point in 1838.
He took arms against the Union in 1861. He com
manded a small army which invaded New Mexico,
attacked Fort Craig, in February, 1862, and was re
pulsed.
Sibley, (HENRY H.,) an American Governor, born at
Detroit, Michigan, in 1811. He was elected Governor
of Minnesota in 1857, and appointed a brigadier-general
in 1862. He led an expedition against the Sioux In
dians in Tune and July, 1863.
Sibley, (MARK H.,) an eloquent American lawyer,
born at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in 1796. He
practised at Canandaigua, New York, and was elected
to Congress in 1837. Died in 1852.
Sib'ly, (MANOAH,) an English Orientalist and Swe-
denborgian divine, born in London in 1757; died in
1840.
toibooyeh. See SIBAUYEH.
Sibouieh. See SIBAUYEH.
Sibour, se^booR', (MARIE DOMINIQUE AUGUSTE,) a
French prelate, born in the department of Drome in
1792. Pie studied at Avignon and Paris, and became
successively Bishop of Digne (1840) and Archbishop of
Paris, (1848.) He was afterwards made a senator, and
officer of the legion of honour, (1854.) He was assas
sinated in 1857, by a priest named Jean Verger, who
had been suspended, (interdit.)
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sibrecht, see'bReKt, or Sibrechts, see'bReKts,
(JAN,) a Flemish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp in
1625, worked in London. Died in 1703.
Sib'thorp, (JoHN,) an eminent English botanist,
born at Oxford in 1758. Having studied medicine at
Edinburgh, and subsequently visited France, he was
appointed, after his return, to succeed his father in the
chair of botany at Oxford. In 1786 he set out on a
scientific expedition to Greece and the adjacent regions,
and in 1794 revisited those countries. His principal
works are his " Flora Oxoniensis," (1794,) and " Flora
Grseca," (10 vols. fol.) He died in 1796, leaving to the
University of Oxford two hundred pounds a year for the
publication of his " Flora Graeca," a magnificent work,
with plates.
Sibuyeh. See SIBAUYEH.
Sibyl. See SIBYLLA.
Si-byl'la, [Gr. Sifoa/uz; Fr. SIBYLLE, se'bel' ; Eng
lish, SII/YL, | the name of several ancient prophetesses,
the most celebrated of whom was the Cumaean Sibyl,
sometimes called Deiph'obe, Amalthe'a, or Demoph'ile.
According to Virgil, she accompanied /Eneas in his visit
to the infernal regions. (See "/Eneid," book vi.)
See ISAAC Vossius, "Tractatus de Sibyllarum Oraculis," 1680;
R. VOI.KMANN, " De Oraculis Sibyllinis Dissertatio," 1854; ().
PANVINIO, "Tractatus de Sibyllis," 1673.
Sibylle. See SIBYLLA.
Sicard, se'kSu', (FRANC.OIS,) a French military writer,
born at Thionville (Meurthe) in 1787. He entered the
army, and became a captain. Among his works is a
"History of the Military Institutions of the French,"
(4 vols., 1830-31.)
Sicard, (Kocn AMBROISE CUCURRON,) a French
abbe, distinguished as a teacher of the deaf and dumb,
was born at Fousseret, near Toulouse, in 1742. He
went to Paris to learn the method of the Abbe 1'fipe'e,
whom he succeeded in 1789 as director of the Institution
in Paris. During the Revolution he was arrested and
confined in prison, from which he was released in Sep
tember, 1792, after a narrow escape from massacre.
He became professor of grammar in the normal school
about 1795, and a member of the Institute. He had
great success as a teacher of grammar. In 1800 he
established a printing-press for the use of the deaf-mutes.
He improved or perfected the method of instructing
such persons, and wrote, besides other works, a "The
ory of Signs for the Instruction of Deaf-Mutes," (1808.)
Died in 1822.
See DUVIVIER, "Notice sur PAbbe Sicard;" "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Ge'nerale/"«»,c; I#/b{f/-<»/»A'<;/#></:ve/^c #«..''
Sichel, s?K'el or/lK'el, (Jui.ius,) a skilful oculist, born
at Frankfort-on-the-Main about 1800, graduated at Ber
lin in 1825. He began to practise in Paris about 1833,
and published several treatises on ophthalmy. " He is,
says Vapereau, "the most popular oculist of Paris."
Si-9in'i-us Den-ta'tus, a Roman warrior, who is
said to have fought in one hundred and twenty battles,
and to have decided the victory in many of them, was a
champion of the plebeians in the contest against the
patricians. He was a tribune of the people in 454 B.C.,
and was assassinated in 450 by the opposite party.
Siciolante, se-cho-lan'ta, or Da Sermoneta, da
s§R-mo-na'ta, (GiROLAMO,) an Italian painter, born at
Sermoneta in 1504. He was employed by Pope Gregory
XIII. Died in 1550.
Sickingen, von, fon sik'king'en or zik'king'en,
(FRANZ,) a celebrated German soldier and Protestant
Reformer, born in the grand duchy of Baden in 1481.
He enjoyed the favour of the emperor Maximilian, and
of Charles V., whom he accompanied in several of his
expeditions. He distinguished himself on all occasions
as the champion of the oppressed, and the patron of
learned men ; he gave an asylum to CEcolampadius,
Bucer, and Ulrich von Hutten, and protected Reuchlin
from the persecution of the monks of Cologne. Having
become involved in a feud with Hesse and the Palatinate,
he was mortally wounded while defending his castle of
Neustall, in 1523.
See BUDUEUS, " Franz von Sickingen," 1704: MUNCH, "Franz
von Sickingen," 3 vols., 1827; BOUTKII.LER, " Histoire de F. von
Sickingen," Met?., 1860; KARL LANG, " Ritter F. von Sickingen,"
1825; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sickler, sik'ler or zik'ler, (FRIEDRICH KARL Lun-
WIG,) a German antiquary, son of Johann Volkmar,
noticed below, was born near Gotha in 1773. He pub
lished, among other works, "The Political History and
Antiquities of Rome." Died in 1836.
Sickler, (JOHANN VOLKMAR,) a German pomologist,
born at Gotha in 1742, published "The German Fruit-
Cultivator," ("Deutscher Obstgartner,") " Pomological
Cabinet," (1796,) and other similar works. Died in
1820.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
SICKLES
2017
S1DXET
Sickles, sik'elz, (DANIKL E..) an American general,
born in New York City in 1822. He studied law, and
was elected to Congress by the Democrats of New
York in 1856. He killed Philip Barton Key in Feb
ruary, 1859, for criminal connection with his wife. In
1860 he was re-elected to Congress by the voters of the
third district of New York, lie commanded a brigade
in t'ne battles near Richmond in June, 1862, a division
at the battle of Antietam, September 17, and a corps
at Chancellorsville, May 2 and 3, 1863. At the battle
of Gettysburg he directed the third corps, and lost a leg
on the 2d of July, 1863. He was appointed commander
of the Second Military District, comprising North and
South Carolina, about April, 1867. Having supported
the policy of Congress in preference to that of Presi
dent Jnhnson, he was removed, Anytime 26, 1667. lie
was appointed minister to Spain in May, 1869.
Sicidharta. See GAUTAMA.
Sid'dpiis, (SAKAH,) a celebrated English tragic act
ress, born at Brecon, South Wales, in July, 1755, was
a daughter of Roger Kemble. She was married in 1773
to an actor named Siddons, and made her first appear
ance at Drury Lane in December, 1775. Her form was
exquisitely symmetrical, her countenance beautiful, and
her deportment majestic. She was for many years the
most popular tragic actress on the English stage. Her
performance of the part of" Lady Macbeth" svas especially
admired. She retired from thestage in 1812. Her private
character is said to have been irreproachable. She is,
by general consent, admitted to have been the greatest
actress that England has produced. Died in 1831.
A critic of rare taste, and one not likely to be swayed
by the opinions of the multitude, speaks thus of Mrs.
Siddons as an actress, although, when he saw her, she
had been long past her prime: "What a wonderful
woman ! The very first time I saw her perform, I was
struck with admiration. . . . Her looks, her voice, her
gestures, delighted me. She penetrated in a moment to
my heart. She froze and melted it by turns ; a glance
of her eye, a start, an exclamation, thrilled through my
v.-hole frame. The more I see her, the more I admire
her. I hardly breathe while she is on the stage. She
works up my feelings till I am like a mere child." (See
"The Life and Letters of Washington Irving," vol. i.
P- 159.)
See THOMAS CAMPBHI.U "Life of S. Siddons," 2 vols., 1834;
JAMES BOADEX, "Memoirs of the Life of Mrs. Siddons," 1832;
"London Quarterly Review" for August, 1834.
Sidi-Mohamnied, sid'I mo-hain'med, Emperor of
Morocco, born about 1702, succeeded his father, Muley
Abdallah, in 1757. Adopting a pacific policy, he made
treaties of peace with England, France, Spain, and other
powers. During his reign Morocco enjoyed an unusual
degree of prosperity. Died in 1790.
Sidmouth, LORD. See ADDINGTON, (HENRY.)
Sid'ney or Syd'ney, (ALGERNON,) an eminent
English republican patriot, born in 1622, was a younger
sun of Robert, Earl of Leicester, and a grand-nephew
of Sir Philip Sidney. His mother was Dorothy Percy,
a daughter of the Earl of Northumberland. He served
against the Irish insurgents in 1642, while his father
was lord lieutenant of Ireland, entered the army of Par
liament in 1643, and obtained the rank of colonel in
1645. In 1646 he served as lieutenant-general of the
horse under his brother, Lord Lisle, who was lieutenant-
general of Ireland. 1 le was appointed one of the judges
for the trial of the king in 1648, but was not present
when he was condemned. He held no office under
Cromwell. In May, 1659. he was appointed a member
of the council of state. He was absent on a mission to
the court of Denmark when Charles II. was restored to
t'ne throne in 1660, and thought it most prudent to re
main on the continent. About 1666 he solicited Louis
XIV. toco-operate with him and his friends in estab
lishing a republic in England. By the permission of
the English government, he returned home in 1677 to
see his aged father, who left him a legacy of ^5100.
He afterwards acted in concert with Lord Russell and
Shaftesbury, leaders of the popular party. According
to the statement of the French minister Barillon, Sidney
and other leaders of his party received bribes or presents
from Louis XIV.* In June, 1683, Sidney and Russell
were arrested as accomplices in the Rye-House Plot.
He was tried before Jeffries, convicted without good
evidence, and beheaded in December, 1683. His sen
tence was declared unjust by Parliament about 1690.
He left "Discourses on Government," which were pub
lished in 1698. Burnet, who knew Sidney, represents
him as "a man of most extraordinary courage, a steady
man even to obstinacy, sincere, but of a rough and bois
terous temper that could not bear contradiction."
See GEOK<;E W. MKAUI.EV, "Life of Algernon Sidney," 1813:
R. C. SIDNEY, " Brief Memoirs of A. Sidney," 1835; G. VAN SANT-
VOORD, "Life of A. Sidney," New York, iS<;i ; BUKNET, " History
of his Own Time;" ARTHUR COLLINS, "Memoirs of the Lives and
Actions of the Sydneys," 1746; WINTHKOH. "Algernon Sidney: a
Lecuire ;" "North American Review" for January, 1822.
Sidney, (Eu\vi.\,) a popular English preacher of the
Anglican Church. He graduated at Cambridge about
1820. He published a "Life of General Lord Hill," a
number of sermons, and other works.
Sidney, (Sir HENRY,) an English statesman, and the
father of Sir Philip. He was a favoured companion of
Edward VI., who sent him as ambassador to France. In
the reign of Elizabeth he was lord deputy of Ireland.
He had a high reputation for ability and integrity. Died
in 1586.
Sidney, (HENRY,) Earl of Romney, an English Whig,
was a son of the Earl of Leicester, and a younger brother
of Algernon Sidney. He was an efficient promoter of
the revolution of 1688, and enjoyed the confidence of
William III., who gave him the title of Earl of Romney.
He was secretary of state in 1690-92. "Sidney," says
Macaulay, "with a sweet temper and winning manners,
seemed to be deficient in capacity and knowledge, and
to be sunk in voluptuousness and indolence. His face
and form were eminently handsome." The same writer
adds that he had a rare political tact, and " the conse
quence was that he did what Mordaunt, with all his
vivacity and invention, or Burnet, with all his multi
farious knowledge and fluid elocution, never could have
done." (" History of England.") Died in 1700.
Sidney, (MARY,) Countess of Pembroke, "Sidney's
sister, Pembroke's mother," an accomplished lady, and
sister of Sir Philip Sidney, was married to Henry, Earl
of Pembroke, in 1576. She wrote "An Elegy on Sir
Philip Sidney," and a " Pastoral Dialogue in Praise of
Astrasa," (Queen Elizabeth.) She translated many psalms
from the Hebrew into English verse, and several works
from the French. Died in 1621. Ben Jonson wrote for
her a well-known epitaph.
See " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by LOUISA S. Cos-
TEI.LO, London, 1844.
Sidney, (Sir PHILIP,) an English gentleman, soldier,
and author, possessed of rare accomplishments, born
at Penshurst, in Kent, on the 291)1 of November, 1554.
was a son of Sir Henry Sidney, and a nephew of the
famous Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. His mother
was Mary Dudley, a daughter of the Duke of North
umberland, lie entered Christ Church, Oxford, in 1568
or 1569, and commenced a tour on the continent in 1572.
He was in Paris during the Massacre of Saint Bartholo
mew, and afterwards visited Germany and Italy. During
this tour he formed a friendship with Hubert Languet,
who was afterwards a regular correspondent of Sidney.
He returned to England in 1575, and became a lover of
Penelope, a daughter of the Earl of Essex ; but she was
compelled to marry another. She was the " Stella" of
his amatory poems. Sir Philip gained the favour and
confidence of Queen Elizabeth, and in 1577 was sent to
Vienna on a diplomatic mission, ostensibly to condole
with the emperor on the death of his father, but with
instructions to promote union among the Protestant
princes. His first literary production was " The Lady
of the May," a masque, performed in 1578. He had
the courage to address to the queen a letter of remon
strance against her proposed marriage with the Duke
of Anjou about 1580. He retired, or was exiled, from
court for a time, and resided at Wilton with his sister
Mary, Countess of Pembroke, and there composed his
* This charge, if admitted, does not necessarily convict him of any
infidelity to his principles.
k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttitral '; N, nasal; R, trilled ' ; s as z; th as in this.
127
Explanations, p. 23.
SIDOXIUS
2018
SIETES
"Arcadia," a pastoral romance of much celebrity, pub
lished in 1590.' In 1583 he was knighted, and married
Frances, a daughter of Sir Francis Walsingham, secre
tary of state. According to some writers, the crown of
Poland was offered to him, but he declined it. He was
about to accompany Sir Francis Drake in his expedition
against the Spaniards, when the queen interposed, and
sent him, in 1585, as Governor of Flushing, to the seat
of war between the Dutch and the King of Spain. The
troops under his command took Axel, and again encoun
tered the enemy at Zntphen, where he was mortally
wounded, in September, 1586. After he was wounded
he called for some drink, which was brought, but, before
he had tasted it, gave the bottle to a wounded soldier,
saying, "Thy necessity is greater than mine." }Ie died
at Arnhem in October, 1586. He left one child, Eliza
beth, Countess of Rutland. Among his principal works
is "The Defence of Poesie," (1^95,) an admirable pro
duction, displaying great erudition and taste. "The
first good prose writer," says Hallam, "in any positive
sense of the word, is Sir Philip Sidney. . . . The 'Ar
cadia' displayed a superior mind rather complying with
a temporary taste than affected by it. . . . I think it, never
theless, on the whole, inferior, in sense, style, and spirit,
to the 'Defence of Poesie.'" ("Introduction to the
Literature of Europe.") "The highest testimony to his
merits," says the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," "was his
having won the esteem and affection of William, Prince
of Orange, probably the most wise and politic chief of
his time. He enjoined it to be told to the queen that,
if he were a judge, she had in Philip Sidney one of
the ripest and greatest councillors of state in that day
in Europe."
See F. GREVII.LE, (Lonn BROOKE,) " Life of Sir Philip Sidney,"
1652; THOMAS Zourn, "Memoirs of the Life of Sir Philip Sid
ney," i8oS; H. K. ¥. IJOUKNK, "Memoir of Sir Philip Sidney,"
1862; "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1820: "British Quarterly
Review" for February, 1847, and January, 1X63 ; ALI.IBONE, " Dic
tionary of Authors."
Bidonius. See APOI.I.INARIS SIDOXIUS.
Siebenkees, see'ben-kas' or zee'ben-kas', (JoiiANN
PHII.IPP.) a German antiquary and Hellenist, born
at Nuremberg in 1759. He published, besides other
works, a " History of the State Inquisition at Venice,"
(1791,) and a good edition of Strabo. Died at Altdorf
in 1796.
See KOENIG, " Memoria J. P. Siebenkees," 1796.
Siebold, von, fon see'bolt or zee'bolt, ( ADAM EI.IAS,)
the fourth son of Karl Kaspar, noticed below, was born
at Wiirzburg in 1775. He became professor of medicine
in his native city, and subsequently at Berlin. lie pub
lished a " Manual for the Knowledge and Cure of the
Diseases of Women," (181 1.) Died in 1828.
Siebold, von, (EDUARD KASPAR JAKOH,) a German
physician, a son of the following, was born at Wiirzburg
in 1801. He became in 1833 professor of medicine and
surgery at Gottingen. He published several works on
obstetrics. Died in 1861.
Siebold, von, (KARL KASPAR,) a German surgeon,
born in the duchy of Jiilich in 1736, became professor
of anatomy, surgery, and obstetrics at Wiirzburg, and
was ennobled in 1801. Died in 1807. His sons JOHANN
GF.ORG CHRISTOPH, JOHANN THEODOR DAMIAN, and
JOHANN BARTHKL were likewise distinguished physi
cians and surgeons.
Siebold, von, (KARL THKODOR ERNST,) a German
physiologist, a son of Adam Elias, noticed above, was
born at Wiirzburg in 1804. He became successively
professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at Er-
langen, Freiburg, and Munich. He wrote, among other
works, a "Manual of the Comparative Anatomy of the
Invertebrate Animals," (1848,) which has been translated
into English and French.
Siebold, von, (PHII.TPP FRANZ,) a celebrated German
naturalist, a grandson of Karl Kaspar, noticed above,
was born at Wiirzburg in 1796. He accompanied the
'Dutch embassy to Japan as physician and naturalist in
1823, and spent about seven years in scientific researches
in that country. He published after his return a num-
'ber of valuable works, among which we may name
" Epitome of the Japanese Language," (1824,) " Flora Ja-
ipouica,"(i835,) " Catalogue of Japanese Books," (1845,)
" Atlas of Land and Marine Charts of the Japanese
Empire," also "Fauna Japonica," (1833,) in which he
was assisted by Temminck and other savants. His
"Archives towards the Description of Japan" is still
unfinished.
Siegeii, von, fon see'gen, (Ltimvio,) a celebrated
artist, of German extraction, born at Utrecht in 1609,
was the inventor of mezzotint engraving. His first
production in the new art was a portrait of Amelia
Elizabeth, mother of the Landgrave of Hesse, which he
executed about 1640. Siegen subsequently imparted
his discovery to Prince Rupert, who introduced it into
England, and who has been generally regarded as the
inventor of mezzotinto. Among Siegen's other engrav
ings may be named a "IIolv Family," after Annibal
Carracci, and a portrait of Ferdinand III. of Austria.
Died about 1680.
See EVELYN, " Sculptura, or History of Chalcography ;" NAGI.KR,
" All«emeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Siegenbeek, see'gen-bak' or see'nen-bak', (M.vr-
THIJS,) a Dutch writer and divine, born at Amsterdam
in 1774, was preacher to the Mennonite congregation at
Leyden, and became in 1797 professor of eloquence in
the university of that city. He was the author of a
"Dictionary for Dutch Orthography," (" Woordenboek
voor de Nederduitsche Spelling,") and other works.
Died about 1850.
Siegfried, seeg'freed, [Gcr. pron. zeer/fueet,] [from
siegen, to "conquer," and Friade, "peace." In the
Norse legends the name is usually written SIGURD,
(which see,)] the name of a legendary or semi-fabulous
personage who occupies a conspicuous place in many
of the ancient tales of the Teutonic nations. He is
especially distinguished as the hero of the famous
German epic known as the " Niebelnngen - Lied,"
(nee'beh-loong'en leet,) or the "Lay of the Niebe-
lungen."* For an account of this poem, and the ex
ploits of Siegfried, the reader is referred to Carlylc's
"Miscellanies" and Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry
of Europe," pp. 217-227.
Siena, da. See MATTEO.
Sienna, SIMON OK. See MARTINI, m.
Sieveking, see'veh-king' or zee'veh-king', (AMALIE
WlLHELMINK,) born at Hamburg.in 1794, was celebrated
for her philanthropy, and founded several charitable
institutions for the poor in Hamburg and other cities.
Died in 1859.
See the " Life of Amelia Sieveking," translated from the German,
London, 1863.
Sieveking, (KARL.) a German diplomatist, born at
Hamburg in 1787, was sent in 1819 as resident minister
to Saint Petersburg. Died in 1847.
Sieves, se'ess' or se'i'y^s', (EMMANUEL JOSEPH,)
COMTE, commonly called Ann6 SIEVES, a French poli
tician and publicist, born at Frejus in May, 1748. lie
was educated in the seminary of Saint-Sulpice, in Paris,
and in 1780 went to Chartres, where he became canon,
vicar-general, and chancellor. He advocated the popular
cause in his famous pamphlet entitled " What is the
Third Estate?" (" Qu'est-cc que le Tiers-Etat?" 1789,)
which placed him at the head of the publicists who
favoured the Revolution. Having been sent to the
States-General by the electors of Paris, he was the chief
promoter of the union of the orders, and one of the
most radical leaders of the Constituent Assembly. lie
opposed, however, the abolition of tithes, and on that
question used the famous phrase, "They would be free,
and they do not know how to be just." He became in
1792 a member of the Convention, in which he pursued
a cautious and silent course; but he voted for the death
of the king. He was elected to the Council of Five
Hundred in 1795, was sent as ambassador to Berlin in
1798, and was chosen a member of the Directory in May,
1799. He formed a coalition with Bonaparte, promoted
the revolution of the iSth Brumaire, and was one of the
three consuls of the new regime. His power and in
fluence ended about the end of 1799; and his plan of a
new constitution was not adopted. He held no office
* The name Niebehmgen is said to be derived from an ancient
Burgundian race or family, whose downfall forms the subject of the
poem.
£, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon;
SIF
2019
S1GORG^7E
under the empire, and he lived in exile from 1815 to
1830. Died in Paris in 1836.
See CEi.sxF.R, " Des Opinions po'itiques de Sieyes et de sa Vie,"
1800; VON^SEIDA, "Sieyes und Napoleon," 1824; E. DE BEAU-
VERGKR, " Etude sur Sieyes," 1851 ; MIGNET, " Notices histoiiques ;"
THIERS, " History of the Frer.ch Revolution;" LAMARTINE, " Les
Constituants ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sif, seef, [probably allied to the Anglo-Saxon sift,
" pure," " chaste," " inviolate,"] in the Norse mythology,
the wife of Thor, and the goddess of harvests. She is
said to have a head of hair of pure gold, — in allusion,
doubtless, to the golden fields of ripening grain. Her
connection with Thor, the great warrior-god of the
Northmen, may denote the dependence of the arts of
peace, and of agriculture in particular, on the protecting
arm of war.
See KEVSER, "Religion of the Northmen," translated by PEN-
NOCK, p. 131 ; THORPE, " Northern Mythology," vol. i.
Sigalon, se'gt'lo.x', (X.AVIKR,) a French painter of
history, born at Uzes about 1790, was a pupil of Guerin.
He worked in Paris for many years. In 1833 he went
to Rome, and painted for M. Thiers a copy of Michael
Angelo's " Last Judgment," for which he received eighty-
eight thousand francs. Died at Rome in 1837.
See CH. SAINT-MAURICE. " filoge de Xavier Sigalon," 1848;
CHARLES BLANC, " Histoire des Peintres."
Sigaud-Lafond, se'go' It'fo.x', (JOSEPH AIGNAN,) a
French surgeon and natural philosopher, born at Bourges
in 1730 or 1740, wrote treatises on electricity, and pub
lished a " Dictionary of Physics," (5 vols., 1780-82.) He
became a member of the Institute in 1796. Died in 1810.
See MECHIX-DKSQUINS, "Notice sur Sigaud-Lafond;" J. P.
CHEVALIER, "Notice sur Sigaud-Lafond," iS4i ; QUERARO, "La
K ranee Litteraire."
Sig'e-bert [Fr. pron. se'zhe'baik' ; Lat. SIGKBKR'- |
Ti's] I., King of Austrasia, born about 535 A.D., was a i
son of Clotaire I., King of the Franks. He obtained in I
561 the kingdom of Austrasia, which included Germany :
and the northeast of Gaul. He was involved in war
with his brother Chilperic, whom he defeated. In 575 ;
he was killed by assassins who were hired by Frede- ;
gunda, the wife of Chilperic.
Sigebert II., King of Austrasia, born about 601 A.D.,
was a son of Thierry II. He was killed by order of j
Clotaire II.
Sigebert III., born in 630 A.D., was a son of Dagobert j
I., at whose death, about 634, the kingdom was divided j
between Sigebert and his brother Clovis. Died in 654. j
Sig'e-bert OF GEMBLOURS, [Lat. SIGEHKK'TUS GEM- j
BI.ACKN'SIS,] a learned monk and historian, born in Bra- i
bant about 1030, wrote a "Chronicon" (or " History") j
"of Germany from 381 to 1112." Died in 1112.
Sigebertus. See SIGEBKKT.
Sigel, see'gel, (FiiANZ,) a general, born in Baden,
Germany, in 1824. He became minister of war of the
government formed by the revolutionists of Baden in
June, 1848. About 1850 he emigrated to the United
States. He enlisted as a colonel in the Union army
early in 1861, defeated a superior force at Carthage,
Missouri, July 5, and was appointed a brigadier-general
in August of that year. He commanded a division at
Pea Ridge, March 6 and 7, 1862, and a corps under
General Pope in Virginia, July-September of that year.
He was defeated at New Market, May 15, 1864.
Sigismond. See SIGISMT.M).
Sig'is-mund, [Fr. SIGISMOND, se'z.hess'm6N',] writ
ten also Sigmund, Emperor of Germany, born • in
1368, was the son of the emperor Charles IV. Having
married, in 1386, Maria, daughter of Lewis, King of
Poland, he was crowned King of Hungary in 1387. In
1396 he was signally defeated by the Turks under
Bayazeed (Bajazet) at Nicopolis. He was elected Em
peror of Germany in 1410, and crowned in 1414. In
consequence of his treachery in consenting to the mar
tyrdom of John Huss after he had granted him a safe-
conduct, Sigismund was involved in a war with the
Bohemians, and was several times defeated by the
celebrated Ziska. The treaty of Iglau was concluded
between them in 1435. Died in 1437.
See ASCHBACH, "Geschichte Sigismur.ds," 4 vols., 1838-4^ ; KA-
TONA, '' Historic Rerum Hungariorum ;" EXCEL, "Geschichte von
Ungarn ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sig'is-mund [Polish ZVG.MUNT, zlg'moont] I., King
of Poland, son of Casimir IV., was born in 1466. He
ascended the throne in 1507. He was involved in wars
with the Russians, Moldavians, and Wallachians, against
whom he was eventually successful. Died in 1548.
See LELEWEL, "Histoire de Pologne ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Genera'e."
Sigismund (called also Augustus) II., a son of the
preceding, was born in 1518. He was elected king
during his father's lifetime, and came to the throne in
1548. During his reign Lithuania was united to Poland,
to which Livonia was also annexed. Sigismund is sup
posed to have secretly favoured the Reformed religion,
which made great progress under his rule ; he was also a
liberal patron of learning and the arts. Died in 1572.
See LELEWEL, "Histoire de Pologne."
Sigismund III., King of Poland and Sweden, born
in 1566, was the son of John III. of Sweden and Cathe
rine, sister of Sigismund II. of Poland. He was elected
in 1587 to the throne of Poland, and in 1594 crowned
King of Sweden. His zeal in behalf of Catholicism
having made him unpopular with the Swedes, his uncle,
the Duke of Sudermania, caused himself to be made
king, in 1604, under the name of Charles IX., and thus
laid the foundation of a protracted strife between the
two countries. In 1610 he invaded Russia, and placed
his son Vladislaf on the throne, which, however, he was
subsequently compelled to resign to Michael Feodoro-
vitch. He was also involved in wars with the Turks,
Tartars, and Cossacks, and was obliged to yield to
Gustavus Adolphus a considerable part of Livonia and
Prussia. He (lied in 1632, and was succeeded by his
son, Vladislaf IV.
See NIEMCEWICZ, "Histoire du Regne de Sigismond III.," 3
vols., 1819.
Sig'is-mund or Sigismond, King of Burgundy,
was a son of Gondebaud, (Gundibald,) whom he suc
ceeded in 516 A.D. Having been defeated in battle by
the sons of Clovis, he was killed, by order of Clodomir,
in 524.
Sigmund. See SIGISMUND.
Sigiiol, sen'y6K, (fi.Mii.K,) a French historical painter,
born in Paris in 1804. He gained a medal of the first
class in 1835.
Signorelli, sen-yo-rel'Iee, (LuCA,) an eminent Italian
painter, born at Cortona in 1439, was a nephew of Vasari.
His frescos of "The Last Judgment," in the cathedral
of Orvieto, are esteemed master-pieces, and were highly
commended by Michael Angelo. Died in 1521.
See MRS. JAMESON. "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters;"
VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc.
Signorelli, (PiETRO NAPOI.I,) an Italian critic and
historical writer, born at Naples in 1731. He wrote,
besides other works, a literary history of Naples and
Sicily, entitled '' Vicende della Coltura nelle Due Sicilie,"
(5 vols., 1784-86.) Died in 1815.
See F. M. AVEI.I.INO, " Elogio storico di P. N. Signorelli," 1815 ;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sigonio, se-go'ne-o, [Lat. SIGO'NIUS,] (CARLO,) an
eminent Italian historian and antiquary, born at Modena
about 1520. He became professor of Greek literature
in his native city in 1546, and obtained in 1560 the chair
of eloquence at Padua. Among his principal works are
his treatise " On the Ancient Law of Roman Citizens,"
(" De antiquo Jure Civium Ronianorum," 1560,) "His
tory of the Western Empire," (" Historias de Occidentali
Imperio," 1577,) and "Ecclesiastical History," (" His-
toriae Ecclesiasticae.") Sigonio was one of the first
scholars of his time, and his Latin style is remarkable
for clearness and elegance. He also wrote "On the
Athenian Republic," (" De Republica Atheniensium,"
1564,) and a "Life of Scipio African us Minor," (1569.)
Died in 1584.
Pee MfRATORi, "Vita C. Sigonii," prefixed to Sigonio's works
6 vols., 1732-37: J. P. KREBS, "Vita C. Sigonii," 1837; J. P-
KRKBS, " C. Sigomus, einer der grossten Humanisten," etc., 1840;
GINGUENE, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Sigonius. See SIGONIO.
Sigorgne, se'goim', (PIERRE,) a French ecclesiastic
and natural philosopher, born in Lorraine in 1719. He
€ as k: c as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
SIGOURNET
2020
SILL I MAN
advocated the Newtonian philosophy. Died at Macon
in 1809.
Sigourney, sig'iir-ne, (LvniA HUNTLEY,) an Ameri
can poet and miscellaneous writer, born at Norwich,
Connecticut, in 1791. She published, in 1815, "Moral
Pieces in Prose and Verse." Having visited Europe in
1840, she brought out in 1842 a work entitled " Pleasant
Memories of Pleasant Lands." She was married in
1819 to Charles Sigourney, a merchant of Hartford.
Among her numerous poems are "The Aborigines of
America," (1822,) and " Poeahontas," (1841.) She also
wrote many works in prose. Died in 1865.
See GRISWOI.D. ''Poets and Poetry of America;" "National
Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. ; " North
American Review" for October, 1835.
Siguenza, de, da se-gwen'za, (JosE,) a Spanish monk
and historical writer, born about 1545, published a " Life
of Saint Jerome," (1595.) and other works. Died in 1606.
Sigurd, see'goord or see'giird, [from a root cognate
with the German Sieg and Swedish Sfger, victorv,] the
name of a hero celebrated in the legends of the North
as the greatest of human warriors. He may be styled
the Roostam of the Northmen. He had a sword with
which he could cleave an anvil and cut through floating
wool. Sigurd appears to be another name for SIEGFRIED,
(which see.) For the particulars of Sigurd's lineage and
history, see Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp.
91-108.
Sike or Siecke, sce'keh or zee'keh, (HiciNRicn,) a
German philologist, born at Bremen in the latter part of
the seventeenth century, became professor of Oriental
languages at Utrecht, and subsequently at Cambridge,
England. He committed suicide in 1712.
Si-la'ni-on, [Z/P.rtw'wv,] a Greek statuary in bronze,
lived in the fourth century n.c. According to Pliny, he
was a contemporary of Lysippus, and excelled in the
imitation of strong passions. Among his works was a
statue of Sappho, which was highly praised by Cicero, a
statue of Plato, and a statue of Jocasta dying.
Sl-la'nus, (DKCIMUS JUNIUS,) a Roman senator, was
elected consul in 63 n.c. In the trial of Catiline's ac
complices, he, as consul elect, was the first to express
his opinion. He advocated severe measures.
Silanus, (M. JUNIUS,) an orator, was a grandson of
IX funius Silanus. He became consul in 19 A.D. His
daughter Claudia was the wife of Caligula, who caused
Silanus to be put to death.
Silbermann, sil'ber-man' or zil'ber-man', (Gorr-
ykiKD,) a German organ-builder, born near Frauenstein,
in -Saxony, in 1683 ; died in 1753.
Silber'schlag, sil'ber-shlar/or zil'ber-shlaG',(JoHANN
JKSAIAS,) a German natural philosopher, born at Aschers-
leben in 1721. He was pastor at Magdeburg, and rector
of the Real-Schule in Berlin. Died in 1791.
See his Autobiography, 1788.
Silene. See Si LENDS.
Sileuo. See SILKNUS.
Si-le'nus or Sei-le'iius, [Gr. Zetiijvos ; Fr. SII.ENE,
se'lin'; It. SILENO, se-la'no,] in the classic mythology,
one of the Satyrs, supposed to be a son of Mercury, and
the preceptor and inseparable attendant of Bacchus.
He was represented as a jovial old man, corpulent, bald,
always intoxicated, and carrying in his hand a wine-bag,
and often riding on an ass. Like the other Satyrs, he
was fond of sleep, music, and dancing. He was also
renowned for his prophetic insight into the future.
See VIRGIL'S Sixth Eclogue, entitled "Silenus."
Silhon, de, deli se'lo.N1', (JEAN,) a French author, born
near Nerac about 1596. He was one of the first mem
bers of the French Academy, and was employed by
Richelieu in political affairs. Among his works is a
"Treatise on the Immortality of the Soul," (1662.)
Died in 1667.
Silhouette, de, deh se'loo'eV, (fi'riENNE,) a French
financier and writer on politics, etc., was born at Li
moges in 1709. He became controller-general of the
finances in 1759, practised excessive economy, but was
found to be incompetent, and resigned before the end of
the year. Died in 1767. His name is applied to an
economical sort of portrait, (commonly called a profile.)
See " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Sil'I-us I-tal'I-cus, (CAius,) a Roman poet and imi
tator of Virgil, whose birthplace is unknown, lived under
the reign of Nero, and in 68 A.I), was elected consul.
He was afterwards proconsul in Asia. His only work
extant is an epic poem entitled " Punica," in seventeen
books, giving an account of the second Punic war. It
is a long and very dull poem. Died about 100 A.n.
See C. CEI.LARIUS, "Dissertatio de C. Silio Italico," 1712;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Siljestrom, seel'yes-tRom', (PKHK ADAM,) a Swedish
writer, born at Calmar in 1815, became professor of ex
perimental physics at Up.sal. He was the author of a
report on the educational system of the United States.
Sill, (JOSHUA W.,) born at Chillicothe, Ohio, in 1831
graduated at West Point in 1853. He became a briga
dier-general in the Union army in July, 1862, and was
killed at Stone River, December 31 of that year.
Silla, the Italian of STI.I.A, (which sec.)
Sillery, de, deh sel're', (CHARLES ALEXIS Brulart
— IJKU'I^R',) MARQUIS, and Count de Gcnlis, a French
officer, born in Paris in 1737, was the husband of Ma
dame de Genlis the authoress. lie served as captain in
the navy in his youth, and became a member of the
States-General in 1789. lie was a follower of the Duke
of Orleans in politics, and was guillotined in October,
1793-
Sillery, de, (NICOLAS Bruslart — biu'ltk',) MAR
QUIS, an able French diplomatist, born in Champagne
in 1544. lie was employed in foreign missions by
Henry IV., and became chancellor of Fiance in 1607.
Died in 1624.
See I'.ouTRAYS, " Breviarium Vitae N. Brulartii," 1624 ; SULI.V,
"MfSmoires."
Sillig, sil'lir, or zil'lio, (KARL JULIUS,) a German
scholar, born at Dresden in 1801, published an edition
of the "Natural History" of Pliny, (1851,) and a valu
able "Catalogue of Greek and Roman Artists," ("Cata-
logus Artificum Grascorum et Komanorum,") which
has been translated into English. Died in 1857.
See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1838.
Sil'li-maii, (BENJAMIN,) an eminent American natu
ralist and professor, born • in North Stratford, (now
Trumbull,) Connecticut, on the 8th of August, 1779.
He was a son of Gold Selleck Silliman, a general who
served in the war of the Revolution. He entered Yale
College in 1792, graduated in 1796, and was appointed
tutor in that institution in 1799. About 1802, Dr.
Dwight offered him a chair of chemistry in Yale Col
lege. To prepare himself for that position, he studied
chemistry at Philadelphia for two years. lie began to
lecture to the students of Yale College in 1804, and
performed a voyage to Europe about the end of 1805.
Having returned, after an absence of fourteen months,
he resumed the chair of chemistry, and published a
"Journal of Travels in England, Holland, and Scot
land," (2 vols., 1810,) which was a very interesting and
popular book. Soon after his return he made a geo
logical survey of a part of Connecticut. In 1809 he
married Harriet, a daughter of Governor Trumbull, of
Connecticut. He made a chemical analysis of a famous
meteorite which fell at Weston, Connecticut, in 1807.
In 1818 he founded "The American Journal of Science
and Arts," usually called " Silliman's Journal," which
was recognized at home and in Europe as the chief
repository of American science. lie was the sole
editor of this journal for twenty years, and maintained
it at his own pecuniary risk.
He attained great eminence as a lecturer and teacher
of science. "The professor's chair, in the laboratory
or the lecture-room, was the place above all others in
which his enthusiasm, his sympathy with youthful aspira
tions, his varied acquisitions, and his graceful utterance,
exerted their highest and most enduring influence."
(" American Journal of Science and Arts," May, 1865.)
He applied the blowpipe to the fusion ot a variety of
bodies which were before regarded as infusible. About
1822 he demonstrated the transfer of particles of carbon
from one charcoal point to the other in the galvanic
battery. He published a text-book on chemistry in 1830.
Between 1835 and 1850 he delivered popular lectures
on chemistry and geology in Boston, Lowell, New York,
u, e, i, o, \\,\\fang: a, e, o, same, less prolonged: a, e, T, o, vt, v. short: a. e.i. o.
e: fir. fill, fat: m*t: ndt; good; moon;
SILL I MAN
2021
SIMLER
Philadelphia, Saint Louis, and New Orleans. He was
one of the few men in the country that could hold a
popular audience with a lecture on science. In 1853 he
resigned his professorship, and published " A Visit to
Europe in 1851," (2 vols.,) which was often reprinted.
He felt a deep interest in the cause of liberty, and when
Kansas became the scene of conflict, about 1857, he
came out with all his youthful ardour as the opponent of
the slave-power. He died at New Haven on the 241)1
of November, 1864. In the language of the writer already
quoted above, " he was a man of vigorous understanding
and sound judgment, led on, but never carried away, by
an enthusiastic disposition, glowing and constant. . . .
Blending with and ennobling all these virtues was the
childlike simplicity of his Christian faith."
See "American Journal of Science and Arts," May, 1865 ; GEORGE
P. FISHER, "Life of Benjamin Silliman," 2 vols., 1866; "North
American Review" for January, 1832.
Silliman, (BENJAMIN,) a son of the preceding, was
born at New Haven in 1816, and graduated at Yale Col
lege in 18^7. He was employed as teacher of chemistry
in that college for a number of years, and was appointed
professor of chemistry applied to the arts in 1846. About
1838 he became associate editor of the "American Jour
nal of Science and Arts," of which he and Professor
f. D. Dana are now the chief editors. He succeeded his
father as professor of general and applied chemistry in
Vale College in 1854. He published "First Princi
ples of Chemistry," (1846,) and " Principles of Physics,"
(1858.)
Silly, de, deh se'ye', (JACQUES JOSEPH Vipart —
ve'pSk',) MARQUIS, a French general, born in Normandy
in 1671. He was a friend of Madame de Stael. Died
in 1727.
Silva, sel'vt', (JEAN BAPTISTS,) a French physician,
born at Bordeaux in 1682. He practised in Paris, and
received the title of consulting physician to Louis XV.
in 1724. Died in 1742.
Silva y Figueroa. See FIGUEKOA. HE.
Silvani, sel-va'nec, (GUKKARDO,) an Italian architect,
born at Florence in 1579. He built, besides other
edifices in his native city, the magnificent Palazzo Maru-
celli and the Palazzo Ricardi. His design for the fa9ade
of the cathedral of Florence was adopted and executed.
Died in 1675.
Sil-va'iius or Syl-va'nus, | Fr. SYLVAIN, sel'va.v',]
[from sih'a or sylva, a "wood" or "grove,"] a rural deity
in Roman mythology, was the guardian of groves, fields,
and cattle. He was supposed to be the protector of the
boundaries of fields or farms. By some mythographers
he was identified with Faunus and with Pan.
Sil-ve'ri-us or Sylverius, [Fr. SII.VEIU-:, sel'vaiit',]
a native of Frosinone, near Rome, became pope in 536
A.I). He was a son of Pope Hormisdas. In 537 he
was banished to Lycia by Belisarius, who chose Vigilius
as his successor. Died in 538.
Silvester, POPE. See SYLVESTER.
Silvestre, sel-veVtRa, (GUKGORIO,) born at Lisbon
in 1520, was the author of numerous poems published
in 1592, under the title of "Obras poeticas." Died in
1570.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Silvestre, sel've'stR', (!SRAEL,) a PVench designer and
engraver, born at Nancy in 1621. He worked in Paris,
and received the title of engraver to the king in 1662.
He engraved views of French and Italian scenery. Died
in 1691.
Silvestre, de, deh sel'vSstR', (AuGUSTiN FRANCOIS,)
BARON, a French savant and rural economist, born in
1762, was descended from the preceding. He was chief
of the bureau of agriculture during the first empire. He
contributed to several scientific journals, and wrote
biographies of many French savants. Died in 1851.
. See HOUCH -\KD. " Notice sur Baron de Silvestre," 1852 : QUERARU,
" La France Litteraire."
Silvestre, de, (Louis,) a painter, born in Paris in
1675, was a son of Israel Silvestre, noticed above. He
was patronized by Augustus, King of Poland, and be
came director of the Academy of Dresden. Died in
1760. His nephew, NICOLAS CHARLES, (1698-1767,)
was a painter and engraver.
Silvestre de Sacy. See SACY, DE.
Silvia. See KHEA SILVIA.
Siniart, se'miiu/, (PIERRE CHARLES,) a French sculp
tor, born at Troyes in 1806, was a pupil of Pradier. He
gained the grand prize of Rome in 1833. He was em
ployed by the government to execute statues and bas-
reliefs for the Louvre and other public buildings. Among
his works is an imitation of Phidias' statue of Pallas
Athene, composed of gold and ivory. Died in 1857.
See C. LEVEQUK, " Notice sur la Vie de Simart," 1857 ; G. EY
RIES, " Simart Statuaire," 1860; HALEVV, "Notice sur la Vie et les
Ouvrages de Simart," iS6i.
Sim'e-oii, [Heb. jU'Oiy,] the second son of Jacob and
Leah, received his father's curse on account of his share
in the treacherous murder of the Shechemites.
See Genesis xxxiv.
Sim'e-pii OF DURHAM, an English chronicler of the
eleventh century, was the author of a " History of the
Kings of England from 616 to 1130."
Simeon OF POLOTZK, a Russian poet and monk, born
at Polotzk in 1628. He was the preceptor of Feodor,
who became Czar of Russia in 1676. He wrote dramas
and religious treatises. Died in 1680.
Sim'e-on surnamed STYLI'TKS, [Gr. Zvueuwjso STIM/'-
rrjf; Fr. SIMEON STYI.ITK, se'ma'oN' ste'let',] an ascetic
or fanatic, born near the boundary of Syria and Cilicia
about 390 A.D. He acquired a sort of celebrity by stand
ing or living for many years on the top of a pillar, and
attracted crowds of spectators, who came from a great
distance, and to whom he preached. He was venerated
as a saint. Died about 460.
See LAUTENSACH, "De Simeone Stylita," 1700; UHLBMANN,
"Simeon der erste Saulenheilige in Syrien," 1846; KREBS, "Disser-
tatio de Sty. ids," 1753.
Sim'e-on, (Rev. CHARLES,) an English divine, born
at Reading in 1759, became rector of Trinity Church,
Cambridge. He was the author of numerous theo
logical and devotional works, which are highly esteemed.
He was distinguished for his earnest piety and zeal in
the cause of religion, and gave large sums to the Society
for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, and other
similar associations. Died in 1836.
See W. CARUS, " Life of Charles Simeon," 1847 ; REV. ERSKINE
NEAI.E, "Christianity and Infidelity Contrasted ;" " Nonh British
Review" for August, 1847.
Simeon, se'ma'o.N', ([OSEPR BAI.THASAR,) COMTE, a
French politician, born at Aix in 1781, was a son of the
following. He was prefect of several departments be
tween 1815 and 1824, and entered the Chamber of Peers
in 1835. Died in 1846.
Simeon, (JOSEPH JEROME,) COUNT, a French min
ister of state, born at Aix in 1749. He became a mem
ber of the council of state in 1804, and minister of the
interior in Westphalia in 1807. He was French minister
of the interior from February, 1820, to December, 1821.
Died in 1842.
See MIC.NET, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. le Comte
Simeon," 1844; " Nouvelle Biographic Ganerale."
Sim'e-oii Met-a-phras'tes, a theologian, who lived
in the reign of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. He was
the author of "Lives of the Saints." Died in 976.
Sim'e-on Se'thus or Simeon Seth, a learned
Greek writer of the eleventh century, was a resident
of Constantinople. lie was the author of a treatise
on edible things and their properties, which has been
translated into Latin under the title of " Syntagma
de Cibariorum Facilitate." He translated into Greek
the Arabic Fables of Pilpay; and the translation of a
fabulous history of Alexander the Great, from the Per
sian, is also ascribed to him.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Simeoiii, se-ma-o'nee, (GARRIELLO,) an Italian writer
on various subjects, was born at Florence in 1509. He
led a wandering life. Among his works is " Devices
and Emblems," (" Devises et Emblemes," in French,
1559.) Died in 1575.
Simiane, de, deh se'ine'Si/, (PAULINE d'Adhemar
de Monteil de Grignaii — dl'di'mar/ deh m6.\'til'
deh gKin'yoN',) MARQUISE, a French lady, born in Paris
in 1674, was a granddaughter of Madame de Sevigne.
Died in 1737. Her Letters were published in 1773.
Sim'ler, (JosiAS,) a Swiss Protestant minister and
historian, born at Cappel, near Zurich, in 1530. He was
€ as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, Vi,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^f^See Explanations, p. 23.)
SIMMUS
SIMONIDES
professor of theology at Zurich, and wrote, besides
treatises on theology, a " History of the Swiss Republic,"
("De Helvetiorum Republics," 1574.) Died in 1576.
See STUCK, " Vita J. Simleri," 1577; NIC^RON, "Memoires."
Sim'mi-as, [Ziitpzf,] a Greek grammarian, born at
Rhodes, is supposed to have lived about 300 B.C. Some
fragments of his poems are contained in the "Anthologiu
Grocca." Another writer of this name was the author of A
historical work, not extant.
Simmias OF THEBES, a Greek philosopher, was a
disciple and friend of Socrates, at whose death he was
present. He and his brother Cebes are the chief speakers
(besides Socrates) in the " Phaedon" of Plato. His
works are not extant.
Sim'moiis, (SAMUEL FOART,) an English physician,
born in Kent in 1752, studied at Edinburgh, and took
his medical degree at Leyden. Having settled in Lon
don, he was appointed physician of Saint Luke's Hos
pital and to George III., and elected a Fellow of the
Royal Society. He published several medical works.
Died in 1813.
Sinims, (WILLIAM GILMORE,) an American novelist
and voluminous writer, born at Charleston, South Caro
lina, in 1806. He published a number of poetical pieces
at an early age, and brought out in 1833 his " Atalantis,
a Story of the Sea," which is esteemed his finest poem.
Among his numerous romances may be named "Guy
Rivers," (1834,) "The Vemassee," (1835,) "The Parti
san," (1835,) "Mellichampe," (1836,) " Pelayo," (1838,)
"The Wigwam and the Cabin," and "Katherine Wal
ton," (1851.) He also wrote a " History of South Caro
lina," (1840,) a "Life of Marion," (1844,) and other
biographical works, and was a frequent contributor to
various Reviews. Died in June, 1870.
See GRISWOI.D, " Prp.se Writers of America;" DUYCKINCK,
"Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. : AU.IRONK, "Dic
tionary of Authors ;" " North American Review" for October, 1846.
Sim'nel, (LAMBERT,) an English impostor, bom at
Oxford about 1472, was the son of a joiner or baker. In
1486 he assumed to be Edward Plantagenet, Earl of
Warwick, a nephew of Richard III., and was supported
by many partisans of the House of York. The army
of Simnel was defeated by the royal army at Stoke in
1487. Simnel was taken prisoner, but his life was
spared.
Simolin, see'mo-leen', (JOHANN MATHIAS,) an emi
nent diplomatist, born at Abo, in Finland, was employed
by the Russian empress Catherine on important mis
sions to Austria, Denmark, Sweden, and England. Died
in 1799.
Simoliii, (KARL GUSTAV.) BARON, a Russian diplo
matist, born at Abo in 1715. He was ennobled by
Stanislas Augustus, King of Poland. Died in 1777.
Simon. See PKTF.R, SAINT.
Simon, se'moN', (EnouARD THOMAS,) a French
litterateur, born at Troyes in 1740; died in 1818.
Simon, (JF.AN FRANCOIS,) a French antiquary, born
in Paris in 1654; died in 1719.
Si'moii, (JoHN,) an English surgeon and anatomist,
born in 1810, studied at King's College, became in 1844
a Fellow of the CoTlege of Surgeons, London, and was
subsequently appointed medical officer to the general
board of health. He published a treatise " On the Phys
iology of the Thymus Gland," (1845,) and "Lectures on
General Pathology," (1850.) The former obtained the
Astley Cooper prize.
Simon, (JULES,) sometimes called JULES SIMON-
SUISSK, a French philosopher and legislator, born at
Lorient in 1814. He was chosen in 1839 by M. Cousin
to supply his place as professor at the Sorbonne, where
he lectured about twelve years. In 1848 he was elected
a member of the Constituent Assembly. He published,
besides other works, "Studies on the Theodicea of
Plato and Aristotle," (1840.) a " History of the School
of Alexandria," (2 vols., 1844-45,) anc^ "Natural Re
ligion," (1856.) " His works," says the "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale," "give proof of profound study, and
are remarkable for elevation of thought." In 1863 he
was elected a member of the legislative body by the
voters of Paris, and was admitted into the Academy of
Moral and Political Sciences. He is an advanced liberal
in politics. In 1869 he was re-elected to the legislative
body, and in September, 1870, became minister of public
instruction under the republic.
Simon, (RICHARD,) an eminent and liberal French
theologian and critic, born at Dieppe in May, 1638, was
a man of profound learning. He entered the congrega
tion of the Oratory, studied the Oriental languages, and
became professor of philosophy in the College of Juilly.
His principal work is a "Critical History of the Old
Testament," (1678,) which was condemned as unsound
and suppressed. He was proscribed by Bossuet as a
heretic, and was expelled from the Oratory. He was
much addicted to controversy, and was very tenacious
of his opinions. Among his works is a "Critical His
tory of the New Testament," (1689.) Died at Dieppe
in 1712.
See NICRKON, "Memoires:" MORRRI, "Dictionnaire Histo-
rique;" '• Nouvelle Biographic G-;nerale."
Simon, (THOMAS,) an English engraver of medals,
born about 1612. lie was employed as engraver to
the Mint during the Commonwealth. Died in 1665.
Si'mon Maccabae'us (mak-ka-bee'us) orMat'thes,
[Fr. SIMON MACIIABEK, se'moN' mf'shS'ba',] called
also THA'SI, was the brother of Judas Maccabaeus. lie
succeeded his brother Jonathan in 143 r,.c. as high-
priest and ruler of the Jews. He formed an alliance
with Demetrius Nicator, of Syria, who recognized the
independence of the Jews. Jtulea was invaded in 139
by an army of Antiochus Sidetes, which Simon defeated.
He was assassinated by his son-in-law Ptolemreus, in
135 B.C.
Si'mon Ma'gvis, [Fr. SIMON I.F. MAGICIEN, se'moN'
leh mi'zhe'se^N'', ] a magician of Samaria, and a pre
tended convert to Christianity, who offered money to
the apostles Peter and John to obtain from them the
power of conferring the Holy Ghost. For this he was
severely rebuked by Peter.
See Acts viii. iS, 19. 20, etc.
Simon de Montfort. See MONTFORT, DF.
Simond, se'moN', (PHILIBKRT,) a Jacobin, born in
Savoy in 1755, was a member of the French Convention
of 1792. He was proscribed as a friend of Danton, and
executed in April, 1794.
Simonde de Sismondi. See SISMONDI.
Simone da Pesaro. See CANTARINI.
Simoiiet, sc'mo'n.y, (EDMOND,) a French Jesuit and
writer on theology, born at Langres in 1662 ; died in
1771
Simoiietta, se-mo-net'ta, (BONIFAZIO,) an Italian
historian, born about 1430. He wrote " De Persecu-
tionibus Christianas Fidei et Romanorum Pontificum,"
(1492.)
Simoiietta, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian politician, an
uncle of the preceding, was born in Calabria in 1410.
He became the chief adviser or minister of Galeazzo
Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan, and had much power
during the minority of that prince's son. He was be
headed, by order of Ludovico Sforza, in 1480.
Simoiietta, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian historian, a bro
ther of the preceding, was born in Calabria. He wrote,
in Latin, a " History of Francesco Sforza," (1480.) Died
about 1491.
Simonide. See SIMONIDES.
Si-moii'I-des [Gr. Si//uW($7?c; Fr. SiMONiDK, se'mo'-
ned'l OF AMOKCUS, a Greek poet, born at Samos,
flourished about 690-665 B.C. lie wrote satires in the
Iambic metre. His satire on women is extant.
See K. O. MUI.I.KR, " History of the Literature of Ancient
Greece."
Simonides OF CEOS, a famous Greek lyric poet,
born at Julis, in the island of Ceos, about 556 B.C. He
became a resident of Athens in the reign of Hipparchus,
by whom he was patronized, and there associated with
Anacreon. After the death of Hipparchus (about 514)
he retired to Thessaly. He returned to Athens about
the time of the Persian invasion, celebrated the victory
of Marathon in verse, 489 H.C., and acquired great popu
larity. He was employed by the Amphictyons to write
inscriptions for the tombs of those who fell in defence
of Greece against the Persians. For those who fell at
Thermopylae he composed an inscription which may be
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
SIMONNEAU
2023
SINCLAIR
translated, "Stranger, tell the Lacedaemonians that we
lie here in obedience to their laws." He was intimate
with Themistocles, and was a rival of Pindar. His lat
ter years were passed at the court of Hieron of Syra
cuse, where he died in 467 li.c. His works are lost,
except small fragments. He excelled in epigram and
in pathetic poetry. Many witty sayings are ascribed to
him. lie was victorious over Aeschylus in a contest for
the prize which was offered for the best elegy on those
who fell at Marathon. He was greatly distinguished
for his moral wisdom and moderation.
See Boissv, " Histoire de la Vie de Simonide," 1755; SCHNEI-
UEWIN, " De Vita et Carminibus Simonidis Cei," 1835; DUCKER,
" De Simonide," 1768; F. W. RICIITKR, "Simonides der Aeltere
von Kens nach seinem Leben," etc., 1836: K. O. MULLER, "History
of the Literature of Ancient Greece;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene-
rale;" " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1830.
Simomieau, se'mo'no', (CHARLES,) a French en
graver, born at Orleans in 1645. He engraved the works
of several French masters. Died in 1728.
Simonueau, (Louis,) an engraver, born at Orleans
in 1654, was a brother of the preceding. Died in 1727.
Simplicius, sim-plish'e-us, (Z^Tr/lkwo,) a Nee-Pla
tonic philosopher and commentator on Aristotle, was
born in Cilicia. He was persecuted as a pagan in the reign
of Justinian, who closed the school at Athens in 529 A.n.
He wrote commentaries on Aristotle's "Categories,"
" De Ccelo," and " De Anima" and " Physica Ausculta-
tio." These are esteemed the most valuable of all the
Greek commentaries on Aristotle that are extant.
See HOFFMANN, " Bibliographicum Lexicon :" " Nouvelle Bio-
grapliie Generale ;" BUIILE, " Dissertatio de Simplicii Vita," etc.,
1816.
Simplicius, sim-plish'c-u.s, an Italian prelate, born at
Tivoli, (Tibur,) became Bishop of Rome in 467 A.D. Died
in 483.
Simp'son, (CHRISTOPHER,) an English composer,
born about 1610 ; died about 1668.
Simpson, (EDWARD,) an English writer on chro
nology and theology, born at Tottenham in 1578. He
became rector of Eastling, Kent. Among his works is
"Universal Chronology," (" Chronicon Catholicum,"
1652.) Died in 1651.
Simpson, (Sir JAMES,) a British general, born at
Edinburgh in 1792. He served against the French in
the campaigns of 1812 and 1815, and subsequently
under Sir Charles Napier in India. In 1855 he suc
ceeded Lord Raglan as commander of the British forces
in the Crimea. He received from Napoleon III. the
grand cross of the legion of honour. Died in 1868.
Simp'son, (Sir JAMES YOUNG,) a Scottish physician,
born in Linlithgowshire in 1811, graduated at Edin
burgh in 1832. He became professor of midwifery in
the university of that city in 1840, and was the first who
employed anresthetics in obstetric practice, (1847.) In
1856 he received from the French Academy of Sciences
the Monthyon prize of two thousand francs. He was
elected president of the Royal College of Physicians,
Edinburgh, and a foreign associate of the French Acad
emy of Medicine and of other similar institutions. He
was author of "Contributions to Obstetric Pathology,"
" Essays on Anaesthesia," and other medical works.
Died in 1870.
Simp'son, (MATTHEW,) a bishop of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, was barn at Cadiz, Ohio, ]»ne 21,
1810. While he was still an infant, his father died, and
the care of his education devolved upon his mother.
In addition to the ordinary English branches, he began
the study of German when he was eight years of age,
and the following year read the Bible through in the
German language. He afterwards studied Latin, Greek,
and Hebrew. He graduated as a physician in 1833.
lie had joined the Church in 1829, and in 1839 he was
elected president of the Indiana Asbury University,
(Methodist.) and did much to promote the usefulness
and success of that institution. In 1848 he was ap
pointed editor of " The Western Christian Advocate."
He was elected bishop in 1852. He took a deep in
terest in the national cause during the war of the rebel
lion, and by his zeal and eloquence contributed much to
strengthen the confidence of the people and to uphold
. the hands of the government during that great crisis in
our country's history. Bishop Simpson was an intimate
personal friend of President Lincoln.
Simpson, (THOMAS,) an able English mathematician,
born at Market-Bosworth in 1710. He learned the trade
of a weaver, and practised astrology or fortune-telling
in his early life. About 1736 he removed to London,
where he became a teacher of mathematics. He pub
lished a " New Treatise on Fluxions," (1737,) and seve
ral works on mathematics. In 1743 he was appointed
professor of mathematics in the Military Academy at
Woolwich. Died in 1761.
See HUTTOX, "Mathematical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle Bio
graphie Gene'rale."
Simrock, sim'rok or zim'rok, fKARi.,) a distinguished
German poet and translator, born at Bonn in 1802. He
published in 1827 a translation of the " Nibelungenlied,"
and in 1831 a work entitled "Sources of Shakspeare's
Plots in Novels, Tales, and Legends," in which he was
assisted by Echtenneyer and Henschel. He also trans
lated " Tsventy Songs of the Nibelungen," (1840,) pro
nounced genuine by Lachmann, and several other Ger
man poems of the middle ages. Among his principal
original works are his poem of " Wieland the Smith,"
" Legends of the Rhine, from the Mouths of the People
and the German Poets," (1850,) and "M uuial of Ger
man Mythology." He became professor of the German
language and literature at Bonn in 1850.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Sims, (JAMES,) an English physician and botanist,
born at Canterbury. He published "Observations on
Epidemic Disorders," (1773,) " Principles and Practice
of Midwifery," and other medical works. He was a
member of the Linnaean Society. Died in 1831.
Sims, (JAMES MARION,) a distinguished American
surgeon, born in South Carolina in 1813. He removed
in 1853 to New York, where he was instrumental in
founding a hospital for the treatment of the diseases of
women.
Simsou, sim'son or zim'son, (MARTIN EDUARD,) a
German jurist and statesman, born at Konigsberg. In
1810 he studied at Bonn under Niebuhr, and in 1836
became professor of law at Konigsberg. In 1848 he
was elected president of the National Assembly at
Frankfort.
Sim'son, (ROBERT,) an eminent Scottish mathe
matician, born at Kirton Hall, Ayrshire, in 1687. He
became professor of mathematics in the University of
Glasgow in 1711, and continued to fill that chair about
fifty years. He produced an edition of Euclid's "Ele
ments," which was highly esteemed, and made some
discoveries in relation to the porisms of the ancients.
Died in 1768.
See WILLIAM TRAIL, " Account of the Life and Writings of R.
Simson," 1812; CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent
Scotsmen."
Sina, Ibn. See AVICENNA.
Sinan, se-nan', (SCIPIONE CICAI.E,) an Italian rene
gade, born about 1515. He became a Turkish general
and grand vizier. Died in 1595.
Sin'clair, (CATHERINE,) a daughter of Sir John Sin
clair, noticed below, was born in 1800. She published
numerous tales and novels, which have had an extensive
circulation : among these we may name " Modern Soci
ety," "Beatrice," "Business of Life," and "James Bou-
verie." She also wrote several books for children, the
" Kaleidoscope of Anecdotes and Aphorisms," " Shet
land and the Shetlanders," etc. Died in 1864.
Sinclair, sin'klair, ? (CHARLES GIDEON,) BARON, a
Swedish general and military writer, born about 1730.
He served with distinction in many campaigns in France,
Prussia, and Saxony. Died in 1803.
Sinclair, (Sir JOHN,) a Scottish statesman and phi
lanthropist, born in the county of Caithness in 1754.
He studied at Edinburgh and Oxford, and in 1780 rep
resented his native county in Parliament, being several
times re-elected. He was conspicuous for his efforts to
promote internal improvements in his country, originated
the board of agriculture, of which he became first presi
dent, and founded a society for the improvement of wool.
Among his numerous and valuable treatises, which em
brace a great variety of subjects, may be named his
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gttttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s ass,- %h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23. ,
SIN CLARE
2024
SISEXNJ
" History of the Revenue of Great Britain," " Considera
tions on Militias and Standing Armies," " Essays on
Agriculture," and " Statistical Account of Scotland.'
The last-named is esteemed a standard work. Dice:
in 1835.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionaryof Eminent Scotsmen ;'
" Memoir of Sir John Sine, air," by his son, 1837 : " Edinburgh Re
view" tor April, 1803 ; " HiacUwood's Magazine" for July, 1837
"Monthly Review" for June, iSoS, and September, 1814.
Sin'clare or Sinclair, (GEORGE,) a Scottish mathe
matician and philosopher, was professor of philosophy
at Glasgow. lie published several scientific treatises,
and a work entitled "Satan's Invisible World dis
covered." Died in 1696.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Siii'dl-a or Sgin'di-ah, (Dow'lut R6w,) a Mah-
ratta chief, born about 1780, was a grand-nephew of
Madajee, noticed below, whom he succeeded in 1794.
He was involved in war against the British, who, under
Sir A. Wellesley, gained a decisive victory over him at
Assaye in 1803. His army was defeated in several
battles in the same year, and he was forced to cede a
large part of his territories. Died in 1827.
Sindia, (Madajee or Madhajee, ma-da'jee,) a cele
brated Mahratta chief, born in Hindostan about 1741.
' He was a warlike and energetic prince, made extensive
conquests, and became master of Delhi. His dominions
extended from the Ganges to the Nerbudda. Died in
1794-
Singh, (Runjeet.) See RUNJKKT SINGH.
Sin'gle-ton, (HENRY,) an English painter, born in
London in 1766. He produced both historical pictures
and portraits ; among his master-pieces are a series of
illustrations from Shakspeare, "Christ Healing the
Blind," " Coriolanus and his Mother, "and " The Storm
ing of Seringapatam." Died in 1839.
Singlin, sa.N'gla.N', (ANTOINK,) a French theologian,
born in Paris, was confessor to the nuns of Port-Royal.
He preached with much unction. It is stated that Pascal
had so high an opinion of the solidity of his judgment
that he read all his works to Singlin before he published
them. Died in 1664.
See GOUJET, "Vie de Singlin." prefixed to Singlin's "Instruc
tions chretiennes," 12 vols., 1736.
Sinnamus. See CINNAMUS.
Sinner, sii/ner or zin/ner, [Fr. pron. se'iiaiii',} (Jo
HANN RUDOLF,) a Swiss philologist, born at Berne in
1730 ; died in 1787.
Sinner, de, deli se'naiR.', (R. G. Louis,) a Swiss Hel
lenist, born in the canton of Berne in 1801. He published
good editions of Aristophanes, Plato, Euripides, Sopho
cles, and Xenophon, (1829-47.)
Si'iion, [Gr. Zivuv,] a semi-fabulous or fictitious per
son, who, according to Homer and Virgil, acted an in
sidious part in- the siege of Troy. They relate that he
presented himself to the Trojans as a deserter from the
Greek army, affirming that the Greeks had abandoned
the siege, and that he ran away because they were about
to offer him as a sacrifice. By his artful tale and well-
feigned passion he imposed on the credulous Trojans,
and persuaded them to introduce the wooden horse into
Troy.
See VIRGIL'S " JEne\d," book ii., 57-198.
Sintenis, sin'teh-nis or zin'teh-nis, (CHRISTIAN
FKIKDRICH,) a German theologian and miscellaneous
writer, born at Zerbst in 1750. His voluminous works
comprise sermons, educational treatises, and moral and
religious romances. Died in 1820.
Siuteiiis, (KARL FKIEDRICII FERDINAND,) a German
jurist, grandson of the preceding, was born at Zerbst
in 1804.
Siofn, se-6f'n', written also Se-o'na, [etymology
doubtful,] a goddess in the Norse mythology, whose
office it is to inspire the passion of love. She may be
said to be a sort of female Cupid. From her name a
lover is called Siafiti.
See THORPE, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; MAI.I.ET, " North
ern Antiquities," vol. ii. Fable XVIII.
Sionita, (GABRIEL.) See GABRIEL.
Sirani, se-ra'nee, (EUSABRTTA,) an Italian historical
painter, born at Bologna in 1638, was a daughter of
Giovanni Andrea, noticed below. She imitated the
second manner of Guido with success, and acquired a
high reputation. Died in 1665.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" C. BONAFEDE,
" El snbetta Sirani Azione storico-drammatica," 1856.
Sirani, (GIOVANNI ANDREA,) an Italian painter, born
at Bologna in 1610, was a successful imitator of the style
of Guido. Died in 1670.
Si'reiii, singular Si'ren, [Gr. 2etp//rec, (singular
Zetfifjv :) Lat. SIRI-/NE.S or SK.IRE'NES ; Fr. SIRENES,
se'rin',] mythical beings, who were supposed to have
the power of enchanting all who heard them sing. Ac
cording to Homer and other poets, they lived in an
island near the coast of Italy, where they sat in a meadow
near the shore and allured those who were sailing past
the island ; and whoever listened to their song forgot
his home and remained with the Sirens until he perished
or became brutalized.
Siret, se'ri', (Al)oLl'HK,) a Belgian litterateur, born
at Beaumont, in Hainault, about 1805. He published,
besides several poems and dra'mas, a "Historical Dic
tionary of Painters of all Schools," (1848.)
Siret, (Louis PIERRE,) a French grammarian, born
at Evreux in 1745, published good works on English
and Italian grammar for French students. Died in
1797;
Siret, (PiERRE HUBERT,) a French preacher, born at
Rlieims in 1754; died in 1834.
Sirey, se'ri', (]E\N BAPTISTE,) a French jurist, born
at Sarlat (Pe'rigord) in 1762, published several legal
works. Died in 1845.
Siri, see'ree, (VITTORIO,) an Italian monk and his
torian, born at Parma about 1615, was patronized by
Louis X I V. of France, who made him his almoner and
historiographer. lie conducted for many years a jour
nal entitled "Mercurio Politico," (15 vols.,) which treats
of events that occurred from 1635 to 1655. He also
published "Secret Memoirs," ("Memorie recondite,")
a journal in 8 vols. Died in 1685.
Siricius, se-rish'c-us, [Fr. SMUCE, se'ress',] born at
Rome about 324 A.D., was elected Pope or Bishop of
Rome in 384. He issued decrees against the Mani-
cheans, Donatists, and other heretics. Died in 398.
Siries, see're-eV, (VIOLANTE BEATRICE,) an Italian
portrait-painter, born in 1710; died about 1760.
Sirleto, seR-Ia'to, [Lat. SIRI.E'TUS; Fr. SIRI.ET, SCR'-
Ii',] (Gur.i.iEi.Mo,) a learned Italian cardinal, born in
Calabria in 1514. He became keeper of the library of
the Vatican in 1549. He acted as intermediary between
the pope and the Council of Trent about 1560. Died
in 1585.
Sirietus. See SIRLETO.
Sirmoiid, SCR'HION', [Lat. SIRMOND'US,] (JACQUES,)
a learned French Jesuit and antiquary, born at Riom in
1559, vvas for a time professor of rhetoric in Paris. lie
subsequently examined the archives of the convents,
where he obtained many valuable manuscripts. Among
these he published editions of Apollinaris Sidonius, the
"Chronicles" of Idatius and Marceliinus, the "Opus
cules" of Geo.Troi, Abbe de Vendome, and other writers
of the middle ages. Sirmond was appointed in 1637
confessor to Louis XI I \. He wrote several valuable
antiquarian treatises. Died in 1651.
See BRIET, " Eulbgium J. Sirmondi," 1653; COI.OMIES, "Vie du
Pere Sirmond," 1671 ; " Nouvelle liiographie Generale."
Sirmond, (JEAN,) a wiiter, born at Riom about 1589,
was a nephew of the preceding. He was a member of
:he French Academy, and received a pension from Riche-
'ieu. Died in 1649.
See MoR^RI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
Sis'e-but [Lat. SISKHU'TUS] was elected King of the
Visigoths in Spain in 612 A.D. lie was a zealous pro-
essor of the Christian religion, and was an able ruler.
Died in 620 A.D.
Si-seii'na, (Lucius CORNELIUS,) a Roman annalist,
)orn about 118 B.C. He was prretor about 78 B.C. He
wrote a work on Roman history, entitled " Ilistoriae,"
which was praised by Cicero, ("Brutus" and "De Legi-
JUS.")
See KARL L. ROTH, "L. C. Sisennaj Vita," 1834.
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon;
S1S1FO
2025
SIVA
Sisifo. See SISYPHUS.
Si-sin'ni-us, a native of Syria, became pope at the
death of John VI I., in 708. He died in the next month.
Sismondi, sis-mon'dee, [It. pron. ses-mon'dee,] de,
[Fr. pron. deli ses'm6N'de',] (JEAN CHARLES LEONARD
Si MONDE,) an eminent Swiss historian and publicist, of
Tuscan extraction, was born at Geneva on the gth of
May, 1773. He was educated in the College of Geneva,
and became a clerk in the counting-house of a merchant
or banker in Lyons. In consequence of the civil war, he
left this position in 1792 and visited England, the lan
guage and institutions of which he appears to have
studied with much attention. In 1795 he removed with
his father to Val Chiusa, Tuscany, where he was employed
as a farmer for five years. He returned to Geneva in
1800, and published a work "On Commercial Riches,"
(2 vols., 1803,) in which he advocated the doctrines of
Adam Smith. Soon after this event he formed a friend
ship with Madame de Stael, with whom he travelled in
Italy and Germany, (1804-08.) By the advice of his
mother, lie devoted himself to the composition of history.
In 1807 he published the first and second volumes of an
important work, "The History of the Italian Repub
lics," which was received with favour. The sixteenth
and last volume appeared in 1818. " Sistnondi," says
Mignet, "has traced this history with vast learning, a
noble spirit, a vigorous talent, sufficient art, and much
eloquence." He contributed many articles to the " Uio-
graphie Universelle" of Midland. In 1819 he married
Miss Allen, an English lady and a sister-in-law of Sir
James Mackintosh. About this time Guizot offered to
him a professorship in the College of France, but he
declined it. He expended many years in writing his
" History of the French," (" Histoire des Frai^ais," 30
vols., 1821-44,) which some critics consider his best
work. Sismondi was a Protestant and a republican.
His moral character is highly commended. He died at
Geneva in 1842, leaving no children.
See "Vie de Sismondi," Paris, 1845; LOMENIK, " Galerie des
Contemporains," tome vii. ; K. A. A. MIGNET, "Notice historique
sur la Vie de M. de Sismondi, ' 1845 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1812, and September,
1843; "Edinburgh Review" for June, 1815; "Foreign Quarterly
Review" for April, 1829.
Sisto, the Italian of SIXTUS, which see.
Sisto Rosa. See BADALOCCHIO.
Sis'y-phus, [Gr. 2tcw<pof; Fr. SISYPHE, se'sef ; It.
SISIFO, see'se-fo,] a fabulous king of Corinth, was called
a son of yKolus, a brother of Cretheus, Athainas, and
Salmoneus, and the husband of Merope. He was ex
tremely crafty and deceitful. The poets feigned that
when Death was sent to take him he outwitted Death
and bound him in fetters ; and that for his various crimes
he was doomed in the infernal regions to roll up hill a
large stone, which, as soon as it reached the top, rolled
down again. According to one tradition, he was the
father of Ulysses.
Sita, see'ta, written also Seeta, in the Hindoo my
thology, the name of the beautiful and spotless wife of the
god Rama. As Rama was an avatar of Vishnu, so Sita
is regarded as an avatar of Lakshmi. (See RAMA.)
Siun- (or Seun-) King, se-u\ king, a Chinese phi
losopher, regarded by many as the ablest of all the fol
lowers of Confucius, flourished from about 270 to 220
K.C. He wrote a refutation of the doctrine of Mencius
that man is naturally good. He maintained, on the
contrary, that " the nature of man is evil ; that the good
which it shows is factitious, (or artificial.") lie supports
his position with great ingenuity and force of reasoning.
He says, if man's nature were good, men would not need
to be continually taught and governed ; they would do
right spontaneously. To live properly and virtuously
requires continual self-denial ; but why deny our natural
inclinations, if these are good? "A straight piece of
wood," he says, " does not need the pressing-boards to
make it straight: it is so by its nature. A crooked
piece of wood must be submitted to the pressing-boards
to soften and straighten it, because it is not straight by
its nature." As man is naturally crooked and perverse,
his nature needs to be corrected by the government of
wise rulers and the restraints of just laws. (See Legge's
"Chinese Classics," vol. ii. page 2 and pages 81-91.)
Siva, see'vi, the goddess of harvests among the
Wends and some other northern nations. She is called
in the Norse mythology SIK, which see.
See THORPE, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. p. 179.
Siv'a or Qiva, commonly pronounced (in English)
and sometimes written See' va, spelled also Shiva, [from
the Sanscrit adjective shfv&s, sMvd, sMvam, "prosper
ous," " happy,"] the usual name of one of the gods of
the Hindoo triad ; also popularly known as Mahaddva,
ma-ha' da'va, (generally called by the common people
of India Mahadeo, ma-ha' da'o,) or the "great god."
Mahesa (ma-ha'sa) is another, and one of the most
common, of his many names. He may be said to repre
sent the destructive powers of nature ; and since, in the
present order of things, destruction seems necessary to
prepare the way for a renewal of life, he is also believed
to preside over generation or reproduction. In this lat
ter character his power is typified by the phallic emblem
called in Sanscrit the Linga (ling'ga) or Lingam ; which
is commonly, if not invariably, found in temples or places
dedicated to his worship. Among the gods of classic
mythology the character of Saturn, or Time, (who both
produces and destroys,) would, in its leading features,
seem most to resemble that of Siva; but the attributes
and offices of the Hindoo deity are so multitudinous
that we must seek his counterpart, not in one, but in
several, of the Western divinities. As being the might
iest of all the gods, as he is usually regarded at least by
the common people, and as his name Mahadeva would
appear to imply, he may be said to correspond to the
Zeus (or Jupiter) of the Greeks and Romans ; and, if we
take simply the radical part of the two names, Zen or
Zev* and SiiA or S/u'vJ the resemblance might well
seem to be something more than a mere accident. Add
to this that Siva is represented with three eyes, (one in
the middle of his forehead,) whence he was surnamed
in Sanscrit triloc/iand, (or "three-eyed,") and that the
Greek triophthalmos, having exactly the same meaning,
was also an epithet of Zeus.J It is, moreover, expressly
stated by Hindoo authorities that Siva had a thousand
separate names. Zeus also had a multitude of names;
in the noble hymn to Jupiter by Cleanthes the god is
addressed as TTO/.VUVV/IE, "thou many-named." (See,
on this subject, Sir William Jones's article "On the
Gods of Greece, Italy,, and India," in vol. i. of " Asiatic
Researches.")
In India, a country where the vegetation is so often
destroyed by the heat of the sun, it would be natural to
associate not only fire or heat, but the sun itself, with
the destroying power. Accordingly, not only fire§ in
general, but the sun in particular, is considered to be
one of the many forms of Siva. Again, cold, another
cause of the destruction of life, would seem to be an
especial favourite with Mahadeva, who is said to have
seleoted the inaccessible snows of Mount Kailasa (or
Cailasa) as his permanent abode. There his devoted
consort Parvati (i.e. the "mountain-born") is ever at
* As it may have been pronounced by the ancients, and as it is
pronounced by the modern Greeks.
t So called iu the common dialect of India.
J We are told by Pausanias that a statue of Zens had been found
having a third eye in his forehead.
§ There is iu one of the Pmanas a singular legend, which runs
substantially as follows: One day, as Brahma and Vishnu were dis
puting which was the elder, Siva came between them in great wrath,
saying, " It is I who am truly the first born; but I will yield my pre
tensions to either of yon who shall be able to reach or behold the
summit of my head or the soles of my feet." Brahma instantly
ascended, but, having searched in vain in the regions of immensity,
he returned and falsely declared that he had seen the crown of
Siva's head. When Vishnu came back from his search, he frankly
acknowledged he had not been able to find the teet of Siva. There
upon Mahadeva cut off the fifth head of Brahma for his falsehood,
leaving him only four. This story seems at first sight sufficiently
absurd ; but if we may suppose that the Hindoos were acquainted
with the internal heat of the earth, (and why may not the nation
which \vas in advance of all others in some departments of mathe
matics and astronomy have known something also of geology?) the
explanation of the fable is simple enough. Brahma is the earth ;
Vishnu, water, (including the sea ;) Siva, fire in all its forms. As the
highest parts of the eartli (the mountains) can never reach the
heavenly fire, (the sun,) so the sea can never reach the feet or lowest
part of the internal fire of the earth. Brahma's four heads are doubt
less the four corners of the earth ; the fifth head may possibly have
been some mountain whose summit (like that of Vesuvius iu the year
79 A.D.) was carried away by volcanic fire.
<; as k; 9 as t; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
SWAJ1
2026
SKELTON
his side. It is related that on a certain occasion, in
beseeching a favour of her lord, — or, as some say, in
mere playfulness,— she placed one of her hands upon
his forehead ; his middle eye (the sun) was completely
eclipsed, and, although she instantly took her hand
away, the period of darkness seemed an age to the in
habitants of the earth. When she removed her hand,
it was covered with the perspiration from Siva's temples.
Shaking off the moisture, she produced the Ganges. The
fable is related variously, but the universal tradition is
that the Ganges sprang from Siva's hair ; and in many of
his pictures it is seen flowing from the top of his head.
As the destroying power, the office of Siva is to rid the
world of monsters, wicked men or evil giants; although
in this capacity his Sakti (Kali or Durga) is more usually
employed. (See KAi.f and PARVATI.) As presiding over
generation, he is Worshipped with offerings by those who
are desirous of obtaining offspring, in this character
he is sometimes represented as Aidha-Nari, or Ardha-
Narisha, (see VIKAJ,) a being combining the two sexes
or two principles, male and female, of which the Linga
(or Ling) and Yoni are the respective symbols.
Siva has a great multitude of names, as Sambhu,* (or
Shambhu,) Kudra.t (roocl'ra,) and Nilakantha, (nee'la-
kiin't'ha,) i.e. the " blue-throated," because, when the
gods and Asms churned the ocean, there came forth a
poison of such deadly power that it would have destroyed
all the inhabitants of the world had not Siva come to the
rescue and swallowed it ; its only effect was to leave a
dark-blue mark on his neck or throat, whence he is often
called the "blue-throated." He is also styled iswaraor
Isa, (or lea,) i.e. " ruler." Mahesa is a contraction of
Maha Isa, i.e. the " Great Ruler.
A worshipper of Siva is called by the Hindoos SAIVA,
(si'va.) It may be remarked that while the pious Hindoos
render a sort of homage to all the gods, they have certain
favourites to whom they dedicate an especial worship.
In pictures, Siva is sometimes represented with one,
and sometimes with five heads, usually riding on awhile
bull called Nandi. Like his consort Kali, he is generally
adorned with a necklace of human skulls, and often has a
trident (trisilla) in his hand. He frequently holds an
antelope in one of his hands, typical perhaps of his skill
as a hunter. His son Ganesa is usually near at hand,
sometimes as an infant in the arms of Parvati, and some
times as an attendant waiting on his parents.
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon;" GUIGNIAUT, "Religions de
I'Antiquile," vol. i. book i. chap. ii.
Sivaji. See SEVAJKK.
Six, s!x, (JoHN,)a Dutch dramatic poet, born in 1618
in Amsterdam, of which he became burgomaster. His
tragedy of "Medea" was much admired. Died in 1700
See DE BOSCH, " Histoire de la Poesie Hollnndaise."
Sixte. See SIXTUS.
Six'tus [Fr. SIXTE, sekst ; It. SISTO, ses'to] I., a
bishop of Rome, of who-n little is known, succeeded
Alexander I. He is supposed to have died about 128 A.I).
Sixtus II. became Bishop of Rome in 257 A.D., and
suffered martyrdom under Valerianus in 258 A. D.
Sixtus III. succeeded Celestine I. as Bishop of Rome
in 431 A.D. Died in 440.
Sixtus IV., (FRANCESCO della Rovere — del'la ro-
va'ra,) POPE, born about 1414, succeeded Paul II. in
1471. He was an accomplice or abettor of the Pazzi,
who conspired against Lorenzo de' Medici, and he ex
communicated Lorenzo for hanging the Archbishop of
Pisa. The clergy of Florence supported Lorenzo and
openly condemned the conduct of the pope. He ren
dered himself unpopular by his nepotism, simony, and
other vices. Died in 1484.
See PI.ATINA, "De Vitis Pontificum ;" ARTAUD DE MONTOR,
" Histoire des Pontifes Romains."
Sixtus V., [Fr. SIXTK-QUINT, sekst'kaN' ; Lat. SIX'
TUS QUIN'TUS,] whose original name was Felix Pe-
retti, was born near Montalto in 1521, and in 1585
succeeded Gregory XIII. as pope. As a ruler he was
distinguished for his energy and munificent spirit : he
constructed the Vatican Library, the obelisk in the piazza
* From the Sanscrit shUmbhtt, "prosperous."
t Signifying a "storm," or " stormy," according to some writers.
of Saint Peter's Church, the great aqueduct called by
his name, and other magnificent public works. lie also
founded several colleges, published editions of the Vul
gate and the Septuagint, and edited the works of Saint
Ambrose. Died in 1589. He was succeeded by Urban
VII. It is reported that Sixtus V., before his election,
simulated the infirmities of old age so artfully that
the cardinals thought he had not long to live ; but as
soon as he became pope he threw away his crutch and
astonished them by his vigour.
See TKMPESTI, " Storia della Vita e Gesti di Sisto V.," 1754;
RANKE, " History of the Popes;" V. ROBAKDI, " Sixti V. Gesta,"
1500; J. LORENTZ, "Sixtus V. nnd seine Zeit," 1852: G. ROGKRI,
"Vita'di Sisto V. ;" "Life of Sixtus V.," by G. LETI, (translated
from the Italian ;) SHGRETAIN, "Sixte Vet Henri IV," 1861;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sixtus OF SIENNA, an Italian monk and popular
preacher, born at Sienna in 1520. He wrote "Sacred
Library," (" Bibliotheca Sancta," 1586.) Died in 1569.
Sjoberg or Sjoeberg, sho'beug, (EKIK,) a Swedish
poet, born in Sodermanland in 1794. He published in
18193 collection of lyrics under the signature of VITALIS,
which gave him a high reputation. He also translated
into Swedish some of the works of Washington Irving.
Died in 1828.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Sjogren or Schoegren, sho'guen, (ANDREAS Jo-
IIAN,) a distinguished philologist, born in Finland in
1794. lie studied at the University of Abu, and sub
sequently resided in Russia. He was appointed in 1833
adjunct librarian of the Academy of Saint Petersburg,
and in 1845 director of the Ethnographical Museum of
that institution. lie published an "Ossetic Grammar
and Vocabulary," (1844, in German,) a treatise "On
the Finnish Language and Literature," and other similar
works of a high character. Died in 1855.
Skadi, ska'de, or Ska'Si, ska'the, (from skada, to
" injure," cognate with the Danish shade, the German
schaden, and the English scat/i,] in the Norse mythol
ogy, the daughter of the Jb'tun Thiassi, (or Thjassi,)
and the wife of Njord, with whom, however, she does
not live harmoniously. Njord prefers the fertile plains
wear the sea, or the ocean ruled by gentle winds, (see
NJORD ;) but Skadi delights in the storms of the moun
tains. Her dwelling is called Thrymheim, (the "home
or habitation of storms.") She excels in running on
snow-shoes, and in shooting with her bow the wild beasts
of the mountain.
See THORPE, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; KKYSER, "Re
ligion of the Northmen."
Skanda. See KARTIKEYA.
Skanderbeg. See SCANI>ERI;E(;.
Skarbek, skau'bek, (FRICDKIK KI.ORIAN,) COUNT, a
popular Polish writer, born at Thorn in 1792, was ap
pointed in 1818 professor of political economy at the
University of Warsaw. Among his principal works are
his " Theory of Financial Science," (1824,) "Theory of
Social Wealth," (in French,) and a collection of "Tales
and Humorous Writings," (6 vols., 1840,) which have
won for him a high reputation.
Skarga, skan'ga, (PlOTR PAWKLSKI,) a celebrated
pulpit orator and theologian, surnamed THE POLISH
CHRYSOSTOM, born in Masovia in 1536. Having entered
the order of Jesuits at Rome, he contributed greatly by
his eloquence to the establishment of Catholicism in
Poland. He was for many years court preacher to
Sigismund III. He was the author of numerous ser
mons, and of " Lives of the Saints," which is esteemed
a model of elegance in style, and has passed through
many editions. Died in 1612.
Skel'ton, (JoiiN,) an English poet and scholar, born
about 1460. Having studied at Cambridge and taken
holy orders, he was appointed tutor to the Duke of
York, afterwards Henry VIII. He was the author of
satires, elegies, and religious pieces. His learning is
highly commended by Erasmus. Died in 1529.
See article entitled "Satirical Laureate of the Sixteenth Century,"
in the "Dublin University Magazine" for January. 1X67 ; "Retro
spective Review," vol. vi., 1822; "Quarterly Review" for March,
1844.
Skel'ton, (PHILIP,) an Irish divine, born in 1707,
was the author of " Deism Revealed," and " Proposals
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
SK1NF4XI
2O27
SLIKGEL4KDT
for the Revival of Christianity." The latter was ascribed
to Dean Swift. Died in 1787.
Skinfaxi. See Noitvi.
Skin'ner, (EZEKIEL,) M.D., an American physician
and Baptist divine, born in Connecticut in 1777; died
in 1855.
Skin'ner, (JOHN,) a Scottish divine and poet, born
in the county of Aberdeen in 1721. He published an
"Ecclesiastical History of Scotland," and a number of
popular lyrics. Died in 1807.
Skinner, (Jo UN STUART,) an American journalist
and agricultural writer, born in Maryland in 1788. In
1819 he became editor of the "American Farmer," the
first agricultural journal published in the United States.
He afterwards edited successively the "Turf Register,"
"The Farmer's Library and Agricultural Journal," and
" The Plough, The Loom, and The Anvil." Died in 1851.
Skinner, (RICHARD,) an American jurist and states
man, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1778. He was
elected to Congress in 1812, and in 1817 chief justice
of Vermont, and was subsequently twice elected Gov
ernor of that State. Died in 1833.
Skin'ner, (STEPHEN,) an English philologist and
physician, born in London in 1623. He studied at Ox
ford, and took his medical degree at Heidelberg. He
died in 1667, leaving unfinished an etymological dic
tionary of the English language, which was published,
with additions, by Thomas Henshaw, under the title of
"Etymologicon Linguae Anglicanae."
Skinner, (THOMAS HARVEY,) D.D., an American
Presbyterian divine, born at Harvey's Neck, North
Carolina, in 1791. He became in 1848 professor of
sacred rhetoric and pastoral theology at the Union
Theological Seminary, New York. He has published
"Hints to Christians," and other religious works.
Skoda, sko'da, (JOSEPH,) a distinguished physician,
born at Pilsen, in Bohemia, in 1805. He became in i
1846 professor of clinics at Vienna, and in 1848 a mem
ber of the Academy of Sciences.
Skovoroda, sko-vo-ro'da, known also as GREGORY
SAVITCH, a Russian ecclesiastic and writer, born near
Kief about 1730. He studied theology at Halle, and,
after his return to the Ukraine, devoted himself to the
work of reconciling the so-called United Greeks with the
national Church. He died in 1778, leaving a number of
poems, moral fables, and a prose work entitled " Sym-
phonon," also some translations from the Homilies of
Saint Chrysostom. He is regarded as the greatest
writer the Ukraine has produced.
Skrym'mr, Skrym'iier, or Skrym'er, [supposed
to be so called from Skrum, "show," "feint," on account
of the illusions which he practised,] the name of a
mighty giant, (mentioned in the Edda,) who baffled,
with his magic illusions, all the prowess of Thor. The
god of thunder is said to have struck, with his terrible
Miolnir, the sleeping Skrymnir on his head, putting forth
all his might. The giant awoke, and asked whether
some small leaf or a grain of dust had not fallen on his
head. The myth of Skrymnir is supposed to typify the
unconquerable might of a Northern winter.
For a particular account of Thor's adventures with Skrymnir. see
MAI.I.ET, "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii. Fables XXIII.'-XXVI. ;
THORPE. ''Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 57-65.
Skrzyiiecki, skzhe-net'skee, (JoHN,) a Polish gene
ral, born in Galicia in 1787, served with distinction in
the army of Napoleon against the Austrians and Rus
sians, and, soon after the breaking out of the revolution
of 1830, succeeded Prince Radziwill as commander-in-
chief of the Polish forces. After the defeat of the Poles
at Ostrolenka, (1831,) he was deprived of his command,
and retired to Belgium, where he resided till a short
time before his death, in 1860.
See " Nouvelle Hiographie Generale."
Skytte, skut'teh or skit'teh, (JoHAN,) called also
Schroderus, a Swedish statesman and writer, born at
Nykoping in 1577. He was the preceptor of Gustavus !
Adolphus, who appointed him president of the chamber
of accounts in 1620. He was employed in several
foreign missions, and obtained the dignity of senator.
Died in 1645.
See NEIKTER, " Monumenta et Liters Historian! J. Skytte illus-
trantes," 1802.
Slade, (ADOLPHUS,) an English naval officer, born
about 1804. He entered the Turkish naval service,
in which he effected several reforms. He published
" Records of Travels in Turkey."
Slade, (WILLIAM,) an American Governor, born in
Cornwall, Vermont, in 1786. He served in Congress
from 1831 to 1843, distinguished himself by his oppo
sition to slavery, and was elected Governor of Vermont
in 1844. Died in 1859.
Sla'ter, (SAMUEL,) an English artisan and mecha
nician, born in Derbyshire in 1768. Having emigrated
to America, he established at Pawtucket, Rhode Island,
in 1790, one of the first cotton-factories in the United
States. Died in 1835.
Slater or Slatyer, (WILLIAM,) REV., an English
poet, born in Somersetshire in 1587. He became rector
of Otterden, in Kent. Among his works is " Palae-
Albion ; or, A History of Great Britain, in Latin and
English Verse." Died in 1647.
Slee'man, (Sir WILLIAM HENRY,) an English officer
and writer, born in Cornwall in 1788. He served in the
Indian campaign of 1812, and was appointed in 1820
agent for the districts of Nerbudda and Saugur. He
was the author of a " Review and Analysis of the Pe
culiar Doctrines of the System of Political Economy
founded by Ricardo," " Rambles and Recollections of
an Indian Officer," (1843,) anc' other works. Sir William
was made a knight commander of the Bath for his
services in suppressing the Thugs, and for other reforms
in India. Died in 1856.
Sleidan, sli'dan or sli'dfiN'', [Lat. SLEIDA'NUS,]
(JoHANN,) an eminent historian and diplomatist, whose
original name was PHILIPSOHN, was born at Sleida. near
Cologne, in 1506. He studied law at Liege, Lou vain,
Paris, and Orleans, and was subsequently employed by
Francis I. of France as his delegate to the Diet of Ratis-
bon. He became professor of law at Strasburg in 1542,
and in 1545 was sent on an embassy to England by
the Protestant princes, who had previously appointed
him historiographer of the Schmalkaldic League. He
was a deputy from Strasburg to the Council of Trent
in I551- His principal work is entitled " Commentaries
on the State of Religion and of the Republic under
the Emperor Charles V.," ("De Statu Religionis et Rei-
publicae Carolo V. Caesare Commentarii," in 25 books,
1555.) It is highly esteemed for its accuracy and im
partiality, and for the purity of its style, and has been
translated into several languages. Died in 1556.
See D. W. MOI.I.ER, " Disputatio circularis de J. S'eidano,"
1697; AM ENDE. "Vermischte Anmerkungen den beriihmten J.
Sleidan," 1780; THEOOOR PAUR, "Commentatio de J. Sleidano,"
1842; "Nouvelle Hiosraphie Generale." Jf?«vw.7ce, ZT. . JXr'~*"K- dteJ*^"1"*-^-
Sleidanus. See SLEIDAN.
Sleipnir or Sleipner, sllp'nir, [from sleipr, "smooth,"
"gliding," cognate with the English "slippery,"] a
wondrous horse belonging to Odin, on which the god
rode over land and sea. He had eight legs, which, ac
cording to some writers, are simply expressive of his
extraordinary fleetness ; others, with much plausibility,
suggest that the myth is intended to represent the wind
blowing from the eight principal points of the compass.
Sleipnir is occasionally spoken of as four-footed.
See THORPE, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. : MALI.ET, " North
ern Antiquities," vol. ii. Fable XXI. ; also MATTHEW ARNOLD'S
poem emitted " Haider Dead."
Sli-dell', (JoHN,) an American lawyer and politician,
born in New York in 1793. Having removed to New
Orleans, he was elected to Congress in 1843, and in
1845 was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to Mexico.
He was subsequently elected (1853) to the United States
Senate, from which he withdrew after the ordinance of
secession was passed in 1861. During a voyage to
France, to which he was sent by Jefferson Davis, he
was captured from the steamer Trent, in November,
1861, by Captain Wilkes, of the United States navy.
(See MASOX, TAMES MURRAY.)
Sliiigelandt, van, vtn sling'eh-lant', (PiETER,) a
celebrated Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1640, was
a pupil of Gerard Dow, whose works he imitated suc
cessfully in exquisite finish and minuteness of detail.
Among his master-pieces may be named the portraits
of the Meerman family, in the Louvre, upon which he
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SLIKGENETER
2028
SMERDIS
is said to have been employed three years. Died in
1691.
See CHARLES BLANC. " Histoire des Peintres."
Slingeneyer, sling'en-i'er, (EUNKST,) a Belgian his
torical painter, born near Ghent in 1823. Among his
works are " The Death of Jacobsen," " The Battle of
Lepanto," and "The Death of Nelson."
Sloan, slon, (SAMUKI,,) an American architect, born
in Chester county, Pennsylvania, March 7, 1815. He es
tablished himself in Philadelphia, and published, besides
other works, the "Model Architect," (1850-51,) "City
and Suburban Architecture," (1859,) and "Homestead
Architecture," (1860.) He also publishes the " Archi
tectural Review," (commenced in 1868.) Some of the
most important edifices in Pennsylvania and other States
have been built after his designs. Among these we
may name the Blockley Hospital for the Insane, near
Philadelphia, and the State Hospital for the Insane, at
Montgomery, in Alabama*
Sloane, slon, (Sir HANS,) a celebrated physician and
naturalist, of Scottish extraction, born in the county
of Down, Ireland, in 1660. lie studied medicine and
the natural sciences in London, and subsequently visited
France, where Ire acquired the friendship of Tournefort
and other distinguished savants. Having returned to
London with a large collection of plants, he settled as a
physician in that city, and was elected in 1685 a Fellow
of the Royal Society. He afterwards spent some time
in Jamaica and other West India islands, where he
collected a great number of plants. After his return,
he became successively secretary to the Royal Society,
(1693,) physician-general to the army, (1716,) president
of the College of Physicians, (1719,) and physician to
the king, (1727.) About the same time he succeeded
Newton as president of the Royal Society. He filled
for thirty years the post of physician to Christ's Hos
pital, London, devoting his salary entirely to charitable
purposes, and assisted in establishing the Foundling
Hospital. He died in 1753, leaving his library of fifty
thousand volumes, a cabinet of two hundred volumes
of dried plants, and an immense collection ot other
objects in natural history, chiefly accumulated by him
self, to be offered to the nation for twenty thousand
pounds. This purchase being made by the govern
ment, originated the British Museum. Besides numer
ous contributions to the " Philosophical Transactions,"
Sir Hans Sloane published the " Natural History of
Jamaica," (2 vols. fol., 1725.) a work of high reputation.
See " Kiosraphia Britannica ;" GRANDJEAN OE FOUCHY," filoges,"
tome i. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Slo'cum, (IlKNKY WADSWORTH,) an American gene
ral, born at or near Syracuse, New Y9rk, in 1827. He
entered the Academy at West Point in 1848, and gradu
ated there in 1852. In 1856 he resigned his commission
in the army, and adopted the profession of lawyer. Soon
after the civil war began, lie became colonel of a regi
ment of volunteers, and was sent to Virginia. He was
appointed a brigadier-general in the autumn of 1861,
commanded a division in the battles of Gaines's Mill,
White Oak Swamp, and Malvern Hill, and was pro
moted to the rank of major-general in July, 1862. He
commanded a corps at the battle of Chancellorsville,
and at Gettysburg, July 2 and 3, 1863. In August, 1864,
he obtained command of a corps in the army of Gene
ral Sherman. He led one of the wings or columns of
that army in the great march from Atlanta to Savannah,
November-December, 1864.
Slodtz, slos or slots, (PAUL AMBROISE,) a painter,
born in Paris in 1702, was a son of Sebastien, noticed
below. Died in 1758.
Slodtz, (RK\6 MICHKI.,) a French sculptor, called
MICHAKL ANGEI.O, was born in Paris in 1705. His
chief work is "The Tomb of the Curate Languet."
Died in 1764.
Slodtz, slots, (S6BASTIF.N,) a Flemish sculptor, born
at Antwerp in 1655, was the father of Paul Ambroise,
noticed above. Died in Paris in 1726.
Slowacki, slo-vats'kee, (Jui.ius,) a popular Polish
poet, born at Wilna in 1809. He took an active part
as a soldier in the revolution of 1830, and published a
number of spirited lyrics in favour of the patriotic
cause, lie also wrote epic poems, entitled "Jan Bie-
lecki," " Lambro," and "Hugo;" also " Mazeppa,"
" Maria Stuart," and other dramas. Died in 1851.
Sluse, sliiz, (R. F. WALTF.R,) a Flemish Orientalist
and mathematician, born at Vise in 1622, was canon of
Liege. Died in 1685.
Sluys, van der, vtn der slois, (JACOB,) a skilful
Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1660. His favourite
subjects were festivals, conversation-pieces, and assem
blies. Died in 1736.
Smalbroke, smawl'brook, (RICHARD,) an English
theologian, born at Birmingham in 1672 or 1673. He
became Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1730, and
wrote a " Vindication of Our Saviour's Miracles," (1729.)
Died in 1749.
Smalcius, smalt'sc-us, or Smalz, smaUs, (VALKN-
TIN,) a German Unitarian minister and writer, born at
Gotha in 1572. He preached at Racow, in Poland. Died
in 1622.
Smal'rfdge, (Gr.ouGK,) a learned English prelate,
born at Lichfield in 1663. He became Bishop of Bristol
in 1714. He published a volume of Sermons, (1717.)
Died in 1719.
Snialz. See SMAI.CUJS.
Smart, (CIIKISTOIMIKK,) an English poet, born in
Kent in 1722. He studied at Cambridge, where he be
came noted for his classical knowledge, and subsequently
made prose translations from Horace and Phxdrus.
He was a friend of Dr. Johnson, who wrote his biogra
phy. Died in 1770.
See JOHNSON, " Lives of the Poets."
Smea'ton, (JoiiN,) an eminent English civil engineer
and mechanic, born at Austhorpc, near Leeds, in 1724.
He commenced business as a maker of mathematical
instruments. lie had great mechanical ingenuity, ;ind
made improvements in hydraulic machinery. In 1759
he received a gold medal from the Royal Society for his
treatise "On the Natural Power of Wind and Water to
drive Mills." His greatest work is the Eddystone Light-
House, finished in 1759. He constructed Ramsgate
harbour, and was the engineer of the great canal of
Scotland, extending from the Clyde to the Forth. Died
in 1792.
See SMII.F.S, "I/ives of the Engineers ;" " Monthly Review" for
July, August, and September. 1791.
Smed'ley, (Rev. EDWARD,) an English divine and
miscellaneous writer, born about 1790. He studied at
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained suc
cessively four Seatonian prizes for English poems. He
also wrote a " History of the Reformed Religion in
France," and was editor for a time of the "Encyclo
paedia Metropolitana." Died in 1836.
Smedley, (FRANCIS E.,) an English novelist, born
about 1820. He published " Lewis Arundel," (18^2,) and
"The Fortunes of the Colville Family," (1856.) Died
in 1864.
Sniee, (ALFRED,) an English surgeon and scientific
writer, born in 1818, published, among other works,
" Lectures on Electro-Metallurgy" (1841) and " Klectro-
Biology," (1849.) He became a member of the Royal
College of Surgeons in 1840, and a Fellow of the Royal
Society in 1841.
Smel'lie, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish surgeon and writer
on midwifery. lie practised for some years in Scotland,
and afterwards in London. He gave many courses
of lectures on midwifery in London, and published a
"Treatise on Midwifery" in 1752. Died in 1763.
Smellie, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish naturalist, printer,
and writer, born in Edinburgh about 1740. He printe 1
a good edition of Terence, wrote "The Philosophy of
Natural History." (2 vols., 1790-95.) and translated
BufFon's " Natural History." He printed the first edi
tion of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," to which he
contributed several articles. Died in i/9v
See ROBKRT KKRR, "Memoirs of the L'fe of \V. Smellie," 2
vols., 1811 ; CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots
men."
Smer'dis, |Gr. Z.uf'p&f,] a Persian prince, was a
younger son of Cyrus the Great. He went to Egypt
with his brother Cambyses, who sent him back to Persia
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moor.;
SMET
2029
SMITH
and caused him to be secretly put to death. A Magian
who resembled Snierdis pretended that he was the son
of Cvrus, and usurped the throne. The false Snierdis
was killed by seven conspirators, in 521 K.C.
See GKOTE, " History of Greece;" HERODOTUS, " History."
Sniet, de, deh smet or smi, (JOSEPH JEAN,) a Belgian
writer, born at Ghent in 1794. Among his works is a
"History of Belgium," (1822.)
Smet van der Ketten, smet vSn der ket'ten, [Lat.
SME'TIUS,] ([AN,) a Dutch antiquary, born in Gelder-
land about 1585 ; ilied in 1651.
Smi'bert or Smy'bert, ( JOHN,) a Scottish painter,
born at Edinburgh about 1680, emigrated in 1728 to
America, and followed his profession in Boston. Died
in 1751.
Sniidt, smit, (JoHANN,) a German diplomatist, born
at Bremen in 1773 ; died in 1857.
Smiedel, smee'del, or Schmeidel, shml'del, (Ui.-
RICH,) a German traveller, born at Straubingen. He
was one of a party which went to .South America
about 1534 and founded Buenos Ayres. lie explored
the river Paraguay and visited Peru. An account of
his travels was published in 1554.
Smiglecius or Smigletius, snu-glee'she-us, (MAR
TIN,) a Polish Jesuit and logician, born in 1562. He
wrote several works against Protestantism, and a "Sys
tem of Logic," (1618.) Died in 1618.
Smiles, (SAMUEL,) a British biographer, born at
Haddington about 1816. He was editor of the Leeds
"Times," and published, besides other works, a "Life
of George Stephenson," (1859,) and "The Lives of the
Kngineers," (3 vols., 1861.)
See AI.I.IBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Smiii'theus, [Gr. 'ZuivOevt; ; Fr. SMINTHEE, sma.v'ta',]
a sin name of APOI.I.O, (which see.)
Smirke, smjrk, (ROKEKT,) a distinguished English
painter, born in 1751. Among his master-pieces, which
are principally domestic and rural scenes and comic
subjects, we may name "The Combat between Don
Quixote and the Giants," " Sancho's Audience of the
Duchess," "The Gypsy," and "Prince Henry and Fal-
staff." He was elected an Academician in 1792. Died
in 1845.
Smirke, (Sir ROKKRT,) an architect, a son of the
preceding, was born in 1780. Having visited Italy,
Germany, and Greece in 1805, lie published, after his
return, " Specimens of Continental Architecture," (1806.)
He constructed a number of public edifices in London,
among which the British Museum is the most celebrated.
It is of the Ionic order, and is regarded as the most
superb Grecian structure in the city. His other princi
pal works are the new Post-Office, the Mint, the College
of Physicians, and the restoration of York Minster. He
was elected a Royal Academician in 1812. Died in 1867.
Smirke, (SYDNKY,) brother of the preceding, also
distinguished as an architect, executed several works in
conjunction with Sir Robert. The New Reading-Room
of the British Museum is esteemed his master-piece.
Smith, (ADAM,) a celebrated Scottish philosopher
and political economist, born at Kirkaldy, in Fifeshire,
June 5, 1723. He was educated at the University of
Glasgow, where he remained from 1737 to 1740, and
at Balliol College, Oxford, which he quitted about 1747.
Having returned to Scotland, he formed friendships
with Hume and Lord Kames. In 1751 he obtained the
chair of logic in the University of Glasgow. He became
professor of moral philosophy in the same university in
1752, and published his "Theory of Moral Sentiments"
in 1759. He was very popular as a lecturer. In 1763
he resigned his professorship, and accepted the place
of companion to the young Duke of Buccleugh, with
whom he travelled on the continent two or three years.
He associated in Paris with D'Alembert, Necker, Tur-
got, and Quesnay. In 1766 he returned to Kirkaldy,
where he passed ten years in the composition of the
work on which his reputation is chiefly founded, "An
Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of
Nations," (2 vols., 1776.) He maintains that labour
rather than money or land is the true source of national
wealth. He also advocated free trade and opposed the
policy of those governments which attempt to control I
the laws of supply and demand. After the publication
of this work he passed two years in London. He was
appointed one of the commissioners of customs for
Scotland in 1778, after which date he resided in Edin
burgh until his death. He never married. Died in
July, 1790.
" Perhaps," says Mackintosh, " there is no ethical
work since Cicero's ' Offices,' of which an abridgment
enables the reader so inadequately to estimate the merit,
as the ' Theory of Moral Sentiments.' This is not chiefly
owing to the beauty of diction, as in the case of Cicero,
but to the variety of explanations of life and manners
which embellish the book often more than they illustrate
the theory. Vet, on the other hand, it must be owned
that for philosophical purposes few works more need
abridgment ; for the most careful reader frequently loses
sight of principles buried under illustrations. . . . That
Smith is the first who has drawn the attention of phi
losophers to one of the most curious and important parts
of human nature — who has looked closely and steadily
into the workings of sympathy, its sudden action and
reaction, its instantaneous conflicts and its emotions, its
minute play and varied illusions — is sufficient to place
him high among the cultivators of mental philosophy."
The same writer speaks of Smith's " Wealth of Nations"
as "perhaps the only book which produced an imme
diate general and irrevocable change in some of the
most important parts of the legislation of all civilized
nations."
See DUGAI.D STEWART, " Life and Writings of Adam Smith;"
LORD BROUGHAM, "Memoir of Adam Smith," in "Lives of Men
of Letters and Science;" MACKINTOSH. . " General View of the
Progress of Ethical Philosophy;" CHAM BERK, " Biographical Dic
tionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" ALUBONE, "Dictionary of Au
thors;" "Monthly Review" for July, 1759, and April, 1776.
Smith, (Ai.KKRT,) an English litterateur, born at
Chertsey in 1816. Among his principal works are
novels, entitled "The Scattergood Family," "The Pot-
tleton Legacy," " Marchioness of Brinvilliers ;" also the
"National Histories of Stuck-up People," "The Idler
upon Town," and other humorous sketches. In 1851
he ascended the summit of Mont Blanc, which adven
ture he afterwards made the subject of a popular dramatic
entertainment. Died in 1860.
Smith, ( ALEXANDER,) a Scottish poet, born at Kilmar-
nock, Ayrshire, in 1829 or 1830. He learned the business
of pattern-drawer. About 1852 he produced a poem
entitled '-The Life Drama," which was greatly admired
by many. He was elected secretary of the University
of Edinburgh in 1854, and married Flora Macdonald in
1858. He contributed articles in prose to the " North
British Review," " Blackwood's Magazine," and other
periodicals. Among his chief works were " City Poems,"
(1857,) and "Edwin of Deira," a historical poem, (1861.)
His style is censured as spasmodic by some critics. His
poetry abounds in beautiful images ; but he is deficient
in sustained power. His prose writings have been much
and generally admired. Died in January, 1867.
See AI.LIBON-E, " Dictionary of Authors;" "Eraser's Magazine"
for October. 1853; "Blackwood's Magazine" tor March, 1854;
"North British 'Review" for August, 1853; "Good Words" for
March, 1867; "London Review" for January, 1867.
Smith, (ANDREW J.,) an American major-general,
born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, about 1814, gradu
ated at West Point in 1838. He commanded two divis
ions which were sent by General Sherman to aid General
Banks, and took Fort de Russy, on Red River, March
14, 1864. He defeated the enemy at Tupelo, Mississippi,
about July 14, and aided to drive General Price out of
Missouri in October, 1864. He commanded a corps at
the great battle of Nashville, December 15 and 16, 1864,
and in the operations against Mobile, March-April, 1865.
He became a colonel of cavalry in the United States
army in 1866.
See GREKI.EY, " American Conflict," vol. ii.
Smith, (ANKER,) an English engraver, born in Lon
don in 1759. Among his best works may be named
the " Death of Wat Tyler," after Northcote, and the
" Apotheosis of Handel." He was elected an associate
of the Royal Academy in 1797. Died in 1819.
Smith, (CALEB B.,) an American politician, born in
Boston, Massachusetts, in 1808. He removed to Indiana,
€ ssa; c as s: g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N. nasal: R, trillea: s ass. th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SMITH
SMITH
and represented a district of that State in Congress from
1843 to '849- He was appointed secretary of the in
terior in March, 1861, and resigned in December, 1862.
Died in January, 1864.
Smith, (CHARLES FERGUSON,) an American general,
born about 1806. He graduated at the Academy of
West Point in 1825, and was employed there for many
years as instructor in tactics and commandant of cadets.
For his services in the Mexican war 'he received three
brevets, as major, lieutenant-colonel, and colonel. He
was appointed a brigadier-general in August, 1861, and
rendered important services at Fort Donelson, February,
1862, soon after which he was promoted to be a major-
general. He died at Savannah, Tennessee, in April,
1862. "The more perfect beau-ideal of a soldier," says
Coppee, " never existed in any army than General
Smith."
Smith, (Lieutenant-Colonel CHARLES HAMILTON,) an
English officer and naturalist, born about 1790, pub
lished, among other works, a treatise "On the Races
and Varieties of Man," and "Observations on some
Animals of America allied to the Genus Antilope."
Smith, (CHARLOTTE,) a popular English novelist,
born in Sussex in 1749. She was the author of "The
Old Manor-House," " Marchmont," "Desmond," "The
Romance of Real Life, "and other novels ; also " Elegiac
Sonnets," and various other poems. Her life was
written by Sir Walter Scott. Died in 1806.
See SIR WALTER SCOTT, Miscellaneous Prose Works; MRS.
ELWOOD, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England," etc.
Smith, (CHRISTOPHER W.,) an English ornithologist,
born about 1794. He wrote a work on the " Ornithology
of Hindustan."
Smith, (En.MUND KIRUV,) an American general, born
at Saint Augustine, Florida, about 1825, graduated at
WTest Point in 1845. He became a captain in 1855,
resigned his commission in 1861, and commanded a
division of General Bragg's army which invaded Ken
tucky in August, 1862. He was raised to the rank of
lieutenant-general, and directed a corps at the battle of
Stone River, which ended fannary 2, 1863. He had the
command of all the forces in Texas and Arkansas from
April, 1863, till April, 1865.
See a notice of General E. K. Smith in " Southern Generals,"
1865.
Smith, (EDMUND Neale,) an English poet, born in
1668. His family name was Neale, to which lie added
Smith. Died in 1710.
Smith, (Ei.i,) an American missionary and accom
plished Arabic scholar, born near New Haven, Con
necticut, in iSoi. He went to Syria in 1826, studied
Arabic, and settled at Beyroot. In 1838 he explored
Palestine in company with Dr. Edward Robinson. He
translated portions of the Bible into Arabic. Died at
Beyroot in January, 1857.
Smith, (ELIZABETH,) an English lady, distinguished
for her attainments in the languages, mathematics, and
the natural sciences, was born near Durham in 1776.
Besides Latin and Greek and the principal European
languages, she was versed in the Hebrew, Arabic, and
Persian. She wrote a "Life of Klopstock," and trans
lated the book of Job. Died in 1806.
See Miss BOWDI.ER, "Life of Elizabeth Smith;" MRS. Et.vvoou,
" Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commence
ment of the Last Century," vol. ii., 1843; "Monthly Review" for
January and June, 1811.
Smith, (Mrs. ELIZABETH OAKKS,) an American poet
and miscellaneous writer, wife of Seba Smith, noticed
below, was born near Portland, Maine. She has pub
lished "The Sinless Child, and other Poems," "Jacob
Leisler," a tragedy, " Woman and her Needs," (1851,)
and other works. Mrs. Smith has been a prominent
advocate of the rights of woman, both as a writer and
lecturer.
See GKISWOLD, " Female Poets of America."
Smith, (FRANCIS PKTTIT,) an English inventor, born
at Hythe, Kent, in 1808. He invented the mode of pro
pelling steamboats by the screw, which was employed
in the royal navy about 1838.
Smith, (GABRIEL,) an English engraver, born in
London in 1724; died in 1783.
Smith, (GEORGE,) an English landscape-painter, born
in 1714 ; died in 1776.
His brothers TOIIN and WILLIAM were also distin
guished as painters.
Smith, (GKRKiT,) a distinguished American philan
thropist, born at Utica, New York, in 1797. He gradu
ated at Hamilton College, Clinton, New York, and
studied law. After a temporary connection with the
American Colonization Society, he withdrew from it in
1835, and became a prominent and active member of the
Anti-Slavery .Society. I Ie has also been an earnest advo
cate of temperance and other reforms, and, having in
herited one of the largest landed estates in the country,
has distributed nearly two hundred thousand acres of
it among the poor, without distinction of colour. Mr.
Smith was elected to Congress in 1852.
Smith, (GOI.OWIN,) an English teacher and writer,
born at Reading in 1823. He was educated at Oxford,
and became regius professor of modern history at that
university in 1858. Among his works are " Irish His
tory and Irish Character," (1861,) and "Three English
Statesmen, (Pym, Cromwell, and Pitt)," 1867. In poli
tics he is an advanced Liberal. He visited the United
States in 1864, and was appointed professor of English
history in Cornell University, at Ithaca, in 1868.
See AI.I.IHONK, " Dictionary of Authors ;" "North British Ke-
view" for August, iSfu.
Smith, (GREEN CLAY,) an American general and
lawyer, born at Richmond, Kentucky, about 1831. He
was appointed a brigadier-general of the Union army
about June, 1862, and served in several actions. lie
was elected a member of Congress in 1863.
Smith, (GUSTAVUS W.,) an American general, born
in Kentucky about 1822, graduated at West Point in
1842. He was a street commissioner in New York City
when the civil war began. About September, 1861, he
became a major-general of the Confederate army. lie
succeeded to the command at Fair Oaks when General
J. E. Johnston was wounded, May 31, 1862.
Smith, (IlKNRY,) called "the Silver-Tongued," an
English Puritan minister, born in Leicestershire in 1550.
He preached in London, and was patronized by Lord
Burleigh. He wrote several religious works. Died
about 1595.
See FULLER, "Life of H. Smith."
Smith, (HENRY BOYNTON,) D.D.,an American Con
gregational minister and scholar, born at Portland, Maine,
in 1815. He was appointed in 1855 professor of sys
tematic theology in the Union Theological Seminary,
New York, lie published "The Relations of Faith
to Philosophy," (1849,) "The History of the Church
of Christ, in Chronological Tables," etc., (1859,) and
other similar works. He became in 1859 editor of the
"American Theological Review," and contributed a
number of able articles to Appleton's "Cyclopaedia."
Smith, (Sir HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN,) an English
general, born at Whittlesea, in the isle of Ely, in 1788.
He served with distinction in the principal battles of the
Peninsular war, and afterwards in the American war of
1812. He commanded as adjutant-general in the Indian
campaigns of 1840 and 1846, and had a prominent share
in the signal victory over the Sikhs at Aliwal. For
these services he was made a baronet and received the
grand cross of the order of the Bath. Appointed Gov
ernor of the Cape of Good Hope in 1847, he brought
the Caffir war to a successful close in 1852. He was
created lieutenant-general in 1854.
Smith, (HORACE and JAMES,) English humorists and
miscellaneous writers, born in London, the former about
1780, the latter in 1775. They first became known by
their contributions to "The Pic-Nic," the " London Re
view," and the "Monthly Mirror;" the poems entitled
" Horace in London," in the last-named periodical,
being mostly written by James Smith. In 1812 they
brought out their "Rejected Addresses," composed on
the occasion of the opening of the new theatre at Drury
Lane, the committee of which had requested a number
of addresses to be sent in, one of which should obtain
the prize. These poems, which are humorous imitations
of Coleridge, Wordsworth, Byron, Scott, Crabbe, and
other prominent writers of the time, met with brilliant
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
SMITH
2031
SMITH
success, and passed rapidly through numerous editions.
James Smith wrote for the so-called "entertainments"
of Charles Mathews "Trips to Paris," "Country
Cousins," and other comic sketches. He died in 1839,
and his " Memoirs, Letters," etc. were published by his
brother in 1840. Among the other works of Horace
Smith we may name the novels of " Brambletye House,"
"The Moneyed Man," and "Love and Mesmerism."
Died in 1849.
See the "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1812;
"Edinburgh Review" for November, 1812; "Eraser's Magazine"
for July, 1833, and November, 1X34.
Smith, (J.\MKS,) one of the signers of the Declaration
of American Independence, born in Ireland about 1719.
Having emigrated to Pennsylvania, he was elected in
1776 to the Continental Congress. Died in 1806.
See SANDERSON, " Biography of the Signers to the Declaration
of Independence."
Smith, (JAMES,) of Deanston, a Scottish agriculturist
and mechanician, born at Glasgow in 1789. He pub
lished in 1831 a treatise " On Thorough Draining and
Deep Ploughing," which improvements he was the first
to bring into general use. He was the inventor of a
reaping-machine, for which he obtained a gold medal
from the Agricultural Society of Saint Petersburg. He
invented other useful machines. Died in 1850.
Smith, (Sir JAMES EDWARD,) an English physician
and botanist, born at Norwich in 1759. He studied at
Edinburgh, and graduated at Leyden, and, after his
return, became in 1788 one of the founders and first
president of the Liiinaean Society. He had previously
purchased the natural history collections and library of
Linnaeus. He was appointed in 1792 teacher of botany
to Queen Charlotte and the princesses, and in 1814 i
received the honour of knighthood. His principal works
are his " English Flora," (4 vols.,) " Elora Britannica,"
(3 vols., 1804.) "English Botany," (36 vols., 1807,) with
more than 2000 coloured plates bySowerby, and " Flora
Grasca," (1808.) He also wrote the principal articles on
botany in Rees's "Cyclopaedia." Died in 1828.
See " Memoir and Correspondence of Sir James Edward Smith,"
by LADY SMITH ; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1833.
Smith, (TKKKMIAH,) an American jurist and states
man, born at Peterborough, New Hampshire. He was
elected a member of Congress in 1791, served in that
body until 1797, and was chosen Governor of New
Hampshire in 1809, after which he held the office of
judge. His ability and merit are highly extolled. Died
in 1842.
See J. H. MORRISON, " Life of Jeremiah Smith," 1845.
Smith, (JoHN,) an English divine, born in Warwick
shire in 1563, was lecturer in Saint Paul's Cathedral.
1 )ied in 1616.
Smith, (foiiN,) an English writer on theology, born
in Northamptonshire in 1618, was a Fellow of Queen's
College, Cambridge. Died in 1652.
Smith, (Jonx,) CAPTAIN, the founder of Virginia, was
born in Lincolnshire, England, in 1579. He began at
an early age to display a propensity to daring adven
tures. About 1600 he enlisted in the Austrian army,
and performed bold and successful exploits against the
Turks. He was taken prisoner, reduced to slavery,
killed his master, and escaped into Russia. Having
returned to England, he accompanied a party of emi
grants who formed a colony at Jamestown, Virginia, in
April, 1607. He was captured by the Indians, and was
condemned to death by Powhatan, but his life was saved
by Pocahontas, a daughter of that chief. He became
the principal person of the colony, which was saved
from ruin by his energy and fortitude. In 1608 he ex
plored the coasts <;f Chesapeake Bay, of which he con
structed a map. He made a voyage to England in 1609,
and explored the coast of New England in 1614. The
latter part of his life was passed in England. He pub
lished, besides other works, a "General History of Vir
ginia, New England, and the Summer Isles," (1627,) and
"The True Travels and Adventures of Captain John
Smith in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America," (1630.)
Died in London in 1631.
See HII.I.ARD, '• Life of John Smith." in SPARKS'S "American
Biography," vol. ii. ; " North American Review" for January, 1867.
Smith, (Sir JOHN,) an English diplomatist and sol
dier in the time of Queen Elizabeth, was sent in 1576
on an embassy to Philip II. of Spain. Died in 1600.
Smith, (JoHN,) an English physician, born in 1630,
wrote a work entitled "The Portrait of Old Age." Died
in 1679.
Smith, (JoHN,) a learned English divine arid anti
quary, born in 1659, published an edition of the his
torical works of the Venerable Bede. Died in 1715.
Smith, (JoHN,) an eminent English mezzotint en
graver, born about 1654. He executed numerous por
traits after Kneller. Died about 1720.
Smith, (JoHN,) of Chichester, an English landscape-
painter, born in 1717, was a brother of George, noticed
above. Died in 1764.
Smith, (JoHN BI.AIR,) born at Pequea, Pennsylvania,
about 1756, was a brother of Samuel Stanhope, noticed
below. He became in 1795 first president of Union
College, Schenectady. Died in 1799.
Smith, (JoHN PYE,) D.D., LL.D., a learned English
divine and theologian, born at Sheffield in 1774, became
pastor of the Independent church at Homerton. He
received the degree of D.D. from Yale College, Con
necticut, in 1807. Among his numerous and valuable
works may be named "The Scripture Testimony to
the Messiah," (2 vols., 1821,) "Four Discourses on the
Sacrifice and Priesthood of Jesus Christ," (1827,) and
"The Mosaic Account of the Creation and the Deluge
illustrated by the Discoveries of Modern Science,"
(1837.) Dr. Smith was also distinguished as a geologist,
and was a Fellow of the Geological Society and the Royal
Society. Died in 1851.
See JOHN MKDWAY, " Memoir of the Life and Writings of John
Pye Smith," 1853.
Smith, (JOHN RAPHAEL,) an English engraver and
portrait-painter, born at Derby about 1750. He was
chiefly noted for his mezzotint engravings, among which
is a full-length portrait of Charles James Fox. Died
in 1812.
Smith, (Jonx STAFFORD,) an English composer of
great merit, was born at Gloucester about 1750, and
succeeded Dr. Arnold in 1802 as organist of the chapel
royal. He produced a number of admired glees and
madrigals, and published "Antient Songs of the Fif
teenth Century." Died in 1836.
Smith, (JoHN THOMAS,) an English engraver and
amateur, born in London in 1766. lie studied draw
ing with the sculptor Nollekens, and subsequently
entered the Royal Academy. He published in i8co
his " Antiquities of London and its Environs," which
was followed by "Antiquities of Westminster," (1807,)
"Ancient Topography of London," (1815, 410, with
thirty-two plates,) and "Nollekens and his Times,"
(1828.) He was appointed in 1816 keeper of the prints
in the British Museum. Died in 1833.
Smith, (JOSEPH,) the founder of the sect of Mormons,
was born in Sharon, Windsor county, Vermont, in 1805.
He was taken by his parents to Palmyra, New Yoik,
about 1815, and, according to his own account, worked
on his father's farm in his youth. The residents of that
vicinity, however, testified that the Smith family avoided
honest labour, had a bad reputation, and spent much
time in digging for hidden treasures. He pretended
that he received in 1827 a divine revelation written on
golden plates which were brought to him by an angel,
and that the " Book of Mormon," which he published
in 1830, was translated from those golden plates. The
real author of the " Book of Mormon" was Solomon
Spalding, a Presbyterian minister, who at his death left
in manuscript an absurd story of his invention, purport
ing to be a narrative of the migration of the ten lost
tribes of Israel to America, and maintaining the hy
pothesis that the American Indians are descended from
the Hebrews. Smith obtained possession of this manu
script, and published it with some additions. Having
made a number of converts, he removed with them to
Kirtland, Ohio, in 1831, and afterwards to Independence,
Missouri. The number of his disciples increased rapidly,
but they came into violent collision with the "Gentiles,"
and were expelled from Missouri about 1838, after they
had defied the officers of the law and committed many
e as k; c as s: g hard; g as ; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (^ST^See Explanations, p. 23.)
SMITH
2032
SMITH
outrages. They next settled in Illinois and founded the
town of Nauvoo, where they began to build a great tem
ple in 1841. Smith amassed a large fortune, assumed
the title of lieutenant-general and president of the Church,
and exercised absolute authority over his "saints." He
provoked the popular indignation by attempts to seduce
the wives of other men, and was arrested and confined in
jail at Carthage. In June, 1844, a mob broke into the
jail and killed Josep'li Smith. Mo was succeeded by
Brigham Young. (See YOUNG, BKIGIIAM.)
See "Autobiography of Joseph Smiili :" "Mormonism; its
Leaders and Designs," by JOHN HVDK, JR., iS57; J. B. TURNER,
" Lite of Joseph Smith; ' also article " Mormons," in the " New
American Cyclopaedia."
Smith, (MELANCTHON,) an American naval officer,
born in the city of New York in 1810. He obtained
the rank of commander in 1855. He commanded the
steamer Mississippi in the battle by which Captain Far-
ragut took New Orleans in April, 1862. On the 5th
of May, 1864,116 fought an indecisive battle against the
iron-clad ram Albemarle at the mouth of the Roanoke
River.
See J. T. HEADLEY, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders,"
1867.
Smith, (MiLES,) an English bishop, born at Hereford
in 1568, was one of the principal translators ot the Bible.
Died in 1624.
Smith, (RiCHAKD,) an English Roman Catholic priest,
born in Worcestershire in 1500. He became a professor
of divinity at Oxford, and chaplain to Queen Mary. At
the execution of Ridley and Latimer, Smith preached a
sermon on the text, " Though I give my body to be
burned, and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing."
Died in 1565.
Smith, (RICHARD,) an English polemical writer, born
in Lincolnshire in 1566. lie wrote in defence of popery.
Died in 1655.
Smith, (RoHKRT,) D.D., an English divine and dis
tinguished mathematician, born in 1689, was preceptor
to the Duke of Cumberland. He became I'lumian pro
fessor of astronomy at Cambridge in 1716, and in 1742
succeeded Bentley'as master of Trinity College. He
was the author of a treatise entitled " Harmonics, or
the Philosophy of Musical Sounds," and a " Complete
System of Optics," (2 vols. 410, 1738:) the latter is es-
te'emed a standard work. Dr. Smith was a cousin of
Roger Cotes, some of whose writings he published. He
had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1718.
Died in 1768.
Smith, (ROBERT,) of Maryland, an American minister
ofstate, born about 1757. He was secretary of the navy
from January, 1802, to March, 1805, and secretary of
state from March, 1809, to November, 1811. Died in
Baltimore in 1842.
Smith, (RoiiERT ANGUS,) F.R.S.,a Scottish chemist,
born near Glasgow about 1817. He wrote, besides other
works, a " Life of Dalton and a History of the Atomic
Theory."
Smith, (ROBERT PAYNE,) an English clergyman, dis-
tininiished as a Hebraist and Arabic scholar, was born
in 1818. He became in 1865 regius professor of divinity
in the University of Oxford, of which he was a graduate.
He published, besides other works, "The Authenticity
and Messianic Interpretation of the Prophecies of Isaiah
vindicated in a Course of Sermons," (Oxford, 1862.)
Smith, (RoBKRT VKRNON.) See LYVKDEN, LORD.
Smith, (SAMUEL,) a popular English writer of re
ligious tracts, born in Worcestershire in 1588, was a
Presbyterian preacher during the civil war which began
in 1642. He wrote, besides other works, "The Great
Assize." Died after 1660.
Smith, (SAMUEL,) an American historian, born at
Burlington, New Jersey, in 1720. He published a " His
tory of New Jersey," (1755.) Died in 1776.
Smith, (S.-\MUKi,)an English engraver of great merit,
lived in the eighteenth century.
Smith, (SAMUEL FRANCIS,) D.D., an American Bap
tist divine, born at Boston in 1808. He became in 1842
editor of the "Christian Review," at Newton, Massa
chusetts. He has published a number of popular lyrics
and hymns.
Smith, (SAMUEL J-,) an American poet, born near
Burlington, New Jersey, in 1771. He died in 1835, and
his "Miscellaneous Writings" were published in 1836.
See CLEVELAND'S "Compendium of American Literature."
Smith, (SAMUEL STANHOPE.) 1). I)., LL.D., an Amer
ican Presbyterian divine, born at I'equea, Pennsylvania,
in 1750. He was appointed in 1779 professor of moral
philosophy in the College of New Jersey, and in 1794
succeeded his father-in-law, Dr. Witherspoon, as presi
dent of that institution. He was the author of " Lec
tures on the Evidences of the Christian Religion," and
other works. Died in 1819.
Smith, (Si-'.HA,) an American writer, born at Buck-
field, Maine. He published in 1833, under the name of
" Major Jack Downing," a series of humorous letters on
political subjects, which became widely popular. His
other principal works are " Powhatan," a poem, "Away
Down East, or Portraitures of Yankee Life," (1855,) and
"New Elements of Geometry." Died in 1868.
Smith, (Rev. SYDNEY,) a celebrated English divine
and writer, was born at Woodford, in Essex, in 1771. 1 le
studied at New College, Oxford, of which he became a
Fellow in 1790. Having taken holy orders, he obtained
the curacy of Netherhaven, in Wiltshire, about 1795. He
became tutor to the son of a Mr. Beach, with whom he
passed about five years in Edinburgh, where he asso
ciated with Jeffrey, Brougham, and other Whigs. He
was one of the founders and the first editor ot the
" Edinburgh Review," the first number of which was
issued in ^802. He married about 1800 a lady named
Pybus, and removed to London in 1804. In 1806 he
was presented to the living of Foston-le-Clay, in York
shire. He greatly promoted the cause of Catholic eman
cipation by an anonymous work, entitled " Letters on
the Subject of the Catholics to my Brother Abraham,
by Peter Plymley," (1807-08,) which had a very large
circulation. In 1809 he published two volumes of Ser
mons. For many years he was a regular contributor
to the "Edinburgh Review." He was appointed preb
endary of Bristol, and rector of Combe- Florey, (near
Taunton,) in 1828, and obtained a prebendal stall in
Saint Paul's, London, in 1831. Died in February, 1845.
Sydney Smith was greatly distinguished for his wit.
humour, and conversational powers. Among his works
is "Elementary Sketches of Moral Philosophy," (1850.)
See a "Memoir of Sydney Smith." by his daughter, LADY HOL
LAND, 2 vols., 1855; ALI.IMONK, "Dictionary of Authors;" " Klin-
burgh Review" for April. 18^0, and July, 1855 : " Quarterly R-view,"
vol. xcvii., pub'ished in June and September. 1855; " Kraser's
Magazine" for July, 1X55; "North American Review'1 for Ju'y,
1844, (by E. P. WHIPPLK.)
Smith, (Sir THOMAS,) an English statesman and
scholar, born in Essex about 1512. He studied at
Queen's College, Cambridge. I laving spent several
years in France and Italy, and taken the degree of LL.D.
at Padua, he was appointed, after his return, regius
professor of law at Cambridge. After the accession of
Edward VI., he was appointed in 1 548 secretary of state,
and subsequently sent on missions to Brussels and to
the court of Henry II. of France. He was author of a
work entitled "The English Commonwealth," (1584,)
a treatise "On the Correct Pronunciation of the Greek
Language," (in Latin,) and other works. Died in 1577.
See STRYPE, "Lire of Sir Thomas Smith," i6cjS ; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generate. "
Smith, (THOMAS,) an English clergyman, born in
London in 1638, wrote a treatise "On the Credibility of
the Mysteries of the Christian Religion." Died in 1710.
Smith, (THOMAS Sou THWOOD,) M. 1)., an English
physician and writer of great merit, born about 1790.
He studied at Edinburgh, and subsequently settled in
London, where he became physician to the Fever Hos
pital. He was one of the founders of the " Westminster
Review," to which he contributed several excellent
treatises, one of which, entitled "The Use of the Dead
to the Living," obtained extensive popularity. His other
principal works are an essay on the " Divine Govern
ment," "The Philosophy of Health," (1834,) and a
"Treatise on Fever," esteemed one of the most valua
ble that has appeared on the subject.
See ALLIBONK, "Dictionary of Authors;" "New Spirit of the
Ase," by R. H. HORNE.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nAt; good; moon;
SMITH
2°33
SMYTH
Smith, (\VII.I.IAM,) an English herald and antiquary,
wrote a "Description of Cheshire." Died in 1618.
Smith, (WILLIAM,) of Chichester, an English por
trait-painter, born in 1707, was a brother of George,
noticed above. Died in 1764.
Smith, (WiLi.TAM,) an English translator, born at
Worcester in 1711. He translated Longinus and Thu-
cydides into English. He became Dean of Chester
about 1758. Died in 1787.
Smith, (Wn.i.iAM,) an English statesman, was elected
to Parliament from Sudbury in 1784, and was a repre
sentative from Norwich in 1802. He was an earnest
advocate of the cause of the dissenters, and of other
reforms. Died in 1835.
Smith, (WILLIAM,) an English geologist, born at
Churchill, in Oxfordshire, in 1769, is called the father
of English geology. He was the first in England to
discover the constancy in the order of the superposition
of strata. In 1799 he published a treatise "On the
Order of the Strata and their Imbedded Organic Re
mains in the Vicinity of Bath." He published the first
"Geological Map of England," (1801,) and a larger map
of the same about 1815. He was an uncle of John
Phillips the geologist. Died in 1839.
See JOHN PHILLIPS, "Memoirs of William Smith," 1844.
Smith, ( WILLIAM,) LL.D.,an English philologist and
jurist, born in London in 1814. He studied in the
University of London, and afterwards became professor
of the Latin, Greek, and German languages at the in
dependent colleges of Ilomerton and Highbury. He
published in 1842 his "Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Antiquities," (i vol. 8vo,) in which he was assisted by
other distinguished scholars. This was followed by the
" Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and My
thology," (3 vols. 8vo. 1849.) and the "Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Geography," (2 vols. 8vo, 1857.)
These excellent works are probably the most valuable
of the kind in the language, and are illustrated by
numerous engravings. Dr. Smith lias also written a
"School History of Greece, from the Earliest Times to
the Roman Conquest," etc., a " Latin-English Diction
ary," (1855,) and other educational books. lie is the
chief editor of a "Dictionary of the Bible; comprising
its Antiquities, Biography, Geography, and Natural His
tory," (3 vols. Svo, 1860-63.) In 1867 he became editor
of the "Quarterly Review."
See ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Quarterly Review"
for July, 1854, and October, 1864.
Smith, (Sir WILLIAM CUSACK,) a distinguished Irish
jurist, and friend of Edmund Burke, born in 1766. lie
studied at Oxford, and rose through several high offices
to be solicitor-general for Ireland in 1800, and baron of
the exchequer in 1802. He had a high reputation for
eloquence, legal knowledge, and moral rectitude, and
was an advocate of Catholic emancipation and other
important reforms. Died in 1836.
Smith, (WILLIAM F.,) an American general, born
at Saint Alban's, Vermont, in 1824, graduated at West
Point in 1845. He commanded a division in the Chfck-
ahominy campaign, became a major-general about July,
1862, and served at the battle of Antietam, September 17
of that year. He led a corps at the battle of Fredericks-
burg, December 13, 1862, and at that of Cold Harbour,
June 3, 1864. His corps made an unsuccessful attack
upon the defences of Petersburg, June 15, 1864.
Smith, (WILLIAM LOUGHTON,) an American diplo
matist and statesman, was elected to Congress from
South Carolina in 1789, and in 1800 was appointed
minister to Spain. He published several political works
and essays, under the signature of " Phocion." Died
in 1812.
Smith, (Sir WILLIAM SIDNEY,) a celebrated English
admiral, born at Westminster about 1764. He entered
the navy at an early age, attained the rank of captain,
and commanded a flotilla against the French in the
campaign of 1796, in which he was taken prisoner.
Having effected his escape in 1798, he was appointed to
command a squadron on the coast of Egypt, and distin
guished himself by his skill and bravery in the defence
of Saint Jean d'Acre against Napoleon's army. After
signing a treaty with Kleber for the evacuation of Egypt
by the French, he returned to England, and was elected
to Parliament for the city of Rochester in 1802. He
became vice-admiral in 1810, and admiral in 1821. Died
in 1840 or 1841.
See CAMPBELL, "Lives of the British Admirals;" JOHN HAR
ROW, "Life and Correspondence of Sir Wm. Sidney Smith," 1848;
CAPTAIN MARKVAT. "Memoirs cf Sir Wm. .Sidney Smith," 1839;
LA ROQUETTK, ''Notice historique sur Sidney Smith," 1850;
" Nonvelle Biographic Generale;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for
March, iS4S.
Smith'spn, (JAMES,) an English chemist and scien
tific writer, born in the eighteenth century. He studied
at Oxford, where he devoted himself to chemical analysis
and experimental physics. He published, among other
works, a treatise " On the Composition and Crystalliza
tion of Certain Sulphurets from Huel Boys in Cornwall,"
" On a Saline Substance from Mount Vesuvius," and
" Facts relating to the Colouring-Matter of Vegetables."
He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and a friend of Sir
Humphry Davy and other eminent philosophers of the
time. He died in 1829, leaving the whole of his property
to found at Washington, in the United States, an insti
tution, called by his name, for the increase and diffusion
of knowledge.
Smlts, (DiRK,) a Dutch poet, born at Rotterdam in
1702. His productions, among which is " De Rotte
Stroom," (1750,) are eulogized by Gravenweert. Died
in 1752.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" GRAVEN-
WEEKT, " Litterature Neerlandaise."
Smitz or Smits, smlts, (GASI'AR,) a Dutch portrait-
painter, who worked in England and Ireland. He ex
celled in painting Magdalens, and was called MAGDALEN
SMITH. Died in 1689.
Smitz, (Louis,) a Dutch painter of flowers and fruit,
born at Dort in 1635; died in 1675.
SmolTett, (TOBIAS GEORGE,) a distinguished British
novelist and historian, born in the vale of Leven, Dum
bartonshire, Sco'tland, in 1721. He studied medicine at
Glasgow, and entered the royal navy as surgeon's mate
about 1741. Having quitted the naval service in disgust
about 1744, he settled in London. He produced coarse
satires, entitled " Advice," (1746,) and "Reproof." In
1747 he married a Creole named Miss Lascelles, and in
1748 published "Roderick Random," a novel, which
was successful and displayed a great talent for humour.
His next work was "Peregrine Pickle," a coarse and li
centious tale, (1751.) "Count Fathom," another romance,
similar in character to the preceding, appeared in 1753.
lie was not successful in obtaining practice as a phy
sician. In 1758 he published a "Complete History of
England from the Earliest Times to the Treaty of Aix-
la-Chapelle," (6 vols.,) which was received with favour,
although it has little merit except the style. He after
wards wrote a " Continuation of the History of England"
to the year 1764. During the administration of Lord
Bute, Smollett edited "The Briton," a political paper
which supported the ministry and was denounced by
John Wilkes in the "North Briton." Among his
numerous works is "The Expedition' of Humphrey
Clinker," (1771.) He went to Italy for his health in
1770, and died, near Leghorn, in October, 1771.
See R. ANDERSON, "Life of T. Smollett," 1803; SIR WALTER
SCOTT, " Biographic.il Memoirs of Eminent Novelists ;" DR. MOORK,
"Life of Smollett ;" CHAMBERS. " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent
Scotsmen;" HAZMTT, " Comic Writers ;" " Inedited Memorials of
Smollett," in the "Atlantic Monthly" for June, 1859 ; CAKY, " Lives
of English Poets from Johnson m Kirke White ;" ALLIBONE, " Dic
tionary of Authors ;" " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1858.
Smybert. See SMIUF.UT.
Smyth, (JAMES CARMICHAEL,) a Scottish physician,
born in 1741, published several medical works, and dis
covered a method of preventing contagion by the use
of nitrous vapour. He was a Fellow of the Royal So
ciety. Died in 1821.
Smyth, (THOMAS,) D.D., born at Belfast, Ireland, in
1808, emigrated to the United States, and in 1832 be
came pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church in
Charleston, South Carolina. He has published "The
Life and Character of Calvin Defended," and other
theological and controversial works.
Smyth, (THOMAS A.,) a general, born in Ireland,
emigrated to the United States. For his conduct at
t as K: c as s: g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (TJf^See Explanations, p. 23 ;
128
SMYTH
2034
SOBIESKI
Cold Harbour, June, 1864, he was appointed a brigadier-
general, lie was killed near Farmville, Virginia, in
April, 1865.
Smyth, (WILLIAM,) an English poet and scholar,
born at Liverpool in 1766. He took his degree at
Cambridge, where he was appointed in 1809 professor
of modern history. He published a treatise " On the
Evidences of Christianity," " English Lyrics," and a
collection of " Lectures." Died in 1849.
Smyth, (Wn.i.iAM HENRY,) an English naval officer,
born in Westminster in 1788, was employed in 1823
in a survey of the coast of Sardinia. He published
a " Sketch of the Present State of the Island of Sar
dinia," and "The Mediterranean: a Memoir, Physical,
Historical, and Nautical," (1854.) He was made a
rear-admiral in 1853. Died in 1865.
His son, CHARLES P. SMYTH, has published a work
entitled " Teneriffe : an Astronomer's Visit," giving an
account of his scientific observations.
See " Eraser's Magazine" for March, iS66.
Snape, (ANDREW,) an English theologian, born at
Hampton Court about 1670. He wrote against Hoadly.
Died in 1742.
Snayers, sni'ers, (HENRY,) a skilful Flemish en
graver, born at Antwerp in 1612. He engraved some
works of Rubens.
Snayers, (PIERRE,) a Flemish painter, born at Ant
werp in 1593. He painted landscapes and battles. Died
in 1670.
Snell, (Lumvic,,) born at Idstein, in the duchy of
Nassau, in 1785, became professor of political science
at Berne, in Switzerland. Died in 1854.
Snell, ( RUDOLPH,) a Dutch mathematician and phi
lologist, born at Oudenarde in 1547, became professor
of mathematics at Leyden. Died in 1613.
Snell, (Wii.HEi.M,) a German jurist, brother of Lud-
wig, noticed above, was born at Idstein in 1789. He
became successively professor of law at Bale, Zurich,
and Berne, in Switzerland. Died in 1851.
Snell, | Lat. SNEI/LIUS,] ( WILLEHROD, ) a Dutch
mathematician, born at Leyden in 1591, was a son of
Rudolph, noticed above. lie discovered the law of the
refraction of light, that the sines of the angles of incidence
and refraction have to each other a constant ratio. He
published, besides other works, " Cyclometricus," (1621.)
a treatise on the measurement of a circle. Died in 1626.
See FOPPENS, " Bibliotheca Belgica ;" MONTUCI.A, " Histoire des
Maihematiques."
Snellaert, snel'lint, (FERDINAND AUGUSTYN,) a
distinguished Belgian writer, born at Courtrai in 1809.
Among his principal works are an essay on the history
of Flemish poetry, entitled "Over de Nederlandsche
Dichtkunst in P>elgie," (1838,) and "A Brief Sketch of
Dutch and Flemish Literature," (" Kort Begrip eener
Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde," 1849.)
He has founded a society for the cultivation of the
Flemish language.
Snellincks, snel'links, or Snellinx, (JAN,) a Flem
ish painter of history and battles, born at Mechlin in
1544. He worked at Antwerp. Died in 1638.
Snellius. See SNELL.
Sne'then, (NICHOLAS,) an American Methodist di
vine, born on Long Island in 1769, settled in Maryland,
and was elected chaplain to Congress. He was an
eloquent and popular preacher, and one of the principal
founders of the Methodist Protestant Church. Died in
1845-
Sneyders. See SNYDERS.
Sniadecki, sne-a-dets'skee, (ANDREW.) a Polish
physiologist, born in 1768, studied at Pavi'a under Gal-
vani and Volta, and subsequently at Edinburgh. He
became professor of chemistry and pharmacy at Wilna
in 1797. He was the author of a "Theory of Organic
Existences," (in Polish,) which is regarded as a standard
work and has been tra-nslated into French and German.
'Died in 1838.
See UALINSKI, " Biographic d'A. Sniadecki," 1846.
Sniadecki,(JoHN,) a celebrated Polish mathematician
and astronomer, born in Gnesen in 1756, was a brother
of Andrew, noticed above. He studied at Cracow, and
subsequently visited Paris, where he made the acquaint
ance of D'Alembert, Laplace, and other eminent savants,
and on his return to Poland became professor of astron
omy and mathematics at Cracow. (laving resided for a
time in England, and made another tour on the continent,
he was appointed in 1806 rector of the University of
Wilna, which under his direction obtained the highest
reputation for the culture of the exact sciences. Snia
decki was a corresponding member of the Saint Peters
burg Academy, to which he contributed a number of
valuable astronomical observations. He published a
" Physical and Mathematical Description of the Globe,"
" Philosophy of the Human Mind," in which he opposes
the system of Kant, "Spherical Trigonometry," (1820,)
"Miscellaneous Writings," 2 vols., (1822-24,) a"d other
works, which are highly esteemed. Died in 1830.
Siiorri-Sturluson, snok'ree stur'lu-son, written also
-Sturlesoii or -Sturulson, one of the most eminent
poets and scholars of Iceland, was born in 1178. He
was educated by the learned Ion, and soon distinguished
himself by his attainments in almost every department
of knowledge. He was afterwards appointed to the high
office of interpreter of the law, and obtained the rank
of jarl, (a word etymological ly related and nearly corre
sponding to our "earl.") His avarice and his turbulent
disposition, however, involved him in a quarrel with his
own family, several of whom joined a faction of his ene
mies, and he was murdered by his own sons-in-law, (1241.)
His greatest work is a collection of sagas, entitled the
" Heimskringla," which has been translated into Latin,
Swedish, and Darish ; he is also supposed to have writ
ten the first part of the Snorra-Edda, entitled "The
Gylfa-Ginning," the Scaldic songs called " Kanningar,"
and " Hattalykill," (the "Key of the Wise.")
See CRONHOI.M, " Dissertatio de Snorronis Sturlonidis Historia, "
1841 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gener.iie. "
Snoy, snoi, (!\EGNIEK or RKNIKK,) a Dutch historian
and physician, born at Gouda in 1477. He wrote a
Latin history of Holland, " De Rebus Batavicis," (1620.)
Died in 1537.
Snyders or Sneyders, sni'ders, or Snyers, sni'ers,
(FRANCIS,) an eminent Flemish painter, born at Ant
werp in 1579, studied fruit- and flower-painting under
Henry van Balen. He afterwards devoted himself
| chiefly to the delineation of animals and hunting-scenes,
which are among the most admirable works of their
kind. He was an intimate friend of Rubens and Jor-
daens, for whose pictures lie frequently painted the
animals and still life. Among his master-pieces are
a stag-hunt, and other similar productions, painted for
Philip III. of Spain. Died in 1657.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Soane, (Sir JOHN,) a celebrated English architect,
born at Reading in 1753. Having studied for a time
under Dance and Holland, he was enabled, through the
influence of Sir William Chambers, to visit Italy as
a student of the Royal Academy. After his return to
England he was successively appointed architect to the
royal woods and forests, surveyor to Chelsea Hospital,
and professor of architecture at the Royal Academy,
(1806.) Among his principal works are the Free
masons' Hall, Dulwich Gallery, and the State Paper
Office in Saint James's Park, London. He died in
1837, bequeathing to the nation his valuable collections
of ancient and modern art.
Soanen, so't'no.N', (JEAN,) a French prelate, born at
Riom in 1647, was an eloquent preacher. He became
Bishop of Senez in 1695, and, having identified himself
with the Jansenists, was suspended in 1727. Died in
1740.
See ABBE GAULTIKR, "Vie de Soanen," 1750.
Soave, so-a'vi, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian teacher and
writer, born at Lugano in 1743. He was professor of
philosophy at Milan, and professor of ideology at Pavia.
He published, besides other works, " Moral Tales,"
(" Novelle moral i,") which are highly commended. Died
at Pavia in 1806.
See SAVKII.I, " Elogio di Soave," 1806; "Vita di Fr. Soave,"
(anonymous,) 1815.
Sobieski, so-be-es'kee, (JAMES Louis,) a Polish
nobleman, a son of the following, was born in Paris in
T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon;
SOS1ESKI
2035
SOCRATES
1667. lie displayed great courage in the campaign
against the Turks in 1683. After the death of his father,
in 1696, he aspired to the throne ; but the Poles pre
ferred Augustus of Saxony. Died in 1734.
Sobieski, (JoHN III.,) a celebrated Polish warrior
and king, bom of a noble family in Galicia in 1629. At
an early age he distinguished himself by repelling the
invasions of the Cossacks, Tartars, and Russians, and
in 1665 was made grand marshal and hetman of Po
land. In 1671 he defeated the Turks under Mahomet
IV., and took the fortress of Kotzini. On the death of
Michael, King of Poland, in 1674, John Sobieski was
elected his successor. The Turks, having again invaded
Poland, were soon after driven out by Sobieski, and a
peace was concluded between the nations. In 1683 he
marched to the relief of the Austrians besieged in Vi
enna by a numerous army under the grand-vizier Kara
Mustafa, and, with the assistance of his French and
German allies, raised the siege of the city and expelled
the Turks from the country. He died in 1696, having
earned the reputation of one of the truest patriots his
country has produced.
See COYER, " Histoire de Jean Sobieski," 3 vols., 1761 ; SAL-
VANIJY, "Histoire de Pologne sous Jean Sobieski," 3 vols., 1829;
L. RO<;ALSKI, '' Histoire du Regne de Sobieski," 1847; "Authentic
Memoirs of John Sobieski," by A. T. PALMER ; " Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generate. "
Socin. See SOCINUS.
So-ci'nus, (FAUSTUS.) the Latin name of FAUSTO
Sox.7.INI, (fows'to sot-see'nee,) [Fr. FAUSTE SOCIN, fost
SO'S«LN',} an eminent Italian theologian, born at Sienna
in 1539. He passed twelve years at Florence in the
service of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and adopted
anti-trinitarian opinions. In 1574 he removed to Swit
zerland. After he had spent three years at Hale in the
study of theology, he visited Transylvania, and in 1579
began to propagate his doctrines in Poland, where he
made many converts. He rejected the doctrines of pre
destination, atonement, and original sin. In 1594 he
published a work "On Christ the Saviour,'' ("De fesu
Christo Servatore,") for which he was violently perse
cuted. Died in Poland in 1604.
See J. Tori.MiN, "Life of F. Socinus," 1777; SAMUEL PKZYP-
covius, " Vita Fausti Socini," 1636 ; RAYLE. " Historical and Critical
Dictionary;" PISARSKI, " Dissertatio de Vita F. Socini," 1788;
" Nouveile Biographie Generale."
Socinus, (L^ELIL'S,) an uncle of the preceding, and
the first teacher of Socinian doctrines, was born at Sienna
in 1525. He was versed in the Hebrew and Greek lan
guages. About 1545 he emigrated from Italy, probably
to avoid persecution. He travelled or wandered in
France, England, Germany, and Poland. He appears
to have acted with much circumspection and reserve in
the assertion of his opinions, which were similar to
those of Faustus Socinus, and which neither Catholics
nor Protestants would then tolerate. Died at Zurich
in 1562.
See C. T. ILLGEN-, " Vita F. Socini," 1814 ; " Nouve'le Biographie
Generale."
Socquet, so'ki', (JOSEPH MARIE,) a chemist, born
in Savoy in 1771, became professor of chemistry at
Lyons in 1809. He published several works. Died
in 1839.
Soc'ra-tes, [Gr. 2<j/cpu7?f ; Lat. SOC'RATKS ; Fr. So-
CRATK, so'kuft' ; It. SOCRATE, so-kRa'ta,] the illustrious
founder* of Grecian philosophy, was born at Athens
about 470 n. c. Several modern writers, on the author
ity of Demetrius Phalereus and others, have given the
fourth year of the seventy-seventh Olympiad — that is,
468 li.c. — a-s the date of his birth ; but this can scarcely
be correct, as we are told in the "Apology" of Socrates
that he was then (399 li.c.) more than seventy years old :
hence he could not have been born later than 469 H.C.
His father, Sophroniscus, was a sculptor, his mother,
Phaenarete, a midwife. He was educated to his father's
art, by which he supported himself after he was grown
to manhood. Subsequently Crito, a wealthy and gener
ous Athenian, admiring the zeal for knowledge and the
genius evinced by Socrates, furnished him with the means
* " He may be justly called," says Cicero, " the father of Philoso
phy," (jtarens Philosophic jure did potest.) (" De Finibus," ii. i.)
to procure books and pay his teachers in the various
branches of art and science then taught at Athens, and
afterwards became one of his most faithful and devoted
disciples. According to some writers, Socrates was a
pupil of Anaxagoras ; but this is very doubtful, as Plato
represents him in the " Phaedo" as saying that he be
came acquainted with the doctrines of Anaxagoras from
a book written by this philosopher.
Socrates served as a soldier during the Peloponnesian
war in three different campaigns. He was remarkable
for the fortitude, or rather indifference, with which he
bore the severest privations and hardships of a military
life. In one of the actions during his first campaign he
saved the life of his pupil Alcibiades, for which exploit
he would have received the prize of bravery, (upiareia ;)
but, at Socrates' own request, it was transferred to Alci
biades. In the second campaign, at the battle of Delinm,
in which the Athenians were defeated, he saved the life
of Xenophon, another of his pupils. On this occasion,
when everywhere around him was fear and flight, he
exhibited a calm, determined courage which inspired his
pursuers with such respect and fear that they gladly
permitted him to retreat unmolested. He afterwards,
as senator, displayed a far higher and rarer courage.
He was ordered by the Thirty Tyrants to assist in
bringing back to Athens Leon, who, to escape their
tyranny, had fled to Salamis. Socrates firmly refused
to take any part in the affair, for which he would per
haps have suffered death had not the government of
the Thirty been soon after overthrown. On a previous
occasion, when president (epis'tates) of the Prytanes,
his inflexible devotion to justice was still more signally
shown. The question before the assembly was the sen
tence to be passed on the admirals who had neglected
to bury the dead after the battle of Arginusae. The
burial of the dead was regarded by the ancient Greeks
as among the most important and sacred of all duties.
It was, however, clearly proved that, owing to a violent
storm, it was impossible to recover the bodies of the
slain. Had the question then been put to vote, the ad
mirals would beyond doubt have been acquitted. But
the accusers succeeded in adjourning the assembly, on
the pretext that it was then too dark to count the hands
of the voters. Meanwhile, everything possible was done
to inflame the minds of the people against the accused.
In their pity for the dead, the multitude lost sight of
their duty to the living. The votes were to be given on
the general question whether the admirals had been
guilty in omitting the recovery of the bodies of those
who fell at Arginnsae. If they should be found guilty,
the penalty for all was death and the confiscation of
their property. But it was contrary to law to condemn
all by one vote of the assembly. Socrates, as epistates,
refused to put the question to vote ; he would in no wise
sanction what was illegal and unjust. The populace be
came furious, and demanded that those who opposed
their will should themselves be punished. The other
prytanes yielded ; Socrates alone remained firm and
unmoved by the menaces of the angry multitude.* So
the question could not be put to vote that day, and the
assembly was again adjourned. Afterwards, however,
another epistates was chosen, and the admirals were
condemned. (See Wigger's "Life of Socrates," pp. lii.-
Iv.) Socrates appears to have held no office in the gov
ernment except that of senator, already referred to. He
believed that he was called by Heaven to a different
class of duties, — to be a teacher of wisdom and virtue,
— and, therefore, the voice of the divinityt within him had
* It seems more than probable that Horace had before his mind
the example of Socrates braving the fury of the Athenian mob, and
resisting the tyrannical command of the Thirty, when he wrote those
well-known lines "On the Just Man," (lib. iii., ode 3.)
" Justum et teuacem propositi virum
Non civiuni ardor prava jubentium,
Non vultus instantis tyranni
Mente quatit solidS."
t It may not be improper to caution the reader against a mistake
that has sometimes arisen from the use of the term " demon" or
" daemon" in speaking of the divine intimations which Socrates be
lieved were sometimes triven him. The primary signification of the ex
pression TO iaifiortoi'. (ironi &aifj.ov, "god,'') which Socrates applied
to his supernatural monitor, is "the divinity," or "the divine one."
He doubtless meant simp'y to say thai some divine power admonished
•t as *: c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^="See Explanations, p. 23.)
SOCRATES
2036
SOCRATES
warned him against engaging in the contests of a political
life. He availed himself of every opportunity of awaking
in the minds of the young the love of wisdom ; and, if
we may trust the accounts that have come down to us,
he was endowed not only with a talent for subtle and
profound reasoning, which rendered him more than a
match for the ablest sophists and rhetoricians of that
age, but there was also a marvellous and irresistible
fascination in his talk, of which history furnishes per
haps no other example. /Elian calls this peculiar power
"the Siren of Socrates." "When I hear him speak,"
says Alcibiacles,* " my heart leaps up more than the
hearts of those who celebrate the Corybantic mysteries;
my tears are poured out as he talks, — a thing I have seen
happen to many others besides myself. I have heard
Pericles and other excellent orators, and I have been
pleased with their discourses, but I suffered nothing of
this kind ; nor was my soul ever on these occasions
disturbed and filled with self-reproach. . . . But he has
often affected me in the way I describe, until the life
which I lead seemed hardly worth living. ... I stop
my ears, therefore, as from the Sirens, and flee away as
fast as possible, that I may not sit down beside him and
grow old in listening to his talk. . . . But I know not
if any one of you have ever seen the divine images
which are within when he is serious and opens himself.
I have seen them ; and they are so supremely beautiful,
so golden, so divine and wonderful, that everything which
Socrates commands surely ought to be obeyed, even like
the voice of a God."
It is impossible to state precisely at what time Socra
tes first began to teach ; but from the manner in which
he is spoken of in the "Clouds" of Aristophanes, (repre
sented for the first time 423 li.C.,) lie must have been
already well known as a teacher of philosophy. Some
have assumed that, as the representation of that comedy
occurred twenty-four years before the death of Socrates,
it could have had no share in producing his condemna
tion ; but the truth of this is very questionable. It is
by no means improbable that a popular drama addressed
to the prejudices of the masses should leave upon their
minds a permanently unfavourable impression, which
any fresh cause might excite into active hostility.
Be this as it may, about 400 is.C. an orator named Lycon,
with Meletus, a poet, and Anytus, an influential dema
gogue, brought an accusation against Socrates that he
disbelieved the gods of his country and sought to intro
duce new deities, and that, moreover, he was guilty of
corrupting the Athenian youth. The judges declared
him guilty, leaving the punishment as yet undetermined.
When called upon to offer what he could in mitigation
of the sentence, he would make no concession. Con
scious of innocence, he would not confess himself guilty.
His calm, dignified, and almost haughty manner ap
pears to have irritated ant] incensed the judges, who
were accustomed to the most humble and even abject
behaviour from those whom thev had condemned. He
closed his defence, or "apology," with these memorable
words : " We must now depart, I to die, and you to
live ; but which of us has the happier destiny is known
only to God." He was sentenced to death by a majority
far greater than that by which he had beeji pronounced
guilty. By a law of Athens, the sentence could not be
carried into execution until the return from Dclosof the
vessel which had been sent thither on the periodic reli
gious embassy or mission called Theoria. This obtained
for him a reprieve of thirty days, which he spent in con
versation with his friends on the highest and most im
portant subjects, — among others, on the duty of obeying
the laws, and not seeking to escape from them, even in
cases, like his own, where they might seem to be applied
unjustly; and on the immortality of the soul, for his
own belief in which he gave perhaps the most admirable
arguments that have ever yet been offered by the human
intellect in support of that sublime doctrine.
him to do or not to do certain things. The suggestion of some modern
writers that Socrates used TO SOLUJLOVIOV merely to express certain
intuitions or practical judgments which lie could not readily explain,
will scarcely bear examination. It appears to be quite evident that
he himself considered these intimations to be not merely inexplicable,
but, in the strictest sense, supernatural and divine.
* See PLATO'S " Banquet," (or " Symposium.")
When at length the sacred vessel had returned from
Delos, and the order was sent for his execution, he
drank the fatal hemlock with the utmost composure, as
one who was setting out on a happy journey might drink
to the health of the friends he left behind. In the clos
ing scene of his life he was serene and even cheerful,
but in his manner there was nothing like bravado, no
thing in his conduct or language that was not indicative
of simplicity and entire sincerity. He approached his
death not as one who demanded of the gods a happy
futurity in return for a virtuous life, but rather as one
who had a firm though humble hope that the Great
Being, whom he believed to exercise a benevolent and
constant care for man, would free him from the disease
and darkness incident to his earthly life, and give him
an inheritance in a divine and spiritual kingdom. He
died in 399 or, as some say, 400 15. c.
Socrates has been regarded by almost universal con
sent as the most perfect example of a wise and virtuous
man that pagan antiquity presents to us. Pope but ex
presses the prevailing sentiment when he assigns to him
the first place among the heroes
" Of less noisy and less guilty fame,
Fair Virtue's silent train : supreme of these
Here ever shines the godlike Socrates." — Temple of Fame.
His character is thus given by his friend and disciple
Xenophon : "As to myself, knowing him to be such a
man as I have described ; so pious towards the gods as
never to undertake anything without first consulting
them ; so just towards men as never to do the slightest
injury to any one, while he conferred the greatest bene
fits on all who came in contact with him ; so temperate
and chaste as never to prefer pleasure to what was right ;
so wise as never to err in judging of good and evil, nor
needing the aid of others in order properly to discrimi
nate between them ; so able to discourse upon, and
accurately define, such points as those of which we have
been speaking; so skilful in penetrating the hidden
characters of men, and seizing the fittest time to reprove
the erring and turn them to the paths of virtue ; being
such, I cannot but consider him as the most excellent
and most happy of mankind. But if any one thinks
differently, let him compare the character of Socrates
with that of any other man whatsoever, and then let
him decide."
Socrates is commonly believed to have been very
unfortunate in his domestic relations. It is, however,
probable that there is much exaggeration in the reports
that have come down to us of Xanthippe's intolerable
temper. Socrates evidently entertained for her a sincere
regard, and speaks highly of her domestic virtues. (See
Xenophon's "Memorabilia," lib. ii. 2, 7.)
Socrates committed nothing to writing; he taught his
disciples by oral instruction only. Almost all that we
know of his philosophic views, as well as of his personal
character, is derived from the works of his disciples
Plato and Xenophon. Of all whom he taught, Plato
alone appears to have fully understood the essential
character, the depth and extent, of his philosophy. But
although Plato makes Socrates the chief interlocutor in
his dialogues, we are not therefore warranted in as
suming that the master taught every doctrine which the
disciple has attributed to him. Plato, doubtless, often
puts his own thoughts into the mouth of Socrates, either
from motives of modesty or for the purpose of clothing
them with greater authority. As Mr. Emerson has aptly
remarked, "Socrates and Plato are the double star which
the most powerful instruments will not entirely separ
ate."* By a comparison, however, of the writings of
Xenophon and Plato, we are enabled to conjecture with
a good degree of confidence the essential characteristics
of Socrates' philosophy. That which cannot fail to
strike every thoughtful reader is the prominence which
he gives to morality in all his teachings. He may be
said, indeed, to contemplate the universe from an ex
clusively moral stand-point. Anaxagoras had previously
taught that there was an infinite autocratic Intelligence
or Soul, that created and governed all things ; but he
ascribed to this Intelligence no distinctly moral attri-
* See article "Plato," in his "Representative Men."
a, e, T, 5, ii, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
SOCRATES
2037
SOLE
butes. Socrates likewise recognized an infinite creative
Intelligence as the Soul of the universe, hut he also
taught that this power was invariably exerted in con
formity to certain moral attributes which constituted, so
to speak, the basis of the Divine character.
In the opinion of some able critics, (of Schleiermacher
among others,) the world is less indebted to Socrates
for the truths which be arrived at or discovered than
for his improved method of "philosophic investigation.
Socrates employed with remarkable success a mode of
reasoning first introduced by Zeno of Elea. lie would
ask some person, the errors of whose opinions he wished
to expose, a simple question, the answer to which would
seem to be quite obvious, then gradually lead him on
from one admission to another, till it was too late to
retreat, and impossible to advance without ending in
some absurdity. It is often difficult to determine (as
already intimated) how much of the improved method,
or of the great doctrines which we discover in the writings
of Plato, are to be ascribed to Socrates, and how much to
his illustrious disciple. (See PI.ATO.) We have, however,
the direct testimony of Aristotle that Socrates must be
regarded as the author of inductive reasoning and of ab
stract definitions. In Socrates inductive reasoning is seen
in its incipient and simplest form. Subsequently Aris
totle improved greatly on the idea of Socrates, and he
has given us a definition of induction so complete and
perfect that it could scarcely be bettered even in the light
of modern science. (See ARISTOTLE.) But philosophy
is under the greatest obligation to Socrates for teaching
so clearly and impressively the manner and spirit with
which the search after truth should be conducted. By
pointing out the importance of thoroughly and accurately
defining our ideas before we proceed to reason upon
them, he has done much to remove the most fruitful
and most universal source of error connected with human
thought. While exposing the pretended knowledge of
the Sophists, who claimed to be so wise, he taught how
necessary were modesty and a just appreciation of the
limits and weakness of the human intellect, as well as
of its powers, for the successful pursuit of truth. So
great, so transcendent are his merits in these respects,
that, as has justly been observed, his life forms an era
not merely in the history of philosophy, but in that of
the human race.
See WIGGER, " Life of Socrates ;" RITTHR, " History of Ancient j
Philosophy," (translated by A. J. W. MORRISON, Oxford, 183?;)
G. H. LKWES, " Biographical History of Philosophy ;" the excellent
article on " Socrates" in the " Encyclopaedia Hritannica ;" SCHI.KIER-
MACHER on the "Worth of Socrates as a Philosopher," (translated
by THIRLWALL. and included in the recent English version of WIG-
GER'S "Life of Socrates ;") F. CHAKPSNTIBR, "Vie de Socrate,"
1650: GILBERT COOPER, " Life of Socrates," 1749; F. D. GERI.ACH,
"Socrates nnd die Sophisten," 1827: J. A. EBERHARD, " Neue
Apoiogie des Socrates," 1772; H. W. HELLER, "Socrates," 2
vo!s., 1789; J. G. HAMANN, " Socratische Denkwiirdigkeiten," 1759;
KNOKR, "Dissertatio de Vita, Fatis atqne Philnsophia Socratis,"
1720: A. WINBOM, " Dissertatio de Socrate," 1734; XENOPHON, "Me-
morabilia ;" PLATO, "Dialogues:" GROTK, "History of Greece,"
chap. Ixvii. ; " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1850.
Socrates, a Greek painter, mentioned by Pliny, and
supposed to have lived about 320 H.c.
Socrates surnamed SCHOLAS'TICUS, [Fr. SOCRATK LE
SCHOLASTIQUE, so'kRtt' leh sko'ijts'tek',] a Greek eccle
siastical historian, born at Constantinople about 379 A.M.
He was an advocate or lawyer. He wrote a " History
of the Church from 306 to 439 A.I).," which is a continua
tion of the history of Eusebius, and is highly esteemed
for accuracy, moderation, and impartiality. lie was op
posed to all persecution for religious opinions. Died
after 440.
See VALESIUS or V ALOIS, " De Vita et Scriptis Socratis;" Voss,
" De Historicis Graecis."
Soden, so'den or zo'den, (FRIEDR'CH JULIUS HEIN-
RICH,) COUNT, a German writer, born at Anspach in
1754. He published several dramas, and treatises on
political economy. Died in 1831.
Soderini, so-di-ree'nee, (GIOVANNI VETTORIO,) an
Italian writer on agriculture, was born at Florence in
1526 ; died in 1596.
Soderini, (PIETRO,) an Italian magistrate, born at
Florence about 1450. He was elected gonfalonier for
life in 1502, but was deposed in 1512. Died in 1513.
-See S. RAZZI, "Vita di P. Soderini," 1737.
Sodoma, II. See RAZZI.
Soemmering. See SUMMERING.
Soest. See Susr.
Sceur, Le, leh SUR, sometimes written Le Sueur,
( HUBERT,) an able French sculptor, born in the sixteenth
century, removed to London about 1630. Among his
works is a bronze equestrian statue of Charles I., now
at Charing Cross.
Sogaro, II. See GATTI, (BERNARDINO.)
Sogliani, sol-ya'nee, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) an Italian
painter of the Florentine school, lived about 1530.
Sografi, so-gRa'fee, (ANTONIO SIMONE,) an Italian
dramatist, born at Padua in 1760. He produced suc
cessful comedies, among which is " Olive and Pascal."
Died in 1825.
Sohn, son or z5n, (KARL FERDINAND,) a German
' painter of the Dusseldorf school, and professor in the
i Academy of that city, was born at Berlin in 1805.
Soiron, von, fon swa'ri.N', (ALEXANDER,) a German
politician, born at Mannheim in 1805. Devoted to the
cause of the unity of Germany, he took a prominent part
i in the movements of 1848.
Soissons, de, deh swaps', (CHARLES de Bour
bon — deh book'bo.N',) COUNT, born in 1566, was a son
of Louis I., Prince of Conde. He fought for Henry IV.
against the League, and was appointed grand master of
France in 1589. He was turbulent and inclined to
treachery. Died in 1612.
Soissons, de, COUNTESS. See MANCINI, (OLYMPIA.)
Soissons, de, (Louis,) COUNT, a son of Charles,
noticed above, was born in Paris in 1604. He rebelled
against Cardinal Richelieu, and was killed in battle
in 1641.
Solauder, so-lan'der, (DANIEL CHARLES,) an emi
nent Swedish naturalist and physician, born in No rd land
in 1736, was a pupil of Linnaeus. He took his medical
degree at the University of Upsal, and afterwards visited
Russia and England, where he subsequently became an
assistant in the natural history department of the Brit
ish Museum, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society in 1764. He sailed in 1768, accompanied by Sir
Joseph Banks, with Captain Cook on his first voyage
round the world. They returned in 1771, having made
a large and valuable collection of objects in natural his
tory, and in 1773 Solander was appointed under-librarian
at the British Museum. He contributed several valuable
articles to the " Philosophical Transactions," and other
scientific journals. Diet! in 1782.
Solari, so-la'ree, (ANDREA,) an Italian painter, called
also ANDREA DEL Goisno, an Italian painter, flourished
at Milan about 1500—20.
Solari, (CRISTOEORO,) called IL GOBBO, an Italian
sculptor, a brother of Andrea, noticed above, worked
at Milan about 1500.
Solario, da, dd so-la're-o, or Solari, so-la'ree, (AN
TONIO,) an Italian painter, surnamed IL ZINOARO, ("the
Gypsy,") born about 1382, was originally a blacksmith.
He became the son-in-law of Colantonio del Fiore, who
gave him his daughter on condition of his acquiring
distinction as a painter. Died in -1455.
See G. A. MOSCIIINI, " Memorie della Vita di A. de Solario," 1828.
Soldani, sol-da'nee, (AMHROGIO.) an Italian natural
ist, born at Foppi, in Tuscany, in 1733. He gained
distinction by his researches in microscopic fossil shells,
and published " Testaceography and Zoophytqgraphy,"
etc., (" Testaceographia ac Zoophytographia parva et
microscopica," 3 vols., 1789-98.) Died in 1808.
See G. BIANCHI, " Elogio storico di A. Soldani," iSoS ; RICCA,
" Discorso sopra le Opere di A. Soldani," 1810; TIPALDO, " Bio-
grafia deg'i Italian! illnstri."
Soldani, (JACOPO,) an Italian poet, born at Florence
in 1579. He wrote seven Satires, which the Academy
Delhi Crusca approved as testi di lingua. Died in 1641.
Soldani, (MASSLMILIANO,) an Italian sculptor and en
graver of medals, born at Florence in 1658 ; died in 1740.
Sole, del, deM so'la, (ANTONIO MARIA,) an Italian
landscape-painter, born about 1600 ; died about 1680.
Sole, del, (GIANGIOSEFFO,) an Italian painter, born
at Bologna in 1654, was a son of the preceding. He
painted some frescos at Milan. His works (part of
which are in oil) are highly praised. Died in 1719.
«as k; cas.r;g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas«; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SOLEIL
20:58
SOLON
Soleil, so'lil' or so'li'ye, (N.,) a Frenchman, dis
tinguished for his skill in the fabrication of optical in
struments and philosophical apparatus, was born in
Paris in 1798. He was a coadjutor of Fresnel in his
scientific labours.
Solger, sol'ger or zol'ger, (KARL WILHELM FKRDI-
NAND,) a German writer on philosophy and aesthetics,
born at Schvvedt in 1780; died in 1819.
Solie, so'le-i', or Soulier, soo'le-i', (JEAN PIERRE,)
a French actoT and composer of operas, was born at
Nimes in 1755 ; died in 1812.
Solignac, so'len'ySk', (PiKRRE JOSEPH,) a French
writer, born at Montpellier in 1687, became secretary to
Stanislaus, King of Poland. He was the author of a
" History of Poland," (6 vols., 1751.) Died in 1773.
Soliman, (Sultans of Turkey.) See SOLYMAN.
Soliman or Solyman, so'le-man', Sultan of Persia,
born in 1646, was the son of Abbas II., whom he suc
ceeded in 1666. He was a weak and depraved prince,
and abandoned the control of the empire to his able
minister, Sheik Alee Khan. Died in 1694.
See MALCOLM, " History of Persia."
Soliman, so'le-man', or Suleyman, soo-la-man',
written also Solyman, (Ibn-Abd-el-Malek, ib'n abd-
el mtl'ek,) seventh Caliph ot the Omeyyade dynasty,
succeeded to the throne in 715 A.I). Died in 717.
See WKII., " Geschiclite der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. xi.
Soliman or Suleyman, (Ibn-Al-Hakem, ib'n al-
ha'kem,) a Moorish soldier, who took possession of
Coidova, and caused himself to be proclaimed king, in
1009 A.D. He was defeated and slain in 1016.
Solimena, so-le-ma'ni, (FRANCESCO,) a Neapolitan
painter and poet, sometimes called L'ABATK Ciccio,
(chet'cho,) was born in 1657. Among his master-pieces
are his oil-paintings in the chapel of San Felippo Neri,
and the frescos of the sacristy of the Theatines of San
Paolo Maggiore. He was a friend of Luca Giordano,
whom he equalled in genius and reputation. He pub
lished a collection of sonnets. Died in 1747.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" DOMENICI, " Vite
de' Pittori Napoletani."
Solin. See SOLI N us.
So-li'nus, [Fr. SOI.IN, so'las',] (CAius JULIUS,) a
Latin writer, of whom little is known, lived probably in
the third century. He left a work called " Polyhistor,"
which describes the world known to the ancients, and
is a compilation from Pliny's "Natural History." Sal-
masius published an edition of the "Polyhistor," in
1629.
Solis, de, da so'less, (JiMN DIAZ,) a Spanish navi
gator, born in the province of Seville, sailed in company
with Pinzon to the northern coast of South America, and
discovered Yucatan. In 1512 Solis set out on another
voyage, in which he discovered Cape Frio and obtained
information from the Indians of gold on the banks of the
river Paraguay. Having returned with this account, he
sailed again, in 1515, with three vessels, lout was mur
dered, with a great part of his crew, by the Indians, soon
alter landing.
Solis y Ribadeneira, de, da so'less e re-ba-na-
na/e-ra, (ANTONIO,) a celebrated Spanish dramatist and
historian, born at Alcala de Henares in 1610. While
studying law at Salamanca, he published a comedy en
titled " Love and Duty," which was very successful.
He was appointed secretary to Philip IV., and, after his
death, historiographer of the transactions of the Span
iards in the Indies. Among his dramas we may name
the comedies of " The Gypsy-Girl of Madrid," (" La
Gitanilla" (or " Preciosa") "de Madrid,") "One Fool
will make a Hundred," (" Un Hobo hace Ciento,") and
"The Castle of Mystery," ("El Alcazar de Secreto.")
His " History of the Conquest of Mexico," (" Con-
quista de Mejico," 5 vols., 1684,) though not reliable in
point of accuracy and impartiality, possesses merit of a
very high order, and has been translated into several
languages. Prescott observes, " In the judgment of
eminent Spanish critics, the style of Solis claims the
merits of perspicuity, copiousness, and classic elegance;"
and he adds, "such is the charm of its composition and
its exquisite finish as a work of art, that it will doubtless
be as imperishable as the language in which it is written,
or the memory of the events which it records." Died
in 1686.
See PRESCOTT, " Conquest of Mexico," vol. iii. book vi. ; TICK-
NOR, " History of Spanish Literature :" N". ANTONIO, " Bibliothecn
Hispana Nova;" NIC£RON, "Memoires."
Sollohub or Sollognb. See ZOI.T.OOUB.
Sol'o-mon, | Heb. noSiV ; Gr. SoAo^wv ; Fr. SALO
MON, st'lo'mAN' ; Ger. SAI.OMO, za'lo-mo,] a Jewish
king, whose name is proverbial for wisdom, was a son
of King David and Hathsheba. He was born about
1033 K.C., and succeeded his father in 1015. He formed
an alliance with Pharaoh, King of Egypt, whose daughter
he married. Soon after his accession he began to build
the magnificent Temple which bore his name. He founded
the city of Tadmor or Palmyra. In his pacific reign the
Jewish kingdom rose to its highest prosperity and great
est power. He wrote or compiled the collection of
Proverbs which form one of the canonical books of the
Bible ; also the Book of Ecclesiastes, and the Book of
Canticles. He married a large number of "strange
women," who seduced him into idolatry. He died, after
a reign of forty years, and was succeeded by his son
Rehoboam.
See I. Kings i -xi : II. Chronicles i.-x. ; THOMAS THOMAS,
" History of the Reign of Solomon," 1813; J. L. Ewu.n. " Salomo ;
Versuch einer psychologisch-biographischen Darstellunc;," iSoo.
Sol'o-mon, (ABRAHAM,) an English painter, born
ab >ut 1823. Among his works is " Waiting for the
Verdict." Died at Biarritz in December, 1862.
Sol'o-mon Ben I'saac, a learned Jewish rabbi,
sometimes called Rashi, born at Troyes, in France,
about 1040, was the author of Commentaries on the
Hebrew Scriptures and the Talmud. Died in 1105.
Sol'o-moii Ben Vir'ga, a Spanish physician and
rabbi of the sixteenth century, wrote a history of the
Jews.
Sol'o-mos, (DENYS,) COUNT, a modern Greek poet,
born in the island of Zante in 1798. Besides other poems,
he wrote about 1825 a " Hymn to Liberty," which was
very popular. Died in 1857.
So'lon, [Gr. SoAuc; It. SOI.ONE, so-lo'na,] an illus
trious Athenian legislator, born in the island of Salamis
about 638 H.C , was a son of Execestides and a descend
ant of Codrus. In his youth he was a merchant and
visited foreign countries. Some say, however, that he
travelled rather to gratify his curiosity and extend his
knowledge than to improve his fortune. He gained
distinction by his poetical talents in the early part of
his life, and cultivated chiefly that part of moral phi
losophy which treats of civil obligations. Fragments
of his poetry are still extant and highly prized. The
first recorded public service of Solon was his successful
expedition to Salamis, which he recovered from the Me-
garians. When he began his career, the Athenian state
was demoralized by discordant factions and oppressive
laws. A large portion of the people were insolvent
debtors, liable to be reduced to slavery. There were
three political parties, thus described by Plutarch : "The
inhabitants of the mountains were, it seems, for a de
mocracy, those of the plains for an oligarch v, and those
of the sea-coast contended for a mixed kind of govern
ment." In 594 B.C. he was elected archon, and was
accepted as mediator and lawgiver by the opposing
parties, " the rich accepting him readily as one of them,
and the poor as a good and worthy man." (Plutarch.)
I le relieved debtors by a reduction of the rate of interest,
and, according to some authorities, cancelled debts and
liberated lands from mortgage. "This was the first of
his public acts," says Plutarch, "that debts should be
forgiven, and that no man should take the. body of his
debtor for security." He refused to make himself King
of Athens, although both parties urged him to accept
the supreme power. He repealed the bloody laws of
Draco, except those made for the punishment of murder.
He established the council or court of the Areopagus to be
inspectors and guardians of the laws, and he remodelled
the political constitution by dividing the people into four
classes, the influence or privilege of which was propor
tioned to their income. The lowest class could vote, but
could not hold office. He ordained that new measures
should be first considered in the senate, and, if they were
approved by that body, should be proposed to the popular
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; nSt; good; moon;
SOLON
2039
SOMERS
assembly, which had power to adopt or reject them.
Havi.ig been asked whether he had given the Athenians
the best of laws, he answered, " The best they were
capable of receiving." After he had finished his great
legislative task, he obtained leave of absence for ten
years, and visited Egypt and Asia Minor. He returned
to Athens in his old age, and opposed the ambitious
designs of Pisistratus. He began a poem, the subject
of which was the fabulous island of Atlantis, but did not
live to finish it. Solon was ranked among the Seven
Sages of Greece. Died about 558 n.c.
See PLUTARCH, "Life of Solon ;" MEUKSIUS, " Solon, sen de ejus
Vita, Legibus," etc., 1632: G. SCHMIDT, ''De Solone Legislatore,"
i6SS ; H. SCHEM.ING, " De Solonis Legibus," 1842 ; GROTE, " History
of Greece;" BOcKH, "ficonomie politique des Atlieuiens ;" KLEINE,
" Quxstiones de Solonis Vita et Fragmentis," 1832.
Solon, a Greek gem-engraver, who flourished proba
bly about I A.D., and was a contemporary of Dioscorides.
His name occurs on several gems.
Soltikof, sol'te-kof, written also Soltikow, Sol-
tikov, and Ssaltykow, (Nicoi.Ai IVANOVITCH,) a Rus
sian general and statesman, born in 1736, was tutor to
the grand duke Alexander, afterwards emperor. He was
appointed field-marshal in 1796, president of the Impe
rial Council in 1812, and made a prince in 1814. Died
in 1816. His grandson Alexei has published "Travels
in India," (1849,) ar|d "Travels in Persia," (1851,) in
French and Russian.
See SVINIXI, " Histoire dn Feld-Marech.il Soltikof." iSiS.
Soltikof, Soltikow, or Ssaltykow, (PETER SE-
MENOVITCH,) a Russian general, born about 1700, became
in 1759 commander- in-chief of the Russian army in the
Seven Years' war, and shared in the victory of Kuners-
dorf over Frederick the Great. He was created a field-
marshal, and appointed governor-general of Moscow.
Died in 1772.
Soltikof or Soltikow, (PRASCOVIA FEDOROVNA,)
was married to the Czar Ivan Alexeievitch, and was the
mother of the empress Anna.
Soltyk, sol'tik, (ROMAN,) a Polish nobleman and
patriot, born at Warsaw in 1791, served in the French
army in the campaigns of 1810—12, and afterwards took
an active part in the insurrection of 1830. He died in
1843, leaving a work entitled " Napoleon in 1812."
Soltyk, (STANISLAS,) a Polish patriot, born in 1751,
was the father of the preceding. He was exiled about
1794, and was marshal of the Diet in 1811. Died in
1830.
Solvyns,sol-vlns', (FRANCIS BALTHASAR,) a Flemish
writer and artist, born at Antwerp in 1760. He spent '
many years in Hindostan, and published, after his re- |
turn, a work entitled " The Hindoos, or a Picturesque
Description of the Manners, Customs, and Religious |
Ceremonies of this People," (4 vols., in French.) Died j
in 1824.
Sol'y-man or Soliman [Turk. pron. so'lee-mSn' or
so-la-mSn'| I., written also Suleyman, soo-la-mSn', an
Ottoman Sultan, eldest son of Bayazeed, (Bajazet,) was
involved in a contest with his brother Moosa, and was
killed in battle in 1410.
Solyman or Soliman II., snrnamed THE MAGNIFI
CENT, Sultan of Turkey, born in 1496, was the son of
Selim I., whom he succeeded in 1520 A.D. Soon after
his accession he invaded Hungary and took Belgrade,
and in 1522 besieged Rhodes, which surrendered after
an obstinate defence. In 1526 he defeated Louis II.,
King of Hungary, at the battle of Mohacz. Having
bestowed the crown of Hungary upon John Zapolya,
Solyman roused the opposition of Ferdinand of Austria,
against whom he subsequently turned his arms. He
also subjected a large portion of Persia and Arabia, and
in 1537 gained a signal victory over the Austrians at
Essek, resulting in the conquest of Croatia. In 1560 his
general, Piali, defeated the combined fleet of the Chris
tian powers at Jerbeh, and a truce was concluded with
Austria in 1562, leaving Turkey in possession of her
conquests in Hungary. The Turks, having besieged
Malta in 1565, were repulsed with a heavy loss, and in
1566 Solyman died, while engaged in the siege of Szi-
geth in Hungary. He was one of the ablest rulers of his
country and his time, and equally eminent in the arts of
war and of peace. He constructed numerous magnifi
cent public edifices, encouraged learning and the arts,
and was distinguished for his literary attainments. He
was succeeded by his son, Selim II.
See C. ANCII.LON, "Histoire de la Vie de So'iman II," 1706:
VON HAMMER, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs ;" " Nouvelle
Biographie Generale ;" ROBERTSON, "History of Charles V.," vol. ii.
book ii. Zwhts-sen- , S« «?•"'»**- a osmn.n . _J{,; t/ies/ v,«. .
Solyman or Soliman, son of Ibraheem, became
Sultan of Turkey in 1687, his brother, Mahomet IV.,
having been deposed. During his reign the Austrians
regained a great part of Hungary, previously conquered
by the Turks. He died in 1691, and was succeeded by
his brother, Ahmed II.
So'nia, in the Hindoo mythology, a name for the
moon. (See CHANDRA.)
Sombreuil, de, deh soN'bRuI', (CHARLES VIROT,) a
French officer, distinguished for his zeal and courage in
the defence of the royal cause, was born in 1769. He
commanded a party of royalist emigrants who took arms
against the republic. He was captured at Quiberon, and
shot, in 1795.
Sombreuil, de, (MARIE MAURILLE VIROT,) a sister
of the preceding, was born near Limoges in 1774. She
saved the life of her father from the massacre of Sep
tember, 1793, after he had been imprisoned in Paris.
Died in 1823.
Somer, van. See VANSOMER, (PAUL.)
Somer, van, vtn so'mer, (J.\N,) a Dutch mezzotint
engraver, flourished about 1675.
Someren, van, vtn so'mer-en, (JAN,) a Dutch lawyer
and poet, born at Dort in 1622, was a friend of Hiiy-
ghens. He was noted for learning and eloquence. Died
in 1676.
Somers, sum'erz, (JOHN,) Lord Somers, an excellent
English statesman and lawyer, born at Worcester about
1650, was a son of John Somers, an attorney. He was
educated at Trinity College, Oxford, studied law at the
Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1676. He
continued to reside for about five years at the university,
where he wrote, besides other works, "A Brief History
of the Succession of the Crown of England," (1681,) and
"The Security of Englishmen's Lives; or, The Trust,
Power, and Duty of the Grand Juries of England." He
also translated into verse some of Ovid's "Epistles." In
1682 he began to practise law in London. His success
as a pleader was remarkably rapid. He was selected in
1688 as one of the counsel for the defence in the impor
tant trial of the seven bishops. He spoke briefly in this
case, "but every word," says Macaulay, "was full of
weighty matter ; and when he sat down, his reputation
as an orator and a constitutional lawyer was established.''
He was an intimate friend of the Earl of Shrewsbury,
and was a constant adherent of the Whig party. He
represented Worcester in the Parliament or Conven
tion which met in January, 1689, and was a member
of the first, and chairman of the second, of the two com
mittees which prepared the memorable Declaration of
Rights. In 1689 he was appointed solicitor-general, and
knighted. He became attorney-general in May, 1692, and
lord keeper of the great seal in March, 1693. "Neither
in forensic nor in parliamentary eloquence," says Mac
aulay, "had he any superior. The consistency of his
public conduct had gained for him the entire confidence
of the Whigs; and the urbanity of his manners had
conciliated the Tories. It was not without great reluc
tance that he consented to quit an assembly over which
he exercised an immense influence for an assembly where
it would be necessary for him to sit in silence." ("His
tory of England," vol. iv. chap, xix.)
In 1697 he was appointed lord chancellor, and received
the title of Baron Somers of Evesham. The great seal
was taken from him in 1700, in consequence of a reso
lution of the House of Commons. He was impeached
by the Tory majority of the lower House, but was
acquitted by the Lords, (1701.) While he was in power
he patronized Locke and Addison, the latter of whom
dedicated to Lord Somers the first volume of his " Spec
tator," and said, " I knosv that the homage I now pay
you is offering a kind of violence to one who is as
solicitous to shun applause as he is assiduous to deserve
east; $zss; gkard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (j^^S^e Explanations, p. 23.)
SOMERSET
2040
SO'KNRRXT
it." He waf. appointed president of the council in 1708,
when the Whig party returned to power. He died in
April, 1716. Lord Somers was never married. " He was
equally eminent," says Macaulay, "as a jurist and as a
politician, as an orator and as a writer. His speeches
have perished; but his state papers remain, and are
models of terse, luminous, and dignified eloquence."
("History of England," vol. iv. chap, xx.)
See LORD CAMPBELL, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors ;" COOK-
SKY, "Essay on the Life and Character of Lord Somers," 1791 ;
HKNRV MADDOCK, "Life of Lord Somers," 1812; "Westminster
Review" for October, 1847.
Somerset, sum'er-set, (CHARLES,) was an illegitimate
son of Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, who was
executed in 1463. He was a man of eminent talents,
and performed important diplomatic missions in the
reign of Henry VII. He was created Earl of Worcester
in 1513 or 1514. Died in 1526.
Somerset, (Cii.MU.K.s SEYMOUR.) DUKE OF, called
" the Proud Duke of Somerset," was the second in rank
among the temporal peers of the realm. He acquired
the greatest estate in England by his marriage with the
heiress of the noble family of Percy. He was a Prot
estant and a Whig. In 1687 he offended James II. by
his refusal to officiate in a procession of the papal nuncio.
He was an adherent of William HI. in 1688, and acted
a prominent part in the reign of Anne. Died in 1748,
aged eighty-seven.
Somerset, EARL OF, (favourite of James I.) See
CARR, ROHKRT.
Somerset, (EDWARD.) See WORCESTER, MARQUISOF.
Somerset, (EDWARD ADOLPHUS SAINT MAUR,)
DUKK OF, an English Liberal statesman, the eldest son
of the eleventh Duke, was born in 1804. He was styled
Lord Seymour previous to 1855, when he succeeded to
the dukedom. He was first lord of the admiralty from
June, 1859, to June, 1866.
Somerset, (EDWARD SEYMOUR,) Earl of Hertford,
Duke of Somerset, and Protector of England, was a
brother of Jane Seymour, queen of Henry VIII., and
an uncle of Edward VI. He commanded an army which
invaded Scotland in 1544 and committed great devas
tation. On the death of Henry VIII., in 1547, he re
ceived the title of Duke of Somerset, and became lord
treasurer and Protector of the realm. He favoured the
Protestant cause. In 1547 he undertook to coerce Mary,
Queen of Scots, to marry Edward VI., and defeated the
Scotch at Pinkie Cleugh. He found a rival in his own
brother, Thomas Seymour, who conspired against the
Protector and was executed for treason in 1549. Som
erset made many enemies by his ambition, his severity,
and his zeal against popery. His most powerful enemy
was the Earl of Warwick, by whose agency he was de
prived of his high office in 1549. He was tried on the
charges of treason and felony, convicted of the latter
crime, and beheaded in January, 1552. He left several
sons, one of whom, named Edward, was created Earl
of Hertford about 1558, and married Catherine Grey, a
sister of Lady Jane.
See HUMH, "History of England."
Somerset, (FITZROY.) See RAGLAN, LORD.
Somerset, (Sir HENRY,) a British general, born in
1794, was a grandson of the Duke of Beaufort. lie
served with distinction in the Caffre war. Died in 1862.
Somerset, (HENRY DE BEAUFORT,) DUKK OF, was
a descendant of John of Gaunt. He fought for the Lan
castrians in the war of the Roses, was taken prisoner at
Hexiiam and beheaded in 1463.
Somerset, (JoHN DE BEAUFORT,) EARL OF, a son
of John of Gaunt, and a grandson of Edward III., was
cre-ated Earl of Somerset about 1396. Died in 1410.
Somerville, sum'er-vil, (Mrs. 'MARY,) an eminent
astronomer and scientific writer, the daughter of Sir
William Fairfax, was born at [edburgh, in Scotland,
about 1780. At the request of Lord Brougham, she
wrote for the " Library of Useful Knowledge" a summary
of the " Mecanique Celeste" of Laplace, which appeared
in 1832 under the title of " Mechanism of the Heavens."
Her other principal works are a treatise " On the Con
nexion of the Physical Sciences," (1834,) and " Physical
Geography," (2 vols. ismo, 1848.) She was elected an
honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society,
and received a pension of three hundred pounds a year
in acknowledgment of her great services to science.
See " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1832; " Black wood's Mag-
azine" for October, 1*49; and a notice in the "Atlantic Monthly"
for May, 1860, (by Miss MARIA MITCHELL.)
Somerville, (THOMAS,) a Scottish divine and his
torian, was born at Hawick in 1741. He published a
" History of the Reign of William III.," (1792,) and a
" History of Great Britain under the Reign of Queen
Anne," (1798.) Died in 1830.
See his "Autobiography," iS6i.
Somerville, sum'er-vil, (WILLIAM,) an English poet,
born in Warwickshire in 1692. His principal work is
a poem in blank verse, entitled "The Chase." He also
wrote lyrics, tales, and fables, and a poein called "Field
Sports." Died in 1742.
Sommariva, som-ma-ree'va, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,)
an Italian statesman and celebrated collector of pictures,
was born at Milan. He was one of the directors of the
Cisalpine republic in 1800-1802. Died in 1826.
Sommer, so'maiit', (JEAN EUOUARD ALHERT,) a
French writer, born at Nancy in 1822. He published
several dictionaries.
Sommerard. See Du SOMMEKARD.
Sommering or Soemmering, von, fon som'meh-
ring or zom'meh-ring, (SAMUEL THOMAS,) a celebrated
German anatomist and physiologist, born at Thorn in
1755- UG studied at Gottingen, and became professor
of anatomy at Mentz in 1784. Among his numerous and
valuable works we may name his treatise, in German, " On
the Brain and Spinal Marrow," (1788,) "On the Struc
ture of the Human Body," (5 vols., 1791,) "On the Organ
of the Soul," (1796.) and (in Latin) "On the Diseases
of the Absorbing Vessels of the Human Body." He
maintained the theory that the nerves act independently
of the brain, which he considered not essential to the
continuance of life. Died in 1830.
See Ri'Doi.pii WAGNKR, " Soemmering's Leben and Verkehr mit
seinen Zeitgenossen," 2 vols., 1844; I. DOU.INGKR, "Gedachtniss-
rede anf S. T. von Soemmering," 1830; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale. "
Sommier, so'me-i', (JEAN CLAUDE,) a French prel
ate and writer, born at Vanvillers in 1661, published
" Dogmatic History of Religion," (" Histoire dogmatique
de la Religion," 6 vols., 1708-11,) and other works.
Died in 1737.
Somner, i-iiin'ner, (WILLIAM,) an English antiquary
and philologist, born at Canterbury in 1606. He pub
lished "The Antiquities of Canterbury," (1640,) a " Saxon
Dictionary," (1659,) a " Treatise on Gavelkind," one " On
the Roman Ports and Forts in Kent, "and other valuable
works. He was a friend of Archbishop Usher and other
learned men of the time. Died in 1669.
Som'nus, |Gr. "T~wc; Fr. SO.MMEIL, so'mil' or sox-
m.Vye,] in classic mytho'og,', the god of sleep, was called
a son of Erebus and Nox, and a brother of Death,
(Mors or Thanatos.) (See MORPHEUS )
Sondeiiaiid, son'der-lant'or zon'der-lant', (JoiTANN
BAPTIST,) a German painter and engraver, born at Dus-
seldorf in 1804, was a pupil of Schadow. Among his
best works are etchings illustrating Burger's "Lenore,"
and "The Magician's Pupil," by Goethe.
Somienberg, son'nen -be'Ro' or zon 'nen-beRC/,
(FRANZ ANTON JOSEPH IGNAZ MARIA,) BARON, a
German poet and imitator of Klopstock, was born at
Minister, in Westphalia, in 1779. Died in 1805.
See GRUBF.R, " Lebensbeschreibmig Sonnenbergs," 1806.
Sonnenfels, von, fon son'nen-fels' or z.pn'nen-fe'ls',
(JOSEPH,) a German writer, born at Nikolsburg, in
Moravia, in 1733. He became professor of political
science at Vienna in 1763, and filled several high offices
under Maria Theresa and the emperor Francis II. He
published in 1775 a treatise "On the Abolition of the
Torture," which was chiefly instrumental in abolishing
that barbarous practice in Austria. Died in 1817.
Sonnerat, son'rt', (PIERRE,) a French naturalist,
born at Lyons about 1746. He spent about seven years
in exploring Hindustan, Malacca, the Philippine Islands,
etc., and published an account of his travels, entitled
" Travels in the Er.st Indies and China," (" Voyage aux
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 5, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, till, fa:; met; not; good; moon;
SONN1NI
2041
SOPHRON
Incles Orientales et & la Chine," 2 vols., 1782,) which is
esteemed valuable. Died in Paris in 1814.
Somiiiii de Manoacourt, so'ne'ne' deli mS'ni.N'-
koou', (CHARLES NICOLAS SIGISHKRT,) a celebrated
French naturalist and traveller, born at Luneville in
1751. He studied at the Jesuits' College at Pont-a-
Mousson, and in 1772 was sent as an officer of marine
engineers to Cayenne, where he spent several years in
scientific researches. In 1777 he accompanied Baron
cle Tott on his African expedition, visiting Egypt,
Greece, and Asia Minor. He returned to France in
1780, and was imprisoned in the reign of terror. Among
his chief works are "Travels in Egypt," (3 vols., 1799,)
"Travels in Greece and Turkey," (2 vols., 1801,) and
"Natural History of Fishes and Cetaceas," (14 vols.,
1804.) He published a complete edition of the works
of Buffon, (127 vols., 1798-1807.) Died in Paris in 1812.
lie had been employed by Buffon to describe many
species of birds for his "Natural History."
See THIEBAUT DE BERNEAUO, " filoge historique de Sonnini,"
1812; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Monthly Review" for
January, 1802.
Soiitag, son'tag or zon'tac, (HENRIETTK,) one of the
most celebrated female vocalists of Germany, was born at
Coblentz in 1805. Having studied at the Conservatory
of Music at Prague, she visited successively the principal
cities of Germany, Paris, and London, being received
everywhere with enthusiastic applause. In 1830 she
was married to Count Rossi, ambassador of Sardinia at
the Hague, and retired from the stage. Owing to pecu
niary embarrassments, she appeared again in public in
1848, and in 1853 set out for America, where she also
met with brilliant success. She died in 1854, while on
the way to Mexico.
See "Memoirs of the Countess de Rossi," London, 1849; T.
GAUTIER, " L'Ambassadrice ; Biographic de la Comtesse de Rossi,"
1850; " Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1850.
Sonthoiiax, s6N'to'ntks',(LEGER FELiciTE,)aFrench
political agent, born in Bugey (Ain) in 1763. He was
sent in 1792 as commissary to Hayti to restore order,
and liberated the slaves of that island in 1793, in con
sequence of which the pro-slavery party commenced a
civil war. Died in 1813.
Soodra or Sudra, written also Qudra, soo'dra,
called Soo'der by the modern Hindoos, [etymology
uncertain.] The Soodras are the lowest of the four prin
cipal Hindoo castes. (See BRAHMAMSM.)
Soomarokof or Sumarokow, soo-ma-ro'kof, writ
ten also Somarokof and Sumarokov, a Russian
poet and dramatist, called the founder of the Russian
drama, was born at Moscow in 171801- 1727. He was
the author of both comedies and tragedies. Among
the latter we may name his "Demetrius," and " Sinov
and Truvor." He also wrote numerous lyrics, elegies,
sonnets, epigrams, and satires. Died in 1777.
Soora. See SURAS.
Soorya. See SURYA.
Sop'a-ter [Zu-arpof] OF APAMEA, a Greek Sophist,
and a pupil of Jamblichus. He enjoyed for a time the
favour of Constantine the Great, but was afterwards put
to death by him, about 334 A.D.
So-phi'a, [Ger. SorniK, zo-fee'eh; Fr. SOPHIE, so'-
fe',] Klectressof Hanover, born about 1630, was a daugh
ter of the Elector-Palatine. Her mother was Elizabeth,
a daughter of James I. of England. Sophia was married
in 1658 to Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick- Liine-
burg, who became Elector of Hanover. She was intimate
with Leibnitz. In 1701 she was recognized as the heir
to the English crown (next to the princess Anne) by
Parliament, which preferred her to other members of
the royal family because she was a Protestant. Her son
became George I. of England. She died in 1714.
See FF.DER, "Sophie Churfiirsten von Hannover, im Umriss,"
1810.
So-phi'a Al-ex-I-ev'na, a Russian princess, daugh
ter of the Czar Alexis Mikhailovitch, and half-sister of
Peter the Great, was born in 1657. She was ambitious and
energetic. At the death of Feodor (1682) she instigated
the Strelitzes to revolt against Peter I., and caused her
brother Ivan to be recognized as joint sovereign with
Peter. She acted as regent from 1682 to 1689, and then
was confined in a convent. Died in 1704.
So-phi'a Dor-o-the'a [Ger. SOPHIK DOROTHEA, zo-
fee'eh do-ro-ta'a ; Fr. SOPHIE DOROTHEA, so'fe' do'ro'-
ta'[ OF BRUNSWICK, born in 1666, was a daughter of
George William, Duke of Zell. She was married in 1682
to her cousin George, afterwards George I. of England,
who treated her ill. Having been suspected of a passion
for the Count de Konigsmarck, she was divorced in 1694,
and confined in prison until she died, in 1726.
See "Memoirs of Sophia Dorothea, Consort of George I.," Lon
don, 2 vols., 1845; HKNRI BLAZE, " Les Koeuigsmark," 1856.
Sophia Dorothea, Queen of Prussia, born in 1687,
was a daughter of George I. of England. She was mar
ried to Frederick William I. of Prussia. Died in 1757.
Sophie. See SOPHIA.
Soph'o-cles, [Gr. Zo^cw/j/f ,• Fr. SOPHOCLK, so'fok'l',]
a celebrated Greek tragic poet, born at the village of
Colonus, near Athens, in 495 B.C. lie received a liberal
education. His first drama was represented in 468, when
he appeared as a rival of ^ischylus, and gained the first
prize, which was awarded by Cimon and other judges.
The drama which he exhibited at this time is supposed
to have been " Triptolemus," which is not extant. We
have no record of the events of his life between the years
468 and 440 B.C., when he produced his "Antigone,"
which was very successful. The Athenians were so well
pleased with it that they elected Sophocles one of the
ten strategi, or generals. The illustrious Pericles was
one of the sfrafegi chosen at the same time. Sophocles
acted as a general in the war against Samos in 440-
439, but did not distinguish himself in military affairs.
His conduct appears to have been consistent with
the patriotic sentiments expressed in his writings. He
was invited to their courts by several monarchs, but
always refused to abandon his native country or accept
their patronage.
He composed more than a hundred tragedies, of which
seven are extant, namely, "Antigone," " Electra," " Tra-
chiniae," " CEdipus Tyrannus," " Ajax," " Philoctetes,"
and "CEdipus at Colonus." He is said to have gained
the first prize twenty times or more. His son lophon
was distinguished as a dramatic poet. Sophocles was
remarkable for personal beauty and symmetry, and
excelled in music and gymnastics. He died in 40^ B.C.
" By the universal consent of the best critics," says
Professor Philip Smith, "both of ancient and of modern
times, the tragedies of Sophocles are not only the per
fection of the Greek drama, but they approach as nearly
as is conceivable to the perfect ideal model of that
species of poetry." (See Smith's "Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Biography," etc.)
" Sophocles was the high-priest of humanity. He
chose, as he phrased it, 'to put away the pomp of /Es-
chylus along with his childish things ;' and he exhibited
that mild grandeur and matchless refinement in which
he excels all the dramatists of Greece. He made tragic
poetry a true mirror of the passions of the soul of
man, and exhibited, as has seldom been done, the true
moral significance of human action." ("Encyclopaedia
Britannica.':)
See LESSIN-G, " Lebcn des Sophocles," 1790; SCHOI.I, " Sopho-
kles, sein Leben mid Wirken," etc.. 1*42; BEKGK, " De Vita So-
phoclis," 1858; K. O. MUI.I.EK, "History of the Literature of
Ancient Greece;" WKI.CKKK, "Die Griechischen Tragodien," 3
vols., 1839-41; K. Sciii'i.TZ. " Commentatin de Vila Sophoclis
Poets," 1836; REUTER, " Dissertatio de yEschyio, Sophocle et
Euripide," 1831.
Sophocles, the son of Ariston, an Athenian tragic
poet, was a grandson of the great Sophocles. He flour
ished about 390 B.C., and produced numerous dramas,
some of which gained prizes.
Sophouie or Sophonias. See ZEPHANIAH.
Soph-o-nis'ba, [Gr. Soponofia ,- Fr. SOPHONMSBK, so'-
fo'nesb',] a Carthaginian lady, became the wife of Syphax,
King of Numidia, about 206 li.C. She was taken pris
oner in 203 by Masinissa, who had formerly been her
lover. He married her, or resolved to marry her ; but
Scipio would not permit him to keep her, because he
feared she would convert him into an ally of Carthage.
She died by poison given to her by Masinissa.
Sophoiiisbe. See SOPHONISBA.
So'phron, [2<I»ty>ur,] a Greek comic poet, born at
Syracuse about 450 01-425 B.C. He is considered to be
€ as *,- 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; x, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SOPRANI
SOUBISE
the inventor of "mimes." His works, which are lost,
except small fragments, were greatly admired by Plato,
who is said to have been largely indebted to them. So-
phron wrote in the Doric dialect.
See FABRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Graca;" GRYSAR, "DeComcedia
Doriensium ; cle Sophrone mimograplio," 1838.
Soprani, so-pra'nee, (RAFFAELLO,) an Italian biogra
pher, born at Genoa in 1612. He wrote "The Lives of
the Genoese Painters, Sculptors, and Architects," (in
Italian, 1674.) Died in 1672.
So-ra'nus, ['Zupavof,} a celebrated Greek physician,
born at Ephesus, was the son of Menander, and lived
under the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. He was the
author of a treatise " On the Obstetric Art," etc., a por
tion of which is extant, and of other medical works.
Soranzo, so-ran'zo, (GIOVANNI,) a Venetian states
man, was elected doge in 1312. He is said to have
governed wisely. Died in I327-
Sorbait, sou'bi' or soR'bit, (PAUL,) a medical writer,
born in Hainault, practised in Vienna. Died in 1691.
Sorbier, soit'be-i', (JKAN BARTHOLOM^,) a French
general of artillery, svas born in Paris in 1762. He served
at Borodino, Lutzen, and Leipsic. Died in 1827.
Sorbiere, soR'bej-aJK', (SAMUEL,) a French littera
teur, born at Saint- Ambroix in 1615. He studied medi
cine, and wrote, besides other works, " Letters on Divers
Curious Matters," (1660,) and a "Life of Gassendi,"
(1662.) He received the title of historiographer to the
king in 1660. Died in 1670.
See " Sorberiana," Toulouse, 1691 ; NICI£RON, "Memoires."
Sorbin de Sainte-Foi, soR'baN1' deh saNt'fwi',
(AKNAUD,) a French priest and polemical writer, born
in 1532. He became court preacher to Charles IX. and
Henry HI., the latter of whom appointed him Bishop
of Nevers in 1578. Died in 1606.
See REY, " Vie d'A. Sorbin," 1860 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene1-
rale."
Sorbon, de, deh soR'boN', (ROBERT,) a French ec
clesiastic, born near Rethel in 1201, was confessor to
Saint Louis, and founded about 1250 the College of the
Sorbonne in Parrs. Died in 1274.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
Sor'by, (HENRY CLIFTON,) an English geologist,
born at Sheffield in 1826. He has contributed numerous
scientific articles to the " Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal," and other periodicals of the kind, and has been
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Geo
logical Society.
Sordello, soR-del'lo, an Italian poet, born near
Mantua in the twelfth century. He was patronized by
Charles of Anjou, and wrote amatory and satirical
poems. He is eulogized by Dante in his " Purgatorio."
Died after 1266.
Sorel, so'rel', (AGNES,) a beautiful Frenchwoman,
born in Touraine, became the mistress of King Charles
VII., over whom she exercised great influence. She
incited him to greater resolution and activity in resisting
the English invaders, who had conquered a large part
of France. She was a woman of superior talents. Died
in 1450.
Sorel, (CHARLES,) a French novelist and historian,
born in Paris about 1597. Among his works were a
"Comic History of Francion," (" Histoire comique de
Francion," 1622,) a " History of the French Monarchy,"
(1636,) and "French Library," (" Bibliotheque Fran-
9oise," 1664.) Died in 1674.
Sorgh. See ZORGH.
Sorri, sor'ree, (PiETRO,) an Italian painter, born at
Sienna in 1556. He painted history, landscapes, and
portraits. His works are highly praised. Died in 1622.
Sor-tain', (JOSEPH,) an English writer, born in 1809,
was for many years minister of an Independent church
at Brighton. He published, besides other works, " Lec
tures on Romanism and Anglo-Catholicism," (1841,)
and a "Life of Lord Bacon," (1851.) Died in 1860.
See "Life of J. Sortain," by his widow, 1861.
So-sib'I-us, [Swoifiw;,] an Athenian sculptor of un
known date. Among his works is a vase adorned with
figures of Artemis and Hermes. This vase is now in the
Louvre, at Paris.
So-sig'e-nes, [Gr. "Zumyevrif ; Fr. SOSIGENE, so'ze'-
zh<ln',] a Greek or Egyptian astronomer, born in Egypt,
was a Peripatetic in philosophy. He was employed by
Julius Caesar (46 B.C.) to reform the calendar, and de
fined a year to be three hundred and sixty-five days and
five or six hours.
So-siph'a-nes, [Gr. Zuaujtuvris ; Fr. SOSIPHANE, so'-
zc'f&n',] a Greek tragic poet of Syracuse, lived about
300 B.C. He is said to have been one of the seven
poets called the "Tragic Pleiad."
Sosithee. See SOSITHKUS.
So-sith'e-us, [Gr. 2wo7#fo<; ; Fr. SOSITHEE, so'zeW,]
a Greek poet of the Alexandrian school, lived in the
third century B.C.
Sost, sost, Soest, or Zoest, (GERARD,) a German
portrait-painter, born in Westphalia in 1637. lie worked
in England. Died in 1681.
Sostrate. See SOSTRATUS.
Sos'tra-tus, |Gr. Zwarparof,- Fr. SOSTRATE, so'strti/,]
a Greek architect, bom at Cnidos, lived about 300 B.C.
Among his works was the Pharos of Alexandria.
Sostratus OK CHIOS, a Greek statuary, the master
of Pantias, is supposed to have lived about 400 B.C.
Sot'a-des, [Gr. £<jru<i?/ft- Fr. SOTADE, so'tSd',] a
Greek poet, who flourished at Alexandria about 280
B.C. His poems were extremely lascivious. He was
imprisoned by Ptolemy Philadelphia, against whom he
had written a lampoon.
So'ter, was elected Bishop of Rome about 165 A.I).
lie is said to have opposed the doctrines of Montanus.
Died in 177.
Sotheby, siith'be, (SAMUEL LEIGH,) an English
antiquary and bibliographer ot London, born in 1805 ;
died in 1861.
Sotheby, (WILLIAM,) an English scholar and poet,
born in London in 1757. He made a number of trans
lations from the German and other languages, among
which we may name the " Oberon" of Wieland, Virgil's
" Georgics," and Homer's " Iliad" and "Odyssey." He
was also the author of a tragedy entitled " Orestes,"
and of "Constance de Castile," and other poems. lie
was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and of the Society of
Antiquaries. Died in 1833.
See " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807; " Blackwood's Maga
zine" for April and May, 1831, and February, 1832.
Soto, so'to, (DOMINGO,) a Spanish Dominican monk,
born at Segovia in 1494, became professor of philosophy
at Alcala in 1519. He was sent in 1545 by Charles V.
as his first theologian to the Council of Trent, where he
was conspicuous for learning and ability. He afterwards
became confessor to Charles V. He wrote "Summnlas,"
or a treatise on the Dialects and Physics of Aristotle,
and other works in Latin. Died in 1560.
Soto, so'to, ( PEDRO,) a Spanish monk, who went to
England with Philip II. lie was afterwards a member
of the Council of Trent. Died in 1563.
Soto, de, (HERNANDO.) See DE SOTO.
Sotomayor, de, da so-to -ma-ydi*', (Luis,) a Spanish
painter, born at Valencia in 1635 ; died in 1673.
Sotzmann, sots'man, (DANIEL FKIEDRICH.) a Ger
man geographer, born at Spandau in 1754, published a
number of valuable maps and charts. Died in 1840.
Soubeiran, soo'b&'roN', (EUGENE,) a French writer
on pharmacy, born in Paris in 1797. He became pro
fessor in the School of Pharmacy, Paris. Died in 1858.
Soubeyran, (PIERRE,) a Swiss engraver, born at
Geneva in 1709, worked in Paris. Died in 1775.
Boubise, soo'bez', ( JEAN de Parthenai — deli ptut'-
ni',) LORD OF, a Huguenot leader, born of a noble
family of Poitou about 1512. Sent by the Prince of
Conde to defend Lyons, he compelled the Duke of Ne
mours to raise the siege of that place. Died in 1566.
Soubise, de, deh soo'bez', (BENJAMIN de Rohan —
deh ro'6N',) SEIGNEUR, a French nobleman and soldier
of the Huguenot party, born about 1585, was a brother
of the Duke de Rohan. He took an active part in the
religious wars of the time, and fought with varying suc
cess against Louis XIII. and the Catholic faction. He
was noted for his turbulence and audacity. In 1626 a
peace was concluded, and Soubise was created a duke.
Soon after this date he induced the Duke of Bucking-
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m§t; not; good; moon;
SOUBISE
2043
SOUMET
ham to aid the Huguenots with an English fleet. He
passed his latter years in England, and died in London
in 1642.
See HAAC, " La France protestante;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Gene rale. "
Soubise, de, (CHARLES de Rohan,) PRINCE, a
French general, born in Paris in 1715. He became a
favourite courtier of Louis XV. In 1757 he was de
feated by Frederick the Great at Rossbach. He gained
two victories in 1758, at Sondershausen and Lut/elberg,
and was rewarded with the rank of marshal of France.
Died in 1787.
See DE COURCEI.LES. " Dictionnaire des Generaux Fran^ais ;"
" Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Souchay or Souchai, soo'shi', (JEAN BAPTISTF.,) a
French writer and editor, born near Vendome in 1688.
He edited the works of Boileau (1735) and other authors.
Died in 1746.
Souchon, soo'shAN1', (FRANQOIS,) a French painter,
born at Alais (Card) in 1785 ; died in 1857.
Souciet, soo'se-i', or Souchiet, soo'she-i', (firi-
ENNE,) a learned French priest, born at Bourges in
1671. He wrote on theology, chronology, etc. Died
in 1744-
Souciet, (£TIENNE AUC.USTIN,) a brother of the
preceding, born at Bourges in 1685, was an elegant
Latinist. He wrote a Latin poem on comets, (" Co-
metae," 1710.) Died in 1744.
Soufflot, soo'flo', (JACQUES GERMAIN,) a celebrated
French architect, born near Auxerre in 1713. He spent
several years at. Rome in the study of his profession,
and after his return constructed the Great Hospital at
Lyons, also a theatre of uncommon size and elegance.
Having settled in Paris, he was elected to the Academy
of Architecture, and in 1757 was employed to rebuild
the church of Saint Genevieve, since called the Pan
theon, a superb edifice, which, however, he did not live
to complete. Died in 1781.
See Qu'ATRKMEKE r>K QUINCV, "Vies des plus celebres Archi-
tectes ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Genera'e."
Souham, soo'6x', (JOSEPH,) a French general, born
at Lubersac in 1760. He became a general of division
in 1793, and served under Pichegru in Flanders. Sus
pected of complicity with Moreau, he was imprisoned
in 1804, but was restored to his rank in the army in
1807. He rendered important services at Lutzen (1813)
and Leipsic. Died in 1837.
See " Xouvelle Biographie Generale.'
Soulange-Bodin, soo'IoN/h' bo'dax', (£TIENNE,) a
French horticulturist and writer, born at Tours in 1774.
He planted a botanic garden at Fromont, (Seine-et-Oise.)
Died in 1846.
Soulange-Teissier, soo'lfi.vzh' ti'se-i', (Louis EMA-
NUEL,) a French lithographer, was born at Amiens in
1815.
Soulas. See FI.ORIDOR.
Soulavie, soo'lt've', (JEAN Louis GIRAUD,) a French
historical writer, born in Ardeche in 1752. He was
appointed French resident at Geneva in 1793. ^e
published, besides other works, " Memoirs of Marshal
Richelieu," (9 vols., 1791,) and "Historical Memoirs of
the Reign of Louis XVI.," (6 vols., 1802.) Died in 1813.
See QL'ERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" " Noiivelle Biographie
Genera e."
Soule, sool, ( JOSHUA,) D.D., an American Method
ist divine, born at Bristol, Maine, in 1781, rose through
several promot'ons to be senior bishop of the Methodist
Episcopal Church in 1843.
Soule, soo'li', (PiERRE,) a diplomatist and politician,
born in the department of Ariege, France, about 1802,
emigrated to America in 1825, and settled in New Or
leans, where he rose to distinction as a lawyer. He was
elected to the United States Senate in 1849. and in 1853
appointed minister to Spain. I le was one of the authors
of the "Ostend Manifesto" in relation to Cuba, (1854.)
He returned home in 1855. In 1862 he was arrested for
disloyalty in New Orleans. Died in 1870.
Soulie, soo'le-i', (MELCHIOR FKEDEUIC,) a French
novelist and dramatic writer, born at Foix, in the de
partment of Ariege, in 1800. Among his numerous ro
mances, which appeared originally in the journals as
feuilletons, we may name the " Vicomte de Beziers,"
(1834,) " Le Magnetiseur," "Diane et Louise," (1836,)
"The Man of Letters," (1838,) and "Memoirs of the
Devil," (1842.) The last-named had an i-mmense sale
and great popularity. His drama of "Clotilde" was
also highly successful. Died in 1847.
SeeM. CHAMPION, " F. Soulie, sa Vie etsesOuvrages," 1847 ; QUE-
RARD, " La France Lilteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Soulouque.soo'look', (F.vusTiN,) Emperor of Hayti,
a negro, born about 1785, was originally a slave. He
entered the army, and attained the rank of general. He
was elected president in 1847, and usurped the title of
emperor in 1849. His reign is said to have been tyran
nical and cruel. He was deposed in 1859, and retired
to France. Died in 1867.
See G. D'AI.AUX, "Soulouque et son Empire;" "Nouvelle Bio
graphie Generale."
Soult, scolt, (NAPOLEON HECTOR,) Duke of Dalma-
tia, a diplomatist, born in 1801, was a son of Marshal
Soult. He was sent as ambassador to Turin in 1839,
and to Berlin in 1843. ^e was recalled in 1848. Died
in 1857.
Soult, (NICOLAS JEAN DE DIEU,) Duke of Dalmatia,
a celebrated French general, born at Saint-Amans la
Bastide (Tarn) in March, 1769. He entered the army
in 1785, became general of brigade in 1794, gained sev
eral victories in Germany, and obtained the rank of a
general of division in 1799. He shared with Massena
the honour of defending Genoa in 1800, was appointed
a colonel of the consular guard in 1802, and became a
marshal of France in 1804. He rendered important
services at Austerlitz, in 1805, and at Jena, in 1806. In
1807 he received the title of Due de Dalmatie, and in
1808 was sent to Spain. He commanded the army which
attacked Sir John Moore at Corunna in January, 1809,
and was repulsed. In March ensuing he took Oporto.
Having succeeded Jourdan as commander-in-chief of
the armies in Spain, he gained a victory at Ocana in
November, 1809, and occupied Andalusia in 1810. He
was defeated by General Beresford at Albuera in May,
i8u. Dissension arose in 1812 between Soult and
King Joseph, who preferred Jourdan as his second in
command. In March, 1813, Soult joined the grand
army in Germany. He commanded the Old Guard at
Lutzen, and the centre at Bautzen. In the summer of
1813 he was sent as commander-in-chief to oppose the
victorious progress of Wellington in Spain. He dis
played great skill in this campaign, but was defeated at
Orthez, February, 1814. The English also claimed the
victory at the great battle of Toulouse, fought in April,
1814, after the allies had taken Paris.
Soult was appointed minister of war by Louis XVIII.
in December, 1814, but he joined the standard of Napo
leon in March, 1815, and fought at Waterloo. He was
banished in January, 1816, recalled in 1819, and restored
to the rank of marshal in 1820. He became minister of
war in November, 1830, and prime minister in October,
1832, with Guizot as one of his colleagues. In July,
1834, he retired from office, and was succeeded by M.
Thiers. Soult was president of the council from May,
1839, to March I, 1840. In October, 1840, Guizot and
Soult were requested by the king to form a new ministry,
in which Soult was president of the council and minister
of war, but the former was the real chief. He resigned
in September, 1847, and died in November, 1851.
See THIERS, " History of the French Revolution," and " His-
toire de 1'Empire :" SOUTHEV. " History of the Peninsular War;"
\V. NAPIER, " History of the War in the Peninsula." 6 vols., 1828-
40: SAI.I.E, " Vie politique du Marechal Soult. "1834; LOMENIE,
" Galerie des Contemporains :" GUIZOT. "Memoires:" GROZE-
I.IER, " Le Marechal Soult. sa Vie militaire," 1852 ; " Nouvelle
Biographie Ganerale;" '• Foreicn Quarterly Review" for June,
1835 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1844.
Soult, (PIERRE BENOIT,) BARON, a brother of the
preceding, was born at Saint-Amans in 1770. He
became a general of brigade in 1807, and a general of
division in 1813. Died in 1843.
Soumarokof. See SOOMAROKOF.
Soumet, soo'mi', (AI.EXANDRE,) a French poet, born
at Castelnaudary in 1788. He produced, in 1822. trage
dies entitled " Clytemnestra" and " Saul," which were
successful, and was elected a member of the French
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SOURDIS
2044
SOVTHET
Academy ill 1824. Among his other works are "The
Divine Epopee," ("La divine Epopee," 1840,) and
"Joan of Arc," an epic poem, (1845.) Died in 1845.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sourdis, de, deh sooR'dess', (FRANCOIS D'Escou-
liLEAU,) a French cardinal, born in 1575. He became
Archbishop of Bordeaux in 1599. Died in 1628.
Sourdis, de, (llENRi,) a prelate, a brother of the pre
ceding, was born in 1593. lie became Archbishop of
Bordeaux in 1629. Died in 1645.
Sousa. See FARIA Y SOUZA.
South, (Sir JAMES,) F.R.S., an English astronomer,
born probably in London. He practised medicine or
surgery in his early life. He was one of the founders
of the Royal Astronomical Society, organized about
1820, and he distinguished himself as an observer. In
1826 he obtained the Copley medal of the Royal Society.
Died in October, 1867.
South, (ROBERT,) D.D., an eminent English divine,
born in Middlesex in 1633. He studied at Christ Church,
Oxford, where John Locke was one of his fellow-students.
He graduated in 1657, was ordained in 1658, and in 1660
became university orator. He was made a canon of
Christ Church, Oxford, in 1670. He subsequently ac
companied Lawrence Hyde, son of Chancellor Claren
don, on his mission to John Sobieski, King of Poland.
After his return he was appointed rector of Islip, in
Oxfordshire, and chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles II. He
was repeatedly offered the highest preferments in the I
Church by that sovereign and his successor, James II., |
but he declined them all. Dr. South was a zealous ad
vocate of the doctrine of the divine right of kings, and
strongly opposed to Roman Catholics and dissenters,
whom he frequently assailed in his sermons with all the
powers of his brilliant wit and keen sarcasm. He wrote
a polemical work on the Trinity against Dr. Sherlock
about 1693. Died in 1716.
See " Retrospective Review," vol. ix., 1824 ; " London Quarterly
Review" lor April, 1868.
Southampton, suth-ham'ton, (HENRY WRIOTHES-
I.EY,) EARL OF, an English peer, noted as a patron of
Shakspeare, was born about 1573. Shakspeare dedi
cated his "Venus and Adonis" to him in 1593. South
ampton was implicated in the conspiracy of the Earl of
Essex, (1601,) and was imprisoned for that offence, but
was released in 1603, and became a favourite of James
I. Died about 1624.
Southard, suth'ard, (SAMUEL L.,) an American
statesman, born at Baskingridge, New Jersey, in June,
1787. * He acquired eminence as a lawyer, was elected
a Senator of the United States in 1821, and was appointed
secretary of the navy in December, 1823, by President
Monroe. He was retained in that office by President
Adams from 1825 to 1829, became Governor of New
Jersey in 1832, and was again elected a Senator of the
United States by the legislature of that State in 1833.
He continued to serve for nine years in the national
Senate, of which he was president in 1842. Died in
Virginia in June, 1842.
South'cott or South'cote, ( JOANNA,) a religious
fanatic and pretended prophetess, born in Devonshire
about 1750, was originally a domestic servant at Exeter.
About 1792 she claimed to have received divine revela
tions, and afterwards published "A \Varning to the
Whole World from the Sealed Prophecies of Joanna
Southcott," (1803,) "The Book of Wonders, in Five
Parts," (1813,) and other pamphlets of absurd and nearly
unintelligible contents. She died in 1814, having pre
viously announced that she would give birth to the
"second Shiloh" or the "Prince of Peace." Her fol
lowers were very numerous, and are not yet quite extinct.
See DAVID HUGHSON, " Life of J. Southcott," 1814 ; "Edinburgh
Review" for February, 1815.
Southern, suth'ern, (THOMAS,) an Irish dramatist,
born in the county of Dublin in 1660, was a friend of Pope
and Dryden. Among his best works are the tragedies of
"Oronooko" and "Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage." He
also wrote comedies entitled "The Rambling Lady,"
"The Disappointment," and "The Wives' Excuse." His
denunciations of the slave-trade 1n " Oronooko" are said
to have been the first occurring in any English writer.
Died in 1746.
See CAMPBELL, "Specimens of the British Poets."
Southey, sow'the, (CAROLINE ANNK BOWLES,) an
authoress, born at Buckland, Hampshire, in 1787. She
wrote, besides other works, "Ellen Fitz-Arthur," a
poem, (1820,) "The Widow's Tale, and other Poems,"
(1822,) and " Solitary Hours," prose and verse, (1826,)
which were received with favour. In 1839 she was
married to Robert Southey, whose mental faculties soon
after failed. She nursed him with patient devotion to
the end of his life. Died in 1854.
See " Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1837.
Southey, (HENRY HERBERT, or THOMAS,) an Eng
lish medical writer, born about 1784, was a brother of
the poet, Robert Southey. He was physician-in-ordinary
to George IV., and examiner of lunatics under the court
of chancery. He wrote "On Pulmonary Consumption,"
and other works. Died in June, 1865.
Southey, (ROBERT,) an eminent English author, was
born at Bristol on the I2th of August, 1774. He was
the son of a linen-draper, who failed in business and left
him little or nothing. During his childhood he lived in
the house of his maiden aunt, Miss Tyler, an eccentric
lady, who often took him to the theatre before he was
seven years of age, but subjected him to a rigid disci
pline. He began to write verse before he was ten years
old, and was placed at Westminster School in 1788, with
the assistance of his mother's brother, the Rev. Herbert
Hill. In 1792 he was expelled from Westminster for
writing an essay against corporal punishment, which was
printed in a school periodical called "The Flagellant."
His political principles at this period were republican
or radical. lie entered Balliol College, Oxford, in 1792,
and there adopted Unitarian doctrines. In 1793 he
wrote "Wat Tyler," a drama, and "Joan of Arc," an
epic poem, which was first published in 1796. In June,
1794, he was introduced at Oxford to S. T. Coleridge,
with whom he formed an intimate friendship. As he
had no definite prospect, and was much perplexed in
relation to the choice of a profession, he resolved to join
Coleridge in his visionary project to emigrate to Penn
sylvania and found a Pantisocracy on the banks of the
Susquehanna. His aunt Tyler, who was a staunch Tory
and abhorred dissenters, on being informed of his pro
ject and opinions, turned him out of her house in a
rainy night of October, 1794. lie left Oxford in the
same year, received from Joseph Cottle fifty guineas for
his "Joan of Arc," and married Edith Fricker in Novem
ber, 1795. About the same date the project of Pantisoc
racy was abandoned, for want of money. Immediately
after his marriage he sailed tor Lisbon with his uncle
Mr. Hill, who was chaplain to the British embassy in
that city. He remained about six months in the penin
sula, and laid the foundation of that acquaintance with
Spanish and Portuguese literature in which he was sur
passed by few, if any, Englishmen. Alter his return, he
published "Letters written during a Short Residence in
Spain and Portugal," (1797,) and, having entered Gray's
Inn, London, began to study law, which he found so
uncongenial that he soon abandoned it. Reading law
seemed to him "like thrashing straw."
He published in 1801 "Thalaba the Destroyer: a
Metrical Romance." After various adventures, and sev
eral changes of occupation and residence, he settled in
1803 at Greta Hall, near Keswick, with Coleridge, who
was his brother-in-law. Here he enjoyed the society of
Wordsworth and the most beautiful scenery of England,
— the lake country. The subsequent part of his life
affords an example of almost unequalled literary indus
try, combined with a faithful performance of his domestic
duties. After his youthful enthusiasm had cooled, he
became a conservative in politics, and a zealous member
of the Anglican Church. In 1805 he published "Met
rical Tales, and other Poems ;" and "Madoc, a Poem, in
Two Parts," which was not received with much favour.
He became a contributor to the "Quarterly Review"
about 1808, published a Indian poem entitled "The Curse
of Kehama" in iSio, and was appointed poet-laureate in
1813. He generously supported the family of Coleridge,
whom the latter left dependent on him at Greta Hall.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
SOUTHGATE
2045
SPADA
In 1835 'ie received a pension of three hundred pounds
a year irom the government. Having lost his wife in
1837, he married Caroline Bowles in 1839. About this
time his overtasked faculties became prostrated, and he
sank into a state of mental imbecility. He died at Greta
Hall, March 21, 1843. Besides the poems above named,
he wrote "Roderick, the Last of the Goths," (1814.)
Among his numerous prose works are an excellent
"Life of Lord Nelson," (2 vols., 1813,) a "Life of John
Wesley," (2 vols., 1820,) a "History of the Peninsular
War,"' (3 vols., 1822-32,) "Essays, Moral and Political,"
(1832,) "The Doctor," (7 vols.,' 1834-37,) and a "Life
of William Cowper."
"Mr. Southey's prose style," says Hazlitt, "can
scarcely be too much praised. It is plain, clear, pointed,
familiar, perfectly modern in its texture, but with a grave
and sparkling admixture of archaisms in its ornaments
and occasional phraseology." (" Spirit of the Age.") "It
is Southey's almost unexampled felicity," says Coleridge,
"to possess the best gifts of talent and genius, free from
all their characteristic defects. ... As son, brother, hus
band, father, master, friend, he moves with firm yet light
steps, alike unostentatious and alike exemplary. As a
writer, he has uniformly made his talents subservient
to the best interests of humanity, of public virtue, and
domestic piety." (" Biographia Literal ia.")
See "The Life and Correspondence of Robert Southey," edited
by liis son, the REV. CHARLES CUTHBERT SOUTHEY, 6 vols., 1849-
50 ; JOSEPH COTTI.E, " Reminiscences of S. T. Coleridge and R.
Southey," 1847: CHARLES!'. BROWNE, "The Life of R. Southey."
1854; "Selections from the Letters of R. Southey," edited by his
son-in-law, J. W. WARTER. 4 vols., 1856: "Edinburgh Review" for
April, 1851; MACAULAV'S essay entitled " Southey's Colloquies on
Society," 1830; JEFFREY'S critiques in the " Edinburgh Review"
for February, 1811, (vol. xvii..) and for June, 1815, (vol. xxv. ,) AL-
I.IBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
South'gate, (RICHAKD,) RKV., an English antiquary,
born in Huntingdonshire in 1729. He became an assist
ant librarian of the British Museum. Died in 1795.
South'well, (NATHANIEL,) was secretary to the
general of the order of Jesuits at Rome about 1650. He
wrote a continuation of the "Bibliotheca Scriptorum
Societatis Jesu," or "Jesuits' Library," down to 1676, in
which year he died.
South'well, (ROBERT,) an English Catholic, born in
1560, became prefect of the English Jesuits' College at
Rome, and was afterwards sent as a missionary to Eng
land. Having admitted that he came for the purpose
of making converts, he was tried and executed in 1595.
He was the author of hymns and religious treatises.
See "Gent'eman's Magazine" for November, 1798: "Retro
spective Review." vol. iv., (1821;) CLEVELAND, "Compendium of
English Literature."
South'worth, (Mus. EMMA D. E. NK.VITT,) an
American novelist, born at Washington, District of
Columbia, in 1818. She contributed a number of tales
and sketches to the "National Era" at Washington, and
subsequently published in that journal her novel entitled
" Retribution." Among her other works may be named
"The Deserted Wife," "The Lost Heiress," and the
"Curse of Clifford."
Soutman, sowt'man, (PKTER,) a Dutch painter of
history, born about 1590; died in 16^3.
Soutzo, soot'zo, or Sutzos, soot'zos, (ALEXANDER,)
a modern Greek poet and historian, born at Constanti
nople about 1800. He wrote political satires against
various parties which divided Greece after 1824. In
1829 he published, in French, a " History of the Greek
Revolution." He is considered by some writers as the
greatest poet of modern Greece.
Soutzo, (P.,) a modern Greek poet, was a younger
brother of the preceding. He became councillor of
state at Athens.
Souvarof. See SUWAROW.
Souvestre, soo've'stR', (£MILE,) a French writer and
journalist of high reputation, born at Morlaix, in Brit
tany, in 1806. He published in 1836 a work entitled
" Les derniers Bretons," an admirable description of the
manners, customs, etc. of Brittany. About the same
time he became associate editor of the " Revue de Paris"
and the "Revue des Deux Mondes." Among his best
productions, many of which appeared first in the leading
Parisian journals, we may name "The Confessions of a
Workman," (" Les Confessions d'un Ouvrier,") " Pierre
et Jean," "Travels in Finisterre," (1836,) " The Greased
Pole," ("Le Mat de Cocagne," 1842,) and " Le Philo-
sophe sous les Toils." His works are highly commended
for their moral purity. Died in Paris in 1854.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Souvorof or Souvorov. See SUWAROW.
Souza. See FARIA Y SOIIZA.
Souza, de, da so'za, (A DELE,) MARCHIONESS, a
French romance-writer, whose original name was FIL-
LEUL, was born in Normandy in 1760. She was first
married in 1784 to Count Flahault, who perished under
the guillotine in 1793, and in 1802 became the wife of
the Portuguese ambassador Souza-Botelho, noticed be
low. She published several popular romances, among
which we may name "Eugene de Rathelin," (1808,) and
"Adele de Senanges." Died in 1836.
See QKERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" SAINTE-BEUVE, " Cri
tiques et Portraits."
Souza, de, (JoAO,) a learned monk, born at Damas
cus, in Syria, about 1730, settled in Portugal, where he
became professor of Arabic. He was the author of an
Arabic Grammar. Died in 1812.
Souza, de, (PED*o LOPEZ,) a Portuguese navigator,
who explored the coast of Brazil about 1532. He was
drowned on the coast of Madagascar in 1539.
Souza-Botelho, so'za bo-tel'yo, (Dom JOZE MARIA,)
a Portuguese diplomatist and writer, born at Oporto in
1758, was employed in important embassies to .Sweden,
Denmark, England, and France. He published in 1818
a valuable edition of the works of Camoens. Died in
1819.
S6w'er-by, (GEORGE BRETTINGHAM,) an English
naturalist, born in 1788, was a son of James, noticed
below. He gave special attention to conchology and
entomology. Died in 1854.
Sowerby, (GEORGE BRETTINGHAM,) an artist and
naturalist, a son of the preceding, was born in 1812.
lie wrote, besides other works, a "Popular British
Conchology," (1854,) and "Illustrated Index of British
Shells," (1859.)
Sowerby, JAMES,) an English naturalist and artist,
born at Lambeth about 1760. He published "English
Botany," (1790,) in conjunction with Sir James Smith ;
also, "Exotic Mineralogy," a treatise "On the Eng
lish Fungi or Mushrooms," (3 vols., 1797-1803.) " Brit
ish Mineralogy," (5 vols., 1804-17,) and the "Mineral
Conchology of Great Britain," (6 vols., 1812-30.) These
works are beautifully illustrated by himself with coloured
plates. Died in 1822. His son, JAMES DE CARLE, born
in 1787, was one of the founders of the Royal Botanical
Society, of which he was appointed secretary.
Soyer, swa'ya', (ALEXIS,) a celebrated French cook
and writer on gastronomy, born about 1800 : died in
1858.
See " Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1851.
Soz'o-men, [Gr. Sw^ufvof; Lat. SOZOM'ENUS ; Fr.
SOZOMENE, so'zo'niin',) or, more fully, So-zom'e-nos
Her'mi-as, a Greek ecclesiastical historian, born at
Bethel, in Palestine, about 400 A.n. He practised law
at Constantinople, and wrote a History of the Church
from 323 to 439 A.D., which is extant. He is deficient
in judgment, compared with Socrates, (who lived at the
same time and wrote on the same subject,) but his style
is commended.
See VAI.ESH-S, " De Vitis et Scriptis Socratis et Sozomeni ;"
Voss, " De Historicis Gr^cis;" FABRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Graeca."
Sozomeiie and Sozomenus. See SOZOMEN.
Sozzini. See SOCINUS.
Spach, spfk, (EnouARD,) a French naturalist, born
at Strasburg in 1801. He wrote several botanical works.
Spada, spa'cla, (BERNARDINO,) an Italian cardinal,
born in the Romagna in 1594, was a patron of literature
and the fine arts. Died in 1661.
Spada, (LiONELLO,) a celebrated Italian painter,
born at Bologna in 1576. He studied at Rome under
Caravaggio, whose manner he adopted and refined.
Among his master-pieces are his "San Domenico burn
ing the Proscribed Books of the Heretics," at Bologna,
" Return of the Prodigal Son," at Modena, and " The
€ as k; c as s: g hard: g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled: s as z: th as in this. (2^="See Explanations, p. 2 \.}
SPADAFORA
2046
SPARKS
Miracle of Saint Benedict," in the monastery of San
Michele at Bosco. He excelled as a colorist, and was
esteemed one of the best artists of his time. Died in
1622.
See MALVASIA, " Felsina pittrice."
Spadafora, spa-da-fo'ra, (Pi.ACiDO,) an Italian gram
marian, born at Palermo in 1628. Among his works is
"Prosodia Italiana," (1682.) Died in 1691.
Spaendonck, van, vtn spin'donk, (GKRAART,) a
celebrated Dutch flower-painter, born at Tilbtirg about
1750. He became miniature-painter to the King of
France in 1774, and professor of iconography at the
Jardin des PI antes. Died in Paris in 1822.
Spagnoletto, span-yo-let'to, [Fr. ESI>AGNOI.ET, eV-
ptn'yo'l.Y,] an eminent Spanish painter, whose proper
name was JOSE Ribera, (re-ua'ra,) was born at San
Felipe de Xativa in 1588. He was a pupil of Michael
Angelo de Caravaggio. He worked at Rome, Naples,
and Madrid, and was afterwards appointed painter to
the court of Spain. Among his master- pieces are "The
Adoration of the Shepherds," and a " Mater Dolorosa."
His favourite subjects were martyrdoms, executions, and
other tragical scenes. Died at Naples in 1656.
Spagnuoli, span-yoo-o'lee, or Spagiioli, span-yo'lee,
(GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian poet and monk, born
at Mantua. He wrote Latin verses which were admired
by his contemporaries. Died in 1516.
Spalatin, spl'la-teen', [Lat. SPALATI'NUS,] (GEORG,)
a German scholar and Reformer, whose original name
was BuuCKllARn, was born at Spalt, in the bishopric of
Eichstadt, in 1484. Having become a convert to the
doctrines of Luther, he was appointed in 1514 by Fred
erick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, his court chaplain
and private secretary. Among his works we may name
his biographies of Frederick the Wise and John the
Constant, and " History of the Popes and Emperors of
the Time of the Reformation." Died in 1545.
See SCIILEGEL, " Historia Vita; G. Spnlatini ;" P. EKERMAN,
"Dissertatio de G. Spalatino," 1760; J. WAGNER, "G. Spalatin
und die Reformation der Kirchen," etc., 1830; UBRTHBL, " G.
Spalatini in Emendationem sacrorum Merita," 1840.
Spalatinus. See SPALATIN.
Spalding, spal'ding, (GEORGLuDWlG,)adistinguished
philologist, a son of Johann Joachim, noticed below, was
born at Barth in 1762. He prepared an excellent edi
tion of the works of Quintilian, published after his death.
He also wrote (in Latin) " Vindication of the Megaric
Philosophers." He was a member of the Academy of
Sciences at Berlin, and councillor in the ministry for
public instruction. Died in 1811.
See GEORG LUDVVIG SPAI.DING, " Memoria G. L. Spaldingii,"
1822.
Spalding, (JOHANN JOACHIM,) a Protestant theolo
gian and religious writer, born in Swedish Pomerania in
1714 ; died in 1804.
Spal'ding, (JOHN,) a Scottish historian, lived in Aber
deen. He wrote " Memorials of the Troubles in Scot
land." Died about 1670.
Spal'ding, (LYMAN,) an eminent American physician,
born at Cornish, New Hampshire, in 1775. He gradu
ated at Harvard College in 1797, and settled at Ports
mouth in 1799. He published a " New Nomenclature
of Chemistry," (1799.) In 1812 he became president of
the College of Physicians at Fairfield, New York, and
professor of anatomy and surgery. He removed to the
city of New York in 1813. He originated the "Phar
macopoeia of the United States," the plan of which he
formed about 1818. He died in October, 1821.
SeeTHACHEK, "Medical Biography."
Spal'ding, (SAMUEL,) an English theologian and dis
senting divine, born in London in 1807. He died in
1844 at the Cape of Good Hope, whither he had gone
on account of his health. His principal work is entitled
"The Philosophy of Christian Morals."
Spalding, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish critic and writer,
born at Aberdeen about 1809. He wrote, besides other
works, " Italy and the Italian Islands from the Earliest
Ages," etc., (3 vols., 1841,) and became professor of logic
in the University of Saint Andrew's in 1845. He con
tributed to the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Died in
1859-
Spallanzani, spal-lan-za'nee, (!,AZZARO,) an eminent
Italian anatomist, born at Scandiano, in the duchy of
M6dena, in 1729, was educated at Bologna. He became
professor of logic and Greek at Reggio in 1754. and ob
tained a chair at Modena in 1761. In 1768 he published
"On the Action of the Heart in the Blood-Vessels,"
(" Dell' Azione del Cuore ne' Vasi sanguigni.") He was
appointed professor of natural history at Pavia about
1770. He wrote treatises on respiration, digestion, re
production, etc. Died in 1799.
See J. TOUKDES, " Notice siir la Vie de Spallanzani," 1799 : Poz-
ZETTI, " Elogio di L. Spallanzani," 1X00 ; J. 1,. AI.IHEKT, "filoge
lustoriqne de Spallanzani," 1806; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Spangeiiberg, spang'gen-berg' or spang'en-beRc/,
(AUGUST GOTTLIEB,) founder of the Moravian Church
in America, was born at Klettenberg, in Germany, in
1704. In 1735 he visited America and founded a Mo
ravian settlement in Georgia. Having been made a
bishop in 1744, lie continued to reside nearly twenty
years in America, where he was instrumental in estab
lishing Moravian colonies at Bethlehem in Pennsylvania,
and in North Carolina. He returned to Germany in
1762, and died in 1792. He wrote, among other works,
a "Life of Count Zinzendorf," (1772,) and "Exposition
of the Doctrine of the United Brethren," ("Idea Fidei
Fratrum.")
Spangeiiberg, spang'en-beiu;', (CYRIACUS,) a Ger
man theologian and historical writer, born at Herden
in 1528, was the author of "Chronicles of Henneberg,
Holstcin, etc." Died in 1604.
Spaiiheim, span'hlm, (KzEKiEi,,) an eminent Swiss
diplomatist, scholar, and numismatist, born at Geneva
in 1629. He studied Hebrew, Arabic, and theology at
Leyden. In 1659 he was sent by the Elector-Palatine to
Italy on a diplomatic mission. He published at Rome a
work on ancient coins, " De Praestantia et Usu Numis-
mattim antiquorum," (1664.) He returned to Heidelberg
in 1665, after which he was employed by the Elector as
minister to England. About 1680 he entered the service
of the Elector of Brandenburg, who sent him as ambas
sador to Paris. Among his works is " The Roman
World," etc., (" Orbis Roman us," etc., 1697.) Died in
London in 1710.
See NICERDN, "Memoires;" SKN'KBIEK, " Histoire litteraire de
Geneve;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Spaiiheim, span'hlm, (FRIEDRICH,) a theologian,
born at Amberg, in Bavaria, in 1600, was the father of
the preceding. He was appointed professor of theology
at Leyden in 1642. He published, besides other works,
"Gospel Doubts," (" Dubia Evangelica," 1639,) and
a "Treatise on Universal Grace," (1646.) Died in 1649.
See NICEKON, "Memoires;" BAYI.E, "Historical and Critical
Dictionary."
Spaiiheim, (FRIEDRICH,) a son of the preceding,
was born at Geneva in 1632. He became professor of
divinity at Heidelberg in 1655, and obtained the chair
of theology and sacred history at Leyden in 1670.
Among his works is " A Summary of Ecclesiastical
History," (" Summa Historian ecclesiastical," 1689.)
Died in 1701.
See NICEKON, "M "moires."
Spark or Sparke, (THOMAS,) an English clergy
man, born in 1655, became prebendary of Lichfield and
Rochester. He published an edition of Lactantius,
(1684.) Died in 1692.
Sparke, (THOMAS,) a learned English Puritan min
ister, born in Lincolnshire in i S4& He became preb
endary of Lincoln in 1582. He wrote several religious
works. Died in 1616.
Sparks, (JARKD,) a distinguished American historian
and biographer, born at Willington, Connecticut, in
May, 1789, graduated at Harvard College in 1815. lie
studied theology, and was ordained minister of the First
Unitarian Church of Baltimore in 1819, after which he
wrote several treatises on theology. He became in 1823
the editor of the "North American Review," which he
conducted (in Boston) until 1830. He published "The
Life of John Ledyard," (1829,) and " The Life of Gouver-
neur Morris," (3 vols., 1832,) and expended much
labour on "The Life and Writings of George Wash
ington ; being his Correspondence, Addresses, Mes-
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
SP4RR
2047
SPENCE
sages, etc.," (12 vols. 8vo, 1833-40,) which, says R. W.
Griswolcl, is "a work in all respects as nearly perfect
as possible." He published a good edition of the com
plete works of Franklin, (10 vols., 1835-40.) In 1839
he was appointed professor of ancient and modern history
in Harvard University. He edited "The Library of
American Biography," (First Series, 10 vols., 1835-39,
and Second Series, 15 vols., 1844-48.) For this valuable
collection he wrote the biographies of Ethan Allen, Ben
edict Arnold, Marquette, Count Pulaski, La Salle, Ri-
bault, and General Charles Lee. He was president of
Harvard University from 1849 to 1852. It is stated that
he was engaged for many years on a History of the
American Revolution. Died in 1866.
"The great merits of Mr. Sparks," says Griswold,
"are reverence for truth, soundness of judgment in re
gard to evidence, and exhausting fulness of detail and
illustration." (See "Prose Writers of America.")
See BRANTZ MEYF.R, "Memoir of Jared Sparks" 1869; REV.
GEORGE E. Ei.US, "Memoirs of Jared Sparks," 1669; AU.IBONE,
'"Dictionary of Authors;" "North American Review" tor July,
1844.
Sparr, span, (OTTO CHRISTOPH,) BARON, a German
commander, born in 1593, served against the Swedes in |
1655, and was made field-marshal-general in 1657. Died |
in 1668.
Sparre, spar'reh, (Euic LARSSON,) a Swedish states
man and writer, born in 1550. lie was an adherent of
Sigismund in a civil war which resulted in the de
thronement of that king. He was executed for treason
in 1600.
Sparre, (GKHR GF:ORG,) a Swedish novelist, born
near Kronoberg in 1790. He entered the army in 1807,
and became a colonel in 1832.
Sparrmami, spaK'man, (ANDREAS,) a Swedish natu
ralist, born in the province of Upland about 1747. He
studied at Upsal under Linnaeus, and in 1772 visited
the Cape of Good Hope. He afterwards accompanied
the Forsters in their voyage round the world with Cap
tain Cook in 1772. In 1775 he set out for the interior
of Africa, where he made a valuable collection of plants,
animals, etc. After his return to Sweden, he was elected
a member of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm,
and appointed conservator of the Museum. His travels
are highly esteemed for their accuracy, and have been
translated into several languages. Died in 1820.
Spar'iow, (ANTHONY,) an English prelate under the
reign of Charles II., became Bishop of Norwich. He
published a " Rationale of the Book of Common Prayer."
Died in 1685.
Spar'ta-cus, a Thracian soldier, who was taken
prisoner by the Romans, reduced to slavery, and trained
as a gladiator. Having escaped with a number of his
associates, he became leader of a numerous band, and j
defeated Claudius Pulcher, who was sent against him '
about 73 B.C. Having proclaimed freedom to all slaves
who should join him, he raised a powerful army and de
feated several times the consuls sent against him. He
was prudent as well as brave. His army amounted to
about 100,000 men, and was invincible until dissensions
arose among them. In 71 is.c. he was blockaded by
M. Licinius Crasstis at Rhegium, and killed in a battle
which ended the great Servile war. Spartacus was an
extraordinary man, and had the qualities of a hero.
See Livv, "Epitome;" MEKIMEE, "Guerre sociale;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Spartianus, spar-she-a'nus, [Fr. SPARTIEN, spaV-
se-^,Nr,] (,-Ei.ics,) a Roman historian, who lived about
300 A.D., wrote a " History in Single Biographies of the
Roman Emperors from Cassar down to his Own Time."
Only fragments of it are extant.
Spartien. See SPARTIANUS.
Sparwenfeldt, spaR'vven-fe'lt/, (JOHAN GABRIEL,) a
Swedish linguist, born in 1655. He left, in manuscript,
a "Lexicon Slavonicum." Died in 1727.
Speckbacher, spe'k'baK'er, (JOSEPH,) a Tyrolese
patriot, and friend of Hofer, was born near Innspruck in
1768 ; died in 1820.
Speckter, spek'ter, (ERWIN,) a German painter,
born at Hamburg in 1806, was a pupil of Cornelius at
Munich. He visited Italy in 1824, and while at Rome
produced his picture of the " Sleeping Samson," es
teemed one of his master-pieces. He died in 1835.
His interesting " Letters of a German Artist from Italy"
were published in 1846.
Speckter, (OTTO,) a brother of the preceding, was
born at Hamburg in 1807. He acquired a high repu
tation as a painter of landscapes and animals, and exe
cuted a number of lithographs and etchings, among
which we may name "Twelve Etchings to Puss in
Boots."
Spedalieri, spa-da-le-a'ree, (XiccoLO,) an Italian
priest and writer, born in Sicily in 1740. He pub
lished a work on the Rights of Man, " De' Diiitti del
Uomo," (1791,) which gave offence to the clergy. Died
in 1795.
Spee, von, fon spa, (FRIF.DRICH,) a German Jesuit,
born near Kaiserswei th, on the Rhine, about 1595,
wrote devotional poems of great beauty, and an able
treatise against the belief in witchcraft. Died in 1635.
Speed, (JoHN,) an English historian, born in Che
shire about 1550. He was the author of a chronicle
entitled "The History of Great Britain under the Con
quests of the Romans, Saxons, Danes, and Normans,"
(1611,) "The Theatre of the Empire of Great Britain,"
and other works. Died in 1629.
Spegel, spii'gel, (H.AQUiN,) a Swedish prelate, born
at Ronneby in 1645. He wrote, besides other works,
a " History of the Swedish Church," ("Svenska Kyrke-
historie," 2 vols.. 1708.) In 1711 he became Archbishop
of Upsal. Died in 1713 or 1714.
Speke, speek, (Captain JOHN HANNiNG,)an English
officer, distinguished as an explorer of Africa, was born
in 1827. He served in the army in India several years.
About 1855-57 he was a companion of Captain Burton
in a journey in Africa. He discovered Lake Victoria
Nyanza in 1858. In company with Mr. Grant, he per
formed another journey to that part of Africa in 1860-61,
and discovered the sources of the Nile in 1862 by tracing
that river to Lake Xyanza. He was killed in England
in 1864 by the accidental discharge of his own gun.
See "Gentleman's Magazine" for November, 1864; "Black-
wood's Magazine" for November, 1859, ar>d May, 1860; "London
Quarterly Review" for January, 1864.
Spel'man, (EDWARD,) an English scholar and trans
lator, was a descendant of Sir Henry, noticed below.
He translated Xenophon's " Cyropaedia," and Dionysius
of Halicarnasstis. Died in 1767.
Spelman, (Sir HKNRY,) an eminent English anti
quary, born in Norfolk in 1562. He studied at Trinity
College, Cambridge, and afterwards settled in London.
He published in 1626 the first part of his " Glossarinm
Archaiologicum," a standard work of its kind, which he
left unfinished ; the remaining part was brought out by
his friend Sir William Dugdale. He also wrote "Coun
cils, Decrees, Laws, etc. of Britain in Ecclesiastical
Affairs," (in Latin, unfinished.) Died in 1641.
His son, Sir JOHN SPELMAN, wrote a "Critical Life
of King Alfred," and another son, CLEMENT, became
baron of the exchequer under Charles II. Sir John
died in 1643.
Spelta, spel'ta, (ANTONIO MARIA,) an Italian littera
teur^ born at Pa via in 1559. He published, besides other
works, "Istoria de' Fatti notabili occorsi nelP Universe,"
etc., (1603.) Died in 1632.
Spence, (JOSEPH,) an English divine and critic, born
in Hampshire in 1699. He studied at Oxford, entered,
into orders, and in 1728 became professor of poetry in
that college. Having travelled on the continent, he was
appointed after his return professor of modern history
at Oxford. His principal work is entitled " Polymetis ;
or, An Enquiry concerning the Agreement between the
Works of the Roman Poets and the Rem.iins of the
Ancient Artists," etc., which was very well received.
He also wrote an " Essay on Pope's Translation of the
Odyssey," which procured for him the friendship of
that poet, and "Anecdotes, Observations, and Charac
ters of Books and Men," a valuable and interesting
work. Mr. Spence was made a prebendary of Durham
Cathedral in 1754. He was accidentally drowned in
1768.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1820.
€ as
k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SPENCE
2048
SPENSER
, (WILLIAM,) an eminent English entomolo
gist, bom in 1783, published a number of treatises on
natural history, among which we may name "Obser
vations relative to Dr. Carus's Discovery of the Circu
lation of Blood in Insects." He also assisted the Rev.
William Kirby in his " Introduction to Entomology,
or Elements of the Natural History of Insects." lie
was a Fellow of the Royal Society and other learned
institutions. (See KIRBY.) Died in 1860.
Splhi'cer, (AMHRUSE,) LL.D., an able American
jurist, born at Salisbury, Connecticut, in 1765. He
graduated at Harvard College, and subsequently rose
through various offices to be chief justice of the State
of New York in 1810. lie retired from the bench in
1823. He married successively two sisters of De Witt
Clinton. Died in 1848.
Spencer, (CHARLES.) See SUNDERI.AND, EARL OF.
Spen'cer, (CHAULES,) Duke of Marlborough, born
in 1707, was a son of Charles III., Earl of Sunderland,
and a grandson of the famous Duke of Marlborough,
whose title he inherited in 1733. He served in the army,
and obtained the rank of lieutenant-general. Died in
1759-
Spencer, (FREDERICK,) Earl of Spencer, an English
peer, born in London in 1798. He served in the navy,
and gained the rank of rear-admiral. In 1845 'ie entered
the House of Lords.
Spencer, (GEORGE,) a Roman Catholic priest, born
in 1799, was a younger brother of Viscount Althorp.
He joined the order of Passionists, and assumed the
name of Father Ignatius. Died in 1864.
Spencer, (GEORGE JOHN,) Karl Spencer, born about
1758, was a grandson of the third Earl of Sunderland.
He was a member of the cabinet under Pitt about 1795-
1801. He died in 1834, leaving a son John Charles,
Lord Althorp.
Spencer, (HENRY.) See SUNDERLAND, EARL OF.
Spencer, (HKRBERT,) a distinguished English philos
opher and author, was born at Derby about 1820. He
learned the business of civil engineer, which he aban
doned about 1845. lie published "Social Statics; or
the Conditions essential to Human Happiness Speci
fied," etc., (1851,) and ''The Principles of Psychology,"
(1855.) His contributions to the "Westminster Re
view" and other periodicals were reprinted in a volume
entitled "Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,"
(1857.) Among his principal works, which have attracted
much attention, are" Education, Intellectual, Moral, and
Physical," (1861,) "Progress, its Law and Course,"
" First Principles," (1862,) " The Principles of Biology,"
(1863,) and " Illustrations of Universal Progress," (1864.)
Some of these are portions of an extensive work entitled
a " System of Philosophy," the prospectus of which was
issued in 1860.
See the " British Quarterly Review" for January, 1863.
Spencer, (IIuon.) See DKSPKNCKR.
Spencer, (JKSSE AMES,) D.D., an American Episco
palian divine and theologian, born in Dutchess county,
New York, in 1816. He was appointed in 1850 professor
of Latin and Oriental languages at Burlington College,
New Jersey. He published a "History of the English
Reformation," (1846,) "Egypt and the Holy Land,"
(1849,) and other works.
Spencer, (Jonx,) D.D., an English divine and scholar,
born in Kent in 1630, was created Dean of Ely. He
wrote a work entitled " De Legibus Hebrzeorum Ritu-
alibus et eorum Rationibus." Died in 1695.
Spencer, (JoiiN CANFIELD,) an American lawyer
and statesman, born at Hudson, New York, in 1788,
was a son of Ambrose, noticed above. He practised
for many years at Canandaigua, to which he removed in
1809. He was elected to Congress in 1816, and was a
member of the Senate of New York from 1824 to 1828.
lie gained a high reputation by his revision of the statutes
of New York, on which he wrote a series of essays. In
1839 he became secretary of state for New York. He
was secretary of war under the national government
from October, 1841, to March, 1843, anc^ was appointed
secretary of the treasury at the latter date. He resigned
in 1844 because he was opposed to the annexation of
Texas to the Union. About 1845 'le removed from
Canandaigua to Albany, where he died in May, 1855.
He is said to have been a man of powerful intellect and
intense energy.
Spencer, (JoiiN CHARLES.) See ALTHORP, LORD.
Spencer, (JOSEPH,) an American general, born in
Connecticut about 1714. He was appointed a major-
general in August, 1776, resigned in 1778, and was
elected to the General Congress in that year. Died
in 1789.
Spencer, (Hon. WILLIAM ROBERT,) an accomplished
English v#riter, son of Lord Charles Spencer, was born
in 1770. lie produced a translation of "Lenore." Died
in 1834.
Spener, spa'ner, (JAKOB KARL,) a German writer and
jurist, a son of the following, was born at Frankfort in
1684. He published, besides other works, a "General
History of Germany," (" Historia Germanise Universalis
et Pragmatica," 2 vols., 1717.) Died in 1730.
Spener, (Pim.ipp JAKOB,) an eminent German Prot
estant minister, born at Rappoltsweiler, now Ribeauville,
in Alsace, in January, 1635. He is called the founder
of the sect of Pietists, lie studied theology, Hebrew,
etc. at Strasburg, and began to preach in that city in
1663. Having acquired a high reputation as a preacher,
he became in 1666 first pastor of the Lutheran church
at Frankfort-on-the-Main. . He instituted, about 1670,
meetings tor religious instruction and prayer, which were
called collegia pietatis. In 1675 he published a small work
entitled " Pious Desires," (" 1'ia Desideria,") which was
highly esteemed. He was appointed court preacher at
Dresden in 1686, and removed in 1691 to Berlin, where
he obtained the office of provost of the church of Saint
Nicholas and enjoyed great influence. He was eminent
for charity and tolerance. His efforts were directed to
the promotion of vital and practical religion. The chairs
of theology in the new University of Halle were filled
by disciples of Spener. A controversy arose between
his friends and the faculty of Wittenberg, who censured
as heretical two hundred and sixty-four propositions
found in his writings. He died in Berlin in February,
1705, leaving numerous works, among which are "The
Interior and Spiritual Peace," (1686,) and "The Duties
of the Evangelical Life," (1692.)
See CANSTEIN, " Lebensbeschreibmis; Speners," 1740 ; HOSSRACU,
"Spener und seine Zeit," 2 vo!s., 1828; VV. Tmi.o, "Spener als
Katechet," 1840: WII.DKNHAHN, "P. J. Spener," 1*42; A. STKIN-
METZ. " Leben P. J. Spener's," 1741 : PI'ANNENHKKG, "P. J Spe
ner cler Kirchenvater ties Evanpelischen Deiitschlancls," iSj^ ; II AAG,
" La France protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gine'rale."
Spen'ser, [Lat. SPENSE'RUS,] (EDMUND,) an illus
trious English poet, was born in Last Smithfield, Lon
don, about 1553. His early history is involved in much
obscurity ; he is supposed, however, to have been of a
good family, though probably in indigent circumstances,
as he entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, as a si/.ar, in
1569. Having taken the degree of A.M. in 1576, he
resided for a time in the North of England, where he
wrote his " Shephearde's Calendar," a pastoral poem,
dedicated to his friend and patron Sir Philip Sidney,
and first published in 1579.* He became secretary to
Lord Grey de Wilton, Viceroy of Ireland, in 1580, and
obtained for his services a grant of 3028 acres of land
from the forfeited estate of the Earl of Desmond. Soon
after he had fixed his residence in this place, which was
situated in the county of Cork, he acquired the friend
ship and patronage of Sir Walter Raleigh, to whom he
dedicated his poem entitled "Colin Clout's come Home
Again," (1591.) About the same time he published the
first three books of his " Faerie Queene," and in 1595
his " Astrophel," an elegy on Sir Philip Sidney. He
married the same year an Irish lady, supposed to have
been a Miss Nagle, and wrote on the occasion an epi-
thalamium, which Flail am styles a "splendid little poem,
. . . an intoxication of ecstasy, ardent, noble, and pure."
The fourth, fifth, and sixth books of "The Faerie
Queene" came out in 1596. Spenser was appointed in
1 798 sheriff of the county of Cork. The rebellion of
the Earl of Tyrone having broken out soon after, he
was compelled to leave his estate, which was plundered
by the rebels, and the house burned, with, it is said, an
infant child in it. He did not long survive this severe
calamity, and died in great destitution. He was buried
a, e, T, o, \\,y,long; a, £, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, \, short: a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; m§t; not; good: moon;
SPENSER US
2049
SPILLER
in Westminster Abbey, near Chaucer, in compliance with
his own request. He left two sons, Sylvanus and Pere
grine. Of Spenser's poetry Campbell observes, " He
threw the soul of harmony into our verse, and made it
more warmly, tenderly, and magnificently descriptive
than it ever was before, or, with a few exceptions, than
it has ever been since ;" and Hazlitt says, " There is an
originality, richness, and variety in his allegorical per
sonages and fictions which almost vies with the splen
dour of the ancient mythology. If Ariosto transports
us into the regions of romance, Spenser's poetry is all
fairy-land."
See J. P. COLLIER, "Life of E. Spenser," 1862; DR. JOHN
AIKIN, ''Life of E. Spenser," 1806: H. J. TODD, "Life of E.
Spenser," 1805; PRESCOTT, "Miscellanies;" WAKTON, "Observa
tions on the Faerie Queen ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for Novem
ber, 1833 ; ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Spenserus. See SPENSER.
Speransky or Speranski, spa-ran'ske, (MICHAEL,)
COUNT, an eminent Russian statesman and mathemati
cian, born in the government of Vladimir in 1772. He
became secretary to the privy council in 1801, and col
league of the minister of justice in 1808. He made
important reforms in several departments of the gov
ernment. In 1812 he was removed from office, but in
1819 he was appointed Governor-General of Siberia. He
enjoyed in a high degree the confidence of the emperor
Nicholas, and was placed at the head of a commission
appointed to make a digest or code of Russian laws,
which was published in 45 vols., 1830. For these
services he was rewarded with the title of count. Died
in 1839.
See BARON VON KORF, " Vie du Comte Speranski," 2 vols.,
1861 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sperling, speVHng, (OTTO,) a German naturalist,
born at Hamburg in 1602. He practised medicine at
Copenhagen and at Hamburg. He wrote on botany.
Died in 1681.
See MOI.LER, " Cimbria Literata."
Sperling, (OTTO,) an antiquary, a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Christiania in 1634. He became
professor of history and law at Copenhagen in 1692, j
and published several works on numismatics and North
ern antiquities, among which is " Monumentum Ham-
burgense Benedictinum," (1675.) Died in 1715.
See MOI.LER, "Cimbria Literata."
Spercmi, spa-ro'nee, (SPERONE,) an eminent Italian
writer and orator, born at Padua in 1500. He passed
for the foremost orator of Italy in his time. He wrote
several works in verse and prose, among which are
moral dialogues, (" Dialoghi," 1542,) and an admired
tragedy, called "Canace," (1546.) His style is highly
praised. Died in 1588. His complete works were pub
lished at Venice in 5 vols. 410, 1740.
See DE THOU, " filoges;" NICERON, " Memoires ;" GINGUEN^,
" Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" TIRABOSCHI, " Storia della Lettera-
tura Itaiiana."
Speusippe. See SPEUSIPPUS.
Speu-sip'pus, f Gr. S-erawTrof ; Fr. SPEUSIPPE, spuh'-
zep',] a Greek philosopher, born in Attica about 380
H.C., was a disciple and nephew of Plato. His mother,
Potone, was a sister of Plato, whom he accompanied in
his third journey to Syracuse. Having been selected
by Plato as his successor, Speusippus directed the
Academy from 347 to 339 B.C. He adopted the Platonic
philosophy, with slight modifications. Aristotle testified
his respect for the ability of Speusippus by writing a
refutation of his doctrines. His works are not extant.
Died in 339 B.C.
See RITTER, "History of Philosophy;" RAVAISSON, " Speusippi
de Primis Rerum Principiis Placita," 1838; M. A. FISCHER, " Scrip-
tio Academica de Speusippi Vita," 1845.
Sphaerus, sfee'rus, [ScVwpof,] a Greek Stoic philoso
pher, was a pupil of Zeno, and lived at Alexandria in
the reigns of Ptolemy I. and Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Sphinx, sflnks, J2#yf,] a monster of the Greek
mythology, was said to have the face of a woman,
the wings of a bird, and the breast, feet, and tail of a
lion. According to some writers, the Sphinx was the
offspring of Typhon and Chimaera. The poets feigned
that this monster appeared near Thebes, in Bceotia,
proposed a riddle to every person that passed, and de
stroyed all that failed to solve the enigma. After many
had failed and had perished, CEdipus came, and the
Sphinx demanded, " What animal is that which goes on
four feet in the morning, on two at noon, and on three
at evening ?" He answered, " That is Man, who creeps in
infancy, walks on two feet in manhood, and uses a staff
in old age." The Sphinx then killed herself, or disap
peared. This was a favourite emblem among the ancient
Egyptians, with whom it probably originated. At the
present time there may be seen near the pyramid of
Ghizeh a colossal figure of a sphinx, cut out of a solid
rock, and probably as old as the pyramids.
See "Biographic Universelle," (Partie mytho'ogique ;) SMITH>
"Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology."
Spiegel, spee'gel, (FRIEDRICH,) a German Orientalist,
born near Wiirzburg in 1820, has published a "Chres-
tomathia Persica," and an edition of the " Zend Avesta,"
or the sacred books of the Parsees, with a translation.
He became in 1849 professor of Oriental languages at
Erlangen.
Spiegel, spee'gel or spee'Hel, (HENDRIK,) a Dutch
poet and merchant, called THE DUTCH ENNIUS, born
at Amsterdam in 1549. He wrote "The Mirror of the
Heart," ("Hart Spieghel," 1614.) Died in 1612.
Spieghel, van den. See SPIGEI.IUS.
Spieker, spee'ker, (CHRISTIAN WII.HEI.M,) a Ger
man Protestant theologian, born at Brandenburg, on
the Havel, in 1780. He wrote a number of religious
and educational works, which were very popular.
Spielberg. See SPILBERG.
Spielbergen, van, vtn speel'be'R'gen, or Spilber-
gen, (GEORGE,) a Dutch navigator, who made a voynge
to the East Indies in 1601. In 1614 he commanded a
flotilla of six vessels which sailed through the Strait of
Magellan to the Moluccas.
Spielmann, speel'man, QAKOB REINHOI.D,) born at
Strasburg in 1722, became professor of chemistry in his
native town. He published " Elements of Chemistry,"
and other scientific works. Died in 1782.
Spieriiigs (spee'rings) OF ANTWERP, (HENRY,) an
able landscape-painter, born about 1633. He worked
in France for Louis XIV., and in Italy. Died in 1715.
Spierings, (NICHOLAS,) a Flemish landscape-painter,
born at Antwerp in 1633, imitated Salvator Rosa with
success. Died at Antwerp in 1691.
Spiers, van, vtn speeRs, (ALBERT,) a Dutch his
torical painter, born at Amsterdam in 1666. He worked
at Rome and Venice, and returned to Amsterdam in
1697. Died in 1718.
Spieshammer. See CUSPINIAN.
Spiess, speess, (CHRISTIAN HEINRICH,) a German
novelist and dramatic writer, born at Freiberg, in Sax
ony, in 1755 ; died in 1799.
Spifame, spe'ftm', (JACQUES PAUL,) a Frenchman,
born in Paris in 1502. He became Bishop of Nevers
in 1548, abjured Catholicism in 1559, and was ordained
a minister by Calvin at Geneva. Charged with calumny
and other offences, he was executed at Geneva in 1566.
See BAYI.E, " Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Spifame, (RAOUL,) a lawyer, a brother of the pre
ceding, having become deranged, imagined that he was
King Henry II. of France, whom he resembled in
features. He was confined by that king, who ordered
him to be treated as a sovereign. Died in 1563.
Spi-ge'll-us, (or spe-na'le-us,) (ADRIAN,) a Flemish
anatomist and physician, whose original name was VAN
DEN SPIEGHEL, was born at Brussels in 1578. He studied
at Louvain and Padua, where he graduated in medicine,
and became professor of anatomy and surgery in 1616.
He was the author of a valuable work "On the Struc
ture of the Human Body," (1627,) and other treatises.
One of trie lobes of the liver has been called by his
name. Died in 1625.
Spilberg or Spielberg, speel'beRG, (JOHANN,) a
German paintei of history, bom at Dusseldorf in 1619,
was a pupil of Flink. He was patronized by the Count-
Palatine. Died in 1690.
Spilbergen, van. See SPIELBERGEN, VAN.
Spil'ler, (JOHN,) an English sculptor, born in Lon
don in 1763, was a pupil of Bacon. His principal work
€ as k; c as s; g hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled ; § as z; th as in this.
I29
Explanations, p. 23.)
SPINCKES
2050
SPIRITO
is the statue of Charles II. in the centre of the Royal
Exchange. He died soon after its completion, in 1794.
Spinckes, sp!nks, (NATHANIEL,) an English non-
juror, horn at Cantor in 1653 or 1654. He became
prebendary of Salisbury about 1687, and was ordained
a bishop of the nonjuro'rs in 1713. Died in 1727.
Spindler, spind'ler,(KARi.,) a popular and voluminous
German novelist, born at Breslau about 1795- Among
his works we may mention "The Jew,'' (1827.) "The
Jesuit," (1829,) "The Invalid," and "The Bird-Fancier
of Imst," (" Der Vogel handler von Imst.") His writings,
including several dramatic pieces, amount to one hun
dred volumes. Died in 1855.
See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1833.
Spinelli. See SPINKLI.O.
Spinelli, spe-nel'lee, (NlCCOt.6,) an Italian jurist, born
at Naples about 1325. He was appointed chancellor
of the kingdom by Queen Joan I. of Naples. Died
after 1304.
Spinelli, (PAKRI,) an Italian painter, born at Arezzo
about 1390, was the son of the artist Spinello Aretino,
by whom he was instructed in painting. His frescos
were distinguished for their richness of colouring. His
death is variously dated about 1410, 1426, or 1444.
Spinello, (AKKTINO.) See AKKTINO.
Spinello, spe-nel'lo, or Spinelli, spe-nel'lee, (MAT-
TEO,) an Italian chronicler, born in the province of Bari
in 1230, wrote a chronicle of events of his time in Italy.
Died after 1285.
Spin'ner, (FRANCIS E.,) an American politician, born
in Herkimer county, New York, in 1802. He repre
sented the seventeenth district of New York in Congress
from 1855 to 1861, and was then appointed treasurer of
the United .States.
Spinola, spee'no-la, (AMBROSIO,) MARQUIS OF, a
celebrated military commander, born at Genoa in 1569.
In conjunction with his brother Frederick, at that time
admiral of the Spanish fleet on the coast of Holland,
he fought against the Flemish insurgents in the cam
paign of 1602. His brother having been killed in an
engagement with the Dutch in 1603, Spinola became
general-in-chief of the Spanish army in the Nether
lands, and in 1604 took the city of Ostend, which had
been besieged more than three years by the Spaniards.
He afterwards opposed Maurice, Prince of Orange,
without, however, gaining any decided victory ; and, the
Spanish fleet near Gibraltar having been defeated by
Admiral Heemskerk in 1607, a truce was concluded
with Maurice for twelve years, (1609.) Hostilities being
renewed in 1621, Spinola was again the opponent of
Maurice, over whom he gained several important vic
tories, among which was the capture of Juliers, Wesel,
and Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1625, after a siege of ten
months, lie took the city of Breda, Maurice having died
of a fever during the progress of the siege. Spinola
afterwards commanded against the French in Italy ; but
he died in 1630.
See ADOLPHE SIRET, "A. Spinola, Episode," etc., 1851 ; J. BA-
LINUS, " De Hello Bels;ico Aiispiciis A. Spinolse," 1609; P. CASONI,
"Vita d'Ambrogio Spinola," 1691; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale;" MOTLEY, " History of the Netherlands," chap. xlii.
Spiiiosa. See SPINOZA.
Spinoza, spe-m/za, or Spijuosa, spe-no'si, (BENE
DICT,) a celebrated pantheistical philosopher, born at
Amsterdam on the 241!) of November, 1632. His parents
were Spanish or Portuguese Jews, who gave him the
name of BARUCH, which he exchanged for its equivalent
Benedict. lie learned Hebrew and other ancient lan
guages, and read with avidity the works of Descartes,
who was one of his favourite authors. At an early age
he announced opinions which were considered heretical
and for which he was excommunicated by the Jews.
One of them also attempted to assassinate hfin in the
night, about 1656; but he escaped with a slight wound.
To avoid persecution, he retired to Leyden or Ryns-
berg, and gained a subsistence by making lenses for
telescopes and microscopes. He passed his life as a
solitary recluse, and practised great frugality. About
1668 he settled at the Hague, where he remained until
his death. I fe published a "Theological and Political
Treatise," ("Tractatus theologico-politicus,'' 1670,) and
left several works, which were published in 1677 under
the title of "Opera Posthuma."
Spinoza was never married. In 1673 the Elector- Pal
atine, Charles Louis, offered him a chair of philosophy
at Heidelberg, promising to allow him liberty of thought
and discussion provided he should not speak or write
against the established religion. He politely declined
this offer. His constitution was naturally frail and
delicate. He died in February, 1677. For more than
a century after his death he was generally stigmatized as
an atheist, a monster, and a blasphemer. A reaction
followed, especially in Germany, and he became a great
favourite witli Goethe, Lessing, Novalis, and Schleier-
macher. His most important work is " Ethics De
monstrated by a Geometrical Method," (" Ethica More
Geometrico demonstrata.") " Spinosa was truly," says
Hallam, "what Voltaire has with rather less justice
called Clarke, — a reasoning machine. A few leading
theorems, too hastily taken up as axiomatic, were sufficient
to make him sacrifice, with no compromise or hesitation,
not only every principle of religion and moral right, but
the clear intuitive notions of common sense. . . . Spi
nosa does not essentially differ from the Pantheists of
old. He conceived, as they had done, that the infinity
of God required the exclusion of all other substance."
("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.")
" Bayle's article 'Spinoza,'" says Goethe, "excited
displeasure and mistrust in me. In the first place, the
man was represented as an atheist, and his opinions as
most abominable ; but immediately after it was con
fessed that he was a calm, reflective, diligent scholar, a
good citizen, a sympathizing neighbour, and a peaceable,
domestic man. They seemed to have quite forgotten
the words of the gospel: ' By their fruits you shall
know them?" (" Autobiography," book xvi. p. 2.) The
same critic says in another place, "The mind which
worked upon me so decisively, and which was destined
to affect so deeply my whole mode of thinking, was
Spinoza. After looking through the world in vain to
find a means of development for my strange nature, I
at last fell upon the ' Ethics' of this man. . . . Here
I found a sedative for my passions, and a free wide view
over the material world seemed to open before me. But
what especially bound me to him was the great disin
terestedness that shone from every sentence. . . . The
all-composing calmness of Spinoza was in striking con
trast with my all-disturbing activity, his mathematical
method was the opposite of my poetic imagination and
way of writing, and the very precision which was thought
ill adapted to moral subjects, made me his enthusiastic
disciple, his most decided woi'shipper." (" Autobiog
raphy," book xiv. p. 170.) From the article "Spinoza,"
in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," by John Downes,
we extract the following : "The character of Spinoza is
naturally one of the most devout on record, for his life
was, in a manner, one unbroken hymn. He was not a
pious man, as that word is now usually understood, for
he was not a Christian, at least in profession." Among
the numerous biographies of Spinoza, that of J. Colerus,
"Vie de B. Spinosa," (1706,) is said to be the best.
See, also, LUCAS VR^BSE, " La Vie et 1' Esprit de Spinoza," 1719 ;
H. F. VON DIETZ, " Spinoza nach Leb=n nnd Lehre," 1783 ; PIKRKK
BAYLE, " Het Leven van B. de Spinoza," ifigS; JACOHI, " Briefe
ueber die Lehre des Spinoza," 1786; PHIUPPSON, " Leben von
Spinoza," 1790; KAKI. THOMAS. "Spino/a als Metaphysiker," 1840;
A. SAINTES, " Histoire de la Vie de Spinoza," 1842: CONRAD VOM
ORKI.I.I, " Spinozas Leben nnd Lehre," 1843; VON VLOTRN, " Ba-
nich d'Espinoza," 1862. For an excellent (popular) notice of the
philosophic system of Spinoza, see FROUDK, "Short Studies on
Great Subjects," 1868; see, also, MATTHEW ARNOLD, "Essays in
Criticism;" "Westminster Review" for May, 1843, (by G. H.
LEWES;) " British Quarterly Review" for November. 1848; "North
British Review" for May, 1863, article " Saisset and Spinoza."
Spira, de, deh spee'ra, (JOHANNES,) or JOHN OF
SPEYER, a German printer, who in the latter part of the
fifteenth century removed to Venice, where he founded
the first printing-establishment. Among the works
issued from his press were editions of Cicero's "Epistles"
and Pliny's "Natural History," (1469.)
Spiriti, spee're tee, (SALVATORE,) MARQUIS, an Ital
ian litterateur, born at Cosenza in 1712 ; died in 1776.
Spirito, spee're-to, (LORENZO,) an Italian satirical
poet, born at Perugia about 1430. He wrote " Sorti,"
a, e, I, o, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short: a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
SPITTA
2051
SPRAGUE
(1473,) anfl other works, which were once popular. He
died about 1495.
Spitta, spit'ta, (KARI. TOHANN PHILIPP,) a German
devotional poet, born at Hanover in 1801.
Spittler, spit'ler, (Lt;n\viG TIMOTHEUS,) BARON,
born at Stuttgart in 1752, became in 1779 professor
of philosophy at Gb'ttingen. He published several his
torical and ecclesiastical works. Died in 1810.
Spitzel. See SPIZF.UUS.
Spix, von, fon spiks, QOHANN BAPTIST,) a German
naturalist, born at Hochstadt, in Bavaria, in 1781. Hav
ing published in 1811 his "History and Review of all
Systems of Zoology," he was elected to the Academy of
Sciences, and made conservator of the Zoological Mu
seum at Munich. In 1817 he accompanied Von Martins
on his scientific expedition to Brazil. He died in 1826,
having with some assistance completed five splendidly
illustrated works on the birds, apes, bats, and reptiles
of Brazil.
See the "Foreign Quarterly Review" for February, 1830;
" Monthly Review" tor December, 1824.
Spizelius, spit-sa'le-us, or Spitzel, spit'sel, (THF.o-
PHiLi'S,) a German scholar and ecclesiastic, born at
Augsburg in 1639, wrote a "Commentary on the State
of Literature among the Chinese," (1660,) and other
works. Died in 1691.
Spoffprth, (REGINALD,) an English composer of
great merit, born in Nottinghamshire in 1768. He is
chiefly known by his glees, which are esteemed master
pieces of their kind. Died in 1826.
Spohn, spon, [Lat. SPOH'MUS,] (FRIKDRICH AU
GUST WII.HKLM,) an eminent German scholar, born at
Dortmund in 1792. He studied at Leipsic, where he
became in 1819 professor of the Greek and Latin lan
guages. He published editions of the " Panegyricns"
of Isocrates, the two geographical works of Nicephorus
Blemmida, and the "Opera et Dies" of Hesiod. He
died in 1824, leaving a work on hieroglyphics, entitled
" De Lingua et Literis veterum /Egyptiorum," which
was continued and published by Seyffarth in 1825.
See G. SEVFFARTH, " Memoria F. A. G. Spohnii," 1825.
Spohnius. See SPOH.V.
Spohr, sp5R, (Louis,) one of the greatest composers
and musicians of recent times, was born at Brunswick in
1784. He was instructed in violin-playing by Maucourt
and Eck, and subsequently made a professional tour in
Russia, France, and Italy, being everywhere received
with distinguished favour. In 1813 he became chapel-
master at Vienna, where he produced his opera of
" Faust," and several other admired works. He was
appointed in 1822 chapel-master to the Duke of Hesse-
Cassel, and soon after composed his popular operas of
" Jessonda," " The Alchymist," " Pietro of Abano," and
"The Crusader." His oratorios of "The Crucifixion,"
" The Last Judgment," and the " Fall of Babylon" are
entitled to a very high rank among works of the kind ;
the last-named was composed for a musical festival in
England, where Spohr's music enjoys great popularity.
He also produced numerous symphonies, cantatas,
and pieces for the violin and other instruments. Died
in 1859.
See " Autobiography of Louis Spohr," 1865 ; EBERS, " Spohr und
Halevy," etc., 1837; CHORON et FAVOLLE, " Dictionnaire des Mu-
siciens ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Jahrbuch zum Con
versations- Lexikon," 1863.
Spolverini, spol-va-ree'nee, (GIAMBATTISTA,) MAR
QUIS, an Italian poet, born at Verona in 1695. He wrote
a poem " On the Cultivation of Rice," (" La Coltivazione
del Riso," 1758,) which was much admired. Died in
1762.
Spolverini, (Hn.ARiox,) an Italian painter of battles,
was born at Parma in 1657; died in 1734.
Spon, sp6x, (CHARLF.s.) a French physician, born at
Lyons in 1609. He practised at Lyons, and translated
into Latin verse the " Prognostics" of Hippocrates,
(1661.) Died in 1684.
Spon, (jACOii,) a celebrated French antiquary and
physician, born at Lyons in 1647, was a son of the pre
ceding. In 1676 he explored Greece, from which he
brought several thousand inscriptions. He published
"Researches on the Antiquities of Lyons," (1673,)
" Travels in Italy, Dalmatia, Greece, and the Levant,"
(3 vols., 1678,) which was highly esteemed, a " History
of the Republic of Geneva," (1680,) and other works.
Died in 1685.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" HAAG, " La France
protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Spondanus. See SPONDE, DE.
Sponde.de, dehspo.Ncl, [Lat. SPONDA'NUS,] (HENRY,)
a French prelate, born at Mauleon in 1568, became
Bishop of Pamiers in 1626. He published an abridgment
of the " Annals" of Baronius, and wrote a continuation
of them from 1197 to 1640, (2 vols., 1639.) Died in
1643.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" NICERON", " Memcires."
Sponde, de, [Lat. SPONDA'NUS,] (JEAN,) a French
scholar, born at Mauleon in 1557, was a brother of the
preceding. He published a Latin version of Homer's
poems, with notes, (1583.) Died in 1595.
Sponneck, von, fon spon'n£k, (\\"ILHELM CARL
EPPINGEN,) COUNT, a Danish economist and financier,
born at Rinkjobing in 1815. He published a systematic
treatise on customs, or tariffs, (2 vols., 1840.) He was
appointed minister of finance in 1848.
Spontini, spon-tee'nee, (GASPARO LUIGI PACIFICO,)
an Italian musician and composer, born at Jesi in 1778
or 1779. He produced in 1796 an opera called " I Pun-
tigli delle Donne." About 1803 he removed to Paris,
where his " Finta Filosofa" was performed in 1804. He
composed " La Vestale," an opera, (1807,) which had
great success. In 1820 he became director of the Royal
Opera in Berlin, and chapel-master to the king. Among
his chief works are " Olympic" and " Fernand Cortez."
Died in 1851.
See L. DE LOMENIE, " M. Spontini, par un Homme de Rien,"
1841 ; E. M. PE^INGER, " Spontini," '$43 I RAOUI.-ROCHETTE,
" Notice historique sur la Vie de M. Spontini," 1852 ; FETIS, " Bio-
graphie Universelle des Musiciens;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene-
rale."
Spontone, spon-to'na, (CiRO,) an Italian litterateur,
born at Bologna about 1552. He wrote many works, in
prose and verse. Died about 1610.
Spork, von, fon spoRk, (JoHANN,) COUNT, a Ger
man general, born in Westphalia in 1597. He fought
for the Elector of Bavaria, and afterwards for the em
peror Ferdinand III. Died in 1679.
See ROSEN'KRANZ, " Johann Spork," 1845.
His son, FRANZ ANTON, also a count, born in 1662,
was a philanthropist in Bohemia. He founded hospitals
and public libraries. Died in 1738.
See STILLENAU, " Lebensgeschichte des Grafen Spork," 1725.
Spots'wood or Spot'tis-wood, (JoHN,) an ambi
tious Scottish prelate, born at Mid-Calder in 1565. He
became Archbishop of Glasgow in 1603, and Archbishop
of Saint Andrew's in 1615. He was the object of popu
lar odium among the Scotch. In 1635 he was appointed
lord chancellor of Scotland. He wrote a " History of
the Church of Scotland," (1655.) In 1638 he was de
posed and declared infamous. Died in 1639.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Spotswood, (Sir ROBERT,) a lawyer, a son of the
preceding, was born about 1596. He was appointed
lord president of the court of session by Charles I. In
the civil war he was a royalist, fought under Montrose,
was taken prisoner, and executed in 1646.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Spottiswood. See SPOTSWOOD.
Spragg or Spragge, (Sir EDWARD,) an English ad
miral under the reign of Charles II., distinguished him
self in several engagements with the Dutch in 1666-67,
and subsequently fought Van Tromp in three successive
battles. During the last he was drowned, while going
from one boat to another, (1673.)
Sprague, sprag, (CHARLES,) an American poet, born
in Boston on the 26th of October, 1791. He left school
at an early age, to acquire a practical knowledge of mer
cantile business, which he pursued for some years.
About 1825 he was elected cashier of the Globe Bank
of Boston. He produced in 1823 an ode in honour of
Shakspeare, "which," says R. W. Griswold, "is one of
the most vigorous and beautiful lyrics in the English
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/': G, H, K, guttural ; x, nasal; R, trilled: s as c; t-h as in this.
xplanations, p. 23.)
SPRAGUE
2052
SQUARCIONE
language." His most extensive work is " Curiosity,'
a didactic and satirical poem, delivered before the Phi
Beta Kappa Society of Harvard University in 1829.
Among his other works are a centennial ode on the foun
dation of Boston, pronounced in 1830, and short poems
entitled " The Winged Worshippers," " Art," and "The
Family Meeting," which exhibit much skill in the use
of language.
See R. W. GRISWOLD, " Poets and Poetry of America ;" " North
American Review" for April, 1830.
Sprague, (WILLIAM,) an American Senator, a nephew
of William Sprague who was chosen Senator of the
United States in 1842, was born at Cranston, Rhode
Island, September 12, 1830. He was elected Governor
of Rhode Island in 1860. In 1861 he raised a regiment,
with which he fought at Bull Run, July 21. He was
elected a Senator of the United States, by the legislature
of Rhode Island, for six years, (1863-69,) and re-elected
in June, 1868. He married a daughter of Chief-Justice
Chase.
Sprague, (WILLIAM BUF.L,) D.D., an American Pres
byterian divine, born at Andover, Connecticut, in 1795.
He published "Lectures to Young People," (1825,)
"Hints on Christian Intercourse," (1834,) "Visits to
European Celebrities," (1855,) and "Annals of the
American Pulpit," (9 vols., 1856-69.) Of this valuable
work, vols. i. and ii. treat of Trinitarian Congregationalist
divines ; vols. iii. and iv., Presbyterian ; vol. v., Epis
copalian ; vol. vi., Baptist ; vol. vii., Methodist ; vol. viii.,
Unitarian, and vol. ix., Lutheran; Dutch Reformed, etc.
He also contributed a " Life of Timothy Dwight" to
Sparks's " American Biography."
See the "North American Review" for April, 1857: ALLIBONE,
"Dictionary of Authors."
Spranger or Sprangher, spRilng'er^or spuang'ner,
(BARTHOLOMEW,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp
in 1546, studied in Italy, and while at Rome was patron
ized by Pius V. and Cardinal Farnese. He painted for
the former a " Last Judgment," containing nearly five
hundred heads. Died about 1625.
Sprat, (THOMAS,) an English writer, born in Devon
shire in 1636. He graduated at Oxford in 1657, was
appointed successively chaplain to Charles II., Dean of
Westminster, (1683,) and Bishop of Rochester, (1684.)
He was the author of a poem "On the Death of Oliver
Cromwell," and other poetical pieces, and an account
of the Rye-House Plot, entitled "A True Account and
Declaration of the Horrid Conspiracy against the Late
King," etc. He also published a " Life of Cowley," and
a " History of the Royal Society," of which he was one
of the original members ; and lie is said to have been
associated with the Duke of Buckingham, Butler, and
others in writing "The Rehearsal." Died in 1713.
See JOHNSON, "Lives of the Poets," and a "Life of Thomas
Sprat," London, 1715.
Sprang, (JAMES,) called PR^EPOS'ITUS, a Flemish theo
logian, born at Ypres about 1485. He adopted the prin
ciples of Luther, and became in 1524 pastor of a church
at Bremen. Died in 1562.
See J. H. VON SEELEN, "Vita J. Praepositi," 1747; JANSSEN,
"Jacobus Praspositus," 1862.
Sprengel, spRe"ng'el, (KARL,) professor of agricultural
science at Brunswick, was born near Hanover in 1787.
He published "Chemistry for Farmers," (1831,) and
other similar works. Died in 1859.
Sprengel, (KURT,) one of the most eminent phy
sicians and botanists of Germany, was born near Anklam,
in Pomerania, in 1766. He studied at Halle, where he
took his medical degree in 1787, and in 1797 became
professor of botany. Among his works we may name
his "Manual of Pathology," (3 vols., 1795,) " Institu-
tiones Medicse," (6 vols., 1809,) a " History of Botany,"
(1817,) "New Discoveries in the Entire Circuit of Bot
any," (3 vols., 1819,) " Pragmatic History of Medicine,"
(5 vols., 1828,) " Historia Rei Herbariae," and "Flora
Halensis." Died at Halle in 1833.
See LEROY DUPRE, "Notice historique sur Sprengel," 1850;
CALLISEN, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon," (Supplement;)
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sprengel, (MATTHAUS CHRISTIAN,) an uncle of the
preceding, was born at Rostock in 1/46, and became
professor of history at Halle in 1^79. He wrote a " His
tory of Great Britain and Ireland," a "History of the
Mahrattas," (1786,) and other works. Died in 1803.
Sprenger, spReng'er, ( ALOYS,) a distinguished Ori
entalist, born in the Tyrol in 1813. After a residence
of several years in Hindostan, he became in 1850 inter
preter of the government at Calcutta and secretary of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal. He translated from the
Arabic into English Masoodee's " Meadows of Gold,"
(1849,) wrote a valuable "Life of Mohammad," (1851,)
and published several translations of English works into
Hindostanee.
Sprenger, (PLACinus,) a German monk and writer,
born at Wiirzburg in 1735. ^e published, besides other
works, " The Literature of Catholic Germany," (11 vols.,
1775-90.) Died in 1806.
Spreti, spRa'tee, (DESIDERIO,) an Italian historian,
born at Ravenna in 1444, wrote (in Latin) a "History
of Ravenna," (1489.) Died about 1474.
Spring, (GARDINER,) D.D., LL.D., a son of Samuel
Spring, noticed below, was born at Newburypoi t, Mas
sachusetts, in 1785. Having graduated at Yale College,
he became in 1810 pastor of a Presbyterian church
in New York. He published, among other works,
" Obligations of the World to the Bible," (1844,) " The
Attraction of the Cross," (1845,) "Discourses to Sea
men," and " The Power of the Pulpit," (1848.)
See " Personal Reminiscences of the Life and Times of Gardiner
Spring," 1866.
Spring, (SAMUEL,) D.D., an American Presbyterian
divine, born at Northbridge, Massachusetts, in 1746,
became a chaplain in the Continental army in 1775.
He published a number of religious and controversial
works. Died in 1819.
Spruner, von, fon spRoo'ner, (KARL,) a German
historian and geographer, born at Stuttgart in 1803.
He published a "District Map of East Franconia,"
(1835,) a " Historical-Geographical Hand-Atlas," (1837,)
which is esteemed a standard work, a " Universal His
torical School-Atlas," and other works of the kind.
Spurgeon, spur'jon, (CHARLKS HADDON,) a popular
and eloquent English Baptist preacher, born at Kelve-
don, Essex, in 1834. He began to preach in London
about 1853, and attracted large audiences in Exeter
Hall and Surrey Music- Hall. A new chapel, of vast
dimensions, was erected for him, and opened in 1861.
He has published several religious works.
See "Life of C. H. Spurgeon," New York, 1857.
Spu-rin'na, (VESTRICIUS,) a Roman poet and soldier,
was a contemporary of Tacitus and Pliny the Younger.
He gained several victories over the Germans on the
Rhine, and held various offices under the government.
His lyric poems, in Latin and Greek, are praised by Pliny.
Spurs'tow, (WILLIAM,) an English clergyman and
writer, was minister of Hackney, from which he was
ejected for nonconformity in 1662. Died in 1666.
Spurzheim, spdoRts'him, (JOHANN KASPAR,) a Ger
man physician, and one of the earliest advocates of phre
nology, was born at Longwich, near Treves, in 1776. He
studied medicine at Vienna, and there met Dr. Gall, of
whom he became a disciple. About 1805 he left Vienna,
and accompanied Dr. Gall in visits to various cities of
Germany, France, etc. As partners, they lectured in
Paris from 1807 to 1813, and published "The Anatomy
and Physiology of the Nervous System in general, and
of the Brain in particular." Spurzheim is reputed to
have discovered the fibrous structure of the brain. He
lectured in England several years, and returned to Paris
in 1817. He published a number of works on phre
nology, etc. He visited the United States in 1832, and
died at Boston in the same year.
See "Memoir of the Life and Philosophy of Spurzheim," by A.
AKMicHAEt., 1833; " Nouvelle Biographic Ge"nerale ;" "Monthly
Review" for October, 1815.
Squarcione, skwiR-cho'iia, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
painter and amateur, born at Padua in 1394. He enjoyed
i very high reputation as a teacher, and numbered among
lis pupils Bellini, Marco Zoppo, and Andrea Mantegna.
He possessed great wealth, and was the owner of a large
and choice collection of works of art. Died in 1444.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" SELVATICO, "IlPittoreF.
Squarcione," 1839.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
SQUIER
2053
ST4EL-HOLSTEIN
Squi'er, (EPHRAIM GEORGE,) an American archae
ologist, born in Albany county, New York, in 1821. He
became in 1843 editor of the "Hartford Daily Journal,"
an organ of the Whig party, and in 1844 took charge
ofthe"Scioto Gazette," Ohio. In 1848 he published
in the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge" a
description of the ancient monuments of the Mississippi
valley, and in 1849 an account of the aboriginal monu
ments of the State of New York. He was soon after
appointed charge-d'affaires to Guatemala. In 1851 he
furnished the plan for an inter-oceanic railway through
Honduras, the survey of which road he subsequently
conducted. Among his principal works may be named
" Nicaragua, its People, Scenery, Ancient Monuments,"
etc., (1852,) "Notes on Central America," etc., (1854,)
"Monograph of Authors who have written on the Abo
riginal Languages of Central America," and "Tropical
Fibres : their Production and their Economic Extraction,"
(1861.) Mr. Squier has been a contributor to the
"Encyclopaedia Britannica" and Appleton's "American
Cyclopaedia," and has been admitted to the London
Society of Antiquaries, and other learned institutions
of Europe.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1852.
Squire, (SAMUEL,) an English writer and scholar,
born in Wiltshire in 1714. He studied at Cambridge,
and rose through several preferments to be Bishop of
Saint David's in 1761. He was the author of " An En
quiry into the Origin of the Greek Language," (1741,)
"The Ancient History of the Hebrews Vindicated,"
(1741,) and other learned works, also a number of ser
mons. Died in 1766.
Sree. See SKI.
Sri, sree, or Shri, shree, (sometimes written Sree,)
a Sanscrit word, signifying "prosperity," "wealth,"
" splendour," is often applied as an epithet to Lakshmi,
the consort of Vishnu, and is sometimes given as a name
to Saraswati, the wife of Brahma, and the goddess of
music and eloquence. (See LAKSHMf and SARASWATL)
Sse-ma-Kwaiig, (or -Kouang,) sa ma kwang, writ
ten also Sze-ma-K'wang, an eminent Chinese his
torian, born in the province of Shen-see about 1018
A.D. He enjoyed the favour of several successive sove
reigns. About the year 1084 he was appointed presi
dent of the Imperial Academy of Han-lin, the highest
literary institution in China. He died in 1086. He left
a great historical work, entitled " Universal Mirror,"
(" Toong-Kian,") which has been translated into French
by Pere Mailla.
See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Sse-ma-Tsien, sa-ma-tse-en (or -tse-an,) or Sse-ma-
Tsian, written also Sze-ina-Ts'een and Se-ma-Tsieii,
a celebrated Chinese historiographer, scholar, and critic,
born in the province of Shen-see about 145 B.C. His
father, who held the office of historiographer to the em
peror \Voo-tee, greatly distinguished himself by his zeal
in collecting and arranging the writings of the ancients.
After his death the son succeeded to his office, and ap
plied himself with equal industry and zeal to collecting
and preserving the writings of antiquity. Having by
his freedom and boldness incurred the anger of the em
peror, he was banished. While in exile, he wrote his
principal work, entitled "Historical Memoirs," (" Sse-
Kee or -Ki,") which was not published until after his
death. Having recovered the favour of his sovereign, he
was recalled from banishment and treated with distin
guished regard. He is supposed to have died about
80 B.C.
See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Staal, von, fon still, (KARL,) a Russian general, of
German extraction, born at Reval in 1777, served under
Suwarow in Italy in 1799, and subsequently in the princi
pal Austrian and German campaigns against the French.
He was afterwards appointed by the emperor Nicholas
commandant of Moscow and general of cavalry, (1843.)
Died in 1853.
Staal, von, fon sttl, (MARGUERITE JEANNE Cordier
— koR'de^cl',) BARONESS, an accomplished French writer,
born in Paris in 1693, was the daughter of the painter
Launai, and was married to Baron von Staal, a Swiss
officer. She was the author of poems, letters, and
" Memoirs," (3 vols., 1755,) which are remarkable for
the elegance of their style. Died in 1750.
Staben, sta'ben, (HENDRiK,)a Flemish painter, born
in 1578, was a pupil of Tintoretto. He worked at Venice,
and excelled in pictures of small dimensions. Died in
1658.
Stabili See CECCO D'ASCOLI.
Stace, the French for STATIUS, which see.
Stackelberg, stak'el-beRc', ( OTTO MAGNUS,)
BARON, a distinguished archaeologist, of German extrac
tion, born near Reval, in Russia, in 1787. His principal
works are entitled "The Sepulchres of the Greeks,"
and "Greece, Picturesque and Topographic Views,"
(1830.) Died in 1834.
Stack'house, (stak'iis,) JOHN,) an English botanist,
was a nephew of Thomas Stackhouse, noticed below. He
published in 1801 a description, in English and Latin,
of the Algae, Fuci, and Confervae of England, entitled
" Nereis Britannica," (fol., with coloured plates.) Among
his other works are "Illustrations of Theophrastus," (in
Latin, i8n,)and contributions to the "Transactions"
of the Linnasan Society, of which he was a member.
Died in 1819.
Stackhouse, (THOMAS,) an English divine and the
ological writer, born in 1681, became vicar of Benham,
in Berkshire. He published "Memoirs of Bishop At-
terbury," (1723,) a "History of the Holy Bible," (2
vols., 1732,) and other works. Died in 1752.
Stadion, sta'de-on, QOHANN PHILIPP KARL JOSEPH,)
COUNT, an Austrian diplomatist and statesman, born at
Mentz in 1763, was sent as ambassador to Stockholm,
London, and Saint Petersburg, and succeeded Cobenzl
as minister of foreign affairs in 1806. He relinquished
this post to Count Metternich in 1809. He was restored
to power in 1813, and signed the peace of Paris in 1814.
Died in 1824.
Stadius, sta'de-us, (JAN,) a Dutch astronomer and
astrologer, born in Brabant in 1527, wrote "Roman
Calendars," (" Fasti Romanorum,") and other works.
Died in 1579.
Stadler, stad'ler, (MAXIMILIAN,) a German organist
and composer of church music, born at Melk in 1748.
Among his works we may name his oratorio of " The
Deliverance of Jerusalem." Died in 1833.
Stael-Holstein, de, deh stal-hol'stin, [Fr. pron.
sti'eY /jol'staN',] (ANNE LOUISE GERMAINE NECKER,)
BARONNE, commonly called MADAME DE STAEL, a
French lady of great genius, and the most celebrated
authoress of modern times, was born in Paris on the 22d
of April, 1766. She was the only child of Necker, the
eminent financier. Her education was directed by her
mother, whose nature was far less genial and expansive
than that of the daughter. Madame Necker subjected her
to a strict and rigid regime of formalism, adapted rather
to contract than to develop her genius. Her character
was better appreciated by her father, for whom she always
felt the most ardent affection and even adoration. In her
early youth she listened with interest to the conversation
of Marmontel, Raynal, and other authors, who frequented
her father's house. To restore her health, impaired by
hard study, she was sent to the country at about the age
of fourteen, and enjoyed more liberty. Her favourite
author at this period of her life was J. J. Rousseau.
"She was from the first the very incarnation of genius
and of impulse. Her precocity was extraordinary, and
her vivacity and vehemence, both of intellect and tem
perament, baffled all her mother's efforts at regulation
and control." (" North British Review" for November,
1853.) In 1786 she was married to Eric, Baron de Stae'l,
a Swedish diplomatist, and received from her father an
immense dowry. It appears that she did not love De
Stae'l, but that she or her parents preferred him to other
suitors because he was a Protestant and intended to
reside permanently at Paris. Her first literary produc
tion was " Letters on the Writings and Character of
J. J. Rousseau," (1788.) During the reign of terror she
made courageous and successful efforts to save the lives
of a number of proscribed persons, among whom was the
Count de Narbonne.
In 1793 she retired to England, and resided for a time
€ as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
STAEL-HOLSTEIN
2054
STAHL
near Richmond with M. Talleyrand, the Count de Nar-
bonne, and other French exiles. She returned to Paris in
1795, and passed her time happily for the next four years.
She was an advocate of constitutional liberty, and during
the Directory was the leading spirit of a party whose
chief orator was Benjamin Constant. Her influence was
so great as to excite the jealousy of Bonaparte, to whom
she constantly refused to offer homage. A mutual and
invincible antipathy arose between her and the First
Consul, who not only persecuted her but bullied and
banished others because they sympathized with her.
She published in iSoo a work " On Literature consid
ered in its Relations with Social Institutions." In 1802
she was banished from Paris and forbidden to reside
within forty leagues of that capital, the social charms
of which she deemed indispensable to her happiness.
She published in 1802 a novel entitled " Delphine," and
visited Germany, where she associated with Goethe,
Schiller, and A.'W. Schlegel, (1803-04.) Some of these
are said to have listened to her brilliant conversation
"with vast admiration and not a little fatigue." "To
philosophize in society," observes Goethe, " means to
talk with vivacity about insoluble problems. This was
her peculiar pleasure and passion. . . . More than once
I had regular dialogues with her, with no one else pres
ent : in these, however, she was likewise burdensome ;
never granting, on the most important topics, a moment
of reflection, but passionately demanding that we should
despatch the deepest concerns as lightly as if it were a
game at shuttlecock." (" Dichtung und \Vahrheit.")
After a tour in Italy, she produced in 1807 her " Co-
rinne," a novel,' which displays profound insight and
equal sensibility. It had immense success, which irri
tated Napoleon to renew his persecution of the author.
She was ordered to leave France. She afterwards
travelled in Germany, and settled at Coppet in Switzer
land, where a number of her friends came to console
her. Among these were Sismondi, Schlegel. Madame
Recamier, and B. Constant. In 1810 she published her
capital work on Germany, (" De i'Allemagne,") which, in
the opinion of Goethe, " ought to be considered a power
ful battery which made a wide breach in the sort of
wall raised up between the two nations by superannuated
prejudices." "Thus terminates," says Sir J. Mackin
tosh, " a work which, for variety of knowledge, flexi
bility of power, elevation of view, and comprehension of
mind, is unequalled among the works of women, and
which in the union of the graces of society and litera
ture with the genius of philosophy is not surpassed by
many among those of men." ("Edinburgh Review" for
October, 1813.) Among her other works are her auto
biographic memoirs, entitled " Ten Years of Exile," and
"Considerations on the French Revolution," ("Con
siderations sur la Revolution Frai^aise," 1818.) She
was privately married to M. Rocca, a young Italian
officer, in 1810 or 1812. In 1813 she visited Saint
Petersburg and England, and after the abdication of
Napoleon she returned to Paris, where she died in July,
1817. She was rather deficient in personal beauty, but
she is said to have had magnificent eyes. She had two
sons and one daughter, who became the Duchess de
Broglie.
See MADAME DE STAEL, " Dix Ans d'Exil ;" MADAME NECKER
DE SAUSSURE, " Notice sur le Caractere et les Edits de Madame de
Stael," 1820: F. SCHLOSSER, "Madame de Stael et Madame Ro
land," 1830: SAINTE-BF.UVE, "Portraits de Femmes ;" MARIA
MORRIS, "The Life and Times of Madame de Stael," 1853 : MARC
ANTOINE Puvis "Notice stir Madame de Stael- Hnlstein," 1828;
VILI.EMAIN, "Tableau du dix-huitieme Siecle :" CHATEAUBRIAND,
"Memoiresd'Outre-Tombe ;" BAUDRILLART, "Eloge de Madame de
Stael," 1850: SAINTE-BEUVE, " Causeries du Lundi ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generate;" articles by JEFFREY in the "Edinburgh Re
view" for February, 1813, September, 1818, and October, 1821 ;
"London Quarterly Review" for January, 1814; "Foreign Quar
terly Review" for July, 1834 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for Sep
tember, 1818.
Stael-Holstein, de, (AUGUSTE Louis,) BARON,
born in Paris in 1790, was a son of the preceding. His
education was directed by August W. Schlegel at Cop-
pet. He was a Protestant, and a distinguished philan
thropist. He was an earnest advocate of the abolition
of the slave-trade, arid gave much attention to the im
provement of rural economy. His character is said to
have been highly honourable. Died in 1827. His
writings, " CEuvres diverses," were published in 5 vols.,
1829.
See C. MOUNARD, "Notice sur Aug. de Slael-Holstein," 1827.
Stael-Holstein, de, (Euic MAGNUS,) BARON, a
Swedish diplomatist, was the father of the preceding.
He was appointed ambassador at Paris about 1783, and
married the daughter of M. Necker in 1786. He was
many years older than his wife, and was very prodigal
of money. They were not compatible, and soon sepa
rated by mutual consent. lie ceased to be ambassador
at Paris in 1799. Died in 1802.
Staeudliii. See STAUDI.IN.
Stafford, (ANTHONY,) a learned English writer, born
in Northamptonshire, took his degree at Oxford in 1623.
He wrote " Niobe dissolved into Nilus," " The Life and
Death of Our Blessed Lady, the Holy Virgin Mary,"
(1635,) and other works. Died in 1641.
Stafford, (JoHN,) an English prelate, became Arch
bishop of Canterbury in 1443. He was also lord chan
cellor for nearly eighteen years. Died in 1452.
See W. F. HOOK, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
vol. v. chap. xix.
Stafford, (Wiu.iAM HOWARD,) VISCOUNT OF, born
in 1612, was a son of Thomas Howard, the Earl ot
Arundel. He married a sister and heiress of Baron
Stafford. He was a Roman Catholic, and a royalist in
the civil war. Having been accused by Titus Oates
of complicity in the Popish Plot, he was convicted of
treason and executed in 1680. He was probably in
nocent.
See HUME, "History of England;" HURNET, "History of his
Own Times."
Stafford, de, (HKNKY,) Duke of Buckingham, was a
son of Humphrey, noticed below. He gained the favour
of Richard III., and was accessory to his crimes, but
revolted against him, and was beheaded in 1483.
See A. STAFFORD, " Life of Henry, Lord Stafford," 1640; SMAK-
SPEARE, "Richard III."
Stafford, de, (HUMPHKKY,) an English peer, was
an adherent of the house of Lancaster in the war of
the Roses. He was created Duke of Buckingham about
1465.
Stagemann or Staegemann, von, fon sta'geh-
man', (FRIEDRICH AUGUST,) a Prussian statesman and
writer, born in 1763. He published a number of poems
and political treatises. Died in 1840.
Stagnelius, stag-niT'le-iis, (EuiK JOHAN,) an eminent
Swedish poet, born in 1793 at Col mar, where his father
was bishop. He studied at the Universities of Lund
and Upsal. His epic poem entitled " Wladimir the
Great" ("Wladimir den Store," 1817) obtained the
prize from the Swedish Academy. This was followed
by "The Lilies of Sharon," (" Liljor i Saron," 1821,)
and tragedies entitled "The Bacchanals," and "The
Martyrs." He became a clerk in the office or depart
ment of ecclesiastical affairs in 1815. Died in 1823.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" HOVVITT,
" Literature and Romance of Northern Europe ;" H AMMERSKOELD,
" E. J. Stagnelius," 1823.
Stahel, sta'el, or Stahl, stal, (Jui.ius,) a general,
born in Hungary in 1825. He fought against Austria in
1848-49, and afterwards emigrated to the United States.
He became a brigadier-general of Union volunteers
about November, 1861, and commanded a brigade at
Cross Keys, June 8, 1862.
Stahelin 'or Staehelin, sta'el-leen', (BENEDICT,) a
Swiss botanist and physician, born at Bale in 1695. He
distinguished himself by his researches in cryptogamous
plants, and published several works. Died in 175°-
Stahl, stil, (FRIKDRICH JULIUS,) a German jurist, of
Jewish extraction, born at Munich in 1802, became pro
fessor of law at Berlin in 1840. He published several
political and philosophical works. Died in 1861.
See " Jahrbuch /.urn Conversations-Lexikon," 1862.
Stahl, (GEORG ERNST,) an eminent German physician
and chemist, born at Anspach in 1660. He became
professor of medicine at Halle in 1694, and in 1716
physician to the King of Prussia. His principal medical
work is entitled " Theoria Medica Vera," (1707,) in
which he opposes Hoffmann's theories and advances a
new doctrine of physical influence. He made several
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, okscim; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
STAHR
2055
STANHOPE
valuable discoveries concerning the alkalies, acids, etc.,
originated the theory of phlogiston, and contributed
more than any other of his contemporaries to give to
chemistry a scientific form. He published, among other
works on this subject, " Experimenta et Observationes
Chemicae," (1731,) and " Funclamenta Chymiae Dog
matics," (3 vols., 1723.) Died in 1734.
See SPKENGEL, "History of Medicine;" HOKFER, "Histoire de
la Chimie ;" STREBEI., " Programma de Vita Stahl," 1759; A. LE-
MOINE, " Le Vitaiisme et 1'Animisme de Stahl," 1864; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale. "
Stahl, (P. J.) See HETZEL.
Stahr, situ, (ADOLF WILHELM THEODOR,) a German
writer, born at Prenzlau, in the Uckermark, in 1805. He
published " Aristotelia," (1832,) or an explanation and
criticism of Aristotle's works, "The Republicans in Na
ples," a romance, (3 vols., 1849,) and various other works.
He married Fanny Lewald, the authoress, about 1854.
Stahremberg! See STARHEMKERG.
Stai'ner or Stayner, (Sir RICHARD,) an English
naval officer, who contributed to the victory of Blake
over the Spaniards at Santa Cruz in 1657. For this
service he was knighted by Cromwell. He became a
rear-admiral. Died in 1662.
Stair, LORD. See DAI.RYMPLE, (JAMES.)
Stalbent, stil'bent, (ADRIAN,) of Antwerp, a skilful
Flemish landscape-painter, born in 1580. He worked
in England for Chnrles II. Died at Antwerp in 1660.
Stallbaum, stal'bowm, (GOTTFRIED,) a distinguished
German scholar, born near Delitzsch in 1793. His
editions of the works of Plato are particularly esteemed.
He svas professor of classics in the University of Leipsic,
and wrote several works on education.
Starn'ford, (HENRY WILLIAM,) a general and poet,
born at Bourges, France, in 1742. He entered the ser
vice ot Holland, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-
general. Died at Hamburg in 1807.
Stam'ford, (THOMAS GREY,) EARL OF, an English
peer, accused of a share in the Rye-House Plot, was
committed to the Tower in 1685. and liberated the same
year, having turned king's evidence. He joined William
III. in 1688.
Stampa, strim'pa, [Fr. ESTAMPES, eVt6Mp',] (GAS-
PARA,) an Italian poetess, born at Padua about 1524,
wrote under the assumed name of ANASILLA. She was
a victim of unrequited love. Died at Venice in 1554.
Stampart, stam'part, (FRANCIS,) a Flemish por
trait-painter, born at Antwerp in 1675. He worked in
Vienna, and was painter to the emperor Leopold. Died
in 1750.
Stampfli or Staempfli, stempf'lee, (JAKOB,) a
Swiss politician, born in the canton of Berne in 1820.
He became about 1845 a leader of the radical party, was
elected president of the canton of Berne in 1849, and
federal president in 18=58.
Stan'bridge, QOHN,) an English schoolmaster, born
in Northamptonshire, became a Fellow of New College,
Oxford, about 1480. He wrote several school-books.
Died after 1522.
Stancari, stan-ka'ree, [Lat. STANCA'RUS,] (FRAN
CESCO,) an Italian theologian, born at Mantua in 1501.
He became a Protestant, and emigrated to Poland. He
taught Hebrew at Cracow, and published several works.
Died in 1574.
See BAYI.B, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
Stancari, (VrrroRio FRANCESCO,) an Italian mathe
matician, born at Bologna in 1678, was director of the
Observatory of that city. Died in 1709.
Stancel, stan'sel, [Port. ESTANCEL, es-tan-sel',]
(VALENTIN,) a German astronomer and Jesuit, born near
Briinn, in Moravia, in 1621. He became professor of
theology at San Salvador, in Brazil, about 1663. Died
in 1715.
Staiid'ish, (FRANK HALL,) an English writer and
connoisseur of art, was born in 1798. He wrote a "Life
of Voltaire," a volume of poems, and other works. Died
in 1840.
Standish, (MILES,) an English officer, born in Lan
cashire about 1584. He was one of the emigrants that
arrived at Plymouth in the "Mayflower" in 1620, and
became the military leader of the pilgrims in their war
against the Indians. His adventures form the subject
of one of Longfellow's poems. Died in 1656.
Staii'field, (Ci.ARKSON,) an eminent English marine
painter, born at Sunderland in 1798. lie served for a
time as a sailor, and subsequently employed himself in
scene-painting at the London theatres, where he brought
that branch of the art to a perfection hitherto scarcely
known. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1835.
He contributed to the exhibitions of the Academy a
great number of pictures of marine and coast scenery,
which he delineated with a beauty and fidelity per
haps never surpassed. Among these are views on the
Adriatic, the Italian lakes, and the coasts of Holland,
Normandy, and England. He also executed several
admirable works of a different character, such as " Saint
Sebastian during the Siege under the Duke of Welling
ton," and " Port na Spana, near the Giant's Causeway,
with the W'recked Vessels of the Armada." Died in
May, 1867.
Stanfield, (GEORGE,) a landscape-painter, a son of
the preceding, was born about 1822.
Stan'ford, (JoHN,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born in
England in 1754, emigrated to the United States, and
settled as a pastor at New York. He was the author
of several religious works. Died in 1834.
Stanhope, (CHARLES.) See HARRINGTON, EARL OF.
Stanhope, stan'op or stan'iip, (CHARLES,) third
EARL, a liberal English nobleman, distinguished for his
mechanical inventions, born in 1753, was a son of Philip,
the second Earl. He married Hester Pitt, a daughter of
the great Earl of Chatham. He invented the printing-
press which bears his name, a calculating machine, etc.
In politics he was radical. He opposed the American
war and the war against the French republic. He was
the father of Lady Hester Stanhope, and grandfather of
Lord Mahon the historian. Died in 1816.
See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Stanhope, (GEORGE,) an English divine and pulpit
orator, born in Derbyshire in 1660. He studied at
Cambridge, and became Dean of Canterbury in 1701.
He was the author of a " Paraphrase and Comment on
the Epistles and Gospels as they are read in the Book
of Common Prayer," (4 vols. 8vo,) which passed through
numerous editions ; he also translated Charron's" Three
Books of Wisdom," " Pious Breathings," from Saint
Augustine, and other devotional works. Died in 1728.
Stanhope, (Lady HESTER,) an eccentric English
woman, born in London in 1766, was a daughter of
Charles, Earl Stanhope, and a niece of William Pitt the
eminent statesman. She lost her mother in her infancy,
and her education was consequently neglected. About
the age of twenty she went to reside with her uncle,
then prime minister, whom she aided in his corre
spondence. She was energetic, impulsive, and disdainful
of conventionality. The death of Pitt, in 1806, was felt
by her as a great disaster. In i8ioshe abandoned Eng
land in disgust, and entered on a career of Oriental ad
venture. She arrived in Syria in 1812, adopted Oriental
customs, and excited the admiration of the natives, who
were disposed to receive her as a queen. She resided
nrrany years on or near Mount Lebanon, with a large
retinue of servants or subjects, and acquired great pres
tige as a magician and mistress of mystical lore. Died
in Syria in 1839.
See " Memoirs of Lady Hester Stanhope," by her physician. 3
vols., 1845; LAMAKTINK, "Souvenirs d'un Voyage en Orient;" W.
RUSSELL, "Eccentric Personages," 2 vols., 1864; "Memoirs of a
Babylonian Princess," 2 vols, 1845; A. F. DIDOT, article in the
" Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for August,
1845; "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1845.
Stanhope, (JAMES STANHOPE,) first EARL, a British
general and statesman, born in 1673, was a son of Alex
ander Stanhope, and a grandson of Philip, Earl of Ches
terfield. He became a brigadier-general in 1704, and
distinguished himself in Spain in 1705. In 1708 he was
appointed commander-in-chief of the army in Spain.
He gained victories at Almenara and Saragossa in 1710,
but was compelled to surrender his army to the Duke
of Vendome before the end of that year. He became a
leader of the Whig party, and was appointed one of the
chief secretaries of state in 1714. He was first lord of
c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
STANHOPE
2056
STAN LET
the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer from April,
1717, to March, 1718. About this date he received the
title of Earl Stanhope, and resumed the office of secre
tary of state. He died in 1721, leaving a fair reputation
as a statesman.
See LORD MAHON, " History of England ;" COXE, " History of
Spain."
Stanhope, (PHILIP,) second EARI., born about 1712,
was the eldest son of the preceding. He was the father
of Charles, above noticed, and was a patron of learning.
Died in 1786.
Stanhope, (Captain PHILIP,) an English naval officer,
brother of James, first Earl Stanhope, was commander
of the Milford at the siege of Ostend, and subsequently
served in the Mediterranean. He was killed in the
attack on Port Mahon, in 1708.
Stanhope, (PHILIP DORMER.) See CHESTERFIELD,
(LORD.)
Stanhope, (PHILIP HENRY,) fifth EARL OF, an Eng
lish statesman and historian, born in Kent in 1805. He
studied at Oxford, and was elected in 1832 member of
Parliament, as Lord Mahon, for Wotton Basset. In 1835
he was returned for Hertford, which he continued t
represent until 1852. He was appointed under-secretary
of state for foreign affairs in 1834, and was afterwards
secretary to the board of control under Sir Robert Peel.
He introduced and carried, while in Parliament, the
copyright act known by his name. He has published a
" History of the War of the Succession in Spain," (8vo,
1832,) " Spain under Charles II.," (1840,) " Life of Louis,
Prince of Conde," " Life of Joan of Arc," (1853,) " His
tory of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace
of Versailles, 1713-1783," (1854,) which is regarded as a
standard work, and "Historical Essays" contributed to
the "Quarterly Review."
See the " Kdinburgh Review" for January, 1833, and October,
1836; "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1836, and January,
1839; " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1847.
Stan'is-las or Stan'is-laus, SAINT, a Polish prelate,
born in 1030, became Bishop of Cracow in 1071. He
was killed in 1079 by King Boleslaus, because he had
rebuked the wickedness of that monarch.
Stan'is-las (or Stan'is-laus) Augustus, King of
Poland, born in Lithuania in 1732, was the son of Count
Stanislas Poniatowski. He was in his youth a favour
ite of Catherine II. of Russia. Through the influence
of his uncles the princes Czartoryski, assisted by Russia,
he was elected to the throne of Poland in 1764. The
first partition of that country, which took place in 1772,
was in vain opposed by him ; and he subsequently de
voted himself to internal improvements and promoted
various reforms, the most important of which was the
new constitution of 1792. Overawed by the power of
Russia, he afterwards joined the Confederation of Tar-
gowicz, formed for the overthrow of the constitution,
and which was followed by a second partition of Poland,
in 1793. After the entire dismemberment of his country,
in 1795, Stanislas abdicated the throne and retired to
Saint Petersburg, where a pension was assigned him by
the emperor Paul. Died in 1798.
See RUI.HIERE, " Histoire de PAnarchie de Pologne :" LEI.KWEI.,
''Regne du Roi Stanislas Anguste," 1X18; CHODZKO, "La Pologne
illustree;" DE FERRAND, "Histoire des trois pemembrements de
la Pologne," 3 vols., 1820; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Stanislas Leszczynski, (Igsh-chin'skee,) written
also Leszinski, King of Poland, born at Lemberg in
1677, was a son of the grand treasurer of Poland. Having
been sent in 1704, by the Diet of Warsaw, to Charles XII.
of Sweden, to consult him on the election of a king to
succeed- Augustus II., he made so favourable an impres
sion upon Charles that he recommended him as a can
didate, and he was elected the following year. Being
compelled to abdicate after the battle of Poltava, (PnJ-
towa,) in 1709, he was again called to the throne on the
death of Augustus II., in 1733 ; but he was finally forced
to resign the crown in favour of Augustus III., whose
claims were supported by Austria and Russia. He was
afterwards invested with the duchies of Lorraine and
Bar, in 1737, retaining the title of King of Poland. He
was distinguished for his talents and literary attain
ments, and published, in French, "The Works of the
Benevolent Philosopher," (1765.) His daughter Maria
became the wife of Louis XV. of France. Died in
February, 1766.
See A. AUBERT, "Vie de Stanislas Leszc/ynski," 1769 ; SRYLER,
" Leben Stanislai I. ,"1737; BOM BART, " £.oge du Roi Stanislas I,"
1766; ABIIE MAURV, " filoge du feu Roi Stanislas," 1766 ; PROYART,
" Stanislas I," 2 vols., 1784 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Staii'ley, (ANTHONY D.,) an American mathema
tician, born in 1812. He was professor of mathematics
at Yale College, and published a "Treatise on Spherical
Trigonometry." Died in 1853.
Staii'ley, (Rev. ARTHUR PENRHYN,) commonly
known as DEAN STANLEY, son of the Bishop of Nor
wich, noticed below, was born in Cheshire in 1815. He
studied at Rugby under Dr. Arnold, and subsequently
graduated at Oxford. He published in 1844 "The
Life and Correspondence of Thomas Arnold, D.D.,"
which obtained wide popularity and has been trans
lated into several languages. He was appointed chap
lain to Prince Albert, and in 1856 was elected regins
professor of ecclesiastical history at Oxford. Among
his other works may be named " Historical Memorials
of Canterbury," etc., (1855,) "Sinai and Palestine in
Connection with their History," (1856,) "Lectures on
the Eastern Church," (1861,) "Lectures on the History
of the Jewish Church," (1863,) and numerous Sermons,
published at different times. He became a canon of
Christ Church in 1858, and Dean of Westminster in
1864. He has contributed to the "Quarterly Review"
and "Edinburgh Review."
See ALLIBONK, "Dictionary of Authors."
Stanley, (DAVID S.,) an American general, born in
Wayne county, Ohio, in 1828, graduated at West Point
in 1852. He was a captain of cavalry when the civil
war began, served in several actions in Missouri, and
was appointed a brigadier-general in September, 1861.
He commanded a division of the army of General Rose-
crans at the battle of Corinth, October 4, 1862, and dis
tinguished himself as commander of all the cavalry at
the great battle of Stone River, which ended on the 2d
of January, 1863. He was afterwards promoted to the
rank of major-general of volunteers. About the ist of
August, 1864, he obtained command of the fourth corps
in the army of Sherman, then near Atlanta. General
Stanley and his corps were sent back to Chattanooga in
October or November, with orders to report to General
Thomas at Nashville. He took part in the battle of
Franklin, November 30, 1864. He obtained the rank of
colonel in the United States army in 1866.
Stanley, (F^DWARD.) See DERBY, EARL OF.
Stanley, (Rev. EDWARD,) D.D., an English divine
and naturalist, born in London in 1779. He gradu
ated at Cambridge in 1805, was subsequently appointed
rector of Alderley, and in 1837 Bishop of Norwich. He
was the author of "A Familiar History of Birds, their
Nature, Habits, and Instincts," (2 vols., 1835,) and
contributed a number of treatises on natural history to
" Blackwood's Magazine." He was a Fellow of the
Royal Society. Died in 1849.
See " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1851.
Stanley, ( EDWARD HENRY,) Earl of Derby, formerly
styled LORD STANLEY, an able English statesman, born
at Knowsley in 1826, was the eldest son of the Earl of
Derby. He was educated at Rugby and at Trinity Col
lege, Cambridge, where he graduated as first-class in
classics in 1848. He entered Parliament in 1848, and
became under-secretary of state forforeign affairs in 1852.
He gained distinction as a social reformer, and became
one of the most liberal and popular members of the
Conservative party. In February, 1858,116 was appointed
secretary of state for the colonies, and in May of that
year became commissioner for the affairs of India. He
resigned office in 1859. On the formation of a new min
istry by his father, in June, 1866, he was appointed sec
retary for foreign affairs. He presided at the European
Conference which met at London and settled the dis
pute between France and Prussia in May, 1867. Lord
Stanley retired with his colleagues from office in Decem
ber, 1868, and became Earl of Derby on the death of his
father, in 1869.
Stanley, (EDWARD JOHN,) Lord Stanley of Alderley,
an English statesman of the Liberal party, was born in
Cheshire in 1802. He was a relative of the Earl of
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long: a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y", short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nftt; good; moon;
STANLEY
2057
STAFFER
Derby. He entered Parliament about 1831, after which
he became secretary of the treasury, (1835-41,) and
under-secretary of state for foreign affairs, (1846-52.) In
1848 he was raised to the peerage, as Baron Eddisbury.
He inherited the title of Baron Stanley of Alderley at
the death of his father, in 1850, and was a member of
the cabinet, as postmaster-general, from 1859 to June,
1866. Died in June, 1869.
Stanley, (JOHN,) an English musician and composer,
born in 1713. He became blind at the age of two years,
but, notwithstanding this misfortune, made such pro
gress in music, under the tuition of Dr. Greene, that
he was appointed organist of Saint Andrew's, Holborn,
London, at the age of thirteen. He was appointed mas
ter of the king's band in 1779. His compositions are
chiefly voluntaries for the organ, songs, cantatas, etc.
Died in 1786.
Stanley, (THOMAS,) an eminent English scholar and
writer, born at Cumberlow, in Herts, in 1625, was a son
of Sir Thomas Stanley, a poet of some note. He was
educated at Cambridge. His reputation is founded on a
" History of Philosophy, containing the Lives, Opinions,
Actions, and Discourses of the Philosophers of every
Sect," (3 vols., 1655-60,) which was highly esteemed,
and a good edition of /Eschylus, (1663.) lie also pub
lished "Poems and Translations," (1647.) Died in 1678.
See EGERTON HRVDGES, "Memoir of Stanley," prefixed to an
edition of Stanley's Poems, 1814-15; WOOD, "Athens Oxonienses."
Stanley, (WILLIAM,) an English divine, born in Lei
cestershire in 1647. He became Archdeacon of London
in 1692, and Dean of Saint Asaph in 1706. Died in 1731.
Staimina. See STARNINA.
Stansel. See STANCEL.
Stans'feld, ([AMES,) an English lawyer and radical,
born at Halifax in 1820. He was elected a member of '
Parliament for Halifax in 1859, was appointed a lord of i
the admiralty in April, 1863, and resigned in April, 1864.
He was under-secretary of state fr^m February to July, i
1866, and became third' lord of the treasury in 1868, and
financial secretary in October, 1869.
Stan'ton, (Enwix M.,) an American statesman and \
lawyer, born at Steubenville, Ohio, in 1815. He studied '•
law, was admitted to the bar about 1836, and practised !
for some time at Steubenville with success. In 1847 or
1848 he removed to Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, where he '
became the leader of the bar. He was frequently em
ployed in the supreme court at Washington, of which
city he became a resident about 1857. In 1858 he was ;
engaged by the government to conduct an important i
case in relation to some land in California. He was '
appointed attorney-general of the United States in De
cember, 1860, and in the great crisis that ensued op
posed the designs of the disunionists with energy and i
efficiency. He retired from office on the 4th of March, '.
1861, and was appointed secretary of war about the I2th j
of January, 1862. In this position, which he occupied j
through all the subsequent portion of the civil war, he '
displayed great administrative abilities and rendered
important services to the cause of the Union. After
the death of President Lincoln, Mr. Stanton continued ;
to conduct the department of war. In the controversy ',
which arose about the reconstruction of the seceded
States between President Johnson and Congress, he
took no prominent part. During the years 1865 and
1866 he did not appear as a decided partisan or oppo- \
nent of the policy of Johnson. To prevent the removal
of Mr. Stanton and others, the Senate passed the Tenure- j
of-Office Bill. He was invited to resign by the Presi
dent, August 5, 1867, but he refused to comply, assigning
as his motive important public considerations. About
the I2th of August, 1867, he was suspended by the
President, who appointed General Grant secretary of
war ad interim. The President expected, with the co
operation of General Grant, to render his suspension
permanent ; but that general defeated his design by
surrendering the office on the I4th of January, 1868, to
Mr. Stanton, who had been reinstated by the Senate on
the I3th. Great excitement was produced by the pub
lication, in February, 1868, of the letters exchanged on
this subject between the President and General Grant.
The public then learned that the general-in-chief recog
nized Mr. Stanton as secretary of war, although he was
directed by the President to disobey his orders. On the
2 1st of February, General Lorenzo Thomas was appointed
secretary of war ad interim, and attempted to get pos
session of the department of war, but was not successful.
Mr. Stanton retired from the office of secretary of war
on the 26th of May, 1868, in consequence of the decision
of the Senate that Johnson was not guilty of the crimes
for which he had been impeached. In December, 1869,
he was appointed an associate justice of the supreme
court of the United States. Died in December, 1869.
Stanton, (Mrs. ELIZABETH CADY,) distinguished
as an advocate of " Women's Rights," was born at
Johnstown, Fulton county, New York, in 1816. Her
father, Daniel Cady, was for many years an able and
prominent lawyer, and afterwards judge, in Fulton
county. In her early years she was accustomed to
spend much time in her father's office, and her attention
was first drawn to the wrongs of women by hearing the
complaints which they made to her father of the injus
tice of the laws towards their sex. She had been deeply
mortified to notice how little regard was shown to girls
compared with boys, and she formed a resolution to
prove herself not inferior in courage and ability to the
more favoured half of the human family, to whom an
unjust and arbitrary usage had given a monopoly of
privilege and power. She studied mathematics, Latin,
and Greek. In the last-named study she strove for and
won, as her first prize, a Greek Testament. She after
wards, we are told, graduated at the academy in her
native place at the head of her class. But, though boys
who were far behind her in ability, or at least in appli
cation, could be sent to college, no such privilege existed
for her. This excited her utmost indignation. In 1839
she was married to Mr. Henry B. Stanton, then a popu
lar and eloquent anti-slavery lecturer, and soon after
set out with him for Europe to attend the " \Vorld's
Anti-Slavery Convention," (held in London in 1840,) to
which Mr. Stanton was a delegate. Many female dele
gates also left their homes in America to attend the
convention ; but they were not admitted, because they
were women. In the number of these was Lucretia
Mott, with whom Mrs. Stanton formed an intimate
friendship. After her return to her native country, she
resolved to devote the energies of her life to resisting,
in all its forms, the time-honoured tyranny against her
sex. In July, 1848, chiefly through Mrs. Stanton's in
fluence, " the first ' Women's Rights Convention,' (known
to history by that name,)" says Mr. Tilton, " was held
at Seneca Falls, in New York." Since that time no one
has been more active than she in promoting the move
ments in this cause which have recently attracted so
much attention both in England and America.
See article on Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton in the "' Eminent
Women of the Age," by THEODOKE TILTON.
Stanton, (HENRY B.,) an American lawyer, distin
guished as an opponent of slavery, was born in New
London county, Connecticut, in 1810. In 1839 he mar
ried Miss Elizabeth Cady. (See preceding article.) He
has published " Sketches of Reforms and Reformers of
Great Britain and Ireland," (1849,) and other works.
Stan'y-hurst, (RICHARD,) an Irish poet, historian,
and Roman Catholic priest, born in Dublin in 1545 01
1546, was an uncle of Archbishop Usher. Died in 1618.
Stanzioni, stln-ze-o'nee, (MASSIMO,) a Neapolitan
painter, sometimes called " the Guido of Naples," was
born in 1585. His works are principally frescos and
portraits. Died in 1650.
Stapel, sta'pel, QOHN BOD/EUS,) a Dutch botanist
and physician, born at Amsterdam in the seventeenth
century. He studied at Leyden under Vorstius. His
principal work is an edition of the botanical writings of
Theophrastus, which, however, he did not live to com
plete, dying in 1636. An edition of the ten books of
Theophrastus, entitled " De Historia Plantarum," was
published in 1644. The genus Stapelia was named in
his honour by Linnaeus.
Stapfer, stap'fer, QEAN,) a Swiss preacher and
writer, born in 1719. He produced a metrical version
of the Psalms, which was used in the churches of
Berne; also several volumes of sermons. Died in 1801.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
STAFFER
2058
ST AUNT ON
Stapfer, (JEAN FREDERIC,) a theologian, born at
Brugg in 1708, was a brother of the preceding. He
preached at Diesbach, and published, besides other
works, "The Principles of True Religion," (12 vols.,
1746-53.) Died in 1775.
Stapfer, (PHILIP ALBERT,) a Swiss litterateur, born
at Berne in 1766. He published, besides other works,
" De Philosophia Socratis," (1786,) and " De Republica
Ethica," (1797.) He was professor of philosophy and
theology at Berne. Died in Paris in 1840.
Stapleaux, stt'plo', (MiCHKL GHISLAIN,) a Belgian
painter, born in Brussels in 1798, was a pupil of David.
He gained the grand prize at Antwerp and Brussels in
1822 and 1823. His works are mostly portraits and
historical pictures.
Sta'ple-dpn, (WALTER,) an English prelate, founded
Exeter College, Oxford, and became Bishop of Exeter
in 1307 ; died in 1326.
Sta'ple-toii, (Sir ROBERT,) an English officer, of the
royalist party, served with distinction in the army of
Charles I. lie published several dramas, and a trans
lation of Juvenal. Died in 1669.
Stapleton, (THOMAS,) an English controversialist,
born in Sussex in 1535, was a Roman Catholic priest.
Died at Louvain in 1598.
Starck or Stark, stank, (JOHANN AUGUST,) BARON,
a German divine and scholar, born in Mecklenburg in
1741. He became professor of Oriental languages at
Konigsberg in 1769, and in 1781 chief court preacher at
Darmstadt. He published several theological works.
Died in 1816.
Starhemberg or Stahremberg, sta'iem-b^RG',
(ERNST RUDIGEK,) COUNT, an Austrian field-marshal,
born in 1635, distinguished himself in the defence of
Vienna against the Turks in 1683. For his services on
that occasion he was made a marshal and a minister of
state by the emperor Leopold, who also gave him a ring
worth 100,000 thalers. Died in 1701.
Starhemberg or Stahremberg, (Gumo,) COUNT,
an Austrian field-marshal, born in 1657, was a cousin of
the preceding. lie assisted in the defence of Vienna in
1683, and served in the subsequent campaigns against
the Turks. He afterwards took part in the war of the
Spanish succession, and gained a signal victory over
the French at Almenara in 1710. He became, in the
absence of Prince Eugene, president of the Imperial
council of war at Vienna. Died in 1737.
See ALFRED ARNETH, " Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen G.
Starhemberg," 1X53; "Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Stark, (JoHN,) an American general of the Revolu
tion, born at Londonderry, New Hampshire, in 1728.
He served with distinction in the war against the French
in 1754, and subsequently fought at Bunker Hill, Tren
ton, and Princeton. In August, 1777, he gained a signal
victory over the British at Bennington, for which he was
made a brigadier-general and received the thanks of
Congress. He joined the army of General Gates in
September, 1777, served in Rhode Island in 1779, and
in New Jersey in 1780. He had the command of the
Northern department, with his head-quarters at Saratoga,
in 1781. Died in 1822.
See the " Life of General Stark," by EDWARD EVERETT, in
SPARKS'S "American Biography," vol. i. of second series; "Me
moirs, etc. of General John Stark," by CALED STARK, 1X60.
Stark, (WILLIAM,) M.D., an English physician, born
at Birmingham in 1740. He graduated at Ley den in
1767, and after his return made a series of experiments
on diet for the purpose of ascertaining the effect of dif
ferent kinds of food on the human body. He died in
1769, in consequence of illness brought on by his experi
ments. He was the author of several medical works.
Starke, staR'keh, (GOTTHELF WILHELM CHRIS-
TOPH,) a German theologian, born at Bernburg in 1762.
He published a number of hymns, and other poems.
Died in 1830.
Stamina, staR-nee'na, or Stannina, stan-iiee'na,
(GHERARDO,) a Florentine painter, born about 1350.
He acquired a high reputation in art. Died about 1405.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters."
Starowolski, sta-ro-wol'skee, [Lat. STAROVOI/-
SCius,] (SiMON,)a Polish historian and biographer, born
in 1585. He wrote numerous works on Polish history.
Died in 1656.
Stas'a-iior, [Gr. Sraow'up,] an officer of Alexander
the Great, was born in Cyprus. He was Satrap of
Drangiana during Alexander's campaign in India, and
in 321 is.c. became Governor of Bactriana and Sogdiana.
Sta-si'nus [ZTaaivof] OF CYPRUS, a Greek epic poet,
who lived about 700 B.C., or earlier. He is supposed to
have been the author of a poem entitled " Cypria,"
(Kinrpia,) which was one of the poems of the epic cycle
relating to the Trojan war, and was ascribed to Homer
by some ancient critics.
Stassart, de, deh stt'sSu' or stas'sart, (GoswiN JO
SEPH AUGUSTIN,) BARON, a Belgian litterateur and sen
ator, born at Mechlin in 1780. He became Governor of
Brabant i-n 1834, and was a member of the senate from
1831 to 1847. lie wrote various works. Died in 1854.
See "Notice sur M. le P.aron de Stassart," Brussels, 1852.
Stassart, de, (JACQUES JOSEPH,) BARON, a Belgian
judge and statesman, born at Charleroi in 1711, was a
grandfather of the preceding. Died in 1801.
Staszyc, sta'sh!ts, (XAV1ER STANISLAS,) a Polish
philanthropist and miscellaneous writer, born at Pila in
1755. He studied at Leipsic and Gottingen, and after
wards visited Paris, where he made the acquaintance of
D'Alembert and Buffon, whose " Epochs of Nature" he
translated into Polish. Among his principal works are
his " Geography of the Carpathian Mountains," " The
Political Balance of Europe," and " Statistics of Poland."
He died in 1806, leaving large bequests to various chari
table and educational institutions.
Sta-ti'ra, [Gr. Sr«-«pa,| a Persian lady, celebrated
for her beauty, was the wife of Darius Codomannus.
She was taken prisoner at the battle of Issus, 333 B.C.,
and treated with much courtesy by Alexander. She
died about 331 H.c.
Statius, (ACHILLES.) See ESTAC.O.
Statins, sta'she-us, |Fr. STACK, stSss,] (PuiiLius
PAPINIUS,) a Roman poet, born at Naples about 60 A.D.,
was a son of an eminent grammarian of the same names.
He wrote a heroic poem entitled "Thebais," (" Thebaid,"
in 12 books,) "Sylvae," a collection of poems on various
subjects, and " Achilleis," an unfinished epic poem. His
poems were received by his contemporaries with warm
applause, to which Juvenal refers in his Satire VII.
Modern critics prefer his " Sylvse" to the "Thebaid,"
which is deficient in creative energy. Died about 100 A.D.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale."
Sta'tor, [i.e. "he who stops or stays,"] a surname
given to Jupiter by the Romans, because he stopped or
stayed them when they were retreating from the Sabines.
Romulus erected a temple to Jupiter Stator at Rome.
Staudeiimaier, stow'den-mT'er, (FRANZ ANTON,) a
German theologian and philosopher, born at Danzdorf,
in Wiirtemberg, in 1800, was a Roman Catholic priest.
He became professor of theology at Giessen about 1830.
He published, besides other works, "The Spirit of
Christianity," (1835,) and a systematic treatise on the
ology, entitled "Die Christliche Dogmatik," (4 vols.,
1844-52.) Died in 1856.
Staudigel, stow'de-gel, or Staudigl, (Ui.RiCH,) a
learned German monk, born at Landsberg in 1644. He
wrote, besides other works, " Logica Practica," (1686.)
Died in 1720.
Staudlin or Staeudlin, stoid-leen', (!<ARL FRIED-
RICH,) a German Protestant theologian, born at Stutt
gart in 1761, became professor at Gottingen in 1790. He
published numerous works on religion, morals, and
ecclesiastical history. Died in 1826.
Staughton, staw'ton, (WILLIAM,) D.D., a Baptist
divine and popular preacher, born in Warwickshire,
England, in 1770. Having emigrated to America, he
became in 1805 pastor of the First Baptist Church at
Philadelphia, and in 1823 was appointed president of
Columbian College, Washington. Died in 1829.
Staun'ford or Stan'ford, (Sir WILLIAM,) an Eng
lish lawyer, born at Hadley in 1509. He became a judge
of common pleas in 1554, and wrote " Placita Coronae."
Died in 1558.
Staun'ton, (Sir GEORGE LEONARD,) a distinguished
diplomatist and writer, born at Cargin, in Ireland, in
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat: met; n6t; good; moon;
ST4UNTON
2059
STEFANO
1737. Having studied medicine at Montpellier, he re
sided for some years at Granada, in the West Indies,
where he acquired the friendship of Lord Macartney,
Governor of the island. He accompanied that noble
man, who had been appointed Governor of Madras, as
his secretary, and while in India negotiated a treaty of
peace with Tippoo Sultan, (1784,) and was employed in
other important missions. In 1792 Lord Macartney and
Sir George were sent on an embassy to the court of
Peking. He published "An Authentic Account of an
Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor
of China," which is still regarded as a standard work.
Died in 1801.
See "Memoirs of the Life of Sir G. L. Staimton." 1823, by
G. T. STAUNTON; "Monthly Review" tor September, October, and
November, 1797.
Staunton, (Sir GEORGF. THOMAS,) son of the pre
ceding, was born at Salisbury in 1781. In 1816 he
accompanied Lord Amherst on his embassy to China,
where he devoted himself to the study of the Chinese
language. He published " Miscellaneous Notices re
lating to China," etc., (1822.) and translated the criminal
code of China into English. Died in 1859.
Staupitius. See STAUPITZ.
Staupitz, stow'pits, [Lat. STAUPI'TIUS,] (JOHN,) cel
ebrated as the friend and patron of Luther, was vicar-
general of the order of the Augustines in Germany. He
was the author of Latin treatises " On the Love of
God" and "On Christian Faith." Died in 1524.
See ARNOLD, " Ketzer-Historie ;" GEUDKR, "Vita J. Staupitii,"
1837 ; L. W. GRIMM, " Dissertatio de J. Staupitio," 1837.
Stavely, stav'le, (THOMAS,) an English antiquary
and lawyer, wrote a " History of Churches in England,"
(1712.) Died in 1683.
Stay, stl, (BENEDETTO,) a Latin poet, born at Ra-
gusa in 1714, was a priest. lie wrote poems on natural
philosophy, entitled " Modern Philosophy," (" Philoso-
phia recentior," 3 vols.. 1655-92,) -and ""Philosophy in
Verse," ("Philosophia Versibus tradita," 1744.) Died
in 1801.
Stayner. See STAIN KR.
Steb'bing, (HENRY,) an English divine and theolo
gian, was engaged in the Bangorian controversy. Died
in 1763.
Stebbing, (HENRY,) an English clergyman, born
about 1800. He published "Lives of the Italian Poets,"
(3 vols., 1831,) a " History of the Christian Church," (2
vols., 1833-34,) a " History of the Reformation," (2 vols.,
1836,) and other works. He became rector of Saint
•Mary Somerset, in or near London, about 1857.
Sted'man, (JOHN GABRIEL,) a Scottish officer, born
in 1745, served in the Dutch army, and wrote a " Nar
rative of an Expedition against the Revolted Negroes
of Surinam." Died in 1797.
Steed'man, (JAMES 11, ) an American general, born
in Union county, Pennsylvania, about 1820. He became
a brigadier-general in the summer of 1862, served at
the battle of Chickamauga, September, 1863, and com
manded a corps, or several detachments, at the battle
of Nashville, December 15 and 16, 1864.
Steele, (FREDERICK,) an American general, born at
Delhi, New York, graduated at West Point in 1843.
He commanded a division of the army which assaulted
Vicksburg, May 22, 1863. He took Little Rock on the
Qth or loth of September. In March, 1864, he moved
his army from Little Rock towards Shreveport, designing
to co-operate with General Banks ; but that design was
frustrated.
Steele, (Sir RICHARD,) a popular essayist and dram
atist, was born in Dublin in 1671. He was educated
at Merton College, and became in early life a friend of
Addison. After he left college he was an ensign in the
guards. He produced " The Christian Hero" in 1701,
and a comedy called " The Funeral, or Grief a la Mode,"
(1702.) His comedy of "The Tender Husband" was
performed in 1703. In 1709 he began to publish, under
the assumed name of " Isaac Bickerstaff," " The Tatler,"
a series of periodical essays, to which Addison was a
frequent contributor. The "Tatler" was issued three
times a week, with great success, until January, 1711.
In politics Steele was a zealous Whig. Steele and Ad
dison were associated as editors of the " Spectator,"
which was published daily from March i, 1711, to De
cember 6, 1712. They afterwards produced another
series of essays, under the title of " The Guardian,"
(1713.) Steele was elected to Parliament in 1713, and
expelled in 1713 or 1714 for writing "The Crisis," a
political pamphlet. He was appointed surveyor of the
royal stables in 1715, and commissioner of forfeited
estates in Scotland. In 1722 he produced a successful
comedy called "The Conscious Lovers." He involved
himself in debt and trouble by his improvidence ami
expensive habits. " He was," says Mrs. Barbauld, "a
character vibrating between virtue and vice." He was
a sprightly and genial writer, rather negligent in style.
Died in 1729.
See H. R. MONTGOMERY, "Life of Sir Richard Steele," 1864;
MACAULAY, "Essays," article "Addison;" DRAKE, "Essays;"
thors.
Steell, (JOHN,) a Scottish sculptor, born at Aberdeen
in 1804. Among his works are a marble statue of Sir
Walter Scott, a bronze equestrian statue of the Duke of
Wellington at Edinburgh, and a marble statue of Lord
Jeffrey.
Steen, stan, (JAN,) an eminent Dutch painter, born
at Leyden in 1636. He was a pupil of Brouwer, and
subsequently of Van Goyen, whose daughter he married.
Many of his master-pieces are tavern-scenes, which he
represented with unrivalled fidelity, and with which his
occupation as landlord made him familiar. He died
in 1689, in extreme poverty, caused by his dissipated
habits.
See VAN WESTRHEENEN, "Jan Steen," 1856.
Steen, van den, (CORNELIS.) See LAPIDE.
Steenbock, (MAGNUS,) COUNT. See STENBOCK.
Steenstrup, stan'strup, (JOHANN JAPHET SMITH,) a
Danish naturalist, born at Vang in 1813. He published
several works.
Steenwyk or Steenwijk, stan'wik, (HENDRIK,)
THE ELDER, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Steen
wyk in 1550. He was a pupil of De Vries. His inte
riors of Gothic churches are exceedingly admired for
the perfect disposition of light and shade and the know
ledge of chiaroscuro which they display. Died in 1604.
Steenwyk, (HENDRIK,) THK. YOUNGER, a son of the
preceding, was born about 1588. He was instructed in
painting by his father, and, like him, excelled in archi
tectural views and interiors of churches and palaces.
He was introduced by his friend Van Dyck to the court
of England, where he was extensively patronized. His
wife was also celebrated as a painter. Died after 1642.
Steers, (GEORGE,) an American naval constructor,
born in 1821. He built the famous yacht America, the
steam-packet Adriatic, and the United States steam-
frigate Niagara. He died on Long Island in 1856.
Stee'vens, (GEORGE.) an English critic, born at
Stepney in 1736. He published in 1766 "Twenty of
the Plays of Shakspeare, being the Whole Number
printed in Quarto during his Lifetime," etc. He was
afterwards associated with Dr. Johnson in preparing an
edition of Shakspeare, which came out in 1773. He
was also a contributor to Nichols's " Biographical Anec
dotes of Hogarth" and the " Biographia Dramatica."
Died in 1800.
See the "Monthly Review" for January, 1780.
Stefaneschi, stef'a-neVkee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,)
a Florentine historical painter, born in 1582; died in
1659.
Stefani, de, da stSTa-nee or sta'fa-nee, (TOMMASO,)
one of the earliest Neapolitan painters, was born about
1230. None of his works have been preserved.
Stefano, steTa-no, an Italian painter, surnamed Fio-
RENTINO, born at Florence in 1301, was a grandson and
pupil of Giotto. He is said to have been the first artist
who attempted foreshortening. Died in 1350.
Stefano, di, dee ste7'a-no, (TOMMASO,) an Italian
painter, surnamed GIOTTINO, born in 1324, is supposed
to have been a son of the preceding. His style strongly
resembles that of Giotto. Died in 1356.
as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this,
Explanations, p. 23.)
STEPFANI
2060
STELLA
Steffani, stef'fi-nee, (AcoSTlNO,) a celebrated Italian
composer, born at Castel-Franco about 1650. He was
patronized by the Duke of Brunswick, father of George
I. of England, who appointed him manager of the Opera
in Hanover. He composed operas, madrigals, and duets.
The last-named are esteemed master-pieces of their
kind. Died in 1729.
See FETIS, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens."
Steffens, stef'fens, (HEINRICH,) an eminent Norwe
gian writer and philosopher, bom at Stavanger in 1773.
He studied at the University of Copenhagen, and after
wards visited Jena, where he became an earnest advo
cate of the doctrines of Schelling, who intrusted him
with the revision of his works on natural philosophy.
While on a visit to Freiberg, he acquired the friend
ship of Werner, and wrote his " Geognostic-Geological
Essays," which in 1819 he expanded into a "Manual
of Oryctognosy," (" Handbuch der Oryktognosie.") In
1804 he was offered a professorship at Halle, where he
soon after embraced the cause of the patriots in their
resistance to French domination, and entered the Prus
sian army as a volunteer. On his return, in 1813, he
became professor of physics and natural history at Bres-
lau, and in 1831 filled the same chair at Berlin. Among
his works not yet mentioned, we may name " Elements
of Philosophical Natural Science," (1806,) "On False
Theology and True Faith," (1824,) "On the Secret So
cieties of the Universities," (1835,) and " Caricatures of
the Holiest," (" Caricaturen des Heiligsten.") He also
published religious essays of a Pietistic character, one
of which is entitled " How I became again a Lutheran,
and what Lutheranism is to me," (1831.) Steffens like
wise wrote several novels of a high character, entitled
"The Four Norwegians," ("Die vier Norweger," 6
vols.,) "The Families of Walseth and Leith," (3 vols.,)
and " Malcolm." They contain fine delineations of Nor
wegian character and manners, and beautiful descriptive
passages, and are imbued with deep religious feeling.
Died in 1845.
See his Memoirs, called "What I have seen," (or " experienced,")
("Was ich erlebte,") 10 vols., 1840-44; H. GELZER, " Zur Erinne-
rung an H. Steffens," 1X45: " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale ;"
" Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1843; "North American
Review" for October, 1843.
Stefonio, sta-fo'ne-o, (BERNARDINO,) an Italian
Jesuit and Latin poet, born in the Papal States in 1560.
He was the author of tragedies, orations, and epistles.
Died in 1620.
Steibelt, sti'belt, (DANIEL,) a celebrated German
pianist and composer for the piano, was born at Berlin
in 1756. He was patronized by Frederick the Great,
and became imperial chapel -master at Saint Petersburg.
Died in 1823.
Steigentesch, sti'gen-tesh'. (AUGUST,) BARON, a
German dramatist, born at Hildesheim in 1774; died
in 1826.
Stein, stln, (CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED DANIEL,) a Ger
man geographer, born at Leipsic in 1771, published a
"Manual of Geography and Statistics," (1809,) and
other works of the kind. Died in 1830.
Stein, (JoHANN ANDREAS,) a German organist and
maker of musical instruments, born in the Palatinate in
1728 ; died in 1792.
Stein, (LUDWIG,) a distinguished German jurist and
writer, born in Sleswick in 1813. Having studied at
Kiel and Jena, he visited Paris, where he became ac
quainted with the doctrines of Fourier, and published a
work entitled "The Socialism and Communism of
France at the Present Time," (1844.) In 1846 he be
came professor at Kiel, and the same year brought out,
in conjunction with Warnkonig, a " History of French
Jurisprudence." He also wrote a " System of Political
Science," (1854.)
Stein, von, fon stln, (HEINRICH FRIF.DRICH KARL,)
BARON, a celebrated Prussian statesman, born at Nassau
in October, 1757. He studied law at Gottingen, and
entered the service of Prussia in 1778 as director of
mines. In 1786 he visited England, the institutions of
which he studied with much interest. Elaving been
appointed president of the Westphalian Chambers at
Wesel, Hamm, and Minden in 1796 or 1797, he dis
played superior administrative talents. He was minister
of commerce, customs, etc. at Berlin from 180410 i8~>7,
and became prime minister after the peace of Tilsit,
July, 1807. He resolved to "compensate the kingdom's
loss in extensive greatness by intensive strength," and
reorganized the political system of Prussia on a more
liberal basis. Serfdom and feudal privileges were abol
ished. These and other reforms constituted what was
called " Stein's system." The enmity of Napoleon caused
him to be removed from office in November, 1808, and
exiled. He founded the Tugend-Bund, (" League of
Virtue,") a secret society to promote the liberation of
Germany. In 1813 he was chief of the council for the
administration of the German territories which had been
reoccupied by the allies. He lost his influence in 1815,
and retired from public life. Died in 1831.
See PERTZ, " Leben des Freiherrn von Stein," 5 vols., 1855;
" Leben des Freiherrn von mid zum Stein," Leipsic, 2 vols., 1841 ;
"Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for
September, 1845.
Steinbach, von. See ERWIN VON STKINHACH.
Steinbart, stin'bakt, (GOTTHKLF SAMUEL,) a Ger
man theologian of the rationalistic school, born at Ziil-
lichau in 1738; died in 1809.
Steinbock. See STENHOCK.
Steinbriick, stin'bKuK, (EDUARD,) a German painter,
born at Magdeburg in 1802. He worked at Dusseldorf
from 1833 to 1846, and then removed to Berlin.
Steinia, stin'la, (MoRiTZ MULLER,) a German en
graver, born at Steinia in 1791. His proper name was
Muller. He engraved Raphael's "Massacre of the In
nocents" and " Madonna di San Sisto ;" also some works
of Titian and Holbein. Died at Dresden in 1858.
Steinle, stin'leh, (JOHANN EDUAKD,) a German
painter, born at Vienna in 1810.
Steinmar, stln'mar, a German minnesinger, of a
Tyrolese family, lived about 1250.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Steinmetz, von, fon stln'mets, (KARL FRIF.DRICH,)
a German general, born at Eisenach in 1796. He served
as lieutenant in France in 1814, and entered Paris with
the army of the allies. In 1866 he commanded an army
corps which gained victories over the Austrians at Ska-
litz and other places. The Prussian Chambers in the
autumn of 1866 voted 1,500,000 thalers as a national
recompense to six men, among whom was General von
Steinmetz. He commanded the first army which in
vaded France in August, 1870, and contributed to the
great victory near Metz in that month. He was re
moved from command about the 1st of September.
Steinwehr, von, fon stln'waK, (AnoLPH WILHF.LM
AUGUST,) BARON, a general, born in the duchy of Bruns
wick in 1822. He emigrated to the United States about
1854, and became a brigadier-general of Union volun
teers in October, 1861. lie commanded a division at
Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863.
Stella/ See JOHNSON, (ESTHER.)
Stella, sti'lt', ( ANTOINE Bouzonnet — boo'zo'na',) a
French painter, a nephew of Jacques, noticed below, was
born at Lyons in 1637; died in 1682.
Stella, (CLAUDINE BOUZONNET,) a French engraver,
born at Lyons in 1636, was sister of the preceding.
She died at Paris in 1697.
Stella, sti'lt', (FRANC.OIS,) a Flemish painter, born
at Malines in 1563, was the father of Jacques, noticed
below. Died at Lyons in 1605.
Stella, (FRANCOIS,) a painter, born at Lyons about
1602, was a son of the preceding. He worked in Paris,
where he died in 1647.
Stella, stel'la, (Giui.io CESARF.,) a Latin poet, born
at Rome in 1564. He was author of an unfinished poem
on the discovery of Columbus, (1585.) Died about 1624.
Stella, (JACQUES,) a French painter, born at Lyons
in 1596. He resided many years in Florence, where he
was patronized by the grand duke Cosimo II. After
his return to Paris he was appointed painter to the king,
and obtained the cross of Saint Michael, and other dis
tinctions. He was a friend of Poussin, whose style
he imitated. Died in 1657.
See FELIBIEN, " Entretiens ;" FONTENAY, " Dictionnaire des
Artistes;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. "
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, \\, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
STELLINI
2061
STEPHEN
Stellini, stel-lee'nee, (JACOPO or GIACOPO,) a learned
Italian ethical writer, born at Cividale di Friuli in 1699.
He was professor of moral philosophy at Padua, and
wrote several works. Died in 1770.
See CARONEU.I, "Vita del J. Stellini," 1784; P. COSSAI.I,
" Elogio di G. Stellini," 181 1 ; FABRONI, "Vits Italorum doctrina
excellentuim."
Stelliola, stel-le-o'la, (NiccoL6 ANTONIO,) an Italian
natural philosopher, born at Nola in 1547. He became
professor of medicine in the University of Naples, and
wrote, besides other works, "II Telescopic)," (1627.)
Died in 1623.
Stelluti, stel-loo'tee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian poet
and naturalist, born at Fabriano in 1577, was a member
of the Academy of Lincei. Among his works is " II
Parnasso," a canzone, (1631.) Died after 1651.
Stenbock, steVbok, or Steenbock, (MAGNUS,) a
Swedish commander under Charles XII., was born at
Stockholm in 1664. He distinguished himself at the
battle of Narva, and gained a signal victory over the
Danes at Helsingborg in 1710. Being afterwards be
sieged in the fortress of Tonningen by the Russian,
Danish, and Saxon army, he was forced to capitulate,
and was made prisoner by the King of Denmark. He
died in prison in 1717, leaving a narrative of his life.
See GEIJER, " History of Sweden;" GBZBLIUS, " Biographiskt-
Lexicon ;" LOENBOM, " M. Stenbocks Lefverne," 4 vols., 1757-65;
ENBERG, "Areminne ofver M. Stenbock," 1X17; OXENSTIERNA,
" M. Stenbock och Villars Sammanstallde," 1790.
Stendahl or Stendhal. See BEYLE.
Steiio, sta'no, (MiCHKi.E,) a Venetian ruler, born in
1331. He was elected Doge of Venice in 1400. Verona,
Padua, and other places were added to the state during
his administration. Died in 1413.
See DARU, " Histoire de Venise."
Steiio, sta'no, (NICHOLAS.) an eminent Danish anat
omist, born at Copenhagen in 1638. He studied three
years in the University of Leyden, which he entered in
1661, and afterwards pursued his researches in Paris.
About 1662 he discovered and described the duct of the
parotid gland, called Steno's duct. He made other dis
coveries, and published several works, (in Latin,) among
which are a "Treatise on the Muscles and Glands,"
(1664.) and one "On the Anatomy of the Brain," (1669.)
He became a Catholic priest in 1675, after which he
wrote works on theology. Haller called him "magnus
inventor." Died at Schwerin in 1687.
See MANNI, "Vita del litteratissimo Stenone," 1775; FABRONI,
"Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium;" HAI.LER, " Bibliotheca
anatomica ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale."
Sten'tor, [Srevrop,] a Grecian warrior or herald,
who served in the Trojan war, and whose voice, accord
ing to Homer, was as loud as the combined voices of
fifty men.
Stenzel, stSnt'sel, (GUSTAV ADOLF HARALD,) a Ger
man historian, born at Zerbst in 1792. He wrote, among
other works, a " History of Germany under the Frank-
ish Emperors," (1827.) Died in 1854.
Stephani, sta'fa-nee, (HEINRICH,) a German educa
tional writer, born near Wiirzburg in 1761 ; died in 1850.
Stephanie, sta'fa-nee, (CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB,) a Ger
man actor and dramatist, born at Breslau in 1733 ; died
in 1798.
Stephanus, the Latin of STEPHEN and ETIENNE,
which see.
Steph'a-nus [Ireipavof] A-the-ni-en'sis, a Greek
physician, the time and place of whose birth are un
known. Among his extant works are a commentary on
the " Prognostics" of Hippocrates, and a commentary on
one of the works of Galen.
Steph'anus By-zan-ti'nus, or Stephen of By
zantium, [Fr. ETIENNE DE BYZANCE, a'te-Sn' deh
be'zoNss',] a Greek writer, supposed to have lived in the
fifth century. He was the author of a geographical dic
tionary, entitled " Ethnica," of which only an abridgment
is extant, and which is supposed to have been the first
work of the kind ever written.
Stephen, stee'ven, [Fr. ETIENNE, a'te-en'; It. STE-
FANO, st§f'a-no,] the first Christian martyr, was one of
the seven deacons of the Christian Church at Jerusalem.
Being charged by the Jews with blasphemy, he was
stoned to death. The time of this event is variously
estimated at from 35 to 37 A.D.
See Acts vi., vii.
Stephen [Lat. STEPH'ANUS] I. succeeded Lucius as
Bishop of Rome in 253 A.D. He was engaged in a con
troversy with Cyprian on the baptism of heretics. He
died in 257 A.D.
Stephen II., chosen pope in 752 A.D., died three
days after his election, and is not generally mentioned in
the series of the popes.
Stephen III., sometimes called Stephen II., (see
preceding article,) was elected pope in 752 A.D. Astol
phus, King of the Longobards, having threatened Rome,
Stephen solicited the aid of Pepin, King of the Franks,
who marched into Italy, defeated Astolphus, and com
pelled him to give up the district (Exarchate) of Ravenna,
and other provinces previously conquered by him. In
755 Astolphus, with a recruited army, again attacked
Rome, but was finally driven back by Pepin, who con
ferred upon the Roman See Pentapolis and the Exarch
ate of Ravenna. Stephen died in 757, and was succeeded
by Paul I.
Stephen IV., a native of Sicily, became pope in 768
A.D. During his pontificate the Longobards again took
possession of portions of the Exarchate of Ravenna.
He died in 772, and was succeeded by Adrian I.
Stephen V. was elected pope in 816 A.D. His pon
tificate was marked by no important events, and he died
within a year after his consecration.
Stephen VI. succeeded Adrian III. as Pope of Rome
in 885. In the quarrel between Guido, Duke of Spoleto,
and Berengarius, Duke of Friuli, he espoused the cause
of the former, whom he crowned King of Italy in 891.
Stephen VII. succeeded Benedict VI. in 896. He
annulled the acts and decrees of Formostis, one of his
predecessors, and a political opponent, and caused his
remains to be treated with dishonour. In 897 he was
thrown into prison, and strangled by the friends of
Formosus.
Stephen VIII. succeeded Leo VI. in 928. He died
in 930, and was followed by John XL, son of Marozia,
Duchess of Tuscany. (See MAROZIA.)
Stephen IX. was elected pope in 939, and died in
942. He was succeeded by Martin III.
Stephen X., brother of Godfrey, Duke of Lorraine,
was elected pope in 1057. Under his rule occurred the
schism between the Greek and Roman Churches, and a
long controversy was carried on concerning the celibacy
of the clergy. Died in 1058.
Stephen, SAINT, King of Hungary, born at Gran
about 979, vvas the son of a chief named Geysa. He
was instructed in the Christian faith, and in 995 married
the sister of the emperor Otho III. He was crowned
in 1000 first King of Hungary, with the sanction of the
pope. During his reign Christianity was firmly estab
lished in his country. Died in 1038.
Stephen II., King of Hungary, was the son of Kolo-
man, and ascended the throne in 1114. He carried on
unsuccessful wars with Poland, Austria, and Russia, and
in 1131 abdicated his throne in favour of a relative
named Bela. He died in a monastery in the same year.
Stephen III., son of the preceding, was crowned in
1161, but he was soon forced to resign in favour of his
uncle Ladislaus, whose claims were supported by the
Emperor of Constantinople.
Stephen IV. became .King of Hungary on the death
of Ladislaus, in 1161. His subjects, however, soon re
volted against him, and restored Stephen III. to the
throne. Stephen IV. died in 1163, and his nephew,
Stephen III., in 1173.
Stephen V. succeeded his father Bela in 1270 as
King of Hungary. He carried on war with the Bohe
mians and Bulgarians, and died in 1272.
Stephen, stee'ven, [Lar. STEPH'ANUS; Fr. ETIENNE,
a'te-Sn',] King of England, born in France in 1105, was
a son of Stephen, Count of Blois. His mother, Adela,
was a daughter of William the Conqueror. He ren
dered himself popular in England by his martial courage,
and became a competitor for the crown at the death
of Henry I., in 1135, although that king had designated
his daughter Matilda as his successor. Stephen was
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
128
anations, p. 23.)
STEPHEN
2062
STEPHENSON
recognized as king by a large portion of the people, and
a civil war began in 1139. In 1153 Prince Henry, a son
of Matilda, came from Normandy with an army. The
contest was decided by an agreement that Stephen
should retain the throne until his death, and that Henry
should succeed him. Died in 1154.
See HUME, " History of England," chap. vii.
Stephen, KING OF POLAND. See IUTHORI.
Stephen of Muret, [Fr. ETIENNE DE MURET,
a'te-en' deh mu'r£',] SAINT, a French monk, born in
Auvergne in 1048. He founded a monastery at Muret.
Died in 1124.
Stephen of Tournay. See UTIENNE DE TOURNAY.
Ste'phen, (Sir GEORGE,) brother of Sir James, no
ticed below, was born about 1794. He published "The
Jesuit at Cambridge," "Adventures of an Attorney,"
and several other works.
Stephen, (JAMES,) an English lawyer and philan
thropist, born in Dorsetshire. He was an earnest advo
cate of African emancipation, and he is said to have
planned the system of the continental blockade during
the French war. He published a treatise entitled " War
in Disguise, or the Frauds of Neutral Flags." He be
came a member of Parliament for Tralee, and for many
years held the post of a master in chancery. Died in
1832.
Stephen, (Sir JAMES,) K.C.B., an English writer and
statesman, born in London about 1790. He studied at
Cambridge, and rose through various offices to be per
manent tinder-secretary to the colonial department, which
post he filled with eminent ability. He was appointed
in 1849 regius professor of modern history at Cambridge.
He published " Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography,"
originally published in the " Edinburgh Review," " Lec
tures on the History of France," (1851,) and other works,
which enjoy a high reputation. Died in 1859.
See " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1859.
Stephen, sta'pen, (JoiiN,) a Danish professor of his
tory, born at Copenhagen in 1599; died in 1650.
Stephens, (celebrated printers.) See ETIENNE.
Stephens, stee'venz, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish writer,
born at Elgin in 1757, published "Memoirs of Home
Tooke," and other works. Died in 1821.
Stephens, stee'vens, (ALEXANDER H.,) an American
statesman, born in Taliaferro county, Georgia, in 1812.
He was elected to Congress by the Whig party in 1843,
and continued in office till 1859. He was one of the
first advocates of the annexation of Texas, and was
active in promoting the passage of the Kansas and
Nebraska Act of 1854. He subsequently joined the
Democratic party, and supported the measures of Presi
dent Buchanan. He opposed the secession of Georgia
in 1860, but, having subsequently joined the secession
ists, was elected in 1861 Vice-President of the Confede
rate States. He published "A Constitutional View of
the War between the States," (1870.)
Stephens, (Mrs. ANN SOPHIA W.,) a popular Ameri
can novelist, born at Derby, Connecticut, in 1813. She
has published "The Heiress of Greenhurst," " The Old
Homestead," " Fashion and Famine," (1854,) and con
tributed numerous tales to "Graham's Magazine" and
other periodicals.
Stephens, (HENRY,) a Scottish writer on agriculture,
born in Bengal in 1795, was educated at Edinburgh.
He published "The Book of the Farm," (3 vols., 1844,)
and other works.
See " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1849 ; " Blackwood's
Magazine" lor May, 1851.
Stephens, stee'vens, (JAMES FRANCIS,) an English
entomologist, born in Sussex in 1792. He was the
author of "The Systematic Catalogue of British Insects,"
"A Manual of the British Coleoptera," and " Illustra
tions of British Entomology," (lovols) The last-named
is regarded as one of the most valuable works of the
kind. He was president of the Entomological Society,
and a Fellow of the Linnaean Society. Died in 1852. '
Stephens, (JEREMY,) an English theologian, born in
Shropshire in 1592. He became rector of Wotton, and
published several works. Died in 1665.
Stephens, (JOHN LLOYD,) an American traveller,
born at Shrewsbury, New Jersey, in 1805. He published
in 1837 "Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petrsea,
and the Holy Land," which was followed in 1838 by
"Travels in Greece, Turkey, Russia," etc. Being ap
pointed in 1839 ambassador to Central America, he
brought out, after his return, " Incidents of Travel in
Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan," (1841,) and
"Incidents of Travel in Yucatan," (1843,) illustrated by
Catherwood. These works obtained great popularity
both in this country and in Europe, and the two last-
named are esteemed among the most valuable contribu
tions to American antiquities. Mr. Stephens was elected
president of the Panama Railroad Company about 1850.
Died in 1852.
See Au.imiNE, "Dictionary of Authors ;" "London Quarterly
Review" for December, 1841 ; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1842;
"North American Review" for October,' 1841, and July, 1843.
Stephens, (ROBERT,) an English antiquary, entered
a college at Oxford in 1681, and was appointed royal
historiographer. lie published the "Letters" of Lord
Bacon. Died in 1732.
Stephenson, stee'ven-son, (GEORGE,) an eminent
English engineer, and inventor of the locomotive engine,
was born at Wylain, in Northumberland, June 9, 1781.
His father was a fireman of a colliery, and was unable
to give his children an education at school. At the age
of fourteen, George became an assistant fireman in the
colliery. He learned to read and write at a night-school.
Having been promoted to the office of brakesman, he
married Fanny Henderson about 1802. He exercised
his mechanical skill in mending clocks, studied me
chanics, and acquired a knowledge of steam-engines.
In 1812 he became chief engineer of Killingworth Col
liery. His first locomotive engine was completed in
July, 1814, and drew eight loaded cars four miles an
hour. He made another, with important improvements,
and applied the steam blast-pipe, in 1815, and soon after
that date improved the construction of the railway. In
1822 he was employed to construct a railway from Stock
ton to Darlington, which was opened in 1825 ami was
the first railway made for public use. About 1824 Mr.
Stephenson and Edward Pease, of Darlington, established
a manufactory of locomotives at Newcastle. He was
chief engineer of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway,
finished in 1830, not without violent opposition from
land-owners and others. A prize of five hundred pounds,
offered by the directors of this railway for the best loco
motive, was awarded to the " Rocket," made by George
Stephenson and his son Robert, (1830.) This engine is
said to have run at the rate of thirty miles an hour, to
the great amazement of the public. He was employed
as engineer of the Grand function Railway, of that which
connects London with Birmingham, and of others. His
latter years were spent in the superintendence of exten
sive coal-mines which he owned. Died at Tapton in
August, 1848.
" By patient industry," says Smiles, " and laborious
contrivance, he was enabled to do for the locomotive
what [ames Watt had done for the condensing engine.
He found it clumsy and inefficient; and he made it
powerful, efficient, and useful." " Men in the best ranks
of life have said of him that he was one of Nature's
gentlemen."
See S.Mti.Es, "Life of George Stephenson," 1859; "London
Quarterly Review" for October, 1857.
Stephenson, (ROBERT,) a distinguished engineer, a
son of the preceding, was born at Willington in October,
1803. He studied for one session at the University of
Edinburgh, (1820-21,) after which he assisted his father
in the construction of the Stockton and Darlington Rail
way, and in the manufacture of locomotives. In 1824
he was employed in South America as inspector of gold-
and silver-mines. He returned to England in 1827, and
became associated with his father in the fabrication of
locomotives. He was engineer of the Leicester and
Swannington Railway, and of the London and Birming
ham Railway which was opened in 1838. He acquired
a high reputation as a railway engineer, and was em
ployed as such in various foreign countries. Among his
greatest works are the viaduct over the Tweed at Ber
wick, the high level bridge at Newcastle, the Britannia
tubular bridge over Menai Straits, (1850,) the Victoria
I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; not; good; mobrt;
STEP NET
2063
STEVENS
tubular bridge at Montreal, finished about 1860, and a
railway connecting Cairo with Alexandria, in Egypt. He
was fleeted a member of Parliament for Whitby in 1847.
Died in October, 1859.
See SMILES, "Lives of the Engineers;" J. C. JEAFFRESOX,
"Lite of Robert Stephenson," 1864; " Fraser's Magazine" for
December, 1859.
Step'iiey, (GEORGE,) an English diplomatist and
poet, born at Westminster in 1663. Me was employed
in embassies to Germany, Poland, and the States-Gene
ral, (Netherlands.) He was the author of several origi
nal poems, and assisted Dryden in his translation of
Juvenal. "He is," says Johnson, "a very licentious
translator, and does not recompense the neglect of his
author by beauties of his own." Died in 1707.
Sterbeeck, van, vfn stex'bak, (FRANCIS,) a Flemish
botanist and priest, born at Antwerp in 1631. He pub
lished "Theatrum Fungorum." Died in 1693.
Ster'ling, (EDWARD,) a journalist, born at Waterford,
in Ireland, in 1773. He was a captain in the army in his
early life. He began about 1812 to write for the London
"Times," of which he became editor. He wrote many
political editorials for that journal, and supported the
Reform bill of 1832. Died in 1847.
Ster'ling, (JoHN,) a British poet and miscellaneous
writer, a son of the preceding, was born in the island of
Bute in 1806. He finished his studies at Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he acquired the friendship of Mr.
(afterwards Archdeacon) Hare, Monckton Milnes, and
other distinguished men. Having taken holy orders,
he became curate of Ilurstmonceaux, in Sussex, in 1834.
He was the author of "Arthur Coningsby," a novel,
(1833,) "The Election ; a Poem, in Seven Books," (1841,)
" Strafford," a tragedy, (1843,) anc' "Essays and Tales."
He numbered among his friends Coleridge and Thomas
Carlyle, and his Life has been written by the latter.
Died in 1844.
See T. CARI.YLE, " Life of John Sterling," 1851 ; " Brief Biogra
phies," by SAMUEL SMILES; "Fraser's Magazine" for February,
1848; "British Quarterly Review" for August, 1848.
Stern, (DANIEL.) See AGOULT, n'.
Stern, (MARIE UK FI.AVIGNY.) See AGOULT, D'.
Stemberg, stei<i/beRG, (ALEXANDER,) BARON, a
celebrated novelist, born in Esthonia, in Russia, in 1806,
studied at Dorpat, and in 1830 settled in Germany.
Among his most popular works, which are written in
German, we may name " The Missionary," " Diana,"
and " Saint Sylvan."
See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1837.
Sternberg, (KASPAR MARIA,) COUNT, a German
naturalist, and president of the Bohemian National
Museum, born in 1761 ; died in 1838.
Sterne, stern, (LAURENCE,) a celebrated humorist,
born at Clonmel, Ireland, in 1713, was a great-cjrandson !
of Richard Sterne, Archbishop of York. His father !
was a lieutenant in the army. He was educated at |
Cambridge, which he entered in 1733, took holy orders, i
and became vicar of Sutton about 1738. He was inarmed ,
in 1741. Through the influence of an uncle, he obtained j
a prebend in York Cathedral. He remained nearly !
twenty years at Sutton, and acquired a sudden celebrity j
by the publication of two volumes of "Tristram Shandy,"
(1759,) a humorous story, which had a great success. In
1760 he published two volumes of sermons, and was
appointed curate of Coxwold, Yorkshire. The poet
Gray praises his sermons, as showing "a strong imagi
nation and a sensible heart," but adds, "you see him
[the preacher] often tottering on the verge of laughter,
and ready to throw his periwig in the face of his audi
ence." (See Gray's " Letters.") Sterne's promotion in
the Church was hindered by his dissipated or irregular
habits. He visited Paris and other parts of France in
1762-63, and published the ninth volume of "Tristram
Shandy" in 1767. Having made another tour in France
and Italy, he produced in 1768 his "Sentimental Jour
ney," which enjoyed a great popularity. He died in
London in 1768, leaving one child, a daughter.
Sterne is considered one of the most humorous and
original writers in the language. "His wit," says Haz-
litt, "is poignant, though artificial; and his characters
(though the groundwork of some of them had been laid
before) have yet invaluable original differences ; and the
spirit of the execution, the master-strokes constantly
thrown into them, are not to be surpassed." ("Lectures
on the English Comic Writers.")
See MEDALLE, "Letters of Laurence Sterne, to which are pre
fixed Memoirs of his Life, written by himself," 3 vols., 1775; SIR
WALTER SCOTT, "Memoirs of Eminent Novelists:" THACKERAY,
" Lectures on the English Humourists:" PERCY FITZGERALD, " Life
of Laurence Sterne," 2 vols., 1864; JOHN FKRRIAR, "Illustrations
of Laurence Sterne, with other Essays," 1798: AI.I.IBONE, "Dic
tionary of Authors ;" " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1854 :
" British Quarterly Review" for July, 1864.
Sterne, (RICHARD,) an English prelate, born in Not
tinghamshire in 1596, rose to be Archbishop of York in
the reign of Charles II. He assisted in revising the
Book of Common Prayer. Died in 1683.
Stern'hold, (THOMAS,) an English writer, born in
Hampshire, was groom of the robes to Henry VIII.
and his successor Edward VI. He is chiefly known
from his English version of the Psalms, of which he
translated fifty-one. The principal part of the remainder
were translated by John Hopkins, the whole being pub
lished in 1562, and annexed to the Book of Common
Prayer, under the title of " The Whole Booke of Psalmes,
collected into English Metre, by T. Sternhold, J. Hop
kins, and others," etc. Died in 1549.
Stesichore. See STESICHORUS.
Ste-si-eh'o-rus, [Gr. Sr^cr/^opoc; Fr. STESICHORE,
sta'ze'koR'; It. STESICORO, sta-se-ko'ro,] a celebrated
Greek poet, born at Himera, in Sicily, is supposed to
have flourished about 600 B.C. He is styled the inventor
of choral songs, and his original name of Tisias was
changed to Stesichorus on account of his directing the
choruses at religious festivals. His works, of which only
fragments remain, were composed in the language of the
epic poets, with a mixture of Doricisms, and combine
the material of the epic poem with the lyric f>rm. They
are warmly eulogized by Cicero, Quintilian, and cither
eminent writers of antiquity. He died about 555 B.C.,
aged about 85.
See KLEINK, " De Stesichori Vita," 1825: FABRICIUS, " Biblio-
theca Grseca ;" F. DE BEAUMONT. " Memorii sopra Xanto. Aris-
tossene e Stesicoro," 1835 : K. O. MULLER, " History of the Litera
ture of Ancient Greece :" " Nouvelle Biographic Ginerale."
Steuart. See STEWART, (Sir JAMES.)
Steubeii, stu'ben, [Ger. pron. stoi'ben,] (FREDERICK
WILLIAM AUGUSTUS,) BARON, a celebrated general
of the American Revolution, was born at Magdeburg,
Prussia, in 1730. He served with distinction in the
Seven Years' war, and rose to be adjutant-general in
the king's staff in 1762. In 1777 he offered his services
to General Washington as a volunteer in the American
army. He was appointed major-general in 1778, and
subsequently took an active part in the battle of Mon-
mouth and the siege of Yorktown. A life-annuity of
$2500 was voted him by Congress in 1790, and he also
received 16,000 acres of land in Oneida county, New
York, where he died in 1794. His life, written by
Francis Bowen, is included in Sparks's "American
Biography."
See the " North American Review" for October, 1864.
Steuben, von, fort stoi'ben, (KARL WILHELM AU
GUST,) BARON, a German historical painter, born near
Mannheim about 1790, worked in Paris and in Russia,
where he was patronized by the emperor Nicholas.
Among his works are "Napoleon's Return from Elba,"
and " Esmeralda and Quasimodo." Died in Paris in 1856.
Steuco, ste-oo'ko, [Lat. STEU'CHUS,] (AGOSTINO,) an
Italian scholar, born at Gubbio in 1496. He succeeded
Aleandro as prefect of the Vatican Library in 1542. He
wrote several theological works. Died in 1549.
See NICERON', " Memoires."
Ste'vens, (ABEL,) an American Methodist divine,
born at Philadelphia in 1815. He has edited succes
sively several religious journals, and published, among
other works, "Memorials of the Introduction of Meth
odism into New England," and " History of the Re
ligious Movement of the Eighteenth Century, called
Methodism," (1859.)
Ste'vens, (ALEXANDER,) an English architect, con
structed the bridge over the Liffey at Dublin, and other
important works. Died in 1796.
•e as k; 9 as s: g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; th as in this.
_-e Explanations, p. 23.)
STEVENS
2064
STEP IN
Ste'vens, [Belgian pron. sta'vens,] (ALFRED,) a Bel
gian painter, horn at Brussels about 1822. He gained
a medal of the first class in 1851.
Stevens, (EmvARD,) an American general, born in
Virginia. He was commended by General Washington
for his conduct at the battles of Brandywine and Ger-
mantown, September— October, 1777. Died in 1820.
Stevens, (GKORGE ALEXANDER,) an English actor
and dramatic writer, born in London, was the author of
a novel entitled "Tom Fool," and other works of a
comic and satirical character. Among these may be
named a "Lecture on Heads," "Distress upon Dis
tress," a burlesque tragedy, and "The Adventures of a
Speculist." He also wrote a number of popular songs.
Died in 1784.
Stevens, (ISAAC INGALLS,) an American general,
born in or near Andover, Massachusetts, in 1818, gradu
ated at West Point in 1839, at the head of his class.
He was appointed Governor of Washington Territory
in 1853, and resigned in 1857. In September, 1861, he
became a brigadier-general of Union volunteers. lie
served in the army which captured Port Royal, South
Carolina, in November, 1861, was raised to the rank of
major-general in the ensuing summer, and was killed
at the battle of Chantilly, September i, 1862.
See TENNEY, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion,"
P- 734-
Stevens, (JoHN,) an American mechanician, born
at New York in 1749, was the inventor of a steamboat,
which he exhibited in 1804. He also wrote a pamphlet
giving plans for a railway and steam-carriages. Died
in 1838.
His son, ROBERT LIVINGSTON STEVENS, born in
1788, also distinguished himself as an inventor, and
made numerous improvements in steamboats. Died
in 1856.
Stevens, (JOSEPH,) a Belgian painter, a brother of
Alfred, noticed above, was born at Brussels about 1819.
He has resided alternately in Brussels and Paris. He
excels in the painting of animals, especially dogs.
Stevens, (RICHARD JAMES SAMUEL,) an English
composer, born in London about 1750, published nu
merous songs and glees, which are ranked among the
master-pieces of their kind. Died in 1837.
Stevens, (THADDEUS,) an eminent American legis
lator, distinguished as an opponent of slavery, was born
in Caledonia county, Vermont, on the 4th of April,
1793. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1814,
removed to Pennsylvania, and studied law. He was
elected to the legislature of Pennsylvania in 1833, and
re-elected four times between that date and 1841. In
April, 1835, he made a powerful speech for common
schools, and secured the triumph of a system to which
the majority of the legislature had been hostile. In
1836 he was a member of the Convention which revised
the Constitution of the State. He settled at Lancaster
about 1842, and was elected a member of Congress by
the voters of the ninth district in 1848. He acted with
the Whig party while that party survived, and was re-
elected to Congress in 1850. About 1855 he joined the
Republican party, which was at first called in Pennsyl
vania the People's party. He represented the ninth dis
trict, i.e. Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in Congress
from 1858 to 1868. He was chairman of the committee
of ways and means in the Thirty-seventh Congress,
1861-63, anc' m several subsequent terms. In Decem
ber, 1861, he offered a resolution that all slaves who
shall leave their masters or aid in quelling the rebellion
shall be declared free. After the end of the civil war
he became the most prominent and influential member of
the House of Representatives, and a strenuous opponent
of President Johnson's policy. He advocated the exten
sion of the right of suffrage to the freedmen, and other
measures of the Radical party. Mr. Stevens and Sena
tor Sherman were the authors of the bill for the recon
struction of the seceded States which was passed by
Congress in the session of 1866-67 and became a law
notwithstanding the veto of the President. By this act,
ten of the Southern States were divided into five mili
tary districts, and each district was subjected to the
authority of a military commander until the people of
those districts should adopt new Constitutions conceding
impartial suffrage. Mr. Stevens, who was chairman of
the joint committee on reconstruction, reported in^eb-
ruary, 1867, the original bill, which Senator Sherman
modified by an important amendment. He advocated
the impeachment of Andrew Johnson in a speech on the
241)1 of February, 1868, and was a member of the com
mittee of seven then appointed to prepare and report
articles of impeachment. He was also one of the seven
members elected March 2, 1868, as managers to conduct
the impeachment of President Johnson. He was never
married. Died at Washington in August, 1868.
" lie was one of the few who are not afraid to grasp
first principles and lay hold of great truths, or to push
them to their remotest logical result." (New York
"Times" for August 13, 1868.)
Stevens, (WILLIAM,) an English writer on religion,
born in London in 1732, was a cousin of George Ilorne,
Bishop of Norwich. He wrote an " Essay on the Nature
and Constitution of the Christian Church," and other
works. Died in 1807.
Stevens, (WILLIAM BARSHAW,) an English divine,
born at Abingdon about 1755. He was the author of
" Retirement," a poem, and of a collection of sermons.
Died in 1800.
Ste'ven-son, (ANDREW,) an American statesman,
born in Culpepper county, Virginia, in 1784. He studied
law, became eminent as a pleader, and represented a
district of Virginia in Congress from 1821! to 1834.
During this period he was thrice elected Speaker of
the House of Representatives, in 1827, 1829, and 1831.
He was minister to England from 1836 to 1841. He
acted with the Democratic party. Died in 1857.
Ste'ven-son, (Sir JOHN ANDREW,) an Irish composer,
born in Dublin in 1761. He produced numerous duets,
songs, and anthems, and an oratorio, entitled "The
Thanksgiving." Died in 1833.
Ste'ven-son, (JoHN HALL,) an English satiric poet,
born in Yorkshire in 1718, was a friend of Laurence
Sterne, who has described him in his "Tristram Shandy"
under the name of " Eugenius." He published "Lyric
Epistles," " Fables for Grown Gentlemen," and other
works. Died in 1785.
Ste'ven-spn,(Roi;ERT,)an eminent Scottish engineer,
born at Glasgow in 1772. About 1796 he became en
gineer to the Northern Light-House Commissioners. He
began in 1807 the construction of the Bell Rock Light-
House, off Arbroath, in Forfarshire, which was completed
in 1811. He built upwards of twenty light-houses, and
was employed in various other important works in Scot
land and England. To him is ascribed the suggestion
of malleable iron instead of the cast-iron rails hitherto
used. Died in 1850.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Stevenson, (THOMAS G.,) an American general, born
about 1836, was a son of the Hon. J. Thomas Stevenson,
of Boston. He was appointed a brigadier-general about
the end of 1862. He commanded a division when he
was killed, near Spottsylvania, May 10, 1864.
See TENNEY, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion,"
P. 77S.
Stevenson, (WILLIAM,) an English writer, born
about 1772, held a situation in the Treasury. He wrote,
besides other works, a " Historical Sketch of the Pro
gress of Discovery, Navigation, and Commerce." Died
in 1829.
Stevenson, (WILLIAM,) an English antiquary, born
in Nottinghamshire, was proprietor of the " Norfolk
Chronicle" for thirty-five years. Died in 1821.
Ste"v'in [Fr. pron. sta'vaN'] or Stevinus, sta-vee'-
nus, (SlMoN,) an able Flemish engineer and mathema
tician, born at Bruges about 1550. He was employed as
civil engineer and inspector of dykes by the government
of Holland. He made important improvements in
arithmetic, algebra, and mechanics. Among his works
are a "Treatise on Arithmetic," (1585,) a "Treatise on
Statics and Hydrostatics," (1586,) and a "Treatise on
Navigation," (1599.) Died about 1620.
See GOETHALS, " Notice historiqne sur la Vie de S. Stevin," 1841 ;
QUETELET, "Simon Stevin," 1845; STEICHEN, " Me'moire sur la
Vie de Stevin," 1846; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
a,e, T, o, u, y, long: a, e, 6. same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 5, ii, y, short: a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n5t; good; moon;
STRAIN US
2065
STIG4ND
Stevinus. See STEVIN.
Stew'art, (CHARLES,) a distinguished American
naval officer, born in Philadelphia in 1778. He served
as lieutenant in the operations against Tripoli in 1804,
and obtained the rank of captain in 1806. In 1812 the
government of the United States adopted the over
cautious policy of withdrawing all their vessels of war
from the ocean, but Captain Stewart and W. Bainbridge
induced them to abandon that policy. The former,
in the summer of 1813, took command of the frigate
Constitution, which carried fifty-two guns. He cap
tured in February, 1815, the British ship Cyane and
the sloop Levant, for %vhich service he received a gold
medal from Congress. He afterwards rendered impor
tant services in the organization of the navy, and during
the civil war was raised to the rank of rear-admiral.
Died in 1869.
Stewart, (CHARLES WILLIAM.) See LONDONDERRY.
Stew'art, (DuGALD,) an eminent Scottish professor
of moral philosophy, was born in Edinburgh on the 22d
of November, 1753. He was a son of Matthew, noticed
below, was educated at the High School of Edinburgh,
and attended the lectures of Reid at Glasgow. In 1772
he wrote an "Essay on Dreaming," and became an as
sistant or substitute of his father in the chair of mathe
matics. He was appointed joint professor of mathematics
at Edinburgh in 1775, and succeeded Dr. Ferguson as
professor of moral philosophy in the same university in
1785. He acquired a high reputation as a didactic orator,
and his lectures were attended by many students from
England, and even from the continent. He promoted
the triumph of liberal opinions in politics by his influ
ence over such men as Lord Brougham, Lord Jeffrey,
and Lord John Russell, who were his pupils. In 1792
he published the first volume of his "Elements of the
Philosophy of the Human Mind," which, being written
in an elegant and attractive style, enjoyed a great popu
larity. The second volume appeared in 1814, and the
third in 1827. He produced " Outlines of Moral Phi
losophy" in 1793, a "Life of Dr. Robertson" in 1796,
and a "Life of Dr. Reid" in 1802. On account of his
feeble health, he resigned the active duties of his pro
fessorship in 1810. Among his chief works are a "Phi
losophical Essay," (i vol., 1810,) and his preliminary
dissertation to the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," entitled
a "General View of the Progress of Metaphysical,
Ethical, and Political Science since the Revival of Let
ters," which is highly esteemed. He married Helen
Bannatyne about 1783, and after her death a Miss Crans-
toun. Died at Edinburgh in June, 1828.
Referring to Stewart as a lecturer, Sir Walter Scott
says, his "striking and impressive eloquence riveted the
attention even of the most volatile student." "Perhaps
few men ever lived," says Mackintosh, "who poured
into the breasts of youth a more fervid and yet reason
able love of liberty, of truth, and of virtue. How many
are still alive in different countries, and in every rank
to which education reaches, who, if they accurately
examined their own minds and lives, would not ascribe
much of whatever goodness and happiness they possess
to the early impressions of his gentle and persuasive
eloquence! . . . Without derogation from his writings,
it may be said that his disciples were among his best
works." Respecting his style, the same able writer
observes, "He reminds us not unfrequently of the
character given by Cicero to one of his contemporaries,
' who expressed refined and abstruse thoughts in soft and
transparent diction.' ... It would be difficult to name
works in which so much refined philosophy is joined
with so fine a fancy, — so much elegant literature with
such a delicate perception of the distinguishing excel
lences of great writers, and with an estimate in general
so just of the services rendered to knowledge by a suc
cession of philosophers."
See "General Review of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy ;"
CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;"
COUSIN, "Cours de Philosophic et Fragments philosophiqiies," also
the same writer in the ''Journal des Savants," 1817; "Edinburgh
Review" for November, 1810, September, 1816, and October, 1821 :
" London Quarterly Review" for January, 1815, and January, 1822;
"North British Review" for May, 1858; article in the "Edinburgh
Review" for October, 1830, (by SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON ;) " Black-
wood's Magazine," 1828; " Encyclopedia Britannica."
Stewart or Steuart, (Sir JAMES,) a Scottish political
economist, born in Edinburgh in 1713, was a Jacobite.
He married a daughter of the Earl of Wemyss. Having
joined the army of the Pretender in 1745, he was exiled
for many years. lie returned about 1763, and published,
besides other works, an " Inquiry into the Principles of
Political Economy," (1767.) Died in 1780.
Stew'art, (JAMES HALDANE,) an English theologian,
born in 1775, was rector of Limpsfield, in Surrey. He
published several religious works. Died in 1854.
See a " Life of J. H. Stewart," by his son, 1856.
Stewart, (JOHN,) called WALKING STEWART, an
English traveller, born in London before 1750. He per
formed journeys on foot through Hindostan, Persia,
| Xubia, etc., and walked back to England. Died in Lon
don in 1822.
See DEQUINCEV'S interesting account of Stewart in his " Literary
Reminiscences," vol. ii.
Stewart, (MATTHEW,) a Scottish mathematician,
born at Rothsay, in the Isle of Bute, in 1717, was the
father of Dugald Stewart. He was minister of the parish
of Rosiieath, in the west of Scotland, in his early life.
In 1747 he succeeded Maclaurin as professor of mathe
matics in the University of Edinburgh. He published
"General Theorems," etc., (1746,) "Tracts, Physical
and Mathematical," (1761,) and "Propositions demon
strated by the Method of the Ancients," (1762.) He
was well versed in Greek geometry. Died in 1785.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Stewart, (Roi'.ERT.) See CASTLEREAGH, LORD.
Stewart (or Steward) Family. See STUART.
Sthen'e-lus, [Gr. Z0eve/u>c; Fr. STHENELE, sta'nil',]
a king of Mycenae, was a son of Perseus and Andromeda,
and the father of Eurystheus.
Sthenelus, a son of Capaneus, was one of the Epi-
goni, (i.e. the sons of the seven chiefs who led the expe
dition against Thebes.) He was a friend of Diomecle,
under whom he served in the Trojan war, and was one
of the band inclosed in the wooden horse.
Stiefel or Stifel, stee'fel, |Lat. STIFF/LIUS,] (MI
CHAEL,) a German mathematician, born at Esslingen, in
Saxony, in 1486. He was a Lutheran minister, and
preached at various places, including Lochau and Holts-
dorf, near Wittenberg. He made discoveries in algebra.
His principal work is " Arithmetica Integra," (1544.)
Died in 1567.
See BAYLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Stieglitz, steec'lits, (CHRISTIAN LUDWIG,) a German
writer upon art, born at Leipsic in 1756, published,
among other works, a " History of Architecture from
the Earliest Antiquity to Modern Times," ( 1827,)
"Archaeology of the Architecture of the Greeks and
Romans," and "On the Pigments used by Ancient
Artists." He also wrote a number of war lyrics. Died
in 1836.
Stieglitz, (HEINRICH,) a German litterateur, born at
Arolsen, in Waldeck, in 1803, was the author of poems
and dramatic works. Died in 1849.
Stieglitz, (JOHANN,) a German physician, of Jewish
extraction, was born at Arolsen in 1767. He published
a treatise "On Animal Magnetism," and other works.
Died in 1840.
Stieler, stee'ler, (ADOLF,) a German geographer,
born at Gotha in 1775 '•> died '" l^3^-
Stier, steeR, (Wn.iiELM,) a German architect, born
near Warsaw in 1799. He became professor at the
Academy of Architecture at Berlin, and the founder of
a new school of architects. He designed the cathedral
of Berlin and the Athenaeum of Munich.
Stiernhielm. See STJERNHJELM.
Stifel. See STIEFEL.
Stifelius. See STIEFEL.
Stifter, stif'ter, (ADALBERT,) a German litterateur,
born in Southern Bohemia in 1806, wrote novels, poems,
and prose essays. " He is," says Vapereau, "one of the
best prose-writers of his country."
Stig'and, a Saxon prelate under the reigns of Ed
ward the Confessor and William the Conqueror, be
came Archbishop of Canterbury in 1052. Having been
convicted of several misdemeanours, he svas deprived of
€ as k; 9 as s; g kard;gzs,j; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this.
130
Explanations, p. 23.)
STIGANT
2066
STIRLING
his office and condemned to perpetual imprisonment,
but he died soon after the sentence was passed.
See W. F. HOOK, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury."
Stig'aiit, (WILLIAM,) an English writer and lawyer,
born in '1827. Me contributed to the "Edinburgh Re
view," and published a collection of poems, including the
"Vision of Barbarossa," (1860.)
Stigliani, stel-ya'nee, (TOMMASO,) an Italian poet,
born at Matera in 1545. Among his works is "The
New World," ("II Mondo nuovo," 1617.) Died at
Rome in 1625.
Stiglmaier or Stiglmayer, stigl'mi'er, (JOHANN
BAPTIST,) a celebrated German brass-founder, born near
Munich in 1791. He visited Italy in 1819, with a view
of perfecting his knowledge of the art, and soon es
tablished his reputation by his bust of Lewis, King of
Bavaria, after Thorwaldsen's model. After his return
he was appointed, in 1824, superintendent of the bronze-
foundry at Munich. Among the numerous works which
he executed during the twenty years following, are the
monument of Schiller at Stuttgart, after Thorwaldsen,
the fourteen colossal statues of the Bavarian princes in
the new palace at Munich, after Schwanthaler, the eques
trian statue of the Elector Maximilian, after Thorwald
sen, and Schwanthaler's colossal statue of " Bavaria," in
front of the Ruhmeshalle at Munich. Died in 1844.
Stiles, (EzRA,) D.D., an American theologian and
scholar, born at North Haven, Connecticut, in 1727.
He graduated at Yale College, and in 1756 became
pastor of the Second Congregational Church at Newport,
Rhode Island. He was elected in 1777 president of
Yale College, and subsequently professor of ecclesias
tical history. He was well versed in the Hebrew, Greek,
and Oriental tongues, and was esteemed one of the most
learned of American divines. He was an intimate friend
of Dr. Franklin, and was the first one in New England
who made experiments in electricity. He published an
"Account of the Settlement of Bristol," (1785,) "His
tory of Three of the Judges of Charles I.," and a num
ber of sermons and orations. Died in 1795.
See the "Life of Ezra Stiles," in SPARKS'S "American Biogra
phy," by J. L. KINGSLEY, vol. vi., second series ; SPRAGCB, " Annals
of the American Pulpit," vol. i.
Stil'I-eho, [Gr. ^TL'MX^V ; Fr. STILICON, ste'le'kiN',]
(FLAVius,) an eminent commander of the Roman armies,
was a son of a Vandal officer. He rose rapidly in the
reign of Theodosius, and was sent as ambassador to
Persia in 384 A.D., at which date he was a young man.
On his return he married Serena, a niece of Theodosius
I., and became commander-in-chief of the army. He
found a rival and dangerous enemy in Rufinus, the chief
minister of Theodosius. In 394 Theodosius appointed
Stilicho guardian of his young son Honorius, to whom
he gave the Western Empire. Rufinus at the same time
was chief minister of Arcadius, Emperor of the East.
After the death of Theodosius, (395,) Stilicho ruled
with unlimited authority at Rome. He marched against
the Goths, who had invaded Thrace, and who were
aided by the treacherous intrigues of Rufinus. This
rival was removed by assassination in 395 A.n. Stilicho
drove Alaric out of the Peloponnesus in 396 A.n. ; but
his victorious progress was checked by the jealousy of
Arcadius, who made a treaty with Alaric and took him
into his own service. The war was renewed by Alaric,
who invaded Italy about 402. Stilicho gained a'decisive
victory over him at Pollentia (or Polentia) in 403, soon
after which the Goths retired from Italy. It is stated
that he formed an alliance with Alaric against Arca
dius, with a design to make himself master of both the
Eastern and Western Empires. In 406 he defeated a
host of barbarians who invaded Northern Italy under
Radagaisus. The enemies of Stilicho excited the fears
and suspicion of Honorius against him, and procured
an order for his death. He was massacred at Ravenna
in 408 A.n.
See CI.AUDIAN, "De Laudibus Stilichonis:" GIBBON, " History
of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" C. F. SCHUI.ZE,
" F. Stilicho em Wallenstein der Vorzeit," 1805; LR BEAU, "His-
toifedu Bas- Empire;" " Nouvelle Biographic G6ierale."
Stilicon. See STILICHO.
Stilke, stil'keh, (HERMANN,) a German historical
painter, born in Berlin in 1803, was a pupil of Cor
nelius at Dusseldorf. He painted many religions and
mediaeval subjects, and was employed by the King of
Prussia to adorn with frescos a hall in the castle of
Stolzenfels.
Still, (JoHN.) a learned English prelate, born in Lin
colnshire in 1543. He became Lady Margaret professor
at Cambridge in 1570, and was afterwards master of
Saint John's and Trinity Colleges. He was made
Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1592. He is believed to
have been the author of one of the earliest comedies in
the English language, entitled "A Ryght Pithy, Pleas-
aunt, and Merie Comeclie, intytuled Gammer Gurton's
Nedle." Died in 1607.
Stille, stil'le, (CHARLES JANEWAY,) LL.D., an Amer
ican writer and scholar, born in Philadelphia in 1819.
He graduated at Yale College in 1839. He published
in 1862 a well-timed and able pamphlet, entitled " How
a Free People Conduct a Long War," (republished in
Littell's " Living Age" and " Harper's Monthly Maga
zine.") Among his other works we may name his
" History of the United States Sanitary Commission,''
etc., (1866.) In May, 1866, he was elected professor
of the English language and literature in the Univer
sity of Pennsylvania, and in 1868 provost of the same
institution. ~
See ALI.IBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Stille, (KARL.) See DEMME.
Stilling. See JUNG.
Stil'ling-fleet, (BENJAMIN,) grandson of Edward
StUlingfleet, noticed below, was born in 1702. He
studied at Cambridge, and subsequently travelled on
the continent. Among his publications may be named
"Miscellaneous Tracts on Natural History," being
chiefly translations from Linnaeus, and an abridgment
of Tartini's "Treatise on Music." Died in 1771.
See WILLIAM COXK, "Life and Works of Benjamin Stilling-
fleet," 1811.
Stillingfleet, (EmVAKn,) an eminent English prel
ate and polemical writer, born at Cranbotirn, in Dorset,
in April, 1635, was educated at Cambridge. He became
rector of Stitton in 1657. His reputation is chiefly
founded on his " Origines Sacrae, or Rational Account
of the Christian Faith as to the Truth and Divine Au
thority of the Scriptures," (1662.) He wrote a number
of works against popery and the nonconformists. He
was one of the chaplains of Charles II., and was ap
pointed Dean of Saint Paul's in 1678. In answer to
Baxter, Howe, and Owen, he published "The Unrea
sonableness of Separation," (1681.) "Stillingfleet," says
Macaulay, " was renowned as a consummate master
of all the weapons of controversy." (" History of Eng
land," vol. ii.) In 1685 he produced "Origines Bri-
tannicae, or Antiquities of the British Churches." lie
became Bishop of Worcester in 1689. Died in 1699.
See GOODWIN, " Life of E. Stillingfleet," 1710.
Still'man, (SAMUEL,) D.D., an American Baptist
divine, born at Philadelphia in 1737. He settled at
Boston as pastor of the First Baptist Church, and
enjoyed a high reputation as a pulpit orator. He was
one of the founders of Brown University, and was
conspicuous for his benevolence. Died in 1807.
Stil'po, [Gr. ETL^-UV ; Fr. STILPON, stel'p6N',] an
eminent Greek philosopher, born at Megara, lived about
325 or 300 H.C. He was highly esteemed for his wisdom
by the ancients, and attracted a large number of dis
ciples, among whom were Zeno the Stoic and Crates
the Cynic. Little is known about his life or doctrines,
which seem to have been similar to those of the Megaric
school.
See DIOGENES LARRTIUS; MALLET, " Histoire de 1'ficole de
Me'gare."
Stilpon. See STILPO.
Stirling, EARL OF. See ALEXANDER, (WILLIAM.)
Stir'ling, (JAMES,) a Scottish mathematician, born in
Stirlingshire about 1690. He was elected a Fellow of
the Royal Society in 1729. His chief work is entitled
"The Differential Method, or Treatise on the Summing
Up and Interpolation of the Infinite Series," (" Methoclus
Differentialis, sive Tractatus de Summatione et Inter-
polatione Serierum Infinitarum," 1730.) Died about
1770.
a. e, T, 6, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; tar, fall, fat; met; not; good; moot.;
STIRLING
2067
STOFFLER
Stirling or Maxwell, (\VIU.IAM,) a Scottish writer
and statesman, born near Glasgow in 1818. Having
graduated at Cambridge, he visited Spain, where he
resided several years. He was elected to Parliament
for Perthshire in 1852. He has published "Annals of
the Artists of Spain," (1848,) "The Cloister-Life of the
Emperor Charles V.," (1852,) and "Velasquez and his
Works," (1855.) He assumed the name of Maxwell in
1866.
Stjernhjelm, sh§Rn'he-ehn, (GEORGE,) a Swedish
savant and poet, born in 1598; died in 1672.
Stjernhok or Stierrihoek, sheRn'hok, QAN,) a
Swedish jurist, born in Dalecatlia in 1596. He pub
lished a work "On the Ancient Law of the Swedes and
Goths," (" De Jure Sueonum et Gothorum vetusto,"
1672.) Died in 1675.
Stjernstolpe, sheuns'stol-peh, (JONAS MAGNUS,) a
Swedish litterateur, born in the province of Soderman-
land in 1777. He was the author of tales in verse, and
made numerous translations from the German, French,
English, and Spanish. He was noted for his wit and
conversational powers. Died in 1831.
See BESKOW, " Minnesord ofver J. M. Stjernstolpe," 1833.
Stobaeus, sto-bee'us, [Gr. Zrofialof ; Fr. STOBEE,
sto'ba',] (JOANNES,) a Greek writer, born at Stobi, in
Macedonia, lived probably between 350 and 500 A.D.
He made a collection of extracts from about five hun
dred Greek authors, in prose and verse. This work is
divided into "Eclogre Physicce et Ethicse," and"An-
thologicon, or Sermones," and is of great value as
preserving portions of authors which would otherwise
have been lost.
See FABKICIUS, " Ribliotheca Graeca :" JACOBS, " Lectiones Sto-
benses," 1797; BERING. '• Remarques critiques sur Stobee," 1833.
Stobee. See STOB/EUS.
Stobee, sto-ba', ? (Kn.iAN,) a Swedish naturalist,
born in Scania in 1690; died in 1742.
Stober or Stoeber, sto'ber, (AUGUST,) a son of
Daniel, noticed below, was born in 1808. He published
(in German) in 1852 "The Traditions of Alsace."
Stober or Stoeber, (DANIEL EHRENFRIED,) born
at Strasbnrg in 1779, was the author of lyric poems, a
"Life of Jeremias J. Oberlin," and other works. Died
in 1835.
Stoccade, sto'ktd', (NICHOLAS DE HKLT or VAN
HEI.T,) a Flemish historical painter, born at Nymwegen
in 1614. He worked at Rome, Venice, and Paris. His
pictures were highly prized.
Stock, (SiMON,) an English Catholic, who became
general of' the order of Carmelites. He is said to have
founded the Brotherhood of the Scapulary, in honour of
the Virgin Mary. Died in 1265.
Stock'dale, (PERCIVAL,) REV., an English writer on
various subjects, born in 1736 ; died in iSil.
See "Memoirs of Percival Stockdale," by himself; "London
Quarterly Review" for May, iSog.
Stockfleth, stok'flet, (NIELS JOACHIM CHRISTIAN,)
a Norwegian missionary to Lapland, born at Christiania
in 1787. He translated into Lappish portions of the
New Testament, and Luther's " Small Catechism." He
also wrote a "Lappish Grammar," and other works.
Stockhardt or Stoeckhardt, stok'haRt, (Juuus
ADOLPH,) a German chemist, born near Meissen in 1809.
He became in 1847 professor of agricultural chemistry
at the Academy for Agriculture and Forest Science at
Tharand.
Stockmans, stok'mans, (PETER,) a Flemish jurist
and statesman, born at Antwerp in 1608. He became a
member of the privy council about 1663, and held other
high offices in Flanders. He published several legal
works. Died in 1671.
See C. DE BAVAV, " P. Stockmans, Jurisconsulte Beige," 1844.
Stocks, (JoHN E.,) an English physician and natural
ist, born in 1822. He visited India, where he made a
valuable collection of plants. Died in 1854.
Stocks, (LuMB,) an English line-engraver, born in
Yorkshire in 1812, He engraved plates for the "Art
Journal," and Frith's picture of Claude Dnval.
Stock'ton, (RICHARD,) an American patriot, and
signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born
near Princeton, New Jersey, in 1730. He rose to distinc
tion as a lawyer, and was appointed in 1774 a judge of
the supreme court of New Jersey. He was elected to
the Continental Congress in 1776. Died in 1781.
His daughter JULIA was the wife of Dr. Benjamin
Rush.
See SANDERSON, " Biography of tlie Signers to the Declaration
of Independence," 1848.
Stockton, (RICHARD,) an eminent lawyer, born at
Princeton, New Jersey, in 1764, was a son of the pre
ceding. He was a Senator of the United States from
1796 to 1799, and was elected to the House of Repre
sentatives in 1813. He was at the head of the bar of
New Jersey for many years. Died at Princeton in 1828.
Stockton, (ROBERT FIELD,) an American commo
dore, born at Princeton, New Jersey, in 1796, was a son
of the preceding. He served in several naval actions
in the war of 1812-14. About 1823 he cruised on the
coast of Africa, and captured several slavers. He be
came a post-captain in 1839. He gave much attention
to naval architecture, and was one of the first American
officers to apply steam to vessels of war. The sloop-of-
war Princeton, which was finished in 1844, was built
according to his plan, and was a very successful experi
ment. By the explosion of one of the guns of the
Princeton, in 1844, two members of the cabinet, Gilmer
and Upshur, were killed. He obtained command of the
squadron on the Pacific coast about the end of 1845. I"
1846 he conquered California, in which he established a
provisional government. He was elected a Senator of
the United States for six years by the legislature of New
Jersey in 1851. Died in 1866.
Stockton, (THOMAS HEWLINGS,) D.D., an eloquent
Methodist divine, born at Mount Holly, New Jersey,
in 1808, for many years filled the post of chaplain to
Congress. He published a number of religious works.
Died in 1868.
Stod'art, (JAMES,) F.R.S., an English cutler and
metallurgist, born about 1760, lived in London. He
manufactured surgical instruments, and was associated
with Faraday in experiments on the alloys of steel. He
also made improvements in the art of tempering steel.
Died in 1823.
Stodart, (Sir JOHN,) an English lawyer and writer,
born in Westminster in 1773, became in 1812 political
editor of the "Times." He translated Schiller's " Don
Carlos" and " Fiesco," and wrote several works on va
rious subjects. He was appointed in 1826 chief justice
and judge of the vice-admiralty court at Malta. Died
in 1856.
Stod'dard, (RICHARD HENRY,) an American poet,
bom at Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1825. He pub
lished a volume entitled " Footprints" in 1848, and a
second collection of poems in 1851. About 1852 he
married Elizabeth D. Barstow, a poetess, and obtained
a place in the custom-house of New York. Among his
other poems is "The Burden of Unrest." " His style,"
says R. W. Griswold, " is characterized by purity and
grace of expression. He is a master of rhythmical
melody, and his mode of treating a subject is sometimes
exquisitely subtle."
See GRISWOLD, "Poets and Poetry of America."
Stoddard, (SOLOMON,) an American clergyman, born
in Boston in 1643. He was minister at Northampton
from 1672 until his death, and published numerous
works on theology. He was a grandfather of Jonathan
Edwards. Died in 1729.
Stod'dart or Stod'dard, CAPTAIN, an English
officer, who was sent as envoy to Bokhara about 1838.
It is supposed that he was murdered by the ruler of
Bokhara in 1842 or 1843.
Stoeber. See STOBER.
Stoeffler. See STOKFI.ER.
Stoeflerus. See STOFFI.F.R.
Stoerk. See STORK, VON, (ANTON.)
Stoffler or Stoeffler, stb'f'fler, [Lat. STOFFLERI'NUS
or STOEFLE'RUS,] (JOHANN,) a German astronomer, bom
in Suabia in 1452, was professor of mathematics, as
tronomy, and geography at Tubingen, and numbered
Melanchthon and Minister among his pupils. He pub
lished an account of an astrolabe of his own construc-
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z: th as in this. (I^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
STOFFLET
2068
STONE MAN
tion, and other scientific works. Died in I531- Ue
predicted that there would be a great deluge in 1524.
See WAHL, " De J. Stofflerino Mathematico," 1743; BAYLE,
" Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Stofflet, sto'fLY, (NICOLAS,) a French general of the
royalist party, born at Luneville in 1751. He joined the
Vendeans in the spring of 1793, and was appointed
major-general in July of that year. After fighting with
great bravery in numerous battles with the republicans,
he was betrayed into the hands of his enemies, and exe
cuted, in 1796.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Stokes, (GEORGE GABRIKL,) F.R.S., an eminent
mathematician and physicist, born in Ireland about
1820. He was educated at Cambridge, and became
Lucasian professor of mathematics there in 1849. The
Rum ford medal of the Royal Society was awarded to
him in 1852 for his discovery of the change in the re-
frangibility of light.
Stolberg, stol'bSRG, (CHRISTIAN,) COUNT, a German
litteratenr,\3om at Hamburg in 1748, was the author of
several dramas and a collection of poems. He also
published a translation of Sophocles, and other poems
from the Greek. Died in 1821.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Stolberg, (FRIEDRICH LEOPOLD,) COUNT, a brother
of the preceding, was born in 1750. He was sent in
1777 by the Prince Bishop of Lubeck as minister-pleni
potentiary to Copenhagen, where he resided several
years, and in 1789 was Danish ambassador to Berlin.
Among his principal works are his romance of " The
Island," the classical drama of "Theseus," "Travels
through Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and Sicily," (1794,)
and a "Life of Alfred the Great," (1815.) He translated
into German Homer's " Iliad," four tragedies of /Eschy-
lus, some of the works of Plato, and the poems of Ossian.
In 1800 he was converted to the Roman Catholic faith,
soon after which he brought out his " History of the
Religion of Jesus Christ," (15 vols., 1811.) Died in 1819.
See A. NICOLOVIUS, " F. L. Grafzn Stolberg," 1846; LONCFF.I.-
LOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" J. H. MARX, " Des Grafen
F. L. zu Stolberg religioser Geist," iSiS ; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generate. "
Stoll, (MAXIMILIAN,) a German physician, born in
Suabia in 1742. He practised in Vienna, and wrote,
besides other works, "Ratio Meclendi," (3 vols., 1777-
80,) which was highly esteemed. Died in 1788.
See J. PKZZL, " Denkmal auf M. Stoll," 1788 ; SPKENGEI., " His-
toire de la Medecine. "
Stolle, stol'leh, (Gorn.iEi!,) a German writer, born
at Liegnitz, in Silesia, in 1673. He became in 1717 pro
fessor of political sciences at Jena. Among his works
are an "Introduction to the History of Erudition,"
(1718,) and an "Account of the Lives and Writings of
the Fathers of the Church," (1733.) ^'e£l 'n r744-
Stolle, (LUDWIG FERDINAND,) a German poet and
novelist, born at Dresden in 1806. He published
" Stolle's Werke," (25 vols., 1847,) and (in German)
"Palms of Peace," (1855.)
Stole. See LICINIUS STOLO.
Stolze, stolt'seh, (HEINRICH AUGUST WILHEI.M,) a
German stenographer, born at Berlin in 1794, published
a "Theoretical-Practical Manual of German Stenog
raphy."
Stone, (CHARLES P.,) an American general, born in
Greenfield, Massachusetts, in 1826, graduated at West
Point in 1845. He was appointed a brigadier-general
in the summer of 1861, and commanded a division sta
tioned on the Potomac River. A part of his command
was defeated at Ball's Bluff, October 21, 1861. He was
by some suspected of treachery on that occasion, and was
imprisoned, apparently without any just cause, in Fort
Lafayette from February to August, 1862.
Stone, (EDMUND,) a British mathematician, bom
about 1690. He published a " Mathematical Dictionary,"
(1726,) and translated L'Hopital's " Analysis of Infini
tesimals," and Bion's " Treatise on Mathematical In
struments," from the French. Died in 1768.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Stone, (FRANK,) an English artist, born at Manches
ter in 1800. He settled in London, where he contributed
a number of oil-paintings to the exhibitions of the Royal
Academy, and in 1851 was elected an associate of that
institution. Among his most admired works we may
name "Christ and the Woman of Bethany," "The
Gardener's Daughter," and a group of French peasants,
entitled " Bon-Jour, Messieurs." Died in 1859.
Stone, (HENRY,) an English painter and sculptor of
the seventeenth century, called "Old Stone." He made
numerous and good copies from Flemish and Italian
pictures. Died in 16^3. lie was a son of Nicholas
Stone, architect, noticed below.
Stone, (foiiN,) a brother of the preceding, devoted
himself to sculpture, and was also the author of a treat
ise on fortification, entitled " Enchiridion." Died in 1690.
Stone, (JoHN H.,) an American officer, born probably
in Maryland. lie distinguished himself at the battles
of Long Island and Princeton; and was Governor of
Maryland from 1794 to 1797. Died in 1804.
Stone, (LuCY,) a distinguished advocate of" Women's
Rights," was born at West Brookfield, Massachusetts,
in 1818. At an early age she determined to go to
college and obtain a liberal education. She went to Ober-
lin, then the only college in the United States open to
her sex. By hard work between the hours of study,
she earned enough to pay both her board and tuition
for nearly the whole of her collegiate course. In the
debating-society at Oberlin her rare oratorical talents
were first manifested and developed. Having graduated
with high honours, she became an agent and lecturer
of the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society, in which
capacity she often pleaded for the rights of woman as
well as for those of the slave. "Lucy Stone," says Mrs.
E. C. Stanton, "was the first speaker who really stirred
the nation's heart on the subject of woman's wrongs."
In 1855 Miss Stone was married to Henry B. Blackwell,
(the brother of Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman in
the United States who took the degree of M.I). ;) but,
believing that her influence as an individual would be
compromised by giving up her name, it was expressly
agreed that she should still retain the one she had always
borne. As a speaker, Mrs. Stone's merits are of a pe
culiar and rare order. Though possessing uncommon
logical ability, it is not to this that she owes her remark
able influence over her auditors ; nor is it due to the
eloquence of emotion or passion, in the ordinary signifi
cation of these words, but rather to a magnetic sympathy,
which seems all the more powerful from its being united
with the utmost quietness and simplicity of manner in
the orator.
Stone, (NICHOLAS,) an English architect and sculptor,
born near Exeter about 1586, was appointed master-
mason of Windsor Castle by Charles I. Among his
works are a monument to Spenser in Westminster
Abbey, and statues of Edward V. and Henry VII. Died
in 1647.
Stone, (NICHOLAS,) a son of the preceding, was also a
sculptor, and made copies of the " Laocoon" and other
celebrated works. Died in 1647.
Stone, (THOMAS,) an American patriot, and signer
of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Charles
county, Maryland, in 1743. He became a member of
the Congress of 1774, and was subsequently three times
re-elected. Died in 1787.
Stone, (WILLIAM LEETE,) an American journalist
and miscellaneous writer, born in Ulster county, New
York, in 1792. He became in 1821 editor of the "Com
mercial Advertiser," a political and literary journal in
New York, which he conducted with great ability. He
published, among other works, "Letters on Masonry
and Anti-Masonry," (1832,) " Border Wars of the Ameri
can Revolution," (1834,) " Ups and Downs in the Life
of a Distressed Gentleman," (1836,) which was very
popular, "The Life of Joseph Brant," (1838,) and "The
Poetry and History of Wyoming," (1841.) Died in 1844.
Stone'maii, (UKORGK,) an American general, born
in Chautauqua county, New York, about 1824, gradu
ated at West Point in 1846. He gained the rank of
captain in 1858, and became brigadier-general of volun
teers in August, 1861. He commanded the cavalry of
the army of the Potomac at the battle of Chancellors-
ville, May, 1863. While serving under General Sher-
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
STONHOUSE
2069
STORT
man near Atlanta, he conducted a raid against Macon
with very ill success, July, 1864.
of his command were captured.
He and a large part
Storehouse, (Sir JAMES,) an English physician and
divine, born near Abingdon in 1716. He graduated at
Oxford, and subsequently studied medicine in France.
Having practised his profession for many years with
eminent success, he entered holy orders, and acquired a
high reputation as a preacher. He was noted for his
practical benevolence, and published a number of tracts
on moral and religious subjects. Died in 1795.
Stoordza,
(ALEXANDER,
Stourdza, or Sturdza, stooRd'za,
a Russian writer and diplomatist, born
at Jassy in 1788. He*was privy councillor in the reign
of Nicholas. He wrote several political and religious
works. Died in 1854.
See"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Stop'ford, (Sir ROBERT,) an able English naval offi
cer, born in 1768. Having obtained the rank of captain,
he served with distinction under Lord Howe in the
battle against the French, June I, 1794. He afterwards
captured many French vessels, became a rear-admiral
about 1808, and full admiral in 1825. He commanded
the naval force which took Acre in November, 1840.
Died in 1847.
Storace, sto-ra'cha or stor'ass, (ANNA.) a singer and
actress, born in 1761, was a sister of the following. She
performed in England. Died in 1814.
Storace, (STEPHEN or STEFANO,) a distinguished
composer, of Italian extraction, born in London in 1763.
Among his best works are the operas of "The Siege of
Belgrade," "The Haunted Tower," and "The Pirates."
Died in 1796. His sister, ANNA SELINA, was a highly
esteemed vocalist.
Storch, stoRK, [Lat. PELAR'GUS,] (CHRISTOPH,) a
German Lutheran theologian, born at Schweidnitz in
1565. He wrote, besides other works, "Epitome Uni-
versce Theologiae," (1617.) Died in 1633.
Storch, (JOHANN,) a German physician and chemist,
born near Eisenach in 1681. He wrote several profes
sional works. Died in 1751.
Storch, (LuDWlG,) a German litterateur, born in
Thuringia in 1803, published a number of lyric poems
and historical romances.
Storch, (NICHOLAS.) a German Anabaptist preacher,
born at Stolberg, in Saxony, about 1490, is called the
founder of the sect of Pacificators. He taught that men
should be guided by immediate revelation or inspira
tion, and opposed infant baptism. By the agency of
Luther he was banished from Saxony. He gained many
proselytes in Suabia, Thuringia, etc. Died in 1530.
Storch, von, fon stoRK, (HEINRICH FRIEDRICH,) a
Russian political economist, born in 1766. He pub
lished a "Historical and Statistical View of Russia at
the End of the Eighteenth Century." Died in 1835.
Sto'rer, (THOMAS,) an English poet, born in London.
He wrote, besides other works, a poem on " The Life
and Death of Cardinal Wolsey," (1599.) Died in 1604.
Stork, stoRk, (ABRAHAM,) a Dutch marine painter
of the latter part of
native of Amsterdam.
the seventeenth century, was a
His sea-views are distinguished
by great spirit and fidelity to nature. Died in 1708.
Stork or Stoerk, von, fon stoRk, (ANTON,) BARON,
a German medical writer, born in Suabia in 1731. He
practised at Vienna, and became physician to the em
press Maria Theresa,
works. Died in 1803.
He published several medical
Storks, (Sir HENRY,) a British general, born about
1811. He was appointed lord high commissioner of
the Ionian Islands in 1859, and succeeded Mr. Eyre as
Governor of Jamaica in November, 1865.
Storm, ( EDWARD,) a Norwegian poet, born in 1749,
was the author of a didactic poem entitled " Infodret-
ten," a number of popular lyrics, and a collection of
"Fables and Tales." Died in 1794.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetrv of Europe:" HOWITT,
"Literature and Romance of Northern Europe;" "Foreign Quar
terly Review" for June, 1830, article "Danish and Norwegian Lit
erature."
Stor'mont, (DAVID MURRAY,) VISCOUNT, and Earl
of Mansfield, a British statesman, born about 1728, was
c as s; g hard; g asy'; G, H, K, guttural; N. nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
a nephew of the famous Lord Mansfield. He was am
bassador at Vienna and at Pun's. In the ministry formed
by Fox and Lord North (1783) he was president of the
council. Died in 1796.
Storr, (Gorn.oB CHRISTIAN,) a German theologian,'
and professor of divinity at Tubingen, was born at Stutt
gart in 1746. He was the author of " Biblical Theology"
and other works. Died in 1805.
Storrs, (CHARLES B.,) an American clergyman, born
about 1794, was a son of the Rev. Richard Salter Storrs,
who died in 1819. He became president of the Western
Reserve College, Ohio, about 1830. Died at Braintree
in 1833.
Storrs, (HENRY RANDOLPH,) an American lawyer
and orator, boru at Middletovvn, Connecticut, in 1787.
He practised law at Utica, New York, and represented
the Oneida district in Congress from 1819 to 1832, ex
cept one term. It is stated that he had a ready and
powerful elocution, and as a debater attained the first
rank. He was an adherent of President Adams. He
died in the city of New York in 1837.
Storrs, (RICHARD SALTER,) Junior, an American
Congregational divine, born at Braintree, Massachusetts,
in 1821. He became pastor of the Church of the Pil
grims, Brooklyn, New York, in 1846, and in 1848 asso
ciate editor of "The Independent," a religious journal
published in that city. He has published a number of
sermons and orations, and " Lectures on the Wisdom,
Power, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Con
stitution of the Human Soul."
Storrs, (WILLIAM Lucius,) an American jurist, born
in Middletown, Connecticut, in 1795, was a brother of
Henry R. Storrs, noticed above. He was elected a
member of Congress in 1829, in 1831, and in 1839. He
became a judge of the supreme court of Connecticut
about 1840, and chief justice of the same in i8;6.
Died in 1861.
Sto'ry, (JOSEPH,) an eminent American jurist, born
in Marbleheacl, Massachusetts, on the i8th of Septem
ber, 1779, was a son of Elisha Story, a physician. He
graduated in 1798 at Harvard College, where William
E. Channing was his classmate. He studied law tinder
Samuel Sewall and Judge Putnam, was admitted to the
bar in 1801, and began to practise at Salem. In 1802
he produced a didactic poem called "The Power of
Solitude," which was reprinted with several short poems
in 1804. He then ceased to cultivate his poetical talents,
and devoted himself with great assiduity to legal sci
ence, in which he became profoundly versed. He was
elected to the legislature of Massachusetts in 1805, be
gan his political life as a Democrat, and was chosen a
member of Congress in 1808. He acquired a high repu
tation as a debater. In 1809 or 1810 he advocated the
repeal of the embargo, and became an opponent of Jef
ferson on that question. He declined to be a candidate
for Congress in 1810, was Speaker of the House of
Representatives of Massachusetts in 1811, and was ap
pointed a justice of the supreme court of the United
States by President Madison in November of that year.
So young a man had never before, in America or Eng
land, been appointed to so high a judicial position. He
continued to occupy that office for thirty-four years. He
was a member of the convention which revised the
constitution of Massachusetts in 1820. In 1829 he ac
cepted a chair of law founded in Harvard Cojlege by
Nathan Dane. He delivered courses of lectures on the
law of nature, the laws of nations, maritime and com
mercial law, federal equity, and the constitutional law of
the United States. He acquired a European reputa
tion by the publication of a series of works, — viz., " Com
mentaries on the Constitution of the United States,"
(IS33,) "Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws," (3
vols., 1834,) regarded by some critics as the most origi
nal and profound of his writings, " Commentaries on
Equity Jurisprudence," (1836,) and a "Treatise on the
Law of Agency," (1839.) His judgments in the supreme
court may be found in the Reports of Cranch, Wheaton,
Peters, and Howard. His principal literary writings are
contained in a collection of his discourses, reviews, and
miscellanies, published in 1835. " I think all the treatises
of Story," says Chancellor Kent, "are on the whole the
See Explanations, p. 23.)
STORT
2070
STOWE
most finished and perfect of their kind to be met with in
any language, foreign or domestic ; and for learning, in
dustry, and talent, he is the most extraordinary jurist of
. the age." The Earl of Carlisle (formerly Lord Morpeth)
speaks of Story as one "whose reputation and authority
as a commentator and expounder of law stand high wher
ever law is known or honoured, and who was, what at
least is more generally attractive, one of the most gener
ous and single-hearted of men." He was endowed with
extraordinary conversational powers, which rendered him
a great favourite in society. His constitutional doctrines
were similar to those of Marshall and the Federalists.
He was a member of the Unitarian Church. Died at
Cambridge on the loth of September, 1845. He left one
daughter, who was married to George \V. Curtis.
Judge Story's works are more voluminous than those
of any other lawyer of great eminence. His commen
taries and his, written judgments in his own circuit
occupy twenty-seven volumes, and his judgments in the
supreme court form an important part of thirty-four
volumes more.
See a "Life of Joseph Story," by his son, WJI.UAM W. STORY,
2 vols., 1851 ; GRISWOLD, " Prose Writers of America ;" " National
Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. ; " Edinburgh
Review" for October, 1852 ; " London Quarterly Review" for Janu
ary, 1853; AI.I.IBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Sto'ry, (ROBERT,) a British lyric poet, born in North
umberland about 1790, was minister at Ruseneath or
'Rosneath. Died in 1859.
See R. H. STORY, " Memoir of the Life of Robert Story," 1862.
Story, (THOMAS,) born in Cumberland about 1666,
was an eminent minister of the Society of Friends. He
visited the United States in 1698. Died in 1742.
See "Journal of the Life of Thomas Story,'' etc., 1747; anil an
abridgment of the same in " Friends' Library," vol. x. ; J. KHNDALI.,
" Life of T. Story," 1801.
Story, (Wn.i.iAM WKTMORE,) a lawyer and sculptor,
a son of Chief-Justice Story, was bom at Salem, Mas
sachusetts, in February, 1819. He graduated at Har
vard College in 1838, studied law, and was admitted to
the Boston bar. He published a " Treatise on the
Law of Contracts," (1844,) a volume of Poems, (1847,)
and a "Life of Joseph Story," (his father,) (1851.) He
afterwards studied sculpture at Rome, where he passed
many years. He published a second volume of Poems
in 1865.
Stosch, von, fon stosh, (PHILII-P,) BARON, a German
diplomatist and amateur, born at Kiistrin in 1691, resided
several years in Rome and Florence, and made a large
and choice collection of works of art. He published
"Gemmae antiquas Sculptorum imaginibus insignitae,"
(2 vols., 1724.) A catalogue was published by Winckel-
mann in 1760, entitled "Description of the Engraved
Gems of the Late Baron Stosch," (in French.) Died
in 1757.
See LENZ, " Historische Abhandlung von dem Gen. von Stosch,"
1751 ; SAX, " Onomasticon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Stoss, stos, (VEIT,) one of the most distinguished of
the early German sculptors, was born at Nuremberg in
1490 ; died in 1542.
Stoth'ard, (CHARLES ALFRED,) an English painter
and designer, born in London in 1786, was a son of
Thomas Stothard, noticed below. Having been ap
pointed historical draughtsman to the Society of An
tiquaries in 1815, he visited France, where he made
drawings of the Bayeux tapestry. After his return, he
published in the " Archaeologia" a treatise proving the
tapestry to be coeval with the Norman Conquest. He
brought out in 1820 the ninth part of his "Monumental
Effigies of Great Britain," which was very favourably
received. He was killed by a fall in 1821, and his last-
named work was completed by his widow, afterwards
Mrs. Bray.
See " Memoirs of C. A. Stothard," by MRS. BRAY.
Stothard, (THOMAS,) an English artist, born at Long-
acre in 1755. He studied at the Royal Academy, of
which he was elected an Associate in 1785, and in 1794
an Academician. Among his best works are his designs
for Rogers's "Poems," Boyclell's " Shakspeare," and
"The Canterbury Pilgrims." Died in 1834.
See MRS. BRAY, "Life of Thomas Stothard," 1851; "Black-
wood's Magazine'' for May and June, 1836.
Stouf, stoof, (JKAN BAPTISTE,) a French sculptor,
born in Paris in 1742. He was a member of the Insti
tute. Died in 1826.
Stourdza. See STOORDZA.
Stow, ( BARON,) D.D., an American Baptist divine,
born in Sullivan county, New Hampshire, in 1801. He
published " Daily Manna for Christian Pilgrims," (1848,)
"Question-Book of Christian Doctrine," and other re
ligious works.
Stow, (JonN,)an English antiquary, born in London
in 1525. He was the author of a "Summary of the
Chronicles of England," afterwards enlarged, and pub
lished under the title of " Flores Historiarum ; or, An
nals of this Kingdom from the Time of the Ancient
Britons to his Own," (r6oo,)and a " Survey of London.''
He died in 1605, leaving materials for a "Chronicle
of England," subsequently published, with additions, by
Edmund Howes. In the latter part of his life Stow
was reduced to great indigence, and lettiis-patent were
granted him by James I., permitting him to collect
gratuities throughout the country and in the churches.
See " Biographia Britannica;" STRVPK, " Life of Stow," prefixed
to his works.
Stowe.sto, (CALVIN ELI. is,) D.D., an American divine
and scholar, born at Natick, Massachusetts, in 1812.
He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1824, became pro
fessor of languages at Dartmouth College in 1830, and in
1833 professor of biblical literature at Lane Seminary,
Cincinnati, Ohio. Having visited Europe in 1836, lie
published, after his return, a report on " Elementary
Education in Europe." He was appointed in 1852
professor of sacred literature in Andover Theological
Seminary.
Stowe, (Mrs. HARRIET BEECHEK,) one of the most
distinguished of American authors, was born at Litch-
field, Connecticut, on the I4th of June, 1812. She was
the third daughter and sixth child of the celebrated
Lyman Beecher. Her mother, whose maiden-name
was Roxana Foote, was a granddaughter of General
Ward, who served under Washington in the Revolu
tionary war. When Harriet was not yet four years old,
her mother died ; but the memory of her spirit and ex
ample appears to have had no little influence in moulding
the character of her gifted daughter. After about two
years, Mr. Beecher married, as his second wife, Harriet
Porter, of Maine. The new step-mother, writing soon
after to her friends, said, " Harriet and Henry . . . are
as lovely children as I ever saw, — amiable, affectionate,
and very bright." While still a child, Harriet was pas
sionately fond of books ; among those in which she
took especial delight were Scott's novels, the " Arabian
Nights," and " Don Quixote." When at Mr. Brace's
school in Litchfield, between the ages of nine and twelve,
she was deeply interested in hearing him converse on his
tory and moral philosophy. Before she had completed
her twelfth year, she wrote a composition on the ques
tion, "Can the immortality of the soul be proved by the
light of nature ?" maintaining the negative. At an exhi
bition in the school, the compositions were read aloud
before " the literati of Litchfield." When hers came to
be read, she noticed that her father, " who was sitting on
high by Mr. Brace, brightened and looked interested."
To Mr. Beecher's question, "Who wrote that?" the
reply was, "Your daughter, sir." That, she tells us,
"was the proudest moment of her life." At the age
of thirteen she became a pupil of her sister Catherine,
then principal of the Female Seminary at Hartford, in
which institution she remained several vears. Her
father having in 1832 been elected president of Lane
Seminary at Cincinnati, Ohio, she accompanied him
thither. In 1836 she was married to Professor Calvin
E. Stowe, (see preceding article.) A charming sketch
entitled " Uncle Tim," written in 1834, and afterwards
published in "The Mayflower," first attracted public
attention to her as a writer of rare promise. In 1850 she
accompanied her husband, who had been appointed to a
professorship in Bowdoin College, to Brunswick, Maine.
While here, she wrote her novel of " Uncle Tom's
Cabin," furnished to the " National Era" (published at
Washington) in weekly contributions. The success of
this work has been without a parallel in the history of
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; good; mooi.;
STOW ELL
STRAFFORD
literature. It is said that nearly half a million have
been sold in the United States, and probably more than
that number have been distributed in the British do
minions, the work there not being protected by copy
right. Acid to this that it has been translated into all
the principal European and into several Asiatic lan
guages, including, it is said, the Chinese and Japanese.
Two different translations of it have been made into
Russian, three into the Magyar language, and thirteen or
fourteen into German. In 1653 Mrs. Stowe visited Eng
land and the European continent, and on her return gave
to the world her " Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands,"
(2 vols., 1854.) " Dred, a Tale of the Dismal Swamp,"
appeared in 1856; "The Minister's Wooing," a tale of
New England life, (i vol. 121110,) in 1859, first published
in the "Atlantic Monthly," in which appeared also "The
Pearl of Orr's Island," and " Agnes of Sorrento," (gener
ally regarded as inferior to her other works of fiction.)
Her " Men of our Times," a biographical work, came out
in 1868. In 1869 appeared her "Oldtown Folks," pre
senting, among other things, a masterly picture of the
phases of religious thought and feeling in New Eng
land in the last century. In 1868 there was published j
in London a book entitled " My Recollections of Lord i
Byron, and those of Eye-Witnesses of his Life," (with- i
out a name, but supposed to have been written by the j
Countess Guiccioli,) which contained some very severe
reflections on the character of the late Lady Byron.
Partly in replv to these, Mrs. Stowe wrote the " True
Story of Lord' Byron's Lite," published in September,
1869, in the " Atlantic Monthly," Boston, and "Macmil-
lan's Magazine," London. This was severely criticised
in several European and American journals. "As an
impartial chronicler,'' says Dr. Allibone, "it is proper
to state that we know of no instance of such sweeping
censure — of such general, almost universal, condemna
tion — as that'with which Mis. Stowe's alleged offence was
visited; and this equally by the few who believed as
by the many who disbelieved her story." Mrs. Stowe
replied to her critics in a small volume entitled "Lady
Byron Vindicated," (December, 1869.)
See the interesting notice of Harriet Beecher Stowe in the " Emi
nent Women of the Age," 'by the REV. E. P. PARKF.R :) ALLIBONE,
" Dictionary of Authors ;" " New American Cyclopaedia."
Stow'ell, (Ilt'GU,) an English theologian and writer,
born in the Isle of Man in 1799. He took orders in
the Anglican Church, and preached at Salford. He
published numerous religious works. Died in 1865.
See J. B. MARSDHN, "Life of Hugh Stowell," 1866.
Stowell, (WILLIAM SCOTT,) BARON, an English
judge, born near Newcastle in 1745, was a brother
of Lord Eldon. He was educated at Oxford, where he
became Camden reader of ancient history. He passed
about eighteen years at Oxford, (1761-79.) About 1778
he was elected a member of the famous Literary Club, i
and became a friend of Dr. Johnson. He was called to
the bar in 1780, and practised in the ecclesiastical courts \
and high court of admiralty. He was more distinguished :
for learning than for oratorical talents. In 1788 he was i
appointed a judge of the consistory court, advocate-
general, and privy councillor. He was elected a mem
ber of Parliament in 1790, and became judge of the high
court of admiralty in 1798. He represented the Uni
versity of Oxford in Parliament from 1801 till 1821, and j
constantly supported the Tory party. He was raised to i
the peerage, as Baron Stowell, in 1821. Lord Stowell :
is regarded as a high authority for ecclesiastical and
international law. Died in 1836.
See the " British Quarterly Review" for November. 1849; LORD
BROIGHAM, " Statesmen of the Time of George III. ;" W. E. SUR-
TEF-;. '• Lives of Lords Stowell and Eldon," 1846.
Stra'bo, [Gr. 2-patuv ; Fr. STRABON, stRf'bAx',] an
eminent Greek geographer, born at Amasia, in Pontus,
about 60 B.C. He studied under Aristodemus, Tyran-
nio, and Xenarchus the Peripatetic, and in philosophy
adopted the doctrines of the Stoics. He also pursued
his education by extensive journeys in Egypt, Greece,
Asia Minor, and Italy. He passed a number of years at
Rome, and devoted much time to the composition of a
work on geography which he designed to be attractive
in form and adapted to general use. To the descriptions
of countries he added notices of the customs and former
history of the people, enlivened by the anecdotes, tra
ditions, and comparisons which give interest to positive
geography. His work is highly prized as an animated,
broadly conceived, and skilfully executed picture of the
world as known to the ancients. He is rather deficient
in the department of physical geographv. Died about
24 A.D.
See SIEBEI.IS. " De Strabonis Patria, Genere, /Etate," etc., 1828;
MEINECKE, "Vindiciae Strabonianae, " 1852; Vossius, "De His-
toricis Graecis;" FABKICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Stra'bo, (C.\ius FANNIUS,) a Roman orator, was
consul in 122 B.C. He made a famous speech against
C. Gracchus on the subject of giving the franchise to
the Latins.
Strabo, (CAius FANMUS,) a Roman historian, was
a son-in-law of Laelius. He distinguished himself at
the capture of Carthage, 146 B.C. He wrote a work on
Roman history, which is lost.
Strabon. See STRABO.
Strack, stRak, (JoHA.NN HEINRICH,) a German
architect, and professor in the Academy at Berlin, was
born at Biickeburg in 1806. Among his best works
are the castle of Freclericksborg, built for the King of
Denmark, and Peter's Church (Petrikirche) at Berlin.
Strada, stna'da, (FAMIANO,) [Lat. FAMIA'NUS,] an
Italian Jesuit and historian, born at Rome in 1572, was
professor of rhetoric in the Gregorian College in that
city. His principal work is entitled " De Bello Belgico
ab Excessu Carli V. ad Annum 1590," or a history of
the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, (2 vols.,
1632-47.) He also wrote Latin essays, entitled " Pro-
lusiones," (1617,) being commentaries on the classics
and ancient literature. Died in 1649.
See TIKABOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana."
Strada or Stradano, stRa-da'no, called also Stra-
dan, [Lat. STRADA'NUS ; Fr. STRADAN, stRt/d6.\',](jAN,)
a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Bruges in 1536.
He studied in Italy, where he was patronized by the
Duke of Tuscany, Cosimo I. Among his master-pieces
we may name his "Crucifixion," in the Church of the
Annunciation at Bruges. He also excelled in painting
animals, hunting-scenes, etc. Died in 1605.
Strada, di, de stRa'da, QACOPO,) an Italian anti
quary, born at Mantua about 1515, was an expert con
noisseur of art. He published, besides other works,
" Epitome Thesauri Antiquitatum, hoc est Imperatorum
Romanorum Iconum," etc., (1553,) which treats of the
medals of the Roman emperors. Died in 1588.
Stradan or Stradano. See STRADA.
Stradanus. See STRADA.
Stradella, stRa-del'la, (ALKSSANDRO,) a celebrated
Italian composer, born at Naples in 1645. His oratorio
of "San Giovanni Battista" is greatly admired; and he
produced a number of cantatas, duets, etc. of remarkable
beauty. He was assassinated about 1678 by the lover
of a Venetian lady whom he had seduced.
Stradivarius, stRa-de-va're-ooss, (ANTONIO,) an
Italian maker of stringed instruments, born at Cremona
about 1670; died about 1735.
Straeten, van der, vtn der stRa'ten, sometimes
written Streten, (HKNDRIK,) a Dutch landscape-painter,
born about 1665 or 1680. He worked in England.
Straf'ford, (GEORGE STEVENS BYNG,) EARL OF, an
English peer, was born in 1806. He was a Liberal
member of the House of Commons from 1831 to 1852,
and held several high civil offices. In 1860 he succeeded
to the earldom.
Strafford, (JoHN BYNG,) EARL OF, a British general,
born in London about 1775, was the father of the pre
ceding. He served with distinction as major-general
at the battles of Vitoria, Nivelle, and Orthez. He ob
tained the rank of field-marshal. Died about 1860.
Strafford, (THOMAS WENTWORTH,) EARL OF, an
English politician, born in London in April, 1593, was
the eldest son of Sir William Wentworth, from whom
he inherited a large estate. He was educated at Saint
John's College, Cambridge, and married in 1611 a Miss
Clifford, a daughter of the Earl of Cumberland. In
1614 he was elected to Parliament for Yorkshire, which
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
STR4H4N
2072
S TRITON
he also represented in that which met in 1621. His
wife having died in 1622, he married Arabella Hollis, a
daughter of the Earl of Clare. He was appointed sheriff
of Yorkshire in 1625. In the Parliament which met in
1628, he acted with the popular party, and made able
speeches against the arbitrary measures of the court, in
order, perhaps, to give the king a proper idea of the
value of his services. Before the end of the year he
was created a baron, and on the death of the Duke of
Buckingham (1628) he was appointed lord president
of the North, and privy councillor. Me was a political
and personal friend of Archbishop Laud. He was am
bitious, energetic, haughty, and unscrupulous. He de
clared that he would " lay any man by the heels" who
should appeal from his sentence to the courts at West
minster. In 1631 or 1632 he was appointed lord deputy
of Ireland, which he governed in a tyrannical manner.
His cruelty to Lord Mountmorris and others excited
great indignation. He directed his highest energies to
the formation of a standing army, and boasted that in
Ireland "the king was as absolute as any prince in the
whole world could be." (Letter to Laud, 1634.) He
was created Earl of Strafford in 1639 or 1640.
"He had been," says Macaulay, "one of the most dis
tinguished members of the opposition, and felt towards
those whom he had deserted that peculiar malignity
whicji has in all ages been characteristic of apostates.
He perfectly understood the feelings, the resources, and
the policy of the party to which he had lately belonged,
and had formed a vast and deeply-meditated scheme,
which very nearly confounded even the able tactics of
the statesmen by whom the House of Commons had
been directed. To this scheme, in his confidential cor
respondence, he gave the expressive name of Thorough."
(" History of England," vol. i. p. 25.) His design was
to make the royal power as absolute in England as it
was in Ireland. The revolt of the Scotch, whom the
king foolishly provoked to fight for their religious rights,
interfered with the success of Strafford's scheme. He
was summoned to London by Charles I. in 1639, and
appointed general-in-chief in 1640; but before he could
join the army it was driven from the border by the
insurgents, and the war was ended by a treaty. The
Long Parliament, which met in November, 1640, im
peached Strafford of high treason. He was accused of
an attempt "to subvert the fundamental laws of the
country." John Pym was the principal speaker against
him. (See PYM.) The Commons abandoned the im
peachment and passed a bill of attainder by a large
majority, of whom Falkland was one. He was beheaded
iti May, 1641. Two volumes of his " Letters and De
spatches" have been published.
See GEORGE RADCI.IFFK, " Life of the Earl of Strafford ;" HUME,
" History of England ;" JOHN FORSTF.R, " Lives of Eminent British
Statesmen;" MACAUI.AY, Review of LORI> NUGENT'S " Memorials
of Hampden ;" CLARENDON, "History of the Great Rebellion;"
LAI.LY-TOI.LENDAI., " Essai stir la Vie du Comte de Strafford,"
'795 : GUIZOT, " Histoire de la Revolution d'Angleterre ;" " Bio-
graphia Britannica."
Strahan, strt'an, ( WILLIAM,) an eminent Scottish
printer, born in Edinburgh about 1715. He became
a resident of London, and was elected a member of
Parliament in 1775. Died in 1785.
Strahl, stR&l, (Monrrz HERMANN,) a German phy
sician and writer, born at Glogau in 1800. He became
in 1842 Sanitatsrath in Berlin. Among his works is
" Der Mensch nach seiner . leiblichen und geistigen
Natur," (1835-38.)
Strange, (Sir ROBERT,) an eminent Scottish engraver,
born in Pomona, one of the Orkney Islands, in 1721. He
studied under Le Bas in Paris, passed several years in
Italy, and settled in London, where he worked with great
success. Among his master-pieces are " Saint Jerome,"
after Correggio, "Saint Cecilia," after Raphael, "The
Death of Dido," after Guercino, and " Venus Reclining,"
after Titian. Died in 1792.
See J[. DKNNISTOUN, " Memoirs of Sir R. Strange and of his
Brother-in-Law A. Lumisden," 2 vols., 1854; CHAMBERS, "Bio
graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" C. L. BRIGHTWRU.,
"Annals of Industry and Genius," 1863; " Fraser's Magazine" for
June, 1855.
Strang'ford, (PERCY CLINTON SYDNEY SMYTHE,)
VISCOUNT, an Irish diplomatist and scholar, born in
1780. He graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, and
became successively British ambassador to Stockholm
in 1817, to Constantinople in 1820, and to Saint Peters
burg in 1825. He was vice-president of the Society of
Antiquaries, and knight grand cross of the Hanoverian
Guelphic Order. He made a translation of the poems
of Camoens, which was commended by Lord Byron.
In 1825 he was raised to the peerage of the United
Kingdom, as Lord Penshurst. Died in 1855.
See the "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1805; "Monthly Re
view" for September, 1804.
Straiigford, (PERCY ELLEN ALGERNON FREDERICK
WILLIAM SYDNEY SMYTHE,) VISCOUNT, an Orientalist,
a son of the preceding, was born in Saint Petersburg in
1825. His "Selected Writings; Political, Geographical,
and Social," were published in 2 vols., 1869. Died in 1869.
Straparola, stRa-pa-n/la, (GiAN FRANCESCO,) an
Italian writer of tales, was born at Caravaggio before
1500. He published " Piacevole Notte," (2 vols., 1550-
54,) often reprinted. Died after 1557.
Strat'ford, (NICHOLAS,) a learned English theolo
gian, born in Hertfordshire in 1633. lie became Dean
of Saint Asapli in 1673, and chaplain to the king. In
1689 he was appointed Bishop of Chester. He wrote
several works against popery. Died in 1707.
Strat'ford de Red'cllffe, (STRATFORD CANNING,)
first VISCOUNT, a cousin of George Canning, was born
in London in 1788. He studied at King's College, Cam
bridge, and in 1810 succeeded Mr. Robeit Aclair as
minister-plenipotentiary at Constantinople. He became
envoy-extraordinary and minister-plenipotentiary to the
United States in 1820, and in 1825 was again sent as
minister to Constantinople, where he exerted himself to
procure from the Sultan some alleviation of the oppres
sion under which the Greeks were then suffering. His
appeals being unheeded, the chief European powers
determined upon coercive measures, and the battle of
Navarinof in 1827, decided the fate of Greece. Mr.
Canning was soon after elected to Parliament for Old
Sarurn, and in 1829 was created knight grand cross of the
Bath. In 1841 he was a third time appointed minister
to Constantinople, having on a previous mission taken a
prominent part in defining the boundaries of Greece. In
this post he continued till 1858, when he returned to
England. Through his influence with the Sultan, he was
instrumental in effecting many important reforms, among
which may be mentioned the abolition of torture, and
the establishment of political and religious freedom for
the Protestants in Turkey.
Stratico, stita'te-ko, (SiMONE,) COUNT, a celebrated
mathematician, born at Zara, in Dal mat ia, about 1730.
He became professor of navigation and mathematics at
Padua, and in 1801 filled the chair of navigation at Pavfa.
In 1803 he was made a senator by Napoleon, who also
bestowed upon him the orders of the legion of honour
and the iron crown. He was the author of a " Marine
Vocabulary," and several works on hydraulics, navi
gation, etc., which have a high reputation. He also
prepared, conjointly with Poleni, a valuable edition of
Vitruvius, published after the death of Stratico, which
took place in 1824.
Strato. See STRATON.
Strat'o-cles, [I,rparoK'Af^,] an Athenian orator and
demagogue, lived about 325 n.c. He was a violent op
ponent of Demosthenes.
Stra'ton [Gr. Srpurwi>] or Stra'to, a Greek physi
cian and medical writer, a pupil of Erasistratns, lived in
the third century B.C.
Straton (or Strato) OF LAMPSACUS, [Fr. STRATON
DE LAMPSAQUE, strt'toN' deh ISMp'stk',] a Greek Peri
patetic philosopher, born at Lampsacus, succeeded
Theophrastus as chief of the school about 288 H.c. He
was the preceptor of Ptolemy Philadelphus. According
to some authorities, he taught that each particle of
matter has a principle of motion, or a plastic power.
See RITTKR, " History of Philosophy ;" NAUWEKCK, " De Stra-
tone Philosopho," 1836.
Straton (or Strato) OF SARDIS, a Greek epigram
matic poet, who probably lived in the' second century
of our era. He compiled an anthology of licentious
epigrams, many of which he composed.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, tai ; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
STR4TONICE
2073
STRICKLAND
Strat-o-ni'ge, [Gr. Zrparow'/o?,] a beautiful queen of
Syria, born about 316 B.C., was a daughter of Demetrius
Poliorcetes. She was married to Seleucus I. of Syria,
whose son, Antiochus I., became enamoured of her.
She had a daughter Stratonice, who was married to
Demetrius II. of Macedonia. Antiochus I. was the
father of the second Stratonice.
Strat'tis, [2-pur-£o,] an Athenian comic poet of the
old comedy, flourished about 410-380 B.C. His works
are lost.
Strauchius, stRow'Ke-iis, (/£GIDIUS,) a German Lu
theran theologian and mathematician, born at Wittenberg
in 1632, was the author of a " BreviariumChronologicum"
and a number of controversial works. Died in 1682.
Strauss, stRowss, (DAVID FRIEDRICH,) a German
rationalistic theologian, the author of what is termed the
"mythical theory" of interpreting the Gospels, was born
at Ludwigsburg, in Wiirtemberg, in 1808. He studied
theology at Tubingen. In 1832 he became assistant
teacher (rcpctent) in the Theological Institute of Tubin
gen. He produced in 1835 his. "Life of Jesus Critically
Treated," in which he attempts to prove that the New
Testament history is substantially a tissue of fables. He
was appointed professor of divinity at Zurich in 1839, but
(he hostility of the people to his doctrines was so loudly
expressed that his position there became untenable.
He published several other works, among which are
"The Christian Dogmatics considered in its Historical
Development and its Conflict with Modern Science," (2
vols., 1840-41,) and a " New Life of Jesus," (" Das Leben
Jesu : fiir das Deutsche Volk bearbeitet," 1864.)
Strauss's idea of a God appears to be similar to that
of many other Hegelians, who regard the Deity not as a
conscious Being, but as an unconscious spirit or influ
ence, or what might be termed a system of laws, mate
rial and spiritual. This spirit first becomes conscious
in Humanity, which, according to Strauss and his fol
lowers, is God manifest in the flesh.
" Thirty years ago," says the " London Quarterly
Review," '"The Life of Jesus' of Strauss startled the
world like a clap of thunder out of a calm sky. ... In
the name of criticism, he declared that the Gospels were
almost valueless as historical materials ; in the name of
science, he pronounced that miracles were impossible."
(See article on "The Life of our Lord," October, 1866.)
"The supposition that the healthiest, simplest, and
sanest form of religion the world has ever seen should
have taken its rise from such a hotbed of fatuity and
insanity as Strauss would have us believe, appears to
us to make greater demands by far upon our credulity
than the hypothesis it is invented to supersede." (See
" Edinburgh Review," article on " Strauss, Renan, and
' Ecce Homo,'" October, 1866.)
" Strauss declined," says Dorner, in his able work
entitled " History of Protestant Theology," " the rude
method of combating Christianity in the style of the
' Wolfenbiittel Fragments ;' as he likewise covered with
ridicule the naturalistic explanations of the miracles
by Dr. Paulus. To the biblical supernaturalism which
sought to found the truth of Christianity upon inspira
tion, miracles, and prophecy, he opposed the mythical
theory ; according to which, the portrait of Christ in I
the Gospels was the product of tradition, of which the j
historic element was obscure, determined in its unin
tentional fabrication by Old Testament images, par
ticularly the Messianic. Christ, however, to whom the
Messianic predictions were transferred by the common
people, could not have been a supernatural phenomenon,
since a miracle includes an impossibility ; so also the j
four Gospels could not have proceeded from apostles or j
eye-witnesses, because, with their better knowledge, de
signed fabrication must be imputed to them. He then
seeks for internal contradictions in the Gospels, in order
thereby to prove their unhistoric character. As, how
ever, these contradictions do not extend to what is es
sential, it is clear that they are not what really decided
him. He demands a historical criticism, free from pre-
assumptions,* and yet he makes (as we have seen) for
* The expression in the original is " eine voraussetzungslose his-
torische Kritik," that is, "a historical critique without pre-supposi-
lions or pre-assumptions."
his mythical theory a twofold pre-assumption, — the one
dogmatic,* the other historical."! (See Dorner's " Ge-
schichte der protestantischen Theologie," p. 787.)
See "Straussiade in Zurich," 1840; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'-
rale;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1838; "British
Quarterly Review" for February, 1847.
Strauss, (FRIEDRICH ADOLF,) a Protestant minister,
a son of Gerhard Friedrich, noticed below, was born at
Elberfeld in 1817. Among his works we may name
"Sinai and Golgotha: Travels in the East," (1847,)
which has been translated into several languages.
Strauss, (GERHARD FRIEDRICH,) professor of the
ology at Berlin, was born at Iserlohn in 1786. He
published a number of popular religious works, of which
we may name " Helen's Pilgrimage to Jerusalem, "(1820,)
and "The Baptism in Jordan," (1822.)
Strauss, (JOHANN,) a celebrated German composer,
born at Vienna in 1804. His works are principally
waltzes and other lively airs, in which department of
music he has never been surpassed. He was appointed
director of music for the court balls at Vienna. Died
in 1849.
Streat'er, (ROBERT,) an English painter, born in
1624. His landscapes and historical pictures were
i highly esteemed by his contemporaries. Died in 1680.
Streckfuss, stRik'foos, (ADOLF FRIEDRICH KARL,)
a German litterateur, born at Gera in 1779. He wrote
a number of poems and tales, and translated into Ger-
j man Tasso's " Gerusalemme Liberata," the "Orlando
j Furioso" of Ariosto, and Dante's " Inferno," " Purga-
| torio," and " Paradiso." Died in 1844.
Streek, van, vfn stRak, QURIAN,) a Flemish or
Dutch painter of still life, born at Amsterdam in 1632;
died in 1678. His son HENRY, born in 1659, was a
painter of interiors of churches, etc. Died in 1713.
Street, (ALFRED BILLINGS,) an American poet and
j miscellaneous writer, born at Poughkeepsie in 1811.
j Among his principal works are " Frontenac," a poem,
!"The Burning of Schenectady, and other Poems,"
" Woods and Waters, or the Saranacs and Racket," an
account of the forests of Northern New York, and "The
Council of Revision," (in prose.) He practised law in
Albany, to which he removed in 1839.
See R. W. GRISWOLD, "Poets and Poetry of America."
Streight, strat, (ABEL D.,) COLONEL, an American
officer, was a resident of Indiana. He commanded a
party of 1800 cavalry sent from Tennessee on a raid
into Northern Georgia in April, 1863. He was cap
tured near Rome, and confined in a prison at Richmond,
from which he escaped in February, 1864. He was killed
at Dalton, Georgia, in August, 1864.
Strein, stRin, or Striii'i-us, (RICHARD,) a German
baron and antiquary, born in Austria in 1538, was libra
rian to the Emperor of Germany. Died in 1600 or 1601.
Stremonius. See AUSTREMOINE.
Streten. See STRAETEN.
Strick van Linschoten, strik vfn lins'Ko'ten,
BARON, a Dutch poet, born at Utrecht in 1769. He
was appointed in 1795 ambassador to the court of Wiir-
temberg. Died in 1819.
Strick'laiid, (AGNES,) an English historical writer,
born in Suffolk in 1806. Among her numerous works
are "Lives of the Queens of England, from the Nor
man Conquest," etc., (12 vols., with portraits, 1849,)
" Lives of the Queens of Scotland and English Prin
cesses connected with the~'Regal Succession of Great
Britain," (6 vols. 8vo, 1850,) both written conjointly with
her sister Elizabeth, "The Pilgrims of Walsingham, or
Tales of the Middle Ages," (1835,) " Worcester Field,
or the Cavalier; a Poem, in F*our Cantos," and "Tales
and Stories from History," (1836.) She brought out in
* In assuming that a miracle is impossible.
t In rejecting the historical character of the Gospels ; not on
account of the minute discrepancies found in them, — but evidently
from a predetermination to make out his mythical theory at whatever
cost. For if the minute discrepancies, not essentially affecting the
main narrative, destroy the historical character of the Gospels, simi
lar or greater discrepancies would overthrow ALL history, ancient and
modern. A great historical critic, who will scarcely be accused of
any tendency to credulity, took a very different view of the Gospel
narratives. (See the article on NIEBUHR the historian, in this
work.)
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (iJ^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
STRICKLAND
2074
STRONG
1842 "Letters of Mary Queen of Scots, now first pub
lished from the Originals," etc. Miss Strickland's
productions have acquired an extensive popularity both
in Great Britain and America.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1849.
Strickland, (CATHERINE PARR,) sister of the pre
ceding, was married to Lieutenant Trail, of the twenty-
first British Fusileers. Having settled in Canada, she
published "The Canadian Crusoes, a Tale of the Rice-
Lake Plains," and " The Backwoods of America, being
Letters from the Wife of an Emigrant Officer," etc.
Strickland, (HUGH EDWIN,) an English naturalist,
born in Yorkshire in 1811. Me visited Asia Minor in
1835, and published, after his return, a treatise " On the
Geology of the Thracian Bosphorus," and other similar
works. He also wrote "Descriptions of New Species
of Birds from West Africa," and a volume " On the
Dodo and its Kindred, or the History and Affinities of
the Dodo, Solitaire, and other Extinct Birds," (1848.)
He was killed by a railroad-train in 1853.
Strickland, (SAMUEL,) a brother of Agnes, noticed
above, was born about iSio. He published "Twenty-
Seven Years in Canada West, or the Experience of an
Early Settler," (1853.) Died in 1867.
Strickland, (SUSANNA,) sister of Agnes Strickland,
was married to J. W. 1). Moodie, of the British Fusi
leers, and subsequently removed to Canada. She pub
lished " Roughing it in the Bush, or Life in Canada,"
(1852,) " Life in the Clearings," etc., and novels entitled
"Mark Hurdlestone" (1852) and " Flora Lindsay," (2
vols., 1854.)
Her sister, JANE MARGARET, has published a work
entitled " Rome, Regal and Republican."
Strick'laiid, (WlLLIAM,) an eminent American ar
chitect, born in Philadelphia in 1787. He studied archi
tecture under Latrobe. His first public work of any
importance was the old Masonic Hall in Chestnut
Street. This established his reputation as an architect,
and he was subsequently employed to prepare the
designs and superintend the erection of the United
States Bank, (now the Custom-House,) in Chestnut
Street, above Fourth, long regarded as the most mag
nificent edifice in his native city. For many years he
was the architect of nearly all the most remarkable
public buildings in Philadelphia or its vicinity: we may
name, among others, the Merchants' Exchange, (near
Third and Dock Streets,) the United States Mint, and
the United States Naval Asylum. In 1825 he was
appointed by the Franklin Institute commissioner to
visit England for the purpose of examining the canal
and railway systems of that country. On his return, he
was employed to superintend the construction of the rail
road between Newcastle and Frenchtown, in Maryland,
which was one of the first passenger-railways made in
the United States. He was elected a member of the
Royal Society of Civil Engineers, and also a member
of the American Philosophical Society. His last and
perhaps greatest work was the Capitol at Nashville,
Tennessee, commenced in 1845 an<^ completed in 1857.
He died at Nashville, April 7, 1854 ; and, according to
a special act of the Tennessee legislature, his remains
were deposited in a vault under that magnificent edifice
which may be said to have been the crowning glory of
his life.
Strickland, (WILLIAM P.,) D.D., an American
Methodist divine, born at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in
1809. He has published a "History of the American
Bible Society," " Genius and Mission of Methodism,"
and other works.
Strigel, stRee'gel, [Lat. STRIGE'LIUS,] (VicroRiN,) a
German theologian, born in 1514, was a pupil of Mel-
anchthon. He was engaged in a controversy with
Flacius, and subsequently became a Calvinist. He
was professor at Leipsic and Heidelberg. Died in 1569.
See WF.ISSMANN, "Historia Vitae V. Strigelii," 1732; J. K. T.
OTTO, " De V. Strigeiio liberioris mentis in Ecclesia Lutherana Viu-
dice," 1843.
Strigelius. See STRIGEL.
Stringham, string'am, (SILAS H.,) an American
naval officer, born in Orange county, New York, about
1798. He obtained the rank of lieutenant in 1821. In
1846 he commanded the ship Ohio at the bombardment
of Vera Cruz. On the breaking out of the civil war
he was appointed (about April, 1861) flag-officer of the
Atlantic blockading squadron. He commanded the
naval forces of the armament which captured Fort Hat-
teras, August 29, 1861. He was appointed a rear-admiral
on the retired list, August I, 1862.
See J. T. HEAUI.EY, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867.
Strinius. See STUEIN.
Strinnholm, stuin'holm, (ANDERS MAGNUS,) a
Swedish historian, born in the province of Westerbot-
ten in 1786. His principal work is entitled a "History
of Sweden from the Earliest to the Present Time,"
("Svenska Folkets Historia fran aldsta till narvarende
Ticler," 1834.) In 1837 he became a member of the
Swedish Academy, and in 1845 °f tne Koyal Academy
of Sciences.
Stritter, von, fon stRit'ter, (JOHANN GOTTHILF,) a
German historian, born at Idstein in 1740, became a resi
dent of Russia. He published a " History of the Russian
Empire," (in German, 2 vols., 1800.) Died in 1801.
Strobel, stRo'bel, (ADAM WALTHEK,) a German
historian, born at Strasbnrg in 1792. His principal
work is a "History of Alsace," (6 vols., 1841,) which
was continued by Engelhardt. Died in 1850.
Stroctius. See STROZZI, (PALLA.)
Stroemer. See STKOMKK.
Strogonof or Stroganow, stRo'ga-nof', (ALEX
ANDER,) COUNT, a Russian nobleman, born in 1734,
was a distinguished patron of learning and the arts. He
was appointed a privy councillor of the first class, and
president of the Academy of Sciences at Saint Peters
burg. Died in 181 1.
Strogonof, Stroganov, or Stroganow, (ALEX
ANDER,) COUNT, second son of Gregory, noticed below,
served against the Turks and Poles, and rose to be
successively minister of the interior, (1839,) member of
the imperial council at Saint Petersburg, and Governor-
General of New Russia, (1855.)
Strogonof, (GREGORY,) a Russian diplomatist, born
at Moscow in 1770, was successively employed in mis
sions to Madrid, Stockholm, and Constantinople, (1821.)
In 1838 he was sent as ambassador-extraordinary to
England on the occasion of the coronation of Queen
Victoria. He was created high chamberlain in 1846.
Died in 1850.
Strogonof, (KARL SERGEI,) a general, the eldest
son of the preceding, was born about 1800, filled several
high offices under the government, and attained the
dignity of senator. He published a number of treatises
on Russian antiquities. Died in 1857.
Strogonof, (PAUL,) COUNT, a Russian general, a son
of Alexander, (1734-1811,) was born about 1774. He
was a friend and adviser of the Czar Alexander. Died
in 1817. His wife, SOPHIE GALLITSIN, was distinguished
for her talents.
Strombeck, von, fon stRom/bSk,(FRlKDRiCH KARL,)
a German jurist and litterateur, born at Brunswick in
1771. He published a number of legal and miscel
laneous works, and made translations from Tacitus,
Sallust, and other classics. Died in 1848.
His brother, FRIEDKICH HEINRICH, was also a distin
guished jurist. Died in 1832.
See F. K. VON STROMBECK, " Darstellungen aus meinem Leben,"
2 vols., 1835.
Stromer or Stroemer, stRo'mer, (MARTIN,) a Swed
ish savant, born at Upsal in 1707, succeeded Celsius
as professor of astronomy in that city. He translated
Euclid's "Elements" into Swedish. Died in 1770.
Stromeyer, stRo'ml'er, (GEOUG FRIEDRICH Louis,)
a German surgeon, born at Hanover in 1804, became
successively professor at Erlangen, Munich, and Frei
burg. He published several works on surgery.
Strong, (CALEB,) an American statesman, born at
Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1745. He was elected
to the United States Senate in 1789 and in 1793, and
became Governor of the State in 1800, which office he
continued to fill for ten years. Died in 1819.
Strong, (JAMES,) an American theologian and scholar,
born at New York in 1822. He published a " Har
mony and Exposition of the Gospels," (1852,) a "Greek
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
STRONG
2075
Sl'RUENSEE
Harmony of the Gospels," (1854,) and has contributed
numerous articles to the "Methodist Quarterly Review."
He was appointed in 1858 professor of biblical literature
and acting president of the Troy University. In con
junction with the late Dr. McClintock, he published a
valuable work entitled " Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Ecclesi
astical, and Theological Literature," (6 vols., 1867 et sey.)
Strong, (NATHAN,) an American clergyman, born in
Connecticut in 1748. He preached at Hartford, and
published numerous sermons. Died in 1816.
Strong'bow, the surname of Richard de Clare, Earl
of Pembroke, an English warrior, distinguished for his
victories over the Irish. Died in 1176.
Stroth, stRot, (FRIEDRICH ANDREAS,) a German
scholar, born in Pomerania in 1750. He published
several classical works. Died in 1795 or 1785.
Strozzi, stkot'see, (BERNARDO,) surnamed n. CAPUC-
cixo, or "The Genoese Priest," an eminent Italian
painter, born at Genoa in 1581. His" Virgin and Child"
is esteemed his master-piece. He painted many easel-
pictures, and was an excellent colorist. Died in 1644.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" SOPRANM, "Pittoii
Genovesi."
Strozzi, (CiRlACO, che-ree'a-ko.) an Italian philoso
pher, born near Florence in 1504. He wrote a sup
plement to Aristotle's work " De Republica," (1562.)
Died in 1565.
See PAPIRE MASSON, "Vita Kyriaci Strozse," 1604.
Strozzi, (ERCOLE,) an Italian poet, a son of Tito
Vespasiano, noticed below, was born at Ferrara in 1471.
He was the author of Latin and Italian poems, which
were highly esteemed by his contemporaries. He was
assassinated in 1508 by some person unknown.
See PAOLO GIOVIO, "Elogio;" GINGUENE, "Histoire Litteraire
d'ltalie."
Strozzi, (FiLlPPO,) an opulent Florentine merchant,
noted for his generosity, was born in 1426. He built
the magnificent Palazzo Strozzi at Florence, which is
still standing. Died in 1491.
Strozzi, ( FILIPPO,) a Florentine statesman, born in
1488, was a son of the preceding. Though connected
with the Medici by his marriage with Clarice, niece of
Leo X., he exerted himself to deprive that family of the
chief power in Florence. After the murder of the duke
Alexander de' Medici, and the election of Cosimo as his
successor, Strozzi became one of the leaders of an army
of French and Italian mercenaries, and marched against
the troops of Cosimo, who was assisted by the soldiers
of Charles V. The insurgents were signally defeated,
('537>) av>d Strozzi was made prisoner, and confined for
a year in a fortress, where he committed suicide in 1538.
See LORENZO STROZZI, "Vie de P. Strozzi," (translated from the
Italian by RKQUIER.) 1762; G. B. NICOI.INI, " Vita di F. Strozzi,"
1847 ; '• Vita di F. Strozzi, scritta da Lorenzo Strozzi suo Figlio," j
1851 ; " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Strozzi, (FILIPPO,) a commander, born at Venice in
1541, was a grandson of the preceding, and a son of
Piero, noticed below. He served with distinction against j
the French Huguenots in the civil wars which began ;
about 1562,31x1 was appointed in 1581 lieutenant-general
of the naval army by Henry III. He was killed in a
naval action against the Spaniards in 1582.
See TORZAY, "Viede P. Strozzi," 1608; DAVII.A, "History of
the Civil Wars of France."
Strozzi, (FRANCESCO di Soldo — de sol'do,) an Ital
ian scholar, who translated Thucydides, and Xenophon's
" History of Greece," into Italian, (1550.)
Strozzi, (GlAMBATTiSTA,) an Italian scholar and
writer, born at Florence in 1551, was a nephew of Piero,
noticed below. He was conspicuous for his generous
patronage of learning, and was the author of several
works, in prose and verse. Died in 1634.
Strozzi, (GiULiO,) a Venetian poet, born about 1583,
resided at Rome, where he became papal prothono-
tary. He was the author of "The Building of Venice,"
(" Venezia Edificata,") an epic poem, and other works.
Died in 1660.
Strozzi, (LEONE,) a naval officer, born at Florence
in 1515, was a son of Filippo Strozzi, (1488-1538.) He
obtained command of a French fleet about 1550, and
was opposed to Andrew Doria in the Mediterranean.
Died in 1554.
Strozzi, (\ICCOL6,) an Italian writer, was the author
of idyls, sonnets, etc., and tragedies entitled " Conradus"
and " David of Trebizond." Died in 1654.
Strozzi, [Lat. STROC'TIUS,] (PALLA,) an Italian di
plomatist and scholar, born at Florence in 1372. He
was a liberal patron of literature, and devoted his large
fortune to the promotion of classical studies, employing
in his house many copyists to transcribe ancient manu
scripts. He also founded several chairs in the Univer
sity of Florence. Having opposed the Medici, he was
banished about 1434, and settled at Padua. Died in 1462.
See ANGELO FARRONI, "P. Stroctii Vita," 1802; /ENEAS SYL
VIUS, " Commentarii."
Strozzi, (PIERO,) an able general, a son of Filippo
Strozzi, (1488-1538,) was born in 1500, and entered the
P'rench army after the death of his father. In 1553 he was
| sent to the defence of Sienna, then besieged by Cosimo
I I. ; but, having imprudently invaded Tuscany, he was
j defeated by the Marquis of Marignano, near Lucignano,
in 1554. He was afterwards charged by the pope, Paul
I IV., with the defence of Rome against the Duke of Alva.
| In 1558 he assisted the Duke of Guise in the capture of
Calais, but he was killed the same year at the siege of
Thionville. He had been created marshal of France by
' Henry II. about 1555.
See BRAN-TOME, "Vies des Capitaines etraugers :" VARCHI,
' " Storia Fiorentina ;" DE COURCELLES, " Dictionnaire des Generaux
Francais ;" F. TKUCCHI, " Vita e Geste di P. Strozzi," 1847 ; " Xou-
j velle Biographic Generale."
Strozzi, (PIETRO,) an Italian scholar, born at Flor-
' enee about 1575, was professor of philosophy at Pisa.
! He published a work on the Nestorians, entitled " De
Origine et Dogmatibus Chaldasorum, sive hodiernorum
Xestorianorum," (1617.) Died about 1640.
Strozzi, (Tiro VESPASIANO,) an Italian scholar and
i poet, born at Ferrara about 1422. He was the author
: of Latin lyrics, satires, and epigrams. He became
] president of the supreme council of Ferrara in 1485.
i Died about 1508.
Strudel or Strudell, stRoo'del, (PETKR,) a historical
painter, born in the Tyrol in 1680, or, as some say, in
! 1660. He worked in Vienna, and was patronized by
: the emperor Leopold. Died in 1717.
Struensee, stRoo'en-za', (A DAM,) a German theo-
I logian, born at Brandenburg in 1708. He preached at
Halle, and became superintendent or l>ishop of Sles-
i wick and Holstein in 1761. He wrote several religious
| works. Died in 1791.
Struensee, von, fon stRoo'en-za', (TOHAXX FRIED-
RICH,) COUNT, a minister of state, born at Halle in 1737,
was a son of the preceding. He studied medicine, and
practised with success at Altona. His habits are said
to have been licentious. In 1768 he became physician
to Christian VII. of Denmark, whom he attended in a
tour through Germany, France, and England. He in
sinuated himself into the favour of Christian VII., and
of his queen, Caroline Matilda, a sister of George III.
of England. His talents and ambition enabled him to
gain an ascendency over the king, who was a man of
feeble character. He was aided in his ambitions project*
by his friend Brandt, and by the queen. He procured
the removal of Count Bernstorff in 1770, and became
prime minister. He made many innovations in political
affairs, some of which were beneficial ; but he offended
the people by his preference of the German to the Danish
language. Prince Frederick and others formed a con
spiracy against Struensee, who was arrested, tried, and
put to death in April, 1772.
See FALKENSKIOLD, " Memoirs of Struensee," (in German,) 1788 ;
J. K. HOST. "Struensee og hans Ministerium," 3 vols., 1824; J.
GIHSSING, "Struensee," 1X48; REVKKDIL, "Struensee a la Cour de
Copenhague," 1858; "Authentic Elucidation of the History of
Struensee and Brandt :" DR. MI'NTER. " Narrative of the Conversion,
and Death of Count Struensee ;" " Xouvelle Biographie Generale ;"
"Edinburgh Review" for September. 1826, article ''Danish Revo
lutions under Count Struensee," (by SIR JAMES MACKINTOSH.)
Struensee, von, (K.\Ri. AUGUST,) brother of the
preceding, was born at Halle in 1735. He became in
1757 professor of philosophy and mathematics at the
military academy of Liegnitz. His "Rudiments of
Artillery," published in 1760, obtained for him the notice
€ as K; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Vi,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; *h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
STRUTHERS
2076
STUART
and patronage of Frederick the Great. It was followed
in 1771 by " Elements of Military Architecture," esteemed
the best work on the subject that had then appeared in
Germany. After the publication of his "Description of
the Commerce of the Principal European States," he
was ennobled and made minister of state and president
of the board of excise. Died in 1804.
See MEUSEI., "Gelehrtes Deutscliland ;" HIRSCHING, " His-
torisch literarisches Hanclbuch ;" VON HELD, " Struensee, Skizze
fur Diejenigen," etc., 1805.
Stiuth'ers, (JoHN,) a Scottish poet, born in Lanark
shire in 1776, worked at the trade of shoemaker in his
youth. Among his works is " The Poor Man's Sabbath,"
(1804.) Died in 1853.
Strutt, (EnwARD,) Baron Helper, an English peer,
born in iSot. He was chosen a Liberal member of
Parliament in 1830, and was re-elected several times.
Strutt, (JOSEPH,) an English antiquary and engraver,
born in Essex in 1742. ile was the author of "The
Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England," etc.,
" Horda Angel Cynnan ; or, View of the Manners, Cus
toms, etc. of the Inhabitants of England from the Arrival
of the Saxons," (3 vols., 1776,) a "Biographical Diction
ary of Engravers from the Earliest Period to the Present
Time," (2 vols., 1786,) and "Sports and Pastimes of the
People of England," etc., (1801.) Among his engravings
are a series of illustrations of the "Pilgrim's Progress."
He died in 1802, leaving several works in manuscript,
one of which, a romance, entitled " Queen-Hoo Hall,"
was completed by Sir Walter Scott.
See the " Monthly Review" for May, 1775, and June, 1802.
Struve, stroo' veh, (BuRKHAKD GoTTHELF,) a jurist,
a son of Georg Adam, noticed below, was born at
Weimar in 1671. He studied law and history at Jena
and Helmstedt, became professor of history at Jena in
1704, and in 1730 of public and feudal law. Among his
voluminous works we may name his " Syntagma Juris
Publici," (1711,) " Body of German History," ("Corpus
Historice Germanicae," 1730,) and "Introduction to the
History of the German Empire," (in German.) He
also published an edition of the " Illustres Veteres Scrip-
tores" of Pistorius, and of Freher's " Rerum Germani-
carum Scriptores." Died in 1738.
See HIRSCHING," Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ;" LIPRNIUS,
" Bibliotheca Juridica."
Struve, (FRIKDRICH GEORG WII.HELM,) an eminent
German astronomer, born at Altona in April, 1793. He
was appointed director of the Observatory of Dorpat
about 1818. In 1839 he became director of a new and
magnificent observatory erected by the Russian govern
ment at Pulkova, near Saint Petersburg. He acquired
distinction by his observations on double and multiple
stars, and published, besides other works, " Astronom
ical Observations," (" Observationes Astronomies, " 8
vols., 1820-40,) "Micrometric Measurements of the
Double Stars," (" Stellarum duplicium Mensurae micro-
metricae," 1827,) and "Studies of Sidereal Astronomy
on the Milky Way," ("Etudes d'Astronomie stellaire
sur la Voie lactee," etc., 1847.) Died in 1864.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" BROCKHAUS, " Conversa
tions- Lexikon."
Struve, (GEORG ADAM,) a German jurist, born at
Magdeburg in 1619. He became professor of law at Jena
in 1646, and in 1667 was appointed privy councillor to
the Duke of Weimar. Among his numerous legal works,
which had a high reputation in his' time, we may name
his " Jurisprudentia Romano-Germanica forensis," and
" Syntagma Juris Feudalis." Died in 1692.
See B. G. STRUVE, "Vita G. A. Stnwii," 1705.
Struve, (GUSTAVUS,) a German political writer and
revolutionist, born in Livonia about 1805. He took a
prominent part in the insurrection in Baden in 1848, and
became an exile in 1849. He published, besides other
works, a " System of Political Science," (4 vols., 1847.)
Died in 1870.
Struve, (Orro WILHELM,) an astronomer, a son of
Friedrich Georg Wilhelm, was born at Dorpat in 1819.
He obtained the position of second astronomer at Pul-
kowa. He discovered many double stars, and computed
the movement of translation of the solar system.
Struve, von, fon stuoo'veh, (HEINRICH CHRIS-
Toi'H GOTTFRIED,) a German diplomatist, born at Ratis-
bon in 1772, was employed in embassies to Hamburg,
Saint Petersburg, and other European courts. Died
in 1851.
Struys, stRois, (JAN,) a Dutch traveller, who visited
several countries of Asia, and published a narrative in
1677. Died in 1694.
Stry, van, vSn stuT, (ABRAHAM,) a skilful Dutch
painter, born at Dort in 1753, imitated A. Cuyp. lie
painted landscapes, cattle, etc. Died in 1826.
Stry, van, (JACOB,) a skilful painter of landscapes and
cattle, a brother of the preceding, was born at Doit in
1756. " Many of his imitations of Albert Cuyp," says
Bryan, "have passed as originals of that master." Died
in 1815.
Stryk, stidk, [Lat. STRYK'IUS,] (SAMUEL,) a German
jurist, born at Lenzen in 1640. He became professor
of law at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1672, and obtained
a chair in the University of Wittenberg in 1691. He
acquired a European reputation by his writings on law.
Died in 1710.
See BKRGEK, "Memoria Strykii," 1711.
Strykius. See STKYK.
Strype, strip, (JoHN.) an English divine and biogra
pher, born in London in 1643. Among his numerous
works are " Memorials of the Most Renowned Father
in God, Thomas Cranmer," etc., (1694,) "Historical
Collections relating to the Life and Acts of Bishop
Aylmer," (1701,) " Life and Acts of Archbishop Parker,"
(1711,) "Ecclesiastical Memorials, relating chiefly to
Religion and the Reformation of it," etc., and "Annals
of the Reformation and Establishment of Religion," (4
vols., 1731.) Died in 1737.
Stu'art, (ALEXANDER II. H.,) an American politician,
born at Staunton, Virginia, in 1807. He gained dis
tinction as a lawyer, became an orator of the Whig
party, and was elected to Congress in 1841. He was
secretary of the interior from September, 1850, to March,
1853. He was loyal to the Union, until the secession
of Virginia induced him to change sides.
Stu'art, (ARABELLA,) born about 1575, was a daughter
of Charles Stuart, Duke of Lennox, (a brother of Lord
Darnley,) and was a cousin-german to James I. of Eng
land. She was secretly married about 1609 to William
Seymour, against the will of the king, who imprisoned
her in the Tower. She was so harshly treated that she
became insane, and died in the Tower in September,
1615. William Seymour was afterwards made Marquis
of Hertford. Arabella Stuart was a woman of superior
talents and high spirit.
See" Life and Letters of Arabella Stuart, "by P^UZABKTH COOPER,
London, 1866: GARDINER, " History of England from 1603 to 1616,"
vol. ii. chap. x. ; " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by LOUISA
S. COSTEI.I.O.
Stuart, (Sir CHARLES,) a British general, born in
1753, was a younger son of Lord Bute, the prime min
ister. He fought against the American patriots, ( 1 776-82,)
gained the rank of major-general in 1793, and com
manded in Corsica in 1794. He took Minorca in 1798.
Died in 1801.
Stuart, (CHARLES EDWARD,) THE PRETENDER. See
CHARLES EDWARD.
Stuart, (GILBERT,) LL.D., a Scottish journalist and
miscellaneous writer, born at Edinburgh about 1746.
He became in 1773 associate editor of " The Edinburgh
Magazine and Review," in which he published criti
cisms on prominent authors, displaying great ability, but
disfigured by bitter personalities. He was aflerwards
a contributor to the " Political Herald" and " English
Review," London. Among his principal works are a
" Historical Disquisition concerning the Antiquity of
the British Constitution," (1767,) "View of Society in
Europe in its Progress from Rudeness to Refinement,"
etc., (1768,) "History of the Establishment of the Re
formation of Religion in Scotland, 1517-1561," (1780,)
and " History of Scotland from the Establishment of
the Reformation to the Death of Queen Mary," (1782.)
Died in 1786.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
AI.I.IBONE, " Dictionary of Authors ;" " Monthly Review" for Sep
tember and October, 1783.
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon;
STUART
2077
STURE
Stuart, (GILBERT CHAKI.ES,) an eminent American
painter, born at Narraganset, Rhode Island, in 1756.
He studied in London under West, and subsequently
executed a number of portraits, which obtained for him
a high reputation. Among these may be named that of
George III., Sir Joshua Reynolds, and John Kemble.
After his return to America he painted a portrait of
Washington, which is esteemed the best ever taken ;
also portraits of Mrs. Washington, John Adams, Jeffer
son, Madison, and other distinguished Americans. Died
in 1828.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. i.
Stuart, (HENRY BENEDICT,) Cardinal York, born in
1725, was a grandson of James If. of England, and a
brother of Charles Edward the Pretender. He lived
at Rome, and became a cardinal in 1747. Died in 1807.
Stuart, (JAMES,) an English antiquary and architect,
commonly known as "Athenian Stuart," was born in
London in 1713. He resided many years at Rome,
where he studied antiquities and the ancient languages,
and in 1750 visited Athens in company with Nicholas
Revett, also an artist. In 1762 he brought out the first
volume of the "Antiquities of Athens," in which he
was assisted by Mr. Revett. It was received with great
favour, and a second and a third volume were published
after his death, which took place in 1788. Among his
architectural works may be named the chapel of Green
wich Hospital.
Stuart, (JAMES E. B.,) an American general, born in
Patrick county, Virginia, about 1833, graduated at West
Point in 1854. He became a brigadier-general of the
insurgents in September, 1861, and obtained command
of a body of cavalry. In August, 1862, he surprised
General Pope's head-quarters at Catlett's Station and
captured some of his private papers. In October of
that year he conducted a daring and successful raid to
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. His cavalry covered the
retreat of General Lee after the battle of Gettysburg, July,
1863. He commanded the cavalry at the battle of the
Wilderness, in May, 1864, and was mortally wounded in a
battle against General Sheridan, at Yellow Tavern, on
the 1 2th of May in that year.
See a notice of General Stuart in "Southern Generals," 1865;
TENNEY'S "Military History of the Rebellion," p. 779.
Stuart, (JAMKS F. E.,) THE PRETENDER. See JAMES
FRANCIS EDWARD.
Stuart, (JOHN.) See BUTE, LORD.
Stuart, (JoHN,) a Scottish antiquary, born in 1751,
was professor of Greek at Aberdeen. Died in 1827.
Stuart, (MosKS,) an American theologian and Con
gregational divine, born at Wilton, Connecticut, in 1780.
He was appointed in 1809 professor of sacred literature
at Andover Theological Seminary, which post he held
for more than thirty years. He was the author of a
" Grammar of the Hebrew Language, without Points,"
(1813,) " Letters to Dr. Channing on Religious Liberty,"
(1830,) "Hints on the Prophecies," (1842,) "A Scrip
tural View of the Wine Question," (1848,) and a number
of commentaries on the Scriptures. He published in
1827 a " Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews,"
which, says R. W. Griswold, "continues in all countries
to be regarded as one of the noblest examples of philo
logical theology and exegetical criticism." (" Prose
Writers of America.") Died in 1852.
See ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;'' "North American
Review" for January, 1822.
Stu'art or Stew'art Family, a famous and unfor
tunate royal family which reigned in Scotland several
centuries and in England for more than a century. The
first member of this family that became king was Robert
II., whose father was Walter, high steward of Scotland,
and whose mother was a daughter of Robert Bruce. (See
ROBERT II.) The last king of this dynasty was James II.,
who was deposed in 1688, after which two of his descend
ants, styled Pretenders, attempted to ascend the throne.
(See JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD, and CHARLES EDWARD.)
"The name of the family," says Burton, "was Allan
or Fitz-Allan ; but it had become habitual to call them
by the name of the feudal office held by them in Scot
land, and hence Robert II. was the first of the Steward
— or, as it came to be written, the Stewart — dynasty."
(" History of Scotland," vol. iii. chap, xxvi.)
See C. D. Voss, "Geschichte der Stuarts auf dem Englischen
Throne," 4 vols., 1794-97; R. VAUGHAN, "Memorials of the Stuart
Dynasty," 2 vols., 1831.
Stu'art de Rothe'say, (roth'sa,) (CHARLES STU
ART,) LORD, a distinguished British diplomatist, grandson
of Lord Bute, was born in 1779. lie was sent in 1810
as minister-plenipotentiary to Portugal, and for his ser
vices on this occasion obtained from the prince-re'gent the
grand cross of the order of the Bath. The King of Por
tugal also made him a grandee of that kingdom. He was
afterwards successively minister at Paris, the Hague,
and Saint Petersburg. In 1828 he was raised to the peer
age, with the title of Stuart de Rothesay. Died in 1845.
Stubbe, stub, (HENRY,) an English writer and
scholar, born in Lincolnshire in 1631. He joined the
party of Cromwell during the civil war, and wrote " A
Vindication of Sir Harry Vane," " Light shining out
of Darkness, with an Apology for the Quakers," and
other works. After the restoration he went over to the
royalists, and published numerous attacks on his former
friends. He was accidentally drowned in 1676.
Stubbe, (JOHN.) See STUBBS, (JOHN.)
Stubbs, (GEORGE,) an English painter, born at Liver
pool in 1724, was distinguished for his knowledge of
anatomy. He excelled in delineating animals, par
ticularly horses. He published in 1766 a treatise " On
the Anatomy of the Horse." His picture of "The
Grosvenor Hunt" is esteemed one of his master-pieces.
Died in 1806.
Stubbs or Stubbe, (JOHN,) an English lawyer and
Puritan, born about 1540. Having written a pamphlet
against Queen Elizabeth's marriage with the Duke of
Anjou, entitled "The Discovery of a Gaping Gulph,
wherein England is like to be swallowed by another
French Marriage," his right hand was amputated by
order of the queen.
Stuck. See BATTISTTN.
Stuck, stock, [Lat. STUCK'IUS,] QOHANN WILHELM,)
a Swiss scholar and antiquary, born at Zurich about
1550. He published a " Treatise on the Feasts of the
Ancients, and their Sacrifices," (1591.) Died in 1607.
Studer, stoo'cler, (BtRNHARD.) a Swiss savant, born
at Buren-on-the-Aar in 1794, became professor of geol
ogy at Berne. He published several scientific works.
Stuerbout, stii'er-b6wt',(DiKRiCK,) one of the earliest
Dutch painters, sometimes called DIRK VAN HAARLEM,
was born in that town. He lived about 1450-70. There
are two historical pictures by him in the royal collection
at the Hague, representing incidents in the life of the
emperor Otho III. and his empress. Stuerbout ranked
among the first artists of his time.
See " Lives of the Early Flemish Painters."
Stuermer. See STURMER.
Stuhr, stooR, (PETER FEDDERSEN,) a Danish writer,
born at Flensborg in 1787, published a number of philo
sophical and historical svorks. Died in 1851.
Stuke'ley, (WILLIAM,) M.D., an English divine, an
tiquary, and physician, born in Lincolnshire in 1687.
Having practised medicine for a time with great reputa
tion and success, he took .holy orders, and in 1747
obtained the rectory of Saint George the Martyr, in Lon
don. He was the author of " Itinerarium Curiosum, or
an Account of the Antiquities, etc. observed in Travels
through Great Britain," (1724,) " Palaeographia Britan-
nica, or Discourses on Antiquities in Britain," (1743-54,)
" Some Account of the Medallic History of Marcus
Aurelius Valerius Carausius, Emperor of Britain,"
(1757-59,) and other valuable antiquarian works; also
a collection of sermons, entitled " Palaeographia Sacra,"
(1760-63.) Died in 1765.
Stiller or Stueler, stii'ler, (AUGUST,) a German
architect, born in Berlin in 1800, was one of the most
distinguished pupils of Schinkel. Among his greatest
works are the new museum at Berlin, and the Exchange
at Frankfort-on-the-Main.
Sturdza. See STOORDZA.
Sture, stoo'reh, (STEN,) called THE ELDER, a Swed
ish statesman, related to the royal family of Sweden.
On the death of Charles VIII., in 1470, he became re
gent of the kingdom, which he defended with signal
e as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; th as in this. (J^P'See Explanations, p. 23.)
STURE
2078
STTX
ability against the attempts of the Danes and the Rus
sians. Died in 1504.
See GEIJER, " Areminne ofver S. Sture," 1803.
Sture, (STEN,) THE YOUNGKR, son of Svantc Sture,
noticed below, succeeded his father as regent in 1512.
He was distinguished for his courage and ability, and
for a time successfully resisted the encroachments of
Denmark, but he was mortally wounded in the battle
near Jonkoping, in 1520.
See SILFVERSTOLPE, " Areminne ofver S. Sture," 1791.
Sture, (SvANTE,) became Regent of Sweden on the
death of Sten Sture the Elder, in 1504. Died in 1512.
Sturge, stiirj, (JOSEPH,) an English philanthropist,
born at Elberton, Gloucestershire, in 1793, was a member
of the Society of Friends. He became a corn-factor
at Bewdley, from which he removed to Birmingham in
1822. By his probity, energy, and moral courage he
acquired much influence. He svas one of the first in
England to advocate the immediate abolition of slavery,
and he became a prominent leader of the anti-slavery
movement. In 1836 he visited the West Indies, and
collected evidence against the slaveholders. He per
formed an anti-slavery mission to the United States
in 1841. After his return he co-operated actively with
Cobden and Bright in the anti-corn-law movement.
Died in 1859.
See HENRY RICHARD, " Memoir of Joseph Sturge," 1864.
Sturgeon, (WILLIAM,) an English electrician, born
in Lancashire in 1783. He learned the trade of shoe
maker, and served a number of years in the royal artil
lery. He invented or improved an electro-magnetic
machine, and wrote several treatises on electro-magnet
ism. Died at Manchester in 1850.
Stur'ges, (|OHN,) an English divine, was prebendary
of Winchester. He published " Discourses on the Evi
dence of Natural and Revealed Religion," and was en
gaged in a controversy with Dr. Milner. Died in 1807.
Stur'gis, (SAMUEL D.,) an American general, born at
Shippensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1822, graduated at West
Point in 1846. He obtained the rank of major in May,
1 86 1, and succeeded to the command of the army at
Wilson's Creek when General Lyon was killed, August
10 of that year. He commanded an army which was
defeated at Guntown, Mississippi, Time 10, 1864.
Sturleson. See SNORRO-STURLKSON.
Sturm, stooRm, or Sturrne, first abbot of Fnlda,
was born in -Bavaria about 715 A.D. He founded about
744 the monastery of Fulda, which became a famous
seat of learning. Died in 780.
Sturm, stooRm, (CinusToPH CHRISTIAN,) a Ger
man moralist and preacher, born at Augsburg in 1740.
He preached at Magdeburg and Hamburg, and wrote
a number of popular religious works, among which was
" Meditations on the Works of God in the Kingdom
of Nature," (2 vols., 1772-97.) Died in 1786.
See FEDDERSEN", " Leben und Charakter ties Hanptpastors C.
C. Sturm," 1786; HIKSCHING, " Historisch-liierarisches Hand-
buch."
Sturm, stooRm or stuRtn, (JACQUES CHARLES FRAN
COIS.) an excellent Swiss mathematician, born at Geneva
in September, 1803. He was a tutor to the son of
Madame de Stael, with whom he visited Paris in 1823.
In 1827 Sturm and his friend Colladon obtained the
grand prize of mathematics proposed by the Academy of
Sciences in Paris for the best memoir on the compres
sion of liquids. He discovered in 1829 the celebrated
theorem which completes the resolution of numerical
equations by determining the number of real roots which
are included between given limits. This is known as
" Sturm's theorem." He became professor of mathe
matics at the College Rollin in 1830, a member of the
Institute in 1836, and professor of analysis at the Poly
technic School in 1840. Died in 1855.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sturm, (JAKOB,) an eminent German statesman and
Reformer, born at Strasburg in 1489. He became in
early life a convert to the doctrines of Luther, and was
chosen mayor or chief magistrate of Strasburg in 1526.
His learning and wisdom were such that he was regarded
as an oracle by his fellow-citizens. It is stated that he
was sent ninety-one times on missions to various courts,
between 1525 and 1552. Died in 1553.
See HAAG, "La France protestante."
Sturm, [Lat. STUR'MIUS,] (JOHANN,) an eminent
scholar and teacher, surnamed " the German Cicero,"
was born at Schleiden in 1507. He became in 1538 rector
of the gymnasium at Strasburg, which, under his direc
tion, attained a very high reputation. He published an
edition of Cicero, (9 vols., 1557 et sey.,) a number of
translations from the Latin, and several original works
in that language : among these we may name "On the
Proper Opening of Schools of Learning," ("De Litera-
rum Ludis recte Aperiendis," 1538,) and "On the Uni
versal Method of Rhetorical Elocution," (" De universa
Ratione Elocutionis Rhetorics," 1576.) Died in 1589.
See BAVI.E, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
" Memoires :" M. ADAM, " Vit.-E Germanorum Philosophornm ;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sturm, (JOHANN CIIRISTOPH,) a German philosopher
and mathematician, born in Bavaria in 1635. Having
graduated at [ena, he became professor of mathematics
at Altdorf in 1669. He translated into Latin Bockler's
" Hydraulic Architecture," and published several valua
ble works on mathematics and physical science. Died
in 1703.
Sturm, (LF.ONHARD CHRISTOPH,) an architect, a son
of the preceding, was born at Altdorf in 1669. He
wrote a " Treatise on Military Architecture," and other
similar works. Died in 1719.
Stiirmer or Stuerrner, stiiu'mer, (BARTHOLOMAUS,)
COUNT, son of Igna/,, noticed below, was born at Con
stantinople in 1787, and was educated at Vienna. He
was consul-general to the United States in 1818, and in
1834 appointed internuncio at Constantinople.
Stiirmer or Stuermer, (IGNAZ,) BARON, a German
diplomatist and Oriental scholar, born at Vienna in 1752.
He was appointed in 1789 court interpreter, and in 1802
internuncio at the Porte, and magnate of Hungary in
1820. Died in 1829.
Sturmius. See STURM, (JOHANN.)
Sturt, (JoHN,) an English engraver, born in London
in i65S, was celebrated for his exquisite illustrations of
the "Book of Common Prayer." Died in 1730.
Sturtzenbecher, stooRts'en-bek'er, (OSCAR PAP-
RICK,) a Swedish writer and liberal politician, born at
Stockholm in 181 1.
Sturz, stooRts, (FRiF.nuicn WILHELM,} a German
scholar, born near Freiberg in 1762, published editions
of Empeclocles, the fragments of llellanicus, and of other
Greek writers. Died in 1832.
Sturz, (IlELFREiCH PETER,) a German writer, born at
Darmstadt in 1736, was a friend of Klopstock, and was
patronized by Count Bernstorff. His principal works
are "Recollections of the Life of Bernstorff," and " Let
ters of a Traveller." Died in 1770.
Stiive orStueve,stu/veh,(JoHANN KARL BERTRAM,)
a German jurist, born at Osnabriick in 1798, filled several
offices under the government, and wrote a number of
political treatises.
Stuven, stoo'ven, (ERNST,) a German flower-painter,
born at Hamburg in 1657 ; died in 1712.
Stuyvesant, sti've-sant, (PETER,) the last Dutch
Governor of the Ne\v Netherlands, (New York,) was
born about 1602. He was appointed governor or di
rector-general about 1645. He had previously served
in the West Indies, and lost a leg in battle. Tn 1655
he conquered a Swedish colony on the Delaware River.
His administration was vigorous and rather arbitrary.
New Amsterdam was attacked by an English fleet, to
which Governor Stuyvesant surrendered in September,
1664. He died at New York in 1682. Peter Stuyvesant
forms a conspicuous character in Irving's humorous
work entitled "History of New York, by Diedrich
Knickerbocker."
Style, (Wn.LiAM,) an English law-writer, born in
1603. He published " Reports," (1658.) Died in 1679.
Stylites. See SIMEON STYLITES.
Styx, [Gr. 2n'£,] a personage of classic mythology,
was said to be a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, the
wife of Pallas, and the mother of Victory, (Nice,) Power,
(Cratos.) and Zelus. She fs a personification of a cele-
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fit; met; nftt; good; moon;
SU4BED1SSEN
2079
SUE
brated river of Hades. The poets feigned that the gods
in taking a solemn oath used to swear by Styx, and if
they violated such an oath they were deprived of nectar
for nine years.
Suabedissen, soo'a-beh-dis'sen, (DAVID THEODOR
AUGUST,) a German philosophical writer, born at Mel-
sungen in 1773 ; died in 1835.
Sualem, (REXKIN.) See RAXNEQUIN.
Suard, sii'aV, QEAX BAPTISTS AXTOINE,) a French
journalist and litterateiir, born at Besancon in 1734.
He was successively associate editor of the "Gazette de
France," and editor of the political journals entitled
" Les Independants" and "Le Publicists. " He trans
lated into French Robertson's " History of Charles V.,"
and published, among other works, "Literary Miscel
lanies," (5 vols., 1805,) and "Lettres de 1'Anonyme de
Vaugirard," a witty and satirical production, which ob
tained great and deserved popularity. He also made
numerous valuable contributions to the " Biographic
Universelle." He was chosen a member of the French
Academy in 1772, and afterwards became perpetual
secretary of that institution. Died in 1817.
See C. NISAKD, "Memoires et Cnrrespondance Litte'raire stir
Suard," 1859; GARAT, "Historical Memoirs ot' M. Suard;" PE-
KKNNES, "filoge de Suard," 1841; " Xouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Suard, MADAME, the wife of the preceding, was born
at Lille in 1750, and was a sister of Charles J. Panc-
koucke the author. She wrote, besides other works,
" Memoirs of M. Suard," (" Essai de Memoires sur M.
Suard," 1820.) Died in 1830.
Suares, sii'f'i ess', (JoSKi-H MARIE,) a French anti
quary, born at Avignon in 1599, became Bishop of
Vaison in 1633. He wrote numerous antiquarian works.
Died at Rome in 1677.
Suaresius. See SUAREZ.
Suarez, swa'reth, [Lat. SUARF/SIUS,] (FRANCIS,) a
learned and eloquent Spanish Jesuit and theologian,
born at Granada in 1548. He became successively pro
fessor of divinity at Valladolid, Rome, Alcala, and Coim- j
bra. Among hi's principal works is his " Defensio Fidei !
Catholicae," etc., (1613,) being designed as a refutation |
of the oath of allegiance exacted by James I. of England j
from his subjects, and a "Treatise on Laws." Died
about 1615.
See DESCHAMPS, "Vita Fr. Suaresii," 1671; " Xouvelle Biogra
phic Generate. "
Suavius, swa've-us, or Suterman, soo'ter-man',
(LAMKKRT,) sometimes called Schwab, a Flemish en
graver, born at Liege, flourished about 1550. He
engraved his own designs, and others. Died about 1565.
Subervie, sii'beVvV, (JACQUES Gervais — zheR'vi',)
BARON, a French general, born at Lectoure in 1776. He
served as general of brigade in Spain, (1808-11,) and
in Russia in 1812. He became a general of division
in 1814, and fought at Waterloo. He was republican
minister of war from February 25 to March 19, 1848.
Died in 1856.
See ALEXAXDRF. THIERRY, " Le Genera] Subervie," 1856 ; " Xou-
velie Biographic Generate. "
Sublet, sii'bli', (FRANCOIS,) a French minister of
state, born about 1580. He was secretary of war from
16^6 till 1643. Died in 1645.
Subleyras, sii'bli'ras', (PiKRRE,) a French painter,
born at Uzes in 1699. He resided many years in Rome,
where he was patronized by Pope Benedict XIV. Among
his master-pieces are "Saint Basil celebrating Mass in
the Presence of the Emperor Valens," and " Saint
Benedict restoring a Child to Life." Died in 1749.
Subow. See ZOOIKJK.
Subtermans. See SUSTERMANS.
Suchet, sii'shi', (Louis GABRIEL,) Duke of Albufera,
a celebrated French marshal, born at Lyons in March,
1770. lie served in the Italian campaign of 1796, and
obtained the rank of general of brigade for his distin
guished bravery at the battle of Neumark, (1797.) Ap
pointed in 1799 general of division under Massena, he
successfully opposed the Austrians under General Melas,
and made a diversion in favour of Massena, then besieged
at Genoa, (1800.) After the battle of Marengo, in which
he took a prominent part, he was made governor of
Genoa and commander of the centre of the army of
Italy. He successively defeated the Austrians at Poz-
zolo, Borghetto, Verona, and Montebello, and in 1805
commanded the left wing of Marshal Lannes's division
or corps in the battle of Austerlitz. Having been created
by Napoleon a count of the empire, he was appointed
in 1808 to the command of a division of the army of
Spain. In this post, by his brilliant successes at Lerida,
Mequinanza, (1810,) Tortosa, (1811,) and Tarragona,
(1811,) he won the highest reputation as a brave officer
and an able disciplinarian and tactician. He was made
a marshal of France in 1811. His subsequent victories
at Murviedro, Valencia, and Albufera were rewarded
by Napoleon with a large domain, and the title of Duke
of Albufera. After the restoration of the Bourbons he
was deprived of the greater part of his honours ; but the
title of peer was restored to him by Louis XVIII. in
1819. He died in 1826, leaving "Memoirs of the War
in Spain," (1829.) It is stated that Napoleon estimated
his ability higher than that of any other of his marshals
except Massena.
See Bom, " Notice sur le Mareclial Suchet," 1826; BARRAULT-
Rouu.ox, " Le Marechal Suchet," 1854; DE COURCELI.ES, " Dic-
tionuaire des Generaux Francois ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Ge"ne"rale."
Suchtelen, suK'teh-len', (JAX PIETER,) COUNT, a
Dutch general and diplomatist, born in Oberyssel in
1759, entered the Russian service, and distinguished
himself at the capture of Sweaborg, (1789.) Died in 1836.
Suck'ling, (Sir JOHN,) an English poet, born in
Middlesex about 1608. lie studied at Trinity College,
Cambridge, and, after travelling on the continent, served
for a time in the army of Gustavus Aclolphus, King of
Sweden. He subsequently became celebrated as a wit
at the court of Charles I. In 1640 he was elected to the
Long Parliament for Bramber, but, having joined in the
conspiracy to rescue the Earl of Strafford from the
Tower, in 1641, he was compelled to take refuge in
France, where he died about 1642. His reputation rests
chiefly on his lyric poems; but he also wrote several
dramas and satires, and a treatise entitled "An Account
of Religion by Reason." " His style," says Hazlitt, "is
almost entirely free from the charge of pedantry and
affectation. His compositions are almost all of them
short and lively effusions of wit and gallantry, written
in a familiar but spirited style."
See HAZLITT, " Comic Writers ;" "Retrospective Review," vol.
ix., (1824.)
Suckow, sook'ko, (K.\Ri. ADOLF,) a German novelist,
born at Miinsterberg, in Silesia, in 1802, has written
under the pseudonym of POSGARU. Died in 1847.
Sucre, de, da 'soo'kRa, ( ANTONIO JOSE,) a South
American patriot and general, born at Cumana in 1793,
fought under Bolivar, and in 1819 was made a brigadier-
general. He defeated the Spaniards at Pichincha in
1822, and in 1824, having succeeded Bolivar as com-
mander-in-chief, gained a signal victory over the royal
ists at Ayacucho, by which the country was delivered
from the Spanish yoke. He was created grand marshal
of Ayacucho by Bolivar, and in 1825 chosen President
of Bo'livia. He was elected to the Constituent 'Congress
from Quito in 1830. He was assassinated soon after, at
the instigation, it is supposed, of General Ovando.
Sudhodana, soo-d'ho'da-na, a Hindoo prince, the
father of GAUTAMA, (which see.)
Sudra or Suder. See SOODRA.
Sudre, siidR, QEAX PIK.RRE,) a French lithographer,
born at Alby in 1783. He produced lithographs of
several work's of Raphael and Ingres. He gained a
medal of the first class in 1834.
Sue, sii, (EUGENE,) a popular French novelist, born
in Paris in 1804, was a son of Jean Joseph Sue, (1760-
1830.) He was named in honour of Eugene de Beau-
harnais, son of the empress Josephine, who was his
sponsor. Having studied medicine, he accompanied
the French army into Spain in 1823 as military surgeon.
On the death of his father, from whom he inherited a
large fortune, he studied painting for a time under
Gudin ; but he soon renounced this art for literature,
and published several tales of sea-life, entitled " Kernock
le Pirate," (1 830,) " Plick et Plock," (1831,) "AtarGull,"
"La Salamandre," (1832,) and "La Vigie de Koatven,"
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; X, nasal: R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SUE
2080
SUIDAS
(1833.) Encouraged by the success uf these productions,
he brought out in the Paris feuilletons a series of his
torical romances, among which we may name " Latreau-
monte," "Jean Cavalier," " Le Vicomte de Letorieres,"
and " Le Commandeur de Malfe." He next published
in rapid succession his " Mathilde," "Therese Dunoyer,"
"Mysteres de Paris," (1842,) and " Le Juif errant,"
("TheWandering Jew," 1846.) These romances, in which
Sue has unveiled the most revolting forms of vice, and
for the most part represented wickedness triumphant,
obtained great popularity, and were translated into the
principal European languages. He was elected in 1850
a member of the Assemblee Nationale. Died in 1857.
See G. PLANCHH, " Portraits Litte>;\ires ;" QUERARD, " La France
Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Foreign Quarterly
Review" for July, 1838, and July, 1842.
Sue, (JEAN,) a French surgeon and writer, born in
Var in 1699. He practised in Paris. Died in 1762.
Sue, (JEAN JOSEPH,) a French writer on anatomy and
surgery, born in 1710, was a brother of the preceding.
He lectured on anatomy in Paris, where he died in 1792.
See "Biographic Me'dicale."
Sue, (JEAN JOSEPH,) a surgeon, a son of the preceding,
was born in Paris in 1760. He wrote "Physiological
Researches on Vitality," (1798,) and other works. He
became consulting physician to the king in 1824. Died
in 1830.
Sue, ( PIERRE,) a learned surgeon, born in Paris in
1739, was a son of Jean Sue, noticed above. He pub
lished numerous works on surgery and medicine, which
are commended. Died in 1816.
See " Biographie Medicale."
Sueno. See AAGE.SEN and SWEYN.
Sueiion, the French for SWEYN, King of Denmark.
(See SWEYN.)
Suetone. See SUETONIUS.
Sue-to'm-us, [ Fr. SUETONE, su-a'ton',] (CAius
TRANQUILLUS,) an eminent Latin historian, born about
70 A.D., was a son of a military tribune. He was a friend
of Pliny the Younger, who wrote to Suetonius several
letters, which are extant. He practised law, and was
versed in various departments of learning. In the reign
of Hadrian he obtained the office of magister epistolanim,
or secretary, but he did not keep it long. Pliny the
Younger speaks in high terms of his integrity and learn
ing. Suetonius wrote, besides numerous works which
are lost, "The Lives of the Twelve Caesars," (" Vitae
Caesarum," which is highly prized, and appears to be
impartial. The subjects of this work are the twelve
emperors from Julius Caesar to Domitian inclusive,
whose private lives and vices he exposes, with copious
details. Saint Jerome says pithily of Suetonius, "that
he wrote of the emperors with the same freedom that
they themselves lived," (" pari libertate ac ipsi vixerunt.")
His work is rather anecdotical than historical. There
are extant two other works ascribed to him, — namely,
"On Illustrious Grammarians," ("De Grammaticis il-
lustribus,") and "On Celebrated Orators," (" De Claris
Rhetoribus.")
See A. KRAUSE, "De Suetpnii Fontibus," etc., 1831: D. W.
MOI.I.F.R, "Disputatio circularis de C. Suetonio," 1685: BAVI.E,
" Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene-
rale."
Sue-to'nI-us Pau-li'nus, a Roman general, served
in Mauritania in 42 A.n. He was appointed commander
of Nero's army in Britain in 59, and defeated the natives
commanded by Boadicea. Died after 70 A.n.
Su'ett, (RICHARD,) a celebrated English comedian,
born in London ; died in 1805.
Sueur, Le, (EUSTACHE.) See LE SUEUR.
Sueur, Le, (HUBERT.) See SCEUR.
Sueur, Le, (JEAN FRANCOIS.) See LE SUEUR.
Suffee, (King of Persia.) See SEFEE.
Suf'field, (HENRY HARBORD,)an English statesman,
born in 1781, was elected in 1820 a member of Parlia
ment for Shaftesbury. He was an advocate of the abo
lition of colonial slavery, and of other important reforms.
Died in 1835.
Suffolk, DUKE OF. See BRANDON, (CHARLES.)
Suffolk, siif'fok, (MICHAEL DE LA POLE,) first EARL
OF, an English statesman, who served in the army under
Edward III. He became lord chancellor in March, 1383,
was created Earl of Suffolk in August, 1386, and removed
in October of that year. Died in 1389.
Suffolk, (WILLIAM DE LA POLE,) DUKE OF, was lord
high admiral of England. He commanded at the siege
of Orleans, in 1429, and was defeated by Joan of Arc.
He was beheaded, on a charge of treason, in 1450.
Suffren, su'fuSN', (JEAN,) a French Jesuit, born in
Provence in 1565. He was for many years confessor to
the queen Marie de Medicis. He wrote "The Christian
Year," (" Annee chretienne," 1641.) Died in 1641.
Suffren Saint-Tropez, de, deli sii'iKoN'saN tko'pa/.)
(PiERRE ANDRE,) a distinguished French naval com
mander, born in Provence in 1726. Soon after his en
tering the naval service he became a member of the
Maltese order, from which he received the honorary
title of Bailli. He accompanied Count d'Kstaing to
America in 1778, and, being subsequently appointed to
a command under Don Luis de Cordova, took twelve
merchant-ships from the British, (1780.) In 1781 he
defeated the British commodore Johnstone near the
Cape Verd Islands. He was made a vice-admiral in
1784. Died in 1788.
See TKUBI.ET, " Kssai historique snr la Vie et les Campasnes
du Bailli de Suffren ;" HBNNBQUIN, " Kssai historique sur la Vie
et lesCampaenes du Bailli de Suffren," 1824 ; CUNAT, " Histoire du
Bailli de Suffren," 1852; "Nouvelle Biographie Gdnerale."
Sugdeii. See SAINT LEONARD'S.
Suger, sii'/.ha/, Abbe of Saint-Denis, an able and
powerful French statesman, born about 1085. lie was
chosen Abbe of Saint-Denis about 1122, and became the
favourite counsellor and chief minister of Louis VI.
His influence was equally great in the reign of Louis
VII., and his administration was beneficent to the peo
ple. Died in 1152.
See BAUDIF.R, " Histoire de 1' Administration de 1'Abbe Suger,"
1645; GERVAISK, " Histoire de Suger," 3 vols., 1721 : A. NKTTE-
MHNT, "Histoire de Suger," ,1842 : F. COMBES, "Suger et son
Ministere," 1853; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Sugny. See SERVAN DE SUGNV.
Sugriva, soo-gree'va, \i.e. "handsome-necked," from
the Sanscrit sn, " handsome," and grivti, "ncck,"| in the
Hindoo mythology, the name of a monkey chief, the son
of Surya, (or the Sun,) and the next in rank among the
monkeys to Hanuman, and, like the last-named hero, a
great favourite with Rama. (See HANUMAN.)
Suhm, soom, (PF.DEU FREDEUIK,) an eminent Danish
historian and miscellaneous writer, born at Copenhagen
in 1728, was a son of Ulrich Friedrich, noticed below.
He devoted himself to the study of philology, Northern
antiquities, etc., and published " On the Origin of the
Northern Nations," (2 vols., 1770,) "Odin, or the My
thology of Northern Paganism," (1771,) " History of the
Migration of the Northern Nations," (2 vols., 1773,)
"Critical History of Denmark in the Time of the Pa
gans," (4 vols., 1781,) and " History of Denmark to the
Year 1319," (n vols., 1812.) He was also the author of
" Idyls," and several tales and romances, which enjoy a
high reputation. Died in 1798.
See RASMUS NYERUP, "Udsigt over P. F. Suliins Levnet og
Skrifter," i7gS; R. NYERUP, "Suhmiana," 1799; "Nouvelle Bio
graphie Generale."
Suhm, von, fon soom or zoom, (Ui.Ricn FRIEDRICH,)
an intimate friend of Frederick the Great of Prussia, was
born at Dresden in 1691. His " Familiar and Friendly
Correspondence with Frederick II." (in French) was
published after the king's death. Died in 1740.
Suicer, swit'ser, or Schweitzer, shwlt'ser, (Jo-
HANN CASPAR,) a Swiss scholar and theologian, born at
Zurich in 1620, became professor of Greek and Hebrew
in the university of his native city. His principal work
is entitled " Ecclesiastical Thesaurus of the Writings
of the Greek Fathers," (" Thesaurus Ecclesiasticus e
Patribus Graecis," etc., 2 vols., 1682.) Died in 1684.
Suicer, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) son of the preceding,
was born at Zurich in 1644. He succeeded his father in
the chair of Greek and Hebrew in 1683, and published
a "Compendium of the Aristotelico-Cartesian Philoso
phy," and other works, in Latin. Died in 1705.
Su'I-das, [Gr. IiavMaf,] a Greek grammarian and
lexicographer, supposed to have flourished about the
tenth century. Nothing is known of him, except that
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
SLUDGER
2081
SULLY
he compiled a Lexicon or encyclopaedia of biography,
literature, geography, etc. This work, though defective
in plan and not accurately executed, is highly prized, as
a contribution to the literary history of antiquity, and
contains many valuable extracts from writers whose
works are lost. A good edition of this Lexicon was
published by T. Gaisford, Oxford, (3 vols., 1834.)
See FABRICIITS, " Bibliotheca Grzca ;" MULLER, " Programma
de Suida," 1796.
Suidger. See CLEMENT II.
Suintila, swin'ti-la, became King of the Visigoths in
Spain in 621 A.n. Died about 630.
Suleau, sii'Io', (FnANgois Lours,) a French royalist
and pamphleteer, born in 1757. He was massacred by
the mob of Paris in August, 1792.
Suleyman. See SOLYMAN and SOLIMAN.
Sul'i-van, (Sir RICHARD JOSEPH,) an Irish writer,
and member of Parliament for Seaford, published "A
View of Nature, in Letters to a Traveller among the
Alps," and other works. Died in 1806.
Sulkowski, sool-kov'skee, (ANTON PAUI,,) PRINCE,
a Polish general, born at Lissa in 1785, served with dis
tinction in Napoleon's army, and was made a general of
division in 1812. Died in 1836.
Sulkowski, (JOSEF,) a relative of the preceding,
entered the French service, and, having accompanied
Napoleon to Egypt as adjutant, was killed in the insur
rection at Cairo in 1798. He wrote " Historical, Political,
and Military Memoirs of the Polish Revolutions," etc.
Sul'la or Syl'la, (FAUSTUS CORNELIUS,) a son of
the dictator, was born about 88 B.C. He served under
Pompey in Asia, and was the first to mount the wall of
the Temple at Jerusalem, in 63. He was a partisan of
the senate in the civil war, fought at Pharsalia, 48 B.C.,
and at Thapsus, in 46. Having been taken prisoner,
he was murdered by the soldiers of Caesar in 46 B.C.
Sulla or Sylla,' [It. SII.LA, sel'li,] (Lucius COR
NELIUS,) surnamed FELIX, (the " Fortunate,") a famous
Roman general, born in 138 B.C., was of a patrician
family. Though addicted to pleasure, and though his
favourite companions are said to have been actors,
buffoons, and mimics, he early gave indications of un
common powers, and was particularly distinguished by
the art he possessed of reading the various characters
of men. He obtained the office of quaestor in 107 B.C.,
and served under Marius against Jugurtha, who was be
trayed by Bocchus into the power of the Romans. Sulla
took a prominent part in the capture of Jugurtha, and
shared with Marius the credit of that achievement. In
104 he was employed as legate of Marius in the war
against the Cimbri and Teutones. He joined the army
of L. Catulus in 102, and gave proof of great military
talents. His personal qualities were eminently adapted
to render a general popular with his soldiers. Having
been elected praetor in 93 B.C., he was sent the next
year to Cilicia, and restored Ariobarzanes to the throne
of Cappadocia.
In the year 91 began the Social war, in which, says
Plutarch, "Sulla performed so many memorable things
that the citizens looked upon him as a great general,
his friends as the greatest in the world, aiid his enemies
as the most fortunate." Sulla became the leader of the
aristocratic party,, was elected consul for 88 B.C., and
obtained from the senate the command of the war
against Mithridates, which command was also coveted
by his rival Marius. A violent contest arose between
these two leaders, which was the beginning of a great
civil war. Sulla marched with an army against Rome,
and Marius escaped to Africa, leaving his enemy master
of the capital. Sulla departed from Rome early in 87 B.C.,
and commenced the war against Mithridates by an attack
on Athens, which he took, after a long siege, in March,
86 B.C. The Athenians were treated with great cruelty
by the victor on this occasion. Sulla gained a decisive
victory over Archelaus, a general of Mithridates, at Chae-
ronea, and again at Orchomenus, in 85 B.C., after which
he crossed the Hellespont. In the mean time the Marian
party had recovered possession of Rome, and had mas
sacred many partisans of Sulla. lie concluded a peace
with Mithridates, extorted large sums of money from
the Orientals, and returned, with his armv of veterans,
to Italy, where he arrived in the spring of 83, and re
newed the civil war. The popular party had a larger
army than that of Sulla, but had no able generals. Sulla
defeated Norbanus near Capua in the year 83, and young
Marius at Sacripoi tus in 82 B.C. He then became master
of Rome, massacred his opponents and prisoners by
thousands, and gained a victory over the Samnites and
Lucanians near Rome. He made a list of his enemies,
whom he outlawed, and called this list a Proscriptio.
This was the first instance of a proscription among the
Romans. Sulla was appointed dictator for an unlimited
time, and made important changes in the constitution,
tending to increase the power of the senate and aris
tocracy and to destroy the authority of the tribunes of
the people. He also made reforms in the criminal law,
which were more enduring than the changes just men
tioned. He resigned the dictatorship in 79, and died
in 78 B.C. Byron apostrophizes Sulla in the following
striking lines : —
" O thou, whose chariot roll'd on fortune's wheel,
Triumphant Syila ! thou who didst subdue
Thy country's foes ere thou wouldst pause to feel
The wrath of thy own wrongs, or reap the due
Of hoarded vengeance till thine eagles flew
O'er prostrate Asia ; — thou, who with thy frown
Annihilated Senates, — Roman, too,
With all thy vices, for thou didst lay down,
With an atoning smile, a more than earthly crown."
Childe Harold, canto iv., stanza Ixxxiii.
See PLUTARCH, " Life of Sulla ;" DRUMANN, " Geschichte Roms,"
vol. ii. ; (. A. HARTMANN, " Dissertatio de Sulla," 1727 ; L. SACHSE,
" Lebendes Dictators Sulla," 1791 ; ZACHARI^E, " L. Cornelius Sulla
als Ordner des Rbmischen Freistaates," 1834; APPIAN, " Bellum
Civile :" PLINY, '• Natural History," books vii., xi., and xxvi. ;
MOMMSRN, " Histoire Romaine ;" A. CVBULSKI, " De Bello Civili
Sullano," 1838.
Sulla, (PuBLius CORNELIUS,) a Roman patrician,
was a great-grandfather of the dictator Sulla. He was
praetor urbanus in 212 B.C., and presided over the Ludi
Apollinares, then first instituted. His son, of the same
names, was praetor in 186 B.C.
Sulla, (PuiiLius CORNELIUS,) a nephew of the dic
tator Sulla. He was probably an accomplice of Catiline,
but after a trial, in which he was defended by Cicero, he
was acquitted. He fought for Caesar in the civil war,
and commanded the right wing at Pharsalia, 48 B.C.
Died in 45 H.C.
Sul'li-van, (GEORGE,) LL.D., son of General Sulli
van, noticed below, was born at Durham, New Hamp
shire, in 1774. He attained a high reputation as a jurist,
and rose to be attorney-general of his native State in
1805. Died in 1838.
Sullivan, (JAMES,) a brother of General Snllivan, wus
born at Berwick, Maine, in 1744. He became attorney-
general of Massachusetts in 1790, and was twice elected
Governor of that State. He wrote a " History of the
District of Maine," and other works. Died in 1808.
See a "Life of James Sullivan," by T. C. AMORY, 1859.
Sullivan, (JOHN,) an American general of the Revo
lution, was born at Berwick, Maine, in 1740. He was
present at the battles of Trenton and Princeton, and led
the right wing at the battle of Brandywine. He was after
wards appointed attorney-general of New Hampshire,
and thrice elected President of that State. His life is
included in Sparks's " American Biography." Died in
1795-
Sullivan, (JoHN L.,) an engineer and physician, born
at Saco, in Maine, in 1777, was a son of James, noticed
above. He invented the steam tow-boat about 1814. It
is stated that he made discoveries in medicine and
surgery.
Sullivan, (WILLIAM,) LL.D., ason of James Sullivan,
noticed above, was born at Saco, Maine, in 1774. He was
the author of " Familiar Letters on Public Characters
and Events from 1783 to 1815," "The Public Men of
the Revolution," and other works. Died in 1839.
Sully, sul'li, [Fr. pron. sii'le',] (MAXIMILIEN de Be-
thune — deh ba'tiin',) Due DE, and Baron de Rosny, a
French statesman of great merit and celebrity, was born
at Rosny, near Mantes, in December, 1560. He was a
son of Francois, Baron de Rosny, who was a Protestant,
and who presented Maximilien to Henry of Navarre in
1571. He was a student in Paris when the Massacre of
Saint Bartholomew occurred. In 1575 he entered the
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K,guttural: N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; %h as in this.
131
See Explanations, p. 23.)
SULLT
2082
SUMNER
service of Henry of Navarre, whom lie accompanied in
his escape from Paris and his perilous enterprises which
followed. By his courage, prudence, and immutable
fidelity he gained the friendship of Henry, who appointed
him a councillor of Navarre in 1580. He married Anne
de Courtenay in 1583. In 1587 he contributed to the
victory at Coutras, where he directed the artillery. He
received several wounds at the battle of Ivry, and was
severely wounded at the siege of Chartres, in 1591. lie
advised Henry IV. to adopt the Roman Catholic reli
gion, being convinced that by this policy only could
peace be restored on a permanent basis. Sully himself,
however, constantly adhered to the Protestant Church.
Having been app'ointed councillor of state and of
finances in 1596, he reformed many abuses in the ad
ministration of the finances, and became superintendent
of the same in 1599. By order and economy he greatly
improved the financial condition of France and the
prosperity of the people. He turned his attention to
other departments of government, and soon became
virtually prime minister. He encouraged agriculture
more than manufactures or commerce, and projected a
system of canals to unite all the large rivers of France.
In 1606 he received the title of Due de Sully. His
morals were austere, compared with those of the court
and the king, to whom he acted in the capacity of a
faithful Mentor. He even ventured to tear, in the pres
ence of the king, a paper on which Henry had written a
promise to marry the Marquise de Verneuil. The death
of Henry, in 1610, ended Sully's political power. He
resigned the direction of the finances, and retired from
court, but retained the position of grand master of ar
tillery, and some other offices. In 1634 he received the
baton of marshal of France. He employed his latter
years in writing memoirs of his life and times, entitled
" Memoires des sages et royales (Economies d'Estat de
Henri le Grand," (4 vols., 1634-62.) He died at Ville-
bon in December, 1641, leaving a son and several
daughters.
See THOMAS, " filoge de Sully," 1763; SISMONOI, " Histoire des
Francais ;" MICHF.I.KT, "Histoire de France;" HOFF, " Biographic
des Her/.ogs von Sully," 1782; MOTLHY. "United Netherlands,"
vol. iv. ; SKWKIN, " Les Amis de Henri IV." 3 vols., 1X05; D'Au-
BIGN^, "Histoire universelle ;" BAUMSTARCK, "Des Her/.o;;s von
Sully Verdienste," etc., 1828; " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale ;"
"Retrospective Review," vol. vi., (1822;) " Fraser's Magazine" for
April and May, 1831.
Sul'ljr, (THOMAS,) an eminent painter, born in Lin
colnshire, England, in 1783. Having emigrated to Amer
ica in 1792, he studied at Charleston, South Carolina,
and afterwards applied himself to portrait-painting suc
cessively at Richmond, New York, and Philadelphia.
Among his best works are full-length portraits of Jeffer
son, La F'ayette, Commodore Decutur, George Frederick
Cooke as " Richard III.," and Queen Victoria. He has
also produced several historical pictures, among which
we may name "Washington crossing the Delaware."
See DUNI.AP, " History of the Arts of Design in America," vol.
ii. chaps, vi., vii., and viii. ; TUCKERMAN, "Book of the Artists."
Sulpice. See SULPICIUS.
Sulpice Severe. See SEVERUS, (SULPICIUS.)
Sulpicia, siil-pish'e-zi, a Roman poetess under the
reign of Domitian. Her only extant svork is a satire
against that emperor on his condemnation of the phi
losophers to exile. It is entitled " De Edicto Domitiani
quo Philosophos Urbe exegit."
Sulpicia Gens, an ancient Roman gens, originally
patrician, produced many distinguished men. Among
the names of the families into which this gens was
divided were Galba, Gallus, Longus, and Rufus.
Sulpicius. See SEVERUS, (SULPICIUS.)
Sulpicius, sul-pish'e-us, [Fr. SULPICK, sul'pess',]
(LEMON IA RUFUS SERVIUS,) a celebrated Roman jurist
and orator, born about 106 B.C. He was elected consul
in 51 B.C., and filled other high offices. After his death
a eulogy was pronounced on him by Cicero, who was
his intimate friend. His legal works were very numerous
and highly esteemed, but only fragments of them are
extant. He was appointed Governor of Achaia by Caesar
in 46 or 45 B.C. Died in 43 B.C.
Sulpicius Rufus, (PUBLIUS,) a Roman orator, born
in 124 B.C., became tribune in 88 B.C., and was an ad
herent of Marius in the civil war with Sulla. His elo
quence is commended in the highest terms by Cicero,
who has introduced him into his dialogue " De Oratore."
After the capture of Rome by Sulla, Sulpicius was be-
traved into his hands and put to death, 87 B.C.
Sulzer, sooh'ser, (JOHANN GEOKG,) a Swiss philoso
pher and aesthetic writer, born at Winterthur in 1720.
He became in 1747 professor of mathematics in the
Joachimsthal Gymnasium, Berlin, where he made the
acquaintance of Euler and Maupertuis, and was elected
in 1750 to the Academy of Sciences. He was afterwards
appointed professor in the Ritter-Academie at Berlin.
His principal work isentitled "A Universal Theory of the
Fine Arts,"('' Allgemeine Theorieder Schonen-Kunste,"
1794,) a cyclopaedia of art and literature, which has a
high reputation. Died in 1779.
See HANS CASPAR HIKZEL, " Ueber Sulzer den Weltweisen,"
1780; " J. G. Sulzer's Lebensbeschreibung, vonihm selbstaufgesetzt,"
etc., 1809.
Sum-ma'rms, an ancient Roman or Etruscan divinity,
whose character is involved in obscurity. Some authors
represent him as equal in rank to Jupiter. Nocturnal
lightnings were supposed to be manifestations of his
power.
Sum'mer-field, (JoHN,) a Methodist divine and
distinguished pulpit orator, born at Preston, England,
in 1798. He emigrated in 1821 to America, where his
labours as a preacher were eminently successful. He
was one of the founders of the American Tract Society.
Died in 1825.
See J. HOLLAND, " Life of J. Summerfield," 1829.
Sum'mers, (THOMAS OSMOND,) D.D., a Methodist
divine, born in Dorsetshire, England, in 1812, emi
grated to the United States, and became in 1858 editor
of the "Methodist Quarterly Review." He has written
a " Treatise on Baptism," " The Golden Censer," and
other religious works.
Summcmte, soom-mon'ta, (GiAN ANTONIO,) an Ital
ian historian, born at Naples. He wrote a " History of
the City and Kingdom of Naples," (" Istoria della Citta
e Regno di Napoli," (4 vols., 1601-43.) Died in 1602.
Sum'ner, (CHARLES,) an American lawyer and
Senator, distinguished as an opponent of slavery, was
born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 6th of January,
1811. He graduated at Harvard College in 1830, after
which he was a pupil of Judge Story in the law-school
of Cambridge. He was admitted to the bar in 1834,
practised law in Boston, and svas appointed reporter in
the circuit court of the United States. He published
three volumes entitled " Sumner's Reports," edited the
" American Jurist," and, in the absence of Judge Story,
lectured to the students of the law-school at Cambridge,
(1834-37.) He passed about three years in visits to
various countries of Europe, (1837-40.) On the 4th
of July, 1845, he pronounced in Boston an oration on
"The True Grandeur of Nations," which attracted much
attention in the United States and in Europe. The de
sign of this argument was to promote the cause of peace.
He opposed the annexation of Texas to the United
States in 1845. About this time he separated himself
from the Whig party and joined that of the Free-Soilers.
He supported Martin Van Biiren for the Presidency in
1848. He delivered numerous orations and lectures on
various subjects, which were published in two volumes,
(1850.) By a coalition of Democrats and Free-Soilers
he was elected a Senator of the United States in 1850
as the successor of Daniel Webster. He opposed the
Fugitive Slave bill by a speech in the Senate, and took a
prominent part in the debate on the Nebraska-Kansas
bill in 1854. On the igth and 2Oth of May, 1856, he
made in the Senate an eloquent speech on the contest
in Kansas and on the aggressions of the slave-power.
Some passages of this speech excited the anger of Pres
ton S. Brooks, a Southern member of Congress, who, on
the 22d of May, 1856, assaulted Mr. Sumner while he
was sitting in the Senate-chamber, and beat him on the
head with a cane until he became insensible. Mr. Sum
ner was so severely injured that he was disabled for the
public service for several years, and he sailed to Europe
in March, 1857, for the benefit of his health. He was
re-elected to the Senate by an almost unanimous vote in
§, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 5, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n5t; good; moon;
SUMNER
2083
SVNDERLAND
January, 1857, and returned home in the autumn of that
year, hut made another voyage to Europe in the spring
of 1858. He remained under medical treatment in Paris
for a year or more, and resumed his seat about the end
of 1859. He afterwards denounced the peculiar institu
tion of the Southern States in a speech which was pub
lished under the title of "The Barbarism of Slavery"
and produced an immense effect. In 1860 he advocated
the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency.
During the session of 1860-61 he opposed the attempts
to propitiate the disunionists by concessions which would
sacrifice the rights of the oppressed or favour the in
terests of slavery. He was appointed chairman of the
committee on foreign relations in March, 1861, and about
the end of 1862 was again elected a Senator for six
years, ending March 4, 1869. He was the author of
the admirable resolutions on foreign mediation which
were passed March 3, 1863, by both Houses of Con
gress. In a series of resolutions which he offered on the
8th of February, 1864, he affirmed that "any system of
reconstruction must be rejected which does not provide
by irreversible guarantees against the continued exist
ence or possible revival of slavery." After the close of
the civil war he advocated the reconstruction of the se
ceded States on the basis of impartial suffrage. During
the rebellion he was a confidential adviser of President
Lincoln, who, in April, 1865, said to Mr. Sumner,
" There is no person with whom I have more advised
throughout my administration than yourself." Among
his important services was the production of the Freed-
man's Bureau bill. He has been chairman of the com
mittee on foreign relations since 1861, and has lived to
witness the triumph of the principles for which he so
long and strenuously contended. In April, 1869, he
made an elaborate speech on the Alabama claims. His
complete works were published in 8 vols., 1870.
See CHARLES A. PHEI.FS, "Lite of Charles Sumner," 1870; D.
HAKSHA, "Life of C. Sumner," 1856; MRS. STOWE, "Men of Our
Time," 1868.
Sum'uer, (CHARLES RICHARD,) an English prelate,
brother of Archbishop Sumner, noticed below, was born
at Kenilworth in 1790. He studied at Trinity College,
Cambridge, was subsequently appointed historiographer
to George IV., made Bishop of Llandaff in 1826, and of
Winchester in 1827. He published in 1825 a translation
from the Latin of Milton's "Treatise on Christian Doc
trine." lie is identified with the evangelical party.
Sumner, (Eowix V.,) an American general, born in
Boston in 1796. He served as captain on the Western
frontier for many years, obtained the rank of major in
1846, and distinguished himself in the Mexican war,
which ended in 1847. He became a colonel in 1855,
escorted Abraham Lincoln from Springfield to Washing
ton in February, 1861, and was appointed a brigadier-
general in the regular army in March of the same year.
He commanded a corps at the battle of Fair Oaks, May
3i-June I, 1862, at Malvern Hill, July I, and at the
battle of Antietam, September 17 of that year. He
directed one of the three grand divisions of Burnside's
army at the battle of Fredericksburg, December 13,
1862. He died at Syracuse, New York, in March, 1863.
See TENNEV, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion,"
P- 747-
Sumner, (INCREASE,) an American judge and Gov
ernor, born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1746. He
was appointed a judge of the supreme court of Massa
chusetts in 1782, and was elected Governor of that State
in 1797 and in 1798. His ability and merit are highly
commended. Died at Roxbury in 1799.
See a "Memoir of J. Simmer," by his son WILLIAM, in the
" New England Register" for April, 1854.
Sumner, (Jons BIRD,) an English prelate, born at
Kenilworth iii 1780. Having studied at King's College,
Cambridge, he was created Bishop of Chester in 1828,
and in 1848 Archbishop of Canterbury. He published
"Records of Creation," (1816,) "Evidences of Chris
tianity," (1824,) an essay "On Apostolical Preaching,"
and other works. Died in 1862.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1816.
Sum'ter, (THOMAS,) an American general of the
Revolution, born in South Carolina about 1734, was
distinguished for his skill and success as a partisan
leader, and obtained several important advantages over
the British. He was afterwards elected to Congress,
was appointed minister to Brazil in 1809, and elected to
the United States Senate in 1811. Died in 1832.
See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
Sun'der-land, (CHARLES SPENCER,) third EARL OF,
an English statesman, born in 1674, was a younger son
of Robert, the second Earl. At the death of his elder
brother, in 1690, he received the title of Lord Spencer.
He was elected to Parliament in 1695, succeeded his
father as earl in 1702, and was sent as envoy to Vienna
in 1705. He married Anne Churchill, a daughter of the
Duke of Marlborough, about 1700, and became a leader
of the Whig party. He was secretary of state from
1707 to June, 1710. On the accession of George I.,
September, 1714, he became lord lieutenant of Ireland.
He entered the cabinet as lord privy seal in 1715, and
supplanted his rival, Lord Townshend, in the favour of
the king. By his intrigues or influence the ministry was
changed in April, 1717, when Sunderland and his friend
Joseph Addison became the two secretaries of state. In
1718 he exchanged his office for that of first lord of the
treasury, — i.e. prime minister. He was accused in 1721
of having received a bribe from the South Sea Com
pany, but was acquitted by a large majority of his judges.
He resigned office in April, 1721, although the king de
sired to retain him in power. He died in 1722, leaving
three sons, Robert, Charles, and John.
See LORD STANHOPE, (MAHON,) " History of England."
Sunderland, (!!KNRY SPENCER,) first EARL OF, born
about 1622, was a son of Lord Spencer. He married
Dorothy Sidney, a sister of Algernon Sidney, a lady
whom Waller praised under the name of " Saccharissa."
Although he disapproved the measures of the court,
he joined the royal army in the civil war, assigning
"the punctilio of honour" as his motive. He fought at
Edgehill, (1642,) received the title of Earl of Sunderland
in 1643, and was killed at the battle of Newbury, in the
same year.
See CLARENDON, " History of the Great Rebellion."
Sunderland, (ROBERT SPENCER,) second EARL OF,
a courtier and politician, famous for his talents and in
trigues, was born about 1642, and was the only son of the
preceding. He was sent as ambassador to Paris in 1672,
and was appointed secretary of state in 1679. Having
been dismissed in the spring of 1681, he was restored to
the same office in 1682. He appears to have been totally
destitute of any fixed principles, and had great facility in
changing sides in the game of politics. He insinuated
himself into the favour of the Duke of York, who, on his
accession to the throne, in 1685, retained Sunderland in the
office of secretary of state. About this time he received
a large bribe or pension from Louis XIV. He became
president of the council in December, 1685, and prime
minister in 1686. " It was only in private conference,"
says Macaulay, "that his eminent abilities displayed
themselves. In the royal closet, or in a very small circle,
he exercised great influence, but at the council-board he
was taciturn, and in the House of Lords he never opened
his lips." (" History of England," vol. i.) In June,
1688, he openly avowed his conversion to the Roman
Catholic Church, and before the end of the year made
overtures to William of Orange, to whom he revealed
the plans of James II. Sunderland was dismissed from
power in October, 1688, on suspicion of treason. A few
weeks later he fled to Holland in disguise, and changed
his religion. " He had rendered to the cause of liberty
and the Protestant religion services of which it is diffi
cult to overrate either the wickedness or the utility."
("Macaulay's History," vol. iv.) He returned to Eng
land about the end of 1690, and soon regained his influ
ence at court. It is stated that he was the chief adviser
of \Villiam III. for several years, although he held no
office until 1695, when he was appointed lord chamber
lain. He resigned office in 1697. His wife was a
daughter of the Earl of Bristol. He died in 1702, leaving
his title to his son Charles. " His tact," says Macaulay,
his quick eye for the foibles of individuals, his caressing
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Z^^See Explanations, p. 23
SVKDEP4LL
2084
SUTHERLAND
manners, his power of insinuation, and, above all, his
apparent frankness, made him irresistible in private
conversation." (" History of England," vol. iv.)
See, also, BURNET, " History of bis Own Time ;" LODGE, " Por
traits."
Sundevall, soon'cleh-val', (CARL JAKOB,) a Swedish
naturalist, born at Hoegestad in 1801. He became di
rector of the museum of natural history at Lund in 1835.
Su'per-i, [i.e. those "above" or "on high," from
siiperus, "high,"] a name applied by the Romans to the
gods, particularly to the gods of the celestial regions.
Superville, de, cleh sii'peR've!', (DANIEL,) a French
Protestant minister, born at Saumur in 1657. He re
moved to Rotterdam about 1685, and preached there
until his death. Died in 1728.
Sura. See SURADEVI and SURAS.
Surabhi, a name of KAMADHENU, (which see.)
Suraddvi, soo-ra-da'vee, called also simply Sura,
soo'ra, [from the Sanscrit Surd, "wine," and Devi,
"goddess,"] the Hindoo goddess of wine, was supposed
to have been produced from the churning of the ocean.
(See KURMA.)
Surajah Dowlah, soo-ra'ja dow'la, a Hindoo prince,
who took Calcutta in 1756 and confined a number of
English prisoners in the Black Hole. His army was
defeated by Clive at the famous battle of Plassey, June
23, 1757; and he was taken a few days after and put to
death by the order of Meer Jaffier.
See MACAULAY'S article on Lord Clive, (in bis " Essays.")
Suras or Sooras, soo'ras, [from the Sanscrit Sura,
a "god,"] in the Hindoo mythology, a class of inferior
deities, the children of Kasyapa and Aditi. They appear
to be the same as the Adityas, (see AIMTYA,) and are
regarded as the natural enemies or opponents of the
ASURS, (which see.)
Surcouf, su'R'koof/, (ROBERT,) a French corsair, born
at Saint-Malo in 1773. He captured many English
merchant- vessels. Died in 1827.
See CUNAT, " Histoire de K. Surcouf," 1847.
Su-re'na or Su-re'nas, a Parthian general in the
service of King Orodes. He gained a decisive victory
over the Roman general Crassus near Carrhae in 53 B.C.
According to Plutarch, " he was superior to the Parthians
of his time in courage and capacity." (" Life of Crassus.")
He was put to death by Orodes about 52 B.C.
See MERJVAI.E, "History of the Romans;" " Nonvelle Bio-
grapbie Generale."
Surenhuis, su'ren-hois', [Lat. SURENHU'SIUS,] (WiL-
LF.M,) a Dutch Orientalist, lived about 170x3. He was
professor of Hebrew and Greek at Amsterdam, and
published an edition of the Mishna, (3 vols., 1698-1703.)
Surenhusius. See SURKNHUIS.
Surin, sti'raN', (JKAN JOSEPH,) a French fesuit and
ascetic writer, born at Bordeaux in 1600. He went in
1634 to Loudun to exorcise some persons possessed
with demons, and became himself, as we are told, a de
moniac, or victim of the demons. So much, at least, is
certain, that he was insane for many years. Died in 1665.
See BOUDON, "Vie de Surin," 1689; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Su'ri-us, (LAURENTIUS,) a German monk, born at
Lubeck in 1522. He wrote "Lives of the Saints,"
(1570.) Died in 1578.
Surlet de Chokier, suVli' deh sho'ke-i', (£RASME
Louis,) BARON, a Belgian statesman, born at Liege in
1769. Having previously filled several high offices, he
was elected Regent of Belgium in 1831. Died in 1839.
Surowiecki, soo-ro-ve-et'skee, (L. W.,) a Polish
scholar and antiquary, born near Gnesen in 1769, pub
lished a work "On the Origin of the Slavic Nations,"
and other treatises. Died in 1827.
Surrey. See HOWARD, (HENRY,) EARL OF.
Surt, soort, or Surtur, (Surtr,) soor'ter, [etymologic-
ally related to the Danish sort, English swart, and Ger
man sf/twarz, "black," because it is the property of fire
to blacken what it burns,] in the Norse mythology, the
god of fire, who rules over Muspellheim, the entrance
to which he guards with a flaming sword. At Ragna-
rock he will lead the formidable band of Muspell's sons,
his fire-sword flashing more brightly than the sun itself.
In the battle with the yEsir he will slay Frey ; and after
the other gods have fallen, he will scatter his fire over
the world and burn it up. (Compare Seneca's descrip
tion of the destruction of the world, in his " Hercules
QEtastis," 1. 1102.)
See THORPE, "Northern Mytholosy," vol. i. ; KEYSER, "Reli
gion of the Northmen :" MAI.I.KT, "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii.
Fables XXXII. and XXXIII. ; PKTKRSKM, " Nordisk Mylhologi."
Sur'teel, (ROBERT,) an English antiquary and poet,
born at Durham in 1779. lie published a "History of
Durham," (about 1820.) Died in 1834.
Suruswuttee. See SARASWATL
Surville, sitR'veK, (MARGUKRITF. EL:EONORE CLO-
TILDE DE VALI.ON-CHALIS,) a French poetess, born
about 1405, was the author of a heroic poem entitled
" Lygdamir." Died about 1480.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Surya, soor'ya, the Sanscrit name of the Sun, re
garded as an important deity in the Hindoo mythology,
though much more so in the primeval ages than later,
when Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva claimed nearly all the
devotion of mankind. In the earlier Sanscrit writings
the Sun is often called Mitra. Surya is represented in
a human form, (but having four arms,) surrounded by
radiating flames and riding in a car drawn by seven
horses.
Su-sa'rI-on, [I,ovoa/>'ujv,] a Greek poet, to whom the
origin of the Athenian comedy is attributed, was born
in Megara, and lived about 575 B.C. He was the first
who employed metrical composition in comedy.
Suso, soo'zo, (HF.INRICH,) a celebrated mystic and
theologian, surnamed AMANDUS, was born at Constance,
Switzerland, about 1300. He entered the order of Do
minicans at an early age, and subsequently acquired a
high reputation as a preacher. He was the author of a
work entitled " Book of Eternal Wisdom," (" Horolo-
gium Sapiential Eternre,") and a "Dialogue on Truth."
They were translated into the principal European lan
guages, and obtained extensive popularity. Died in 1365.
Susruta, soos'roo-ta, or .Sushruta, stxjsh'roo-ta, a
Hindoo physician, supposed to have been one of the
earliest medical writers in India. The date and the
place of his birth are unknown. One of his works was
published in 1836 by the Asiatic Society of Calcutta.
Sussex, DUKE OF. See AUGUSTUS FREDERICK.
Siissmeyer, siis'mi'er, (FRAN/. XAVER,) a German
composer, born in 1766, became chapel-master at the
court of Vienna. He completed the parts of Mozart's
Requiem which the latter left unfinished. Died in 1803.
Sussmilch, soos'milK, (JoHAN.v PETER,) a German
Lutheran minister, born about 1706. He wrote on sta
tistics and population. Died in 1767.
Siiss-Oppenheimer, siis op'pen-hi'mer, a German
Jew, who rose to be minister of finance to Karl Alex
ander, Duke of Wiirtemberg. For his abuse of power
and many acts of oppression he was condemned to death,
and executed in 1738. His history forms the subject of
one of HaufTs popular novels.
Sustermans, siis'ter-mans, written also Subter-
mans, (JUSTUS,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in
1597. He resided in Florence, and became court painter
to the grand duke Cosimo II. de' Medici. His works,
which include portraits and historical pictures, are eulo
gized by Rubens. Died in 1681.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Sut'cliffe, (MATTHEW,) an English divine, born in
Devonshire, was the founder of a college at Chelsea, the
Fellows of which were required to assail the errors of
Romanism, Pelagianism, etc. Died in 1629.
Sutee or Suttee. See SATI.
Suterman. See SUAVIUS.
Suth'er-land, (ALEXANDER JOHN,) F.R.S., an Eng
lish physician, born about 1810. He became physician
to St. Luke's Hospital, London, and wrote several
treatises on insanity. Died in 1867.
Sutherland, (GEORGKGRANVII.LF.LEVESONGOWER,)
DUKE OF, an English peer and Liberal, born in 1786,
was a son of the first Duke of Sutherland. He married
a daughter of the Earl of Carlisle. He died in 1861,
leaving his title to his son.
Sutherland, (GEORGIANA HOWARD,) DUCHESS OF,
the wife of the preceding, born about 1806, was a
a, e, T, o, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, \\, V, short: a, e, i, p. obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; nftt; good; moon;
SUTTEE
2085
Stt'ARTZ
daughter of the Earl of Carlisle. She was distinguished
for beauty, talents, and beneficence. About 1846 she
became mistress of the robes to the queen. She em
ployed her influence against slavery. Died in October,
1868.
See an article in the "Atlantic Monthly" for February, 1869, by
MRS. STOWR.
Suttee. See SAT?.
Sut'ton, (AMOS,) an English missionary to Orissa,
India, was born in Kent in 1798. He translated the
Scriptures into the Oriya language, and also published
a dictionary, grammar, and other works in that tongue.
He wrote a "Narrative of the Mission to Orissa," and
several religious treatises. Died in 1854.
Sutton, (CHARLES MANNERS.) See CANTERBURY,
VISCOUNT.
Sut'tpn, (CHARLES MANNERS,) an English prelate,
born in 1755. He became Bishop of Norwich in 1792,
and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1805. Died in 1828.
His son became Viscount Canterbury.
Sutton, (Sir RICHARD,) an English lawyer, noted
as one of the founders and benefactors of Brazennose
College, Oxford. Died about 1524.
Sutton, (THOMAS,) an English merchant, born in
Lincolnshire in 1532, was the founder of a hospital for
the poor, known as the Charter-House, and which was
formerly the monastery of the Chartreux in Suffolk.
Died in 1611.
Sutzos. See SOUTZO.
Suvee, sii'va', (JOSEPH BENOIT,) a Flemish painter,
born at Bruges in 1743. He became director of the
French School of Art in Rome. Died in 1807.
Su-war'ow, or, more properly, Soo-vo'rof, written
also Souvorof, Suvorov, Souvarof, Suworow, and
Suwarrow, (ALEXANDER VASILIEVITCH,) surnamed
RVMNIKSKI, (rim-nik'skee,) a famous Russian general,
born in Finland in 1729, was of Swedish origin. His
father was a general of high rank. He served as lieu
tenant in the Seven Vears' war, 1755-63, and became a
colonel in 1763. Having obtained the rank of a general,
he distinguished himself in the war against the Turks
in 1774. He commanded in a war against the Turks
which began in 1787, and gained a victory on the river
Rymnik, (1789,) for which he .received the title of Count
Rymnikski. In 1794 he conquered the revolted Poles,
whom he treated with great barbarity, and for this ser
vice was raised to the rank of field-marshal. In 1799
he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian
and Austrian armies which opposed the French in Italy.
He defeated Macdonald on the Trebia in June, and
gained a victory over Joubert at the great battle of
Novi, in August, 1799. Soon after this event the army
was recalled, and Suwarow lost the favour of Paul I.
He died at Saint Petersburg in May, 1800. He was a
great favourite with the soldiers, and was probably the
ablest of all the Russian generals.
See ANTHING, "Versuch einer Kriegsgeschichte des Grafen
Suwarow," 3 vols., 1799. (English translation of the same;) DK
LAVEXNE, " Histoire de Souvarow," 1809 ; SERGE GLINKA, " Vie de
Souvarof," 1819; F. VON SCHMITT, "Suworow's Leben und Heer-
ziige," 2 vols., 1834; ASTAFIEF, "Souvenirs de Souvorof," 1856;
MAJOR-GENERAL J. MITCHELL, " Biographies of Eminent Soldiers
of the Last Four Centuries," 1865; "Sketch of Suwarrow and his
Last Campaign," by E. NEVIL MACREADY, 1851.
Suwarrow. See SUWAROW.
Suze, de la. See COLIGNI, DE, (HENRIETTE.)
Svanberg or Svansberg. See SWAN BERG.
Svartalfar. See ELVES.
Svartz. See SWARTZ.
Svedberg. See SWEDBERG.
Svedenborg. See SWEDEN I'.ORG.
Svetchine or Swetchine, svetch-en', (SOPHIA
SOYMONOF,) MADAME, a Russian lady and writer, born
at Moscow in 1782, became the wife of General Svetch
ine. She removed to Paris in 1818, joined the Roman
Catholic Church, and was distinguished for her piety
and talents. Died in Paris in 1857.
See M. DE FAI.LOL-X, " Madame de Swetchine, sa Vie et ses CEu-
vrcs," 2 vols., 1858 ; ERNEST NAVILLE, " Madame Svetchine," 1863
Swain, (CHARLES,) an English writer and engraver,
known as " the Manchester poet," was born in that
city in 1803. He published "Metrical Essays," (1828,)
•' Beauties of the Mind, "etc., (1831,) " Rhymes for Child-
hood," (1846,) "English Melodies," (1849,) and other
works, in prose and verse. His "Dryburgh Abbey," an
elegy on Sir Walter Scott, is particularly admired.
See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. xx.
Swain, (DAVID LOWRY,) an American jurist, born in
Buncombe county, North Carolina, in lobl. He was
elected Governor of the State in 1832, and in 1835 Ire-
came president of the University of North Carolina.
Died in 1868.
Swain'son, (WILLIAM,) an English naturalist and
voluminous writer, born at Liverpool in 1789. He visited
South America and the shores of the Mediterranean,
and made valuable collections of objects in natural his
tory. Among his principal works are his " Zoological
Illustrations, or Original Figures and Descriptions of
New, Rare, or Interesting Animals," (6 vols., 1820,)
"Exotic Conchology," (1821,) and a "Treatise on
Malacology," (1840.) He also contributed to Lardner's
"Cabinet Cyclopaedia" numerous treatises on natural
history, of which we may name " The Natural History
and Classification of Fishes, Amphibians," etc., (2 vols.,
1838-39,) and "On the Habits and Instincts of Animals,"
(1840.) He was likewise a contributor to the "Fauna
Boreali-Americana" of Sir John Richardson. Mr.
Swainson emigrated in 1841 to New Zealand, where he
died in 1855.
Swammerdam, swam'mer-dam', (JAN, or JOHN,) an
eminent Dutch naturalist, born at Amsterdam in Feb
ruary, 1637. He studied medicine at Leyden, but not with
a design to practise as a physician. He also passed some
years at Saumur and Paris in the study of anatomy and
entomology. In 1664 he discovered the valves of the
lymphatic vessels. He took the degree of doctor of medi
cine in 1667, and published in 1669 a "General History
of Insects," a work of great merit. He made several
discoveries in entomology, and was very skilful in the
dissection of insects. Among his works are a "Natural
History of Bees," (1673,) and "The Book of Nature, or
the Natural History of Insects," etc., ("Biblia Naturae,
seu Historia Insectorum in certas Classes redacta," 2
vols., 1737-38.) He destroyed his health by intense ap
plication, became melancholy, and diverted his attention
from science to religion. He entered into religious
fellowship with Antoinette Bourignon. Died at Am
sterdam in 1680.
See BOERWAAVE, "Life of Swammerdam," prefixed to the " Biblia
Naturas," 1737-38; CUVIER, "Histoire des Sciences naturelles;"
" Biographic Medicale ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Swanberg or Svanberg, svan'be'Rg, written also
Svansberg, (Jo.NS,) a Swedish mathematician, born in
the province of Westerbotten in 1771. In 1801, in con
junction with Oefverbom, he measured an arc of the
meridian in Lapland. Of this enterprise he published
an account which obtained a prize from the French
Institute. He became professor of mathematics at
Upsal in 1811, and published a "Theory of the Planets
and Comets," and other scientific works. Died in 1851.
Swanevelt, van, vin swa'neh-ve'lt', (HERMAN,) an
eminent Dutch landscape-painter, born at Woerden about
1620, was a pupil of Gerard Dow, and subsequently of
Claude Lorrain. His pictures are few in number, but
of great excellence. He died about 1690, at Rome,
where he had long resided. He also executed many
admirable etchings. He was surnamed THE HERMIT,
from his solitary habits.
Swar'ga, [modern Hindoo pron. swur'ga or swtirg,]
written also Swerga, in the Hindoo mythology, the
name of Indra's heaven or paradise, supposed to be
situated among the clouds in the sky, and regarded as
the abode of the inferior gods and deified mortals. (See
INDRA.)
Swartz or Svartz, swaRts, (OLAUS or OI.OF,) a Swed
ish botanist, born at Norrkoping in 1760. He studied at
Upsal, and subsequently travelled in Finland, Lapland,
the West Indies, and the western part of America,
bringing with him on his return a rich collection of plants.
He was soon after appointed professor of natural history
in the Medico-Chirurgical Institute at Stockholm. He
was also made a knight of the Polar Star, and received
other distinctions. Among his works we may name his
" Icones Plantarum Incognitarum," illustrating the rare
€ as k; 9 as r; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SWAYAMBHU
SWEDENBORG
plants of the West Indies, " Flora Incliae Occidentals,"
(1806, 3 vols., with plates,) and " Synopsis of the Ferns,"
("Synopsis Filicum," 1806.) He also wrote the text of
four volumes of the "Botany of Sweden," (" Svensk
Botanik,") and contributed to the "Transactions" of the
Linnasan Society, London, of which he was a member.
He died in 1818, having acquired the reputation of one
of the first botanists of his time. The genus Swart/.ia,
of the order Leguminosae, was named in his honour.
See WILKSTROEM, " Biographic iiber den Professor O. Swartz,"
1828.
Swayambhft, swl'am-b'hoo', or Swayambhuva,
swram-b'hoo'va, [from the Sanscrit nvdydm, "self," and
PM, to "exist,"] a Sanscrit term, signifying "self-exist
ent," and used in the Hindoo mythology as an epithet
of Brahm (the infinite eternal Being) and of Brahma.
It is also sometimes applied to the first Mann, (or
Menu,) in which case it may, perhaps, mean "born (or
son) of the Self-existent," ffhu signifying to "be born"
as well as to "exist." (See MANU.)
Swedberg, sw£d'be"Kg, written also Svedberg, QK.S-
PKR,) a Swedish theologian, father of the celebrated
Emanuel Swedenborg, was born near Fahlun in 1653.
He became professor of theology at Upsal in 1692, and
in 1702 was made Bishop of Skara by Charles XII. His
family was ennobled in 1719, under the name of Sweden
borg. He died in 1735, leaving a number of religious
and miscellaneous works.
See FAUI.CRANTZ, "Minneskrift bfver Biskopen Dr. Svedberg,"
1852.
Swe'd§n-borg, [Sw. pron. swn'den-boRg',] written
also Svedenborg, (originally Swid'berg,) (KM.\-
NUKI.,) a celebrated Swedish naturalist, mathematician,
and theosophist, was born at Stockholm on the 2gth of
January, 1688. His father, Jesper Swedberg, at that
time a chaplain of the army, became afterwards Bishop
of Skara. The family was ennobled by Queen Ulrica
in 1719, and the name was changed to Swedenborg.
Even in early childhood Emanuel appears to have given
indications of those peculiar powers for which he was
afterwards so distinguished. He says, in a letter to Dr.
Beyer, " From my fourth to my tenth year my thoughts
were constantly engrossed by reflections on God, on
salvation, and on the spiritual affections of man. I often
revealed things in my discourse which filled my parents
with astonishment, and made them declare at times that
certainly the angels spoke through my mouth." He
was educated at the University of Upsal, where, in his
twenty-second year, he took the degree of doctor of
philosophy. On leaving the university he set out on
his travels. He passed about a year in England ; he
then visited the chief cities of Holland, spent subse
quently a year in Paris and Versailles, and returned by
Hamburg and Greifswalde to his native country, after an
absence of more than four years. In early life Sweden-
borg's favourite pursuit was mathematics. About 1715-
16 he edited a scientific publication entitled " Dcedalus
Hyperboreus." The distinction which he had acquired
as a mathematician brought him to the notice of Charles
XII., who employed him in the construction of some of
his military works. In the siege of Fredericsliall, (1718,)
under the direction of Swedenborg, rolling-machines
were made by means of which two galleys, five large
boats, and a sloop were carried overland a distance of
fourteen miles. He had been appointed by Charles
XII., in 1716, assessor of the board of mines. In 1717
he published "An Introduction to Algebra," and " At
tempts to find the Longitude of Places by Lunar Obser
vations." Soon after he wrote several other works on
kindred subjects. Some of these have not been published.
In 1721 he again visited Holland, and while in that
country published (at Amsterdam) several small works,
chiefly on subjects connected with natural philosophy.
The following year he published at Leipsic "Miscel
laneous Observations connected with the Physical Sci
ences," (" Miscellanea Observata circa Res Naturales.")
All the above works give indications of a profound and
most original intellect. In 1733 he published at Leipsic
and Dresden his "Opera Philosophica et Mineralia,"
in 3 vols. fol., with numerous engravings. This work,
as its title indicates, is written in Latin. The first
volume in particular, entitled " Principin, or the First
Principles of Natural Things, being a New Attempt
towards a Philosophical Explanation of the Elementary
World," has attracted great attention. It is claimed by
Swedenborg's admirers that this publication anticipated
several of the most important discoveries of modern
science. Gorres, a distinguished German writer and
journalist, says of the " Principia," " It is a production
indicative of profound thought in all it.s parts, and not
unworthy of being placed by (he side of Newton's ' Ma
thematical Principia of Natural Philosophy.'" Sweden
borg's father died in 1735. The next year he again set
out on his travels, visiting Holland and France, and
afterwards Italy, where he passed rather more than a
year, five months being spent at Rome. He appears to
have returned to Sweden in 1740. In 1740-41 he pub
lished at Amsterdam his " Economy of the Animal
Kingdom," (" CEconomia Regni Animalis.") The "Ani
mal Kingdom," (" Regnum Animale,") which may be
said to be a continuation of the preceding work, appeared
in 1744-45, Pai"ts Olle anc' two being published at the
Hague, and part three in London. Swedenborg, refer
ring to the plan pursued in the foregoing works, says,
"The reader may see that the end I propose to myself in
the work ts a knmvledge of the soul, since this knowledge
will constitute the crmvn of my stitdiss." In one of his
manuscripts, also, he observes, " I have gone through
anatomy with the single end of investigating the soul."
Of the "Animal Kingdom," Emerson remarks, " It was
an anatomist's account of the human body in the highest
style of poetry. Nothing can exceed the bold and bril
liant treatment of a subject usually so dry and repulsive."
When Swedenborg reached the age ot fitty-seven, his
life took a new direction. 1 le no longer occupied himself
with the pursuit of physical science. He had, it appears,
in 1747, resigned his assessorship ; but, in consideration
of his long and faithful services, his full salary was con
tinued to him to the end of his life. Some time before
he had, as he believed, been brought into intimate com
munication with the spiritual world, and "the Lord him
self," as Swedenborg says in one of his letters, "granted
me the privilege of conversing with spirits and angels
which I enjoy to this day." No candid and intelligent
person who attentively peruses the writings of the
Swedish snge can doubt the perfect sincerity of his own
belief in his divine illumination. Nor can the random
assertion that he was a dreamer, or that he was insane,
be accepted as any satisfactory refutation of his claims.
As Tennemann well observes, in his "History of Phi
losophy," "If he must needs be mad, there is a rare
method in his madness. In vain will you ransack the
archives of his family or his personal history for any
trace of insanity." As probably few who are compe
tent to form an intelligent and impartial opinion would
be disposed to deny that Swedenborg was gifted with a
rare insight into the mysteries of external nature, so
it would seem almost impossible for any one, who will
allow unimpeachable testimony to prevail against preju
dice or skepticism, to doubt that he was endowed with
an extraordinary perception of some things not discern
ible by the' senses or mental faculties of the generality
of mankind. On Saturday, the 191)1 of July, 1759, Swe
denborg was at Gotienburg, (which is about three hun
dred English miles from Stockholm,) having recently
arrived from England. He was at the house of Mr.
Castel, with a party of fifteen persons. "At about six
o'clock P.M.," says Kant, the celebrated German phi
losopher, "Swedenborg went out, and, after a short
interval, returned to the company quite pale and
alarmed. He stated that a dangerous fire had broken
out in Stockholm, at Sundermalm, and that it was
spreading very fast. He was restless, and went out
often. He said that the house of one of his friends,
whom he named, was already in ashes, and that his own
was in danger. At eight o'clock, after he had been out
again, he joyfully exclaimed, 'Thank God! the fire is
extinguished the third door from my house.' . . . The
next morning Swedenborg was sent for by the governor,
who questioned him concerning the disaster. Sweden
rg described the fire precisely, — how it had begun, in
what manner it had ceased, and how long it had con-
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
SWEDENBORG
2087
SWETT
tinuerl. . . On Monday evening a messenger arrived
at Gotterrburg, who was despatched during the time of
the fire. In the letters brought by him the fire was de
scribed precisely in the manner stated by Swedenborg."
Kant states this on the authority of a friend of his, who,
he says, " has examined the circumstances of this extra
ordinary case, not only at Stockholm, but also at Gotten-
burg, where he is acquainted with the most respectable
houses, and where he could obtain the most authentic
and complete information, as the greatest part of the
inhabitants, who are still alive, were witnesses to the
memorable occurrence." It is proper to observe that
Kant was skeptically inclined respecting the extra
ordinary claims of Swedenborg; those, indeed, who are
acquainted with the character of that philosopher need
not be told that he, of all men, was one of the least likely
to give credence to any marvellous statement, unless it
were supported by evidence of the most unimpeachable
character.*
The first volume of Swedenborg's first theological
work, entitled the "Secrets or Mysteries of Heaven,"
("Arcana Ccelestia,") appeared in 1749. It was com
pleted in 1756, having extended toeight quarto volumes.
The work is an exposition of the books of Genesis and
Exodus, with intervening chapters describing the won
ders of the future world. In 1758 Swedenborg published
in London the following works : "An Account of the
Last Judgment and the Destruction of Babylon ; show
ing that all the Predictions in the Apocalypse are at
this day fulfilled, being a Relation of Things Heard and
Seen," "Concerning Heaven and its Wonders, and Con
cerning Hell, being a Relation of Things Heard and Seen,"
"On the White Horse mentioned in the Apocalypse,"
"On the Planets in our Solar System, and on those in
the Starry Heavens, with an Account of their Inhabitants
and of their Spirits and Angels," and "On the New
Jerusalem and its Heavenly Doctrine as revealed from
Heaven." In 1763 he published at Amsterdam "The
Doctrine of the New Jerusalem concerning the Lord,"
"The Sacred Scripture," "Faith," a "Continuation re
specting the Last Judgment and the Destruction of
Babylon," and "Angelic Wisdom concerning the Divine
Love and Divine Wisdom." He published at Amster
dam in 1766 an explanation of the book of Revelation,
entitled "The Apocalypse Revealed," (" Apocalypsis
Revelata;") a much more extensive work on the same
subject, written also in Latin, was published after his
death, in 1790; it was translated into English, and pub
lished in 1815 with the title of " Apocalypse Explained."
In 1768 he published at Amsterdam his treatise on " Con
jugal (Conjugial) Love," (" Amor Conjugialis,") in which
he teaches that the marriage relation exists in heaven
as well as on earth. In 1769 appeared at Amsterdam a
small work entitled a " Brief Exposition of the Doctrine
of the New Church," and in the same year, at London,
another little book, — "The Intercourse between the
Soul and the Body." He published in 1771, at Amster
dam, the last and one of the most important of his works,
— "The True Christian Religion," (" Vera Christiana
Religio,") which is in fact a system of universal theology
of the "New Church," (i.e. the Church introduced or
revealed by Swedenborg.)
Swedenborg died in London, from the effects of a
paralytic stroke, the agth of March, 1772, in the eighty-'
fifth year of his age. He was never married. In person
he was of a medium height ; his manners were dignified
and somewhat reserved ; his countenance mild and
pleasing. He had a slight impediment in his speech, in
consequence of which he talked slowly but very distinctly.
The views entertained of the theological doctrines of
Swedenborg, and of his ideas of a future life, will, of
course, vary according to the preconceived opinions or
the habits of thought of his readers ; but of his merits
as a writer on intellectual and moral subjects, several
competent and (as we have reason to believe) impartial
critics have spoken in terms of the highest praise.
" I have often thought," says Coleridge, " of writing a
work to be entitled 'Vindication of Great Men unjustly
branded ;' and at such times the names prominent to my
* See Kant's letter on this subject to the Fran von Knobloch.
mind's eye have been Giordano Bruno, Bbhmen, Spi
noza, and Swedenborg. Grant that the origin of the
Swedenborgian theology is a problem ; yet, on which
ever of the three possible hypotheses (possible, I mean, for
gentlemen, scholars, and Christians) it maybe solved, —
I, Swedenborg's own assertion and constant belief in the
hypothesis of a supernatural illumination ; or, 2, that
the great and excellent man was led into this belief by
becoming the subject of a very rare but not (it is said)
altogether unique conjunction of the somniative facul'y
with the voluntary and other powers of the waking state ;
or, 3, the modest suggestion that the first and second may
not be so incompatible as they appear, — still it is never
to be forgotten that the merit and value of Swedenborg's
system do only in a very secondary degree depend on any
one of the three. ... So much, even from a very partial
acquaintance with the works of Swedenborg, I may ven
ture to assert, that as a moralist he is above all praise,
and that as a naturalist, psychologist, and theologian he
has strong claims on the gratitude and admiration of the
professional and philosophical student." (See "Notes
on Noble's Appeal," in Coleridge's " Literary Remains.")
"There is," says Emerson, "an invariable method and
order in his delivery of his truth, the habitual proceed
ing of the mind from inmost to outmost. What earnest
ness and weightiness ! — his eye never roving, without one
swell of vanity or one look to self in any common form
of literary pride ! a theoretic or speculative man, but
whom no practical man in the universe could affect to
scorn." In another place he says, " Not every man
can read them, [his books,] but they will reward him
who can. . . . The grandeur of the topics makes the
grandeur of the style. . . . His writings would be a
sufficient library to a lonely and athletic student; and
the 'Economy of the Animal Kingdom' is one of those
books which, by the sustained dignity of thinking, is an
honour to the human race." But this high praise is
not bestowed without important qualifications. (See
" Swedenborg, or the Mystic," in " Representative Men.")
Professor von Gorres, already refer' id to in this article,
says of Swedenborg, " He was guided in his researches
by a mind clear, acutely analytic, endowed with skill, and
well disciplined in mathematics and logic."
Our limits will not permit us to attempt even an out
line of his theosophic system ; suffice it to say that what
seems to be the g/eat central idea in this system is the
doctrine of correspondences, according to which every
thing in the natural world is a correspondent or type
of something existing in the supernatural or spiritual
world.
It cannot be denied that Swedenborg's theosophy has
exerted an important influence upon many gifted minds
who are far from accepting all the details of his extra
ordinary revelations. This need surprise us the less
because " what appears as Swedenborg's crudities and
fantasies," to adopt the words of the Rev. E. H. Sears,
"are extraneous to his essential system." (See " Monthly
Religious Magazine" for March, 1865.)
See " Emamiel Swedenborg: his Life and Writings," by WILLIAM
WHITE, 2 vols. Svo, London, 1867, (pronounced by Henry James "by
far the best life of Swedenborg;" see " North American Review" for
[uly, 1867 ;) J. G. WILKINSON, " E. Swede nborg ; a Hiography, 1849 :
GOERRES, " E. Swedenborg," 1827; S. SANDELS, " Aminnelse-Tal
bfver E. Swedenborg," 1772; CARL F. RANZ, " E. Swedenborg, der
Nordische Seller," etc., 1841; EDWIN- I'. HOOD, "Swedenborg; a
Biography and Exposition," 1854; ELIHU RICH, "Biographical
Sketch of E. Swedenborg," 1849; BARRETT, " Life of E. Sweden
borg," 1842; TAFKL, " E. Swedenborg mid seine Gegner," 2 vols.,
1841 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1857, and June, 1868.
Sweerts, swaiUs, (EMMANUKI,,) a Belgian botanist,
born near Breda about 1552, published " Florilegium
Amplissimum et Selectissimum," (1612.)
Sweerts, (PIERRE FRANCOIS,) a Belgian historian,
born at Antwerp in 1567 ; died in 1629.
Swerga. See SWAKGA.
Swetchine, (Madame SOPHIA.) See SVETCHINE.
Swett, (JoHN APPLKTON,) M.D., an American phy
sician, born at Boston in 1808. He became in 1840
associate editor of the " New York Journal of Medicine,"
and in 1853 professor of the theory and practice of medi
cine in the University of the City of New York. He
published a "Treatise on Diseases of the Chest," (1852.)
Died in 1854.
« as k; 5 as s; g hard;g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
SWETN
2088
SWINBURNE
Sweyn,swan, [Lat. SUE'NO; Fr. SuENUN,su-a'n6.\',]
King of Denmark, obtained the throne about 986 A.D.
He began about 994 a series of piratical expeditions
against the Anglo-Saxons, and ravaged the coasts of
England. King Ethelred, unable to protect his realm
by arms, induced Svveyn to retire by paying him a large
sum of money. Sweyn soon returned, and obtained
possession of a great part of England. He died about
1014, and was succeeded by his son, Canute the Great.
Sweyii II., a grandson of the preceding, was born
about 1025, and became King of Denmark in 1047.
Died in 1076.
Sweynheym, swm'him, ( CONRAD, ) a German
printer, who, in conjunction with his friend Pannartz,
first introduced printing into Italy. Died about 1476.
Swieten, van, vtn swee'ten, (GEKAAKD,) an eminent
Dutch physician, born at Leyden in 1700. lie studied
medicine and chemistry under Boerhaave, and became
professor of medicine in his native city. Having been
obliged to resign this professorship on account of his
being a Catholic, he was appointed in 1745 first phy
sician to Maria Theresa of Austria. He was created by
the empress a baron of the empire, superintendent of
the Imperial Library, and perpetual president of the
medical faculty. His "Commentaries on the Aphorisms
of Hermann Boerhaave on the Diagnosis and Cure of
Diseases" ("Commentaria in H. Boerhaavii Aphorismos
de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis") is regarded as a
standard work.
Swift, (DEANE,) a relative of the celebrated writer,
noticed below, was the author of an "Essay on the Life,
Character, and Writings of Dr. Jonathan Swift," etc.,
(1755.) He published in 1765 an edition of the works
of Swift. Died in 1783.
Swift, (JONATHAN,) a celebrated humorist and
satirist, born in Dublin on the jOth of November, 1667,
was a son of Jonathan Swift, an English attorney, who
removed to Ireland, and died before the birth of the
subject of this article. He was educated at Trinity Col
lege, Dublin, (which he entered in 1682,) at the expense
of his uncle, Godwin Swift, for he inherited nothing from
his father. He graduated in 1685, and remained at
Trinity College until i6S8. About this date he entered
into the service of Sir William Temple, (a distant relative
of Swift's mother,) who employed him as secretary and
received him as an inmate in his family at Moor Park.
His salary was only twenty pounds a year. He obtained
the degree of M.A. at Oxford in 1692, after which he
took holy orders. Aspiring to a more independent
position, he left the service of Sir William Temple in
1694, and went to Ireland. He became prebendary of
Kilroot, but, having received an invitation from Sir
William, with promise of patronage, he returned to Moor
Park in 1695. He was treated as a friend by Temple,
who died in 1699 and left him a legacy. At Moor Park
he became acquainted with Esther Johnson, to whom
he gave the poetical name of " Stella." In 1699 or 1700
he was appointed rector of Agher and vicar of Laracor
in Ireland. At his invitation, Miss Johnson went in 1700
to reside at or near Laracor, expecting that Swift would
make her an offer of marriage. It appears that he did
not wish to marry, but was fond of her society, and
generally conversed with her in the presence of some
third person.
In 1701 he published a political tract, entitled "A
Discourse of the Contests and Dissensions between the
Nobles and Commons of Athens and Rome," which
procured for him the friendship of the Wrhig leaders,
Somers, Halifax, and Addison. He produced in 1704
his humorous and satirical "Tale of a Tub," (anony
mous,) and "The Battle of the Books." "The 'Tale of
a Tub,' " says Hallam, " is, in my apprehension, the mas
ter-piece of Swift : certainly Rabelais has nothing superior
even in invention, nor anything so condensed^so pointed,
so full of real meaning, of biting satire, of felicitous
analogy." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.")
Swift was often disappointed in his hopes of prefer
ment, and gradually turned from the Whig to the Tory
party. About 1708 he published a "Project for the
Advancement of Religion," which is said to be the only
work to which he ever put his name. During a visit to
London he wrote a series of letters to Miss John-son,
entitled " Journal to Stella." He edited the " Examiner,''
a weekly Tory paper, (from November, 1710, to June
14, 1711,) in which he displayed great talents for satire
and raillery in personal attacks on Godolphin, Sunder-
land, Marl borough, and others. He became very inti
mate with Harley, Earl of Oxford, with Lord Bolingbroke,
and with Pope, the poet. He advocated the cessation of
hostilities against Louis XIV., in an able tract on "The
Conduct of the Allies," (1712,) which had great success,
and efficiently promoted the peace of Utrecht, (1713.)
For this service he was rewarded with the place of Dean
of Saint Patrick's, Dublin, in 1713. He would probably
have obtained a bishopric if he had not written the " Tale
of a Tub," in which he exposed religious abuses, and
popery especially, with great freedom and even levity.
Though ill satisfied with his recent preferment, he went
to take possession of the deanery; but he remained only
a few weeks in Dublin. He returned to London, where
his presence was required to reconcile Oxford and Boling
broke ; but he failed in this attempt.
About 1713 he formed an acquaintance with Esther
Vanhomi igh, (" Vanessa,") who became fondly attached
to him, and is said to have made him a proposal of mar
riage, which he declined. On this subject he wrote a
poem entitled "Cadenus and Vanessa." In 1716 Swift
and Stella were privately married ; but they never lived
together or met except when others were present. She
presided at his table on public days, and attended him
during illness. She died in 1728. He produced in 1726
or 1727 his famous "Travels of Lemuel Gulliver," a
satirical romance, displaying great originality and wit.
In the latter part of his life he became morose, misan
thropic, and solitary. His memory and other faculties
tailed in 1741. He died in Dublin in October, 1745.
There was much paradox and inconsistency in Swift's
character. He is said to have given a large part of his
income to the poor, and he acquired great popularity
among the Irish, although he regarded them as aliens
and inferiors. Swift's style is remarkable for its direct
ness, simplicity, and perspicuity. In description, even
of the most commonplace things, his power is often
perfectly marvellous ; everything is presented to the
mind with a distinctness and vividness which remind
one of the works of the old Dutch painters. Macaulay
describes him at Moor Park as a " poor scholar, under
whose plain garb and ungainly deportment were con
cealed some of the choicest gifts that have ever been
bestowed on any of the children of men, — rare powers of
observation, brilliant wit, grotesque invention, humour
of the most austere flavour, yet exquisitely delicious,
eloquence singularly pure, manly, and perspicuous."
("History of England," vol. iv.)
See J. HAWKESWORTH, " Life of Jonathan Swift," 1755; T.
SHERIDAN, " Life ot" Swift," 1784; JOHNSON, "Lives of the English
Poets ;" SIR WALTER SCOTT, " Biographies of Eminent Novelists ;"
THACKERAY, " English Humorists ;" " Edinburgh Review," Sep
tember, 1816; DKANE SWIFT, " Essay on the Life and Character of
Swift," 1755 ; QUINTIN CRAUHURD, " Kssai historiqite sur le Docteur
Swift, "iSoS; CAMPBELL, " Specimens of the British Poets;" LORD
JEFFREY, "Essays;" " Swiftiana," London, 2 vols., 1804; CARL
NYREN, "J. Swift's Lefverne," 1760; W. RUSSELL, "Eccentric
Personages," 1864; H. REYNAI.D, " Biographie de J. Swift," 1860;
ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Swift, (JOSEPH GARDNER,) an American general and
engineer, born in Nantucket in 1783. He graduated at
the Military Academy at West Point, and was subse
quently made captain of engineers. He was appointed
in 1829 superintendent of the harbour improvements on
the lakes. He has published several scientific works.
Swift, (THEOPHILUS,) son of Deane Swift, noticed
above, was the author of poems entitled " The Gamblers"
and "The Temple of Folly," an " Essay on the Rise and
Progress of Rhyme," and other works. Died in 1815.
Swift, (ZiU'HANiAH,) an American jurist, born at
Wareham, Massachusetts, in 1759, was secretary of the
embassy to France in 1800, and in 1806 chief justice
of Connecticut. He published a " Treatise on Bills of
Exchange," and other legal works. Died in 1823.
Swinburne, swln'biirn, (ALGERNON CHARLES,) an
English poet, born near Henley-on-Thames in 1843.
He studied at Oxford, which .he quitted without a de
gree. He published, besides other works, " Atalanta
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
SWINBURNE
2089
in Calydon," (1864,) "Chastelarcl," a tragedy, (1865,)
"Poems and Ballads," (1866,) "Siena," a poem, (first
published in " Lippincott's Magazine," 1868,) and " Both-
well," a tragedy, (1870.)
See " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1866; " Eclectic Maga
zine" for November, 1866; ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Swinburne, (HENRY,) an English civilian and jurist,
born at York. He wrote on wills, etc. Died in 1624.
Swinburne, (HENRY,) an English traveller, born in
1752. He spent many years in visiting France, Spain,
Italy, and Sicily, and published " Travels through Spain
in 1775 and 1776," " Travels in the Two Sicilies," and a
correspondence entitled the "Courts of Europe at the
Close of the Last Century," (1841.) Died in 1803.
See the " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1841.
Swin'den, (TOBIAS,) an English divine, wrote a
work entitled "An Inquiry into the Nature and Place
of Hell." Died in 1720.
Swinden, van, vitn swin'den, (JAN HENDRIK,) a
Dutch philosopher and mathematician, born at the
Hague in 1746. He became in 1785 professor of physics
and astronomy at Amsterdam. He was a corresponding
member of the French Institute and of other learned
societies, and filled several important offices under the
government. Among his principal works are a " Dis
sertation on the Analogy between Electricity and Mag
netism," and a "Treatise on Weights and Measures,"
(1802.) Died in 1823.
See G. MOLL, " Redevoering over J. H. van Swinden," 1824.
Swin'nock, (GEORGE,) an English nonconformist
minister, born at Maidstone. He wrote several religious
works. Died in 1673.
Swin'ton, (JOHN,) a learned English divine, born in
Cheshire in 1703. He became keeper of the archives
at Oxford, and published several treatises on Roman
and Phoenician antiquities. He was also a contributor
to the "Universal History." Died in 1777.
Swith'in, SAINT, an English prelate, was chaplain
to King Egbert, and preceptor to his son Ethelwolf. He
was afterwards tutor to Prince Alfred, and in 852 was
made Bishop of Winchester. Died in 862.
Swoboda, swo-bo'da, ( WF.NZEL ALOYS,) a Bohemian
litterateur, born in 1781, published tales, novels, and
treatises on music. He also translated Seneca's dramas
into German. Died in 1849.
Swurg or Swurga. See SWARGA.
Sy-a'gri-us, SAINT, an influential French ecclesiastic,
born at Autun (Augustodunum) about 520 A.D. He
became Bishop of Autun about 560. Died in 600.
Sybrecht, (JAN.) See SIBRECHT.
Sydenham, sld'en-ain, (CHARLES EDWARD POULETT
THOMPSON,) LORD, an English Whig statesman, born
in Surrey in 1799, was a merchant in his youth. He
was elected to Parliament for Dover in 1826, and again
in 1830. His superior talents for business procured for
him a rapid promotion. He became president of the
board of trade in June, 1834, and a member, of the cabi
net in 1835. He represented Manchester in Parliament
from 1832 till 1839, was appointed Governor-General
of Canada in 1839, and raised to the peerage, as Baron
Syclenham, in 1840. Died in Canada in September, 1841.
See SCROPE, "Life of Lord Sydenham," 1843: "Westminster
Review" for December, 1843 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for August,
i«43-
Sydeuham, (FLOYER,) an English scholar, born in
1710. He published an excellent translation of the
principal part of the works of Plato, but, having be
come embarrassed, he was imprisoned for debt, knd
died in 1787. This melancholy event gave rise to the
establishment of the Literary Fund for the relief of in
digent and deserving writers. Sydenham also published
"Onomasticon Theologicum ; or, An Essay on the
Divine Names, according to the Platonic Philosophy,"
and a " Dissertation on the Doctrine of Heraclitus,"
etc., (I775-)
Sydeuham, (THOMAS,) a celebrated English physi
cian, sometimes called "the English Hippocrates," was
born in Dorsetshire in 1624. He entered Magdalene
Hall, Oxford, as a commoner in 1642, and took the
degree of bachelor of physic in 1648. Having subse
quently graduated as doctor of medicine at Cambridge,
he settled in London about 1660. In 1663 he was ad
mitted as a licentiate of the College of Physicians, the
majority of whom, it is said, were hostile to him. He
rose rapidly to the foremost rank in his profession, and
enjoyed the friendship of Locke and Boyle. In 1666
he published a "Treatise on Fevers." He discovered
the efficacy of a cool regimen in smallpox, by which dis
covery he saved many thousand lives. He wrote several
short medical treatises, which were published collectively
with the title of "Opera Omnia Medica," (1685,) and
have been often reprinted. The best edition is that
entitled "Opera Medica," published at Geneva, (2 vols.
4to, 1716.) In the latter years of his life he suffered
much from the gout. Died in December, 1689. " His
skill in physic," says Dr. Johnson, "was not his highest
excellence ; his whole character was amiable : his chief
view was the benefit of mankind, and the chief motive
of his actions, the will of God, whom he mentions with
a reverence well becoming the most enlightened and
most penetrating mind."
See JOHNSON, "Life of Sydenliam," 1742; PKUNELLE, "Notice
sur la Vie de Sydenliam," 1816; K. JAHN. "Sydenham; Beitrag
zur wissenscliaftlichen Medicin," 1X40; GOKDEN, " T. Sydenham,"
1827; " Encyclopedia Britannica ;" "Lives of the British Phy
sicians," London, 1857; " Biographia Britannica."
Sydney, (Sir PHILIP.) See SIDNEY.
Sykes, siks, (ARTHUR ASHLEY,) an English divine,
born in London about 1684, rose through several prefer
ments to be prebendary of Winchester. He was the
author of an " Essay on the Truth of the Christian
Religion," etc., and other works. Died in 1756.
See DISNEY, " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of A. A. Sykes."
Sykes, (GEORGE,) an American general, born in
Delaware or Maryland about 1824, graduated at West
Point in 1842. He commanded a division at Gaines's
Mill, June 27, 1862, and a corps at the battle of Gettys
burg, July 1-3, 1863.
Syiburg, sil'booKG, [Lat. SYLBUR'GIUS,] (FRIED-
RICH,) a German scholar, born near Marburg in 1536.
He studied Greek at Jena, and subsequently entered
into a connection with the printer Jerome Commelin,
at Heidelberg, as director of the printing of the Greek
and Latin classics. He published editions of Pausa-
nias, Aristotle, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Zosimus,
Justin Martyr, and other ancient writers. He also
contributed to the " Thesaurus" of Henry Stephens.
Syiburg was one of the greatest scholars of his time,
and his editions of the classics have perhaps never been
surpassed in critical accuracy. Died in 1596.
See J. G. JUNG, " Lebensbesclireibinig F. Sy'.burg's," 1745: M.
ADAM, "Vitas Phi'osophorum ;" FABKICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graeca."
Sylburgius. See SYLBURG.
Sylla. See SULLA.
Sylvanus. See SILVANUS.
Sylverius. See SILVKRIUS.
Syl-ves'ter, [Fr. SILVESTRE, sel'vSstR'; It. SILVES-
TRO, sel-veVtRo,] SAINT, was elected Pope of Rome
in 314 A.D. Under his pontificate the celebrated Coun
cil of Nice was assembled (325) and the Arian heresy
was first promulgated. Died in 335.
See MRS. JAMESON, " Histoiy of Sacred and Legendary Art."
Sylvester II. succeeded Gregory V. as Pope of
Rome in 999 A.D. His original name was GERBERT,
and he was a native of Auvergne. He was distinguished
for his attainments in mathematics and philosophy, and
made several valuable discoveries. He died in 1003,
leaving a number of scientific treatises.
Sylvester III., ANTI-POPE, was raised to the pon
tificate in 1013, in opposition to Benedict IX., but after
a short time he was deposed.
Syl-ves'ter, (JOSHUA,) an English Puritan writer,
born in 1563, was the author of a poem entitled "To
bacco Battered and the Pipes Shattered by a Volley of
Holy Shot ^Thundered from Mount Helicon." He made
several translations from the French. Died in 1618.
Sylvester, (MATTHEW,) an English nonconformist
minister, was ejected about 1662, after which he preached
in London. He edited Baxter's " History of his Life
and Times." Died in 1708.
Sylvius, the Latin of DUBOIS, (which see.)
Sylvius, (/ENEAS.) See Pius II.
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (J^f^See Explanations, p. 23.)
srirws
2090
SZIGLIGETI
Sylvius, sll've-us, (FRANZ,) a German physician,
originally named LE BOB, born at Hanau in 1614. He
became professor of medicine at Leyden, where he died
in 1672. He published several medical works, in Latin.
Sylvius, sil've-us, (LAMBERT,) or Van den Bosch,
vfn den bosk, a Dutch writer, born at Dort in 1610.
He wrote histories, poems, etc. Died in 1688.
Syme, (JAMES,) an eminent Scottish surgeon and phy
sician, born in Fifeshire about 1800. He was a pupil
of Robert Liston, at Edinburgh. He gained a high
reputation as an operator and as a writer on surgery.
About 1833 he became professor of clinical surgery in
the University of Edinburgh. Among his works are a
"Treatise on the Excision of Diseased Joints," (1831,)
"Principles of Surgery," (1832,) and a "Treatise on
Diseases of the Rectum," (1838-46.)
Synies, simz, (MICHAEL,) an English officer and di
plomatist, was ambassador to the Burmese court in 1795,
and published, after his return, his "Embassy to the
Kingdom of Ava." Died in 1809.
Sym'ing-ton, (W.,) a Scottish theologian, born in
1795. He was a professor of theology of the Re
formed Presbyterian Church, and lived in Glasgow. He
published works entitled "The Atonement and Interces
sion of Christ," and "Mediatorial Dominion of Christ."
Died in Glasgow in January, 1862.
Sym'ma-ehus, [Gr. ^Aftpajgof ; Fr. SYMMAQUE, se'-
mtk',] surnamed THE SAMARITAN, is supposed to have
flourished about 200 A.I>. Having been converted to
Christianity, he made a translation of the Old Testament
into Greek, which has been highly commended for the
grace and perspicuity of its style.
Symmachus, (CcELius,) born in Sardinia, succeeded
Anastasius II. as Pope of Rome in 498 A.I). Died in 514.
Symmachus, (QuiNTUS AUREI.IUS,) a Roman orator
and statesman, lie became successively proconsul of
Africa, prefect of Rome, (384,) and consul, (391 A.D.)
He was a zealous defender of paganism, and laboured
earnestly to prevent its downfall. Died about 410.
Among his extant works are ten books of letters, which
contain a great deal of interesting and valuable infor
mation. He is said to have been a man of great ability
and learning. Fragments of his orations have been pub
lished by Angelo Mai.
See FABKICIUS, " Bibliotheca I.atina :" ANC;EI.O MAI, " Com-
mentarii Prxvii de Syminaclio ;" K. MORIN, " Etude sur la Vie de
Symmaque," 1847; " Nouvelle Biographic G£n£rale."
Symmaque. See SYMMACHUS.
Symmes, simz, (Jon.\ CLEVKS,) an American soldier,
born in New Jersey about 1780, is chiefly known as the
advocate of a theory representing the earth as hollow,
open at the poles, and habitable within. He wrote
several treatises on the subject, but made very few
converts. Died in 1829.
Sym'mons, (CHARLES,) M.D., born at Cardigan,
Wales, in 1749, was the author of a "Life of Milton,"
and dramatic poems entitled "Inez" and " Constantia."
Died in 1826.
Sy'monds, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English rear-admiral
and naval architect, born in 1782. He made improve
ments in the construction of ships, and was surveyor of
the navy from 1832 to 1847. Died in 1856.
Sy'mons, (JELINGER C.,) an English writer and phi
lanthropist, born in 1809 or 1810. He wrote on educa
tion and social reform. Died in 1860.
Syn, sin, or Synia, sin'e-a, [perhaps from syn,
"sight," and so named on account of her watchfulness
and sagacity,] a goddess in the Norse mythology, the
portress of the hall or palace of Odin, and also the
patron of those who in a lawsuit are in danger of being
injured by false testimony.
Syii-cel'lus, [Gr. Ify/ce/Aoc; ; Fr. LE SYNCELLE, leh
B&N's&l',] (GEORGE,) a Greek monk and chronicler of the
eighth century, was the author of a " Chronography," or
chronological history of the world from the creation to
the time of Diocletian.
Synesius, st-nee'she-us, [Gr. liVveaios,} a celebrated
Neo- Platonic philosopher, was born at Gyrene, in Africa,
in 378 A.D. He was a disciple of Hypatia at Alexandria ;
but he was afterwards converted to Christianity, and
became Bishop of Ptolemais in 410 A.D. He was the
author of a treatise " On Dreams," " Dion, or on Self-
Discipline," a large collection of letters, and several
hymns and epigrams. His works are admired for the
style and other merits. Died about 430.
See CLAUSKN, "De Synesio Philosopho," 1831; DROUON,
" fitude sur la Vie et les CEuvres de Synesius," 1859: B. KOLBK,
"])er BischofSynesiusvon Cyreneals Pliysiker," 1850 ; TII.LKMONT,
" Memoires ecclesiastiques ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Synesius, a Greek writer on medicine, the date of
whose birth is unknown. His "Treatise on Fevers," a
translation from the Arabic of Ibnu'l-Jezzar, is his only
extant work.
Synge, slnj, (EDWARD,) born at Cork, in Ireland, in
1659, rose to be Archbishop of Tuam. He was the
author of several religious works. Died in 1741.
Syn'tl-pas, the Greek form of the name of Seude-
bad, seVdeh-bid', a Hindoo or Persian philosopher, to
whom is ascribed a collection of tales and apologues
which were translated into Greek by Michael Andreo-
poulos. These tales were published by Boissonnade
in 1828.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Sy'phax, [Gr. 2t'0aj,] a king of Numidia, made an
alliance with the Romans in 213 it.c., after which he
waged war against Masinissa. About the year 204 he
became an ally of Carthage in the second Punic war.
He was defeated by Scipio in 203 is.C., and was taken
as a prisoner to Rome. Died about 201.
See Livv, " History of Rome."
Syr-i-a'iius, [Gr. Zvpiavii^,] a Greek philosopher of
the Neo- Platonic school, was born at Alexandria or
Gaza. He succeeded Plutarchus as the head of the
Neo-Platonic school at Athens. Among his disciples
was the celebrated Proclus, who expressed a very high
opinion of Syrianus. lie wrote several works, which
are lost, and a "Commentary on the Metaphysics of
Aristotle," which is extant. Died about 450 A.D.
See RITTER, " History of Philosophy ;" FABKICIUS, " Bibliotheca
Graca."
Syr-o-pu'lus, (SYLVESTER,) an ecclesiastic of the
Greek Church, and resident of Constantinople in the
fifteenth century, was the author of a " History of the
Council of Florence."
Syrus. See PUHLIUS SYRUS.
Szabo, sa'bo, ( DAVID,) a Transylvanian poet, born
in 1739, made a translation of Milton's " Paradise Lost"
and of Virgil's " /Eneid," and published a poem entitled
a " Description of Rural Life." Died in 1819.
Szalay, soh'loi, (LADISI.AUS,) a Hungarian writer,
born at Buda in 1813, succeeded Kossuth in 1844 as
editor of the " Pesti Hirlap." Among his principal
works are a "History of Hungary," " The Book of
Statesmen," (1847,) and " Publicistic Writings," (1847.)
Died in 1864.
Szalkai, sol'kl, (ANTHONY,) a Hungarian dramatic
poet of the eighteenth century. His " Pikko Hertzeg"
is said to have been the first regular drama in the Hun
garian language. Died in 1804.
Szechenyi, sa'KSn-ye, (STEPHEN,) COUNT, a Hun
garian nobleman, eminent for his public spirit, was horn
at Vienna in 1792. He was a liberal patron of learning
and promoter of rural economy. He was a pioneer in
the navigation of the Danube by steam. In politics he
opposed the measures of Kossuth which produced or
preceded the revolution of 1848. Died in 1860.
Szegedi, sa'gSd-e, (JoHN BAPTIST,) a Hungarian
Jesuit, born at Eisenstadt in 1699. He published seve
ral works on Hungarian history and laws. Died in 1760.
Sze-ma-Kwaiig. See SSK-MA-KWANG.
Sze-ma-Tsieii. See SSE-M A-Tsi EN.
Szernere, sa'meh-ra, (BARTHOLOMEW,) a Hungarian
patriot and statesman, born in the county of Borsod in
1812. Having previously filled several important offices
under the government, he became in 1849 president of
the new ministry. After Gorgey became dictator, Sze-
mere took up his residence in Paris, where he published
a number of political treatises. Died in 1865.
Szigligeti, sig'le-ga-te, (JOSEPH,) a distinguished
Hungarian dramatist, born at Grosswardein in 1814. lie
has published, among other plays, "The Travelling
Actor," and "Crown and Sword."
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; nftt; good; moon;
TABARAUD
2091
T 'A 'FUR I
T.
Tabaraud, ti'bi'rS', (MATHIEU MATHURIN,) a
French Jansenist priest and writer, born at Limoges in
1744. He wrote " Histoire de Pierre de Be'rulle," (2
vols., 1817,) and many controversial works, among which
is an "Essay on the State of the Jesuits in France,"
(1828.) Died in 1832.
See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Tabaree or Tabari, (Aboo- (Abu-) Jaafar-Mo-
hammed, d'lxx) ja/a-far mo-ham'med,) an eminent Arab
historian, born in Tabaristan in 839 A.D. He was the
author of a "Universal History from the Creation 10314
A.D.," a "Commentary on the Koran," and other works.
Tabari. See TAHAREE.
Tabarrani, ta-bar-ra'nee, (P.,) an Italian physician,
born near Lucca in 1702. He was professor of medicine
at Rome and Padua, and published " Observationes
Anatomicae," (1753.) Died in 1779.
Tabernaemontanus, ta-bei<'na-mon-ta'nus, (JACO-
isus THEODORUS,) a physician and naturalist, born at
Berg-Zabern, in Alsace, about 1520. His principal work
is entitled a "New Complete Herbal," ("X'eue volkom-
men Krauterbuch,") which was highly esteemed in his
time. Died in 1590.
Tabor, ta'bor, (JoiiANN OTHO,) a German jurist,
born at Bautzen in 1604; died in 1674.
Tabouet, tt'boo-i', [Lat. TAI!OE'TIUS,] (JuLiEN,) a
French jurist and historian, born near Le Mans about
1500. He was banished in 1556 for an alleged official
misdemeanour. Died in 1562.
Tabourot, tt'boo'ro', (ETIENNE,) a French lawyer
and humorous writer, called the " Seigneur des Accords,"
was born at Dijon in 1547. He published a collection
of facetious poems entitled " Les Bigarrures et Touches
du Seigneur des Accords," etc., (1572.) Died in 1590.
See ABKI. JEANDET, "Tabourot Seigneur des Accords," 1861.
Tabreezee or Tabrizi, ta-bree'zee, (Aboo- (Abu-)
Zacharia-Yahia, a'boo za-Ka-ree'a yah'he-a,) an Arab
grammarian and critical writer, was professor at Bagdad.
Tabrizi. See TABREEZEE.
Tacca, tak'ka, (PIETRO GIACOMO,) an Italian sculptor,
was a pupil of John of Bologna. Died in 1640.
Taccoli, tik'ko-lee, (XiccoiA) COUNT, an Italian
historian, bom at Reggio in 1690; died in 1768.
Tac-fa-ri'nas, a Numidian, who, during the reign of
Tiberius, took arms against the Romans, about 18 A.D.
He gained some victories, but was defeated and killed
in 24 A.D.
Tachard, tt'shiR', (Gui,) a French Jesuit and mis
sionary to Siam in 1685, published, after his return, an
account of his travels, (2 vols., 1689.) Died in 1711.
Tacite. See TACITUS.
Tacito. See TACITUS.
Tag'I-tus, [Fr. TACITE, ti'set'; It. TACITO, ta'che-to,]
(CAlus CORNELIUS,) a celebrated Roman historian, was
born about 55 A.D. The events of his early life have
not been recordVd. He entered the public service in
the reign of Vespasian, and married a daughter of C.
Julius Agricola, the famous general, in 78 A.D. He was
an intimate friend of Pliny the Younger, from whose
letters we derive a large part of the knowledge which
we have of his life. In the year 88 he obtained the
office of praetor. He was one of the most eloquent
orators of his time. In the reign of Nerva he became
consul, 97 A.D., and about the same date he wrote his
work on Germany, — "On the Situation, Customs, etc.
of Germany," (" De Situ, Moribus et Populis Germaniae.")
Tacitus and Pliny conducted the prosecution against
Marius Priscus, who was convicted of cruelty and other
crimes in 100 A.D.
Among his earlier works is a "Life of Agricola,"
which is much admired. After the death of XTerva, he
wrote "The Histories," (" Historiarum Libri XIV.,")
which treat of the period from 68 to 96 A.D. This work
is lost, except the first five books. His reputation is
chiefly founded on his " Annals," (" Annales,") in sixteen
books, which record the history of the Roman empire from
the death of Augustus, 14 A.D., to the death of Xero, 68
A.D. This excellent work is extant, except the seventh,
eighth, ninth, and tenth books, and parts of three other
books. His " Annals" were completed about 116 A.D.
The date of his death is not known. He was a Stoic in
philosophy, and probably knew nothing of Christianity.
According to Gibbon, "he was the first historian who
applied the science of philosophy to the study of facts."
(" History," vol. i. 225.) He displays profound insight
into the motives of human conduct and the dark recesses
of character. His style is eminently concise and vigorous.
"Of the Latin historians," says Macaulay, "Tacitus
was certainly the greatest. His style, indeed, is not only
faulty in itself, but is in some respects peculiarly unfit
for historical composition. . . . He tells a fine story
finely, but he cannot tell a plain story plainly. He stim
ulates till all stimulants lose their power. ... In the
delineation of character, Tacitus is unrivalled among
historians, and has very few superiors among dramatists
and novelists." (Essay on " History," published in the
"Edinburgh Review," 1828.)
"Tacitus," says F. W. Farrar, "towered like a giant
above all his contemporaries, isolated and unapproach
able. . . . The little we know of his private life is in
perfect accordance with the noble standard of his re
corded sentiments." ("Encyclopaedia Britannica.")
See BOTTICIIEK, '• De Vita. Scriptis ac Slilo Taciii," 1834; SIE-
VERS, "Tactus und Tiberius," 1850; Di'Bois-GucHAN, "Tacite et
son Siecle," 2 vols., 1857; BAVLK, "Historical and Critical Dic
tionary ;" D. W. MOLI.EK, " Disputatio de C. C. Tacito," 1686;
MAI.VEZZI, "Discorsi sopra Tacito," 1622; "Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Tacitus, (MARCUS CLAUDIUS,) Emperor of Rome,
was elected to succeed Aurelian in 275 A.D. He was
distinguished for the wisdom and energy of his admin
istration. He defeated the Scythians, who had invaded
Pontus, but he soon after died (276) of a fever, (though
one account says he fell a victim to a conspiracy and
was assassinated,) having reigned about eight months.
Taconnet, tt'ko'ni', (TousSAINTGASPARD,) a French
actor and dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1730; died
in 1774.
Tacquet, tt'ki', (ANDREW,) a learned Flemish Jesuit,
born at Antwerp in 1611, became professor of mathe
matics in his native city. He was the author of several
mathematical works, in Latin. Died in 1660.
Tadda, del. See FERRUCCI, (FRANCESCO.)
Tadino, ta-dee'no, (GAHKIEI.,) an Italian general,
born near Bergamo about 1480. He fought for the Ve
netians against the League of Cambray, and became
grand master of the artillery of Charles V. Died in 1543.
Tadolini, ta-do-lee'nee, (ADAMO,) an Italian sculp
tor, born at Bologna in 1789, was a pupil of Canova.
His statue of Saint Francis de Sales is highly praised.
Tadolini, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian composer, born at
Bologna in 1793. He composed successful operas,
among which were " II Tamerlano" and " Almanzor."
Tafel, ta'fel, (GOTTLIEB LUCAS FRIEDRICH,) a German
scholar and antiquary, born in 1787; diedatUlmin 1860.
Tafel, (JoHANN FRIEDRICH IMMANUEL,) a distin
guished German Swedenborgian, was born at Sulzbach,
in Wiirtemberg, in 1796. He became librarian of the
University at Tiibingen, translated several of Sweden-
borg's works into German, and wrote, besides many
other works, " Swedenborg and his Opponents," (" Swe-
denborg und seine Gegner," 2 vols., 1841.) Died at
Rogaz, in Switzerland, in 1862.
See C. DO BERG, " Leben und Wirken von Dr. J. F. Immanuel
Tafel," Wismar, 1864.
Taffl, taf'fee, (ANDREA,) a Florentine artist, born in
1213, was the first to introduce the art of painting in
mosaic into Italy. Died in 1294.
Tafuri, ti-foo'ree, (G. B.,) an Italian writer, born at
Xardo in 1695. He published, besides other works, an
" Account of the Writers born in the Kingdom of
Naples," (9 vols., 1744-70.) Died in 1760.
•e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g z&j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
T A FUR I
2092
TALBOT
Tafuri, (MATTEO,) called MATTH/EUS SOLETA'NUS, an
Italian philosopher and physician, born at Soleto in
1492. He wrote on theology, medicine, astronomy, etc.
Died about 1585.
Ta'ges, [Fr. TAGES, tt'zheV,] an Etrurian genius or
mythical personage, who is said to have issued from a
clod of earth, and is represented as a boy with the wis
dom of an old man. He is said to ha%'e taught the art
of predicting the future by the inspection of the entrails
of victims.
Tagesen. See TAUSSEN.
Tagliacarne, tal-ya-kak'na, (BENEDETTO,) called
THEOCRE'NUS, [Fr. THEOCRENE, ta'o'kR&n',] an Italian
litterateur and poet, born at Sarzana about 1480. He
removed to France, obtained the favour of Francis I.,
and was appointed Bishop of Grasse in 1533. Died
in 1536.
Tagliacozio. See TAGLIACOZZI.
Tagliacozzi, tal-ya-kot'see, or Tagliacozio, tal-ya-
kot'se-o, [Lat. TALIAO/TIUS,] (GASPARO,) an eminent
Italian surgeon, born at Bologna in 1546. He became
professor of anatomy and surgery in his native city,
where he enjoyed a high reputation as a lecturer ; but his
fame rests chiefly on his skill in restoring lost features,
particularly noses. He published several surgical works,
in Latin. His method of forming the nose has been
called the "Taliacotian process." Died in 1599.
See "Biographic Medicale;" FANTUZZI, "Scriltori Bolognesi."
Taglioni, tal-yo'nee, (MARIE,) a celebrated opera-
dancer, born in 1804 at Stockholm, where her father,
Filippo Taglioni, held the post of ballet-master. She
performed with brilliant success in Paris, London, and
the other principal cities of Europe. In 1832 she was
married to Count Gilbert de Voisins, and in 1847 retired
from the stage, having amassed a large fortune. Her
brother, Paul Taglioni, born at Vienna in 1808, became
royal ballet-master in London, and composed a number
of ballets.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tahureau, tt'ii'rS', (JACQUES,) a French poet, born
at Mans in 1527 ; died in 1555.
Taillandier, ti'yS.N'deJt', (AI.PHONSE HONORE,) a
French publicist and lawyer, born in Paris in 1797. He
was a Liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies in
the reign of Louis Philippe. He published several works
on legislation and penal laws, and contributed to the
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Taillandier, (CHARLES Louis,) a learned French
Benedictine monk and writer, was born at Arras in 1705 ;
died in 1786.
Taillandier, (RENE GASPARD ERNEST,) a French
philosopher and critic, born in Paris in 1817. He
studied in Paris, and subsequently at Heidelberg, and
was appointed in 1843 profesSor of French literature at
Montpellier. He published, among other works, a treat
ise " On Erigena the Scot, and the Scholastic Philos
ophy," (1843,) a " History of Young Germany," (1848,)
and " Maurice de Saxe," (2 vols., 1865.) He has been a
frequent contributor to the " Revue des Deux Mondes."
Taillasson, ti'yf'siN', (JEAN JOSEPH,) a skilful
French historical painter and litterateur, born near Bor
deaux in 1746, was a pupil of Vien. He was admitted
into the Academy of Painting jn 1784. Died in 1809.
Taillepied, tjft'pe-i' or ti'ye-pejl', (NoEL,) a French
biographer and antiquary, born near Rouen about 1540.
He published, besides other works, a " Life of Luther,"
(1577,) and a " History of the State and Republic of the
Druids," etc., (1585.) Died in 1589.
Taine, tin, (HiPPOLYTE ADOLPHF.,) a French litte
rateur, born at Vouziers in 1828.' He has published,
besides other works, an " Essay on Titus Livius," (1854,)
"The French Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century,"
(1856,) and a " History of English Literature," (4 vols.,
1864.) In 1864 he was chosen to teach aesthetics and
the history of art in the New School of Fine Arts.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale;" "Westminster Review"
for April, 1866.
Tai-Ping-Wang. See TIEN-TE.
Taisand, ti'zdN', (PIERRE,) a French jurist, born at
Dijon in 1644. He wrote " The Lives of the Most Cele
brated Jurists of all Nations," (in French, 1721.) Died
in 1715.
Tait, (ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL,) a British prelate, born
in Edinburgh in 1811. He was educated at Oxford,
where he opposed the Tractarian principles and gradu
ated about 1836. He succeeded Dr. Arnold as head
master of Rugby School in 1842, was appointed Dean of
Carlisle in 1850, Bishop of London in 1856, and Arch
bishop of Canterbury in November, 1868. Among his
works is "The Dangers and Safeguards of Theology."
Talachon. See TAI.OCHON.
Talbert, taTbaiR', (FRANCOIS XAVIER,) a French
writer and ecclesiastic, born at Besai^on in 1728, pub
lished eulogies on Bossuet, Montaigne, and other emi
nent men ; also several poems. Died in 1803.
Tal'bpt, (CATHERINE,) an English writer, grand
daughter of the Bishop of Durham, was born in 1720.
She was the author of " Reflections on the Seven Days
of the Week," " Letters to a Friend on a Future State',"
"Essays on Various Subjects," "Dialogues," "Pas
torals," and " Poems." She is also said to have con
tributed to the " Athenian Letters," and to have written
the thirtieth number of "The Rambler." She was an
intimate friend of Mrs. Elizabeth Carter. Died in 1770.
See PKNNINCTON, "Life of C. Talbot ;" DRAKE, "Essays:"
MKS. Er.wooo, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from
the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. i. ; "Month'y Re
view" for April, 1772.
Talbot, (CHARLES.) See SHREWSBURY, DUKE OF.
Talbot, (CHARLES,) an eminent English jurist, born
in 1684, was a son of W. Talbot, Bishop of Durham.
He practised law with great success, and acquired a
high reputation as an eloquent debater in Parliament.
In 1733 he became lord chancellor of England, and was
created Baron Talbot. According to Lord Campbell,
"he was without an accuser, without an enemy, without
a detractor, without any one, from malice or mistake, to
cavil at any part of his character, conduct, or demean
our." Died in 1737.
See LORD CAMPBKM., " Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. iv. ;
Fo.ss, "The Judges of England."
Talbot, tfl'bo', (EUGENE,) a French litterateur, born
at Chartres in 1814. He became professor of rhetoric
in the College Louis-Ie-Grand, Paris. He produced ver
sions of the works of Lucian and Xenophon, (1857-58.)
Talbot, (JOHN,) Earl of Shrewsbury, a celebrated
military commander, born in Shropshire, England, in
J373- Appointed in 1414 lieutenant of Ireland, he
brought the insurgent chiefs into subjection, and took
prisoner the famous Donald McMurrough. From ,1419
to 1422 he served in the French campaigns of Henry
V., and, after the death of that sovereign, gained a
succession of signal victories over the French armies.
Having laid siege to Orleans, he was compelled to
retire before the forces of the enemy, led on by Joan of
Arc, (1429,) and after the battle of Patai, in the same
year, was made prisoner. He was created commander-
in-chief after his release, and took Le Crotoy, Harfleur,
and several other towns. He was subsequently made
Earl of Shrewsbury in England, Earl of Waterford
and YVexford in Ireland, and in 1446 appointed for the
third time lord lieutenant of Ireland. While attempting
to raise the siege of Castellan, in France, in 1453, he
was killed, together with his son, Lord de ITsle.
See HUMS, " History of England ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale ;" MONSTREI.ET, "Chronicle;" SHAKSPEARK'S "Henry VI.,"
part i. act iv.
Talbot, (PETER,) a learned Jesuit and writer on the
ology, born in Ireland in 1620. He was appointed Arch
bishop of Dublin in 1669. He published a "Treatise
on the Nature of Faith," (1657,) and several controver
sial works. Accused of complicity in the Popish Plot,
he was confined in prison from 1678 until his death, in
1680. He was a brother of Richard, Earl of Tyrconnel.
Talbot, (RICHARD.) See TYRCONNEL.
Talbot, (ROBERT,) an English divine, and prebendary
of Wells Cathedral, was a native of Northamptonshire.
He published a commentary and notes on the " Itine
rary" of Antoninus. Died in 1558.
Tal'bot, (SiLAS,) an American Revolutionary officer,
born in Rhode Island about 1750, distinguished himself
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
TALBOT
2093
TALLEYRAND
in several important engagements both by land and sea.
Having been made a captain in the navy, he was ap
pointed to the command of the frigate Constitution in
1799. Died in 1813. His life has been written by H. T.
Tuckerman.
Talbot, (WILLIAM,) an English prelate, born in
Staffordshire in 1659. He became Bishop of Oxford in
1699, and of Salisbury in 1715. He was transferred to
the see of Durham in 1722. Died in 1730. His son
Charles became lord chancellor.
Talbot, (WILLIAM HKNKY Fox,) the inventor of
photography on paper, was born in Wiltshire, England,
in 1800. He discovered the process of photography in
1833 or 1834, but he did not announce it to the public
until 1839. Daguerre anticipated him by the publication
of a similar discovery. The process of Talbot was
called Calotype, and Talbotype. He published "The
Pencil of Nature," (1844,) and other works.
Talfourd, tawl'ford, (THOMAS NOON,) called SER
GEANT TALFOURD, an English dramatist, essayist, and
lawyer, born at Doxey, a suburb of Stafford, in 1795. He
was a pupil of Dr. Valpy, and studied law under Mr.
Chitty. Having been called to the bar in 1821, he married
a Miss Rutt, and joined the Oxford circuit. In 1835 he
became a Liberal member of Parliament, in which he
procured the passage of an important law of copy
right. He contributed to the "Edinburgh Review"
and other periodicals. In 1835 he produced " Ion," a
tragedy, which was very successful. He wrote several
other dramas, and "Memorials of Charles Lamb," (1848.)
He was appointed a judge in 1849. Died in 1854.
See R. H. HORNE, "New Spirit of the Age," 1844: ALLIBONE,
"Dictionary of Authors ;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1836;
"North British Review" for May, 1856; " North American Review"
for January, 1838.
Talhouet, de, deh ti'loo'i', (AUGUSTS FREDERIC
BON AMOUR,) MARQUIS, a French peer, born at Rennes
in 1788, was rich, and noted for his liberality. He
founded in 1819 a society for the amelioration of prisons.
Died in 1842.
Taliacotius. See TAOI.IACOZZI.
Taliaferro, tol'e-ver, (JoHN,) an American statesman,
born in Virginia in 1768, was a member of Congress I
more than twenty years, and for a time librarian of the
treasury department at Washington. Died in 1853.
Tal'le-siii, a British poet of the sixth century, said to
have been the son of Henwg, was surnamed CHIEF OF THE
BARDS. Scarcely anything is positively known of his life.
Tallard or Tallart, de.deh tSxl$R','(C AMII.LE d'Hos-
tuii — dos'tu.s',) Due, a French marshal, born in Dau-
phine in 1652. Having previously served under Conde
and Turenne, he was sent as ambassador-extraordinary
to England in 1697 to negotiate with respect to the Span
ish succession. In 1703 he was made a marshal of France,
and soon after gained a signal victory over the Imperial
ists, under the Prince of Hesse, at Spire ; but he was '
subsequently defeated by the Duke of Marlborough at
Blenheim, (1704,) and made prisoner. He was created
in 1712 Duke of Hostun, and afterwards became minister
of state under Louis XV. Died in 1728.
See FONTENELLE, " filoge du Marech.il de Tallart ;" SAINT-
SIMON, "Memoires;" DE COURCRI.I.KS, " Dictiounaire des Generaux
Francais;" "Nouvelle Biographic Ginerale."
Tallart. See TALLAKD.
Tallemaiit, taTmS.N', ( FRANCOIS,) a French translator,
born near Jonzac in 1620. He translated Plutarch's
'' Lives" into French. Died in 1693.
Tallemant, (PAUL,) a French priest and mediocre
writer, born in Paris in 1642, was a cousin of the pre
ceding. He was admitted into the French Academy in
1666. Died in 1712.
Tallemant des Reaux, tSl'mSx' cli ra'S', (GEDEON,)
a French litterateur, born at La Rochelle in 1619, was a
brother of Frai^ois, noticed above. He was one of the
wits that frequented the Hotel Rambouillet, and wrote
" Historiettes," (6 vols. 1833-35.) a gossiping record of
what he had heard and witnessed. This work contains
much interesting matter, highly seasoned with scandal
and anecdotes, the truth of many of which may reason
ably be doubted. Died in 1692.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Ganerale ;" MONMERQUE, "Notice
sur Tallemant des Reaux," 1836.
Talleyrand, the famous diplomatist. See TALLEY-
RAND-PEKIGORD, DE, (CHARLES MAURICK.)
Talleyrand, de, deh d'^'ioN', (AUGUSTE Louis,)
COMTE, a French diplomatist, born in 1770, svas a nephew
of the cardinal. He was minister to Switzerland from
1814 to 1823. Died in 1832.
Talleyrand, de,( fii.iE,) Cardinal de Perigord, a French
prelate, eminent for his learning, was born at Perigueux
in 1301. He was a friend of Petrarch, and had much
influence both in the church and state. Died in 1364.
See AITBERY, " Histoire des Cardinaux ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Talleyrand, de, (GABRIEL MARIE,) Comte de Pe"ri-
gord, a French general, born in 1726, was an uncle of
Talleyrand the famous diplomatist. He served with
distinction at Hastenbeck ar.d Crefeld. Died in 1795.
Talleyrand, de, (HENRI,) Comte de Chalais, a
French courtier, born in 1599, was a friend of Gaston,
Duke of Orleans, with whom he conspired against Riche
lieu. He was convicted of treason and executed in 1626.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" BASSOMPIERRE, "Me
moires."
Talleyrand-Perigord, de, deh tt'li'r6N' pa're'goR',
(ALEXANDRE ANG£LIQUK,) a French cardinal, born in
Paris in 1736, was a brother of Gabriel Marie, noticed
above. He became Archbishop of Rheims in. 1777, and a
member of the States-General in 1789, soon after which
he emigrated. In 1817 he obtained the dignity of cardi
nal. Died in 1821.
See DE B AUSSET, " Notice historique sur le Cardinal de Talleyrand-
Perigord," 1821; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Talleyrand-Perigord, de, deh tS'li'rS.x' pa're'goR',
(CHARLES MAURICE.) Prince of Benevento, (ba-na-veV-
to,) [Fr. PRINCE DE BE.N^VENT, pRaNss deh ba'na'vS.N',]
commonly known as simply Tal'ley-rand, a celebrated
French diplomatist and wit, born in Paris on the 131)1 of
February, 1754, was the eldest son of Charles Daniel,
Count de Talleyrand. An accident which occurred in
his infancy made him lame for life. In consequence of
this lameness, he was required to renounce his birthright
and enter the Church, although the clerical profession
was very distasteful to him. In his youth he was styled
the Abbe de Perigord. He was appointed general agent
of the clergy of France in 1780, and held this important
office for eight years. In 1788 he became Bishop of
Autun, and in 1789 a member of the States-General.
Enlisting in the service of liberty and equality, he joined
the Third Estate, and was a member of the committee
appointed by the National Assembly to form a consti
tution. Among the important measures which he pro
posed was the confiscation of the lands of the Church.
He also supported the civil constitution of the clergy,
and resigned the bishopric of Autun about the end of
1790. He was the author of an able and celebrated
report on public instruction read in September, 1791.
Early in 1792 he was sent to London, without official
character, to dissuade the British ministry from joining
the allies in hostilities against France. He enjoyed the
society of his friend Madame de Stael, who was then
in England, but was treated with neglect or incivility by
the English aristocrats and ministers. In 1793 he was
ordered by Pitt to quit the island in twenty-four hours,
and, as he had been proscribed by Robespierre, he took
refuge in the United States. By the agency of Chenier,
he obtained permission to return to France in Septem
ber, 1795. About this time he wrote an able "Memoir
on the Commercial Relations of the United States with
England," and was admitted into the Institute. In
July, 1797, he became minister of foreign affairs, partly
through the influence of Madame de Stael. He re
signed in July, 1799, co-operated with Bonaparte in the
revolution of the i8th Brumaire, and was appointed
minister of foreign affairs in November, 1799. He
was grand chamberlain from 1804 to 1809.
Talleyrand was distinguished for his sarcastic and
subtle wit, his exquisite tact, his moderation and self-
restraint, and his finesse and dexterity as a negotiator.
" He was a profound thinker," says the " North British
Review," (November, 1853;) "he had strong political
opinions, if he had no moral principles ; he was at least
as bold, daring, and decided in action as he was saga-
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled: s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
TALLIEN
TALON
cious in council ; his political and social tact — which is
wisdom so quick and piercing as to seem unreasoning —
bad the promptitude and certainty of an instinct." His
coolness, sobriety, and " masterly inactivity" were well
adapted to temper the impetuosity and redundant energy
or ambition of Napoleon. He received the title of Prince
of Benevento in 1806. He offended the emperor by the
boldness with which he opposed some of his measures.
In August, 1807, he resigned his office. Napoleon in
vited him to resume the direction of foreign affairs in
1813, but he declined.
Talleyrand promoted the restoration of Louis XVIIL,
and insisted on the "Charter," by which a constitutional
government was guaranteed. He became minister of
foreign affairs in the first cabinet of Louis XVII I., repre
sented France at the Congress of Vienna which met in
1814, and obtained favourable terms for his country by
sowing dissension among the allies. He resigned in
September, 1815, because he would not sign the humili
ating treaty which was concluded with the allied powers.
He became the leader of the Liberal opposition in the
Chamber of Peers, and opposed the reactionary policy
of the government in the reigns of Louis XVIII. and
Charles X. In September, 1830, he was sent to London
as ambassador and minister-plenipotentiary, and had an
opportunity to realize what had long been with him a
favourite ooject, — the formation of an alliance between
France ancl England. His mission ended about the close
of 1834. He died in Paris in May, 1838, leaving " Me-
moires," which he ordered should not be published until
thirty years after his death. Among his famous sayings
is, " Language is given to man to conceal his thoughts."
See SAI.LK," Vie politique du Pri nee de Talleyrand," 1834 ; MIUNKT,
"Notices et Portraits;" VIU.KMAKBST, "M. de Talleyrand," 1X35;
DL'FOUK DE I. A TilUILBRis, " Histoire de la Vie du Prince de Tal
leyrand," 1838; I,. DE LOMENIK. " M. Talleyrand, par un Hoinme
de Kien," 1841; G. A. VOGEI., "Talleyrand der grosste Diplomat
seiner Zeit," 1838; MIGNKT, "Notice histoiique sur la Vie de M.
le Prince de Talleyrand," 1839 ; L. G. MICH AUL>, " Histoire politique
et prive'e de C. M. de Talleyrand," 1853; DE BARANTE, " EJoge
de M. le Prince de Talleyrand," 1838 ; LAMARTINE, " History of the
Restoration;" THIERS, "History of the Consulate and the Em
pire;" GUIZOT, "' Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;"
"Historical Characters," by H. L. BUI.WKR, 1868; "Edinburgh
Review" for April and October, 1X05, (the former article by BROU-
CHAM, the latter by JEFKUEY ;) " Fraser's Magazine" for February
and March, 1839.
Tallien, tt'le4.N', (JEAN LAMBERT,) a French Jacobin,
born in Paris in 1769. He published in 1792 the "Citi
zen's Friend," ("Ami du Citoyen,") gained distinction
by his audacious eloquence, took an active part in the
violent riot of the loth of August, 1792, and became
secretary of the commune of Paris. Having been elected
a member of the National Convention, he voted for the
death of the king, and was an active persecutor of the
Girondists. In 1793 Tallien and Isabeau were sent by
the Convention to Bordeaux, where they established
the reign of terror by numerous executions. Me was
induced to adopt a milder policy by the influence of Ma
dame de Fontenay, nee Cabarrus, who became Madame
Tallien. He returned to Paris in April, 1794, after the
death of his friend Danton, and formed with Fouche,
Barras, and others a conspiracy against Robespierre,
who denounced Tallien in the Convention, June 12,
1794. Tallien was the boldest or most prominent leader
of the party or coalition of parties which triumphed
on the gth Thermidor, July, 1794. It is stated that he
drew a dagger in the Convention and threatened the
life of Robespierre. He continued to oppose the reign
of terror, and used his influence in favour of humanity,
excepting in the case of the royalists captured at Qui-
beron. He took part in the expedition to Egypt in 1798,
with the title of savant, and returned in 1801, after which
he fell into neglect and obscurity. Died in Paris in 1820.
See LAMARTINE, " History of the Girondists;" THIERS, " History
of the French Revolution;" DUVAI., "Souvenirs Thermidoriens ;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tallien, MADAME. See CHIMAY, DE.
Tal'lis, (THOMAS,) an eminent English composer of
church music, lived under the reigns of Edward VI.,
Mary, and Elizabeth. He held the office of organist of
the chapel royal. His works are exclusively of a religious
character, and his anthems and other compositions are
esteemed master-pieces of the kind. Died in 1585.
Tallmadge, ta'/mij, (BENJAMIN,) an American officer
of the Revolution, born on Long Island in 1754. He
obtained the rank of colonel, and was afterwards a
member of Congress from Connecticut. Died in 1835.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iii.
Tallmadge, (JAMES,) LL.D., an American jurist and
statesman, born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1778.
He was elected to Congress in 1817, and in 1825 became
Lieutenant-Governor of New York. He was appointed
president of the American Institute in 1833, and was
one of the founders of the New York University. While
in Congress he distinguished himself by his opposition
to the extension of slavery beyond the Mississippi.
Died in 1853.
Talma, tal'mt', (CHARLOTTE VANHOVE,) an actress,
the wife of the following, was born at the Hague in 1771.
She was married to Talma in 1802. She excelled in
comedy, and wrote " Studies on the Theatrical Art,"
(1835.) I)iecl '» 1860.
Tal'ma, [Fr. pron. laTina"',] (FRANgois JOSEPH,) a
celebrated French tragedian, born in Paris in 1763. He
manifested at an early age an extraordinary predilection
for the drama. His father, who was a dentist, took
him to London, where he passed several years in his
childhood. Young Talma also practised dentistry in
early life. He made his debut at the Theatre Frai^ais
in 1787, in the r&le of "Seide" in " Mahomet." In 1789
he performed Chenier's "Charles IX.," with great ap
plause. He soon became the most popular tragic actor
in France, and received from Bonaparte some tokens of
special favour. He excelled in the expression of intense
passion. A noble countenance and a powerful voice
contributed to his success. Among the roles which he
performed were those of "Sulla," "Orestes," " Leoni-
das," "Hamlet," and "Othello." Died in Paris in 1826.
See TISSOT, "Souvenirs liistoriques sur Talma," 1826; MOKKAU,
" Memoires sur Talma," 1826; N. LEMEKCIHR, "Notice sur Tal
ma," 1827; REGNAUI.T-WAKIN, " Memoires liistoriques sur Talma,"
1827; AI.EXANDRE DUMAS, "Memoires de F. J. Talma," 4 vols.,
1X4^-50; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" " Blackwood's Maga
zine" for September, 1825.
Tal'mash, (THOMAS,) an English general, who was
second to Marlborotigh in command of the English troops
in Flanders in 1689. He served under Ginkell in Ire
land in 1691. " Since the disgrace of Marlborough," says
Macaulay, "he [Talmash] was universally allowed to be
the best officer in the army." (" History of England,"
vol. iv.) He commanded a force sent in 1694 to surprise
Brest, and was killed in the attack on that place.
Talmont, tal'moN', (A. P. de la Trimoille — deh
lit tRe'mwal' or tRe'mwa'ye,) a French royalist of the
Revolution, distinguished himself in the principal battles
of the Vendean war, and attained the rank of general of
cavalry. Being made prisoner, he was condemned to
death by the Convention, and executed in 1793.
Talochon, tJt'lo'shi.N', (MARIE VINCENT,) a French
surgeon, called PERE EI.YSEE, born near Lagny in 1753.
lie served Louis XVIII. as surgeon, before and after
his accession to the throne. Died in 1817.
See " Biographic Medicale."
Talon, I&'ION', (ANTOINE OMER,) a French lawyer,
born in Paris in 1760, was a royalist member of the
National Assembly in 1790. Died in i8n.
Talon, (DENIS,) a French judge, born in Paris in
1628, was a son of Omer, noticed below. He became
president ft mortier in 1693. Died in 1698.
Talon, (Nicoi.AS,) a French Jesuit, born at Moulins
in 1605. Among his works is a "Histoire sainte," (4
vols., 1640.) Died in 1691.
Talon, (OMER,) a FVench humanist, born at Amiens
about 1510, published a treatise on rhetoric, (in Latin,
1544.) Died in 1562.
Talon, (OMER,) an eminent French advocate and
judge, born about 1595. He became advocate-general to
the Parliament of Paris in 1631, and distinguished himself
by his brave and eloquent assertion of the rights of the
Parliament and the interests of the people. He died in
1652, leaving " Memoires," which Voltaire said were the
productions of "a good magistrate and good citizen."
See TALLEMANT DES REAUX, " Historiettes;" " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Ge'ne'rale."
5, e, T, 6, u, y, long; k, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ft, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
T4LPINO
2095
TANET
Talpiuo, II. See SAI.MKGGIA.
Tamasp. See THAMASP.
Tamasp Kouli Khan. See NAniK SHAH.
Tamberlick, tarn beK-lek', (ENRICO,) a noted tenor
singer, born in Rome in 1820.
Tambroiii, tam-buo'nee, (CLOTILDA,) sister of the
following, was born at Bologna in 1758. She was dis
tinguished for her attainments in the classics, and was
appointed in 1794 professor of Greek in the University
of Bologna. She also published a number of poems in
Italian. Died in 1817.
Tambroiii, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian litterateur, born at
Bologna in 1773. He filled several offices under the
government, and was a member of the Academy of Fine
Arts at Vienna, and foreign associate of the French
Institute. He published a " Compendium of Polish
History," (1807,) and a number of poems and prose
treatises. Died in 1824.
See TIPALDO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Tamburini, tam-boo-ree'nee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian
singer, born at Faenza in 1800. He retired from the
stage in 1855.
Tamburini, (PIETRO,) an Italian theologian and phi
losopher, born at Brescia in 1737. He was appointed
professor of divinity at Pavia, (1778,) and afterwards
filled the chair of moral philosophy and the law of na
ture and of nations, in the same university. He was
made a chevalier of the iron crown by the Emperor of
Austria, and received other distinctions. He published,
among other works, an " Introduction to the Study of
Moral Philosophy," (1797,) " Elements of the Law of
Nature," (in Latin, 1815,) and an "Idea of the Holy
See," ("Idea della Santa Sede.") Died in 1827.
See ZUKADELLI, " Elogio del Professore P. Tamburini," 1827.
Tam'er-lane', [Fr. TAMERLAN, tt'nieR'ld.N',] (a cor
ruption of Taimoor-leng, i.e. "Taimoor the Lame,")
called also Taimoor or Taimur, (ti'moor',) and Timur
or Timcmr, (tee'moor',) Timoor (Timour or Timur)
Beg or Bee, (i.e. "Lord Timoor,") a celebrated Asiatic
conqueror, born at Kesh, in Independent Tartary, in
1336, was of Mongol extraction, and a descendant of
Jengis Khan. About 1361 he supported the cause of
Husein, Khan of Northern Khorassan, against several
neighbouring tribes, and in this war received a wound
in the thigh, from which he acquired the surname of
LENG, (or the "Lame.") He afterwards quarrelled with
Husein, took Balkh, his capital, by storm, (1369,) and
caused himself to be proclaimed Khan of Jagatai. He
then successively brought into subjection Khorassan,
the principal part of Persia, and Armenia, and in 1387
turned his arms against Toktamish-Khan, in Western
Tartary, whom he defeated at Bashkiria, destroying his
whole army. Tamerlane's capital was Samarcand.
Having taken Bagdad and Damascus, subdued Georgia,
and advanced as far as Moscow, he next invaded India,
where, in 1398, he gained a signal victory over the forces
of Mahmood, then Emperor of Delhi, near Delhi. In
1402 he met the famous Bayazeed, (Bajazet,) Sultan of
Turkey, in Angora, and, after one of the most sanguinary
battles on record, totally routed his army, and took the
Sultan prisoner. He was preparing for the invasion of
China, when he died on his march, in 1405. A great
part of his acquisition was lost by his successors soon
after his death.
" Timour," says Sir J. Malcolm, "although one of the
greatest warriors, was one of the worst monarchs. He
was able, brave, and generous, but ambitious, cruel, and
oppressive. He considered the happiness of every human
being as a feather in the scale when weighed against the
advancement of what he deemed his personal glory; and
that appears to have been measured by the number of
kingdoms he laid waste and the people he destroyed."
(" History of Persia," vol. ii. chap, xi.) " The fame
of Timour," observes Gibbon, " has pervaded the East
and the West, and the admiration of his subjects, who
revered him almost as a deity, may be justified in some
degree by the praise or confessions of his bitterest ene
mies. He might boast that, at his accession to the throne,
Asia was the prey of anarchy and rapine, whilst, under
his prosperous monarchy, a child, fearless and unhurt,
might carry a purse of gold from the east to the west.
By their rapine, cruelty, and discord, the petty tyrants
of Persia might afflict their subjects, but whole nations
were crushed under the footsteps of the reformer. The
ground which had been occupied by flourishing cities was
often marked by his abominable trophies, by columns
or pyramids of human heads."
See LANGI.£S, "Institute politiques et militaires de Tamerlan ;"
HAMMER-PUKGSTALL, " Geschiclne des Osmanischeu Reichs,"
vol. i. ; " Histoire de Timur- Hec, coiinu sous le Nom du grand
Tamerlan," translated from the Persian of SHEKKEF-KD UEKN AI.KK
by Peris DE LA CROIX; GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire," chap. Ixv. ; ARGOTE L>E MOI.INA, " Historia del gran Ta
merlan," 1582; SAMUEL CLAKKE, " Lite of Tamerlane the Great,"
1676; AL-HACEM, "History of the Life of Tamerlane, " translated
from the Arabic by L. VANE, 1753.
Tan'a-quil, the wife of Tarquinius Prisctis, King of
Rome, is described as a woman of high spirit and energy.
The Latin poets used her name to indicate an imperious
consort.
Tanaquillus Faber. See LEFEVRE, (TANNEGUL)
Tancred, tang'kred, [Fr. TANCREDE, tdN'kRid';
Ger. TAXCRED, tang-kRat'; It. TANCKEDI, tan-kka'dee;
Lat. TANCRE'DUS,] a celebrated hero of the first crusade,
was born in Normandy in 1078, and was a nephew ot
Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia. In 1096 he joined
the crusading army in company with his cousin Bohe-
mond, Prince of Tarentum. He was conspicuous for his
valour at the battle of Dorylseum and the siege of An-
tioch, and was one of the first to mount the walls at the
capture of Jerusalem. He subsequently had a promi
nent part in the battle of Ascalon, took Tiberias, on the
Sea of Galilee, and received the title of Prince of Tiberias
or Galilee. He died in 1112, having previously defeated
the Saracens and driven them beyond the Euphrates.
Tancred's achievements are highly extolled by Tasso in
his " Gerusalemme Liberata," and they are also cele
brated by Raoul de Caen in " Les Gestes de Tancrede."
See MICHAUD, " History of the Crusades ;" DEI.BARE, " Histoire
de Tancrede," 1822: SCHMBRBAUCH, "Tancred Fiirst von GalilSa,"
1830; '' Nouvelle Biographic Generaie."
Tancred, King of Sicily, and the last of the Norman
rulers in that country, was a grandson of Roger II. He
died in 1194, and Henry VI. of Germany took posses
sion of Sicily.
Tancrede. See TANCRED.
Tancrede de Hauteville, tfix'kRid' deh hot'vel', a
Norman baron of the early part of the eleventh century,
was the father of twelve sons, one of whom, Robert
Guiscard, became Duke of Apulia and Calabria.
Tancredi, or Tancredus. See TANCRED.
Tandy. See NAPPER TANDY.
Taney, taw'ne, (ROGER BROOKE,) a distinguished
American jurist, born in Calvert county, Maryland, in
March, 1777. He graduated at Dickinson College, Penn
sylvania, in 1795, studied law, and was admitted to the
bar in 1799. He was elected a Senator of Maryland in
1816, and became a resident of Baltimore about 1822.
He was originally a Federalist ; but he became a partisan
of General Jackson, who appointed him attorney-general
of the United States in 1831. About September, 1833,
he was nominated secretary of the treasury, in place of
William J. Duane, (who was dismissed from the cabinet
because he refused to remove the public deposits from
the Bank of the United States,) but he was rejected
by the Senate. He was nominated associate justice of
the supreme court by President Jackson in 1835 ; but this
nomination was not confirmed by the Senate. In March,
1836, he was appointed chief justice of the supreme court,
in the place of John Marshall, deceased. In 1857, Judge
Taney, yielding to the ever-encroaching and aggressive
spirit of slavery, pronounced an important decision in
the case of Dred Scott, a slave, who had been carried
by his master from Missouri into Illinois, thence to the
territory of Wisconsin, and back to Missouri. Dred
Scott brought a suit for his freedom. Judge Taney
affirmed that for more than a century before the Decla
ration of Independence the negroes "had been regarded
as beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to
associate with the white race, either in social or political
relations, and so far inferior that they had no rights
which the white man was bound to respect, and that the
negro might justly and lawfully be reduced to slavery for
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2£^^"See Explanations, p. 23.)
TJNNJffILL
2096
TARD1EU
his benefit." This strange, this monstrous decision was
pronounced by one whose opinions on any question not
connected with slavery would have commanded the re
spect of all, as those of an able lawyer and upright judge.
He further affirmed that the Missouri Compromise was
unconstitutional, and that the suit must be dismissed
for want of jurisdiction. "The reader will be puzzled to
decide," says Mr. Greeley, "whether law, humanity, or
history is most flagrantly defied in Chief-Justice Taney's
opinion." He died in October, 1864.
"Judge Taney," says Horace Greeley, " had long been
a main bulwark of slavery, not only in Maryland, but
throughout the Union. The Dred Scott decision is in
separably linked with his name." ("American Conflict,"
vol. ii. p. 671.)
See " Atlantic Monthly" for February, 1865.
Tan'na-hill, (ROKERT,) a Scottish poet, born at
Paisley in 1774. His songs and ballads are remarkable
for their grace, simplicity, and pathos; among the most
admired may be named his " Song of the Battle of
Vittoria," and "Jessie the Flower of Dumblane." He
committed suicide, in a paroxysm of insanity, by drown
ing, in 1810.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Tanneguy. See DUCHATEL, (CHARLES MARIE,) and
CHATEL, nu.
Tanner, tin'ner, (MATTHIAS,) a German Jesuit and
biographer, born at Pilsen about 1625. He wrote notices
of many eminent Jesuits. Died about 1705.
Taii'ner, (THOMAS,) an English prelate and antiquary,
born in Wiltshire in 1674. He was the author of "No-
titia Monastica, or an Account of the Religious Mouses
in England and Wales," and " Bibliotheca Hritannico-
Hibernica," (1748,) a biographical and bibliographical
work of great value. He was made Bishop of Saint
Asaph in 1732. Died in 1735.
See " Biographia Britannica."
Tannevot, ttn'vo', (AI.KXANDRE,) a French drama
tist, born at Versailles in 1692. He wrote several me
diocre tragedies, and other poems. Died in 1773.
Taiisillo, tan-sel'lo, (Lumi,) an Italian poet, born at
Venosa, in the kingdom of Naples, about 1510. His
principal work is entitled "The Tears of Saint Peter,"
("Le Lagrime di San Pietro," 1585.) He also wrote a
number of lyrics, sonnets, etc., which had a high repu
tation in his time. Died in 1568.
See LONGFRLI.OW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" TiRAHOSCHi,
" Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" NICERON, " Memoires."
Tanska. See HOFFMANN, (CLEMENTINA.)
Tantale. See TAN TALUS.
Tantalo. See TANTALUS.
Tan'ta-lus, [Gr. Tdvra/.of: Fr. TANTALE, tS.N'tSl';
It. TANTALO, tan'ti-lo,] a fabulous king of Lydia or
Phrygia, said to have been a son of Jupiter, and the
father of Pelops and Niobe. He was the subject of
various legends, according to one of which, having been
admitted to the table of the gods, he divulged some
secrets which he heard there. For this offence he was
condemned to suffer perpetual thirst, standing in water
which receded whenever he attempted to drink it ; he
was, moreover. " tantalized" by the sight of fruit which
hung close to his lips, but which he could never taste.
According to some writers, this penalty was inflicted on
him because he killed his son Pelops and offered his
flesh as food to the gods whom he once entertained at
his house.
Tanucci, di, de ta-noot/chee, (BERNARDO,) MARQUIS,
an Italian minister of state, born in Tuscany in 1698.
He became prime minister at Xaples about 1740, and
continued in power until 1776. During this period he
banished the Jesuits and resisted some papal encroach
ments. He patronized learning liberally. Died in 1783.
See COPPI, "Annali d'ltalia dal 1760;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Taparelli. See AZEGLIO, D', (MASSIMO.)
Tapia, de, da ta'pe-a, (Don EUGENIO,) a Spanish
litterateur and jurist, born at Aviha, in Old Castile, about
1785, published "Poems, Lyrical, Satirical, and Dra
matic," (1821,) "History of Spanish Civilization," (4
vols., 1840,) which is highly commended, "Elements of
Commercial Law," (15 vols.,) and other works. He is
regarded as a Liberal in politics.
Tap'lin, ( WILLIAM,) an English veterinary surgeon,
who made improvements in his art, and wrote several
works on farriery and the treatment of lame horses.
Died in 1807.
Tap'pan, (ARTHUR,) an American merchant, dis
tinguished as an opponent of slavery, was born at North
ampton, Massachusetts, in 1786. He became a merchant
of New York City, gave money liberally to the Anti-
Slavery Society, and was one of the founders of Oberlin
College, Ohio. Died in 1865.
See " Life of Arthur Tappan," by LEWIS TAPPAN, 1870.
Tappaii, (BENJAMIN,) a lawyer, a brother of the
preceding, was born at Northampton, Massachusetts, in
1773. He became a judge in Ohio, and was a Senator
of the United States from 1839 to 1845. Died at Steu-
benville in 1857.
Tappan, (DAVID,) D.D., an American divine, born at
Manchester, Massachusetts, in 1753. He became pro
fessor of divinity at Harvard College in 1792. Died in
1803.
Tappan, (HK.NRY PHILIP,) D.D., LL.D., an American
divine and theological writer, born at Rhinebeck, New
York, about 1806. He was appointed in 1832 pro
fessor of moral and intellectual philosophy in the
University of the City of New York, and subsequently
became chancellor of the University of Michigan.
He published "The Doctrine of the Will applied to
Moral Agency and Responsibility," (1841,) and several
other works.
Tappan, (WILLIAM BINGHAM,) an American poet,
born at Beverly, Massachusetts, in 1794, became gen
eral agent of the American Sunday-School Union. He
published several volumes of poems. Died in 1849.
Taraise. See TARASIUS.
Tarakanof. See TARRAKANOF.
Tarasius, ta-i a'shc-us, [Fr. TARAISE, tfrAz',] SAINT,
born about 745 A. n., became Patriarch of Constantinople
in 784. Died in 806.
Taraval, tt'rS'vSl', (HUGUKS,) a French painter of
history and portraits, was born in Paris in 1728; died
in 1785.
Tarayre, tJt'rdR', (JEAN JOSEPH,) a French general,
distinguished as an agriculturist, was born at Solsac
(Aveyron) in 1770. He commanded the Dutch troops
that opposed the English at Walcheren in July, 1809.
Died in 1855.
Tarbe, ia*R'ba', (CHARLES,) a French royalist, born
at Sens in 1756. He was a prominent member of the
Legislative Assembly in 1791. Died in 1804.
Tarbe, (Louis HAKDOUIN,) a French financier, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Sens in 1753.
He was minister of contributions from May, 1791, to
March, 1792. Died in 1806.
Tarbe, (PROSPER,) a French antiquary, born about
1814. He wrote on the antiquities of Rheims.
Tarcagnota. See MARULLO.
Tarcagnota, taR-kan-yo'ta, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian
historian, born at Gae'ta. He published a "History
of the World," of little merit, (4 vols., 1562.) Died
in 1566.
Tarchi, taR'kee, (ANGELO,) an Italian composer, born
at Naples in 1759, produced several operas. Died in
Paris in 1814.
Tar'-ehoii, a hero of the Etruscan mythology, was,
according to some authors, aPelasgian chief who founded
a colony in the north of Italy. Virgil relates that Tar-
chon offered the crown of the Etruscans (Tyrrheni) to
Evander.
See ".i'Eneid," book viii., 506.
Tardieu, ttR'de-uh', (AMHROISE,) a French en
graver, was born nTlParis in 1788. lie published an
"Atlas of Ancient Geography," and other similar works,
and engraved a number of portraits and architectural
pieces. Died in 1841.
Tardieu, (ANTOINE FRANCOIS,) a French map-
engraver, born in Paris in 1757, was the father of the
preceding. Among his works may be mentioned the
maps of Choiseul-Gouffier's "Voyage pittoresque de la
a, e, T, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
TARD1EU
2097
TARQUIN
Grece," and the great Chart of European Russia. Died
in 1822.
Tardieu, (AuGUSTE AMBROISE,) a French medical
writer, born in Paris in 1818.
Tardieu, (JACQUES NICOLAS,) a son of Nicolas
Henri, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1716, and
attained distinction as an engraver. He executed
numerous portraits and landscapes. Died about 1792.
Tardieu, (JEAN BAFHSTE PIERRE,) an engraver, a
nephew of Nicolas Henri, was born in Paris in 1746.
He acquired a high reputation as a geographical en
graver. Among his best works are his " Charts of the
Netherlands," engraved for the empress Maria Theresa.
Died in 1816.
Tardieu, (JEAN CHARLES,) an artist, a son of Jacques
Nicolas, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1765. He
studied painting under Regnault, and executed a number
of historical pictures. Died in 1837.
Tardieu, (NICOLAS HENRI,) a skilful French en
graver, born in Paris in 1674, was a pupil of Gerard
Audran. He became a member of the Academy of
Painting in 1720. Died in 1749.
Tardieu, (PIERRE ALEXANDRE,) a nephew of the
preceding, was born in Paris in 1756, and studied en
graving under J. G. Wille. Among his master-pieces
are " The Communion of Saint Jerome," after Domeni-
chino, and "The Archangel Michael," after Raphael.
Died in 1843 or 1844.
Tardieu, (PIEURE FRANC.OIS,) a nephew and pupil
of Nicolas Henri, noticed above, was distinguished as
an engraver, and executed, among other works, "The
Judgment of Paris," after Rubens. Died about 1774.
Tardif, tfR'def, (ALEXANDRE,) a French poet, born
in 1801. Among his works are "Dramatic Essays,"
(1835,) and " Varietes poetiques," (1841.)
Tardif, (GuiLLAUME,) a French litterateur, born about
1440, wrote, besides other works, " Rhetoricae Artis
Compendium," (about 1475.)
Tareef or Tarif, ta-reet', (Aboo- (or Abu-) Zarah,
a'bod zar'ah,) a freedman of Moosa-Ibn-Noseyr, is said
to have been the first Mohammedan officer who effected
a conquest in Spain. About the beginning of Septem
ber, 710 A.D., he took possession of a small island fifteen
miles west-southwest of Gibraltar, since called Tarifa,
from his name, and made incursions into the adjacent
country, carrying off much booty.
Tarello, ta-rel'lo, (CAMILLO,) an Italian writer on
agriculture, published in 1567 a work entitled "Agri
cultural Instruction," (" Ricordo d'Agricoltura,") which
is commended.
Tarente, Due DE. See MACDONALD.
Targe, ttRzb, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French historian,
born at Orleans about 1716. He published a "History
of Italy," (4 vols., 1774,) and other works. Died in 1788.
Target, taVzhi', (Gui JEAN BAPTISTE,) an eloquent
French advocate, born in Paris in 1733. He was a
member of the Constituent Assembly of 1790, and
favoured the popular cause. In December, 1792, Louis
XVI. selected Target as one of his defenders in his trial,
but the latter declined to serve. Died in 1806.
See ML'RAIRE, " filoge de G. J. B. Target," 1807; "Nouvelle
Biographie Generale. "
Targioni-Tozzetti,taR-jo'neetot-set'tee,(GiovANNi,)
an Italian naturalist and physician, born at Florence in
1712. He wrote, besides other works, "Travels in Tus
cany for the Exploration of its Natural Productions," (6
vols., 1751-54,) and an "Account of the Advancement
of Physical Science in Tuscany during Sixty Years," (3
vols., '1780.) Died in 1783.
See M. LASTRI, " Elogio storico di G. Targioni-Tozzetti," 1783 ;
" Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Tarif. See TAREEF.
Tarik-Ibn-Zeyad, ta'rik Ib'n za'ytd', written also
Tarik-Ben-Zeiad, a famous Arab chief, was the leader
of the Moors who invaded Spain, crossing the Straits
and landing at Gibraltar, in 711 A.n. He defeated King
Roderick, and conquered the southern part of Spain.
The name Gibraltar is a corruption of Gibel-Tarik,
("mountain of Tarik.")
See MARIANA, " Historia de Espana ;" AI.-MAKKARI, " Moham
medan Dynasties in Spain," (translated by GAYANGOS.)
Tarin, tf' raN', (PIERRE,) a French medical writer,
born near Montargis about 1700. He wrote articles on
anatomy and physiology for the "Encyclopedic" of
Diderot, and other works. Died in 1761.
Tarleton, tarl'ton, (Colonel BANNASTRE,) an Eng
lish officer, born at Liverpool in 1754, served under
Lord Cornwallis in the war of the American Revolution.
He was distinguished for his skill and bravery, and
gained several important advantages over the American
troops ; but he was defeated by General Morgan at the
battle of Cowpens, (1781.) After his return to England,
he was elected to Parliament for Liverpool and made a
baronet and K.C.B. He wrote a " History of the Cam
paigns of 1780-81 in the Southern Provinces of North
America," (1787.) Died about 1833.
Tarleton, (RICHARD,) a celebrated English actor and
j dramatist, was a native of Shropshire. He was noted
for his extempore wit, and was unrivalled in comic parts.
He was treated with distinguished favour by Queen
Elizabeth, who appointed him a groom of the chamber
at Barn Elms. He was the author of a play entitled
" The Seven Deadly Sins," which is not extant. Died
in 1588.
Tariiow, taR'no, (FANNY,) a German novelist and
miscellaneous writer, born in Mecklenburg-Schwerin in
1783. Among her principal works are "Natalie," a
romance, (1804,) "Two Years in Saint Petersburg,"
(1833,) and a collection of tales, (4 vols., 1840-42.) Died
in 1862.
Tarnowski, taR-nov'skee, (JOHN,) a famous Polish
military commander, born in 1488, was appointed by
Emanuel, King of Portugal, leader of his army against
the Moors. He afterwards commanded in the Polish
wars with the Russians and the Turks, and was charged
by the emperor Charles V. with the chief command of
his forces against the Turks. He was the author of a
military treatise entitled "Concilium Rationis Bellicae."
Died in 1561.
See ORZECHOWSKI, "Life of Tamovvski," (in Polish,) 1830;
"Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Tar-pela or Tarpeja, was a daughter of Spurius
' Tarpeius, governor of one of the citadels of Rome during
the war with the Sabines. Allured by the gold orna
ments worn by the enemy, she opened to them the gate
of the fortress ; but they, in passing, threw upon her
their shields, by which she was crushed to death. The
hill where she was buried was called the Tarpeian rock.
Tar'quin, [Fr. pron. tf R'kaN'; Lat. TARQUIN'IUS ; It.
TARQUINIO, taR-kwee'ne-o,] or, more fully, Lu'cius
Tarquin'ius Fris'cus, fifth King of Rome, was a
son of Demaratus, a merchant of Corinth. His original
name was LUCUMO. Having removed to Rome, he
was patronized by Ancus Martius, who appointed him
guardian of his sons. After the death of-Ancus Martius
he caused himself to be elected king, to the exclusion of
the rightful heirs. He carried on successful wars against
the Sabines and Latins, built the Circus Maximus, the
immense Cloacae, or sewers, at Rome, and promoted
various important public works. He was assassinated,
by order of the sons of Ancus, in 578 B.C.
See NiKBUHR, " History of Rome ;" PURRUCKER, " Programma
de Vita Tarquinii Prisci," 1760; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Tarquin the Proud, [Lat. Lu'cius TARQUIN'IUS
SUPER'BUS; Fr. TARQUIN LE SUPERBE, taVkaN' leh
sii'paiRb',] son of Tarquinius Priscus, and seventh King
of Rome. In 534 B.C. he succeeded Servius Tullius,
whom he had caused to be assassinated, and whose
daughter Tullia he had married. He put to death the
senators who had favoured the reforms of Servius, and,
while displaying great ability, governed with despotic
power. He conquered several neighbouring cities, built
the Capitol and other public edifices, and established
colonies at Signia and Circeii.
The outrage committed by his son Sextus upon Lu-
cretia roused the people, already exasperated by his
tyranny, to throw off the yoke, and Tarquin was deposed
by an armed force led by Junius Brutus. After several
ineffectual attempts to regain his power, he formed an
alliance with Lars Porsena of Clusium, in conjunction
with whom he fought the battle of Lake Regillus, (496
B.C.) They were totally defeated by the Romans, and
€ as k; c as s; g kard;g*s,j; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this.
132
anations, p. 23.)
TARQUINIO
2098
TASSO
Tarquin escaped to Cumae, where he died in 495 B.C.
He was the last of the Roman kings.
See LIVY, " History of Rome," books i. and ii. ; NIEBUHR, " His
tory of Rome;" V. MALVEZZI, "Tarquinio Superbo," 1635; K. O.
MUI.I.ER, "Etrusker;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" PUR-
RUCKER, "Programmata II. de Tarquinii Superb! Rebus gestis,"
i 764-66.
Tarquinio. See TARQUIN.
Tarquinius. See TARQUIN.
Tarquinius Collatinus. See COLLATINUS.
Tarrakaiiof, Tarakanof, or Tarrakanow, ta-rft-
ki'nof, (ANNA PETROWNA,) a Russian princess, born in
1755, was supposed to be the daughter of the empress
Elizabeth. Having been imprisoned by Catherine II. at
Saint Petersburg, she was drowned in prison by an inun
dation in 1777.
Tar-ren-te'nus, (PATERNUS,) a Roman jurist under
the reign of Commodus, was the author of a work en
titled " De Re militari," a part of which is extant.
Tarsia, di, de taR-see'a, (GAI.EAZZO,) an Italian poet,
of noble family, born in 1476. His works are principally
sonnets in the style of Petrarch. Died about 1530.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Tartaglia, taR-tal'ya, [Lat. TARTA'LEA,] (NiccoiA)
an Italian mathematician, born at Brescia about 1500.
His family name is not known. He was surnamed Tar
taglia, (from tartagliare, to "stammer,") because he
had an impediment in his speech, caused by a wound
received in 1512. He taught mathematics at Verona,
Brescia, and Venice, edited the works of Archimedes,
(1543,) and wrote several treatises on mathematics, etc.
He discovered a method of resolving cubic equations.
Cardan, by a promise of secrecy, obtained this method
from him, but published it in his " Ars Magna." Died
in 1559.
See COSSAI.I, " Progress! dell'Algebra," 1790; FANTUZZI, " Scrit-
tori Bolognesi ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tartagni, taR-tan'yee, [Lat. TARTAG'NUS,] (ALESSAN-
DRO,) called IMOLEN'SIS, from Imola, his native place,
was an eminent Italian jurist, born about 1424. He
wrote on the Digest, and was professor of law at Padua
and Bologna. Died in 1477.
Tartagnus. See TARTAGNI.
Tartalea. See TARTAGLIA.
Tartare. See TARTARUS.
Tartaro. See TARTARUS.
Tartarotti, taR-ti-rot'tee, (GiROLAMO,) a learned
Italian litterateur and antiquary, born at Roveredo in
1706. He published, besides other works, an "Idea of
the Logic of the Scholastics and Moderns," (1731,) and
"Del Congresso notturno delle Lammie," ("On the
Nocturnal Meeting of the Witches," 1749,) which is
highly commended. Died in 1761.
See C. LORENZI, "De Vita H. Tartarotti Libri III.," 1805;
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tar'ta-rus, [Gr. Taprapof ; Fr. LE TARTARE, leh tSRx-
tf R' ; It. TARTARO, taR'ta-ro,] in classic mythology, was
a son of Either and Ge, and the father of the Gigantes,
or Giants. The name was also applied to that part of
the infernal regions in which the wicked were confined.
(See PLUTO.)
Tartas, ttR'ta', (EMILE,) a French general, born at
Mezin in 1796. He served in Algeria from 1840 till
1846.
Tartini, taR-tee'nee, (GIUSEPPE,) a celebrated Italian
musician and composer, born at Pisano in 1692. He
was one of the first violinists of his time, and presided
over a school in Padua, where he numbered among his
pupils Pugnani and Viotti. He was the author of a
" Treatise on Music according to the True Science of
Harmony," (1754,) and was the discoverer of the so-
called grave harmonics, or third sounds. Died in 1770.
See FAVOI.LE, "Notices sur Corelli, Tartini," etc., 1810; FAN-
ZAGO, "Gramme delle Lodi di G. Tartini," 1762; "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Taruffi, ta-roof'fee, (EMiLio,) an Italian painter of
history and landscapes, was born at Bologna in 1632 ;
died in 1694.
Taruffi, (GIUSEPPE ANTONIO,) an Italian poet, born
at Bologna in 1722 ; died in 1786.
Ta-ru'tius or Tarru'tius (tar-roo'she-us) Fir-mi-
a'nus, (Lucius,) a Roman astrologer, waiTa friend of
Cicero. He wrote, in Greek, a work on astronomy, and,
at the request of Varro, took the horoscope of Romulus.
Tar'ver, (JOHN CHARLES,) a distinguished writer, of
English extraction, born at Dieppe, in Normandy, in
1790. He published a " Phraseological French-and-
English Dictionary," (1849,) a very valuable work, also
a translation of Dante's " Inferno" into French prose.
Died in 1851.
Tascher de la Pagerie, tt'sha' deh It paV.h're',
(Louis ROBERT PIERRE CLAUDE,) COMTE, a French
officer, born in Martinique in 1787, was a cousin-german
to the empress Josephine. He served as aide-de-camp
to Eugene de Beauharnais in many campaigns. In 1852
he became a senator. Died in 1861. His son, ROHKRT
CHARLES EMILE, born in 1822, received the title of duke
in 1859, and was chosen a senator in 1861.
Tascher de la Pagerie, MADEMOISELLE. See JOSE
PHINE.
Taschereau, tfsh'ro', (JuLES ANTOINE,) a French
writer of biography, etc., was born at Tours in 1801.
He published, besides other works, a "History of the
Life and Works of Moliere," (1825,) a "History of the
Life and Works of Corneille," (1829,) and "Revue
Retrospective," (20 vols., 1833-37.) He was elected to
the Chamber of Deputies in 1837, and to the Con
stituent Assembly in 1848. About 1858 he was appointed
director of the Imperial Library.
See QUEHARD, "La France Litteraire."
Taschifellone. See CAFFARO.
Tas'ker, (WILLIAM,) an English clergyman and poet,
born in Devonshire. He produced translations of some
of the odes of Pindar and Horace. Died in 1800.
Tasman, tas'man, (.\BEL JANSSEN,) a Dutch navi
gator of the seventeenth century, was employed by
Van Diemen, Governor-General of Batavia, in making
discoveries in the South Sea. In 1642 he discovered
the island which he named in honour of his patron,
Van Diemen's Land, also Prince William's Islands, and
others in the vicinity. Van Diemen's Land has been
named, in his honour, Tasmania.
See LAUTS, "A. J. Tasman," 1843.
Tassaert, tt'stk', (NICOLAS FRANC.OTS OCTAVE,) a
French painter, born in Paris in 1800. He painted
history and portraits, and gained a medal of the first
class in 1849.
Tasse, Le, the French for TASSO, which see.
Tassel, tS'sel', (RiCHAKD,) a French painter, born at
Langres about 1580; died in 1660.
Tas'sie, (JAMES,) a Scottish artist, born near Glasgow
about 1735. lie acquired a high reputation for his skil
ful imitation of engraved gems by means of pastes, or
coloured glass. Died in 1799.
Tassin, tt'saN', (REN6 PROSPER,) a French Bene
dictine monk and historian, born near Domfront in 1697,
published " New Treatise on Diplomacy," (" Nouveau
Traite de Diplomatique," 6 vols., 1765.) Died in 1777.
Tasso, tas'so, (BERNARDO,) an Italian poet, born at
Bergamo in 1493. He was patronized by Sansevei ino,
Prince of Salerno, whom he accompanied in 1531 on the
expedition of Charles V. to Tunis. In 1537 he was sent
on a diplomatic mission to Spain. He was the author of
a heroic poem, entitled "L'Amadigi," founded on the
romance of Amadis de Gaul ; also numerous sonnets,
hymns, eclogues, lyrics, etc. He died in 1569, leaving
one son, the celebrated Torquato Tasso.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale;" "Lives of the Italian Poets," by the REV.
HENKY STEBBING.
Tas'so, [It. pron. tas'so; Fr. LE TASSE, leh tiss,]
(TORQUATO,) [Lat. TORQUA'TUS TAS'SUS,] a celebrated
Italian epic poet, a son of the preceding, was born at
Sorrento on the nth of March, 1544. He was educated
at Rome, Bergamo, Venice, and Padua. To the last
city he was sent by his father to study law, which he
disliked and soon renounced. He produced in 1562 an
epic or romantic poem, entitled "Rinaldo," which he
dedicated to Cardinal Luigi d'Este. He was patronized
by the cardinal and his brother Alfonso II., Duke of
Ferrara, at whose court he passed many years, beginning
with 1565. The court of the Dukes of Este was one of
the most magnificent in Italy, and vied with that of the
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon:
TASSO
TATISHCHEF
Medici in the patronage of literature and art. There
Tasso wrote a number of sonnets and amatory verses,
and commenced his great poem "Jerusalem Delivered,"
(" Gerusalemme Liberata.") In 1571 he accompanied
Cardinal d'Este on a mission to Charles IX. of France.
He returned to Ferrara in 1572, and entered the service
of Alfonso, who gave him a pension of sixteen gold
crowns per month and admitted him to his own table.
In 1573 he produced his "Aminta,"a pastoral drama,
which was received with great favour. lie completed
in 1575 his epic poem, entitled "Gerusalemme Libe
rata," which is his chief title to celebrity. About this
time his prosperity and peace were ruined by causes
which are partly involved in mystery. He cherished a
romantic passion for Leonora, a sister of the Duke of
Este, and addressed to her a number of sonnets ex
pressive of his admiration. It is not known whether
she had any feeling for him beyond that of simple
friendship ; but the difference in their rank was such
that he could not hope to marry a princess of the proud
and sovereign house of Este. Some writers ascribe his
misfortunes and imprisonment to this love for Leonora ;
and others suppose that he offended Alfonso by his irri
table temper, or that he was actually insane. He was
confined in a convent in 1577 by order of Alfonso, who
directed that he should be treated as a madman. He
soon escaped, and fled to Sorrento, where his sister
Cornelia lived, and remained with her a short time.
Tasso solicited permission to return to Ferrara by a
letter to Alfonso, who consented to receive him on con
dition that he should submit to such treatment as the
physicians might prescribe. He accordingly returned in
1578, but was not restored to the favour of the duke nor
permitted to associate with Leonora. Before the end of
the year he absconded, and began to wander about from
city to city. By some strange infatuation, he was again
attracted to Ferrara in February, 1579, and was treated
with a coldness or neglect which provoked him to utter
offensive language against the duke. He was then con
fined in a hospital for lunatics, where he remained seven
years, during which he wrote several dialogues and philo
sophical treatises. In 1580 an incomplete or incorrect
edition of his " lerusalem Delivered" was published at
Venice, without the consent of the author. The first
complete edition appeared in 1581. It was censured by
many critics, in answer to whom he wrote a " Defence
of the Gerusalemme Liberata," (1585.) After his release
from the hospital (1586) he passed some months at
Mantua, as the guest of Vincenzo Gonzaga, and wrote
the tragedy of " Torrismondo," (1587.) About 1588 he
removed to Naples, where he was befriended by Gio
vanni Battista Manso. He published in 1593 a poem
called "Jerusalem Conquered," ("Gerusalemme Con-
quistata.")
Influenced by Cardinal Aldobrandini, the pope invited
Tasso to Rome, to be crowned with laurel, as Petrarch
had been. He accordingly went to Rome, and was
lodged in the pope's palace, but before the day of coro
nation arrived he died, in April, 1595. "Many more
Italian poets," says Hallam, "ought, possibly, to be com
memorated ; but we must hasten forward to the greatest
of them all. . . . The Jerusalem is the great epic poem,
in the strict sense, of modern times. It was justly
observed by Voltaire that, in the choice of his subject,
Tasso is superior to Homer. Whatever interest tra
dition might have attached among the Greeks to the
wrath of Achilles and the death of Hector, was slight
to those genuine recollections which were associated
with the first crusade. It was not the theme of a single
people, but of Europe. ... In the delineation of char
acter, at once natural, distinct, and original, Tasso must
give way to Homer, perhaps to some other epic and
romantic poets. . . . Yet here, also, the sweetness and
nobleness of his mind and his fine sense of moral beauty
are displayed. . . . The diction of Tasso excites per
petual admiration ; it is rarely turgid or harsh, and,
though more figurative than that of Ariosto, it is so
much less than that of most of our own or the ancient
poets, that it appears simple in our eyes. Virgil, to
whom we most readily compare him, is far superior in
energy, but not in grace." (" Introduction to the Litera
ture of Europe.") The "Gerusalemme Liberata" has
been translated into English by Carew, Fairfax, Hoole,
and Wiffen.
1810; EBERT, "T. Tasso's Leben," 1819 : ZUCCALA, "Delia Vita di
Tasso," 1819; R. WILDE, "Love and Madness of Tasso," New
York, 1842; R. MILMAN, "Lite of Tasso," 2 vols., 1850; AUG.
DESPLACES, " VieduTasse;" LEIGH HUNT, " Italian Poets;" LOXG-
FEI.I.OW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Lives of the Italian
Poets," by REV. HENRY STUBBING; VILI.EMAIN, " Cours de Lit-
terature ;" N. MOREI.LI, " Delia Vita di T. Tasso," 1834 ; L. CIBRA-
RIO, "Degii Amori e della Prigione di Tasso," 1862; "Nouvelle
Biographic Generate;" "Italian Narrative Poetry," in the "North
American Review" for October, 1824, (by PRESCOTT;) "Retro
spective Review," vol. ii., (1825;) "Horace and Tasso," in the
"Edinburgh Review" for October, 1850; "London Quarterly
Review'' for July, 1821, and June, 1826.
Tassoni, tas-so'nee, [Lat. TASSO'NUS,] ( AI.ESSANDRO,)
an Italian critic and satirist, born at Modena in 1565,
became secretary to Cardinal Ascanio Colonna at Rome.
He published in 1609 "Considerations on Petrarch,"
a rather severe criticism upon that poet, which gave rise
to a bitter controversy with several of the admirers ot
the bard of Vaucluse. Tassoni's principal work is a
satirical poem entitled "The Rape of the Bucket," ("La
Secchia rapita,") which is greatly admired for its humour.
It is founded on an incident occurring in a war between
Modena and Bologna, — the carrying off of a wooden
bucket from the latter city by the Modenese. Among
his other productions may be named his " Pensieri
Diversi," (1612,) or observations on various subjects,
literary and scientific. Died in 1635.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Lives of the
Italian Poets," by the REV. HENRY STEBBIVG ; "Italian Narrative
Poetry," in the " North American Review" for October, 1824, (by
PRESCOTT;) MURATORI, "Vitadi A. Tassoni," 1739: J. C. WALKER,
"Memoirs of A. Tassoni," 1815; TIRABOSCHI, "Storia della Let-
teratura Italiana;" DUBOIS-FONTANELLE, "Vie de Pierre Aretin et
d'A. Tassoni," 1768; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tassoni, (ALESSANDRO MARIA,) an Italian theologian,
•"born at Collalto in 1749. He wrote an eloquent work
entitled "La Religione climostrata e difeso," ("Religion
Explained and Defended," 3 vols., 1800-05.) In 1802
the pope appointed him auditor di rota. Died in 1818.
See LUIGI BIONDI, "Vita di A. M. Tassoni," 1822.
Tassonus. See TASSONI, (ALESSANDRO.)
Tassus, (TORQUATUS.) See TASSO.
Tastu, taVtii', (SAKINE CASIMIRE AMABI.E VOIART,)
a French authoress, born at Metz about 1798, was mar
ried in 1816 to M. Tastu. She wrote a number of
poems and educational works, which were received with
great favour. " Her style," says Longfellow, " frequently
suggests the impassioned manner and stately diction of
Mrs. Hemans."
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Eraser's
Magazine" for January, 1832.
Tate, (FRANCIS,) an English lawyer and antiquary,
born in Northamptonshire in 1560. He wrote sever il
works on British antiquities. Died in 1616.
Tate, (NAHUM,) a poet and dramatist, born at Dublin
in 1652. He succeeded Shadvvell as poet-laureate in
1690. He was the author of " Miscellanea Sacra, or
Poems on Divine and Moral Subjects," (1698,) " Pana
cea, a Poem on Tea," (1700,) a number of original dramas,
and an alteration of Shakspeare's " Lear." He made
a metrical version of the Psalms, in conjunction with
Nicholas Brady, which superseded that of Sternhold and
Hopkins. Tate also assisted Dryden in the composition
of his "Absalom and Achitophef." Died in 1715-
Tatian, ta'she-an, (or ta'she^un,) [Lat. TATIA'NUS ;
Fr. TATIEN, tt'se^N',] an ancient writer, born about
120 A.D., was a native of Syria, and was converted to
Christianity by Justin Martyr. He afterwards adopted
the heresy of the Marcionites, and founded a sect called
Tatianists. He was the author of a " Discourse to the
Heathen," and a " Harmony of the Four Gospels." The
former only is extant.
See EUSEBIUS, "Historia Ecclesiistica ;" RITTER, " History of
Christian Philosophy;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tatien. See TATIAN.
Tatishchef or Tatichtchef, ta-tesh-cheT, written
also Tatischtschew and Tatischev, (DMITRI PAV-
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; %h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
TATISHCHEF
2100
TAVERK1ER
LOVITCH,) a Russian statesman and diplomatist, born in
1769, was successively ambassador to Naples, Madrid,
and Vienna. He was a member of the imperial council
of Russia. Died in 1845.
Tatishchef, Tatischtchef, or Tatischtschew,
(VASILII NIKITITCH,) a Russian statesman, and Gov
ernor of Orenburg, born in 1686, was the author of the
first History of Russia, published in 1769. Died in 1750.
Tatius. See ACHILLES TATIUS.
Tatius, ta'she-us, (Trrus,) a king of the Sabines, who
was provoked by~the rape of the Sabine women to lead
a large army against the Romans. After a great but
indecisive battle, peace was restored through the me
diation of the Sabine women, and Romulus and Tatius
reigned jointly over the united Romans and Sabines
until the death of Tatius, which occurred soon after the
Tat'nall, (JosiAH,) an American naval officer, born
in Georgia, entered the navy about 1812. He became
a captain in 1850, and commanded a squadron in the
East Indies from 1856 to 1859. He took arms against
the Union in 1861, and commanded the famous iron-clad
Merrimac, (alias Virginia,) which lie destroyed by fire
on the nth of May, 1862, near Norfolk, to prevent the
Unionists from taking possession of the vessel.
Tat' tarn, (HENRY,) F.R.S., an English archaeologist,
born in '1788, became Archdeacon of Bedford in 1845.
He published, besides other works, " Lexicon Egyptiaco-
Latinum," (1835,) and " Prophetae Majores in Dialecto
Linguae ^Egyptiacae," (1852.)
Tatti. See SANSOVIXO, (jACoro.)
Taube, tow'beh, (FRIEDRICH WILHELM,) a German
historical and statistical writer, born in London about
1726. He practised law in Vienna. Died in 1778.
Taubert, tow'beRt, (WILHELM,) a German composer
and pianist, born in Berlin about 1812. Among his
works is an opera called " Blue-Beard," (" Blaubart.")
Taubmann, towp'man, [Lat.TAURMAN'Nus,] (FRIED-
RICH,) a German scholar and poet, born near Baireuth,
in Franconia, in 1565. He became professor of poetry
at Wittenberg in 1595, wrote elegant Latin poems, and
was distinguished for his wit. Died in 1613. A col
lection of his bon-mots, entitled "Taubmanniana," was
published in 1702. He published editions of Virgil
and Plant us.
See EBERT, " Leben und Verdienste Taubmann's," 1814; NICE-
RON, "Memoires."
Taubmannus. See TAURMANN.
Tauchnitz, towK'nits, (KARL CHRISTOPH TR.-YU-
GOTT,) a celebrated German printer and bookseller, born
near Grimma in 1761. About 1796 he founded at Leip-
sic a printing-establishment, which has since become one
of the most important in Germany. Among the mul
titudinous works issued from his press are splendid
editions of Homer and other Greek classics, the Hebrew
Bible, and the Koran in the original tongue. Died in
1836.
Tauler or Thauler, tow'ler, [Lat. TAULE'RUS,] (|o-
HANN,) an eminent German theologian, and founder
of the mystic theology in Germany, was born at Stras-
burg in 1290. He entered at an early age the order
of Dominicans, and subsequently stud'ied theology in
Paris. He gained a high reputation as a preacher, and
distinguished himself as an earnest reformer of the
Church. His principal work is entitled " Imitation
of the Humble Life of Christ," ("Nachfolge des armen
Lebens Christi.") As a prose writer, he effected a great
improvement in the German language. Many of his
writings have been translated into Latin and other lan
guages. Died in 1361.
See HODGSON, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867;
HEUPEL, " Memoria Tauleri," i6S8; ARND, " Die Historic Tauleri."
1689; C. SCHMIDT, " J. Tauler von Strassburg," etc., 1841 : F. W.
EDEL, " J. Tauler, Prediger zu Strasburg," etc., 1853: MADAME
WINKWORTH, " Life of J. Tauler," London, 1857 ; H. SIVERUD,
" Taulers Omvendelses Historie," 1772.
Taulerus. See TAULER.
_ Taulier, to'le-i', (MARC JOSEPH FREDERIC,) a French
jurist, was borrT'at Grenoble in 1806. He published
"Theorie raisonnee du Code civil," (6 vols., 1840-44.)
Taunay, to'ni', (AUGUSTE,) a French statuary, born
in Paris in 1769. He gained the grand prize of Rome
in 1792, and accompanied his brother Nicolas Antoine
to Brazil in 1816. Died in 1824.
Taunay, (NICOLAS ANTOINE,) a skilful French his
torical painter, brother of the preceding, was born in
Paris in 1755. He became a member of the Institute in
1795, visited Brazil in 1816, and returned to Paris in
1819. Died in 1830.
Taunton, LORD. See LAROUCHERE, (HENRY.)
Taun'ton, (Sir W. E.,) an English jurist, born at
Oxford, was appointed in 1830 a judge of the court of
king's bench. Died in 1835.
Taurellius. See TORKLLI.
Taur'I-on, [Gr. Tavpiuv,] a Macedonian general, who
had the chief command of the army in the Pelopon
nesus during the minority of Philip V., about 220 u.c.
He was an enemy of Aratus.
Tau-ris'cus OK TRAI.LK.S, a Greek sculptor, who, with
his brother Apollonius, executed a celebrated marble
group, called " Toro Farnese," which was found at
Rome in the sixteenth century, and is now in Naples.
(See APOLLONIUS.)
Tau'rus, (STATII.IUS,) a Roman general, who com
manded Mark Antony's fleet in the war against Sextus
Pompey. He received the honour of a triumph in 34
u.c. for his success in Africa, and commanded the laiul-
anny of Augustus at the battle of Actium, 31 H.c. In
the year 26 he was elected consul. Died alter 16 H.C.
Tausan. See TAUSSKN.
Taussen, tow'sen, written also Tausan and Tagesen,
(JOHAN,) a Danish theologian and Reformer, born in the
island of Fiinen in 1494. He studied at Wittenberg
under Luther, and subsequently devoted himself to pro
mulgating the Reformed religion in Denmark. lie was
appointed by Frederick I. preacher to the church of
Saint Nicholas at Copenhagen in 1529, and in 1541
made Bishop of Ripen. He published several theo
logical and controversial works. Died in 1561.
Tauvry, to'vRe', (DANIEL,) a French anatomist and
writer, born at Laval in 1669 ; died in 1701.
Tavannes, de, deh tt'vSn', ((JASPARD de Saulx —
cleh so,) a French general, born at Dijon in 1509. He
was taken prisoner at Pavia in 1525, and contributed to
the victory of Cerisoles, in 1544. He rendered important
services in the war against Charles V., and in tiie civil
war he fought against the Huguenots at Jarnac and
Moncontour. About 1570 he obtained the rank of mar
shal of France. Died in 1573.
Tavannes, de, (GUILLAUME DE SAULX,) SEIGNEUR,
a son of the preceding, was born in 1553. He was con
stantly loyal to Henry III. and Henry IV., and fought,
with the rank of general, against the League. He died
in 1633, leaving "Memoirs of Events from 1560 to
1596."
Tavannes, de, (JEAN DE SAULX,) VICOMTE, a French
general, born in 1555, was a son of Gaspard, noticed
above. As a partisan of the League, he fought against
Henry III. and Henry IV. Died about 1630.
Tavarone, ta-va-n/na, (LAZARO,) an Italian painter
of frescos and portraits, was born at Genoa in 1556. He
was a pupil of Luca Cambiaso, with whom he went to
Madrid. He painted some works in the Escurial for
the king. Died in 1641.
Tav'er-ner, (RICHARD,) an English religious writer,
born in Norfolk in 1505, was a lawyer and preacher.
He wrote several works to promote the Reformation,
and published a revised edition of the Bible, (1539,)
also "Postils on the Epistles and "Gospels." Died in
1575-
Tavernier, ti'veVne-a', (JEAN BAPTISTS,) Baron
d'Aubonne, a celebratecf~French traveller and merchant,
born in Paris in 1605. At an early age he visited the
principal parts of Europe, and, having entered the Aus
trian army, was present at the battle of Prague, in 1620.
He set out about 1630 for Palestine and Persia, where
he applied himself to merchandise in jewels, etc. After
having made six journeys to the East, he returned to
France with a large fortune, and was ennobled by Louis
XIV. His "Six Voyages en Turquie, en Perse et
aux Indes" came out in 1677, (3 vols. 410.) This work
obtained a wide popularity, and was translated into
several languages. Tavernier died at Moscow about
a, e, T, o, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, p, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
TAVERNIER
2101
TATLOR
1688, while on his seventh journey to the East Indies
by way of Russia.
See FKIEDLAENDER, " J. B. Tavernier Kammerherr," etc., 1849;
BAYLE, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Gene>ale."
Tavernier, tt'vSR'ne-i', (MELCHIOR,) a Flemish en
graver of maps, was b~oni at Antwerp in 1544. He
worked in Paris, where he died in 1641.
Tavernier, (MELCHIOR,) an engraver, a nephew of
the preceding, was born in Paris in 1594; died in 1665.
Tax'i-lejC[Gr. Ta^r/f,] sometimes called Tax'i-lus,
an Indian king, who reigned over the tract between the
Indus and Hydaspes when Alexander the Great invaded
India, 327 B.C. He was an ally of that conqueror in the
war against Porus.
Taxilus. See TAXILES.
Ta-yg'e-te, |Gr. Tai'yerj?; Fr. TAYGETE, tf'e-zhkt',]
one of the Pleiades, was said to be a daughter of Atlas,
and the mother of Lacedaemon, who was supposed to
be a son of Jupiter.
Tay'ler, (FREDERICK,) an English painter in water-
colours, born in Hertfordshire in 1804. Among his
master-pieces may be named "The Vicar of Wakefield's
Family going to Church," "Festival of the Popinjay,"
and "Weighing the Stag." His pictures include nu
merous hunting-scenes and views in the Highlands, and
are ranked among the best of their kind.
Tayler or Taylor, QOHN WILLIAM,) an English
mineralogist, born about 1822. He explored the mines
of Greenland about 1850-56.
Tay'lpr, (ALFRED SWAINE,) an English physician
and chemist, born in Kent in 1806. He became pro
fessor of medical jurisprudence and chemistry in Guy's
Hospital about 1832. He acquired a high reputation as
a lecturer and writer on medical jurisprudence and
toxicology. Among his works is a " Manual of Medical
Jurisprudence," (1844.)
Taylor, (ANN,) an English authoress, was the wife
of Isaac Taylor, noticed below. She wrote, besides
other works, "Maternal Solicitude." Died in 1830.
See " Memorials, Biographical and Literary, of the Taylor Family."
Tay'lor, (BAYARD, bi'ard,) a distinguished American
traveller, writer, and poet, born in Chester county, Penn
sylvania, in 1825. Having made a pedestrian tour in
Europe, he published, after his return, "Views Afoot;
or, Europe seen with Knapsack and Staff," (1846.)
In 1849 he became one of the editors of the New York
" Tribune," to which he soon after contributed a series of
letters descriptive of his European travels. He brought
out in 1850 "El Uorado ; or, Adventures in the Path of
Empire," being an account of a journey to California.
He spent the three ensuing years in visiting various
parts of Europe, Africa, Syria, China, and Japan, and
published in 1853 his "Journey to Central Africa,"
"Lands of the Saracen," "Visit to India, China, Loo
Choo," etc. These were followed by "Summer and
Winter Pictures of Sweden, Denmark, and Lapland,"
(1857,) and "Travels in Greece and Russia, with an
Excursion to Crete." Among his other works we may
name "Book of Romances, Lyrics, and Songs," (1851,)
"Poems of the Orient," (1854,) "Poems of Home and
Travel," (1855,) "At Home and Abroad, a Sketch-Book
of Life, Scenery, and Men," (1859,) and " Hannah Thurs-
ton," (1864,) a novel. Mr. Taylor has been a frequent
contributor to the " Atlantic Monthly" and other literary
journals. 3J.'r*. z),c.»,t,rr ,'*•?&
See the " North American Review" for April, 1847.
Taylor, (BROOK,) F.R.S., an eminent English mathe
matician, born at Edmonton in 1685. He was educated
at Cambridge, and inherited a competent fortune from
his father. He wrote, besides other works, a " Treatise on
Perspective," (1715,) and "Method of Increments," etc.,
("Methodus Incrementorum directa et inversa," 1715.)
In the latter work he announced the important discovery
of a theorem in the differential calculus, which is called
Taylor's theorem. Died in 1731.
Taylor, (CHARLES,) a biblical writer, was a brother
of Isaac Taylor of Ongar. He edited Calmet's "Dic
tionary of the Bible." Died in 1821.
Taylor, (CHEVALIER JOHN,) an English oculist, who
removed to the continent in 1733. He travelled exten
sively, and published an account of his travels. Died
after 1767.
Taylor, (GEORGE,) one of the signers of the Decla
ration of Independence, was born in Ireland in 1716. He
was elected to the Continental Congress in 1776. Died
in 1781.
Taylor, (GEORGE W.,) an American general, born at
Clinton, Hunterdon county, New Jersey, in 1808. He
commanded a brigade at the battle of Gaines's Mill,
June 27, 1862, and was mortally wounded at the battle
of Bull Run, and died September i of that year.
Taylor, (HENRY,) an English clergyman, born about
1710, is said to have been an Arian. He wrote an
"Essay on the Beauty of the Divine Economy." Died
in 1785.
Taylor, (HENRY,) an English poet and dramatist, born
about 1800, published "Philip Vain Artevelde," (1834,)
"Edwin the Fair, an Historical Drama," (1842,) "The
Eve of the Conquest, and other Poems," (1847,) also
several prose works, among which may be named "The
Statesman," (1836,) and " Notes from Life, in Six Essays,"
(1848.) His "Philip Van Artevelde," a drama, in blank
verse, has won for him a very high reputation, and has
been translated into German.
See R. H. HOKNE, "Spirit of the Age," 1844; "Edinburgh Re
view" for April, 1849 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" tor November, 1851 ;
" North British Review" for November, 1862, and December, 1865*
Taylor, (Sir HERBERT,) an English general, born in\
1775. He was private secretary to the Duke of York,
and to George III. Died in 1839.
Taylor, (ISAAC,) Senior, OF ONGAR, an English artist
and writer, was originally an engraver. In 1796 he became
minister of a dissenting congregation at Colchester. He
published a number of religious and educational works ;
among the latter we may name " Beginnings of Biogra
phy," and " Scenes for Tarry-at-Home Travellers." He
preached at Ongar from 1810 to 1829. Died in 1829.
Taylor, (ISAAC,) Junior, an eminent English writer, a
son of the preceding, was born in Suffolk in 1787. He
published a number of moral, philosophical, and theo
logical works of a high character. Among the most
important of these are a " History of the Transmission
of Ancient Books to Modern Times," (1827,) "The
Natural History of Enthusiasm," (1829,) "The Natural
History of Fanaticism," "Spiritual Despotism," "The
Physical Theory of Another Life," (1836,) "Ancient
Christianity," (2 vols., 1839-43,) and " Loyola and Jesu
itism," (1849.) Died in 1865.
See the "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1840; ALLIBONE, "Dic
tionary of Authors."
Taylor, tl'lor, ? (ISIDORE SEVERIN JUSTIN,) a Belgian
traveller and amateur artist, born at Brussels in 1789.
He visited Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, etc., and made a
valuable collection of works of art for the galleries and
museums of Paris. He published " Picturesque and
Romantic Journeys in Old France," (" Voyages pitto-
resques et romantiques de 1'ancienne France," 24 vols.,
1820-63.)
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Taylor, (JAMES,) a Scottish mechanician, born about
1757. He gained distinction as one of the inventors of
steam navigation. Died in 1825.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Taylor, (JANE,) a meritorious English writer, born in
London in 1783, was a sister of Isaac Taylor, Jr., noticed
above. In conjunction with her sister Ann, she composed
" Original Poems," which were very popular, and " Hymns
for Infant Minds," which passed through many editions.
She also published "Display," a tale, (1814,) a series
of able essays entitled " Contributions of Q. Q.," and
" Essays in Rhyme." Died in 1824.
See " Memorials, Biographical and Literary, of the Taylor Family,"
by the REV. I. TAYLOR, London, 1867; MRS. EI.WOOD, "Memoirs
of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement of the
Last Century, vol. ii., 1843.
Taylor, (JEREMY,) an English bishop and author of
great eminence, was born at Cambridge in 1613, and was
baptized on the I5th of August. He was a son of a
barber, and was educated at Caius College, Cambridge,
where he graduated as M.A. about 1633. Having taken
holy orders, he obtained the patronage of Archbishop
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
TAYLOR
2102
TAT LOR
Laud, through whose influence he was chosen a Fellow
of All Souls' College, Oxford, in 1636. He became rec
tor of Uppingham, in Rutlandshire, in 1638, and married
Phebe Landisdale (or Langsdale) in 1639. In the civil
war he was a decided adherent of Charles I., whom he
served as chaplain. He published in 1642 " Episcopacy
Asserted against the Acephali and Aerians, New and
Old." His rectory of Uppingham was sequestrated by
Parliament in 1642, after which he supported himself by
teaching school in Carmarthenshire. In 1647 he pro
duced one of his greatest works, " The Liberty of Pro
phesying," which, says Hallam, "was the first famous
plea, in this country, for tolerance in religion on a com
prehensive basis and on deep-seated foundations. Taylor,
therefore, may be said to have been the first who sapped
and shook the foundations of dogmatism and pretended
orthodoxy ; the first who taught men to seek peace in
unity of spirit rather than of belief, and, instead of ex
tinguishing dissent, to take away its sting by charity and
by a sense of human fallibility." (" Introduction to the
Literature of Europe.") He afterwards published his
"Holy Living and Dying," (1651,) "The Great Exem
plar, or the Life of Christ," (3 vols., 1653,) and "The
Golden Grove," (1654,) in which he displayed a rich
imagination and poetical genius. He was imprisoned
several times by the partisans of the Parliament during
the civil war. In 1658, at the invitation of Lord Con-
way, he removed to Lisburn, Ireland, where he officiated
as a clergyman. He was appointed Bishop of Down and
Connor in 1660. Before this date he had married a
second wife, who was a natural daughter of Charles I.
Among his principal works is a very learned treatise on
casuistry, entitled " Ductor Dubitantium," ("Rule of
Conscience," 1660.) He was intrusted with the adminis
tration of the small see of Dromore in 1661. He died
at Lisburn in August, 1667, leaving three daughters.
" His Sermons," says Hallam, " are far above any
that had preceded them in the English Church. An
imagination essentially poetical, and sparing none of
the decorations which by critical rules are deemed almost
peculiar to verse ; a warm tone of piety, sweetness, and
charity ; an accumulation of circumstantial accessories
whenever he reasons, or persuades, or describes, . . .
distinguish Taylor from his contemporaries by their
degree, as they do from most of his successors by their
kind. . . . The eloquence of Taylor is great, but it is
not eloquence of the highest class ; it is far too Asiatic,
too much in the style of Chrysostom and other declaimers
of the fourth century, by the study of whom he had
probably vitiated his taste ; his learning is misplaced,
and his arguments often as much so ; not to mention
that he has the common defect of alleging nugatory
proofs ; his vehemence loses its effect by the circuity of
his pleonastic language." (" Introduction to the Lite
rature of Europe.")
See H. K. BONNY, "Life of Jeremy Taylor," 1815; REGINALD
HEBER, "Life of Jeremy Taylor," 1824; R. WILLMOTT, " Bishop
J. Taylor, his Predecessors," etc., 1846; ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of
Authors."
Taylor, (JOHN,) surnamed THE WATER POET, born
at Gloucester, in England, in 1580, was originally a
waterman in London. His verses possess but little
intrinsic merit, but they are valuable as illustrations
of society and manners at that time. Died in 1654.
See ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Taylor, (JOHN,) an English dissenting divine, born
in Lancashire about 1680. He was the author of a
"Sketch of Moral Philosophy," "The Scripture Doc
trine of Original Sin," a " Hebrew Concordance," and
other works. Died in 1761.
Taylor, (JOHN,) LL.D., an eminent English jurist and
scholar, born at Shrewsbury about 1703. He became a
Fellow of Saint John's College, Cambridge, and subse
quently was made registrar of the university. He was
profoundly versed in Greek and Roman law, and pub
lished an edition of the " Orations" of Lysias. He also
edited some of the works of Demosthenes, and other
Greek classics. He also wrote " Elements of Civil Law,"
(*755-) Having entered into holy orders, Dr. Taylor
was created in 1757 canon-residentiary of Saint Paul's.
Died in 1766.
Taylor, (JOHN,) an American Senator, born in Orange
county, Virginia. He was elected a Senator of the
United States by the legislature of Virginia in 1792, in
1803, and in 1822. He was distinguished as an agricul
turist. Died in Caroline county, Virginia, in 1824.
Taylor, (Jon.\,) an English writer, was a son of
Henry, noticed above. He wrote songs, epigrams,
humorous tales, etc. Died in 1832.
Taylor, (JoHN,) an English political economist, born
in 1781. He wrote "The Identity of Junius with a
Distinguished Living Character Established," (1818,)
also " Essays on Currency," etc. Died in 1864.
Taylor, (JoHN \V.,) an American statesman, born in
Saratoga county, New York, in 1784. He studied law,
and represented a district of New York in Congress
from 1813 to 1833. He made an eloquent speech against
the establishment of slavery in Missouri, February, 1819.
He was Speaker of the House of Representatives in the
second session of the Sixteenth Congress, (1820-21,)
during the passage of the Missouri Compromise. He
removed about 1843 to Cleveland, Ohio, where he died
in 1854.
Taylor, (NATHANIEL WILLIAM,) D.D., an eminent
American divine and pulpit orator, born at New Milford,
Connecticut, in 1786. In 1812 he succeeded Moses
Stuart as pastor of the First Congregational Church at
New Haven, and in 1822 became D wight professor of
didactic theology at Yale College. He svrote a number
of theological essays, which favour the views of Jonathan
Edwards. Died in 1858.
Taylor, (RICHARD,) an English printer and journalist,
born at Norwich in 1781, became associate editor of the
"Philosophical Magazine," and in 1838 founded the
"Annals of Natural History." He published editions
of Warton's " History of English Poetry," and of other
standard works. Died in 1858.
Taylor, (RICHARD,) an American general, was a son
of President Zachary Taylor. He commanded a Con
federate army in Louisiana in 1863. His army resisted
General Banks with success near Mansfield and Pleasant
Hill, Louisiana, in April, 1864. He surrendered to
General Canby on the 4th of May, 1865, near Mobile.
Taylor, (RICHARD COWLING,) an English geologist,
born in Suffolk in 1789. Having emigrated to America
in 1830, he was employed in geological explorations in
Pennsylvania and other parts of the United States. He
published in 1848 a valuable work entitled " Statistics
of Coal." Died in 1851.
Taylor, (Sir ROBERT,) an English sculptor and archi
tect, born in 1714. He studied at Rome, and after his
return to London devoted himself principally to archi
tectural works. Among his most admired structures
we may name Lord Grimstone's mansion at Gorham-
bury. He died in 1788, leaving a fortune of ^180,000,
a portion of which he bequeathed to the University of
Oxford towards founding an institute for the study of
modern languages.
Taylor, (ROWLAND,) an English clergyman, chaplain
to Archbishop Cranmer, was condemned, under the
reign of Queen Mary, to be burnt at the stake. The
sentence was executed in February, 1555-
Taylor, (SiLAS,) sometimes called D'OMVILLK, an
English scholar and antiquary, born in Shropshire in
1624. He was the author of "The History of Gavel-
kind," etc., and prepared a " History of Harwich," pub
lished after his death, which occurred in 1678.
Taylor, (STEPHEN WILLIAM,) LL.D., an American
teacher, born in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in
1791. He became in 1838 professor of mathematics and
natural philosophy in Madison University, New York,
of which he was subsequently president. Died in 1856.
Taylor, (THOMAS,) an English Puritan minister, born
in Yorkshire in 1576. He preached in London, and
published several volumes of sermons. Died in 1632.
Taylor, (THOMAS,) an eminent English scholar, sur
named THE PLATONIST, born in London in 1758. From
early youth he applied himself with ardour to the study
of the Greek philosophers, and about 1780 began the
publication of a series of translations from the classics,
including the writings of Plato and Aristotle. Besides
the above, Mr. Taylor translated "The Hymns of Or-
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: fir, fill, fat; m£t; ndt; goo ;; mooi
TAT LOR
2103
TCHING-TCHING KONG
pheus," (1787,) "Proclus on Euclid," (1792,) Pausa-
nias's "Description of Greece," (1794,) "Five Books of
Plotinus," (1794,) "The Six Books of Proclus on the
Theology of Plato," (1816,) "lamblichus on the Mys
teries of the Egyptians, Chaldeans," etc., (1821,) "The
Metamorphoses and Philosophical Works of Apuleius,"
(1822,) "Select Works of Porphyry," (1823,) "Argu
ments of Celsus relative to the Christians, taken from
Origen,'' etc., "Proclus on Providence and Evil," (1833,)
and other classics. He also published, among other
original treatises, a "Dissertation on the Eleusinian and
Bacchic Mysteries." Died in 1835. Mr. Taylor was
distinguished for his great conversational powers and
attractive social qualities, which gained for him the
friendship of many persons of wealth and influence, by
whose assistance he was enabled to publish his volumi
nous works. Among his patrons the Duke of Norfolk
and Mr. Meredith deserve especial mention for their mu
nificence. As a translator from the Greek, Mr. Taylor
does not hold a high rank, but he merits the gratitude
of the admirers of Plato for having done so much to
attract attention to the works of that philosopher.
See J. WELSH, "Notice of Thomas Taylor," iS^r : " Xouvelle
Biographic Generale:" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1809; ALLI-
BON'E, " Dictionary of Authors."
Taylor, (TOM,) an English litterateur, born in Dur
ham in 1817. He was elected a Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge, and subsequently became professor of the
English language and literature at University College,
London. He has published a "Biography of Benjamin
Robert Havdon," "The Unequal Match," and other
dramas, and has been a frequent contributor to " Punch."
He was appointed secretary to the board of health in
1854, and secretary to a department of the home office
about 1866.
Taylor, (WILLIAM,) an accomplished English writer
and translator, born at Norwich in 1765. He acquired
a knowledge of the French, German, and Italian lan
guages during a residence on the continent, and pub
lished, after his return, an excellent translation of
Burger's " Lenore," and other German poems. His
version of Lessing's "Nathan der Weise" came out in i
1806, and a collection of his translations, entitled a
" Survey of German Poetry," was published in 1830.
He also wrote a work on English synonyms, and essays
on the German poets. Died in 1836.
See a "Memoir of the Life and Writings of the Late William
Taylor," etc., by T. W. ROBBKRDS; "London Quarterly Review"
for December, 1843.
Taylor, (WILLIAM COOKE,) an Irish writer, born at
Youghal in 1800, published a number of biographical
and historical works. Among the principal we may
name a " History of France and Normandy," (1830,)
"History of Popery," (1837,) and "Life and Times of
Sir Robert Peel," (3 vols., 1846-51.) Died in 1849.
Taylor, (ZACHARY,) a distinguished American gene
ral, and the twelfth President of the United States, was
born in Orange county, Virginia, in 1784. He was a son of
Colonel Richard Taylor. He was educated in Kentucky,
his father having removed to Louisville, in that State,
about 1785. He entered the army in 1808, and married
Margaret Smith in 1810. In the war which began in
1812 he served as captain against the Indians. He ob
tained the rank of colonel in 1832, and was employed in
the war against Black Hawk the same year. He de
feated the Seminoles at Okechobee in December, 1837,
and was appointed commander-in-chief of the army in
Florida in April, 1838. About 1840 he purchased an
estate near Baton Rouge, on which he settled. He com
manded an army which was sent in the summer of 1845
to Corpus Christi, near the mouth of the Nueces River.
"Mr. Polk and his cabinet desired General Taylor to
debark at, occupy, and hold the east bank of the Rio
Grande, though they shrank from the responsibility
of giving an order to that effect, hoping that General
Taylor would take a hint. . . . Official hints and innuen
does, that he was expected to advance to the Rio Grande,
continued to reach him ; but he disregarded them ;
and at length, about the 1st of March, 1846, he received
positive orders from the President to advance." (Greeley,
"American Conflict," vol. i. p. 1 86.) On the 8th of
May he was attacked at Palo Alto by the Mexican army,
which he signally defeated. He gained another victory
at Resaca de la Palma on the gth of May, soon after
which he was promoted to the rank of major-general.
On the 22cl of February, 1847, he defeated Santa Anna in
a hard-fought battle at Buena Vista. He received from
his soldiers the familiar name of " Rough and Ready."
In June, 1848, he was nominated as candidate for the
Presidency by the Whig National Convention. His com
petitors were Lewis Cass, Democrat, and Martin Van
Buren, Free-Soil. General Taylor received one hundred
and sixty-three electoral votes, (cast by fifteen States, in
cluding New York and Pennsylvania,) and was elected.
In the next Congress, which met in December, 1849, the
Democrats had the majority. An exciting contest en
sued about the organization of the spacious territories
recently ceded by Mexico to the United States, and the
admission of California, which had formed a constitution
excluding slavery. In his message of December, 1849,
the President recommended the admission of California,
which was violently opposed by the Southern members
of Congress, who threatened to dissolve the Union. This
difficulty was obviated or postponed by Mr. Clay's Com
promise bill, which gave the pro-slavery party some
compensation for the admission of California, by more
effectual enactments for the rendition of fugitive slaves
to their masters. According to this bill, New Mexico
and Utah were to be organized without the Wilmot
proviso; that is, the people of those territories were per
mitted to decide whether slavery should be admitted or
prohibited. Before the passage of this compromise bill,
President Taylor died, on the 9th of July, 1850, and the
executive power devolved on the Vice-President, Millard
Fillmore. The administration of President Taylor was
generally popular, especially in the Free States, but it
gave great dissatisfaction to the extreme pro-slavery
party of the South.
See C. F. POWELL, "Life of General Taylor," 1846; "North
American Review" for January, 1851 ; " New American Cyclo
paedia."
TazewelL, taz'wel, (LITTLETON W.,) an American
lawyer and Senator, born at Williamsburg, Virginia, in
1774. He was a Senator of the United States from
1824 to 1832, and was elected Governor of Virginia in
1834. Died at Norfolk in 1860.
Tcheou-Kong. See TcHEW-KpNG.
Tchernyshef, cheR'ne-sheT', written also Tscher-
nyschew and Tschernytschew, (ALEXANDER IVANO-
VITCH,) a Russian general and diplomatist, born in 1779,
served with distinction in several campaigns against the
French, and was ambassador to Paris in 1811. He was
present at the Congress of Vienna, and soon after the
accession of Nicholas was appointed minister of war
and chief of the imperial staff of generals. In 1848 he
became president of the imperial council, having been
previously made a prince of the empire.
Tchernyshef or Tschernyschew, (GREGORY,) a
Russian general in the service of Peter the Great, was
born in 1672. He was appointed Governor of Livonia
in 1726, and ennobled by the empress Elizabeth in 1742.
Died in 1745.
His sons ZAKHAR (SACHAR) and IVAN rose to the
rank of field-marshal ; and a third son, Count PETER,
became minister-plenipotentiary to the courts of Berlin
and Paris.
Tchew-Kong, choo kong, or Tcheou-Kong, a Chi
nese legislator, is supposed to have lived eleven cen
turies before the Christian era. He filled several high
offices under the government, and also enjoyed a high
reputation as an astronomer, poet, and warrior.
Tchihatchef, von, fon che'ha-cheT, (PETER,) a Rus
sian geologist, born near Saint Petersburg in 1812. He
spent about six years in the exploration of Asia Minor.
He published in 1846 an account of his exploration of
the Altai Mountains, entitled "Voyage scientifique dans
1'Altai et dans les Contrees adjacentes," and a valuable
work entitled " Asia Minor, a Physical, Statistical, and
Archaeological Description of that Country," (in French,
2 vols., 1853-56.)
Tching-Tching Kong, ching ching kong, a Chinese
admiral, sometimes called Koxinga, fought against the
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
TCHITCHAGOF
2 104
TEX ELI
Mantchoo Tartars, whom he besieged in the city of
Nanking about 1656. He subsequently drove the Dutch
from the island of Formosa, and concluded a treaty with
the English for the purpose of obtaining their aid against
the Mantchoos. Died about 1670.
Tchitchagof, Tchitchagov, or Tschitschagow,
chitch'a-gof, (PAUL VASILIEVITCH,) a Russian admiral
and general, was born in 1766. He was minister of the
marine in the first years of the reign of Alexander I.,
and became an admiral in 1807. In 1812 he received
command of an army destined to intercept the retreat
of Napoleon from Moscow, but he failed in that design.
He resigned soon after, and passed the rest of his life in
foreign countries. Died in Paris in 1849.
Tchitchagof or Tschitschagow, (VASILII YAKOV-
LEVITCH,) a Russian admiral, born in 1726, served in the
Seven Years' war, and in 1790 gained a victory over
the Swedes near Viborg. He was the father of the
preceding. Died in 1809.
Tchoung-Ni. See CONFUCIUS.
Tebaldeo, ta-Ml'da-o, or Tibaldeo, te-bdl'da-o,
(ANTONIO,) an Italian poet, born at Ferrara in 1456,
published numerous lyrics and pastorals, in Italian, also
Latin epigrams and other poems, which were esteemed
by his contemporaries. Died in 1537.
Tebaldus. See THEOKAI.DUS.
Te-cum'seh, a celebrated Indian chief of the Shawnee
tribe, was born near the Scioto River, Ohio, about 1770.
Having effected an alliance of the Western Indians
against the whites, a battle was fought at Tippecanoe
in 1811, in which the former were defeated by General
Harrison. Tecumseh joined the English in the war of
1812, obtained the rank of brigadier-general, and was
killed at the battle of the Thames, in 1813, where he
commanded the right wing.
Tedaldi-Fores, ta-ddl'dee fo'res, (CARLO,) an Italian
poet, born at Cremona in 1793. Among his works are
tragedies entitled " Bondelmonte" and "Beatrice Ten-
da," which are praised by Sismondi in the " Biographic
Universelle." Died in 1829.
Tedeschi, ta-des'kee, (NiccoL6,) surnamed PANOR-
MITANO, pa-noR-me-ta'no, [Lat. PANORMITA'NUS; Fr.
LE PANORMITAIN, leh pt'noR'me'taN', i.e. "the Paler-
mian,"] an Italian canonist, born at Catania in 1386.
He distinguished himself at the Council of Bale, sup
ported the anti-pope Felix V., and became a cardinal in
1440. Died in 1445.
Tefft, left, (BENJAMIN FRANKLIN,) D.D., LL.D., an
American Methodist divine, born in Oneida county,
New York, in 1813. He was appointed professor of
Greek and Hebrew in the Asbury University, Indiana,
and subsequently became president of Genesee Col
lege, New York. lie has published several theological
works.
Tegel, tii'gel, (ERIC,) a Swedish historian, was ap
pointed historiographer by Gustavus Adolphus in 1614.
He wrote a " History of Gustavus I.," (1622,) and other
works. Died in 1638.
Tegethoff, von, fon ta'get-hof, (WILHELM,) an Aus
trian vice-admiral, born in Styria in 1827. He became
a captain in 1857, and defeated the Danish fleet near
Heligoland in May, 1864. Having obtained the chief
command of the Austrian fleet, with the rank of rear-
admiral, he gained a decisive victory over the Italians
at Lissa, in the Adriatic, July 19, 1866.
Tegner, teng-naiR' or t§ng-nnR', (E.SAIAS,) the most
celebrated poet of Sweden, was born in Wermland in
1782. He studied at the University of Lund, and in
1812 became professor of Greek in that institution. He
had previously published a number of lyrics, and several
larger poems, entitled " Svea," (1811,) which obtained
the prize from the Swedish Academy, "Children of the
Lord's Supper," (1820,) and " Axelj" (1821.) Having
graduated in theology, he was appointed in 1824 Bishop
of Wexio. His " Frithiofssaga," published in 1825, is
esteemed his best production. It has obtained a world
wide reputation, and been translated into the principal
modern languages, four different versions of it having
appeared in German. Among his other works may
be named " Schulreden" and "Orations," which were
greatly admired, and were translated into German by
Mohnike. Tegner died in November, 1846, and a
colossal statue, admirably executed by Svarnstrom, was
raised to his memory at Lund in 1853. Several of his
poems have been translated by Longfellow. He had
married Anna Myrhman in 1806, and left six children.
" E. Tegner, the greatest poet of Sweden, was a
native of Wermland. His ' Frithiof Saga,' though not
a regular epic, — for it is rather a bundle of lyrical
poems woven into one epic cycle, — is yet a complete
and great poem. . . . We have had five or six transla
tions of ' Frithiof,' none of which give any conception
of the exquisite beauty and splendour of the original."
(See article on "Scandinavian Literature" in the "En
cyclopaedia Britannica.")
See FRANZEN, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver E. Tegner," iS46; E. (',.
GEIJER, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver E. Testier." 1846; BOET'TIGKR, " E.
Tegner's Levnet," 1847; ACHARD KAMI., " Tegner och bans Somtida
i Lund," 1851; HAGBERG, " Minnetal ofver E. Tegner," 1847;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" HOWITT, " Literature and Ro
mance of Northern Europe;" LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of
Europe ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1828 ; " Foreign
Quarterly Review" for September, 1828 ; " North American Review"
for July, ,837.
Tegoborski, ta-go-boR'skee, (LEWIS,) a Polish econ
omist and diplomatist, born at Warsaw in 1793. He
published, besides other works, " Studies on the Pro
ductive Forces of Russia," (4 vols., 1852-54.) He was
a privy councillor of Russia. Died in 1857.
Teia, tee'ya, the last king of the Ostrogoths in Italy,
began to reign in 552 A.D., as the successor of Totila.
He was killed near Vesuvius, in a battle against Narses,
'» 553-
Teichmeyer, tlK'ml'er, (HERMANN FRIEDRICH,) an
eminent German physician, born at Minden in 1685.
He became professor of anatomy, etc. at Jena in 1727,
and published several works. Died in 1746.
Teigumouth, tin'miith, (Jon.\ SHORE,) LORD, an
English statesman and writer, born in Devonshire in
1751. He was appointed in 1773 Persian translator and
secretary to the provincial council of Moorshedabad,
in India, and subsequently became a member of the
supreme council under Lord Cornwallis. He was made
a baronet in 1792, and in 1793 succeeded Cornwallis as
Governor-General of India. He resigned this office in
1797, and was soon after made a peer of Ireland, with
the title of Baron Teignmouth. lie had been elected in
1794 president of the Asiatic Society, and in 1804 be
came first president of the British and Foreign Bible
Society. He published " Memoirs of the Life, Writings,
and Correspondence of Sir William Jones," (1804,)
afterwards prefixed to an edition of Jones's works which
he brought out in 1807 in 13 vols. 8vo. Lord Teignmouth
also wrote "Considerations on Communicating to the
Inhabitants of India the Knowledge of Christianity,"
(1811.) He died in 1834, having been previously ap
pointed a member of the privy council of India.
See " Life of Lord Teignmouth," by RICHARD TEMPLE, 1859.
Teil, du, dii t.\I or uVye, (JEAN PIERRE,) BARON, a
French general, born in Dauphine in 1722. He was
commandant of the school of artillery at Auxonne, and
rendered some services to Bonaparte, who was a lieuten
ant under him. Bonaparte left a legacy of one hundred
thousand francs to the heirs of Du Teil. Died in 1794.
Teiresias. See TIRESIAS.
Teisserenc, tis'ro.s', (PIERRE EDMOND,) a French
writer on railroads, was born at Chateauroux in 1814.
Teissier, ti'se-i', (ANTOINE,) a French jurist and
writer, born at Montpellier in 1632. He was patronized
by the Elector of Brandenburg, afterwards Frederick I.
of Prussia, who made him a councillor of state and his
historiographer, and also appointed him preceptor to his
son. He made translations from Saint Chrysostotn, Saint
Clement, and Calvin, and wrote " Eulogies of Learned
Men, taken from the History of M. de Thou," (1683,)
and other works. Died in 1715.
See NICERON, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Teissier, (GUILLAUME FERDINAND,) a French anti
quary, born at Marly-la- Ville in 1779. He wrote, besides
other works, a "History of Thionville," (1828.) Died
in 1834.
Teissier, (JEAN ANTOINE.) See MARGUERITTES.
Tekeli. See TOKELY.
, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon;
TELAMON
2105
TELLEZ
Tel'a-mon, [Gr. Tehauuv ; Fr. TELAMON, ta'
a hero of classic mythology, was a king of Salami's, a
brother of Peleus, and the father of Ajax and Teucer,
whose mother was Hesione, a daughter of Laomeclon.
He took part in the Argonautic expedition, and fought
for Hercules against Laomeclon and against the Amazons.
Tel-e-cli'des or Tel-e-clei'des, [Tr//.t-K/.«'(57/o,] an
Athenian comic poet of the old comedy, flourished about
444 B.C. His works are lost.
Te-leg'o-nus, [Gr. TV^oroc : Fr. TELEGONE, ta'Ia'-
gon',] a son of Ulysses and Circe, was, according to
the fable, thrown by shipwreck on the island of Ithaca.
Being urged by hunger, he began to pillage from the
natives, and was attacked by Ulysses, whom he killed,
not knowing who he was.
Teleki or Teleky, ta'leh-ke, (LADISLAUS,) a Hun
garian patriot, orator, and writer, born at Pesth in 1811.
He was elected to the House of Representatives by the
Liberal party in 1848, and took an active part in the
movement for the independence of Hungary. During
his absence on a mission to France, he was condemned
to death by the Austrians. He was elected in 1860 a
member of the Diet, in which he acted with the radical
party. He died, probably by suicide, in May, 1861.
Te-lem'a-ehus, [Gr.Tritefiaxoe; Fr. TELEMAQUE, ta'-
li'mik',] son of Ulysses (King of Ithaca) and Penelope,
was induced by Minerva, under the form of Mentes,
(called also Mentor,) King of the Taphians, to undertake
a voyage in search of his father, who had engaged with
the other Grecian princes in the Trojan war. After
his return home, he discovered Ulysses disguised as a
beggar, and, with his assistance, put to death the suitors
of Penelope. The fortunes of Telemachus form the
subject of the admirable moral romance of Fenelon.
After the death of his father he is said to have married
Nausicaa, or, as some say, Circe. (See the "Odyssey.")
Telemann, ta'leh-man', (GEOKG PHILIPP,) a German
composer, born at Hildesheim in 1681, was appointed
director of music at Hamburg. His works were prin
cipally operas. Died in 1767.
Teiemaque. See TELKMACHUS.
Tel-e-phas'sa, [Gr. T7//£oaaoa : Fr. TELEPHASSE, ta'-
la'ffs',] the wife of Agenor, and the mother of Cadmus,
Europa, and Phoenix.
Telephe. See TELEPHUS.
Tel'e-phus, [Gr. T///.COOC; Fr. TELEPHE, ta'lkf.l an
ancient hero, the son of Hercules and Auge, was King
of Mysia, in Asia Minor. He passed many years in
poverty and exile. He fought against the Greeks in
the beginning of the Trojan war, and was wounded by
Achilles. An oracle which he consulted informed him
that his wound could only be cured by him who inflicted
it. Having persuaded Achilles to heal his wound, he
became an ally of the Greeks. Euripides and Sopho
cles each wrote a tragedy entitled "Telephus."
Tel-e-sil'la, [Gr. TeXeottto; Fr. TELESILLK, ti'la'-
sel',] a Greek lyric poetess, born at Argos, lived about
510 B.C. She is said to have served in the army against
Sparta, and to have been equally celebrated for her
courage and poetical genius.
Teiesio, ta-la'se-o, (ANTONIO,) an Italian poet and
scholar, born at Cosenza in 1482. He was professor of
Latin, etc. at Rome and Venice. Died in 1534.
Teiesio, [Lat. TELE'SIUS,] (BERNARDINO,) an Italian
philosopher, born at Cosenza in 1508 or 1509, was a
nephew of the preceding. He distinguished himself as
an opponent of the philosophy of Aristotle and an
asserter of mental independence. He published some
new ideas in his book " On the Nature of Things ac
cording to Proper Principles," (" De Natura Rerum
juxta propria Principia.") He was persecuted by the
clergy for his opinions. Died in 1588.
See LOTTER, "DeVita et Philosophia B. Telesii," 1733 : RIXNER
and SIBER, " Bernardin. Telesius." 1820: NICERON, " Memoires ;"
C. BARTHOLOMESS, " Dissertatio de B. Teiesio," 1849: GINGUENE,
" Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Telesius. See TF.LESIO.
Te-les'pho-rus, Bishop of Rome, is supposed to have
been elected in 127. Died in 138 A.D.
Te-leVtas or Te-les'tes, [Tf/£<ira? or Tetearijs,] an
Athenian dithyrambic poet, flourished about 400 B.C.
Tel'ford, (THOMAS,) an eminent Scottish engineer,
born in Dumfriesshire in 1757. He was the son of a
shepherd, and was apprenticed at an early age to a
stone-mason. Having subsequently removed to London,
he was employed in various architectural works, and
in 1796 completed an iron bridge over the Severn. In
1801 he finished the Ellesmere Canal, which was fol
lowed by the aqueduct bridge over the valley of the
Dee, and the Caledonian Ship-Canal, esteemed one of
his greatest works. His improvement of the harbours
of Aberdeen and Dundee, the construction of the Saint
Catherine docks, London, and the Menai suspension
bridge, are also monuments of engineering skill. Mr.
Telford was a Fellow of the Royal Societies of London
and Edinburgh, and was for many years president of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, to which he bequeathed
£2000 for a premium-fund. He contributed a number
of articles on architecture, inland navigation, etc. to the
"Edinburgh Encyclopasdia." Died in 1834.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"
"Edinburgh Review" for October, 1839; "Quarterly Review" for
April, 1839.
Teligny, de, deh teh-len'ye', (CHARLES,) a French
Protestant officer and able negotiator. He served with
distinction in the civil wars, and was employed in sev
eral treaties between his party and the court. He mar
ried in 1571 Louise de Coligny, a daughter of Admiral
de Coligny, and perished in the massacre of August,
1572, at Paris. His widow afterwards was married to
William the Silent, Prince of Orange.
See HAAG, "La France protestante."
Tell, t£l, (WiLHELM,) a celebrated Swiss hero and
patriot, born in the canton of Uri in the latter part of
the thirteenth century. In 1307 he entered into a league
with his father-in-law, Walter Fiirst, Stauffacher von
Schwyz, and Arnold von Melchthal to resist the tyranny
of the Austrian governor, Hermann Gessler. This officer
having insolently required the Swiss to make obeisance
to his hat, which was hung up in public, Tell refused to
comply, upon which Gessler commanded him to shoot
an apple from the head of his son, and, if he failed to
hit the mark, his life should be the penalty. Tell struck
the apple, but, on being asked what he intended to do
with a second arrow which he carried, replied that in case
he had killed his son it was destined for Gessler. For
this he was taken prisoner on the governor's vessel ; but,
a violent storm arising, he was required to steer the boat,
and, watching his chance, sprang on shore. Gessler,
having landed soon after, was shot, by Tell, while on his
way to Kussnacht. These incidents form the subject
of Schiller's most popular drama. In the opinion of
some of the best modern critics, there is a considerable
infusion of the mythic element in the history of Tell as
it has come down to us. According to tradition, William
Tell was drowned about 1350, while attempting to save
a child, — an event which Uhland has celebrated in one
of his lyrics.
See IDELER, " Die Sapce vom Schusse des Tell," 1836; G. E. VON
HALLER, "Rede iiber \V. Tell," 1772: "Les Origiues de la Con
federation Suisse," by A. RII.I.IET, Geneva, i86S; J. VON Mur.LER,
" Histoire de la Suisse ;" HENNING, " W. Tell," 1836 ; J. J. HISELY,
"G. Tell, Mythe et Histoire," etc., 1843; BARING-GOULD, "Curious
Myths of the Middle Ages;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;"
"Edinburgh Review" for January, 1869.
Teller, tel'ler, (WILHELM ABRAHAM,) a German
theologian, and professor of theology at Helmstedt, was
born at Leipsic in 1734. He was the author of a " Manual
of Christian Faith," " Dictionary of the New Testament,"
and other religious works. Died in 1804.
Tellez. See ELEANOR OF PORTUGAL.
Tellez, tel-lez', (BALTHAZAR,) a learned Portuguese
Jesuit, born at Lisbon in 1595. He became professor
of theology in his native city, having previously taught
belles-lettres, philosophy, etc. in the principal colleges
of Portugal. He was the author of a valuable " History
of Ethiopia," including an account of the Jesuit missions
in that country, " History of the Society of Jesus in Por
tugal," and "Compendium of Universal Philosophy,"
(" Summa universae Philosophise.") He was appointed
provincial of the order of Jesuits in Portugal. Died in
1675.
See BARBOSA MACHADO, " Bibliotheca Lusitano."
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
TELLEZ
2106
TEMPLE
Tellez, tel-ye'th/, (GABRIEL,) a celebrated Spanish
dramatist, known by his pseudonym of TIKSO DK MOLINA,
(teK'so da mo-lee'na,) was born at Madrid about 1585.
Having taken holy orders, he became prior of the con
vent of Soria in 1645. His comedies are said to have
amounted to three hundred, only sixty-eight of which
have been preserved. Among these may be named " El
Condenado por Desconfiado," "The Woman who Com
mands at Home," (" La Muger que manda en Casa,")
"Prudence in Woman," (" Prudencia en la Muger,")
"The Country-Girl of La Sagra," ("La Villana de La
Sagra,") "The Scoffer of Seville," ("El Burlador de
Sevilla,") which was imitated by Moliere in his " Festin
de Pierre," and " The Bashful Man in the Palace," ("El
Vergonzoso en Palacio.") These dramas are ranked
among the master-pieces of the Spanish theatre, being
esteemed second only to those of Lope de Vega, whom
Tellez made his model. Died in 1648.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" article TIRSO
DE MOI.INA, in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tellez da Sylva, tel-leV dd sel'va, (MANGEL,) Mar
quis d'Alegrete and Count de Villamayor, a Portuguese
litterateur, born in Lisbon in 1682; died in 1736.
Tellier, Le. See LK TELLIER and Louvois.
Telluccini, t§l-loot-chee'nee, (MARIO,) called BER-
NINO, an Italian poet, lived about 1560-90. Among his
works is " Artemidoro," a poem, (1566.)
Tel'lus or Ter'ra, [Gr. P;j> or Tea,] the goddess of
the earth, in Roman mythology, was called the wife of
Uranus or Ccelus.
Temanza, ta-man'za, (TOMMASO,) a Venetian architect
and writer, born in 1705. He built the church of Santa
Maria Maddalcna at Venice, the bridge of Dolo over
the Brenta, and the facade of Santa Margarita at Padua.
His "Lives of the Most Eminent Venetian Architects
and Sculptors of the Sixteenth Century" (1777) is
esteemed a standard work. He also published several
treatises on architecture and antiquities. Died in 1789.
See NEGKI, " Notizie intorno alia Persona ed alle Opere di T.
Temanza," 1830.
Temme, tem'meh, (Jooocus, yo-do'kus,) a German
jurist and liberal politician, born at Lette, Westphalia,
in 1799. He was elected to the Prussian National
Assembly in 1848. He wrote treatises on the Civil Law
and Penal Law of Prussia, (1846-53,) and other works.
Temminck, tem'mink, (C. J.,) an eminent Dutch
naturalist, born about 1770. He published, besides other
works, in French, " The Natural History of Pigeons and
Gallinaceous Birds," (3 vols., 1813-15,) a "Manual of
Ornithology," (4 vols., 1820-39,) and a " Monography
of Mammalogy, or Descriptions of Some Genera of
Mammifera of which Species have been observed in the
Museums of Europe," (2 vols., 1825-41.) Died in 1858.
Tempelhoff, von, fon tem'pel-hof, (GEORG FRIED-
RICH,) a Prussian general and military writer, born at
Trampe in 1737. He served with distinction in the
Seven Years' war, and subsequently under the Duke of
Brunswick in 1792. He was the author of the "Bom
bardier Prussien," a " History of the Seven Years' War,"
and other works. He was appointed teacher of military
science to the sons of Frederick William II. Died in
1807.
Tempesta, tem-peVta, or Tempesti, tem-peVtee,
(ANTONIO,) an eminent Italian painter and engraver,
born at Florence in 1555. He studied under Strada,
and afterwards resided at Rome, where he executed a
number of admired works for Pope Gregory XIII., Car
dinal Farnese, and other persons of rank. He painted
landscapes, animals, hunting-scenes, and battles with
great spirit and fidelity, and produced more than fif
teen hundred etchings. Among the best of these we
may name "The Life of Saint Anthony," (in 24 plates,)
"The Victory of the Jews over the Amalekites," and
"Christ, the Virgin, and the Apostles." Died in 1630.
Tempesta, CAVALIERE, a celebrated painter, some
times called PIKTRO MULIER, was born at Haarlem in
1637. His original name was PETER MOLYN, but, owing
to his skill in delineating storms at sea, it was changed
to Tempesta. After residing for some time at Rome,
where he married and obtained extensive patronage, he
visited Venice and Genoa. He soon after contrived the
murder of his wife, in order to marry a Genoese lady,
and, being convicted of the crime, was sentenced to
perpetual imprisonment. He was liberated at the end
of five years, according to one statement, while other
writers assert that he was confined much longer. On
his release he settled at Milan, where he acquired great
wealth by the sale of his pictures. Died in 1701.
See DESCA.MI'S, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais."
Tem'ple, (FREDERICK,) an English bishop, born in
1821, graduated at Oxford in 1842. lie became chaplain
to the queen, head-master of Rugby School in 1858, and
Bishop of Exeter in 1869. He was author of one of the
well-known "Essays and Reviews," (1860.)
Temple, (HENKY.) See PALMERSTON, LORD.
Temple, (Sir JOHN',) an English lawyer and states
man, born in London, became a privy councillor in Ire
land under the reign of Charles II. He was the author
of a " History of the Irish Rebellion in 1641." Died
in 1677.
Temple, (JOHN,) a son of Sir William, (1628-99,)
became secretary of war in 1689. About a week after
his appointment he committed suicide. lie left a note
expressing regret for undertaking a task for which he
was incompetent.
Temple, (RICHARD GRENVILLE,) EARL, an English
politician, born about 1710, was a brother-in-law of
Lord Chatham. He was first lord of the admiralty in
1756, and became keeper of the privy seal about 1758.
" His talents for administration and debate," says Mac-
aulay, "\\ere of no high order. But his great posses
sions, his turbulent and unscrupulous character, and his
skill in the most ignoble tactics of faction made him
one of the most formidable enemies that a ministry could
have." (Essay on "Lord Chatham.") Died in 1777.
Temple, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English jurist, was sec
retary to Sir Philip Sidney, and subsequently became a
master of chancery. Died in 1626. He was grandfather
of the famous Sir William Temple.
Temple, (Sir WILLIAM,) a celebrated English states
man, diplomatist, and writer, born in London in 1628,
was the eldest son of Sir John Temple, who wrote a
history of the Irish rebellion of 1641. His mother was
a sister of Henry Hammond the eminent divine. His
early education was directed by the uncle just named.
He also studied at Cambridge, where Cudworth was his
tutor, but he left college without a degree about 1647,
and then set out upon his travels on the continent. He
professed to be a royalist in the civil war. After a long
courtship, in which a variety of obstacles were encoun
tered, he married, about 1654, Dorothy Osborne, who
preferred him to Henry Cromwell, a son of the Pro
tector. He was a member of the Irish Convention of
1660, and of the first Irish Parliament that met in the
reign of Charles II. In 1665 he was sent on a mission
to the Bishop of Minister, and acquitted himself so well
that he was created a baronet in 1666, and appointed resi
dent at the vice-regal court of Brussels. " From this ex
cellent school," says Macaulay, " he soon came forth the
most accomplished negotiator of his age." He formed
a friendship with De Witt, then chief minister of Hol
land. Temple acquired a high reputation by negotiating
with the Dutch and Swedes the triple alliance against
the aggressions of Louis XIV. in 1668. "This memo
rable negotiation occupied only five days." (Macaulay.)
He was appointed ambassador at the Hague in 1668.
In October, 1670, he was recalled by the "Cabal," and
the foreign policy of the English court was reversed.
During the retirement which followed he wrote an " Ac
count of the United Provinces," (1672,) and other works.
The members of the Cabal raised against themselves
such a storm of popular indignation by subservience to
the French king, that the services of Temple were re
quired by Charles II. in 1674 to negotiate a peace with
Holland. " The highest honours of the state were now
within Temple's reach." (Macaulay.) He declined the
office of secretary of state, and accepted the embassy to
the Hague, (1674.) In 1677 he was earnestly pressed
by the king to accept the office of secretary; but he was
unwilling to take the responsibility, for he perceived
that the signs of the times were very portentous of evil.
By the advice of Temple, Charles appointed, in April,
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
TEMPLE
2107
TENNENT
1679, a new privy council of thirty members, fifteen of
whom were great officers of state. Sir William was a
member of this council. "The perfidious levity of the
king, and the ambition of the chiefs of parties, produced
the instant, entire, and irremediable failure of this plan."
(Macaulay.) He took no part in the violent contests
which preceded the revolution of 1688, and after that
event refused to become secretary of state, in spite of the
pressing solicitations of William III. He passed his
latter years at Moor Park, Surrey, where Swift, the great
humorist, acted as his secretary. He wrote in this re
treat his "Memoirs of Events from 1672 to 1679," and
several miscellaneous treatises. " Next to IJryden,"
says Hallam, '• the second place among the polite writers
of the period from the restoration to the end of the cen
tury has commonly been given to Sir William Temple.
... If his thoughts are not very striking, they are com
monly just. He has the merit of a comprehensive and
candid mind." (" Introduction to the Literature of Eu
rope.") lie died in January, 1699. Macaulay censures
his neutrality in politics, and his habit of shrinking from
responsibility, but admits " that he won the esteem of a
profligate court and of a turbulent people without being
guilty of any great subserviency to either."
See M.-\ CAUL AY, " Essay on Sir William Temple ;" THOMAS P.
Coi'RTENAY, " Memoirs of the Life and Works of Sir William Tem
ple." 2 vols., 1836; ABEL BOYEK, "Memoir of Sir W. Temple,"
1714; " Leven von der Ridder Temple," Leyden, 1736; "Life
of Sir W. Temple," by liis sister, LADY GIFFARD, 1731 ; H.
LUDEX, " Sir W. Temples Biographic," 1808; BUKNET, " History
of his Own Times;" " Biographia Britannica. "
Temple, (Sir WILLIAM,) a diplomatist, born in Lon
don in 1788, was a brother of Lord Palmerston. He
was for many years ambassador at the court of Naples.
Died in 1856.
Tem'ple-man, (PETER,) an English physician, born
at Dorchester in 1711, translated Norden's "Travels in
Egypt and Nubia" from the Danish, and wrote several
medical treatises. Died in 1769.
Tencin, de, deh t6N'sax', (CLAUDIXE ALEXANDRINE
Gi'EKix,) a French courtesan, born at Grenoble in 1681.
She became successively the mistress of the Duke
of Orleans, Chancellor d'Argenson, Lord Bolingbroke,
and other distinguished men of the time. She was
the mother of the celebrated D'Alembert, whom she
abandoned and exposed. She subsequently attained
distinction for her literary tastes and acquirements, and
was the author of several novels. She numbered among
her friends Fontenelle and Montesquieu. Died in 1749.
See L. BARTHELEMV, " Memoires secrets de Madame de Ten
cin," 1790; SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Tencin, de, (PIERRE GUERIN,) a French cardinal and
politician, born at Grenoble in 1680, was a brother of
the preceding. He was a creature or trusted agent
of Dubois, and an adversary of the Jansenists. In 1739
he became a cardinal, and in 1742 received the title of
minister of state. Died in 1758.
See "Memoires pour servir a 1'Histoire du Cardinal de Tencin,"
1758-
Tenerani, ta-na-ra'nee, (PiETRO,) an Italian sculp
tor, born near Carrara about 1800. He studied under
Canova and Thorwaldsen, and subsequently produced
a number of admirable works illustrating Greek and
Roman mythology. Among the principal of these we
may name his "Cupid extracting a Thorn from the Foot
of Venus," a " Faun playing on a Flute," and a group
of "Psyche and Venus." He has also executed, among
other religious works, a "Christ on the Cross," and the
" Martyrdom of Eudorus." His monumental statues
and portrait-busts are likewise highly esteemed. He
was elected a member of the French Institute and of
other learned societies, and became professor of sculpture
in the Academy of Saint Luke at Rome.
Te'nes or Teii'iies, [Gr. T^vw?f ; Fr. TENES, ta'ne'ss',]
a fabulous personage, said to have been a son of Cycnus.
His step-mother, by a calumnious charge, iuduced Cycnus
to throw him into the sea, and he wa^ cast upon an
island which derived from him the name of Tenedos.
He was killed by Achilles.
Teniers, teVe-erz, [Fr. pron. ti'ne-aiR',] (DAVID,)
THE ELDER, a celebrated Flemish painter, surnamed
IL BASSANO, from his admirable imitations of that artist,
was bom at Antwerp in 1582. He studied under Rubens,
and afterwards resided many years in Rome. His
favourite subjects were tavern-scenes, and boors drink
ing and smoking. Died in 1649.
Teniers, (DAVID,) THE YOUNGER, a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Antwerp in 1610. He was instructed
by his father, whom he surpassed in genius, and was
also a pupil of Rubens. He was appointed director of
the Academy at Antwerp. He is esteemed, in his de
partment, one of the greatest artists of the Flemish
school. He produced several historical pieces of supe
rior merit ; but his master-pieces are delineations of low
life. He also excelled in marine views and as a painter
of animals. Died in 1690.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands ;" LECARPEN-
TIER, " David Teniers," 1804; NAGLER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-
Lexikon."
Ten'i-soii, (THOMAS,) an eminent English prelate,
born at Cottenham, in Cambridgeshire, in 1636. He
studied at Cambridge, and afterwards rose successively
to be Archdeacon of London, (1689,) Bishop of Lincoln,
(1691,) and Archbishop of Canterbury, (1694.) He was
highly esteemed for his learning and piety, and made
numerous bequests for charitable and educational pur
poses. He published several religious and controversial
works. Died in 1715.
See " Memoirs of the Life of Archbishop Tenison," 1716.
Tenivelli, ta-ne-vel'lee, (CARLO,) an Italian biogra
pher, born at Turin in 1756. He published " Pied-
montese Biography," (" Biografia Piemontese," 5 vols.,
1784-92.) He was condemned as a revolutionist by a
court-martial and shot in 1797.
Ten Kate. See KATE, TEN.
Ten'iiant, (SMITHSON,) F.R.S., an English chemist,
born in 1761, became professor of chemistry at Cam
bridge in 1813. He contributed a number of valuable
essays to the " Transactions" of the Philosophical So
ciety. Died in 1815.
Ten'iiant, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish poet and Oriental
scholar, born in Fifeshire in 1785. He was appointed in
1835 professor of the Oriental languages in Saint Mary's
College, Saint Andrew's. He was the author of several
dramas, a humorous poem entitled " Anster Fair," and
other poetical pieces. He also made translations from
the Greek, Persian, etc., and compiled grammars of the
Chaldee and Syriac languages. Died in 1848.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots
men," (Supplement;) "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1814.
Temiecker, von, fon ten'n£k-er, (CHRISTIAN SEI-
FERT,) a German veterinary writer, born near Freiberg
in 1770, published several works on the diseases and
cure of horses. Died in 1839.
Termemann, ten'neh-man', (WILHELM GOTTLIEB,)
an eminent German philosopher, born near Erfurt in
December, 1761, was an adherent of the doctrines of
Kant. He became professor of philosophy at Jena in
1798, and at Marburg in 1804. He translated into Ger
man Locke's "Essay on the Human Understanding."
His chief work is a valuable " History of Philosophy,"
("Geschichte der Philosophic," n vols., 1798-1811,)
of which he also published an abridgment, entitled
"Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophic," (1812.)
Died in 1819.
See G. F. CREI'ZER, "Rede am Grabe Tennemann's," i8ig ;
WAGNER, "Memoria G. T. Tennemanni," 1819; COUSIN, " Cours
de Philosophic."
Teii'nent, (GILBERT,) an eloquent Presbyterian di
vine, born in the county of Armagh, Ireland, in 1703,
emigrated at an early age to America, and became in
1743 pastor of a church in Philadelphia. Died in 1764.
His brother WILLIAM, born in 1705, settled as pastor
of a church at Freehold, New Jersey. During an attack
of fever, he lay for three days in a trance, and on his
recovery gave a description of what he saw in the celes
tial world. A full account of this extraordinary event
was published by Elias Boudinot. Died in 1777.
See REV. ROBERT STEEL, "Burning and Shining Lights," 1864.
Ten'nent, (Sir JAMES EMERSON,) a distinguished
traveller and statesman, born at Belfast, Ireland, in
1804. He published, under the name of EMERSON, (his
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
TEN NTS ON
2108
TERENCE
original name,) "Travels in Greece," (1825,) "Letters
from the /Egean," (1829,) and "A History of Modern
Greece," (1830.) He was elected to Parliament for Bel
fast in 1832, and was several times re-elected. He was
appointed civil secretary to the colonial government of
Ceylon in 1845, having previously been made a knight.
Among his other works may be named " Christianity in
Ceylon," etc., (1850,) "Wine: its Use and Taxation,"
etc., (1855,) and "Sketches of the Natural History of
Ceylon," etc., (1861.) Died in March, 1869.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, i85g.
Ten'iiy-spii, (ALFRED,) D.C.L., a popular English
poet, the third son of George Clayton Tennyson, rector
of that parish, was born at Somerby, in Lincolnshire, in
1809. His mother's maiden-name was Elizabeth Fytche.
He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where
he obtained a prize for an English poem in blank verse
on " Timbuctoo," (1829.) He was still an under-gradu-
ate of Trinity College when he published a volume
entitled " Poems, chiefly Lyrical," (1830.) In this col
lection were several short poems which were omitted
from the subsequent editions. In 1833 there appeared
another volume of " Poems, by Alfred Tennyson," in
cluding, besides a number of pieces reprinted, " Mariana
in the South," "The May Queen," "The Palace of Art,"
a " Dream of Fair Women," and other new poems, which,
compared with his earliest efforts, indicated great im
provement in richness of thought and beauty of imagery.
He extended his reputation by his " Morte d'Arthur,"
" Locksley Hall," " Godiva," " Dora," " Lady Clara Vere
De Vere," and other poems, in 2 vols., (1842.)
He afterwards produced an admirable poem called
"The Princess, a Medley," (1847;) a beautiful tribute
to the memory of his friend Arthur II. Hallam, entitled
" In Memoriam," (1850 ;) and " Maud," (1854.) He suc
ceeded Wordsworth as poet-laureate in 1851. Among
his later works are " The Idylls of the King," (1859,) and
a volume entitled " Enoch Arden, and other Poems,"
(1864.) This volume includes " Aylmer's Field" and
"Tithonus," which is greatly admired.
" If Mr. Tennyson's poetry," says the "Quarterly Re
view" for January, 1866, "comes short of the highest
standard, it is because the conditions under which he
works are those which we have just indicated. . . . He
gives us symmetry rather than grandeur of workman
ship, and his exploring temper is more often exercised
in completing the web of delicate sensibilities within the
range of experience, than in pressing beyond the veil.
. . . After the descriptive beauty of the Laureate's verse,
perhaps no quality of it is more highly praised than its
measure ; and truly the purity and delicacy of its move
ment is almost beyond praise. When we judge it by
the highest standard, however, it still seems to lack that
lofty and ringing flight and those unforeseen vivacities
of cadence which we find in the greatest masters. . . .
Though certain common excellences may make a
plausible resemblance, yet, in truth, no contrast is
greater than that between the jewelled beauty of Mr.
Tennyson's style and the crystalline effulgence — the j
'non imitabile fulgur' — of the great ancients." Tennyson
has resided for some years in the Isle of Wight. lie
published in 1870 a poem called "The Holy Grail."
See the " London Quarterly" for September, 1842, March, 1848,
and October, 1859; " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1849,
September, 1855, and November, 1859; "Edinburgh Review" for
July, 1859; " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1855, and Sep
tember, 1859; "Westminster Review" for October, 1850, and Oc
tober, 1859; "North British Review" for August, 1859.
Tenon, teh-n6N',(jACQUES REN£,) a celebrated French
surgeon, born near joigny in 1724. He studied anatomy
in Paris under Winslow, and was appointed in 1744
army surgeon of the first class. He was elected to
the Academy of Sciences in 1759. Among his most
important works are his " Memoirs on the Exfoliation
of Bones" and " Researches on Capsulary Cataracts."
Died in 1816.
See CUVIER, " E"loge de Tenon ;" " Biographic Medicale."
Tenore, ta-m/ra, (MICHELE,) an Italian botanist, born
at Naples in 1781. He founded the botanic garden of
Naples, of which he was director for many years. He
published, besides other works, a " Flora Neapolitana,"
(5 vols.) Died in 1861.
Tenot, ta'no', (EUGENE,) a French journalist of the
present age. He became editor of the " Siecle," a popu
lar and liberal daily journal of Paris. He published an
able and impartial work, entitled " Paris in December,
1851, or the Coup-d'Etat of Napoleon III.," which has
been translated into English.
Ten Rhyne. See RHYNE.
Tenterden, LORD. See ABBOTT, (CHARLES.)
Tentori, ten-to'ree, (CRISTOFORO,) a .distinguished
historian, of Venetian extraction, born in Spain in 1745.
He was the author of a "Civil and Political History of
the Republic of Venice," etc., (12 vols., 1785,) which
was followed in 1799 by an account of the destruction
of the republic in 1797. Died in 1810.
Tentzel or Teiizel, tent'sel, (\VM.HELM ER.XST,) a
German antiquary and journalist, born in Tliuringia
in 1659. He published a treatise entitled " Saxonia
Numismatica," a " History of the Reformation," and
other works on the history and antiquities of Germany.
In 1688 he established a monthly literary review, which
was the first journal of the kind that had appeared in
Germany. Died in 1707.
Teiizel. See TENTZEL.
Teobaldo, the Italian for THEOBALD, which see.
Teocrito. See THEOCRITUS.
Teodoro. See THEODORUS.
Teodosio. See THKODOSIUS.
Teofilo. See THEOPHILUS.
Teofrasto. See THEOPHRASTUS.
Teplof or Teplow, tep'lof, written also Teplov,
(GREGORY NIKOLAIEVITCH,) a Russian savant and sena
tor, born about 1720. He was a member of the Imperial
Academy of Sciences, and wrote various works. Died
in 1779.
Teramo, da, da ta'ra-mo or ter'a-mo, (JACOPO PAL-
LADINO,) an Italian prelate and writer, born at Teramo
1349. lie wrote "Trial of Lucifer against Jesus,"
("Processus Luciferi contra Jesum,") and the "Consola
tion of Sinners," ("Consolatio Peccatorum," 1472.) Died
in 1417.
Terburg, ter'biirg or teVbuRH, (GKKAART,) a cele
brated painter of the Dutch school, born near Overyssel
in 1608. He studied at Rome, and subsequently visited
Madrid, London, and Paris, his works- being everywhere
received with distinguished favour. His most admired
productions are conversation-pieces, which department
of the art he is said to have originated. His pictures
are to be seen in the galleries of Dresden, Amsterdam,
Paris, Munich, and Vienna, also a number in England ;
and many of them have been engraved and lithographed.
Among his master-pieces are his picture of the pleni
potentiaries at the Congress of Minister, and portraits
of the royal family of Spain. Died in 1681.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Terceira,t§R-sa^era, DUKE OF, and Count ofVillaflor,
a Portuguese statesman and military commander, born
about 1790. He was a partisan of the queen Maria da
Gloria, and gained several advantages over Don Miguel.
Having been made a marshal, he was appointed in 1829
to the chief command of the constitutional army. lie
became minister of war in 1842. Died in 1860.
Tercier, teVse-i', (JEAN PIERRE,) a diplomatist and
linguist, born in Paris in 1704. He was employed by
Louis XV. to direct his secret correspondence. Died
in 1767.
See SOLIGNAC, " E"loge de Tercier," 1767.
Terence, teVenss, or Terentius, te-ren'shc-us, [Fr.
TERENCE, ta'rd.Nss'; It. TERENZIO, ta-ren'ze-o/for, more
fully, Pub'lius Tereii'tius A'fer, a celebrated Roman
comic poet, born at Carthage about 195 B.C. At an early
age he became the slave of a Roman senator, named
Terentius Lucanus, who gave him a good education, to
which he added the gift of liberty. Terence was on in
timate terms with Scipio Africanus Minor and Laelius,
who are said to have aided him in the composition of his
plays. His first work, entitled " Andria," was performed
at Rome in 166 B.C. He produced " Hecyra" in 165,
and "The Self-Tormentor" (" Heauton-timorumenos")
in 163. Three other of his plays have come down to us,
viz., "Adelphi," " Phormio," and "Eunuchus."
After he had written these, he travelled in Greece, and
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure- far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon;
'
TERENTIA
2109
TERTULLUN
translated, it is said, one hundred and eight of Menan-
der's comedies. He never returned to Rome, but died
in 159 or 158 B.C. His works are models of elegant
diction and pure Latinity. They were praised by Caesar
and Cicero, and are said to have escaped the censures
of the Church. He is deficient in vis comica, ("comic
power," or " broad humour,'T) but, according to Horace,
excels in art. (Epistle II. 1. 59.) The kindly human |
sympathy manifested by Terence contributed not a little
to the popularity of his dramas. When the words
" Homo sum; humani niliil a me alienum puto,"*
were spoken on the Roman stage, they were received
by all classes with tumultuous and reiterated applause.
His plays have been translated into English by George
Colman.
See L. SCHOPEN, " Dissertatio de Terentio et Douato," 1821 ; J.
B. LOMAN, "Specimen critico-literarium in Piautum et Terentium,"
1845 ; N. FRITSCH, "Suetonii Vita Terentii einendata et illustrata,"
1851; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Terentia, te-re'n's'he-a., a Roman lady, who became
the wife of Cicero the orator about 80 H.C. She bore
him a daughter Tullia and a son Marcus. In the year
46 she was repudiated by her husband, for reasons that
have not been satisfactorily explained ; but this act is
generally considered to have left a stain on the reputation
of Cicero. Terentia appears to have been a woman of
good sense and great firmness of character. She is said
to have attained the extraordinary age of one hundred
and three years.
Terentianus. See MAURUS TERENTIANUS.
Terentius. See TF.RENCF.
Terentius (te-ren'she^-us) Cle'mens, a Roman jurist,
the date of whose birth is unknown, was the author of a
work entitled "Ad Legem Jnliam et Papiam," in tsventy
books. Only fragments of it are extant.
Terentius Varro. See VARRO.
Terenzio. See TERENCE.
Teresa. See THERESA.
Terme. See TERMINUS.
Ter'mi-nus, [Fr. TERME, t?Rm,] a Roman divinity,
who was supposed to preside over the boundaries of
nations and of private landed property. The worship
of Terminus is said to have been instituted by Numa.
Ternaux, teR'no', (GUILLAUME Louis,) BARON, a
French statesman and manufacturer, born at Sedan in
1763. He represented the department of Seine in the
Chamber of Deputies from 1818 to 1823. He was an
earnest supporter of the cause of the Bourbons, but took
an active part against Charles X. in the revolution of
1830. He published several treatises on finance and
manufactures, was one of the first to introduce spinning-
machines for cotton and woollen fabrics, and contributed
greatly to the improvement of the national industry.
Died in 1833.
See " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Ternaux, (HENRI,) a nephew of the preceding, pub
lished " Voyages, Relations, and Memoirs relating to
the Discovery and Conquest of America," the " Biblio-
theque Americaine," and other works.
Ter-pan'der, [Gr. Tep-ai'dpof ; Fr. TERPANDRE, I£R'-
pS.NdR',] a celebrated Greek poet and musician, born
on the island of Lesbos about 680 R.c. He was the
inventor of the heptachord, or seven-stringed lyre, and is
said to have founded the first school of music in Greece.
He was the author of hymns and lyrics, none of which
are extant.
See K. O. MULLER, " History of the Literature of Ancient
Greece;" BODE, " Poetae lyrici Graeci."
Terpandre. See TERPANDER.
Terp-si-eh'o-re, [ Gr. Tepibixopr; or Tepnpixopa, i.e.
"delighting in the dance," from rep-u, to "delight," and
Xope'ia, a "dance,"] one of the nine Muses, presided over
dancing and choral song. She was represented with
a crown of laurel, and with a lyre in her hand.
Terquem, teR'k6NT/, (Oi,RY,) a French mathematician,
born at Metz in 1782, was a Jew. He published several
mathematical works. Died in Paris in 1862.
Ter'ra, [Fr. TERRE, taiR,] a name given by the Ro
mans to the goddess of the earth, and identified with
* " I am a man : and I have an interest in everything that concerns
humanity." See Heauton-timorumenos, Act I., Scene I.
the Ge [Gr. Tea or Tf/] of the Greek mythology. She
was the mother of the Titans, Gigantes, and Oceanus.
(See TFLLUS.)
Terrail, du. See BAYARD, (PIERRE.)
Terrasson, ti'rt'sdN'', (ANTOINE,) a French lawyer
and scholar, born in Paris in 1705. He wrote a "His
tory of Roman Jurisprudence," (1750.) Died in 1782.
Terrasson, (GASPARD,) a French Jansenist and pulpit
orator, born at Lyons in 1680. His sermons were pub
lished in 4 vols., 1749. Died in 1752.
Terrasson, (JEAN,) a distinguished French scholar
and writer, born at Lyons in 1670, was a brother of the
preceding. He was the author of a "Critical Disserta
tion on Homer's Iliad," (1715,) "Three Letters on the
New System of Finance," (1720,) in defence of John
Law's projects, a philosophical romance entitled " Se-
thos," on the model of Fenelon's "Telemaque," and
other works. In 1732 he succeeded Morville in the
French Academy. Died in 1750.
See D'ALEMBF.RT, " Histoire des Membres de I'Acade'mie Fran-
caise ;" GRANDJEAN DE FOUCHV, " filogede Terrasson ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale;" "Retrospective Review," vol. iii., (1821.)
Terrasson, (MATHIEU,) an eloquent French lawyer
and jurist, born at Lyons in 1669, was the father of
Antoine, noticed above. Died in 1734.
Terray, ti'ri', (JOSEPH MARIE,) a French financier,
born in Forez in 1715. He became controller-general
of the finances in 1769, and was removed in 1774. Died
in 1778.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Terreros y Pando, ter-ra'r6s e pan'do, (ESTEBAN,)
a Spanish Jesuit and grammarian, born in Biscay in
1707. Among his works is a " Dictionary of the Spanish
Language, with Definitions in Latin, French, and Italian,"
("Diccionario Castellano," etc., 4 vols., 1785-93.) Died
at Forli, in Italy, in 1782.
Ter'rill, (WILLIAM R.,) an American general, born
in-Virginia about 1832, graduated at West Point in 1853.
He distinguished himself at the battle of Shiloh, (fighting
for the Union,) April, 1862, and was killed at the battle
of Perryville, October 8 of that year.
Ter'ry, (ALFRED H.,) an American general, born at
Hartford, Connecticut, in 1827, was a lawyer before the
civil war. He served as colonel in the expedition against
Port Royal in November, 1861, became a brigadier-
general in March, 1862, and took a prominent part in
the capture of Fort Wagner, in September, 1863. He
commanded a division of the army of the James River
in Virginia in the summer of 1864. He was selected by
General Grant to command an expedition against Fort
Fisher, North Carolina, with the co-operation of Admiral
D. D. Porter. On the I5th of January, 1865, he assaulted
that fort, which, after a very obstinate defence, was cap
tured, with its entire garrison and armament. "Thus
was secured," says General Grant, "by the combined
efforts of the navy and army, one of the most important
successes of the war."
Ter'ry, (DANIEL,) an English comedian, born at Bath
about 1780. He performed with success at Liverpool
and Edinburgh, where he acquired the friendship and
patronage of Sir Walter Scott. He was subsequently
for a time one of the proprietors of the Adelphi Theatre,
London. Died in 1828.
Terry, (EDWARD,) an English writer, born about
1590, accompanied the embassy to the Great Mogul in
1615, and published, after his return, his "Travels in
the East Indies," etc., (1655.)
Tersan, de, deh teVsos', (CHARLES PHILIPPE CAM
PION,) a French antiquary, born at Marseilles in 1736;
died in 1819.
Tertre, du. See DUTERTRE.
Ter-tul'11-an, [Lat. TERTULLIA'NUS ; Fr. TERTUL-
LIEN, teVtii'le'-aN''; It. TERTULLIANO, teR-tool-le-a'no,]
(QuiNTUS SEPTIMIUS FLORENS,) an eminent Latin Father
of the Church, born at Carthage about 160 A.D., was
originally a heathen. He adopted the profession of
advocate or lawyer. The date of his conversion to
Christianity is not preserved. Soon after this event he
was ordained a presbyter in the Church of Carthage.
About the end of the second century he left the Catholic
Church and joined the Montanists.' He acquired great
€ as K; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
TERTULLIANO
21 10
TEUCER
influence among the Christians of his time. He was a
man of powerful intellect, ardent temper, austere char
acter, and great erudition. The date of his death is
unknown, but he is said to have attained a great age.
Tertullian wrote numerous works, partly devotional
and partly controversial, which are still extant. The
following are supposed to have been written before he
became a Montanist: "Letter to the Martyrs," ("Ad
Martyres,") "On Prayer," (" De Oratione,") "On Bap
tism," (" De Baptismo,") " Advice to his Wife," (" Ad
Uxorem,") " On Public Games or Shows," (" De Spec-
taculis," about 198,) and " De Praescriptione Hrereti-
corum," a treatise against heretics. After he joined the
Montanists, he wrote (probably) "Against Marcipn,"
(" Adversus Marcionem,") "On the Body of Christ,"
(" De Came Christi,") "On the Resurrection of the
Body," (" De Resurrectione Carnis,") "On the Soldier's
Crown," (" De Corona Militis,") and several others.
Among his most important works is his " Apology to
the Nations for the Christians," (" Apologeticus adversus
Gentes pro Christianis," dated 198 A.D.) This is an elo
quent and powerful vindication of the Christian Church
against false accusations.
See EUSEBIUS, " Historic Ecclesiastica ;" AI.LIX, "Dissertatio
de Tertiilliani Vita et Scriptis :" 1680; NEANDER, " Antignosticus
Geist des Tertullianus," etc., 1825 : A. DE MARGERIE, " De Tertul-
liano," 1853; P. EKKRMAN, " Dissertatio deTertulliano," 1761 ; PHO
TIUS, " Bibliotheca ;" HESSEI.BERG, " Tertullian's Lehre aus seinem
Schriften entwickelt," 1848; BARONIUS, "Annales;" " Nouvelle
Biograpliie Generate. "
Tertulliano. See TERTULLIAN.
Tertullianus. See TERTULLIAN.
Tertullien. See TKRTULLIAN.
Terwesten, ter-wes'ten, or Terwestyii, (Aucus-
TYN,) a Dutch painter, born at the Hague in 1649. He
studied in Italy, and became about 1690 court painter
to the Elector' of Brandenburg, afterwards Frederick
William of Prussia. He was appointed director of the
Academy of Fine Arts at Berlin, of which he was one
of the principal founders. Died in 171 1.
Terwesten, (Ei.i.AS,) a painter of flowers and fruits,
born at the Hague in 1651, was a brother of the pre
ceding. Died at Rome in 1724.
Terwesten, (MATTHEW,) a Dutch historical painter,
born at the Hague in 1670, was a brother of the pre
ceding. Died in 1735.
Terzi. See LAN A TERZI.
Tesi, ta'see, (MAURO ANTONIO,) an Italian painter,
also called IL MAURINO, born at Montalbano in 1730.
He was patronized by Algarotti, who commends his
genius in very high terms. He excelled particularly in
architectural pictures. Died in 1766.
Tess6, de, deh ti'sa', (MANS JEAN BAPTISTS RENE
de Froulay — deh fuoo'li',) COMTE, a French general,
born in 1651. He became a marshal of France in 1703,
and obtained command of the army in Spain in 1704.
Died in 1725.
Tessier, ti'se-4', (ALEXANDRE HENRI,) a French
writer on agriculture, born near fitampes in 1741 ; died
in 1837.
Tessin, tes-seen', (KARL GUSTAF,) COUNT, a Swedish
diplomatist and statesman, son of Nicodemns Tessin,
noticed below, was born at Stockholm in 1695. He was
employed in embassies to Vienna, Versailles, and Berlin,
and was subsequently appointed governor of the crown-
prince, afterwards Gustavus III. He wrote for his
pupil a work entitled " Letters from an Old Man to a
Young Prince." Died in 1770.
See HOEPKEN, "Aminnelse-Tal bfver C. G. Graf Tessin," 1771 ;
EHRENHEIM, "Tessin ocli Tessiniana," 1819; MONTGOMERY, " C.
G. Tessin's Dagbok med historik Inledning," 1824.
Tessin, (NICODEMUS VALENTINSON.) born at Stral-
sund in 1619, was appointed royal architect by Queen
Christina of Sweden. Died about 1688.
His son, Count NICODEMUS, born in 1654, studied
under Bernini at Rome. Being appointed court archi
tect, he began in 1697 the erection of the royal palace
at Stockholm, which ranks among his best works. He
also constructed the cathedral at Calmar, and Count
Oxenstiern's monument. Died in 1728.
TeVta, (CAius TREBATIUS,) a Roman jurist, was a
correspondent of Cicero, and a master of Labeo. He,
wrote on civil law. He was a partisan of Caesar in the
civil war.
Testa, tes'ta, (PIETRO,) called IL LUCCHKSINO, (el
look-ka-see'no,) an Italian painter and engraver, born at
Lucca in 1617, was a pupil of Domenichino. I le worked
in Rome. Among his best pictures are "The Death of
Beato Angelo," and "The Massacre of the Innocents."
His etchings are highly prized. Died in 1650.
Teste, test, (ALPHONSE,) a French physician, born
about 1808. He has written in defence of the homoeo
pathic system.
Teste, (FRANgois ANTOINE,) a French general, born
at Bagnols in 1775. He commanded a brigade at Boro
dino in 1812, and became a general of division in 1813.
Died in 1862.
Teste, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a French jurist, a brother of
the preceding, was born at Bagnols in 1780. After the
revolution of July, 1830, he was elected to the Chamber
of Deputies, became minister of justice in 1839, and
president of the court of cassation in 1843. Being
convicted of corruption in 1847, ne was sentenced to
fine and imprisonment, and deprived of his office. Died
in 1852.
Testelin or Tattelin, tct'laN', (Louis,) an eminent
French painter, born in Paris in 1615. He studied under
Vouet, anil was elected in 1648 one of the first members
of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. He
became professor in the Academy in 1650. Among his
master-pieces we may name "The Resurrection of Ta-
bitha, by Saint Paul," and "The Flagellation of Saint
Paul and Silas," both in the church of Notre- Dame,
at Paris. Died in 1655.
His brother HENRI, born in 1616, also became pro
fessor of painting in the Academy of Fine Arts, and was
the author of a work entitled " Opinions of the Most
Skilful Painters on the Practice of Painting and Sculp
ture," etc., (1699.) Died in 1695.
See FONTENAV, " Dictionnaire des Artistes."
Testi, tes'tee, (Fui.vio.) COUNT, an eminent Italian
lyric poet, born at Ferrara in 1593. He published a
volume of poems ("Rime") in 1613. He became secre
tary of state under Francis I., Duke of Modena, who
employed him in important missions to Pope Urban
VIII. and to Venice. In 1646 he offended the Duke of
Modena by overtures to obtain office under Cardinal
Mazarin. Died in 1646.
See TIRAHOSCHI, " Vita del Conte F. Testi," i7?o ; " NouveUe
Biographic Gendrale."
Testu, tSs'tii'., (JACQUES,) AHHE, a mediocre French
writer, born in Paris about 1626. He became a member
of the French Academy in 1665. Died in 1706.
Te'thys, [Gr. Tf/fli'c ; Fr. TETHYS, ta'tcss',] in classic
mythology, was a daughter of Uranus, the wife ot Ocean us,
and the mother of the Oceanides.
Tet'ri-cus, (CAius PESUVIUS,) a Roman officer, some
times called one of the Thirty Tyrants. He assumed
imperial power at Burdig'ala (Bordeaux) in 267 A.D. He
was defeated and taken prisoner at Chalons in 274 by
Aurelian, who treated him kindly.
Tettenborn, tet'ten-bdRn', (FRIEDRICH KARL,) BA
RON, a German general, born in the county of Hohn-
stein in 1778, served in the Austrian campaigns of 1805
and 1809, and subsequently entered the Russian army.
In 1819 he was appointed ambassador from Baden to
Vienna, where he died in 1845.
Tetzel or Tezel, tet'sel, [Lat. TETZK'I.IUS,] origi
nally Diez, deets, or Diezel, deet'sel, (JOHANN,) a
famous Dominican monk, born at Leipsic, was appointed
by the pope, about 1502, vendor of indulgences. His
scandalous deception of the people, together with his
loose life, attracted the attention of Luther, and was
one of the exciting causes of the Reformation. (See
LUTHER.) Died in 1519.
See P. EKERMAN, " Dissertatio dej. Tetzelio," 1761 ; V. GROE\E,
"Tetzel mid Luther," 1853; ROBERTSON, "History of Charles V.,"
vol. ii. book ii.
Teu'ger, [Gr. Trikpof,] a fabulous king of Troy, from
whom the Trojans derived the name of Teucri, was
supposed to be a son of the river Scamander and the
nymph Idaea. His daughter Batea or Arisbe was mar
ried to Dardanus.
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
TEUCER
21 I I
T HALES
Teucer, a Greek hero, a son of Telamon and He-
sione, was a half-brother of Ajax the Great, and was
renowned for his skill as an archer. Having been one
of the suitors of Helen, he joined the expedition against
Troy, and signalized his valour in the siege of that city.
After the capture of Troy, he was banished or excluded
from his native country by Telamon, and emigrated to
Cyprus, in which he reigned, and founded Salamis.
See HORACE'S "Odes," book i. ode vii.
Texeira, ta-sha^e-ra, or Texera, ti-sha'ra, (JozE,) a
learned Portuguese ecclesiastic, born in 1543, became
prior of the convent of Santarem. He was subsequently
appointed chaplain to Henry III. of France, and was
retained in the same office by Henry IV. He was the
author of a "Genealogy of Henry, Prince of Conde,"
"On the Origin of Portugal," etc., and other historical
and genealogical works, in Latin. Died in 1604.
See BAYLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" NICERON,
" Memoires. "
Texeira, (PEDRO,) a Portuguese traveller and Ori
ental scholar, born about 1570. Having spent several
years in Persia, where he became thoroughly versed in
the language of that country, he visited Italy, France,
and Holland. His principal work, written in Spanish,
is entitled "An Account of the Kings of Persia and
Ormuz," etc., (1610.) The date of his death is unknown.
Texera. See TEXKIRA.
Texier, tes'se-i', (CHARLES FELIX MARIE,) a French
archaeologist, born at Versailles in 1802. Having re
ceived from the government in 1833 a mission to explore
the antiquities of Asia Minor, he made four visits to
that region in ten years. He published a "Description
of Asia Minor : Fine Arts, Monuments," etc., (3 vols.,
1839-48,) and a "Description of Armenia, Persia," etc.,
(2 vols., 1842-45.)
Texier, (EDMUND,) a French litterateur, born at
Rambouillet in 1816. He was one of the editors of the
"Siecle" of Paris, and published several political and
critical works.
Textor. See RAVISICS TEXTOR.
Teyler van der Hulst, ti'ler via der hulst, (PiETER,)
a Dutch Anabaptist, born at Haarlem in 1702, left the
greater part of a large fortune to found in his native
town a learned institution called by his name. Died
in 1778.
Tezel. See TETZEL.
Thaarup, taw'rup, (THOMAS,) a Danish poet, born
at Copenhagen in 1749. He was the author of dramatic
poems entitled "The Harvest-Home" and "Peter's
Wedding," and of numerous lyrics, which enjoy great
popularity among his countrymen. Died in 1821.
See ERSLEW, " Forfatter- Lexicon ;" LONGFELLOW, "Poets and
Poetry of Europe."
Thabaud. See LATOUCHE.
Thabet, tha'bet, (Ben Kor'rah or Ibn (Ib'n) Kor'-
rah,) a celebrated Oriental physician and mathematician,
born at Harran, in Mesopotamia, in 835 A.n. He was
patronized by the caliph Motadhed Billah, who made
him one of his astrologers. He was the author of nu
merous works on medicine, mathematics, and natural
history. Died in gor.
Thabet, iBen Senan,) grandson of the preceding, ob
tained a high reputation as a physician and philosopher,
and became superintendent of the hospital at Bagdad in
946 A.I). He wrote a " History of his Own Times."
Thach'er, (GEORGE,) an American judge, born at
Yarmouth, Massachusetts, in 1754. He was a member
of Congress from 1789 to 1 80 1 , and was a judge of the
supreme court of Massachusetts from 1800 to 1824.
He was noted for his wit. Died in 1824.
Thacher, QAMES,) M.D., an American physician and
writer, born at Barnstable, Massachusetts, in 1754. He
was appointed in 1778 chief surgeon of the first Virginia
regiment, and subsequently of a New England regiment.
He published the "American Xew Dispensatory," (1810,)
"A Military Journal during the Revolutionary War,"
(1823,) "American Medical Biography," (1828,) and
several other works. Died in 1844.
Thacher, (PETER,) D.D., an American Calvinistic
divine and celebrated pulpit orator, born at Milton,
Massachusetts, in 1752. He became in 1785 pastor of
the Brattle Street Church, Boston. He was the author
of an "Oration against Standing Armies," "Observa
tions on the State of the Clergy in New England," and
other works. Died in 1802.
His son, SAMUEL C. THACHER, born at Boston in
1785, published a "Memoir of the Rev. Joseph S.
Buckminster." He was ordained a minister in 1811, and
died at Moulins, France, in 1818. A memoir of his life
was published in 1824.
Thackeray, thak'er-e, (WILLIAM MAKEPEACE,) a
popular English novelist and humorist, was born in
Calcutta in 1811. He was educated at the University of
Cambridge, which he left without taking a degree. He
inherited from his father a considerable fortune. In
the choice of a profession or pursuit, he first inclined to
be an artist, but after he had devoted a few years to art
he adopted a literary career. He contributed to the
"Times" and other journals of London. He displayed
superior talent for humour and irony, in a series of
tales, essays, and criticisms which appeared in " Eraser's
Magazine" under the assumed name of Michael Angelo
Titmarsh. The progress of his reputation was not rapid.
He published about 1840 "The Paris Sketch-Book,"
and "The Great Hoggarty Diamond," a genial satire,
which was much admired. As a contributor to " Punch"
he gained popularity.
In 1846 he began to publish, under his proper name,
" Vanity Fair, a Novel without a Hero," which is one of
his best and most popular works. He afterwards pro
duced works of fiction entitled "Pendennis," (1849-50,)
and "The History of Henry Esmond, Esq.," (3 vols.,
1852.) In 1851 he delivered, in London, a course of
" Lectures on the English Humorists of the Eighteenth
Century," which was published in 1853. He visited the
United States in 1852, and repeated the lectures just
named in several great cities of the Union. Among his
other works are " The Snob Papers," " The Newcomes,"
(3 vols., 1854,) "Miscellanies," (2 vols., 1855-56,) and
" The Virginians."
About 1856 he revisited the United States, where he
gave " Lectures on the Four Georges," (i.e. Kings of
England,) which he repeated in London, Edinburgh,
etc. In 1857 he offered himself as Liberal candidate for
Parliament for the city of Oxford, but was defeated by
Mr. Cardwell. He began to edit the "Cornhill Maga
zine" in 1860. He had married a Miss Shaw about 1837.
He died in December, 1863, leaving several daughters.
See THEODORE TAYLOR, "Thackeray, the Humorist and Man
of Letters," 1864; article on "Thackeray," in the " Westminster Re
view" for April, 1853, (reprinted in the "Living Age" for May 14,
'853:) "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1854, (reprinted in the
" Living Age" for March 1 1, 1854 :) " London Quarterly Review" for
December, 1848, and January, 1854; " Blackwood's Magazine" for
October, 1853, and January, 1855 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for Sep
tember. 184^, January, 1851, December, 1852. and April, 1864;
" North British Review" for August, 1850, and Eebruary, 1864.
Thaer. See THAR.
Tha'is, [0aif,] an Athenian courtesan, mistress of
Alexander the Great, whom she accompanied to Asia.
She is said to have instigated him to burn the royal
palace at Persepolis. She was married after his death to
Ptolemy, King of Egypt.
Thalberg, til'bSRG, (SIGISMUND,) a celebrated pianist,
born at Geneva in 1812, was a pupil of Sechter and Hum
mel at Vienna. He visited London, Paris, and different
parts of Germany, his performances being everywhere
received with applause. Among his compositions are
Studies for the Piano, and the opera of "Florinda."
Thalebee or Thalebi, Al, SI thdl'e-bee, an Arabian
author, born at Nishapoor, in Persia, in 961 A.D. Among
his works is a "History of Illustrious Poets." Died
about 1038.
Tha'les, [Gr. Qa/.rjf,] a celebrated Ionian philosophei,
and one of the seven sages of Greece, was born at Mile
tus about 640 B.C. He is styled the originator of philos
ophy. He travelled in Egypt and other foreign countries.
According to Herodotus, he predicted the eclipse of the
sun which occurred during a battle between Cyaxares the
Mede, and Alyattes, King of Lydia, about 609 B.C. He
was distinguished for political sagacity and sententious
wisdom, and was employed in public affairs. He con
sidered water to be the origin or principle of all things,
fixed the length of the year at three hundred and sixty-
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Mi, guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
T HALES
21 12
THEMIS
five days, and attributed the attractive power of the
magnet to a soul or life by which it is animated. He is
said to have invented several propositions or demon
strations of geometry. He died about 550 B.C., aged
about ninety.
See RITTEK, " History of Philosophy:" BUDDEUS, " Dissertatio
de Ethica Thaletis," 1690; PLOUCQUKT, " Dissertatio de Dogmatibus
Thaletis," 1763; TIEDEMANN, " Griechenlands erste Philosopher!,
Oder Leben mid Systeme des Orpheus, Thales," etc., 1780 ; HAKLES,
" Programmata III. de Thaletis Doctrina," 1780-84.
Thales or Tha-le'tas, [Gr. SaA^raf,] a Greek musi
cian and lyric poet, born in Crete. He probably lived
about 650 B.C., or earlier. It is said that he instructed
the Spartans in some new principles of music, and paci
fied the factions of Sparta by his art, or by the sacred
character of his musical productions. According to
some writers, he was invited to Sparta by Lycurgus.
Thaletas. See THAI.ES.
Tha-li'a or Tha-lei'a, [Gr. Qatia or Qufcia; Fr.
THAL'IE, tk're',] one of the nine Muses, presided over
comedy, pastoral poetry, and banquets. Also, one of
the Graces.
Thalie. See THAI.IA.
Thamasp (ti'mlsp') or Tamasp I., King of Persia,
born in 1513, succeeded his father, Ismail, in 1523.
Died in 1576.
See MALCOLM, " History of Persia."
Thamer, ti'mer, (THEOBALD,) a German theologian,
born in Alsace, became professor of theology at Marburg
in 1545. He controverted some doctrines of Luther,
and joined the Catholic Church. Died in 1569.
Tham'muz, [Fr. THAMMOUZ, tt'mooz',] a divinity of
the Syrians or Assyrians, identified with Adonis. He
was said to have been put to death by a wicked king.
The festival of Thammnz was celebrated by the idolatrous
Jews. (See Ezekiel viii.)
Tham'y-ris or Tham'jf-ras, [Qa/wptf,] a Greek mu
sician or poet, who lived before Homer, was a son of
Philammon, and a native of Thrace. According to
tradition, he pretended to surpass the Muses, and was
punished for his presumption by blindness.
Than'a-tos, [Gr. Qavarof ; Lat. MORS,] a personifica
tion of Death, in classic mythology, was represented by
Homer as the brother of Sleep.
Thar or Thaer, ta"R, (ALHRECHT,) a German agricul
turist, born at Celle in 1752, was the author of an " In
troduction to the Knowledge of English Husbandry,"
(1816,) and "Principles of Rational Agriculture." The
latter was translated into several languages. In 1807
he founded an Academy of Agriculture at Moglin. Died
in 1828.
See W. KORTE, "A. Thaer, sein Leben und Wirken," 1839.
Thatch'er, (BENJAMIN BUSSEY,) an American writer,
born at Warren, Maine, in 1809. He published a " Biog
raphy of North American Indians who have been Dis
tinguished as Orators, Statesmen," etc., (1832,) "Tales
of the American Revolution," and several other works.
Died in 1848.
Thatcher, (HENRY KNOX,) an American rear-admiral,
born in Maine. He entered the navy in 1823. He
obtained the rank of commodore in July, 1862, and com
manded the Colorado in the attacks on Fort Fisher in
December, 1864, and January, 1865. " His ship," says
Admiral Porter, "was handled with admirable skill."
He commanded the fleet which co-operated with the
army in the capture of Mobile, April 12, 1865.
See HEAIJLEY, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867.
Thauler. See TAULER.
Thaumas de la Thaumassiere, to'mf ' deh IS to'-
mt'se-aiR', (GASPARD,) a French jurist and historian,
was born about 1620 ; died in 1702.
Thay'er, (SYLVANUS,) an American officer and mili
tary engineer, born at Braintree, Massachusetts, in 1785.
Having graduated at West Point, he served in the war of
1812, and attained the rank of major. He was appointed
in 1817 superintendent of the West Point Military Acad
emy, and was made lieutenant-colonel in 1838.
Theaetetus/^e-e-tee'tus.lGEa/T^rof,] an Athenian phi
losopher, and a disciple of Socrates, lived about 420 B.C.
The-ag'e-nes, [Gr. Qsayevyt ; Fr. THEAofeNE, ta't'-
zhin',] a famous Greek athlete of Thasos, gained many
victories at the Olympian, Nemean, and Isthmian games.
He lived about 480 B.C.
The-a'no, [Gr. Qeavu,] a native of Crete, was the wife
of Pythagoras, and is supposed to have been the author
of a number of " Letters" and " Maxims," which have
been published in Wolfe's " Mulierum Graecarum Frag-
menta." She was distinguished as a philosopher.
Theaulon, ta'o'loN', (£TIENNK,) a French painter,
born at Aigues-Mortes in 1739 ; died in 1780.
Theaulon de Lambert, ta'o'loN' deli loN'baiR',
(MARIE EMMANUEL GUILLAUME,) a Fiench dramatic
poet, born at Aigues-Mortes in 1787. lie produced
many successful comedies, operas, and vaudevilles.
Died in 1841.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Theden, ta'den, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN ANTON,) an
eminent German surgeon, born in the duchy of Meck
lenburg in 1714. Owing to the circumstances of his
family, he encountered many difficulties in obtaining
an education ; but he was at length enabled to study at
Berlin, where he acquired the patronage of Frederick the
Great, who made him his chief military surgeon. Ife
was the author of several surgical works. Died in 1797.
Theil, til or t.Vye, (JEAN FKANC.OIS NAPOLEON,)
a French philologist, born at Langon (Gironde) in
1808. He published a " Dictionary of Homer and the
Homerides," (1842,) and a "Dictionary of the Latin
Language," (3 vols., 1855-65.)
Theiner, ti'ner, (AuousTiN,) a German Catholic
theologian, and priest of the Oratory at Rome, was
born at Breslau in 1804. He published a " History of
the Pontificate of Clement XIV.," (1833,) and other
works.
Theiner, ( JOHANN ANTON,) a brother of the pre
ceding, was born at Breslau in 1799. He published
"The Reformatory Labours of the Catholic Church,"
(1845.) and other treatises in favour of the Reform
party in Germany. Died in 1860.
Theis, ti'ess', (ALEXANDRE ETIENNE GUILLAUME,)
a French novelist, born at Nantes in 1765. lie wrote
"Memoirs of a Spaniard," (1818.) "Journey of Poly-
cletes," (" Voyage de Polyclete," 1821,) and other works.
Died in 1842.
Thek'la, SAINT, a saint in the Catholic Church, was
a native of Isauria, and was converted, it is supposed,
to Christianity by the Apostle Paul about 45 A.n. The
cathedral of Milan bears her name and possesses her
relics.
See MRS. JAMESON, " History of Sacred and Legendary Art."
Thellusson, tel'lus-son or tk'lii'soN'', (PETER ISAAC,)
a wealthy Swiss merchant, born at Geneva, became a
resident of London, where he died in 1798. He left
more than half a million pounds to accumulate during
the lives of his sons and grandsons, and to be invested
in land for the benefit of his eldest lineal male descend
ant. This led to a famous lawsuit ; but the will was
finally established by the decision of the House of Lords.
Thel'wall, (JoHN,) an English litterateur and teacher
of elocution, born in London in 1764. He published in
1787 a collection of poems. Having afterwards become
engaged in the political agitation of that period, he was
tried with Home Tooke and Hardy in 1794 for high
treason, and acquitted. In 1801 he began a series of
lectures on elocution, which were highly successful. His
other principal works are " Political Miscellanies," a
"Letter to Mr. Cline on Stammering," "The Peripa
tetic," and " The Daughter of Adoption," a novel. Died
in 1834.
Themines, de, deh ta'men', (Poxs DE LAUZIERKS,
poN deh lo'zej-aiR',) MARQUIS, a French general, born
about 1553, became a marshal of France in 1616. He
afterwards commanded against the Protestant insur
gents. Died in 1627.
The'mis, [Gr. Qe/uf, Fr. THEMIS, ta'mess',] in classic
mythology, the goddess of justice and law, was called a
daughter of Uranus and Ge, a wife of Jupiter, and the
mother of Astraea, Eirene, (Peace,) the Parcae, and the
Horse. She was a personification of justice and the
order of things sanctioned by custom or law. According
to Homer, she appeared among the inhabitants of Olym-
S, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
THEMISEUL
2113
THEOCRITUS
pus, and it was her office to convene the assembly of
the gods. She was also represented as a prophetic
divinity who presided over the oracle of Delphi before
Apollo.
Themiseul or Themiseuil. See SAINT-HYACINTHE.
Theni'i-son, [ Qeiuauv, ] an eminent Greek physician,
the founder of the sect of Methodic!, was born at Lao-
dicea, in Syria. lie was a pupil of Asclepiades, and
probably lived about 80-40 B.C. Mis works are not
extant. Some critics think that he is the person men
tioned by Juvenal in the following line:
" Quot Themison xgros autumno Occident uno."* — Sat. x. 221.
The-mis'tl-us, [Gr.6efuariof,\ a celebrated orator and
philosopher, surnamed Eu'PHRADES, (i.e. "eloquent,")
born in Paphlagonia about 315 A.D. He enjoyed the
favour of the emperors Constantius, Julian, and Theo-
dosius the Great, who appointed him tutor to his son
Arcadius. In religion he was a pagan. Among his
extant works are commentaries on portions of Aristotle,
and thirty-three orations in Greek, which were published
by Dindorf in 1832. Died about 390 A.D.
See SOCRATES, " Historia Eccleslastica ;" FABRICIUS, " Biblio-
tlieca Graca;" E. BARET, "De Themistio Sophista," 1853; " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Themistocle. See THEMISTOCI.ES.
The-mis'to-cles, [Gr. Q^iaroK^f/f ; Fr. THEMISTO-
CLK, ta'mes'tokl',] an Athenian statesman, orator, and
commander of great celebrity, born about 514 K.C., was
a son of Neocles, a citizen of Athens. His mother was
a foreigner. According to Nepos, in early life he was
addicted to pleasure, but, having lost his patrimonial
estate, he changed his entire course of life. Ambition
became his ruling passion. He is said to have spent his
hours of leisure and vacation in composing declamations.
Just after the battle of Marathon, his friends observed
that he was silent, abstracted, and passed the night in
watching. Having been questioned as to the cause of
this change in his habits, he said the "trophies of Mil-
tiades would not suffer him to sleep." Others imagined
that the victory at Marathon had ended the war.; but
he regarded it as the beginning of a great conflict, and
advised the Athenians to increase their navy. His
principal rival, Aristides, was ostracized 111483 B.C., after
which Themistocles became the foremost statesman of
Athens. He was elected archon eponymus in 481, and
when Greece was invaded by Xerxes he was chosen
commander-in-chief. The oracle of Delphi advised the
Athenians to defend themselves by wooden walls, which
Themistocles interpreted to signify ships. He induced
the people of Athens to abandon that city and embark
in the fleet. The Greeks, reduced to a desperate
extremity, gained a decisive victory at the great naval
battle of Salamis, 480 B.C. "This success," says Plu
tarch, " was owing chiefly to the sagacity and conduct
of Themistocles." He overreached the Spartans when
they attempted to prevent the rebuilding of the walls of
Athens, about 476, and he fortified the Pirjeus on a grand
scale. In 471 B.C. he was banished by ostracism, and
retired to Argos. Having been accused of treason as an
accomplice of Pausanias, he sought refuge at the court
of Persia in 465, and was kindly treated by Artaxerxes,
over whom he acquired much influence. He died, or
killed himself, in Persia about 449 B.C. According to
Thucydides, Themistocles was the strongest example of
the power of natural talent, made the best conjectures
as to future events, and had an excellent foresight.
Plutarch relates that of two men who courted his daugh
ter he preferred the less wealthy, saying, " I would
rather she should have a man without money than
money without a man." When Simonides offered to
teach him the art of memory, he said he would rather
learn the art of forgetting. According to Mr. Grote, he
was "alike vast in his abilities and unscrupulous in his
morality."
See PLUTARCH, "Life of Themistocles;" CORXEI.IUS NEPOS,
" Themistocles:" KIRCHMAIER, " Dissertatio de Themistocle," 1663 ;
THKODUR FINCK, " Coinmentatio historico-philologica de Themis-
toclis /Etate, Vita, Ingenio Rebusque Gestis," 1849; GROTE, "His
tory of Greece;" THIRLWALL, " History of Greece."
* Literally, "As many patients as Themison has killed (or shall
have killed) in a single autumn."
Thenard, ta'ntR', (Louis JACQUES,) BARON, an emi
nent French chemist, born at Nogent-sur-Seine in 1777.
He studied under Vauquelin, in Paris, and became suc
cessively demonstrator of chemistry in the Polytechnic
School, professor of chemistry in the College of France
(1804) and in the University of Paris, and a member of
the Academy of Sciences in 1810. He was also made a
peer of France, (1833,) grand officer of the legion of
honour, and chancellor of the university. His "Ele
mentary Treatise on Theoretical and Practical Chemis
try" (4 vols., 1813) is esteemed a standard work, and
has been translated into several languages. He con
tributed a great number of valuable treatises to the
" Annales de Chimie" and other scientific journals, and
published, conjointly with Gay-Lussac, " Physico-Chemi-
cal Researches," made with the voltaic pile, (2 vols.,
1811.) Died in 1857. Thenard and his friend Gay-
Lussac, whose names are inseparably associated in
science, discovered boron, and proved that oxymuriatic
acid is a simple substance. Thenard discovered the
peroxide of hydrogen.
See "N'ouvelle Biographic Generale;" a translation of FLOU-
RENS'S " Eloge on Thenard" in the " Smithsonian Report" for 1862,
P- 373: "Biographic Universelle."
Thenot, ta'no', (JEAN PIERRE,) a French painter
and writer on art, was born in Paris in 1803. He painted
hunting-scenes, landscapes, etc., and wrote several works
on perspective and lithography. Died in 1857.
The'o-baid, [It. TEOBAI.DO, ta-o-bal'do,] sometimes
written Thiebaut, was a brother of Ladislaus II. of
Bohemia. He served with distinction as a general under
Frederick Barbarossa in Italy, about 1158-63.
The'o-bald, (LEWIS,) an English critic and commen
tator on Shakspeare, was a native of Kent. He wrote
a number of dramas, which are now forgotten. Having
offended Pope by exposing the errors of his edition
of Shakspeare, he was severely satirized by that poet
in the " Dunciad." In 1733 Theobald brought out an
edition of Shakspeare, (7 vols. 8vo,) which was received
with great favour, and is still highly esteemed for the
judgment and accuracy it displays. He also wrote a
" Life of Sir Walter Raleigh." Died in 1744.
Theobald OF CANTERBURY. See THIBAUD.
The-o-bal'dus, written also Tibaldus and Tebal-
dus, a French ecclesiastic, supposed to have flourished
in the twelfth century. He was the author of a poem en
titled " Physiologus de Naturis duodecim Animalium,"
being a description of the habits of twelve animals, with
moral reflections drawn from each.
Theocrene and Theocrenus. See TAGLIACARNE.
Theocrite. See THEOCRITUS.
The-oc'ri-tus, [Gr. e«kp«roc; Fr. THEOCRITE, taV-
kRet',] one of the most celebrated pastoral poets of
antiquity, was a rative of Syracuse, and flourished about
270 B.C. He resided for a time at Alexandria, where
he enjoyed the favour and patronage of Ptolemy Phila-
delphus. Among the extant works attributed to Theoc
ritus are thirty idyls and more than twenty epigrams.
His bucolics are written in the Doric dialect, and are
universally regarded as master-pieces of their kind. He
is called the creator of bucolic poetry. His idyls, unlike
most modern pastorals, are natural and free from affected
sentimentality. The Eclogues of Virgil are imitations
of the Bucolics of Theocritus, and are generally re
garded as inferior to the original works, which are
essentially dramatic and mimetic and are truthful pic
tures of the real life of the common people. It appears
from his sixteenth idyl that he returned to Syracuse
and lived there in the reign of Hieron II., who be
came king in 270 B.C. He was intimate with the poet
Aratus. Few events of the life of Theocritus have been
preserved.
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Grzca ;" NAEKR, " Dissertatio de
Theocrito," 1828: E. Rouz, "Dissertatio de Theocriti Idylliis,"
1846; SUIDAS, "Theocritus;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;"
" Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1842 ; " Fraser's Maga
zine" for August and October, 1835 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for
December, 1836, article " Epigrams of Theocritus."
The-oc'ri-tus OF -Cni'os, a Greek orator and Sophist,
famous for his sarcastic wit, lived in the time of Alexan
der the Great. He wrote an epigram against Aristotle.
He was put to death by Antigonus Gonatas.
k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (3^="See Explanations, p. 23.)
133
THEODAT
21 14
THE ODOR US
Theodat. See TIIKODATUS.
The-od'a-tus, [Fr. THEOOAT, ta'o'dt',] King of the
Goths in Italy, was a nephew of Theodoric. He began
to reign about 534 A.D., was defeated by Belisarius, and
was killed by his own soldiers in 536.
The-od'e-bert [Fr. pron. ta'o'deh-baiR'; Lat. THEO-
DEISEK'TUS) I., King of Austrasia, born about 504 A.D.,
was a grandson of Clovis. He is said to have been a
good and able prince. Died in 547 A.D.
Theodecte. See THKODECTES.
The-o-dec'tes, [Or. Gtw5cKn?f ; Fr. THEODECTE,
ta'o'dekt',] an eminent Greek rhetorician and tragic
poet, born at Phaselis, in Pamphylia, lived about 350
H.C., and was a pupil ot" Isocrates. He is said to have
been a friend of Aristotle, who expresses a high opinion
of him in some of his writings. His works are lost,
except small fragments.
See MAKCKKR, " Commentatio cle Theodectas Vita et Scriptis,"
1835-
The-od-e-lin'da, [Fr. THEODELINDE, ta'o'deh-laNd';
It. TEODKI.INDA, ti-o da-len'da,] a Bavarian princess,
was married in 589 A.D. to Autharic, King of the Lom
bards, who died in 590. She afterwards exercised royal
power. Died in 625 A.D.
See I.ISINI, " Memorie tli Teodelimla," 1646.
The-od'e-mir, the father of Theodoric the Great,
was chief ruler of the Ostrogoths. Died in 475 A.D.
Theodemir, a chief of the Visigoths, and a native
of Spain. He served under Roderick against the Moors
in 71 r. Died after 713 A.D.
Theoderic or Theoderich. See THEODORIC.
Theodericus. Sec THEODORIC.
The-o-do'ra, Empress of the East, was in her youth
an actress and courtesan of Constantinople. She retired
from the stage, reformed her conduct, and gained the
affection of Justinian, who married her in 525 A.D. In
527 he proclaimed her as empress and his equal col
league in the empire. Died in 548 A.D.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" J. P.
Luinvic, "Vila Justini.ini et Theodoras," 1731.
Theodora, Empress of the East, born about 810
A. ix, was married to the emperor Theophilus in 830.
She became regent at his death, 842, and governed the
empire with wisdom for fifteen years. Died in 867 A.D.
Theodore. See THEODORUS.
Theodore, (King of Corsica.) See NEUHOF.
The'o-dorc jl.at. TIIEODO'RUS] I. succeeded John
IV. as Pope of Rome in 641 A.D. In a council at Rome
he excommunicated Panlns, Patriarch of Constantinople,
who supported the heresy of the Monothelites. Died
in 649 A.D.
Theodore (Theodorus) II. was elected pope as suc
cessor to Romanus in 897 A.D., and died the same year.
Theodore or Theodorus, a native of Tarsus, was
made Archbishop of Canterbury in 669 A.D., which
office he filled with great zeal and fidelity. He founded
numerous schools, and converted Saint Augustine's
monastery into a college, where Latin and Greek were
taught with great purity. He was the author of a work
entitled "The Penitential." Died in 690 A.D.
See \V. F. HOOK, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
vol. i. chap. iv.
Theodore or Theodorus, late King of Abyssinia,
was born about 1820. His original name was KASSAI.
Having raised himself from a humble condition by his
talents and success as a soldier, he began to reign about
1855. He maltreated some subjects of Great Britain,
the government of which sent an army to Abyssinia in
1867. Theodore was defeated and killed in battle by
the British under General Napier in April, 1868.
The'o-dore An'ge-lus, [Lat. THEODO'RUS AN'GE-
i.us ; Fr. THEODORE I.'ANGE, ta'o'doR' l6Nzh,] became
Greek Emperor of Thessalonica in 1222. He waged
war against the Latins and the Bulgarians, who defeated
him and took him prisoner in 1230.
Theodore 1'Ange. See THEODORE ANGELUS.
Theodore of Mopsuestia. See THEODORUS MOP-
SUKSTENUS.
The-od'o-ret or The-od-o-re'tus, [Gr. e«x5«Wroc;
Fr. THEODORKT, ti'o'do'ri',] an eminent Christian
writer and ecclesiastic, born at Antioch about 390 A.D.,
was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia. He was a per
sonal friend of Nestorius. About 422 he was appointed
Bishop of Cyrus, in Syria. He was moderate and liberal,
and equally eminent for piety and learning. He em
ployed his influence against the intolerant Cyril of
Alexandria and Dioscurus. In 449 he was deposed by
the Synod of Ephesus, over which Dioscurus presided.
He condemned the doctrines of Nestorius at the Council
of Chalcedon, in 451. He wrote, besides other works, a
valuable " History of the Church" from 325 10429 A.D.,
and commentaries on the Old Testament and Epistles
of Paul. Died in 457.
See RICHTER, "Commentatio de Theodoreto," 1822; SCIIUI.ZK,
" Dissertatio de Vita B. Theodoreti," 1769; NEANDER, "History
of the Church ;" CAVE, " Historia Literaria."
Theodoretus. See THEODORKT.
The-od'o-ric or The-od'e-ric [Lat. THEODORI'CUS]
I., King of the Visigoths, and a son of the famous
Alaric, was elected king in 418 or 419 A.D. He defeated
the Romans at Toulouse in 439, and, having conquered
a large part of Gaul, concluded a treaty of peace with
Avitus. Theodoric and the Roman general Aetitis united
their forces against Attila the Hun, who invaded Gaul
in 450. The opposing armies met at Chalons, where
Attila was defeated and Theodoric was killed, in 451 A.D.
He left two sons, Thorismond and Theodoric.
See JORNANDES, " De Rebus Geticis."
Theodoric II., King of the Visigoths, was a son of
the preceding. He began to reign at Tolosa (Toulouse)
in 452 A. i)., and became an ally of Avitus, Emperor of
Rome. He invaded Spain, defeated the Suevi, and
made extensive conquests in the peninsula. He was
assassinated by his brother Euric in 466 A.D.
The-od'o-ric or The-od'e-ric [Lat. THKODORI'CUS
or THEODERI'CUS ; Ger. THEODORICH, ti-o'do-riK, or
THEODEKICH, ta-o'der-iK, which was afterwards cor
rupted into DIETRICH, dee'tRiK] THE GREAT, King
of the Ostrogoths, born in 455 A.D., was the son of
King Theodemir. He was educated at Constantinople,
whither he had been sent as a hostage at an early age.
Soon after his accession to the throne (475) he was
involved in a war with Zeno, Emperor of Constantinople,
and subsequently turned his arms against Odoacer,
who had usurped the chief power in Italy. The latter,
after having been defeated in three battles, was be
sieged in Ravenna, which he surrendered at the end of
three years. Being acknowledged King of Italy by the
emperor Anastasius, Theodoric assumed the name of
Flavins, celebrated a triumph at Rome, and distinguished
himself by the wisdom and liberality of his rule. He
defeated the Gepidae, assisted the Visigoths against the
French king Clovis, and possessed himself of Provence.
He died in 526 A.D., his death being hastened, it is said,
by remorse fir having unjustly condemned to death
Symmachus and Boethius. Gibbon observes of Theodo
ric, " His reputation may repose on the visible peace and
prosperity of a reign of thirty-three years, the unanimous
esteem of his own times, and the memory of his wisdom
and courage, his justice and humanity, which was deeply
impressed on the minds of the Goths and the Italians."
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap,
xxxix. ; ENNOIJIUS, " Panepyricus Theodoricodictus;" J. COCHI.^JUS,
" Vita Theodorici," 1544 ; HURTHR, " Geschichte des Konigs Theo-
dorich," 1807; Du ROURE, " Histoire de Theodoric le Grand," 2
vols., 1846: TII.LEMONT, "Histoire des Empereurs ;" " Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
Theodoric, [It. TEODORICO, ta-o-do-ree'ko,] an Ital
ian surgeon and ecclesiastic, rose to be Bishop of Cervia.
He enjoyed a high reputation for his skill in surgery,
and wrote, in Latin, a treatise "On Surgery according to
the System of Hugo de Lucca." Died in 1298.
Theodorich. See THEODORIC.
Theodoricus. See THEODORIC.
The-o-do'rus (or The'o-dore) [Gr. Qeodupof ; Fr.
THEODORE, ta'o'doR'] OF CYRF/NE, a Greek philoso
pher, belonged to the Cyrenaic school. His doctrines,
which resembled those of Epicurus, gave so much offence
that he was banished from his native city of Cyrene.
He resided at Athens about 312 B.C. Cicero and Seneca
admired his answer to Lysimachus, who threatened to
crucify him. He professed that he did not care whether
he should rot on the ground or in the air.
a, e, T, o, u, y, fang ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
THEODORUS
21 I
THEOPHANES
Theodo'rus OF HERACLK'A, a learned bishop and
leader of the Arian party. He was Bishop of Heraclea
on the Propontis, and was one of the delegates who
presented the Confession of Antioch to Constans in
342 A.D. Died about 356 A.D.
Theodo'rus (or The'odore) OF SA'MOS, an eminent
Greek statuary and architect, who probably flourished
about 600 H.C. He was one of the first artists that cast
statues in bronze. The Theodoras who made a cele
brated ring for Polycrates is supposed to have been a
nephew of the artist above noticed.
Theodo'rus OF TAR'SUS, sometimes called DIODO-
KUS, a prelate and theologian, is supposed to have been
a native of Antioch. He was appointed Bishop of Tar
sus in 378 A.D. He was a zealous opponent of the Arian
heresy, and wrote a number of theological works, which
are not extant.
The-o-do'rus An-ag-nos'te§, (or Lec'tor,) (i.e.
"Theodore the Reader,") [Fr. THEODORE LKCTEUR,
ti'o'doR.' ISk'tUR',] a historian, supposed to have lived
in the sixth century of our era. He was reader in the
church of Constantinople, and wrote a " History of the
Church to the Time of Justinian I."
The-o-do'rus As'gl-das, a Cappadocian monk, who
gained the favour of Justinian I., and was appointed
Archbishop of Cassarea about 536 A.D. He favoured
the Origenists. Died about 558 A.D.
Theodorus Lascaris. See LASCARIS.
The-o-do'rus Mop-sues-te'iius or Theodore of
Mopsuestia, [Fr. THEODORE DE MOPSUESTE, taVdoR'
deh mop'sii'Sst',] Bishop of Mopsuestia, born at An
tioch about 350 A.D., was a pupil of Libanius and a
friend of Chrysostom. His controversial and theological
writings were highly esteemed by his contemporaries,
but very few of them are extant. Died in 429 A.D.
See NEANDER, " History of the Christian Church ;" FRITZSCHE,
"De Theodori Mopsuesteni Vita," 1837; SIEFFERT, "Theodorus
Mopsvestenus, " 1827.
The-o-do'rus Fris-ci-a'nus, a physician and medical
writer of the fourth century, is supposed to have lived i
at Constantinople.
The-o-do'rus Frod'ro-mus, [Fr. THEODORE PRO
DROME, ta'o'doR7 pRo'dRom',] a learned monk and By
zantine writer of the twelfth century, was also called
HlLARION.
The-o-do'rus Stu-di'ta, [Fr. THEODORE STUDITE,
ta'o'dou' stii'det',] a Greek monk and writer, born at
Constantinople in 759 A.D., was an adversary of the
Iconoclasts. He incited the people to sedition and
violent resistance to the decrees against the worship of
images. Died in 826 A.D.
Theodose. See THEODOSIUS.
Theodosius, an able Roman general under the reign
of Valentinian I., served with distinction against the
barbarians of Britain and Germany, and subsequently
quelled an insurrection in Africa in 373 A.D. He was
beheaded at Carthage, 376 A.D. The cause of his execu
tion is not known. His son became Emperor of Rome.
Theodosius (the-o-do'she-us) [Fr. THEODOSE, ta'o'-
doz' ; It. TEODOSIO, ta-o-do'se-o] I., Flavius, a Ro
man emperor, surnamed THE GREAT, was the son of
the preceding, and was born in Spain in 346 A.D. He
accompanied his father in his various campaigns, and
acquired at an early age great proficiency in the art of
war. In 379 A.D. the emperor Gratian conferred upon
him the title of Augustus, with the command over the
Eastern provinces. Having been received into the
Christian Church, he distinguished himself by his zeal
against the Arians, and in 380 appointed Gregory Nazi-
anzen Archbishop of Constantinople. He carried on a
successful war with the Goths, whom he induced to
become the allies of the Romans. After the death of
Gratian, Maximus, who had usurped his empire and
invaded Italy, was defeated by Theodosius, with the
assistance of the Huns and Goths, in 388. Theodosius
reigned at Constantinople, and Valentinian II. was em
peror at Rome until his death, in 392. After this event
Theodosius became sole emperor of the Roman world.
Before his death he divided his dominions between his
two sons Arcadius and Honorius, to the former of
whom he gave the Eastern empire, and to the latter the
Western. Died in 395 A.D. Although he was guilty of
several acts of cruelty, his character is generally eulo
gized by historians.
See GIBBON, " History of the Decline and Fall ;" TII.LEMONT,
" Histoire des Empereurs ;" FLECHIER, " Histoire de Theodose le
Grand," 1679; SOCRATES, "Historia ecclesiastica ;" LE BEAU,
" Histoire du Bas- Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Theodosius II., called THE YOUNGER, born in 401
A.D., was the grandson of the preceding, and the son of
Arcadius. Being but seven years of age at the death of
his father, the government was conducted by his sister
Pulcheria. Among the most important events of his
reign was the collection of the code of laws known as
the " Codex Theodosianus." Died in 450 A.D.
See GIBBON, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire;" GERI.ACH, " De Theodosio Juniore," 1751.
Theodosius III., surnamed ADRAMYTTE'NUS, suc
ceeded Anastasius II. as Emperor of Constantinople in
715 A.D. After a reign of about a year, he withdrew to
a monastery, and was succeeded by Leo III.
Theodosius OF TRIPOLI, a Greek geometer, born in
Bithynia, lived probably between 100 li.C. and 100 A.D.
He wrote a work entitled "Spherics," (2<j>aipiKa,) which
is extant.
Theodotion, the-o-do'she-on, [Gr. QeoSoriuv,] an
early Christian writer under the Roman emperor Coin-
modus, made a Greek translation of the Old Testament.
He l>elonged to the sect of Ebionites.
The-od'o-tus, [Gr. Qeodo-of ; Fr. THEODOTE, ti'o'-
dot',1 an able Greek general, commanded in Coele-Syria
for Ptolemy Pliilopator in 222 B.C. About three years
later he entered the service of Antiochus the Great.
Theodotus OF SAMOS, a rhetorician, was preceptor
to Ptolemy XII. of Egypt. He was responsible for the
murder of Pompey the Great, for which he was put to
death, by order of Brutus, in 43 B.C.
Theodulfe, ta'o'diilP, [Lat. THEODUL'FUS,] a learned
ecclesiastic, born in Spain, was the author oY several
works. He became Bishop of Orleans about 788. Died
about 820 A.D.
The-og'ilis, [Qeo-yn^,] a Greek poet and philosopher,
supposed to have lived about 540-500 B.C., was a native
of Megara. His works were principally elegies and
didactic poems, of which fragments only are extant. He
was a noble or aristocrat, and was driven into exile by
the democratic party.
See FRERE, " Theognis Restitutus: The Personal History of
the Poet Theognis." etc., 1842; K. O. MUI.I.ER, "History of the
Literature of Ancient Greece ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
The'oii, [6eon>,] a celebrated Greek painter, born in
Samos, lived under the reign of Alexander the Great.
His works are highly commended by Pliny.
Theon, (ALiAUS,) a rhetorician of Alexandria, sup
posed to have lived about 315 A.D. His principal extant
work is entitled " Progymnasmata," or rules on rhetoric.
Theon OF ALEXANDRIA, called THE YOUNGER, a
Platonic philosopher and mathematician, lived about
350-400 A.D. He wrote commentaries on the Almagest
of Ptolemy, and edited the works of Euclid. He was the
father of the celebrated Hypatia.
Theon OF SMYRNA, sometimes called THE ELDER, a
Neo-Platonic philosopher, flourished about 125 A.D. He
was the author of a treatise on astronomy, mathematics,
music, etc., the principal part of which is extant. He is
called a Pythagorean.
The-oph'a-ne, [Gr. Qtoouvri ; Fr. THEOPHANE, ta'o'-
ftn',] a beautiful woman, who, according to the fable, was
beloved by Neptune, was changed by him into a sheep,
and was the mother of the golden-fleeced ram of Colchis.
Theophane. See THEOPHANES.
The-oph'a-nes, | Gr. Qsoyavrjf ; Fr. THEOPHANE,
ta'o'ftn',] a Greek historian, born at Mitylene, was
patronized by Pompey the Great, whom he accompanied
in his military expeditions. His principal work was a
history of the achievements of Pompey, of which only
fragments are extant.
Theophanes, (GEORGE or ISAURUS,) a Greek histo
rian, born in 758 A.D., was a native of Constantinople.
He wrote a chronicle of the period from 277 to 811 A.D.
Died in 818.
Theophanes, (PKOKOPOVITCH.) See PROKOPOVITCH.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.)
THEOPHILE
2116
THER'JMEKES
Theophile, the French of THEOPHILUS, which see.
Theophile de Viaud, ta'o'fel' deh ve'6', a French
satiric poet, born in 1590. He wrote elegies, tragedies,
etc., was accused of atheism and condemned to death
in 1623, but escaped. The sentence was afterwards
annulled. Died in 1626.
The-oph'I-lus, [Gr. QEO^L'AO^ ; Fr. THEOPHILE, taV-
fel'; It. TEOFILO, ta-of'e-lo,] an Athenian comic poet
of unknown period. His works are lost.
Theophilus, Kmperor of Constantinople, was a son
of Michael II., whom he succeeded in 829 A.I). He
waged a long war against the Saracens with ill success.
He was a zealous Iconoclast. Died in 842 A.D.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Theophilus, a theologian, and Bishop of Antioch,
wrote an "Apology for the Christian Faith," which
is extant and is a work of considerable merit. Died
about 182 A.D.
See GRABENER, "De Theophilo Episcopo Antioclieno," 1744.
Theophilus, a turbulent ecclesiastic, who became
Bishop of Alexandria in 385 A.D. He condemned the
writings of Origen and persecuted the Origenists. lie
was the chief agent in the banishment of Chrysostom,
(403.) Died in 412 A.D.
Theophilus, a distinguished jurist of the sixth cen
tury, was employed by the emperor Justinian to assist
in compiling the Digest and the Institutes.
The-opti'Mus Prot-o-spa-tha'ii-us, [Fr. THEO-
]>HII.E PROTOSPATHAIRK, ta'o'fel' pKo'to'spit'taV,] a
Greek medical writer, the place and date of whose birth
are unknown. The most important of his extant works
is an anatomical treatise, which has been translated into
Latin under the title of " De Corporis Human! Fabrica,"
("On the Structure of the Human Body.")
Theophraste. See THEOPHRASTUS.
The-o-phras'tus,[Gr. QEotfipaaror : Fr. THEOPHRASTE,
ti'o'fRist' ; It. TKOFKASTO, ta-o-fRas'to,] an eminent
Greek philosopher, born at Eresus, in Lesbos, about
374 B.C. His original name was TYK'TAMUS. I le studied
at Athens, where he first attached himself to Plato, and
afterwards became a favourite pupil of Aristotle. In
accordance with the last will of that master, Theophras-
tus succeeded him as president of the Lyceum in 322
B.C. He acquired a high reputation by his eloquence,
and attracted from all parts of Greece a multitude of
disciples, among whom was Menander the poet. With
a design to explain the system of Aristotle and sup
plement his works, he wrote numerous treatises on
philosophy and natural history, the most of which are
not extant. Several of his works have come clown to
us, (though perhaps in an imperfect state,) viz. : " Moral
Characters," (rjftiKol xapaKTypEf ,) which was translated
into French and imitated by La Bruyere, a " History of
Plants," (in ten books,) and a work "On the Causes of
Plants," (mpi tyvruv CIITUJV.) Died about 286 H.C. His
" Moral Characters" are admired for subtlety of thought,
Attic wit, (sel,) and elegance of style.
See MAX SCHMIDT, " De Theophrasto Rhetore," 1839: SPE-
RANZA, "Teofrasto primo Botanico," 1841; HALLER, "Blbliotheca
Botanica;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
The-oph'y-lact, [Gr. QSO^V^UKTO^ ; Lat. THEOPHY-
LAC'TUS ; Fr. THEOPHYLACTE, ta'o'fe'likt',] a Greek
ecclesiastic, became Archbishop of Achris, in Bulgaria,
about 1070. He was the author of a treatise " On the
Education of Princes," also commentaries on the twelve
minor prophets, and numerous epistles. Died alter 1112.
Theophylactus. See THF.OPHYLACT.
The-o-phy-lac'tus Sim-o-cat'ta, [Gr. QEO$V'MIKTO<;
6 I,i{j.oKu.TT7jf or ZIUOKUTTOC;,] a Greek historian, born in
Locris. He wrote a "History of the Reign of the Em
peror Maurice from 582 to 602 A.D.," also numerous
letters. Died about 630 A.D.
See Vossius, " De Historicis Graecis."
Theopompe. See THEOPOMPUS.
The-o-pom'pus, [Gr. Qeoiroinroe; Fr. THEOPOMPE,
ta'o'piMp ,] a king of Sparta, who reigned about 750
li.C. The power of the Ephori was established or in
creased in his reign.
Theopompus, an Athenian comic poet of the old
and of the middle comedy, flourished probably about
400 B.C. He was a contemporary of Aristophanes.
Theopompus, an eminent Greek historian and orator,
born in Chios (Scio) about 378 H.C., was a brother of
Caucalus the rhetorician, and was a pupil of Isocrates.
He was one of the aristocrats who were banished by the
popular party, when he was a young man. In his exile
he composed a number of orations and eulogiums, which
were received with applause in many cities of Greece.
In 352 li.C. he contended with success against Isocrates
and others for a prize offered by Artemisia for an oration
in honour of Mausolus. He was restored to his native
state at the age of forty-five, (333 H.C.) His principal
works were a " History of Greece from 411 to 394 i:.c.,"
('FJi/.i/viKtzl taTopiai, in twelve books,) which is lost except
a few fragments, and a " History of Philip of Macedon,"
(QihiTTTiiKu, in fifty-eight books,) of which many fragments
are extant. The ancient critics say that he was apt to
err by the extravagance of his censure and his praise ;
but they commend his accuracy. He died after 305 H.C.
See ASCHBACH, " Dissertatio He Theopompo," 1823 ; J. E. Pin.uoK,
" De Tlieopompi Vita et Scriptis," 1827 ; G. F. KOCH, " Dissertatio
de Theopompo," 1790; PLUTARCH, " Vhaedecem Oratornm ;" ATHE-
N^:us, passim.
Theorell, tn'o-rel, (JoiiAN PETKR,) a Swedish journal
ist, born at Halljunga in 1791. He edited a democratic
journal, called " Aftonposten," and published several
historical essays.
Theorell, (SVEN LORKNS,) a brother of the preceding,
was born at Halljunga in 1784. He published a work
" On the Influence of Manufactures on the Wages of
Labourers," (1845.)
Theotocopuli, ta-o-to-ko-poo'lee, (DOMINICO,) an
eminent painter and sculptor, surnamed Ki. GRKCU, was a
pupil of Titian. He resided at Toledo, in Spain, where
he produced a number of his finest pictures. Among
these may be named "The Parting of Christ's Raiment
before the Crucifixion," an altar-piece in the cathedral of
Toledo, and "The Entombment of Count Orgax," in the
church of Santo Tome. His monuments and sculptures
are highly esteemed. He also designed the church of the
Augustines at Madrid, and other architectural works.
Died in 1625.
Tlieotocopuli, (GEORGE MANUEL,) a son of the pre
ceding, attained a high reputation as a sculptor and
architect, and built a considerable part of the cathedral
of Toledo. Died in 1631.
Theramene. See THF.RAMENES.
The-ram'e-nei, |Gr. Qqpapevrif; Fr. THERAMENE, ta'-
r3'm,\n',] an Athenian politician, and one of the famous
Thirty Tyrants. As a leader of the oligarchic party, he
took an active part in the revolution of 411 H.C., and was
one of the principal members of the new government
then formed. He served as a subordinate officer at
the battle of Arginusce, (406.) Although the Athenians
gained the victory there, the six commanding generals
were put to death, because many of their men were
drowned and they were unable even to recover their
bodies for burial. Theramenes was one of the principal
accusers, and he appears to have been chiefly respon
sible for that great injustice. He negotiated the treaty
which opened Athens to the Spartan general Lysander
in 405 H.C., and was one of the Thirty Tyrants who
subverted the old constitution and usurped power in 404.
Having, it is said, from motives of policy rather than
humanity, remonstrated against the excessive cruelty of
his colleagues, he was proscribed by Critias and con
demned to death. When he drank the cicuta, he
exclaimed, "This to the health of the lovely Critias !"
He died in 404 B.C.
The character of Theramenes was throughout that of
an intriguing, unscrupulous politician ; but the equa
nimity, or rather indifference, which he displayed at his
death, commanded the admiration of Xenophon and
Cicero. It might truly be said of him, in the words of
the great dramatist,
" Nothing in his life
Became him like the leaving it ; he died
As one that had been studied in his death
To throw away the dearest thing he owed [owned]
As 'twas a careless trifle."
Macbeth, Act I. Scene IV.
See GROTE, "History of Greece;" SUIDAS, "Theramenes:'"
SCHNEITHF.R, "Dissertatio de Theramene," 1821; SMITH, "Dic
tionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. ; THIRLWALL, "His
tory of Greece."
a e, I, o, ii, y, Jong: i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, xi, y. short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; moon;
THERJSSE
2117
THEVENOT
Therasse, td'rts', (VICTOR,) a French sculptor, born
in Paris about 1808.
Theremin, ta'reh-meen', (LunwiG FRIKDRICU
FRANZ,) a German Protestant theologian, born in 1783,
became in 1815 court preacher at Berlin. lie published
several religious and miscellaneous works, and made
translations from Cervantes and Byron. Died in 1846.
Theresa, te-ree'sa or ta-ra'sa, [Fr. THERESE, ta'riz' ;
It. and Sp. TERESA, ta-ra'sa,] commonly called* SAINT
THERESA, a Spanish nun, celebrated for her talents and
piety, was born at Avila in 1515. She entered the order
of Carmelites at an early age, and about 1562 founded,
in her native town, a reformed society of Barefooted
Carmelites. She died in 1582, leaving a number of
religious works, which are highly esteemed and have
been translated into the principal languages of Europe.
Among these we may name " Thoughts on the Love of
God," "The Road to Perfection," "The Castle of the
Soul," " Life of Saint Theresa, written by Herself," and
'• Letters of Saint Theresa." She was canonized by Pope
Gregory XV. in 1621.
See RIBERA, "Vida de la Madre Teresa," 1601; COLI.OMRET,
"Vie de Sainte-Therese," 1836; TICKNOR, "History of Spanish
Literature;" ALBAN BUTLER, " Leben der heiligen Theresia," 1825;
" Nouveile Biographic Generale."
Thermes, de, cleh t§Km, (PAUL de la Barthe — deh
IS bSkt,) SEIGNEUR, a French general, born at Couse-
rans in 1482. He became a marshal of France in 1557.
Died in 1562.
Theioigne de Mericourt, ti'Rwan' deh meh-re'-
]<OOR', (or Marcourt, maVkooR',) (ANNE JOSEPHS,) a
Frenchwoman, noted for her courage and beauty, was
born in Luxemburg in 1762. She became a Girondist,
and harangued the people of Paris during the Revolution.
About 1793 she was maltreated by some viragos of the
Jacobin party, and lost her reason. Died in 1817.
See TH. Fuss, " Theroigne de Mericourt dite la belle Liegoise,"
1854 ; " Nouveile Biographic Generale."
The'roii, [Q'r](Mv,\ a Greek, who became Tyrant of
Agrigentum, in Sicily, about 488 B.C. As an ally of
Gelon of Syracuse, he fought against the Carthaginians
in 480. His reign was prosperous. lie obtained at
the Olympic games victories which were celebrated by
Pindar. Died in 472 B.C.
Ther-san'der, [Gr. Qepoavfipof ; Fr. THERSANDRE,
tSu'sfiNdR',] a mythical king of Thebes, and a son of
Polynices. lie joined the expedition against Troy, and
is said to have been killed by Telephus. He was one
of the EPIGONI, (which see.) According to Virgil, Ther-
sander was one of the Greeks who were concealed in the
wooden horse.
See "jEneid," book ii. 261.
Thersite. See THERSITF.S.
Ther-sl'tes, [Gr. Qspain/f : Fr. THERSITE, t£i<'set',j
a Greek, noted for his personal ugliness, impudence, and
ill nature, was publicly chastised bv Ulysses for having
slandered Agamemnon. According to tradition, he was
slain by Achilles.
See "Iliad," book ii.
Thery, ta're', (Auc.usTlN FRANgois,) a French littera
teur, born in Paris in 1796. He was professor of rhetoric
in the College of Versailles, and afterwards provisenr.
He wrote, besides other works, "La Renaissance," a
poem, (1822,) and a " History of Literary Opinions," (2
vols., 1844.)
Thesee. See THESEUS.
The'seus or zV&ee'se-us, [Gr. Orjaevf : Fr. THESEE, ta'-
zi/ ; It. TESEO, ta-sa'o,] the great national hero of Attica,
regarded by some critics as a mythical personage. Ac
cording to tradition, he was a son of /Egeus, King of
Athens, and a cousin of Hercules, whose exploits he
emulated by the destruction of monsters and robbers.
The Athenians were bound to pay tribute to Minos of
Crete, in the form of seven young men and seven maidens,
who were destined to be devoured by the Minotaur in the
Labyrinth. Theseus volunteered to go as one of these
victims. He gained the affection of Ariadne, a daughter
of Minos, killed the Minotaur, and readily found his way
out of the Labyrinth by means of a clue (ball of thread)
which Ariadne gave him, one end of which he made fast
at the entrance and let it trail after him. He afterwards
became King of Athens, defeated the Amazons, who in
vaded Attica, took part in the Argonautic expedition,
and abducted the famous Helen from Sparta while she
was a girl. He marrfed Antiope, the Queen of the
Amazons, who bore him a son named Ilippolytus, and
after her death he married Phaedra, a daughter of Minos.
He was regarded by the Athenians as the author of an
important political reform in Attica, which before his
time was divided into many petty states or denti, claim
ing to be independent. These he reduced to a state of
unity and subjection to a central authority. He was an
intimate friend of Pirithous, whom he aided, the legend
says, in an audacious attempt to abduct Proserpine from
the palace of Pluto. They failed, and Theseus was con
fined in Tartarus, but was finally released by Hercules.
Tradition adds that he was treacherously killed by
Lycomedes, King of Scyros.
See VIRGIL, "^Eueid," book vi. 393 and 618 ; PLUTARCH, "Life
of Theseus."
Thesiger. See CHELMSFORD.
Thes'pis, [0£07uf,] a Greek dramatist, born at Icaria,
in Attica, nourished about 540 B.C. lie is called the
inventor of tragedy. His works have perished, the titles
only of four dramas being preserved.
See J. C. CRAMER, " Commentatio de Thespide," 1754; K. O.
MUI.I.EK. " Literature of Ancient Greece."
Thes'pi-us, [Gr. Qiamof,] a son of Erechtheus, and
a king of Thespias. The poets feigned that he had
fifty daughters, who were the wives or concubines of
Hercules, to whom Thespius gave them as a reward
for killing a lion.
Thes'sa-lus, [Gr. Gc'aaa/oc; Fr. THESSALE, ti'sil',]
a son of Jason and Medea, was supposed to be the
ancestor of the Thessalian people.
Thessalus, a son of the celebrated physician Hip
pocrates, lived about 360 B.C. He belonged to the sect
of the Dogmatici.
Thessalus, a physician who lived under the reign of
Nero, was a native of Lydia, and one of the founders of
the Methodic!.
Thes'ti-us, [Gr. Gecmoc,] a fabulous king of /Etolia,
said to have been a son of Mars or of Agenor, and
the father of Althaea, Leda, Iphiclus, Plexippus, and
Eurypylus.
T'he''tis, [Gr. Gmc; Fr. THETIS, ta'tess',] a beautiful
sea-nymph, and one of the Nereids, was said to be a
granddaughter of Neptune, and a daughter of Nereus and
Doris. The poets feigned that she was courted by Ju
piter and Apollo, who desisted from the pursuit because
Themis predicted that her son should be greater than
his father ; that she was married to Peleus, and became
the mother of Achilles; and that their wedding was at
tended by all the gods except Eris, (or Discord,) who
threw among the guests the golden apple, on which was
written, " For the most beautiful," and which Paris
awarded to Venus as the prize of beauty. (See ACHILLES.)
Theu'dis, King of the Visigoths in Spain, succeeded
Amalaric in 531 or 532 A.D. He waged a successful war
against the Franks, who invaded Spain in 542. He was
an uncle of Totila. Died in 548 A.D.
Theux de Meylandt, de, deh tuh deh mi'lant, (or
mi'lS.vt',) (BARTHELEMY THEODORE,) COMTE, a Belgian
minister of state, born at the chateau de Schabroek in
1794. He became one of the leaders of the Catholic
party. He was minister of the interior in 1831-32,
minister of foreign affairs between 1835 anc' 1840, and
minister of the interior from 1846 to 1848.
Thevenard, tev'naV, (ANTOINE JEAN MARIE,)
COMTE, a French naval officer, born at Saint-Malo in
173-?. He became a vice-admiral in 1792. Died in 1815.
Theveiieau, tav'no', (CHARLES SIMON,) a French poet
and mathematician, born in Paris in 1759; died in 1821.
Theveiiin, tav'nax', (CHARLES,) a French painter of
history and portraits, born in Paris in 1764, became a
member of the Institute in 1825. His master-piece is
the "Passage of Mont Saint Bernard." Died in 1838.
Thevenin, (CLAUDE NOEL,) a French historical
painter, born in Isere in 1800; died in 1849.
Thevenot. See COULON DE THEVENOT.
Theveiiot, tav'no', (MELCHISEDECH,) a French com
piler and Oriental scholar, born in Paris about 1620.
« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Vi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
THE YE NOT
21 18
THIEBAUT
He was sent in 1652 on an important mission to Rome,
and in 1684 appointed librarian of the Royal Library.
He was one of the founders of the Academy of Sciences.
His principal work is a compilation of travels and
voyages, entitled an " Account of Many Curious Voyages
hitherto unpublished," etc., (2 vols. fol., 1672.) He was
distinguished for his scientific attainments, as well as his
profound knowledge of the Oriental tongues, and was
the inventor of an air-level. He also collected many
valuable books and manuscripts for the Royal Library,
of which he published a catalogue, entitled "Bibliotheca
Thevenotiana." Died in 1692.
Thevenot, de, deh tiv'no', (JEAN,) a traveller, a
nephew of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1633.
He studied at the College of Navarre, and, having pre
viously visited England, Germany, and Italy, set out in
1655 for the East. He spent seven years in Egypt and
different parts of Asia, and in 1664 started on a second
journey, during which he visited Persia and India. lie
died of a fever in 1667, while on his way to Tabreez,
(Tabriz.) His principal works, which have a high repu
tation, are "Travels in the Levant," (1664,) to which
were added a description of Persia, and " An Account of
Ilindostan, the Modern Mongols, and other Peoples and
Countries of India," ("Voyage contenant la Relation de
1'IIindoustan, des nouveaux Mogols," etc., 1684.) He
was well versed in the Arabic and Persian languages.
See "Biographic Universelle. "
Thevet, teh-vi', (ANDRE,) a French traveller, born
at Angouleme in 1502. lie visited the Levant, and
published a" Universal Cosmography," (1571,) and other
works. Died in 1590.
Thew, thii, (RoBKRT,) an English artist, born in York
shire in 1758, was appointed engraver to the Prince of
Wales. His principal works are nineteen plates in Boy-
dell's "Shakspeare Gallery." Died in 1802.
Thialfi. See THOR.
Thiard or Tyard, de, deh te'^R', (PoNTUS,) a French
poet, born in 1521. He was patronized by Henry III.,
who appointed him Bishop of Chalons-sur-Saone in 1578.
Died in 1605.
See MARTIN, " Notice sur Pontiis de Thiard," 1786.
Thiard de Bissy, de, deh te'aV deh be'se', (Au-
XONNE THEODORE MARIE,) COMTE, a French general,
born in Paris in 1772. He was a Liberal member of the
Chamber of Deputies from 1820 to 1848. Died in 1852.
Thiassi or Thjassi, te-as'se, (said to signify " im
petuous," " violent,"] a famous giant, the father of Skadi,
mentioned in the Eddaic legends. It is related that,
having taken the form of an eagle, Thiassi succeeded in
catching the subtle Loki, and refused to release him
unless he would swear to bring Iduna, with her apples
of immortality, from the habitation of the /Esir. There
upon Loki told Iduna that he had found some beautiful
apples in a wood just without the walls of Asgard,
urging her to take her own out with her for the pur
pose of comparing them. Iduna fell into the snare.
No sooner had she left the fortress of the gods than
Thiassi came, with his eagle's plumage, caught her up,
and carried her to Thrymheim, his abode among the
mountains. But the gods fared ill in her absence ; they
grew rapidly old and gray. At length, Loki, terrified
by their menaces, was prevailed on to attempt her
restoration. Having himself assumed the form of a
falcon, he flew to Thrymheim in the giant's absence,
transformed Iduna into a nut, and carried her in his
talons to Asgard. But Thiassi pursued and had nearly
overtaken Loki, when the ^sir came out to his assist
ance, and Thiassi was caught and slain. It is said that
the gods, in order to appease Skadi for the death of her
father, cast his eyes up to heaven, where they became
two stars.
See THORPE, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 43-45.
Thibaud. See THIBAUT.
Thibaud, te'bo', or The'o-bald, an ecclesiastic,
became Archbishop of Canterbury (England) in 1139.
He quarrelled with King Stephen. Died in 1161.
Thibaud (te'bo') or Thibautll., called THE GREAT,
Count of Champagne and Blois, was born about 1090.
His mother was Alice, a daughter of William the
Conqueror. He was a brother of Stephen, King of
England. Died in 1152.
Thibaud or Thibaut, sometimes called The'o-bald,
[Lat. THEOBAL'DUS,] Count of Champagne and King
of Navarre, was born in 1201. He was a son of Thi
baut, Count of Champagne, and was the most powerful
feudatory of the French king. On the death of his
uncle, Sancho, King of Navarre, in 1234, he succeeded
to the throne of that country. In 1239 he conducted an
army of crusaders to the Holy Land ; but he proved
himself an incompetent general, and was defeated with
great loss at Ascalon or Gaza. Died in 1253. He was
celebrated as a troubadour, and left many songs, which
are extant.
Thibaudeau, te'bo'do', (ADOI.PHK NAUCISSE,) a
French journalist and liberal politician, born at Poitiers
in 1795 ! c''ed i" 1856.
Thibaudeau, (ANTOINE CLAIRE,) COUNT, a French
revolutionist and historical writer, the father of the
preceding, was born at Poitiers in 1765. lie was elected
to the National Convention in 1792, and voted for the
death of the king without the appeal to the people. In
1796 he became president of the Council of Five Hun
dred, and a count of the empire in 1808. lie was
appointed a senator by Louis Napoleon in 1852. He
was the author of "Memoirs of the Convention and the
Directory," (1824,) "General History of Napoleon,"
(1827,) " Memoirs of the Consulate and the Empire,"
(1835,) and other works. Died in 1854.
See TISSRRON, " Le Senat de 1'Empire Krangais;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Thibaut, te'bo', (ANTON FRIEDRICII JUSTUS,) an
eminent German jurist, born at Hameln, in Hanover, in
1774. He studied at Gottingen, Konigsberg, and Kiel,
became professor of law at Jena in 1802, and obtained
in 1805 the same chair at Heidelberg, where he taught
with distinguished success during the remainder of his
life. His legal works are very numerous, and are
ranked among the most valuable that have appeared.
Among these may be named his "Juristic Encyclopaedia
and Methodology," (1797,) "Theory of the Logical
Interpretation of Roman Law," "On Possession and
Prescription," (1802,) "System des Pandektenrechts,"
(1803,) and "On the Necessity of a Common Code of
Laws for Germany," (1814.) Died in 1840.
Thibaut, (JEAN THOMAS,) a French architect, born
in Hante-Marne in 1757; died in 1826.
Thibotiville, de, deh te'boo'vel', (HENRI LAMBERT
D'HERUIGNY,) MARQUIS, a French litterateur, born in
Paris in 1710, was an intimate friend of Voltaire. He
wrote dramas, novels, etc. Died in 1784.
Thick'nesse, (Mrs. ANNE,) an English lady, dis
tinguished for her talents and beauty, was born in 1737.
She was the wife of Philip Thicknesse, noticed below.
She wrote " Biographical Sketches of Literary Females
of the French Nation," "The School of Fashion," a
novel, and other works. Died in 1824.
Thicknesse, (PHILIP,) an English traveller, born
about 1720. Among his works are "Memoirs and
Anecdotes of Philip Thicknesse," (3 vols., 1788-91.)
Died in 1792.
See the "Monthly Review" for September, 1777.
Thiebault or Thiebaut, te'd'bo', (DIEUDONNE,) a
French litterateur, born near Remiremont in 1733. He
became professor of grammar in Berlin in 1765, and was
intimate with Frederick the Great. He published, be
sides several works on grammar, " Souvenirs of Twenty
Years' Residence in Berlin," etc., (5 vols., 1804.) Died
in 1807.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Thiebault, (PAUL CHARLES FRANCOIS,) a French
general, born in Berlin in 1769, was a son of the pre
ceding. He commanded a brigade at Austerlitz, and
became a general of division in 1808. He wrote several
military works. Died in 1846.
See "Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale."
Thiebaut. See THEOBALD.
a, e, T, o, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
TH1EBAUT
21 19
THIERS
TMebaut de Berneaud, te'a'bo' deh beR'no',
(ARbiiNE,) a French writer on rural economy and biog
raphy, born at Sedan in 1777, was a republican. He-
contributed to the " Biographic Universelle." Died in
Paris in 1850.
Thiele, tee'leh, (Jusr MATTHIAS,) a Danish writer,
born at Copenhagen in 1795. He published, besides
other works, a "History of Thorvvaldsen's Youth," and
"Thorvvaldsen and his Works," (4 vols., 1831-50.)
Thielen, van, vfn tee'len, ([AN PHILIP,) a Flemish
flower-painter, born at Mechlin in 1618. His works are
esteemed master-pieces of the kind. Died in 1667.
Thielmami, von, fon teel'man, (JOHANN ADOLF,)
FREIHKRR, a German general, born at Dresden in 1765.
1 le served in the campaigns of 1806 and 1809, was made
lieutenant-general in 1810, and fought for Napoleon in
Russia in 1812. He afterwards entered the Prussian
service, and obtained command of a corps or division
of the army of Bliicher. On June 18 he held in check
the corps of Grouchy at Wavre, and by his obstinate
resistance contributed to the victory of the allies at
Waterloo. Died in 1824.
See OBKRREIT, " Beitrage zur Biographic des Generals von Thiel-
niann," 1829; HOI.ZENDORFF, "Beitrage zur Biographic des Gene
rals von Thielmann," 1830.
Thieme, tee'meh, (KARL AUGUST,) a German philol
ogist, was professor at Leipsic. He published an edition
of Xenophon, (4 vols.. 1763-66.) Died in 1795.
Thiemo, tee'mo, | Fr. THIEMON, te'a'moN',] some
times called DIETHMAR, a German prelate, distinguished
as a sculptor and painter, was born in Bavaria about
1045. HC became Archbishop of Salzburg about 1088.
Died in Palestine about iioo.
Thienemarm, tee'neh-man', (FRIEDRICH AUGUST
LunwiG,) a German ornithologist, born near Freiburg
111 i?93- Having graduated at Leipsic, he visited North
ern Europe and Iceland, of which he published an
account after his return. His chief work is a " History
of the Reproduction of Divers Species of Birds," with
one hundred coloured plates, (1845-53.) Died in 1858.
Thierri. See THIKRRY.
Thierry or Thierri, te-er're, [Fr. pron. te'i're',] or
Theodoric II., King of Austrasia, born about 486 A.D.,
was the eldest son of Clovis. He began to reign in
511. Died in 534.
Thierry or Thierri II., King of Austrasia and Bur
gundy, born in 587 A.n., was a son of Childebert II.,
whom he succeeded in 596. Died in 613 A. P.
Thierry or Thierri I. or III., King of Neustria and
Burgundy, (or France,) a son of Clovis II., was born
about 654 A.D. He received the title of king, but the
royal power was exercised by Pepin, mayor of the palace.
Died in 691 A.n.
Thierry or Thierri II. or IV., born- in 713 A.n., was
a sun of Dagobert III., King of the Franks. He was
one of the rois faineants, or nominal kings. The king-
clnin was governed by Charles Martel, under the name
of Thierri. Died in 737 A.n.
Thierry, te'i're', ( ALEX ANDRE,) a French physician
and surgeon, born in 1803, practised in Paris, and gained
distinction as an operator. He wrote for the " National,"
and actively promoted the revolution of 1848.
Thierry, (AMEDEK SIMON DOMINIQUE,) a French
historian, born at Blois in 1797. He was appointed
master of requests in the council of state under Louis
Philippe, and continued in the same office by Louis
Napoleon. He published a " History of Gaul under
the Roman Rule," (1826,) "History of Attila and of his
Sons and Successors in Europe," etc., (1856,) and a
" History of the Gauls from the Earliest Period to the
Subjection of Gaul," etc., (1857.) He was elected to the
Academy of Moral and Political Sciences in 1841, and
was raised to the dignity of senator in 1860.
See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for August, 1832.
Thierry, (finoUARD,) a French litterateur, born in
Paris in 1813. He contributed critiques on the drama
to several journals of Paris.
Thierry, (JACQUES NICOLAS AUGUSTIN,) an eminent
French historian, a brother of the preceding, was born
at Blois in 1795. Having studied in the College of Blois,
he repaired to Paris, where he became in 1817 associate
editor of the "Censeur Europeen." He brought out in
1825 his "History of the Conquest of England by the
Normans," which met with brilliant success and was
translated into German and English. Soon after this,
his sight, which had been gradually failing, was entirely
lost. He still, however, pursued his historical researches,
with the assistance of a secretary, Annand Carrel, and
published, successively, "Ten Years of Historical Stu
dies," (1834,) "Narratives of the Merovingian Times,
preceded by Considerations on the History of France,"
(1840,) and an "Essay on the History of the Formation
and Progress of the Third Estate," (1853.) He was
recognized as the master of the modern French school
of historians. Died in May, 1856.
See GUIGNIAUT, " Notice historique sur la Vie d Aug. I merry.
Generale ;" " Biographic Universelle ;"
Thierry, (JEAN,) a French sculptor, born at Lyons
in 1669, worked in Spain for Philip V. Died in Paris
in 1739.
Thierry, (JOSEPH FRANgois
DESIKE,) a French
painter of landscapes and decorations, n brother of
Edouard, noticed above, was born in 1812.
Thierry, (JULIE de Querangal — deh kei/roN'gSi',)
a literary French lady, became in 1831 the wife of
Augustin Thierry the historian. She aided him in his
literary labours, and wrote two works, entitled " Scenes
of Manners and Characters," (1835,) and "Adelaide:
Memoirs of a Young Woman," (1839.) Died in 1844.
Thierry (or Theodoric) OK NIKM, a native of West
phalia, became papal secretary at Rome. He wrote
a "History of the Schism," (" De Schismate.") Died
in 1417.
Thiers, te'aiR', QEAN BAPTISTE,) a French theo
logian of great erudition, was born at Chartres in 1636.
He published numerous religious and controversial
works, which were highly esteemed. Among these is a
"Treatise on Superstitions according to Holy Scripture,"
("Traite des Superstitions selon 1'ficriture Sainte,"
1679.) Died in 1703.
Thiers, (Louis AnOLPHE,) an eminent French his
torian and minister of state, was born at Marseilles on
the i6th of April, 1797. He studied law at Aix, where
M. Mignet was his fellow-student and his friend. In
1818 he was received as advocate at the bar of Aix, from
which he removed to Paris in 1821 and became an assist
ant editor of the " Constitutionnel," a liberal journal. He
distinguished himself by his finesse, by his political in
sight, and by the vivacity of his style. In 1823 he pub
lished the first volume of his " History of the French
Revolution," (10 vols., 1823-27,) which enjoyed much
popularity, especially with the Liberal party. Thiers,
Mignet, and Armand Carrel founded in January, 1830, the
"National," with an agreement that each should be alter
nately editor-in-chief for one year. Thiers was the editor
for the first year, and contributed to the revolution of
July, 1830. He is said to be the author of the phrase,
" The king reigns, and does not govern." He employed
his influence to raise Louis Philippe to the throne, and
was rewarded by the office of councillor of state in 1830.
In the same year he was elected a member of the Chamber
of Deputies. He was under-secretary of state for the
finances during the short ministry of Lafitte, 1830-31,
and became minister of the interior in October, 1832.
He acquired eminence as a parliamentary debater. His
speeches are characterized as familiar, amusing, con-
versational, and incisive.
French Academy in 1834.
He was admitted into the
About this time Thiers and
Guizot became rivals and competitors for the place of
chief minister, the former being the leader of the centre
gauche, (" left centre.") He was president of the council
and minister of foreign affairs from February to August,
1836, when he resigned, and was succeeded by Count
Mole. In March, 1840, he was again appointed chief
minister, with the portfolio of foreign affairs. His policy
on the Eastern question was counteracted by Palmerston,
who, by a concerted action with Russia and Austria,
isolated France. Thiers resolved to support Mehemet
Ali, at the risk of a war against England ; but, as the king
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. C£f=See Explanations, p. 23.)
TH1ERSCH
TH1STLEWOOD
would not assent to this course, he resigned in October,
1840, and was succeeded by Guizot.
Among his chief works is a " History of the Consulate
and the Empire," (20 vols., 1845-63.) This, as well as his
" History of the Revolution," stands in the very highest
rank among historical works in the French language.
He was one of the orators of the opposition in the last
years of the reign of Louis Philippe, but did not give a
hearty support to the republic of 1848. In the Con
stituent Assembly he acted with the droite. He voted
for Louis Napoleon as president in December, 1848, but
after that president became emperor he ceased to be
his partisan. In 1863 Thiers was elected to the legis
lative body, in which he acted with the opposition, and
to which he was re-elected in 1869. He made in April,
1867, a speech against Napoleon's foreign policy, which
excited much sensation. He avowed his enmity to Ital
ian nationality. " The whole drift of this speech," says
the London "Spectator," "is that selfishness is the first
of national duties." In July, 1870, he boldly opposed
the war against Prussia, in a speech to the legislative
body, and declared that Napoleon had committed an
other blunder. The republicans of Paris offered to
appoint him a member of the provisional government
formed in September, 1870, but he declined to serve in
that capacity.
See Louis DE LOMKNIE, "M. Thiers, par un Honime de Rien,"
1841 ; A. LAVA, " E"tudes historiques sur la Vie privee, politique et
litteraire de M. A. Thiers," 2 vols., 1846; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale;" CORMENIN, " Livre des Orateurs ;" L. BLANC, " His-
toire de dix Ans ;" " London Quarterly Review" for September,
1845; " Blackwood's Magazine" lor March, 1838; "Foreign Quar
terly Review" for April, 1845; "Edinburgh Review" for April and
July, 1858, and October, 1861 : " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1845;
"Westminster Review" for July, 1848; "North British Review"
for August, 1860; " British Quarterly Review" lor January, 1863.
Thiersch, teeush, (BERNARD,) a German philologist,
became director of the College of Dortmund. He wrote,
besides several works on philology, "The Epoch and
Native Land of Homer," ("Das Zeitalter und Vaterland
des Homer.") He was a brother of Friedrich Wilhelm,
noticed below. Died in 1855.
Thiersch, (FRIKURICH WILHELM,) a German phi
lologist, born near Freiburg in 1784. He studied at
Leipsic and Gottingen, and was appointed in 1809 pro
fessor of ancient literature in the gymnasium at Munich.
He soon after founded a philological institute, which was
subsequently united to the university. He visited Greece
in 1831, and published, after his return, a treatise "On
the Actual Condition of Greece, and the Means of Ac
complishing her Restoration," (in French, 1833.) Among
his other works we may name his " Greek Grammar,
especially for the Homeric Dialects," (1826,) and a
treatise " On the Epochs of the Plastic Art among the
Greeks," (1829.) He also edited Pindar's "Odes," ac
companied with notes and with a German translation
in verse, and published several treatises on the higher
schools of Bavaria, and in favour of classical studies.
Died in 1860.
See BROCKHAUS, "Conversations-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Thiersch, (HEINRICH WILHELM JOSIAS,) a nephew
or son of the preceding, has published, among other
works, a "Grammatical Manual for the First Instruc
tion in the Hebrew Language," (1842.)
Thiesse, te'cVsa', (LEON,) a French writer, born at
Rouen in 1793. He wrote political pamphlets, several
poems, and "Manuel des Braves," (7 vols., 1817 et seq.)
Thile, von, fon tee'leh, (Lunwio GUSTAV,) a Prussian
general and statesman, born in 1787, served against the
French in the campaigns of 1806, 1813, and 1815, and
was appointed minister of state under Frederick William
IV. in 1840. Died in 1852.
Thilo, tee'lo, (JOHANN KARL,) a German Protestant
theologian, born at Langensalza in 1794. He published
a " Codex Apocryphus Novi Testament!," and other
learned works. Died in 1853.
Thiollet, te'o'li', (FRANCOIS,) a French architect,
born at Poitiers in 1782. He published several treatises
on Architecture.
Thion de la Chaume, te'ox' deh It shorn, (CLAUDE
ESPRIT,) a French physician and surgeon, born in Paris
in 1750. He was appointed in 1778 physician to the
military hospital at Ajaccio, in Corsica, and soon after
to the army destined to attack Gibraltar. While in this
post he was eminently successful in his treatment of an
epidemic fever which had made great ravages among
the troops. After his return to France he was appointed
one of the physicians of the Count d'Artois, afterwards
Charles X. Died in 1786.
Thirion, te're'oN', (DiniKK,) a French Jacobin, be
came a member of the Convention in 1792. He opposed
Robespierre on the gth Thermidor. Died in 1814.
Thiriot, te're'o', a Frenchman, born about 1696, was
a friend of Voltaire, some of whose works he edited.
Died in 1772.
Thjrl'by, (STYAN,) an English scholar and critic, born
at Leicester in 1692, published an edition of Justin
Martyr, with notes. Died in 1753.
Thirl'wall, (Co.NNoi',) an eminent English historian,
born in Middlesex in 1797. He studied at Trinity Col
lege, Cambridge, where he took the degree of M.A. in
1821. He was made Bishop of Saint David's in 1840.
He has published, conjointly with fulius Charles Hare,
a translation from the German of two volumes of Nie-
buhr's "History of Rome." He brought out in 1852
his " History of Greece," (8 vols. Svo,) which is esteemed
a standard work. "Having," says Mr. Grote, "studied,
of course, the same evidence as Dr. Thirlwall, I am
better enabled than others to bear testimony to the
learning, the sagacity, and the candour which pervade
his excellent work." (Preface to Grote's "History of
Greece.")
See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1835.
Thiroux d'Arconville. See AKCONVILLE, D'.
Thiroux de Crosne, te'roo' deh kron, (Louis,) a
French magistrate, born in Paris in 1736, became lieu
tenant-general of the police in 1785. He was guillotined
in 1794.
Thirty Tyrants, The, [commonly called in Greek
simply Ot Tpakorm, or "The Thirty,"] the name of a
tyrannical oligarchy which was established in Athens,
under the protectorate of Sparta, continuing about a year,
at the close of the Peloponnesian war. All the Athenian
citizens supposed to be favourable to liberty were espe
cially obnoxious to the Thirty Tyrants, and many of them
were put to death without regard to justice or even the
forms of law ; and great wealth, particularly if it belonged
to those who were not citizens of Athens, was almost sure
to bring destruction upon its possessor. Among the
Thirty the most conspicuous were Critias, Theramenes,
and Eratosthenes. See THRASYHDI.US.
.See GK-OTH, " History of Greece;" THIKI.WAI.I., "History of
Greece;" XENOPHON, " Hellenica ;" LVSIAS, "Oration against
Eratosthenes."
g^^ The name of the Thirty Tyrants |in Latin,
TRK;I.N'TA TYRAN'NI] was also sometimes incorrectly
applied to a number of pretenders or usurpers who
arose in different parts of the Roman empire during the
reigns of Valerian and Gallienus. Among their number
were Odenathus and the famous Zenobia.
See GIBBON, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire;" TKEBKI.LIUS POLI.IO, " Triginta Tyranni."
This'be, [Gr. Bia6r) ; Fr. THLSHE, tes'ba',] a beautiful
maiden of Babylon, beloved by Pyramus. They lived
in adjoining houses, and conversed privately through a
chink of the wall. They agreed to meet at the tomb of
Ninus, under a mulberry-tree. Thisbe, who first came
to that place, was driven away by the sight of a lioness,
and dropped her veil, which the lioness stained with
blood. This veil was found by Pyramus, who, hastily
concluding that Thisbe had been killed, destroyed him
self. She soon returned, saw the dead body of Pyramus,
and followed his example. The poets feigned that the
mulberries, in sympathy with their fate, changed colour
from white to red.
See OVID, "Metamorphoses."
Thisted, tis'ted, (WALDEMAU ADOLF,) a Danish
poet and romance-writer, known under the pseudonym
of SAINT HKRMIDAD, born at Aarhuus in 1815, has
published, among other works, a poem entitled "The
Heart of the Wilderness," (1850.)
Thistlewood, this'sl-wood, (ARTHUR,) an English
adventurer, born near Lincoln in 1772, was the principal
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
THJ4SSI
2121
THOMAS
leader in the so-called Cato Street Conspiracy, designed
to excite an insurrection in London. Being arrested,
with several of his accomplices, he was condemned to
death, and executed in 1820.
See "The Closing Scene; or, Christianity and Infidelity Con
trasted," by the REV. ERSKINE NEALE.
Thjassi. See THIASSI.
Thoghrul Beg. See TOGRUL BEG.
Thograi. See TOGRAI.
Thoiras. See RAPIN, DE, (PAUL.)
Tholuck, to'luk, [Ger. pron. to'look,] (FRIEDRICH
AUGUST GOTTREU,) an eminent German theologian and
pulpit orator, born at Breslau, March 30, 1799. He was
educated at the University of Berlin, where he acquired
much proficiency in the Oriental languages, and was
induced by Neander to devote himself to theology. In
1823 he produced a popular work, called " Wahre Weihe
des Zweiflers," which was reprinted under the title of
" The Doctrine of the Sinner and of the Mediator,"
(1851.) He became extraordinary professor of theology
at Berlin in 1824, visited England and Holland in 1825,
and obtained in 1826 the chair of theology in the Uni
versity of Halle. Having passed about two years as
chaplain to the Prussian embassy at Rome, where he
formed a friendship with Bunsen, he returned to Halle
in 1829, and resumed the duties of his professorship.
He opposed the rationalism which was prevalent among
his colleagues at Halle, and became one of the most
influential teachers of the evangelical doctrines. Among
his numerous works, which are highly esteemed, are a
"Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans," (4th
edition, 1842,) " Commentary on the Gospel of John,"
(1826; 7th edition, 1857, of which an excellent English
translation has been made by Dr. Krauth, of Philadelphia,
1859.) "Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews,"
(1836,) "The Authenticity of the Gospel History,"
(1837,) " Hours of Devotion," (" Stunden cler Andacht,"
1840,) and several volumes of sermons. He has been for
several years engaged on a " History of Rationalism."
Most of his works have been translated into English.
Thorn, torn, (JAMES,) a Scottish sculptor, born in
Ayrshire in 1799^ was a stone-mason in his youth.
Having taught himself sculpture, he produced sandstone
statues of "Tarn O'Shanter" and " Souter Johnnie,"
which obtained great popularity, and were reproduced
by several copies. Among his other works is a group
of "Old Mortality," in sandstone, which stands at the
entrance of Laurel Hill Cemetery, near Philadelphia.
He came to America in 1836. Died at New York in 1850.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement.)
Thorn, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish poet, born at Aber
deen in 1799. His means of instruction were very
scanty, and at an early age he was apprenticed to a
weaver. He published in 1841 " Rhymes and Recollec
tions of a Hand-Loom Weaver." He died, in great
destitution, in 1850.
See the " Westminster Review" for December, 1843.
Thomander, to-man'der, (JoHAN HENRIK,) a Swed
ish theologian and distinguished pulpit orator, born in
the province of Scania in 1798, was appointed in 1833
professor of pastoral theology in the Theological Semi
nary at Lund. He has published sermons and other
religious works, and translated into Swedish several of
Shakspeare's works, the " Clouds" of Aristophanes,
and Byron's " Manfred."
Thom'as, (tom'as,) [Fr. pron. to'ma'; Gr. Qujj.ug;
It. ToMMASO, tom-ma'so ; Sp. TOMAS, to-mas',] or
Didymus, [Gr. A«5f/uof,] one of the twelve apostles, is
supposed to have been born in Galilee. He is first
mentioned in John xi. 16. According to tradition, he
preached the gospel in India and suffered martyrdom
in that region.
See John xx. 24-29.
Thomas, to'ma', (ALEXANDRE GERARD,) a French
litterateur, born in Paris in 1818. He contributed many
able articles to the " Revue des Deux Mondes." He
removed to England in 1852, and wrote for the " Edin
burgh Review." Died at Brussels in 1857.
Thomas, (AN'TOINE LEONARD,) a celebrated French
writer, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1732. He studied
in Paris, and about 1754 obtained a professorship in the
College of Beauvais. He published in 1756 "Philoso
phical and Literary Reflections on the Poem of Natural
Religion." His "Eulogy on Marshal Saxe" obtained
the prize from the French Academy in 1759. It was
followed by eulogies on Chancellor d'Aguesseau and
Duguay-Trouin, which were also crowned by the Acad
emy. Among his other works we may name his "Epis
tle to the People," a poem, eulogies on Sully, Descartes,
and Marcus Aurelius, " Essay on the Character, Man
ners, and Intellect of Women in all Ages," (1772,) and
an " Essay on Eulogies, or the History of Literature
and Eloquence applied to this Kind of Writing," (1773.)
In 1767 he succeeded Hardion as a member of the
French Academy. Died in 1785.
See A. DELEYRE, " Essai sur la Vie de Thomas," 1792 ; SAINT-
SURIN, "Notice snr Thomas," 1825; VILI.EMAIN, "Tableau de la
Litterature au dix-huitieme Siecle ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale."
Thomas, (CHARLES Louis AMBROISE,) a French mu
sical composer, born at Metz in 1811. He gained the
grand prize for musical composition in 1832, produced
successful comic operas, etc., and was admitted into the
Institute in 1851. Among his works are operas entitled
"LeCaid" and " Le Songe d'une Nuit d'Ete," (1850.)
Thomas, (CHRISTIAN.) See THOMASIUS.
Thomas, (CLEMKNT,) a French officer, born at Li-
bourne in 1812. He was chosen general-in-chief of the
national guard of Paris in May, 1848, but was removed
in the next month. He commanded the national guards
during the siege of Paris in the autumn of 1870.
Thom'as, (tom'as,) (DAVID,) an American pomologist,
florist, and writer on agriculture, was born in Montgomery
county, Pennsylvania, in 1776. Fie was educated by
his parents in the religious principles of the Society of
Friends. In 1805 he removed to near Aurora, in Cayuga
county, New York. In 1817 he published "Travels in
the West," a work which attracted the notice of De Witt
Clinton and led to Mr. Thomas being appointed chief
engineer on the Erie Canal, west of Rochester, which
position he held until the canal was completed. Subse
quently, on the recommendation of Governor Clinton,
he was employed as one of the principal engineers on
the Welland Canal in Canada. As a florist and pomolo
gist Mr. Thomas had few, if any, superiors in the United
States. By his contributions to "The Genesee Farmer"
he rendered an important service to the cause of agri
culture, particularly in refuting an error, once widely
prevalent, that wheat under certain circumstances was
liable to be changed into "chess," (Bromus secalinus,)
a plant of quite a different genus. Mr. Thomas showed
that when the seed-wheat was perfectly clean, and
when the soil had been thoroughly burnt, so as to
destroy the seeds of different kinds of weeds, including
chess, the alleged transmutation never took place, even
under the circumstances supposed to be most favour
able to such a change. His writings, supported as they
were by carefully-conducted experiments, led not merely
to the diffusion of more enlightened views, but to a great
practical improvement in this department of agriculture.
Died in 1859.
Thom'as, (tom'as,) (ELIZABETH,) an English writer,
born in 1675, was the author of letters and poems which
were admired by Dryden, who gave her the name of
Corinna. Pope, however, has introduced her into his
" Dunciad." Died in 1730.
Thomas, (FELIX,) a French architect, born at Nantes
in 1815. He gained the grand prize in 1845 f°r a design
for a cathedral. He performed an artistic mission to
Babylonia about 1851.
Thomas, (FREDERIC,) a French advocate and littera
teur, born at Toulouse in 1814. He became a- resident
of Paris in 1835, wrote for the " Presse/' and published
several novels.
Thomas, (FREDERICK WILLIAM,) an American novel
ist and miscellaneous writer, born at Providence, Rhode
Island, in 1808. He published "Clinton Bradshaw,"
(1835,) "East and West," (1836,) and "Howard Pinck-
ney," also " The Beechen Tree, and other Poems," (1844,)
"John Randolph of Roanoke, and other Sketches of
Character," and "The Emigrant," a poem.
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
THOMAS
2122
THOMASIUS
Thomas, (GKORGK H.,) a distinguished American
general, born in Southampton county, Virginia, on the
3ist of July, 1816. Me entered the Academy at West
Point in 1836, and graduated twelfth in a class of forty-
five, in 1840. Having become first lieutenant in 1843,
he served with distinction in the Mexican war at Mon
terey and Buena Vista, (1847,) and gained the rank of
captain in 1853. HC was employed in Texas from 1856
to November, 1860, and maintained his loyalty to the
Union amidst the general defection of Southern-born
officers. In May, 1861, he was appointed colonel of the
fifth United States cavalry, and in August became a
brigadier-general of volunteers. He was ordered to
Kentucky in September, obtained command of a di
vision of the army of Buell, and defeated General Zolli-
koffer near Mill Spring about the i8th of January, 1862.
In April of that year he was raised to the rank of major-
general, and in the next month he obtained command
of five divisions, forming the right wing of Halleck's
army operating against Corinth. He became in Sep
tember, 1862, second in command of the army of the
Ohio, which was opposed to General Bragg in Kentucky.
He rendered important services at the battle of Stone
River, December 31, 1862, to January 2, 1863, and took
part in the movements by which the Union army gained
possession of Chattanooga, September 9. His reputa
tion was increased by his conduct at the battle of Chick-
amanga, September 19 and 20. There his corps stood
firm after the rest of the army had been routed, and
repulsed the attacks of the enemy until darkness put an
end to the battle. He succeeded Rosecrans as com
mander in-chief of the army of the Cumberland on the
igth of October, 1863, and was appointed a brigadier-
general of the regular army in the same month.
General Thomas contributed to the victory which
General Grant gained near Chattanooga, November 25,
1863. He served under Sherman in the campaign
against Atlanta, which began in May, 1864, and took
part in the battles at Dallas and Kenesavv Mountain, and
in several actions fought near Atlanta in July. When
Sherman was about to abandon Atlanta and inarch
through Georgia to the sea, he sent General Thomas
with an army to Middle Tennessee to operate against
Hood, who invaded Tennessee about the end of Octo
ber. As Hood moved north, General Thomas fell back
slowly towards Nashville, and summoned reinforcements
to join him at that city. On the 3Oth of November the
Union army was attacked at Franklin by the army of
Hood, which was repulsed with severe loss, but after
wards advanced to Nashville. General Thomas attacked
Hood in position at Nashville on the 151)1 of Decem
ber, 1864, and, in a battle lasting two days, defeated and
drove him from the field in the utmost confusion. In
this battle Hood lost about 6000 prisoners and sixty
pieces of cannon. Soon after this victory General
Thomas was appointed a major-gener.il in the regular
army. After the end of the war he commanded the
department of the Cumberland, comprising the States
of Tennessee and Kentucky. He was remarkable for his
modesty, simplicity of character, stability, discretion, and
other virtues. President Johnson having offered him the
brevet of lieutenant-general and of general in February,
1868, he declined the compliment, saying he had done
nothing since the war to merit such promotion. Died
in 1870.
Thomas, (ISAIAH,) LL.D., a distinguished American
printer and journalist, born at Boston in 1749. In 1770
lie published at Boston the " Massachusetts Spy," in
which he denounced th£ measures of the British gov
ernment. He subsequently carried on an extensive
business as a bookseller in that city. He was the
author of a "History of Printing in America," (1810.)
Died in 1831.
Thomas, to'mas, (JAKOB ERNST,) a German land
scape-painter, born at Hagelstein in 1588. He worked
in Rome and other cities of Italy. Died in 1653.
Thomas, (JOHN,) an American general, born in Mas
sachusetts. He served against the French and Indians
in 1756. He was appointed a major-general in March,
1776, and succeeded to the command of the army in
Canada on the death of General Montgomery. 'lie
raised the siege of Quebec, and began to retreat, but
died at Chambly in May, 1776.
Thomas, (JOHN,) an able English sculptor, born in
Gloucestershire in 1813. He executed or designed the
statues and carvings which adorn the new Houses of
Parliament. He was also an architect. Died in 1862.
Thomas, (JOHN,) an English prelate, born at Carlisle
in 1712. He rose through several preferments to be
Bishop of Rochester in 1774. Died in 1793.
Thomas, (JoHN J.,) an American pomologist and
writer on agriculture, a son of David Thomas, noticed
above, was born in Cayuga county, New York, in 1810.
Among his publications may be named the " American
Fruit-Culturist," (ist edition in 1846; last edition,
greatly enlarged and improved, 1867,) " Farm Ma
chinery," (last edition, 1868,) and a serial entitled " Rural
Affairs," (6 vols., 1858-70.) Mr. Thomas has been one
of the editors of " The Country Gentleman" (issued
at Albany) from the date of its first publication, in
1 8.5 2.
Thomas, (LoRKNZO,) an American general, born in
Delaware about 1804, graduated at West Point in 1823.
He became adjutant-general in March, 1861, and ob
tained the rank of brigadier-general in August of that
year. lie had a prominent part in President fohnson's
coup cTftat of February 21, 1868, when he was appointed
secretary of war ad interim in place of E. M. Stanton,
who, however, refused to give up the office.
Thomas, (PHILIP F.,) an American politician, born
in Talbot county, Maryland, in 1810. He was elected
Governor of Maryland in 1847, and appointed secretary
of the treasury about December 12, 1860. He resigned
January 1 1, 1861.
Thomas, (PIKRKK liMli.K,) a French publicist and
civil engineer, born in Paris in 1822. He published a
" History of the National Workshops," (Ateliers,) (1848.)
Thomas, (ROBERT,) an able English physician, born
in 1743, published a popular work entitled " The Modern
Practice of Physic," and other medical treatises. Died
in 1835.
Thomas, (WILLIAM,) a historical writer, born in
Wales, was patronized by King Edward VI. Under
the reign of Mary he was executed on a charge of
treason, (1553.) He published a "History of Italy,"
and other works.
Thomas, (WILLIAM,) born at Bristol, in England, in
1613, was chaplain to the Duke of York and preceptor
to the princess (afterwards queen) Anne. He was created
Bishop of Worcester. Died in 1689.
Thomas, (WILLIAM,) a learned English divine, grand
son of the preceding, was born in 1670. He became
rector of Saint Nicholas, in Worcester, in 1723. lie
published a " Survey of Worcester Cathedral," and
other antiquarian works. Died in 1738.
Thomas Aquinas. See AQUINAS.
Thomas d'Aquin. See AQUINAS.
Thom'as Can-ti-pra-ten'sis, [Fr. THOMAS OF. CAN-
TiMi'Ktf, to'ma' deh l<6N'taN'pRa',j a Flemish monk and
biographer, born near Brussels in 1201 ; died in 1263.
Thomas Dufosse, (PIERRE.) See Foss6, nu.
Thomas a Kempis. See K EM PIS.
Thomas the Riymer. See RIIVMKR.
Thomas de Villeneuve, SAINT, or THOMAS Gar-
cias, (gaK-//iee/as,) a Spanish prelate, born in Leon in
1488. He became Archbishop of Valencia in 1545.
Died in 1555.
See DABHKT. " Histoire tie Saint Thomas de Villeneuve," 1853.
Thomasen. See THOMASIUS.
Thomasin, tom'a-sin or to-ma-zeen', written also To-
masin, Zerkler, or Tirkelare, a poet of the thirteenth
century, born at Frinli, in Italy, was the author of a
didactic poem in German, entitled "The Italian Guest,"
(" Der Welsche Gast.") Of this work, which is esteemed
one of the most remarkable productions of the age, only
small portions have been printed.
Thomasius, to-ma'ze-iis, or Thomasen, to'ma-zen,
(CHRISTIAN,) an eminent German philosopher and re
former, born at Leipsic in 1655. Having studied law
and graduated at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, he founded in
1688 a monthly review, which soon became noted for its
bold censures of prevailing abuses. In 1694 he was
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met: n6t; good; moon;
THOMASIUS
2123
THOMSEN
appointed professor of jurisprudence at the University
of Halle, where he became rector in 1710. He was the
first to introduce the practice of lecturing and writing in
German, and, by his denunciation of the superstitions of
the time, was chiefly instrumental in abolishing trials for
witchcraft. Among his principal works are an " Intro
duction to the Doctrine of Reason or Logic," (1691,)
" Introduction to Moral Philosophy," (1692,) and " His
tory of Wisdom and Folly," (1693.) Thomasius was
eulogized by Frederick the Great as one of the most
illustrious philosophers of Germany. Died in 1728.
See LUDEN, " C. Thomasius nacli seinen Scliicksalen," etc., 1805;
F. HOFFMANN, " Programma inObitum C. Thomasii." IJJQ; ZKD-
I.HK, " Universal- Lexikon ;" S.AXE, "Onomasiicon ;" '• Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
Thomasius or Thomasen, QAKOI?,) a German phi
lologist, born at Leipsic in 1622, was the father of the
preceding. He was professor of belles-lettres and phi
losophy at Leipsic, and one of the teachers of Leibnitz.
He wrote, besides other works, "Origins of History,
Philosophical and Ecclesiastical," (" Origines Historian
Philosophies et Ecclesiastical," 1665.) Died in 1684.
See SAXE, " Onomasticon ;" ZKDI.ER, " Universal-Lexikon."
Thomassin, to'mt'sax', (Louis,) a French ecclesi
astic, born at Aix in 1619, became professor of theology
in the seminary of Sainte-Magloire, at Paris. lie was the
author of a treatise " On Ancient and Modern Ecclesi
astical Discipline," "Theological Dogmas," and other
learned works. Died in 1695.
Thomassiii, (PHILIPPE,) an eminent French engraver,
bom at Troyes about 1550. He worked mostly at Rome,
and engraved many antique statues, also numerous por- i
traits of eminent men. lie died at an advanced age.
Thomassin, (SIMON,) a French engraver, born at
Troyes about 1652, is said to have been a nephew of the
preceding. Died in 1732.
His son HKNRI SIMON, born in Paris in 1688, was an
able engraver. He engraved some works of Rubens
and Paul Veronese. Died in 1741.
Thomassy, to'mt'se', (MARIE JOSEPH RAYMOND,) a
French litterateur, born at Montpellier in 1810. He
wrote, besides other works, " Morocco and its Caravans,"
(1845.)
Thomines. See Bosc, nu, (PIERRE.)
Thomond, to'mi.x', (THOMAS,) a French architect,
born at Nancy in 1759. He removed to Saint Peters
burg, where he was employed by the Russian govern
ment to remodel the Great Theatre and build several
splendid public edifices. The Imperial Exchange, com
pleted in 1810, is esteemed one of his finest works. Died
in 1813.
Thompson, tom'son, (AUGUSTUS CHARLES,) D.D.,
a^n American Congregational divine, born at Goshen,
Connecticut, in 1812. He has published " The Young
Martyrs," " Last Hours, or Words and Acts of the
Dying," (1851,) and other religious works.
Thompson, (BENJAMIN.) See RUMFORD, COUNT.
Thompson, (DANIEL PIERCE,) an American lawyer
and popular novelist, born at Charlestown, Massa
chusetts, in 1795. His principal works are entitled
"May Martin, or the Money-Diggers," (1835,) "The
Green Mountain Boys," (1840,) " Locke Amsden," (1847,)
an admirable tale, descriptive of the experience of a
New England school-master, "The Rangers, or the
Tory's Daughter," (1851,) and " Gant Gurley, or the
Trappers of Lake Umbagog," (1857.) Died in May or
June, 1868.
See DUYCKIXCK, "Cyclopedia of American Literature," vol. ii.
Thompson, tom'son, (EDWARD,) an English poet,
born at Hull about 1737. He served in the royal navy
in his youth, and wrote several licentious poems, among
which is "The Demirep," (1766.) He also published a
" Sailor's Letters," (autobiographic, 2 vols., 1767.) Died
in 1786.
Thompson, (HENRY,) an English clergyman and
writer, born about 1797. He became vicar of Chard, in
Somersetshire. Among his works is a " Life of Hannah
More." He contributed to several periodicals.
Thompson, (JACOB,) an American politician, born
in Caswell county, North Carolina, in 1810. He was
elected to Congress from Mississippi in 1839, and in 1857
was appointed secretary of the interior under President
Buchanan. He subsequently joined the secessionists,
and in 1861 was elected Governor of Mississippi.
Thompson, (JoHN R.,) an American litterateur, born
at Richmond, Virginia, in 1823, was for many years
editor of the " Southern Literary Messenger."
Thompson, (JOSEPH PARRISH,) D.D., an American
Congregational divine, born at Philadelphia in 1819.
He became pastor of the Broadway Tabernacle Church,
New York, in 1845. lie was one of the founders of
the " Independent" at Brooklyn, and also of the " New
Englander," to which he made many contributions. He
has published "Lectures to Young'Men," "Egypt, Past
and Present," " The Christian Graces," and various
other works. He has also contributed many valuable
articles to the " Bibliotheca Sacra," Smith's " Dictionary
of Biblical Geography and Antiquities," and the "North
American Review."
Thompson, (ROBERT ANCHOR,) an English divi
born in Durham in 1821, has published, among ot
works, "Christian Theism," (1855,) and "Principles
Natural Theology," (1857.)
Thompson, (ROBERT ANCHOR,) an English divine,
born in Durham in 1821. has nublished. amoinr other
es of
•gy." (1857-)
Thompson, (SMITH,) an American judge, born prob
ably in New York State about 1767. He became chief
justice of New York in 1814, was secretary of the navy
from November, 1818, to December, 1823, and was then
appointed an associate justice of the supreme court of
the United States. Died at Poughkeepsie in 1843.
Thompson, (THOMAS PERRONET,) an English officer
and miscellaneous writer, born at Hull in 1783. He
studied at Queen's College, Cambridge, and, having
entered the army, served with distinction in South
America, Spain, and India, and attained the rank of
major in 1825. About 1830 he became associate pro
prietor of the " Westminster Review," in which he advo
cated the abolition of slavery, free trade, and various
other reforms. He was elected to Parliament from Hull
in 1835, anc' twice re-elected for Bradford, in Yorkshire.
He was made a major-general in 1854. He published the
"Corn-Law Catechism," (1827,) "True Theory of Rent,"
"Enharmonic Theory of Music," etc., (1829,) "Geometry
without Axioms," and other works. Died in 1869.
Thompson, (WADDY,) an American lawyer and
politician, born at Pickensville, South Carolina, in 1798.
lie was elected to Congress by the Whig party in 1835,
and distinguished himself by his opposition to Calhoun
and the State-Rights party. He was appointed in 1842
minister to Mexico, and published, after his return, " Re
miniscences of Mexico."
Thompson, (Wn.i.iAM,) an eminent Irish naturalist,
born at Belfast in 1805. Having previously made him
self acquainted with the natural history of Ireland, he
made a voyage in 1841 to the Grecian Archipelago.
Among his principal works are a "Catalogue of Birds
new to the Irish Fauna," " On some Vertebrata new to
the Irish Fauna," and "On the Natural History of Ire
land," etc., (4 vols., 1856.) He also contributed to the
"Annals of Natural History." He was a member of
the Royal Irish Academy and other learned societies.
Died in 1852.
Thompson, (WILLIAM,) an English divine, born in
Westmoreland, became Dean of Raphoe, in Ireland.
He published a collection of poems. Died in 1766.
Thompson, (Z.ADOC,) an American naturalist, born
at Bridgewater, Vermont, in 1796. He became about
1842 professor of natural history and chemistry in the
University of Vermont, and in 1853 was appointed State
naturalist. He was the author ot the "Natural, Civil,
and Political History of Vermont," etc., a "Gazetteer
of Vermont," and other works. Died in 1856.
Thorns, tomz, (WILLIAM JOHN,) an English writer
and antiquary, born in Westminster in 1803. He pub
lished a "Collection of Early Prose Romances," (1828,)
"Lays and Legends of Various Nations," (1834,) and
editions of Stow's "Survey of London" and Caxton's
" Reynard the Fox." He has also been the principal
editor of " Notes and Queries," a work first published
at his suggestion.
Thomsen, tom'sen, (CHRISTIAN JUKGENSEN, ) a
Danish antiquary, born at Copenhagen in 1788. He
became director of the royal cabinet of medals in 1842.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
THOMSON
21 24
THOR
He wrote a "Treatise on Northern Antiquities," (1831,)
and other works.
Thompson, (tom'sgn,) (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish poet,
was the author of a poem entitled "The British Par
nassus at the Close of the Eighteenth Century," and
other works. Died in 1803.
Thomson, (ANDREW,) a Scottish divine and pulpit
orator, born in Dumfriesshire in 1779. He became in
1814 pastor of Saint George's Church, Edinburgh, where
he acquired a high reputation for his zeal and eloquence.
Died in 1831.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Thomson, (ANTHONY TODD,) an eminent Scottish
physician, born at Edinburgh in 1778. He studied in
his native city, attending the lectures of Munro, Black,
and other distinguished men, and about 1800 began the
practice of medicine in London. lie published the
"London Dispensatory," (1811,) which met with great
success and was translated into several languages, a
"Conspectus of the Pharmacopoeias of London, Edin
burgh, and Dublin," etc., (1816,) " Lectures on Botany,"
"Elements of Materia Medica," (1832,) and other works
on various subjects. He was- a member of the Royal
College of Physicians, and in 1828 became professor
of materia medica in the London University. He was
appointed to the chair of medical jurisprudence in
1832. Died in 1849.
Mrs. A. T. THOMSON, wife of the preceding, pub
lished "Memoirs of Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough,"
etc., "Memoirs of the Court of Henry VIII.," "Recol
lections of Literary Characters and Celebrated Places,"
and other works. Died in 1862.
Thom'son, (tom'son,) (CHARLES,) a patriot, born in
Ireland in 1729 or 1730. lie emigrated to America in
1741, and settled in Philadelphia. He was a friend of Dr.
Franklin, served as secretary of Congress from 1774
to 1789, and was highly respected for his virtues and
learning. He produced a translation of the Septuagint,
which was published in 4 vols., (1808.) Died in 1824.
Thom'son, (EDWARD,) D.D., a Methodist divine,
born at Portsea, England, in 1810, emigrated to America,
and was elected in 1843 professor of mental and moral
philosophy in the University of Michigan. He subse
quently became president of the Ohio Wesleyan Univer
sity. In 1864 he was elected a bishop of the Methodist
Episcopal Church. Died in 1870.
Thomson, (JAMES,) a celebrated poet, born in Rox
burghshire, Scotland, in 1700. He studied theology at
the University of Edinburgh ; but he soon renounced
it for literary pursuits, and published in 1726 his poem
entitled "Winter." Its success at first was moderate,
but it subsequently acquired great popularity, and was
followed in a few years by his "Spring," "Summer,"
and " Autumn," all of which appeared in 1730, under the
title of "The Seasons." His tragedies of " Sophonisba,"
"Agamemnon," and "Edward and Eleonora," as well
as his poem on "Liberty," were received with little fa
vour. Through the influence of his friend Sir George —
afterwards Lord — Lyttleton, he was appointed about 1745
surveyor-general of the Leeward Islands. He published
in 1748 his "Castle of Indolence," an allegorical poem
in the Spenserian measure, which is generally esteemed
his finest production. He died in 1748. Translations of
his " Seasons" have been made into German, and both a
prose and poetical version of it have appeared in French,
while among all classes in Great Britain it is still one
of the most popular poems in the language. Campbell
observes, " The unvaried pomp of Thomson's diction
suggests a most unfavourable comparison with the manly
and idiomatic simplicity of Covvper ; at the same time,
the pervading spirit and feeling of his poetry is in gen
eral more bland and delightful than that o'f his great
rival in rural description."
See JOHNSON, " Lives of the Poets;" DAVID, EARI. OF BUCHAN,
" Essays on the Lives and Writings of Fletcher of Saltoun and the
Poet Thomson," 1792; CHAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of
Eminent Scotsmen."
Thomson, (Rev. JOHN,) a Scottish landscape-painter,
born in Ayrshire in 1778. He painted stormy seas with
success. Died in 1840.
Thomson, (RICHARD,) an English antiquary, born
in 1794, lived many years in London. He published,
besides other works, "Chronicles of London Bridge,"
(1827.) Died in 1865.
Thomson, (ROKKRT DUNDAS,) F.R.S., a British phy
sician and writer, born about 1805. lie resided in
London, and published a "Cyclopaedia of Chemistry,
Mineralogy, and Physiology." Died in 1864.
Thomson, (THOMAS,) an eminent Scottish chemist
and physician, born in Perthshire in 1773. He studied
at the University of Saint Andrew's and at Edinburgh,
where about 1800 he began a course of lectures on
chemistry. In 1796 he became associate editor of the
" Encyclopaedia Britannica," to which he contributed
the articles on chemistry and mineralogy. He was one
of the first to suggest the use of chemical symbols. In
1813 he edited the " Annals of Philosophy" in London,
and in 1818 was appointed professor of chemistry in the
University of Glasgow. He published a " System of
Chemistry," (4 vols., 1802,) "Elements of Chemistry,"
(1810,) "Outline of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity,"
"Travels in Sweden," (1813,) "The History of Chemis
try," (1830,) "Outlines of Mineralogy, Geology," etc., (2
vols., 1835,) and other similar works, which enjoy a high
reputation. Died in 1852. His son, of the same name,
has been appointed superintendent of the botanic gar
dens at Calcutta, ar.d has published an account of his
travels in Thibet.
See CHAMHKRS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,"
(Supplement.)
Thomson, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish writer, born in
Perthshire in 1746, was editor successively of the " Eng
lish Review," " Political Magazine," and other journals,
and published "Memoirs of the War in Asia," and a
number of compilations. Died in 1817.
Thomson, (WILLIAM,) an English bishop, born in
Cumberland in 1819. He became preacher of Lincoln's
Inn in 1858, Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol in 1861,
and Archbishop of York in 1862. He wrote a work on
logic, called " An Outline of the Laws of Thought."
Thonissen, to'ne'sftN', (GEORGES FRANC.OIS,) a Bel
gian economist, born at Hasselt in 1817. He wrote
several svorks on socialism and political economy.
Thor, thor, (or toR,) or Thonr, (i.e. " thunder,") [Norse,
THONAR, of which Thor is, in all probability, a con
traction ; in Anglo-Saxon he was variously called THUK,
THOR, THUNDER, and TIIUNER, — both the last-named
terms signifying " thunder." Some writers, with less prob
ability, have supposed the name to be allied to the Greek
Oof-jtof, "impetuous," "resistless,"] in the mythology of
the North, the god of thunder, and also the god of
strength, was the eldest son of Odin. His mother was
Fjorgyn, (or the Earth.) He is sometimes called Oeku-
Thor, ("car Thor," or "driving Thor,") and Hlorridi,
"fire rider,") and sometimes Ving-Thor, ("winged
Thor.") As the god of thunder, he is sometimes styled
the Northern Jupiter ; and hence Thursday (Thor's day*)
is called, in the Latin of the middle ages, jfovis dies,
("Jupiter's day,") which the French have corrupted into
yeudi. As the god of strength, cind the great conqueror
of the giants, he resembles the Hercules of classic my
thology. His only daughter was named Thrud, (i.e.
"strength,") and his dwelling-place is Thrudheim, (or
Thruclheimr,) the "home or habitation of strength," or
Thrudvangr, the "field" or "realm" of strength. His
vast hall, called Bilskirnir, has five hundred and forty
floors.
Thor appears to have been regarded in Iceland and
in some portions of Norway as the greatest of all the
gods, Odin not excepted. He had three possessions of
inestimable value, — the hammer Mjolnir, (myoKnir,) the
terror of the giants and of all powers hostile to the
yEsir, his Megin-gjortS, (me'g'in-gyorth.t) or "strength-
girdle," and his gloves of iron, with which he grasped
the handle of Mjolnir. In the legends of the North,
Thor is represented as hot-tempered, but at the same
time very frank and good-natured. He is said to be ac
companied by the light-footed boy Thialfi (te-al'fe, i.e.
"diligent") and the girl Roskva, ("quick,") expressive
of the rapidity with which a thunder-storm flies over the
* In Anglo-Saxon, Thunres daeg or Thundres daeg, i.e. " Thun
der's day."
t Also written Megingjardar.
a, e, J, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
THORBECKE
2125
THORNDIKE
earth. His chariot is said to be drawn by goats, — proba
bly because these animals inhabit the highest mountain-
tops. Thor's wife, Sif, (seef,) with golden hair, is said
to denote the autumnal earth, with its fields of ripening
corn. The ripening of the grain was supposed to be
promoted by the lightning. Thor is called in the Edda
" Midgard's defender," or the defender of the habitation
of men. Although the most valiant of the gods, he is,
in fact, the personification of defensive war,* whose office
it is to protect the works of industry and the arts of
peace. Hence he is, with great propriety, represented
as the husband and protector of Sif or Siva, (the "in
violate,") the goddess of harvests. (See SIF.) For
some curious and interesting legends respecting Thor,
the reader is referred to Mallet's " Northern Antiquities,"
vol. ii. Fable XL, also Fables XXIII.-XXVII. At
Ragr.arock (the " twilight or evening of the gods") Thor
will slay the World-Serpent, (see MIDGARD'S SERPENT,)
but will himself perish from the effects of its venom.
See THORPE, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; PKTERSEN, " Nor-
rlisk Mythologi ;" "Religion of the Northmen," by RUDOLPH j
KEVSER, translated by BARCLAY PENNOCK, New York, 1854; also, j
LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe," p. 31 et seg.
Thorbecke, toR'bek'keh, (JAN RUDOLPH,) a Dutch
statesman, born at Zvvolle in 1796. He became professor
of law at the University of Leyden about 1830. He was
one of seven persons charged in 1844 to propose a new
constitution, which the king rejected as too liberal. In
1848 he was placed at the head of a commission to revise |
the constitution, and procured the adoption of reforms I
similar to those which were rejected in 1844. He was
prime minister from October, 1849, to April, 1853, and
was restored to that position in February, 1862. He
resigned in 1866.
Thor'burn, (GRANT,) a Scottish writer, born near
Dalkeith in 1773. He emigrated to New York in 1794,
and became a dealer in garden-seeds. He wrote for the
newspapers under the signature of LAURIE TODD. Died
at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1863.
See his Autobiography, 1834; " Fraser's Magazine" for June, 1833. j
Thorburn, (ROBERT,) a Scottish portrait-painter,
born at Dumfries in 1818. He settled about 1836 in
London, where he has obtained extensive patronage
and produced numerous miniatures of great merit.
Among his master-pieces are miniature portraits of the
queen and several members of the royal family. In 1848
he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy.
Thordo, toR'do, or Thord Degen, tok da'gen, a
Danish lawyer of the fourteenth century, was chief judge
of the province of Jutland. He made a collection of
Danish laws, including the earliest. They have been
translated into Latin by Ludewig.
Thordson, toRd'son, (SruRLA,) a Danish historian,
born about 1218, was a nephew of Snorri Sturluson.
He filled several high offices under the government, and
was the author of a continuation of the history of Snorri
Sturluson. Died in 1288.
Thore, to'ra', (THEOPIIII.E,) a French republican,
journalist, and critic, born about 1810. He founded in
Paris, in 1848, a journal called " The True Republic,"
and became an exile in 1851. He wrote critiques on art,
inserted in the " Artiste" and the " Siecle," and edited
" L'Art moderne."
Thoreau, f/ia-ro' or //;o'ro, (HENRY DAVID,) an
American author and naturalist, born in Concord, Mas
sachusetts, in 1817, was descended from an ancestor
who came from the island of Guernsey. His father was a
manufacturer of lead-pencils. The son was educated at
Harvard College, where he graduated in 1837. Besides
being a classical scholar, he was well versed in Oriental
literature. It is asserted that he had the best Oriental
library to be found in the United States. In his man
ners, dress, and way of life he was eccentric. He was
bred to no profession ; and it is said that he never went
to church, never voted, and never paid a tax to the
State. He lived in the simplest manner; he sometimes
practised the business of land-surveyor. In 1845 he
* He is nowhere represented as stirring up strife among men ;
on the contrary, all his hostility and all his prowess are exerted
against the Jbtuns, who are the aggressive, irreconcilable enemies of
mankind and of all thrift and improvement.
built a small frame house on the shore of Walden Pond,
near Concord, where he lived two years as a hermit, in
studious retirement. He published an account of this
portion of his life, in a small book entitled "Walden."-
He was intimate with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Na
thaniel Hawthorne. The former has written a brief
memoir of Thoreau, from which we extract the follow
ing : " Mr. Thoreau dedicated his genius with such entire
love to the fields, hills, and waters of his native town,
that he made them known and interesting to all reading
Americans and to people over the sea. . . . He grew to
be revered and admired by his townsmen, who had at
first known him only as an oddity. ... I have repeat
edly known young men of sensibility converted in a
moment to the belief that this was the man they were
in search of, — the man of men, who could tell them all
they should do. . . . Whilst he used in his writings- a
certain petulance of remark in reference to churches
and churchmen, he was a person of rare, tender, and
absolute religion, — a person incapable of any profana
tion." Thoreau was never married. He died in 1862.
He was the author of a work on " The Concord and
Merrimac Rivers," and "The Excursions," (1863.) A
volume of his letters was published in 1865.
See DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopjedia of American Literature," vol. ii. :
"North American Review" for October, 1865 ; " Fraser's Magazine"
for April, 1866.
Thorer, (ALIUN.) See TORINUS.
Thoresby, th5rz'be, ? (RALPH,) an English antiquary
and Fellow of the Royal Society, born at Leeds in 1658.
His principal works are " The Topography of the Town
and Parish of Leeds," (" Ducatus Leodiensis,") and a
" History of the Church of Leeds," (" Vicaria Leodien
sis.") He possessed a very valuable collection of coins,
manuscripts, etc. Died in 1725.
Thorigny. See BEAUFORT DE THORIGNY.
Thorild, to'rild, (THOMAS,) a Swedish scholar and
miscellaneous writer, born in Bohuslan in 1759. He
published, besides poems and prose essays in Swedish,
" Cromwell," an epic poem, and other works, in English.
Died in 1819.
Thorinus. See TORINUS.
Thor'Is-mond, King of the Visigoths, was the eldest
son of Theodoric I. He fought bravely against Attila
at Chalons in 451 A.D., and succeeded his father in
that year. He was killed by his brother Theodoric in
452 A.D.
Tho'rf-us [Fr. pron. to're'iis'j orTho'ris, (RAPHAEL,)
a French physician, who practised in England. Died
in 1625.
Thorkelin, toR'keh-leen', (GRIM JOHNSEN,) a distin
guished scholar and antiquary, born in Iceland in 1752.
In 1786 he visited Great Britain and Ireland, and pub
lished in 1788 " Fragments of English and Irish History
in the Ninth and Tenth Century." He also wrote
several works in illustration of Danish and Norwegian
history. Died in 1829.
See ERSLEW, " Forfatter- Lexicon."
Thorlacius, tor-la'se-us, (SKULETnoRDSEN,) born in
Iceland in 1741, was the author of a number of treatises
on Northern antiquities. Died in 1815.
His son BORGE, born in 1775, became professor of
eloquence at Copenhagen, and published several classical
and antiquarian works. Died in 1829.
Thorlaksen, toR'lak'sen, or Thorlakson, (Guo-
RRAND,) an Icelandic writer, born in 1542, became a
bishop. Died in 1629. According to one authority, he
was born in 1642, and died in 1729.
Thorlaksscm, toR'laks-son', (JoiiN,) an Icelandic
poet, born in 1744, was a clergyman. He made a
translation of " Paradise Lost" into Icelandic, which is
highly commended. Died in 1819.
Thorn'bur-y, (GEORGE WALTER,) an English writer,
born about 1828. He published a " History of the
Buccaneers," (1855,) "British Artists from Hogarth to
Turner," (2 vols., 1861,) a "Life of Joseph M. W.
Turner," (1862,) a novel called "True as Steel," and
other works.
Thorn'dike, (HERBERT,) an English divine and able
controversial writer. He became rector of Barley, in
Hertfordshire, in 1642, and obtained a prebend at West
minster after the restoration. He was a learned Orien-
e as K: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, \ . 23.)
THORXHILL
2126
THO U
talisl, and a zealous advocate of the Anglican Church.
Among his works are a " Discourse of Religious Assem
blies and the Public Service of God," a " Discourse of
the Rights of the Church in a Christian State," and an
"Epilogue to the Tragedy of the Church of England."
Died in 1672.
Thorn'hill, (Sir JAMES,) a distinguished English
painter, born at Weymouth in 1676, was a nephew of
the celebrated physician Sydenham. Having travelled
in France, Holland, and other parts of the continent, he
was employed, after his return, in the decoration of the
cupola of Saint Paul's, London, the ceiling of the hall at
Greenwich Hospital, the palace at Kensington, and other
edifices. He was appointed historical painter to Queen
Anne, and was made a knight by George I. He opened
an academy for drawing in his house, where he num
bered among his pupils the celebrated Hogarth, who
subsequently married his daughter. Died in 1734.
Thorn'tpii, (Bu.NNELi.,) an English litterateur and
humorous writer, born in London in 1724. He was
associated with George Colman in the proprietorship
of the " Saint James Chronicle," and wrote, conjointly
with Colman, the periodical essays entitled "The Con
noisseur." He also translated the comedies of Plantus
into English blank verse, in Conjunction with Colman
and Warner, and was the author of burlesque poems,
entitled " An Ode on Saint Cecilia's Day, adapted to
the Antient British Music," etc., and "The Battle of
the Wigs." Died in 1768.
Thornton, (JoiiN ROBERT.) an English physician
and botanist, born about 1758, was a son of Thomas
Thornton, noticed below. lie was the author of " The
Philosophy of Medicine," etc., (5 vols.,) and "Temple
of Flora, or Garden of the Botanist, Poet, Painter, and
Philosopher." Died in 1837.
Thornton, (MATTHEW,) a patriot of the American
Revolution, born in Ireland in 1714. He was elected to
the General Congress by the people of New Hampshire
in 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independence.
Died in 1803.
Thornton, (SAMUEL,) of Clapham Park, Surrey, born
in 1775, was a director of the Bank of England for fifty
years. He was a member of Parliament for nearly forty
years. Died in 1838:
Thornton, (THOMAS,) an English writer on field-
sports, published " A Sporting Tour through France,"
and " A Sporting Tour through the North of England
and the Highlands of Scotland." Died in 1823.
Thornton, (Sir WILLIAM,) a British general, served
in the United States in 1814-15. Died in 1840.
Thornton, (WILLIAM.) an English political econo
mist, born at Burnham, Bucks, in 1813. He published
"Over-Population and its Remedy," (1846.)
Thorii'well, (JAMES HENRY,) D.D., an American
Presbyterian divine, born in Marlborough district, South
Carolina, in 1811. He has published several theological
works, and written in defence of the secession movement
of 1860.
Thorn'y-croft or Thorn'ey-croft, (MARY FRAN
CES,) an English sculptor, born at Thornham, Norfolk,
in 1814. She was married in 1840 to Mr. Thornycroft, a
sculptor. She was patronized by Queen Victoria, for
whom she executed statues of the Prince of Wales,
Prince Alfred, and Princess Alice.
Thorpe, thorp, (BENJAMIN,) an English philologist,
distinguished for his attainments in the Anglo-Saxon
tongue, was born about 1808. Among his publications
may be named " The Anglo-Saxon Version of the Story
of Apollonius," (1834,) the collection entitled "Ancient
Laws and Institutes of England," etc., " Codex Exoni-
ensis," (1842,) and "Northern Mythology," or legends
of Scandinavia, Northern Germany, and Holland, (3
vols., 1852.) Died in July, 1870.
Thorpe, (JoHN,) M.D.,'an English antiquary, born in
Kent in 1682, practised at Rochester. Died in 1750.
Thorpe, (JoHN,) an English antiquary, a son of the
preceding, born in 1713, wrote an account of the city of
Rochester, entitled" Registrum Roffense." Died in 1792.
Thorpe, thorp, (THOMAS BANGS,) an American artist
and litterateur, born at Westfield, Massachusetts, in 1815.
Among his paintings are a full-length portrait of General
Zachary Taylor, and the " Bold Dragoon," an illustration
of Irving's story of that name. He has published " Tom
Owen the Bee- Hunter," being sketches of Western and
Southern life, and contributed numerous articles to
" Harper's New Monthly Magazine."
Thortsen, toiu'sen, (CARL ADOLPH,) a Danish critic
and poet, born in Copenhagen in 1798. He wrote a
"Historical Notice of Danish Literature," (3d edition,
1851,) and other works.
Thorwaldsen, tor'wald-sen or toK'wal-sen, (ALHERT
UKRTEL,) one of the most eminent of modern sculptors,
was born in November, 1770, on the sea between Ice
land and Copenhagen, and was the son of a Danish
carver in wood. He studied in the Academy of Arts
at Copenhagen, where he obtained two gold medals,
and soon after set out for Rome. He there employed
himself on a statue of Jason of natural size ; but, as
it attracted no particular regard, he, in a fit of despond
ency, destroyed it. He next attempted a colossal statue
of the same subject, which obtained the admiration of
Canova, and being seen by Mr. Thomas Hope, a wealthy
English amateur, he ordered a copy of it in marble for
eight hundred zechins. From this time Thorwaldsen
produced rapidly works which raised his reputation to
the highest point. Among these may be named his
"Triumphal March of Alexander," executed for the
emperor Napoleon, and the bas-reliefs of "Night" and
" Day" and of " Priam and Achilles." In 1819 he visited
Denmark, where he was received with enthusiasm, and
subsequently made a tour through Germany, and while
at Warsaw executed a portrait-bust of Alexander of
Russia, also the monuments of Copernicus and Prince
Poniatowski. One of his most remarkable productions
is the image of a wounded and dying lion, of colossal
size, near Lucerne, in Switzerland, designed to com
memorate the heroic fidelity of the Swiss guards who
fell August 10, 1792. About 1838 he returned, after
many years' residence at Rome, to Denmark, where he
continued to reside till his death, in March, 1844. He
was never married. Among his other works are " Christ
and the Twelve Apostles," a statue of Schiller, and a
colossal statue of Hercules.
See HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN, "15. Thorwaldsen," 1844; J.
M. THIKI.E, "Den Danske Hilledhugger 15. Thorwaldsen," etc.,
2 vo!s., 1831-32; L. UK LOMKNIE, " M. Thorwaldsen, parun Homme
de Rien," 1841; AI.KRED RKUMONT, "Thorwaldsen: Gedachtniss-
rede," 1844; HIM.F.RUI', "Thorwaldsen 03 hans Vaerker," 2 vols.,
1841-42; J. M. THIKI.K, " ThorwaMsen's Arbeiten und Lebensver-
haltnisse im Zeitraume 1828-1844." etc., 2 vols., 1854; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generate ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for August, 1832.
Thoth or Toth, an Egyptian divinity, supposed to cor
respond to the Greek Hermes and the Roman Mercury.
Thott, von, fon tot, (OTTO,) COUNT, a Danish finan
cier, born in 1703, became minister of state in 1772. lie
owned a library of 121,945 volumes, of which a cata
logue was published, in 12 vols., (1789-95.) Died in 1785.
Thou, de, deli too, (CHRISTOPHE,) an eminent French
judge, born in Paris in 1508. He became first president
of the Parliament of Paris about 1562. He pursued a
neutral or moderate course in relation to the civil wars
and the League. Died in 1582.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" DETnou, " Memoires."
Thou, de, (FRANCOIS AUGUSTE,) eldest son of the
celebrated historian, noticed below, was born in Paris
about 1607. He succeeded his father as master of the
Royal Library, and was afterwards appointed master of
requests and councillor of state. Having been accused
of being privy to the conspiracy of Cinq-Mars, he was
executed in 1642. (See CINQ-MARS.)
Thou, de, [Lat. THUA'NUS,] (JACQUES AUGUSTE,) an
eminent French historian and statesman, born in Paris
in October, 1553, was a son of Christophe de Thou, first
president of the Parliament. He studied in Paris, and
subsequently under Cujas (Cujacius) at Valence, in Dau-
phine, where he formed a lasting friendship with Joseph
Scaliger. Returning to Paris in 1572, he was present
at the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, and entered the
church as canon of Notre-Dame. The following year
he accompanied Paul de Foix on an important mission
to Italy, and after the accession of Henry III. he was
appointed master of requests, (1584,) and councillor of
tate, (1588.) He was chiefly instrumental in promoting
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon;
THOUARS
2127
THROCMORTON
an alliance between Henry III. and Henry of Navarre,
and, on the latter being crowned, under the title of Henry
IV., became one of his most faithful adherents. In 1593
he was appointed by Henry grand master of the Royal
Library, and soon after president a mortier in the Parlia
ment of Paris. He had a prominent part in framing the
edict of Nantes, (1598,) assisted at the Conference of Fon-
tainebleau, in 1600, and was employed in other important
transactions. He published in 1604 the first eighteen
books of his " History of his Own Time," (" Historia sui
Temporis,") of which a complete edition first appeared
in 1620, in one hundred and thirty-eight books. This
work, which was received with great favour by the public,
gave offence to the zealots of the Catholic Church, and
was formally condemned by being placed in the " Index
Expurgatorius." It is distinguished for the purity of its
style, as well as its accuracy and impartiality, and has
obtained the commendations of the most eminent critics.
De Thou also wrote an account of his life, entitled
"Thuani Commentarius de Vita sua," and several Latin
poems. The edition of his " History" published in Lon
don in 1733 (7 vols. fol.) is esteemed the best, and a
French translation of it, by Le Mascrier, Desfontaines,
and others, appeared in 1734, (16 vols. 410.) He died
in May, 1617. " De Thou," says Duplessis, "showed
himself a great statesman, with a profound knowledge
of men and things, equally removed from the fanaticism
of the different factions which divided France. A faithful
subject of the prince, but devoted also to the interests
of his country, he defended at the same time the rights
of the crown and the liberties of the kingdom, alternately
menaced by enemies from within and without."
See DE THOIT, " Memoires," (autobiographic.) 1711 ; JOHN COL-
I.INSON, "Life of Thuanus," 1807; P. CHASLES, " Discours sur la
Vie et les Ouvrages de J. A. de Thou," 1824 ; HENRI PATIN, " Dis
cours sur la Vie de J. A. de Thou," 1824 ; GUERARD. " Discours sur
la Vie, etc. de J. A. de Thou," 1824; DUNTZER, " J. A. de Thou's
I.ehen," etc.. 1*37; BAYLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;'y
NICEROX, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." lis>df*.
Thouars. See DUPETIT-THOUARS.
Tliouin. See LKCLERC, (OSCAR.)
Thoiiin, too'a.N', (ANDR:E,) a French botanist, born in
Paris in 1747. He was appointed chief gardener of the
Jardin des Plantes about 1765. He wrote, besides other
works, " Lectures on the Culture and Naturalization
of Plants," (3 vols., 1827.) " Few men," says Cuvier,
"exercised a more useful influence." Died in 1824.
^ee DE SII.VESTRE, "Notice sur A. Thoiiin," 1825: CUVIER,
'• Ivnge de M. A. Thoiiin," 1825; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Thouret, loo'rk', (ANTTOIXE,) a French republican
writer, born at Tarragona (Spain) in 1807. He was
imprisoned nearly five years for his political writings,
(1831-35,) wrote, while in prison, several political novels,
and was elected to the Constituent Assembly of 1848.
Having opposed the policy of Napoleon, he was banished
in January, 1852. Died in 1857.
Thouret, (JACQUES GUTLLAUME,) an able French
legislator and political writer, born at Pont-l'fiveque in
1746. He was an active member of the States-General
in 1789, and was a member of the committee which
formed the new constitution in 1790. In his principles
he was moderate and liberal. He was guillotined in 1794.
See DESSEAUX, " Notice sur Thouret," 1845; " Nouvelle Biogra
phie Generale."
Thouret, (MICHEL AUGUSTIN,) a French physician, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Pont-l'Iiveque in
1748. He studied medicine at Caen and in Paris, and
in 1776 became one of the first members of the Royal
Society of Medicine. He published several valuable
medical treatises, among which we may name his " Re
port on the Exhumations of the Cemetery of the Inno
cents." Died in 1810.
Thouvenel, toov'neK, (£DOUARD ANTOINE,) a French
diplomatist, born at Verdun in November, 1818. He
was minister at Athens in 1849 and 1850, and was
charged with the political direction of the ministry of
foreign affairs from December, 1851, to 1855. He was
sent as ambassador to Constantinople in 1855, and ap
pointed minister of foreign affairs in January, 1860. He
res gned office in October, 1862. He published in 1840
"Hungary and Wallachia : Souvenirs of Travel," etc.
Died about November, 1866.
Thouvenel, (PIKKRE,) a French physician, born in
Lorraine in 1745, practised in Paris, and wrote several
professional works. Died in 1815.
Thoynard. See TOINARD.
Thoyras. See RAPIN, DE, (PAUL.)
Tlirale, MRS. See PIOZZI.
Thra'se-a, (P/KTUs,) a Roman senator and Stoic
philosopher, eminent for his virtue and integrity, was a
native of Padua. Having incurred the enmity of Nero
by his condemnation of that emperor's crimes, he was
sentenced to death, together with several of his friends,
in 66 A.I).
Thrasybule. See THKASYBULUS.
Thras'y-buTus,* [Gr. Qfiaai-Sov/jOf : Fr. THRASYBULK,
tut'ze'bii'/, | an eminent Grecian patriot and military
commander, was a native of Attica, and flourished about
400 B.C. Being appointed general by the democratic
party at Athens, conjointly with his friend Thrasyllus,
he procured, by a decree, the recall of Alcibiades from
exile. He rendered an important service at the battle
of Cyzicus, (410,) and was a subordinate officer at the
naval victory of Arginusae, (406.) Soon after the Thirty
Tyrants obtained power (404 B.C.) he was banished, and
retired to Thebes. Having raised a small band of sol
diers and exiles, he seized Phyle, which he used as a
base of operations against the Thirty Tyrants. He
gained some advantages, and occupied the Piraeus. Here
he was besieged by the Spartan Lysander, but was re
lieved from his perilous position by the intrigues of
Pausanias. The Thirty having been deposed by their
own subjects, a treaty of peace was concluded, and the
exiles were restored to citizenship. He commanded a
fleet sent to aid the democrats of Rhodes in 390. He
was killed near Aspendus in 389 B.C.
See GROTE, " History of Greece ;" CORNELIUS NEPOS, " Thra-
sybulus;" THIRLWALL, "History of Greece;" XENOPHON, " Hel-
lenica ;" HINRICHS, " Commentatio de Theramenis, Critix et
Thrasybuli Rebus," etc., 1820; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Thrasybulus, sometimes called THE COI.I.YTIAN,
from his birthplace, Collytus, in Attica, was contempo
rary with the preceding, whom he accompanied in his
exile to Phyle.
Thras'y-bu'lus, [Gr. Qpaav6ov/.of,] Tyrant of Syracuse,
succeeded his brother, Hiero I., in 466 B.C. Having ex
asperated his subjects by his cruelty and oppression, he
collected a great number of mercenaries, at the head of
whom he attacked the Syracusans, who had solicited aid
from the Greeks in Sicily. Unable to maintain himself
against these forces, he was compelled to go into exile,
having reigned less than a year.
Thrasylle. See THRASYLLUS.
Thra-syl'lus, [Gr. Qpdav'/./.o£ ; Fr. THRASYLLE, tRf-
zel',] an Athenian general and democrat, co-operated
with Thrasybulus against the oligarchy in 411 B.C. He
commanded a fleet which, in 409, was defeated at Ephe-
sus, and gained a victory over a Syracusan squadron.
He was one of the six generals who commanded at
Arginusae in 406 B.C. and was unjustly put to death.
(See THERAMENES.)
Threl'keld, (CALEB,) a British botanist, born in
Cumberland in 1676. He practised medicine in Dublin,
and published "Synopsis of Irish Plants," (" Synopsis
Stirpium Hibernicarum.") Died in 1728.
Thriverus, the Latin of DRIVERE, which see.
Throc'mor-tpn or Throg'mor-ton, (Sir NICHO
LAS,) an English diplomatist, born about 1513. He
accompanied Henry VIII. to France in 1544, was present
at the siege of Boulogne, and subsequently served in the
Scottish campaign of 1547. Having been charged in
1554 with being implicated in Wyatt's rebellion, he
defended himself on his trial with so much eloquence
and ability that he was acquitted. Under Queen Eliza
beth he became chamberlain of the exchequer, and
ambassador to France, where he resided four years.
He was afterwards sent on important missions to Scot-
* This name is not (infrequently mispronounced with the accent
on the an tepen ultima. The following couplet from Byron exhibits
the true accentuation :
" Spirit of F'reedom ! when on Phyle's brow
Thou sat'st with Thrasybulus and his train."
Childe Harold, canto ii. stanza Ixxiv.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
ee Explanations, p. 23.)
THROSBT
2128
THUNBERG
land. He was father-in-law of the celebrated Sir Walter
Raleigh. Died in 1571.
Thros'by, (JoHN,) an English writer, born in 1746,
published "The History and Topography of Leicester,"
and other similar works. Died in 1803.
Thrud, a daughter of THOK, which see.
Thrudheim and Thrudvangr. See THOR.
Thrymheim. See SKADI.
Thuanus. See THOU, OE.
Thmcydide. See THUCYDIDES.
Thu-9yd'I-de§, [Or. QovKvtiubje ; Fr. THUCYDIDE,
tu'se'ded',] an Athenian politician and general, who
became the leader of the aristocratic party in 449 B.C.
" He was a man of great prudence," says Plutarch, " and
brother-in-law to Cimon. He had not, indeed, Cimon's
talents for war, but was superior to him in forensic and
political abilities." (Plutarch, " Pericles.") He was
the chief adversary of Pericles, and maintained a con
test against him until 444 B.C., when Thucydides was
ostracized.
Thucydides, [Gr. Qovicvdidqc ; Fr. THUCYDIDE,] an
illustrious Greek historian and general, born of a noble
family in the demus Halimus, in Attica, in 471 B.C., was
a son of Olorus. He was related to Miltiades and to
Cimon, and inherited an ample fortune. He informs his
readers that he owned gold-mines in Thrace, near the
island of Thasos. According to a current tradition, he
heard Herodotus read his history at Olympia, when he
was a boy, and was so deeply affected that he shed tears.
He is said to have been a pupil of Antiphon in oratory,
and of Anaxagoras in philosophy. He was one of the
sufferers attacked by the plague at Athens in 430 B.C.,
(of which he afterwards wrote a masterly description,)
which was the second year of the Peloponnesian war.
In 424 he commanded a squadron of seven ships near
Thasos, when the Spartan general Brasidas attacked
Amphipolis. He hastened to the defence of that town,
but he arrived too late, and found that it had just
surrendered to the Spartans. For this failure he was
banished, or, as some suppose, went into exile to avoid
the penalty of death to which unfortunate generals were
liable. He informs us that he passed twenty years in
exile after this event. He availed himself of the leisure
and opportunities which he enjoyed in consequence of
his exile, to collect materials for a history of the Pelopon
nesian war, which lasted about twenty -seven years, (431
-404.) He used the greatest diligence and care in ascer
taining the facts by visits to the localities of the war
and by interviews with the prominent actors of that
period. It is supposed that he returned to Athens in
403, when a general amnesty was granted to exiles. He
was a contemporary of Socrates and Euripides.
His celebrity is founded on his "History of the
Peloponnesian War," in eight books, which, however, he
did not live to finish. It ends in 411 B.C., seven years
before the termination of the war. The first book of
this work consists of introductory observations on the
early history of Greece. Ancient and modern critics are
unanimous in commending the accuracy, veracity, and
impartiality of Thucydides. His history combines the
merits of the orator, historian, philosopher, and states
man, and is one of the most admirable monuments of
political wisdom.
His style is concise, noble, and intensely energetic.
It is stated that Demosthenes transcribed the history
of Thucydides eight times, in order to improve his own
style. Cicero described Thucydides as " a faithful and
dignified narrator of facts," ("rerum gestarum pro-
nunciator sincerus et grandis.") (" Brutus," cap. 83.)
The same critic also expresses the opinion that this
historian easily surpasses all others in the art of com
position : "Thucydides omnes clicencli artificio, mea sen-
tentia, facile vicit." (" De Oratore," ii.)
"In spite of this great fault," says Macaulay, (refer
ring to his fictitious speeches,) "it must be allowed that
Thucydides has surpassed all his rivals in the art of his
torical narration, in the art of producing an effect on the
imagination by skilful selection and disposition without
indulging in the license of invention. . . . His book is
evidently the book of a man and a statesman, and in this
respect presents a remarkable contrast to the delightful
childishness of Herodotus. Throughout it there is an
air of matured power, of grave and melancholv reflection,
of impartiality and habitual self-command." (Macaulay's
Essay on "History," 1828.) He died about 401 B.C.,
leaving one son, Timotheus. Several ancient writers
state that he was assassinated, but they disagree in
respect to the place of his death. His " History" has
been translated into English by Hobbes, by William
Smith, (1753,) and by S. T. Bloomfield, (1829.)
See DODWKLI., " Annales Thucydidei," 1702; KRUGER, " Unter-
suchmigen fiber das Leben des Thucydides," 1832 ; ROSCHKR, " Le-
ben des Thucydides," 1842; GIKARD, " Thucydide," 1860; GKOTK,
" History of Greece ;" THIKLWALI., " History of Greece ;" F. ROTH,
" Vergleichende Betrachtungen iiber Thucydides und Tacitus,"
1812; BONNKL-L, " De Thucydide et Herodoto Qtixstionum histori-
carum Specimen," 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" ULRICH,
" Beitrage zur Krklarung des Thucydides," 1846.
Thuemmel. See THUMMEL.
Thuermer. See THUKMEK.
Thugut, too'goot, (FRANZ MARIA,) BARON, an Aus
trian diplomatist, born at Linz in 1734. He was early
distinguished by the favour of Maria Theresa, and
employed on missions to Paris, Naples, and other Euro
pean courts. In 1794 he succeeded Prince Kaunitz as
prime minister. He was removed in 1797, restored
in 1799, and finally driven from power in 1801. Died
in 1818.
See " Biographic Universelle."
Thuillier, tiiVye-i', (PIERRE,) a French landscape-
painter, was born at Amiens in 1799. He gained a
medal of the first class in 1839 at Paris. Died in 1858.
Thuillier, (VINCENT,) a French scholar, born in the
diocese of Laon in 1685, was a monk of Saint-Maur.
He published a version of the " History" of Polybius,
(6 vols., 1727-30.) Died in 1736.
Thulden, van, vSn tul'den, (TiiEonoK,) a celebrated
Flemish painter and engraver, born at Bois-le-Duc in
1607. He was a pupil of Rubens, whose style his own
greatly resembles, and whom he assisted in the series
of paintings which adorn the gallery of the Luxembourg.
Among his master-pieces are " The Martyrdom of Saint
Andrew," in the church of Saint Michael at Ghent, and
"The Assumption of the Virgin," in the church of the
Jesuits at Bruges. He also excelled in delineating mar
kets, fairs, etc., and produced a number of admirable
etchings, among which we may name "The Life of Saint
John de Matha," (in 24 plates,) and " The History of
Ulysses," (58 plates.) Died in 1676.
See " 1 iographie Universelle."
Thulen, van, vSn tii'len, (JOHN PHILIP,) a Flemish
painter, born at Malines in 1618, was a pupil of Seghers.
lie painted flowers, insects, etc. Died in 1667.
Thiimmel or Thuemmel, von, fon tum'mel, (Mo-
RITZ AUGUST,) a German litterateur, born near Leipsic
in 1738. His principal work is a romance, entitled "A
Journey in the Southern Provinces of France," (9 vols.,
1791-1805,) which is commended by Schiller and enjoys
great popularity in Germany. His " Wilhelmine," a
comic prose poem, is also highly esteemed, and has been
translated into several languages. He was privy coun
cillor and minister under the Duke of Saxe-Coburg from
1768 to 1783. Died in 1817.
See J. E. VON GKUNEK, "Leben M. A. von Thiimmel's," 1819;
"Biographic Universelle."
Thummig, toorn'mic, (LunwiG PHILIPP,) a German
philosopher, born at Culmbach in 1697, published seve
ral works. He was a disciple of Wolf. Died at Cassel
in 1728.
Thunberg, toon'bgRG, (KARL PETER,) a celebrated
Swedish botanist and physician, born in the province of
Smaland in 1743. He studied natural history at the
University of TJpsal, under Linnaeus. In 1772 he visited
the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1775 accompanied, as
physician, the embassy of the East India Company to
Japan. He succeeded the younger Linnaeus as professor
of botany at Upsal in 1784. He was instrumental in
founding a botanic garden in that city, and bestowed
upon the university his valuable collection of objects
in natural history. Among his principal works are his
" Flora Japonica," " Flora Capensis," " Icones Planta-
rum Japonicarum," and "Travels," (4 vols., 1788,) which
were translated into English and German. A genus of
a, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
THUNMANN
2129
TURKS
beautiful climbing plants lias been named in his honour,
also several spedes in different genera of insects. Died
in 1828.
See BIILUKKC,, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver C. P. Thunberg," 1832;
SCHROF.DKR, " Vita C P. Thunberg," 1832 : GKZBUOS, " P.iosvafiskt-
Lexicon :" CI-VIER, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Thunmann, toon'man, (JonN,) a Swedish writer,
born in Sudermania in 1746. lie wrote " Researches on
the History of the People of Eastern Europe," (1774.)
Died in 1778.
Thura, too'ra, (LAWRENCE,) a poet, born in Laaland
in 1656. He became Bishop of Kibe in 1714. Died
in 1731.
Thtiriot, tii're-o', (JACQUF.S AI.KXANDRF.,) a French
Jacobin, was an active member of the Convention, in
which he voted for the death of the king. As president
of that body, he promoted the fall of Robespierre on the
9th Thermidor, 1794. Died in 1829.
Thur'loe, (JoHN,) an English minister of state, born
at Abbot's Roding, in Essex, in 1616. He studied law,
was called to the bar in 1647, and obtained several
offices by the favour of his patron, Oliver Saint John. In
1652 he' was appointed secretary to the council of state.
He was secretary of state from December, 1653, until
the restoration, 1660. During a part of this period he
was also postmaster-general, and a member of Parlia
ment. He rendered important services to Cromwell by
the detection of plots against the Commonwealth. He
was distinguished for his talents for business, and his
moderation. After the restoration, Charles II. invited
him to take office, which he declined. Died in 1668.
His "State Papers," published by Dr. Birch, (7 vols.,
1742,) are considered very valuable.
See DR. BIRCH, "Life of J. Thurloe," 1742; BL-RNET, " History
of his Own Times."
Thur'low, (EDWARD,) LORD, an eminent English
lawyer and politician, born in Norfolk or near Stow-
niarket, in Suffolk, in 1732, was a son of Rev. Thomas
Thin low. He was sent to Caius College, Cambridge,
which he was compelled to leave without a degree, on
account of his turbulent and refractory conduct. He
studied law in the Inner Temple, was called to the bar
in 1754 or 1756, (Lord Campbell says 1754.) ancl joined
the Western circuit. In early life he was a friend of
the poet Cowper. He rose rapidly in his profession, .
and obtained the rank of king's counsel in 1761. He j
distinguished himself as junior counsel in the great j
Douglas cause, tried in the House of Lords, (1769.) In
1768 he was elected a member of Parliament, in which |
he supported Lord North's administration. He became
solicitor-general in 1770, and attorney-general in 1771.
Having commended himself to the favour of George
III. by his zealous support of Lord North's American
policy, he was appointed lord chancellor in June, 1778,
and was raised to the peerage, as Baron Thurlow. In
1782 the ministry was changed, but Thurlow was re
tained as chancellor, although he was opposed to the
measures of the new prime minister, Rockingham.
When a new cabinet was formed by the coalition of
Lord North and Fox, in 1783, Thurlow lost his office,
but he was again appointed lord chancellor by Mr. Pitt
in December, 1783. He soon became an enemy to Pitt,
and, relying on the personal favour of the king, thought
he could displace or circumvent that minister. "He
espoused the cause of Warren Hastings with indecorous
violence." (Macaulay.) lie opposed the abolition of
the slave-ttade. In consequence of his open hostility
to Pitt and some of his measures, he was removed from
office in 1792, after which he became a " flaming patriot."
He ceased to be influential or prominent in political
affairs many years before his death, which occurred in
September, 1806.
"He contrived," says Lord Campbell, "to persuade
mankind that he was a great judge, a great orator, and
a great statesman, — although I am afraid that in all
these capacities he was considerably overrated, and that
he owed his temporary reputation very much to his high
pretensions and his awe-inspiring manners.''
See LORD CAMPBELL, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol.
RROL-GHAM. "Statesmen of the Time of George III. ; ' Foss, The
Judges of England;" "Edinburgh Review" for September, 1814.
Thurmami, tooR'man, (JULES,) a Swiss 6r German
geologist and botanist, born at Neufbrisach in 1804.
He published an " Essay on the Jurassic Upheavals,"
and other works. Died in 1855.
Thiirmer or Thuermer, tiin'mer, (JOSEPH,) a Ger
man architect, born at Munich in 1789. He spent several
years at Rome and Athens, and became in 1832 pro
fessor in the Academy of Architecture at Dresden. He
published " Views of Athens and its Monuments," (1823.)
and other works. Died in 1833.
Thurneysser or Thurneisser zum Thuru, IOOR'-
ni-ser tsoom tookn, (LEONARD,) a Swiss alchemist and
physician, born at Bale in 1531. He was patronized
by 'the archduke Ferdinand, brother of Maximilian II.,
who charged him with the administration of the mines
of Tyrol. In 1571 he was appointed physician to the
Elector of Brandenburg. I le amassed a large fortune by
his pretended skill in astrology and alchemy, but, his
deceptions being at length discovered, he was obliged to
leave Berlin, and died at Cologne in 1596. He was the
author of a number of works, which are now forgotten.
See " Eraser's Magazine" for July, 1853.
Thurot, tii'ro', (FRANCOIS,) a French seaman, born
in Burgundy in 1727. Having previously distinguished
himself as captain of a privateer, he entered the royal
marine, and gained several important victories over the
English, but he was mortally wounded in an engagement
near the Isle of Man, (1760')
Thurot, (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a French philosopher and
Hellenist, born at Issoudun in 1768. He obtained a
chair of Greek language and philosophy in the College
de France in 1814. Among his works is a "Treatise on
the Understanding and the Reason," (" De 1'Entende-
ment et de la Raison," 1830.) Died in 1832.
See SILVESTRK DE SACY, " Notice snr la Vie de M. Thurot,''
1832: "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Thury. See CASSINI DE THURY and HERICART.
Thwaites, thwats, (EDWARD,) an English scholar,
born in 1667, was professor of Greek at Oxford. He
published several Anglo-Saxon works. Died in 1711.
Thy-es'tes, [Gr. Qvearrif ; Fr. THYESTE, te'gst',] Jn
classic mythology, was a son of Pelops and Hippodami'a,
a brother'of Atre'us, and father of /Egisthus. The enmity
between Thyestes and Atreus was the subject of several
discordant legends, which ascribe to each a number of
vindictive crimes and atrocities. (See ATREUS.) This
story was dramatized by Sophocles and Euripides in
tragedies which are not extant.
Thymbraeus, thim-bree'us, [Gr. QvpSpaiof ; Fr.
THVMHREK, tas'bRa',] a surname of Apollo, derived
from the temple of Thymbra, in Troas.
Thynne, thin, (FRANCIS,) an English antiquary and
writer on heraldry. He was the author of a " History
of Dover Castle and the Cinque Ports," (in manuscript,)
and a " Discourse of the Duty and Office of an Herald
)fArms." Diedini6li. •
Thyonee. See THYONEUS.
Thy-o'neus, [Gr. Qvuvri-f ; Fr. THYONEK, te'o -
na' : supposed to be derived from Mu, to " rush," to
"be excited,"] a surname of Bacchus, whose mother
was called Thyone (Qvunnj) after she was translated to
Olympus.
II ll]UU3a
Thys, tTss, [Lat. THY'SIUS,] a Dutch philologist, born
at Harderwyck in 1603. He was professor of eloquence
and law at Leyden, edited several Latin authors, and
wrote a few works, in prose and verse. Died in 1665.
Thysius. See THYS.
Tiarini, te-a-ree'nee, (Al.ESSANDRO,) an eminent Ital
ian painter, born at Bologna in 1577, was a pupil of
Fontana and Passignano. Among his master-pieces are
" Saint Peter denying Christ," a " Miracle of^ Saint
Dominic," and the'" Deposition from the Cross."
works are principally oil-paintings, and his style resem
bles that of the Caracci. Died in 1668.
Tiarks, tee'auks, (JoHN LEWIS,) a German astron
omer, born at Jever in 1789, removed to London, where
he became assistant librarian to Sir Joseph Banks.
About 1821 he was sent on an expedition to various
parts of Europe in order to determine the longitude by
means of chronometers. He was a Fellow of the Royal
Society. Died in 1837.
* • c as s: g hard: g as/; G, H, K, gitfairal; X, nasal; R, trilled ; § as 2; th as in this.
'34
Explanations, p. 23 .
TIBALDEO
21 30
TICOZZI
Tibaldeo. See TKHAI.DEO.
Tibaldeo, te-bal'da-o, (ANTONIO,) an Italian poet
and scholar, supposed to have been born about 1460.
He wrote Latin and Italian poems. Died in 1537.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Tibaldi, (DOMKNICO.) See PELLEGRINI.
Tibell, tee'bel, (GUSTAVUS WILHELM,) a Swedish
general, born in Suclermania in 1772. He served under
Bonaparte in Italy, (1795-1802.) Died in 1824.
Tibere. See TIBERIUS.
Tib-e-ri'nus, a mythical king of Alba, was said to
have been drowned in the river which was afterwards
called from him the Tiber, (Tiberis.)
Tiberio. See TIHKRIUS.
Ti-be'ri-us, [Fr. TIKEKE, te'baiu'; It. TniEiuo, te-
ba're-o,] or, more fully, Ti-be'ri-us Clau'di-us Ne'ro,
a celebrated emperor of Rome, born in 42 H.C. He was
a son of Livia Drusilla, the wife of Augustus, by her
tii-Kt marriage, and belonged to the patrician gens Clau
dia. His father was T. Claudius Nero. At an early
age he acquired a high reputation in military affairs, and
served with distinction in Spain, Asia Minor, and Ger
many. His talents were respectable, if not superior. He
was well versed in Greek and Latin literature. His first
wife was Vipsania Agrippina, a daughter of Agrippa.
About 12 is.C. he was compelled to divorce her, and to
marry Julia, a daughter of the emperor Augustus. lie
passed seven years at Rhodes in retirement, and returned
to Rome in 2 A.IX After the death of Cains Caesar, in 4
A.D., Augustus adopted Tiberius as his son and suc
cessor. He became emperor in the year 14, and at first
used his power with moderation. He had a suspicious
temper, and was a most artful dissembler. He chose
for his favourite minister and adviser the infamous
Sejinus, to whom he soon abandoned the direction of
the government. Tiberius was suspected of being acces
sory to the death of Germanicus, (19 A.D.) His only
son, Drusus, was poisoned by Sejanus in 23. In the year
26 he left Rome, to which he never returned, and retired
to the island of Capri, (Capreae.) Avoiding publicity
and neglecting affairs of state, he abandoned himself to
debauchery. In 31 A.n. Sejanus was put to death by the
order or permission of Tiberius, and Macro became the
powerful favourite. Tiberius died in 37 A,p., without
appointing his successor. It is stated that he was suf
focated by Macro, by whose aid Caligula then became
emperor. "The historian," says Macaulay, (referring to
Tacitus,) " undertook to make us intimately acquainted
with a man singularly dark and inscrutable, — with a
man whose real disposition long remained swathed up
in intricate folds of factitious virtues, and over whose
actions the hypocrisy of his youth and the seclusion of
his old age threw a singular mystery. . . . He was to
exhibit the old sovereign of the world sinking into a
dotage which, though it rendered his appetites eccentric
and his temper savage, never impaired the powers of
his stern and penetrating mind, conscious of failing
strength, raging with capricious sensuality, yet to the
last the keenest of observers, the most artful of dis
semblers, and the most terrible of masters. The task
was one of extreme difficulty. The execution is almost
perfect." (Essay on "History.")
See SUETON-IIK, "Tiberius;" TACITUS, " Annales ;" SIEVERS,
"Tacitus mid Tiberius," 1850: V. DUKUY, " De Tiberio Impera-
tnre," 1853 ; MERIVAI.E, " History of the Romans under the Em
pire ;" BOSE, " De Tiberio Czsare," 1661 ; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Tiberius (Axic/ius FLA'VIUS CONSTANTI'NUS) II.,
snrnamed THRAX, (or the "Thracian,") Emperor of the
East, a native of Thrace, was born in the early part of
the sixth century. He was treated with great distinction
bv Justin II., who bestowed upon him the dignity of
Crcsar in 574, and subsequently abdicated in his favour.
He carried on a successful war against the Persians
tinder Chosroes, whom he signally defeated at Melitene,
(576 A.D.) He died in 582 A.n., and was succeeded
by his son-in-law Mauritius, whom he had previously
created Caesar.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Tiberius, a Greek philosopher and grammarian, sup
posed to have lived in the fourth century. One of his
rhetorical works is extant, and a number of fragments.
Ti-be'ri-us Ab-sim'a-rus, a Greek general of the
seventh century, caused himself to be proclaimed Em
peror of Constantinople in opposition to Leontius, (698
A.D.) He was deposed and put to death by Justinian
II., (705 A.D.)
Tibe'rius Alexaii'der, a native of Alexandria, was
appointed by the emperor Nero governor of Judea, and
subsequently prefect of Egypt. He was distinguished
by the favour of Vespasian and Titus, and assisted the
latter in the siege of Jerusalem.
Tibull, the German for Tiisui.LUS, which see.
Tibulle. See Tiuuu.us.
Tibullo. See TIIHII.LUS.
Ti-bul'lus, [Fr. TIHULI.K, te'biil' ; Ger. TIHULL,
te-bool'; It. Tinui.i.o, te-bool'lo,] (Ai.iMUS,) a distin
guished Roman elegiac poet of the Augustan age, was
born in Italy about 55 K.C. lie was a son of a knight,
(eques,) from whom he inherited an estate between Tibur
and Praeneste. This estate was confiscated in the civil
war, but he recovered a part of it, and passed much
of his life there, enjoying the peaceful pleasures of the
country, of which he was a warm admirer. He was
patronized by Valerius Messala, whom he accompanied
in a campaign in Gaul in 31 n.c. lie was an intimate
friend of Horace, who addressed to him an epistle and
an ode, ("Carmina," i. 33.) His character is said to have
been amiable. He wrote amatory elegies addressed to
Delia and Nemesis. His poems are models of graceful
simplicity and genuine tenderness. The best editions
of Tibullus are those published by Lachmann (1829) and
by Dissenus, (or Dissen,) (1835.) Died about iS n.c.
See AYKMANV. "Vita Tibulli." 1710. : DKCEN, "A. Tibiill,"
i7So; GRUITK. •' Die RomUche Elesie," 183,8; HKDNK.K, "Tibul-
lus, Pronertius et Ovidius," 1841; I)K Got.uiiKV. " Dissertatio de
Tibulli Vita," etc., 1825; " Xouvelle Hio;;raphie G-jnerale."
Tick'ell, (RICHARD,) an English writer and politician
of the eighteenth century, published a pamphlet, entitled
"Anticipation," and other works. Died in 1793.
Tickell, (THOMAS,) an English poet and translator,
born in Cumberland in 1686. He studied at Queen's
College, Oxford, of which he became a Fellow in 1710.
He was an intimate friend of Addison, who made him
under-secretary of state in 1717. He subsequently be
came secretary to the lords justices of Ireland. He was
the author of poems entitled "The Prospect of Peace"
and "The Royal Progress." The latter is character
ized by Dr. Johnson as "neither high nor low." His
translation of the first book of the " Iliad" is highly
commended by Addison, but it is regarded by other
critics as greatly inferior to Pope's. Tickell also wrote a
number of prose essays, and an admired " Elegy on
the Death of Addison." Died in 1740.
Tick'npr, (C.-vi.EK,) a skilful American physician,
born in Salisbury, Connecticut, about 1804. He prac
tised in New York, and wrote much for medical journals.
Died about 1840.
See WILLIAMS, "Medical Biography."
Ticknor, (ELISHA,) an American teacher, born about
1760, was the father of George Ticknor. He taught in
Boston, where he died in 1821.
Ticknor, (GEOKGK,) a distinguished American scholar
and writer, born at Boston in 1791. He graduated at
Dartmouth College, and subsequently spent five years
in visiting various parts of Europe. He was appointed
after his return professor of the French and Spanish
languages and literature at Harvard College. He brought
out in 1849 his " History of Spanish Literature," (3 vols.
8vo.) It immediately established the reputation of the
author, and has obtained the highest eulogy from emi
nent critics of all countries, having been translated into
Spanish and German. In 1863 Mr. Ticknor published
his "Life of William H. Prescott," one of the most in
teresting biographies in the language.
See "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1850; " North
American Review" for January, 1850.
Ticozzi, te-kot'see, (STF.FANO,) an Italian litterateur,
born in the province of Como in 1762. Among his
principal works are his " Dictionary of Architects, Sculp
tors, Painters, etc. of every Age and Nation," (4 vols.
8vo, 1830,) " Historical Memoirs," and translations of
Sismondi's "History of the Italian Republics" and Llo-
5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;
Tl DEMAND
2131
TIER NET
rente's " History of the Inquisition." lie was prefect
of the department of the Piave under the French empire.
Died in 1836.
See TIPAI.OO, " Biografia degli Italian! i'lustri ;" " Nouvelle Bio-
giaphie Generale."
Tidemand, tee'den-mand', (Aooi-PH,) a Norwegian
painter of high reputation, born at Mandal in 1815. He
was appointed painter to the king, and distinguished
himself as a painter of national manners. His favourite
subjects are scenes of Norwegian domestic life.
Tidemann, tee'cleh-man', (Pmi.HT,) a German
painter, born at Nuremberg in 1657, was a pupil of
I.airesse at Amsterdam. He painted mythological sub
jects with success. Died in 1715.
Tieck, teek, (CHRISTIAN FRIKDRICII,) a German
sculptor, brother of the celebrated Ludwig Tieck, was
born at Berlin in 1776. In 1805 he visited Rome, and
subsequently repaired to Munich, where he executed
portrait-busts of Schelling, Jacobi, and the crown-prince
Ludwig. Among his other works we may name a life-
si/c statue of Necker, and busts ot I.essing, Grotitis,
Wallenstein, and William of Orange. Died in 1851.
See NAGLF.R, " Allgemeiiies Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Tieck, (Lunwio,) a distinguished German poet and
novelist, born in Berlin in May, 1773, was a brother of
the preceding. He was educated at Halle, Gottingen, and
Krlangen. His favourite studies were history and liter
ature, ancient and modern. lie produced " Abdallah,"
a novel, (1795,) " William Lovell," (1795,) and "Travels
of Sternbald," (" Sternbald's Wanderungen," 1798.) He
associated at Jena with the Schlegels, Novalis, and
Schelling. About 1800 he married a young woman
named Albert!. In literature he belonged to the ro
mantic school. His reputation was increased by dramas
entitled "Genoveva, or Genevieve of Brabant," (1800,)
and the "Emperor Octavian," ("Kaiser Octavianus,"
1804.) He resided a few years at Dresden, (1800-04,)
and travelled in Italy in 1805. Among his principal
works are " Phantasus,'' (3 vols., 1812-15,) "The Revolt
of the Cevennes," a novel, (1826,) and "Poet-Life,"
(" Dichterleben," 1828.) He displayed great talent for
irony and humour in his comedies or satires entitled
" Puss in Boots," "The World turned Upside Down,"
and " Prince Zerbino, or Travels in Search of Good
Taste," (2 vols., 1799-1800.) After a visit to France
and England, (1817,) he settled at Dresden in 1819.
He produced a good translation of "Don Quixote,"
(4 vols., 1799-1801,) and assisted Schlegelin the trans
lation of Shakspeare. In 1840 the King of Prussia
• invited Tieck to Berlin, appointed him a privy councillor,
and granted him a pension. After that date he resided
at Berlin and Potsdam. Tieck was a very prolific writer.
His versions of Shakspeare's plays are among the best
ever made. He died in Berlin in April, 1853.
See " L. Tieck," Cassei, 1854 ; L. DK LOMENIK, " M. Tieck, par
1111 Homme de Rieu." 1841; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;"
"Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1838, and July, 1839:
" Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1831, and November, 1847.
Tiedemami, tee'deh-man', (DIETRICH,) a German
philosopher, born near Bremen in 1748. He was pro
fessor of philosophy at Marburg, and was an adversary
of Kant. He wrote, besides other works, which are
highly commended, "The Spirit of Speculative Philoso
phy, from Thales to Berkeley," (6 vols., 1790-97.) Died
in 1803.
See G. F. CRRUZRR, "Memoria Tiedemamii," 1803.
Tiedemann, (FRIEDRICH,) a distinguished German
anatomist and physiologist, a son of the preceding, was
born at Cassei in 1781. He graduated at Marburg in
1804. and in 1805 became professor of anatomy and
zoology at Landshut. In 1812 he obtained the prize
offered by the French Institute for the best work on the
structure of the Radiata, and at the same time was
elected a corresponding member of that body. He was
called in 1816 to fill the chair of anatomy, physiology,
etc. at Heidelberg. Among his numerous works we
may name the "Anatomy and Natural History of Am
phibious Animals," (1817,) "Arteries of the Human
Body," " Nerves of the Uterus," and " Physiology of
Man," (3 vols., 1830-36.) Died in 1861.
See FI.OURENS, " Eloges liistoriques ;" CAI.I.ISRN, " Medicinisches
Schriftsteller-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
•e as k; cas s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled: § as z: th as in this.
Tiedge, teed'oeh, (almost teed'yeh,) (CHRISTOPH AU
GUST,) a German poet of high reputation, was born at
Gardelegen in 1752. While filling the office of private
tutor at Hohenstein, he acquired the friendship of Gleim
and the Baroness von der Recke, and in 1804 visited
Italy in company with the latter. His principal poem,
entitled " Urania," was received with great favour, and
was followed by his " Mirror for Women," (" Frauen-
spiegel,") " Wanderings through the Market of Life,"
" Elegies," etc. During the latter part of his life Tiedge
resided with his friend Madame von der Recke, whom
he survived about eight years, dying in 1841. His poetry
is characterized by great moral beauty and devotional
feeling, and has many points of resemblance to that of
Cowper.
See FAI.KENSTEIN, "C. A. Tiedge's Leben mid Naclilass," 4
vo!s., 1841; LONT.FKI.I.OW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" EDER-
HARD, " lilicke in Tiedge's und in Elisa's Leben," 1844.
Tieftruiik, teef'tKoonk, (JoHANN HF.INRICH,) a Ger
man philosopher and disciple of Kant, born near Ros
tock in 1759, became professor of philosophy at Halle.
Died in 1837.
Tielemaiis, tee'leh-mans', (JEAN FRANCOIS,) a Bel
gian jurist and liberal politician, born at Brussels in
1799. He was minister of the interior about one month,
March, 1831, was afterwards governor of Antwerp, and
professor ot law in Brussels.
Tien-Te, te-en' ti, or Tien-Tih, te-gn' tih, called
also Tai-Fiiig-Wang, a Chinese leader of insurgents,
born in 1813. His original name was Pnuil, and his
literary name HuNG-SiU-TsHUEN. He was educated
for the class of literati, but at the final examination in
Canton he failed to obtain a degree. About 1833 he
received from an agent of the London Bible Society
some tracts or a version of the Lloly Scriptures, which
he read with great interest. He professed to have
received a divine mission, and began to preach against
the worship of idols. He was successful in converting
many to the "foreign righteousness," wrote religious
essays and poems, and became the founder of a new
religion, similar to Christianity in some respects. Ac
cording to some authorities, he joined several secret
political societies formed to liberate China from the
domination of the Mantchoos. In 1850 he raised the
standard of revolt. His followers cut off their pig-tails,
which is accounted an act of high treason in China.
Tien-Te marched victoriously through several provinces,
and captured Nanking in 1853, after he had defeated the
imperialist armies in a number of battles. His govern
ment, of which Nanking was the capital, was a military
theocracy. In July, 1864, Nanking was taken by the
imperialists, the rebellion was suppressed, and Tien-Te
killed himself.
See "Life of Tai-Ping-Wang," by J. MILTON MACKIE, 1857;
"The Taeping Rebellion," in the " Merchants' Magazine" for Jan
uary. 1865.
Tiepolo, te-ep'o-lo, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) a Vene
tian painter, born in 1693. was patronized by Charles
III. of Spain, where he executed several works of great
merit. His pictures are chiefly frescos, painted in the
style of Paul Veronese. It is stated that his oil-paint
ings are to be found in all the galleries of Europe. Died
at Madrid about 1770.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" TICOZZI, " Dizio-
rio."
Tiepolo, (JACOPO,) a Venetian jurist, became Doge
of Venice in 1229. Died in 1249.
His son LORENZO became Doge in 1268. Died in 1275.
Tiepolo, (Niccol.6,) a Venetian poet and senator,
eminent for his talents and learning. He was employed
in several diplomatic missions. Died in I551-
Tierney, teer'ne, (GEORGE,) an English statesman,
born at Gibraltar in 1761. He was elected to Parliament
for South wark in 1796 by the Whig party, and distin
guished himself as one of the most zealous opponents
of Mr. Pitt, with whom he fought a duel. He was ap
pointed treasurer of the navy in 1802, and became mas
ter of the mint under the Canning ministry, (1827.) He
was a great master of sarcasm and irony. Died in 1830.
Tierney, (MARK,) an English antiquary and Roman
Catholic priest, born in 1785. He published the "His
tory and Antiquities of Arundel." Died in 1862.
Explanations, p. 23.)
TIFERN4S
2132
T1LLOT
Tifernas, le-feVnas, (GkKGORio,) an Italian Hellenist,
born at Citta cli Castello about 1415. lie taught Greek
in Venice, where he died about 1465.
Tigellin. See TIGKLLINUS.
Tig-el-li'nus, [Fr. TIGKI.I.IN, te'zhi'liN',] (SoPHO-
Nius,) a Roman courtier, notorious for his crimes, was
born at Agrigentum. In 63 A.D. he became the favourite
minister of Nero, with the title of praetorian prefect. He
abused by cruelty and rapacity the power which he had
obtained by subservience to the worst passions of Nero.
He committed suicide in 70 A.D.
Tighe, ti, (Mrs. MARY,) a distinguished poetess, born
in Wicklow county, Ireland, in 1773, was a daughter of
the Rev. William Blachford. She was the author of a
poem entitled "Psyche," which is greatly admired, also
a number of miscellaneous and devotional pieces. Died
in 1810.
See the "Monthly Review" for October, 1811.
Tigny, de, deh ten'ye', (MARIN GROSTETE,) a French
entomologist, born at Orleans in 1736. His wife wrote
a " History of Insects," a work of merit, which was pub
lished in his name, (10 vols., 1802.) He died in 1799.
Tigrane. See TIGKANKS.
Ti-gra'nes, |Gr. Ttypdvjjf ; Fr. TIGRANE, te'gRtn';
Armenian, DIKRAN, de-kiln',] an Armenian prince or
hero, flourished about 550 B.C. He was a friend of
Cyrus the Great, and, according to some authorities,
aided Cyrus in his war against Astyages the Mede.
Tigranes I., King of Armenia, began to reign about
96 B.C., and married a daughter of Mithridates the
Great. Having extended his dominions by conquest, he
assumed the title of "King of kings." In the year 83
he invaded and conquered Syria. He afterwards founded
the city of Tigranocerta, which became his capital. As
an ally of his son-in-law, Mithridates, he declared war
against the Romans, whose army, under Lucullus, in
vaded Armenia in 69 li.c. and defeated Tigranes; but
the mutiny of the Roman soldiers prevented Lucullus
from terminating the war. After Pompey had gained a
decisive victory over Mithridates, (66 is.C.,) Tigranes
made an abject submission to the Roman general, who
permitted him to keep the kingdom of Armenia proper.
Died in 55 K.C. He was noted for his pride and tyranny.
It is said that he kept tributary kings in his palace as
servants.
See PLUTARCH, " Lucullus ;" DION CASSIUS, " History of Rome ;"
SMITH, ".Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc.
Til, van, vSn til, (SOLOMON,) a Dutch theologian,
born near Amsterdam in 1644. He was professor of
theology at Leyden, and published a number of works
on that subject. He was a disciple of Coccejus. Died
in 1713.
See MOREKI, " Dictiounaire Historique," 1759; " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generate. "
Tilborg. See TILBURGH.
Tilburgh, van, vtn til'biir'H, written also Tilborg,
(Gii,K.s,)a Flemish painter, born at Brussels about 1625.
He painted fairs, rustic dances, interiors of taverns, etc.
Died in 1678.
Tilbury, (GERVASE OF.) See GERVASE.
Tilenus, te-la'nus, or Tilenius, te-la'ne-us, (DANIKI.,)
a Protestant theologian, born in Silesia in 1563. He
was appointed professor of theology at Sedan, France,
i" 1602, and became preceptor of the famous Turenne.
Having adopted Arminian tenets, he was deprived of
his chair at Sedan in 1619. He wrote numerous works
on theology. Died in Paris in 1633.
See BOUII.I.OT, " Notice sar D. Tilenus," 1806; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale. "
Tilesius. See TELKSIO.
Tilesius von Tilenau, voii, fon te-la'ze-us fon tee'-
leh-now', (WiLHELM GOTTLIEB,) a German naturalist,
born in Thuringia in 1769. He accompanied the Russian
navigator Krusenstern in his voyage around the world
in 1803, and published, in 1813, "Results in Natural
History of the First Russian Voyage around the World,
under Captain Krusenstern." Died in 1857.
Tilghman, til'man, (EDWARD,) an eminent American
jurist, a relative of Chief-Justice Tilghman, noticed
below, was born at Wye, in Maryland, December 1 1, 1750.
He studied in Philadelphia, and at the Middle Temple,
in London. He established himself in Philadelphia, and
rose to the first place at the bar of that city, which was
then noted for its eminent lawyers. " Mr. Tilghman was
an advocate of great power," says Mr. Binney, "a fault
less logician, — a man of the purest integrity and brightest
honour, — fluent, without the least volubility, — concise
to a degree that left every one's patience and attention
unimpaired." Died in 1815.
See a notice of Edward Tilghman, by HORACE BINNEY, in the
"Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement.)
Tilghman, (Li.oYD,) an American general, born in
Maryland about 1816, graduated at West Point in 1836.
He commanded at Fort Henry, in Tennessee, which he
surrendered to the Union navy or army in February
1862. He was killed at the ba'ttle of Champion Hill,
May 1 6, 1863.
Tilghman, ( WILLIAM,) an American jurist and schol
ar, was born in Talbot county, Maryland, August 12,
1756. He studied law in Philadelphia, and was admitted
to the bar in 1783. He was repeatedly elected to the
legislature of his native State. In 1793 he removed to
Philadelphia. In 1801 he was appointed chief judge of
the United States court for Pennsylvania. In 1805 he
was made president of the court of common pleas, and
in 1806 chief justice of the supreme court of the State, a
position which he filled with eminent ability until his
death, in 1827. It has been justly observed that Penn
sylvania owes him a debt of gratitude for "the incorpo
ration of the principles of scientific equity with the laws
of the State."
See "Encyclopaedia Americana."
Til'le-mans, (PETER,) a Flemish painter, born at Ant
werp, resided in England, where he produced a number
of admired works. Died in 1734.
Tillemont, de, deh te!'m6N' or te'ye-moN', (SEBAS-
TIEN Lenain — leh-naN',) a French ecclesiastical histo
rian, born in Paris in 1637. He studied at Port-Royal,
under Nicole and other distinguished Jansenists, and
was ordained a priest in 1676. He published in 1693
the first volume of his " Memoirs towards the Eccle
siastical History of the First Six Centuries," (" Memoires
pour servir a 1'Histoire ecclesiastique," etc.,) which
first appeared complete in 1712, (16 vols. 4to.) His
other principal work is entitled a " History of the Em
perors and other Princes who reigned during the First
Six Centuries," etc., (4 vols., 1690-97.) Two other
volumes were published in 1701-38. These works are
highly esteemed. Tillemont was eminently-modest and
humble. Died in Paris in 1698.
SeeTRONCHAY, " ViedeM. Lenain de Tillemont," 1711 ; SAIN-TH-
BEIIVE, " Histoire de Port-Royal :" PERRAUI.T, " Memoires des
Homines illu^tres;" NICERON, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Ge'nerale."
Tillet, te'v,y, (MATHIEU,) a French writer on agri
culture, born at Bordeaux about 1720. He co-operated
with Duhamel du Monceau. Died in 1791.
Tillet, du, du te'yi', (JEAN,) a learned French com
piler of historical documents, born in Paris. He was
secretary (greffier) of the Parliament. Among his works
is "Collection of the Kings of France," etc., (" Recueil
des Rois de France, leur Couronne et Maison," 1580.)
Died in 1570.
Tilli, teel'lee, (MICHELANGELO,) an Italian botanist,
born at Castel-Fiorentino in 1655. He became a pro
fessor at Pisa, and published a "Catalogue of. the Plants
in the Botanic Garden of Pisa," (1723.) Died in 1740.
Tillier, te'ye-a', (JoHANN ANTON,) a Swiss historian,
born at Berne~in 1792, published a " History of the
Confederation (Eidgenossenschaft) at the Epoch of the
Restoration," (1848^) and other works. Died in 1854.
Til'lo-eh, (ALEXANDER,) LL.D., a Scottish journalist
and miscellaneous writer, born at Glasgow in 1759.
Having settled in London, he became editor of "The
Star" in 1789, and subsequently of the "Philosophical
Magazine.". He published several theological essays.
Died in 1825.
Tillot, du, dii te'yo', (GuiLLAUME LEON,) Marquis
de Felino, was born at Bayonne in 1711. lie became
about 1755 minister of finance to the Duke of Parma.
Died in 1774.
a, e,T, o, ,i, y, long;\,^, 6, same, less prolonged: a. e, T, o, u, v, short: a, e, i, o. obscure: far, fall, fat: m§t; n&t; good; rroor ;
TILLOTSON
TIMOLEON
Til'lot-son, (JoHN,) D.I)., a celebrated English prel
ate, born in Yorkshire in 1630. He studied at Clare
Hall, Cambridge, where he became a Fellow in 1651.
Though educated a Calvinist, he subsequently conformed
to the Church of England, and, having taken holy orders,
he was appointed in 1664 preacher at Lincoln's Inn and
Saint Lawrence's Church in the Jewry, where he ac
quired a very high reputation as a pulpit orator. Under
the reign of Charles II. he became successively Dean of
Canterbury, (1672,) prebendary of St. Paul's, (1675,) an<^
canon-residentiary of that cathedral, (1677.) He was
created Archbishop of Canterbury by William III. in
1691. He had married Elizabeth French, a niece of
Oliver Cromwell. In theology he was called a latitudi-
narian. The nonjurors lampooned him outrageously,
denouncing him as atheist, Deist, Arian, thief, etc. Died
in 1694. Addison considered his writings as models of'
language.
"Of all the members of the Low-Church party," says
Macatilay, "Tillotson stood highest in the general esti
mation. As a preacher he was thought by his contem
poraries to have surpassed all rivals, living or dead.
Posterity has reversed this judgment. Yet Tillotson
still keeps his place as a legitimate English classic. . . .
His reasoning was just sufficiently profound and suffi
ciently refined to be followed by a popular audience with
that slight degree of intellectual exertion which is a
pleasure. . . . The greatest charm of his compositions,
however, is derived from the benignity and candour
which appear in every line, and which shone forth not
less conspicuously in his life than in his writings."
(" History of England," vol. iii.)
See BIRCH, "Life of Tillotson." prefixed to his works; LE
NEVE, " Lives of the Protestant Archbishops of England ;" BL'RNET.
" History of his Own Times." jB**/J*.,-O''f.~K*rr'**y •
Tilly, de, deh te'ye', (ALEXANDRE,) COMTE, a French
royalist and political writer, born at Mans in 1764. He
wrote "Memoirs towards a History of Manners of the
Eighteenth Century," (3 vols., 1828,) and other works.
Died in 1816.
Tilly, de, (PIERRE ALEXANDRE,) COUNT, a French
general of the Revolution, born in Normandy in 1754,
gained several victories over the Vendeans, and became
governor of Brussels in. 1796. Died in 1822.
Tilly or Tilli, von, fon til'lee, (JOHANN T/ERKLAS,)
COUNT, a celebrated military commander, born near
Gembloux, in Brabant, in 1550. Having served for a
time in the Netherlands under Alva, Don John of
Austria, and Alexander Farnese, he entered the army of
Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, in 1609. Soon after the
breaking out of the Thirty Years' war, he was appointed
to the chief command of the army of the League, and in
1620 gained a signal victory over the Protestants, and
subsequently defeated Christian IV. of Denmark near
Lutter. Having been made a field-marshal, in 1630 he
succeeded \Vallenstein as commander-in-chief of the
Imperial troops, and in May, 1631. took Magdeburg by
storm. This victory, which was followed by the most
atrocious cruelty perpetrated on the inhabitants, was
celebrated by Marshal Tilly by Te Deums sung in the
cathedral. He was soon after defeated by Gustavus
Adolphus near Leipsic, and a second time at the battle
of the Lech, in 1632, where he was mortally wounded.
See VII.I.ERMONT, "Tilly, ou la Guerre de Trente Ans," 2 vols.,
1859 ; SCHILLER, " History of the Thirty Years' War."
Til'tpn, (JAMES,) an American physician, born in
Delaware in 1745. He served as surgeon of the army
from 1776 to 1783, and was appointed physician- and
surgeon-general of the army of the United States in
1812 or 1813. Died in 1822.
Timgeus, ti-mee'us, (Gr.
FT. TIME>., te'ma',]
a Pythagorean philosopher, born at Locri, in Italy, is said
to have been a teacher of Plato. He flourished probably
about 420-380 B.C. A work "On the Soul of the Uni
verse," which is extant, has been ascribed to him ; but
many critics doubt that he was the author of it, and
regard it as an abridgment of Plato's dialogue of
"Timaeus."
Timaeus, an eminent Greek historian, born at Tau-
romenium, in Sicily, about 352 B.C. Having been
banished from his native island by Agathocles, he re
tired to Athens, where he resided about fifty years.
Died about 256 B.C. His principal work was a "His
tory of Sicily from the Earliest Times to 264 B.C.," of
which fragments are extant. He is severely criticised
by Polybius, but is praised by Cicero, who says, in his
treatise " De Oratore," " Timaeus, quantum judicare
possim, longe eruclitissimus, et rerum copia et senten-
tiarum varietate abundantissimus . . . mngnam elo-
quentiam ad scribendum attulit."*
See Vossius, " De Historicis Grascis."
Timaeus, [Fr. TIM£E LE SOPHISTE, te'ma' leh so'-
fest',] a Greek Sophist and grammarian, supposed to
have lived in the third century after Christ. His only
extant work is a vocabulary or glossary of the phrases
of Plato, (" Lexicon Vocnm Platonicai um,") edited,
with a commentary, by Kuhnken, (1754.)
Timagene. See TIMAGENES.
Ti-mag'e-nes, [Gr.
: Fr. TIMAGENE, te'mt'-
zh,\n', ] a rhetorician of Alexandria, became a resident
of Rome about 55 B.C. He wrote several works on his
tory, etc., and gained the friendship of Augustus. Some
critics identify him with the Timagenes who wrote a
"Periplus" of the whole sea.
See SCHWAB, " De Livio et Timagene Historiarum Scriptoribus
jemulis," 1834.
TI-man'thes, [Gr. Tifiui-G^; Fr. TIMANTHE, te'-
mo.Nt',1 a celebrated Greek painter, born at Sicyon,
flourished about 400 B.C. He was a rival of Parrhasius,
over whom he gained the prize at Samos for his "Con
test of Ajax and Ulysses for the Arms of Achilles."
Among his other master-pieces were "The Sacrifice
of Iphigeni'a" and "The Stoning of Palamedes." He
excelled in the power of expression and suggestion.
Tl-mar'-ehus, [T^ap^-oc,] a Greek grammarian of
uncertain date.
Timbal, taN'bil', (CHARLES,) a French painter, born
in Paris about 1822. He painted many scriptural sub
jects.
Timbs, t!mz, (JOHN,) an English writer and journalist,
born in London in 1801. He became editor of "The Mir
ror" in 1827, and subsequently associate editor of " The
Illustrated London News." He has published, among
other popular works, "Laconics," (3 vols., 1825-26,)
"The Year-Book of Facts," "Things not generally
Known familiarly Explained," (1856,) "Curiosities of
History," (1859,) and "A Century of Anecdote, 1760
to 1860," (2 vols., 1864.)
Timee. See TIM.^EUS.
Tim'o-cles, \Tiuon/.r/f,} an Athenian comic poet of
the middle comedy, lived about 350-320 B.C. His style
is commended for its purity. His works are not extant.
Ti-mo'cre-on
OF RHODES, a Greek lyric
poet, lived about 500-450 B.C. He wrote bitter satirical
verses against Themistocles and Simonides. Some of
his verses are quoted by Plutarch in his " Life of The
mistocles."
Ti-mo'le-on, \Tifto7.euv,] an illustrious Greek states
man and general, born of a noble family at Corinth
about 400 B.C. He was so zealous for liberty that he
conspired against his elder brother Timophanes, who
had usurped supreme power and was killed. Accord
ing to Plutarch, Timoleon became a prey to sorrow on
account of the death of his brother, and withdrew
from public affairs for many years. In 344 B.C. the
people of Syracuse sent ambassadors to Corinth to
implore assistance against Dionysius and other tyrants.
The Corinthians granted a small army, and appointed
Timoleon to command it. Three parties were then con
tending for mastery in the Syracusan state, — Dionysius,
Hicetas, and the popular party. Before the end of 344
Timoleon defeated Hicetas and occupied part of Syra
cuse. In the next year Dionysius surrendered the citadel
to Timoleon and retired from the contest. Hicetas, who
still held two quarters of the capital, obtained aid from
the Carthaginians ; but Timoleon soon expelled him from
Syracuse, and restored democratic institutions in that city.
* The following is a nearly literal translation: " Timaeus, as well
as I am able to judge, was by far the most learned of all, and the most
rich in the abundance of his facts and variety of his opinions; he dis
played, also, great eloquence in composition."
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g zs,j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
TIMOMACHUS
2'34
TINNE
In 339 he defeated the Carthaginian generals Hasdrubal
and Hamilcar, who invaded the Syracusan state with
an army five times larger than that of Timoleon. He
ascribed all his successes to fortune, or to the will of the
gods. He restored peace and prosperity to the people
of Sicily, who honoured him as a great benefactor. Died
at Syracuse in 337 B.C. Plutarch says that " he performed
greater things than any Grecian of his time, and was the
only man that realized those glorious achievements to
which the orators of Greece were constantly exhorting
their countrymen."
See PI.UTAKCH, " Life of Timoleon ;" C. NEPOS, " Life of Timo
leon ;" GROTE, "History of Greece;" THIRLWALL, "History of
Greece;" ARNOLDT, "Timoleon ; biographische Darstellung,'' 1850:
"Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale."
Ti-mom'a-ehus, an eminent painter, born in Byzan
tium, is supposed to have lived about 300 B.C. His
pictures of "Medea about to destroy her Children" and
" Ajax brooding over his Misfortunes" were esteemed
master-pieces by the ancients, and were purchased by
Julius Caesar for an immense sum.
Ti'mon [Ti/iuv] THE MISANTHROPE, a native of At
tica, and contemporary of Socrates, was notorious for his
hatred of mankind, from whom he lived secluded. lie
lias been introduced into the works of Aristophanes,
I.ucian, and other eminent ancient writers, and forms
the subject of one of Shakspeare's dramas.
See COOI'.MAN, "Dissertatio historica de Timone Misanthrope,"
Timon, a Greek poet and skeptical philosopher of
the third century B.C., was a disciple of Pyrrho. He
was the author of a number of dramas, and satiric poems
entitled " Silli." Fragments of the latter are extant.
Timon, tee'mon, (SAMUEL,) a Hungarian historian,
born in 1675, wrote on the history of Hungary. Died
in 1736.
Timoneda, de, da te-mo-na'na, (JUAN,) a Spanish
poet, born at Valencia about the middle of the sixteenth
century, was the author of a work entitled " Patranuelo,"
("The' Story-Teller,") and several comedies.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Timoteo, the Italian for TIMOTHY, which see.
Timoteo da Urbino, te-mo-ta'o da ooR-bee'no,
called also Delia Vite, an Italian painter, born at Ur
bino about 1475. He was a cousin of Raphael, whom
he assisted in some of his works at Rome. Among his
master-pieces may be named an " Annunciation of the
Virgin," and a "Noli-me-Tangere." Died about 1530.
Timothee. See TIMOTHY and TIMOTHEUS.
Ti-mo'the-us, [Gr. Tt./iodt-oc; Fr. TIMOTHEE, te'mo'
ta'; It. TIMOTEO, te-mo-ta'o,] a celebrated Greek poet
and musician of Miletus, was a contemporary of Eurip
ides, and flourished about 390 B.C. His innovation of
the lyre with eleven strings was publicly condemned by
the Spartans. His lyrics were highly esteemed by his
countrymen, but a few fragments only are extant. He
is said to have died in 357 B.C., aged about ninety.
See K. O. MULLF.R," History of the Literature of Ancient Greece."
Timotheus, a Greek statuary of high reputation,
flourished about 350 B.C. He was one of the artists who
adorned the frieze of the Mausoleum with bas-reliefs.
Among his works was a statue of Artemis, (Diana.)
Timotheus, an eminent Athenian commander, was
the son of the famous Conon, and a pupil of Isocrates.
He assisted the Thebans to repel an invasion of the
Spartans, whose fleet he defeated near Leucas in 376 or
375 B.C. He entered the service of Artaxerxes, King
of Persia, in 372, and was appointed commander of the
Athenian army in Macedonia in 364 B.C. He captured
several cities from the Olynthians, and all the Chalcidian
towns. Timotheus, Iphicrates, and Chares commanded
the fleet in the Social war which began in 357 B.C., and
were unsuccessful. Timotheus was condemned to pay
a large fine. Died in 354.
See CORNELIUS NEPOS, " Timotheus :" GROTE, " History of
Greece;" THIRLWALL, "History of Greece."
Timotheus, (of Scripture.) See TIMOTHY.
Timotheus, a Greek dramatic poet, the date of whose
birth is unknown, was a resident of Athens. None of
his works are extant. He was a poet of the middle
comedy.
Tim'o-thy, [Gr. Ti[M0eos ; Lat. TIMO'THEUS; Fr.
TIMOTHEE, te'mo'ta'; It. TIMOTKO, te-mo-ta'o,] the
friend and coadjutor of the Apostle Paul, was a native
of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, and was carefully educated
in the Christian faith by his mother Eunice, a converted
Jewess. He was ordained at an early age by Saint Paul,
whom he accompanied on his missions to Greece and
Macedonia. He is believed to have been the first bishop
of the Church at Ephesus, and, according to tradition,
suffered martyrdom under Domitian.
See Acts xvi. ; also Saint Paul's Epistles to Timothy.
Timour. See TAMERLANE.
Timour-Beg, (or -Bee.) See TAMERLANE.
Timur. See TAMERLANE.
Tinctor, tink'tor, or Tinctoris, tink-to'ris, (JAN,) a
Flemish musician, born at Nivelle about 1434, or, as some
say, 1450. lie went to Naples, and was patronized by
King Ferdinand I. He produced a musical dictionary, —
"Terminorum Musicae Definitorium," (without date.)
Died about 1520.
Tin'dal, (MATTHEW,) I.L.D., an English jurist and
deistical writer, born in Devonshire about 1657. Soon
after the accession of James II. he embraced Roman
Catholicism, but he subsequently returned to the Church
of England. He published in 1706 a work entitled
"The Rights of the Christian Church Asserted," etc.,
being an attack upon hierarchical power, which involved
him in a bitter and protracted controversy with several
clergymen of the Church of England. He was the
author of a number of political essays; but he is princi
pally known by his "Christianity as old as the Creation,
or the Gospel a Republication of the Religion of Nature,"
(1730.) Died in 1733.
See " Biographia Britannica :" SMALL, " Memoirs of the Life of
M. Tindal," 1733; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tindal, (Rev. NICHOLAS,) a nephew of the preceding,
was born in 1687, and rose through several preferments to
be rector of Alverstoke, in Hampshire. lie translated
from the French Rapin's " History of England," of which
he wrote a continuation brought down to the reign of
George II. Died in 1774.
Tindal, (Sir NICHOLAS CONYNGHAM,) an English
jurist and statesman, born in 1777. He studied at
Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1827 represented
that university in Parliament. He was afterwards ap
pointee! lord chief justice of the court of common pleas.
Died in 1846.
Tin'dale or Tyii'dale, (WILLIAM,) an eminent Eng
lish Reformer and martyr, was born in Gloucestershire
about 1480. He studied at Oxford, and subsequently at
Cambridge, where he took his degree. Having been
converted to the doctrines of Luther, by which he
was exposed to persecution in England, he repaired to
Germany, and afterwards settled at Antwerp, where he
devoted himself to the translation of the New Testament
into English. The first edition came out about 1525,
and met with a rapid sale both in England and on the
continent. He published in 1534 a new and improved
edition. His translation of the Pentateuch, in which he
was assisted by Miles Coverdale, had appeared in 1530.
In 1534 Tindale, whose writings had been previously
denounced by the English government, was seized at
Antwerp through the interference of the King of Eng
land, brought to trial for heresy, and, after an imprison
ment of nearly two years, strangled and burnt at the
stake, (1536.)
See Fox, "Acts and Monuments;" WOOD, " Athenae Oxoni-
enses;" WORDSWOKTH, "Ecclesiastical Biography."
Tin'dall, (Rev. WILLIAM,) an English writer, born
in 1754. He wrote a "History of Evesham," "Plain
Truth in a Plain Dress," and other works. Died in
1804.
Tinelli, te-nel'lee, (TiBERio,) an Italian painter of
history and portraits, born at Venice in 1586, was a
pupil of L. Bassano. His works are highly praised.
Died in 1638.
Tinne, tin'neh, (ALEXANDRINE,) a rich heiress and
traveller, born in Holland about 1844. I'1 1863-64 she
explored the sources of the Gazelle River, the west
ern branch of the White Nile. She was murdered by
the Tuariks in 1869, between Moorzook and Ghat.
a, e, T, o, ft, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; not; good; moon;
T INTO RET
T1SCHENDORF
T'ntoret, Le. See TINTORETTO.
Tintoretto, tin-to-ret'to or ten-to-ret'to, [Fr. LE
TINTORET, leh taN'to'ri',] (GiACOMO,) one of the most
eminent painters of the Venetian school, was born at
Venice in 1512. His original name was ROBUSTI, but
lie assumed that of Tintoretto from the occupation of
his father, who was a dyer, (Tintore.) He made Titian
his model in colouring and Michael Angelo in design.
He painted with great rapidity, and his works, both in
oil and fresco, are very numerous. Among his master
pieces may be named "The Last Judgment" and "The
Worship of the Golden Calf," in the church of Santa
Maria dell' Orto, " The Miracle of the Slave," (some
times called " The Miracle of Saint Mark,") in the Acad
emy of Venice, "The Marriage at Cana," the "Cruci
fixion," in the Scuola di San Rocco, and a •' Paradise," a
colossal picture containing more than a hundred figures.
Died in 1594. His son Domenico and daughter Mari
etta were distinguished as painters ; the latter excelled
in portraits. "All landscape grandeur," says Ruskin,
"vanishes before that of Titian and Tintoret ; and this
is true of whatever these two giants touched." ("Mod
ern Painters.'')
See CARLO RIUOLFI, "Vitadi G. Robust! detto II Tintoretto,"
1642; LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" VASARI, "Lives of
the Painters ;" MRS. JAMESON, " Memoirs of Early Italian Painters ;"
TICOZZI, " Dizionario."
Tipaldo, te-pal'do, (EMILIO AMEDEO,) an Italian
scholar and writer, born at Corfu in 1798. He became
in 1829 professor of history, etc. in the Marine College
of Venice. He published many important works, among
which we may notice a " History of Profane Greek Lite
rature," (9 vols., 1824-30,) and " Biography of Illustrious
Italians of the Eighteenth Century and of the Present
Age," ("Biografia degli Italian! illustri del Secolo
XVIII. e de' Contemporanei," 10 vols., 1834-46.)
Tippoo Sahib, tip'poo'sah'nib, written alsoTippoo
Saib, Sultan of Mysore, born in 1749, was the son of
Hyder Alee, (or Aly,) whom he succeeded on the throne
in 1782. He prosecuted the war which he had pre
viously waged against the English until, in 1784, a treaty
of peace was concluded at Mangalore. In 1790 he in
vaded the territory of the Rajah of Travancore, an ally
of the British, who soon after formed an alliance with
the Mahrattas and took the fort of Bangalore, (1791.)
The forces of General Abercromby, having joined those
of Lord Cornwallis in 1792, advanced against Seringa-
patam, when Tippoo consented to renounce one-half of
liis dominions to the allies, give up two of his sons as
hostages, and pay a sum of more than ^3, 000,000. He
nevertheless endeavoured in secret to incite the native
princes against the English government, and solicited
aid from France. In 1799 he was besieged in Seringa-
patam by the British forces under General Harris, and
was killed in the assault.
See MicHAfn. " Histoire de 1' Empire de Mysore," 2 vols., 1801 ;
R. MACKENZIE, ''Sketch of the War with Tippoo Sultaun," 1793;
" Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tip'toft, (JoiiN,) Earl of Worcester, became lord
deputy of Ireland, and filled other high offices. He
was noted for his patronage of literature and of learned
men, particularly Caxton. He was executed in 1470,
on a charge of maladministration.
Tiraboschi, te-ra-bos'kee, (GiROLAMO,) a learned
Italian Jesuit and bibliographer, born at Bergamo in
1731. He became professor of rhetoric at Milan in
1766, and in 1770 was appointed librarian to the Duke
of Modena. liis principal work, entitled " History of
Italian Literature," ("Storia della Letteratura Italiana,"
13 vols., 1772-83,) enjoys the highest reputation for ac
curacy and impartiality. Among his other productions
may be named " Historical Memoirs of Modena," and
"Life of Count Fulvio Testi." Died in 1794. An im
proved edition of his great work was published at Milan,
in 1 6 vols., (1822-26.)
See A. G. LOMBARDI, " Elogio storico di G. Tiraboschi," 1796:
FABRONI, " Vitae Italorum doctrina exceilentimn ;" BELTRAMKLLI,
"Elogio storico del Cavaliere Tiraboschi," 1812: UGONI, "Della
Letteratura Italiana;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tiraqueau, te'ri'ko', (ANDRE,) a French jurist, born
at Fontenoy-le-Comte about 1480. While he held the
office of judge he released Rabelais, whom the monks
had put in prison. Died in 1558.
Ti-re'si-as (ti-ree'she-as) or Tei-re'si-as, [Gr. Tape-
OTac; Fr. TIR^SIAS, te'ra'ze'as', ] a famous soothsayer
of classic mythology, lived at Thebes, and belonged
to the race of Udasus. The poets and mythographers
relate that he was deprived of sight by the gods, be
cause he divulged some of their secrets, or because he
had seen Minerva bathing, that Jupiter gave him the
gift of prophecy and extended his life to seven genera
tions, and that he was connected with many important
events in the fabulous history of Greece. He was the
father of Manto.
Tir-i-ba'zus or Ter-i-ba'zus, [Gr. Tipi6afrf or Tr/p!-
fia^or,] a Persian satrap under Artaxerxes Mnemon, gov
erned Western Armenia in 401 B.C. He commanded the
Persian fleet which defeated Evagoras of Cyprus in 386
B.C., soon after which he conspired with Darius against
the king. He was killed in a fight with officers who came
to arrest him.
Tir-i-da'tes [Gr.T^M&m/f; Fr. TIRIDATE, te're'dtt']
I., King of Armenia, carried on a war against the Romans,
who defeated him at Artaxata, and took his capital,
Tigranocerta. He finally became tributary to Nero,
(63 A.I).)
Tiridates III. OF ARMENIA was a son of Chosroes,
whom the King of Persia conquered and dethroned. Tin-
dates was educated at Rome, and restored to the throne
by Diocletian in 286 A.D. Died about 314 A.n.
"Ti'ro, [Fr. TIRON, te'riN',] (MARCUS TUI.I.IUS,) a
Roman author and scholar, was a favourite freedman and
amanuensis of Cicero. He wrote a life of his famous
patron, and other works. It is supposed that he invented
or improved the art of short-hand writing, and that we
are indebted to him for the collection of Cicero's " Let
ters" and other works.
Tiron. See TIRO.
Tirso de Molina. See TELLEZ, (GABRIEL.)
Tischbein, tish'bin, (HKINRICH WILHELM,) sur-
named THE NEAPOLITAN, born at Haina, in Hesse-Cas-
sel, in 1751. After a residence of six yeaie at Rome,
he settled at Naples, where he was appointed in 1790
director of the Academy of Painting. He excelled in
classical subjects and in delineations of animals. Died
in 1829.
Tischbein, (TOHANN FRIEDRICH AUGUST,) a relative
of the preceding, born at Maestricht in 1750, rose to
distinction as a portrait-painter. Died in 1812.
Tischbein, QOHANN HEINRICH,) THE ELDER, a Ger
man historical painter, born in Hesse in 1722, became
professor in the Academy of Arts at Cassel. Among
his master-pieces are " The Dying Alcestis," " Electra,"
"Christ on the Mount of Olives," "The Transfigura
tion," " Resurrection of Christ," and sixteen illustrations
of the life of Telemachus. Died in 1789.
See ENGELSCHALI, "J. H. Tischbein, als Menschund Kiinstler,"
'797-
Tischbein, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) THE YOUNGER, a
nephew of the preceding, was born at Haina in 1751.
He visited Rome in 1781, and afterwards resided several
years at Naples, where he was appointed director of the
Academy of Painting. Among his principal works are
" Conraclin of Suabia," " Ajax and Cassandra," " Christ
blessing Little Children," and the "Parting of Hector
and Andromache." He published in 1804 "Illustra
tions of Homer," with explanations by Heyne. Tisch
bein excelled as a painter of animals, and was also a
skilful engraver. Died in 1829.
Tischendorf, tish'en-doRf, (LOBEGOTT FRIEDRICH
KONSTANTIN,) an eminent German philologist and bibli
cal critic, born at Lengenfeld in January, 1815. He
studied at Leipsic, and subsequently visited England,
| various parts of the continent, Egypt, and Asia Minor.
Having obtained some very valuable manuscripts, he
was appointed, after his return, professor of theology at
Leipsic, (1850.) He has published editions of the
"Codex Friderico-Augustanus," (1846,) "Evangelium
Palatinum," (1847,) "Codex Amiatianus," (1850,) " Frag-
menta Sacra Palimpsesta," " Anecdota Sacra et Pro-
fana," "Monumenta Sacra inedita," (4 vols., 1846-60,)
"Travels in the East," (2 vols., 1846,) and " Bibliorum
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, gitttttral ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23. )
TIS I CRATES
2136
TITIAN
Codex Sinaiticus," (4 vols. folio, 1862,) which he dis
covered at Mount Sinai in 1859. He obtained in 1859
a chair of biblical palaeography at Leipsic.
Ti-sic'ra-tes, [Twcwipur^f,] a distinguished Greek
statuary, flourished about 300 B.C. He is supposed to
have teen a pupil of Lysippus. His works are praised
by Pliny.
Tisio or Tisi, (BKNVENUTO.) See GAROFALO.
Ti-siph'o-ne, the "Avenger of Murder," [Ttoujtov?;,
from T«J, to "estimate," to "judge," and, hence, to
"punish" or "avenge," and 0woc, "murder,"] in Greek
mythology, the name of one of the three Furies, or
Erinnves.
Tissaphenie. See TISSAPHKRNES.
Tis-sa-phei'nes, [Gr. TiaoaQepvqf ; Fr. TISSAPHKRNE,
te'st'finn',] a famous Persian general and crafty nego
tiator, formed an alliance with the Spartans against the
Athenians in 412 B.C. He svas an enemy of Cyrus the
Persian prince, and was one of the four generals who
commanded the army of Artaxerxes against Cyrus at
Cunaxa, in 401 B.C. He afterwards married a daughter
of Artaxerxes, and was appointed satrap or viceroy of
the maritime part of Asia Minor, where he was defeated
by Agesilaus. He was put to death by the King of Per
sia in 394 u.c.
See XENOPIION, "Anabasis;" ROLLIN, "Ancient History;"
GKOTE, " History of Greece."
Tissard, te'sjtu', (FRANCOIS,) a French scholar, born
at Amboise about 1460, became professor of Greek at
the University of Paris. He published a Hebrew gram
mar, (1508.) Died in 1508.
Tissier, te'se-i', (JEAN BAPTISTE ANGE,) a French
painter of history and portraits, born in Paris in 1814.
Tissot, te'so', (ALEXANDKE PASCAL,) a French jurist,
born in 1782, published several works on public law.
Died in 1823.
Tissot, (CLAUDE JOSEPH,) a French litterateur, born
about 1800. He practised law in .Paris in early life, and
about 1837 l)ecame professor of philosophy at Dijon. He
wrote, besides other works, "Ethics, or the Science of
Morals," (1840,) and a " History of Philosophy." (1840.)
Tissot, (PIERRE FRANQOIS,) a French journalist,
litterateur, and politician, born at Versailles in 1768. He
was elected to the Council of Five Hundred a short time
before the i8th Brumaire, and was afterwards appointed
imperial censor by Napoleon. In 1814 he succeeded
Delille as professor of Latin poetry in the College of
France, and in 1833 became a member of the French
Academy. lie translated Virgil's "Bucolics" into
French, and published, among other works, " Historical
Memoirs of Carnot," (1824,) "Studies on Virgil com
pared with all the Epic and Dramatic Poets," (4 vols.,
1825-30,) which is highly commended, "Complete
History of the French Revolution," (6 vols., 1833,) and
" Lessons and Models of Ancient and Modern French
Literature," (1835.) Died in 1854.
See QUERARD, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Tissot, (SiMON ANDRE,) a celebrated Swiss physi
cian, born at Grancy, in the canton de Vaud, in 1728.
He studied at Geneva and Montpellier, and subsequently
resided at Lausanne, where he soon acquired a very high
reputation. Having filled the chair of medicine in that
place for many years, he became in 1780 professor of
clinical medicine at Pavia. He published a number of
works, which are highly esteemed and have been widely
circulated. Among these may be named his " Advice
to People respecting Health," (" Avis au Peuple stir sa
Sante," 1761,) which was translated into seven languages,
" On Diseases caused by Masturbation," ("Tentamen de
Morbis ex Manustupratione Ortis,") and " On the Health
of Literary Men," (" De Valetudine Literatorum," 1766.)
Died in 1797. His son CLEMENT JOSEPH, born in 1750,
was the author of several medical treatises.
See EYNARD, "Vie de S A Tissot," 1839; HAI.LE, "Notice snr
Tissot," prefixed to Tissot's works, n vols., 1809-13; " Biographic
Medicale ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Monthly Review"
tor July, 1765.
TTtan, [Gr. Tiruv,] plural Titans, [Gr. Tiruvef ; Lat.
TITA'NES,] the name of mythical beings said to be the
offspring of Uranus and Ge, (or Ccelus and Terra.) There
were six sons, Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, lapetin,
and Cronus, and six daughters, Theia, Rheia, Themis,
Mnemosyne, Phcebe, and Tethys. According to the
fable, the Titans rebelled against their father, who was
deposed and was succeeded by Cronus, (Saturn.) After
the accession of Jupiter to the sovereignty, occurred the
celebrated war of the Titans against the Olympian gods,
(called the " Titanomachia,") which laste'd ten years.
The Titans were finally defeated and hurled down to
Tartarus by the thunderbolts of Jove.
See VIRCJIL, "^Jneid," book vi. 580.
Tite-Live, the French for LIVY, (which see.)
TIte, (WILLIAM,) an English architect, born in Lon
don about 1802. His principal work is the Royal Ex
change of London, completed in 1844. He was elected
to Parliament for Bath in 1854, and re-elected in 1857.
He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, and was president
of the Institute of British Architects.
Tithon. See TITHONUS.
Tl-tho'iius, [Gr. Tt0ui>6c; Fr. TITHON, te'to.x',] a
mythical personage, a son of Laomedon, was beloved by
Aurora, (Eos.) The poets feigned that she obtained for
him the privilege of immortality, but not eternal youth,
and that he became a decrepit old man. He was the
reputed father of Memnon.
Titi, di, de tee'tee, (SANTI,) an Italian artist, born in
Tuscany in 1538, was distinguished both as a painter
and architect. Died in 1603.
Titi, di, (TiBERio,) a painter, born at Florence in
1578, was a son of the preceding. Died in 1637.
Titian, tish'e^n, [It. TIZIANO, t£t-se-a'no ; Fr. LE
TrriEN, leh te'se'aN'; Ger. TIZIAN, tit-se-an',] or, more
fully, Tiziano Vecellio, (va-cliel'le-o.) the greatest
painter of the Venetian school, was born at Capo del
Cadore, in Venetia, in 1477. He studied for a short
time with Sebastiano Zuccati, and afterwards became
a pupil of Giovanni Bellini. He was intimate with
Giorgione, his fellow-pupil, to whose example or influ
ence some critics ascribe the fact that Titian acquired
a bolder and more vigorous style than that of Bellini
and other Venetian painters. In 1512 he was em
ployed by the Venetian government to paint the hall
of the grand council, in which he represented the
" Homage of Frederick Barbarossa to the Pope."
About 1514 he was invited to Ferrara by Alphonso I.,
for whom he painted a beautiful oil-picture of " Bacchus
and Ariadne," and another of a " Pharisee showing
Tribute-Money to Christ," (now at Dresden.) At-Fer-
rara he formed a friendship with the poet Ariosto, whose
portrait he painted. Having returned to Venice, he
painted in 1516 a celebrated picture of the " Assumption
of the Virgin," which is one of his best works, and is
now in the Academy of Venice. lie married about
1524, and had several children. He produced about
1528 an admirable picture of "The Death of Saint
Peter." "Titian's power," says Ruskin, "culminates
in the ' Assumption,' the ' Peter Martyr,' and the ' Pre
sentation of the Virgin.' " About 1530 he was invited
to Bologna by Charles V., and painted a portrait of that
emperor, whom (according to some accounts) he accom
panied to Spain in 1533. He visited- Rome in 1545,
painted an excellent portrait of Paul III., and returned
to Venice in 1546. Titian received the title of Count-
Palatine from Charles V. He painted for Philip II. of
Spain a number of works, among which are "The Last
Supper" and a "Sleeping Venus." His subjects were
mostly religious. As a portrait-painter he has never
been surpassed. In the opinion of many critics, he was
the greatest colorist that ever lived. He also excelled
in landscape. " All landscape grandeur," says Ruskin,
"vanishes before that of Titian and Tintoret ; and this
is true of whatever these two giants touched. . . . The
religion of Titian is like that of Shakspeare, — occult
behind his magnificent equity. . . . The Venetian mind,
and Titian's especially, as the central type of it, was
wholly realist, universal, and manly." ("Modern Paint
ers.") He refused the invitations of several sovereigns
who wished to attract him to their courts, and preferred
to reside at Venice. Among his intimate friends were
Pietro Aretino, and Sansovino the architect. He con
tinued to paint until he was ninety-eight years old ; but
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
T1TIEN
2137
TOCQVEriLLS
his last works are not equal to those of his prime. He
died at Venice in August, 1576.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters:" RIDOLFI, "Pittori Ve-
neti;" LANZI, " History of Painting in Ita'y;" TICOZZI, "Vite dei
Piitori Vecelli," 1817; NORTHCOTE, "Life of Titian," 2 vols., 1830;
a notice of Titian, by CADORIN, in Italian, 1833; MRS. JAMESON,
"Memoirs of Early Italian Painters;" ZONDADELLA, "Elogio di
Tiziano Vecellio," 1802.
Titien, Le. See TITIAN.
Titius, tit'se-us, (GOTTLIEB GERHARD,) a German
jurist, born at Nordhausen in 1661, wrote on the public
law of Germany. Died in 1714.
Titmarsh. 'See THACKERAY.
Titon du Tillet, te'tiN' clii te'vi', (EVERARD,) a
French litterateur, born in Paris in 1677. He served in
the army, and became commissary of war. He projected
or designed a monument to Louis XIV. and the great
men of his reign. This monument, which he called the
French Parnassus, represented a mountain, on the sum
mit of which Louis XIV. sat in the form of Apollo. He
could not raise the funds requisite to execute it on a
grand scale, but he published a " Description of the
French Parnassus," (" Description du Parnasse Fran-
cais," 1727.) Died in 1762.
Titsingh, tit'sinc, (ISAAC,) a Dutch diplomatist and
writer, born at Amsterdam in 1740. Having entered
the East Indian service, he was sent as supercargo to
Japan in 1778. He was appointed in 1794, by the Ba-
tavian government, ambassador to Peking. He died in
1812, leaving several valuable works in manuscript;
among these we may name " Memoirs and Anecdotes
of the Reigning Dynasty of the Djogouns, Sovereigns
of Japan," etc., published in French by Abel Remusat.
Tittmann, tit'man, (FRIEDRICH WILHELM,) a Ger
man historical writer, born at Wittenberg in 1784. He
published, besides other works, a treatise "On Know
ledge and Art in History," (1817,) "Exposition of the
Greek Constitutions," (1822,) "History of Henry the
Illustrious," (2 vols., 1845,) and "Life and Matter,'1
("Leben und Stoff," 1855.)
Tittmann, (Jon ANN AUGUST HEINRICH,) an eminent
Protestant theologian, born at Langensalza, in Germany,
in 1773. He studied at Leipsic, where he became first
professor of theology in 1818. Me published a " Manual
of Homiletics," " Encyclopaedia of Theological Science,"
(1798,) "Theocles, a Conversation on Belief in God,"
(1799,) "Pragmatic History of Theology and Religion
in the Protestant Church during the Second Half of the
Eighteenth Century," (1805, unfinished,) "On Super-
naturalism, Rationalism, and Atheism," (1816,) and
other standard works of the kind. He also prepared
editions of the Greek New Testament and the " Libri
Symbolici," and a Latin treatise "On the Synonyms
of the New Testament." Died in 1831.
Tittmann, (KARL AUGUST,) brother of the preceding,
was born at Wittenberg in 1775. He studied at Leipsic
and Gottingen, and rose to distinction as a jurist. He
published a " Manual of the Science of Criminal Law,"
etc., (1807,) and other similar works. Died in 1834.
TTtus, [Gr. Tt'roc; Fr. TITE, let,] a disciple of Saint
Paul, who was converted by him to Christianity, and
subsequently accompanied him to Corinth, Ephesus, and
other cities.
See SAINT PAUL, " Epistle to Titus."
Ti'tus, [Fr. TITE, tet ; It. TITO, tee'to,] or, more
fully, Ti'tus Fla'vi-us Ves-pa-si-a'nus, Emperor of
Rome, born in 40 A.D., was the son of Vespasian, and
was educated at the court of Nero. He early distin
guished himself by his military talents in Britain and
Germany, and assisted his father in quelling an insurrec
tion of the Jews, (67 A.D.) After the death of Vitellius,
Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, in 69 A.D.,and Titus,
having been appointed commander of the army of Judea,
laid siege to Jerusalem, which was taken by storm in 70
A.D. On the death of Vespasian, in 79 A.D., Titus be
came emperor, and, by the wisdom and benignity of
his rule, acquired the affection and reverence of his sub
jects, who gave him the name of "The love and delight
of the human race." Under his reign a great part of
Rome was destroyed by a conflagration, which was fol
lowed by the plague, of which many thousands perished
daily. He completed the Flavian Amphitheatre, (Co
losseum,) which had been commenced by his father. It
is stated that at the end of a day in which he had per
formed no act of beneficence, he exclaimed, " My friends,
1 have lost a day !" Died in 8l A.D.
See SUETONIUS, "Titus;" TACITUS, "History;" MERIVAI.R,
" History of the Romans under the Empire;" TILLEMONT, " His-
toire des Einpereurs ;" J. H. JONG, " Dissertatio de Tito Impera-
tore," 1761; HOLLAND, " Histoire des Einpereurs Vespasien et
Titus," 1830; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tit'y-us, [Gr. Tmwc,- Fr. TITYE, te'te',] a giant of
classic mythology, was called a son of Terra, or of
Jupiter and Elara. Having offered violence to Latona,
he was killed by Apollo and Diana, and cast down to
Tartarus. According to Virgil, his body extended over
nine acres of ground. (See "/Eneid," book vi. 595.)
Tixier, (JOHN.) See RAVISIUS TEXTOR.
Tizian or Tiziano. See TITIAN.
Toaldo, to-al'do, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian geographei,
born near Vicenza in 1719, became professor of physical
geography and astronomy at Padua in 1762. Among
his principal works are a "Treatise on Gnomonics,"
" Meteorological Essay on the True Influence of the
Stars," (1770,) and "Compendium of Spherics and
Geography," (1773.) Died in 1798.
See TIPAI.DO, " Biografia degli Italiani illiistri."
Tobar, de, da to-baR', (ALFONSO MIGUEL,) a Span
ish painter, born near Aracena in 1678, produced good
copies of some works of Murillo. Died in 1758.
Tobiesen. See DUI:Y.
To'bin, (GEORGE,) an English admiral, born at Salis
bury in 1768, served against the French in the campaigns
of 1782 and 1804. Died in 1838.
Tobin, (JoilN,) an English dramatist, born at Salis
bury in 1770, was the author of several comedies, one
of which, entitled "The Honeymoon," obtained great
popularity. Died in 1804.
See "Memoirs of John Tobin," by Miss BENGER, 1820;
"Monthly Review" for May, 1820.
Tobler, to'bler, (Trrus,) a Swiss traveller and lit
terateur, born at Stein in 1806, visited Palestine, and
published, after his return, " Topography of Jerusalem
and its Environs," (1853.)
Tochon d'Anuecy, to'sh6.\' din'se', (JOSEPH FRAN
COIS,) a French numismatist, born near Annecy in 1772.
Among his works is "Researches on the Medals of the
Nomes or Prefectures of Egypt," (1822.) Died in 1820.
Tocque, to'ka', (Louis,) a French portrait-painter,
born in Paris in 1696; died in 1772.
Tocqueville, de, deh tok'vil or tok'vel', (ALEXIS
CHARLES HENRI CLEREL,) an eminent French states
man and political philosopher, born in Paris on the 2gth
of July, 1805. He studied law, (1823-26,) and became
judge-auditor at the tribunal of Versailles in 1827. In
1831 he visited the United States in company with his
friend Gustave de Beaumont, having received a mission
to examine the penitentiary systems of that republic.
He passed a year in the United States, returned home,
resigned his office in 1832, and published in 1835 the first
volume of his work " On Democracy in America," (" De
la Democratic en Amerique," 4 vols., 1835-40,) the suc
cess of which was prodigious. Royer-Collard affirmed
that since Montesquieu nothing comparable to it had
appeared. De Tocqueville predicted the progress and
predominance of democracy in the world, although his
own predilections were in the opposite direction. He
married an English lady, named Mary Mottley, about
1835, became a member of the Academy of Moral and
Political Sciences in 1838, and was elected to the Cham
ber of Deputies in 1839. In 1841 he was admitted into
the French Academy. He- was elected in 1848 to the
Constituent Assembly, in which he supported the cause
of order, and he voted for Cavaignac in the election of
president. He was minister of foreign affairs from June
2 to October 31, 1849, and was driven from the public
service by the coup d'etat of December 2, 1851. In 1856
he published "The Old Regime and the Revolution,"
(" L'ancien Regime et la Revolution,") a work of much
merit. Died at Cannes in April, 1859. Commenting on
his " Democracy in America," the "Edinburgh Review"
of April, 1861, says, " Far from having suffered from
the lapse of a quarter of a century, it has gained in
authority and interest, from the inexhaustible depth, the
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^="See Explanations, p. 23.)
TOCQVEflLLE
2138
TOLEDO
unflinching truth, and the extraordinary foresight which
are its characteristics."
See G. DE BEAUMONT, notice prefixed to an edition of his Works
and Letters, 1860; LACOKUAIKE, "Discours de Reception a 1'Aca-
de'mie Francaise," 1861 ; SAINTE-BKUVE, " Nouvelles Causeries du
Lundi;" REMUSAT'S article in the "Revue des Deux Mondes" for
August i, 1856; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" "Edinburgh
Review" for September, 1836, and July, 1849 ; " London Quarterly
Review" for October, 1861 ; " North British Review" for May, 1861 ;
"Atlantic Monthly" for November, 1861.
Tocqueville, de, (HERVE Louis FRANCOIS JOSEPH
CLERKL,) COMTE, a French peer and historical writer,
born in 1772, was the father of the preceding. He was
prefect of the departments of Moselle, Somme, and
Seine-et-Oise between 1816 and 1827. He wrote, be-
'sides other works, a " Philosophic History of the Reign
of Louis XV.," (2 vols., 1846.) Died in 1856.
Tod, (Ei.i,) M.D., an American physician, born at
New Haven, Connecticut, about 1768, was one of the
founders of the Insane Retreat at Hartford, of which he
became president. Died in 1833.
Tod, (Lieutenant-Colonel JAMES,) an English officer,
born in 1782, entered the East India service, and was
appointed in 1817 political agent. He was the author
of " Travels in Western India," etc., and " Annals of
Rajasthan ;" the latter contains an excellent map of
Rajpootana. Died in 1835.
Todd, (Rev. HENRY JOHN,) an English clergyman
and writer, born in 1763, studied at Hertford College,
Oxford, and rose through several preferments to be
Archdeacon of Cleveland in 1832. He published a
"Life of Archbishop Cranmer," (1831,) "Memoirs of
the Life and Writings of the Right Reverend Brian
Walton," and other works ; he also edited Milton's
"Poems" and "The Works of Edmund Spenser." Died
in 1845.
Todd, (Rev. HUGH,) an English writer, born in Cum
berland in 1658, lived at Carlisle. Died in 1728.
Todd, (JAMES HENTHORNE,) a clergyman and an
tiquary, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1805. He became
professor of Hebrew in the University of Dublin, and
published several works on theology, etc. Died in 1869.
Todd,. (JoHN,) D.D., an American Congregational
divine, born at Rutland, Vermont, in 1800, settled in
1842 as pastor at Pittsfield, Massachusetts. He was
one of the founders of the Mount Holyoke Female Semi
nary. Among his works we may name " Lectures to
Children," (1834,) also translated into several languages,
"The Student's Manual," (1835,) which had a very
extensive sale both in America and Europe, and was
translated into French, "The Bible Companion," " The
Sabbath-School Teacher," (1836,) and "The Lost Sister
of Wyoming," (1841.)
Todd, (ROBERT BENTLEY,) a physician and writer on
physiology, a brother of James II. Todd, noticed above,
was born about 1810. He graduated at Oxford, and
subsequently settled in London. lie became associate
editor of the "Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology"
in 1836, and published, among other works, a treatise
" On the Anatomy of the Brain, Spinal Cord, and Gan
glions," (1845,) and "Physiological Anatomy and Phy
siology of Man," (2 vols., 1845-56.) He was appointed
physician to King's College Hospital. Died in 1860.
Toderini, to-da-ree'nee, (GIAMBATTISTA,) an Italian
writer, born at Venice in 1728, published a work "On
Turkish Literature," (3 vols., 1787.) Died in 1799.
Todleben, tSt'la'ben, (FRANCIS EDWARD,) a Russian
general and engineer, of German extraction, born at
Milan in 1818. He served with distinction in the Crimean
war of 1854, and by his skilful defence of Sebastopol
was chiefly instrumental in prolonging the siege of that
place. He was afterwards created general of engineers.
See the "North British Review" for August, 1864.
Todt, tot, (KARL GOTTLOB,) a German jurist, born
at Auerbach in 1803. He has published several legal
works.
Toepfer. See TOPPER.
Toepffer. See TOI'EFER.
Tofino de San Miguel, to-fee'no cli san me-gel', a
Spanish savant and naval officer, born at Cartagena in
1740, published, among other works, "Astronomical
Observations made at Cadiz." Died in 1806.
Tograi, to-gn', or Toghrai, a celebrated Persian
poet, born at Ispahan about 1060. He became vizier to
Masood, Sultan of Mosul, and, after the defeat of that
prince by his brother Mahmood in 1120 A.D., was taken
prisoner and put to death. His principal work is an
elegiac poem, entitled " Lamiato 1'Ajam," which has
passed through several editions and been translated into
Latin, English, French, and German.
See ZENKER, " Bibliotheca Orientalis," 1840; "Specimens of
Persian Poetry," in " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1839.
Togrul or Thogrul-Beg,* (or -Bek,) to'grool beg,
written also Tugrol, the founder of the Seljookide
dynasty in Persia, was a grandson of Seljook, (Seljuk.)
He became king or chief of his tribe about 1038, and
conquered Persia by victories over the Sultan Mahmood
and his son Masood. Died about 1065.
Togrul II., the last Sultan of the Seljookide dynasty,
began to reign in 1176; died in 1194.
Togrul-Beg, (or -Bee.) See TOGRUL.
ToinardorTlioynard, twa'ntu', (NicoLA.s,)a French
numismatist, born at Orleans in 1629; died in 1706.
Toiras, de, deh twa'rd', (JEAN de Saint-Bonnet —
deh sa.N'bo'ni',) SEIGNEUR, a French general, born in
Languedoc in 1585. He fought against the Huguenots,
and in 1625 took the Isle of Rhe, which he defended
against the English Duke of Buckingham in 1627. For
his defence of Casal he was rewarded with the rank of
marshal of France in 1630. lie was killed at a siege in
the Milanese in 1636.
See BAUDIF.R, " Histoire du Marechal de Toiras," 1644 ; TAI.I.E-
MANTDEsREAUx, " H istoriettes ;" " Nouvelle HicigraphieCieuerale."
Tokely, to'kal, (EMMERIC,) a Hungarian patriot,
born in 1656. Having taken up arms against the Aus
trian government, he solicited aid from the Sultan Ma
homet IV., who in 1682 declared him King of Hungary.
After waging war many years, with varying success, he
was compelled to take retuge in Turkey, where he died
in 1705.
Toktamish-Aglen, tok'td-mish ag'len, a warlike
Khan of Kaptchak, in Tartary, was a descendant of Jengis
Khan. He began to reign in 1376, invaded Russia in
1382, and took Moscow. Soon after this event he was
involved in a war with Tamerlane, who defeated and
deposed him about 1395. Died in 1406.
To'land, (JoHN,) a cleistical and controversial writer,
born near Londonderry, in Ireland, in 1669. He studied
at the Universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and sub
sequently at Leyden, where he became acquainted with
Leibnitz. His first publication, entitled "Christianity
not Mysterious," (1696,) caused a great sensation and
gave rise to a protracted controversy. He afterwards
produced "A Life of Milton," (1698,) "Amyntor, or a
Defence of Milton's Life," (1699,) "Anglia Libera, or
the Limitation and Succession of the Crown of England
Explained and Asserted," (1701,) " Socinianism Truly
Stated," etc., (1705,) and other works. He was patronized
by Harley, secretary of state, who in 1707 sent him to
the continent as a political agent or spy. Toland was a
pedantic and mediocre writer. Died in 1722.
See DF.S MAIZEAUX, "Life of John Toland," 1726; MOSUEIM,
"De Vita, Fatis et Scriptis J. Tolandi," 1722; LELAND, "Deistical
Writers;" NICERON, " Me:noires." hatft ,-3>tr<«naT^ .
Toldy, tol'de, (almost tolj.) (F. S.,) a Hungarian
critic and writer, born at Bucla in 1805. He published,
besides other works, a "History of the Hungarian Lan
guage and Literature," (3 vols., 1851-55.) He was pro
fessor of medicine at Pesth, 1838-44.
Toledo, de, da to-la'no, [Lat. TOLE'TUS ; Fr. TOLET,
to'li',] (FRANCISCO,) a learned Spanish cardinal, born
at Cordova in 1532. He was professor of philosophy
and theology at Rome, and gained distinction as a
pulpit orator. lie wrote a work on Casuistry, (1602.)
Died at Rome in 1596.
Toledo, de, (PEDRO,) a Spanish statesman, born near
Salamanca in 1484, was a son of Frederick of Toledo,
Duke of Alba. He obtained the title of Marquis of
Villafranca from his marriage with a lady of that house.
He was patronized by the emperor Charles V., who
appointed him in 1532 Viceroy of Naples. He died in
1553, after a prosperous rule of more than twenty years,
* See Introduction, p. 9, § 16.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, c, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
TOLEDO
TOMMASI
during which he greatly enlarged and improved the city
of Naples and adorned it with splendid edifices.
See GlANNONE, " Storia civile del Res;no di Xapoli ;" BOTT.A,
"Storia d'ltalia."
Toledo, de, (RODRIGO,) [Lat. RODERI'CUS TOLETA'-
NL'S,] a distinguished prelate and historian, born in
Navarre about 1170, was originally named RODRIGO
XIMEXES. He became Bishop of Siguen/.a in 1192.
and subsequently Archbishop of Toledo. He was the
author of a History of Spain, (" Rerum in Hispania
Gestarum Chronicon," 1545,) and History of the Western
Arabs, (" Historia Arabum," 1603,) both of which are
highly esteemed.
To'ler, (JoHX,) Earl of Norbury, born in the county
of Tipperary, Ireland, in 1745. He was successively
appointed solicitor-general, (1789,) attorney-general,
(1798,) and chief justice of the common pleas, (1800.)
He afterwards received the title of Earl of Norbury and
Viscount Glandine. He enjoyed a high reputation as a
jurist, but he was still more celebrated for his brilliant
wit and repartee. He presided at the trial of Robert
Emmet. Died in 1831.
See " Eccentric Personages," by WM. RUSSELL, iS66.
Tolet or Toletus. See TOLEDO, DE, (FRAXCISCO.)
Toletanus. See TOLEDO, DE, (RODRIGO.)
Tolken or Toelkeii, tol'ken, (ERNST HEIXUICII,) a
German archaeologist, born at Bremen in 1785, pub
lished a number of treatises on ancient art. He be
came professor in the University of Berlin in 1823, and
director of the cabinet of antiques in 1832.
Toll, tol, (KARL,) Cot'vr, a Russian general, born
near Hapsal, Esthonia, in 1778, served against the
French in the campaign of 1812, and subsequently in
the Turkish war of 1829. Died in 1842.
Tollens, tol'Iens, (HENDRIK COKXEI.ISZOOX,) a dis
tinguished Dutch poet, born at Rotterdam in 1780. His
poem "On the Death of Egmont and Iloorn" (1806)
obtained a prize from the Society for the Promotion of
National Poetry, and was followed by a collection of
lyrics which became widely popular and are esteemed
master-pieces of their kind by his countrymen. Among
the principal we may name the "Patriotic War-Songs,"
(" Vaderiandisch Krijgslied," 1815,) "The Call to
Arms," (" Wapenkreet,") and "The Wintering of the
Hollanders in Nova Zembla." In 1850 the King of
Holland bestowed upon him the order of the Dutch
Lion. Died in 1856.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and 'Poetry of Europe ;" VAX EICH-
STORFF, " H. Tollens, bin^raphische Schets en Proeve en Krinken
van zijne Dichtungeii ;" " Frasers Magazine" for December, 1854.
Tol'let, (ELIZABETH,) an English scholar and poetess,
born in 1694, was a friend of Sir Isaac Newton. Died
in 1754.
Her nephew, GEORGE TOLI.ET, wrote notes on Shak-
speare. Died in 1779.
Tollius, tol'le-iis, (CoRXELis,) a Dutch philologist,
born at Utrecht about 1620, was a pupil of Vossius, and
afterwards his private secretary. ' He published editions
of several of the classics. Died about 1652.
Tollius, (HERMAXX,) a Dutch philologist, born at
Breda in 1742. He became professor of Greek at Ley-
den, where he died in 1822.
Tollius, (JACOB,) brother of Cornelis, noticed above,
was born at Utrecht about 1630. He studied under
Vossius, and became professor of history and eloquence
at Duisburg in 1679. He was the author of several phi
lological and scientific treatises. Died in 1696.
Tolmach. See TALMASH, (THOMAS.)
Tolomei, to-lo-ma'ee, or Tolommei, (CLAUDIO,) an
Italian scholar and diplomatist, born at Sienna in 1492.
He was sent in 1552 on a mission to the French court,
on which occasion he delivered an eloquent oration in
the presence of Henry II. He was the author of several
poems and orations, and a collection of letters which
rank among the best compositions of the kind in the
language. Died in 1554.
See TIRABOSCHI, "Storia della Letteratnra Italinna;" LONGFEL
LOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Tolomei, (GIOVAXXI BATTISI-A,) a learned Italian
cardinal, born at Florence in 16^3. He was employed
by Clement XI. in important affairs. Died in 1726.
Tolomeo, the Italian of PTOLEMY, which see.
Tolommei. See TOLOMEI.
Tolstoi. See OSTERMANN-TOLSTOI.
Tolstoi, tol'stoi, (FEODOR PETROVJTCH.) a Russian
sculptor, born at Saint Petersburg in 1783, became
professor of sculpture in the Academy of that city.
Tolstoi or Tolstoy, (PETER,) COUXT, a Russian
diplomatist, born about 1650. He was employed by
Peter the Great on missions to several European courts.
Died in 1728.
Tolstoi, (PETER ALEXAXDROVITCH,) a Russian diplo
matist and soldier, born in 1769, served under Suwarow
against the Turks and Poles, and after the battle of
Friedland was ambassador-extraordinary to Paris. In
1831 the emperor Nicholas appointed him commander-
in-chief of the army of reserve. Died in 1844.
Tolstoy. See TOLSTOI.
To-lum'm-us, (LAR,) was King of the Veientes in
438 i:.c., and persuaded the people of Fidenae to kill four
Roman ambassadors. He was killed in single combat
by Cornelius Cossus.
Tomacelli. See BOXIFACE IX.
Tomaschek, to'ma-skek', (\VENZET. TOSEF,) a Ger
man musician and composer, born in Bohemia in 1774;
died in 1850.
Tomaselli, to-ma-sel'lee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian natu
ralist, born near Verona in 1733 ; c''efl nl 1818.
Tomasini, to-ma-see'nee, or Tommasini, tom-ma-
see'nee, (J.\COPO FII.IPPO,) an Italian antiquary and
priest, born at Padua in 1597. He published, besides
other works, a "Life of Livy," (1630,) a " Life of Pe
trarch," (" Petrarcha Redivivus," 1635,) and " Eulogies
of Illustrious Men," (2 vols., 1630-44.) Died in 1654.
See XICERON', " Memoires."
Tombes, toomz, (Jonx,) an English nonconformist
minister, born in Worcestershire in 1603. He became
a Baptist, and wrote several works. Died in 1676.
Tomitano, to-me-ta'no, (BKRXARDIXO,) an Italian
physician, born at Padua in 1506; died in 1576.
Tom'ko or Tom'kus, (Jonx,) a learned Flungarian
prelate, born at Sebenico about 1580; died at Rome
in 1639.
Tom'lme, (GEORGE,) an English prelate, born in
Suffolk in 1750, was originally named PRF.TYMAN, but
assumed that of Tomline in compliance with the wishes
of a gentleman who left him a large fortune. He studied
at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, was elected Fellow of
the college in 1773, and subsequently became tutor to
Mr. Pitt. When that statesman obtained the office of
first lord of the treasury, Tomline was appointed his
secretary. He was made Bishop of Lincoln and Dean
of Saint Paul's in 1787, and in 1820 Bishop of Win
chester. He was the author of "The Elements of Chris
tian Theology," (1799,) a " Life of the Right Honourable
William Pitt," (1821,) a "Refutation of Calvinism," and
a number of sermons. Died in 1827.
Tom'lins, (ELIZABETH SOPHIA,) an English writer,
born in London in 1768, published a number of poems,
" The Victim of Fancy," and other novels, and made
several translations from the French. Died in 1828.
Tomlins, (FREDERICK GUEST,) an English journalist,
born about 1804. He edited several periodicals, and
originated the Shakspeare Society, (1840.) Died in 1867.
Tommaseo, tom-ma-sa'o, (Niccoi.6,) a distinguished
statesman and scholar, born in Dalmatia about 1804.
He was educated in Italy, and resided subsequently
for a considerable time at Venice. After the revolution
of 1848 he was appointed minister of instruction and
religious affairs. After Venice had surrendered to the
Austrians in 1849, he took refuge in Corfu. He pub
lished a treatise "On Education," (1834,) "New Dic
tionary of Synonyms," (1835,) "Critical Studies," (1843,)
and other works of a high character; also a "History
of France in the Sixteenth Century," and a historical
romance, entitled "The Duke of Athens," (1837.)
Tommasi, tom-ma'see, (GIUSEPPE MARIA,) a learned
Italian cardinal, born in Sicily in 1649, was the author
of a number of valuable works illustrating ecclesiastical
history and antiquities and the ceremonies of the Roman
Church. Died in 1713.
See REKNINI, "Vita del Cardinale Tommasi," 1719; UGHEI.LI,
" Italia Sacra."
€ as K; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; x, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
TO MM AS INI
2140
TOORGENEF
Tommasini. See TOMASINI.
Tommaso, the Italian of THOMAS, which see.
Tommaso d'Aquino. See AQUINAS, (THOMAS.)
Tomori, to'mo-re, [Fr. TOMOR£E, to'mo'ri',] (PAUL,)
a Hungarian prelate and general. He commanded the
army of Lewis II. against the Turks, and was killed at
the battle of Mohacs, in 1526.
Tomp'kins, (DANIEL D.,) an American statesman,
born in Westchester county, New York, in 1774. He
represented the city of New York in Congress in 1804,
was elected Governor of the State in 1807, continuing
in that office till 1817, when he was chosen Vice-Presi-
dent of the United States. He was re-elected Vice-
President in 1820. While Governor of New York, he
was instrumental in having slavery abolished in that
State, and gave an efficient support to the war waged
against England. Died in New York in June, 1825.
Tom'y-ris [Gr. To/tvpif] was Queen of the Massa-
getae (Scythians) when Cyrus the Great invaded Scythia.
According to Herodotus, she defeated him in battle in
529 H.C.
Tondi, ton'dee, (MATTEO,) an Italian mineralogist
and geologist, born at San Severo in 1762, published
several works. Died about 1837.
Tondu. See LEBRUN, (PIERRE HKNKI MARIE.)
Tone, (TuEoiiAi.D WOLFE,) an Irish politician and
revolutionist, born at Dublin in 1763, was the founder
of the Society of United Irishmen. In 1796 he applied
to the French Directory to send an expedition against
England, which soon after set sail, commanded by Gene
ral Hoche. This fleet having been scattered by a hurri
cane, Tone made another attempt with a small armament,
but he was taken prisoner in an engagement with the
English, tried, and condemned to death. He committed
suicide in prison, (1798.)
See "Memoirs of Theobald Wolfe Tone," by his son, 1826;
"North American Review" for April, 1827.
Toii'na, (CHARLOTTE E. BROWN,) an English author
ess, known under the nom dc plume of CHARLOTTE
ELIZABETH, was born in Norwich in 1792. She was
married about 1840 to a Mr. Tonna, who was her second
husband. She wrote numerous works, among which
are "Judah's Lion," "Judaea Capta," "Personal Recol
lections," (1841,) "Chapters on Flowers," and "Princi
palities and Powers." Died in London in 1846.
Tonnel6, ton'la', (Louis NICOLAS ALFRED,) a French
litterateur and poet, born at Tours in 1831 ; died in 1858.
Toii'son, (JACOB,) an English publisher, born in
London about 1656. He published the works of Dryden
and other eminent authors, [n several letters to Tonson,
Dryden complains that he (Tonson) sent him brass shil
lings and clipped coins. Died' in 1736.
See MACAULAV, "History of England," vol. iv.
Tonstall, pronounced and sometimes written Tun'-
stall, (CUTHBERT,) a learned English prelate and states
man, born in Yorkshire about 1475. He finished his
studies at Padua, and in 1516 was sent on a mission to
the King of Spain, afterwards the emperor Charles V.
He became Bishop of London in 1522, in the following
year was made lord privy seal, and in 1530 Bishop of
Durham. Under the reign of Edward VI. he was
deprived of his office and imprisoned in the Tower on a
charge of favouring an insurrection. On the accession of
Mary he was restored to his bishopric, (1553,) but, having
refused to take the oath of supremacy after Elizabeth
was proclaimed queen, he was again deprived. He died
in 1559, leaving several theological and scientific works,
which were highly esteemed in his time. He was con
spicuous for his humanity and moderation in that age of
intolerance, and permitted no burning of heretics in his
diocese.
See WOOD, " Athenae Oxonienses ;" " Biographia Britannica ;"
HUME, " History of England."
Tonti, ton'tee, (LORENZO,) an Italian banker, who
settled in France, and originated Tontines, or loans
raised on life-annuities, about 1653.
His son served under La Salle, who, in 1680, ordered
hjm to build a fort on the Illinois River. He afterwards
descended the Mississippi in search of La Salle. Died
after 1700.
Tooke, took, (ANDREW,) an English writer a i,l
teacher, born in London in 1673. He was master of
the Charter-House School, and published a "Synopsis
of the Greek Language," ("Synopsis Graces; Linguae.")
Died in 1731.
Tooke, (JOHN HORNE,) a celebrated English philolo
gist anil politician, born in London in June, 1736, was a
son of John Home. He studied at Cambridge, where
he took his degree as B.A. in 1758, and, to please his
father, was ordained a priest; but he preferred the pro
fession of -the law. He became an active politician, an
opponent of the ministry, and a friend of John Wilkes.
Having been adopted by William Tooke, of Purley, as
his heir, he assumed the name of Tooke. He studied
law, and applied about 1779 for admission to the bar,
but was rejected because he had been a priest. Before
this event he had been fined £200 and imprisoned one
year for libel. His offence consisted in saying that cer
tain Americans were "murdered" by the king's troops
at Lexington. His reputation is founded chiefly on his
'"ETT«Z Trrepoevra; or, Diversions of Purley," (1786,)
which treats of language, and displays much acuteness
and originality of thought and presents many good
ideas. He was tried in 1794 on a charge of treason,
made an able speech in his own defence, and was
acquitted. In 1801 he was returned to Parliament for
Old Sarum. Died in 1812. lie was distinguished for
his conversational powers.
See W. HAMILTON, "Life of J. Home Tooke;" "Memoirs of
John Home Tooke," by J. A. GKAHAM, tSaS; "Life of J. Home
Tooke," by AI.KXANDER STEPHEN, 1813 ; " Hlackwood's Magazine"
for August, 1833, and April, 1840; " Monthly Review" for January,
1787, and December, 1806.
Tooke, (THOMAS,) a son of Rev. William, noticed
below, published in 1838 a " History of Prices and of
the State of the Circulation from 1793 to 1837," etc., in
2 vols., to which were subsequently added four more
volumes. Died in 1858.
Tooke, (Rev. WILLIAM,) an English divine, born at
Islington in 1744, became minister of the English church
at Cronstadt. He was appointed in 1774 chaplain to
the factory of the Russia Company at Saint Petersburg.
He published a "Life of Catherine II.," (3 vols., 1797,)
" History of Russia from the Foundation of the Empire
to the Accession of Catherine II.," " Varieties of Lite
rature," and other works, and translated Zollikofer's
" Sermons" from the German. Died in 1820.
Tooke, (WILLIAM,) F.R.S., younger son of the pre
ceding, was born at Saint Petersburg in 1777. He was
one of the founders of the Society for the Diffusion of
Useful Knowledge. He edited the poetical works of
Churchill, and published "The Monarchy of France:
its Rise, Progress, and Fall," (1855.) Died in 1863.
ToolooiiorTuluii, too'loon', or, more fully, Ahmed
Ibu Tooloon, aii'med ib'n too'loon', the founder of
the dynasty of Tooloonites, was born in 835. lie had
been made Governor of Egypt in 873, and ruled the
country with great ability, when an attempt was made
to dispossess him ; on which he raised an army, defeated
the troops sent against him by the Caliph of Bagdad,
and declared himself independent. He died about 883.
The dynasty which he founded lasted till 905, when the
caliph Al-Mooktafee reduced Egypt and put to death
the last of the Tooloonite princes.
Toombs, (ROBERT,) an American politician, born in
Wilkes county, Georgia, in 1810. He was elected to
the United States Senate in 1853, and was re-elected
in 1859. He was a leader of the secession party in
Georgia, and resigned his seat in the Senate when that
State withdrew from the Union. He was secretary of
state for the Southern Confederacy from February to
July, 1 86 1, was elected a Senator about February, 1862,
and became a brigadier-general in the same year.
Toorgenef, toor'geh-ne'P or toor'neh-neT, Turgenef,
or Turgenev, written also Turgenew, .(.ALEXANDER
IVANOVITCH,) a Russian historian, born in 1784. Having
visited England and various parts of Europe in search
of documents, he published in 1841 his " Historical
Monuments of Russia," (in Latin.) Died in 1845.
Toorgenef or Turgenew, (!VAN,) a Russian poet
and litterateur of high reputation, was born at Orel in •
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mgt; not; good; moon;
TOORGENEF
2141
TOR IB 10
1818. Among his principal works are a poem entitled
"Parascha" or " Panascha," (1843,) anc* "Papers of a
Sportsman," (1852.) The latter enjoys great popularity,
and lias been translated into the principal European
languages.
See the "British Quarterly Review" for October, 1869; "North
British Review" for March, 1869.
Toorgenef, Turgenef, or Turgenew, (NIKOLAI
IVANOVITCH,) a brother of Alexander, noticed above,
was born in 1790. He distinguished himself as an
earnest advocate of the abolition of serfdom in Russia.
Having been connected with the secret societies which
favoured that reform, he was, after the accession of
Nicholas, condemned to death during his absence on his
travels. He took up his residence in Paris, where he
published in 1847 his work entitled "Russia and the
Russians," (in French.)
Topal-Osman, to'pal os-min', an able Turkish
general and minister of state. lie became grand vizier
in 1731, and defeated Nadir Shah in battle on the Tigris
in July, 1733. He was killed in battle by the Persians
in the same year.
Topete, to-pa'ti, (JuAN,) a Spanish admiral of the
present age. As commander of the naval force at
Cadiz, he gave an impulse to the insurrection against
Isabella in September, 1868. He was minister of the
marine from Tune to November, 1869.
Topfer orToepfer, top'fer, (KARL,) a German drama
tist, born at Berlin in 1792, has published several popu
lar comedies, among which we may name "The King's
Command" and " Hermann and Dorothea."
Topffer or Toepffer, top'fer, (RUDOLPH,) a Gene-
vese artist and writer of rare genius, was born in 1799.
Among his first publications was his "Voyages en
Zigzag," a series of humorous sketches, which attracted
general admiration. These were followed by the " Pres-
bytere," (1839,) "Genevese Tales," ("Nouvelles Gene-
voises," 1841,) and "Rosa et Gertrude," (1845,) all of
which were received with great favour. His other prin
cipal works are the comic sketches entitled " M. Vieux-
Bois" and " Reflections on Art." The former appeared
in the United States in 1842, under the title of" Adven
tures of Mr. Obacliah Oldbuck," etc. Died in 1846.
See SAINTE-BEUVE, "Portraits contemporains ;" CLEMENT DE
Ris, "Portraits a la Plume;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generate;"
the "Living Age" for September, 1847; "Atlantic Monthly" for
November, 1865.
Topino-Lebrun, to'pe'no' leh-briix', (FRAxgois
JEAN BAPTISTS,) a French painter, born at Marseilles
in 1769, was a republican and a friend of Ceracchi the
sculptor. He was accused of conspiring with Ceracchi
against the life of Bonaparte, and was executed in 1801,
although his guilt was not proved.
Top'la-dy, (AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE,) an English Cal-
vinistic divine, born in Surrey in 1740. He studied at
Trinity College, Dublin, and became vicar of Broad
Henbury, Devonshire. lie was the author of several
controversial works, and of a number of beautiful and
popular hymns. Died in 1778.
Toppi, top'pee, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian compiler, born
at Chieta about 1603, published a wOrk on the history
of Neapolitan literature, (1678.) Died in 1681.
Toranus or Toranius. See RUFLNUS.
Torbido, tok'be-do, or Turbido, tooR'be-do, (FRAN-
CESCO,) called IL MORO, a skilful Italian painter, born
at Verona about 1500. He painted frescos and portraits.
Died about 1581.
Tor'bert, (ALFRED T.,) an American general, born
in Delaware, graduated at West Point in 1855. He
served as an officer at the battle of Antietam, Sep
tember 17, 1862, and at Gettysburg, July 2-3, 1863, and
commanded a division of the army of General Sheridan
at Opecjuan Creek, September 19, and Cedar Creek,
October 19, 1864. At the end of 1864 he was chief of
cavalry in the Middle military division. He resigned in
October, 1866.
Torcy. See COLBERT and JEAN BAPTISTE.
Tordeiiskjold or Tordenskiold, tou'den-ske-old',
(PETER,) a celebrated admiral in the Danish service,
Ixirn at Drontheim, in Norsvay, in 1691, was originally
named WESSEL. As commander of a privateer in the
war with Sweden, he captured numerous merchant-
vessels, and was made lieutenant in 1712. He obtained
the rank of commodore in 1715 for his services in de
stroying a number of Swedish ships on the coast of
Norway. In 1716 he won a signal victory over the
Swedes, under Admiral Wachtmeister, for which the
king bestowed upon him a gold medal. He was soon
after ennobled by Frederick IV., with the name of Tor-
clenskiold, ("Shield against Thunder,") and in 1717
captured the fortified town of Marstrand. After the
peace of Fredericksberg he visited Germany, and was
killed in a duel at Hanover, (1720 or 1721.)
See ROTHE, "Tordenskjold's Liv og Levnet," 3 vols., 1747-50;
THARUP, "P. Tordenskjold's Liv og Levnet," 1838; BOHR, "P.
Tordenskjold," etc., 1838; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tordesillas. See HERRERA.
Torelli, to-rel'lee, (GIUSEPPE,) an eminent Italian
scholar and mathematician, born at Verona in 1721. He
studied at Padua, where he became thoroughly versed
in the ancient languages. He subsequently prepared
an edition of all the works of Archimedes, (both in
Greek and Latin,) which was published in 1792. He also
translated /Esop's "Fables" into Latin. Died in 1781.
See SIBII.IATO, " De Vita J. Torelli Commentarius," 1782.
Torelli, [Lat. TAURE'LIUS,] (LELIO,) an Italian jurist
and statesman, born at Fano in 1489, settled at Florence
about 1528, and became podesta of that city. He was
appointed chancellor and chief secretary to Cosimo de'
Medici about 1546. He published an excellent edition
of the important Florentine manuscripts of the Pandects,
(3 vols. fol., 1553.) Died in 1576.
See MAN-NI, "Vita di L. Torelli," 1770.
Torelli, (PoMPONio,) Count of Monte-Chiarugola,
an Italian poet, born at Parma in 1539. He wrote
tragedies, etc. Died in 1608.
Toreiio, to-rin'yo, (Don Jos6 MARIA QUEYPO DE
LLANO Ruiz DE SARAVIA,) a Spanish statesman and
historian, born at Oviedo in 1786. He took an active
part in the insurrection against the French in 1808, and
in 1810 was chosen a member of the Cortes. After the
return of Ferdinand VII., in 1814, he left Spain, and
resided many years in France, England, and Germany.
On the death of Ferdinand he returned to Madrid, and
was appointed minister of finance in 1834, and in 1835
succeeded Martinez de la Rosa as minister of foreign
affairs and president of the council. He was compelled,
on account of his moderate policy, to resign the same
year ; and he lived subsequently in Paris and London.
He was the author of a " History of the Insurrection,
War, and Revolution of Spain," (5 vols., 1835.) Died
in 1843.
See L. DE LOM^MIE, "M. Toreno, par un Homme de Rien,"
1844; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Torenvhit, to'ren-vit', (JACOB,) a Dutch painter,
born at Leyden in 1631. His works are chiefly his
torical pieces and portraits. Died in 1719.
Torfaeus. See TORFAUS.
Torfaus, Torfaeus, tor-fa'us, or Tor'fes-en, [Fr.
TORFEE, toR'fa',] (THORMODR,) an Icelandic scholar and
antiquary, born in 1740. He studied at Copenhagen,
and in 1682 became royal historiographer. He was
the author of a " History of Norway," (in Latin, 4 vols.,
1711,) "History of the Orkney Islands," (" Historia
Rerum Orcadensium," 1715,) "Series Dynastarum et
Regum Dania," etc., and other works on Scandinavian
history. His Latin style is remarkable for its elegance,
and his writings exhibit great learning and research.
Died in 1719.
Sse J. ERICHSEN, "T. Torfesens Levnetsbeskrivelse," 1788.
Torfee. See TORFAUS.
Torfesen. See TORFAUS.
Toribio, to-ree'i?e-o, (ALFONSO Mongrovejo — mon-
gRO-va'Ho,) a Spanish prelate, born near Valladolid in
1538. He became Archbishop of Lima in 1580. Died
in 1606.
See PINELO, " Vida de Don Toribio," 1653.
Toribio de Benavente, to-re'ne-o da ua-ni-ven'ta,
a Spanish missionary of the sixteenth century, resided
many years in Mexico, and was guardian of a convent at
Tezcuco. He wrote a history of New Spain, which is
still in manuscript.
See PRESCOTT, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. ii.
book iii.
€ as k: c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural ': N, nasal: R, trilled: s as z: th as in this.
\ Explanations, p. 23.)
TOR IN US
2142
TORRIGUNO
Torinus, to-ree'nus, (ALBANUS.) a Swiss physician,
originally named ALBAN THORKK, born in the canton of
Zurich in 1489, became professor of practical medicine
at Bale. He translated a number of Greek medical
works into Latin, and published editions of several Latin
treatises on medicine. Died in 1550.
Torlonia, toR-lo'ne-a, (ALESSANDRO,) Duke of Cesi
and Marquis of Roma-Vecchia, an opulent Italian banker,
was born in 1800. He expended his fortune liberally
in collecting works of art and erecting fine buildings at
Rome.
Torlonia, (GIOVANNI,) a distinguished Italian banker,
born in 1754, in indigent circumstances, was the father
of the preceding. He acquired a large fortune by his
enterprise and financial talent, and was ennobled, with
the title of Duke of Bracciano. Died in 1829.
Tornberg, toiin'beRg, (CARL JOHAN,) a Swedish Ori
entalist, born at Linkoping in 1807, became professor of
Oriental languages at Lund about 1844. He has written
much on Arabic literature and antiquities.
Tornielli, toR-ne-el'lee, (AGOSTINO,) an Italian histo
rian, born near Novara in 1543. He published " Annals,
Sacred and Profane, from the Creation to the Time of
Christ," (" Annales sacri et profani," etc., 2 vols., 1610.)
Died in 1622.
Tor'por-ley, (NATHANIEL,) an English mathema
tician and divine, born about 1570, was amanuensis to
Francis Vieta. He published a treatise on spherical
trigonometry, and other works. Died in 1632.
Torquatus. See MANI.IUS.
Torquemada, toR-ka-ma'na, a Spanish monk of the
sixteenth century, was the author of a history of Mexico,
entitled " Monarchia Indiana," published at Seville in
1615 and at Madrid in 1723.
See PRESCOTT, "History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i.
book i.
Torquemada, [Lat. TURRECREMA'TA,] (JUAN,) a
Spanish theologian, born at Valladolid in 1388. He
became a cardinal in 1439, and wrote several works.
Died in 1468.
Torquemada, de, da toR-ka-ma'na, (Toxus,) a Span
ish Dominican monk, infamous for his cruelty, was born
in 1420. He was made first Inquisitor-General in 1483,
and he is said in sixteen years to have condemned
ninety thousand persons to perpetual imprisonment,
and more than eight thousand to be burned. Died in
1498.
See PKESCOTT. " HUtnrv of Ferdinand and Isabella." vol. i. part
i. : T.I.ORENTE. " Histoire de 1'Inquisition d'Espagne ;" MARIANA,
" Historia de Espana ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Torre, tor'ra, (Fi.AMiNiO,) an Italian painter and en
graver, born at Bologna in 1621, was a pupil of Guido
Reni. Died in 1661.
Torre, del, del tor'ra, (Fii.irpo,) a learned Italian
antiquary, born in Friuli in 1657, was made Bishop of
Adria by Pope Clement XT. He was the author of
several antiquarian works, the most important of which
is entitled "Monuments of Ancient Antium," ("Monti-
menta vcteris Antii.") Died in 1717.
See FACCIOLATI, "Vita di P. Turri," 1729; NICERON, " Me-
moires."
Torre, della, del'13. tor'ri, (FILOMARINO,) DUKE, an
Italian nobleman, noted for his scientific attainments,
was born in Naples. Having been unjustly charged
with favouring the designs of the French, he fell a
victim to the fury of the Neapolitan mob, which, after
destroying his property, killed him, together with his
brother, (1799.)
Torre, della, (GIOVANNI MARIA,) an Italian savant,
born at Rome about 1712, became professor of philoso
phy and mathematics at Venice and other Italian cities,
lie published a " Course of Physics," (Latin and Italian,)
"The History and Phenomena of Vesuvius Explained,"
(1755,) and other scientific works. He also made great
improvements in the microscope. He was a correspond
ing member of the Royal Society of London and of
other learned institutions. Died in 1782.
Torre, della, (jACOPo,) or Jacopo da Forli, an
Italian medical writer, born at Forli; died in 1414.
Torremuzza, de, da toR-ra-moot'sa, (GABRIEL Lan-
cillotto Castello— lan-chel-lot'to kas-tel'lo,) PRINCE,
an Italian numismatist, born at Palermo in 1727. He
published several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1792.
Tor'rens, (Sir HENRY,) a distinguished Irish officer,
born at Londonderry in 1779. Having previously served
in the West Indies and Holland, he accompanied Sir
Arthur Wellesley to Portugal as his secretary. lie was
made adjutant-general in 1820. Died in 1828.
Torrens, (ROBERT,) F.R.S., M.P., an economist
and writer, born in Ireland in 1780. He supported the
Reform bill of 1831, and wrote several works on trade
and political economy. Died in 1864.
Torrentinus, tor-ren-tee'nus, a German grammarian,
whose proper name was HERMANN VON BKEK, was born
at Zwolle about 1450. He wrote " Elucidarius Carminum
et Historiarum," (1510.) Died about 1520.
Tor-reu'ti-us, (JAN,) a Dutch painter, born at Am
sterdam in 1589; died in 1640.
Tor-ren'ti-us, (L/EVINUS,) a Flemish scholar and
prelate, originally named VAN DER BEKEN, was born at
Ghent in 1525. lie became Bishop of Antwerp, and sub
sequently was appointed Archbishop of Mechlin, (i59>)
He died the same year. He was the author of Latin
poems of great elegance, and commentaries on several
Latin classics, and was distinguished for his knowledge
of Roman antiquities.
Torres, tor're"s, (DoMiNGOs MAXIMIANO,) a Portu
guese poet, born about 1750.
See LONGFKLI.OW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Torres, (Luis DA MOTTA,) a Portuguese admiral,
born at Lisbon in 1769. lie was appointed Captain-
General of Angola about 1815. Died in 1822.
Torres, de, da tor'res, (CLEMENTK,) a Spanish
painter, born at Seville in 1665. He is said to have
been one of the best painters of his time. Died in 1730.
Torres Naharro. See NAHARRO.
Tor'rey, (JoHN,) M.D., LL.D., an eminent American
botanist, born in New York in 1798. lie published
in 1819 a catalogue of the plants in the neighbourhood
of New York, which was succeeded in 1824 by the first
volume of his " Flora of the Northern United States."
In conjunction with Professor Gray, he produced a
"Flora of North America," (1838.) He was appointed
in 1827 professor of chemistry and botany in the College
of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. He has also
prepared the botanical reports of the natural history
survey of the State of New York, (2 vols. 410, 1844.)
Torricelli, tor-re-sel'lee or tor-re-chel'lee, (KVANCE-
LISTA,) an eminent Italian natural philosopher, born at
Piancaldoli, in the'Romagna, in 1608. He studied mathe
matics at Rome under Benedetto Castelli, discovered
the law which regulates the flowing of water out of an
orifice of a vessel, and wrote a treatise on Motion. This
commended him to the favour of Galileo, who invited
him to Florence. Torricelli went thither in 1641, and
remained with Galileo until the death of the latter. lie
was appointed professor of mathematics at Florence by
the grand duke Ferdinand. He discovered a method of
ascertaining the area of a cycloid. His chief title to
celebrity is the discovery of the Torricellian vacuum and
the invention of the barometer, which occurred in 1643.
lie filled with mercury a glass tube about three feet long,
closed at one end, and inserted the open end in a quan
tity of mercury. He thus found that a vacuum was
formed at the upper end of the tube, and that the column
of mercury supported by the pressure of the atmosphere
remained about twenty-nine or thirty inches high. He
published "Opera Geometrica," (1644.) Died at Flor
ence in October, 1647.
See FABRONI, " Vita? Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" TIRA-
BOSCHI, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Torrigiano, tor-re-ja'no, (PIETRO,) a celebrated Ital
ian sculptor, born at Florence about 1472. He was a
fellow-student of Michael Angelo, of whom he was so
jealous that he once assaulted him violently, disfiguring
his face for life. He afterwards resided for a time in
England, where he was patronized by Henry VIII., and
executed the tomb of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey,
and other works. Having returned to Spain in 1519,
he was condemned to death by the Inquisition for having
broken in pieces a statue of the Virgin which he had
a,e, i, 6, xi, y,
; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, 6,ii, y, short; a, e, j, q, obscure; fta, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
TORR1JOS
2H3
TOULONGEON
made for a nobleman, who refused to pay the price
demanded, (1522.)
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc.; TICOZZI, " Dizio-
nario."
Torrijos, tor-ree'uds, (JosE MARIA,) a Spanish gene
ral, born at Madrid in 1791, was educated among the
pages of Charles IV. Me served in the campaigns of
1808 and 1811. and, having been made Captain-General
of Valencia, distinguished himself by his zeal in the
cause of the constitution. After the capture of Cadiz
by the French, he left Spain, but returned in 1830, soon
after which he was betrayed, with fifty of his companions,
into the hands of his enemies, and they svere all shot,
by order of King Ferdinand VII., in 1831.
Tor'ring-tpn, (ARTHUR HKRKKRT,) EARL OF, an
English admiral, was a brother of Chief-Justice Herbert.
Me was dismissed from all his places by James II. in
1687, because he would not vote for the repeal of the
Test Act. He commanded the Dutch fleet of the Prince
of Orange during his voyage from Holland to Torbay,
(1688,) and was appointed first lord of the admiralty by
William HI. " He was utterly inefficient," says Mac-
aulay. In 1690 he was removed from that office, and
obtained command of the fleet. He was defeated by the
French at Beachy Head, in June, 1690. His conduct in
that battle was so disgraceful that he was dismissed from
the service.
See MACAL'LAY, " History of England," vol. iii.
Torrington, VISCOUNT. See BYNG, (GEORGE.)
Torsellino. See TURSELLINUS.
Torstenson, toR'sten-son, or Torstensson. (LEN-
NART,) Count of Ortala, a Swedish commander, born at
Torstena in 1603. He accompanied Gustavus Adolphus
to Germany in 1630, and after his death served under
Baner in various campaigns of the Thirty Years' war.
He was appointed to the chief command of the army in
Germany in 1641, and in May, 1642, gained a victory
over the Imperial troops at Schweidnitz, which was fol
lowed by other successes. He defeated the Imperialists
at Jankowitz in February, 1645. Having resigned his
command in 1646, he was created a count by Queen
Christina, and obtained other distinctions. Died in 1651.
See GEIJER, " Histoire de Suede ;" CASSTROKM, "Areminne ofver
L. Torstensson," 1786; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. "
Tortelli.toR-tel'lee, [Lat. TOKTEI/LIUS,] (GIOVANNI,)
an Italian grammarian, born at Arezzo about 1400. He
wrote " On the Power of Letters," (" De Potestate Lite-
rarum.1') Died about 1466.
Tortellius. See TOKTEI.LT.
Torti, toR'tee, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian physician, born
at Modena in 1658, became professor of medicine at
Modena about 1680. He composed several oratorios in
his youth. His chief work is a Treatise on Pernicious
Fevers, entitled " Therapeutice specialis ad Febres quas-
dani perniciosas,"etc., (1709,) which was highly esteemed.
He died in 1741.
See MCRATORI, "Life of Torti."
Tory, to're', (GEOFFROI,) a French engraver and
printer, born at Bourges about 1480. He learned Greek
and Latin, established himself as a printer in Paris, and
translated several classical works. He also illustrated
numerous books with engravings. Died in 1533.
Toscanella, di, de tos-ka-nel'la, (OkAZio,) an Italian
writer, born in the Papal States about 1510; died about
1580.
Toscanelli, tos-ka-nel'lee, (PAOLO DEL Pozzo,) an
Italian astronomer, born at Florence in 1397. He formed
a project to shorten the route to China by navigating
westward, and wrote a letter to Columbus on this subject
about 1474. He constructed a gnomon on the cathedral
of Florence. Died in 1482.
Toschi, tos'kee, (DoMENlCO,) an Italian jurist and
cardinal, born near Reggio in 1535 ; died in 1620.
Toschi, (PAOLO,) a celebrated Italian engraver, born
at Parma in 1788, became director of the Academy of
Fine Arts in his native city. Among his best works
maybe named his prints after Correggio's "Madonna
della Scodella," and the " Venus and Adonis" of Albano.
Died in 1854.
Tosetti, to-set/tee, (URBANO,) an Italian philosopher,
born at Florence ; died in 1768.
Tostado or Tostatus. See AI.PHONSUS ABULENSIS.
Tos'ti or Tos'tig, Earl of Northumberland, was a
brother of King Harold II. In 1066 Tosti and the
King of Norway invaded England, and were defeated
by Harold. Tosti was killed in this battle, September,
1066.
Tot'i-la, King of the Ostrogoths, began to reign in
541 A.D. He invaded Italy and captured Rome in 546,
after Belisarius had made an effort to raise the siege of
that capital. He was defeated in Tuscany by the army
of Justinian, under Narses, and was killed in the retreat,
in 552 A.D.
Totleben or Todleben, tot'la'ben, (GorrLOB HEIN-
RICH,) a profligate German adventurer, born in Saxony
about 1710. Having been banished for his crimes, he
went to Russia about 1755, entered the army, and be
came a general. He took Berlin in 1760, and committed
great cruelties on the Prussians. Died in 1773.
Tott, de, deh tot, (FRAXC.OIS,) BARON, a French
officer, of Hungarian extraction, born in 1733, held an
office in the French embassy at Constantinople. He
was appointed, after his return, consul to the Crimea,
(1767.) He subsequently resided many years in Turkey,
where he effected great improvements in the artillery
and military fortifications. He was the author of
"Memoirs of the Turks and Tartars," (1784,) which
obtained great popularity and was translated into
several languages. Died in 1793.
See the "Monthly Review'' for September and October, 1785;
" Westminster Review" for October, 1837.
Tot'ten, (GEORGE MUIRSON,) an American civil en
gineer, born at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1809. He
was appointed engineer-in-chief of the Panama Railroad
in 1849.
Totten, (JOSEPH GILBERT,) an American officer, born
at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1788, served in the war
of 1812, and rose to be lieutenant-colonel. He was
made colonel and chief engineer in 1838, and in the
latter capacity accompanied the army to Mexico in 1847,
where he was soon after appointed a brigadier-general.
He wrote a " Report on the Subject of National De
fence." Died in 1864.
Tottenham, tot'ten-am, (EDWARD,) an English
divine and controversialist, born in 1810 ; died in 1853.
Toucey, tow'se, (ISAAC,) an American Democratic
politician, •born in Connecticut in 1798. He was chosen
Governor of Connecticut in 1846, became attorney-
general of the United States in June, 1848, and was a
j Senator of the United States from 1852 to 1857. In
; March, 1857, he was appointed secretary of the navy.
I He has been accused of dispersing the navy to remote
i parts of the globe in 1860, with a design to favour the
I movements of the disunionists. Died in 1869.
Touchard-Lafosse, too'shtR' It'foss', (G.,) a me-
! diocre French writer, born in 1780, published many
historical works and novels. Died in 1847.
Touche-Treville. See LA TOUCHE.
Tougard, too'giR', (JEROME FRANC.OIS,) a French
lawyer and horticulturist, born at Havre in 1781. He
published several treatises on law and on horticulture.
Toullier, too'le-a', (CHARLES BONAVENTUKE MARIE,)
a distinguished French jurist, born about 1760. He be
came professor of law at Rennes, and published an im
portant work entitled "The French Civil Law according
to the Order of the Code Napoleon," (i4\-ols., 1811-31.)
Died in 1835.
See " Biogranhie Universelle," (new edition;) C. PACLMIER,
"filogede Toullier," 1836.
Toulmin, (CAMILLA.) See CROSSLAND.
Toulmin, tool'min, QOSHUA,) an English Unitarian
divine, born in London in 1740, became one of the pas
tors of the congregation at Birmingham. He was the
author of "Memoirs of Socinus," (1777,) "Review of
the Life, Character, and Writings of John Bicldle,"
(1789,) and other works. Died in 1815.
See the "Monthly Review" for December, 1816.
Toulongeon, de, deh too'lA.N'zhdN', (FRANC.OIS
EMANUEL,) VISCOUNT, a French historian, born in
Franche-Comte in 1748. Having joined the popular
party on the breaking out of the Revolution, he was a
deputy to the States-General in 1789. He published,
€ as k: c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K,git(tural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
TOULOUSE
2144
TOUSSAIN
among other works, a " History of France from the
Revolution of 1789," (4 vols., 1801-10,) and "Revolu
tionary Manual," etc. ; also a translation of Caesar's
"Commentaries." Died in 1812.
See QUERARD, " La France Litteraire ;" DUPONT UE NEMOURS,
"Notice sur M. de Toiiloiigeun," 1818; " Nouvelle Biograpliie
Generate."
Toulouse, de, deh too'looz', (Louis ALEXANDREde
Boxirbon — deh boou'bdN',) COUNT, a French admiral,
born in 1678, 'was a son of Louis XIV. and Madame
de Montespan. He received command of a fleet, and
opposed with success the English and Dutch fleets near
Malaga in 1704. Died in 1737.
See SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires."
Toup, toop,(JONATHAN,)an English divine and scholar,
born in Cornwall in 1713. Hestudied at Exeter College,
Oxford, and subsequently became a prebendary of Exe
ter Cathedral. He published several critical works of
great merit, the most important of which is entitled
" Emendations of Suidas," (" Emendationes in Suidam,"
4 vols., 1760-75.) Died in 1785.
Tour d'Auvergne, La. See TUKKNNK, LATOUR,
and BOUILLON.
Tour, de la, (BAILLET,) COUNT. See LA TOUK, VON.
Tour, La. See LA TOUR.
Tourette, La. See TOURRETTE, LA.
Tournefort, de, deh tooR'neh'foR' or tooRn'foR',
(JosEi'H PITTOX,) an eminent French botanist, born at
Aix, in Provence, in 1656. He studied medicine at
Montpellier, and subsequently made scientific excursions
in Spain and the Pyrenees. He was appointed in 1683
assistant professor at the Jardin du Roi, in Paris, where
his lectures won for him a high reputation. He set out
in 1700 on a journey to Asia Minor, Greece, and the
adjacent countries, accompanied by Gundelsheimer. On
his return to Paris he obtained the chair of medicine
in the College of France. He died in 1708. His prin
cipal works are his " History of Plants in the Environs
of Paris," (" Histoire des Plantes qui naissent aux Envi
rons de Paris," etc., 1698,) "Elements of Botany," (" In-
stitiition.es Rei Herbaria;,'' 3 vols. 410, with 476 plates,
1700,) and "Travels in the Levant," (2 vols., 1717.)
See FONTENELLE, " filoges ;" "Biographic Medicale ;" MAURY,
"Histoire de PAcademie des Sciences;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Tournely, tooR'ni'le', (HoNOR^,) a French priest and
writer on theology, born at Antibes in 1658 ; died in 1729.
Tournemine, tooR'neh'men' or tooRn'men', (KEN£
JOSEPH,) a learned French Jesuit, born at Rennes in
1661. Having previously filled various professorships,
he became in 1701 editor of the "Journal de Trevoux."
Among his works sve may name " Reflections on Athe
ism," and an edition of Prideaux's " History of the Jews."
Died in 1739.
See NICERON, " Memoires ;" FELLEK, " Dictionnaire Historique."
Tournemiiie, de, deh tooR'neh'men', (CHARLES,) a
French painter, born at Toulon in 1825.
Tourneur, (CHARLES Louis FRANgois.) See LE-
TOURNEUR.
Tourneur, Le, leh tooR'nim', (PIERRE,) a French
translator, born at Valognes in 1736. He produced in
1770 a translation of Young's "Night Thoughts," which
was praised by Diderot, and commenced a prose version
of Shakspeare's plays, the first volume of which appeared
in 1776. The admiration of Shakspeare which he ex
pressed provoked the hostility of Voltaire. Le Tour-
neur's version of Shakspeare (20 vols., 1776-82) is
considered the best in the French language. It was
revised and republished by M. Guizot in 1824. lie also
translated "Clarissa llarlowe," "Ossian's Poems," and
other English books. Died in 1788.
See LA HARPE, "Cours de Litlerature ;" DESESSARTS, "Slecles
Litteraires."
Tourneux, Le, leh tooR'nuh', (NICOLAS,) an eloquent
French preacher, born at Rouen in 1640. lie preached
in Paris, was praised by Boileau, and received a pension
from Louis XIV. He wrote several devotional works.
Died in 1689.
Touriion, de, deh IOOR'HON', (CHARLES THOMAS
MAILLARD,) born at Turin in 1668, studied at the College
of the Propaganda at Rome, and was appointed by the
pope apostolic vicar in India. In 1701 he went on a
mission to China, where his indiscreet zeal caused him
to be imprisoned by the emperor in 1707. Died in
prison in 1710.
See CARDINAL PASSIONEI, " Memorie storiche della Legazione e
Morte del Cardinale di Tournon."
Tournon, de, (FRANCOIS,) a French cardinal and
statesman, born at Tournon in 1489, was distinguished
by the favour of Francis I. In 1526 he assisted in ne
gotiating for the deliverance of the king, who had been
made prisoner by Charles V., and in 1529 concluded the
peace of Cambray. He was soon after made a cardinal
and Archbishop of Bourges. He was instrumental in
effecting the marriage of the son of Francis, afterwards
Henry II., with Catherine de' Medici, and in 1538 nego
tiated with Charles V. the ten years' truce of Nice. He
was made prime minister of state about 1542, in which
post he was conspicuous for his cruel persecution of the
Protestants. Died in 1562.
See FI.EURY-TERNAI., " Histoire du Cardinal de Tournon," 1728;
DE THOU, " Historia sui Temporis;" SAINTK-MARTHK, "Gallia
Christiana Nova;" " Nouvelle Biographic Geueraie."
Tournon, de, (PHILIPPE CAMILLE CASIMIR MAUCE-
LIN,) COUNT, a French statesman, born at Apt in 1778.
He was appointed prefect of Rome by Napoleon, and
after the second restoration became prefect of the
department of the Gironde. He wrote " Statistical
Studies of Rome," etc., (1831.) Died in 1833.
Touro, too'ro, (Jui)AH,) a wealthy and benevolent
American Jew, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1776.
He settled at New Orleans, and at his death left $80,000
to found an almshouse in that city, as well as numerous
munificent bequests for various charities in other cities
of the United States, and for the relief of the Jews in
Palestine. Died in 1854.
Touron, too'ro.N', (ANTOINE,) a French biographer
and monk, born near Castres in 1686. He wrote, be
sides other works, in French, a " Life of Thomas Aqui
nas," (1737,) and a " Life of Charles Borromeo," (1761.)
Died in 1775.
Tourreil, de, deh too'ril' or too'ri'ye, (JACQUES,) a
French litterateur, \>or\\ at Toulouse in 1656. He trans
lated some orations of Demosthenes, and was admitted
into the French Academy in 1692. Died in 1715.
Tourret, too'ri', (CHARLES GILBERT,) a French min
ister of state, born at Montmarault in 1795. He was
minister of agriculture from June to December, 1848,
and founded agricultural schools, (fermes ecoles.) Died
in 1857.
Tourrette, de la, deh It too'ret', (MARC ANTOINE
Louis CLARET,) a French naturalist, born at Lyons
in 1729, was a friend of J. J. Rousseau. He published,
besides other works, " Elements of Botany," (2 vols.,
1766,) and "Chloris Lngdunensis," (1785.) Died in 1793.
Tourtelle, tooit'tel', (£TIKNNE,) a French medical
writer, born at Besancon in 1756. Among his works is
a " Philosophic History of Medicine," (2 vols., 1804.)
Died in 1801.
Tourville, de, deh tooR'vel', (ANNE HILARION de
Cotentin — deh ko'tSN'ta.N1',) COUNT, a celebrated
French admiral, born at Tourville in 1642. He became
a captain in 1667, and served with distinction against
the Dutch and Spaniards. In 1682 he obtained the rank
of lieutenant-general, and in 1689 was made a vice-
admiral. "Tourville," says Macaulay, "was the ablest
maritime commander that his country then possessed."
(" History of England," vol. iii.) He defeated the Eng
lish admiral Torrington at Beachy Head in June, 1690.
In 1692 he was ordered, with forty-four ships, to protect
the descent of an army on England. The English and
Dutch fleets gained a decisive victory over him at La
Ilogue the same year. He .was created a marshal of
France in 1693. Died in 1701.
See "Memoires de Tourville," 3 vols., 1742; RICHER. "Viede
Tourviile," 1783; SISMONDI, "Histoire des Krangais ;" SAINT-
SIMON, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale."
Toussaiii, too'saN', (DANIEL,) a French Protestant
minister, born at Montbelliard in 1541. He taught
Hebrew at Orleans, and afterwards preached at Heidel
berg, where he also was professor of theology. He
wrote several works. Died in 1602.
a, e, T, o,\\,y,Iong; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, shore: a, e, i, o, onscure: far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
TO USS4IN
2145
TOWNSHEND
Toussain, [Lat. TUSSA'NUS,] (JACQUES,) a French
Hellenist, born at Troyes. He was appointed professor
of Greek at the College Royal by Francis I. about 1532.
Among his pupils were Turnebe (Turnebus) and Henri
Estienne. Died in 1547.
Toussaint, too'saN', (ANNA LUISE GERTRUDE,) a
Dutch novelist, born at Alkmaar in 1812. She pub
lished, besides other works, "Almagro," (1837,) "The
English in Rome," (1840,) and " Lauernesse House,"
(" Met Huis Lauernesse," 1841,) which had a great
success ; also a popular historical novel, entitled " Ley-
cester in Nederland," (about 1851.) She was married
to the painter Bosboom in 1851.
See the "Westminster Review" for August, 1843.
Toussaint, too'saN', (FRANCOIS CHKISTOPHE AR-
MAND,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1806, was a
pupil of David of Angers. Among his works is "Two
Indian Slaves bearing a Torch." Died in 1862.
Toussaint, (FRANgois VINCENT,) a French writer,
born in Paris about 1715. He published a treatise on
ethics, entitled " Les Mceurs par Panage," (1748.) Died
in Berlin ill 1772.
Toussaint L'Ouverture, too'saN' loo'v^R'tiiR', a
celebrated negro general and liberator, born near Cap
Frai^ois, in Hayti, in 1743, was descended from an
African prince. His parents were both slaves and of
pure negro blood. He learned to read and to write,
and by his good conduct and intelligence gained the
confidence of his master, who appointed him steward
of the implements employed in making sugar. In
August, 1791, began a general insurrection of the slaves
of Hayti, who massacred many of the whites. Tous
saint, however, was innocent of these acts of cruelty,
and saved the lives of his master's family. After they
had escaped from the island, Toussaint joined the army
which was fighting for liberty. The insurgents espoused
the cause of Louis XVI., while their former masters
received aid from the English.
The horrible confusion which prevailed in the island
was increased by dissensions among the whites and by
the interference of the Spaniards. Toussaint obtained
the chief command of the negroes, and after the French
Convention had decreed the liberation of the slaves
(February, 1794) he fought against the English and
Spaniards, and aided the French general Laveaux to
expel those invaders. He gained a number of victories.
" His energy and his prowess," says Beard, " made him
the idol of his troops. ... In his deeds and warlike
achievements he had equalled the great captains of
ancient and modern times." He was appointed com-
mander-in-chief by the French commissioner in 1796,
and confirmed as such by Bonaparte about December,
1799. He was regarded as a general benefactor by all
classes and colours. He restored order and prosperity,
and governed with moderation and humanity. Under
his auspices a liberal constitution was formed, and he
was elected president for life. Toussaint sent this con
stitution to Bonaparte for his approbation in July, 1800,
but the French Consul exclaimed, " He is a revolted
slave, whom we must punish ; the honour of France is
outraged." Having resolved to reduce the negroes
again to slavery, Bonaparte sent an army of about
35,000 men, under Leclerc, to subdue Toussaint. This
army arrived at Hayti about the end of iSoi, and, though
courageously resisted by Toussaint, occupied the sea
ports. Retiring to the mountains, Toussaint maintained
the contest, and killed thousands of the French. Le
clerc resorted to negotiation, and offered the negroes
their liberty. These conditions were accepted by Tous
saint, who concluded a peace and retired to his estate.
He was taken by treachery in June, 1802, and carried to
France, and confined in the dungeon in the castle of
Joux, near Besai^on, where he died in April, 1803.
According to some authors, he was starved to death.
See SAINT-R^MY, "Vie de Toussaint L'Ouverture," 1850; JOHN
R. BEARD, "Life of Toussaint L'Ouverture," 1853; J. REDPATH,
"Toussaint L'Ouverture; a Biography," 1863; DCBROCA, "Vie de
Toussaint Louverture," 1802; JAMES STEPHEN, " History of Tons-
saint Louverture," 1814; "Lecture on Toussaint L'Ouverture," by
WENDELL PHILLIPS, Boston, 1863.
Toussenel, toos'nel', ( ALPHONSE,) a French naturalist
and journalist, born at Montreuil-Bellay in 1803. He
published, besides other works, " Le Monde des Oiseaux ;
Ornithologie passionnelle," (1852.)
T6w'er, (ZEALOUS B.,) an American general, born in
Massachusetts about 1822, graduated at West Point in
1841. He became a captain about 1855, a brigadier-
general of volunteers in 1861, and commanded a brigade
at the second battle of Bull Run, August 29 and 30,
1862.
TSw'ers, (JOSEPH,) an English Unitarian divine and
writer, born in Southwark in 1737. He was a con
tributor to the " Biographia Britannica," and wrote a
" Life of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia," (2
vols., 1788,) " Observations on the Rights and Duties
of Juries," and other works. Died in 1799.
Tow'good, (MiCAjAH,) an English dissenter, born
in Devonshire in 1700, wrote, besides other works,
a book entitled " High-Flown Episcopal and Priestly
Claims freely Examined." He preached at Exeter. Died
in 1792.
Towianski, to-ve-an'skee, a Polish mystic, who pre
tended to have divine revelations, was born in Lithuania
about 1800. He successively visited the principal cities
of Europe, and while in Paris made a convert of the
Polish poet Mickiewicz, who wrote a treatise in favour
of his doctrines, entitled "The Official Church and Mes-
sianism." Being soon after banished from France, he
retired to Switzerland.
T6wn'ley, (CHARLES,) an English amateur, born in
Lancashire in 1737, resided at Rome, where he made a
large and choice collection of statuary, medals, and other
remains of ancient art, which are now in the British
Museum and are called the " Townley marbles." His
collection was purchased for twenty-eight thousand two
hundred pounds. Died in 1805.
Towuley, (JAMES,) an English divine and dramatic
writer, born in London in 1715. He was a friend of
Hogarth, whom he assisted in his " Analysis of Beauty."
He was the author of the popular farce of " High Life
Below-Stairs," (1759,) and he is said to have assisted
Garrick in the composition of his dramas. Died in
1778.
Townley, (JOHN,) an uncle of Charles, noticed above,
was born in 1697. Pie served with distinction in the
French army, and made a good French translation of
"Hudibras." Died in 1782.
TSwii'send, (ELIZA,) an American writer, born in
Boston about 1788, was the author of an admired poem,
entitled "The Incomprehensibility of God," and other
works. Died in 1854.
See GRISWOLD, " Female Poets of America."
T5wn'send, (JOHN,) an English divine and philan
thropist, born in London in 1757. He was one of the
founders of the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb at
Bermondsey, (1792.) He wrote "Hints on Sunday-
Schools," etc., and other works.
Townsend, (JOSEPH,) an English divine and physi
cian, born about 1740, was chaplain to Lady Huntingdon.
He published "The Physician's Vade-Mecum," (1794,)
"The Character of Moses established for Veracity as an
Historian," etc., (2 vols. 4to, 1813-15,) which is highly
commended, and other works. Died in 1816.
Towiishend, town'zend, (CHARLES,) Viscount Town-
shend, an English statesman, born in 1676, was the
son of Horatio Townshend, the first viscount of that
name. He succeeded to the peerage at the death of his
father, about 1686. In 1709 he was sent as ambassador
to the Dutch United Provinces, and negotiated the Bar
rier treaty. He married a sister of Sir Robert Wai pole.
On the accession of George I. (1714) he became secre
tary of state and prime minister. He and the other
ministers were all Whigs. By the intrigues or agency of
Sunderland, he was removed in 1716, and was offered
the place of lord lieutenant of Ireland, which he indig
nantly refused. Sir Robert Wai pole, who was his friend,
resigned office, and went with Townshend into the op
position. In 1721 Townshend was appointed secretary
of state in a new ministry, of which Walpole was the
premier, or first lord of the treasury. He resigned
in 1730, in consequence of a quarrel with Walpole.
"Townshend retired," says Macaulay, "and, with rare
moderation and public spirit, refused to take any part in
€ as k; 9 as j; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
135
Explanations, p. 23.
TOWNSHEND
2146
TRAJAN
politics." (Review of the "Life of Lord Chatham.")
He died in 1738, leaving the reputation of an honest
statesman.
Townshend, (CHARLES,) a grandson of the pre
ceding, was born in 1725, and was a younger son of the
third Viscount Townshend. He entered the House of
Commons in 1747, and acquired a high reputation as an
orator. He was appointed treasurer of the chamber in
1756. In politics he was a Whig. He became secretary
at war under Pitt in 1761, and first lord of trade and
plantations in 1763. He supported the Stamp Act, so
obnoxious to the American colonies, (1765.) In the new
ministry formed by Lord Chatham in 1766, he was
chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of
Commons. He procured the passage of the bill which
imposed a tax on tea and other articles imported into
the American colonies, and which provoked them to
revolt. "Charles Townshend," says Macaulay, "a man
of splendid talents, of lax principles, and of boundless
vanity and presumption, would submit to no control. . . .
He had always quailed before the genius and the lofty
character of Pitt; but, now that Pitt [Lord Chatham]
had quitted the House of Commons and seemed to have
abdicated the part of chief minister, Townshend broke
loose from all restraint." (Essay on the "Earl of Chat
ham," in the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1844.)
He died in September, 1767. He had married a daughter
of John, Duke of Argyle.
Townshend, (GEORGE,) Marquis Townshend, a
brother of the preceding, was born in 1724. He became
a general, was sent to Canada, and succeeded Wolfe as
commander-in-chief when the latter was killed, (1759.)
He was afterwards employed in Germany and Portugal.
Died in 1807.
T6wn'son, (THOMAS,) an English theologian, born
in Essex in 1715. He studied at Christ Church College,
Oxford, and rose through various preferments to be
Archdeacon of Richmond in 1780. He published several
theological works, one of which, entitled " Discourses
on the Four Gospels," (1778,) was very favourably re
ceived, and was praised by Bishop Lowth. The degree
of D.D. was bestowed on the author by the University
of Oxford. Died in 1792.
TSw'spn, (NATHAN,) an American general, born
near Baltimore in 1784. As captain of the second regi
ment of artillery, under the command of Lieutenant-
Colonel (afterwards General) Scott, he assisted in the
capture of the brig Caledonia from the British, (October,
1812.) In the campaigns of 1813 and 1814 he won a
high reputation for skill and bravery, and distinguished
himself in the actions of Chippewa, Niagara, and Fort
Erie. He became successively lieutenant-colonel, (1816,)
paymaster-general, (1819,) brigadier-general, (1834,) and
major-general, (1849.) Died in 1854.
To'zer, (HENRY,) an English Puritan minister, born
in Devonshire in 1602. He preached at Oxford, and
afterwards at Rotterdam, where he died in 1650. He
had published several sermons.
Tozzetti. See TARGIONI.
Tozzi, tot'see, (LuCA,) an Italian physician, born near
Aversa in 1638, succeeded Malpighi as professor at Rome
and physician to the pope in 1695. Died in 1717.
Tra'be-a, (QuiNTUS,) a Roman comic poet, who lived
about 130 B.C. His works are lost, except small frag
ments.
Tra'cy, (ALBERT H.,) an American lawyer, born at
Norwich, Connecticut, in 1793, removed to the State of
New York about 1812. He was a member of Congress
from 1819 to 1825. Died at Buffalo in 1859.
Tracy, (URIAH,) an American statesman, born in
Franklin, Connecticut, in 1755. He represented a dis
trict of Connecticut in Congress from 1793 to 1796,
and was elected a Senator of the United States by the
legislature of that State in the latter year. He was
an able speaker, and was distinguished for his wit and
humour. He remained in the Senate until his death,
which occurred in 1807.
Tracy, de, cleh tid'se', (ALEXANDRE CESAR VICTOR
CHARLES Destutt — di'tii',) MARQUIS, a French poli
tician, born in Paris in 1781. He was a Liberal member
of the Chamber of Deputies from 1827 to 1848, and was
minister of the marine from December, 1848, to October,
1849. Died in 1864.
See " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale."
Tracy, de, (ANTOINE Louis CHARLES DESTUTT,)
COMTK, a French philosopher, born in the Bourbonnais
in 1754, was the father of the preceding. He attained
the rank of marechal-de-camp in the army in 1792, and
was imprisoned for ten months in the reign of terror.
About 1800 he was appointed a member of the senate.
Having acquired distinction by several works on logic,
grammar, etc., he was admitted into the French Acad
emy in 1808. His chief work is " Elements of Ideology,"
("Elements d'Icleologie," 4 vols., 1817-18.) His phi
losophy is the sensualism or sensationalism of Condillac
carried to the extreme issues. Died in 1836.
See DAMIRON, " Essai de la Philosophic en France;" MIGNET,
"Notices et Portraits;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. "
Tra'cjf, de, (SARAH NEWTON,) MARQUISE, born at
Stockport, in England, in 1789, was married in 1816 to
the Marquis de Tracy, noticed above. She died in 1850,
leaving "Essais divers, Lettres et Pensees," (3 vols.,
1852-55.)
See SAINTE-BEUVE, "Causeries du Lundi. "
Trad'es-cant, (JOHN,) a distinguished traveller and
naturalist, supposed to have been a native of Holland,
settled in England, and became in 1629 gardener to
Charles I. He had previously visited Asia and the
shores of the Mediterranean, where he made a collection
of plants. Died about 1640. His son, of the same
name, born in 1608, went on a scientific expedition to
Virginia. He published a descriptive catalogue of his
father's Museum, entitled "Museum Tradescantium,"
etc., (1656.) He died in 1662, and the collection, which
he greatly increased, now forms the principal part of the
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. The genus Tradescantia
was named in honour of these botanists.
Traetta, tRa-et'ta, (TOMMASO,) an Italian composer,
born at Bitonto in 1727. He composed a number of
operas. Died in 1779.
Tragua. See BOCK, (HIERONYMUS.)
Traheron, trah'er-on, ? (BARTHOLOMEW,) an English
Protestant minister, born after 1500. He became keeper
of the Royal Library in the reign of Edward VI., at whose
death (1553) he went into exile. He wrote several the
ological works.
Traill, tral, (ROBERT,) a Scottish Calvinistic divine,
born in Fifeshire in 1642, was imprisoned under the
Conventicle Act in the reign of Charles II. He was
the author of several religious works. His grandson,
James Traill, went over to the Church of England, and
was made Bishop of Down and Connor. Died in 1783.
Traill, (THOMAS STEWART,) M.I)., a Scottish natural
ist and physician, born in Orkney in 1781. He became
professor of medical jurisprudence at Edinburgh about
1832, and edited the eighth edition of the "Encyclo
paedia Britannica." Died in 1862.
Tra'jan, [Lat. TRAJA'NUS; It. TRAJANO, tRa-ya'no ;
Fr. TRAJAN, tRt'zh6N' ; Ger. TRAJAN, tRa-yai/, | or,
more fully, Mar'cua Ul'pi-us Ner'va Tra-ja'nus,
Emperor of Rome, born near Seville, in Spain, about
52 A.D., was the son of Trajan, an Iberian officer, whom
he accompanied in his campaigns in Asia Minor. He
was chosen consul in 91 A.D., and was afterwards ap
pointed to command the legions on the Lower Rhine.
His eminent virtues and ability obtained for him the
favour and confidence of the emperor Nerva, who
adopted him and made him his successor. On the
death of Nerva, in 98 A.D., Trajan was proclaimed em
peror, and soon after marched against Decebalus, King
of the Dacians, whom he repeatedly defeated. In 106
A.D. Dacia became a Roman province, and a column
(which is still extant) was erected on the Forum Trajani,
in commemoration of these victories, by Apollodorusof
Damascus. In the year 115 he commanded in person an
army which invaded Parthia, and defeated the Parthians
in several battles. He took Ctesiphon, the capital of
Parthia, and deposed the king of that country. In
116 he descended the Tigris to the Persian Gulf. He
was returning to Rome, when he died, without issue, at
Selinus, in Cilicia, in 117 A.D., and was succeeded by
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon;
TRAJANO
2147
TRELAT
Hadrian. Trajan was one of the greatest and best em
perors of Rome. He is commended for his moderation,
sound judgment, and the simplicity of his mode of living.
Yet he persecuted the Christians, and presided as judge
at the tribunal when the martyr Ignatius was sentenced
to death. Among his friends was Pliny the Younger,
who wrote a "Panegyric on Trajan."
SeeTiLLEMONT, " Histoiredes Empereurs;" RITTER, "Trajanus
in Lucem reproductus," 1768; H. FRANCKE, " Zur Geschiclite Tra
jan's," etc., 1840; GENERSICH, "Trajan; biographisches Gemalde,"
1811 ; MERIVALE, "History of the Romans under the Empire;"
MORALES, " Hechos y Dichos de Trajano," 1654; " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale. "
Trajano and Trajanus. See TRAJAN.
Trajanus, a Roman general under the emperor
Valens. In 373 A.D. he commanded an army which
defeated Sapor, King of Persia. He was killed at the
battle of Adrianople, in 378 A.n.
Trail, (RussEi.LTHACHER,) M.D., an eminent Ameri
can physician of the hydropathic school, born in Tolland
county, Connecticut, in 1812. Having removed to New
York, he founded in 1843 a water-cure establishment,
to which he afterwards joined a medical school, called
the " New York Hygeio-Therapeutic College," designed
for both sexes. He has edited successively the " Hydro
pathic Review," the " Water-Cure Journal," and " Life
Illustrated." Among his principal works we may name
the "Hydropathic Encyclopaedia," (1852,) " Hydropathic
Cook-Kook," (1854,) "Prize Essay on Tobacco," "The
Scientific Basis of Vegetarianism," and " Diseases of
the Throat and Lungs."
Tralles, tRal'les, (BALTHASAR LUDWIG,) a German
physician, born at Breslau in 1708. He practised in that
city, and wrote a number of medical works, which were
esteemed. Died in 1797.
Trallianus. See ALEXANDER OF TRALLES.
Transtamare, de, (HENRY.) See HENRY II. OF
CASTILE.
Trapp, (JOHN,) an English clergyman, born in 1601.
He was vicar of Weston-on-Avon, and wrote a com
mentary on the Bible. Died in 1669.
Trapp, (JOSEPH,) D.D., an English divine and
scholar, born in Gloucestershire in 1679. He became
professor of poetry at Oxford in 1708, and was subse
quently chaplain to Lord Bolingbroke, who bestowed
upon him the living of Harlington, in Middlesex. He
published " Praelectiones Poeticae," (3 vols., 1711-19,)
"Notes upon the Gospels," (2 vols., 1748,) and several
political treatises ; also a translation of the " yEneid"
into blank verse, and a Latin version of "Paradise
Lost." Died in 1747.
Traun, von, fon tRown, (O'rro FERDINAND,) COUNT,
an Austrian general, born in 1677. He obtained the rank
of field-marshal in 1740, and commanded the army
which under Charles of Lorraine opposed Frederick
the Great in 1745. He forced the Prussians to evacuate
Bohemia. Died in 1748. Frederick compared him to
Sertorius, and ascribed to him the success of the Aus-
trians in the campaign of 1745-
Trautson, von, fon tRowt'son, QOHANN JOSEPH,)
COUNT, a liberal German prelate, born in 1704. He
promoted reform in religion and morals. In 1756 he
became a cardinal. Died at Vienna in 1757.
Trauttmansdorf, tRowt'mans-doRf, (MAXIMILIAN,)
COUNT, an Austrian diplomatist and statesman, born at
Gratz in 1584. He concluded a treaty of peace in 1619
between Ferdinand II. and Maximilian of Bavaria, and
subsequently negotiated the Peace of Westphalia. He
enjoyed the'esteem and confidence of the emperor Fer
dinand II., and was the first to communicate to him the
treasonable designs of Wallenstein. Died in 1650.
See SCHILLER, "Thirty Years' War."
Travasa, tRa-va'sa, (GAF.TANO MARIA,) an Italian
historian, born at Bassano in 1698. He wrote a "His
tory, of the Heresiarchs of the First Four Centuries,"
(6 vols., 1752-62,) and other works. Died in 1774.
Travers, tRi'vaiR', (GiLLES JULIEN,) a French scholar
and poet, born at Valognes (Marche) in 1802. He was
professor of Latin at Caen from 1844 to 1856. He pro
duced poems called "Les Algeriennes," (1827,) and
"Mourning," (" Deuil," 1837.)
Trav'ers, (JOHN,) an English composer, was a pupil
of Dr. Greene, and was appointed organist to the cha
pels royal in 1737. Died in 1758.
Travers, (NICOLAS,) a French Jansenist priest and
writer, born at Nantes in 1674. He wrote, besides other
works, a " History of Nantes," (3 vols., 1836-41.) Died
in 1750.
Traversari. See AMBROSIUS OF CAMALDOLI.
Travies de Villiers, tRt've-eV deh ve'ya', (CHARLES
JOSEPH,) a Swiss painter of genre, born in the canton
of Zurich in 1804. He painted grotesque scenes with
success, and was one of the founders of the "Charivari"
of Paris. Died in 1859. His brother EDOUARD is a
skilful painter of animals and still life.
Trav'is, (GEORGE,) an English clergyman, born in
Lancashire, became Archdeacon of Chester. He wrote
several letters to Gibbon on the authenticity of the text
I. John v. 7. Died in 1797.
Travot, tRt'vo', (JEAN PIERRE,) a French general,
born at Poligny in 1767 ; died in 1836.
Trayer, tRa'ya', QEAN BAPTISTE JULES,) a French
landscape-painter, born in Paris about 1806.
Tread'well, (DANIEL,) an American mechanician,
born at Ipswich, Massachusetts, in 1791. He became
associate editor of the " Boston Journal of Philosophy
and the Arts" in 1822, and in 1834 Rumford professor
of technology in Harvard College. He has invented a
machine for spinning hemp for cordage, and a cannon
called by his name.
Trebatius. See TESTA, .
Trebatti. See Po^rffb.
Tre-bel'U-us Max'I-mus, a Roman magistrate under
the reign of Nero, was chosen consul with Lucius An-
naeus Seneca in 62 A.D.
Trebellius Pollio. See POLLIO, (TREBELLIUS.)
Tre-bo'm-us, (CAius,) a Roman politician, became
tribune of the people in 55 B.C., and one of Caesar's legates
in Gaul. He was a partisan of Caesar in the civil war,
was elected city praetor in 48, and consul in 45 B.C. He
performed a prominent part in the conspiracy against
the life of Caesar. In 43 B.C. he was killed at Smyrna
by Dolabella.
Trebutien, tRa'bii'seJ.N', (GUILLAUME STANISLAS,)
a French antiquary and Orientalist, born in Calvados
in 1800. He published a work on the "History and
Antiquities of Caen," (1847.)
Treb'y, (Sir GEORGE,) an English jurist, born in
Devonshire in 1644, was elected to Parliament for Plymp-
ton in 1678, and subsequently rose to be attorney-gen
eral and chief justice of the common pleas in the reign
of William III. Died in 1702.
Tred'gold, (THOMAS,) an English civil engineer, born
at Brandon, in Durham, in 1788. He became a resident
of London, and published in 1820 "Elementary Prin
ciples of Carpentry," which is a valuable work. He
wrote a number of treatises on joinery, railroads, the
steam-engine, etc. Died in London in 1829.
Trediakovsky, tra-de-a-kov'ske, (VASILII KIRILO-
VITCH,) a Russian litterateur, born in 1703, studied in
Paris, and after his return became secretary to the Saint
Petersburg Academy of Sciences, (1733.) He translated
Rollin's " Ancient History," and published numerous
original poems. Died in 1769.
Treilhard, tRa'lf R', or Trelliard, tR^le-tR', (JEAN
BAPTISTE,) COUNT, a French statesman of the Revo
lution, born at Brives in 1742. He was a republican
member of the Convention of 1792-95, observed a cautious
silence during the reign of terror, and was elected to the
Council of Five Hundred in 1795. He was one of the
directors of the republic from May, 1798, to June, 1799.
In 1802 he was appointed a councillor of state. He re
ceived the title of minister of state in 1809, and that of
count in 1810, and died the same year. .
See THIERS, " History of the French Revolution;" "Nouvelle
Biographic GeneYale."
Treitschke, tritsh'keh, (KARL GEORG,) a German
jurist, born at Dresden in 1783. He published several
legal works.
Trelat, tRa'lf', (ULYSSE,) a French physician and re
publican, born at Montargis in 1795. He was minister
of public works in May-June, 1848.
« as k; c a? s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; th as in this. (2l^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
TRELAWNET
2148
T RES CHOW
Tre-law'iiey, (Sir JOHN,) Bishop of Bristol, was one
of the seven bishops prosecuted in 1688 for refusing to
publish King James's declaration of indulgence.. He was
acquitted.
See Miss STRICKLAND, "Lives of the Seven Bishops," London,
1866.
Trelliard. See TREILHARD.
Trellund, treTlund, (JoHAN or HANS,) a Danish
bishop, born at Copenhagen in 1669. He was appointed
Bishop of Viborg about 1726, and published several
theological works. Died in 1735.
See TYCHONIUS, " Ligpraediken over Biskop H. Trellund," 1735.
Trembecki, trgm-bits'skee, (STANISLAS,) a Polish
poet, born in the dis»ict of Cracow about 1724, was
patronized by the kifc Stanislas Augustus. He was
the author of a descriptive poem, entitled "Zofijowka,''
which is highly esteemed by his countrymen. He died
in 1812, leaving a "History of Poland," in manuscript.
Tremblay. See JOSEPH, (FRANgois LECLERC.)
Trembley, tRfiiVbli', (ABRAHAM,) a Swiss naturalist,
born at Geneva in 1700, published "Memoirs on Fresh-
Water Polypes," (1744,) "Instructions on Natural and
Revealed Religion," (1775,) and other works. He was
a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1784.
See "Memoire sur la Vie de Trembley," 1787.
Tremellius, tRa-mel'le-oos, (EMMANUEL,) an Italian
Orientalist, born at Ferrara about 1510. He was con
verted to the Protestant faith by Peter Martyr, (Vermigli,
with whom he retired for safety to Germany. In the
reign of Edward VI. he taught Hebrew at Cambridge.
He was afterwards professor of Hebrew at Heidelberg,
where he translated the New Testament from Syriac
into Latin, (1569.) Aided by Francis Junius, he pro
duced a Latin translation of the Bible, (1575-79,) which
was highly esteemed. Died at Sedan in 1580.
See M. ADAM, " Vitz Theologorum exteroi um ;" TEISSIER,
"Hloges."
Tremoille, de la, deh If tRa'mwal' or tRa'mwa'ye,
or Trimouille, tRe'mooT, (Louis,) Prince de Talmont,
a French general, born in 1460. He rendered an im
portant service at the battle of Fornovo, in 1495, and
commanded the army which Louis XII. sent into Italy
about 1500. He conquered Lombardy, was defeated at
Novara in 1513, and was killed at the battle of Pavia,
in I525-
See J. BOUCHET, " Pane'gyrique du Chevalier sans reproche,"
etc., 1527.
Tremolliere, tRa'mo'le-aiR', (PIERRE CHARLES,) a
French painter of history, was born in Anjou in 1703 ; died
in Paris in 1739. He was an artist of fine promise.
Tremouille. See TREMOILLE, DE LA.
Trench, (FRANCIS,) an English writer, a brother of
Archbishop Trench, was born in 1806. He became
rector of Islip. He published "Travels in France and
Spain," and several religious works.
Trench, (Rev. RICHARD CHENEVIX,) an eminent
English ecclesiastic and philologist, born in 1807. He
studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became
Hulsean lecturer in 1845. He was appointed theological
professor and examiner at King's College, London, in
1847, and in 1856 created Dean of Westminster. He
has published "The Sermon on the Mount Illustrated
from Saint Augustine," (1844,) " Notes on the Miracles,"
(1846,) a treatise "On the Study of Words," (1851,)
often reprinted, " Synonyms of the New Testament,"
(1854,) also a number of poems, among which we may
name "The Story of Justin Martyr," (1835,) "Poems
from Eastern Sources," and "Genoveva," (1842.) He
was appointed Archbishop of Dublin in 1863.
See ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Trench'ard, (Sir JOHN,) an English statesman, born
in Dorsetshire in 1650. He represented Taunton in
Parliament in 1679, and distinguished himself as an
active member of the opposition. He was an advocate
for the Exclusion Bill, and was imprisoned for a time in
1683, on a charge of being implicated in the Rye-House
Plot. After the accession of James II. he took refuge
in France, but he returned to England after the Revolu
tion of 1688, and was appointed secretary of state by
William III., (1693.) Died in 1695.
Trenchard, (Jonx,) an English journalist and po
litical writer, born about 1662. He was the author of
"The Natural History of Superstition," (1709,) "A
Comparison of the Proposals of the Bank and South
Sea Company," "Thoughts on the Peerage Bill," and
"Cato's Letters," the last-named in conjunction with
Mr. T. Gordon, — and was associated with that gentleman
as editor of the " Independent Whig." Died in 1723.
Trenck, von der, fon d§R tR§nk, (FRANZ,) BARON, a
celebrated military commander, born at Reggio, in Cala
bria, in 1714, was the son of a Prussian officer. At an
early age he entered the Russian service, where he dis
tinguished himself equally by his reckless courage and
his ferocity. On the breaking out of the Austrian war
of succession, he offered his services to Maria Theresa,
and at the head of his pandours made himself every
where formidable by his barbarities and rapacity. He
was at length imprisoned at Spielberg, in Moravia, where
he died in 1749. His autobiography, called " Remarkable
Life and Deeds of Baron Trenck," appeared in 1807.
See, also, HUBNER, " Franz von der Trenck," 3 vols., 1788-89.
Trenck, von der, (FRIEDRICH,) BARON, a cousin
of the preceding, was born at Konigsberg in 1726. He
entered the Prussian army at an early age, and for a
time enjoyed the favour of Frederick the Great ; but,
having, as is supposed, offended the king by an impru
dent attachment to his sister the princess Amelia, he
was imprisoned in the fortress of Glatz. Having escaped
from his prison in 1747, he went to Russia, where he
was patronized by the empress and made a captain of
hussars. While on a visit to his family, in 1754, he was
arrested by order of Frederick, confined in a narrow cell
at Magdeburg, and, after several attempts at escape,
loaded with heavy irons. He was released in 1763, but
he was obliged to leave the kingdom. After the death
of Frederick, Baron Trenck published his autobiographic
"Memoirs," (3 vols., 1787,) which acquired great popu
larity and were translated into the principal European
languages. After residing for a time at Aix-la-Chapelle
and other cities on the continent, he went in 1792 to
Paris, where he joined the Jacobin faction, by whom he
was sentenced to the guillotine in 1794.
See WAHRMANN, " F. von der Trenck, Leben," etc., 1837;
ERICH, " Leben und Schicksaledes Abenteurers F. von der Trenck,"
1846 ; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale."
Trendlenburg, tRen'dlen-booRo', written also Tren-
delenburg, (FRIKDRICH ADOLF,) a German scholar and
philosophical writer, born at Eutin in 1802, published
" Logical Researches," (" Logische Untersuchungen,"
1840,) and other works. He became professor of phi
losophy at Berlin in 1833.
Treneuil, tReh-nu!' or tReh-nuh'ye, (JOSEPH,) a
French poet, born at Cahors in 1763. Among his works
is "The Tombs of Saint-Denis," ("Les Tombeaux de
Saint-Denis," 1806.) Died in Paris in 1818.
Tren'holm, (GEORGE A.,) of South Carolina, an
American financier, was appointed secretary of the
treasury by Jefferson Davis in June, 1864.
Trenta, tRen'ta, (FILIPPO,) an Italian tragic poet, born
at Ascoli in 1731 ; died in 1795.
Trento, da, da tRen'to, (ANTONIO,) an Italian wood-
engraver, originally named FANTUZZI, (fin-toot'see,)
born at Trent. He was a pupil of Parmigiano, several
of whose works he engraved. Died about 1545.
Treritowski, tRen-tov'skee, (FERDINAND B.,) an
eminent Polish philosopher, born near Warsaw in 1808.
Being compelled to leave his country during the rebellion
of 1830, he repaired to Germany, where he devoted him
self to teaching philosophy. He published, in German,
his "Basis of Universal Philosophy," (1837,) "Prelimi
nary Studies to the Science of Nature," (1840,) and a
Latin treatise "On the Eternal Life of Man." Among
his other works, which are written in Polish, we may
name "The Relation of Philosophy to the Science of
Government," " Education on a System of Pedagogics,"
and " Logic."
Treschow, tResh'ov, (NEILS,) a Norwegian scholar
and writer, born at Drammen in 1751. He studied at
"openhagen, and was appointed in 1803 professor of
ohilosophy in the university of that city. Among his
orincipal works are "Principles of Legislation," "Spirit
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
TRESHAM
2149
TRIGAULT
of Christianity," "Morality for the State and People,
and "Philosophical Testament," etc. Died in 1833.
Tresham, tresh'am, (HENRY,) an Irish artist am
poet, studied at Rome, and was chosen, after his return
a Royal Academician. He was the author of " The Sea
Sick Minstrel," and other poems. Died in 1814.
Tressaii, de, deh tR<¥s6N', (Louis ELISAHETH de la
Vergne— deli It viRn,) COUNT, a French officer anc
litterateur, born at Mons in 1705. He was the author o
a "Treatise on Electricity," (1749,) and other origina
works, and made translations of the "Orlando Furioso,'
" Amadis de Gaul," and other works of the kind. H
was elected to the French Academy in 1781, and was a
friend of Voltaire. He served as aide-de-camp to the
king at Fontenoy in 1745, and became lieutenant-genera
in 1747. Died in 1783.
See CONDORCET, " tflo.ses ;" VOLTAIRE, " Correspondance ;'
" Nouvelle Biographic Ge"nerale."
Trevigi. See TREVISL
Treville. See LA TOUCHE-TKEVIU.E.
Treviranus, tRa-ve-ra'nus, (GOTTFRIED REINHOI.D,',
a German physiologist, born at Bremen in 1776, practisec
medicine in that city. He published, besides other
works, "Biology, or the Philosophy of Living Nature,'
etc., (6 vols., 1802-22,) which is highly commended.
Died in 1837.
Treviranus, (LunoLPH CHRISTIAN,) a botanist, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Bremen in 1779.
He became professor of botany at Bonn, and published
" Physiology of Plants," (1835-39.)
Trevisani, tRa-ve-sa'nee, (ANGELO,) a Venetian
painter of the eighteenth century, was distinguished for
the excellence of his portraits.
Trevisani, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian painter, some
times called ROMAN TREVISANI, was born near Trieste
in 1656. He studied under Zanchi at Venice, and after
wards visited Rome, where he executed several of hi
best works. Among these may be named a " Cruci
fixion," and " The Slaughter of the Innocents." Died
in 1746.
Trevise, de, Due. See MORTIER.
Trevisi, da, da tRa-vee'see, or Trevigi, tra-vee'jee,
(GlROLAMO,) an Italian painter and architect, born at
Trevigi about 1500, resided for a time in England,
where he was patronized by Henry VIII. Among his
master-pieces may be named a " Madonna accompanied
by Saints." His portraits also are highly esteemed.
Died in 1544.
Treviso, (tRa-vee'so,) DUKE OF. See MORTIER.
Trev'i-thick, (RICHARD,) an English engineer, born
in Cornwall in 1771, was one of the inventors of high-
pressure steam-engines. He obtained in 1802 a patent
for a steam-carriage to run on common roads. In 1804
he constructed a locomotive for railways. Died in 1833.
See WILLIAM WALKER, " Memoirs of the Distinguished Men
of Science of Great Britain," etc., London, 1864; "All the Year
Round" for August, 1860.
Tre'vor, (Sir JOHN,) an able English statesman, born
in 1626, was a son-in-law of the illustrious Hamp-
den. Early in 1668 he was sent as an envoy to France,
and negotiated the provisional treaty of April 15, 1668.
He was appointed secretary of state in September of
that year. Having opposed without success the foreign
policy which Charles II. and the Duke of York adopted,
he was turned out of the cabinet in 1670; but he con
tinued to be secretary until his death, in 1672.
Trevor, (Sir JOHN,) an English lawyer, born in 1633,
was a cousin and parasite of the infamous Judge Jef
freys. In the reign of Charles II. he was solicitor-
general. He became master of the rolls, and Speaker of
the House of Commons, in 1685. He was made a privy
councillor in 1688, and was subsequently appointed first
commissioner of the great seal. Having been convicted
of bribery, he was expelled from the Speakership in 1695,
but was allowed to retain the mastership of the rolls.
Died in 1717.
Trevor, (THOMAS,) LORD, an eminent English lawyer,
was a son of Sir John Trevor, (1626-72,) and a grandson
of John Hampden. He was appointed chief justice of
the common pleas in 1701, was raised to the peerage, as
Lord Trevor, in 1711, and became lord privy seal in
1726. He was appointed president of the council in
1730, and died the same year, leaving a son, who about
1766 received the title of Viscount Hampden.
Trew, tRa, (CHKISTOPH JAKOB,) a celebrated German
botanist and anatomist, born near Nuremberg in 1695.
He studied medicine, and became physician-in-ordinary
to the Margrave of Anspach. In 1746 he was made
president of the " Academic des Curieux de la Nature,"
with the titles of Count-Palatine and physician to the
emperor. He published " Plantae Selectas," etc., (1570-
73,) a magnificent publication, illustrated by Ehret, and
"History and Botanical Character of the Cedars or"
Lebanon," (" Cedrorum Libani Historia et Character
Botanicus," etc., 2 vols., 1757-67;) also " Osteological
Plates of the Human Body," (" Tabulae Osteologicae
Corporis Humani," 1767, with coloured plates,) and
other anatomical works. Died in 1769.
See RUMPEL, " Monumentum Trewio positum," 1769; " Bio-
graphie Medicale."
Trezel, tRa'zel', (CAMILLE ALPHONSE,) a French
general, born in Paris in 1780; died in 1860.
Trezel, (PIERRE FELIX,) a French painter of history
and allegory, born in Paris in 1782; died in 1855.
Trianon, tRe't'nd.N', (HENRI,) a French litterateur
and critic, born about 1810. He wrote critiques for the
"Artiste" and other periodicals, and published editions
of Homer's Poems.
Tribolo, di, de tRee'bo-lo, (NiccoiA) an eminent
Italian sculptor, whose family name was PERICOLI, was
born at Florence in 1500, or, as some say, 1485. He
was a pupil of Sansovino, and was patronized by Pope
Clement VII., who employed him to assist Michael
Angelo in sculptures for the chapel of San Lorenzo at
Florence. Among his works are a statue of Nature, at
Fontainebleau, and bas-reliefs, representing the mar
riage of the Virgin, at Loretto. In the latter part of his
life he was employed by Cosimo de' Medici to adorn
with statues and fountains the gardens of the Pitti palace.
Died in 1550.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors ;" CICOGNARA,
"Storia della Scultura."
Tri-bo'm-an or Tri-bo-nl-a'nus, [Fr. TRIKONIEN,
tRe'bo'neji.N',] a celebrated Roman jurist, born in Pam-
phylia about 475 A.D., was distinguished by the favour
of the emperor Justinian, by whom he was successively
appointed quaestor, master of the imperial household,
praetorian prefect, and consul. He was charged by
the emperor, conjointly with nine other commissioners,
to prepare the first Justinian Code. Died in 545 A.D.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" LUDE-
WIG, " Vita Justinian! et Triboniani," 1731.
Tribonianus. See TRIBONIAN.
Tribouien. See TRIKONIAN.
Tribune, tRe-boo'no, (PIETRO,) was elected Doge of
Venice in 888 A.D., and defeated the Hungarians in 906.
Died in 912.
Tri-bu'nus, [Gr. TpiSovvof,] an eminent physician,
jorn in Palestine, lived about 530 A.D., and was noted
br his benevolence. He attended Chosroes, King of
Persia, whom he cured.
Tricaud, tR«'k5', (ANTHELME,) a French writer and
Driest, born at Belley in 1671. He wrote several his-
:orical works. Died in Paris in 1739.
Tricoupi. See TRIKUPIS.
Triest, tReest, (ANTOINE,) a Flemish prelate, born
near Audenarde in 1576, was noted for his charity. He
Became Bishop of Bruges in 1616. Died in 1657.
Triewald, tRee'wald, or Trivald, (MARTIN,) a Swed-
sh engineer and mechanician, born at Stockholm in
1691. He visited England at an early age, and made
he acquaintance of Sir Isaac Newton. Having applied
himself for many years to the study of mechanics and
latural philosophy, he returned to Sweden, where he
constructed a steam-engine and made a number of
mprovements in machinery. He was one of the founders
f the Academy of Stockholm, and was a Fellow of the
^.oyal Society of London. Died in 1741.
See LAUREL, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver M. Trievald," 1748.
Trigault, tRe'go', (NICOLAS,) a FYench Jesuit and
nissionary, born at Douay in 1577. He was employed
n China. Died at Nanking in 1628.
o-,ora irevor, in 1711, ana oecame lord privy seal in n ^nina. uiea at iNaiiKing in 1025.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. O^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
TRIG INT A
2150
TRITO
Triginta Tyranni. See THIRTY TYRANTS.
Trigueros, tRe-ga'rds, (Don CANDIDE MARIA,) a
Spanish poet and litterateur, born at Orgaz, in Castile,
in 1736. Among his works is a comedy called "Los
Menestrales," (1784.) Died about 1800.
Trikupis, tRe-koo'pis, or Tricoupi, tRe-koo'pee,
(SPIRIDION,) a modern Greek historian and diplomatist,
born at Missolonghi in 1791. He took an active part
in the Greek revolution which began in 1821. He
was sent as ambassador, to England in 1838, in 1842,
and in 1850. He published, in Greek, a " History of
the Greek Revolution," (4 vols., 1853-57,) a work of
high reputation. He returned to Athens in 1862.
Triller, tRil'Ier, (DANIEL WILHELM,) a German phy
sician, poet, and medical writer, born at Erfurt in 1695.
He studied at Leipsic, and became in 1749 professor of
medicine at Wittenberg. He published a great number
of medical treatises, in Latin, also Latin poems on medi
cine. Died in 1782.
Trflochana, tri-lo'cha-na, (i.e. " three-eyed" or
" having three eyes,") [from the Sanscrit trt, "three,"
and lochana, an "eye,"] an epithet of SIVA, which see.
Trim/ble, (DAVID,) an American legislator, born in
Frederick county, Virginia, about 1782, removed to
Kentucky about 1804. He represented a district of
Kentucky in Congress from 1817 to 1827, and was highly
esteemed. Died in 1842.
Trimble, (ISAAC R.,) an American general, born in
Virginia about 1800, graduated at West Point in 1822.
He was a railroad-engineer before the war. He took
arms against the Union in 1861, and was killed at Cedar
Mountain, Virginia, in August, 1862.
Trimble, (WILLIAM A.,) an American Senator, born
in 1786. He served as an officer in the war of 1812,
and was elected a Senator of the United States by the
legislature of Ohio in 1819. Died in December, 1821.
Trim'mer, (SARAH,) an English writer, whose original
name was KIRBY, born at Ipswich in 1741, was the au
thor of numerous juvenile and educational works of
great merit, which have acquired extensive popularity.
Among these we may name an " Easy Introduction to
the Knowledge of Nature," (1780,) "Sacred History
selected from the Scriptures," etc., (6 vols., 1782-85,)
"The Economy of Charity," (1786,) and the "Guardian
of Education," (5 vols., 1806.) Died in 1810.
See MRS. ELWOOD, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England
from the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. i., 1843; "Life
and Writings of Mrs. Trimmer," London, 1816.
Trimouille. See TREMOUILLE, DE LA, and TAL-
MONT.
TrimurtI, tri-moor'ti, (i.e. "triform,") [from the San
scrit tri, "three," and murti, "form,"] in the Hindoo
mythology, the name given to the united form of Brahma,
Vishnu, and Siva, constituting what is termed the
'• Hindoo triad." (See note t under VISHNU.)
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Triiicavella, tRen-ka-vel'la, written also Trincavela
or Trincavelli, [Lat. TRINCAVEI/LIUS,] (VICTOR,)
an eminent Italian physician, born at Venice in 1496,
succeeded Montanus as professor of medicine at Padua,
(1551.) He published a number of medical works, in
Latin. He was an excellent Greek scholar, and edited
the works of several Greek authors which had never
been printed in the original. He greatly promoted the
introduction of Greek writings into the medical schools
of Italy. Died at Venice in 1568.
See ALBERICI, " Scrittori Veneti ;" GHILLINI, "Teatro."
Trincavelli or Trincavellius. See TRINCAVELLA.
Trionfetti, tRe-on-fet'tee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an
Italian botanist, born at Bologna in 1656, published
several works on botany. Died at Rome in 1708. His
brother LELIO, born in 1647, was also a botanist. Died
at Bologna in 1722.
Trip, trip, (HENDRIK RUDOLPH,) a Dutch general,
born at Bois-le-Duc in 1779. He was appointed director-
general of war in 1834, and became a lieutenant-general
in 1840.
Tripier, tRe'peJi', (NICOLAS JEAN BAFHSTE,) an emi
nent French advocate and judge, born at Autun in 1765.
He became a peer of France about 1832. Died in 1840.
See JOSSEAU, " Eloge de Tripier," 1841; " Biographic Univer-
Trippel, tidp'pel, (ALEXANDER,) a Swiss sculptor,
born at Schaffhausen in 1744. In 1776 he visited Rome,
where he executed the monuments of Count Tchernichef
and of Gessner, busts of Goethe and Herder, and other
works, which gained for him a very high reputation. His
bust of Goethe is esteemed a master-piece. Died in 1793.
Triptoleme. See TRIPTOLEMUS.
Trip-tol'e-mus, [Gr. T/wnTo^of ; Fr. TRIPTOLEME,
trep'to'lim',] a mythical person, said to have been a son
of King Eleusis or of Celeus, King of Eleusis. The
Greeks regarded him as a favourite of Ceres, and as the
inventor of the plough and of agriculture. It was fabled
that Ceres gave him a chariot, (drawn by dragons,) in
which he rode all over the earth, distributing corn, and
that he founded the Eleusinian Mysteries.
Triqueti, de, deh tRe'keh-te', (HENRI,) BARON, a
French sculptor, born at Conflans (Loiret) in 1802, was
also a painter in his youth. He gained a medal of the
first class in 1839. Among his works (in sculpture) are
" The Death of Charles the Bold," and " Petrarch Read
ing to Laura."
Trissin, Le. See TRISSINO.
Trissino, tRes-see'no, [Fr. LE TRISSIN, leh tRe'saN',]
(GIOVANNI GIORGIO,) an Italian litterateur and diplo
matist, born at Vicenza in 1478. He was patronized by
Leo X. and Clement VII., and employed by them in
various embassies. He was the author of a critical work
entitled " La Poetica," and a number of poems in Italian,
also several Latin compositions. Died in 1550. His
tragedy of " Sofonisba" (1524) was much admired. He
is said to have been the first Italian who wrote in versi
sciolti.
See CASTELLI, "VitadiG. G. Trissino," 1753; GINGUENE, " His-
toire Litteraire d'ltalie;" NICERON, "Memoires;" TIRABOSCHI,
" Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" "Lives of the Italian Poets,"
by REV. HENRY STEBBING.
Tristam (or Tristao) da Cunha. See CUNHA, DA.
Tris'tan or Tris'tram, the hero of one of the earliest
traditions of Britain. His history has been more or less
blended with that of King Arthur and the Round Table.
His adventures have formed the subject of numerous
poems in the principal European languages, and were
dramatized by Hans Sachs.
See " Sir Tristram," published by SIR WALTER SCOTT in 1806.
Tristan, tRes-tan', (Luis,) a Spanish painter, born
near Toledo in 1594, or, as some say, in 1586. Among
his master-pieces is " Moses Striking the Rock." Died
about 1645.
Tristan L'Hermite, tRes't6.\' leR'met/, (FRANC.OIS,)
a French dramatic poet, born in La Marche in i6oi,was
a member of the French Academy. His tragedy of
"Mariamne" was very successful. Died in 1655.
Tristram. See TRISTAN.
Trisula, tri-soo'la, or Tri-shu'la, [from the Sanscrit
trt, "three," and shftla or stila, a "dart" or "spear-
point,"] the name of Siva's trident. (See SIVA.)
Tritheim, tRit'him, [Lat. TRITHF/MIUS ; Fr. TRI-
THEME, tRe'tim',] (JOHANNES,) a German writer and
Benedictine monk, originally named HEIDENISERG, was
born near Treves in 1462. He wrote, besides several his
torical and religious works, in Latin, " On the Illustrious
Men of Germany," (" De Luminaribus Germaniae,"
1495.) Died in 1516.
See HORN, "J. Trithemius ; biographische Skizze," 1843; Nic£-
ROX, "Memoires;" " Biographic Universelle."
Tritheme or Trithemius. See TRITHEIM.
Trithen, tRee'ten, (FREDERICK HENRY,) a distin
guished Swiss linguist, born in 1820, removed at an
early age to Odessa, in Russia, where he became versed
in the modern European languages, and afterwards
studied Sanscrit at Berlin. Having visited England in
1841, he was appointed to an office in the British Museum,
and in 1848 was chosen professor of modern European
languages in the Taylor Institution at Oxford. He made
a number of valuable contributions to the " Biographical
Dictionary" of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge. Died in 1854.
Tri'to, TrI-to'nis, Trit-o-ge-nei'a, or Tri-to'ni-a,
[Gr. Tpiru, Tpiruv'if, or TpiTO-ysveia ; Fr. TRITOGENIE,
tRe'to'zha'ne',] surnames of Athena or Minerva. (See
MINERVA.)
a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon;
TRITON
215
T ROM MEN
Tri'ton, [Gr. Tpfrwv,] the name of a marine deity,
supposed to be a son of Neptune, and described as
having a body of which the upper part was human and
the lower part like a fish. Sometimes the term occurs
as a common noun and in the plural number, (Tritons.)
They are represented as blowing a trumpet consisting;
of a sea-shell, (concha.)
Tritonia and Tritonis. See TRITO.
Triv'et or Tryv'et, written also Trev'etk, [Lat.
TRIVE'TUS or TREVK'TUS,] (NICHOLAS,) an English
Dominican monk, born in Norfolk about 1258, was
esteemed one of the most learned men of his time.
His principal work is a chronicle of England, entitled
" Annales sex Regum Angliae," which has passed through
several editions. Died in 1328.
Trivetus. See TRIVET.
Tri-vik'ra-ma, (i.e. the "three-step-taker," or "he
who takes three steps,") [from the Sanscrit frt, "three,"
and vfkrama, "going" or "stepping,"] a celebrated sur
name of Vishnu. (See VAMANA.)
Trivulce. See TRIVULZI and TRIVULZIO.
Trivulzi, de', da tRe-vool'zee, [Fr. TRIVULCE, tRe'-
viilss',] (AGOSTINO,) an Italian cardinal and diplomatist.
Died in 1548.
Trivulzi, de', or Trivulce, (TEODORO,) an Italian
general, born about 1456, was a cousin-german of the
great Trivulzio. He entered the French service in 1495,
and became a marshal of France in 1526. Died in 1532.
Trivulzio, tRe-vool'ze-o, sur named THE GREAT, [Fr.
TRIVULCE LE GRAND, tRe'viilss' leh gR&x,] (GiAX GIA-
COMO,) an Italian military commander, born in 1441.
He served in the army of Ferdinand, King of Naples,
and in 1495 entered the service of Charles VIII. of
France. He was made a marshal of France in 1499.
After the accession of Louis XII. he was appointed to
the command of the Italian army, and soon after de
feated the Milanese under Ludovico Sforza, (1499,) and
again at Novara, (1500.) In 1513 he was compelled to
evacuate Milan by Maximilian Sforza, and, having lost
the battle of Novara, in 1514, the French were again
driven from Italy. He contributed greatly to the vic
tory of the French at Marignano in 1515. Died in 1518.
See ROSMINI, " Istoria intorno alle militari Impresi ed alia Vita
di G. G. Trivulzio," 2 vols., 1815; BKANTOME, " ViesdesCapitaines
Francises."
Trochu, tRo'shii', (Louis JULES,) an able French
general, born about 1820. He became a captain in 1843,
served as chief of the general staff in the Crimean war,
and obtained the rank of general of brigade in 1854.
He displayed a superior genius for strategy. In 1864
he was raised to the rank of general of division, and
about 1866 was directed to form a plan to reorganize
the army. On this subject he wrote a very popular
work, entitled " L'Armee Frai^aise," (1867.) In August,
1870, he was appointed major-general of the army and
commander-in-chief of the forces in Paris. " He is un
deniably," says the "Army and Navy Journal" for July,
1870, "'the best soldier of France." On the formation
of the republic, September 4, he became president of
the executive committee, the highest office in the pro
visional government. He commanded the forces which
defended Paris against the Germans during the siege of
that capital in the autumn of 1870. General Trochu is
stated to be an adherent of the party of Orleans.
Trogue Fompee. See TROGUS POMPEIUS.
Tro'gus Fom-pe'ius, [Fr. TROGUE POMPEE, tRog
pi.v'pa',) a Roman historian under the reign of Augustus,
was the author of a " Universal History from the Time
of Ninus, King of Assyria, down to 5 A.D.," which is
lost. An abridgment of it, by Justin, is extant.
Troil, tRo'il, [Lat. TROI'LIUS,] (Uxo,) a Swedish
savant and bishop, born at Stockholm in 1746. He
travelled in Germany, France, and England. In 1784 he
became Bishop of Linkoping, and in 1787 Archbishop
of Upsal. He published a work on the "History of
the Church and the Reformation in Sweden," (5 vols.,
1790.) Died in 1803.
See ADLERBETH, " Aminnelse-Tal bfver U. von Troil," 1804;
GEZELIUS, " Biographiskt-Lexicon."
Troile. See TROILUS.
Troili, tRo-ee'lee, (PLACIDO,) an Italian historian and
monk, born at Montalbano in 1687; died in 1757.
Troilius. See TROIL.
Tro'i-lus, [Gr. Tpui/,oc ; Fr. TROILE, tRo'el',] a son
of Priam and Hecuba, was distinguished for his beauty.
He was slain in battle by Achilles.
Trolde. See TROLL.
Troll, [ Icelandic and Swedish, TROLL ; Danish,
TROLDE, trol'deh,] in Northern mythology, a being who
was supposed to possess magical or supernatural
powers, and to dwell in the interior of hills and moun
tains. The term appears to be used with some loose
ness of application ; it is often applied to the Dwarfs,
(Dwergar,) who were generally believed to possess rare
skill or cunning in working in metals, stone, etc.,- and to
be endowed with magic powers. (See ELVES.) One
class of Trolls, dwelling in Norway, were called Thusser
or Thurser, (doubtless of the same etymology as the
Norse Thursar, signifying "giants.") They are de
scribed not as dwarfs, but as large as men, well formed,
and of a pale-blue colour. It is a popular belief in the
North that when the rebellious angels were cast out of
heaven, some fell into hell, while others, who had not
sinned so deeply, were scattered through the air, under
the earth, and in the waters, and that these became
elves, dwarfs, or trolls.
See THORPE, "Northern Mythology," vol. ii. pp. i and 2, also 56
and 57.
Trolle, tRol'leh, (GUSTAVUS,) a Swedish prelate, was
a partisan of Christian II. of Denmark, on whose head
he placed the crown of Sweden in 1510 or 1520. He was
Archbishop of Upsal. He was killed in battle in 1535.
See GEIJER, " Histoire de Suede."
Trolle, tRol'leh, (HERLUF,) a Danish admiral, born
in 1516. He gained a victory over the Swedes in 1564,
but was afterwards mortally wounded in an engagement
with the Swedish admiral Horn, (1565.)
See BOESEN, " H. Trolle's Levnet," 1780.
Trolley, tRo'lk', (FRANQOIS ALFRED,) a French jurist,
born at Nederzwallen in 1808. He published a " Treat
ise on the Administrative Hierarchy," (5 vols., 1844-54.)
Trol'lope, (ANTHONY,) an English novelist, a son of
Frances Trollope, noticed below, was born about 1815.
He has published a number of popular novels, among
which are "The Warden," (1855,) "Doctor Thome," (3
vols., 1858,) "Framley Parsonage," (1861,) "The Helton
Estate," (3 vols., 1864,) and " Phineas Finn, the Irish
Member," (1869;) also a descriptive work, entitled
" North America," (1862.)
See " Blackwood's Magazine" for September, 1862 ; " North
British Review" for May, 1864; ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Au
thors."
Trollope, (EDWARD,) an English writer, born about
1817, became rector of Leasingham in 1843, and Arch
deacon of Stow in 1867. He published, besides other
works, " Labyrinths, Ancient and Modern."
Trollope, (FRANCES,) a popular English novelist,
born in 1790. Having spent three years in the United
States, she published, in 1832, "Domestic Life of the
Americans." This was followed in rapid succession by
a great number of tales, sketches, and novels, among
which may be named " Belgium and Western Germany,"
(1833,) " Paris and the Parisians in 1835," (1836,) "The
Life and Adventures of Jonathan Jefferson Whitlaw,"
etc., (1836,) ''Vienna and the Austrians," etc., (1838,)
" The Vicar of Wrexhill," and " The Widow Barnaby,"
(1839.) She was married in 1809 to Anthony Trollope,
a barrister. Died in 1863.
See " Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1832; "London Quarterly
Review" for December, 1839; "Blackwood's Magazine" for May,
1832, and April, 1838; "North American Review" for January,
1833, (by EDWARD EVERETT;) ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Trollope, (THOMAS ADOLPHUS,) an English writer,
a son of the preceding, was born in 1810. He resided
many years at Florence. He published, besides other
works, a "Summer in Brittany," (1840.) a "Decade of
Italian Women," and a " Life of Filippo Strozzi."
Trombelli, tRom-bel'lee, (GiAN CRISOSTOMO,;) an
Italian ecclesiastical writer, born in the duchy of Modena
in 1697 ; died at Bologna in 1784.
Trommen, van der, vtn der tRom'men, [Lat. TROM'-
MIUS,] a Dutch theologian, born at Groningen in 1633.
He preached at Groningen about forty-eight years. He
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 2; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
TROMMIUS
2152
TROUP
published a " Concordance of the Bible" in the Flemish
language, (1685-92.) Died in 1719.
Trommius. See TROMMEN.
Trommsdorff, tRoms'doRf, (JOHANN BARTHOLO-
MAUS,) a German chemist, born at Erfurt in 1770, be
came professor of chemistry and physics in the univer
sity of his native city. He published several scientific
works. Died in 1837.
Tromp, tRomp, (MARTEN Harpertzooii — hau'pe'Rt-
zon',) a celebrated naval commander, born at Briel, in
Holland, in 1597. At an early age he accompanied Ad
miral Peter Heijn in his engagements with the Spaniards
off Flanders, and in 1639 was made Admiral of Holland.
In October of the same year he gained a brilliant victory
over the Spanish and Portuguese fleet under Ocquendo.
For this action he was ennobled by the King of France.
In 1652 Admiral Tromp, having been defeated by the
English under Blake, was for a time superseded by De
Ruyter. He was soon after reinstated, and in November,
1652, again encountered Blake, taking two of his ships
and sinking several others. In August, 1653, the last
engagement took place between the English and Dutch
admirals, in which the latter was mortally wounded.
Tromp was one of the ablest seamen of his time, and is
said to have been the victor in more than thirty battles.
See RICHER, "Vie de 1'Amiral Tromp." 1784; OOSTKAMP,
" Het Leven en de Daden van M. H. Troinp," 1825.
Tromp, van, vtn tRomp, (CoRNEi.is,) son of the pre
ceding, was born at Rotterdam in 1629. He distin
guished himself in several engagements with the pirates
of the Mediterranean, but in 1665 he was defeated by
the English at Solebay under the Duke of York. In
1666, in conjunction with De Ruyter, he gained a victory
over the English, after a contest of four successive days.
The King of Denmark subsequently bestowed on him
the title of count, and other distinctions, as a reward
for services rendered him in his war with Sweden.
After the death of De Ruyter, Van Tromp succeeded
him as lieutenant-admiral-general of the United Prov
inces. Died in 1691.
See "Vie de C. Tromp Amiral de Hollande," the Hague, 1694.
Tronchet, tR6N'shi', (FRANCOIS DENIS,) a French
jurist, born in Paris in 1726. He was elected to the
States-General in 1789, and was a member of the consti
tutional party. In December, 1792, he was employed
by Louis XVI. to defend him in his trial. He was a
member of the Council of Elders from 1795 to 1799,
became president of the court of cassation about 1800,
and had a prominent part in the redaction of the Code
Napoleon. Died in 1806.
See LAVALLEH, "Notice historique sur F. D. Tronchet," 1806;
ANDRK DUHIN, "Tronchet, Ferey, Poirier," 1810; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale."
Tronchin, tRi.N'shaN', (JEAN ROBERT,) a Swiss jurist
of high reputation, was born at Geneva in 1710. lie
became procureur-general. Lord Mansfield once said,
"In our country he [Tronchin] would be chancellor."
He defended the action of the Swiss government in re
lation to Rousseau's " Emile," by " Letters written from
the Country," ("Lettres ecrites de la Campagne," 1763.)
Died in 1793.
See SENEBIER, "Histoire litteVaire de Geneve;" HAAG, "La
France protestante."
Tronchin, (THEODORE,) a Genevese theologian, born
in 1582, was professor and rector in the Academy of his
native city. He was an earnest opponent of the doc
trines of Arminius. Died in 1657.
Trouchin, (THEODORE,) an eminent Swiss physician,
born at Geneva in 1709. He studied at Cambridge, in
England, and subsequently under Boerhaave at Leyden.
He practised at Amsterdam nearly twenty years, became
honorary professor of medicine at Geneva in 1750, and
soon acquired a high reputation, particularly for his
efforts to promote the practice of inoculation. He was
appointed in 1765 physician to the Duke of Orleans.
Died in Paris in 1781. He was a friend of Voltaire and
Rousseau.
( See VOLTAIRE, " Correspondance geneVale;" CONDORCET,
" Eloges ;" " Biographic Medicale ;" HAAG, " La France protes
tante."
Tronson, IRON'SON', (Louis,) a French ecclesiastic
and writer, born in Paris in 1622. He published, besides
other works, "Forma Cleri," (3 vols., 1669.) Died in
1700.
Tronsondu Coudray, tR6N/soN'dii koo'dRi',(GuiL-
LAUME AI.EXANDRE,) a French advocate and royalist,
born at Rheims in 1750. He volunteered his services
as counsel of Louis XVI. in December, 1792 ; but he
was not permitted to speak in that case. lie made a
speech in defence of the queen Marie Antoinette in
1793. As a member of the Council of Elders, he op
posed the Directory in 1797, and was transported to
Guiana, where he died in 1798.
See BLONDEAU, " Notice sur Tronson du Coudray," 1825 ; " Edin
burgh Review" for April, 1852.
Troost, tR5st, (CORNELIS,) an able Dutch painter, born
at Amsterdam in 1697. He painted portraits, familiar
scenes, conversations, etc. His drawings in colours are
highly commended. Died in 1750.
See CHARLES BLANC, " Histoire des Peintres."
Troost, (GERARD,) a distinguished chemist and geol
ogist, born at Bois-le-Duc, Holland, in 1776, emigrated
to the United States, and was appointed in 1828 pro
fessor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology at Nash
ville, Tennessee. He became State geologist in 1831.
Died in 1850.
Tio-pho'm-us, [Gr. Tpo^wrwc,] a celebrated archi
tect, called a son of Erginus, King of Orchomenos, (or,
according to some, of Apollo.) He and his brother
Agamedes built the temple of Apollo at Delphi, and the
treasury of King Ilyrieus. His name was connected
with a cave and oracle at Lebadea, in Boeotia, which is
described by Pausanias. A visit to this cave was sup
posed to render people serious or melancholy.
See ADUISON'S paper, entitled "The Cave of Trophomus," in
the "Spectator," No. 599.
Troplong, tRo'liN', (RAYMOND THEODORE,) a French
jurist and statesman, born at Saint-Gaudens in 1795.
He became in 1835 a counsellor in the court of cassa
tion in Paris, first president of the court of appeal in
1848, first president of the court of cassation in 1852,
and first president of the senate in 1854. He was chosen
a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sci
ences in 1840. His chief work is "The Civil Law Ex
pounded," (" Le Droit civil explique," 27 vols. 8vo,
1834-56.) Died in February, 1869.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Tros, [Gr. Tpwf,] a fabulous king of Phrygia, was a
grandson of Dardanus, and a son of Erichthonius. He
was the father of Ilus, Asaracus, and Ganymedes, (Gany
mede.) The Trojans derived their name from him.
Troschel, tRosh/el, (JoHANN,) a skilful German en
graver, born at Nuremberg about 1592. lie worked at
Rome. Died in 1633.
Trot'ter, (THOMAS,) a Scottish physician and medical
writer, born in Roxburghshire, studied at Edinburgh,
and became in 1793 physician to the Royal Hospital
at Portsmouth. He published, among other works, a
" Review of the Medical Department of the British
Navy," (1790,) "Medical and Chemical Essays," (1795,)
and an " Essay on the Diseases of Seamen," (3 vols.,
1797-1803.) Died in 1832.
Trotti, tRot'tee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian
painter, surnamed IL MALOSSO, was born at Cremona
in 1555, and was a pupil of B. Campi. The graceful
ness of his heads is praised by several critics. Died
after 1607.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Troughton, trow'ton, ? (EDWARD,) F.R.S., an ex
cellent English mechanician and maker of astronomical
instruments, was born in Cumberland in 1753. He
became a resident of London, made telescopes for seve
ral observatories, and invented improvements in astro
nomical instruments, in the fabrication of which he is
said to have surpassed all of his contemporaries. Died
in 1835.
Troup, troop, (GEORGE M.,) an American politician,
born on the Tombigbee River in 1780. He was a mem
ber of Congress for Georgia from 1807 to 1815, was a
Senator of the United States from 1816 to 1818, and
Governor of Georgia from 1823 to 1827. He also repre
sented Georgia in the Federal Senate from 1829 to 1834.
He was a champion of State sovereignty. Died in 1856.
, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; n&t; good; moon;
TROUSSEAU
2153
TRUMBULL
Trousseau, tRoo'sS', (ARMAND,) an eminent French
physician, born at Tours in 1801. He published a
valuable work entitled "Treatise on Therapeutics and
Materia Medica," ("Traite de Therapeutique et de Ma-
tiere medicale," 3 vols., 1836-39.) He became professor
of therapeutics at Paris in 1839. He had a high repu
tation as a professor and a writer. Died in June, 1867.
See SACHAILE, " Medecins de Paris;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Trouvaiii, tRoo'vax', (ANTOINE,) a French engraver,
born at Montdidier in 1656, was a pupil of G. Edelinck.
Died in 1708.
Trouve - Chauvel, tRoo'va' sho'veY, (ARISTE,) a
French republican minister of state, born at Suze (Sai the)
in 1805. He was elected to the Constituent Assembly
in 1848, and was minister of finance from October to
December of that year.
Trow'bridge, (EDMUND,) an eminent American
jurist, born at Newton, Massachusetts, in 1709, became
attorney-general of the State in 1749, and was afterwards
justice of the supreme court. Died in 1793.
Trowbridge, (JOHN TOWNSEND,) an American novel
ist, born in Monroe county, New York, in 1827. He
contributed to the '• Atlantic Monthly." Among his
works are "Neighbour Jackwood," (i'857,) "The Old
Battle -Ground," (1859.) "The Vagabonds," (1863,)
"Cudjo's Cave," (1864,) "Lucy Arlyn," (1866,) and
"Coupon Bonds," (1866.)
Trow'bridge or Troubridge, (Sir THOMAS,) an
English admiral, born in London, served with great
distinction under Lord Howe, and, as commander of
the Culloden, was sent to the assistance of Nelson in
the Mediterranean in 1798. He served at the battle
of the Nile. He was made a baronet in 1799, and an
admiral in 1804. As commander of the Blenheim, he
sailed for the Cape of Good Hope in 1807, and is sup
posed to have perished by shipwreck off the coast of
Madagascar.
Trowbridge, (Sir THOMAS SAINT VINCENT HOPE
COCHKANE,) an English officer, a grandson of the pre
ceding, was born in 1817. He served as colonel in the
Crimean war, and lost a leg at Inkerman, (1854.) Died
in 1867.
Troxler, tRoks'ler, (!GNAZ PAUL VITAL,) a Swiss
writer, born in the canton of Lucerne in 1780, became
professor of philosophy at Bale in 1830. He was the
author of several philosophical works.
Troy, de, deh titwa, (FR.\xgois,) a French painter,
born at Toulouse about 1645, became professor in the
Academy of Fine Arts in Paris. He painted portraits
with success, and some historical pieces. Died in 1730.
Troy, de, (JEAN FRANQOIS,) son of the preceding,
was born in Paris in 1676. He was appointed by Louis
XIV. director of the French Academy at Rome about
1738. Died in 1752.
Troya, tRo'ya, (CARLO,) an Italian historian, born at
Naples in 1785. He was exiled in 1823 for his liberal
ism, lie published an " Introduction to the History of
the Middle Ages," (" Apparato preliminale alia Storia
dal niedio Evo," 1839 et seq.) Died in 1858.
Troyen, van, vSn tRoi'en, (ROMBOUT,) a Flemish
painter, born at Antwerp about 1600. He painted ruins
and other objects in the vicinity of Rome. Died in 1650.
Troyon, tRwa'ydN', (CONSTANT,) an eminent French
painter of animals and landscapes, was born at Sevres
in 1813. He gained medals of the first class in 1846
and 1848. His works are admired for variety of effects,
fidelity to nature, and brilliant colouring. He painted
numerous pictures of French scenery. Died in 1865.
Trublet, tuii'bli', (NICOLAS CHARLES JOSEPH,)
ABBE, a French essayist, born at Saint-Malo in 1697.
He published, besides other works, " Literary and
Moral Essays," (2 vols., 1735.) D'Alembert said this
might be made an excellent book by erasing some parts
of it. Trublet was admitted to the French Academy in
1761. Died in 1770.
See D'ALEMBERT, " Histoire de 1' Academic Francaise."
Truchet, tRii'shi', (JEAN,) a French Carmelite monk,
sometimes called FATHER SEBASTIAN, born at Lyons
in 167, was distinguished for his knowledge of mathe
matics and mechanics. He invented several useful
machines. Died in 1729.
Truchsess, (GEBHARD.) See GEBHAKD.
Trudaine de Moutigny, tRu'din' deh m6N'ten'ye',
(JEAN CHARLES PHILIBERT,) a French financier, born
at Clermont-Ferrand in 1733 '•> died in 1777.
Trueba y Cosio, de, di tRoo-a/B§. e ko'se-o, (TELES-
FORO,) a distinguished writer, born at Santander, in
Spain, in 1805, was educated in England, where he pub
lished a number of romances, dramas, and historical
works, in English. Among these may be named "The
Castilian," " Salvador the Guerrilla," and a farce entitled
" Mr. and Mrs. Pringle." Died in 1835.
Truguet, tkii'gi', (LAURENT JEAN FRANC.OIS,) a
French admiral, born at Toulon in 1752. He was min
ister of marine from November, 1795,10 July, 1797. In
1802 he took command of the combined fleets of France
and Spain. He was disgraced in 1804, on suspicion of
his being averse to Napoleon's elevation to the imperial
power. Died in 1839.
See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Tru'man, (Rev. JOSEPH,) an English divine, born in
1631, was the author of several theological works, one
of which, entitled " A Discourse of Natural and Moral
Impotency," obtained great popularity. He became a
nonconformist, and was deprived of his living in 1662.
Died in 1671.
Trumball. See TRUMBULL, (Sir WILLIAM.)
Trum'bull, (BENJAMIN,) D.D., an American Congre
gational divine and historical writer, born at Hebron,
Connecticut, in 1735. He was the author of a " History
of Connecticut," (2 vols., 1797-1818,) " History of the
United States," (1810,) and other works. Died in 1820.
Trumbull, (JOHN,) an American satirical poet and
lawyer, born at Waterbury, Connecticut, on the 24th of
April, 1750. He graduated at Yale College in 1767,
after which he was a tutor in that institution for several
years. He was an intimate friend of Dr. Dwight. In
1772 he produced "The Progress of Dulness," a poem.
Having studied law under John Adams, at Boston, he
began to practise at New Haven. He became a dis
tinguished and popular lawyer, and in 1781 settled at
Hartford. In 1782 he published " McFingal," a satirical
poem, which passed through thirty editions and was
serviceable to the cause of liberty. " It is much the
best imitation of the great satire of Butler," says R. W.
Griswold, "that has been written." He was a judge
of the supreme court of errors (or superior court) from
1808 to 1819. Died at Detroit in May, 1831.
See R. W. GRISWOLD, "Poets and Poetry of America," p. 41;
DUYCKIXCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i.
Trumbull, (JoHN,) an eminent painter, born at Leba
non, Connecticut, in 1756. On the breaking out of the
Revolution, he entered the army, and was appointed in
1775 aide-de-camp to Washington. In 1780 he visited
London, where he became a pupil of West. Returning
to America, he produced, in 1796, his " Battle of Bunker
Hill," a master-piece of its kind, which was followed by
the "Death of Montgomery," and " Sortie of the Garri
son from Gibraltar." His most important works are the
pictures in the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington.
Among these we may name "The Surrender of Corn-
wallis," the " Resignation of General Washington at
Annapolis," "Declaration of Independence," and the
"Surrender of Burgoyne." He presented fifty-five of
his works to Yale College. Died in 1843.
Sec his "Autobiography."
Trumbull, (JONATHAN,) an American statesman, born
at Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1710, was the father of the
preceding. He was elected Governor of the State in 1769,
continuing in that office fourteen years. He was highly
esteemed by Washington for his talents and integrity.
Died in 1785.
Trumbull, (JONATHAN,) a son of the preceding, was
born at Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1740. On the break
ing out of the war of the Revolution, he was appointed
paymaster to the Northern department of the army, and
was afterwards secretary and first aide-de-camp to Wash
ington. He was elected to Congress in 1 789, was Speaker
of the House of Representatives from 1791 to 1793, and
became a Senator of the United States in 1795. He
ii KJ^/, w<i» uisiuiguisncu ioi nis Kiiuwicugc ui manic- uecame a oenacor 01 me uiiucu aiaies in lyy> xic
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TRUMBULL
2154
TUCKER
enjoyed the friendship and confidence of General Wash
ington. In 1 798 he was chosen Governor of Connecticut.
He held the office of Governor eleven years. Died in
1809.
See the " National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans."
Trumbull, (LYMAN,) an American judge and Senator,
born at Colchester, Connecticut, in 1813. He removed
to Illinois in his youth, and became a judge of the supreme
court of that State in 1848. Having joined the Repub
lican party, he was elected a Senator of the United States
by the legislature of Illinois in 1854, and was re-elected
in 1860 and in 1866. He served as chairman of the
committee on the judiciary for many years.
Trum'bull or Trttm'ball, (Sir WILLIAM,) an Eng
lish statesman, born in Berkshire in 1636. He studied
at Oxford, and was successively appointed to several
important offices under the government. He was envoy-
extraordinary to France in 1685, and after the accession
of Tames II. was ambassador to Constantinople. Having
returned to England in 1691, he was appointed in 1695
secretary of state. He died in 1716. He was distin
guished for his learning and his literary tastes, and was
an intimate friend of Pope and Dryden.
See BURNET, " History of his Own Times."
Tru'ro, (THOMAS WILDE,) LORD, an English Whig
statesman and jurist, born in 1782. He was elected to
Parliament for Newark in 1831, and in 1841 represented
Worcester, being made attorney-general the same year.
He was appointed chief justice of the court of common
pleas in 1846, and lord high chancellor in 1850. He re
signed in February, 1852. Died in 1855.
Trus'ler, (JoiiN,) an English bookseller and compiler,
born in London in 1735; died in 1820.
Trutzschler, von, fon tRoots'shler, (FRIEDRICH
KARL ADOLF,) a German jurist and legal writer, born
near Weida in 1751 ; died in 1831.
Trux'ton or Triix'tun, (THOMAS,) an American
naval officer, born on Long Island in 1755. As captain of
a privateer, he took several valuable prizes during the
Revolution. He obtained the rank of captain in the navy
in 1795, with the command of the frigate Constellation,
thirty-eight guns, and captured in February, 1799, the
French frigate L'Insurgente. He received from Congress
a gold medal for his victory over the French frigate La
Vengeance, fifty-four guns, February, 1800. Died in 1822.
Truxtun. See TUUXTON.
Tryphiodore. See TRYPHIODORUS.
Tryph-i-o-do'i us, |Gr. TpuQiMupoc ; Fr. TRYPHIO
DORE, tRe'fe'o'doR',] a Greek poet and grammarian, born
in Egypt in the latter part of the fifth or early part of
the sixth century, was the author of an epic poem on
the destruction of Troy, several editions of which have
been published.
Try'phon, [Gr. Tpi'<j>uv,] an eminent engraver of
gems, is supposed to have lived about 300 B.C. Among
his extant works is a gem representing the reconciliation
of Eros and Psyche.
Try'phon, (Dlor/OTUS,) King of Syria, usurped
the throne in 142 B.C., after he had murdered Antiochus,
the infant son of Alexander Balas. He was defeated
and put to death by Antiochus Sidetes in 139 B.C.
Tryph-o-m'iius, (CLAUDIUS,) a Roman jurist, who
flourished under the reign of Septimius Severus, was the
author of a number of legal works, fragments of which
are extant.
Tscharner, tshaR'ner, QOHANN BAPTIST,) a Swiss
statesman, born in 1751 ; died in 1835.
Tscherning, tshgR'ning, (ANDREAS,) a German lyric
poet, born at Bunzlau in 161 1, became professor of poetry
at Rostock. Died in 1659.
Tscherning, (ANTON FRIEDRICH,) a Danish states
man, born at Frederiksvark in 1795. He was appointed
minister of war in 1848, and in 1854 a member of the
imperial council.
Tschirner, (HEINRICH GOTTLIEB.) See TZSCHIRNER.
Tschirnhausen, von, fon tsheeRn'hSw'zen, (£HREN-
FRIED WALTER,) an eminent German mathematician
and philosopher, born near Gorlitz, in Upper Lusatia,
in 1651. He travelled in various countries of Europe,
and after his return established in Saxony several man
ufactories of glass. He made burning lenses and
mirrors of enormous size. One of these was three feet
in diameter, with a focal distance of twelve feet. About
1867 he published a philosophical work called "Medicine
of the Mind," ("Medicina Mentis.") Died in 1708.
See " Leben Tschirnhausens," 1709; FONTHNELLE, " FJoges ;"
" Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale."
Tschudi, tshoo'dee, [Lat. TSCHU'DIUS,] (/EGIDIUS,)
one of the earliest Swiss historians, was born at Glarus
in 1505. He filled several important offices under the
government, and in 1559 was ambassador at the court
of Vienna. His voluminous works are chiefly in manu
script. The most important of those published is
his "Chronicle of Switzerland from 1000 A.I), to 1470."
(in German,) which is esteemed a standard authority in
Swiss history. Died in 1572.
See FUCHS, " JE. Tschudi's Leben und Schriften," 2 vols., 1805;
"Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Tschudi, von, von tshoo'dee, QOHANN JAKOB,) a
Swiss naturalist, of the same family as the preceding, was
born at Glarus in 1818. He visited Peru in 1838, and
published, after his return, " Sketches of Travel in Peru,"
" Antiquities of Peru," prepared in conjunction with Don
Mariano de Rivera, and other works.
Tschudius. See TSCHUDI, (/EGIDIUS.)
Tu'bal-Cain, a son of Lamech, is regarded as the
inventor of the art of working in metals.
See Genesis iv. 22.
Tu'be-ro, (QuiNTUS,) a Roman orator and jurist, and
friend of Cicero. He was a partisan of the senate and
of Pompey in the civil war.
Tubi, too'bee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) [Fr. TUBY I.E
ROMAIX, tii'be' leh ro'maN',] a sculptor, born at Rome
in 1635. HG worked at Versailles and Paris. Died in
Paris in 1700.
Tuby. See TUBI.
Tuch, tooK, (JoHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH,) a Ger
man Orientalist and theologian, born at Quedlinburg in
1806. He studied at Halle, and became professor of
theology at Leipsic about 1842. He published a "Com
mentary on Genesis," (1838,) which is commended.
Tuck'er, (ABRAHAM,) an English metaphysician, born
in London in 1705, was a son of a merchant, who left
him a large fortune. He was educated at Oxford, pur
chased Betchworth Castle, near Dorking, in 1727, and
married a Miss Barker in 1736. His principal work is
entitled "The Light of Nature Pursued," by Edward
Search, (4 vols., 1765.) "He was naturally endowed,"
says Sir J. Mackintosh, " not, indeed, with more than
ordinary acuteness or sensibility, nor with a high degree
of reach and range of mind, but with a singular capacity
for careful observation and original reflection, and with
a fancy perhaps unmatched in producing various and
happy illustration. It is in mixed, not in pure, philoso
phy, that his superiority consists. In the part of his
work which relates to the intellect, he has adopted much
from Hartley." (See "View of the Progress of Ethical
Philosophy.") " I have found in this writer," says Paley,
"more original thinking and observation upon the seve
ral subjects that he has taken in hand than in any other,
not to say than in all others put together." (Preface to
"Moral and Political Philosophy.") Died in 1774.
See SIR HENRY MILDMAV, notice prefixed to an edition of the
" Liyht of Nature Pursued," 7 vols., 1852.
Tuck'er, (BEVERLY,) son of Saint George Tucker,
noticed below, was born at Matoax, Virginia, in 1784.
He became in 1834 professor of law in William and
Mary College. He published legal works and several
novels, one of which, entitled "The Partisan Leader,"
dated in 1837, foretold the secession of the Southern
States, which took place in 1861. Died in 1851.
Tucker, (GEORGE,) an American jurist, born in Vir
ginia in 1775. He was elected to Congress in 1819,
1821, and 1823, and became professor of law in the
University of Virginia in 1825. He published a " Life
of Thomas Jefferson" and a " Political History of the
United States." Died in 1861.
Tucker, (HENRY SAINT GEORGE,) an American jurist,
born in Virginia in 1779, was professor of law in the
University of Virginia. He published "Lectures on
Natural Law and Government," and other legal works,
which were highly esteemed. Died in 1848.
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met: not; good; moon;
TUCKER
2155
TULLUS
Tucker, (JosiAH,) an English political writer and
clergyman, born in Carmarthenshire in 1711, was edu
cated at Oxford. He became curate of Saint Stephen's,
Bristol, and obtained the friendship and patronage of
Bishop Butler, who appointed him rector of Saint Ste
phen's iii 1749. In 1758 he became Dean of Gloucester.
He wrote several treatises on commerce, taxes, monop
olies, etc., among which we notice " Reflections on the
Present Matters in Dispute between Great Britain and
Ireland, ",(1785.) In this work he advocated greater free
dom of trade. He also published a " Treatise concerning
Civil Government," (1781.) Died in 1799.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Monthly Review" for
October and November, 1781.
Tucker, (LUTHER,) an American journalist, born at
Brandon, Vermont, in 1802. He became a printer, and
in 1826 established at Rochester, in New York, "The
Rochester Daily Advertiser," the first daily paper west
of Albany. In January, 1831, he began to issue, at Roch
ester, "The Genesee Farmer," which was afterwards con
solidated with "The Albany Cultivator." In 1852 he com
menced the publication of "The Country Gentleman, "an
agricultural paper of high character. To Mr. Tucker
belongs the credit of having been the pioneer in the suc
cessful introduction of agricultural periodical literature
among the masses of the people in the United States.
Tucker, (SAINT GEORGE,) an American jurist and
miscellaneous writer, born on the island of Bermuda in
1752. Having settled in Virginia, he married in 1778
Mrs. Randolph, mother of the celebrated John Ran
dolph. He rose through several offices to be judge of
the district court of the United States. He published
numerous works, in prose and verse. Died in 1827.
Tucker, (SAMUKL,) an American commodore, born
in Massachusetts in 1747. He was appointed captain
in the navy by General Washington, and commanded
with success in several actions. Died in 1833.
Tuck'er-man, (HENRY THEODORE,) an American
critic and miscellaneous writer, born at Boston in 1813.
Having visited Italy, he published in 1835 "The Italian
Sketch-Book, " which was followed by " Sicily, a Pilgrim
age," (1839,) " Thoughts on the Poets," (1846, translated
into German,) " Artist Life, or Sketches of American
Painters,'' (1847,) " Characteristics of Literature," (1849,)
"Memorial of Horatio Greenough," (1853,) " Biographi
cal Essays," (1857,) "Book of the Artists," (1867,) and
a number of poems. Mr. Tuckerman occupies a high
rank among the art critics of America.
See DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ;
AI.LIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Tuckerman, (JOSEPH,) D.D., an American Unitarian
divine, an uncle of the preceding, was born at Boston in
1778. He was one of the founders of the American
Seamen's Friend Society, and other similar institutions.
He afterwards assisted in organizing the Benevolent
Fraternity of Churches, for the support of a city mission
called the Ministry at Large, of which he became a min
ister. Died in 1840.
See "Discourse on the Life, etc. of Rev. Joseph Tuckerman,"
by W. E. CHANNING.
Tuck'ey, (JAMES HINGSTON,) an Irish writer and
naval officer, born in the county of Cork in 1778, was
employed in the survey of the coast of New South
Wales, and published a work entitled "Maritime Geog
raphy." Died in 1816.
Tuck'ney, (ANTHONY,) a learned English Puritan
minister, born in Lincolnshire in 1599. He preached
at Boston and in London. Died in 1670. His Sermons
were published about 1676.
Tudela. See BENJAMIN OF TUDELA.
Tu-di-ta'nus, (P. SEMPRONIUS,) a Roman general,
who served as tribune at Cannae in 216 B.C., became
praetor in 213, and censor in 209. Having been elected
consul for the year 204, he obtained Bruttii as his prov
ince, with the conduct of the war against Hannibal,
whom he defeated.
Tu'dpr, (OwEN,) a Welsh gentleman, who married
Catherine of France after the death of her first husband,
Henry V. of England. He supported the Lancastrian
party in the war of the Roses. Died in 1461. He had
a son, EDMOND TUDOR, who was created Earl of Rich
mond about 1452 and died in 1456. Henry, the son of
Eclmond, became King of England.
Tu'dpr, (WILLIAM,) an American litterateur, born at
Boston in 1779, was one of the founders of the Athe
naeum in that city. He became in 1815 the first editor
of the " North American Review." Besides his numerous
contributions to this journal, he published "Letters on
the Eastern States," (1819,) a "Life of James Otis,"
(1823,) and a work entitled "Gebel-Teir." He was
appointed in 1823 United States consul at Lima. Died
in 1830.
Tudor Family, the name of a royal family of Eng
land, which exercised power during a period of one
hundred and twenty years, (1485-1605.) Henry VII.
was the first and Queen Elizabeth the last monarch of
this house. The father of Henry VII. was Edinond
Tudor, and his mother was the heiress of the Duke of
Lancaster.
Tud'way, (THOMAS,) an English musician and com
poser, lived about 1670-1700, and was a pupil of Dr.
Blow. He was appointed professor of music at Cam
bridge, and organist to Queen Anne. He was a friend
of Lord Oxford, whom he assisted in forming his valu
able collection of books.
Tuerlinckx, tii'er-links, (JOSEPH,) a Belgian statuary,
born at Malines in 1820.
Tuet, tii'k', (JEAN CHARLES FRANQOIS,) a French
litterateur, born at Ham in 1742; died in 1797.
Tugrol. See TOGRUL.
Tulasne, tii'lan', (Louis RENE,) a French botanist,
born at Azay-le-Rideau in 1815. He published, besides
other works, " Studies on Vegetable Embryogeny,"
(1849,) and " Fungi hypogsei," (1851.) He was admitted
into the Institute in 1854.
Tulden. See THULDEN.
Tull, (JETHRO,) an English agriculturist, born in Ox
fordshire about 1680, was the originator of what is called
the "horse-hoeing system" of husbandry. He published
in 1731 a number of essays on this subject, which were
subsequently edited by Mr. Cobbett, with an introduc
tion. Died in 1740.
Tul'H-a, a daughter of Servius Tullius, and the wife
of Tarquin the Proud. She was accessory to the murder
of her father.
Tul'li-a, [Fr. TULLIE, tii'le',] a Roman lady, the
daughter 'of Cicero the orator, was born in 78 B.C.
She svas married to Calpurnius Piso Frugi in the year
63, and to Furius Crassipes about 56. Having been
divorced from him, she became the wife of Dolabella in
50 is.c. Died in 45 B.C.
See SAGITTARIUS, " Historia Vitae et Mortis Tulliae," 1679; MA
DAME DE LASSAY, "Histoire de Tullie," 1726.
Tullie. See TULLIA.
Tullin, tool'lin, (CHRISTIAN BRAUNMAN or BRAU-
MAN,) a Danish poet, born at Christiania, in Norway, in
1728, was also a judge. He wrote, besides other works,
a poem on navigation, and another on the creation. He
is called the first classic Danish poet. Died in 1765.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Tul'11-us, (Arnus,) was KJng of the Volscians when
Coriolanus was banished from Rome. He induced the
Volscians to send an army against Rome, and gave the
command of it to Coriolanus.
Tullius, (SERVIUS.) See SERVIUS TULLIUS.
TuFlo-eh, (JOHN,) a Scottish theologian and minister
of the Established Church of Scotland, was born in Perth
shire in 1823. He became principal of Saint Mary's
College, Saint Andrew's, in 1854. He has contributed
to the " North British Review." Among his works are
" The Being and Attributes of God," (1855,) and " The
Leaders of the Reformation," (1859.) For the former
he received a prize of £600.
Tul'lus Hos-til'I-us, third King of Rome, succeeded
Numa Pompilius in 673 B.C. He carried on a war against
the Albans, in which occurred the celebrated combat
between the Horatii and Curiatii, and which ended in
the conquest of Alba. He was a very warlike king.
According to tradition, he was killed by lightning about
640 B.C.
See GEBAUER, " Tullus Hostilius," 1720 ; SCHOEMANN, " Dis-
sertatio critica de Tullo Hostilio," 1847.
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TV LIT
21 56
TV ROOT
Tully, (the Roman orator.) See CICERO.
Tul'ljf, (GEORGE,) an English divine, was the author
of a " Discourse on the Government of the Thoughts,"
and other religious works. Died in 1697.
Tully, (THOMAS,) an English divine, born at Carlisle
in 1620, published several controversial works. Died
in 1676.
Tul'ly, (WILLIAM,) M.D., a distinguished American
physician, born at Saybrook, Connecticut, in 1785. He
graduated at Yale College, and became, in 1830, profes
sor of materia medica in the medical department of that
institution. He published, conjointly with Dr. Thomas
Miner, essays, entitled " Miner and Tully on Fever."
Died in 1859.
Tulp, tulp, (NiKOLAAS,) a Dutch physician and ma
gistrate, born at Amsterdam in 1593. He was elected
burgomaster of his native city four times, and gave proof
of courage and energy when Holland was invaded by the
French in 1672. He published a medical treatise, called
"Observationes Medicae," (1641.) Died in 1674.
See WITTWER, " N. Tulp," 1785; VAN BOCHOVE, " Dissertatio
de N. Tulpio," 1845.
Tuiistall, (CuTHBERT.) See TONSTALL.
Tun'stall, (JAMES,) D.D., an English divine and
writer, born about 1710. He studied at Cambridge, and
rose through several preferments to be vicar of Roch
dale, in Lancashire. Among his principal works are
"Discourses upon Natural and Revealed Religion," "A
Vindication of the Power of the State to Prohibit Clan
destine Marriages," and " Observations on the Present
Collection of Epistles between Cicero and Brutus."
Died in 1772.
Tup'per, (MARTIN FARQUHAR,) a popular English
poet and novelist, born in London in 1810. He pub
lished in 1839 his " Proverbial Philosophy," which was
received with great favour both in England and America
and passed rapidly through numerous editions. Among
his other works we may name the "Dirge on Welling
ton," "Ballads for the Times on White Slavery," (1852,)
and novels entitled "The Twins," and "The Crock of
Gold." He has also translated the poems of Alfred the
Great from the Anglo-Saxon into English verse.
See " Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1838.
Tura, too'ra, or Turra, toor'ra, (CosiMO,) sometimes
called COSIMO DA FERRARA, (da fer-ra'ra,) an Italian
painter, born at Ferrara in 1406. He painted in the
dry, Gothic style. Died in 1469, or after that date.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters."
Turamini, too-ra-mee'nee, (ALESSANDRO,) an Italian
jurist, born at Sienna about 1558. He lectured at Sienna
and P'errara, and published several legal works.
Tur'ber-ville, (GEORGE,) an English poet, born
about 1530, went to Russia as secretary to Randolph, the
ambassador of Queen Elizabeth. He was the author
of "Songs and Sonnets," and translated Ovid's " He-
roical Epistles." Died after 1594.
Turbido. See TORKIDO.
Turchi, took'kee, (ALESSANDRO,) surnamed ORBETTO,
(• R-bet'to,) an Italian painter, born at Verona in 1582.
He worked at Verona and Rome, and attempted to
combine the Roman style of design with the Venetian
colouring. Among his best works is "The Death of
Forty Martyrs." Died at Rome in 1648.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" TICOZZI, "Dizio-
nario."
Turchin, toor'chin, (JOHN BASIL,) a general, born in
the valley of the Don, in Russia, about 1822. He served
as a Russian officer in the Crimean war, (1855,) soon
after which he emigrated to the United States. He
fought for the Union in the civil war.
Turck, tiiRk, (Louis,) a French physician, born at
Nancy in 1798. He was a republican member of the
National Assembly in 1848.
Turenna. See TURENNE.
Tu-rerme', de, [Fr. pron. deh tii'reV ; Lat. Tu-
RKN'NMUS; It. TUREXNA, too-reVna,] (HENRI de la
Tour d'Auvergne— deh 13 tooR do'viRn',) YICOMTE,
a famous French general, born at Sedan, September 11,
1611, was the second son of Henri, Due de Bouillon.
His mother was Elizabeth, a daughter of William the
Silent, Prince of Orange. His father was an able gene
ral, and a leader of the French Protestants. Young
Turenne was educated in the Protestant religion by
Daniel Tilenus, a tolerant Calvinist. He served, in his
early youth, under his uncles Maurice of Nassau and
Henry Frederick, (1625-30.) During this period of five
or six years he fought against the Spaniards, and acquired
much practical knowledge of the art of war. In 1630
he returned to France, and received command of a regi
ment. He obtained the high rank of marechal-de-camp
in 1635, and was sent in the same year, under La«Vallette,
to defend Mentz against the Imperialists. In 1637 he
took Landrecies, and gained some successes in Flanders.
As second in command under Harcourt, he had the
principal part in the capture of Turin in 1640. His
promotion was retarded by the political course of his
brother, the Due de Bouillon. He was raised to the
rank of marshal of France in 1643, and ordered to Ger
many, where he was second in command under the
Prince of Conde. The success of the French at Nord-
lingen in 1645 was attributed to Turenne by Conde
himself. In 1646, by judicious plans and skilful man
oeuvres, he gained important advantages without much
loss of life. He effected a junction with the Swedish
army, invaded Bavaria, and compelled the Duke of
Bavaria to sue for peace. The long war was terminated
by the peace of Westphalia, (1648,) and the civil war of
the Fronde began in 1649. Turenne, probably, felt little
zeal for either party in this contest. He declined to
fight for Mazarin, and retired to Holland after he had
been superseded in the command of the army. The
Prince of Conde having been imprisoned by Mazarin, in
January, 1650, Turenne declared himself in favour of the
captive prince, and took arms at Stenay against the
court. He was defeated near Rethel by the royal army
in December, 1650, soon after which Conde was liberated
from prison.
In 1651 he went to Paris, and married Charlotte de
Caumont, a daughter of Armand, Due de La Force.
He accepted in March, 1652, the chief command of the
royal army, and was opposed to the Prince of Conde,
who, in alliance with the Spaniards, had renewed the
war. Turenne defeated his adversary at Paris in 1652,
and at Arras in 1654, after which the seat of war was
transferred to Flanders. He gained a decisive victory
over Conde and the Spaniards at the battle of the
Dunes, near Dunkirk, in 1658. Peace was concluded in
1659. After the death of Mazarin, Turenne had much
influence in the direction of the foreign policy of France.
He was persuaded to become a Roman Catholic in 1668.
He commanded a large army which invaded Holland in
1672, and conquered several provinces of that country.
Unable to resist this army in battle, the Dutch opened
the dykes, flooded the country, and thus checked the in
vaders. In 1674 he defeated the Imperialists in several
actions near the Rhine, and ravaged the Palatinate with
excessive cruelty, — which is perhaps the only stain on
his memory. He was opposed in the next campaign to
Montecuculi, an Austrian general of great skill, and was
killed at Salzbach in July, 1675. Turenne was distin
guished for his modesty, sobriety, sound judgment, and
impassible composure in action.
See BOSSUET, "Oraison funebre du Vicomte de Turenne," 1676;
PAULKTTI, "Vita di Turenna," 1677; G. DE COURTII.Z, "Vie de
Turenne," 1685; RAMSAY, " Histoire de Turenne," 2 vols., 1735;
RAGUENET, "Histoire de Turenne," 1738; FL&CHIER, "Oraison
funebre de Turenne," 1675; SISMONDI, "Histoire de France;"
MICHKI.ET, "Histoire de France;" VOLTAIRE, " Siecle de Louis
XIV;" DE RETZ, " Me'moires ;" " Leven van den Marsclialk van
Turenne," Amsterdam, 1676; " Lettres et Memoires du Marechal
de Turenne," edited by COMTE DE GRIMOARD, 2 vols., 1782 ; ZAN-
THIER, " Feldzu'ge des Vicomte de Turenne," 1779; "Lives of the
Warriors of the Civil Wars of France and England," by SIR ED
WARD CUST, London, 1867; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Turennius. See TURENNE.
Turgenef, Turgenev, or Turgenew. See TOOR-
GENEF.
Tur'got, an Anglo-Saxon historian. He became
Bishop of Saint Andrew's and Primate of Scotland in
1107, and wrote a "History of the Church of Durham
from 635 to 1096." Died in 1115.
Turgot, tiiR'go', (ANNE ROBERT JACQUES,) Baron de
L'Aulne, (deh Ion,) an eminent French economist and
financier, born in Paris in May, 1727. He studied law,
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e., j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
TURGOT
2157
TURNER
became a counsellor to the Parliament in 1752, and mas
ter of requests in 1753. In 1761 he was appointed in-
tendant of Limoges. Before the last date he had pro
duced treatises on various subjects. He was versed in the
ancient languages and many sciences. In the perform
ance of his administrative duties as intendant, he made
several reforms and experiments in political economy.
He suppressed the corvees, opened new roads, introduced
the use of potatoes, and distributed the burden of taxation
more equitably. Having formed friendly relations with
the philosophic party, of which Voltaire and D'Alem-
bert were leaders, he contributed to the "Encvclopedie"
articles on "Existence," "Expansibility," "Fairs and
Markets," (" Foires et Marches,") etc.
He was appointed in August, 1774, to the office of
controller-general of finance, then the most important
office of the government. Among his first acts was the
restoration of free trade in grain between the provinces.
He abolished several oppressive laws and feudal privi
leges, reformed abuses, and began to improve, by econ
omy, the public finances. His policy was expressed by
the phrase, "No bankruptcy, no increase of taxes, no
loans." The courtiers, nobles, politicians, and privileged
classes combined against him. He was removed in May,
1776. His friend Malesherbes said that Turgot had
"the heart of L'Hopital with the head of Bacon."
Voltaire was a warm admirer of Turgot, whom he char
acterized as the best minister that France ever had.
Turgot corresponded with Benjamin Franklin, and wrote
a Memoir on the American war. Died in March, 1781.
"There are crises," says the "Fortnightly Review"
for August, 1870, "when a character tells far more than
an idea, and is at once a saving opportunity and a de
cisive force. Such a character was Turgot. The further
we recede from the French Revolution, the more pre
eminent does this firm and exalted figure shine forth, —
the one legislator who might have saved France."
See DUPONT DE NEMOURS, " Me'moires sur la Vie de Turgot," 2
vols., 1782; CONDORCET, " Vie de Turgot," 1786 ; DROZ, " Histoire
du Regne de Louis XVI;" M. J. TISSOT, "Turgot, sa Vie, son
Administration," etc., 1862; MARMONTEI., "Memoires;" DUPUY,
" filoge historique de Turgot," 1781 ; BLANQUI, " Histoire de
1'Economie politique;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Turgot, (ETIENNE P'RANgois,) MARQUIS, a rural
economist, born in Paris in 1721, was a brother of the
preceding. Died in 1789.
Turgot, de, deh tiiR'go', (Louis FELIX ETIENNE,)
MARQUIS, a French diplomatist and senator, born in
1796. He was minister of foreign affairs from Decem
ber, 1851, to July, 1852, and was sent as ambassador to
Spain in 1853.
Turk, tocmk, (DANIEL GOTTLOB,) a German musician,
born near Chemnitz in 1751, was organist at Halle. He
wrote several treatises on music. Died in 1813.
Turk, von, fon tooRk, (KARL CHRISTIAN WILHELM,)
a German philanthropist, born at Meiningen in 1774,
was active in promoting common-school education,
and was the first to introduce the silk-manufacture into
Germany. Died in 1846.
Tiirkheim, von, fon ttifRk'hlm', (JOHANNES,) a po
litical and historical writer, born at Strasburg in 1746;
died in 1824.
Turlupin. See BELLEVILLE.
Turn'bull, (ROBERT,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born in
Linlithgowshire, Scotland, in 1809, emigrated to America,
and settled in 1845 as pastor of a church at Hartford,
Connecticut. He has published "Christ in History, or
the Central Power," (1856,) and several other works,
and translated from the French Vinet's " Vital Chris
tianity."
Turn'bull, (ROBERT JAMES,) an American politician,
born in Florida in 1775. He wrote a number of treatises
in defence of the State-Rights party in South Carolina.
Died in 1833.
Turnebe. See TURNEBUS.
Tur'ne-bus, [Fr. TURNEBE, tuR'nib',1 (ADRIEN,) an
eminent French scholar, originally named Tourneboeuf,
born in Normandy in 1512. He studied in Paris, and
became professor of Greek in that city in 1547. He
acquired a European reputation as a classical scholar,
translated into Latin a number of Greek authors, among
whom were Plutarch and Theophrastus, and wrote com
mentaries on Cicero's works. According to a French
biographer, he was unrivalled as a professor in clearness,
accuracy, and profundity. Among his works is "Ad
versaria," (3 parts, 1564-73,) in which he corrects and
explains many passages in the Greek and Latin authors.
Died in Paris in 1565. He was eulogized by L'Hopital,
Scaliger, and Montaigne, the last of whom called him
" Fame la plus polie du monde," ("the most polished
(or polite) soul in the world.") He had a son Adrien,
who wrote Latin verses. Died in 1594.
See PASSKRAT, " In Turnebi Obitum Naenia," 1651 ; DE THOU et
TF.ISSIER, " filoges ;" NICERON, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biugraphie
Generale."
Tur'iier, (DAWSON,) an English botanist and writer,
born at Great Yarmouth in 1775. He published, among
other works, " Fuci, or Coloured Figures and Descrip
tions of the Plants of the Genus Fucus," (3 vols. fol.,
1808,) "A Tour in Normandy," (1820,) and "The
Botanist's Guide through England and Wales," (2 vols.,
1805,) the last-named conjointly with Mr. L. W. Dill-
wyn. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of
other learned institutions. Died in 1858.
Tur'ner, (EDWARD,) a distinguished chemist and
physician, born in Jamaica in 1797. He studied at
Edinburgh and Gottingen, and in 1828 was appointed
professor of chemistry in the London University, where
his lectures gained for him a high reputation. His
" Elements of Chemistry," (1827,) often reprinted, is
esteemed a standard work. Died in 1839.
Turner, (FRANCIS,) Bishop of Ely, was one of the
seven English prelates who were prosecuted for resisting
the authority of James II. in ecclesiastical affairs. He
was the author of a " Vindication of Archbishop San-
croft," etc.^ and "Animadversions on Naked Truth."
Died in 1760.
See Miss STRICKLAND, "Lives of the Seven Bishops," London,
1866.
Turner, (Sir JAMES,) an English officer, who lived in
the reign of Charles II. and was notorious for his cruel
treatment of the Scottish Covenanters. He left an auto
biography.
Turner, (JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM,) an eminent
English landscape-painter, born in London in April,
1775, was a son of a hair-dresser. He received only an
ordinary education, and passed his boyhood mostly in
London. "At last," says Ruskin, "fortune wills that
the lad's true life shall begin ; and one summer evening
he finds himself sitting alone among the Yorkshire hills.
For the first time the silence of Nature around him, her
freedom sealed to him, her glory opened to him." He
was admitted as a student in the Royal Academy in
1789. "So taught and prepared for his life's labour,
sat the boy at last alone among his fair English hills,
and began to paint, with cautious toil, the rocks and
fields, and trickling brooks, and soft white clouds of
heaven." (" Modern Painters," vol. v.) For many
years he used water-colours almost exclusively. He
exhibited a "View of Lambeth Palace" in 1790. His
early pictures represented mostly English or Welsh
scenery. In 1799 he was elected an associate of the
Royal Academy, and exhibited an oil-painting of "The
Battle of the Nile." He became a Royal Academician
in 1802, after which he travelled in France, Switzerland,
and the valley of the Rhine. Among his master-pieces
are "The Fall of Schaffhausen," (1805,) "The Sun
Rising through Vapour," (1806,) " Narcissus and Echo,"
(1814,) "Apollo and Python," and "Childe Harold's
Pilgrimage," (1832.) In 1807 or 1808 he commenced
the publication of his famous " Liber Studiorum," a
series of prints or drawings. He visited Italy in 1819,
1829, and 1840. According to Ruskin, he surpassed
all former artists in "the expression of the infinite re
dundance of natural landscape. . . . This work, done by
Turner among the hills, joining the most intense appre
ciation of all tenderness with delight in all magnitude
and memory for all detail, is never to be rivalled or
looked upon in similitude again." ("Modern Painters,"
vol. iv. chap, xvii.) Turner was never married. His
disposition was reserved and unsociable, and he is repre
sented as having been extremely parsimonious. He
died in London in December, 1851, having bequeathed
€ as k; c as s; g hard^zsj; G, H, K., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
TURNER
2158
TURRETIN1
to the nation a large number of oil-paintings, which are
exhibited in the National Gallery.
See BURNETT, "Turner and his Works," 1852; W. THORN-
BURY, "Life of W. Turner," 2 vols., 1862; RUSKIN, "Modern
Painters," passim; " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'neVale ;" "London
Quarterly Review" for April, 1862; " Blackwood's Magazine" for
January, 1862.
Turner, (ROBERT,) an English Roman Catholic
priest, born at Barnstable, lived at Rome, Ingolstadt,
and Gratz. He wrote commentaries on the Bible. Died
, i" 1599-
Turner, (SAMUEL,) an English diplomatist, born in
Gloucestershire about 1759, entered the service of the
East India Company, and was sent on a mission to
Thibet in 1783, and afterwards to the Sultan of Mysore.
He published an "Account of an Embassy to the Court
of the Teshoo Lama in Tibet," (1800.) He was a Fellow
of the Royal Society. Died in 1802.
Tur'ner, (SAMUEL HULBEAKT,) D.D., an American
Episcopalian divine, born at Philadelphia in 1790. He
became in 1821 professor of biblical learning in the
General Theological Seminary, New York, and in 1831
professor of Hebrew in Columbia College. He pub
lished "Thoughts on Scriptural Prophecy," and other
works. Died in 1861.
See ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Turner, (SHARON,) an English historian, born in Lon
don in 1768, followed the profession of attorney. His
reputation is founded chiefly on his " History of the
Anglo-Saxons," (4 vols., 1799-1805,) which is highly
esteemed. He also published a " History of England
from the Norman Conquest to the Death of Elizabeth,"
(5 vols., 1814-29,) a "Sacred History of the World as
displayed in the Creation and Subsequent Events to the
Deluge," (3 vols., 1832-39,) and several poems. Died
in 1847.
See WILLIAM JERDAN, "Men I have known," London, 1866;
" Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1835 ; " Monthly Review" for March,
1803, February, 1807, and November, 1824.
Turner, (Rev. SYDNEY,) a son of the preceding, and
chaplain of the Reformatory School at Red Hill, has
prepared a new edition of his father's "Sacred History
of the World," and published a treatise on " Refor
matory Schools."
Turner, (THOMAS,) an English clergyman, born at
Reading in 1591. He became Dean of Canterbury.
Died in 1672.
Turner, (THOMAS HUDSON,) an English antiquary,
born in London in 1815. He published in 1851 " Some
Account of Domestic Architecture in England from
the Conquest to the End of the Thirteenth Century,"
(illustrated,) a work which displays great learning and
research. Died in 1852.
Turner, (WILLIAM,) an English divine and physician,
born in Northumberland about 1520. He studied at
Cambridge, and subsequently became Dean of Wells.
He was the author of treatises on medicine, theology,
zoology, and botany ; among the last-named we may cite
his " Herball, or History of Plants," said to have been
the first work of the kind published in England. Died
in 1568.
Turner, (WILLIAM WADDEN,) born in London in
1810, emigrated at an early age to America, where he
distinguished himself as an Oriental scholar. He be
came in 1842 professor of the Oriental languages at
Union Theological Seminary, New York. Died in 1859.
Tur'nus, [Gr. Tvpvof,} King of the Rutulians, was a
suitor for the hand of Lavinia, and an adversary of
^Eneas, against whom he waged war. He was killed by
tineas in single combat.
See VIRGIL, "JEneid," books vii., ix., x., xi., xii.
Tur'nus, a Roman satiric poet, who probably flour
ished in the second half of the first century. His works,
which are praised by Martial, are not extant.
Tur'pin orTil'pin, [Lat. TURPI'NUS,] a French Bene
dictine monk, was made Archbishop of Rheims by
Charlemagne. He is supposed to have been the author
of a poem celebrating the deeds of Charlemagne. Died
about 812.
Turpin, tiiR'paN', (FRANQOIS HENRI,) a French littl-
rateur, born at Caen in 1709, wrote a "History of Ma
homet," (2 vols., 1773,) "France Illustrated, or the
French Plutarch," (5 vols., 1777-90,) and other historical
and biographical works. Died in 1799.
SeeQuERARD, "La France Litte'raire."
Turpin, (PIERRE JEAN FRANgois,) a French botanist
and designer, born at Vire in 1775. He visited the
West Indies in his youth, returned to France in 1802,
and was employed to illustrate with his designs the
works of Humboldt. He published, besides other
works, "Vegetable Iconography," (1841.) Died in 1840.
See ACHILI.E RICHARD, " Notice sur M. Turpin," 1840.
Turpin de Crisse, tuR'paN' deh kRe'sa', (LANCELOT,)
COUNT, a French officer and military writer, born in La
Beauce about 1715, served with distinction in Italy and
Germany, and rose to the rank of brigadier-general.
His principal work, entitled " Essay on the Art of
War," (3 vols., 1754,) obtained extensive popularity and
was translated into English, German, and Russian. He
also published " Commentaries on Caesar," and other
similar treatises. He was created a commander of the
order of Saint Louis in 1771, and lieutenant-general in
1780. Died about 1795.
See DE COUKCEM.ES, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Francais."
Turpin de Crisse, (LANCELOT THEODORE,) COUNT,
a French artist, born in Paris in 1782. He painted
landscapes, published a " Voyage to Naples," and was
admitted into the Institute. Died in 1859.
Turquet. See MAYERNE.
Turquety, tuVkeh-te', (£DOUARD,) a French poet,
born at Rennes in 1801, wrote " Poetical Sketches,"
(" Esquisses poetiques," 1829,) " Love and Faith,"
(1833,) " Primavera," (1840,) and other poems.
Ttirr, tuR, (STEPHEN,) a Hungarian patriot and gene
ral, born at Baja about 1820. He joined the Italian
army in 1849, anc' fought against Austria. In the Cri
mean war he served in the allied army against Russia.
He enlisted, with the rank of colonel, in the army
of Garibaldi in 1859, and distinguished himself in the
liberation of Sicily in 1860. He became a general of
division in the Italian service, and married a grand
daughter of Lucien Bonaparte.
Turranius. See RUFINUS.
Turreau, tii'ro', (Louis,) a French Jacobin, born at
Orbec about 1760. He was a violent member of the
Convention, 1792-95. Died in 1796.
Turreau de Linieres, tii'ro' deh le'ne-aiR', (Louis
MARIE,) BARON, a French general, born at fivreux in
1756. He commanded an army which defeated the Ven-
dean insurgents in 1793, and was ambassador to the
United States from 1804 to 1811. Died in 1816.
Turrecremata, the Latin of TORQUEMADA, which
see.
Turrell orTurrel, tu'rel',[Lat. TUREL'LUS,] (PIERRE,)
a French astrologer, and rector of the College of Dijon,
wrote " The Period of the World," (" La Periode du
Monde," 1531.) Died about 1547.
Turretin. See TURRETINI.
Turretini, toor-ra-tee'nee, [Fr. TURRETIN, tii'reh-
taN' or tuR'taN,! (BENEDICT,) a Swiss theologian, born
at Zurich in 1588, was eminent for his learning and
talents. He became professor of theology at Geneva in
1612, and published several works on theology. Died
in 1631.
Turretini or Turretin, [Lat. TURRETT'NUS,] (FRAN
COIS,) an eminent Swiss theologian, a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Geneva in 1623. He studied under
Spanheim and Diodati, became an eloquent preacher,
and was appointed professor of theology at Geneva in
1653. He had great influence in the Church. His prin
cipal work is "Theological and Controversial Institutes,"
" Institutiones Theologios Elencticae," 3 vols., 1679-85,)
which was highly esteemed. Died at Geneva in 1687.
See PICTET, "Memoria F. Turretini celebrata," 1688.
Turretini or Turretin, [Lat. TURRETI'NUS,] (JEAN
ALPHONSE,) a son of the preceding, and the most cele
brated member of the family, was born at Geneva in
1671. He studied at Leyden and in England, gained
distinction as a preacher, and became professor of the
ology at Geneva in 1705. He was a liberal theologian,
who endeavoured to promote union among the different
a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
TURRETINUS
2159
TTCHSEN
Protestant sects. He opposed with success the regula
tion that candidates for the ministry should be required
to sign the Consensus. His chief works are "Cloud of
Witnesses in favour of Moderate and Pacific Judgment
concerning Theological Affairs," (" Xubes Testium pro
moderato et pacifico de Rebus Theologicis Judicio,"
1719,) and "Theological Cogitations and Dissertations,"
(" Cogitationes et Dissertationes theologicse," 2 vols.,
1737.) Died in 1737.
See SENEBIER, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve ;" " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie G^nerale. "
Turretinus. See TURRETINI.
Turrian, toor-re-an', [Fr. TURRIEN, Hi're-aN' ; Lat.
TURRIA'NUS,] or Torres, tor'rgs, (FRANCISCO,) a Span
ish Jesuit and writer, born at Herrera about 1504. He
wrote many works of little merit. In 1562 he was sent
by the pope to the Council of Trent. Died in 1584.
Turrianus. See TURRIAN.
Turrien. See TURRIAN.
Tur-sel-li'nus, (HORATIUS,) an Italian Jesuit, ori
ginally named Torselliiio, (toR-sel-lee'no,) born at Rome
in 1545, became rector of the Jesuits' Seminary in his
native city. He was the author of a treatise on the use
of the Latin particles, " De Usu Particularum Latini
Sermonis," (1598,) which ranks among the most valuable
works of the kind ; also an " Epitome of Universal His
tory," (in Italian,) and " Life of Saint Francis Xavier,"
(in Latin, 1594.) Died in 1599.
See MORERI, " Dictionnaire Historique."
Tur'ton, (THOMAS,) an English theologian, born
about 1780. He became Dean of Peterborough in 1830,
and Bishop of Ely in 1845. Died in 1864.
Turton, (WILLIAM,) an English physician and natu
ralist, born before 1800. Among his principal works
we may name a conchological dictionary of the British
Islands, (1819,) "Conchylia Insularum Britannicarum,"
or " Shells of the British Islands," systematically ar
ranged, (1822, illustrated,) and "Manual of the Land
and Fresh-Water Shells of the British Islands," (1831.)
Tussanus. See TOUSSAIN.
Tus'ser, (THOMAS,) an English poet and writer on
agriculture, was born in Essex about 1520. His principal
work is entitled "Five Hundred Points of Good Hus
bandry united to as many of Good Housewifery," (1573,)
and was dedicated to his patron, Lord Paget. It is
written in verse, and accompanied by an interesting
memoir of the author. Died about 1580.
See FULLER, "Worthies of Essex."
Tutch'in, (JOHN,) an English political writer under
the reign of James II., was a partisan of the Duke of
Monmouth. Died in 1707.
Tuthill, ttit'il, (LouiSA CAROLINE HUGGINS,) an
American writer, born at New Haven, Connecticut, was
married in 1817. She has published "James Somers,
the Pilgrim's Son," (1827,) "My Wife," a novel, "The I
History of Architecture," (1848,) "The Nursery Book," |
(1849,) and other original works; also, a compilation
entitled "The Young Ladies' Reader."
Tutilo, too'te-lo, or Tuotilo, too-o'te-lo, a learned
Swiss monk, was distinguished for his proficiency in
music, eloquence, and the arts of painting and sculpture.
Died about 896.
Tut/tie, (JAMKS M.,) an American general, born in
Monroe county, Ohio, about 1823. He served as colonel
at Shiloh, April, 1862, and commanded a Federal brigade
at the siege of Vicksburg in May and June, 1863.
Twed'dell, (ToH.v,) an English scholar, born in
Northumberland in 1769. Having studied at Cambridge,
he was chosen a Fellosv of Trinity College in 1792, and
in 1795 set out on a tour to the continent. While en
gaged in examining the remains of art at Athens, he
died, after a few days' illness, (1799,) leaving a collection
of manuscripts and drawings, which were unfortunately
lost on the voyage to England. A selection from his
letters was published in 1815 by his brother Robert,
with a memoir of the author.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1815 ; " London Quar
terly Review" for October, 1815.
Tweed'dale, (GEORGE HAY.) MARQUIS OF, a British
general, born in 1787. He served in the Peninsular war,
(i8o8-r4,) and was raised to the rank of general in 1854.
He was a representative peer of Scotland.
Twells, (LEONARD,) an English clergyman, graduated
at Cambridge in 1704. He preached in London, and
wrote on theology. Died in 1742.
Twes'ten, (AUGUST DETLEV CHRISTIAN,) professor
of theology at Kiel in 1819, was born at GHickstadt in
1789. He succeeded Schleiermacher in 1835 in the
chair of theology at Berlin. He published several philo
sophical and religious works.
Twiggs, twigz, (DAVID EMANUEL,) an American gene
ral, born in Georgia in 1790. He served in the Mexican
war, and obtained the rank of major-general in 1847.
He joined the secession party in 1861. He was deprived
of his rank in the United States army. Died at Augusta,
Georgia, in September, 1862.
Twiggs, (LKVi,) a brother of the preceding, was born
at Richmond City, Georgia, in 1793. He served under
General Scott in the Mexican war, and was mortally
wounded in the assault upon Chapultepec, 1847.
Twinger, (JAMES.) See KONIGSHOVEN.
Twi'ning, (THOMAS,) an English divine, born in 1734,
studied at Cambridge, and became rector of White NTol-
ley, in Essex, in 1768. He published an excellent
translation of Aristotle's " Poetics," accompanied with
notes and with two dissertations on poetical and musical
imitation, (1789.) Died in 1804.
Twining, (WILLIAM,) a distinguished physician and
surgeon, born in Nova Scotia, studied in London, where
he afterwards became a member of the College of Sur
geons. He was appointed in 1830 one of the surgeons
to the Civil Hospital at Calcutta. He published "Clin
ical Illustrations of the More Important Diseases of
Bengal," etc., (2 vols., 1832.) Died in 1835.
Twiss, (HORACE,) an English politician and writer,
born in 1786 or 1787. He became a member of Par
liament, and published a "Life of Lord Eldon." Died
in 1849.
Twiss, (RICHARD,) an English traveller, born in 1747,
published "Travels through Portugal and Spain in 1772
and 1773-4," " A Tour in Ireland in 1775-8," "Miscel
lanies," and other works. Died in 1821.
Twiss, (TRAVERS,) an English lawyer and writer,
born in Westminster about 1810. He became professor
of political economy at Oxford about 1842, and obtained
a chair of civil law there in 1855. He wrote several
works on the law of nations, etc.
Twiss, (WILLIAM,) a learned English nonconformist
minister, bom in Berkshire about 1575, was a Calvinist.
He was prolocutor to the Westminster Assembly of
Divines, in 1643, apd wrote several controversial works,
among which is "Defence of Grace," (" Vindiciae
Gratis," 1632,) against Arminianism. He was curate
of Newbury for many years. Died in 1646.
Twyne, (BRIAN,) an English antiquary, born in 1579,
became keeper of the archives at Oxford, and wrote on
the antiquities of that place. Died in 1644.
Twyne, (JoHN,) an antiquary, born in Hampshire,
was a grandfather of the preceding. He wrote on British
antiquities. Died in 1581.
Twys'deii, (Sir ROGER,) an English antiquary, born
in Kent in 1597, was the author of " The Historical
Defence of the Church of England," and other works.
Died in 1672.
Ty. See TYR.
Ty'-ehe, [Gr. Ti'xn,] in Greek mythology, the personi
fication of chance or luck, corresponded with the Roman
Fortuna. She was represented sometimes with a ball,
and sometimes with the horn of Amalthea.
Tycho Brahe. See BRAHE.
Tychsen, t/nVsen or tlK'sen, (Oi.AUS GERHARD,) an
eminent Orientalist, born at Tondern, in Sleswick, in
1734. He studied at Halle, and in 1763 became profes
sor of the Oriental languages at Biitzow, where he soon
acquired the highest reputation as a teacher. He died
in 1815, leaving a very valuable library, which was pur
chased by the University of Rostock. He was author
of treatises on the Phoenician and Arabic languages,
and a work entitled " Leisure Hours of Biitzow," (1769.)
See HARTMANN, "O. Tychsen," etc., 5 vols., 1818-20; " Nou-
velle Biographic Generate."
€as/e; 9 as*; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; th as in this. (^^"See Explanations, p. 23.)
TTCHSEN
2160
TTNDJLL
Tychsen, (THOMAS CHRISTIAN,) a philologist, born
in Sleswick in 1758. Having studied at Gottingen, he
visited Germany and other parts of Europe, and after
his return became professor of philosophy at Gottingen.
He published a " History of the Jews," (1789,) an
" Arabic Grammar," an edition of Smyrnaeus, and other
works. Died in 1834.
Tydee. See TYDEUS.
Tydeman, ti'deh-man', (MiNARD,) a Dutch scholar
and writer, born at Zwolle in 1741. He was professor
of law at Utrecht, and removed to Leyden about 1801.
Died in 1825.
Ty'deus, [Gr. Tvdevf ; Fr. TYDEE, te'da',] a mythical
hero, was a son of CEneus, King of Calydon, and a
brother of Meleager. He married Deipyle, (sometimes
written Deiphyle,) a daughter of Adrastus, and was the
father of Diomede. He was one of the seven chiefs that
led the famous expedition against Thebes, in order to
restore Polynices. In this war he was mortally wounded
by Melanippus.
Tydide. See TYDIDES.
Ty-di'des, [Gr. Tw5«'%; Fr. TYDIDE, te'ded',] a
patronymic of Diomede, the son of Tydeus.
Tye, ti, (CHRISTOPHER,) an eminent English musi
cian, born in Westminster, was patronized by Henry
VIII., who appointed him musical teacher to Prince
Edward. He became organist to the chapel royal under
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. His compositions are
chiefly anthems and church music.
Ty'ers, (THOMAS,) an English miscellaneous writer,
born in 1726, was one of the proprietors of Vauxhall,
London. Among his works is " Biographical Sketches
of Dr. Johnson," (1784.) Died in 1787.
Ty'ler, (BENNET,) D. D., an American Congregational
divine, born at Middlebury, Connecticut, in 1783, was
elected in 1822 president of Dartmouth College. He
wrote a" History of the New Haven Theology," (1837,)
and a number of religious and controversial works.
Died in 1858.
Tyler, (DANIEL,) an American general, born in Con
necticut in 1799, graduated at West Point in 1819. He
was a civil engineer before the rebellion. He com
manded a division at the battle of Bull Run, July 21,
1861.
Tyler, (ERASTUS B.,) an American general, born
in Ontario county, New York, about 1822, became a
resident of Ohio in his youth. He commanded a
brigade of the Union army at the battles of Port Re
public (June, 1862) and of Fredericksburg, December
13, 1862.
Tyler, (JOHN,) the tenth President of the United
States, born in Charles-City county, Virginia, in March,
1790, was a son of John Tyler, Governor of Virginia.
He studied law, was elected a member of Congress in
1816, and served in that body about five years, during
which he opposed a protective tariff and the Bank of the
United States. He was originally a republican of the
Virginia school, and supported W. H. Crawford for the
Presidency in 1824. In 1825 he became Governor of
Virginia, and in March, 1827, was elected a Senator of
the United States in place of John Randolph of Roan-
oke. He voted against the tariff bill of 1828, and
against all measures of internal improvement, and was a
partisan of General Jackson in the election of that year.
He sympathized with the nullifiers of South Carolina in
1832, became an opponent of Jackson's administration,
and voted alone in the Senate against the " Force Bill"
which was passed against the nullifiers in February, 1833.
He was re-elected for a term of six years, commencing
December, 1833, soon after which date he opposed the
removal of the public deposits from the Bank of the
United States, and supported Mr. Clay's resolution
which censured the President for the removal of the
same. The legislature of Virginia, about February,
1836, instructed the Virginia Senators to vote for ex
punging the resolution of censure just mentioned, but
Mr. Tyler preferred to resign his seat, and refused to
obey their instructions. He became identified with the
Whig party, and in the National Convention which met
in December, 1839, he zealously supported Mr. Clay
for the Presidency. He was then nominated for Vice-
President, General Harrison being the Presidential
candidate, and was elected in November, 1840.
In consequence of the death of President Harrison,
(April 4, 1841,) Mr. Tyler became President of the
United States. He retained in office the cabinet min
isters appointed by General Harrison. He soon after
began to quarrel with Mr. Clay and the majority of those
who had elected himself to the Vice-Presidency. He
vetoed a national bank bill which was passed by Con
gress about the 6th of August, 1841, although the prin
cipal provisions of that bill had been suggested by Mr.
Ewing, secretary of the treasury. "Congress having
passed another bank bill," says Mr. Greeley, "based
entirely on his own suggestions, and conforming in all
points to his requirements, he vetoed that also," (about
September 10, 1841.) This veto provoked the indig
nation of the Whigs, who denounced the President for
betraying their confidence. It caused the resignation
of all the members of the cabinet except Daniel Webster,
who was secretary of state, and who remained in office
in order to complete important negotiations with the
British government. Having concluded a treaty with
Lord Ashburton on the subject of the northeastern
boundary, Webster resigned in May, 1843. ^n JL1ty>
1843, the President reorganized his cabinet, to which he
appointed several Democrats. The department of state
was then given to Abel P. Upshur, who was accidentally
killed in February, 1844, and was succeeded by John C.
Calhoun. He concluded in April, 1844, a treaty of
annexation with the republic of Texas, which was rejected
by the Senate. Mr. Tyler continued to promote the
annexation of Texas, which, by the aid of the Democrats,
he effected March i, 1845. H's intrigues to obtain a
nomination for the Presidency were not successful, and
he retired to private life on the 4th of March, 1845.
He was president of the Peace Conference or Conven
tion which met in Washington in February, 1861. Having
joined the disunion movement, he became a member
of the Confederate Congress about March, 1861. Died
in Richmond in January, 1862.
See GREELEY, "American Conflict," vol. i. pp. 154-156; "Demo
cratic Review" for November, 1842, (with a portrait.)
Tyler, (RoYAi.i,,) an American jurist and humorous
writer, born at Boston in 1756. His comedy entitled
"The Contrast" was performed in New York in 1786
with brilliant success. His other principal works are
" The Algerine Captive," a novel, and the comedies of
"May-Day, or New York in an Uproar," and "The
Georgia Spec, or Land in the Moon." Died in 1826.
See DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopsedia of American Literature."
Tyler, (SAMUEL,) an American lawyer and philo
sophical writer, born in Prince George's county, Mary
land, in 1809. He has published a "Discourse of the
Baconian Philosophy," (1844,) "The Progress of Phi
losophy in the Past and in the Future," (1859,) and other
similar works.
Ty'ler, (WAT,) an English rebel, was a leader of a
large number of men who revolted in the southeastern
part of England in 1381 in consequence of a capitation
tax. They massacred several persons of the higher
classes, committed much devastation, and marched
towards London. Tyler was killed by the mayor of
London in 1381.
Tyler, (WILLIAM SEYMOUR,) D.D., an American
Presbyterian divine and scholar, born in Susquehanna
county, Pennsylvania, in 1810. He became professor
of the Latin and Greek languages at Amherst College
about 1836. He also published editions of the " Ger-
mania" and "Agricola" of Tacitus, the "Histories" of
Tacitus, and Plato's " Apology" and " Crito," and a
number of theological- treatises.
Tyndale. See TINDALE.
Tyn'dall, (JOHN,) LL.D., F.R.S., a distinguished
physicist, born in Ireland about 1820, was appointed
professor of natural philosophy in the Royal Institution,
London, in 1853. Among his works are " Peaks, Passes,
and Glaciers," (1860,) and a treatise entitled " Heat Con
sidered as a Mode of Motion," (1862,) which enjoys a
high reputation. Professor Tyndall has probably done
more than any other English writer to make known and
popularize the great scientific truth of the mutual con-
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nSt; good; moon;
TTND4RE
2l6l
Tl'RWHITT
vertibility of heat and motion. "There is a moral force
and vividness of intellect about all he writes which fasci
nates the attention at once, and makes you feel that you
are in contact with a mind of far more than the ordinary
intensity." (London " Spectator," June 8, 1867.) He
contributed to the " Philosophical Transactions" several
memoirs on radiant heat, and published " Lectures on
Sound," (1867.)
See " Eraser's Magazine" for October, i86g.
Tyndare or Tyndaree. See TYNDARUS.
Tyn'da-rus or Tyn-da're-us, [Gr. Tvv&'ipeof or
TvviVifieus, rarely, if ever, Twdapoc;* Fr. TYNDAREE,
tax'dt'ia', or TYNDARE, taN'da"R',j a fabulous king of
Sparta, married Leda, and had a number of children,
among whom were Castor, Pollux, and Helen. The
poets relate that he exacted from the numerous suitors
of Helen an oath that they would defend her and the
husband whom she should choose against all their ene
mies. (See HELEN.)
Tyng, (STEPHEN HIGGINSON,) D.D., an American
Episcopalian divine, born at Newburyport, Massachu
setts, in 1800. He graduated at Harvard College, became
rector of the Church of the Epiphany, Philadelphia, in
1833, and in 1845 of Saint George's Church, New York.
He has published " Lectures on the Law and the Gos
pel," (1848,) " Family Commentary on the Four Gospels,"
(1849,) " The Child of Prayer," (a memoir of his son, the
Rev. Dudley A. Tyng,) and other religious works.
Typhaon. See TYPHON.
Typhee or Typhoee. See TYPHON.
Ty'phon, Ty-pha'on, or Ty-pho'eus, [Gr. Tvtidav,
Tuoufi'c, Tti^wf ,- Fr. TYPHON, te'ftN', TYPHOEE, or TY
PHEE, te'fa',] in classic mythology, was a giant and fire-
breathing monster, the father of Chimaera, Cerberus, and
the Sphinx. According to the fable, he rebelled against
the gods, some of whom fled to Egypt and concealed
themselves under the forms of different animals. He
was finally vanquished by Jupiter and buried under
Mount Etna.
Typot, te'po', written also Typoest, [Lat. TYPO'-
Tius, | ([AMES,) a Flemish jurist and writer, born at
Bruges about 1550. At the invitation of King John III.
he went to Sweden, where he was imprisoned from 1582
to 1594. Soon after the latter date he went to the court
of the emperor Rudolph, who gave him the title of
historiographer. He wrote "On Fame," (" De Faina,")
" On Fortune," (" De Fortuna,") and a " History of
Sweden," (1605.) Died at Prague in 1601 or 1602.
Typotius. See TYPOT.
Tyr, teer, (or te~e"R,) or Ty, tee, [supposed to be allied to
the Anglo-Saxon fir, signifying "glorious," "mighty,"!]
the most fearless of all the gods of the Northmen, was a
son of Odin, but his mother was of the race of giants,
(Jb'tuns.) He is called " the one-handed," an epithet
which is explained by the following legend. The most
terrible of all the enemies of the gods was the wolf
Fenrir, destined by the appointment of the Nornas to be
the destroyer of Odin. When young, he was brought up
among the /Esir, but Tyr alone had the courage to give
him food. As he increased in strength, the gods, anx
iously calling to mind the predictions that he was fated
to be their destruction, resolved, if possible, to bind him.
After various unsuccessful attempts, they at last caused
to be constructed a magic chain, which, though soft and
slender as a silken cord, was of inconceivable strength.
But the difficulty was to fasten it on him. He had readily
allowed the ^Isir to bind him with other chains, which
he had broken without much difficulty; but now his sus
picions were excited by the seeming frailty of the new-
made band. The gods assured him that he could easily
break it, but even if he did not they promised they would
instantly release him after he had once tried his strength
upon it.' The wolf replied, " If I cannot free myself, I
am well convinced I shall wait long to be released by
you ; but, rather than you shall charge me with a want
* See LIDDELL and SCOTT, " Greek- English Lexicon."
t It would seem to be a probable conjecture that it might be de
rived directly from tyr, a "bull," of which the inconsiderate reckless
daring not a little resembles that of the god Tyr, although some of
the Norse writers say, strangely enough, that Tyr was remarkable
for the union of prudence (or discretion) with courage.
of courage, let one of you place his hand in my mouth
as a pledge of your sincerity, and I will consent to be
bound." The gods now looked at one another, but no
one had the hardihood to offer his hand. At length
Tyr stretched forth his right hand and placed it within
the jaws of the wolf. The monster now began to strug
gle, but the more he strove the more tightly he was
bound by the magic chain. Hereupon all the gods be
gan to laugh, except Tyr, who had good reason to be
serious, since he had through his rashness lost his right
hand. It is a proverbial saying of a man of surpassing
courage that he is as brave as Tyr. Being the bravest
of the gods, he was the deity especially worshipped by
brave men. On account of his courage, Tyr may be
styled " the Northern Mars ;" Tuesday (that is, " Tyr's-
day" or "Ty'sday") is called in modern Latin dies Martis,
(" Mars-day,") whence the French Mardi. At the de
struction of the world Tyr will be slain by the dog
Garm.
See MAI.LET, " Northern Antiquities," vol. ii. Fable XIV. ;
THORPE, "Northern Mythology."
Ty-ran'nI-o or Ty-ran'm-on, [Gr. Tvpawiuv,] a
Greek grammarian, born in Pontus, was made prisoner
by the Romans, and taken in 72 B.C. to Rome, where he
resided as a teacher. His learning and abilities are highly
commended by Cicero, who employed him to arrange his
library and to instruct his nephew Quintus, 56 B.C.
Tyraiinion. See TYRANNIC.
Tyrannius. See RUFINUS.
Tyrants, Thirty. See THIRTY TYRANTS, THE.
Tyr-con'nel, (RICHARD TALBOT,) EARL OF, an Irish
royalist, of Norman descent. " In his youth he had
been one of the most noted sharpers and bullies of
London. He had been introduced to Charles and James
when they were exiles in Flanders, as a man fit. and
ready for the infamous service of assassinating the Pro
tector." (Macatilay, " History of England.") In 1687
he was appointed lord deputy of Ireland, the Protestant
population of which he resolved to exterminate. He
commanded at the battle of the Boyne against William
III., and was defeated, (1690.) In the campaign of 1691
he assumed authority over the army, and interfered
with Saint Ruth, who had a commission as commander-
in-chief. Died in 1691.
" Under an outward show of levity, profusion, and
eccentric impudence," says Macaulay, "he was in truth
one of the most mercenary and crafty of mankind."
(" History of England.")
Tyr'rell, TAMES,) an English political writer, born in
London in 1642, was a grandson, on the mother's side,
of Archbishop Usher. After the revolution of 1688 he
published a collection of political dialogues, entitled
" Bibliotheca Politica, or an Enquiry into the Antient
Constitution of the English Government," etc., (1718.)
His most important work is his " General History of
England, both Ecclesiastical and Civil," (3 vols. fol,
1700.) Died in 1718.
Tyrteeus, tir-tee'us, [Gr. Tvprfwoc; Fr. TYRTEE,
teR'ta'; Ger. TYRTAUS, te^R-ta'us,] a celebrated Greek
elegiac poet and musician, supposed to have been a
native of Miletus, flourished about 685 B.C. According
to tradition, the Spartans, instructed by the Delphic
oracle, requested the Athenians to send them a leader.
The Athenians, in derision, sent Tyrtaeus, a lame school
master. He composed martial songs by which the
Spartans were animated to victory in their war against
the Messenians. His war-songs had a great and lasting
influence over the Spartans, who continued to sing them
for several centuries. To remove dissensions among
the Spartans, he wrote a political elegy, called " Euno-
mia," some fragments of which are extant.
See A. MATTHI^G, " De Tyrtaei Carminibus," 1820: N. BACH,
"Ucber Tyrtasus," 1830; " Fraser's Magazine" for June, 1835; K.
O. MUI.I.RR. " History of the Literature of Ancient Greece;" FA-
BRICIUS, "Bibliotheca Grasca."
Tyrtaus. See TYRT^US.
Tyrtee. See TYRTAUS.
Tyrwhitt, teVit, (THOMAS,) an eminent English phi
lologist and antiquary, born in London in 1730. He
studied at Queen's College, Oxford, and in 1762 was ap
pointed clerk of the House of Commons. He was also
curator of the British Museum, and a Fellow of the
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
136
See Explanations, p. 2 ?.
TTSON
2162
UDAL
Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries. Among
his numerous and valuable works we may name his
"Dissertation on Babrius," (1776,) "Conjectures upon
Strabo," (1783,) — both in Latin, — an excellent edition
of Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," "Poems supposed
to have been written at Bristol in the Tenth Century
by Rowley," etc., in which he exposes the fraud of
Chatterton, and an edition of the " Poetics" of Aristotle.
He died in 1786. His "Conjectures upon ^schylus,
Euripides, and Aristophanes" came out in 1822.
Ty'spn, (EDWARD,) an English physician and anato
mist, born in Somersetshire in 1649. He took his degree
at Cambridge, and subsequently became physician to the
Bridewell and Bethlem Hospitals. He was also a Fellow
of the Royal Society and of the College of Physicians.
He published several excellent treatises on comparative
anatomy, among which we may name " Orang-Outang,
sive Homo Sylvestris; or, The Anatomy of a Pygmie,
compared with that of a Monkey," etc. ; and " Phoccena ;
or, The Anatomy of a Porpesse," etc., (1680.) He
also contributed several valuable essays to the "Philo
sophical Transactions." Died in 1708.
Tyson, (MICHAEL,) an English clergyman and en
graver, born about 1740. He etched several portraits.
Died in 1780.
Tyssens, tl'sens, (AUGUSTIN,) a Flemish painter of
landscapes and animals, born about 1662, was a son of
Peter, noticed below. He worked at Antwerp. Died
about 1722.
Tyssens, (NIKOLAAS,) an able Flemish painter of
birds, flowers, etc., born at Antwerp in 1660, was a
brother of the preceding. Died in 1719.
Tyssens, (PETER,) a distinguished Flemish painter,
was born at Antwerp in 1625. He excelled both in
portraits and historical painting. Among his works in
the latter department we may name "The Assumption
of the Virgin," in the church of Saint James, at Antwerp.
Died in 1692. His sons NICHOLAS and AUGUSTINE were
also celebrated artists. The former painted chiefly birds
and flowers, and the latter landscapes of great merit.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.
Tyt'ler, (ALEXANDER FRASER,) Lord Woodhouselee,
a distinguished Scottish historian and jurist, son of
William, noticed below, was born at Edinburgh in 1747.
He studied law in his native city, and was admitted an
advocate in 1770. He became professor of universal
history and Roman antiquities at Edinburgh in 1786,
and in 1802 was made judge of the court of session,
with the title of Lord Woodhouselee. He was the
author of an "Essay on the Principles of Translation,"
(1791,) "Elements of General History," (2 vols. 8vo,
1801,) "Treatise upon Martial Law," and "Memoirs of
the Life and Writings of Henry Home, Lord Kames,"
(2 vols., 1807-10.) He died in 1813, having been pre
viously appointed a lord of justiciary.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Tytler, (JAMES,) a Scottish writer, born at Brechin
in 1747. He was the author of a "Geographical, His
torical, and Commercial Grammar," and other works.
He was also a contributor to the " Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica," second edition. He died at Salem, Massachusetts,
about 1804.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Tytler, (PATRICK FRASER,) a historian, a son of
Alexander F., noticed above, was born at Edinburgh in
1791. He was educated at the High School and Uni
versity of Edinburgh. He published a " Life of Admi
rable Crichton," (1819,) a "Life of Sir Walter Raleigh,"
(1833,) a "Life of Henry VIII.," (1837,) and other
biographies. His principal work is a " History of Scot
land," (9 vols., 1828-43,) which has a high reputation.
He was an Episcopalian, and not disposed to estimate
the Scottish Reformers so favourably as some other
historians. He died at Edinburgh in December, 1849,
leaving several children.
See BURGON, "Life of P. F. Tytler;" CHAMBKRS, "Biographical
Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" ''London Quarterly Review" for
March, 1841, and July, 1859; "North British Review" tor August,
185,5.
Tytler, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish lawyer and writer,
born at Edinburgh in 1711. He published an " Inquiry,
Historical and Critical, into the Evidence against Mary
Queen of Scots," (1759,) "The Poetical Remains of
James I. of Scotland," (1783,) "A Dissertation on
Scottish Music," and other works. Died in 1792.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Tzetzes, tset'zez, (JOANNES,) a Greek poet and
grammarian of the latter part of the twelfth century,
was a native of Constantinople. He was the author of a
work entitled " Iliaca," comprising three poems, "Ante-
Homerica," " Ilomerica," and " Post-Homerica," the
greater part of which is extant, and was published in
1793 by F. W. Jacobs. He also wrote commentaries
on several Greek classics.
His brother ISAAC was also distinguished for his
learning.
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Graeca."
Tzschirner, tsheeVner, (HEINRICH GOTTLIEB,) a
German Protestant theologian and pulpit orator, born
in Saxony in 1778. He studied at Leipsic, where he
became professor of theology in 1809. Among his
numerous works we may name " Protestantism and
Catholicism regarded from the Stand-Point, of Politics,"
and "The System of Reaction." Died in 1828.
TJ.
Ubaldi, (GuiDO.) See GUIDO URALDO.
Ubaldini, oo-bal-dee'nee, (PETRUCCIO,) an Italian
artist and writer, was born at Florence about 1524. He
became a resident of London in early life, and an illu
minator on vellum. He wrote, besides other works, a
"Life of Charlemagne," ("Vita di Carlo Magno," 1581,)
"Moral and Political Precepts," (1592,) and "Poems,"
(" Rime," 1596.) Died about 1600.
Uberti, degli, dal'yee oo-beVtee, (FARINATA,) a
Florentine leader of the Ghibeline faction, was expelled
from Florence in 1250. Having defeated his opponents
in battle in 1260, he recovered possession of Florence.
His magnanimity is praised by Sismoncli, who says he
saved Florence from being razed to the ground by his
own party.
Uberti, degli, (FAZIO or BONIFACIO,) a poet, born
at Florence, was a grandson of the preceding. He was
driven into exile by the Guelphs. He wrote an unfinished
descriptive poem called "The News of the World," ("II
Dittamondo,") which is said to be interesting. Died
about 1367.
Ubicini, u'be'se'ne', (JEAN HENRI ABDOLONYME,) a
French writer, born at Issoudun in 1818. He published
"Letters on Turkey," (2 vols., 1849-51,) and other
works.
Uccello, oot-chel'lo, (PAOLO,) an eminent Florentine
painter, born about 1395. His proper name was PAOLO
DI DONO. He was noted for his skill in perspective, and
for his admirable delineations of birds, from which he
received the name of Uccello, (" bird.") Died about 1472.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" TICOZZI, " Dizionario."
Uchanski, oo-Kan'skee, (JAMES,) a Polish prelate,
born in 1505, became Archbishop of Gnesen and Primate
of Poland in 1562. He favoured or tolerated the Prot
estant doctrines. Died in 1581.
Uchtritz or Uechtritz, von, fon uK'tR?ts, (FRIED-
RICH,) a German poet and dramatist, born at Gorlitz in
1800, has published, among other works, a tragedy en
titled "Alexander and Darius," and "The Babylonians
in Jerusalem," a dramatic poem.
U'dal, (EPHRAIM,) an English Puritan minister, who
preached in London, became an Episcopalian, and wrote
a "Treatise on Sacrilege." Died in 1647.
Udal, (JoHN,) an English scholar, the father of the
preceding, was imprisoned on account of his Puritan
principles, and died in 1592. His "Key to the Holy
a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon;
VDAL
2163
ULISSE
Tongue" is said to have been the first Hebrew grammar
published in England.
Udal or Udall, (NICHOLAS,) an English scholar and
dramatist, born in Hampshire in 1506. Having studied
at Oxford, he became master of Eton School, and sub
sequently of Westminster School. He published a
selection from Terence's comedies, with an English
translation, entitled " Flovres for Latyne Spekynge," and
wrote several original comedies, which have been lost,
with the exception of one, called " Ralph Royster Doys-
ter." It is said to have been the first English play of
the kind divided into acts and scenes. Died in 1564.
Uden, van, vSn vi'den, (LucAS,) a Flemish landscape-
painter and engraver, born at Antwerp in 1596. He
executed the backgrounds for several of Rubens's pic
tures, who in return painted the figures in his. Among
his master-pieces may be named a " Landscape by
Moonlight," in the Lichtenstein gallery at Vienna. His
engravings are numerous and highly prized. Died
about 1662.
Udiiie, da, da oo'de-na, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian painter,
born in 1489, was distinguished for his skill in grotesque
a poet, Uhland is characterized by simplicity and ten
derness joined with deep religious feeling.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Rlackwood's
Magazine" for February, 1827; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for
July, 1837; "London Quarterly Review" tor July, 1864; L. DE Lo-
MEN'IE, " M. Uhland, par un Homme de Rien," 1841 : F. NOTTER,
" Uhland, sein Leben und seine Dichtungen," 1863 : PFIZER, " Uhland
und Riickert," 1837; "Nouvelle Biographic Genemle ;" "Jahrbuch
zum Conversations-Lexicon," 1863.
Uhlefeld or Ulefeld, oo'leh-feld', written also Ul-
feld or Ulfeldt, (CORNIFEX, CORFITO, or CORFITZ,)
COUNT, a Danish courtier, became the chief favourite of
Christian IV., who appointed him Viceroy of .Norway,
and sent him as ambassador to France in 1647. After
the death of that king he fell into disgrace, and entered
the service of Christina of Sweden. He is censured
for his hostility to his native country. Having been
accused of a conspiracy against the King of Denmark,
he was condemned to death in 1663, but he was out of
the reach of the law. Died in 1664.
See ROUSSEAU DE LA VAI.ETTE, " Histoire du Comte d'Uhle-
feld," 1678; HANS PAUS, "C. Ulfeldt's Levnet," 1747.
TThlich, oo'liK, (LEBERECHT,) a German theologian
subjects. He was a pupil of Raphael, whom he assisted , of the rationalistic school, was born at Kothen in 1799.
in painting the Loggie in the Vatican. He excelled as a
painter of animals, birds, etc. Died about 1562.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters."
Uffeiibach, von, fon ooffen-baK', QOHANN FRIED-
RICH,) a German poet and musician, born at Frankfort
in 1687, was a brother of the following. Died in 1769.
Uffeiibach, von, (ZACHARIAS CONRAD,) a distin-
He preached at Magdeburg, and published, besides
other works, "Ten Years at Magdeburg, 1845-55,"
(1856.)
Ullrich, oo'riK or ii'rek', (JEAN JACQUES ALEXIS,) a
French general, born at Phalsbourg in 1802, became
brigadier-general in 1852, and general of division in
1856. He served in the Crimean war, and in the Italian
U AiCllUdWll. V UU.. \ t-j .A »_ ri .-\ is. i --\ .3 \_,wi^ ix-nj^,! a. vnovi n~ . _ _ o/. .
guished German scholar, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main i campaign of 1859. In 1862 he received the grand cross
in 1681. He studied at Halle, and afterwards visited j °/ the ^S10" ot honoui. Ab°
III IOO^. i At a LULI 1(^1.1 tXL i 1 ell i ^ , £111 Vi n j L>_ i ** (.1. i \_io v 40 i wwvi i
England. He was made a senator of his native city in j [he service, Jut on the outbreak
. ^ . . TT J , h» o^L-fiH o«H tfVHf-airi*a/i rnmni^n
1721, and subsequently became chief justice. He col-
e'ct d a v ^ge a-d TaSle libr^ of which he post .fe held until its surrender September 28 1870.
3 _ O . ^ ^TW- . , TTllIroncrnl'L-^TTcM APC^P ATRFRIl 3 Illltrh Ti3
he asked and obtained command of Strasbourg, which
published a catalogue, entitled " Bibliotheca Uffenbach-
iana," etc. He was the author of " German Glossary of
the Middle Ages," ("Glossarium Germanicum Medii
Uilkens, oil'kens, (JACOB ALBERT,) a Dutch natu-
list and minister, born near Groningen in 1732. He
published, besides other works, a " Manual of Rural
*>!,») an autobiographv, entitled » Cotnmentarius de , Economy," (1819,) and was professor of rural econ-
Vita propria," and several bibliographical works, (un- omv at Groningen. Died in 1825.
finished.) Died in 1734.
See HERMANN, " Uffenbach's Leben," 1753-
Uggione or Uglone. See OGGIONE.
Ughelli, oo-gel'lee, (FERDINANDO,) an Italian eccle
siastic, born at Florence about 1595, was the author of a
valuable work entitled " Italia Sacra," (9 vols., 1642,)
being a history of the Italian sees, etc., also an account
of the Colonna family, called " Imagines Columnensis
Familiae Carclinalium," (1650.) Died in 1670.
Ugolino. See GHERARDESCA.
Ugoni, oo-go'nee, (CAMILLO,) an Italian writer, born
at Brescia in 1 784. He translated some works of Horace,
and Caesar's " Commentaries." His reputation is founded
on his " History of Italian Literature in the Second Half
of the Eighteenth Century," (3 vols., 1820-22.) He was
exiled for liberalism from 1821 to 1838. Died in 1856.
Ugoiii, [Lat. UGO'NIUS,] (MATTHIAS,) an Italian prel
ate and writer on councils, flourished about 1510. He
became Bishop of Famagosta, in Cyprus. He asserted
the supremacy of councils over the pope.
Ugoiiius. See UGONI.
Uhland, oo'lant, QOHANN LUDWIG,) a celebrated
German lyric poet, born at Tubingen in 1 787. He studied
law in his native town, and took the degree of LL.D.
in 1810. He was a member for Tubingen in the repre
sentative assembly of Wiirtemberg in 1819, and in 1830
was appointed professor-extraordinary of the German
language and literature at Tubingen. Having been
chosen a deputy to the Diet in 1833, he was conspicuous
as an able and earnest advocate of the constitutional
opposition. He had published in 1815 a collection of
patriotic songs, which became widely popular. This was
followed by an essay " On Walthervon der Vogelweide,"
(1822,) " On the Myth of the Northern Legend of Thor,"
(" Ueber den Mythus der Nordische Sagenlehre vom
Thor," 1836,) and " Ancient High and Low Dutch Popu
lar Songs," ("Alter hoch- und niederdeutscher Volks-
lieder," 1844-45.)
a'so composed two tragedies,
Duke Ernest of Suabia," (1817,) and "Louis the Bava
rian," (1819.) Died at Tubingen in November, 1862. As
Uitenbogaard, oi'ten-bo'giRt, (JAN,) a Dutch Re
monstrant minister, born at Utrecht in 1557, was a
chaplain of Maurice the Stadtholder. He became a
friend of Arminius, was persecuted by the Calvinistic
party, and banished in 1618. Died in 1650.
See his "Autobiography," 1639, and his " Life," by G. BRANDT,
(in Latin,) 1720.
Ukert, oo'k§Rt, (FRIEDRICH AUGUST,) a German
writer, born at Eutin in 1780, published a valuable work
on " The Geography of the Greeks and Romans," (1816 ;)
also a " Picture of Greece," and " On the Geography of
Homer." He likewise assisted Heeren in his " History
of the European States." Died in 1851.
Uladislaus OF POLAND. See VLADISLAUS.
Ulbach, iil'bfk', (Louis,) a French poet and political
writer, born at Troyes (Aube) in 1822, became editor of
the " Revue de Paris" in 1853. He published a volume
of poems entitled "Gloriana," (1844,) several tales, and
political letters remarkable for verve and causticity.
Ulfeld or Ulfeldt. See UHLEFELD.
Ulfila. See ULFILAS.
Ul'fi-las, written also Ulfila, Ulphilas, and Vulfila
or Wulfila, a celebrated Gothic scholar and writer,
born about 318 A.D., became bishop of the Arian Goths
living between Mount Hasmus and the Danube. He
made a Gothic translation of the Scriptures, which, hav
ing been lost for a time, was partially discovered in the
sixteenth century in a monastery near Cologne. Died
about 388 A.D. A fragment of his version was discovered
by Angelo Mai at Milan about 1820. The version of
Ulfilas is regarded as a great treasure by philologists.
See GEORG WAITS or WAIZ, " Ueber das Leben und die Lehre
des Ulfilas," 1840; IHRE et SOTBERG, "Ulphilas illustratus," 1752;
BESSEI, "Ueber das Leben des Ulfilas," 1860; "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale. "
Ulft, van der, vtn der tilft, (JACOB,) an eminent
Dutch painter, born at Gorcum in 1627. He painted
views of architecture, ruins, and temples, in which he
introduced groups of figures. He was a good colorist.
Died after 1688.
Ulisse, the French and Italian of ULYSSES, which see.
•e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
ULLM4NN
2164
UL rSSES
Ullmann, ool'man, (KARi.,) a German theologian,
born at Epfenbach, in the Palatinate, in 1796. He
studied at Heidelberg and Tubingen, and became in 1821
professor-extraordinary of theology in the former uni
versity. In 1828 he associated with Umbreit as editor
of the journal entitled "Theologischen Stuclien und
Kritiken," and in 1829 was appointed professor at Halle.
Having returned to Heidelberg in 1836, he was made a
member of the Upper Church Council, and an evan
gelical prelate in 1853. Among his principal works are
" Reformers before the Reformation, particularly in Ger
many and the Netherlands," (2 vols., 1841,) " On the
Future of the Evangelical Church in Germany," (1846,)
"On the Value of a Majority in the Church," (1850,)
and "On the Nature of Christianity," (1855.) Hi
writings enjoy a very high reputation, and have been
translated into several languages.
TJlloa, ool-lo'a, [Sp. pron. ool-yo'a,] (ALPHONSO,) a
Spanish historian and translator, settled at Venice, and
wrote, in Italian, a " Life of the Emperor Charles V.,"
(1560,) and other works. He also translated into elegant
Italian several Spanish histories. Died about 1580.
Ulloa, ool-lo'a or ool-yo'a, (Don ANTONIO,) a cele
brated mathematician and naval officer, born at Seville,
in Spain, in 1716. In 1735 he accompanied La Conda-
mine, Godin, and other French savants to South America,
to measure a degree of the meridian at the equator. On
his voyage home, in 1744, he was made prisoner by the
English, and, after a detention of two years, returned to
Spain, where he was created a commander of the order
of Santiago. He published in 1748 a " Historical Ac
count of the Voyage to South America," (" Relation
historica del Viage a la America Meridional,") in which
he was assisted by his friend and fellow-traveller, Jorge
Juan, " American Notes on Southern and Northeastern
America," ("Noticias Americanas sobre la America
Meridional y la Septentrional-oriental," 1772,) and a
treatise " On the Marine or the Naval Forces of Europe
and Africa," (1778.) Soon after the cession of Louisiana
to Spain, he was made governor of that province; but
he was subsequently superseded by O'Reilly, and on
his return was appointed minister of the marine. Ulloa
was one of the founders of the Observatory at Cadiz, and
contributed greatly to the advancement of learning and
the arts and the improvement of domestic manufactures
in Spain. Died in 1795.
See FRANCISCO Hovos, " Vida de D. A. de Ulloa," 1847 ; M ADOZ,
" Diccionario geografico-historico ;" " Notivelle Biographic Gene-
rale ;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., second series, 1828.
Ulloa, ool-lo'a, (GIROLAMO,) an Italian general, born
at Naples in 1810, distinguished himself in the defence of
Venice against the Austrians in 1849. After that year he
resided in Paris. He published several military works.
Ulloa, de, da ool-yo'a, (MARTIN,) a Spanish critic,
born at Seville in 1730, was a nephew of Antonio Ulloa.
He published several works. Died in 1800.
Ulloa y Pereira, de, da ool-yo'a e pa-raVra, (Luis,)
a Spanish poet, born at Toro about 1590"^ He wrote
elegant lyric poems, sonnets, and a poem entitled " Ra-
quel," (" Rachel.") Died in 1660.
Ullur, 661'lur, (Ullr,) or Ull, ool, [signifying " wool-
like" or " white," (Sw. «//, " wool,") so called because he
is the god of winter or snow,] the god who, according to
the Norse mythology, presides over winter and winter-
sports, is represented as the son of Sif and step-son of
Thor. In running on snow-shoes he has no equal ; he
is also an excellent archer. His dwelling is Ydalir,
(e-da'lir,) i.e. the "place (or dale) of dampness and cold."
Ulphilaa. See ULFILAS.
Ul'pl-an, [Lat. ULPIA'NUS ; Fr. ULPIEN, uTpe-aN',]
(DoMi'nus,) an eminent Roman jurist, supposed to have
been a native of Tyre, was born about 170 A.D. He was
distinguished by the favour of Alexander Severus, who
made him his secretary, and praetorian prefect. He was
killed in a mutiny of the praetorian soldiers in 228 A.D.
He was the author of a work entitled " Ad Edictum,"
and other legal treatises, which were highly esteemed ;
but most of them are now lost. Several editions of the
fragments have been published.
,,J?ee A- STEGER, " Dissertatio de D. Ulpiano," 1725; GROTIUS,
Vits Junsconsultorura ;" CLODIUS, "Apologia Ulpiani," 1811.
Ulpianus. See ULPIAN.
Ul-pl-a'iius OK ANTIOCH, a rhetorician in the time of
Constantine the Great, is supposed to have been the
author of " Commentaries on the Orations of Demos
thenes called Symbuleutici," also " Prolegomena," and
other works. Ulpian of Emesa was the author of an
" Art of Rhetoric."
Ulpien. See ULPIAN.
Ulric or Ulrick, iil'rik, [Ger. ULRICH, ool'riK,]
(ANTON,) Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, a German
poet, born in 1633. He wrote several very successful
poems, a number of melodramas, and novels entitled
"Aramena, the Illustrious Syrian Lady," (1678,) and
" Octavia, a Roman Story," (in German, 6 vols., 1685-
1707.) Died in 1714.
Ulrica (ool-ree'ka) El-e-o-no'ra, [Fr. ULRIQUE
Ei.ltoNoRE, uTrek' a'la/o'noR',] Queen of Sweden, born
in 1656, became the wife of Charles XI. and the mother
of Charles XII. She was a daughter of Frederick III.
of Denmark. Died in 1693.
See 13oECLER, "Vita Ulrica; Eleonorae," 1697.
Ulrica Eleonora, Queen of Sweden, a daughter of
the preceding, was born in 1688. She married Prince
Frederick of Hesse-Cassel about 1715. She was a
sister of Charles XII. In 1719 she was elected as his
successor; but she transferred the royal power to her
husband. Died in 1744.
Ulrich, ool'riK, QOHANN KASPAR,) a Swiss theologian
and Orientalist, born in 1705; died at Zurich in 1768.
Ulrich, (JOHANN RUDOLPH,) a Swiss preacher and
writer, born at Zurich in 1728. He became first pastor
of Zurich in 1769. Died in 1795.
Ulrich, ool'riK, (PHILIPP ADAM,) a German philan
thropist, born in 1692. He was eminent for various
forms of practical charity.
See OBERTHUR, "Life of P. A. Ulrich," (in German,) 1783.
Ulrich, (Trrus,) a German poet, born in the county
of Glatz, Prussia, in 1813. He produced in 1845 "The
Canticle of Canticles," (" Das Hohe Lied,") which is
highly praised, and in 1848 a poem called " Victor,"
which was very popular.
Ulrich von Lichtenstein. See LICHTENSTEIN.
Ulrici, ool-reet'see, (HERMANN,) a German scholar
and critic, born in Lower Lusatia in 1806. He studied
law at Halle and Berlin, but subsequently devoted him
self to literature, and published in 1833 his "Character
istics of Antique Historiography." This was followed
by his " History of the Poetic Art in Greece," (2 vols.,
1835,) and a treatise "On Shakspeare's Dramatic Art,"
(1839,) which was received with great favour. He has
also written several philosophical works, among which
are "On the Principle and Method of the Philosophy of
Ilepel," (1841,) and " Gott und die Natur," (1862.)
Ulrike. See LUISE ULRIKK.
Ulugh o_r Ulug Beg. See OLUG BEG.
U-lys'ses, [Gr. 'Odvaari'f, (Odysseus;) Fr. ULISSK,
ii'less'; It. ULISSE, oo-les'sa,] called also Ulyx'es and
Ith'acus, King of Ithaca, a Grecian chief, renowned
for his eloquence, subtlety, sagacity, and wisdom, was the
son of Laertes, (or, as some say, of Sisyphus,) and hus
band of Penelope. He was one of the suitors of Helen.
He was the most politic of all the commanders who
conducted the siege of Troy, to the capture of which he
greatly contributed by his stratagems and exploits. The
invention of the wooden horse is ascribed to him by some
writers. After the death of Achilles he contended for
his armour with success against Ajax. His wanderings,
navigations, and adventures after the destruction of Troy
form the subject of the " Odyssey" of Homer, who relates
that he sailed from Troy with twelve ships, and was
driven by the wind to the coast of Africa ; that he visited
the island of /Eolus, who gave him a number of winds
confined in a bag; that he passed a year in the island of
Circe the magician ; that, after many of his companions
had been devoured by the Cyclops and Scylla, he was
driven to the island of Calypso, who gave him a warm
reception, detained him for eight years, and tempted him
to marry her, with the promise of immortality, which he
declined, "vetulam suam praetulit immortalitati ;" that
after an absence of twenty years he returned to Ithaca
alone and disguised as a beggar, and found his palace
a, e, 1,0, u, y, long; &, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o,obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
UMBRE1T
2165
URBAN
occupied by numerous suitors, whom, with the aid of his
son Telemachus, he killed. Horace says,
" Rursus quid Virtus et quid Sapientia possit
Utile proposuit nobis exemplar Ulixen."*
Epistles, book i., 2.
Umbreit, oom'bRit, (FRIEDRICH WILHELM KARL,) a
German Protestant theologian, born in Saxe-Gotha in
1795. He studied the Oriental languages at Gb'ttingen,
and became successively professor of philosophy and
of theology at Heidelberg. He published several valu
able exegetical works, among which are a " Philological,
Critical, and Philosophical Commentary on Solomon's
Proverbs," (1826,) "Christian Edification from the Psal
ter," etc., and " Practical Commentary on the Prophets
of the Old Testament," (4 vols., 1841.) He also wrote
a "Translation and Interpretation of the Book of Job,"
and "New Poetry from the Old Testament," (1847.)
Died in 1860.
Umeau, ii'mo', (JEAN,) a French jurist, born at Poi
tiers in 1598 ; died in 1682.
Umeyade. See OMEYYADE.
Umeyyah. See OMEYYAH.
Uminski, oo-men'skee, (]AN NEPOMUK,) a Polish gen
eral, born in Posen in 1780, served in the French cam
paigns in Poland in 1807 and 1809, and in 1831 defeated
General Diebitsch in the battle of Grochow. Died in 1851.
Uiicas, iing'kass, an Indian chief of the Mohegans in
Connecticut, lived in the seventeenth century. In 1637
he joined the English in their war against the Pequots.
Died about 1680.
Un'der-wood, (JOSEPH R.,) an American Senator
and lawyer, born in Goochland county, Virginia, in 1791.
He removed to Bowling Green, Kentucky, about 1823,
and represented a district of that State in Congress from
1835 to 1845. He was elected a Senator of the United
States by the legislature of Kentucky in 1847.
Un'der-wood, (T. R.,) an English artist and writer,
published a " Narrative of Memorable Events in Paris
during the Capitulation in 1814." Died in 1835.
Uiiger, oung'er, QOHANN FRIEDRICH,) an eminent
German printer and wood-engraver, born at Berlin in
1750, was a son of Johann Georg, noticed below. He
became professor of wood-engraving in the Academy of
Plastic Arts at Berlin, and was the inventor of a kind of
types called " Ungerian Types," (" Ungerische Schrift.")
He died in 1804. His wife, FREDERIKE HEI.ENE, born
at Berlin in 1751, was distinguished for her talents and
accomplishments, and published several popular novels,
one of which, entitled "Julia Griinthal, the History of
a Boarding-School Girl," (" Julchen Griinthal, eine Pen-
sionsgeschichte," 1784,) is particularly admired. Her
" Confessions of a Beautiful Soul" (" Bekentnisse einer
schb'nen Seele," 1806) also deserves especial mention.
Died in 1813.
Unger, (JOHANN GEORG,) a German engraver, born
near Pirna in 1715, was celebrated for his improvements
in wood-cutting and typography. Several of his land
scapes engraved on wood are esteemed master-pieces
of the kind. Died in 1788.
Union, de la, da la oo-ne-6n', (Don Luis FIRMIN de
Carvajal y Vargas — da kaR-va-HaK e vaR'gas,) COUNT,
a Spanish general, born at Lima in 1752. He gained
the rank of general by his services against the French
invaders in 1793, and became commander of an army in
Catalonia in 1794. He was defeated and killed near
Figueras the same year.
Unterberger, oon'ter-b^R'ger, (!GNAZ,) a Tyrolese
painter, born at Karales in 1744, worked at Vienna.
Among his works are pictures of Bacchus, Minerva, and
Hebe, which are highly praised. Died in 1797.
Unterholzner, oon'ter-holts'ner, (KARL AUGUST Do-
MINICUS,) a German jurist, born at Freising in 1787,
wrote several treatises on Roman law. Died in 1838.
Unzelmami, oont'sel-rr.an', (FRIEDRICH LuD\vic,)a
German wood-engraver, born about 1798, was a pupil
of Gubitz, and obtained the title of royal professor at
the Academy of Berlin. Among his master-pieces are
portraits of Louis XIV. and Napoleon, and a large print
of the "Death of Franz von Sickingen." Died in 1854.
* "Again to show what courage and what wisdom can accomplish,
he [Homer] has set before us Ulysses as a useful example."
Unzelmann, (KARL WILHELM FERDINAND,) a Ger
man comic actor, born at Brunswick in 1753 ; died in
1832. His son KARL was also a popular actor in the
same department.
Unzer, oont'ser, ( JOHANN AUGUST,) a German phy
sician, born at Halle in 1727. was editor of a medical
journal entitled " Der Arzt." He was the author of
" First Principles of the Physiology, etc. of Animated
Bodies," (1771,) and other similar works. Died in 1799.
His wife, JOANNA CHARLOTTE, published a number of
popular poems.
See "Biographic Medicale ;" HIRSCHING, " Historisch-litera-
risches Handbuch."
Upanishad, written also Upenished, [modern Hin
doo pron. do-pun'i-shud,] a Sanscrit term, denoting
what is most essential in the religious writings of the
Hindoos, consisting chiefly of the theological and argu
mentative portions of the VEDAS, (which see.)
See WILSON, "Sanscrit Dictionary;" COLEBROOKE, article in
"Asiatic Researches," pp. 472-3.
Up'cott, (WILLIAM,) an English bibliographer and
collector of autographs, born in London in 1779; died
in 1845.
Upham, lip'am, (CHARLES WENTWORTH,) a Unita
rian divine and writer, born at Saint John, New Bruns
wick, in 1802, was elected to Congress in 1854. He
has published "Lectures on Witchcraft," etc., (1831,)
"Life of Sir Henry Vane," in Sparks's "American
Biography," and made numerous contributions to the
"North American Review," "Christian Examiner," and
other periodicals. He began to preach at Salem, Mas
sachusetts, in 1824, and quitted the ministry in 1844.
Upham, (THOMAS COGSWELL,) D.D., an American
Congregational divine and able writer, was born at
Deerfield, New Hampshire, in 1799. He graduated at
Dartmouth College, and became in 1825 professor of
mental and moral philosophy in Bowdoin College.
Among his works are a " Philosophical and Practical
Treatise on the Will," (1834,) "Life, Religious Opinions,
etc. of Madame Guyon," (1847,) "Principles of the In
terior or Hidden Life," (1848,) "Life of Madame
Catharine Adorna," (1856,) and "Letters, ^Esthetic,
Social, and Moral, written from Europe, Egypt, and
Palestine," (1857.) He has likewise published a trans
lation of Jahn's " Biblical Archaeology," (5th edition,
1849.)
Up'shur, (ABEL PARKER,) an American statesman
and jurist, born in Northampton county, Virginia. He
was appointed secretary of the navy by President Tyler
in September, 1841, and succeeded Webster as secretary
of state in May, 1843. He was killed by the explo
sion of a cannon on board the steamer Princeton, in
February, 1844, aged about fifty-three. He belonged to
the extreme State-Rights and pro-slavery school of the
South.
Up'ton, (TAMES,) an English scholar and divine,
born in Cheshire in 1670. He published an edition of
Aristotle's "Poetics," and other works. Died in 1749.
His son, of the same name, edited Spenser's " Faerie
Queene," and was the author of " Observations on Shak-
speare." Died in 1760.
U-ra'm-a, [Gr. Orpavia, (from avpavos, " heaven ;")
Fr. URANIE, ii'rt'ne',] one of the nine Muses of the
Greek mythology, the Muse of Astronomy, was supposed
to be a daughter of Zeus.
U'ra-nus, [Gr. Ovpavof, i.e. the " sky" or " heaven,"]
a divin'ity of classic mythology, identified with the Roman
Ccelus, was considered the most ancient of all the gods.
He was represented as the husband of Terra, and the
father of Oceanus, Cronus, (Saturn,) Themis, Hyperion,
and the other Titans, whom he confined in Tartarus.
According to the legend, he was dethroned by Cronus.
Urbain. See URBAN.
Ur'ban [Lat. URBA'NUS; Fr. URBAIN, iiR'baN'] I.
succeeded Calixtus I. as Bishop of Rome in 224 A.D.
He is supposed to have suffered martyrdom under Alex
ander Severus, (230 A.D.)
Urban H., born in France, succeeded Victor III.
as Pope of Rome in 1088. He excommunicated Henry
IV., Emperor of Germany, who supported Clement III.
as anti-pope, having previously incited Conrad, son of
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
URBAN
2 166
URSINS
the emperor, to revolt against him. In a council at
Piacenza in 1095 he proclaimed the first crusade. His
successor was Paschal II. Died in 1099.
Urban III. succeeded Lucius II. in 1185. He dice
in 1187.
Urban IV., born at Troyes, in France, succeedec
Alexander IV. in 1261. He carried on a war agains
Manfred, Prince of Sicily, and made an alliance with
Charles of Anjou, on whom he bestowed the crown of
Sicily and Apulia in fief of the Roman see, (1263.) Fron
this treaty arose the subsequent wars between France
and Italy during several centuries. He died in 1264
and was succeeded by Clement IV.
See ARTAUD DE MONTOR, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes."
Urban V., originally named GUILLAUME DE Gri-
nioard, (gRe/mo-tR/,) was a native of France, and suc
ceeded Innocent VI. as pope in 1362. He was the last
of the pontiffs who resided at Avignon, and in 1367 he
removed his court to Rome. He died in 1370, and was
succeeded by Gregory XI.
Urban [Lat. URBA'NUS ; It. URBANO, ooR-ba'no] VI.,
originally named BARTOLOMMEO Prigiiano, (puen-yi'-
no,) succeeded Gregory XI. in 1378. He gave great offence
by his severity to the cardinals, who elected an anti-pope
in opposition to him, under the title of Clement VI.
In 1385 he had six cardinals put to death on a charge of
conspiring against him. He died in 1389, as some writers
assert, by poison, and was succeeded by Boniface IX.
See ARTAUD DE MONTOR, "Histoite des souverains Pontifes.
Urban VII., a native of Rome, originally named
GIAMBATTISTA Castagna, (ka's-tiin'ya',) was chosen suc
cessor to Sixtus V. in 1590. He survived his election thir
teen days, and Gregory XIV. was elected to succeed him.
Urban VIII., originally named MAKKEO Barberini,
(baR-bi-ree'nee,) born at Florence in 1568, succeeded
Gregory XV. in 1623. He was distinguished for his
learning and his liberal patronage of science and art.
He founded the College de Propaganda Fide, finished
the aqueduct of Acqua Felice, increased the Vatican
Library, and improved the "Breviarium Romanum."
Under his rule Italy was disturbed by contests between
the French and Spaniards for supremacy in that country.
The duchy of Urbino was made a fief of the Roman see
in 1626. • Urban died in 1644, and was succeeded by
Innocent X.
See SIMONINI, "Sylvae Urbanianae, sen Gesta Urban! VIII.,"
1657 ; ARTAUD DE MONTOR, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes."
Urban. See FORTIA D'URBAN.
Urban, de Saint, deh s&Nt iiR'blN', (FERDINAND,)
a French architect, born at Nancy in 1654. He was
patronized by Pope Innocent XL, who appointed him
his first architect and director of medals. Died in 1738.
Urbanus. See URBAN.
Urbino. See TIMOTEO DA URBINO.
Urceo, ooR'cha-o, [Lai. UR'CEUS,] (ANTONIO,) sur-
named CODRUS, an Italian scholar and writer, born at
Rubiera in 1446. He taught Greek and Latin for many
years at Bologna, whither he removed in 1482. He
wrote orations, letters, and poems. Died in 1500.
See BIANCHINI, " Vita A. Codri Urcei;" NICERON, "Memoires."
Urceus. See URCEO.
Ure, (ANDREW,) an eminent Scottish chemist and
physician, born at Glasgow in 1778. He took his medi
cal degree at the University of Glasgow, and became in
1802 professor of chemistry and natural philosophy in
the Andersonian Institution in that city. Among his
principal publications are his "New Experimental Re
searches on some of the Leading Doctrines of Caloric,"
etc., "Dictionary of Chemistry,'" (1821,) "On the Ulti
mate Analysis of Animal and Vegetable Substances,"
(1822,) "System of Geology," (1829,) "Philosophy of
Manufactures," (1835,) and "Dictionary of Arts, Manu
factures, and Mines," (1839,) — one of the most valuable
works of the kind. Dr. Ure was a Fellow of the Royal
Society and other learned institutions, and was one of the
founders of the Observatory at Glasgow. Died in 1857.
Urfe, d', diiR'fa', (ANNE,) a French poet, born in
Forez in 1555- He became a privy councillor, and after
wards a priest. He married a rich heiress, named Diane
de Chateau-Morand. Died in 1621.
See BERNARD, "Les Urfe, Souvenirs historiques," etc., 1839.
Urfe, d', (HoNORE,) a French writer of romance,
born at Marseilles in 1567 or 1568, was a brother of the
preceding. He was a soldier by profession, and fought
in the civil war for the League. He wrote, besides other
works, a romance called " Astree," (1610-19,) which was
once very celebrated. Died in 1625.
See N. BONAFOUS, " E"tudes snr 1'Aslree et sur Honore d'Urfe,"
1847; A. BERNARD, " Les Urfe," 1839; NICERON, "Memoires;"
DUNI.OP, " History of Fiction ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Urkhan. See OORKHAN.
Urquhart, urk'hart, (DAVID,) an able British writer
and politician, born at Cromarty in 1805. He went to
Greece with Lord Cochrane in 1827, and published,
besides other works, "Turkey and its Resources,"
(1833,) and "Travels in Spain and Morocco," (1849.)
He maintained the opinion that the Ottoman empire
has elements of vitality and progress. He became
an uncompromising adversary of Palmerston's foreign
policy, and was elected to Parliament as a Conservative
in 1847. &'<?<£• - '*7a
Urquhart, (Sir THOMAS,) a Scottish mathematician
under the reign of Charles II. He wrote a work entitled
" Logopandecteision, or an Introduction to the Universal
Language," and a treatise "On Trigonometry."
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Urquhart, (WILLIAM POLLARD,) a political econ
omist, born in the county of Westmeath, Ireland, in
18.4. He published " Essays on Political Economy."
Urquijo, de, da ooR-kee'iio, (MARIANO Luis,) a
Spanish statesman, born at Bilbao in 1768. He was
secretaryfor foreign affairs about two years, (1798-1800,)
after which he was imprisoned through the influence of
the Inquisition, which he had opposed. He was ap
pointed minister of state by King Joseph about 1809.
Died in Paris in 1817.
See A. UE BERAZA, " Elogio de M. L. de Urquijo," 1820 ; " Nou
velle Biographic Generale."
Urquiza, de, da ooR-kee's3 or ooR-kee'tha, (Don
JUSTE JOSE,) a South American statesman and military
commander, born in the province of Entre-Rios in 1800.
He fought in his early life for Rosas, but in 1851 he took
arms against him and formed an alliance with the gov
ernments of Brazil and Uruguay. In February, 1852,
he gained at Santos Lugares a decisive victory over
Rosas, who then ceased to reign. Urquiza became
general-in-chief and foreign secretary of the Argentine
Republic.
Urraca, oor-ri'kJ, Queen of Leon and Castile, born
about 1080, was the only legitimate child of Alfonso VI.
She was married to Alfonso I. of Aragon, with whom
she quarrelled, and against whom she waged a long civil
war. Died in 1126.
Urrea, de, da oor-ra'a', (GERONIMO,) a Spanish writer
and commander, born in Aragon about 1515. He served
with distinction in the army of Charles V. He trans
lated Ariosto's "Orlando Furioso" into Spanish, (1556,)
and wrote a " Dialogue on True Military Honour," (1566.)
Ursatus. See OKSATO.
Urseolo. See ORSEOLO.
Ursiiis, des, di ziiR'saN', or Orsini, (ANNE MARIE
de la Tremouille — deh It tRa'mool' or tRa'moo'ye,)
PRINCESS, a French lady and courtier, famous for her
political influence and insinuating qualities, was born
about 1642. She was married in 1659 to Adrien de Tal-
"eyrand, Prince de Chalais, and in 1675 to Flavio Orsini,
Duke of Bracciano. She resided many years at Rome,
[n 1701 she was selected by the French court for the
)lace of first lady of the bedchamber to the Queen of
Spain, of whom she became the chief favourite. "She
aspired," says Macanlay, "to play in Spain the part
which Madame de Maintenon had played in France.
. . She became so powerful that neither minister of
Spain nor ambassador from France could stand against
ler." (Review of Lord Mahon's " War of the Succes
sion.") Her influence ceased on the death of the queen,
n 1714, and the marriage of Philip V. with Elizabeth
Farnese, who dismissed the Princess des Ursins from
court. She died at Rome in 1722.
See her " Correspondence with Madame de Maintenon," 4 vols.,
826; F. COMBES, "La Princesse des Ursins, Essai," 1858; SAINT-
SIMON, "Memoires;" SAINTE-BEUVE, "Causeries du Lundi;"
'Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; tar, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon;
URSINS
2167
uz
Ursins, des, (JEAN, JOUVENEL, (zhoov'neT,) or JU
VENAL,) a French prelate, born in Paris in 1388. He
wrote a "Chronicle of Charles VI.," and became Arch
bishop of Kheims about 1450. Died in 1473.
Ur-si'lius, [Ger. pron. doR-see'nus,] (BENJAMIN,) a
German mathematician, born in Silesia in 1587. His
German name was BEHR, (bain.) He taught at Frank-
fort-on-the-Ocler. Died in 1633.
Ursinus, (BENJAMIN,) a German Lutheran divine,
was a relative of Zacharias, noticed below. He was
made a bishop and ennobled by Frederick I. of Prussia.
Died about 1717.
Ur-si'nus, [It. ORSINI, oR-see'nee,] (FuLVius,) a
celebrated Italian scholar and antiquary, born at Rome
in 1529, held the post of librarian to Cardinal Alexander
Farnese. He published commentaries on the principal
Roman historians, editions of several Greek classics,
and a number of original works which display profound
learning. Among these may be named " Portraits
and Eulogies of Illustrious Men exhibited by Marbles,
Medals, and Gems," (" Imagines et Elogia Virorum illus-
trium e Marmoribus, Nummis et Gemmis expressae.")
Died in 1600.
See CASTIGLIONE, "G. Orsini Vita," 1657; NicERON, "Me-
moires ;" " Life of Ursinus," by CASTALIO.
Ursinus, (GEORG HEINRICH,) a German philologist,
born at Spire in 1647 > d'6^ at Ratisbon in 1707.
Ursinus, (JOHANN HEINRICH,) a German divine,
father of the preceding, was born in 1608. He wrote
a work entitled "Rise and Progress of the Churches
of Germany," (1668,) and other works. Died in 1667.
See " J. H. Ursinus Lebenslauf," 1666.
Ursinus, (ZACHARIAS,) a learned German divine,
born at Breslau in 1534, was a friend and disciple of
Melanchthon. He studied in Paris, and became pro
fessor of theology at Heidelberg. He was engaged
in controversies with the Lutheran theologians of the
time, and was the author of several theological and po
lemical works, (1563.) He also prepared the Calvinis-
tic creed, entitled the " Heidelberg Catechism." Died
in 1583.
Ur'su-la, [Fr. URSULE, iiR'sul',] SAINT, a legendary
personage, of whom scarcely anything is positively
known. She is said to have been a daughter of a British
prince, and to have suffered martyrdom at Cologne in
the fourth or fifth century.
See MRS. JAMESON, " History of Sacred and Legendary Art."
Ursule. See URSULA.
Ursus, OOR'SUS, (NIKOLAUS RAYMARUS,) a Danish
mathematician of the sixteenth century ; died in 1600.
Urville. See DUMONT D'URVILLE.
Ush'er or Ussh'er, (HENRY,) a prelate, born in
Dublin, was an uncle of James, noticed below. He
became Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of Ireland
in 1595. Died in 1613.
Usher or Ussher, [Lat. USSE'RIUS,] (JAMES,) an emi
nent prelate and scholar, born in Dublin on the 4th of
January, 1580. His mother was a sister of Richard Stany-
hurst the poet. He was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, and took his degree of M.A. in 1600. He was
ordained a priest in 1601, began to preach in Dublin,
and became professor of divinity in Trinity College in
1607. In 1613 he married Phebe Challoner. He pub
lished in 1614 a Latin work "On the Succession and
State of the Christian Churches," in which he opposed
the pretensions of the Church of Rome. He made fre
quent visits to England, where he formed an acquaint
ance with Selden and other eminent men. In doctrine
he was a Calvinist, and a zealous opponent of popery.
In 1620 he was appointed Bishop of Meath by James I.
He became Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of Ire
land in 1624. In 1638 he published his " Emanuel, or a
Treatise on the Incarnation of the Son of God," which
is accounted one of his greatest works. In 1640 he
quitted Ireland, to which he never returned, and came
to England. The Irish rebels attacked his house at
Armagh in 1641, and seized or destroyed his property.
He was a royalist in the civil war between Charles I.
and the Parliament. The king gave him the bishopric
of Carlisle, to be held in commendam, (about 1641,) but
he derived little revenue from it. He officiated as
preacher to the Society of Lincoln's Inn from 1647 to
1655. Among his principal works are "Antiquities of
the British Churches," (in Latin, 1639,) "Annals of
the Old and New Testament," (" Annales Veteris et Novi
Testament!," 2 vols., 1650-54,) in which he displays
great learning, and " Sacred Chronology," (" Chronologia
Sacra," 1660,) a work of high reputation. He died at
Reigate in March, 1656, leaving one child, named
Elizabeth.
See ELRINGTOX, "Life of Archbishop James Usher," 1848 ; R.
PARR, " Life of James Usher," prefixed to a collection of his Letters,
1686; T. BERNARD, "Life and Death of James Usher," 1656;
AIKIN, "Lives of J. Selden and J. Usher," i8ti ; NICERON, " Me-
moires ;" " Biographica Britannica." _2?«*y7e , Z) rt-'tfinntiry i v./a.
Usserius. See USHER.
Ussher. See USHER.
Ussieux, d', dii'se-uh/, (Louis,) a French romance-
writer and rural economist, born at Angouleme in 1747 ;
died in 1805.
Ussing, oos'sing, QOHAN LUDWIG,) a Danish philolo
gist, born at Copenhagen in 1820. He became professor
of philology in that city in 1849, ar>d published several
works.
Ussing, (TAGE ALGREEN,) a Danish statesman and
jurist, born in Seeland in 1797. He became procurer-
general in 1841, councillor of state in 1846, and a deputy
to the Diet in 1848. He opposed the separation of
Sleswick and Holstein from the Danish monarchy. He
published a " Manual of Danish Penal Law."
Ustariz, oos-ta-reth/, (JEROME,) a Spanish political
economist, born in Navarre about 1695. He published
in 1724 "The Theory and Practice of Commerce and
of the Marine," which was translated into English and
French. Died about 1750.
Usteri, dos'ta-ree, QOHANN MARTIN,) a Swiss poet,
born at Zurich in 1763 ; died in 1827.
Usteri, (LEONARD,) a Swiss educational writer, born
at Zurich in 1741 ; died in 1789.
Usteri, (PAULUS,) son of the preceding, was born at
Zurich in 1768. He studied medicine at Gottingen, and
afterwards filled several important offices under the
government. He published a number of medical and
political treatises. Died in 1831.
Usuard, ii'zii'aR', or U-su-ar'dus, a French monk,
who, under the patronage of Charles the Bald, composed
a " Martyrology." Died about 877 A.n.
U-ten-ho'vi'-us.fFr.UTENHOVE^'ta'nov'] (CHARLES,)
a Flemish scholar and Latin poet, born at Ghent about
1536. He lived in Paris, and died at Cologne in 1600.
He was a Protestant minister.
Utgard. See JOTUN.
Utrecht. See VAN UTRECHT.
Uvedale, yoov'dal, (ROBERT,) an English scholar
and botanist, born in London in 1642, assisted Dryden
in the translation of Plutarch's "Lives."
U'wins, (DAVID,) an English physician, born in Lon
don in 1780. He studied at Edinburgh, and in 1815
became physician to the City Dispensary, London. He
was subsequently editor of the "Medical Repository,"
and published, among other works, an " Essay on In
sanity and Madhouses," which was very well received.
Died in 1837.
Uwins, (THOMAS,) an English painter, a brother of
the preceding, was born in London in 1783. Having
studied at the Royal Academy, he visited Italy in 1826,
and produced a number of pictures illustrating peasant-
life. Among these may be named " Neapolitan Peasantry
Returning from a Festa," and " Children Asleep in a
Vineyard." He became a Royal Academician in 1836,
and in 1847 keeper of the National Gallery. Died in
1857-
Uxelles, d', diik'seT, (NICOLAS de Ble— deh bla,)
MARQUIS, a French general, born at Chalons in 1652. He
defended Mentz with ability against the Imperialists in
1689, but was forced by want of powder to surrender.
He became a marshal of France in 1703, and president
of the council of foreign affairs at the death of Louis
XIV. Died in 1730.
Uz, oots, (JOHANN PETER,) a German lyric poet, born
at Anspach in 1720. He published in 1729 a collection
entitled " Lyrische Gedichte," which was followed by
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 25.)
UZZANO
2168
VA ILL ANT
" Theodicea," and " The Art of being always cheerful,"
("Die Kunst stets frohlich zu sein," 1760,) a didactic
poem in Alexandrines, which is greatly esteemed. He
was made a counsellor of justice in 1796, and died the
same year.
Uzzano, oot-sa'no, (NiccoiA) a Florentine states
man of the Guelph party. He became chief magistrate
of the republic in 1417, and waged a war against Vis-
conti, Duke of Milan, from 1423 to 1428. His prudence
and moderation are praised by Sismondi. Died in 1432.
Uz-zi'ah, [Heb. H'T>',] King of Judah, a son of
Amaziah, began to reign about 808 n.C. He defeated
the Philistines and Arabians. Having usurped the
priest's office, he was smitten with leprosy. He reigned
fifty-two years, and was succeeded by his son Jotham.
(See II. Chronicles xxvi.)
V.
Vaart, van der, vtn der vSnt, (JAN,) a Dutch painter
of landscapes and still life, was born at Haarlem in 1647.
He removed to England in 1674. Died in London in
1721.
VacaIde. See NUNEZ, (ALVAR CABEC.A.)
Va-ca'rI-us, a jurist of the twelfth century, born in
Lombardy, was teacher of Roman law at Oxford. He
compiled an abstract of the Code and Digests, which
is still extant in manuscript. He was the first teacher
of Roman law in England.
Vacca. See BERLINGHIERI.
Vacca, vak'ka, (FLAMINIO,) an Italian sculptor of
the sixteenth century, was patronized by Sixtus V.
Vaccaro, vak'ka-ro, (ANDREA,) an Italian painter,
born at Naples in 1598. Among his works is a "Holy
Family." Died in 1670.
Vaccaro, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian engraver and
painter, born at Bologna about 1636 ; died about 1687.
Vacher. See LE VAGUER.
Vacherot, vish'ro', (£TIENNE,) a French philoso
pher, born at Langres in 1809. He was appointed
director of studies at the Normal School about 1838,
and acted as substitute of M. Cousin in the Sorbonne
in 1839. He published, besides other works, a "Criti
cal History of the Alexandrian School," (3 vols., 1846-
50,) and " The Democracy," (1859.) He was imprisoned
three months for the latter work.
Vachet, du, dii vS'shi', (PIERRE JOSEPH,) a French
priest and Latin poet, born at Beaune ; died about 1655.
Vachet, Le, leh vi'shi', (JEAN ANTOINE,) a benevo
lent French priest and writer, born in Dauphine in 1603 ;
died in 1681.
Vacquerie, vf'ka're', ( AUGUSTE,) a French litterateur,
born in Paris about 1818. He was associated with Vic
tor Hugo in the editorship of the " Evenement," a journal
founded in 1848. He also produced poems entitled
"Demi-Tints," (1845,) and other works.
Va-cu'na, a goddess worshipped by the Sabines, and
afterwards by the Romans, was variously regarded as
identical with Victoria, Minerva, Ceres, or Diana.
Vadder, de, deh vad'der, (Louis,) a Flemish land
scape-painter, born at Brussels in 1560. His pictures
were highly prized. Died in 1623.
Vade, vt'da', (JEAN JOSEPH,) a French dramatist, born
in Picardy in 1719, was the author of comic operas,
farces, and songs, which obtained great popularity. Died
in 1757.
Vadian, va'de-an, [Lat. VADIA'NUS,] (JOACHIM,) an
eminent Swiss scholar, born at Saint Gall in 1484. His
family name was VON WATT. He became professor of
belles-lettres at Vienna. About 1520 he returned to
Saint Gall, where he practised medicine and became a
disciple of Zwingle. He was ranked by Joseph Scaliger
among the most learned men of Germany. He wrote,
besides other works, a "Commentary on Pomponius
Mela," (1518,) and "Scholia on Pliny's Natural History,"
(1531.) Died in 1551.
Vadianus. See VADIAN.
Vadier, vf'de-i', (MARC GUILLAUME ALEXIS,) a
French Jacobin, born in 1736, was a violent member of
the Convention, (1792-95.) He joined the enemies of
Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor, 1794. In 1795 he
was denounced as a terrorist, and condemned to de
portation, but he avoided that penalty by concealment.
Died in 1828.
Vaenius. See VAN VEEN.
Vaga. See PERINO DEL VAGA.
Vahan,* va'han, [from vcih, (written also veh,} to
"carry," cognate with the Latin z>?h-o,\ a Sanscrit word,
signifying almost the same as the German Wagen, (i.e.
"vehicle," "carriage,") with which it nearly corresponds
in sound. In the Hindoo mythology it is applied to
those fabulous creatures which were supposed to bear
the gods in their journeys. Thus, the white bull Nandi
is said to be the vahan of Siva ; Garuda, the vahan of
Vishnu ; and so on.
Vahl, val, (MARTIN,) a Norwegian naturalist, born at
Bergen in 1749, studied at Copenhagen, and subse
quently at Upsal under Linnaeus. Having visited Eng
land and various parts of the continent, where he made
valuable collections of plants, he was appointed in 1785
professor of natural history in the University of Copen
hagen. He published " Symbolae Botanicae," "Eclogoe
Americana?," and a continuation of CEder's "Flora
Danica," (1810:) he also contributed to the "Zoologia
Danica." He died in 1804, leaving a valuable herbarium,
library, and manuscripts, which were bought by the King
of Denmark. A genus of plants has been named Vahlia
in his honour.
See KKAFT og NVEKUP, "Litteraturlexicon. "
Vaillant, vS'y&N', (JEAN BAPTISTE PHILIKERT,) a
French marshal, born at Dijon in 1790, served in the
Russian campaign of 1812, accompanied the expedition
to Algiers in 1830, and attained the rank of colonel in
1833. Having become a lieutenant-general in 1845, ne
directed the operations of the siege of Rome in 1849,
and obtained the baton of marshal in 1851. He was
minister of war from March, 1854, to May, 1859.
See " Noiivelle Biographic Generale."
Vaillant, (JEAN FOY,) a French antiquary, celebrated
for his knowledge of numismatics, was born at Beauvais
in 1632. Having been charged by Colbert to make a
collection of ancient medals for the royal cabinet, he
visited Italy, Greece, and part of Asia, and returned in
1680 with a great number of rare and beautiful coins.
Among his chief works are a treatise on the coins of the
Roman emperors, entitled " Numismata Imperatorum
Romanorum praestantiora," etc., (1674,) and " Seleuci-
darum Imperium, seu Historia Regum Syrix," etc., or
" History of the Syrian Kings derived from Coins."
Vaillant was made a member of the Academy of Inscrip
tions in 1702. Died in 1706.
See C. r>E LAFEUII.I.E, " D. J. F. Vaillant Docloris Medici Vita,"
1745; NICERON, " Memoires ;" "Noiivelle Biographic Generale."
Vaillant, (JEAN FRANQOIS FOY,) a son of the pre
ceding, was born at Rome in 1665. He was a member
of the Academy of Inscriptions, and contributed to
the " Memoirs" of that institution several treatises on
numismatics. Died in 1708.
Vaillant, [Lat. VAILLAN'TIUS,] (S£HASTIEN,) an emi
nent French botanist, born near Pontoise in 1669. He
distinguished himself at an early age by his proficiency
in music, but subsequently studied medicine, and was
appointed surgeon to the royal fusileers. Having visited
Paris in 1691, he acquired the friendship of Tournefort,
and devoted himself henceforth to botanical studies.
In 1708 he succeeded Fagon as professor of botany and
sub-demonstrator of plants in the Jardin du Roi, and he
became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1716.
He was the author of several valuable works, the most
important of which is his " Botanicon Parisiense," or
* The more correct but less common form is Vahana.
i, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
2169
history of plants in the vicinity of Paris, (1727.) It was
illustrated by Aubriet, and published by Boerhaave after
the death of Vaillant, which occurred in 1722. The genus
Vaillantia was named by De Candolle in his honour.
See BOERHAAVE, " Vita Vaillantii," prefixed to his " Botanicon
Parisiense," 1727; " Biographie Medicale ;" '' Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Vaillant, (WALLERANT,) a Flemish portrait-painter,
born at Lille in 1623. He was also a mezzotint engraver,
and is said to have been the first artist who executed
works in that department. His engraved portrait of
Prince Rupert is one of his best productions. Died
in 1677.
Vaillant de Gueslis, vt'yS.x' deh gi'less', or Guelle,
gel, (GERMAIN,) a French bishop and poet, born at Or
leans. He was patronized by Francis I., and became
Bishop of Orleans in 1586. He wrote an able com
mentary on Virgil, (1575,) and a Latin poem at the age
of seventy. Died in 1587.
Vaillant, Le, leh vS'yoN', ( FRANCOIS,) a celebrated
traveller and naturalist, born at Paramaribo, in Dutch
Guiana, in 1753. He was taken to Europe about 1764,
and passed many years in France and Germany, where
he studied the habits of birds. In 1780 he sailed
to the Cape of Good Mope, and undertook to explore
Southern Africa. He made excursions among the Caf-
fres and other tribes, extended his researches northward
beyond the Orange River, and remained in Africa until
July, 1784. He returned to France with a large collec
tion of birds, and published an interesting and graphic
narrative of his travels, "Journey in the Interior of
Africa," ("Voyage dans 1'Interieur de 1'Afrique," 2
vols., 1790-96,) which has a high reputation for veracity.
He was a diligent observer and an enthusiastic votary
of natural history. He was imprisoned in 1793, and
only saved from death by the fall of Robespierre. He
published a "Natural History of the Birds of Africa,"
(6 vols., 1796-1812,) and several minor works on birds.
Died near Sezanne in November, 1824. " His works
on .birds," says Eyries, " are placed in the first rank."
(" Biographie Universelle.")
Vair, du. See Du VAIR.
Vaishuava, vish'na-va, (English plural, Vaish-
navas,) the name given by the Hindoos to the worship
pers of VISHNU, (which see.)
Vaissette or Vaissete, vi'seV, (Dom JOSEPH,) a
French Benedictine and historian, born at Gaillac in
1685. He wrote, besides other works, a " History of
Languedoc," (5 vols., 1730-45,) which is said to be very
exact, judicious, and well written. Died in 1756.
Vaj'ra, (pronounced by the modern Hindoos viij'ra
or buj'ra,) a Sanscrit word, signifying "adamant," but
used in the Hindoo mythology to designate the "ada
mantine thunderbolt" of Indra. (See INDRA.)
Vakh'tang I., King of Georgia in the fifth century,
was descended from the Persian king Sapor (Shapoor) I.
He was engaged in numerous wars, and greatly enlarged
his dominions.
Vakhtaug VI. became ruler over the province of
Kartli, in Georgia, in 1703. Having refused to embrace
Mohammedanism, he was deposed by the Shah of Persia,
but he was afterwards restored to power. While out
wardly conforming to the religion of Mohammed, he was
active in promoting Christianity, and, having established
a printing-press, printed a Georgian version of a portion
of the Bible. Being compelled at length to resign in
favour of his brother, he took refuge in Russia. He
was the author of a history of his country, entitled the
"Chronicle of Vakhtang the Sixth," (in manuscript.)
He died in 1734. His sons Bakar and Vakhusta com
pleted the Georgian Bible in 1743.
Val, du, du vtl, [Lat. VAI/LA,] (NICOLAS,) a French
jurist of the sixteenth century. He became secretary to
the king about 1542, and wrote a valuable work " On
Doubtful Causes and Questions Disputed in Law," (" De
Rebus dubiis et Quaestionibus in Jure controversis," 4th
edition, 1583.)
Valadares Gamboa, de, da va-la-da'res gam-bo'a,
(JoAQuiM FORTUNATO,) a Portuguese poet, born in the
latter part of the eighteenth century.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Valadon, vi'l&'doN', (ZACHARIE,) a French mis
sionary, born at Auxonne about 1680. He laboured in
Palestine, Syria, etc. Died at Dijon in 1746.
Valart, vk'laV, (JosKi'H,) a French scholar and critic,
born near Hesclin, in Artois, in 1698. He became a
priest, and was employed as a school-teacher at various
places. He wrote several works on grammar, and pub
lished editions of Horace, Ovid, and other Latin authors.
His character is represented as bizarre. Died in 1781.
Valaze, de, deh vt'13'za', (CHARLES £LEONORE du
Friche — clii fResh,) a French Girondist, born at Alenfon
in 1751, became an advocate. He published an able
work "On Penal Laws," (1784,) and was elected to the
Convention in 1792. He voted for the death of the king
and the appeal to the people. Having been condemned
to death in October, 1793, he killed himself.
See Louis DUBOIS, "Notice sur Valaze," 1802; LAMARTINE,
" History of the Girondists."
Valbomiais. See BOURCHENU, DE,
Valcarcel, val-kaR-thel', (JosE ANTONIO,) a Spanish
agriculturist, born at Valencia about 1720. He rendered
an important service to his countrymen by the publica
tion of his "General Agriculture and Rural Economy,"
(7 vols. 410, 1765-86.) Died after 1790.
Valcarcel, (Don Pio ANTONIO,) Count de Lunares,
a Spanish antiquary, born in 1740, published several
treatises on the inscriptions of Saguntum and other cities
of Spain. Died in 1800.
Valckenaer, val'keh-niR, QAN,) a Dutch diploma
tist and lawyer, born at Franeker or Leyden in 1759.
He became professor of law at Utrecht in 1787, and
joined the party of patriots, i.e. those who sympathized
with the French republicans. He was Dutch ambassa
dor at Madrid from 1796 till 1801, and was sent by King
Louis to Paris in 1810 to prevent the annexation of
Holland to France. Died in 1821.
Valckenaer, (LODEWIJCK CASPAR,) an eminent
Dutch philologist, born at Leeu warden in 1715, was the
father of the preceding. He became professor of Greek
at Franeker in 1741, and was professor of Greek and
archaeology at Leyden from 1766 until his death. He
edited, besides other classic works, the " Phoenissae"
and the " Hippolytus" of Euripides, and the " Idyls" of
Theocritus, (1773,) on which he wrote excellent com
mentaries. Among his works is "Observationes Aca-
demicas," (1790,) which is highly prized. Died in 1785.
See SAXE, " Onomasticon."
Valdegamas. See DONOSO-CORTES.
Valdemar. See WALDEMAR.
Valdes, val-des', (Don ANTONIO,) a Spanish minister
of state, born in the Asturias about 1735. He became
minister of the marine in 1781, and greatly increased the
naval force of Spain. His ability and success were so
conspicuous that the king in 1787 placed him at the head
of the departments of finance, commerce, and war. In
1792 he was raised to the rank of chief admiral or cap
tain-general of the navy. By the agency of Godoy, he
was removed in 1795. Died about 1811.
Valdes, (CAIETANO,) a Spanish naval officer, was a
nephew of the preceding. He commanded a ship at
Trafalgar in 1805, after which he became a lieutenant-
general. Having revolted against Ferdinand VII., he
was imprisoned from 1815 to 1820. Died after 1826.
Valdes, (DiEGO or JAGO,) a Spanish author and
professor of law, born in the Asturias in the sixteenth
century. He published a work " On the Dignity of
Spanish Kings," (in Latin, 1602.)
Valdes, [It. VALDESSO, vil-deVso,] (JUAN,) a Spanish
jurist and reformer, born probably in Leon. He be
came a chamberlain of Pope Adrian VI. in 1522, and
returned to Spain soon after the death of that pope.
He removed to Naples about 1530, and, it is said, was
employed there as secretary to the Spanish viceroy.
He wrote several religious works, in some of which he
attacked the corruptions of the Roman Church. He
died at Naples, about middle age, in 1540. He adopted
the chief doctrines of the Protestant creed, but never
formally separated from the Church of Rome. Among
his works of a religious character is one entitled "One
Hundred and Ten Considerations," etc., (1550.)
" Valdes as a reformer," says Wiffen, " entered less
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; £h as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
V 'AIDES
2170
PALESTINIAN
than almost any thoughtful man of his time into the
battle of hierarchies. He was less a destroyer of error
and evil than a builder-up of truth and goodness."
See B. B. WIFFEN, "Life of Juan Valdes," 1865; HODGSON,
" Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867; TICKNOK, " History
of Spanish Literature ;'" N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova."
Valdes Leal, de, da val-deV li-al', QUAN,) an emi
nent Spanish painter, born at Cordova in 1630. He
worked at Seville, and was intimate with Murillo, after
whose death he was considered as the head of his pro
fession. Among his works are several pictures of the
history of the prophet Elijah. He died in 1691. His
son LUCAS, born in 1661, was a painter and engraver.
Died in 1724.
Valdesso. See VALDES, QUAN.) •
Valdez. See MEI.ENDEZ VALDEZ.
Valdivia, de, da val-dee've-a, (Don PEDRO,) a Span
ish officer, who distinguished himself by the conquest
of Chili, was born about 1510. He accompanied Pizarro
in his expedition against Peru in 1532. About 1540,
under the orders of Pizarro, he invaded Chili with a
small force, founded Santiago, and gained victories
over the natives. He returned to Peru in 1547 or 1548,
and fought under La Gasca against Gonzalo Pizarro.
He was captured by the Araucanians, and put to death,
in 1559-
See CLAUDIO GAY, "Historia de Chile;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Ge'nerale. "
Val'do or Wal'do, [Fr. pron. vtl'dc/,] (PETER or
PIERRE,) a French Reformer of the twelfth century,
born at Vaux, in Dauphine, became a chief of the sect
of Waldenses, (or Vaudois.) He maintained the equal
right of the laity with the clergy to conduct the offices
of religion, and denounced the vices and ignorance of the
priests. His doctrine was condemned by the Roman
Church in 1179, and his followers cruelly persecuted.
He is said to have translated the Scriptures into Vaudois.
Many suppose that the name Waldenses was derived
from Valdo or Waldo; but it seems more probable
that he took his name Valdo as a surname because his
views corresponded with those of the Waldenses, who,
it appears, were in existence before his time, and among
whom he afterwards became a leader.
See HODGSON, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867;
LEGER, "Histoire generale des Vaudois ;" A. MUSTON, "Histoire
des Vaudois," 4 vols., 1851.
Valee, vt'li', (SYLVAIN CHARLES,) COUNT, a French
marshal, born at Brienne-le-Chateau in 1773. He served
with distinction in Austria and Spain, and was made gen
eral of division in 1811. He was appointed inspector-gen
eral of artillery by Louis XVI 1 1., and made improvements
in the artillery. He succeeded to the chief command in
Algeria on the death of Danremont, and took Constan-
tina in October, 1837. He became a marshal of France
the same year. Died in 1846.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Valence, de, deh vt'l&Nss', (CYRUS MARIE ALEX-
ANDRE de Timbrune — deh taN'bRiin',) COUNT, a
French general, born at Agen in 1757. He was ap
pointed general-in-chief of the army of Ardennes in Oc
tober, 1792, and gained some advantages over the allies
in Flanders. He followed Dumouriez in his defection
and flight, (1793.) Having returned to France about
1800, he served as general in Spain, (1808,) and in
Russia, (1812.) Died in 1822.
See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Valencia, DUKE OF. See NARVAKZ.
Valenciennes, vS'lfiN'se-Sn', (ACHILLE,) a French
naturalist, born in Paris in 1794. He became professor
of anatomy at the Normal School in 1830, and after
wards professor in the Museum of Natural History. He
published, besides other works, a " Natural History of
Fishes," (n vols., 1829-49.)
Valenciennes, (PIERRE HENRI,) a French landscape-
painter, born at Toulouse in 1750. He was the chief
of a school to which many eminent painters belonged.
According to the " Biographie Universelle," he was
the ablest landscape-painter of his time. Died in 1819.
Va'lens, (ABURNUS,) a Roman jurist of the time of
Antoninus Pius. There are only fragments of his
writings extant.
Valens, (FABIUS,) a Roman general, notorious for
cruelty and other crimes. He revolted against Galba,
became a partisan of Vitellius, and defeated Otho at
Bedriacum in 69 A.D. Having been captured by the troops
of Vespasian, he was put to death the same year.
Valens, (FLAVIUS,) Emperor of the East, born about
328 A.D., was a brother of Valentinian I., to whom he
was indebted for the imperial power. He began to reign,
in 364, over Thrace, Asia, and Egypt. In 366 he sup
pressed a rebellion of Procopius. He was an Arian, and
persecuted the orthodox. He defeated the Goths in 369,
after which he waged war against Sapor, (Shapoor,) King
of Persia. His dominions were invaded by the Goths,
by whom he was defeated and killed in a great battle
near Adrianople in 378 A.D.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Tn.-
LEMONT, "Histoire des Empereurs ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene-
rale."
Valentia, de, da va-len'te-a, (GREGOUIO,) a Spanish
Jesuit and theologian,. born at Medina del Campo about
1550. He was professor of theology at Ingolstaclt and
at Rome. He wrote several controversial works. Died
in 1603.
Valentia, de, (PEDRO,) an eminent Spanish jurist,
born in 1554. He had a high reputation for learning.
He wrote an excellent commentary on the "Academics"
of Cicero, (1596.) Died in 1620.
Valenti-Gonzaga, va-len'tee gon-za'ga, (SiLVio,) an
Italian cardinal, born at Mantua in 1690, was a patron
of learning. He became chief minister of Benedict XIV.
soon after his election to the papacy. Died in 1756.
Valentin. See VALENTINE and VAI.KNTINUS.
Valentin, va-len-teen' or fa-len-teen', (GAHRIEL Gus-
TAV,) a German physician, of Jewish extraction, born at
Breslau in 1810. He became professor of physiology
at Berne in 1846. He has published a "Manual of the
History of Development," (1835,) and other physio
logical works.
Valentin or Valentini, va-lgn-tee'nee, (MICHAEL
BERNARD,) a German medical writer and naturalist,
born at Giessen in 1657. He was professor in the Uni
versity of Giessen, and wrote numerous works. Died
in 1726.
Valentin, vt'lSN'taN', (MoisE,) called also VALENTIN
DE BOULONGNE, (v3t'16N'taN' deh boo'loNfi',) and LE
VALENTIN, (leh vJt'ldN'taN',) a distinguished French
painter, born at Coulommiers in 1600. He studied in
Italy, and made Caravaggio his model. Among his
master-pieces we may name " The Death of John the
Baptist," and " The Denial by Peter." His delineations
of common life are also greatly admired. Died in 1632.
Valentin de Boulongne. See VALENTIN, (Moi'sE.)
Valentin-Smith, vt'16N'taN' smet, (JOANNES ER-
HARD,) a French lawyer and writer on political economy,
born at Trevoux in 1796. Among his works are " Men
dicity and Labour," (1848,) and "The Philosophy of
Statistics," (1854.)
Val'en-tine or Val-eii-ti'nus, [Fr. VALENTIN, vt'-
loN'taN',] a native of Rome, was elected pope in Sep
tember, 827. He died in October of the same year.
Valentine, (BASIL.) See BASIL- VALENTINE.
Val'en-tine, SAINT, an ecclesiastic of the third cen
tury, supposed to have suffered martyrdom under the
emperor Claudius, (270 A.D.)
Valentine de Milan, vf'16N'ten' deh me'lfiN', [It.
VALENTINA DA MILANO, va-lSn-tee'na da me-la'no,] a
daughter of Galeazzo Visconti, was married in 1389 to
Louis, Duke of Orleans, a brother of Charles VI. of
France. She is represented as amiable and accom
plished. She had several sons. Louis XII. and Francis
I. were her grandsons. Died in 1408.
See FROISSART, "Chronicles;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale."
Valentini, va-lgn-tee'nee, (GEORG WILHELM,)
BARON, a German general, born at Berlin in 1775,
served against the French in the principal campaigns
between 1811 and 1815, and was appointed in 1828 in
spector-general of military instruction in the Prussian
army. He wrote several military works. Died in 1834.
Val-en-tin'i-an [Lat. VALENTINIA'NUS ; Fr. VALEN-
TINIEN, vt'lSN'te'iie-aN'] I., (FLAVIUS,) born in Panno-
nia in 321 A.D., succeeded Jovian as Emperor of Rome
S, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
PALESTINIAN
21-1
y ALES IV S
in 364, and, having made his brother Valenshis colleague,
reserved for himself the western part of the empire. He
carried on wars with the Franks, Allemanni, and other
German tribes, over whom he gained several important
victories. The Picts and Scots were also defeated, and
a rebellion in Africa was suppressed by his general
Theodosius. While marching against the Quadi and
Sarmatae, who had invaded Pannonia, Valentinian died
suddenly, (375 A.D.) He was a Catholic, but tolerated
the Arians.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" TIL-
LEMONT, " Histoire des Empereurs;" BAKONIUS, "Aunales;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Valentinian (Valentiiiianus) II., (FLAVIUS,) called
'1 HE VOLTNGER, was a son of the preceding, and was
made by his brother Gratian, who succeeded to the
throne in 375 A.D., his colleague, and ruler over the
western part of the empire. After the murder of Gra
tian by Maximus, in 383, he sought the protection of
Theodosius, who defeated Maximus and restored the
throne to Valentinian. He was assassinated in 392, by
order of Arbogastes, one of his generals, who aimed at
the supreme power.
See GIBBON, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Valentinian (Valentinianus) III., (PLACIDIUS,)
son of Constantius, born in 419, was made ruler over the
Western empire by his uncle, Theodosius II., (425 A.D.,)
but the government was conducted by his mother, Pla-
ciclia. During this period Africa was conquered from
the Romans by Genseric, in consequence of the discord
between the Roman generals Aetius and Bonifacius.
Aetius, having previously defeated the Huns under
Attila, was murdered by Valentinian, who was jealous
of his superior ability, (454.) The emperor perished
himself, in 455, by the hand of Petronius Maximus,
whose wife he had dishonoured.
See GIBBON, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" TILLE-
MONT, " Histoire des Empereurs."
Valentinianus. See VALKNTINIAN.
Valentinien. See VALENTINIAN.
Val-en-ti'iius, [Fr. VALENTIN, vf'lo.N'taN',] a cele
brated Gnostic, was a native of Egypt, and the founder
of a sect called Valciitinians. He went to Rome about
140 A.D., and was excommunicated soon after that date.
He invented an obscure and fanciful system of theology,
in which Platonic ideas were mingled with the mystic
doctrines of the Gospel of John. Died about 160.
Valentyn, va'len-tin', (FRANCIS,) a Dutch preacher
and traveller, born at Dort about 1660. He preached
several years at Amboyna, and published a descriptive
work entitled " Ancient and Modern East Indies," (8
vols., 1724-26.) Died about 1725.
Valera, de, da va-la'ra, ( DIEGO,) a Spanish historian,
born at Cuenca about 1412. He was major-domo to
Isabella of Castile, and received the title of histo
riographer from Ferdinand the Catholic. He wrote an
"Abridged History of Spain," ("Cronica de Espana
abreviada," 1482.) Died after 1481.
See TICKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature."
Valere. See VALERIUS, (LUCAS.)
Va-le'ri-a Ga-le'ri-a, a Roman lady, was a daughter
of Diocletian and Prisca. She was married in 292 A.D.
to the emperor Galerius, after whose death she was
persecuted by Maximinus because she refused to be his
wife. She was put to death by Licinius in 315 A.D.
Valeria Gens, an ancient patrician tribe or family
of Rome, supposed to be descended from Volesus, or
Volusus, a Sabine. This gens was represented by a
succession of eminent men for many centuries, and
enjoyed peculiar honours and privileges. Among the
names of the families into which it was divided were
Flaccus, Maximus, Messala, Publicola, and Volusus.
Va-le'ri-anfLat. VALERIA'NUS, (PuBLius LICINIUS;)
Fr. VALERIKN, vS'la're-i.x'] succeeded rEmilianus as
Emperor of Rome in 253 A.D., and appointed his son
Gallienus his colleague. The empire was soon after
invaded by the Goths and other barbarous tribes, and
by Sapor, (Shapoor,) King of Persia, who defeated the
Romans near Edessa in 260 and took Valerian prisoner.
He was treated in the most insulting manner by his
captor, who is said to have placed his foot upon him
when he mounted his horse. He died in Persia about
268 A. ix, and was succeeded by his son Gallienus.
See At'RELius VICTOR, "De Cassaribus;" TILLEMONT, "His
toire des Empereurs."
Valeriani Molinari, va-la-re-a'nee mo-le-na'ree,
(LuiGl,) an Italian jurist, born in 1758; died in 1828.
See MONTANARI, " Biografia del Professore L. Valeriani Moli
nari," 1835.
Valeriaiios Apostolos. See FUCA, DE, QUAN.)
Valerianus. See VALERIAN.
Va-le-ri-a'nus, (JOANNES PIERIUS,) or Valeriano,
va-la-re-a'no, (GIOVANNI PIERIO,) an Italian author,
born at Belluno in 1477. His family name was BOL-
ZANI. He became apostolic prothonotary and professor
of eloquence at Rome. Among his works are Latin
poems, and a " Treatise on Ancient Symbols," (" Hie-
roglyphica, sive de Sacris ^Egyptiorum, aliarumque
Gentium Literis," 1556.) Died at Padua in 1558.
See DE THOU andTEissiER, " Eloges ;" NIC£RON, " Memoires ;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Valerien. See VALERIAN.
Valeric, va-la're-o or vi'la're'o', (THEODORE,) a
French painter and engraver, born near Longwy (Mo
selle) in 1819. He accompanied the Turkish army about
1853, and took sketches of various scenes and peoples
in Hungary, Bosnia, and the Danubian principalities.
Va-le'rl-us, (ANTIAS QUINTUS,) a Roman historian,
wrote Annals of the city from its foundation to the time
of Sulla.
Valerius, (JULIUS,) a translator, who is supposed to
have lived in the fifth century. He produced a Latin
version of a " History of Alexander the Great," by
rEsopus.
Valerius, [Fr. VALERE, vi'laiR',] (LUCAS,) an Italian
mathematician, was professor of geometry in the College
of Rome. He published a work " On the Centre of
Gravity of Solids." Galileo called him the Archimedes
of his time. Died about 1618.
Valerius, (PROBUS MARCUS,) a noted grammarian
under the reign of Nero, was a native of Syria.
Valerius, ( PUISLIUS,) surnamed ASIAT'ICUS, a Roman,
who was consul in 46 A.D. He was very rich. Messa-
lina, who coveted his garden, induced Claudius to put
him to death in 47 A.D.
Valerius Corvus, (MARCUS.) See CORVUS.
Valerius Flaccus. See FLACCUS, (C.Airs.)
Va-le'ri-us Max'i-mus, [Fr. VALERE MAXIME, vi'
laiR' mfk'sem',] a Roman historical writer under the
reign of Tiberius. His principal work is entitled " Fac-
torum Dictorumque Memorabilium Libri IX.," consist
ing chiefly of historical anecdotes. Numerous editions
of it have been published, and it has been translated into
the principal modern languages. This work is very
defective in style and other qualities.
See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis ;" FABKICIUS, " Bibliotheca
Latina."
Valerius Publicola. See PUBLICOLA.
Valesio, (FRANCISCO.) See VALLES.
Valesio, va-la'se-o, (GIOVANNI LUIGI,) an Italian
painter and engraver, born at Bologna in 1561. He
worked in Rome.
Valesius, the Latin of VALOIS and VALLES, which see.
Va-le'sl-us, (ADRIANUS,) [Fr. ADRIEN DE VALOIS,
t'dRe^N'' deh vf'lwa',] brother of Henri, noticed below,
born in Paris in 1607, was the author of a history of .
France, entitled "Gesta veterum Francorum," etc., (3
vols., 1658,) and "Notitia Galliarum Orcline alphabetico
digesta," being an account of ancient Gaul. In 1660
he received a pension from the king, and the title of
royal historiographer. He also wrote a "Life of Henry
de Valois," (in Latin,) and other works. Died in 1692.
See NICERON, " Memoires."
Valesius or De Valois, (HENRI,) an eminent French
scholar, born in Paris in 1603. He studied in his native
city, and subsequently at Bourges. Among his principal
works are his editions of Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen,
and other Greek ecclesiastical historians, also an edition
of Ammianus Marcellinus, and " Excerpta Polybii, Dio-
dori, Nicolai Damasceni," etc. He was appointed royal
historiographer in 1660. Died in 1676.
See NICBRON, "Memoires."
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
y ALETTE
2172
VALLANCE
Valette, vS'let', (AucusTE,) a French jurist, born at
Salins (Jura) in 1804. He became professor of civil
law in the Ecole de Droit, Paris, in 1837, and occupied
that chair more than twenty years. He published several
legal works.
Valette, de la, deh It vt'let', (JEAN Parisot— pt'-
re'zo',) sometimes called Valette-Parisot, the founder
of Valetta, and grand master of Malta, was born of
French parents in 1494. He was elected grand master
in 1557, having previously acquired a high reputation
as a general. In 1565 the Sultan Solyman attacked
Malta with a powerful armament, (one hundred and
fifty-nine ships of war,) against which La Valette made
a successful defence. After a siege of four months, the
Turks retired. Died in 1568.
See MERMET, " Eloge de J. de la Valefte-Parisot," 1803 ; PFAFF,
"Philippe Villiers de J'lsle-Adam mid J. de la Valette," 1851;
PRKSCOTT, " History of Philip II.," vol. ii. ; WATSON, "Life of
Philip II.;" DE THOU, " Historia sui Temporis ;" VERTOT,
" Histoire des Chevaliers de Malte ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generate. "
Valette, de la, (Louis de Nogaret — deh no'gt'ri',)
CARDINAL, a French prelate, born in 1593, was a son of
the Due d'Epernon. He was an adherent of Richelieu,
who in 1635 gave him command of an army sent to aid
the German Protestants and fight against the Spaniards.
Turenne was second in command under him. In 1638
he commanded the army of Italy. Died at Rivoli in
1639.
See J. TALON, "Memoirede L. de Nogaret, Cardinal de la Valette,"
etc., 2 vols., 1772.
Valette, de la, (Louis DE THOMAS,) a French eccle
siastic, born at Toulon in 1678. He became general of
the congregation of the Oratory. Died in 1772.
Valette, La. See LA VALETTE.
Val'gi-us Ru'fus, a Roman poet and critic of the
Augustan age, favourably mentioned by Horace in his
Tenth Satire, book i. Little is known respecting him
or his works.
Valhalla, (the "hall of the fallen or slain.") See
ODIN and VALKYRIA.
Valhubert, vt'lii'baiR', (JEAN MARIE MELON RO
GER,) a French general, born at Avranches in 1764,
distinguished himself at Marengo, and was killed at
Austerlitz in 1805.
Vali, va'le, [etymology uncertain ; possibly related to
the Sanscrit Mid, "strength," (which is cognate with the
Latin ral-eo, to "be strong,") or the Sanscrit bald, an
"infant," because as an infant he performed his greatest
achievement,] one of the principal gods in the Norse
mythology, was the son of Odin and Rinda. When
only one day old, he avenged Haider's death by slaying
Hoder. He is said to be an excellent archer. He and
Vidar are the only ones among the principal gods who
will survive the destruction of the world at Ragnarock.
See THORPE, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; KEYSER, "Religion
of the Northmen ;" PETERSEN, " Nordisk Mythologi."
Valieri, va-le-a'ree, or Valiero, va-le-a'ro, (SiLVES-
TRO,) became Doge of Venice in 1694. He waged war
with success against the Turks, and compelled them to
cede the Morea to Venice in 1699. Died in 1700.
Valiero, va-le-a'ro, or Valeric, va-la're-o, [Lat. VA-
LE'RIUS,] (AGOSTINO,) a learned Italian writer, born at
Venice in 1531. He became Bishop of Verona in 1565,
and a cardinal in 1583. He wrote, besides other works,
"Ecclesiastical Rhetoric," (" Rhetorica Ecclesiastica,"
1574,) and a "Life of Carlo Borromeo," (1586.) Died
in 1606.
See UGHEI.LI, "Italia Sacra;" NICERON, "Memoires;" G.
VENTURA, " Vita Cardinalis A. Valerii," 1741.
Valignani, va-16n-ya'nee, (ALESSANDRO,) an Italian
Jesuit and missionary, born at Chieti in 1537. Having
been sent to the East Indies in 1573, he preached in
Japan and China. Died at Macao in 1606.
Valin, v&'laN', (RENE JOSUE,) a French jurist, born
at La Rochelle in 1695, acquired a high reputation by
his works on law. Died in 1765.
See LEPELLETIER, " filoge de R. J. Valin," 1844.
Valincourt or Valincour, de, deh vt'laN'kooR',
(JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI du Trousset — dii tRoo'si',)
SIEUR, a French writer and critic, born in Paris in 1653.
He wrote a "Life of Frai^ois, Due de Guise," (1681,)
and other works. He succeeded his friend Racine as a
member of the French Academy, in 1699, and as his
toriographer to the king. Died in 1730.
See FONTENEI.LE, " filoges ;" NICERON, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generate. "
Valkenburgh, val'ken-biirg or val'ken-buRH, (THEO
DORE or DIRCK,) a Dutch painter of portraits and still
life, born at Amsterdam in 1675. He worked for some
time at Vienna, from which he returned to his native
city. Died in 1721.
Valkyria, (or Valkyrja,) val-kfr'e-d or val-ldr'ya;
the common English plural is Valkyries,* val-kir'ez,
[Norse plural, Valkyrjur or Valkyriur, vdl-ldr'yur,
derived from va/r, " fallen" or " slain in battle," and kj'ora,
cognate with the old German kiircn and Anglo-Saxon
ceosan, to " choose," signifying the "choosers of the slain,"]
the name applied in the Edda to certain mythical beings,
attendants of Odin, by whom they are sent to every
battle-field to select such as are doomed to fall, and to
bring them to Valhalla. They are described as white
maidens who ride through the air, from the manes of
whose horses dew falls in the valleys and hail on the
high mountains. Skuld, the youngest of the Norns,
is numbered among the Valkyries. They are some
times called Valmeyar, ("battle-maids,") Skialdmeyar or
Skjaldmeyar, ("shield-maids,") and Oskineyar, ("the
maids of Odin,") Oski being one of the names of the
war-god. It is the duty of the Valkyries, in addition
to their other offices, to wait upon the chosen heroes
( Einhcriar) who are admitted to Valhalla, to fill their
cups with mead, and to have charge of everything be
longing to the table.
See THORPE, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; KKYSEK, "Re
ligion of the Northmen;" PKTEKSKN, "Nordisk Mythologi."
Valkyries. See VALKYRIA.
Valla. See VAL, DU, (NICOLAS.)
Valla, val'ld, (GiORGio,) an Italian scholar and phy
sician, born at Piacenza about 1430, was a cousin of
Lorenzo, noticed below. He became professor of elo
quence at Venice. He wrote several medical treatises,
and a work entitled "On Things to be Sought and to
be Avoided," (" De Expetendis et Fugiendis Rebus,"
2 vols., 1501.) f Died at Venice in 1499.
See BAVLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" TIRABOSCHI,
" Stciria della Letteratnra Italiana."
Valla, (LORENZO,) an eminent classical scholar, born
at Rome about 1415. He was successively professor
of rhetoric at Pavia, Milan, and Naples, where he ac
quired the friendship and patronage of King Alfonso
I. He was, it is said, persecuted by the Archbishop
of Naples, but he effected his escape to Rome, where
he was kindly received by Pope Nicholas V., who
made him his secretary and conferred on him other
distinctions. His principal works are entitled "Notes
on the New Testament," (" Annotationes in Novum
Testamentum," 1505,) " Elegantije Sermonis Latini,"
commentaries on Livy and Sallust, and translations of
Herodotus and Thucydides. Valla was one of the first
critics and scholars of his time; but his controversial
writings are disfigured by bitter invective and person
alities. Died about 1460.
See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis;" BAYLK, " Historical and
Critical Dictionary;" POGGIAU, " Memorie intorno alia Vita di L.
Valla;" WILDSCHUT, " Dissertatio de Vita et Scriptis L. Vails,"
1830; P. GIOVIO, "Elogia;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Valladier, vt'li'de-i', (ANDRE,) a French eccle
siastic and writer, was born about 1565. He became
preacher or chaplain to Henry IV. in 1608, and abbe of
Saint- Arnoul in 1611. Among his works is "The Royal
Labyrinth of the Gallic Hercules," (" Le Labyrinthe
royal de 1'Hercule Gaulois," 1600.) Died in 1638.
See MORERI, "Dictiomiaire Historique ;" NIC^RON, " M^-
moires."
Vallance, vt'loNss', or Valiancy, vf'lo.N'se',
(CHARLES,) an antiquarian writer, born in 1721, pub
lished a work entitled " Collectanea de Rebus Hiber-
nicis," etc., and a "Grammar" and "Dictionary" of the
Irish language. Died in 1812.
* The English singular Vcilkyry or Valkyrie is rarely used.
a, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, ft, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;
YALLAXD1GHAM
2173
VALMORE
Vallandigham, va-lanMe-gam, (Ci.KMK.vr L.,) an
American politician, born at New Lisbon, Ohio, about
1822. He was elected to Congress as a Democrat, in
1856, by the voters of the third district of Ohio, which
he continued to represent until 1863. While in Con
gress he opposed the efforts of the government to sup
press the rebellion, and manifested his sympathy with
the insurgents in many a virulent harangue. In May,
1863, he was arrested on a charge of having "declared
disloyal sentiments and opinions," etc., and was sen
tenced by a military court to close confinement till the
end of the war; but the President modified this sen
tence and directed that he should be banished or sent
southward beyond our military lines. Mr. Vallan
digham embarked at a Southern port and afterwards
went to Canada. The Democratic Convention which
met in Ohio in June, 1863, denounced his banishment
as a violation of the Constitution, and nominated him
as their candidate for Governor. He was, however,
defeated in the ensuing election, (October, 1863,) his
opponent, Mr. Brough, having received the unprece
dented majority of 101,099 votes.
Vallarsi, vil-laR'see, (DoME.MCO,) an Italian anti
quary, born at Verona in 1702. was versed in Hebrew
and Greek. He edited the works of Saint Jerome, (12
vols., 1734.) Died in 1771.
Vallart. See VALART.
Vallauri, val-low'ree, (TOMMASO,) an Italian scholar
and literary historian, born at Chiusa di Cuneo in 1805.
He became professor of Latin eloquence at Turin in
1843. He published "History of Poetry in Piedmont,"
(1841.) "History of the Royal House and Monarchy of
Savoy," (1845,) "Critical History of Latin Literature,"
(in Latin, 1849,) a " Latin-Italian Dictionary," (1852,)
and editions of several Latin classics.
Vaile, della, del'la val'la, (GUGLIELMO,) an Italian
monk and writer, born at Sienna about 1740. He wrote
"Letters on the Fine Arts," (3 vols., 1782-86.) Died
in 1794.
Valle, della, (PIKTRO,) a celebrated Italian traveller,
born at Rome in 1586, was surnamed IL PEI.LEGRINO,
(" the Pilgrim.") Having assumed the dress of a pilgrim,
he set out in 1614 for Palestine and the adjacent coun
tries. He returned in 1626, having spent six years in
Persia. lie died in 1652. His Travels in India and
Persia were published in 1662, (4 vols.) They have
been translated into several languages.
Vallee, vt'la', (GEOFFROI,) a French Deist, born at
Orleans, published "The Beatitude of Christians," ("La
Beatitude des Chretiens,") for which he was executed
in 1574.
Vallee, (Louis LEGER,) a French civil engineer, born
in 1794, was appointed inspector-general in 1848. He
published several professional works.
Vallee, La. See LA VALLEE.
Valleix, vS'li', (FRANgois Louis,) a French med
ical writer, born in Paris about 1820. He published a
"Treatise on Neuralgia," (1841,) and other works.
Died in 1855.
Vallemont, de, deh viU'mdN', (PIERRE Le Lorrain
— leh lo'rax',) ABBE, a French priest, naturalist, and
writer, born at Pont-Audemer in 1649. He compiled
several mediocre works, among which is " The Elements
of History," (2 vols., 1696.) Died in 1721.
Valleriole, vaTre'ol', (FRANCOIS,) a French medical
writer, born at Montpellier about 1504 ; died in 1580.
Valles, value's, or Valesio, va-la'se-o, [Lat. VALLE'-
sius,] (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish medical writer, born in
Old Castile, lived in the sixteenth century. He was
physician to Philip II., and author of several esteemed
works.
Vallet or Valet, vi'li', (GUILLAUME,) a French en
graver, born about 1634. He engraved some works of
Raphael, Titian, and Poussin. Died about 1704.
Vallet de Viriville, vi'l^' deh ve're'vel', ( AUGUSTE,)
a French antiquary and writer, born in Paris in 1815.
He contributed to several periodicals, and published, be
sides other works, " Historical Iconography of France,"
(1853,) and " Researches on Jeanne Dare," (1855.)
Valletta, val-let'ti, (NiccoLd,) an Italian jurist, born
at Arienza (Campania) in 1738, (or, as some say, 1750.)
He became professor of law in the University of Naples,
and published numerous legal works. Died in 1814.
See ROSA, " Elogio storico di N. Valletta," 1815.
Valli, val'lee, (EusEHio,) an Italian physician, born at
Pistoia in 1762, was the author of treatises on the yellow
fever, of which disease he died in 1816.
Val'li-a or Wal'll-a, King of the Visigoths, began
to reign in 415 A.D., and formed an alliance with Hono-
rius, Emperor of Rome, in 416, after which he gained
victories over the Vandals in Spain. Toulouse was his
capital. Died about 420 A.D.
Valliere, de, deh vt'le-aiR', QEAN FLORENT,) a
French general of artillery7~was born in Paris in 1667.
He reorganized the artillery, and rendered important
services in several campaigns. Died in 1759.
Valliere, de, (JOSEPH FLORENT,) MARQUIS, an able
French general, a son of the preceding, was born in
Paris in 1717. He became director-general of the artil
lery and engineers in 1755, and distinguished himself at
Hastenbeck. Died in 1776.
Valliere, de la, deh It vSlej-aJR', (Louis CESAR LA
BAUME LE BLANC,) DUKE, a French bibliophile, born
in Paris in 1708, was a grand-nephew of the following.
His library is stated to have been the richest that any
private person ever had in France. Died in 1780.
Valliere, de la, (LOUISE FRANCOISE DE LA BAUME
LE BLANC,) a beautiful and fascinating Frenchwoman,
born in Touraine in 1644. She became a maid of
honour to the Duchess of Orleans, and about 1661 the
mistress of Louis XIV., who gave her the title of duchess.
She had by him four children, one of whom, the Count
of Vermandois, was legitimated. In 1674 she retired to
a convent. Her virtues and piety are highly extolled.
Died in 1710.
See QuATREMfeRE DE Roissv, " Histoire de Madame de la Val
liere," 1823; W. H. D. ADAMS, "Famous Beauties and Historic
Women," vol. ii., 1865.
Vallisneri, val-les-na'ree, or Vallisnieri, val-les-ne-
a'ree, (ANTONIO,) an eminent Italian naturalist, born in
the duchy of Modena in May, 1661, was a pupil of Mal-
pighi at 'Bologna. He began to practise medicine at
Reggio about 1688, and married in 1692. Having ac
quired distinction by his researches in entomology and
the generation of insects, he became professor of practi
cal medicine at Padua in 1700. He opposed the doctrine
of spontaneous generation. About 1710 he obtained the
first chair of the theory of medicine at Padua. Among
his principal works is a "Treatise on the Generation of
Men and Animals," ("Istoria della Generazione dell'
Uomoe degli Animali," etc., 1721.) Buffon regarded him
as an exact and profound investigator. Died at Padua
in 1730. Vallisneria, a genus of plants, was named in his
honour by Micheli.
See FABRONI, "Vits Italorum doctrina excellentium," vol. vii. ;
NICERON, " Memoires ;" TIPAI.DO, " Biografia degli Italiani illus-
tri ;" "Nouvelle Biosjraphie Generale."
i Vallongue. See PASCAL-VALLONGUE.
Vallot, vt'lo', (ANTOINE,) a French physician, born
at Rheims or at Montpellier in 1594. He became first
physician to Louis XIV. in 1652, and cured him of a
serious illness in 1658. Died in 1671.
Vallotti, val-lot'tee, (FRANCESCO ANTONIO,) an Ital
ian composer of sacred music, born at Vercelli in 1697 ;
died at Padua in 1780.
Valmlki, vSl'mi-ki, or ValmikI,vtl-mee'kT,aHindoo
poet, of unknown date, to whom is ascribed the author
ship of the " Ramayana," one of the two great Hindoo
epics. (See RAMAYANA.)
See WILSON, " Sanscrit-and-English Dictionary ;" " New Ameri
can Cyclopaedia."
Valmont de Bornare, vtl'moN' deh bo'mtR', (J. C.,)
a French naturalist, born at Rouen in 1731. He visited
various parts of Europe, including Lapland, and returned
with a large collection of objects in natural history. He
published in 1758 his " Catalogue of a Cabinet of Natural
History," which was followed by a " New Exposition of
the Mineral Kingdom," (2 vols., 1762,) and " Universal
Raisonne Dictionary of Natural History," a work of
great merit, which has obtained extensive popularity.
Died in 1807.
Valmore, (MARCELLINE.) See DESBORDES.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (2^°"See Explanations, p. 23.)
VALMT
2174
Valmy, DUKE OF. See KKLLERMANN.
Valois, vS'lwa', (Yvns,) a French Jesuit and writer
on religion, born at Bordeaux in 1694; died after 1760.
Valois, de, (AOKIEN.) See VALESIUS.
Valois, de, (CHARLES.) See ANGOULEME.
Valois, de, deli vt'lwa', [Lat. VALE'SIUS,] (CHARLES,)
a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1671, was a son of
Adrien de Valois or Valesius. He published a curious
work, entitled " Valesiana," (1694,) which is composed
partly of his father's writings and sayings. Died in 1747.
Valori, va-lo'ree, (FRANCESCO,) an eminent Italian
statesman, born at Florence in 1439. He filled the
highest offices in the Florentine republic, and was a
friend of Savonarola and Macchiavelli. He was killed
by the populace during the excitement caused by the
reforms of Savonarola, in 1498.
Valori, (NiccoLO,) a" Italian writer, who was prior
of the republic of Florence. He wrote, in Latin, a " Life
of Lorenzo de' Medici," (1492.)
Valperga di Caluso, val-p§u'ga de ka-loo'so, or
simply Valperga-Caluso, (TOMMASO,) an Italian lit-
tlrateur and mathematician, born in Turin in 1737, was
an intimate friend of Al fieri. He became professor of
Oriental literature in Turin, and director of an observa
tory in that city. He wrote poems, and numerous treat
ises on mathematics, astronomy, etc. Among his works
is a "Gallery of Italian Poets," (1814.) Died in 1815.
See L. DEBREME, " VitadiT. Valperga-Caluso," 1815;?. BAI.BO,
" Vita dell'Abate Valperga," 1816 ; BOUCHERON, " Vita T. Valpersse-
Calusii," 1836; EKSCH und GRUHER, "Allgemeine Encyclopaedic,"
article "Caluso;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Val'pjf, (EDWARD,) an English scholar and divine,
brother of Richard, noticed below, studied at Trinity
College, Cambridge, and subsequently became vicar of
Saint Mary, at Walsham, Norfolk. He was the author
of "Elegantiae Latince," (translated,) and other works.
Died in 1832.
Valpy, (RICHARD,) D.D., an eminent English scholar
and divine, born in the island of Jersey in 1754. Having
previously studied at the College of Valognes, in Nor
mandy, he entered the University of Oxford, where he
took the degree of B.A., and in 1781 was chosen head
master of the grammar-school at Reading, Berkshire.
He became rector of Stradishall, in Suffolk, in 1787. He
published "Elements of the Latin Language," (1784,)
and a "Greek Grammar," (1805,) which are highly
esteemed. Died in 1836. His son ABRAHAM JOHN,
born in 1786, published excellent editions of several of
the Latin classics. Died in 1854.
Valsalva, val-sal'va, (ANTONIO MARIA,) a celebrated
Italian physician and anatomist, born at Imola in 1666.
He studied under Malpighi at Bologna, and in 1697
became professor of anatomy in the university of that
city. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London
and of other similar institutions. He made improve
ments in practical surgery, and acquired a high reputa
tion as an anatomist by his discoveries in the structure
of the ear, on which he wrote a work, " De Aure Hu
mana," (1704.) He was a skilful physician, and invented
a method of treating aneurisms. Died in 1723.
See FABRONI, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" TIPALDO,
" Biografia degli Italian! illustri."
Valsecchi, val-sek'kee, (ViRGiNio,) an Italian anti
quary, born at Brescia in 1681 ; died in 1739.
Valstaiu. See WALLENSTEIN.
Valturio, val-toc/re-o, (RouERTO,) an Italian writer
on the military art, born at Rimini, was author of a
work " De Re militari,'' (1472.) He lived about 1450-80.
Valvasone, di, de val-va so'na, (ERASMO,) an Italian
poet, born in Friuli in 1523, was proprietor of an estate
and a castle. He wrote the " Angeleida," a poem on
the war among the angels, (1590,) and "The Chase,"
("Caccia,") an admired didactic poem on hunting,
(1591.) Died in 1593.
See TIRABOSCHI, " Storia delta Letteratura Italiana."
Vaman. See VAMANA.
Vamana, va'ma-na, called also Vaman, va'man,
[i.e. a "dwarf,"] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of
the fifth avatar of Vishnu, when this god, to humble the
arrogance of Bali, (see BALI,) took the form of a pitiful
dwarf, and, when the tyrant promised him as much land
or space as he could pass over in three steps, revealed
himself in his real character, and with the first step
deprived Bali of earth, with the second, of heaven, but
(in consideration of Bali's good qualities) he generously
forbore to take the third step, (which would have left
that ruler no foothold in the universe,) and allowed him
the dominion of Patala, or the lower world. From
Vishnu's exploit on that occasion he has received one
of his proudest titles, — that of TrTvik'rama, or the
"Three-Step-Taker." (See VISHNU.)
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Vamuna. See VAMANA.
Van or Vaiia. See VANIR.
Van Achen. See ACHEN.
Van'a-dis, [Norse pron. va'na-dess', i.e. the " Vana
goddess," so called on account of her descent from the
Vanir,] one of the many names of FREYIA, which see.
Van Aelst. See AKLST.
Van Amburgll, van am'burg, (!SAAC,) called "the
Lion-Tamer," was born at Fishkill, New York, about
1815. He was a partner of a company that exhibited a
travelling menagerie, and was very successful in the
taming of lions. Died in Philadelphia in 1865.
Van Beek. See TORRENTINUS.
Vanbrugh, van-broo', (Sir JOHN,) a celebrated Eng
lish dramatist and architect, of Flemish extraction, born
in 1666, is supposed to have been a native of London.
He was educated in France, and, after his return, pub
lished, in 1697, his comedy of " The Relapse," which was
followed by "The Confederacy" and "The Provoked
Wife." These plays were highly popular at the time ;
but, owing to their profanity and licentiousness, they have
been long banished from the stage. Among his principal
architectural works we may name Castle Howard, the
seat of Charles, Earl of Carlisle, Duncombe Hall, Grims-
thorpe, in Yorkshire, and Blenheim, the magnificent
residence of the Duke of Marlborough. He was ap
pointed in 1703 Clarencieux king-at-arms. Died in 1726.
See GIBBER, "Lives of the Poets;" BAKKR, " Biographia Dra
matical" "Lives ot' the British Dramatists," by CAMPBKM., LEIGH
HUNT, etc.
Van Bu'ren, (JoHN,) an American politician, born at
Hudson, New York, in 1810, was a son of Martin, noticed
below. He was elected attorney-general of New York
early in 1845, joined the Free-Soil party, and gained dis
tinction as a political orator in 1848. After that time
he practised law in the city of New York, and acted
with the Democratic party. He died at sea during his
homeward passage from Europe, in October, 1866.
Van Buren, (MARTIN,) an American statesman, the
eighth President of the United States, was born at Kin-
clerhook, Columbia county, New York, on the 5th of
December, 1782. He was educated at the academy of
his native village, studied law, and was admitted to the
bar in 1803. He began at an early age to take an active
part in politics, as a member of the Democratic party,
and was elected to the Senate of New York in 1812.
He advocated the war against England in 1812, became
attorney-general of New York in 1815, and was again
elected to the Senate in 1816. About this time he became
the master-spirit of the Albany Regency, an organization
which was formed to oppose De Witt Clinton, and which
controlled the politics of New York for many years. He
was elected a Senator of the United States in 1821, sup
ported William H. Crawford for the Presidency of the
United States in 1824, and was again elected a Senator
in 1827. He voted for the protective tariff of 1828. The
same year he was chosen Governor of New York for two
years, but before the expiration of his term he resigned
and entered the cabinet of President Jackson as secre
tary of state. He resigned that office in April, 1831,
probably because General Jackson had expressed his
opinion that cabinet ministers should not be aspirants
for the Presidency, or should not obtain that office through
his influence. He was nominated as minister to Eng
land, whither he went about September, 1831, but his
nomination was rejected by the Senate, in which the
Whigs had then a majority. To compensate him for
this repulse, the friends of General Jackson elected Mr.
Van Buren Vice-President of the United States in No
vember, 1832. He was General Jackson's favourite candi-
, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, o,u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure : far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good: moon;
VAN CEULEN
PAKDER HEIST
date for the Presidency, and was nominated as such by
the Democratic Convention at Baltimore in May, 1835.
His Whig competitor was General W. H. Harrison.
Mr. Van Buren was elected President in November, 1836,
receiving one hundred and seventy electoral votes out
of two hundred and ninety-four, which was the whole
number. His election was soon followed by a great
financial panic and a general prostration of business.
About May, 1837, all the banks suspended specie pay
ments. In his message to Congress he recommended
the establishment of an independent treasury, which
measure was rejected by the House of Representatives
in the session of 1837-38, but afterwards passed both
houses of Congress and became a law about June, 1840.
In the session of 1838-39 an attempt was made to sup
press the agitation against slavery, by a resolution that
Congress would not receive or read any petitions for
the abolition of slavery. All the political friends of the
President voted for this resolution, which was adopted.
He was again nominated for the Presidency by the
Democratic Convention in May, 1840, but, after a very
exciting canvass, in which the enthusiasm of the Whigs
was stimulated by mass-meetings, processions, songs,
etc., he was det'eated by General Harrison, svho received
two hundred and thirty-four electoral votes against sixty
for Mr. Van Buren. On the 4th of March, 1841, he re
tired from the public service to his estate called Linden-
wald, near Kinderhook, Nesv York. In the Democratic
National Convention which met in May, 1844, a majority
of the delegates were pledged or instructed to vote for
Mr. Van Birren ; but the Southern politicians opposed
his nomination, because he had written a letter against
the annexation of Texas. They therefore insisted that
the Convention should adopt a rule under which two-
thirds of the votes were necessary to a choice. Mr.
Van Buren had only one hundred and forty-six votes
out of two hundred and sixty-two, and therefore failed
to obtain the nomination.
According to Mr. Greeley, his renomination was
defeated by the "slave-traders, and the closely affiliated
class of gamblers and blacklegs." (" American Conflict,"
vol. i. p. 69.) He afterwards separated himself from the
Democratic party because it was committed to the ex
tension of slavery. A convention of the Free-Soil party
which met at Buffalo in August, 1848, nominated Martin
Van Buren and Charles Francis Adams as candidates
for the offices of President and Vice-President. They
received a popular vote of 291,342, but not any electoral
vote. It is stated that he voted for Mr. Pierce and Mr.
Buchanan in the Presidential elections of 1852 and 1856.
He had married a lady named Hoes about 1804, and had
several sons. Died at or near Kinderhook in July, 1862.
See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iii.
Van Ceulen. See KEUI.EN, VAN.
Van Cleemputte, vtn kla'S.x'piit'^LuciEN TYRTEE,)
a French architect, born in Paris in 1795. He obtained
the grand prize in 1816.
Van Cleve, vfn kl£v, (CORNEII.LK or JOSEPH,) a
French sculptor, born in 1644, worked in Paris. Died
in 1733-
Van Cleve, (HORATIO P.,) an American general,
born at Princeton, New Jersey, about 1810, graduated
at West Point in 1831. He was appointed a brigadier-
general about March, 1862, and commanded a division
at the battle of Chickamauga, September 19 and 20,
1863.
Vancouver, van-koo'ver, (GEORGE,) a English navi
gator, born about 1755, entered the navy at an early age,
and accompanied Captain Cook, as midshipman, on his
second and third voyages. In 1791 he sailed as com
mander of the Discovery to the northwest coast of
America, to receive the surrender of Nootka from the
Spaniards, who were instructed by their government to
give up that island to the British. He was also charged
to make a survey of the coast northwards from latitude
30° north. He returned in 1795, and applied himself
to the preparation of his narrative, which was not quite
completed at his death, in 1798. It was published soon
after by his brother, under the title of "Voyage of Dis
covery to the North Pacific Ocean and round the
World," (3 vols. 410.) Vancouver gave his name to an
island off the coast of America between 48° 20' and 51°
north latitude.
See the "Monthly Review" for January, 1799.
Van Dale, vtn da'leh, (ANTOON,) a Dutch physician
and Mennonite preacher, born in 1638, was the author
of several learned works on theology and Greek and
Roman antiquities. Among these we may name his
treatise " On the Origin and Progress of Idolatry and
Superstition," (in Latin,) and "On the Oracles of the
Heathen," (" Dissertationes dua; de Oraculis," etc.,
1700.) Died in 1708.
Van Dalen. See DALEN, VAN.
Vandamme, vfiN'dtm', (DOMINIQUE RENE,) Count
d'Unebourg, a French general, born at Cassel in 1770.
He became a general of division in 1799, after he had
rendered important services in Flanders and Germany.
For his conduct at Austerlitz he received from Napoleon
a gift of twenty thousand francs. He took part in several
actions against the Prussians in 1806, and commanded
a corps in the Austrian campaign of 1809. In the spring
of 1813 he captured Hamburg. He commanded a sepa
rate army which was compelled to surrender to a superior
force near Kulm, in August, 1813. Having joined the
army of Napoleon in 1815, he had a high command at
the battle of Ligny. Died in 1830.
SeeTmERS, " History of the French Revolution ;" JOMIXI, "Vie
poliuque et miiitaire de Napoleon ;" " Nouvelie Biographic Gene-
rale."
Vandelli, vin-del'lee, (DoMENico,) an Italian phy
sician and naturalist, born in the early part of the eigh
teenth century, became superintendent of the botanic
garden at Lisbon. He published a treatise on marine
zoophytes, etc., and several botanical works. He was a
correspondent of Linnaeus, who named the genus of
plants Vandellia in his honour. Died in 1815.
Van den Eckhout. See EECKHOUT.
Van'deii-hoff, (JoHN,) an English tragic actor, born
at Salisbury in 1790. He performed "King Lear" and
"Coriolanus" with success. Died in 1861.
Vanderanus. See AA, VAN DER.
Vaii'der-bilt, (CORNELIUS,) COMMODORE, an enter
prising American navigator, born on Staten Island, New
York, in May, 1794. He was originally a poor boy, and
commenced business as master of a small sail-boat. He
became captain of a steamboat in 1817, after which he
made improvements in the construction of steamers.
He built many steamboats and steamships, and in 1851
established a line from New York to California by way
of Nicaragua. In 1855 he built several steamships to ply
between New York and Havre. In 1862 he presented
as a gift to the Federal government his new steamer
called the Vanderbilt, which cost $800,000, and for which
Congress passed a resolution of thanks. "His enter
prise, genius, and success," says the " Merchants' Maga
zine," "are known and felt the world over." He now
has the chief control of the New York Central Railroad
and the Haarlem Railroad.
See a " Memoir of C. Vanderbilt," in the "Merchants' Magazine"
for January, 1865.
Vanderbourg, de, deh v&N'deR'booR', (MARTIN
MARIE CHARLES de Boudens — deh boo'doN',) Vi-
COMTE, a French litterateur, born at Saintes in 1765,
was also a philologist. He was the first editor of the
poems of Clotilde de Surville, (1803,) of which some
critics suspect him to have been the author. Died in 1827.
Vaiiderburch, voN'deR'btiRk', (£MILE Louis,) a
French dramatist, born in Paris in 1794, wrote many
successful comedies and vaudevilles. Died in 1862.
Vaiiderburch, de, deh vSn'der-buRK, (FRANCIS,) a
Flemish prelate, born at Ghent in 1567. He became
Archbishop of Cambray. Died in 1644.
Van der Cabel. See CABEL, VAN DER.
Van der Does. See DOES, VAN DER.
Vander Heist, vtn'der-helst', (BARTHOLOMEW,) an
eminent Dutch portrait-painter, born at Haarlem about
1610. Among his master-pieces is a picture in the town-
house of Amsterdam, containing twenty-four full-length
portraits. It is esteemed one of the finest productions
of the kind, and was highly commended by Sir Joshua
Reynolds. Died about 1670.
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; § as r,; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
VAN DER HETDEN
2176
Van der Heyden, (or Heyde.) See HEYDEN, VAN
DER.
Van der Linden. See LINDEN, VAN DER.
Vaii'der-lyii, (JoHN,) a noted American painter, born
at Kingston, Ulster county, New York, in 1776. Having
studied law for a time under Gilbert Stuart, he visited
Europe, where he spent several years, and produced his
" Ariadne" and " Marius sitting among the Ruins of Car
thage," which are esteemed his master-pieces. Among
his portraits we may name those of Washington, Mon
roe, and Calhoun. Died in 1852.
See DUNLAP, " Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in Amer
ica," vol. iii. ; "Recollections of John Vanderlyn," in the "Atlantic
Monthly" for February, 1867 ; TUCKEKMAN, " Book of the Artists."
Van der Maelen, vtn der ma'len, (PHILIPPE MARIE
GuiLLAUME,) a Belgian geographer, born in Brussels
in 1795. He published a "Universal Atlas," (6 vols.,
1825-27,) and other works.
Vaiider Meer or Van der Meer, vtn der maik,
(JAN,) THE ELDER, a celebrated Dutch painter of marine
views and landscapes, was born at Rotterdam in 1627.
He was patronized by the Prince of Orange, who made
him a councillor in 1674. Died about 1690.
Vaiider Meer, QAN,) THE YOUNGER, son of the
preceding, was born in 1656. His landscapes with sheep
are greatly admired ; he also produced a number of
admirable etchings. His works are rare and highly
prized. Died in 1706.
Van der Mersch. See MEUSCH, VAN DER.
Van der Monde, vtn d&R moNcl or voN'de'
(CHARLES AUGUSTIN,) a French physician, born at
Macao, China, in 1727. He published a "Dictionary
of Health," (Paris, 1759.) Died in 1762.
Vander Monde or Vandermoiide, v
(N.,) a French mathematician, born in Paris in 1735. He
became professor of political economy in the ficole Nor-
male in 1795. He published several scientific treatises,
and two "Memoires," in which he advanced the theory
that music might be composed by mathematical pro
cesses. The musicians, it is said, found in his method
too much mathematics, and the mathematicians too
much music. Died in 1796.
Van der Neer, (ARNOLD.) See NEER, VAN DER.
Van der Ulft. See Ui.rr, VAN DER.
Vandervelde, vSn'der-veM'deh, (ADRIAAN,) a Dutch
painter of high reputation, born at Amsterdam in 1639,
was a pupil of Wynants, and a son of Willein the Elder.
His favourite subjects were landscapes with cattle, in
which he excelled ; he also frequently painted the figures
in the pictures of Ruysdael, Van der Heyden, and others.
Died in 1672.
See CHARLES BLANC, " Histoire des Peintres."
Van der Velde, (!SAIAH.) See VELDE, VAN DER.
Van der Velde or Vaudervelde, (WILLEM,) some
times written also Vandevelde, called THE ELDER, a
celebrated marine painter, born at Leyden in 1610. He
entered the naval service at an early age, and in 1666
accompanied Admiral De Ruyter for the purpose of
making drawings of the engagements between the Dutch
and English fleets. Having acquired a very high repu
tation by his designs, he was invited to England by
Charles II., who gave him the title of painter of sea-
fights to the king, and bestowed on him a pension. His
designs were, for the most part, executed with a pen
upon paper or prepared canvas, and some of them were
painted in oil by his son. Died in 1693.
See H. WALPOLE, "Anecdotes of Painting."
Van der Velde or Vandervelde, (WILLEM,) THE
YOUNGER, son of the preceding, was born at Amsterdam
in 1633. He was instructed by his father, whom he ex
celled in sea-views. Among his master- pieces we may
name his "View of the Texel," "A Fresh Breeze," "The
Rising of the Gale," and " A Calm." He is regarded
by many connoisseurs as superior to any other artist in
his department. Died in 1707.
See CHARLES BLANC, " Histoire des Peintres."
Van der Werf or Vanderwerff, vtn'der-we'Rf',
(ADRIAAN,) a celebrated Dutch painter of portraits and
historical works, born near Rotterdam in 1659. He was
patronized by the Elector- Palatine John William, who
chased his pictures at very high prices. Among his
master-pieces are a " Judgment of Paris," a " Magdalene
in the Wilderness," and an " Ecce Homo." Died in 1722.
Van der Werf or Vanderwerff, ( PIE PER,) a painter,
born near Rotterdam in 1665, was a brother of Adriaan,
whom he imitated. Died in 1718.
Van der Weyde, vSn'der-wI'deh, (ROGER,) a Flem
ish painter of the fifteenth century, introduced great
improvements into the style of the Flemish school, both
in respect to design and expression.
Among his best
Died in 1529.
works is a " Descent from the Cross.'
See " Lives of the Early Flemish Painters."
Van de Weyer, vSn deh wT'er, (SYLVANUS or SYL-
VAIN,) a Belgian diplomatist and lawyer, born at Lon-
vain about 1802. He was a member of the provisional
government formed in the revolution of 1830, and
represented Belgium at the Conference of London,
(1831.) On his return he became minister of foreign
affairs. He was prime minister for a short time in
184=5-46.
Van Dienien. See DIEMEN, VAN.
Van Dorn, (EARL,) an American general, born in Mis
sissippi about 1823, graduated at West Point in 1842.
He became a captain in 1855, and resigned his commis
sion early in 1861. He commanded the insurgents at
the battle of Pea Ridge, March 7 and 8, 1862. He at
tacked General Rosecrans at Corinth, October 3 and 4,
1862, and was defeated with great loss. General Rose
crans reported that his army killed and buried 1423, and
took 2268 prisoners. General Van Dorn was killed in
a private quarrel by Dr. Peters in Maury county, Ten
nessee, in May, 1863.
Vandyck. See VANDYKE.
Van Dyck, (PHILIPPE.) See DYCK.
Van Dyk, van dlk, (HARRY STOE,) an English writer
of prose and verse, born in London in 1798. He pub
lished "The Gondola," and other works. Died in 1828.
Vandyke, Van Dyck, or Vandyck, vSn-dlk', (Sir
ANTHONY,) a celebrated Flemish painter of portraits,
born at Antwerp, March 22, 1599, was a son of a rich
merchant. He began to study painting under Van Balen
in 1610, and afterwards became a pupil of Rubens about
1615. According to a doubtful report, Rubens, incited
by jealousy, advised Vandyke to confine himself to
portraits. At the age of nineteen he was admitted into
the Academy of Antwerp. He visited Italy about 1622,
passed several years at Venice, Genoa, Rome, and Flor
ence, and painted a number of portraits in those cities.
Having returned to Antwerp about 1627, he painted a
picture of " Saint Augustine in Ecstasy," a picture of the
"Crucifixion," and other historical works. Comment
ing on his " Crucifixion," Sir Joshua Reynolds said,
"This picture, upon the whole, may be considered as
one of the finest (or first) pictures in the world, and gives
the highest idea of Vandyke's powers." Having been
invited by Charles I., he went to England about 1632,
and painted portraits of that king, who gave him an an
nual pension of two hundred pounds in 1633, and the
title of painter to his majesty. Vandyke passed the rest
of his life in England, and married Mary, a daughter of
Lord Ruthven, Earl of Gowrie. His habits were luxu
rious, and his style of living was magnificent. He painted
with such rapidity and facility that his works are very
numerous, although his life was short. He is generally
considered the greatest portrait-painter of modern times
except Titian ; and some critics prefer him even to that
artist. Among his master-pieces are "The Erection of
the Cross," a portrait of the Earl of Strafford and his
secretary, (at Wentworth House,) and a series of por
traits of eminent artists of his time, which he painted
before he left Antwerp. Engravings of these, about one
hundred in number, have been published. He died in
London in December, 1641, leaving one child, Justiniana.
See WALPOLE, "Anecdotes of Painting in England;" DESCAMPS,
"Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; CARPENTER, "Memoir of Sir
Anthony Van Dyck;" " Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1847; G.
VALLARDI, " Cenni storico-artistici sul A. Van Dyck," 1844 ; " Nou-
velle Biographic Gdnerale."
Vane, (Sir HENRY,) an English statesman, born in
Kent in 1589. He was elected a member of Parliament
conferred on him the honour of knighthood and pur- 1 about 1615, and was appointed cofferer to the Prince
I, e, 1, 6, fl, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; nflt; good; moon;
VAKE
2177
y AN LOO
of Wales by James I. At the accession of Charles I. he
became a member of the privy council. In 1631 he was
sent as ambassador to Denmark and Sweden. He was
appointed principal secretary of state in 1640 or 1639.
In consequence of his hostility to the Earl of Strafford,
he was removed, and became an adherent of the Parlia
ment. Died in 1654.
See CLARENDON, " History of the Great Rebellion."
Vane, (Sir HENRY,) THE YOUNGER, often called Sir
HARRY VANE, a republican statesman, born in 1612, was
the eldest son of the preceding. He studied for a short
time at Oxford, from which he went to Geneva, and
returned home a zealous adversary of the liturgy and
government of the Church of England. By the pro
fession of such opinions he incurred the displeasure
of his father. For the sake of religious liberty, he
emigrated in 1635 to Massachusetts. He was elected
Governor of the colony in 1636, and " manifested," says
Forster, "a firmness, energy, and wisdom truly remark
able in one of his early age and previous history." He
offended the majority of the colony by his advocacy
of universal toleration, and returned to England in
1637, soon after which he married Frances Wray. In
November, 1640, he became a member of the Long
Parliament, in which he efficiently promoted the con
demnation of the Earl of Strafford by evidence which
he furnished. He found in his father's cabinet a memo
randum of a council at which Strafford had proposed to
employ the Irish army to reduce England to obedience.
Vane was a leader of the Independents, and a friend
of Milton. On the death of Pym (1643) the chief direc
tion of civil affairs devolved on Vane. He disapproved
the policy of the execution of the king, but expressed
no opinion of its abstract justice. In February, 1649,
he was appointed a member of the council of state,
and in the next month was placed at the head of the
naval department. The efficiency and victories of the
navy are ascribed partly to his administrative talents.
He opposed the usurpation of Cromwell, who, as his
soldiers were dissolving the Parliament, in April, 1653,
exclaimed, " The Lord deliver me from Sir Harry Vane !"
Vane afterwards passed several years in retirement, and
wrote works entitled "The Retired Man's Meditation,"
(1655,) and a "Healing Question Propounded and Re
solved," (1656.) At the restoration he was excepted
from the indemnity or act of amnesty. Having been
confined in prison' about two years, he was tried for
treason in June, 1662, and convicted, after an able speech
in his own defence. Charles II. wrote to Clarendon
that Vane "was too dangerous a man to let live." He
met death with the most intrepid courage and firmness.
"He was," says Clarendon, "a man of extraordinary
parts, a pleasant wit, a great understanding, which
pierced into and discerned the purposes of other men
with wonderful sagacity. ... If he were not superior
to Mr. Hampden, he was inferior to no other man in all
mysterious artifices."
'See CLARENDON, " History of the Rebellion ;" JOHN FORSTER,
"Life of Sir Henry Vane the Younger:" WHITELOCKE, "Trial of
Sir H. Vane;" HL'.ME, "History of England;" "The Life and
Death of Sir H. Vane," 1662.
Van Effen. See EFFEN, VAN.
Van Erpen. See ERPENIUS.
Vaiietti. See VANNETTI.
Van Eyck. See EYCK, (HUBERT and JOHN.)
Van Galen. See GAI.EN, VAN.
Vangerow, von, fon fang'eh-ro', (KART, ADOLF,) a
German jurist, born near Marburg in 1808. He suc
ceeded Thibaut as professor of Roman law at Heidel
berg in 1840, and in 1849 was made a privy councillor.
He published a " Manual of the Pandects," and other
legal works. Died in November, 1870.
Van Goyen. See GOYEN, VAN.
Van Helmont. See HEI.MONT, VAN.
Van Helt-Stoccade. See STOCCADE.
Van Hoek. See HOEK, VAN.
Van Huevel, vSn hti'vel, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a Belgiai
physician, born at Brussels "in 1802. He invented a
pelvimeter and a forceps saw.
Van Huysum. See HUYSUM, VAN.
Vaniere, vi'ne-ajR', [Lat. VANIE'RUS,] (JACQUES,) a
French Jesuit ancT Latin poet, born near Beziers, in
Languedoc, in 1664. He gained a high reputation by
his Latin poems, the most important of which is his
"Rural Estate," (" Praedium Rusticum," 1707.) In this
poem he imitated Virgil with considerable success. He
was professor of humanities in several colleges. Died
at Toulouse in 1739.
See PERE LOMBARD, "Vie du Pere Vaniere," 1739; MORBRI,
" Dictionnaire Historique."
Vanierus. See VANIERE.
Vanini, va-nee'nee, fLat. VANI'NUS,] (LuciLio,) an
Italian philosopher and skeptic, born at Taurisano in
1585. According to some authorities, he was a priest
in his youth. He travelled in Germany, France, and
England, and taught philosophy for a short time at
Genoa. His enemies admit that he was eloquent and
learned. In 1616 he published at Paris a pantheistic
work, entitled "On the Admirable Secrets of Nature,
the Queen and Goddess of Mortals," etc., (" De admi-
ranclis Naturae Reginae Deaeque Mortalium Arcanis,")
which the Sorbonne condemned to be burned. He
removed to Toulouse in 1617, was accused of atheism,
and put to death in 1619.
See J. G. OLEARIUS, " De Vita Vanini," 1708; P. F. ARPE,
" Apologia pro Vanino," 1712 : DURAXD, " La Vie et les Sentiments
de Vanini." 1717 ; "Life of Vanini." London, 1730; FUHRMANN,
" Leben des Vanini," 1800; NICERON, "Me"moires;" " Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
Vaninus. See VANINI.
Vanir, va'njr, the plural of Van or Vana, [from
vanr, " empty," cognate with the Latin vanus, the pri
mary meaning of which is the same,] in the Norse
mythology, a peculiar class of beings, whose habitation
and empire is " the empty, vast, and wandering air."
They rule over the atmosphere, the weather, and the
sea. Their dwelling-place or kingdom is termed Vana-
heim, (i.e. the "home of the Vanir.") The principal per
sonage among them is Njord, the god of the winds, who,
though born and bred in Vanaheim, was given by the
Vanir as a hostage to the ^Esir, among whom he is now
numbered. The Vanir are said to have been originally
hostile to the gods of Asgard, but were subsequently
reconciled to them. This statement may be thus ex
plained. The capricious and uncertain movements of
the atmosphere seem naturally hostile to the regularity
and order which are the especial attributes of the gods
or y£sir. But when, inspired by the gods, men, by
superior skill in navigation, were enabled to take advan
tage of the winds, notwithstanding their irregularity, the
Vanir, the types of uncertainty, were said to be recon
ciled with the /Esir, the representatives of order and
skill. (See JEsiR and JOTUNS.) That Freyia (the goddess
of love) was the daughter of a Vana prince, would seem
to allude to the aerial character of those charms wMeh
inspire the passion of love, as well as to the well-known
caprice and inconstancy of lovers.
See THORPE, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; KEYSER(> "Re
ligion of the Northmen ;" PETERSEN, " Nordisk Mythologi."
Vanloo, vf n-lo', (ABRAHAM Louis,) a Dutch painter,
born at Amsterdam about 1641, was the father of Charles
and Jean Baptiste, noticed below. Died at Aix in 1713.
Vanloo, v&N'lo', (CHARLES ANDR£, or CARLE,) a
French painter, born at Nice in 1705, was a brother of
Jean Baptiste, noticed below. He studied at Rome,
where he painted his "Apotheosis of Saint Isidore."
After his return he became director of the Academy of
Fine Arts, (1751,) and first painter to the king, (1762.)
Died in 1765.
See DANDRE-BARDON, "Viede Carle Vanloo." 1765; FONTAINK-
MALHERBE, "filoge de C. Vanloo," 1767; "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Vanloo, (FRANgois,) a French painter, born at Aix
in 1711, was a son of Jean Baptiste, noticed below. He
was a promising artist, when he was killed by accident
near Turin in 1733.
Vanloo, (JACOB,) a Dutch painter, born at Ecluse in
1614, was the father of Abraham Louis, noticed above.
Died in Paris in 1670.
Vanloo, (JEAN BAFHSTE,) a celebrated French
painter, of Flemish extraction, was born at Aix, in
Provence, in 1684. He resided many years^ in Paris,
where he was patronized by the Duke of Orleans. He
acquired the highest reputation by his portraits, and was
€ as k; 5 as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
137
Explanations, p. 23.)
VAN LOO
2178
VAN VEEN
appointed in 1735 professor in the Academy of Arts. In
1738 he visited London, where, according to Horace
Walpole, "he soon bore away the chief business of
London from every other painter." He also executed
several historical pictures of great merit. Died in 1746.
See CHARLES BI.ANC, " Histoire des Peintres ;" "Nouvelle Bio-
grapliie Generale."
Vaiiloo, (JULES CESAR DENIS,) a landscape-painter,
born in Paris in 1743, was a son of Charles Andre,
noticed above. Died in 1821.
Vanloo, (Louis MICHEL,) a French portrait-painter,
born at Toulon in 1707, was a son of Jean Baptiste,
noticed above. Invited by the king, Philip V., he went
to Madrid in 1736, and was appointed court painter.
He returned to Paris about 1748. Died in 1771.
Van Loon, vtn Ion, (GEKAKD,) a Dutch historian
and antiquary, born at Leyden in 1683. He published,
besides other works, a " History of the Netherlands from
1555 to 1716," (4 vols., 1723,) which is commended.
Van Loon, (THEODORE.) See LOON.
Van Maiider. See MANDKK, VAN.
Van Mil'dert, (WILLIAM,) an English prelate, born
in London in 1765. He studied at Oxford, where he
afterwards became regius professor of theology. He
was made Bishop of Llandaff in 1819, and of Durham
in 1826. He was the author of a " Life of Waterland,"
and several other works. Died in 1836.
Van Moer, (JEAN BAPTISTE,) a Belgian painter, born
at Brussels about 1815.
Van Mons. See MONS.
Vail Ness, (CORNELIUS P.,) LL.D., born in Vermont
in 1781, was elected Governor of that State in 1822,
and was twice re-elected. He was minister to Spain
under President Jackson from 1829 to 1838. Died in
Philadelphia in 1852.
Van Ness, (WILLIAM W.,) an American jurist, born
at Claverack, New York, in 1775. He was a judge of
the supreme court of New York from 1807 to 1822.
Died in 1823.
Vannetti, van-net'tee, or Vanetti, va-net'tee, (CLE-
MENTINO,) an Italian author, born at Roveredo in 1754,
was a son of a poet named Giuseppe Valeriano Van-
netti. He wrote numerous works in prose and verse,
among which are poetical epistles and biographies. His
poetry was admired by some critics. Died in 1795.
Van Neve, vtn na'veh, (FRANCIS,) a Flemish painter
and engraver, born at Antwerp in 1627, studied at Rome.
He painted history and landscapes, and produced good
etchings of his own designs.
Vanni, van'nee, (ANDREA,) an Italian painter, born
at Sienna, flourished about 1370-1410.
Vanni, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian painter and engraver,
born at Sienna in 1565. He studied at Rome, and imi
tated the style of Baroccio so successfully that his works
are often mistaken for those of that artist. Among his
master-pieces we may name the " Death of Saint Ce
cilia," " Simon Magus rebuked by Peter," and " Saint
Raimond walking on the Sea." Died in 1609.
See LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Vanni, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian painter,
born in 1599, is supposed to have been a native of Flor
ence. He made admirable copies of the works of
Titian, Correggio, and others, and was also skilled in
engraving. Died in 1660.
Vanni, (MICHAEL ANGELO,) an Italian painter, born
at Sienna in 1583, was a son of Francesco, noticed
above. He was not equal to his father. Died in 1671.
Vanni, (RAPHAEL,) an able Italian painter, born at
Sienna in 1596, was a son of Francesco, and a pupil of
Annibal Caracci. He worked at Rome and Sienna.
Died in 1673.
Vannucci. See PERUGINO.
Van Obstal, vtn op'stal, or Van Opstal, (GERARD,)
a Flemish sculptor, born at Antwerp in 1597; died in
Paris in 1663.
Van Oort. See NOORT.
Van Cost, QACOR.) See OOST, VAN.
Van Os, (JAN.) See Os, VAN.
Van Ostade. See OSTADE, VAN.
Van Praet. See PRAET, VAN.
Van Reiisselaer, van ren'sel-ler, (CORT'LAND,) D.D.,
an American Presbyterian divine, born at Albany in 1808,
was a son of General Stephen Van Reiisselaer, noticed
below. He died in 1860, leaving a collection of" Essays
and Discourses," etc., (1861.)
Van Reiisselaer, (HENRY K.,) an American patriot,
born probably in New York State about 1 744. He served
as colonel in the Revolutionary war, and became general
of militia. Died at Albany in 1816.
Van Reiisselaer, (PHILIP S.,) an American magis
trate, distinguished for his benevolence, was born about
1766. He was mayor of Albany for twentv-three years,
and the principal founder of the Academy of Albany.
Died in 1824.
See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans."
Van Reiisselaer, (SOLOMON,) an American officer,
son of Henry K., noticed above, was born at Albany in
1764 or 1774. He served in the war of 1812. He was
elected to Congress in 1819. Died at Albany in 1852.
Van Reiisselaer, (STEPHEN,) LL.D., called "the
Patroon," a distinguished American statesman and
soldier, born in New York in 1764. Having for six
years rilled the office of Lieutenant-Governor of the State,
he was appointed to command the New York militia in
the war of 1812. He co-operated with De Witt Clinton
in the work of the Erie Canal, being president of the
board of commissioners for fifteen years. He founded
in 1824 the Rensselaer Institute (now the Polytechnic
School) at Troy, and was distinguished for his zeal in
the cause of science. He was also chancellor of the
State University. Died in 1839.
See "Discourse on the Life, etc. of Stephen Van Rensselaer," by
D. D. HKKNAKU.
Van Santeii. See SANTEN, VAN.
Van Sant'voord, (GEORGE,) an American lawyer
anil litterateur, born at Belleville, New Jersey, in 1819,
has published a "Life of Algernon Sidney," (1851,)
"Lives of the Chief Justices of the United States,"
(1854,) and several legal works.
Van Schendel, van sKen'del, (PETRUS,) a dis
tinguished Belgian painter, born at Breda in 1806. His
market-scenes, and interiors illuminated with fire, moon
light, or lamps, are esteemed master-pieces of the kind.
Van-sit'tart, (NICHOLAS,) Lord Bexley, an English
politician, born in London in 1766, was distinguished as
a financier. He was chancellor of the exchequer from
1812 to 1823, and was made a baron in the latter year.
Died in 1851.
Vansomer, van'so'mer, (PAUL,) a skilful Flemish
portrait-painter, born at Antwerp about 1575, settled
in England, where he was liberally patronized by the
nobility. Among his principal works are portraits of
fames I., Lord Bacon, and William, Earl of Pembroke.
Died in 1621.
Vanstabel, vox'stt'beT, (PIERRE JEAN,) a French
admiral, born at Dunkirk in 1746. He rendered im
portant services in 1793 by convoying one hundred
and seventy merchant-vessels from the United States to
Brest. Died in 1797.
Van Stork. See STORK, VAN.
Van Swaiievelt. See SWANEVELT, VAN.
Van Swieteii. See SWIETEN, VAN.
Van Thuldeii. See THULDEN, VAN.
Van Tromp. See TKOMP, VAN.
Vanucchi. See SAKTO, DEL.
Vaiiucci. See PERUGINO.
Vanuden, vf-nu'den, ( LUCAS,) a Flemish landscape-
painter, born at Antwerp in 1595, was sometimes em
ployed by Rubens to paint the backgrounds to his
pictures. He also produced a number of admirable
etchings. Died about 1672.
Van Utrecht, vtn ii'tReKt, (ADRIAAN,) a Flemish
painter of still life, was born at Antwerp in 1599. His
delineations of flowers, fruit, game, etc. were unsur
passed, and command very high prices. Died in 1651.
Van Veen, (MARTIN.) See HEEMSKERK.
Van Veen, vtn van, [Lat. VAE'Niusor OTTOVE'NIUS,]
(Or HO,) a Dutch painter, born at Leyden about 1550,
studied at Rome under Zucchero. He afterwards founded
an Academy at Antwerp, and numbered Rubens among
his pupils. He painted several historical pieces, and a
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e,i, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nSt; good; moon;
VANVtTELLl
2179
BARILLAS
full-length portrait of Alexander Farnese, Duke of
Parma, esteemed one of his best works. He also wrote
a "History of the War of the Batavians," from Tacitus,
illustrated with his own designs. Died about 1630.
Vanvitelli, van-ve-tel'lee, (GASPAKO,) the Italianized
name of CASPAR VAN WITEL, (wee'tel,) a Dutch painter,
born at Utrecht about 1650. He went to Italy in early
youth, worked many years at Rome and Naples, and
gained distinction as a painter of landscapes and archi
tecture. Died in 1736.
See NAGI.RR, " Allgeineines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Vanvitelli, (Luior,) a celebrated architect, born at
Naples in 1700, was a son of the preceding, and a pupil
of Ivara. He was appointed architect of Saint Peter's,
at Rome, in 1725, and encircled the dome of that edifice
with iron bands. He designed the large convent of Sant'
Agostino at Rome. His capital work is the magnificent
royal palace at Caserta, which he built for Charles, King
of Naples, and commenced in 1752. It is about seven
hundred and thirty feet long. This palace is highly
praised by Quatremere de Quincy, who says it exhibits
unity in every part, is simple, with variety, and complete
in all respects. Died at Caserta in 1773.
See L. VANVITKI.I.I, "Vita di Luigi Vanvitelli," 1823; MII.IZIA,
" Memorie degli Architetti ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Van Wart, (ISAAC,) an American officer, born in
Westchester county, New York, in 1748, was one of the
three captors of Major Andre. Died in 1828.
Vapereau, vf'peh-ro' or vtp'ro', (Louis GUSTAVF.,)
a French biographer, born at Orleans in 1819. He
published in 1844 a work "On the Liberal, Moral, and
Religious Character of Modern Philosophy." Having
studied law, he was admitted as an advocate in 1854.
He was the chief editor of a "General Dictionary of
Contemporary Biography," ("Dictionnaire universe! des
Contemporains," 1858,) which has a high reputation for
accuracy and other merits.
Vargiha, va-ra'ha, [i.e. in Sanscrit, a "hog" or
"boar,"] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of the
third avatar of Vishnu. A mighty monster or giant
named Hiranyaksha (he-ran-yak'sha*) is said to have
seized the earth and carried it into the depths of the
ocean. Vishnu, assuming the form of a boar, (the sym
bol of strength,) dived into the ocean, and, after a ter
rible contest of one thousand years, slew the monster
and restored the earth, bearing it above the waters on
the point of his tusks. This fable not improbably has
reference to some geological change in the earth's surface.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Varanda, va"'r6N'dt', QEAN,) a French medical
writer, born at Nimes, graduated at Montpellier in 1587.
He became professor of medicine at Montpellier, where
he died in 1617.
Va-ra'nes [Gr. Ovapurrjc] or Bahrain I., King of
Persia, was a son of Hormisdas I. He reigned from
274 to 277 A.D., and waged war against Queen Zenobia.
Varanes II., a son of the preceding, began to reign
in 277 A. i>. He was involved in war with the Roman
emperor Cams, who took Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Died
in 29.4.
His son, Varanes III., reigned only eight months,
and died in 294.
Varanes IV., a brother of Sapor III., began to reign
in 390 AD. Died about 404 A.D.
Varanes or Bahram (or Baharam) V. was a son
of Yezdegerd I. He became King of Persia in 420 or
421. He persecuted the Christians, and waged war
against Theodosius II. Died in 448 A.I).
Varano, di, de va-ra'no, (ALFONSO,) an Italian poet,
bori^at Ferrara in 1705. lie contributed to the refor
mation of Italian poetry, to which "he restored," says
Ugoni, "that manly accent and elevation which Dante
had given it." Among his works are "Sacred and Moral
Visions," ("Visioni sacre e morali.") Died in 1788.
See PANNEU.I, " Elogio storico di Alfonso Varano," 1826.
Varchi, vaR'kee, (BENEDETTO,) an Italian scholar,
poet, and historian, born at Florence in 1502. He was
patronized by the grand duke Cosimo I., who made him
* Given in a strangely corrupted form (Ermnccasen") in SOUTHEY'S
"Curse of Kehama," vol. i., x.
one of the directors of his New Florentine Academy.
His principal work is his "History of Florence from
1527 to 1538," (" Storia Fiorentina," etc., 1721.) He
also made translations from Seneca and Boethius, wrote
a dialogue or treatise on the Tuscan language, entitled
" L'Ercolano," (1570,) and composed " Sonetti," (2 vols.,
!557-) Died in 1565.
See LONGFKI.LOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" TIRABOSCHI,
" Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" GINGUENE, " Histoire litteraire
d'ltalie:" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Vardan. See VARTAN.
Vardes, de, deh vfud, (FRANCOIS RENE du Bec-
Crespin — dii bek'kRes'paN',) MARQUIS, a French cour
tier, famous for his intrigues, was born about 1620. He
gained the favour of Louis XIV., but afterwards offended
him, and was exiled from court in 1664. Died in 1688.
Varela y Ulloa, va-na'la e ool-yo'a, (Don JOSE,) a
learned Spanish naval officer, bom in Galicia in 1748;
died in 1794.
Varen, va'ren, or Varenius, va-ra/ne-us, (BERN-
HARD,) an eminent Dutch geographer and physician,
born at Amsterdam about 1610. He is called the
founder of scientific geography. In 1642 he produced
a thesis entitled " First-Fruits of the Philosophic Muses,"
(" Musarum Philosophicarum Primitiae,") and in 1649 a
" Description of Japan." His chief work is a systematic
treatise on geography, " Geographia generalis," (1650,)
which effected a revolution in the science. An improved
edition of it was published by Sir Isaac Newton in 1672,
and another in 1681. This work of Varen was the first
or best that had appeared on physical geography. His
death is variously dated from 1660 to 1680.
Varenius. See VAREN.
Varenius, fa-ra'ne-us, (AUGUST,) a German Lutheran
theologian, born in the duchy of Liineburg in 1620. He
was a good Hebrew scholar, and wrote a commentary on
Isaiah, (1708.) Died in 1684.
Vareiine de Fenille, vS'reV deh feh-nel', (PniLr-
UF.KT CHARLES,) a French writer on agriculture, was
born at Dijon. He published several useful works. He
was executed at Lyons by the terrorists in 1794.
Vargas or Vargas-Mexia, vaR'gasma-Hee'a, (FRAN
CISCO,) a Spanish jurist and diplomatist of high reputa
tion. He was sent to the Council of Trent by Charles
V. in 1550 to congratulate the Council on its return to
that place. After his return to Spain he was a coun
cillor of state. Died about 1560.
Vargas, de, da vaR'gas, (Luis,) an eminent Spanish
painter, born at Seville in 1502. In 1527 he visited
Rome, where he studied under Perino del Vaga. His
works are principally religious pieces, and are painted
both in oil and fresco. He ranks among the best Span
ish artists of the time, and was equally admirable in
portrait and historical painting. Died in 1568.
See NAGt.ER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon;" QUILLIET,
"Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnoles."
Vargas-Macciucca, vaR'gas mak-chook'ka, (FRAN
CESCO,) Marquis of Vatolla, an Italian linguist and judge,
born at Teramo, in Abruzzo, in 1699. He was a patron
of literary men, and wrote several essays. Died in 1785-
Vargas y Ponce, vaR'gas e pflr/tha. (JosE,) a Span
ish geographer and naval officer, born at Cadiz about
1755, wrote a "Description of the Balearic Isles," (1787.)
Varignon, vt/r£n'y6N/, (PIERRE,) an eminent French
mathematician, born at Caen in 1654. He became a
resident of Paris in 1686, and published in 1687 an able
work on statics, called " Plan of a New System of Me
chanics," (" Projet d'une nouvelle Mecanique,") in which
for the first time all the science of statics was deduced
from the elementary principle of the composition of
forces. He was appointed professor of mathematics in
the College Mazarin in 1688, and obtained the chair of
philosophy in the College of France in 1704. Among
his works is "New Mechanics or Statics," ("Nouvelle
Mecanique ou Statique," 2 vols., 1725.) Died in 1722.
See FONTENELLE, " FJoge de Varignon;" NICERON, " Me-
moires;" MONTUCLA, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Varillas, vS're'yas', (ANTOINE,) a French historian,
born at Gueret in 1624, was a prolific writer. He pub
lished, besides other works, a " History of France from
€ ;is k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
anations, p. 23.
2 I SO
the Reign of Louis XI. to that of Henry III., inclusive,"
(14 vols. 4to, 1683-94,) and " History of the Revolutions
which have occurred in Europe on Account of Religion,"
(6 vols., 1686-89.) His reputation for accuracy and
veracity is not good. Died in Paris in 1696.
See NICERON, " Memoires ;" MOR^RI, " Dictionnaire Histo-
rique ;" BOSCHEKON, " Varillasiana," 1734; " Nouvelle Biographic
Generate." ^aji^,Hi'Sm>n*^ / **<? f««* •
Varin, vi'raN', (JACQUES,) a French botanist, born
near Rouen in 1740; died in 1808.
Varin, vt'raN', or Warm, (JEAN,) a Flemish en
graver and sculptor, born at Liege in 1604. He was
a skilful engraver of medals, and worked mostly in
Paris. Among his works was the seal of the French
Academy, (1635,) and a marble statue of Louis XIV.
Died in 1672.
See FELIBIEN, "Entretiens sur les Peintres."
Varin, (JOSEPH,) a French engraver, born at Chalons-
sur-Marne in 1740, worked in Paris. He had a high
reputation as an engraver of topography and architec
ture. He engraved illustrations for several books. Died
in 1800. CHARLES NICOLAS VARIN, born in 1745, was
a brother and assistant of Joseph. Died in 1805.
Va'rl-us, (Lucius RUFUS,) an eminent Roman epic
and dramatic poet of the Augustan age, of whose life
little is known. He enjoyed the favour of Maecenas,
and was an intimate friend of Horace and Virgil, the
latter of whom appointed him one of his literary ex
ecutors. He was, consequently, living in 19 B.C., the
date of Virgil's death. He wrote an epic poem, '• De
Morte," (probably on the death of Caesar,) and a cele
brated tragedy of "Thyestes," which, according to Quin-
tilian, would bear a comparison with any Greek tragedy.
None of his works are extant.
See WEICHERT, " De Vario Poeta," 1829, and " De L. Varii e
Cassii Parmensis Vita et Scriptis, " 1836.
Varlet, via'li', (DOMINIQUE MARIE,) a French Jan-
senist, born in Paris in 1678. He was appointed Bishop
of Babylon about 1719, but on his arrival at the Caspian
Sea he learned that he was deposed or suspended by
the pope for Jansenism. He died in Holland in 1742.
Var'ley, (JOHN,) an English painter in water-colours,
born in London about 1777. His works are chiefly
landscapes, which are ranked among the finest produc
tions in that department of the art. He was a believer
in astrology, to which he devoted a great deal of his
time. Died in 1842.
Varnhagen von Ense, faRi/ha'gen fon eVseh,
(KARL AUGUST LUIHVIG PHII.IPP,) an eminent German
author, born at Dusseldorf in February, 1785. He began
to study medicine in Berlin in 1800, but soon renounced
that science, and applied himself to philosophy, etc. at
Halle, Berlin, and Tubingen. He entered the Austrian
army in 1809, was wounded at the battle of Wagram,
and became aide-de-camp of Prince Bentheim. In 1813
he enlisted as captain in the Russian army. He passed
into the Prussian diplomatic service in 1814, attended
the Congress of Vienna with Prince Hardenberg, and
married Rahel Levin the same year. He became in
1819 a resident of Berlin, where he passed nearly all of
his subsequent life. He acquired a high reputation as
a writer of biography and history, and excelled in the
art of revivifying the great figures of the past. Among
his works are " Biographic Memorials," (" Biographische
Denkmale," 5 vols., 1824-30,) "Memoirs and Miscel
lanies," (" Denkwiirdigkeiten und vermischte Schrif-
ten," 7 vols., 1837-46,) a " Life of Field-Marshal Keith,"
(1844,) and a "Life of Karl Miiller," (1847.) He was
an intimate friend of Alexander von Humboldt. Died
in Berlin in October, 1858.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" " Foreign Quarterly Re
view" for January, 1841.
Varnhagen von Ense, (RAHEL ANTONIE FRIE-
DERIKE Levin — la-veen',) wife of the preceding, was
born of Jewish parents, in Berlin, in 1771. She was
a woman of superior intellect, and celebrated for her
conversational powers. Her salon was frequented by
the Schlegels, the Humboldts, Tieck, and other eminent
authors. She became a professor of Christianity a short
time before her marriage, which occurred in 1814. Died
in 1833. Her husband published a work called " Rahel,
a Book of Remembrance for her Friends," (3 vols.,
1854,) which contains some of her writings.
See DE CUSTINK, "Madame Varnhagen d'Ense," 1838 ; KUNZ,
" Rahel: Geistes- und Charakter-Gemaldediesergrossen Fran," 1835;
" Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1841.
Varnier, vjti<'ne_-i', a French writer on medicine and
chemistry, was born at Vitry-on-the-Marne in 1709. He
died at an advanced age.
Var'num, (JAMES MITCHELL,) an American general,
born at Dracut, Massachusetts, in 1749. He was twice
elected to Congress, and in 1787 was appointed one of
the judges of the Northwest territory. Died in 1789.
Varnum, (JOSEPH BRADLEY,) an American Senator,
born in Massachusetts about 1755, was a brother of the
preceding. He was a member of Congress from 1795
to 1811, and was Speaker of the House of Representa
tives from 1807 to 1811. He was a political friend of
Jefferson, and was a Senator of the United States from
1811 to 1817. Died in 1821.
Varoli, va-ro'lee, [Lat. VARO'LIUS,] (CONSTANT or
COSTANZO,) an Italian anatomist and surgeon, born at
Bologna in 1542 or 1543. He was distinguished as a
lithotomist, and discovered a part of the brain called
Pons Varolii. About 1572 he became physician to Pope
Gregory XIII. He wrote a work on "The Optic
Nerves," etc., ("De Nervis Opticis," 1573.) Died in 1575.
Varolius. See VAROLI.
Varotari, va-ro-ta'ree, ( ALESSANDRO, ) an Italian
painter, surnamed PADOVANINO, born at Padua in 1590,
was a son of Dario, noticed below. He studied at
Venice, and adopted the style of Titian. He is regarded
as one of the most successful imitators of that master.
His "Marriage at Cana" is esteemed one of his master
pieces. He excelled in painting women and children.
Died in 1650.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy;" RIDOI.FI, " Pittori
Veneti."
Varotari, (CHIARA,) an Italian portrait-painter, born
in 1582, was a sister of the preceding. Died in 1639.
Varotari, (DARIO,) surnamed PAOOVANINO or PA-
nuANiNO, an Italian painter, born at Verona in 1539.
He worked at Padua, where he became the chief of a
school. Died in 1596.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Var'ro, [Fr. VARRON, v3'r6N',] (CAIUS TERKNTIUS,)
a Roman general, noted for his temerity. He was a
leader of the plebeians or popular party, and was elected
consul for 216 li.C. Against the advice of the other
consul, /Emilius Paulus, Varro offered battle to Hanni
bal, and was defeated with great loss at Cannae, (216 B.C.)
He was one ot the few Romans that escaped from that
disastrous battle, and he made such resolute and vigorous
efforts for the defence of the capital that he received the
thanks of the senate. Died after 200 B.C.
See LIVY, " History of Rome;" MOMMSEN, " History of Rome."
Varro, [Fr. VARRON,] (MARCUS TERENTIUS,) a cele
brated Latin author, styled " the most learned of the
Romans," was born in 116 B.C., probably in Rome. He
was a pupil of L. /Elius Stilo and of Antiochus of Asca-
lon, an Academic philosopher. He became an intimate
friend of Cicero. About the year 67 B.C. he had a high
command under Pompey in the war against the pirates.
He fought for the senate against Caesar in the civil war
which began in 49 B.C. Soon after the battle of Phar-
salia, he retired from public life and devoted himself to
literary pursuits. He was profoundly versed in nearly
every department of literature, and wrote a great num
ber of works on various subjects. His capital work was
" Antiquitatum Libri," consisting of twenty-five books
on Human Antiquities and sixteen books on Divine
Antiquities, which is not extant. Saint Augustina de
rived from this book materials for his work " De Civi-
tate Dei." Nearly all of Varro's works are lost, except
a part of his treatise on the Latin language, (" De Lingua
Latina,") and his excellent work on agriculture, " De Re
Rustica Libri tres,") which is preserved entire. In 43
B.C. he was proscribed by Mark Antony ; but he escaped
death by concealment, and survived till 28 or 27 B.C.
See E. BERWICK, "Life of Pollio, Varro, and C. Gallus," 1815;
PAPK, " De Varrone," 1835 ; G. BOISSIER, " Essai sur la Vie et les
Onvrages de Varron," 1861 ; OREI.LI, " Onomasticon Tullianum ;"
FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Latina ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
VARRO
2181
VASILI
Varro, (PuBLius TERENTIUS,) a Roman poet, sur-
named ATACI'NUS, from Atax, in Gallia Narbonensis,
where he was born about 82 B.C. He was the author
of elegies, epigrams, and epic poems, which have been
lost, with the exception of fragments. Died in 37 B.C.
Varron. See VARRO.
Varst or Vaerst, von, fon ve"Rst, (FRIEDRICH CHRIS
TIAN EUGEN,) BARON, a German litterateur, born at
Wesel in 1792, published works entitled "Cavalier
Perspective," (1836,) "The Pyrenees," (4 vols., 1847,)
and "Gastrosophie," (1852,) which were received with
favour. He lived at Breslau. Died in 1855.
Vartan, var'tSn', an Armenian prince, who became
a professor of Christianity. He defended the liberty of
his country against the King of Persia, who attempted
to impose the religion of Zoroaster by force on the Ar
menians. Vartan was killed in battle by the Persians,
in 451 A.D.
Vartan or Vardan, a learned Armenian doctor and
author, lived in the thirteenth century. He wrote, be
sides other works, a " History of Armenia to the Year
1267," and numerous Fables.
Var-to-ma'iius, the Latin name of LUIGI BARTHEMA
(baR-ta'ma) or VARTHEMA, (vaR-ta'ma,) an Italian trav- j
eller, born at Bologna about 1480. He travelled through ,
Arabia and Persia to the East Indies, where he passed ;
several years. He published in 1508 a Narrative of his
travels.
See " Nouvelle Bioeraphie Generale."
Varuna, [modern Hindoo pron. vur'oo-na ; from the
Sanscrit verb vri, to "enclose" or "surround," and j
etymologically related to the Greek orpavuf, "heaven,"] I
a name in the Hindoo mythology originally applied to
the sky or heaven, as enclosing or surrounding the earth,
but used by later writers to designate both the ocean
(which also encompasses the earth) and the regent of
the sea, or the deity who presides over the waters of j
the ocean.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Va'rus, a Roman of the Augustan age, of whom little
is known except that he was a friend and patron of Vir
gil, who, in his sixth eclogue, offers a graceful homage to
his merit. He is supposed to be the same as Q. Varus,
who fought with the rank of general for Caesar in the
civil war.
Varus, (PuBLH'S ATICS,) a Roman general and par
tisan of Pompey in the civil war. He commanded in
Africa in 49 B.C.. and, aided by King Jnba, gained a vic-
ton- over Curio. He was killed at the battle of Muncla.
Varus, (PuBLius QUINTILIUS,) a Roman general, who
became consul in 13 B.C. and Governor of Germany about
6 A.D. He had not the energy or talents requisite to man
age the warlike German tribes, who were provoked to
revolt by taxation and innovations which Varus initiated.
His army was attacked and defeated in 9 A.D. by a large
army of insurgents, led by the famous chief Arminius.
Varus, with nearly all his men, perished in this action,
which was fought near the Weser.
See TACITUS, " Annales;" SUETONIUS, "Augustus" and "Tibe
rius;" DION CASSII/S, " History of Rome ;" MEKIVAI.E, "History
of the Romans under the Empire ;" ESSEI.I.EN, " Nachtrag 7.11 der
Abhandlung, iiber den Ort der Niederlage der Romer unter Varus,"
"853-
Varus, (QuiNTiLiUS,) of Cremona, a Roman poet,
was a friend of Horace and Virgil. He died in 24 B.C.
His death was lamented by Horace in an ode, book i. 24.
Varus Alfenus. See ALFENUS.
Vasa. See GUSTAVUS I.
Vasanta, [modern Hindoo pron. vus-un'ta ; often
called biis'unt in the common dialect,] the Sanscrit word
for "spring," applied in the Hindoo mythology to a per
sonification of spring, said to be an intimate friend of
the god of love. (See KAMADEVA.)
Vasari, va-sa'ree, (GioRGio,) an Italian painter, ar
chitect, and writer upon art, was born at Arezzo in 1512.
He was a pupil of Michael Angelo and Andrea del
Sarto, and was patronized by Pope Clement VII., the
grand duke Cosimo I., and 'otrier eminent men. His
reputation rests on his "Lives of the Most Excellent
Painters, Sculptors, and Architects," (2 vols. 8vo, 1550,)
esteemed one of the most valuable works of the kind
that has appeared in any language. It has been trans
lated into English and German. He was a very success
ful artist, was skilful in design, and painted many frescos
at Rome and Florence. As architect, he restored the
Palazzo Vecchio at Florence, and built other fine edifices
for the grand duke Cosimo. Died in 1574.
See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy ;" BOTTARI, "Giunte
al Vasari ;" TICOZZI, " Dizionario ;" MILIZIA, " Memorie degli Ar-
chitetti ;" NAGLER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Vasco da Gama, (or de Grama.) See GAMA, DA.
Vasconcellos, vas-kon-sel'16s, (ANTONIO,) a Portu
guese Jesuit and writer, born at Lisbon about 1555.
Vasconcellos, (SIMON,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born in
1599, lived many years in Brazil. He wrote a " History
of the Jesuit Mission in Brazil, (1663.) Died in 1670.
Vasconcellos, de, da vas-kon-sel'l6s, (AGOSTINHO
MANOEL,) a Portuguese historian, born at Evora in 1583.
He wrote a " Life of Juan II. of Portugal," in Spanish,
(1639,) and other works. Having been implicated in a
conspiracy against John IV., he was put to death in 1641.
See NICERON, "M&noires."
Vasconcellos, de, (ANTONIO AUGUSTO Texeira —
ta-sha/e-ra,) a Portuguese journalist and litterateur, born
at Oporto in 1816, has published several political and
historical works.
Vasconcellos, de, (MiGUEi.,) a Portuguese states
man, was a son of the jurist Pedro Barbosa. He became,
about 1635, secretary of state and the most powerful
minister in Portugal, which was then subject to the King
of Spain. His tyranny and cruelty excited much odium
against him. In December, 1640, he was assassinated
by the conspirators who raised the Duke of Braganza to
the throne.
See BARBOSA MACHADO, " Bibliotheca Lusitana ;" LA CLEDE,
" Histoire de Portugal."
Vascoiicellos-Coutinho, de, di vas-kon-sel'16s ko-
teen'yo, ( FRANCISCO,) a Portuguese poet, born at Funchal,
in Madeira, in the latter part of the seventeenth century.
Vascosan, de, deh vaVko'zS.N1', (MICHEL,) an emi
nent and learned French printer, born at Amiens about
1500, became a citizen of Paris. He was connected by
marriage with Robert Estienne. He published correct
and elegant editions of ancient Greek and Latin authors.
Died in 1576.
Vaseef or Vasif, va-seef, written also Vassif,*
(Ahmed, an'med,) a Turkish diplomatist, born at
Bagdad about 1740. He collected the works of several
Turkish historians, and published them under the title
of "Annals of the Ottoman Empire," (1804.) He also
wrote a History of the Reign of Selim III. Died in 1806.
Vasi, va'see, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian designer and en
graver, born in Sicily in 1710, worked in Rome. He
published a collection of engravings of the monuments,
churches, etc. of that city. Died in 1782.
Vasian, va'se-an', written also Vassian and Was-
sian, Archbishop of Rostow, a Russian prelate, noted
for his courage and patriotism. Died in 1481.
Vasif. See VASEEF.
Vasili, va-see'lee, or Vasilii, vi-seel'yee, written also
Vassiliand Wasilei, (or Basil,) I., Grand Prince of Rus
sia, born in 1236, began to reign in 1272. Died in 1276.
Vasili (or Basil) II., a son of Dmitri Donskoi, was
born in 1372, and became grand prince in 1389. He was a
tributary of the grand horde of Tartars. Died in 1425.
Vasili (or Basil) HI., born in 1415, was a son of
the preceding. In his reign Russia was afflicted with
civil war and other calamities. Died in 1462.
See KARAMZIN, " Histoire de Russie."
Vasili (or Basil) IV., a son of Ivan III., was born in
1479, and became grand prince in 1505. He obtained
Smolensk by conquest from the Lithuanians in 1514,
and increased the power of Russia. He died in 1533,
leaving the throne to his son, Ivan IV.
See KARAMZIN, " Histoire de Russie."
Vasili (or Basil) V., (IVANOVITCH SHOOISKOI or
SCHUISKOI,) born in 1553, began to reign in 1606. He
was deposed by the boyards, who confined him in a
convent in 1610. Died in 1612.
' See Introduction, Section I., 14, (p. 9.)
< as *; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; fch as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
VASOKT
2182
VAUBAN
Vasoky. See SESHA.
Vasquez, vas-keth', or Vasques, vas'kes, (ALFONSO,)
a painter, born of Spanish parents at Rome about 1575,
removed to Seville in his childhood, and worked there
with success. Died about 1645.
Vasquez or Vasques, (GABRIEL,) a Spanish casuist
and Jesuit, born in New Castile in 1551 ; died in 1604.
Vasquez de Coronado, vas-keth' da ko-ro-na'no,
(FRANCISCO,) a Spanish explorer, born at Salamanca
about 1510. He emigrated to Mexico, and in 1540 re
ceived the command of a party which the viceroy sent
to explore the interior, from which expedition he safely
returned. The date of his death is not known.
Vassal, de, deh vS'sil', (FORTANIER,) a French car
dinal and negotiator, born at Vailhac ; died in 1361.
Vassal, de, (JACQUES,) Marquis de Montviel, a
French general, born in 1659; died in 1744.
Vassali-Eaiidi, vds-sa'lee a-an'dee, (ANTONIO MA
RIA,) an Italian savant, born at Turin in 1761. He pub
lished, besides other works, " Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences of Turin from 1792 to 1809." Died in 1825.
Vas'sar, (MATTHEW,) born in the county of Norfolk,
England, in 1792, emigrated to America, and settled at
Poughkeepsie, New York, where he amassed a large
fortune. In 1861 he gave the sum of $408,000 to found
the Vassar Female College, near Poughkeepsie. He
died June 23, 1868, while reading an address to the
trustees of the college. Besides the gift above men
tioned, he left the college a large sum in his will, in
cluding the following bequests: $50,000 as a Lecture
Fund, $50,000 as a Library, Art, and Cabinet Fund, and
$50,000 as an Auxiliary Fund for aiding students unable
to pay the full college expenses.
Vasselier, vjls'le^i', (JosKi-n,) a French poet, born
at Rocroy in 1735, was a correspondent of Voltaire. He
wrote tales, songs, etc. Died at Lyons in 1798.
Vasselin, vts'laN', (GEORGES VICTOR,) a French
publicist and jurist, born in Paris in 1767; died in 1801.
Vasseur, (JACQUES.) See LE VASSEUR.
Vassif. See VASEEF.
Vassor, Le. See LE VASSOR.
Vasto, del. See AVALOS, (ALFONSO II.)
Vasude'va, [modern Hindoo pron. vus-66-da'va,] in
the Hindoo mythology, the name of the father of Krishna,
and sometimes used as an appellation of that god.
Vasuki. See SESHA.
Vatable, vfttbK, originally written Watebled or
Gastelbled, [Lat. VATA'BLUS',] (FRANQOLS,) a French
priest, born in Picardy. He became professor of Hebrew
in the College Royal at Paris. He translated Aristotle's
" Parva Naturalia" into Latin. Died in 1547.
See M. ADAM, " Vitse Eruditorum :" SAINTE-MAKTHE, " Elogia."
Vatablus. See VATABLE.
Vatace. See VATACES.
Vataces, (accentuation doubtful,) [Fr. VATACE, vf-
titss',] (JoHN DUCAS,) Emperor of Nicaea, born in Thrace
in 1193, was a son-in-law of Theodore Lascaris, whom
he succeeded in 1222. He waged war against the Latin
prince Robert de Courtenay, and several other princes.
Died in 1255.
See LE BEAU, " Histoire du Bas- Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Vater, fa'ter, (ABRAHAM,) a German medical writer,
born at Wittenberg in 1684. He was professor of botany
and anatomy at Wittenberg. Died in 1751.
Vater, (JOHANN SEVERIN,) a German theologian and
philologist, born at Altenburg in 1771. He studied at
Jena and Halle, and in 1800 became professor of theology
and Oriental literature at the latter university. He was
professor of history at Konigsberg from 1810 to 1820,
and returned to Halle in the latter year. He published
(1809-17) two volumes to complete the " Mithridates" of
Adelung, who had left his work unfinished. Among his
works are a "Commentary on the Pentateuch," (3 vols.,
1802,) and a " Universal History of the Christian Church
since the Reformation," (3 vols., 1818-23.) L)ied in 1826.
See NIEMEYER, "Uebersicht des Lebens Vater's," in the fifth
edition of VATER'S " Synchronische Tafeln der Kirchengeschichte."
Vathek. See WATHEK.
Vatia, va'she-a, ( PUBI.IUS SERVILIUS,) surnamed ISAU-
Ricus, a RomarTcommander, whose name first appears
in 100 B.C. He became consul in 79, and commanded a
fleet and army sent in 78 B.C. against the , irates, whom
he defeated, and also the Isauri. DVd i > 44 i:.C.
Vatimesiiil, de, deh vt'te'mi'nel', (ANTOINE FRAN
COIS HENRI LEFEBVKE,) a French advocate and politician,
born at Rouen in 1789, was a moderate royalist. He be
came advocate-general to the court of cassation at Paris
in 1824, and was minister of public instruction from Feb
ruary, 1828, to August, 1829. He was a member of the
Chamber of Deputies from 1830 to 1834, and was elected
to the Legislative Assembly in 1849. Died in 1860.
See LAMAKTINE, " History of the Restoration ;" " Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Va-tin'I-us, (PuBLius,) a Roman demagogue, noto
rious for his vices, became tribune of the people in 59 B.C.,
by the aid of Caesar, of whom he was a violent partisan.
He was denounced by Cicero in a public speech about
56 B.C. In the year 54 or 55 he competed with Cato for
the office of praetor, and was elected by bribery. During
the civil war he commanded one of Caesar's armies, and
gained a victory in Illyricum in 46 B.C. Died after 43 B.C.
Vatke, fat'keh, (JOHANN KARL WILHELM,) a German
theologian, born near Magdeburg in 1806. lie became
professor of theology in the University of Berlin in 1837,
and published several works.
Vatout, vjt'too', (JEAN,) a French litterateur, born at
Villefranche (Rhone) in 1792. He became first libra
rian to Louis Philippe in 1832, and was elected to the
French Academy in 1848. He published, besides several
novels, "Historical Souvenirs of the Royal Residences
of France," (7 vols., 1837-46.) Died in England in 1848.
See QUEKAKU, " La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Vattel, von, fon vSt'tel' or vat'tel, (EMRICH,) a cele
brated Swiss jurist and writer, born in the principality
of Neufchatel in 1714. He studied at the Universities
of Bale and Geneva, and in 1741 visited Berlin, where
he published his "Defence of the System of Leibnitz,"
(in French, 1742,) dedicated to Frederick the Great. In
1 746 he was sent as Polish minister to Berne by Augustus,
Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. He published
in 1758 his principal work, entitled "The Right of Na
tions, or the Principles of Natural Law applied to the
Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns," which
has passed through numerous editions and been trans
lated into the principal European languages. He was
the author of other works on various subjects, the most
important of which is entitled "Questions of Natural
Law, and Observations on Wolffs Treatise on the Law
of Nature," (1762.) Died in 1767.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Monthly Review" for
August, 1760.
Vatteville, de, deh vaVvel', (JEAN,) a Roman
Catholic priest, notorious for his adventures and criminal
intrigues, was born at Besancon about 1613. He entered
the Turkish service, after he had committed several
homicides, and obtained the command of an army, which
he betrayed to the Austrians. For this service he was
rewarded with the rich abbey of Baume, in Franche-
Comte, in 1659. He was the chief agent in the intrigues
by which Franche-Comte was annexed to France about
1666. Died in 1702.
See SAINT-SIMON, " Me'moires ;" " Nouvel'e Biographic Ge"ne-
rale."
Vattier, v&'te-i', (PIERRE,) a learned French physi
cian, was born near Lisieux, in Normandy, in 1623. He
translated several works from the Arabic, including
Avicenna's "Treatise on Mental Diseases." Vattier was
physician to Gaston, Duke of Orleans. Died in 1667.
Vauban, de, deh vo'boN', (ANTOINE le Prestre —
leh pltttK,) COUNT, a French general, born in 1659, was
a cousin of the famous Vauban. He was an engineer,
and distinguished himself at several sieges. Died in
Vauban, de, (S^BASTIEN le Prestre,) SEIGNEUR, a
famous French military engineer, born at Saint-Leger de
Fougeret (Nievre) in May, 1633. Having acquired some
skill in mathematics, he entered in 1651 the army of the
Prince of Conde, then waging a civil war against the
French court. He was taken prisoner by the French
in 1653, and persuaded by Cardinal Mazarin to join the
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; nftt; good; moor.;
VAUBLANC
2183
VAUGHAN
roval army. He gained early distinction by his courage
an'd his skill in conducting sieges, and received the
brevet of royal engineer in 1655. Under the orders of
Turenne, he directed the sieges of Landrecies, Conde,
and Saint-Ghislain, (1655,) and rendered important ser
vices at Gravelines, Audenarde, and Ypres in 1658. He
married Jeanne d'Aulnay in 1660. After several years
of peace, the war was renewed in 1667. Under Louis
XIV., commanding in person, Vauban took Tournay,
Douai, and Lille. He was afterwards employed in con
structing fortifications at Lille, Arras, and other places
in Flanders, and made important improvements in the
art of fortification. He was raised to the rank of mare-
chal-de-camp in 1676, after which he improved and
fortified the ports of Dunkirk, Toulon, etc. Among his
greatest achievements was the capture of the strong
fortress of Namur, where, says Macaulay, " the two great
masters of the art of fortification were opposed to each
other. Vauban had, during many years, been regarded
as the first of engineers ; but a formidable rival had lately
arisen, Menno, Baron of Cohorn." (" History of Eng
land," vol. iv.) Xamur was taken in June, 1692. Vauban
became a marshal of France in 1703. He wrote, besides
other works, a "Treatise on the Attack of Places," and
a "Treatise on the Defence of Places," (1737.) He had
the courage to advise the king to re-establish the edict
of Nantes in favour of religious liberty. He died in 1707,
leaving a fair reputation for probity and other virtues.
See FONTENELLE, " filoge de Vauban ;" CARNOT, " FJoge de
Vauban," 1784 ; AM ANTON, " Notice sur Vauban," iS2q : DK CHAM-
BRAY, "Noiice histnrique sur Vauban," 1X45: SAINT SIMON, '• Me-
moires;" NOEL, "Eloge de Vauban," 1790: D'Avni.i.Y, "Eloge
de Vauban," 1788; DK SAUVIAC, "Eloge de Vauban," 1790; VOL
TAIRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" DE COURCHLLES, " Dictionnaire
des Generaux Francois;" " Nouvelle Biographic Geiierale."
Vaublaiic, de, deh vo'blo.s', (VINCENT MARIE
Vienot — ve'&'no',) COUNT, a French politician, born
in Saint Domingo in 1756, was a royalist in the Revo
lution. He was detected in several plots against the
republic, was proscribed in 1797, but saved himself by
flight, and held several high offices under Napoleon.
He was minister of the interior from September, 1815,
to May, 1816. He died in 1845. leaving autobiographic
" Memoires et Souvenirs," (2 vols., 1839.)
See LAMARTINE, "History of the Restoration;" "Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
Vaucanson, de, deh vo'kSx'soN', (JACQUES,) a cele
brated French mechanician, born at Grenoble in 1709.
His inventive genius and his love for mechanical arts
were displayed at an early age, and in 1738 he exhibited
in Paris his Automaton'Flute-Player, which caused a
great sensation. Among several works of this kind, the
most wonderful and ingenious, perhaps, is his Automaton
Duck, which swam, quacked, dressed its feathers with
its bill, and swallowed barley. He was appointed in
spector of the silk-manufactories, and invented some
machines which were very useful in the fabrication of silk
stuffs. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences.
Died in 1782.
See CONDORCET, " filoges ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Vauchelet, v5sh'li', (AUGUSTE TH^OPHILE,) ;
French painter of history and portraits, born at Passy,
near Paris, in 1802.
Vaucher, vo'shaiR', QEAN PIERRE,) a French bota
nist and theologian, born at Geneva about 1763. He was
professor of theology or ecclesiastical history at Geneva.
In 1803 he published a " History of Fresh-Water Con-
fervse," which was highly esteemed. Among his prin
cipal works is a treatise on the Physiology of European
Plants, " Histoire physiologiqtie des Plantes d'Eu-
rope," (4 vols., 1841,) on which he expended the labour
of many years. A genus of Algae was named Vaucheri
in honour of him by De Candolle. Died in 1841.
Vaudemont, de, deh vod'mix', PRINCK, a Dutch
general, who commanded an army in Flanders, and was
opposed to Villeroy, in 1695. According to Macaulay
he was " one of the ablest commanders in the Dutch
service." ("History of England," vol. iv.)
Vaudemont, de', deh vod'mAx', (AXTOINE de Lor
raine — deh lo'r&n',) COUNT, was a nephew of Charles
Duke of Lorraine, who died in 1431. The succession U
this duchy was disputed by Rene of Anjou and the
Count de Vaudemont. The latter defeated Rene in
>attle, and the contest was settled by a marriage of a
on of the Count de Vaudemont with a daughter of
^ene, (1444-) Died in 1447.
See D. CAI.MET, " Histoire de Lorraine."
Vaudoncourt, de, deh vo'difi'kooR', (FR£D£RIC
?RANC.OIS GUILLAUME,) BARON, a French general and
vriter, born at Vienna, Austria, in 1772. He obtained
command of the artillery of the right wing of the army
n Italy in 1800, was employed to organize the Italian
artillery in 1803, and became a general of brigade in
1809. In 1815 he was condemned to death by the
Jourbons, and became an exile. He wrote, besides
ther military works, a " History of the Campaigns of
1814 and 1815 in France," (5 vols., 1826,) and "Fifteen
Years of an Exile," ("Quinze Annees d'un Proscrit,"
4 vols., 1835.) Died in 1845.
See F. THIERRY, " Le General Baron F. F. G. de Vaudoncourt,"
etc., 1846 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Vaudoyer, vo'dwa'ya', (LioN,) a French architect,
jorn in Paris in 1803. He gained the grand prize in
1826. His plan for the new cathedral of Marseilles was
adopted in 1854.
Vaudreuil, de, deh vo'dRuI' or vo'druh'ye, (Louis
PHILIPPE de Rigaud — deh re'go',) COMTE, a brave
French naval officer, born at Quebec in 1691 ; died in
1763- His son, of the same name, born at Rochefort in
1724, served with distinction in the navy, and became a
lieutenant-general. Died in 1802.
Vaudrey, vo'dni', (CLAUDE NICOLAS,) a French
general, born at Dijon in 1784. He was a colonel in the
army at Strasburg when Louis Napoleon attempted to
initiate an insurrection there. He aided and abetted
that attempt, and was rewarded with the rank of general
of brigade in 1852. Died in 1857.
Vaugelas, de, deh vSzh'la', (CLAUDE FAVRE,) an
eminent French grammarian, born nearTrevoux in 1585,
was one of the first members of the French Academy.
He took a prominent part in the compilation of the Dic
tionary of that Academy, and published " Remarks on
the French Language," (1647.) He was very fastidious
in respect to purity of language, and was regarded as an
oracle in questions of grammar and style. He spent
many years on a translation of Quintus Curtius, (1653.)
Died in 1650.
See PELLISSON, " Histoire de 1' Academic ;" NICERON, "Me
moires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate."
Vaughan, vau'an, (almost vawn,) (ALFRED,) an Eng
lish poet and reviewer, born in 1823, was a son of
Robert, noticed below. He became a dissenting min
ister at Birmingham, contributed to the "British Quar
terly Review," and published " Hours with the Mystics."
Died in 1857.
Vaughan, (HENRY,) a British poet, born in Breck
nockshire, Wales, in 1621, is sometimes called THE
SILURIST. He was the author of devotional poems,
entitled " Silex Scintillans," (1650,) "Thalia Rediviva,
the Pastimes and Diversions of a Country Muse," (1678,)
"The Mount of Olives," (in prose,) and other works.
Died in 1695. His brother THOMAS wrote several treat
ises on alchemy.
See CAMPBELL, "Specimens of the British Poets;" "Retro
spective Review," vol. Hi., 1821.
Vaughan, (Sir JOHN,) a distinguished jurist, born in
Cardiganshire in 1608. He studied at Oxford, and rose
to be chief justice of the common pleas in 1668. Died
in 1674.
Vaughan, (Sir JOHN,) an English judge, born in
1772. He became a judge of the common pleas in 1834.
Died in 1839.
Vaughan, (ROBERT,) D.D., an English Congrega
tional divine, born in 1795, became professor of history
in London University, (University College,) and subse
quently president of the Independent College at Man
chester. In 1844 he began to edit the " British Quarterly
Review," of which he was the founder. He published
" Memorials of the Stuart Dynasty," etc., " Causes of
the Corruption of Christianity," (1834,) "The Protector
ate of Oliver Cromwell," (1838,) " History of England
under the House of Stuart," (1840,) "John de Wycliffe,
D.D., a Monograph, with some Account of the Wycliffe
e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (3^=°See Explanations, p. 23.)
FAUGH AN
2184
VEDA
Manuscripts," (1853,) and various other works. Died i
1868.
See ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
Vaughan, (WILLIAM,) a poet, born in Caermarthen
shire, in Wales, in 1577, was the author of" The Goldei
Fleece," and other poems. Died in 1640.
Vaugiraud, de, deh vo'zhe'ro', (PiKRKK RENE
MARIE,) a French vice-admiral, born at Sables d'Olonn
in 1741. He emigrated as a royalist about 1790, anc
became Governor of Martinique in 1814. Died in 1819
Vaugondy. See ROHKRT DE VAUGONDY.
Vauguyon, de la, deh IS v5'ge'6N', (ANTOINE PAUL
JACQUES de Quelen — deh ka'lS.V,) Due, a Frencl
general, born at Tonneins in 1706. lie contributed to
the victory of Fontenoy, (1745.) He was afterwards
governor of the sons of the dauphin, who became Louis
XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X. Died in 1772.
Vaulabelle, de, deh vo'lS'beT, (AcaiLLETenaille—
teh-nil' or teh-nt'ye,) a French journalist and statesman
born in the department of Yonne in 1799. He became
in 1838 associate editor of " Le National," a repub
lican or advanced liberal daily paper. He publishec
a " History of the Two Restorations to the Fall of
Charles X.," (6 vols., 1844 et sey.,) which is commendec
for accuracy and various research. He was minister of
public instruction from July to October, 1848.
Vaulabelle, de, (MATHIKU Tenaille,) called ELE-
ONORE, a French dramatist, born in 1801, was a brother
of the preceding. He wrote many vaudevilles. Dice
in 1859.
Vauquelin, vok'laV, (JEAN,) Sieur de La Fresnaye,
a French poet, born near Falaise in 1535. He became
president of a court, called presidial, at Caen, in the
reign of Henry IV. He wrote agreeable idyls, and
other short poems. Died in '1607.
His son NICOLAS was a poet. (See DES YVETEAUX.)
See V. CHOISY, "Jean Vauquelin de La Fresnaye," 1841.
Vauquelin, (Louis NICOLAS,) an eminent French
chemist, born near Pont-1'fiveque (Calvados) in May,
1763. He was a pupil of Fourcroy, of whom he became
an intimate friend and coadjutor. He was appointed
assistant professor of chemistry in the Polytechnic School
about 1795, and a member of the Institute. In 1801 he
succeeded Darcet as professor at the College de France,
and in 1804 obtained the chair of chemistry applied to
the arts, in the Jardin des Plantes. He improved
the methods of chemical analysis, and discovered two
elementary substances, — chromium and glucina. He
wrote many " Memoires," inserted in the " Annales de
Chimie" and other periodicals. Died in November
1829.
See CUVIER, " Eloge de Vauquelin;" CHEVAI.LIER. " Inaugura
tion d'un Monument a la Memoire de L. N. Vauquelin : Notice
biographique de ce Chimiste," iS5o: DR. HOEFER, " Histoire de
la Chimie;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Vauthier-Galle, vo'te-i' gtl, (ANDRE,) a French
sculptor and medal-engrav"ef, was born in Paris in 1818.
Vauvenargues, de, deh vSv-'ntug', (Luc de Cla-
piers — deh kll'pe-i',) MARQUIS, a French moral philos
opher, born at Aix, in Provence, in 1715, was a friend of
Voltaire. He entered the army about 1733, and left the
service with ruined health at the age of twenty-seven.
He published in 1746 an "Introduction to the Know
ledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and
Maxims," which was praised by Voltaire. Died in Paris
in 1747. His reputation increased after his death.
See SUARD, "Notice sur Vauvenargues :" GILBERT, " Eloge de
Vauvenargues:" SAINTE-BKUVE, " Causeries du Lundi," vols. Hi.
and xiv. ; VOLTAIRE, " Corresjxindance ;" MARMONTEL, "Me
moires;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Vauvilliers, vS've'ye-i', (|EAN FRANQOIS,) a French
scholar, was born at Noyers in 1737. He became pro
fessor of Greek at the College of France in 1 766, and pub
lished, besides other works, " Essays on Pindar," (1772.)
In 1790 he was chosen a member of the municipality
of Paris, and lieutenant to the mayor of that city. He
entered the Council of Five Hundred in 1797. Having
been proscribed in the same year, he took refuge at
Saint Petersburg, where he died in 1801. He had pub
lished an edition of Sophocles, with notes, (2 vols., 1781.)
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
Vaux, vavvx, (NICHOLAS,) LORD, an English officer,
was distinguished by the favour of Henry VIII., whom
he accompanied in his French campaign. Died in 1530.
Vaux, (THOMAS,) an English poet, born in 1510, was
a son of the preceding. He was one of the attendants
of Henry VIII. in his expedition to France in 1532.
Among his works is "The Assault of Cupid." Died
about 1557.
Vaux, de, deh vo, (NOEL DE JOURDA, no'eM' deh
zhooR'da"',) COUNT, a French general, born near Puy-
en-Velayin 1705. He distinguished himself at the battles
of Prague (1743) and Foncenoy, obtained the rank of
lieutenant-general in 1759, and displayed much ability
by the conquest of Corsica in 1769. He was raised to
the rank of marshal of France in 1783. Died in 1788.
Vauxcelles. See BOURI.ET.
Vauzelles, de, deh vo'zel', (JEAN,) a French priest
and writer on religion, was born at Lyons; died in 1557.
Vavasseur, vf'vt'suR', (FKANC.OIS,) a French Jesuit
and Latin poet, born at Paray in 1605. He produced,
besides several prose works, Latin odes, elegies, etc.,
which are said to be elegant. Died in Paris in 1681.
See NICEKON, "Memoires."
Vayu, vl'oo, or Vayus, vi'dos, [from the Sanscrit
vdy, to " go," or " move,"] one of the names of the wind,
in the Iljndoo mythology. (See MARUT and PAVANA.)
Ve, va or veil, [i.e. "holiness;" allied to the German
wei/ien, to " consecrate,"] in the Norse mythology, a god
who was associated with his brothers Odin and Vili in
creating the world. (See ODIN.) It appears to have been
his office to banish from the new creation whatever was
impure or evil. By some he is identified with LODUR,
which see.
Vecchi, de, da vek'kee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian
painter, born at Borgo San Sepolcro in 1536; died in
1614.
Vecchia, vek'ke-a, (PIETRO,) a Venetian painter,
originally named MATTONI, born in 1605, was a pupil
of Varotari. He imitated with great skill the works of
Titian and Giorgione. Died in 1678.
Vecchietta, vek-ke-et'ta, (LORENZO DI PIERO,) an
Italian sculptor, born at Sienna in 1482. lie worked in
bronze. Died in 1540.
Vecchio di San Bernardo, II, el vek'ke-o de san
beR-naR'do, (FRANCESCO Menzocchi — men-zok'kee,)
an Italian painter, born at Forli about 1510 ; died in 1547.
Vecellio. See TITIAN.
Vecellio, va-chel'le-o, (CESARE,) an Italian painter,
>orn at Cadore about 1530, was a pupil and cousin of
Titian. He published a collection entitled "On Ancient
and Modern Costumes," (" Degli Abiti antichi e mo-
derni," 1590.) Died in 1606.
Vecellio, (FRANCESCO,) a brother of Titian, born at
Cadore in 1483, was a painter of superior genius, but
enounced the profession for that of merchant or soldier.
Died in 1590.
Vecellio, (MARCO,) or MARCO di Tiziano — de tet-
se-a'no, an able painter, born in Venice in 1545, was a
icphew and pupil of Titian. He accompanied Titian
n his journeys, and imitated his style with great success.
Vmong his works are a " Descent of the Holy Spirit"
and the "Marriage of the Virgin Mary." Died in 1611.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters ;" RIDOLFI, " Pittori Veneti ;"
<ANZI, " History of Painting in Italy."
Vecellio, (ORAZIO,) a skilful portrait-painter, born at
Venice in 1515, was a son and pupil of Titian. He
assisted his father in many of his works. Died in 1576.
See VASARI, " Lives of the Painters."
Vechte or Wechte, vgkt, (ANTOINE,) a French
culptorand goldsmith, born in the department of Cote-
I'Or about 1820. He had a high reputation as a de-
igner of ornamental works in gold and silver. Among
lis works is an allegorical vase in silver repousse. Died
n October, _i 868.
Vdda, va'da, (English plural Vedas,) i.e. "know-
edge," [from the Sanscrit vid, to "know," cognate with
be old English wit, having the same signification, and
lie Latin vid-eo, to "see" or "perceive,") the name of
lie sacred books or scriptures of the Brahmans, sup-
osed to contain the fountain and sum of all essential
nowledge. They consist of four parts, the Rig- Veda,
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
218:
7ELDE
Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda. Of these
the Rig- Veda is the most important. It is composed of
religious lyrics or hymns, and is confessedly the oldest
extant portion of Sanscrit literature, dating perhaps
from 1400 to 1800 years before the Christian era.
See PROFESSOR WILSON'S translations of the "Rig-Veda," and
tlie different Introductions to those translations; COLEBROOKE on
the "Vedas," in vol. viii. of the "Asiatic Researches;" article
"Veda" in the "New American Cyclopaedia," (by PROFESSOR W.
D. WHITNEY.)
V§danta, (Philosophy.) See VYASA.
Vedavy^sa. See VYASA.
Vedriani, va-dke-a'nee, (LODOVICO,) a mediocre Ital
ian historian, born at Modena in 1601, wrote a " History
of Modena," (1664,) and other works. Died in 1670.
Veen. See VAN VEEN and HEEMSKERK.
Veenix. See WEENIX.
Vega. See GARCILASSO DE LA VEGA.
Vega, de. See LOPE DE VEGA.
Vega, von, fon va'ga, (GEOKG,) BARON, a German
officer and mathematician, born in Carniola in 1754, was
originally named VEHA. He served with distinction in
several campaigns against the French and Turks, at
tained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and was appointed
professor of mathematics in the Imperial artillery. He
was the author of "Tables of Logarithms," (Logarith-
mentafeln, 1783,) "Lectures on Mathematics," (4 vols.,
1786-90,) "Complete Treasury of Logarithms," (1794,)
and other valuable works. Vega was murdered in 1802
by a miller, who despoiled him of his money and watch.
• Vegece. See VEGETIUS.
Vegetius, ve-jee'she-us, [Fr. VEGECE, va'zhis',] (FLA-
vius RENATUS,) a Roman military writer of the fourth
century, is believed to have been a Christian. His
principal work is entitled "Epitome Institutionum Rei
militaris," (in five books,) and is dedicated to Valentinian
II. It treats of the organization of armies, training
of soldiers, etc., and is written in a clear and graceful
style. Translations of it have been published in English,
French, and German.
See FABRICIUS, " Bibliotheca Latina."
Vehrli or Wehrli, vau'lee, (JAKOB,) a Swiss te'acher,
born in 1790, was for many years an assistant of Fellen-
berg at Hofwyl. He became in 1833 superintendent of
the Normal School at Krtiitzlingen, on Lake Constance.
Vehse, fa'zeh, (KARI. EDUARD,) a German historian,
born at Freiberg in 1802, studied at Leipsic and Gottin-
gen, and afterwards visited the United States, London,
and Paris. He has published several works, the most
important of which is his " History of the German Courts
since the Reformation," (" Geschichte der Deutschen
Hofe seit der Reformation," 34 vols., 1854.) It is still
unfinished.
Veil, vil, or Viel, (CHARLES MARIE,) a commentator
on Scripture, born at Metz, was originally a Tew. He be
came a Protestant, and preached in England about 1680.
Veil, de, cleh vil, (Loins de Compiegne — deh koNx-
pe-in',) a converted Jew, a brother of the preceding,
born at Metz, went to England about 1680, and pub
lished Latin versions of some works of Maimonides.
Veimars. See LOEVE.
Veit, vlt or fit, (PmLii'P,) a celebrated German
painter, born at Berlin in 1793, was a grandson, on his
mother's side, of Moses Mendelssohn. He studied at
Rome in company with Cornelius, Overbeck, and other
voting artists, who aimed at reviving the mystical style
of the middle ages. Among his master-pieces we may
name his " Triumph of Religion," in the Vatican gallery,
"Scenes from Dante's Paradiso," in the Villa Massimi,
"Christianity bringing the Fine Arts into Germany," a
large fresco in the Stadel Art Institute at Frankfort-on-
the-Main, and the "Seven Years of Plenty," — one of
the frescos of the history of Joseph, at the Villa Bartholdy,
Rome. Veit was a step-son of Frederick Schlegel, his
mother having married that artist. Died at Rome in 1854.
Veitch, veetch, (JOHN,) a Scottish professor, born at
Peebles about 1830. He translated several works of
Descartes, (1850-53.) About 1860 he was appointed
professor of logic and metaphysics in the University of
Saint Andrew's. He wrote a " Life of Sir William
Hamilton,"
Vela, va'la, (BLASCO NUNEZ,) a Spaniard, was sent
by Charles V. to Peru in 1543 as viceroy. His authority
was resisted by the rebels under Gonzalo Pizarro, by
whom Vela was defeated and killed in 1546.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Vela, va'la, (VINCENT,) an Italian sculptor, of Swiss
origin, born in the canton of Tessin (Ticino) in 1822.
Among his works is a statue of Spartacus.
Velasco. See PALOMINO Y VELASCO.
Velasco, de, da va-las'ko, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish
writer of sacred poems, born in the latter part of the
sixteenth century.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Velasco, de, (GREGORIO HERNANDEZ,) a Spanish
poet, born at Toledo about 1550. He produced a good
version of Virgil's " /Eneid," and other translations.
Velasquez, va-las'kgth, (ALEXANDRO GONZALEZ,) a
Spanish painter and architect, born at Madrid in 1719.
He designed the palace of Aranjuez. Died in 1772.
His brother ANTONIO, born in 1729, was an able
painter. He became court painter to Charles III. in
1757. He excelled in frescos. Died in 1793.
Velasquez, ( DIEGO,) a Spanish commander, born in
Old Castile about 1460. He was sent by Diego Colum
bus to Cuba, which he conquered in 1511. He was
afterwards Governor of Cuba, and despatched an ex
ploring party which discovered Mexico. About 1520
he sent a small army to Mexico under Narvaez to
operate against Cortez, who defeated Narvaez and took
him prisoner. Died in 1523.
See PRESCOTT, "History of the Conquest of Mexico;" ORET.-
LANA, " Varones del nuevo Mundo."
Velasquez (or Velazquez) de Silva, va-las'keth
da sel'va, (Don DIEGO RODRIGUEZ,) a celebrated Span
ish portrait-painter, born at Seville in 1599. He was a
pupil of Herrera el Viejo, and afterwards of Francisco
Pacheco, whose daughter Juana he married. He did
not adopt the style of either of these masters, but
formed for himself an original style by the study of
nature. Having removed to Madrid in 1622 and painted
a portrait of the Duke of Olivares in 1623, he was ap
pointed court painter to Philip IV., and rose rapidly to
fame and prosperity. He was a friend of Rubens, whom
he met at Madrid in 1628. He visited Italy in 1629,
admired the works of Titian at Venice, and passed
about a year at Rome, where he painted a picture of
"Jacob and the Bloody Garment of Joseph," and
" Apollo at the Forge of Vulcan." He returned to
Madrid in 1631, after which he produced an admirable
equestrian portrait of Philip IV. In 1648 he was sent
to Italy by the king to purchase pictures and models of
antique statues. He painted at Rome an excellent por
trait of Pope Innocent X., and returned home in 1615.
In 1656 he obtained the cross of Santiago, which is
rarely given to any except men of high rank. He was
also appointed to the office of aposentador mayor, whose
duty it is to provide lodgings for the king in his journeys.
Died in August, 1660. Velasquez is regarded by many
critics as the greatest painter that Spain has produced.
He is considered to have surpassed other Spanish artists
not only in portraits but in history and landscapes. He
neglected the ideal and poetical, and seems to have been
deficient in invention ; but he reproduced the real with
marvellous fidelity. His best works are mostly at
Madrid. Among his best historical pieces is a " Cruci
fixion," (1639.) Commenting on his picture of " The
Spinners," (" Las Hilanderas,") Mr. Stanley says, " For
truth of character, perspective arrangement, and delusion
of light and shadow, it is considered marvellous."
(Bryan and Stanley's " Dictionary.")
See WILLIAM STIRLING, "Velasquez and his Works," 1855;
CEAN-BERMUDEZ. " Diccionario de las bellas Artes;" NAGLER,
" Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" FORO, " Hand- Book for Travel
lers in Spain :" " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1855; QUII.I.IET, or
QUILLET, " Dictionnaire des Pemtres Espagnols ;" CHAKLES BLANC,
" Histoire des Peintres ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Velasquez de Velasco, va-las'keth da va-las'ko,
(Luis JOSE,) Marquis de Valdeflores, a Spanish anti
quary, born at Malaga in 1722. He published several
works on Spanish antiquities. Died in 1772.
Velde, van den, vtn den vel'deh, or Vandervelde,
a Dutch painter, born at Leyden about
Hamilton," (1869.) (ISAIAH,) a Dutch painter, born at Leyden about I595»
€ as k; c as s; g kard;gzsj; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (ffi^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
VELDE
2186
^ENEZUNO
was also an etcher. He painted landscapes, rustic scenes,
and battles. Died about 1650.
Velde, van den, (JAN,) a painter and skilful engraver,
born at Leyden about 1598, was a brother of the pre
ceding. He painted landscapes and rustic scenes, and
engraved portraits, etc. Died after 1677.
Velde, van der, (ADRIAAN and WILI.EM.) See VAN
DER VEI.DE.
Velde, van der, vtn der fel'deh or vel'deh, (FRANZ
KARL,) a German writer, born at Breslau in 1779. was the
author of a number of novels, tales, and dramatic works,
which were very popular at the time. Died in 1824.
Veldeke, von, fon vel'deh-keh, (HEINRICH,) a Ger
man minnesinger of the twelfth century, was the author
of an epic poem entitled "Eneit."
Vel'e-da or Vel'le-da, a German prophetess, who
lived near the river Luppia (Lippe) in the reign of Ves
pasian, and was regarded with great veneration. Having
prophesied in favour of Civilis, who revolted against the
Romans, she was carried captive to Rome about 85 A.D.
Velez de Guevara. See GUEVARA.
Vella, vel'la, (GIUSEPPE,) a literary impostor, born at
Malta in the latter part of the eighteenth century, pre
tended to have discovered an Arabic manuscript of
several of the lost books of Livy, and other important
documents in the Arabic language. His frauds were
exposed by Tychsen and Hager.
Velleius Paterculus. See PATERCUI.US.
Vellejus, vel-la'yus, (ANDREAS SEVERINUS or SOE-
RENSEN,) a learned Danish historian and theologian,
born at Veile, in Jutland, in 1542. He became court
preacher at Copenhagen about 1568. He published
"The Lives of the Popes, in verse," (1571,) a " History
of Canute," several biographies, and other works. Died
in 1616.
Velleroii. See CAMBIS-VEI.I.KRUN.
Velluti, v§]-loo'tee, (DONATO,) an Italian chronicler,
born at Florence in 1313 ; died in 1370.
Velly, v^'le', (PAUL FRANCOIS.) a French historian,
born near Rheims in 1709. He published a " History of
France," (8 vols., 1759,) which was favourably received
at the time. He also translated Swift's " History of John
Bull." Died in 1759.
Velpeau, veTp5', (ALFRED ARMAND Louis MARIE,)
a celebrated French surgeon and anatomist, born near
Tours (Indre-et-Loire) in 1795. He graduated in Paris
in 1823, became professor of clinical surgery to the
Faculte de Medecine in 1834 or 1835, and chief surgeon
of the hospital La Charite in 1841. He succeeded Dr.
Larrey in the Institute about 1842. As professor of
clinic, he acquired a European reputation. Among his
numerous works we notice a "Treatise on Surgical
Anatomy," (2 vols., 1825-26,) which is said to be very
complete, an excellent treatise on Obstetrics, entitled
"Traitede 1'Art des Accouchements," (1829,) which was
translated by Dr. Charles Meigs, of Philadelphia, (1831,)
and "Traite des Maladies du Sein," (1838.) An en
larged edition of the latter was issued in 1854. Died
in August, 1867.
See SACHAILE, " Les Medecius de Paris ;" " Nouvelle Biographie
Generale. "
Velser, feTser, or Velserus, f§l-sa'rus, (MARCUS,) a
German civilian, born at Augsburgin 1558. He became
a senator about 1592. Among his works is " Rerum
Boicarum Libri V.," (1602.) Died in 1614.
Veltheim, fglt'hlm, (AUGUST FERDINAND,) COUNT,
a German antiquary and scientific writer, born near
Helmstedt in 1741. He published a treatise "On the
Formation of Basalt," (1786,) "On the Statue of Mem-
non," and other works. Died in 1801.
Veltheim or Velthem, written also Velten, a Ger
man actor of the seventeenth century, who was the first
to introduce the plays of Moliere on the German stage.
Velthusius. See VELTHUYSEN.
Velthuysen, velt'hoi'zen, [Lat. VELTHU'SIUS,] (LAM
BERT,) a Dutch theologian and philosopher, born at
Utrecht in 1622. He wrote several works on moral
philosophy and religion, which were highly esteemed.
He was a strenuous advocate of toleration. Died in 1685.
Venance. See DOUGADOS.
Venantius. See FORTUNATUS.
Vence, de, deh VONSS, (HENRI FRANCOIS,) a French
ecclesiastic and Hebrew scholar, born in Barrois about
1675. He wrote dissertations or commentaries on the
Bible, which were inserted in the Bible of Calmet, (1748-
50.) Died at Nancy in 1749.
Vendome, de, deh v6N'd5m', (ALEXANDRE,) Due,
a brother of Cesar, noticed below, born in 1598, was
legitimated the following year, and created Duke of
Vendome. He was made grand prior of the knights of
Malta in France. Suspected of conspiring against Riche
lieu, he was arrested, (1626,) and died in prison in 1629.
Vendome, de, (CESAR,) Due, a natural son of Henry
IV. of France and Gabrielle d'Estrees, was born in 1594.
He was soon after legitimated and made Duke of Ven
dome. Having been charged with taking part in the
conspiracy against Richelieu in 1626, he was imprisoned
four years. He was appointed Governor of Burgundy
in 1650. Died in 1665.
See CARDINAL RETZ, "Memoires;" BAZIN, "Histoire de Louis
XIII."
Vendome, de, (Louis,) son of the preceding, was
born in 1612, served in the campaigns of Louis XIII.,
and rose to be viceroy and commander of the French
troops in Catalonia in 1649. He married in 1651 Laura
Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin, and after her death,
having been ordained a priest, was made a cardinal in
1669. Died in 1669.
Vendome, de, (Louis JOSEPH,) Due, an able gene
ral, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1654.
He served under Turenne, and in the campaign of
Flanders under Marshal de Crequi, and was appointed
in 1681 Governor of Provence. He was made lieutenant-
general in 1688, and took an active part in the siege of
Namur and the battles of Steenkerke and Marsaglia.
Having succeeded Noailles as commander of the army
of Catalonia in 1695, he besieged Barcelona, which he
compelled to surrender, (1697.) On the breaking out
of the war of the Spanish succession, he became com
mander of the forces in Italy, and in 1702 fought the
battle of Luzzara with the army of Prince Eugene. He
was defeated by the Duke of Marlborough and Eugene
at Ouclenarde in 1708. Being sent in 1710 by Louis
XIV. to the assistance of Philip V. in Spain, he restored
that sovereign to his capital, and soon after gained a
signal victory over the Austrian forces under Starhem-
berg at Villa Viciosa. Died in 1712.
See VII.I.ENKUVK, " filoge du Due de Vendome," 1783 ; VOLTAIRE,
"Siecle de Louis XIV;" SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires:" JJE COIJR-
CKLI.KS, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Fraiifais;" "Nouvelle Bio-
grapliie Generate. "
Vendome, de, (PHILIPPE,) Due, brother of the pre
ceding, was born in 1655. He served under his uncle,
the Duke of Beaufort, in 1669, and took part in the
principal campaigns of his brother. He was grand prior
of the knights of the order of Malta. Died in 1727.
Vendramini, vSn-di<a-niee'nee, (GIOVANNI,) an able
Italian engraver, born near Bassano in 1769, worked
in England, and engraved the works of several Italian
masters. Died in London in 1839.
Veuedey, fa'neh-di, (JAKOB,) a German jurist and
politician, born at Cologne in 1805. He was arrested
in 1832 on a charge of being connected with secret so
cieties, but effected his escape to France. Returning in
1848, he was soon after elected to the National Assem
bly. He subsequently became professor of history at
Zurich. He has published several works on various
subjects, among which is a " History of the German
People," (4 vols., 1854-58.)
Venel, veh-neK, (GABRIEL FRANC.OIS,) a French
chemist and physician, born at Combes in 1723. He
became professor of medicine at Montpellier, where he
died in 1775.
Venerio. See VENIERO.
Veneroni, va-na-ro'nee, a French scholar of the
eighteenth century, originally named JEAN VIGNERON,
(ven'yeh-roN',) published an Italian Grammar and Dic
tionary.
Venette, veh-neY, (NICOLAS,) a French medical
writer, born at La Rochelle in 1633 ; died in 1698.
Veneziano. See DOMENICO VENEZIANO.
Veneziano, va-ne't-se-a'no, (AcosTiNp,) a celebrated
Italian engraver, born at Venice, is sometimes called
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
PENEZUNO
2187
AUGUSTINUS DE Musis. He studied under Marcantonio
Raimondi, and executed a number of prints after Ra
phael and Giulio Romano. Among his master-pieces
are portraits of the emperor Charles V. and Francis I.
of France, and " The Skeletons, or Burying-Place," after
Baccio Banclinelli. Veneziano is said to have been the
first to practise stipple engraving. He lived about
1 5 1 0-40.
See STRUTT, "Dictionary of Engravers. "
Veneziaiio, (ANTONIO,) an eminent Venetian painter,
born about 1309, was a pupil of Angelo Gaddi. His
frescos in the Campo Santo at Pisa are ranked among
his master-pieces. He afterwards studied medicine, and
died of the plague at Florence, in 1384, while attending
the sick.
Veniero, vi-ne-a'ro, or Veiiier, va-ne-aiu', (ANTO
NIO, ) a Venetian statesman, was elected doge in 1382.
He extended the domain of Venice by the acquisition
of Corfu, Argos, and Treviso. Died in 1400.
Veniero, (DoMENiCo,) a Venetian poet and trans
lator, born in 1517, was oiie of the founders of the
Venetian Academy. He was intimate with Cardinal
Bembo and other distinguished men of the time. His
brothers, LORENZO and MAFFEO, were also poets. Died
in 1582.
Veniero or Veiiier, (FRANCESCO,) a Venetian phi
losopher and statesman, a brother of the preceding, was
born about 1505 ; died in 1581.
Veniero, (LORENZO,) a poet, born at Venice about
1510, was a brother of the preceding. He wrote sa
tirical and immoral poems. Died in 1550.
Veniero or Venerio, va-na're-o, (SEBASTIANO,) a
Venetian admiral, commanded the fleet of the republic
at the battle of Lepanto, in 1572. He was elected doge
in 1576. Died in 1578.
Sec PRESCOTT, " History of Philip II.," vol. iii. book v.
Ve-nil'i-a, f Fr. VENII.IE, va'ne'le',] a Roman divinity
or nymph, was called a sister of Amata, the wife of Fau-
nus, and the mother of Turn us and Juturna.
Venilie. See VENII.IA.
Venino, va-nee'no, (loNAZio,) an Italian Jesuit, born
at Como in 1711, is said to have been the greatest
preacher of Italy in the eighteenth century. Died at
Milan in 1778.
Venius. See VAN VEEN.
Venn, (HENRY,) an eminent English theologian, born
at Barnes, Surrey, in 1725, was a son of Rev. Richard
Venn. He graduated as A.M. at Cambridge in 1749,
became vicar of Huddersfield about 1760, and rector of
Veiling, in Huntingdonshire, in 1770. He published,
besides Sermons, "The Complete Duty of Man, or a
System of Doctrinal and Practical Christianity," and
"Mistakes in Religion Exposed." Died in 1797.
Set HKNKV VENN. "Life and Letters of Rev. Henry Venn,"
1849.
Venn, (JoHN,) a clergyman, a son of the preceding,
was born at Clapham in 1759. He became rector of
Ciapham in 1792, and died there in 1813. Two volumes
of his sermons have been published.
Venn, (RICHARD,) an English writer on theology,
was the father of Henry, noticed above. He was rector
of Saint Antholin's, London. Died in 1740.
Veii'iier, (ToBiAS,) an Eng'ish physician, born in
Somersetshire in 1577. He practised at Bath with suc
cess, and published a treatise on diet and regimen, en
titled "The Right Way to Long Life," ("Via recta ad
Vitam longam," about 1622,) which was very popular.
Died in 1660.
Ven'ning, (RALPH,) an English nonconformist min
ister, born about 1620, was noted both for his eloquence
and his piety. He became lecturer or preacher at Saint
Olave, Soutlnvark, from which he was ejected for non
conformity in 1662. He wrote, besides other religious
works, " Things Worth Thinking on, or Helps to Piety."
Died in 1673.
Venteiiat, vSxt'nf, (ETIFNNE PIERRE,) a French
botanist, born at Limoges in 1757. He published a
"Tableau of the Vegetable Kingdom," (4 vols., 1799,)
"The Garden of Malmaison," (2 vols., 1803, with plates
by Redoute,) and other \vorks. Died in 1808.
See CUVIER, "EJoges historiques."
Ven-tid'i-us Bas'sus, (PuBLius,) a Roman general,
burn in Picenum, was brought to Rome in 89 B.C., being
then a child. He became a favourite officer of Cassar,
whom he supported in the civil war which began in 49
B.C., and was chosen consul in 43. As the legate of
Mark Antony, he commanded in Syria in the year 39,
and defeated Labienus and the Parthian prince Pacorus.
See DION CASSIUS, " History of Rome."
Ventignano, ven-ten-ya'no, (CESARE della Valle —
del'la vai'la,) DUKE OF, an Italian poet and miscellaneous
writer, born at Naples in 1777. Among his principal
works are the tragedies of "The Siege of Corinth" and
" Medea," an " Essay on the Education of the Aris
tocracy and the Labouring Classes," (1848,) and "Phi
losophic View of the History of the Human Race,"
(1853.)
Ventimiglia, ven-te-mel'ya, (GIUSEPPE,) Prince of
Belmont, a liberal Sicilian statesman, born in 1761, was
distinguished for munificence and taste. Died in 1814.
Ventura, ven-too'ra, (GioACCHiNO or JOACHIM,) an
eloquent Italian preacher and theologian, born at Pa
lermo in 1792. He gained such distinction as a preacher
of tuneral orations that he was called "the Italian Bos-
suet." About 1824 he became a resident of Rome, and
acquired much influence with the pope. He published
"On the Method of Philosophizing," (" De Methodo
Philosophandi," 1828,) and "The Beauties of the Faith,"
(1839.) He was liberal in politics, and, after the election
of Pius IX., (1847,) had great popularity as a leader of
the moderate party of reformers at Rome. He advised
the pope to give his subjects a constitution. His efforts
having been defeated, he quitted Rome in 1849, and set
tled in Paris in 1851. He preached at the church of the
Madeleine and at the Tuileries, (1857,) and published,
in French, several works, among which is "The Philo
sophic Reason and the Catholic Reason," (" La Raison
philosophique et la Raison catholique," 1852.) Died
at Versailles in August, 1861.
See E. VAVASSEL-R, "Ventura," Paris, 1851; " Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generate. "
Venturi, ven-too'ree, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Ital
ian natural philosopher, born at Bibiano in 1746. He
became professor of physics at Pavia about 1800. He
published, besides other works, an " Essay on the Phy-
sico-Mathematical Works of Leonardo da Vinci," (1797,)
and a "Treatise on Optics," (1814.) Died in 1822.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1805.
Venturi, (POMPEO,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Sienna
in 1693. He wrote a commentary on Dante, (3 vols.,
1732.) Died in 1752.
Ve'nus, |Gr. 'Aopoti-ri, (Aphrodite;) Fr. VENUS, va'-
ntts'; It. VENERE, va'ni-ra,] the goddess of love and
beauty, in classic mythology, was said to be a daughter
of Jupiter (or Uranus) and Dione, the wife of Vulcan,
and the mother of Cupid, Harmonia, Hymen, the Graces,
Priapus, and /Eneas. None of these, however, were the
offspring of Vulcan. The poets feigned that she origi
nated ia the foam of the sea, (hence her surname ANA-
DYOMENE,) and landed first on the island of Cythera,
from which she passed to Cyprus, where flowers sprang
up under her feet ; that Love and Desire attended her to
the assembly of the celestial gods ; that Juno, Minerva,
and Venus were competitors for the prize of beauty, (the
apple of discord,) and that Paris decided in favour of
Venus. She thus became the object of Juno's jealousy
and lasting enmity. In the war between the Greeks and
the Trojans she was an ardent and active partisan of the
latter, and was wounded by Diomede. According to
popular legends, she possessed a magical girdle, which
had the property to inspire love and desire for the per
son who wore it. Among her favoured paramours were
Mars, Bacchus, Apollo, Adonis, Mercury, and Anchises.
The principal places of her worship were Cythera, Cy
prus, Paphos, and Idalium. Her favourite plants were
the rose and myrtle. The dove, sparrow, and swan
were supposed to be sacred to her. She was variously
styled Cypria, (from Cyprus,) Cythera and Cytheraea,
(from the island of Cythera, where she first appeared,
and of which she became the principal deity,) Venus Gen-
etrix, Venus Hortensis, Venus Victrix, Venus Verticordia,
Venus Alma, Venus Erycina, (from Eryx, in Sicily,
> K; c as s; g hard : g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
VENUSTl
2188
y ERG EN 'NES
where she had a temple,) Aphrodite Pandemos, and
Aphrodite Urania. Venus was regarded by some ancient
authors as a personification of the generative power of
nature. She does not appear to have been an original
deity of Rome, nor to have been worshipped by the
Romans while they were ruled by kings. Her worship
was probably of Oriental origin.
Venusti, va-noos'tee, (MARCELLO,) an Italian painter,
born at Mantua, was a pupil of Peri no del Vaga. He
was employed by Michael Angelo to copy a number of
his works. Among these we may name his " Last Judg
ment," (painted in oil,) in the Royal Museum at Naples.
Died about 1580.
See VASARI," Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, " History of Painting
in Italy."
Venuti, va-noo'tee, (FiLiPPO,) an Italian antiquary,
born at Cortona in 1709, was a brother of the following.
Died at Rome in 1769.
Venuti, (Niccoi.6 MARCELLO,) an Italian antiquary,
born at Cortona in 1700. He discovered the temple of
Jupiter and the theatre of Herculanenm, and wrote a
" Description of the First Discoveries at Herculaneum,"
(1749.) Died in 1755.
See COI.TEI.LINI, " Klogium N. M. Venuti," 1755.
Venuti, (RIDOLFINO,) an eminent antiquary, born at
Cortona in 1705, was a brother of the preceding. He
became director of the Museum Albani at Rome. He
published a "Topographical Description of the Antiqui
ties of Rome," (2 vols., 1763,) and other works on Roman
medals, inscriptions, etc., which are highly commended.
Died at Rome in 1763.
See POZZETTI, " Elogio di Ridolfino Venuti," 1789.
Veranzio, va-rint'se-o, (ANTON,) a Dalmatian prelate
and diplomatist, born at Sebenico in 1504. His name
in Dalmatian was WRANC/.Y, (vRant'se.) He was em
ployed in missions by Ferdinand I. of Austria. Died
i» 1 5,73-
Verard, va'raV, (ANTOINF,,) one of the earliest French
printers, founded in 1480 an establishment in Paris, where
he published " The Prophecies of Merlin," " The Chroni
cles of France," and "The Sea of Histories."
Verbiest, ver-beest', (FERDINAND,) a Flemish astron
omer and missionary, born at Pitthem in 1623. He went j
to China about 1658, and was employed as astronomer
by the emperor of that country. He wrote several works
on astronomy. Died at Peking in 1688.
See CARTON, "Notice sur le Pere Verbiest," 1839; " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Verboeckhoven, ver-book'ho'ven, (EUGENE JO
SEPH,) a Belgian painter of animals, born in West Flan
ders in 1798. Among his master-pieces may be named
his " Horses Fighting with Wolves," and a " View in the
Campagna of Rome with a Herd of Cattle." His bro
ther Louis has acquired distinction as a marine painter.
Verci, ve"R'chee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) an Italian
historian, born at Bassano in 1739. He wrote a " His- |
tory of the March of Treviso," (20 vols., 1786-90,) and
other works. Died in 1795.
Ver-cin-get'o-rix, an able Gaulish commander and
chief of the Arverni. He was general-in-chief of the
tribes of Celtic Gaul which waged war against Julius
Cassar in 52 B.C. He defended Gergovia with success,
and compelled Caesar to raise the siege. The Gauls
having been defeated at Alesia, Vercingetorix, to spare
the effusion of blood, gave himself up to the victor. He
was taken to Rome, and put to death about 45 B.C.
See C/ESAR, "Commentaries," book vii. ; DION CASSIUS, "His
tory of Rome :" H. MARTIN, "Vercingetorix," 1864; "Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
Verdi, vek'dee, (GIUSEPPE,) a celebrated Italian com
poser, born in the duchy of Parma in 1814. He studied
under Lavigna at La Scala, at Milan, and in 1842 brought
out his opera of "Nabucodonosor," which was very suc
cessful. It was followed by "I Lombard!," " Ernani,"
" I due Foscari," " Giovanna d' Arco," " Macbeth," " Ri-
goletto," and other works, which enjoy great popularity.
See BKRMANI, " Schizzi sulla Vita di G. Verdi," 1846 ; A. BASEVI,
"Studio sulle Opere di G. Verdi ;" FETIS, " Biographie Universelle
des Musicians:" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Verdier, veR'deJi', (AYMAR,) a French architect, born
about 1818, at Tours. He gained a first medal in 1848.
Verdier, (CESAR,) a French anatomist, born near
Avignon in 1685. He lectured in Paris for many years,
and wrote on anatomy. Died in 1759.
Verdier, (HENRI,) Count de Lacoste, a French poli
tician, born at Nimes in 1770, was outlawed as a Girond
ist in 1793. He held several offices under the Directory
and the empire, and wrote a work entitled "Alfred le
Grand," (2 vols., 1817.) Died in 1821.
Verdier, (MARCEL,) a French historical painter, born
in Paris in 1817; died in 1856.
Verdier, du, (ANTOINE.) See DUVERDIER.
Verdugo, veR-doo'go, (FRANCO,) a Spanish general,
who served in the Netherlands under Don John of
Austria and Alexander Farnese, and became Governor
of Friesland and Groningen. Died in 1595.
See MOTLEY, " United Netherlands," chap. xxxi.
Vere, veer, (Sir FRANCIS,) an English general, born in
1554. He served with great distinction against the Span
iards in Holland in the principal campaigns from 1585 to
1602, his last achievement being the defence of Ostencl
against Albert, Archduke of Austria. He died in 1608,
leaving, in manuscript, an account of his life, entitled
"The Commentaries of Sir Francis Vere," etc.
Vere, (HORACE,) brother of the preceding, was born
in Essex in 1565. He distinguished himself in the wars
of Holland under Prince Maurice, and, after the death
of Sir Francis, was appointed general of the English
army in the Netherlands. In 1620 he was sent by James
I. to assist the Elector- Palatine Frederick V. in securing
Bohemia. He was made a peer by Charles I. in 1625,
with the title of Baron Vere of Tilbury. Died in 1635.
Vere, de, the name of an ancient and noble family of
England, descended from a Norman knight who had a
high command at the battle of Hastings. His son be
came Earl of Oxford, and a minister of King Henry I.
The third earl was one of the barons who extorted the
Magna Charta from King John. JOHN DE VERE, seventh
Earl of Oxford, was a famous commander, and fought
at Cressy and Poitiers, (1356.) The thirteenth earl was
a leader of the Lancastrian party in the war of the
Roses, and commanded the van of the army of Henry
VII. at Bosworth, (1485.) EDWARD DE VERE, the seven
teenth earl, was an eminent poet. (See separate article.)
The twentieth earl was AUBREY DE VERE, whom Mac-
aulay describes as "the noblest subject in England."
He fought for Charles I. in the civil war, and after the
restoration became lord lieutenant of Essex. In 1687
he was dismissed from office because he refused to aid
James II. in packing a Parliament. He svas the last
earl of that family.
See MACAUI.AY, " History of England," vol. ii.
Vere, de, (EDWARD,) seventeenth Earl of Oxford, an
English poet and courtier, born about 1540, was one of
the ornaments of the court of Queen Elizabeth. He
was lord high chamberlain in 1588, and had a command
in the fleet which opposed the Spanish Armada. Died
in 1604.
Ve-re'11-us, [Sw. pron. va-rii'le-us,] (Oi,Aus,) an
eminent Swedish antiquary, whose original name was
OLAF Werl, (W§R!,) was born in the diocese of Lin-
koping in 1618. He studied at Dorpat and Upsal, and
became successively professor of Swedish antiquities at
Upsal, (1662,) antiquary to King Charles XL, (1666,)
and chief librarian in the library of Upsal, (1679.) He
published several valuable works on Scandinavian his
tory and antiquities. Died in 1682.
Verelst, va'relst, (SiMON,) a Flemish flower- and
fruit-painter; died in 1710.
Vergara, veR-ga'ra, (JosE,) a Spanish painter, born
at Valencia in 1726 ; died in 1799.
Vergara, de, di ve"R-ga'ra, (NICOLAS,) a Spanish
painter and sculptor, born at Toledo about 1510; died
in 1574.
Vergara, de, (NICOLAS,) a painter and sculptor, born
at Toledo about 1540, was a son of the preceding ; died
in 1606.
Vergelmer or Vergelmir. See NIDHOGG.
Vergennes, de, deh veVzhgn', (sometimes Anglicized
as ver-jgnz',) (CHARLES Gravier — gR$'ve-a',) COUNT,
a French statesman and diplomatist, born~at Dijon in
1717. He was appointed minister to the electoral court
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
I'ERGERIO
2189
I'ERME
of Treves in 1750, and in 1755 was ambassador to Con
stantinople. After his return he was sent, in 1771, on a
mission to Stockholm, where he assisted Gustavus III.
in his revolution against the nobles. He became min
ister for foreign affairs under Louis XVI. in 1774, and
concluded a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive,
with the United States, in February, 1778, which involved
France in a war against England. This war was ended
by the treaty of Paris, which he signed in September,
1783. He remained in office until his death, in 1787. He
had a fair reputation for integrity as well as diplomatic
skill.
See MAYER, "Vie du Comte de Vergennes," 1789; VICQ D'AZYR,
"doge de M. le Comte de Vergennes," 1788; DROZ, " Histoire du
Regnc de Louis XVI ;" "Xouvelle Biographic Generale. "
Vergerio, veR-ja're-o, (PiETKO PAOLO,) THE ELDER,
an Italian reviver of learning, born at Capo d'Istria about
1349. He was professor of dialectics at Padua from 1393
to 1400. He published a work " On Noble Manners,"
(" De ingenuis Moribus,") and a Life of Petrarch. Died
about 1420.
See BAYLE, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" PAor.oGiovio,
"Elosia."
Vergerio, (PIETRO PAOLO,) THE YOUNGER, a relative
of the preceding, was born at Capo d'Istria about 1495.
He became papal nuncio to Germany in 1530, Bishop
of Capo d'Istria in 1536, and a convert to the Protestant
religion about 1544. He took refuge in the Grisons,
from which he removed in 1553 to Tubingen, where he
was employed as a minister. He wrote several works
against popery. Died in 1565.
See CARU, "Vita di P. P. Vergerio;" BAVI.E. "Historical and
Critical Dictionary ;" XICEKOX, " Memoires ;" " Xouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Vergers, des. See NOEL DES VERGERS.
Vergers, des, di veR'zhi', (MARIN NOEL,) a French
judge, born at Ervy in 1759. He was elected to the
Chamber of Deputies in 1831. Died in 1836.
Vergier, veR'zhe-jl', (J. \CQTES,) a French poet, born
at Lyons in 1655, wrote tales and songs which were once
admired. He was killed by robbers at Paris in 1720.
Vergier de Haurarme] See DUVERGIER DE HAU-
RANNE.
Ver'gil Pol'y-dors, [Lat. VIRGII/IUS (or VERGIL'-
TUS) POLYDO'RUS ; It. VKRGII.IO POLIDORO, veR-jee'Ie-o
po-le-do'ro, | a celebrated writer and ecclesiastic, born
at Urbino, in Italy, about 1470. He was sent about
1502 to England by Pope Alexander VI. to collect the
tax called " Peter's pence," and continued to reside in
that country for the greater part of his life. He was
successively created Archdeacon of Wells, and preb
endary in the cathedrals of Hereford, Lincoln, and
Saint Paul's. His principal works are his " History of
Inventions," ("De Rerum Inventoribus,") " Historia
Anglica," a history of England brought down to the end
of the reign of Henry VII., and a treatise against divina
tion, entitled " De Prodigiis." Died about 1550.
Vergilio Polidoro. See VERGIL POLYDORE.
Vergilius Polydorus. See VKRGIL POLYDORE.
Vergne, La. See LA VERGNE and TRESSAN.
Vergniaud, vem/ye-o', (PIERRE VICTURNIEN,) a
celebrated French orator and Girondist, was born at
Limoges, May 31, 1759. He was educated at the Col
lege du Plessis at Paris, studied law under Dupaty, and
began to practise as an advocate at Bordeaux in 1781.
His habits were rather indolent, meditative, and non
chalant. " His language," says Lamartine, " had the
images and harmony of the most beautiful verses." He
was elected a member of the Legislative Assembly in
September, 1791. In July, 1792, he declaimed against
the conduct of the king, in a speech which made a pro
found impression, and demanded that the Assembly
should declare that the country was in danger. He was
a member of the National Convention which met in
September, 1792. In the trial of the king he voted for
the appeal to the people, but after the defeat of that
measure he voted for his death, and, as president of the
Convention, pronounced the sentence, January, 1793.
He was one of the most moderate of the Girondists.
In April, 1793, he defended himself against Robespierre,
who had attacked him in a speech. He was one of the
twenty-two Girondists who were arrested by the order
of the Convention, June 2, 1793. According to Lamar
tine, he was the most impassible of his companions in
prison, because he was the greatest. Arraigned before
the tribunal in October, he spoke thus in his defence :
" What ought to have been done to assure the triumph
of the republic? I have done it. What is now requi
site to confirm the republic by the example of its devoted
friends ? To die ? I will do that." He was executed
in October, 1793. He was of middle stature, and was
physically well developed. In repose, his face was not
very expressive, but in the act of speaking it became
illumined and transfigured with genius. " Such," says
Lamartine, " was the man whom nature had given to
the Girondists for their chief. He did not condescend
to be that ; too indifferent (insouciant) for a leader of a
party, too great for a secondary position. He was Ver
gniaud. Rather glorious than useful to his friends, he
was not willing to lead them, but he immortalized them."
"In parliamentary eloquence," says Macaulay, "no
Frenchman of that time can be considered equal to
Vergniaud. In a foreign country, and after the lapse of
half a century, some parts of his speeches are still read
with mournful admiration. No man, we are inclined to
believe, ever rose so rapidly to such a height of ora
torical excellence. His whole public life lasted barely
two years." (Review of Barere's "Memoirs," 1844.)
See LAMARTIVE, " History of the Girondists;" GENTY DE
LA BORDEKIB, " FJoge de Vergniaud," 1800; THIERS, " History of
the Revolution;" TOUCHARD-LAFOSSE, "Histoire parlementaire et
Vie intime de Vergniaud," 1848; MADAME ROLAND, "Memoires;"
Bt'CHEZ et Roux, "Histoire parlementaire;" MICHEI.ET, "His
toire de la Revolution Francaise;" "Xouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale. "
Verhaegen, ver-ha'gen or ver-ha'nen, (PiERRE TH£-
ODORE,) a Belgian politician, born in Brussels about
1800. He was for many years a member of the Cham
ber of Deputies, which he entered in 1837, and acted
with the Liberal party.
Verheyden, ver-hl'den, (FRANS PIETER,) a Dutch
painter and sculptor, born at the Hague in 1657 ; died
in 1711.
Verheyen, ver-lil'en, (PHILIPPE,) an eminent Flemish
anatomist, born in East Flanders in 1648. He studied
medicine, etc. at Louvain, where he obtained a chair of
anatomy in 1689, and became highly distinguished as a
teacher. He wrote, in Latin, besides other professional
works, "The Anatomy of the Human Body," (1693,)
which was highly esteemed. Died in 1710.
See V. J. FRANCOIS. " FJoge de Verheyen," 1847 ; V. J. FRANCOIS,
" Xotice sur la Vie de P. Verheyen," 1842 ; XICERON, " Memoires."
Verhuell, ver-hu/el, or Verhuel, (CAREL HENDRIK,)
Count de Sevenaar, a Dutch admiral, born in Gelder-
land in 1/60, or, as some say, in 1764. As rear-admiral,
he fought against the English, near Flushing, in 1804.
He received the chief command of the army destined to
operate against the coasts of England, (1805,) and was
raised to the rank of marshal by King Louis in 1806.
He entered the French service in 1810, and was made a
peer of France in 1819. Died in 1845.
See GRANDPIERRE, " Xotice sur le Vice-Amiral C. H. Verhuel,"
1845 ; Q. M. R. VERHURLL, " Het Levenen Karakter van C. H. Ver
huell," 2 vols., 1847 ; " Xouvelle Biographic Generale."
Verjus, veR'zhiis', (Louis,) Count de Crecy, a French
diplomatist, born in Paris in 1629. He was a member
of the French Academy. Died in 1709.
His brother ANTOINE, born in 1632, was a Jesuit,
author of several works of biography, etc. Died in 1706.
Verkolie, ver-ko'lee, (JAN,) a Dutch painter and
engraver, born at Amsterdam in 1650 ; died in 1693.
His son NICHOLAS, born in 1673, was a painter of
history and nocturnal scenes. Died in 1746.
Verlat, veR'la"', (CHARLES,) a Belgian painter of his
tory and genre, born at Antwerp in 1824. He removed
to Paris in 1847.
Vermaiidois, de, deh veR'moN'dwa', (Louis de
Bourbon — deh booR'bc-N',) COUNT, born in Paris in
1667, was a son of Louis XIV. and Madame de La
Valliere. He was legitimated, and appointed admiral
of France. Died in 1683.
Verme, del, del veR'ma, (JACOPO,) an able Italian
general or condottiere, commanded the armies of Gian
t; as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
fERMEULEN
2190
Galeazzo Visconti. He passed into the service of
Venice in 1404.
Vermeuleii, ver-mur/len, (CORNELIS,) a Flemish
engraver and designer, born at Antwerp in 1644. He
engraved portraits with skill. Died in 1702.
Vermeulen, [Lat. MOLA'NUS,] QAN,) a Flemish
writer on theology and antiquities, was born at Lille in
1533. He published, besides other works, one "On
Sacred Pictures and Images," ("De Picturis et Imagi-
nibus sacris," 1570,) and" De Canonicis," (1587.) Died
at L.:uvain in 1585.
Vermeyen, von, fon ver-ml'en, or Vermeyn, ver
min', QOHANN,) a Dutch historical painter, surnamed
HANS MIT DEM BAKTE, (" Hans with the Beard,") was
born near Haarlem in 1500. He was a favourite of
Charles V., Emperor of Germany, whom he accom
panied on his expeditions. Among his master-pieces
are ten large cartoons at Vienna, representing the march
of the emperor to Tunis. Died in 1559.
Vermigli. See PETER MARTYR.
Vermond, de, deh veR'mo.V, (\IATTHIEU JACQUES,)
L'AHHE, a French ecclesiastic, was French teacher of
Marie Antoinette at Vienna before her marriage. After
she became Queen of France, he remained in her ser
vice as reader, enjoyed her confidence, and exercised
great influence at court. He is censured for his political
intrigues. Died after 1789.
Vermuyden, ver-moi'den, (Sir CORNELIUS,) a Dutch
engineer, born in Zeeland. He removed to England
about 1622, was employed by Charles I., and rendered
valuable services by draining part of the Bedford Level.
Died about 1665.
Veruage, vCR'ntzh', (MICHEL Louis,) a French phy
sician, born in Paris in 1697; died in 1773.
Vernazza, veR-nat'sa, (GIUSEPPE,) Baron de Freney,
an Italian antiquary and writer, born at Alba, in Pied
mont, in 1745. He resided at Turin, and held several
high offices. He wrote biographies, treatises on Italian
antiquities, etc. Died in 1822.
Vernes, VCRD, ( JACOB,) a Protestant divine, born at
Geneva in 1728, wrote " Letters on the Christianity of
J. J. Rousseau," and other works. Died in 1791.
Vernet, veR/n,Y, (A NTOINE CHARLES HOKACP,) some
times called CARLE VERNET, a son of Claude Joseph,
noticed below, was born at Bordeaux in 1758. He was
instructed by his father, and afterwards studied at the
French Academy of Arts, and in 1782 gained the grand
prize offered by that institution. His favourite subjects
were battle-scenes and animals, particularly horses.
Among his master-pieces are "The Bombardment of
Madrid," "The Battle of Wagram," and " The Entrance
of Napoleon into Milan." Died in 1836.
See DI-RANOK, "Joseph. Carle et Horace Vernet," 1865; L.
LAGRANC;E, "Les Vernet, (Carle et Horace,") 1864; C. BLANC,
"Histoire des Peintres ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Vernet, (CLAUDE JOSEPH,) an eminent French
painter, born at Avignon in 1714. He studied at Rome,
devoting himself principally to marine landscapes, in
which department he soon attained rare excellence. He
resided nearly twenty years in Italy, during the early
part of which, time he was so reduced as to be obliged
to paint coach-panels, which were afterwards taken out
and framed. He was invited to France in 1752 by Louis
XV., who commissioned him to paint the principal sea
ports of France. These views — fifteen in number — are
in the Louvre, where many of his best works are to be
seen. Among his other master-pieces we may name the
pictures in the Borghese and Rondanini palaces at Rome,
and a " Seaport at Sunset," in the Louvre. Ele had been
elected in 1753 a member of the Academy of Arts. Died
in 1789.
See DURANDE, "Joseph, Carle et Horace Vernet," 1865; L.
LAGRANGE, "J. Vernet et la Peinture au dix-huitieme Si'ecle,"
1864; C. BLANC, "Histoire des Peintres;" "Nouvelle Biozraphie
Generale."
Vernet, (HORACE,) a celebrated French painter of
battles, son of Antoine Charles, noticed above, was born
in Paris in 1789. He studied under his father, and in 1809
exhibited his "Capture of a Redoubt." This was soon
followed by "The Trumpeters," "The Barriere de
Chchy," "Battle of Tolosa," "Soldier of Waterloo,"
and other military pictures, which won for him the
highest reputation in that department of the art. He
was created a chevalier of the legion of honour by
Napoleon in 1814, an officer of the legion of honour
by Charles X., (1825,) a member of the Institute, (1826,)
and director of the Academy at Rome, (1828.) lie was
also patronized by Louis Philippe, for whom he painted
a series of battles in the Constantine gallery at Versailles.
His pictures are of large dimensions. lie worked at
Rome about eight years, — 1828-35, — and painted there a
picture of a "Meeting of Raphael with Michael Angelo."
Among his chief works are the " Siege of Constantine"
and the "Battle of Isly." At the Exposition of 1855 a
jury of painters from various nations awarded him the
grand medal of honour. Died in 1863.
See A. Di'RANDE, "Joseph, Carle et Horace Vernet," 1865;
L. DR LOMKNIK, "M. H. Vems-t, par un Homine de Rien," 1841;
L. LAGRANGE, "Les Vernet, (Cade et Horace,") 1864; C. BLANC,
" Histoire des Peintres;" T. SYLVKSTRK, "Histoire
Vernet, veR'iuV, (JACOB,) a Swiss theologian, born at
Geneva in 1698. He became pastor at Geneva in 1734,
rector of the Academy in 1737, and professor of the
ology there in 1756. lie wrote, besides many other
works, "Socratic Dialogues on Moral Subjects," (1746,)
and "Christian Instruction," (4 vols., 1752.) Died in
1789.
Verneuil, de, deh vcVnuI' or veVnuh'ye, (PHILIPPE
EDOUARD POULLETIER,) a French naturalist, distin
guished as a geologist and palaeontologist, was born in
Paris in 1805. He became a member of the Institute in
1854. Among his works is a "Memoir on the Geology
of the Crimea," (1837.)
Veriiey, du, (JOSEPH.) See DUVERNEY.
Vernier, veVne-i', (PIERRE,) a French mathema
tician, born at Ornans, in Franche-Comte, about 1580,
invented a graduated scale or quadrant. Died in 1637.
Vernier, (THEODORE,) a French advocate and mor
alist, born at Lons-le-Saulnier in 1731. He was a member
of the Convention, in which he voted against the death
of the king, (1793.) He wrote several works on the
passions, etc. Died in 1818.
Verniquet, veVne'ki', (EDME,) a French architect,
born at Chatillon-sur-Seine in 1727. He built many
chateaus and bridges in the provinces. His chief work
was the plan of Paris and its faubourgs, at which he
worked twenty-eight years. Died in 1804.
Ver'non, (EDWARD,) a celebrated English admiral,
born at Westminster in 1684. He served in the early
campaigns of the war of the Spanish succession, and in
1727 was elected to Parliament for Penryn, being re
turned for Portsmouth in 1734. In 1739 he was sent,
with the rank of vice-admiral of the blue, to the West
Indies, to take Porto Bello from the Spaniards, which
exploit he accomplished with only six ships. After his
return he was several times re-elected to Parliament.
Died in 1757.
See a "Life of Admiral Vernon," London, 1758; CHARNOCK,
" Biographia Navalis ;" CAMPBELL, " Lives of the British Admirals."
Vernon, (ROBERT,) an English amateur, born in
1774, devoted a large fortune to the purchase of pictures
by British artists. In 1847 he presented this collection,
containing one hundred and fifty-seven paintings, to the
British National Gallery. The Vernon pictures are,
with two exceptions, the work of native artists. They
have been placed in Marlborough House. Died in 1849.
Vernon, de. See GAY DE VEKNON.
Ver'non-Har'court, (WILLIAM GEORGE,) an Eng
lish lawyer, born in 1827. He graduated at Cambridge
in 1851. He wrote, under the signature " Historicus,"
several letters on international law, which appeared in
the London "Times."
Vernon-Smith, (ROBERT.) See LYVEDEN.
Vernulgeus. See VERNULZ,'DE.
Vernulz, de, deh ver-nul//, [ Lat. VEKNUL.E'US, ]
(NICOLAS,) a Flemish poet and orator, born at Robel-
mont in 1583, became professor of eloquence and Latin
at Louvain. He published numerous Latin orations and
poems. Died in 1649.
Verny, vei<'ne', (CHARLES,) a French poet, born at
Besan9on in 1753; died in 1811.
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon;
PEROCCHIO
2191
UMNE
Verocchio, del, del vi-rok'ke-o, or Verrocchio,
(ANDREA,) an eminent Italian statuary and painter, born
at Florence in 1432. Among his works are a bronze
bust of David the Psalmist, and paintings of "The
Holy Family" and "The Incredulity of Saint Thomas."
Leonardo da Vinci was his pupil. Died in 1488.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" LANZI, "History of
Painting in Italy."
Veron. See FORBONNAIS, DE.
Veron, va'roN', (FRANC.OIS,) a French Jesuit and
controversial writer, born in Paris about 1575. He had
a public dispute with Samuel Bochart, at Caen, in 1628.
Died in 1649.
Veron, (Louis DESIRE,) a French journalist and
physician, born in Paris in 1798. He founded in 1829
the " Revue de Paris," which was very successful, and
became director of the Opera in 1831. He resigned
this position in 1836, became proprietor of the "Consti-
tutionnel" in 1844, and supported Louis Napoleon as
president and as emperor. He published "Memoirs
of a Citizen of Paris," ("Memoires d'un Bourgeois de
Paris," (autobiographic,) (6 vols., 1854.) Died in 1867.
Veronese, (P/UL.) See CAGLIARI.
Ver-plaiick', ^GULIAN CROMMELIN,) a distinguished
American scholar and writer, born in New York in 1786.
He published in 1819, anonymously, a brilliant satirical
work, entitled "The State Triumvirate, a Political Tale."
He was soon after appointed professor of the evidences
of Christianity in the Protestant Episcopal Seminary,
New York, and in 1825 was elected to Congress. In 1827
he published conjointly with W. C. Bryant and Robert C.
Sands a miscellany entitled "The Talisman," to which he
contributed nearly one-half of the articles. Among his
other works we may name his address before the New
York Historical Society, entitled "The Early European i
Friends of America," (1818,) " Essays on the Nature and !
Uses of the Various Evidences of Revealed Religion," j
(1824,) and "Discourses and Addresses on Subjects of j
American History, Art, and Literature," (1833.) He
brought out in 1846 his superb edition of Shakspeare, |
with notes, esteemed one of the best that had ever ap
peared. Died in March, 1870.
Ver'res, (CMUs,) a Roman governor, notorious for
his rapacity and cruelty, was born about 112 B.C. He
was quxstor in 82, and city praetor at Rome in 74 B.C.
'When his term of office as praetor had ended, in 73, he
became governor of the rich and important province of
Sicily, which he almost ruined by his extortions, out
rages, and vexatious measures. He was accused by the
people of Sicily, who engaged Cicero to conduct the
prosecution before the senate. Hortensius was the
counsel tor the defence in this trial, which was one of
the most celebrated in the history of Rome, and was '
one of the great eras in the life of Cicero, who gained
his cause ; but Verres had absconded before the end of ',
the trial, and retired to Marseilles. He passed twenty- !
seven years in exile, and died about 42 H.c.
See CICERO'S Verrine Orations, including the oration " In Q.
Csecilium ;" DRUMANN, " Ge^c]Hchte Roms."
Verri, ver'ree, (ALESSANDRO,) COUNT, an Italian :
lawyer and eloquent writer, was born at Milan in 1741. •
He contributed many able essays to a literary journal
called "The Coffee-House," ("11 Gaffe.") About 1767
he became a resident of Rome. He published a suc
cessful novel, "The Adventures of Sappho," (1780,) and
a series of dialogues of the dead, entitled "The Roman
Nights," (" Le Notti Romane," 1792,) which were much
admired. Died at Rome in 1816.
See A. LRVATI. " Elogio storico di A. Verri," 1808; G. MAGGI,
"Vita di A. Verri," 1^22; " Nouvelle Biographic G^ne'rale."
Verri, (CARLO,) an agriculturist, born at Milan in 1 743,
was a brother of the preceding. He became a member
of the council of state in 1805, and a senator at Milan in !
1809. He wrote on the cultivation of the vine and other '
subjects. Died in 1823.
See ROSNATI, " Cenni storici di C. Verri," i?42.
Verri, (GABRIELS,) COUNT, an Italian jurist, born at |
Milan in 1696, was the father of Alessandro, noticed j
above. He published several legal works. Died in 1782.
Verri, (PiETRO,) an Italian author and political econ
omist, born at Milan in 1728, was a son of the preceding.
He served in the Austrian army in his youth, became a
member of the council of economy at Milan in 1765, and
president of the chamber of accounts in 1780. He pub
lished a work on political economy, (" Meditazioni sull'
Economia politica," 1771,) which has a high reputation,
a "History of Milan," (2 vols., 1783-98,) and other
works. Died at Milan in 1797.
See ISIDORC BIANCHI, " Elopio storico di P. Verri," 1803: A.
Rossi. "Ora/io in Lode di P. Verri," 1818; CUSTODI, " Notizie
suila Vita di P. Verri," 1843; NESSI, "Elogio di P. Verri," 1844;
" Foreign Quarterly Review" for June, if'zS.
Verrio, ver're-o, (ANTONIO,) an Italian painter, born
about 1639, was invited to England by Charles II., who
employed him to paint a series of frescos in Windsor
Castle. He was also patronized by James II. His
works, executed for Lord Exeter at Burleigh House, are
esteemed his best performances ; he is said by Dr.
\Yaagen to have received more money for these alone
than Michael Angelo or Raphael ever obtained for all
their paintings. His works are chiefly remarkable for
bad taste and absurdity. Died in England in 1707.
See WALPOI.E, "Anecdotes of Painting."
Ver'ii-us Flac'cus, (MARCUS,) a distinguished Ro
man grammarian, who was appointed by Augustus in
structor to his grandsons Caius and Lucius. He was
the author of several valuable works, one of which was
a Roman calendar, entitled "Fasti Praenestini," frag
ments of which were published by Foggini in 1779.
Verrocchio, del, (ANDREA.) See VEROCCHIO, DEL.
Verschaffelt, de, deh ver-sKaf'felt, (PIERRE,) a Flem
ish sculptor, called by the Italians PIEIRO FIAMMI.NGO,
was born at Ghent in 1710. He worked in Rome and
Mannheim, where he died in 1793.
Verschuring, ver-sKii'ring, (IlENDRiK,) a Dutch
painter, whose works are principally battle-pieces, was
bom at Gorcum in 1627 ; died in 1690.
Ver-ste'gaii, (RICHARD,) an English antiquary, of
Dutch extraction, was born in London. He removed
to Antwerp, where he published his principal work,
entitled "A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence con
cerning the Most Noble and Renowned English Nation/'
(1605.) Died about 1635.
Verstolk van Soelen, ver-stolk' vtn soo'len, QAN
Gijsbert — gis'beRt,) BARON, a Dutch statesman, bi-rn
at Rotterdam in 1777. He was ambassador to Saint
Petersburg in 1815, and in 1825 was appointed minister
of foreign affairs. Died in 1845.
Vert, de, deh vaiR, (CLAUDE,) a French Benedictine
and liturgist, born in Paris in 1645. He wrote several
works on religious ceremonies. Died in 1708.
Verteillac. See LA BROUSSE.
Vertot, de, deh veR'to', (RE.\£ AUBERT,) an eminent
French ecclesiastic and historian, born in Normandy in
1655. He studied in the Jesuits' College at Rouen, and
subsequently entered the order of the Premonstrants at
Valsery. He was the author of a " History of the Revo
lutions of Portugal," (1689,) " History of the Revolutions
of Sweden," (1696,) "Complete History of the Estab
lishment of the Britons in Gaul," (1710,) " History of
the Revolutions of the Roman Republic," (3 vols., 1719,)
and " History of the Knights of Malta," (4 vols., 1726.)
His works were very popular, owing partly to the style,
which is very agreeable. Died in Paris in 1735-
See " Notice sur la Vie de 1'Abbe Vertot," 1795 ; MOR£RI, " Die-
tionnaire Historique ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Ver'tue, (GEORGE,) an eminent English engraver,
born in London in 1684. He acquired the friendship
and patronage of Sir Godfrey Kneller, and, on the es
tablishment of the Academy of Painting in London, in
1711, became one of its members. In 1717 he was ap
pointed engraver to the Society of Antiquaries by the
Earl of Winchelsea, president of that body. He en
graved the portraits of many eminent men of his own
time, and illustrated several works for the booksellers.
He collected materials for a history of painting and en
graving in England, which he left in manuscript. These
were purchased by Horace YValpole, and published in
his "Anecdotes of Painting." Died in 1756.
See STRUTT, "Dictionary of Engravers;" "Monthly Review"
for February and March, 1781.
Vertumne. See VERTUMNUS.
f as K; 9 as s; g hard; g as ;'; G, H, K, guttural ' ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
FERTUMNUS
2192
VESTA
Ver-tum'nus or Vor-tum'iius, [Fr. VERTUMNE,
vSF'tomn',] an Etruscan and Roman divinity, supposed
to preside over the changes of the seasons and the trans
formation of plants. He was regarded by some writers
as the god of gardens, of orchards, and of autumn. The
poets relate that he loved Pomona, who was so coy that
he did not succeed until he had metamorphosed himself
into many forms.
Verulam, LORD. See BACON, (FRANCIS.)
Ve'rus, (Lucius JEuus), son of ^Llius Verus, who
had been adopted and made Caesar by the emperor
Hadrian. In 161 A.D. he became the colleague of Mar
cus Aurelius as Emperor of Rome. He was a weak and
profligate prince. Died in 169 A.D. His original name
was L. COMMODUS.
Verville, de. See BEROALDE DE VERVILI.E.
Ver'jf, (Jo.MKS,) an American poet, born at Salem,
Massachusetts, in 1813. He published "Essays and
Poems," (1839,) and was a contributor to the " Christian
Register," "Monthly Religious Magazine," and other
Journals.
See GRISWOI.D, "Poets and Poetry of America."
Vesale. See VESALIUS.
Vesalio. See VESALIUS.
Ve-sa'li-us, [Fr. VESALE, veh-zSK; It. VESALIO, va-
sa'le-o,] (ANDREAS,) the most eminent anatomist of the
sixteenth century, was born at Brussels in December,
1514. His father, Andrew, was apothecary to the Em
peror of Germany. He studied languages at Louvain,
and medicine at Montpellier and Paris. About 1535 he
served in the Imperial army, probably as surgeon. He
became professor of anatomy at Padua or Pavi'a about
1538, and published a Latin work in 1539 in which he
taught that blood should be drawn from the right arm.
In 1543 he produced his great work on anatomy, " Seven
Books on the Structure of the Human Body," (" De Cor-
poris humani Fabrica Libri septem,") which operated
immense improvements in the science. Senac compared
it to the discovery of a new world. Having in this work
controverted some doctrines of Galen, he was rewarded
for his services by violent hostility and reproaches from
several eminent anatomists of his time. About 1544
he quitted Italy, and became physician to the emperor
Charles V., at whose court he remained until the abdi
cation of the emperor, in 1555. Soon after this event
he went to Madrid to attend Philip II. He had a high
reputation as a physician. According to a doubtful re
port, he incurred the censure of the Inquisition. For
some reason not well explained, he left Madrid in 1563
or 1564, and performed a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. While
he was at Jerusalem, he was invited by the senate of
Venice to occupy the chair of anatomy at Padua. He
resolved to accept this offer ; but, in his voyage to Italy,
he was wrecked on the island of Zante, where he died
of exposure in October, 1564. His collected works, with
his " Life," were published by Boerhaave and Albinus, (2
vols., 1725.)
See BURGGRAEVE, "Etudes siir Vesale," 1841, and " FJoge de
Vesale," 1848; MERSSEMAN, " Eloge de Vesale," 1845; HALI.ER.
" Bibliotheca Anatomica ;" L. SCHOONEN, " Hommnge a Vesale,"
(in verse,) 1847 : PORTAL, " Histoiredel'Anatomie," tome i. ; " Nou-
velle Biographic Ge'neVale."
Vesling, fes'ling, (JOHANN,) a German physician and
naturalist, born at Minden in 1598, became professor of
anatomy at Padua. He visited Egypt and Palestine, and
published several botanical works. Died in 1649.
Vespasian, vgs-pa'zhe-an, [Lat. VESPASIA'NUS; Fr.
VESPASIEX, ves'pt'ze-^N' ; It. VESPASIANO, ves-pa-se-
a'no,] or, more fully, Ti'tus Fla'viua Vespasia'nus,
Emperor of Rome, was born near Reate in 9 A.D. He
served as military tribune in Thrace, and held the offices
of quaestor of Crete and Cyrene, under Caligula. He
was afterwards made praetor ; and, having distinguished
himself by several important victories in Britain, he was
appointed proconsul of Africa about 60 A.D. As com
mander of the forces against the revolted Jews in 66
A.D.,he subjected nearly the whole of Judea in less than
two years. In 69 A.D. Vespasian was proclaimed em
peror by Tiberius Alexander, prefect of Egypt, in oppo
sition to Vitellius, who was soon after put to death by
the Roman soldiers. The principal events of the reign
of Vespasian were the conquest of Jerusalem by Titus,
in 70 A.D., the victories of Agricola in Britain, and of
Petilius Cerealisover the Batavi, commanded byCivilis.
Under his wise and beneficent rule Rome enjoyed a high
degree of prosperity ; he patronized learning and the
arts, introduced important reforms into the army and
courts of justice, and repaired the ravages caused by
civil war. He also restored the Capitol, built the mag
nificent Temple of Peace, and began the erection of the
amphitheatre, afterwards called the Colosseum, and also
the Flavian Amphitheatre, from his name Flavins. He
died in 79 A.D.
See SUETONIUS, " Vespasianus ;" A. W. CRAMER, " Flavins Ves
pasianus," 1785 ; TACITUS, " History of Rome ;" BEKNEGGRK, " Vita
Imperatoris Vespasiani," 1625; HEIMBKOD, " Flavii Vespasiani Im-
peratoris Vita," 1833; TII.I.EMONT, " Histoire des Kmpereurs :"
MKRIVAI.K, " History of the Romans under the Empire ;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale. "
Vespasiano. See VESPASIAN.
Vespasianus. See VESPASIAN.
Vespasieu. See VESPASIAN.
Vespucci, veVpoot'chee, (AMERIGO, a-ma-ree'go,)
[Latin, AMER'ICUS (or AMERI'CUS) VESPU'CIUS ; Fr.
AMEKIC VESPUCE, S'ma'rek' veVpiis',] a famous Italian
navigator, who gave his name to the New World, was
born at Florence on the 9th of March, 1451. He
was educated by his uncle, Giorgio Antonio Vespucci,
an eminent scholar, and applied himself especially to
astronomy and cosmography. In his early life he was
engaged in mercantile pursuits. About 1490 he removed
to Spain, where, it is said, he became acquainted with
Columbus in 1492. In a letter dated February, 1505,
Columbus mentions Vespucci as a person whom he
knew and esteemed. Vespucci was employed as a mer
chant at Seville for several years. He accompanied an
expedition which Ojeda conducted to America in 1499.
It is probable that he served as astronomer in this
and several subsequent voyages. According to a letter
written by Vespucci, he took part in an expedition
which was sent by the King of Spain in 1497, and dis
covered new islands and lands. Humboldt and others
argue that 1499 is the true date of his first voyage. It
is admitted that he made four voyages to the New
World, but he had not the chief command of any one
of the expeditions. The part of the continent discov
ered by him was near the equator. In his letter dated
July 18, 1500, he says, "We discovered a very large
country of Asia." Having entered the service of the
King of Portugal, he sailed in 1501 on an exploring ex
pedition to Brazil, on his return from which, September,
1502, he was received at Lisbon with great honour and
rejoicing. He acquired a high reputation by his astro
nomical discoveries. About 1505 he returned to Spain.
He died poor at Seville in 1512.
See A. M. BANUINI, " Vita e Lettere di Amerigo Vespucci," 1745;
CANOVAI, " Elogio di A. Vespucci," 1788; SANTAREM, " Reclierches
historiques sur Ame>ic Vespuce," 1842, (translated into English
by E. V. CHILDE, 1850 ;) C. EDWARDS LESTER, " Life of Americtis
Vespucius," 1846; AD. VARNHAGKN, "Vespuce et son premier Vo
yage," 1858 ; A.VARNHAGEN, " A. Vespucci, son Caractere, ses ficrits,
sa Vie," etc., 1865 ; NAPIONE, " Esame critico del primo Viaggio di
A.Vespucci," iSn; "Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale ;" "North
American Review" for April, 1821.
Vespuce and Vespucius. See VESPUCCI.
VSs'ta, one of the principal Roman divinities, was
identical with the Greek Hestia, ('Earia,) and was re
garded as the goddess of chastity, virginity, fire, the
domestic hearth, and domestic happiness. She was,
according to Hesiod, a daughter of Saturn (Cronus) and
Rhea, and was bound by a vow of perpetual virginity.
Her symbol was the eternal fire burning on the hearth
or altar, and vigilantly kept alive by her priestesses, the
vestal virgins. If this fire ever became extinguished, it
was renewed by friction or by the rays of the sun col
lected by a burning-glass. Every repast in which a
family joined was considered as a sacrifice to Vesta and
the Penates. Each city had its sacred hearth or sanc
tuary of Vesta, usually located in a public edifice called
the Prytaneum. She was supposed to preside at all
sacrifices, and had a share of the sacrifices offered in all
the temples. The Romans celebrated in her honour an
annual festival, called Vestalia, which occurred in the
month of June. Vesta appears to have been one of the
chief Penates of Troy, and the vestal fire is said to have
a,e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short: a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
PESTRIS
2193
been brought to Italy by /Eneas. Tlie vestal virgins,
whose office is supposed to have been instituted by
Numa, were six in number, and were required to de
vote thirty years to the service of the goddess. If any
one of them violated her vow of chastity, she was buried
alive.
Vestris, veVtRess, or Vestri, vgs'tRee, (ANGIOLO
MARIA GASPARO,) an Italian dancer, born at Florence
in 1730, was a brother of Gaetano Apolline, noticed
below. Died in 1809.
Vestris or Vestri, (GAETANO APOLLINE BALDAS-
SAKE,) a famous Italian dancer, born at Florence in
1729. He made his debut in Paris in 1748, and was
received with enthusiastic applause. ITe was afterward.''
appointed ballet-master at the Grand Opera. His per
formances were unrivalled in their kind, and he was
popularly styled "the God of Dancing." His vanity
was excessive and amusing ; and he once observed that
Frederick, King of Prussia, M. Voltaire, and himself,
were the only great men of the century. Died in 1808.
Vestris oi Vestris-Allard, vSs/ti<6ss't'lfR/, (M/\Rii<
AUGUSTE,) a dancer, born in Paris in 1760, was a son of
the preceding. Died in 1842.
Vestris,(MARiE ROSK Gourgaud-Dugason — gooR
g5' dti'gi'zoN',) a French actress, especially celebrated
for her skill in tragic parts, a sister-in-law of Gaetano
Apolline, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1746;
died in 1804.
Vestritius Spurinna. See SPURINNA.
Ve-tra'm-o, a Roman general, who was persuaded
by his troops to assume the title of emperor in 350 A.D.
About the end of that year he abdicated in favour of
Constantius. Died in 356.
Vettori, vet-to'ree, or Vittori, vet-to'ree, (BENE
DETTO,) an Italian medical writer, born at Faenza in
1481 ; died in 1561.
Vettori, [Lat. VICTO'RIUS,] (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
antiquary, born at Rome about 1710. He wrote numer
ous dissertations. Died in 1778.
Vettori, (PIKTKO,) an accomplished Italian scholar,
born at Florence in 1499, was appointed professor of
Latin and Greek literature in that city. He was the
author of Latin commentaries on the works of Aristotle,
and he published editions of Sallust, Cicero, and other
Latin classics ; also the " Electra" of Euripides, and
various Greek works. He likewise wrote a number of
letters, poems, and orations in Italian. Died in 1585.
See A. M. BANDINI, "Vita di P. Vettori," 1756; BENIVIENI,
" Vita di P. Vettori," 1585.
Ve-tu'ri-a, [ Fr.VE TURIK, vi'tii're',] a Roman matron,
the mother of CORIOI.ANUS, (which see.) When Rome
was attacked by an army of Volscians commanded by
her son, she headed a procession of women who went to
his camp and entreated him to spare the city. He finally
relented, and exclaimed, "O mother, thou hast saved
Rome, but destroyed thy son !"
Veturie. See VK.TUKIA.
Veuillot, vuh'yo', (Louis,) a French writer and
journalist, born in the department of Loiret in 1815.
He became successively editor of the "Charte de 1830,"
" La Paix," and the " Univers Religieux," in Paris, and
distinguished himself by his zealous support of the ultra
montane party and violent abuse of his opponents. His
" Univers" was suppressed in 1860. He has published
several novels.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Veyssiere de La Croze. See LA CROZE.
Veytia, de, da va-e-tee'a, ? (MARIANO,) a Mexican
historian, of Spanish extraction, born at Puebla in 1718,
wrote an account of the early history of Mexico, en
titled " Historia Antigua," (Mexico, 1836.)
See PRESCOTT, "History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i.
book i.
Viani, ve-a'nee, (GIORGIO,) an Italian numismatist,
born in 1762; died in 1816.
Viani, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian painter, born at Bo
logna in 1636, is said to have been a skilful artist. Died
in 1700. His son DOMENICO, born in 1668, was also a
painter. Died in 1711.
Viardot, ve'aa'do', (LEON,) a French portrait-painter,
born at Dijon in 1804.
Viardot, (Louis,) a French litterateur, a brother of
the preceding, was born at Dijon in 1800. He wrote,
besides other works, "The Museums of Italy," (1842,)
and a " History of the Arabs and Moors of Spain," (2
vols., 1851.) He married Pauline Garcia, the vocalist, in
1840. He translated " Don Quixote" and other Spanish
works into French.
Viardot, (PAULINE GARCIA,) a popular French ac
tress and singer, a daughter of Manuel Garcia, was born
in Paris in 1821. She made her debut in London in
1839, and was married to L. Viardot in 1840. She
excels in the rdles of " Desdemona," " Valentine," (in
"The Huguenots,") and "Fides," (in "The Prophet" of
Meyerbeer.)
Vias, de, deh ve'ts', (BALTHASAR) a Latin poet, born
at Marseilles in 1587, was a friend of Peiresc. He was
appointed a councillor of state by Louis XIII. He
wrote numerous poems. Died in 1667.
Viassolo. See FEDERICI, (CAMILI.O.)
Viand or Viau, de, deh ve'o', (TiiEoi'iiiLE,) a French
poet. (See THEOPHILE.)
Viborg, vee'boRG, (ERICH NISSEN,) an eminent Dan
ish naturalist and veterinary surgeon, born in Sleswick
in 1759. lie wrote numerous works. Died in 1822.
Vibulanus. See FAHIUS VIHULANUS.
Vic, de, deh vek, (DOMINIQUE,) a French commander
and constant adherent of Henry IV. He rendered
important services at the battle of Ivry. In 1602
he became governor of Calais and vice-admiral. Died
in 1610.
Vicari, von, fon vee'ka-ree, (HERMANN,) a German
Catholic prelate, born at Aulendorf, in Upper Suabia,
in 1773, rose to be Archbishop of Freiburg in 1842.
Vic'ars, (Joiix,) an English Puritan writer in the
time of Cromwell, was born in London in 1582. He
published, among other works, "The Burning Bush not
Consumed," and "God's Ark Overtopping the World's
Waves." Died in 1652.
Vic'a-ry, (THOMAS,) an English anatomist, born in
London, was surgeon to Henry VIII. and Edward VI.
He published a treatise on anatomy, (about 1548.)
Vicat, ve'kf, (Louis TOSEPH,) a French civil engineer,
born at Grenoble in 1786. He distinguished himself by
the discovery of hydraulic cement, and made an improve
ment in the foundation of bridges. Died in 1861.
Vicence, Due DE. See CAULAINCOURT.
Vicente, (Gn..) See GIL VICENTE.
Vicenza, DUKE OF. See CAULAINCOURT.
Vichard. See SAINT-REAL.
Vichmaiin, viK'man, (BURKHARD,) a Russian his
torian, of German extraction, born at Riga in 1786. He
wrote (in German) several works on Russian history.
Died in 1822.
Vichnou. See VISHNU.
Vici, vee'chee, (ANDREA,) an Italian architect, born
at Arcevia in 1744, was appointed in 1787 hydraulic
architect and engineer for the work of draining the Pon-
tine marshes. Among the principal structures he has
built may be named the cathedral of Camarino, and the
church of San Francesco at Foligno. Died in 1817.
Vico, vee'ko, (ENEA,) an Italian engraver and numis
matist, born at Parma about 1520. He worked at Flor
ence and Ferrara, and engraved some pictures of Michael
Angelo and Raphael. He published several works on
numismatics, among which is a "Treatise on the Medals
:>f the Ancients," (" Discorsi sopre le Medaglie degli
Antichi," 1555.) Died about 1570.
Vico, (GioVANM BATTISTA,) an eminent Ita-lian phi-
osopher, called the creator of the philosophy of history,
was born at Naples in 1668. He studied languages,
philosophy, and law, and, after he left college, passed
line years as preceptor in the family of the Bishop of
[schia. ' In 1697 he was appointed professor of rhetoric
n the University of Naples, with a salary of one hun
dred scudi (or ducats) per annum. He published in
1720 a work on law, entitled "On the One Principle and
2nd of all Law," (" De universi Juris tino Principio et
Fine tino.'') His principal work is entitled "Principles
)f a New Science of the Common Nature of Nations,"
" Principj di una Scienza nuova intorno alia commune
Datura della Nazione," 1725,) in which he attempts to
t; as K: c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
PICO
2!94
VICTOR
prove that the events of history are determined by cer
tain and immutable laws. It presents original thoughts,
but in some parts is rather obscure. In 1735 he became
historiographer to the King of Naples. He was author
of other works. Died at Naples in January, 1 743 or 1 744.
See his Autobiography, prefixed to his " Scienza nuova," 18
M. PARMA, "Studj IV. sopra Vico," 1838: J. FERRARI, "Vico et
ritalie," 1839; Rocco, " Elogio storico di Vico." 1844 ; A. MANA-
VIT, "EloRe du PeredeVico," i8*S ; " Nouvelle Biographic GJne'-
rale ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1845.
Vico, di, de vee'ko, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian Jesuit
and astronomer, born at Macerata in 1805, became di
rector of the Observatory at Rome. Died in 1848.
Vicq-d'Azyr or Vicq-d'Azir, vek'dt'/.eR', (FEi.ix,
a distinguished French anatomist, born at Valogne, in
Normandy, in 1748. He studied medicine in Paris, and
was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in
1774. He became in 1776 one of the founders of the
Royal Society of Medicine, of which he was appointed
perpetual secretary, and in 1788 succeeded Buffon in
the French Academy. He was made first physician to
the queen in 1789. His wife was a niece of Daubenton.
He died in 1794. Among his numerous and valuable
works we may name "Observations on the Means of
Preserving Animals from Contagion," (1774,) " Medicine
for Horned Cattle," (1781,) "Treatise on Anatomy and
Physiology," (with coloured plates, 1786,) and "Eulogies
on Members of the Royal Society," (1778-88.)
See CUVIKR. " E"lo™e de Vicq-d'A/yr :" MORKAU VK I.A SARTHK,
" FJoge de F. Vicq-d'Azir," 1797: P. E. I.KMONTKV, " FJoge his-
torique de Vicq-d'Azir," 1825 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Vicramaditya. See VIKRAMADITYA.
Victoire de France, vek'twai/ deh fK6Nss, (LOUISE
MARIK TnfiRESE,) a daughter of Louis XV., was born
at Versailles in 1733. She emigrated in 1791, after which
she lived at Rome and Naples. Died in 1799.
Victor, (AURELIUS.) See AURKLIUS VICTOR.
Vic'tor I., a native of Africa, became Bishop of Rome
about 185 A.n. He died about 198 A.n., and was suc
ceeded by Zephyrinus.
Victor II., originally GERHARD, Bishop of Eichstadt,
succeeded Leo IX. as rope of Rome in 1055. He died
in 1057, and was succeeded by Stephen IX.
Victor III., (DESIDERIUS,) Abbot of Monte Casino,
succeeded Gregory VII. in 1086. After a contest with
the adherents of the emperor Henry IV., he retired to
Beneventum, where he anathematized the anti-pope
Guibert. He died in 1087, and was succeeded bv
Urban II.
Victor IV. was supported as anti-pope by Frederick
I. of Germany, in opposition to Alexander III., in 1159.
Died in 1164.
Victor, vek'toR', (CLAUDE PERRIN,) Duke of Belluno,
a celebrated French marshal, born in the department
of the Vosges in 1764. He served in Spain in 1794, and
in the principal engagements of the Italian campaigns
from 1795 to 1799, having been made general of division
in 1797. He commanded part of the vanguard at the
battle of Marengo, (1800,) and had a prominent share in
the victory of that day. He was ambassador to Copen
hagen in 1805. He distinguished himself in the Prussian
campaign of 1806, and was created marshal of France
after the battle of Friedland, (1807,) for his signal ser
vices on that occasion. Appointed in 1808 commander
of the first corps of the army of Spain, he gained several
important victories over the Spaniards, but he was de
feated by the Duke of Wellington at Talavera, (1809.)
In the Russian campaign of 1812 he was conspicuous
for his skill and bravery, as well as for his humanity to
the wounded soldiers during the disastrous retreat. He
rendered important services at Dresden and Leipsic,
(1813.) Having entered the service of Louis XVIII.
in 1814, he adhered to him in the Hundred Days, and
denounced Napoleon as "the man who has tyrannized
and betrayed France." He was minister of war from
December, 1821, to October, 1823. Died in 1841.
See DE COURCEM.RS, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Francais;"
TIMERS, "History of the Consulate and the Empire;" " Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Victor, SAINT, of Marseilles, served in the Roman
army. During the persecution of the Christians under
Diocletian, he suffered martyrdom, in 303 A.n.
Vic'tor Am-a-de'us [Fr. VICTOR AMEDEE, \il/-
IOR' t'ma'da'; It. VITTOUIO AMEDKO, vet-to're-o a-mi-
da'o] I., Duke of Savoy, born at Turin in 1587. In
1635 he was the ally of France in the war with Spain.
He married Christine de France, a sister of Louis XIII.
Died in 1637, and was succeeded by his son, Charles
Emmanuel II.
Victor Amadeus II., first King of Sardinia, born in
1666, succeeded his father, Charles Emmanuel, in 1675,
the government being conducted by his mother as regent.
Soon after his accession to the sovereignty, he was urged
by Louis XIV. to the persecution of the Waldenses ;
but in 1690, having formed an alliance with Spain and
Austria, he restored them to their homes, and declared
war against France. He joined the Austriansin the war
of the Spanish succession, and in 1706 assisted his rela
tive Prince Eugene in defeating the French, who had
besieged Turin. After the peace of Utrecht he obtained
Lomellina and other territories, and the island of Sicily,
with the title of king. He subsequently gave up Sicily
to the Austrian emperor, receiving in exchange the island
of Sardinia. lie abdicated in 1730, died in 1732, and
was succeeded by his son, Charles Emmanuel III.
See CAKUTTI, " Storia di Vittorio Amedeo II.," 1856; LAMBKRTI,
" Histoire de 1'Abdication de Victor Amede'e," 1734; BOTTA,
" Histoire d'halie ;" '' Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Victor Amadeus III., son of Charles Emmanuel
HI., was born in 1726, and ascended the throne in 1773.
He was deprived of Savoy and Nice by the French
during the Revolution. lie died in 1796, and was suc
ceeded by his son, Charles Emmanuel IV.
See J. DK M.USTKK, '' E'oge de Victor Amedee III," 1775.
Vic'tor Em-man'u-el [It. VITTORIO EMANUKI.I',,
vet-to're-o a-mi-noo-a'la] I., King ot Sardinia, second son
of Victor Amadeus III., was born in 1759, and ascended
the throne on the abdication of his brother, Charles Em
manuel IV., in 1802. His subjects having demanded a
more liberal constitution, to which he refused to accede,
he resigned in 1821 in favour of his brother, Charles
Felix. Died in 1824.
Victor Emmanuel II., (of Sardinia,) and the first
King of Italy, the eldest son of Charles Albert and Maria
Theresa of Austria, was born at Turin in 1820. He married
his cousin-german, Maria Adelaide of Austria, in 1842,
and succeeded his father, who abdicated, in March, 1849.
His kingdom, which then included only Piedmont, Savoy,
and Sardinia, was not in a prosperous condition ; but he
was fortunate in obtaining the services of an able states
man, Count Cavour, who became prime minister in 1852.
The wise and liberal policy of Cavour increased the
power of the Sardinian states and induced the friends
of Italian unity to regard Victor Emmanuel with favour.
By joining the French and English in the Crimean war,
(1854,) he gained admission into the conventions of
European powers. In April, 1859, his dominions were
invaded by the Emperor of Austria, who was offended
by the growing spirit of liberty* and nationality in the
peninsula. By an alliance with France, Cavour was
prepared for the contest. The Austrians were defeated
at the battles of Magenta and Solferino in June, 1859, soon
after which peace was concluded, and Lombardy was
added to the dominions of Victor Emmanuel, In the
mean time the people of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena
had deposed their petty sovereigns, and had taken steps
to unite themselves with the other Italian states. The
people of the Romagna were also nearly unanimous in
Favour of annexation to the kingdom of Sardinia. The
cause was rapidly advanced, in 1860, by the brilliant
operations of Garibaldi in Sicily and Naples, the libera-
:ion of which was completed by the capture of Gaeta
n March, 1861. The result of these transactions was
:he union of all Italy, except Venetia and a small part
of the papal states adjacent to Rome. Victor Emmamiel
,vas proclaimed King of Italy in March, 1861, and was
•ecognized as such by the French government in June
of that year. He compensated Napoleon III. for his
aid by the cession of Savoy and Nice. The King of
[taly and his subjects ardently desired the possession
of Rome, the position and celebrity of which rendered
t the most eligible place for the capital of the kingdom,
nit it was under the domination of the pope, supported
a. e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
VICTORIA
2195
by a French army, which had occupied the city since
1849.
In 1865 the seat of government was transferred from
Turin to Florence. Victor Emmanuel was the ally of
Prussia in the short but momentous war of 1866. The
Italian army, having, entered Venetia, was repulsed at
Custozza ; but the victory of the Prussians at Sadowa,
July 3, compelled the Emperor of Austria to sue for
peace and to give up Venetia. This province, in ac
cordance with a nearly unanimous vote of its people,
was annexed to the kingdom of Italy about the end of
1866, — an event which was a source of great exultation
to the Italian patriots. In fulfilment of a treaty nego
tiated in 1864, Napoleon withdrew his army from Rome
in December, 1866, in spite of the efforts of the pope to
retain that last bulwark of his temporal power. Italy
was then free from the presence of foreign soldiers for
the first time probably in a thousand years. The recent
changes have been most favourable to religious liberty
in Italy, the government of which has adopted the
motto of "a free church in a free state."
To secure the neutrality or friendship of Italy, Napo
leon III., in August, 1870, withdrew his army from
Rome. In September of that year Victor Emmanuel
sent an army to occupy Rome, and wrote to the pope
that republicanism was so rampant in Italy that if he
had not taken that course a republic would have been
proclaimed in every Italian city. His army obtained
possession of Rome, without serious resistance, Septem
ber 20, 1870, and the temporal power of the pope then
came to an end.
See C. DK LA VAKENNE, " Le Roi Victor Emmanuel," 1865;
ARRIVABKNK, •'L'ltalie sous Victor Emmanuel," 1^65; LA FA-
KINA, " Storia d'ltalia ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Vic-to'ii-a, [Gr. Ni/c^, (Nike or Nice;) It. VICTO
RIA, vet-to're'-a ; Fr. VICTOIRK, vek'twdn',] in classic
mythology, the goddess or personification of victory.
Victoria. See VICTORINA.
Victoria, DUKE OK. See ESTARTERO.
Victoria, vek-to're-a, or Vitoria, ( FRANCISCO,) an
eminent Spanish theologian, born in Navarre. He be
came a professor in the University of Salamanca, and
produced "Theological Rejections,'' (" Relectiones The-
ologicas XIII.," 1557.) The most important parts of
this scarce work are those which treat of the Indians
and of the laws of war, (" De Indis," and " De Jure
Belli.") Nicolas Antonio and other Spanish writers
bestow the highest eulogy on Victoria. Commenting on
his " De Jure Belli," Hallam observes, "The whole
relection, as well as that on the Indians, displays an
intrepid spirit of justice and humanity." (" Introduction
to the Literature of Europe.") Died about 1550.
Victoria, (Don VINCENTK,) a Spanish painter, born
at Valencia in 1658. He worked with success at Rome,
where he died in 1712.
Vic-to'ii-a Al-ex-aii-dri'na, Queen of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was born at
Kensington Palace in May, 1819. She is the only child
of Edward, Duke of Kent, (a son of George III.,) and
Maria Louisa Victoria of Saxe-Coburg, who was a sister
of Leopold I. of Belgium. Her education was directed
by the Duchess of Northumberland. She received in
struction in political affairs and principles from Lord
Melbourne. On the death of her uncle, William IV.,
she succeeded to the throne on the 2oth of June, 1837,
and was crowned in June, 1838. Lord Melbourne, who
was prime minister when she became queen, resigned
in May, 1839, and Victoria then requested Sir Robert
Peel to form a new ministry. He consented to take
office, but insisted that she should dismiss the ladies of
her bed-chamber, (who were Whigs,) which she refused
to do. The result of this affair was that Lord Melbourne
returned to power. In February, 1840, she was married
to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, with whom she
lived happily and in whom she found a prudent coun
sellor. (See ALBERT.) The Whig ministry, having been
defeated in Parliament, resigned in August, 1841, and
Sir Robert Peel became prime minister. Among the
events of 1841 was the birth of her son Albert Edward,
Prince of Wales. Between 1840 and 1843 three several
attempts were made to assassinate her, by persons
named Oxford, Francis, and Bean. Victoria visited
Louis Pnilippe in France in 1843, and travelled with
Prince Albert in Germany in 1845.
The year 1846 was rendered memorable by the repeal
of the corn laws after a long and exciting contest. (See
COBDEN, RICHARD, and PEEL, SIR ROBERT.) Lord John
Russell was prime minister from July, 1846, to February,
1852, and was succeeded by Lord Derby, a conservative.
Lord Derby having resigned, a coalition ministry was
formed by the Earl of Aberdeen in December, 1852. To
maintain the integrity of Turkey against the encroach
ments of Russia, the British ministry formed an alliance
with France, and waged war in the Crimea and Baltic
against the Czar in 1854 and 1855. Lord Palmerston
became prime minister in February, 1855, the queen
visited Napoleon III. at Paris in August, and the allies
took Sebastopol in September of that year. The Crimean
war was ended by a treaty in the spring of 1856. A
great mutiny of the Sepoys broke out in India in 1857.
Lord Palmerston resigned office in February, 1858, to
the Earl of Derby, who remained in power until June,
1859, and was succeeded by Lord Palmerston. In De
cember, 1861, occurred the death of Prince Albert, by
which she was so deeply affected that for several years
she absented herself from public ceremonies and lived
in seclusion. She has been much censured for neglect
of the duties of sovereignty, but, with this exception,
her conduct has been such as to render her popular
with nearly all classes and all parties.
The British government has pursued the policy of
non-intervention in the great wars which have occurred
in Europe and America since 1856. Among the notable
recent events of her reign are the revolutionary move
ments of the Fenians in Ireland and North America,
(1865-66,) and the agitation of the question of reform in
England. The House of Commons rejected the Reform
bill of Russell and Gladstone, who consequently resigned
in June, 1866, and a Tory ministry was formed by Derby
and Disraeli. In 1867 Disraeli procured the passage of
a Reform bill which greatly increased the number of
voters and will probably reduce the power of the aris
tocracy. Queen Victoria is the author of " Leaves from
the Journal of our Life in the Highlands from 1848 to
1861," (1868,) edited by Arthur Helps. In December,
1868, Mr. Gladstone became prime minister.
See "Queen Victoria from her Birth to her Bridal." London, 2
vols., 1X40; "Queen Victoria in Scotland," London, 1842; "Men
of the Time" for i!S6S.
Victoria de Feltre. See VITTORINO.
Vic-to-ri'na or Vic-to'ri-a, [Fr. VICTORINE, vek'-
to'ren', | a warlike Roman princess, waged war against
Gallienus in Gaul, and took the title of Augusta. She
was the mother of Victorious, one of the Thirty Tyrants.
Died in 268 A.D.
Vic-to-ii'nus, a religious writer, and Bishop of Peta-
biutn, in Styria. He suffered martyrdom about 303 A.D.
See LAUNOY, " De Victorino Episcopo," Paris, 1664.
Victorinus, (CAIUS or FABIUS MARIUS,) an African
grammarian and theologian, taught rhetoric at Rome,
was converted to Christianity, and wrote several works
on grammar and theology. Died about 380 A.D.
Victorinus, [Fr. VICTORIN, vek'to'raN',] (MARCUS
PIAUVONIUS,) a Roman general, called one of the Thirty
Tyrants. He assumed the title of emperor in Gaul in
267 A.D., and was assassinated by one of his officers
in 268.
Victorius. See VETTORI.
Vida, vee'da, (MARCO GIROLAMO or MARCUS HIERO-
NYMUS,) one of the most eminent Latin poets of modern
times, was born at Cremona, in Italy, about 1485. He
studied the classics and theology at Mantua, Padua, and
Bologna, and afterwards visited Rome, where he was
patronized by Leo X., who made him prior of San Sil-
vestro, at Frascati. Under Clement VII. he became
apostolic prothonotary and Bishop of Alba, (1532.) lie
was the author of " Christias," (1535,) a poem on the
life of Christ and written in the style of Virgil, " De
Arte Poetica," a didactic treatise, (in verse,) and " Game
of Chess," (" Scacchiae Ludus,") which has been trans
lated into English by Goldsmith, and into German by
Hoffmann. He also wrote several Latin orations, and the
€ as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ut^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
VIDAL
2196
V '1 EN NET
dialogues entitled " De Dignitate Reiptiblicas," (1556.)
Died in 1566.*
See TA;»ISI, "Vita di Vida," 1788; LANCETTI, "Delia Vita e
degli Scritti di Vida," 1840: TIRABOSCHT, " Storia della Letteratura
Itafiana ;" F. MANMJKTI, " Orazione in Lode di M. G. Vida," 1846:
NICEKON. "M&nnires:1! U<;IIE[.I.I, "Italia Sacra;" "Nouvelle Bio
graphic Generale:" " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1835.
Vidal, ve'dtl', (FRANCOIS,) a French writer on social
ism and political economy, born in the department
of Gironde in 1814, has published a treatise "On the
Division of Wealth, or Distributive Justice in Social
Economy," (1846,) and other works. He was elected a
member of the Legislative Assembly by the voters of
Paris in 1850.
Vidal, ve-dal', (JAGO,) a Spanish painter, born at
Valmaseda in 1602, worked at Seville. Died in 1648.
Vidal, (PiERKE,) a French troubadour, born in the
latter part of the twelfth century, accompanied Richard
Coeur de Lion in the crusade to the Holy Land.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Vidal de Cassis, ve'dal' deh kt'sess', (AuousTE
THEODORE,) a French physician, born at Cassis in 1803.
He became surgeon of the hospital du Midi, and acquired
a high reputation by his "Treatise on External Pathol
ogy and Operative Medicine," ("Traite de Pathologic
externe et de Medecine operatoire," 5 vols., 1838-44.)
Died in 1856.
Vidar, vee'dar, or Vi'Sarr, vee't-har, [etymology ex
tremely doubtful ; Keyser supposes it may be changed
from vinnar, the "conqueror," (from viiina, to "over
come,")] in the Norse mythology, the god of silence,
the son of Odin and the Jotun woman Grida. Next to
Thor he is the strongest of all the /Esir. Among his
possessions is an iron shoe of prodigious strength and
size, which at Ragnarock he will place on the nether
jaw of Fenrir ; then with his hand he will seize the upper
jaw and tear him asunder. He, as well as Vali, will
survive the destruction of the world. Vidar is supposed
to be a type of the imperishability of the powers of
nature.
See THORPE, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; KEYSER, " Religion
of the Northmen;" PHTHRSEN, "Nordisk Mytholojji."
Vidaurri, ve-dowr'ree, (SANTIAGO,) a Mexican sol
dier and politician, born about 1810. He aided to drive
Santa Anna from power in 1855, and proclaimed himself
Governor of Coahuila and New Leon in February, 1*856.
He was one of the chief ministers of Maximilian during
the empire, and was shot as a traitor in 1867.
Vid'I-us, [It. GUIDO, gwee'do,] (Gumi,) an Italian
physician, born at Florence about 1500. lie became a
professor in the College Royal of Paris in 1542, and I
removed to Pisa about 1547. He wrote several pro
fessional works. Died at Pisa in 1569.
Vidocq, ve'dok', (EUGENE FRANCOIS,) a French
adventurer and famous chief of the detective police, was
born in 1775. He was successively a thief, soldier,
deserter, and gambler before he entered the public
service, and was often imprisoned for his offences.
About 1810 he enlisted in the police at Paris. His
success as a detective has scarcely been paralleled in
history. Died in 1850.
See his interesting " Autobiographic Memoirs," and the " Foreign
Quarterly Review" for January, 1829.
Vieilh de Boisjolin. See BOISJOI.IN, DE.
Vieille, ve'M' or ve-i'ye, (Jui.ES,) a French mathe
matician, entered the Normal School about 1833. He
* Vida's fame appears to have been much higher a century or two
ago (when the language in which he wrote was far more generally
cultivated) than it is at present. Pope speaks of him as the crown
ing glory of Leo's reign :
'' But see ! each muse, in Leo's golden days,
Starts from her trance, and trims her wither'd bays ;
Rome's ancient genius o'er its ruins spread
Shakes off the dust, and rears his reverend head.
Then Sculpture and her sister arts revive ;
Stones leap'd to form and rocks began to live ;
With sweeter notes each rising temple rung ;
A Raphael painted, and a Vida sung.
Immortal^ Vida ! on whose honoured brow
The poet's bays and critic's ivy grow:
Cremona now shall ever boast thy name,
As next in place to Mantua, next in fame !"
See "Essay on Criticism," Part III.
published a "General Theory of Numerical Approxi
mations," (2:1 edition, 1854,) and other works.
Vieilleville, de, deli ve'il'vel' or ve'i'ye-vel', (FRAN-
gois de Scepaux — deh si'pf/,) SIRE, Count de Dure-
tal, a French general, born in 1510. He was employed
in foreign missions by Henry II. and Charles IX., and
was a moderate opponent of the Huguenots in the civil
wars. In 1562 he became marshal of France. Died in
1571.
Vieira or Vieyra, ve-a/e-ra, (ANTONIO,) an emi
nent Portuguese missionary~7Tnd writer, born at Lisbon
in 1608. He performed diplomatic missions to Paris,
(1646,) to London, and to Rome, (1650.) He afterwards
preached to the Indians in Brazil, and advocated the
cause of the slaves in that country. He published Ser
mons, (16 vols., 1683-1754,) "History of the Future,"
(" Historia do Future," 1718,) and " Letters," ("Cartas,"
3 vols., 1735-46.) Died at Balu'a in 1697.
See F. DE FONSKCA, "Vida de Vieira," 1734; A. DE BARKOS.
"Vida do P. A. Vieira," 1746; NICBKON, "Memoires;" "Nouvelie
Biogr.iphie Generale."
Viel. See VEIL.
Viel, ve'el', (CHARLES FRANCOIS,) a French architect,
born in Paris in 1745. He designed several hospitals in
Paris, and wrote books on architecture. Died in 1819.
Viel, (JEAN MARIE VICTOR.) a French architect, born
in Paris in 1796. He was the architect of the Palais de
1'Indiistrie, built for the Universal Exposition of 1855.
Viel-Castel, de, deli ve'eT kts'tel', (HORACE,)
COMTK, a French litterateur, born about 1797. He pub
lished several tales and poems.
Viele, vee'la, (EGDERT I,.,) an American engineer and
general, born in Saratoga county, New York, about
1825, graduated at West Point in 1847. He was ap
pointed engineer in-chief of the Central Park, New York,
about 1856. He served as a brigadier-general in i85i
and 1862, and resigned in October, 1863.
Vien, ve'aN', (JOSEPH MARIE,) an eminent French
historical painter, born at Montpellier in 1716. lie
studied under Natoire in Paris, and in 1743 obtained the
grand prize of the Academy of Arts by his picture of
"The Plague of the Israelites in the Time of David.''
He afterwards spent several years at Rome, where he
executed a number of admirable works. lie was elected
to the Academy of Arts in 1754, appointed director of
the French Academy at Rome in 1775, and principal
painter to Louis XVI. in 1789. Under Napoleon he
became successively a senator, count of the empire, and
commander of the legion of "honour. Among his mas
ter-pieces may be named " Saint Denis preaching to the
Gauls," "Saint Louis intrusting the Regency to Blanche
of Castile," "The Parting of Hector and Andromache,"
"Julius Cassar contemplating the Statue of Alexander
at Cadiz," and the "Virgin attended by Angels." He
excelled as a teacher of art, and was the master of David
and other famous painters. Died in 1809.
See J. LERKETON, "Notice historique sur la Vie de [. M. Vien,"
1809; CHARLES BLANC, "Histoire des Peintres ;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Vien, (JOSEPH MARIE,) THE YOUNGER, a portrait-
painter, born in Paris in 1761, was a son of the pre
ceding. He died in 1809.
Vien, (MARIE REKOUL,) a French painter of flowers,
birds, and still life, born in Paris in 1728, was the wife
of Joseph Marie the Elder, noticed above. Died in 1805.
Vienne, de, deh ve'gi/, (JEAN,) an eminent French
warrior, born about 1342. He defended Calais against
Edward III. in a long and memorable siege, (1^547.) ^e
afterwards became Admiral of France, and displayed
courage and skill in war against the English. He was
killed at the battle of Nicopolis, where he fought against
the Turks, in 1396.
Viennet, ve'i'ni', (JEAN PONS (poN) GUILLAUME,)
a French litterateur and politician, born at Beziers in
1777. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies
from the department of Herault in 1827, voted with the
gauche or liberal party, and was active in promoting
the revolution of 1830. He was made a peer by Louis
Philippe in 1839. He published a number of poems,
dramas, fables, and satires, in prose and verse ; also an
" Epistle to the Muses on the Romanticists," an attack
on the romantic school in literature. He had been
a, e, T, o, ii, y, Jo^: a. e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, il, y. tJwrt: a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
VIERA
2197
elected to the French Academy in 1830 or 1831. After
1848 he took no part in politics. Died in July, 1868.
See E. UK MIRECOURT, " Viennet," 1856; " Nouvelle Bingra-
phie Generate. "
Viera y Clavijo, de, da ve-a'i a e kla-vee'no, (JosE,)
a Spanish historian, born in the Canaries about 1738.
He published a " History of the Canary Islands," (4
vols., 1772-83,) and other works. Died in 1799.
Vieta, ve-a'ta, (FRANCIS,) [in French, FKANC.OIS
VIETE, ve'it', or VIETTK, ve'et', or VIET, ve'i',] a cele
brated French mathematician, born at Fontenay, Poitou,
in 1540, was educated in the Protestant religion. He
obtained the office of master of requests about 1580, and
passed the most of his mature life in the public service,
lie was a friend of De Thou. During the war between
Henry IV. and the Spaniards, Vieta rendered an impor
tant service to the former by explaining intercepted
despatches of the enemy, which were written in a cipher
of five hundred characters. He published several works
on mathematics, etc., and greatly contributed to the per
fection of algebra. He rendered algebra a purely sym
bolical science ; and he is said to have been the first who
represented the known quantities by symbols. He also
made improvements or discoveries in trigonometry.
Died in Paris in 1603. His works were published by
F. van Schooten in 1646.
See DE THOU, " Histoiia sui Temporis ;" MONTUCI.A, " Histoire
des Matlie'matiques ;" HAAG,"La France protestante ;" "Nouvelle
Biographic Generale."
Viete. See VIETA.
Vieussens, de, deh ve-uh'sfiN', (RAIMOND,) a French
anatomist, born in Rouergue in 1641. He practised
medicine at Montpellier, and published, besides other
works, "Neurologia Universalis," (1685,) a treatise on
the nerves and brain. Died in 1715.
Vieusseux, ve-uh'suh', ([KAN PIERUE,) a learned
bookseller, of a Genevese family, was born at Oneglia, in
Italy, in 1779. He settled at Florence, where he pub
lished a celebrated critical journal, entitled "Antologia
Italiana," (1821-32,) and other periodicals.
Vieuville, de la, deh It ve-uh'vel', (CHARLES,)
MARQUIS, a French financier, born in Paris about 1582.
He became minister of finance in 1623, and was removed
in 1624. Died in 1653.
Vieuxtemps, ve-uh/t5N', (HENRI,) a Belgian mu
sician, born at Verviers about 1820, has attained a very
high reputation as a violinist.
Vieweg, fee'war;, (!!ANS FRIEDRICII,) a German
bookseller and publisher, born at Halle in 1761, founded
in 1786 an establishment at Berlin, from which he issued
superior editions of the German classics. He numbered
among his friends Herder, Goethe, and Wieland. Died
in 1835.
Vieyra. See VIEIRA.
Vigand. See WIGAND.
Vigee, ve'zha/, (Louis JEAN BAPTISTS F/HENNE,) a
mediocre French litterateur, born in Paris in 1758, was a
brother of the artiste Madame Le Brim. lie wrote
numerous poems and dramas. Died in 1820.
Vigee, MADAME. See LE BRITN.
Viger, ve'zha', [ Lat. VIGE'KIUS,] (FRANCOIS,) a French
Jesuit, born at Rouen. He published an able work
"On the Principal Idioms of the Greek Language,"
(" De Idiotismis praecipuis Linguae Graecae," 1632.)
" It contains many valuable criticisms," says Hallam.
(" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died
in 1647.
Viger van Zuichm. See AYTA.
Vigerius. See VIGER.
Vigilance. See VIGII.ANTIUS.
Vigilantius, vij-e-lan'she_-us, [Fr. VIGILANCE, ve'-
zhe'lfiNSs',] a liberal Christian writer of Spain or Gaul,
flourished about 400 A.D. He opposed the worship of
relics, the celibacy of priests, and several ascetic prac
tices of the Catholics. Saint Jerome wrote a book against
his doctrines.
Vigilantius, vij-e-lan'she-us, [Fr. VIGILANCE, ve'zhe'-
ISxss',] (PuBLius,) a scholaTancl poet, was born at Stras-
burg. He became professor of poetry at Frankfort-
on-the-Oder, where he also taught Greek. He visited
Italv and other countries in search of ancient manu
scripts, and on his return was murdeied in Suabia in
1512.
VI-gil'i-us, [Fr. VIOII.E, ve'zhel',] an orthodox African
bishop of Thapsus, was deprived of his see in 484 A.n.
by Huneric, the Vandal king. He afterwards lived in
Europe, and wrote several works which he endeavoured
to make pass for the productions of Athanasius, Augus
tine, and other eminent Fathers.
Vigilius, [Fr. VIGILE,] a native of Rome, became
pope in 537 A.D., in opposition to Sylverius, whom Beli-
sarius had banished. He died in 554 A.D., and was
succeeded by Pelagius I.
Vigiu, da. See LUNGHI, (SiLLA.)
Viglius. See AYTA.
Vigne, de, deh ven, (FELix,) a Belgian painter, born
in Ghent in 1806.
Vigne, de, (PIERRE,) a Belgian sculptor, a brother of
the preceding, was born at Ghent in 1812. He studied
in Rome, (1837-41.)
Vigne, de la, deh It ven, (ANDRE,) a French historian
and mediocre poet, born about 1450. He wrote an ac
count of the expedition of Charles VIII. to Naples, in
a work called " Le Vergier d'Honneur." Died abou^:
1527.
Vigne, delle, (PiETRO.) See VINEIS.
Vigne, La. See LA VIGNE.
Vigneiiere, de, deh ven'yeh-naiR', (Bi.AiSE,) a French
writer and translator, born in Bourbonnais in 1523, be
came private secretary to Henry III. His works have
fallen into oblivion which is said to be merited. Died
in 1596.
Vigneron. See VENERONI.
Vigneul-Marville. See ARGONNE, D'.
Vignier, ven'ye-i', (JEROME,) a French numismatist
and scholar, was born at Blois in 1606; died in 1661.
Vignier, (NICOLAS,) a French historian and physician,
born at Bar-sur-Seine in 1530. He published, besides
other works, " Historical Library," (" La Bibliotheque
historiale," 3 vols., 1588.) Died in 1596.
His son NICOLAS, born about 1575, was a Protestant
minister, and wrote against popery. Died at Blois about
164$.
Vignola, da, da ver/yo-la, [Fr. VIGNOLE, ven'yol',]
(GIACOMO Barozzio, ba-rot'se o, or Baroccio,) an
eminent Italian architect, born at Vignola in 1507. After
having studied at Rome, he visited France in company
with Piimaticcio, and was employed after his return in
various public works at Bologna, Piacenza, and other
towns. He was subsequently patronized by Pope Julius
II., who made him his architect and employed him to
construct the Villa Giulia. The palace at Caprarola,
near Rome, built for the cardinal Alexander Farnese,
is regarded as his master-piece. In 1564 Vignola suc
ceeded Michael Angelo as architect of Saint Peter's.
He was the author of a treatise on the five orders of
architecture, entitled " Regole delle cinque Ordini
d'Architettura," (1563,) which is esteemed a standard
work, and "Rules of Practical Perspective," (1583.)
Died in 1573.
See VASARI, "Lives of the Painters," etc. : MILIZIA, "Vitedegli
Architetti ;" QUATKEMERE DE QIUNCY, " Histoire des plus celebres
Architect es."
Vignole. See VIGXOLA.
Vignoles. See LAHIRE, (finENNE.)
Vignoles, des, di ven'yol', (Ai.i'HONSE,) a French
Protestant divine, born in Languecloc in 1649, became
minister of the church at Copenick, near Berlin, about
1702. His most important work is a " Chronology of
Sacred History, and other Histories, from the Departure
out of Egypt to the Captivity of Babylon," (in French,
1738.) lie was one of the first members of the Royal
Society of Berlin. Died in 1744.
Vignoli, ven'yo-lee, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian antiquary
and numismatist, born in Tuscany about 1680. He
became librarian of the Vatican in 1720. Died in 1753.
Vignolle, de, deh ven'yol', (MARTIN,) a French gen
eral, born in Languedoc in 1763. He became a general
of division in 1803, and chief of the staff of the army of
Italv in 1809. Died in 1824.
Vigny, de, deh ven'ye', (ALFRED VICTOR,) COMTE,
a French vyriter of high reputation, was born at Loches,
in the department of Indre-et-Loire, in March, 1799.
« as k: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
V1GO
2198
VILLARET
He published in 1828 his " Ancient and Modern Poems,"
(" Poemes antiques et modemes,") a collection of pieces
which had previously appeared in Parisian periodicals.
His other principal works are a historical romance en
titled " Cinq-Mars, or a Conspiracy under Louis XIII.,"
(1826,) which was received with great favour and lias
been translated into several languages, "Stella, or the
Blue Devils," a prose narrative, and the tragedy of
" Chatterton," (1835,) which met with brilliant success.
He was admitted into the French Academy in 1845.
In early life he married a rich English lady, Lydia Bun-
bury. Died in 1863.
See G. PLANCHE, " Portraits litteraires ;" L. DE LOMENIE, " M.
A. de Vigny, par un Homme de Rien," 1841; SAINTE-BKUVK.
"Portraits contemporains ;" ''Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale ;"
"Westminster Review" for April, 1838.
Vigo, di, dee vee'go, (GIOVANNI,) an eminent Italian
surgeon, bom at Genoa, lived about 1510, practised at
Rome, and wrote on surgery.
Vigor, ve'gou', (SlMON,) a French prelate, born at
Evreux about 1515. He was court preacher to Charles
IX., and Archbishop of Narbomie. Died in 1575.
Vig'ors, (NICHOLAS AYI/WARD,) a naturalist, born
in the county of Carlow, Ireland, in 1787, was the first
secretary of the Zoological Society, to the "Transac
tions" of which he contributed a number of treatises.
Died in 1840.
Viguier, ve'ge-a', (ADRIEN,) a French novelist and
dramatist, born in Paris in 1793.
Viguier, (PIERRK FRANCOIS,) a French Orientalist,
born at Besancon in 1745 ; died in Paris in 1821.
Viguier, de, deh ve'ge-i/, (PAUI.E,) a French lady,
celebrated for her beauty and virtue, was born at Tou
louse in 1518. She was married to the Baron de Fonte-
nille. Died in 1610.
Vikramadltya (vlk-ra-ma'dlt-ya) I., a celebrated
Hindoo sovereign, who, about the year 56 H.C., as is
supposed, defeated the Tartar hordes who had taken
possession of Northern Hindustan and drove them
beyond the Indus. There is good ground to believe
that the reign of this prince was equal in splendour to
that of any other monarch that ever lived. His dominion
extended over the whole of Northern Hindostan. The
capital of his vast empire was Ujjayini, (now Oojein.)
He was a liberal patron of literature and science. Nine
illustrjpus men of genius, called in Oriental phrase the
"nine gems," adorned his court and were supported by
his bounty. Among these was the immortal Kaliclasa,
who has been styled " the Shakspeare of India." (See
KAI.IDASA.) The reign of Vikramaditya is commonly
considered to mark an important era in the history of
India; but there is much uncertainty as to the actual
time in which he lived.
See the Introduction to PROFESSOR WILLIAMS'S translation of
" Sakoontala," Hertford, 1856.
Vilain (ve')aN') XIIIL, (CHARLES GHISLAIN GUIL-
I.AUME,) VICOMTE, a Belgian politician, born at Brus
sels in 1803. He was minister of foreign affairs from
March, 1855, to 1857, having previously been ambassador
to different courts of Italy.
Vilain XIIII, (JKAN JACQUES PHILIPPE,) VI
COMTE, a Belgian financier, born at Alost in 1712. He
originated the penitentiary system of Belgium. Died
in 1777.
Vilate, ve'lit', (JOACHIM,) a French Jacobin, born in
1768, was imprisoned in. 1794, and executed in 1795.
Vili, vil'e, [i.e. "will,"'] in the Norse mythology, a
brother of Odin, whom he assisted in the creation of the
world. By some he is identified with HOENIR, (which
see.)
Villa, vel'la, (ANGELO TEODORO,) an Italian Hel
lenist, born near Pavia about 1720. He was professor
of Greek at Pavia, and translated several Greek works.
Died in 1794.
Villa, di, de vel'la, or Ville, vel, (G. FRANCESCO,)
MARQUIS, an Italian general, commanded the Venetian
army at the siege of Candia, (1666.) Died about 1668.
Villalobos, de, da vel-ya-lo'n6s, (FRANCISCO,) a
Spanish physician and poet, born at Toledo about 1480.
He wrote a medical treatise in verse, called "Summary
of Medicine," (" Sumario de la Medicina," 1498,) and
other works. He was employed a.^ physician to Charles
V. while that monarch resided in Srain. It is stated
that he retired from court a poor man about 1540. Died
about 1560.
Villalpandi, vel-yal-p.lt/dee, or Villalpando, vcl-
yal-pan'do, or, more fully, de Torreblanca (da tou-ra-
blan'ka) y Villalpandi, (FRANCISCO,) a Spanish jurist,
born at Cordova; died about 1645.
Villalpandi, (JuAN BAUTISTA,) a Spanish Jesuit and
mathematician, an uncle of the preceding, was born at
Cordova in 1552. He wrote a commentary on Ezekiel.
Died in 1608.
Villamediana, de, di vel-ya-ma-ne-a'na, COUNT, a
Spanish courtier and poet, distinguished for his ac
complishments and wit. He was assassinated in the
street of Madrid in 1621 by an unknown hand. His
j death was ascribed by some to the jealousy of the king.
Villamediana had expressed admiration of the queen,
Elizabeth of France.
Villamene, vel-la-ma'na, (FRANCESCO,) an Italian
engraver, born at Assisi about 1588. He died at Rome
at the age of sixty.
Villaiidon. See L'HERITIKK.
Villani, vei-la'nee, (Fn.ippo,) an Italian historian and
biographer, son of Matteo, noticed below, was the author
of lives of Dante, Petrarch, and other eminent Floren
tines, (in Latin,) also a work on the origin of the French
kings, (" De Origine Regum Fraucorum.") Died about
1404.
Villani, (GIOVANNI,) an eminent Italian historian,
born at Florence about 1280. He was the author of a
" History of Florence from its Origin down to his Own
Time," (12 books, 1554, in Italian.) It is highly es
teemed for the simplicity and elegance of its style. He
was elected to the high office of | rior in 1316 and in
1321. Died in 1348.
See the "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1813.
Villani, (MATTEO,) brother of the preceding, con
tinued the " History of Florence" down to 1363, in which
year he died. His work is commended for accuracy and
truthfulness.
Villa Nova or Villanovanus. See ARNAI.IHJS.
Villanueva, de, da vel-ya-nwa'va, (JOAQUIN LO
RENZO,) a Spanish statesman and patriot, born in the
province of Valencia in 1757. Having been ordained a
priest, he was appointed court preacher at Madrid and
confessor at the royal chapel. He was elected to the
Cortes in 1810, and published, soon after, a defence of
constitutionalism from the philosophy of Aquinas, en
titled " Angelicas Fuentes, 6 el Tomista en las Cortes."
After the return of Ferdinand VII., he was confined
several years in a monastery. The constitutional gov
ernment having been overthrown in 1823, he removed
to Ireland, where he died in 1837. He was the author
of the " Spanish Christian Year," (19 vols.,) being an
account of the Spanish church festivals, etc., a treatise
in favour of reading the Scriptures in the common lan
guages, entitled " De la Leccion de la sagtada Escritura
en Lenguas vulgares," and a Latin dissertation on the
Phoenician colonization of Ireland, etc. He also trans
lated Paley's "Natural Theology," and other English
works, into Spanish. His brother JAIME, born in 1765,
was the author of a "Literary Tour to the Churches of
Spain," (unfinished.) Jaime died in London in 1824.
See JOAQUIN LORENZO'S Autobiography, entitled "Vida literaria
de J. L. Villanueva," 2 vols., 1825.
Villar, vel'yaV, (NoEL GAKRIEL LUCE,) a French
bishop, born at Toulouse in 1748. As a member of the
Convention, (1792-95,) he promoted education and liter
ary interests. He was a member of the French Academy.
Died in 1826.
Villareal. See FERNANDEZ VILLAREAL.
Villaret, ve'yi'ri', (CLAUDE,) a French litterateur,
born in Paris about 1720, was the author of several
dramas and fictitious works, and wrote a continuation of
Velly's " History of France." lie treated of the period
from 1329 to 1469. Died in 1766.
Villaret, de, deh ve'yt'ri', (Foui.QUES,) a French
commander, was chosen grand master of the order of
Malta in 1307. He captured Rhodes in 1310, and re
signed his office in 1319. Died in 1327.
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I. o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moot:;
VILLA RET
2199
Villaret de Joyeuse, ve'yi'ri' deh zhwa'yuz',
(LoL. is THOMAS,) COUNT, a French vice-admiral, born
at Auch in 1750. He entered the navy in 1766, and be
came rear-admiral in 1793. He gave proof of skill and
courage in a battle against the British admiral Howe,
which began May 29 and ended June I, 1794. Villaret,
who commanded in this action, lost about seven ships.
In June, 1795, he was defeated by Lord Bridport, who
had a superior force. He commanded the naval forces
sent to conquer Saint Domingo in 1801, and was captain-
general of Martinique from 1802 to 1809, when it was
taken by the English. Died in 1812.
See THIERS, "History of the French Revolution;" LACROIX,
" Eloge de 1'Amiral Viilaret de Joyeuse," 1824 ; KKKGUELEN, " His-
toiredes Guerres maritime* entrela F ranee et 1'Angleterre ;" " Nou-
velle Biographic Generale."
Villars, ve'ytu' or vel'ytn', (DOMINIQUE,) a French
botanist, born in Dauphine in 1745, studied medicine,
and took his degree in 1778. He was appointed in 1805
professor of medicine and botany at Strasbourg. He
published a "Natural History of the Plants of Dau
phine," (with 65 plates, 4 vols., 1786,) and other botanical
works, also " Principles of Medicine and Surgery."
The genus Villarsia was named in his honour. Died
in 1814.
See LADOUCETTE, "Notice de M. Vii'ars." iSiS.
Villars, de, deh ve'ySit' or vel'v^R', (Ci.AUDE Louis
Ilt.croK,) Due, a famous French general, born at Mou-
l;ns in 1653, was a son of General Pierre de Villars,
noticed below. He had a handsome form, and personal
advantages which, with his courage and high spirit, early
attracted the notice of Louis XIV. For his conduct at
Senef, in 1674, he obtained the rank of colonel. lie
served in Flanders and Alsace from that year until the
peace of 1678, after which he was employed in diplo
matic missions to Vienna and Munich. Having returned
to Paris about 1688, he obtained the favour of Madame
de Maintenon and Louvois, who appointed him com
missary-general of cavalry in 1689. He became a
lieutenant-general in 1693, and served several campaigns
near the Rhine in the war which was ended by the peace
of Ryswick, in 1697. In 1698 he was sent as ambassa
dor to Vienna, where he displayed much finesse, and
adroitly counteracted the intrigues of the Austrian
court in relation to the Spanish succession. The war
of the Spanish succession began in 1701, and Villars re
turned to Paris. He married Mademoiselle de Varange-
ville in 1702. Having been appointed commander of
ar army sent to aid the Elector of Bavaria, he gained a
victory on the Rhine in October, 1702, and was raised
to the rank of marshal of France in the same year. In
1704 he subdued the Camisaids, Protestants of Ce venues,
who had revolted. For this service he received the
title of duke in 1705. He is praised by several English
writers for his humanity to the Camisaids. He obtained
in April, 1705, command of the army of the Moselle,
with which he took Lauterburg and Haguenau in 1706,
and invaded Wiirtemberg in 1707. In January, 1709,
he took command of the army in Flanders, where he
was opposed to the Duke of Marlborough and Prince
Eugene. lie was defeated by them at the great battle
of Malplaquet, (1709,) having in the early part of the
action received a wound which disabled him for some
months. This victory was dearly bought to the allies,
who lost about 20,000 men. Villars was compelled, by
want of men and money, to remain on the defensive
in 1711. He commanded with success against Prince
Eugene, who invaded France in 1712. The French
gained a victory at Denain, took Douai and Boucliain,
and compelled the enemy to retreat to Brussels. After
the treaty of Utrecht (1713) ensued a long peace. Villars
had great influence at court in the latter part of his life,
and was a member of the council of state in the reign
of Louis XV. He was one of the most fortunate, as
well as most able, French generals of his time. Died at
Turin in 1734.
See " Memoires de Villars," (partly written by himself,) 3
vols., 1734; PEYSSONNEL, " filoge de Villars." 1734: ANQUETII.,
" Vie du Marechal de Villars," 4 vols., 1784 ; VOI.TAIRR, "Siecle de
Louis XIV;" SAINT-SIMON, "Memoires;" DANGEMJ, '•Journal:"
SAINTE-BEUVE, " Causeries du Lundi;" " Nouvelle Bic'i iphie
Generale."
Villars, de, (HONORE ARM AND,) Prince de Martigues,
born in 1702, was a son of Marshal Villars. He became
governor of Provence, and a member of the French
Academy in 1734. His talents were only ordinary.
He was a friend of Voltaire. Died in 1770.
Villars, de, (MONTFAUCON, m6N'f5'kAN',) ABBE, a
French ecclesiastic, born near Toulouse in 1635, settled
in Paris, where he became celebrated as a pulpit orator.
He published in 1670 a satirical work, entitled "Con
versations of the Count de Gabalis," ("Entretiens du
Comte de Gabalis,") for which he was forbidden the
pulpit. He was killed by robbers in 1673.
Villars, de, (PIERRK,) a French general and diplo
matist, born in 1623, was the father of Marshal Villars.
He served in Italy under the Prince of Conti. On ac
count of the enmity of Louvois, he left the army and
became a diplomatist. He was sent as ambassador to
Spain in 1672, and to Denmark in 1683. Died in 1698.
His wife, MARIE GIGAULT DE BKLLEFONDS, (ge'go' deli
beTloN',) born in 1624, was distinguished for intelligence
and wit. She wrote Letters, which were published in
1759. Died in 1706.
Villars-Brancas. See BRANCAS, (ANDRE.)
Villaviciosa, de, da vel-ya-ve-//;e-o'sa, (JosE,) a
Spanish poet and ecclesiastic, born at Sign -nza in 1589,
was appointed in 1628 Inquisitor of the kingdom of
Murcia. His principal work is the " Battle of the Flies,"
(" La Mosquea,") a mock-heroic poem. Died in 1658.
Ville, de, deh vel, (.\NTOINE,) a French military en
gineer and writer on fortification, born at Toulouse in
1596 ; died in 1656.
Villebrune. See LEFEKVRE, (JEAN BAPTISTE.)
Villedieu, de, deh vel'de-uh', (MARIE CATHERINE
HORTENSE Desjardins — di'zhtK'da.N',) MADAME, a
French authoress, born near Fougeres in 1631. She
wrote verses and novels which were once popular. Died
in 1683.
Villefore, de, deh vel'foR', (JOSEPH FRANQOIS BOUR-
GOIN,) a French biographer, born in Paris in 1652. He
wrote a "Life of Saint Bernard," (1704,) and lives of
other saints. Died in 1737.
Villefosse. See HERON DE VILI.EFOSSE.
Villefroy, de, deh velTRwa', (GUILLAUME,) a French
Orientalist, born in Paris in 1690. He founded in 1744
a society of linguists, called Capucins hebraisants, who
sought to explain the prophecies of Scripture by a double
literal sense. He became professor of Hebrew at Paris
in 1752. Died in 1777.
Villegagiion, de, deh vergtn'yoN', (NICOLAS Du-
RAND,) CHEVALIER, a French admiral, born at or near
Provins in 1510, was a nephew of Villiers de 1'Isle Adam,
grand master of the order of Malta. He commanded
the vessel which conveyed Mary Queen of Scots to
France in 1548. He proposed to found in Brazil a
French colony where the Protestants could enjoy re
ligious liberty, and obtained the patronage of Admiral
Coligny for that enterprise. In 1555 he conducted a
party of emigrants in two vessels to Brazil. He did
not succeed in forming a permanent colony, and he
returned to France, where he was censured for his
mismanagement. Died in 1571.
See " Navigation de Villegagiion en 1555," 1557 ; NICERON," Me
moires :" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Villegas, de, da vel-ya'gas, (Ai.ONSO,) a Spanish
writer of romance, born at Toledo, flourished about
1550. He wrote " Selvaggia," which is an imitation of
the " Celestina."
Villegas, de, (ANTONIO,) a Spanish poet, lived about
1550. A volume of his poems was published in 1565.
See LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Villegas, de, (ESTEVAN MANUEL,) a celebrated lyric
poet of Spain, born in Old Castile in 1596, published a
collection of poems entitled " Amatorias," (1620.) He
also translated Horace and Anacreon into Spanish verse,
and made a prose translation of Boethius. Died in 1669.
"The graceful luxuriance of the poetry of Villegas,"
says Bouterwek, " has no parallel in modern literature ;
and, generally speaking, no modern writer has so well
succeeded in blending the spirit of ancient poetry with
the modern."
See TICKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature."
« as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
V 'ILL EG AS
V1LLEXEUVE
Villegas, de, (FERNANDO Ruiz,) a Spanish writer of
Latin verse, bom at Burgos, lived about 1500-1530. He
became governor of Burgos, and was a friend of Erasmus.
He left many elegant Latin poems, which remained in
manuscript until 1743.
See VICENTE DE LOS Rios, " Memorias cle la Vida de F. Ruiz de
Villegas," 1774.
Villegas, de, (FRANCISCO.) See QUKVEDO.
Villegas, de, (PERO FERNANDEZ,) a Spanish poet,
born in 1453, became Archdeacon of Burgos. He trans
lated Dante's "Inferno" into Spanish verse, (1515.)
Died in 1525.
Villehardouin, de, deh vel'tu'doo-aN', (GEOFFROY,)
a French diplomatist and historian, born at Arcis-sur-
Aube about 1 165. He was sent in 1201, by Tliibault,
Count of Champagne, to solicit aid from the Venetians
in fitting out a crusade, in which mission he was suc
cessful. In 1204 he assisted in the siege of Constanti
nople, and afterwards wrote an interesting account of it,
entitled "The History of the Capture of Constantinople
by the French and Venetians." It is supposed to be
the oldest prose history in the French language, and is
esteemed one of the most valuable records of the time.
Died about 1213.
See MicHAL'D, " History of the Crusades."
Villele, de, deh ve'lil', (JOSEPH,) COUNT, a French
statesman, born at Toulouse in 1773. In 1815 he repre
sented the department of Haute-Garonne in the Cham
ber of Deputies, where he was a prominent advocate of
the ultra-royalist party. After the fall of the Decazes
ministry, he became minister of state in 1820, and of
finance in 1821. He was appointed president of the
council (prime minister) in September, 1822. His talents
for administration were respectable, but lie was not
capable of grand views and genuine statesmanship. lie
rendered himself unpopular by illiberal and reactionary
measures, and was removed from office in January, 1828.
Died in 1854.
See DE NKUVIU.E, "Notice snr M. de Viilele," 1855; L. DK
LOMENIK, " M. de Villele, par un Hjmime de Rien," iS4i ; LA-
MAKTINK, "History of the Restoration;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Villemain, vel'max', (An EL FRANQOIS,) a celebrated
French critic, orator, and minister of state, born in Paris
on the gth of June, 1790. He was educated at the Im
perial Lyceum; (College Louis-le-Grand,) and was a
pupil in rhetoric of Luce de Lancival. About 1810
he was appointed professor of rhetoric in the Lycee
Charlemagne by M. de Fontanes. He gained a prize
offered by the Institute, in 1812, for his " Kloge de Mon
taigne," in which he displayed a great power of general
ization and an excellent gift of harmonious language.
He produced, in 1814, a "Discourse on the Advantages
and Inconveniences of Criticism,'' which was crowned
by the French Academy. In 1816 he became professor
of French eloquence at the University of Paris, and
wrote an " FJoge de Montesquieu." He acquired a high
reputation as a professor and critic. Blending in his
lectures literary analysis, biography, spicy anecdotes,
ingenious judgments in detail, and profound generalities,
he gave to them the form of eloquent conversation. As
a critic, he was liberal, impartial, and disposed to appre
ciate merit, in whatever nation or school it appeared.
He was appointed master of requests to the council of
state in 1818, published a " History of Cromwell," (2
vols., 1819,) and was admitted into the French Academy
in 1821. Having avowed liberal political opinions, he
was deprived of the office of master of requests in 1827.
Under the new regime he became a peer of France in
1832, president of the royal council of public instruction
in 1834, and perpetual secretary of the French Academy
in the same year. He published his " Lectures on French
Literature/' ("Cours de Litterature Frai^u'se," 5 vols.,
1828-38,) which is considered his principal work. He
was minister of public instruction from May, 1839, to
March, 1840, and held the same office in the cabinet of
Juizot from October, 1840, to December, 1844. After
he revolution of 1848 he took no part in politics. He
;ontributed many admirable articles to the " Biographic
Universelle" and the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Among his numerous works we notice " Discours et
Melanges litteraires," (1823,) and "Studies of Ancient
and Foreign Literature," (1846.) Died in May, 1870.
M. Villemain is generally recognized as one of the
most accomplished writers of his time. His style is
admirable, and his works present a happy union of mod
eration with independence, while they preserve a due
equilibrium between reason and imagination.
See L DK LOMKNIK. " M. Viilemain, par un Homme de Rien,"
1841; SAINTK-BKUVK, "Portraits contemporains," and "Canseries
du Lundi ;" F. Z. COI.I.OMHET, " M. Villemain, de ses Opinions
religieuses," etc , 1844; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Fra-
ser's Magazine" for March, 1X54.
Villemessaiit, vel'mi'sSs'', (JEAN HIPPOLYTE CAR-
TIER,) a French journalist, born at Rouen in 1812. He
supported the Legitimist party, and began to publish
the " Figaro" in Paris in 1854.
Villemot, vel'mo', (PHILIPPE,) a French astronomer
and priest, born at Chalons-sur-Saone in 1651. He
published in 1707 a "New System or Explanation of
the Movements of the Planets." Died in 1713.
Villena, de, da vel-ya'na, (Don ENRIQUE,) MARQUIS,
a celebrated Spanish scholar and writer, bom in 1384,
was related to the royal families of Castile and Aragon.
His extraordinary attainments in science procured for
him among his contemporaries the reputation of a necro
mancer. He translated Virgil's " /Kneid" and Dante's
poems into Spanish, and wrote several original works,
among which is "Gaya Sciencia." Died in 1434.
See PKESCOTT, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i.
part i.
Villena, de, (THAN Pacheco — pa-cha'ko,) MARQUIS,
a Spanish courtier, became the favourite and chief
minister of Henry IV. of Castile about 1454. He was
a man of great abilities and ambition, and acquired an
entire ascendency over the imbecile king. After the
malcontent nobles formed a league against Henry IV.,
(1460,) Villena was supplanted in the royal favour by
Bertram! de la Cueva ; but he retained his power by
joining the nobles who had revolted, and who deposed
Henry in 1464. Died in 1474.
Villeziave, vel'ntV, (MATHIEU GUILLAUMF. THE-
RESE,) a French litterateur and journalist, born in Lan-
guedoc in 1762. He practised as an advocate during
the Revolution, and was imprisoned in 1793-94 on sus
picion of moderantisme. lie edited several journals of
Paris under the republic and restoration, wrote many
articles for the " Biographic Universelle," and produced
a translation of Ovid's "Metamorphoses," (4 vols., 1807
-22,) which was received with favour, and various other
works. Died in Paris in 1846.
See QUERARD, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Villenave, (THEODORE,) a French litterateur, a son
of the preceding, was born at Nantes in 1798. He pro
duced, besides other works, a drama, called " Walstein,"
(1828.) and "Constaniine," a poem, (1837.)
Villeneuve, de, (ARNAUD.) See ARNALDUS VILLA-
NOVA N US.
Villeneuve, de, deh vel'nuv', (CiiRiSTOPHE,) a
French soldier, born in 1541, served with distinction
under Henry III., Henry IV., and Louis XIII. Died
in 1615.
Villeneuve, de, (GAURIELLE SUSANNE Barbot —
btk'bo',) a French novelist, born about 1695. She died
in 1755.
Villeneuve, de, (GuiLLAUME,) a French soldier and
writer of the fifteenth century, accompanied Charles
VI f I. in his Italian campaign, and was the author of
"Memoirs of the Conquest of Naples," (1497.)
Villeneuve, de, (HEI.ION or fiuo.\r, a'le'oN',) was
born in 1270. Having entered the order of Saint John
f Jerusalem, he was elected grand master of Rhodes
in 1319. Died in 1346.
Villeneuve, de, (Huox, /m'dN',) a French poet
under the reign of Philip Augustus, was the author of
" Les quatre Fils d'Aymon," and other works.
Villeneuve, de, (Louis,) a French general, born
about 1450, was appointed by Charles VIII. commander
f the army sent against Naples. He was subsequently
employed on important missions to Rome, and in 1505
was created a marquis by Louis XII., being the first who
received that title in France. Died in 1516.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, xi, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
VILLENEUVE
22OI
yiLLOISON
Villeneuve, de, (PIERRE CHARLES JEAN BAPTISTE
SII.VESTRF.,) a French admiral, born at Valensoles
(Basses-Alpes) in 1763. He served with distinction in
the American war, became a rear-admiral in 1796, and
commanded the right wing of the fleet which was
defeated by Nelson at the battle of the Nile, in 1798.
With the rank of vice-admiral, he fought an indecisive
battle against Sir Robert Calder, near Cape Finisterre,
in July, 1805. He commanded about thirty-three ships
of the line at the battle of Trafalgar, where the French
were defeated with great loss and Villeneuve was taken
prisoner, (October, 1805.) He was blamed by Napoleon
for this defeat, and committed suicide at Rennes in
April, 1806.
See J. J. MAGENDIE, " Memoire necrologique sur le Vice-Amiral
de Villeneuve," 1814; "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Villeneuve.de, (RoMEK,) an eminent French states
man and general, born about 1170. He was employed
in the service of Berenger, Count of Provence, and was
regent of Provence after the death of Berenger, in 1245.
Died after 1250.
Villeneuve, de, (ROSALINE,) a French nun, noted
for her ascetic piety, born about 1263, was canonized.
Died in 1329.
Villeneuve-Bargemoii, de, deh vel'nuv' biRzh'-
mo.N', (JEAN PAUL Alban — fl'boN',) VICOMTE, a French
economist, born near Grasse (Provence) in 1784. He
received the Montyon prize for his "Christian Political
Economy, or Researches into the Causes of Pauperism,"
etc., (T, vols., 1834.) Died in 1850.
Villeneuve-Trans, de, deh vel'nuv' tR6x, (Louis
FRANCOIS,) MARQUIS, a historical writer, born in 1784,
was a twin-brother of the preceding. Among his works
is a " History of Saint Louis, King of France," (3 vols.,
1836.) Died in 1850.
Villerme, ve'ye'R'ma', (Louis,) a son of the following,
was born in Paris in 1819. He wrote on agriculture
and economy.
Villerme, (Louis RENE,) a French economist and
medical writer, born in Paris in 1782. He advocated
reform in the treatment of prisoners, founded the " An-
nales d'Hygiene," (1829,) and was the first, it is said,
to apply statistics to questions of hygiene. His chief
work is a "Tableau of the Moral and Physical State
of Operatives employed in the Manufacture of Cotton,
Wool, and Silk," (2 vols., 1840.) Died in 1863.
See " NouveHe Biographic Generale."
Villeroi or Villeroy, de, deh vcl'inva', (CHARLES
As Neufville — deh nuh'vel',) MARQUIS, a French gen
eral, born about 1560, was called Marquis d'Alincourt
in his youth. He fought for the League, and was a
rival of Sully. Died in 1642.
Villeroi,' de, (FRANQOIS DE NEUFVILLE,) Due, a
marshal of France, born in Paris in 1644, was a son
of Nicolas, noticed below. He was better qualified to
be a courtier than a general. He became marechal-
de-camp in 1674, lieutenant-general in 1677, and mar
shal of France in 1693. Through royal favouritism
he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army in
Flanders in 1695. He failed to relieve Namnr, which
was besieged and taken by William III. of England.
He commanded at the battle of Ramillies, (1706,) where
he was defeated by Marlborough ; but he retained the
favour of Louis XIV. even after this disaster. He
was noted for his presumption and self-esteem. Died
in 1730.
See SAINT-SIMON, " Memoires ;" VOI.TAIRR, " Siecle de Louis
XIV;" DE COURCEI.I.ES, "Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais ;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Villeroi, de, (NICOLAS DK NEUFVILLE,) Due, a
courtier and general, born in 1598, was a son of Charles,
noticed above. He became a marshal of France, and
governor of the young king Louis XIV., about 1646.
Died in 1685.
Villeroi or Villeroy, de, (NICOLAS DE NEUFVILLE,)
SEIGNEUR, a French minister of state, born in 1542,
was the father of Charles, noticed above. He was ap
pointed secretary of state in 1567, after which he was a
trusted counsellor of Charles IX. and Henry HI. He
became a partisan of the Catholic League, and was the
agent of the negotiations opened in 1589 between the
Duke de Mayenne and Henry IV. In 1594 he entered
the service of Henry IV. as secretary of state. He was
a rival or enemy of Sully. Died in 1617.
See P. MATHIEU, " Remarques sur la Vie de M. de Villeroy," 1618.
Villeroy. See VILLEROI.
Villers, ve'ya', ( FRANCOIS TOUSSAINT,) a French revo
lutionist, born at Rennes in 1749. He was a member
of the Convention of 1792-95, and of the Council of
Five Hundred. Died in 1807.
Villers, de, deh ve'ya', (CHARLES FRANCOIS DOMI
NIQUE,) a French philosopher and miscellaneous writer,
born in Lorraine in 1764. Soon after the breaking out
of the Revolution, he published a treatise "On Liberty,"
by which he exposed himself to the persecution of the
Jacobins, and was obliged to take refuge in Germany.
lie there made the acquaintance of Heeren, Jacob!, and
other eminent writers, and became thoroughly versed
in German literature, which he greatly contributed to
render popular in France. He was appointed in 1811
professor of philosophy at Gottingen. He was the
author of an "Essay on the Spirit and Influence of
Luther's Reformation," which was crowned by the
French Institute and was translated into English, Ger
man, Dutch, and Swedish, " Report on the State of
Ancient Literature and History in Germany," and
" Philosophy of Kant," etc. He also translated a num
ber of standard German worksinto French. Died in 1815.
See MICIIKI. BKKR, "Notice sur M. C. Villers," 1815; SMILK
A. BEGIN, "Villers, Madame de Rodde et Madame de Stael," 1840.
Villeterque.de, deh vel'tiuk', (ALEXANDRK Louis,)
a French writer, born at Ligny in 1759. He was an
editor of the "Journal de Paris," and published "Dra
matic Essays," (1793,) and " Essays on Morals and Physi
cal Science," (2 vols., 1795.) Died in 1811.
Villette, de, deh ve'let', (CHARLES,) MARQUIS, a
French writer, born in Paris in 1736, was a friend of
Voltaire. lie wrote verses, eloges, etc. In 1792 he
became a member of the Convention. Died in 1793.
Villiaume, ve'le-5'ma', (NICOLAS,) a French historian,
advocate, and political economist, born at Pont-a-Mous-
son in 1814. He published, besides other works, a " His
tory of the French Revolution," (4 vols., 1850,) and a
"Treatise on Political Economy,'*' (2 vols., 1857.)
Villiers. See BUCKINGHAM, DUKE OF.
Villiers. See CLARENDON.
Villiers, vil'yerz, (CHARLES PELHAM,) an English
politician, a brother of Lord Clarendon, was born in
London in 1802. He became a Liberal member of
Parliament in 1835, and made annually a motion to re
duce or repeal the duty on grain. He was appointed
judge-advocate-general in 1853, and president of the
poor-law board in 1859 ; resigned in 1866.
Villiers, (HENRY MONTAGUE,) a brother of the pre
ceding, was born in 1813. He became Bishop of Durham
in 1856. Died in 1861.
Villiers, de, deh ve'yej-i', (JEAN,) a French general,
born about 1384. lie wasTan enemy of the Armagnac
faction, and fought for the English against the King of
France. Died in 1437.
Villiers, de, (PIERRE,) a French writer and preacher,
born at Cognac in 1648. He published a poem on the
" Art of Preaching," ("L'Art de piecher," 1682,) often
reprinted, and several religious and moral essays. Died
in Paris in 1728.
Villiers de L'Isle Adam, de, deh ve'ye-i' deh lei
t'clSs'', (PHILIPPE,) a French commander, born at Beau-
vais in 1464. He was elected grand master of the order
of Saint John at Rhodes in 1521. The Turks having
taken Rhodes in 1522, he removed the order to Malta
in 1530. Died in 1534.
See VERTOT, " Histqire des Chevn^er^de Malte."
Vuftp'iguX^vTl'fe^g'T?''")'' Villepigue, (JOHN B.,)
an American general, born in South Carolina about
1834, graduated at West Point in 1854. He fought
against the Union at Corinth, October, 1862. Died at
Port Hudson, Louisiana, in November, 1862.
Villoison, de, deh ve'Kvi'ziN', (JEAN BAPTISTE GAS-
PARD d'Ansse — do.N'ss,) an eminent French Hellenist,
born at Corbeil-sur-Seine about 1750. He studied at
the College of Beauvais, and at the age of fifteen had
read the greater part of the Greek classics. He pub-
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
flLLON
2202
^INCHON
lished in 1773 the first edition of Apollonius's "Lexicon
of the Iliad and Odyssey," with valuable scholia, from
a manuscript at Saint-Germain. He was soon after
elected to the Academy of Inscriptions, although by the
rules of the society too young to receive that honour.
Having been sent by the government in 1778 to examine
the Library of Saint Mark, Venice, he discovered nu
merous fragments of Greek works hitherto unpublished,
which appeared in 1781 under the title of " Anecdota
Graeca," etc. He also brought to light a manuscript
"Iliad" of the tenth century, with ancient scholia, (since
called " Scholia Vencta,") published, with learned pro
legomena, in 1788. This was considered an important
discovery. Among his other works we may name his
" Epistolae Vimarienses," (1783,) being the result of his
researches in the Library of Weimar, and an edition of
the " Pastoralia" of Longus. lie travelled in Greece
about three years, (1785-88.) He died in April, 1805,
just after he was appointed professor of Greek in the
College de France.
See I?ON Jo-iKpn DACIER, " fi o~e de J. H. cl'Ansse de Villoison,"
1806; article " Dansse" in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Villon, ve'y6.N', (FitANgois,) an early French poet,
whose original name was COKBUKIL, (koit'bul' or koK.'-
buh'ye,) born in Paris in 1431. He was author of a
humorous poem called "The Great Testament,'' (" Le
grand Testament,") and is reckoned one of the national
poets. Died about 1485.
See PROFILET, " De la Vie et des Ouvrages de Villon," 1856;
CAMPAUX, " Villon, sa Vie et ses CEnvres," 1859; LONGFELLOW,
" Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Villotte, ve'yot/, (J.VCQUKS,) a French Jesuit and
missionary, born at Bar-le-Duc in 1656. He was em
ployed in Armenia and at Ispahan. He published
"Travels in Turkey, Persia, Armenia," etc., (1730.)
Died in 1743.
Vilmar, til'maR, (Aur.usr FRIKDRICH CHRISTIAN,)
a German politician and writer, born at Solz, in Hesse,
in 1800. He became intendant-general of the affairs of
the Church at Cassel in 1851. He wrote "Lectures on
the History of the National Literature of Germany,"
(1845,) and other works.
Vimoiit, ve'moN1', (JOSEPH,) a French physician, born
at Caen in 1795. He published a "Treatise on Human
and Comparative Phrenology," (2 vols., 1833-36.)
Viiiateya, one of the names of GARUDA, (which
see.)
VInce, (SAMUKL,) F.R.S., an English mathematician
and astronomer, born in Suffolk. lie became professor
of astronomy and experimental philosophy in the Uni
versity of Cambridge in 1796, and contributed several
treatises to the •' Philosophical Transactions." Among
his works is a "Complete System of Astronomy," (3
vols., 1797-1808.) He was also Archdeacon of Bedford.
Died in 1821.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1809.
Vincent, vaN's6.\', (ALEXANDRE JOSKPH Hidulphe
— //e'diilf',) a French mathematician, born at liesdin in
1797, published a "Course of Elementary Geometry,"
"Treatise on the Solving of Numerical Equations," and
other works on various subjects. He became in 1831
professor of mathematics in the College of Louis le
Grand.
Vincent, (FRANgois ANDRE,) an able French his
torical painter, born in Paris in 1747, was a pupil of Vien.
He gained the grand prize of Rome in 1768, and became
a member of the Royal Academy in 1782. A picture
of " President Mole seized by Factious Persons" is called
his master-piece. Died in 1816.
See QUATREMEKE L>K QuiNcv, " Notice sur Vincent," 1817.
Vincent, (FRANCOIS NICOLAS,) a violent French
Jacobin, born in Paris in 1767, belonged to the faction
called Ilebertistes. He was executed with Hebert in
March, 1794.
Viii'geiit, (NATHANIEL,) an English nonconformist
minister, born at Hertford, was a brother of Thomas,
noticed below. He was ejected in 1662, after which he
preached in London. He wrote several religious works.
Died in 1697.
Vincent, (THOMAS,) an English nonconformist divine,
who was conspicuous for his humanity to the sufferers
from the plague in London in 1665. He published,
among other works, "God's Terrible Voice in the City
by Plague and Fire." Died in 1671.
Vincent, (WILLIAM,) D.I)., an English scholar and
divine, born in London in 1739. He studied at Trinity
College, Cambridge, was appointed head-master of
Westminster School in 1788, and, after several other pre
ferments in the Church, became Dean of Westminster in
1802. He published "The History of the Commerce
and Navigation of the Antients in the Indian Ocean,"
(2 vols., 1807,) a " Defence of Public Education, in a
Letter to the Lord Bishop of Meath," "The Origination
of the Greek Verb, an Hypothesis," and a number of
sermons. The first named is esteemed a standard work.
He was also a contributor to the " British Critic" and
"The Classical Journal." Died in 1815.
See the " Monthly Review" for July, 1798.
Vincent OF LKKINS. See VINCENTIUS LIRINKNSIS.
Vincent de Beauvais, vaN'sSN' deh bo'vi', | Lat.
VINCEN'TIUS BELLOVACEN'SIS,] a learned French Do
minican monk, was tutor to the sons of Louis IX. He
was the author of an encyclopaedia, entitled "Speculum
Quadruplex" or "Speculum Majus." Died about 1260.
Vincent de Paul, (or Depaul,) vin'sent (or vaN'sSN')
deh pol, [Ger. VINCENZ VON PAULA, vin-sents' fon pow'-
la,] SAINT, a benefactor and reformer, born near Dux, in
the southwest of France, in 1^76. He was ordained a
priest in 1600, and was captured in 1605 by corsairs, who
took him to Tunis and sold him as a slave. Having
escaped in 1607, he went to Paris, and became curate
of Clichy in 161 1. About 1613 he was employed as pre
ceptor of the sons of Philippe Emmanuel de Gondi,
Count de Joigny. One of these pupils was the famous
Cardinal de Retz. Vincent distinguished himself by his
zeal to improve the moral and physical condition of the
poor and the sick. About 1617 he founded a charitable
institution, called Confrerie de Charite, in which he
made a successful innovation by employing the laic ele
ment. He afterwards spent some time in reforming and
relieving the prisoners in the galleys at Marseilles. In
1624 he began to organize the Congregation of the Mis
sions, designed to train teachers and preachers for the
provinces of France. The priests of this society were
called Lazaristes. He established a foundling-hospital
in Paris about 1638. Among the most useful and widely-
extended institutions of Vincent de Paul was the Sisters
of Charity, devoted to the service of the sick. During
the civil war of the Fronde his inexhaustible charity
was employed in relieving the miseries of famine. His
services on this occasion procured for him the title of
Pere de la Patrie, (" Father of the Country.") He died
in Paris in 1660. He was canonized by Pope Clement
XII. in 1737.
See ABEI.LY, "Vie de Saint Vincent de Paul," 1664; P. COI.I.RT,
"Viede Saint Vincent de Paul," 2 vols., 1748: GALURA, " Vincenz
von Paula," 1807 : LEOPOLD I>H STOLBKRG. " Leben des Vincen/ von
Paula," 1818; LKMAIRE, "Vie de Saint Vincent de Paul," 1825;
AKB£ MAURY. " Pane'ayriqiie de Saint Vincent de Paul," 1827;
CAPBFIGOK, " Vie de Saint Vincent (1» Paul," 1827; Til. NISARD,
"Vie de Saint Vincent de Paul," 1844; A. CHAI.I.AMEI, "Saint
Vincent de Paul," 1841 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
Vincent Ferrier or Vicente Ferrer, ve-then'ta
fer-raik', a Spanish Dominican monk, born at Valencia
about 1350. He preached in Spain, France, Italy, and
Germany, the languages of which he spoke with facility.
He was renowned as a preacher, and was venerated as a
saint. Died at Vannes in 1419.
See COELHO, " Vida de V. Ferrer," 1713; FUKSI, "Life of V.
Ferrier," (in Hungarian,) 1749: HELI.HR, "Vincent Ferrer nach
seinen Leben und Wirken," 1830.
Vin-cen'tl-us (vin-sen'shc-us) Lir-i-nen'sis, [Fr.
VINCENT DE LERINS, van'soN' dfh leh-ra.\',] a monk
and writer, born in Gaul. He wrote a short treatise
entitled "Commonitorium" against heretics, which is a
work of some merit. Died about 450 A.D.
Vincenz von Paula. See VINCENT DE PAUL.
Vinchon, va\'sho.N', (AUGUSTS JEAN BAPTISTK,) a
French painter, born in Paris in 1789. He obtained the
grand prize from the Academy of Arts in 1814, and sub
sequently studied at Rome. Among his works may be
named "Joan of Arc under the Walls of Orleans," and
the "Death of Coriolanus." Died in 1855.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon;
2203
V1KET
Vinci, da, da vei/chee, (or vin'chee,) (LEONARDO,) a
celebrated Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, born
at Vinci, near Florence, in 1452, was a natural son of
Pietro da Vinci, a notary. He became in early youth a
pupil of Andrea Verocchio, a painter of Florence, whom
he soon surpassed. He was well versed in anatomy,
astronomy, botany, mathematics, engineering, and music.
In his youth, before he left Florence, he produced a
cartoon of Adam and Eve, a Madonna, a picture of the
"Adoration of the Magi," and other works. About 1481
he removed to Milan, and entered the service of Ludovico
il Moro, Duke of Milan. He was director of an Academy
of sciences and arts founded by the duke about 1485. In
1493 he made a model for a bronze equestrian statue of
Francesco Sfor/a. The statue was never cast, because
he could not procure a sufficient quantity of bronze.
About 1499 he completed at Milan his master-piece, —
the picture of the " Last Supper," (" Cenacolo,") which
was painted on a wall of the convent of Santa Maria
delle Grazie. This celebrated work exists now only in
copies made by Marco Oggioni and other painters, and
in the engraving of Raphael Morghen. In consequence
of the expulsion of Ludovico il Moro from Milan by
Louis XII. of France, Leonardo returned to Florence
in 1500. He painted at Florence a portrait of Madonna
Lisa del Giocondo and "The Virgin on the Knees of
Saint Anne." Having been commissioned to paint
one end of the council-hall of the Palazzo Vecchio, he
commenced there a picture of the battle of Anghiari,
which he left unfinished. He worked at Milan in 1507
and 1512. He visited Rome in 1514, but soon came
away in disgust, which is ascribed to Pope Leo's want
of courtesy, or to the disagreement of Da Vinci with
Michael Angelo, who was then at Rome. Da Vinci en
tered the service of Francis I. of France, whom he met
in Italy, and whom he accompanied to France in 1516.
He received from Francis an annual salary of seven
hundred crowns. His health was so infirm that he exe
cuted no great work after he left Italy. He was the
author of an excellent treatise on painting, "Trattato
della Pittura," which has been translated into English,
and various other treatises, which have not been pub
lished. The genuine paintings of Da Vinci which are
now extant are not very numerous. Among them is a
portrait of himself in the Uffizi gallery at Florence. He
surpassed all his predecessors in the art of chiaroscuro.
He was never married. He died near Amboise, or at
Fontainebleau, in May, 1519, leaving his manuscripts,
library, and other personal property to his pupil Fran
cesco Melzi. Among his eminent pupils were Bernar
dino Luini and Marco Oggioni.
" The discoveries, "says Hallam, " which made Galileo
and Kepler and Maestlin and Maurolicus and Castelli
and other names illustrious, the system of Copernicus,
the very theories of recent geologers, are anticipated
by Da Vinci within the compass of a few pages, — not
perhaps in the most precise language or on the most con
clusive reasoning, but so as to strike us with some
thing like the awe of preternatural knowledge. ... If
any doubt could be harboured, not as to the right of Leo
nardo da Vinci to stand as the first name of the fifteenth
century, which is beyond all doubt, but as to his origi
nality "in so many discoveries, which probably no one
man, especially in such circumstances, has ever made, it
must be on an hypothesis, not very untenable, that some
parts of physical science had already attained a height
which mere books do not record." (" Introduction to the
Literature of Europe.")
See AMORETTI, " Memorie stnriche sulla Vita di L. da Vinci,"
1784; VASARI, "Lives of the Painters;" GAUI.T DE SAINT-GKR-
MAIN, "Vie de Leonard de Vinci." iSo-?: G. Bossi, "Vita di I,. A.i
Vinci," 1814; BR\UN, " L. da Vinci's Leben," 1819; J. W. BROWN.
" Life of L. da Vinci," 1828 ; A. DUMF.SNM., " Leonard de Vinci,'1
Paris. 1850; GAI.I.KNBKRG, " Leon, da Vinci," 1834 : CH. CI.EMENT,
" Michel Ange, L. de Vinci. Raphael," 18^1 ; MRS. JAMESON, "Me
moirs of Early Italian Painters:" J. S. HAWKINS, "Life of L. da
Vii ci," 1X02 ; E. J. DEI.ECI.UZK, '' Essai sur L. da Vinci." 1844:
LANZI, "History of Painting in Italy;" K. Rio, " L. da Vinci et
?on Ecole," 185;; TIOIZZI, " Dir.ionario ;" BAI.DINUCCI, " Noti/.ie ;"
" We<tminste/Rpview" for July, 1850.
Vinci, da, '(I, EON. \R DO,) an Italian musical composer,
born at Naples in 1690; died about 1732.
Vinciguerra, ven-che-gwer'ia, (MARCO ANTONIO.)
an Italian poet, who flourished about 1470-1490. lie
was for a long time secretary of the republic of Venice.
He is called the creator of satire in Italy. His works
are said to be remarkable for energy, originality, and
pathos.
Vincke, fink'keh, (FuiEDRicu LUDWIG WILHKLM
PHILIP?,) a Prussian statesman and writer, born at Min-
den in 1774, filled several important offices under the
government, and published a treatise " On the Admin
istration of Great Britain." Died in 1844.
Vincke, von, fon flnk'keh, ( ERNST FRIEDKICH
GEORG,) BARON, a distinguished Prussian orator and
statesman, son of Friedrich, noticed above, was born
near Hagen, in the county of Mark, in 1811. He was
elected to the Diet in 1847, and in 1849 became a
member of the second Prussian Chamber, being several
times re-elected. He is one of the principal leaders of
the constitutional party, and is conspicuous as an able
and brilliant debater.
Vinckelbooms, vlnk'el -boms', or Vinkenbooms,
vink'en-boms', (DAVID,) a Dutch painter, born at Mech
lin in 1578. His favourite subjects were landscapes,
festivals, hunting-scenes, etc., which he delineated with
great skill and fidelity. Died in 1629.
Vin'dex, (CAius JULIUS,) a Roman general, born in
Aquitania. lie was governor or pro-praetor of Gallia
Celtica in the reign of Nero. In 68 A.D. he revolted
against Nero, and proclaimed Galba emperor. He was
killed, or killed himself, at Vesontio (Besai^on) in the
same year.
Vindiciaiius, vin-dish-e-a'nus, an eminent physician
and Christian, lived about 370 A.D. He was physician
to the emperor Valentinian. His skill and wisdom are
highly commended by Saint Augustine.
Vinding, vii/cling, (ERASMUS,) a Danish scholar and
jurist, born at Vinding, in Zealand, in 1615. He became
professor of Greek and assessor of the supreme court
of justice. He had the principal part in the reformation
or revision of the laws of Denmark. Died in 1684.
Vinding, (PAUL,) a son of the preceding, was born
about 1658. He was professor of Greek, and author of
several works on classical subjects. Died in 1712.
Vineis, vin'e-is, (PKTRUS,) originally Pietro delle
Vigne, (del'la ven'ya,) an Italian jurist, ruse to be chan
cellor to Frederick II., Emperor of Germany, whose
cause he defended against the popes. Died in 1249.
Vl'ner, (CHARLES,) an English lawyer and compiler,
born about 1680, published in 1751 "A General and
Complete Abridgment of Law and Equity," (24 vols.
fol.,) a work on which he is said to have employed half
a century. He died in 1756, bequeathing twelve thou
sand pounds to establish a professorship of common law
at Oxford, which was first filled by Blackstone.
Vines, vlnz, (RICHARD,) an 'English Presbyterian
divine, born in Leicestershire. He was a member of the
j Assembly of Divines in 1644, minister of Saint Clement
Dane's, and vicar of Saint Lawrence Jewry, London.
Died in 1655.
Vinet, ve'ni', (AI.EXANDRE RODOLPHE,) an eminent
Swiss author and theologian, born at or near Lausanne
in June, 1797. He became professor of the French lan
guage and literature at Bale in 1817, and retained that
chair twenty years. He acquired a high reputation as
an eloquent preacher, advocated liberty of conscience,
and opposed the union of church and state. In 1837 he
was appointed professor of practical theology at Lau
sanne. He published, besides other works, "An Argu
ment for Liberty of Worship," (1826,) " Chrestomathie
Frai^aise," (3 vols., 1829-30,) " Discours sur quelques
Sujets religieux," (1835,) an English version of which
was entitled " Vital Christianity," " Studies on French
Literature of the Nineteenth Century," (3 vols., 1849,)
and " Pastoral Theology," (1850.) His works are highly
esteemed, and are remarkable for elegance of style.
He seceded from the national Church in 1840. Died
in 1847.
See E SCHERKR, " A. Vinet, sa Vie et ses Merits," 1853 : SAINTE-
BEUVK, "Portraits contemporains ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene-
rale ;" "North British Review" for August, 1854.
Vinet or Vinette, ve'neV, (fii.lE,) a French scholar
and critic of great' learning, was born near Barbezieux
(Saintonge) in 1509. He was for some years professor
•e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (gSf^See Explanations, p. 23.)
riNETTE
2204
VIREY
at the College of Guienne, Bordeaux, of which he was
rector or president from 1558 till 1583. He published
good editions, with notes, of Eutropius, (1553,) Sueto
nius " De Rhetoribus," (1556,) Florus, (1563,) Ausonius,
(1575,) and other classics. He also wrote several original
works. Died in i 587.
See JOANNET, "filoge d'filie Vinet," 1816; NICERON, " Me-
moires."
Vinette. See VINET, (£LIE.)
Viiigtrinier, vaN'tKe'ne-i', (ARTUS BARTHELEMY.)
a French physician and economist, born in 1796. He
practised in Rouen, and treated the subject of prison-
reform in an able work, entitled " Des Prisons et des
Prisonniers," (1840.) He wrote other works.
Vinaeii. See VINNIUS.
Viii'nl-us or Via'nen, (ARNOLD,) an eminent Dutch
jurist, bom near the Hague in 1588. He became pro
fessor of law at the University of Leyclen in 1633. He
published "Select Questions of Law," "Commentaries
on Four Books of the Imperial Institutes," ("Com-
mentarius in Libros IV. Institutionum Imperialium,"
1642,) and other works. Died at Leyden in 1657.
Vintimille, de, deli vaN'te'mer or vaN'te'me'ye,
(JACQUKS,) COMTE, a scholar and translator, born about
1512. He lived mostly in France, and became a coun
sellor to the parliament of Burgundy in 1549. He wrote
several Latin poems, and translated into French the
" Cyropaedia" of Xenophon and the works of Herodian.
Died in 1582.
See LUDOVIC LIE VAUZRLLES, "Jacques de Vintimille," 1865.
Vintimille du Luc, de, deli vaN'te'mel' dii lu'k,
(CHARLES GASPARD GUILLAUME,) a French prelate,
born near F re jus in 1655. He became Archbishop of
Paris in 1729, and opposed Jansenism. Died in 1746.
Vin'ton, (ALEXANDER HAMILTON,) D.D., an Epis
copalian divine, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in
1807. He became successively rector of Saint Paul's
Church in Boston, the Church of the Holy Trinity in
Philadelphia, and Saint Mark's Church in New York,
(1861.)
Vinton, (FRANCIS,) D.D., a brother of the preceding,
was born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1809. He
graduated at the Military Academy of West Point, served
in the Creek war in 1836, and, having afterwards studied
theology, was ordained in 1839. He became rector of
Grace Church, Brooklyn, in 1847, and assistant minister
of Trinity Church, New York, in 1855.
Vinton, (FRANCIS LAURENS,) an American general,
a nephew of the Rev. Francis Vinton, was born at Port
land, Maine, in 1835. He graduated at West Point in
1856, and became a brigadier general about September,
1862.
Vinton, (JUSTUS HATCH,) an American missionary,
born at Wilhngton, Connecticut, in 1806, sailed in 1834
for Burmah, where he devoted himself to the instruction
of the Karens. Died in 1858.
Vinton, (SAMUEL F.,) an American legislator, born at
South Hadley, Massachusetts, in 1792. He removed to
Ohio about 1816, practised law with distinction, and as a
Whig represented a district of Ohio in Congress about
twenty-two years, (1823-37 and 1843-51.) Died in 1862.
Vio, de. See CAJETAN.
Violante do Ceo. See CKO, no.
Viollet-Leduc, (or Le Due,) ve'o'l.Y leh ditk, (EU
GENE EMMANUEL,) an eminent French architect, born
in Paris in 1814, was a pupil of A. Leclerc. He devoted
himself to Gothic and mediaeval architecture, and was
employed by the government in the restoration of
several ancient churches, among which were that of
Notre-Dame, in Paris, and the cathedral of Amiens.
He began to publish in 1853 a large and valuable work
on French architecture, " Dictionnaire raisonne de 1'Ar-
chitecture Frai^aise du Xle au XVIe Siecle," (6 or
more vols.)
Viomenll, de, deh ve'o'ma'nel', (ANTOINE CHARLES
du Houx — dii /ioo,) BARON, a French general, born
in Vosges in 1728. He was second in command of the
army of Rochambeau in the United States, to which he
was sent in 1780. While defending the king against the
populace of Paris, in August, 1792, he received a severe
wound. Died in November, 1792.
Viomenil, de, (CHARLES JOSEPH HYACINTHE in1
Houx,) MAKQUIS, a general, born in 1734, was a brother
of the preceding. He served in the United States,
(1780-82,) emigrated as a royalist in 1791, and fought
against France, under Conde, until 1797. He returned
in 1814, and became a marshal of Fiance in 1816. Died
in 1827.
Viotti, ve-ot'tee, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA,) a celebrated
Italian violinist, born in Piedmont in 1755. ^e studied
under Pugnani, and was appointed, at the age of twenty,
first violinist at the court of Turin. On the breaking
out of the French Revolution, he repaired to London,
where he was for a time leader of the band at the King's
Theatre. One of his principal works is entitled "Vingt-
neuf Concertos de Violons." Died in 1824.
See BAIU.OT, "Notice sur J. B. Viotti," 1825; MIEI., "Notice
sur Violti," 1X27.
Viperano, ve-pa-ra'no, (GIOVANNI ANTONIO,) an
Italian writer and ecclesiastic, born at Messina in 1535.
He was appointed Bishop of Giovenazzo by Pope Sixtus
V. He wrote various works, among which are "On '
Writing History," (" De Scribenda Historia," 1569,) and
"On the Chief Good," ("De Summo Bono," 1575.)
Died in 1610.
Vipsanius. See AGRIPPA.
Virabhadra, [modern 1 lindoo pron. vee'ra-b'hud'ra, ]
[from the Sanscrit vird, a "strong or valiant person,"
a " hero," (perhaps cognate with the Latin vir, a " man,"
also a " hero,") and bh.idni, " prosperous," "excellent,"]
in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a son, or, accord
ing to some, of an avatar, of Siva.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon," p. 177.
Viraj, vi-raj', in the Hindoo mythology, the name of
a mysterious being, who was said to be the son of
Brahma and the father of the first Mann. By dividing
himself into male and female, he became the parent of
many creatures. The fable of Viraj seems to have sug
gested the idea of Arclha-nari, (ar'dha na'ree, from
ilrdhd, "half," and ndri, "woman," a being combining
the two sexes,) one of the forms of Siva, and perhaps
also of the Hermaphrodite of the Greeks.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon," pp. 83-85.
Virchow, feek'Ko, (Runoi.E,) a distinguished Ger
man pathologist, born at Koslin, in Pomeranin, in 1821.
He became in 1846 prosector at Berlin, and in 1856
professor of pathological anatomy in that city. Perhaps
the most important of his professional works — all of
which enjoy a high reputation — is his "Cellular Pa
thology as based upon Physiological and Pathological
Histology," (1858; 2(1 edition, 1859,) which has been
translated into English, and is regarded as the highest
authority on the subjects of which it treats. lie has also
given especial attention to investigating the diseases
caused by trichina. In regard to political and social
questions Dr. Virchow is progressive and liberal.
See PIEREK, " Universal-Lexikon."
Viret, ve'r.Y, [Lat. VIRE'TUS,] (PIERRE,) an eminent
Swiss Reformer, born at Orbe in 1511, was a friend of
Fare!. He began about 1531 to preach the Reformed
doctrines at Orbe and Payerne. In 1536 he preached
at Lausanne, where lie made many converts, and where
he was employed as pastor several years. His health is
said to have been ruined by poison given to him by
some priests at Geneva. For the benefit of his health,
he removed about 1561 to the south of France. He
afterwards preached at Lyons, from which he was driven
by persecution in 1565, and took refuge in Navarre. He
wrote many works, among which are an " Exposition of
the Doctrines of the Christian Religion," (1543,) and
"Papal Physics," ("La Physique papale," 1552.) Died
at Orthez in 1571.
See CHENF.VIEUE. " Farel, Froment, Viret, Reformateurs," 1835;
JAQIJKMOT, "Viret, Refonnateur de Lausanne," 1836.
Viretus. See VIRET.
Virey, ve'r.Y, ([UIJEN JOSEPH,) a French physician,
born in the department of Hante-Marne in 1775. He
was appointed in 1812 chief pharmaceutist at the hos
pital of Val de GrS.ce in Paris. He published a "Theo
retical and Practical Treatise on Pharmacy," (1811,)
" Ephemerides of Human Life," (1814,) "On Vital
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, o, sam», less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; muon;
VIRGIL
220:
VIRGINIA
Power," (1822,) "Philosophical Hygiene," (2 vols.,
1828.) and other valuable works. He was also one of
the principal contributors to the " Dictionnaire des Sci
ences naturelles" and the "Dictionnaire des Sciences
medicates." Died in 1846.
Vir'gil, [Ital. VIRGILIO, veR-iee'le-o ; Fr. VIRGII.K,
veR'zhel',] or, more fully, Pub'11-us Vir-gil'I-us (or
Ver-gil'I-us) Ma'ro, the most illustrious of Latin poets,
was born of humble parents at Andes, a small village
near Mantua, on the I5th of October, 70 B.C., during the
consulship of Pompeyand Crassus. His mother's name
was Maia. He studied at Cremona, Milan, and Neapo-
lis, (Naples.) It is evident from his writings that he re
ceived a liberal education, and was well versed in Greek
literature, philosophy, medicine, and mathematics. lie
inherited from his father, Maro, a small farm near Man
tua, which was included in the tract assigned by Octavian
(Augustus) to his soldiers as a reward for their services
at Philippi in 42 B.C. Virgil was thus deprived of his
patrimony; but he recovered it by a personal appeal to
Augustus. He expressed his gratitude for this favour
in his first eclogue, which is supposed to be one of his
earliest productions. He became an intimate friend of
Pollioand Horace, and found a liberal patron in Maecenas,
to whom he was introduced about 40 B.C. He displayed
a remarkable mastery over the Latin language in his
ten eclogues, " Bucolica," or pastoral poems, which are
mostly imitations of Theocritus. In these poems, de
scriptions of nature are admirably blended with human
feelings and sympathies.
About the age of thirty-three, Virgil became a resident
of Rome, and a recipient of the bounty of Augustus to
such an extent that he could devote himself entirely to
literary pursuits. He owned a house on the Esquiline
Hill. It appears that after he had remained a few years
at Rome he removed to Naples, at that time a favourite
abode of literary men. He expended seven years in the
composition of a didactic poem on rural economy,
entitled " Georgica," in four books, which is considered
his most original and finished production. It presents a
marvellous union of didactic precept with graphic de
scription and ingenious illustration, expressed with great
variety and magnificence of diction. " In sustained
majesty, in melody that ever satisfies but never cloys
the ear, in variety of modulation, in stateliness but free
dom of march, it stands unapproached by any other
Roman poet." (" Encyclopaedia Britannica.")
About 30 n.c. he began to compose a great national
epic poem, which he had long meditated, and which was
designed to celebrate the origin of the Roman empire.
He had written or sketched the last book of this poem,
the " /Eneid," (" /Eneis,") which constitutes a perennial
monument of his genius, when he departed on a visit to
Athens in 19 B.C. He intended to pass several years in
Greece, in polishing and revising the " /Eneid," but his
health failed. During the homeward voyage he died
at Brundusium, in September, 19 B.C. According to his
own request, he was buried near Naples. There is a
current tradition that shortly before his death he re
quested his friends to burn the " /Eneid," which he
regarded as imperfect ; but, as they refused to comply,
he committed the publication of it to Tucca and Varius.
Virgil is represented as a person of tall stature,
swarthy complexion, and delicate constitution. He was
generally beloved as well as admired by his contempo
raries. Among his virtues modesty was conspicuous.
Of his more private life nothing is known. It does not
appear that he was ever married. lie had two brothers,
who died before him, and a half-brother, Valerius Pro-
culus. The "/Eneid" has ever been ranked among the
poems which are destined to immortality. Nearly nine
teen hundred years of uninterrupted popularity attest
the broad and elevated and diversified character of his
poetical merit. In comparison with Homer, it is usual
to represent Virgil as deficient in originality and sub-
limit}'. Some critics also depreciate the " /Eneid" as an
imitation of Homer's " Iliad" and " Odyssey." On this
subject we cannot, perhaps, do better than to quote some
remarks of Addison. " One great genius often catches
the flame from another, and writes in his spirit without
copying servilely after him. There are a thousand
shining passages in Virgil which have been lighted up
by Homer. Virgil falls infinitely short of Homer in the
characters of his poem, both as to their variety and
novelty, ^neas is indeed a perfect character, . . . and
that of Dido cannot be sufficiently admired. . . . Virgil
has excelled all others in the propriety of his sentiments.
Everything is just and natural. His sentiments show
that he had a perfect insight into human nature, and
that lie knew everything that was most proper to affect
it." (Critique on Milton's "Paradise Lost." in the
" Spectator.") He is considered by good judges supe
rior to all ancient poets in beauty and harmony of
versification. Dante admired Virgil, and adopted him
as his model.
Wordsworth pronounced Virgil the greatest master
of language that ever existed, and extolled his lofty moral
tone and frequent strokes of tenderness and imagina
tion. (" Quarterly Review" for January, 1853.)
Voltaire expressed the opinion that the "/Eneid" "is
the most beautiful monument which remains to us of all
antiquity."
Commenting on J. C. Scaliger's preference of Virgil
to Homer, Hallam observes, " It would be a sort of
prejudice almost as tasteless as that of Scaliger, to refuse
the praise of real superiority to many passages of Virgil,
even as compared with the 'Iliad,' and far more with
the 'Odyssey.' If the similes of the older poet are
more picturesque and animated, those of his imitator
are more appropriate and parallel to the subject."
The best or most popular English translation of Vir
gil is that of Dryden, which has a high reputation.
Sotheby's version of the " Georgics" and Pitt's version
of the "7Eneid"are highly commended. The " Eclogues"
and " Georgics" were also translated into verse by Jo
seph Warton. " We may congratulate ourselves," says
the "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1861, "on the
possession of a splendid English epic, in which most
of the thoughts are Virgil's and most of the language
Dryden's. He was constantly adding to the origmal,
and that in the most wilful and reckless manner. There
were elements in his nature peculiarly repugnant to the
Virgil ian ideal. . . . It is idle to discuss who has come
nearest to the style and language of Virgil, when no one
has come within any appreciable distance." His works
became school-books before the end of the Augustan
age. Virgil composed, says Donatus, his own epitaph,
in these terms :
" Mantua me gemiit, Calabri rapuere, tenet mine
Parthenope. Cecini pasciia, rura, duces."*
See DOXATUS. "P. Virgilii Mnronis Vita;" LAUTER, " De Vir-
gilio Imitatore Homeri," 1796; TISSOT, " fitndes stir Vlrgile," 4
vols., 1825-30; SAINTE-BEUVR, "Virgile," 2 vols.. 1857; SKRVIUS,
" Commentarius ad Virgilium ;" J. W. BEROF.R, " De Virgilio Ora-
tore," 1703; O. ARKHKNIUS, " Tal om P. Virgilius Maro," 1841;
FABRICIUS, " Bibliotlieca Lalina ;" CARI. G. FRANCKR, " Disser-
t.itio de P. Virgilio Mnrone," etc., 1776; BAHR. "Geschiclite der
RSmisclien Literatur ;" MICHAEL EARTH, " Vita P. Virgilii Maronis
Carmine descripta," 1676.
Virgil, (PoLYDORE.) See VERGIL, (POLYDORE.)
Virgile. See VIRGIL.
Virgilio. See VIRGIL.
Virgilius. See VIRGIL.
Virgilius, (POLYDOKUS.) See VERGIL, (POLYDORE.)
Vir-gil'i-us, SAINT, a native of Ireland, became
Bishop of Saltzburg, (Juvavum,) in Austria. He is said
to have converted many Slavonians and Huns to Chris
tianity. Died about 782.
Virgin, vir-geen', ? (CHRISTIAN ADOLPH,) a Swedish
navigator, born at Gothenburg in 1797. He performed
a voyage round the globe in 1851-53, after which he
obtained the rank of rear-admiral.
Vir-gin'I-a, [Fr. VIRGINIE, veR'zhe'ne',] a Roman
maiden, celebrated for her beauty and tragical fate, was a
daughter of Lucius Virginius, an officer of the army. She
was betrothed to L. Icilius, a tribune of the people,
from whom the decemvir Appius Claudius wished to
ravish her. She was seized by M. Claudius, one of his
agents, who pretended that she was his slave, and who,
in order to prove his claim, took her before the tribunal
* " Mantua bore me, Calabria [next] received me, Naples now
holds me. I have sung of pastures, [or shepherds,] of farms, and
of lenders in war."
€ as k: c as s; g hard: g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 73.)
VIRGIN IE
2206
of Appius Claudius. Virginias arrived at the forum
just alter the decemvir had decided that she was the
slave of Claudius. He immediately killed her, to deliver
her from slavery and dishonour, (449 H.C.) The people
revolted against the decemvirs, and dragged Appius
Claudius to prison, where he killed himself.
See SMITH, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. ;
MACAUI.AV, " Lays of Ancient Rome."
Virginie. See VIRGINIA.
Virginius, (Lucius.) See VIRGINIA.
Vjr-giii'i-us Ro-ma'nus, a Latin comic poet of the
Augustan age, had a high reputation. He is said to
have contributed to improve the public taste, and to
have merited a place beside Plautus and Terence. His
style wi.s noble and e'e^ant. His works are lost.
Vir-ghi'I-us (or Vergin'ius) Ru'fus, (Lucius,) a
Roman general, bom at Como in 14 A.n., was consul in
the year 63. After he had defeated Vindex, his army
proclaimed him as emperor, (69 A.n ,) but lie refused
the crown. He became a third time consul in 97 A.D.,
as an associate of the emperor Nerva. lie was eulogized
by Tacitus and Pliny the Younger.
Viriathe or Viriath. See VIKIATHUS.
Vl-ri'a-tkus, [Gr. Oiipiadof ; Fr. VIRIATHE, ve're'tt';
Ger. VIUIATH, ve-re-at',] a brave Lusitanian chief, who
carried on for many years a successful war against the
Romans ; but he was at length betrayed into the hands
of the consul, L. Servilius Csepio, by whom he was put
to death, (140 li.c.)
See HECKER, "Viriath und die Lusitanier," 7826.
Virieu, de, deh ve're-uh', (FUANC.OIS HENRI,) COMTE,
a French officer, born at Grenoble in 1754. He was
elected to the States-General in 1789, and was one of
the members of the noblesse that joined the Tiers-fitat.
He was a royalist, and a leader of the insurgents of
Lyons who revolted against the Convention in May,
1793. He was killed at the capture of Lyons, in Oc
tober, 1793.
See " Notice sur le Comte de Virieu," 1863.
Virotte. See LA VIROTTE.
Virues, de, da ve-roo-eV, ? (CRISTOVAT.,) a Spanish
poet and dramatist, born at Valencia about 1550, was
the author of five tragedies, an epic poem, and a number
of lyrics. Died in 1610.
Viscaino, ves-ka-ee'no, (SEHASTTAN,) a Spanish
navigator, born in the second half of the sixteenth cen
tury. He commanded an expedition sent from Aca-
pulco in 1602, and explored the coast of California, of
which he made an accurate chart.
Vis-9el-li'iius, (SPURIUS CASSIUS.) a Roman general,
distinguished as the author of the first agrarian law,
was consul in 502 H.C. He defeated the Sabines, was
chosen consul again in 493, and formed an important
league with the Latins. Having become consul in 486,
he proposed an agrarian law. He was charged with
aspiring to royal power, and was put to death in 485 B.C.
Visch, de, deh visK, (CHARLES,) a Flemish monk
and biographer, born near Furnes about 1596; died in
1666.
Vischer, (CORNELIS.) See VISSCHER.
Vischer, fish'er, (FKIEDRICH THEODOR,) a German
writer, born at Ludwigsburg in 1807, became professor
of philosophy at Tiibingen in 1844. His principal work
is entitled "/Esthetics, or the Science of the Beautiful."
Vischer, (PETER,) an eminent German sculptor and
founder, born at Nuremberg about 1460. Among his
best works may be named the monument of the Arch
bishop Ernst at Magdeburg and the tomb of Saint Se-
bald at Nuremberg, both in bronze. The latter is of
rare excellence. Died in 1530. Vischer had five sons
who were sculptors, and HERMANN, the eldest, was
esteemed nearly equal to him in genius. Died in 1540.
Vischnou or Vischnu. See VISHNU.
Viscoiiti, ves-kon'tee, the name of a celebrated
family of Lombardy, which acquired sovereign power
at Milan in the thirteenth century. The founder of their
grandeur was OTTONE VISCONTI, who became Arch
bishop of Milan in 1262. He was violently opposed by
a party of the Milanese, the Torriani, whom he defeated
in battle in 1277. He died in 1295. His nephew,
MATTEO VISCONTI THE GREAT, born in 1250, was
chosen in 1288 "captain of the people" for five years.
He obtained sovereign power, and waged war against
the Torriani, who drove him out of Milan in 1302 ; but
he was restored in 1311. He was the leader of the
Ghibelines, and was involved in a quarrel with Pope
John XXII. , who excommunicated him in 1322. He
died in the same year. According to Sismondi, " he
raised himself above all the princes of his time by his
political talents," etc. His son, GALEAZ/.O I., born in
1277, became in 1322 lord of Milan, which was then
under the papal interdict. His capital was attacked in
1323 by an army of crusaders, who were incited by the
pope. He was aided by Louis of Bavaria, and defeated
the crusaders in 1324. Died in 1328. A/,zo VISCONTI,
born in 1302, was a son of Galeazzo, and became sove
reign of Milan and Lombardy in 1329. He is said to
have been an able, liberal, and just prince. He was the
first lord of Milan who coined money in his own name.
Died in 1339, without issue. LUCCHINO (or LUCHINO)
VISCONTI. an uncle of Az/.o and son of Matteo, was born
in 1287. He became lord of Milan in 1339, and enlarged
his dominions by the annexation of Parma, Pavia, and
other towns. He died in 1349, and was succeeded by his
brother GIOVANNI, who was bom in 1290. lie had
been appointed Archbishop of Milan about 1317. He
acquired Bologna by purchase in 1350, and died in 1354.
His power was inherited by three nephews, Matteo,
Galeazzo, and Barnabo, the first of whom died in 1355.
BARNAB6, born in 1319, became master of Bergamo,
Brescia, Crema, and Cremona. He also ruled Milan
jointly with Galeazzo. He was notorious for his cruelty
and audacity, and defied the power of the pope, who
excommunicated him. Urban V. preached a crusade
against him, and united the emperor Charles IV. with
other monarchs in a league against him about 1363.
Barnabo resisted them with success. Died in 1385.
GAI.EAZZO II., born about 1320, became lord of Como,
Pavia, Novara, Vercelli, Asti, and Tortona, in 1354. He
was cruel and tyrannical. He died in 1378, leaving a
son.GiAN GALEAZZO, the first Duke of Milan, who was
born in 1347. He was ambitious and perfidious. Hav
ing deposed his uncle Barnabo in 1385, he obtained his
dominions. By force or fraud he made himself master
of Verona, Vicenza, Bologna, and Padua. In 1395 he
purchased the title of Duke of Milan from the empe
ror, lie aspired to be King of Italy, when he died in
the midst of his victorious career, in 1402. GIOVANNI
MARIA, the eldest son of the preceding, born in 1389,
became duke in 1402. He was feeble and depraved.
During his reign the limits of the duchy were greatly
reduced. He was assassinated in 1412. FILIPPO MARIA
VISCONTI, born in 1391, was a brother of Giovanni
Maria, whom he succeeded. His army, commanded
by the famous General Carmagnola, reconquered
Lombardy. He was cruel, cowardly, and suspicious.
He put to death his own wife. About 1426 Venice,
Florence, and Alfonzo of Aragon formed a league
against him. He waged war for many years against
these powers and the pope Eugene IV. He died in
1447, and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Francesco
Sforza.
Viscoiiti, (ENNio QUIRING,) an eminent Italian
scholar and archaeologist, was born at Rome on the 1st of
November, 1751. He was instructed by his father, who
was prefect of antiquities at Rome. He displayed such
precocity of intellect, that he translated the " Hecuba"
of Euripides into Italian verse at the age of fourteen.
After the death of his father, whom he assisted in
editing the first, he edited the six remaining volumes
of the " Museo Pio-Clementino," (1807.) He had been
appointed in 1787 conservator of the Capitoline Mu
seum. On the occupation of Rome by the French, in
1798, Visconti was chosen a member of the provisional
government, and soon after became one of the five con
suls of the republic. Having removed to France, he
was appointed professor of archaeology and overseer of
the Museum of the Louvre, and published, at the re-
a, e, 7, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n5t; good; moon;
V 'IS CO AT 7
2207
quest of Napoleon, a series of portraits of the eminent
men of Greece and Rome, entitled " Iconographie
Grecque" (3 vols. 410, 1808) and " Iconographie Ro-
maine," (3 vols., 1818.) Besides this magnificent work,
he wrote a description of the monuments found in the
ruins of Gabii, and various other treatises on ancient
art. Died in 1818.
See Qu ATREMEKE UE QUINCY, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages
de Visconti," iSiS; GIOVANNI LABUS, " Notizie bioarafiche intorno
la Vita di E. Q. Visconti," 1818; TIPAMJO, " Biografia degli Italian!
illustri :" DACIKR, " E"loge d'E. Q. Visconti;" "Nouvelle Biogra
phic Generale. "
Viscouti, (FlLlPPO AURKLIO,) a brother of the pre
ceding, became superintendent of the antiquities of
Rome after the death of his father. He published several
antiquarian treatises, and edited the " Museo Chiara-
monti," a sequel to the " Museo Pio-Clementino." Died
in 1830.
Visconti, (GASPARO,) an Italian poet, born at Milan
in 1461, became a senator. He published "Rhymes,"
(" Rithnii," 1493,) anc' a "Poem on the Lovers Paul and
Dana," (" Poema di Paolo e Daria Amanti," 1495.)
Died in 1499.
Visconti, (GIOVANNI BATTISTA ANTONIO,) an Ital
ian antiquary, the father of Ennio Quirino, noticed
above, was born at Vernazza in 1722. He became pre
fect of antiquities at Rome in 1768, and was employed
by Pope Clement XIV. to form a collection of ancient
marbles, which is called "Museo Pio-Clementino."
Died in 1784.
See " Biografia di G. B. Visconti," Rome.
Visconti, (Louis TULLIUS JOACHIM,) an architect,
a son of Ennio Quirino, was born at Rome in 1797,
and studied architecture in Paris under Percier. He was
appointed in 1825 architect of the Bibliotheque Royale.
Among his principal works are the tomb of Napoleon I.,
the monuments of Marshals Soult and Suchet, and the
completion of the Louvre and its junction with the
Tuileries. The last, which was finished in 1857, is a
grand and admirable structure. Died in 1853.
See " Nouvelle Biographic Genera'e. "
Visconti, (MARCO,) an able Italian commander, was
a son of Matteo the Great, (mentioned in the foregoing
notice of the Visconti family,) and a leader of the Ghibe-
lines. He commanded the forces of his brother Gale-
azzo I. when Milan was attacked by an army of crusaders,
whom he defeated in 1322. He was assassinated, by
order of his nephew Azzo, in 1329.
Visdelou, de, deh ve'deh-loo' or ved'loo', (CLAUDE,)
a learned French missionary, born in Brittany in 1656.
He was one of the Jesuits sent to China by Louis XIV.
in 1685. He laboured about twenty years in China,
received the title of Bishop of Claudiopolis in 1708,
and wrote several works on Chinese history, etc. Died
at Pondicherry in 1737.
Vise or Vize. See DONNEAU.
Vishnu, v!sh'ndo, written in French Vichuou or
Vischiiou, and in German Wischnu or Vischnu,
sometimes improperly spelled in English Veeshiioo,*
i.e. the " Pervader," [from the Sanscrit vis/i, to "enter"
or "pervade,"] the name of the preserving deity, one
of the great gods of the Hindoo Triad, t The Vaishna-
vas, (pronounced vish'na-vaz,) or especial worshippers
of Vishnu, claim that Brahma (or the Self- Existent)
sprung from Vishnu in his character of Narayana, (or
the primeval spirit which moved upon the waters, — see
NAKAYANA :) thus they exalt Vishnu above the Creator
(Brahma) and the Destroyer, (Siva.) The Saivas, or
worshippers of Siva, on the other hand, place their
favourite deity far above Vishnu or Brahma, (see SIVA,)
calling him Mahadeva, or the "Great God."
The most striking peculiarity of the preserving deity
* Improperly, because the ee in the first syllable does not represent
correctly the pronunciation. (See Preface, p. vi.)
tit may be proper to observe that the Hindoo Triad (unlike the
Trinity of the Western nations) is not considered to constitute the
godhead of the infinite eternal Being ; for none of the gods of the
Triad is supposed to be eternal in the strictest sense. They are, in
fact, personifications of the powers of nature. They had a beginning,
and they will come to an end. BRAHM, of whom they are but tem
porary emanations, is the only eternal Being in the Brahmanical
system of theology.
are his numerous avatars, alluding to which Southey
says, —
"When . . . tyrants in their might
Usurped dominion o'er the earth,
[Then] Veeshnoo took a human birth,
Deliverer of the sous of men."
Curse of Kehatna, vol. i., x.
On these occasions his parents were usually Kasyapa
and Diti.J
The following are the names of the avatars of Vishnu :
I. Matsya, or the Fish ; 2. Kurma, the Tortoise ; 3.
•Varaha, the Boar; 4. Narasingha, the Man-Lion; 5.
Vamana, the Dwarf; 6. Parasu-Raina ; 7. Rama-Chan
dra; 8. Krishna; 9. Buddha, (Booddha ;) 10. Kalki, or
the Horse. For an explanation of these, the reader is
referred to their respective heads. Vishnu, as his name
implies, represents Spirit, while in the same general
relation Brahma represents Matter, and Siva, Time.
Again, as the Earth is the type or symbol of Brahma,
and Fire of Siva, so Water is the symbol of Vishnu.
The reason is sufficiently obvious: in a country like
India, where everything is exposed for the greater part
of the year to a burning sun, — one of the many forms
of Siva, — it is the water, coming in the periodical rains,
which alone saves the plants and animals (whose life is
dependent upon that of plants) from utter destruction.
As a personification of water, (or the sea,) Vishnu is in
pictures usually represented of a dark-blue colour. The
air, as the symbol of spirit, and perhaps, also, as the
vehicle of the preserving rains, is considered to belong
peculiarly to Vishnu. The sun likewise, though com
monly regarded as a type of Siva, is one of the many
representations of Vishnu. For if cold is one of the
numerous forms of Siva, (the Destroyer,) the warmth
of the sun may very naturally, in a temperate climate,
or in winter, be considered as a manifestation of the
preserving Power.
Among the possessions peculiar to Vishnu are the
Chakra, (called by the modern Hindoos chuk'ra or
chiik'ur,) a sort of wheel or discus, with a hole in the
centre, which the god hurled at his foes, and the Shankh
or Chank, (modern pron. shimkh,§) a kind of shell, having
allusion, doubtless, to the sea as personified in Vishnu.
Vishnu, like Siva, is said to have had a thousand
different names, among which we may mention that of
Trivikrama, or "three-step-taker," (see VAMANA,) and
Hari, (or Her!,) i.e. "Green," in allusion, in all prob
ability, to the colour of the sea, (the type of Vishnu ;)
so KRISHNA, the name of that one of the avatars which
is regarded as Vishnu himself, signifies "dark blue,"
and it was doubtless applied to him for the same reason,
the colour of the sea varying with varying circumstances
from green to a deep blue.
The preserving deity is usually represented with four
arms. He is pictured in various positions, some
times as Narayana reclining on Sesha, — a thousand-
headed serpent, — meditating on the universe to which
he is about to give being ; from his navel proceeds a
lotus, in the opening flower of which Brahma, known by
his four heads, is seen sitting; while Lakshmi (Nara-
yani) sits reverently at the feet of her lord. At other
times he is represented as standing with the Shankh and
Chakra in his hands. Sometimes he is pictured sitting
with Lakshmi by his side, and holding a bow and mace,
as he rides on his Vahan GARUDA, (which see.) The
Shankh and Chakra are his usual insignia, whether
he is represented in his own proper person or in the
characters of his various avatars.
See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon;" GUIGNIAUT, "Religions de
PAntiquite," vol. i., book i. chap. iii. ; " Biographic Universelle,"
(Partie mythologique ;) Coi-F.MAN, "Mythology of the Hindus."
Visin. See VIZIN.
Visinet, ve'ze'n.V, (AUGUSTE THEODORE,) a French
journalist, born in Paris in 1797. He edited the " Jour
nal de Rouen" from 1828 to 1848.
t In the celebrated drama of " Sakoontala" .'.translated by Pro
fessor Williams, of Oxford) the following passage occurs:
"That immortal pair
Whom Vishnu, greater than the Self-Existent,
Chose for his parents, when, to save mankind,
He took upon himself the shape of mortals." — Act vii.
§ Etymologically related to the Greek xoyx1?. (Latin, concha.,)
having the same signification.
€ as -e; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
flSSCHER
2208
V1TRT
Visscher or Vischer, vis'Ker, (ANNK Roenier —
roo'mer,) a Dutch poetess and artist, born in 1587, was
a daughter of Roenier, noticed below. Died in 1651.
Her sister, MARIA TESSELSCHADK, (tes'sel-sKa'deh,)
born in 1597, was also a poetess. Her talents and beauty
were highly extolled by the historian Hooft. Died in
1649.
See SCIIKI.TEMA, " Anna en Maria Tesse'schade Visscher," 1809;
LONGFKI.I.OW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" " Fraser's Maga
zine" for March, 1854.
Visscher or Vischer, (CORNKI.IS,) an eminent Dutch
engraver, born at Haarlem in 1610, was a pupil of Sout-
man. He executed a number of prints after his own
designs, as well as from other artists. His works are
ranked among the finest specimens of the art, and com
mand enormous prices. He engraved many admirable
portraits, among which is that of A. D. Winius. His
death is variously dated from 1660 to 1670.
Visscher, (JAN,) a skilful Dutch engraver, born in
1636, was a brother of the preceding. He engraved
after Berghem and Ostade. Died after 1692.
Visscher, (ROKMKK or ROMKRUS,) a poet, styled "the
Dutch Martial," born in Amsterdam in 1547, published
a book of emblems, entitled " Zinnepoppen," (1614,) and
a collection of Epigrams. Died in 1620.
Viswacarma or Viswacarmaii. See VISWA-
KARMA.
Viswakarma or Vishwakarma, [modern Hindoo
pron. vis'wa kur'ma ; from the Sanscrit Tlshioa, " all,"
and karma, " work,'') in the Hindoo mythology, the name
of the Artificer of the Universe, corresponding in some
respects to the Vulcan of classic mythology. He was
married to Prithu, the goddess of the earth, which he is
supposed to have moulded into its present shape.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon."
Vlswamitia, vls-wa'mi-tra, or Vishwamitra, [from
the Sanscrit rts/iwd, " all," and mitra, a " friend," called
" the friend of all," perhaps on account of his being the
counsellor and friend of Rama, who was the general
friend of mankind,] a celebrated Hindoo sage, who,
though originally a Kshatriya, became, by long and
painful austerities, a Brahman, or rather a Brahmarshi,
(i.e. " Brahman-rishi," or " Brahman saint") one of a
particular class of rishis, in which character he was the
preceptor and counsellor of Rama.
See MOOR, " Hindu Pantheon ;" WILSON, " Sanscrit-and- Eng
lish Dictionary."
Vital, (OKDKKIC.) See ORDKRICUS VITALIS.
Vital de Blois, ve'taT deh blwi, [Lat. VITA'I.IS
BLK'SK;S,] a Latin poet of the twelfth century, com
posed in 1 1 86 a poem, " De Querulo," which was printed
in 1830.
Vi-ta-le-a'nus, [Fr. VITALIEV, ve'tt'le-ax',] Pope of
Rome, succeeded Engenius I. in 657 A.D. He died {11672
A.n., and was succeeded by Deodatus H.
Vitalis. See SJOHEKG.
Vitalis Ordericus. See OKDERICUS VITALIS.
Vite, della, del'la vee'ia, (TiMOTKO,) an Italian
painter, born at Urbino about 1470. He worked with
Raphael at Rome. Died about 1524.
Vitelli, ve-tel'lee, (CiAPiNO, cha-pee'no,) an Italian
general, born at Citta di Castello in the sixteenth cen
tury. He entered the service of Philip II. of Spain,
ancl was employed under the Duke of Alva in the Low
Countries. Died in 1576.
See MOTLEY, "History of the Dutch Republic," vol. ii.
Vitelli or VI-tel'11-us, (COKNKI.IO,) an Italian teacher
of Greek, came to Oxford about 1488, in order, as Hal-
lam says, "to give that most barbarous university some
notion of what was going forward on the other side of
the Alps." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.")
lie returned to Paris in 1489.
Vi-tel'11-us, (Aui.us,) Emperor of Rome, born about
15 A.D. He was distinguished by the favour of Caligula,
Claudius, and Nero, and was appointed by Galba to
command the German legions. lie was, soon after pro
claimed emperor by his army, and, Galba having been
put to death by the partisans of Otho, the empire was
now disputed between the latter and Vitellius. Otho
was defeated, and Vitellius recognized as emperor ; but,
Vespasian having been meanwhile proclaimed at Alex
andria, his general Antonius Primus marched against
Rome, subdued the adherents of Vitellius, and put him
to death, (69 A.n.)
See SUETONIUS, " Viteliius ;" TACITUS, " History ;" TII.I.EMONT,
" Histoire des Empereiirs :" KRANZ HORN, "Historische Geinaltle'
Galba, Otho, Vitellius," 1812.
Vitellius, (CoRNKLio.) See VITEI.I.I.
Vitello, ve-tel'lo, or Vitellio, ve-tel'le-o, a Polish
mathematician and philosopher of the thirteenth cen
tury, was the author of several works, the principal of
which is a treatise on optics and geometry, entitled
"Vitellionis Perspectivae Libri decem."
Vitet, ve'ti', (Lunovic,) a French litterateur and
statesman, born in Paris in 1802. He was appointed
in 1830 inspector-general of French antiquities, and in
1834 represented the department of Seine-Inferieure in
the Chamber of Deputies. He published historical and
dramatical sketches, entitled " Les Barricades," (1826,)
" Les Etats de Blois," (1827,) and "La Mort de Henri
III," (1829,) also an essay on painting in France, entitled
" Eustache Le Sueur, sa Vie et ses Ouvrages,'*' (-1843.)
He was admitted into the French Academy in 1845.
Vit'I ge§ became King of the Ostrogoths in 536 A.n.
He fought in Italy against Belisarius, who took him
prisoner in 539 and carried him to Constantinople. He
died about three years later.
Vitikind. See WITIKIND.
Vitiza. See Win/, \.
Vitre, ve'tRa', (ANTOINK,) a French printer, born in
Paris about 1595. He was appointed director of the
royal printing-office by Colbert. Among the works which
lie printed was the Polyglot Bible of Le Jay, (10 vols.,
1628-45,) celebrated for the beauty of the characters.
Died in 1674.
See AUG. BERNARD, "A. Vitr£ et les Caracteres Orientaux,"
etc., 1X50.
Vitringa, ve-tuing'ga or ve-tRing'na, (CAMPEGIUS,)
a learned Dutch theologian, born at Leeuwarden in
1659, became successively professor of Oriental litera
ture, theology, and sacred history at Franeker. I le
was the author of Latin commentaries on various books
of the Scriptures, which are highly esteemed. The
Commentary on Isaiah ranks among the best works of
the kind. Died in 1722.
See NICEKON, " Memoires. "
Vitriiaga, (CAMPKGIUS,) a son of the preceding, was
born at Franeker in 1693. lie became professor of
theology at Franeker in 1716, and had a high reputation.
He wrote several theological treatises. Died in 1723.
Vitrolles, de, deh ve'tRol', (Eur.feNK FRANCOIS
AUGUSTK d'Arnaud — cliVnS',) BARON, a French poli
tician, born near Aix in 1774. He was a royalist, and
took an active part in the intrigues which preceded the
restoration of the Bourbons in 1814. He was raised to
the peerage in January, 1830. Died in 1854.
Vitruve. See VITRUVIUS.
Vitruvio. See VITRUVIUS.
Vi-tru'vi-us, [Fr. VITRUVE, ve'tRuv'; It. VITRUVIO,
ve-tRoo've-o,] or, more fully, Mar'cus Vi-tru'vi-us
Pol'll-o, a celebrated Roman architect ancl writer, of
whom little is known. He served as a military engineer
in his youth, and was employed under Julius Caesar in
Africa in 46 n.C. He designed a basilica or temple at
Fanum. In the reign of Augustus he was inspector of
military engines. He wrote in old age a work on archi
tecture, in ten books, ("De Architectura,") which is
highly esteemed as a text-book, and is the only ancient
treatise on the subject that has come down to us. His
work has been translated into English by R. Caste]],
(1730,) and by W. Newton, (1771-91.)
See H. I.AI.OE, " Vita Vitruvii," 1612; POI.ENI, " Exercitationes
Vitruvianae," 1739-41 : QuATRRMEKE DE QUINCY, "Dictionnaire
des Architectes ;" " Nonvelle Biographic Generate."
Vitry. See JAMES DF. VITRY.
Vitry, de, deh ve'tRe', (EnouARn,) a French philolo
gist and numismatist, born about 1670. He wrote a
number of dissertations. He visited Rome in 1724.
Vitry, de, (Louis de 1'Hospital — deh lo'pe'ttl',)
MARQUIS, a French general, was a partisan of the League
after the death of Henry III. Died in 1611.
Vitry, de, (NICOLAS DE L' HOSPITAL,) MARQUIS, a
son of the preceding, was born in 1581. He was one of
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure ; far, fill, fat; met; n5t;good: moon:
t'lTTORELLI
2209
VLADIMIR
those who assassinated Concini in 1617, and was re
warded for that act with the rank of marshal of France.
Died in 1644.
Vittorelli, vet-to-rel'lee, or Vettorelli, ve" t-to-rel'lee,
(ANDREA,) an Italian author and priest, born at Bassano
in the latter part of the sixteenth century. He had a
high reputation as a writer. Died after 1632.
Vittoria Colonna. See COLONNA.
Vittorino da Feltre, vet-to-ree'no da feTtRa, [Fr.
VICTORIN DE FELTRE, vek'to'rax' deh feMtK,] a cele
brated Italian teacher, born at Feltre in 1379, became
professor of rhetoric and philosophy at Padua. He
afterwards presided over a school at Mantua, where he
numbered among his pupils George of Trebizond, Theo
dore Gaza, and other eminent men. His system of
education, which included gymnastics, is highly com
mended by contemporary writers. Died in 1447.
See RACHEI.I, " Intorno a Vittorino da Feltre," 1832 ; BENOIT,
'• Victorin de Feltre," 1833 : CARLO DE ROSMINI. " Idea deil'ottimo
Precettfire nella Vita di Vittorino da Feltre," if<oi.
Vittorio Amedeo. See VICTOR AMADEUS.
Vivaldi, ve-val'dee, (ANTONIO,) an Italian composer
and eminent vioiinist, born at Venice in the seventeenth
century ; died in 1743.
Vivant, ve'vfiN', ( FRANCOIS,) a French priest, born
in Paris in 1663, became canon of Notre-Dame at Paris,
grand vicar, and grand chorister or precentor, in 1730.
He wrote several works on theology. Died in 1739.
Vivares, ve'vik', (FRANCOIS,) a French engraver,
born near Montpellier in 1712. He studied landscape-
engraving in England, and executed a number of prints,
after Claude Lorrain, which are esteemed master-pieces
of the kind. Died in 1782.
Vivarini, ve-va-ree'nee,(AxTONio,)a" Italian painter,
of Murano, near Venice. He was a brother of Barto-
lommeo, and worked about 1450. His works are richly
coloured.
Vivarini, (BARTOI.OMMEO,) a Venetian painter of the
fifteenth century, was one of the first artists in Venice
who employed oil-colours.
Vivarini, (Lnoi,) lived in the fifteenth century, and
attained a high reputation as a painter. There are several
of his works in the Venetian Academy. He worked as
late as 1490.
Vivens, de, deh ve'vSx', (FRAxgois,) a French sa
vant and writer, born near Clairac in 1697. He wrote
on agriculture, physics, etc. Died in 1780.
Vives, vee'v&s, (Jonx Louis,) [called in Latin LUDO-
vi'cus Vi'vus,! a Spanish scholar, born at Valencia in
1492. He studied at the University of Louvain, where
he afterwards became professor of the Latin language.
He was subsequently invited to England by Henry VIII.,
who appointed him tutor to the princess Mary. Having
opposed the divorce of Catherine of Aragon, he was
imprisoned several months, and on his release settled at
Bruges, in the Netherlands. He was an intimate friend
of Erasmus and Budaeus, and the three have been called
a triumvirate in the republic of letters, equally eminent
for talents and learning. Among the principal works of
Vives are Latin treatises "On the Truth of the Christian
Faith," "On the Soul and Life," and "On the Causes
of the Arts being Corrupted," (" De Causis Corrupta-
rum Artium.'') Died in 1540.
See BOSCH-KF.MPER, " J. L. Vives geschetst als christelijk Phi-
lantroon," 1851 ; NAMECHE, "Memoire sur la Vie et les ficrits de
J. L. Vives ;" N. ANTONIO, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova ;" NICERON,
'• Memoires :" DI'PIN, " Auteurs ecclesiastiques ;" "Nouvelle Bio-
graphie Generale."
Viv'i-an, (RICHARD HUSSEY Vivian,) LORD, an
English general, born in 1775. He served under Moore
at Corunna in 1808, became a colonel in 1812, and dis
tinguished himself in the Peninsular war in 1813. With
the rank of major-general, he commanded a brigade of
cavalry at Waterloo. He was raised to the peerage in
1841. Died in 1842.
Viviani, ve-ve-a'nee, (VixcENZO,) a celebrated Italian
mathematician and engineer, born at Florence in April,
1622. He was a pupil of Galileo, after whose death
(1642) he studied under Torricelli. About 1662 he was
appointed chief engineer by the Grand Duke of Tus
cany. He acquired a wide reputation by his attempt to
restore the fifth book of Apollonius on Conic Sections, in
his "Geometrical Conjectures concerning Maximums
and Minimums," ("De Maximis et Minimi's geometrica
Divinatio," 1659.) In 1674 he published "The Fifth
Book of the Elements of Euclid, or the Universal Sci
ence of Proportion explained according to the Doctrine
of Galileo." Died at Florence in 1703.
See FABRONI, "Vitz Italortim doctrina excellentium," vol. i. ;
FONTEXEI.LE, " FJoge de Viviani;" NICERON, "Memoires:" TIRA-
BOSCHI, " Storia deila Letteratura Italiana;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale."
Vivien, ve've^x', (ALEXANDRE FRAxgois AUGUSTE,)
an able French lawyer and writer, born in Paris in 1799.
He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies from
1833 to 1848, and was minister of justice from March to
October, 1840. In 1845 he published " Administrative
Studies," which procured his admission into the Acad
emy of Moral and Political Sciences. Died in 1854.
See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Vivien, (JOSEPH,) a French portrait-painter, born at
Lyons in 1657. He painted mostly in pastel, (crayon,)
and gained a high reputation. He received the title of
first painter to the Elector of Bavaria, at whose court
he worked many years. Died at Bonn in 1735.
Vivien de Saint-Martin, ve've-^x' cieh sax mfR'-
tax', (Louis,) a French geographer and historian, born
about 1800. He published, besides several works of
geography, a " History of the French Revolution," (4
vols., 1841,) and a "History of the Geographical Dis
coveries of European Nations," (2 or 3 vols., 1845-46.)
Vivonne, ve'von', (Louis VICTOR de Rochechou-
art — deh rosh'shoo'Sk',) Due de Montemart et de Vi
vonne, a French general and courtier, born in 1636,
was a brother of Madame de Montespan. He was ap
pointed in 1675 Viceroy of Sicily, which was then the
seat of war between the French and Spaniards. He
gained a decisive naval victory near Palermo in 1676.
Died in 1688.
SeeCoMTE DERoCHECHOUART. " Histoire de la Maison de Roche-
chonart, " 1859 ; SAINT-SIMON, " Memoires;" DANCE A u, "Journal ;"
"Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Vizin, von, fon or von vee'zin, written also Visin
and Wisin, (and sometimes Von-Vezin,) (DEXis
IVANOVITCH,) a celebrated Russian dramatist, born at
Moscow in 1745, was the author of comedies entitled
"The Brigadier" and "The Spoiled Youth," which
obtained great popularity. He also translated Voltaire's
" Alzire," and made other versions from the French and
German. Died in 1792.
Vizzani, vet-sa'nee, (PoMPEO,) an Italian historian,
born at Bologna in 1540. He wrote a "History of
Bologna," (1596.) Died in 1607.
Vlaccus. See VLACQ.
Vlacq, vlak, [Lat. VLAC'CUS,] (ADRIAAN,) a Dutch
mathematician and printer, flourished about 1620-40.
He distinguished himself in the computation of loga
rithms, and published "Tables of Sines, Tangents,
Logarithms," etc.
Vladimir or Wladimir, vlad'e-meer. [Polish and
Russian pron. vla-dee'mir,] surnamed THE GREAT, Grand
Duke of Russia, was an illegitimate son of Svatoslaf,
who, on dividing his dominions, gave him Novgorod
for his share, about 972. He afterwards made war on
his brother .Yaropolk, whom he defeated and put to
death, thus becoming sole monarch of the empire. He
was a warlike and powerful prince, and the first Chris
tian sovereign of Russia. In 988 he demanded in mar
riage the Greek princess Anna, (a sister of the emperors
Basil and Constantine,) and sent an army to the Crimea
to support his demand. He obtained the princess, and,
at the same time, adopted the religion of the Greek
Church, which he established in Russia. He zealously
opposed idolatry, and built churches and schools. Died
in 1015.
See KARAMZIX, " History of Russia."
Vlad'imir or Wladimir, (AXDREIOWITCH,) a brave
Russian prince, was a nephew of Ivan II. At the death
of Ivan, in 1364, he might have succeeded, but he yielded
the throne to Dmitri. He gained a great victory over
the Tartars at Koolikof (Kulikow) in 1380. Died in 1410.
Vladimir Mo-nom'a-ehos, [Fr. VLADIMIR MONO-
MAQUE, flt'de'meR' mo'no'mtk',] a celebrated monarch
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/, G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this.
"39
Explanations, p. 23.)
VLADISLAS
2210
of Russia, born about 1052, was a great-grandson of
Vladimir the Great. He began to reign at Kief about
1 1 12. His wife was a daughter of Harold, King of
England. He was renowned for his martial exploits and
his wisdom and goodness. His reign was very pros
perous. Died in 1126.
See KARAMZIN, " History of Russia."
Vladislas OF HUNGARY. See LADISLAUS.
Vlad'is-laus, written also Vladislas and Ladislas
or Ladislaus, [Polish, WLADISLAW, vla'de-s!3f,] I., King
of Poland, bom about 1044, succeeded his brother Bo-
leslaus in 1082. Died in 1102 or 1103.
Vladislaus or Ladislaus II. was a son of Boleslaw
or Boleslaus III. He began to reign in 1139, and was
deposed by the Diet in 1146. Died about 1162.
Vladislaus or Ladislaus III. or IV., King of Po
land, began to reign in 1296, was deposed in 1300, and
restored in 1305. He defeated the Teutonic knights. He
died in 1333, and was succeeded by his son, Casimir the
Great.
Vladislaus or Ladislaus IV. or V., King of Po
land, was Jagellon, Grand Duke of Lithuania. lie
obtained the crown of Poland in 1386 by marriage with
Hedwig, the heiress of the former king. At the same
time he renounced paganism and joined the Catholic
Church. He waged war against the Teutonic knights.
Died in 1434.
Vladislaus or Ladislaus V. or VI., a son of the
preceding, was born about 1423, or, as some say, 1400.
He was a famous warrior, and became King of Hungary.
(See LADISLAS IV. or V.)
Vladislav. See VLADISLAUS.
Vlaming, vla'ming, (PETER,) a Dutch poet, born at
Amsterdam in 1686. He produced a poetical version
of Sannazaro's " Arcadia," and some original poems.
Died in 1733.
Vlerick, vla'rik, (PETER,) a Flemish painter, born at
Courtrai in 1539. He studied under Tintoretto in
Venice, and worked at Rome. In 1569 he settled at
Tournay. Died in 1581.
Vliet, van, vfn vleet, (HENDRIK,) a Dutch painter of
history, landscapes, and portraits, lived about 1650-1700.
Vlitius, vlee'se-us, or Van Vliet, ( JOHN,) a Dutch
philologist and poet, lived at the Hague ami at Breda.
He was appointed recorder or registrar of Breda in
1651. He wrote Latin poems, and other works, among
which is "Old and New Hunting of J. Vlitius," ("Jani
Vlitii Venatio novantiqua," 1645.) Died in 1666.
Vocht, (KARL.) See VOGT.
Voeroesmarty. See VOROSMARTY.
Voet, voot, (DANIEL,) a son of Gisbert, noticed
below, was born at Heusden in 1629. He became pro
fessor of philosophy at Utrecht, and wrote " Meletemata
Philosophica et Physiologica," (1661.) Died in 1660.
Voet, [Lat. VOE'TTUS,] (GISHERT,) an eminent Dutch
scholar and theologian, born at Heusden in 1589 or
1588. Having studied at Leyden, he became professor
of theology and Oriental languages at Utrecht in 1634.
He was engaged in frequent and violent controversies
with the Arminians, the Catholics, and the Cartesian
philosophers, and advocated the doctrines set forth by
the Synod of Dort. Died in 1676.
See BAYI.E, " Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Voet, (JoHN,) son of Paul, noticed below, was born
at Utrecht in 1647. He became professor of law at
Leyden, and was the author of a commentary on the
Pandects, and other legal vvorks, in Latin. Died in 1714.
Voet, (JoHN EUSEIHUS,) a Dutch poet and physician,
resided at the Hague. Died in 1778.
Voet, (PAUL,) son of Gisbert, noticed above, was
born at Heusden in 1619. He became professor of
logic, Greek, and civil law at Utrecht. lie was the
author of several valuable legal works, among which
we may name "On Laws and their Harmony," (" De
Statutis eorumque Concursu.") Died in 1677.
Voetius. See VOET.
Vogel, vo'zhel' or fo'gel, (ADOLPHE,) a French mu
sical composer, a grandson of Christoph Vogel, was
born at Lille in 1806. He produced an opera entitled
" The Siege of Leyden," which was performed with
applause in 1847.
Vogel, fo'gel, (CHRISTIAN LEBERECHT,) a German
historical painter, born at Dresden in 1759, became pro
fessor in the Academy of his native city. Died in 1816.
Vogel, (CukiSTOPH,) a German composer of operatic
music, born at Nuremberg in 1756. Among his works
is " Demophon." Died in 1788.
Vogel, (EnuARD,) son of Johann Karl, noticed below,
was born at Crefeld in 1829. Being sent in 1853 by the
English government to assist Barth, Richardson, and
Overweg in their researches in Central Africa, he was
put to death, by order of the Sultan of Wadai, in 1856.
Vogel, (JoHANN KARL CHRISTOPH,) a distinguished
German teacher and educational writer, born in 1795.
He became director of the Btirgerschule at Leipsic in
1832. He published a " School Dictionary of the Ger
man Language," a " German Reader for the Higher
Classes," and other works. His daughter ELISE, born
in 1823, has published "Musikalischen Mahrchen,"
(1852,) and other popular tales.
Vogel, (JoHANN WILHELM,) a German mineralogist,
born in the duchy of Coburg in 1657. He published
"Travels in the East Indies," (1690,) and other works.
Died in 1723.
Vogel, (THEODOR,) a German botanist, who in 1841
! accompanied the expedition sent out to Africa by the
| English government. He died at Fernando Po about
six months after.
Vogel von Vogelstein, fo'gel fon fo'gel-stii/, (KARL
CHRISTIAN,) a German painter, son of Christian Lebe-
recht Vogel, noticed above, was born at Wildenfels in
1788. He studied at Dresden, and afterwards visited
Rome and Florence. He became professor of painting
at the Academy of Dresden in 1820, and in 1824 court
painter. Among his principal works are portraits of
Thorwaldsen and Pope Pius VII., and illustrations of
Goethe's " Faust."
Vogelin, fo'geh-leen', (ERNST,) a Swiss painter, born
at Constance in 1528, was a son-in-law of Valentine
Papa, a noted publisher of Leipsic. Among the publi
cations of Vogelin were excellent editions of Isocrates
and other classics. Died in 1590.
Voght, von, fon foGt, (KASPAR;) BARON, a German
philanthropist, born at Hamburg in 1 752, was the founder
of several benevolent and educational institutions for the
poor in his native city. He was the author of treatises
on agriculture and rural economy. Died in 1839.
Vogl, fool, (JoHANN NEPOMUK,) an Austrian lyric
poet, born at Vienna in 1802, has published "Ballads
and Romances," " Soldier Songs," " Lyric Poems," and
other works.
Vogler, for/ler, (GEORG JOSEPH,) a German musician
and composer, born at Wiirzburg in 1749. He was
appointed chapel-master at Stockholm in 1786. He
published several musical treatises, and numbered
among his pupils Meyerbeer and Weber. His com
positions include masses, symphonies, and operas. Died
I in 1814.
Vogler, (VALENTIN HEINRICH,) a German medical
' writer, born at Ilelmstedt in 1622 : died in 1677.
Vogli, vol'yee, (GIOVANNI GIACINTO,) an Italian
physician, born near Bologna in 1697. He published
a work "On the Generation of Man," ("De Anthropo-
gonia," 1718.) Died in 1762.
Vogt, foot, sometimes written Vocht, (KARL,) a
German naturalist and physiologist, born at Giessen in
1817. He studied anatomy and medicine, and subse
quently accompanied Agassiz in his expedition to the
glaciers. He was' appointed professor of geology at
Geneva in 1852. Among his works we may name
" Physiological Letters," (1845,) " Pictures from Animal
Life," (1852,) "Outlines of Geology," (1860,) and "Lec
tures on Man, his Position in the Creation and in the
History of the Earth," (1863.) He also contributed to
Agassiz's " Natural History of Fresh-water Fish." He
favours the Darwinian theory. " All the German writers
we have quoted," says the " North American Review"
for April, 1870, — " Vogt, Biichner, Haeckel, and others,
— dwell with more or less concealed elation on one great
service, as they suppose, of the Darwinian theory, —
that it has removed the necessity of an intelligent Creator
from the theory of the universe."
a, e, T, 6, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moor. ;
Y 01 ART
221 I
VOLKET
Voiart, vwa'tu', (ANNE ELISABETH Petitpain —
peli-te'pax',) a French authoress, born at Nancy in 1786.
She was married to M. Vo'i'art. She wrote novels and
educational works, among which is " Woman, or the
Six Loves," ("La Femme, ou les Six Amours," 6 vols.,
1828.) This gained the Monty on prize. Died in 1866.
Voigt, foiKt, (GOTTFRIED,) a learned German writer,
born in Misnia in 1644. He became rector of an academy
at Hamburg about 1680. He published, besides other
works, "Physical Curiosities," (" Curiositates Physi-
cx," 1668,) and a treatise on the altars of the early
Christians, called " Thysiasteriologia, sive de Altaribus
vetertim," etc., (1709.) Died in 1682.
Voigt, QOHANN,) a German Protestant minister, born
in Hanover in 1695. He published a " Critical Cata
logue of Rare Books," (1732.) Died in 1765.
Voigt, (JOHANNES,) a German historian, born in Saxe-
Meiningen in 1786. He became professor of historical
sciences at Konigsberg in 1817, and afterwards filled the
chair of mediaeval and modern history in the same uni
versity, fie published a " History of the Lombard Con
federacy," ("Geschichte des Lombardenbmules," 1818,)
a " History of Prussia from the Earliest Times down to
the Destruction of the Power of the German Order," (9
vols., 1827-39,) and other works. Died in 1863.
Voigt, von, fon foiKt, (CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB,) a Ger
man jurist, born at Allstadt in 1743, rose to be minister
of state for Saxe-Weimar. He was an intimate friend
of Schiller, Herder, Goethe, and Wieland. Died in 1819.
His son, of the same name, born in 1774, filled several
offices under the government, and was sent on a mission
to Saint Petersburg in 1801. Died in 1813.
Voisenon, de, deh vwaVnox', (CLAUDE HENRI
FUSEE,) AKBE, a French wit and dramatic writer, born
near Melun in 1708. Having taken orders, he was ap
pointed grand vicar of Boulogne, and subsequently
obtained the abbey of Jard. lie was elected to the
French Academy in 1762. He wrote a number of pop
ular comedies ; also poems, tales, literary anecdotes,
and historical sketches. He was an intimate friend of
Voltaire. Died in 1775.
See G. DESNOIRESTF.RRES, " Les Orieinaux ;" " Xouvelle Bio-
grapliie Generale ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1851.
Voisin, (DANIEL.) See VOYSIN.
Voisin, vwa'zax', (FELIX,) born at Mans in 1794,
studied medicine in Paris, and was appointed, in 1831,
physician to the Bicetre Asylum. He published a
treatise " On the Mora! and Physical Causes of Mental
Maladies," (1826,) "On Idiocy in Children," (1843,) anc'
other similar works.
Voisin, de, deh vwa'zaN', (JOSEPH,) a French theolo
gian and Hebrew scholar, born at Bordeaux about 1610.
He was chaplain to the Prince of Conti. He published
the "Theology of the Jews," (" Theologia ludaeorum,"
1647,) a "Treatise on the Jubilee," (1655.) and other
works. Died in 1685.
Voiture, vwa'tim', (VINCENT,) a famous French poet
and wit, born at Amiens in 1598, was a son of a rich wine-
merchant. He was admitted about 1625 into the Hotel
Rambouillet, where he acquired great favour and admira
tion by his wit, his talent for raillery, and his agreeable
manners. In his early life he svas in the service of Gas-
ton, Duke of Orleans, who, having revolted against the
king, sent Voiture to Spain about 1632 to solicit the aid
of the Count of Olivares. He described his travels in
Spain in letters, which are among his best works. He
was one of the first members of the French Academy,
into which he was admitted in 1634. In 1639 he became
maitrc-d' hotel (steward) to the king. He obtained in
1642 the office of chief clerk to the controller-general of
finances, a lucrative sinecure. Died in 1648. He wrote
many letters and poems, which the critics of his own
time extolled as models of grace, but which are marred
by affectation. His style w:as greatly admired by Boileau.
"If the bad taste of others," says Hallam, "had not
perverted his own, Voiture would have been a good
writer. His letters, especially those written from Spain,
are sometimes truly witty, and always vivacious. . . .
Pope, in addressing ladies, was nearly the ape of Voi
ture." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe."
Two English translations of Voiture's letters were made,
one by J. Davies, (1657,) and one by Dryden and others,
(3d edition, 1736.)
Volanus, vo-ld'nus, (ANDREAS,) a Polish writer and
Protestant theologian, born in the province of Posen in
1530, published numerous controversial works against
the Jesuits and Socinians; also a Latin treatise "On
Political Liberty," (1582.) Died in 1610.
Volfius, vol'fe'uV, (JKAN BAPTISTE,) a French prelate,
born at Dijon in 1734. He became constitutional Bishop
of Cote-d'Or in 1791. Died in 1822.
See AMANTON, " Notice sur J. B. Volfius," 1823.
Volger, fol'ger, (WILHELM FRIEDRICH,) a German
teacher, born near Liineburg in 1794, published several
geographical and historical works for the use of schools.
Volk, folk, (WILHELM,) a Prussian writer, born at
Berlin in 1804. He published "The Ecstatic Virgins
i of the Tyrol," and other works on mysticism ; also a
"Manual of Italian Literature," and "Sweden, Ancient
and Modern."
Vol-keTi-us, [Ger. pron. fol-ka'le-us,] QOHANN,) a
German Socinian minister, born in Misnia, flourished in
I the seventeenth century. He wrote a work "On True
; Religion," (" De vera Religione," 1630.)
Volkhardt, folk'haiu, (WILHELM,) a German his
torical painter, born at Herdecke, on the Ruhr, in 1815.
He worked at Dusseldorf.
Volkmann, folk'mdn, (ALFRED WILHELM,) a distin
guished German physiologist, born at Leipsic in 1801.
He studied medicine and natural history at the univer-
; sity of his native city, and in 1837 became professor of
physiology at Dorpat. He was afterwards appointed to
the chair of physiology and anatomy at Halle. Among
his principal works are the "Anatomy of Animals,"
(" Anatomia Animalium," 1831-33,) " New Contributions
to the Physiology of Vision," ( Gesithtsinn, ) (1836,) and
"The Doctrine of the Corporeal Life of Man," (1837.)
Volkmann, (JULIUS,) a jurist, born at Leipsic in
i 1804, is a brother of the preceding. He practised law
at Chemnitz, and published several legal works.
Volkof, Volkov, or Wolkow, vol-kof, (FEODOR
GRIGORIEVITCH,) born at Kostroma, in Russia, in 1729,
was the founder of the first theatre in his native country.
It was erected at Yaroslaf about 1750. He officiated as
architect, scene-painter, manager, actor, and poet, and
distinguished himself in various departments. About
: 1756 he was ordered by the empress to establish a
theatre at Moscow. Died in 1763.
Volleiihove, vol'len-ho'veh, (JAN,) a Dutch poet and
Protestant minister of the seventeenth century, preached
at the Hague. His chief work is " The Triumph of
the Cross."
Voliiey, vol'ne, de, [Fr. pron. deh vol'ni',] (CoN-
STANTIN FRANCOIS,) COUNT, a distinguished French
philosopher, author, and traveller, was born at Craon
(Mayenne) in February, 1757. His family name was
CHASSEHCEUF, (shfss'buf,) for which his father substi
tuted BOISGIRAIS. The name Volney was adopted by the
subject of this article, who inherited an independent
fortune. Having travelled in Egypt and Syria (1783-
85) and learned the Arabic language, he published in
1787 his "Travels in Egypt and Syria," ("Voyage en
figypte et en Syrie," 2 vols.,) which is a work of high
reputation. It was esteemed the best description of
those countries that had yet appeared. In 1789 he was
elected a deputy to the States-General. He favoured
rational liberty and reform, but opposed the excesses of
the Revolution, and was identified with the Girondists.
The weakness of his voice hindered his success as an
orator. In 1791 he produced a popular and eloquent
work, entitled " Ruins, or Meditations on the Revolu
tions of Empires." He was imprisoned by the dominant
party in 1793, and saved from death by the fall of
Robespierre, (July, 1794.) He crossed the Atlantic in
1795, and passed two years or more in the United
States. He complained that he was ill treated by the
government or by President Adams. In his absence he
was chosen a member of the Institute. He supported
•e as s; c as s: g hard; g as/: G, H, K, guttural '; V, nasal; R, trilled: 3 as ;,- th as in M/'r. (^^^See Explanations, p
VOLOGESES
2212
VOLTAIRE
Bonaparte on the iSth Brumal re, 1799, but declined the
place of minister of the interior, which the First Consul
offered him, and soon became alienated from his service.
In 1803 he published a "Description of the Climate and
Soil of the United States of America," ("Tableau du
Climat et du Sol des Etat-Unis d'Ameriqne," 2 vols.
8vo,) which was received with favour. He married his
cousin, Mademoiselle de Chasseboeuf, in 1810. Among
his works are "The Natural Law, or Physical Principles
of Morality," (1793,) and "Researches on Ancient His
tory," (3 vols., 1814.) Died in April, 1820.
See A. BOSSANGE, " Notice sur la Vie de Volney," 1821 ; EUGENH
KERGER, " fitudes sur Volney," 1852 ; SAINTK-BKUVE, li Causeries
du Lundi," vol. vii. ; " Nouvelie Biographic Generate. "
Vo-log'e-ses [Fr. Voi.oofese, vo'lo'zhiz'] I., King of
Parthia, ascended the throne in 50 A.u. He waged war
against the Romans, who in the reign of Nero invaded
Armenia. Died about 81 A.D.
Vologeses II. was a son of Chosroes, whom he suc
ceeded in 122 A.n. His reign was pacific. He died
about 148, and left the throne to his son, Vologeses III.
He attempted about 162 to conquer Armenia from the
Romans, but was defeated.
Volpato, vol-pa'to, (GIOVANNI,) an Italian engraver,
born at Bassano about 1735. He studied at Venice under
Bartolozzi, and afterwards executed a number of prints,
after the works of Raphael in the Vatican, and other
eminent artists. His engravings are numerous, and are
ranked among the master-pieces of the time. Raphael
Morghen was the pupil and son-in-law of Volpato. Died
in 1803.
Volpi, vol'pee, (GiAN ANTONIO,) an Italian printer
and classical scholar, born at Padua in 1686. In con
junction with the printer Comino, he established a press,
called "Libreria Volpi-Cominiana," from which were
issued excellent editions of the classics, including Ca
tullus. Volpi was for many years professor of rhetoric
and philosophy at Padua, and was the author of Latin
poems and other works. Died in 1766.
See FABRONI, " Vice Italorum doctrina excellentium."
Volpi, (GlUSEPPK,) an Italian historian, born near
Bari in 1680. He wrote a history of the Visconti, (2 vols.,
1737-48.) Died in 1756.
Volta, vol'ta, (ALF.SSANDRO,) a celebrated Italian
electrician and natural philosopher, born at Como,
February 19, 1745. He wrote a treatise "On the At
tractive Force of Electric Fire," (" De Vi attractiva Ignis
electrici," 1769,) and invented an electrophorus in 1775.
About 1 776 he became professor of natural philosophy
in the University of Pavia. He travelled in Germany,
France, and England in 1782. He invented an electrical
condenser and a eudiometer. His celebrity is derived
chiefly from the discovery of the Voltaic pile, an appa
ratus which excites a continuous current of electricity by
the contact of different substances. He published this
discovery about 1792, and received the Copley medal of
the Royal Society of London in 1794. He generalized
the phenomena which Galvani had observed, and recti
fied an error in the theory by which that philosopher
had explained them. " It was thus," says Sir J. F. W.
Herschel, " that he arrived at the knowledge of a gene
ral fact, that of the disturbance of electrical equilibrium
by the mere contact of different bodies, and the circula
tion of a current of electricity in one constant direction
through a circuit composed of three different conductors.
To increase the intensity of the very minute and delicate
effect thus observed, became his next aim ; nor did his
inquiry terminate till it had placed him in possession of
that most wonderful of all human inventions, the pile
which bears his name, through the medium of a series
of well-conducted and logically-combined experiments,
which has rarely, if ever, been surpassed in the annals
of physical research." (" Preliminary Discourse on the
Study of Natural Philosophy.") Volta married Teresa
de' Peregrini in 1794, and had three sons. Invited by
Bonaparte, he went to Paris in 1801, and performed ex
periments with his pile before the Institute, of which he
was chosen one of the eight foreign associates in 1802.
He retained his professorship at Pavia about thirty
years. In 1810 he received the title of count from Na
poleon, who also appointed him a senator of the king
dom of Italy. He wrote a number of treatises on elec
tricity, etc., which were collected and published in 5 vols.,
(1816,) under the title of " Opere di Volta." He died at
Como in April, 1827.
See ARAGO, " E"loe;e de Volta," 18^4; ZUCCALA. " El<
MOCCHETTI, "Vita del Conte Volta,"
SKKP.KI K. " Gcclachtnissi-ede auf A. Volta," 1X46; TtPAl.DO, " Bio-
grafia degli Italiani illustri ;" "Nouvelie Biographic Generale."
Voltaire, de, deh vol'tau', (FRANgois MARIE
Arouet — a'roo'i',) the most remarkable name in the
history of French literature, was born at Chatenay, near
Sceaux, the 2Oth of February, 1694. His father was
Francois Arouet, formerly a notary, then a treasurer in
the chamber of accounts ; his mother, who belonged to
a noble family of Poitou, was Marie Marguerite Dau-
niart. The name Voltaire, according to some authorities,
was derived from an estate which belonged to his mother,
though others have maintained that it was an anagram
of Arouet 1. /'., (i.e. Arouet le ieune, (jeiine,) or " Arouet
the Younger.") Madame Arouet is said to have been an
intelligent, witty, and attractive woman. She died before
her distinguished son had reached his twentieth year.
The godfather and first teacher of young Arouet was the
Abbe de Chateauneuf, whose morals, like his religious
principles, were anything but strict : so that it was whis
pered and believed by many that Voltaire might justly
have claimed with him a more direct relationship than
that of godson. So much, at least, may be considered
certain, that the abbe early indoctrinated his pupil in
the skeptical literature which was then becoming all the
fashion in France. At the age of eleven years Voltaire
wrote a poetical petition for an invalid soldier, which
excited the admiration of the celebrated beauty Ninon
de Lenclos, then far advanced in years ; and, at her re
quest, lie was presented to her by the Abbe Chateauneuf,
who had the reputation of being her latest love,r. Her
death occurred shortly after this interview, and bv her
will she left Voltaire two thousand livres for the purpose
of purchasing books. He had been placed when he was
ten years old at the Jesuit college Louis-le-Grand, where
one of his instructors, Pere Le Jay, is said to have pre
dicted that he would some day be the Coryphaeus of
deism in France. Even at that early age the wit and
genius of the young Arouet appear to have excited
general admiration. In 1710 the poet Jean Baptiste
Rousseau, then in the acme of his fame, assisted in the
distribution of the honours at the college. As one
prize after another was awarded to Voltaire, the atten
tion of Rousseau was arrested ; he desired to have the
boy presented to him, and predicted for him, we are
told, a brilliant literary destiny.
On leaving the college of the Jesuits, he was sent by
his father to a law-school, where he says he was dis
gusted with the unphilosophical method of pursuing the
study of jurisprudence, and he therefore resolved to
abandon the law ; but it is probable that his taste for light
literature contributed quite as much towards leading
him to that resolution as the philosophical considera
tions to which he refers. The Abbe Chateauneuf had
already introduced him into a circle at once brilliant
and licentious. To withdraw him from this corrupt but
fascinating influence, his father sent him as secretary to
the Marquis Chateauneuf, who was setting out as am
bassador to the United Provinces. While there, he se
duced the daughter of Madame du Noyer, an intriguing
woman, who passed for being a Protestant. She was
even suspected by some of conniving at, if not directly
encouraging, the 'fault of the youthful lovers, in the
hope of obtaining money from Voltaire's relations. She
complained loudly to the Marquis of Chateauneuf, from
whom, soon after, Voltaire received an order to quit the
Hague and return to France. Mademoiselle du Noyer's
father was in Paris, and Voltaire did not hesitate to ad
vise his inamorata to feign a conversion to the Catholic
faith, in which case she might hope to have the powerful
assistance of the Church in rescuing her from the tyranny
of her mother. But this ingenious plot was not success
ful, and the correspondence between the lovers soon after
ceased, at least for a time.
At the house of M. de Caumartin, (a friend of the
family,) with whom Voltaire sought refuge from the
a, e, T, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6. same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good: moon;
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221 3
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frowns and reproaches of his father,* he had an oppor
tunity of hearing the father of that gentleman talk of
the glorious days of Henry IV., with some of whose
contemporaries the old man had conversed in his youth.
Young Arouet's enthusiasm was strongly excited. It
was then that he formed the design of his great epic, the
" Henriade," and of his history of the age of Louis XIV.
About this time Louis XIV. died ; a witty and satirical
pamphlet, in which the decease of the king was treated
as a national deliverance, and in which the new govern
ment was not spared, was suspected to have been written,
in whole or in part, by Voltaire. He was accordingly
arrested, and confined in the Bastille. This, however,
proved a blessing to him, rather than a calamity. Freed
during his imprisonment from the seductions of pleasure
and the dissipations of society, he composed a consider
able part of the " Henriade," and completed his tragedy
of " CEdipe," which attracted the favourable notice of the
regent, and procured his liberation. He was presented
soon after by M. Noce to the regent, who gave him one
thousand crowns. Voltaire is reported to have said on that
occasion, " I thank your royal highness that you are thus
careful for my board ; but no more of your lodgings, I be
seech vou." He was twenty-four years of age svhen he
was released from the Bastille, after an imprisonment of
almost a year. It was soon after this event that he changed
his name from Arouet to Voltaire. " I have been," he wrote
to Mademoiselle du Noyer, " very unfortunate under my
first name. I wish to try if this new one will serve me
any better." The brilliant success of his " CEdipe" (which
was represented with great applause for thirty successive
nights) appears, however, to have completely reconciled
him to the ways of the blind goddess. Rank and beauty
were now eager to pay him homage. He became the
favoured guest and companion of the great. The Prince
of Conti addressed to him, as a brother poet, some pretty,
complimentary verses, and he was very graciously re
ceived by the beautiful Marechale de Villars, with whom,
it is said, he fell desperately in love, (eperdnment amoit-
renx:) but she does not appear to have given him the
slightest encouragement. (" Biographic Universelle.")
But the cup of prosperity presented to his lips was
not unmixed with bitter ingredients. The Abbe Desfon-
taines had obtained fraudulently an imperfect copy of the
"Henriade," and had it published, under the name of
"The League," ("La Ligue," etc.) The poem, even in
this imperfect form, was very favourably received. Vol
taire hastened to prepare for the public a more perfect
edition ; but certain passages in the work which gave
offence to the priesthood prevented him from obtaining
permission to publish it.
His vanity and self-esteem were destined to receive
some severe rebuffs from that haughty aristocracy which
could never wholly divest itself of the idea that rank
was something essentially superior even to genius of the
highest order, which it might indeed condescend to
patronize and perhaps applaud, but with which it could
never associate on equal terms. In December, 1725,
Voltaire, while at the table of his friend the Duke of
Sully, happened to express himself on some subject with
great animation and self-confidence. One of the guests,
the Chevalier de Rohan, son of the Duke de Rohan-
Chabot, asked, "Who is this young man that speaks so
loud?" "He is," replied Voltaire, "one who does not
carry a great name, but can do credit to the one he has."
A few days after, the chevalier sent word to Voltaire that
the Duke of Sully expected him to dinner. He went
accordingly. While he was dining, one of the servants
announced that some one wished particularly to see
him. He descended, and was met by three men, who
immediately fell on him and beat him unmercifully
with their canes. It was noticed as an act of great gen
erosity on the part of the Chevalier de Rohan that he
directed his men not to beat their victim on his head.
When Voltaire complained of the outrage to the Duke
of Sully, the latter admitted that it was a rude and "un-
* His father appears to have been quite as much displeased with
Voltaire's writing poetry as with his more culpable irregularities. He
was not less disgusted with the conduct of his eldest son, because he
had become a Jansenist. He said, bitterly, "I have for sons two
fools, — the one in prose, the other in verse."
civil" act on the part of Rohan, but declined to aid him
in any way to obtain satisfaction. Thereupon Voltaire
practised fencing diligently for some weeks, and at the
end of that time challenged Rohan to a duel. The
challenge was accepted, but, before the parties met, Vol
taire was arrested and sent to prison. We are not told
whether or not the chevalier gave notice to the police ;
but a chivalrous knight who could employ three men to
attack another who was unarmed might reasonably be
supposed capable of such an act. This proceeding had,
in all probability, an important influence on the destinies
of Europe. It seems for a time to have completely
disgusted Voltaire with the society and government of
France, and it determined him to accept an invitation,
received from Lord Bolingbroke, that he should visit
England. This visit, which may be regarded as the
most important event of his life, dates from August,
1726. While in that country, he was particularly struck
with the absolute freedom of thought enjoyed by all the
people ; his own views, in the society of Bolingbroke and
his deistical friends, appear to have been developed and
matured. In England, also, he acquired some acquaint
ance with the Newtonian philosophy, the knowledge of
which he was afterwards among the first to introduce
among his countrymen in France. After nearly three
years' absence, he returned to Paris in 1729. At first he
lived retired, and finished his tragedy of " Brutus," which
he had begun in England. According to some critics,
the influence of Shakspeare is clearly visible in this
piece, and perhaps still more in his next tragedy, " Zaire,"
(1730,) although Voltaire afterwards affected to despise
the great English dramatist, perhaps the better to con
ceal how much he was indebted to him. About this
time, also, he finished his "History of Charles XII.,"
for which he had procured some very valuable materials
during his sojourn in London.
His " Brutus" was by some considered a complete
failure, and Fontenelle indeed advised him to aban
don tragedy, as unsuited to his genius ; but his next
drama, "Zaire," proved a brilliant success. It is re
garded by many as the finest of all Voltaire's tragedies,
and as fully equal to the best in the language. His
" Lettres Philosophiques," otherwise called " Lettres sur
les Anglais," (" Letters on the English,") appeared about
1732. The freedom of some of his ideas gave offence to
the clergy. The " Lettres" were condemned to be pub
licly burned, the publisher was imprisoned, and an order
was issued to arrest the author, so that to escape the
officers of the law he was fain to make a speedy retreat
to Cirey, (on the borders of Lorraine,) an estate belong
ing to the celebrated Madame Chatelet, (or Chastelet,)
with whom he formed a liaison which continued until
the death of that lady. (See CHASTELET, GAHKIELLE.)
While in this retreat he wrote his " FJemens de la Phi
losophic de Newton," (published at Amsterdam in 1738,)
designed to set forth and elucidate the theories and dis
coveries of the great English philosopher. He also
composed his " Alzire," a tragedy, which was acted at
Paris with great applause in 1736. His "Mahomet,"
which he dedicated to the pope, was first acted in 1741.
His holiness accepted the dedication very graciously,
unable, or perhaps unwilling, to perceive that the shafts
which the author seemed to aim at the false pretences
of the prophet were in reality directed against those of
the Catholic Church. His " Merope," brought out in
1743, was received with an enthusiastic and tumultuous
applause such as had never before been exhibited in
any theatre in Europe.
Several years before the last-named date, Frederick,
the Prince-Royal of Prussia, had written to Voltaire and
expressed his admiration of the genius which was then
dazzling Europe : this led to an intimacy between the
prince and the poet, which was kept up by a constant
exchange of letters and flattering compliments from both
the parties. When, in 1740, Frederick succeeded to the
throne, he invited his friend to visit him at Berlin. But
Voltaire was unwilling to separate himself from Madame
Chatelet. He accepted, however, in 1743, a mission
from the government to visit Frederick for the purpose
of securing Prussia's alliance with France, in which
undertaking he was successful. Through the influence
* as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; fch as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
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of Madame Pompadour, with whom Voltaire was ac
quainted, as he tells us, before she became the favourite
mistress of Louis XV., he was chosen (May 9, 1746) a
member of the French Academy to succeed Bouhier,
and appointed historiographer of France. He had de
clined the flattering offers of Frederick, that he might
not be deprived of the society of Madame Chatelet.
But the mistress to whom he was so fondly attached no
longer felt for him the affection of former years, but had
(about 1748) given her heart to another and younger
lover, Saint-Lambert.
Madame Chatelet died in childbed, in August, 1749.*
After her death, although he knew she had been un
faithful to him, Voltaire said of her, " I have not lost a
mistress ; I have lost the half of myself. ... I love to
find everywhere something that can recall the thought
of her." A short time afterwards, as her husband, M.
du Chatelet, was on the point of opening a locket which
had been carried by Madame du Chatelet, Voltaire con
fidently expected to see his own portrait : it proved to be
that of Saint-Lambert ; he said to M. du Chatelet, " Be
lieve me, monsieur, neither of us has here any cause to
boast." On a previous occasion he spoke to Saint-
Lambert (with whom, it appears, he had at first been
offended) with a kindness and magnanimity which would
have been sublime, could they have had existence in a
pure and elevated mind. "It is I," said he, "who have
been to blame ; you are at the age when one loves and
inspires love ; ... an old man, infirm as I am, is not
made for pleasure."
Having nothing now to detain him in France, he ac
cepted the invitation, recently renewed, of the King of
Prussia, and arrived in Berlin in July, 1750. He was
received by Frederick with the most flattering demon
strations of regard. No lovers in a romance could have
met, after a long absence, with greater transports of joy.
Voltaire had at'last found an earthly paradise. A thou
sand louis-d'or had been sent him for the expenses of
the journey. In addition to the splendid apartments
assigned him under the royal roof, he was to receive a
pension of twenty thousand francs. He and Frederick
studied together two hours every day, and in the evening
he was entertained at the king's own table. , But this
charming life was destined to be of short duration.
" Never," says Macaulay, "had there met two persons
so exquisitely fitted to plague each other. Each of them
had exactly the fault of which the other was most impa
tient, and they were, in different ways, the most impatient
of mankind." (See Essay on " Frederick the Great,"
originally published in the " Edinburgh Review" for
April, 1842.)
The king wr»te verses, which Voltaire was to criticise
and correct, — a delicate and perilous position for any
man, but peculiarly so for one who was so fastidious, so
irritable, and so prone to ridicule as Voltaire. It was
quite impossible for him to correct his majesty's verses
— which might well have provoked the ridicule of a more
indulgent critic — without laughing at them. " Behold,"
said he, "what a quantity of dirty linen the king has
sent me to wash !" And, as usual in such cases, there
was always some well-intentioned person ready to carry
such remarks to the ear of the king. It would be long
to tell of the irritation, the increasing disgust, the quar
rels, the ingenious schemes devised by each to annoy or
torment the other. Suffice it to say that, after a stay of
about three years, the poet parted from the king, with a
promise to return, but with a firm determination, as he
*" Every one knows," says Carlyle, " the earthly termination of
Madame la Marquise, and how, by a strange and almost satirical
Nemesis, she was taken in hef own nets, and her worst sin became
her final punishment." A few days after her death, Voltaire com
posed the following quatrain :
" L'univers a perdu la sublime Emilie.
Ellc aima les plaisirs, les arts, la verite ;
Les dieux, en Ini dormant leur ame et leur genie,
N'avaient garde pour eux que I'lmmortalite."
("The universe has lost the sublime Emilja.
She loved pleasure, the arts, and truth; [knowledge ?]
The gods, in giving her their soul and their genius,
Had reserved for themselves immortality only.")
"After which," says Carlyle, "he, like the bereaved universe,
consoled himself, and went on his way."
tells us, never to see him again. At Frankfort he was
arrested by an order from Berlin, and required to give
up some of the king's poetry, copies of which had been
printed for private circulation and presented to Voltaiie
and other of the royal favourites. But Frederick, now
fearing that the arch wit and scoffer might perhaps use
the poetry to turn its author into ridicule, resolved to
get possession of it again. It so happened that he had
left the poetry behind at Leipsic, and some days elapsed
before he could send for and receive it. Meanwhile he
was kept in strict custody ; and even after the precious
packet had arrived he was still detained. " The Prus
sian agents," says Macaulay, "had, no doubt, been in
structed not to let Voltaire off without some gross indig
nity. He was confined twelve days in a wretched hovel.
Sentinels with fixed bayonets kept guard over him. His
niece was dragged through the mire by the soldiers.
Sixteen hundred dollars were extorted from him by his
insolent jailers. It is absurd to say that this outrage
was not to be attributed to the king." (Essay on " Frede
rick the Great.")
Voltaire returned to France thoroughly divested of
all his illusions respecting that great prince whom he
had once delighted to call the Solomon and Alexander
of the North, the Marcus Aurelius of Potsdam, the
Trajan and Pliny combined, etc.
In 1755 he established himself at Ferney, near Lau
sanne, in Switzerland. Here he spent perhaps the most
tranquil, as well as the most creditable and useful,
portion of his life. He is admitted to have been a
benefactor to the inhabitants of Ferney and the vicinity.
The village or town was greatly improved and enlarged
under his auspices ; new houses were built, and a small
theatre established. He even erected a church, in which
he had the hardihood to preach. To silence the com
plaints of those who were scandalized at his irregular
proceedings, he went through, in due form, the ceremony
of taking the communion.
The one aspect of Voltaire's character which can be
viewed with unmingled approbation was the deep,
heartfelt pity and indignation with which he regarded
every flagrant act of cruelty or oppression, whether it
was enacted in his own country or in the remotest part
of Europe. He signalized his philanthropy in the
earnest zeal with which he took tip the cause of Jean
Calas, who had been condemned at Toulouse and
broken on the wheel for a crime of which he was inno
cent, and his family had been driven from the country.
Through Voltaire's generous exertions and untiring zeal,
the sentence was annulled and the family partially indem
nified. I lis sympathy in the case of Admiral Byng was no
less real or less earnest; but he exerted himself in vain
to prevent the consummation of that judicial murder,
which has left an indelible stain upon the character of
the ministry under whose auspices it was committed.!
Another act of his, though of a different kind, reflects
no less credit on his character. Having learned that a
young girl, a near relative of the great Corneille, (she
was then believed to be the grand-daughter of that
poet,) was living in extreme poverty, he sent for her
and had her brought to Ferney, where he gave her an
education, and settled on her, out of his own means, a
life-annuity of fourteen hundred francs.
During his residence at Ferney he composed or
finished some of his greatest works, among which the
most valuable and perhaps the most original of all was
his " Essav on the Manners of Nations," etc., (" Essai
sur les Moenrs et 1'Esprit des Nations," 1756,) which
might, says Brougham, be justly designated the " Phi
losophy of History." It has unquestionably exerted
throughout Europe a great and beneficent influence
upon the mode of writing history. No inconsiderable
portion of this work had been composed • during his
residence at Cirey. His " Candida," the most remark
able of his prose fictions, appeared in 1758. "Dr.
Johnson," says Brougham, " never spoke of it without
t However deeply his feelings might be touched, he never failed to
give free scope to his wit. He remarked, after the execution of
Byng, that it was the policy of the English now and then to put to
death an admiral, in order to encourage the rest, (" pour encourager
les autres.")
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, \, short ; a, e, i, o. onscure: tar. fill, fat: met: not; good: moon;
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unstinted admiration, professing that had he seen it he
should not have written ' Rasselas.' " Among his other
romances may be named " Zadig," (about 1758,) and
"L'Ingenu," (1767.) Of his tragedies, besides those
already named, the most deserving of notice are per
haps the following: " Artemise," (about 1721,) " Mari-
amne," (1724,) " Eriphile," (1732,) " La Mortde Cesar,"
(1735,) "Semiramis," (1748,) " Oreste," (1750,) "Rome
Sauvee," otherwise called " Catiline," (1752,) which Vol
taire is said to have preferred to all his tragedies, but
the critics and the public decided differently, and
" Tancrede," (1760,) which had a brilliant success. His
powers had confessedly begun to fail when, in 1778, on
his visit to Paris, his " Irene," the last of his dramatic
productions, was acted with great applause, which, how
ever, was bestowed rather on its illustrious author than
upon the piece itself. He also attempted comedy, and
composed " L'Indiscret," which had but an indifferent
success. The " Enfant Prodigue," another comedy,
brought out anonymously, was much more popular, but
it was not known to be Voltaire's until he claimed it
several years afterwards.
He wrote a satirical poem, " Le Temple clu Gout,"
(1733,) and a mock-heroic poem, entitled " La Pucelle,"
(1755,) of which the history of Joan of Arc forms the
subject. This, according to Brougham, (than whom
Voltaire has probably no more indulgent critic,) is "the
great master-piece of Voltaire's poetic genius." He
adds, however, "The 'Pucelle' is one continued sneer
at all that men do hold and all that they ought to hold
sacred.
Religion, virtue,
all are made the
constant subjects of sneering contempt and ribald
laughter ;"* and he might have added that many parts
are disfigured by gross obscenities. We must not omit
to notice Voltaire's connection with the famous " Encyclo
pedic" founded by Diderot and Alembert. The success
of this publication was due in no small measure to
the name and influence of Voltaire, who contributed to
it many articles on various subjects, among which will
be found some of his most reckless and violent attacks
upon Christianity.
Of his histories, "Charles XII" (1731) is admitted
to be the best. It is, indeed, a chef-d'oeuvre of clear,
elegant, animated, and rapid narration. His "Siecle
de Louis XIV" (1752) holds the second place. The
" Histoire de Russie sous Pierre I" (1759) is considered
to be the least successful of his productions in this
department.
In 1778, being then in his eighty-fifth year, Voltaire
visited Paris, where his sojourn was one continued ova
tion. "The homage of every class," says Brougham,
" and of every rank was tendered to him ; and it seemed
as if one universal feeling prevailed, — the desire of
having it hereafter to say, 'I saw Voltaire.' His car
riage was drawn by the populace, who were inspired
with the wildest enthusiasm. At the theatre his bust
was crowned with laurels and garlands of roses, amid
the shouts and tears of the audience. He exclaimed,
' You will make me die with pleasure ; you will stifle me
with roses.' "
The exhaustion produced by this great excitement
appears to have been the cause of his death, which took
place on the 3<Dth of May, 1778. Some time before his
death, while he was supposed to be very near his end,
he was induced, from his desire of obtaining a Christian
burial, to subscribe to a confession and undergo absolu
tion, which, says Condorcet, gave less edification to the
devout than scandal to the free-thinkers. t
* See Brougham's "Lives of Men of Letters and Science,"
London, 1845.
t Very contradictory accounts are given of bis last hours. It has
been well observed that it is of far more consequence how one spends
his life than how he passes the few fleeting moments at its close. Cir
cumstances which have nothing to do with one's faith or one's con
science may sometimes give the appearance of great tranquillity, or
the contrary, to the death-bed scene. But, as much has been said
about the death of Voltaire, it may not be without interest to cite
briefly the testimony of Tronchin, who was his friend, and who was
constantly with him (much of the time alone) dur'ng his last hours.
"If the bond of my principles," says he, " had needed to be strength
ened, the man whom I have seen agonize and die under my eyes
would have made of them a Gordiau knot ; and in comparing the
death of a good man, which is only the close of a beautiful day.with
Voltaire is confessedly the foremost name, the acknow
ledged head, of European literature in his time ;J whence
he was often styled " King Voltaire," (" le Roi Voltaire.")
His writings contributed powerfully to give a fresh
impulse to almost every department of human thought.
There was, indeed, no branch of literature which he him
self did not cultivate with distinguished success. His his
torical works mark an era in this department of writing.
If his histories are inferior to those of some other emi
nent writers in depth of thought or in a philosophic
treatment of the subject, they are remarkable for the
clearness, simplicity, animation, and rapidity of the
narrative. If they are not calculated in an especial
manner to make philosophic historians, they are pre
eminently fitted to interest and instruct the generality
of readers ; and they have perhaps done more to make
history popular among all classes than the works of any
other writer of modern times. Though not the first
French author who wrote on the wonderful discoveries
of Newton, he may be said to have been the first to
make them extensively known on the continent. As a
wit, he probably never had an equal either in ancient or
modern times.§ As a poet, Voltaire is by some critics
ranked at the very head of the great masters of the art
in France. His "Zaire" is called the chef-d'txuvre of
French tragedy, and his " Henriade" may be said to be
the only successful epic in the French language.
But several eminent critics, while admitting that Vol
taire was a genius of the rarest order, deny that he was
a great poet in the truest sense of the word. " It is
certain," says Brougham, " that the tragedies of Voltaire
are the works of an extraordinary genius, and that only
a great poet could have produced them ; but it is equally
certain that they are deficient for the most part in that
which makes the drama powerful over the feelings, —
real pathos, real passion, whether of tenderness, of
terror, or of horror. The plots of some are admirably
contrived ; the diction of all is pure and animated ; in
most cases it is pointed, and in many it is striking,
grand, impressive; the characters are frequently well
imagined and portrayed, though without sufficient dis
crimination, and thus often running one into another
from the uniformity of the language, terse, epigrammatic,
powerful, which all alike speak. Nor are there wanting
situations of great effect and single passages of thrilling
force ; but, after all, the heart is not there ; the deep feel
ing which is the parent of all true eloquence, as well as
all true poetry, ... is rarely perceived." (See " Lives of
Men of Letters," etc., where also (pp. 36-42) will be
found an elaborate critique on the " Henriade.")
As a critic his claims, though unquestionably of a high
order, are open to great exceptions. He appears, indeed,
to have been wanting in no natural gift necessary to rank
him with the very greatest critics that ever lived. He
possessed, in a degree that has probably never been sur
passed, a clear, incisive intellect,]! a vivid sense of pro
priety, a quick perception of the true-relations of things,
combined with an intense susceptibility to all those feel
ings or sentiments which go to make the orator and the
poet. But he was wholly wanting in that earnest love
of truth without which no critical verdict can command
our respect, much less be accepted as authority. He
often pronounced judgment on books that he had not
read, or had read so imperfectly that he failed to com
prehend their real scope and character. In the desire
that of Voltaire, I could see clearly the difference there is between a
beautiful day and a tempest. . . . You remember the Furies of
Orestes, — Furiis agitatus obiit." (See the " Nouvelle Biographie
Generale," vol. xlvi. p. 442, where Tronchin's letter is given in full.)
t Goethe goes still further, and calls him "the greatest literary
man of all time, the most astonishing creation of the Author of
Nature." (See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale," vol. xlvi. p. 445.)
§ Mackintosh speaks of Voltaire as one who embodied in his own
person all the wit and quickness and versatile ingenuity of a people
which surpasses other nations in these brilliant qualities. (See
" Progress of Ethical Philosophy.") It is related that Voltaire once
expressed to an Englishman a very high opinion of Haller. His com
panion, with more frankness than good breeding, informed him that
his high regard for the Swiss philosopher was not reciprocated.
" Ah !" said he, after scarcely a moment's pause, "no doubt both of
us are very much mistaken in each other."
|| " He has," says Carlyle, "the eye of a lynx : sees deeper at the
first glance than any other man; but no second glance is given."
("Essays, vol. ii.")
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; %h as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.
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to display his wit, he constantly lost sight of truth.*
This last fault was most conspicuously exhibited when
ever he had occasion to assail Christianity. His ribald
jests on all sacred subjects are but too well known ; but
it is not so generally known that he was guilty of the
most reckless, unblushing falsehoods, which he uttered
with a confident assurance that often led inexperienced
readers to suppose that from his sentence there could be
no appeal.!
Yet although his talents were confessedly of the most
diversified and rarest order, and though, in the words
of Macaulay, "of all the intellectual weapons ever used
by man, the most terrible was the mockery of Voltaire,"
we cannot regard him as a very formidable enemy of
Christianity. In discussing such questions his state
ments were so rash, and the spirit with which he was
animated so manifest, that he could deceive only the
ignorant, or those who were willing or anxious to be
deceived. Men much inferior to him in genius (as Hume,
Gibbon, and Strauss) have proved themselves far more
dangerous adversaries to revealed religion, because their
positions have been more cautiously taken, and their
attacks, if less violent, have been made with far greater
skill, so that the fallacy of their arguments, unlike those
of Voltaire, can sometimes be detected by those only
who are accustomed to think closely, and who are, at
the same time, capable of earnest, impartial, and labo
rious research.
It is proper to observe that the charge of atheism
which has often been brought against Voltaire, is wholly
without foundation. On the one point of belief in a
God he was consistent and unwavering, though so fickle
in almost everything else. In fact, there are to be found
in his works some of the most beautiful and ad.nirable
arguments in favour of the existence of a God that have
ever been written. The young wits of France, whom he
had taught to ridicule almost everything sacred, turned
against him, in his later years, the same ridicule, because
he still adhered to that delusion of his early education.
In inquiring into the causes of Voltaire's extraordinary
influence upon the mind of Europe, we ought not to be
guilty of the mistake of supposing that his intellectual
gifts constituted the whole or even the principal part of
his marvellous power. However much we may attribute
to his versatile and transcendent intellect, we ought,
perhaps, to ascribe still more to the intensity as •' 11 as
extreme susceptibility of his emotional natur- .t has
been justly remarked that the same genera- v holds
good in the moral or the social, as in the material, wnrld,
— that every body is attracted in the same proportion that
it attracts others. If Voltaire exercised a greater attract
ive influence on the mind of Europe than any other man
of his age, it was because he felt more than any other
the influence of the age upon himself. This explains
why he not merely instructed or dazzled the minds of
his contemporaries, but won their sympathy and affec
tion as no literary man or poet had ever done before.
The influence of his intellect and heart was all the
more powerful, because in his sentiments and ideas he
was so little elevated above the mass of his readers, that
he could exert to the fullest extent all that attractive
power which, as every one knows, is greatest when near-
* Of this his reckless observations and slurs upon Shakspeare
furnish a striking illustration. In one place he says that Shakspeare
"was but an ugly ape, "(" n'ttait yu'un vilain singe.") On another
occasion he calls the English dramatist "the Corneille ot" London,
but a great fool anywhere else," (" ua grand foil d'ail/eitrs.' ) Hut
perhaps the most extraordinary of all his absurdities is his complaint
against the indecencies of Shakspeare, (see his letter to I, a Harpe,
August 15, 1776,) — and this, too, from the author of " La Pucelle" !
t " Many of his statements," says the " Encyclopaedia Britannica,"
"astonish us for their temerity, whether we attribute them to igno
rance or effrontery. Thus, he says, for example, ' It is a decided
truth, whatever Abbadie may say to the contrary, that none of the
first Fathers of the Church down to Irenxus inclusive have quoted
any passage from the four Gospels, with which we are acquainted.'
Again he says (in the ' Encyclopaedia,' under the head of ' Christi
anity') that among the early Christians ' fifty four societies had fifty-
four different gospels, all secret, like their mysteries.'(l) He appears,
indeed, to have thrown out his falsehoods with utter recklessness
whenever he thought they could serve his turn, trusting that his great
name in literature, and the confident assurance with which they were
uttered, would induce the vast majority of readers to accept them
without examination, in which method of proceeding he has been
followed by other assailants of Christianity."
est the object to be attracted. That marvellous suscep
tibility of heart, of which we have spoken, not only
prompted him to those generous acts of benevolence
which constitute his one claim to true glory, but also
caused him to adopt with facility, or rather to embrace
with eagerness, the prevailing foibles and vices of his
age, which he may be said to have represented in all its
strength and in all its weakness. While the influence of
his writings doubtless contributed powerfully to accel
erate the denouement of that mighty tragedy in France,
the first acts of which may be said to date from the
commencement of the century, if not earlier, it did not,
we believe, very materially modify the direction or
character of the great movement of which he appeared
to be the leader, but of which he was in reality scarcely
more than its most striking manifestation. He was, it
may be said, but the foremost wave in a mighty deluge,
urged on by, as well as leading, those behind. Had he
been as great morally as he was intellectually, he might
probably have impressed a very different character upon
the French Revolution. He might have fostered and
developed the spirit of liberty, without at the same time
letting loose upon society the demons of licentiousness,
of persiflage, and of blasphemy.}: But, with his vain and
fickle character, § it would have been as impossible for
him to direct such a movement steadily, wisely, and
beneficently, as it would have been to support the earth
upon his shoulders. His was no Atlantean strength,
capable of sustaining any great cause steadily and firmly ;
it was rather the fitful and uncertain strength of the
wind, which, moved by forces not residing in itself, may
at one moment refresh and revive the fainting traveller,
and the next, heap the burning sands of the desert upon
a perishing caravan, — may at one time carry prosper
ously across the main a vessel laden with precious
treasure, and at another, overwhelm this same vessel in
the depths of the ocean.
See, besides the works already referred to in the foregoing article,.
FREDERICK THE GREAT, " filoge de Voltaire," 1778; CpNDORCKT,
"Vie de Voltaire, suivie des Memoires de Voltaire, ecrits par lui-
meme," 1787; JEAN FRANCOIS UK LA HARPH, " I?loge de Voltaire,"
1780; C. PAUSSOT, " Fjoge de Voltaire," 1778; Louts SIMON AU
GER, " Notice sur la Vie de Voltaire," 1X27 ; j. F. (In. LET, " Voltaire
der Reformator," 1772; DURDENT, "Histoire litteraire et phiioso-
phique de Voltaire," i8tS; STANDISH, "Life of Voltaire." iSig;
LA ROCHE nu MAINE DE LUCHET, " Histoire litteraire de Voltaire,"
etc., 6 vols., 17X2: MAZURE, "Vie de Voltaire," 1X21 : SAINT-AI.HIN
BERVIU.E, "Notice historique sur Voltaire," 1827; PAII.I.KT DE
WARCY, "Histoire de la Vie et des On wages de Voltaire," 2 vols.,
1823; BUNGENER, "Voltaire et son Temps. " 2 vols., 1850; VON
ZARUESSNIG, " Historische mid kritische Nachrichten von dem
Leben und den Schriften des Herrn Voltaire." etc., 2 vols., 1777:
PASTORET, " Eloge de Voltaire," 1779; " Leven van F. M. Arouet
van Voltaire," Utrecht, 1779; MAKIA JUI.IA YOUNG, "Voltairiana,"
4 vols., 1805; F.I.I. ISSKN, "Voltaire als politischer Dichter," etc.,
1852 ; LONGCHAMP et WAGMIEUE, " Memoires sur Voltaire," 2 vols.,
1825; J. VENKDEY, " Friedrich der Grosse und Voltaire," 1859; A.
HOUSSAVB, " Le Koi Voltaire," 1861 : P DUPRAT, "Voltaire et
1' Encyclopedic," 1865; F. A. HAKBL, " Discours sur Voltaire,"
1844; CHARLES NISARD, " Les Ennemis de Voltaire," 1853: GAHE-
REL, "Voltaire et les Genevois," 1860; SAINTE BKUVK, "Causeries
du Lnndi," tomes ii. and xiii. ; LEPAN, " Vie politique. litteraire et
morale de Voltaire," 1817; QUERARD, " Bibliographie Voltairienne,"
1844; O. HONORB, "Voltaire & Lausanne," 1853; VILI.EMAIN,
" Tableau de la Litterature du dix-huitieme Siecle ;" COUSIN u'Av\i,-
I.ON, " Voltairiana," 1801 : " Hiographie Universelle ;" and the elabo
rate article on "Voltaire," in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generate."
% Lord Brougham defends Voltaire against the charge of blasphemy,
on the ground that one cannot be guilty of blasphemy against anv
being in whom the offender has no belief. One might utter all hor
rible slanders against the character of Christ, and yet, according to
this view, it would not be blasphemy if the speaker or writer did not
believe in the divinity of Christ. In reply to this argument, it may
suffice to say that it has no support in the original signification of
the verb to "blaspheme," which is simply to "slander" or " vilify;"
and it appears to have no sanction in the usage of any European
language.
§ Byron has most aptly portrayed the character of Voltaire when,
contrasting him with Gibbon, he says, —
" The one was fire and fickleness, a child,
Most mutable in wishes, but in mind
A wit as various, — gay, grave, sage, or wild, —
Historian, bard, philosopher combined ;
He multiplied himself among mankind,
The Proteus of their talents ; but his own
Breathed most in ridicule, — which, as the wind,
Blew where it listed, laying all things prone,—
Now to o'erthrow a fool, and now to shake a throne."
Childe Harold, canto iii. stanza cvi.
For some very curious and interesting notices of the fickleness,
as well as intensity, of Voltaire's feelings, the reader is referred to
Marmontel's "Me'moires."
a, e, T, 6, u, y,long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a. e, T, o, ii, y, s'iort: a, e, j, y, obscure: far, faa, fat; m§t; 5 ; gooa; moon;
VOLT ERR A
2217
VORSTIUS
Volterra or Volterre. See RICCIAREI.LI.
Volterrano. See MAFFEI, (RAFFAELLO and FRAN-
CESCHINI.)
Voltoliiia, vol-to-lee'na, (GIUSEPPE Mn.io,) a writer
of Latin poetry, born at Salo, on the Lake of Garcia,
flourished about 1570. He wrote a fine poem on Horti
culture, (1574.)
Vo-lum'ni-a, a Roman matron, was the wife of Cori-
olanus. She, and her mother-in-law, persuaded that
general to desist from his purpose of attacking Rome.
(See VKTURIA.)
Vonck, vonk, (FRANCIS,) a Flemish jurist, born near
Brussels in 1735. He was one of the leaders of the
party which attempted to throw off the yoke of Austria
about 1789. Died in 1792.
Vondel, van den, va"n den von'del, [Lat. VONDE'-
J.ius,] (JoosT,) an eminent Dutch poet, born at Cologne
in 1587, was a son of Protestant parents, who fled from
Antwerp to escape persecution. He resided mostly at
Amsterdam, where he engaged in mercantile pursuits,
and married about 1610. He produced in 1620 a tragedy
of the "Sack of Jerusalem," and in 1625 a more famous
drama, called " Palamedes," in which he alluded to the
execution of Barneveldt in such indignant terms that he
was fined. His drama of " Gisbert van Amstel" (1637)
was received with great applause. It is stated that he
joined the Catholic Church about 1640. Among his
remarkable works is the tragedy of "Lucifer," (1654,)
which is said to resemble Milton's " Paradise Lost." lie
was also a great lyric poet. The choruses of his trage
dies are sublime lyrical compositions. He was the
author of satires and many other poems, and is regarded
as the great national poet of Holland. Died in 1679.
See L. V. OM.F.FEN, " Leven van J. van den Vondel," 1783;
SIJBRANDI, "Vondel and Shakspeare," (in Dutch,) 1X41 ; PIKTKR
CAMPKK, " Dissevlatio de J. Vondelio, Poeta tragico," 1819: HEN-
DRIK ZKKMAN. " I. even van J. van den Vonclel," 1831 ; C. LOOTS,
" H tilde aan de Nagedaclitenis van J. van den Vondel," iSiy ;
LONG FK i. i.ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Fraser's Magazine"
for May, 1X54.
Vondelius. See VONDEI..
Von der Hardt. See HARDT, vox DKR.
Vo-no'ne.i, King of Parthia, was a son of Phraates
TV. He passed some of his early years at Rome as a
hostage, and began to reign in 14 A.ix Having been
deposed by his subjects, he was killed in 19 A.D.
Von-Visiii. See VIZIN, VON.
Voorst, van, vtn voRst, (Anoi.ru,) a Dutch physi
cian and botanist, born at Delft in 1597. He succeeded
his father as professor of botany at Leyden. Died in
1663.
Voorst, van, [Lat. VOR'STIUS,] (EvERARn,) a Dutch
physician, born at Ruremonde in 1565, was the father
of the preceding. He became professor at Leyden
in 1598. He wrote several medical works. Died in
1624.
Vo-pis'cus, (FLAVIUS,) a Latin historian, born at
Syracuse, in Sicily, lived about 300-320 A.I). He was
one of the writers of the " Historia Augusta," to which
he contributed the lives of Aurelian, Tacitus, Florianus,
Probus, etc. He is regarded by some critics as the ablest
of the writers of the " Historia Augusta."
See D. W. MOLI.ER, " Disputatio de F. Vopisco," 1687.
Vor, VOR, or Vo'ra, written also Vara, [probably
from vor or for, (Ger. vor,} " before" or " beforehand,"
so named on account of her prudence and foresight,] a
goddess in the Norse mythology, distinguished for her
wisdom and sagacity. It is her office to search out and
punish broken oaths and promises, particularly those
of lovers. Nothing can escape her penetration, and no
vows, however secret, can be hidden from her.
See THORPE, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 35 and 36.
Voragiiie, (GIACOMO.) See JAMES (or GIACOMO) DE
VORAGINE.
Vorherr, foR'he'R, QOHANN MICHAEL CHRISTIAN
GUSTAV,) a German architect, born at Freudenbach in
1778, studied at Berlin and Paris, and was subsequently
employed to construct a number of public buildings in
the vicinity of Munich. Died in 1847.
Voronikhiii or Woroiiichin, vo-ro-ne-Ker/, (AN-
Ei NIKIFOROVITCH,) a Russian architect, born in 1760,
was the son of a peasant, and was patronized by Count
Alexander Stroganof. He studied at Moscow, and
subsequently in Paris, and was appointed, after his re
turn, professor in the Academy of Arts. In 1811 he
completed the superb cathedral of " Our Lady of
Kazan," in the Nevskii Prospect, at Saint Petersburg,
which is regarded as one of the finest structures in the
city. Died in 1814.
Vorontsof, vSr-6nt-sof', Vorontzov, or Woron-
zow, (ALEXANDER,) COUNT, a Russian statesman under
the reign of Catherine II., was a brother of the Princess
Dashkof, the intimate friend of that empress. He was
appointed by the emperor Alexander chancellor of the
empire in 1802. Died in 1806.
Vorontsof, Vorontzov, or Woronzow, (MIKHAIL
ILARIONOVITCH,) COUNT, a Russian diplomatist and
statesman, born in 1710, was distinguished by the favour
of the empress Elizabeth, and rose to be chancellor of
the empire. He negotiated the treaty of alliance be
tween Russia and Sweden in 1745. Died in 1767.
Vorontsof, Vorontzov, or Woronzow, (MIKHAIL
SEMENOVITCH,) PRINCE, a Russian general and states
man, born at Moscow in 1782. He was educated in
England, where his father, Semen Woronzow, resided
as Russian ambassador. Having entered the Russian
army, he served against the Turks, and in the principal
campaigns against Napoleon from. 1812 to 1815. He
was afterwards appointed governor of New Russia and
Bessarabia, and in 1844 of the Caucasian provinces.
Died in 1856.
Vorontzov or VorontzofF. See VORONTSOF.
Vorosmarty or Voeroesmarty, vo'rosh-morty,
(almost -moRtch,) (MmALY,) a celebrated Hungarian
writer and patriot, born in the county of Fejervar in
1800. He published, while a student at Pesth, his drama
of "King Solomon," (1821,) which was followed by a
poem entitled "The Triumph of Fidelity," (1822,) "King
Sigismund," (1824,) a drama, "The Flight of Zalan," an
epic poem, and the tragedy of " Kont," (1825.) His
narrative poems entitled "Cserhalom" and "The En
chanted Valley" ("Tiindervolgy," 1827) established his
reputation as the first Hungarian poet of his time. He
was a contributor to Kisfaludy's "Aurora," and was for
several years editor of a journal called "The Repository
of Science." In 1830)16 published a patriotic lyric entitled
" T'*Q Appeal," (" Szozat,") which at once became widely
pop. and the author received from the Hungarian
A cadi, i ducat for every line. He took part in the
re\ ilutii .1 of 1848, and was a deputy to the National
Assembly for the county of Bacska, and after the defeat
of the Hungarians was imprisoned a short time. He
died in 1856, while engaged on a translation of Shak
speare.
Vorst, foRst, or Vorstius, foR'ste-us, (JOHANN,) a
German philologist, born at Wesselburg in 1623. He
settled in Berlin in 1660, and became rector or president
of the college of that city. He published, besides other
works, "Sacred Philology," etc., ("Philologia Sacra, seu
de Hebraismis Novi Testament) Liber," 1658.) Died
in Berlin in 1676.
Vorsterman, voR'ster-man', (LuCAS,) a skilful Flem
ish engraver and painter, born at Antwerp about 1580,
was a pupil of Rubens. He engraved some works of
Rubens, among which are the "Adoration of the Magi,"
and the "Descent from the Cross." He worked in
London about nine years, (1624-32,) during which he
engraved a number of portraits after Van Dyck. Died
about 1645. H's son LUCAS was an engraver, but not
equal to the father.
See NAGLER, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon."
Vorstius. See VORST and VOORST.
Vorstius, foR'ste-us, or Vorst, foRst, (CONRAD,) a
German Protestant divine, born at Cologne in 1569.
Having taken the degree of D.D. at Heidelberg, he be
came professor of theology at Geneva, and afterwards
filled the same chair in the school of divinity at Stein-
furt. In 1610 he succeeded Arminius in the chair of
theology at Leyden. His appointment to this post was
strongly opposed by the Calvinists in Holland, on account
of the heresies contained in his " Disputations on the
Nature and Attributes of God," (" De Deo, seu Dis-
•e. as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
yORTIGERN
2218
yossius
»y . . . .
putationea decem de Natura et Attnbutis Dei, etc.
The book was condemned to be publicly burned by James
I. of England, who also wrote a tract against the author.
In 1619 he was denounced by the Synod of Dort as un
worthy of his office, and exiled from the country. He
died at Tonningen in 1622. He was the author of sev
eral religious and controversial works, and was distin
guished for his learning and piety.
Vor'ti-gern, a British chief, who was elected king
about 445 A.'n. To defend Britain against the Picts and
Scots, he invited the aid of the Saxons. Hengist and
Horsa led an army of Saxons into Britain, and soon
turned their arms against Vortigern, who was defeated
and killed in 485 A.D.
Vos, de, cleh vos, (CORNELIS,) a Flemish painter,
born at Hulst about 1585. He excelled in portraits, and
painted several historical pieces. Died at Antwerp in
1651.
Vos, de, (MARTIN.) See DEVOS.
Vos, de, (PAUL,) a painter of animals and hunting-
scenes, born at Hulst (or Aelst) about 1590, was a bro
ther of Cornelis, noticed above. Died in 1654.
Vos, de, (SIMON,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp
in 1603 ; died about 1675.
Vos, van, vjtn vos, (\VILLEM,) a Dutch writer on
theology and moral philosophy, born about 1740. He
was employed as pastor at Amsterdam. Died in 1823.
Voss, (GERARD.) See Vossius.
Voss, fos, (HEINRICH,) a German scholar, was a son
of the following. He became a professor in the Univer
sity of Heidelberg. He translated /Eschylus into Ger
man, and aided his father in a translation of Shakspeare.
Died in 1822.
Voss, (JoHANN HEINRICH,) an eminent German poet
and critic, born at Sommersdorf, (Mecklenburg,) Febru
ary 20, 1751, was the son of poor parents. After he left
the public school of New Brandenburg, he became a
tutor in a family (1769) near Penzlin. Some verses which
he contributed to the " Musenalmanach" of Gottingen
attracted the notice of Boie, the editor, who invited him
to Gottingen. He went thither in 1772, and devoted
himself to the study of philology under Heyne, with
whom he soon quarrelled. He became one of the prin
cipal members of the literary society called Hainbund,
formed an acquaintance with Klopstock, and married
about 1777 a sister of Boie, above mentioned. He quitted
Gottingen in 1775 with a profound knowledge of classical
literature and philology, and was appointed rector of the
public school at Ottendorf in 1778. In 1781 he produced
an excellent translation of Homer's "Odyssey," in hex
ameter verse, which was received with great favour by the
best judges. In his version the ideas and details of the
original are reproduced with great fidelity. He removed
in 1782 to Eutin, in the duchy of Oldenburg, where he
was employed about twenty years as rector of the gym
nasium. In 1789 he published a translation of Virgil's
"Georgics," with a commentary. His admirable trans
lation of the "Iliad" appeared in 1793. As a translator
of the classics, he is generally considered to be un
rivalled. He contributed much to the improvement of
the German language and metre. Between 1774 and
1800 he composed eighteen beautiful idyls, which were
published collectively in 4 vols., 1802. His pastoral or
idyllic poem " Luise" (1795) is considered the most
charming poem of that kind in the language.
Voss and Heyne were involved in several literary con
troversies, and indulged in violent personalities. In 1799
he published a translation of the complete works of Vir
gil. He removed from Eutin to Jena in 1802, and was
called in 1805 to Heidelberg by the Elector of Baden,
who offered him a pension of about one thousand florins.
He afterwards published translations of Horace, (1806,)
Hesiod, (1808,) Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, (1808,)
and Aristophanes, (1821.) Voss manifested his devo
tion to the Protestant religion and liberal principles in
a work entitled " How F. Stolberg became illiberal,"
("Wie ward Fritz Stolberg ein Unfreier," 1819,) and
published in 1823 his " Antisymbolik," in answer to
Creuzer's " Symbolik," in which the opinions of Heyne
had been maintained. He had two sons, Henry and
Abraham, who were his coadjutors in a translation of
Shakspeare, published in 1818-26. He died at Heidel
berg in March, 1826.
See PAUI.US, " Lebens- mid Todeskunden fiber J. H. Voss," 1826 ;
TH. SCHMID, "Leben des Dicliters J. H. Voss," 1835; J. H. Voss,
" Abriss nieines Lebens," i5ji8; LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry
of Europe;" HKINRICH DOKINC;, "J. H. Voss nach seinem Leben
und Wirken dargestellt," 1834; J. J. GOEKRES. " J. H. Voss und
seine Todtenfeier in Heidelberg," 1826 : " Nouvelle Biographie
Generate ;"and the article on "German Poetry" in " Fraser's Maga
zine" for April, 1832.
Voss, von, fon fos, (Jui.ius,) a German litterateur,
born in Brandenburg in 1768, was the author of a num
ber of dramas and romances. Died in 1832.
Vossius, vosh'e-us, (DioNYSius,) a Dutch Oriental
ist, born at Dort about 1609, was a son of the following.
He was well versed in Greek and Hebrew, and learned
several modern languages. He translated into Latin
Maimonides " On Idolatry," and other works. Died at
Amsterdam in 1633.
Vossius, vosh'e-us, or Voss, vos, (GERARD,) a Ger
man or Flemish theologian and priest, born near Liege,
lived at Rome. He edited some works of Chrysostom,
Gregory Thaumaturgus, and other Greek Fathers, (1575-
1604.) Died at Liege in 1609.
Vossius, (GERARD,) a classical scholar, a son of the
following, was born at Leyden in 1620. He edited Vel-
leius Paterculus. (1639.) His death is variously dated
from 1640 to 1650.
Vossius, vosh'e-us or fos'se-us, or Voss, fos, (GE
RARD TAN,) a celebrated German scholar, born near
Heidelberg in 1577. He removed to Dort, in Holland,
studied theology, history, and antiquities at Leyden, and
became master of the public school at Dort in 1600.
He was appointed, in 1614, rector of the theological
school at Leyden, in which he soon after filled the chair
of eloquence. He visited England in 1629, and was
installed as a prebendary of Canterbury, through the
influence of Archbishop Laud. About 1632 he became
professor of history in a new college at Amsterdam. He
died at Amsterdam in 1649. Among his principal works
may be named " Aristarchus, or Seven Books on the
Dramatic Art," ("Aristarchus, sive de Arte Dramatica
Libri VII.,") " Historia Pelagiana," (1618,) "The Rhe
torical Art," ("Ars Rhetorica," 1623,) " On the Greek
Historians," ("De Historicis Grsecis Libri ties," 1624,)
"On the Latin Historians," ("De Historicis Latinis
Libri tres," 1627,) and " Commentariorum Rhetori-
corum (sive Oratoriarum Institutionum) Libri VI."
He was a friend of Grotius, and was a man of
commendable piety and modesty. "Gerard Vossius,"
says Hallam, — "a far greater name in general literature
than Scioppius, — contributed more essentially to these
grammatical rules ; and to him perhaps, rather than
to any other one man, we may refer the establishment
of as much correctness of writing as is attainable in a
dead language." (" Introduction to the Literature of
Europe.")
See (,'. TOI.I.IUS, "Oratio in Obitum G. J. Vossii." 1649; MEUR-
sius, " Athens Hatavae ;" NICERON. " Memoires ;" VAI.ERE ANDRE,
" Bibliotheca lielgica ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Vossius, (ISAAC,) a son of the preceding, was born
at Leyden in 1618. He was instructed by his father,
and subsequently travelled in France and Italy. In
1648 he was invited by Queen Christina to Sweden,
where he resided nearly ten years. He visited England
in 1670, and was made a canon of Windsor by Charles
II. He published'editions of Scylax, Pomponius Mela,
and other classics, "Dissertations on the Seventy Inter
preters, and their Translation and Chronology," (" De
Septuaginta Interpretibus, eorumque Translatione et
Chronologia Dissertationes," 1663,) "On the Chanting
of Poems and the Power of Rhythm," (" De Poematum
Cantu et Viribus Rhythmi," 1673,) and "A Book of
Various Observations," ("Variarum Observationum
Liber.") He died in 1688, leaving a large and very
valuable library, which was purchased by the University
of Leyden. His learning was profound, but he was dis
solute in character and skeptical in religion, though so
credulous in other things that Charles II. said of him,
" This learned divine will believe anything except the
Bible."
See FOPPENS, "Bibliotheca Belgica;" NICERON, "Memoires;"
"Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; not; good; moon;
rossius
2219
VTASA
Vossius, (MATTHEUS,) a historical writer, born at !
Dort, was a brother of Isaac Vossius. He became li- j
brarian of the city of Amsterdam, and published, in
Latin, "Annals of Holland and Zealand," (1645-46.)
Died in 1646.
Vostermaii, vos'ter-man', (JOHN,) a Dutch landscape- ;
painter, born at Bommel in 1643. He worked in Eng- ;
land, and was patronized by Charles II. He is said to
have excelled in delicacy of finish. Died in 1699.
Vouet, voo'i', (SiMox,) a celebrated French painter,
born in Paris in 1582, (or 1590, according to the "Nou-
velle Biographic Generale.") He studied at Venice
and Rome, and, after his return, was appointed, in 1627,
painter to Louis XIII. He is called the founder of the |
French school of painting, and numbered among his
pupils Mignard, Le Brun, Le Sueur, and other distin
guished artists. He adorned many churches of Paris
with his works, which are defective in colour and design.
Died in 1649, (ori as some say, 1641.)
See FKI.IBIKN, " Les Artistes Krangais ;" CHARLES BLANC, " His-
toire des Peintres;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Voullaiid, voo'15x', (HKNKI,) a violent French Jaco
bin, born at Uzes in 1750, was a member of the Con
vention of 1792-95. Died in 1802.
Voyer. See ARGENSOX, r>'.
Voys, vois, (AkY or ADKIAAX,) a Dutch painter,
born at Leyden in 1641. He painted history and land
scapes.
Voysin or Voisin, vwa'zdx', (DANIEL FRANCOIS,)
a French lawyer and politician, born in Paris about 1654.
He was patronized by Madame de Maintenon, through
whose influence he became secretary of war in 1709, and
chancellor of France in 1714. lie wrote the last will of
Louis XIV., and a few days after the king's death pro- I
noticed it null. Died in 1717.
Vre'tos or Vre'to, (ANDREW PAPADOPOULOS,) a
modern Greek writer, born at Theaki (Ithaca) in 1800.
He published many works, among which is a "Life of
President Capo d'Istria," (in French, 2 vols., 1837-38,)
and "The Literature of Modern Greece," (2 vols.,
1854-57.)
Vriemoet, vKee'moot, (EMO Lucius,) a Dutch phi
lologist and minister, born at Eniden in 1699. He be
came professor of Oriental languages at Franeker in
1730. Died in 1760.
Vriend. See FLORIS, (FRAXS.)
Vries, vRees, (MARTIN Gerritzoon — geR'rit-zon,) a
Dutch navigator, was sent in 1643, by Van Diemen,
governor of the Dutch possessions in India, on a voyage
to explore the countries north of Japan. An account
of the expedition appeared in 1646.
Vries, de, deh vRees, (HANS Fredeman — fi<a'deh-
man',) an eminent Dutch painter of perspective and
architectural pieces, was born at Leeuwarden in 1527.
He was the author of a "Treatise on Perspective," and
produced a great number of architectural designs. His
sons PAUL and SOLOMON distinguished themselves in
the same department. Hans Fredeman died after 1604.
Vuez, de. See DEVUKZ.
Vukassovich, von, fon voo-kas'so-vik, (PHILIP,)
BARON, a general, born in Slavonia in 1755. He served
as a general of the Austrian army in Italy against the
French. Died in 1809.
Vulcain. See VULCAN.
Viil'can, [Gr. "Hteoroc, ( Hephaistos;) Lat. VULCA'-
NUS; Fr. VULCAIN, viiKkax'; It. VOLCANO, vol-ka'no,] the
Roman god of fire, celebrated as a worker in metals and
a fabricator of armour, corresponds to the Hephaestus
(or Hephaistos) of the Greek mythology. According to
Homer, he was a son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Hera, (Juno,)
and was weak and deformed from his birth. Other
writers reported that he was a son of Juno, and had no
father ; that, in a quarrel between Jupiter and Juno, he
took the part of his mother, and was hurled down from
Olympus by Jupiter; that, after falling a whole day, he
lighted on the island of Lemnos ; that his fall rendered
him lame ; that he forged the thunderbolts of Jupiter,
and fabricated the shield of Hercules, the armour of
Achilles and other heroes, and other famous pieces of
exquisite workmanship. The island of Lemnos was his
favourite residence on the earth, and he had also a palace
in Olympus, to which he returned after his fall. He
married Venus, whom he once detected in the embrace
of Mars. The story of this affair may be found in the
" Odyssey," book viii. According to popular tradition,
Mount Etna was a forge of Vulcan, who had also work
shops in several volcanic islands, and the Cyclopes
worked in his service. (See Virgil's "/Eneid," book
viii. 370-448.) The ancients ascribed to Minerva and
Vulcan jointly the invention or the introduction of the
arts which embellish life and distinguish civilized society
from the savage state. He was represented with ham
mer and tongs at the anvil, and with his right arm bare.
He was also called MULCIBER, which is perhaps a cor
ruption of mnlcifir, (from mitlceo, to "soften" or "render
tractable," undfeman, "iron.")
Vulcanius, vul-ka'ne-us, (BoNAVENTURA,) a Flemish
classical scholar, born at Bruges in 1538. He became sec
retary to Cardinal Francisco de Mendoza in Spain about
1560, and obtained the chair of Greek at Leyden in 1578.
He edited several ancient authors, and translated some
Greek works into Latin. Died at Leyden in 1614.
Vul'pi-us, [Ger. pron. fool'pe-us,] (CHRISTIAN AU
GUST,) a German writer, born at Weimar in 1762. He
studied at Jena and Erlangen, and afterwards became
secretary of the court theatre at Weimar, under the
direction of Goethe, who was his brother-in-law. He
published " Rinaldo Rinaldini," (1799,) a robber romance,
which was received with great favour ; also " Romantic
Histories of Former Times," and a number of dramatic
works. He was subsequently appointed first librarian
and overseer of the cabinet of coins at Weimar. Died
in 1827.
Vulsoii, de, deh vuTs6.N', (MARC,) a French writer on
heraldry. He fought for Henry IV. in his youth, and
became a gentleman of the chamber of the king. He
published several works. Died in 1658.
Vyasa, ve-a'sa or vya'sa, [etymology doubtful ; sup
posed by some to signify " compiler" or " arranger,"]
called also Vedavyasa, va'da-vya'sa, the name of a
celebrated Hindoo sage or saint, who is supposed to
have been the original compiler of the Vedas and Pura-
nas, and the founder of the Vedanta philosophy.*
Nothing is known of the events of his life, and by some
he is regarded as a myth.
* The Vedanta philosophy, called also simply the Vedanta. (i.e.
the "end or scope of [all] knowledge," from z>ed&, "knowledge,"
and dntft., "end" or "scope,") is a sort of ideal system, which
has been derived or developed from portions of the Vedas, called the
UPANISHADS, (which see.) It teaches, among other things, that
Hrahni, the infinite eternal Spirit, is the only being really existing in
the universe. All creatures are merely emanations (or we might say
exhalations) from Him, having an apparent rather than a real exist
ence, and will at last be absorbed or extinguished in his essence.
(See BRAHM and BRAHMANISM.)
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2l^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
WAAGEN
WADE
w.
Waagen, wa'gen, (GusTAV FRIEDRICH,) an eminent
German amateur and art-critic, born at Hamburg in
1794. He studied at Breslau. Dresden, and Munich,
and in 1823 was appointed director of the Royal Gallery
of Paintings at Berlin. He published " Works of Art
and Artists in England and France," (" Kunstwerke uncl
Kiinstler in England uncl Frankteich," 3 vols., 1837,)
" Works of Art and Artists in Germany," (" Kunstwerke
uncl Klinstier in Deutschland," 2 vols., 1843,) "The
Treasures of Art in Great Britain," etc., (3 vols., 1854,
in English,) a " Life of Rubens," and other works, which
enjoy the highest reputation. He was appointed in 1844
professor in the Royal University for the department of
art history. Died at Copenhagen in August, 1868.
See the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1838.
Waal. See WAEI..
Waast. See WASP.
Wace, va"s or vas, (RoBKRT,) an Anglo-Norman poet,
a native of the island of Jersey, resided at the court of
Henry II. at Caen, to whom he dedicated his " Roman
du Rou," (1160.) He was afterwards made a canon in
the cathedral of Hayeu.x. His " Roman du Ron [Rolloj
et des Dues de Normandie" is a history (in verse) of the
Dukes of Normandy from the invasion of Rollo to the
time of Henry I., and is highly valued as a historical
record. He was the author of other poems, the prin
cipal of which is entitled "The English Brutus," (" Le
Brut d'Angleterre.") Died about 1184.
See PLUQUET, " Notice sur la Vie et les ficrits de Robert Wnce,"
1824; LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Foreign
Quarterly Review" tor April, iS2S; " British Quarterly Review" for
February, iS47, article "Anglo-Norman Poets of the Twelfth Cen
tury :" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. "
Wach, waK, (\VILMKLM,) a German painter, born at
Berlin in 1787, studied in Paris and Rome, and was
elected, after his return, to the Royal Academy of Arts.
He was one of the founders of the new school of paint
ing at Berlin. Among his best works is the altar-piece
in the church of Peter and Paul at Moscow. Died in
1845-
Wachler, waK/ier, (JoHANN FKIEDKICH Lunwio,) a
German writer, born at Gotha in 1767. Having studied
at Jena, he became professor of philosophy at Marburg
in 1801, and of history at Breslau in 1815, and was after
wards appointed chief librarian of the University at
Breslau. He was the author of a " Manual of the Uni
versal History of Literary Culture," (1804,) "Manual of
History," (" Lehrbuch der Geschichte,") " Lectures on
the History of German National Literature," (1818,) and
other works, which have a high reputation. Died in 1838.
Wachsmuth, waks'moot, (ERNST WILHELM GOTT
LIEB,) a German historical writer, born at Hildesheim
in 1784, studied at Halle, and became professor of his
tory at Leipsic in 1825. He has published, among other
works, a " History of European Manners," (Sittenge-
schichte,) (5 vols., 1831,) and " Universal History of
Culture," (1850.)
Wachsmuth, viks'mut', (FERDINAND,) a French
painter of history and battles, born at Mulhouse, near
the Rhine, in 1802. Among his subjects are several
French victories in Algiers.
Wachter, waK'ter, (FERDINAND,) a German writer,
born in 1794, has published several treatises on Scandi
navian legends and antiquities ; also a number of dramatic
works.
Wachter or Waechter, w§K'ter, (GEORG PHII.IPP
LUDWIG LEONHAKD,) a German litterateur, born in 1762,
was the author of " Legends of Ancient Times," and
other works. Died in 1837.
Wachter, (JOHANN GEORG,) an eminent German
linguist and archaeologist, born at Memmingen in 1673.
He was a member of the Academy of Sciences at Ber
lin, and became first librarian and director of the Museum
of Antiquities at Leipsic. He was the author of " Glos-
sarium Germanicum," etc., one of the most valuable
works of the kind, " Archaeologia Nummaria," (1740,)
and other treatises on numismatics and etymology. Died
in 175.7-
Wachter or Waechter, von, fon welter, (KARL
GEORG,) a German jurist, born at Marbach, on the
Neckar, in 1797. He studied at Tubingen and Heidel
berg, and became in 1822 professor of law in the former
university, of which he was nvicle chancellor in 1836. He
was appointed professor of civil law at Leipsic in 1852,
and published several works on German law.
Wachtler or Waechtler, weia'ler, (CHRISTFRIED,)
a German jurist, born atGrimme in 1652. He published
numerous legal works. Died in 1731.
"Wachtler or Waechtler, JAKOB,) a German Prot
estant minister and writer on theology, born at Grimme
in 1638; died at Beltzig in 1702.
Wackenroder, wdk'ken-ro'der, (WILHELM 1 1 F.I \-
RICH,) a German writer, born at Berlin in 1772. He
was a friend of Ludwig Tieck, in conjunction with whom
he published " Herzensergiessungen eines Kiinstlieben-
den Klosterbruders." Died in 1798.
See J. G. KLEIN, " Erinnerungen an Wackenroder," 1809.
Wackerbarth, Mk'ker-baiu', (AUGUST CHUIS
Torn,) COUNT, a German military commander, born in
the duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg in 1662. He served in
several campaigns against the French and Turks, and
was made a field-marshal in 1712. Died in 1754.
See FRIGANDER, " Leben des A. C. Grafen von Wackerbarth,"
2 vols., 1730.
Wackernagel, wak'ker-na'gel, (KARL HEINRICII
WlLHELM,) a German writer, born at Merlin in 1806,
became professor of the German language and literature
at Bale in 1835. He published a " German Reader,"
(1835,) a treatise "On Dramatic Poetry," (1838,) " His
tory of German Literature," (1848,) and other works, of
great merit, on similar subjects.
Wad-dell', (JAMES,) D.I)., a Presbyterian divine,
celebrated for his eloquence, born in Ireland in 1739,
came at an early age to America, and settled as a pastor
in Louisa county, Virginia. He was the original of
William Wirt's beautiful sketch of the " Blind Preacher."
Died in 1805.
Wadding, wSd'ding, or Wading, (LuKK,) an Irish
scholar and Catholic priest, born at Waterforcl in 1588.
He studied at the Jesuits' Seminary in Lisbon, and in
1618 accompanied Anthony a Trejo on a mission to
Rome, where he continued to reside, and founded in
1625 the College of Saint Isidore. His principal work
is entitled " Annales Ordinis Minorum," etc., (8 vols.,
1628-54,) being a history of the order of Franciscans.
Died in 1657.
Waddiiigton, wSd'ding-ton, (GEORGE,) an English
writer, born about 1793. He published a "History of
the Church from the Earliest Ages to the Reformation,"
(3 vols., 1835,) and a " History of the Reformation on
the Continent," (3 vols., 1841.) He became Dean of
Durham in 1840.
Waddiiigton - Kastus, vt ' daN ' ION' kfs'tus',
(CHARLES,) a French Protestant philosopher, born
about 1819. He published a "Life of Ramus," (1855,)
and "Essays on Logic," (1858.) He became a professor
at Strasburg in 1856.
Wade, (BENJAMIN FRANKLIN,) an American Sena
tor, distinguished as a zealous opponent of slavery, born
at Springfield, Massachusetts, October 27, 1800, was a
son of poor parents. He removed to Ohio about 1821,
was employed as a school-teacher for several years, and
studied law. He was admitted to the bar in 1828, since
which time he has resided in Ashtabula county, Ohio.
In 1837 he was elected a member of the Senate of Ohio,
and in 1847 he was chosen presiding judge of the third
judicial district of that State. He was elected a Sena
tor of the United States by the Whigs of Ohio in 1851.
He advocated the Homestead bill, voted for the repeal
of the Fugitive Slave Law, and opposed the Nebraska
Kansas bill of 1854. He was re-elected a Senator for
six years in 1857, and was appointed chairman of the
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, §, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon;
WADHAM
WAGNER
committee on territories. In December, 1860, he made
a speech in which he opposed any new concessions to
the slave-power, and declared to the Southern Senators,
'• We hold to no doctrine that can possibly work you
any inconvenience, any wrong, any disaster." In the
session of 1861-62 he was appointed chairman of the
joint committee on the conduct of the war. On the
question of the reconstruction of the Southern States
after the end of the civil war he was a decided radical.
He was elected President of the Senate about March,
1867, having been selected for that office on account of
his resolute character and inflexible fidelity to the cause
of liberty. At the Chicago National Convention, May
21, 1868, he received on the first four ballots more votes
than any other candidate for the Vice-Presidency, but
failed to obtain the nomination.
Wadham, wScl'am, (NICHOLAS,) born in Somerset
shire in 1536, was the founder of the college at Oxford
called by his name. Died in 1610.
"Wading, wSd'ing, ? (PETER,) an Irish Jesuit, born at
Waterford, was the author of a number of Latin works in
prose and verse, and became chancellor of the University
of Gratz, in Styria. Died in 1644.
Wadstiom or Wadstroem, wad'stRom, (CARL
BERNS,) a Swedish philanthropist, born at Stockholm
in 1746. He visited Africa in 1787, and published, after
his return, "Observations on the Slave-Trade, and a
Description of Some Part of the Coast of Guinea," etc.,
(1789, in English.) This work first suggested to the
British government the establishment of the colonies of
Sierra Leone and Bulema. Died in 1799.
Wadsworth, w6d//worth, (BENJAMIN,) an American
clergyman, born at Milton, Massachusetts, about 1670.
He preached in Boston for many years, and became
president of Harvard College in 1725. Died in 1737.
Wadsworth, (JAMES,) a wealthy American land
holder, born at Durham, Connecticut, in 1768. He re
moved at an early age to Western New York, where he
purchased a large tract near the Genesee River. He
was instrumental in founding the State Normal School,
and was a generous patron of the cause of education.
Died in 1844.
Wadsworth, (JAMES SAMUEL,) an American general,
born at Geneseo, Livingston county, New York, in Oc
tober, 1807, was a son of the preceding. He was edu
cated at Harvard and Yale Colleges, studied law under
Daniel Webster, and was admitted to the bar in 1833.
He inherited an immense landed estate situated in
Western New York, and, like his father, was a liberal
patron of the cause of education. He enlisted as a
volunteer early in 1861, was appointed a brigadier-gene
ral in August, and became military governor of the Dis
trict of Columbia in March, 1862. In November, 1862,
he was the Republican candidate for Governor of New
York, but was not elected. He commanded a division
at the battle of Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862, and
at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. He was killed at the
battle of the Wilderness, May 6, 1864.
"The country's salvation," says H. Greeley, "claimed
no nobler sacrifice than that of James S. Wadsworth,
of New York. . . . No one surrendered more for his
country's sake, or gave his life more joyfully for her
deliverance."
See GREELEY, " American Conflict," vol. ii. pp. 568, 569 ; TENNEY,
"Military History of the Rebellion," p. 777.
Wadsworth, (PELEG,) an American general, born
at Duxbury, Massachusetts, in 1748. He served with
distinction in the Revolutionary war, and represented a
district of Massachusetts in Congress from 1792 to 1806.
Died in Oxford county, Maine, in 1829.
Waechter, QOHANN GEORG.) See WACHTER.
Waechtler. See WACHTLER.
Wael or Waal, de, deh wil or vil, (CORNELIUS,) a
Flemish battle-painter, born at Antwerp in 1594, was a
son of John de Wael, noticed below. He resided many
years at Genoa, where he executed a number of excel
lent pictures, consisting chiefly of sea-fights and other
battles. Died in 1662.
Wael, de, (JoHN,) a Flemish painter, born at Ant
werp in 1558, attained distinction in the departments of
portrait and historical painting. Died in 1633.
Wael, de, (LUCAS,) born at Antwerp in 1591, was a
brother of Cornelius, noticed above, whom he accom
panied to Genoa. He painted landscapes both in oil-
colours and fresco, which were highly esteemed. Died
in 1676.
Wa'fer, (LIONEL,) an English surgeon, who accom
panied Dampier on one of his voyages, and, having
quarrelled with him, was left on the Isthmus of Darien.
He published after his return an account of his adven
tures among the Indians, (1690.)
Wafflard, vf'fltR', (ALEXIS JACQUES MARIE,) a
French dramatist, born at Versailles in 1787. Among
his works are " A Moment of Imprudence," (1819,) and
a "Voyage to Dieppe," (1821.) Died in 1824.
Waga, va'ga, (THEODORE,) a Polish historian, born
in Mazovia in 1739. He wrote a " History of Poland,"
(1770.) Died in 1801.
Wagenaar, wa'geh-nSr' or wa'neh-nSr', (JAN,) an
eminent Dutch historian, born at Amsterdam in 1709.
He was the author of a history of the Netherlands,
entitled " De Vaderlandsche Historic vervattende de
Geschiedenissen der vereenigde Nederlanden," etc.,
(21 vols., 1749-59,) and other historical works. Died
in 1773.
See P. HUISINGA BAKKER, " Het Leven van J. Wagenaar," 1776.
Wagenseil, wa'gen-zTl', [Lat. WAGKNSEIL'IUS,] (Jo-
HA\\ CHRISTOPH,) a German scholar, born at Nurem
berg in 1633. He became professor of history at Altdorf
in 1667, and was afterwards appointed tutor to the
counts-palatine. He published a number of critical,
antiquarian, and controversial treatises, in Latin, among
which we may name his " Tela Ignea Satanse," in refu
tation of the Jewish writers against Christianity. Died
in 1705.
See F. ROTH-SCHOLTZ, "Vita J. C. Wagenseilii," 1819; Nic^-
RON, " Mumoires."
Wagenseilius. See WAGENSEIL.
Wa'ger, (Sir CHARLES,) an English admiral, born in
1666, served in the war of the Spanish succession. In
1708, with four ships, he defeated seventeen Spanish
galleons near Carthagena, South America. For this
exploit he was made a rear-admiral. He afterwards
commanded a fleet in the Mediterranean till the peace
of 1713. He was first lord of the admiralty in the min
istry of Sir Robert Wai pole from 1732 to 1742. About
1731 he was raised to the rank of admiral. Died in 1743.
Wag'horn, (Lieutenant THOMAS,) R.N., an English
naval officer, born in Kent in 1800. He served in India
in the Arracan war, and in 1827 applied to the govern
ment for assistance in carrying out a project he had
conceived of opening communication by steam between
Great Britain and the East Indies. He expended much
time and energy in this useful enterprise, and was at
length successful. The result of his labours is the Over
land mail-route through Suez and the Red Sea. Died
in 18:50.
"Wagner, wac/ner, (CHRISTIAN,) a German scholar
and preacher, born at Leipsic in 1663. He wrote a
"Thesis on the Number of Worlds," ("Thesis de Nu-
mero Mundorum.") Died in 1693.
Wagner, (ERNST,) a German novelist and poet, born
in 1769, published " Wilibald's Views of Life," (2 vols.,
1805,) "The Travelling Painter," (2 vols., 1806,) " Isi-
dora," (3 vols., 1812,) and other works. Died in 1812.
See F. MOSENGEII,, " Briefe iiber E. Wagner," etc., 2 vols., 1826.
Wagner, (GEORG PHILIPP EBERHARD,) a German
philologist, born at Schonbrunn, in Saxony, in 1794,
published, among other works, a treatise on "The
Greek Tragedy and the Theatre at Athens," (1844.)
Wagner, (GOTTLOB HEINRICH ADOLF,) a German
writer and translator, born at Leipsic in 1774. He pub
lished "Two Epochs of Modern Poetry," etc., (1806,)
and other original works, and translated into German
Byron's " Manfred," and Coxe's " History of the House
of Austria," the latter in conjunction with Dippold.
Died in 1835.
Wagner, wac/ner, (JoHANN JAKOB,) a Swiss natural
ist, born near Zurich in 1641. He wrote (in Latin) a
"Natural History of Switzerland," (1680.) Diedini695.
Wagner, (JoiiANN JAKOB,) a German philosopher,
born at Ulm in 1775, became professor of philosophy at
<; as n; c as s; g hard; g asy'/ G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s asz; th as in Mw.
Explanations, p. 23.)
WAGKER
WAKEFIELD
Wiirzburg. He published, besides other works, "On
the Nature of Things," (1803,) a "System of Ideal Phi
losophy," (1804,) "Theodicee," (1809,) and " Organon
der menschlichen Erkenntniss," (1830.) Died in 1841.
See P. L. ADAM and A. KOHI.LE, " J. J. Wagner, Lebensnach-
richten und Biiet'e," 1848.
Wagner, (Lunwio FRIEDKICH,) a German antiquary
and jurist, born at Tubingen in 1700; died in 1789.
"Wagner, (MoRiTZ,) a German traveller, born at
Baireuth in 1813, published "Travels in the Kingdom
of Algiers," etc., (1841,) "The Caucasus and the
Land of the Cossacks," (1848,) "Journey to Persia and
Kurdistan," (1852,) and other works.
Wagner, (RICHARD,) a distinguished German com
poser, born at Leipsic in 1813. He was appointed chapel-
master at Dresden in 1843. Among his principal works
are the operas of " Rienzi," (1842,) "Tanhauser," (1845,)
"Lohengrin," (1851,) and " Rheingold," (1869.) He has
written several essays on music and the dramatic art,
which have been the subject of much controversy.
Among these is one called "Oper und Drama," (1851.)
See F. HINRICHS, " R. Wanner und die neuere Musik," :8s4.
Wagner, (Runui.F,) a German physician and anato
mist, brother of Moritz, noticed above, was born at
Baireuth in 1805. He succeeded Blumenbach as pro
fessor of physiology at Gottingen in 1840. He published,
among other works, a treatise "On the Comparative
Physiology of the Blood," (1833,) a "Manual of Com
parative Anatomy," (1834,) and " Icones Physiologicas,"
(1839.) Died in '1864.
"Wagner, (ToiUAS,) a German theologian and writer,
born in Wiirtemberg in 1598. Fie was professor of
theology at Tubingen. Died in 1680.
Wagner, von, fon wac/ner, QOHANN MARTIN,) a
German sculptor, born at Wiirzburg in 1777.
Wagniere, vSn'ye-aiu', ([KAN Louis,) a Swiss littl-
rateitr, born in 1739. He became secretary to Voltaire
about 1756, and gained his confidence. In conjunction
with Longchamp, he wrote "Memoirs on Voltaire and
his Works," (2 vols., 1825.) Died after 1787.
Wagrarn, PRINCE OF. See BERTHIKR.
Wag'staff, (\Vn.i.i\M,) F.R.S., an English physician
and humorous writer, born in Buckinghamshire in 1685 ;
died in 1725.
Wagstaffe, wag'staf, (THOMAS.) an English divine,
born in Warwickshire in 1645. He published a "Vin
dication of King Charles I.," etc., and a number of ser
mons. Died in 1712.
Wahhab or Wahab, (Abdul.) See ABD-EL- WA-
HAR
Wahl, wtl, (CHRISTIAN AI.BRECHT,) a German
theologian, born at Dresden in 1773. He published a
" Historical and Practical Introduction to the Biblical
Writings," (1820,) and other similar works. Died in 1855.
Wahl, von, fon wtl. (JOACHIM CHRISTIAN,) COUNT,
a German general, distinguished in the Thirty Years'
war, in which he fought for the Catholics or Imperialists.
He commanded with success in the Upper Palatinate in
1634, after which he took Baireuth, Augsburg, and other
places. Died in 1644.
Wahlberg, wal'beKG, (PETER FREDERIK,) a Swedish
naturalist, born at Gothenburg in 1800. He wrote on
botany, and succeeded Berzelius as perpetual secretary
of the Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Wahlbom, vvil'bom, ([OHANN WILHKLM CARL,) a
Swedish painter, born at Calmar in 1810; died in 1858.
Wahlenberg, wa'len-beRC/, (GEORG,) a Swedish
botanist, born in the province of Wermland in 1780. He
visited Lapland and other northern regions of Europe,
and subsequently became professor of botany and medi
cine at Upsal. Among his principal works are his
" Flora Lapponica," " Flora Carpatorum," and " Flora
Suecica." Died in 1851.
Waiblinger, wi'bling-er, (WiLHEi.M FRIEDRICH,) a
German litterateur, born at Reutlingen in 1804; died
in 1830.
Waifer, wl'fer, [Fr. pron. vi'faiR',1 Duke of Aqui-
taine, born about 725 A.D., began to reign in 745. His
dominions were invaded in 760 by Pepin le Bref, against
whom he fought without success. He was assassinated
by order of Pepin le Bref in 768 A.D.
Wailly, de, deh vS'ye', (ARMAND FRANC.OIS LEON,)
a French litterateur and critic, born in Paris in 1804, was
a grandson of Charles, noticed below. He wrote a
novel, entitled " Stella and Vanessa," (1846,) and trans
lated the works of Sir Walter Scott and other English
authors. Died in 1863.
Wailly, de, (CHARLES,) a distinguished French ar
chitect, born in Paris in 1729. He gained the grand
prize of Rome in 1752, was admitted into the Academy
of Painting as a designer in 1771, and was the chief
founder of the Society of "Amis des Arts." Died in
1798.
See LAVALI.I^E, " Notice sur Charles de Wailly," 1799.
Wailly, de, (£TIKN\K AUGUSTIN,) a French littera
teur, born in Paris in 1770, was a son of Noel Franfois,
noticed below. lie became frm'iseur of the Lycee Napo
leon. Died in 1821.
His son, ALFRED BARTHEI.EMI, born in Paris in 1800,
published a Latin-French Dictionary, (1829,) and a
French-Latin Dictionary, (1832.)
Wailly, de, (JOSEPH NOEL,) a French scholar, a
brother of Armand Francois Leon, was born at Mezieres
in 1805. He published, besides other works, " Elements
of Palasography," (2 vols., 1838.)
Wailly, de, (NoEL FRANC.OIS,) a French scholar and
writer, the father of Etienne Augustin, noticed above,
was born at Amiens in 1724. lie was the author of a
work entitled "General and Particular Principles of the
French Language," "Abridgment of the Dictionary of
the Academy," "Principles of the Latin Language,"
" Dictionary of Rhymes," and "Select Histories from
the Xew Testament." Died in 1801.
Wainwright, wan'iit, (JONATHAN MAY HEW,) D.D.,
born at Liverpool, England, in 1792, emigrated to
America, and graduated in 1812 at Harvard College.
He became rector of Trinity Church, Boston, in 1834,
assistant minister of Trinity Church, New York, in 1837,
and in 1852 provisional Bishop of the diocese of New
York. Died in 1854.
Waith'man, an English magistrate, born near \Yrex-
ham in 1765, was elected lord mayor of London, and
several times represented that city in Parliament. Died
in 1833.
Waitz, wits, (GEORG,) a German writer, born in 1813,
published several historical works, among which is a
" History of the German Constitution," (2 vols., 1843-47.)
Waitz, (THEODOR,) a German philosophical writer,
born at Gotha in 1821. He published a "Manual of
Psychology as a Natural Science," (1849,) and other
works.
Wake, (Sir ISAAC,) an English writer and diplo
matist, born in Northamptonshire in 1575, wrote a work
entitled " Rex Platonicus." Died in 1632.
Wake, (WILLIAM,) an English prelate and theolo
gian, born in Dorsetshire in 1657. He was successively
created Dean of Exeter, Bishop of Lincoln, and Arch
bishop of Canterbury, (1716.) He was the author of an
" Exposition of the Doctrine of the Church of England,"
"An English Version of the Genuine Epistles of the
Apostolic Fathers," and a number of sermons and con
troversial works. Died in 1737.
Wakedi, Al, (Mohammed.) See WAKIDEE.
Wakefield, wak'feld, (EDWARD GIBBON,) an Eng
lish writer on colonization and political economy, pub
lished, among other works, "England and America: a
Comparison of the Social and Political State of Both
Nations," (1833,) and " View of the Art of Colonization."
He became in 1837 the founder of the New Zealand
Association. Died in 1862.
See "Eraser's Magazine" for March, 1849.
Wakefield, (GILBERT,) an English scholar and theo
logian, born at Nottingham in 1756. He studied at
Jesus College, Cambridge, and took the degree of B.A.
in 1776. He became master of the Dissenting Academy
at Warrington in 1779, and published soon after "A
Plain and Short Account of the Nature of Baptism," and
a "New Translation of the Gospel of Saint Matthew,"
(1782.) These works were followed by "Remarks on
the Internal Evidence of the Christian Religion," (1789,)
and " Philological Commentary on the Sacred and Profane
Authors," (" Silva Critica, sive in Auctores sacros pro-
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, p, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; nit; good; moon;
WAKEFIELD
2223
WALDEMAR
fanosque Commentarius Philologus,") a fifth part of
which appeared in 1795. He published in 1791 his
"Translation of the Xew Testament, with Notes," and
"An Inquiry into the Expediency and Propriety of
Public 01 Social Worship." The latter caused consid
erable sensation, and elicited several replies. His "Re
ply to Some Parts of the Bishop of LlandafFs Address"
caused him to be imprisoned two years, during which
time he wrote his critical essays entitled " Xoctes Car-
cerarias," ("Prison Nights.") He died in 1801, leaving
among his numerous works an edition of Lucretius,
which is still esteemed.
See his "Autobiographic Memoirs of the First Thirty-Six Years
of the Life of G. Wakefield," 1792; "Monthly Review'' for October,
1805.
Wakefield, (Mrs. PRISCILLA,) an English educational
writer, born in 1750. .She was the author of an " Intro
duction to Botany," (1796,) "Reflections on the Present
Condition of the Female Sex, with Hints for its Im
provement," (1798,) "Juvenile Traveller," (1801,) " Do
mestic Recreation," (1805,) "The Traveller in Africa,"
and various other works. Died in 1832.
Wakefield, (ROBERT,) an English linguist and priest,
was professor of Hebrew at Oxford. He wrote a para
phrase of Ecclesiastes, and other works. Died in 15^7.
Wakidee or Wakidi, wa'ki-dee', written also Wa-
qidy, an Arabian writer, born at Medina in 748 \.i>. ;
died at Bagdad in 823. He made a collection of the
traditions concerning Mohammed and those of his fol
lowers who fought at Bedr, called "Tabakat-Kebeer," (or
" -Kebir,") the "great series" or "order of events." It
consists of biographies arranged in chronological order.
His lite of the prophet has been pronounced by compe
tent critics to be the best by far that has been written.
See SPRENGER, " Life of Mohammad," p. 70 et seg.
Wakidi. See WAKIDEE.
Wak'ley, (THOMAS,) M. P., an English surgeon, born
in 1795, was the founder and editor of the "Lancet."
He represented Finsbury in Parliament from 1835 to
1852. Died in 1862.
Walaeus, wi-la'us, or Wale, wa'leh, (AvrooN,) a
Dutch Protestant minister, born at Ghent in 1573. He
was a prominent member of the Synod of Dort, and
became professor of theology at Leyden. Died in 1639.
Walaeus, (JAN,) a physician, a son of the preceding,
was born about 1604. He is said to have made some
discoveries on the circulation of the blood. Died at
Leyden in 1649.
Walafridus, w6l-a-free'dus or wal'a-free'dus or
Walafried, wa'ld-fReet', written also Walhafredus,
a learned German monk, surnanied STRA'HUS, or
" Squint-eyed," was the author of a theological essay,
entitled " be Officiis Divinis," etc., " Hortulus," a treat
ise on botany, (in Latin verse,) and other works. Died
in 849.
Walbaum, wal'bowm, (JoHANN Jui.ics,) a German
physician and writer, born at Woifenbiittel in 1724;}
died in 1799.
Walch, walK, [Lat. WAI/CHIUS,] (CHRISTIAN Wn,-
HKI..M FRANZ,) second son of Johann Georg, noticed
below, was born at Jena in 1726. He was the author of
several valuable works on ecclesiastical history, theology,
and ancient literature ; among the most important of
these are his " History of the Jewish Patriarchs men
tioned in Books of Roman Law," "Compendium of the
most Modern Ecclesiastical History," (both in Latin,)
and a "History of Heresies, Schisms, and Religious
Controversies down to the Reformation," (in German,
II vols., 1762.) Died in 1784.
See C. G. HEVNE, " Elogium C. G. F. Wa'chii," 1784.
Walch, (JoHANN ERNST IMMANUEL,) son of Johann
Georg, noticed below, was born at Jena in 1725. He be
came professor of theology in his native city, and pub
lished a number of critical and theological works, also
several valuable treatises on mineralogy. Died in 1778.
See HEXNINGS, "Leben des Professors J. E. I. Walch," 1780.
Walch, [Lat. WAI/CHIUS,] (JOHANN GEORG,) a Ger
man scholar and theologian, born at Meiningen in 1693,
became successively professor of philosophy, eloquence,
and theology at Jena. He published a " Philosophical
Lexicon,"' (1726,) "Introduction to the Theological Sci
ences," (1747,) "Theologia Patristica," (1770,) and other
works. Died in 1775.
His son KARL FKIEDRICH became professor of law at
Jena, and was the author of several legal treatises.
See " Leben und Charakter des J. G. Walch," Jena, 1777.
Walcher, walK'er, (JOSEPH,) an Austrian Jesuit,
noted for his skill in hydraulics and mechanics, was
born at Linz in 1718. He was professor of mechanics
in a college of Vienna, and wrote several works. Died
in 1803.
Walchius. See WALCH.
Walckeuaer, val'keh-naR', (CHARLES Athanase —
t'tS'ntz',) BARON, an eminent French writer and savant,
born in Paris in 1771. He was admitted into the Insti
tute in 1813, and appointed perpetual secretary of the
Academy of Inscriptions in 1840. Among his principal
works are his " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de
J. de La Fontaine," (1820,) " Histoire generale des Vo
yages," (21 vols., 1826-31, unfinished,) " Natural History
of Insects," (3 vols., 1836-44,) "Ancient Geography,
Historical and Comparative, of the Gauls," (3 vols.,
1839,) which is highly esteemed, " History of the Life
and Poems of Horace," (2 vols., 1840,) and " Memoires
touchant la Vie et les Ecrits de Madame de Sevigne,"
(5 vols., 1842-52.) He contributed many able articles
to the " Biographic Universelle." In his youth he had
inherited an ample fortune. He was appointed prefect
of Nievre in 1826, and held other high offices. Died
in 1852.
See QTEK»RD, " La France LitteVaire ;" NAUDET, "Notice his-
torique sur Walckenaer," 1X52; SAIVTE-BEL'VK, " Causeries du
Lundi ;" '• Ninivelle Biographie Generale."
Walckendorf, walk'en-doRf', (CHRISTOPH,) a Dan
ish statesman, born at Copenhagen about 1525. He
rendered important services as minister of finance in
the reign of Frederick II., (1558-88.) Died in 1601.
Waldarfer, wal'daR'fer, sometimes written Valdar-
fer or Baldorfer, (CHRISTOPH,) a German printer, who
established a press in Venice about 1470, and at Milan in
1474. His edition of Boccaccio was greatly admired for
its correctness and elegance.
Waldau, (MAX.) See HAUENSCHILD, VON.
Waldburg, wdlt'bdoRG, (FRIEDRICH LUDWIG,) a
Prussian general and diplomatist, born at Tangermiinde
in 1776 ; died in 1844.
Waldeck, wal'dek, (CHRISTIAN AUGUST,) PRINCE
OF, a German general, born in 1744. He entered the
service of Austria, and fought against the French in
1792. He distinguished himself by directing the army
in its passage of the Rhine, and afterwards had a high
command in Flanders. Died in 1798.
Waldeck, (GEORG FKIEDRICH,) PRINCE OF, a Ger
man general, born in 1620. He entered the Austrian
army, and contributed to the victory over the Turks at
Vienna in 1683. He was defeated by the French at
Fleurus in 1690. Died in 1692.
Waldegrave, w&ld'grav, (JAMES,) second EARL, an
English statesman, born in 1715. He filled several im
portant offices under George II. He was the author
of "Memoirs from 1754 to 1758," (published in 1821.)
Died in 1763.
Waldemar (wol'de-mar) or Val'de-mar I., THE
GREAT, King of Denmark, born in 1131, ascended the
throne in 1157. He subjugated the southern part of
Norway, and the territory of the Wends in Northern
Germany. He died in 1181, and was succeeded by his
son, Canute VI.
Waldemar (or Valdemar) II., second son of Wal
demar I., was surnamed SEIER, (the "Victorious.") On
the death of his brother, Canute VI., he became king, in
1203. He conquered Livonia, Courland, Esthonia, and
other provinces, and was distinguished for his ability as
a ruler. He died in 1241, and was succeeded by his son,
Eric VL
Waldemar (or Valdemar) III. or IV., called AT-
TERDAG, was the last king of the first Danish dynasty,
and ascended the throne in 1340. He sold Livonia, and
other conquests of Waldemar II., to the grand master
of the Teutonic order in Prussia. He died in 1373 or
1375, and was succeeded by his daughter Margaret as
regent during the minority of her son Olaus.
See " Nouvelie Biographie Generale."
€ as a; c as s; g hard;gz.sj; G, H, K., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; t-h as in this. (£|r"See Explanations, p. 23.)
WALDEMAR
2224
WALKER
Waldemar, wal'deh-maR", (FRIKDRICH WILIIEI.M,)
a German prince, nephew of Frederick William III.,
King of Prussia, was born in 1817; died in 1849.
Wal-den'sis or Wol-den'sis, (THOMAS,) an English
Carmelite monk, originally named NKTTEK, was born at
W olden, in Essex, about 1365. He was patronized by
Henry V., whom he accompanied-to France. Died in 1430.
Waldhauser, walt'how'zer, (CONRAD,) a German
reformer and Augustinian monk, who began to preach
in Vienna about 1345. He exposed the vices and im
postures of the monks, and acquired much influence as
a preacher. Died about 1368.
See HODGSON, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867.
Waldis, wal'dJs, (BURCKHARD,) a German fabulist,
born at Allendorf about 1500. He was a chaplain of
Margaret, wife of the Landgrave of Hesse. He imitated
/Esop with success. Died in 1554.
Waldkirch, de, deh walt'ke'e'RK, (JEAN Ronoi.ru,)
a Swiss jurist, born at Bale in 1678. He wrote, besides
several legal works, a " History of Switzerland," (2 vols.,
1721.) Died in 1757.
His daughter ESTHER ELIZABETH, though blind, was
well versed in mathematics.
Waldmann, walt'man, (JoHANN,) a Swiss magistrate,
born in the canton of Zug about 1426. He was one of
the chiefs of the Swiss army that fought at Morat, and
he gained a victory at Nancy for the Duke of Lorraine.
In 1483 he became burgomaster of Zurich, where he made
several reforms. The peasants and populace having
revolted against him, he was put to death about 1490.
See J. H. FUESSI.I, "Vie de Waldmann," 1780; COKEMANS,
" Waldmann, le Vainqueur du Temeraire," 1843.
"Waldo. See VALDO.
Waldo, wdl'do, (DANIEL,) an American Congrega
tional divine, born at \Vindham, Connecticut, in 1762.
He graduated at Vale College, and subsequently became
pastor at Exeter, Connecticut. At the age of ninety-six
he was appointed chaplain to Congress, serving in that
capacity two years. Died in 1864.
Waldor, vii'doR', (MELANIE VILLENAVE,) MADAME,
a French authoress, born at Nantes about 1796, was a
sister of Theodore Villenave. She published numerous
novels, among which are "The Chateau de Ramsberg,"
(1844,) and "Charles Mandel," (1846.)
Waldrada. See WALDKAUK.
Waldrade, vaTdRtd', [Lat. WALDRA'DA,] an am
bitious Frenchwoman, who became about S6o A.D. the
concubine of Lothaire II. She was excommunicated by
the pope.
See ERNOUF, " Histoire de Waldrade," 1858.
Waldschmidt, walt'shmit, QOHANN JAKOB,) a Ger
man medical writer, born in 1644. He died at Marburg
in 1689.
Waldseemiiller, walt'za-nruTler, [Lat. HYLACOMI'-
LUS,] (MARTIN,) a German compiler, born at Friburg
about 1470. He published an " Introduction to Cos
mography, with the Four Voyages of Americus Vespu-
cius," (1507,) in which he advocated the application of
the name America to the New World. Died after 1522.
Waldsteinius or Waldstein. See WALLENSTEIN.
Wale. See WALRUS.
"Wale, (SAMUEL,) an English painter and designer,
lived in London, and made designs for the booksellers.
Died in 1786.
Waleed or Walid. See AL WALEED.
Waleed or Walid II., born in 703 A.D., was a son
of Yezeed (Yezid) II., and became caliph in 743. He
was very licentious. He was assassinated in 744.
See WKIL, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. xv.
Walef or Waleff, de, deh vt'lef', (BLAISE HENRI
de Corte — deh koRt,) BARON, a Belgian poet, born at
Liege in 1652. He served as an officer in the armies of
France, England, and Spain. He wrote several French
poems. Died in 1734.
See M. L. POLAIN, " Notice sur le Baron de Walef," 1848.
Wales, PRINCE OF. See ALBERT EDWARD.
Wales, (WILLIAM,) an English astronomer and
mathematician, born about 1734. He was sent in 1768
to Hudson P5ay, to observe the transit of Venus, and
subsequently accompanied Captain Cook on his second
and third voyages. He was chosen a Fellow of the
Royal Society in 1776, and was afterwards made secre
tary to the Board of Longitude. Tie published " General
Observations made at Hudson's Bay," etc., (1772,) "The
Method of Finding the Longitude by Time-Keepers,"
(1794,) " Observations on a Voyage with Captain Cook,"
and other works. Died in 1798.
Walewski, wa-lev'skee, [Fr. pron. vt'leVske',]
(FLOKIAN ALEXANDRE JOSEPH COLONNA,) COUNT, an
able statesman and writer, a natural son of Napoleon
I. and the Countess Walewska, a Polish lady, was born
in Walewice in 1810. Under Louis Napoleon he was
sent as minister-plenipotentiary to Florence (1849) and
Naples, and was ambassador to London about 1852. In
1855 he succeeded Drouyn de Lhuys as minister oi
foreign affairs. He was removed in January, 1860, be
came minister of state at that date, and president of the
corps legislatif in August, 1865. Died in 1868.
Walierdin, vfl'feR'da.N', (HENRI,) a French natural
philosopher, born at Langres in 1795. He was as
sociated with Arago in some scientific labours. He
invented a hvdro-barometer and several kinds of ther
mometers.
Walid. See WALEED and AL WALKED.
Walker, waw'ker, (ADAM,) an English writer and
mechanician, born in Westmoreland in 1731, was the
author of a "System of Familiar Philosophy, in, Lec
tures," " Treatise on Geography," and other works. He
was also the inventor of several ingenious instruments.
Died in 1821.
Walker, (Sir BALDWIN WAKE,) an English naval
officer, born in 1803. He was surveyor-general of the
navy from 1847 to 1860.
Walker, (CLEMENT,) an English Presbyterian and
political writer, born in Dorsetshire. He represented
the city of Wells in Parliament in 1640, and wrote " The
History of Independence," (1648,) afterwards enlarged
and published under the title of "The High Court of
Justice, or Cromwell's New Slaughter-House," (1651.)
For this offence he was imprisoned in the Tower, where
he died in 1651.
"Walker, (Sir EDWARD,) an English writer, and Garter
king-at-arms, born in Somersetshire. He was appointed
by Charles I. his secretary at war, and clerk-extraor
dinary of the privy council. lie wrote " Historical
Discourses," (1705,) "Military Discoveries," and " her
Carolinum," an account of the marches, etc. of Charles
I. from 1641 to the time of his death. Died in 1677.
Walker, (Rev. GEORGE,) a Protestant divine, of
English extraction, was born in the county of Tyrone,
Ireland. He is celebrated for his brave defence of Lon
donderry against the forces of James II., (1689.) lie
was killed at the battle of the Boyne, in 1690, having
been previously created Bishop of Derry by William
III. He published "A True Account of the Siege of
Londonderry."
Walker, (GEORGE,) an English mathematician and
dissenting minister, born at Newcastle about 1734. He
lived at Durham, Nottingham, and Manchester, and wrote
several able works on geometry, etc. Died in 1807.
Walker, QAMES,) an English civil engineer, born
about 1780. He obtained a high reputation as an en
gineer of docks, harbours, etc. He was president of the
Institution of Civil Engineers. Died about 1862.
"Walker, waw'ker, (JAMES,) D.D., a distinguished
Unitarian divine and scholar, born at Burlington, Mas
sachusetts, in 1794. He became editor of the "Chris
tian Examiner" in 1831, and in 1839 Alford professor of
moral and intellectual philosophy at Harvard. He was
elected president of Harvard in 1853, a position which he
filled with eminent ability for seven years. He resigned
in 1860, on account of his feeble health. He has delivered
a course of "Lowell Lectures on the Philosophy of
Religion;" also "Lectures on Natural Religion." Dr.
Walker is a clear and profound thinker and a finished
writer.
See AI.LIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
Walker, (JAMES BARR,) an American Presbyterian
divine, born in Philadelphia in 1805. Having previously
edited several religious journals in the West, he became
pastor of a church at Sandusky, Ohio. He published
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nSt; good; moon;
WALKER
2225
WALLACE
"Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation," (1855.) which
has had a wide popularity and been translated into
several languages, and other religious works.
Walker, (JOHN,) an English clergyman, born in
Devonshire, became rector of a parish at Exeter. He
published in 1714 an "Account of the Numbers and
Sufferings of the Clergy who were Sequestered in the
Grand Rebellion." Died about 1730.
Walker, (JOHN,) an English lexicographer and elo
cutionist, born in Middlesex in 1732. He published
"A Rhyming Dictionary," " Elements of Elocution,"
(1781,) "Rhetorical Grammar," (1785,) and "Critical
Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English
Language," (1791,) which was received with great favour
and has passed through more than thirty editions. Died
in 1807.
See ALI.IBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Monthly Review"
for August and September, 1781.
Walker, (JOHN,) an English physician and writer,
born in Cumberland in 1759. He was the author of a
" Universal Gazetteer," " Elements of Geography," and
several medical treatises. Died in 1830.
Walker, (JOSEPH COOPER,) an Irish writer, born in
Dublin about 1766. He wrote, besides other works,
"Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards," (1786.) Died
in 1810.
Walker, (LEROY POPE,) of Alabama, was secretary
of war in the provisional government formed by the
secessionists in February, 1861. In a speech at Mont
gomery, April 12, he predicted that the Confederate
flag would float over Washington City before the 1st of
May. He resigned in September, 1861.
Walker, (OBADIAH,) an English writer, born in York
shire about 1616. He studied at University College,
Oxford, of which he was elected master in 1676. Having
openly professed Catholicism, he was deprived of his
office, and imprisoned for a time after the revolution of
1688. He wrote "A Brief Account of Ancient Church
Government," (1662,) "The Greek and Roman History
Illustrated by Coins and Medals," (1692,) and other
works. Died in 1692.
Walker, (ROBERT,) an English portrait-painter.
Among his principal works are several portraits of
Cromwell, one of Admiral Blake, and one of General
Monk. Died about 1660.
Walker, (ROBERT J.,) a distinguished American
writer on political economy, born at Northumberland,
Pennsylvania, in 1801, graduated in the University of
Pennsylvania in 1819. He studied law, and removed in
1826 to Natchez, Mississippi, where he practised with
success. He was elected a Senator of the United States
by the legislature of Mississippi in 1835 or 1836, and
acted with the Democratic party. He was a zealous
and efficient supporter of the project for the annexation
of Texas to the United States. In March, 1845, ne was
appointed secretary of the treasury by President Polk.
He produced a report in favour of free trade which
attracted much attention. He retired to private life in
March, 1849, ar"d was appointed by President Buchanan
Governor of Kansas about April, 1857. He resigned
that office in February, 1858, on account of dissatisfaction
with the course or policy of the national government.
Died in November, 1869.
Walker, (SAMUEL,) an English clergyman, born at
Exeter in 1714, became curate of Truro, and published
several volumes of sermons. Died in 1761.
Walker, (SEARS COOK,) an American astronomer,
born at Wilmington, Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
in 1805, graduated at Harvard College about 1824.
Soon after that date he removed to Philadelphia, where
he taught school. He contributed many observations
to the "American Journal of Science" and the "Trans
actions of the American Philosophical Society." He
was attached to the Washington Observatory in 1845,
and discovered in 1847 the identity of the planet Nep
tune with a star observed by Lalande in 1795. He ren
dered a service to science by his computations of the
orbit of Neptune. Died in Cincinnati in 1853.
Walker, (THOMAS,) an English lawyer and humor
ous writer, born in 1784. He published a periodical
called "The Original." Died in 1836.
Walker, (THOMAS,) an English actor, born in Lon
don in 1698; died in 1743.
Walker, (WILLIAM,) an English divine, born in Lin
colnshire in 1623. He published, among other works, a
"Treatise on English Particles," and " Idiomatologia
Anglo-Latina." Died in 1684.
Walker, (WILLIAM,) an American filibuster, born at
Nashville, Tennessee, in 1824. He emigrated to Cali
fornia about 1850, and became editor of a paper. In
1855 he conducted a party of about sixty adventurers
to Nicaragua, which he entered ostensibly as an ally of
one of the factions then engaged in civil war. He cap
tured the city of Granada, assumed the title of President
of Nicaragua, and re-established slavery, which had been
abolished. He was driven from power in May, 1857, and
escaped to New Orleans. In June, 1860, he led an ex
pedition against Honduras. He was captured and shot
at Truxillo in September, 1860.
Walker, (WILLIAM H. T.,) of Georgia, an American
general, who graduated at West Point in 1837. He com
manded a division of the army of General Lee in the
early part of 1863, served at Chickamauga in September
of that year, and was killed near Atlanta in July, 1864.
Wall, (JoHN,) M.D., an English physician, born in
Worcestershire in 1708, was the first who drew public
attention to the virtues of the Malvern waters. Died
in 1776.
Wall, (MARTIN,) son of the preceding, born in 1744,
acquired a high reputation as a physician, and in 1785
became clinical professor at Oxford. Died in 1824.
Wall, (WILLIAM,) an English divine, born in 1646,
published a " History of Infant Baptism," and "Critical
Notes on the Old Testament." Died in 1728.
Wallace, wol'lis, (HORACE BINNEY,) an American
lawyer and writer of rare talents, a nephew of Horace
Binney, was born at Philadelphia, February 26, 1817.
He graduated at Princeton College, and subsequently
visited Europe. He committed suicide in Paris, (1852,')
— as is supposed, in a fit of temporary insanity. He
wrote "Literary Criticisms, and other Papers," "Art
and Scenery in Europe," (1855,) and edited several legal
works conjointly with Judge Hare. While in Paris he
became acquainted with Auguste Comte, who said of
him, " I do not exaggerate his merits in ranking him as
the equal of the greatest American statesmen."
See ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
"Wallace, wSl'lis, (Sir JOHN ALEXANDER DUNLOP
AGNEW,) an English general, born in 1775. He served
in the Peninsular war, (1808-14.) Died in 1857.
Wallace, (LEWIS,) an American general, a son of
David Wallace, formerly Governor of Indiana, was born
in Fountain county, Indiana, about 1828. He was
a lawyer before the civil war. He commanded a di
vision at the battle of Fort Donelson, February, 1862,
and distinguished himself at the battle of Shiloh, April
5 and 7. He was appointed a major-general about
March, 1862.
Wallace, wdl'lis, (Sir WILLIAM,) a celebrated Scot
tish hero and patriot, supposed to have been born about
1270. He was a son of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Ellerslie,
!n Renfrewshire. While attending school at Dundee, he
killed the son of the English governor of Dundee Castle
in revenge for an insult received, and was compelled to
take refuge among the mountains. Having gathered
around him a band of devoted followers, he carried on
for several years a successful partisan warfare against
the English forces. After the capture of the garrisons
of Aberdeen, Forfar, and other towns, he was engaged
n the siege of Dundee, when news came of the advance
of a large English army towards Stirling. He immedi
ately marched to meet the enemy, gained a signal victory
over them at Stirling Bridge, (1297,) and, entering Eng
land, ravaged the northern part of the country. He was
soon after defeated with great loss near Falkirk by the
English, led by Edward I. in person, (1298.) The office
of guardian of the kingdom, which he had held for a
short time, was now taken from him, and, after several
years spent in border warfare, he was betrayed into the
bands of the English, condemned as a traitor, and exe
cuted, (1305.) His achievements have been a favourite
theme with Scottish poets and writers of romance, and
as k; 9 as s; g nard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
140
Explanations, p. 23.)
WALLACE
2226
WALLER
have been especially celebrated by Harry the Minstrel,
sometimes called Blind Harry.
See BURTON, " History of Scotland," vol. ii. chaps, xx., xxi., and
xxii. ; J. S. WATSON, "The Story of William Wallace," iS6z ;
SCOTT, "Tales of a Grandfather;" HuMB, " History of England:"
J. D. CARRICK, "Life of Sir William Wallace," 2 vols.;) 1830;
CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Wallace, (WILLIAM,) LL.D., a Scottish mathemati
cian, born in Fifeshire in 1768. He was appointed in
1803 one of the teachers of mathematics in the Royal
Military College, Buckinghamshire, and in 1819 became
professor of that science at Edinburgh. Among his
principal works we may name his " New Series for the
Quadrature of the Conic Sections and the Computation
of Logarithms," (1808,) "Account of the Invention of
the Pantograph, and Description of the Eiclograph,"
(1831,) and the article on "Porism,"in the " Encyclo
paedia Britannica." He was a Fellow of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, and a member of other learned
institutions. Died in 1843.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Wallace, (WILLIAM H. L.,) an American general,
born at Urbana, Ohio, in 1821. He practised law in
Illinois before the civil war. He commanded a brigade
at the capture of Fort Donelson, February, 1862, and a
division at the battle of Shiloh, where he was mortally
wounded, April 6 of that year. " This day's work,"
says Horace Greeley, "had won for him the admiration
of all beholders." ("American Conflict," vol. ii.)
Wallace, (WILLIAM Ross,) an American poet, born
at Lexington, Kentucky, about 1819. Among his works
maybe named " Alban the Pirate," (1848,) and "Medita
tions in America, and other Poems," (1851.)
Wallace, (WILLIAM VINCENT,) a musician and com
poser, born at Waterford, in Ireland, about 1815. He
composed several successful operas, among which are
"Maritana" and "Lurline." Died in 1865.
Wallack, wfil'lak, (JAMES WILLIAM,) an English
actor, born in London in 1795, has acquired a high
reputation in his art, both in England and America.
Having settled in New York City in 1851, he founded
the theatre on Broadway called by his name.
His sons, JOHN LESTER and JAMES, are also actors,
and the former has published several comedies.
Wallenbourg. See WALLENBURG.
Walleiiburch, van, vtn wal'len-buRk', (ADRIAAN
and PIETER, ) Roman Catholic theologians, born at
Rotterdam, were brothers. They lived at Cologne, and
wrote several works against the Protestants. Adriaan
died in 1669, and Pieter in 1675.
Wallenburg, von, fon wal'len-booRo', written also
Wallenboi&g, (JACOB,) an Austrian Orientalist, born
in Vienna in 1763. He passed twenty years in Turkey.
He translated the Persian poem " Mesnevi" into French.
Died in 1806.
Wallenstein, wfl/len-stln', [Ger. pron. wal'len-stln',]
or Waldstein, walt'stln, [Lat. WAI.I.ENSTEI'NIUS or
WALDSTEI'NIUS; It. VALSTAIX, val'stin,] ^ALBKKCHT
W'ENZEL EUSEHIU.S,) COUNT OK, and Duke of Meck
lenburg, Friedland, and Sagau, a celebrated German
general, born at the castle of Hermanic, in Bohemia,
in September, 1583, was a son of Wilhelm, Baron von
Waldstein. After the death of his parents, who were
Protestants, he was sent to the Jesuit College at Olmiitz,
and was converted into a Roman Catholic. He also
studied several sciences and languages at Padua and
Bologna. About 1606 he fought against the Turks at
the siege of Gran. He married a rich widow in 1610,
and at her death, in 1614, inherited a large estate.
Having raised a troop of horse in 1617, he fought with
distinction for the Austrian archduke Ferdinand against
the Venetians. In 1619, at the beginning of the Thirty
Years' war, he joined the Imperial or Roman Catholic
army, and was appointed quartermaster-general. He
defeated Bethlen Gabor, in Hungary, in 1621, and was
created Duke of Friedland and a prince of the Holy
Empire in 1624. In 1625 he raised, at his own expense,
a large army, which he resolved to support by pillage
and exactions from the enemy. His high reputation
attracted mercenaries from various parts of Europe. He
defeated Count Mansfeld in 1626, and invaded Denmark,
in which he encountered no effectual resistance. To re
ward him for his services, the emperor gave Wallenstein
the duchy of Mecklenburg in 1628, and added the title
of admiral. His pride, rapacity, and cruelty rendered
him so odious that Ferdinand dismissed him from com
mand in 1630, at the same time that Gustavus Adolphus
entered Germany to fight for the Protestant cause. The
victories of Gustavus, and the death of General Tilly,
reduced Ferdinand to such a critical situation that he
implored the aid of Wallenstein as the only man who
was able to save the empire. He consented to serve
him again, on condition that he should have exclusive
control of the army, and should govern or reign over
the countries which he might conquer. lie displayed
great skill in defence of the lines near Nuremberg, which
were attacked by the Swedes in September, 1632. In
November of that year he was defeated by Gustavus
Adolphus at the great battle of Lutzen. He afterwards
gained victories in Silesia, but refused to march to the
relief of Bavaria, which was overrun by the Swedes.
According to some authorities, he aspired to be sovereign
of Bohemia. The Duke of Bavaria, and other enemies
of \Vallenstein, persuaded the emperor to distrust his
loyalty. In January, 1634, he was deprived of his com
mand, and secret orders were given to Gal las and Picco-
lomini to arrest or assassinate him. He attempted to
secure himself by negotiations with the Swedes, but his
overtures were rejected, and he retired to the castle of
Eger or Egra, where he was assassinated in February,
1634. The story of Wallenstein forms the subject of
Schiller's greatest though not his most popular tragedy.
See SCHII.I.KR, "History of the Thirty Years' War;" MURK,
"Die Ermordimg Herzogs von Friedland," iSo6; HKI.I.KK, " Leben
des Grafen von Wallenstein," iSi4; F. FORSTKR, "Wallenstein,
Herzog zn Mecklenburg." etc., 1834 : J. MITCHELL, "Life of Wai-
lenstein," 1837; MEBOI.D, " Giistav Adolf mid Wailenstcin." 2vois.,
1835-40; HKLBIG, "Wallenstein und Armin," 1850; Gl;ALix>-Pm-
OHATO, " Istoria della Vita d'A. Valstain," 1643; C\RL MARI \vo.v
ARKTIN, "Wallenstein," 1846; SIR KDVVARD CUST, "The Thirty
Years' War," 2 vols., 1865 ; MAI.MSTROEM, " De Wallensteinio Com-
mentarius," 1815; "Nonvelle Biographic Generale ;" '' Blackwood's
Magazine" for January, 1838.
Wallensteinius. See WALLENSTEIN.
Waller, wfil'ler, (EDMUND,) an eminent English poet,
born at Coleshill, in Hertfordshire, in 1605, was a cousin-
german of the celebrated John Hampden. He studied
at King's College, Cambridge, and represented Amers-
ham in the Long Parliament in 1640, having been pre
viously several times elected for that borough. He was
for a time a moderate partisan of the popular cause ; but
he subsequently went over to the royalists. He was
arrested in 1643 on a charge by the Parliament of having
formed a " popish plot for the subversion of the Prot
estant religion," etc. Several of his accomplices were
punished with fines and imprisonment, and two were exe
cuted, while Waller, the leader of the conspiracy, saved
his life by a most abject and pusillanimous speech. lie
was released, after a year's confinement, on condition of
his leaving the country, and, after a residence of about
ten years in France, was permitted to return to England
in 1653. He died in 1687. Waller was twice married,
and had by his second wife five sons and eight daughters.
Among his earliest productions are the verses addressed
to the Lady Dorothea Sidney, under the name of Saccha-
rissa. His other principal poems are a " Panegyric on
Cromwell," "On a War with Spain, ""On the Death
of the Lord Protector," and an ode to Charles II., en
titled "To the King upon his Majesty's Most Happy
Return." It is said that when Charles remarked to
Waller the greater poetical merit of his panegyric on
Cromwell, he replied, " Poets, sire, succeed better in fic
tion than in truth." After the restoration he was several
times returned to Parliament, where, according to Bur-
net, "he was the delight of the House, and, though old,
said the liveliest things of any among them." Johnson
observes, " The general character of his poetry is ele
gance and gaiety. He is never pathetic, and very rarely
sublime; but it cannot be denied that he added some
thing to our elegance of diction and something to our
propriety of thought."
See JOHNSON, "Lives of the English Poets," vol. i. ; WOOD,
"Athens Oxonienses;" HALLAM, "Introduction to the Literature
of Europe;" CAMPBELL, " Specimens of the British Poets;" ALI.I-
BONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, £, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moor.;
WALLER
2227
WALPOLE
Waller, wSl'ler, (JoHx LTGHTFOOT,) LL.D., an
American Baptist divine and journalist, born in Wood-
ford county, Kentucky, in 1809. Ke became editor in
1845 °f tne " Western Baptist Review," and published
several controversial works. Died at Louisville in 1854.
Waller, (Sir WILLIAM,) an English statesman and
general of the Parliamentary army, born in Kent in
1597, was a distant relative of the poet, Edmund Wal
ler. Having served for a time in the Protestant army
in Germany, he was elected to the Long Parliament
for Andover in 1640, and was soon after appointed
second in command of the forces under the Earl of
Essex. He was removed from the service by the self-
denying ordinance of 1645, anc^ nl '647 he was one of
the eleven members of the House of Commons im
peached by the army. lie afterwards resumed his seat
in Parliament, and was appointed one of the council of
state in 1660. He died in i66S, leaving a " Vindication
of Sir William Waller," etc., and "Divine Meditations
upon Several Occasions," (1680.)
See CLARENDON, "History of the Great Rebellion;" HUME,
" History of England."
Wal-le'ri-us, [Swedish pron. val-ln're-us,] (JoHANX
GoTTSCHALK,) a Swedish savant, was the author of
several valuable works on chemistry and mineralogy.
Died in 1785.
Wallerius, (XiCHoi.AS,) a Swedish philosopher, born
at Xerika in 1706. He became professor of theology at
Upsal, and wrote, besides other works, " Rational Psy
chology," (" Psychologia Rationalis.") Died in 1764.
Wallia. See VAI.LIA, King of the Visigoths.
Wallich, val'liK, (NATHANIEL,) a Danish botanist,
born at Copenhagen in 1787. Having entered the ser
vice of the East India Company, he was appointed in
1815 superintendent of the botanic garden at Calcutta.
He visited Nepaul and other parts of India, and made a
large and valuable collection of plants. He published
" A Description of the Tree which produces the Ripal
Camphor- Wood," etc., (1823,) " Tentamen Florae Xepa-
lensis," (1824,) "Plantae Asiatics Rariores," (3 vols. fol.,
1829, with 300 plates,) and other works. Died in 1854.
Wallin, val-leen', (GEURGK,) a Swedish prelate, born
in Xordland in 1686. He published several works, and
was appointed Bishop of Gothenburg. Died in 1760.
Wallin, (JoHAN OLOF,) an eminent Swedish prelate
and pulpit orator, born in Dalecarlia in 17/9. He
studied at Upsal, and became in 1810 a member of
the Swedish Academy. He was afterwards appointed
theological tutor to Prince Oscar, and rose through
various preferments to be Archbishop of Upsal in 1833.
His hymns are ranked among the finest productions
of the kind in the language, and have been adopted
into the authorized Swedish Hymn-Book. He also pub
lished a number of sermons of great excellence. Died
in 1839.
See E. G. GEIJER, " Minnes-Tal ofver Dr. J. O. Wallin," 1840;
J. H. SCHKOEDER, " J. O. Wallin, Svea Rikes Erkebiskop," 1846;
J. E. RvuijfisT, "J. O. Wallin; Minnesteckninp," 1839; How-
ITT, " Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," vol. ii.
Wallingford, \v6Kling-ford, (RICHARD,) an English
mechanic and astronomer of the fourteenth century,
made a clock which is supposed to have been the first
that was regulated by a fly-wheel.
Wallis, wfll'lis, (JoHX,) an eminent English mathe
matician and theologian, born at Ash ford, Kent, on the
230! of XTovember, 1616. He entered Emanuel College,
Cambridge, in 1632, took the degree of M.A. in 1640,
and was ordained a priest the same year. He favoured
the party of the Parliament in the civil war, and ren
dered valuable services by deciphering intercepted
despatches written in cipher. In 1644 he was one of
the secretaries of the Assembly of Divines at Westmin
ster. He was one of the first members of the Royal
Society, and became Savilian professor of geometry at
Oxford in 1649. In 1655 he published an important
work, entitled "Arithmetic of Infinites," (" Arithmetica
Infinitorum,") preceded by a treatise on conic sections.
He treated of the fundamental points of arithmetic,
algebra, and geometry in his " Universal Science or
Learning." (" Mathesis Universalis," 1657.) He made
important discoveries in mathematical theories, and
distinguished himself by his sagacity and talent for gen
eralization. Having promoted the restoration of Charles
II., he retained his professorship. Besides the above-
named works, he wrote several books on theology, and
a treatise on logic, which had a high reputation. He
edited Ptolemy's " Harmonics," (1680,) and Aristarchus
of Samos. Died in October, 1703.
See THOMSON, " History of the Royal Society ;" XIC^KON, " Me-
moires;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 2£ayle , •&-*' <? ' icninvy
Wallis, (SAMUEL,) an English navigator, who, as
commander of the Dolphin, made a voyage in the Pacific
and discovered Easter Island in 1767, and Tahiti, to
which he gave the name of King George's Island. The
latter is supposed to have been previously discovered by
Quiros. Died in 1795.
Wallis, von, fon wal'liss, (GEORG OLIVER,) COUNT,
an Austrian general, born in 1671. He obtained the
rank of field-marshal and the chief command of an army
in Hungary. He was defeated by the Turks in 1739.
Died in 1743.
Walb's, von, (JOSEPH,) COUNT, an Austrian financier,
born in 1768. He was minister of finance from 1810
to 1816. Died in 1818.
Walliser, -fral'le-zer, (CHRISTOPH THOMAS,) a Ger
man composer and writer upon music, born at Stras-
burg in the latter part of the sixteenth century. Died
in 1648.
Wallius, wal'le-us, or Van de Walle, vSn deh wal'-
leh, (JACOB,) a Flemish Jesuit and Latin poet, born at
Courtrai in 1599. He wrote numerous poems, printed
in 1656. Died about 1680.
Wallon, vi'lo.N', (HENRI ALEXANDRE,) a French
historian, born at Valenciennes in 1812. He published
a " History of Slavery in Antiquity," (3 vols., 1848,) and
succeeded Quatremere de Quincy as a member of the
Institute in 1850.
Wallot, wal'lot or vt'lo', (JEAN GUILLAUME,) a Ger
man astronomer, born at Pauers, in the Palatinate, in
1743. He became professor of astronomy at Paris. He
was executed by the Jacobins in July, 1794.
Wallraf, vvaVraf, (FERDINAND FRANZ,) a German
physician and naturalist, born at Cologne in 1748. He
made a large and valuable collection of objects in natu
ral history and art, which he presented to his native city.
Died in 1824.
Walmesley, wSmz'le, (CHARLES,) an English mathe
matician and Benedictine monk, born in 1721, became
apostolical vicar of the western district in England. He
was the author of an " Analysis of the Measures of Pro
portions and of Angles," etc., and other works, in French
| and Latin. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society.
Died in 1797.
Wain, wawl, (XICHOLAS,) an American lawyer, born
about 1740, practised with distinction in Philadelphia.
He afterwards became a minister of the Society of
Friends. He was noted for his wit and humour.
Died in 1813.
Wain, (ROBERT,) Jr., an American poet, born in
Philadelphia in 1794. He wrote "The Hermit in Phila
delphia," a satire, (1819,) "The American Bards," and
other poems, also a " Life of La Fayette," (1824.) Died
in 1825.
Walpole, wol'pol, (HORACE,) fourth Earl of Orford,
a famous literary gossip, amateur, and wit, born in Lon
don in October, 1717, was the youngest son of Sir Robert
Walpole and Catherine Shorter. He was educated at
Eton and King's College, Cambridge. In 1739 he began
a tour on the continent, in company with his friend
Thomas Gray the poet, from whom, in consequence of
a disagreement, he parted in 1741. He returned home,
and entered the House of Commons in the same year.
In March, 1742, he made a speech in defence of his
father, which was commended by William Pitt. He
continued to "sit in the House of Commons for many
years, but seldom spoke there. He called himself a
Whig, but cared little for any political principle.
In 1747 he purchased the villa of Strawberry Hill, at
Twickenham, on the improvement and decoration of
which he expended much time and money. He collected
there many prints, pictures, books, curiosities, and
objects of z'irtu. He published in 1758 a "Catalogue
-: as c; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (
Explanations, p. 23. )
W ALP OLE
2228
WALSH
of Royal and Noble Authors," and commenced in 1761
his "Anecdotes of Painting in England," the last volume
of which appeared in 1771. The materials for this work
were furnished by Vertue the engraver. In 1764 he
produced a novel entitled "The Castle of Otranto,"
which was very successful. Among his other works are
"The Mysterious Mother," a tragedy, (1768,) "Historic
Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard III.," (1768,)
"Reminiscences of the Courts of George I. and George
II.," "Memoirs of the Reign of George III. from 1771
to 1783," and his "Letters," (9 vols., 1857-59,) which
are greatly admired. He affected a great dislike to
be considered a literary man. Macaulay expresses the
opinion that "he was the most eccentric, the most arti
ficial, the most fastidious, the most capricious of men.
. . . Serious business was a trifle to him, and trifles
were his serious business. . . . What, then," asks the
same critic, "is the irresistible charm of Walpole's
writings ? It consists, we think, in the art of amusing
without exciting. . . . His style is one of those peculinr
styles by which everybody is attracted, and which nobody
can safely venture to imitate." (Review of Walpole's
" Letters to Sir Horace Mann," in Macaulay's Essay
published in the "Edinburgh Review" in 1833.) His
Letters are considered his best productions. In 1791
he succeeded his nephew George as Earl of Or ford,
but he never took his seat in the House of Lords, and
seldom used his title. Died in March, 1797.
See " Walpoliana," by J. PINKERTON, 1792; LORD DOVER,
"Sketch of the Life of Horace Walpole," prefixed to "Letters to
Horace Mann," 1833; ELIOT WAKBURTON, "Memoirs of Horace
Walpole and his Contemporaries," 2 vols.. 1851 ; " London Quar
terly Review" for April, 1823; "Monthly Review" for September,
October, and November, tygS; " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1843,
article "Walpole and his Friends."
Walpole, (HORATIO,) LORD, an English diplomatist
and writer, born in 1678, was a brother of Sir Robert,
the premier. He was ambassador at Paris from 1723 to
1727, became treasurer of the king's household in 1730,
and minister-plenipotentiary to Holland about 1733.
His talents and character are praised by the historian
Coxe. He wrote political treatises. Died in 1757.
Walpole, (Sir ROBERT,) Earl of Orford, a celebrated
English statesman, born at Houghton on the 26th of
August, 1676, was a son of Robert Walpole, Esq., M.P.
He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cam
bridge. In 1700 he married Catherine Shorter, and
entered Parliament as member for Castle Rising and a
supporter of the Whig party. He became an able
debater, a skilful parliamentary tactician, and an
excellent man of business. In 1708 he was appointed
secretary at war, and the management of the House of
Commons was committed to him by his party. He
resigned with the other Whig ministers in 1710, and
declined the place which Harley offered him in the new
cabinet. The Tory majority expelled him from the
House in 1712, and imprisoned him in the Tower on a
charge of corruption. He was released at the end of
the session.
On the accession of George I., (1714,) Walpole ac
quired great influence at court, and was appointed pay
master-general of the forces. He took a prominent part
in the impeachment of the Earl of Oxford and Lord
Bolingbroke. In October, 1715, he became first lord of
the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. His
brother-in-law, Lord Townshend, was the chief minister
of this administration. Townshend having been re
moved by the intrigues of Lord Sutherland, Sir Robert
resigned in April, 1717, although the king urged him to
remain in office. He opposed the South Sea act, and
was preserved by his good sense from the general in
fatuation during the inflation of the South Sea Bubble.
"When the crash came, — when ten thousand families
were reduced to beggary in a day, — . . . Walpole was
the man on whom all parties turned their eyes." (Mac
aulay.) He became first lord of the treasury (prime
minister) in April, 1721, and restored the public credit.
Supported by a large majority of Parliament, he en
countered at first no serious opposition, until he created
an opposition by proscribing the eminent men of his
own party and indulging his propensity to engross the
power. Pulteney, who had strong claims to a place in
the cabinet, was neglected and turned into a formidable
adversary. The highly-gifted Lord Carteret, who was
secretary of state, was removed in 1724, and a few years
later a violent quarrel occurred between Walpole and
Lord Townshend, who had long been personal friends.
At the death of George I., (1727,) Queen Caroline
exerted her influence in favour of Sir Robert, who was
reappointecl prime minister and gained the confidence
of George II. According to Macaulay, Walpole first
gave to the English government that character of lenity
which it has since generally preserved. The same
author remarks, that "though he was at the head of
affairs during more than twenty years, not one great
measure, not one important change for the better or the
worse in any part of our institutions, marks the period
of his supremacy. . . . The praise to which he is fairly
entitled is this, that he understood the true interest
of his country better than any of his contemporaries,
and that he pursued that interest whenever it was not
incompatible with the interests of his own intense and
grasping ambition." (Review of " Walpole's Letters to
Sir Horace Mann.")
Among the errors of his administration was the war
against Spain, (1739,) into which he was driven by the
popular clamour, while his own judgment condemned it
as impolitic and unjust. When he heard the bells ring
ing on account of the declaration of war, he muttered,
"Before long they will be wringing their hands." It is
admitted that he practised corruption or bribery on a
large scale, for which some writers apologize by the plea
that it was impossible to govern without corruption. In
the latter part of his official career he was attacked by
a powerful combination of Tories, disaffected Whigs
called patriots, and wits, including Pulteney, Carteret,
Chesterfield, Swift, Pope, and Pitt. The Prince of
Wales also, having become estranged from the king,
put himself at the head of the opposition. After a long
and spirited contest, he resigned office, and passed into
the House of Lords, with the title of Earl of Orford,
in February, 1742. He died in March, 1745, leaving
three sons.
"Without being a genius of the first class," says
Burke, "he was an intelligent, prudent, and safe minis
ter. . . . The prudence, steadiness, and vigilance of
that man, joined to the greatest possible lenity in his
character and his politics, preserved the crown to this
royal family, and with it their laws and liberties to this
country." (" Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs.")
See W. MUSGRAVE, " Brief and True History of Sir R. Walpole
and his Family," 1738; " Histoire dn Ministere du Chevalier Wal
pole," Amsterdam, 1755; "Walpoliana," London, 1783; COXE,
" Memoirs of the Life and Administration of Sir R. Walpole," 3
vols., 1798; LORD MAHON, (STANHOPE,) "History of England ;''
MACAULAY, Essay on the " Earl of Chatham," reprinted from the
" Edinburgh Review" for 1834 ; " Historical Sketches of the Reign
of George 11.," in " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1868.
Walpole, (SPENCER HORATIO,) an English conser
vative statesman, born in 1806. He was elected to
Parliament for Midhurst in 1846, and in March, 1852,
became secretary of state for the home department.
He resigned about December, 1852. In 1856 he repre
sented the University of Cambridge in Parliament. He
was secretary for the home department about a year,
(1858-59,) and obtained the same office in July, 1866.
He resigned in May, 1867.
Walsh, w61sh, (BENJAMIN D.,) an eminent entomol
ogist, born in Great Britain in 1808, removed to America
when very young. He enjoyed a national reputation
among scientific men for excellence in his special study.
Died at Rock Island, Illinois, in 1869.
Walsh, w61sh, (EDWARD,) M.D., an Irish physician,
born at Waterford, served as army surgeon in Holland
and America. He published a " Narrative of the Expe
dition to Holland." Died in 1832.
Walsh, vtlsh, (JOSEPH ALEXIS,) VICOMTE, a French
litterateur, born in Anjou in 1782, was a legitimist in
politics. He wrote several novels, a book entitled
" Memorable Days of the French Revolution," (5 vols.,
1840,) and other works.
Walsh, (PETER,) a Roman Catholic priest, born in the
county of Kildare, Ireland, in 1610. He wrote against
the temporal power of the pope, (1674.) Died in 1688.
a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon;
WALSH
2229
WALT HER
Walsh, \v51sh, (ROBERT,) an American author, bon
in Baltimore in 1784, was the son of an Irishman. He
studied law, travelled in Europe, returned home abou
1808, and became a resident of Philadelphia. He
wrote (December, 1809) a "Letter on the Genius and
Disposition of the French Government," etc., which
was highly commended by the "Edinburgh Review.'
" Perhaps nothing from the American press," says R
W. Griswold, "had ever produced a greater sensation.'
In January, 1811, he began to publish "The American
Review of History and Politics," which was the first
American quarterly, and was discontinued about the
end of 1812 for want of patronage. In 1813 he produced
an " Essay on the Future State of Europe." He edited
the "American Register" for a short time, (1817-18,)
and published in 1819 an "Appeal from the Judgment
of Great Britain respecting the United States," etc. He
founded, in 1821, the "National Ga/,ette," an able and
influential daily paper of Philadelphia, which he edited
for fifteen years. He published " Didactics, Social,
Literary, and Political," (2 vols., 1836.) In 1845 he was
appointed American consul at Paris, where he passed
the subsequent part of his life. Died in Paris in 1858.
See R. W. GRISWOLD, "Prose Writers of America," p. 197;
"Edinburgh Review" for May, 1820; "North American Review
for April, 1820.
Walsh, (WILLIAM,) an English poet, born in Wor
cestershire in 1663, is chiefly celebrated as the friend of
Dryden and the patron of Pope. He was several times
elected to Parliament for his native county. His poems
are principally amatory. He also published a prose
essay entitled "Eugenia, a Defence of Women," for
which Dryden wrote a preface. Died in 1709.
See JOHNSON, " Lives of the English Poets," vol. i.
Walsingham or Walsyngham, w6l'sing-am, (Sir
FRANCIS,) an English statesman and diplomatist, born
in Kent in 1536. He studied at King's College, Cam
bridge, and at an early age acquired the favour and
patronage of Queen Elizabeth, who appointed him her
representative at the French court in 1570. After his
return, in 1573, he became a member of the privy coun
cil, and one of the secretaries of state. He was after
wards sent on important missions to the Netherlands,
France, and Scotland. He had a prominent part in the
detection of Babington's conspiracy, and was one of the
commissioners in the trial of Mary, Quean of Scots.
As minister of foreign affairs, he rendered the greatest
services to England and the Protestant cause by his
vigilance and skilful diplomacy ; he is said to have over
reached the Jesuits in their own game of equivocation
and mental reservation, and to have maintained fifty-
three agents and eighteen spies in foreign courts. In
private life he was highly esteemed for his integrity. He
died in 1590, leaving one daughter, who was successively
married to Sir Philip Sidney, the Earl of Essex, and the
Earl of Clanricarde. An account of Walsingham's
French embassy appeared in Sir Dudley Digges's
" Complete Ambassador," (1655.)
See HUME, " History of England ;" FROUDE, " History of Eng
land;" " Biographia Britannica ;" LODGE, "Portraits of Illustrious
Personages."
Walsingham, [Lat. WALSINGHA'MUS,J (THOMAS,)
an English historian and Benedictine monk, a native of
Norfolk, lived about 1430. He was the author of a
" History of England from the Time of Edward I. to
Henry V.," (in Latin.)
Walsyngham. See WALSINGHAM.
Walter, wal'ter, (FERDINAND,) a German jurist, born
at Wetzlar in 1794, published a "Manual of Ecclesi
astical Law," (1822.) which has been translated into
several languages, also other legal works.
Walter, (FRIEDRICH AUGUST,) son of Johann Gott
lieb, noticed below, was born in 1764. He was appointed
first medical councillor at Berlin. Died in 1826.
Walter, (HUBERT,) an English prelate, was a nephew
of Ranulph de Glanville. As Bishop of Salisbury, he
accompanied the crusaders to the Holy Land. He was
made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1193, a"d afterwards
became justiciary of England.
See W. F. HOOK, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
vol. ii. ch. xi.
Walter, (JOHANN GOTTLIEB,) a celebrated German
physician and anatomist, born at Konigsberg about
1735. He finished his studies at Berlin under Meckel,
whom in 1774 he succeeded as first professor of anatomy
and midwifery. His valuable anatomical museum was
purchased by the King of Prussia for 100,000 dollars.
Among his works may be named " A Treatise on the
Bones of the Human Body" and a " Manual of Mvologv."
Died in 1818.
Wal'ter, (JoHN,) an English journalist, and founder
of the London "Times," was born in 1739. The first
number of "The Times" appeared in 1788. He was
the inventor of logography, or the art of printing with
entire words or syllables. He died in 1812. His son,
of the same name, born in London in 1784, became in
1803 exclusive manager of " The Times," which, under
his direction, soon became the most able and influential
journal of Europe. In 1814 " The Times" was printed
for the first time by Konig's steam-power machines.
(See KONIG.) Mr. Walter was elected to Parliament
for Berkshire in 1832, and in 1841 was returned for the
borough of Nottingham. Died in 1847. His son JOHN,
born in 1818, succeeded to the proprietorship of "The
Times," and represented Nottingham in Parliament
from 1847 to '859.
See " Eraser's Magazine" for Februarj', 1848.
Wal'ter, (THOMAS U.,) LL.D., an eminent American
architect, born in Philadelphia, September 4, 1804. He
received a good, though not a collegiate, education. He
studied architecture under Mr. William Strickland, and
afterwards mathematics under David McClure, (then
distinguished as a teacher of that science.) He applied
himself assiduously to study for many years before he
commenced the practice of his profession. He designed
in 1831, and superintended the erection of, the Philadel
phia County Prison. His designs for the Girard College
for Orphans were adopted by the City Councils in 1833,
and that magnificent building, perhaps the finest speci
men of classic architecture on the American continent,
was constructed throughout from his designs and under
his immediate supervision. This work occupied him
fourteen years. In 1851 his plans for the extension of
the Capitol at Washington were adopted, and he was
appointed architect of the work by President Fillmore,
a position which he held for fourteen years. In addition
to the works of the Capitol extension, he planned and
executed the new iron dome of the Capitol, the east
and west wings of the Patent Office, and the extension
of the General Post-Office. He also designed the new
Treasury Building, and the Government Hospital for
the Insane. In 1853 he received the title of doctor
of philosophy from the University of Lewisburg, and
in 1857 that of doctor of laws from Harvard University.
He held for many years a professorship of architecture
in the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia. He is a
member of the American Philosophical Society, and
of many other literary and scientific institutions, and
was one of the founders of the American Institute of
Architects.
Walther, wal'ter, (AUGUST FRIEDRICH,) a German
anatomist, born at Wittenberg in 1688, was a son of
Michael, noticed below, (1638-92.) He became pro-
essor of anatomy at Leipsic in 1723, and wrote many
treatises on anatomy. Died in 1746.
Walther, [Lat. GUALTE'RUS or WALTHE'RUS,] (BAL-
I'HASAR,) a German scholar and Protestant theolo
gian, was born in Thuringia before 1600. He became
irofessor of Greek and Hebrew at Jena. He wrote
several learned works in Latin and German. Died in
1640.
Walther, (BERNARD,) a German astronomer, born in
1430, was a pupil of Regiomontanus. He is said to
lave first discovered the effect of atmospheric refrac-
ion. Died in 1504.
Walther, (CHRISTIAN,) a German Protestant divine.
rle was one of the editors of the Wittenberg edition of
Anther's works, and published a number of controver
sial treatises. Died about 1572.
Walther, (CHRISTIAN,) a German divine, born near
Conigsberg in 1655. He became professor of theology
,t that city in 1703, and was afterwards appointed rector
€ as K; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 2; th as in this. (£^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
WALT HER
2230
WAN-LEE
of the university. He wrote several theological and an
tiquarian treatises. Died in 1717.
Walther, (CHRISTOPH THEODOSIUS,) a German di
vine, born in Brandenburg in 1699. He was one of the
missionaries sent by the Danish government in 1705 to
the coast of Coromandel and the other Danish posses
sions in India. He founded the missionary establishment
of Majubaram, and published " An Abridgment of Ec
clesiastical History," and other works, in the Tamul
language. He died at Dresden in 1741.
Walther, (GEORG CHRISTOPH,) a German jurist, born
at Rothenburg in 1601, became president of the chancery
of justice in his native town. He published several legal
works in Latin. Died in 1656.
Walther, (HEINRICH ANDREAS,) a German Prot
estant divine, born at Konigsberg, in Hesse, in 1696,
wrote several religious and theological works, in Latin
and German. Died in 1748.
Walther, (JOHANN GOTTFRIED,) a German writer,
born about 1684, published a " Musical Dictionary, His
torical and Biographical." Died in 1748.
Walther, QOHANN LUDOLPH,) a German, who lived
about 1740, and published "Lexicon Diplomaticum,"
(1745,) in which he explained the modes of writing and
the abbreviations used in the middle ages.
"Walther, (MICHAEL,) a German divine and theo
logical writer, born at Nuremberg in 1593. He became
professor of divinity at Helmstedt in 1622, and in 1642
was appointed general superintendent of the Lutheran
Church in the duchy of Brunswick-Luneberg. He wrote
a "Treatise on Manna," ("Tractatus de Manna," 1633,)
a learned treatise, entitled " Otficina Biblica," (1636,)
" Exercitationes Biblicas," (1638,) and other works, in
Latin; also "The Golden Key of the Ancients," etc.,
in German. Died in 1662.
Walther, (MICHAEL,) a son of the preceding, was
born in 1638. He was professor at Wittenberg, and
published several valuable works on theology and
mathematics. Died in 1692.
Walther, [Lat. GUALTE'KUS,] (RUDOLPH,) a Swiss
Protestant divine, born at Zurich in 1519, was a friend
of Melanchthon, Zuinglius, and other eminent Reformers
of the time. He published an " Apology for Zuinglius,"
Homilies on the twelve minor prophets and on the New
Testament, and other prose works, in Latin ; also sev
eral Latin poems. Died in 1586.
Walther, von, fon wal'ter, (PHILIPP FRANZ,) an
eminent German surgeon and oculist, born at Buxweiler,
in Bavaria, in 1781, became professor of surgery at Bonn
in 1819. He published several medical and surgical
works, among which are "Human Physiology," ("Phy
siologic des Menschen," 2 vols., 1807-08,) and a "Sys
tem of Surgery," (4 vols., 1833-40.) Died in 1849.
See J. N. VON RINGSELS, " Rede zum Andenken an den Dr. von
Walther," 1851.
Walther von der Vogelweide, wal'ter fon d6it
foo'el-wi'deh, ("Walter of the Bird-Meadow,") the most
celebrated of the German minnesingers, is supposed to
have been born in Franconia about 1170. He was of a
noble family, and was patronized by the duke Frederick
of Vienna and his brother Leopold VII. His works are
amatory and patriotic songs, and display genius of a high
order. Two editions of them have been published by
Lachmann, and an account of Walther's life and poetry,
by Uhland, appeared in 1822. Died about 1230.
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Wal'tpn, (BRIAN,) a learned English divine, born
in Yorkshire in 1600. He studied at Cambridge, and
was appointed about 1638 chaplain to the king, and
prebendary of Saint Paul's. When the party of the
Parliament came into power, he was deprived of his
office, and retired to Oxford, where he began to collect
the materials for his Polyglot Bible. This great work
was completed in 1657, (in 6 vols. fol.) Walton died in
1661, having a short time previously been created Bishop
of Chester.
See TODD, " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Right Rev.
Brian Walton, D.D.," etc.
Wal'ton, (GEORGE,) an American patriot and signer
of the Declaration of Independence, born in Frederick
county, Virginia, about 1740. He was elected to Con
gress from Georgia in 1776, being four times re-elected,
and was twice chosen Governor of Georgia. He became
chief justice of that State in 1783. Died in 1804.
"Walton, (IZAAK,) a celebrated English writer, born
at Stafford in 1593. His first publication was an elegy
on his friend Dr. Donne, which was followed by a Life
of Sir Henry Wotton, prefixed to a collection of his let
ters, etc., and entitled " Reliquiae Wottonianre," (1651.)
In early life he was a hosier or linen-draper in London.
His principal work, "The Complete Angler, or Con
templative Man's Recreation," came out in 1653. It
was received with great favour, and has passed through
numerous editions. Among his other productions are
good biographies of Richard Hooker, George Herbert,
(1670,) and Bishop Sanderson, (1678.) Walton was
twice married, his first wife being Rachael Floud, a
descendant of Archbishop Cranmer, and the second a
half-sister of Bishop Ken. He died in 1683, leaving one
son and one daughter. Ilazlitt expressed the opinion
that his " Complete Angler" is perhaps the best pastoral
in the English language.
See SIR J. HAWKINS, " Life of Izaak Walton," 1760; T. ZOUCH,
"Life of I. Walton," 1823; "Life of Izaak Walton," by SIR N.
HARRIS NICOLAS, 1836.
Walworth, wSl'worth, (REUKEN HYDE,) LL.IX, an
eminent American jurist, born at Bo/rah, in Connecticut,
in 1789. He removed at an early age to Hoosick, New
York, where he studied law, and was appointed in 1811
one of the county judges. He served in the wnr of
1812, and was present in 1814 at the siege of Platts-
burg, as adjutant-general of the United States forces. In
1821 he was elected to Congress, and in 1828 appointed
chancellor, being the last who held that office in this
country. He was a prominent member of the religious
and benevolent associations of the day, and was presi
dent for a time of the American Temperance Union.
Died in 1867.
See LIVINGSTON, " Portraits of Eminent Americans."
"Walworth, wol'worth, (Sir WILLIAM,) was lord
mayor of London when an army of insurgents under
Wat Tyler marched to that city in 1381. He killed
Tyler while he was speaking to the king. Died about
1385;
Warn an or Wamaiia. See V AM AN A.
Wamba, w6m'ba or wam'ba, King of the Visigoths
of Spain, began to reign in 672 A.D. Died in 683.
Wamese, wa'ma-zeh, or Waniesius, wa-ma'ze-us,
(JoHN,) a Flemish jurist, born near Liege in 1524; died
in 1^90.
Waiidelaincourt, voNd'laN'kooR', (.\NTOINE HU
BERT,) a French ecclesiastic and writer, born in the
diocese of Verdun in 1731. He was a member of the
Convention of 1792, and voted against the death of the
king. Died in 1819.
Wand'el-bert or Wand'al-bert, a learned monk
and poet, born about 813 A.D., lived at Prum, in Flan
ders. He wrote a Martyrology, in verse. Died after 870.
Wandesforde, wftn'des-ford or wonz'ford, (CHRIS
TOPHER,) Viscount Castlecomer, an English statesman,
born in Yorkshire in 1592. He entered Parliament,
and was one of the chief managers in the impeachment
of Buckingham. He succeeded Strafford as lord deputy
of Ireland in 1640. Died in December of that year.
Wangenheim, wing'en -him', (KARL AUGUST,)
BARON, a German statesman, born at Gotha in 1773.
About 1806 he was called to Stuttgart, where he became
president of the department of finance. He was after
wards appointed president of the superior court at Tu
bingen, and curator of the university. He wrote several
works in relation to government. Died in 1850.
Wang-Mang, a Chinese usurper, who, having put
to death the infant heir to the throne, took the title of
emperor about 9 A.D. He was assassinated in 23 A.D.
"Waii-Koolee, (or -Kouli,) (Mohammed Ibn Mus
tafa, mo-ham'med ib'n moos'ta-fa,) a Turkish lexicog
rapher of the sixteenth century. He translated into
Turkish the Arabic Dictionary of Jevhery.
Wan-Lee or Wan-Ly, wan-lee, called also Y-Kiun,
an emperor of China, of the Ming dynasty, began to
reign in 1572. He waged war against the Mantchoos
who invaded China. Died in 1619 or 1620.
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
WAX LET
223
WARD
Wanley, w&n'le, (HUMPHREY,) an English antiquary,
was born at Coventry in (672. He employed himself
in collecting Anglo-Saxon manuscripts for Dr. Hickes's
" Thesaurus," and prepared a descriptive catalogue of
those contained in the libraries of the kingdom. He
afterwards became librarian to the Earl of Oxford. Died
in 1726.
Wanley, (Rev. NATHANIEL,) an English writer and
divine, the father of the preceding, was born at Leicester
in 1633. He published a treatise entitled "Vox Dei, or
the Great Duty of Self- Reflection upon a Man's Own
Ways," and a popular compilation called " Wonders of
the Little World." Died in 1680.
Wansleben, wans'la'ben, QOHANN MICHAEL,) a Ger
man scholar and antiquary, born at Erfurt in 1635. He
was sent in 1670 by the French government to Egypt,
where he made a collection of manuscripts. He pub
lished, in Italian, "An Account of the Present State of
Egypt," and several antiquarian works in Latin. Died
in 1679.
See VOCKERODT, " Programina de J. M. Wansleben," 1718 ; NICE-
RON, " Memoires."
Wappers, wap'pers, (GUSTAVE,) BARON, a Belgian
painter of high reputation, born at Antwerp in 1803.
He studied in his native city and in Paris, painted his
torical and religious pictures, and obtained the title of
first painter to the King of Belgium. In 1846 he became
director of the Academy of Antwerp.
War'beck, (PERKIN,) an adventurer, who in the
reign of Henry VII. pretended to be the younger son
of Edward IV., supposed to have been murdered by
order of his uncle, Richard III. At the head of several
thousand insurgents, he besieged Exeter ; but he re
treated on the approach of the royal army, and, being
made prisoner, was executed in 1499.
War'bur-tpn, (EuuT BARTHOLOMEW GEORGE.) a
distinguished writer, born in county Galway, Ireland, in
1810. He took his degree at Trinity College, Cam
bridge, and published in 1845 his work entitled "The
Crescent and the Cross," which met with great favour
and passed through numerous editions. It was suc
ceeded by his history of "Prince Rupert and the Cava
liers," (1849,) and "Memoirs of Horace Walpole and
his Contemporaries." He perished in the ship Amazon,
lost off Land's End in 1852. His tale entitled " Darien,
or the Merchant Prince," came out after his death.
See ALLIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors ;" "London Quarterly
Review" tor March, 1845.
War'bur-ton, (JOHN,) an English antiquary, born in
1682, published a work entitled " Vallum Komanum."
Died in 1759.
Warburtoii, (WILLIAM,) an eminent English writer
and prelate, born at Newark on the 24th of December,
1698, was a son of George Warburton, an attorney. He
was educated for the profession of law, and passed five
years in the office of an attorney, (1715-19.) Having
resolved to enter the Church, he studied theology pri
vately, was ordained a deacon in 1723, and published
"Miscellaneous Translations, in Prose and Verse, from
Roman Authors," (1723.) He obtained the vicarage of
Gryesley in 1726, through the patronage of Sir Robert
Sutton,'by whom he was presented to the rectory of
Brant-Broughton, near Newark, in 1728. He resided at
this place about eighteen years. In 1727 he published
a "Critical and Philosophical Inquiry into the Causes
of Prodigies and Miracles as related by Historians."
His reputation was increased by an able work entitled
"The Alliance between Church and State, or the Ne
cessity and Equity of an Established Religion and a
Test Law," etc.. (1736,) which was commended by Bishop
Horsley as an excellent "specimen of scientific reason
ing applied to a political subject."
His principal work is "The Divine Legation of Moses
demonstrated, on the Principles of a Religious Deist,
from the Omission of the Doctrine of a Future State of
Rewards and Punishments in the Jewish Dispensation,"
(2 vols., 1738-41,) in which he displayed immense erudi
tion in the support of novel and paradoxical opinions.
This work excited much controversy. About 1740 he
became intimate with Pope, after he had written several
letters in defence of that poet's " Essay on Man." When
Pope died, (1744,) he left half of his library, and other
valuable property, to Warburton, who married, in 1745,
Gertrude Tucker, a niece of Mr. Ralph Allen, of Prior
Park, near Bath. Warburton resided mostly at Prior
Park after his marriage. He was elected preacher to
the society of Lincoln's Inn in 1746, edited Shakspeare's
works in 1747, and published a complete edition of
Pope's works, with notes, (9 vols.,) in 1750.
In 1754 he was appointed one of the king's chaplains-
in-ordinary, and in 1755 he obtained a prebend of Dur
ham. He became Dean of Bristol in 1757, and Bishop
of Gloucester in 1759. Among his other works we
notice " A View of Lord Bolingbroke's Philosophy, in
Four Letters to a Friend," (1754-55,) and two volumes
of Sermons preached at Lincoln's Inn, (1754.) His dis
position was rather haughty. " Warburton," says Dr.
Johnson, "was a man of vigorous faculties, a mind fer
vid and vehement, supplied by incessant and unlimited
inquiry, with a wonderful extent and variety of know
ledge, which yet had not oppressed his imagination or
clouded his perspicacity. To every work he brought a
memory full fraught, together with a fancy fertile of
original combinations, and at once exerted the powers
of the scholar, the reasoner, and the wit. . . . His
abilities gave him a haughty confidence, which he dis
dained to conceal or mollify." ("Life of Alexander
Pope," in the " Lives of the English Poets.") He died
at Gloucester in June, 1779. He had only one child, a
son, who died young.
See BISHOP HURD, " Notice of Warburton," prefixed to an edition
of his works, 1794; J. S. WATSON, "Lite of Warburton," 1863;
CHALMERS, "Biographical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Biographic
Generale ;" ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Edinburgh
Review" for January, 1809; " Blackwood's Magazine" for Decem
ber, 1820.
Ward, (ARTEMAS,) an American general of the Revo
lution, born at Shrewsbury, Massachusetts, in 1727. He
served under Abercrombie against the French and
Indians, and at the commencement of the war of the
Revolution was appointed second in command to
Washington. He resigned his commission in April,
1776. He was afterwards elected to Congress, in which
he served from 1791 to 1795. Died in 1800.
"Ward, (ARTEMAS,) LL.D., an American jurist, born
in Massachusetts in 1763. He was elected a member of
Congress in 1813, and became chief justice of the court
of common pleas, in Massachusetts, in 1821. Died in
1847-
Ward, (EDWARD,) an English humorous writer, born
about 1667. He made a version of " Don Quixote"
into Huclibrastic rhymes, and was the author of "The
London Spy," a poem. Died in 1731.
Ward, (EDWARD MATTHEW,) an English painter,
born in London in 1816. He studied at the Royal
Academy, and afterwards at Rome and Munich. He
was chosen a Royal Academician in 1855. Among his
most admired works may be named "The Last Sleep
of Argyle," "The South -Sea Bubble, a Scene in Change
Alley," " Daniel Defoe and the Manuscript of Robinson
Crusoe," and " Izaak Walton Angling."
Ward, (Sir HENRY GEORGE,) an English statesman,
a son of Robert Plumer, noticed below, was born about
1798. He was several times elected to Parliament for
Saint Alban's and Sheffield, and in 1846 became secre
tary to the admiralty. In 1849 he was appointed Gov
ernor of the Ionian Islands, and in 1856 of the island
of Ceylon. Died in 1860.
Ward, (TAMES,) an English painter, born in London
in 1770, executed a number of admirable works in the
style of Morland. Among the best of these may be
named his " Horse and Serpent," " Bulls Fighting
across a Tree," and a " Landscape with Cattle." He
was appointed painter and engraver to the Prince of
Wales in 1794, and in 1811 was elected Royal Acade
mician. Died in 1859.
Ward, (Captain JAMES HARMAN,) an American naval
officer, born at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1806. He
published several professional works, and " Steam for
the Million," (new edition, 1860.) He was appointed
commander of the Potomac flotilla in May, 1861, and
was killed in a fight against a battery at Matthias Point,
Virginia, in June of that year.
teiiers in ueicnce 01 111*11 JJUCL a i-.^say uu -*j.cni. » n\_n ¥ n^mm, *n j M» *»* ^~«
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (33f°See Explanations, p. 23.)
WARD
2232
WARING
Ward, (JOHN,) LL.D., an English scholar and writer,
born in London in 1679. He became professor of
rhetoric at Gresham College in 1720. He published an
edition of Maximus Tyrius, " Lives of the Professors
of Gresham College," (1740,) "Four Essays upon the
English Language," (1758,) and other works. He was
a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Society of
Antiquaries. Died in 1758.
See THOMAS BIRCH, "Life of John Ward," 1766.
Ward, (JOHN WILLIAM.) See DUDLEY, EARL OF.
Ward, (NATHANIEL,) an English Puritan divine, was
born at Haverhill about 1570. In 1634 he visited New
England, where he assisted in forming a settlement at
Haverhill. After his return to England he published
a satirical work entitled " Mercurius Antimecharius,
or the Simple Cobbler's Hoy," etc. Died in 1653.
Ward, (ROBERT PLUMEK,) an English statesman and
writer, born in 1765. He studied at Christ Church,
Oxford, was appointed one of the lords of the admiralty
in 1807, and was subsequently a member of Parliament.
He was the author of a " History of the Law of Nations
in Europe from the Time of the Greeks and Romans to
the Age of Grotius," (1795,) " An Inquiry into the Con
duct of European Wars," (1803,) three novels, entitled
"Tremaine," " De Vere," and " I)e Clifford," and other
works on various subjects. Died in 1846.
See "Memoirs of the Political and Literary Life of Robert Plumer
Ward," by HON. EDMUND PHIPPS, 2 vols., 1850.
Ward, (SAMUEL,) an English theologian, born in
Durham. He became Archdeacon of Taunton in 1615,
and afterwards Margaret professor of divinity at Oxford.
Died in 1643.
Ward, (SETH,) an English bishop and distinguished
astronomer, born in Hertfordshire in 1617. He studied
at Cambridge, and afterwards became professor of
astronomy at Oxford. He was also chosen president of
Trinity College ; but he was compelled to resign this
office at the restoration. Under Charles II. he was
created Bishop of Salisbury in 1662. He was one of
the founders and first members of the Royal Society.
Among his principal works are " An Essay on the Being
and Attributes of God," etc., (1652,) a treatise on the
nature of comets, entitled " Praelectio de Cometis," etc.,
(1653,) and "Astronomia Geometria," (1656.) Died
in 1689.
See WALTER POPE, "Life of Seth Ward," 1698.
Ward, (THOMAS,) a Roman Catholic controversialist
and poet, born in Yorkshire, England, in i6>2 ; died in
1708.
Ward, (WILLIAM,) an English missionary, born at
Derby in 1769. He sailed for India in 1799, and, having
settled at Serampore, printed the Bengalee New Testa
ment and other translations. He also published "An
Account of the Writings, Religion, and Manners of the
Hindoos," (1811,) and other works. Died in 1823.
Ward'law, (HENRY,) a Scottish ecclesiastic, who
became Bishop of Saint Andrew's, and founded the
university in that place. Died in 1440.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Wardlaw, (RALPH,) D.D., a distinguished Scottish
divine and theological writer, born at Dalkeith in 1779.
He studied at the University of Glasgow, and in 1803
became pastor of a church of the Scottish Independents
in that city. He was chosen professor of systematic
theology in the Academy of the Independents at Glas
gow in 1811. Among his principal works are an essay
"On the Assurance of Faith," (1830,) "Christian Ethics,
or Moral Philosophy on the Principles of Divine Reve
lation," (1833,)-" The Divine Dissuasive to the Young
against the Enticements of Sinners," and a " Treatise
on Miracles," (1852.) Died in 1853.
See W. L. ALEXANDER, "Memoirs of the Life and Writings of
Ralph Wardlaw, D.D. ;" AI.UBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;"
CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Sup
plement.)
Ware, (HENRY,) D.D., an American Unitarian divine,
born at Sherburne, Massachusetts, in 1764. He grad
uated at Harvard, where he became in 1805 Hollis
professor of divinity. He published "Letters to Trini
tarians and Calvinists," and other controversial works.
His second wife was a daughter of James Otis. Died
in 1845.
Ware, (HENRY,) Jr., D.D., a son of the preceding, was
born at Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1794. He became
minister of the Second Unitarian Church, Boston, in
i8f7, and was appointed in 1829 professor of pulpit elo
quence and the pastoral care in the theological school,
Cambridge. He was for a time editor of the "Christian
Disciple," since become the "Christian Examiner," and
published a number of religious essays and poems, one
of which, entitled "To the Ursa Major," has been greatly
admired. Died in 1843.
See a "Memoir of Henry Ware, Jr.," by his brother JOHN, 1846.
Ware, (Sir JAMES,) an Irish antiquary, born at Dublin
in 1594. He succeeded his father as auditor-general of
the kingdom in 1632, and afterwards became a member
of the Irish House of Commons and of the privy council.
He was the author of a work on the antiquities of Ire
land, entitled " De Prtesulibus Hiberniae Commentarius,"
and of other treatises on history and antiquities. Died
in 1666.
'Ware, (JAMES,) an English surgeon and oculist, born
at Portsmouth about 1756, became demonstrator of
anatomy at Cambridge. He wrote " Remarks on Fistula
Lachrymalis," (1798,) and "Chirurgical Observations."
Died in 1815.
Ware, (JoiiN,) M.D., brother of Henry Ware, (1794-
1843,) vvas born at Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1795.
He was appointed in 1832 professor of the theory and
practice of medicine in the medical department of Har
vard College. He has published treatises "On Croup,"
"On Haemoptysis," and other medical works.
Ware, (WILLIAM,) a distinguished American author,
brother of the preceding, was born at Hingham, Mas
sachusetts, in 1797. He was successively pastor of
a church in New York, at Waltham, Massachusetts,
and at West Cambridge. His " Letters from Palmyra,"
originally published in the " Knickerbocker Magazine,"
appeared afterwards under the title of " Zenobia," (1836,)
and was succeeded in 1838 by "Aurelian," otherwise
called " Probus," a continuation of the same subject.
These classical romances have won for their author a
high reputation both in America and Europe, and have
been translated into German. Mr. Ware was for a time
editor of the "Christian Examiner." He also published
"Lectures on the Works and Genius of Washington
Allston," and "Sketches of European Capitals," (1851.)
He died at Cambridge in February, 1852.
See GRISWOI.D, "Prose Writers of America;" DUVCKINCK,
"Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Si'KAGUE, "Annals of
the American Pulpit," vol. viii. ; " Westminster Review" for January,
1838 ; " North American Review" for October, 1837.
Wargeiitiii, vak'gen-teen', (PETER WILHELM,) an
eminent Swedish astronomer, born at Stockholm in 1717.
He was appointed perpetual secretary of the Academy
of Stockholm in 1749; and he subsequently became a
Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a chevalier
of the Polar Star. Died in 1783.
See FRANZBN, " Minne af P. W. Wargentin," 1847.
War'ham, (WILLIAM,) an English prelate and states
man, born in Hampshire. He studied at Oxford, and
was successively created by Henry VIII. keeper of the
great seal, (1502,) lord chancellor, (1503,) Bishop of
London the same year, and Archbishop of Canterbury,
(1504.) He was obliged to resign the chancellorship in
1516 in favour of Wolsey, who had become the favourite
of the king. He died in 1532, and was succeeded by
Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury. Warham was
a patron of learning, and a warm friend of Erasmus, who
mentions him in his letters with high commendation.
See W. F. HOOK, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury,"
vol. i., new series, chap. ii.
Warin. See VARIN, (JEAN.)
Wa'ring, (EDWARD,) an eminent English mathema
tician, born near Shrewsbury in 1736. He studied at
Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he became Lu-
casian professor of mathematics in 1760. He was elected
a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1763. He published
" Analytical Miscellanies on Algebraic Equations,"
(" Miscellanea analytica de /Equationibus algebraicis,"
etc., 1762,) " Properties of Algebraic Curves," (" Propri-
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, d, sair.e, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m§t; nftt; gdud; moon;
2233
W4RREN
etates Algebraicarum Curvarum," etc., 1772,) and other
valuable works. Died in 1798.
Warmholtz, waKm'holts, (CARL GUSTAF,) a Swedish
bibliographer, born in 1710. lie published a " Swedish-
Gothic Historical Library," (" Bibliotheca historica
Sueco-Gothica," 3 vols., 1782.) Died in 1784.
Wariiachaire, vaVnt'shaV, [Lat. WARNACHA'RIUS,]
became mayor of the palace under Thierry II. of Bur
gundy about 612 A.D. He aided Clotaire II. to defeat
Queen Brunehaut, and acquired great power. Died
in 626.
Warneford, warn'ford, (Rev. SAMUEL WILSON,) an
English clergyman and philanthropist, born in Wiltshire
in 1758. He studied at University College, Oxford, and
in 1810 became rector of Bourton-on-the-IIill, in Glou
cestershire. He founded a hospital at Leamington, and
a lunatic-asylum near Oxford, both called by his name,
and made munificent donations to various colleges and
charitable institutions in the kingdom. Died in 1855.
War'ner, (ANNA B.,) sister of Susan Warner, noticed
below, has published " Dollars and Cents, by Amy
Lothrop," (1853,) "My Brother's Keeper," (1855,) and,
in conjunction with her sister, "Say and Seal," (1860,)
and other works.
War'ner, (FERDINANDO,) an English divine and
miscellaneous writer, born in 1703, became rector of
Barnes, in Surrey. Among his numerous publications
we may name "The Ecclesiastical History of the
Eighteenth Century," (1756,) a "Life of Sir Thomas
More," (1758,) and "History of the Rebellion and Civil
War in Ireland," (1767.) Died about 1768.
Warner, (JoHN,) an English clergyman, born at
Westminster in 1585, rose to be Bishop of Rochester.
Died in 1666.
Warner, (JoHN,) D.D., son of Ferdinando, noticed
above, was born in 1736. He became rector of Stourton,
in Wiltshire, and wrote a political work, entitled " Me-
tronariston." Died in 1800.
Warner, (JOSEPH,) F.R.S., a distinguished surgeon,
born in the island of Antigua in 1717, was a pupil of
Samuel Sharpe. He was surgeon to Guy's Hospital,
London, about forty-four years, and published several
professional works. Died in 1801.
Warner, (RICHARD,) an English botanist, born in
1711, published a work entitled " Plantae Woodford-
ienses." The genus Warneria was named in his honour.
He died in 1775, leaving his library to Wadham College,
Oxford.
Warner, (Sus,\N,) a popular American writer, born
in New York in the early part of the nineteenth century.
She published in 1850, under the assumed name of
EI.IZ.AHKTH WETHERELL, her novel of " The Wide, Wide
World," which had an extraordinary success. It was
followed in 1852 by " Queechy," which likewise enjoyed
a great popularity. Both have been translated into
French. She has also written "The Hills of Shate-
muck," (1856,) "The Duties of American Women," and
other works.
See the "North American Review" for January, 1853.
Warner, (WILLIAM,) an English poet, born in Ox
fordshire about 1558. He was the author of a collection
of ballads, entitled "Albion's England," which acquired
great popularity; also "Syrinx, a Seavenfold Historic,"
consisting of prose narratives. Died in 1609.
Warnkonig or Warnkoenig, waRn'ko'nic, (LEO
POLD AUGUST,) a German jurist, born at Bruchsal in
1794, became successively professor of law at Louvain,
Ghent, Freiburg, and Tubingen. He was the author of
a " History of the Jurisprudence and State of Flanders,"
(1834,) and other similar works.
Warren, wor'ten, (CHARLES,) an English engraver
on steel, born in London about 1762, had a high reputa
tion. Died in 1823.
Warren, wSr'ren, (GOUVERNEUR K.,) an American
general, born in New York about 1825, graduated at
\Vest Point in 1850. He commanded a brigade of the
Union army at Gaines's Mill, June 27, and at Malvern
Hill, July i, 1862. He served at Antietam, September
17, 1862, at Chancellorsville, May 3, 1863, and at Gettys
burg, July 2 and 3. He commanded the fifth corps of
the army of the Potomac at the battle of the Wilder-
ness, May 5 and 6, 1864, at Spottsylvania Court-House,
May 8-12, and at Cold Harbour, June 3. On the 3ist
of March, 1865, his corps, advancing to seize the White
Oak Road, was attacked by the enemy, whom he re
pulsed. He then reinforced General Sheridan, under
whom he served at the battle of Five Forks, April i.
He was deprived of his command by General Sheridan
about the close of this battle.
Warren, QAMES,) an American patriot and revo
lutionist, born at Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1726,
was Speaker of the House of Representatives in that
State, and a zealous defender of the colonists. Died
in 1808.
Warren, (JoHN,) M.D., brother of General Joseph
Warren, was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1753.
He was physician to the military hospitals of Boston in
the Revolutionary war, and was afterwards appointed
professor of anatomy in the medical department of Har
vard College. He published a number of medical works.
Died in 1815.
Warren, (Sir JOHN BORLASK,) G.C.B., an English
naval commander, born in Nottinghamshire in 1754. He
was elected to Parliament for Marlow in 1774, and again
in 1780. He distinguished himself in the war with France
in 1793, and, as commander of the Canada, in 1798, cap
tured the French squadron, consisting of a ship of the
line and three frigates, sent for the invasion of Ireland.
Soon after this service he was made a rear-admiral of
the blue. He was returned to Parliament for Notting
ham in 1793, being re-elected in 1802, and was subse
quently ambassador-extraordinary to Saint Petersburg.
He is supposed to have been the author of " A View of
the Naval Force of Great Britain," (1791.) Died in 1822.
Warren, (JOHN COLLINS,) M.D., a son of John,
noticed above, was born at Boston in 1778. He studied
medicine in London, Edinburgh, and Paris, and, after his
return, succeeded his father as professor of anatomy at
Harvard, (1815.) He became associate editor of the
" Boston Medical and Surgical Journal," and was a fre
quent contributor to the leading scientific and medical
journals. He published " Surgical Operations on Tu
mours," a treatise on " Diseases of the Heart," (1809,)
and other works. Died in 1856.
See a " Memoir of John C. Warren," by his brother EDWARD,
2 vols., 1859.
Warren, (JOSEPH,) a. distinguished American general
i and patriot, born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1741,
graduated at Harvard College in 1759. He studied
medicine, which he began to practise in Boston at the
age of twenty-three, and he became in a few years one
of the most eminent physicians of that city. He took
an active part in political affairs, was a decided asserter
of liberal principles, and was eminently qualified by
his superior talents and ardent temperament to be a
popular leader in critical times. He possessed in high
perfection the gift of eloquence. In March, 1772, he
delivered an oration on the anniversary of the Boston
Massacre. According to Alexander H. Everett, "the
commanding genius of Warren carried him at once to
the helm, and rendered him, for the brief period of his
subsequent life, both in civil and military affairs, the
most prominent man in New England."
In 1774 he was elected president of the Provincial
Congress, and chairman of the committee of public
safety, which exercised the chief executive power in
Massachusetts. Having obtained information of the
British expedition against Concord, he despatched a
messenger on the night of April 18, 1775, to warn his
friends, and thus contributed to the success gained at
Lexington on the ensuing day. He was elected a major-
general by Congress on the I4th of June, 1775. He
opposed the plan of fortifying the heights of Charles-
town ; but the majority of the council of war decided to
fortify those heights, and thus brought on the battle of
Bunker's Hill before the Americans were fully prepared
for it. While both the armies were awaiting the signal
for action, on the I7th of June, General Warren joined
the ranks as a volunteer, and declined to take the com
mand of the army, which was offered to him by General
Putnam. He was about to retire from the redoubt after
the ammunition of the Americans had been exhausted,
•; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.)
WARREN
2234
WARWICK
when he was shot in the forehead, and instantly killed.
He left two sons, who both died young, and two daughters.
His loss was deeply and universally lamented. "The
name of Joseph Warren," says A. II. Everett, "is one of
the most conspicuous in the annals of the Revolution.
His memory is cherished with even warmer regard than
that of some others, who, from the greater length ol their
career, and the wider sphere in which they acted, may
be supposed to have rendered more important services
to the country. This distinction in his favour is owing,
in part, to the chivalrous beauty of his character, which
naturally excites a sympathetic glow in every feeling
mind, and in part to that untimely but glorious fate
which consecrated him as the first distinguished martyr
in the cause of independence and liberty."
See "The Life of Joseph Warren," by ALEXANDER H. EVKRETT,
in SPARKS'S "American Biography," vol. x. ; "National Portrait-
Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii.
Warren, (MERCY,) the wife of James Warren, and
sister of James Otis, was born at Barnstable, Massachu
setts, in 1728. She was the author of a "History of the
American Revolution," (3 vols., 1805,) which was highly
esteemed at the time, tragedies entitled "The Sack of
Rome" and " The Ladies of Castile," and a number of
poems. Died in 1814.
See GKISWOI.U, " Female Poets of America."
Warren, (Sir PETKR,) an Irish admiral, born in 1703.
As commander of a squadron, he captured Louisbourg
from the French in 1745, and in 1747 assisted Anson
in defeating a French squadron. He was subsequently
created vice-admiral of the red, and elected to Parlia
ment for Westminster. He died in 1752. A monument
to him, by Roubiliac, was placed in Westminster Abbey.
Warren, (SAMUEL,) a popular English novelist and
legal writer, born in Denbighshire in 1807. He studied
medicine at Edinburgh, but subsequently devoted him
self to the law, and was admitted to the bar in 1837.
His " Passages from the Diary of a Late Physician"
(New York, 1831) came out in "Blackwood's Magazine,"
and obtained an extensive popularity ; and his novel of
"Ten Thousand a Year" (1841) appeared soon after in
the same journal. Both works were afterwards published
separately, and the latter has been translated into the
principal languages of Europe. Mr. Warren has also
written "A Popular and Practical Introduction to Law
Studies," etc., (1845,) " Now and Then," (1847,) " Moral,
Social, and Professional Duties of Attorneys and So
licitors," (1848,) and other valuable legal treatises. He
was chosen to represent Midhurst in Parliament in 1856
and 1857.
See AI.LIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;" " Klackwood's Maga
zine" for February, 1848; "British Quarterly Review" for May,
1848.
Warrington, w6r'ring-ton, (LEWIS,) an American
naval officer, born at Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1782.
He fought with distinction in the war of 1812, and com
manded the Peacock, which captured the British brig
Epervier in April, 1814. He was appointed chief of the
bureau of ordnance and hydrography in 1842. He had
been raised to the rank of captain in 1814. Died in 1851.
Wartenberg, von, fon waR'ten-bgRG', (FRANZ WIL-
HELM,) COUNT, a German ecclesiastic, born in 1593.
He became Bishop of Ratisbon and Osnabriick, and
cardinal in 1661. He died the same year.
Wartensleben, waR'tens-la'ben, (ALEXANDER HER
MANN,) a German general, born in Westphalia in 1650.
He served in the armies of Hesse, Austria, and Prussia,
with the rank of field-marshal. Died in 1734.
Wartensleben, von, fon waR'tens-la'ben, (WiL-
HELM LUDWIG GASTON,) an Austrian general, born
in 1728. He obtained command in 1796 of a corps
d'armee under the archduke Charles, and was defeated
by Jourdan at Friedberg, from which he retreated to
Wtirzburg. Having effected a junction with the arch
duke, he contributed to the victory over the French near
Wiirzburg, in September, 1796. Died soon after 1797.
War'ton, (JOSEPH,) D.D., an English critic and
scholar, born in Surrey in 1722. He studied at Oriel
College, Oxford, and, having taken his degree of B.A.,
was ordained curate of Basingstoke. He published in
1746 a collection of poems, entitled "Odes on Various
Subjects," and in 1753 an edition of Virgil, with a new
poetical version of the " Eclogues" and " Georgics." His
"Essay on the Writings and Genius of Pope" appeared
in 1782, and, although not favourably received at the
time, is now generally regarded as one of his best works.
Warton became head-master of Winchester School in
1766, and he was afterwards successively created preb
endary of Saint Paul's and of Winchester Cathedral, and
rector of Clapham. In 1797 he published an edition of
Pope's works, with notes, (9 vols. 8vo.) Died in 1800.
See " Biographical Memoirs of the Late Rev. Joseph Warton,
D.D.," by the REV. JOHN Woot.i, ; " Lives of the English Poets,
from Johiison to Kirke White," by GARY.
Warton, (THOMAS,) an eminent English critic and
poet, born at Basingstoke in 1728, was a brother of the
preceding. He studied at Trinity College, Oxford, of
which he became a Fellow in 1751. He was elected
professor of poetry in 1757, and subsequently Camden
professor of history, at Oxford. His " History of Eng
lish Poetry," esteemed one of the most valuable works
of the kind, came out in 1781, in 3 vols. Among his
other productions we may name "The Triumph of
Isis," a poem, written in reply to Mason's " Isis," "The
Progress of Discontent," and "The Oxford Sausage,
or Select Pieces written by the Most Celebrated Wits of
the University of Oxford," all of which display great
powers of humour and satire. His "Observations on
the Faerie Queene of Spenser" (1754) was also received
with great favour. Warton made several contributions
to Dr. Johnson's " Idler," and published an edition of
Milton's minor poems, and an excellent edition of The
ocritus, to which was prefixed a Latin dissertation on
the bucolic poetry of the Greeks. In 1785 he succeeded
Whitehead as poet-laureate. Died in 1790.
See R. MA NT, " Life of Warton," 1802; CAMPBELL, " Specimens
of the British Poets;" GAKY, " Lives of the English Poets, from
Johnson to Kirke White ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for October,
1838 ; " Monthly Review" for September and November, 1778, et seq.
Warton, (THOMAS,) REV., an English scholar, born
in 1687, was the father of Joseph Warton, noticed above.
He was professor of poetry at Oxford. Died in 1745.
Warwick, wSr'rik, EARI.S OF. This title was given
to one of the family of Newburgh by William the Con
queror, and was inherited by William de Beauchamp in
the second half of the thirteenth century. The earldom
remained in the family of Beauchamp until 1449, when
Richard \evil became Earl of Warwick. (See separate
article, given below.) The title became extinct about
1500, and was revived in favour of John Dudley in 1547.
In 1618 it was obtained by Robert Rich.
Warwick, EARL OF. See DUDLEY, (Jon.x.)
Warwick, (EDWARD,) EARL OF. See EDWARD
PLANTAGENKT.
Warwick, (Guv,) EARL OF, an English hero, whose
history is involved in great obscurity. He is supposed
to have lived in the tenth century. The " Romance of
Sir Guy" was probably written in the early part of the
fourteenth century, and was printed by William Cop
land in the sixteenth century.
Warwick, (HENRY DE BEAUCHAMP,) EARL and
DUKE OF, was created by Henry VI. Premier Earl of
England, Duke of Warwick, and King of the Islands
of Wight, Jersey, and Guernsey. He was the son of
Richard de Beauchamp, noticed below. Died in 1445.
Warwick, (Sir PHILIP,) an English writer, born at
Westminster in 1608. He was a member of the Long
Parliament of 1640, and a partisan of the king in the
civil war. He officiated as clerk to the signet or as
secretary to Charles I., and wrote " Memoirs of his Own
Time," (1701,) a work of some interest. Died in 1683.
See " Monk's Contemporaries," by GUIZOT, London, 1864.
Warwick, (RICHARD DE BEAUCHAMP,) EARL OF, an
English statesman and military commander, who served
in France under the Duke of Bedford, during whose
absence he acted as regent of that kingdom. On his
return to England he was appointed governor to the
young prince, afterwards Henry VI. In 1437 he be
came again Regent of France, where he died in 1439.
See SHAKSPEARE, " Henry VI.," Parts II. and III.
Warwick, (RICHARD NEVIL,) EARL OF, (called
" Warwick the King-Maker,") son of the Earl of Salis-
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, |, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m^t; not; good; moon;
WARWICK
2235
WASHINGTON
bury, and son-in-law of Richard, Earl of Warwick, no
ticed above, was born about 1420. By his marriage with
Anne, daughter of the Earl of Warwick, he acquired
the immense estates of that family, and assumed the title
of Earl of Warwick. He was also nephew of Richard,
Duke of York, and was first-cousin to Edward IV., be
sides being allied to other noble families of the kingdom.
Having joined the party of the Duke of York in the civil
war of the Roses, in 1455, he was chiefly instrumental in
gaining the victory of Saint Alban's, and was soon after
made governor of Calais. After the defeat of the York
ists at Ludiford, Warwick collected a large army, and
gained a signal victory over the enemy at Northampton,
(1460,) and took King Henry prisoner. He defeated the
Lancastrians, in 1461, at the battle of Towton, which
secured the throne to Edward IV. He was liberally re
warded for his services, and became the most powerful
subject of England. Having quarrelled with the king,
Warwick passed over to France, (1470,) formed an
alliance with Queen Margaret, and returned with an
army to England, where he proclaimed Henry VI. as
king. Edward IV. was driven out of the kingdom, and
retired to Holland, but returned in March, 1471, with a
body of troops, and defeated the enemy at Barnet in
April, 1471. The Earl of Warwick, who commanded
the Lancastrians, was killed in this action. He had two
daughters, — Isabella, who was married to the Duke of
Clarence, and Anne, who was married first to Edward,
Prince of Wales, (a son of Henry VI.,) and again to
Richard HI.
Warwick, (ROBERT RICH,) EARL OF, was a de
scendant of Lord-Chancellor Rich. He became Earl of
Warwick in 1618. In the civil war he adhered to the
Parliament, by which he was appointed admiral of the
fleet in 1642. He acquired great authority and credit
with the popular party, and supported Cromwell after
he became Protector. According to Clarendon, " he
lived in entire confidence and friendship with. Cromwell."
(" History of the Rebellion.") Died in 1658.
Waser, wa'zer, (ANNA,) a Swiss miniature-painter,
born at Zurich in 1679; died in 1713.
"Waser, (GASPAR,) a Swiss Orientalist, born at Zurich
in 1565. He became professor of Hebrew at Zurich in
1596. Died in 1625.
Washburn, wosh'burn, (CADWALADER C.,) an Ameri
can general and lawyer, born at Livermore, Maine, in
1818. He removed to Wisconsin, and represented a
district of that State in Congress from 1855 to 1861.
He became a brigadier-general about July, 1862. In
May or June, 1863, he moved a division from Memphis
to reinforce General Grant at Vicksburg.
Washburn, (ELIHU B.,) a brother of the preceding,
was born in Oxford county, Maine, in 1816. He studied
law, and settled at Galena, Illinois. He was elected a
member of Congress in 1852, and successively re-elected
seven times, — voted with the Republican party, and be
came a personal friend of General Grant. He served as
chairman of the committee on commerce for many years,
and distinguished himself as an advocate of economy
and retrenchment. On the 4th of March, 1869, he was
appointed secretary of state in the cabinet of General
Grant ; but he resigned, on account of his health, about a
week later, and was nominated minister to France. He
remained in Paris during the siege which began about
September, 1870.
Washburn, (ISRAEL,) an American Governor, a
brother of the preceding, was born at Livermore, Maine,
in 1813. He was a member of Congress from 1851 to
1860, and was chosen Governor of Maine in the latter
year.
Washington, w6sh'ing-ton, (BusiiROD,) a judge,
born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, in 1759, was a
nephew of General George Washington, and a son of
John Augustine Washington. He was a member of
the Virginia Convention which ratified the Constitution
of the United States in 1788, and was appointed a judge
of the supreme court of the United States in September,
1798. By the will of his illustrious uncle he became
the possessor of the estate of Mount Vernon, (1799.)
He died in Philadelphia in November, 1829, leaving a
good reputation.
Washington, (GEORGE,) an illustrious American
general, statesman, and patriot, the first President of
the United States, was born on the Potomac River, in
Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the 22d of February,
1 732. He was a son of Augustine Washington, a planter,
and his second wife, Mary Ball. His great-grandfather,
John Washington, emigrated with his brother Lawrence
from England to Virginia about 1657. Augustine dying
in 1743 left a large estate in land to his widow and his
five surviving children. The subject of this article in
herited a large farm on the Rappahannock River, (near
Fredericksburg,) on which farm was the house occupied
by Augustine Washington at the time of his death.
George attended several schools in the vicinity of his
home, but was never sent to college, and never studied
the ancient languages. His manuscript school-books
are still extant, and are models of neatness and accuracy.
In his early youth he was distinguished for his probity
and veracity. Favoured with superior physical strength,
he excelled in athletic exercises and in horsemanship.
His moral character was moulded by the influence of
his high-spirited and intelligent mother.
After he left school (1747) he passed much time with
his elder brother Lawrence, who resided at Mount
Vernon, on the Potomac River. He was also a frequent
guest at Greenway Court, the seat of Thomas, Lord
Fairfax, an eccentric nobleman, who owned an immense
tract of land in that part of Virginia. Young Washing
ton gained the favour of Lord Fairfax and of his cousin
Sir William Fairfax, who lived at Belvoir. In the spring
of 1748 he was employed by Lord Fairfax to survey a
portion of his land which was situated beyond the Blue
Ridge and had not yet been settled by white people.
In the hardships and privations of this enterprise he
passed nearly three years, during which he was accus
tomed to sleep in the open air. He kept a journal of
these surveying expeditions, as well as of the subsequent
events of his life. At the age of nineteen he was ap
pointed adjutant-general (with the rank of major) of one
of the districts into which Virginia was divided when
hostilities between the English and French became im
minent. In November, 1753, he was sent by Governor
Dinwiddie on a mission to the French commander, and
performed a perilous journey of five hundred miles or
more through the wilderness. The prudence, sagacity,
resolution, and fortitude which he manifested in this
mission pointed him out as one fitted for more impor
tant public services. " It is an expedition," says Irving,
" that may be considered the foundation of his fortunes.
From that moment he was the rising hope of Virginia."
Hostilities between the Virginians and the French
began in the spring of 1754, when, as lieutenant-colonel,
Washington led a small force to the frontier. He de
feated the enemy in May of that year, at the Great
Meadows. In a letter relating to this action, (which
was the first of the Seven Years' war,) he wrote, " I
heard the bullets whistle ; and, believe me, there is some
thing charming in the sound." About this time he was
raised to the rank of colonel. He served as aide-de
camp to General Braddock in his disastrous expedition
against Fort Duquesne. This imprudent general, de
spising both the Indians and the Virginia militia, and
obstinately adhering to the tactics of regular war,
rejected the advice of Washington, and was defeated
with great loss, and mortally wounded, by the French
and their savage allies, who attacked him in the forest
about seven miles from Fort Duquesne, July 9,. 1755.
In this battle four bullets passed through the coat of
Colonel Washington, who distinguished himself by his
courage and presence of mind amidst the general panic
and total rout of the English army.
In a letter written soon after this battle, Colonel Wash
ington said, "We have been most scandalously beaten
by a trifling body of men. . . . The dastardly behaviour
of those they called regulars exposed all others to almost
certain death, and at last they ran as sheep pursued by
dogs." In the summer of 1755 he was appointed com-
mander-in-chief of the forces (about two thousand men)
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled;*^ z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.)
WASHINGTON
2236
WASHINGTON
tn
which the Assembly of Virginia ordered to be raised
for the defence of the province. He commanded a part
of the army which, under General Forbes, took Fort
Duquesne in November, 1758. In January, 1759, he
married Mrs. Martha Custis, whose maiden name was
Dandridge, and whose first husband was John Parke
Custis. He now resigned his commission, retired from
the service, and settled at Mount Vernon as a planter.
In 1758 he had been elected to the House of Burgesses,
the Speaker of which, on the first appearance of Wash
ington in that body, tendered to him a compliment for
his military services. "Washington rose to reply,"
says Irving, "blushed, stammered, trembled, and could
not utter a word." " Sit clown, Mr. Washington," said
the Speaker: "your modesty equals your valour, and
that surpasses the power of any language I possess."
By his marriage he added about one hundred thousand
dollars to his fortune, which was before considerable.
He was partial to the pursuits of agriculture, and carried
into his rural affairs the same methodical habits and dili
gent attention which distinguished him in military opera
tions. He kept his own accounts, posted his books and
balanced them with mercantile exactness. By the pur
chase of adjacent plantations he enlarged the Mount
Vernon estate until it amounted finally to eight thousand
acres. He continued for many years a member of the
House of Burgesses, but never took a prominent part
in the debates of that or any other public assembly. He j Germantown, about six miles from Philadelphia -'but
was a delegate to the convention which met at Wii- they were repulsed, with a loss of about 800 killed' and
through New Jersey to the west side of the Delaware
River. During this retreat his army was reduced to
4000 men or less, and the cause for which he fought
seemed almost desperate ; but General Howe was too
indolent or incapable to follow up his successes with
vigour. General Washington, having been reinforced,
crossed the Delaware in open boats on the night of
December 25, 1776, attacked a British force at Trenton,
and captured nearly 1000 prisoners, (Hessian merce
naries.) On the 3d of January, 1777, he gained another
victory at Princeton, where he took about 300 prisoners.
Soon after these successes, which greatly revived the
spirits of the Americans, General Washington was '
vested with almost dictatorial powers by Congress,
the summer of 1777 a British army, under General Bur
goyne, moved from Canada towards Albany, and another
army, of about 16,000 men, under General Howe, sailed
up the Chesapeake Bay to take Philadelphia. To defend
this city, then the seat of government, General Wash
ington interposed his army of about 11,000 men, and
encountered the enemy on the Brandywine on the nth
of September. Overpowered by superior numbers, the
Americans retreated, having lost about 900 killed and
wounded. Among the wounded of this day was the
Marquis de La Fayette. A few days after this battle
the British army occupied Philadelphia. On the 4th of
October the Americans attacked the British army at
liamsburg on the 1st of August, 1773, and, asserting the
right of the colonies to self-government, resolved that
taxation and representation were inseparable. This
convention chose Washington, Patrick Henry, and five
others, to represent Virginia in the General Congress
which met at Philadelphia in September, 1774. Patrick
Henry being asked, after the end of the first session,
whom he considered the greatest man in Congress,
replied, " If you speak of solid information and sound
judgment, Colonel Washington is unquestionably the
greatest man on that floor."
Hitherto, Washington and the other leading patriots
had not aimed at independence or separation from the
mother-country ; but the battle or massacre of Lexington,
April 19, 1775, became the signal of a general deter
mination to resist by arms the tyranny of the British
government.
On the I5th of June, 1775, he was unanimously elected
by the Continental Congress commander-in-chief of all
the forces. Before he could take command of the army,
occurred the important battle of Bunker Hill, June 17,
1775, the result of which was that the British remained
masters of the field, but lost about 1050 men, while the
Americans lost only 449 killed, wounded, and prisoners.
On the 2cl of July, General Washington assumed com
mand of the army at Cambridge, Massachusetts, amount
ing to about 15,000 men, and engaged in the siege of
Boston, which was occupied by 11,000 British veterans.
General Washington applied himself to the organization
of his troops, whom he found undisciplined and nearly
destitute of powder and other materials of war. The
difficulty of his situation was increased by the fact that
the Continental Congress was very deficient in all the
attributes of an efficient government, and was almost
destitute of money and credit. While the main army
was besieging Boston, Generals Montgomery and Arnold,
about the end of 1775, invaded Canada, and attacked
Quebec, but were not successful. On the I7th or i8th
of March, 1776, the British army evacuated Boston, and
escaped on their fleet, which sailed thence to Halifax.
Congress passed a vote of thanks to the commander-in-
chief for his services and success in this siege. General
Washington moved his army from Boston to New York,
where he arrived in April, and awaited the approach of
the enemy, who were moving by the sea towards that
objective point. In the mean time the Declaration of
Independence was signed by Congress, July 4, 1776.
The opposing forces next met at the battle of Long
Island, where the Americans were defeated by General
Howe, August 27, and lost nearly 2000 men. In conse
quence of this victory, the British took the city of New
York, and General Washington was compelled to retreat
wounded. In the mean time General Burgoyne and
General Gates had fought an indecisive battle at Still-
water, New York, September 19, and General Stark had
gained a victory at Bennington. On the 7th of October,
'777. General Gates, at the second battle of Still water,
defeated General Burgoyne, who, on the 171)1 of that
month, surrendered his army of about 6000 men, at
Saratoga. This victory was one of the most important
events of the war, as it not only inspired the people
with confidence, but induced the French government to
become the ally of the United States in the war against
Great Britain.
In December, 1777, General Washington went into
winter quarters at Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill River,
where his men suffered great hardships and distress
for want of clothing, etc. General Henry Clinton, who
had been appointed commander-in-chief in the place
of General Howe, evacuated Philadelphia in Tune, and
moved his army through New Jersey towards New York.
General Washington pursued and attacked him on the
28th of June, 1778, at Monmouth Court-House. After an
indecisive battle, in which the Americans lost 69 killed
and about 160 wounded, General Clinton continued his
march to New York. Congress expressed their satisfac
tion with General Washington's conduct in this action
by a unanimous vote of thanks. Hitherto the opera
tions of the British armies had been directed against
the Northern and Middle States ; but in 1779 no great
battle was fought in this portion of the republic. About
the end of 1778, General Sir Henry Clinton sent to
Georgia a body of troops, who captured Savannah in
December and made themselves masters of the prov
ince. The chief command of the Southern American
army was given to General Lincoln, who, aided by the
French fleet, attacked Savannah in September, 1779,
but was repulsed.
The army of General Washington passed the winter
of 1779-80 near Morristown, New Jersey. Early in
1780 Sir Henry Clinton transferred his main army, by
sea, from New York to South Carolina, and besieged
Charleston, which General Lincoln defended for several
weeks, but was compelled to surrender in May. Sir
Henry Clinton, leaving Lord Cornwallis in command
in the Carolinas, returned to New York in June, 1780.
In the same month Congress appointed General Gates
commander of the Southern department. This general
was signally defeated by Lord Cornwallis at Camden,
August 16, and was compelled to retreat to North Caro
lina. During the year 1780 the commander-in-chief was
obliged to remain on the defensive, in consequence of
the weakness and destitution of his army. The exhaus
tion of the public treasury, and the depreciation of the
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon;
WASHINGTON
2237
WASHINGTON
currency, were such that he found great difficulty in
obtaining food or clothing for his soldiers. In July, 1780,
a French fleet arrived at Newport, Rhode Island, with
an army of 6000 men, which the French government
had sent to aid the Americans. While the people were
anticipating great advantages from the combined efforts
of the French and American armies, treason was in the
camp and plotting the ruin of the cause of freedom.
Benedict Arnold, who commanded the important fortress
of West Point, made arrangements to betray that place
into the power of Sir Henry Clinton. In consequence
of the capture of Major Andre, in September, the plot
was detected and frustrated. (See ANDR^, JOHN.)
[n a letter addressed by General Washington to Con
gress in August, 1780, he urged the necessity of forming
an army by drafting men tor three years or during the
war, and added, " Had we formed a permanent army in
the beginning, which, by the continuance of the same
men in service, had been capable of discipline, we never
should have had to retreat with a handful of men across
the Delaware in 1776, trembling for the fate of America,
which nothing but the infatuation of the enemy could
have saved ; . . . we should not have been under the
necessity of fighting at Brandywine with an unequal ,
number of raw troops, and afterwards of seeing Phila- •
clelphia fall a prey to a victorious army; we should not |
have been at Valley Forge with less than half the force j
of the enemy, — destitute of everything. — in a situation |
neither to resist nor to retire." In November, 1780, j
General Gates was removed from the command of the I
Southern army by Congress, which requested Wash- I
ington to appoint a general in his place. He selected
General Greene, whom he commended to Congress |
as "an officer in whose abilities, fortitude, and integ- j
rity he had the most entire confidence." The army |
of which Greene took command at Charlotte, North
Carolina, did not much exceed 2200 men, more than !
half of whom were militia. In December, 1780, the
army which General Washington commanded in person
retired into winter quarters, the Pennsylvania troops !
being stationed at Morristown, and another part of the
army on the Hudson River, near West Point. In Jan
uary, 1781, a thousand or more of the Pennsylvanians
mutinied, and marched towards Philadelphia to demand
a redress of their grievances from Congress. This
mutiny was suppressed by mild measures, and by satis
fying the claims — which were not unreasonable — of the
mutineers. The Articles of Confederation between the
States were ratified in February, 1781.
The principal military operations of 1781 were con
fined to the Southern States. On the lyth of January
General Morgan gained at Cowpens, South Carolina, a
complete victory over Colonel Tarleton, who lost about
900 killed, wounded, and prisoners. The whole loss
of the victors was not more than 80. Compelled to
retire before superior numbers, General Greene made
a rapid retreat from the Catawba to the Dan River, and
was closely pursued by Lord Cornwallis. His force
having been increased to about 4^00 men, General j
Greene resolved to risk a battle, and met the enemy '
on the 1 5th of March at Guilford Court-House, North ,
Carolina. In this battle the British gained some ad
vantage, but their loss was severe, and the retiring
Americans were not pursued. In April, 1781, Lord
Cornwallis began to march to Virginia, and General
Greene moved his force into South Carolina. On the
8th of September General Greene defeated the enemy at
Eutaw Springs, and took 500 prisoners. In the spring
of 1781 a force of about 3000 men, under General La
Fayette, was sent to defend Virginia. He conducted a
campaign against Lord Cornwallis, but neither of these
commanders gained any decisive advantage. Lord
Cornwallis collected his troops at Yorktown, Virginia,
where he constructed fortifications. Early in September
a French fleet of twenty-eight ships, commanded by
Count De Grasse, arrived in Chesapeake Bay, and about
the same time General Washington moved the combined
American and French armies from New York to Vir
ginia. He began the siege of Yorktown on the 28th of
September, with an army estimated at 15,000 men, and
Lord Cornwallis, on the igth of October, surrendered
his whole army of 7000 men. This victory was one of
the most important events of the war, and was the sub
ject of enthusiastic rejoicing among the Americans.
In consequence of a general persuasion that peace
was at hand, there was no vigorous prosecution of the
war in 1782. On the 3d of September, 1783, a definitive
treaty of peace was signed in Paris, by which the British
government recognized the independence of the United
States. General Washington resigned his commission
to Congress, December 23, 1783, and retired to private
life, follosved by the enthusiastic love and admiration of
his countrymen. He passed the ensuing years at Mount
Vernon, and resumed his former pursuits of agriculture,
etc. Mean while, 'the form of confederation which had
been adopted by the States in 1781 was found to be
more and more inefficient and impotent. In a letter to
James Warren, of Massachusetts, General Washington
wrote, "The Confederation appears to me to be little
more than a shadow without the substance, and Con
gress a nugatory body. . . . From the high ground on
which we stood, we are descending into the vale of con
fusion and darkness." To rescue the nation from this
state of anarchy and degradation, a National Convention
met at Philadelphia in May, 1787. General Washington
was unanimously elected president of this Convention,
which, after a session of several months, adopted a new
Constitution, that greatly increased the power of the
Federal government. He was elected, without opposi
tion, President of the United States for four years from
the 4th of March, 1789. Before the election he wrote
to Alexander Hamilton, "If I should be prevailed upon
to accept it, [the Presidency,] the acceptance would be
attended with more diffidence and reluctance than ever
I experienced before in my life." He was inaugurated
on the 3Oth of April, in New York, and delivered in the
Senate-chamber an inaugural address to both Houses
of Congress. In this address he affirmed that " the
preservation of the sacred fire of liberty and the destiny
of the republican model of government are justly con
sidered as deeply, perhaps as FINALLY, staked on the
experiment intrusted to the hands of the American
people.'' He appointed Thomas Jefferson secretary of
state, Alexander Hamilton secretary of the treasury,
General Henry Knox secretary of war, and Edmund
Randolph attorney-general. Among the difficulties
encountered by the President were the deplorable con
dition of the finances and the opposition of a powerful
party which disapproved the Federal Constitution and
asserted the sovereignty of the States. In January, 1790,
Hamilton presented to Congress an able report on the
public credit and a plan for the support of the same.
The results of this financial policy were the speedy
restoration of the public credit and the revival of trade
and other departments of industry. The people became
divided into two great parties, called Federalists and
Republicans, (or Democrats,) the latter of which insisted
on State rights and wished to reduce the power of the
Federal government. Although Washington was not
formally committed to either party, his principles and
measures were such as necessarily connected him with
the Federalists. A great excitement was caused by the
French Revolution, in relation to which the Federalists
and Democrats differed widely. The latter party, of
which Jefferson was the leader, desired that the United
States should aid the French in the war against Great
Britain, while the Federalists advocated the policy of
strict neutrality.
In 1792 Washington was again unanimously elected
President, and John Adams, a Federalist, was re-elected
Vice-President, receiving seventy-seven electoral votes,
while his opponent, George Clinton, a Democrat, re
ceived fifty votes. During his second term of office
the President resided at Philadelphia, which was then
the seat of government. In April, 1793, he issued a
proclamation of neutrality, (between the British and the
French,) which gave great offence to the Republicans.
"The proclamation," says Irving, "was stigmatized as a
royal edict and a daring assumption of power."
M. Genet, the ambassador of the French republic,
arrived at Charleston, South Carolina, in April, and
issued commissions for privateers, which captured seve-
« as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as 2; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
WASHINGTON
2238
WASHINGTON
ral British vessels. The official communications of
Genet became so offensive and insulting to the Presi
dent that the American minister to France was in
structed to desire his recall. Jefferson, having failed in
his efforts to eject his rival Hamilton from the cabinet,
resigned the office of secretary of state in December,
1793, and was succeeded by Edmund Randolph, the
former attorney-general. When the new Congress met,
in December, 1793, it was found that the opponents
of the administration had a majority in the House of
Representatives. The perplexity of the President was
increased by the fact that American vessels had been
captured by British cruisers, which inflamed the popular
heart and reinforced the party which opposed neutrality.
Resolving to prevent a war, if possible, by negotia
tions, the President sent John Jay as a special envoy to
England, (April, 1794.) " Scarcely has any public act
of the President," says Marshall, "drawn upon his ad
ministration a greater degree of censure than this." In
January, 1794, the office of secretary of the treasury was
resigned by Mr. Hamilton, " who had wasted in the public
service a great part of the property acquired by his
previous labours." (Marshall.) General Knox having
also resigned his place in the cabinet, Timothy Picker
ing was appointed secretary of war, and Oliver Wolcott
secretary of the treasury. Mr. Jay negotiated a treaty,
which was signed November 19, 1794, and presented to
the United States Senate for ratification in June, 1795.
This treaty was vehemently opposed and denounced by
the Democrats and those who were most partial to the
French revolutionists; but it was finally approved by
the Senate, and signed by the President, August 18,
1795. After the question had been decided, the voice
of faction continued to assail the President. " His
military and political character," says Marshall, "was
attacked with equal violence, and it was averred that
he was totally destitute of merit either as a soldier or
a statesman."
In 1795, Timothy Pickering was appointed secretary
of state, in the place of Edmund Randolph, who had
resigned. In March, 1796, the House of Representatives
passed a resolution requesting the President to lay
before that House a copy of the instructions given to
Mr. Jay, together with the documents relative to the
treaty with Great Britain. He declined to comply with
their request, affirming that it would establish a dan
gerous precedent to admit the right of the House to
demand the papers respecting a foreign negotiation.
When La Fayette was confined in the dungeon of
Olmiitz, General Washington wrote a private letter to
the Emperor of Germany, and entreated him to release
that captive.
Although the people generally wished to elect Gene
ral Washington for a third term, he announced his
determination to retire from public life at the end of his
second term. He also issued a " Farewell Address to
the People of the United States," which, having been
revised by Alexander Hamilton, appeared in Septem
ber, 1796, and produced a deep impression. In this
address he insisted on the vast importance of union as
"a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence ;
the support of your tranquillity at home ; your peace
abroad ; of your safety ; of your prosperity ; of that
very liberty which you so highly prize. But, as it is
easy to foresee that much pains will be taken, many
artifices employed, to weaken in your minds the convic
tion of this truth ; as this is the point in your political
fortress against which the batteries of internal and ex
ternal enemies will be most constantly and actively
(though often covertly and insidiously) directed, it is of
infinite moment that you should properly estimate the
immense value of your national union to your collect
ive and individual happiness." He also advised the
people to have as little political connection as possible
with foreign nations, and to "steer clear of permanent
alliances with any portion of the foreign world."
On the 7th of December, 1796, the President met for
the last time the Houses of Congress, to which he made
a dignified address. His official career terminated March
4, 1797, and he then retired to Mount Vernon, leaving
the nation in a state of great prosperity. The capture
of American vessels by French cruisers led to hostilities
between the United States and France, although there
was no formal declaration of war. In this emergency,
the government of the United States raised an army of
about 10,000 men, of which General Washington was
appointed commander-in-chief, July, 1798. He accepted
this appointment on the condition that Colonel Hamil
ton should be the second in command. The selection
of Hamilton as second in command was also desired by
the public, but was not in accordance with the will of
President Adams, who, however, finally assented. Be
fore the question of war or peace had been decided,
Washington died, without issue, at Mount Vernon, after
a short illness, on the 141)1 of December, 1799. A few
hours before his death, he said, " I look to the event with
perfect resignation." His disease was acute laryngitis.
On learning the death of Washington, the House of
Representatives resolved, "That a committee be ap
pointed to consider the most suitable manner of paying
honour to the memory of the MAN first in war, first in
peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen."*
General Washington had inherited a number of slaves,
whom he emancipated by his last will. In a letter to
Mr. Morris, in 1786, he said, "There is not a man living
who wishes more sincerely than I do, to see a plan
adopted for the abolition of slavery."
In stature General Washington was six feet and two
inches high, with a frame well proportioned and firmly
knit. His hair was brown, his eyes blue and far apart.
He was remarkable from boyhood for his great physical
strength. It is related that in his youth he threw a
stone across the Rappahannock opposite his father's
house, — a feat which has never, it is said, been performed
by any one since that time. When young, he was ever
foremost among his companions in all athletic sports,
and was especially distinguished as a skilful and fearless
horseman.! He was scrupulously attentive to his dress
and personal appearance. His manner, though gentle
and gracious, was in public characterized by a certain
military dignity and reserve, lie was proverbial for
punctuality as well as for truthfulness.
In the whole history of mankind, few, if any, great
men will be found more worthy of our heartfelt esteem
and admiration than Washington. Without any of the
dazzling gifts of genius, without perhaps possessing
talents of the very highest order, yet his various powers
were so admirably proportioned and adjusted to each
other, so under the control of lofty moral principle and
a high heroic will, which neither the extremity of peril
or disaster, the fiercest blasts of obloquy, nor the seduc
tions of ambition had power to shake, that, though he
may have been surpassed by many in some single point,
if we consider his character as a whole, we shall scarcely
find his equal, and shall search in vain for his superior.
One result of the admirable equipoise and harmony of
his powers was a wisdom of the rarest order. It is well
known that wisdom is not the product of one or two
faculties, but the combined result of many, including
the moral as well as intellectual. Napoleon, with all
his transcendent genius, was in wisdom far inferior to
Washington. No man of his day more clearly foresaw
the future dangers to which our country would be ex
posed, or showed more distinctly and forcibly how they
were to be avoided, than Washington. And of all men
that ever lived, he may be said to have most truly and
fully merited the glorious title of " Pater Patriae," the
" Father of his Country."
His great rival Jefferson, who differed from him widely
on questions of state policy and other points, bears the
following testimony to his character: "His integrity
was the most pure, his justice the most inflexible, I have
ever known, — no motives of interest or consanguinity,
* The original form of this celebrated expression was, " first in
rar, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his fellow-citizens." In
the funeral oration pronounced by General Lee, the word " country-
nen" was substituted for "fellow-citizens," as being both shorter
and more euphonious ; and with this change the passage is commonly
quoted.
t "His person," says Jefferson, "was fine, his stature exactly
what one would wish, his deportment easy, erect, and noble ; the
)est horseman of his age, and the most graceful figure that could be
seen, on horseback." (Tucker's "Life of Jefferson.")
a, e, T, o, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, \\, v, short: a, e, i, o. obscure; far. fall, fat: m§t: not; good: moon;
WASHINGTON
2239
WATH1EZ
of friendship or hatred, being able to bias his decision.
He was indeed, in every sense of the word, a wise,
a good, and a great man. His temper was naturally
irritable and high-toned ; but reflection and resolution
had obtained a firm and habitual ascendency over it."
(Tucker's " Life of Jefferson.")
" In him," says Marshall, " that innate and unassuming
modesty which adulation would have offended, which the
voluntary plaudits of millions could not betray into in
discretion, was happily blended with a high and correct
sense of personal dignity, and with a just consciousness
of that respect which is due to station."
"How grateful," says Lord Brougham, "the relief
which the friend of mankind, the lover of virtue, experi
ences, when, turning from the contemplation of such a
character, [Napoleon I.,] his eye rests upon the greatest
man of our own or of any age ! ... It will be the duty
of the historian and the sage, in all ages, to omit no
occasion of commemorating this illustrious man ; and
until time shall be no more will a test of the progress
which our race has made in wisdom and virtue be de
rived from the veneration paid to the immortal name of
Washington." ("Edinburgh Review" for October, 1838.)
See JOHN' MARSHALL, "Life of George Washington." 5 vo's.,
1804-07; WASHINGTON IRVING, "Life of George Washington," 5
vols., 1855-59: JARED SPARKS, "The Life and Writings of George
Washington: being his Correspondence, Messages." etc.,* 12 vols.
8vo, 1833-40; J. K. PATLDING, " Life of G. Washington," 2 vols.,
1835 ; F. GUIZOT, " Essai snr la Vie du General Washington," 1839 ;
Louis DE FONTANES, " E°loge de Washington," i^oo ; A. BANCROFT,
"Essay on the Life of G. Washington." 1807: J \MES MADISON,
"Discourse on the Death of General Washington." i^'oo: FISHER
AMES, "Oration on the Sublime Virtues of Washington." iSoo;
WKKMS, "Life of G. Washington." i«o;: D. R \MSAY, "Life of G.
Washington," 1*07; EDUARD GEHE, " Leben Washington's," '838:
F. GrizoT, "Washington: Fondation de la R"nnbliqne dts E~tats-
Unis," etc., 2 vols., 1850; J. T. HEADLEY. 'Washington and his
Generals," 2 vols., 1847; PBTER PARLEY, " Life of Washington."
1837 : BANCROFT. " History of the United States ;" GOSCH, " Wash
ington mid die Befreinng der Nordatneri'r<ani*chen Freistaaten," 3
vols., 1815. See, also, the interesting article on Washington in the
"New American Cyclopaedia, " (by EDWARD EVERETT.)
Washington, wosl/ing-ton, (Captain JOHN,) R.N.,
an English officer and hydrographer. He served in
the American war of 1812, and rose through several
promotions to the rank of commander in 1833. Being
appointed in 1841 to continue the survey of the North
Sea, he examined that part of it lying between lati
tude 52° 10' and the coast of the Netherlands. He was
made post-captain in 1842, and hydrographer to the
admiralty in 1855. He has also been elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a "Geo
graphical Notice of the Empire of Marocco," and other
treatises, in the "Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society."
Washington, (Jon\ A.,) proprietor of Mount Ver-
ivm, Virginia. He was taken prisoner by Captain John
Brown near Harper's Ferry, October 16, 1859. He
took arms against the Union, became a colonel, and !
was killed on Cheat Mountain in September, 1861.
Washington, (WILLIAM AUGUSTINE,) an American j
officer of the Revolution, born in Stafford county, Vir
ginia, in 1752, was a relative of General Washington,
lie was present at the battles of Trenton and Princeton,
commanded the cavalry at Cowpens, and was made a
brigadier-general in 1798. Died in 1810.
Wasmuth, was'moot, (MATTHIAS,) a German Orien
talist, born at Kiel in 1625. He became professor of
Oriental languages at Kiel, and published, besides other
works, an Arabic Grammar, (1654.) Died in 1688.
Wasse, w6ss, (JOSEPH,) an English scholar, born in
Vorkshire in 1672, became rector of Aynhoe. He pub
lished an edition of Sallust, (1710,) and wrote several |
essays on various subjects. Bentley is reported to have I
said, "When I am dead, Wasse will be the most learned :
man in England." Died in 1738.
Wassenaer, van, vtn was'seh-nSR.', (GERARD,) a
Dutch jurist, born at Utrecht in 1585 ; died in 1664.
Wassenaer, van, (TACOH,) a Dutch admiral, born |
about 1610. He succeeded Van Tromp as commander
of the fleet in 1653, and was killed in a battle against
the English in 1665.
Wassenberg or Wassenbergh, von, fon was'sen-
G, (EvERARD,) a German historian, born at Emme
rich in 1610. He published " Florus Germanicus,"
(1640,) which treats of the wars waged by Ferdinand II.
and Ferdinand III. from 1627 to 1640. Died after 1672.
See CRANE, "Vita E. van Wassenbergh," 1828.
Wassian. See VASIAN.
Wast or Waast, wflst or vast, [Lat. VEDAS'TUS,]
SAINT, a French ecclesiastic, who became Bishop of
Arras about 500 A.n. Died in 540.
See AI.CUIN, " Vitn Vedasti ;" GAZET, "Vie de Saint-Wast,"
1622.
Wastelain, vts'teh-laN', ? (CHARLES,) a Belgian his
torian and Jesuit, born in Hainault in 1695. He pub
lished a " Description of Belgian Gaul in Three Ages of
History," (1761.) Died in 1782.
Wateau. See WATTEAU.
Watelet, vit'li', (CLAUDE HENRI,) a French ama
teur artist and writer upon art, was born in Paris in
1718. He was the author of a didactic poem, entitled
"The Art of Painting," (" L'Art de Peindre," 1760,)
"Essay on Gardens," (1774,) and "Dictionary of the
Arts of Painting, Sculpture, and Engraving." (5 vols.,
1792.) The last-named work was completed by M.
Levesque. Watelet etched a number of portraits and
other pieces of great excellence. In 1760 he was ad
mitted into the French Academy. He was identified
with the philosophic party, and contributed to the "En
cyclopedic'1 of Diderot. Died in 1786.
See MARMONTEL, " Memoires ;" MOREI.LET, "Memoires."
Watelet, (Louis ETIENNE,) a French landscape-
painter, born in Paris in 1780. He painted French,
Italian, and Belgian scenery. He gained a first medal
in 1819.
Wa'ter-house, (BENJAMIN,) M.D., an American
physician, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1754,
studied at London and Edinburgh, and graduated at
Leyden. After his return he became professor of the
theory and practice of physic in the medical school of
Harvard College, continuing to fill this post for thirty
years. Died at Cambridge in 1846.
Wa'ter-house, (EDWARD,) an English writer, born
in 1619. He published "An Apology for Learning and
Learned Men," and other works. Died in 1670.
Wa'ter-laiid, (DANIEL,) D.D., an English theolo
gian, born in Lincolnshire in 1683. He studied at Mag
dalene College, Cambridge, and subsequently became
one of the chaplains-iii-ordinary to George I. He was
engaged in a controversy with Dr. Clarke and other
champions of the Arian party, and published " A Vin
dication of Christ's Divinity," "Critical History of the
Athanasian Creed," " Scripture Vindicated," etc., and
other works. He became Archdeacon of Middlesex in
1730. Died in 1740.
See BISHOP VAN MM.IJERT, "Life of Waterland," prefixed to his
works.
Waterloo, waw'ter-loo', [Dutch pron. wa'ter-15',]
(ANTONI,) an eminent Dutch landscape-painter and
engraver, born near Utrecht about 1618. His etchings
are numerous, and are ranked among the best works
of the kind. Died in 1662.
See CHARLES BLANC, "Histoire des Peintres."
Wa'ter-ton, (CHARLES,) an English naturalist and
traveller, born about 1782. He visited South America
in the early part of his life, and published in 1825
" Wanderings in South America, the Northwest of the
United States, and the Antilles." He also wrote
" Essays on Natural History." Died in 1865.
See "Charles Waterton, his Home, Habits." etc., London, 1866:
" Edinburgh Review" for February, 1826, (bv SYDNEY SMITH :)
"London Magazine" for March, 1826; " Fraser's Magazine" for
December, 1857.
Wathek-Billah, Al, il wa'thek bil'lah. written also
Vathek and Wathik, (Aboo Jaafar Haroon, (or
Harun,) a'boo ji'a-far ha'roon',) an Abbasside Caliph
of Bagdad, was born in 811 A.n. He succeeded his
father, Motassem, in 842, and endeavoured to maintain
the literary splendour which had distinguished the reigns
of his predecessors; but he is censured for cruelty and
intolerance. Died in 847 A.n.
See WEIL, "Geschichte der Chalifen."
W?'.hiez, vi'te-a', (FRANCOIS ISIDORE,) VICOMTE, a
French general, bom at Versailles in 1777. He served
€ as K: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, n -s^l: R, trilled; s as z: th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
W ATKINS
2240
WATT
as captain at Austerlitz (1805) and Jena, (1806.) and
became a general of brigade in 1813. Died in 1855.
Watkins, wSt'kinz, (CHARLES FREDERICK,) an Eng
lish clergyman, born in Wiltshire about 1795. He pub
lished several poems, an " Introduction to Geology,"
and other works.
Watkiiison, w6t'kin-son, (DAVID,) born in Suffolk,
England, in 1778, emigrated to America, and acquired a
large fortune by merchandise at Hartford, Connecticut.
He died in 1857, leaving $40,000 to found a juvenile
asylum and farm school for neglected children, $100,000
for a library in connection with the Historical Society
of Connecticut, and other munificent bequests.
Wats, wots, (GILBERT,) an English translator, born
in Yorkshire about 1600, became a Fellow of Lincoln
College, Oxford. He translated Davila's "History of
the Civil Wars of France" and Lord Bacon's " De
Augmentis Scientiarum." Died in 1657.
Watson, wSt'son, (CAROLINE,) a skilful English en
graver, born in London about 1760. She engraved
many portraits. Died about 1812.
Watson, (CHARLES,) an English admiral, born in
1714. He served with distinction against the Spaniards
in the campaigns of 1744 and 1747, and was made rear-
admiral of the blue in 1748. He accompanied Colonel
Clive to India in 1754, and had a prominent part in the
capture of Chandernagore, in 1757. Died the same year.
Watson, wSt'son, (DAVID,) a Scottish classical
scholar, born in 1710. He produced a prose transla
tion of Horace. Died in 1756.
Watson, wfit'son, (ELKANAH,) a merchant, born at
Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1758. He resided many
years at Albany, and distinguished himself by promoting
various public works, and by his efforts in the cause of
education. He was the founder of the first agricultural
society in the State of New York. He wrote memoirs
entitled "Men and Times of the Revolution," (1856.)
Died in 1842.
Watson, (HENRY,) COLONEL, a British military
engineer and mathematician, born in Lincolnshire in
1737. He accompanied Lord Clive to India, and gained
distinction as chief engineer in Bengal and Orissa. He
died in England in 1786, or, as some say, in 1780.
Watsoii, (HEWETT C.,) an English botanist, born in
Yorkshire about 1804. He gained distinction as a
writer on botany, etc. Among his works is an able
treatise on the geographical distribution of plants, en
titled "Cybele Britannica," (3 vols. 8vo, 1847-55.)
Watson, (JAMES,) a Scottish printer, born at Aber
deen about 1675. He published a newspaper in Edin
burgh, a " History of the Art of Printing," and a Bible,
(1715,) remarkable for the beauty of the typography.
Died in 1722.
Watson, (JoHN,) REV., an English historian, born in
Cheshire in 1724, became rector of Stockport. His chief
work is a " History of Halifax," (1775.) Died in 1783.
Watson, (JoHN,) M.D., a distinguished physician,
born at Londonderry, Ireland, in 1807. Having emigrated
to America, he became in 1833 one of the physicians of
the New York Dispensary, lie was one of the founders
of the American Medical Association and of the New
York Academy of Medicine, and has published a num
ber of medical works.
Watson, (JoHN FANNING,) an American antiquary
and historical writer, born in Burlington county, New
Jersey, in 1780. He published "Annals of Philadelphia,"
(1830,) "Historic Tales of the Olden Times in New
York," (1832,) and other similar works. He resided for
many years in Philadelphia. Died in 1860.
Watson, (RICHARD,) D.D., an English divine and
miscellaneous writer, born in Westmoreland in 1737.
He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, as a sizar in
1754, and in 1767 was appointed one of the head tutors.
Having taken his degree of M.A., he was chosen in 1764
to succeed Dr. Hadley as professor of chemistry, and
in 1771 became regius professor of theology. He rose
through various minor preferments to be Bishop of
Llandaff in 1782. He had already published several
works of a political nature, one of which was entitled
"The Principles of the Revolution Vindicated." His
"Letter to Archbishop Cornwallis on the Church Reve
nues" came out in 1783. Among his other writings
may be named his " Apology for Christianity, in a Series
of Letters addressed to Edward Gibbon, Esq.," (1776,)
" An Apology for the Bible," (1796,) in answer to Thomas
Paine, "Chemical Essays," and "Miscellaneous Tracts
on Religious, Political, and Agricultural Subjects," (1815.)
Died in 1816.
See "Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson, Bishop of
Llandaff." by himself: AI.I.IBONE, " Dictionary of Authors ;" " Edin
burgh Review" tor June, 1818 ; "London Quarterly Review" for
October, 1817 ; "Monthly Review" lor February and March, iSiS.
Watson, (RICHARD,) an English Methodist divine,
born at Barton-upon-Humber in 1781, was appointed in
1817 one of the secretaries of the Missionary Society.
He published " A Defence of the Wesleyan Methodist
Missions in the West Indies," "Theological Institutes,"
etc., " Biblical and Theological Dictionary," and other
works. Died in 1833.
See " Life of Richard Watson," by T. JACKSON.
"Watson, (RoHERT,) a Scottish historian, born at
Saint Andrew's in 1730. He studied at Glasgow and
Edinburgh, and became in 1777 principal of the united
colleges of Saint Leonard and Saint Salvador at Saint
Andrew's. He published the same year a good " His
tory of Philip II. of Spain," which enjoyed considerable
popularity for a time; but it has been eclipsed by the
more elaborate works of Motley and Prescott. He died
in 1780, leaving an unfinished "History of Philip III."
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen :"
AI.I.IBONK, " Dictionary of Authors ;" " Monthly Review" for April,
'777-
Watson, (THOMAS,) an English nonconformist min
ister, became rector of Saint Stephen's, Walbrook, Lon
don, in 1646. He was ejected about 1662, after which
he preached occasionally. He wrote, besides other
works, a "Body of Divinity," (1692.) Died about 1690.
Watson, (THOMAS,) an English bishop and Roman
Catholic. He was appointed Bishop of Lincoln in 1557,
but on the accession of Elizabeth he was imprisoned.
He died in prison in 1582.
Watson, (Sir WILLIAM,) F.R.S., an English phy
sician and botanist, born in London in 1715- He ob
tained the Copley medal in 1745 for his discoveries in
electricity. He contributed to the " Philosophical Trans
actions." Died in 1787.
Watson, (WILLIAM,) an English Catholic priest,
who formed a conspiracy against James I. in the early
part of his reign. He was convicted of high treason
and executed in 1603.
See GARDINKR, " History of England from 1603 to 1616," vol. i.
chap. ii.
"Watson, (WILLIAM R.,) an American political writer,
born in Rhode Island in 1799. He was an active Whig
politician. Died at Providence in 1864.
Watt, wdt, (GREGORY,) a British geologist, born in
1777, was a son of the celebrated James Watt. He be
came a partner in the firm of Boulton & Watt in 1794,
after which he studied in the University of Glasgow.
Having been advised by a physician to pass the winter
in the west of England for the benefit of his health,
he repaired in 1797 to Penzance, where he formed an
intimacy with Humphry Davy. He wrote, in 1804,
"Observations on Basalt, and on the Transition from
the Vitreous to the Stony Texture which occurs in
the Gradual Refrigeration of Melted Basalt." Died in
October, 1804.
Watt, (JAMES,) a Scottish engineer, philosopher, and
inventor of great merit and celebrity, was born at Green-
ock, on the Clyde, on the igth of January, 1736. He
was a son of James Watt, merchant, builder, and ship-
chandler. His mother's name was Agnes Mtiirhead or
Muirheid. Being a child of delicate constitution, he was
educated mostly at home. His favourite studies and
pursuits were the experimental sciences and practical
mechanics. Having adopted the trade of maker of
mathematical instruments, he went to London in 1755
and served an apprenticeship of one year with John
Morgan. In 1756 he returned to Scotland, with the
intention to settle at Glasgow ; but, as he was not a bur
gess, the corporation of arts and trades would not permit
him to open a workshop in that city. The professors of
the University of Glasgow then offered him a place of
a, e, i, 6, ii, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged: a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
2241
WATT
business within their precincts, and gave him the title
of mathematical instrument maker to the University.
He employed his evenings in the profound study of
various sciences, learned most of the modern languages
of Europe, and formed intimate friendships with Robi-
son, Black, and other professors at Glasgow. In 1764
he married his cousin, Miss Miller, and, as his wife was
the daughter of a burgess, he was then permitted to open
a shop in Glasgow.
About 1764 he was employed to repair a model of
Newcomen's steam-engine which was used in the class
room of the university, and perceived defects in it which
induced him to make experiments on the application of
steam-power. He discovered that water, when converted
into steam, is expanded to eighteen hundred times its
bulk. He ascertained that in the " atmospheric" engine
of Xewcomen there was a great waste of the steam which
was condensed by the injection of cold water into the
cylinder, and that to prevent this waste the cylinder
must be continually kept as hot as the steam which enters
it. In 1765 the fortunate idea occurred to him of con
densing the steam in a separate vessel, which should be
exhausted of air and always kept cool. "This capital
improvement," says Dr. Black, " flashed on his mind at
once, and filled him with rapture." (" History of Mr.
Watt's Improvement of the Steam-Engine.") Another
improvement which he invented about this time was the
use of the expansive force of steam to depress the piston,
instead of the pressure of the atmosphere.
He ceased to make mathematical instruments in 1768,
after which he pursued the business of land-surveyor and
civil engineer. He obtained a patent for his invention in
January, 1769, and was supplied with some capital requi
site to reduce his improvements to practice, by Dr. John
Roebuck, who had a share in the patent. Before Watt
could realize any profit from his new engine, Dr. Roe
buck became insolvent, or so embarrassed that he could
not advance any more funds. In a letter dated August,
1772, Watt writes, "I pursued my experiments till I
found that the expense and loss of time lying wholly
upon me, through the distress of Dr. Roebuck's situa
tion, turned out to be a greater burthen than I could
support, and I was obliged for a time to abandon my
project. Notwithstanding my natural despondence, I am
convinced that the machine may be made to answer in a
very considerable degree, and in more forms than one,
but that I am by no means the proper person to carry it
into execution."
Watt was employed as surveyor or engineer in the
construction of several canals, bridges, and other works
in Scotland during the period from 1769 to 1773. Roe
buck, who had advanced £1000 to the inventor, trans
ferred in 1774 his share in the patent (i.e. two-thirds) to
Matthew Boulton, of Soho, an enterprising man of busi
ness, who entered into partnership with Watt for the
manufacture of steam-engines at Soho, near Birmingham.
Boulton and Watt applied to Parliament for an ex
tension of the term of their patent, and obtained the
exclusive right to make and vend the new engine for a
term of twenty-five years, (1775-1800.) A great saving
of fuel was effected by the improvements of Watt, whose
engines were soon extensively used to pump water out
of the mines of Cornwall. In 1782 he took out a patent
for the invention of the double-acting engine, in which
the reciprocating rectilinear motion was converted into
rotatory motion.
He afterwards invented several improvements, among
which are the governor or "regulator by centrifugal
force," the mechanism of parallel motion, the throttle-
valve, and the steam barometer or float. The manufac
tory of engines at Soho was successful, and enriched
both of the partners.
In 1783 Watt made an important chemical discovery,
— the composition of water ; but the honour of this dis
covery is claimed for Cavendish by some writers. To
the substances which unite to form water, Watt applied
the terms "phlogiston" and " dephlogisticated air." Dr.
Dalton, in his "New System of Chemical Philosophy,"
(1810,) says, "The composition and decomposition of
water were ascertained, the former by Watt and Caven
dish, and the latter by Lavoisier and Meusnier." An
other eminent chemist, Dr. Henry, wrote to James
Watt, Junior, "There is no room for doubt as to your
father's priority." The honour of this discovery was
also ascribed to Watt by Sir D. Brewster, Lord Je'ffrey,
and M. Dumas. (See a review of this controversy in
an article entitled " Watt or Cavendish," by Lord Jeffrey,
in the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1848.) Watt
was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in
1785. He remained in partnership with Boulton until
1800, and then resigned his business to his two sons. In
1814 he was elected one of the eight foreign associates
of the French Institute. Having lost his first wife in
1773, he married a Miss MacGregor a few years later.
He died at Heathfield, near Birmingham, in August,
1819. In the same year Lord Jeffrey composed a eulogy
on Watt, from which we quote as follows: "By his
admirable contrivances, it [the steam-engine] has become
a thing stupendous alike for its force and its flexibility,
for the prodigious power which it can exert, and the
ease and precision and ductility with which it can be
varied, distributed, and applied. The trunk of an
elephant, that can pick up a pin or rend an oak, is as
nothing to it. It can draw out, without breaking, a
thread as fine as gossamer, and lift a ship of war like a
bauble in the air. . . . He had infinite quickness of
apprehension, a prodigious memory, and a certain recti
fying and methodizing power of understanding, which
extracted something precious out of all that was pre
sented to it. His stores of miscellaneous knowledge
were immense, and yet less astonishing than the com
mand he had at all times over them." "I look upon
him," says the poet Wordsworth, "considering both the
magnitude and the universality of his genius, as per
haps the most extraordinary man that this country ever
produced."*
See J. P. MI-IRHEAD, "Life of James Watt," 1858, and "The
Origin and Progress of the Mechanical Inventions of J. Watt, illus
trated by his Correspondence," 3 vols., 1854; F. ARAGO, "Vie de
Watt," 1838; CHAMBERS, " Rio.graphical Dictionary of Eminent
Scotsmen :" SAMI'F.I, SMH.ES, " Brief Biographies ;" LORD JF.FFRF.V,
article on Watt in the " Edinburgh Review" for 1819; DR. HOKFF.R,
article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" J. FORBF,S, "Dis
sertation" in the 8th edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica ;"
[ "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1858; "North British
I Review" for February, 1847, and May, 1855.
Watt, (JAMES,) the eldest son of the preceding, was
i born in February, 1769. He studied natural philosophy,
chemistry, and mineralogy, and learned to speak the
French language fluently. About 1790 he went to
Paris, became inflamed with enthusiasm for liberty and
equality, and took an active part in the Revolution. " He
was for some time," says Muirhead, "in company with
Thomas Cooper and Wordsworth the poet, in the habit
of associating with many of those men who afterwards
attained a dreadful celebrity, and, as Southey has men
tioned, was at that time the means of preventing a duel
between Danton and Robespierre." ("Life of James
Watt.") Robespierre having in 1792 insinuated that
Watt was an emissary of Pitt, Watt sprang on the
tribune of the Jacobin Club and defended himself in a
brief and impassioned speech, after which he instantly
quitted Paris. In 1800 he became a partner of Boulton
the younger in the manufacture of engines at Soho. Tie
rendered some services to the cause of steam-navigation
by experiments on marine engines. In 1817 he made a
voyage to Holland in the steamboat Caledonia, which
he owned, and which was the first that crossed the
Channel. He died, unmarried, at Aston Hall, in 1848.
"Watt, (JAMES HENRY,) an eminent English engraver,
born in London in 1799, was a pupil of Charles Heath.
Among his master-pieces we may name "The High
land Drover's Departure" and " Horses at the Fountain,"
after Landseer, and "Christ Blessing Little Children,"
after Eastlake. Died in 1867.
Watt, (ROBERT,) a Scottish phvsician and medical
writer, born in Ayrshire in 1774. He was president of
the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons at Glasgow,
and published, among other works, a "Treatise on the
History, Nature, and Treatment of Chin-Cough." He
also compiled the "Bibliotheca Britannica, or a General
Quoted in Muirhead's " Life of Watt."
VOISier and MeUSnier. An- * Quoted in uimrneaa s i.ue 01 wan.
€ as k; c as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal: R, trilled: s as z; th as in this. (J^='See Explanations, p. 23.)
WATTE AV
2242
WE ALE
Index to British and Foreign Literature," (4 vols., 1820.)
Died in 1819.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Watteau or Wateau, vt'to', (ANTOINK,) a French
painter, born at Valenciennes in 1684. He studied under
Gillot and Audran, and acquired great celebrity in his
peculiar department of the art. His favourite subjects
were rural festivals, balls, masquerades, and military
encampments, and in these he was perhaps unsurpassed.
Horace Walpole observes, " Watteau's shepherdesses
— nay, his very sheep — are coquet ; yet, though he fell
short of the dignified grace of the Italians, there is an
easy air in his figures, and that more familiar species of
the graceful which we call genteel." His works are very
numerous, and the greater part have been engraved.
They were greatly admired by Frederick the Great of
Prussia, and many of the best are to be seen at Berlin.
Died in 1721.
See WAI.POI.E, " Anecdotes of Painting;" LI£ON DUMONT, "An-
loine Watteau," 1866 ; A. DINAUX. " Notice sur A. Watteaii," 1834 ;
CHARI.KS KI.ANC, " Histoire des Peintres ;" " Nouvelie Biographic
Generale."
Watteville, de, deli vf t'vel', ( ADOLPHE du Grabe—
dii gi'Sb,) BARON, a French economist, born in Paris in
1799. He wrote several works on charitable institu
tions, etc.
Wattier, \-fte_-i', (CHARLES EMILE, ) a French
painter of history and genre, was born in Paris in 1800.
Watts, w6ts, (ALARIC ALEXANDER,) an English
journalist and litterateur, born in London in 1799. He
edited successively the "Leeds Intelligencer," "Man
chester Courier," "The Literary Souvenir," and "The
United Service Gazette." He also published " Lyrics
of the Heart, and other Poems," (1851.) His wife, the
sister of J. H. Wiffen, has published "The Juvenile
Poetical Library," and contributed the leUer-press to
" Hogarth's Tableaux," and other similar works. Died
in 1864.
See " Fraser's Magazine" for June, 1835.
Watts, (GEORGE FREDERICK,) an English painter,
born in London in 1820. Among his principal works
we may name his "Orlando pursuing the Fata Mor
gana," " Alfred inciting the Saxons to Maritime Enter
prise," and "The School of Legislation," a fresco, in
Lincoln's Inn.
Watts, (ISAAC,) an eminent English divine and sacred
poet, born at Southampton in 1674. He was educated
at an Independent academy in London, where he distin
guished himself by his attainments in theology, Hebrew,
logic, and Latin poetry. In 1696 he became tutor to the
son of Sir John Hartopp, at Stoke Newington, and in
1702 succeeded Dr. Chauncy as pastor of the Inde
pendent Church in Mark Lane, London. Having been
attacked with a severe illness in 1712, he was compelled
to retire for a time from his office, and, on the invitation
of Sir Thomas Abney, went to reside in his family at
Theobalds, where he remained till his death., a period
of nearly forty years. He died in 1748, and a monument
was erected over his grave by his devoted friends Sir
John Hartopp and Lady Abney. Among his principal
works we may name " Divine Songs attempted in Easy
Language for the Use of Children," (1720.) "Logic, or
the Right Use of Reason in the Inquiry after Truth,"
etc.," (1725,) "The Improvement of the Mind," (1741,)
"Three Dissertations relating to the Christian Doctrine
of the Trinity," "The Art of Reading and Writing
English," and " Horae Lyricae."
See ROBKRT SOUTHEY, "Memoir of Isaac Watts;" THOMAS
GIBHONS, " Memoirs of Isaac Watts ;" JOHNSON, " Lives of the Eng
lish Poets," vol. i. ; DRAKE, "Essays;" "North British Review"
for August, 1851.
Watts, (THOMAS,) an Englishman, born in London,
was employed many years in the British Museum, and
caused one hundred thousand volumes of American
books to be added to the library. He was appointed
keeper of the printed books of that museum in 1866.
Died in 1869.
Wat Tyler. See TYLER.
Waugh, waw, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish minister of
the United Secession Church, born in Berwickshire in
1754. He settled in London in 1782, became an elo
quent and popular minister, and preached in that city
forty-four years. Died in 1827.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Wauters, wow'ters, ? (CHARLES AUGUSTIN,) a Bel
gian painter of high reputation, was born at Boom in
1811. Among his works are "The Passage of the Red
Sea," and " Peter the Hermit preaching a Crusade." He
became a resident of Brussels.
Wawrzecki, vav-zhets'kee, (THOMAS,) COUNT, a
Polish general, succeeded Kosciusko as commander of
the army in 1794. On the capture of Warsaw by Sti-
warow, November, 1794, he retired to Sandomir, where
he was taken prisoner. He was liberated in 1797. Died
in 1816.
Way'laiid, (FRANCIS,) D.D., an eminent Baptist
divine, born in New York in March, 1796. He gradu
ated at Union College in 1813, and subsequently studied
at the Andover Theological Seminary. In 1826 he was
chosen president of Brown University at Providence,
Rhode Island. Among his principal works are "Ele
ments of Moral Science," (1835,) "Elements of Political
Economy," (1837,) "Limitations of Human Responsi
bility," (1840,) a correspondence with Dr. Fuller on the
subject of slavery, entitled "Christianity and Slavery,"
(1845,) and "Intellectual Philosophy," (1854.) Died in
1865. "I think," says R. W. G'riswoid, "that his
'Treatise on Human Responsibility' will be looked
upon as one of the great guiding monuments of human
thought in the department to which it refers."
See GKISWOI.D, "Prose Writers of America." p. 364; AI.I.IBONE,
"Dictionary of Authors;" "Memoirs of Francis Wayland," by his
sons, 1867.
Wayne, (ANTHONY,) an able American general, born
in Chester county, Pennsylvania, in January, 1745- He
followed the business of a surveyor in his youth, formed
a friendship with Dr. Franklin, and married about 1767
a Miss Penrose, of Philadelphia. He afterwards lived
on a farm in his native county, was elected a member
of the General Assembly in 1774, and was a member of
the committee of safety in 1775. In this year he raised
and disciplined a regiment, and entered the army as a
colonel. He served at the battle of Three Rivers, Canada,
in June, 1776, soon after which he took command of Fort
Ticonderoga, and was appointed a brigadier-general.
About May, 1777, ne j«med the army of Washington in
New Jersey, lie commanded a division at the battle
of Brandywine, where he distinguished himself, Sep
tember, 1777, and led the right wing at the battle of
Germantown, in October of that year. His conduct at
the battle of Monmouth (June, 1778) was commended
by General Washington. His most brilliant achieve
ment was the capture of the strong fortification of Stony
Point, on the Hudson River, which he surprised and took
by assault on the night of July 15, 1779, for which exploit
Congress gave him a vote of thanks. He was wounded
in the head in this action. He served at the battle of
Green Springs, Virginia, in July. 1780, and took part in
the capture of the British army at Yorktown, October
19, 1781. After this event he commanded in Georgia,
and defeated the Indians. He was a member of the
convention which ratified the Constitution of the United
States, in December, 1787. He was raised to the rank
of m.ijor-general, and was appointed in 1792 commander
of the army sent against the Indians. In August, 1794,
he gained a complete victory over the Miamis in West-
ern Ohio. Although he was sometimes called "Mad
Anthony," on account of his daring and impetuous
valour, he was not deficient in prudence and judgment.
He died at Presque Isle, on Lake Erie, in December,
1796, leaving a son ISAAC, who became a colonel and
Senator.
See JOHN ARMSTRONG, "Life of General Anthony Wayne, " in
SPARKS'* "American Biography," vol. iv. ; "National Porirau-
Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i.
Wayn'flete, (WILLIAM,) was created Bishop of
Winchester in 1447, and lord chancellor in 1456. He
founded Magdalene College, Oxford. Died in 1486.
See "The Three Chancellors, or Lives of William of Wykeham,
William of Waynflete, and Thomas More."
Weale, weel, (JoHN,) an English publisher, born
about 1792, lived in London. He edited several useful
scientific works. Died in December, 1862.
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m&t; not; good; moon;
WEAVER
2243
WEBSTER
Wea'ver or Wee'ver, (JOHN,) an English anti
quary, was born in 1576, probably in Lancashire. He
published a work entitled "Ancient Funeral Monuments
in Great Britain." Died in 1632.
Weaver, (THOMAS,) an English geologist, born in
the eighteenth century, studied under the celebrated
Werner at Freiberg. He published " Memoirs on the
Geology of the East and South of Ireland," and other
works of the kind. He was a Fellow of the Royal
Society and a member of the Geological Society. Died
in 1855.
"Webb, (ALEXANDER S.,) an American general, a son
of James Watson Webb, was born about 1834. He
graduated at West Point in 1855, was wounded at Get
tysburg, July 1-3, 1863, served at the battle of the Wil
derness, May 5 and 6, 1864, and was disabled by a
wound at the battle of Spottsylvania, May 8-12.
Webb, (DANIEL,) an Irish writer, born in the county
of Limerick. He published " Remarks on the Beauties
of Poetry," (1762,) and other works, which are com
mended. Died in 1798.
"Webb, (TAMES WATSON.) an American journalist,
born at Claverack, New York, in 1802. He became in
1829 editor of the " Morning Courier and New York
Enquirer," a leading journal of the Whig party. He
was appointed in 1861 minister to Brazil by President
Lincoln.
Webb, (PHILIP BARKER,) an English botanist and
scholar, was born in Surrey about 1793. He inherited
an ample fortune, and travelled extensively in Europe
and Asia. With M. Berthelot, he published a " Natural
History of the Canaries," with plates, (3 vols.) Among
his works is " Iter Hispaniense, or a Synopsis of Span
ish Plants." Died in Paris in 1854.
Webb, (PHILIP CARTERET,) an English antiquary
and legal writer, born in 1700; died in 1770.
Webbe, web, (GEORGE,) a learned English theolo
gian, born in Wiltshire in 1581. He became Bishop of
Limerick in 1634. He wrote, besides other works,
"The Practice of Quietness." Died in 1641.
Webbe, (SAMUEL,) an English composer, born in
1740. His works include anthems, masses, songs, and
glees. The last-named compositions are esteemed mas
ter-pieces of the kind. Died in 1817.
Web'ber, (CHARLES WILKINS,) an American writer,
born at Russellville, Kentucky, in 1819. He published
" The Hunter Naturalist," (1851,) "Tales of the Southern
Border," (1853,) and "Gold-Mines of the Gila." He
was also a contributor to the " American Review" and
the " Democratic Review." He was killed in Nicaragua
in 1856, while serving under the filibuster Walker.
See DUYCKIXCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii.
Web'ber, (JOHN,) an English artist, born in London
in 1 7^ I, accompanied Captain Cook's last expedition as
draughtsman. Died in 1793.
Webber, (SAMUEL,) an American mathematician,
born at Byfield, Massachusetts, in 1759. He became
professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at
Harvard College in 1789, and in 1804 succeeded Wil-
lard as president of that institution. He published a
"System of Mathematics," (1801.)
"Weber, wa'ber, (BEDA,) a Tyrolese writer, born in
1798, has published "Songs from the Tyrol," (1842,)
"Andrew Hofer and the Year 1809," and other works.
Weber, wa'ber, (BERNHARD ANSELM,) a German
composer, born at Mannheim in 1766, became chapei-
master at Berlin. Died in 1821.
Weber, (ERNST HEINRICH,) a German anatomist
and physiologist, son of Michael Weber, noticed below,
was born at Wittenberg in 1795. He became professor
of human anatomy and of physiology at Leipsic in
1840. Among his principal works are his "Comparative
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Nerve," (1817,) and "Ana
tomical and Physiological Annotations," (in Latin.) His
brother EDUARD FRIEDRICH has published several
physiological treatises.
Weber, wa'ber or va'baiR', (FREDERIC,) a Swiss en
graver, born at Bale in 1813. He became a resident
of Paris, and engraved numerous portraits.
Weber, (GOTTFRIED,) a German composer and writer
upon music, born at Freinsheim in 1779; died in 1839.
Weber, (HENRY WILLIAM,) an antiquarian writer, of
German extraction, was born at Saint Petersburg in 1783.
He settled in Scotland, where he published a poem
entitled "The Battle of Flodden Field," and "Metrical
Romances of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth
Centuries." Died in 1818.
Weber, (KARL JULIUS,) a German writer, born at
Langenburg in 1767. His chief work is entitled " Letters
of Germans Travelling in Germany." Died in 1832.
Weber, (MICHAEL,) a German Protestant theologian,
born near Weissenfels in 1754, became professor of
divinity at Wittenberg. He wrote several exegetical and
theological works. Died in 1833.
Web'er, [Ger. pron. wa'ber, j (PAUL,) a distinguished
landscape-painter, born in Germany about 1820. In
early life he came to the United States, and practised
his art for many years in Philadelphia. Mr. Weber's
landscapes are remarkable for a certain aerial softness
which imparts to them an indescribable charm. Several
years since he returned to Germany and established
himself at Darmstadt.
Weber, (VEIT,) a German poet of the latter part
of the fifteenth century. He was the author of several
battle-songs, one of which is entitled "The Battle of
Murten."
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe. "
Weber, (WTILHELM EDUARD,) a German physiologist
and scientific writer, brother of Ernst Heinrich, noticed
above, was born at Wittenberg in 1804. He studied at
Halle, and was appointed, in 1831, professor of physics
at Gottingen. He published, conjointly with his brother
Ernst, a treatise entitled "The Wave Theory grounded
on Experiments," etc., (1825,) "On the Magnetism of
the Earth," in conjunction with Gauss, and several other
works.
Weber, (WILHELM ERNST,) a German scholar and
teacher, born at Weimar in 1790. He published editions
of Herodian and other classics, and several original
works. Died in 1850.
Weber, von, fon <va'ber, (EMMANUEL,) COUNT, a
German jurist, born near Leipsic in 1659. He became
professor of history at Giessen in 1698, and published
many legal works. Died in 1726.
Weber, von, (KARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNST,)
BARON, an eminent German composer and musician, born
at Eutin, in Holstein, in 1786. He was successively in
structed in music by Michael Haydn, Valesi, and Kalcher,
and. after the composition of several works of minor im
portance, he brought out, in 1800, his opera of "The
Forest Girl," (" Das Waldmadchen.") He soon after
visited Vienna, where he made the acquaintance of
Joseph Haydn and the Abbe Vogler. In 1807 he made
a professional tour through Germany, taking up his
residence for a time with Duke Lewis of Wiii temberg,
where he remodelled his opera of " Das Waldmadchen,"
under the title of "Sylvana;" it was performed with
brilliant success in 1810. He was appointed, in 1813,
director of the Opera at Prague, and in 1817 became
chapel-master and manager of the German Opera at
Dresden. He married the same year the celebrated
actress Lina Brandt. His opera of " Der Freischiitz,"
which is esteemed his master-piece, came out in 1822,
and was received with the greatest applause at Berlin
and London. His " Euryanthe," performed at Vienna
in 1823, was less generally admired. Having been com
missioned to compose an opera for the Covent Garden
Theatre, London, he brought out, in 1826, his " Oberon,"
which was eminently successful, being represented
twenty-seven times. He died the same year, of pulmo
nary disease. His remains were removed in 1844
from the Catholic chapel at Moorfields to the family
vault at Dresden.
See VICTOR MAGNIEN, " E"tude biosraphique sur C. M. Baron
de Weber," 1848: BARBEDETTE, "Weber. Essai de Critique musi-
cale," 1862; FETIS, "Biographic Uuiverselle des Musiciens;"
'• Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for
January, 1831.
Web'ster, (ALEXANDER,) a popular and eloquent
Scottish minister, born in Edinburgh about 1707. He
preached at the Tolbooth Church of that city, and be
came an influential citizen. He founded a useful insti-
•e as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, vi.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
WEBSTER
2244
WEBSTER
tution to grant annuities to the widows of the Scottish
clergy. Died in 1784.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Web'ster, (BENJAMIN,) an English comedian, bom
at Bath in 1800, became manager of the Haymarket
Theatre in 1837, and subsequently of the Aclelphi.
Web'ster, (DANIEL,) a celebrated American states
man, jurist, and orator, was born at Salisbury, New
Hampshire, January 18, 1782. He was a younger son
of Ebenezer Webster, a farmer,- and Abigail Eastman,
both persons of vigorous intellect and high-toned mo
rality. On account of the delicacy of his constitution,
lie was permitted to pass a large part of his childhood
in play, which he dearly loved. He also loved books,
among which Addison's " Spectator" was an especial
favourite with him. Having learned the rudiments of
education at home, and in the common schools of the
vicinity, he was sent, in May, 1796,10 Phillips Exeter
Academy, of which Benjamin Abbot was the principal.
Young Webster was at that time so diffident, as he him
self tells us, that he could not be induced to declaim
before the school. "The kind and excellent Buck-
minster," says he, in his autobiography, "sought to
persuade me to perform the exercise of declamation like
other boys, but I could not do it." In February, 1797,
he quitted the academy of Exeter, and pursued his
studies under the tuition of the Rev. Samuel Wood,
of Boscawen. His father, although burdened with a
large family and hardly able to defray the expense, had
resolved to send Daniel to college. Having read six
books of Virgil's " /Eneid" and some of Cicero's ora
tions, and obtained a little knowledge of Greek grammar,
he entered Dartmouth College as a freshman in August,
1797. According to his own statement, he was "misera
bly prepared both in Latin and Greek, "and he had little
taste or genius for mathematics. His habits at college
were studious and regular. " By the close of his first
year," says Edward Everett, "young Webster had shown
himself decidedly the foremost man of his class ; and that
position he held through his whole college course." He
was also the best writer and public speaker in the college.
By teaching school during vacations he earned money,
which he gave to aid his elder brother Ezekiel, whom
the family sent to college, not without great sacrifices
and privations. This brother, who was called by some
the handsomest man in the United States, became a
prominent lawyer, and died in 1829. Daniel graduated
in August, 1801, and began to study law in the office of
Thomas W. Thompson, of Salisbury, who was elected to
the Senate of the United States in 1814. In order to
earn a supply of money for his brother who was at
college, he took charge of an academy at Fryeburg, in
Maine, with a salary of three hundred and fifty dollars
per annum. Here he remained about eightjmonths, and
returned to Mr. Thompson's office in the autumn of
1802. Upon coming of age he joined the Congrega
tional (Orthodox) Church. In politics he was a zealous
Federalist. He was passionately fond of hunting and
fishing, both in his youth and his mature life.
To perfect his legal education, he went to Boston in
July, 1804, and had the good fortune to be received as a
clerk in the office of Christopher Gore, an eminent law
yer and statesman. Here he read Vattel and Puffendorf,
but devoted himself chiefly to the study of the common
law, and was admitted to the bar in March, 1805. He
practised nearly two years at Boscawen, and in 1807
removed to Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Before this
date he had delivered several Fourth-of-July orations.
In June, 1808, he married Grace Fletcher, of Hopkinton,
New Hampshire. He rose rapidly in his profession,
and was soon regarded as a fit antagonist for Jeremiah
Mason, who was the greatest lawyer in the State, and
was many years older than Webster. In November,
1812, he was elected as a Federalist to the National
House of Representatives, in which lie took his seat in
May, 1813. He opposed the war against Great Britain,
took an active part in the debates which that war oc
casioned, and advocated an increase of the navy. His
speeches on these subjects placed him in the first rank
as a debater. He was re-elected to the fourteenth Con
gress, which met in December, 1815, when the violence
of party spirit had greatly abated, and the return of
peace had directed the attention of the national legis
lature to new and important questions. Among these
was a charter of the Bank of the United States, to which
he moved an amendment requiring the bank to pay de
posits in specie. He also rendered an important service
by a resolution presented April 26, 1816, requiring that
all payments to the public treasury must be made in
specie or its equivalents, — which resolution was adopted,
and greatly improved the currency of the country.
Having resolved to retire from public life and devote
himself to his profession, he removed, in 1816, from
Portsmouth to Boston. On this wider arena his profes
sional reputation was greatly increased, and he became
in a few years the foremost lawyer in New England.
His argument before the supreme court of the United
States in the Dartmouth College case, in 1818, raised
him to the highest rank as -a constitutional lawyer. The
case was decided in favour of his clients, and by this
decision the law of the land in reference to collegiate
darters was firmly established. Thenceforth he was
retained in nearly all important cases that were argued
before the supreme court at Washington. He also
exhibited great skill as a criminal lawyer, in cross-exam
ining witnesses, and in baffling the deepest plans of per
jury and fraud. The effect of his arguments was enhanced
by a deep-toned, musical, and powerful voice, and by
the magnetism of his imposing presence and personal
qualities. " His influence over juries," says " Eraser's
Magazine" for August, 1870, "was due chiefly to the
combination of a power of lucid statement with his
extraordinary oratorical force. . . . His power of setting
forth truth was magnificent."
Mr. Webster was a member of the Convention which
met in 1820 to revise the Constitution of Massachusetts.
Of his services in this Convention, Judge Story expressed
a high opinion in a letter to a friend, saying, " The whole
force of his great mind was brought out, and in several
speeches he commanded universal admiration." In De
cember, 1820, he pronounced at Plymouth a celebrated
oration on the anniversary of the landing of the Pilgrim
fathers. " This," says Everett, " was the first of a series
of performances, aside from the efforts of the senate and
the bar, by which Mr. Webster placed himself at the
head of American orators." In 1822 he was elected by
the voters of Boston a member of the Congress which
met in December, 1823. On the subject of the Greek
Revolution he made (January, 1824) a famous speech, in
which he denounced the principles of the Holy Alliance
with powerful effect.
As chairman of the judiciary committee, he reported
a complete revision of the criminal law of the United
States, which was approved by the House. He was re-
elected, in the autumn of 1824, by a nearly unanimous
vote, and supported John Q. Adams in the ensuing elec
tion of President. In June, 1825, he delivered an oration
on laying the corner-stone of the Bunker Mill Monu
ment. To the same class of orations belongs his admi
rable eulogy on Adams and Jefferson, pronounced in
Faneuil Hall, Boston, in August, 1826. " His consum
mate skill of composition and delivery," says Mr. G. T.
Curtis, "gave to a supposititious speech of John Adams
all the effect of a real utterance of that patriot." George
Ticknor, who heard this eulogy, says, " His bearing, as
he stood before the vast multitude, was that of absolute
dignity and power." He continued to serve in the House
of Representatives until 1828, when he was transferred
to the Senate of the United States. As a Senator he
voted for the Tariff bill of 1828. Though not deeply
interested in the Presidential election of 1828, he sup
ported John Q. Adams in preference to General Jackson.
Having lost his first wife, (who died in January, 1828,,
he married Caroline Le Roy, of New York City, in De
cember, 1829.
His most memorable parliamentary effort was his tri
umphant reply to Hayne, of South Carolina, who had
affirmed the right of a State to nullify the acts of Con
gress, had assailed New England, and had provoked
Mr. Webster by caustic personalities. It was on the
26th of January, 1830, that Webster began this great
argument in defence of the Union and the Constitution,
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon;
WEBSTER
2243
WEBSTER
which was probably the most remarkable speech ever
made in the American Congress. His peroration ends
with the following magnificent passage : " When my
eyes shall be turned to behold for the last time the sun
in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and
dishonoured fragments of a once glorious Union ; on
States dissevered, discordant, belligerent; on a land
rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it maybe, in fraternal
blood ! Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather
behold the gorgeous ensign of the republic, now known
and honoured throughout the earth, still full high ad
vanced, its arms and trophies streaming in their original
lustre, not a stripe erased or polluted, nor a single star
obscured — bearing for its motto no such miserable in
terrogatory as What is all this worth ? nor those other
words of delusion and folly, Liberty first, and Union after
wards — but everywhere, spread all over in characters of
living light; blazing on all its ample folds, as they float
over the sea and over the land, that other sentiment,
dear to every true American heart — Liberty and Union,
now and forever, one and inseparable !" " Webster
had," says Mr. Curtis, "but a single night in which to
make preparation to answer the really important parts
of the preceding speech of his opponent."
In May, 1832, he made an important speech for the
renewal of the charter of the Bank of the United States.
This bill passed both houses of Congress, but was
vetoed by President Jackson. About this date he pur
chased an estate at Marshfield, on the sea-shore, which
was his usual summer residence. Me supported Mr.
Clay for President in the election of 1832, but in the
great crisis of the Nullification question, in 1833, he op
posed Clay's Compromise Tariff bill, and voted for the
" Force Bill" of the Administration. On these subjects
Webster and Calhoun were adversaries in debate. Mr.
Webster became one of the most popular leaders of
the Whig party, which was organized about 1834, and
he was nominated for the Presidency by the Whigs of
Massachusetts.
In September, 1837, as a member of the Senate, he
opposed the Sub-Treasury bill in an elaborate speech,
said to have been the most effective of all his arguments
on the subjects of currency and finance. He visited
England, Scotland, and France in 1839, attracting the
admiration of Carlyle, who met him at table, and thus
estimated him : " He is a magnificent specimen. As a
logic-fencer, advocate, or parliamentary Hercules, one
would incline to back him, at first sight, against all the
extant world." He was re-elected to the Senate in
January, 1839, and actively promoted the election of
General Harrison to the Presidency in 1840, by public
speeches at Saratoga, Richmond, Virginia, etc. In
March, 1841, he was appointed secretary of state by
President Harrison, after whose death he was retained
in that office by Tyler. He negotiated with the English
ambassador, Lord Ashburton, a treaty which settled
the long and serious dispute about the Northeastern
boundary of the United States. This important treaty
was signed August 9, 1842. In compliance with the
general desire of the Whigs, (whose interests President
Tyler had betrayed,) he resigned office in May, 1843.
He was urged to return to the national Senate ; but his
private interest and duties dissuaded him. In a letter
dated February 5, 1844, he says, " I am now earning
and receiving fifteen thousand dollars a year from my
profession, which must be almost entirely sacrificed by
a return to the Senate."
In the campaign of 1844 he earnestly advocated the
election of Mr. Clay, who was his chief rival in the favour
and leadership of the Whig party. He opposed the
innexation of Texas, for the reason that it would involve
the extension of slavery.
He was again elected a Senator of the United States
n the winter of 1844-45, as the successor of Mr. Choate.
[n December, 1845, 'le niade a speech in the Senate
igainst the admission of Texas as a slave State, and in
February, 1847, he declared that he opposed the prose
cution of the Mexican war for trie conquest of territory
to form new States of our Union. Although Mr. Web
ster and his friends were disappointed by the nomination
of General Taylor in 1848, he voted for him in prefer
ence to General Cass. In consequence of the acquisition
of Mexican territory by conquest, the sectional conflict
relative to slavery became more and more violent and
irrepressible, with an alarming proclivity towards dis
union. The houses of Congress became in 1850 the
scene of intense excitement about the admission of
California and the organization of the new territories.
The imminent danger of this crisis was averted or post
poned by Mr. Clay's "Compromise Measures," which
Mr. Webster supported in an elaborate speech on the
7th of March, 1850. This compromise consisted of a
number of resolutions, one of which declared that the
new territories should be organized without the adoption
of any restriction or condition on the subject of slavery ;
and another, that more effectual provision ought to be
made by law for the restitution of fugitive slaves. On
the first of these points he argued that he would not re-
enact by human law what was already settled by a law
of God ; that slavery could not be introduced into those
territories, by reason of their natural unfitness for slave
labour. .His support of these measures gave great
offence to many of his admirers, and to the opponents
of slavery, who accused him of sacrificing an important
principle to a supposed political expediency.*
In July, 1850, before the final vote on the Compromise
bill, President Taylor died, and was succeeded by Vice-
President Fillmore, who appointed Mr. Webster secre
tary of state. On the I7th of July he addressed the
Senate on the subjects connected with the Compromise
bill and Wilmot proviso. This was his last speech in
the Senate. He delivered an eloquent address on the
4th of July, 1851, at the laying of the corner-stone of
the extension of the Capitol at Washington. His last
important forensic argument was on the Indian Rubber
Patent cause, at Trenton, in January, 1852. Among his
later official acts was a celebrated despatch to Hiilse-
mann, the Austrian charge-d'affaires, occasioned by the
revolt of the Hungarian patriots. This document was
dated in December, 1851. In May, 1852, he was thrown
from his carriage, and seriously injured, near Plymouth,
Massachusetts; but he was afterwards able to revisit
Washington. After all his sacrifices and concessions to
the pro-slavery party, he received in the National Whig
Convention of 1852 only thirty-two votes, and those
from Northern men, although it was known that he
wished to be nominated for the Presidency. He died
at Marshfield, October 24, 1852, leaving one son,
Fletcher, noticed below. His other sons and daughters
died before their father.
In stature he was tall, his head and brain of great
size, his eyes large, black, and lustrous. He was
greatly distinguished for his conversational powers and
genial temper in society. "To those," says Curtis,
"who have known Mr. Webster only in public, it is
difficult to give an idea of the genial affections which
at every period of his life flowed out from him in the
domestic circle, and still more difficult to paint the
abounding gayety and humour and fascination of his
early days." " He was," says " Eraser's Magazine" for
August, 1870, "the greatest orator that has ever lived
in the Western hemisphere. Less vehement than Cal
houn, less persuasive than Clay, he was yet more grand
and powerful than either."
"Sir. Webster," says Hallam, the great historian,
" approaches as nearly to the beau-ideal of a republican
senator as any man that I have ever seen in the course
of my life ; worthy of Rome or Venice, rather than of
our noisy and wrangling generation." (Letter to Mrs.
Ticknor, dated January 21, 1840.)
See GEORGE T. CURTIS, " Life of Daniel Webster," 2 vols., i«7o ;
CHARLES LANMAN, "Private Life of Daniel Webster," 1X53; S. L
KNAPP, "Life of D. Webster," 1851 ; MAKCKER, " D. Websler, der
Ainerikanische Staatsmann," Berlin, 1853; EUWAKD KVKRETT,
" Memoir of D. Webster," prefixed to an edition of Webster's
Collective Works, 6 vols. Svo, 1X51 ; and his article on Daniel
Webster in the " New American Cyclopaedia."
* It was not the ultra abolitionists only that condemned his course.
Mr. Seward in 1858 spoke of Webster as " a great statesman, who
for a large portion of his life led the vanguard of the army of freedom,
. . . and who, on the great day when the contest came to a decisive
issue, surrendered that great cause then in his place, and derided th
proviso of freedom, the principle of the ordinance of 1787."
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g asy'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
WEBSTER
2246
WEDDERBURN
Webster, (EBENF.ZER,) an American patriot of the
Revolution, born at Kingston, New Hampshire, in 1739,
was the father of Daniel Webster. He served in the j
war against the French, and in the subsequent cam
paigns of the Revolutionary war. Died in 1806.
Webster, (EZEKIEL,) a son of the preceding, born in
1780, graduated at Dartmouth College, and acquired a
high reputation as a lawyer. Died in 1829.
Webster, (FLETCHER,) an American officer, born at
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1812, was a son of the
celebrated Daniel Webster. He served as assistant
secretary of state in 1841 and 1842. He enlisted as
colonel in the Union army in 1861, and was killed at the
battle of Gainesville, or Bull Run, in August, 1862.
Webster, (JOHN,) an English dramatist of the six
teenth century. His principal works are "The White
Devil," "The Duchess of Malfi," (1623,) and "Appius
and Virginia," (1624.) He occupies a high rank among
the immediate successors of Shakspeare.
See " Retrospective Review," vol. vii., (1823 ;) CAMPBELL, " Speci
mens of the Britisli Poets."
Webster, (JOSEPH D.,) an American general, born
in New Hampshire about 1811, became a civil engineer.
He served as colonel at the capture of Fort Donelson,
February, 1862, and was chief of staff to General Grant
at the battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7. He directed the
artillery with skill in this action, and was promoted to
be a brigadier-general.
Webster, (NoAH,) a distinguished American phi
lologist and lexicographer, born at West Hartford,
Connecticut, in October, 1758. He graduated at Yale
College in 1778, studied law, and was admitted to the
bar in 1781, soon after which he became a school
teacher. He published " Sketches of American Policy,"
(1785,) and "Dissertations on the English Language,"
(1789.) In 1793 he began to issue, in New York, a
daily paper called "The Minerva," the name of which
was soon changed to "Commercial Advertiser." In this
journal he defended the policy of the Federal adminis
tration. About 1798 he removed to New Haven. He
expended the labour of many years on a " Dictionary
of the English Language," which was published in 1828
and was highly esteemed. An enlarged edition of this
dictionary was published in 1840, and a quarto edition,
revised by C. A. Goodrich, appeared in 1859. Another
and greatly improved edition of Webster's Dictionary,
with numerous pictorial illustrations incorporated in the
body of the work, appeared in 1864. He died at New
Haven in May, 1843.
See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. ii. : DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopedia of American Literature," vol. i. ;
" Nortli American Review" for April, 1829.
Webster, (THOMAS,) a British geologist, born in the
Orkney Islands about 1773. He wrote a treatise on
" Fresh-Water Beds in the Isle of Wight," and became
professor of geology in the London University. Died
in 1844.
Webster, (THOMAS,) an English painter, born in
London in 1800, studied at the Royal Academy, of which
he was elected an associate in 1841. His favourite sub
jects are children, and his best works represent school
boys and their sports. Among these we may name " The
Slide," "A Farm-House Kitchen," "A See-Saw," "A
School Play-Ground," "The Internal Economy of Do-
theboys Hall," "Peasant Children," and "Hide and
Seek." He was chosen a Royal Academician in 1846.
Webster, (WILLIAM,) an English clergyman and
polemical writer, born in 1689. He became curate of
Saint Dunstan, in West London, in 1715, and rector of
Depden in 1733. Died in 1758.
"Webster, (WILLIAM,) an English mathematician,
born about 1684, published a "Treatise on Arithmetic."
Died in 1744.
Wechel, va'sheT or <ve"K'el, (ANDREW,) an eminent
printer, born in Paris about 1510, was a son of Christian,
and was a Protestant. He succeeded his father in 1554,
and purchased the stock of Henri Estienne in 1560. He
carried on business in Paris until the massacre of 1572,
and then removed his presses to Frankfort. Died in 1581.
Wechel, weK'el, (CHRISTIAN,) a celebrated German
printer, established a printing-office in Paris about 1527,
from which he issued many excellent editions of the
classics. He afterwards settled at Frankfort-on-the-
Main, where his business was carried on with equal
reputation and success by his son Andrew. Died in
Weckerlin, von, fon <vek'ker-leen', (AUGUST,) a
German agriculturist, born at Stuttgart in 1794, has
published a treatise " On English Agriculture," and
other similar works.
Weckheiiin, wek'ker-leen', (GEORG RUDOLF,) a Ger
man poet, born at Stuttgart in 1584. Having travelled
in various parts of Europe, he settled eventually in
London, and was employed by James I. and Charles I.
in several important missions. lie was one of the
earliest reformers of German poetry, and he is said to
have first introduced into the language the ode, sonnet,
and epigram. Among his principal works we may name
his heroic poem on the death of Gustavus Adolphus.
Died about 1651.
See CARL P. CONZ, " Nachrichten von dem Leben G. R. Weck-
herlin's," 1X03.
Weckherlin, (WILHELM LUDWIG,) a German writer,
born near Wiirtemberg in 1739, was the author of seve
ral satirical and political works. Died in 1792.
Wed'der-burn, (ALEXANDER,) Lord Loughborough
and Earl of Rosslyn, an eminent British jurist and poli
tician, born in East Lothian in 1733. He was in early
life an advocate of Edinburgh, where he distinguished
himself by his eloquence and the fierceness of his in
vective. "Having quarrelled with the court, he removed
to London in 1753, and was called to the bar a few years
later. He took great pains to eradicate his Northern
accent. He became king's counsel in 1763, was elected
a member of Parliament about the same time, and joined
the Northern circuit. " He was far from being a pro
found lawyer," says Lord Brougham. " His strength
lay in dealing with facts ; and here all his contemporaries
represent his powers to have been unrivalled. It was
probably this genius for narrative, for arguing upon
probabilities, for marshalling and sifting evidence, that
shone so brilliantly in his great speech at the bar of the
House of Lords upon the celebrated Douglas cause, and
which no less a judge than 'Mr. Fox pronounced to be
the very finest he ever heard on any subject." (" His
torical Sketches of the Statesmen of the Time of George
III.") He was appointed solicitor-general by Lord
North in 1771, soon after which he and Thurlow became
the two main supporters of the prime minister in the
House of Commons. In a famous speech against the
Americans before the privy council, he indulged in offen
sive personalities against Franklin, calling him a man
of three letters, — the old Roman joke for a thief, (fur.)
In 1778 he was appointed attorney-general, and in 1780
obtained the office of chief justice of the court of common
pleas, with the title of Lord Loughborough. On the
bench he continued to be an unscrupulous partisan, and
during the short ministry formed by a coalition of Fox
and Lord North (1783) he was chief commissioner of
the great seal. In the first years of Pitt's administration
Wedderburn was the leader of the opposition in the
House of Lords. When the king became deranged,
(1789,) he advised the Prince of Wales to proclaim
himself regent ; but his desperate counsels were not
followed. He was one of the members that seceded from
the Whig or opposition party on questions connected
with the French Revolution, and was appointed lord
chancellor in 1793. He retained this office until the for
mation of a new ministry, April, 1801, and was then
created Earl of Rosslyn. He died, without issue, in
1805. According to Lord Brougham, "his prosperous
career, supported by no fixed principles, illustrated by
no sacrifices to public virtue, ... at length closed in
the disappointment of mean, unworthy desires, and ended
amidst universal neglect."
See " Historical Sketches of the Statesmen of the Time of George
III.," vol. i. ; LORD CAMPBELL, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;"
CHAMBKRS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
Wedderburn, (DAVID,) a Scottish scholar and Latin
poet, born about 1570. He taught school at Aberdeen,
and wrote numerous poems. Died about 1650.
See CHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon;
WEDDERKOPF
2247
WEICKARD
Wedderkopf, von, fon wecl'der-kopf, (MAGNUS,) a
statesman and jurist, born at Husuni, in Holstein, in
1638. He became professor of law at Kiel, and prime
minister of the Duke of Holstein in 1705. He published
several legal works. Died in 1721. His brother GA-
URIEL, born in 1644, was a writer on theology, pastor at
Kiel, and court preacher. Died in 1696.
Wedekind, wa'deh-klnt', (ANTON CHRISTIAN,) a
German historical writer, born in the duchy of Verden
in 1765. He published a "Chronological Manual of
Modern History," (1816.) and other works. Died in 1845.
Wedekind, (GEORG CHRISTIAN GOTTLIKK.) BARON,
a German physician, born at Gottingen in 1761, became
professor of medicine at Mentz. He published a num
ber of medical and miscellaneous works. Died in 1831.
Wedekind, (GEORG WILHELM,) BARON, a son of
the preceding, was born at Strasburg in 1796. He
published an " Encyclopaedia of Forest Science," (1847,)
and other similar works.
Wedel, wa'del, (ERNST HEINRICH,) a German phy
sician, born at Gotha in 1671, was a son of Georg Wolf
gang, noticed below. He was the author of a work
entitled "On the Diseases of Public Speakers," ("De
Morbis Concionatorum.") His brother JOHANN ADOLF
published several medical treatises. Died in 1709.
Wedel, (GEORG WOLFGANG,) a learned German
physician, born at Golzen, in Lusatia, in 1645. He
studied at Jena, where he became professor of medicine
in 1673. He was also first physician to the Duke of
Saxe-Weimar, and was created in 1694 a count-palatine
and imperial councillor. He was distinguished as a
mathematician and Orientalist, as well as for his know
ledge of medical science, and was one of the most vo
luminous writers of his time. Among his principal works
we may name " Opiologia," etc., (1674,) " Exercitationes
Pathologicae," (1675,) and "Pharmacy reduced to the
Form of an Art," (in Latin.) Died in 1721.
Wedel, (JoiiANN ADOLF,) a medical writer, a son of
the preceding, born at Tena i'1 1675, became professor
in the University of Jena in 1709. Died after 1746.
Wedel, (JOHANN WOLFGANG,) a German botanist,
oorn in 1708, practised medicine at Jena. He wrote
"Botanical Essay," ("Tentamen Botanicum," 1747.)
Died in 1757.
Wedel, von, fon wa'del, (KARL HEINRICH,) a Prus
sian general, born in the Uckermark in 1712. He distin
guished himself in the Seven Years' war. The victory
of the Prussians at Leuthen (1757) was attributed to
Wedel by Frederick the Great. Died in 1782.
Wedel-Jarlsberg, wa'del yaRls'bgRG, ( JOHANN KAS-
PAR HERMANN,) a Danish statesman, was born at Mont-
pellier, in France, in 1779. He studied at Copenhagen,
and rose through several offices to be minister of finance
in 1822. Died in 1840.
Wedg'wood, (JosiAH,) a celebrated English artisan,
Dorn in Burslem, in Staffordshire, in 1730. His oppor
tunities for education were very limited, and in his early
youth he worked in the pottery of an elder brother at
Burslem. In 1759 he established in that place a manu
factory of ornamental pottery, where he soon after pro
duced the beautiful cream-coloured ware since called by
his name. A table-service of this kind was ordered by
Queen Charlotte, who appointed Wedgwood her potter.
He subsequently opened a warehouse in London, where
he executed copies of antique vases, cameos, and sculp
ture, remarkable for their accuracy and exquisite work
manship. Among his works in this department were
fifty copies of the celebrated Portland vase, which were
sold for fifty guineas each. Some of his compositions
were of such hardness and indestructibility as to render
them invaluable for chemical vessels. His works were
not only of the greatest benefit to the manufactures and
commercial prosperity of his country, but exerted a
powerful influence in refining the national taste. Wedg
wood was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and contributed
several treatises to the " Transactions" of that body.
Died in 1795.
See ELIZA MHTEYARD, "Life of J. Wedgwood, from his Private
Correspondence," 1864; L. JEWBTT, "The Wedgwoods," 1865; J.
MARRYATT, " Collection towards a History of Pottery," etc., 1850
"Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for July
and October, 1867.
Weed, (STEPHEN H.,) an American brigadier-general,
oorn in New York, graduated at West Point in 1854. He
was a skilful officer of artillery. He was killed at Gettys
burg, July 2, 1863, aged about thirty.
"Weed, (TnuRLOW,) an American journalist and poli
tician, born in Greene county, New York, in 1797. He
learned the trade of printer, and edited several news
papers. He was an active member of the Anti-Masonic
party, and in 1830 became the editor of the " Albany
Evening Journal," which opposed the Albany Regency
and was an able organ of the Whig party. He acquired
distinction and great influence as a party manager for
the Whigs and the Republicans. He was an intimate
associate and adherent of William H. Sevvard. In the
latter part of the civil war he ceased to be in unity
with the Republican party. He favoured the policy of
President Johnson in relation to reconstruction in 1866-
67, but supported General Grant for the Presidency
in 1868.
Weekes, weeks, (HENRY,) an English sculptor, born
at Canterbury in 1807, was a pupil of Chantrey, whom
he assisted for several years. Among his works are
statues of the Duke of Wellington and Lord Bacon, at
Cambridge, and a monument to Shelley, in Hampshire.
Weems, (MASON L.,) an American biographical
writer, was rector of Mount Vernon parish, Virginia.
He was the author of " A History of the Life and Death,
Virtues and Exploits, of General George Washington,"
etc., (1800,) "Life of General Francis Marion," (4th
edition, 1816,) and biographies of Franklin (1817) and of
William Penn, (1829.) They are written in a lively,
entertaining style, but are not to be relied upon as
biographies or histories. Died in 1825.
See DuYCKiN'CK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i.
Weeninx, wa'ninks, or Weenix, wa'niks, (JAN BAP
TIST,) THE OLD, an eminent Dutch painter, born at Am
sterdam in 1621. He studied under Abraham Bloemaert,
and afterwards spent several years at Rome, where he
was extensively patronized. His works include portraits,
historical pictures, animals, and marine views, in all of
which he acquired a very high reputation. Died in 1660.
His son JAN, surnamed THE YOUNG, was born at
Amsterdam in 1644. He was instructed in painting
by his father, whose style and favourite subjects he
adopted. As a colorist, he was esteemed superior to his
father, and his hunting-scenes and birds are regarded
as master-pieces. Died in 1719.
See DESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ;
CHARLES BLANC, "Histoire des Peintres."
Weerdt, de, deh waiRt, (ADRIAN,) a Flemish land
scape-painter, born at Brussels, lived about 1550.
Weert. See WERTH.
Weever. See WEAVER, (JOHN.)
Wegelin, fta'geh-leen', (JACQUES,) a Swiss historian,
born at Saint Gall in 1721. He became professor of
history at Berlin in 1765, and wrote, besides other
works, "Memoirs on the Philosophy of History," (4
vols., 1772-79,) and "Universal History," (6 vols., 1776
-80.) Died in Berlin in 1791.
See PELS, " Biographic Wegelins," 1792.
Wegener, wa'geh-ner, (CASPAR FREDERIK,) a Danish
historian and publicist, born in Fiinen in 1802. He
acquired a high reputation by several works on Danish
history. He became director of the national archives
in 1848.
Wegiier, weG'ner, (GOTTFRIED,) a German theolo
gian, born in Silesia in 1644. He became professor
of theology at Konigsberg, and court preacher. Died
in 1709.
Wegscheider, war/shi'der, (JULIUS AUGUST LUD-
WIG,) a German theologian of the rationalistic school,
was born at Kiibbelingen, in Brunswick, in 1771. He
became professor of theology at Halle in 1810. His
principal work is entitled " Institutes of Dogmatic Chris
tian Theology," (in Latin, 1818.) Died in 1849.
Wehrli. See VEHRI.I.
Weichert, wI'Kert, (JONATHAN AUGUST,) a German
scholar, born in Saxony in 1788, published editions of
Pomponius Mela and other classics. Died in 1844.
Weickard, wi'kaRt, (MELCHIOR ADAM,) a German
physician, was a warm advocate of the Brunonian
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard;%*sj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (B^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
WE1DEN
2248
WEISS
system, and published, among other works, "The Philo
sophical Physician." Died in 1803.
Weideu, von, fon wl'den, Weda, wa'da, or Wied,
•^eet, (HERMANN,) COUNT, a German prelate, born
in Nassau in 1472. He was elected Archbishop and
Elector of Cologne in 1515, and persecuted the Prot
estants for a number of years. About 1540 he changed
his course, and patronized Bucer and other Reformers.
Having been excommunicated by the pope in 1546, he
resigned in 1547, and died in 1552.
Weidler, wl'dler, (JoHANN FRIEDRICH.) a German
astronomer and mathematician, born in Thuringia in
1691. He became in 1721 professor of mathematics at
Wittenberg. He published a number of valuable works,
in Latin, among which we may name his " Mathematical
Institutes," "History of Astronomy," "Astronomical
Bibliography," and "Treatise on Hydraulic Machines."
He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died
in 1755.
Weigel, wlo'el or wl'gel, (ERHARD,) a German mathe
matician and astronomer, born at Weicla in 1625, became
professor of mathematics at Jena. He was the inventor
of several astronomical instruments, and published,
among other works, one entitled "The Mirror of the
Heavens," (" Himmels-spiegel.") Died in 1699.
Weigel, (JOHANN AUGUST GOTTLOI;,) a German
bookseller, born at Leipsic in 1773 ; died in 1846.
"Weigel, (KARL CHRISTIAN Leberecht — la'beh-
rCKt,) a German physician and scholar, brother of the
preceding, was born at Leipsic in 1769. He published a
"Modern Greek-German-Italian Dictionary," and other
works. Died in 1845.
Weigel, (VALENTIN,) a German theologian, founder
of a sect of mystics called by his name, was bom at
Grossenhain, in Saxony, in 1533. His leading doctrines
are said to resemble those of Tauler; and Jacob Bohme
was one of his most noted disciples. His works were
published after his death, which occurred in 1588.
See HII.LIGER, "Vita V. \Vcigelii," 1721.
Weigel, von, fon wlo'el or wi'gel, (CHRISTIAN
Ehrenfried — I'ren-fReet,) a German physician and
naturalist, born at Stralsund in 1748, wrote " Observa-
tiones Botanicae," and other works. Died in 1831.
Weigl, WIG!, (JOSEPH,) a musical composer, born at
Eisenstadt, in Hungary, in 1766, became chapel-master
of the Italian Opera at Vienna. His opera of "The
Swiss Family" is esteemed one of his best works. Died
in 1846.
Weil, wil, (GusrAV,) a distinguished German Orien
talist, of fewish extraction, was born at Sulzburg in 1808.
He studied at Heidelberg, visited Egypt about 1830, and
devoted himself to the study of the Arabic, Persic, and
Turkish languages. He was appointed, after his return,
assistant librarian, and professor of Oriental languages,
in the University of Heidelberg, in 1845. Among his
principal works are "The Poetical Literature of the
Arabs," (1837.) "Mohammed the Prophet," (1843,) and
" History of the Caliphs," ("Geschichte der Chalifen,"
5 vols., 1846.)
Weill, wil, [Fr. pron. vil,] ( Al.EXANDRE,) a litterateur
and journalist, of Jewish extraction, was born in Alsace
in 1813. He was editor for a time of the "Gazette cle
France." and published a work entitled " Republic and
Monarchy," an " Essay on Schiller," and several political
treatises.
Weiller, von, fon wil'ler, (KAJETAN,) a German
teacher nnd educational writer, born at Munich in 1762.
He became secretary general of the Academy of Sciences
in 1823. Died in 1826.
Weimar, DUCHESS OF. See AMELIA.
Weimar, (BERNARD,) DUKE OF. See BF.RNHARD
OF SAXE- WEIMAR.
Weinbreimer, win'bRen'ner, (FRIEDRICH,) a cele
brated German architect, born at Carlsruhe in 1766. He
visited Rome in 1791, and spent several years in study
ing the remains of ancient art. On his return, in 1798,
he was appointed inspector of buildings a^ Carlsruhe.
Among his principal works are the theatre at Leipsic,
and the Standeshaus theatre, the Lutheran and Roman
Catholic churches, and Hochberg palace, at Carlsruhe.
He also founded in the latter place an institution for the
study of architecture and the kindred arts. He was the
author of a " Manual of Architecture," (1810,) a treatise
"On Form and Beauty," (1819,) and other similar
works. Died in 1826.
Weinlig, <vln'lio, (CHRISTIAN THEODOR,) a German
musician and composer, born at Dresden in 1780; died
in 1842.
His son, CHRISTIAN ALHRECHT, born in 1812, became
professor of national economy at Erlangen, and pub
lished a "Manual of Theoretical Chemistry," (1840,)
and other works.
Weinreich, win'rlK, or Weiiirich, win'rlK, (VALEN
TIN,) a German philologist and poet, born near Hartz
in 1553, became rector at Eisenach. Died in 1622.
Weiiirich, wm'riK, (GEORG,) a learned theolo
gian, born in Silesia in 1554. He preached at Leipsic,
and published a number of works on theology. Died
in 1617.
Weiiirich, QOHANN MICHAEL,) a German writer
and Lutheran minister, born in 1683, lived at Mei-
nungen. Died in 1727.
Weir, weer, (ROBERT W.,) an American painter, born
at New Rochelle, in New York, in 1803. Among his
best works are "The Landing of Henry Hudson," "The
Embarkation of the Pilgrims," and "The Antiquary
introducing Lovell to his Womankind."
See DUNI.AP, "Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in
America;" TUCKKRMAN, "Book of the Artists."
Weir, weer, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish journalist, born
in Edinburgh about 1802. He edited successively the
Edinburgh "Literary Journal," the Glasgow "Argus,"
and the "Daily News," a Liberal paper of London.
Died in 1858.
Weisbach, wIs'baK, (Juuus,) a German savant,
born near Annaberg in 1806, published a "Manual for
the Engineer and Machinist," and several treatises
on hydraulics.
Weise, wi'zeh, [Lat. WEI'SIUS,] (CHRISTIAN,) a Ger
man writer, born at Zittau in 1642, became rector of the
gymnasium in his native town. He was the author of a
satirical romance, entitled "Die drei Hauptverderber,"
and a number of dramas, also several educational works.
Died in 1708.
See HERMANN PALM, " C. Weise, eine literar-historische Ab-
handlung," 1854; S. GROSSER, "Vita C. Weisii," 1710.
Weisflog, ftiss'floG, (KARL,) a German litterateur,
born at Sagan in 1770, published a number of humorous
tales. Died in 1828.
Weishaupt, wiss'howpt, (ADAM,) a German jurist
j and philosopher, born at Ingolstadt in 1748, is chiefly
j celebrated as the founder of the order of the Illuminati.
He became professor of canon and natural law in his
native city in 1775. He wrote, besides other works, an
"Apology for the Illuminati," (1786,) and " Pythagoras ;
or, The Secret Art of Governing the World," (1790.)
Died in 1830.
See GOTTSCHUNG, "Weishaupt's Schicksale," 1789; " Nouvelle
Biographic Ge'ne'rale."
Weisius. See WEISE.
Weiss. See ALHINUS, (BERNARD,) ALBINUS, (?v.-
TRUS,) and ALBINUS, (JOHANNES GEORGIUS.)
Weiss, wiss, [Fr. pron. viss,] (CHARLES,) a French
litterateur, born at Besai^on in 1779. He contributed a
great number of articles to the " Biographic Universelle,"
of which he was one of the editors.
Weiss, (CHARLES,) a French historian, born at Stras-
burg in 1812, became professor of history at the Lycee
Bonaparte. He published "Spain from Philip II. to
the Accession of the Bourbons," (2 vols., 1844,) and a
" History of the French Protestant Refugees since the
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes," (2 vols., 1853.)
See " Blackvvoocl's Magazine" for July, 1853.
Weiss, wiss, (CHRISTIAN SAMUEL,) a German min
eralogist, born at Leipsic in 1780. He studied under
Werner at Freiberg, and in 1810 became professor of
mineralogy at Berlin. His principal work is a treatise
"On the Natural Divisions of the System of Crystalliza
tion," (1813.) Died in 1856.
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon;
WEISS
2249
SELLER
Weiss, (SiEGKRiKD,) a German publicist, born at
Dantzic in 1822. lie wrote, besides other works, " Code
of Maritime International Law," (2 vols., 1858.)
Weisse, wl'seh, (CHRISTIAN ERNST,) a German
jurist, son of Christian Felix, noticed below, was born
at Leipsic in 1766. He became in 1813 professor of
criminal law in that city, and was the author of a
"Manual of Saxon Civil Law," which is esteemed a
standard work. Died in 1832.
"Weisse, (CHRISTIAN F"ELIX,) a popular German
writer, born at Annaberg in 1726. He studied at Leip
sic, where he acquired the friendship of Leasing, and
soon after produced several tragedies, which, however,
met with little favour. His " Merry Songs," (" Scherz-
haften Lieder,") which appeared in 1758, were very
successful, and were followed by a number of comedies,
which were also well received. In 1775 he became
editor of a juvenile periodical called " The Children's
Friend," ("Der Kinderfreund,") which obtained almost
unprecedented popularity, and was afterwards imitated
by Berquin in his "Ami cles Enfans." His "Songs for
Children," "ABC Book," and "Dramas for Chil
dren" were received with equal favour, and they have
been translated into the principal European languages.
Besides these juvenile productions, on which his reputa
tion mainly rests, Weisse published " Lyric Poems" and
"Comic Operas." He was for several years editor of
a literary journal of high character, entitled "Bibliothek
der Schonen-Wissenschaften und Freien-Kiinste." He
died in 1804.
See C. G. BAUER, " Ueber C. F. Weisse," 1805 ; WEISSE, "Auto
biography." 1806 ; H. C. IPHOFEN, " Lebensgeschichte C. F.
Wi'isse's," etc., 1806; GERVINUS, " Geschichte der Deutschen
Diclitung."
Weisse, (CHRISTIAN HERMANN,) a son of Christian
Ernst, noticed above, was born at Leipsic in 1801, and
became professor of philosophy in his native city. He
published a treatise "On the Present Stand-Point of
Philosophical Science," (1829,) " System of ./Esthetics,
or Science of the Idea of Beauty," (1830,) and essays,
which have a high reputation.
Weisseiithurn, von, fon wi'sen-tooRn', (JOHANNA
FRANUL VERONICA,) a German actress and dramatic
writer, originally named GRUNBERG, was born atCoblentz
in 1773. Her works are numerous, and once enjoyed
considerable popularity. Died in 1847.
Weitenaver, wi'ten-a'ver, (IGNATIUS,) a German
linguist and Jesuit, born at Ingolstadt in 1705. He
published several works on language. Died in 1783.
Weitling, wlt'ling, (WILHKLM,) a German commun
ist, born at Magdeburg in 1808, published "Guarantees
of Harmony and Freedom," " Humanity as it is and as
it should be," (1845,) and other similar works.
Weitzel, wlt'sel, (GODFREY,) an American major-
general and engineer, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, about
1835, graduated at West Point, second in his class, in
1855. He served on the staff of General Butler in the
expedition to New Orleans, April, 1862, and rendered
important services as chief engineer of Butler's army.
He commanded a brigade under General Banks in
Louisiana in 1863, and a division in the operations
against Petersburg, Virginia, in the summer of 1864.
He was designated by General Grant to command the
land-forces of an expedition against Wilmington in
December, 1864, but he actually served as second in
command under General Butler, and decided that it
would be a rash sacrifice of life to assault the fort with
6000' men. His command was foremost in the occupa
tion of Richmond, April 3, 1865. He is a major of
engineers in the regular army.
See REID, " Ohio in the War," 1868, p. 789.
Weitzel, wlt'sel, (JOHANNES,) a German writer and
journalist, born at Johannisberg in 1771. He published
a "History of Political Science," "Letters from the
Rhine," and other works, on various subjects. Died in
1837.
Wel'by, (AMELIA B.,) an American poetess, born at
Saint Michael's, Maryland, in 1821. She subsequently
removed to Louisville, Kentucky, where she contributed
numerous poems to the " Louisville Journal," under the
signature of "Amelia." Died in 1852.
See GRISWOLD, "Female Poets of America."
Welch, QOHN,) a Scottish minister, born about 1570,
married a daughter of John Knox. He preached at
Ayr, was banished in 1606 or 1616, and went to France.
Died about 1622.
Welch'man, (EDWARD,) an English clergyman, born
at Banbury about 1665. He became Archdeacon of
Cardigan, and published "The Thirty-Nine Articles
illustrated with Notes." Died in 1739.
Welcker, wel'ker, (FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB,) an emi
nent philologist and antiquary, born at Griinberg in 1784.
Having studied at Giessen, he resided two years at
Rome, and, after his return, became successively pro
fessor of archaeology and Greek literature at Giessen
and Gottingen, and professor of philology at Bonn,
being also appointed chief librarian in the last-named
university. Among his numerous and valuable works
we may name "Die Aeschyleische Trilogie Prometheus,"
etc., "On a Cretan Colony in Thebes, the Goddess
Europa and Cadmus," (1824,) "The Epic Cyclus; or,
The Homeric Poets," (1835,) and "Short Essays on
Grecian Literary History," (1844.) He also wrote "The
Life of Zoega, with a Collection of his Letters," etc.
Died in 1868.
See BROCKHAUS. " Conversations-Lexikon."
Welcker, (KARL THEODOR,) a brother of the pre
ceding, was born in Upper Hesse in 1790. lie studied
at Giessen and Heidelberg, and subsequently became
professor of law at Kiel. He was elected to the Upper
Chamber of Baden in 1831, and soon after assisted in
founding the Liberal journal entitled " Der Freisinnige."
P"or the political opinions expressed in this gazette he
was arrested, but released after a short imprisonment.
He was a deputy to the German National Assembly in
1848. He wrote several able political treatises, and
assisted Rotteck in the "Staatslexikon." Died in 1869.
Weld, (CHARLES RICHARD,) an English writer, born
at Windsor in 1818. He wrote a " History of the Royal
Society," (1847,) and other works.
Weld, (Rev. LEWIS,) an American clergyman, born
in Hampton, Connecticut, about 1796. He was principal
of the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Hartford.
Died in 1853.
His brother, THEODORE D., was distinguished as an
opponent of slavery.
Weld, (THOMAS,) an English cardinal, born in Dor
setshire in 1773; died in 1837.
Welden, von, fon wel'den, (LuDWiG,) BARON, a
German officer, born in Wiirtemberg in 1782. He
served against the French in the campaigns of 1813-15,
and was made lieutenant-field-marshal in 1836. He died
in 1852, having been previously appointed master of
the ordnance.
Wel'dpn, (JOHN,) an eminent English composer of
church music, was born at Chichester about 1670. He
was a pupil of Henry Purcell, and in 1708 became
organist of the chapel royal. His anthems are regarded
as master-pieces ; he also produced several songs, and
other works of great merit. Died in 1736.
Welee-ed-Deen or Weli-Eddin, wel'ee ed-deen',
(Ahmed, aH'med,) a famous Turkish poet, born about
1438. He obtained the office of vizier under Mahomet
II. Died in 1495.
Welhaven, wel'ha'ven, QOHANN SEBASTIAN,) a
Norwegian poet, born at Bergen in 1807, has published
"Half a Hundred Poems," (" Halvhundret Digte,"
1848,) "Pictures of Travel and Poems," (" Reisebilleder
og Digte," 1851,) and a criticism on the poet Wergeland,
entitled " Henrik Wergeland's Poetry and Polemics."
He became professor of philosophy at Christiania in
1846.
Wellekens, wel'leh-kens, (JOHN BAPTIST,) a Dutch
pastoral poet, born at Alost in 1658, passed eleven years
in Italy, whither he went about 1676. His idyls are
praised as natural and true. Died at Amsterdam in 1726.
Wellens, wel'lens, (JACQUES THOMAS JOSEPH,) a
learned and benevolent Flemish ecclesiastic, born at
Antwerp in 1726, became bishop of his native city.
Died in 1784.
Weller, wel'ler, [Lat. WELLE'RUS,] (JAKOB,) a Ger
man scholar and theologian, born in 1602, became
professor of Oriental languages at Wittenberg, and in
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 0; th as in Mw.
xplanations, p. 23.)
WELLER
2250
WELLINGTON
1646 first court preacher at Dresden. His "New Greek
Grammar" ("Grammatica Graeca Nova") was highly
esteemed by his contemporaries. Died in 1664.
See REICHMANN, "Memoria J. Welleri," 1664.
Weller, wel'ler, [Lat. WELLE'RUS,] (JEROME or
HIERONYMUS,) a German theologian, born at Freyberg,
in Misnia, in 1499. He was in early youth a favourite
disciple of Luther, in whose house he lived eight years.
He became professor of theology at Freyberg, and
propagated the doctrines of Luther by his sermons and
writings, which had a high reputation. Died in 1572.
See LEMMEL, " Wellerus redivivus ;" HEMPEL, " Life of Weller,"
in Latin verse.
Wellerus. See WELLER.
Welles, w£lz, (GIDEON,) an American politician, born
in Hartford county, Connecticut, in 1802. He studied
law, and became about 1826 editor of the "Hartford
Times," a Democratic journal. He was elected to the
legislature of Connecticut in 1827, and was appointed
chief of one of the bureaus of the navy department in
1846. About 1854 he separated from the Democratic
party in regard to the extension of slavery, and joined
the Republicans. He was appointed secretary of the
navy in March, 1861, and, after the death of President
Lincoln, was retained in office by Johnson until the close
of his administration in March, 1869. j3<-&<&, r&y8 •
Wellesley, (Sir ARTHUR.) See WELLINGTON.
Wellesley, svelz'le, (Lord CHARLES,) the second son
of the first Duke of Wellington, was born in Dublin in
1808. He entered the army, and became a colonel about
1851. He was elected in 1842 a member of the House
of Commons, in which he voted with the Conservatives.
Died in 1858^
Wellesley, (RICHARD COLLEY,) Marquis Wellesley,
an able statesman, born in Dublin in 1760, was the eldest
son of Garret, first Earl of Mornington, and was a
brother of the famous Duke of Wellington. He studied
at Eton, and distinguished himself as a classical scholar.
At the death of his father, in 1781, he became Earl of
Mornington, and entered the Irish House of Lords. He
gained the favour of George III. by his course on the
subject of the regency in 1789, and at the next general
election was returned to the English House of Commons
for Windsor. In 1793 he was sworn in a member of the
British privy council. He was appointed Governor-
General of India in October, 1797, and raised to the
British peerage, as Baron Mornington. In 1798 he
declared war against Tippoo Sahib, Sultan of Mysore,
who had given offence by intrigues or negotiations with
the French. The British army gained victories at Mal-
lavelly and Seringapatam, and Tippoo was killed in
battle in 1799. Lord Mornington was created Marquis
Wellesley in December, 1799. About 1803 he waged
war against the Mahrattas, from whom he conquered
the region between the Ganges and Jumna. He resigned
in 1805, became secretary of state for foreign affairs in
December, 1809, and retired from that office in January,
1812. On the death of Mr. Perceval, (1812,) the Marquis
Wellesley, at the request of the prince-regent, made an
unsuccessful effort to form a coalition ministry. He was
appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland in December, 1821.
Being a zealous friend of Catholic emancipation, he
resigned when his brother, the Duke of Wellington,
became prime minister, in 1828, because the duke
opposed the Catholic claims. He served as lord lieu
tenant of Ireland for a short time in 1833-34. He died
in September, 1842, leaving no children, although he
was twice married.
See R. R. PEARCE, " Memoirs and Correspondence of Marquis
Wellesley," 3 vols., 1846.
Wel'ling-ton, (ARTHUR WELLESLEY,) first DUKE
OF, a celebrated British general and statesman, born in
Dublin or at Dangan Castle, in the county of Meath,
Ireland, on the ist of May, 1769. He was the third son
of Garret Wesley, first Earl of Mornington, and Anne
Hill Trevor, a daughter of Viscount Dungannon. The
original name of the family was exchanged for Wellesley
about 1797 by the subject of this article or by his eldest
brother. He was educated at Eton and at a military
academy of Angers, in France. He received in March,
1787, a commission as ensign in the seventy-third regi
ment of foot, became a lieutenant in December of that
year, and obtained the rank of captain in June, 1791.
Having been raised to the rank of major in April, 1793,
he acquired by purchase that of lieutenant-colonel of
the thirty-third regiment of foot in September of the
same year. In 1794 he served in the Low Countries
under the Duke of York, whom the French general
Pichegm compelled to retreat to Bremen. During this
disastrous retreat Colonel Wesley commanded a brigade,
and distinguished himself by his skill and intrepidity.
Having been promoted to the rank of colonel in 1796,
he was ordered to India, where he arrived in February,
1797. In 1798 his eldest brother, Lord Mornington,
became Governor-General of India, and declared war
against Tippoo Sahib. Colonel Wellesley contributed
to the victory of Mallavelly and the capture of Seringa
patam, of which he was appointed governor in July,
1799. "During several years that he held the command
in Mysore," says C. MacFarland, " he was fully occupied
in organizing the civil and military administration of
the country ; and in the execution of this task he im
proved his natural talents for business, and displayed
that quickness of perception and that sagacity and self-
command which have characterized him throughout the
whole course of his military career."
He obtained the rank of major-general in April, 1802,
was appointed to the chief command of all the British
and allied troops serving in the territories of the Peishwa
and the Nizam in 1803, and gained a decisive victory
over the Mahrattas at Assaye in September of that year.
In this battle he had two horses killed under him.
Having obtained in February, 1805, leave to return to
England, he arrived there in the ensuing September.
In the next November he was sent to Holland with
an army which was commanded by Lord Cathcart, and
which returned to England in February, 1806, without
having encountered the enemy.
In April, 1806, Sir Arthur Wellesley married Lady
Catherine Pakenham, a daughter of the Earl of Long
ford. He was returned to the House of Commons for
the borough of Rye in 1806, and was appointed chief
secretary for Ireland in April, 1807. In August of that
year he commanded a division of the army which in
vaded Denmark, and defeated the Danes at Kioge. He
was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general in April,
1808, and in the ensuing June was appointed com-
mander-in-chief of an army of about 10,000 men which
was sent to Spain to fight against the French. He
reached Corunna in July ; but, as the Spanish Junta
declined the assistance of a British auxiliary force, he
landed at Mondego Bay, in Portugal, which country was
then occupied by a French army under Junot. The
British forces, marching towards Lisbon, defeated a divi
sion of the Frenclvarmy at Roli9a in August, 1808. A
few days after this affair his army was largely reinforced,
but he was superseded in the command. The ministers
appointed Sir Hew Dalrymple commander-in-chief, Sir
Harry Burrard second in command, and Sir John Moore
third. Sir Arthur was thus reduced from first to fourth
in command. He repulsed the French who attacked
him at Vimeira, August 21. The French having evacu
ated Portugal, in accordance with the Convention of
Cintra, in September, 1808, Sir Arthur Wellesley re
turned to England, and resumed the place of chief
secretary for Ireland. In January, 1809, he received
the thanks of Parliament for his services in Portugal.
The victorious march of Napoleon to Madrid aird the
defeat of Sir John Moore at Corunna induced the British
government to increase their forces in the Peninsula
and to aid both the Portuguese and Spaniards. General
Wellesley, having been appointed commander-in-chief,
arrived at Lisbon in April, 1809, and found himself at
the head of an army of about 25,000 men. On the I2th
of May he defeated Soult at Oporto. The passage of
the river Douro at this time, in the presence of 10,000
Frenchmen, is considered one of his most brilliant
achievements. About the end of June, 1809, he marched
into Spain, which was occupied by several French
armies, widely separated, and commanded by Soult,
Victor, Suchet, and others. A Spanish army under
General Cuesta took the field against the French and
a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m§t; n6t; good; moon;
WELLINGTON
2251
WELLINGTON
joined the army of General Wellesley, who encountered
Marshal Victor on the 22d of July at Talavera. In the
battle which ensued at this place, the British claimed
the victory, but they did not pursue the retiring enemy.
Sir Arthur wrote, on the 24th of July, " I am not able
to follow the enemy as I could wish, . . . owing to my
having found it impossible to procure even one mule or
cart in Spain. My troops have been in actual want of
provisions for the last two days." Victor, having been
reinforced, attacked the British at Talavera on the 271)1
of July, renewed the fight on the 28th, and was repulsed
with heavy loss. The approach of several French armies,
superior in number to his own, induced Sir Arthur to
retreat by way of Badajoz towards Portugal. He after
wards pursued a cautious Fabian policy. In September,
1809, he was raised to the peerage, with the titles of
Baron Douro of Wellesley and Viscount Wellington of
Talavera.
The battle of Talavera was the last action of the
British army in the campaign of 1809. A large Spanish
army was routed, with great loss, at Ocana in Novem
ber, and about the same time the French defeated
another army of 20,000 Spaniards. On learning these
events, Lord Wellington wrote, " I lament that a cause
which promised so well a few weeks ago should have
been so completely lost by the ignorance, presumption,
and mismanagement of those to whose direction it was
intrusted." He prepared for the campaign of 1810
by the construction of the celebrated lines of Torres
Vedras, near Lisbon, and fixed his head-quarters at
Viseu in January. His army, including the Portuguese,
amounted to about 54,000 men. A large French army,
commanded by Massena, approached Portugal from the
northeast in the summer of 1810. The French having
taken Almeida in August, after a short siege, Lord Wel
lington fell back to the valley of the Mondego, and took
a strong position near Coimbra, along the ridge of
Busaco. Here he was attacked on the 271)1 of Septem
ber by the French, who were repulsed, with a loss which
the English writers estimate at 4000 killed and wounded.
A few days after this battle, Lord Wellington was com
pelled to retreat towards Lisbon. His army entered
the strong defences of Torres Vedras about the 8th of
October. Massena made several unsuccessful attacks
on these lines, lost many men by disease, and retired in
November to Santarem, where he passed the winter.
Thus ended the campaign of 1810. Lord Wellington
complained that he was not efficiently supported by the
Portuguese regency, some members of which perversely
endeavoured to thwart his plans. In a letter dated
October 6, addressed to Mr. Stuart, he says, " As for
Principal Souza, I beg you to tell him, from me, that I
have had no satisfaction in transacting the business of
his country since he has been a member of the govern
ment. . . . Either he must quit the country, or I will."
During the months of January and February the
hostile armies in Portugal remained stationary. Mar
shal Soult, who commanded in Andalusia, was ordered
to act in concert with Massena by attacking Portugal
south of the Tagus. Massena, whose position was ren
dered untenable by want of provisions, began about the
4th of March to move his army northward, and was
followed by the British. On the nth of March the
strong fortress of Badajoz was taken by Marshal Soult.
The British army defeated that of Massena on the 3d
of April, at the battle of Sabugal, which Lord Welling
ton described as " one of the most glorious actions that
British troops were ever engaged in." On the 6th the
French crossed the Aguecla into Spain, and thus ter
minated their invasion of Portugal. They left a garrison
in Almeida, which was blockaded by the British. In
order to relieve this garrison, Massena marched back
from Ciudad Rodrigo and attacked the enemy at Fuentes
de Onoro. After a pitched battle, which ended on the
5th of May, the French were repulsed, and abandoned
Almeida.
In the mean time an allied army under General
Beresford invested Badajoz about the 4th of May, and
Marshal Soult moved, with inferior numbers, to relieve
that place. The armies met at Albuera on the i6th of
May, and a severe battle ensued, in which the allies
claimed the victory, but admitted that they lost about
7000 men killed and wounded. Soult retired to Seville,
and Lord Wellington, who arrived at Albuera about the
2Oth of May, ordered the siege of Badajoz to be re
sumed. Having failed in several attempts to take that
place by assault in June, he retired towards the north
of Portugal, and remained on the defensive, in a position
on the Coa, during the autumn of 1811. "Wellington
was aware," says Jules Maurel, " that Fortune could not
change sides at a leap, and that it was only after repeated
trials that you could win her favours ; . . . and that
before acquiring the art of gaining great victories it was
necessary to begin by learning to avoid defeats, and for a
time to decline all engagements." Having gained the
confidence of his troops by his extraordinary success
while acting on the defensive, he at length assumed
the offensive, and showed, when those qualities were
demanded, that his enterprise and promptitude were
not inferior to his prudence.
In January, 1812, he made a rapid march to Ciudad
Rodrigo, which he took by storm on the igth of that
month. He also took Badajoz in April, before the
French army could come to relieve that place. In the
assault of Badajoz the allies lost 1000 killed and 3786
wounded. On the 22d of July Lord Wellington gained
an important victory over Marshal Marmont at Sala
manca. He entered Madrid in triumph on the I2th of
August, soon after which Soult raised the blockade of
Cadiz and concentrated his forces at Granada. Leaving
two divisions at Madrid, Wellington moved his army
northward, entered Valladolid on the 7th of September,
and marched thence to Burgos, the castle of which was
defended by a garrison of 2000 Frenchmen. He spent
nearly five weeks in the siege of this place, which he
could not take, and about the 2ist of October he began
to retreat towards Portugal through Salamanca, closely
pursued by General Souham. The campaign of 1812
closed without any other battles. The British general
was rewarded for his victory at Salamanca by the title of
Marquis of Wellington. About the end of 1812 he was
appointed commander-in-chief of the Spanish armies by
the regency of Spain.
The campaign of 1813 opened in May, by the march
of the allies across the Dour.o to Valladolid. The
French army, abandoning Burgos on the I2th of June,
retired across the Ebro, and were overtaken at Vitoria,
where Wellington gained a decisive victory over Mar
shal Jourdan on the 2ist of June. The allies took here
an immense quantity of booty.
When Napoleon received' tidings of the disaster at
Vitoria, he sent Soult to Spain as commander-in-chief.
Soult attacked the allies near Pampeluna on the 28th
and 3Oth of July, but was repulsed. These actions are
sometimes called "The Battles of the Pyrenees." Thus
was terminated the French occupation of Spain.
Wellington's success in the wars of the peninsula
must be ascribed in no small measure to the character
which he established for probity and truthfulness. With
true moral heroism, he refused to indulge in the slightest
misrepresentation, even to save his own fame. In this
respect his character presents a striking contrast to that
of his great antagonist, Napoleon. In one of his de
spatches he says, "I see a disposition exists to blame
the government for the failure of the siege of Burgos.
The government had nothing to say to the siege ; it
was entirely my own act." When his allies in Portugal
and Spain became at length acquainted with his charac
ter, they believed with implicit confidence whatever he
told them, and he thus acquired a moral power equal to
the force of mighty armies. Afterwards, in carrying out
a policy as wise as it was humane, he refused even in an
enemy's country (in France) to allow his own troops, or
those of his Spanish allies, to support themselves by
plunder, for his object was not merely to maintain his
army, but to conciliate the people. He had been among
the first to perceive how an opposite policy towards the
nations he had conquered was gradually, but surely, un
dermining the colossal power of Napoleon ; the plainest
dictates of common sense, as well as motives of a higher
character, preserved Wellington from the commission of
a similar error.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (J^P'See Explanations, p. 23.)
WELLINGTON
2252
WELLS
About the loth of November Lord Wellington marched
across the frontier into France. He fought with success
several battles near Bayonne between the gth and 131!!
of December, 1813. On the 27th of February, 1814, he
defeated Soult at Orthez, from which the French retreated
to Toulouse. The allies gained another victory at Tou
louse on the roth of April, but they lost in this battle
about 4600 men. The report of the abdication of Na
poleon arrived at Toulouse on the I2th, and hostilities
were suspended on the i8th of April. Wellington was
rewarded with the title of duke on the 3d of May, and,
after visits to Paris and Madrid, took leave of his army
on the I4th of June. Having returned to England, he
took his seat in the House of Lords on the aSth of June.
The House of Commons voted ,£400,000 for the support
of his dignity. In August, 1814, he was sent as ambas
sador-extraordinary to the court of France. With sev
eral colleagues, he represented England at the Congress
of Vienna, which assembled in January, 1815. He was
at Vienna when he received intelligence that Napoleon
had returned to France.
In April Wellington was appointed commander-in-
chief of the army in Flanders, consisting of about 76,000
men, mostly British and Dutch. A Prussian army under
General Bliicher, who had about 80,000 men, was ready to
act in concert with Wellington. To oppose these armies
Napoleon raised about 115,000 men. On the nth of
June the French emperor quitted Paris to open the cam
paign, and exclaimed, " I go to measure myself with this
Wellington," ("Je vais me mesurer avec ce Villainton.")
Wellington attended a ball at Brussels on the evening of
the 1 5th of June, and his army began to march on the
morning of the i6th. The Prussians were defeated with
severe loss at Ligny on the afternoon of the l6th, and
about the same time an indecisive battle was fought
between Marshal Ney and the allies at Quatre-Bras. Blii
cher is said to have lost about 12,000 killed and wounded
at Ligny. On the morning of the 171)1, Wellington made
a retrograde movement on Waterloo, where he was at
tacked by the French about ten A.M. on the i8th of June.
According to J. Maurel, Wellington had then 70,000
men, of whom 37,890 were British ; and Napoleon had
75,000, excluding the detachment of Grouchy. It was
the object of Napoleon to drive the enemy from his
position before the arrival of the Prussian army. He
had made several obstinate attacks, without success, when
General Bulow reached the field with 16,000 Prussians,
at four P.M., and decided the victory. Bliicher arrived
about seven o'clock, and pursued the retreating French.
The loss of the victors on this day was immense. The
British and Hanoverians alone lost 2432 killed and
9528 wounded.
Wellington and the allied armies entered Paris with
out resistance about the 7th of July. He restrained the
excesses of Bliicher, who was about to blow up the bridge
of Jena and to commit other acts of vengeance. His
first thought after the victory of June 18 was to favour
the restoration of Louis XVIII. and to oppose the dis
memberment of France. The allied powers resolved to
maintain an army of occupation in France for five years,
and gave the command of that army to the Duke of
Wellington. By his advice, the period was^ shortened,
and the allied army evacuated France about the end of
1818. He became master-general of the ordnance and
a member of the cabinet in January, 1819, represented
England at the Congress of Verona in 1822, and was
sent on a mission to Russia in 1826. He succeeded the
Duke of York as commander-in-chief of the forces in
January, 1827.
In politics Wellington was a staunch Tory. It is not
improbable that the long contest which he maintained in
order to preserve Europe from the revolutionary or in
novating spirit of the French may have contributed to
strengthen those principles of rigid conservatism by
which his political career was distinguished. When
Canning became premier, in April, 1827, Wellington
resigned his place in the cabinet, and succeeded Lord
Goderich as prime minister in January, 1828. The new
ministry opposed the motion of Lord John Russell to
repeal the test and corporation acts, but were defeated
by a majority of forty-four in the House of Commons.
Wellington then yielded, and procured its passage in the
House of Lords. lie was an opponent of free trade
and electoral reform, both of which were demanded by
an ever-growing majority of the nation. He at first
resisted the effort to emancipate the Roman Catholics
from civil and political disabilities, but at length deemed
it expedient to yield to the popular will. The bill for
the relief of Roman Catholics was passed by large
majorities in both houses in March and April, 1829.
The strength of the Tory party was impaired by the
death of George IV., June, 1830, and the French revo
lution of the ensuing month gave an impetus to the cause
of reform in England. In the new Parliament, which
met in October, 1830, the friends of reform had a
majority, but the duke assumed an attitude of obstinate
resistance to the movement. He declared that " the
country already possessed a legislature which answered
all the good purposes of legislation ; that the system of
representation possessed the full and entire confidence
of the country." Having provoked a violent excitement
by such language, and rendered himself extremely
unpopular, he resigned in November, 1830. He was
hooted by the populace of London on the i8th of June,
1832. In December, 1834, Sir Robert Peel became
prime minister, and the Duke of Wellington secretary
for foreign affairs. They resigned in April, 1835. He
had a seat in the cabinet formed by Peel in 1841, but
was not charged with official functions. Although he
had opposed the repeal of the corn-laws, his influence
decided the House of Lords to consent to the repeal
after it had passed the House of Commons in May, 1846.
He died at Walmer Castle on the I4th of September,
1852, leaving his title to his eldest son, Arthur, who is
the present Duke of Wellington. He also had a son
Charles.
Comparing the Duke of Wellington with Napoleon,
General William F. P. Napier says, " Firm, tranquil,
and stubborn in resistance, vehement and obstinate in
attack ; bold, when there was a call for daring ; more
inclined to operate by a flank than by a front attack — in
all these things they resembled and matched each other ;
but in the art of following up his point and of making
the most of victory, the English general was far behind
Napoleon. The battle of Wellington was like the heavy
blow of the battering-ram, that strikes straight and hard
and makes a great hole in the wall. The battle of Na
poleon was like the rush and irruption of a gigantic sea,
which, descending from a mighty height, bursts through
all obstacles and inundates the whole country to a great
distance."
See JULES MAUREL, "Wellington: his Character, his Actions,
and his Writings," 1853; W. H. MAXWELL, "Life of the Duke of
Wellington," 3 vols., 1839; CHAKLES MACFARLANE, " Life of the
Duke of Wellington," 1851 ; SOUTHEY, " Life of Wellington," 1821 ;
SHEREK, " Military Memoirs of the Duke of Wellington," 2 vols.,
1832 ; WILSON, " Life of the Duke of Wellington," 2 vols., 1853-55 ;
DE BRIAI.MONT, " Vie du Due de Wellington," 3 vols., 1858; GLEIG,
"Life of Wellington," 1862; CHARLES D. YONGE, " Life of Welling
ton," 1860; L. DE LOMENIE, "Lord Wellington, par un Hoinme de
Rien," 1842; GEORGE ELLIOT, "Life of the Duke of Wellington,"
1814; GEORGE SOANE, "Life of the Duke of Wellington," 2 vols.,
1839-40; A. COOPER, "Life of Arthur, Duke of Wellington," 1850;
W. F. P. NAPIER, " History of the War in the Peninsula;" "De
spatches and Correspondence of the Duke ot Wellington," published
by COLONEL GURWOOD, 12 vols., 1852 ; " London Quarterly Review"
for April and July, 1815, and July, 1866.
Wells, (CHARLES WILLIAM,) a distinguished physi
cian, of Scottish extraction, born at Charleston, South
Carolina, in 1757. Having studied at Edinburgh, he
settled in London, and was appointed in 1800 physician
to Saint Thomas's Hospital. He was a Fellow of the
Royal Society, and contributed to their "Transactions"
" Experiments on the Colour of the Blood," and other
treatises. His principal work is an "Essay upon Dew,"
(1814,) which is highly esteemed. Died in 1817.
See his Autobiography, 1821.
Wells, (EDWARD,) an English divine, born in Wilt
shire about 1665, published "The Geography of the Old
and New Testament," and other works. Died in 1727.
Wells, (HORACE,) M.D., born at Hartford, Vermont,
January 21, 1815, studied and practised dentistry in
Boston. He appears to have been the first to employ
anaesthetics successfully, by means of inhalation, for the
purpose of destroying pain in dental operations. On
a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon;
WELLS
2253
WENTZEL
the nth of December, 1844, Dr. Wells, then residing at
Hartford, Connecticut, was placed, at his own request,
under the influence of nitrous oxide gas, and a large
molar tooth was extracted by Mr. Riggs, causing scarcely
any perceptible pain. After that date, Dr. Wells, and
other dentists of Hartford, continued with great success
to employ the nitrous oxide gas as an anaesthetic for
nearly two years, when, attention having been directed —
chiefly through the efforts of Wm. T. G. Morton, of
Boston — to the anaesthetic properties of sulphuric ether
and chloroform, those agents, as being more easily pro
cured or applied, were generally substituted for the
nitrous oxide gas. Dr. Wells, while investigating with
his usual ardour the relative value of these different an
aesthetics, seriously injured himself, as it would appear,
by the inhalation of chloroform, so that, his reason being
unhinged, he committed suicide in New York in January,
1848. In weighing the respective claims of Dr. Wells
and Dr. Morton, we feel bound, after a careful examina
tion, to award to the former the credit of having been
the first to conceive of, and to carry to a successful issue,
the use of anaesthetic inhalation in surgical operations,
while to the latter belongs the distinguished merit of
having done more than any other, or all others, to make
this invaluable discovery known to people of all classes
and in both hemispheres.
See " Testimonial of the Members of the Medical Profession of
Philadelphia, New York, and Boston in behalf of W. T. G. Morton,
M.U.," i Mo; and an "Inquiry into the Origin of Modern Anaes
thesia," by the HON. TKUMAN SMITH, 1867, including a "Life of
Horace Wells, M.D.," by L>R. P. W. ELLSWORTH.
Wells, (JoHN DOANE,) an American physician, emi
nent as a lecturer on anatomy, was born in Boston in
1799. He was professor of anatomy in the medical
school of Maine. Died in Boston in 1830.
Wellwood, (Sir HENRY MOXCRIEFF.) See MON-
CKIKFF, (IlKNKY.)
Well'wood, (JAMES or THOMAS,) a Scottish phy
sician and writer, born near Edinburgh in 1652, pub
lished "Memoirs of English Affairs from 1588 to the
Revolution of 1688." Died in 1716.
Welschow, ve'l'sho, (JOHANN MATTHIAS,) a Danish
historian, born in Copenhagen in 1796. He has written
on Danish history.
Welser, wSl'ser, or Velser, (BARTHOLOMAUS,) a
German nobleman of great wealth, was a native of
Augsburg. He was patronized by the emperor Charles
V., who made him a privy councillor.
Welser, [Lat. VELSE'RUS,] (MARCUS,) a German
scholar, born at Augsburg in 1558. He wrote several
historical and philological treatises, in Latin, and was an
intimate friend of Galileo, who dedicated to him one of
his works. Died in 1614.
See C. ARNOLD, "Vita M. Velseri," 1682.
Welser, (PHILIPPINE,) a niece of Bartholomaus, no
ticed above, was celebrated for her beauty and talents,
and was privately married in 1550 to the archduke
Ferdinand, son of the emperor Ferdinand I. After her
father-in-law became reconciled to the marriage, he
created her Margravine of Burgau. Died in 1580.
Wel'sted, (LEONARD,) an English poet, bum in
Northamptonshire in 1689. His principal poem is en
titled "The Triumvirate," (1718,) and is supposed to
have been intended for a satire on Pope, who retaliated
by his allusions to Welsted in the second and third
books of the " Dunciad." Died in 1749.
Wenceslaus, weVses-laus or wgnt'ses-lowss', [Fr.
WENCESLAS, v6N'ses'las',] or Wenzel, wlnt'sel, son of
the emperor Charles IV. of Germany, was born in 1361.
He was proclaimed King of the Romans in 1376, and
succeeded his father in 1378. He displayed the weakness
and cruelty of his character by cancelling the debts owed
by the nobles to the Jews, and confiscating the property
of three thousand of that sect who had been murdered
by a mob at Prague. He also caused John Nepomuk
to be drowned in the Moldau. Having made many
powerful enemies by forsaking the cause of Pope Boni
face IX., whom he had formerly supported against the
anti-pope Benedict XIII., he was deposed in a Diet at
Frankfort, (1400,) and the Elector-Palatine Rupert was
chosen in his stead. He died in 1419, having previously
abdicated in favour of his brother Sigismund, who had
been chosen emperor on the death of Rupert.
See F. M. PEI.ZEL, " Lebensgeschichte des Romischen und
Bbhmischen Konigs Wenceslaus," 1788-90.
Weii'ges-laus or Wen'ges-las I, King of Bohemia,
born in 1205, began to reign in 1230. He was a patron
of arts and learning, and exerted much influence in the
affairs of Germany. Died in 1253.
Wenceslaus or Wenceslas II., King of Bohemia
'and Poland, a grandson of the preceding, was born in
1271. He succeeded his father in 1278, and was chosen
King of Poland in 1300. Died in 1305.
Wenceslaus or Wenceslas III., a son of the pre
ceding, was born in 1289. He died, without issue, in
1306.
Wenceslaus or Wenceslas IV. OF BOHEMIA. See
WENCESLAUS, Emperor of Germany.
Wenceslaus, -Cvent'ses-lowss', [Fr. WENCESLAS, v6N'-
seVlas',] or Wenzel, -wgnt'sel, SAINT, Duke of Bohemia,
born about 908, was converted to Christianity by his
paternal grandmother Ludmila. He was distinguished
for the sanctity of his life, and refused the crown of
Bohemia, which was offered him by the emperor Otho I.
He was assassinated in 936, at the instigation of his
mother Drahomira and his brother Boleslaw.
See F. X. SCHULDES, " Der heilige Wenzel dargestellt," etc.,
1848.
Wendelin, weVde-leen', [Fr. VENDELIN, vSN'deh-
laN',] (GoDEFROi,) a Flemish astronomer and scholar,
born at La Lampine in 1580. He became canon of
Tournay, and published various works, among which is
"Lunar Eclipses observed from 1573 to 1640." It is
stated that he determined the parallax of the sun. Died
in 1660.
Wendover. See ROGER DE WENDOVER.
Wendt, <v£nt, (JOHANN AMADEUS,) a German writer,
born at Leipsic in 1783, became professor of philosophy
at Gottingen. He published " Rossini's Life and
Works," (1824,) and was a contributor to various lit
erary periodicals of the time. Died in 1836.
Wengierski, weMig-ge-eR'skee, (ANDREW,) a So-
cinian minister, born in Silesia in 1600. He wrote a
"History of the Slavonian Churches," (1652.) Died
in 1649.
Weiis'ley-dale, (JAMES PARKE,) BARON, an English
jurist, born near Liverpool in 1782. He studied at
Trinity College, Cambridge, and was appointed a baron
of the court of exchequer in 1834. On retiring from the
bench, in 1856, he was raised to the peerage, as Baron
Wensleydale.
Went'wprth, (BENNING,) son of John \Ventworth,
was born at Portsmouth in 1696. He was Governor of
New Hampshire for more than twenty years. The town
of Bennington, in Vermont, was named in his honour.
Died in 1770
Wentworth, (CHARLES W.) See ROCKINGHAM.
Weiitworth, (Sir JOHN,) a nephew of Benning Went
worth, noticed above, was born at Portsmouth in 1736.
He became Governor of New Hampshire in 1768, and
gave its charter to Dartmouth College. Died in 1820.
Wentworth, (Colonel JOHN,) born,, at Dover, New
Hampshire, in 1719, was appointed in 1776 one of the
superior judges of New Hampshire. Died in 1781. His
son, of the same name, born in 1745, was elected to the
Continental Congress in 1778, and twice re-elected.
Died in 1787.
Wentworth, (JoiiN,) an American journalist, born
at Sandwich, Xew Hampshire, in 1815, removed to Illi
nois, and became editor of the "Chicago Democrat."
He was several times elected to Congress, and in 1857
became mayor of Chicago, and again in 1860.
Wentworth, (THOMAS.) See STRAFFORD, EARLOF.
Wentworth, (Wn.LiAM,) born in England about
1610, was one of the early settlers of New Hampshire.
Died in 1697. His grandson JOHN, born in 1671, be
came Lieutenant-Governor of New Hampshire in 1717.
Died in 1730.
Wentzel or Wenzel, <v£nt'sel, (JOHANN CHRIS-
TOPH,) a German poet and physician, born in Eisenach
in 1659. He became principal of the Academy of Zittau
in 1713, and published several poems. Died in 1723.
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; %h as in Mw. (JH^^See Explanations, p. 23.)
WEN- WANG
2254
WERNER
"Wen-Wang, the founder of the Chinese dynasty of
Chow or Cheou, was born about 1230 B.C. He gained
great distinction as a general and as a writer, and was
governor of Chow (Cheou) for many years. He died
aged ninety-seven. His son Woo- (or Wou-) WANG
became Emperor of China.
Wenzel, (Emperor of Germany.) See WENCESLAUS.
Weiizel, SAINT. See WENCESLAUS.
Wepfer, wSp'ier, (JoHN JAMES,) a Swiss physician
and anatomist, born at Schaffhausen in 1620, was the
author of several medical works. Died in 1695.
Weppen, wep'pen, (JOHANN AUGUST,) a German
poet, born at Nordiieim in 1742. He published between
1778 and 1796 a number of poems, which are com
mended.
Werdenhagen, weR'den-ha'gen, (JOHANN ANGE,) a
learned German jurist and diplomatist, born at Helm-
stedt in 1581, published several works. Died in 1652.
Werder, weR'der, (KARL,) a German philosophical
writer, of the school of Hegel, was born at Berlin in
1806. He became assistant professor of philosophy in
the University of Berlin in 1838.
Werder, von, fon wek'der, (DIETRICH,) a German
poet, born at Werdershausen, in Hesse, in 1584. He
became a privy councillor at the court of Cassel. In
1626 he produced a German version of Tasso's " Je
rusalem Delivered." He also translated Ariosto's
"Orlando Furioso," (1632.) These translations are
praised by several writers. Died in 1657.
Werdiii or Weredin. See PAULINUS, (JOHANN
PHTLIPP.)
Werdmuller, weRt'mool'ler, (JOHANN RUDOLPH,) a
Swiss painter, born at Zurich in 1639. He painted
mostly landscapes and portraits. Having commenced
a journey to Paris, he was drowned in the Silh in 1668.
Werdum, van, vitn weVdum, (ULRICH,) a Dutch
historian, born at Werdum, in Friesland, in 1632. He
was privy councillor of East Friesland. He wrote sev-
ral useful works on the history of Friesland. Died
in 1681.
Wer'em-bert or Werimbert, [Lat. WEREMHER'-
TUS,] a learned German monk, born at Curia, (Coire,)
was a brother of Adalbert, a famous general of Charle
magne. He wrote commentaries on the books of Scrip
ture, and other works, and taught at Saint Gall. Died
in 884 A.D.
Werenfels, wa'ren-fgls', (PETER,) a Swiss Protestant
minister, born in 1627, became professor of theology at
Bale about 1675. He wrote several theological works.
Died in 1703.
Werenfels, [Lat. WERENFEL'SIUS,] (SAMUEL,) a
Swiss scholar and theologian, born at Bale in 1657,
was a son of the preceding. He obtained the chair
of eloquence in 1687 at Bale, where he afterwards
became professor of theology. He published, besides
other able works, " On the Controversies of Learned
Men," ("De Logomachiis Eruditorum," 1692.) Died
in 1740.
See P. RYHINER, "Vita S. Werenfelsii," 1741.
Werenfelsius. See WERENFELS.
Werf or Werff, van der, vtn der weuf, (PETER,) a
Dutch patriot, born at Leyden in 1529. He was em
ployed by William the Silent in confidential missions.
As burgomaster of Leyden, he displayed great firmness
and constancy when that city was besieged by the
Spaniards in 1573-74.
Werff or Werf, (ADRIAAN.) See VAN DER WERF.
Wergeland, weVgeh-lant', (HENRIK ARNOLD,) a
celebrated Norwegian poet, born at Christiansand in
1808. He studied at the University of Christiania, where
he was appointed, in 1836, keeper of the library, and, in
1840, archivist of the kingdom. His first publication
was a satirical farce, entitled " Ah !" which appeared
under the pseudonym of SIFUL SIFADDA. It was fol
lowed by a number of similar works, distinguished by
their intensely sectional spirit and political personalities.
Among his most admired productions are the opera
of "The Campbells," (1838,) tragedies entitled "The
Venetians" (1840) and "The Child-Murderess," and
poems entitled " Jan van Huysum's Flower-Piece," and
"The Spaniards." Died in 1845.
Werkmeister, wgRk'mis'ter, (ANDREAS,) a German
composer and writer, born in 1645, was author of " Har-
monologia Musica," and other works. Died in 1706.
Werl, (OLAF.) See VERELIUS.
Werlauff, weVlowf, (ERIK CHRISTIAN,) a Danish
antiquary and historian, born at Copenhagen in 1781,
was appointed first librarian in the Royal Library of
that city about 1828. He made numerous contributions
to the " Antiquariske Annaler" and other literary peri
odicals, assisted Thorlacius in editing the history of
the kings of Norway, and published various learned
works on Scandinavian antiquities.
Werlhof, weid'hof, (JoHANN,) a German jurist, born
at Hehnstedt in 1660. He became aulic councillor to
the Duke of Brunswick, and wrote several legal works.
Died in 1711.
Werlhof, (PAUL GOTTLIEB,) a skilful German phy
sician, born at Helmstedt in 1699. He settled at Han
over in 1725, and became first physician to George II.
of England. He wrote a "Treatise on Fevers," (1745,)
and other medical works, (3 vols., 17/5.) Died in 1707.
Werloschnid, von, fon weK'lo-shmt', (JOHANN BAP
TIST,) a German physician, lived about 1710. lie pub
lished an " Account of the Plague which prevailed in
Austria, Hungary, etc. in 1708-1710."
Wemeck, von, fon weu'nek, (FRANZ,) BARON, an
eminent Austrian general, born at Ludwigsberg, in Wu'r-
temberg, in 1748. He entered the Austrian service
about 1765, became general-major in 1789, and com
manded a corps d'armee in the campaign of 1793 against
the French. He contributed to the victory at Wiirz-
burg in September, 1796, and commanded the army of
the Lower Rhine in 1797, but was soon removed for his
ill success. He was captured, with a division, in 1805.
Died in 1806.
Wer'ner, [Ger. pron.we'R'ner,] ( ABRAHAM GOTTLOB,)
an eminent German geologist and mineralogist, was born
at Wehrau, on the Queiss, in Upper Lusatia, September
25, 1750. He was educated in the school of mines at Frey-
berg, in Saxony, and studied law for three years at Leipsic.
In 1774 he published a short "Treatise on the Charac
ters of Minerals," in which he proposed a methodical
and precise language, the varied terms of which suffice
to express all the sensible qualities of minerals. "This
little essay," says Cuvier, " has made a revolution in
mineralogy, to which the author rendered a service analo
gous to that which Linnaeus had rendered to botanical
science by the terminology explained in his ' Philosophia
Botanica.'" (" Biographic Universelle.") He was ap
pointed in 1775 professor of mineralogy at Freyberg, and
inspector of the cabinet of minerals belonging to that
school. In 1780)16 produced a translation of Cronsteclt's
" Mineralogy." His doctrines were propagated by sev
eral of his pupils, among whom were Karsten, Wiede-
mann, Jameson, and Napione. He applied the term
Geognosy to the science which treats of the respective
positions of minerals in the crust of the globe, and of
the epochs of their origin. He presented the bases of
this science in his "Classification and Description of
Mountains," (1787.) "He was the first," says Cuvier,
" that raised the theory of the earth to the rank of a
positive science by divesting it of the fantastic systems
of which it was for a long time composed." He classi
fied rocks, according to their relative antiquity, injto four
classes or formations : I, the primitive, which contain no
organic remains ; 2, the transition ; 3, the stratified ; and
4, the alluvial beds formed recently. He divined the order
of superposition which has been found almost general
all over the earth, although his sphere of observation
was quite limited. In 1791 he published a "New Theory
of the Formation of Veins." Werner was the author
of the theory known as the Neptunian or Wernerian,
that the primitive and other rocks were formed by
precipitation from water or some liquid. This theory
was controverted by Hutton and others, who attributed
to the primitive rocks an igneous origin, and were called
Vulcanians. He passed nearly all of his mature life at
Freyberg. In 1802 he visited Paris, and was chosen
one of the eight foreign associates of the Academy of
Sciences. He was a very accomplished and popular
lecturer ; but he was not a voluminous writer, having a
a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon;
WERNER
2255
WES LET
peculiar aversion to the act of writing. He was never
married. Died at Dresden in June, 1817.
See CUVIER, " E"loge de Werner ;" FRISCH, " Lebensbeschreibung
A. G. Werners," 1825 ; HASSE, " Denkschrift zvir Erinnerung an A.
G. Werner," 1848; CONFIGUACHI, " Memorie intorno alia Vita dei
due Naturalisti Werner e Haiiy," 1827.
Werner, (FRIEDRICH LUDWIG ZACHARIAS,) an emi
nent German poet and dramatist, born at Konigsberg in
1768. He studied law and finance in the university of
his native town, where he also attended the lectures of
Kant. 1 1 is first drama, entitled "The Sons of the Valley,"
came out in 1800, and was succeeded by his "Twenty-
fourth of February," (" Der Vierundzwanzigster Fe-
bruar,") a tragedy of great power, and esteemed one of
his best works. His other principal productions are the
dramas entitled "The Cross on the Baltic," "Martin
Luther, or the Consecration of Strength," " Kunegunde,''
"The Mother of the Maccabees," and " Attila, King of
the Huns." In 1811 Werner became a Catholic, and,
having been ordained a priest in 1814, settled as a preacher
at Vienna, where he died in January, 1823.
See J. E. HITZIG, " F. L. Z. Werner's Lebensabnss," 1823 ;
SCHUTZ, "Z. Werner's Biographic und Charakteristik, 2 vols.,
i ; MADAME DE STAEI., "Germany," vol. ii. ; GEKVINUS, " Ge-
schichte e'er Deutschen Dichtune;" "Blackwoods Magazine" lor
April, 1827; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Werner or Wer-ne'rus, (JOANNES,) a German as
tronomer, born at Nuremberg in 1468. He wrote a
treatise on " The Movement of the Eighth Sphere," and
"Annotations on the First Book of Ptolemy's Geog
raphy," also several mathematical works. Died in 1528.
Werner, wCR'ner, (JOSEPH,) a Swiss painter, of great
merit, born at Berne in 1637. He studied at Rome,
and was subsequently patronized at the court of Louis
XIV. He excelled in miniatures and in historical pieces
of small size. Among the latter may be named "The
Muses on Parnassus" and "The Death of Dido." Died
in 1710.
Werner, von, fon weVner, (PAUL,) a celebrated
general, born at Raab, in Hungary, in 1707, served with
distinction in Austria, and subsequently in the Prussian
army during the principal campaigns of the Seven Years'
war. In 1760 he delivered Coburg, which was besieged
by the Russians, for which he was made lieutenant-
general by Frederick II., who also caused a medal to be
struck in his honour. Died in 1785-
Wernher, weRn'her, (JOHANN BALTHASAR,) a Ger
man publicist and jurist, born at Rothenburg ; died at
Vienna in 1742.
Wernike, weVne-keh, or Wernigk, weR'nik, written
also Wernack or Warneck, (CHRISTIAN,) a German
epigrammatic poet, born in Prussia about 1670. He was
appointed by the King of Denmark his resident minister
at the French court, and died in Paris about 1720. His
works were highly esteemed in his time, and he is
ranked among the reformers of German poetry.
Wernsdorf, weRns'doRf, [Lat. WERNSDOR'FIUS,]
(GOTTLIEB,) a German theologian and philologist, born
in Saxony in 1668. He became professor of theology
at Wittenberg in 1698, and superintendent or Bishop of
the Lutheran Church in 1719. Died in 1729.
See COI.EK, "De Wernsdorfii Vita."
Wernsdorf, (GOTTLIEB,) a philologist, born at Wit
tenberg in 1710, was a son of the preceding. He was
professor of eloquence and history at Dantzic, and
published several learned works. Died in 1774.
His brother, ERNST FRIEDRICH, born at Wittenberg
in 1718, was a learned writer. He became a preacher and
professor of theology at Wittenberg. Among his works
is a " History of Queen Zenobia," (1742.) Died in 1782.
Wernsdorf, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN,) a brother of the
preceding, was born in 1723. He obtained the chair of
eloquence at Helmstedt in 1752, and published a good
edition of " Poetse Latini minores," (6 vols., 1780-99.)
Died in 1793.
Wernsdorfius. See WERNSDORF.
Werp, weRp, (CHARLES,) a benevolent Flemish priest
and Latin poet, born near Huy in 1592; died in 1666.
Werth, von, fon waiiu, Wert, or Werdt, QOHANN,)
sometimes called JEAN DE WF.F.RT, a celebrated general,
born at Weert, in Brabant, in 1594. He served under
Maximilian of Bavaria in the Thirty Years' war, and
distinguished himself at the battle of Nordlingen ; but
he was defeated in 1638 and made prisoner by Bernard,
Duke of Saxe-Weimar, near Rheinfelden. After his
release he entered the Austrian service. Died in 1652.
See BARTHOLD, "Johann von Werth in Zusammenhange mit
seiner Zeit ;" BAYLE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary."
Wesenbeck, wa'zen-bek', (MATTHEW,) a Flemish
jurist, born at Antwerp in 1531. He became professor
of law at Jena, and removed thence to Wittenberg in
1569. He wrote several legal works, which were highly
esteemed. Died in 1586.
See A. RAUCHBAR, "Wesenbeck's Leben."
Wesenbeck, (PETER,) a jurist, born at Antwerp in
1546, was a brother of the preceding. He lectured on
law at Jena and Wittenberg, and died at Coburg in 1603.
Wes'ley, (CHARLES,) an English preacher and writer
of hymns, born at Epworth in December, 1708, was a
son of Samuel, and a brother of the celebrated John
Wesley. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford,
where his strictness in religion procured for him the
name of Methodist and other names given in derision.
Having taken orders, he sailed for Georgia with his
brother John in 1735, and served as secretary to General
Oglethorpe. They returned to England about the end
of 1736. Charles became an able preacher, and co
operated with John in many of his religious enterprises.
He married Sarah Gwynne in 1749, after which he
preached in London, Bristol, and other places, and
propagated the Methodist doctrines. He also gained
great distinction as a writer of hymns, and composed
many of those used in the Methodist Church. Died
in 1788.
See JACKSON, "Life of the Rev. Charles Wesley;" "Journal of
the Rev. Charles Wesley," 2 vols., 1849.
Wesley, (CHARLES,) a distinguished musician, born
in 1757, was a son of the preceding. He was a skilful
performer on the organ and harpsichord. Died in 1815.
Wesley, (Rev. JOHN,) an English nonconformist
minister, born about 1636, was the father of Samuel
Wesley, noticed below. He was ejected in 1662, after
which he preached at Preston and other places, and
was persecuted by imprisonment. Died about 1670.
Wesley, (JoHN,) a distinguished religious reformer,
the founder of the Society of Methodists, was born at
Epworth, in Lincolnshire, England, on the I7th of June,
1703. He was the second son of Samuel Wesley, noticed
below, and Susannah Annesley. At an early age he
was sent to the Charter-House, from which he passed
in 1720 to Christ Church, Oxford. He was distinguished
at college for his attainments, and especially for his skill
in logic. His mother, who was a very intelligent woman,
and understood Greek and Latin, advised him to make
religion the business of his life. He applied himself to
the study of religion, began to change the form of his
conversation, and was deeply impressed by the perusal
of Jeremy Taylor's " Holy Living and Dying." He was
ordained a deacon in 1725, graduated as M.A. in 1726,
and was elected a Fellow of Lincoln College about that
date. He began about 1726 to record his actions,
thoughts, and experience in a diary, which he continued
to the end of his life. Eight months after his election
to a fellowship he was appointed Greek lecturer and
moderator of the classes. He was employed a's curate
of his father at Wroote about two years, at the end of
which he was summoned to return to Lincoln College.
While he held the curacy at Wroote, he was ordained a
priest of the established Church, (1728.) On his return
to Oxford he found that his brother Charles and several
other students had associated together for religious
improvement, and by their strict and methodical habits
had obtained the name of Methodists. They were also
called, in derision, Bible Moths, the Godly Club, and
Bible Bigots. James Hervey, author of the "Medi
tations," and George Whitefield were members of this
society, which recognized John Wesley as its directing
head. "The good intentions of Wesley and his asso
ciates," says Southey, "could not be questioned; but
they were now running fast into fanaticism." By hard
study, fasting, and habits of austerity, he had reduced
himself to an alarming physical condition ; but, having
put himself under the direction of medical men, he soon
recovered his health.
as k: c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
WES LET
2256
WESSELENTI
In October, 1735, John and Charles Wesley accepted
an invitation to go to Georgia, to preach to the Indians
and the settlers of a colony which General Oglethorpe
had planted there. Among their fellow-passengers in
the voyage to Georgia were twenty-six Moravians, whose
simplicity and piety made a favourable impression on
Wesley. They arrived at Savannah in February, 1736.
As a preacher, John Wesley was not very popular
at Savannah. "He drenched his parishioners," says
Southey, "with the physic of an intolerant discipline."
lie became intimate at Savannah with Sophia Causton,
the daughter of a magistrate at that place, and was in
clined to marry her, but he was dissuaded by the elders
of the Moravian Church, with whom he was on intimate
terms. She afterwards married a Mr. Williamson, and
Wesley excluded her from the communion. For this act
her husband prosecuted him, and numerous persons
conspired to drive him from the colony. He departed
from Savannah in December, 1737, and arrived in Eng
land in February, 1738. About this date he recorded
his conviction that " I, who went to America to convert
others, was never myself converted to God."
Soon after his return he met with Peter Boehler, a
Moravian, who, according to Southey, "became Wes
ley's teacher." "By him," says Wesley, "in the hands
of the great God, I was clearly convinced of unbelief, —
of the want of that faith whereby alone we are saved."
He dated his conversion on the 24th of May, 1738. In
the summer of that year he visited the Moravian brethren
at Herrnhut, and became acquainted with Count Zinzen-
dorf. Having returned to England, he followed the ex
ample of Whitefield (who was then his fellow-labourer)
by preaching in the open air at Bristol, where the foun
dations of the society of Methodists, as an independent
sect, were laid. He continued to profess the doctrines
of the Church of England after he ceased to conform to
its discipline. A difference between Wesley and the
Moravians resulted in a formal separation in 1740.
About 1741 lie ceased to have fellowship with White-
field, in consequence of a disagreement on the doctrine
of predestination, which Wesley rejected with great
earnestness. They exchanged a number of letters on
this fertile topic of dispute. The respective followers
of Wesley and Whitefield then formed themselves into
separate organizations. " No founder of a sect or order,
no legislator, ever understood the art of preserving his
authority more perfectly than Wesley." (Southey, " Life
of Wesley.") " His restless spirit," says Southey, "had
now found its proper sphere, where it might move un
controlled and enjoy a prospect boundless as his desire
of doing good, the ambition which possessed him." He
became an itinerant preacher, and adopted the system
of itinerancy. By this practice, combined with that of
field-preaching, he and his fellow-workers obtained free
access to the lower classes. Another innovation of
Weslqy was the employment of laymen as preachers.
Applicants for membership were not required to sub
scribe any creed or formula.
Wesley performed his mission with the greatest zeal,
and with entire devotion to the cause which formed the
great object of his life. He usually travelled on horse
back, atid very often preached several sermons in a day.
His biographers, Coke and Moore, express the belief
that "there could not be an instance found, during the
space of fifty years, wherein the severest weather hin
dered him even for one day." Field-preaching was at
that time a dangerous service, and, in certain districts,
was frequently interrupted by mobs, which some of
the clergy encouraged and the magistrates did not
restrain. In a few instances Wesley himself barely
escaped being killed. But these persecutions, far from
daunting his courage or abating his zeal, seemed only
to confirm him in the great work to which he had con
secrated his life.
About 1750 he married a widow named Vizelle, who
possessed an independent fortune, but he took care that
it should be settled on herself. But the marriage was
not happy. She annoyed him by her jealousy, opened
his letters, revealed his secrets, and ran away from him
several times. A final separation between him and his
wife took place in 1771.
Wresley published, besides many religions tracts, a
work called "Primitive Physic, or an Easy and Natural
Method of Curing most Diseases," and a " History of
England " His collected works were published, in 32
vols. Svo, in 1774. He was favoured with a vigorous
constitution and a rare activity of spirit, which was not
impaired by old age. "Ten thousand cares," he said,
"were no more burden to his mind than ten thousand
hairs were to his head." He had no children. He died
in London in March, 1791.
Since the days of the apostles to the present time,
probably few, if any, religious teachers have been instru
mental in effecting more good than John Wesley. As
no hardships or dangers were too great for him to under
take in the cause of Christ, so no portion of humanity,
from the highest to the lowest, was beyond the scope of
his all-embracing Christian zeal and sympathy. He not
only sought with particular care to gather into the fold
of Christ the lowest classes of the poor, but he was
among the first to see and feel the iniquity of African
slavery and to labour for its overthrow. The society
which he founded, and which owes in a great measure
its efficiency and its influence to the system which he
organized, embraces at present, in Europe and America,
nearly three millions of souls.
See DK. COKE and MR. MOOKK, " Life of John Wesley," 1792;
J. HAMHSON, " Memoirs of J. Wesley," 1791 ; JOHN WHITKHHAD,
"Life of John Wesley," 2 vols., 1805; ROHHKT Sot'THKV, "Life
of Wesley, and the Rise and Progress of Methodism," 1820 ; ADAM
CI.AKKR, "Memoirs of the Wesley Family;" SCHMIDT, " Des J.
Wesley I.eben," 1849. For an interesting notice of Wesley as a
"Reformer," see " lilackwood's Magazine" for October, 1868.
Wesley, (Rev. SAMUKI.,) an English clergyman and
poet, born at Preston about 1664, was the father of John
Wesley, the founder of Methodism. He was educated at
Exeter College, Oxford, and became a curate in London.
In 1688 he preached a sermon against King James's
Declaration of Indulgence. According to some writers,
he wrote a book in defence of the revolution of 1688, and
was rewarded with the living of Epworth, in Lincoln
shire. He published, besides other poems, " Elegies on
Queen Mary and Archbishop Tillotson," (1605,) ancl
"The History of the Old Testament, in Verse," (1704.)
He also wrote a "Commentary on Job," (1735.) Died
in 1735-
See CLARKE, " Memoirs of the Wesley P'amily," 1823.
Wesley, (SAMUEL,) a teacher and poet, born about
1692, was a son of the preceding. He was educated at
Oxford, took holy orders, and was usher of Westminster
School for many years. His preferment in the Church
was probably hindered by his zealous support of the
Tory party, or his intimacy with Atterbury and other
Jacobites. He became head-master of Tiverton School
in 1732. He wrote a number of poems, which have
some merit. Died in 1739.
See CI.ARKK, "Memoirs of the Wesley Family," 1823. •
"Wesley, (SAMUKI.,) a composer of music, born in
1766, was a son of the Rev. Charles Wesley, noticed
above. He began to compose when he was about eight
years old, and was considered a great prodigy. He
acquired celebrity as an extemporaneous performer on
the organ, and composed sacred music, oratorios, etc.
Died in 1837.
Wessel, wes'sel, or Wesselus, •wes-sa'lus, (JOHN,)
sometimes called GANSKFORT or GOKSKVORT, a Dutch
theologian and Reformer, born at Groningen about 1420.
He studied at Louvain, Heidelberg, and Paris, where
he acquired a high reputation for his knowledge of
philosophy and divinity. He was also surnamed MA-
GISTF.R CONTRADICTIONUM, ("Master of Contradic
tion,") from his skill in dialectics. He attacked with
great boldness the prevailing abuses in the Catholic
Church, and was one of the principal Reformers before
the time of Luther. He died in 1489, leaving a number
of treatises in Latin, some of which were burnt as
heretical.
See CARL Ui. I.MANN, " Johann Wessel, em Voreanser I.nthers,'
834: HODGSON, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867
MUCKUNG, "Commentatio de J. Wesseli Gansfortii Vita," 1831
. BAHKING, "J. Wessel, 1850.
Wesselenyi, w§sh'she'-lan/yee, (MiKi.os,) a Hunga
rian patriot and statesman, born about 1795 ; died in 1850.
a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon;
WESSELING
2257
WESTERM4NN
Wesseling, weVseh-ling', (PETER,) a German scholar,
born at Steinfurt in 1692. He became professor of elo
quence at Franeker, (1723,) and of ancient literature at
Utrecht, (1735.) He published several critical treatises
on the classics, and valuable editions of Herodotus, Dio-
dorus Siculus, and " Vetera Romanorum Itineraria."
He was esteemed one of the most learned men of his
time. Died in 1764.
See HIRSCHING, " Historisch-Hterarisches Handbuch;" SAXE,
" Onomasticon."
Wes'sells, (HENRY W.,) an American general, born
in Litchfield, Connecticut, about 1809, graduated at West
Point in 1833. He became a brigadier-general about
April, 1862. He commanded at Plymouth, North Caro
lina, which was taken by the Confederates, after a brave
defence, April 20, 1864.
Wesselus. See WESSEL.
Wessely, wes'seh-le, (NAPHTALI HARTWIC.,) a Jewish
writer and Hebrew scholar, born at Copenhagen in 1723.
His most important work is a poem, the subject of which
is the vocation or mission of Moses. Died in 1805.
See MEISEL, " Leben und Wirken N. H. Wessely's," 1841; E.
CARMOI.Y, "Wessely et ses Ecrits," 1829.
Wessenberg, wes'sen-beRC/, (!GNAZ HEINRICH
KAKI.,) BARON, a German Catholic theologian, born at
Dresden in 1774. He was appointed in 1802 vicar-
general of the diocese of Constance, and was active in
promoting the use of the German language at mass,
and various other reforms in the Church. Having been
nominated in 1814 by Archbishop Dalberg his coad
jutor in the see of Constance, he was rejected by the
pope, who also wished him to resign his office of vicar-
general. This, however, he declined, being supported
by his sovereign, the Grand Duke of Baden. He was
the author of a treatise " On the Elementary Education
of the People," and other prose works ; also a number
of .poems. Died in 1860.
See "I. H. von Wessenburg, sein Leben und Wirken," by DR. J.
BECK ; " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1848.
Wesseiiberg-Ampringeri, weVsen-be' KG' am'pRing-
en, (Jon ANN PHILIP?,) a German statesman, brother of
the preceding, was born in 1773. He was employed on
missions to Munich, Paris, and the Hague.
West, (BENJAMIN,) an eminent American painter,
born at Springfield, Delaware county, Pennsylvania, on
the loth of October, 1738, was a member of the Society
of Friends. His talent and predilection for the art were
manifested at an early age, and, when seventeen, he began
portrait-painting at Philadelphia. He visited Rome in
1760, where he acquired the friendship of Raphael Mengs.
He soon after took up his residence in London, and, some
of his works having attracted the notice of George III.,
he was thenceforth liberally patronized by that monarch.
His " Death of Wolfe," in which he had the courage and
good taste to depart from the custom of clothing the
figures in classical costume, was greatly admired. His
next important work was "Christ Healing the Sick,"
now in the British National Gallery : a copy of it was
presented by the artist to the Pennsylvania Hospital,
Philadelphia. He succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds as
president of the Royal Academy in 1792. Among his
other pictures may be named the " Departure of Regu-
lus," the "Battle of La Hogue," and "Death on the
Pale Horse," now in the Academy of Fine Arts, Phila
delphia. Died in London in 1820.
See TUCKERMAN, " Book of the Artists ;" DUNLAP, " History of
the Arts of Design in America;" CUNNINGHAM, " Lives of Painters
and Sculptors."
West, (Gii.HERT,) an English writer, born about
1705. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford, and subse
quently held several offices under the government. He
was the author of "Observations on the Resurrection,"
which won for him a high reputation, also a poetical
version of the Odes of Pindar, and several other
translations from the Greek. He was a relative of Pitt,
Earl of Chatham, and of Lord George Lyttleton, who
dedicated to him his " Dissertation on the Conversion
of Saint Paul." Died in 1756.
West, (JAMES,) an English antiquary, born probably
in Warwickshire. He took his degree at Oxford in
1726. He was elected president of the Royal Society
in 1738. He made a rich collection of manuscripts,
prints, medals, etc. Died in 1772.
West, (RICHARD,) an English jurist, born in the
seventeenth century, became chancellor of Ireland in
1715. He published several legal and miscellaneous
works. Died in 1726.
"West, (SAMUEL,) an American theologian, born in
Yarmouth, Massachusetts, in 1730. He preached at
New Bedford, was an active Whig politician, and wrote
on theology and politics. Died in 1807.
"West, (STEPHEN,) D.D., an American Congregational
divine, born at Tolland, Connecticut, in 1735, became
pastor of a church at Stockbridge in 1759. He was the
author of an " Essay on Moral Agency," " An Essay on
the Scripture Doctrine of the Atonement," (1/85,) "Life
of the Rev. Samuel Hopkins," and other theological
works. Died at Stockbridge in 1819.
West, (TuoMAS,) an English writer, born in Lan
cashire, published "A Guide to the Lakes," and other
topographical works. Died in 1779.
West, (W. E.,) an American painter, distinguished
for the excellence of his portraits. He was a friend of
Washington Irving, and made illustrations of his " Pride
of the Village" and "Annette Delarbre." Died in 1857.
See TUCKERMAN, "Book of the Artists;" DUNI.AP, "Rise and
Progress of the Arts of Design in America."
West'all, (RICHARD,) a celebrated English painter
in water-colours, was born at Hertford in 1765. He
was elected a Royal Academician in 1794. Among his
works, which are esteemed master-pieces of the kind,
may be named "The Storm in Harvest," "Sappho in
the Lesbian Shades," and "Jubal, the First Voice of
the Lyre." He also illustrated Moore's "Loves of the
Angels," and furnished designs for Boydell's " Shak-
speare Gallery." He was appointed, in the latter part of
his life, teacher of drawing and painting to the Princess
Victoria. Died in 1836.
Westall, (WILLIAM,) a landscape-painter, a brother
of the preceding, was born at Hertford in 1781. He
studied at the Royal Academy, and subsequently visited
India, China, and Australia. He was elected an Asso
ciate of the Royal Academy in 1812. Among his most
admired works are a "View of Seaforth's Isle, in the
Gulf of Carpentaria," and a series of engraved designs
representing the lakes of Cumberland and Westmore
land. He was an intimate friend of Wordsworth and
Southey. Died in 1850.
See " Gentleman's Magazine" for April, 1850.
Westbury, LORD. See BETHELL, (RICHARD.)
Westenrieder, von, fon weVten-ree'cler, (LoRENZ,)
a German educational writer, born at Munich in 1748,
became professor of rhetoric in his native city. He
published a "History of Bavaria for Youth and the
People," and other historical and geographical works.
Died in 1829.
Westerbaen, weVter-bin', (JACOK,) a Dutch poet,
of a noble family, was born in 1599. He was the author
of songs and other poems, and made translations from
Virgil and other Latin classics. Died in 1670,
See LONGFELLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe."
Westergaard, ves'ter-gond', (NIELS LUDWIG,) a
distinguished Danish Orientalist, born at Copenhagen
in 1815. Having studied at Bonn and visited London
and Paris, he made a tour to India and Persia. After
his return he was appointed, in 1845, professor of Ori
ental philology at Copenhagen. His principal works
are his " Radices Sanscritae," (1841,) and a critical edition
of the "Zendavesta," (1852.) 2>&e«£ /'*/*•
Westerhof, weVter-hof, (ARNOLD HEINRICH,) a
German scholar, who gained distinction by a good edi
tion of Terence, (2 vols., 1729.)
Westermarm, weVter-man', (ANTON,) a German
scholar, born at Leipsic in 1806, became professor of
antiquities in his native city in 1834, He published a
" History of Eloquence in Greece and Rome," (2 vols.,
1833-35,) a'so editions of the Orations of Lysias, the
works of Philostratus, and other classics.
Wes'ter-mami, [Fr. pron. veVt§R'min',] (FRANCOIS
JOSEPH,) a French Jacobin and general, born in Alsace
about 1760. He became a violent revolutionist, and a
c as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, giitttiral '; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this.
I42
Explanations, p. 23.)
WESTFIELD
2258
WETTE
friend of Dan ton. He took a prominent part in the riot
in Paris of the loth of August, 1792. In September of
that year he was appointed adjutant-general, and sent to
the army of Dumouriez. lie became a general of brigade
in May, 1793, obtained command of the vanguard of the
army in Vendee, ar.d defeated the royalists near Chatil-
lon. I ] e attacked and routed the Vendeans at Mans and
Savenay in December, 1793. He was executed with
Danton in April, 1794.
See " Nonvelle Biographic Generale ;" THIERS, " History of the
French Revolution."
West'field, (THOMAS,) an English theologian, born
at Ely. He became Bishop of Bristol in the reign of
|ames I., and was noted as a pathetic preacher. Died
in 1644. Two volumes of his sermons were published.
West'ma-cott, (Sir RICHARD,) an eminent English
sculptor, born in London in 1775. He studied at Rome
under Canova, and was elected a member of the
Academy of Florence in 1795. After his return he
executed a number of works which established his
reputation as one of the first English sculptors of the
time. Among his master-pieces we may name his " Eu-
phrosyne," "Psyche," "Nymph Unclasping her Zone,"
a " Peasant Maiden," and "The Distressed Mother;"
statues of Pitt and Addison, monuments of Sir Ralph
Abercrombyin Saint Paul's Cathedral, and of the Duke
of York on the column at Waterloo Place, and the bronze
statue of George III. at Windsor. In 1816 he was
elected a Royal Academician, and in 1827 succeeded
Flaxman as professor of sculpture at the Royal
Academy. Died in 1856.
See "Gentleman's Magazine" for October, iS-,6.
Westmacott, (RICHARD,) son of the preceding,
was born in London in 1799. He was instructed by his
father, and afterwards spent six years in Italy. lie was
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1837, a Royal
Academician in 1849, and in 1857 became professor of
sculpture in the Royal Academy. His works are prin
cipally of a devotional and classical character. Among
these are " Prayer and Resignation," " David as the
Slayer of Goliath," the " Angel Watching," the statue
of "The Cymbal-Player," "Venus Instructing Cupid,"
and " Paolo and Francesca." He also executed a number
of portrait-busts of great merit. He acquired distinction
as a writer of works on art, among which is a " Hand-
Hook on the Schools of Sculpture."
West'more-laiid, (!<>H\ FANE,) eleventh KAKI, OK,
an English general and diplomatist, born in 1784. He
served in Egypt and Sicily, and was aide-de-camp to
the Duke of Wellington in the Peninsular war. He-
was sent as ambassador in 1841 to the court of Berlin,
where he remained till 1851, and was then sent on an
important mission to Vienna. He was a member of
the privy council, knight grand cross of the Bath, and
obtained the order of Maria Theresa. He was noted
as a musician and composer, and published several
military treatises. Died in 1859.
Westmoreland, (Mn.DMAV FANF.,) second EAUI.
OK, an English statesman and poet, born about 1600.
He was the author of a collection of poems, entitled
"Otia Sacra." Died in 1665.
Wes'ton, (ELIZABETH JANE,) a learned English lady,
born about 1586, removed in early life to Prague. She
wrote several elegant Latin poems. She was married to
John Leon. Died after 1605.
Westoii, (RICHARD,) Earl of Portland, an English
politician, who became grand treasurer of the kingdom
about 1625, and was created Earl of Portland in 1633.
Died in 1635.
Western, (STEPHEN,) an English divine and scholar,
born at Exeter in 1747. He published a number of
translations from the Persian and Chinese, and several
philological and antiquarian essays. Died in 1830.
Weston, (THOMAS,) a popular English comedian.
Died in 1776.
Weston, (WILLIAM,) an English divine, and resident
of Gloucestershire, was the author of " Dissertations on
some of the Most Remarkable Wonders of Antiquity."
Died in 1760.
Westphal, <vest'fal, (ERNST CHRISTIAN,) a German
jurist, born at Quedlinburg in 1737, became professor
of law at Halle. He published several works on Roman
law, and a treatise " On the Law of the German Em
pire," (1784.) Died in 1792.
Westreenen van Tiellandt, wes'tRii'nen vf"n teel'-
lant, (WILLF.M HENURIK JACOB,) BARON, a Dutch his
torical and antiquarian writer, born at the Hague in 1783.
He published " Researches concerning the Ancient
Forum of Hadrian and its Vestiges near the Hague,"
and other works. Died in 1848.
West'wood, (JOHN OBADIAH,) an English entomolo
gist, born at Sheffield about 1805. lie was appointed
professor of zoology at Oxford in 1861.
Wetherell. See WARNER, (SUSAN.)
Weth'er-ell, (Sir CHARLES,) an English lawyer, born
in 1770, was a son of the Dean of Hereford. He was
called to the bar in 1794, and acquired extensive prac
tice in the court of chancery. Though he was an ultra
Tory and was king's counsel, he defended the Spafield
rioters, who were tried for treason in 1817. In 1820
he was returned to Parliament .for Oxford. He became
solicitor-general in 1824, and attorney-general in 1826.
Having resigned in 1827, he was reappointcd in 1828,
but retired from office in 1829, because he was opposed
to the Roman Catholic emancipation. By his hostility
to the Reform bill he rendered himself so unpopular
that he was attacked by a mob at Bristol in 1831, and
narrowly escaped death. Died in 1846.
Wetstein, wet'stin or wet'stin, (JOHN HENRY,) a
distinguished printer, born at Bale in 1649, founded at
Amsterdam a publishing-house, which became celebrated
for the excellent editions of the classics issued from it.
Died in 1726.
Wetstein, (JOHN JAMES,) an eminent Swiss scholar
and theologian, born at Bale in 1693, was a son of John
Rudolph, (1647-1711,) noticed below. He studied He
brew and theology in the university of his native town,
and, having visited England and various parts of the
continent for the purpose of examining manuscripts, he
published in 17^0 his "Prolegomena ad Novi Testa
ment! Grace! Editionem accuratissimam." His liberal
doctrines having excited great opposition among the
clergy, he was deposed from his office, and about 1733
removed to Amsteidam, where he was appointed by
the Arminians professor of philosophy and ecclesiastical
history. He brought out in 17^2 his edition of the
Greek New Testament, (2 vols. fol.) Died in I7S4-
Wetstein or Wettstein, wet'stTn, (Jons RUDOLPH,)
a Swiss diplomatist, bom at Bale in 1594. lie rendered
important services to his country at the congress which
negotiated the peace of Westphalia, (1647,) and received
the surname of THE |'\CIEICATOR. Died in 1666.
Wetstein, (JOHN RUDOLPH,) son of John James,
noticed above, was born at Hale in 1614. He became pro
fessor of theology in his native town, and assisted Suicer
in his "Thesaurus Ecclesiasticus." Died in 1683.
Wetstein, (JoiiN RUDOLPH,) son of the preceding,
was born at Bale in 1647. He was professor of theology
in that town, and edited some of the works of Origen.
Died in 1711.
Wetstein, wet'stin, (KAREL ANTON,) a Dutch scholar
and Latin poet, born at Amsterdam in 1743, w:ls a lawyer
in his early life. He translated Hesiod and Theocritus
into Latin verse, and wrote several original Latin poems,
which were admired. Died in 1797.
Wette, de, deh wet'teh or wet'teh, (WILHEI.M MAR
TIN LEHRECHT,) an eminent German scholar, theologian,
and biblical critic, born near Weimar in 1780. He be
came professor of divinity at the University of Berlin in
1810, and acquired a high reputation both as a preacher
and writer. Among his most important works are the
following: "Contributions to an Introduction to the
Old Testament," (2 vols., 1806-7,) "A Commentary on
the Psalms," (iSn,) "Manual of Jewish Archaeology,"
(1814,) "Christian Dogmatics," (2 vols., 1813-16,) "On
Religion and Theology," (1815,) and "Critical and His
torical Introduction to the Old and New Testaments,"
(1817-26.) The Introduction to the Old Testament was
translated and enlarged by Theodore Parker, (1843,)
and that to the New by Frederick Frothingham, (1858.)
He produced, in conjunction with Augusti, a new trans
lation of the Bible. In 1819 he was dismissed from his
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon;
WETZEL
2259
WHARTON
professorship because he wrote a letter of consolation
to the mother of Sand, who killed Kotzebue. He ob
tained a chair of divinity at Hale in 1821. Among his
works are " Lessons on Morality," (3 vols., 1824.) Died
at Bale in 1849.
See SCHENKKI., " De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie
fiir unsere Zeit," 1849; LUCKE. "Dr. W. M. L de Wette," 1850;
HAGENHACH, " W. M. L. de Wette," 1849; "North British Re
view" for August, 1847.
Wetzel, wet'sel, (FRIEDRICH GOTTLOI;.) a German
litterateur, born at Bautzen in 1780, was the author of
dramas, war-lyrics, and other poems and prose essays.
Died in 1819.
Wetzel or Wezel, (JOHANN CASPAR,) a German
writer and preacher, born at Meiningen in 1691. He
published, besides other works, "Sacred Hymnology,"
(" Hymnologia Sacra," 1728.) Died in 1755.
Wetzel or Wezel, (JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH,)
a German philologist, born in 1762 ; died in 1810.
Wewitzer, wa'wit-ser, ? (RALPH,) an English come
dian, born in London before 1800; died in 1824.
Wey, vi, (FRANCOIS ALPHONSE,) a French litte
rateur, born at Besancon in 1812. He was appointed
inspector-general of the national archives in 1852. He
wrote several novels. His reputation is founded chiefly
on two works, entitled " Remarks on the French Lan
guage of the Nineteenth Century,'' (1845,) and a "His
tory of the Revolutions of Language in France," (1848.)
Weyde, van der. See VAN DER WEYDE.
Weyden, van der, vtn der wl'den, (ROGER,) a cele
brated Flemish painter, called ROGER OF BRUGES, was
born at Brussels about 1390, and was a pupil of John
van Eyck. He went to Italy about 1450, and worked
several years at Rome. lie painted in oil. Having
returned to Brussels, he died there in 1464.
See A. WAUTKRS, " Notice sur R. van der Weyden," 1846, and
" Roger van der Weyden, ses GEuvres," etc., 1855.
Weyer. See VAN DE WEYER.
Weyerman, wi'er-man', QACOB KAMPO,) a Dutch
painter of fruit- and flower-pieces, was born at Breda
in 1679. He was the author of " Lives of the Dutch
Painters," a work characterized by Descamps and others
as full of calumnies. He was condemned to perpetual
imprisonment for a libel on the Dutch East India Com
pany, and died in prison in 1747.
Weyse, wl'zeh, (CHRISTIAN ERNST FRIEDRICH,) a
Danish musician and composer, born at Altona in 1774;
died in 1842.
Wezel. See WETZEL.
Wezel, wet'sel, (JOHANN KARL,) a German littera
teur, born at Sondershausen in 1747, wrote a number
of romances, comedies, and prose essays. Died in
1819.
Whalley, hwol'le, (PETER,) an English writer and
divine, born in Warwickshire in 1722, was the author
of an " Inquiry into the Learning of Shakspeare." Died
in 1791.
Whalley, (THOMAS SEDGWICK,) D.D., an English
divine and writer, born at Cambridge in 1746. He was
an intimate friend and correspondent of Mrs. Siddons
and Miss Seward, and published a poetic tale entitled
" Edwy and Eldild." Died about 1826.
See "Journal and Correspondence of T. S. Whalley," London,
1863.
Wharton, hwar'ton, (FRANCIS,) an American jurist,
born at Philadelphia in 1820. He became in 1856 pro
fessor of logic and rhetoric at Kenyon College, Ohio.
He has published a "Treatise on the Criminal Law of
the United States," a "Treatise on Medical Jurispru
dence," and other works.
Wharton, hwar'ton, (Sir GEORGE,) an English as
tronomer and astrologer, born at Kirby-Kendal in 1617.
He fought for the king in the civil war, and afterwards
compiled almanacs, in which he inserted predictions
against the dominant party. Died in 1681.
Wharton, (HENRY,) an eminent English antiquary
and divine, born in Norfolk in 1664. He studied at
Caius College, Cambridge, and took his degree of M.A.
in 1687, being ordained a priest in 1688. Among his
numerous works the most important is his " Anglia
Sacra," (2 vols. fol., 1691,) being a collection of .biogra
phies of English bishops and archbishops from the in
troduction of Christianity to 1540. He also published
"A Treatise of the Celibacy of the Clergy," etc., and
" The History of the Troubles and Trials of Archbishop
Laud," and assisted Dr. William Cave in his " Scriptorum
Ecclesiasticorum Historia Literaria." Died in 1695.
Wharton, ( PHILIP,) LORD, an English peer, who
took a prominent part in the civil war which began in
1642, and commanded a regiment for Parliament at the
battle of Edgehill. He was a zealous Presbyterian. He
died in 1696. He was the father of Thomas, Marquis
of Wharton.
Wharton, (PuiLTP,) Duke of Wharton, an eloquent
and profligate English peer, born in 1698, was the son
of Thomas, Marquis of Wharton, noticed below. About
the age of sixteen he married privately a daughter of
General Holmes. On the death of his father, in 1715, he
became heir to an estate of ^16,000 a year, and entered
upon a course of reckless dissipation and vice. In 1716
he began a tour on the continent. Having arrived at
Lyons, he wrote a letter to the Pretender, who then
resided at Avignon, and who received Wharton in a
flattering manner when he came to that city. He took
his seat in the Irish House of Lords about 1717, sup
ported the ministry with zeal, and was raised to the
English peerage, as Duke of Wharton, in 1718. He
entered the English House of Peers in 1719 or 1720, and
denounced the South Sea bill in a speech remarkable
for bitter invective. On other questions also he opposed
the ministers with great eloquence.
He involved himself in debt by his boundless prodi
gality, retired to the continent in 1724, avowed himself
an adherent of the Pretender, and joined the Roman
Catholic Church. In 1726 he married a Miss O'Byrne,
a daughter of an Irish colonel. He served as a volun
teer in the Spanish army at the siege of Gibraltar, in
1727. For this offence he was indicted for treason, and
convicted. He lost his peerage and his estate, and was
reduced to poverty. He died at Tarragona, Spain, in
1731. His character is portrayed by Pope in his "Moral
Essays."
See "The Life and Writings of Philip, Duke of Wharton," 2
vols., 1732; "Biograpbia Britannica."
Wharton, (THOMAS,) MARQUIS OF, an English Whig
politician, born about 1645, was the eldest son of Philip,
Lord WTharton. He entered Parliament in the reign
of Charles II., constantly opposed the court, and dis
tinguished himself by his dexterity and turbulence as
a politician. In November, 1688, he joined William,
Prince of Orange, who appointed him comptroller of
the household in 1689. He received the title of Earl
of Wharton in 1706, and was lord lieutenant of Ireland
from 1708 to 1710. He was the author of " Lillibullero,"
a famous satirical ballad. In September, 1714, he was
appointed lord privy seal by George I., and in 1715 he
was created Marquis of Wharton. He died in 1715,
leaving a son, Philip. He was characterized by Swift as
"the most universal villain that I ever knew." "Those
who hated him most heartily," says Macaulay, "admitted
that his natural parts were excellent, and that he was
equally qualified for debate and for action. . . . Heearly
acquired, and retained to the last, the reputation of being
the greatest rake in England. . . . His mendacity and
his effrontery passed into proverbs. ... As a canvasser
he was irresistible. . . . Had he not been a man of im
perturbable temper, dauntless courage, and consummate
skill in fence, his life would have been a short one. But
neither anger nor danger ever deprived him of his
presence of mind ; and he had a peculiar way of dis
arming his opponents that moved the envy of all the
duel lists of his time." (Macaulay's " History of England,"
vol. iv. pp. 136-37.)
See, also, SWIFT'S satire on Wharton in his "Four Last Years
of Queen Anne;" and (anonymous) " Memoirs of the Life of Thomas,
Marquis of Wharton," 1715.
Wharton, (THOMAS,) an eminent English physician
and anatomist, born at Winston, in Durham, about
1610. He took his degree as M.D. at Oxford in 1647,
after which he removed to London, and became a Fellow
of the College of Physicians in 1650. He published a
valuable work on glands, entitled "Adenography, or
€ as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (3^P°See Explanations, p. 23.)
WHAT ELY
2260
WHEELER
Description of the Glands," (" Adenographia, sive Glan-
dularum Descriptio," 1656.) He first discovered the
excretory duct in the submaxillary gland, which bears
his name. Died in 1673.
Whately, hwat'le, (RICHARD,) Archbishop of Dub
lin, an eminent English thinker and writer, born in
London in 1787, was a son of Dr. Whately, prebendary
of Bristol. As a child, he was nervous and shy, and, like
De Quincey, appears to have preferred the society of his
sisters to that of his brothers. He delighted in arith
metical calculations, which he carried on in his mind.
In childhood, as well as in after-life, whatever occupied
his thoughts appears to have completely absorbed him
for the time. The passion for arithmetic soon left him ;
he then devoted himself to "castle-building," which,
however, took a philosophical or metaphysical, rather
than a romantic, direction. In 1805 he entered Oriel
College, Oxford, of which he became a Fellow in 1811,
and in which he took the degree of M.A. in 1812.
While at Oxford, he formed an intimate friendship with
Dr. Arnold, which continued unchanged till the death
of the latter. In 1810 he gained the prize for the English
Essay, the subject being "The Comparative Excellence
of the Ancients and Moderns." In 1819 he published
" Historic Doubts relative to Napoleon Bonaparte," an
ingenious attempt to show the absurdity of skeptical
criticism. He married a lady named Pope in 1821.
He was appointed Hampton lecturer at Oxford in 1822,
and the same year obtained the rectory of Halesworth,
in Sussex. His Bampton lectures "On the Use and
Abuse of Party Feeling in Religion" were published in
1822. In 1825 he was chosen principal of Saint Alban's
Hall, Oxford. He extended his reputation by his
"Essays on some of the Peculiarities of the Christian
Religion," (1825,) his "Elements of Logic," (1826,)
often reprinted, and highly esteemed, his " Essays on
some of the Difficulties in the Writings of the Apostle
Paul," and his " Errors of Romanism traced to their
Origin in Human Nature," (1830.) He was elected
professor of political economy at Oxford in 1830, and
was appointed Archbishop of Dublin in 1831. He took
a prominent part in organizing the national system of
education in Ireland. Among his numerous works are
" Elements of Rhetoric," (1828,) " Introduction to Politi
cal Economy," (1831,) " Sermons on Various Subjects,"
(1835,) "Essays on some of the Dangers to Christian
Faith which may arise from the Teaching or the Conduct
of its Professors," (1839,) and "The Kingdom of Christ
Delineated, in Two Essays on our Lord's Own Account
of His Person," etc., (1841.) He also wrote several
valuable articles for the leading reviews. His style is
luminous and aphoristic. As a theologian, he was char
acterized by the liberality of his views and by the free
dom and independence of his thoughts. He is justly
considered to have been one of the most profound and
original thinkers of his time. As a man, he was distin
guished for moral courage, and was singularly sincere,
generous, and disinterested. Died in October, 1863.
See "Life and Correspondence of Richard Whately, D D., Late
Archbishop of Dublin," by his daughter, E. JANE WHATELY, 2
vols., London, 1866: "London Quarterly Review" for October,
1822; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1864; "British Quarterly
Review" for January, 1867. For some strictures on Whately's
"Logic," see SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON'S "Logic."
"Whately, (WILLIAM,) an English Puritan divine,
born at Banbury, in Oxfordshire, in 1583. He became
vicar of Banbury about 1610, and published, besides
other works, "Prototypes, or the Primary Precedent
out of the Book of Genesis." Died in 1639.
Wheare, hwair, ? (DEGORY,) an English historian,
born in Cornwall in 1573. He was the first reader of
the lecture which Camclen founded at Oxford, and wrote
several works. Died in 1647.
Wheat/ley, (CHARLES,) an English divine, born in
1686, published a " Rational Illustration of the Com
mon Prayer." Died in 1742.
Wheatley, (FRANCIS,) an English landscape-painter
in oil- and water-colours, born in London in 1747. He
became a Royal Academician in 1791. Died in 1801.
Wheat'ley, (PHILLIS,) a negro poetess, born in Africa
about 1753, was brought to America in 1761. She was
instructed by her mistress, Mrs. Wheatley, a resident
of Boston, and published, at an early age, " Poems on
Various Subjects, Religious and Moral." She was
afterwards married to a man named Peters, and died in
Boston in 1794.
See DUVCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. ;
ALLIHONK, " Dictionary of Authors."
Wheat/oil, (HKNRY,) an American jurist, civilian,
and diplomatist, born in Providence, Rhode Island, in
November, 1785. He graduated at Brown University
in 1802, after which he pursued the study of law at
Poitiers, France, and in London. On his return he
became a resident of the city of New York, and in 1812
began to edit the " National Advocate," a daily jour
nal. He published in 1815 a " Digest of the Law of
Maritime Captures and Prizes," which was received
with favour. In 1816 he became a reporter of the
decisions of the supreme court of the United States.
He contributed many articles to the "North American
Review." He was appointed charge -d'affaires to the
court of Denmark in 1826 or 1827, and minister resident
at Berlin in 1835. He published in 1836 his most im
portant work, "Elements of International Law," which
is highly esteemed as a standard authority. In 1837 he
i was promoted to the rank of minister-plenipotentiary
I at Berlin, where he remained until 1846. He wrote an
i able work entitled a " History of the Law of Nations
I in Europe and America, from the Earliest Times to the
I Treaty of Washington," which originally appeared in
I French at Leipsic in 1841. It was enlarged and pub
lished in English in 1845. "Of its great merit," says
R. W. Griswohl, "all competent critics have given the
same testimony." Among his other works is a " History
j of the Northmen, or Danes and Normans," (1831.) lie
published " Reports of Cases argued and determined in
the Supreme Court of the United States," (12 vols.,
1827.) He was elected a corresponding member of the
French Institute about 1843. Died near Boston, Mas
sachusetts, in March, 1848.
See GKISWOLD, "Prose Writers of America," p. 169; ALLIBONE,
" Dictionary of Authors ;" " North American Review" for October,
1832, and January, 1837; "Westminster Review" for July, 1847.
Wheaton, (ROKERT,) a son of the preceding, was
born in New York in 1826. He wrote historical and
literary articles for several reviews, and acquired dis
tinction as a writer. Died in October, 1851.
See a " Memoir of Robert Wheaton," 1854.
Wheat'stone, (CHARLES,) F.R.S., professor of ex
perimental philosophy in King's College, London, was-
born at Gloucester in 1802. In early life he was a manu
facturer of musical instruments, and made researches
on the science of acoustics. He displayed much me
chanical ingenuity in the construction of instruments
and Apparatus. He published in 1834 an "Account of
Experiments to Measure the Velocity of Electricity and
the Duration of Electric Light." In the same year he
became professor of philosophy in King's College, Lon
don. He invented the stereoscope, which he described
in his "Contributions to the Physiology of Vision," (1838.)
He was one of several persons who, in 1837, claimed
the honour of the invention of the electric telegraph.
Wheatstone and his partner Cooke obtained in 1837 a
patent for apparatus which thev invented for conveying
signals by means of electric currents. They were suc
cessful in the practical application of their invention, -
which soon came into extensive use. Professor Wheat-
stone afterwards invented several improvements, among
which is the magneto-alphabetical telegraph.
Whe'don, (DANIEL DENISON.) D.D., an American
Methodist divine, born in Onondaga county, New York,
in 1808. He became in 1856 editor of the "Methodist
Quarterly Review." He has published a " Commentary
on the Gospels," and other works.
Whee'ler, (DANIEL,) an able minister of the Society
of Friends, was born in London in 1771. He enlisted
in the British army about 1791, and served in Holland
in 1794. Before this time his moral character had be
come, it is said, very depraved. Having passed through
much suffering and danger, and repented of his sins, he
quitted the army in 1796, and was approved as a minis
ter by the P'riends in 1816. He was employed by the
Russian government to superintend agricultural improve-
a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mil; ndt; good; moon ;
WHEELER
2261
WHIST ON
incuts near Saint Petersburg, for many years, (1817-32.)
About the end of 1833 he sailed on a religious mission
to the islands of the Pacific Ocean, in which he spent
nearly four years. He visited the United States in 1839
as a minister of the gospel, and died in the city of New
York in 1840.
See "Memoirs of Daniel Wheeler," (partly autobiographic,) 1842.
Wheeler or Wheler, (Sir GEORGE,) an English
divine, born in Kent or Holland in 1650, became rector
of Houghton-le-Spring. He published a "Journey into
Greece," and "An Account of the Churches of the
Primitive Christians." Died about 1723.
Whee'ler, (WILLIAM A.,) an American editor and
author, born at Leicester, Massachusetts, November 14,
1833, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1853. In 1856
he went to Cambridge to assist Dr. Worcester in the !
preparation of his quarto Dictionary, on which he was \
engaged several years. In 1861 he was employed by j
Messrs. G. & C. Merriam as one of the editors of the ;
new edition of Webster's quarto Dictionary, which passed j
through the press under his supervision. Among his
various publications we may name a " Dictionary of
the Noted Names of Fiction," (i vol. 121110, 1865,) a |
work original in its conception, as well as of great j
practical value as a book of reference. In 1867 he was '
appointed assistant superintendent, and head of the i
cataloguing department, in the Boston Public Library.
Whee'lock, (EI.KAZAK,) D.D., an American Congre
gational divine, born at Windham, Connecticut, in 1711. |
He was the founder and first president of Dartmouth [
College, which grew originally out of an Indian mission
ary school. Died in 1779.
Wheelock, (Jon.\,) LL.D., son of the preceding,
was born at Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1754. He served
for a time in the Continental army, and was made a lieu
tenant-colonel. On the death of his father he became
president of Dartmouth College. Died in 1817.
Wheel'wright, (JOHN,) a Puritan divine, born in
Lincolnshire, England, in 1594, was a classmate and ;
friend of Oliver Cromwell. He emigrated in 1636 to
New England, where he soon after founded the town of
Exeter, in Massachusetts. He was a brother-in-law of !
Mrs. Ann Hutchinson, whose religious views he shared, j
Died in 1679.
Wheth/am-stede, (JOHN,) an English monk and '
chronicler, was Abbot of Saint Alban's, and was ordained
a priest in 1382. He wrote a chronicle of the period j
from 1441 to 1461. Died in 1464.
Whet/stone, (GEORGE,) an English miscellaneous j
writer, who lived about 1575. His principal work'is a j
comedy, entitled "Promos and Cassandra," (1578.)
Whewell, hu'el, (WILLIAM,) F.R.S., a distinguished !
English philosopher and scholar, born at Lancaster in ;
1795. He was educated at Cambridge, where he gradu- j
ated in 1816, was elected a Fellow of Trinity College,
and l>ecame an eminent tutor in the same. He was
appointed professor of mineralogy in 1828, obtained the
chair of moral philosophy or moral theology in 1838,
and became master of Trinity College in 1841. Before
the last date he had gained distinction as a writer by the
production of his " Astronomy and Physics considered
with Reference to Natural Theology," (1833,) which is
one of the Bridgewater Treatises, " The History of the
Inductive Sciences," (3 vols., 1837,) and "The Phi
losophy of the Inductive Sciences founded upon their
History," (2 vols., 1840.) Referring to these two works,
Professor James D. Forbes says, "One attempt — a bold
and successful one — has been made, in our own day, to
unite two of the three departments : I mean the His
tory and Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. An
English philosopher, of wonderful versatility, industry,
and power, has erected a permanent monument to his
reputation, in a voluminous work bearing the preceding
title." (" Preliminary Dissertation" in the eighth edition
of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica.") An anonymous |
work called "The Plurality of Worlds" (1853) is gen
erally understood to be the production of Dr. Whewell.
The author of this work doubts or denies the existence
of a plurality of worlds. He became vice-chancellor
of the University of Cambridge in 1855. Among his
numerous works are " Elements of Morality," (1855,)
and several valuable treatises on tides, published in the
•' Philosophical Transactions." Died in 1866.
See ALUBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;" " Edinburgh Review"
for January, 1834, and October. 1837 ; " London Quarterly Review"
for June, 1841 ; "Westminster Review" for October, 1852.
Which'cote, (BENJAMIN,) an English divine, born in
Shropshire in 1610, studied at Emanuel College, Cam
bridge, was appointed one of the university preachers
about 1636, took the degree of D.D. in 1649, and after
wards became rector of Milton, in Cambridgeshire.
After the restoration he was appointed vicar of Saint
Lawrence, Jewry. He was the author of " Observations
and Apophthegms," "Moral and Religious Aphorisms,"
and numerous sermons. He has been called one of the
principal founders of the latitudinarian school of divines
in England. Died in 1683.
Whip'ple, (hwip'p'l,) (ABRAHAM,) an American com
modore of the Revolution, born at Providence, Rhode
Island, in 1733. He captured many rich prizes and per
formed several daring exploits between 1775 and 1781.
Died at Marietta, Ohio, in 1819.
See HILDRETH, "Life of A. Whipple."
Whipple, (AMIKL W.,) an American general, born in
Massachusetts, graduated at West Point in 1841. He
became a captain of topographical engineers in 1855,
and chief engineer on the staff of General McDowell in
the spring of 1861. He was killed at the battle of Chan-
cellorsville, May, 1863, aged about forty-six.
Whipple, (EnwiN PERCY,) a distinguished American
critic and essayist, born at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in
1819. He published in 1843 H1 tne " Boston Miscellany"
an " Essay on the Genius and Writings of Macaulay,"
which attracted much attention. He has been a contrib
utor to the "American Review," " Christian Examiner,"
" Methodist Quarterly Review," " North American
Review," and the "Atlantic Monthly." A collection
of his writings, entitled " Essays and Reviews," was
published in 2 vols. in 1849. He is also the author
of " Lectures on Subjects connected with Literature and
Life," (1849,) and "Character and Characteristic Men,"
(1867.) Mr. Whipple has acquired a high reputation
as a lecturer. In 1859 he delivered before the Lowell
Institute, Boston, a course of lectures on the " Literature
of the Age of Elizabeth," which were published in a
small volume in 1869.
See GRISWW.D, " Prose Writers of America;" " North American
Review" for January, 1850.
Whipple, (WILLIAM,) an American general of the
Revolution, born at Kittery, Maine, in 1730, was one
of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He
was elected to Congress in 1776, was appointed briga
dier-general in 1777, and took part in the battles of
Stillwater and Saratoga and in the siege of Newport.
Died in 1785.
See SANDEKSON, " Biography of the Signers to the Declaration
of Independence."
WhistTer, (hwiss'ler,) (GEORGE WASHINGTON,) an
American engineer, born at Fort Wayne, Indiana, in
1800, graduated at the West Point Military Academy
in 1819. Having been previously employed in the
construction of several railroads in the United States, he
was invited to Russia in 1842 by the emperor Nicholas
to superintend the internal improvements in that country.
Died in 1849.
Whis'ton, (WILLIAM,) an eminent English philoso
pher and theologian, born at Norton, in Leicestershire,
on the gth of December, 1667. He was educated at
Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he gave special attention
to mathematics and the Cartesian philosophy, and took
his degree in 1690. He was elected a Fellow of his
college in the same year, and was ordained a priest in
1693. About this time he became acquainted with Sir
Isaac Newton. In 1696 he published a " New Theory
of the Earth, from its Original to the Consummation of
all Things," in which he attributed the great Deluge to
the collision of a comet with the earth. This work ran
through six editions. He obtained the living of Lowes-
toft, in Suffolk, in 1698, soon after which he married a
Miss Antrobus. In 1701 Newton nominated him as
his deputy in the Lucasian professorship at Cambridge.
Through the influence of Newton, Whiston obtained
the chair of mathematics, which the former resigned in
€ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guctural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; fch as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
WHITAKER
2262
WHITE
1703. He then gave up his living at Lowestoft, and
removed to Cambridge, where he also officiated as a
clergyman, having been appointed lecturer of Saint Clem
ent's. In 1707 he was appointed preacher of the Boyle
lecture, and published " Przelectiones Astronomicae."
He was gradually converted to Avian doctrines, which
he advocated in a volume of sermons and essays pub
lished in 1709, and in other writings. In 1710 he was
deprived of his professorship and expelled from the
university. He then settled in London, and published
a " Histovical Preface to Primitive Christianity," (1710,)
which was followed by" Primitive Christianity Revived,"
(4 vols., 1711.) The clergy prosecuted him for heresy in
the spiritual courts; but, after many evasive delays, the
prosecution was ended in 1715, by an act of grace by
which all heretics were pardoned. Whiston was an
unflinching and courageous asserter of religious liberty,
and was distinguished for his shrewd and pithy retorts
in conversation. He was once in company with Addison,
Pope, Walpole, and Secretary Craggs, who raised the
question whether a secretary of state could be an honest
man. Whiston having expressed his opinion in the af
firmative, Craggs said, ""It might answer for a fortnight,
but no longer." Whiston then asked, "Mr. Secretary,
did you ever try it for ?. fortnight?" to which Craggs
made no answer. He published in 1737 a translation
of Josephus, often reprinted, and in 1749-50 his enter
taining "Memoirs of his. own Life," (3 vols.) Died in
1752.
See " Biographic Britarmica ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale."
Whit'a-ker, (EDWARD,) an English divine and writer,
born in 1750, published "An Abridgment of Universal
History," and other works. Died in 1818.
Whitaker, (JoHN,) an English divine, born at Man
chester about 1735. ^e studied at Oxford, and became
rector of Ruan-Langhorne, in Cornwall, in 1778. He
published, among other works, a " History of Man
chester," (1771-75,) "Genuine History of the Britons
Asserted," "Mary Queen of Scots Vindicated," (1788,)
"The Origin of Arianism Disclosed," and "Sermons
upon Death, Judgment, Heaven, and Hell." Died in
1808.
See AI.I.IBONE, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Monthly Review"
for April, 1783, and October, 1795.
Whitaker, (THOMAS DUNHAM,) LL.D., an English
divine and writer, born in Norfolk in 1759. He studied
law at Cambridge, but subsequently entered holy orders,
and became vicar of Blackburn in 1818. He published
"The Life and Original Correspondence of Sir George
Radcliffe," " History of the Deanery of Craven," and
other antiquarian works. Died in 1821.
Whitaker, (WILLIAM,) a learned English theologian,
born at Holme, in Lancashire, in 1547. He became pro
fessor of divinity at Cambridge in 1579, and master of
Saint John's College, Cambridge. He translated the
Liturgy of the Church and Nowell's Catechisms into
Greek, and wrote numerous controversial works against
popery. Died in 1595.
Whit'bre'ad, (SAMUEL,) an English statesman, born
in London in 1758, was the son of an opulent brewer of
that city. He studied at Saint John's College, Cam
bridge, was elected to Parliament for the borough of
Steyning in 1790, and was afterwards returned for the
town of Bedford. He was a zealous supporter of the
Whig party, and a warm personal friend of Mr. Fox.
He conducted the impeachment of Lord Melville, and
was one of the most influential members of the oppo
sition after the death of Fox. His wife was a daughter
of the first Earl Grey. He committed suicide in 1815,
during an attack of temporary insanity.
Whit'by, (DANIEL,) an English theologian, born in
Northamptonshire in 1638. He studied at Trinity Col
lege, Oxford, and rose through several preferments to
be rector of Saint Edmund's, Salisbury, having been
previously created D.D. His controversial works are
numerous, and enjoyed a high reputation in his time ;
among the most important of these may be named " A
Discourse concerning the Idolatry of the Church of
Rome," (1674,) "The Absurdity and Idolatry of Host-
Worship Proven," (1679,) and "The Fallibility of the
Roman Church Demonstrated," (1687.) In 1683 he
published a plea for the toleration of dissenters, entitled
" The Protestant Reconciler," etc., which encountered
violent opposition and was condemned to be burned. His
" Paraphrase and Commentary on the New Testament,"
(1703,) a defence of Arminianism, is regarded as his
best production, and was followed by several other
works of a similar nature. Dr. Whitby subsequently
professed Arianism, in defence of which he wrote a
number of tracts, and also defended Bishop Hoadly in
the Bangorian controversy. Died in 1726.
See AI.LIBONE, " Dictionary of Authors."
White, (CHARLES,) an English officer and writer,
born in Shropshire in 1793, served under Wellington
in the Peninsular war, and afterwards in Hanover as
adjutant of the Duke of Cambridge. He published
"Almacks Revisited," "The King's Page," "Arthur
Beverly," and other popular romances; also, "The
Belgic Revolution in 1830," (1835,) and " Three Years
in Constantinople," (1846.)
White, (DANIEL APPLETON,) a distinguished jurist
and scholar, was born in Massachusetts, in what is now
the city of Lawrence, June 7, 1776. lie graduated at
Harvard in 1797, sharing the highest honours of the
class with Horace Binney, of Philadelphia. In 1799 he
accepted the position of Latin tutor at Harvard, where
he remained nearly four years. He began the study of
law at Cambridge, and was there admitted to the bar in
1804. His success in his profession was remarkable.
From 1810 to 1815 he was a member of the State Senate.
In November, 1814, he was elected to Congress from the
Essex district by an almost unanimous vote ; but before
taking his seat in the national legislature he resigned
his position as representative and accepted that of judge
of probate for the county of Essex, which in the mean
time had been tendered to him. He filled this office,
with the highest credit to himself and advantage to the
Commonwealth, for thirty-eight years.
Judge White was distinguished for his generosity and
public spirit, and gave liberally of his time and means
to promote the cause of education and other important
public interests. He was an active member of many
philanthropic and literary associations, and took a deep
interest in the cause of temperance. Besides frequent
smaller gifts, he gave in all to the Essex Institute at
Salem more than 8000 volumes, including the 3000 left
in his will. He closed his long and useful life on the
30th of March, 1861.
See the interesting " Memoir of Daniel Appleton White," by G.
W. HRIGGS. Salem. 1864; and the ''Memoir of Judge White," by
DR. WAI.KKR, published in the Proceedings of the Massachusetts
Historical Society.
"White, (GEORGE,) an English mezzotint engraver,
son of Robert, noticed below, executed a number of
excellent portraits, among which we may name those
of Lord Clarendon and Sir Richard Blackmore. Died
about 1735.
White, (GILBERT,) an eminent English naturalist and
divine, born at Selborne, in Hampshire, in 1720. He
studied at Oriel College, Oxford, and took the degree
of M.A. in 1746. His principal work, entitled " Natural
History of Selborne," appeared in 1789. Its graceful
and attractive style, as well as its other merits, have
given it a high rank among English classics. After his
death, which occurred in 1793, a selection from his jour
nal was published by Dr. Aikin, under the title of " A
Naturalist's Calendar," etc. His " Antiquities of Sel
borne" was published in 1813, in the same volume with
the two above-named works.
See ALLIBONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
White, (HENRY,) an English clergyman, of consider
able literary attainments, was a resident of Lichfield,
and a friend of Dr. Johnson and other celebrated writers
of the time. Died in 1836.
White, (HENRY Kirke,) often called KIRKE WHITE,
an English poet, born at Nottingham in 1785. As a
child, he was remarkable for precocity of intellect, and
distinguished himself by his attainments in the ancient
and modern languages, music, and natural science.
Having previously made several contributions to the
" Monthly Mirror" and other literary journals, he pub
lished about 1803 a collection of poems, which were
a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, %, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not: s^ood; moon;
WHITE
2263
WH1TEFIELD
severely criticised by the reviewers. The volume, how-
evei, attracted the notice of Southey, who subsequently
became his warm friend and generous patron. Having
about this time experienced deep religious impressions,
it became his earnest desire to educate himself for the
ministry. Through the assistance of several friends, he
was enabled to enter Saint John's College, Cambridge,
in 1804. His severe application to study and the excite
ment of preparing for examination were too much for
his originally frail constitution, and he fell into a rapid
decline, dying in October, 1806. His works, in prose
and verse, were published in 1807 by Southey, with a
very interesting biography.
See, also, SOMMEKMEVKR, " Essay on the Life and Writings of
H. Kirke White," 1*47; CARY, "Lives of the English Poets, from
Johnson to Kirke While :" ALLIHONE, "Dictionary of Authors;"
"Monthly Review" for January, 1810.
"White, (Huon LAWSON,) an American statesman,
born in Iredell county, North Carolina, in October,
1773. He removed to Knox county, Tennessee, in 1786,
and was appointed a judge of the supreme court of that
State in 1801. In 1825 he was elected a Senator of the
United States for Tennessee. He received twenty-six
electoral votes as a candidate for the Presidency in 1836,
and was re-elected a Senator in the same year, but he
resigned his seat in 1839. Died at Knoxville in 1840.
See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"
vol. iv.
"White, (JAMES,) an Irish novelist and poet, wrote
romances entitled " Adventures of John of Gaunt,"
"Richard Cceur de Lion," and " Conway Castle, and
other Poems." Died in 1799.
White, (Rev. JAMES,) an English dramatist and his
torian, born in 1785. He published, besides other works,
"The Eighteen Christian Centuries," (1858,) "Land
marks of the History of Greece," and a " History of
England," (1861.) Died in 1862.
"White, ([EKKMY,) an English nonconformist divine,
wrote a work entitled " Restoration of All Things,'' in
support of the doctrine of universal salvation. Died
in 1707.
White or Whyte, (Jonx,) an English ecclesiastic,
born in Surrey in 1511, was made Bishop of Winchester
under the reign of Queen Mary. Died in 1560.
White, ( JOHX, ) an English divine and popular
preacher, sometimes called " the Patriarch of Dorches
ter,'' was born in 1574; died in 1648.
White, (Jonx,) called CENTURY WHITE, an English
lawyer and nonconformist, born in Pembrokeshire in
1590. He was elected a member of Parliament in 1640,
and sat as a lay assessor in the Assembly of Divines
at Westminster. He published "The First Century of
Scandalous Malignant Priests made and admitted into
Benefices by the Prelates," etc. Died in 1645.
White, (JOHN,) an American lawyer, born in 1805.
He represented a district of Kentucky in Congress
from 1835 to 1845, and was Speaker of the House of
Representatives from December, 1841, to March, 1843.
Died in 1845.
White, (JosEi'H,) D.D., an English divine and Orien
talist, born in Gloucestershire about 1746. He studied
at Wadham College, Oxford, and in 1 775 became Laudian
professor of Arabic in the university. In 1783 he de
livered the Bampton lectures, which were afterwards
published under the title of " A View of Christianity and
Mahometanism, in their History, their Evidence, and
their Effects." They won for him a high reputation and
the office of prebendary in the cathedral of Gloucester.
It was soon after discovered, however, that they were in
great part the composition of the Rev. Samuel Badcock
and Dr. Samuel Parr, who had been employed by Dr.
White to assist him. He published, in 1800, his " Dia-
tessaron," which was followed by his " /Egyptiaca, or
Observations on Certain Antiquities of Egypt," and
a critical edition of the Greek New Testament. Died
in 1814.
See ALI.IRONE, "Dictionary of Authors."
White, (JOSEPH BLANCO,) often called BLANCO
WHITE, a distinguished writer, born at Seville, in Spain,
in 1775, was descended from an Irish Catholic family
settled in that country. In Spain he was called BLANCO,
which he afterwards exchanged for its English equiva
lent. He was educated for the Church, but he soon
abandoned that profession, and, having settled in Eng
land, devoted himself to literature. He had been for
several years editor of a Spanish journal, entitled " El
Espanol," and, in 1822, edited "Las Variedades," an
other Spanish periodical. He was also a contributor
to the " Quarterly" and " Westminster" Reviews, the
" Dublin University Review," and other literary journals.
Among his principal works maybe named "The Poor
Man's Preservative against Popery," (1825,) "Second
Travels of an Irish Gentleman in Search of a Religion,"
(1833,) and a sonnet entitled "Night," which is highly
commended by Coleridge. Died in 1841.
See "The Life of the Rev Joseph Blanco White, written by Him
self," London, 1845; J. H. THOM, " Life of J. B. White," 3 vols.,
1845 ; " Biackwood's Magazine" for Juiy, 1825 ; " London Quarterly
Review" for June, 1845; "Westminster Review" for December,
1845 ; " British Quarterly Review" for August, 1846.
White, (JULIUS,) an American general, born in Madi
son county. New York, about 1816. He served at the
battle of Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and was second in
command at Harper's Ferry when Stonewall Jackson
captured that place, September 15 of the same year.
White or Vi'tus, (RICHARD,) an English historian
and Roman Catholic priest, burn in Hampshire, became
a Fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1557. He taught
law at Douai. Died in 1612.
"White, (RICHARD GRANT,) an American litterateur,
born in New York in 1822, was for a time associate
editor of the "Courier and Enquirer." He has been a
contributor to the leading literary periodicals, and has
published a volume of critical essays, entitled " Shake
speare's Scholar," (1854.,) an " Essay on the Authorship
of Henry VI.," and a "Life of William Shakespeare,"
prefixed to his edition of Shakespeare's collected works
in 12 vols., (1865 et sty.)
White, (ROBERT,) an English engraver, bom in
London in 1645. His portraits in mezzotint and line-
engraving are very numerous. Died in 1704.
White, (Sir THOMAS,) a wealthy citizen of London,
born in 1492, became lord mayor of that city in 1553.
He was the founder of Saint John's College, Oxford.
Died in 1566.
White, (THOMAS,) an English clergyman, born at
Bristol. He became vicar of Saint Dunstan's, Fleet
Street, London, in 1575. He founded Sion College, in
London, and a hospital. Died in 1623.
"White, (THOMAS,) [in Latin, THOMAS AL'HUS or
AN'GLUS,] an English philosopher and Roman Catholic
priest, born in 1582. He lived mostly on the continent,
and published several works on philosophy, etc. Died
in 1676.
White, (THOMAS,) an English philosopher, was a
friend and correspondent of Descartes. Died in 1696.
"White, (THOMAS,) an English divine, born in Kent
in 1630, was made Bishop of Peterborough in 1685. He
was one of the seven bishops imprisoned in the Tower
in 1688. Died in 1698.
See Miss STRICKLAND, "Lives of the Seven Bishops," London,
1866.
White, (WILLIAM,) D.D., a distinguished American
bishop, born at Philadelphia in 1748. He was ordained
priest in 1772, and subsequently became rector of Christ
Church and Saint Peter's Church, Philadelphia. He
was elected Bishop of Pennsylvania in 1786. He pub
lished "Comparative Views of the Controversy between
the Calvinists and Arminians," and other theological
works. Died in 1836.
See BIRD WILSON, "Life of Bishop White," 1839; DUVCKINCK,
" Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i.
Whlte'field, (hwit'feld,) (GEORGE,) an eminent and
eloquent English preacher, and the founder of the sect
of Calvinistic Methodists, was born at Gloucester in
December, 1714. He was a son of an inn-keeper, from
whom he inherited little or nothing. His mother, who
became a widow about 1716, sent him to a grammar-
school. In 1733 he entered Pembroke College, Oxford,
as a servitor. He had received from nature a good voice
and remarkable rhetorical talents. At college he became
an intimate friend of John and Charles Wesley, with
c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this.
Explanations, p. 23.)
WHITEHEAD
2264
WH1TG1FT
whom he entered into religious fellowship. He was or
dained a deacon in 1736, and began soon after to preach
with great eloquence and power. In 1737 he preached
in London, and other places, to crowded congregations,
who listened to him with enthusiastic admiration. He
performed a voyage to Georgia in the early part of 1738,
instituted an orphan-house at Savannah, and returned
to England in September of that year. In 1739 he
was ordained a priest by Bishop Benson. Having been
excluded from the churches of Bristol, he adopted the
practice of preaching in the open air, for which his
powerful voice was well adapted. He propagated the
Methodist religion at various places with great success.
In the autumn of 1739 he again crossed the Atlantic to
America, where he spent more than a year in zealous
ministerial labours. Having traversed the provinces
from New York to Georgia, he returned to England
in 1741. Soon after this date Whitefield and Wesley
ceased to co-operate, in consequence of their disagree
ment in doctrines. They differed especially in the doc
trine of predestination, which Whitefield accepted, as a
disciple of Calvin. (See WKSLEY, JOHN.) About 1742
he married a Welsh widow named Mrs. James. They
had one child, who died in infancy. He revisited the
American colonies in 1744, and laboured among them
several years. In 1748 he became acquainted with
Selina, Countess of Huntingdon, who appointed him
her chaplain. Among the persons who are said to have
heard and admired his sermons were Hume, Lord
Chesterfield, and Benjamin Franklin. He published a
journal of his life, (ad edition, 1756.) He sailed from
England in 1769 on his seventh visit to America, and
died at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in September, 1770.
A collection of his letters, sermons, etc. was published
in six volumes, (1771.)
" Hume pronounced him," says Robert Southey, "the
most ingenious preacher he had ever heard, and said it
was worth while to go twenty miles to hear him. But
perhaps the greatest proof of his persuasive powers was
when he drew from Benjamin Franklin's pocket the
money which that clear, cool reasoner had determined
not to give."* ("Life of John Wesley.")
See J. GILLIES, "Life of George Whiiefield," 1772: "Genuine
and Secret Memoirs relating to that Arch-Methodist. G. Whitefield,"
Oxford, 1742; ScHAFFSH.uisEN', "Historia Methodistarum et Vita
Whitefield," 1743; ROBERT PHILIP, "The Life and Times of the
Rev. George Whitefield," 1838; R. SOUTHEY, "Life of John Wes
ley;" " Kraser's Magazine" for February, 1838.
White'head, (D/\vin,) an English clergyman, born
in Hampshire, became chaplain to Queen Anne Boleyn.
He was appointed Archbishop of Armagh in 1552, went
into exile on the accession of Queen Mary, and preached
at Frankfort. In 1558 he returned to England. Died
in 1571.
Whitehead, (GEORGE,) an English Quaker preacher,
born in Westmoreland in 1636, procured for the society
of which he was a member the allowance of an affirm
ation in the courts of law, instead of the customary oath.
He was a personal friend of George Fox. Died in 1725.
Whitehead, (JoHN,) a Methodist divine and phy
sician, who preached John Wesley's funeral sermon,
and afterwards published Memoirs of his life. Died
in 1804.
Whitehead, (PAUL,) an English satiric poet, born
in London in 1710. His political satire entitled " The
State Dunces" was dedicated to Pope, and was followed
by "Manners," (1739,) "The Gymnasiad," (1744,) and
" Honour," all of which were conspicuous for their
virulence and daring personalities. He was an associate
of Wilkes, Sir Francis Dashwood, and other profligate
wits of the time. Died in 1774.
Whitehead, (WILLIAM,) an English poet and drama
tist, born at Cambridge in 1715. He studied at Cam
bridge, and in 1757 succeeded Colley Gibber as poet-
laureate. He published tragedies entitled " The Roman
Father" and "Creusa, Queen of Athens," "The School
for Lovers," a comedy, and numerous odes, epistles,
etc. Died in 1788.
White'hurst, (JOHN,) an English mechanician of dis
tinguished talents, born in Cheshire in 1713 ; died in 1788.
* See Franklin's own account of this, in his " Autobiography."
Whlte'locke, (hwlt/lok,) (BULSTRODE,) an eminent
English statesman an'c^ lawyer, born in London in 1605,
was a son of Sir James, noticed below. His mother
was Elizabeth Bulstrode. About 1620 he entered Saint
John's College, Oxford, which he quitted, without a
degree, to study law in the Middle Temple. He was
elected a member of the Long Parliament for Great
Marlow in November, 1640, and opposed the arbitrary
measures of Charles I. lie was chairman of the com
mittee which managed the impeachment of the Earl of
Strafford, but was more moderate and conservative than
most of the leaders of the popular party. During the
civil war he preferred the part of mediator to that of a
zealous partisan. He was one of the commissioners
appointed to treat with the king at Oxford in January,
1642-43. About 1648 he was nominated one of the
commissioners of the great seal. He declined to take
any part in the trial of Charles I., which he character
ized as a " bad business ;" but he accepted office under
Cromwell, who had much confidence in his integrity
and judgment. In 1653 he was sent as ambassador to
Sweden, negotiated a treaty with that power, and re
turned in 1654. lie was a member of Cromwell's
second Parliament, and was chosen Speaker of the
House of Commons in 1656, soon after which he urged
Cromwell to assume the title of king, and obtained a
seat in the new House of Peers created by the Pro
tector, lie was created a viscount in August, 1658, but
he would not accept the title. After the death of Oliver
he became president of the council of state, in 1659,
and keeper of the great seal, which he resigned about
December, 1659. At the restoration of 1660 his name
was included in the Act of Oblivion. He died in 1676,
leaving a valuable contribution to history, entitled " Me
morials of English Affairs from the Beginning of the
Reign of Charles I. to the Restoration of Charles II.,"
(1682,) also "Memorials of English Affairs from the
Supposed Expedition of Brute to this Island to the End
of the Reign of James I.," which was published in 1709
by William Penn, who prefixed a notice of the author's
lite. An Account of his Swedish Embassy was pub
lished in 1772.
Whitelocke, (Sir JAMES,) an English judge, born in
London in 1570, was the father of the preceding. He
was elected to Parliament in 1620, and afterwards be
came a judge of the common pleas. He had a good
reputation for fidelity to the duties of his office. Died
in 1632.
White'side, (JAMES,) LL.D., an Irish jurist and
conservative statesman, born in the county of Wicklow
about 1806. lie studied at Trinity College, Dublin, and
subsequently obtained a high reputation as a lawyer
and orator. He was one of the leading counsel in the
defence of O'Connell in 1843, and also defended Meagher
and Smith O'Brien in the trials of 1848. He was elected
to Parliament for Enniskillen in 1851, and in 1859 was
returned for the University of Dublin. He became
about 1866 lord chief justice of the court of queen's
bench in Ireland. He has published a work entitled
" Italy in the Nineteenth Century," (1849.)
Whit'gift, ( JOHN,) an Archbishop of Canterbury, and
learned Protestant theologian, born at Great Grimsby,
Lincolnshire, in 1530. He entered Queen's College,
Cambridge, about 1548, and afterwards removed to
Pembroke Hall. In 1554 he took the degree of
bachelor of arts. He adopted the Protestant doctrines
at an early age, and, after the accession of Queen
Mary, he was protected from persecution by his friend
Andrew Perne. Having entered into holy orders in
1560, he gained d