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THE  UNIVERSITY 
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LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS 


OF  THE  ^ 

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LONHON : 
IMtD    BV    J.   S.    V.KU'B    AND   CO.,    UMnH'. 


CONTENTS. 


FRANCE. 


CHAP. 
I. 


II. 


III. 


PAGE 
1 


iv 


VI 


VII 


23 


74 


Gexehai  Aspects.     The  Country  and  its  Inhabitants 

Geographical  Position;  Geology,  p.  1.     Climate;  Rivers,  p.  7.     The  Prehistoric  Age  of 
France,  p.  13.     The  Inhahitants  of  France,  p.  16. 

The  Pyrexeks,  the  Landes,  and  the  B.isin  of  the  Garonne 

The  P)Tenees,  p.  23.    The  Landes,  p.  39      The  Adour,  p.  45.     The  Garonne,  p.  48. 
Topography. — Pj-renees-Orientales,  p.  53.     Ariege,  p.  55.     Haute-Garonne,  p.  57.     Hautea.- 

Pvrenees,  p.  59.     Basses-PjTenees,  p.   62.    Gers,  p.  64.    Tarn-et-Garonne,  p.  65.    Lot-et- 

Garonne,  p.  67.     Landes,  p.  67.     Gironde,  p.  69. 
The  Alps,  the  Rhose,  and  the  Co.iST  of  the  M' diterr.inean 

General  Aspects  :  Mountains,  p.  74.     Provence,  p.  75.    Maritime  Alps,  78.     Cottian  Alps, 

p.  78.     The  Alps  of  Dauphine,  p.  80.     The  Alps  of  Savoy,  p.  8t.     The   Rhon"-  and  other 

Livers,  p.  89.     Coast-line  and  Lagoons,  p.  108.    Climate,  p.  114. 
Top,r/,-aph!/.—Auie,  T^.  115.     Herault,  p.  117.     Gard,  p.  119.    Ardeche,  p.  122.    Bouches- 

du-Rhone,  p.   124.     Var,  p.   130.     Alpes-Maritimes,  p.  134.     Vaucluse,  p.   136.      Hautes- 

Alpes,  p.  139.    Basses-Alpes,  p.  140.   Drome,  p.  141.  Isfere,  p.  142.    Savoie.p.  144.    Haute- 

Savoie,  p.  146. 
The  Jlra  and  the  B,vsin  of  the  Saone  (Franche-Comte  and  Blrgvndv) 

General  Aspects  ;    Mountains,  p.  148.     Lakes  and  Rivers,  p.  150.     Inhabitants,  p.  156. 
Topogniphy.—Ma.,  p.  157.     Jura,  p.   158.     Doubs,  p.  159.     Belfort,  p.  162.      Haute-Saone, 

p.  163.     Cote-d'Or,  p.  164.     Saone-et-Loire,  p.  167.     Rhone,  p.  171. 
The  PLATE.iu  OF  Central  Fr.\nce  (Gevavdan,  Velav,  Auvergne,  Rouergue,  Limousin, 

Perigord,  Marche,  Bovrbonnais) 

The  Cevennes,  p.  174.     Mezenc  and  Vivarais,  p. '177.     Velay,  p.  179.     The  Volcanoes  of 

Auvergne,  p.  181.     Limousin,  p.  186.     Forez,  Beaujolais,  and  CharoUais,  p.   188.     Inha- 
bitants, p.  188. 
Topography.— Lozere,  p.  189.     Ilaute-Loire,  p.  189.     Aveyron,  p.  190.     Tarn,  p.  191. 

p.  193.     Cantal,  p.   194.     Puy-de-Dome,  p.  195.     Correze,  p.    197.     Dordogne,  p. 

Haute- Vienne,  p.  199.     Creuse,  p.  200.     Allier,  p.  201.     Loire,  p.  204. 
Chaeente  and  Vendee  (Anqoumois,  Saintonge,  Aunis,  Poitov) 

General  Aspects ;  Hills,  p.  206.     Rivers,  p.  207.     The  Coast,  p.  208. 
Topography.— Q^HTenie,   p.   212.      Charente-Inferieurc,  p.   214.     Vienne,  p.  218. 

Sevres,  p.  219.     Vendee,  p.  220. 

The  Bisin  of  the  Loire -^-^ 

General  Aspects,  p.  222.     The  Loir.',  p.  223. 
Topography.— Jsievre,  p.  230.     Cher,  p.  232.     Indre,  p.  232.     Loiret,  p.  233. 

p   234.     Euro  et-Loir,  p.  236.     Indrc-ot-Lou'e,  p.  236.     Maine-et-Loii-e,  p 

p   S39.     Mayennc,  p.  242.     Loiiolnfericuie,  p.  242. 


14S 


174 


Lot, 
198. 


Deux- 


2'M. 


Loir-ct-Clier, 
238.     Sarthe, 


A-'A^'^^ 


iy  CONTENTS. 


on\p. 


^ PAOB 

Viii.  Bkittanv  (Buetaone) '^i6 

Genenil  Aspects,  p.  246.     The  Coast,  p.  248.     Inhabitants,  p.  253. 
Topography. — Morbihan,   p.    2o6.      Finistere,    p.    258.      COtes-du-Nord,    p.    2G1.      Ille-et- 
VUaiuo,"  p.  264. 

IX.  The  Channel  Islands 266 

Jersey,  p.  266.     Serk,  p.  268.     Guernsey,  p.  268.     Aldemey,  p.  269. 

X.  Lower  Nohmanuv  and  Coje.stin 270 

General  Aspects,  p.  270. 
Topograph  ij. —La  Manehc,  p.  272.     Orne,  p  275.     Calvados,  p.  276. 

XI.  The  Valley  of  the  Seine 280 

The  River  Seine,  p.  280.     Upper  Normandy,  p.  287.     The  Coast,  p.  289. 
Topography. — Yonne,  p.  290.    Auhe,  p.  291.     llaute-Marue,  p.  291.     Maruc,  p   292.     Scine- 
et-Mamo,  p.  297.     Paris,  p.  299.     Seinc-et-Oiso,  p.  307.     Aisne,  p.  310.        Oise,  p.  314. 
Euro,  p.  314.     Scine-Inferieurc,  p.  316. 
XII.  Northern    Fkance  (Basins  of   the  Sonlme  and   the   Scheldt;    Picardy,  ^Vrtois,  and 

Flanders) 322 

General  Aspects,  p.  322. 
Topography.— ^maic,  p.  331.     Pas-de-Calais,  p.  334.     Nord,  p.  337. 

XIII.  The  Vosoes  (Basins  of  the  MtusE  and  the  Moselle) 345 

General  Aspects,  p.  345. 
Topography. — Mcuso,  p.  350.    Ardennes,  p.  350.    Vosges,  p.  352.    lleurthc-ot-Mosello,  p.  354. 

XIV.  Statistics  op  France 356 

Population,  p.  356.  Agrieulturo,  \>.  359.  Slining,  p.  304.  Mauul'actiir.s,  p.  365.  Com- 
merce, p.  366.     Social  Statistics,  p.  371. 

XV.  Government  and  Administuaiion 374 

Local  and  Central  Government,  p.  374.  JudiciiU  Authorities,  p.  376.  Ecclesiastical 
Authorities,  p.  376.  Education,  p.  377.  .iVmiy  and  Navy,  p.  377.  Finance,  p.  378. 
tVilouics,  p.  380. 

Tabular  Statement  of  Area  and  Population,  p.  382. 

France ;  its  Departments,  Natural  KcgionB,  and  Principal  Communes,  p.  381. 


SWHTZERLAND. 

I.  General  Aspects. — The  Ali-s 391 

II.  The  Jlra 409 

III.  Glacial  Period 414 

IV.  UivEHS  AND  Lakes 419 

V.  Climate,  Fauna,  and  Fi.oka 434 

VI.  The  1'eoi-le 442 

VII.  Topography 452 

Ticino,  p.  453.  Valais,  Vaud,  p.  454.  Geneva,  p.  456.  Fribourg,  Ncuchatel,  p.  459. 
Bern.  p.  •leO.  Solothum,  p.  464.  Basel,  p.  465  A.irgau,  p.  467.  Luzern,  p.  471. 
Schwy;:,  Uri,  Unterwalden,  p.  469.  Zug,  Ziirich,  p.  470.  Glarus,  Orisons,  p.  471.  St. 
Gallen,  p.  472.     Appenzell,  Thurgau,  p.  473.     SchaflFhausen,  474. 

Vin.  Agriculture,  Industry,  ami  Commerce 475 

IX.  Government  and  Administration 490 

INDEX 497 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTBATIOJSrS. 


MAPS  PRINTED  IN  COLOUES. 


PAGE 

1 .  France,  Geological    .....  4 

2.  France,  Political 53 

3.  Mont  Blanc  ^ 86 

4.  The  Volcanoes  of  Central  France     •         .  177 


5.  Geological  Map  of  the  Paris  Basin 
C.  Switzerland  ..... 
7.  Mount  St.  Gotthard 


PACK 

301 
3i)l 
4b4 


PLATES. 


The  PjTences,  as  seen  from  the  Terrace  of  the  j 

Castle  at  Pau      ....   To  face  pnyc '2S  \ 

The  Maladetta,  seen  from  the  Summit  of  the  j 

Posets 31 

Panorama  of  Cier  and  the  Valley  of  Luchon     .      56 

Toulouse 58  I 

Peasants  from  the  Valley  of  Ossau  .         .     '  .      62 

Bayonne 63 

Bordeaux 69 

La  Perte  du  Rhone  at  BeUegarde      ...       89 

Carcassonne 116 

Marseilles 124 

Grenohle  and  the  Alps  of  BeUedonne        .        .     142 
Mont  Auxois  and  the  Statue  of  Vercingetorix  .     167 

Lyons 171 

Peasants  of  Auvergnr 1*<6 

Le  Puy-en-Velay      .        .         .  •      .         .        .189 
Valley  of  Mont  Dore-les-Bains         .        .         .197 


Limoges To  face  page  200 

Source  of  the  Loiret 233 

Chambord  Castle 235 

Nantes 242 

Mont  St.  Michel 252 

Paris 299 

Prospect  from  the  Terrace  of  St.  Germain        .  308 

Rouen 317 

Lakes  of  Retoumemcr  and  Longemer       .        .  348 

Nancy 354 

Railway  Viaduct  of  Morlaix      ....  367 

Le  Havre 370 

Mont  Cer\an,  or  the  Matterhom       .        .        .  398 

The  Jungfrau 401 

The  Lake  of  Thun 427 

Geneva 4')6 

The  WeUhom  and  the  Rosenlaui  Glacier .        .  464 

The  Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons  (Axenstraase)    .  470 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TEXT. 


FRANCE. 
no. 

1.  The  Contour  of  Franco     ... 

2.  The  Iliatorical  High-roads  of  Franco 

3.  Lithologic.-il  Map  of  tlie  British  Channel 

4.  Isothermal  Lines  of  France 

5.  Lines  of  Equal  Winter  and  Summer  Tern 

pcrature  for  Paris 

6.  Comparative  Area  of  the  River  B.tsins  and 

average  Surface  Drainage 

7.  Comparative  Discharge  of  the  Great  Rivers 

of  Franco    . 

8.  DoL - ER - Vekchant    ok     "Merchants' 

Table,"  near  Locmauiakeh 
9    Dispersion  of  the  Aryans  . 

10.  The  Stature  of  Frenchmen 

11.  Profile  of  the  Pyrenees 

12.  Slont  Canigou  . 

13.  Puy  de  Carlittc 

14.  Defiles  of  the  Audo   . 

15.  The  Isthmus  between  the  CorbiC^rcs  and 

the  Ccvennes 

16.  The  Little  Pyrenees  . 

17.  The  Maladetta. 

18.  Mont  Perdu      . 

19.  Roland's  B  ieach     . 

20.  The  Amimiitheatiik  of  Gavahnie 

21.  Section  of  the  Ancient  Glacier  of  Argelfcs 

22.  Ancient  Glacier  of  Argoliss 

23.  The  Basques  on  the  French  Slope  of  the 

Pyrenees 

24.  View   in  the  Lanhes 

25.  The  Dunes  and  Landes  in  the  Pays 

Bom 

26    The  Basin  of  Arcachon     . 

27.  TTie  Slope  of  the  Landes  . 

28.  TTie  .iVncient  Coast  of  the  Landes 

29.  Successive  Changes  of  the  Bed  of  the  Gave 

of  Pau 

30.  The  Mouth  of  the  Adour 

31.  The  Suhterranean  Course  of  the  Garonne 

32.  Radiating  River  Courses  of  Gers 

33.  Valleys  of  Gers         .... 

34.  The  Plain  of  Riviere 
3.5.  The  Estuary  of  the  Gironde 

36.  The  "  Passes  "  of  the  Gironde  . 

37.  Section  of  the  Passes  of  the  Gironde 

38.  Port-Vendres 

39.  Bagneres-de-Luchon 

40.  The  Convergent  Valleys  of  the  Garonne, 

the  Ariege,  and  the  Hers    . 

41.  Toulouse 

42.  Canal  of  the  Neste    .... 

43.  Bagneres-de-Bigorre 
4  I.  Tumuli  of  Ossun        .... 
4.5.  Bayonne  and  the  Mouth  of  the  Adour 

46.  Roadstead  of  St.  Jean-de-Luz  . 

47.  The  Alluvial  Plain  of  the  Garonne,  the 

Tain,  and  the  Aveyron 


2 
5 
G 
8 


12 


13 


1.5 
17 
19 
24 

2.; 

26 
27 

29 
30 
31 
32 
3  J 
34 
35 
36 

38 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 

46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
60 
51 
62 
62 
64 
66 

57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
63 
61 

60 


75 


FIO. 

48.  Cap-Breton       .... 

49.  Bordoau.\ 

60.  The  Wine  Districts  of  the  Gironde 
81.  The  Invasion  of  PhyUoxera,  1»73 
62.  Zones  of  Orvnges  and  Olives     . 
53.  The  Mountains  of  the  Moors    . 

64.  The  Valli-y  of  the  Arc 

65.  The  Veudon  at  (U'inson 

66.  The  Gorge,  or  "  Clus,"  of  the  Verdon 

67.  The  Glacieus  of  Oisans 

68.  AlOlILLE    OF    THE    MeDJE 

69.  The  Glacieu  of  La  Grave 

60.  The  "Forest"  of  Saou 

61.  Le  s  Mouur£  . 

62.  Mont  Blanc  as  seen  from  Chamoni.x 

63.  Ancient  Lake  Beds  in  Savoy 

64.  Perte  du  Rhone  and  BuUegarde 

65.  The  Lake  of  Annecy 

66.  The  Lake  of  Bourgot 
07.  Ancient  Glaciers  of  tho   Rhone  and  the 

Isero  .         .        .        • 

68.  Plain  of  La  Valloiro 

69.  The  Sorgucs  of  Vaucluso 

70.  Pontd'.Vrc  (\rdecho) 

71.  I'oNT  d'Arc 

72.  The  Roman  Aqveduct  over  the  Gard 

73.  Tho  Crau  and  the  Canal  of  Crapponno 

74.  The  Canal  of  tho  Verdon  . 
76.  The  Delta  of  the  Rhone    . 

76.  The  Canal  of  St.  Louis 

77.  The  Lagoons  of  Aigucs-Mortes 

78.  The  Delta  of  the  Aude      . 

79.  Rigoles  of  tho  Canal  du  Midi    . 

80.  The    Mouth  of    the   Herault    and    Cap 

d'Agde 

81.  Leucate  and  the  Roadstead  of  Fniuqui 

82.  The  Lagoon  of  Thau 

83.  Bionomical    Condition    of    the     Littoial 

Region  of  Herault 

84.  Etang  de  Berre  •         .         .         . 

85.  The  Canal  of  Caronte 

86.  The  Prevailing  AN'inds  at  Aigues-Mortus 

87.  The  Port  of  La  Nouvelle  . 

88.  Tho  H.arhour  of  Cette 

89.  The  Protestant  Congreg.ations  in  the  South 

of  France    .... 

90.  Beaucaire  and  Tarascon    . 

91.  The  Invasion  of  the  Phylloxera 

92.  M.arscilles         .... 

93.  The  Roadstead  of  Marseilles    . 

94.  The  Mai-solevm  at  St.  Rcmy 

95.  King  Rene's  Castle  at  Tarascon 

96.  Toulon 

97.  Hyeres 

98.  The  Gulf  of  St.  Tropez     . 

99.  Nice 

100.  VUlcfranche     .... 

101.  The  Caverns  of  BAOis.-i-Eov.'-SE 


0!S 

7  J 
71 
72 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
84 
85 
86 
8S 
89 
90 
91 

93 

91 

9.5 

90 

97 

98 

99 

100 

101 

103 

104 

105 

107 

108 
109 
110 

111 
112 
113 
114 
116 

lis 

120 
122 
123 
125 
126 
128 
129 
130 
131 
132 
1.33 
1.15 
136 


LIST  OV  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


VII 


FIG. 

PAOt 

no. 

102. 

Baousse-Rousse         .... 

.     137 

163. 

103. 

Cannes  and  the  Isles  of  Lerins 

.     138 

164. 

104. 

AVIGNO.N 

139 

165. 

105. 

Col  de  Larche  . 

140 

166. 

106. 

SiSTERO.N  . 

.     141 

167. 

107. 

Valence    . 

.     143 

168. 

108. 

Grenoble  . 

.     144 

169. 

109. 

Passes  over  the  Alps 

145 

170. 

110. 

Thonon     . 

.     146 

171. 

HI. 

The  Jura 

149 

172. 

112. 

The  Forest  of  Chaux 

150 

173. 

113. 

The  Lake  of  St.  Point 

151 

174. 

m. 

The  Lake  of  Chalin  . 

152 

175. 

115. 

The  Lakes  of  the  Cluse  of  Xautua   . 

152 

176. 

116. 

The  Lower  Valley  of  the  Ain  . 

153 

177. 

117. 

The  Great  Defile  of  the  Doubs 

154 

178. 

118. 

The  Falls  of  the  DoUjS 

155 

179. 

119. 

The  Combos  in  1834 

156 

180. 

120. 

The  Mountains  of  Jlorez  and  St.  Claude 

158 

181. 

121. 

The  First  Terrace  of  the  Jura,  between 

182. 

Lons-le-Saunier  and  Salins 

160 

183. 

122. 

Besan(;on 

161 

1S4. 

123. 

BES.is<;oM 

162 

18.5. 

124. 

Belfort 

163 

186. 

125. 

Belfort 

164 

187. 

126. 

Vesoul 

165 

1S8. 

127. 

The  "Wine  District  of  Cote-d'Or 

166 

189. 

128. 

Le  Creusot        

168 

190. 

129. 

Le  Ckecsot 

169 

191. 

130. 

Lvons 

170 

192. 

131. 

The  Enviions  of  Lvons     . 

172 

193. 

132. 

The  Mountains  of  Espinouze    . 

175 

194. 

133. 

The  Causse  of  Mi  jean 

176 

195. 

134. 

The    Defile    of    the    AkdIche,   xe.\ii 

196. 

EUOMS          

178 

197. 

135. 

The  Hills  of  Coiron  .... 

179 

198. 

136. 

LePuv 

ISO 

199. 

137. 

The  Ply  de  l'Aiguillier,  Moxt  Doue 

1S2 

200. 

138. 

The  Puy  of  Sancy  and  the  Lake  District 

183 

201. 

139. 

The  Chain  of  the  Puy  de  Dome 

184 

202. 

140. 

Volvic 

185 

203. 

141. 

The  Meanderings  of  the  Lot 

186 

204. 

142. 

The  Rapids  of  Lalinde      . 

187 

205. 

143. 

Roquefort 

191 

206. 

144. 

DecazevDle 

192 

207. 

145. 

Clermont  and  Montferrand 

195 

208. 

146. 

Thiers 

196 

209. 

147. 

Section  of  the   Carboniferous   Strata  oi 

210. 

St.  filov 

197 

211. 

148. 

Tayac  and  Lcs  Eyzies,  on  the  Vezere 

198 

1  212. 

149. 

201 

213. 

150. 

Vichy 

202 

214. 

151 

203 

215. 

152. 

The  Head- Waters  of  the  Tou^Te 

207 

153. 

2.8 

2!  6. 

154. 

Xoirmoutier      ..... 

209 

217. 

155. 

210 

218. 

15-. 

The  Ancient  Gulf  of  Poitou     . 

211 

219. 

157. 

212 

220. 

158. 

The  Brandy  Districts  of  Ch.arente    . 

213 

221. 

159. 

Rochefort  and  the  Lower  Charente  . 

214 

160. 

La  Rochelle      .        .         ... 

215 

222. 

161. 

La  Rochelle   

216 

223. 

162. 

AhS-E.v-R^ 

217 

224. 

PAOl 

,  The  Gulf  of  Aiguillon      .         .         .        .218 

,  Les  Sables-d'Olonne  ....     220 

The  Bill  of  the  -Ulier        ....     223 

The  Authion 224 

La  Sologne 225 

,  The  Erdre 226 

The  L^ke  of  Grand  Lieu  .        .         .227 

La  Grande  Briere 228 

Paimboeuf 229 

The  Mouth  of  the  Loire    .        .        .        .230 

Le  Croisic  and  Batz 231 

Cleans 233 

Chartres 235 

Tours 237 

Angers 238 

The    t-LATE    QC.VRRIES   XF.AR  A.NGERS  .       240 

Le  Mans 241 

Nantes 243 

St.  Xazaire 244 

The  Landes  of  Lanvaux   ....     247 

Morbihan 248 

The  Peninsula  of  Quiberon  .  .  .  249 
The  Headland  of  Comouaille  .  .  .250 
The  Bay  of  St.  Michel     .         .         .         .252 

Bketox  Peasants 253 

Approximate  E.\tent  of  the  Breton  Tongue  254 
WoMEX  OF  Cakcale  ....  255 
Lorient  and  Port- Louis    ....     257 

Concameau 259 

Brest 260 

Morlaix 262 

St.  Malo  and  St.  Servan  .  .        .263 

View  op  St.  SIalo 264 

The  Channel  Islands        .        .         .        .267 

The  Forest  of  Andaine     .        .         .         .271 

Meadows  of  Normandy     .        .         .         .272 

The  Sinks  of  the  Aui-e     .         .        .         .273 

Cherbourg        ......     271 

The  Beach  at  Grasville  .  .  .  275 
Caen  and  the  Mouth  of  the  Ome      .        .277 

TrourUle 278 

The  Ra%-uied  Plateau  of  Upper  Burgundy  281 
The  Lake  Reservoir  of  Settons  .  .  282 
The  Source  of  the  Seine  .  .  .  .283 
The  Basin  of  Vitry-le-Francois  .  .  284 
Section  of  the  Paris  Basin  .  .  .  285 
The  Estuarj-  of  the  Seine  .         .        .286 

The  District  of  Bray        ....     287 

Da'.es  on  the  Coast 288 

Cape  de  la  HkvE 289 

The  En%'irons  of  Langrcs  .         .         .     292 

Chalons  and  its  Camp  ....  293 
The  Bifurcation  of  the  Grand  Morin  at 

Sezanne 294 

Reims  and  Epemay  ....     295 

The  Cathedral  of  Reims      .         .         .     296 

Fontainebleau 297 

Paris  and  the  Great  Highways  of  France  298 
The  Growth  of  Paris  ....  299 
The  Comparative  Growth  of  London  and 

Paris  in  Popluation  ....  300 
The  Areas  occupied  by  London  and  Paris     301 

Notre-Dame 302 

The  Louvre 303 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS. 


no. 

PAoi: 

225. 

The  New  Opera  Hov.'se,  P.\k 

IS 

304 

Fin. 

226. 

Paris  aud  its  Aqueducts    . 

305 

280. 

227. 

Paris  and  its  Forts    . 

300 

281. 

228. 

St.  Germain-cn-Laye 

308 

229. 

Laon         .... 

310 

282. 

230. 

St.  Qucntin 

311 

231. 

Compicgne 

312 

283. 

232. 

ChantiUy 

313 

284. 

233. 

Les  Andelys 

315 

285. 

234. 

Rouen  and  its  Environs    . 

316 

286. 

235. 

Le  Ha\Te .         .         . 

317 

287. 

236. 

The  Cliffs  of  Etketat 

318 

288. 

237. 

Fecamp    .... 

319 

289. 

238. 

Dieppe      .... 

320 

290. 

239. 

The  HiUs  of  Boulogne      . 

323 

291. 

240. 

The  Estuary  of  the  8ommo 

324 

292. 

241. 

The  Ancient  Gulf  of  Flanders 

325 

293. 

242. 

The  Moercs  of  Dunkirk    . 

326 

294. 

243. 

Section  of  the  Strait  of  Dover 

327 

295. 

244. 

Strait  of  Dover  and  the  Proposed 

Tunnel 

328 

296. 

245. 

Section  of  the  Proposed  Tunnel 

328 

297. 

246. 

Extent    of     the     French     and 

Flemish 

298. 

Languages  .... 

. 

329 

299. 

247. 

The  Coal  Basin  of  Northern  France 

330 

300. 

248. 

PfeHONNE-SUR-SOMME 

, 

331 

301. 

249. 

Amiens 

. 

332 

30i. 

250. 

Amiens  Cathedral  . 

333 

303 

251. 

Boulogne           .... 

. 

335 

304. 

252. 

Calais 

336 

305. 

253. 

Valenciennes    .... 

338 

306. 

254. 

Lille 

339 

307. 

255. 

Koubaix  and  Turcoing     . 

340 

308. 

256. 

The  Belfry  op  Beroues 

. 

341 

309. 

257. 

Gravelines         .... 

342 

310. 

258. 

Dunkirk 

343 

311. 

259. 

Glaciers  of  the  Vosges 

346 

312. 

260. 

The    Lakes  of  Gerardmer  and 

Longe- 

313. 

mer 

. 

347 

314. 

261. 

Meanderings  of  the  Meuse 

349 

315. 

202. 

Charle\-ille  and  Slezidres  . 

351 

316. 

263. 

Epinal 

352 

317. 

204. 

Nancy 

355 

318 

205. 

Increase  of  Population   in  the 

Principal 

319 

Countries    .... 

357 

320 

260. 

Density  of  the  Population  in  France 

358 

321 

267. 

Wheat  Harvests 

359 

322 

268. 

Produce  of  the  Vineyards 

360 

323 

269. 

Pastures  and  Meadows     . 

362 

270. 

Average  Value  of  Agricultural 

Produce, 

324 

with  the  Exception  of  Wine 

363 

325 

271. 

The  Increase  of  Steam  Engines 

365 

326 

272. 

The  Railroads  of  France  . 

367 

327 

273. 

Canals  and  Navigable  Rivers    . 

. 

868 

328 

274. 

The  Commercial  Marines  of  the  World     . 

369 

329 

275. 

The  Navigation  of  French  Ports 

370 

276. 

Map  exhibiting  the  Educational  Condition 

330 

of  France    .... 

372 

331 

277. 

View  of  Moxaco 

. 

370 

332 

278. 

Comparative  .\reas  of  France  and  of  her 

Colonies     .... 

. 

380 

333 

279. 

The  Languages  of  France 

. 

381 

334 

SWITZERLAND. 

PAOE 

Val  Piora  and  the  Lukmanior  .  .  .  394 
Diagram  showing  the  Slope  of  the  Valleys 

South  and  North  of  the  St.  Gotthard  .  395 
Sources  of  the  Rhone,  the  Ticino,  aud  the 

Toce 396 

The  lUgraben 397 

The  Matterhom  (Mont  Cer\-in)  .  .  398 
Glaciers  of  the  Bernese  Alps  .  .  .  400 
Blv.mlisali'  Glacier        ....     401 

The  Diablerets 402 

The  Windgalle 405 

Piz  Bernina 406 

The  Glaciers  of  Tschiorva  and  Morteratsch  407 
The  Valley  of  Tra vers  .  .  .  .410 
The  Cluse  of  Undervelier  .         .         .411 

Meanderings  of  the  Doubs  at  St.  Ursanne  412 
The  I^ake  of  Joux     .         .         .         .         .413 

TheCatogne 416 

Ancient  Glaciers  of  Eastern  Switzerland  .  417 
The  Lake  of  Locarno  (Lago  Maggioro)  .  420 
The  Lakes  of  Lugano  and  Como  .421 

The  Aletsch  Glacier 422 

The  Lak(!  of  Geneva  .  .  .  .424 
Section  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva  .         .     425 

The  Lakes  of  Neuc  hutel,  Bienne,  and  Morat  426 
The  Lakes  of  Brienz  and  Thun  .         .     427 

The  Grindehvald  Gl.icier  .  .  .  .428 
The  Swamps  of  the  Linth  .        .430 

The  Sources  of  the  Rhine  .         .         .431 

Rain  Map  of  Switzerland  .         .         .     435 

An  Ali'Ine  Club  Cabin  ....    437 

Pfaffikon  Lake 443 

The  Pile  Dwellings  of  Switzerland  .  .  444 
Ethnographical  Jlap  of  Switzerland  .     447 

C0STf.ME8   IN    Uki 449 

Costumes  in  Frihouho  ....  450 
Eastern  Extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva    455 

Geneva 456 

The  Lake  of  Morat 459 

Bern 461 

View  op  Bekn 462 

Interlaken 463 

Bienne  and  the  New  Bed  of  the  Aar         .     464 

Basel 466 

Porrentruy        ......     466 

Confluence  of  the  Rhine,  Aar,  Eeuss,  and 

Limmat       ......     467 

The  Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons         .        .     468 
The  Simmenthal        .....     476 

Industrial  Map  of  Switzerland .        .        .     480 

The  Ebexe  Fluh 481 

Passes  across  the  Alps  ....  482 
The  Devil's  BkidijE  and  the  Road  of 

THE  St.  Gotthard  ....  483 
,  Railways  of  S^vitzerland  ....  484 
The  Tunnel  of  the  St.  Gotthard        .  4,S5 

Diagram  of  the  Tunnels  of  the  Simplon 

and  the  St.  Gotthard  .         .         .         .480 

The  Pass  of  Maloggia       .        .         .        .487 

,  The  Mo.vch 488 


A  UNIVERSAL  GEOGRAPHY, 


FRANCE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GEXEKAL  ASPECTS.— THE  COTIsTEY  AXD  ITS  DOIAniTAXTS. 

Geogkaphical  Positiox. — Geology.* 

EAXCE  occupies  a  medium  extent  amongst  those  countries  of  the 
■(vorld  which  have  played  a  distinct  part  in  politics  and  in  the 
history  of  civilisation.  Smaller  in  area  than  either  China,  Russia, 
the  Brazils,  or  the  United  States,  it  is  nevertheless  for  more  con- 
siderable than  that  of  either  Greece,  Portugal,  Switzerland,  Holland, 
or  even  of  England,  all  of  which  have  left  their  mark  upon  the  march  of  human 
history.  Scarcely  covering  the  225th  part  of  the  habitable  portion  of  the  globe, 
its  dense  population  has  nevertheless  enabled  it  to  plaj'  a  part  quite  out  of  propor- 
tion to  its  area. 

It  would  be  presumptuous  if  we  claimed  on  behalf  of  France  a  sort  of  moral 
hegemony  amongst  the  nations  of  the  world.  Still,  within  the  comparatively 
small  territory  bounded  by  the  iVlps  and  Britany,  by  the  Pyrenees  and  Yosges, 
there  have  taken  place  events  whose  influence  has  made  itself  felt  to  the  farthest 
corners  of  the  world.  In  arts  and  science  France  has  found  worthy  rivals  since 
the  beginning  of  this  century,  and  there  are  other  nations  which  claim  to  march 
at  the  head  of  civilisation.  But  this  merely  proves  that  the  area  of  the  civilised 
world  has  been  enlarged — that  there  are  other  nations  capable  of  giving  birth  to 
initiatory  movements.  But  France  has  at  all  times  performed  her  share  of  this 
work  of  human  progress,  and  looking  to  the  influence  which  her  ideas  have 
exercised  throughout  the  world,  it  would  be  difficult  to  conceive  a  future  history 
of  nations  with  France  blotted  from  the  map  of  Europe.     To  a  very  large  extent 

Dufrenoy  et  Elio  de  Beaumont,  "Mumoires  pour  scrvir  a  ime   Description  gcologique  do  la 


France' 
VOL. 


ir. 


2  FRANCE. 

the  inhabitants  of  France  arc  indebted  for  the  eminent  position  they  hold  to  Iho 
climate,  the  soil,  and  the  geographical  features  of  the  country  which  they  inhabit, 
and  a  faithful  description  of  these  will  be  our  task  in  the  following  pages. 

It  has  often  been  said  that  Franco  enjoys  oxceptiomil  advantages  from  its 
position  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  open  ocean.  This  position  has  made  it 
the  intermediary  between  the  old  coxmtries  of  the  ^loditerranean  and  Northern 

Fig:.  1.— The  Contovr  ov  FiiAxrn. 


5|         tl         J]  a|  /|         o\or/t.n.yi         ij  \3  1»         \5      .   \s' 


,,^ftt     AclatU  iaundaty.  ......     .^isrA  diagonals  cFJi-aat». 


Europe.  Nowhere  else  in  Europe  is  communication  between  the  coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic  equally  facile.  The  plains  of  Poland  and  Russia 
may  offer  fewer  obstacles  to  intercommunication,  but  the  Baltic  and  the  Black 
Sea,  which  they  unite,  are  remote  inland  seas.  In  Central  Europe  the  Alps  are 
an  obstacle  to  the  exchange  of  ideas  and  merchandise  between  the  North  Sea  and 
the  Adriatic,  but  in  France  great  natural  highways  join  the  Atlantic  and  ]\Iedilcr- 
ranean  ports  and  river  basins.     Mountainous  Europe  may  be  said  to  terminate  at 


GEOGEArillCAL  POSITION.-   GEOLOGY.  8 

the  foot  of  the  Ceveimes,  and  the  great  diagonals  of  the  ■western  portion  of  that 
continent,  yiz.  that  drawn  from  Germany  to  the  Iberian  peninsuhi,  and  that 
connecting  Italy  with  England,  intersect  each  other  ■within  the  boundaries  of 
France,  ■which  is  thus  marked  out  bj'  nature  as  the  great  centre  in  ■which  European 
thought  may  be  elaborated,  where  North  and  South  may  exchange  their  ideas. 

The  contour  of  France  is  distinguished  by  compactness  no  less  than  by  a 
certain  elegance.  A  meridian  passing  through  the  capital  connects  the  two 
extreme  points  of  the  territory,  dividing  it  into  two  symmetrical  portions  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  form  an  octagon.  Oceanic  alternate  ■with  land  boundaries,  and 
these  latter  for  the  most  part  consist  of  mountain  chains,  ■n^hicli  separate  France 
very  distinctly  from  neighbouring  countries.  The  principal- of  these  natural, 
frontier  ranges  are  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  the  Jura,  the  Yosges,  and  the 
Ardennes.*  We  may  even  include  amongst  these  bastions  the  granitic  heights  of 
the  xi.rmorican  peninsida,  which  overlook  the  fields  of  Normandy  and  Anjou  to  the 
west.  To  these  sterile  hills  France  is  probabh-  indebted  for  not  having  been 
conquered  by  England,  for  if  Britany  had  been  capable  of  attracting  hardy 
Anglo-Saxon  settlers,  it  ■would  have  formed  a  link  between  Guyenne  and 
Normandy,  and  these  provinces  might  then  have  remained  for  ever  in  the  jiosses- 
sion  of  the  foreigner. 

Curiously  enough,  it  is  the  highest  amongst  these  frontier  ranges  which  separate 
the  French  from  nations  of  kindi'ed  origin,  ■whilst  the  less  elevated  ranges  consti- 
tute the  boundaries  towards  the  Germanic  countries.  The  Pyrenees,  a  most 
formidable  barrier,  hardly  to  be  passed  in  winter,  divide  France  from  Spain  ;  the 
Alps,  an  obstacle  almost  equally  formidable,  separate  it  from  Italj-.  But  farther 
north,  the  Jura  and  the  Vosges,  which  are  of  comparatively  small  height,  separate 
the  French  from  the  German-speaking  populations,  whilst  in  the  north-east,  in  the 
direction  of  the  ravined  plateau  of  the  Ardennes,  the  boundary  in  certain  parts  is 
completely  open  and  quite  conventional.  The  frontier  there  has  varied  much  in 
accordance  with,  the  fortunes  of  war,  but  the  two  conterminous  races  did  not 
assimilate.  In  the  south,  however,  had  there  not  been  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Alps, 
it  is  to  be  assumed  that  instead  of  three  Latin  nations — French,  Spaniards,  and 
Italians — each  possessed  of  some  special  genius,  there  would  now  be  but  one. 

France  is  thus  doubly  privileged.  Its  southern  mountain  barriers  have  pre- 
served it  from  a  premature  fusion  with  other  Latin  nations,  whilst  in  the  north, 
where  the  frontier  is  open,  it  was  preserved  by  the  natural  antagonism  of  race,  and 
yet,  owing  to  the  facilities  of  communication,  it  rendered  possible  an  extensive 
commerce  and  an  exchange  of  ideas.  Paris,  placed  close  to  this  open  frontier,  was 
thus  marked  out  by  nature  as  the  capital  of  the  country  :  valleys  and  hills  con- 
verge upon  it ;  it  is  the  principal  seat  of  commerce  and  industrj*,  and  whether  in 
peace  or  war  has  always  held  the  foremost  place. 

The  physical  features  of  the  interior  of  France  arc  harmonious  in  their  very 

•  Development  of  coast-line,  not  including  imlentations  of  less  than  three  miles,  1,030  miles 
(Channel  C9fl,  Atlantic  S61,  llediterranean  382  miles).  Development  of  land  frontiers,  1,319  miles 
(Belgium  286,  Luxemburg  9,  Germany  199,  Switzerland  2-lG,  Italy  255,  Spain  351  miles).  Tutal 
circumference,  3,288  miles. 

B    2 


4  FllANCE. 

contrasts.  A  grauitic  plateau  of  a  triaiigulav  coiilouv  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
countrj'.  In  the  east  it  is  bounded  by  tlie  deep  valley  througb  which  flow  the 
Saone  and  the  Rhone ;  on  the  south-west  it  is  bounded  by  the  valley  of  the 
Garonne,  whilst  its  north-eastern  boundary  runs  parallel  with  the  Loire.  The 
granitic  mountain  of  Roucrguo  and  the  heights  of  Morvan  are  attached  to  this 
plateau-like  peninsula.  Porphyries  and  lavas  have  been  erupted  through  the 
granites  forming  the  nucleus  of  this  plateau,  and  on  all  sides  it  is  enveloped  by 
rocks  of  more  recent  age,  as  the  bones  of  a  human  body  are  by  flesh. 

This  comparison  may  be  carried  even  further,  and  we  may  liken  the  granites 
and  other  ancient  rocks  of  the  Alps  and  I'yrenecs,  of  Poitou,  Britany,  and  Cotcutin, 
of  the  Vosges  and  Ardennes,  to  the  skeleton,  whilst  the  sedimentary  rocks  depo- 
sited in  the  valleys  separating  them  represent  the  flesh. 

A  zone  of  Jurassic  limestones  surrounds  almost  completely  the  granitic  moun- 
tain mass  of  Central  France,  spreading  out  in  the  north-east  along  the  foot  of 
the  Vosges  and  Ardennes,  and  bounding  in  the  north-west  the  peninsula  of 
Britany.  A  corresponding  zone  of  cretaceous  rocks  extends  along  the  northern 
foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  from  sea  to  sea,  whilst  the  crystalline  rock  niasses  of  the 
Alps  rise  above  the  strata  of  Jurassic  formation.  The  s^Jacc  occupied  by  rocks  of 
more  recent  origin  than  the  chalk  and  Jurassic  limestones  is  of  small  extent. 

Geological  formations  and  the  relief  of  the  soil  divide  France  into  a  number  of 
historical  and  geographical  regions.  The  elevated  granitic  plateau  of  the  interior, 
as  well  as  the  mountain  barriers  on  the  frontiers,  must  at  all  times  have  exercised  a 
deterrent  influence  upon  the  surrounding  populations,  whilst  the  rich  and  fertile 
plains  extending  between  them  proved  a  powerful  attraction.  The  rugged 
plateaux,  however,  offered  a  secure  shelter,  whilst  the  plains  were  open  at  all  times 
to  the  incursions  of  enemies.  Down  in  the  valleys  man  struggled  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  land ;  in  the  mountains  he  held  it  securely.  The  historical  contrast 
between  this  barren  central  plateau  and  the  surrounding  lowlands  is  very  evident. 
The  valley  of  the  Rhone  in  the  east,  the  basins  of  the  Garonne  and  the  Charente  in 
the  west  and  south-west,  and  the  huge  bend  of  the  Seine  in  the  north,  pulsate  with 
life,  and  the  number  of  mountaineers  who  descended  into  these  inviting  plains  has 
been  greater  by  far  than  that  of  the  lowlanders  who  sought  a  home  in  the  moun- 
tains, for  men,  like  water,  always  travel  downhill. 

The  direction  of  the  great  historical  highways  of  France  has  necessarily  been 
influenced  by  the  configuration  of  the  soil  thus  indicated.  From  Paris  i-outes 
radiate  in  all  directions  towards  the  north,  the  east,  and  the  west,  for  there  they 
encounter  no  obstacles,  but  to  the  south  of  the  Seine  and  the  Loire  these  routes 
had  to  accommodate  themselves  to  the  relief  of  the  soil,  and  there  are  in  reality  but 
two  of  them,  viz.  the  great  Roman  road  which  leads  across  the  lowest  part  of  the 
plateau  of  the  Cote  d'Or  into  the  valley  of  the  Rhone,  and  which  Cscsar  followed 
when  he  invaded  Gaul ;  and  the  great  Iberian  road,  which  passes  to  the  west 
of  the  central  plateau.  A  third  natural  highway  joins  the  extremities  of  these 
two  roads  in  the  south.  This  latter  skirts  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Cevennes, 
end  joins  the  Mediterranean  to  the  basin  of  the  Garonne.     Nearly  all  the  towns 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNiVERSirr  of  ILLINOIS. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  POSITION.— GEOLOGY.  5 

which  have  phiycd  a  great  part  in  historj'  are  situated  along  cither  of  these  roads. 
"We  need  only  instance  Orleans,  Blois,  Tours,  Poitiers,  Bordeaux,  Toulouse,  Car- 
cassonne, Narbonne,  IMontpellior,  Nimes,  Aries,  Avignon,  Lj-ons,  Chalons-sur- 
Saone,  and  Dijon.  It  has  been  noticed  that  the  larger  towns  along  these  roads  are 
generally  two  stages  apart,  the  intermediate  stages  being  marked  by  places  of  less 
consequence.  In  fact,  these  towns  were  originally  merely  military  stages,  the 
distances  being  accommodated  to  the  marching  powers  of  infantry  and  cavalry. 


Fi'j.  2.— TiiF.  IIisTonicAi.  TIigii-ho.\ps  of  Fkance. 


7i     <=:     >'  .  >^   -^J 


.^-^ 


ME^t^^" 


v^        \i-      yi        V 


"Where  exceptions  occur,  thc\-  are  due  to  special  features  of  the  soil  or  to  the  neces- 
sities of  commerce.  In  our  own  days  railways  have  almost  annihilated  space,  and 
towns  no  longer  grow  up  at  such  regular  intervals. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  ascertain  the  great  routes  of  the  migration  of  man 
and  animals  in  prehistoric  times.  But  this  is  a  matter  of  no  inconsiderable  diffi- 
culty. Constant  Prevost,  Delessc,  and  others  have  attempted  to  construct  maps 
exhibiting  France  during  various  geological  epochs,  but  their  value   is   merely 


6  FEANCE. 

conjectural,  for,  irrespective!}'  of  tlie  uncertainty  still  existing  with  regard  to  the 
age  of  certain  rocks,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  tell  to  what  extent  the  more  ancient 
formations  have  disappeared,  owing  to  subsidence  or  denudation. 

In  the  Silurian  age  it  would  ajipcar  Gaul  consisted  merely  of  an  elongated 
peninsula  extending  from  where  the  Aljis  are  now  to  modern  Britany.  Subse- 
quently a  wide  strait  separated  this  peninsula  from  a  few  Alpine  masses,  then 
recently  upheaved  above  the  ocean,  whilst  newly  formed  land  joined  it  to  the 


Fig.    3. — LiTHOLOGICAL   MaI"    Ul'   THE    BllITISII   ClIANNEL,    SllOWINO    THE  AxClENI    CONNECTION    UETWEEN 

BlUTAXY    AND    ExOLAXD. 


According-  to  Dclesse. 

A"  Ivo'E.orCr-                 vifo"                             ^' yn' 

■i-Un- 

l°|t»0' 

1 
i 

i":',f.|'::ri 

Mi 

li'l'tj"  ■'     m^-r"            ^«t 

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p 

:m' 

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1,1   ■        i 

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-  '\^A 

■"IWofPons                            O"                                                     ."1 

■      '     '---.r 

... 

Land. 
Sea    Bottom 


JfocAy. 


mil 


Sojid^- 


A 


Pj'renees  and  to  England.  The  rocky  bottom  of  the  channel,  as  laid  down  on  M. 
Delesse's  lithological  map,  shows  where  the  union  between  the  two  Britunics 
existed.  When  the  liassic  strata  were  being  deposited  in  the  gulfs  of  the  sea,  the 
contours  of  the  great  plateau  of  Limousin  and  its  outer  fringe,  consisting  of  the 
Cevennes,  the  Forez,  and  the  IMorvan,  were  pretty  much  as  they  are  now, 
excepting  that  a  deep  strait  intersected  the  southern  portion.  Four  wide  arms 
of  the  sea  separated  this  plateau  from  the  Ardennes  and  Vosges,  the  Alps,  the 
Pyrenees,  and   Britany.     The  framework  of   modern  France  had  thus  become 


CLIMATE. -]RI\'ERS.  7 

apparent,  and  cacli  subsequent  formation  helped  to  fill  it  up.  Daring  tlio 
cretaceous  age  the  central  plateau  was  finally  united  on  the  one  hand  to  Britany, 
and  on  the  other  to  the  Vosgcs  and  the  Ardennes :  Uoulonnais  rose  like  an  island 
in  the  centre  of  the  sea  to  the  north.  At  the  eonimcnccmcnt  of  the  tertiary 
age  this  sea  had  become  a  gulf,  the  estuaries  of  the  Garonne  and  the  Adour  had 
much  diminished  in  size,  lakes  were  drained  or  filled  up  by  alluvial  deposits, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  last  glacial  epoch,  the  date  of  which  cannot  be  fixed  even 
approximately,  the  contour  and  relief  of  France  were  nearly  what  they  are  now. 

The  innumerable  agencies,  however,  which  change  the  surface  of  the  land  arc 
still  at  work  :  mountains  are  being  washed  away,  lakes  silted  up,  rivers  change  (heir 
courses,  extend  their  deltas,  or  enlarge  their  estuaries,  while  secular  oscillations  of 
the  land  effect  changes  along  the  coast.  As  regards  these  latter  an  upheaval  during 
historic  times  has  been  distincth'  traced  along  the  Mediterranean  coasts.  On  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  the  coast  of  the  Landcs  has  subsided  ;  to  the  north  of  the  Gironde 
we  meet  with  incontestable  proofs  of  an  upheaval ;  and  along  the  British  Channel 
there  are  again  indications  of  a  subsidence,  which  extends  through  the  Netherlands 
as  far  as  Denmark  and  the  southern  shores  of  the  Baltic.  These  slow  movements 
have  resulted  in  changes  which  have  exercised  an  appreciable  influence  upon  the 
march  of  history. 

Climate.^Eivers.* 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  climate  of  Franco  has  undergone  changes  since  the 
beginning  of  the  historical  period,  although  it  would  be  difficult  precisely  to  deter- 
mine their  extent.  The  destruction  of  forests,  the  draining  of  swamps,  and  the 
embankment  of  rivers  must  necessarily  have  affected  local  climates.  There  exist 
no  precise  data  in  that  respect,  for  exact  meteorological  observations  are  only  of 
recent  growth,  but  a  few  general  considerations  prove  it  inconfcstably.  Certain 
plants  can  no  longer  be  cultivated  at  the  same  altitude  as  during  the  Jliddle 
Ages:  olive,  fig,  and  orange  trees  have  retired  farther  south;  tlie  vine  no  longer 
grows  in  Picardy  and  along  the  Channel.  This  retreat  of  certain  plants,  however, 
may  be  due  to  our  improved  means  of  communication  with  countries  where  their 
cultivation  yields  a  richer  harvest  than  under  the  inclement  northern  skies,  and 
we  cannot  therefore  conclude  from  it  that  the  climate  of  France  has  detoriorated 
since  the  Middle  Ages.  But  that  changes  in  the  climate  have  nevertheless  taken 
place  is  amply  proved  by  an  examination  of  our  fossiliferous  strata,  from  which  we 
learn  that  a  sub-tropical  and  an  arctic  climate  succeeded  each  other  at  intervals. 

France  at  the  present  moment  is  divided  into  two  climatic  zones  by  the  gra- 
nitic masses  of  the  great  central  plateau.  The  mean  temperature  to  the  north  of 
that  barrier  varies  between  50^  and  54^  F.,  whilst  to  the  south  of  it  it  gradually 
rises  to  50'^.  The  contrasts  are  still  greater  if  we  take  into  account  the  moistun^ 
of  the  air,  rainfall,  winds,  and  all  those  other  meteorological  phenomena  which 
constitute  climate.  ^^'e  (hen  find  that  the  northern  Atlantic  slopes  of  Finance 
•  Bouilot,  '■  Vuiialions  de  Liititude  ct  dc  C'linmt." 


8 


FBAXCE. 


form  a  p^rrlon  c  f  Western  Europe,  Trhilst  tte  soutliem  M^ediferranean  slopes  are 
almost  Airic-iii  iz.  their  aspect. 

Eastern  and  Western  France  contrast  likewise,  though  not  in  so  marked  a 
manner.  The  Atlantic  coasts  are  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  gulf-stream  and 
of  warm  south-westerlv  winds,  and  their  temperature  is  more  elevated  than  might 
be  condoded  from  their  latimdes.     As  we  proceed  inland  the  warm   Atlantic 

Fig.  4. — IsoiHEKaAi.  Leces  of  Fbxsce. 
BT5LP.«aoa. 


Erhard,. 


current  giadnallr  loses  its  power,  westerly  winds  blow  less  frequentlr,  and  the 
mean  temperature  of  Cherbourg  is  thtis  nearly  3"  higher  than  that  of  Terdun, 
in  spite  of  its  lower  latitude. 

But  this  decrease  in  mean  temperature  is  not  the  only  contrast  between  the 
extreme  west  of  France  and  the  inland  districts,  for  the  seasons  in  these  latter 
present  greater  differences.  The  climate  along  the  Atlantic  coast  is  essentially  a 
maritime  one,  and  the  differences  between  the  extremes  of  temperature  are  not 


CLIMATE.— EIVEES.  0 

vciy  great.  In  tlic  cast,  where  llic  equalising  influence  of  tlic  ocean  is  less  felt, 
the  summers  are  warmer,  the  winters  more  severe  tluin  on  the  coast.  The  farther 
wo  iirocccd  inland  tlic  more  will  lines  of  equal  winter  and  summer  temperature 
be  found  to  differ.  Localities  in  Eastern  France,  whose  mean  annual  temperature 
is  inferior  to  that  of  localities  on  the  coast,  nevertheless  enjoy  a  higher  tempera- 
ture than  the  latter  during  summer.     The  influence  which  these  varying  con- 


Fig.  6. — Lines  of  Euial  'Winter  and  Simmeu  TEMrEii.VTiRE  roii  Pauis. 


'I  »  "   January  36  "n  F. 

w  V  It  July  OS  "i^  F. 


ditions  of  temperature  exercise  upon  vegetation  is  apparent,  for  some  plants 
require  a  comiJaratively  high  mean  annual  temperature,  whilst  others,  like  the 
vine,  do  not  suffer  from  frost,  but  require  a  high  summer  temperature. 

The  mean  direction  of  the  winds  in  France  has  been  computed  by  Kacmtz  and 
Martens  at  S.  88'^  W. ;  that  is  to  saj',  they  blow  up  the  lower  valley  of  the  Loire. 
The   proportions  between  easterly  and  westerly  winds   is   as    100    to  102,  that 


10  FEANCE. 

between  nortlicrly  and  southerly  winds  as  100  to  103.  The  prejwnderanco  of 
westerly  and  southerly  winds  w'ould  be  still  more  marked,  did  not  the  Pyrenees 
oppose  an  obstacle  to  their  progress.  Along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  north-westerly 
winds  prevail,  on  the  Channel  south-westerly  winds.  Their  direction,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  is  modified  by  local  causes  and  the  configuration  of  the  land  ; 
but  thus  much  may  be  assumed  as  certain,  that  the  atmosphere  of  France  is  being 
continually  renewed  from  the  west. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Lower  Rhone,  which  forms  almost  a  world  of  its  own  as 
regai'ds  climate,  the  direction  of  the  winds  is  quite  different :  they  blow  up  and 
down  this  narrow  valley,  either  from  the  Mediterranean  or  from  the  north. 
Between  the  Spanish  frontier  and  the  Rhone,  as  well  as  to  the  east  of  that  river 
as  far  as  the  Hyeres,  north-westerly  winds  predominate,  whilst  along  the  valley 
of  the  Rhone  itself  the  prevailing  wind  blows  from  the  north,  in  the  direction  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Thus,  whilst  the  Atlantic  slopes  of  France  are  exposed  to  a 
preponderance  of  sea  breezes,  it  is  the  land  winds  which  prove  victorious  on  the 
Mediterranean  slopes. 

The  configuration  of  the  soil  exercises  as  great  an  influence  upon  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  rain  as  it  does  upon  the  direction  of  the  winds.  The  country,  in  that 
respect,  may  be  divided  into  three  zones.  Summer  rains  prevail  in  the  north  and 
in  the  centre,  as  also  in  Germany  and  nearly  the  whole  of  continental  Europe  ; 
autumn  rains  prevail  in  the  west ;  and  on  the  Mediterranean  slopes  two  rainy 
seasons  can  be  distinguished,  viz.  one  in  the  beginning  of  the  year,  the  other  in 
autumn  :  summer  rains  are  rare  there. 

The  amount  of  rain  varies  exceedingl}^  in  different  localities.  Along  the  sea  it 
is  gcnerall}'  abundant ;  the  quantity  decreases  as  we  proceed  inland,  but  the 
mountains  in  the  interior  of  the  country  form  a  second  region  where  the  pre- 
cipitation is  considerable,  and  on  a  map  of  France  showing  the  distribution  of 
rainfiill  these  mountain  ranges  stand  out  very  distinctly.  As  a  general  rule  the 
quantity  of  rain  increases  from  west  to  east,  and  from  north  to  south  ;  that  is,  in 
the  direction  in  which  the  land  rises.  In  the  south,  where  the  air  owing  to 
higher  temperature  is  capable  of  holding  a  greater  amount  of  moisture  in  suspen- 
sion, the  rain  after  storms  sometimes  descends  in  torrents.  Upon  the  whole, 
however,  the  rainfall  near  the  Mediterranean  is  less  than  near  the  Atlantic,  and 
the  air  there  is  drier,  a  feature  sufficiently  explained  by  the  prevalence  of  land 
winds. 

There  are  onlj'-  three  stations  in  France  at  which  the  annual  rainfall 
approaches  eighty  inches.  These  are  the  Pyrenees  of  Gavarnie,  which  inter- 
cept the  moist  winds  blowing  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay ;  the  mountains  of  the 
Tanargue,  between  the  sources  of  the  Ardeche  and  Loire  ;  and  the  Alps  to  the  north 
of  Gap.  On  the  western  slopes  of  the  mountains  and  on  the  plateau  of  Limousin 
the  rainfall  exceeds  forty  inches.  It  is  least  in  a  district  embracing  Meaux, 
Troyes,  Epernaj',  and  Compiegne,  which  is  remote  from  the  sea  as  well  as  from 
the  mountain  region,  is  badly  wooded,  and  consists  for  the  most  part  of  chalk. 
At  Dunkirk,  likewise,  it  rains    but  little,  for  the  winds  prevailing  there  part  with 


CLIMATE.-EIVERS.  H 

their  moisture  whilst  passing  across  Enghaud.  From  a  careful  computation  made 
I'V  31.  Delesso  it  appears  that  the  rainfall  throughout  France  averages  30-3 
inches. 

The  number  of  rainy  days  varies  quite  as  much  as  the  amount  of  rain.  At 
Abbeville  rain  falls  on  175  days  in  the  year,  at  Lille  on  1G9  days,  whilst 
Marseilles  has  only  55  and  Hyeres  40  rainy  days.  As  a  rule  the  number 
of  rainy  days  decreases  as  we  travel  towards  the  south-east,  and  where 
this  is  the  case  the  rains  are  proportionately  heavj'.  Storms,  which  occur 
generally  during  summer,  afflict  as  a  rule  the  centre  and  the  east  of  the 
country,  and  M.  Becquerel  has  shown  that  they  blow  ordinarily  along  the  great 
valleys. 

Speaking  broadly.  Franco  may  be  divided  into  seven  climatic  regions,  of  which 
that  of  the  great  granitic  plateau  occupies  the  centre.  Britany,  in  the  north-west, 
is  remarkable  for  its  equable  temperature ;  the  northern  region,  named  after  its 
principal  river  the  Seine,  is  distinguished  by  a  paucity  of  rain ;  while  in  the  region 
of  the  Meuse  and  the  Yosges  the  extremes  between  cold  and  heat  are  greatest. 
The  three  southern  regions  are  distributed  in  an  analogous  manner.  The  climate 
of  the  Gironde  and  of  the  Rhone  is  mild  and  humid ;  that  of  the  Mediterranean 
is  changeable ;  heavy  rains  alternate  with  periods  of  drought,  and  the  winds 
are  high.* 

The  climate  of  a  country  is  reflected  to  a  great  extent  in  its  rivers.  Unless 
these  are  fed  oy  glaciers  or  flow  for  considerable  distances  underground,  they 
reflect  the  succession  of  seasons  verj-^  faii'lj*.  Great  is  the  contrast  between  the 
torrents  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  rivers  and  rivulets  of  hilly  BritanJ^  On 
the  southern  slopes  of  the  Cevennes,  scorched  in  turn  by  the  sun  or  lashed  by 
showers  of  rain,  the  torrent  beds,  dry  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  are 
converted  after  rains  into  mighty  rivers,  sweeping  before  them  vast  masses  of 
debris.  These  icadis  of  Languedoc  differ  most  essentially  from  the  quiet  rivulets 
of  Xormandy  and  Britany,  which  flow  steadily  throughout  the  year,  and  scarcely 
ever  overflow  their  banks. 

The  rivers  of  France  flow  in  opposite  directions  towards  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Mediterranean.  The  Ehonc,  rising  In  a  glacier  like  the  Rhine,  and  flowing 
through  a  large  lake,  takes  Its  course  to  the  south.  Where  It  traverses  the  plain 
which  formerly  was  merely  a  gulf  of  the  sea,  it  receives  numerous  tributaries 
descending  from  the  Alps  and  the  Cevennes,  and  when  the  alluvium  brought 
down  by  it  shall  have  filled  up  the  Lion  Gulf,  It  will  number  amongst  Its  affluents 

Climatic  Regions.  ^    Mean  Temperature  (F). 

...^uv  i>co.u.»=  Year.         Summer.       Winter. 

•  Limousin  (Limoges)  ....  .51-8  —  — 

Britany  (Brest) 5!1  62-2  41-8 

ITie  Seine  (Paris) 500  040  3"-9 

Vosges  (Nancy) 500  65-1  35-2 

Gironde  (Bordeaux)    .     .     .     .■  5C-3  "M  430 

Rhone  (Lyons) 53-2  70  0  371 

Mediterranean  (Jlontpellier)    .  58-3  71-6  42-4 

Average  for  France    .     .     .     .  51-8  G80  410 


Mean 
Direction 
of  Winds. 

Rainfall, 
in. 

Days  with     Seasons 
Rain,     of  heaviest 
No.            Raius. 

— 

3G 

—  Autumn 

AV. 

23 

208         do. 

■\v. 

20 

154  Aut.  and  Sum. 

S.W.,  X.E, 

.     31 

120   Summer 

"W. 

32 

150   Autumn 

X. 

31 

110        do. 

x.w. 

20 

— •    Spring  i-  Aut. 

AV. 

30 

HO   Autumn 

12 


FEANOE. 


the  Herault,  Orb,  Au'de,  and  other  rivers  of  Roussillon,  for  all  these,  as  well  as  tho 
rivers  rising  in  Provence,  converge  upon  that  gulf. 

On  tho  other  hand,  the  rivers  flowing  down  the  Atlantic  slope  take  a  divergent 
course,  and  a  line  drawn  through  their  sources  is  much  shorter  than  one  con- 
necting tlieir  estuaries.  As  to  Britany,  it  constitutes  a  hydrographieal  region 
apart ;  and  neither  its  commanding  position  nor  its  excellent  harbours  have 
countervailed  the  disadvantage  of  its  lying  outside  the  great  river  systems  of 
France. 

Fig.  6. — CoMrARATivE  Area  op  Riveu  Basins  an-d  Aveuaoe  Surface  Drainage. 
Horizont,il  Scale  1  :  20,000,000.    Verticil  Roale  1  :  50. 


;  2  :  20.000.000 


J8^o 

ii'--' 

So^o 

;.  % 

Average/  Raifu  Foil 

in/  Franxx^. 

A  vera/^e^  XurFcu^^ 



ir^ France/' 

.■    i-:d 

Jifion£' 


Seine/        Glroiide/ 


Loire/ 


Formerly  it  was  supposed  that  the  waters  discharged  by  large  rivers  like  the 
Loire  or  Seine  far  exceeded  in  amount  what  could  be  derived  from  the  rains,  and 
their  sources  were  consequently  supposed  to  communicate  with  reservoirs  fed  by 
the  ocean.  Bernard  Palissy  and  Denys  Papin  (1669 — 72)  first  demonstrated  the 
erroneousness  of  this  view,  and  careful  observations  have  revealed  the  fact  that 
only  one-third  or  at  most  one-half  the  rain  that  falls  throughout  France  finds  its 
way  back  to  tho  sea  by  means  of  the  rivers,  the  remainder  being  absorbed  by  the 
vegetation  or  evaporating.* 


Hirer. 


Length  of 
Course. 
Miles. 


*  Biver  systems  of  Franco  according  to  Delesse,  Cli.  Martins,  Thoni^  de  Gamond  &c. 

Surface 
Drainage 
in  Millions 
of  cub.  ft. 

6.3,500  (?) 
772,100 
223,600  (?) 
1,096,700 
106,000 
1,312,000 
247,200  (?) 
71,000  (?) 


Somme 133 

Seine 482 

Vileine 143 

Loire 009 

Charente 224 

Gironde 016 

Adour 187 

139 


Aude 

Ehone  (with  Saone  'J 

and  Doubs)  3 

Moselle  (in  France)  . 
Meuse  do. 

Scheldt  (Escaut,  do.) 

France    .     .     .     , 


637 

194 

318 

75 


Area  of 
Catchment 

Basin. 

Sq.  m. 

2,144 
30,927 

3,707 
44,459 

3,860 
35,962 

6,564 

2,510 

38,096 

2,606 

2,898 

2,548 

200,315 


Average 

Kaiufoll. 

In. 

25-2 
24-8 
27-6 
27-2 
33-4 
32-5 
39-4 
27-0 

37-4 

29-.5 
28-3 
23-6 
30-3 


EainfaU 
in  Millions 
of  cub.  ft. 

12.5,443 
1,646,380 

237,327 
2,089,356 

300,190 
2,022,290 

000,386 

160,690 

3,310,340 

178,770 

190,710 

140,858 

14,109,000 


1,915,430 

55,660  (.?) 
88,290 
63,500 
0,710,000 


Discharge 

per  Second. 

Cub.  ft. 

2.013  (?) 
24,510 

3,880  (?) 
34,786 

3,354  (?) 
41,600 

7,840  (?) 

2,225  (?) 

63,850  (?) 

1,770  (?) 
2,800  (?) 

2.014  (?) 
212  000  (?) 


THE  PEEHISTOEIC  AGE  OF  FEANCE.  13 

The  rain  which  finds  its  way  through  rivers  to  the  sea  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  geological  agents.  The  ravines  and  vallej-s  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  C^vennes, 
the  Alps,  and  the  Jura  exhibit  its  power  of  erosion  :  the  la3-ers  of  sand  and  mud 
deposited  along  the  banks  of  the  Loire  after  floods  testify  to  its  giving  birth  to 
new  land,  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  Rhone  we  may  see  how  a  river  causes  the 
land  to  encroach  upon  the  sea.  The  fecund  soil  of  the  Limagne,  Touraine, 
Agenais,  and  Bigorre,  those  gardens  of  France,  is  entirely  a  gift  of  the  rivers. 

The  rivers,  owing  to  the  fertility  of  their  banks,  have  proved  the  most  power- 
ful agents  of  civilisation  in  France,  as  everywhere  else.  In  former  times  they 
alone  were  available  for  the  transport  of  merchandise  and  travellers  on  a 
large  scale,  and  most  of  the  great  towns  grew  up  on  their  banks.  Towns  not 
situated  on  navigable  rivers,  such  as  Nimes,  Montpellier,  Dijon,  and  Reims,  were 
mere  stages  on  the  roads  connecting  these  river  highways.  Roads  and  railways 
have  to  some  extent  deprived  the  rivers  of  the  importance  they  enjoyed  in  former 
times,  and  considerable  towns  have  sprung  up  far  away  from  them,  near  mines, 
mineral  springs,  or  line  scenery.     St.   Etienne,    Le  Creuzot,    and  Bagneres-de- 

Kg.  7. — Comparative  Discharqb  op  the  Great  Rite&s  op  Feanck, 
Horizoatal  Scale  1 :  4,000. 


Shone  Seinir  Girondc'  Xofre/  J%^mA/)l£,^/' Frana/. 


Luchon  are  of  this  class.  The  rivers,  on  the  other  hand,  are  being  rendered 
more  useful  to  man  from  day  to  day.  Canals  are  dug  to  connect  them  or  to 
irrigate  the  fields  in  their  vicinity,  embankments  are  thrown  up  to  regulate  them, 
and  their  water  is  rendered  available  as  a  motive  power.  Still  most  of  their 
water  is  allowed  to  run  to  waste,  and  the  day  is  yet  apparently  very  distant 
when  they  will  be  exhaustively  utilised  in  the  service  of  man. 


The  Prehistoric  Age  of  France.* 

France  had  its  inhabitants  long  before  the  events  of  history  were  placed  on 
record.  Human  bones  mixed  with  those  of  animals,  rude  imj)lements  of  peace 
and  war,  and  rudimentary  works  of  art  amply  prove  this.  "With  Belgium  and 
the  basins  of  the  Rhine  it  is  probably  richer  in  these  prehistoric  remains  than 
any  other  country,  and  many  caves  and  heaps  of  debris  have  become  famous  on 
account  of  them. 

Anthropologists  are  generally  agreed  that  the  most  ancient  examples  of  human 

•  Hamy,  " Paleontologie  humaine;"  Gabriel  de  Mortillet,  "Tableau  arcbeologique  de  la  Gaule;" 
Lartet  et  Christy,  "  Reliquiie  Aquitanicse ;  "  Broca,  "  Compte-rendu  du  Congrea  intern,  de  Paris,  1867." 
VOL.    II.  C 


14  FRANCE. 

workmanship  are  the  flint  implements  discovered  by  M.  Bourgoing  near  Thenay, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Cher.  In  the  tertiary  age,  when  the  contemporaries  of  acero- 
therium  and  mastodon  fashioned  these  rude  implements,  the  aspect  of  France 
was  very  difEerent  from  what  it  is  now,  and  there  existed  neither  the  same  plants 
nor  the  same  animals. 

Centuries  passed  away,  and  the  men  who  dwelt  in  the  plains  bordering  upon  the 
Somme  and  the  Seine,  on  the  plateaux  of  Central  France,  and  along  the  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees  had  learnt  to  fashion  tlint  implements  of  a  superior  kind,  and  with  these 
they  pursued  the  elephants,  hippopotami,  i-hinoceroses,  and  other  animals  which  at 
that  time  roamed  over  the  lands  of  the  Gauls.  At  a  subsequent  period,  when  the 
rhinoceros  had  been  exterminated,  when  man  had  expelled  the  bears  from  the 
caverns  to  dwell  therein  himself,  and  when  the  horse,  with  the  mammoth,  was  one 
of  the  commonest  animals,  these  stone  implements  began  to  be  fashioned  in  greater 
variety,  to  serve  the  needs  of  hunters,  fishing,  and  domestic  labour.  Later  still, 
the  bones  and  horns  of  animals  were  made  use  of,  and  frequently  the  figures  of 
animals  and  even  of  men  were  engraved  upon  them.  Artists  must  have  lived  at 
that  time,  though  their  names  are  for  ever  lost  to  us.  Ornaments  and  figures 
which  they  engraved  upon  their  stag-horns  are  the  same  in  style  as  those  met  with 
subsequently  on  the  vases  dating  back  to  the  age  of  dolmens,  on  the  arms  of  the 
ancient  Gauls,  and  even  on  some  GuUo- Roman  monuments. 

Once  launched  upon  the  path  of  invention,  man  never  turns  back.  Some  sort 
of  relapse  appears  to  have  taken  place  after  the  reindeer  age,  but  this  applies 
only  to  the  ornamentation,  and  may  be  accounted  for  bj'  an  inflow  of  immigrants 
inferior  in  civilisation  to  the  older  inhabitants  of  the  country.  At  the  same  time 
new  weapons  came  into  use  ;  man  had  acquired  the  art  of  polishing  stones,  and  of 
making  durable  earthenware.  Later  still  he  learnt  to  cultivate  the  soil,  and  to 
train  domestic  animals.  The  old  cave  dwellings  no  longer  sufficed  for  his  wants, 
houses  arose  in  the  plains,  and  solid  structures  of  stone  were  erected  by  the  men 
of  the  neolithic  age,  wherein  to  deposit  their  dead.  They  threw  up  entrenchments 
as  a  defence  against  enemies,  and  those  who  lived  along  the  margins  of  rivers  or 
lakes  erected  their  dwellings  upon  piles,  thus  securing  themselves  against  unex- 
pected attacks.  In  France  itself  the^e  lake  dwellings  are  scarce,  but  they  abound 
in  Switzerland.  No  written  record  or  tradition  reaches  back  to  that  neolithic  age, 
but  we  know  from  the  objects  discovered  in  tombs  and  dwellings  that  bronze  had 
come  into  use.  Imported  from  abroad,  we  find  it  applied  to  the  most  varied  uses, 
either  cast  or  wrought. 

A  new  era  began  with  the  introduction  of  iron,  which  was  fashioned  not  only 
into  weapons,  but  also  into  tools  of  every  description.  Thenceforth  human  art  and 
industry  took  a  rapid  development.  The  numerous  grave-hills  scattered  over  the 
country  abound  in  curious  objects  deposited  there  by  the  relations  of  the  defunct. 
History  begins  to  dawn,  and  we  find  ourselves  in  the  presence  of  those  tribes  of 
various  races  formerly  known  as  Gauls. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  most  populous  districts  of  modern  France  were 
also  the  centres  of  civilisation  of  the  Celtic,  Iberian,  and  Ligurian  ancestors  of  the 


THE  PREHISTORIC  AGE  OF  FRANCE. 


15 


modern  French,  although  no  traces  of  them  have  been  discovered  there.  Their 
towns  have  vanished,  ruins  have  succeeded  ruins,  until  all  remains  of  the  ancient 
occupiers  of  the  land  have  been  reduced  to  dust.  If  we  would  find  traces  of  them 
we  must  penetrate  into  the  woods,  and  into  those  remote  parts  of  the  country 
where  the  population  has  at  all  times  been  thinly  sown.  The  heaths  of  Britany 
and  the  plateaux  of  Poitou  still  abound  in  dolmens  and  menhirs  ;  in  the  woods  of 
Franche-Comte  grave-hills  are  met  with  in  thousands ;  on  the  granitic  soil  of 
Central  France  we  may  still  trace  the  pits  which  formed  the  underground  story 
of  the  Gallic  houses ;  whilst  the  pine  woods  of  the  Laudes  abound  in  vast 
trenches  {dotes),  which  mayhap  sheltered  the  population  of  a  village  until  it 
was  driven  forth  b}'  invading  Celts  or  Basques.  But  these  dwellings,  remote  as 
thev  were  from  the  centres  of  civilisation,  can  hardly  convey  an  idea  of  the  con- 
Fig.  8. — Dol-er-Veechaxt,  oa  Merchants'  Table,  at  LocMABiAKEKr 


dition  of  the  population  of  ancient  France,  any  more  than  an  idea  of  our  present 
century  could  be  obtained  from  the  half-obliterated  ruins  of  oui"  out-of-the-way 
hamlets. 

Ever  since  the  tertiary  age  the  surface  of  France  has  been  changing  slowly 
through  geological  agencies,  and  without  catastrophes.  We  may  assume,  there- 
fore, that  the  population  of  modern  France  has  in  its  veins  some  of  the  blood  of 
these  ancient  tribes.  The  invading  conquerors  of  France  have  become  amalga- 
mated with  the  tribes  whom  they  found  living  there,  and  thus  arose  a  race 
resembling  a  trunk  with  thousands  of  roots,  and  known  as  the  French  "  nation." 
We  cannot  otherwise  explain  the  astonishing  variety  of  types  met  with  in  the 
difierent  provinces  of  France.  As  M.  Andr^  Sanson  savs,  "  We  are  the  intel- 
lectual sons  of  the  Aryans,  but  not  their  carnal  sons." 

c  2 


10  FEANCE. 

The  most  ancient  human  remains  hitherto  discovered  in  France  date  back  to 
the  quaternary  epoch,  for  miocene  man,  who  wrought  the  tools  discovered  at 
Thenay,  has  left  no  trace.  To  judge  from  the  skulls  discovered  under  the  lava 
of  Denise,  near  the  Puy-en-Velay,  in  Auvergne,  the  men  of  that  period  were 
long-skulled,  but  towards  the  close  of  the  age  of  the  mammoth  and  the  bear, 
short  skulls  are  first  met  with.  Archaeologists  are  agreed  that  the  men  who  dwelt 
in  the  caverns  of  the  Pyrenees,  on  the  Vezere  and  the  Aveyron,  were  kinsmen  of 
the  Laps,  Samoj'cds,  and  Eskimos.  Their  mode  of  life,  their  weapons  and  imple- 
ments, and  even  their  style  of  ornamentation,  all  appear  to  support  that  conclusion. 
An  invasion  of  barbarians  destroyed  the  civilisation  then  attained,  but  gave  birth 
in  the  end  to  a  new  era  of  civilisation  much  superior  in  many  respects. 

The  IxiiABiTAXTS  OF  France.* 

The  Iberians  are  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Gaul  known  to  history.  They 
were  kinsmen  of  those  of  Spain,  who  traded  with  Pha-nicians  and  Greeks,  and 
whom  the  latter  looked  upon  as  aborigines.  These  Iberians  occupied  the  country 
between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Garonne,  as  well  as  the  valleys  of  the  eastern 
Pyrenees.  In  the  west  they  were  associated  with  the  Ligurians  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  elsewhere  they  came  into  contact  with  Celtic  or  Kymric  tribes. 
Though  Latinised,  they  have  in  a  large  extent  their  race  characteristics ;  they  have 
even  retained  their  ancient  appellation  of  Gascons  and  Basques,  and  near  the 
Pyrenees  they  retain  their  old  language.  Basques,  Bearnais,  and  Gascons  can 
easily  be  distinguished  from  other  Frenchmen  ;  they  are  full  of  natural  grace, 
supple  of  limb  and  mind,  gay  when  at  work,  brave,  though  boastful,  talkative,  and 
imaginative  to  the  extent  of  sometimes  allowing  themselves  to  be  carried  beyond 
the  bounds  of  truth. 

The  Celts,  a  race  quite  distinct  from  the  Iberians,  occupied  the  country  to  the 
north  of  the  Garonne.  Most  modern  Frenchmen  look  upon  these  as  their  veri- 
table ancestors,  though  very  little  is  known  about  them.  Ancient  authors  can 
hardly  assist  us  in  elucidating  this  point,  for  they  wrote  about  the  regions 
beyond  the  Alps  much  as  our  ancestors  wrote  about  Central  Africa.  Modern 
historians,  led  away  by  false  patriotism  or  by  a  rage  for  classification,  have  still 
further  obscured  this  question,  which  is  only  in  recent  times  being  cleared  up  by 
the  discovery  of  arms,  weapons,  dwellings,  and  human  remains  hidden  for  ages 
beneath  the  soil. 

Williams,  Edwards,  and  Broca  have  shown  satisfactorily,  from  a  comparison  of 
skulls  and  bones  thus  discovered,  that  ancient  Gaul  was  inhabited  by  two  distinct 
types  of  man,  in  addition  to  Iberians.  The  first  type  is  met  with  between  the 
Garonne  and  the  Seine.  These  Gauls,  or  Celts,  as  they  were  formerly  called,  were 
small  of  stature,  of  a  brown  complexion,  and  short- skulled,  whilst  the  tribes  in  the 
north-east,  whether  we  call  them  Belgse  or  Kymri,  were  tall,  fair,  and  long-skulled. 

•  A.  Hovelaeque,  "La  Linguistique  ;"  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  "Histoire  des  Institutions  politiquee  de 
I'Ancienne  France;"  Lagneau,  "Bull,  de  la  Soc.  d'Anthropologie,"  Feb.  1868,  Nov.  1874;  "Re^oie 
d'Anthropologie,"  tome  ii.  1873  ;  Saint-Eene  Taillandier,  "  Revue  des  Beux-Mondes,"  Dec.  1875. 


THE  INHABITANTS  OF  FRANCE. 


17 


Ancient  authors  onlj'  describe  these  latter,  probably  because  they  were  the  most 
warlike.  The  men  described  bj'  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  like  the  Gauls  repre- 
sented by  Roman  and  Greek  sculptors,  rather  resemble  Scandinavians,  and  they 
were  certainly  not  the  direct  ancestors  of  the  present  inhabitants  of  Central  France. 
Subjected  tribes  of  a  diflFerent  tj'pe  may  possibly  have  lived  amongst  these  Gauls  of 
ancient  authors,  and  been  numerically  superior  to  them.  At  present  the  physical 
type  of  the  populations  of  Southern  Eurojie  prevails  almost  throughout  France. 
We  can  hardlj-  assume  that  a  slight  change  in  the  climate,  brought  about  by  time 
and  cultivation,  should  have  exercised  an  influence  sufficient  to  account  for  this 
southern  type.  Taken  as  a  body,  the  French  are  in  reality  a  brown-complexioned 
people,  with  heads  round  rather  than  oval,  with  eyes  varying  between  black  and 

Fig.  9. — Presumld  Dispersion  of  the  Aryan  ILices  according  to  Ancient  Authors. 


pale  brown  ;  with  a  stature  and  muscular  development  rather  below  the  average, 
but  of  strong  constitutions  and  capable  of  resisting  fatigue  and  privations. 

Of  these  ancient  Gauls  there  now  exist  only  geographical  names  and  a  few 
short  inscriptions.  To  judge  from  these  their  language  appears  to  have  differed 
very  much  from  the  dialects  spoken  in  Great  Britain,  and  to  have  had  more  affinity 
with  Latin.  Still  the  Aryan  nature  of  the  language  does  not  prove  that  the 
people  who  spoke  it  were  of  Asiatic  origin.  Omalius  d'Halloy  altogether  denies 
that  an  exodus  of  Gauls  took  place  from  Western  Asia,  and  the  map  of  Aryan 
migrations  prepared  by  Pictet,  though  of  scientific  value,  cannot  prove  it.  All  we 
know  is  that  the  Gauls  dwelt  for  some  time  in  the  valley  of  the  Danube. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  we  must  trace  the  existing  character  of  the  popula- 


18  FRANCE. 

tion  of  France  back  to  the  tribes  who  inhabited  the  country  anterior  to  the  historic 
epoch.  Still  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  influence  exercised  by  immigrants  of 
foreign  races.  The  Phoenicians  confined  themselves  to  a  few  factories  along  the 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  were  succeeded  hj  the  Greeks,  whose  colonies — 
Marseilles,  Nice,  Agde,  and  others — were  of  sufficient  importance  to  enable  them  to 
exercise  an  appreciable  influence  upon  the  surrounding  populations.  Many  Greek 
expressions  have  survived  to  our  day,  and  the  Marseillais  have  no  doubt  reason  on 
their  side  when  the}'  boast  of  their  Hellenic  ancestors. 

The  Romans,  however,  those  merciless  conquerors  of  the  Gauls,  exercised  a  far 
greater  influence  upon  the  formation  of  the  French  nation  than  did  the  Greeks. 
Italian  colonists,  many  of  them  old  soldiers,  settled  in  the  country,  and  this  immi- 
gration, going  on  for  six  centuries,  led  to  so  considerable  an  infusion  of  Roman 
blood  that  several  towns  in  the  south  could  fairly  be  described  as  daughters  of 
Rome,  and  the  entire  population  as  Gallo-Roman.  These  physical  influences, 
however,  were  far  surpassed  by  moral  ones.  It  was  the  Romans  who  introduced 
the  ideas  and  civilisation  of  the  East,  and  more  than  all,  they  made  Latin  the 
tongue  of  the  entire  country.  Language  is  the  mould  of  thought,  and  must 
influence  most  powerfully  the  mind  of  a  nation.  The  French,  speaking  a  Latin 
tongue,  must  therefore  bo  ranged  amongst  the  Latin  races,  in  spite  of  their  most 
diverse  origin.  Though  belonging  geographically  to  the  Atlantic  countries  rather 
than  to  the  Mediterranean  ones,  historically  France  forms  a  member  of  these  latter, 
more  especially  since  Algeria  has  become  a  French  colony. 

Nevertheless,  the  barbarians,  who  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  repeatedly 
invaded  France,  whether  Franks  from  the  Rhine,  Northmen,  or  Huns  from  the 
plateaux  of  Asia,  always  came  from  the  North.  Scandinavian  Visigoths  established 
themselves  in  the  south  of  France,  and  more  especially  in  the  Narbonnaise,  and 
soon  adapted  themselves  to  their  Gallo-Roman  surroundings.  The  Germanic 
Burgundians,  who  occupied  Eastern  France,  are  described  by  their  contemporaries 
as  tall  and  strong,  but  at  the  same  time  good-natured.  The  Franks  were  far  more 
harsh  towards  the  tribes  they  conquered.  In  the  end  they  gave  a  new  name  to 
transalpine  France,  and  more  particularly  to  that  province  of  it  which  is  known  as 
He  de  France. 

M.  Fustel  de  Coulanges  does  not  think  that  those  early  German  and  Gothic 
invasions  sensibly  affected  the  character  of  the  Gallo-Roman  populations.  The 
language  and  religion,  social  usages  and  political  institutions,  remained  the  same. 
But  though  the  Germans  never  arrived  iii  bodies  sufficiently  large  to  change 
the  character  of  the  people,  their  immigration  continued  for  centuries,  and  in 
the  end  their  influence  upon  its  phj-sique  became  very  apparent.  M.  Broca,  in 
his  researches  on  the  stature  of  Frenchmen,  has  shown  this  very  clearly  (see 
Fig.  10). 

The  Normans,  who  settled  in  that  portion  of  France  now  known  as  Normandy, 
likewise  influenced  the  type  of  the  inhabitants  of  Neustria.  In  the  south  of 
France  "  sea-kings  "  of  quite  a  diflPerent  kind  put  in  an  appearance.  These  were 
the  Saracens,  who  maintained  themselves  for  a  considerable  time  on  the  coasts  of 


THE  INHABITANTS  OF  FRANCE. 


19 


Provence.  In  tke  eighth  century,  when  the  Berbers  invaded  Europe  in  such 
overpowering  numbers,  these  Saracens  penetrated  as  far  as  the  valley  of  the  Loire, 
and  perhaps  even  to  Luxeuil  and  Jletz,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Yerdun  are  said  to 
have  carried  on  a  lucrative  trade  in  slaves  with  them.  Colonies  of  Saracens  were 
established  in  many  parts  of  France,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  numbers  of  the 
Frenchmen  now  living  in  the  basins  of  the  Garonne  and  the  Rhone  are  the  remote 
descendants  of  Mussulmans. 

Fig.  10. — The  Stature  of  Fhenchmen. 
By  Broca. 


-r^ 


LU  N°l  -  26 


N?  27.  bZ 


N?iJ.  86 


The  departments  are  nvunbered  according  to  the  stature  of  their  military  conscripts.     The  small 
figures  indicate  the  exemptions  granted  per  thousand  on  account  of  small  stature. 


Since  those  invasions  of  Normans  and  Moors,  the  ethnical  character  of  the  popu- 
lation of  France  has  undergone  no  wholesale  change,  for  the  influence  of  English 
settlers  in  Guyenne,  of  German  lansquenets  and  reitres  who  remained  in  the  country 
at  the  close  of  the  religious  wars,  and  of  the  Spaniards  in  Flanders  and  Franche- 
Comte,  has  been  quite  of  a  local  nature.  On  the  other  hand,  the  vast  peaceable 
immigration  which  has  been  going  on  for  some  time  past  is  certainly  bringing 
about  changes,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  cosmopolitan  population  of  some  of  the 


20  FEA2JCB. 

large  cities,  a  stranger  may  well  be  puzzled  to  tell  whether  it  is  a  Frenchman  he 
has  before  him  or  not.  It  almost  appears  as  if  a  European  type  were  gradually 
coming  into  existence. 

In  the  meantime  the  population  of  France  has  been  welded  into  a  nation,  and 
in  certain  respects  this  nation  exhibits  greater  unity  than  any  other.  This 
cohesion  is  due  not  so  much  to  the  existence  of  a  centralized  government,  but 
rather  to  historical  events,  community  of  interests  and  of  language,  and  to  the 
existence  of  a  capital  which  is  universally  acknowledged  as  the  common  national 
centre. 

Ancient  rivalries  between  the  provinces  of  France  have  not,  however,  alto- 
gether disappeared.  The  Bretons,  Basques,  and  Flemish  have  even  retained  their 
distinct  language,  and  the  peasants  of  some  of  the  more  remote  districts  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  been  assimilated  with  the  rest  of  the  population.  Throughout 
France,  however,  these  local  diversities  are  of  a  very  subordinate  nature,  the 
influence  of  the  great  towns  is  increasing  from  day  to  day,  and  the  landmarks 
between  the  old  pro'V'inces  have  almost  disappeared. 

Of  all  the  inhabitants  of  France,  those  lining  respectively  in  the  north  and  the 
south  differ  most  strikingly.  This  difference  is  accounted  for  by  the  nature  of  the 
country,  diversity  of  historical  traditions,  and  the  memories  of  struggles  carried  on 
in  a  past  age.  In  a  great  portion  of  Southern  France  the  Provenfal  and  other  dialects 
are  still  the  dominant  tongue,  and  about  twenty  years  ago  French  was  hardly 
known  by  the  bulk  of  the  population.  But  as  a  literary  language  these  southern 
dialects  have  no  future,  and  those  even  who  speak  them  often  hold  them  in 
contempt. 

On  looking  at  the  map  it  wiU  be  found  that  the  dialects  of  Southern  France, 
including  the  "langue  d'oc"  properly  so  called,  Proven9al,  Dauphinois,  Lyonnais, 
Auvergnat,  Limousin,  Gascon,  and  Bearnais,  occupy  very  nearly  one-half  the  area 
of  the  country.  Nearly  the  whole  basin  of  the  Rhone,  that  of  the  Garonne,  and 
the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Loire  belong  to  this  half,  and  in  the  direction  of 
Switzerland  it  extends  even  beyond  the  French  frontier  and  comes  into  contact 
with  German  dialects.  The  wide  range  of  these  southern  dialects  proves  the  former 
preponderance  of  Southern  France  in  the  work  of  civilisation,  but  the  "  langue 
d'o'il "  is  at  present  steadily  gaining  ground. 

Language  constitutes  the  strongest  tie  between  man  and  man.  We  may  fairly 
say  that  the  French  language,  the  origin  of  which  dates  back  a  thousand  years, 
gave  birth  to  the  French  nation.  Common  woes  may  have  engendered  a  sort  of 
fellow-feeling  amongst  the  diverse  populations  of  ancient  Gaul ;  they  nearly  all 
combined  in  the  time  of  Vercingetorix  against  their  Roman  oppressors.  But  Gaul 
was  merely  a  geographical  expression  then,  and  modern  France  only  dates  from 
the  time  of  the  epic  poems  of  the  Middle  Age. 

In  the  course  of  centuries  this  language,  as  well  as  the  men  who  speak  it, 
has  undergone  many  changes.  T7e  can  hardly  conceive  such  a  thing  as  an 
average  Frenchman.  Those  who  maintain  that  the  national  character  has  under- 
gone no  changes  ever  since  the  Gauls  appeared  upon  the  stage  of  history  are 


THE  INHABITANTS  OF  FRANCE.  21 

decidedly  in  the  wrong.  There  may  still  exist  features  which  recall  the  Gauls 
of  Caesar  and  Strabo,  but  can  it  be  fairly  said  of  modern  French  peasants  what  has 
been  said  of  the  Gauls,  that  "  the}'  are  a  people  of  war  and  uproar,  running 
through  the  world  with  swords  in  their  hands,  less,  it  appears,  from  avidity  than 
from  a  vague  desire  of  seeing,  knowing,  and  acting  ?  " 

If  we  would  meet  a  typical  Frenchman,  we  must  search  for  him  in  a  place 
offering  every  facility  for  his  development.  Such  places  are  the  large  towns, 
and  more  especially  Paris,  to  which  original  minds  fly  from  the  stifling  atmo- 
sphere of  small  towns  and  villages.  There  the  natives  from  every  province  come 
into  contact  and  amalgamate :  the  babbling  Gascons,  ever  in  motion  ;  the  men 
from  the  plateau,  inured  to  hard  work,  and  slow  to  make  friends  ;  the  people 
from  the  Loire,  with  their  quick  eyes,  lucid  intellect,  and  wcU-balanced  tempera- 
ment ;  the  melancholic  Breton,  always  living  as  in  a  dream,  but  full  of  tenacity 
in  all  concerns  of  real  life  ;  the  Norman,  slow-speaking,  circumspect,  and  prudent ; 
and  the  men  from  Lorraine,  the  Vosges,  and  Franche-Comte,  who  are  quick- 
tempered and  enterprising.  All  these  Frenchmen  mutually  influence  each  other, 
and  evolve  what  may  be  called  the  general  character  of  the  French  people. 

It  is  no  easy  task  to  sit  in  judgment  over  a  nation.  Since  the  days  of  the 
illustrious  Grimm,  who  denied  "  every  truly  moral  sentiment "  to  Frenchmen, 
manv  foreigners,  from  envy  or  ignorance,  have  painted  them  in  odious  colours. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  have  been  writers  who  have  sought  to  elevate  France 
above  all  other  nations.  As  to  French  writers,  they  have  been  charged  either 
with  being  prejudiced  in  favour  of  the  nation  to  which  they  belong,  or  with 
unfairly  under-estimating  its  merits  ;  and,  indeed,  psychology  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  subjects  of  discussion. 

Speaking  broadly,  the  character  of  the  French  exhibits  a  combination  of 
northern  and  southern  qualities.  The  country  itself  is  intermediate  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic,  and  its  inhabitants  form  a  link  between  the 
Roman  civilisation  of  the  South,  and  modern  times.  The  most  diverse  tj'pes  are 
met  with  amongst  the  French,  but,  as  a  whole,  they  present  a  new  type,  in  which 
classical  features  are  replaced  by  mobility  of  expression,  one-sided  energj'  by 
varied  aptitudes.  As  a  rule  Frenchmen,  and  more  especially  Frenchwomen,  are 
most  impressionable,  and  they  are  capable  of  fully  reflecting  the  ideas  conceived 
by  other  nations.  It  is  thus  that  all  the  great  movements  of  Europe  have  found 
a  powerful  echo  in  France,  if  they  did  not  originate  there.  This  explains  too 
the  universal  character  of  the  French  revolutions.  It  was  France  which  pro- 
claimed the  "Rights  of  Man,"  and  posterity  no  doubt  will  praise  her  for  it;  it 
is  France  which  does  not  allow  its  progress  to  be  stopped  by  matters  of  detail, 
but  always  seeks  for  principles. 

It  is  only  natural  that  a  nation  holding  the  position  of  an  intermediary  of 
ideas  should  be  eminently  sociable.  A  feeling  of  iaborn  goodwill  attracts  the 
Frenchman  towards  his  fellow-men,  a  spirit  of  equity  dictates  his  conduct ;  he 
obliges  by  forethought  and  captivates  by  amiability.  He  is  discreet  in  all  things, 
pleasing  in  dress  and  manners,  without  outraging   good  taste,  and  excels  in   the 


22  FRANCE. 

art  of  conversation.  The  Frenchwoman  is  in  these  respects  even  a  better  repre- 
sentative of  the  national  character.  She  is  not  only  an  excellent  mother  and 
housewife,  but  possesses  social  qualities  of  the  highest  order.  She  delights  by 
her  conversation,  and  constitutes  the  chief  attraction  of  French  society.  It 
seldom  happens  that  foreigners  do  not  enjoy  themselves  in  France,  but  a  French- 
man scarcely  ever  feels  perfectly  happy  in  a  foreign  land,  and  no  one  feels  more 
cruelly  than  he  the  bitterness  of  exile. 

The  sons  of  Gaul  are  distinguished  not  only  by  quickness  of  comprehension 
and  superior  reasoning  powers,  but  they  are  remarkable  amongst  all  civilised 
nations  for  their  tact  and  taste.  For  a  long  time  they  were  looked  up  to  as 
the  arbiters  in  literature,  and  in  certain  departments  of  art  they  still  stand 
unrivalled.  Several  of  the  neighbouring  nations  are  indebted  to  them  for  a 
development  of  their  art  industries,  and  Paris  still  remains  the  high  school  of 
good  taste. 

France  is  a  busy  beehive,  as  is  shown  by  the  immense  quantities  of  French 
produce  exported  to  other  countries.  In  spite  of  the  excessive  subdivision  of  the 
soil,  the  peasant  landowners  have  converted  France  into  one  of  the  most  productive 
countries  of  Europe.  Activity  such  as  this  not  only  testifies  to  the  strength 
of  family  ties,  but  also  to  the  personal  worth  of  the  workers.  Moreover,  the 
revivals  which  have  succeeded  each  national  disaster  prove  that  the  nation  is  still 
full  of  vigour,  and  fully  capable  of  taking  its  part  in  the  great  works  of  humanity. 

But  if  Frenchmen  have  their  virtues,  they  also  have  their  faults.  Their 
sociability  often  degenerates  into  undue  familiarity ;  clever  talkers  on  every 
possible  subject,  they  run  the  risk  of  becoming  superficial ;  men  of  taste  and 
refinement,  they  are  apt  to  sacrifice  vigour  and  originalitj' ;  too  observant  of 
social  propriety,  they  sometimes  stifle  the  voice  of  their  conscience  ;  members 
of  society  or  of  "  parties,"  they  have  not  always  the  courage  to  assert  their  manly 
independence.  But  in  these  respects  how  many  true  men  do  we  meet  with  in 
any  nation  ? 

But,  in  spite  of  all,  France  has  exercised  a  most  powerful  influence  upon  the 
civilised  world.  Numerically  the  influence  of  Frenchmen  grows  smaller  in 
proportion  as  the  area  held  by  civili.sed  nations  extends  ;  but  moral  and  intellec- 
tual influences  are  not  measured  by  numbers.  The  national  life  of  France  is 
as  intense  as  that  of  any  of  her  sister  nations,  and  her  past  experiences  will 
enable  her  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  political  and  social  evolution  now 
impending.  But  even  if  France  were  to  disappear  from  the  world's  stage,  there 
would  still  remain  the  influence  of  the  French  language  and  literature.  The 
vigour,  grace,  precision,  and  suppleness  of  that  language  have  made  it  one  of 
the  most  perfect  vehicles  of  human  thought.  It  has  been  propagated  far  be}'ond 
the  territorial  limits  of  the  nation,  and  millions  speak  it,  not  only  in  the  Latin 
countries,  but  in  all  other  parts  of  the  world. 


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24 


FRANCE. 


structure  of  these  mountains  is  of  the  simplest,  and  one  might  fancy  that  they  had 
been  suddenly  ejected  from  a  fissure  in  the  earth's  crust.  Its  mountain  masses  are 
not  separated  by  low  passes,  as  in  the  Alps,  and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  tracing  the 
direction  of  the  main  range,  which  runs  almost  in  a  straight  line  from  Cape  Creus 
to  the  lower  mountains  of  the  Basque  countries. 

The  geological  features  are  equally  simple.  Granites,  apparently  not  of  erup- 
tive origin,  occupy  the  centre  of  the  chain,  and  form  many  of  the  summits  of  the 
main  range.  Schists  and  other  ancient  rocks  connect  these  crystalline  masses, 
whilst  sedimentary  strata  succeed  each  other  in  regular  order  on  both  slopes,  from 
triassic  sandstones  down  to  the  alluvial  soil  deposited  by  the  rivers. 

In  spite  of  this  general  regularity,  the  chain  of  the  Pyrenees  presents  a  great 
amount  of  diversity  if  studied  in  detail.  About  its  centre,  where  the  head-waters 
of  the  Garonne  take  their  rise,  the  main  range  consists  of  two  parallel  ridges  joined 
together  by  a  transversal  chain.  The  northern  ridge  extends  to  the  east,  and 
forms  the  Mediterranean  Pyrenees,  whilst  the  southern  stretches  west  towards  the 


Fig.  11. — Profile  of  the  Ptsenees. 
Horizontal  Scale  1  :  4,000,000.    Vertical  Scale  1  :  400,000. 


—  PYRE  WEES 


— AiOBGC.- 


EI"CWBJKTiE .irvFTHCTEKS '- — 


.B^'PIHBffieS- 


Bay  of  Biscay,  and  constitutes  the  Atlantic  Pyrenees.  Of  these  two  chains  the 
eastern  is  the  least  elevated,  and  the  granite  there  is  nearly  always  exposed  ;  whilst 
the  more  elevated  summits  of  the  western  Pyrenees  consist  of  schists  and  lime- 
stones. This  shows  that  denudation  has  been  going  on  more  actively  in  the 
former,  and  in  a  large  measure  accounts  for  the  striking  contrasts  in  the  aspect  of 
the  two  extremities  of  the  chain,  and  for  the  great  variety  of  landscape  met  with 
when  travelling  along  their  northern  foot  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic* 
The  Pyrenees  rise  steeply  from  the  Mediterranean,  which,  at  a  distance  of  only 
twenty-five  miles  from  Cape  Creus,  has  a  depth  of  over  500  fathoms.  Close  to  that 
cape  rises  the  group  of  San  Pedro  de  Roda,  resembling  a  detached  outwork  con- 
nected with  the  frontier  range  of  Alberes  by  a  rugged  ridge.  The  frontier  range 
named  gradually  increases  in  height  from  660  to  5,000  feet,  as  we  proceed  from 
Cape  Cerbere  to  the  mountains  of  Prats  de  Mollo  and  Campredon,  and  is  indebted 

•  Length  of  PjTenee9  from  Cape  Creus  to  Cape  Sainte-Anne,  near  Hendayc,  266  miles :  average 
breadth,  exclusive  of  Spanish  foot-hills,  51  miles;  area  occupied,  13,563  sq.  miles;  average  height,  3,940 
feet  (?) ;  volume,  1,650  cubic  miles. 


THE  PYEENEES. 


26 


for  its  name  to  the  whiteness  of  its  barren  rocks.  It  rises  steeply  on  the  French 
side,  but  slopes  down  gently  towards  the  south.  Many  roads  lead  across  it,  and 
have  been  used  from  the  most  ancient  times.  Near  Amelie-lcs-Baius  a  wall  most 
erroneously  ascribed  to  Hannibal  is  pointed  out;  at  the  Col  de  Pertus  (951  feet) 
Pompey  erected  a  trophy  in  commemoration  of  his  victories,  and  Visigoths,  Franks, 
and  Moors  crossed  there  after  him.  Numerous  fortifications  bear  witness  to  the 
strategical  importance  of  these  passes  of  the  Alberes.     Collioure  in  France,  and 

Fig.  12. — Mont  CAXioon. 
Scale  1  :  240,000. 


rhdrd 


5  Miles. 


Bosas  in  Spain,  defend  the  road  along  the  coast.  Perpignan  and  Figueras  defend 
the  outlets  of  the  defiles,  and  the  French  fort  of  Bellegarde  secures  the  important 
gorge  of  Peitus.  At  the  present  time  these  passes  across  the  eastern  Pyrenees  are 
no  longer  as  important  as  they  were  when  the  Mediterranean  was  the  centre  of  the 
civilised  world,  and  must  yield  to  the  road  in  the  west  which  joins  Lisbon  and 
Madrid  to  Paris.* 

•  Altitudes  in  the  AlWres :— Pic  des  Tennes,  3,618  feet :  Col  des  Balistres,  853  feet ;  Col  de  Banyuls. 
1,182  feet;  Col  de  Fertus,  951  feet;  Coustouges,  2,724  feet;  Col  d'Aies,  4,920  feet. 


FRANCE. 


Mountains  of  considerable  elevation  attach  the  Alberes  to  the  main  range  of  the 
Pyrenees,  which  is  hidden  behind  the  bold  mass  of  Mont  Canigou  (9,141  feet). 
With  its  spurs  and  foot-hills  this  majestic  summit  occujjies  the  entire  area  between 
the  upper  vaUeys  of  the  Tech  and  the  Tet.     It  is  perfectly  isolated  on  three  sides, 


Fig.  13. — PvY  DE  Carlittk. 
Scale  1  :  240,000. 


\..fii<- 


=5  \yi 


r^'"- 


^■■yfl  - 


!hl,ie  taji-rlVt/r  '{ ' 


I        if         -'-^      -f 


.')  Miles. 


and  the  summits  which  attach  it  to  the  main  chain  in  the  south  are  inferior  to  it 
in  height.  Its  bold  pyramid  does  not  yield  in  grandeur  to  that  of  Mount  Etna  ; 
it  is  seen  as  far  as  Barceloua  and  Montpellier,  and  the  astronomer  Zach  even 
claims  to  have  seen  its  dark  profile  projected  against  the  disc  of  the  setting  sun 
from  Marseilles,  a  distance  of  180  miles.      Until  recently  it  was  held  to  be  the 


THE  PYRENEES. 


27 


highest  summit  of  the  Pyrenees.     As  a  trigonometrical  station  it  offers  many  advan- 
tages, and  its  slopes  have  proved  a  fertile  tield  of  exploration  to  botanists. 

The  Pyrenees,  to  which  is  attached  the  Cauigou,  form  one  of  the  most  barren 
and  inaccessible  mountain  systems  in  the  world.  The  passes  leading  across  them 
are  mere  notches,  cut  to  a  depth  of  600  to  900  feet  at  an  elevation  of  about  8,200 


Fig.  14. — The  DEyiLES  of  tub  Aide. 
Scale  1 :  140,000. 


.  i  MUes. 


feet,  and  the  mountains  near  them  are  almost  devoid  of  individual  features.  Even 
the  Puigmal  (9,542  feet)  rises  but  little  above  the  extended  rampart  formed  by  the 
mountains.  A  deep  depression,  excavated  in  the  granitic  rocks  by  mountain 
torrents,  separates  it  from  another  mountain  mass  farther  north.  This  is  the  Col 
de  la  Pcrche  (5,322  feet),  guarded  on  the  French  side  by  Montlouis  (3,940  feet), 
and  on  that  of  Spain  by  Puigcerda  (Puycerda,  4,074   feet),  built  on  a  knoll  of 


28  FRANCE. 

glacial  origin ;  and  from  it  flow  the  rivers  Tet  and  Segre,  the  latter  a  feeder  of 
the  Ebro.  The  sources  of  both  these  rivers  lie  on  French  soil,  and  the  political 
boundary  has  been  drawn  in  the  most  arbitrary  manner.  Some  of  the  mountain 
valleys  near  the  pass  fairly  deserve  their  cognomen  of  "  paradise  of  botanists," 
for  curious  plants  found  nowhere  else  in  the  Pyrenees  may  be  gathered  there. 

The  granitic  mountains  to  the  north  of  the  fertile  district  of  La  Cerdagne,  on 
the  Upper  Segre,  rise  from  a  huge  quadrangular  plateau  which  gives  birth  to  the 
head  streams  of  the  Tet,  Segre,  Ariege,  and  Aude,  and  is  separated  in  the  west 
from  Andorra  by  the  much- frequented  Pass  of  Puymaurens  (6,293  feet).  The 
highest  of  these  summits  is  the  Puy  de  Carlitte  (9,561  feet).  At  its  foot  detached 
masses  of  rock  are  piled  up  in  chaotic  confusion,  covered  in  places  with  moss,  but 
for  the  most  part  still  bare  of  vegetation.  Lakes  and  lakelets  are  scattered  over 
the  plateau,  and  amongst  these  the  Lanoux  (black  lake  ?),  7,068  feet,  is  the 
largest,  though  by  no  means  the  most  beautiful ;  for  its  dark  waters  only  reflect 
naked  rocks  and  snows,  whilst  the  lakes  on  the  lower  slopes  are  surrounded  by 
verdant  meadows  and  woods.  Another  lake,  at  the  head  of  the  Tet,  emptied  itself 
in  the  ninth  century,  and  caused  a  fearful  inundation.  The  mountaineers  formerly 
looked  upon  the  many  lakelets  scattered  over  the  Carlitte  as  so  many  remains 
of  the  Flood,  and  Noah's  ark  they  supposed  to  have  stranded  on  the  Puy  de 
Priguo. 

The  ground  to  the  north  and  east  of  this  granitic  plateau  descends  gradually, 
sometimes  forming  terraces  intersected  by  bold  precipices.  Some  of  these  terraces 
are  still  covered  with  woods  of  beech-trees  and  firs,  but  elsewhere  the  forests  have 
been  destroyed,  and  the  aspect  of  the  mountains  is  forbidding.  As  in  the  French 
Alps,  we  meet  with  formidable  defiles,  or  clits,  excavated  by  mountain  torrents 
to  a  depth  of  many  hundred  feet.  The  most  famous  of  these  is  the  defile  of  the 
Aude,  which  even  impresses  persons  accustomed  to  mountains.  If  we  descend  from 
the  Baths  of  Carcauieres  into  this  abyss,  we  almost  fancy  we  have  penetrated  into 
the  very  bowels  of  the  earth.' 

Various  passes  lead  across  the  spurs  of  Mont  Carlitte.  The  Quillanne  (5,644 
feet),  thus  named  after  the  town  of  Quillan,  connects  the  valley  of  the  Tet  with 
that  of  the  Aude.  Another  pass  farther  east  is  dedicated  to  Jau,  or  Jupiter 
(4,964  feet),  but  is  hardly  used  now.  Lower  still  is  the  Pass  of  St.  Louis  (2,254 
feet),  which  joins  the  valley  of  the  Aude  to  that  of  the  Agly,  and  through  which 
the  road  leads  from  Perpignan  to  Carcassonne.  With  it  the  Pyrenees  terminate, 
for  with  the  scarped  Puy  de  Bugarach  (4,038  feet),  to  the  north  of  it,  begins  the 
region  of  the  Corbieres,  so  remarkable  on  account  of  its  geological  formation,  its 
coal  beds,  and  bone  caves,  but  deprived  of  verdure  and  running  water,  and  difiicult 
to  traverse  in  summer,  when  its  bleached  rocks  reflect  the  rays  of  the  sun.  These 
hills  long  formed  the  boundary  between  France  and  Spain,  and  the  fort  of  Salses, 
which  defended  the  road  leading  along  their  eastern  foot,  as  well  as  the  ruins  of 
many  castles,  recalls  the  struggle  for  the  possession  of  this  countrj',  which  only 
terminated  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Mount  Alaric  (1,970  feet),  to  the  north  of 
them,  and   close   to   the  Aude,   bears  witness  to   the  still  more  ancient  contests 


THE  PYEENEES. 


29 


between  Romans  and  Visigoths.     It  is  one  of  the  few  remaining  links  of  the 
transversal  chain  which  formerly  joined  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Cevennes. 

The  Pyrenees  of  Ariege,  occupying  the  country  of  the  ancient  Sabartes,  are  far 
more  regular  in  their  structure  than  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  range.  From 
the  Pass  of  Puymaurens  (6,336  feet)  to  the  gorge  of  the  Garonne — a  distance  of 
110  miles — the  main  chain  extends  without  a  break.  Its  summits,  amongst 
which  the  Pique  d'Estats  (10,305  feet)  and  the  Montcalm  (10,102  feet)  are  the 
most  elevated,  occupy  in  nearly  every  instance  the  axis  of  this  sierra.  Mont 
YalHer  (9,312  feet),  which  forms  so  striking  an  object  when  seen  from  Toulouse, 
is  no  exception  to  this  rule.     Huge  blocks  of  weather-worn  granite  cover  the 

Fig.  15. — The  Isthmts  between  the  CoasiiuEs  axd  the  Cevexxes. 
Scale  1 : 1,100,000. 


if 


.  20  Miles. 


western  slope  of  this  mountain.  From  a  distance  these  look  like  grazing  sheep 
turned  into  stone  by  some  sorcerer,  as  the  legends  have  it. 

The  lakes  which  formerly  lent  a  charm  to  this  portion  of  the  Pyrenees  have 
long  ago  been  drained.  Only  a  few  swamps  are  now  left,  and  near  these  M. 
Garrigou  has  discovered  the  remains  of  pile  dwellings  dating  back  to  the  age  of 
polished  stone  implements.  But  even  without  their  ancient  lakes  these  Pyrenees, 
with  their  simple  profile,  terraces,  and  verdant  slopes,  are  a  noble  sight.  They  are 
typical  of  the  entire  chain,  and  hence  the  name  biren  or  piren,  which  in  the  valley 
of  the  Ariege  was  formerly  applied  to  a  sheep-walk  in  the  mountains,  transformed 
into  Pyrenees,  became  general. 

VOL.  lu  n 


30 


FEANCE. 


Two  lateral  chains  run  parallel  witli  the  Pyrenees  of  Ariege,  the  most  elevated 
of  ■which  ramifies  from  Mont  Carlitte,  and  to  the  north  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper 
Ariege  attains  a  considerable  height.  Its  culminating  point,  the  Peak  of  Tabe,  or 
of  St.  Barthelemy  (7,704  feet),  stands  forth  prominently.  The  momitaineers  look 
upon  it  with  dread,  and  on  its  summit  may  still  be  seen  the  traces  of  ancient 
excavations  made  by  seekers  after  enchanted  treasure.  An  inferior  chain,  farther 
north,  cannot  boast  of  summits  covered  with  snow  far  into  the  summer,  nor  of  the 
mountain  pasture,  lakelets,  and  limpid  cascades  of  the  Pyrenees.  It  is  monotonous 
of  aspect,  of  inconsiderable  elevation,  and  in  parts  almost  resembles  the  walls  of  a 
fortress.     M.  Leymerie,  the  geologist,  has  named  it  the  Little  Pyrenees. 

These  parallel  ranges  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  cretaceous  formation,  and 
have  been  pierced  by  the  rivers  which  descend  from  the  snow-clad  crest  of  the 
Pyrenees.    The  Ariege,  having  passed  to  the  south  of  the  range  of  St.  Barthelemy, 


Fig.  16. — The  Little  Pykenees. 
Scale  1  :  200,000. 


"".>.5\V.of  Tjri 


0'\2i 


S  Milei. 


the  core  of  which  consists  of  crystalline  rocks,  turns  abruptly  to  the  north,  and 
enters  the  plain  through  the  gorge  of  Tarascon.  The  Salat  has  excavated  itself  a 
passage  through  the  granite  of  the  gorge  of  Ribaouto,  above  St.  Girons.  The 
smaller  rivers  which  rise  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  lateral  chains  likewise  take 
their  courses  through  gorges  excavated  in  the  tertiary  soil,  and  one  amongst  them, 
the  Arize,  runs  underground  through  the  famous  cavern  of  the  Mas  d'Azil  (938 
feet),  scarcely  a  thousand  yards  in  length,  and  passable  on  foot,  except  when  the 
river  is  in  flood.  On  leaving  this  tunnel  the  Arize  propels  a  few  water-mills,  and 
lower  down  passes  through  the  picturesque  gorge  of  Sabarat. 

The  upper  basins  of  the  Ariege  and  the  Salat  abound  in  caverns.  The 
"  galleries  "  of  Lombrives  and  Niaux  pierce  an  entire  rrountain  to  the  south  of 
Tarascon.  Equally  curious  is  the  cavern  of  Bedeillac,  the  traditional  burial-place 
of  Roland.  These  caverns  have  proved  a  rich  field  of  exploration  to  anthropologists 
and  geologists.     Bones  of   animals  now  extinct,  as  well  as  traces  of  prehistoric 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  ef  ILLINOIS. 


|i||||||(!|i|(!lflllWKi:!l:It:ipf^^^^^^^^ 


"I 


hiiiiiii 


•l 


:-^'XA^ 


^^.■>- 


.'/ 


\V." 


JL^ 


if 


82 


FRANCE. 


than  the  terminal  face  of  the  existing  glacier,  is  4,400   j'ards  in  length,  on  an 
average  1,640  yards  wide,  and  790  feet  in  height. 

The  most  elevated  mountains  of  the  Pyrenees  rise  within  the  Spanish  frontier. 
The  group  of  the  Maladctta,  or  "  cursed  mountain,"  thus  culled  on  account  of  its 
desolation,  terminates  in  a  serrated  crest,  the  principal  "needle  "  of  which  still 
bears  its  ancient  Iberian  name  of  Nethou  (11,170  feet).  This  peak  was  first 
ascended  in  184"2,  but  the  region  to  the  south  of  it  was  only  revealed  recently 
by  an  Englishman,  Mr.  Pucke,  who  discovered  there  tlie  largest  lake  of  the 
Pyrenees,  that  of  Gregonio,  and  the  delightful  meadows  of  the  Malibierne.     Mont 


l"'ig.  18. — Mont  Peudu. 
Scale  1  :  100,000. 


2°  ?^WofPaj 


2  Miles. 


Posets  (11,048  feet),  on  the  west  of  the  valley  of  the  Esera,  rivals  its  neighbour  in 
height.  It  was  first  ascended  in  1856.  From  its  summit  may  be  enjoyed  what  is 
probably  the  grandest  panorama  in  the  Pyrenees. 

Mont  Perdu,  the  "lost  mountain,"  the  third  great  mountain  mass  of  the 
Pyrenees,  rises  likewise  on  Spanish  soil.  It  was  first  ascended  by  the  illustrious 
Ramond  in  1802,  and  since  then  its  amphitheatres  or  cirques  have  become  the 
liaunt  of  tourists.  The  limestone  pyramid  of  Mont  Perdu  rises  from  an  irregular 
plateau,  cut  up  into  terraces  bounded  by  precipices,  and  dotted  over  by  curiously 
shaped  masses  of  rock.  To  the  west  the  group  is  bounded  by  the  famous  "  Breach 
of  Roland"  (9,197  feet),  said  to  have  been  cleft  by  the  paladin's  sword  (Fig.  19). 


THE  PYRENEES. 


83 


Glaciers  occupj'  the  area  enclosed  between  the  rocky  precipices.  That  between 
ilont  Perdu  and  the  crest  of  Estaube,  to  the  north  of  it,  covers  an  area  of  1  -5 
square  miles,  and  within  it  is  enclosed  a  lake,  frozen  almost  throughout  the  year. 

The  waters  descending  from  the  plateau  have  excavated  immense  cavities, 
locally  called  oiih'i^,  or  "porridge  pots,"  but  more  generally  known  as  cirques. 
The  largest  of  these  amphitheatres  is  that  of  Troumouse,  but  the  most  admirable, 
the  glory  of  the  Pyrenees,  is  that  of  Gavarnie  (Fig.  20),  bounded  on  the  one 
£iJe  by  a  perpendicular  precipice   5,500   feet  in  height,   on  the   other  by  rocky 

Fig.  19. — The  Breach  of  Roland. 


terraces.  A  magnificent  waterfall,  1,384  feet  in  height,  plunges  down  from  the 
glaciers  when  the  snow  melts,  but  in  winter  this  and  the  numerous  minor  cascades 
are  converted  into  pillars  of  ice,  which  surround  the  amphitheatre  like  a  colonnade 
of  marble. 

The  granitic  peaks  in  this  portion  of  the  range  are  inferior  in  height  to  those 
formed  of  limestone.  That  of  Xeouvielle  (Pic  d'Aubert),  the  most  remarkable  of 
the  former,  only  attains  10,144  feet,  whilst  the  limestone  masses  of  Pic  Long 
(10,479    feet),   and  Campbieil    to  the  south   of  it,   almost  equal  Mont  Perdu  in 


84 


FRANCE. 


elevation,  and  are  joined  in  the  east  to  the  Pic  d'Arbizon  (9,286  feet)  and  other 
summits  looking  down  upon  the  valley  of  the  Aure,  which  rival  the  Pic  du  Midi 
of  Bigorre  (9,437  feet)  in  beauty.  This  latter  is  separated  from  the  main  range 
by  a  low  saddle,  over  which  runs  the  road  of  the  Tourmalet,  and  being  thus 
isolated,  the  prospect  from  its  summit  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent,  extending 
from  the  Pic  du  ^lidi  of  Pan  (9,463  feet)  to  the  pyramid- shaped  Mont  Vallier. 

Fig.  20. — The  Amphitiieatue  of  G.WARNra. 


Neouvielle  and  the  mountains  in  its  vicinity  are  covered  with  boulders  ;  and 
the  moraines  of  ancient  glaciers  bound  the  "  lakelets  "  which  fill  depressions  in 
the  valleys.  These  glaciers  have  shrunk  now  to  small  proportions,  but  during 
the  glacial  epoch  they  covered  a  vast  extent  of  country.  The  most  important 
of  them  occupied  what  is  now  the  valley  of  the  Gave  of  Pau,  as  far  down 
as  Lourdes.  Anciently  it  appears  to  have  extended  beyond  Tarbes,  but  even 
if  we  credit  it    only  with    the    dimensions    given    to    it   by  MM.    Martins   and 


THE  PYEENEES.  86 

Collomb,  it  had  a  length  of  33  miles,  and  spread  over  500  square  miles.  It 
covered  the  site  of  the  modern  village  of  Gavarnie  to  a  height  of  4,430  feet, 
was  2,590  feet  thick  in  the  basin  of  Argeles,  and  1,180  feet  above  the  site  of 
Lourdes.  In  comparison  with  this  gigantic  river  of  ice,  the  seriieilhes  of 
Mont  Perdu  and  the  ilabore,  the  glaciers  descending  from  the  dark  flanks  of  the 
Vignemale  (10,795  feet),  the  most  elevated  summit  of  the  French  Pyrenees,  and 
the  patches  of  ice  to  the  east  of  formidable  Bala'itous  (10,421  feet),  are  of 
little  note,  for  the  whole  of  the  existing  glaciers  of  the  Pyrenees  hardly  cover 
20  square  miles,  and  in  no  instance  do  they  descend  beneath  7,200  feet  above 
the  sea-level. 

To  the  west  of  the  Balai'tous  the  height  of  the  Pyrenees  decreases  rapidly, 
and  the  Pic  du  Midi  of  Pau  is  the  last  of  the  great  granitic  peaks.  With  the 
pyramid-shaped  Pic  d'Anie  (8,213  feet)  begins  the  country  of  the  Basques,  who 
formerly  believed  that  mountain  to  be  inhabited  bj'  an  evil  spirit.  Beyond  Mont 
Orhy  (G,618  feet)  we  only  meet  with  hills  traversed  by  numerous  passes,  amongst 
which  the  "  Gate  "  of  Roncevaux  (3,600  feet)  is  the  most  famous.     At  the  saddle 

Fig.  21. — Section  of  the  Ancient  Glacier  of  ArgelSs. 
Scale  1  :  50,000.    According  to  MM.  Martins  and  Collomb. 


■  1  Mile. 


of  Aldudes  the  political  boundary  turns  abruptly  to  the  north,  leaving  to  France 
onlv  low  spurs  and  outlyiBg  hiUs.  One  of  these  latter  is  the  Rhune  (2,950  feet), 
or  "  angular  rock,"  affording  a  magnificent  prospect  over  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 

Although  the  difference  of  latitude  between  the  two  extremities  of  the 
Pyrenees  does  not  exceed  1°,  they  differ  strikingly  in  climate  and  aspect.  Near 
the  Atlantic  the  mountains  are  almost  wholly  covered  with  mould,  and,  where 
trees  are  not  met  with,  the  soil  is  at  all  events  thickly  covered  with  shrubs  and 
furze.  Towards  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  other  hand,  the  rocks  are  barren.  In 
the  Western  Pyrenees  we  might  fancy  ourselves  in  Scotland,  whilst  the  aspres 
of  Roussillon  and  the  secanos  of  Catalonia  resemble  the  arid  hills  of  Greece.  The 
granitic  rocks  which  prevail  in  the  east  partly  account  for  these  contrasts,  but 
the  principal  cause  must  be  looked  for  in  the  rains.  In  the  Basque  country  it 
rains  abundantly,  near  the  Mediterranean  hardly  at  all,  the  boundary  between  the 
two  districts  being  formed  by  Mont  Carlitte.  The  snow-line  descends  rapidly 
as  we  proceed  to  the  westward,  and   in  the  Mediterranean  Pyrenees  we  meet 


86 


FRANCE. 


neither  with  glaciers  nor  with  perennial  snows.  The  snow  that  falls  there  soon 
disappears  before  the  rays  of  the  sun,  the  winds,  and  a  hot  south  wind  resembling 
thefoehn  of  Switzerland,  and  locally  known  as  aittan. 


Fig.  22. — The  Ancient  Glacier  of  Argel{:s. 
Scale  t :  400,000.    According  to  C.  Martins,  and  Ed.  Collomli 


K^iK/JeBe  ' 


/■■    '-^if^'^-    '3!fe?f*r-o,-,^rf  %^^*fe,IS^^:  o^ 


0°io  Wnrr.T 


.  5  Miles. 


The  contrast  between  the  two  slopes  of  the  mountains  is  even  more  striking 
than  that  between  their  extremities.      On  the  French  slope  we  meet  with  snow, 


THE  PYRENEES.  87 

ice,  running  streams,  luxuriant  meadows  and  forests,  with  numerous  villages 
scattered  over  the  plain ;  on  the  opposite  slope  the  eye  alights  upon  naked 
rocks,  poor  pasturage,  and  heaps  of  stone  serving  as  human  habitations.  To  the 
mountaineers  the  French  slope  is  known  as  bach  or  hatch — that  is,  "lower"  or 
"  shady  "  side  ;  the  Spanish  slope  as  soulaue,  or  "sunny  side."  On  the  latter  the 
sun  is  more  powerful  and  the  rainfalls  are  less  ;  but  man,  by  destroying  the  forests, 
has  made  himself  an  accomplice  of  a  hostile  nature.  "Wild  beasts  are  more 
numerous  there.  The  chamois  (isard)  abounds  there;  wolves  are  plentiful,  as 
likewise  on  the  French  slope  ;  and  sometimes  one  hears  of  the  mischief  done  by 
a  bear.  In  the  district  of  Capsir,  in  Eoussillon,  the  Ijtix,  the  genet,  and  the 
marten  are  still  seen,  but  several  animals,  including  the  stag,  which  were  common 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  have  disappeared.  A  few  wild  goats  still  inhabit  the  valleys 
of  Ordesa  and  ilalibierne,  in  Spain,  but  in  France  the  last  animal  of  the  kind 
was  killed  in  1825. 

The  geographical  nomenclature  of  the  French  Pyrenees  is  Basque  and  Latin, 
but  not  Celtic,  and  we  may  conclude  from  this  that  the  whole  of  the  country  was 
formerly  inhabited  by  men  of  Euskarian  race.  The  ancient  language  is  still  spoken, 
not  in  the  less  accessible  portions  of  the  Pyrenees,  but  in  the  open  valleys  of 
the  west,  where  we  meet  likewise  with  gipsies,  cagots,  and  cascarots  living  in 
separate  communities.  There  are  three  dialects,  xi?..  those  of  Labourd,  of  Lower 
Navarre,  and  of  Soule.  The  Basque  does  not  appear  to  have  lost  ground  since 
the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  ;  but  what  the  uncouth  dialect  of  Beam  failed 
to  accomplish,  French  will  no  doubt  succeed  in,  and  no  sooner  will  the  Basques 
have  learnt  to  speak  two  languages  than  they  will  neglect  that  one  which  proves 
least  serviceable  to  them,  f  p  to  the  present  it  was  ignorance  which  protected 
Basque  against  the  inroads  of  French,  for  one-half  of  the  men  and  two-thirds  of 
the  women  of  the  country  are  illiterate. 

Thousands  of  Basques  migrate  to  the  neighbouring  towns  of  Bayonne, 
Bordeaux,  and  Toulouse  in  search  of  employment,  or  seek  a  home  in  the  New 
World,  where  their  number  is  probably  greater  than  that  of  those  who  remain 
behind  in  the  old  country.  Hostility  to  the  conscription  is  one  of  the  great  motives 
of  emigration,  for  the  Basque,  though  fond  of  adventure,  is  averse  to  military 
service,  and  more  than  half  the  young  men  called  out  annually  fail  to  put  in  an 
appearance. 

The  Pyrenees  to  the  east  of  the  Pic  d'Anie  are  inhabited  by  Frenchmen 
and  Spaniards.  The  crest  of  the  mountains  does  not,  however,  constitute  the 
ethnological  boundary,  for  in  numerous  instances  the  Spaniards  have  encroached 
upon  the  northern  slope.  Various  circumstances  account  for  this.  The  luxuriant 
pastures  on  the  northern  slopes  naturally  attracted  the  Spanish  herdsmen  inhabit- 
ing a  sterile  plateau,  whilst  the  French  agriculturists  preferred  remaining  down  in 
the  plains.  The  political  boundary,  for  the  most  part,  conforms  to  these  ethno- 
logical eccentricities,  and  the  valleys  of  the  Bidassoa,  Carlos,  and  Aran  have 
been  assigned  to  Spain,  though  situated  upon  the  northern  slope.  Nevertheless 
the  Pyrenees  constitute  one  of  the  most  perfect  political  boundaries  in  the  world. 


38 


FEANCE. 


Between  the  two  railways  which  skirt  the  extremities  of  the  chain,  the  one 
connecting  Bayonne  with  Madrid,  the  other  Perpignan  with  Barcelona,  the  moun- 
tains, for  a  space  of  280  miles,  are  crossed  only  by  two  roads  practicable  for 
carriages.  One  of  these  runs  over  the  Col  de  la  Perche,  to  the  east  of  Mont 
Carlitte  ;  the  other  through  the  Somport  ("  summit  gate  "),  to  the  west  of  the 
Pic  du  Midi  of  Pau.  All  other  passes  are  practicable  only  during  a  part  of  the 
year,  and  that  for  mules  alone. 

The  distribution  of  centres  of  population  in  the  region  of  the  Pyrenees  is 
singularly  regular.  In  the  upper  valleys,  from  the  Alberes  to  the  Rhune,  we 
only  meet  with  small  villages,  military  stations,  or  watering-places  like  Bagneres- 
de-Luchon.      Along  a  line   connecting   the  outlets  of    these  valleys  have   been 

Fig.  23. — The  Basques  on  the  French  Slope  of  the  Pyrenees. 
According  to  Broca. 


built  the  secondary  towns  of  these  regions,  such  as  Oloron,  Lourdes,  Bagneres- 
de-Bigorre,  Montrejeau,  St.  Girons,  Tarascon,  Prades,  and  Ceret,  where  the 
mountaineers  procure  their  necessaries.  Another  twelve  miles  farther  to  the 
north,  and  along  a  line  running  parallel  with  the  former  and  with  the  crest  of 
the  Pyrenees,  we  reach  the  more  considerable  towns,  such  as  Bayonne,  Pau, 
Tarbes,  St.  Gaudens,  Foix,  and  Perpignan,  all  of  them  situated  either  in  the 
plain  or  on  low  spurs  readily  accessible.  No  mining  industry  has  caused  towns 
to  spring  up  in  the  very  centre  of  the  mountains,  for  mineral  waters,  forests, 
and  pastures  constitute  the  sole  wealth  of  the  Pyrenees.  Breeding  of  mules  and 
horses  is  carried  on  successfully  in  the  Cerdagne  and  elsewhere,  and  the  cattle  of 
some  of  the  eastern  valleys  enjoy  a  certain  reputation,  but  as  a  rule  the 
resources  of  the  country  are   allowed  to  lie  neglected,  and   an  acre  of  meadow 


THE  LANDES.  89 

land  in  the  Pyrenees  does  not  yield  one-tenth,  nay,  one-twentieth,  of  what  it  is 
made  to  yield  in  the  Swiss  Alps. 

The  low  hills  and  plains  to  the  north  of  the  Pj-renecs  are  covered  with  debris 
and  boulders  transported  thither  by  the  ancient  glaciers.  Xliesc  boulders  diminish 
in  size  in  proportion  as  we  travel  away  from  the  mountains.  At  Pamiers,  Tarbes, 
and  Pau  they  are  still  as  large  as  a  child's  head,  but  farther  north  we  only  meet 
with  small  pebbles  and  gravel,  and  finally  enter  a  region  covered  with  clay  and 
sand,  which  heavy  rains  convert  into  mud.  The  quagmires  of  Lauraguais, 
between  the  Hers  and  the  Aude,  and  of  Armagnac,  between  the  Garonne  and  the 
Upper  Adour,  have  hardly  their  equal  in  France. 


The  Landes. 

The  vast  plain  of  the  Landes  stretches  westward  of  these  deposits  of  glacial  drift. 
Bounded  by  the  ocean,  the  Adour,  the  cultivated  heights  of  Lot-et-Garonne,  and 
the  vineyards  of  Bordeaux,  this  plain  covers  an  area  of  5,400  squai-e  miles.  It 
is  evidently  an  ancient  sea-bottom  covered  with  sands  of  pliocene  age,  sometimes 
to  a  depth  of  260  feet.  At  a  short  distance  beneath  the  surface  we  meet  with  a 
layer  of  compacted  sand,  formed  by  infiltration,  and  sometimes  as  hard  as  iron, 
which  is  occasionally  associated  with  it.  This  alios,  as  it  is  called,  prevents  the 
growth  of  trees,  and  being  impermeable,  after  rains  the  whole  of  the  plain  would 
be  converted  into  a  swamp  if  cvasfes,  or  drains,  had  not  been  dug  to  carry  off  the 
water.  There  are  several  "sinks"  (enfoniioirs),  the  most  remarkable  being 
that  of  Hucaou,  on  the  water-shed  between  the  Leyre  and  the  Garonne. 

Formerly,  before  the  Landes  had  been  drained,  the  Landescots,  or  Lanusquets, 
could  only  traverse  these  solitudes  on  stilts,  instruments  supposed  to  have  been 
introduced  from  England.  Mounted  on  his  stilts,  the  shepherd  was  able  to  cross 
swamps  with  impunity,  and  to  look  after  his  flock,  a  long  wand  serving  him  simul- 
taneously as  a  balancing-rod,  a  weapon,  and  an  organ  of  prehension.  This  mode 
of  locomotion  is  confined  now  to  the  more  remote  districts. 

In  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  value  of  land  in  this  region  was  ridicu- 
lously small,  and  for  a  few  francs  a  shepherd  might  purchase  all  around  him  as  far 
as  his  voice  could  be  heard.  At  the  present  time,  however,  the  Landes  have  kept 
their  original  aspect  only  in  a  few  places.  Shrubs,  ferns,  and  golden-flowered 
broom  are  rapidly  being  replaced  by  fields  and  forests  of  Bordeaux  pines.  These 
trees  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  Landes,  and  have  been  cultivated  there  from  the 
most  ancient  times,  trunks  of  them  having  been  found  beneath  thick  layers  of  turf. 
In  llaransin — that  is,  the  southern  portion  of  the  Landes — the  cork-oak  is  the 
favourite  tree,  and  near  Bordeaux  we  meet  with  woods  equal  to  any  park  of 
Western  Europe  as  to  variety  of  foliage.  These  forests  graduallj-  prepare  the  soil 
for  agriculture,  but  the  shepherds,  whose  pastures  they  encroach  upon,  hold  them 
in  aversion. 

The  dunes  skirting  the  shore  of  the  Atlantic  formerly  threatened  to  overwhelm 


40 


FEANCE. 


the  whole  of  this  region,  for  towards  the  close  of  last  century  they  advanced 
to  the  east  at  a  rate  of  60  or  80  feet  a  year.  This  danger  was  created  by  man 
himself,  who  destroyed  the  forests  which  had  sijontaneously  taken  root  upon 
these  hills  of  sand.  The  prevailing  westerly  winds  then  again  drove  the  sand 
inland,  and  it  encroached  upon  Landes  and  swamps,  and  even  overwhelmed  entire 
villages.  The  village  of  Lege  twice  retired  before  this  invasion  of  sand,  viz.  4,300 
yards  in  1480,  and  3,300  yards  in  1660.     Mimizan  retreated  likewise,  and  when 

Fm.  2i. — View  in  the  Landes. 


measures  were  at  length  taken  to  stop  the  invasion  of  the  dunes,  these  latter  had 
again  approached  within  a  few  yards  of  its  houses. 

The  first  experiment  to  stop  the  advance  of  the  dunes  was  made  in  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  succeeded,  but  it  was  only  after  M.  Br^- 
montier  had  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  inhabitants,  whom  he  desired  to  enrich, 
that  any  serious  progress  was  made.  Seven  hundred  and  twenty  acres  were 
planted  between  1787  and  1793,  and  since  then  the  whole  of  the  region  of  the 
dunes,  extending  from  the  Gironde  to  the  Adour,  and  covering  222,400  acres,  has 
been  converted  into  a  pine   forest.     These  plantations    have  exercised  a  happy 


THE  L.1NDES. 


41 


influence  upon  the  climate,  if  it  were  only  by  facilitating  regulation  of  the  sheets 
of  water  in  the  rear  of  the  dunes.     Swamp  fevers  (medoquines),  which  formerly 


Fie.  25. — The  Di  xf.s  and  Laxues  in  the  Pays  de  Rorx. 


Scale  1  :  400,000. 


1"     30~1V of  Paris 


&  Miles. 


decimated  the  population,  have  disappeared,  and  the  general  health  has  improved 
in  consequence  of  the  increased  wealth  of  the  country. 

The  ponds  or  lagoons  which  extend  in  rear  of  the  dunes  must  be  looked  upon 


42 


FEANCE. 


as  ancient  bays  of  the  sea,  from  which  they  became  separated  by  a  bar  of  sand. 
The  salt  water  which  they  originally  contained  escaped  through  drains,  and  they 
became  filled  with  fresh  water.  The  largest  of  these  lakes,  that  of  Cazau,  covers 
15,000  acres,  and  its  surface  lies  at  an  elevation  of  between  62  and  66  feet  above 
the  sea-level,  according  to  the  season.  By  means  of  a  canal  running  parallel 
with  the  coast  the  level  of  this  as  well  as  of  the  other  lakes  might  be  lowered,  and 
a  safe  water-way  obtained  connecting  the  Garonne  with  the  Adour. 

The  basin  of  Arcachon,  about  half-way  between  the  Adour  and  the  Gironde,  is 
the  only  lagoon  which  still  communicates  freely  with  the  ocean,  but  the  time  is  not 
far  distant  when  it  too  wiU  be  disconnected  by  a  bar  of  sand.    This  ever-shifting 

Fig.  26. — The  Basim  of  Arcachon. 
Sciile  1  :  325,000. 


Sand  X    nuL^  whicJi^  vji^vtr 


DcfdJv   OVfr-    Ji  t'ect 
(hjstcr  Bed* 


■  5  Miles. 


bar,  as  well  as  the  violent  tides,  is  the  great  obstacle  to  the  conversion  of  this 
bay  into  a  harbour  of  refuge,  so  much  needed  on  the  perilous  coast  of  the  Bay  of 
Biscay. 

The  rivers  draining  the  Kttoral  lakes  of  the  Landes  are  turned  to  the  south  on 
entering  the  sea,  for  the  coast  current  runs  in  that  direction,  and  throws  up  a 
tongue  of  sand  rmming  parallel  with  the  coast  from  north  to  south.  The  course 
of  the  river  being  thus  virtually  increased  to  the  extent  of  several  miles,  its 
current  grows  sluggish,  it  performs  its  work  of  drainage  less  efficiently,  the  level 
of  the  lakes  grows  higher,  and  they  encroach  upon  their  banks.  The  eiforts  of 
engineers  to  remove  the  obstruction  to  the  unimpeded  discharge  of  the  rivers  have 


THE  LANDES.  48 

not  generally  proved  successful.  The  drainage  of  lakes  and  swamps  has  been 
attempted,  though  not  on  the  same  scale  as  in  the  Netherlands.  The  most 
important  instance  is  that  of  the  Lake  of  Orx,  near  Bayonne,  which  was  emptied 
in  1864. 

Man  and  nature  thus  combine  to  modifj'  the  physical  aspect  of  the  coast  of  the 
Landes,  but  the  submerged  portion  of  the  coast  has  been  subjected  to  changes  on  a 
much  vaster  scale.  A  sand-bank  marked  on  charts  of  the  last  century  as  being 
situated  15  miles  to  the  west  of  the  basin  of  Arcachon  has  completely  disappeared. 
Floating  ashes  and  seaquakes  noticed  by  mariners  point  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay  as  a 
seat  of  submarine  eruptions.  Thus  much  is  certain,  that  the  sea  has  been 
encroaching  extensively  upon  the  land,  and  if  we  extend  the  slope  of  the  Landes, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  27,  it  will  be  found  that  the  ancient  coast-line  must  ha^-e  lain 
12  miles  farther  to  the  west  than  the  existing  one. 

In  the  time  of  Bremontier  the  sea  gnawed  away  nearly  7  feet  of  the  beach  of 

Fig.  27. — The  Slope  op  the  Landes. 


The  figures  express  the  height  or  depth  in  metres  (10  m.  =  32-8  feet). 

Hourtin  annually,  and  elsewhere  its  invasion  was  even  more  considerable,  though 
there  were  not  wanting  localities  where  the  land  actually  gained  upon  the  sea. 

On  first  looking  at  the  dunes  facing  the  sea,  it  might  be  imagined  that  it  is  the 
land  which  is  advancing.  The  waves  and  the  winds  are  supposed  to  throw 
annually  nearly  8,000,000  cubic  yards  of  sand  upon  the  beach  of  the  Landes ; 
but  this  sand  is  derived  neither  from  the  hiUs  to  the  south  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
nor  from  the  coast  of  Saintonge,  to  the  north.  It  is  furnished  by  the  Landes 
themselves,  and  by  the  submarine  plateau  upon  which  they  rise,  and  in  its  minera- 
logical  composition  is  identical  with  the  pliocene  formation  occupying  the  interior 
of  the  country. 

Further  proofs  pointing  to  an  encroachment  of  the  sea  are  furnished  by  the 
remains  of  the  ancient  vegetation  of  the  country  and  the  traces  of  man  which 
have  been  discovered  on  the  narrow  ledge  bounding  the  eastern  foot  of  the  dunes. 
Nowhere  are  these  traces  more  conspicuous  than  on  the  beaches  of  La  Grave 
and  Matoc,  to  the  south  of  the  basin  of  Arcachon,  for  we  meet  there  with  layers 
of  alios,  with  turf-pits,  and  the  trunks  of  trees  still  bearing  the  marks  of  axes, 
with  bricks  and  broken  pottery. 


44 


FBANCE. 


But  not  only  is  the  coast  being  gnawed  by  the  sea,  it  is  also  slowly  subsiding, 
for  traces  of  human  residence  have  been  discovered  below  high-water  mark.     The 

coast   to  the  north   of  the 
Fig.  28.— The  Ancient  Coast  of  the  Landes. 
Scale  :  1,500,000. 


}"  jWofTarir" 


WWofCr 


^— ^— ^—  20  Miles. 


The  figures  express  the  height  above  the  sea  in  metres 
(10  m.  =  32-8  feet). 


Gironde  participates  in  this 
movement    of    subsidence, 
and  not  only  sandy  beaches 
have  disappeared  there,  but 
also  rocks.     One  of  the  best 
examples   of    this   kind    is 
furnished  by  the  rock  upon 
which  stands  the  hne  light- 
house  of  Cordouan,  which 
illuminates  the  entrance  to 
the  Gironde.     When  Louis 
de  Foix  erected  that  build- 
ing at  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth   century,    the    rock 
upon  which  it  now  stands 
was   an   island    sufficiently 
large  to  admit  of  dwellings 
for  the  workmen  employed. 
It  is  now  completely  covered 
at  high  water,  and  the  dis- 
tance  between  it   and   the 
peninsula  of  La  Grave  has 
increased  from  3-1  miles  in 
1630   to   4-3    miles.      Nu- 
merous villages  named   m 
old    chronicles    have    been 
swallowed  up  by  the  sea  or 
overwhelmed  by  the  dunes 
marching  before  it.     Soulac 
was  an  important  town  on 
the   Gironde,    below    Bor- 
deaux, whilst  the  English 
held  the  country,  but  the 
Gothic  church  and  the  few 
walls  which  alone  remain  of 
it  now  stand  upon  the  shore 
of  the  ocean,  the  dunes  hav- 
ing passed  right  over  them 
(see  Fig.  35) .    The  Gironde 


itself  would  probably  by  this  time  have  changed  its  bed  had  not  the  engineers 
prevented  it  by  the  construction  of  costly  embankments.      Nowhere  else  on  the 


THE  ADOUE.  45 

coast  of  i'rance  does  man  struggle  so  arduously  against  the  assaults  of  the 
ocean,  and  sometimes  the  issue  is  doubtful.  Between  1818  and  1846  the  Pointe 
de  Grave,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Giroude,  receded  236  feet  towards  the  south-east, 
but  the  coast  now  is  eihciontly  protected  by  embankments. 


The  Adour. 

The  geological  history  of  the  Lower  Adour  is  connected  with  Ihat  of  the  Laudcs, 
but  the  two  Gaves,  with  their  principal  tributaries  and  head-streams,  belong  to  the 
region  of  the  Pyrenees. 

The  xVdour  rises  between  the  Pic  d'Arbizon  and  the  Pic  du  Midi  of  Bigorre, 
about  12  miles  to  the  north  of  tlie  crest  of  the  Pyrenees.  Though  fed  by  abundant 
rains  and  melting  snow,  the  drought  of  summer  would  cause  it  to  shrink  into 
a  riviJet  insufficient  even  for  purjDoses  of  irrigation  if  it  were  not  for  the  Blue 
Lake  {Lac  Bleu),  a  natural  reservoir,  the  outflow  from  which  is  regulated  by 
means  of  a  submarine  tunnel,  and  from  which  71  cubic  feet  of  water  are  dis- 
charged every  second,  a  quantity  sufficient  for  irrigating  the  valley  and 
supplying  the  manufactories  of  Bagneres  and  Tarbes.  This  is  a  work  of 
our  contemporaneous  engineers,  but  the  canal  of  irrigation,  ■which  leaves  the 
river  where  it  issues  from  the  mountains  to  rejoin  it  25  miles  lower  down, 
dates  back  to  the  time  of  Alaric,  the  Visigoth.  The  island  lying  between  this 
canal  and  the  river  forms  one  huge  garden,  in  which  maize  grows  to  a  height  of 
15  feet. 

On  approaching  the  region  of  the  Landes  the  river  sweeps  round  to  the  west, 
skirting  the  hills  of  Beam,  the  cultivated  slopes  of  which  contrast  strikingly  with 
the  desolate  plain  on  its  right  bank.  At  Dax,  instead  of  flowing  directly  to  the 
sea,  the  Adour  turns  towards  the  mountains,  and,  as  far  as  its  confluence  with  the 
Gave,  winds  between  hills. 

The  volume  of  the  Gave  is  superior  to  that  of  the  Upper  Adour,  but  its  current 
being  rapid  and  its  slope  steep,  the  tide  only  ascends  for  a  short  distance,  and  is 
of  very  little  service  for  purposes  of  navigation.  The  name  Adour  is  therefore  with 
justice  applied  to  the  lower  part  of  the  river. 

The  Gave  of  Pau,  in  its  ujjper  valley,  alternately  forms  cascades,  flows  tranquilly 
along  the  bottom  of  deep  ravines,  or  spreads  out  over  emerald  meadows  contrasting 
strikingly  with  rugged  defiles.  At  Lourdes  it  leaves  the  mountains,  but,  instead  of 
flowing  north  over  the  plain,  it  abruptly  turns  to  the  west,  and  pierces  the  hills  of 
Beam,  all  covered  with  erratic  blocks  carried  thither  by  the  ancient  glaciers 
from  the  high  mountains  in  the  south.  Below  the  graceful  bridge  of  Betharram  it 
winds  across  a  plain,  but  at  Pau  it  again  flows  amongst  hills,  from  which  it  finally 
emerges  only  12  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  Gave  of  Ossau.  Throughout 
the  whole  of  its  course  it  retains  the  character  of  a  torrent,  and  is  useless  for 
purposes  of  navigation. 

The  debris  piled  up  by  glacial  action  at  the  mouths  of  the  Pyrenean  valleys 
have    forced  the  Gaves   repeatedly  to    change  their   course.     The  Gave  of  Pau 

VOL.    II.  K 


46 


FEANCE. 


originally  flowed  in  the  direction  of  Tarbes ;  it  then  passed  by  way  of  Pontacq,  and 
this  outlet  having  been  blocked  up  by  the  debris  deposited  there,  the  river  opened 
itself  a  new  passage  through  the  defile  of  St.  Pe.  The  bed  of  the  Gave  of 
Ossau  has  undergone  similar  changes.  At  first  it  joined  that  of  Pau  near  the 
town  of  Nay  ;  subsequently  it  flowed  north  through  the  valley  of  Neez,  and  even 
now  a  portion  of  its  waters  finds  its  way  to  that  valley  through  an  underground 
channel  5  miles  in  length. 


Fig.  29.— Successive  Changes  of  the  Bed  of  the  Gave  of  Pad. 

Scale  1  :  320,000. 


»  "  [  io'    of  Piri: 


U",i)\l9  L.otU 


5  Miles. 


The  estuary  of  the  Adour,  below  Bayonne,  has  undergone  similar  changes. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  its  mouth  was  12  miles  farther  north,  where  the 
Boudigau  now  enters  the  sea,  and  the  geological  boundary  between  the  regions  of 
the  Pyrenees  and  the  Landes  must  still  be  sought  for  at  that  spot.  There  are  no 
Clio's  to  the  north  of  the  Adour,  but  the  nummxditic  limestones  of  Biarritz  extend 
north,  beneath  the  waves  of  the  ocean,  as  far  as  a  spot  lying  off  the  "  Fosse  "  of 


THE  ADOUR. 


47 


Capbreton,  anciently  an  important  seaport,  whicli  gave  its  name  to  the  island  of 
Cape  Breton,  in  Xorth  America. 

The  first  change  in  the  course  of  the  river  took  place  towards  the  close  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  when  a  violent  storm  threw  up  a  formidable  bar,  the  river 


Fig.  30. — The  Mouth  of  the  Asour. 

Scile  I  :  SSO.OOO. 


Sililis. 


flowing  along  the  rear  of  the  dunes  as  far  as  the  hamlet  of  Vieux-Boucau,  or  "  old 
mouth,"  22  miles  to  the  north  of  Bayonne.  The  present  channel  of  the  river 
was  excavated  by  human  hands,  aided  by  a  great  flood  which  occurred  in  1571, 
and  swept  away  the  last  remaining  obstacles. 

£2 


48  FEANCE. 

The  ever-shifting  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Adour  is  justly  dreaded  by  mariners, 
and,  in  spite  of  the  jetties  which  have  been  constructed,  the  narrow  entrance  to  the 
river  is  occasionally  obstructed. 

The  Garonne. 

The  Garonne  rises  on  Spanish  soil,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Pyrenees.  Its 
head-stream,  fed  by  the  snow  and  ice  of  Pic  Nethou,  is  swallowed  up  by  a  sink 
known  as  Trou  du  Taureau  ("bull's  hole"),  and  after  a  subterranean  course  of 
2  5  miles,  reappears  again  as  a  gushing  spring  at  the  Goueil  de  Joueou 
("God's  eye").  At  the  hill  of  Castellcon  this  head-stream  of  the  Garonne  is  joined 
by  a  second  river  of  that  name,  which  traverses  the  Spanish  valley  of  Aran,  and 
when  it  enters  French  territorj',  at  the  marble  defile  of  St.  Beat,  it  is  already  a 
formidable  river. 

The  glacier-fed  Pique  of  Luchon  is  the  first  considerable  river  which  joins  the 

Fig.  31. — Tub  Subtebraneam  Coukse  ov  the  Uakonne. 


1:1500000 


o  f  a  3  4  SKilometrcft 

Garonne  on  the  soil  of  France.  Lower  down  it  receives  the  Neste,  which  flows 
through  the  delightful  valley  of  Aure,  and  its  direct  northern  course  being  stopped 
by  the  masses  of  debris  deposited  by  ancient  glacial  action,  it  turns  abruptly  to  the 
east,  and  flows  in  a  huge  curve  around  that  wonderful  accumulation  of  shingle  and 
gravel  traversed  by  the  radiating  courses  of  the  Gers,  the  Bayse,  and  numerous 
other  rivers,  all  having  their  sources  close  to  each  other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  32. 
These  rivers  are  gradually  washing  away  the  sediment  deposited  by  glaciers,  and 
nowhere  else  are  we  better  able  to  study  the  influence  which  the  earth's  rotation 
exercises  upon  the  formation  of  valleys.  Almost  without  exception  the  western 
slopes  of  the  valleys  are  gentle,  whilst  the  rivers  gnaw  away  the  foot  of  the  hills 
on  the  east,  and  a  traveller  who  crosses  over  from  one  valley  to  the  other  in  a 
westerly  direction  ascends  by  a  gentle  slope,  but  descends  by  a  steep  one. 

Very  diflerent  from  these  divergent  rivers  are  the  eastern  or  exterior  tributaries 
of  the  Garonne,  for  their  sources  are  far  apart,  they  flow  generally  parallel  with 
the  equator,  and,  draining  vaster  areas,  are  more  voluminous.  One  of  them,  the 
Salat,  is  thus  named  on  account  of  the  brine  springs  near  its  banks.     Another,  the 


THE  GAEONNE. 


49 


Ariege,  is  not  named  thus  because  it  carries  gold  {Atirigera),  for  its  name  is 
synonymous  with  Arega,  Aregia,  Ereya,  and  Arize,  all  of  which  simply  mean 
river. 

Though  draining  a  basin  inferior  to  that  of  the  Loire,  the  Garonne  neverthe- 
less is  a  more  voluminous  river,  thanks  to  the  greater  rainfall,  the  geological 
nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  snows  of  the  Pyrenees,  which  feed  many  of  its  tributaries 
during  summer.  There  are  no  torrent  beds,  as  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Cevennes,  and  the  hills  of  Auvergne  and  the  Pyrenees  are  amongst  the  best 
watered  of  all  France.  Floods,  unfortunately,  occur  frequently,  generally  in  May 
or  June,  when  the  snow  melts  and  rain  falls  abundantly. 

At  an  epoch  anterior  to  history  the  flow  of  the  river  was  regulated  by  lakes. 


Fig.  32. — Radiating  River  Courses  of  Gers. 
Scale  1  :  1,876,000. 


1'  W.  of  Pans 


C  v^  ^  /\^; 


one  of  the  most  important  of  which  occupied  the  fertile  plain  of  Riviere.  But 
these  lakes  have  been  silted  up  and  drained,  and  the  floods  occur  now  very 
suddenly.  One  of  the  most  disastrous  happened  in  1875,  when  the  river  rose 
40  feet  above  its  ordinary  summer  level,  sweeping  away  bridges,  destroying  nearly 
7,000  houses,  and  doing  damage  to  the  extent  of  £3,400,000.  These  floods  might 
perhaps  be  prevented  if  forests  were  planted  upon  the  hills,  but  to  this  the  pastoral 
inhabitants  of  the  Pyrenees  have  a  deep-rooted  objection. 

The  waters  of  the  Garonne  are  not  employed  for  purposes  of  irrigation,  as  they 
might  be,  and  there  exist  no  canals  comparable  with  that  of  Alaric,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Adour.    M.  Duponchel,  however,  has  conceived  the  grand  project  of  construct- 


50 


FEANCB. 


ino-  a  system  of  canals  or  drains,  by  means  of  which  the  hills  of  Gers  might  be 
levelled,  and  a  portion  of  the  fertile  soil  of  which  they  consist  spread  over  the 
barren  Landes  of  Gascony* 

A  navigable  canal,  communicating  ^^■ith  the  Canal  du  Midi,  follows  the  course 
of  the  Garonne  from  Toulouse  downwards  as  far  as  the  head  of  the  tide,  whence 

Fig.  33. — Valleys  of  Gehs. 
Scale  1  :  1,160,000. 


•i°  IWof  l^ru 


0°   ?0'E  oi  1.1 


the  river  is  navigable  throughout  the  year.  Eelow  Bordeaux,  its  great  coiumercial 
port,  the  Garonne  rapidly  increases  in  width,  and  the  triangular  peninsula  which 
lies  between  it  and  its  twin  river,  the  Dordogne,  is  known  as  Entre-Deux-Mers, 
with  reference  to  the  sealike  expanse  of  these  great  tidal  rivers.  Sea-going  vessels 
ascend  the  Dordogne  as   far  as  Libourne,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Isle.     The  bore 

Fig.  34. — The  Plain  of  RivituE. 

Scale  1  :  320,000. 


which  rushes  up  that  river  is  said  to  have  become  more  intense  since  the  Garonne 
has  been  confined  within  narrower  limits. 

The  united  waters  of  the  Garonne  and  the  Dordogne  form  a  vast  estuary, 
known  as  Gironde,  varying  in  width  between  two   and   six  miles,  and  dotted 

•  "  Creation  d'un  sol  fertile  a  la  surface  des  landes  de  Gascogne."     Montpellier,  1864. 


THE  GAEONNE. 


51 


over  with  numerous  islands.  There  are  many  mud-banks,  which  interfere  with 
navigation,  but  the  depth  of  the  channel  is  nevertheless  very  considerable,  and  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  between  Royan  and  the  Pointe  de  Grave,  it  is  no  less  than 


Fig.  35. — The  Esti-aky  of  the  Gironde. 
Scale  1  :  G40,0iXI. 


10  Miles. 


Erhard 


105  feet.  This  estuary  is  in  reality  an  arm  of  the  sea,  and  at  Mechers,  6  miles 
above  its  mouth,  there  are  salt  ponds  and  oyster  beds.  Cetacea  and  sea-fish  ascend 
the  river  with  each  tide,  and  porpoises  gambol  around  the  vessels  as  in  the  open 
sea.     Among  these  visitors  from  the  Atlantic  the  maigre  (Scin'm  aquih),  a  singing 


52 


FEANCE. 


fish,  is  one  of  the  most  curious,  and  the  crews  of  many  a  vessel  have  been  frightened 
by  the  sound  it  emits. 

The  banks  of  the  Gironde  exhibit  many  traces  of  geological  action  still  going 
on.     The  hills  on  the  right  bank  terminate  in  cliffs,  the  foot  of  which  is  continually 


Fig.  36. — The  "Passes"  of  the  Gironde. 
Scale  1  :  350,000. 


3"  I  20'  W  of  Paris         [~ 


^a 


•■Vn,\ 


f  \A  '^'  5;'%  T 


fui:rgf^ 


^, 


■^$^m 


r^/n. 


1"  |\V.  ol'  Cf. 


^-id 


Dep.h  0-16  feet. 


16-32  feet. 


over  32  feet. 


5  Miles. 


being  gnawed  by  the  waves,  and  several  villages  have  disappeared  there,  including 
Gerioset,  which  occupied  the  summit  of  a  hill  to  the  east  of  Royan,  and  Talmont, 
which  stood  at  the  extreme  point  of  a  peninsula. 

Swampy  plains  of  recent  origin,  such  as  the  "polders"  of  Little  Flanders, 


Fig.  37. — Section  of  the  Passes  of  the  Gironde. 


20  f' 


drained  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  the  old  salt  marshes  of  the  Verdun,  extend 
far  into  the  peninsula  of  Medoc.  The  culminating  point  of  the  whole  of  this 
region,  the  hill  of  Jau  or  Jupiter,  scarcely  rises  to  a  height  of  40  feet,  and  a 
couple  of  centuries  ago  was  an  island.     Ancient  river  beds  can  still  be  traced,  and 


LISRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSiTV  of  ILLINOIS. 


TYEENEES  OEIENTALES.  53 

•what  is  now  the  Pointe  de  Grave  was  lorincrly  an  island  near  the  northern  bank 
of  the  river. 

The  submarine  relief  is  likewise  undergoing  continual  changes,  which  endanger 
navigation.  The  channel,  or  "pass,"  of  the  jrasfclier,  which  was  the  principal 
one  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  is  now  occupied  by  a  formidable 
sand-bank  known  as  La  Mauvaise.  The  contours  of  the  banks  and  the  direction 
of  the  currents  are  for  ever  changing,  and  in  the  course  of  less  than  a  century  the 
bank  of  La  Mauvaise  has  shifted  o  miles  to  the  west,  whilst  that  of  La  Cuivre 
moves  in  an  opposite  direction.  Still,  thanks  to  lighthouses,  buoys,  and  beacons, 
vessels  can  at  all  times  enter  the  Gironde  with  safety,  and  even  at  low  water  the 
depth  of  the  northern  pass  is  nowhere  less  than  40  feet.  At  each  tide  no  less 
than  265,000  Ions  of  water  penetrate  into  the  estuary  of  the  Gironde,  a  quantity 
in  comparison  with  which  the  discharge  of  the  Garonne  and  Dordogne  combined  is 
almost  inappreciable,  even  during  floods. 

TOPOORAPHY. 

Pyrenees  Oriektales. — This  department  is  almost  a  portion  of  Catalonia  as  far 
as  its  climate,  its  productions,  and  the  language  of  its  inhabitants  are  concerned,  but 
has  formed  part  of  France  since  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  includes 
the  valleys  of  the  Tech,  the  Reart,  the  Tet,  and  the  Agly,  all  of  which  debouch  upon 
the  plain  of  Roussillon.  Each  of  these  valleys  is  well  watered,  but,  upon  the 
whole,  naked  rocks  form  the  predominant  feature  of  the  department,  which  is 
therefore  able  only  to  support  a  small  population. 

The  valley  of  the  Tech  or  Yallespir — that  is,  "  austere  valley  " — is  the  southern- 
most of  continental  France.  Its  scenery  is  delightful,  and  the  customs  of  its 
Catalan  inhabitants  full  of  interest.  At  its  head  are  the  pastures  of  Costabona, 
and  on  descending  it  we  pass  the  sulphur  springs  of  Preste,  the  old  town  of 
Prafs-de-Mo/lo  (1,320  inhabitants),  formerly  famous  for  its  cloths  ;  Aries  (1,871 
inhabitants),  the  commercial  centre  of  the  valley,  where  rude  cutlery  is  manu- 
factured ;  Ceret  (3,063  inhabitants) ;  and  the  hot  sulphur  springs  of  Amelie-les- 
Bains. 

Across  the  naked  range  of  the  Alberes,  defended  by  the  fort  of  Bellegarde,  the 
great  Spanish  high-road  leads  through  the  Pertus.  This  road  is  far  easier  than  the 
one  leading  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  through  CoUiourp  (3,446  inhabit- 
ants), frequented  by  fishermen,  and  Port-Vriidrcs  (1,910  inhabitants),  which  boasts 
of  an  excellent  harbour,  much  frequented  by  vessels  in  distress.  Some  wine  is 
exported  from  here,  including  the  sort  known  as  "  rancio,"  which  only  attains 
maturity  after  having  been  kept  for  ten  years,  and  possesses  tonic  properties  almost 
equal  to  those  of  quinine. 

The  district  of  Aspres,  which  extends  east  of  the  Canigou  in  the  direction  of 
the  Mediterranean,  is  sterile,  as  its  name  implies,  but  excellent  wine  grows  upon 
its  hills,  and  the  lowlands,  irrigated  by  the  Reart,  are  of  wonderful  fertility.  F/iir 
(2,463  inhatitants),  the  ancient  Illiberri,  subsequently  named  Helena  in  honour  of 


54 


FEANCE. 


the  mother  of  Const  antine,  is  the  only  town  of  importance  there ;    its   cathedral 
dates  back  to  the  eleventh  century. 

The  most  important  valley  of  the  Eastern  Pyrenees  is  that  of  the  Tet ;  the 
Col  de  la  Perche  at  its  head,  and  the  roads  to  Perpignan,  are  defended  bj'  the 
fortress  of  Montlouis,  constructed  by  Vaubau.  Lying  at  an  elevation  of  5,250  feet 
above  the  sea,  the  climate  of  this  place  is  most  rigorous.  Hot  mineral  springs 
abound  in  this  portion  of  the  Pyrenees,  but  only  those  of  Vernef,  on  the  northern 
slope  of  Mont  Canigou,  enjoy  a  world-wide  reputation.      Iron  ores,  suited  to  the 

Fig.  38. — Port-Vendres. 
Scale  1 :  15,000. 


laSIauAsqilt 


is 


r^v- 


\% 


--BaAiIj, 


Kdutarfe 


•>- 


Ui-iUniit  a„ , 


•1 

I'Jiare  Beal^  ''■ 


manufacture  of  steel,  likewise  abound.  There  are  iron  works  at  Pia,  between 
the  small  fortified  town  of  Villeneuve  de  Conflant  and  Prades,  but  most  of  the 
ore  is  exported  to  Germany.  Prades  (3,725  inhabitants),  Vinga  (2,093  inhabitants), 
IHe  (3,222  inhabitants),  and  all  the  villages  of  the  Riveral,  to  the  very  gates  of 
Perpignan,  are  indebted  to  the  fertilising  waters  of  the  T^t  for  their  prosperity. 

Ferjngnan  (24,379  inhabitants)  is  a  fortress  of  the  highest  importance,  for  it 
commands  all  the  passes  over  the  Pyrenees  from  the  sea  to  the  Pass  of  La  Perche. 


ARIEGE.  65 

Traces  of  Moorish  architecture  may  be  discovered  in  its  huge  citadel,  in  the 
Castillet,  or  little  castle,  and  the  "Loge,"  or  old  exchange  of  the  Majorcans,  but  it 
is  not  in  other  respects  a  fine  city.  Its  ancient  industries  have  declined  since 
Charles  V.  converted  the  town  into  a  fortress,  and  its  university,  founded  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  only  exists  in  name.  The  climate,  however,  is  deliglifful, 
sub-tropical  plants  grow  most  vigorously,  and  the  whole  country  might  easily  be 
converted  into  a  huge  garden  of  acclimatization. 

Wine  is  the  great  source  of  wealth  of  the  country.  Though  ordinary  roussillou 
is  used  merely  for  blending  the  lighter  wiucs  of  Central  France,  tirst-rate  wines 
are  produced  at  Rivesaltes  (6,077  inhabitants),  on  the  Agly ;  at  Estagel  (2,678 
inhabitants),  higher  up  on  the  same  river,  and  the  birthplace  of  Arago ;  and  at 
Salses,  the  Salsulfc  of  the  Romans,  ilost  of  these  wines  are  exported  through 
Barcares,  a  port  near  the  town  of  St.  Laurent  de  In  Salanque  (3,990  inhabitants). 
The  country  likewise  produces  olives.  The  tract  along  the  coast,  known  as 
"  Salobres,"  is  impregnated  with  salt,  and  hardly  produces  anything,  but  fair 
harvests  of  cereals  are  gathered  in  the  tract  known  as  "  Salanque,"  which  bounds 
it  inland,  the  vine  and  olive  being  restricted  to  the  hilly  districts. 

Akiege.* — This  department  includes  the  old  district  of  Couserans,  the  basin  of 
Salat,  and  the  county  of  Foix,  comprising  the  basin  of  the  Ariege.  Nearlj'  the 
whole  of  it  is  mountainous,  and  the  main  range  of  the  Pyrenees  forms  the  boundary 
towards  Spain  for  a  distance  of  136  miles.  The  only  plain  is  that  of  Paumiers. 
The  popidation  is  thin  and  exceedingly  ignorant. 

The  small  canton  of  Querigut  or  Donnezan,  on  the  Upper  Aude,  which  is  only 
accessible  to  the  rest  of  the  department  by  the  difficult  Pass  of  Paillers,  sheltered 
the  fugitive  Protestants  after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  but  is  now 
^•isited  only  on  account  of  its  sulphur  springs  at  Carcanieres.  The  upper  valley  of 
the  Ariege  likewise  attracts  strangers  on  account  of  its  hot  springs,  amongst  which 
those  of  Ajt  (Aqua?^  are  the  most  famous.  Hematite  iron  ores,  lead,  copper,  and 
manganese  abound  at  Vic  de  Sos,  in  a  side  valley  of  the  Ariege,  but  owing  to  the 
difficulties  of  access,  the  want  of  fuel,  and  the  restrictions  imposed  by  mediaeval 
guilds,  the  metallurgical  industry  is  not  very  important.t  At  Tarascon  there  are 
gypsum  quarries,  and  travelling  still  10  miles  lower  down  the  valley,  we  arrive  at 
Foix  (5,127  inhabitants),  with  its  famous  old  castle,  the  capital  of  the  department. 
Below  that  town  the  Ariege  passes  through  a  series  of  gorges,  and  then  enters 
upon  a  vast  alluvial  plain,  where  stands  Pamiers  (7,837  inhabitants),  the  most  im- 
portant town  of  the  department.     Lower  down  still  is  Sarerdun  ('2,596  inhabitants). 

The  vaUey  of  the  Hers  joins  that  of  the  Ariege  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
department.  It  is  one  of  the  most  charming  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  pine  woods  of 
Belesta,  the  intermittent  spring  of  Fontestorbes,  and  the  ruined  castle  of  Monts^gur 
constituting  some  of  its  principal  attractions,  whilst  Lavehinct  (2,792  inhabitants) 
and  Mirepoix  (3,102  inhabitants)  are  noted  for  their  manufacture  of  cloth.     On 

•  Berg^s,  "Description  du  dip.  do  I'Aricgo ; "  Bordes-Pagds,  "  Notice  sur  le  Couserans;"  Aetnic, 
"Mem.  pour  I'hiet.  naturelle  du  Lang^iedoc." 

t  In  1873,  6,040  tons  of  cast  iron,  5,045  tons  of  wrought  iron,  and  889  tons  of  steel  were  produced. 


56 


FRANCE. 


the  Arize,  which  flows  direct  to  the  Garonne,  stands  the  busy  little  place  of 
Mas  d'Azil  (1,278  inhabitants),  near  which  the  river  flows  through  a  subterranean 
channel. 

The  western  portion  of  the  department,  ancient  Couserans,  is  drained  by  the 
Salat  and  its  tributaries.  The  upper  valleys  of  this  region  formerly  constituted 
as   many  self-governing  communities,  and  the  inhabitants,  until  quite  recently, 

Fig.  39. — BAGNiRES-DE-LuCKON. 

Scile  1  :  215,000. 


r  UOWof  Pan 


2  Miles. 


retained  their  ancient  dress  and  customs.  In  winter  they  leave  their  inhospitable 
mountain  homes  in  search  of  work  in  the  more  favoured  plains  ;  and  when  bears 
were  still  numerous  in  the  Pyrenees,  many  of  them  travelled  as  bear-leaders. 
Hot  springs  abound  in  these  valleys,  the  most  renowned  being  those  of  Aulus, 
accidentally  rediscovered  in  182'3,  and  deservedly  popular  on  account  of  the 
delights  of  the  surrounding  scenery.     St.  Girons  (3,993  inhabitants),  the  capital 


li 


\ 


.^ 


,.•...•    ■V.■■.•■^^■'-.^■^-■  ■•/-••••>.  •.vV.'.,-.V....>.V-'.-. 


V. 


V'/. 


.-.'/ 


•  \ 

•  •  \ 

•  \ 


•  •  '^  ,  .  , 


.*  Al 

•  ,\ , 

•  _\ 


•A 

•A 

_  \  \ 
•  ,\ 


.'.V 


.•A 


HAUTE-GAEONNE. 


57 


of  the  district,  occupies  a  site  at  the  confluence  of  the  Lcz  with  the  Sulut.  It 
carries  on  a  lucrative  commerce  with  Spain,  tho  road  leading  through  the  Port  do 
Saluu,  and  boasts  of  various  manufactures.  At  St.  Lizicr,  which  was  tho  ancient 
capital,  may  still  be  seen  the  ruins  of  Roman  walls  and  of  a  Gothic  cuthotlral. 
The  old  episcopal  palace  has  been  very  appropriately  converted  into  an  asylum  for 
lunatics. 

Haute-Gakoxxe. — This  department  includes  portions  of  the  ancient  provinces 

Fig.  40. — The  Cosveboest  Vaij,ey8  of  tub  Gaiionne,  tue  Aui£o£,  anu  the  litiis. 

Scale  1  :  600,000. 


i"  ^..  E  ,.rCi 


I**' \V..trl\iri.H 


10  Miles. 


of  Ghucony  and  Languedoc,  and  is  intersected  from  south  to  north,  for  a  distance  of 
150  miles,  by  the  river  Garonne,  which  has  given  it  a  name.  It  extends  from  the 
crest  of  the  Pyrenees  to  the  foot-hills  of  the  central  plateau  of  France,  and  thus 
exhibits  a  great  variety  in  its  scenery,  climate,  and  natural  productions. 

In  the  very  heart  of  the  mountains  lies  the  most  famous  hot  spring  of  tho 
Pyrenees,  that  ui  Bagnkrea-de-Luchoit  (3,982  inhabitants),  the  surrounding  scenery 


58 


FRANCE. 


of  which — its  glaciers,  woods,  and  mountain  gorges — forms  its  great  attraction  to  all 
admirers  of  nature.  <S^.  Gaudens  (4,087  inhabitants)  occupies  a  terrace  overlook- 
ing the  ancient  Lake  of  Riviere  (see  Fig.  34).  Its  neighbourhood  abounds  in 
remains  of  prehistoric  man,  as  well  as  in  monuments  of  the  Gallo-Roman  age. 
Valentin,  a  busy  suburb  of  St.  Gaudens,  on  the  Garonne,  still  bears  the  name  of 
the  Roman  emperor  who  founded  it,  and  higher  up  on  the  same  river  may  be  seen 
the  ruins  of  the  Roman  city  of  Lugdunum  Convenarum. 

Below  the  gorge  of  St.  Martory,  the  Salat,  thus  called  after  the  brine  springs 
of  Salies,  joins  the  Garonne,  which  thence  flows  through  a  fertile  plain  extending 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  Toulouse.     Its  numerous  towns  and  villages,   amongst 

Fig.  41. — Toulouse. 

Scale  1  :  fiO.OOO. 


O-ii'W  of  Paris 


1     ;  J   r  ^.1 1 


1  MUo. 


which  are  Martres  (the  ancient  Calagorris),  Cazeres  ('2,422  inhabitants),  Rieux 
(1,452  inhabitants),  Carbonne  (1,658  inhabitants),  Auterive  (1,973  inhabitants), 
and  Cintegabelle  (819  inhabitants),  present  an  appearance  of  wealth,  for  it  is  now 
many  years  since  the  Garonne  inundated  its  banks.  Muret  (2,509  inhabitants), 
in  the  very  centre  of  this  plain,  has  become  famous  on  account  of  the  defeat  of  the 
Albigenses  and  Aragonese  in  1213,  which  definitively  placed  Toulouse  in  the 
hands  of  the  French. 

VillefrancJie  (2,134  inhabitants),  and  the  other  towns  of  Lauraguais,  to  the 
south-east  of  Toulouse,  as  well  as  Grenade  (2,674  inhabitants).  Fronton  (1,402 


lUUIIir 


111 


tie 


or  Tht 

UNIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS. 


1L\UTE-GAE0NNE. 


Fis 


inhabitants),  and  other  places  in  the  north,  are  mainly  dependent  upon  agricul- 
ture ;  whilst  Vilkmur  (2,3G7  inhabitants),  on  the  Tarn,  and  Itiiel  (3,782  inha- 
bitants), have  some  manufactures. 

Toulouse  (120,208  inhabitants),  the  entrepot  of  the  fertile  plain  of  the 
Garonne,  is  one  of  those  cities  which  cannot  be  dispensed  with.  Its  favourable 
position  for  war  and  commerce  at  all  times  insured  its  prosperity,  and  when  the 
Romans  captured  it  they  discovered  in  a  sacred  pond  treasure  valued  at  15,000 
talents,  or  £3,000,000.  This 
prosperity  is  perhaps  greater  now 
than  ever  it  was  before ;  but 
though  Toulouse  has  been  the 
capital  of  the  Visigoths  for  nearly 
a  century  (418 — 007),  it  carries 
on  no  direct  commercial  transac- 
tions with  the  Iberian  peninsula, 
but  is  the  great  intermediary  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Atlantic.     Including  the  subiu-bs. 


■12. — The  Canal  of  the  Xeste. 
Scale  1  :  320.01X). 


;•    Wofrara 


the  red-brick  buildings  of  the 
town  cover  an  area  of  over  3 
square  miles.  The  town-hall  or 
Capitol,  with  its  busts  of  illus- 
trious Languedocians,  occupies 
the  centre  of  the  ancient  city, 
which  was  superior  to  the  towTis 
of  Northern  France  in  wealth  and 
intelligence,  until  the  henchmen 
of  the  Inquisition  caused  its 
street*  to  flow  with  blood,  and  in- 
stilled a  spirit  of  ferocious  ortho- 
doxy into  the  minds  of  its  inha- 
bitants, who  burnt  Yanini  at  the 
stake  in  1619,  and  in  1762  broke 
the  limbs  of  Calas,  the  Protestant, 
upon  the  wheel.  The  church  of 
St.  Servan,  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Ltienne,  and  the  ancient  monas- 
tery of  St.  Augustine,  now  converted  into  a  museum,  are  amongst  the  most 
interesting  buildings  of  the  town.  The  library,  far  inferior  to  what  one  might 
expect  to  find  in  an  ancient  university  city,  occupies  another  old  monastery. 
Commerce  and  industry  flourish.  There  are  manufactures  of  paper,  starch, 
tobacco,  and  textile  fabrics,  as  well  as  foundries  and  saw-mills.  The  environs  are 
almost  bare  of  trees,  and  there  exists  no  park  deserving  the  name. 

II.vvtes-Pyrenees. — This  department  includes  the  whole  of  ancient  Bigorre, 


60 


FRANCE. 


with  portions  of  adjoining  districts.  More  than  half  of  it  is  filled  with  high 
mountains.  Its  principal  rivers  are  the  Neste  in  the  east,  the  Adoiu-  in  the 
centre,  and  the  Gave  in  the  west.  The  alluvial  hottom-lands  are  of  exceeding 
fertility;  hot  springs  abound  in  the  mountains;  there  are  famous  marble  quarries 
and  busy  manufactories ;   but  the  j)opulation  is  still  far  from  numerous. 

The  valley  of  the  Aure,  or  Upper  Neste,  is  one  of  the  most  renowned  of  the 
Pyrenees,  on  account  of  its  pretty  scenery  and  grand  perspectives.  Arreau,  its 
capital,  is  merely  a  village,  and  Sarracolin  is  only  better  known  because  it  lies  at 


Fig.  43. — BAGNkKES-DE-BlGORRE. 

Scale  1  :  380,000. 


'.;W  of  Pan  J 


^^r^w~w    _ . ::.  (f.^=^  N 


5  Miles. 


tht  head  of  the  canal  of  the  Neste,  and  boasts  of  marble  quarries.  The  popula- 
tion, however,  is  more  dense  than  might  be  expected,  for  hamlets  and  homesteads 
lie  scattered  in  all  directions. 

The  valley  of  Campan,  on  the  Upper  Adour,  is  looked  upon  as  typical  of  the 
beauties  of  nature ;  but  the  men  who  inhabit  it  are  repulsive,  as  most  of  them  are 
subject  to  wens.  At  its  mouth  lies  Bagneres-de-Biyorre  (7,598  inhabitants),  which 
has  paper  and  saw  mills,  marble  works,  and  manufactures  of  fancy  hosiery,  these 
latter  giving  employment  to  more  than  2,000  women.     The  town  is  likewise  the 


HAUTES-PYEENEES. 


(il 


seat  of  the  Soci^te  Ramond,  which  has  undertaken  the  scientific  exploration  of 
the  Pj'renees  and  established  an  observatory  on  the  Pic  du  Midi  of  Bigorre. 

Turbes  (11,080  iuhubitauts),  the  capital  of  the  department,  lies  quite  beyond 
the  hills,  and  from  the  windows  of  its  museum  an  unrivalled  prospect  over  a 


Fig.  44. — The  Timili  or  Ossux. 
AccortUng  to  Bourbier  nud  Letrone.    Scale  1 :  62,000. 


2'l  2«'\V  »I  ?aa 


o-tc  \v 


MUe. 


verdant  plain,  bounded  by  blue  mountains  in  the  distance,  may  be  enjoyed. 
There  are  foundries,  woollen-mills,  and  manufactories  of  felt,  as  well  as  a  Govern- 
ment factoiy  of  small  arms  and  a  cannon  foundry.  The  surrounding  country  is 
famous  for  ita  breed  of  saddle  horses.  Com  and  wine  are  the  leading  agricultural 
productions. 

VOL.    II.  V 


62  FRANCE. 

The  hilly  country  to  the  east  of  this  smiling  plain  of  the  Adour,  including  the 
plateau  of  Lannemezan,  consists  to  a  great  extent  o-f  heaths.  The  best-known 
village  there  is  Capveni,  with  hot  mineral  springs.  Heaths  also  occur  to  the  west 
of  the  Adour,  and  one  of  them,  near  Ossun  (2,400  inhabitants),  is  remarkable  on 
account  of  its  ancient  entrenchments  and  tumuli. 

The  basin  of  the  Gave,  in  the  west  of  this  department,  is  perhaps  more 
frequently  visited  by  tourists  than  any  other  portion  of  the  Pyrenees,  and 
deservedly  so,  for  it  abounds  in  sublime  scenery  and  natural  curiosities.  Its  many 
thermal  springs  form  one  of  its  greatest  attractions.  The  sulphurous  waters  of 
Bareges  are  efficacious  in  case  of  wounds,  those  of  St.  Sauceur  are  available 
against  nervous  disorders,  but  the  various  springs  of  Cautereta  cure  almost  every 
disease  that  human  flesh  is  heir  to,  and  attract  as  many  as  16,000  sufferers  in  a 
single  year.  The  mouth  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Gave  is  commanded  by  the 
old  fortress  of  Lourdcs  (4,577  inhabitants),  become  famous  in  our  days  through  a 
miracle-working  spring  near  which  quite  a  town  of  churches  and  convents  has 
sprung  up. 

Basses-Pyrenkes. — This  department  includes  Beam  and  the  old  "  kingdom  "  of 
Navarre,  with  the  districts  of  Soule  and  Lubourd  in  the  Basque  country.  For  the 
most  part  it  is  hilly  rather  than  mountainous,  though  the  Pyrenees  to  the  south 
of  the  valleys  of  Ossau  and  Aspe  still  pierce  the  region  of  perennial  snows.  The 
ravined  plateau  to  the  north  of  the  Gave  of  Pau  consists  of  glacial  drift.  There 
are  mines  of  iron,  coal,  and  salt,  many  manufactories,  and  a  great  commercial  port ; 
but  upon  the  whole  this 'is  an  agricultural  department,  the  resources  of  which 
have  not  hitherto  been  developed  as  they  might  be.  The  touyas,  or  heaths,  which 
cover  783,000  acres  of  the  Pyrenean  foot-hills,  are  quite  capable  of  cultivation,  but 
the  peasants  prefer  to  use  them  as  pasture  ground.  It  is  only  natural,  under  these 
circumstances,  that  the  population  should  decrease. 

The  Gave,  on  entering  the  department,  flows  past  the  church  of  Bethar- 
ram,  an  old  place  of  pilgrimage,  and  then  irrigates  the  fields  of  numerous 
villages,  the  centre  of  which  is  Nay  (3,093  inhabitants),  which  boasts  of  numerous 
manufactures.  Still  following  the  river,  we  reach  Pau  (27,553  inhabitants),  the 
ancient  capital  of  Beam.  It  is  built  upon  a  terrace,  and  owing  to  the  mildness  of 
its  climate  has  become  a  great  resort  of  invalids.  The  terrace  of  its  ancient  castle 
commands  a  magnificent  panorama  of  the  Pyrenees.  The  entertainment  of  visitors 
is  the  great  business  of  Pau,  but  there  are  also  some  manufactures  of  linen. 
Morlaas,  the  first  capital  of  Beam,  now  an  inconsiderable  village,  lies  in  the 
Landes,  to  the  north-east ;  and,  proceeding  still  farther  in  the  same  direction,  we 
reach  the  castle  of  Montaner,  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  built  by  Gaston 
Phoebus. 

Orthez  (4,727  inhabitants),  on  the  Gave,  below  Pau,  was  formerly  the  seat  of 
a  universitj^  and  is  noted  for  its  ancient  bridge  and  the  donjon  of  the  old  palace 
of  the  Dukes  of  Foix.  There  are  numerous  tanneries  and  other  industrial  esta- 
blishments, and  amongst  the  exports  of  the  town  figure  "  Bayonne  hams." 

The  mountainous  portion  of  the  department  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Gave 


•  \ 


f 


.»  V 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS. 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITV  of  ILLINOIS. 


I'll     [Itl 


64 


FRANCE. 


position  at  the  bottom  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  on  the  most  frequented  road 
between  France  and  Spain  marks  it  out  as  a  great  place  of  commerce ;  but  owing  to 
the  bar  which  closes  the  mouth  of  the  Adour,  it  has  not  attained  a  position 
amongst  the  great  commercial  ports  of  France  such  as  might  have  been  expected, 
and  the  numerous  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews  are  intent  rather  upon  bourse 
speculation  than  upon  legitimate  commerce.*  As  to  the  other  harbours  along  the 
coast  of  Gascony,  such  as  Guethary  and  St.  Jean-de-Luz,  they  are  at  present 
of  no  commercial  importance  whatever.  And  yet  the  mariners  from  this  coast 
frequented  America  long  before  Columbus,  though  not  before  the  Normans. 
Great  efforts  are  now  being  made  to  improve  the  harbour  of  St.  Jean-de-Luz 


Fig.  46. — KoADSTEAD  OF  St.  Jean-de-Luz. 
Scale  1 :  200,000. 


16  -  3i 


oxnj-  I6A-  F^UJuftns . 


(3,131  inhabitants),  though  that  town  can  never  again  become  a  great  place 
of  commerce.  Indeed,  such  importance  as  these  coast  towns  possess  is  due 
entirely  to  their  having  become  favourite  seaside  resorts ;  it  is  this  which  has 
transformed  the  village  of  Biarritz  (3,348  inhabitants)  into  a  cosmopolitan  water- 
ing-place, and  is  preparing  a  similar  fate  for  Hendaye. 

Gers. — This  department  is  named  after  a  yellowish  river  which  traverses  it 
from  north  to  south,  and  occupies  the  greater  portion  of  the  plateau  of  glacial 
drift  piled  up  at  the  mouths  of  the  Upper  Adour  and  Neste,  and  cut  up  by 
torrents  into  numerous  ridges  of  hills  (see  Fig.  32).     It  lies  outside  the  usual 

•  In  1872  there  were  1,320  Jews.     In   1875  1,460  vessels,  of  an  aggregate  burden  of  164,324  tons, 
entered  and  cleared. 


TAEN-ET-GAEONNE.  65 

roads  of  traffic,  but  its  vallej's  are  fertile,  and  a  fair  wine  grows  upon  its  hill- 
sides. 

The  most  fertile  portion  of  Gers  lies  on  the  south-west,  and  is  watered  by  the 
Adour.  Immediately  to  the  east  of  this  valley  rises  the  plateau  of  Armagnac,  the 
wines  of  which  are  to  a  great  extent  converted  into  brandy,  ranking  next  to 
Cognac.  Cazauhon  (760  inhabitants),  Eauzc  (2,062  inhabitants),  Montreal  (690 
inhabitants),  and  Vic-Fezemac  (3,000  inhabitants),  are  some  of  the  more  important 
places  in  Lower  or  "Western  Armagnac,  separated  from  Upper  Armagnac  by  the 
valley  of  the  navigable  Bayse  or  Baise,  the  more  important  towns  of  which  arc 
Condom  (4,933  inhabitants)  ani.Mu-ande  (3,230  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  Astarac. 

Audi  (12,145  inhabitants),,  the  name  of  which  recalls  the  ancient  Ausques  or 
Eskuaras  who  founded  it,  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Gers.  It  is  a  fine  town,  with 
one  of  the  most  majestic  cathedrals  of  France,  an  immense  flight  of  stairs,  leading 
to  the  terrace  upon  which  it  is  buQt,  and  a  mediajval  tower  dedicated  to  Caesar. 
Higher  up  in  the  valley  lies  the  village  of  Saiixaii,  which  has  become  known 
through  the  paloDontological  explorations  of  M.  Lartet  and  others.  The  lower 
valley  of  the  Gers  is  well  cultivated,  and  the  fields  surrounding  Fleurance 
(3,737  inhabitants)  and  Lcctoitre  (2,963  inhabitants)  are  of  great  fertility.  The 
patois  spoken  at  the  latter  place  is  said  to  contain  Greek  words,  and  the  rivulet 
formed  by  the  fountain  of  Houndelie  bears  the  Greek  appellation  of  Hydrone. 

The  towns  in  the  extreme  east  of  the  department  are  in  nowise  remarkable, 
except  for  the  ruins  of  mediaeval  castles  and  abbeys.  L'IsIe-Jounlain  (2,248 
inhabitants)  and  Lomhez,  both  on  the  Save,  are  the  principal  centres  of  population, 
and  carry  on  some  trade  in  cattle  and  geese. 

Tarn-et-Garoxxe. — This  department,  one  of  the  smallest  of  France,  includes 
the  hills  of  Eastern  Lomagne,  the  alluvial  valleys  of  the  Garonne,  the  Tarn,  and  the 
Aveyron,  and  a  hill  region  in  the  north  and  east  which  forms  part  of  Quercy  and 
Rouergue.  Some  of  the  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile,  and  there  are  manufacturing 
establishments  at  Montauban  and  elsewhere,  but  the  population  is  nevertheless  on 
the  decrease. 

Beaumont  (3,608  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  Lomagne,  as  well  as  all  the  places 
on  the  left  bank  of  Garonne,  is  decreasing  in  population,  and  Cmtel-Sarmsin 
(3,547  inhabitants),  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  does  so  likewise,  but  never- 
theless carries  on  a  considerable  commerce  in  wine  and  the  products  of  the  fertile 
plain,  too  frequently  devastated  by  the  waters  of  the  Garonne. 

Montauban  (19,790  inhabitants)  stands  majestically  upon  a  lofty  bluff  of  the 
Tarn,  spanned  there  by  a  fine  old  bridge.  Its  position  is  a  favourable  one  for  com- 
merce, but  its  greatness  as  a  city  passed  away  when  it  ceased  to  be  one  of  the  four 
towns  of  refuge  granted  to  the  Calvinists.  It  gloriously  withstood  the  armies  of 
Louis  XIII.  (1620),  but  twelve  years  later  it  yielded  to  Eichelieu,  and  its  civil 
liberties  and  industries  were  annihilated.  Linen  and  muslin,  earthenware  and 
leather,  are  manufactured,  but  a  spirit  of  enterprise  capable  of  striking  out  new 
paths  is  altogether  wanting.  The  town-hall  contains  a  fine  library  and  a  collec- 
tion of  paintings,  many  of  them  by  Ingres,  a  native  of  the  place. 


66 


FRANCE. 


Moissac  (5,675  inhabitants),  iu  the  alluvial  plain  and  neai'  the  confluence  of 
Garonne  and  Tarn,  is  one  of  the  great  grain  markets  of  France,  and  possesses  a 
mediteval  church  and  cloisters,  which  contrast  strangely  with  a  modern  aqueduct 
and  an  iron  railway  bridge.  Valence  d'Agcn  (2,926  inhabitants),  lower  down  in 
the  valley,  is  wealthy  and  industrious.  An  old  house  is  still  pointed  out  there 
in  which  sat  the  inquisitors  who  condemned  forty-three  heretics  to  the  stake. 


Fig.  47. — The  Alluvial  Plain  of  the  Gahoxne,  the  Tarn,  and  the  Aveyron. 

Scale  1  :  320,000. 


1°V. 


.  5  UUes. 


The  plateau  to  the  north  of  the  Aveyron  is  but  thinly  populated,  and  the  only 
town  of  any  importance  there  is  Caussade  (2,438  inhabitants).  The  Aveyron,  on 
entermg  the  department,  passes  through  a  series  of  picturesque  gorges,  bounded  by 
limestone  cliffs,  the  caverns  in  which  have  yielded  numerous  implements  of  palseo- 
lithic  age.     St.  Antonin  (2,520  inhabitants),  the  most  considerable  town  in  that 


LOT-ET-OAEONNE.— LANDES.  67 

part  of  the  country,  boasts  of  a  town-hall  built  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  of  nume- 
rous private  dwellings  dating  back  to  the  thirteenth. 

Lot-et-Gakonxk. — This  department  is  named  after  the  two  rivers  which  effect 
their  junction  within  its  limits.  The  hills  of  Lomagne  form  a  steei)  escarpment 
towards  the  vale  of  the  Garonne,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  south-west 
consists  of  Landes,  but  the  northern  half  is  occupied  by  tertiary  hills  of  great 
fertility.  As  a  whole,  the  department  is  one  of  the  most  productive  of  all  France ; 
its  race  of  cattle  is  highly  esteemed,  and  poverty  is  unknown. 

Agen  (17,806  inhabitants),  the  capital,  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Garonne, 
at  the  foot  of  a  hill  covered  with  gardens  and  "sillas.  It  is  famous  for  its  cattle 
markets  and  prunes,  the  latter  grown  in  the  vallej'  of  the  Lot.  Three  bridges  and 
an  aqueduct  cross  the  river. 

Descending  the  Garonne,  we  first  reach  Port  Stc.  Marie  (1,699  inhabitants), 
near  which  the  valley  of  the  Baj'se  joins  from  the  south,  and  up  which  leads  the 
road  to  Nerac  (4,975  inhabitants),  an  old  Roman  town,  with  the  ruins  of  a  royal 
palace.  Nerac  has  recovered  from  the  injury  inflicted  through  the  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  now  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce  in  wine  and 
brandy.  Iligbcr  up  on  the  Bayse  is  IfoiicrabeaK  (681  inhabitants),  the  Gascon 
"  head-quarters  of  liars,  babblers,  and  boasters."  Mczin  (1,989  inhabitants),  which 
has  exported  wines  to  London  since  the  fourteenth  century,  stands  on  the  Gclise,  a 
tributary  of  the  Blayse ;  and  lower  down,  near  the  same  river,  rises  the  castle  of 
Barbaste,  nov  converted  into  a  factory.  Farther  to  the  north-west,  beyond  the 
forests  recently  planted  in  the  Landes,  lies  Casteijaloux  (2,074  inhabitants),  with  a 
mineral  spring  and  some  manufactures. 

AguHlon  (1,993  inhabitants),  near  the  junction  of  the  Garonne  and  Lot,  is  but 
a  small  place.  Ascending  the  latter  river,  we  pass  Clairac  (2,388  inhabitants), 
known  for  its  "rotten"  wines,  which  are  made  from  overripe  grapes;  Castelmoron 
(1,028  inhabitants),  Sfe.  Livrade  (1,404  inhabitants),  and  Villcncucc-sur-Lot  (9,681 
inhabitants),  a  busy  place,  with  an  old  abbej^,  now  used  as  a  prison,  the  ruins  of 
the  castle  of  Pujols,  and  several  mediaeval  buildings,  including  a  bridge.  Penne 
(1,272  inhabitants).  Fame/  (2,229  inhabitants),  and  Bonaijuil  were  known  in  former 
times  for  their  citadels,  that  at  the  latter  place  having  been  one  of  the  first  con- 
structed to  resist  artillery. 

Returning  to  the  valley  of  the  Garonne,  we  pass  Tonneins  (5,803  inhabitants), 
entirely  rebuilt  since  the  Calvinistic  wars,  and  Marmande  (6,037  inhabitants),  both 
of  them  driving  a  busy  trade.  Le  Mas  d'Agenais  (1,245  inhabitants),  and  3Icilhan 
(639  inhabitants),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Garonne,  are  mere  villages.  Nor  are  the 
few  towns  in  the  north  of  much  importance,  except,  perhaps,  Miramont  (1,416 
inhabitants),  with  its  orchards  of  prune-trees. 

Landes. — This  department  does  not  include  the  whole  of  the  Landes  of  Gas- 
cony,  though,  on  the  other  hand,  it  comprises,  in  the  south  and  south-east,  some 
of  the  foot-hills  of  the  Pyrenees  and  of  Armagnac.  The  resources  of  the  depart- 
ment are  small ;  there  are  no  extensive  tracts  of  fertile  land,  nor  harbours  along 
the  coast,  and  the  population  is  therefore  very  thinly  sown. 


68 


FBANCE. 


Dax  (9,085  inhabitants),  on  the  Adour,  is  the  natural  centre  of  Chalosse,  the 
most  fertile  district  of  the  Landes.  It  is  an  old  town,  with  remains  of  Roman  walls 
and  baths.  The  steam  arising  from  its  famous  sulphur  springs  is  seen  from  afar. 
Thermal  springs  abound  throughout  the  region,  as  at  Pouillon  (250  inhabitants), 
La  Gamarde,  Tercis,  and  Prevhacq ;  rock-salt  abounds  ;  asphalt  is  found  in  the 
valley  of  the  Luy ;  and  the  iron  in  the  western  Landes  is  utilised  in  the  forges 
of  Castets  (937  inhabitants).  Peyrehorade  (1,786  inhabitants),  on  the  Gave,  at  the 
head  of  navigation,  is  likewise  a  busj'  f)lace. 

Cap-Breton,  in  former  ages  one  of  the  most  famous  seaports  of  France,  has 

Fig.  48.— Cap-Breton  (1872). 

Scale  1  :  33.614. 


/>^UA  /f^S  1  -tl 


U  Miles. 


dwindled  down  into  a  poor  village,  but  the  harbour  of  refuge  now  constructing 
there  may  bring  back  some  of  its  ancient  prosperity. 

St.  Sever  (2,225  inhabitants)  and  Aire  (2,906  inhabitants),  both  on  the  Adour, 
are  quiet  country  tovms,  though  the  latter  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  ;  but  Mont-de-Marsan 
(8,328  inhabitants),  to  the  north  of  them,  the  capital  of  the  department,  is  a  busy  com- 
mercial centre,  from  which  are  exported  the  brandies  of  ViUeneure  (1,155  inhabitants) 
and  Gabarret  in  Armagnac,  the  rosin  of  Roquefort  in  the  Landes,  and  the  wines  and 
manufactured  goods  of  Chalosse.  Lahrit,  the  ancient  capital  of  a  duchy,  is  now 
merely  a  village,  with  the  ruins  of  a  castle  built  by  Henri  IV. 


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70 


FRANCE. 


mental  buildings  which  existed  at  that  time  only  a  few  ruins  remain.     The  Middle 

Ages  are  represented  by  numerous  churches,  one  of  which,  that  of  St.  Michael, 

has  a  steeple  of  350  feet  in  height,  and  a  crypt  with  mummified  corpses  :  the  Gothic 

cathedral  has  a  belfry  erected  by  Archbishop  Pe3'-Berland,     Amongst  modern 

public  buildings  the  theatre  and  the  town-hall  are  the  most  remarkable,  but  it 

is  principally  the   magnificent  private  houses  in  the  streets  radiating  from  the 

Place  des  Quinconces  which  impart  a  monumental  character  to  the  city. 

The  quays  are  far  from  sufiicient  for  the  hundreds  of  vessels  which  crowd  the 

Fig.  49. — Bordeaux. 
Scale  1  :  95,000. 


J"    iS'W'ofPir,. 


O"  35"Wof&i 


IMile. 


river,  nor  can  vessels  having  a  considerable  draught  lie  alongside  them.  In  order 
to  remedy  this  inconvenience  capacious  docks  are  now  being  constructed  in  the 
suburb  of  Bacatan.  But  even  these  will  not  always  be  accessible  to  the  larger 
steamers,  which  are  frequently  compelled  to  discharge  a  portion  of  their  cargo  at 
Pauillac  before  they  are  able  to  come  up  to  the  city.  But,  in  spite  of  all  these 
drawbacks,  Bordeaux  is  the  third  port  of  France,  and  about  12,000  vessels  of  over  a 
million  tons  burden  enter  annually. 

The  exportation  of  wine  (28,000,000  gallons  in  1874)  is  the  great  business  of 


GIEOXDE. 


71 


Bordeaux.      For  centuries  the  wines  of  Bordeaux  were  more  highly  appreciated 
abroad  than  in  France  itself,  and  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century  they  were 


Fig.  50.— The  Wine  Districts  of  the  Gikonbk. 
Scale  1 :  fOii.ooo 


wjm 


'Wovdi 


exported  to  London.     It  is  only  since  the  middle  of  last  century  that  they  have 
come  into  fashion  throughout  France.     The  town  has  dockyards  and  other  esta- 


72 


FRANCE. 


blishraents  connected  witt  shipping,  sugar  refineries,  potteries,  foundries,  steam 
mills,  and  establistments  for  the  preservation  of  provisions. 

Bordeaux,  between  1206  and  1451,  was  virtually  a  free  city,  and  an  English 
soldier  was  hardly  ever  seen  there,  except  in  time  of  war.  It  is  only  since  1789 
that  the  town  can  be  said  to  form  an  integral  portion  of  France.  Its  local  tradi- 
tions, however,  are  strong,  and  its  citizens  are  by  no  means  ambitious  to  imitate 

Fig.  51.— The  Invasion  of  the  Phylloxera. 

Scale  1  :  460,000. 


I'  -'  •!        Stale  of  Plague  m  IB"  5 

J)evelopemeul    in    18"'*' 
Developement    in    1875 


5  Miles. 


Paris.     They  support  a  museum,  a  public  library,  and  numerous  scientific  institu- 
tions and  educational  establishments. 

Not  only  the  villages  near  Bordeaux,  such  as  Begles  (4,161  inhabitants),  Talence 
(3,578  inhabitants),  Mirignac  (2,030  inhabitants),  Cauderan  (3,816  inhabitants),  and 
Le  Bouscat  (3,226  inhabitants),  but  also  more  distant  places,  share  in  the  prosperity 
of  the  great  city.      Arcachon   (4,934  inhabitants)  is  one  of  these,  for  most  of  its 


OIEONDE.  73 

villas  have  been  erected  for  the  accommodutiou  of  visitors  from  BorJeiiux.  Arca- 
chon  and  La  Teste  de  Biteh  (4,596  inhabitants),  near  it,  are  moreover  famous  for 
their  oj'ster  parks,  which  in  1874  yielded  84,000,000  of  these  delicious  molluscs, 
valued  at  £120,000.  The  basin  of  Arcachon  (see  Fig.  2G)  likewise  abounds  in 
fish,  and  leeches  are  bred  in  the  surrounding  swamps. 

Both  banks  of  the  Garonne  and  Gironde,  below  Bordeaux,  must  bo  looked  upon 
as  dependencies  of  that  city.  Pauillac  (2,044  inhabitants)  is  the  advanced  port  of 
Bordeaux.  Le  Verdoii,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  is  a  roadstead,  where  a  hundred 
vessels  may  sometimes  be  seen  at  anchor,  waiting  for  the  tide  or  a  favourable 
\\'ind.  The  narrow  slip  of  land  below  Blaiiquefort  (2,294  inhabitants),  known  as 
JSIedoc,  produces  annually  some  2,000,000  gallons  of  superior  wine,  including  such 
growths  as  Chateau-Margaux,  Chateau-I;affitte,  and  Chateau-Latour.  The  dreaded 
phylloxera,  which  has  committed  such  ravages  in  other  parts  of  the  department, 
has  hitherto  spared  the  vineyards  of  Medoc,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  sandy  nature  of 
the  soil  and  the  prevailing  westerly  winds.  Lesparre  (2,442  inhabitants),  in  the 
Lower  Medoc,  has  a  curious  old  tower ;  and  OM  Souhic,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
boasts  of  an  ancient  Byzantine  church,  now  surrounded  by  hotels  for  the  accom- 
modation of  seaside  visitors. 

Blatje  (3,801  inhabitants)  is  the  chief  town  of  that  portion  of  the  depart- 
ment which  lies  to  the  east  of  the  Gironde,  defended  there  by  Forts  Pate  and 
Medoc.  Blaye  as  well  as  Boiirg  (1,494  inhabitants),  on  the  Dordognc,  has 
important  quarries,  but  its  chief  trade,  like  that  of  all  the  towns  of  the  valley  of 
the  Dordogne,  is  in  wine.  The  most  important  of  these  towns  is  Libourne  (1^,872 
inhabitants),  verj'  favourablj-  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Isle ;  others  are  Ste. 
Foy-la-Grande  (3,910  inhabitants)  and  Cantillon.  The  "  Cotes,"  or  hill  wines, 
which  grow  to  the  north  of  the  Dordogne,  enjoy  a  high  reputation,  those  of  St. 
Emilion  being  among  the  most  famous.  The  great  wine  districts  of  the  Gironde 
are  shown  on  Fig.  50.  They  yielded,  in  1875,  110,160,000  gallons  of  wine,  valued 
at  £3.600,000. 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE  ALPS,  THE  Rh6nE,  AND  THE  COAST  OF  THE  MEDITERRANEAN. 


General  Aspects. — Mountains.* 

HEN  the  PhcEnicians  first  navigated  the  Lion  Gulf  and  established 
their  factories  near  the  mouths  of  the  Rhone,  that  portion  of 
France  which  lies  at  the  back  of  the  mountains  sloping  towards 
the  Mediterranean  was  still  wrapped  in  mystery.  At  a  later  date, 
when  Greek  art  and  poetry  flourished  in  the  Hellenic  settlements 
on  the  Mediterranean,  the  barbarous  populations  in  the  interior  still  practised 
human  sacrifice.  The  Greeks  sought  to  civilise  the  tribes  which  surrounded  them, 
and  the  youthful  Euxenos  married  the  fair  daughter  of  a  barbarian  king  ;  but 
when  the  Roman  succeeded  to  the  inheritance  of  the  Greek,  the  work  of  civilisa- 
tion had  made  but  little  progress.  The  Roman,  however,  was  not  content  with 
merely  holding  the  seaboard,  and  Caesar,  by  availing  himself  of  the  almost 
unbounded  resources  of  a  wealthy  empire,  succeeded  in  conquering  the  whole 
of  Gaul. 

The  boundaries  of  Mediterranean  France  are  not  as  well  defined  as  are  those 
of  Italy  and  the  Iberian  peninsula.  True  it  is  almost  entirely  enclosed  by  moun- 
tains — by  the  Cevennes  in  the  east,  bj'  the  Alps  in  the  west ;  but  two  huge  gaps 
in  these  barriers  have  enabled  nations  and  armies  to  overcome  these  obstacles.  One 
of  them  opens  out  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Cevennes,  and  leads  into  the 
basin  of  the  Garonne ;  the  other  is  reached  by  travelling  up  the  Rhone,  and 
opens  a  way,  on  the  one  hand,  into  Burgundy  and  the  valley  of  the  Seine,  on  the 
other  to  the  Lake  of  Geneva  and  the  basin  of  the  Rhine. 

The  valley  of  the  Rhone  is,  indeed,  the  great  historical  high-road  of  France. 
When  Rome  was  still  the  mistress  of  the  world,  it  was  through  this  valley  that 
her  legions  marched  to  Northern  Gaul.  At  a  subsequent  date,  when  Rome 
had  fallen  from  her  high  estate,  a  movement  in  a  contrary  direction  took  place, 

•Marion,  "  Geologie  de  Provence"  {Sevue  Scientifique,  2l8t  of  December,  1871);  Whymper, 
"Scrambles  amongst  the  Alps,"  1860—69;  Ladoncette,  " Hautes- Alpes  ;  "  "  Annuaire  du  Club  Alpin- 
Fran^ais;"  Surell,  "  Iiltude  eur  lea  torrents  des  Hautes- Alpes ;  "  Ch.  Lory,  "Alpes  de  la  Savoie  et  du 
Dauphine  ;  "  A.  Favre,  "  Recherches  geologiques  sur  le  Mont  Blanc." 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.-MOUNTAINS. 


75 


and  the  fair  regions  of  Languedoc  and  Provence  fell  a  prey  to  tlie  power- 
ful military  nation  which  had  established  itself  in  the  north  of  France.  This 
conquest  was  not  accomplished  without  much  bloodshed,  but  it  finally  gave 
France  her  true  geographical  limits,  with  a  seaboard  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  enabled  her  to  play  the  part  of  mediator  between  the  Xorth  and  the  South. 
The  countries  watered  by  the  Rhone  and  its  great  tributary  the  Saono  differ 
widely  as  regards  climate,  geological  formation,  and  inhabitants.  Great  are  the 
contrasts  between  Burgundy  and  Provence,  Franche-Comte  and  SavoJ^  Never- 
theless these  countries,  belonging  to  the  same  river  basin,  form  a  geographical 
unit,  and  this  fact  is  reflected  in  their  histor}'.  Geographically  this  basin 
consists  of  two  regions,   viz.  the  southern  pro\ince,    through   which   runs  the 

Fig.  52. — Zones  op  Oranges  and  Olivss. 


3Z 


h 


5'|r...fi' 


r 


e/itvy 


Ovan^e^ 


impetuous  Rhone,  and  the  departments  of  Central  France,  which  are  di-ained  by 
the  tranquil  Saone  and  its  aflluents. 

Prorence. — The  coasts  of  Provence  remind  us  oftentimes  of  Tunis  or 
Algeria.  The  promontories  of  limestone,  porphyry,  or  granite,  the  sub-tropical 
vegetation,  the  glittering  villas  embosomed  in  thickets  of  olive-trees,  and  the 
radiant  sky  are  the  same  as  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa,  and  it  is  there- 
fore not  without  reason  that  naturalists  include  the  coasts  of  Provence  and 
Southern  Spain  within  a  region  which  embraces  likewise  the  African  countries  to 
the  north  of  the  Atlas.  Moreover,  the  most  advanced  group  of  mountains 
between  the  Lion  Gulf  and  Genoa,  that  of  the  Moors  (2,556  feet),  is  quite  distinct 
from  the  Alps,  and  rather  resembles  the  mountains  of  Corsica.  This  group  of 
granitic  hills  is  named  after  the  Moors  or  Saracens,  who  maintained  themselves 
in  its  recesses  during  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries.  There  are  here  vast  forests 
of  chestnut-trees,  pines,  and  cork-trees,  but  the  soil,  as  a  rule,  is  sterile,  and  the 


76 


FEANCE. 


number  of  inhabitants  small.  Yet,  on  account  of  its  delicious  climate,  its  orange 
groves,  its  palms,  its  fine  beaches  and  bold  promontories,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
attractive  districts  of  all  Provence.  The  islands  of  Hyeres  rise  to  the  south  of 
these  hills,  that  of  PorqueroUes,  named  after  the  wild  boars  which  formerly 
roamed  over  it,  being  nearest  to  the  peninsula  of  Giens,  which  was  formerly  an 
island,  but  is  now  attached  to  the  continent  by  a  neck  of  land,  enclosing  brackish 
ponds  abounding  in  fish. 

Another  small  group  of  mountains,  that  of  Esterel,  rises  to  the  north  of  the 

Fig.  53. — The  Mountains  of  the  Moors. 
Scale  1 :  600,000. 


I     mMT  06  Fai/wituf. 

10  Miles. 


valley  of  Argens  and  the  Bay  of  Frejus,  and,  like  that  of  the  Moors,  is  completely 
severed  from  the  Alps.  An  old  Roman  road  leads  across  these  hills,  which  are 
barren  and  rugged,  but  form  a  succession  of  porphyry  and  red  sandstone  promon- 
tories, amongst  which  Cap  Eoux  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  on  the  Mediterranean. 
The  mountains  which  rise  immediately  to  the  north  of  these  two  groups  show 
by  their  strike  and  geological  formation   that  they,  too,  do  not  belong  to  the 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.— MOUNTAINS.  77 

Alps.  Amongst  tbcm  arc  the  heights  of  Ste.  Baume  (3,421  feet),  which 
terminate  between  Mar.seilles  and  Toulon  in  the  superb  promontories  Bec-de- 
I'Aigle,  Cap  Canaille  (1,364  feet),  and  Cap  Tiboulen,  and  the  Chaine  do  I'Etoilc, 
with  a  miniature  Mount  Olympus  (2,605  feet).  Other  ranges  rise  to  the  north 
of  the  valley  of  the  Arc,  which  was  a  gulf  of  the  sea  at  the  commencement  of 
the  tertiary  epoch.  The  eastern  extremity  of  this  valley  forms  a  magnificent 
amphitheatre,  bounded  in  the  noith  by  the  wooded  heights  of  Ste.  A'ictoiro 
(3,283  feet).  It  was  here  Marius  destroyed  the  Teutonic  hosts,  and  the  village 
of  Pourrieres  recalls  the  Campi  Piifn'di  upon  which  thousands  of  the  slain  were 
left  to  putrefj'.     AH  these  limestone  ranges  exhibit  a  lino  more  or  less  parallel 


Fig.  54. — The  Valley  of  the  Arc  and  the  IIeiguts  op  Ste.  Tictoire. 
Scale  1  :  240,000. 


W^" 


■v^;< 


3"  lo  V.  of  P»r.» 


r-^ -    .v:\A-TJvrr-' — .^'~ 


r-i^iH:>i     ,,rj'. 


y^vi 


!       Al\ 


,  —  •  -  "*/i*i.' . '*    _.'-tA.' 


S'  i»  a  »  of  . 


J  Miles. 


with  the  granitic  nucleus  of  the  mountains  of  the  Moors  ;  but  the  serrated  chain 
of  the  Alpines  or  Alpilles  (1,614  feet),  which  farther  east  rises  above  the  stony 
pasture  lands  of  La  Crau,  alreadj'  belongs  to  the  sj'stem  of  the  Alps,  being  in 
realit}'  only  a  prolongation  of  the  chain  of  the  Lcberon,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  valley  of  the  Durance.  A  small  volcano,  now  extinct,  rises  in  the  midst 
of  these  hills. 

The  parallel  ranges  stretching  towards  the  valley  of  the  Var,  in  Eastern 
Provence,  are  also  ramifications  of  the  Alps.  Some  of  these  Jurassic  ranges 
resemble  the  interior  slope  of  a  bastion  ;  others  contrast  by  their  barrenness  with 
the  smiling  gardens  of  the  Ilesperides  at  their  feet,  irrigated  by  the  fertilising 

VOL.    II.  Q 


78 


FRANCE. 


waters  of  the  Siagne.  The  highest  summit  of  these  ranges  is  Mont  Cheiron 
(5,834  feet). 

The  Maritime  Alps. — The  promontories  which  are  reflected  in  the  blue 
waters  of  Nice  and  Mentone,  to  the  east  of  the  Var,  belong  to  the  Maritime 
Alps.  The  bold  terrace  of  the  Tete-de-Chien,  or  "  dog's  head,"  at  Monaco,  with 
its  steep  precipices,  bears  a  high  tower  dedicated  to  the  Emperor  Augustus,  the 
"conqueror  of  all  the  nations  of  the  Alj^s,"  and  forms  a  good  natural  boundary 
between  French  and  Italian  Liguria.  The  political  frontier  between  these  two 
countries,  however,  as  drawn  in  1860,  lies  farther  to  the  east,  and  follows  an 
arbitrary  direction. 

The  Maritime  Alps  extend  from  the  Pass  of  Tenda  In  the  east  to  the  Pass  of 

Fig,  55. — The  Vehdon  at  Quinson. 


Larche  (6,480  feet)  in  the  north.  Their  most  elevated  summits  are  covered  with 
perennial  snow.  The  torrents  to  which  glaciers  and  numerous  small  lakes  give 
birth  on  the  Mediterranean  slope,  force  their  way  through  narrow  defiles  cut 
through  lime  and  sandstones.  Similar  gorges,  or  clus,  are  met  with  in  the  lime- 
stone hills  extending  westward  to  the  Durance,  pne  of  the  most  remarkable  being 
that  of  the  river  Verdon,  above  Quinson.* 

The  Chtfian  Alps. — Monte  Viso  (12,586  feet),  which  was  looked  upon  for  a 
long  time  as  the  highest  summit  of  the  Alps,  and  has  only  recently  been 
ascended  by  Mr.  Mathews,  an  Englishman,  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the 
Maritime  Alps  and  the  Alps  of  Dauphine.  The  geological  features  of  these 
mountains   differ  widely  from  what  we  meet  with  in  other  parts  of  the  Alps. 

*  Highest  summits  in  the  Maritime  Alps  : — Clapier  de  Pagarin,  9,994  feet ;  Mercantourn,  10,391  feet. 


GENKRAL  ASPECTS.— MOUNTAINS.  79 

Monte  Viso  itself  consists  of  serpentine.  Granite  is  met  with  on  the  Italian 
slopes,  but  schists  and  limestones  predominate  on  those  of  France  as  far  as  the 
valley  of  the  Durance.  This  district,  with  its  gorges  and  piles  of  rock,  lias  not 
inappropriately  been  termed  Qiicyras,  or  "land  of  stones." 

The  roads  which  connect  the  valley  of  the  Durance  and  Provence  with  the 
valley  of  the  Po  lead  across  these  Alps  of  Qucyras  and  Monte  Viso,  collectively 
known  as  Cottian  Alps.  One  of  these  paths  crosses  immediately  to  the  north  of 
Monte  Tiso  at  an  elevation  of  9,821  feet.  A  tunnel,  or  iraccnctte,  excavated 
as  long  ago  as  the  fifteenth  century,  renders  its  passage  practicable  at  all  seasons, 
in  spite  of  avalanches,  mists,  and  storms.     The  Pass  of  Mont  Geuevre  (6,067  feet), 

Fig.  56. — The  Gouge,  oh  " Clis,"  of  the  Yerdon. 
Scale  I  :  ISO.OOO. 


i"  K  or  I'd 


fc> 


?\iajiini 


Is.  ^_ 


now  practicable  for  carriages,  was  first  used  by  Hannibal  and  his  army.  These 
and  other  passes,  however,  are  only  of  local  importance  now,  and  are  frequented 
almost  exclusively  by  Piemontese  who  cross  over  into  France  in  search  of  work. 
During  the  iliddle  Ages  they  were  important,  too,  as  military  highways,  and  the 
mouths  of  the  valleys  leading  up  to  them  were  guarded  by  fortresses,  some  of 
which  are  still  maintained — as,  for  instance,  Embrun  (2,809  feet),  Mont  Dauphin, 
and  Brian^on  (4,333  feet),  on  the  Durance.  The  inhabitants  of  these  remote 
valleys  might  have  maintained  their  independence  if  the  country  had  not  so 
frequently  been  overrun  by  armies.  On  both  slopes  of  the  Alps  they  speak  the 
same  dialect,  and  long  before  the  Reformation  they  separated  from  the  Roman 

G    2 


80 


FRANCE. 


Churcli.  lu  spite  of  massacres  we  there  still  meet  with  many  Waldenses,  or 
7audois,  St.  Veran  (6,592  feet),  the  most  elevated  village  in  all  France, 
bein"-  one  of  their  principal  seats.  These  Waldenses  were  formerly  distin- 
guished for  their  superior  education,  and  in  winter  as  many  as  a  thousand  of 
them  came  down  to  the  towns  of  the  E,h6ue  valley,  and  taught  the  mysteries  of 
reading  and  writing  in  return  for  a  miserable  pittance.  The  establishment  of 
village  schools  has  put  an  end  to  this  pursuit,  and  many  of  the  natives  have  sought 
a  new  home  in  Algeria. 

The  Alps  of  Dauphine. — Another  Alpine   group,  that  of  Oisans,  rises  to   the 
west  of  the  valley  of  the  Durance,  which,  with  its  southern  ramification,  the 


Fig.  57. — The  Glaciers  of  Oisans. 
Scale  1 :  250,000. 


5  Miles. 


Champsaur,  lies  wholly  within  France,  and  is  bounded  in  the  north  by  the  deep 
valley  of  the  Romanche  and  the  Pass  of  Lautaret  (6,792  feet),  in  the  east  and  south 
by  tributaries  of  the  Durance,  and  in  the  west  by  the  Drac.  This  mountain 
group  consists  of  granite,  encircled  by  Jui-assic  and  cretaceous  rock.  Mont 
Pelvoux  (12,773  feet)  is  the  most  prominent  summit  of  this  group,  but  the  Barre 
des  :6crins  (13,462  feet),  and  the  Aiguille,  or  "needle  "  of  Medje  (13,078 feet),  the 
latter  immediately  to  the  south  of  the  valley  of  the  Romanche,  exceed  it  in  height. 
Glaciers  cover  about  one-third  of  the  area  of  this  mountain  groujj,  and  fairly  rival 
those  of  Switzerland.  The  most  considerable  amongst  them,  that  of  Mont  de 
Lans  (5,293  feet),  covers  an  area  of  8  square  miles,  and  when  making  the  tour  of 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.— MOUNT.VDfS. 


81 


the  upper  valley  of  Yeiieon,  passing  the  glacier  of  La  Grave  and  the  Aiguille  of 
Olun  (12,740  feet),  we  walk  for  a  distance  of  35  miles  over  ice  and  snow  fiolds. 
The  most  remarkable  of  these  glaciers  are,  perhaps,  those  which  descend  from  the 
slopes  of  Mont  rdvoux  and  the  Poiute  des  Arsiucs,  and  meet  in  the  upper  valley 
of  the  Vallouise.  One  of  them,  the  "  Black  Glacier,"  is  covered  completely  with 
rocks  and  earth  so  as  to  almost  resemble  a  stream  of  mud,  whilst  the  other,  the 
"  White  Glacier,"  is  of  dazzling  whiteness,  and  giscs  birth  to  a  torrent  of  bluish 
water.     None  of  these  glaciers  reach  very  far  down  into  the  valleys,  and  we  are 

Fig.  68. — Aioi'iitE  op  THE  IfEnjB. 


not,  consequently,  charmed  by  the  contrasts  between  verdant  woods  and  ice,  such 
as  delight  the  ej-e  in  Switzerland.  Indeed,  there  are  but  few  trees  left  in  these 
mountains,  though  there  exist  luxuriant  pasture  grounds,  notably  near  the  wealtliy 
village  of  Venose,  the  inhabitants  of  which  export  rare  Alpine  plants  as  far  as  Russia 
and  America. 

A  few  Protestan'L  congregations  still  remain,  but  the  Waldenses,  who  formerly 
inhabited  the  fine  valley  of  Vallouise,  have  been  wholly  exterminated.  The  present 
population  of  the  country  is  wretchedly  poor,  and  cretinism  prevails.     The  famous 


82 


FEANCE. 


cliurcli  of  La  Salette  stands  high  above  the  valley  of  the  Drac,  in  the  midst  of 
luxuriant  pastures ;  and  near  it,  in  the  narrow  valley  of  Godemar,  there  existed 
until  recently  traces  of  a  more  ancient  worship.  In  spring,  when  the  sim  first 
appeared  above  the  crest  of  the  mountains  opposite,  the  villagers  of  Andrieux  used 
to  walk  there  in  procession,  and  sacrifice  pancakes  in  honour  of  the  conqueror 
of  winter. 

Chaotic  masses  of  mountains  occupy  the  whole  of  the  region  bounded  by  the 

Fig-.  .19. — The  (tlacifr  of  La  Grave. 


Durance  and  the  Isere,  and  extend  down  into  the  valley  of  the  Rhone.  Going 
west  from  Mont  Pelvoux,  we  reach  the  plateau  of  Matheysine  (3,050  feet),  covered 
with  small  lakes,  pierced  by  crystalline  mountains,  and  bounded  by  the  precipices 
overhanging  the  waters  of  the  Eomanche  and  the  Drac.  Crossing  the  latter,  we 
reach  the  Quatre-Montagnes,  or  "  four  ranges,"  separated  by  affluents  of  the  Isere, 
and  running  parallel  with  the  Pennine  Alps.  In  the  north,  beyond  the  Isere,  the 
mountains  of  the  Grande  Chartreuse  (6,847  feet)  extend  in  the  same  direction,  and 


OENEKAL  ASPECTS.— MOUNTAINS.  83 

in  the  south  they  are  joiued  to  tlio  mountains  of  Yercors  (7,695  feet),  uU  three 
having  the  same  geological  formation.  The  latter  are  hardly  Aljjine  in  their 
character,  their  great  beauty  consisting  in  the  contrasts  afforded  between  open 
valleys  and  sombre  gorges  through  Avhich  torrents  escape  in  picturesque  cascades, 
in  the  southern  aspect  of  their  sunny  slopes,  and  the  bold  outline  of  some  of  their 
rocky  declivities. 

The  formidable  Pass  of  Lus-la-Croix-IIaute  (4,920  feet)  separates  the  Vercors 
from  a  mountain  group  known  as  Di'voluy,  a  name  which  etyraologi.sts  derive  from 
the  Latin  decoliitnin,  with  reference  to  the  immense  masses  of  rock  which  have 
"  tumbled  down  "  into  the  valleys  and  gorges.  The  base  of  the  great  Peak  of 
Aurouze  (8,905  feet)  is  completely  surrounded  by  mounds  of  detritus,  which,  seen 
from  afar,  have  the  appearance  of  white  marble  buttresses.  Other  mountains 
resemble  huge  piles  of  rocks.  Of  this  kind  arc  the  Obiou  (!),1G0  feet)  and 
Faraud,  which  a  local  legend "  transforms  into  hostile  giants  \\ho  hurled  huge 
rocks  at  each  other.  This  excessive  weathering  of  the  mountains  is  accounted  for 
by  their  geological  composition.  As  a  rule,  strata  of  hard  rocks  alteriuite  with 
deposits  of  soft  earth,  and  no  sooner  have  rains,  torrents,  and  frosts  disintegrated 
or  carried  away  the  latter  than  the  superimposed  rocks  slide  down  into  the  valleys, 
together  with  the  villages  which  are  built  ujion  them,  or  tumble  into  fragments.  To 
a  great  extent,  however,  the  improvidence  of  man  is  responsible  for  this  rapid  dis- 
integration of  the  mountains,  for  it  was  he  who  destroyed  the  forests  which 
formerly  covered  and  sheltered  them.  These  forests,  however,  are  gradually  being 
replanted.* 

The  mountain  ranges  which  ramify  to  the  south,  towards  the  confluence  of  the 
Rhone  and  the  Durance,  resemble  those  just  noticed  in  geological  composition,  and 
present  the  same  white  rocks  and  barren  slopes.  The  forest  of  Saou  (5,223  feet) 
has  long  since  succumbed  to  t.he  woodman's  axe.  Farther  south  rise  the  rampart- 
like  mountains  of  Lure  (5,095  feet),  attached  by  a  transversal  chain  to  the  rugged 
Leberon  (^J.tiOU  feet),  the  reddish  flanks  of  which  arc  covered  with  patches  of  copse. 
Atmospheric  influences  acting  upon  rocks  possessing  such  different  degrees  of 
resistance  have  resulted  in  some  curiously  grotesque  formations.  Thus  to  the 
north  of  Forcalquier  may  be  seen  a  group  of  mushroom-shaped  rocks  known  as 
Leis  Jloiirrc,  the  tops  of  which  consist  of  blocks  of  compact  limestone  supported 
upon  stalks  composed  of  clay  marl. 

Farther  west  rises  a  mountain  appropriately  called  Ventoux,  or  the  "  windy  " 
(6,273  feet),  which,  owing  to  its  isolated  position,  impresses  the  spectator 
more  than  its  height  would  warrant.  Its  lower  slopes  are  covered  with  a  belt  of 
verdure,  and  an  ascent  to  its  summit  affords  an  opportunity  for  studying  successive 
belts  of  vegetation.  The  paheontological  discoveries  made  in  this  part  of  France 
shed  much  light  upon  ancient  flora  and  fauna.  The  miocene  strata  of  the 
Ventoux  and  Leberon  abound  with  the  remains  of  lions,  gazelles,  hipparions,  and 
other  animals  now  extinct.  The  miocene  gypsum  near  Aix,  on  the  other  bank  of 
the  Durance,  has  yielded  fish,  insects,  plants,  and  even  feathers  of  fossil  birds. 

•  Between  1861  and  1871  234,760  nrres  were  plimtcJ  wilh  forest  in  the  Froiidi  Alps. 


84 


FEANCE. 


The  fossil  fisli  discovered  there  prove  conclusively  that  the  Mediterranean  formerly 
communicated  with  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Thanks  to  an  agricultural  discovery  of  great  importance,  the  districts  of  the 
Yentoux  and  Leberon  are  now  being  rapidly  planted  with  woods.  Joseph  Talon, 
a  poor  mushroom  gatherer,  discovered  in  the  beginning  of  this  century  that  this 
coveted  fungus  grew  more  luxuriantly  in  the  vicinity  of  oaks.  He  quietly  planted 
acorns  in  the  retired  sjoots  to  which  he  was  in  the  habit  of  resortiag,  and  for  many 
years  he  kept  his  secret.  It  is  only  since  1856  that  this  new  industry  has  spread, 
and  since  that  year  no  fewer  than  1-18,000  acres  have  been  planted  with  oak  in  the 
department  of  Vaucluse  alone.  This  department  and  the  adjoining  one  of  the 
Basses-Alpes  now  supply  nearly  one-half  the  mushrooms  gathered  throughout 


Fig.  60. — Tiir.  '■  Forest  "  oi-  Saou. 
Scale  1  :  160.000. 


■.'VEof  Pans 


Cvp^t 


K' 


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'-1 


France,  and  exported  under  the  deceptive  appellation  of  "  truffles  of  Perigord." 
The  indirect  advantages  which  have  accrued  to  the  country  through  the  introduc- 
tion of  this  industry  are  very  great,  for  the  flinty  slopes  and  marls  which  are  best 
suited  to  the  growth  of  these  mushroom  oaks  are  not  adapted  to  agriculture,  and 
the  newly  jjlanted  forests  cannot  fail  to  exercise  a  happy  influence  upon  the 
climate,  and  put  a  stojD  to  the  ravages  caused  by  torrents.* 

T/ie  Alps  of  Savoy. — The   famous  chain   of  Maurienne,  across  which  lead  the 
principal  roads  that   connect  France  with  Italy,  separates  Mont  Pelvoux  and  the 


*  In  1S75  32,000  cwts.  of  mushrooms  were  gathered  throughout  France,  valued  at  £610,000.     Vau- 
cluse yielded  8,000  cwts.,  the  Basses- Aloes  7,000  cwts.,  and  Lot  6,000  cwts. 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.— MOUNTAINS. 


85 


\ipi3er  valley  of  the  Durance  from  Savoy.  The  Romans  availed  themselves  of  the 
easiest  passes  of  that  region,  and  on  the  summit  of  that  of  the  Little  St.  Ber- 
nard may  be  seen  a  cromlech  which  thcj'  dedicated  to  Jupiter,  and  which  is  still 
known  as  the  column  of  Joux  (Jove).  At  a  subsequent  date  the  Pass  of  Mont 
Cenis  (6,885  feet)  became  the  great  highway  between  France  and  Italj^ ;  but  the 
fine  carriage  road  which  connects  Lans-le-Bourg  with  Susa  has  been  very  little  used 
since  1871,  in  which  year  the  great  railwa}' tunnel  constructed  by  ilessrs.  Grattone, 
Grandis,  and  Sommellier  beneath  the  Pass  of  Frejus  was  thrown  open  for  traffic. 
That  tunnel  connects  Modane  with  Bardonneche ;  it  has  a  length  of  40,092  feet, 
and  its  summit  lies  at  an  elevation  of  4,-380  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

The  mountains  of  Mauricnne  hold  an  intermediate  position  between  the  fine 
summits  of  Switzerland,  with  their  forests  and  luxuriant  pastures,  and  the  arid 


Fig.  61. — Leis  MourrS. 


slopes  of  the  Devoluy  and  the  .^Ups  of  Dauphine.  In  some  of  the  valleys,  and 
notably  in  that  of  the  Arc,  which  constitutes  the  district  of  Maurienne  proper,  wc 
meet  only  with  arid  slopes.  The  ancient  forests  have  been  destroyed  there,  and 
the  upper  limit  of  vegetation  seems  to  have  retired  in  consequence.  JIan  will 
have  to  struggle  hard  if  he  desires  to  reconquer  the  ground  that  has  been  lost 
through  his  own  improvidence. 

Though  very  inferior  in  height  to  ilont  Blanc,  and  even  to  the  group  of 
Oisans,  this  chain  of  Maurienne,  with  its  numerous  raniiflcations,  is  of  very  great 
importance.  Vast  masses  of  ice  have  accumulated  in  its  rock-surrounded  amphi- 
theatres, and  give  rise  to  four  considerable  rivers,  the  Isere,  the  Oreo,  the  Stura, 
and  the  Arc.  Formerly,  when  these  mountains  were  yet  unexplored,  it  was 
thought,  on  account  of  these  snows,  that  Mont  Iseran,  in  their  centre,  must  attain 


86 


FEANCB. 


a  very  considerable  heiglit ;  but  )no]if,  in  the  patois  of  the  country,  simply  means 
"  pass,"  and  that  of  Iseran  lies  at  an  elevation  of  only  8,034  feet.  The  Grande 
Casse  (12,740  feet)  and  the  Aiguille  of  Vanoise  (12,675  feet)  are  culminating 
summits  on  French,  and  Mont  Paradis  (13,271  feet)  on  Italian  soil. 

Valleys  penetrate  deeply  into  these  mountains,  and  some  of  the  more  sheltered 
amongst  them  are  permanently  inhabited  to  a  height  of  nearly  6,000  feet.  The 
half-buried  houses  of  Bonneval  (5,900  feet),  at  the  foot  of  Mont  Iseran,  are  cut  off 

Fig.  62. — Mont  Blanc  as  seen  trom  Chamonix. 


from  the  rest  of  the  world  for  several  months  in  winter,  and  barley  and  rye  take 
fourteen  or  fifteen  months  to  ripen  there.  The  want  of  pure  air  in  these  valleys, 
the  long  and  severe  winter,  and  the  deep  shadows  thrown  by  the  mountains  during 
summer  are  popularly  supposed  to  produce  goitre  and  idiocj%  which  Dr.  Grange 
ascribes  to  the  magnesian  limestone  of  the  country.  He  estimates  the  number  of 
persons  suffering  from  goitre  in  Maurienne  at  30  per  cent,  of  the  total  population, 
and  in  certain  localities  of  the  Tarentaise  the  proportion  is  still  higher.     The  long 


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GENERAL  ASPECTS.— MOUNTAINS.  87 

winters,  however,  enable  these  mountaineers  to  acquire  some  education ;  and 
formerly  many  Savoyard  teachers  were  to  be  found  in  tlie  towns  of  the  IthOne 
valley. 

The  granitic  ranges  to  the  west  of  Muurionne  run  in  a  direction  conformable 
to  that  of  the  Jura,  and  are  intersected  by  the  rugged  gorges  through  which  the 
Isere,  the  Romanche,  and  the  Arc  iind  their  way  to  the  west.  The  group  of  the 
Grandes  Eousses  (11,910  feet)  is  the  highest  summit  here.  Farther  west,  above 
Grenoble,  rises  the  thrcc-peakcd  Belledone  (0,778  feet),  from  the  summit  of  which 
we  look  down  upon  the  verdant  valley  of  Graisivaudau  and  the  limestone  moun- 
tains which  bound  it  on  the  west. 

From  a  geological  point  of  view  the  mountain  mass  of  which  Mont  IJlanc 
(15,777  feet)  is  the  centre  is  but  a  norlliern  continuation  of  these  western  ranges 
of  Savoy.  Its  relief,  however,  marks  it  ofV  verj'  distinctly.  Tlie  enormous 
mass  of  talcose  granite  or  protogine  of  which  it  is  formed  is  separated  by  the 
Passes  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard  (0,897  feet)  and  Bonhomme  (8,151  feet)  from 
the  other  mountains  of  Savoy  in  the  south  ;  sinks  down  steei^ly  into  the  vallej^  of 
the  Ehonc  on  the  north ;  presents  steep,  glacier-covered  slojjes  towards  Italy  ;  and 
descends  more  gently  towards  the  French  valley  of  Chamonix.  At  an  anterior 
period,  when  Mont  Blanc  was  several  thousand  feet  higher  than  it  is  now,  it 
formed  but  a  single  mountain  mass  with  the  Aiguilles-Rougc?,  now  separated  from 
it  by  the  valley  of  Chamonix. 

The  area  occupied  by  Mont  Blanc  and  its  buttresses  cannot  compare  with 
certain  mountains  of  Switzerland,  nor  docs  it  give  rise  to  any  great  rivers,  for  only 
the  Arveiron,  or  Arve,  and  the  Dora  Baltea  rise  on  it,  the  one  flowing  to  the 
Khone,  the  other  to  the  To.  Its  glaciers  and  snow-ticlds,  however,  are  without  a 
rival  in  Europe.  They  cover  104  square  miles,  of  which  64  drain  into  the  valley 
of  Chamonix.  The  most  famous  of  these  glaciers  is  the  Mer  de  Glace,  or  "  sea  of 
ice,"  which  slides  down  the  valley  at  a  rate  of  828  feet  annually,  and  gives  birth 
to  the  Arve. 

Discovered  as  it  were  by  two  Englishmen,  Pococke  and  "Wyndham,  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  ascended  for  the  first  time  by  Jacques 
iSalinat  in  1780,  Mont  Blanc  has  since  become  one  of  the  great  attractions  of  all 
admirers  of  nature.  Chamonix  (3,444  feet),  at  its  foot,  has  grown  into  a  town  of 
hotels;  and  other  villages  in  its  vicinity,  sucli  as  St.  Gervais  and  Cormayeur 
(4,007  feet),  particijjate  in  the  profits  derived  from  tourists. 

The  mountains  in  Northern  Savoy,  which  occupy  the  region  between  Mont 
Blune,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  form  a  sort  of  link  between  the  Alps  and 
the  Jura,  and  from  a  geological  point  of  view  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine 
of  which  of  either  of  these  systems  a  certain  mountain  may  be  assumed  to  form 
a  part.  The  cretaceous  and  Jurassic  ranges  generally  run  from  the  south-west  to 
the  north-east ;  that  is,  parallel  with  the  Jura.  Such  is  the  direction  of  the  pine- 
clad  ranges  of  the  Grande  Chartreuse  (Chamechaude,  6,847  feet),  of  the  parallel 
ridges  of  the  Beauges  (4,996  feet)  to  the  north  of  Chambery,  and  of  the  ranges 
of  Saleve  (4,523  feet)  and  Voirons,  near  Geneva. 


88 


FRANCE. 


Most  of  the  valleys  of  this  region  are  of  considerable  width,  and  not  mere  eortres 
as  in  the  Jura.  There  still  exist,  however,  many  defiles  bounded  by  steep  preci- 
pices, as  if  they  had  been  cut  by  a  sword,  and  amongst  these  none  are  more  striking 
than  those  cut  by  the  Rhone  and  its  tributaries,  Usses  and  Fier,  through  rocks 


belonging  to  the  lower  cretaceous  formations. 


The  transversal  disposition  of  the  mountain  ranges  of  Western  Savoy  naturally 


Fig.  63. — Ancient  L.\ke  Beds  in  Savoy. 
Scile  1  :  200,000. 


i"  4o'  E.  oi'  FarU. 


6°  UoE   of  Gr 


led  to  the  formation  of  numerous  lakes.  But  most  of  these  pent-up  sheets  of 
water  have  long  since  disappeared,  and  there  now  exist  only  three  of  any  extent, 
viz.  the  Lakes  of  Annecy,  Bourget,  and  Aiguebelette.  In  the  valleys  of  the  Arve, 
the  Giffre,  and  elsewhere,  however,  many  old  lake  basins  can  still  be  traced.  The 
agency  of  water  likewise  accounts  for  the  numerous  caverns  which  pierce  the 
mountain  sides  of  Savoy,  as  well  as  for  frequent  landslips.     That  of  the  Granier, 


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90 


FBANCE. 


whole  surface  of  tlie  lake,  and  issues  only  gradually  tlirough  the  Rhone,  the  banks 
of  which,  as  far  down  as  Lyons,  suffer  in  consequence  but  rarely  from  inundations. 
The  Arve,  on  the  other  hand,  possesses  no  such  regulating  reservoir,  and  frequently 
carries  destruction  along  its  valley. 

The  Rhone,  below  its  confluence  with  the  Arve,  crosses  a  district  formerly 
covered  by  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and  then  penetrates  into  a  deep  gorge,  bounded  by 
the  eastern  declivities  of  the  Jura  and  by  Mont  du  Vuache,  or  Chaumont,  and 

Fig.  65. — The  L/ike  of  Annecy. 
Height  1,453  feet,  area  10  square  mUes.    Scale  1  :  230,000. 


defended  by  Fort  I'lJ^cluse,  which  overhangs  it.  The  river  rushes  through  this 
gorge  with  great  violence.  At  one  spot  it  almost  disappears  beneath  the  rocks 
which  have  tumbled  down  from  the  precipices  that  overhang  it.  This  is  the 
"  Perte  du  Rhone."  A  bridge  there  spans  the  abyss,  and  a  short  distance  below  it 
is  joined  by  the  Valserine,  passing  through  a  gorge  almost  equally  grand.  The 
great  motive  power  of  the  river  has  been  ingeniously  utilised  at  that  spot.  A 
tunnel  conveys  the  water  upon  tourbine  water-wheels  erected  in  the  bed  of  the 


THE  rh6ne  and  other  rivers. 


fll 


Tnlserine,  close  to  the  confluence,  and  these  wheels  set  in  motion  iron  cables 
communicating  with  the  mills  of  Bellegarde,  built  several  hundred  feet  above. 
Thousands  of  tons  of  fossils  are  being  ground  there  into  dust,  to  be  used  as 
manure. 

At  Bellegarde  the  Rhone  abruptly  turns  to  the  south,  flowing  along  the  eastern 
foot  of  the  mountain  chain  which  terminates  in  the  Grand  Colombier  (5,033  feet), 
overlooking  the  dried-up  lake  basin  of  Culoz.      Within  this  portion  of  its  course 


Fig.  66. — The  Lake  of  Bocrget. 
Height  770  feet,  area  16  square  miles.    Scale  1  :  lUU.OOO. 


1  Mile. 


it  ia  joined  by  two  rivers,  the  Usses  and  the  Fier.  The  former,  having  passed 
beneath  the  famous  high-level  bridge  of  La  Caille,  enters  the  Rhone  near  Seyssel, 
a  place  well  known  on  account  of  its  beds  of  asphalt.  The  Fier,  ri.sing  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mont  Blanc,  receives  from  a  side  valley  the  water  discharged  by 
the  Lake  of  Annecy.  This  lake  consists  of  two  distinct  cavities  or  basins,  and  its 
depth  nowhere  exceeds  100  feet.  In  many  places  its  banks  slope  down  gently, 
a  circumstance  favourable  to  the  construction  of  pile  dwellings,  the  remains  of 


92  PEANCE. 

many  of  which  have  been  discovered.  Elsewhere,  however,  they  are  steep,  and 
on  the  west  the  hike  is  commanded  by  the  Semnoz  (5,572  feet),  or  Rigi  of  Savoy. 
The  existing  emissary  of  this  lake  appears  to  be  of  artificial  formation.  The  old 
outlet  took  its  course  farther  east  through  a  swampy  plain. 

At  Seyssel  the  Rhone  becomes  navigable,  and  soon  afterwards  spreads  out  in 
numerous  channels  enclosing  sand-banks  and  willow-covered  islands.  It  crosses,  in 
fact,  the  bed  of  an  ancient  lake,  of  which  the  Lac  du  Bourget  is  the  last  remnant. 
Anciently  the  great  glaciers  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Isere  met  in  this  depression, 
which  subsequently  was  converted  into  a  huge  lake,  fed  by  the  Drac,  the 
Romanche,  the  Isere,  and  the  Rhone,  The  glacial  drift  and  erratic  blocks,  which 
cover  the  mountain  slopes  to  a  height  of  1,600  feet,  sufficiently  prove  this.  The 
Lake  of  Bourget  has  been  immortalised  by  Lamartine's  verse,  and  although  its 
shores  are  comparatively  barren,  the  bold  grey  wall  of  Mont  du  Chat  reflected  in 
its  blue  waters  when  the  sun  is  about  to  set,  and  its  wooded  peninsulas,  afford 
superb  contrasts. 

On  leaving  the  swampy  plain  of  Chautagne  and  Lavours,  with  its  sluggish 
ditches  and  coveys  of  wild  ducks,  the  Rhone  for  the  last  time  takes  its  course 
through  a  narrow  gorge,  overlooked  in  the  north  by  the  old  Chartreuse  of  Pierre- 
Chatel,  perched  on  the  summit  of  an  isolated  limestone  rock.  Having  received 
the  Guiers  from  the  south,  the  river  turns  abruptly  to  the  north-west,  and  as  far  as 
the  jDlain  of  the  Ain  flows  along  the  western  foot  of  the  Jura.  Throughout  this 
portion  of  its  course  the  Rhone  has  frequently  changed  its  bed,  and  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  it  formerly  flowed  west  across  the  shingles  and  gravels  deposited  by 
ancient  glaciers,  and  joined  the  Saone  to  the  south  of  Lyons.  The  relief  of 
this  portion  of  France  has  undergone  a  rapid  transformation  ever  since  these 
glaciers  retired  from  the  vicinity  of  Lyons.  In  the  valley  of  the  Drac  erratic 
blocks  are  scattered  over  the  hillsides  to  a  height  of  4,260  feet  above  the  river, 
and  near  Lyons  up  to  1,150  feet.  Rock-groovings,  locally  known  as  marcs,  or 
mud  terraces,  abound  throughout  these  hiUs. 

Below  its  junction  with  the  Ain  the  Rhone  spreads  out  and  forms  innumerable 
islands,  its  bed  near  the  hills  of  Miribel  being  no  less  than  2  miles  wide.  But 
soon  after  it  loses  its  lacustrine  character  ;  its  waters  are  confined  to  a  single  bed ; 
and  at  Lyons  it  joins  the  Saone,  and  thence  flows  majestically  southwards  towards 
the  Mediterranean. 

A  sail  down  the  Rhone  from  Lyons  is  a  source  of  great  delight  to  the  traveller. 
Swiftly  carried  along,*  he  passes  ever-varj'Lng  scenes  of  beauty.  Without  much 
swerving  to  the  left  or  right,  the  Rhone,  overcoming  every  obstacle,  flows  due 
south,  and  ]\Iichelet  aptly  likens  it  to  a  "  furious  bull  rushing  from  the  Alps  to 
the  sea."  Rapidly  do  we  pass  black  rocks  and  willow-clad  islands,  woods,  crum- 
bling ruins  perched  upon  bold  jDromontories,  and  populous  towns.  Looking  up  the 
tributary  valleys,  we  now  and  then  get  a  peep  at  the  distant  mountains,  the  white 
summits  of  the  Alps  on  the  left,  the  burnt- out  volcanoes  of  Central  France  on  the 

*  Length  of  the  Rhone,  from  the  confluence  with  the  Saone  to  the  sea,  201  miles ;  total  fall,  532  feet, 
or  32  inches  per  mile. 


THE  RHONE  AND  OTHER  RIVERS. 


98 


right.  In  front  the  powerful  mass  of  the  Ventoux  gradually  grows  in  size  until  it 
shuts  out  one-half  of  the  horizon.  We  are  approaching  a  southern  clime.  Olive- 
trees  appear  in  the  vineyards,   and  the  rocks  assume  that  calcined  appearance 


Pig.  67. — AscrexT  Glacifrs  op  the  Rhone  asd  the  IsiiiB. 
Scale  I  :  ssaooo. 


lu  Miles. 


which  is  80  characteristic  of  Greece  and  Sicily,  At  length  the  wide  plain  bounded 
by  the  Cevennes  and  the  foot-hills  of  the  Alps  stretches  out  before  us,  only  a  few 
isolated  hillocks  rising  above  it  like  islands. 

The  glacier-bom  Isore  is  the  fir^t,  great  tributary  which  joins  the  Rhone  below 

VOL.    II.  H 


94 


FEANCE. 


Lyons.  "Where  it  leaves  the  valley  of  Tiges  it  is  a  considerable  torrent,  whicli  the 
accession  of  the  torrents  of  the  Tarentaise  and  of  the  Arc  convert  into  a  powerful 
river.  Formerly  the  Isere  fed  a  huge  lake,  but  now  it  takes  its  course  through  the 
valley  of  Graisivaudan,  the  bed  of  an  ancient  glacier  river  wide  enough  to  accom- 
modate a  Nile  or  a  Ganges.  Formerly  the  Isere,  when  in  flood,  could  spread  itself 
over  this  vallej-,  but  embankments  now  confine  its  bed  to  a  uniform  width  of  367 
feet.  These  embankments  sufficiently  protect  the  country  on  ordinary  occasions, 
but  inundations,  when  they  do  occur  now,  prove  all  the  more  formidable  to 
Grenoble.  Close  to  that  town  the  Drac  joins  from  the  south,  its  principal  tribu- 
tary, the  Romanche,  rising  in  the  glaciers  in  the  west  of  the  mountain  mass  of 
Oisans.  In  the  twelfth  century  a  landslip  converted  a  portion  of  the  valley  of  the 
latter  into  a  lake,  and  when  the  barrier  broke  in  1219,  the  freed  waters  carried 
destruction  before  them,  and  even  the  inhabitants  of  Grenoble  had  to  flee  for  their 
lives.      Among  the  smaller  rivers  which  join  the  Isere  lower  down,  the  Fure  is  the 


Fig.  68. — Plain  of  La  Valloire. 
Scale  1  :  400,000. 


3°lE  of  Taris 


'■J^r07Tns/ 


/       SiTlin'; 


IMUe. 


most  important.  It  rises  in  the  Lake  of  Paladru,  fiimous  for  its  pile  dwellings. 
As  to  the  rivers  which  disappear  in  the  swallows  {avaloirs)  of  the  plateau  of 
Bievre,  and  passing  beneath  the  huge  moraine  of  Antimont,  reappear  again  through 
the  "eyes"  [chiires)  near  St.  Rambert,  they  flow  direct  to  the  Rhone.  The 
discharge  of  the  Isere  varies  exceedingly  according  to  the  seasons,  and,  owing  to 
the  grey  tint  imparted  to  its  water  by  the  triturated  rocks  suspended  in  it,  can  be 
traced  for  several  miles  below  the  confluence.  A  few  barges  navigate  this  large 
river,  but  the  traffic  is  of  no  importance  whatever. 

The  Drome  traverses  several  small  lakes  formed  in  the  fifteenth  century  by 
landslips,  or  clajjiers,  but  not  being  fed  by  glaciers,  its  volume  varies  much 
according  to  the  seasons.  And  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  other  rivers  rising 
in  the  foot-hills  of  the  Alps ;  they  are  mere  torrents,  almost  dry  in  summer,  but 
carrying  destruction  before  them  after  heavy  rains. 

Very  different  from  these  are  the  rivers  which  cross  the  fertile  plains  of  Car- 
pentras  and  Avignon,  for  they  are  fed  from  subterranean  reservoirs  in  the  lime- 


THE  imuNE  AND  OTHER  RR'ERS. 


05 


stone  liills,  and  their  springs  do  not  dry  up,  even  in  the  height  of  summer.  Fore- 
most amongst  these  rivers  is  the  Sorgues  of  Vaucluse,  which  rises  a  considerable 
river  from  a  cavern  surrounded  by  barren  precipices.  Flowing  past  a  monument 
dedicated  to  Petrarch,  it  debouches  upon  the  plain,  and  ramifies  into  numerous 
canals,  which  carry  fertility  wherever  they  go.  Formerly  the  plain  lying  between 
the  mountains  and  a  range  of  limestone  hills  separating  it  from  the  Rhone  valley 
was  covered  with  lakelets  and  swamps,  but  drainage  works  have  transformed  it 
into  a  most  productive  district. 

The  proximity  of  the  mountains  of  Vivarais  and  of  the  C^vennes  to  the  western 
bank  of  the  Rhone  has  prevented  the  formation  of  long  rivers,  but  the  torrents 
which  rise  in  these  mountains  rival  even  the  Mississippi  in  volume  when  flooded. 


Fig.  69.— The  Sorci-es  of  Vauclvse. 
Scale  1  :  260,000. 


|3'  JO  E.   ull*. 


fit-  }  tiu^luie 


io    fc.  ol  C,r. 


:  Miles. 


M.  ilarchegay  has  calculated  that  on  the  10th  of  September,  1857,  the  Doux,  the 
Erieux,  and  the  Ardeche,  all  of  them  lying  within  the  limits  of  a  single  department, 
discharged  everj*  second  494,000  cubic  feet  of  water  into  the  Rhone.  This  is  more 
than  the  discharge  of  the  Ganges  and  Euphrates  combined.  Fortunately  the  floods 
occurring  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhone  valley  never  coincide,  for  the  western  slope  of 
the  Alps  is  sheltered  from  the  moisture-laden  winds  which  precipitate  torrents  of 
rain  upon  the  ilediterranean  slopes  of  the  Cevennes.  If  this  coincidence  existed 
the  lower  valley  of  the  Rhone  would  be  converted  into  a  pestilential  swamp.  As 
it  is,  the  damage  done  by  inundations  sometimes  amounts  to  millions,  and  in  1840 
the  whole  of  Camargue  and  the  plains  on  both  banks  of  the  Rhone  were  converted 
into  a  fresh-water  lake  25  miles  wide. 

The  erosive  power  of  these  torrents  is  wonderfully  great.     The  Ardeche  more 

II  2 


96 


FEANCE. 


especially,  rising  seventy  and  more  feet  when  in  flood,  has  done  maryels  iu  that 
respect.  At  one  spot  it  has  atandoned  its  ancient  bed,  forcing  itself  a  fresh 
passage  through  a  wall  of  rock.     This  is  the  famous  Pout  d'Arc,  or  the  "  Arch,"  one 


Fig.  70.— Pont  d'Aro  (Ard^che). 
Scale  1  :  400,000. 


2°|5"E.of  Pari.i 


:■"  2J'F,.of  r.r. 


1  Mile. 


of  the  curiosities  of  the  valley,  which  boasts,  moreover,  of  columns  of  basalt  and  of 
remarkable  canons. 

The  valleys  of  the  Ceze  and  the  Gard,  or  Garden,  likewise  abound  in  natural 
beauties.  The  latter  disappears  for  a  short  distance  between  the  rocks.  Where  it 
debouches  from  its  gorge  it  is  spanned  by  a  beautiful  Eoman  aqueduct,  which 
formerly  supplied  Nimes  with  water.  It  is  a  work  of  imposing  grandeur,  but 
the  modern  railway  bridges  and  viaducts,  close  by,  need  not  dread  comparison 
with  it. 


TILE  RHONE  AND  OTIIEK  EIVEES. 


97 


The  Durance,  which  joius  the  Rhone  a  short  distance  below  Avignon,  is  sup- 
posed by  geologists  to  have  formerly  emptied  itself  into  the  Bay  of  Fus,  to  the  east 
of  the  mouths  of  the  Rhone.  Subsequently  it  excavated  itself  a  passage,  severing 
the  Leberon  from  the  Alpines ;  and  this  much  is  certain,  that  the  canal  of  the 
Alpines  is  an  ancient  bed  of  it.  The  Durance,  like  the  Iserc,  is  a  son  of  the  Alps, 
and  though  its  head-stream,  the  Clairee,  is  not  fed  by  glaciers,  several  of  its 
tributaries  are.     These  glaciers,  however,  are  not  very  extensive,  and  the  river, 

Tig    71. — Pont  d'.:Vkc  (AnnicHE). 


down  to  its  mouth,  has  the  character  of  a  torrent,  reduced  at  one  time  to  a  thin 
thread  meandering  amongst  craiis,  or  fields  of  shingle,  at  others  more  voluminous 
than  all  the  rivers  of  France  together.  The  geological  work  performed  by  this 
river  has  been  immense.  .tVmongst  the  ancient  lake  beds  now  silted  up,  that 
extending  from  Sisterou  to  the  mouth  of  the  Verdon  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable, 
because  of  its  earthy  slopes  of  Mees,  curiously  carved  into  obelisks  and  pillars.  In 
spite  of  its  length  of  236  miles  and  an  average  discharge  of  12,2G0  cubic  feet  per 


98 


FEANCE. 


second  (maximvim  320,000,  minimum  1,906  cubic  feet),  the  Durance  is  not  navi- 
gable. During  the  Middle  Ages  vessels  were  able  to  proceed  up  to  Pertuis,  and  we 
may  conclude  from  this  that  there  then  existed  lakes  or  barriers  in  its  upper  course 
which  regulated  its  flow.  But  though  not  navigable,  the  Durance  is  invaluable 
for  purposes  of  irrigation.  The  18,000,000  tons  of  mud  annually  carried  down  it 
are  computed  by  M.  Herve-Mangon  to  contain  as  much  assimilable  nitrogen  as 
100,000  tons  of  the  best  guano,  and  as  much  carbon  as  could  be  supplied  annually 
from  a  forest  121,100  acres  in  extent.  On  leaving  the  gorge  of  Mirabeau,  where  it 
is  spanned  by  a  bridge  only  490  feet  in  length,  the  Durance  enters  upon  a  broad 


Fig.  72. — The  Roman  Aoueduct  over  the  Gabd. 


valley,  which  would  be  scorched  by  the  sun  if  it  were  not  for  the  fertilising 
waters  derived  from  it. 

One  canal,  that  of  Marseilles,  taps  it  near  Pertuis,  and  crossing  the  valley  of 
the  Arc  at  Roquefavour  on  a  magnificent  aqueduct,  irrigates  the  gardens  of 
Marseilles  before  entering  the  Mediterranean.  Another  canal,  that  of  Crapponne, 
leaves  the  river  lower  down,  and  ramifies  into  numerous  branches.  It  was 
excavated  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  has  converted  the  whilom  barren  tracts 
through  which  it  leads  into  one  of  the  most  productive  districts  of  France.  A  third 
canal  skirts  the  Alpines  on  the  north,  and  a  fourth  extends  north  in  the  direction 


THE  Rh6nE  and  other  EIVEES. 


90 


of  Carpentras.  Ou  an  average  these  four  canals  absorb  about  2,440  cubic  feet  of 
water  every  second.  Quite  recently,  iu  1875,  tbo  Vordon,  one  of  the  principal 
tributaries  of  the  Durance,  was  tapped,  and  now  supplies  Aix  with  210  cubic  feet 
of  water  everj-  minute.  It  passes  throuf^h  two  tunnels,  the  one  13,000,  the  other 
16,000  feet  iu  length.  Several  dams  have  been  thrown  across  the  gorges  of  the 
Upper  Durance  and  Verdou  to  regulate  the  floods,  and  the  conversion  of  the  small 
Lake  of  Alios,  near  the  source  of  the  Vcrdon  and  at  an  elevation  of  7,200  feet,  into 
a  huge  reservoir,  has  been  talked  about.     Next  to  the  huertas  of  8pain  and  the 


Fig.  73. — TuE  Crau  ant)  the  Canal  of  Ckapponxe. 
Scale  1 :  630,000. 


"iSoE.of  Pnri'.. 


.^*" 


■  '\  ^ 

.lit! 

'If                       __     V        ,           \'      ^ 

H.  I  ii  11  i' 

^^j 

^   '  '-^               ,\      :■ 

'^^j- 

i|B^:.:„             ^ 

....rJ:-  I'  ' 

■    V,',     ycj.J'crf'r' 


vwyff 


-^»*\ 

♦  "ISoEoTOr. 


/rriyale^ 


0  MUes. 


plains  of  Lombardy,  the  valley  of  the  Lower  Durance  is  oven  now  the  best-irrigated 
district  of  Europe. 

By  means  of  these  canals,  planned  by  Adam  de  Crapponne,  the  whole  of  the 
stony  desert  known  as  Crau  might  bo  converted  into  fertile  land  in  the  course  of 
three  hundred  and  twenty  j-ears.  This  district,  about  131,000  acres,  is  comi^letely 
covered  with  flints,  some  of  them  embedded  in  hardened  mud.  Six-sevenths  of 
these  flints  have  been  deposited  by  the  Rhone,  the  remainder  by  the  Durance.  The 
pudding-stones  upon  which   they  rest  arc  of  marine   origin,   and  the  Crau  has 


100 


FRANCE. 


altogether  tlie  appearance  of  an  ancient  bed  of  the  sea.  Formerly  this  waterless 
waste  was  visited  only  by  baijles,  or  herdsmen,  but  the  canals  which  now  traverse  it 
are  skirted  by  trees  and  cvdtivated  fields.  Some  of  the  rain  which  falls  upon  this 
tract  finds  its  way  through  subterranean  channels  to  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  and 
there  reappears  again  in  plenteous  springs.  More  than  three  hundred  such  gush 
forth  to  the  north  of  the  lagoon  of  Galejon.  They  are  known  as  Laurons,  a  name 
frequently  given  to  springs  in  other  parts  of  France. 

At  some  future  time  the  Rhone  itself  may  be  utilised  for  purposes  of  irrigation, 
more  extensively  than  at  present.  This  river,  owing  to  its  rapid  current,  is 
of  but  little  use  as  a  navigable  high-road,  and  since  the  completion  of  the  railway 
from  Lyons  to  Marseilles  the  sixty-two  steamers  which  formerly  navigated  it 

Fig.  74. — The  Canal  of  the  Verdon. 

Scale  1 :  240,000. 


■"'  1'   "11'  Paris 


^(  --nrtfe'^ 


F^.^ 


i^^i 


'K<f. 


a',)0'  t.  ofGr. 


have  dwindled  down  to  six  or  eight.  It  is  a  pity  that  this  great  natural  high-road 
should  be  thus  deserted,  and  works  to  render  it  navigable  throughout  the 
year  for  steamers  of  300  tons  have  actually  been  begun,  and  are  to  be  completed 
in  1882.  Vessels  will  then  be  able,  by  making  use  of  canals,  to  proceed  from 
Havre  through  the  centre  of  France  to  the  Mediterranean. 

It  has  likewise  been  proposed  to  utihse  the  Rhone  for  purposes  of  irrigation 
by  carrying  a  huge  canal  along  the  left  bank  of  the  river  from  Vienne  to  Mornas, 
where  it  would  cross  to  the  right  bank  by  means  of  a  gigantic  siphon,  and  after 
having  irrigated  the  districts  of  Nimes,  MontpeUier,  and  Beziers,  terminate  at 
Narbonne,  in  the  basin  of  the  Aude.  The  total  length  of  this  canal  would  amount 
to  280  miles,  and,  besides  supplying  the  towns  and  villages  along  it  with  water,  it 
would  suffice  for  the  irrigation  of  494,000  acres. 


THE  EHONE  AND  OTHER  EIVEES. 


101 


At  Fourques  (the  Forks),  8  miles  below  the  bridge  of  Beaucairc,  the  Rhone 
bifurcates  and  its  delta  commences.  The  Little  Rhone  flows  south-west  across  the 
alluvial  soil  of  the  ancient  Gulf  of  Beaucaire,  whilst  the  Great  Rhone  flows  straight 
to  the  south,  and  constitutes  the  principal  high-road  of  coramerco.  The  former  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  main  branch  in  bygone  ages,  and  as  far  south  as  the 
saline  swamps  near  Montpellier  do  we  meet  with  flints  of  Alpine  origin,  carried 
thither  by  the  river.  Even  during  historical  times  the  branches  of  the  river  have 
undergone  numerous  changes.  Ancient  authors  speak  of  two,  three,  five,  or  even 
seven  mouths ;  but  if  we  include  all  gnuis,  or  minor  channels,  we  may  arrive  at  the 
latter  nimiber  even  now.  Pliny  enumerates  three  mouths,  the  main  or  Massa- 
liotic  branch  being  in  the  east,  as  at  present.  The  western  branch  was  known  as 
On  Hisjxiniense,  or  "  Spanish  arm,"  because  it  flowed  in  the  direction  of  Spain  ;  and 


Fig.  75. — The  Deit.^  of  the  Rhone. 


.1'  E.of  Patls 


H>'E  of  CirT 


even  during  the  Middle  Ages  there  existed  a  navigable  branch  which  led  into  the 
lagoon  of  Thau.  >!.  Erailien  Dumas  has  pointed  out  that  each  ramification  of  the 
river  led  to  corresponding  changes  in  the  coast-line.  When  the  Rhone  first 
bifurcated  at  the  Forks  the  beach  extended  to  what  is  now  the  northern  part  of 
the  deltoid  island  of  Camargue.  Since  that  time  the  fauna  of  the  Mediterranean 
has  undergone  some  changes.  The  Panopwa  Aklrovandi,  which  is  now  fomid  only 
on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  was  then  common  on  the  Lion  Gulf,  and  the  Pecfen  maximus, 
at  present  very  rare,  abounded. 

The  delta  formed  by  the  two  main  branches  of  the  river  wholly  consists  of  an 
alluN-ial  deposit  of  mud.  It  covers  an  area  of  185,000  acres,  about  one-half  of 
which  is  included  in  the  island  of  Camargue,  dusty  in  summer,  half  drowned 
in  winter,  and  almost  without  inhabitants.     If  we  may  judge  from  the  Roman 


102  FEANCE. 

ruins  discovered  there,  the  country  was  formerly  more  salubrious.  The  embank- 
ments which  now  confine  the  Rhone  are  probably  the  cause  of  this  insalubrity,  for 
they  prevent  the  drainage  of  the  stagnant,  fever-breeding  pools  in  their  rear, 
besides  preventing  the  deposition  of  fresh  alluvium.  In  the  northern  portion  of 
this  island  there  are  a  few  fields,  cutlivated  by  peasants  who  brave  the  fever, 
besides  extensive  pasture  grounds,  roamed  over  by  white  horses,  half- wild  cattle, 
and  manacles  of  buffaloes  {Bos  buhahis),  which  figure  on  the  racecourses  of  the 
towns  of  Southern  France.  The  "  Little  Sea,"  or  lagoon  of  Vaccares,  in  the  south, 
with  its  fringe  of  marshes  and  tamarisk  thickets,  is  an  ancient  arm  of  the  sea,  from 
which  it  is  separated  now  by  a  chain  of  dunes.  Near  it  are  saline  tracts  {san- 
ionires)  void  of  all  vegetation,  and  rarely  visited  by  man,  but  the  resort  of  num- 
berless migratory  birds.  Even  flamingoes  are  occasionally  seen,  and  the  beavers 
which  have  built  their  lodges  in  the  embankments  lining  the  Little  Rhone  are  not 
interfered  with.  A  beautiful  tree,  resembliug  the  aspen,  grows  on  the  more 
elevated  sites  of  the  Camargue,  and  the  canals  that  traverse  its  northern  portion 
are  fringed  with  willows,  poplars,  and  elms,  but  the  forests  which  anciently  covered 
the  whole  of  its  interior  have  disappeared.  Scarcely  one-fifth  of  the  area  of  the 
Camargue  is  under  cultivation  now,  and  although  the  cold  mistral  interferes 
with  the  success  of  certain  plants,  the  delta  of  the  Rhone  might  nevertheless  bo 
converted  into  a  region  equalling  in  fertility  the  delta  of  the  Nile.  No  less  than 
27,500,000  cubic  yards  of  alluvial  soil  are  annually  swept  into  the  sea,  instead  of 
being  utilised,  and  a  bar  closes  all  access  to  the  river  by  large  vessels.  An  artesian 
well  near  Aigucs-Mortes,  in  the  Little  Camargue,  though  bored  to  a  depth  of 
330  feet,  only  passed  through  such  alluvial  soil,  without  reaching  the  solid  rock. 
The  delta  of  the  Rhone  has  gained  upon  the  sea  ever  since  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
A  watch-tower  built  at  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Rhone  in  1787  now  stands  five 
miles  above  it,  thus  showing  that  the  annual  rate  of  growth  since  that  date  has 
amounted  to  175  feet.  Altogether  between  80  and  120  square  miles  of  land  have 
been  added  to  the  delta  of  the  Rhone  since  the  Gallo- Roman  period. 

We  have  seen  above  that  the  mouths  of  the  Rh6ne  are  obstructed  by  bars,  the 
formation  of  which  is  promoted  by  the  almost  entire  absence  of  tides,  the  flood 
in  the  Lion  Gulf  only  rising  16  inches.  The  embankments  which  have  been 
constructed  have  failed  to  remove  the  obstacles  to  navigation,  and  vessels  drawing 
more  than  10  feet  can  scarcely  ever  venture  to  enter  the  river,  even  though  the 
wind  should  be  favourable.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans  Aries  communicated  with 
the  sea  by  a  chain  of  lagoons  and  canals  constructed  by  Marius,  and  hence  known 
as  Fossw  Mariana'.  But  the  canal  of  Aries,  which  replaces  this  ancient  water-way,  is 
navigable  only  for  small  vessels.  At  length,  in  1863,  thanks  to  the  persever- 
ing advocacy  of  M.  Hippolyte  Pent,  a  ship  canal  20  feet  deep  was  constructed 
between  the  tower  of  St.  Louis  and  the  Gulf  of  Fos.  This  canal  leads  into  a  huge 
basin  covering  34  acres,  by  the  side  of  which  a  new  commercial  town  is 
springing  into  existence,  and  a  railway  wlU  soon  establish  rapid  communications 
between  this  new  port  and  the  remainder  of  France.  In  spite  of  the  vicinity  of  the 
marshes  the  mortality  at  St.  Louis  is  not  greater  than  at  Aries,  and  might  be  very 


THE  RHONE  AND  OTHER  RIVERS. 


103 


luucli  reduced  by  a  proper  attention  to  sanituiy  laws  ;  and  if  the  place  has  not 
prospered  hitherto,  this  is  due  to  the  jealousies  of  Marseilles  and  of  the  powerful 
railway  company,  the  one  dreading  the  loss  of  its  monopoly,  the  other  the  develop- 
ment of  an  important  river  traffic.  One  danger,  however,  threatens  the  prosperity 
of  this  canal — the  Gulf  of  Fos  is  gradually  being  silted  up ;  but  this  danger 
might  he  removed  by  diverting  the  waters  of  the  Great  Rhone  into  the  "Grau," 
or  lagoon,  of  Roustan. 

The  changes  in  the  course  of  the  Little  Rhone  are  historically  as  important  as 
those  of  the  Great  Rhone.     St.  Gilles,  accessible  now  only  to  canal  boats,  was 

Fig.  76. — The  Canal  of  St.  Louis. 


formerly  one  of  the  great  ports  of  Southern  France,  at  which  most  of  the  pilgrims 
going  to  Palestine  embarked  during  the  twelfth  century.  Aigues-Mortes,  lower 
down  on  the  same  branch  of  the  river,  sprang  into  existence  subsequentlj'.  But 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Little  Rhone  took  a  more  easterly 
course,  and  it  now  enters  the  sea  through  the  Grau  of  Orgon,  near  which  is  the 
fishing  village  of  Saintes-Maries,  separated  by  vast  sands  and  swamps  from  all 
other  centres  of  population.  There,  as  well  as  farther  east,  at  the  lighthouse  of 
Faraman,  the  sea  is  gaining  upon  the  land. 

The  town  of  Aigues-Mortes,  thus  called  on  account  of  the  stagnant  waters 


10-1 


FEANCE. 


which  surround  it,  has  frequently  been  cited  in  proof  of  a  remarkable  encroach- 
meut  6i  the  sea,  but  erroneously  in  our  opinion.  The  local  guides  point  out  the 
spot  at  which  St.  Louis  is  said  to  have  embarked  for  the  Holy  Land,  though  it 
has  been  proved  conclusively  that  he  did  so  at  a  point  five  miles  to  the  south-west  of 
the  town.  The  vessels  which  were  to  convey  the  crusaders  cast  anchor  at  the  spot 
marked  A  upon  our  plan,  close  to  the  mouth  of  an  old  canal,  still  known  as  Grau 
Louis.  The  remains  of  embankments  and  the  vestiges  of  a  crusaders'  burial- 
ground  enable  us  to  trace  the  direction  of  this  canal,  which  anciently  connected 

Fig.  77. — The  Lagoons  of  Aigces-Moeies. 

Scale  1  :  lOO.nOO. 


»<":.•.    '-%. 


■s    %.\  3'-'  ' '  \t  O'nuiiin        (lii 

in       ,    -_'---\^ 


i-l  lo  E.of  Gt 


A  A.    *'  Foreign  "  Roadstead  where  the  crosaders  embarked. 

B.    Site  of  Port  in  thirteenth  century.  C.    Site  of  Port,  thirteenth  to  eighteenth  century. 

1  Mde. 


the  town  with  its  port  at  Grau  Louis.  Since  then  the  lagoons  have  undergone 
many  changes,  partly  owing  to  the  alluvium  deposited  by  the  Ehone  and  other 
rivers,  partly  in  consequence  of  the  construction  of  a  new  canal  by  Louis  XV., 
which  enters  the  sea  at  the  Grau  du  Eoi.  If  any  further  jDroof  were  wanted  in 
support  of  the  assertion  that  the  sea  along  that  part  of  the  coast  has  not  encroached 
upon  the  land,  it  would  be  furnished  by  the  existence  of  four  lines  of  dunes,  which 
mark  as  many  conquests  of  the  land  over  the  sea.  The  town  of  Aigues-Mortes 
undoubtedly  occupies  a  site  which  was  anciently  covered  by  the  floods  of   the 


THE  Eh6nE  and  other  ElVEES. 


105 


ireditcrranean.     The  outermost  of  tlieso  lines  of  dunes,  that  of  Boucanet,  only 
supports  a  few  tamarisks,  but  the  innermost  is  covered  with  a  forest  of  maritime 


Fig.  78.— The  Delta  of  the  Auuk. 
Scale  1  :  225,000. 


pines,  which  impart  a  character  of  mournful  grandeur  to  the  landscape.  This 
fcSylve  Qodesque,  however,  has  been  reduced  to  very  small  dimensions  in  our 
day. 


106  FEANCE. 

A  careful  examination  of  this  portion  of  the  coast-line  enables  us  to  assert  that 
it  will  remain  stable  for  centuries  to  come.  The  Little  Rhone  annually  carries 
about  5,232,000  cubic  yards  of  sediment  to  the  sea,  but  nearly  all  this  is  deposited 
near  the  lighthouse  of  Espiguette,  to  the  east  of  the  Gulf  of  Aigues-Mortes  ;  and 
supposing  this  point  to  continue  to  encroach  upon  the  sea  at  its  present  rate,  no  less 
than  two  thousand  years  will  have  to  elapse  before  the  gulf  is  converted  into  a 
lagoon.  The  roadstead  at  Aigues-Mortes  is,  moreover,  sheltered  from  the  dangerous 
south-easterly  winds,  and  the  construction  of  a  harbour  of  refuge  at  the  Grau  du 
Roi  has  consequently  been  advocated  by  competent  engineers.  Aigues-Mortes, 
which  now  hardly  imports  anything  but  the  oranges  of  Valencia  and  of  the 
Balearic  Isles,  might  then  become  an  important  seaport. 

The  rivers  which  flow  from  the  slopes  of  the  Cevennes  into  the  Mediterranean 
may  be  considered  as  belonging  geologically  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhone.  Even  the 
Aude,  the  first  river  to  the  north  of  the  Pyrenees,  bears  a  certain  family  likeness 
to  the  torrents  of  the  Rhone  valley,  although  only  its  northern  tributaries  rise  in 
the  Cevennes.  Like  all  other  Mediterranean  rivers  born  in  these  mountains,  the 
Aude  presents  all  the  features  of  a  torrent,  its  volume  fluctuating  according  to  the 
seasons  between  180,000  and  106,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  On  leaving  the  gorges 
of  Capsir  and  the  forest  of  Sault  the  Aude  flows  due  north  until,  below  Carcassonne, 
it  is  joined  by  the  Fresquel,  when  it  curves  round  to  the  east.  The  delta  of  this 
river  is  proportionately  more  extensive  than  that  of  the  Rhone,  for  it  covers  50,000 
acres,  and  between  its  two  arms  is  enclosed  the  ancient  mountain  island  of  La 
Clape.  No  less  than  2,224,000  cubic  yards  of  mud  are  annually  carried  down  the 
river,  most  of  which  is  deposited  upon  the  inland  swamps,  the  mountain  barrier  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  preventing  it  from  being  carried  into  the  sea.  In  the  time 
of  St.  Louis  there  were  salt-pans  on  the  swamp  of  Capestang.  It  is  now  sepa- 
rated from  the  sea  by  9  miles  of  solid  land.  The  swamp  of  Montady  has  been 
converted  into  dry  land  since  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  site  of 
Lake  Rubrensis,  which  extended  to  the  walls  of  Narbonne,  is  now  occupied  by 
fields ;  and  the  lagoons  of  Gruissan  and  Bages,  which  formerly  were  one,  are 
now  separated  by  a  strip  of  alluvial  land. 

The  Canal  du  Midi,  or  Great  Southern  Canal,  with  its  branches  no  less  than 
339  miles  in  length,  accompanies  the  Aude  during  the  greater  part  of  its  course. 
Its  supply  of  water  is  principally  derived  from  the  Alzau,  Lampy,  and  other  small 
rivers  rising  in  the  Cevennes.  These  are  intercepted  by  a  canal  (Rigole  de  la 
Montagne)  leading  into  the  lake-like  reservoir  of  St.  Ferreol,  holding  6,254,000 
tons  of  water,  whence  another  Rigole  leads  down  to  the  navigation  canal.  Unfor- 
tunately, this  great  work  of  the  seventeenth  century,  which  connects  the  Rhone 
with  the  Garonne,  has  fallen  into  the  clutches  of  the  Great  Southern  Railway 
Company,  and  is  but  little  used  for  the  conveyance  of  merchandise. 

The  Orb  enters  the  sea  to  the  east  of  the  Aude.  It  discharges  its  waters 
through  a  single  mouth  now,  that  of  Grande  Ma'ire  having  almost  become  oblite- 
rated, and  dwindles  down  into  an  insignificant  stream  during  summer.    The  H^rault, 


THE  RHONE  AND  OTHEE  EIVEES. 


107 


its  neiglibour,  and  the  most  important  river  between  the  Aude  and  the  Rhone,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  fed  by  plenteous  springs  rising  in  wild  limestone  gorges.  The 
river  is  navigable  for  sea-going  vessels  throughout  the  year  as  far  as  Agde,  and 
Richelieu  began  the  construction  of  a  breakwater  at  its  mouth,  which  has  never 
been  completed,  the  engineers  having  since  then  devoted  the  whole  of  their 
energies  to  the  creation  of  an  artificial  harbour  at  Cette. 

Amongst  the  small  rivers  between  the  Herault  and  the  Rhone  the  Lez  is  the 
best  known,  because  it  flows  past  Montpellicr,  but  the  A'idourle  is  far  more  tj-pical 
of  the  torrents  descending  from  the  Cevennes.     During  the  dry  season  it  does  not 

Fig.  79. — RiGOLES  OP  THE  Cax.^l  du  Mioi. 
Scale  1 :  320,000. 


I   lu;  W.  of  P 


Q  n  e  .    .  ■    *■ 


a-  Ejo[  Or. 


i  iiiles. 


even  reach  the  Mediterranean,  but  when  iu  flood  its  volume  exceeds  that  of  the 
Seine  at  Paris  thirty  times,  and  the  inhabitants  then  utilise  it  for  irrigating  the 
reed-banks  of  the  lagoon  of  Repausset,  near  Aigues-Mortes,  the  produce  of  which 
ia  converted  into  manure  or  used  for  covering  chairs. 

The  Argens  is  the  only  French  river  to  the  east  of  the  Rhone  which  can 
fairlj-  claim  that  epithet.  Like  many  other  rividets  in  that  limestone  region,  for  a 
portion  of  its  upper  course  it  passes  underground,  but  long  before  it  falls  into  the 
shallow  Bay  of  Frejus  it  becomes  a  placid  stream,  maintaining  a  fair  volume 
throughout  the  year.  There  are  several  underground  rivers  along  this  Provenfal 
coast,   which    only  rise   as   springs   beneath    the   waves   of   the    Mediterranean. 


-108 


FEANCE. 


Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  spring  of  Port-Miou,  near  Cassis, 
which  originates  in  the  ancient  Lakes  of  Aubague  and  Gemenos,  drained  by  King 
Rene,  and  gushes  forth  with  sufficient  violence  to  create  a  veritable  current. 

The  Var,  which  for  a  long  period  formed  the  boundary  between  France  and 
Italy,  though  longer  than  the  Argens,  remains  a  current  down  to  its  embouchure, 
being  reduced  at  one  time  to  a  mere  streamlet,  at  others  rushing  down  with  such 
violence  as  to  overflow  its  embankments,  though  these  are  2,600  feet  apart. 


Fig.  80. — The  MoniH  op  the  Herault  and  Cap  d'Agde. 
Scale  1  :  70,000. 


r  10  E  ot  I'jTis 


I.et.F? 


|J' Jo  £    ^i  Cr 


o-J^i  Fa/Aorna . 


2%-  S  FcuOuiTns 
IMile. 


Over  S  Pathoma  . 


Co.iST-LINE    AND   L.4.G00NS. 

The  difference  between  the  configuration  of  the  coast  on  both  sides  of  the 
Rhone  delta  is  most  striking.  In  Provence  we  meet  with  bold  cliffs  and  promon- 
tories, whilst  to  the  east  of  the  river  we  find  ourselves  in  the  presence  of  a  beach 
formed  of  sand  carried  down  from  the  granitic  mountains  in  the  interior  of  the 
coimtry.  In  Provence  the  cliffs  sink  down  almost  precipitously  into  the  sea. 
and  molluscs  are  found  there  only  in  a  few  sandy  creeks,  whilst  on  the  coast  of 
Languedoc  the  sea  deepens  gradually.  This  difference  of  physical  configuration 
accounts  to  a  great  extent  for  the  history  of  the  two  provinces.     In  the  one  case 


COAST-LTNE  AND  LAGOOXS. 


109 


towns  were  built  close  upon  the  sea,  in  tlie  other  they  arc  remote  from  it,  and 
Languedoc  thus  possesses  the  characteristics  of  an  inhind  country  rather  tlian  of  a 
maritime  one. 

In  its  details  the  beach  of  Languedoc  is  not  without  beauty.      It  is  broken  up 
by  mountains,  hills,  or  masses  of  rock  into  a  number  of  sections.      One  of  these 


Fig.  81. — Lkvcate  Axn  the  R(hiistkai>  op  Fkansii. 
Scale  1  ;  &S,UOO. 


S'll    ol  Or 


i'.i-f 


S~lo 

-   1  Mile 


Ovtr  io  FaUlom» 


extends  between  the  Point  of  CoUioure  and  Cape  Leucate ;  a  second  sweeps  round 
from  the  latter  to  the  Cape  of  Agdo  ;  a  third  reaches  thence  to  Cette  ;  whilst  the 
fourth  and  last  stretches  from  Cette  to  the  sandy  flats  of  the  Khone  delta.  The 
promontories  afford  some  shelter  to  vessels  endangered  by  the  dreaded  tempests  of 
the  Lion  GhJf,  but  the  most  secure  anchorage  along  that  coast,  that  of  Franqui,  to 


vol..    II. 


110 


FRANCE. 


the  nortli  of  the  peninsula  of  Leiicate,  has  not  yet  been  converted  into  a  port, 
although  possessed  of  special  facilities  for  the  construction  of  one. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Cape  of  Agde,  which  is  an  extinct  volcano,  the 
ancient  rocky  islands  along  that  coast,  now  joined  to  the  mainland  by  alluvial 
deposits,  are  composed  of  cretaceous  or  Jurassic  limestone.  The  ancient  crater  of 
Agde  has  been  converted  into  a  vineyard.  Streams  of  lava  extend  from  it  in  all 
directions.     A  few  minor  volcanoes  are  near  it. 

The  ancient  coast,  such  as  it  existed  before  the  volcano  of  Agde  had  become  a 
portion  of  the  mainland,  can  still  be  traced  by  following  the  contours  of  the  hills 


Fig.  82.— The  Lagoon  of  Thau. 


.  5  Miles. 


bounding  the  alluvial  plains.  Lagoons,  or  etangs,  extend  along  the  whole  of 
the  coast,  from  the  very  foot  of  the  Alberes ;  and  where  no  sediment-bearing  rivers 
flow  into  them,  they  are  of  considerable  area  and  depth.  That  of  Leucate  is  a  case 
in  point.  No  river  flows  into  it,  but  close  by,  at  the  foot  of  a  limestone  rock,  rise 
the  remarkable  springs  of  Salses,  now  known  as  Font-Dame  and  Font-Estramer, 
discharging  streams  of  water  having  nearly  the  same  chemical  composition  as  that 
of  the  ocean.  At  the  side  of  the  Font-Estramer  grows  a  species  of  reed — Phrag- 
mites  gigantea — which  is  not  met  with  anywhere  else  in  Europe. 

The  lugoon  of  Thau  (Taphrus),  between  the  volcano  of  Agde  and  the  hills  of 


COAST-LINE  AND  LAGOONS. 


Ill 


La  GartUole  (774  feet),  is  the  most  important  of  all,  on  account  of  its  great  depth 
and  tlie  towns  which  line  its  shores.  This  little  sea  of  18,500  acres  is  separated  from 
the  Mediterranean  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land.  A  narrow  clianncl,  furnished  with 
locks,  and  forming  the  eastern  termination  of  the  Great  Southern  Canal,  connects  it 
with  the  open  sea.  Another  canal,  nearly  40  miles  in  length,  places  it  in  communica- 
tion with  the  delta  of  the  Rhone.  The  lagoon  is  thus  of  considerable  importance 
to  navigation.  Its  waters  are  as  salt  as  those  of  the  sea,  except  after  heavy  rains 
and  near  the  mouths  of  some  of  the  rivers  which  enter  it.     A  bounteous  spring. 

Fig.  83. — BioN'OMiCAL  Condition  of  the  Littoiial  Region  of  Hkkaii.t. 


The  drclea  Indicate  proportionaJly  to  what  extent  the  mean  age  at  death  is  inferior  to  that 

throngboat  France. 
The  asterisk  denotes  a  locality  where  the  mean  age  is  higher  than  the  average  throughout  France* 


known  as  the  "  Abize  "  (abyss),  rises  from  the  bottom  of  the  lagoon  in  the  north, 
and  not  far  from  it  there  is  an  intermittent  spring  which  discharges  fresh  water 
during  winter,  up  to  April,  but  swallows  up  the  water  of  the  lagoon,  a  phenomenon 
similar  to  what  has  been  noticed  at  Argostoli,  on  the  island  of  Cephalonia.  The 
lagoon  of  Thau  is  public  property,  and  supplies  annually  £40,000  worth  of 
fish  and  shells.  Oysters  are  said  to  have  abounded  in  it  formerly,  and  an  old 
bed  has  been  dbcovered  at  a  distance  of  500  yards  from  the  modern  beach,  but  an 
attempt  to  breed  oysters  there  has  failed  signally. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  lagoons  might  easily  be  drained  and  converted 

i2 


112 


FEANCE. 


into  fertile  fields.  Experiments  on  a  small  scale,  which  were  made  at  Narbonne 
and  Vic,  have  been  attended  by  the  most  perfect  success.  This  is  not  merely  a 
question  of  converting  60,000  acres  of  lagoon,  at  present  producing  only  fish, 
willows,  and  reeds,  into  productive  arable  land  ;  it  is  still  more  important  in  its  bear- 
ings upon  the  salubrity  of  the  climate.  M.  Regy  has  calculated  that  these  swamps 
shorten  the  lives  of  the  people  who  reside  near  them  to  the  extent  of  ten,  fifteen, 
and  even  nineteen  j^ears.  More  than  half  the  children  at  Mireval  and  Yias  die  before 
they  have  attained  their  sixth  year,  and  strangers  who  settle  in  the  country  almost 


Fig.  84. — Etang  de  Berre. 
Scale  1 :  320,000. 


.  5  Miles. 


invariably  suSer  from  marsh  fever.  Those  lagoons  which  are  over  3  feet  in 
depth  do  not  injuriously  affect  the  health  of  the  people  who  live  near  them,  and 
the  mortality  at  Cette  and  other  places  on  the  lagoon  of  Thau  is  hardly  greater 
than  in  the  rest  of  France.  But  when  the  water,  owing  to  its  shallowness,  attains 
a  temperature  of  82°  F.,  it  becomes  dangerous  to  health.  These  shallow  lagoons 
ought,  therefore,  either  to  be  suppressed,  or  be  made  to  communicate  freely  with 
the  open  sea.  In  the  case  of  the  lagoon  of  Mauguio  the  latter  has  already  been 
done,   and    the  same  treatment  would   prove   eiBcacious  with  those   of  Vic  and 


COAST-LIXE  AND  LAGOONS. 


lid 


Frontignaii  ;  but  il.  Rt^gy  is  of  opiuion  that  all  others,  being  very  shallow,  sliould 
be  converted  into  polders  without  loss  of  time. 

The  changes  in  the  configuration  of  the  lagoons  have  led,  within  the  historical 
period,  to  a  di>placement  of  the  principal  towns.  Astruc,  more  than  a  century 
ago,  observed  that  the  names  of  the  towns  on  the  hills  were  Celtic,  whilst  those 
near  the  coast  invariably  bore  Greek  or  Latin  appellations.  It  may  fairly  bo 
inferred  from  this  that  the  coast  became  habitable  only  at  a  comparatively  recent 
epoch.  The  encroachment  of  the  land  upon  the  sea  enabled  the  inhabitants  to 
found  quite  a  chain  of  new  towns,  including  Agde,  Cette,  Frontignan,  and  Aigues- 
Mortes.  Maguelone,  however,  which  formerly  stood  upon  an  island,  now  joined 
to  the  mainland,  appears  to  be  of  ancient  foundation.  It  was  a  busy  place  of 
commerce  as  long  as  the  Saracens  held  it.  After  their  expulsion  by  Charles 
Martel  it  again  rose  from  its  ashes,  but  having  become  a  place  of  refuge  of  the 

Fig.  85. — Tub  Canal  op  Cabontb. 
Scale  1 :  8S.00O. 


Protestants,  it  was  finally  destroyed  by  order  of  Louis  XIII.,  and  there  now  only 
remains  an  ancient  church,  forming  a  prominent  object  in  the  midst  of  the  sands. 


The  only  lagoons  to  the  east  of  the  Rhone  which  originated  in  the  same 
manner  as  those  on  the  Lion  Gulf  are  those  of  Valduc,  Engrenier,  and  several 
others,  which  formerly  communicated  with  the  sea  through  a  channel,  now  closed 
by  a  bar,  and  known  as  the  lagoon  of  Estomac  (Stoma-Limne).  As  to  the  lagoons 
of  Valduc  and  Engrenier,  they  are  shut  oflf  from  the  Mediterranean  altogether, 
and,  owing  to  an  excess  of  evaporation,  their  level,  on  an  average,  is  about 
30  feet  lower  than  that  of  the  sea.  They  are  miniature  Caspians,  and  yield  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  salt. 

The  large  inland  sea  known  as  Etang  de  Berre  is  not  a  Ugoon,  but  a  gulf, 
separated  from  the  Mediterranean  by  a  rocky  ridge.  The  Romans  had  a  port  on 
this  gulf,  but  it  is  now  only  frequented  by  a  few  fishermen,  and  not  a  single  town 


114 


FRANCE. 


rises  from  its  shores  ;  and  yet,  by  deepening  the  canal  of  Caronte,  which  joins  it  to 
the  Mediterranean,  this  great  natural  harbour  might  be  rendered  accessible  to  the 
largest  vessels.  If  the  Etang  de  Borre  belonged  to  England,  it  would  long  ago 
have  been  converted  into  a  great  commercial  and  naval  depot.  Vessels  at  anchor 
within  it  are  not  only  beyond  the  reach  of  an  enemy's  guns,  but,  being  hidden  by 
the  coast  range  of  Estaque,  the)'  are  actually  out  of  sight.  The  owners  of  the 
fisheries,  or  bonligiies,  are  bound  to  dredge  the  canal  of  Caronte  to  a  depth  of 
39  inches.  AYere  they  to  neglect  doing  so,  it  would  quickly  become  choked, 
and  the  Etang  de  Eerre  shut  off  from  the  sea. 


Climate.* 

Ho■^^'EVER  striking  the  differences  between  the  littoral  regions  on  both  sides  of  the 
Rhone,  they  enjoy  the  same  climate,  alwaj's  excepting  the  fever-stricken  neigh- 
bourhoods of  the  swamps.     This 
Fig.  86.— The  Preyailixo  Winds  at  Aigues-Moetes.         climate   differs  essentially  from 

what  is  met  with  in  the  remain- 
der of  France,  for  land  winds 
predominate  here,  whilst  sea 
winds  prevail  in  all  the  depart- 
ments beyond  the  Cevennes  and 
the  wide  valley  of  the  Rhone. 
The  air  is  drier,  and  it  rains  less 
frequently,  though,  as  a  rule,  iu 
heavy  showers. 

No  visitor  to  the  south  of 
France  can  have  failed  to  notice 
the  gusts  of  north-westerly  wind 
which  blow  from  the  Cevennes, 
and  are  jiroduced  by  local  causes. 
This  violent  wind  is  known  as 
"  mistral "  [mofjis  traou)  or 
"  master,"  and  it  fully  deserves  that  epithet,  for  its  velocity  sometimes  equals  that 
of  a  hurricane.  Strabo  tells  us  that  this  "  black  norther"  lifted  men  off  their  cars 
and  carried  away  their  clothes,  and  in  our  days  it  has  overturned  railway  trains. 
Not  a  tree  in  the  plains  of  Avignon  and  on  the  islands  of  the  Rhone  but  exhibits 
traces  of  its  violence.  The  originating  cause  of  this  wind  must  be  looked  for  in  the 
great  contrast  between  a  sandy  beach  scorched  by  the  raj^s  of  the  sun  and  a  snow-clad 
mountain  range.  The  heated  air  above  the  former  rises,  whilst  the  cold  mountain 
air  rushes  down  the  hillsides  to  establish  an  equilibrium.  The  gieater  the 
difference  between  the  temjjerature  of  these  two  atmospheric  strata,  the  greater  the 
violence  of  the  wind.    In  the  night,  when  the  beach  has  cooled  down  by  radiation, 


On  the  rains  in  Herault  see  a  paper  by  M.  Ch.  Martins,  in  Mem.  de  I'Ac.  de  Montpellier,  riii.  1872. 


ATJDE.  115 

there  is  a  lull,  and  at  some  distance  from  the  land  it  is  hardly  felt  at  all.  In 
spite  of  the  dread  it  inspires,  the  mistral  is  a  welcome  visitor,  for  it  purifies  the 
air  of  the  to\ms,  which  are  not  always  remarkahle  for  cleanliness. 

The  contrasts  existing  between  the  coast  regions  and  the  mountains,  and  the 
winds  resulting  therefrom,  account  for  the  frequency  of  thunder-storms  in  the  low 
lands.  As  long  as  the  mistral  and  the  sea  wind  are  not  engaged  in  a  conflict,  the 
clouds  drift  towards  the  mountains,  and  there  descend  in  rain.  But  when  the 
mistral,  blowing  in  the  higher  strata  of  the  atmosphere,  is  mot  by  the  cloud-laden 
sea  breeze,  an  exchange  of  electricity  takes  i)luce  between  them,  and  the  rain 
descends  in  torrents.  As  a  rule  the  rainfall  increases  as  we  proceed  from  the  coast 
towards  the  mountains,  and  is  most  copious  in  autumn.  There  are,  however, 
many  exceptions  to  this  rule,  and  there  have  been  years  when  it  rained  most 
heavily  in  February,  and  scarcely  at  all  in  autumn.  This  capriciousness  of  the 
climate  appears  to  be  reflected  in  the  character  of  the  "  Gavaches  "  of  the  Cevennes 
and  the  "  Franciaux  "  of  Dauphin^.  They,  too,  have  their  bursts  of  passion,  but 
quickly  calm  down,  being  not  unlike,  in  this  respect,  to  the  mistral  or  to  a 
thunder-storm. 


Topography. 

Ai'DE. — This  department,  named  after  its  principal  river,  is  eminently  a  land 
of  passage,  bordering  upon  the  Mediterranean,  but  partly  lying  within  the  basin 
of  the  Garonne.  It  is  almost  exclusively  an  agricultural  country,  manufactures 
existing  only  in  the  to\NTis  and  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Hers.  Less  than  one- 
third  of  its  area  is  under  cultivation,  and  although  its  vineyards  are  of  some 
importance,  the  population  is  far  from  dense. 

Castelnaudary  (7,628  inhabitants),  on  the  water-shed  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Atlantic,  has  played  a  great  part  during  the  civil  wars  ;  but  the 
frequent  sieges  which  it  has  undergone  have  prevented  it  from  becoming  a  great 
commercial  town.  "Windmills  now  occupy  the  sites  of  its  ancient  forts,  it  is  the 
busiest  ship-yard  on  the  Canal  du  Midi,  and  manufactures  coarse  cloths,  like  most 
other  towns  of  that  part  of  Languedoc.  Bclpcch  (978  inhabitants),  6Vc.  Colomhe, 
and  Chalabre  (1,792  inhabitants),  all  of  them  to  the  south,  on  the  Tipper  Hers, 
are  likewise  noted  for  their  cloths  and  linens. 

The  river  Aude  enters  the  department  thi-ough  the  terrible  gorge  of  Car- 
canieres.  Lower  down  it  flows  past  QidUan  (2,286  inhabitants),  a  busy  place, 
with  saw-mills  supplied  with  fir-trees  from  the  forest  of  Sault,  in  the  Pyrenees. 
There  are  several  noted  mineral  springs  in  the  vicinity,  including  the  suljjhur 
springs  of  Gino/cs,  in  the  south-west ;  the  ferruginous  springs  of  Eennes-les-Bains, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Sals,  to  the  north-east ;  and  those  of  Couiza  and  Alct,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Aude.  Alet  was  the  seat  of  a  bishop  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
its  ancient  episcopal  palace  still  overtowers  all  its  other  houses.  Still  following 
the  Aude,  we  arrive  at  Limoux  (6,037  inhabitants),  on  the  white  hills  of  which 
is  grown  a  wine  known   as  hianqiiette.     Its   manufactures   of  cloth   and  felt  are 


116 


FBANCE. 


of  little  importance  now.  Carcassonne  (23,517  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the 
department,  occupies  a  favourable  site  at  the  elbow  of  the  Aude,  and  on  the 
high-road  connecting  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic.  The  mediseval  "  city  " 
occupies  a  hill,  and  its  walls  and  towers,  erected  between  the  fifth  and  the  four- 
teenth centuries,  as  well  as  several  remarkable  old  buildings,  still  remain  to  it. 
The  lower  town,  however,  is  h\  far  the  most  populous.  Its  fortifications  have 
been  razed  to  gain  space  for  houses  and  manufactures.  Carcassonne,  besides 
manufacturing  much  cloth,  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce  with  wines  and 
agricultural  produce,  and  also  exports  the  fine  marbles  of  Caunes  (1,998  inha- 
bitants) . 

Narbonne  (18,325  inhabitants),  the  maritime  capital  of  the  department,  was 
of  far  greater  importance  during  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  when  it  boasted 

Fig.  87.— The  Port  or  La  Nouvelle. 
Scale  1 :  3,000. 


1,000  Yards. 


of  80,000  inhabitants,  and  of  magnificent  public  buildings,  of  which  only  few 
traces  exist  now.  The  church  of  St.  Just  is  the  most  remarkable  amongst 
its  medifEval  buildings.  The  geographical  position  of  Narbonne  is  excellent, 
but,  owing  to  the  silting  up  of  the  lagoons  and  canals,  it  no  longer  enjoys  the 
advantages  of  a  maritime  citJ^  The  canal  which  connects  it  with  its  port  of 
La  Nouvelle  is  only  navigable  for  fishing-smacks,  and  possesses  no  importance 
whatever.  The  environs  of  the  city,  however,  have  been  brought  under  cultivation, 
and  there  is  a  busy  trade  in  wine. 

The  most  important  towns  of  the  arrondissement  of  Narbonne  are  Lizignan 
(4,402  inhabitants),  with  numerous  distilleries,  and  Sigcan  (3,510  inhabitants),  on 
a  hill  overlooking  the  lagoon  and  its  salt  works.  Gruissan  (2,382  inhabitants)  is 
hardly  more  than  a  village  of  salt-makers  and  fishermen,  whilst  Coursan  (2,507 
inhabitants),   in  the  valley  of  the  Aude,  stands  in  the  most  fertile  district  of  the 


■■::,  '•'•.:.::-::•:' .•••^ : .;.' •.•.•:;.;•:.' :.:•••••  ".••^^-r^ v--^;:-;; -i^B 


He 
tbe 
ty» 
w- 
lit. 
me 


tas 


lew 

the 
:ot 
ince 


p» 


.'.•.x '*•'•'/ '••••-' 


VvxVV/,...s' 


'.'.'•v 


I'.  .».\^ 


''.•.^^ 


''/,  Vv    v/ 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

^INIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS, 


HERAULT.  117 

department.  Annii<saii,  in  the  mountains  of  La  Clape,  has  limestone  quarries 
which  have  j-ielded  the  fossil  bones  of  saurians  and  batrachians,  which  lived 
here  at  an  epoch  when  a  vast  lake  occupied  the  greater  portion  of  southern 
Languedoc.  The  village  of  Bizc,  in  the  defiles  of  the  Ccsse,  has  become  famous 
through  its  caves,  in  which  bones  and  stone  implements  have  been  found.  Durban, 
in  the  hills  of  the  Corbieres,  noted  for  their  honey,  has  a  few  coal  mines. 

Herati.t  is  one  of  the  wealthiest  departments  of  France.  Its  coal  mines  are 
annually  increasing  in  importance  ;  its  lagoons  are  more  productive  than  any 
others  along  the  Mediterranean ;  its  vineyards  supplj'  between  4,000,000  and 
7,000,000  gallons  of  wine  annually ;  and  railways  traverse  it  in  all  directions. 
Unfortunately  the  ravages  of  the  phylloxera  threaten  destruction  to  one  of  the 
great  sources  of  wealth  of  the  dcijartment.  In  some  of  the  invaded  districts  the 
peasants  have  taken  to  the  cultivation  of  Javanese  hemp,  a  plant  said  to  yield 
a  fibre  "  finer  than  cotton,  stronger  than  flax,  and  as  brilliant  as  silk."  The 
density  of  population  is  about  equal  to  the  average  throughout  France,  although 
the  barren  mountains  in  the  north  are  only  thinly  peopled  by  "  Gavaches,"  who 
leave  their  homes  in  the  autumn  to  assist  in  the  vintage. 

The  village  of  Minerce  has  given  its  name  to  the  entire  region  drained  by 
the  Cesse  and  by  other  tributaries  of  the  Aude.  The  romantic  spot  at  which  the 
Cesse  is  joined  by  the  Brian  was  formerly  dedicated  to  Minerva,  and  although 
the  heathen  deity  has  since  been  superseded  by  St.  Rustique,  her  name  still 
lives  in  the  village  and  in  the  castle  which  commands  it.  This  castle  was 
captured  in  1210  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  who  had  its  defenders  burnt  alive. 

St.  Pons  (3,358  inhabitants),  the  chief  town  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
department,  lies  at  the  mouth  of  a  much-frequented  gap  of  the  Cevennes.  Like 
its  smaller  neighbours,  Riols  (1,121  inhabitants)  and  St.  Chinian  (2,690  inha- 
bitants), it  carries  on  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  an  industry  which  likewise  forms 
the  chief  support  oi  Bedaricux  (7,372  inhabitants),  on  the  Upper  Orb.  The  latter, 
however,  has  also  cotton-mills,  dye  works,  tanneries,  paper-mills,  and  glass  works. 
Near  it  are  the  coal-pits  of  Graissessac  (2,632  inhabitants),  yielding  nearly  300,000 
tons  a  year.  Copper  and  argentiferous  lead  are  found  in  the  neighbouring  hills, 
and  close  to  the  town,  in  the  valley  of  La  Malon,  tliere  are  hot  and  cold  sjjrings, 
similar  to  those  of  Yichy. 

Beziers  (36,928  inhabitants),  on  the  Lower  Orb,  is  one  of  the  historical  cities  of 
France.  Its  inhabitants  still  call  themselves  "Biterrois,"  from  Bsterra:,  the  old 
name  of  their  town.  The  latter  has  frequently  been  burnt  down,  but  has  always 
risen  from  its  ashes,  and  is  now  one  of  the  great  wine  and  brandy  marts  of  France. 
There  are  scarcely  any  traces  of  Roman  buildings,  but  amongst  the  mediaeval 
churches  is  that  of  the  Madeleine,  in  which  took  place,  in  1209,  an  indiscriminate 
massacre  of  heretics,  whose  wives  and  daughters  were  divided  amongst  the 
Aragonese  soldiery.  Of  modem  structures  the  most  remarkable  is  the  aqueduct  of 
the  Canal  du  Midi. 

The  basin  of  the  Herault  can  boast  of  no  town  the  equal  in  population  and 
commerce  to  Beziers,  but  it  abounds  in  factories.     Lodei^e  (10,198  inhabitants),  on 


118 


PEANOE. 


the  Ergue,  has  huge  cloth-mills,  much  of  the  wool  used  being  grown  on  the  neigh- 
bouring plateau  of  Larzac  and  on  the  heaths  of  the  Cevennes. 

Clermont-t HevauU  (5,685  inhabitants)  and  several  other  places  lower  down  on 
the  same  river  are  likewise  engaged  in  the  woollen  manufiicture.  Ganges  (4,345 
inhabitants),  on  the  Herault,  and  close  to  the  frontier  of  the  department,  has  silk 
and  cotton  mills.  The  river  thence  passes  through  a  picturesque  gorge  abounding 
in  natural  curiosities.  At  Aniane  (3,457  inhabitants),  with  its  old  abbey  converted 
into  a  penitentiary,  and  Gignac  (2,653  inhabitants),  with  an  old  chapel  much  fre- 
quented by  pilgrims,  we  enter  upon  the  region  of  vineyards.  Pezcnas  (7,570 
inhabitants),  on  the  Lower  Herault,  has  been  known  from  the  time  of  the  Eomans 
for  its  excellent  wooUen  stuffs,  but  it  has  also  many  vinegar  works,  distilleries,  and 

Fig.  88. — The  Harbour  op  Cette. 
Scale  1 :  35,350. 


l'S.'53'£  of  P. 


cooperies,  and  almost  monopolizes  the  trade  in  acetate  of  copper,  a  substance  much 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  colours. 

Agde  (7,728  inhabitants),  the  natural  outlet  of  this  industrial  district,  might 
have  become  a  great  emporium  if  its  harbour  had  afforded  better  facilities.  It  is 
more  remarkable  now  for  its  black  houses,  built  of  blocks  of  lava,  than  for  its  com- 
merce, which  has  deserted  it  in  favour  of  the  modern  town  of  Cette  (28,152  inha- 
bitants). This  town  stands  on  a  channel  connecting  the  lagoon  of  Thau  with  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  Canal  du  Midi,  and  although  it  has  not 
realised  the  expectation  of  its  founders,  it  has  become  one  of  the  great  ports  of 
France.  Its  exports  consist  mainly  of  salt  procured  from  the  neighbouring 
lagoons,  wine,  coal,  and  ores.      There  are  numerous  factories,  but  not  a  single 


GAED.  lig 

building  of  note,  and  owing  to  the  absence  of  irccs,  the  aspect  of  the  country  is  far 
from  inviting.  Jlarscillaii  (3,885  inhabitants),  Meze  (6,501  inhabitants),  Bottzigncs, 
a  fishing  \'illage,  and  Bahnuc,  with  hot  mineral  springs,  lie  on  the  lagoon  of  Thau, 
and  constitute  outposts  of  Cette.  Froiifii/iinii  (2,ni0  inhabitants),  famous  for  its 
muscatel  grown  on  the  slopes  of  Gardiole,  lies  to  the  north  of  Ccttc,  and  is  joined 
to  it  by  an  embankment. 

Moiifpcllier  (51,838  inhabitants),  the  most  populous  town  of  the  department,  the 
head-quarters  of  the  civil  and  military  authorities,  wa.s  known  in  Gallo-Iioman 
times  as  Sextautio,  and  then  stood  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lez,  on  a  site  now 
occupied  by  the  village  of  Castelnau.  After  the  destruction  of  this  ancient  town 
by  Charles  Martel  its  inhabitants  established  themselves  on  the  Moiis  Pessulaiiiis, 
on  the  other  bank  of  the  river.  MontpcUier  may  justly  boast  of  its  schools,  its 
museums  and  scicntitic  collections,  and  its  botanical  gardens,  the  oldest  in  all 
Europe,  in  which  Tournefort  and  A.  de  Jussieu  created  their  systems.  Its  phy- 
sicians became  famous  in  the  twelfth  century,  thanks  to  the  influence  exercised  in 
Langucdoc  by  tlic  Moors.  Tlie  names  of  Nostradamus,  Eondclet,  Hauhin,  and  De 
CandoUe  are  associated  with  its  schools,  and  there  was  a  time  when  Montpellier 
rivalled  Paris  as  a  seat  of  learning.  There  is  a  citadel,  but  no  enciente  hems  in 
the  town,  and  from  the  delightful  walks  of  the  Peyrou  the  eye  ranges  freely  over 
the  whole  of  the  country  from  the  Cevennes  to  the  sea,  and  looks  down  upon  the 
noble  aqueduct  which  conveys  to  this  the  waters  of  the  springs  of  Boulidou. 
Blankets,  soap,  and  candles  are  manufactured,  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  in 
wine.  The  town,  unfortunately,  has  no  port  of  its  own,  for  the  Lez  is  navigable 
only  for  barges,  and  PaJavaii,  at  its  mouth,  is  accessible  only  to  fishing- smacks. 
Formerly  the  town  exported  its  products  through  Laitcs,  on  the  lagoon,  or 
through  Jfagueloiie,  on  the  Mediterranean,  but  at  present  it  avails  itself  of  the 
facilities  afforded  by  Cette.  Amongst  the  smaller  towns  near  Montpellier  may  be 
mentioned  Sf.  Gcon/rs  d'Orqncs  and  LiincI  (8,024  inhabitants),  both  of  which 
produce  excellent  wines. 

Gard. — This  department  is  named  after  the  river  Gard,  or  Garden,  which  flows 
through  its  centre.  It  extends  from  the  Rhone  to  the  crest  of  the  Cevennes,  and 
even  beyond,  and  borders  upon  the  Mediterranean  only  for  a  small  distance.  The 
natural  resources  of  Gard  are  very  considerable.  It  produces  coal,  iron,  and  salt, 
as  well  as  silk  (about  5,000,000  lbs.  a  year),  but  its  vineyards  have  been  almost 
destroyed  recently  by  the  invasion  of  the  phylloxera.  The  number  of  Protestants 
in  the  department  is  still  very  considerable,  for  the  Cevennes  aiiordcd  them  a  place 
of  refuge  in  times  of  persecution.  Religious  animosities  arc  not  yet  dead,  and  in 
periods  of  political  excitement  they  still  come  to  the  surface.  Even  at  Nimes,  where 
the  Protestants  constitute  rather  more  than  a  fourth  of  the  population — about  the 
proportion  throughout  the  department — they  inhabit  a  separate  quarter  of  the 
town,  and  Meyerbeer's  Huguenots  has  never  been  heard  there. 

Le  Vigan  (4,340  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  that  portion  of  the  department 
which  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Herault,  carries  on  the  manufacture  of  gloves 
and  silk  caps,  as  does  also  its  neighbour,  Suiiiine  (1,972  inhabitants),  and  owns 


120 


FRANCE. 


coal-pits  and  quarries  of  lithographic  stones.  The  towns  in  the  valley  of  the 
Vidourle  and  of  the  plains  of  Vaunage,  which  extend  thence  towards  Nimes — such 
as  St.  Hippohjfe-lc-Fort  (3,960  inhabitants),  Saure  (2,070  inhabitants),  Sommieres 
(3,588  inhabitants),  and  Gallargues  (1,947  inhabitants) — are  for  the  most  part 
inhabited  by  Protestants  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  woollen,  cotton,  and  silk 
stuffs.  Sauve  is  known  for  its  wooden  forks,  and  Gallargues,  until  quite  recently, 
prepared  wrappers  for  Dutch  cheeses  by  a  very  nasty  process,  hapf)ily  superseded 
through  the  discovery  of  aniline. 

La  Salle  (1,934  inhabitants)  and  Andiize  (4,250  inhabitants),  on  the  "Western 
Gardon,  have  some  manufactures,  but  the  great  industrial  centre  of  this  portion  of 


Fiff.  89. — The  Pkotestant  Conoreg.4tions  in  the  South  of  France. 


the  Cevennes  lies  between  Alais  (16,726  inhabitants)  and  GmmV Comhe  (5,342 
inhabitants),  where  coal  abounds,  and  iron  works,  foundries,  lead  and  copper  works, 
machine  shops,  glass  and  chemical  works,  have  sprung  into  existence.  Another- 
coal-field  lies  to  the  north,  in  the  valley  of  the  Ceze,  its  centres  being  Besseges 
(7,953  inhabitants),  BoUac  (4,290  inhabitants),  and  St.  Amhroix  (3,410  inha- 
bitants). The  coal  won  in  these  two  districts  is  already  competing  with  English 
coal  in  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean.  Alais,  moreover,  is  one  of  the  great  raw- 
silk  marts  in  France.* 

The  arrondissement  of  Uzes,  which  comprises  the  valleys  of  the  Lower  Ceze  and 
Gardon,  and  extends  in  the  east  to  the  Rhone,  has  a  few  silk-mills  and  other  manu- 


lu  1875  the  department  produced  1,692,000  tons  of  coal,  and  85,800  tons  of  pig-iron. 


xiiTES.  121 

factories,  but  is  chiefly  noted  for  some  remarkable  buildings.  Uzh  (4,8G5  inha- 
bitants) has  an  old  cathedral ;  at  Remoulins  there  is  a  remarkable  Roman 
aqueduct  over  the  Gard ;  and  Pout  St.  Esprit  (3,882  inhabitants)  is  famous  for  its 
bridge  over  the  Rhone,  which  is  2,75G  feet  in  length,  and  was  constructed 
between  1265  and  1309.  Bagiwh-stir-Ceze  (3,868  inhabitants)  is  a  busy  place  of 
commerce. 

Kimcs  (60,804  inhabitants),  next  to  Marseilles  and  Toulon  the  largest  town  of 
Southern  France,  lies  in  an  arid  plain  far  away  from  any  navigable  river.  It 
arose  probably  around  the  sanctuary  of  Xemausus,  a  god  of  the  ancient  Celts,  to 
whom  the  Romans  likewise  subsequently  raised  altars.  Formerly,  before  a  canal 
supplied  the  town  with  water  from  the  Rhone,  the  citj'  was  dependent  for  its  water 
upon  a  single  "  fountain  "  yielding  only  sixteen  pints  a  minute,  and  the  washer- 
women then  travelled  every  morning  to  the  Rhone,  15  miles  distant,  to  clean  their 
linen.  But  in  spite  of  want  of  water,  Is  imes,  owing  to  its  being  situated  on  the 
high-road  between  the  Rhone  valley  and  the  western  shore  of  the  Lion  Gulf,  has  at 
all  times  enjoyed  a  considerable  amount  of  prosperity.  It  abounds  in  Roman 
remains,  but  with  the  exception  of  a  temple  of  the  age  of  Augustus,  now  used  as  a 
museum,  and  of  a  huge  amphitheatre  occasionally  visited  by  Spanish  toreros,  they 
are  in  ruins.  X imes  is  a  busy  manufacturing  town.  About  the  middle  of  last 
century  it  was  noted  for  its  silks  ;  but  most  of  its  workmen  are  engaged  now  in 
the  production  of  shagis^velvet-pile  carpgivand  silk  pocket-handkerchiefs.  The 
industry  of  the  town  has  suffered,  however,  through  the  loss  of  the  American 
market,  and  the  competition  of  Aubusson  and  Beauvais,  and  living  is  no  longer  as 
cheap  there  as  it  used  to  be,  mainly  in  consequence  of  the  destruction  of  the  vine- 
yards. Efforts  are,  however,  being  made  to  create  fresh  industries.  Chinese 
bamboos  have  been  acclimatized  with  success,  and  are  converted  into  fancy  furni- 
ture, which  already  forms  an  article  of  export  to  Great  Britain. 

Beaiicaire,  the  ancient  Ugemum  (7,956  inhabitants),  at  the  head  of  the  Rhone 
delta,  and  united  with  its  sister  town  of  Tarascon  by  a  suspension  bridge,  is  the 
commercial  port  of  Nimes.  Raj-mond  YI.  of  Toulouse  did  well  when  he  built  a 
fort  at  that  place  in  1217,  and  established  a  fair  there,  which  formerly  attracted 
as  many  as  300,000  strangers  from  Italy  and  every  part  of  France.  This  fair  is  still 
held  annually,  but  it  is  attended  by  pleasure-seekers  rather  than  merchants,  and  its 
business  transactions  have  declined  from  £1,200,000,  in  1836,  to  £80,000  in  1874. 

St.  Gi/lcs  (5,705  inhabitants),  on  the  Little  Rhone,  was  a  busy  port  during 
the  twelfth  century,  but  the  canal  which  connects  it  with  the  sea  is  onlj-  navigable 
now  for  barges,  and  its  streets  wear  an  aspect  of  desolation.  Aigues-Mortes  (3,167 
inhabitants)  is  actually  the  only  maritime  port  of  Nimes  and  of  its  wealthy  neigh- 
bour Vaurert  (3,935  inhabitants),  but  it  is  even  more  forsaken  than  St.  Gilles. 
On  looking  at  its  crenellated  walls,  we  might  fancy  ourselves  transplanted  to 
another  age.  These  walls,  however,  frequently  protect  the  town  against  being 
invaded  by  the  floods  of  the  Rhone.  The  inhabitants  of  Aigues-Mortes  depend 
mainly  upon  their  fisheries,  their  salt  works,  and  the  cultivation  of  reeds,  for  thero 
is  hardly  any  foreign  commerce. 


122 


FRANCE. 


Ardeche  lies  to  tlie  aorth  of  Gard,  between  the  Ehoue  and  tlie  Cevennes,  and 
almost  corresponds  with  the  ancient  province  of  Vivarais.  Nearly  all  its  rivers  flow 
to  the  Ardeche,  or  direct  into  the  Rhone,  but  Mont  Gerbier  de  Jones  (5,092  feet), 
which  gives  birth  to  the  Loire,  rises  within  its  limits.  Geographically  the  depart- 
ment consists  of  two  regions,  separated  by  the  limestone  range  of  Coiron.  The 
basin  of  the  Ardeche  resembles  Gard  as  to  its  aspect,  productions,  and  indus- 
tries, whilst  the  northern  portion  of  the  department,  traversed  by  the  Erieux,  the 
Doux,  and  their  numerous  tributaries,  recalls  Forez  and  the  Lyonnais.     Ardeche, 

Fig.  90. — Beaixaike  and  Takasoon. 
Scale  1 :  80,000. 


2°|ao£of  Paria 


,  1  Mile. 


the  native  country  of  Olivier  de  Serres,  the  agriculturist,  is  one  of  the  best-culti- 
vated districts  of  France.  Even  its  mountain  slopes  are  laid  out  in  terraces,  whilst 
the  high  slopes  are  covered  with  chestnut  forests.  This  department,  too,  has 
suffered  from  the  ravages  of  phylloxera  and  from  disease  amongst  its  silkworms. 

Laryentih-e  ("2,374  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  western  arrondissement,  has 
lost  every  importance  since  its  silver  mines  have  become  exhausted,  and  Auhenas 
(5,082  inhabitants)  is  at  present  the  leading  town  of  the  valley  of  the  Ardeche. 
The  neighbourhood  produces  much  silk,  and  there  are  silk-mills,  paper-mills,  and 
tan-yards.     About  5  miles  to  the  north  of  that  town,  and  close  to  the  extinct 


ARDi:CHE. 


123 


volcano  of  Vivarais,  are  the  mineral   springs  of    Vals  (1,785  inhabitanto),  which 
have  recently  become  very  popuhir. 

Viiiers  (2,003  inhabitants),  on  the  Rhone,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Vivarais, 
and  still  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  now  only  a.  magnificent  cathedral  and  fortifica- 
tions to  remind  us  of  its  days  of  grandeur.  At  Aps,  a  village  in  the  valley  of 
the  Escoutay,  which  debouches  at  Vivicrs,  are  Roman  ruins,  and  the  site  has 


Fig.  91. — Tub  Inv.\siox  of  tiik  riivLLOxEiiA. 


Fla^tK,  in.  iC6a 


Tloffue-  in.  i8j3 


Pla^foe.  in  iSj4. 


been  identified  with  Alba  Augusta  of  the  Romans.  JBoiirg  St.  Amli-ol  (3,800 
inhabitants),  below  Viviers,  has  a  few  mills  propelled  by  the  water  of  the  fountain 
of  Toumes,  and  F)-eil  (1,771  inhabitants),  above  it,  exports  annually  thousands  of 
tons  of  hydraulic  lime. 

Following  the  Rhone  upwards,  we  pass  the  old  castle  of  Rochcmaure,  and, 
turning  off  to  the  left,  arrive  at  Pricas  (5,932   inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the 


124  FEANCE. 

department,  witli  silk  and  clotlt  factories,  tan-yards,  and  other  manufactures.  At 
Chomerac  (1,131  inhabitants),  close  by,  there  are  limestone  quarries,  and  near 
the  village  of  St.  Priest  most  productive  iron  mines.  The  ore  procured 
there  is  conveyed  to  the  ii.'cn  works  of  La  Voulte  (3,982  inhabitants)  and  Le 
Pouzin  (2,611  inhabitants),  both  on  the  Rhone.  Again  following  the  river,  we 
reach  Valence,  the  capital  of  Drome,  opposite  to  which  are  the  magnificent  ruins 
of  Cnissol,  as  well  as  the  rlneyards  of  St.  Peraij  (1,762  inhabitants),  the  growth 
of  which  is  frequently  sold  as  "  Ermitage."  Tournon  (4,947  inhabitants),  higher 
up  on  the  river,  which  is  there  spanned  by  the  oldest  suspension  bridge  in  France, 
is  close  to  the  hill  which  priiduces  veritable  Ermitage. 

Annonay  (13,738  inhabitants),  in  the  north  of  the  department,  is  one  of  the 
great  manufacturing  towns  of  France.  Goat-skins  are  dressed  there  in  vast 
numbers,  and  felt,  silk  stuffs,  and  paper  are  manufactured,  the  motive  power  being 
supplied  by  a  canal  fed  by  a  huge  reservoir.  It  was  from  this  town  that  Mont- 
golfier  ascended  in  a  balloon,  and  an  obelisk  has  been  erected  to  commemorate  the 
event. 

Boucites-du-Rhone  ("  Mouths  of  the  Rhone  "). — This  department  comprises 
the  delta  of  the  Rhone  and  the  country  to  the  west  of  it.  It  is  the  natural  outlet 
of  the  entire  Rhone  valley,  and  Marseilles,  its  capital,  has  thus  become  one  of  the 
great  commercial  centres  of  the  world.  In  other  respects,  however,  the  depart- 
ment is  not  favoured  by  nature.  There  are  extensive  stony  wastes,  the  hiUs  are 
for  the  most  part  barren,  and  about  one-third  of  the  area  is  unproductive.  Irriga- 
tion, however,  is  carried  on  successfully,  and  in  addition  to  olives,  grapes,  and  other 
products  of  horticulture,  the  department  yields  salt,  coals,  and  Hgnite,  engages 
successfully  in  manufactures,  and  carries  on  a  most  extensive  commerce.  These 
sources  of  wealth  account  for  the  relative  density  of  its  population. 

Marseilles  (234,690  inhabitants),  the  leading  commercial  port  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, has  during  all  periods  of  its  history  maintained  its  pre-eminent  position. 
Greek  and  Roman  authors  credit  the  Phocians  of  Asia  Minor  with  having 
founded  the  city,  though  ancient  remains  prove  that  the  Phoenicians  preceded 
them.  Marseilles  became  in  course  of  time  the  most  flourishing  of  all  Greek 
colonies,  and  down  to  the  present  day  it  has  preserved  the  municipal  feelings  so 
characteristic  of  ancient  Greece.  Its  geographical  position  has  prevented  it  from 
becoming  the  centre  of  a  political  system,  but  it  is  nevertheless  the  true  capital  of 
Southern  France,  and  whilst  Paris  looks  to  the  north  and  the  west,  Marseilles 
keeps  its  eyes  upon  the  south  and  the  east. 

Ancient  Marseilles,  or  Massilia,  occupied  the  hilly  peninsula  to  the  north  of  the 
old  port,  which  then  extended  farther  inland,  whilst  the  cliffs  facing  the  sea  have 
been  gnawed  away,  since  the  days  of  Caesar,  to  the  extent  of  820  feet.  Its  port 
would  have  been  silted  up  long  ere  this,  if  dredging  machines  were  not  kept 
constantly  at  work.  It  now  covers  an  area  of  60  acres,  its  average  depth  being 
20  feet. 

The  sanitary  condition  of  Marseilles  was  deplorable  in  former  times,  for  there 
was  neither  water  nor  proper  drainage.     Every  stranger  who  settled  in  the  town 


m 


^■,-.-A..v-...-/v.>:..:./-.-.-^.vsv;.:... 


»    *  *       -« 


.'/ 


•      •   •   •       •  •   •«       J 

_     •••••» J      I 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  af  ILLINOIS. 


Marseilles. 


126 


had  to  pass  through  a  dangerous  period  of  acclimatization,  and  the  plague  was  a 
frequent  visitor.  The  canal,  which  supplies  the  city  with  the  water  of  the 
Durance,  has  proved  a  real  blessing  to  the  inhabitants,  for  it  suflices  not  merely 


Fi'a-.  92. — Mauseillfs. 


5°  UiE.of  Gr 


Old  cit7  in  the  time 

of  Julias  Csesar  and 

in  the  thirteeath 

centiuy. 


Extent  of  <  he  city  in 


Increase  up  to  1S72 


IMUe. 


for  domestic  purposes,  but  has  also  converted  thirsty  fields  into  productive 
gardens,  and  supplies  the  manufactories  of  the  towTi  with  a  cheap  motive  power. 
Other  improvements  on  a  vast  scale  have  been  carried  out.  The  ancient 
fortifications  have  fallen,  and  the  city  has  expanded  in  every  direction.      Xew 

\OL.    11.  K 


126 


PRANCE. 


docks  have  been  opened,  and  the  construction  of  a  huge  breakwater  is  under  con- 
sideration. The  islands  of  Ratonneau  and  Pomegue  afford,  however,  some  shelter 
to  vessels  making  for  Marseilles,  and  it  is  there  the  quarantine  has  been  established. 
Near  them,  on  a  small  island,  stands  the  castle  of  If,  famous  as  a  state  prison. 

The  city  has  not  only  been  pierced  by  huge  avenues,  but  many  buildings  with 
some  claim  to  architectural  merit  have  been  erected,  and  the  Marscillais  can  no 
longer  be  reproached  with  concentrating  all  their  attention  upon  the  soap  and  the 
oil  they  deal  in.     One  of  the  most  characteristic  of  those  structures  is  the  Museum 

Fig.  93. — The  Koadstead  of  Marseilles. 


°|i7  K.«.r  t>r.  b°\ui 


S°|>i' 


C^  Janet 


Ra  de 

d  e 

Marseille 


li 


■atf 


j.a'P'd-Jf., 


^■^p 


%  ■ 


% 


aft57'E.i»fPai-i3      z'W 


T33 


of  Longchamps.  The  best  view  of  the  city  is  obtained  from  the  tower  of  the 
Byzantine  church  of  Notre-Dame,  which  crowns  the  most  elevated  hill  to  the  south 
of  Marseilles.  The  public  promenades,  including  the  Prado,  lined  with  magnificent 
trees  and  numerous  villas,  and  the  Corniche,  which  follows  the  sinuosities  of  the 
coast,  are  a  great  ornament  to  the  town,  and  afford  magnificent  prospects  of  the 
harbour  and  the  picturesque  promontories  which  bound  it. 

Marseilles,  besides  being  a  great  commercial  town,  may  boast  of  numerous 
manufactories.  In  its  metallurgical  establishments  the  ores  imported  from  abroad, 
and  more  especially  lead  ores,  are  smelted.      There  are  huge  corn  and  oil  mills  and 


MARSEILLES.  127 

tanneries.  Provisions  arc  preserved  and  salted  for  the  use  of  the  navy.  The 
manufacture  of  soap  (1,020,000  cwts.  in  1875)  equals  that  of  the  whole  of  the 
remainder  of  France.     The  supar  retineries,  too,  are  of  great  importance. 

The  merchants  of  Marseilles  own  a  fleet  of  783  vessels  (including  210  steamers), 
measuring  194,500  tons,  most  of  these  being  built  at  Ciotut,  La  Seyuc,  and  even 
at  Genoa.  In  1875  8,757  vessels  of  2,527,200  tons  burden  entered  the  harbour, 
the  imports  were  valued  at  £34,781,000,  and  the  exports  at  £35,485,120. 
Cereals  constitute  the  principal  articles  of  import,  and  next  to  them  cattle,  cotton, 
wool,  and  iron  ores  from  Algeria,  Spanish  wines,  tea,  silk,  petroleum,  timber, 
hides,  guano,  sugar,  coflfee,  and  oil  seeds.  Unfortunately  most  of  the  vessels  are 
obliged  to  leave  in  ballast,  for  the  high  tarifls  of  the  railway  companies  prevent 
Marseilles  from  exporting  the  coal  of  the  Cevennes  and  the  building  stones  of  the 
Alps. 

Marseilles,  in  spite  of  the  competition  of  Brindisi  and  Trieste,  still  remains  the 
great  intermediary  for  tha  conveyance  of  passengers  and  costly  merchandise 
between  the  north-west  of  Europe  and  the  East.  This  superioritj',  however,  it  is 
sure  to  lose  whenever  Saloniki  and  Constantinople  become  connected  with  the 
railway  sj-stems  of  the  rest  of  Europe.  It  will  then  have  to  seek  compensation 
for  this  loss  elsewhere.  In  this  respect  Algeria  holds  out  much  promise  for  the 
future.  In  1874  Marseilles  imjwrted  thence  400,000  tons  of  ore,  200,000  tons  of 
com,  50,000  tons  of  alfa,  and  1,000,000  head  of  cuttle.  At  the  same  time  it  will 
be  necessary  to  develop  the  railway  connections  of  this  great  port,  which  is  at 
present  dependent  upon  a  single  line  for  its  communication  with  Paris,  and  has  no 
direct  intercourse  at  all  with  either  Cette  or  Bordeaux. 

The  smaller  towns  in  the  neighbourhood  may  almost  be  looked  upon  as  suburbs 
of  the  great  city.  Cassis,  beyond  Cap  Tiboulen,  produces  the  best  wine  of  Pro- 
vence, but  likewise  manufactures  muscatel  for  exportation.  At  Ciotat  (8,104  inha- 
bitants), a  little  farther  in  the  same  direction,  are  the  ship-yards  of  the  Messa- 
geries  Maritimes,  which  usually  employ  3,200  workmen.  Auhagne  (5,087  inha- 
bitants), an  inland  town,  has  cement  works;  whilst  Auriol  (2,453  inhabitants), 
Jioqiiecaire  (1,749  inhabitants),  and  Pet/pin,  in  the  upper  vaUey  of  the  Huveaume, 
have  coal  mines,  plaster  works,  potteries,  and  soap  works. 

Crossing  the  hill  knovni  as  La  Yiste,  to  the  north  of  Marseilles,  we  reach  the 
valley  of  the  Arc,  the  only  important  town  in  which  is  Au  (23,407  inhabitants), 
the  residence  of  a  sovereign  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Aix,  in  spite  of  its  ancient 
Academy,  its  Court  of  Appeal,  and  an  archbishop,  is  a  decaying  place.  It  may 
carry  off  the  honours,  but  Marseilles  has  possessed  herself  of  the  wealth  of  Pro- 
vence. The  famous  springs  are  no  longer  fashionable.  The  town,  nevertheless,  is 
most  interesting  on  account  of  many  of  its  ancient  buildings,  including  the  Roman 
baths  of  Sextius  ;  it  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce  ;  and  the  olives  grown  in 
its  plain,  irrigated  by  a  canal  derived  from  the  Yerdon,  furnish  an  oil  of  world-wide 
reputation.  In  the  upper  valley  of  the  Arc,  at  Gardanne  (2,268  inhabitants), 
Futeau  (2,253  inhabitants),  and  Trets  (2,694  inhabitants),  there  are  coal  mines 
yielding  above  300,000  tons  annually. 

k2 


128 


FEAXCE. 


An  ancient  Roman  road  conducts  us  from  Aix  to  Salon  (5,085  inhabitants),  on 
the  margin  of  the  Crau,  the  fields  of  which  are  irrigated  by  the  canal  of  Crapponne, 

and  thence  to  Arks  (15,563  inhabitants),  after  Xarbonne  the  most  ancient  Roman 


Fig.  94. — The  Mausoleum  at  St.  Eemy. 


f^/s.;^el^/fe^^       I 


colony  on  GfaUic  soil.  The  position  of  this  town  at  the  head  of  the  Rhone  delta 
insures  its  prosperity.  It  attained  the  height  of  its  power  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, when  its  flag  was  seen  in  aU  the  ports  of  the  ^Mediterranean,  but  dissensions 
amongst  its  ruling  families  led  to  its  fall.      The  town  is  rich  in  Roman  remains. 


ARI.KS. 


129 


inclii(Hn<>  an  ampliithcatro,  and  in  modiieval  buildinjjs,  and  its  women  arc  famous 
for  tboir  beauty  and  jjood  taatc.  Alios  carries  on  a  considerable  conimorco  in  agri- 
cultural produce,  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep.  A  bridge  connects  it  with  the  suburb 
of  Trinquctuilles,  in  the  Camarguo,  a  district  formerly  described  as  the  "  granary 
of  the  Roman  army,"  but  now  a  region  of  pestiferous  swamps.  In  this  district  is 
the  hamlet  of  Huiiitcs-JIdricti,  before  the  church  of  which  stood  formerly  two  marble 

Fiar-  95.— Kino  Rx.sfi's  Castlb  at  Tauascok. 


lions,  in  allusion  to  which  the  neighbouring  gulf  is  said  to  liuve  been  named  Lion 
Gulf(Golfedu  Lion). 

Like  Aries,  the  neighbourhood  abounds  in  ancient  remains.  At  Fonfricile  (2,237 
inhabitants)  there  are  huge  artificial  caverns,  which  served  as  places  of  sepulchre 
in  prehistoric  times.  liaiij;  on  the  Alpines,  has  an  old  baronial  castle  hewn  out 
of  the  solid  rock,  and  .S7.  Riiiii/  (3,490  inhabitants),  beyond  that  range  of  beauti- 
fully contoured  hills,  boasts  of  a  fine  mausoleum  of  the  age  of  Caosar. 

Tarascon  (7,777  inhabitants),  the  sister  city  of  Beaucaire,  has  at  all  times  been 
a  great  place  of  traffic.     Up  to  the  thirteenth  century  it  stood  upon  an  island,  but 


130 


FEANCE. 


when  King  Rene  built  the  castle,  the  massive  proportions  of  which  challenge 
admiration,  the  channel  separating  this  island  from  the  left  bank  of  tlie  river  had 
been  filled  up. 

Var,  most  absurdly  called  after  the  river  Var,  which  lies  outside  its  boundaries, 
mifht  more  appropriately  become  known  as  Argens,  from  a  river  flowing  right 
through  its  centre.     It  is  a  mountainous  country,  half  of  its  area  being  covered 

Fig.  90.  —Toulon. 
Scale  1  :  128,000. 


lT»r.-F    tt    f..r,. 


2'/i  FaOwm.  Line 
10 


■  2  Miles. 


^^'X 


with  forests.     The  most  flourishing  towns  lie  on  the  coast,  but  those  in  the  interior 
likewise  manufacture  cloth,  felt,  paper,  and  earthenware. 

Toulon  (61,382  inhabitants)  enjoys  the  double  advantage  of  having  an  excel- 
lent port  and  of  lying  on  the  high-road  connecting  France  with  Italy.  The 
excellent  shelter  afforded  by  its  port  has  caused  Toulon  to  be  chosen  as  the 
great  naval  station  of  France  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  arsenal  and  dock- 
yards, begun  by  Vauban  in  the  seventeenth  century,  cover  an  area  of  667 
acres,  and  have  cost  no  less  than  £6,400,000,  although  much  of  the  work  was  per- 


TOULON. 


181 


formed  by  convicts.  Forts  occupy  everj'  point  of  vantage,  and  render  Toulon  one 
of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Europe.  In  commerce  and  industry,  however,  it 
ranks  very  low,  in  spite  of  its  excellent  harbour,  on  the  western  side  of  which  are 


Fio;.  97.— HvKnr.s. 
ScaUe  1  :  100,000. 


s-iti  K.  of  r 


OOJ^FH     pE      r.lE^S.S 


Si.lln 

,1,  ,. 

J- 

<- 

■\ 
\ 

\ 

I^ADE     D'  JIYERKS 


<'1 


'    Kadc  dr  /Cicns 


Ra<ie  de  la  Badine 


tic  Houliiind  ■ 


e'liQ-  F. .  ot  Cr 


o-S 


S-ij 


EI3I 

2J-SS 

1  MUe. 


e-3 


the  bu.sy  ship-yards  of  Ln  Sei/iie  (8,1.'J2  inhabitants),  employing  several  thou- 
sand workmen.  S(.  Nazaire  (1,537  inhabitants)  and  Bandols,  to  the  west  of  Cap 
Sepet,  may   be  looked   upon  as  outposts  of  Toulon :    they   export   agricultural 


132 


FEANCE. 


produce,  and  at  the  former  of  these  villages  there  is  a  tunny  fislierj-.  Every  town, 
like  every  individual,  appears  to  have  its  destiny.  Toulon  became  a  place 
of  war,  but  failed  to  attract  visitors  like  its  neighbours,  Nice,  Cannes,  and 
Mentone,  although  its  climate  is  equally  delightfLd  and  its  environs  abound  in 
picturesque  sites. 

Ht/eirs  (6,797  inhabitants),  up  to  the  fourteenth  century,  was  more  important 
than  its  neighbour  Toulon.  The  river  Gapeau  facilitates  communication  between 
its  fine  roadstead  and  tlie  fertile  fields  of  Ciiers  (3,683  inhabitants)  and  Sollies- 
Pont  (2,239  inhabitants).  It  was  formerly  a  favourite  winter  residence,  but  being 
separated  from  the  sea  by  salt  marshes,  and  exposed  to  the  mistral,  it  is  now  some- 
what neglected  in  favour  of  its  rivals  of  the  Alpes-Maritimes.  The  gardens  sur- 
rounding the  town  produce  peaches,  almonds,  and  a  great  variety  of  exotic  plants. 

Fig.  98.— The  Gulp  of  St.  TRornz. 
Scale  1  :  165.000. 


A  few  palm-lrees  flourish,  and  early  vegetables  are  exported.  As  to  the  pic- 
turesque islands  of  Hyeres — Porquerolles,  Port-Cros,  and  Le  Titan — they  support 
onlj'  a  few  inhabitants,  and  are  scarcely  ever  visited. 

St.  Troppz  (3,230  inhabitants)  occupies  a  delightful  spot  near  the  eastern 
termination  of  the  mountains  of  the  Moors.  It  exports  timber,  cork,  and  chestnuts, 
supplied  by  the  villages  in  its  vicinity,  amongst  which  Garde-Freinct  (1,947  inha- 
bitants) enjoys  some  reputation  as  having  been  one  of  the  great  strongholds  of  the 
JSIoors  or  Saracens. 

The  valley  of  the  Argens,  to  the  north  of  the  mountains  of  the  Moors,  affords 
the  easiest  communication  between  the  east  and  west  of  Provence.  Since  the 
terrible  day  on  which  the  Teutonic  hosts,  about  to  cross  over  from  the  valley  of 
the  Arc,  were  annihilated  at  Pourrieres,  that  valley  has  frequently  been  traversed 
by  armies.     St.  Maximin   (3,150   inhabitants),  near  its  head,  is  the  point  of  con- 


FRfiJUS. 


133 


ffengence  of  manj'  roads,  and  the  relics  in  its  fine  Gothic  church  formerly  attracted 
numerous  visitors.  Bri(jiioUes{^),\i.'A  iiflKihitants),  farther  east,  has  (an-yai'ds,  silk- 
twist  factories,  distilleries,  and  brick-kilns.  Lc  Luc  (-3,148  inliubitants)  and 
Vidauhon  (2,415  inhabitants),  on  the  railway,  are  flourishing  market  towns. 
Lorgucs  (3,030  inhabitants),  embosomed  in  elms,  has  cloth  factories,  and  at  Drn- 
(junjnan  (8,029  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  department,  there  are  numerous 
factories,  the  motive  power  being  furnished  by  the  Xartuby,  a  tributary  of  the 

Fig.  99.— Nice. 


Argens.     The  town  itself  is  void  of  curiosities,  hut  its  neighbourliood   abounds 
in  picturesque  sites. 

Frtjim  (2,791  inhabitants),  the  Roman  Foro  Julicnsis,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Argens,  is  a  decayed  town.  Its  famou^;  port,  which  sheltered  the  fleet  of  Actium, 
is  now  dry  land,  and  the  town  lias  luver  been  able  to  recover  from  the  disasters 
of  war  which  have  overtaken  it.  Close  by,  on  a  hill,  there  are  Roman  ruins, 
which  testify  to  its  former  iinportance,  and  the  aqueduct  which  conveyed 
hither  the  water  of  the  Siasnole  is  tli'  most  considerable  ruin  of  that  class  in  all 
J^  ranee. 


134  FRANCE. 

Alpes-Maritimes. — The  greater  portion  of  this  department  was  ceded  by  Italy 
in  1860.  French  is  spoken  in  the  valleys  of  the  Var  and  Tinee,  Italian  in  the 
basiu  of  the  Roya  and  as  far  as  Nice,  whilst  the  local  dialect  of  that  town  is  a 
curious  jumble  of  Provencal  French  and  Italian.  The  entertainment  of  visitors 
is  the  great  business  of  the  department.  Oil,  wine,  fruits,  and  scents  are  exported, 
but  upon  the  whole  agriculture  is  in  a  very  backward  state. 

iV/Vc  (Nizza,  46,083  inhabitants),  the  "  Victorious,"  founded  by  the  Phocians 
of  Marseilles  in  commemoration  of  a  victory  won  over  the  Ligurians,  is  one  of  the 
most  characteristic  cities  of  France.  On  a  high,  rocky  eminence,  an  ancient  island 
now  attached  to  the  continent,  may  still  be  seen  the  remains  of  the  walls  of 
what  was  formerly  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  on  the  Mediterranean  seaboard. 
One  quarter  of  the  town  lies  in  the  plain  to  the  east  of  that  rock,  but  the  veritable 
Nice  lies  to  the- west  of  it,  being  bounded  by  the  torrent  of  the  PaiUon,  beyond 
which  extend  the  modern  suburbs,  with  wide  streets  intersecting  each  other 
at  right  angles.  Numerous  villas  peep  out  from  the  verdure-clad  slopes  of  the 
surrounding  hills,  and  cover  the  terrace  of  Cimies,  upon  which  stood  the  Roman 
town  of  Cemenelum.  Tlie  climate  of  Nice  has  been  extolled  in  all  ages.  The 
mountains  in  the  north  shelter  it  against  cold  winds,  and  the  temperature  only 
rarely  descends  below  freezing  point.  At  the  same  time  Nice  is  exposed  to  violent 
gusts  of  wind.  In  early  spring  the  mistral  whirls  up  clouds  of  dust ;  the  damp 
sirocco,  blowing  from  the  south-east,  produces  a  feeling  of  languor;  and  the 
westerly  winds  formerly  carried  thither  the  miasmata  bred  in  the  swami^s  of  the 
Lower  Var.  Since  these  have  been  drained  this  wind  has  lost  its  danger,  besides 
which  the  plantations  of  eucalyptus  and  other  trees  now  form  a  screen  around  the 
town,  which  up  to  the  beginning  of  last  century  was  frequently  invaded  by  the  pest. 

As  we  journey  along  the  coast  to  the  east  of  Nice  the  country  becomes  more 
and  more  picturesque.  Crossing  the  promontory  bounding  the  Bay  of  Nice,  we 
descend  to  the  fine  roadstead  of  VUhfranehe  (Villa  Franca,  1,933  inhabitants), 
where,  sheltered  by  the  encircling  cliffs,  exotic  plants  luxuriate.  We  traverse  the 
olive  groves  of  Beaulieu,  pass  through  numerous  railway  tunnels,  and  reach 
Monaco  (1,200  inhabitants),  perched  on  an  isolated  rock  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs  of 
La  Turbie.  This,  too,  is  an  old  Greek  colony  dedicated  to  Hercules.  The  sove- 
reign rights  of  its  prince  have  been  respected,  and  he  has  availed  himself  of  them 
to  establish  a  gambling  hell  in  the  delightful  grounds  of  Monte  Carlo.  Roque- 
brunc  is  merely  a  village  ;  but  Mciifone  (6,891  inhabitants)  is  a  town  of  importance, 
and  the  rival  of  Nice,  the  "  pearl  of  France."  Lemons,  oranges,  and  other  exotic 
plants  grow  near  the  shore,  olives  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills,  and  pines  on  the 
mountains  which  shelter  the  town  in  the  north.  Its  houses  are  dotted  over  the 
hills,  and  are  frequently  accessible  only  by  stairs ;  its  climate  is  mild  and  equable. 
To  the  east  of  Mentone,  on  Italian  soil,  are  the  famous  caverns  of  Baousse-Roussi, 
in  which  human  skeletons  and  stone  and  bone  implements  have  been  discovered. 

To  the  west  of  Nice  there  are  other  favourite  winter  resorts.  At  Antihes  (5,546 
inhabitants),  an  old  fortress,  the  charming  promontory  of  La  Grarouppe  projects 
into   the  Mediterranean,  and  beyond  it   opens  the  small  Bay  of   Jouan,  where 


CANNES. 


185 


Napoleon  landed  after  his  escape  from  Elba.  Vallauris  (2,956  inhabitants),  the 
"golden  vale,"  lies  a  short  distance  inland.  Cannes  (13,519  inhabitants)  lies 
beyond  ;   its  hotels  and  houses  extending  to  the  river  Siagne.     It  enjoys  a  mild 


FiiT.    100. — VlLLEFRANCHE. 
Scale  1  :  14.400. 


£.iifP*w» 


:;':.:^- 

'  .-■      /      \'i  llef'rnnch, 

:•'.-..>* 

/ "    ■> 

;H^- 

,- :?       .    "■" 

•^          ^, 

^^          . 

1*1105*  de'^Irfi'aiich' 


^     'J      .T 


>;  A  IS 


T\2.  V- 


■^--iS", 


pvtr  ^  FaUuffs. 


I  Mile. 


climate,  and  though  its  vegetation  is  less  luxuriant  than  that  of  Nice,  its  serene 
sky  and  distant  horizons  render  it  a  most  delight  ful  residence.  The  isles  of  Lerins 
lie  ofE  its  bay,  the  largest  of  them,  that  of  Ste.  Marguerite,  being  famous  on 
account  of  its  prison-fort,  from  which  Marshal  Bazaine  effected  his  escape,  as  the 


130 


FEANCE. 


"  Iron  Mask  "  had  done  before  him.  On  St.  Honorat  are  the  ruins  of  a  monas- 
tery which  was  destroj-ed  by  the  Mooi-s  in  725.  Cannes,  in  spite  of  its  shallow 
harbour,  is  next  to  Nice  the  busiest  seaport  of  French  Liguria.  It  is  the  jDort  of 
Grasse  (9,673  inhabitants),  l3'ing  about  10  miles  inland,  the  vicinity  of  which 
produces  the  best  olives  of  Provence,  besides  roses,  jasmines,  and  other  flowers. 
The  manufacture  of  perfumery  and  liqueurs  has  one  of  its  great  centres  at  Grasse. 

Fi».  101. — The  Caverns  of  Baousse-Rousse. 


These  seaside  towns  of  the  Alpes-Maritimes  possess  immense  advantages  as 
summer  resorts,  and  might  be  converted  into  sanatoria  for  the  whole  of  France. 
They  are  supplemented  by  mountain  villages,  such  as  St.  3Tartin-Lantosque 
(1,956  inhabitants),  Eoquebilliere,  and  others,  within  easy  reach  of  the  coast,  and 
admirably  suited  for  summer  stations. 

Vaucluse,  though  lying  inland  to  the  north  of  the  Rhone  delta,  is  essentially 
one  of  the  Mediterranean  departments  of  France.     Its  western  half  consists  of  an 


AVTOXON-. 


137 


alluvial  plain  intersected  by  numerous  canals,  very  productive,  and  abounding  in 
industrious  towns. 

Arigiion  (33,1!^!)  inhabitants),  at  the  confluence  of  the  Durance  and  lllione, 
was  a  prosperous  town  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  as  an  independent  common- 
wealth it  ranked  amongst  the  first  cities  of  the  south  during  the  twelfth  century. 
The  religious  wars  of  the  thirteenth  century  destroyed  its  wealth.  Between  1309 
and  137G  it  was  the  residence  of  the  popes,  and  from  that  epoch  in  its  history  date 
its  most  striking  buildings,  its  tui-roted  walls,  its  cathedral,  and  its  fortress-like 
palace  on  the  rock  of  the  Doms,  or  "lords."  From  that  rock  we  look  down  upon 
the  verdant  plain,  with  its  plantations  of  olive  and  nuilberry  trees,  its  towns  and 
villages,  and  upon  the  swiftly  flowing  waters   of  the  lihone,  spanned  here  by  a 


Fig.  102.— Baous8£-Rou6s£. 
Accordmg  to  M.  Rl^^^rc.   Scale  I  :  3,000. 


r°|33'  E.  gf  Cr 


_      Ear/A 
fi — ^^  EarUiy  SUpfS 


Ir^""^  Rocky  Slojies 
Carems 
',  Bone    Brcccux^ 


*'      Hearths 
SS^  Railroail 
I        1  ho^t^ol  oTond.  Hjocks 

lUO  Ytuds. 


su.spension  bridge,  which  replaces  an  old  stone  bridge  built  by  the  "  Devil  and 
St.  Benezet"  in  1188,  but  destroyed  by  a  great  flood  in  1669.  Avignon  remained 
the  property  of  the  Pope  until  the  great  Revolution  ;  but  though  it  abounded  in 
monasteries,  grass  grew  in  its  streets,  and  industry  was  a  stranger  to  it.  But 
since  it  has  belonged  to  France  it  has  become  one  of  the  busiest  towns  of  the 
south — spinning  the  silk  grown  in  the  neighbourhood,  manufacturing  agricultural 
machinery,  and  colours  from  madder,  and  extending  its  commerce  to  the  highest 
valleys  of  the  Alps.  The  department  has  not  only  suffered  much  from  the  invasion 
of  the  phylloxera  and  the  disease  of  silkworms,  but  its  cultivation  of  madder  is 
jeopardised  through  the  invention  of  aniline  colours. 

The  towns  and  villages  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  Leberon  and  of  the  hills  of 


138 


FEANCE. 


Vaucluse  are  surrounded  by  verdant  fields.  CavaiUon  (3,906  inhabitants)  is 
environed  by  gardens  irrigated  by  canals  derived  from  the  Calavon  and  the 
Durance.  L'Ide  (3,795  inhabitants)  and  Thor  (1,667  inhabitants)  are  supplied 
with  water  from  the  fountain  of  Vaucluse  ;  Femes  (2,801  inhabitants),  Monteux 
(2,262  inhabitants),  and  Carpentras  (8,127  inhabitants),  have  likewise  their  canals 
of  irrigation.     The  latter,  though  proverbially  a  dull  provincial  town,  is  in  reality 


Fig.  103.— Cannes  and  the  Isles  of  Leki.vs. 
Scale  1  :  60,000. 


f  iio   F  of  ra,-L. 


sSpriHii  .U 


V 


i  !. 


i,  {■:  KINS 


;:^*?n{o'^^ir- 


TIE.of  Ci- 


rt:    JO  VAN 

\  {-■■':  J 

i 

r^ 

i 

Iv       \ 


Echellc  d'>  i:fipooo 


o     5. 


S-z-j, 


Tir.i 


sj-i5o,  Over  iSq  Fajthoms 

—  1  Mile. 


a  bustling  place,    supporting  a   library  and  museum,  and  proud    of   its  Roman 
triumphal  arch,  its  modern  town-hall,  and  its  aqueducts. 

Orange  (6,782  inhabitants),  the  ancient  Arausio,  and  formerly  the  capital  of  a 
county,  is  the  rival  of  Carpentras  in  trade  and  industry,  and  boasts  a  Roman 
amphitheatre  and  a  triumphal  arch,  which  are  amongst  the  finest  ruins  of  that 
kind  in  France.      Vaison  (3,330  inhabitants)  has  a  Roman  bridge  over  the  Ouveze, 


HAUTES-ALPES. 


139 


and  is  partly  built  with  the  stones  of  Gullo-Roman  buildings.  Malauceiie  (I.GIO 
inhabitants)  has  a  Roman  aqueduct;  Bollinc  (3,168  inhabitants)  has  potteries, 
and  Vdlreas  (4,705  inhabitants)  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  raw  silk.  Both 
these  towns  are  surrounded  by  old  walls.  Perl ii is  (4,905  inhabitants),  thus  called 
because  of  its  situation  near  the  gorge,  or  pcrtuis,  of  the  Durance,  has  a  few 
factories,  but  the  mountain  region  beyond  it  is  very  thinly  inhabited.  Apt  (4,278 
inhabitants),  the  only  town  in  the  mountains,  has  sulphur  mines  and  pits  of  plastic 
clay,  from  which  its  potteries  are  supplied. 

Hautes-Axpes. — The  two  departments  on  the  Upper  Durance  constitute  the 

Kg.   lOi. — AVIG.NOX     AND    THE     PAl_iCE    OF    THE    PoPES. 


poorest  and  most  desolate  district  of  France.  Hautes-Alpes,  though  enjoying  the 
advantage  of  more  extensive  forests  and  pasture  grounds  than  its  neighbour 
Basses- Alpes,  ranks,  nevertheless,  very  low  as  to  its  agricultural  produce ;  and  its 
resources  not  being  sufficient  to  support  its  population,  many  of  the  inhabitants 
annually  descend  to  the  plains  in  search  of  work. 

Brian(O))  (■2,321  inhabitants)  defends,  with  its  seven  forts,  the  road  over  the 
Mont  Genevre,  and  is  the  most  inhospitable  garrison  town  in  France.  Descending 
the  Durance,  we  pass  the  mountain  fort  of  Mont  Baiip/iin  and  Embrun  (3,287  inha- 


1-40 


FRANCE. 


bitants),  likewise  a  fortress,  the  most  prominent  building  within  which  is  a  prison. 
Gap  (7,249  inhabitants),  the  only  large  town  of  the  department,  and  its  capital, 
lies  about  6  miles  to  the  north  of  the  Durance.  The  ores  and  marbles  which 
abound  near  it  have  not  hitherto  been  worked. 

Basses-Alpes  is  a  country  of  naked  mountains,  lying  almost  completely  within 
the  basin  of  the  Durance.  It  is  the  least-populated  department  of  France,  but  by 
planting  forests  its  resources  might  be  considerably  developed. 

Barcelonnette  (1,921  inhabitants),  on  the  Ubaye,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Col  de 

Fig.  105. — Col  de  L.^kche. 
Scale  1  :  80,000. 


■i;■^!,lu'^.'nJ.S^t^ 


l'-Ai-|ji'r\lT^V(- 


SuTtiint'^d 


^..-r 


;I 


Larche  or  of  Ai-gentiere,  is  the  chief  town  of  the  most  elevated  arrondissement,  but 
otherwise  insignificant.  Sisferon  (3,7G8  inhabitants),  lower  down  on  the  Durance, 
is  a  picturesque  town,  with  an  old  citadel.  Manosque  (5,162  inhabitants)  enjoys  a 
southern  climate,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  wine,  oil,  and  fruits,  works  a 
coal  mine,  and  has  several  manufactories.  It  is  the  most  important  town  of  the 
department,  superior  by  far  to  Forcalquier  (1,816  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the 
arrondissement  within  which  it  lies,  and  even  to  Digne  (5,540  inhabitants),  the 
departmental  capital.     This  latter  lies  on  a  winter  torrent,  the  Bleonne,  2,098  feet 


de6me. 


141 


above  the  sea,  but  nevertheless  produces  excellent  fruits,  which  ils  confectioners 
convert  into  confitures.     Thero  are  likewaso  efficacious  sulphur  springs. 

Colmars  and  Castellannc,  on  the  Vordon,  are  of  no  iniportanco  whatever.  At 
lilez  (Colonia  Augusta  llcioruiii,  ^',.'370  inhabitants)  and  at  Vitlemolea  (■■2,182  inha- 
bitants), botli  on  tributaries  of  that  river,  and  at  GrtouLi;  near  its  mouth,  Uonian 
ruins  have  been  discovered,  and  at  the  latter  there  are  sulphur  springs. 


v\s.  lOi;.— Si 


Drome*  has  been  cut  out  of  ancient  Dauphine,  and  is  named  after  a  river  that 
flows  through  it  towards  the  Rhone,  which  forms  its  western  boundary.  Its 
climate  and  productions  are  similar  to  those  of  Ardeche,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Rhone ;  but  Drome  is  the  more  mountainous  of  the  two. 

Nyons  (2,4G2  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  southern  arrondissement,  lies  at 
the  mouth  of  a  gorge,  from  which  a  cold  wind,  known  as  pontias,  blows  every 


vol..   11. 


•  Scipion  Gras,  "  Statistique  minSralo  de  la  Dr6ine." 
L 


142  FRANCE. 

night.  Its  olive-trees  perished  ia  the  cold  winter  of  1829,  and  the  vineyards  then 
pLmted  have  recently  been  attacked  by  the  phylloxera,  which  has  likewise  invaded 
the  lowland  district  of  Tricastin,  of  which  St.  Paul  (1,G57  inhabitants)  is  the 
capital. 

Montelimar  (9,512  inhabitants),  at  the  confluence  of  Jabron  and  Roubiou,  and 
not  far  from  the  Rhone,  carries  on  a  brisk  trade  in  agricultural  productions  and 
the  manufactures  of  the  Protestant  town  of  Dieu-lv-Fit  (3,072  inhabitants),  on  the 
Upper  Jabon.  To  the  south-west  of  it,  on  the  Lez,  rises  the  sumptuous  castle  of 
Gfi(jn(in,  kno^vn  as  the  residence  of  Madame  de  Sevigne. 

Crest  (4,8-18  inhabitants)  is  the  most  important  town  on  the  Drome.  Its  old 
castle  has  frequently  seen  Protestants  and  political  offenders  within  its  walls.  Die 
(3,427  inhabitants),  higher  up  the  river,  carried  on  considerable  industry  before 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 

Lirron  (1,874  inhabitants)  and  Lon'ol  (2,181  inhabitants),  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  are  indebted  for  theii-  prosperity  to  the  railway. 

Valence  (20,476  inhabitants)  maintained  its  municipal  liberties  until  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  with  its  suburb,  Bourg-les-Valence  (2,o74  inhabitants),  is  now 
the  seat  of  a  considerable  textile  industry.  ChuhcuU  (1,300  inhabitants),  near 
it,  has  likewise  a  few  factories,  but  lioiiiaiis  (11,024  inhabitants),  on  the  Isere,  and 
its  suburb,  Bourg-de-Peage  (4,151  inhabitants),  are  at  present  the  great  industrial 
centre  of  the  department,  where  cloth,  silks,  cottons,  felt,  and  leather  are  being 
manufactured. 

Tain  (2,381  inhabitants),  on  the  llhone,  lies  close  to  the  granitic  hill  which 
yields  the  famous  "  Ermitage,"  and  an  acre  of  which  is  worth  £1,000.  St.  Vallicr 
(3,035  inhabitants)  and  the  railway  junction  of  St.  Rambert  are  in  the  extreme 
north  of  the  deiDartmcnt. 

IsEEE,  named  after  its  principal  river,  was  formed  out  of  the  northern  portion 
of  the  Dauphine.  It  is  essentially  a  mountain  country,  the  soil  capable  of  cultiva- 
tion being  confined  to  its  western  half,  descending  in  terraces  towards  the  Phone. 
About  half  the  area  of  the  department  consists  of  cultivated  land,  one-fifth  of 
heaths  and  barren  rocks,  and  nearly  the  same  proportion  of  woods.  The  breeding 
of  cattle  and  manufacture  of  cheese  are  carried  on  extensively  in  its  Alpine  portion ; 
there  are  coal  and  iron  mines,  and  even  gold  mines  were  worked  not  long  since. 
Industry  is  increasing,  and  the  paper-mills  are  the  most  important  of  France 
(produce  in  1873,  105,650  cwts.). 

Alkvard  (2,015  inhabitants)  is  the  only  town  in  the  interior  of  the  department, 
and  is  indebted  to  its  sulphur  springs  for  the  position  it  holds.  Orenohle  (43,054 
inhabitants),  at  the  confluence  of  the  Isere  and  Drac,  occup^'es  the  centre  of  a  mag- 
nificent amphitheatre  of  mountains.  It  is  the  focus  of  much  intellectual  activity, 
with  colleges,  libraries,  and  museums,  and  the  seat  of  a  considerable  industry, 
the  manufacture  of  gloves  alone  occupying  20,000  hands  in  the  town  and  the 
neighbouring  villages. 

VmUe  (3,539  inhabitants),  on  the  Eomanche,  has  numerous  factories,  but  is 
better  known  in  connection  with  the  refusal  of  the  delegates  of  the  towns  of 


» • » » 


-.'.v 


v%    •  .•. 


.''..•.^ 


r. .'» 


-     •  x^  •  • ''/.•*V 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  tl-UNOIS. 


IsfeRE. 


1-13 


Dauphiue,  in  July,  1788,  to  pay  taxes  not  voted  by  rarliaiucut.  Botiry-d' Oimns 
(1,400  iuhubitauts),  higher  up  ou  the  Romauchc,  is  tho  contro  of  ouo  of  tbo  finest 
Alpine  districts  of  France.  Tho  monastery  of  tho  Grande  C/iartrcim;  in  tho  hillf 
to  tho  north  of  Grenoble,  is  famous  throughout  tho  world  for  its  liqueur. 


Fig.  107.— Valence. 
Scale  1  :  TS.OOK. 


3'l30'E.«r  P«ru 


Pf JtoiunreA- 


»'iW  E.of  Or 


»'l>!> 


IMUc. 


At  Voiron  (7,909  inhabitants),  to  the  north  of  the  elbow  of  the  Isere,  as  \<ell  as 
at  the  neighbouring  villages  of  Rkcs  (1,471  iuliabitanl.s)  and  La  Cote  S(.  Andrr 
(3,49G  inhabitants)  there  are  niunerous  paper-mills,  steel  works,  and  tan-yards,  and 
most  of  tho  peasantry  engage  in  linen-weaving.  The  towns  on  tho  Isere,  TiiH'nis 
(3,398  inhabitants),    Vinai/   (1,692  inhabitants),   and  ;S/.  Marcellin  ('..',839  inhu- 

L  2 


144 


PRANCE. 


bitants),  are  indebted   for  their  prosperity  to  the   fertile  fields  wbich   surround 
them. 

Vienne  (22,950  inhabitants),  on  the  Rhone,  was  a  very  important  place  in 
Roman  times,  but  had  dwindled  down  to  11,000  inhabitants  in  1789.  Since  then 
the  population  has  increased  rapidly,  and  thousands  find  employment  in  the  cloth 
factories,  silk-mills,  paper-mills,  foundries,  glass  works,  and  other  industrial  esta- 
blishments which  have  sprung  up  here,  being  supplied  with  coal  from  the  mines  of 
St.  Etienne.  A  temple,  a  pyramid,  several  aqueducts  still  in  a  serviceable 
condition,  and  other  ruins  recall  the  age  of  the  Romans.  Bourgoin  (4,309  inha- 
bitants, inclusive  of  Jaillon),  to  the  north-east  of  Vienne,  manufactures  cards  for 

Fig.  lOS. — Gkenoblb. 
Sc.ilc  1  :  00,000.. 


E...IP. 


E.  01  Gr. 


W^ 


1  Wile. 


combing  flax  and  other  articles.     Near  it  are  productive  turf  pits.     La  Tonr-du- 
Pin  (2,731  inhabitants)  is  remarkable  only  as  the  capital  of  an  arrondisscment. 

Savoie  (Savoy). — This  department  only  includes  a  portion  of  the  old  duchy  of 
Savoy,  ceded  in  1860  to  France.  It  consists  of  three  geographical  regions,  viz. 
Savoy  proper,  including  Chamb^ry  and  the  Lake  of  Bourget ;  the  Tarentaise,  or 
valley  of  the  Upper  Isere ;  and  the  Maurienne,  or  valley  of  the  Arc.  Only  about 
one-third  of  its  area  is  under  cultivation,  but  fine  pasture  grounds  extend  from  the 
valleys  up  to  the  barren  rocks  and  snow-fields.  Agriculture  and  cattle-breeding 
are  the  principal  occupations.  There  are  a  little  industry  and  much  traffic,  pro- 
duced by  the  international  tunnel  of  Mont  Cenis,  but  the  country  is  nevertheless 


SAVOY. 


145 


incapable  of  supporting  its  population,  and  thousands  of  Savoyards  annually 
leave  their  mountain  valleys  in  search  of  work,  generally  returning  in  winter  with 
their  savings. 

Chamhi-ry  (16,486  inhabitants)  is  the  only  town  worthy  of  the  name.  It  boasts 
of  an  academy  and  other  scientific  institutions,  but  to  strangers  its  chief  claim  to 
notice  consists  in  its  delightful  environs.  Silk-spinning  is  carried  on  there,  and  at 
the  neighbouring  village  of  Cognin.  At  Challes  there  is  a  mineral  spring  con- 
taining iodine  and  bromine,  but  its  fame  is  eclipsed  by  that  of  the  thermal  sulphur 
springs  at  Aix-Ies-Baim  (2,689  inhabitants),  on  Lake  Bourget. 

Following  the  railway  up  the  valleys   of  the  Isere  and   the  Arc,  we  pass 


Fig.  109. — Passes  over  the  Alps  between  the  Gek^vre  and  Cot,  de  Frejus. 

Scale  1    VVi..mn. 


k'InW.  olPnri.. 


.  '-M. 

^t^-:. 


5  Miles. 


Mouhnelia)),  nn  old  fortress;  St.Ficrrc-d'Alhignij;  St.  Jean,  i\Q  capital  of  the 
Maurienne  (2,023  inhabitants) ;  Jfodaiie  (1,322  inhabitants),  at  the  entrance  to  the 
tunnel ;  and  Lam-k-Bourg,  at  the  foot  of  the  pass  leading  over  Mont  Cenis. 

The  Tarentaise  is  less  sterile  than  the  Maurienne,  but  the  stature  of  its  inha- 
bitants is  less  than  in  any  other  part  of  Savoy,  and  they  are  supposed  to  be  the 
descendants  of  the  Ceutrons,  a  southern  tribe  mentioned  by  ancient  authors.  The 
principal  towns  are  A/bcrtvi/k  (3,835  inhabitants)  and  Moiitiers  (1,946  inhabitants), 
the  latter  with  salt  works  yielding  annually  3,500  cwts.  of  salt.  Higher  up,  in  the 
side  valley  of  the  Doron,  are  the  sulphur  springs  of  Brides,  in  the  midst  of  mag- 
nificent Alpine  scenery. 


146 


FRANCE. 


Haute-Satoie  consists  of  several  districts  known  hj  local  names.  The  Gene- 
rois  includes  that  part  of  Savoy  which  slopes  down  to  the  Rhone ;  Faueignij  com- 
prehends the  high  Alps,  traversed  by  the  Arve,  and  dominated  by  Mont  Blanc  ; 
while  Chahlaia  extends  along  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  Only  one-half  of  the  area  of  the 
department  consists  of  fields  and  pasture  lands,  but  agriculture,  the  breeding  of 
cattle,  the  making  of  butter  and  cheese,  and  industrial  pursuits  suffice  to  support  a 
population  more  dense  than  that  of  Franco  at  large. 

Thones  (1,059  inhabitants)  is  the  only  town  on  the  Fier  which  flows  through 


Fig.  110.— Thonon. 
Scale  1  :  125,000. 


6°l3oT!:  of  Gt- 


Ertiard 


the  southern  portion  of  the  department.  Annecij  (10,360  inhabitants),  the  capital, 
stands  on  the  Thioux,  a  tributary  of  the  Fier,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  lake  named 
after  it.  It  is  an  ancient  citj"-,  carrying  on  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics,  hats, 
paper,  and  iron.  Rumilly  (2,916  inhabitants),  on  another  tributary  of  the  Fier, 
manufactures  woollen  stuffs ;  and  near  Faverges  (1,537  inhabitants)  there  is  a  large 
sUk-mill  belonging  to  a  Lyons  company.  Formerly  that  place  had  iron  and 
copper  works. 


SAYOT. 


117 


There  arc  no  towns  in  the  valley  of  the  Arvc.  Chamonix  (Charaouni,  -101  inha- 
bitants) is  merely  a  village  of  hotels,  and  St.  Gervais  a  huge  bathing  establishment. 
At  Salltaiches  (1,594  inhabitants)  one  of  the  finest  views  of  l^font  Blanc  may  bo 
enjoyed.  At  C/kscs  there  is  a  school  for  watchmaking,  and  many  of  the  inha- 
bitants of  Bonneville  (1,842  inhabitants)  and  of  St.  Julien  (1,250  inhabitants),  the 
latter  in  reality  a  suburb  of  Geneva,  are  engaged  in  watchmaking. 

Tlionon  (•j,9-j3  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  Chablais,  occupies  a  jnagnificcnt  site 
on  the  banks  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and  to  the  west  of  the  alluvial  delta  of  tho 
Dranse.  Tho  castle  of  Ripaille  is  close  to  the  town,  whilst  Evien  (2,028  inha- 
bitants), a  favourite  spa  embosomed  in  woods  of  chestnut  and  walnut  trees,  lies  to 
the  east  of  the  Dranse.  Still  farlhcr  oast  the  greyish  cliffs  of  (he  Jleilleric  rise 
boldly  above  the  lake.     Most  of  tho  houses  arc  built  of  stone  quaniiil  there. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  JURA  AND  THE  BASIN  OF  THE  SAONE. 

FaANCHB-CoMTfi  AND   BUUGCNDY. 


m  HE  boundaries  of  this  region  of  France  are  more  or  less  conventional, 
for  though  the  paraUcl  ridges  of  the  Jura  and  the  vallej'  of  the 


^ijS>  Saone  are  well  defined,  there  are  also  included  in  it  several  outlying 
districts.  The  valley  of  the  Saone  is  essentially  a  country  of 
transit.  In  the  south  it  leads  to  the  Rhone,  which  it  joins  at 
Lyons;  in  the  north-west  numerous  passages  through  the  Cote  d'Or  connect  it 
with  the  basin  of  the  Seine  ;  in  the  north-cast  the  gate  of  Belfort  opens  commu- 
nication with  the  Rhine ;  and  intercoiu-se  with  the  Loire  in  the  west  meets  with  no 
obstacles.  The  climate  and  vegetation  of  Northern  and  Southern  France  become 
blended  in  this  valley,  and  whilst  the  pine  forests  in  the  Jura  are  quite  northern 
in  their  aspect,  the  bleached  rocks  of  Cote  d'Or,  on  the  other  side  of  the  vallej^ 
recall  the  foot-hills  of  the  Cevennes  and  the  Alps.  Even  the  inhabitants,  a  mixture 
of  Celts,  Ligurians,  Romans,  and  Teutonic  Burgundians,  exhibit  the  strength  and 
earnestness  of  men  of  the  north,  in  combination  with  the  passionate  temper  of  men 
of  the  south. 

The  ranges  of  the  Jura  belong  geologically  to  the  same  orographical  system  as 
do  certain  mountain  masses  of  the  Dauphino  and  of  Savoy.  They  at  first  extend  in 
a  northerlj'  direction,  but  by  degrees  curve  round  to  the  north-east,  until  they  pass 
over  into  Switzerland.  The  Jura,  very  unlike  other  mountain  systems,  consists  of 
a  series  of  parallel  ranges,  rising  from  a  platform  sloping  down  towards  the  west 
and  north-west.  Looked  at  from  an  elevation,  they  resemble  a  series  of  parallel 
waves  approaching  a  coast.  Each  of  these  ridges  is  intersected  by  one  or  more 
transverse  gorges,  or  closes,  and  there  are  also  combes,  or  valleys  of  erosion,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  lie  sparkling  lakes  or  rivulets. 

The  strata  composing  the  Jura  have  been  folded  by  exterior  pressure,  the  ridges 
being  formed  of  anticlinal,  the  valleys  of  synclinal  folds.  Denudation,  however, 
has  so  much  afiected  the  surface  of  the  country  that  out  of  one  hundred  and  sixty 
ridges  there  are  but  thirty  the  tops  of  which  consist  of  Jurassic  limestone,  this 
having  been  carried  away,  exposing  the  lias  and  trias  which  underlie  it.     The 


THE  JCTEA  AND  THE  BASIN  OF  THE  SAUNE. 


110 


limestones  of  the  Jura  are  rich  in  fossils,  and  even  ancient  atolh  have  been  dis- 
covered. 

The  Jura  abounds  in  forests  :  that  of  Chaux,  covering  nearly  50,000  acres,  lies 
at  the  foot  of  the  Jura,  and  consists  principally  of  oaks  and  beeches.  Firs  cover 
the  superior  slopes ;  and  in  the  woods  of  Ilautc-Joux  trunks  100  feet  in  height 
and  over  3  feet  thick  abound.  Tho  moisture  of  the  atmosphere,  as  well  as  the 
calcareous  nature  of  the  soil,  promotes  the  growth  of  grass  and  herbage,  and 


Fig.  111.— The   .Tura. 
Scale  1  :  S45,00O. 


♦  "    i.  of  Paris 


10  Miles. 


cattle-breedinw  and  the  makinjj  of  butter  and  cheese  are  carried  on  with  much 
profit.  The  cows  of  the  same  district  always  pasture  together,  and  co-operation  is 
practised  in  the  making  of  cheese. 

The  numerous  rivulets  of  the  Jura  supply  motive  power  to  a  host  of  manufac- 
tories, besides  which  the  mountaineers  engage  largely  in  sedentary  industries,  such 
08  watchmaking. 

The  emancipation  of  the  peasantry  during  the  French  Revolution  and  the  con- 
struction of  roads  have  wonderfully  aided  the  material  prosperitj'  of  the  Jura. 


150 


FEANCE. 


Not  very  long  ago  there  existed  no  carriage  roads  at  all,  but  at  the  present  daj^  no 
less  than  three  railroads  and  twenty  carriage  roads,  some  of  them  masterpieces  of 
engineering,  facilitate  intercourse  between  the  opposite  slopes  of  the  mountains.* 

Lakes  and  Rivers. 

The  lakes  of  the  French  Jura  are  much  inferior  to  those  of  Switzerland,  but 
geologically  they  are  full  of  interest.  A  few  of  them  occupy  the  longitudinal 
valleys ;  others  are  bounded  by  the  steep  walls  of  the  cluses,  these  being  the  most 
picturesque ;  others,  again,  occupy  the  combes  referred  to  above. 


Fig.  112. — The  Fokest  of  Chaux. 
Scale  1 :  320,000. 


j"|J«  K.  ol  I'ans 


.  10  JEles. 


The  Ain  is  the  most  characteristic  river  of  the  Jura.  Born  of  plenteous  springs 
issuing  from  mysterious  caverns,  the  river  winds  through  narrow  defiles  and 
cluses,  and  frequently  disappears  between  the  masses  of  huge  rocks  which  have 
tumbled  down  from  the  surrounding  precipices.  Being  bounded  for  the  most 
part  by  two  parallel  ridges  of  the  Jura,  the  Ain  receives  only  a  few  tributaries,  but 
these,  being  the  effluents  of  lakes,  are  more  abundant  than  might  be  expected. 
Amongst  the  tributaries  are  the  emissary  of  the  Lake  of  Chalin,  the  Bienne,  and 
the  Oignon,  rising  in  the  Lake  of  Nantua.     Of  the  numerous  waterfalls  of  the 

*  Heights  in  the  Jura  :— Grande  Colomtier,  5,033  feet ;  Credo ,  5,545  feet ;  Reculet,  5,644  feet ;  CrSt 
de  la  Neige,  5,657  feet;  Pass  of  LaFauoUle,  4,356  feet;  Col  des  Verrieres,  3,084  feet. 


LAKES  OP  THE  JURA. 


161 


Ain  that  near  the  bridge  of  Poitte  is  one  of  the  most  considerable.  It  is  52 
feet  high,  and  its  tumultuous  waters  supply  the  iron  forges  of  La  Saisso  with 
motive  power.  Champagnole  is  the  only  town  in  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Ain, 
which  only  widens  out  as  it  approaches  tho  Rhone,  near  which  the  river  winds 
through  the  fertile  and  populous  district  of  Valbonne,  an  ancient  lake  basin. 

In  most  mountain  countries  the  water-shod  runs  parallel  with  the  mountain 
ranges.  Not  so  in  the  Jura,  the  ridges  of  which  gradually  decrease  in  height  as 
we  travel  north  or  south  from  tho  culminating  summits  on  tho  frontier  between 
France  and  Switzerland.     In  the  Jura  the  line  which  parts  the  waters  flowing  to 


Fig.  113.— The  Lake  or  St.  Point. 
Scale  1  :  115,7:i|. 


^^' 

'■■yv 


U: 


T^/- 


1  Mile. 


the  Mediterranean  from  those  wending  their  way  to  tlic  north  runs  transversely 
across  the  whole  system  of  ridges.  Even  tho  Doubs,  which  finally  finds  its  way 
to  the  Mediterranean,  appears  to  have  formerly  flowed  to  the  Rhine,  and  if  a  barrier 
were  to  be  placed  across  the  defile  of  Stc.  Ursannc  it  might  possibly  do  so 
again.  Historically  and  geologically  the  Saone  is  tho  main  artery  of  the  valley  of 
the  Rhone,  and  if  its  volume  equalled  that  of  the  latter,  its  name  would  prevail 
down  to  the  Mediterranean.  The  Doubs,  however,  though  spoken  of  as  a  tribu- 
tary, is  in  reality  the  main  branch  of  the  Saone.  It  flows  at  first  in  a  north- 
westerly direction.  Having  traversed  the  Lake  of  St.  Point,  it  enters  the  narrow 
gorges  of  Pontarlier,  where  mills  occupy  every  available  spot.     At  the  small  Lako 


152 


TRANCE. 


of  Chailleson  the  river  reaches  the  Swiss  frontier,  which  it  follows  for  a  consider- 
able distance.  It  there  gathers  itself  up,  and  then  leaps  over  a  precipice  89 
feet  in  height,  forming  the  famous  Falls  of  the  Doubs.     The  course  of  the  river 


Fig.  114. — The  Lake  of  Chalin, 
Scale  1  :  83,000. 


p  3Q 


(ft  'Jl  vf. 


■Fqatcf  u>\>       ^ 


1  Mile. 


is  most  erratic,  but  at  length  it  turns  abruptly  to  the  west,  piercing  one  chain 
of  the  Jura  after  the  other.  Below  St.  Ilippolyte  the  river  turns  to  the  north, 
forcing  itself  a  passage  through  the  mountains  of  the  Lomont,  and  approaching 


Fig.  115. — The  Lakes  op  the  Cluse  of  Nai'tua. 
Scale  1  ;  80,000. 


E.  "1   Gr. 


^^r^. 


//, 


■=??° 


7— ^^^^77-7-^1^1 


|S"40 


i;?.  -i 


>J^' 


'A 


•%'"'^-    ^^^ 


^'1'^^ 


1 5-20    -Et"!    P. 


1  Jlile. 


the  gap  of  Belfort,  through  which  runs  a  canal  connecting  the  Doubs  with  the 
Rhine.  Thenceforth  the  general  course  of  the  river  is  south-westerly  until  it  joins 
the  Saone,  but  it  winds  about  much,  passing  alternately  between  steep  precipices 


THE  SAONE. 


158 


and  over  undulating  valley  plains.  The  course  of  the  Louo,  whicli  is  tlie  principal 
tributary  of  the  Doubs,  is  almost  equally  erratic.  At  Pontarlier  the  Doubs  in 
summer  was  formerly  shallowed  up  in  sinks,  and  flowed  uudcrj^round.  But  the 
mill-owners,  who  were  much  iiieuuvonieuced  by  this  occasional  disappearance,  have 
built  walls  around  the  mouths  of  these  sink-holes,  and  the  water  power  furnished 
by  the  river  is  now  available  throu{>;hout  the  year. 

Manv  of  the  tributaries  of  tlie  Saouo  likewise  flow  for  considerable  distances 


Fig.  UC. — The  Lower  Valley  ok  the  Am. 
Scale  1 :  ieO,000. 


^. 


^   lUpovrrsw 


\,|,i 


naijs 


% 


\.\\\ 


S jl^l-    t-  ^.A    1. 


u 


—  lUUe. 


underground.  Near  Yesoul  there  arc  several  rivulets  of  this  kind.  They  reappear 
again  in  the  spring  of  Champdamoy,  and  when  the  subterranean  channels  are  full 
to  repletion,  a  supplementary  spring,  about  a  mile  higher,  begins  to  flow. 

The  Saone  rises  in  the  chain  of  the  Faucilles  ("  sickle  mountains  "),  and  ha>'ing 
received  numerous  tributaries  from  the  Vosges  and  the  plateau  of  Langres,  it  flows 


154  FEANCE. 

in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  hills  which  produce  the  famous  wines  of  Burgundy. 
The  canal  of  Burgundy  connects  the  Saone  with  the  Seine  ;  that  of  the  Centre 
with  the  Loire.  The  Saone,  for  407  miles  out  of  a  total  of  732,  has  a  fall  of  only 
5'67  inches  a  mile,  and  is  therefore  excellently  suited  for  navigation.  Below 
Chalons  it  flows  through  the  silted-up  basin  of  an  ancient  lake,  which  towards  the 
close  of  the  tertiary  epoch  extended  from  the  foot  of  the  Jura  to  the  promontories 
of  Charollais  and  Beaujolais. 

To  the  east  of  the  Lower  Saone  lies  the  remarkable  clayey  plateau  of  the 
Dombes,  abounding  in  cavities  filled  with  stagnant  pools,  and  surmounted  by  a 
few  isolated  hillocks  locally  known  as  poi^Jcs,  or  paps.  Most  of  these  pools  are 
of  recent  origin,  for  in  the  fourteenth  centuiy  the  greater  portion  of  the  country 
was  mider  cultivation.     But  feudal  wars  led  to  the  desertion  of  entire  villages,  the 

Fig.  117- — The  Gueat  Defile  (Percee)  of  tue  Doobs. 
ScoJe  1  : 3,750,000. 


W.   ,1P 


V<^^ 


4, 


I       »         •      -J 


^  ^  -    -  ''  -•     ...--^'— V^"^ 


U 

Sc  gneie^    e 


"af>' 


|r-2o- 


channels  of  the  rivulets  became  obstructed,  and  the  stagnant  waters  occupied  every 
depression  in  the  soil.  Subsequently  a  peculiar  system  of  rotation  got  into  vogue, 
which  consisted  in  alternately  inundating  and  draining  the  fields,  which  neverthe- 
less yielded  but  poor  harvests,  whilst  the  fevers  bred  by  the  numerous  swamps 
annually  decimated  the  population.  At  length,  about  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago, 
the  reclamation  of  this  forsaken  part  of  France  was  taken  in  hand.  A  railway 
and  roads  were  constructed,  and  up  to  1870  no  less  than  half  the  swamps,  or 
25,000  acres,  had  been  drained.  The  effect  upon  the  health  of  the  inhabitants 
was  almost  iumiediate.  The  population  in  twenty  years  has  increased  30  per 
cent.,  and  the  mean  age  is  now  thii-ty-five  years  instead  of  twenty-five  as  before. 

The  Saone,  to  the  west  of  the  plateau  of  the  Dombes,  continues  its  peaceable 
course  for  some  distance  longer,  and  the  peasants  say  with  unconscious  pride — 

"  From  Villefranche  to  Anse — the  finest  mile  ia  France." 


THE  SAONE.  166 

But  soon  afterwards  the  progress  of  the  river  is  stopped  by  a  raugo  of  hills. 

Fig.  118. — The  Fails  op  the  Doi-ns. 


Twisting  about  to  the  east,  the  Saone  is  swallowed  up  by  the  gorge  of  Roehetaillee, 
widened,  it  is  suid,  by  Roman  engineers,  and  finally  joins  the  lUiOno  at  Lyons, 


156 


FRANCE. 


On  an  average  the  Saone  discharges  8,830  cubic  feet  every  second,  the  discharge 
of  the  Rhone  at  Lyons  amounting  to  23,000  cubic  feet.  The  Saone  is  usually  in 
flood  after  the  autumn  and  winter  rains,  whilst  the  Rhone,  fed  by  the  ice  and 
snow  of  Switzerland  and  Savoy,  carries  the  greatest  volume  in  summer,  a  circum- 
stance most  advantageous  to  the  Lyonese. 


Fig.  119. —The  Dombes  in  1834. 
Scale  1  :  IGll.OOO. 


j^g^  E  of  ( 1  


,  2  Miles. 


Inhabitants. 

The  men  of  the  Jura  are  the  taUest  of  all  France.  The  pure  race  of  Franche- 
Comte  only  exists  on  the  Jui-assic  plateau,  and  is  distinguished  by  a  short  trunk, 
broad  shoulders,  long  arms,  and  long  legs.  Families  are  numerous  in  the  villages, 
and  emigration  goes  on  steadily,  Comtois  being  met  with  in  every  town  of 
France.     Formerly,  when  Franche- Comte  formed  a  part  of  the  vast  domains  of 


AIN.  157 

Charles  V.,  no  less  than  20,000  of  them  lived  at  Madrid,  and  at  Rome  they  occu- 
pied by  themselves  the  so-called  Burgundiun  quarter. 

Powerful,  silent,  and  circumspect,  the  mountaineers  of  Franchc-Comte  have 
at  all  times  been  distinguished  for  their  industry  and  tlieir  spirit  of  independence. 
Until  crushed  by  Louis  XIV.,  who  conquered  tho  country  and  converted  its 
peasants  into  serfs,  they  enjoyed  the  privileges  of  self-government,  Franchc- 
Comte  only  became  truly  French  through  the  Revolution,  but  since  that  time  has 
contributed  more  than  its  proper  share  to  tho  work  achieved  by  tho  entire 
nation. 

Topography. 

Am. — This  rectangular  department,  enclosed  between  the  Rhone  and  Saone, 
has  been  named  after  the  river  Ain,  which  runs  through  it  from  north  to  south. 
It  comprises  a  level  region  in  the  west,  and  a  mountainous  tract  in  the  east.  Tho 
former  includes  the  districts  of  Rrcsso  and  the  Pombes,  the  latter  abounding  in 
small  lakes  and  marshes.  The  district  of  Bugey  lies  on  the  Fi'ench  slopes  of  the 
Jura  ;  that  of  Gex  bej'ond  these  mountains,  to  the  north  of  Geneva.  Agricidturo, 
cattle-breeding,  and  the  manufacture  of  cheese  are  the  leading  occupations. 

Gcx  (1,469  inhabitants)  is  but  a  small  place,  but  to  those  who  first  behold  it  on 
descending  the  Pass  of  Faucillc  it  will  for  ever  be  identified  with  the  marvellous 
panorama  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  On  that  same  route  lies  Ferney,  associated  with 
Voltaire ;  and  to  the  north  of  it  is  Nivonne,  with  its  hydropathic  establishments. 

Tracing  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Rhone  downwards  from  the  Lake  of  Geneva, 
we  pass  Collonges,  the  fort  of  L'Evhise  and  BcUcgarde  (p.  89),  and  Sci/hscI,  known 
through  its  asphalt. 

BeUeij  (4,105  inhabitants),  the  old  capital  of  Bugej',  not  being  either  on  a 
river  or  on  a  railway,  is  doomed  to  dccaj',  whilst  Amhcricu  (1,770  inhabitants),  a 
railwaj'  station  at  the  mouth  of  the  valley  of  the  Albarine,  St.  Raiiihcrt-dc-Jou.r 
(1,571  inhabitants),  and  Tenay  (2,459  inhabitants),  higher  up  in  that  valley,  are 
instinct  with  life.  Naniua  (2,940  inhabitants)  is  the  only  place  of  importance  in 
northern  Bugey,  and  carries  on  some  trade  with  the  cheese  of  Valromey  and  the 
lithographic  stones  of  the  Forest  of  Montreal. 

Bourg  (14,289  inhabitants),  tho  old  capital  of  Bresse,  is  actually  the  capital  of 
the  entire  department.  The  mausoleum  of  the  Dukes  of  Savoy,  budt  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  is  its  most  remarkable  building.  Bourg  is  a  busy  mart  for  agri- 
cultural produce.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Lalande  and  Edgar  Quiuet,  and  Bichat 
was  bom  in  a  neighbouring  village.  Pont-de-Vaux  (2,910  inhabitants),  lower 
down  on  the  Reyssouze,  the  river  of  Bourg,  is  a  small  manufacturing  town,  the 
inhabitants  of  which  differ  essentially  from  those  of  the  surrounding  country,  and 
are  believed  to  be  descended  from  Saracens.  Trcroiix  (2,217  inhabitants),  the  old 
capital  of  Bresse,  had'  its  own  Parliament  formerly,  as  well  as  a  mint,  now  repre- 
sented by  a  few  jewellers'  shops,  and  is  mentioned  in  the  history  of  literature  as 
the  place  where  the  Jesuits  printed  their  famous  Dictionarj'  and  other  works. 
Sathonay  (3,958  inhabitants)  is  a  military  camp  rather  than  a  village.     It  was 

VOL.   II.  M 


158 


FRANCE. 


here  tlie  battle  of  Lyons  was  fought  in  197,  which  gave  the  dominion  of  the  world 
to  Septimius  Severus. 

Jura. — This  portion  of  the  old  Franche-Comte  is  occupied  to  the  extent  of  one- 
half  by  ridges  of  the  Jura,  but  these  are  by  no  means  the  most  elevated  in  France. 
It  is  one  of  the  wealthiest  districts  of  the  Jura.  More  than  a  third  of  its  area  is 
covered  with  forests,  and  it  has  iron  works  and  other  industrial  establishments. 

Fig.  120.— The  SIountai.vs  of  Mouez  and  St.  Ci.attik. 
Scale  1  :  147,123. 


f:/i 


rm'  B.  Ill  ■ 


J^> 


'r.'.^'\^- 


r-'M^ 


m 


W'^ 


>  ^ 


^Ajt^S/v^yffiumh  •/.■; 


y 


2  lilies. 


S(.  Claude  (6,632  inhabitants)  is  a  mountain  town  at  the  foot  of  the  Pass  of 
La  Faucille,  the  inhabitants  of  which  depend  on  wood-carving  and  lapidary's 
work  for  their  existence,  and  export  the  cheese  known  as  "  Septmoncel,"  from  a 
village  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  old  abbey  has  disappeared,  but  on  a  plateau 
to  the  north  may  stiU.  be  traced  the  ruins  of  a  Gallo-Eoman  city.     Morez  (5,375 


DOUBS.  1E9 

inbabitants),  bigbcr  up  in  fbe  samo  vaHoy,  depends  solely  upon  its  mauufucturc  of 
■watches,  jewellery,  glasses  for  spectacles,  itc. 

Loiis-le-Saunier  (11,2G5  inbabitants),  at  tho  foot  of  tbo  first  terrace  of  tbo  Jura, 
exports  the  produce  of  its  vineyards  and  gardens,  wood  and  cheese  procured  from 
the  mountains,  spectacles,  articles  in  copper  and  iron,  and  textile  fabrics  manufac- 
tured in  the  town.  At  Montmorot,  close  b}-,  are  brine  springs  yielding  annually 
nearly  10,000  tons  of  salt.  Excellent  building  stones  are  quarried  in  the  vicinity, 
as  also  at  St.  Amour  (1,911  inbabitants),  half-way  to  Bourg-en-Bresso. 

The  terrace  lying  to  tho  east  of  tbo  clifl's  bounding  this  terrace  of  tbo  Jura 
abounds  in  ancient  remains.  At  Orgcht  there  ai'c  bai'rows  and  stono  walls  of 
defence ;  on  the  road  thence  to  St.  Claude  a  Roman  bridge  spans  the  Ain,  and 
pile  dwellings  have  been  discovered  on  the  small  Lake  of  Clairvmix.  Voiteur  and 
Poligixj  (4,783  inbabitants)  occupy  sites  analogous  to  that  of  Lons-le-Saunier, 
and  Poligny,  like  its  more  populous  neighbour,  has  its  vineyards,  quarries, 
and  brine  springs.  Arbois  (4,809  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  wines,  but  tho 
best  growths  of  the  department  are  the  white  wines  of  Chateau- Chalons,  below 
Voiteur,  and  the  red  ones  of  tho  hills  of  Arsures,  near  Mouchard.  Sci/iiis  (5,577 
inhabitants),  in  a  mountain  gorge  and  on  the  banks  of  a  river,  appropriately  called 
La  Furieuse,  is  best  known  on  account  of  its  springs  of  brine,  a  portion  of  whicK 
is  conveyed  to  the  salt  works  of  Arc  and  Senans,  In  addition  to  wine,  salt,  and 
cheese,  Salins  exports  iron  ore,  plaster  of  Paris,  lime,  building  stones,  and  timber. 
At  Cliampaynolc  (3,342  inhabitants),  about  13  miles  to  the  south,  there  are  iron- 
mills  and  manufactures  of  tools. 

Bole  (12,009  inhabitants),  on  the  Doubs,  occupies  tho  extremity  of  a  range  of 
hills,  and  commands  an  extensive  plain.  It  was  the  old  capital  of  Franche-Comt^, 
the  scat  of  a  university  and  of  a  Parliament,  and  valiantly  defended  its  ancient 
liberties  against  the  armies  of  Louis  XL  It  is  in  every  respect  a  more  important 
place  than  Lons-le-Saunier,  possessing  not  only  libraries  and  museums,  but  also 
numerous  industrial  establishments,  including  corn  and  saw  mills,  machine  shops, 
and  manufactories  of  agricultm-al  implcnieuts.  On  the  Upper  Doubs,  at  Runs  and 
Fraisans,  there  are  important  iron  works. 

Dorns. — Nearly  the  whole  of  this  department  drains  into  the  Doubs.  It  is 
essentially  a  mountain  country,  the  inbabitants  of  which  depend  largely  upon 
watchmaking  and  other  industries  for  their  subsistence.  Excellent  "  Gruyero  " 
is  made  in  the  upper  valleys. 

Pontarlier  (5,1G3  inhabitants),  the  highest  town  on  the  Doubs,  enjoyed  its 
municipal  liberties  until  1G78.  It  is  mainly  indebted  for  its  prosperity  to  its 
trade  with  Switzerland,  with  which  two  lines  of  railway  connect  it.  Near  it,  on  a 
precipitous  rock,  stands  the  fort  of  Joux,  within  tho  walls  of  which  Toussaint- 
Louverture,  the  negro  patriot,  perished  from  cold  and  miser)'.  Mortcau,  about 
20  miles  lower  down,  and  near  tho  famous  Falls  of  the  Doubs,  is  the  centre  of 
French  watchmaking,  and  a  school  has  been  established  there  to  encourage  this 
important  industry.  The  vicinity  of  this  busy  hive  abounds  in  natural  curiosities, 
savage  defiles,  caverns,  and  waterfalls. 

M  2 


160 


FRANCE. 


"Where  the  Doubs  emerges  from  the  gorges  of  the  Jura  the  aspect  of  the  coun- 
try changes,  and  we  enter  upon  a  region  of  hills  sloping  down  towards  the  great 
gap  of  Belfort.     All  along  the  river,  at  Ponf-de-Roidc  (2,363  inhabitants)  and 

Fig.  121. — The  First  Terrace  of  the  Jvra,  between  Lons-le-Satjnier  and  SALiNa. 

Scale  1  :  230,000. 


E    iP 


3  iO 


<:  y.Or 


5  '50 


Audincourt  (4,258  inhabitants),  factory  succeeds  to  factory,  until  we  reach  Monthi- 
liard  (7,625  inhabitants),  the  natural  centre  of  this  busy  region,  where  textile 
manufactures  and  watchmaking  constitute  the  leading  industries,  llontbeliard, 
up  to  the  French  Eevolution,  belonged  to  Wiirtemberg,  and  this  circumstance 


BESANqON. 


ICl 


accounts  for  its  large  Protestant  population.  The  strong  castle  has  been  converted 
into  a  prison,  but  the  town,  for  all  that,  has  lost  none  of  its  ancient  strategical 
importance.  A  monument  has  been  erected  to  Cuvier,  tho  most  famous  of  its  sous. 
Near  it  are  ruins  of  ;i  Roman  city. 

Below  Montbc'liard  tho  Doubs  enters  a  second  defile,  within  which  is  situated 
the  small  town  of  Buume-ks-Bamcs  (2,497  inhabitants),  thus  named  after  a  convent 
occupied  by  ladies  of  noble  birth,  whoso  furo  in  Lent  has  passed  into  a  proverb. 

Besainon  (42,808  inhabitants),  the  largest  town  in  Franchc-Comte,  stands  on 

Fig.  122. — BES.VX90N. 
Scale  1  :  Jj.OOO. 


3° 4s'  EofParis. 


fonJ'^.'.r..-, 


L,      M,.vj,ll, 


L/ 


l5c<olUc. 


'Al)l«.l.K 


Ckan.: 


MS    11, ..|>': 


\  I'h.ll 


Ei'hai'J 


iMilc. 


one  of  those  sites  marked  out  by  nature  as  a  place  of  strength.  A  rock  410  feet 
in  height  rises  boldly  from  the  narrow  neck  of  the  peninsula  occupied  by  the  town. 
It  is  crowned  by  a  citadel,  and  detached  forts  placed  upon  the  surrounding  hills 
render  Besan^on  a  formidable  fortress  even  -when  attacked  by  modern  artillery. 
Amongst  tho  public  monuments  of  the  town  are  a  Roman  gate,  a  cathedial,  a 
mansion  built  by  Granvelle,  the  famous  chancellor  of  Charles  V.,  but  now  devoted 
to  the  objects  of  the  numerous  scientific  societies  of  the  town.  There  are  colleges, 
a  rich  library,  a  gallery  of  paintings,  and  several  museums.     Tho  town  has  at  all 


162 


FRANCE. 


times  been,  jealous  of  its  liberties,  and  only  surrendered  to  Louis  XIV.  on  his  pro- 
mising to  maintain  its  municipal  institutions.  Victor  Hugo,  Charles  Fourier,  and 
Proudhon  are  natives  of  it.  Watchmaking  is  the  great  industr}'  of  Besancon : 
in  1875  419,984  watches  ■were  manufactured  there,  and  in  the  French  Jura,  and 
only  2,050  in  all  the  rest  of  France.  But  there  are  also  important  metallurgical 
establishments,  and  iron  forges  are  numerous  on  the  Doubs  and  its  tributary,  the 
Loue.  At  Miscrc)/,  to  the  north  of  the  town,  there  are  brine  springs.  Ontans 
(3,033   inhabitants)    on   the  Loue,   is  a  manufacturing  town,  and  the  cherries 

Fig.  123. — Besancon,  as  seen  fkom  La  MouiLLtu'E. 


grown  in  its  orchards  are  converted  into  a  favourite  liqueur.  Near  it,  m  the  pic- 
turesque valley  of  the  Lison,  are  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  city  of  Alesia  (Alaise), 
where  Ca3sar  is  believed  to  have  finally  overthrown  the  forces  of  the  Gauls. 

Belfort. — The  gap  between  the  Vosges  and  the  Jura  is  defended  by  the 
fortress  of  Belfort,  which  offered  so  valiant  a  resistance  to  the  German  besiegers. 
French  is  spoken  iu  three  out  of  the  four  cantons  depending  upon  the  town  ; 
Gei-man  and  French  in  the  fourth,  that  of  Delle.  Belfort  has  lost  somewhat  of  its 
strategical  importance  since  Metz  has  become  a  German  fortress,  but  it  still  closes 
one  of  the  great  gateways  of  France.     Its  citadel  was  built  by  Vauban,  and  other 


IIATJTE-SACNE. 


1C3 


fortifications  of  more  recent  date  crown  tlio  surrouuding  heights.  The  only 
remains  of  mediicval  works  of  defence  are  the  "  Citizens'  Tower,"  in  the  town  itself, 
and  the  "  Stone  "  of  Lu  Miotte,  on  the  snniniit  of  a  hill,  occupied  by  one  of  the 
luodoru  forts.  Military  rule,  as  usual,  has  i)reventcd  the  growth  of  industry,  and 
the  only  manufacturing  place  of  the  territory  is  Giromaijiii/  (3,058  inhabitants),  on 
the  Upper  Savoureuse,  where  there  are  cotton-mills. 

HAtTE-SAoxE  comprises  nearly  the  whole  of  the  upper  basin  of  the  JSaoue. 
From  the  gi-auitic  "  Ballons  "  of  the  Vosges  the  department  slopes  down  towards 


Fig.  124. — Belfout. 

Scilc  i  :  10«,C«0. 


!  lIUcs. 


the  south-west.  Nearly  one-third  of  its  area  is  wooded,  and  the  villages  are 
embosomed  in  orchards.  There  are  no  large  towns,  but  though  agriculture  is  the 
chief  pursuit,  we  meet  also  with  coal,  iron,  and  salt  inincs,  iron  works,  potteries, 
and  other  industrial  establishments. 

Ilcricoiirl  (3,402  inhabitants)  is  the  only  town  in  that  portion  of  the  department 
which  lies  within  the  basin  of  the  Doubs.  It  is  mostly  inhabited  by  Protestants 
engaged  in  the  cotton  industry. 

Lure  (3,S00  inhabitants),  near  the  Ognon,  the  capital  of  the  eastern  arrondisse- 
mont,  is  a  place  without  importance,  surpassed  in  industry  by  lioiic/i(imj)s  (1,895 


164 


FRANCE. 


inhabitants)  and  Chcunpagney  (2,080  inhabitants),  occupying  a  valley  of  the  Vosges, 
and  surrounded  by  coal  mines  yielding  200,000  tons  annually.  Luxeuil  (4,047 
inhabitants),  a  famous  watering-place,  not  yielding  to  Plombieres  in  the  abun- 
dance of  its  springs,  lies  to  the  north-west,  in  the  midst  of  a  delightful  country. 
Near  it  is  FougeroUcs  (1,282  inhabitants),  a  large  village  embosomed  in  cherry 
gardens. 

Vesoul  (9,097  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  department,  lies  in  the  verdant 
valley  of  the  Durgeon,  and  being  the  junction  of  four  railways,  is  a  bustling  place, 

Fif?.  125. — Belfoet,  from  the  Port  La  BIiotte. 


though  exceeded  in  that  respect  by  its  rival,  Graij  (7,345  inhabitants),  which,  in 
addition  to  railway  communications,  possesses  the  advantage  of  lying  upon  a 
navigable  river,  the  Saone.  Gray  is  a  great  corn  market,  and  has  numerous  corn- 
mills. 

Cote-d'Or. — The  department  named  after  the  range  of  hills  producing  the 
famous  wines  of  Burgundy  is  one  of  the  most  important  coimtries  of  passage  in 
France,  belonging  partly  to  the  basin  of  the  Saone,  and  partly  to  those  of  the 
Seine  and  the  Loire.  The  whole  of  it  formerly  constituted  a  portion  of  the  pro- 
vince known  as  Burgundy  (La  Bourgogne),  and  consists  geographically  of  several 


cOte-d'ok. 


1C5 


well-defined  didsions.  The  granitic  hills  of  tlio  Morvon,  with  their  woods,  ponds, 
and  sparkling  rivulets,  form  one  of  these.  The  plateau  of  the  Auxois,  farther  cast, 
intersected  by  numerous  deep  river  valleys,  is  another.  The  plateau  of  Langrcs 
extends  thence  in  the  direction  of  the  Vosges.  It,  too,  is  wooded,  but  the  most 
extensive  forests  arc  met  with  on  the  limestone  plateau  of  Chatillounais.  Tho 
most  fertile  region  of  tho  department  lies  to  the  east  of  the  famous  raugo  known  as 
Cotc-d'Or.     The  department,  in  addition  to  its  wines,  exports  iron  and  marble. 

Un  the  Saone,  which  flows  through  the  plaiu  in  the  south-west  of  tho  depart- 
ment, there  are  no  large  towns.     Aiuoiiiie  (4,904  inhabitants),  an  old  fortress, 


Fig.  126.— Vesovl. 

Sc-Uo  1 :  60,000. 


3'|6t 


tj"  iti  t  uf  Or 


,  Haifa  Mile. 


carries  on  some  trade  in  agricultural  produce;  but  St.  Jean-de-Losne,  at  the 
mouth  of  tho  canal  of  Bourgogne,  and  Scurre  (2,514  inhabitants),  lower  down, 
exceed  it  in  activity. 

Dijon  (4.5,G07  inhabitants),  the  old  capital  of  Burgundy,  is  most  favourably 
situated  for  commerce.  The  canal  of  Bourgogne  connects  it  with  the  Saono  and 
the  Seine,  and  it  is  the  principal  town  on  the  road  between  Paris  and  Lyons.  It 
carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  corn,  possesses  a  variety  of  manufactures,  and 
its  mustard,  gingerbread,  and  sweetmeats  enjoy  a  wide  reputation.    Dijon  is  one  of 


I'oO 


FEANCE. 


those  provincial  towns  which  have  not  taken  Paris  for  their  pattern.  It  has  produced 
many  men  of  eminence — St.  Bernard,  Bossuet,  Raraeau,  Guy  ton  de  Morveau, 
JoutTroy,  and  Rude ;  and  its  scientific  establishments,  its  schools  of  art  and  music, 
its  libraries  and  museums,  are  amongst  the  most  important  of  France.     The  old 


Fig.  127.— The  Wine  Distrkt  op  Cotb-d'Ok. 
Scale  1 :  320,000. 


L    ^  I 

i  "  -J 


2°  f  E  of  r 


10  Miles. 


raniparts  have  fallen,  but  there  still  remain  many  fine  old  churches  and  mansions, 
which  impart  originaUty  to  the  town.  The  old  palace  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy, 
erected  in  the  fifteenth  century,  is  now  used  as  a  town-hall  and  museum,  the 
guard-chamber  containing  the  tombs  of  Philip  the  Bold  and  John  the  Fearless, 


LIBRARV 

OF  THE 

UNIV£RaTyof«UNOIS. 


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168 


FRANCE. 


Autunais  and  CharoUais,  whicli  form  the  water- shed  between,  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Mediterranean.  The  wooded  mountains  of  Morvan  rise  to  the  west  of  Autun,  and 
the  valleys  of  Brionnais,  sloping  down  to  the  Loire,  are  occupied  b}^  magnificent 
meadows.  The  department  ranks  high  as  an  agricultural  country,  and  the  coal 
mines  around  Autun  have  led  to  the  creation  of  flourishing  manufactures. 

Louhans  (3,498  inhabitants)  is  the  only  town  to  the  east  of  the  Saone,  the 
great  centres  of  population  having  sprung  into  existence  on  the  banks  of  that 
navigable  river.      Chalons-tiur-Saone   (20,571   inhabitants)  is  the  most  important 


Fig.  128.— Le  Crevsot. 
Scale  1  :  23,000. 


2° 1 6' K. of  Paris 


1."TJ6'F.  of  (n- 


nalf-illile. 


town  of  the  entire  department  historically,  and  only  cedes  in  population  to  the 
modern  upstart,  Le  Creusot.  Formerly  a  great  river  port,  and  a  station  of  a 
Roman  admiral,  it  is  now  a  most  important  railway  centre,  and  exports  corn,  iron, 
and  wines.  There  are  ship-yards,  and  barrels  in  large  numbers  arc  made.  Chagny 
(3,950  inhabitants),  on  the  Canal  du  Centre,  which  joins  it  to  Chalons,  has  recently 
developed  into  a  busy  place  of  traffic. 

Travelling  down  the  Saone,  we  pass  Tournus  (4,412  inhabitants),  the  birthplace 
of  Greuze,  and  reach  Macon  (16,579  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  department. 
In  the  upper  town,  formerly  inhabited  by  priests  and  nobles,  Lamartine  was  born. 


LE  CREUSOT. 


1G9 


In  the  lower  town  tlicre  are  manufactories  and  huge  wine  vaults,  in  which  the 
famous  growths  of  TJiorins  and  Romaneche  aro  stored.  St.  Laurent,  a  suburb 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  is  famous  on  account  of  its  fairs.  The  country 
around  Macon  abounds  in  places  of  interest.  Archnoologists  will  seek  out  the 
village  of  Solurre,  where  the  fossil  skeletons  of  a  hundred  thousand  horses  have  been 
discovered.  The  castles  of  Montceau-les-Mines  (4,375  inhabitants),  Milhj,  and 
Si.  Point  allure  the  admirers  of  Lamar  tine's  poetry,  whilst  the  famous  abbey 
of  Chinij  (4,007  inhabitants)  must  ever  attract  historians  and  artists. 

Autini  (I1,3-jS  inhabitants),  in  the  north-western  angle  of  the  department,  the 
Augustodunum  of  the  Romans,  has  fallen  from  its  high  estate,  and  its  buildings 
now  hardly  cover  two-thirds  of  the  area  enclosed  by  its  ancient  walls.  Its  Roman 
ruins  are  of  small  importance,  some  of  the  most  interesting  amongst  Ihem  haA-ing 
been  utilised  in  the  construction  of  modern  buildings.  The  3Iiddle  Ages  are 
represented  by  the  fine  church  of  St.  Lazarus,  with  one  of  the  best  pictures  of 

Fig.  129.— Le  CracsoT. 


Ingres.  Mont  Beurray  (2,GG0  feet),  one  of  the  highest  summits  of  the  Morvan, 
rises  about  12  miles  to  the  west  of  Autun.  Upon  its  summit  may  be  seen 
the  remains  of  an  ancient  city,  identified  with  the  Bibracte  of  the  Romans, 
but  evidently  of  much  older  date,  as  is  proved  by  cromlechs  and  entrenchments. 
Annually  in  May  a  fair  is  held  on  the  summit  of  this  raoimtain. 

The  country  to  the  west  of  Autun  is  purely  agricultural,  but  to  the  cast  of 
that  town  lies  one  of  the  great  manufacturing  centres  of  France.  At  Epinac 
(1,G70  inhabitants)  there  are  coal  mines,  yielding  annually  about  150,000  tons, 
and  bottle  works.  Couchcs-les-Miiies  (1,597  inhabitants)  produces  iron,  lime,  and 
gypsum ;  but  the  great  centre  of  industry  lies  still  farther  south,  near  the  old 
Charbonniere.  This  is  Le  Creimt  (26,432  inhabitants).  A  cannon  foundry, 
glass  works,  and  iron  works  existed  there  at  the  close  of  last  century,  but  it  is  only 
since  1837  that  the  place  has  rapidly  grown  into  importance.  Its  coal  mines  now 
extend  to  a  depth  of  1,300  feet,  and  their  produce  is  utilised  in  innumerable  iron 


170 


FEANCE. 


Avorks,  forges,  and  locomotive  workshops,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  iron  ore  and 
coal  consumed  being  imported  from  abroad.  Other  places  to  the  south  of  Le 
Creusot  participate  in  its  industrial  prosperity.  Montchanin-Ics-Mincs  (3,-33-l 
inhabitants)  has  vast  brick-kilns.  Blanzy  (1,88G  inhabitants)  has  the  most 
productive  coal  mines  of  the  district.  Montceau  (4,375  inhabitants)  has  iron 
mines. 

Charollcs  (2,969  inhabitants),  a  sleepy  town,  is  the  capital  of  Charollais.     Tliat 
district,  as  well  as  Brionnais,  adjoining  it  on  the  south-west,  is  engaged  in  the 

Fig.  130.— Lyon'S. 

SVile  1  :  80,000. 


4°Uo  F.   of  Gr 


.  1  Mile. 


fattening  of  cattle.  Cliauffailles  (1,993  inhabitants),  in  that  part  of  the  country,  is 
becoming  of  importance  on  account  of  its  coal  mines.  Digoin  (2,721  inhabitants), 
on  the  Loire,  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce.  Bourhon-Lancij  (1,604  inhabit- 
ants) has  been  noted  from  immemorial  times  for  its  saline  springs.  Paraii-le-Monial 
(2,895  inhabitants)  has  an  abbey  modelled  after  that  of  Cluny,  and  has  recently 
become  known  through  the  visions  of  Marie  Alacoque,  which  led  to  the  "  worship 
of  the  Sacred  Heart."  * 

*  In  1874  the  department  produced  1,110,000  tons  of  coal.     Le  Creusot,  in  1872,  employed  15,500 
persons,  and  produced  330,000  tons  of  iron  and  steel,  308  locomotives,  &c.,  valued  at  £620,000. 


LIBRARV 

OF  THE 

UNIVERS/TYofftUNOIS, 


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.>*.V'/. 


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172 


FEAKCE. 


Naates  threatened  destruction  to  this  industry,  but  it  survived  the  blow  then 
inflicted,  and,  in  spite  of  wars  and  revolutions,  Lyons  has  maintained  its  pre- 
eminent position.  In  1872  there  were  120,000  looms  in  the  department,  240,000 
persons  were  employed  in  the  silk  industry,  and  the  average  value  of  silk  stuffs 
produced  annually  is  estimated  at  nearly  £20,000,000  sterling.  Most  of  the 
weavers  work  at  their  own  homes,  and  their  demeanour  and  character  differ  very 
favourably  from  those  of  ordinary  factory  hands.     At  the  same  time  the  solitary 


Fig.  131. — The  Envikons  of  Lyon'S. 


Seal 


e    oiiu^ooo 


,  10  Miles. 


life  which  most  of  them  lead  nourishes  a  spirit  of  mystical  exaltation  which  rises 
to  the  surface  whenever  there  is  a  revolution. 

Formerly  nearly  all  the  weavers  lived  in  the  town,  but  the  manufacturers, 
desirous  of  weakening  their  unions  and  of  obtaining  cheaper  labour,  have  trans- 
planted the  silk  industry  to  most  of  the  neighbouring  towns  and  villages.  Villcur- 
hanne  (8,163  inhabitants),  Venissiciix  (1,943  inhabitants),  Ste.  Foy  (4,337  inha- 
bitants), Oullins  (4,886  inhabitants),  St.  Genis  (2,246  inhabitants),  Caluire  et  Cuire 
(7,207  inhabitants),  and  Neuville  (3,207  inhabitants)    are   inhabited  to  a  large 


LYONS.  178 

extent  by  weavers.  Nay,  the  great  industry  of  Lyons  extends  far  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  department,  for  the  looms  of  Chamb^ry,  in  Savoy,  work  on  account 
of  Lyonese  houses. 

L'Arhreslc  (3,091  inhabitants),  to  the  west  of  the  liills  of  Lyons,  has  quarries, 
lime  works,  and,  at  St.  Bel,  almost  inexhaustible  deposits  of  pyrites,  which  supplj' 
nearly  all  France  with  the  material  required  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphur  and 
sulphuric  acid.  The  village  of  C/icssi/-/es-Mi)ics,  close  by,  was  formerly  important 
on  account  of  its  copper  mines.  Tararc  (13,563  inhabitants),  on  the  railway  to 
Roanne,  enjoys  a  high  reputation  for  its  muslins  and  embroidery,  its  plush  and 
velvets.  Aniplfjmis  (4,047  inhabitants),  Tliizij  (3,170  inhabitants),  and  Coiira 
(3,897  inhabitants),  near  it,  are  likewise  manufacturing  places. 

Beaujeu  (3,043  inhabitants),  which  gives  its  name  to  the  district  of  Beaujolais, 
ViJlffranche  (11,994  inhabitants),  and  Belleville  (2,691  inhabitants),  have  some 
manufactures,  but  agricultural  pursuits  predominate  in  that  portion  of  the  depart- 
ment. The  wines  of  Beaujolais  enjoy  a  high  reputation,  the  most  famous  growths 
being  produced  on  porphyritic  granite. 

Giiors  (10,856  inhabitants),  on  the  Rhone,  to  the  south  of  Lyons,  is  a  dependency 
of  St.  Etienne  rather  than  of  the  city  just  named.  Its  iron  works,  glass  works, 
and  brick-kilns  are  supplied  with  fuel  from  the  neighbouring  coal  mines.  The 
famous  wine  known  as  Cote-Rotie  grows  on  the  slopes  of  sunburnt  Mont  Pila, 
close  by. 


vor..  11 


w 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  PLiTEAU  OF  CENTRAL  FRANCE. 
G£vAUDAN,  Velay,  Auvergne,  Roueroue,  Limousin,  Peihgoud,  Marche,  Bourbonnais.* 


The  Ceatinnes. 


51  HE  granitic  protuberance  in  the  centre  of  France,  wtence  the  rivers 
radiate  towards  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean,  has  not  inaptly 
been  called  a  "  pole  of  divergence,"  from  which  the  people  emigrate 
in  all  directions,  and  more  especially  towards  the  basin  of  the  Seine, 
within  which  lies  the  "pole  of  attraction."  The  plateau  under 
consideration  covers  an  area  of  31,000  square  milesi  and  interposes  a  barrier  190 
miles  in  length  between  the  north  and  south  of  France.  Its  heights  had  to  be 
scaled  before  the  people  dwelling  on  its  opposite  slopes  became  one,  and  although 
this  national  fusion  was  not  accomplished  without  wars  and  bloodshed,  it  led  in 
the  end  to  the  common  enjoyment  of  the  blessings  of  civilisation. 

The  plateau,  as  a  whole,  slopes  down  gently  towards  the  north-west,  and  is 
boimded  in  the  south  and  east  by  steep  mountains.  The  Cevennes  constitute  the 
most  important  portion  of  the  semicircular  chain  of  mountains  which  envelop  the 
plateau  on  the  south-east,  and  form  the  water- shed  between  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Atlantic.  They  begin  with  the  Montagne  Noir  ("  black  mountain,"  3,970  feet), 
to  the  east  of  the  gap  of  Revel,  through  which  runs  the  railway  connecting  Castel- 
naudary  with  Castres.  The  valley  of  the  Thore,  tributary  to  the  Tarn,  separates 
these  Black  Mountains  from  the  moimtain  rampart  of  Espinouze  (4,198  feet), 
rising  almost  precipitously  above  the  valleys  of  the  Jaur  and  Orb,  but  sloping 
down  gently  towards  the  north-west.  In  the  east  this  portion  of  the  Cevennes 
terminates  in  a  savage  mountain  mass,  where  granites  and  sedimentary  strata 
intermingle  in  strange  confusion,  and  which  has  been  pierced  in  several  places  by 
volcanic  eruptions.  It  almost  apjsears  as  if  a  subterranean  lake  of  lava  extended 
in  former  times  from  the  dome-shaped  mountain  of  Auvergnc  to  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean ;  that  is,  along  a  line  where  the  contrasts  between  north  and  south 
are  most  striking.     On  one  slope  of  the  mountains  we  have  rivulets,  meadows,  and 

*  Poulett  vScropc,  "Volcanoes  of  Central  France;"   Eames,  "Geogenie  du  Cantal;"   A.  Jullien, 
"Des  Phenom^nes  Glaciaire  dans  le  Plateau  Central  de  la  France ;  "  Burat.  "  Geologie  de  la  France." 


THE  CfiVEXNES. 


175 


forests  ;  on  flic  other,  stony  torrent  beds,  odoriferous  herbs,  and  rare  trees.  Tlio 
contrast  between  the  inhabitants  is  equally  great,  and  the  dweller  in  tho  plain, 
proud  of  his  ancient  civilisation,  looks  with  disdain  upon  tho  Gavacho  inhabiting 
the  plateau,  though  tho  latter  does  not  yield  to  him  in  industry. 

In  the  cast  of  the  Orb  the  Garrigues — thus  named  from  tho  kcrmes  oaks,  or 
ffarnis,  which  cover  their  slopes — form  tho  southern  edge  of  a  scries  of  lime- 
stone plateaux  known  as  causses,  from  the  Latin  caU,  lime.  The  most  southern 
of  these  is  that  of  Larzac  (2,9S0  feet),  but  tho  most  typical  is  the  Cuussc  of  ^Mejeau 
(4,200  feet),  a  huge  mass  of  limestone  100,000  acres  in  extent,  and  bounded  on 
all  sides  by  steep  precipices.  There  can  bo  no  doubt  that  these  causses  were 
formerly  continuous,  though   separated  now  by  deep  cailons,  which  excite  the 


Fig.  132.— The  Mountaixs  op  Espinouzb. 
Scale  1 :  240,000. 


Jo?  30'  E.  ol  Paris 


:?5o-E.  ofGr. 


0  Miles. 


admiration  of  geologists.  No  running  streams  are  met  witli  on  these  limestone 
"tables,"  the  rain  disappearing  almost  immediately  beneath  tho  surface.  The 
inhabitants  carefully  collect  tho  rain-water  in  cisterns ;  and  in  summer,  when  the 
supply  fails  them,  they  are  obliged  to  descend  into  the  canons  in  search  of  it. 
Springs  of  sparkling  water  abound  there ;  and  the  shrubs  and  trees  which  flourish 
near  them  contrast  most  strikingly  with  the  barren  rocks  around.  The  causses 
are  covered  with  herbage,  and  the  inhabitants,  very  few  in  number,  confine  them- 
selves to  the  cultivation  of  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes.  The  herbage,  however, 
scanty  as  it  is,  supports  thousands  of  sheep,  which  furnish  excellent  wool,  and 
from  whoso  milk  is  manufactured  the  famous  cheese  known  as  Eoqiicfort.  In 
winter,  when  these  plateaux  are  covered  with  snow  to  the  depth  of  several  tvct,  and 

N  2 


176 


FRANCE. 


most  of  the  inhabitants  have  deserted  them,  it  is  sometimes  dangerous  to  cross 
them. 

Dohnens  abound  on  these  limestone  plateaux,  whilst  scarcely  any  are  met  with 
in  the  crystalline  region  which  adjoins  them.  It  has  been  concluded  from  this 
circumstance  that  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  plateau  differed  in  origiu  and 
religion  from  their  neighbours.  Even  at  the  present  day  the  dwellers  on  the 
limestone  plateau  of  the  Lozere  differ  in  many  respects  from  the  men  inhabiting 
the  district  of  granitic  hills  which  slopes  down  westward  in  the  direction  of  the 
Aveyron,  and  cidminate  in  the  Levezou  (3,785  feet).  On  the  one  hand  we  have 
sweet  herbage,  a  little  barley,  and  oats  ;  on  the  other  the  granitic  slopes  are  covered 


Fig.  133. — The  Causse  or  Mejean. 
Scale  1 :  315,000. 


l'?E.ofP. 


3»20'E.ofCc; 


5  Miles. 


•with  shrub,  and  rye-fields,  or  s4galas,  extend  along  their  foot.  The  peasant  of  the 
Gausses,  or  Caussenard,  who  eats  bread  made  of  barley  or  oats,  and  drinks  clear 
water,  is  tall  and  bony,  and  far  stronger  than  his  neighbour  of  the  granitic 
district,  who  lives  upon  rye  and  chestnuts,  and  drinks  cider. 

To  the  east  of  these  Jurassic  limestone  plateaux  lies  the  principal  mass  of  the 
Cevennes,  surmounted  by  the  Esperon  (4,658  feet)  and  the  superb  granite  dome  of 
Aigoual  (5,141  feet).  This  is  one  of  the  wildest  districts  of  France;  but  the  bears, 
stags,  and  wild  boars  which  formerly  inhabited  its  forests  have  disappeared,  and 
there  now  remain  only  wolves. 

A  rugged  granite  region,  anciently  known  as  Gevaudan,  occupies  the  south- 
eastern corner  of  the  department  of  Lozere,  and  expands  farther  north  into  a 


L13RARY 

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MEZENC  AND  VIVAEjVIS.  I77 

dome-shaped  mass  of  granite  116  square  miles  in  extent,  and  attaining  in  Mont 
Finieils  a  height  of  5,638  feet.  The  limestone,  which  to  all  appearance  formerly 
covered  this  plateau,  has  been  removed  by  denudation.  Even  the  crystalline  rock 
has  been  subjected  to  erosive  action.  "We  meet  with  huge  blocks  of  >Trauite,  and 
every  cavity  is  tilled  up  with  shingle  or  coarse  gravel.  There  are  few  vilk'^-es,  and 
their  inhabitants  are  very  poor. 

Whilst  the  south-eastern  portion  of  Lozere  is  diversified  by  mountains,  that 
part  of  the  department  which  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Lot  is  one  of  the  most 
desolate  regions  of  all  France,  consisting  of  barren  plateaux  traversed  by  a  few 
sparsely  wooded  granitic  ridges,  such  as  the  hUls  of  the  Goulct  (4,918  feet),  the 
forest  of  Mercoirc  {4,92^  feet),  the  mountains  of  La  Margeride  (5,098  feet),  and 
the  region  derisively  called  "  King's  Palace  "  (■1,'212  feet). 


Mezenc  and  Vivarais. 

TiiE  volcanic  region  of  Mont  Mezenc  and  Coiron,  to  the  east  of  this  granitic 
plateau,  separates  the  southern  Cevenucs  from  the  northern  prolongation  of  that 
mountain  chain,  terminating  in  the  pyramid  of  Mont  Pila  (4,703  feet),  from  the 
summit  of  which  the  view  extends  across  the  Rhone  valley  to  the  snowy  heights  of 
Mont  Blanc.  The  diversified  eastern  slopes  of  the  Cevennes,  with  their  mulberry 
plantations,  vineyards,  and  chestnut  forests,  contrast  most  strikingly  with  the 
elongated  slopes  stretching  towards  the  north  and  west. 

The  first  volcanic  cones  are  met  with  immcdiatelj'  to  the  north  of  Mont  Tanargue 
(4,785  feet),  a  buttress  of  the  plateau  of  Vivarais.  The  southernmost  of  these 
extinct  volcanoes  is  that  of  Jaujac,  the  slopes  of  which  are  for  the  most  part  covered 
with  chestnut  trees,  which  here,  as  in  Italy,  flourish  most  on  disintegrated  basalt. 
Streams  of  lava  extend  from  the  old  "  cup,"  or  cratei*,  northwards  into  the  valley 
of  the  Lignon,  which  flows  between  cHfis  of  basalt  and  granite.  Lower  down  on 
that  river,  where  it  joins  the  Ardeche,  rises  the  "  Gravenue  "  of  Souillols.  The 
village  of  Thueyts,  higher  up  in  the  valley  of  the  Ai'deche,  stands  upon  a  stream 
of  lava  terminating  in  a  magnificent  range  of  basalt  100  feet  in  height.  Close  by 
rises  the  regular  cone  of  the  Gravenne  of  Montpezat,  surroimded  with  fields 
of  lava,  tlirough  which  the  Ardeche  and  its  tributaries  have  cut  themselves 
a  passage.  The  crater,  or  cup,  of  Aizac  (2,126  feet),  which  rises  in  solitary 
grandeur  in  the  valley  of  the  Volane,  is  better  known  than  any  other  of  tho 
volcanoes  of  Lower  Vivarais,  o\ving  to  its  proximity  to  the  cold  mineral  springs 
of  Vals.  Spiings  discharging  mephitic  gases  have  been  discovered  farther 
west. 

But  these  six  old  volcanoes  hing  at  the  foot  of  the  granitic  plateau  of  Vivarais 
are  very  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  volcanic  mountain  range  which  forms 
the  water-shed  between  Rhone  and  Loire,  and  in  the  centre  of  which  rise  the  three 
"  teeth "  of  Mont  Mezenc  (5,755  feet),  surrounded  by  subsidiary  cones,  amongst 
which  the  Gcrbier  de  Jones  (5,124  feet)  is  remarkable  as  giving  birth  to  the  river 
Loire.     The  phonoUthic  lava  of  Mont  Mezenc  must  have  burst  forth  in  a  high 


178 


FRANCE. 


state  of  fusion,  for  it  spread  rapidly  over  the  granitic  plateau,  and  tte  height  of 
the  volcanic  cones  here  is  less  than  that  of  the  Cantal  and  Mont  Dore,  although 
the  latter  rest  upon  a  much  lower  basis.  Mr.  Poulett  Scrope  even  thinks  that  the 
lava  currents  extended  as  far  north  as  the  phonolithic  cones  of  Meygal  (4,717  feet). 
These  lava  beds  would  thus  oversijread  an  area  of  154  square  miles,  their  average 
thickness  being  390  feet.     They  arc  now  for  the  most  part  clothed  with  forests  of 

Fig.  134. — The  Defile  of  the  Ardeche,  near  Euoms. 


oak  and  firs.  Other  streams  of  lava  flowed  towards  the  east,  covering  the  granitic 
hills  of  Coiron  (3,380  feet),  and  even  descending  into  the  valley  of  the  Rhone. 
This  latter,  since  the  last  eruption  of  lava,  has  been  scooped  out  to  a  depth  of 
nearly  1,000  feet,  whilst  the  hills  of  Coiron,  protected  by  their  cap  of  lava, 
offered  a  greater  resistance  to  the  destructive  action  of  geological  agencies ;  but 
they,  too,  are  gradually  being  destroyed,  and  huge  blocks  of  basalt  sometimes 
slide   down  into  the  valleys,  the  castle  of   Rochemaure  being  built  upon  one 


VELAY. 


179 


of  them.  These  hills  are  remarkable,  moreover,  on  account  of  their  promon- 
tories formed  of  columnar  basalt,  and  resembling  the  castles  of  an  ancient  race  of 
giants, 

Velay. 

Tiiii  deep  valley  of  erosion  scooped  out  by  the  Loire  separates  the  volcanoes  of 
Mdzenc  from  the  volcanic  plateau  of  Velay,  covered  with  basaltic  lavas  vomited 
from  at  least  a  hundred  and  fifty  craters,  most  of  which  can  scarcely  be  distin- 
guished now.     Streams  of  luva  have   frequently  blocked  up  the  valley  of  the 


Fig.  135. — Tiir.  Kills  of  Comoif. 

Scale  1  :  HW.W. 


b  ilUc-B. 


Loire  and  of  the  Allicr,  but  these  rivers  have  scooped  themselves  out  new 
channels,  frequently  laying  bare  magnificent  columns  of  basalt.  One  of  the 
grandest  of  these  defiles  is  that  of  the  Loire  at  Chamalieres,  excavated  in 
granite  and  basaltic  lava  to  a  depth  of  980  feet.  The  volcanic  formations  in 
the  vicinity  of  Le  Puy  (O.OIO  foet)  are  bettor  known  than  any  others  in  this 
region.  They  include  columnar  basalt,  sheets  of  lava,  and  dykes.  Close  to  the 
black  houses  of  the  town  the  "  Needle  "  of  St.  Michel,  an  obelisk  of  lava,  and  the 
rock  of  Corneille  (2,484  feet),  raise  their  heads.  Beyond  the  dismantled  walls  of 
Polignac,  in  the  north-west,  we  reach  the  columns  of  basalt  of  La  Dcnise,  known 
as  the  '•  Cross  of  Straw  "  and  the  "  Organ  "  of  Espaly.     It  was  here  M.  Aymard 


180 


PEANCE. 


discovered  the  fossil  remains  of  animals  whicli  roamed  over  this  region  when  the 
surrounding  volcanoes  were  yet  in  a  state  of  eruption.  Two  human  skeletons  have 
likewise  been  discovered,  dating  back,  in  all  probability,  to  the  same  epoch.  The 
flora  of  the  country  does  not  appear  to  have  changed  since  then.  Fine  garnets 
and  sapphires  abound  in  the  basalt  of  EsjJaly. 

Around  Le  Puy  every  available  sj)ot  is  covered  with  vegetation,  but  the  plateau 
which  extends  thence  to  the  south  is  of  grievous  uniformity.     It  consists  of  a  wide 


Fig.  136.— Le  Puy. 
Scale  1  ;  Uu.OOO. 


plain  covered  with  turf  or  stunted  trees,  over  which  are  scattered  the  black 
cones  of  extinct  volcanoes,  the  largest  amongst  which,  that  of  the  wood  of 
L'Hopital  (4,663  feet),  rises  but  little  above  the  general  surface.  A  cavity  pro- 
duced by  the  escape  of  a  prodigious  bubble  of  gas  is  occupied  by  the  Lake  of 
Bouchet  (3,926  feet).  The  Lake  of  Limagne,  farther  north,  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  the  same  manner  ;  but  the  old  Lake  of  Bar  (3,828  feet),  now  drained 
and  converted  into  a  beech  wood,  occupied  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano. 


THE  VOLCANOES  OF  AITVEEGNE.  181 

The  Volcanoes  of  Auvergne. 

A  THIRD  volcanic  region,  that  of  Auvergne,  lies  to  the  east  of  the  deep  vullcy 
of  the  Allier  and  of  the  granitic  spur  of  Margcride.  The  volcanic  nature  of  this 
region  has  at  tdl  times  been  kuown  to  the  peajuuts  liviug  there,  and  many  of 
the  mountains  are  called  by  them  Peyre  Arse  ;  that  is,  "  burnt  mountain  ; "  but 
Guettard,  in  1751,  was  the  first  who  revealed  the  existence  of  these  French 
volcanoes  to  the  world  of  science.  The  southermost  volcanic  group  of  the 
Auvergne  occupies  the  granitic  plateau  of  Aubrac  (4,825  feet),  rising  steeply 
above  the  valley  of  the  Lot,  and  covered  for  the  mo^t  part  with  pasture  grounds, 
which  support  in  summer  about  30,000  cows  and  40,000  sheep.  Dolmens,  locally 
known  as  "  fairy  bowers  "  or  "  magicians'  castles,"  are  scattered  over  the  plateau, 
but  the  only  human  dwellings  met  with  are  the  clusters  of  burons  inhabited 
by  cheese-makers.  The  people  of  this  remote  part  of  France  have  preserved 
their  ancient  manners,  and  even  something  of  their  ancient  religion.  On  the 
second  Sunday  of  July,  as  in  the  time  of  Gregory  of  Tours,  they  walk  in  procession 
to  the  Lake  of  St.  Andeol,  bathe  in  its  turfy  waters,  and  throw  into  it  the 
clothes  of  the  sick  and  propitiatory  offerings.  The  extinct  volcanoes  of  Aubrac 
possess  no  special  features,  but  to  the  north  of  them  rise  the  hot  springs  of  Chaudes- 
Aigues,  yielding  a  supply  of  water  amply  sufficing  for  all  domestic  purposes  as 
well  as  for  heating  most  of  the  houses  in  winter.  The  principal  of  these  springs 
has  a  temperature  of  nearly  180^  F.,  and  the  soil  in  the  neighbourhood  is  so  warm 
that  in  spite  of  the  elevation  of  the  town  (2,130  feet),  snow  never  remains  on  the 
ground. 

Crossing  the  valley  of  the  Truyere,  we  reach  the  most  considerable  volcanic 
group  of  France,  that  of  Mont  Cantal,  which  can  faiiiy  compare  with  Mount 
Etna  and  other  great  volcanoes.  The  various  summits  of  the  Cantal  form 
collectively  an  isolated  cone  95  miles  in  circumference,  and  resting  upon  a 
base  of  granite.  Up  to  the  tertiary  epoch  the  centre  of  this  granitic  base  was 
occupied  in  part  by  huge  fresh-water  lakes.  The  first  eruptions  took  place  in 
the  miocene  age,  the  last  and  most  terrible  of  all  during  the  quaternary  period. 
The  lava  then  ejected  enveloped  all  the  cones  which  existed  at  that  time  ;  it  over- 
whelmed the  forests,  converting  them  into  a  thin  layer  of  coal,  and  HUed  up  the 
valleys  to  a  depth  of  nearly  400  feet.  The  old  volcano  probably  rose  to  a 
height  of  8,200  feet,  but  there  remain  now  only  the  shattered  and  worn 
fragments  of  its  semicircular  ridge,  the  most  elevated  points  of  which  are  the 
Plomb  du  Cantal  (6,025  feet),  the  Puy  Mary  (5,863  feet),  and  the  Puy  Cha- 
varoche  (5,722  feet).  Valleys,  scooped  out  by  ancient  glaciers,  some  of  which 
had  a  length  of  nearly  20  miles,  and  by  torrents,  radiate  in  all  directions 
from  the  central  heights.  Those  of  Cere  and  Alagnon  are  connected  near  their 
summits  by  the  two  tunnels  of  Lioran,  which  pierce  the  mountain  at  a  height 
of  3,870  and  3,800  feet  respectively,  and  are  traversed  by  a  road  and  a  rail- 
way. Those  deep  valleys  lay  open  the  geological  structure  of  the  mountain, 
and  exhibit  beds  of  gravel,  carboniferous  sandstones,  and  granite,  subsequently 


182 


FEANCE. 


covered  by  currents  of  basaltic  lava.  The  slopes  of  the  Plomb  du  Cantal,  and 
especially  those  exjjosed  to  the  moist  westerly  winds,  are  covered  with  forests  of 
beeches  and  firs.  In  the  east  the  forests  are  confined  to  the  valley  bottoms.  The 
currents  of  lava  there  form  a  monotonous  treeless  plateau  known  as  Planeze,  and 
terminating  in  promontories  of  columnar  basalt,  upon  one  of  which  is  perched 
the  old  capital  of  Upper  Auvergne,  St.  Flour  (2,903  feet).    The  Alagnou  separates 

Fig    137. — The  Puy  de  L'AicriLLiEn,  Mont  Dore. 


the  Planeze  from  another  basaltic  plateau  to  the  north  of  it,  which  terminates 
likewise  in  curious  columnar  formations. 

The  basaltic  plateaux  of  CezaUier,  stretching  from  the  Dordogne  to  the  Allier 
in  the  east,  separate  the  Mont  du  Cantal  from  the  most  ancient  and  conspicuous 
volcanic  mass  of  Auvergne,  that  of  Mont  Dore.  Though  covering  a  smaller  area  than 
its  neighbour  of  Cantal,  it  is  here  that  the  highest  moimtain  of  Central  France, 
the  Puy  de  Sancy  (6,180  feet),  raises  its  head,  surrounded  by  other  peaks  hardly 
inferior  to  it  in  altitude,  such  as  the  Puy  Ferrant,  the  Puy  de  TAiguillier  (5,076 


THE  VOLCANOES  OF  AUVERGNE. 


183 


feet),  and  the  Cacadogiic.  No  regular  crater  can  now  be  traced,  but  one  probably 
existed  in  the  vicinity  of  Mont  Doie  (3,a30  feet),  a  trachytic  cone,  near  wliich 
the  Dordogno  and  the  Couzo  of  Chumbon  take  their  rise.  The  bods  of  lava 
descend  from  this  mountain,  often  in  uninterrupted  sheets,  until  tlicy  reach  and 
spread  themselves  round  its  base.  At  a  later  period  Mont  Dore  had  its  cap  of  ice, 
and  glaciers  descended  from  it  to  a  distance  of  25  miles. 

AVhcn  the  great  central  volcano  of  Mont  Doro  became  extinct,  other  vents 


Fig.  13S. — The  Ply  of  yANcv  axd  the  Lake  Distuict. 
Scale-  1  :  80,000. 


Ilich.' 


'■^r 


I    ^' 


^itcvt^i/l*e^ 


\  Milr. 


opened  in  its  vicinity,  and  amongst  these  Mont  Tartaret  (3,156  feet)  discharged 
its  lavas,  now  covered  with  beeches  and  pines,  right  across  the  valley  of  the 
Couze,  and,  by  drawing  up  the  waters  of  that  river,  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
Lake  of  Chambon  ('2,887. feet),  the  most  delightful  sheet  of  water  in  Auvergne, 
surrounded  by  meadows  and  trees,  and  having  several  small  wooded  islands. 


184 


FEANCE. 


Fig.  139. — The  Chain  of  tub  Pcy  de  Dome. 
Scale  1 :  100,000. 


|S;^ 


:m 


#• 


(  /rr/noM cf 


;?'^:- 


The  plateau  to  the  north  of  Mont  Dore  is  covered  with  volcanic  cones 
of  comparatively  recent  origin.  Two  of  these,  the  Montsineyre  (4,372  feet) 
and  the  Montchal  (4,628  feet),  are  mirrored  in  smaU  lakes,  the  one  formed  by  the 
damming  up  of  a  rivulet,  the  other  occupying  an  old  crater.  Amongst  the  many 
other  lakes  which  fill  depressions  of  this  plateau,  that  of  Pavin  (3,925  feet)  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  aspect  of  solemn  grandeur.     The  inhabitants  formerly  dreaded 

it  as  the  seat  of  evil  spirits,  but  having  been 
stocked  with  trout,  it  has  lost  its  terrors. 
Its  depth  is  308  feet,  and  it  is  fed  by  sub- 
terranean streams. 

Thermal  and  mineral  springs  abound  in 
this  region,  those  of  Mont  Dore  and  of  La 
Bourboule,  near  the  source  of  the  Dordogne, 
being  the  most  frequented.  The  springs  of 
St.  Nectaire  are  the  best  known  of  those 
on  the  eastern  slope,  their  water  resembling 
that  of  Ems.  Altogether  there  are  no  less 
than  200  springs,  carbonate  of  soda  asso- 
ciated with  chloride  of  sodium  predominat- 
ing in  the  hot  springs,  whilst  the  cold  ones 
are  almost  without  exception  charged  A^'ith 
carbonic  acid. 

A  chain  of  volcanic  ptii/s  rising  from 
the  granitic  plateau  bounded  by  the  valleys 
of  the  Allier  and  Sioule  forms  the  termina- 
tion of  the  volcanic  region  of  Central  France 
towards  the  north.  Some  of  these  puys 
are  dome-shaped,  others  have  the  appear- 
ance of  truncated  cones  ;  and  craters  and 
old  lava  currents,  or  cheircs,  can  still  be 
distinguished.  The  Puy  de  Dome  (4,805 
feet),  a  dome-shaped  mass  of  trachyte,  is 
not  onl}^  the  highest  summit  of  the  whole 
range,  but,  on  account  of  its  regular 
shape  and  commanding  aspect,  is  the  most, 
famous.  A  temple  dedicated  to  Mercury 
formerly  stood  upon  its  summit,  and  a 
physical  observatory  has  recently  been 
erected  there.  Immediately  to  the  north  of  it  lies  the  crater  of  the  Little  Puy  de 
Dome,  locally  known  as  the  "Hen's  Nest."  The  Puy  de  Come  (4,116  feet),  near 
Clermont,  has  two  distinct  craters  on  its  summits,  from  which  broad  streams  of  lava 
have  poured  down  into  the  valley  of  the  Sioule,  filling  the  ancient  river  channel  for 
the  distance  of  more  than  a  mile.  The  Sioule,  thus  dispossessed  of  its  bed,  has 
worked  out  a  fresh  one  between  the  lava  and  the  granite  of  its  western  bank.     Its 


■  4  Miles. 


THE  TOLCANOES  OF  AUVEEGNE. 


185 


neighbour,  the  Puy  de  Pariou,  is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  sharpness  of  the 
brim  of  its  crater.  Farther  north  lies  the  dome-shaped  Sarcouy,  the  clinkstone 
of  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  filters  and  glass.  But  the  most  curious 
volcano  of  that  region  is  the  Puy  Chopinc,  a  dome  rising  from  a  crater  formed 
of  scoritD,  and  consisting  of  granite  placed  "  like  the  ham  of  a  sandwich  "  between 
layers  of  basalt  and  trachyte.  The  range  terminates  in  the  north  with  two  great 
volcanoes,  the  Puys  of  Louchadiere  and  Xugere,  from  both  of  which  immense 
sheets  of  lava  extend  to  the  east  or  west.  At  Volvic  there  are  vast  quarries, 
from  which  the  towns  in  the  neighbourhood  procure  most  of  their  building 
stones. 

Most  of  the  cones  to  the  south  of  the  Puy  de  Dome  have  craters  on  their 
summits.  The  combined  lava  streams  of  the  Puys  of  Lassola,  de  la  "N'ache, 
and  Yichatel  have  dammed  up  the  valley  of  the  Yeyre,  forming  the  Lake  of 
Aydat  (2,710  feet),  upon  the  borders  of  which  stood  Avitacum,  the  residence  of 
Sidonius  Apollinaris.     Amongst  old  volcanoes  forther  south  are  the  Gravenoir 


Fig.  140.— Volvic. 

Scale  1  :  70,000. 


.  1  MUo. 


("  black  gravel "),  thus  called  from  the  colour  of  its  ash,  and  the  Tazanat,  the  crater 
of  which  is  occupied  by  a  lake.  Near  Aigueperse  there  is  a  "poison  spring" 
discharging  carbonic  acid. 

Numerous  traces  of  volcanic  activity  are  met  with  between  the  eastern  slope 
of  this  range  and  the  plain  of  the  Allier ;  amongst  others,  the  famous  basaltic 
plateau  of  Gergovia  (2,440  feet),  the  ancient  capital  of  the  country,  defended  by 
Vercingetorix  against  the  legions  of  Julius  Cnesar. 

The  integrity  of  many  cones  of  the  Auvergne  is  due,  according  to  Sir  Charles 
Lyell,  to  the  loose  porous  nature  of  the  soil,  which  instantly  ab.sorbs  all  moisture, 
and  thus  prevents  the  formation  of  rills.  The  water  thus  absorbed  is  discharged 
lower  down  as  bounteous  springs,  some  of  which  are  valued  for  their  medicinal 
properties,  whilst  others  cover  the  rocky  surfaces  over  which  they  flow  with  a 
coating  of  calc-taff,  and  incrustate  all  objects  exposed  to  their  action.  The  most 
famous  of  these  is  that  of  St.  Allyro  at  Clermont,  which  has  built  itself  an  aqueduct 
250  feet  in  length,  terminating  in  a  superb  arch  thrown  across  the  rivulet  of  Tire- 


186 


FEANCE. 


taine.  Lecoq  and  otter  geologists  trace  the  existence  of  limestones  and  gypsum  in 
Auvergne  to  the  action  of  this  and  other  calcareous  springs.  They  have  con- 
tributed, too,  towards  the  formation  of  the  fertile  plain  of  the  Allier  kno-wn  as 
Limagnc.  This  plain,  during  the  miocene  age,  was  a  vast  fresh-water  lake,  but 
long  before  the  volcanoes  surrounding-  it  had  ceased  their  activity  this  lake  had 
been  drained.  The  calcareous  and  other  springs  then  deposited  lime,  silica,  and 
gypsum,  but  it  is  to  a  layer  of  volcanic  ashes  that  Limagne  is  indebted  for  its 
marvellous  fecundity. 

Amongst  the  mineral  productions  of  the  Auvergne  are  argentiferous  lead, 
which  is  most  abundant  on  the  western  slope  of  Mont  Dome,  and  coal,  the  car- 
boniferous strata  extending  along  the  western  foot  of  the  volcanoes,  from  Mauriac 
to  Moulins  and  Montlucon,  being  bedded  with  surprising  regularity. 


Fig.  1-11. — TuE  Meandertngs  op  the  Lot. 
Sciile  1  :  2.;o,OJO.. 


[VO'-'" 


\  in.. 


ibJ^i 


.  6  Miles. 


LiMorsiN. 

The  granitic  platform  of  Auvergne  penetrates  like  a  blunt  wedge  between  the 
Jurassic  and  tertiary  rocks  in  the  west,  and  forms  a  series  of  sterile  plateaux  or 
terraces,  the  most  elevated  of  which  is  that  of  Mille  Vaches  ("  thousand  cows," 
3,228  feet),  in  which  the  Vienne,  the  Yezere,  and  the  northern  tributaries  of  the 
Dordogne  take  their  rise.  The. I'ange  of  hills  which  thence  extends  to  the  west 
is  even  less  elevated.  These  hills  and  plateaux  have  for  the  most  part  been 
robbed  of  their  forests,  and  their  sole  covering  consists  of  shrubs  and  heather,  but 
the  valleys  which  pierce  them  are  often  delightfully  beautiful  and  of  great 
fertility.  Potter's  earth  abounds,  and  has  given  rise  to  much  industry ;  metallic 
veins  traverse  the  granite  ;  and  beds  of  coal  are  met  with  occasionally  along  a  line 


V»    .A*  '•''  .V.X^ 


^V.'/.'./v 


A 


*  *J 


v»    •    »/ 


UBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNWERSlTY-fH-UNOlS. 


LIMOUSIN. 


1«7 


separaliug  iho  crystullinc  rocks  from  the  scclimcnfnty  ones.  The  western  prolonga- 
tion of  the  plateau  consists  almost  exclusively  of  Jurassic  limestones  and  chalk. 
The  limestone  region  lying  between  Figeac,  Cahors,  and  ^Fontauban  resembles  in 
every  respect  the  causses  of  Avoyron  (page  175),  though,  owing  to  its  smaller 
elevation,  it  enjoys  a  milder  climate.  The  hilly  district  farther  north,  traversed 
by  the  Dordogne  and  its  tributaries,  is  very  different  in  aspect.  The  sinuous 
course  of  the  rivers  traversing  these  secondary  strata  clearly  marks  out  the 
difference  between  them  and  the  granite.  The  Lot,  flowing  in  a  deep  ravine 
fixcavated    in   Jurassic  limestone,  abruptly  twists   to  the  right   and   left,  whilst 


Fig.  142. — The  Kapids  op  Lamxbe. 

Scale  1  :  150,000. 


^,    W  nf  Pi. 


0    i>o  Eof  Cr 


"llUes. 


the  Dordogne  and  other  rivers,  taking  their  course  between  gentle  hills,  wind 
about  them  in  a  more  placid  fashion. 

Of  all  the  rivers  rising  in  Central  France  the  Dordogne  is  the  one  which  for 
the  greatest  part  of  its  course  belongs  to  the  plateaux,  differing  in  that  respect 
essentially  from  the  Loire  and  the  Allicr,  which  even  in  their  upper  course 
traverse  ancient  lake  basins.  The  Dordogne,  on  the  other  hand,  is  confined 
within  a  narrow  ravine  until  it  debouches  upon  the  lowlands  of  Aquitaine.  At 
Bretenoux  it  escapes  from  the  region  of  granite,  and  then  winds  about  amongst 
limestone  hills,  its  bed  being  frequently  obstructed  by  rocks.  One  of  these  raj^ids, 
that  of  Lalinde,  occurs  only  a  few  miles  above  Bergerac,  and  even  below  that 


188  PEANCE. 

town  navigation  is  interfered  •with  by  rapids.  Thougli  rendered  navigable  for  a 
distance  of  250  miles  above  its  tidal  head  for  barges  drawing  12  inches,  the 
Dordogne,  owing  to  these  rapids,  is  very  little  used  as  a  commercial  highway. 

FoREZ,  Beatijolais,  Charollais. 

The  surface  of  the  granitic  plateau  to  the  east  of  the  Allier  is  far  more 
varied  than  that  to  the  west  of  the  river,  and  more  especially  in  the  hills  of 
Forez  (5,380  feet)  wo  meet  with  landscape  scenery  quite  Alpine  in  its  character, 
the  bottom  of  the  valleys  being  covered  with  meadows,  and  their  slopes  wooded. 
One  of  the  most  delightful  valleys  of  this  part  of  France,  the  scene  of  the  pastoral 
plays  of  Honore  d'Urf^,  is  that  of  the  northern  Lignon.  Beyond  this  valley 
porphyr}^  enters  largely  into  the  structure  of  the  hills,  including  the  Bois-Nolrs,  or 
"black  forest"  (4,2:i8  feet),  and  the  range  of  La  Madeleine  (3,820  feet). 

The  wide  valley  of  the  Loire  and  the  coal  basin  of  St.  Etienne,  one  of  the 
most  productive  of  France,  separate  the  heights  of  Forez  from  the  ranges  form- 
ing the  northern  continuation  of  the  Cevennes,  and  constituting  the  water-shed 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic.  Granites  predominate  in  these 
ranges,  but  are  associated  with  a  great  variety  of  other  rocks.  The  heights 
usually  known  as  those  of  Lyonnais  (3,293  feet)  consist  of  granite  and  meta- 
morphic  rocks.  The  mountains  of  Beaujolais  (3,320  feet)  are  composed  of  lime- 
stones, marls,  and  sandstones,  pierced  by  porphyries  which  form  picturesque 
j^romontories  along  the  Saone,  and  extend  westward  across  the  valley  of  the 
Loire  until  they  join  the  porphyries  of  Forez.  In  the  hills  of  Charollais  (2,540 
feet)  granite  plaj-s  but  a  subordinate  part,  most  of  the  area  being  occupied  by 
Jurassic  limestones  and  still  more  recent  formations  abounding  in  fossils.  There 
are  several  coal  basins,  the  best  known  amongst  them  being  that  of  Le  Creusot. 
The  Canal  du  Centre,  which  joins  the  Loire  to  the  SaAne,  passes  across  a  depression 
in  this  range  (1,100  feet)  which  completely  severs  the  outlying  porphyritic  and 
granitic  mountains  of  Morvan  (2,960  feet)  from  the  great  central  plateau  of 
France. 

Inhabitants. 

Sterility  of  soil,  an  inclement  climate,  and  remoteness  from  the  great  high-roads 
of  commerce  sufficiently  account  for  the  sparse  population  of  the  central  plateau 
of  France.  Only  the  fertile  plains  of  Limagne  and  of  the  Loire  and  the  mining 
districts  can  boast  of  a  population  exceeding  the  average  of  France.  In  the  coal 
basins  of  the  Loire  the  population  has  doubled  since  the  beginning  of  the  century ; 
but  though  the  cattle  breeders  inhabiting  the  regions  of  pasturage  have  been 
benefited  by  this  increase,  the  country,  nevertheless,  is  not  capable  of  supporting 
the  whole  of  its  children,  and  emigration  to  the  more  favoured  regions  of  France 
is  continuing  steadily.  Auvergnate  canvassers  are  met  with  throughout  France, 
and  even  in  some  of  the  neighbouring  countries,  and  many  of  the  new  buildings 
in  Paris  have  been  constructed  by  masons  imported  from  Correze,  Haute- Vienne, 
and  Creuse.     The  emigration  from  Cantal  to  Spain,  first  called  into  existence  by 


LIBRARy 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  rtLINOIS. 


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♦  •  *. 


'-•-•. 


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'#  .'•■' 


•..M 


•Al 


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•a'i 


•  '^V' 


•A' 


,\'. . 


•-•> 


//. 


100  FEANCE. 

these  hills,  and  contains  the  Government  buildings,  a  museum  rich  in  local 
antiquities,  and  several  public  monuments  of  merit.  The  manufacture  of  point 
and  blond  lace  is  the  great  business  of  the  town,  and  indeed  of  the  entire  depart- 
ment. Fortunately  the  population  is  not  wholly  dejiendent  upon  this  fluctuating 
branch  of  industry.  Cattle  are  bred  for  the  Lyons  market,  mules  are  exported  to  the 
Pyrenees,  and  the  peasants  of  Velay  thus  come  into  contact  with  the  outer  world, 
and  they  no  longer  ostentatiously  throw  their  knife  upon  the  table  when  entering 
an  inn.  The  neighbourhood  of  Le  Puy  abounds  in  natural  curiosities,  savage 
defiles,  and  fields  of  lava.  The  castle  of  VoUgnac,  with  its  old  well,  272  feet  in 
depth,  occupies  a  hill  to  the  north-west  of  the  town,  and  farther  away,  in  the  same 
direction,  near  St.  Paxlicn  (1,458  inhabitants),  there  arc  numerous  caverns,  and 
the  romantic  castle  of  lloche-Lambert,  admirably  described  bj^  Georges  Sand. 
Other  caverns,  formerly  inhabited,  lie  to  the  south-east  of  Le  Pu}%  near  the  old 
hamlet  of  La  Terrasse. 

Yssingeaux  (3,716  inhabitants),  St.  Didier  (2,219  inhabitants),  and  Monistrol 
(2,299  inhabitants),  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  department  beyond  the  Loire,  lie 
within  the  sphere  of  the  great  manufacturing  town  of  St.  Etienne,  and,  in 
addition  or  instead  of  lace,  they  manufacture  ribbons,  taffety,  paper,  cutlery,  and 
cotton  twist. 

Briouclc  (4,G43  inhabitants),  on  the  Allicr,  is  the  capital  of  the  poorest  arron- 
dlssement  of  the  department,  which  nevertheless  possesses  considerable  resources  in 
its  argentiferous  lead  mines  (at  Paulhaguet)  and  coal  (near  Langcac,  3,530  inha- 
bitants). A  great  part  of  this  district  formerly  belonged  to  the  famous  abbey  of 
CIume-Bieu. 

AvEYRON  is  the  modern  representative  of  Le  Rouergue.  Its  principal  rivers — 
Lot,  Aveyron,  and  Tarn — discharge  their  waters  into  the  Garonne.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  surface  consists  of  sterile  s^galas,  or  rye-fields ;  but  mineral  treasures 
abound,  and  in  1875  there  were  produced  741,600  tons  of  coal,  75,000  tons  of 
iron  and  steel,  and  2,350  tons  of  zinc. 

Millau  (14,482  inhabitants),  on  the  Tarn,  is  the  largest  town  of  the  department, 
and  some  of  the  spirit  of  enterprise  peculiar  to  the  Protestants  who  inhabited  it 
until  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  survives  to  this  day,  and,  in  addition  to 
agricultural  produce,  its  inhabitants  export  leather  gloves,  dressed  skins,  cloth,  and 
silk  stuffs.  St.  Affi-ique  (5,572  inhabitants),  on  a  tributary  of  the  Tarn,  has  played  as 
important  a  part  during  the  religious  wars  as  Millau,  and  its  linens  and  leather 
enjoy  a  high  reputation  to  the  present  day.  Roquefort,  a  village  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood, has  been  famous  since  the  eleventh  century  for  its  cheese,  which  owes  its 
excellent  qualities  to  its  being  placed  in  natural  caverns  of  equable  temperature 
to  "  ripen."  In  1876  the  milk  of  no  less  than  350,000  ewes  was  converted  into 
10,000,000  lbs.  of  cheese.  "Bastard"  caverns  have  been  excavated  elsewhere  in 
the  Cevennes,  but  the  cheese  placed  In  them  does  not  acquire  the  properties  of  real 
Hoquefort. 

Rodez  (12,881  inhabitants),  on  the  Aveyron,  with  a  Gothic  cathedral,  from  the 
tower  of  which  may  be  obtained  a  magnificent  view  of  the  surrounding  country,  is 


TAEN. 


191 


an  ancient  city,  still  enclosed  within  medinoviil  walls,  and  supplied  with  water  by 
means  of  a  Roman  aqueduct  only  discovered  in  18DG.  A  most  pro<luctive  coal 
basin  lies  to  the  north-west  of  that  town,  extondin{>;  to  the  river  Lot  and  beyond, 
its  principal  centres  of  population  being  Aiiln'n  {2,17'2  inhabitants)  and  Decnzccille 
(5,908  inhabitants).  The  coal,  unfortunately,  is  of  inferior  ipiality,  but  iu  spite  of 
this,  iron  works,  forges,  foundries,  machine  shops,  and  glass  works  have  sprung 
up  near  the  mines,  contrasting  curiously  with  the  ruined  castles  crowning  the 
neighbouring  heights.  At  Cranmr  there  arc  mineral  springs.  Tlie  coal  near  this 
place  took  lire  centuries  ago,  and  still  keeps  burning. 

ViUefram-hc  (7,819  inhabitants)  is  a  curious  old  town,  charmingly  situated  on 
the  Aveyron,  near  the  western  frontier  of  the  department.     The  north,  including 

Pig.  113. — RoQlEFORT. 
Scale  1  :  100,000. 


the  valleys  of  the  Lot,  the  Bourdon,  and  the  Truyere,  is  equally  noted  for  its 
picturesque  scenery,  though  rarely  visited.  The  principal  towns  there  are  St. 
Geniez  (3,1G7  inhabitants),  in  the  "country  of  Olt,"  and  Espalion  (2,o8()  inhabit- 
ants).     Conques  and  Buzoith  are  delightful  villages  in  the  valley  of  the  Dourdou. 

Taux,  the  ancient  vUbigeois,  embraces  a  mountainous  crj'stalline  region  iu  the 
ea.st,  and  a  fertile  hilly  region  in  the  west,  the  latter  a  productive  agricultural 
district,  the  former  more  adapted  for  the  breeding  of  cattle  and  sheep.  The  coal 
basin  of  Carmaux,  yielding  about  2-50,000  tons  a  year,  lies  within  the  department. 

Two  towns  in  the  picturesque  valley  of  the  Cerou,  which  traverses  the  northern 
portion  of  the  department;  contrast  strangely  with  each  other,  the  one,  Carman r 
(5,384  inhabitants),  having  but  recently  grown  from  a  small  village  into  an  impor- 

o  2 


192 


FEANCE. 


tant  town,  owing  to  its  vicinity  to  productive  coal  mines ;  whilst  the  other, 
Cordes  (2,115  inhabitants),  perched  upon  its  high  rock,  has  retained  all  the  charac- 
teristics of  a  town  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

AM  (15,874  inhabitants),  the  principal  town  on  the  Taru,  the  birthplace  of 


Fig.  144. — Decazeville. 
Scale  1  :  90,000.    The  Coal  Basin  is  shade3. 


0°  i3'0  of  Pari;s 


2"ioIi  E.uf  (il 


tiht  dc  btaiiiiioiik 


IMile. 


Lapeyrouse,  and  the  original  seat  of  the  Albigenses,  upon  which  the  hand  of  the 
northern  crusaders  weighed  heavily,  abounds  in  curious  old  buildings,  including  a 
cathedral  built  in  brick,  a  fortified  archiepiscopal  palace,  and  a  remarkable  bridge 


LOT.  198 

over  the  Tarn.  Xear  it  are  many  old  castles.  At  Leseiirc  there  is  an  old  church 
said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Albigcnscs,  and  still  farther  to  the  east  a  series  of 
rapids,  known  as  Saut-dc-8abo,  stops  the  navigation  of  tlie  Tarn.  The  lower  valley 
of  that  river  is  noted  for  its  fertility,  fuiilluc  (G,090  inhabitants)  was  the  great 
centre  of  the  wine  trade  during  the  dominion  of  the  English,  whilst  L'Isle  d'Albi 
(1,743  inhabitants)  and  Babiisfeiis  (3,108  inhabitants),  in  addition  to  vineyards, 
have  a  few  manufactories. 

Casfres  (20,520  inhabitants),  the  great  manufacturing  centre  of  the  department, 
occupies  a  favourable  position  on  the  Agout,  wliich  is  joined  hero  by  the  Thor^. 
The  manufacture  of  cloth  is  carried  on  there  on  a  large  scale,  and  there  are  also 
dyeing-houses,  tan-j'ards,  paper-mills,  and  machine  shops.  Mazamd  (10,770  inha- 
bitants), on  the  Thore,  has  likewise  grown  into  an  important  manufacturing  town, 
and  there  as  well  as  at  <SV.  Amans-SouU  (2,084  inhabitants),  the  birthplace  of 
Marshal  Soult,  in  the  same  valley,  similar  industries  are  carried  on  as  at  Castres. 
Ascending  the  Agout,  we  pass  lioqiiccotirhc  and  Vahrc,  two  manufacturing  villages, 
and  finally  reach  Lacauue,  where  there  are  marble  quarries  and  manufactories  of 
spurious  Roquefort  cheese.  Lavaur  (4,937  inhabitants),  the  principal  town  on  the 
Lower  Agout,  has  silk  and  cotton  mills,  whilst  Graii/hct  (4,435  inhabitants),  in  a 
lateral  valley,  engages  more  especially  in  the  dressing  of  hides. 

Soreze  (1,390  inhabitants),  near  the  southern  boundar3-of  the  department,  to  the 
south  of  Castres,  has  become  famous  through  its  college,  founded  in  the  thirteenth 
century  by  Benedictine  monks. 

Lot  is  the  old  province  of  Qucrcy,  and  consists  for  the  greater  part  of  com- 
paratively sterile  limestone  plateaux,  traversed  by  the  river  after  which  it  has  been 
named.     Ordy  its  north-eastern  portion  is  mountainous. 

Figcac  (5,660  inhabitants)  is  the  natural  centre  of  this  mountain  region,  but 
although  three  lines  of  railway  connect  it  now  with  the  rest  of  France,  it  has  quite 
preserved  its  mediaeval  aspect.  The  smiling  valley  of  the  DorJogne  contrasts 
most  pleasantly  with  the  barren  mountain  region  extending  to  the  north  of  Figeac. 
It  abounds,  too,  in  historical  remains.  At  Martel  (1,617  inhabitants)  there  are 
tumuli  and  raediccval  ruins,  and  Puy  d'Issoli  disputes  with  other  places  the  honour 
of  being  the  site  of  ancient  Uxellodunum.  liocamadoit);  in  a  side  valley  of  the 
Dordogne,  is  one  of  the  most  renowned  places  of  pilgrimage  in  France,  its  origin, 
like  that  of  the  neighbouring  town  of  Gramal  (2,040  inhabitants),  dating  back  to 
a  very  remote  age.  At  Gramat  there  are  mineral  springs  and  a  remarkable 
swallow  somewhat  like  the  "  fountain  of  Italy,"  near  Alatri,  and  known  as  Le 
Gouffre  de  Bede. 

Ascending  the  heights  immediately  in  the  rear  of  Gramat,  we  find  ourselves 
upon  the  barren  causse,  or  limestone  plateau,  of  the  Lot,  the  chief  town  of 
which  is  Goiirdon  (2,688  inhabitants).  La  Bastide,  a  ijoor  village,  was  the  birth- 
place of  Murat.  The  curiosities  of  this  plateau  include  sinks,  grave -hills,  and 
dolmens. 

Ca/iors  (12,190  inhabitants),  the  Divona  "fountain"  of  the  ancient  Gauls,  is 
named  now  after  the  tribe  of  the  Cadurci,  whose  capital  it  was.     It  is  the  principal 


191  TEANOE. 

town  on  the  Lot,  and  boasts  of  Eoraan  ruins  and  remarkable  medineval  buildings, 
including  a  cathedral  and  a  fortified  bridge.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans  Cahors 
exported  linens  and  mattresses ;  it  is  noAV  a  great  centre  of  the  wine  trade.  The 
valley  of  the  Lot  is  one  of  the  most  productive  wine  districts  of  France,  and  from 
Cdjavc  in  the  east,  to  Puij-l' Eveqiie  (1,241  inhabitants)  in  the  west,  vinej'ard 
adjoin*!  vineyard.  Castles  abound  in  this  portion  of  the  country  ;  and  Luzech  has 
been  fixed  upon  by  a  scientific  commission  appointed  by  the  late  emperor  as  the 
site  of  ancient  Uxellodunum.  Valuable  deposits  of  phosphate  of  lime  have  been 
discovered  in  the  hills  near  Cahors. 

Cantal,  which  adjoins  Lot  in  the  east,  is  covered  with  forests,  barren  plateaux, 
and  mountains.  Its  inhabitants,  to  judge  from  their  physique,  are  the  purest  of 
Celts.  The  population  is  decreasing,  for  thousands  leave  their  homes  annually  in 
search  of  work,  many  of  whom  never  return.  The  breeding  of  cattle  and  sheep 
is  of  considerable  importance,  and  so-called  Dutch  cheese  is  manufactured  in  the 
filthy  cabins,  or  burons,  scattered  over  the  plateaux. 

AuriUac  (10,399  inhabitants)  the  capital,  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  old  volcano  of 
Cantal,  in  the  picturesque  valley  of  the  Jordane,  which,  a  few  miles  below  the 
town,  at  Arpajon,  joins  the  valley  of  the  Cere.  Aurillac  was  a  place  of  impor- 
tance as  early  as  the  ninth  century.  The  most  remarkable  monument  of  the  Middle 
Ao-es  is  the  old  abbatial  castle,  which  the  citizens  captured  and  partly  razed  to  the 
oround  in  1233.  The  environs  are  delightful,  more  especially  the  valleys  of  the 
Jordane  and  the  Cere.  Vic-sur-Cere,  in  the  latter,  was  the  capital  of  the  barony 
of  Carlades  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  is  much  frequented  now  for  its  mineral 
waters.  The  baronial  stronghold  of  Carlat,  on  a  high  basaltic  rock  to  the  south, 
was  destroyed  by  order  of  Henri  IV.  Maurs  (1,919  inhabitants),  on  the  road 
to  Fif^eac,  has  important  fairs.  The  arrondissement  of  Mauriac  lies  wholly 
within  the  basin  of  the  Dordogne,  and,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  upland 
forests  and  pastures,  is  dependent  upon  cattle-breeding  and  the  manufacture 
of  cheese.  Salcfs,  otherwise  Of-  no  importance,  is  famous  on  account  of  its 
peculiar  race  of  cattle,  and  Mauriac  (2,357  inhabitants)  carries  on  a  brisk  trade 
in  cattle,  mules,  horses,  and  sheep,  besides  exporting  home-made  linens  and 
wooden  ware. 

The  eastern  slope  of  Cantal  is  inferior  in  natural  beauties,  but  upon  the  whole 
very  fertile.  The  Planeze,  an  uninviting  plateau,  is  known  as  the  granary  of 
Auvergne.  The  rounded  hills  of  La  Margeride,  Luguet,  and  Cezallier  offer  but 
little  variety,  but  in  the  valleys  of  the  Truyere  and  the  Alagnon  we  meet  with 
many  picturesque  promontories  of  basalt.  One  of  these  is  crowned  by  the  old 
city  of  St.  Flour  (4,848  inhabitants),  the  most  widely  known  place  of  Upper 
Auvergne,  with  potteries,  manufactures  of  blankets  and  of  the  textile  fabrics  known 
as  marhjues,  but  not  of  brazier-ware,  as  is  popularly  supposed.  Murat  (2,854 
inhabitants)  and  Massiac  (1,251  inhabitants),  on  the  line  of  rail  which  connects 
Bordeaux  and  Lyons,  enjoy  a  favourable  position  for  commerce.  Near  Pierrcfort, 
an  old  stronghold  commanding  a  tributary  of  the  Truyere,  lies  the  exj^erimental 
farm  of  M.  Richard  ;   and  Chavacjnac,  to  the  north  of  Murat,  was  the  birthplace  of 


put-de-dCme. 


195 


Lafayette.     Antiquities  of  prehistoric  age,  including  cave  dwellings  and  dolmen?, 
abound  in  tliis  part  of  Cantal. 

Pi  v-UE-I)oMi;  includes  the  greati?r  portion  of  Lower  Auvergne,  and  is  not  only 
one  of  the  largest  departments  of  France,  but  the  wide  and  fertile  valley  of  the 
AUier  and  its  mild  cliniato  enable  it  to  supiwrt  a  comparatively  dense  population. 
Clenmut  (37,074  inhabitants),  the  capital,  occupies  a  slightlj'  elevated  platform 
rising  in  the  midst  of  an  amphitheatre  of  mountains,  the  most  elevated  of  which  is 
the  Puy,  which  has  given  its  name  to  the  department.  Clermont,  the  A\>metum 
of  the  Romans,  was  a  populous  town  in  tho  time  of  the  Gallo-Romaus,  M'hen  its 

Fig.  145. — Clbumont  and  Muntfeiuianu. 

Scale  1 :  40,0(10. 


fo&Z.df  Cr. 


If      '$•  i 


1  ililc. 


temple  of  Mercury  proved  a  great  focus  of  attraction.  The  Franks,  and  after  them 
the  Saracens,  destroyed  the  town,  and  Philip  the  Fair  established  the  royal  courts 
in  the  neighbouring  Montferrand.  The  latter,  however,  lost  these  advantages 
when  the  courts  of  law  declared  Clermont  to  be  the  property  of  the  Crown. 
Montferrand,  since  that  time,  has  been  deserted,  and  life  pulsated  all  the  more 
briskly  through  the  streets  of  Clermont.  Most  of  the  houses  are  built  of  black 
lava,  and  their  sombre  aspect  contrasts  strangely  with  the  smiling  country  around. 
There  are  several  remarkable  buildings,  including  a  magnificent  Gothic  cnthedrul 
and  the  Byzantine  church  of  Xotre-Dame,  near  which  the  stone  upon  which  sat 
Pope  Urban  IL  when  presiding  over  the  Council  of  Nemetum  is  pointed  out. 


19G 


FEANCE. 


The  fowu  is  noted  for  its  semolina  and  other  farinaceous  preparations,  its  confec- 
tionery and  apricot  patties.  Cutlery,  wooden  ware,  and  textile  fabrics  are  likewise 
produced,  and  a  brisk  trade  in  agricultural  products  carried  on.  At  the  same  time 
Clermont  has  not  forgotten  that  it  gave  birth  to  Pascal,  and  there  are  several  fine 
museums.  The  environs  are  highly  interesting  to  geologists.  An  incrusting 
spring  rises  in  the  suburb  of  St.  A  lyre,  the  thermal  springs  of  St.  Mart  are 
above  the  town,  and  old  volcanoes  and  currents  of  lava  arc  met  with  in  every 
direction. 

Eiom  (10,004  inhabitants),  formerly  the  second  capital  of  Lower  Auvergne, 
occupies  a  site  very  much  like  that  of  Clermont,  and  is  likewise  built  of 
sombre  lava.     It  is  famous  on  account  of  its  law  school,  and  has  given  birth  to 

Fig.  UG— TiiiEus. 
Scale  1 :  40,000. 


3"  ,  JJ'E  "t  Or 


1  MUe. 


some  of  the  most  illustrious  lawyers  of  France.  The  environs  are  delightful. 
Volric  (2,265  inhabitants),  which  supplies  Riom  with  building  stone  and  water, 
is  commanded  by  the  ruined  castle  of  Tournoel,  whence  the  eye  ranges  over  the 
verdant  plains  of  La  Limagne,  and  as  far  as  the  town  of  L'Aiguejjerse  (2,410 
inhabitants),  in  the  north-east,  the  wooded  heights  of  Montpensier,  the  castles  of 
Effrat  and  Randan,  and  the  busy  little  town  of  ^laringua^. 

T/iicrs  (11,182  inhabitants),  in  the  valley  of  the  Durolle,  and  suspended,  as  it 
were,  upon  the  steep  slopes  of  the  Hill  of  Besset,  is  mainly  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  coarse  cutlery,  but  there  are  also  paper-mills,  &c.  Chdteldon,  the  old 
centre  of  industry  in  this  part  of  the  country,  has  dwindled  down  into  an  insignifi- 
cant village,  visited  only  for  the  sake  of  its  cold  mineral  springs. 


LIBRARV 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ItlJNOIS. 


!l||||lHj|'fll 


'#.'.•. 


'#  .  »- 


.•.x 


«  •  * 


''  »  ».•. 


198 


FEANCE. 


mainly  indebted  for  its  prosperity  to  its  being  the  seat  of  a  goveruracnt  small-arras 
factory  employing  1,500  workmen.  The  manufacture  of  the  land  of  lace  named 
after  this  town  has  ceased  long  ago.  The  neighbourhood  abounds  in  wild  gorges 
and  picturesque  waterfalls,  amongst  which  are  those  of  Montane  and  Gimel. 
Br  ire  (9,417  inhabitants),  also  on  the  Correze,  is  by  far  the  most  pleasant  town 
of  the  department,  its  fine  cathedral,  ancient  walls,  and  reddish  hills  presenting  a 
delightful  ensemble.  The  castle  of  Turenne,  to  the  south,  is  the  ancestral  home  of 
the  famous  captain  of  that  name. 

The  valley  of  the  Vezere,  which  joins  the  Correze  a  few  miles  below  Brive, 
abounds  in  picturesque  sites.     Ascending  it,  wo  pass  Alktssac  (1,338  inhabitants). 


Fig-  H8. — Tayac  and  Les  Eyzies,  on  the  VizliiE. 
Scale  1 :  90,000. 


-77* 


1°|5-E  JUj 


T~jra_ 


1  JlUe. 


{jjuxd. 


an  ancient  village ;  Uzerche  (2,146  inhabitants),  one  of  the  towns  claiming  to  be 
the  ancient  Uxellodunum ;  and  Trehjimc  (1,772  inhabitants),  where  the  manu- 
facture of  arms  is  carried  on.  A  stud  for  breeding  horses  has  been  established 
close  to  the  old  castle  of  the  Marchioness  of  Pompadour,  in  the  west. 

DoRDOGXE  includes  nearly  the  whole  of  the  old  province  of  Perigord,  together 
with  portions  of  adjoining  districts.  The  rivers  which  traverse  it  divide  it  into 
several  distinct  regions.  The  granitic  plateau  of  Nontronnais,  in  the  north,  is 
barren ;  in  the  south  there  are  extensive  forests,  and  between  the  Isle  and  the 
Dordogne  also  heaths,  now  gradually  being  brought  under  cultivation.     There  are 


HAUTE-VIENNE.  199 

iron  mines,  iron  works,  and  paper-mills,  but  P^rigord  no  longer  monopolizes  the 
trade  in  truffles. 

Sorlat  (4,521  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  south-eastern  arrondissemont,  is  an 
old  city  carrying  on  some  export  trade  through  Vitrac,  on  the  Dordogne.  Close 
to  the  latter  are  Dontme,  a  picturesque  old  village,  and  the  mediaeval  castle  of 
Beynac.  The  principal  places  in  the  valley  of  the  Vezcre  are  Terrasson  (2,586 
inhabitants),  Muiitigiiac  (•,?,o61  inhabitants),  and  Le  Biigue  (1,685  inhabitants), 
which  export  iron,  wine,  and  truffles.  The  environs  of  Lo  Bugue  are  famous  for 
their  caverns,  which  have  yielded  prehistoric  remains  of  the  higliest  interest,  and 
some  of  the  more  remarkable  of  which  are  near  the  villages  of  Tayac  and  I^es 
Eyzics,  on  the  Vezere. 

Descending  the  Dordogne,  we  pass  Laliiule  {S^il  inhabitants),  and  reach  Bci-gcrac 
(10,610  inhabitants),  which  exports  wines,  bat  is  merely  a  shadow  of  what  it  was 
before  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  In  the  vicinity  there  arc  several 
mediaeval  castles,  including  those  of  Montaigne,  the  birthplace  of  the  famous  writer 
of  that  name. 

Perifjueux  (23,290  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  Perigord,  stands  on  the  Isle.  It 
abounds  in  Roman  and  mediaeval  ruins,  but  its  glory  is  the  church  of  St.  Front,  a 
huge  basilica,  built  in  the  tenth  century,  in  the  purest  Byzantine  style.  Coach- 
building,  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  the  casting  of  iron,  and  other  industries  are 
carried  on  at  Perigueux,  as  well  as  a  brisk  commerce ;  but  the  other  towns  and 
villages  of  the  valley  are  hardly  remarkable  for  anything  but  ruins  and  historical 
associations.  Ilauicfort  is  commanded  by  the  castle  which  Bertrand  de  Born,  the 
warrior  and  troubadour,  inhabited.  Tliiriers  (2,114  inhabitants)  exports  cattle  and 
cheese,  and  manufactui-es  earthenware.  The  lower  valley  of  the  Isle  is  one  of  the 
most  productive  agricultural  districts  of  France.  The  most  important  towns  there 
are  Mumdan  (1,886  inhabitants)  and  Moiifpont  (1,697  inhabitants). 

Brantome  (1,292  inhabitants),  with  the  ruins  of  an  abbey ;  Bourdcillcs,  with 
two  old  castles  and  curious  grottoes ;  and  Eiherac  (1,818  inhabitants),  the  capital 
of  the  forest  district  known  as  La  Double,  are  the  principal  places  in  the  pictu- 
resque and  well-cultivated  valley  of  the  Dronne,  which  forms  the  boundary 
between  French  and  the  Romaic  dialect,  known  as  Perigourdin. 

At  Noutron  (2,378  inhabitants),  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  department,  are 
forges  and  cutlery  works,  in  which  knives  with  box-wood  handles  and  movable 
copper  ferrules  are  manufactured. 

IIaok-Viexnk  includes  a  portion  of  Upper  Limousin,  and  lies  wholly  upon  a 
g;ranitic  plateau,  having  an  average  elevation  of  1,000  feet,  and  intersected  by  the 
river  Yienne  and  its  numerous  tributaries.  Tlie  soil,  however,  is  not  very 
favourable  to  agriculture,  and  the  breeding  of  cattle,  pigs,  and  horses  is  the  chief 
occupation.  Chestnuts  form  the  principal  food  of  thousands  of  the  population. 
Excellent  kaolin  and  potter's  earth  are  found. 

<S/.  Yrkix  (3,572  inhabitants),  a  town  founded  in  the  sixth  century,  in  the 
extreme  south  of  the  department,  has  potteries,  supplied  with  raw  material  from 
the  clay  pits  in  its  vicinity.    The  south-western  portion  of  the  department  abounds 


200  FEAXCE. 

in  feudal  castles,  from  one  of  wliicb,  near  CJiahis  (1,425  inliabitants),  was  sliot  the 
arrow  which  mortally  wounded  King  Richard  Cceur  do  Lion  in  1199.  Rochechouart 
(1,754  inhabitants)  likewise  boasts  of  a  magnificent  castle,  rebuilt  in  the  fifteenth 
contuiy. 

The  Vienne  flows  past  Eijmoutlcvs  (2,228  inhabitants),  St.  Leonard  (3,46-1 
inhabitants),  where  Gay-Lussac  was  born,  and  the  industrial  village  of  Pont-de- 
Nohlat,  and  having  been  reinforced  by  the  Thaurion,  it  washes  the  foot  of  the 
prominent  hill  upon  which  rise  the  houses  of  Limoges  (55,097  inhabitants),  the 
most  important  town  on  the  western  slope  of  the  granitic  plateau  of  Central 
France.  Originally  the  town  owed  its  rapid  growth  to  its  favourable  geographical 
position  on  the  high-road  connecting  Orleans  with  Bordeaux  ;  but  not  being  a 
great  railway  centre,  nor  having  the  disposal  of  a  navigable  river,  it  has  somewhat 
lost  its  ancient  importance.  Only  very  few  traces  of  Roman  age  exist  now,  but 
medliTOval  buildings  abound,  the  most  noteworthy  being  a  Gothic  cathedral  and  a 
bridge.  Amongst  the  old  "  rows"  still  existing,  that  of  the  Butchers  is  the  most 
curious,  its  stone  houses  being  ornamented  with  wood  carvings.  Limoges  is 
famous  for  its  ceramic  industry.  It  no  longer  produces  such  fine  enamelled 
metal-work  as  in  the  Middle  Ages,  but  several  thousand  workmen  are  now  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  china,  besides  which  there  arc  cotton,  woollen,  linen,  and 
paper  mills. 

The  towns  lower  down  on  the  Vienne  are  equally  industrious.  Passing  the 
picturesque  valley  of  the  Briance,  which  opens  on  the  left,  and  leads  to  Pierre- 
buffiere,  the  native  village  of  Dupuytren,  wo  reach  Aixe  (2,328  inhabitants),  where 
there  are  mills  and  tan-yards;  and  still  lower  down,  St.  Jnnicn  (5,736  inhabitants), 
with  paper  and  oil  mills,  and  manufactories  of  china. 

The  north  of  the  department  is  sparsely  populated,  but  abounds  in  pictu- 
resque scenery,  notably  in  the  valley  of  the  Gar  tempo.  The  principal  towns  there 
are  Bellac  (3,252  inhabitants)  and  Dorat  (2,322  Inhabitants). 

Creise,  thus  named  after  a  river  flowing  through  a  deep  ravine  carved  Into  the 
granitic  plateau,  includes  the  greater  portion  of  the  old  province  of  Marche.  It  is 
by  no  means  a  fertile  country,  but  cattle-breeding  is  carried  on  with  fair  results, 
and  its  coal  mines  have  given  rise  to  a  certain  amount  of  industry. 

Bourganciif  (2,1-^0  inhabitants),  on  the  Thaurion,  carries  on  the  same  industries 
as  Limoges,  its  manufactories  being  supplied  with  fuel  from  the  neighbouring  coal 
mines  of  Bosmoreau.  Here  are  the  ruins  of  an  old  priory  with  a  Moorish  tower, 
in  which  Zizim,  a  brother  of  Bajazet  II.,  was  kept  a  prisoner. 

Aiibitssor.  (6,427  inhabitants)  is  the  principal  manufacturing  town  on  the  Creuse. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Saracens,  and  has  been  famous  ever  since  for 
its  carpets,  the  designs  for  which,  in  the  present  day,  are  supplied  from  Paris. 
FeUctia  (2,913  inhabitants),  a  little  higher  up  on  the  same  river,  likewise  manu- 
factures carpets.  The  elevated  table-land  on  both  banks  of  the  Creuse  abounds  in 
cromlechs.  Ahun  (1,047  inhabitants)  and  Lararci.v  (3,617  inhabitants)  are  the 
centres  of  a  productive  coal  district,  which  yielded  277,000  tons  in  1875. 

Gueret  (4,973  inhabitants),  on  a  plateau  between  the  Creuse  and  the  Gartempe, 


LI8RAKV 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  lUlNOlS. 


ALLIER. 


201 


is  tlie  capital  of  tlie  department,  but  not  otherwise  remarkable.  The  whole  of  this 
district  of  the  old  province  of  Marche  abounds  in  prehistoric  and  mediasval remains, 
the  ^'ic^nity  of  La  Soufvrraiiw  (2,8-39  inhabitants)  being  especially  rich  in  them. 

Boitssdc  (990  inhubi(ants)  is  the  only  place  of  note  in  tlic  valk-y  of  the  Little 
Creuse,  and  about  G  miles  to  the  south  of  it,  near  Toii/.r  St.  Croix,  may  still  bo 
traced  the  triple  enceinte  of  an  ancient  city  of  the  Celts. 

The  valleys  of  the  Tardes  and  Cher,  which  rise  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
department,  deh'ght  by  their  verdure  ;  but  the  plateau  tlirough  wliieh  they  flow  is 
arid,  and  yields  only  a  i^oor  return  to  its  cultivators.  One  of  the  many  reVolts  of 
the  peasantry  originated  here,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  name  of  croqiiaiits,  by 
which  its  participators  were  designated,  is  derived  from  the  village  of  Crocq. 
Chamhon  (l,i;53  inhabitants)  is  the  principal  place  in  the  valley  of  the  Tardes. 
Near  it  is  Eaiux  (1,611  inhabitants),  with  sulphur  and  ferruginous  springs. 

Allif.r  includes  the  old  province  of  Bourbonnais,  and  is  named  after  the 
fine  river  which  intersects  it  from  north  to  south.     The  Cher  crosses  the  western 


Fig.  H9. — TuE  Coal  Measukes  of  Bezenet  (Commentk^). 


100  Yards. 


portion  of  the  department ;  the  Loire  washes  its  eastern  boundary.  There  are 
mountains  in  the  south,  but  the  greater  portion  of  Bourbonnais  lies  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  granitic  plateau,  and  the  valleys  of  the  AUier  and  the  Loire  are  of 
considerable  width.  Up  to  the  middle  of  this  century  the  department  was  almost 
wholly  agricultural,  but  the  development  of  its  coal  and  iron  mines  has  wrought  a 
remarkable  transformation.* 

Montlugon  (21,904  inhabitants),  on  the  Clier,  has  quadrupled  its  popidation  in 
the  course  of  a  single  generation,  and  aspires  to  become  the  Jlanchcster  of 
France.  The  old  feudal  city,  perched  ou  a  rock,  is  environed  by  the  fine  streets 
of  the  modern  town.  The  plate-glass  manufactory  of  St.  Gobain  is  the  most 
considerable  establishment  of  the  town.  Montlucon  is  supplied  with  fuel  from  the 
neighbouring  coal  basin  of  Commcnfri/  (9,789  inhabitants),  one  of  the  most  produc- 
tive of  all  France.  Near  the  village  of  Bezenet  the  coal  seams  arc  45  feet  in 
thickness.  They  caught  fire  in  181 G,  and  burnt  until  1840,  when  a  rivulet  was 
diverted  from  its  course  arid  soon  inundated  tlie  mines.     Niris  (2,190  inhabitants), 

*  In  1875  the  department  produced  944,50d  tona  of  coal  and  120,800  tons  of  iron  and  steel. 


202 


FEAXCE. 


close  to  Montlucon,  is  the  Aquae  Xeri  of  the  Botnaae,  and  ita  hot  sprin;^';  still 
attract  many  visitors. 

Ehreuil  (2,206  inhabitants)  and  St.  Pour^ain  (3,465  inhabitanto;  are  the 
prin  '-  '  *  ---^5  in  the  %-alley  of  the  Sioule,  which  j  '  '  *  of  the  AUier  a  few 
mile-  le  town  last  named.     Gannat  {^j,(ii'2  .  .U),  on  the  Andelot, 

another  tributary  of  the  Allier,  is  the  capital  of  the  whole  of  this  district,  which 
abounds  in  Byzantine  churches  and  castles,  and  enjoyed  a  certain  reputation  in 
form 

J  ..  ._--  .-\Sj,on  the  Allier,  is  one  of  the  fiishionable  watering- 
places  of  Europe,  boasting  of  no  less  than  2o,000  visitori  a  year.     Some  of  the 


■  ■  it«  f/f  «oda.      C'tvuH 

■y.. ...,-.,  .-„ ;  the  time  in  not  far 

th«e  V/vn.<  will   i'.:   .  <>n*.     Ch^ck^  c/ytton    ntuffi  are 

-red  ax  Ticfar.      Th*  ridtdtj  ot  tbene  tr/wns  abounds  in    pictareiiqae 

'/Id  catfk*  are  tboK  'of  Bcnrbon-BujMx^ft  .-;  'Tt. 

er  the  cliazact«r  of  the  c*>nntry  c>  -  -  "     -  we 

•  Mfoa.  a  broad  Tale,  •wsmpr  in  part.     At  a  pojxit  .j/,-ti 

«aad.«  Jfr/x/.^A    21,1  >2  ;'.-.-  the  eapital  ^>f  the  dif;partment  and  the  birth- 

place of  Viiian,     There  are  tie  rains  of  the  (Ad  castle  of  the  iHike*  of  JJourlxjo- 


ALT.TFB. 


203 


nais,  a  fine  Gothic  church,  and  several  other  medioDval  buildings  of  interest,  but 
Moulius  is  nevertheless  a  to\ra  of  modem  growth.  Agriculture  has  made  great 
progress  in  the  enviions,  and  vast  tracts  of  heath  have  recently  been  brought 


Fig.  1-51. — St.  ExrENVB. 

Scale  1 :  30aW. 


r: 


i 


V  ^"-ia>. 


T 


:^^ 


Lr. 


/  f  -.v.*  H&vIbM'^ 


-'   NM-iiir^ 


-4 


V  iit  ■a.Zi: 


t  }E^ 


Toooder  cuItixatMU.  «S«r«>»y  (l,o§l  iiib..ibiEauts>,  in  a  dde  vsJlev  which  op^is  at 
Moulins;.  is  th*  ciatUo  of  the  house  oi  BourKni.  It  was  here  that  Adhtaaar,  the 
h«ttd  o£  th«  JSuuify,  boQt  himsielJt  a  castie  in  the  teutii  ctemury,  luid  to<mded  an 


204  FRANCE. 

abbey.  la  the  thirteenth  century  the  family  seat  was  transferred  to  the  neigh- 
bouring town  oi  Bourbon,  surnamed  V ArchamhauU  (2,452  inhabitants),  after  one  of 
the  dukes.  This  town  is  noted  now  only  for  its  minei'al  springs.  Lnrcij-Lccy 
(1,G65  inhabitants),  to  the  north  of  it,  has  a  manufactoiy  of  china,  and  forges. 

La  Palis  .c  (1,796  inhabitants),  on  the  Bebre,  is  the  capital  of  the  arrondisse- 
ment  of  the  department.  Above  that  town  there  are  carding-mills,  dye  ^vorks,  and 
other  factories,  and  below  it,  near  Bert,  coal  mines. 

Loire,  with  tke  adjoining  department  of  Ilaute-Loiro,  forms  the  easternmost 
portion  of  the  plateau,  and  consists  of  the  old  lake  basin  of  the  Loire,  bounded  on 
each  side  by  mountains  of  the  most  varied  geological  constitution.  It  includes 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  old  province  of  Forez.  The  area  capable  of  cultivation  is 
of  restricted  extent,  but  there  are  rich  coal  mines,  and  these  account  for  the  popu- 
lation having  doubled  since  the  beginning  of  the  century. 

Feur&  (2,695  inhabitants),  the  Roman  Forus,  and  old  capital  of  Forez,  in  spite 
of  its  favourable  geographical  position  on  the  Loire,  is  a  decayed  town.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  Monthrkon  (5,959  inhabitants)  became  the  capital,  because  it  offered 
greater  facilities  for  defence;  but  in  our  own  days  St.  Etknne  (117,537  inha- 
bitants) has  become  the  great  centre  of  population.  The  town  is  situated  on  the 
Furens,  a  tributary  of  the  Loire,  and  close  to  a  gap  in  the  mountains  through 
which  runs  the  road  connecting  the  river  just  named  with  the  valley  of  the  llhone. 
The  coal-fields,  to  which  the  town  is  indebted  for  its  prosperity,  cover  an  area  of 
50,000  acres,  yield  over  3,000,000  tons  a  year,  and  contain  577,000,000  tons, 
sufficient  for  175  years'  consumption  at  the  present  rate.  The  physiognomy  of 
St.  litienne  resembles  that  of  some  of  the  manufacturing  towns  in  the  north 
of  England,  the  atmosphere  is  filled  with  coal  dust,  and  the  houses  and  streets 
are  covered  with  it.  There  are  an  art  school  and  a  public  museum,  but  the  most 
striking  objects  in  the  town  are  its  huge  factories,  amongst  which  those  of  ribbons, 
lace,  and  small  arms  hold  the  first  rank. 

The  towns  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Etienne  carry  on  important  manufactures. 
Ricamarie  (3,269  inhabitants)  andie  Chamhon  (3,928  inhabitants)  have  forges  and 
foundries ;  Finniny  (10,010  inhabitants)  manufactures  steel  and  hardware ;  and 
Fouillousc,  in  the  north-west,  manufactures  ribbons  and  small  arms.  On  the  road 
to  Lyons  one  manufacturing  town  rapidly  succeeds  the  other.  At  Tcrrenoire 
(2,856  inhabitants)  the  first  Bessemer  steel  was  manufactured  in  France;  St. 
Chamond  (14,420  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  lace  ;  Rive-de-Gier  (14,518  inha- 
bitants) has  glass  works,  and  machine  shops  in  which  locomotives  are  constructed. 
Other  manufacturing  towns  on  the  Gier  are  St.  Julien-en-Jarrct  (4,553  inhabitants), 
St.  Paul-eii-Jarret  (1,753  inhabitants),  Grand  Croix  (3,434  inhabitants),  and 
Lorette  (3,751  inhabitants). 

As  we  descend  the  valley  of  the  Loire  we  leave  this  manufacturing  district 
behind  us,  and  enter  an  agricultural  country.  At  St.  Ramhert  (1,319  inha- 
bitants) and  Andrezieux  the  barges  navigating  the  Loire  take  in  their  cargoes 
of  coal.  In  the  side  valley  of  the  Bonson,  which  leads  to  St.  Bonnet-le-Chdteaii 
(2,351  inhabitants),  the  peasants  spend  their  leisure  hours  in  the  manufacture  of 


LOIBE.  205 

point-lace.  At  Montrond  the  Mvcr  Coiso  joins  the  Loire  from  the  right.  Ascend- 
ing it,  we  reach  St.  Qalmkr  (1,996  inhabitants),  famous  for  its  cold  effervescent 
springs,  and  higher  up  the  small  industrial  town  of  C/iazc/ks-siir-Li/oii  (4,G91 
inhabitants),  a  dependency  of  Lyons,  as  its  name  implies.  lioniiitc  (21,472 
inhabitants),  the  principal  town  in  the  north  of  the  department,  has  cotton-mills, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce,  facilitated  by  the  navigable  lioire  and  the 
railways  which  converge  upon  it.  Panmieres  (2,332  inhabitants),  in  the  north- 
east, engages  in  the  manufacture  of  linen  and  embroidery. 

Montbrison  (5,959  inhabitants),  the  old  capital  of  the  department,  occupies  the 
summit  of  a  volcanic  hill  to  the  west  of  the  broad  valley  of  the  Loire,  and  offers 
a  curious  contrast  to  the  busj'  manufacturing  towns  on  the  east  of  that  river. 
Its  most  curious  edifice  is  the  so-called  Room  of  Diana,  ornamented  with  1,500 
coats  of  arms  of  the  ancient  nobilitj'  of  Forez.  Several  of  the  old  volcanoes  of  this 
region  are  now  surmounted  by  villages  or  the  ruins  of  castles  or  abbeys.  Boen 
(2,204  inhabitants),  on  the  north-west,  is  the  chief  town  of  the  picturesque  district 
of  Urfe. 


VOL.    II. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CHAEENTE  AND  VENDEE  (ANGOUMOIS,  SAINTONGE,  AUNIS,  TOITOU). 

General  Aspects. — Hills. 

HE  geograplaical  region  wliicli  forms  the  ph_vsicnl  and  ethnological 
boundary  between  the  basins  of  Loire  and  Garonne  is  only  of 
small  extent,  for  it  is  confined  to  the  three  departments  of  Poitou 
and  the  two  of  the  Charente.  But  in  spite  of  its  small  extent 
this  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  portions  of  France,  whether  we 
look  at  its  history  or  its  physical  geography.  Its  subterranean  rivers  and  the 
changes  continually  going  on  along  its  seaboard  are  fall  of  interest.  The  tran- 
sition from  north  to  south  is  exhibited  in  the  vegetation,  and  a  traveller  proceed- 
ing from  the  vallej'  of  the  Vienne  almost  feels  as  if  ho  breathed  another  atmo- 
sphere. The  gap  between  the  central  plateau  and  the  heights  of  northern  Poitou 
has  been  fought  for  on  many  occasions  by  the  men  of  the  North  and  tlic  South. 
The  Franks  passed  through  it  when  warring  against  Aquitaine  and  the  Visigoths ; 
Christians  and  Moslems  have  struggled  there  for  the  possession  of  Gaul ;  and  the 
French  of  the  north  there  fought  a  terrible  battle  against  the  English,  who  held 
possession  of  Guyenne.  The  Protestants  here  made  a  stand  against  the  Catholics, 
and  still  more  recently  the  Vendee  was  the  scene  of  a  struggle  between  Royalists 
and  Republicans. 

The  rounded  ridges  which  ramify  from  the  mountains  of  Limousin  are  devoid 
of  almost  every  picturesque  feature,  and  to  a  great  extent  consist  of  barren  uplands, 
but  the  valleys  which  intersect  them  delight  by  their  transparent  streams  and 
verdure,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Girondo  these  chalk  hills  terminate  in  bold  cliffs, 
equal  in  beauty  to  those  on  the  English  Channel. 

Of  very  different  aspect  are  the  granitic  hills  of  the  Gatine,  in  the  centre  of 
Poitou,  and  on  the  Upper  Sevre  of  NIort.  Being  covered  only  with  a  thin  layer 
of  vegetable  soil,  they  are  for  the  most  part  barren,  but  sparkling  rivulets  inter- 
sect their  numerous  valleys.  They  culminate  in  Jlont  Malchus — that  is.  Mercury 
(935  feet) — named  probably  after  some  now  forgotten  deity,  for  In  this  poor  district 
of  Oil;!  tbp  ■n-or^hi"  of  tlie  old  p-ods  maintained  itself  longer  than  elsewhere,  and 


lUVKRS. 


207 


The  hilly  district  of  Bocago  lies  to  the  cast  of  the  Gutine,  iiiiJ  is  charac- 
terized by  numerous  trees,  shady  laues,  and  hedges.  The  country  in  the 
north  is  wild  and  varied  in  the  extreme,  and  its  hedges  and  trees  rendered  it 
eminently  suited  for  partisan  warfare  as  long  as  there  existed  no  ready  means 
of  communication.  It  was  here  the  Yendeans  resisted  most  obstinately  the 
progress  of  the  Kcpublican  armies.  In  the  Middle  Ages  a  "march,"  or  border 
district,  separated  Poitou  from  Brittany.  Contending  armies  were  forbidden  access 
to  it,  and  its  inhabitants  paid  neither  taxes  nor  excise  dues.  At  the  present  time 
this  march  no  longer  differs  from  the  adjoining  districts,  and  the  introduction 
of  cattle-breeding  is  gradually  changing  the  ^jhysiognomy  of  the  country  and 
enriching  its  inhabitants.     Every  peasant  proprietor  keeps  a  cow,  a  pig,  and  a  pair 


Fig.  152. — The  nEAD-WAXEBS  of  the  Touvke. 
Scale  1  :  040,000. 


If.  »■  ■■!  I'. 


10  Miles. 


of  draught  oxen,  which  ho  incites  to  labour  by  chanting  soft  and  persuasive 
melodies. 


Rivers. 

The  Charente  is  the  only  large  river  between  the  Loire  and  the  Garonne. 
It  rises  on  the  granitic  plateau  of  Limousin.  At  first  it  flows  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  Vienne,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  narrow  ridge,  but  soon  it 
swerves  abruptly  round  to  the  south-west,  and,  having  pierced  the  plateau  which 
up  till  then  barred  its  course,  it  enters  upon  a  wide  valley  covered  with  pastures 
and  poplars.  A  little  above  Angouleme  its  crystal  waters  are  reinforced  by  those 
of  the  Tou\Te,  one  of  those  curious  rivers  which  flow  for  a  considerable  portion  of 
their  course  through  subterranean  channels.  This  river  is  fed  by  the  Tardoire 
and  the  Bandiat,  both  of  which  rise  on  the  granitic  plateau  of  Central  France, 

p2 


208 


FRANCE. 


but  almost  entirely  disappear  whilst  passing  through  a  fissured  and  cavernous 
limestone  region.  The  greater  portion  of  their  water  seems  to  find  its  way  to 
the  Touvre,  a  ri\er  which,  close  to  its  source,  sets  in  motion  the  paper-mills 
of  Ruelle.  Engineering  works  have  converted  the  Lower  Charente  into  an 
important  high-road  of  commerce.  It  takes  its  course  through  a  wide  valley 
bounded  by  hills,  and  covered  with  woods  or  vines.  The  tide  makes  itself  felt 
nearly  as  high  up  as  Cognac.  Small  coasters  can  ascend  the  Charente  as  far  as 
Saintes,  a  short  distance  below  its  confluence  with  the  Seugne  or  Sevigne.     Below 

Fig.  153. — TuE  Old  Coast  of  Vendue,  extending  to  Eochebonne. 
Scale  1  ;  1,200,000. 


i"  to'WrfOr 


10  -  -  27, 


37  —-v: 

iO  HUes. 


Over  55   Fathoms 


Rochefort  the  estuary  of  the  river  is  bounded  by  mud-banks,  and  its  mouth  is 
closed  by  a  bar  having  but  2  feet  of  water  at  low  ebb. 

The  other  rivers  of  Saintonge  and  Poitou,  such  as  the  Seudre,  the  blue  Sevre 
of  Niort,  and  the  Lay,  are  very  inferior  to  the  Charente.  The  Seudre,  indeed,  is 
hardly  more  than  a  creek,  but  it  was  the  great  naval  station  of  France  on  the 
Atlantic  up  to  the  time  when  the  ports  of  Brest  and  Rochefort  were  created. 


The  Coast. 
The  geological  agencies  which  have  severed  Cornwall  from  Armorica  and  reduced 
Brittany  to    its  existing   dimensions   have  been    active   likewise  all  along    the 


rilE  COAST. 


209 


coast  from  tlic  Loire  to  flic  Gironde.  Submerged  rocks  extend  to  the  west  of 
Oleron,  of  the  island  of  R^,  and  of  the  entire  coast  of  Vendue,  and  join  the 
island  of  Yen  by  a  submarine  "  bridge,"  or  isthmus,  to  the  mainland.  These 
rocks  arc  nothing  else  but  the  platform  which  supported  the  ancient  coast,  sup- 
posed to  have  extended  as  far  as  the  rocks  of  Rochebonne,  30  miles  to  the  west 
of  Re. 

But  within  this  ancient  coast-line  we  are  able  to  discover  traces  of  one  which 
has  been  swallowed  up  more  recently.  The  island  of  Oleron  was  undoubtedly  a 
portion  of  the  mainland  in  former  times.  The  arm  of  the  sea  which  now  separates 
it  from  the  continent  is  hardly  1,600  feet  wide  at  low  water,  and  in  the  fourteenth 


Fig.  154. — NOIRMOCTIEE. 
Scale  1  :  320,000. 


century  it  was  narrower  still.  No  vessel  could  pass  it  then,  but  a  frigate  might 
sail  through  it  with  confidence  now,  if  it  were  not  for  its  irregular  currents  and 
sand-banks. 

The  island  of  Rd,  too,  is  nothing  but  a  detached  portion  of  the  mainland,  first 
heard  of  in  the  eighth  century.  Its  Jurassic  limestones  are  of  the  same  age  as 
those  of  the  neighbouring  coast,  and  ledges,  or  platins,  of  rocks  extend  far  into 
the  sea,  more  esiJecially  near  the  lighthouse  known  as  the  "  Whalers'  Tower." 
Tradition  speaks  of  a  cifj-  of  Antioch  which  formerly  stood  upon  the  west  coast  of 
the  island,  and  whose  houses  reveal  themselves  occasionally  to  a  fisherman  floating 
upon  the  "  Savage  Sea  "  which  has  swallowed  them  up. 


210 


FEANCE. 


The  island  of  Noirmoutier,  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Yendee,  presents  the 
same  features  as  that  of  Oleron.  The  narrow  channel  which  separates  it  from  the 
mainland  can  be  crossed  dry-shod  during  low  water.  Geologically  this  island 
no  doubt  attaches  itself  to  the  mainland,  but  its  separation  must  date  back  to  a 
very  remote  epoch ;  for  insects,  a  snail,  and  several  Crustacea  not  known  on  the 
mainland,  are  found  on  it ;  whilst  the  viper,  so  common  throughout  Poitou,  is 
unknown  there.  The  strait  certainly  was  wider  and  deeper  formerly,  and  no  one 
would  have  ventured  to  cross  it  up  to  17G6.  Erosion  and  deposition  always  go 
hand  in  hand.     Thus,  in  the  case  under  notice,  the  debris  of  the  north-western 


Fig.  155. — SiLTED-up  Bays  on  the  Coast  of  Aunis. 
Scale  1  :  050,000. 


.^''i.-io'W  cf    Paris 


l"  loTVotGr 


JiTari/ie^  AUzujuun.  I t  Fluui£vtU42^  Atiazttjun^ 

10  Miles. 


portion  of  Noirmoutier  has  to  a  great  extent  been  deposited  in  the  Gulf  of  Le 
Fain,  which  is  gradually  being  silted  up.  Other  instances  of  the  land  gaining 
upon  the  sea  have  been  noticed,  and  geologists  are  of  opinion  that  they  can  only 
be  accounted  for  by  our  assuming  a  gradual  upheaval  of  the  land.  The  creek  of 
Aiguillon  was  of  great  extent  formerlj^  and  the  Sevre  debouched  into  a  gulf  of 
the  sea  which  has  completely  disappeared.  Traces  of  marine  erosion  have  been 
discovered  at  a  considerable  distance  inland.  At  St.  Michel,  in  Herm,  there  are 
old  oyster  beds  at  an  elevation  of  30  feet  above  the  sea.  The  old  port  of  Talmont, 
where  Henry  IV.  embarked  his  artillery,  has  become  dry  land. 

The  emerged  lands  of  Rochefort  and  the  Marennes  consist  of  clay  carried 


THE  COAST. 


211 


thither  by  sea,  for  the  neighbouring  hills  of  Saiutonge  are  composed  of  limestone. 
These  new  lands  may  therefore  be  fitly  described  as  "  gifts  of  the  ocean." 

Submerged  and  recently  formed  lands  frequently  exist  in  close  proximity  to 
each  other.  Thus  the  isthmus  -which  formerly  joined  the  island  of  Aix  to  the 
mainland  has  been  washed  away,  and  the  towns  of  Montmcillan  and  Chatelaillon, 
farther  north,  have  disappeared  beneath  the  waves.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of 
the  marshes  to  the  south  of  the  Charente  were  bays  of  the  sea  formerly,  and  are 
still  known  as  "  ports."  The  old  port  of  Brouagc,  of  great  importance  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  possibly  identical  with  Ptolemy's  Porlus  Satitoniim,  is  now  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  sea.  In  this  instance,  however,  m;in  aided  the 
work  of  nature,  for  in  1586  the  citizens  of  Rochefort  sank  twenty  vessels  laden 
with  stone  at  its  mouth. 

Dunes  fringe  nearly  the  whole  of  the  coast  from  the  Gironde  to  the  Loire. 
Those  of  Arvert  cover  an  area  of  350  square  miles,  and  rise  to  a  height  of  210  feet. 


Fig.  150.— The  Axcient  Gulf  of  Poitoit. 

Scale  1  :  800,000. 


.5-  \V of  Pan: 


p   n.^^ 


20  JIUea. 


They  differ  from  those  of  the  Landes  by  their  richness  in  carbonate  of  lime  and 
shells  ;  but  like  them  they  march,  and  many  a  town  has  been  overwhelmed  by 
them  within  historical  times.  Many  of  these  dunes  have  recently  been  planted 
with  pines. 

■  Man  has  taken  possession  of  many  tracts  formerly  invaded  by  the  sea.  The 
whole  of  the  ancient  Gulf  of  Poitou,  150  square  miles  in  extent,  has  been  drained 
and  converted  into  pastures  and  fields.  The  towns  and  villages  surrounding  this 
ancient  gulf  are  built  upon  hillocks  formerly  washed  by  the  sea.  The  cottiers 
inhabiting  the  polders  never  travel  without  a  leaping  pole,  enabling  them  to 
clear  the  ditches  which  separate  their  fields.  Similar  reclamations  have  been 
made  opposite  to  the  island  of  Noirmoutier  and  elsewhere. 

In  former  times,  when  salt  was  dearer  than  it  is  now,  the  inhabitants  along  the 
coast  established  numerous  salt-pans,  which  have  now  been  deserted.  These  old 
pans,  however,  can  be  made  to  yield  a  rich  harvest  of  hay  and  herbage,  but 


212 


]  EANCB. 


care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  mixture  of  fresh  ^vith  brackish  \Tater.  To  a 
disregard  of  this  sanitary  law  must  be  traced  the  endemic  fevers  which  formerly 
decimated  the  vicinity  of  Rochefort  and  of  Marenues.  It  is  due  mainly  to  the 
energy  of  M.  Le  Terme  that  this  source  of  danger  to  life  has  been  suppressed,  and 
since  1832  the  annual  death  rate  has  been  reduced  from  48  to  27  per  thousand 
inhabitants.  . 

The  sea  adds  in  more  than  one  respect  to  the  wealth  of  the  inhabitants.  Oyster 
parks,  fish-ponds,  and  mussel  flirms  have  been  established,  and  the  islanders  collect 
seaweed  with  which  to  manure  their  fields. 


Fig.  157. — Angoul-Sme. 
Scale  1  :  SO.OOO. 


IMUe. 


Topography. 

Charente  has  been  formed  out  of  portions  of  Poitou,  Marche,  Saintonge,  and 
Angoumois.  The  Charente  is  the  principal  river,  but  the  north-western  portion 
forms  part  of  the  granitic  plateau  of  Central  France,  and  is  drained  by  the  Yienne. 
The  Jurassic  limestone  region  in  the  north  is  to  a  great  extent  covered  with  forests. 
The  cretaceous  districts  in  the  south  are  by  far  the  most  productive. 

Confokns   (2,374  inhabitants),  the  principal  place  on  the  Yienne,  and  Rujfec 
(3,155  inhabitants),  on  the  Upper  Charente,  are  the  only  towns  of  importance  in 


CHAREXTE. 


2ia 


tho  north-western  portion  of  the  department,  the  latter  being  noted  for  its  partridge 
and  truffle  patties. 

AiKjoiileme  (28,665  inhabitant^!),  tho  capital,  occupies  a  scarped  hill  on  tho 
western  bank  of  the  Charente.  Its  old  ramparts,  now  couvortcd  into  public  walks, 
afford  niagniticcnt  pro-^pocts  over  tho  surrounding  country.  Its  position  on  a 
great  navigable  river,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  country,  is  excei'dingly  favour- 
able.    The  most  prominent  buildings  are  a  cathedral  of  tho  twelfth  century  and  a 


Fig.  158.— The  Brandt  Disteicts  op  Ciiahrnte. 
Scale  1 :  U0,000. 


i^v  of  r 


a'l^ViJin 


r-       '      I        ZZ 


rhji!*ixmr-      rr/'oa^,^.- 


_i      G 


MMUce. 


modem  town-hall  of  noble  proportions,  which  contains  also  the  town  library  and  a 
museum.  Of  the  dominion  of  the  Romans  there  exist  but  few  traces.  The  manu- 
facture of  paper  is  the  great  industry  of  the  city,  the  annual  produce  amounting  to 
73,000  tons,  valued  at  nearly  £400,000.  The  quarries  in  the  vicinity  yield  an 
excellent  white  stone,  which  hardens  on  being  exposed  to  the  air,  and  forms  an 
important  article  of  export.  On  the  Touvre  is  a  Government  .cannon  foundry. 
Amongst  places  in  the  vicinity  of  interest  to  the  archaeologist  are  La  Couroune 
(1,045  inhabitants),  with  a  picturesque  old  abbey ;   St.  Ainant  <ie  Boixe,  with  a 


21i  FRANCE. 

Eomanesque  churcL  ;  tLo  eld  town  of  Monthron  (1,416  mhabitants) ;  and  the  castle 
of  Rochefoucauld  (2,378  inhabitants). 

In  its  course  to  the  west  the  Charente  flows  past  C/idfeawieuf  (2,691  inhabit- 
ants), Jantac  (4,39U  inhabitants),  and  Cognac  (13,811  inhabitants),  before  entering 
Saintonge.  Cognac  owes  its  great  wealth  to  the  brandy  trade.  The  "  Cham- 
pagne," with  its  spongy  soil  overlying  chalk,  yields  the  best  qualities  of  brandy, 
that  produced  in  the  other  district  being  known  as  Cru  des  Bois — that  is,  of  the 
^oods — from  the  patches  of  forest  still  existing.  All  the  brandies  produced  in  the 
two  departments  of  Charente  are  known  as  Cognacs,  whatever  their  quality. 
Cognac  has  an  old  Romanesque  church  and  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle.  In  the 
vicinity  there  exist  a  few  remarkable  cromlechs,  including  that  of  St.  Fort. 

Barhczieux  (2,958  inhabitants)  is  the  principal  town  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  department.     Other  places  are  Chalais,  Montmoreau,  and  Auhetcvre,  aU  of  them 

Fig.  lo9. — RoCHEFORT  AND   THE  LoWKR  CkAKF.XTE. 
Scale  1 :  240,000. 


a'ISo'  3°,jo'W»fEu-iB 


■I        1 


.-  IM:, 


\     w 


V;"^ 


_2S ^\iK  S  > i-^. 


iS?^3>*>i:::. 


v^   /"% 


°ii»' I'lWoirfa 


■  5  Miles. 


with  old  castles.  St.  Uiitrojic,  a  village  near  Montmoreau,  is  inhabited  by  a  colony 
of  Limousin  potters,  who  have  retained  their  dialect. 

Charente-Ixfekieure  (Lower  Charente)  includes  nearly  the  whole  of  Sain- 
tonge, with  portions  of  Poitou  and  Aunis.  It  is  divided  into  the  hilly  district  of 
Bocage ;  the  lowlands  along  the  Gironde  and  the  Atlantic,  still  known  as 
"  marshes,"  though  for  the  greater  part  drained ;  and  the  two  islands  of  Oleron 
and  Re,  which  constitute  a  little  world  apart.  It  is  one  of  the  richest  agricultural 
departments  of  France,  producing  excellent  vegetables  and  fruits,  wines,  and 
cattle.  The  sea  yields  fish,  oysters,  and  salt,  and  there  is  also  some  industry. 
Commercially  it  is  dependent  upon  Bordeaux.     The  population  is  decreasing. 

The  southern  portion  of  the  department  consists  of  wooded  hills  and  extensive 
landes,  which  are  gradually  being  brought  imder  cultivation.  Jonzac  (2,446 
inhabitants)  and  Pons  (3,440  inhabitants),  both  on  the  Seugne,  the  latter  town 


CnAREXTE-mFEEIEURE. 


215 


having  an  old  castle  now  used  as  town-hall,  school,  and  prison,  are  the  principal 
places  in  that  part  of  the  country. 

Saiiites  (ll,loO  inhabitants),  the  ancient  Santonos,  on  the  Charonte,  is  the  capital 
of  Saiutonge.  A  triumphal  arch  and  a  luige  amphitheatre  recall  the  Koman  age. 
Other  remarkable  buildings  are  the  Gothic  cathedral,  a  vast  crypt  in  the  suburb 
of  St.  Eutrope,  and  a  museum  rich  iu  antiquities.  Saintes  has  potteries,  with 
which  Bernard  Palissy's  name  is  houourablj''  connected,  and  carries  on  a  brisk 
trade  in  brandy.  Following  the  course  of  the  Charonte,  ■we  pass  Titillchourg,  where 
St.  Louis  defeated  the  English  ;  the  castle  of   Crazanncs,  and  the  busy  port  of 


Fig.  160. — La  Eochelle. 
Scale  1  :  30,000. 


^•■f^^VJ^ 


^»*^e>^^:--'-<.-^""-inF<', 


I'llo'WofCr 


.  1^  Miles. 


St.  Savinien  (1,458  inhabitants),  near  which  are  famous  quarries;  and  finally  reach 
Rochcfort  (25,454  inhabitants),  the  largest  town  of  the  department,  and  one  of  the 
five  great  military  ports  of  France.  The  foundation  of  the  town  hardly  dates 
back  two  centuries.  It  is  regularly  built,  has  fine  public  gardens,  but  no  remark- 
able buildings  except  those  connected  with  naval  or  military  matters,  including  an 
arsenal,  dockyard,  and  huge  hospital.  The  navigation  of  the  Lower  Chareute  is 
intricate,  but  men-of-war  are  nevertheless  able  to  proceed  up  to  the  to^vn,  where 
they  are  safe  from  every  hostile  attack.  The  roadstead  is  defended  by  several  forts, 
and  well  sheltered.     Tomiay-Charente  (2,203  inhabitants),   only  3    miles    above 


210 


FRANCE. 


Rocliefort,  is  a  commercial  port,  much  frequented  by  English  vessels  in  search  of 
brandy. 

Marennes  (1,863  inhabitants),  in  the  marshes  to  the  south  of  Rochefort,  was 
famous  in  former  times  for  its  salt-pans,  which  j'ielded  as  much  as  100,000  tons, 
but  this  industry  has  disaj^peared  almost  entirely,  and  the  salt-pans  have  been  con- 
verted into  pasture- grounds,  fish,  or  mussel  ponds.  Commerce,  too,  has  nearly 
deserted  the  town  ;  and  the  tower  of  its  church,  256  feet  in  height,  no  longer  serves 
as  a  landmark  to  the  mariner.  The  fattening  of  oysters,  however,  is  carried  on 
now  with  considerable  success  here,  as  well  as  at  the  neighbouring  La  Tremhlade 

Fig.  161. — La  Rochelle. 


(2,568  inhabitants),  no  less  than  30,000,000  being  sold  annually.  La  Trem- 
hlade likewise  attracts  a  few  visitors,  but  the  great  seaside  resort  of  the  depart- 
ment is  Eoijan  (4,198  inhabitants),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gironde.  A  few  miles 
inland  from  that  place  is  Saujon  (2,209  inhabitants),  with  a  Roman  obelisk  (Pire 
Longe)  72  feet  in  height. 

The  island  of  Oleron  has  grown  rich  since  the  introduction  of  the  vine,  the 
value  of  land  having  quadrupled  in  the  course  of  forty  years.  The  principal 
towns  on  the  island  are  St.  Georges  (999  inhabitants),  Le  Chateau  (1,578  inha- 
bitants), and  St.  Pierre  (1,545  inhabitants). 


CH^LREXTE-IXFEEIEURE. 


217 


La  Eochelle  (19,030  inbabitants)  is  the  principal  commercial  port  of  the  depart- 
ment, and  its  capital.  In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the  town  was  one 
of  the  great  ports  of  France,  and  on  the  eve  of  St.  Bartholomew  its  Protestant 
citizens  forced  the  royal  army  to  retire,  after  a  siege  which  cost  it  20,000  men. 
Fifty  years  later  Richelieu  compelled  the  surrender  of  the  town,  after  nearly  the 
whole  of  its  population  had  died  of  hunger.  From  this  disaster  tho  place  has 
never  completely  recovered,  but  its  citizens  are  still  noted  for  their  public  spirit, 
and  there  remain  in  it  many  buildings  dating  back  to  the  Middle  Ages.     There 


Fig.  162. — Aks-es-R£. 


are  "  rows  "  (porches)  as  at  Chester,  an  old  town-hall,  and  four  huge  towers,  one 
of  which  was  formerly  used  as  a  lighthouse.  Tho  commerce  of  the  town  has 
considerably  increased  since  railways  connect  it  with  Paris  and  Bordeaux,  and  it 
is  proposed  to  construct  docks  capable  of  receiving  trans-Atlantic  steamers. 

The  island  of  Re,  close  to  La  Rochelle,  supports  a  dense  population,  who 
cultivate  the  soil,  grow  wine,  fish,  and  make  salt.  Their  M'inc,  however,  like  that 
of  Oleron,  has  the  flavour  of  the  seaweed  with  which  they  manure  their  vine- 
yards. The  principal  towns  on  the  island  are  <S/.  Martin  (2,645  inhabitants),  Ara 
(1,954  inhabitants),  and  La  Fhtte  (2,241  inhabitants). 


218 


FRANCE. 


Tlie  breeding  of  mussels  is  carried  on  most  extensively  on  tlie  mud-banks  of 
the  Bay  of  Aiguillon,  wbere  nearly  10,000  acres  are  enclosed  by  stockades, 
upon  which  the  mussels  grow  in  clusters.  Each  of  these  enclosures  has  an 
opening  for  the  admission  of  fish.  The  fishermen,  when  they  cross  these  mud- 
banks,  rest  with  one  knee  upon  a  miniature  wherry,  and  propel  themselves  with 
the  disengaged  leg.  This  curious  apparatus  was  invented  by  an  Irishman  named 
Walton,  who  was  shipwrecked  on  this  coast  in  1246. 

Marans  (3,217  inhabitants),  on  the  Sevre,  which  enters  the  Bay  of  Aiguillon,  is 
the  centre  of  a  highly  productive  corn  district,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  corn- 


Fig.  163. — The  Gulp  of  Aiguillox. 
Scale  1  :  126,000. 


3»3ffW' of  Pat-is 


l"  ilO'Wof  Gr 


20  Miles. 


merce.  Surghrs  (3,246  inhabitants)  and  St.  Jean  cVAngely  (6,309  inhabitants)  are 
inland  agricultural  towns. 

ViENNE  includes  the  eastern  half  of  the  old  province  of  Poltou,  and,  in  addition 
to  the  river  after  which  it  is  named,  is  drained  by  the  Charente  and  the  Dive. 
It  is  by  no  means  a  wealthy  department,  and  has  hardly  any  industry. 

Civraij  (2,210  inhabitants),  on  the  Charente,  is  the  centre  of  an  agricultural 
district.  The  environs  abound  in  prehistoric  remains,  and  at  Charroux  there  are 
Roman  ruins.     Crossing  a  height  of  land,  we  enter  the  picturesque  valley  of  the 


DEUX-SEVRES.  219 

Clain,  which  is  tributary  to  tho  Vienne.  Passing  Vironiie  (1,180  inhabitants),  and 
leaving  Liisignan  (1,332  inhabitants)  iai*  on  our  left,  wo  reach  Poitiers  (31,892 
inhabitants),  tho  capital  of  Poitou,  perched  on  a  plateau,  and  of  imposing  appear- 
ance. Its  streets  are  narrow  and  tortuous:  churches  and  monasteries  abound,  the 
Jesuits  occupying  an  imnicnso  block  of  buildings.  Tho  Byzanlino  catliedral 
of  Notrc-Damc  is  one  of  the  most  original  edifices  in  France ;  the  baptistery, 
usually  called  the  Temple,  one  of  the  most  ancient.  In  another  church,  that  of 
Stc.  Radogonde,  are  shown  tho  footprints  of  God  Almighty.  There  are  schools  of 
law  and  arts,  but  intellectual  life  can  scarcely  bo  said  to  exist,  nor  is  there  jnuch 
industry.  The  battles  of  Poitiers,  so  called,  were  not  fought  at  that  place.  It  was 
between  that  town  and  Tours,  perhaps  at  Sto.  Maure,  thtt  CLarlcs  Martcl  annihi- 
lated tho  army  of  Abd-el-Rahman  in  732,  whilst  King  John  was  made  prisoner 
by  the  Black  Prince  near  the  town  of  La  Cardinerie,  formerly  called  Slaupertuis, 
about  5  miles  to  the  nortli  of  the  citj'. 

A  railway  connects  Poitiers  ^\'ith  tho  small  manufacturing  town  of  Nouville 
(1,833  inhabitants)  and  with  Loiidttn  (3,980  inhabitants),  tho  chief  place  in  the 
north-western  portion  of  the  department.  Near  the  latter  is  the  kistvaen  of 
Pierre-Folle,  5G  feet  in  length  and  15  wide.  The  neighbouring  castle  of  2Iohco)1- 
tour  recalls  a  defeat  of  the  Protestants  (1569). 

Chafclleraitit  (15,244  inhabitants),  on  the  Yienne,  a  few  miles  below  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Clain,  is  the  industrial  centre  of  the  department,  where  cutlery, 
hardware,  and  small  arms  are  manufactured.  Chmivigny  (1,911  inhabitants),  on 
the  Upper  Vienne,  has  valuable  stone  quarries  and  a  curious  old  church.  At 
^lontmorillon  (4,126  inhabitants),  on  the  Gartempc,  in  the  extreme  cast  of  the 
department,  there  are  lime-kilns  and  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments. 

Deix-Skvkes  has  been  formed  out  of  portions  of  Poitou,  Saintongo,  and  Aunis. 
Of  the  two  rivers  after  which  it  is  named,  the  Sevre  of  Niort  flows  direct  into 
the  ocean;  the  other  is  a  tributary  of  the  Loire.  The  hilly  district  of  Gatine  is 
not  particularly  well  adapted  for  agriculture,  but  the  breeding  of  horses  and  mules 
is  carried  on  with  much  success.  The  lowlands  in  the  south  are  more  fertile. 
Industry  is  almost  confined  to  the  currying  of  skins  and  to  weaving.  About 
one-ninth  of  the  inhabitants  are  Protestants. 

The  level  tract  of  country  drained  by  the  Boutonne,  a  tributary  of  the  Charente, 
cannot  boast  of  large  towns,  for  MelJe,  its  chief  place,  has  only  2,221  inhabitants. 
It  is  known  for  its  Byzantine  church  and  for  its  mules.  La  Mollir-St.  lliruye 
(1,932  inhabitants)  and  -SV.  Mdixciit  (4,259  inliabitants),  both  on  tho  Ujiper  Sevre, 
are  the  centres  of  tlie  Protestant  population  of  the  department,  and  engage  in  the 
manufacture  of  woollen  stuffs,  as  well  as  in  tho  breeding  of  horses.  Niort  (20,336 
inhabitants),  lower  down  on  the  same  river,  is  the  capital  of  the  department,  and 
commercially  as  well  as  industrially  a  busy  place,  where  the  preparation  of  skins 
and  horsehair,  glove-making,  cotton-spinning,  and  the  manufacture  of  agricultural 
implements  are  actively  carried  on.  The  produce  of  its  marsh  gardens  enjoj's  a 
high  reputation.      A  Gothic  cathedral  and  the  ruins  of  a  vast  castle  built  by  tho 


220 


FRANCE. 


English  rise  high  above  the  houses  lining  the  river,  and  j^leiisant  walks  surround 
the  town,  which  was  the  birthplace  of  Madame  de  Maintenon. 

Parthciun/  (-1,212  inhabitants),  the  principal  town  on  the  Thouet,  which  flows 
north  to  the  Loire,  has  an  old  Bj^zantine  church,  and  manufactures  woollen  stuffs. 
Lower  down,  at  Airmulf,  the  river  is  spanned  by  an  ancient  bridge  of  eleven 
arches,  the  oldest  structure  of  that  kind  in  France.  Tlwuars  (3,468  inhabitants), 
still  farther  north,  on  a  cliff  overhanging  the  Thouet,  has  an  enormous  castle  built 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  now  used  as  a  prison. 

Brcssuirc  (3,214  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  northern  arrondissement,  has 
become  a  great  railway  centre.  Its  huge  castle,  with  forty-eight  towers,  is  in 
ruins,  as  are  other  buildings ;  for  the  town  suffered  much  during  the  Vendean 
wars,  and  was  ciiptured  and  recaptured  repeatedly. 


Fig.  16-1.— Les  Sables-d'Olonne. 
Scale  1  :  G2,000, 


kSo-Woflw 


\'       ''\ 


lliiQV  (S?-^  V--Xt   \ 


.  1  MUe. 

Vendee  is  named  after  a  tributary  of  the  Sevre  of  Niort,  although  its  principal 
river  is  the  Lay.  The  department  includes  the  region  of  granitic  hills  (Bocage),  a 
region  of  calcareous  lowlands,  and  an  alluvial  region  extending  along  the  sea.  The 
islands  of  Yeu  and  Noirmoutier  belong  to  it.  Agriculture  and  cattle-breeding  are 
the  principal  occupations. 

Fontcnaij-le-Comte  (7,309  inhabitants),  on  the  navigable  Vendee,  is  an  ancient 
city,  the  inhabitants  of  which  manufacture  cloth,  and  carry  on  some  commerce.  At 
Voitvant  and  Fai/Diorcaii,  in  the  hills,  there  are  coal  mines  of  no  great  importance. 
The  ancient  episcopal  city  of  Mai/kzais,  on  a  hillock  surrounded  by  old  marshes, 
lies  to  the  south-east.  Lu(oii  (6,026  inhabitants)  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has 
a  Gothic  cathedral.  A  canal  10  feet  deep  connects  it  with  the  sea,  and  its  export 
of  agricultural  produce  is  considerable. 


YKXDEE.  221 

Chantonnai/  (1,593  inliabitauts)  aud  Poiisaugcs  (1,406  iubabitauts)  arc  tbo  only 
towns  in  or  near  the  valley  of  the  Lay.  Jiof/ic-siir-Yoii  (9,0 J 1  inluibitants),  on  u 
bigli  rock  on  the  Yon,  as  its  name  implies,  was  founded  by  Napoleon  on  the  site 
of  an  old  castle.  It  possesses  no  attractions  whatever,  its  importance  being 
entirely  due  to  its  being  the  seat  of  the  departmental  authorities.  Until  recently 
it  was  known  as  Napoleon-  Vendee. 

Sabks-d'  Olonne  (9, 188  inhabitants)  is  the  principal  maritime  town  of  the  depart- 
ment, and  its  fine  beach  attracts  thousands  of  visitors  during  summer.  The 
mariners  of  this  town  are  renowned  for  their  boldness.  Many  of  them  engage  in 
the  sardine  fishery.  The  neighbouring  country  is  rich  in  cromlechs  aud  kistvaens, 
the  finest  being  that  of  Frebouchere,  beyond  Talmont,  in  the  south-west.  This 
block  of  granite,  supported  by  two  rows  of  stones,  must  have  been  conveyed  hither 
from  a  considerable  distance,  but  nevertheless  it  weighs  60  tons.  Travelling  north 
along  the  coast,  we  pass  St.  Gilles-mr-  Vie,  the  port  of  embarkation  for  the  island  of 
Yen,  St.  Jean  de  Mont,  Beauvoir-sttr-Mci;  and  Boiiin,  of  which  only  the  last  has 
over  1,000  inhabitants.  Noirmoutier  (2,080  inhabitants),  on  the  island  of  the 
same  name,  is  the  most  populous  town  of  this  north-western  corner  of  the  depart- 
ment, and  carries  on  a  brisk  trade  in  the  products  of  the  fields. 

In  conclusion  should  be  mentioned  the  famous  windmills  on  the  Butte-aux- 
Alouettes,  or  Larks'  Hill  (758  feet),  between  the  towns  of  Herbiers  and  MortagnC' 
stir-Serre  (2,080  inhabitants),  on  the  north-western  frontier,  by  means  of  whose 
arras  the  Royalist  millers  signalled  the  movements  of  the  ricpublicau  troops. 


VOL.   II. 


1 

I 

w 
fe 

CHAPTER  VIT. 

the  basin  of  the  loire. 

General  Aspects. 

TIE  vast  area  drained  bj'  the  Loire  belongs  to  three  distinct  regions, 
geologically  as  well  as  physiognomically  and  historicalh'.  In  its 
npper  course  the  river,  as  flir  as  the  "  Bill "  of  the  Allicr,  is  shut 
iu  by  the  rocks  of  the  central  plateau ;  in  its  lower  course  it 
traverses  the  granitic  region  of  Poitoii  and  Brittany ;  whilst  its 
middle  course  leads  in  a  wide  curve  through  the  sands,  clays,  and  marls  of  the 
tertiary  lake  basin  of  Paris. 

The  river,  in  spite  of  its  course  of  more  than  600  miles,  has  not  been  powerful 
enough  as  a  geological  agent  to  combine  these  three  regions  into  a  whole.  Nor 
is  the  importance  of  the  river  as  a  commercial  highway  as  great  as  might  be 
expected,  for,  owing  to  its  ever-changing  volume,  it  is  navigable  only  during  a 
portion  of  the  year.  Neither  does  the  Loire  coincide  with  any  of  the  great  his- 
torical high-i*oads  of  Europe,  for  its  sources  lie  in  an  inaccessible  mountain 
region,  and  it  discharges  itself  into  a  remote  part  of  the  Atlantic.  The  high-road 
from  Northern  Europe  to  Spain  follows  the  Loire  from  Orleans  to  Tours,  but  this 
very  flict  proves  that  the  river  is  indebted  for  its  importance,  as  an  international 
high-road,  to  the  position  it  occupies  with  reference  to  the  adjoining  river  basins. 

Touraine  and  the  coimtry  on  the  Middle  Loire  generally  have  done  more 
towards  the  birth  and  development  of  the  French  nation  than  any  other  part  of 
France.  Being  sheltered  in  the  south-east  and  west  by  the  sterile  plateau  of 
Central  France,  the  hiUs  of  Morvan,  and  the  granitic  heights  of  Poitou,  this  region 
was  without  natural  defences  only  on  its  northern  frontier.  But  in  that  direction 
the  inhabitants  of  Lorraine,  Champagne,  Picardy,  and  the  Isle  de  France  formed 
a  formidable  barrier  against  intended  invasions.  It  was  less  troubled  by  wars  than 
other  parts  of  France,  and  its  develoi^ment  consequently  went  on  at  a  more  rapid 
rate.  The  inhabitants  of  Touraine  speak  the  purest  "langue  d'oui,"  and  they 
possess  in  harmonious  combination  the  common  sense  and  gaiety,  the  wit  and 
earnestness,  which  distinguish  the  inhabitants  of  other  parts  of  France. 

For  many  yeai's  the  landscapes  of  Touraine  were  looked  upon  as  the  most 


Till:;  LOUIE. 


2U3 


charming  in  all  France.  More  extensive  travel  has  brought  them  somewhat  into 
disrepute,  but  if  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  our  forefathers  preferred  a  quiet  and  sereno 
landscape  to  inhospitable  and  iwthless  mountains,  wo  cannot  deny  the  palm  to 
"la  belle  Tourainc."  Verdant  hills,  gently  undulating,  bound  the  horizon,  spark- 
ling rivulets  wind  between  elms  and  poidars,  clumps  of  trees  give  variety  to  tlelds 
and  meadows,  a  castle  peeps  out  from  behind  a  screen  of  foliage,  whilst  in  the 
distance  glitter  the  silvery  waters  of  the  great  river.  Can  we  imagine  a  land- 
scape of  more  gentle  aspect  ?  and  was  not  Torquato  Tasso  right  when  he  spoke  of 
the  valley  of  the  Loire  as — 

"  La  terra  mollc  c  liota  o  dilottosa  F  " 


Fig.  ICJ.— The  "Bill"  of  the  Allier. 
Scale  1  :  IfiO.OOO. 


"v^ 


0°30E  do  Paris 


CrOMff  par  Ef'ftxrd^ 


5  Miles. 


TirE  Loire. 

The  Loire  rises  in  the  Cevennes,  and  after  a  course  of  270  miles  is  joined  by  its 
twin  river,  the  Allier,  a  few  miles  below  Nevers,  at  the  so-called  "  Bee,"  or  Bill, 
the  volume  of  the  Loire  being  but  slightly  superior  to  that  of  the  Allier.  From 
its  junction  as  far  as  Orleans  the  Loire  flows  to  the  north  and  north-west  in  tlie 
direction  of  the  Seine,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  land  of  nioderato  elevation 
(260  feet).  Conformably  to  the  impulsion  given  to  its  waters  by  the  rotation  of 
the  earth,  they  press  upon  its  right  bank,  gnawing  away  the  land.  The  right 
bank,  consequently,  is  usually  steep,  whilst  the  left  is  flat. 

Q  2 


224- 


TRANCE. 


At  Orleans  the  Loire  sweeps  round  to  the  south-west.  The  Loiret,  which  joins 
it  below  that  town,  can  hardly  be  called  a  tributary,  for  it  is  fed  from  the  Loire 
itself  through  subterranean  channels.  The  principal  rivers  which  enter  the  Loire 
on  the  left,  far  below  Orleans,  are  the  Cher,  the  Indre,  and  the  Yienue,  all  of  them 
having  their  sources  on  the  central  plateau.  Lower  down  still,  the  Maine  flows 
into  the  Loire  from  the  north.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Sarthe  and  the 
Mayenne  with  the  Loir.  Each  of  the  three  head-streams  traverses  a  distinct 
geological  region,  whilst  the  united  river  has  excavated  itself  a  channel  through 
the  schists  of  Angers,  quarried  for  slate. 

The  Maine  and  the  other  tributaries  of  the  Lower  Loire,  which  flow  through 
crystalline  or  palaeozoic  formations,  join  almost  at  right  angles,  whilst  the  rivers 


Fig.  166.— The  Autiiion. 
SmIc  1 :  410,000. 


,  6  iLUes. 


winding  through  the  tertiary  formations  of  Orleanais  and  Touraine  sometimes  flow 
for  considerable  distances  in  the  same  direction  as  the  river  which  they  are  about 
to  join.  The  Cher,  the  Indre,  and  the  Yienne  are  instances  of  this  kind,  not  to 
speak  of  minor  rivers.  Lateral  channels,  enclosing  willow-clad  islands,  form  a 
distinctive  feature  of  the  alluvial  valley  of  the  Loire.  One  of  these  extends  for  30 
miles  below  "the  confluence  of  the  Cher ;  another,  known  as  the  Authion,  accom- 
panies the  left  bank  of  the  Loire  for  a  distance  of  40  miles. 

These  parallel  channels,  which  extend  from  Blois  to  Ancenis,  must  be  looked 
upon  as  the  result  of  the  frequent  inundations  of  the  Loire.  The  river,  when  in 
flood,  imdermines  the  hills  bounding  its  valley,  and  thus  creates  lateral  channels, 


THE  LOIEE. 


223 


into  which  its  tributaries  subsequently  empty  themselves  instead  of  flowing  direct 
into  the  main  channel.  !JIorcover,  tho  immense  quantity  of  alluvium  brought 
down  by  the  river  tends  to  tho  elevation  of  tho  tongues  of  land  which  separate  its 
tributary  rivers.  It  has  been  computed  that  9,000,000  cubic  tons  of  sand  arc 
carried  past  the  confluence  of  the  Loiro  and  Allier  annually,  travelling  down  the 


Fig.  167. — La  Solooxb. 
Sede  1 :  610,000. 


W.  i.r  p 


10  Jlilcs. 


river  at  a  daily  rate  of  8-5  feet  in  summer,  and  of  30  feet  in  winter.  This  inces- 
sant denudation  and  deposition  explain  tho  physical  aspect  of  the  valley  of  the 
Loire. 

If  wc  look  upon  that  river  in  summer,  when  it  rolls  on  sluggishly  hetween 
banks  of  sand,  we  can  hardly  conceive  it  possible  that  it  should  occasionally  rise 
twenty  and  more  feet  above  its  usual  level,  and,  breaking  through  the  embankments 


226 


FKANCB. 


Fig 


1G8.— The  Eudke. 
Scale  1 :  100,000. 


r 


tlirown  up  along  it,  flood  tlie  plains  beyond  to  tne  extent  of  miles.  These  floods 
ai'e  duo  partly  to  tho  small  lieight  of  the  mountains  from  which  the  river  is  fed, 
and  partly  to  the  impervious  nature  of  the  rocks  which  compose  them.  The  former 
prevents  the  formation  of  glaciers  which  could  feed  the  river  during  summer  ;  the 
latter  causes  the  rain  to  run  off  rapidly.  The  volume  of  the  river  below  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Allier  varies,  according-  to  the  seasons,  between  30  and  10,000 
tons  a  second. 

Embankments  for  the  protection  of  the  towns  and  villages  were  thrown 
up  as  eaily  as  the  ninth  century,  and  perhaps 
earlier,  and  the  river  has  not  changed  its  bed  during 
the  historical  epoch.  The  embankments,  however, 
which  lined  the  Loire  between  Orleans  and  Angers 
up  to  the  seventeenth  century  were  only  10  or  12 
feet  in  height,  and  the  floods  frequently  swept  over 
them.  They  have  been  heightened  and  strengthened 
since  that  time.  A  double  barrier,  23  feet  in  height, 
was  completed  in  1783,  and  extends  from  the  "  Bill  " 
of  the  Allier  downwards  along  the  whole  of  the 
^Middle  Loire.  These  embankments  sufiico  as  a  rule, 
but  the  disastrous  floods  of  1841,  1856,  and  1866' 
prove  that  they  do  not  meet  exceptional  cases.  The 
river  has  been  imprudently  confined  to  a  channel  only 
820  to  980  feet  in  width.  When  the  river  begins  to 
swell  it  very  soon  fills  up  this  narrow  channel,  and 
frequently  overflows  or  breaks  through  the  barriers 
erected  to  confine  it.  As  a  rule  the  embankments  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  river  give  way  first.  The  water 
then  pours  thi'ough  them  into  the  lateral  channels  of 
the  river,  and  the  perils  of  inundation,  therefore, 
diminish  in  proportion  as  we  descend  the  river,  and 
below  the  Maine  they  need  not  be  dreaded  at  all. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  urgent  necessity 
of  reconstructing  the  river  defences,  a  work  of  no 
small  diiEcidtj'-,  as  it  would  interfere  with  innumerable 
conflicting  private  interests.  The  channel  enclosed 
between  embankments  must  be  widened  so  as  to 
enable  the  river,  when  flooded,  to  spread  over  a  larger 
surface ;  and  an  interior  line  of  dykes  must  be  constructed  to  meet  ordinary 
freshets.  In  addition  to  this,  dams  should  be  built  across  the  head-streams  of 
the  Loire,  in  order  that  their  water  may  be  stored  up,  and  its  discharge  regidated. 
Only  one  dam  of  this  kind  exists  as  yet,  above  Koanne,  and  its  effect  is  satis- 
factory in  every  respect.  It  is  believed  that  if  dams  of  this  kind  were  to  be 
tlirown  across  every  one  of  the  valleys  the  Loire  might  be  rendered  navigable 
during  the  whole  of  the  year. 


■-^^^t^ 


2  MUes. 


THE  LOIRE. 


227 


The  aspect  of  the  lake  districts  of  Sologno  and  Brcnno  amply  proves  tliat  the 
basin  of  the  Loire  is  passing  through  a  state  of  geological  transformation.  The 
plains  of  Sologne  wore  formerly  covered  with  a  dense  forest  which  absorbed  the 
moisture.  The  forests  have  been  destroyed,  and  the  district  converted  into  a 
region  of  pestilential  swamps  and  lakes  similar  to  thoDombes,  described  on  p.  154. 
The  work  of  draining  and  planting  is,  however,  being  proceeded  with  rapidly. 
The  Brenne,  a  similar  district  farther  south,  is  likewise  being  drained. 

In  the  crystalline  and  palaeozoic  region  on  the  Lower  Loire  several  of  the 
rivers  are  still  in  a  state  of  transition.     Tho  Erdro,  for  instance,  which  joins  the 


Kg.  169. — Thb  Lake  op  Gbaxd  Lieu. 
Scale  1 :  250.000. 


.  i  Miles. 


Loire  at  Xantes,  may  be  described  as  a  lacustrine  river.  To  the  south  of  the  Loire 
the  Lake  of  Grand  Lieu  occupies  a  cavity  in  the  granite.  This  lake  is  fed  not  only 
by  rivulets  which  fall  into  it,  but  also  by  the  Loire,  the  level  of  which,  at  high 
water,  is  about  3  feet  higher  than  that  of  tho  lake.  The  channel  which  con- 
nects the  latter  is  consequently  alternately  an  affluent  and  an  effluent.  Nay, 
tradition  tells  us  that  the-  lake  owes  its  existence  to  an  irruption  of  the  Loire,  and 
superstitious  fishermen  occasionally  hear  tho  bells  of  St.  Ilerbadilla,  a  village  now 


228 


PEANCE. 


buried  beneatla  it.     The  lake  covers  an  area  of  17,000  acres,  and,  as  its  average 
depth  does  not  exceed  6  feet,  it  might  easily  be  drained. 

Another  lake,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  that  of  Grande  Brierc,  is  now 
completely  silted  up.  Some  gGologlsts  look  upon  this  bog  as  an  old  gulf  of  the 
sea,  with  which  it  communicated  formerly  through  Ptolemy's  Brivates  Portua, 

Fig.  170.— La  Grande  Briere. 

Scale  1 :  100,000. 


— eI^3  txtapoR-B 


^  50  W       1  Fnrn 


^^  J 


2  Jliles. 


whoso  name  survives  in  the  river  Brive.  In  reality,  however,  this  is  a  spongy 
morass,  similar  in  all  respects  to  the  bogs  of  Ireland,  and  formed  in  the  same 
manner.  The  peasants  around  it,  known  as  "  Brierons,"  cut  about  20,000  tons  of 
turf  annually,  which  is  exported  to  all  the  towns  of  "Western  France,  and  a  con- 
fuderable  portion  of  which  is  converted  into  manure. 


THE  LOIEE. 


229 


The  tide  ascends  far  beyond  Nantes,  but  the  maiiiimo  estuary  can  bo  said  to 
begin  only  at  Pellerin,  about  9  miles  below  that  town.  The  river  thence  varies 
in  width  between  1  and  3  miles,  and  is  obstructed  by  numerous  ever-shifting 
sand-banks  and  islands.  Some  of  these  latter  have,  in  course  of  time,  been  attached 
to  the  mainland,  the  most  remarkable  instance  being  that  of  the  tele,  or  "  head," 
upon  which  rises  the  town  of  Pen-Bo  ("  bullock's  head "),  called  Paimbocuf  in 
French. 

The  narrows  between  St.  Nazaire  and  Mindin  separate  the  estuary  from  the 
outer  bay  of  the  river.  A  bar,  covered  with  12  feet  of  water  at  the  ebb,  lies 
off  the  mouth  of  this  bay,  the  navigation  of  which  is,  moreover,  obstructed  by 

I'ig.  171. — PAiMncE0r. 

Scale  1 :  a}.000. 


i.'ia"W«<  Paris 


I-WoJCp. 


Diixth.  lOy  Fcti  f3  «.?5 

-. —  IMile. 

numerous  islands  and  sunken  rocks.  The  tide  rises  17  feet,  and  the  largest 
vessels  can  consequently  enter  the  river  if  they  bide  their  time. 

The  northern  coast  of  this  bay  has  been  subjected  to  consideraole  changes.  In 
the  east,  for  a  distance  of  8  miles,  the  land  has  been  washed  away  by  the  sea, 
there  remaining  only  a  line  of  cliffs,  beyond  which  the  sea  has  invaded  the  land, 
forming  a  vast  gulf  surrounded  bj'  .shifting  dunes,  which  in  1779  overwhelmed  the 
village  of  Escoublac.  In  the  west  an  inverse  process  has  been  going  on,  and  the 
old  islands  of  Pouliguen,  Batz,  and  Le  Croisic  are  now  attached  to  the  mainland, 
the  arm  of  the  sea  which  separated  them  having  gradually  been  converted  into  a 
brackish  swamp. 

The  inhabitants  of  Batz  claim  to  be  of  Saxon  or  Scandinavian  descent,  but  iu 
reality  they  do  not  differ  from  their  neighbours  on  the  plateau  of  Guerande  either 
in  dress,  customs,  or  language.  In  both  disti'icts  we  meet  with  a  number  of  tall, 
fair,  blue-eyed  men.     They  both  spoke  Breton  up  to  +he  close  of  the  seventeenth 


230 


FEANCB. 


century,  a  language  at  present  restricted  to  a  small  village  near  Batz.  The 
isolation,  however,  in  which  the  islanders  of  Eatz  lived  for  centuries  gave  birth  to 
a  strong  local  patriotism.  Their  young  men  never  looked  for  wives  beyond  their 
"island,"  and  all  the  inhabitants  are  cousins.  Out  of  a  population  of  2,750 
persons,  nearly  one-half  belong  to  eight  families,  and  there  is  one  family  which 
can  boast  of  490  members.  Under  these  circumstances  family  names  and  surnames 
do  not  suffice,  and  nearly  every  individual  is  known  by  some  sobriquet.  No  ill 
consequences  have  resulted  from  these  consanguineous  marriages,  either  physically 
or  mentally.     Morallj^,  likewise,  the  inhabitants  of  Batz  enjoy  a  high  reputation, 

Pig.  172. — The  Mouth  of  the  Loire. 

Ffth  1  :  280,000. 


*■>  tS'Vf  of  Paris 


P^deS^&MM^'--, 


Z''2SVWof  Gr. 


3/>ef,ti.  10 /lei 

I     0        X^/aiAiOtu 


E— _i  DepOt  S  Fathoms 

^   ■  ■!     n     Jo  aiidmore, 


.  5  Miles 


and  a  local  proverb  says  that  "  no  bowl  can  be  thrown  in  the  village  but  stops  in 
front  of  an  honest  man's  house." 


Topography. 

NiEVRE,  thus  named  after  a  little  river  entering  the  Loire  at  Nevers,  is  the 
modern  representative  of  Nivernais.  It  is  within  this  department  that  the  Loire 
first  assumes  the  character  which  it  retains  throughout  its  middle  course.  The 
crystalline  heights  of  Morvan  in  the  east  are  drained  into  the  Seine.  The  soil  is 
not  very  fertile,  but  carefully  cultivated.    There  are  mineral  springs,  iron  and  coal 


NIEYBE. 


281 


mines,  clay  pits,  and  ninnufactorios  of  china,  cutlery,  and  hardware.  The  iron 
industry  of  the  country  dates  back  to  a  very  remote  age,  and  the  remains  of  Gallo- 
Homan  forges  are  met  with  by  hundreds.  The  population,  owing  to  the  hilly 
nature  of  the  department,  is  not  dense.     Of  lute  years  it  has  decreased. 

Decize  (3,547  inhabitants)  occupies  an  island  of  the  Upper  Loire,  and  has 
several  iron  works,  supplied  with  coal  from  the  neighbouring  mines  of  La  Machim 
(3,091  inhabitants).  Ncccrs  (20,(i01  inhabitants),  the  capital,  occupies  a  favour- 
able site  near  the  junction  of  the  Loire  and  AUicr,  and  is  the  centre  of  a  busy 
manufacturing  district.  It  enjoyed  some  importance  in  the  time  of  Julius  Cicsar, 
but  its  finest  edifice  is  the  old  castle  of  its  dukes,  now  used  as  a  court  of  justice. 
The  manufacture  of  china  was  introduced  by  the  Gonzagos  of  Mantua,  who  were 
proprietors  of  the  town  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  still  flourishes,  but  the 

Fi^.  173. — Le  Cuoisic  and  Batz. 
Scale  1 :  150,000. 


I  »"  So  \V  .if  I'.li-is 


2  Miles. 


largest  establishment  is  the  Government  arsenal  for  the  manufacture  of  cannon 
and  artillery  carriages.  At  Imphy  (1,437  inhabitants),  above  Nevers,  are  iron 
foundries  ;  ai  FourchumhanU  (5,G8G  inhabitants),  below,  iron  works  and  a  foundry  ; 
and  at  Guerigny  (1,870  inhabitants)  the  Government  foundrj'  of  La  Chaussade. 

Travelling  down  the  Loire  we  pass  Poiigues,  with  its  steel  springs ;  the 
old  monastic  city  of  La  Charity  (4,776  inhabitants),  with  an  old  abbey,  a 
"  daughter  "  of  that  of  Cluny,  and  exceedingly  wealthy  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries;  rouilly-Kitr-Loire  (1,939  inhabitants),  witli  famous  ^•incyal•ds  planted  by 
the  monks  of  La  Charitu  ;  and  Cosiic  (0,711  inhabitants). 

St.  Amand  (1,443  inhabitants),  in  Puisaye,  at  some  distance  from  the  Loire, 
has  potteries,  while  Donzy  (2,560  inhabitants),  to  the  south  of  it,  is  known  for  its 
hardware. 


232  FE.iNCE. 

Chateau-Cliinon  (2,593  inhabitants),  the  old  capital  of  Morvan,  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  department,  occupies  a  most  picturesque  site  overlooking  the  Yonne 
and  the  wooded  heights  beyond  it.  Descending  the  river  just  named,  we  reach 
the  busy  little  town  of  Clamccij  (4,663  inhabitants),  which  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade  in  timber. 

CiiER  includes  about  one- half  of  Berry  and  a  small  portion  of  Bourbonnais. 
It  is  bounded  by  the  Loire  in  the  east,  whilst  the  Cher,  with  its  tributaries,  Yevre 
and  Auron,  traverses  its  western  portion.  The  department  produces  corn,  hemp, 
and  sheep,  the  latter  noted  for  their  fine  wool.  Its  iron  mines,  yielding  274,000 
tons  of  ore  annually,  are  of  considerable  importance. 

Sancerre  (2,830  inhabitants)  is  the  only  town  of  importance  on  the  Loire.  It 
has  become  known  through  the  heroic  siege  which  its  Protestant  inhabitants  sus- 
tained in  1573.  Proceeding  up  the  Aubois,  we  pass  Gucrchc  (1,837  inhabitants) 
and  Sancoins  (2,970  inhabitants),  and  following  the  canal  of  Berry,  reach  the  valley 
of  Auron,  the  richest  iron  district  of  the  department.  The  town  of  Dun-Ie-Roi 
(4,357  inhabitants)  occupies  its  centre. 

Bourses  (31,102  inhabitants),  the  old  capital  of  Berry,  occupies  a  low  site  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Auron  with  the  Yevre.  It  is  the  Avaricum  of  the  Romans,  and 
a  council  was  held  here  in  1225,  which  led  to  Louis  VIII.  taking  the  field  against 
the  Albigcnses.  The  most  remarkable  buildings  of  the  town  are  a  cathedral  of  the 
thirteenth  century  ;  the  mansion  of  the  silversmith,  Jacques  Coeur,  a  masterpiece 
of  the  Eenalssancc,  now  used  as  a  court  of  justice  ;  and  the  Hotel  Cujas,  converted 
into  police  barracks.  A  vast  arsenal,  including  a  cannon  foundry,  a  laboratory, 
stores,  and  artillery  ranges,  occupies  a  considerable  area  to  the  east  of  the  town. 

Passing  3Ichun  (5,25G  inhabitants),  with  its  manufactories  of  china,  and  a 
castle  in  which  died  Charles  VII.,  we  reach  Vierzon  (10,053  inhabitants),  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Yevre  and  Cher,  the  most  important  manufacturing  town  of  the 
department,  where  china,  glass,  cutlery,  textile  fabrics,  and  agricultural  machinery 
are  produced. 

St.  Amand-Mont-Bond  (7,719  Inhabitants)  is  the  only  town  of  importance  on 
the  Cher.  Near  it  are  Roman  ruins,  including  a  temple,  a  theatre,  baths,  and  an 
aqueduct.  A  castle  of  the  Duke  of  Mortemart,  sumptuously  restored,  lies  to  tlie 
north  of  the  town,  in  the  forest  of  Meillant. 

Indee  forms  a  portion  of  the  old  province  of  Berry.  The  river  Indre  traverses 
its  centre,  whilst  its  north  and  south  are  respectively  drained  by  the  Loire  and  the 
Cher.  The  south  of  the  department  is  occupied  by  granite  moimtains,  but  the 
greater  portion  of  it  consists  of  Jurassic  limestone  or  tertiary  plains.  In  these 
latter  three  districts  are  distinguished,  viz.  the  Brenne,  a  tract  abounding  in  pcnds, 
woods,  and  heaths  ;  the  Bois-Chaud,  a  pebbly  tract  covered  with  forests ;  and 
the  Champagne  country,  a  limestone  district,  not  exactly  distinguished  for  its 
fertility.  The  iron  industry,  which  was  of  great  importance  formerly,  is  declining 
steadily. 

Issoiuhm  (11,293  inhabitants),  the  largest  town  in  the  basin  of  the  Loire,  and 
one  of  the  oldest  in  France,  has  suffered  much  through  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 


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••»o      ''...».v    •'•»*'» .  w^    ,«v  «x      •«;     •■'  ^^^^H 


' 


234  FEANCE. 

Bn'nre  (3,970  iuliabitaiits)  is  the  first  town  met  witli  on  descending  the  Loire. 
Its  position  at  the  month  of  the  canal  which  connects  the  Loire  with  the  Seine 
enables  it  to  carry  on  a  profitable  commerce.  Gien  (G,493  inhabitants),  a  few 
miles  lower  down,  has  potteries.  We  then  pass  Sit?///  (1,980  inhabitants),  with  an 
old  castle  of  Henri  IV.'s  duke ;  and  Sf.  Beno'it,  a  very  important  town  in  the 
time  of  the  Carlovingians,  with  the  remains  of  an  old  abbey  ;  Cliatcaiinciif  (2,799 
inhabitants),  an  old  residence  of  the  Kings  of  France  ;  and  Jargcau  (1,558  inha- 
bitants), where  Joan  of  Arc  was  wounded  during  the  siege  of  Orleans. 

Orleans  (49,896  inhabitants)  is  one  of  the  great  historical  towns  of  France, 
and  has  played  a  part  quite  out  of  proportion  to  its  pojiulation.  "Upon  the 
fate  of  Orleans  frequently  depended  that  of  all  France;  the  names  of  Cscsar,  Attila, 
Joan  of  Arc,  and  De  Guise  record  the  sieges  which  it  has  sustained."  Amongst  its 
ancient  buildings  arc  a  tower  captured  b)^  Joan  of  Arc  during  the  memorable  siege 
of  1-429  ;  an  old  town-hall,  converted  into  a  museum ;  several  churches,  including 
a  cathedral  erected  in  the  seventeenth  century ;  a  fine  town-hall  of  the  Renaissance  ; 
and  several  noteworthy  private  houses.  Woollen  stuffs  are  manufactured,  but  the 
town  is  prominent  rather  for  its  commerce  than  for  its  industries.  The  vicinity 
abounds  in  nurseries  and  market  gardens.  Lower  down  on  the  Loire  are  St.  Ay, 
noted  for  its  wines ;  Jilcung  (3,122  inhabitants),  an  old  town ;  Cleri/  (1,225  inha- 
bitants), with  a  church  containing  the  tombs  of  Louis  XL  andDunois;  and  the 
picturesque  town  oi  Bcaugcncij  (3,901  inhabitants),  frequently  mentioned  in  mili- 
tary history.  Couhnicrs,  where  a  battle  was  fought  in  the  last  war,  and  Patay, 
where  Talbot  was  taken  prisoner  by  Joan  of  Arc,  are  north  of  the  latter. 

Pithh'iers  (4,899  inhabitants),  in  Beauce,  exports  almond  cakes  and  lark  patties- 
Passing  thence  through  Beaune  hi  Rolande,  a  place  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  events  of  1870,  we  reach  Montaryis  (9,175  inhabitants),  the  chief  place  of 
Gatinais,  built  upon  several  islands  of  the  river  Loing.  Lorn's  (1,438  inhabitants), 
an  old  town  to  the  south-west  of  the  latter,  has  become  known  through  a  code  of 
laws  collected  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  for  a  long  time  in  force  throughout  the 
surrounding  districts. 

Loir-et-Chkr  is  named  after  two  rivers,  which  intersect  its  northern  and 
southern  portions,  separated  by  the  valley  of  the  Loire.  In  the  north  are  the 
corn-fields  of  Beauce,  but  the  verdant  hills  lining  the  southern  bank  of  the  Loire 
soon  merge  into  the  di-eary  plains  of  Sologne.  About  one-tenth  of  the  area  is 
covered  with  forests,  an  equal  area  consists  of  heaths,  and  there  exists  but  little 
manufacturing  industry. 

Mer  (3,467  inhabitants),  on  the  Loire,  has  a  few  vineyards.  At  Siietres  may 
be  seen  "  sacred  "  stones  and  the  remains  of  an  ancient  city ;  Mcnars  boasts  an  old 
castle;  and /S/".  i)e«/.s  has  mineral  springs  similar  to  those  of  Spa.  Blois  (18,188 
inhabitants)  is  beautifully  situated  upon  hills  overlooking  the  Loire.  Historically 
it  abounds  in  interest.  It  was  here  the  Estates  of  France  met  between  1576  and 
1588,  the  Duke  of  Guise  was  assassinated,  and  Catherine  de  Medicis  breathed  her 
last.  The  fine  old  castle  in  which  these  events  took  place  has  been  carefully 
restored.     Amongst  the  famous  children  of  Blois  was  Denys  Papin,  the  physician, 


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.V  •  • 


.•.\^ 


236  TBANCE. 

EuRE-ET-LoiR,  named  after  its  two  principal  rivers,  includes  the  greater  part 
of  Beauce,  and  is  almost  void  of  natural  beauties.  The  western  districts  of  Dunois, 
Drouais,  Thymcrais,  and  Perche  offer  more  varied  scenery.  The  department  is 
one  of  the  granaries  of  France,  and  ftimous  for  a  fine  breed  of  horses  known  as 
Percherons. 

Chateauduii  (6,061  inhabitants),  on  the  Loir,  is  the  old  capital  of  Dunois,  and 
boasts  of  an  ancient  castle.  The  other  old  places  of  note  on  that  river  are  Bonncval 
(2,373  inhabitants)  and  Chycs  (1,759  inhabitants). 

Norjent-k-Rotrou  (6,569  inhabitants),  on  the  Huisne,  has  an  old  castle  built  by 
the  Counts  of  Perche,  and  manufactures  textile  fabrics.  The  villagers  in  the 
neighbourhood  engage  extensively  in  baby-farming,  and  the  mortality  amongst 
their  little  charges  is  extraordinarily  large. 

Chart  res  (20,067  inhabitants),  on  the  Eure,  the  old  city  of  the  Carnutes,  and 
the  capital  of  the  department,  has  a  magnificent  cathedral,  the  two  steeples  of 
which  are  visible  for  miles  aroimd,  and  several  other  interesting  churches.  The 
ancient  fortifications  have  been  converted  into  public  walks,  and  only  one  of 
its  fortified  gates  now  remains.  Descending  the  Eure,  we  pass  Maintcnon,  with 
an  old  castle.  Drcux  (7,087  inhabitants),  in  a  side  valley  of  the  Eure,  is  an  old 
seat  of  royalty.  It  contains  the  mausoleum  of  the  Orleans  family.  In  the  vast 
forest  extending  to  the  north  of  it  lies  the  castle  of  Anet,  which  Philibert  Delorme 
built  for  Diana  of  Poitiers. 

Indke-et-Loire  includes  nearly  the  whole  of  the  old  province  of  Touraine. 
It  consists  of  several  well-marked  districts,  viz.  the  sterile  tertiary  plateau  of 
"  Gatinc,"  to  the  north  of  the  Loire  ;  the  rich  alluvial  tract  of  Varenne,  between 
Loire  and  Cher ;  the  elevated  tract  of  La  Champcigne,  between  the  Cher  and  the 
delightful  valley  of  the  Indre ;  the  sterile  plateau  of  Ste.  Maure,  beyond  the 
valley ;  and  the  cretaceous  district  of  Veron,  which  extends  along  the  Loire, 
between  it  and  the  Lower  Vienne. 

On  the  Loire  rise  several  magnificent  castles,  amongst  which  are  those  of 
Amhoise  (4,475  inhabitants),  a  favourite  residence  of  the  kings  during  the  sixteenth 
century;  of  Poce;  and  of  CIos-Luci,  within  the  walls  of  which  died  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  in  1519.  Another  castle  equally  famous  rises  upon  an  island  of  the  Cher, 
at  Chcnonceaux,  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  the  Renaissance,  where  Farmer- 
General  Dupin  gathered  around  him  the  most  famous  representatives  of  the  litera- 
ture of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Tours  (48,325  inhabitants)  occupies  a  site  on  the  narrow  tongue  of  land  lying 
between  the  Loire  and  the  Cher.  This  fine  town  transmits  to  us  the  name  of  the 
old  tribe  of  the  Turones.  Its  Roman  remains  are  restricted  to  a  few  remnants  of 
the  old  walls  and  to  the  foundations  of  an  amphitheatre.  The  Middle  Ages  are 
represented  by  a  cathedral,  the  towers  of  St.  Martin's  Church,  and  the  ruins  of  a 
palace  buUt  by  Louis  XI.  Amongst  modern  structures  the  fine  bridge  over  the 
Loire,  which  connects  Tours  with  its  suburb  of  St.  Symphorien  (2,169  inhabitants), 
is  the  most  remarkable.  A  statue  of  Descartes  has  been  erected  upon  it.  Tours 
is  one  of  the  most  pleasant  towns  of  France,  and  its  library,  museum,  and  scientific 


IKD  BE- ET- LOIRE. 


287 


societies  iiffoid  iutellectuul  resources,  but  its  commerce  and  industry  ure  fur  lets 
than  might  be  expected  from  its  favourable  geographical  position.  In  the  time  of 
Louis  XI.  it  bad  a  population  of  80,000  souls,  but  its  pri  spcrity  was  destroyed  1)y 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Tiiere  arc  railway  works,  silk-mills,  woollen 
factories,  tan-yards,  and  manufactories  of  glazed  china.  Candied  prunes  are  amongst 
the  delicacies  for  which  "  Fat "  Tours  is  celebrated. 

Vourraij  (1,3!H  inhabitants),  to  the  cast  of  Tours,  produces  a  superior  wino. 
Mettraij  (l,87o  inhabitants),  to  the  north,  has  a  reformalory  founded  in  1809. 
Cliaieaurenault  (3,487  inhabitants)  is  the  largest  town  in  that  part  of  the  depart- 
ment which  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Loire.  Its  tan-yards  and  leather  manufactures 
are  of  considerable  importance. 

Descending  the  Loire,  we  pass  several  fine  castles,  including  those  of  Lui/nes, 
Vereiz,  Ciuq-Mars  (St.  Medard),  and  Langeais,  the  latter  one  of  the  finest  examples 
of  the  militury  architecture  of  the  fifteenth  century.     Bourgueil  (1,711  inhabitants), 

Fig.  176.— TouKS. 

^  lule  I  :  i:CO,(«.» 


SSlUcs. 


on  the  north  of  the  Loire,  has  vineyards,  but  the  red  wines  grown  there  do  not 
keep. 

Lochts  (3,689  inhabitants)  is  the  principal  town  in  the  valley  of  the  Indre. 
In  addition  to  a  huge  castle,  now  used  as  a  prison,  it  boasts  of  several  mcdioeval 
buildings,  including  two  royal  castles.  Moiitlazon  and  Azay-lc-Rkh'au  (1,335 
inhabitants),  lower  down  on  that  river,  are  likewise  noted  on  accoimt  of  their  old 
castles. 

Chinon  (4,536  inhabitants),  on  the  Vienne,  is  one  of  the  historical  towns  of 
France.  From  the  time  of  Clovis  to  that  of  the  religious  wars  it  was  one  of  the 
most  coveted  fortresses.  The  Norman  Kings  of  England  frequently  resided  here, 
and  Charles  VII.  of  France  here  assembled  the  Estates  of  his  kingdom.  Fearful 
scenes  have  taken  place  within  its  walls,  and  a  spot  is  still  pointed  out  where  one 
hundred  and  fifty  Jews  were  burnt  for  poisoning  the  wells.  Rabelais  was  born  in 
the   neighbourhood.      Ascending  the    Yieinie,    we    reach   L'lale   liouc/iani,    with 

VOL.    II.  K 


238 


PEANOE. 


cement  works,  and  La  Haye,  tlio  birthplace  of  Descartes.  At  Grand  Pressignij, 
near  the  latter,  M.  Leveille,  in  1863,  discovered  a  rich  store  of  flint  implements. 

Ste.  Maurc  (1,684  inhabitants)  lies  on  the  steiile  plateau  to  the  north  of  the 
Vienne.  RichcUeu  (2,328  inhabitants),  in  a  side  valley  of  that  river,  was  the  birth- 
place of  the  famous  cardinal  of  that  name.  Of  the  magnificent  palace  which  ho 
built  himself  there  exist  now  only  a  few  insignificant  ruins. 

Maixe-et-Loire,  named  after  the  two  rivers  which  join  below  Angers,  includes 
the  most  important  portion  of  the  old  province  of  Anjou.  Crystalline  rocks 
predominate  in  the  east,  sedimentary  ones  in  the  west,  and  these  two  zones  conse- 


Fig.  177. — Angeks. 
Scale  1  :  120,000. 


1  'hiae. 


quently  differ  in  their  physiognomy,  vegetation,  sj'stems  of  husbandry,  and  the 
material  used  in  building  houses.  In  the  east  forests  of  some  extent  still  exist, 
but  upon  the  whole  the  department  is  carefully  cultivated,  and  wine,  corn,  fruit, 
and  cattle  form  important  articles  of  export. 

We  begin  travelling  down  the  valley  of  the  Loire.  The  first  town  we  reach  is 
Saunnir  (13,463  inhabitants),  with  a  fine  old  castle,  numerous  church  steeples,  and 
excellent  quays  along  the  river.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  the  great  cavalry  school 
of  the  French  army,  almost  monopolizes  the  manufacture  of  chaplets,  and  carries 
on  much  trade  in  agricultural  produce.     The  vicinity  abounds  in  antiquities.     The 


SAETHE.  239 

cromlech  of  Bagneiir,  witliin  a  mile  of  the  town,  is  the  finest  of  all  Anjou.  At 
Dout-lii-Foiitaiiie  (3,194  iuhubitaiits),  farther  to  the  south-east,  are  several  other 
cromlechs ;  but  far  more  famous  than  these  are  the  remains  of  a  magnificent 
abbey  at  Fontevrault  (2,651  inhabitants),  now  used  as  a  house  of  detention. 

The  villages  below  Saumur,  such  as  Tri-res,  Cunault,  Qcnues,  La  Menitri;  and 
57.  Jfaiir,  arc  remarkable  on  account  of  their  ruins  of  ecclesiastical  or  other  old 
buildings.  Lis  Poiiti-de-Cc  (1,876  inhabitants),  on  an  island,  is  strategically 
important,  as  the  passage  of  the  Loire  can  easily  be  efibcted  here.  The  Authion 
(see  Fig.  1G6)  joins  it  below  that  town,  the  principal  places  in  its  fertile  valley 
being  Loikjuv  (1,876  inhabitants)  and  Beaufoi-t-vit-VdlUv  (2,680  inhabitants),  both 
centres  of  the  linen  industrj'.     The  best  hemp  of  France  is  grown  there. 

A  few  miles  below  Ponts-de-Cc,  at  La  Pointe,  the  river  Maine  joins  from  the 
north.  Still  travelling  down  the  Loire,  we  pass  Chalonncs  (2,449  inhabitants)  and 
its  coal  mines ;  the  village  of  Champtocc  (762  inhabitants),  where  Jfarshal  Gilles 
de  Rctz,  the  legendary  Bluebeard,  had  his  castle ;  and  the  jncturcsque  little  town 
of  St.  Florcnt-k-Vicil  (958  inhabitants),  mth  David's  mausoleum  of  the  Vendean 
partisan,  Bonehamps.  Retracing  our  steps  to  the  mouth  of  the  Maine,  we  ascend 
that  river  for  5  miles,  and  reach  Autjcrs  (53,366  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the 
department,  named  after  the  Gallic  tribe  of  the  Andecaves,  and  next  to  Nantes 
the  most  important  town  in  the  basin  of  the  Lower  Loire.  Boulevards  enclose  the 
old  city,  built  around  a  magnificent  cathedral,  and  suburbs  stretch  out  bej-ond 
thcra  in  every  direction.  The  castle  built  by  Louis  IX.  occupies  the  summit  of  a 
bold  rock,  and  there  are  many  other  mediaeval  buildings  which  impart  u  character 
to  the  town.  There  arc  scientific  societies  and  colleges,  a  school  of  art  industry, 
and  museums,  amongst  which  that  containing  a  collection  of  the  works  of  the 
sculptor,  David  of  Angers,  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting.  Commerce  and 
industry  flourish.  There  are  foundries  and  linen  and  sail-cloth  manufactories.  The 
nurseries  and  market  gardens  in  the  neighbourhood  arc  famous  throughout  France, 
and  the  vineyards  of  Si.  Barthilemij,  Rochefort,  St.  Georges,  and  Serrant  enjoy  a 
high  reputation.  The  slate  quarries  {ardomerex),  to  the  east  of  the  town,  are  the 
most  important  in  France,  yielding  about  200,000,000  slates  annually. 

Segre  (2,212  inhabitants)  and  Baugi  (3,318  inhabitants)  are  the  only  towns  of 
anj'  importance  in  the  north  of  the  department. 

Cholet  (12,335  inhabitants),  in  the  south-west,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Sevre, 
suffered  much  during  the  Vendean  war,  but  recovered  rapidly  from  its  disasters. 
It  is  now  one  of  the  centres  of  the  linen  and  woollen  industry  of  France,  besides 
which  it  carries  on  a  brisk  trade  in  cattle.  The  surrounding  villages  are  dependent, 
in  a  large  measure,  upon  the  manufactories  of  Cholet,  as  are  also  Beaupnau  (2,579 
inhabitants),  on  the  Evrc,  and  Chemillv  (3,073  inhabitants). 

At  Thoiiarci,  on  the  Layon,  are  Roman  ruins  ;  whilst  Brksac,  on  the  Aubance, 
boasts  of  a  sumptuous  castle  built  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Sartjie  includes  portions  of  the  old  provinces  of  Maine,  Anjou,  and  Pcrchc. 
The  Sarthc,  which  flows  west  through  a  hilly  district,  and  the  Loir,  the  valley  of 
which  is  bounded  by  low  chalk  cliffs,  draiii    the   department   into   the   Loire. 

P.  2 


240 


FEANCE. 


Jurassic  limestones,  chalk,  and  tertiary  formations  predominate.  Agriculture  is 
the  principal  occupation,  the  land  being  cultivated  for  the  most  part  by  farmers. 
Its  geese,  pullets,  and  capons  are  famous  throughout  France. 


Fig.  178. — The  Slate  Quakkies  neaii  Angers. 


Le  Mans  (45,709  inhabitants)  occupies  an  elevated  site  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Huisne  with  the  Sarthe.  It  is  a  prosperous  town.  Roman  towers  and  a  magnifi- 
cent  cathedral  attest  its   antiquitj^  but  its  numerous  factories  prove  that  it  is 


8ARTUE. 


2il 


abreast  of  modem  times.  Hardwaro,  agricultural  implements,  linens,  and  other 
textile  fabrics  are  manufactured.  Ftcsuay-le-Vicomie  (3,010  inhabitants),  on  the 
Upper  Sartho,  at  the  foot  of  a  tottering  fortress,  manufactures  linens,  whilst  SnUt' 
(5,334  inhabitants),  on  the  Lower  Sarthe,  has  marble  quarries,  manufactories  of 
farinaceous  preparations,  and  cattle  fairs.  Within  a  couple  of  miles  of  it  is  the 
famous  abbey  of  Soksmes,  founded  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

SiUc-k'-Gtiillaume  (2,995  inhabitants)  and  Louv,  two  small  towns  to  the  west  of 
the  Sarthe,  engage  in  the  manufacture  of  linen,  an  industry  likewise  carried  on 


Kg.  179.— Lb  Man8. 
Scale  1:60,000. 

:"'10  Wof  Pirun 


.  1  llilc. 


in  the  picturesque  town  of  Mamera  (5,147  inhabitants),  and  at  Bonnitahk  (3,185 
inhabitants),  to  the  east  of  that  river. 

La  Ferti-Bernard  (2,634  inhabitants)  is  the  principal  town  in  the  beautiful 
valley  of  the  Huisne.     At  Diiiieau,  near  it,  may  be  seen  a  remarkable  cromlech. 

La  Fkche  (7,468  inhabitants),  on  the  Loir,  is  the  seat  of  a  military  school 
occupying  the  old  Jesuit  college  in  which  Descartes  was  educated.  Higher  up  on 
that  river  are  Le  Liide  (2,720  inhabitants),  with  a  fine  modern  mansion  ;  Chulvau- 
du-Loir  (2,527  inhabitants),  inhabited  by  clog-makers,  quarrymen,  and  tanners  ; 


212  FEANCE. 

and  Charfre,  wliere  there  are  several  subterranean  liabitations.  North  of  the  Loir 
are  Ecommoy  (1,841  inhabitants),  Maijet  (1,631  inhabitants),  and  8t.  Calais  (3,000 
inhabitants). 

Mayenne  lies  almost  wholly  within  the  basin  of  the  river  whose  name  it  bears, 
and  which,  lower  down,  is  known  as  Maine.  Geologically  it  forms  a  part  of 
Brittany.  There  are  slate  quarries,  coal  mines,  and  lime-kilns.  The  linen 
industry  is  of  importance,  but  more  so  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  and  the  breeding 

of  cattle. 

Mayenne  (8,826  inhabitants)  is  the  chief  town  in  the  north  of  the  department. 
The  manufacture  of  linen  occupies  several  thousand  workmen  in  the  town  and  the 
villages  near  it,  and  there  are  also  cotton-mills,  flour-mills,  and  lime-kilns.  Ern^e 
(3,866  inhabitants)  and  Chailland  (518  inhabitants),  both  on  the  river  Ern(5e,  which 
enters  the  Mayenne  from  the  west,  are  likewise  engaged  in  the  linen  industry. 
Juhlains,  a  village  to  the  south-east  of  Mayenne,  is  the  old  capital  of  the  Aulerci- 
Diablintes,  and,  in  addition  to  a  magnificent  castellum,  possesses  other  Roman  ruins 
of  the  highest  interest. 

Laval  (25,110  inhabitants)  is  a  delightful  city  on  both  banks  of  the  Mayenne, 
surrounded  by  shady  walks  and  fine  gardens.  Ambroise  Pare,  the  "  father  of 
French  surgeons,"  was  a  native  of  the  place,  and  a  monument  has  been  erected  in 
his  honour.  Several  thousand  workmen  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  fancy 
tickino-,  and  there  are  also  marble  works  and  lime-kilns.  Coal  is  worked  at 
Gcrmanehieres,  to  the  west  of  Laval ;  whilst  the  rocks  of  Coevrons,  above  the  fine 
old  city  of  Evron  (3,433  inhabitants),  yield  porphyry,  granite,  kaolin,  and  man- 
ganese. Ste.  Suzanne,  a  village  near  Evron,  still  possesses  its  mediajval  castle  and 
walls. 

Chateau-Gonticr  (7,218  inhabitants)  on  the  Lower  Mayenne,  is  a  great  agricul- 
tural mart,  and  its  ferruginous  springs  attract  a  certain  number  of  visitors.  Craon 
(3,874  inhabitants),  to  the  west  of  it,  was  the  birthplace  of  Volney.  It  is  famous 
for  its  pigs  and  its  breed  of  horses.     Coal  mines  and  slate  quarries  are  near  it. 

Loire-Inferieure  is  intersected  by  the  Lower  Loire  and  its  estuary.  Historically 
and  geologically  it  belongs  to  Brittanj',  but  the  peasantry  have  long  ago  discarded 
the  use  of  the  Breton  tongue,  and  commercial  interests  have  aKenated  the  country 
from  Brittany.  The  department  is  rich  in  horses  and  cattle,  agriculture  and 
gardening  are  carried  on  with  much  success,  while  industry  and  commerce  flourish. 

Nantes  (116,093  inhabitants),  one  of  the  great  commercial  towns  of  France, 
dates  back  to  a  time  far  anterior  to  that  of  the  Romans,  and  bears  the  name  of  the 
Grallic  tribe  of  the  Namnetes.  Its  position,  at  a  point  where  the  rivers  Erdre  and 
Sevro  join  the  Loire,  is  exceedingly  favourable  for  commerce,  especially  as  sea- 
going vessels  can  reach  its  fine  quays  with  every  tide.  Its  most  remarkable 
buildings  are  a  castle  on  the  river  bank,  a  Gothic  cathedral,  and  modern  palatial 
edifice,  beneath  the  roof  of  which  have  been  brought  together  the  library, 
museum,  and  art  collections  of  the  town.  The  public  park  is  one  of  the  finest. 
Historically  the  name  of  the  town  is  connected  with  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  promul- 
gated by  Henri  IV.  in  1598,  but  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1685.     As  a  maritime 


•  ''♦'.♦A 


LIBRARV 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ULINOIS. 


LOra  PMNF^EIEURE. 


243 


port  the  town  is  losing  ground  since  the  introduction  of  larger  vessels,  for  only 
those  drawing  less  than  10  feet  of  water  can  safely  venture  up  the  river.  At  the 
same  time  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  commerce  of  St.  Nazaire,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  is  carried  on  almost  exclusively  by  Xantcs  firms.  In  former  times 
Nantes  supplied  the  French  West  Indies  with  slaves,  taking  sugar  in  return,  and 
up  to  the  present  time  its  intercourse  with  these  colonies  is  very  active.  It  is  the 
great  colonial  dejjot  of  the  valley  of  the  Loire,  and  its  sugar  refineries  only  vield 
to  those  of  Paris  and  Marseilles.     Iron  foundries,  lead  and  brass  work.s,  oil-mills, 


Fig.  180.— Nantes. 
ficale  1 :  56,000. 


J-    WW  or  Par« 


-y ;  JsKfewjw^^-H^^jsf 


■  IMUe. 


soap  works,  machine  shops,  a  tobacco  manufactory,  ship-yards,  and  other  industrial 
establishments  give  employment  to  thousands  of  workmen.  Other  thousands 
work  in  the  granite  quarries  above  the  suburb  of  Chatitenaij  (8,490  inhabitants). 
The  preservation  of  food  annuallj'  increases  in  importance.  The  valle3-s  of  the 
Erdre  and  Sevre  abound  in  fine  old  castles  and  modern  country  mansions,  the 
latter  more  especially  around  Cllsson  (2,241  inhabitants). 

Ancenis  (4,668  inhabitants)  is  the  only  town  on  the   Loire    above   Nantes. 
Descending  the  river,  we  pass  Lidre  (2,229  inhabitants)  and  the  island  of  Indret, 


244 


FRANCE. 


with  an  old  castle  and  a  Government  manufactory  for  marine  engines ;  Coueron 
(1,063  inhabitants)  and  its  lead  works;  and  reach  Sarenni/  (1,703  inhabitants),  a 
small  town  built  on  a  bluff  to  the  north,  affording  a  magnificent  prospect  over  the 
estuary  of  the  Loire.  Paimkeiif  (2,473  inhabitants)  lies  opposite,  but  its  harbour 
is  hardly  ever  now  visited  by  merchantmen  since  docka  have  been  excavated  at  Sf. 
Nazaire   (14,761  inhabitants),  at  the  mouth   of  the   river,   and  30   rjiles  below 


Fig.  181.— St.  Nazaike. 
Scale  1  :  30.000. 


I>°[  31"Wf.f  Parij 


2"|inVofGr. 


J  Mile. 


Nantes.  This  town  haa  sprung  up  rapidly  since  1856  around  a  Breton  village, 
and  packet  steamers  connect  it  with  the  West  Indies  and  other  parts  of  the  world. 
In  reality,  however,  it  is  merely  an  outport  of  Nantes,  to  which  most  of  the  mer- 
chandise is  forwarded  immediately  after  it  has  been  landed.  Its  environs  consist 
of  barren  heaths,  and  the  town  is  very  much  in  want  of  good  drinking  water.* 

*  Value  of  imports  (1875)  at  St.  Nazaire,  £13,240,000  ;  at  Nantes,  £2,800,000 ;  of  eitports  at  St. 
Nazaire,  £2,680,000,  at  Nantes  £3,200,000. 


LOIEE-INFEBIEmE.  245 

The  district  to  the  west  of  St.  Nazaire,  with  its  primitive  inhabitants,  its  ever- 
changing  coast,  and  its  salt  swamps,  yielding  about  30,000  tons  of  salt  a  year,  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  in  France.  Its  principal  towns  arc  Croixic  (1,081 
inhabitants),  much  frequented  by  seaside  visitors,  and  Giicraiu/e  (2,415  inhabitants), 
still  surrounded  by  turreted  walls.  On  the  wide  bay  to  the  south  of  tho  Loire,  in 
the  district  of  Rctz,  are  Bounjucuf  (817  inhabitants)  and  Toriiic,  a  rising  seaside 
resort,  with  numerous  pretty  villas. 

Clu'iteaubriaut  (4,082  inhabitants)  is  the  only  place  of  importance  in  the  north 
of  the  department,  its  old  walls  and  gabled  houses  offering  a  curious  contrast  to 
its  modern  court  of  justice  and  manufactories.  Agricultural  progress,  too, 
changes  the  face  of  the  country,  and  lai-ge  tracts  of  heath  in  the  ^•icinity  of  tho 
agricultural  school  of  Grandjouan  have  been  converted  into  productive  land. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

BRITTANY   (BRETAGNE). 
General  Aspects. 


IITTANY  and  Cotentin,  the  two  peninsulas  of  Western  France, 
are  geologically  of  the  same  origin,  and,  together  with  Poitou 
and  Cornwall,  arc  the  principal  remaining  portion  of  a  huge 
granitic  island,  which  also  included  Poitou  and  Cornwall,  and  was 
separated  from  the  continent  by  an  arm  of  the  sea  extending  to 
the  Vosges  and  the  plateau  of  Central  France.  An  irruption  of  the  Atlantic 
severed  the  French  portion  of  this  ancient  island  from  that  lying  beyond  the 
Channel.  The  ocean  incessantly  lashes  the  broken  coast  of  these  peninsulas,  but 
their  granitic  rocks  are  better  able  to  resist  its  onslaughts  than  is  the  calcareous 
soil  of  Normandy  and  Saintonge. 

The  climate  and  physical  aspects  of  these  two  peninsulas  are  the  same,  but 
their  political  history  has  been  very  different.  The  Bay  of  St.  Michel  completely 
separates  Brittany  from  Cotentin ;  and  the  latter  being  too  small  of  extent  to  lead 
an  independent  life,  and  moreover  easy  of  access,  very  soon  cast  in  its  lot  with  that 
of  the  population  of  Northern  France.  Brittany,  on  the  other  hand,  offered  a 
stubborn  resistance  to  every  attempt  at  assimilation.  Thanks  to  its  remoteness — 
far  away  from  the  great  high-roads  of  nations — it  was  able  to  maintain  its  old 
customs  and  its  Celtic  tongue.  The  stubborn  resistance  offered  by  the  Bretons  to 
foreign  encroachments  was  maintained  for  centuries.  The  English,  though  masters 
of  Anjou  and  of  Normandy,  never  succeeded  in  firmly  establishing  themselves  in 
Brittany  ;  and  long  after  that  province  had  become  French  it  maintained  its 
ancient  customs,  and  down  to  the  present  day  it  is  distinguished  for  many  pecu- 
liarities. 

Rocks,  tortuous  valleys,  heaths,  and  forests  separate  Brittany  from  the  rest  of 
France,  and  the  readiest  access  to  it  is  afforded  by  the  sea.  Its  many  fine  harbours 
facilitated  the  creation  of  a  mercantile  marine,  and  the  frequent  wars  between 
England  and  France  afforded  an  opportunity  to  the  Bretons  for  exhibiting  their 
prowess  at  sea.  The  rivalry  between  them  and  the  "  Bretons "  on  the  other 
side  of  the  channel  fed  their  local  patriotism,  whUst  frequent  intercourse  with 


GEXERAL  ASPECTS. 


247 


other  maritirao  districts  of  France  created   amongst   thern   a   Freuch  national 
feelinjr. 


In  its  general  features,  Brittany  consists  of  two  'Lands  of  granite,  gradually 
approaching  each  other  in  the  west,  the  triangular  space  between  them  being 
occupied  by  ancient  sedimentary  formations. 

The  crystalline,  fern-clad  heights  to  the  west  of  the  Lower  Loire,  known  as  the 
Sillou  ("  furrow  ")  of  Brittany,  may  be  described  as  the  edge  of  a  plateau  rather 
than  a  chain  oi  hills.  The  Yilaiue  has  excavated  itself  a  passage  through  the 
granitic  heights,  which  farther  west  form  the  range  known  as  the  Landes  of 
Lanvaux  (G7-1  feet).  The  granites  finally  give  place  to  schists,  which  form  the 
Black  Mountains  of  Brittany,  thus  culled  alter  the  forests  which  formerly  covered 
them.  They  culminate  in  the  bold  Menez-Hom  (1,083  feet),  on  the  peninsula  of 
Crozon. 

The  northern  granitic  range  of  Brittany  is  far  more  complicated  in  its  structure 

Fig.  182.— The  Landes  of  Lanvavx. 
SciUc  1  :  050,000. 


S'V-ofParLsl 

•  t\* 

^gil 

^3 

^m 

^ 

iijjrj^ 

T?^ 

i^'^ 

^  ffiS 

S 

m 

^ 

y 

u 

Aim/3 

^P3 

WT 

^^^fe 

W^^ 

■  ^^^^^vi 

U'ilUcs. 


than  that  of  the  south.  From  the  plain  intersected  by  the  canal  of  the  Ille  the 
country  gradually  rises  to  the  heights  of  Le  Mene  (1,110  feet) ;  but  beyond  these 
extends  a  vast  ledge  of  granite,  until  we  reach  the  fine  range  of  Arr^e  and  its 
sandstone  peak  of  St.  Michel  (1,284  feet),  the  most  prominent  hill  of  Brittany. 
The  vale  enclosed  between  these  granitic  heights  is  traversed  by  several  rivers, 
communication  between  which  has  been  established  by  means  of  a  canal,  which 
connects  the  Lower  Loire  with  Brest,  but  has  now  been  superseded  by  railways. 

Brittany  generally  gives  an  impression  of  monotonous  grandeur ;  and  Bi-izeux, 
a  native  poet,  addresses  it  as  the  "  land  of  granite  and  of  oaks."  But  the  country 
is  not  without  landscapes  more  pleasing  to  the  eye — heaths  and  fields,  shadj'  lanes, 
tranquil  rivulets,  half-hidden  lakelets,  and  old  walls  covered  with  ivy.  On  tho 
seashore  other  sights  greet  the  eye,  and  nothing  can  be  more  impressive  than  the 
billows  of  the  Atlantic  rushing  upon  the  cliffs  of  Finistere.  With  a  lowering  sky 
the  physiognomy  of  the  country  is  sombre  in  the  extreme,  but  the  sun  imparts  to 


248 


FEANCE. 


it  an  aspect  of  quiet  cheerfulness  impossible  to  describe.  The  Bretons  themselves 
yield  completely  to  these  impressions,  and  home  sickness  is  frequent  amongst  them 
when  abroad. 

The  Coast. 

AxciEXT  Armorica,  the  "  Land  of  the  Sea,"  fully  merits  its  Celtic  appellation,  for 
to  the  sea  it  is  indebted  for  its  climate  and  for  most  of  its  resources,  and  the  sea 
has  shaped  the  temper  of  its  inhabitants.  Off  the  western  promontories  of  Brit- 
tany the  gulf-stream  encounters  the  secondary  ocean  current,  which  sweeps  the 

Fig.  183. — MoRBiH.w. 

SciM  :  ilO.fOO. 


■ snsi 


T'-vis^-^w--,: 


-s\-.4 


.  5  Miles. 


shores  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  The  tides  are  violent  and  irregular,  and  the  sea  is 
perpetually  in  motion  down  to  its  very  bottom.  A  powerful  under-current  running 
along  the  northern  coast  sweeps  the  granitic  sea-bottom,  piling  up  the  sand  and 
mud  in  the  east.  Some  of  the  rocks  forming  these  are  but  ill  adapted  to  resist  the 
action  of  the  sea,  and  enormous  blocks  of  rock  have  tumbled  down  from  the  cliffs. 
In  the  west,  where  sedimentary  strata  intervene  between  the  two  bands  of  granitic 
rock.s,  the  encroachments  of  the  sea  have  been  most  considerable.  The  roadsteads 
of  Brest  and  Douamenez  penetrate  deeply  into  the  land,  and  almost  resemble 
Norwegian  fiords,  half  obliterated  by  alluvium  brought  down  by  the  rivers  which 
enter  them.     To  the  west  of  the  estuarj  of  the  Yilaine  this  contest  between  the 


THE  COAST. 


249 


elements  has  given  birth  to  a  hind-lockccl  bay  known  as  the  Morbilian,  or  "little 
sea."  Islands  are  scattered  over  it,  some  of  them  inhabited,  and  all  subject  to 
continual  changes.     M.  E.  Desjardins  is  of  opinion  that  this  inland  bay  is  ol'  com- 

Fij;.  184.— TiiR  Pemnsila  of  Qiiiieuos. 
ScoJo  1 :  100,000. 


IMUc. 


paratively  recent  creation.  A  subsidence  of  the  land  has  certainly  taken  place 
there,  for  cromlechs  have  been  discovered  which  do  not  even  uncover  at  low 
water.     The  numerous  islands  at  the  mouth  of  this  bay  indicate  the  diiection  of 


250  FEANCE. 

the  old  coast,  and  farther  off  a  still  more  ancient  coast-line  may  be  traced  in  the 
islands  lying  between  the  Points  of  Croisic  and  of  Quiberou.  These  islands,  as 
■well  as  the  elongated  peninsula  of  Quiberon,  certainly  mark  the  extent  of  Brittany 
in  some  bygone  age.  As  to  the  peninsula  mentioned,  a  causeway  and  sands  sub- 
merged by  each  flood  alone  attach  it  to  the  mainland. 

The  island  of  Groix  and  the  small  archipelago  of  Glenan  mark  the  extent  of 
the  old  coast  to  the  west  of  Quiberon.  Tradition  tells  us  that  the  nine  islets  of 
Glenan  are  the  fragments  of  a  larger  island.  As  to  the  large  island  of  Belle-Ile, 
or  Guerveur,  farther  off  the  shore,  it  is,  with  the  island  of  Yen  and  the  sunk  rock 
of  Rochebonnc,  the  only  remaining  witness  of  a  coast-line  even  more  ancient  than 
those  noticed  above. 

Doubling  the  bold  headbid  of  Penmarch,  or  the  "horse's  head,"  we  enter  the 

Fig.  185. — TiiK  Headland  of  CoitNOUAiLLU. 
Scale  1  :  400,000. 


■W.u'1'.-.i 


Tevpiiitf^f' 


-  y 


lid' 


/■"■'"■      "">:*,^^* 


.'f^- 


.■Wottr 


desolate  Bay  of  Audierne.  Not  a  tree  grows  upon  the  heights  which  surround  it, 
and  no  traces  of  cultivation  greet  the  eye.  The  headland  of  Cornouaille  (Cornwall), 
to  the  north  of  that  bay,  juts  far  out  into  the  sea.  Standing  upon  its  summit,  no 
less  than  262  feet  above  the  sea,  we  are  not  beyond  the  reach  of  the  spray,  and  the 
ground  is  felt  to  shake  beneath  our  feet.  The  waves  dash  into  the  Enfer  (hell)  of 
Plogoff,  at  its  foot,  creating  a  sound  like  thunder,  and  at  the  neighbouring  Bay  of 
Trepasses  the  superstitious  mariner  fancies  he  hears  the  voices  of  the  drowned 
rising  above  the  howling  storm  and  the  roar  of  the  waves.  To  our  ancestors  this 
uproar  sounded  like  the  voice  of  a  god,  whom  nine  Druid  virgins  sought  to  pro- 
pitiate by  leading  a  life  of  devotion  upon  the  weather-beaten  island  of  Sein.  If 
tradition  can  be  believed,  many  a  town  has  been  swallowed  up  by  the  waves  in 
that  part  of  the  country.     The  Bay  of  Douarnenez  is  said  to  mark  the  site  of  the 


THE  COAST.  251 

ancient  city  of  Is ;  and  a  causeway  of  Roman  construction,  leading  to  some  place 
now  submerged,  may  still  be  traced  near  the  Bay  of  Trepasses. 

The  island  of  Ouessiint  occupies  a  position  analogous  to  th;it  of  Soin,  with 
reference  to  the  headland  of  Lt'on.  This  clili-bound  island  is  cultivateJ,  but  not  a 
tree,  not  a  shrub  grows  upon  it.  Mariners  dro:id  to  approach  it,  for  rocks  abound, 
the  tides  and  winds  are  most  irregular,  and  dense  fogs  prevail.  But  though  the 
passages  separating  Ouessant  and  the  neighbouring  islets  arc  full  of  danger,  they 
give  access  to  the  magnificent  road  of  Brest,  where  four  hundred  vessels  find  u 
secure  shelter. 

Several  small  islands  and  rocks  on  the  north  coast  of  Brittany  enable  us  to 
trace  the  old  line  of  coast.  The  dreaded  granitic  headland,  known  as  '■  Swords  of 
Treguier,"  ne;ir  Brehat,  has  oflercd  a  powerful  resistance  to  the  waves,  but  the 
coast  farther  cast  has  been  encroached  upon  in  many  parts.  In  the  Bay  of 
St.  Brieuc  alone  no  less  than  120  square  miles  of  land  have  been  swallowed  up 
since  the  fifth  century.  Traces  of  ten  Gallo-Roman  buildings  have  been  discovered 
at  various  spots  on  the  beach,  and  the  old  walls  on  the  Cape  of  Erquy,  which 
bounds  the  bay  on  the  east,  are  supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  the  town  of  Rcginea 
mentioned  on  Peutinger's  Table.  The  island  of  Cezembre,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bay 
of  St.  Malo,  formed  a  portion  of  the  mainland  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  even 
more  recently.  Submerged  forests  and  bogs  are  met  with  at  different  points  of 
this  coast,  and  the  recovery  of  the  trees  buried  for  centuries  beneath  the  sands 
of  the  beach  occupies  many  of  the  poorer  inhabitants  of  St.  Malo.  The  remains  of 
buildings  discovered  in  the  Baj'  of  St.  Brieuc  prove,  however,  that  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  sea  is  not  exclusively  due  to  its  erosive  action ;  a  subsidence  of  the 
land  has  evidently  contributed  to  that  result. 

If  tradition  and  old  chronicles  are  to  be  believed,  the  encroachments  of  the  sea 
have  been  formidable  indeed.  The  archipelago  of  Chausey  is  stated  in  the  "  Lives 
of  the  Saints  "  to  have  formed  part  of  the  mainland  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
century,  the  area  now  covered  by  the  sea  being  then  occupied  by  a  vast  forest 
known  as  Scisciaaim  nemiis.  Thus  much  is  certain — that  a  forest  formerly  covered 
what  is  now  the  beach  of  the  Baj'  of  St.  Michel.  The  names  of  villages  which 
stood  in  that  forest  have  been  handed  down  to  us,  and  at  low  water  traces  of  them 
may  sometimes  be  seen.  !Nowhere  else  in  the  world,  the  estuary  of  the  Severn 
and  the  Bay  of  Fundy  alone  excepted,  does  the  tide  attain  so  extraordinary  a 
height  as  in  the  Bays  of  St.  Malo  and  St.  Michel,  where  it  rises  40,  and  even 
50  feet.  In  the  course  of  six  hours  it  invades  the  beach  of  the  latter  bay,  con- 
verting the  rock  of  St.  Michel,  with  its  picturesque  castle,  into  an  island,  ilan, 
however,  has  imdertaken  not  only  to  put  a  stop  to  the  further  encroachments  of  the 
sea,  but  also  to  recover  some  of  the  land  already  swallowed  up  by  it.  The 
interesting  hill  of  Dol,  with  its  numerous  remains  of  prehistoric  animals,  formerly 
stood  in  the  midst  of  the  sea,  but  3,500  acres  surrounding  it  have  been  converted 
into  productive  land.  Embankments  30  feet  in  height,  and  constructed  since 
the  eleventh  century,  now  extend  for  a  distance  of  30  miles  along  the  southern 
shore  of  the  Bay  of  St.  Michel,  and  the  recovery  of  the  sandy  beach  lying  beyond 


252 


FEANCE. 


tiieni  is  not  considered  a  hopeless  enterprise.  The  greatest  obstacle  to  this  recon- 
quest  is  not  offered  by  the  sea,  but  by  the  rivers  which  flow  into  the  bay,  and  for 
which  an  outlet  must  be  provided. 

Elsewhere  on  the  coast  of  Brittany  man  has  had  to  guard  against  an  invasion 
of  moving  sand-hills.  The  dunes  of  St.  Pol-de-Leon  are  the  most  formidable,  but 
having  been  planted  with  trees,  they  no  longer  cause  anxiety.  The  sand  com- 
posing these  and  other  dunes  in  Brittany  is  unusually  rich  in  carbonate  of  lime. 
Fragments  of  shells  and  seaweed  enter  largely  into  their  composition,  and  the 
fraes,  or  calcareous  sand,  carried  thither  by  the  winds  actually  constitutes  an 
element  of  wealth,  being  most  useful  as  manure. 

Seaweeds  are  collected  all  along  the  coast,  to  be  applied  to  the  fields  ;  and  in  the 
bogs  of  Cancale  and  St.  Michel  the  peasants  annually  take  up  500,000  tons  of 

Fig.  18G.— The  Bay  of  St.  Michel. 
Scale  1  :  500,000. 


'  WlofCr 


•  5  Miles. 


mud  mixed  with  fragments  of  shells,  which  they  spread  over  their  fields.  These 
fertilising  agents  are  all  the  more  appreciated  as  the  crystalline  and  palccozoic 
rocks  of  Brittany  contain  hardly  any  lime  at  all. 

The  fishing  grounds  of  Brittany  are  amongst  the  most  productive  of  France. 
The  peasants  of  Quimper  and  Chateaulin  formerly  almost  lived  upon  salmon,  and 
farm-labourers  objected  to  their  being  required  to  eat  it  more  than  thrice  a  week. 
Thousands  of  men  are  engaged  in  the  coast  fisheries,  yielding  herrings,  sardines, 
mackerel,  lobsters,  and  oysters  :  and  Breton  fishermen,  inured  to  the  hardshijjs 
of  a  seafaring  life,  annually  visit  the  fishing  grounds  of  Newfoundland  and 
Iceland.  Many  amongst  them  work  in  the  fields  during  winter,  or  collect  sea- 
weed, but  early  in  spring  engage  themselves  as  sailors  on  board  the  vessels 
proceeding  to  the  Arctic  regions.  The  four  departments  of  Brittany  supply  the 
mercantile  marine  of  France  with  one-fifth  of  its  sailors. 


«  » .•> 


.».»/ 


'''.■J>>^ 


o.V/, 


•^\ 


>sv. 


.•^\' 


.^'•'<»  .^♦.O 


^ 


1*  •  * 


'..• 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS. 


INHABITANTS. 


268 


INHABITANTS. 


The  iubabitants  of  Brittany  differ  from  (hose  of  the  rest  of  France  in  laiigua^o, 
manners,  and  social  condition. 


Kg.  187. — BuLTON  Peasants. 


4ymifi 


/I  ill) 


lu  Armorica,  a  remote  region  but  little  visited,  ancient  customs  maintained 
themselves  longer  than  in  the  more  accessible  parts  of  France,  and  the  Druids 
enjoyed  most  power.     Tlic  modern  Bretons  arc  no  doubt,  to  ;i  largo  extent,  the 

VOL.    II.  S 


254 


PEANCE. 


descendants  of  these  ancient  Armoricans,  but  kindred  Celtic  tribes,  driven  fi'om 
Great  Britain  through  the  invasion  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  settled  amongst  them. 
These  new  arrivals  founded  the  towns  of  St.  Brieuc,  St.  Malo,  and  others.  Being 
superior  in  intelligence  to  the  aboriginal  population,  they  soon  gained  a  prepon- 
derance, and  Armorica  became  Brittany,  or  Little  Britain.  The  descendants  of 
these  immigrants  still  differ  from  other  Bretons.  They  are  tall,  fair,  and  blue- 
eyed,  these  features  being  most  prominent  on  the  islands  of  Batz  and  Ouessant. 
The  Bretons  living  to  the  south  of  the  northern  coast  range  are  less  tall,  brown- 
complexioned,  and  have  round  heads  ;  but  they,  too,  have  dark  blue  eyes.  Some 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  islands  and  of  remote  districts  are  said  to  be  of  a  different 


Fig.  18S. — AiTuoxiMATE  Extent  op  tub  Bketon  Tongue. 


fcSC 


1^ 


Auri§ny 
Guernsey  ^s'. 


'^     fi  Gi-an\-itti 

•^*  V  ^*^  .■ 


l''W•.of  Ci- 


origin.  As  a  rule  the  Bretons  bear  a  strildng  resemblance  to  the  Limousins  and 
other  inhabitants  of  the  plateau  of  Central  France.  They  have  even  been  likened 
to  the  Xabyls  of  Algeria.  Dr.  Bodichon,  himself  a  Breton,  says  that  "  the  Breton 
of  pure  blood  has  a  thick  skull,  a  palish  yellow  skin,  a  brown  complexion,  black 
or  brown  eyes,  a  squat  build,  and  black  hair.  He,  like  the  Kabyl,  is  stubborn 
and  indefiitigable,  and  his  voice  has  the  same  intonation." 

The  Celtic,  or  Breizad,  spoken  by  the  Bretons,  is  akin  to  Welsh.  There  arc 
four  dialects,  those  of  Treguier,  Leon,  Cornouaille,  and  Vannes ;  and  considerable 
jealousies  exist  between  those  who  speak  them,  as  is  proved  by  imcomplimentary 
expressions  like  these :  "  A  thief  like  a  Leonard !  "  "  a  traitor  like  a  Tregorrois !  " 


255 


INHABITANTS. 

.<  ablockhcad  likoa  Vanuetais !  "  and  "  a  brute  like  a  Coruouailluls  !  "     "l"!-  J>t-- 
ture  of  Brittany  is  poor,  and  cannot  compare  in  antiquity  or  wealth  with  that  ot 

Fi".  189.— Women-  of  Cascalb. 


•'-■::ji^;-^^UTS 


Irelmd  or  Wales.  Only  one  weekly  paper  is  published  in  Breton.  Frencb  is 
;^:i..  Brest  and  tboLns  generally,  and  ^ _^-;^^^:^2l^X 
tbe  peasants,  n>ost  of  whom  can  converse  now   vvUh    the      .entieme 


256  FRANCE. 

formerly  tLey  hated  so  mucli.  Still  the  boundary  between  the  French-speaking 
Bretons,  or  "  GuUots,"  in  the  east,  and  the  Bretons  projDer,  has  changed  but  little 
since  the  twelfth  century.  An  examination  of  a  map  almost  enables  us  to  draw 
the  lino  dividing  the  two  languages.  On  the  one  side  we  meet  witli  French 
names,  or  with  Breton  ones  accommodated  to  French  tongues ;  on  the  other, 
with  pure  Breton  names  only,  such  as  begin  with  abcr  (month),  cone  (port,  conch- 
shell),  car,  caiir,  or  /■<'/•  (fortress,  manor-house),  coed,  or  coet  (wood),  Ian  (conse- 
crated ground),  loc  (place,  hermitage),  leu  (court  of  justice),  mene  (hill),  inor  (sea), 
penn  (head),  p/e,  pk'ii,  ov  phir  (people,  tribe),  ros  (coast),  &c. 

The  manners  of  the  Bretons,  though  peculiar  in  many  respects,  do  not  essen- 
tially differ  from  what  may  be  met  with  in  other  remote  localities  of  France.  Brit- 
tany, iu  fact,  presents  us  with  a  fair  likeness  of  mediasval  France.  As  Michelet 
says,  "  The  Bretons  have  only  been  estranged  from  us  because  they  have  adhered 
most  faithfully  to  what  we  were  originally ;  they  are  not  much  French,  but  ver}' 
much  Gaul." 

Old  pagan  customs  still  survive,  and  the  peninsula  of  Pontusval,  in  Leonais,  has 
been  known  as  ar  2)(ifffiiiiz,  or  the  "  laud  of  the  pagans,"  down  to  the  present  time. 
But  there  are  many  other  parts  of  the  province  whei'e  fountains  and  large  trees 
remain  objects  of  veneration,  and  the  mistletoe  has  lost  none  of  its  pristine  virtue. 
The  ancient  sanctuaries  have  been  converted  into  chapels,  but  the  old  divinities 
survive  under  other  names.  Our  Lady  of  Hatred,  the  patroness  of  a  chapel 
near  Treguier,  is  the  Christian  representation  of  a  ferocious  Celtic  deity,  whom 
women  invoke  to  destroy  a  detested  husband,  and  to  whom  children  pray  for  the 
death  of  aged  parents.  St.  Ives  the  Truthful,  on  the  other  hand,  is  appealed  to 
as  the  defender  of  orphans  and  widows,  and  to  redress  all  wrongs. 

Dolmens,  or  cromlechs,  are  revered  as  the  tombstones  of  powerful  men,  and 
raised  stones,  which  no  peasant  passes  by  without  crossing  himself,  abound  through- 
out the  country.  The  peasants  near  Auray,  when  suffering  from  rheumatism,  lie 
down  on  an  altar,  invoking  the  aid  of  St.  Etienne.  Elsewhere  they  rub  the 
forehead  with  "sacred"  stones  when  suflering  from  headache.  Young  people 
still  dance  around  the  dolmens,  and  married  couples  furtively  touch  one  of  these 
stones  in  order  that  their  posterity  may  prosper.  The  great  grave-hill  near 
Carnac,  140  feet  in  height,  is  visited  by  sailors'  wives  to  pray  for  their  husbands. 
In  1658  the  Breton  clergj'  solemnly  declared  that  the  devil  alone  could  profit 
from  food  offerings  placed  upon  these  dolmens :  since  that  time  many  of  them 
have  become  objects  of  superstitious  fear  instead  of  veneration. 

Topography. 

MoRBiHAN  is  richer  in  ancient  stone  monuments  than  any  other  department  ol 
Brittany,  and  its  towns  are  more  original  in  their  aspect.  Breeding  cattle 
is  of  great  importance.  Heaths  occupy  a  vast  area  even  now,  and  most  of  the 
peasants  keep  bees.  Eye,  buckwheat,  fish,  and  shell-fish  constitute  the  principal 
articles  of  food. 


3I0RBIIIAN. 


267 


The  eastern  portion  of  the  department  lies  within  the  basin  of  the  Vihiino  and 
its  tributary,  the  Oust.     Eoclic-Beruard  is  a  small  port  near  the  mouth  of  Uio 

Fig.  100. — LoniENT  Asn  Port-Lovis. 
.«calo  I  :  150,000. 


4 


■.■f^, 


"f  r^ 


^/4  '^^/ 


J'     JT'W.of  Cr 


Vilaine,  here  spanned  by  a  bold  suspension  bridge,  which  offers  no  obstacle  to 
sailing-vessels  proceeding  up  the  river  to  Redon.     Ploirmel  (2,790  inhabitants) 


258  FRANCE. 

is  the  principal  town  in  the  valley  of  the  Oust,  with  remains  of  ancient  walls  and 
a  church  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Jossclin  (2,522  inhabitants),  higher  up  on  the 
Oust,  is  commanded  by  a  fine  castle.  A  jDj-ramid,  half-way  between  these  towns, 
marks  the  site  of  the  "  Battle  of  the  Thirty,"  fought  in  1531,  between  the 
champions  of  Beaumanoir  and  Bamborough.  Bolian,  with  ruins  of  a  castle,  has 
given  its  name  to  one  of  the  most  powerful  families  of  France. 

Vanves  (15,716  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  department,  on  a  creek  of  the 
Bay  of  Morbihan,  resembles  a  large  village  rather  than  a  town,  but  boasts  of  a 
museum  rich  in  local  antiquities.  Auray  (4,335  inhabitants),  on  another  creek  of 
the  bay  named,  is  famous  on  account  of  its  oyster  beds.  The  sardine  fisheries 
occupy  many  of  the  inhabitants,  and  annually,  at  the  commencement  of  the  fishing 
season,  a  nautical  procession  is  formed,  headed  by  the  priests,  who  solemnly  bless 
the  sea.  A  chapel  near  the  town  is  much  visited  by  pilgrims.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood was  fought  the  battle  which  terminated  the  Breton  war  of  succession  (1364). 
Port-Navalo  and  Loemarialcer  are  two  villages  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bay  of  Morbihan. 
Near  the  former  rises  the  artificial  hill  of  Tumiac,  66  feet  in  height,  and  the 
latter  boasts  of  a  remarkable  dolmen  (see  Fig.  8).  Other  dolmens  of  note  are  met 
inland,  near  the  villages  of  Elccn  (756  inhabitants)  and  Grand  CJntmp  (668  inha- 
bitants), as  well  as  on  the  peninsula  of  Ruis,  remarkable,  moreover,  for  its  mild 
climate.  Around  Sarzeau  (840  inhabitants),  the  birthplace  of  Lesage,  laurel-trees, 
camellias,  myrtle-trees,  and  pomegranate-trees  grow  in  the  open  air. 

The  western  portion  of  the  department  is  drained  by  the  river  Blavet,  rendered 
navigable  as  far  as  Fontivy  (6,402  inhabitants),  formerly  known  as  Napoleon- 
ville,  and  consisting  of  a  Breton  quarter,  with  quaint  houses,  and  the  military 
blocks  adjoining  it.  Vessels  of  200  tons  ascend  the  Blavet  as  far  as  Hoinrlont 
(4,844  inhabitants),  0  miles  above  Loricnt  (31,000  inhabitants),  the  largest  town 
of  the  department,  and  its  busiest  port.  The  harbour  of  Lorient  is  accessible  to 
vessels  of  the  largest  size ;  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  whilst 
the  French  East  India  Company  existed,  its  commerce  exceeded  that  of  every 
other  port  of  France.  The  company  failed  in  consequence  of  the  progress  made  by 
the  English  in  India,  and  its  ships,  dockyards,  and  arsenal  became  the  property  of 
the  State.  It  is  still  one  of  the  five  great  military  ports  of  France.  The  inha- 
bitants are  much  interested  in  the  sardine  fishery.  Porf-Loids  (3,262  inhabitants), 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Blavet,  is  a  dependency  of  Lorient.  Its  citadel  has  frequently 
served  as  a  prison  of  state,  as  has  also  that  of  Le  Palais  (2,823  inhabitants),  the 
capital  of  BeUe-Ile-en-Mer. 

FixiSTERE,  or  "  Land's  End,"  is  the  westernmost  department  of  France.  To 
its  moist  and  mild  climate  it  is  indebted  for  its  fertility,  and  jjlants  grow  luxu- 
riantly wherever  there  is  soil  to  root  in.  The  coast  district,  known  as  the 
"  Golden  Belt,"  is  careftilly  ciiltivated  by  small  proprietors,  but  many  of  the  large 
estates  in  the  interior  consist  of  barren  heaths.  Agriculture  and  the  breeding 
of  cattle  and  horses  constitute  the  wealth  of  Finistere.  There  are  also  quarries  of 
granite  and  slates,  but  the  argentiferous  lead  mines  are  no  longer  worked.  The 
fisheries  are  of  considerable  importance. 


FIXISTEEE. 


259 


Qiiimperlt;  a  pretty  town  of  4,080  inhabitants,  is  the  first  place  met  with  on 
crossing  from  Morbihan  into  FinisttTc.  Its  port  is  accessible  only  to  small  coast- 
ins  vessels.     Then  follows  the  village  of  ronf-Aieii,  with  nuiucrous  windmills. 


Fig.  191.— COSCARSEAU. 
Scale  1 :  33.000. 


f  "i      I"        i 

.      J"....., 


IjMflcs. 


Concarneau  (4,614  inhabitants),  on  the  wide  Bay  of  Fouesnant  or  Forest,  is  one  of 
the  great  fishing  towns  of  Brittany.  Its  maritime  fauna  is  exceedingly  rich,  and 
an  aquarium  has  been  established  to  enable  scientific  men  to  study  it. 

Qiiimper  (13,879  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  Cornouaille,  has  a  tidal  harbour, 


260 


FRANCE. 


and  boasts  of  a  highly  venerated  cathedral,  dedicated  to  St.  Corentin.  An 
agricultural  college  and  a  drainage  and  irrigation  school  have  been  established 
there.  Quimper  was  the  birthplace  of  Kerguelen,  the  navigator,  and  of  Laennec, 
the  physician.  The  surrounding  country  abounds  in  natural  curiosities,  and  the 
manners  of  the  inhabitants  are  very  primitive.  Bricc  (482  inhabitants),  a  village 
to  the  north,  is  noted  for  its  "  double  nags,"  which  amble  naturally.  Pont  I'Abb^ 
(3,827  inhabitants)  is  one  of  the  most  old-fashioned  towns  of  Brittany,  and  at  the 
village  of  Pcnmarch  w£  meet  with  the  ruins  of  a  considerable  town.  Andlcrne 
(1,627  inhabitants)  is  likewise  a  decayed  city,  but  Douanicncz  (8,087  inhabitants) 
has  become  one  of  the  principal  quarters  of  the  sardine  fishery,  which  employs 
800  boats  and  several  thousand  men.     The  wide  Bay  of  Douarneuez  is  bounded  in 

Fiff.  192.— Brest. 


the  north  by  the  peninsiJa  of  Crozon  (824  inhabitants),  beyond  which  a  narrow 
gullet  leads  into  the  magnificent  roadstead  of  Brest. 

Brest  (66,828  inhabitants)  is  the  most  populous  town  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
between  Havre  and  N'antes,  and  next  to  Toulon  the  greatest  naval  arsenal  of 
France.  Its  aspect,  however,  is  very  difierent  from  that  of  the  delightful  city  of 
Provence.  It  is  almost  sinister,  and  from  afar  only  uniform  ramparts  and  cannon 
are  visible.  The  estuary  of  the  Penfeld,  hardly  more  than  300  feet  wide,  forms 
the  port  of  the  town.  On  its  right  rises  a  castle  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy,  very 
much  older  than  the  modern  fortifications  built  by  Yauban.  The  shabby  buildings 
on  the  left  contain  marine  stores.  Passing  beneath  a  swing-bridge,  the  estuary 
winds  for  more  than  a  mile  between  stores,  workshops,  and  ship-yards.  Huge 
basins  have  been  excavated  in  the  solid  rock,  and  a  breakwater  nearly  a  mile  in 
length  has  recently  been  constructed.  Steamers  connect  Brest  with  New  York, 
but  the  commerce  of  the  town  is  not  of  much  importance. 


c6tES-DU-X0RD.  261 

The  vicinity  of  Brest  and  of  its  industrial  suburb  of  Lambdzellec  (2,243  inhabit- 
ants) abounds  in  remarkable  sites.  Ascending  the  Elorn,  wo  have  Plougastcl-Daonlaa, 
with  its  orchards  and  market  gardens,  on  the  right,  and  reach  Landcrneau  (G,fl65 
inhabitants),  with  a  largo  linon-mill,  and  St.  JUarfi/rr,  famous  on  account  of  its 
horse  fairs.  The  river  Aulno,  which  likewise  enters  the  road  of  Lrest,  leads  past 
Le  Faou  and.  Port-Lauiiai/  to  Chuteanlin  (2,211  inhabitiints),  near  which  are  slate 
quarries.  On  the  Aven,  a  tributary  of  the  Aulne,  stands  Car/iaix  (2,296  inha- 
bitants), the  Eoman  Yorganium,  where  seven  roads  meet.  Passing  through  the 
narrow  gullet  which  connects  the  road  of  Brest  with  the  open  Atlantic,  wo  notice 
Camaret,  an  old  outport,  on  the  left,  and  the  small  creek  of  Miiiou,  the  terminus 
of  an  Atlantic  cable,  on  the  right.  Doubling  Point  St.  Matthicu,  surmounted  by 
the  ruins  of  a  church,  wc  pass  in  succession  Coiiquct,  a  favourite  bathing-place ; 
Aber-Ilduf,  where  there  are  granite  quarries;  Aber-BcnoH ;  awA  Abcr-Wiach. 
Lesneven  (2,437  inhabitants),  near  which  is  the  church  of  Folgoet,  much  frequented 
by  pilgrims,  lies  some  distance  inland. 

Morlaix  (13,019  inhabitants),  on  the  Dosscn,  has  a  tidal  harbour,  and  vessels  of 
several  hundred  tons  arc  able  to  anchor  close  to  the  stores  and  manufactories  which 
line  both  banks  of  the  river.  The  most  remarkable  building  of  the  town  is  a  rail- 
way viaduct,  which,  at  a  height  of  190  feet,  passes  over  the  river  and  the  houses 
of  the  town.  Moreau  was  born  at  Morlaix  in  17G3,  and  the  traveller  Lojean  is  a 
native  of  Plouegat-Gucrrand,  near  Lanmeur,  to  the  north-east  of  the  town. 
Descending  the  river,  we  pass  the  castle  of  Taureau,  on  an  island  at  its  mouth,  built 
in  the  sixteenth  century  as  a  defence  against  the  English,  but  now  used  as  a  prison. 
St.  Pol  (3,503  inhabitants),  the  old  capital  of  Leonais,  has  two  magnificent 
churches,  but  has  otherwise  lost  all  importance.  The  environs,  protected  by 
embankments,  are  exceedingly  fertile.  Roscoff  (1,282  inhabitants),  the  old  harbour 
of  L^onais,  is  known  on  account  of  a  fig-free,  which  has  grown  to  extraordinary 
proportions.  The  vegetables  grown  around  it  are  exported  to  Paris,  London,  and 
Rotterdam.  The  sea  abounds  in  fish,  and  a  zoological  station,  similar  to  that  at 
Concameau,  has  been  established. 

C6tes-du-Xord,  "  north  coast,"  is  for  the  greater  part  carefully  cultivated  by  a 
multitude  of  .small  proprietors.  Agriculture  and  cattle-breeding  are  the  leading 
occupations.  A  manufacturing  industry  can  hardly  bo  said  to  exist,  and  there  are 
no  great  commercial  ports. 

Loiideac  (2,091  inhabitants)  is  the  principal  town  in  the  southern  portion  of  the 
department,  which  drains  into  the  rivers  Blavet  and  Vilaine,  and  is  covered  to  a 
large  extent  with  furze.  Corhnj,  a  village  to  the  north-west  of  it,  is  noted  for  its 
horses,  said  to  be  the  descendants  of  Arabs  introduced  during  the  Crusades. 

Lannion  (G,llo  inhabitants),  in  the  delightful  valley  of  the  Guer,  close  to  the 
frontier  of  Finistere,  has  a  small  port.  There  are  several  curious  old  buildings. 
The  river  Jaudy  enters  the  sea  farther  west.  The  tide  ascends  it  as  far  as  the 
famous  old  city  of  Triyuier  (3,G11  inhabitants),  with  a  cathedral  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  Doubling  the  dreaded  headland  known  as  the  "Swords"  (Epees)  of 
Treguier,    we  arrive  at  the  mouth  of  the   river  Trieux  and  the  small  port  of 


262 


FEANCE. 


Lezardricux  (516  inhabitants).  The  tide  ascends  as  far  as  Portrieux  (2,192  inha- 
bitants). Higher  up  on  the  river  is  Guiiigamp  (7,895  inhabitants),  with  an  old 
citadel. 

Returning  to  the  coast,  we  pass  the  island  of  Brehat,  inhabited  by  a  superior 
race  of  men,  whom  consanguineous  marriages  have  not  injuriously  affected,  and  the 
small  fishing  ports  of  Paimhol  (1,576  inhabitants),  Brehec,  St.  Quay  (984  inha- 


Fig.  193.— MoRLAix. 
Scale  1 :  200,000. 


S  Fathoms    lo  Fathoms     s^  Faihome    ij  Fathoms 

^^^^____  2  Miles. 


bitants),  and  Bink  (1,110  inhabitants) ;  and  entering  the  river  Gouet,  ascend  with 
the  tide  to  the  tidal  harbour  of  St.  Brieuc,  (13,683  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the 
department.  The  town  is  not  remarkable  for  its  buildings ;  but  its  inhabitants, 
known  as  Briochins,  engage  in  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics,  and  carry  on  a 
considerable  trade  with  agricultural  produce.  Hundreds  of  men  find  employment 
in  the  granite  quarries  in  its  neighbourhood.      St.  Quinfin  (3,218  inhabitants),  on 


cOtes-du-nobd. 


203 


the  I'ppcr  Goiict,  is  noted  for  its  liiicu  industry,  which  was  much  more  important 
formerly. 

At  Pledran,  a  small  village  6  miles  to  the  south-oast  of  St.  Brieuc,  may  be  seen 
the  curious  ancient  camp  of  I'eran,  with  vitrified  walls. 

Lamballe  (4,"2-18  inhabitants),  the  old  capital  of  the  duchy  of  rciithievre,  lies 
on  the  road  to  Dimn  (7,978  inhabitants),  tho  easternmost  town  of  the  department, 


Fig,  194. — St.  Malo  and  St.  PEnvAX. 
Swilc  1  :  80,000. 


4°|t5'Wof  P«ri« 


.•|5'Wof  C7 


picturesquely  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Ranee,  which  lower  down  flows 
past  St.  Malo.  An  old  castle,  now  used  as  a  prison,  crowns  a  hill  near  the  town ; 
a  magnificent  viaduct  spans  the  river ;  and  the  heart  of  Dugucsclin  is  preserved  in 
the  Gothic  parish  church.  A  granite  pillar,  10  miles  to  the  south-west  of  the  town, 
marks  the  site  of  the  castle  of  La  Mottc-Broons,  in  which  Duguesclin  was  born 
(1321).  Dinan  has  tan-yards  and  sail-cloth  factories.  Its  mild  climate  has 
attracted  many  English  residents. 


264 


FEANCE. 


Ille-et-Vilaixe. — The  greater  portion  of  this  department  is  drained  by  the 
river  Vilaine  and  its  tributary,  the  lUe,  and  only  an  inconsiderable  part  of  it 
borders  upon  the  British  Channel.  Agriculture  and  cattle-breeding  are  the  prin- 
cipal occupations;  bee-hives  (160,000)  are  more  numerous  than  in  any  other 
department  in  France ;  and  at  St.  Malo  and  elsewhere  on  the  coast  fishing  and 
navigation  occupy  many  of  the  inhabitants. 

Si.  Mah  (10,061  inhabitants),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ranee,  is  the  great  seaport 
of  the  department,  separated  from  its  more  ancient  sister  city  of  St.  Scrvan  (9,912 
inhabitants)  by  extensive  wet  docks.     The  tides  sometimes  rise  50  feet,  and  the 


Fisr.  195. — View  of  St.  Malo. 


sea  alternately  advances  up  to  the  quays  and  retires  for  a  considerable  distance, 
completely  changing  the  aspect  of  the  two  towns.  The  inhabitants  of  St.  Malo,  or 
Malouins,  have  at  all  times  enjoyed  a  reputation  as  bold  seamen,  engaging  in  com- 
merce or  piracy  as  opportunities  offered  themselves.  Four  expeditions  were  fitted 
out  in  England  to  burn  the  town,  but  they  failed.  The  Malouins  became  so 
wealthy  that  they  were  able  to  lend  30,000,000  francs  to  Louis  XIV.  They  are 
enterprising  and  persevering,  and  somewhat  haughty.  Lamennais  and  Chateau- 
briand were  both  natives  of  the  town,  and  are  amongst  its  most  distinguished 
representatives.  The  commerce  of  the  two  towns  is  no  longer  what  it  used  to  be, 
in  spite  of  fine  docks  and  railways.     About  eighty  vessels  are  engaged  in  the  New- 


ILLE-ET-VILADTE.  2G5 

foundland  fisheries,  and  provisious  in  largo  quantities  are  exported  to  the  Channel 
Islands  and  England.     The  town  attracts  numerous  seaside  visitors. 

Caiicak  (3,269  inhabitants),  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Bay  of  St.  Michel,  has 
famous  oyster  beds.  They  yielded  120,000,000  in  1802,  but  only  15,500,000  in 
1875.  At  Lc  VirUr,  on  the  same  bay,  oyster- breeding  is  carried  on  successfully. 
Doi  (3,517  inhabitants),  a  famous  old  town  with  a  fine  Gothic  church,  lies  a  short 
distance  inland.  Xear  it  stands  the  famous  menhir  of  ChamiJ-Dolent,  surmounted 
by  a  cross.  Coiiihoiinj  (1,491  inhabitants),  with  a  castle  in  which  Chateaubriand 
spent  several  years  of  his  youth,  lies  to  the  south  ;  Fouglns  (I0,39ti  inluibituuts), 
on  the  Upper  Couesnon,  in  the  south-east.  The  town  retains  its  old  castle,  but  the 
mediaeval  fortifications  have  been  razed  to  make  room  for  suburbs.  Shoemakiug, 
weaving,  and  the  quarrying  of  granite  occupy  thousands  of  men  in  the  town  and 
its  vicinity.  At  St.  Auhin-du-Cormwr  (1,15U  inhabitants),  in  this  neighbourhood, 
was  fought  the  battle  which  resulted  in  Brittany  becoming  a  French  province. 

Crossing  the  water-shed  separating  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  channel  from 
those  taking  a  southerly  course,  we  reach  Reiuics  (53,598  inhabitants),  the  capital 
of  the  department,  at  the  confluence  of  the  lUc  with  the  Yilaine.  Four  railways 
and  eleven  highways  converge  upon  the  town,  and  a  canal  connects  the  navigable 
lUe  with  the  river  Eance,  which  enters  the  sea  at  St.  Male.  Its  coimncrcial 
advantages  are  consequently  very  great.  The  aspect  of  the  town,  with  its  houses 
built  of  greyish  granite  and  deserted  streets,  is  nevertheless  very  dreary.  The 
gate  of  Mordelaise  is  the  most  interesting  monument  of  the  Middle  Ages,  but  a 
fine  university  building,  with  valuable  scientific  and  art  collections,  constitutes  the 
glory  of  the  place.  Rich  meadow  lands  surround  the  town,  and  the  butter  known 
as  Pi'cvalaye  is  named  after  a  castle  in  the  neighbourhood. 

VUr6  (8,475  inhabitants)  is  a  picturesque  old  town  on  the  Upper  Vilaine. 
Madame  de  Sevigne  resided  for  a  considerable  time  at  the  castle  of  liochcrs,  to  the 
south-east  of  it.  Descending  the  Vilaine  below  Rennes,  and  passing  through  its 
gorges,  we  reach  Rcdoii  (4,955  inhabitants),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oust,  and  on  the 
canal  which  connects  Nantes  with  Brest.  Other  places  of  interest  in  the  depart- 
ment are  Montfort  (1,507  inhabitants),  on  the  Men,  a  tributary  of  the  Vilaine, 
with  an  old  castle  ;  Pdiwponf,  in  the  famous  forest  of  Broceliaude,  one  of  the 
reputed  haunts  of  Merlin  the  enchanter  ;  Janze  (1,03G  inhabitants),  to  the  south- 
cast  of  Kenues ;  and  La  Guerche  (2,612  inhabitants). 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  CHANNEL  ISLANDS. 


HOUGH  a  political  dependency  of  England,  these  islands  geographi- 
cally belong  to  French  Normandy.  Their  soil,  climate,  produc- 
tions, and  inhabitants  are  the  same,  and  in  their  customs  and 
political  institutions  they  are  even  more  Norman  than  Normandy 
itself.  Magistrates  there  still  raise  the  "  hue  and  cry  "  {chdncnr 
de  haro),  as  was  formerly  done  by  the  people  when  wronged  by  the  great,  and  the 
legislative  body  is  still  known  as  coliui'.  If  we  would  study  the  institutions  of 
feudid  Normandy  wo  cannot  do  better  than  go  to  the  Channel  Islands.  Ever 
since  they  sided  with  John  Lackland  against  Philip  Augustus,  in  the  thirteenth 
centurj^,  these  islands  have  almost  uninterruptedly  enjoyed  the  blessings  of  peace, 
for  their  neutrality  was  guaranteed.  England  very  wisely  lefc  them  in  the 
enjoyment  of  their  local  institutions,  and  can  boast  of  no  subjects  more  faithful 
than  these  islanders. 

The  islets,  rocks,  and  banks  off  Granville  have  remained  in  the  possession  of 
France,  but  only  a  few  of  the  larger  islets  of  the  archipelago  of  Chausey  are  inha- 
bited throughout  the  year.  A  few  acres  there  are  cultivated,  but  fishing  is  the 
jirincipal  occupation,  and  the  sea  yields  a  rich  harvest  of  fish,  shrimps,  and  sea- 
weed, but  there  are  no  oysters.  Quarrying  also  is  carried  on  extensively,  and  the 
streets  of  Paris  are  for  the  most  part  paved  with  Chausey  granite.  The  storm- 
beaten  rocks  of  Minquiers  and  the  Grelets,  farther  out,  are  only  occasionally 
visited  by  fishermen  from  Granville  or  the  Channel  Islands. 

Jkksey* — that  is,  the  island  of  Jcrs,  or  Cccsar  :  historians  have  identified  it  with 
the  Cassarea  of  the  Antonine  Itinerary — is  the  largest  of  the  group.  In  shape  it  is 
a  parallelogram,  its  length  being  nearly  twice  its  breadth.  The  cliffs  along  its 
northern  shores  have  offered  more  resistance  to  the  onslaughts  of  the  Atlantic,  and 
from  their  summits  (350  feet)  the  island  slopes  down  to  the  south,  nearly  all  its 
rivulets  flowing  into  the  Bay  of  St,  Aubin.  On  ascending  their  shady  valleys  up 
to  where  they  rise,  we  find  ourselves  upon  the  summit  of  the  cliffs,  with  a  grand 
outlook  over  the  ocean. 

*  Jersey  has  an  area  of  45  square  niiles,  and  56,627  inliabitants  ;  Guernsey  and  the  smaller  islands  have 
an  area  of  28  square  miles,  witli  a  population  of  33,968  souls. 


THE  CHANNEL  ISLANDS. 


207 


The  southern  and  westeru  coasts  of  the  island  exhibit  many  traces  ot'  the 
erosive  action  of  the  ocean.  Ledges  of  rock  and  sand-banks,  which  in  former  times 
were  dry  land,  stretch  for  a  mile  or  two  from  what  is  now  the  hi-^'h-wuter  line ; 


Fig.  196. — The  Ciiaxnll  I:.lam>s. 
Sculo  1 :  ?00,000. 


S'lWofParu 


''  'f  f^p'tteJiiBiifi- 


I.U.. M<- 

\  lAU)l'.R5fK\ 


:,;)tL  GrERN'SKy 


1^  .K*r«JioTi 


S 


I'KHM.t 


....    10  KLdu^ttlM 


^7  fadwm* 


10  MUca. 


and  the  cliffs vof  Corbiere  have  been  gnawed  into  curious  pinnacles  and  pillars,  and 
pierced  by  caverns.  The  heights  surrounding  the  beach  of  St.  Ouen,  in  the  west, 
are  covered  witli  shrubs  which  bend  to  the  storm.      Dunes  exist  in  taut  purtiou  of 


268  FEANOE. 

the  island,  and  they  have  occasionally  overwhelmed  cultivated  fields,  as  a  punish- 
ment, local  tradition  tells  us,  for  the  massacre  of  shipwrecked  mariners. 

Except  in  the  north  and  west,  where  the  brine-laden  air  destroys  the  vegeta- 
tion, the  island  is  naturally  fertile,  and  being  blessed  by  a  mild  climate,  it  pro- 
duces fruits  and  vegetables  of  excellent  quality.  Its  cows  ai'C  highly  valued,  and 
cattle  imported  from  France  are  invariably  slaughtered  for  butchers'  meat. 

There  are  a  few  dolmens  recalling  prehistoric  ages.  Locally  they  are 
known  as  poquclaijcs,  a  name  recalling  that  of  the  ^'oii/picaiis,  or  dwarfs,  of 
Ai-morica.  Skeletons  and  coarse  cincreal  vases  have  been  found  at  the  foot  of 
some  of  these  ancient  stone  monuments.  Norman-French  is  still  the  oflScial  lan- 
ffuasc  of  the  island,  and  Wace,  the  author  of  the  famous  "  Roman  de  Ecu,"  was  a 
native  of  "  Jersui."  Within  the  last  fifty  years  a  large  number  of  English  have 
established  themselves  upon  the  island,  attracted  by  its  mild  climate  and  the 
cheapness  of  the  necessaries  and  luxuries  of  life.  These  wealthy  immigrants  have 
gradually  changed  the  physiognomy  of  the  inhabitants  and  of  their  houses;  and, 
when  passing  through  the  streets  of  St.  Helier,  we  may  almost  llincy  being  in  an 
English  town.  During  last  century  the  Jerseyites  were  attached  to  England  only 
Ijolitically,  but  at  the  present  day  we  must  look  upon  them  as  members  of  the 
great  English  family,  in  spite  of  the  vicinity  of  France  and  the  many  Frenchmen 
domiciled  upon  the  island. 

The  castle  of  MontorgncU,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  island,  was  its  old 
capital,  the  fishing  village  of  Gorey  nestling  at  its  foot.  St.  Uclier  (16,715  inha- 
bitants), the  modern  capital,  stands  on  the  vast  Bay  of  St.  Aubin,  on  the  south  shore 
of  the  island,  and  is  quite  English  in  its  aspect.  Two  forts  defend  its  harbour, 
from  which  the  sea  retires  during  low  water.  Large  vessels  anchor  in  the  road- 
stead of  St.  Aubin,  but  an  artificial  harbour,  covering  no  less  than  380  acres,  has 
been  in  course  of  construction  since  187-1.  St.  Auhiii,  which  was  the  more  impor- 
tant place  formerly,  is  hardly  more  now  than  a  suburb  of  St.  Holier,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  rail. 

Sekk,  whose  granite  cliffs  rise  boldly  in  the  channel  which  separates  Jersey 
from  Guernsey,  consists  of  two  portions,  joined  together  by  a  narrow  and  precipi- 
tous neck  of  land.  Its  cliffs  rise  to  a  height  of  IGO  feet,  but  access  to  its  fertile 
and  smiling  plateau  is  facilitated  by  means  of  a  tunnel.  Eabelais,  in  "  Panta- 
gruel,"  calls  it  the  island  of  pirates,  thieves,  brigands,  murderers,  and  assassins, 
but  its  present  inhabitants  are  peaceable  enough. 

Guernsey,  the  Sarnia  of  the  Romans,  and  probably  the  Groens-ey,  or  green 
island,  of  its  Scandinavian  conquerors,  is  deserving  of  its  ancient  name.  Though 
less  carefully  cultivated  than  Jcrsej-,  green  meadows,  elms  growing  in  the  hedges, 
and  apple  orchards  impart  to  it  the  aspect  of  a  wooded  country.  The  general 
slope  is  towards  the  north-east,  the  boldest  promontories  rising  at  the  western 
extremity. 

Less  frequently  visited  than  Jersey,  the  inhabitants  have  remained  more 
fliithful  to  their  ancient  customs.  Small,  sunburnt,  with  black  eyes,  and  thick 
brown  hair,  they  strike   one  as  being  true  representatives  of  tlie  Breton  race. 


THE  CHANJfEL  ISLANDS.  269 

Many  Celtic  expressions  are  used  by  them,  and  until  quite  recently  they  looked 
with  superstitious  awe  upon  the  dolmens,  cromlechs,  and  menhirs  scattered  over 
their  island.  They  are  old  rivals  of  their  neighbours  on  the  larger  island,  and, 
when  these  latter  sided  with  the  Parliament  during  the  Commonwealth  they 
stuck  firmly  to  the  King.  St.  Peter's  Fori  (16,150  inhabitants)  occupies  a 
sheltered  situation  on  the  east  coast.  Its  harbour  is  accessible  at  all  times. 
Granite,  quarried  in  the  vicinity,  is  the  principal  article  exported,  and  there  are 
large  stores  of  wine. 

Aldernev  (Aurigny)  is  separated  from  the  coast  of  France  by  the  strait  of 
Raz  Blanchard,  only  10  miles  wide,  but  much  dreaded  by  mariners.  Steep 
cliffs  rise  on  the  south,  and  the  island  slopes  down  towards  the  north,  where  there 
are  numerous  creeks  and  small  baj-s.  The  most  considerable  of  these,  that  of 
Braye,  was  to  be  converted  into  a  huge  harbour  of  refuge,  similar  to  that  on  the 
coast  of  England  opposite,  but  the  works  have  recently  been  stopped,  in  spite  of 
the  vast  sums  already  expended  on  them.  The  formidable  rocks  known  as  the 
Casqucts,  to  the  west  of  Alderuey,  are  rendered  conspicuous  by  lighthouses. 

The  political  institutions  of  the  Channel  Islands  are  still  feudal  in  their 
character.  The  seigneurs  are  vassals  of  the  Queen,  the  "sovereign  lord  of  the 
land,"  and  annually  do  homage  to  her  at  a  ceremonious  "  assize  of  heritage." 
Their  privileges  are  still  considerable.  The  Legislative  States  of  Jersey  consist  of 
thirty-eight  members,  viz.  the  governor  and  the  bailiff  of  the  Royal  Court,  both 
appointed  by  the  Crown  ;  the  twelve  judges,  or  jurats,  of  the  Eoyal  Court,  elected 
for  life  by  the  ratepayers ;  the  twelve  rectors  of  the  f)arishes,  appointed  to  their 
livings  by  the  ratepayers ;  and  the  twelve  constables,  elected  every  three  years, 
one  for  each  parish,  by  the  inhabitants.  The  riconte,  or  high  sheriff,  and  the  two 
iteiioiiciaieiirs,  or  under-sheriffs,  occupy  seats  in  the  Assembly  as  its  officers.  No 
taxes  can  be  levied  without  the  consent  of  the  States.  The  revenue  of  the  island 
amounts  to  £22,000,  and  there  is  a  debt  of  £160,000. 

In  Guernsey  there  are  "  States  of  Deliberation,"  composed  of  the  bailiff  of  the 
Royal  Court,  who  is  president ;  the  procureur,  the  ten  rectors  of  the  parishes,  the 
twelve  jurats  or  judges  of  the  Roj'al  Court,  and  fifteen  delegates  elected  by  the  rate- 
payers. The  bailiff  and  procureur  are  nominated  by  the  Crown ;  the  jurats  are 
chosen  by  "  States  of  Election." 


VOL.    II. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEINE. 
The  River  Seine. 


EOLOGICALLY  this  is  a  well-defined  portion  of  France.  It  covers 
three-fourths  of  an  ancient  gulf  of  the  sea,  Paris  being  in  its  centre, 
and  the  coasts  of  former  ages  can  still  be  traced  in  many  places. 
Calcareous  rocks,  overlying  the  schistose  plateau  of  the  Ardennes  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  granitic  mountains  of  Morvan  on  the  other, 
bound  the  basin  in  the  east ;  rocks  belonging  to  the  same  formation  separate 
Beauce  and  Lower  Normandy  from  the  palasozoic  rocks  of  Brittany  in  the  west ; 
and  only  in  the  south  does  this  geological  basin  extend  beyond  that  of  the  Seine 
and  embrace  a  portion  of  that  of  the  Loire. 

Historically  this  ancient  country  of  the  Sequanians  has  at  all  times  proved 
itself  the  natural  centre  of  France,  towards  which  converge  the  roads  from  Belgium 
and  Germany,  from  Southern  France  and  the  Atlantic.  Add  to  this  a  favourable 
climate,  and  we  need  not  wonder  at  the  Seine  holding  a  rank  amongst  rivers  quite 
out  of  proportion  to  its  volume. 

The  Seine,  so  called,  rises  on  the  north  slope  of  the  Cote-d'Or,  but  its  real 
head-stream  must  be  looked  for  in  the  granitic  and  porphyritic  district  of  Morvan. 
This  district  forms  the  northern  buttress  of  the  plateau  of  Central  France.  Though 
.  nowhere  exceeding  2,960  feet  in  height,  its  aspect  is  sometimes  Alpine,  and  its 
valleys  fertilised  by  the  debris  carried  down  by  the  torrents,  are  verdant  with 
vegetation.  Swamps  (ouches)  have  been  converted  into  fields,  and  yield  harvest 
after  harvest ;  but  the  forests,  to  which  these  mountains  owe  their  Celtic  name  of 
Morvan  {i.e.  "black  mountains"),  have  to  a  great  extent  been  destroyed.  Pic- 
turesque clifils,  perched  upon  which  are  the  towns  of  Vezelay,  Avallon,  and  Semur, 
terminate  the  district  of  Morvan  in  the  north.  The  bare  chalky  hills  beyond 
these,  as  far  as  the  plain,  are  attractive  only  in  summer,  when  the  apple-trees  are 
in  blossom. 

The  aspect  of  the  comitry  is  more  varied  in  the  north-east,  where  the  hills  of 
Cote-d'Or,  the  jjlateau  of  Langres,  and  the  Faucilles  ("sickle  mountains"),  form 
the  water-shed  as  far  as  the  Vosges.    Some  of  the  valleys  in  that  part  of  Burgundy 


GENERAL  ASPECTS. 


271 


Cotentin  are  bare,  and  the  country  owes  all   its  attractions  to  the  vicinity  of  tho 
ocean. 

The  plains  to  the  east  of  BoCage,  irrigated  by  tho  Orno,  the  Dives,  and  the 
Touques,  are  a  pastoral  country.  Bessin,  to  tlio  east  of  tho  Vire,  comprises  many 
marshes  now  under  cultivation.  Tho  vast  meadows  around  Isigny  might  remind 
us  of  Holland,  if  it  were  not  for  tho  rows  of  willows,  poplars,  and  trees  which 
intersect  them,  and  the  low  embankments  covered  with  hawthorn  and  brambles. 
The  plains  of  the  Orne  and  of  Calvados  are  admirably  suited  for  the  breeding  of 
horses  and  the  fattening  of  cattle.      The  iinest  grass,  however,  is  reserved  for  the 


Fig.  197. — Tub  Foeest  op  A.ndainb. 

Scale  I  :  330,000. 


El 


!o'.  Wiif  r^ 


5  Milea. 


choicer  breeds  of  cattle  and  for  milch  cows.  The  cheese  and  butter  made  enjoy  a 
high  reputation. 

None  of  the  rivers,  not  even  the  Vire  or  the  Orne,  are  nangable  farther  than 
the  head  of  the  tide.  Subterranean  river  channels  are  frequent,  as  in  other  lime- 
stone regions.  Several  "  sinks,"  or  hetuirs,  occur  in  the  bed  of  the  Aure,  and 
only  in  winter  is  the  volume  of  the  river  sufficient  to  flow  on  the  surface  a  feeble 
stream.  The  Lower  Aure  is  fed  from  subterranean  channels,  but  it,  too,  is  partly 
swallowed  up  by  sinks,  and  at  its  mouth  forms  a  delta,  one  arm  of  which  reaches 
the  sea  through  an  underground  channel. 

The  granitic  cliffs  of  Cotentin  resemble  those  of  Brittany  :  exposed  to  the 
attacks  of  conflicting  tides,  they  have  been  destroyed  in  many  places.     The  wide 

t2 


272 


FRANCE. 


Bay  of  St.  Michel,  to  the  south  of  Granville,  has  thus  been  formed.  Elsewhere 
the  deep  bays,  or  flieurs  (a  corruption  of  the  Scandinavian  word  fjord),  have 
been  silted  up.  The  promontories  forming  the  extremities  of  the  peninsula  do  not 
mark  its  ancient  limits,  for  Alderuey  and  other  islands  were  formerly  attached  to 
it.  The  conflicting  tides  give  rise  to  phenomena  resembling  the  maelstrom.  The 
Raz  Blanchard,  between  Cap  de  la  Hague  and  Alderney,  sometimes  rushes  along 
like  a  mighty  river  at  the  rate  of  10  miles  an  hour.     The  current  known  as  La 

Fig.  198. — Meadows  of  Normandy. 


D^route,  farther  south,  though  less  swift,  has  nevertheless  proved  the  destruction 
of  many  a  mariner. 

The  aspect  of  the  limestone  cliffs  of  Calvados  is  very  different  from  that  of  the 
granitic  rocks.  These  soft  rocks  have  been  gnawed  away  more  regularly  by  the 
waves,  and  their  debris  now  forms  broad  beaches,  surmounted  here  and  there  by 
rocks,  anciently  portions  of  the  mainland,  and  still  offering  some  resistance  to  the 
waves. 


Topography. 

La  Manche  includes  the  peninsula  of  Cotentin,  together  with  adjoining  portions 
of  Normandy.     Though  bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  sen,  the  maritime  commerce 


T.A  M.VNCHE. 


278 


of  this  department  is  not  of  much  importunco ;  industry  is  even  less  so ;  iind  the 
population  depends  almost  exclusively  upon  H<»ricul(ure  for  its  sustenance.  Tho 
soil  is  not  very  fertile  naturally,  but  tho  small  proj)rietor8  who  share  it  have 
done  much  to  improve  it.  Tho  moist  and  warm  climate  is  favourahlo  to  the 
growth  of  herbs  and  grasses,  and  tho  breeding  of  horses  and  cattle  is  carried  on 
with  much  success,  more  especially  in  the  east.  Some  parts  of  tho  department 
resemble  huge  orchards,  and  about  ^8,<JOO,000  gallons  of  cider  arc  made  annually. 
Clurboury  (3U,338  iuhabitauts),  the  most  considerable  town  of  tho  department, 


Fig.  199. — The  Sixks  op  the  Aviie. 
BoUe  I  :  72,000. 


|:^  v\v.  of  r. 


1  Mile. 


is  of  ancient  foundation,  but  its  importance  dates  from  the  time  when  Vaubau 
converted  it  into  one  of  the  great  naval  arsenals  of  France.  The  features 
of  the  locality  offered  many  ob.stacIes  to  the  accomplishment  of  the  work,  and 
the  breakwater,  begun  in  1080,  was  only  completed  in  the  course  of  the  present 
century,  and  at  an  expenditure  of  £3,000,000.  Tho  port,  which  accommodates 
no  more  than  forty  large  vessels,  would  soon  become  silted  up  if  dredging 
machines  were  not  continually  kept  at  work.  From  the  fort  on  the  hill  of  Roulo 
we  look  down  upon  tho  docks,  the  dockyard,  the  arsenal,   the   vast  fortifications 


274 


FRANCE. 


and  the  regularly  built  city.  In  the  suburbs  of  Equeurdreville  (2,475  inhabitants) 
and  Tourlaville  (1,852  inhabitants)  are  glass  works  and  other  industrial  establish- 
ments, and  stone  is  quarried  in  their  neighbourhood.  Beaumont-Hague,  thus 
named  from  the  promontory  of  La  Hague,  to  the  west  of  Cherbourg,  has  entrench- 
ments in  its  neighbourhood  supposed  to  have  been  constructed  by  the  ancieut 
Gauls.  Barjleur,  a  small  port,  lies  to  the  east,  and  on  the  cape  near  it  stands  the 
tallest  lighthouse  in  France,  which  mariners  keep  in  sight  until  they  find  themselvea 
within  the  radius  of  that  of  La  Heve,  near  Havre.  St.  Vaast  (3,014  inhabitants), 
close  to  Cap  La  Hougue,  is  best  known  through  the  naval  victory  of  the  combined 
English  and  Dutch  fleets  in  1G92.  Ship-building  and  oj'ster-breeding  are  carried 
on.     The  islands  of  St.  Marcouf,  in  the  offing,  were  held  by  the  English  from  1793 

Fig.  200. — Cherboitro. 
Scale  1  :  80,000. 


3°|57'W.  of  Paris 


piA, 


^^'- 


.lle.Pip,l>t"-^ 


l°i37'\V.otCr. 


Fut, 


5    Fa4?U>7rM 

.  1  MUe. 


to  1802,  who  thus  intercepted  all  communications  between  Havre  and  Cherbourg. 
Valognes  (4,910  inhabitants)  lies  in  the  centre  of  the  peninsula  of  Cotentin,  and 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Douve.  In  the  midst  of  marshes  converted  into  fertile 
meadows  stands  Carentan  {2,n'2  inhabitants),  which  exports  dairy  produce  to 
England.  St.  L6  (9,519  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  department,  occupies  a 
delightful  site  in  the  valley  of  the  Vire,  and  carries  on  some  textile  industry. 

Returning  to  the  western  coast,  the  first  place  we  arrive  at  is  Coutances 
(Constantia,  8,008  inhabitants),  an  old  episcopal  city  which  has  given  its  name  to 
the  entire  peninsula.  Its  cathedral  is  a  fine  structure  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
Regneville,  the  port  of  Coutances,  has  oyster  beds.  Higher  up  on  the  Sienne  is 
Vilkdieu-les-Poeles  (3,437  inhabitants),  a  town  of  tinkers  and  frying-pan  makers, 
as  is  implied  by  its  name. 


OUNE. 


275 


Grancille  (12,372  inhabitants)  has  an  excellent  harbour  and  docks,  and  carries 
on  commerce  with  the  Channel  Islands  and  England.  The  inhabitants  arc  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  of  Iberian  descent,  and  such  a  thing  as  slander  is  said  to 
be  unknown  amongst  them — a  very  curious  circumstance  for  a  provincial  town. 

Arranches  (7,754  inhabitants),  the  old  town  of  the  Abrincates,  occupies  an 
admirable  situation  at  the  mouth  of  the  See.  It  boasts  a  fine  cathe<lral,  and  a 
railway,  which  will  connect  it  with  the  curious  castle  of  St.  ilichcl,  is  being 
constructed. 

St.  Hihire-du-Harcouct  (3,148  inhabitants),  on   the   Selune,  has   tan-yards, 

Fig.  201. — Tkb  Beach  at  GnAxvais. 


spinning-mills,  &c. ;  whilst  Morfain  (2,185  inhabitants),  higher  up  in  the  same 
valley,  is  more  especially  noted  for  its  picturesque  position. 

Orne  is  named  after  the  river  which  enters  the  Channel  below  Caen.  It  is  a 
country  of  transition.  Primitive  rocks  prevail  in  the  west,  sedimentary  strata  in 
the  east.  In  this  latt«r  region  the  inhabitants  breed  horses  and  cattle  ;  in  the 
former  they  carry  on  some  manufacturing  industry. 

Akiifon  (15,433  inhabitants),  the  capital,  on  the  Sarthc,  was  formerly  cele- 
brated for  its  point-lace,  the  manufacture  of  which  was  introduced  from  Venice 
in  1G73,  but  depends  now  mainly  upon  its  horse  markets. 


276  FEANCE. 

Domfront  (2,735  inhabitants),  a  picturesque  old  town  ou  the  Varenne,  a 
tributary  of  the  Mayenne,  is  the  capital  of  an  arrondissement ;  but  La  Ferte-Mace 
(6,392  inhabitants),  on  another  tributary  of  the  Mayenne,  exceds  it  in  importance, 
for  it  carries  on  the  manufacture  of  linen,  cottons,  and  ribbons.  Near  it  are  the 
steel  and  sulphur  springs  of  Bagnolles. 

Argentan  (5,254  inhabitants)  occupies  a  fine  site  in  the  valley  of  the  Orne. 
The  surrounding  country  is  famous  for  its  poultry,  cattle,  and  horses.  At  Sees 
(3,760  inhabitants),  an  episcopal  city  higher  up  in  the  valley,  important  horse 
fairs  are  held,  and  at  Pin,  in  the  district  known  as  Merlerault,  is  a  famous  stud 
for  breeding  horses.  Flers  (8,571  inhabitants)  and  Tinchebrai  (2,562  inhabit- 
ants) are  busy  towns  in  side  valleys  of  the  Orne,  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
cottons,  linens,  cutlery,  and  other  articles. 

Vinioutiers  (2,775  inhabitants),  in  the  north-east,  has  bleaching  grounds. 
Camemhert,  a  village  noted  for  its  cheese,  is  close  by.  Still  farther  east  is  Laigle 
(4,495  inhabitants),  where  needles,  nails,  wire,  and  other  hardware  are  manu- 
factured. 

Morfagne  (4,302  inhabitants)  and  BelUme  (2,935  inhabitants)  are  the  principal 
towns  in  the  Forest  of  La  Perche,  within  which  the  Abbe  de  Ranee  founded  the 
first  monaster}^  of  Trappists.  From  Touronrre,  one  of  the  villages,  eighty  families 
emigrated  two  hundred  years  ago,  and  can  boast  that  most  of  the  Canadian  French 
are  descended  from  them. 

Calvados  is  named  after  a  few  rocks  on  the  coast,  and  Is  probably  a 
corruption  of  Salvados,  one  of  the  vessels  of  the  Spanish  Armada  wrecked  upon 
them.  The  western  and  south-western  portions  of  the  department  form  the 
district  of  "  Bocage  "  (woodland),  and  are  of  palseozoic  formation.  Bessin  includes 
the  western  maritime  district,  and  is  of  Jurassic  age.  In  the  country  round 
Caen  oolitic  rocks  predominate.  In  Lieuvin  and  in  the  valley  of  Auge,  in  the 
east,  Jurassic,  cretaceous,  and  tertiary  rocks  are  met  with.  This  is  eminently 
a  cattle-breeding  region,  whilst  Bessin  is  noted  for  its  dairy  farms.  Bocage,  which 
only  produced  oats,  rye,  and  buckwheat  formerly,  is  now  more  carefully  cultivated. 
There  are  quarries  and  coal  mines,  and  paper,  earthenware,  soap,  and  textile  fabrics 
are  manufactured. 

Vire  (6,718  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  Bocage,  is  delightfully  situated  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name.  There  are  linen,  cloth,  and  paper  miUs,  tan-yards,  and 
quarries  of  grey  granite.  Basselin,  the  song  writer  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was 
a  native  of  the  Val  or  Yau  de  Vire  (valley  of  the  Vire),  which  has  been  corrupted 
into  our  modern  Vaudeville. 

Baj/cux  (8,315  inhabitants),  on  the  Aure,  is  the  capital  of  Bessin.  China, 
lace,  and  embroidered  work  are  manufactured  there,  but  the  town  bears  an  aspect 
of  decay.  Its  Gothic  cathedral,  old  town-hall,  and  curious  houses  with  wood- 
carvings,  remind  us  of  better  days.  Descending  the  Aure,  we  pass  Trevieres, 
near  which  is  Formignij,  famous  on  account  of  the  battle  which  put  an  end  to 
the  English  reign  in  Normandy  (1450).  Near  the  mouth  of  the  river  is  Isigny 
(2,104  inhabitants),  which  exports  much  butter. 


PALVADOS. 


277 


Caen  (33,072  inhiibitauts)  is  tbo  only  considerable  town  on  tbe  Orno.  Ita 
situation,  in  tbe  midst  of  verdant  meadows,  at  tbe  junction  of  tlie  valleys  of  tbo 
Ornc   and  tbe  Udon,  and  at  tbo  bead  of   tbo  tide,  is  most  favourable.      It  boasts 


Fig.  202. — Caen  and  tbb  Mouth  on  tub  Ornb. 
Bmlc  I  :  140,000. 


1 


llf\f  ilc/Srfutcre.v    '^- 


m 


Ilprmnnvillf 


S'.   ,\l.li.n\ 
d'.ii'tjttrii.n     ^^ 


.M.-i  Mil. 


;   >allc-ni-lli- 


I'.TM-viUe" 


{>'.'  Honoi 


Tt 


■^ 


.  ■•  MilM. 


of  muny  fine  buildings,  most  of  tbcm  constructed  of  tbe  famous  stone  quarried  in 
the  ncigbbourbood.  The  Byzantine  cburcb  of  St.  Pierre,  at  tbo  foot  of  tbe  old 
castle,  bas  a  fine  Gothic  spire.  The  abbey  of  St.  ^Itienne,  in  which  William  tbo 
Conqueror  was  buried,  is  distinguished  by  its  simple  grandeur,  and  bas  a  nave  of 


278 


FRANCE. 


the  eleventh  century.  Many  of  the  other  ecclesiastical  and  private  buildings 
are  remarkable  on  account  of  the  architecture.  The  "  sapient "  city  may  boast 
of  numerous  educational  establishments,  and  its  library  and  museums  are  amongst 
the  wealthiest  in  France.  An  active  commerce  is  carried  on,  and  the  docks 
admit  vessels  drawing  16  feet  of  water.     Ouistreham,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orne, 


Fig.  203.— Trouville. 
Scale  1 :  50,000. 


1  Mile. 


was  the  great  port  of  the  country  in  Anglo-Norman  times,  but  is  now  a  simple 
village,  much  frequented  as  a  seaside  resort,  as  are  also  other  villages  near 
it,  amongst  which  Courseiillcs,  with  a  small  port  and  oyster  beds,  is  the  most 
important.  In  a  side  valley  of  the  Ujjper  Orne  is  Conde-sur-Noireau  (6,835 
inhabitants),  with  cotton-mills. 

The  river  Dives,  on  entering  the  department,  is  joined  on  the  left  by  a  small 


CALVADO&  279 

tributary,  commanded  by  the  curious  old  city  of  FaUtise  (8,180  inbubitanta),  in 
whose  castle  was  bora  AVilliam  the  rinujucror.  Tboro  are  cotton-mills  and  horso 
fairs,  called  after  tlio  suburb  of  Guibruy.  At  Dins,  now  a  poor  village  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  the  Conqueror  embarked  the  army  of  2oi>,000  men  with 
which  he  invaded  England.  Licarot,  in  a  side  valley  of  the  Dives,  is  noted  for 
its  cheese. 

Lisieux  (18,396  iuhabitiints)  is  the  most  important  town  on  tlie  Touques.  Its 
fat  meadows  nourish  cattle  for  the  Paris  market,  and  cloth,  leather,  and  cotton 
stuffs  are  amongst  its  principid  manufacturing  products.  A  Gothic  cathedral  is 
its  most  remarkable  building.  Crhrcoiir,  noted  for  its  fowls,  is  near.  Poiil- 
fL'reque  (2,373  inhabitants)  exports  cheese  and  vegetables. 

Trouville  (5,161  inhabitants),  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  is  one  of  the  most 
fashionable  seaside  resorts  of  France,  annually  frequented  by  20,000  bathers  ; 
but  the  town  also  carries  on  some  commerce.  The  castle  of  Bouurrillf,  at  the 
neighbouring  village  of  Touques,  was  a  favourite  residence  of  "William  the 
Conqueror. 

Houfleur  (9,037  inhabitants),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  opposite  Havre,  rises 
amphithcatrically  from  the  water-side.  It  was  an  important  place  formerly,  before 
it  had  been  eclipsed  by  its  parrenu  rival  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  and 
its  mariners  roamed  over  every  sea.  Its  port  has  been  silted  up,  but  it  still 
exports  vast  quantities  of  vegetables,  fruits,  poultry,  and  eggs,  more  especially  to 
London.  Fishing  and  ship-building  are  also  carried  on,  and  the  gardens  produce 
excellent  melons. 


CHAPTER  X. 

LOWER  NORMANDY  AND  COTENTIN. 


General  Aspects. 

HOUGH  small  in  extent,  this  section  of  France  has  made  its  influence 
felt  in  the  history  of  the  country.  From  ancient  times  it  has 
served  &a  the  intermediary  of  commerce  and  ideas  between  France 
and  Great  Britain,  and  from  its  shores  departed,  in  the  eleventh 
centurj',  the  Norman  conquerors  of  England.  The  inhabitants 
differ  in  physique  from  those  of  other  parts  of  France,  for  the  Norman  conquerors 
maintained  their  ground  longer  there  than  elsewhere.  Bayeux  was  ceded  to  them 
in  A.D.  923,  or  twenty-five  years  later  than  Rouen,  but  they  came  to  the  former  in 
larger  numbers,  besides  which  the  Saxon  Baiocasses  or  Sesnes  of  Bayeux,  speaking 
a  kindred  dialect,  had  jDreceded  them.  The  local  dialect  contains  many  words  of 
Teuton  origin,  such  as  <j(ii(/f,  signifying  forest.  The  natives  of  Bessin,  the  /ifdis 
SaxonicKin  of  old  chronicles,  as  well  as  those  of  Cotentin,  are  often  tail  and 
powerful,  with  flaxen  hair,  elongated  faces,  and  light  blue  eyes. 

Lower  Normandy  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  a  range  of  hills,  occasionally 
assuming  the  appearance  of  mountains.  On  the  heights  of  Perche  rise  the  Sarthe, 
the  Orne,  the  Eure,  and  other  rivers.  A  depression,  through  which  runs  the 
railway  from  Alencon  to  Caen,  separates  them  from  the  Forests  of  Ecouves  and 
Multonne,  both  attaining  the  same  height  (1,370  feet),  and  forming  the  culminating 
points  of  the  whole  of  North-western  France.  Granitic  rocks  here  pierce  the 
sedimentary  strata  of  Jurassic,  cretaceous,  and  tertiary  age  of  the  basins  of  the 
Loire  and  the  Seine,  and  farther  to  the  west,  up  to  the  extreme  points  of 
Brittany,  granites  and  palteozoic  rocks  predominate. 

These  hills  near  Alencon,  owing  to  the  diversity  they  oflfer,  are  known  as 
"  Norman  Switzerland,"  but  those  to  the  west  of  them  are  most  regular  in  their 
contours.  The  Forest  of  Andaine,  though  pierced  by  numerous  tributaries  of 
the  Mayenne,  rising  to  the  north  of  it,  presents  the  appearance  of  a  veritable 
rampart,  upon  one  of  the  promontories  of  which  is  seated  the  town  of  Domfront. 
The  hilly  country  to  the  north  is  known  as  the  "  Bocage "  of  Normandy, 
and   abounds   in   beeches  and   orchards,  whilst  the  ridges   of  the  peninsula   of 


THE  EIYEE  SEINE. 


281 


arc  very  attractive,  but  the  aspect  of  the  plateaux  is  sometimes  dreary  in  the 
extreme,  the  water  disappearing  in  their  porous  soil  us  in  a  sieve.  The  railway 
from  Paris  to  Dijon,  where  it  crosses  the  rampart  of  the  Cotc-d'Or,  winds  along 
the  foot  of  the  seurped  heights  which  load  up  to  the  vast  plain  deposited  by  the 
ocean  as  it  retired  to  the  north. 

The  geological  difiereuces  in  the  formation  of  the  Morvan  and  the  Cote-d'Or 
amply  account  for  the  discrepancies  in  the  rivers  which  rise  in  these  two  regions. 
The  granites  and  porphyries  of  Morvan  being  impervious  to  rain,  only  surface 
drainage  is  possible,  and  after  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  the  rivulets  are  converted  into 


Fig.  20-1. — Tub  Kavined  Plateav  of  Uppee  Bukoundy. 
Scale  1  :  IGO.OOO. 


t.  c^  VnviH 


LarUalcup 

\ 


4"....  h  ui  l„ 


.  2  Miles. 


uncontrollable  torrents.  The  limestone  formation  of  the  Cotc-d'Or,  on  the  other 
hand,  sucks  up  the  rain,  and  the  rivers  being  largely  fed  from  underground 
reservoirs,  retain  their  volume  throughout  the  year.  The  difference  is  all  the 
more  striking  as  the  rainfall  in  the  Jlorvan  is  exceptionally  large,  amounting 
to  48  inches,  as  compared  with  2 1  inches  near  the  so-called  source  of  the 
Seine.  The  head-streams  of  the  Seine,  rising  in  the  Morvan,  thus  present  all  the 
features  of  mountain  torrents.  The  engineers  have  attempted  to  regulate  the 
volume  of  the  Cure  and  the  Yonne  by  building  a  dam  below  the  swamp  of  Settons, 
which  has  thus  been  converted  into  a  lake,  having  an  area  of  1,000  acres,  capable 
of    holding    21,000,000  tons   of  water.     In   times  of  drought  25  tons   a  second 


282 


FRANCE. 


can  be  discharged  from  it  consecutively  for  ten  days,  a  quantity  amply  sufficient 
to  float  timber  down  the  Yonne,  and  to  feed  the  canals  of  Nivernais  and  Burgundy, 
the  volume  of  the  Lower  Yonne  being  regulated  by  means  of  locks. 

At  Sens  the  Yonne  is  joined  by  the  small  river  Vanne,  flowing  through  a 
delightful  valley,  which  would  hardly  be  known  amongst  the  outside  world  had 
not  the  city  of  Paris  purchased  some  of  the  sources  of  the  river,  and  conveyed 
their  deliciously  pure  water,  by  means  of  a  magnificent  aqueduct,  to  Paris. 

The  Seine,  the  Aube,  and  its  tributaries  rise  on  the  limestone  plateau  to  the 
east  of  Morvan.     The  source  of  the  Seine,  so  called,  shifts  its  position  according  to 


Fig.  205. — The  Lake  Reservoir  of  Sextons. 
Scale  1  :  20.000. 


Ii-s      .Vf/i.>j(iV 


0°|I.O'U' 


,  1  MUe. 


whether  the  supply  of  water  is  more  or  less  ample,  and  it  happens  frequently  that 
the  tutelary  statue  erected  by  the  city  of  Paris  is  not  reflected  in  its  crystal  waters. 
The  stream  only  becomes  considerable  about  15  miles  farther  north,  where  it 
is  reinforced  by  two  beautiful  springs  rising  on  the  plateau  to  the  west.  At 
Chatillon,  30  miles  below  the  "  source,"  another  douix,  or  spring,  unites  with  the 
river,  which  lower  down  is  joined  by  the  Ource  and  the  Laignes. 

The  whitish  Aube,  rising  in  the  chalks  of  Champagne  ;  the  Voulzie,  running 
through  a  delightful  valley  ;  the  Loing,  the  sparkling  Essonne,  and  other  tributaries 
flowing  on    regularly   throughout   the  j'ear,  difier  essentially  from   the   torrents 


TUE  RIVER  SEINE. 


288 


which  join  the  Upiier  Yonne.  No  less  than  7.5  per  cent,  of  the  surface  of  the 
basin  of  the  Seine  consists  of  permeable  rocks,  and  this,  together  with  the  character 
of  the  tributaries  mentioned  above,  accounts  for  the  Seine  bemg  that  river  of 
France  whose  volume  undergoes  the  fewest  changes  during  the  year.  Of  course 
there  are  exceptions;   and   quite    recently,  in   the    spring    of  1876,  the   Seine 


Fig.  206. — The  Soubcb  op  the  Selse. 
Scale  1  ;  80,000. 


24E.«rP«rl. 


J  S'.  Ctrnwiii 

-^        In  Frnillr 


ra''.-i'. 


•  '•  ■'":'■   ,1-  ft        --'■ 


' 

'(  :' 

J 

1 

V 

'if:. 

Blis!h  V-/C-  Sec 

l!^>\ 

^V 

( 

)      ' 

•  '  - 

i^^'; 

V      ^"E-oif-r 


MUc. 


overflowed  its  banks  and  caused  much  destruction.  On  the  17th  of  March  no  less 
than  •08,'273  cubic  feet  of  water  passed  every  second  beneath  the  bridges  of  Paris, 
being  fifty  times  more  than  when  the  river  is  at  its  lowest.  But  the  difference, 
after  all,  is  little  compared  with  what  may  be  witnessed  in  connection  willi  tlie 
Loire  and  the  rivers  of  the  south.     M.  Belgrand  has  shown,  however,  that  during 


284 


FRANCE. 


a  geological  epoch  coinciding  with  the  stone  age,  the  Seine,  too,  had  its  floods,  its 
volume  sometimes  exceeding  1,000,000  cubic  feet  a  second. 

The  Marne,  which  joins  the  principal  river  at  the  very  gates  of  Paris,  is  of 
greater  length  than  the  Seine,  but  its  volume  is  less,  and  nowhere  within  its 
basin  does  the  annual  rainfall  exceed  24  inches.  Between  Epernay  and  Meaux 
the  annual  precipitation  only  amounts  to  16  inches,  and  most  of  the  rain  is 
sucked  up  by  the  soil.  This  small  amount  of  rain,  however,  is  not  attended  by 
sterility,  for  that  portion  of  the  Champagne  known  as  "  lousy,"  on  account  of  its 


Fig.  207. — The  Basin  op  Vitey-le-Fkanjois. 
Scale  1 :  320,000. 


z^lSo'E.  of  Pains 


!,»  So-  E    of  Or 


.  5  Miles. 


barren  rocks,  its  short  herbage,  poor  fields,  and  poverty,  lies  to  tlie  east  of  this 
"  rainless  "  region.  In  spite  of  the  greater  precipitation,  it  contains  tracts  fitly  to 
be  described  as  "  steppes."  Upon  one  of  these  the  camp  of  Chalons  has  been 
established.  The  zone  of  chalk  is  widest  in  that  part  of  France,  and  the  cultivators 
of  the  soil  have  to  sustain  a  severe  struggle.  Only  where  marl  occurs  naturally 
or  is  applied  to  the  chalky  soil  can  fine  crops  be  raised,  and  such  localities  form 
oases  in  the  desert.  The  Marne,  now  discharging  2,G50  cubic  feet  a  second,  was  a 
far  more  considerable  river  in  prehistoric  times.     All  the  rivers  rising  in  the 


THE  RIYEE  SEINE. 


285 


Jurassic  heights  and  converging  upon  Paris  have  denudetl  a  considerublo  portion  of 
the  area  which  thoy  drain.  In  this  manner  a  wide  phiin  of  erosion,  enveloped  by 
the  cretaceous  rocks  of  Champagne,  has  been  formed.  "Within  it  lie  the  towns  of 
Auxcrre,  Bar-sur-Seine,  Bar-sur-Aube,  Vitry,  Bar-lc-Duc,  and  Sto.  Menehould. 
M.  Elie  de  Beaumont  has  likened  this  plain  to  the  ditch  of  an  exterior  lino  of  the 
fortifications  of  Paris,  the  hills  of  Brie  forming  the  rampart.  In  tho  formation  of 
this  plain  the  Marne  has  had  the  greatest  share.  Tho  basin  of  Vitry-lo- Francois, 
within  which  the  two  head  branches  of  tho  river  join,  affords  one  of  tho  finest 
examples  of  the  action  of  water  as  a  geological  agent.  Over  an  area  of  200  square 
miles  the  cretaceous  rocks  nave  been  carried  away,  and  alluvial  soil  conveyed  down 
from  the  hills  has  been  deposited  instead.  On  approaching  Paris,  the  Marnc 
meanders  in  numerous  curves,  taking  its  course  through  a  valley  the  delights  of 
which  have  been  the  themes  of  poets  and  painters,  and  which  has  been  encroached 
upon  by  the  villas  and  summer  houses  of  the  citizens  of  Paris.  The  Ourcq,  one 
of  the  affluents  of  the  Marne,  has  partly  been  diverted  to  feed  a  canal  which 
supplies  Paris  with  water,  and  is  at  tho  same  time  navigable. 

The  last  curve  of  the  Marnc  is  of  recent  origin.    Formerly  the  Marne  bifurcated 


Fig.  208. — Section  of  the  Paris  Basin. 
HorizoDtal  Scale  1 :  6,000,000.    Vertical  Scale  1 :  100,000. 


Vpsges 


_^ormiii(iy  Hu,qx>: 


Horizontal  Sr^^   l:it>'ito^£>fi. 


below  Meaux,  the  northern  arm  flowing  through  the  depression  in  which  runs 
the  canal  of  Ourcq,  whilst  the  southern  joined  the  vast  lake  which  then  covered 
the  basin  of  Paris,  and  above  which  rose  the  islands  of  Slontmartre,  Passy,  Stains, 
and  Ormesson.  Nor  had  the  three  curves  which  the  Seine  describes  below  Paris 
any  existence,  their  future  directions  being  merely  indicated  by  the  promontories 
of  Vanves,  Mont  Valerien,  and  St.  Gei-main. 

The  Oise,  which  joins  the  Seine  above  Poissy,  is  commercially  an  important 
river,  for  it  rises  near  the  coal-fields  of  Belgium,  and  traverses  a  region  distin- 
guished for  its  industry.  Locks  render  it  navigable  throughout,  and  canals  join 
it  to  the  Marne,  the  Mouse,  the  Scheldt,  and  the  Somme,  one  of  them,  that  of 
St.  Quentin,  passing  through  several  tunnels.  The  valleys  of  the  Seine  and  tho 
Oise  meet  at  right  angles,  embracing  between  them  the  huge  quadrant  of  a  circle,  tho 
centre  of  which  is  at  Paris,  whilst  the  periphery  is  formed  by  the  Jurassic  zone 
extending  from  Burgundy  to  tho  Ardennes.  Tho  geological  formation  of  tho 
basin  of  Paris  may  here  be  studied  most  advantageously,  the  degrading  action  of 
the  water  having  been  least.  Geologists  have  likened  the  successive  beds  of 
this  basin  to  a  number  of  basins  placed  one  within  the  other.     Where  impervious 

VOL.    11.  u 


286 


FEANCE. 


layers  of  clay  prevent  the  passage  of  water,  the  latter  collects  underground,  and 
thus  the  rain  which  falls  on  the  chalky  plateaux  of  Champagne  finds  its  way  to 
the  surface  through  wells  bored  at  Paris.  The  artesian  springs  at  Grenelle  rise 
from  a  depth  of  1,640  feet.  Beneath  the  Seine  which  flows  on  the  surface  there 
are  other  Seines  far  underground.  Beneath  the  Lake  of  Eughien,  which  occupies 
a  cup-shaped  cavity  in  the  marl,  there  are  other  lakes,  which  may  be  tapped, 
when  their  water  rushes  up  to  the  surface. 

About  one-half  of  the  rain  falling  within  the  basin  of  the  Seine  finds  its  way 
into  the  river,  the  other  half  feeding  subterranean  reservoirs.  No  large  tributaries 
join  below  the  Oise,  but  the  Seine  nevertheless  increases  in  volume,  for  numerous 
springs  rise  in  its  bed.  Below  the  confluence  with  the  Eure  the  influence  of  the 
tide  makes  itself  felt,  and  the  river  is  of  imposing  width.    The  ancient  gulf  through 


Fi".  209. — The  Estuary  op  the  Seine. 


2-15- 


rw.ofrjrii 


4  Miles. 
AUuvud  Lanit 
TecovereA,  froni 
t}ic  Sea,. 


CdelaHeVv, 
'4       L'Ecln/l 


--l-fH',. 


LE  ti^VRE  X^ 


TRocvai 


O'l&'E-of  Grgcnw 


which  it  flows  is  for  the  most  part  bounded  by  sloping  hills,  but  a  few  old 
chalk  cliffs,  formerly  bathed  by  the  sea,  may  still  be  seen.  Below  Rouen  the  Seine 
forms  curves  similar  to  those  near  Paris.  Beyond  Quillebceiif  it  is  confined  within 
embankments.  The  phenomenon  of  the  bore  {mascard)  may  be  witnessed  above 
that  town  as  far  as  Caudebec.  A  tidal  wave,  10  feet  in  height,  then  rushes  up 
the  river  at  the  rate  of  more  than  half  a  mile  a  minute,  and  the  conflict  between 
it  and  the  river  is  most  imposing. 

The  bay  of  the  Seine  has  been  much  changed  in  consequence  of  engineering 
works.  The  mouth  of  the  river  is  now  10  miles  below  Quilleboeuf,  opposite  the 
Cap  du  Hode.  The  embankments  are  flooded  at  high  water,  and  behind  them 
the  sea  deposits  the  mud  held  in  suspension.  When  these  deposits  have  attained 
the  height  of  the  embankment  the  latter  is  increased  in  altitude,  and  the  land  thus 
protected  may  be  cultivated.      The  estuary  of  the   Rille,  which  joins  that  of  the 


UPPER  NORMANDY. 


287 


Seine  on  the  south,  is  eflfeetiiuUy  treated  in  the  siinio  niiinner.  Like  niiiny  other 
rivers  traversing  ciileareous  formations,  the  Rillc,  or  Risle,  flows  partly  through 
underground  channels. 


TJPPEII    NoUMAMJV. 

The  plateaux  of  Upper  Normandy,  which  extend  from  the  northern  bank  of  the 
Seine  to  the  English  Channel,  where  they  terminate  in  Capes  do  la  Tlevc  an<l 


Fig.  210.— Tub  District  op  Bbay. 


w  ol  Tjiis 


lUlUilts. 


Antifer,  are  drained  but  in  part  into  the  Parisian  river.  They  consist  of  cretaceous 
rocks  covered  by  strata  of  more  recent  origin.  The  limestone  crops  out  wherever 
the  surface  deposits  have  been  removed  by  the  action  of  the  rivers,  and  these  lime- 
stone districts  difftT  from  others  adjoining  them  in  their  vegetation,  agriculture, 
and  inhabitants.  In  the  district  of  IJray,  the  most  elevated  of  these  plateaux,  tho 
surface  strata  have  been  almost  completely  removed,  and  the  limestone  liills, 
belonging  to  tho  upper  Jurassic  formation,  are  covered  to  their  very  summits  with 

u  2 


283 


EEANCE. 


savoury  herbs  and  fruit  trees.  The  fattening  of  cattle  is  carried  on  there  ;  and  so 
luxuriant  is  the  pasturage  that,  in  spite  of  the  severity  of  climate,  cattle  pasture  in 
the  open  air  throughout  the  winter,  merelj^  sheltered  bj'  sheds  against  the  incle- 
mencies of  the  weather.  On  the  chalky  plateaux  of  Caux  and  Voxin  the  rain- 
water disappears  as  in  a  sieve,  but  bounteous  springs  gush  forth  in  the  surrounding 
valleys,  which  are  of  rare  fecundity,  and  frequently  suflFer  from  a  superabundance 
of  water,  whilst  the  dwellers  on  the  plateaux  are  dependent  upon  cisterns  or 
pools.  The  air  fortunately  is  charged  with  moisture,  and  these  springless  regions 
support  a  fine  vegetation.  Rows  of  beeches  planted  on  embankments  screen  the 
apple  orchards  against  the  violent  breezes  blowing  from  the  sea.  Formerly  the 
whole  country  was  one  dense  forest  of  oaks  and  beech- trees. 


Fig.  211. — Dale.s  (Vali-euses)  o.\  the  Coast. 
Poiile  1 :  ino.nixi. 


_  Bordeaux  S'CUjt    i^l^^  oi>y  ^MlpTevSk 


i  Aubervihe 


2  Miles. 


The  maritime  slope  of  this  plateau  is  intersected  by  numerous  vaUeys  or  river- 
less  dales.  The  parallelism  of  the  rivers  is  remarkable :  the  B^thime,  the  Yeres, 
the  Breslo,  and  the  Somme  all  flow  in  the  same  direction,  dividing  the  country 
into  regular  parallelograms.  The  roads  either  run  along  the  valleys  or  at 
right  angles  across  the  intervening  plateaux.  Most  of  the  towns  have  been  built 
lengthways  along  the  roads,  running  towards  the  north-west.  They  have  hardly 
any  side  streets ;  and  one  village,  that  of  Aliermont,  near  Dieppe,  forms  a  single 
street  nearly  10  miles  in  length. 

The  right  slope  of  most  of  the  valleys  of  Upper  Normandy  is  steeper  than  that 
on  the  left.  M.  de  Lamblardie  ascribes  this  curious  feature  to  the  greater  rapidily 
with  which  evaporation  takes  place  on  the  slopes  exposed  to  the  sun.     The  slopes 


THE  COAST. 


289 


facing  northward  arc  more  humid,  and  the  disintegration  of  (he  rocks  would 
consequently  go  on  at  a  more  rapid  rate.  The  rotation  of  the  earth,  however,  is 
sufficient  to  account  for  this  phenomenon. 

The  Coast. 

The  undisturbed  action  of  geological  agencies  in  this  part  of  Franco  is  exhibited 
by  the  formation  of  the  coast,  no  less  than  by  that  of  the  plateau.  The  shore 
between   Ilavre  and  Dieppe   forms  a  convex  curve,  and  is  continued    thence  to 

Fi?.  212.— Cape  de  la  IlfevB. 


I3oulognc  and  Cape  Gris-Xcz  by  a  concave  one.  The  contour  of  this  coast-line  is 
most  graceful,  and  yet  few  localities  exist  where  the  sea  has  wrought  greater 
havoc.  Between  Havre  and  Auet,  a  village  to  the  south  of  the  Somme,  bold  chalk 
cliffs  line  the  coast,  sometimes  rising  to  a  height  of  300  feet,  and  only  interrupted 
at  intervals  by  breaks  through  which  the  inland  waters  make  tlicir  way  to  the 
sea.  Sometimes,  when  the  storm  rages,  masses  of  rock  wcigliiiig  thousands  of  tons 
are  detached,  and  gradually  worn  down  into  sand. 

The  rain-water  which  filters  through  the  fissures  of  the  rocks  is  even  a  grcatet 


290  FEANCE. 

ao-eut  of  destruction  than  the  sea.  The  lower  portion  of  the  cliffs  generally 
consists  of  ferruginous  sand,  through  which  percolates  the  water  of  many  springs. 
Cavities  are  thus  formed,  the  superimposed  mass  of  rock  settles  down,  and  at  the 
next  onslaught  of  the  waves  tumbles  down  upon  the  beach.  The  sea  here  con- 
tinually encroaches  upon  the  land.  In  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  the 
church  of  Ste.  Adresse  stood  4,600  feet  from  the  present  coast,  at  a  spot  now 
occupied  by  the  bank  of  £clat.  The  sea  has  consequently  advanced  at  a  rate  of 
about  8  feet  annually.  This  rapid  progress  is  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  coast 
current,  which  carries  away  the  debris  of  the  cliffs.  For  a  time  the  fragments  of 
rock  which  tumble  dovm.  from  the  top  of  the  cliffs  form  a  protective  barrier  ;  but 
by  degrees  the  chalk  dissolves,  and  is  carried  to  a  distance,  whilst  the  enclosed 
pebbles,  unable  to  contend  against  the  waves,  are  distributed  along  the  beach,  and 
even  aid  in  the  work  of  destruction.  The  ports,  moreover,  are  being  silted  up 
by  pebbles  and  mud  carried  down  by  the  rivers,  and  require  the  protection  of 
piers. 

At  the  Cape  of  Antifer  the  ocean  current  bifurcates,  the  principal  branch  run- 
ning east  along  the  coast  of  the  countrj'  of  Caux  (calx,  lime),  whilst  a  lateral  arm 
turns  south,  in  the  direction  of  Havre.  The  port  of  that  town  is  thus  threatened 
from  various  directions.  The  ocean  current  transports  thither  its  pebbles ;  the  debris 
carried  down  by  the  Seine  gradually  silts  up  the  estuary  of  the  river ;  and  the 
rivers  of  Calvados  convey  thither  the  sands  and  pebbles  of  Lower  Normandy.  The 
efforts  of  the  engineers  to  avert  the  fate  threatening  the  port,  and  which  has 
already  overtaken  Honfleur,  on  the  left  bank,  are  incessant. 

Fortxmately  the  conflicting  ocean  currents  which  meet  at  Havre  possess 
attendant  advantages,  for  they  produce  three  tidal  waves,  arriving  in  succession, 
and  the  period  of  high  water,  instead  of  being  limited  to  eleven  minutes,  extends 
over  three  hours.     Vessels  are  thus  afforded  ample  time  to  enter  the  docks. 


Topography. 

YoNNE. — This  department  is  named  after  the  principal  tributary  of  the  Upper 
Seine.  It  includes  portions  of  the  ancient  provinces  of  Burgundy,  Orleanais, 
and  Champagne,  and  the  great  high-road  from  Paris  to  Lyons  runs  through  it. 
Agriculture  supports  most  of  the  inhabitants,  and  wine,  cider,  and  beer  are 
amongst  its  products. 

Auxerre  (15,656  inhabitants),  the  capital,  occupies  the  slope  of  a  hill  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river  Yonne.  It  boasts  of  a  magnificent  cathedral,  the  finest  in 
all  Burgundy,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  wine,  the  best  being  grown 
near  Chahlis  (2,185  inhabitants),  to  the  west.  Fontenaij,  noted  for  a  great  battle 
fought  in  841,  lies  to  the  south-west. 

Avallon  (5,337  inhabitants),  built  on  a  rock  overlooking  the  valley  of  the 
Cousin,  has  a  few  mediajval  buildings,  and  carries  on  some  trade  ;  but  in  the  ej^es 
of  the  antiquarian  it  is  eclipsed  by  the  ancient  capital  of  the  district,  Vezelay,  on 
the  Cure,  now  in  ruins,  but  in  the  twelfth  century  a  famous  place  of  commerce  and 


HAUTE-MARNK.  291 

piljjrimage.     It  was  hero  that  Kichard  Ca-ur  do  Lion  met  the  King  of  France  in 
1190,  when  preparing  to  start  upon  the  third  crusade. 

St.  Florentin  (2,256  inhabitants),  Toniierre  (4,991  inhabitants),  and  Ancy-le- 
Franc  are  the  principal  phices  on  the  Armanf  on.  Tonnerre,  lying  on  the  railway 
from  Paris  to  Lyons,  carries  on  some  trade  in  wine. 

L(i  Roche,  at  the  confluence  of  the  .i\j'man(;on  with  the  Yonnc,  is  a  busy  railway 
centre.  Following  the  river,  we  pass  Joignij  (5,975  inhabitants)  and  its  vineyards, 
and  Vilkneiife-sur-Yonne  (3,606  inhabitants),  and  reach  Sens  (12,251  inhabitants), 
the  old  capital  of  the  Senones.  Its  cathedral  is  a  most  remarkable  edifice,  with 
windows  painted  by  Jean  Cousin.  A  chapter-house  and  the  episcojjal  palace, 
equally  remarkable,  adjoin  it. 

AvBE  is  cut  in  two  by  the  river  Seine,  which  divides  it  from  south-east  to 
north-west,  and  is  named  after  a  tributary  of  that  river.  The  surface  is  for  the 
most  part  hilly,  and  moderately  wooded,  and  in  the  north  the  do2)artment  merges 
in  the  monotonous  plain  of  Champagne.     The  soil  is  generally  sterile. 

Troycs  (41,275  inhabitants),  the  ancient  capital  of  Champagne,  the  ancient 
Augustobona,  on  the  river  Seine,  is  altogether  without  natural  defences,  and 
thus  fell  an  easy  prey  to  every  foreign  invader.  The  town,  however,  took 
advantage  of  its  central  position,  and  in  times  of  peace  its  commerce  and  industry 
flourished.  The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  nearly  ruined  it.  It  is  now  a 
great  centre  of  the  hosiery  industry,  and  the  nurseries  in  the  neighbourhood  enjoy 
a  wide  reputation.  Amongst  its  edifices  the  first  place  must  bo  accorded  to  a 
magnificent  cathedral,  one  of  the  finest  in  France.  An  ancient  abbej'  now  serves  as 
a  library  and  museum.  The  old  ramparts  have  been  converted  into  delightful 
walks.  Higher  up  on  the  Seine  is  Bar-siir-Sciiie  (2,512  inhabitants),  the  insigni- 
ficant capital  of  an  anondissement.  Near  it,  in  the  valley  of  the  Laigne,  are  the 
three  Riceijs  (2,755  inhabitants).  Descending  the  Seine,  we  reach  Romilly  (4,925 
inhabitants)  and  Nogeui-mr-Seine  (3,335  inhabitants).  Near  the  latter  stood  the 
abbey  of  I*araclet,  the  retreat  of  Abelard. 

The  river  Aube,  on  entering  the  department,  flows  beneath  the  stately  abbey 
of  Clairvaux,  now  converted  into  a  con^•ict  prison.  At  Bar-sur-Aube  (4,495 
inhabitants)  the  Aube  leaves  the  hilly  district  and  enters  the  chalky  plain  of 
Champagne,  flowing  past  Brknne  (1,860  inhabitants),  where  Napoleon  first 
studied  military  science,  and  Arck-sur-Aube  (2,817  inhabitants),  the  birtliplace  of 
Danton. 

nAVTK-M.\RNE  is  divided  by  the  plateau  of  Langres  into  two  distinct  sections, 
of  which  the  southern  is  drained  into  the  Saone,  whilst  the  northern,  embracing 
the  districts  of  Bassigny,  Tallage,  and  Perthois,  is  traversed  by  the  Upper  Marne, 
the  Upper  Meuse,  and  the  Upper  Aube,  these  three  rivers  rising  within  the 
department.     More  than  a  fourth  of  the  surface  is  wooded.      Iron  ore  abounds. 

Bourbotmc-ks-Bains  (3,705  inhabitants),  famous  on  account  of  its  .springs,  is 
the  only  town  in  the  southern  section  of  the  department. 

Langres  (9,488  inhabitants)  occupies  a  commanding  position  on  the  Upper 
Mame,  and  is  strongly  fortified.     It  is  the  old  capital  of  the  Lingones,  has  a  grand 


292 


PEANCB. 


old  gate  constructed  by  the  Bomans,  and  a  fine  Gothic  cathedral.  Diderot  was  a 
native  of  Langres.  The  knives  named  after  the  city  are  manufactured  in  the 
neighbouring  town  of  Ifogenf-le-Hoi  (3,430  inhabitants).  Chaumont-en-Bassigny 
(8,791  inhabitants),  on  a  high  limestone  terrace  at  the  junction  of  the  Suize  with 
the  Marne,  is  a  quiet  country  town.  A  magnificent  aqueduct  of  fifty  arches  sup- 
plies the  town  with  water.  Below  Chaumont  we  enter  the  "  black  country,"  in 
the  centre  of  which  is  JoinviUe-en-YaUagc  (3,723  inhabitants).     Lower  still  is  the 


Fig.  213. — The  Entitions  op  Lanobes. 
Scale  1 :  120,000. 


':Wq,.^^j§^^»^  \^    ^^>^^=:^axiSj$^       ^r  t> 


^  ;0..^i 


.  2  Miles. 


valley  of  Osne,  famous  for  its  iron  foundries.  St.  Dizier  (9,453  inhabitants)  is 
one  of  the  great  iron  marts  of  France. 

Vassij  (2,799  inhabitants),  in  the  valley  of  the  Blaise,  was  an  important  town 
formerly,  but  has  never  recovered  from  the  massacre  of  its  Protestant  inhabitants 
in  1562.  Iron  mills  and  foundries  are  in  the  vicinity,  and  higher  up  in  the  same 
valley  lies  the  castle  of  Cirey,  where  Voltaire  resided  for  several  years. 

Makne,  named  after  its  principal  river,  consists  of  several  well-marked  geo- 
graphical regions.  The  Bocage,  Perthois,  and  Argonne,  in  the  south-east  and 
east,  belong  to  the  lower  cretaceous  formation,  and  are  partly  wooded  ;  Champagne 
proper,  in  the  centre,  consists  of  chalk  and  marls ;  whilst  the  district  of  Remois 
and  the  hills  of  Epemay  and  Sezanne  are  of  tertiary  origin.  The  population  around 
the  industrial  city  of  Reims  is  dense,  but  in  the  monotonous  plains  it  is  sparse. 


MAENE. 


293 


Vitnj-k-F)-an^o!s  (7,590  inhabitanls),  on  the  Murne,  is  the  terminus  of  the 
canal  which  joins  that  river  to  the  Rhine.  The  town  has  been  destroyed 
repeatedly,  and   was    last   rebuilt    by   Francois   I.      Chalons-sur-Marne   (20,215 


Fig.  2M. — CUALONS  AXD   ITS   CaMP. 
8cale  1  ;  160,000. 


f>"lE.otG 


2  Miles. 


inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  department,  has  several  fine  churches,  but  the 
most  remarkable  edifice  of  the  town  in  the  old  sanctuary  of  Notre-Dame  dc 
I'Epine,  about  6  miles  to  the  north-east  of  it.     The  indu.strial  art  school  is  ono 


294 


FEANCE. 


of  the  most  flourishing  in  France,  and  a  vast  trade  is  done  in  champagne.  The 
old  fortifications  have  been  converted  into  public  walks.  Near  a  site  now  known 
as  Attila's  Camp  was  fought  the  battle  of  the  Catalauuian  Fields,  which  broke  the 
power  of  the  Huns.      The  "  camp  of  Chalons  "  is  no  longer  occupied. 

Epermy  (15,414  inhabitants),  one  of  the  two  great  centres  of  the  commerce  in 
champagne,  lies  on  the  Marne,  embosomed  in  vineyards.  The  wine  from  which 
veritable  champagne  is  manufactured  is  grown  on  the  hills  bounding  the  river, 
and  in  a  district  extending  from  Sillery,  near  Reims,  to  Avizc  (2,113  inhabitants) 
and  Vertus  (2,371  inhabitants),  in  the  south.  Ay  (4,007  inhabitants),  close  to 
!l6pernay,  is  most  famous  for  its  cms.     In  1873    more  than  22,000,000  bottles 

Fig.  215. — The  Bifukcation  of  the  Grand  Mokin  at  Sezanne. 
Scale  1  :  320,000. 


)  Miles. 


of  champagne  were  manufactured  in  the  department,  and  the  profit  derived  from 
its  sale  has  furnished  the  means  for  erecting  the  luxurious  chateaux  dotted 
over  the  country.  Several  of  the  towns  in  the  hills  to  the  south  of  ^pernay  have 
become  known  through  the  military  events  of  1814 ;  as,  for  instance.  La  Fere- 
C//a7>ijK' noise,  Sezanne  (4,690  inhabitants),  and  Montmirall  (2,077  inhabitants). 
Sezanne,  moreover,  is  interesting  on  account  of  the  bifurcation  of  the  river  Grand 
Morin,  which  rises  to  the  north  of  the  town,  a  phenomenon  similar  to  that  in 
connection  with  the  Cassiquiare  in  South  America. 

Reims  (80,098  inhabitants),  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Remi,  does  not  enjoy  the 
advantage  of  lying  on  a  navigable  river,  but  a  canal  connects  it  with  the  Marne 


MABNE. 


295 


aud  the  Aisne,  and  five  railways  converge  upon  it.    It  is  one  of  the  great  historical 
cities  of  France.     Clovis  was  baptized  there,  and  the  Kings  of  France,  ever  since 

Fig.  216. — ItsiMS  AND  £rERNAY. 
Scale  1 :  iS»,O00. 


I-    kO>:  ..I' l-.ir 


•    .■.■■■■  y'^i.'^.-^^^^'^i^ 


''i'"'^'.<wi 


i^Jjic: 


Philip  Augustus,  were  anointed  there  by  the  successors  of  St.  Remy,  its  first 
bishop.     The  cathedral  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  Gothic  edifices  in  the  world. 


296 


FEANCE. 


Begun  in  1212,  it  was  only  completed,  as  we  now  see  it,  two  centuries  afterwards. 
Amongst  other  remarkable  buildings  are  tbe  cburcb  of  St.  Remy,  even  older  than 


Fig.  217. — The  Cathedral  of  Reims. 


tbe  cathedral ;  tbe  arcbiepiscopal  palace  ;  tbe  town-ball,  with  a  library  and  museum  ; 
and  a  Roman  arcb  of  triumph  known  as  the  "  Gate  of  Mars."  Modern  Reims  has 
the  old  Roman  eitj'  of  Durocortorum  for  its  nucleus,  and  extensive  suburbs  stretch 


8EINE-ET-MAENK. 


297 


out  in  all  directions.  It  is  a  prosperous  seat  of  industry.  Champagne  is  manu- 
factured on  a  scale  even  vaster  than  at  Epcrnay  ;  the  woollen  industry  is  of  great 
importance  and  there  arc  dye  works,  glass  works,  and  beet-root  sugar  manu- 
factories. The  pastrycooks  of  Reims  maintain  their  reputation  to  the  present 
day.     Colbert  was  a  native  of  the  citj\ 

Sh'.  iFtnehoHld  (3,.'37G  inhabitants),  on  the  Aisno,  defends  the  most  important 
defile  leading  through  the  wooded  heights  of  Argouue,  and  like  Va/iiii/,  farther 
west,  is  frequently  referred  to  in  military  history 

Seine-et-M.\rxe  lies  completely  within  the  basins  of  the  two  rivers  after  which 


l'"ig.  21S. — FoNTAINEllLEAU. 
Scale  1  :  200,000. 


>^, 


7.v\\v:^ 


lO-aOE  nfV.ri. 


^ 


T'amorfjiii 


*;OJVTAI,/»f,i:l  ' 


citfM- 


|2°4O'E.ol0r 


.  2  Miles 


it  is  named.  Brie,  between  the  Seine  and  the  Marne,  consists  of  an  eocene  plateau, 
almost  arid  in  its  character,  whilst  the  district  of  Gatinais,  to  the  south  of  the 
Seine,  consisting  of  miocene  sandstones,  being  better  supplied  with  water,  is 
more  fertile.  A  few  largo  forests  remain,  but  the  greater  portion  of  the 
department  is  divided  amongst  a  multitude  of  small  landowners,  busily  employed 
in  supplying  the  neighbouring  city  of  Paris  with  corn,  vegetables,  and  cheese. 
There  are  many  quarries  and  clay  pits,  and  the  manufacture  of  paper  is  of  con- 
siderable importance. 

Melun  (11,215  inhabitants),  the  capital,  ia  the  first  large  town  on  the  Seine 


298 


FRANCE. 


Fig.   219.— Paris  and    the    Gheat    Highways 
France. 


above  Paris,  of  which  it  is  almost  a  rural  suburb.  The  most  remarkable  building 
of  the  town  is  a  huge  prison.  Near  it  is  the  chateau  of  Vaux-Praslin,  with  a 
collection  of  paintings,  and  a  park  laid  out  by  Le  Notre. 

Fontainehleau  (11,545  inhabitants),  at  a  distance  of  a  couple  of  miles  from  the 
Seine,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  forest,  is  one  of  the  favourite  pleasure  resorts  of 
the  Parisians.  The  palace  is  associated  in  our  memory  with  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  the  assassination  of  Monaldeschi,  the  captivity  of  Pius  VII.,  and 
the  abdication  of  Napoleon.  Sandstone  is  quarried  ;  sand  for  the  manufacture  of 
glass  is  dug ;  and  the  neighbouring  village  of  Thomery  is  noted  for  its  delicious 
white  grapes.  Morct,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Loing,  carries  on  a  brisk  trade,  but  is 
inferior  in  that  respect  to  Montereau-fauU-Yonnc  (6,847  inhabitants),  higher  up 

the  Seine,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Youne, 
which  has  also  a  huge  china  manu- 
factory, employing  more  than  six 
hundred  workmen. 

Provins    (7,176    inhabitants),    the 
old  capital  of  Brie,  lies  in  the  delight- 
ful valley  of  the  Voulzie,  which  joins 
the  Seine  from  the  north,  and  is  com- 
manded by  a  citadel  dating  back  to 
the  thirteenth  century.    Near  Ncinoiivs 
(3,857    inhabitants),    on    the   Yonne, 
is  Bi(jnon,  the  birthplace  of  Mirabeau. 
Brie-en-Comte  (2,685  inhabitants), 
on    the    Yerres,    a   tributary    of    the 
Seine,   is   altogether  dependent   upon 
Paris,    which    its   inhabitants    supply 
with  building  stones,  lime,  vegetables, 
roses,  and  cheese. 
Meaux    (11,739    inhabitants)    is  the   most   important    town    on    the    llarne, 
its    houses     clustering    around    an    unfinished    Gothic    cathedral.      The    treaty 
putting    an    end    to    the    war    against    the    Albigenses    was    concluded     here. 
Meaux,    like   most    other    towns   of  the    department,    is    engaged   in   supplying 
•  Paris  with  provisions.     Lagny  (4,247   inhabitants)   and   Chelles  (2,351   inhabit- 
ants),   both    on    the   Marne   below   Meaux,   are    dependent    upon    Paris.      The 
chateau  of  Ferrieres,  to  the  south  of  the  former,  is  one  of  the  most  sumptuous 
in  France. 

La  Ferte-soiis-Joiiarre  (3,657  inhabitants),  above  Meaux,  is  the  centre  of  the 
most  fertile  district  of  the  department.  The  millstones  procured  from  its  quarries 
are  exported  as  far  as  America.  Jouarre  (1,747  inhabitants),  near  it,  has  the 
ruins  of  a  famous  convent. 

Coulommiers  (4,239  inhabitant^^)  and  La  Fertd- Gaucher  (1,849  inhabitants)  are 
the  only  places  of  note  in  the  valley  of  the  Grand  Morin.  The  former  exports 
cheese,  and  near  the  latter  are  several  paper-mills. 


LISRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITV  of  ILLINOIS, 


I  III 


I   I 

I 


I Ill 


I'll  lill 


rt(lll 


iiiiiaiiifciBiiiiaiiiiiBiiiiiiMii;;; 


l_  1  .=-_-.^ 

,:■'-.     1         ,    ,    ,  ^_j'^-- 

'       ^.- . 

300 


FRANCE. 


proclaim  it  to  be  so.  No  other  city  of  the  world  offers  equal  attractions  to 
persons  of  the  most  varied  tastes.  Paris  consists  of  a  hundred  distinct  cities 
welded  into  one,  and  yet,  as  a  whole,  it  is  full  of  individuality.  London,  in  com- 
parison with  it,  is  wanting  altogether  in  cohesion.  In  London  the  various  classes 
of  society  exist  side  by  side ;  in  Paris,  by  imperceptible  gradations,  one  class 
merges  into  the  other. 

Curiously  enough,  the  great  geographical  advantages  enjoyed  by  Paris  have 
frequently  been  overlooked.  M.  Saint-Marc  Girardin  says  that  "  the  site  occupied 
by  Paris  was  not  intended  by  nature  to  become  the  site  of  a  great  city."  But  M. 
Elie  de  Beaumont  and  Dufrenoy,  in  the  commentary  accompanying  their  map  of 


Fig.  221. — The  Comparattve  Growth  of  London  and  Pakis  in  Popilation. 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 
1 

1 

1 
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t 

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ho                     ji-oo                   iSoo                    J  600                    1/00                    1 800        r8/s 

5 

France,  point  out  that  features  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  facilitated  its  growth. 
Common  sense,  not  guided  even  by  the  lights  of  science,  is  able  to  appreciate  the 
advantages  offered  by  the  geographical  position  of  Paris. 

Old  Lutetia  was  built  upon  a  group  of  islands,  near  the  confluence  of  two 
navigable  rivers.  The  elevated  hill  of  Montmartre  served  its  inhabitants  as  a 
watch-tower,  whence  they  were  able  to  espy  the  ajjproach  of  an  enemy.  Paris 
not  only  lies  on  the  great  national  highway  which  joins  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Mediterranean,  but  likewise  on  the  route  connecting  Spain  and  Aquitaine  with 
Northern  Europe.  It  is  the  natural  centre  of  the  valley  of  the  Seine  and  of  the 
districts  bordering  upon  it.    Strategically  its  position  is  a  strong  one,  and  the  semi- 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS. 


GEOLOGICAL    IVIAP   OF   Tf 


k'* ,  ■?  • 


a  %  v»  • 


AcWi 


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110 


"Drawnly  A.Yuilleniin 


Chalk 


TERTIAKY 

.S^m<J  and  Sandstone  JIapl 

PImsUc  Clay     Coarse  Laaestime      „/•  Be^iurbjmp       cmd  Gypstnn 

p:^-^        UZTJ        !ZZ_]        I         I 


Sea 


Green  Clays 


LONDON,^  t 


FOHMATIOXS 

Sandstone  iiSAnJ        .HtJlstones 
^jj      a^y-Karl       oft-ontamebleau        and  fliiil 


Alluvium. 
^Hud.  Sand  Modern 

^Gravel  Allurium 


:VZ    k.  C  LIMITED 


PAEIS. 


301 


circle  of  hills  exloiuling  from  the  Morvan  to  the  Ardennes  has  very  aptly  been 
likened  to  the  huge  outwork  of  a  fortress.  These  advantages  marked  out  Paris 
as  the  capital  of  France,  but  also  led  to  the  much-talked-of  centralization  of  the 
latter.  Paris,  being  the  seat  of  Government,  paid  dearly  for  its  privileges  by  being 
deprived  of  its  municipal  liberties,  and  exposed  to  the  risks  of  foreign  invasions 
and  intestine  revolutions. 

Amongst  the  causes  which  have  contributed  to  the  rapid  growth  of  ancient 
Lutetia  must  be  mentioned  the  facilities  for  provisioning  a  large  town.  Beauco 
and  Brie  are  both  rich  granaries,  and  materials  for  building  exist  on  the  site  of 
the  city,  or  in  its  immediate  neighbourhood.     The  coarse  limestones  composing  the 


Fig.  222.— The  Areas  occiTreD  by  London  Axn  Paris. 
Scale  1  :  15ft,ono. 


\ 


/■■  1 


V\ 


■2  Miles. 


surrounding  hills  are  easily  quarried,  and  to  their  existence  Paris  is  indebted  for 
the  fine  architectural  show  it  makes. 

As  early  as  the  Roman  age,  the  island  city  inhabited  by  the  Gallic  tribe  of  the 
Parisians  had  its  suburb  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  river,  whilst  a  detached 
group  of  houses  crowned  the  summit  of  Ste.  Genevieve.  In  the  thirteenth  century 
Paris  had  outgrown  Rome.  In  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  its  popu- 
lation exceeded  half  a  million,  but  it  diminished  during  the  Revolution.  In  1800 
Paris  was  finally  beaten  by  London,  the  former  having  only  O-jO.OOO  inhabitants 
to  oppose  the  900,000  of  the  latter.  In  1817  Paris  had  714,000,  London  l.oOO.OOO 
inhabitants,  and  since  that  time  both  have  more  than  doubled  their  population,  the 
increase  of  London  being  most  rapid.  Paris  in  1876  numbered  1,988,806  inha- 
bitants  residing  within    the    enceinte,   but   if  we   add   the   suburbs   stretching 

vol,,  n.  X 


802 


FRANCE. 


beyond,  its  population  by  far  exceeds  2,000,000.     Paris,  consequently,  is  the  most 
populous  city  of  the  world  next  to  London.* 

Architecturally  Paris  is  one  of  the  finest  cities  of  the  world ;  and  though  the 
palace  of  the  Thermos  is  the  only  building  dating  back  to  the  age  of  the  Romans, 
the  number  of  magnificent  structures  erected  since  the  rise  of  the  Gothic  style  is 
very  large,  and  the  accumulated  art  treasiires  challenge  comparison,  in  spite  of  the 
frequent  devastations  and  "  restorations  "  to  which  the  city  has  been  subjected  in 
the  course  of  nine  centui-ies.  In  its  very  centre  rises  the  church  oi  Notre- Dame,  a 
noble  edifice  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  illustrating  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  epochs  in  the  history  of  architecture.  On  the  same  island  stands  the 
Sainte-Chapellc,  a  marvel  of  decoration,  erected  iu  the  space  of  two  yeai's  (1245 — 

Fig.  223 The  Church  of  Notue-Pamk. 


1247).  The  church  of  St.  Germain  des  Pris,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  dates 
back  to  the  eleventh  century,  and  has  been  decorated  in  a  masterly  style  by 
Hj^polite  Flandrin. 

St.  Gcrmain-r Attxerrois,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  is  a  curious  jumble 
of  the  Gothic  styles  of  all  ages.  Its  bell  gave  the  signal  for  the  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew.  St.  Severin,  St.  Merri,  and  the  tower  of  St.  Jacques  are 
interesting  monuments  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Hotel  de  Chmy,  erected  at  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century  upon  the  site  of  the  Roman  palace  of  the  Thermes, 
shelters  one  of  the  most  interesting  archaeological  museums  of  the  world. 

»  The  largest  cities  of  the  world  are  London,  3,533,484  inhabitants ;  Paris,  1,9E8,806  inhabitants : 
New  York,  with  suburbs,  1,649,370  inhabitants;  Berlin,  1,062,008  inhabitants;  Vienna,  1,001,999 
inhabitants. 


PARIS. 


808 


The  architecture  of  the  Reuaissancc  is  represented  at  Paris  by  several  master- 
pieces, amongst  which  the  Loiinr,  together  with  what  remains  of  the  adjoining 
Tuileries,  is  one  of  the  most  noteworthy.  Its  eastern  faraJe,  designed  by  Pierre 
Lescot,  and  decorated  with  caryatides  and  bas-reliefs  by  Jean  Goujon,  is  one  of  the 
marvels  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  church  of  S(.  Eusiachf  we  observe  with 
astonishment  the  great  height  of  the  vaults.  <S7.  ^litDue  da  Mont  is  enriched  by 
sculpture  and  painted  windows.  The  Totcn-liall,  destroyed  during  the  reign 
of  the  Commune,  is  being  rebuilt.  Near  it,  and  close  to  the  large  market 
halls,  is  the  Fountain  of  the  Innocents,  a  chef-d'ceuvre  of  Joan  Goujon,  the 
sculptor. 

Amongst  more  modern  buildings  there  are  many  which  challenge  admiration. 
The  fine  colonnade  added  to  the  Louvre ;  the  dome  of  the  Invalides,  Mansart's 

Pig.  224. — The  Coitit  op  the  Locvbe. 


chef-d'ceuvre ;  the  Pantheon ;  the  palace  of  Luxembourg ;  the  Greek  temple  of  the 
Madelaine,  designed  by  Napoleon  to  perpetuate  his  glory  ;  the  new  Opera  House ; 
and  the  Arc  de  Triomphe,  forming  a  fitting  terminus  to  the  noble  avenue  of  the 
Champs-Elysees,  would  each  separately  constitute  the  fame  of  a  less  wealthy 
town.  Most  of  the  public  buildings  of  Paris  are,  moreover,  associated  with  great 
historical  events.  The  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  Tuileries,  the  Palais-Royal,  and  the 
Sorbonne  are  rich  in  historical  associations. 

Scientific  and  art  collections  abound.  The  museum  attached  to  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  Europe.  Most  of  the  numerous  scientific 
societies  and  schools  have  their  museums  and  libraries.  At  the  Conservatoire  des 
Arts  et  Metiers  (Museum  of  Arts  and  Industrj')  may  be  seen  a  collection  illus- 
trating the  progress  of  the  mechanical  arts.    The  galleries  of  the  Luxembourg  and 

X  2 


S04 


FRANCE. 


the  Louvre  are  rich  beyond  measure  in  works  of  art  of  every  age.  The  National 
Library  contains  over  2,000,000  volumes — many  more  than  are  to  be  found  in 
the  British  Museum. 

At  the  head  of  the  scientific  associations  must  be  j^laced  the  Iiidifiit,  with  its 
five  academies.  The  300  elementary  schools,  supported  by  the  town,  are  attended 
by  190,000  pupils  ;  the  number  of  students  is  9,200,  of  whom  5,000  study  medicine  ; 
and  the  number  of  illiterate  persons  in  Paris  is  exceedingly  small.  The  Poly- 
technic School,  the  Mining  School,  the  Schools  of  Fine  Arts  and  of  Medicine,  enjoy 
a  world-wide  celebrity.    Several  of  the  theatres,  and  notably  the  Theatre  Fran9ai8, 

Fig.  225.— Thb  New  Opera  Hovse. 


may  fitly  be  enumerated  amongst  art  institutions.  The  number  of  scientific 
societies  is  exceedingly  large. 

Public  improvements  are  being  carried  out  on  a  vast  scale  and  at  an  immense 
expenditure.*  Industrial  establishments  belonging  to  the  State  or  private  indi- 
viduals are  numerous.  Sugar,  soap  and  candles,  glass,  copper-ware,  iron  castings 
and  steel,  and  woollen  stuffs  are  manufactured  on  a  large  scale ;  but  Paris 
excels  rather  in  its  art  workmanship  than  in  its  manufactures,  and  the  Parisian 
ouirier  is  distinguished  for  his  intelligence  and  good  taste.  Jewellery,  bronzes, 
engravings,  photographs,  surgical  instruments,  watches,  and  a  great  variety 
of  other  articles  de  Paris  are  produced. 

Those  portions  of  the  department  of  the  Seine  which  are  not  covered  with 

*  Town  revenue,  1830,  £1,800;000;  1874,  £9,066,000.  Town  debt,  1852,  £4,640,000;  1876, 
£8,000,000. 


PARIS. 


806 


houses  or  parks  are  most  carefully  cultivated.  Five  or  six,  and  in  some  instances 
as  many  as  eleven,  crops  are  freijuently  gathered  from  the  same  plot  of  land.  The 
marsh  gardens  of  Paris,  covering  an  area  of  3,500  acres  and  divided  amongst  1,800 
proprietors,  are  tilled  ■with  marvellous  care,  but  they  are  not  suflicient  to  supply  the 
demands  of  the  population.  Corn,  vegetables,  and  other  articles  ore  imported  from 
all  parts  of  France  and  from  trans-oceanic  count  ries. 

As  a  place  of  commerce  Paris  occupies  the  foremost  position  in  France.     Even 


Fig.  226. — Paris  and  its  Aqueuicts. 
Scale  1  :  100,000. 


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as  a  port  it  only  yields  to  Marseilles  and  Havre ;  but  most  of  its  trade  is  carried  on 
by  the  railways.  Sea-going  vessels  frequently'  ascend  the  Seine  to  the  quays  of 
the  city ;  and  a  project  for  deepening  the  Seine,  and  thus  converting  Paris  into  a 
seaport,  accessible  to  large  vessels,  is  under  consideration.* 

Three  aqueducts  supply  Paris  with  water,  the  oldest,  that  of  Arcueil,  having 
been  inaugurated  in   1G24.      The  canal  of  the  Dhuis  has  a  length  of  81,  and 
that  of  the  Vanne  107  miles,  and  the  covered  reservoirs  which  they  supply  hold 
•   .\nnually  about  20,000  vessels  of  2,000,000  tons  burden  arrive  at  Paris. 


306 


FRANCE. 


100,000  tons  of  water.  Artesian  wells  have  been  bored  at  Grenelle  and  Passy, 
and  the  daily  supply  of  water  amounts  to  99,000,000  gallons.  A  labyrinth  of 
sewers  conveys  the  waste  water  into  the  Seine  at  Asnieres,  the  solid  matter  con- 
tained in  the  sewage  being  spread  over  the  naturally  sterile  land  around  Genne- 
villiers,  which  has  thus  been  rendered  productive.  Much  remains  yet  to  be  done 
before  the  sanitary  condition  of  Paris  can  be  called  satisfactory.  The  mortality 
(1861 — G9)  was  25-5  per  1,000  inhabitants,  as  compared  with  21'7  in  the  rural 
parts  of  France. 

In  addition  to  several  beautiful  parks  within  its  walls,  Paris  owns  the  fine  woods 

Fig.  227. — Paris  and  its  Forts. 
Scale  1  :  500,000. 


0°|          P»ri3 

t^ 

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^^^^^^^^^ 

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Pm 

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— — ^^^^^^—  5  Miles. 


of  Vincennes  and  Boulogne  outside  of  them.  In  the  latter  are  the  racecourse  of 
Longchamp  and  a  garden  of  acclimatation.  Farther  away  from  the  town,  but  still 
easy  of  access,  are  the  parks  and  forests  of  St.  Cloud,  Versailles,  St.  Germain, 
Montmorency,  Chantilly,  Compiegne,  and  Fontainebleau.  Three  great  cemeteries 
— those  of  Montmartre,  Mont  Parnasse,  and  Pere-Lachaise — lie  within  the  walls, 
but  the  future  necropolis  of  Paris  occupies  the  sterile  plateau  of  Mery,  beyond  the 
river  Oise. 

The  enceinte  of  Paris  has  a  circumference  of  22  mQes,  and  its  approaches 
are  defended  by  two  circles  of  detached  forts,  forming  a  vast  entrenched  camp  of 
350  square  miles. 


SEINE-ET-OISE.  807 

Amongst  the  many  other  towns  and  villages  of  the  department  of  the  Seine 
three  are  several  which  are  mere  suburbs  of  the  great  city.  Of  these  the  most 
important  is  Viiuriines  (18,'27;i  inhabitants),  joined  to  Paris  by  Sf.  Mamie  (7,499 
inhabitants).  The  castle  of  Vincenncs  is  historically  interesting.  The  manufactur- 
ing town  of  St.  Denis  (29,500  inhabitants),  to  the  north  of  Paris,  is  best  known 
through  its  abbey  church,  the  old  burial-plioe  of  the  Kings  of  France.  The 
following  are  the  prineip;il  places  in  the  arrondissement  of  St.  ])enis  : — Pan/in 
(13,646  inhabitants)  and  Atilpnillicrs  (14,340  inhabitants),  two  manufacturing 
towns;  Boittlj/  (1,402  inhabitants),  famous  for  its  forest;  Lc  Bourgct,  which  recalls 
a  French  defeat ;  St.  Oticn  (11,250  inhabitants),  with  a  castle  built  by  Louis  X^'III. 
and  a  huge  railroad  depot;  Clichy-la-Gurciuie  (17,354  inhabitants), Zt>crt//o/A-P(VVY< 
(22,733  inhabitants),  Asnilres  (5,692  inhabitants),  and  Colomhes  (2,691  inhabitants), 
with  numerous  villas ;  Neuilli/  (20,781  inhabitants)  and  Coiirberoie  (11,811  inhabit- 
ants), two  suburbs  of  Paris  separated  by  the  Seine  ;  Piiteau.r  (11,387  inhabitants), 
a  town  of  dye  works  and  factories  ;  Siiresiies  (5,097  inhabitants),  at  the  foot  of 
Mont  Talerien ;  Xanterre  (3,890  inhabitants),  noted  for  its  holy  well  of  Ste. 
Genevieve,  its  cakes  and  rosieres ;  and  Boulogne  (21,556  inhabitants),  beyond  the 
wood  of  the  same  name. 

Sceaux  (^2,460  inhabitants)  is  the  capital  of  the  arrondissement,  to  which  belong 
the  towns  and  villages  to  the  south  and  east  of  Paris,  the  most  important  amongst 
which  is  Vincennes.  The  others  are  : — Montrcuil  (13,607  inhabitants),  famous  for 
its  orchards  ;  Charciitoii  (8,744  inhabitants),  with  a  lunatic  asylum  ;  Maisons-Alfort 
(7,115  inhabitants),  with  its  veterinary  college;  Nogent-sur-Marne  (7,481  inhabit- 
ants), where  the  river  is  spanned  by  a  viaduct  2,600  feet  in  length  ;  Icry  (15,247 
inhabitants),  with  huge  factories;  Vitnj  (3,718  inhabitants),  abounding  in  nursery 
gardens ;  Choi-si/-le-livi  (5,829  inhabitants),  with  the  tomb  of  Rouget  de  I'lsle  ; 
GetitiUy  (10,378  inhabitants)  ;  Arcueil  (5,299  inhabitants),  with  its  two  aqueducts; 
Montrouge  (6,371  inhabitants),  Vanves  (8,812  inhabitants),  Issy  (7,356  inhabitants), 
and  Clamart  (3,333  inhabitants),  near  wooded  heights,  supplying  building  stones  ; 
and  Foiitcnay-uur-Roscs  (2,804  inhabitants),  which  supplies  the  markets  of  Paris 
with  flowers  and  fruits. 

Seine-et-Oise,  the  centre,  which  is  occupied  by  the  department  of  the  Seine,  is 
in  the  main  a  dependency  of  Paris,  and,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  the  latter,  it  is 
very  tliinly  populated.  Its  paper-mills  and  beet-root  sugar  manufactories  are  of 
some  importance. 

Versailles  (49,552  inhabitants)  is  now  the  most  sumptuous  suburb  of  Paris,  but 
when  Louis  XIV.  selected  its  site  for  the  construction  of  his  vast  palace,  he  had 
no  idea  that  the  two  would  ever  be  attached  to  each  other  bj'  a  chain  of  suburban 
villages.  The  recent  selection  of  Versailles  as  the  seat  of  Government  has  done 
much  to  accelerate  this  junction.  The  palace,  which  formerly  was  the  residence  of 
the  King  and  his  court,  now  accommodates  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
and  an  almost  interminable  suite  of  its  rooms  is  occupied  by  paintings  designetl  to 
perpetuate  the  glories  of  France.  Like  its  dependent  mansions,  the  Great  and  Little 
Trianon,  it  has  served  as  a  pattern  to  nearly  every  sovereign  throughout  Europe, 


808 


FBANCE. 


but  not  one  amongst  them  has  succeeded  in  building  an  edifice  or  creating  a  park 
at  all  comparable  with  it.  Versailles  is  associated  generally  with  the  old  monarchy, 
but  some  of  the  revolutionary  events  also  have  taken  place  there.    It  was  the  birth- 


Fig.  228. — St.  Germain-en -La  ye. 
Scale  1  :  110.000. 


r      -^ 


i        S*  GERJVM3. 


I     tHi      t  '■" 


""m         I    M     1 


^^       >,^1*>i.>^p»^^.  ^  ^„^, 


^ 


""iBte.^ 


2  Miles. 


place  of  Hoche,  Houdon,  Berthier,  and   others.     Louis  XV.,  Louis  XVI.,  and 
Louis  XVIII.  were  born  in  the  palace. 

Many  of  the  neighbouring  towns  and  villages  enjoy  some  reputation.  Senrs 
(6,512  inhabitants)  is  famous  for  its  porcelain  ;  St.  Cloud  (4,7G7  inhabitants)  has 
a  fine  park  and  numerous   villas ;    St.   Cyr  (2,870  inhabitants)  is  the  seat  of  a 


.'.*•> 

/.••>l 
'.•.•••^l 
'//. 
/.♦.•« 

i».:>} 


'• . 


r»  • 


••  • 


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♦  » 


»-«J 


vV.V- 


o.v 


>^ 


•.V 


LI8RAKY 

vOF  THE 

UNlVERSlTVoflUlNOIS, 


SEINE-ET-OISE.  809 

niilitary  college ;  at  Grigiion  is  an  agricultural  school ;  Vilk-d' Array,  Bouijiral 
{'i,\'2\  inhabitants),  Loiiceciennes  (1,1)40  inhabitants),  and  JJarlij  are  favourite 
summer  resorts ;  Rhi'U  (7,980  inhabitants),  at  the  toot  of  Mont  Valerien,  is  an 
imix)rtant  suburb  of  Paris,  in  which  Richelieu  had  his  chateau.  Near  it,  below  the 
hills  of  Marly,  is  the  pumping  station  which  supplies  N'ersailles  and  its  water 
works  with  the  waters  of  the  Seine. 

St.  Germain  (U),978  inhabitants)  occupies  the  summit  of  a  hill,  and  from  the 
terrace  of  its  chateau  may  be  enjoyed  one  of  the  finest  views  in  the  vicinity  of 
Paris.  James  Stuart  resided  in  this  castle,  Louis  XIV.  was  born  in  it,  and  it  now 
contains  one  of  the  most  precious  historical  museums  in  the  world.  The  pine 
forest  of  Ledia  stretches  north  of  the  town ;  21ai.soii.s-Lajfi/fc  (2,824  inhabitants) 
has  a  famous  castle  built  by  Mansart ;  and  Poksy  (4,G77  inhabitants),  an  old 
town,  is  often  mentioned  in  history.  Louis  IX.  was  bom  there,  and  the  curious 
bridge  over  the  Seine  was  built  by  him.  Arijeiifcuil  (7,i)34  inhabitants),  another 
old  town,  is  more  especially  noted  for  its  early  vegetables,  its  gypsum  quarries,  and 
its  inferior  wines. 

The  arrondissement  of  Corheil,  above  Paris,  is  far  less  populous  than  that 
of  Versailles.  Its  capital  (0,187  inhabitants),  at  the  confluence  of  the  Seine  and 
Essonne,  has  corn-mills,  a  j)rinting  office,  and  other  industrial  establishments,  and 
at  Essonne  (3,669  inhabitants),  above  it,  are  the  most  important  paper-mills  of  the 
department.  Mediaeval  buildings  abound  in  the  vicinity,  the  most  famous  amongst 
them  being  the  castle  of  Moiitlhery  (^"2,005  inhabitants),  on  the  banks  of  the  Orge. 
Etampes  (7,399  inhabitants),  on  the  Juine,  in  the  rich  corn  district  of  the  Beauce, 
has  several  curious  old  churches,  one  of  them  with  a  leaning  tower.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  GeoS'roy  St.  Ililairo. 

RamhouilM  (4,294  inhabitants)  lies  in  a  wooded  country  within  the  basin  of 
the  Eure.  Francis  I.  was  born  there,  and  the  old  royal  castle  is  deserving  of 
notice.  The  first  merino  sheep  introduced  into  France  were  taken  to  the  farm 
attached  to  it.  Most  of  the  other  towns  of  the  arrondissement  have  old  castles. 
At  Dotirdan  (2,719  inhabitants),  on  the  Orge,  is  the  donjon  of  Philip  Augustus; 
Iloudan  (1,976  inhabitants)  has  a  picturesque  old  tower  ;  Montfort-F  Amauryhon&Xs 
of  an  old  citadel,  imposing  even  in  its  ruined  condition  ;  and  near  Chevreuse,  in  the 
delightful  vaUey  of  the  Yvette,  we  come  upon  the  chateau  of  Danipierre,  rich  in 
art  treasures.  The  abbey  of  Port-Royal-des-Champs  was  razed  to  the  ground  in 
1710,  as  a  place  accursed,  for  AntoLnc  Arnauld  and  other  Jansenistes  had  composed 
their  works  within  its  walls. 

Descending  the  Seine,  we  pass  the  email  town  of  Mantes-la-JoUe  (5,649  inha- 
bitants), at  the  mouth  of  the  Vaucouleurs,  its  pretty  church  being  reflected  in  the 
water  of  the  river.  In  its  \"icinity  are  the  castle  of  Rosny,  where  Sully  was  born, 
and  the  sumptuous  mansion  of  Roche-Guyon,  with  an  old  feudal  castlo  partly 
carved  out  of  the  rock.  To  the  north  of  these,  on  the  Epte,  stands  the  ^•illage  of 
at.  Clair,  with  an  old  Norman  castle. 

The  arrondissement  of  Pontoise  lies  to  the  north  of  Paris.  Enghien  is  much 
frequented  for  the  sake  of  its  sulphur  springs,  its  lake,  and  its  shaded  walks. 


310 


FEAXCE. 


Monimoreney,  which  almost  adjoins  it,  is  famous  for  its  cherry  gardens.  Chateaux 
and  country  seats  abound  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  most  famous  being  that  of 
St.  Leu-Tarerny,  with  the  tombs  of  the  last  Conde  and  of  Louis  Bonaparte. 
Ponioite  (6,301  inhabitants),  on  the  Oise,  is  one  of  the  great  provision  marts  of 
Paris.  The  Estates  met  here  in  1-561,  and  Louis  XIY.  sought  a  refuge  in  the  town 
during  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde.  On  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river  is  St.  Ouen- 
fAumone  (1,638  inhabitants',  with  the  ruins  of  an  old  abbey  ;  and  farther  east  is 
Mery-sur-Ouie,  with  the  new  Parisian  necropolis. 

AisxK  lies  almost  completely  within  the  basin  of  the  Seine,  being  traversed  by 


Tig.  229.— Laos. 
ScJe  1 :  SO.OCO. 


K  '^'^\ 


■    J.- 


rmj^^ 


HjOf  aUHe. 


the  rivers  Mame  and  Oise,  and  is  named  after  the  Aisne,  a  tributary  of  the  latter. 
The  rivers  Somme,  Escaut  (Scheldt),  and  Sambre  rise  within  its  limits,  and  in  the 
north-east  it  borders  upon  Belgium.  Anciently  the  department  formed  part  of  the 
provinces  of  De-de- France  and  Picardy.  The  naked  plateau  of  Brie  in  the  south, 
the  wooded  hills  of  Tardenob,  the  vicinity  of  Soissons,  Talois,  and  the  chalky 
cotmtrv  around  Laon  belonged  to  the  former,  whilst  Vermandois  and  the  hill 
country  of  Thierache  depended  upon  Picardy.  Agriculture  is  in  an  advanced  state. 
Hemp,  flax,  beet-roots,  and  rape  seed  are  extensively  cultivated,  and  the  number  of 


AISXE. 


811 


sheep  IS  very  large.  The  ghiss  works  are  amongst  the  most  important  in  Europe, 
and  there  are  also  sugar  refiucries,  cotton  and  woollen  factories,  and  other  industrial 
establishments. 

ChutcaK-Tliicrnj  (5,713  inhabitants),  on  the  Marne,  is  commanded  by  the  ruins 
of  a  fine  old  castle.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  La  Fontaine.  La  Fl-rc-cn-Tardenois 
(2,068  inhabitants),  on  the  Ourcq,  has  become  known  through  the  large  number 
of  prehistoric  remains  discovered  in  the  grave-hills  in  its  vicinity.  Afc  Port-aux- 
Perches  the  Ourcq  becomes   navigable,  and  a  railroad  connects  the  place  with 


Fig.  230.— St.  Quentln. 
Scale  1  :  80,000. 


CISE.nlPans 


Haifa  Mile. 


Villers-Cotterets  (3,116  inhabitants),  the  birthplace  of  Alexandre  Dumas,  where 
Francis  I.  published,  in  1539,  an  edict  which  made  the  use  of  French  compulsory 
in  all  public  documents.  Ferie-Milon,  a  village  lower  down  on  the  Ourcq,  was  the 
birthplace  of  Eacine. 

Soissons  (10,754  inhabitants),  the  ancient  Noviodunum,  on  the  Aisne,  no  longer 
ranks  as  one  of  the  foremost  cities  of  France,  but  the  Middle  Ages  have  left  it  a 
fine  Gothic  cathedral  and  several  other  ecclesiastical  buildings,  and  its  gardens  have 
lost  none  of  their  freshness. 


312 


FEANCE. 


Laoii  (12,036  intabitants),  the  capital  of  the  department,  rivals  Soissons  in 
antiquity  and  population.  Being  on  the  high-road  which  connects  Paris  with  the 
Meuse,  the  town  has  been  besieged  many  times.  It  boasts  of  a  Gothic  cathedral, 
and  of  a  museum  rich  in  antiquities,  many  of  them  having  been  discovered  in  the 
old  underground  villages  of  the  neighbourhood.  Artichokes  and  cabbages  are 
amongst  the  most  important  articles  exported  to  Paris. 

Hirson  (4,285  inhabitants),  on  the  Upper  Oise,  as  well  as  Venins  (2,889  inha- 


Fig.  231. — CoMPifeoNE. 
Scale  1  :  180,000. 


.  2  Miles. 


bitants)  and  other  towns  of  Thierache,  engage  much  in  basket-making.  St.  Michel- 
Rochefort  (3,231  inhabitants),  near  the  former,  has  forges  and  cotton-mills.  Guise 
(6,242  inhabitants),  lower  down  on  the  Oise,  the  native  place  of  Camille  Desmoulins 
and  the  seignorial  seat  of  an  illustrious  family,  has  huge  china  and  stove  works,  as 
well  as  other  factories.  Descending  the  river,  we  pass  La  Fere  (4,896  inhabitants) 
and  Tergnier  (3,079  inhabitants),  and  reach  Chauntj  (8,982  inhabitants),  with  its 
cotton  and  woollen  niiUs,  tan-yards,  and  other  factories.  A  short  railway  conveys  us 
thence  to  St.  Gobain  (1,957  inhabitants),  famous  on  account  of  its  glass  works 


AISNR. 


813 


ever  since  (lie  thirteenth  centuiy.  The  country  around  is  wooded.  Prt'moiitrif  is 
a  small  village  to  the  oast,  with  a  fiiinous  old  abbey,  converted  into  a  lunatic 
asylum.     Coiicy,  another  village,  boasts  of  one  of  the  finest  feudal  castles  of  tho 


Fig.   232.— CUA.NTILLV. 
Scale  1  ;  130,000. 


2  Macs. 


Middle  Ages.    Another  castle  stood  at  Quierzi/,  on  the  Oise  :   it  originally  belonged 
to  the  lords  of  Heristal. 

.SV.  Qtientin  (37,0S0  inhabitant.^),  on  the  Somme,  is  the  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment, a  canal,  much  frequented  by  coal  barges,  connecting  it  with  the  Scheldt  and 
the  Oise.  There  are  numerous  cotton  and  woollen  mills,  machine  shops,  beet-root 
sugar  refineries,  and  other  industrial  establishments.    Among  the  public  buildings  a 


314  FRANCE. 

Gothic  town- hall  and  a  collegiate  church  of  the  twelfth  century  are  most  deserving 
of  notice.  Fresiwy-k-Gmnd  (3,849  inhabitants)  and  Bohain  (5,975  inhabitants) 
are  smaller  towns  in  the  neighbourhood,  carrying  on  the  same  branches  of 
industry. 

OiSE,  like  Aisne,  has  been  formed  out  of  portions  of  Ile-de-France  and  Picardy. 
The  river  Oise  bisects  it,  the  chalk  region  of  Beauvaisis  occupies  the  centre,  whilst 
more  recent  tertiary  formations  predominate  in  the  north.  There  still  remain  a 
few  pine  forests,  but  nearly  the  whole  of  the  surface  is  cultivated.  Industry  is 
highly  developed.  In  china,  earthenware,  and  fire-proof  bricks  the  department 
occupies  the  foremost  rank  ;  its  iron  mills  and  foundries  are  of  great  importance  ; 
and  there  are  also  cotton  and  woollen  mills  and  sugar  refineries. 

Noyon  (5,785  inhabitants),  Noviomagus  of  the  Romans,  is  the  first  town  on  the 
Oise,  and  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  France.  Charlemagne  was  crowned  in  it ;  it 
was  the  birthplace  of  Calvin  ;  and  its  cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest  in  France.  The 
old  abbey  of  Oiirncamp,  below  Noyon,  has  been  converted  into  a  factory  of  cotton 
velvets.  Compiegne  (12,923  inhabitants),  below  the  mouth  of  the  Aisne,  is  best 
known  in  connection  with  its  forest,  ever  since  the  days  of  Clovis  the  hunting 
ground  of  the  Kings  of  France.  The  existing  chateau  was  built  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  contains  a  valuable  collection  of  Cambodian  antiquities.  Picnrfonds, 
at  the  eastern  skirt  of  the  forest,  has  mineral  baths  and  a  castle  constructed  by  a 
Duke  of  Orleans.  Still  descending  the  Oise,  we  pass  the  old  towns  of  Verberie  and 
Pont  Sfe.  Ma-rcnce  (2,225  inhabitants),  and  reach  Creil  (5,438  inhabitants),  one  of 
the  great  railway  junctions  of  France,  and,  together  with  the  adjoining  town  of 
Montataire  (4,864  inhabitants),  the  seat  of  iron  works,  machine  shops,  and  china 
manufactories. 

Of  the  places  to  the  east  of  the  Oise,  Scnlifi  (6,537  inhabitants),  in  the  delight- 
ful valley  of  the  Nonette,  is  the  most  important.  The  ruins  of  a  Merovingian 
palace  and  an  old  cathedral  point  to  better  days.  Ermenonville,  with  its  tomb  of 
J.  J.  Rousseau,  is  higher  up  in  the  valley,  and  ChantUhj  (3,476  inhabitants),  the 
French  Ne^vmarket,  is  lower  down.  Much  lace  is  made  in  the  vicinity.  Crepy 
(2,646  inhabitants),  close  to  the  eastern  frontier,  is  the  old  capital  of  Valois. 

Clermont  (6,101  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  centre  arrondissement,  has  a 
large  prison  and  a  lunatic  asylum.  The  town  has  some  manufactories  of  hosiery, 
and  so  have  a  few  other  places  near  it,  as  Liancourt,  St.  Just-en- Chaussee  (2,395 
inhabitants),  and  Bretcidl  (3,034  inhabitants). 

Beaiimis  (16,591  inhabitants),  the  largest  town  on  the  Th^rain,  a  famous  old 
city,  with  an  unfinished  cathedral,  a  town-hall,  and  other  curious  buildings,  has 
been  known  from  the  most  remote  times  for  its  cloth,  tapestry,  earthenware,  and 
fireproof  bricks.  Cloth  and  buttons  are  also  manufactured  in  the  towns  below 
Beauvais,  amongst  which  are  Noailles,  Mouy  (3,118  inhabitants),  and  Bury  (1,172 
inhabitants),  as  also  at  Meni  (3,517  inhabitants),  to  the  south-east  of  it. 

EuRE  is  named  after  a  river  which  enters  the  Seine  within  the  limits  of  the 
department.  Norman  Vexin  lies  to  the  east.  The  plain  of  St.  Andre  occupies 
the    south,    the   fertile    plain    of   Neubourg    adjoining    it   in    the    north.       The 


EURE. 


315 


lowlands  on  the  estuary  of  the  Seine  are  known  as  Koumois.  The  fertile  meadow 
lauds  of  Lieuvin  aro  in  the  west,  beyond  the  Rille.  Euro  depends  mainly  upon 
agriculture  and  cattle-breeding,  but  there  are  also  copper,  brass,  and  zinc  works, 
sugar  refineries,  cotton  and  woollen  mills. 

Vtnioii  (0,384  inhabitants),  Claillon  (:J,rJ6  inhabitants),  and  Lvx  AmMya 
(3,'257  inhabitants)  are  the  only  towns  of  note  on  the  banks  of  the  Seine.  The 
first  of  these  has  quarries,  vineyards  (the  last  met  with  on  the  Seine),  and  u  huge 
Government  cloth  factory.  Gaillon  exports  much  fruit  to  Paris  and  England,  but 
is  best  known  on  account  of  the  ruins  of  a  fine  castle,  built  in  10 10  by  Georges 
d'Amboise,  the  cardinal.     Les  Audelys  consists  of  two  towns,  one  on  the  river, 


Fig.  233.— Les  Asdelts. 
Scale  1  :  50,000. 


1  ilile. 


the  other  a  short  distance  inland.  The  latter  has  manufactories ;  the  former  is 
essentially  a  place  of  commerce,  and  the  river  there  is  commanded  by  Chateau 
Gaillard,  erected  by  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion.  Blanchard,  the  first  aeronaut  who 
crossed  the  Channel,  was  a  native  of  the  town,  and  IS'icolas  Poussin  was  born  in  a 

neighbouring  village. 

The  river  Epte  enters  the  Seine  from  the  right,  flowing  through  a  delightful 
valley,  the  principal  town  within  which  is  Gi.ms  (3,090  inhabitants),  with  a 
famous  old  castle.  Lower  down  the  Seine  is  joined  by  the  Andelle,  which  sup- 
plies motive  power  to  numerous  mills. 

The  first  town  reached  on  ascending  the  Eure  is  Louviers  (10,097  inhabitants), 
a  busy  manufacturing   place,  producing  cheap   cloth  and  other  woollen  stuffs. 


316 


FEANCE. 


Evreux  (11,453  inhabitants),  on  the  Iton,  a  tributary  of  the  Eure,  the  capital  of 
the  department,  is  noted  for  its  cutlery  and  hardware.  At  Breteuil,  higher  up  on 
the  same  river,  are  iron  works  and  rolling-mills.  The  valley  of  the  Avre,  another 
tributary  of  the  Eure,  is  the  seat  of  a  considerable  industry.  Its  principal  town  ia 
Verneuil  (3,267  inhabitants).  Ivnj-la-BaiaUle,  on  the  Eure  itself,  is  noteworthy 
for  the  defeat  inflicted  upon  the  League  by  Henri  IV.  (1590). 

The  river  Rille  traverses  the  western  portion  of  the  department.     Ragles,  on 
its  upper  course,  has  manufactures  of  copper,  brass,  nails,  and  needles ;  whilst 


Fig.  234. — EouEN  and  its  ENrinON's. 
Scale  1  :  320,000. 


r     15  W  of  Paris 


ri  S'E    of  Or 


5  Miles. 


Bcrnay  (6,087  inhabitants),  in  the  side  valley  of  the  Charentonne,  is  noted  for  its 
cottons,  woollens,  ribbons,  and  linen.  Its  horse  fairs  are  famous  throughout 
Normandy,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  several  castles  of  note,  amongst  which  that  of 
Broglie  is  the  most  remarkable.  Still  descending  the  river,  we  pass  Brionne 
(3,229  inhabitants),  a  manufacturing  town,  and  reach  Pont  Audemer  (5,557  inha- 
bitants), at  the  head  of  the  tide,  and  the  only  seaport  of  the  department,  Quille- 
hceuf,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Seine,  being  merely  a  pilot  station. 

Seine-Inferieure  (Lower  Seine)   includes  nearly  the  whole  of  the  chalky 
plateau  of  Caux.     The  hilly  district  of  Bray  lies  in  the  south-east.     The  depart- 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS, 


818 


FEANCE. 


the  town-hall,  and  the  number  of  scientific  societies  and  superior  schools  is  con- 
siderable. Corneille,  Boieldieu,  Fontenelle,  and  La  Salle,  the  discoverer  of  the 
mouths  of  the  Mississippi,  were  born  in  the  town,  and  statues  have  been  erected 
in  memory  of  most  of  them,  as  well  as  in  honoiu-  of  Joan  of  Arc,  who  perished  here 
at  the  stake. 

Vessels  drawing  16  feet  of  water  can  reach  the  quays,  and  Eouen  carries  on  a 
lucrative  commerce  in  spite  of  the  competition  of  Havre,  which  guards  the  mouth 
of  the  river.  As  one  of  the  great  centres  of  cotton  industry  it  is  now  without  a 
rival  in  France.     Its  manufactures  mainly  produce  simple  and  durable  stuffs,  and 

Fiff.  236. — The  Cliffb  of  I^tretat. 


in  years  of  prosperity  over  a  million  spindles  are  at  work  at  Rouen  and  the  neigh- 
bouring towns  of  Pvtit-Quevilly  (5,719  inhabitants),  Darnefal  (5,018  inhabitants), 
Devi  lie  (4,183  inhabitants),  and  others,  and  the  cotton  stuffs  produced  attain  a 
value  of  nearly  £4,000,000. 

Following  the  windings  of  the  river,  the  traveller  skirts  the  cliffs  of  Canteleu 
and  the  Forest  of  Roumare,  passes  the  small  port  of  Duclair,  and  encompasses  the 
peninsula  of  Jumieges,  with  its  fine  old  abbey.  It  was  here  the  Normans  landed 
on  their  first  arrival  in  France.  Caudeiec-en-Caux  (1,951  inhabitants),  with  its 
tall  tower,  the  port  of  the  old  manufacturing  town  of  Yretot  (7,636  inhabitants), 
whose  seigneurs  enjoyed  the  title  of  king,  is  left  behind  us.     Lillebonne  (4,570 


SEINE-INFfiRIEURE. 


819 


inhabitants),  the  old  capital  of  Caux,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Bolbec,  boasts  of 
a  few  Roman  ruins,  but  Bolbec  (0,778  inhabitants),  higher  up  in  the  valley,  is 
now  the  leading  town  of  the  country.  It  is  clean  and  well  built,  and  its  inhabit- 
ants are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  cottons. 

We  pass  Harjlcitr  (1,908  inhabitants),  a  decayed  port,  and  the  castle  of  Tancar- 
ville,  built  on  a  commanding  clifY  near  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  and  reach  Jfarre 
(85,407  inhabitants),  the  great  port  of  "Western  France.  This  town  is  of  modem 
date,  for  it  was  founded  by  Francis  I.,  as  a  successor  to  older  towns  higher  up  the 
river  whoso  ports  had  become  silted  up.  Havre  has  not  only  taken  care  to  keep 
its  navigable  channels  open,  but  has  also  constructed  docks,  and  to  the  enterprise 
of  its  citizens  it  is  indebted  for  the  supremacy  it  holds  as  a  maritime  city.  It  is 
essentially  a  seat  of  commerce,  and  the  only  buildings  of  note  are  its  town-hall 
and  its  museum — the  latter  with  statues  of  Bernardiu  de  St.  Pierre  and  Casimir 


Fig.  237.— F£cAMP. 

Scale  I  :  40,000. 


.  Half  u  Mile. 


Delavigne,  the  most  famous  children  of  the  town.  The  docks  and  quays  are  on  a 
vast  scale.  Le  Havre  principally  imports  cotton,  coffee,  copper,  timber,  wool, 
skins,  corn,  and  coals.  It  exports  silks,  woollen  stuffs,  cottons,  and  "  articles  de 
Paris,"  and  England  is  its  chief  customer.  Lines  of  steamers  connect  it  with 
Xorthern  Europe,  the  Mediterranean,  and  America.  The  town  no  longer  engages 
in  the  cod  and  whale  fisheries,  but  the  conveyance  of  German  emigrants  to 
America  has  recently  proved  a  source  of  profit.  There  are  ship-yards,  machine 
shops,  rope-walks,  sugar  refineries,  a  tobacco  manufactory,  and  a  few  cotton-mills, 
besides  which  the  town  is  much  frequented  by  seaside  visitors,  a  fine  beach  for 
bathing  extending  as  far  as  Ste.  Adresse  and  the  lighthouses  of  La  Ileve.* 

•  In  1875  vessels  of  l,377,15t)  tons  burden  entered  in  the  foreign  trade,  and  140^760  tons  in  tlio 
coasting  trade.     Tlie  exports  and  importii  were  valued  at  £67,200,000. 

Y   2 


D20 


FRANCE. 


3£ontivilliers  (3,554  inhatitants)  is  the  only  place  of  any  importance  close  to 
Havre.  Along  the  coast,  towns  and  villages  occupy  the  mouth  of  each  valley. 
Just  beyond  the  bold  cliffs  of  Antifer  we  reach  Etretat  (1,976  inhabitants),  a 
delightful  seaside  village,  "  discovered  "  by  the  landscape  painter  Isabey.  Then 
follow  Tport,  a  small  village  of  fishermen,  and  Ficamp  (12,074  inhabitants),  which 
extends  for  several  miles  up  a  narrow  valley,  and  has  many  cotton-mills.     Its  port 


Fig.  238.— Dieppe. 
Scale  1  :  17,000. 


rlS'E.af  Or 


Quarter  of  a  Mile. 


is  accessible  at  all  states  of  the  tide  to  vessels  drawing  no  more  than  13  feet  of 
water,  and  over  a  hundred  vessels,  employed  in  the  Newfoundland,  mackerel,  and 
herring  fisheries,  belong  to  it. 

Passing  St.  Valery-en-Caux  (4,090  inhabitants)  and  a  few  small  villages,  w-e 
reach  Dieppe  (19,471  inhabitants),  one  of  the  great  towns  of  the  department,  and, 
next  to  Havre  and  Rouen,  its  busiest  seajjort.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the 
mariners  of  Dieppe  were  amongst  the  boldest   rovers  of  the   sea,  and  the  town, 


SEINE-INFilRIEURE.  821 

enriched  by  commerce,  became  very  powerful.  But  civil  wars  and  the  silting 
up  of.  the  port,  which  no  longer  deserved  its  Norman  name  of  Diop  ("  detp  "), 
destroyed  its  prosperity.  Recently  the  town  has  somewhat  recovered.  Docks 
have  been  constructed ;  steamers  ply  daily  between  the  town  and  Newbaven  ;  the 
fishery  is  of  importance ;  and  the  carving  of  ivory,  the  manufacture  of  tobacco,  and 
the  entcrtuiument  of  seaside  visitors  prove  sources  of  wealth.  The  fishermen  in  the 
suburb  of  Lc  Pollet  arc  supposed  to  be  of  foreign,  perhaps  Venetian,  origin.  A 
statue  has  been  erected  to  Duquesne,  the  naval  hero  who  defeated  De  Iluyter. 
An  old  castle  commands  the  town,  and  a  few  miles  inland  may  be  seen  the  ruins 
of  that  of  Arqxi'x. 

Treport,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bresle,  is  a  seaport  of  some  importance.  Higher 
up  on  the  same  river  is  Eit  (4,1G9  inhabitants),  an  old  Gallo-Roman  city,  with  a 
castle  built  by  Henri  de  Guise,  and  frequently  inhabited  by  Louis  Philippe. 

Amongst  noteworthy  places  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  department  are 
Aumak  (Albemarle,  '2,052  inhabitants),  on  the  Upper  Bresle ;  Ncufclidtd  (3,586 
inhabitants),  famous  for  its  cheese,  on  the  Bethune  ;  Forycs-ks-Eaux,  with 
ferruginous  springs ;  and  Gournay  (3,056  inhabitants),  on  the  Epte,  a  tributary  of 
the  Seine,  which  exports  much  butter. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

NORTHERN  FRANCE. 
Basins  op  the  Somme  axd  the  Scheldt  ;  Picardy,  Artois,  and  Flanpers. 

HE  north-western  corner  of  France,  between  the  Channel  and  the 
German  Ocean,  is  by  no  means  of  wide  extent,  but  it  is  neverthe.- 
less  one  of  the  most  important  districts  of  the  country.  Nations, 
difibring  in  language  and  customs,  have  repeatedly  struggled  for 
its  possession;  and  the  narrow  strait,  or  jms  (stride),  which  there 
separates  France  from  the  British  Islands,  has  become  one  of  the  most  frequented 
highways  in  Europe. 

Geologically  this  region  is  interesting  on  account  of  the  cretaceous  and  oolitic 
heights  of  Boulogne,  which  rise  like  an  island  in  the  midst  of  the  tertiary  plains 
of  Artois  and  Flanders.  These  heights  were  joined  at  some  former  epoch  to  the 
Wealden  of  Kent,  from  which  they  are  separated  now  by  the  Strait  of  Dover,  or 
Pas  de  Calais.  They  abound  in  ores  and  coal,  and  have  added  much  to  the  wealth 
of  the  country. 

The  heights  of  Boulogne  divide  the  rivers  of  Northern  France  into  two  groups. 
Those  on  the  southern  slope,  such  as  the  Somme,  the  Authie,  and  the  Canche, 
like  those  of  Caux,  take  their  parallel  course  to  the  ocean,  whilst  the  rivers 
descending  from  the  eastern  slopes  have  more  sinuous  courses,  and  partly  find 
their  way  into  the  Scheldt. 

The  Somme  is  the  most  considerable  river  of  the  country.  It  rises  near 
St.  Quentin,  flows  at  first  in  the  same  direction  as  the  Oise,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  a  narrow  belt  of  country,  hardly  more  than  6  miles  across.  Near  Ham 
it  turns  to  the  north,  and  having  been  reinforced  by  the  Avre  above  Amiens,  it 
enters  a  deep  and  rectilinear  channel  cut  into  a  low  plateau.  The  valley  of  the 
Somme  distinctly  exhibits  traces  of  ancient  floods.  The  river  formerly  filled  up 
the  whole  of  the  valley,  carrying  down  with  it  immense  quantities  of  sand  and 
gravel.  It  was  in  one  of  these  heaps  of  gravel  that  Boucher  de  Perthes  discovered, 
in  1838,  the  stone  implements  which  have  revolutionised  anthi'opological  science. 
Much  of  the  valley  of  the  Somme  consists  now  of  bogs,  and  more  turf  is  dug  here 
than  in  all  the  remainder  of  France. 


BASINS  OF  TUE  SOM:Mt;  AN'D  TKE  SCHELDT. 


828 


The  tide  ascends  tho  river  as  fur  as  Abbeville,  and,  by  constructing  embank- 
ments, the  estuary  of  the  river  has  been  reduced  to  27  square  miles,  and  nmch  of 
the  laud  formerly  invaded  by  tho  sea  converted  into  pastures.     The  army  of 


Fig.  239. — The  Uills  op  Boulogne. 
Scale  1  :  350.000. 


5  Miles. 


Edward  ITI.  crossed  this  estuary  by  the  ford  of  Blanquctaque  two  days  before  the 
battle  of  Crecy  (1346).  Crotoy,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  was  used  as  a 
harbour  up  to  the  beginning  of  this  century,  but  the  engineers  have  "  regulated  " 
the  river,  and  excavated  a  navigable  canal  which  leads  past  St.  Valery.     The  bay, 


824 


FEANCE. 


unfortunately,  is  silting  up,  in  spite  of  all  their  efforts,  and  sea-going  vessels  are 
able  to  reach  St.  Valery  only  on  ten  or  twelve  days  every  month. 

The  coast  in  this  neighbourhood  has  certainly  undergone  many  changes  during 
historical  times.  The  swamp  or  lagoon  of  the  Hable,  to  the  south  of  the  Somme, 
is  clearly  an  old  mouth  of  that  river,  the  neck  of  land  which  now  separates  it 
from  the  sea  having  anciently  been  a  bar  closing  its  mouth.  The  whole  of  the 
shore  region,  from  the  bay  of  the  Somme  to  that  of  the  Canche,  and  inland  as  far 
as  the  hills  of  Artois,  is  of  recent  formation.  Rue,  formerly  a  seaport,  now  lies 
6  miles  inland,   and  the  old  port  of  St.    Quentin   (Grand-Gouffre)    is  dry  land. 


Fig.  240. — The  Estuary  op  the  Somme. 
Scale  1  :  300,000. 


l"'30'E.ofrH- 


DepiA    Icjs  tfum    Z  *z   F'alhcnt^  ilL  iota  wni^r 
DtfitA   2^1  -S  FatAcina 
over  S  raiAoms 


4  Miles. 


The  peasants  of  Picardy,  in  imitation  of  their  neighbours,  the  Flemings,  have  won 
much  land  from  the  sea.  They  have  constructed  dykes  and  drainage  works,  and 
planted  the  dunes  with  reeds. 

Cape  Gris-Nez,  which  separates  the  German  Ocean  from  the  British  Channel, 
occupies  an  important  position  with  reference  to  the  geological  changes  going  on 
along  the  coast.  On  either  side  of  the  cape  the  ocean  currents  deposit  large 
quantities  of  silt,  and  the  land  gains  upon  the  sea,  whilst  farther  away  from  it, 
along  the  coast  of  Caux  and  in  Holland,  the  sea  encroaches  upon  the  land.  An 
upheaval  or  subsidence  of  the  land  has  something  to  do  with  these  changes.     To 


B.VSINS  OF  THE  SOMME  A\D  TnE  RCUELDT. 


826 


tlie  west  and  south  ot"  a  line  pussinff  tlirou<;li  Niouport  the  land  slowly  rises, 
whilst  in  the  cast  it  subsides.  At  the  same  time  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  land  may  subside  without  the  sea  encroaching  upon  it,  as  long  as  the  alluvium 
deposited  by  ocean  currents  along  the  coast  is  of  considerable  amount.  Such 
happens  to  be  the  case  along  the  coast  of  Dunkirk.  M.  Gaspard  has  discovered 
there  a  layer  of  turf  containing  prehistoric  remains  at  a  depth  of  10  feet  beneath 
the  marine  sands.  The  land  consequently  must  have  subsided  there  since  tho 
formation  of  these  ancient  turf  beds.  The  researches  of  M.  Day  at  Sangatte  and 
Wissiint,  near  Cape  Gris-Nez,  prove  that  a  similar  subsidence  has  taken  place  to 
the  west  of  Calais.  He  has  discovered  there  a  submerged  forest,  with  bones  of  the 
aurochs  and  fresh-water  shells,  which  clearly  demonstrate  this  fact.     At  an  epoch 


Fiir.  211. — The  Ancient  Gtlf  op  Flaxders. 
Scale  I  :  700.000. 


f  SO 


11  ■  .\l  li(.K. 


still  more  remote  an  upheaval  appears  to  have  taken  place,  for  beneath  the  dunes 
traces  of  old  sea  beaches  have  been  discovered  far  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
actual  tides. 

Ilowevcr  this  may  be,  during  the  last  thousand  years  the  long-shore  men  of 
Artois  and  French  Flanders  have  enjoyed  a  period  of  conquest  in  their  struggle 
with  the  sea.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans  the  lowlands  lying  to  the  north-east  of 
the  hills  of  Artois  along  the  Belgian  frontier  were  covered  by  the  sea.  As  lately 
as  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  the  sea  extended  as  far  as  St.  Omer.  Even  now 
the  alluvial  fields  around  that  town  are  beneath  the  level  reached  by  the  spring 
tides,  and  a  few  deep  ponds,  fringed  with  willows,  still  mark  the  greatest  depressions 
of  this  ancient  gulf.     The  promontories  which  rose  on  the  western  shore  of  this 


326 


FEANCE. 


gulf  still  retain  the  names  they  received  from  Norman  mariners,  such  as  Mark 
Ness,  Boker  Ness,  and  Long  Ness,  and  here  and  there  may  be  recognised  ancient 
islands  rising  above  the  general  level  of  the  polders  which  environ  them.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  the  towns  of  Calais,  Gravelines,  Dunkirk,  Nieuport,  and  Ostend 
occupied  a  line  of  dunes,  which  separated  this  ancient  Gulf  of  Flanders  from  the 
open  sea.  The  alluvium  brought  down  by  the  Aa  and  its  tributaries  gradually 
converted  the  lagoon  sheltered  by  these  dunes  into  a  swamp  ;  and  a  swamp  it 
would  have  remained  to  the  present  day  had  it  not  been  for  the  labour  of  man. 


Fig.  2-l'2. — The  Moeees  of  Dunkikk. 
Scale  1  ;  200,000. 


— ..  S  I^itthcTn    L.inC' 

^^^—^^^—  2  Miles. 


As  early  as  the  seventh  century  the  first  embankments  were  thrown  up  around  the 
islands  of  the  ancient  gulf.  The  islands  became  attached  to  the  mainland,  canals 
were  added  to  canals,  until  they  intersected  the  whole  of  the  country.  These 
drainage  works,  which  rival  those  accomplished  by  the  Hollanders  and  Frieslanders, 
are  locally  known  as  wateringues. 

In  time  of  war  the  sluices  were  frequently  opened  to  inundate  the  country 
surrounding  the  fortresses  along  the  coast  of  Flanders,  and  it  requires  years  of 
labour  to  repair  the  injury  thus  done.  Sometimes,  when  the  rains  are  exception- 
ally heavy,  the  lowlands  to  the  north  of  St.  Omer  are  covered  with  water  to  a 


BASINS  OF  THE  SOMMi:  AND  THE  SaiELDT,  827 

depth  of  3  feet,  ^^^len  this  huppens  the  wutcr  has  to  be  drawn  off  at  the  porta, 
and  this  produces  so  swift  a  current  in  the  canals  as  to  interrupt  navigation  for 
three  or  four  months  at  a  time.  On  the  other  hand,  in  years  of  drought  the  small 
canals,  or  tratenjands,  dry  up,  or  become  converted  into  fever-breeding,  stagnant 
pools.  This  likewise  leads  to  an  interruption  of  navigation,  for  tlio  sluices  must 
be  kept  closed  along  the  rivers,  in  order  to  store  up  water  for  refilling  the  canals. 
"Wells  sunk  near  the  coast  have  been  observed  to  rise  and  fall  with  the  tides. 

The  Aa  is  the  principal  river  of  this  region,  and  its  channel  is  altogether 
an  artificial  creation.  Since  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  river  enters 
the  sea  at  Gravelines,  but  before  that  time  its  mouth  was  3  miles  to  the  east 
of  that  town,  and  earlier  still,  up  to  1170,  it  was  a  couple  of  miles  to  the  west  of  it. 
The  old  port  of  Mardyck  was  a  creation  of  man,  as  is  that  of  Dunkirk.  The 
labour  involved  in  converting  the  whole  of  this  region  into  productive  land  has 
been  immense,  and  would  never  have  been  accomplished  had  not  the  proprietors 
of  the  wateringues  been  permitted  to  baud  together  for  the  common  management 
of  their  estates.  In  1793  the  dykes  were  cut,  as  a  measure  of  defence,  and  all  that 
portion  of  the  arrondissement  of  Dunkirk  lying  below  the  level  of  the  sea  was 

Fig.  243. — Section  of  the  Stiuit  of  Dover  between  Dunkihk  axd  Bboasstaibs. 

Scale  1  :  650,000. 


.  10  llilca. 


inundated.  The  "Moiires"  became  lagoons,  but  the  inhabitants,  not  being 
impeded  by  official  interference,  very  soon  succeeded  in  recovering  the  ground 
they  had  lost.  In  works  of  this  kind  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  mingling 
of  fresh  and  brackish  water,  which  inevitably  results  in  murderous  fevers. 

The  shelving  beach  of  sand  which  bounds  the  whole  of  this  coast  has  undergone 
but  few  changes  since  1776.  At  the  mouths  of  the  harbours  it  has  certainly 
increased  in  width  towards  the  west,  for  the  sediment  brought  down  by  the  rivers 
is  carried  in  that  direction  by  the  ebb.  Nor  do  the  sand-banks  lying  parallel  with 
the  coast  appear  to  have  changed  much  in  the  course  of  a  century.  They  are 
numerous,  and  form  a  veritable  labyrinth,  all  the  more  dangerous  to  the  navigator, 
as  the  course  to  be  taken  varies  according  to  tide  and  wind.  These  banks  are 
undoubtedly  due  to  the  set  of  the  currents,  which  is  generally  towards  the  German 
Ocean.  In  the  Strait  of  Dover  the  tide  sets  towards  the  east,  and  westerly  winds 
predominate.  The  matter  held  in  suspension  is  thus  carried  towards  the  north, 
and  deposited  for  the  most  part  along  the  coast  of  Flanders.  The  depth  of  the  sea 
has  decreased  3  to  6  feet  since  the  commencement  of  this  century,  but  well- 
sheltered  roadsteads  extend  along  both  the  English  and  the  French  coasts.  That  of 
the  Downs,  on  the  English  coast,  is  protected  by  the  Goodwin  Sands  ;  that  of 


328 


FRANCE. 


Dunkirk,  on  the  French  coast,  lies  within  a  chain  of  sand-banks  fringing  the  coast 
of  Flanders. 

The  centre  of  the  Strait  of  Dover,  between  Gris-Nez  and  the  South  Foreland, 

Fig.  244. — The  Strait  of  Dover  and  the  Proposed  Tunnel. 
Scale  1  :  1,000,000. 


I'lW-'^'"'" 


DufUh,  <l'/*fiahOHte  ^H  Oc/tUv  eJaUvorrur,    ^H  DeflUu  16jiUhom^  . 

,,       i  „  ^      n    "  .  1'™'        ..        «/        - 

_^^__  10  Miles. 


is  almost  free  from  obstacles.     The  greatest  depth  does  not  exceed  177  feet.     To 
the  west  of  this  line  lie  the  Varne  and  Colbart  banks,  and  the  engineer  who  first 


Fig.  245. — Section  of  the  Proposed  Tunnel. 
Scale  1  :  375,000. 


loiililc 


lirbiird 


proposed  to  connect  England  and  France  by  a  submarine  railway  intended  to 
utilise  the  former  of  these  for  the  construction  of  an  international  city  and  a 
harbour  of  refuse. 


BASINS  or  THE  SOMME  AND  TIEE  SCHELDT. 


829 


No  less  than  200,000  vessels  pass  tbo  Strait  of  Dover  aunuully,  and  when  the 
weather  is  clear  it  is  sonictiiues  difficult  to  couut  the  sails  withiu  view.  The 
width  of  this  strait  not  exceeding  '20  miles,  it  is  but  natural  that  propositions 
should  have  been  made  to  bridge  it.  In  1S02  M.  Malhiou  proposed  to  construct  a 
submarine  tunnel,  but  was  laughed  at.  In  1838  M.  Thom<5  do  Gamond  carefully 
studied  the  locality,  and  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  a  tunnel  might  bo  con- 
structed. Others  suggested  a  huge  bridge ;  others,  again,  gigantic  ferry-boats, 
capable  of  conveying  entire  railway  trains.     In  18GS  the  English  and  French 


Fig.  246. — Extent  of  Fbesxh  and  Flemish. 

Scnlc  I  :  1><J.000. 


^"^'^fWeSSTnTr^Ti* 


— ■ — . ■ — .  -■■  •»  ■  ■  ■  M — .■■^■■■■..■^.^t.....l^.»p. 


V 


FrcnchSJFUmU?!. 


Fla>asK. 
.  10  Miles. 


Governments  took  up  the  question,  and  since  1875  some  progress  has  been  made 
in  the  great  work.  The  tunnel  will  pass  through  the  impermeable  lower  chalk,  at 
a  depth  of  4 1 4  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Except  its  seaboard,  the  densely  populated  region  now  under  review  has  no 
well-defined  natural  boundaries.  From  the  line  of  water-parting  separating  the 
Somme,  the  Scheldt,  and  the  Oise,  the  country  slopes  insensibly  almost  in  every 
direction.  We  can  cross  the  frontier  from  Belgium  into  France  without  noticing 
it,  and  the  only  obstacles  met  with  by  an  invading  army  consist  of  rivers  and 
canals,  with  fringes  of  large  trees,  which  sometimes  impart  some  beauty  to  this 


830 


FRANCE. 


monotonous  country.  A  triple  line  of  fortresses  defends  the  frontiers  of  France, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  this  ethnological  border-land  have  at  all  times  been  remark- 
able for  their  warlike  spirit.  The  Nervians,  who  opposed  Ccesar,  and  the  Flemings 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  were  renowned  for  their  bravery.  The  Picardians,  who  live 
to  the  south  of  the  Flemings,  are  equally  brave,  and  in  some  measure  they  combine 
the  solid  qualities  of  the  north  with  the  quickness  of  the  south.  Nowhere  does  the 
political  boundary  agree  with  the  ethnological  one.  Near  the  coast,  the  Flemings, 
or  flamingants,  occupy  both  sides  of  the  boundary,  whilst  farther  east  French 
is  spoken  in  Belgium  as  well  as  in  France.  The  Flemish  language  has  lost 
ground  since  Artois,  Picardy,  and  a  portion  of  Flanders  have  become  a  part  of 
France.  It  was  spoken  formerly  as  far  as  the  gates  of  Abbeville  and  Amiens. 
In  the  seventeenth  century  its  use  was  common  to  the  north  of  a  line  drawn  from 
Boulogne  to  St.  Omer.     The  country  between  Lille,  Valenciennes,  and  Cambrai 


Fig.  247. — The  Coal  Basin  of  Northern  Fii.\NCE. 
Scale  1  :  700,000. 


^->.>->  >  *  >  \ 


10  Miles. 


did  not  adopt  the  French  language  till  the  middle  of  last  century.  Even  In 
those  districts  where  Flemish  is  spoken,  the  towns  are  bilingual,  and  Fi-ench  is 
rapidly  gaining  ground.  Only  about  150,000  persons  actually  speak  Flemish 
still. 

The  population  in  Northern  France  is  very  dense,  but  the  resources  of  the 
country  are  considerable.  The  soil,  in  many  instances  of  very  inferior  quality,  is 
most  carefully  tilled,  and  Montesquieu's  remark,  that  the  fecundity  of  a  country 
depends  less  upon  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil  than  upon  the  civil  liberty  enjoyed 
by  its  inhabitants,  is  fully  borne  out  by  what  may  be  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  Lille. 
The  soil  there  is  naturally  sterile,  but  the  inhabitants  having  formerly  been 
exempted  from  the  payment  of  indirect  taxes  and  statute  labour,  were  able  to  devote 
the  whole  of  their  resources  to  the  improvement  of  the  land.  The  agriculture  of 
Picardy  and  Flanders  ranks  high,  and  excepting  in  the  densely  populated  depart- 
ment of  the  Nord,  the  produce  not  only  suffices  for  local  wants,  but  also  supplies 


BASINS  OF  THE  SOMME  AND  THE  SHELDT. 


881 


considerable  quantities  for  exportation  to  other  parts  of  Fronce  and  to  England. 
Calais,  Boulogne,  and  Gravclines  export  much  agricultural  produce,  the  peasants 
themselves  frequently  freighting  the  sliips  with  eggs,  fowls,  und  cheese,  and  main- 
tiiining  regular  agencies  in  London,  Rotterdam,  and  Antwerp. 

For  centuries  the  country  has  been  pre-eminent  for  its  manufactures,  and  the 

Fig.   218.— r£B0XNK-8CR-S0MMB. 


almost  inexhaustible  beds  of  coal  will  secure  it  that  pre-eminence  for  centuries 
to  come.  Coal  was  first  discovered  in  1717  at  Fresnes,  close  to  Valenciennes, 
and  since  then  an  exact  geological  exploration  of  the  entire  basin  has  been  made. 


TorOCKAI'HY. 

SoMME  is  named  after  the  river  wliich  traVerscs  the  entire  department,  and 
enters  the  Channel  below  Abbeville.      Tho  soil  is  carefully  cultivated  by  peasant 


832 


FRANCE. 


proprietors ;  the  breeding  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  is  carried  on  in  the  west ;  and 
nowhere  else  are  the  poultry-yards  so  carefully  attended  to.  There  is  no  coal,  but 
much  turf  is  cut  (1,420,000  tons  in  1873).  The  manufactures  include  woollen  and 
cotton  stuff,  linen,  hosiery,  and  beet  sugar. 

The  Somme,  on  entering  the  department,  flows  past  Ham  (3,122  inhabitants), 
known  for  its  castle,  frequently  used  as  a  prison  of  state.  It  then  flows  north,  in 
the  direction  of  Peronne  (4,210  inhabitants),  one  of  the  most  famous  fortresses  of 
France.  At  the  village  of  Tcrtnj,  close  by,  Pepin  of  Heristal  won  the  battle 
^yhich  secured  to  him  the  dominion  over  Austra'^ia  (087).     At  the  old  abbatial 


Fig.  249. — Amiens. 

Scale  1  :  80,000 


1  MUe. 


town  of  Corbie  (3,977  inhabitants)  the  Somme  is  joined  by  the  river  Ancre,  on 
which  stands  the  small  manufacturing  town  oi  Albert  (4,414  inhabitants). 

The  district  of  Santerre  lies  to  the  south  of  the  Somme,  its  capital  being 
Montdidier  (4,266  inhabitants),  a  dismantled  fortress.  This  town,  as  well  as  the 
others  in  the  same  district,  such  as  Roye  (3,810  inhabitants),  Hosieres  (2,437 
inhabitants),  and  Villers-Bretonncux  (5,356  inhabitants),  engages  in  the  manu- 
facture of  hosiery.  The  tenure  of  the  land  is  stiU  the  same  as  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  no  farm  can  be  sold  without  the  consent  of  the  tenant. 

Amiens  (61,606  inhabitants),  at  the  confluence  of  the  Arve  with  the  Somme, 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Ambiani  and  the  Roman  Samarobriva,  is  a  town  of  con- 


SOMME. 


888 


eiderable  importance.     Its  cathednil  is  oue  of  the  most  sumptuous  edifices  of  the 
thirteenth  ceuturv,  and  by  the  side  of  it  all  other  buildin-^s  of  the  town  shrink  into 


Pier.  250. — The  Catuedkal  op  Amiens. 


insignificance.     There  are  a  mu.semn,  a  library,  and  a  botanical  garden.     The  old 
walls  have  been  converted  into  public  walks,  but  the  citadel  is  still  maintained  in 

VOL.    II.  Z 


832 


FEANCE. 


proprietors ;  the  breeding  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  is  carried  on  in  the  west ;  and 
nowhere  else  are  the  poultry-yards  so  carefully  attended  to.  There  is  no  coal,  but 
much  turf  is  cut  (1,420,000  tons  in  1873).  The  manufactures  include  woollen  and 
cotton  stuff,  linen,  hosiery,  and  beet  sugar. 

The  Somme,  on  entering  the  department,  flows  past  Ham  (3,123  inhabitants), 
known  for  its  castle,  frequently  used  as  a  prison  of  state.  It  then  flows  north,  in 
the  direction  of  Peronne  (4,210  inhabitants),  one  of  the  most  famous  fortresses  of 
France.  At  the  village  of  Tertnj,  close  by,  Pepin  of  Heristal  won  the  battle 
which  secured  to  him  the  dominion  over  Australia  (G87).     At  the  old   abbatial 


Fig.  249.— Amiens. 
Scale  1  :  80,000 


1  MUe. 


town  of  Corbie  (3,977  inhabitants)  the  Somme  is  joined  by  the  river  Ancre,  on 
which  stands  the  small  manufacturing  town  oi  Albert  (4,414  inhabitants). 

The  district  of  Santerre  lies  to  the  south  of  the  Somme,  its  capital  being 
MontcUdier  (4,266  inhabitants),  a  dismantled  fortress.  This  town,  as  well  as  the 
others  in  the  same  district,  such  as  Eoye  (3,810  inhabitants),  liosieres  (2,437 
inhabitants),  and  Villers-Bretoiineiix  (o,356  inhabitants),  engages  in  the  manu- 
facture of  hosiery.  The  tenure  of  the  land  is  still  the  same  as  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  no  farm  can  be  sold  without  the  consent  of  the  tenant. 

Amiens  (61,606  inhabitants),  at  the  confluence  of  the  Arve  with  the  Somme, 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Ambiani  and  the  Roman  Samarobriva,  is  a  town  of  con- 


SOMME. 


888 


sideralile  importance.     Its  cathedral  is  oue  of  the  most  sumptuous  edifices  of  the 
thirtet-uth  ceuturv,  and  by  the  side  of  it  uU  other  buildiuf's  of  the  town  shrink  into 


Fiff.  250.— The  Catiiedbal  or  Amiens. 


insignificance.     There  are  a  museum,  a  library,  and  a  botanical  garden.     The  old 
walls  have  been  converted  into  public  walks,  but  the  citadel  is  still  maintained  in 

VOL.    II.  /. 


334  FEANCE. 

an  efficient  condition.  The  manufactures  include  linens,  woollens,  cottons,  silks, 
and  velvets,  and  there  are  iron  foundries,  machine  shops,  and  chemical  works. 
The  market  gardens  around  the  town  are  most  productive,  and  supply  even 
England  with  vegetables. 

The  Somme,  below  Amiens,  has  been  converted  into  a  navigable  river.  Passing 
Picquigny  and  Lonrjpre,  in  the  midst  of  turf  pits,  we  reach  Abherillc  (19,328 
inhabitants),  a  great  commercial  port  during  the  Middle  Ages,  but  now,  owing  to 
the  silting  up  of  the  estuary  of  the  Somme,  of  little  note.  There  are  a  fine  Gothic 
church  and  the  anthropological  museum  of  M.  Boucher  de  Perthes.  The  manu- 
facturing industry  produces  carpets,  linen,  iron  castings  ;  and  there  are  rope-walks 
and  boat-3'ards.  A  viaduct,  4,484  feet  in  length,  crosses  the  estuary  of  the  Somme, 
and  connects  St.  Vakri/sur-Somme  (3,406  inhabitants)  with  the  railway  system  of 
France.  "William  the  Conqueror  put  in  at  St.  Valery  before  he  crossed  over  to 
England,  but  the  harbour  is  hardly  accessible  now.  Fishing-boats  generally  start 
from  Crotoij,  opposite,  or  from  the  village  of  Caijeux  (2,480  inhabitants),  on  the 
open  sea.  The  villages  of  the  district  of  Vimeu,  which  extends  to  the  south  as  far 
as  Treport,  are  much  frequented  for  sea-bathing. 

The  river  Maye,  which  enters  the  sea  to  the  north  of  the  Somme,  flows  through 
the  forest  of  Cricij,  where  the  windmill  which  sheltered  Edward  I.  during  the 
famous  battle  is  still  pointed  out.    Lower  down  on  that  river  is  Rue,  a  small  town. 

The  river  Authie  bounds  the  department  on  the  north.  On  it  is  Doullcns 
(3,886  inhabitants),  with  an  old  citadel  converted  into  a  convict  prison  for  women. 

Pas-de-Calais  is  named  after  the  strait  which  separates  France  from 
England,  and  is  known  to  us  as  the  Strait  of  Dover.  The  department  includes 
the  greater  portion  of  the  old  province  of  Artois,  and,  excepting  the  hilly  tract 
near  Boulogne,  it  consists  of  monotonous  plains  of  great  fertility,  traversed  by 
tributaries  of  the  Scheldt,  and  by  the  Aa,  the  Authie,  and  the  Canche,  which 
flow  into  the  Channel.  The  agricultural  produce  more  than  suffices  for  local 
consumption,  and  calves,  sheep,  poultry,  eggs,  corn,  and  vegetables  are  exported. 
The  discovery  of  coal  (annual  yield  3,000,000  tons)  has  led  to  the  establishment  of 
numerous  fiictories ;  and  there  are  iron  works,  sugar  refineries,  cotton,  wooUen, 
and  paper  mills,  copper  works,  and  machine  shops.  The  fisheries,  likewise,  are  very 
productive. 

There  are  no  towns  on  the  river  Authie,  but  Bcrcli-sur-Mer  (4,107  inhabitants), 
behind  the  dunes  to  the  north  of  the  estuary  of  that  river,  is  a  place  of  some 
importance,  with  a  sea-bathing  establishment  for  500  scrofulous  children,  main- 
tained by  the  city  of  Paris. 

The  valley  of  the  Canche  is  densely  peopled.  Frecent  (3,792  inhabitants),  near 
the  source  of  that  river,  has  iron  works.  Hcsdin  (3,083  inhabitants)  was  fortified 
formerly  ;  and  Azincotirt,  where  the  French  were  defeated  in  1415,  is  a  few  miles  to 
the  north  of  it.  ;Si/.  Pol  (3,872  inhabitants)  lies  in  a  side  valley  of  Canche.  Still 
descending  the  latter,  we  pass  Montretiil  (3,474  inhabitants),  an  old  member  of  the 
Hanseatic  League,  and  reach  Etaples  (2,948  inhabitants),  near  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  the  small  port  of  which  is  occasionally  visited  by  coasting  vessels. 


PAS-DE-CALAIS. 


885 


Tionlogne  (40,075  inhabitants),  at  the  mouth  of  tho  Liane,  the  most  populous 
town  of  the  department,  occupies  a  position  with  reference  to  En{»land  which  tho 
Roman  emperors  appreciated  liij^lily.  But  of  the  many  huildinfja  erected  bj' 
them  hardly  anj'  vestiges  remain  now.  For  centuries  tho  town  formed  an 
apple  of  discord  between  France  and  England.  It  is  one  of  tho  great  maritime 
ports  of  France,  communicating  daily  with  Folkstono  b\'  steamers.  More  than 
100,000  travellers  here  cross  the  Channel  every  year.  The  fislieries  are  of  great 
importance.  The  existing  harbour  no  longer  answering  tho  requirements  of 
commerce,  the  foundations  of  a  new  one  were  laid  in  July,  1878.  The  aspect 
of  Boulogne  is  more  picturesque  than  that  of  most  commercial  to^vns.     The  old 

Fi(f.  251. — lioviOGSB. 
Scale  1  :  64,000. 


i)^i:."\v...(j. 


1     . .  1.  ..I  1. 


town  occupies  the  summit  of  a  hill,  and  is  inhabited  by  the  wealthier  citizens, 
whilst  the  lower  town,  apart  from  its  sunqituous  bathing  establishment  and  a  few 
hotels,  cannot  boast  of  remarkable  buildings.  Some  of  the  roads  in  the  suburbs 
are  quite  English  in  their  aspect,  which  need  not  surprise  us,  as  nearly  one-tenth 
of  the  population  is  of  English  birth.  These  English  settlers  have  contributed 
much  towards  the  industrial  development  of  the  town.  The  manufactures 
include  steel  pens,  hardware,  and  linen,  and  there  are  saw-mills  and  marble  and 
cement  works.  Le  Porhl  (3,!):?8  inhabitants),  a  village  to  the  south-west,  is 
iiihaJuted  by  fi.shermen,  (»nd  af  Sniinr  ('I,l!)l  inli.ibitanls)  is  (he  ukkIcI  farm  of 
Ilaut-Tingry. 


336 


FRANCE. 


On  tlie  road  from  Boulogne  to  Calais  we  pass  a  column  erected  to  celebrate 
Napoleon's  proposed  invasion  of  England;  Marquise  (3,923  inhabitants),  with  iron 
works  and  marble  quarries  ;  Ambleteuse,  where  James  I.  disembarked  in  1688 ;  and 
AudresseUes,  where  an  English  company  proposed  to  construct  a  large  port. 

Calais  (34,922  inhabitants),  the  rival  of  Boulogne,  consists  of  a  fortified  town 
and  of  the  industrial  suburb  of  St.  Pierre-les-Calais.  The  town  for  more  than 
two  centuries  (1346 — 15-38)  was  held  by  the  English,  but  the  bulk  of  the  inha- 
bitants are  Flemish,  and  the  public  buildings  remind  us  of  Flanders.     St.  Pierre 


Fig.  252. — Calais. 
Scale  1  :  30,000. 


iiiilf  ii  Jiue. 


manufactures  more  especially  cotton  and  silk  tulle,  a  branch  of  industry  introduced 
in  1819  by  English  capitalists,  and  still  partly  directed  by  English  workmen. 
There  are  likewise  linen-mills,  steam  saw-mills,  and  other  establishments.  The 
exports  to  England  consist  mainly  of  Parisian  articles,  horses,  vegetables,  eggs, 
poultry,  and  a  variety  of  manufactures.  The  harbour  of  the  town  is  quite  inade- 
quate, and  contrasts  very  unfavourably  with  that  of  Dover,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  Channel,  which  is  here  annually  crossed  by  more  than  200,000  travellers. 
Guines  (3,644  inhabitants),  5  miles  to  the  south  of  Calais,  has  bleaching  grounds, 


NOED.  837 

and  a  pyramid  near  it  marks  the  spot  where  Blunchard  and  Jeffcrics  alightwl  on 
January  7th,  1785,  after  having  crossed  the  Channel  in  a  balloon.  On  going  from 
Guinos  to  ^^^(//rs  (1,10-}  inhaliifants),  wo  pass,  near  Balingliara,  the  Field  of  tlie 
Cloth  of  Gold,  where  ITenry  A'lll.  and  Francis  I.  met  in  lo'JO. 

St.  Omer  (•21,404  inhabitants),  on  the  river  Aa,  has  a  mcdianal  church,  the 
ruins  of  an  abbey,  and  manufactures  tulle,  muslin,  common  cloth,  and  pipes  of 
every  kind.  Arques  (3,701  inhabitants)  is  almost  a  suburb  of  St.  Omcr.  Tlitrou- 
aniic,  on  the  Lys,  is  a  poor  village  now,  but  it  was  an  important  town  until 
Charles  V.  destroyed  it  in  1554.  Near  it,  at  Enguinegatte  (Guingatto),  was 
fought  the  famous  Battle  of  the  Spurs  (1513).  At  Aire  (5,058  inhabitants)  the 
Lys  becomes  navigable.  All  the  towns  in  the  neighbourhood  are  centres  of 
industry.  Bellinne  (9,315  inhabitants)  has  sugar  refineries  ;  Lons  (9,383  inha- 
bitants), Netu  (4,219  inhabitants),  and  Ilenin-Lietard  (5,491  inhabitants),  have 
coal  mines  ;  whilst  Lilkr-t  (4,701  inhabitants)  is  famous  for  its  boots.  The  first 
artesian  well  was  bored  near  it,  and  its  yield  has  never  dimini.shed. 

Arras  (26,764  inhabitants),  the  old  cajiital  of  Artois,  on  the  Scarpe,  a  tributary 
of  the  Scheldt,  does  not  yield  to  Calais  or  Boulogne  in  historical  interest.  It  was 
famous  during  the  dominion  of  the  Romans  for  its  industry,  bu.t  the  tapestry 
which  once  was  produced  there  is  found  now  only  in  museums.  The  most 
noteworthj*  building  is  a  town-hall  of  the  sixteenth  century,  with  a  fine  belfry. 
The  abbey  of  St.  Waast,  a  structure  of  the  eighteenth  century,  has  been  converted 
into  a  museum.  The  manufactures  include  beet  sugar,  soap,  earthenware,  and 
lace.  The  town  is  strongly  fortified,  and  its  fortifications  occupj^  more  space  than 
do  its  houses.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Hobespierre.  Bajxiiime  (3,190  inhabitants), 
to  the  south  of  Arras,  is  a  small  fortress  of  little  note. 

NoRD  ("  north  ")  is  the  name  of  the  most  northern  department  of  France,  and 
includes  portions  of  the  ancient  provinces  of  Cambresis  and  Ilainaut.  The  river 
Lys  bisects  it  where  it  is  narrowest.  The  south  is  hilly  and  partly  wooded.  The 
centre,  intersected  by  tributaries  of  the  Scheldt,  consists  of  an  undulating  plain, 
whilst  the  maritime  portion  presents  itself  as  a  dead  flat,  above  which  rise  a  ictv 
isolated  hillocks.  Agriculture,  industry,  and  commerce  flourish.  Cereals,  beet- 
root, oil-j-ielding  plants,  flax,  tobacco,  hops,  and  vegetables  are  cultivated.  The 
coal  mines  yield  3,500,000  tons  a  year.  Industry  is  highly  developed.  The 
textile  industries  of  Valenciennes  and  Cambrai  employ  2,807,600  spindles, 
25,810  power-looms,  and  85,848  hand-looms.  In  1873  were  produced  200,000  tons 
of  beet  sugar ;  353,600  tons  of  cast  iron,  steel,  and  hardware  ;  32,000  tons  of  zinc ; 
81,750  tons  of  earthenware  and  glass ;  22,500  tons  of  soap ;  and  36,600  tons  of  soda. 
The  population  has  more  than  doubled  since  the  beginning  of  the  century. 

Arrntici  (4,636  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  eastern  arrondissement,  a  portion 
of  the  old  province  of  Hainaut,  is  only  a  small  town,  with  picturesque  fortifications  ; 
but  Fourmies  (8,151  inhabitants),  to  the  south  of  it,  has  grown  into  a  considerable 
town,  where  the  first  glass  works  of  Xorthern  Franco  wore  established  in  1599. 
LnudrecicK  (3,693  inhabitants)  and  Jliinliriic/e  (5,110  inhabitants)  are  the  principal 
towns  on  the  Sambrc.     They  are  both  fortified.     At  Maubeuge  and  the  neigh- 


338 


PEANCE. 


bouring  town  of  Hantinont  (5,180  inhabitants)  are  numerous  iron  foundries  and 
rifle  factories.  The  villages  of  Malplaquet  and  Wattignies,  both  famous  in  the 
annals  of  battles,  are  near.  Foignics  and  Jenmont  (2,190  inhabitants)  are  customs 
stations  on  the  Belgian  frontier.  Barai,  the  ancient  Bavacum,  capital  of  the 
Nervians,  to  the  west,  was  an  important  Roman  station  formerly,  but  is  now 
merely  a  village. 

Camhrai  (10,969  inhabitants),  like  Bavai,  has  suflPered  much  during  every 
war,  but  has  always  risen  from  its  ruins,  and  fought  stoutly,  too,  for  its  municipal 
liberties.     Several  treaties  were   signed  in  the  old  capital  of  Cambresis.     The 

Fig.  253. — Valenciennes. 
spile  1  :  50.000. 


1".^2E  uf  Gr 


1  Mik- 


principal  buildings  are  a  town-hall  and  a  cathedral.  A  monument  has  been 
erected  in  honour  of  Baptiste,  the  inventor  of  a  species  of  cambric  known  as 
batiste.  The  principal  articles  manufactured  are  cambrics,  tulles,  and  cotton 
lace.  Caudrij  (4,548  inhabitants),  Quievy  (3,467  inhabitants),  and  C (dean- Cam- 
brisk  (9,444  inhabitants),  the  famous  treaty  town,  in  the  south-east,  manufacture 
linen,  cotton,  and  woollen  stuffs.  Solcsmcs  (5,723  inhabitants),  in  the  east,  has 
sugar  refineries.  Descending  the  Scheldt,  we  pass  Iicinj  (3,890  inhabitants),  the 
fortress  oi  Bouchain,  Lourches  (3,590  inhabitants),  and  Denain  (11,849),  the  latter 
with  coal  mines,  iron  works,  and  rolling-miUs. 


NORD. 


839 


Valenciennes  (2'2,686  inhabitants)  is  a  first-ruto  fortress,  but  the  manufacture  of 
lace,  which  rendered  the  place  famous  during  the  Middle  Ages,  has  almost  ceased  to 
exist,  cambrics  and  lawn  being  nuuuifuctured  instead.  The  neighbourhood  of  the 
town  abounds  in  coal  mines,  iron  works  and  sugar  refineries.  At  Aiiziii  ((!,!)20 
inhabitants),  close  to  the  gates  of  the  town,  more  than  2,000,000  tons  are  raised 
yearly  by  a  single  company,  employing  10,000  workmen,  to  whom  they  pay 
annually  £400,000  in  wages.  I.arge  workmen's  cities  have  sprung  up  in  the 
vicinitv  of  these  coal-pits,  which  extend  IVoni  Denain  to  the  fortitied  town  of 
Conde-sur-Emiut  (3,282  inhabitants),  on  the  Belgian  frontier.    Even  at  St.  Amand- 

Fig.  254.— LiLLB. 

Scale  I  :  70,000. 


0»4i,  P.. of  l'apl^ 


3*S  E.of  Gp 


les-Eaiu   (7,243  inhabitants),  a  fashionable  watering-place  on  the  Scarpe,  the  sky 
is  obscured  by  the  smoke  rising  from  hundreds  of  chinmeys. 

Douai  (23,348  inhabitants),  until  recent  times  one  of  the  most  important 
features  of  France,  is  the  scat  of  a  university,  of  courts  of  justice,  and  of  military 
establishments,  including  an  arsenal  and  a  gun  foundry  ;  but  it  also  engages  in 
the  manufactures  common  to  the  country,  and,  like  the  neighbouring  towns  of 
Aniche  (4,686  inhabitants),  Orc/iiis  (3,318  inhabitants),  and  Marchicnnes  (2,048 
inhabitants),  it  has  its  cotton-mills,  sugar  refineries,  distilleries,  and  machine 
shops.     The  old   Flemish   Parliament   House  is  used  now  as  a  Court  of  Appeal. 


342 


FRANCE. 


Kg.  257. — Gravelines. 

Scale  1  :  50,000. 


Tourcoing  (33,013  iuhabitants),  engage  almost  exclusively  in  all  branches  of  the 
woollen  industry,  and  are  the  rivals  of  Bradford,  in  Yorkshire,  which  excels  them 
in  quantity  and  strength,  but  must  yield  to  them  in  beauty  of  design.  The 
suburbs  of  these  two  towns,  Wattrelos  (4,102  inhabitants),  Croix  (2,586  inha- 
bitants), and  others,  likewise  engage  in  the  woollen  industry.  Roubaix  alone 
consumes  daily  100  tons  of  wool.  The  towns  have  nothing  to  show  beyond  their 
factories,  and  the  environs  are  wanting  altogether  in  the  picturesque.  The  Lys, 
into  which  numerous  factories  discharge  their  refuse,  flows  5  miles  to  the  north- 
west. Two  villages  on  the  small  river  Marcq,  one  of  its  tributaries,  are  noteworthy 
on  account  of  the  battles  fought  near  them.  These  are  Boiivines,  where  Philip 
Augustus  defeated  the  Emperor  of  Germany  (1214),  and  Slons-en-Pevele,  where 

Philip  the  Fair  took  revenge  for   the 
defeat  sustained  at  Courtray. 

AYhen  we  cross  the  Lys  we  enter 
the  Flemish-speaking  portion  of  the 
department.  Ilnzehronck  (6,363  inha- 
bitants) and  Bailleul  (8,180  inhabit- 
ants)  are   both  manufacturing  towns. 


the  latter  being  the  centre  of  the  trade 
in  the  so-called  Valenciennes  lace. 
Cassel  (3,224  inhabitants),  on  an 
isolated  hill,  from  which  may  be  en- 
joyed a  most  extensive  prospect,  is  a 
famous  old  cadelhun.  Other  towns  of 
some  importance  are  Steenwerk  (4,309 
inhabitants)  and  Steenroorde  (4,018 
inhabitants). 

The  arrondissement  of  Dunkirk  has 
but  few  manufactures,  but  carries  on 
a  considerable  commerce  by  sea. 
Bergues  (5,368  inhabitants)  is  an  old 
fortress,  defending  the  approaches  to 
Dunkirk.  Its  famous  belfry  and  the 
two  towers  of  an  abbey  are  visible 
from  the  high  sea.  Bourhoiirg  (2,448  inhabitants)  is  the  principal  mart  for 
Flemish  cart-horses.  Crravelines  (4,184  inhabitants),  a  small  fortress,  has  impor- 
tant fisheries,  and  exports  eggs,  apples,  and  vegetables  to  England.  Fort  PhUippe 
was  built  in  1812,  to  prevent  the  smuggling  carried  on  by  English  vessels  employed 
by  Rothschild ;  and  the  town  which  sprang  up  near  it  was  known  as  the  town  of 
smoggleitrs,  or  schmoHeler. 

Dunkirk  (Dunkerque,  35,012  inhabitants)  is  a  Flemish  town,  its  belfry  rising 
high  above  the  houses  which  surround  it.  The  town  has  sustained  more  sieges 
than  anj'  other  in  the  neighbourhood.  Its  most  glorious  epoch  dates  back  to  the 
time  of  Louis  XIV.,  when  its  mariners,  led  on  by  Jean  Bart,  often  held  their  own 


1  Mile. 


NORD. 


848 


agninet  whole  fleets,     liut   the  laiglish  ut  lust    obtained  the  upper  huml,  and  it 
was  destroyed   in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of   Utrecht  (1713).     It  has  been 


Fig.  258.— DiNKiKK. 
Scale  1  :  ^OOa 


HuUu  MUe. 


restored  since,  and  even  enlarged.  There  are  now  three  wet  docks,  capable  of 
receiving  vessels  of  1,000  tons  burden,  and  a  fourth  dock,  of  larger  dimensions 
and  greater  depth,   is  being  constructed.     The  roadstead  of  Dunkirk   is  one  of 


344  FEANCE. 

the  safest  in  the  Channel,  quite  equal  to  that  of  the  "Downs,"  on  the  coast 
opposite.  The  commerce  of  the  town  flourishes,  and  is  increasing,  and  saw-mills, 
cotton-mills,  oil  refineries,  and  other  manufacturing  establishments  have  been 
founded.  The  mariners  of  the  town  engage  in  the  Newfoundland  fisheries.  Close 
to  the  walls  of  Dunkirk  was  fought  the  battle  of  the  Dunes  (1558),  when 
Turenne  beat  Conde  and  his  Spaniards.  At  Hondschoote  (1,870  inhabitants),  a 
neighbouring  village,  the  Austrians  were  defeated  in  1793. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  VOSGES. 
Basins  op  the  Mei'se  asd  tub  Moselle. 


General  Aspects. 

ORTH-EASTERN  France,  within  its  present  limits,  may  almost  be 
looked  upon  as  a  continuation  of  the  basin  of  Paris.  There,  too,  as 
in  Champagne,  we  meet  with  old  beaches  from  which  the  sea  has 
gradually  retired,  and  many  of  the  rivers,  in  their  upper  course, 
exhibit  a  remarkable  parallelism  with  the  Seine.  The  two  great 
rivers  of  the  country,  however,  the  Meuse  and  the  Moselle,  flow  to  the  Rhine. 

The  system  of  the  Vosges  extends,  under  various  names,  from  the  Upper  Saone 
to  the  great  bend  of  the  Rhine  near  Mayence.      The  nucleus  of  this  mountain 
system  consists  of  a  triangular  citadel  of  crystalline  rocks,  and  if  the  sea  were  to 
rise  1,500  feet,  this  mountain  mass  would  be  converted  into  an  island.     Amongst 
the  sedimentary  rocks  which  form   the  inferior  slopes    sandstone  predominates. 
It  is  generally  tinged  red  by  oxide  of    iron,  frequently  forms  bold  cliffs,   or  is 
split  up  into  huge  blocks  resembling  fantastically  shaped  castles.     The  Yosges 
bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  Black  Forest,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
Rhine.     The  geological  formation  of  both  chains  is  the  same  ;  in  each  we  meet 
with  magnificent  pine  forests,  above  which  rise  dome-shaped  summits  clothed  with 
tender  grasses  and  a  carpet  of  flowers.     Both  chains  rise  steeply  from  the  wide 
valley  of  the  Rhine,  but  slope  down  gradually  towards  the  interior  of  the  countrv. 
The  low  range  of    the    Faucilles  and   the  plateau  of    Langres   connect    the 
Vosges  with  the  mountain  system  of  Central  France.     The  Faucilles  are  wooded, 
intersected  by  numerous  ri\Tilets,  and  easy  of  access.     They  are  of  Jurassic  age, 
whilst  the  plateau  of  Langres  is  covered  with  chalk.     In  the  south,  a  deep  depres- 
sion, known  as  the  "  gap  of  Belfort,"  separates  the  Vosges  from  the  Jura.     This 
gap,  through  which  run  a  road,  a  railway,  and  a  canal,  has  at  all  times  played 
an  important  part  in  history.     Immediately  to  the  north  of  it  rise  some  of  the 
highest    summits,    or    balhiis,   of   the    Vosges,    including    the    Ballon   d'Alsace 
(4,100  feet).     For  75  miles  the  present  boundary  between  France  and  Germany 
follows   the   crest    of    the    Vosges;    but    to    the   north    of    the    Grand    Donon 


346 


FRANCE. 


(3,313  feet),  a  huge  mass  of  sandstone,  witli  a  gigantic  stone  ring  upon  its 
summit,  the  victorious  Germans  have  adjudged  themselves  both  slopes.  In  the 
Vosges,  as  in  many  other  mountain  chains,  the  culminating  summits  rise  at 
some  distance  from  the  crest.  The  most  elevated  mountain  of  the  entire  chain, 
the   Ballon,   or  "  Belchen,"  of  Sulz   (4,677    feet),   rises   about   8   miles   to  the 


Fig.  259. — Glacieks  of  the  Vosges. 
Scale  1 ;  360,000. 


I  wo  E  or  rim 


.  2  Jlilea. 


east,  being  almost  cut  off  from  the  main  range  by  the  delightful  valley  of  St. 
Amand.  Standing  upon  this  mountain,  our  eye  ranges  as  far  as  the  snowy  summits 
of  the  Bernese  Oberland.  Eleven  fine  roads  run  across  this  southern  portion  of 
the  Vosges,  the  most  fiimous  amongst  them  being  that  known  as  the  "  Schlucht " 
{i.e.  gorge),  which  connects  Gerardmer  with  Munstci'. 

The  contrasts  between  the  French  and  the  Alsatian  slopes  of  the  Vosges  are 


GENERAL  ASPECTS. 


847 


not  confined  merely  to  a  diftbrence  in  the  gradient,  but  extend  likewise  to  climate 
and  vegetation.  The  rains  are  lieavior  on  the  western  slope  than  on  the  eastern. 
At  Strasburg  and  Culmar  the  annual  rainfall  does  not  exceed  27  inches,  whilst 
at  Mirecourt  and  Vesoul  it  amounts  to  50  inches.  The  cause  of  this  is  evident. 
The  westerlj'  winds,  on  reaching  the  Vosges,  part  with  most  of  their  moisture. 
In  Lorraine  the  sky  is  often  clouded  ;  and  whilst  the  vino  flourishes  in  Alsaf  ia  up 
fo  a  height  of  1,300  feet,  its  cultivation  is  impossible  along  the  western  slope  of 
the  mountains,  owing  to  the  rigours  of  the  climate. 

To  the  same  cause  must  bo  traced  the  great  extent  of  the  glaciers,  which  in 


Fig.  2C0. — The  Laxeb  of  G£rabdmer  and  Lokoemer. 
Scale  1 :  I2&,000. 


'*??F§^-  'Jp  :^..    ■:.;^'  'i^    -,.i 


t.    -  V^B^L. 


■o'&.ot  Cr 


Mae. 


a  former  age  covered  the  western  slope  of  the  mountains,  and  descended  into 
the  ocean,  which  then  reached  to  their  foot.  One  of  these  glaciers  occupied  the 
valleys  of  the  Upper  Moselle,  and  that  of  the  Moselotte,  and  extended  beyond 
Gemiremont  as  far  as  Eloyes.  A  gigantic  dyke,  nearly  200  feet  in  height,  and 
partly  destroyed  by  the  floods  of  the  Moselle,  still  marks  the  site  of  the  terminal 
moraine.  In  area  this  glacier  far  exceeded  that  of  Aletsch,  now  the  most 
considerable  in  Europe,  and  M.  Ilogard  thinks  that  at  one  epoch  it  spread  like- 
wise into  the  valley  of  the  Meuse,  where  erratic  blocks  of  Vosgesian  origin 
abound. 

Old  moraines,  rock-scratchings,  and  other  evidences  of  glacial  action  abound. 


348  FRANCE. 

The  country  around  Giromaguy,  to  the  north  of  Belfort,  is  strewn  with  huge 
blocks,  as  if  a  battle  of  giants  had  been  fought  there.  In  the  west,  towards 
Luxeuil,  the  streams  of  ice  have  worn  away  the  surface  of  the  hiUs,  and 
small  lakes  or  meres  abound,  one  of  them  discharging  one  stream  into  the 
Moselle,  and  another  into  the  Saone.  Small  lakes,  some  of  them  reflecting 
dark  pines,  and  others  embedded  in  verdant  meadows,  are  also  met  with  in 
the  upper  valleys  of  the  Moselle  and  its  tributaries.  Most  of  them  owe  their 
existence  to  moraines,  which  dam  up  the  rivers.  Some  of  the  best  known  of 
these  lakes  are  near  the  Pass  of  the  Schlucht.  The  small  Lake  of  Retournemer 
occupies  a  cup-shaped  cavity,  whilst  the  larger  Longemer  occujDies  the  valley 
lower  down,  giving  rise  to  the  Vologne,  which,  not  far  from  the  lake,  rushes 
headlong  over  a  ledge  of  granite,  and  then  swallows  up  the  emissary  of  the  lake 
of  G^rardmer  (2,180  feet).  This  latter  is  the  largest  lake  in  the  Vosges.  It 
is  shut  in,  on  the  west,  by  a  moraine  230  to  260  feet  in  height,  has  a  depth  of 
246  feet,  and  overflows  towards  the  east.  The  surrounding  country,  with  its 
sombre  forests  and  emerald  meadows,  is  one  of  the  most  charming  to  be  found 
in  the  Vosges,  and  in  comparing  the  beauties  of  nature  with  those  of  the  works 
of  man  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  may  well  say,  "  What  would  Lorraine  be 
without  Gerardmer  and  a  bit  of  Nancy  ?  " 

That  portion  of  the  Vosges  which  was  formerly  covered  with  glaciers  is 
most  plentifully  irrigated.  The  Moselle,  the  Moselotte,  the  Vologne,  and  the 
Meurthe  have  all  forced  themselves  a  passage  through  ancient  moraines.  The 
Hohneck  (4,460  feet),  at  the  head  of  the  ancient  glacier  of  Gerardmer,  forms  the 
centre  of  dispersion  of  the  riVers  of  the  Vosges.  Most  of  these  rivers  flow  into 
the  Alsatian  111,  or  into  the  Moselle,  both  of  which  are  tributary  to  the  Rhine. 
The  Meuse,  too,  flows  now  into  the  Rhine,  but  at  some  former  epoch  it  appears 
to  have  been  a  separate  river,  and  it  actually  retains  its  name  down  to  the  sea. 
It  first  describes  a  large  curve,  almost  parallel  with  the  Moselle  or  Little  Meuse. 
Its  course,  as  is  the  case  with  many  rivers  flowing  through  a  limestone  region,  is 
partly  underground.  In  summer  the  river  is  almost  entirely  swallowed  up  near 
the  village  of  Bazoilles,  and  reappears  2  miles  below,  at  Noncourt.  Having 
been  joined  by  the  Chiers,  the  Meuse  winds  along  the  schistose  rocks  of  the 
Ardennes.  Below  Charleville  it  pierces  the  plateau,  forming  a  sticcession  of 
picturesque  gorges,  equally  attractive  to  the  artist  and  the  geologist.  The 
river  meanders  600  or  1,000  feet  below  the  level  of  the  plateau,  sometimes 
hemmed  in  by  steep  cliffs,  at  others  bounded  by  tree-clad  slaty  slopes,  presenting 
a  charming  contrast  to  the  reddish  or  variegated  cliffs.  The  valley  offers  but 
scanty  accommodation  for  towns  and  villages,  and  one  of  the  former,  Montherm^, 
is  so  much  shut  in  that  the  rays  of  the  sun  only  reach  it  during  part  of  the  day. 
Where  the  Meuse  crosses  the  French  frontier  it  discharges  27  tons  of  water  a 
second  during  summer,  and  twenty  or  twenty-five  times  that  quantity  when  in 
flood. 

The  plateaux  which  bound  the  valley  of  the  Meuse  are  covered  with  woods, 
pastures,  bogs,  or   naked   rocks,  and  cultivable   little    valleys  are    few  and    far 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNlVERSiTV  of  ILLINOIS. 


OENERAL  ASPECTS. 


840 


between.  The  schistose  heights  of  the  Fugues,  or  Fanges,  to  the  east  of  the 
river,  are  most  melancholy  of  aspett  aiul  very  thinly  populated.  Their  name  has 
reference  to  the  pools  of  stagnant  black  water  which  abound  there.  Formerly  the 
"  sombre  and  formidable "  Forest  of  the  Ardennes  occupied  the  whole  of  the 
country  between  the  Scheldt  and  the  Rhine.  Wild  boars  and  other  beasts  were 
numerous  then,  and  the  forest  was  much  dreaded.  Most  of  it  has  been  destroyed, 
towns  and  villages  now  occupy  the  valleys,  and  the  stubborn  soil  is  made  to  yield 
harvests. 


The  Ardennes  and    the   Tosges  luivc   played  no   inconsiderable  part  in  tho 


Pig.  261.— Meandeiunos  of  the  Melse. 

S&do  1  :  ICO.fOO. 


2°20V  ..iP. 


■  5  Milea. 


hi>tor_v  of  France.  The  Ardennes  more  especially  have  at  all  times  proved  a 
formidable  obstacle  t)  invading  armies,  not  so  much  on  account  of  their  width 
and  their  deep  valleys,  but  because  of  their  being  very  thinly  populated.  The 
roads  open  to  an  invader  either  lead  through  the  valley  of  the  Moselle,  to  the  east  of 
the  Ardennes,  or  through  the  valley  of  the  Oisc  and  the  plains  of  Flandcr.s,  to  the 
west  of  them. 

Ethnologically  the  Ardennes  and  Yosges  are  even  more  important  than  in  a 
military  point  of  view,  for  thev  form  a  linguistic  boundary,  and  have  prevented 
the  Germanisation  of  Xorth-eastern  France. 

vor,.  n.  \  A 


350  FEANCE. 

Lorraine,  or  Lotharingia,  thus  named  nfter  Lothar,  the  grandson  of  Charle- 
magne, is  French  in  sjjite  of  its  German  name.  The  inhabitants,  as  far  as 
records  can  prove  the  fact,  have  always  spoken  a  Latin  dialect.  Physicall}'-  the 
Lorrainers  differ  from  the  Germans  by  having  short  and  nearly  round  skulls. 
Their  minds,  too,  are  differently  constituted.  Cool,  reflective,  calculating,  and 
circumspect,  they  have  none  of  the  mj'sticism  of  their  neighbours  the  "  Swabians.'' 
These  latter  have  at  all  times  designated  them  as  "  "Welsh." 


TorOGKAPHY. 

Meuse  is  named  after  the  river  which,  rising  on  the  plateau  of  Laugres,  traverses 
the  department  in  a  north-westerly  direction.  A  portion  of  it  is  drained  into  the 
Seine.  Jurassic  and  cretaceous  rocks  cover  the  whole  of  the  country,  and  the 
hills  are  for  the  most  part  wooded,  more  especially  in  the  Argonne,  on  both  banks 
of  the  Meuse.  The  naked  plain  of  the  Woevre,  intersected  by  the  Orne  and  its 
tributaries,  lies  to  the  east.  Ilorse-breeding  is  carried  on  extensively,  and  there 
are  iron  and  steel  works. 

Bar-k-Duc  (16,643  inhabitants),  on  the  river  Ornain,  is  the  most  populous 
town  of  the  department.  It  has  \n\n\  manufactories,  and  the  canal  which  con- 
nects it  with  the  Rhine  and  the  Marne  offers  great  facilities  for  the  export  of 
wine  and  other  products.  The  town  is  noted  for  its  candied  fruits  and  pastry. 
The  museum  of  the  town  contains  a  few  Roman  antiquities  discovered  near  Ligny- 
rn-Barrois  (4,128  inhabitants),  on  the  Upper  Ornain. 

Vfuwouk'urs  ("2,475  inhabitants),  associated  with  the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc,  is 
the  first  town  met  with  on  descending  the  Meuse.  Then  follows  Commercy 
(4,960  inhabitants),  with  a  fine  castle,  now  used  as  barracks.  The  pastrycooks 
of  Commercy  are  famous  for  their  "  madeleines."  St.  Miliiel  (5,146  inhabitants), 
the  old  capital  of  Barrois,  boasts  of  two  fine  churches,  with  sculptures  by  Ligier 
Richier,  who  was  born  here.  It  is  defended  by  a  modern  fort.  Verdun  (15,433 
inhabitants),  lower  down  on  the  Meuse,  is  one  of  the  most  important  fortresses  of 
France,  defending  the  defiles  of  the  Argonne.  In  history  it  is  famous  for  the 
treaty  of  843,  which  partitioned  the  Carlo vingian  Empire.  The  town  is  noted 
for  its  confectionery  and  liqueurs.  Elain  (2,815  inhabitants)  lies  to  the  east 
of  Verdun,  in  the  plain  of  "WoSvre,  and  on  the  road  to  Metz.  Stenay  (2,376 
inhabitants),  on  the  Meuse,  has  iron  works  and  biscuit  bakeries.  ITonfmedy 
(2,219  inhabitants),  on  the  Chiers,  is  merely  a  fortified  village,  whilst  Clermont 
and  Varennes,  on  the  river  Aire,  and  near  the  great  Forest  of  Argonne,  are 
places  of  no  importance  whatever.  Louis  XVI.  was  arrested  at  the  latter  in 
1791. 

AuDEXXES  is  named  after  the  old  forest  which  still  covers  about  one-fifth  of  its 
area.  Champaign  plains  of  cretaceous  formation  extend  in  the  south  ;  the  Jurassic 
hills  of  Argonne  occupy  the  centre ;  and  the  cold  schistose  plateau  of  Ardenne 
spreads  out  in  the  north,  traversed  by  the  deep  gorge  of  the  Meuse.  There  are  iron 
mines,  slate  quarries,  beds  of  jjhosphatic  nodules,  iron  works,  and  woollen-mills. 


AUDEXXES. 


851 


St'daii  (15,8G2  inhabitants),  on  the  Mouse,  below  its  contliionco  with  the  Chiers, 
first  rose  into  importance  in  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the  Dukes  of  IJouillon 
made  it  their  capital.  The  town  suffered  much  in  consequence  of  the  revocation 
of  tlie  Edict  of  ^»antes  ;  but  its  cloth  nuinufacture  revived  soon  after,  and  is  now 
of  very  great  importance.  There  are  likewise  iron  foundries ;  and  the  valley  of 
the  Chiers,  in  which  lies  Carignan  (1,874  inhabitants),  is  one  of  the  great  centres 
of  the  iron  industry  of  the  department.  Turcnne  and  Macdonald  were  natives  of 
Sedan.  Its  capitulation  on  September  2nd,  1S70,  put  a  termination  to  the  Second 
Empire. 

Chaikville    (12,881    inhabitants)   and  Meziircs    (5,204   inhabitants)  are  twin 


l-'ig.  202.— Chaklkville  and  MkziKues. 

Scale  1  :  60,000. 


1  Mil, 


cities.  The  latter,  occupying  the  neck  of  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  Meuse,  is  a 
strong  fortress,  often  besieged,  but  rarely  taken.  Bayard,  in  1521,  successfully 
defended  it  against  Charles  V.  Charleville,  only  founded  in  1G06,  is  a  place  of 
commerce  and  industry,  with  foundries,  nail  works,  and  manufactories  of  tools. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Sormonne,  which  joins  the  Meuse  near  Mezieres,  are  the  slate 
quarries  of  Rimogne.  Still  descending  the  ileuse,  we  pass  Nouzoti  (5,225  inhabit- 
ants), which  manufactures  nails,  railway  rolling  stock,  and  agricultural  machines, 
and  Fumay  (4,589  inhabitants),  with  immense  slate  quarries,  and  finally  reach  the 

S    A    2 


352 


FRANCE. 


triple  town  of  Givet  (6,272  inhabitants),  with  its  citadel  of  Charlemont,  constructed 
by  Charles  V.  Pipes,  pencils,  sealing-wax,  gl^e,  and  hardware  are  manufactured. 
Rocio;i  (1,053  inhabitants),  on  the  cold  plateau  to  the  east  of  the  Meuse,  is  an 
important  fortress. 

The  south-western  portion  of  the  department  is  drained  by  the  river  Aisne. 
Its  most  important  town  is  Rethcl  (7,364  inhabitants),  formerly  a  fortress,  with 


Fig.  263.— Epixal. 
Scale  1  :  30,000. 


Ualf  a  Mile. 


manufactures  of  merinos.  Ascending  the  river,  we  pass  Affif/»;/,  where  the 
Merovingian  and  Carlovingian  kings  frequently  resided,  and  Wittekind,  the 
chieftain  of  the  Saxons,  was  baptized,  and  reach  Vouziers  (3,425  inhabitants),  at 
the  head  of  navigation.  Gerson,  the  birthplace  of  the  famous  Chancellor  of  the 
Paris  Universit}',  stood  a  few  miles  to  the  north  of  Rethel. 

VosGEs  is  the  name  of  a  department  bounded  by  the  Vosges  Mountains  in  the 


VOSGES.  353 

east,  but  occupied  for  the  greater  part  bv  the  Monts  Faucilles,  which  form  the 
water-shed  betweon  the  Rhine  and  the  Saoue.  Its  nortliern  portion  is  drained  by 
the  rivers  Meurthe,  MostUe,  and  ileuse,  whilst  the  Saune  and  several  of  ita 
tributaries  rise  in  the  south-west.  The  climate  is  inclement,  and  one-fourth  of 
the  country  is  covered  with  forests.  The  manufacture  of  pai>cr  and  of  co:ton 
stuffs  is  of  importxiuce. 

Neiifihatcan  (.■J,l).20  inhabitants)  is  the  only  town  on  the  ileuse,  which  crosses 
the  western  corner  of  the  department.  It  is  the  Noviomagus  of  the  Romans,  and 
Roman  remains  abound  throughout  this  region.  Files,  nails,  and  tools  are  manu- 
factured. Domreini/-la-Piicelle,  the  birthplace  of  Joan  of  Arc,  is  close  by.  In  the 
valley  of  the  Vair,  which  joins  that  of  the  Meuse,  are  the  mineral  springs  of 
Contrejrecille  and  Vittel.  The  neighbourhood  of  the  latter  is  noted  for  its  tine  oak 
forests,  and  there  are  glass  works  and  iron  forges. 

Mirt'voiirf  (5,169  inhabitants),  on  the  Madon,  a  tributary  of  the  Jloselle,  has 
tan-yards,  and  manufactures  violins,  organs,  and  other  musical  instruments.  Much 
lace  is  made  in  its  neighbourhood. 

The  river  Moselle,  not  far  from  its  source,  flows  past  Biissaiig  (798  inhabitants), 
noted  for  its  gaseous  springs.  Retniremoiit  (7,211  inhabitants),  delightfully 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Moselle  with  the  Moselotte,  has  a  fine  old  abbey, 
now  used  as  a  court  of  justice,  a  library,  and  a  town-hall.  La  Brcsse  (1,50G  inha- 
bitants), in  the  picturesque  valley  of  the  Moselotte,  is  known  for  its  cheese,  butter, 
and  wood  car\'ings.  There  are  several  cotton-mills  lower  down  on  the  river. 
The  Valley  of  AJol,  near  Remiremont,  with  its  numerous  villages,  is  famous  for 
its  picturesque  beauties.  Still  descending  the  iloselle,  we  arrive  at  Epinal 
(13,827  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  department.  The  town  possesses  a  fine 
picture  gallery  and  rich  geological  and  archtcological  museums.  Coarsely  painted 
images  of  saints  are  manufactured,  and  the  number  of  cotton-mills  has  largely 
increased  since  the  annexation  of  Alsatia  hy  Germany.  Chamagne,  a  village  lower 
down  on  the  Moselle,  is  famous  as  the  birthplace  of  Claude  Gelee,  known  as 
Claude  Lorraine. 

Gerardmer  (2,331  inhabitants),  a  town  in  the  valley  of  the  Yologne,  which 
joins  llie  Moselle  above  Epinal,  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  wood-carvers,  and  a 
hand-loom  is  found  in  nearly  every  house. 

Rambervillers  (4,910  inhabitants),  on  the  Mortagne,  a  tributary  river  of  the 
Meurthe,  is  surrounded  by  factories  and  hopgardens;  \)\xt  St.  Die  (12,020  inha- 
bitants), on  the  Meurthe  itself,  far  exceeds  it  in  importance.  The  cathedral  and 
several  of  the  other  churches  are  venerable  for  their  age.  Cotton  stuflls,  carpets, 
hardware,  and  paper  are  manufactured,  and  there  are  numerous  saw-mills. 
Raon-rEfupe  (3,G0l  inhabitants)  is  the  principal  place  in  the  Vosges  whore  paper 
is  manufactured  from  aspen-wood. 

Moi/enmoulier  (1,622  inhabitants)  and  Senonea  (2,542  inhabitants)  are  two  old 
towns  in  the  valley  of  the  Rabodeau,  each  with  a  cotton-mill  installed  in  an 
ancient  castle. 

There  are  no  large  towns  in  that  portion  of  the  department  which  lies  within 


S54  FRANCE. 

tlie  basiu  of  the  Saone.  Plomhieres,  to  the  south-west  oi  Remiremont,  is  noted 
for  its  hot  and  cold  springs,  which  attract  thousands  of  visitors  annually.  Bains, 
a  village  farther  west,  has  springs  equally  efficacious  as  those  of  its  more  popular 
neighbour.  Xertigny  (^2,025  inhabitants),  Fontenoy-Je- Chateau  (1,738  inhabitants), 
and  other  villages  in  the  neighbourhood  engage  in  the  manufacture  of  nails, 
cutlery,  and  tools,  and  embroider  lace  for  Paris  houses. 

Meurthe-et-Moseli.e,  the  principal  river  of  which  is  the  Moselle,  with  its 
tributary  the  Meurthe,  includes  two-thirds  of  the  old  department  of  Meurthe  and 
about  one-fifth  of  that  of  the  Moselle,  the  remainder  having  been  surrendered 
to  Germany.  The  country  is  generally  well  cultivated,  its  mineral  wealth  con- 
siderable, and  its  industry  flourishing.  Iron  and  steel,  glass,  china,  and  paper  are 
the  principal  articles  produced. 

Baccarat  (5,128  inhabitants)  is  the  first  town  on  the  Meurthe  lying  within 
the  department,  and  is  famous  on  account  of  its  glass.  Lttnicille  (15,878  inha- 
bitants), at  the  confluence  of  the  Meurthe  and  the  Vezouze,  manufactures  watch 
glasses,  and  carries  on  much  commerce.  The  treaty  of  1801  was  signed  here, 
and  in  the  eighteenth  century  Luneville  was  the  residence  of  the  Duke  of  Lorraine, 
whose  palace  has  been  converted  into  barracks.  Blnmont  (2,337  inhabitants)  and 
Circy  (2,324  inhabitants),  both  on  the  Yezou.ze,  are  small  manufacturing  towns, 
the  former  having  a  cotton-mill,  the  latter  glass  works. 

Once  more  descending  the  Meurthe,  we  pass  St.  Nicolas-dii-Povt  (4,109  inha- 
bitants), from  which  the  salt  obtained  from  the  mines  in  the  vicinity  ia 
exported,  and  reach  Nancy  (66,303  inhabitants),  the  ancient  capital  of  Lorraine. 
In  the  seventeenth  century  this  was  a  small  ill-built  town,  for  modern  Nancj'-, 
with  its  wide  and  straight  streets,  was  in  reality  founded  by  Stanislas,  father-in- 
law  of  Louis  XV.  A  triumphal  arch,  numerous  statues,  a  ducal  palace,  now 
converted  into  an  archteological  museum,  remind  us  that  Nancy  formerly  had  a 
court  of  its  own  ;  but  the  most  interesting  building  of  the  town  is  the  Franciscan 
church,  in  which  are  several  fine  monuments  of  the  Dukes  of  Lorraine.  Nancy 
has  its  university,  a  librarj',  a  natural-history  museum,  and  botanical  gardens, 
and  is  ambitious  of  becoming  the  mediator  of  scientific  thought  between  France 
and  Germany.  Several  of  the  great  cotton  lords  of  Alsatia  have  transferred  their 
mills  to  Nancy  and  its  vicinity,  besides  which  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  of  hats, 
and  of  artificial  flowers  is  busily  carried  on. 

Frouard  (2,404  inhabitants),  at  the  confluence  of  the  Meurthe  with  the  Moselle, 
has  been  strongly  fortified  since  the  war.  Pont-u-Mousson  (9,904  inhabitants), 
on  the  Moselle,  was  the  seat  of  a  university  up  to  1763.  It  is  important  now  on 
account  of  its  iron  works  and  needle  manufactories.  Pagny,  on  the  German 
frontier,  is  an  important  customs  station.  The  ruins  of  the  feudal  fortress  of 
Pr^nj',  the  finest  in  all  Lorraine,  are  near,  and  Roman  antiquities  abound  through- 
out this  region. 

Toul  (9,566  inhabitants),  on  the  Moselle,  an  old  episcopal  city,  boasts  of  two 
fine  Gothic  churches.  As  a  fortress  defending  one  of  the  great  historical  high- 
ways of  France  it  has  been  frequently  besieged,  and  ofcen  taken  and  devastated. 


.•>1 


L«.»: 


I 


'.♦.♦A; 


'/.« 


't  r 


• 'i 


l>  • 


•  • 


'/.•. 
'••/- 


.'  •- 


'♦  • 


iN'.V 


..,./. 


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3F  THE 

'JNIV£f?S/TY of  ILLINOIS. 


MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE. 


855 


Abuve  the  town  the  canul  couneeting  thu  Muruu  with  the  Rhiuu  its  curried  ucro88 
the  Moselle. 

The  narrow  slip  of  territory  in  the  north,  ull  that  remains  to  France  out  of 
the   old  depurtnient  of  Moselle,  has  Brivy  ('2,U'J'J  inhabitants),  to  the  north-webt 


Fig.  264.— NA.Ncr. 

Pnilr  1  :  ,v>,iii«. 


'zJ 


3"  io  E   of  Paj-o 


1  Mile. 


uf  Metz,  for  its  cajntal.  South  of  it  is  the  village  of  Murs-la-Tour,  rememberetl 
in  connection  with  the  events  of  1870.  Loinjin/  (2,939  inhabitants)  and  Loixjiii/oii 
(2,020  inhabitants),  both  on  the  Chicrs,  close  to  the  Belgian  frontier,  have  iron 
works,  forges,  and  other  industrial  establishments.  Longwy  is  defended  by 
a  citadel. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

STATISTICS  OF  FRANCE.* 

Population. 

nlN  order  to  enable  us  to  judge  of  the  strength  of  a  nation  we  must 
carefully  inquire  into  the  statistics  available  with  respect  to  it,  and 
weigh  their  import.  Such  an  inquiry  we  now  propose  to  institute. 
History  may  exhibit  the  genius  peculiar  to  each  nation,  but 
statistics  certainly  make  known  to  us  the  resources  available  for 
continuing  the  struggle  for  existence.  "  The  future  of  a  nation,"  says  a  Japanese 
proverb,  "  lies  in  its  present,  as  the  unfledged  eagle  lies  within  the  shell  of 
its  egg." 

One  great  fact  meets  us  at  the  outset  of  our  inquiry.  The  population  of  France 
has  vastly  increased  since  the  Revolution,  and  men  live  longer  now  than  they  did 
formerly.  Still  that  increase  has  not  been  as  rapid  as  in  most  other  countries  of 
Europe,  and  there  were  actually  periods  when  the  population  decreased.!  The 
calamities  of  the  war  of  1870-71  are  plainly  indicated  in  the  population  statistics. 
But  there  are  other  causes  which  retard  the  increase  of  the  population  of  France. 
The  number  of  births  in  excess  of  deaths  was  172,950  in  1872,  101,775  in  1873, 
and  131,920  in  1876,  which  is  far  less  than  in  other  countries;  and  whilst  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century  Frenchmen  constituted  one-fifth  of  the  European  popu- 
lation of  the  world,  they  now  constitute  only  one-tenth. 

Physical  degeneration  is  not  the  cause  of  this  slow  increase,  for  the  number  of 
exemptions  from  military  service  granted  on  account  of  physical  infirmities  is 
decreasing  from  year  to  year.  The  large  number  of  bachelors  and  spinsters  is 
certainly  one  of  the  causes,  for  500,000  soldiers  and  sailors  are  not  allowed  to 
marry,  200,000  priests  and  nuns  have  taken  vows  of  chastity,  and  many  others  are 
compelled  by  circumstances  to  lead  a  life  of  ceUbacy.J    But  there  are  other  causes, 

•  M.  Block,  "Annuairede  I'Economie  Politique"  and  "Statistique  de  la  France;"  E.  Levasseur, 
"  La  France  avec  ses  Colonies;  "  L'Economiste  Fran^ais  ;  Journal  des  Economistes. 

t  Population  within  present  limits  of  France :— 36,469,836  in  1866;  36,102,921  in  1872;  36,905,788 
in  1876. 

X  Of  every  100  Frenchmen  21  years  of  age  and  upwards,  51  are  bachelors,  41  are  married,  and  5  are 
widowers;  of  every  100  women  of  the  same  age,  48  are  spinsters,  40  are  married,  and  11  are  widows. 


POPULATION. 


867 


of  a  moral  nature,  and  fur  more  deep-soatod.  Purcuts,  led  by  the  very  luudablu 
desire  of  leaving  their  children  well  provided  for,  take  cure  that  their  number  is 
limited.  Some  philosophers  may  approve  of  this  solicitude,  but  it  cleurly  exliibits 
much  want  of  faith  in  tlic  future,  and  substantially  weakens  the  strength  of  the 
country,  as  compared  with  other  countries.  In  poor  departments  more  children 
are  born,  as  a  rule,  than  in  rich  ones.  A  poor  man  may  teach  each  of  his  children 
a  trade ;   a  rich  one  is  expected  to  divide  his  capital  amongst  them  when  he  dies. 

Fig.    265.— I.NCUE.KSE    OF    PoPCLATIOS    IN    TUB    PulNClPAL    C0UNTUIE3    OF   TlIK    WollLD. 


In  Normandy  this  voluntary  limitation  of  families  is  carried  to  the  greatest  length  , 
in  the  department  of  Eure  one-eighth  of  the  inhabitants  lead  a  life  of  celibacy,  and 
there  are  few  families  with  more  than  two  children.  Need  we  wonder  that  the 
population  decreases  ? 

Frenchmen  are  the  most  sedentary  of  Europeans.  The  "trappers"  and 
"voyageurs"  of  Canada  prove  that  they  are  quite  able  to  accommodate  them- 
selves to  the  rough  life  of  a  colony  ;  but,  for  all  that,  thej'  prefer  to  remain 
at   home.      Even  in  Algeria,  which  lies  within  easy  reach,  but  few  Frenchmen 


858  FEANCE. 

are  met  with  as  voluntary  settlers.*  In  fact,  the  number  of  foreigners  who 
annually  immigrate  into  France  far  exceeds  that  of  Frenchmen  who  leave  the 
country. 

Migration  is  going  on  actively  within  the  limits  of  France.     The  rural  popula- 
tion is  steadily  moving  into  the  large  towns.     In  1830  three-fourths  of  the  iuba- 


Fig.  266. — Density  of  the  Popvlation  in  Fraxce  (1872). 


I J    Densiiti  Au"J   thaiL'  the.  <i*'«.^<3y-c  t/uvu^/wut    FrtUU:^^ 

!■■  '■'  'I'A        ^^         belwcen.  u^ej'OMi,   jjui  i^Q  Uru  Sj  i^lii^t 
,  e5j)  to-  3SS  etf  ^' Sy  M 


bitants  lived  in  small  parishes ;    nowadays  hardly  two-thirds  do  so.     The  great 
manufacturing  towns  increase  more  and  more,  whilst  the  small  villages  are  being 


•  From  1865  to  1874  only  32,.500  Frenrhmen  emigrated  ;  in  1874,  4,253.  The  total  number  of  natives 
of  France  in  the  Uniled  States  is  116,040  (1870)  ;  in  Australia,  2,400  (1875)  ;  in  Algeria,  129.600  (1872). 
In  1851379,300  foreigners  were  enumerated  in  France;  in  1876  801,700,  inclu'iing  374,500  Belgians, 
165,000  Italians,  66,500  Germans,  62,500  Spaniards,  50,000  Swiss,  and  30,000  English. 


AORICULTURi:. 


859 


de^rted.  In  seven  departments  the  town  populutiun  ulreudy  exceeded  tliut  of  the 
rural,  and  the  time  is  not  distant  when  the  majority  of  Frenchmen  will  live  in 
cities.* 

Agriciltire. 
The  rural  population  diminishes,  but  the  productions  of  the  soil  increase,  for  the 
division    of  labour,    agricultural   machinery,  and   better   education   have   proved 
potent  factors.     The  quantity  of  cereals   produced  has  double<l  within  the  last 

Fii;.    267.— Chop  ok  Wheat  in  PkancB  (lS7-t). 


()■    M  m(  Pari! 


T-- 


'■^■ 


f-s-">''Ar'" 


M   E    D   I   T  £  It  n  A  .V  JS.4-V 


^l-*^     jMtfi^'^CC^ 


Ov^j^  maaev  Cvt  lAjM  — law   \tm* 


E~3 


Cr  *»yt^  t^^  ,•*},/   *r'f  IT r  ^  Cc^C^a/   tt^£<u 


fiftv  vears,  though  the  area  under  cultivation  is  but  little  more  than  it  used  to  be. 
Crops  are  far  heavier  than  formerly,  and  a  poor  harvest  would  have  been  looked 
upon  as  a  most  abundant  one  in  the  beginning  of  the  century.  In  bad  years 
France    imports   corn  from  the  East,  from  Algeria,  and   from   America.!     The 

•  Populatirin  of  Paris  according  to  birthplaces  (1872)  :— 642,718  Parisians;  1013,863  prorincial 
Frenchmen  ;  177,208  foreigners. 

t  Cereal  crops  in  1813,  55,500,000  quarters,  valued  at  £104,000,000;  in  1872.94,950,000  quarter<<, 
valufJ  at  £204,230.000,  inclu'ling  the  straw;  in  187G,  80,562,400  quarters.  In  1875  cereals  wtro  grown 
on  36.761,000  acres  (wheat  on  17,166,000  acres,  oata  7,878,000,  &c.).  Average  consumption  of  whfliit  per 
head,  41  buiheU  in  1813,  6  8  bushels  in  1872. 


860 


FEANCE. 


nortli  produces  more  wheat  than  the  centre  or  the  south,  the  latter  possessing 
great  advantages  for  raising  other  crops.  France,  owing  to  its  central  position, 
has  a  greater  variety  of  agricultural  productions  than  any  other  country  in  Europe. 
Corsica  and  eleven  Mediterranean  departments  produce  the  best  olive  oil  in  the 
world.*  There,  and  elsewhere  in  the  south,  the  mulberry  flourishes,  and  seri- 
culture, in  spite  of  the  ravages  of  disease,  still  forms  a  source  of  wealth.     But  far 


Fi '.  2C8. — The  Produce  of  the  Vineyards  of  France. 


0°    M.«f  P»rl3 


MED   I  T  B  It  R  A  y  BAN 


Produce  over  90  gallons  to  an  acre  ,•— 1.  H^rault.  2.  Charente-Inf^rieure. 
Produce  over  ^  gallons  to  an  acre : — 3.  Charente.  4.  Aude.  6.  Gironde. 
Produce  over  9  gallo7is  to  an  acre;— G.  'Rhone.    7.  Yonne.    8.  Loire-InfL-rieure.    9.  Pyreni^es-Orientales,    10.  Tnde- 

et-Loire.     H.  Loir-et-Cher.     12.  Lot-et-Garonne.     13.  Saone-et-Loire.     14.  Aube.     15.  Meurthe.     16.  Var. 

17.  Cote-d'Or.    18.  Loiret.    19.  Vienne.    20.  Haute-Mame.    21.  Gers.    22.  Haute  Saone.    23.  Haute -Garonne. 

24.  Jura.    26.  Puy-de-D6me.    26.  Maine-et-Loire.    27.  Gard.    28.  Vendee.    28.  Dordogne.    30.  Tarn.    31.  Ain. 

32.    Meuse.     33.   Tam-et-Garonne.     34.    Mame.     35.    Seine.     36.    Seine-ct-Mame.     37.    Lot.     38.    Cher. 

39.  Doubs. 
Produce  1  (0  9  gallons  to  an  acre: — 40.  Isere.     41.  Loire.    42.  Nievre.    43.  Denx-B^vres.    44.   Seine-et-Oise. 

45.  Allier.    46.  AvejTon.    47.  Corr^ze.    48.  Bouches-du-Eh6ne.    49.  Savoie.    50.  Haute- Vienne.    51.  Voeges. 

52.  Haute-Savoie.     53.  Landes.     54.  Ardeche.    55.   Drome.    66.  Hautes-Pyr^nees.    67.  Aisne.    68.  Ariege. 

59.  Morbihan.    60.  Sarthe.    61.  Alpes-Maritimes.    62.  Haute-Loii-e.    63.  Basses-P^Tt^nees.    C4.  Hautes-Alpes. 

65.  Vauduse.    66.  Basses-Alpes.    67.  Loz^re.    68.  Eure-et-Loire. 


more   important    than   either   of    these   are    the    vineyards.     The   vine    can    be 
cultivated  almost  everywhere,  and  the  product  of  Champagne,  in   the  north,  is 

*  rrodiiction  of  olive  oil  (1872),  275,000,000  gallons,  valued  at  i'o,080,000  ;  of  cocoons,  14,500,000  lbs. 
in  1760  ;  79,000,000  lbs.  iv  1853  ;   21,761,000  lbs.  in  1872. 


AGRICUT.TUBE.  SOI 

higlilj'  esteemed  throughout  the  world  ;  but  it  is  the  south  which  produces  most 
wine.  The  vineyards  cover  4,!)S(),000  acres ;  and  in  187.")  (the  most  productive 
year  of  the  century)  no  less  than  1,840,000,000  gallons  of  wine  were  made,  of  an 
estimated  value  of  £1  "20,000,000.  Xo  other  country  of  Europe  can  compare  with 
France  as  regards  the  variety  and  quality  of  her  wines  and  brandies.  Nearly  all 
the  wine  made  is  consumed  in  the  country,  for  the  exports  do  not  ordinarily  exceed 
88,000,000  gallons.  The  ravages  of  the  phylloxera  threaten  to  destroy  this  impor- 
tant branch  of  agriculture,  but  the  peasants,  in  their  struggle  against  adversity, 
which  calls  forth  their  latent  energy  and  compels  them  to  seek  out  new  paths, 
must  morally  be  the  gainers. 

All  productions  of  the  temperate  zone  meet  with  a  congenial  soil  in  France. 
Potatoes  are  grown  to  a  larger  extent  than  anywhere  else  in  Europe.  Oil  plants 
are  widely  cultivated,  especially  in  tlic  north,  where  flax  and  hemp  also  are 
ordinary  crops.  Beet-root  is  cultivated  around  the  sugar  refineries  in  the  north. 
Every  town  and  village  has  its  orchards  and  market  gardens.  But  far  more 
important  than  all  these  crops  are  the  grasses,  herbs,  and  other  plants  grown  as 
fodder  for  animals. 

The  increased  facilities  for  transport  have  exercised  a  most  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  breeding  of  cattle.  Every  department  now  breeds  the  animals  best 
adapted  to  its  soil  and  climate.  The  northern  and  north-western  departments  are 
most  noted  for  their  horses.  The  mountainous  districts  of  the  south  excel  in  mules 
and  asses,  but  Poitou  surpasses  even  these.  Horned  cattle  are  most  numerous  in 
the  grassy  departments  adjoining  the  Atlantic,  and  in  the  hilly  pastures  of  the 
Pyrenees,  Limousin,  the  Jura,  and  the  Vosgcs.  Sheep,  flourishing  best  in  a  drier 
climate,  abound  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  the  Cevennes,  on  the  central  plateau,  in 
the  plains  of  Berry,  around  Orleans,  in  Champagne,  Eastern  Picardy,  and  in  the 
Landes.  The  goat  feels  more  at  home  on  the  scarped  heights  bounding  the  Rhone 
valley.  The  pig  is  met  with  everj-where.  Poultry  is  being  kept  more  generally 
than  formerly,  and  in  Brittany  and  elsewhere  the  beehive  is  made  to  contribute 
towards  the  wealth  of  the  peasant.  The  chase  of  wild  animals  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  pay,  and  the  birds  are  disappearing  fast ;  yet  the  number  of  wolves  still 
at  large  is  estimated  at  2,000  !  * 

The  fisheries  of  France  are  of  great  importance,  and  the  "  cultivation "  of 
oyster  and  musijel  beds  is  annually  increasing. t  France,  upon  the  whole,  occupies 
a  respectable  position  as  regards  the  breeding  of  animals,  although  some  of  the 
neighbouring  countries  may  occasionally  excel  it.  The  dairy  and  other  farm 
produce  annually  exported  is  the  best  proof  of  this. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  peasants  are  the  real  masters  of  France,  and  this  is 
certainly  true  of  the  numerous  small  proprietors,  who  cultivate  the  land  which 
formerly  belonged  to  the  nobles,  and  keep  the  cities  alive  by  supplying  them  with 

*  In  1872  thpre  wpr<i  2,882,850  horfcs.  299,150  mul(-B,  450,600  asses,  11,284,400  head  of  rattle, 
24,707,400  sheep,  5,177.600  pig«,  1,791,700  goaU,  68,280,000  fowls.  In  1866  there  were  3,045,000  bee- 
hive". 

t  The  fisheries  in  1874  employed  20,800  boats  nndvcsst  Is  of  154,000  tons,  and  80,000  fishermen.  The 
yield  in  1876  was  estimated  at  £3,23R,000. 


362 


FRANCE. 


bread,  meat,  and  wine.    In  politics  their  influence  is  equally  marked  ;  and  if  they  do 
not  make  revolutions,  they  sometimes  prevent  them. 

This  influence  is  due  solely  to  their  being  the  owners  of  the  land.  There  are 
nearly  eight  millions  of  landed  proprietors  in  France,  and  five  millions  amongst  them 
hold  estates  of  sufiicient  extent  to  enable  them  to  live  in  comfort.  On  the  other 
hand,  nearly  four  millions  live  in  poverty,  and  their  "  estates,"  when  sold,  do  not 

rii'.  269. — Natueal  Pastuue-lands  and  Meadows  (1862). 


0°|lI.t>fP«rii 


0?   JtofCr. 


Over'  10.  "/<, 


tS-ctpVa 


to-^SpS^o 


J—iop.^o 


NaJxu-Ai'' 
nasturcJ 


Aiea  of  pastui'es,  1^,415,000  acres  j  of  meadows,  6,727,SS1  acres. 


cover  the  costs  of  transfer.  In  some  parts  of  France  large  estates  are  increasing, 
and  most  of  the  land  is  cultivated  by  farmers.  Elsewhere  the  subdivision  of  the  soil 
is  progressing  at  an  increasing  rate.  Upon  the  whole,  however,  the  number  of 
proprietors  is  becoming  larger  from  year  to  year.  Wealthy  peasants  certainly 
endeavour  to  increase  their  estates,  but  they  understand  very  well  that  land  only 
repays  their  outlay  if  thej' are  able  to    cultivate  it  themselves.     "Agricultural 


AGEICULTUEE. 


86S 


distress"  really  exists  only  amongst  the  large  proprietors,  who  are  called  upon  to 
pay  mucl)  higher  wages  now  than  formerly.* 

Small  j)roperties  have  their  advantages,  no  doubt  ;  but  tliey  do  not  admit  of 
agricultural  operations  on  a  large  scale,  uud  the  soil  produces  less.  In  France  the 
subdivision  of  the  land  is  excessive.  The  number  of  "  plots,"  or  patches,  is  no  less 
than  127,000,000,  divided  amongst  3,025,877  cultivators,  of  wlioiu   each  owns  on 


Fig.  270.— AvEKAOB  Valve  of  AouiriLTiHAL  Phodvce,  that  of  the  Vineyakub  exceitei). 

According  to  Delease. 


•  o'iM.of  pzrr' 


HE  D  I  TERRAKEXV 


Clear  I^tnnc  framj  eaicjty  Seclarey  l/v  l&Si- 

Siga       ssm       sa       iHi       ^m       czzi 

lOo  frtuus  d  over  Stj:  Soy.  it  J,  ^ff.  Lui  thmvxo  franu 

£4  and  ovfr.  £3  49.  £2  89.  £1  12s.  16s.  Less  thnn  Ifis. 


an  average  about  36  acres.  No  less  than  2,435,401  own  less  than  25  acres  each, 
and  only  154,107  more  than  a  hundred.  This  multitude  of  small  fields  necessitates 
a  multitude  of  roads,  and  agricultural  inacliiuery,  sucli  as  the  steam  plough,  cannot 
be  employed  with  advantage.  The  yield  is  less  than  in  countries  where  large 
estates  are  the  rule  ;  and  whilst  in  England  an  acre  yields  from  20  to  28  bushels  of 


•  Agricultural  wages  formen  daily  in  1700,  6d. ;  in  1811,  9d.  ;  in  1852,  Is.  4d.  ;  in  1872,  1».  6d. 


864  FRANCE. 

wheat,  it  only  yields  from  14  to  17  in  France.  If  French  agriculture  is  to  attain 
a  position  comparable  with  French  industry,  the  land  must  be  cultivated  on  sounder 
principles  than  now.  The  peasant  proprietors  must  either  combine  for  the  common 
cultivation  of  their  plots,  or  they  will  have  to  be  ousted  by  the  State  or  by 
companies  of  capitalists.  Drainage  and  irrigation  works  on  a  large  scale  cannot 
be  carried  out  under  existing  conditions.  All  that  has  been  done  hitherto  in  this 
direction  in  France  is  patchwork. 

But  tradition  is  strong  among  the  peasantry.  The  model  farms,  thirty-three  in 
number,  appear  to  be  appreciated,  but  the  three  agricultural  schools  at  Grignon, 
Montpellier,  and  Grand  Jouan  are  but  indifferently  attended.  More  than  half 
the  area  of  France  is  cultivated  in  an  antiquated  manner.  There  are  vast  stretches 
of  heaths  in  the  Pyrenees,  in  Gascony,  and  Brittany,  which  might  easily  be  con- 
verted into  arable  land.  The  swamps  on  the  Atlantic  coast  have  only  in  part 
been  converted  into  meadow  land ;  the  Caraargue  and  the  littoral  region  of 
Languedoc  still  breed  fevers  ;  the  rivers  almost  annually  inundate  their  banks ; 
and  m  the  Alps,  the  Cevennes,  and  the  Pyrenees  the  country  is  becoming  unin- 
habitable on  account  of  the  forests  no  longer  preventing  the  vegetable  soil  being 
carried  away  by  the  torrents.  Nearly  20,000,000  acres  are  covered  with  forests, 
but  most  of  the  timber  used  is  imported  from  abroad,  the  country  annuallj'  pa3'ing 
four  millions  for  that  commodity.  It  is  supposed  that  there  are  2,718,000  acres  of 
land  which  might  advantageously  be  planted  with  forests,  but  even  supposing  this 
work  to  be  taken  in  hand  with  vigour,  a  century  must  pass  before  its  full  benefit 
will  be  felt. 

Mixing. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  France  is  perhaps  less  than  that  of  any  other  country  of 
equal  extent.  Neither  platina,  gold,  silver,  nor  mercury  is  found,  or  at  most  in 
very  small  quantities.  The  mines  of  zinc,  nickel,  tin,  lead,  antimony,  manga- 
nese, and  copper  yield  but  little,  and  France  consumes  ten  times  as  much  as 
they  yield.  The  iron  ores  are  of  importance,  but  unfortunately  they  are  found, 
as  a  rule,  far  away  from  coal,  which  is  indispensable  for  their  conversion  into 
iron. 

The  coal  raised  does  not  cover  the  home  demand.  The  coal  basins,  though 
inferior  to  those  of  England  or  Belgium,  are  sufficiently  extensive,  but  being  for 
the  most  part  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  the  cost  of  transporting  the 
coal  to  the  centres  of  industry  is  very  heavy. 

In  building  materials  of  every  kind  France  is  exceedingly  rich,  and  most  of  the 
towns  are  built  of  solid  stone.  Clays  suited  to  the  manufacture  of  earthenware 
abound.  Beds  of  phosphate  were  discovered  in  1857  in  Southern  France  and  in 
the  North,  where  they  cover  494,000  acres.  Salt-pans  abound  on  the  coast ; 
saline  and  all  kinds  of  mineral  springs  in  the  interior  of  the  countrj',  more 
especially  in  the  Pyrenees,  in  Auvergne,  in  the  Alps,  and  in  the  Vosges.* 

•  Mineral  productions  about  1876 : — Pig  iron,  1,449,.538  tons ;  iron  birs,  733,272  tons  ;  steel,  254,191 
tons;  coal,  7,047,761  tons;  copper,  zinc,  lead, tin,  &c.,  value  £380,000  ;  salt,  754,506  tons. 


MANUFACTURES. 


8G5 


MaNIKACTI'KKS. 

The  industrial  progress  mado  by  France  has  been  enormous.  In  articles  requiring 
taste  and  deft  workraansUip  that  country  preserves  its  traditional  pre-eminence, 
and  in  many  other  objects,  including  machinery,  it  has  become  a  rival  of  England. 
In  IS'20  there  were  only  20  steam-engines  in  all  France;  in  18G9,  32,H27,  includ- 
ing locomotives  and  ships'  engines.  These  engines  do  the  work  of  25,000,000 
labourers.  Nearly  10,000  mill  streams  set  in  motion  the  wheels  of  80,000  mills,  and 
recentlj'  even  the  tides  have  been  pressed  into  the  service  of  man  as  a  motive  power. 
The  great  centres  of  industry  are  Paris,  Lyons,  and  Lille,  but  not  a  depart- 
ment exists  now  where  the  steam-engine  is  not  at  woi"k.  'Wherever  coal  mines 
are  opened  factories  spring  up  overnight.  The  beds  of  iron  ore,  of  clay,  or 
kaolin,  likewise  attract  manufacturers,  and  so  do  the  commercial  towns  on  the  sea 
coast.     The  mountaineers,  whom  long  winters  debar  from  their  usual  occupations. 


Fiir.  271. — The  Increase  of  Steam  Ekgixes  sixce  1840. 


iftfo  jrj>. 


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engage  in  various  industries.  The  women  of  Velay,  Auvergne,  and  the  Yosges 
are  famous  as  lace-makers ;  in  the  Jura  the  men  carve  in  wood  or  make  watches. 

The  textile  industries  alone  occupy  more  than  2,000,000  hands.  The  silks  of 
France  are  the  best  in  the  world  ;  in  woollen  stuffs,  cloth,  carpets,  and  flannels  it 
successfully  competes  with  England  ;  whilst  in  cottons  it  excels  in  quality,  if  not 
in  quantity.  The  lace  manufactured  in  France  probably  equals  in  value  that 
produced  in  any  other  country  ;  and  the  manufacture  of  linens  and  other  textile 
fabrics  is  likewise  of  considerable  importance.  M.  Block  estimates  the  textile 
fabrics  and  the  clothing  produced  annually  at  the  enormous  sum  of  £192,100,000.* 

In  all  other  branches  of  manufacture  France  holds  a  distinguished  position. 
Its  iron  industry  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  England,  but  enormous  progress  has 
been  made.     Up  to  1830  nearly  all  machinery  was  imported  from  England,  whilst 

•  Silks,  200,000  hands,  £36,000,000  ;  woollen  stufTs,  180,000  hands,  £48,000,000  ;  cottons,  250,000  hands, 
6,200,000  spindli-s,  £20,000,000;  linen,  &c.,  150,000  hands,  £12,000,000  ;  mixed  stuffs,  100,000  hiinds, 
£16,000,000  ;  lace,  240,000  hands,  £4,800,000;  clothing,  1,200,000  hands,  £56,000,000. 

Vol  .II.  U   U 


86G  FRANCE. 

French  machinery  now  finds  its  way  into  every  quarter  of  the  world.*  The 
manufacture  of  beet-root  sugar,  which  originated  during  the  First  Empire,  now 
emploj's  73,000  workmen,  who  produce  more  than  400,000  tons  of  sugar  annually, 
as  compared  with  7,000  tons  in  1827.  The  great  chemical  works  are  another 
creation  of  our  century,  and  annually  increase  in  importance.  Chemistry,  indeed, 
has  exercised  a  most  potent  influence  upon  every  kind  of  industry,  unfortunately 
not  in  every  instance  for  the  best. 

In  every  branch  of  art  industry,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  furniture, 
jewellery,  china  and  glass,  bronzes,  and  engravings,  France  still  maintains  her 
superiority,  though  Germany  excels  in  china  and  glass,  and  England,  where  many 
of  the  workmen  are  French,  in  ceramic  productions. 

M.  Maurice  Block  in  1875  estimated  the  productions  of  French  industry  at 
£511,680,000,  not  including  ships  or  heavy  machinery. f  The  factories  and 
small  workshops  contribute  almost  equally  toward  this  vast  sum.  These  latter,  how- 
ever, are  fast  disappearing,  not  being  able  to  sustain  the  struggle  against  powerful 
capitalists.  This  concentration  of  the  working  popidation  in  huge  establishments 
is  the  greatest  social  feature  of  our  century,  and  future  generations  will  have  to 
deal  with  it.* 

Commerce. 

The  progress  of  commerce  has  kept  pace  with  that  of  agriculture  and  industry  ; 
and  three  towns,  viz.  Paris,  Marseilles,  and  Havre,  do  a  greater  trade  now  with 
foreign  countries  than  the  entire  nation  did  fifty  j'ears  ago. 

A  network  of  roads  covers  nearly  the  whole  of  France,  but  the  mountain 
districts  are  as  yet  ill  provided  with  them.  Only  one  road  leads  across  the 
Pyrenees ;  two,  those  of  Mont  Cenis  and  Mont  Genevre,  across  the  Alps.  The 
high-roads  of  France  (1872)  have  a  length  of  102,870  miles;  the  provincial 
carriage  roads  of  156,030  miles;  and  138,900  miles  more  are  being  constructed. 
The  rivers  and  rivulets  of  France  are  spanned  by  2,000  large,  and  more  than 
200,000  small  bridges. 

The  railway  age  only  began  in  France  in  1832,  when  a  line  connecting  Lyons 
with  St.  Etienne  was  opened  for  traffic.  Railway  building  up  to  1842  made  but 
little  progress,  and  even  now  much  remains  to  be  done  before  the  system  of  rail- 
ways can  be  called  complete.  Lines  radiate  from  Paris  in  all  directions,  but  many 
provincial  towns  are  still  deprived  of  this  means  of  locomotion.     In  1878  France 

*  Iron  industry  (1875) :— Castings,  14,157,000  tons;  fashioned  iron,  7,5o4,000  tons;  steel,  2,.516,O00 
tons. 

t  Textile  fabrics  and  clothing,  £183,800,000  ;  articles  of  food,  £117,180,000  ;  buildings,  £67,200,000  ; 
metals,  £34,600,000  ;  chemical  products,  including  soap  and  candles,  £30,000,000  ;  furniture,  £22,000,000  ; 
leather  and  skins,  £16,000,000;  jewellery,  £8,000,000;  earthenwaie  and  glass,  £6,000,000;  paper  and 
instruments,  £6,000,000  ;  various,  £12,000,000. 

X  Distribution  of  French  workmen  in  1874  according  to  51.  Ducarre: — 

Mines 14,117  masters 164,819  workmen '\ 

Factories 183,227      „  1,420,006         „  (      Including  families, 

Small  Workshops    .     .     .596,776 1,060,114        „         j       8,400,000  persons. 

Total  .     .    794,120      ..  2,644,9f0 


-) 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

!lN!VFRQiTv  ,f  ILLINOIS, 


36S 


FRANCE. 


their  construction  no  general  guiding  principle  has  been  adhered  to,  and  tranship- 
ment is  frequently  required.  Of  late  years,  ho'wever,  the  importance  of  canals  and 
other  navigable  highways  has  attracted  public  attention,  and  !M.  Krantz  has 
suggested  a  scheme,  the  execution  of  which  would  meet  every  reasonable  want  at 
an  expenditure  of  £33,200,000,  and  would  likewise  provide  for  the  "  regulation  " 
of  some  of  the  most  erratic  rivers.  The  existing  canals  have  a  length  of  3,051 
miles,  and  cost  £32,740,000  ;  the  length  of  the  navigable  rivers  is  only   3,541 

Fi?.  273. — The  Canals  a.nd  Navigable  Rivers  op  France. 


miles ;  and  1,564,666,000  tons  of  merchandise  were  conveyed  by  water  in  1872, 
the  conveyance  of  a  ton  per  canal  costing  0'8d.  a  mile,  including  interest  upon  the 
capital  expended. 

France  is  poor  in  good  natural  harbours,  and  it  is  therefore  aU  the  more 
necessary  that  artificial  ones  should  be  created.  This  subject,  too,  has  recently 
received  attention,  and  one  great  artificial  port,  very  much  needed,  is  being  con- 
structed at  Boulogne. 


COMMKRCK. 


8G9 


France  is  admirably  situak><l  for  commerce,  nnd  though  poor  iu  ports,  two-thirds 
of  its  foreign  trade  are  carried  on  by  sea.  Looking  at  the  SIcditcrranean  and 
Atlantic  seaboards  of  Franco,  and  at  tho  excellent  high-roads  connecting  both, 
one  might  fancy  that  France  held  tho  foremost  place  amongst  niaritinio  nations. 
But  Franco  docs  not.  The  commercial  marines  of  England,  the  United  (States, 
Norway,  Italy,  and  Germany  surpass  hers;  and  since  18G0,  when  the  dilforeutial 

Fig.  27-1.  -  Diagram  ExiiiniTtNO  thb  Coumbbcial  Marinss  of  the  Wnni.n. 


The  shoJctl  portion  of  each  culumn  iodicutes  the  tonnage  of  euiliug  vc&cchi ;  the  bbink 
•  Kpoce  that  of  Bteamen. 


duties  formerly  levied  upon  foreign  vessels  were  abolished,  there  has  been  no 
progress.  About  one-fifth  of  the  tonnage  is  the  property  of  mail-ship  companies 
in  receipt  of  Government  subventions.*  In  1875  71  per  cent,  of  the  home  produc- 
tions of  France  was  exported  in  foreign  vessels,  and  this  proportion  appears  to  be 
increasing  from  year  to  year.      The  French  vessels  are,  as  a  rule,  much  older  than 

•  Shipping  of  France  (1876),  14,861  sailing  vcuela  of  793,000  tons,  and  516  steamers  of  21d,l£0  tons. 
Total,  1,008,460  tons. 


370 


FBANCE. 


those  of  other  nations,  and  are  consequently  more  liable  to  accidents.  Those  lost 
at  sea  or  broken  up  are  only  partially  replaced,  and  the  marine  necessarily  de- 
creases, always  excepting  the  vessels  of  the  State-paid  mail  companies.  It  is  absurd 
to  make  the  supposed  aversion  of  the  French  to  a  seafaring  life  accountable  for 
this  decadence.  In  a  former  age  the  mariners  of  Gascony  and  Provence,  of 
Brittany  and  Normandy,  have  given  proof   of  their  aptitude  as  seamen.     This 


Fig.  275. DiAGKAM    EXHIBITING   THE   NAVIGATION    OF  VESSELS    AT   EACH    PoRT. 


M  E  DITERRANEAN 


2'':20  Eof&r 


3.ffao.ooo    T<mj    of 


decadence  must  be  explained  on  economical  reasons.  The  French,  unlike  the 
Norwegians,  are  not  confined  to  a  narrow  seaboard,  but  a  large  and  fertile  country 
holds  out  to  them  many  resources.  They  are  not  driven  to  seek  a  living  on  the 
sea,  and  prefer  to  stay  at  home,  allowing  the  English  and  other  nations  to  act  as 
their  ocean  carriers. 

But  though  the  French  marine  is  decreasing,  French  commerce  has  vastly  in- 
creased since  1830,  and  even  the  most  serious  events  have  only  momentarily  checked 


V/. 


) 


LIBRARy 

OF  THE 

'ONIVERSITV  of  ILLINOIS. 


SOCIAL  STATISTICS.  871 

this  projjress.  TmmediaU'ly  al'tor  the  i-om-lusiou  of  the  late  war  French  coimiierco 
recovered  ;  and  though  postuge  and  telegrams  are  dearer  in  Frauee  than  in  some 
neighbouring  countries,  the  number  of  letters  and  of  telegrams  is  over  increasing.* 
In  looking  at  the  articles  exported  and  imported,  the  great  superiority  of  France 
as  a  manufacturing  country  will  be  perceived.  The  imjwrts  consist  to  a  very  largo 
extent  of  raw  silk,  cotton,  and  wool ;  of  hides  and  skins ;  of  unrefined  sugar  ;  of 
oil  seeds  and  rags.  The  exports  consist  mainly  of  silk,  cotton,  and  woollen  stuffs  ; 
leather ;  boots  and  gloves ;  furniture ;  soap  and  oil ;  refined  sugar ;  and  paper. 
France  likewise  imports  cattle  to  feed  its  population,  and  coal  for  its  manufactories. 
It  exports  wines,  veget^ibles,  cereals,  coals,  cheese,  butter,  eggs,  and  poultry. t 

The  foreign  commerce  of  France  is  chiefly  with  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  Ger- 
many, and  Italy.  The  trade  with  French  colonies,  of  which  France  enjoys  a  mono- 
poly, amounts  to  very  little  if  compared  with  the  transactions  with  the  above-named 
countries,  as  is  clearly  seen  from  the  following  statement  (iu  pounds  sterling) : — 


1873. 
Importa,  Exports. 


1877. 
Imports.  Exports. 


26,000,000  41,320,000 

16,160,000  17,840,000 


England 30,366,000  47.440,000 

Belgium 21,556,000  20,192,000 

Germany       ....  16,612,000  20,900,000                     15,560,000               17,420,000 

lUly 16,428,000  14,128,000 

Switzerland  ....  13,736,000  16,400,000 

United  States    .     .     .  8,568,000  10,332,000 

Turkey 9,356,000              4,956,000 

Spain 7,168,000              7,108,000 

Algeria 6,024,000               6,424,000 

Russia 7,628,000              1,840,000                      6,040,000                1,600,000 


16,600,000  8,640,000 

4,400,000  11,160,000 

10,600,000  9,200,000 

7,520,000  3,750,000 

4,400,000  6,200,000 

4,920,000  5,960,000 


Xext  to  these  leading  countries  rank  the  Rio  dc  la  Plata,  Brazil,  the  East  Indies, 
and  China. 

Social  Statistics. 

We  do  not  exaggerate  when  we  estimate  the  aggregate  income  of  all  Frenchmen  at 
£1,000,000,000  a  year,  being  equal  to  the  interest,  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent.,  upon 
a  capital  of  £20,000,000,000.  This  national  income,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  is 
steadily  increasing,  say  at  the  rate  of  2  or  3  per  cent,  a  year,  or  far  more  rapidly 
than  the  population.  If  it  did  not,  the  country  could  not  defray  the  over-increasing 
expenses  of  Government,  build  new  factories,  and  even  invest  capital  abroad.  The 
progress  of  wealth  is  most  marked  in  some  of  the  rural  districts,  where  fortunes 

•  General  trade  of  France,  including  transit  (but  not  coin  or  bullion),  in  pounds  sterling: — 


Imports. 

Imports 

Exports. 

1830  . 

.  26,520,000 

22,520,000 

1860  . 

.   106,280,000 

125,880,000 

1840  . 

.  42,080,000 

40,440,000 

1873  . 

.   183,040,000 

192,880,000 

1850  . 

.  46,960,000 

61,240,000 

1876  . 

.   196,000,000 

180,000,000 

Imports  for  home  consumption  (1876),  £158.006,960;  exports  of  homo  produce,  £142,795,640. 

Letters  sent  through  the  Post  Office  in  1851,  170,000,000;  in  1802,  283,000,000  ;  in  1876,  367,443,837; 
periodical  and  book  packets  do.,  34,000,000,  202,000,000,  and  376,005,934. 

Telegraphs  (1877),  32,320  miles.  Telegrams  forwarded :— 463,000  in  1857;  6,223,000  in  1872; 
11,412,161  in  1876. 

t  Importt  (1876):— Articles  of  food,  £38,372,280;  raw  materials,  £92,400,480;  manufactures, 
£19,051.000  ;  other  articles,  £7,383,200. 

Exports  (1876) :— Manufactures,  £77,279,160 ;  articles  of  food  and  raw  produce,  £57,948,200  ;  other 
articles,  £7,568,280. 


872 


FEANCE. 


have  more  than  doubled  within  the  last  fifty  years.  The  average  income  of  each 
family  is  £120,  or  £28  a  head,  and  the  number  of  small  capitalists  {rentiers) 
in  the  enjoyment  of  this  average  income  is  very  large.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  men  of  vast  revenues,  as  well  as  paupers  dependent  upon  public  charity  for 
their  subsistence.* 

Our  statisticians  take  notice  of  every  contravention  of  the  moral  or  police  laws, 
while  good  deeds  and  noble  actions  find  no  place  in  their  records.     The  number  of 


Fiff.  276.— Diagram  EXHiBiTrNO  the  EnrcATioNAi,  Condition  op  France. 


0°  I M. of  Paris 


MED  I  T  f  H  JiA  Jf  FAy 


Per  centage  of  Man  obk  IV  ri^aU. 


illegitimate  births  or  of  criminals  may  enable  us  to  judge  to  some  extent  of  the 
moral  and  social  condition  of  a  nation ;  but  our  inquiries  must  have  a  wider  range 
if  we  would  know  what  is  really  moving  the  mind  of  the  masses,  and  preparing 
the  events  of  the  future,  f 


•  Paupers  supported  by  the  parishes,  1829,  1,329,659;  1853—61,  1,145,000. 

t  Crimes  investigated  by  the  magistrates  (1874),  365,577  ;  oifences  against  police  regulation 
431,669.  Average  prison  population,  exclusive  of  political  prisoners,  62,984  ;  illegitimate  births,  76,67 
out  of  a  total  of  929,508  ;  infants  deserted,  9,470  ;  suicides,  6,617. 


IS, 

,678 


SOCIAL  STATISTICS.  878 

OfEiiuUy  there  arc  in  Fraiue  00,000  Jews  (most  of  them  of  foreign  birth), 
600,000  Protestants,  and  35,o00,000  Roman  Catholics.  The  Trotestants,  owing  to 
mixed  marriages  and  other  causes,  appear  to  be  diminishing.  As  to  th«  so-called 
Roman  Catholics  of  tlio  official  returns,  very  many  of  them  are  either  perfectly 
inditferent  as  to  Church  questions,  or  openly  hostile  to  the  Church  which  claims 
them.  That  Church,  however,  is  a  great  power  in  Franco.  The  clergy  are  well 
organized,  and  convents  are  more  numerous  than  before  the  great  Revolution  :  in 
1878  no  less  than  30,000  monks  and  170,000  nuns  were  engaged  in  educational, 
charitable,  or  contemplative  work,  and  the  property  of  the  monasteries  and 
convents  was  estimated  at  £'20,000,000. 

In  matters  of  education  France  lags  far  behind  some  of  the  neighbouring  states. 
Officially  the  professors  of  the  university  rank  after  Government  clerks,  though 
public  opinion  has  learnt  to  appreciate  their  services.  Many  parishes  are  still 
without  schools.  Teachers  are  scarce,  for  the  emoluments  offered  are  small.  About 
one-third  of  the  adults  are  unable  to  read.  The  education  of  the  girls  more 
especially  is  very  much  neglected.* 

Still,  progress  is  being  made.  The  advantages  of  education  are  becoming  more 
and  more  appreciated  ;  periodicals  increase  in  number  and  circulation  ;  books  find 
ready  purchasers ;  public  libraries  are  founded  in  all  parts  of  the  country ;  ond 
scientific  societies  multiply.  There  appears  to  have  grown  up  a  vague  idea  since 
the  termination  of  the  war,  that  a  nation  can  be  strong  only  if  the  men  composing 
it  are  thinkers.  Superior  education  improves,  and  the  youth  of  France  look  full 
of  hope  and  confidence  towards  the  future. 

•  Educational  statistics  for  1872 : — 70,179  elemontary  scbools,  with  4,722,000  pupils  enrolled  ; 
324  lyeenms  and  colleges,  with  69,500  pupils;  657  superior  lay  schools,  with  43,000  pupils;  and  278 
clerical  schools,  with  34,000  pupils.  In  1866  25-80  per  cent,  of  the  married  men  and  41-00  per  cent,  of 
the  wivea  were  unable  to  sign  their  names,  and  only  66-63  per  cent,  of  the  adult  population  (over  twenty 
years  of  age)  were  able  to  read  and  write. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

GOVERNMENT   AND   ADMINISTRATION. 


Local  and  Central  Government. 

IN  France  the  coinnunie,  or  parish,  does  not  hold  a  rank  equally 
important  as  in  some  of  the  neighbouring  countries.  In  countries 
frequently  ravaged  by  war,  as  Italy  and  Spain,  the  inhabitants 
sought  strength  in  union  and  under  the  protection  of  walled  towns. 
In  France  and  Germany  the  peasants  settled  down  close  to  the  feudal 
castles ;  in  Gascony,  Brittany,  and  some  other  parts  of  France,  where  the  clang 
of  arms  was  heard  but  rarely,  the  peasants  scattered  themselves  over  the  country, 
each  living  imder  his  own  oak  or  chestnut  tree. 

As  a  fact,  the  rural  communes  are  either  very  small,  or  their  population,  where 
more  numerous,  is  scattered  over  a  wide  area.  The  average  number  of  inhabitants 
of  each  of  the  36,056  French  communes  is  1,025,  but  there  exist  over  600  having 
a  population  of  less  than  100  souls. 

The  communes  are  grouped  together  into  2,SG3  cantons,  and  these  into  362 
arrondissemeuts  and  87  deiwrtments.  The  formation  of  these  latter  was  proposed 
in  1786  by  Robert  de  Hesseln,  a  map-maker,  and  adopted  a  few  years  afterwards 
by  the  National  Assembly,  which  intended  thereby  to  break  with  ancient  traditions 
and  to  crush  provincialism.  But  the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  in  spite  of  the 
arbitrary  boundaries  of  the  old  provinces  of  feudal  times,  or  of  the  departments  of 
our  own  age,  have  not  yet  lost  sight  of  the  great  natural  divisions  of  the  country, 
which  coincide  in  a  remarkable  manner  with  the  old  j^'ji  minores  of  the  Gallo- 
Romans. 

The  existing  political  divisions  are  a  creation  of  officials,  and  have  no  root  in 
the  public  sentiment.  They  have  been  maintained  because  they  enable  the  Central 
Government  to  multiply  its  direct  representatives  throughout  the  country  to  an 
extent  not  required  by  the  interests  of  the  public.  The  power  which  the  State 
thus  arrogates  to  itself  the  provincial  populations  are  deprived  of,  and  the  adminis- 
trative machinery  of  the  smallest  village  is  set  in  motion  from  the  capital.  France 
would  long  ago  have  been  converted  into  a  huge  barrack  for  Government  fimc- 
tionaries  if  there  were  not  causes  at  work  which  counteract  the  influence  of  the 
bureaucracy. 


LOCAL  AND  CENTRAL  GOVERNMENT.  875 

France,  by  a  law  of  Fobrimry  2.Jtli,  IHT't,  has  been  coustitutod  a  republic,  but 
most  of  the  institutions  of  the  country  are  monarchical  by  origin  and  in  spii  it. 
The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  an  Assembly  of  two  Houses,  or  Chambers — the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  and  the  Senate ;  and  tlie  exeeutivo  in  a  President.  The 
Chamber  of  Deputies  is  elected  by  universal  suU'rage,  each  arrondissoment 
being  represented  by  one  deputy,  or  by  more  if  its  population  exceeds  100,000 
souls.  The  Senate  is  composed  of  300  members,  of  whom  one-fourth  are 
elected  by  the  Senate  itself  for  life,  and  three-fourths  are  elected  for  nine 
years  by  "  electoral  colleges,"  formed  in  every  department  and  colony.  These 
colleges  include  the  deputies  of  the  arrondissements,  the  councillors  of  the 
departments  and  arrondissements,  and  representatives  of  the  communes.  One- 
third  of  the  senators  retire  every  three  years.  The  President  is  elected  by 
the  Senate  and  the  Chamber,  sitting  conjointly,  for  seven  years.  Senators  and 
deputies  are  paid  £360  a  year;  the  President  £24,000,  in  addition  to  certain 
allowances. 

The  President  promulgates  the  laws  voted  bj'  the  Chamber,  disposes  of  the 
armed  forces  of  the  countrj',  appoints  all  functionaries  and  officers,  and  negotiates 
treaties;  but  he  cannot  declare  war  without  consulting  the  Chambers.  He. 
convokes  or  adjourns  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  the  Senate  consenting,  he  can 
even  dissolve  it.  He  appoints  his  ministers,  who  alone  are  responsible  to  the 
Chambers.  Fin.ancial  laws  must  first  be  presented  to  and  voted  by  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies. 

A  Council  of  State,  presided  over  by  the  Minister  of  Justice,  and  consist- 
ing of  37  councillors  and  24  masters  of  requests,  nominated  by  the  President, 
and  of  30  auditors  nominated  concurrently,  advises  on  laws  referred  to  it  by 
the  Chambers  or  by  the  ministers,  and  on  all  matters  submitted  by  the  Presi- 
dent. 

Each  department  has  its  General  Council,  the  members  of  which  (gene- 
rally one  for  each  canton)  are  elected  by  universal  suffrage  for  six  years. 
These  councils  meet  annually  to  discuss  the  department  budget,  and  to  act 
as  advisers  of  the  Prefect.  Politics  are  excluded  from  their  discussions. 
The  Prefect  is  appointed  by  the  President  on  presentation  by  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior.  Uis  powers  are  extensive,  and,  with  the  assent  of  the  Central 
Government,  he  can  annul  the  resolutions  of  the  General  Council  over  which 
he  presides. 

Each  arrondissement  has  its  Sub-prefect  and  a  Council  elected  by  universal 
suffrage.     The  cantons  merely  constitute  judicial  districts. 

Each  commune  has  a  Municipal  Council  of  from  12  to  80  members,  elected 
by  universal  suffrage.  In  all  matters  of  importance  the  decisions  of  these  councils 
require  to  be  approved  by  the  Prefect  before  they  are  carried  out.  The  Slayor 
(maire)  is  appointed  by  Government,  but  must  be  a  member  of  the  Municipal 
Council.  He  is  the  representative  of  the  State  as  well  as  of  the  commune,  and 
finds  it  sometimes  difficult  to  reconcile  their  conflicting  interests.  His  office  is 
honorarj'.     In  large  towns  he  is  assisted  by  deputy  maj'ors. 


376  FRANCE. 


Judicial   Authokities. 


Each  canton  has  its  Justice  of  the  Peace,  who  decides  in  civil  cases  up  to  the 
value  of  £4,  and  in  police  cases.  A  court  of  the  first  instance  exists  in  each 
department,  and  is  presided  over  hy  a  Judge  and  at  least  two  Assistant  Judges. 
Its  jurisdiction  is  final  in  civil  cases  up  to  £60,  and  cases  of  misdemeanour  are 
decided  by  it.  The  Commercial  Tribimals,  with  Judges  elected  by  the  leading 
merchants,  exercise  a  similar  jurisdiction  in  commercial  matters,  but  they  exist 
only  in  the  principal  towns.  There  are  26  Courts  of  Appeal,  to  which  civil  cases 
and  misdemeanours  of  a  more  serious  character  are  referred  from  the  inferior 
courts.  Criminal  cases  are  decided  in  Courts  of  Assize,  one  for  each  department, 
with  the  aid  of  a  jury.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  (Cour  de  Cassation),  for 
civil  as  well  as  for  criminal  cases,  has  its  seat  in  Paris. 

Society,  or  rather  the  State,  is  represented  in  all  these  coiirts  by  Procureurs,  or 
Advocates  General,  whose  duty  it  is  to  watch  over  the  strict  execution  of  the  laws. 
All  magistrates,  judges,  and  others  employed  in  the  courts  of  justice  are  absolutely 
dependent  upon  the  Minister  of  Justice. 

Disputes  between  Government  and  private  individuals  are  decided  by  the 
Council  of  the  Prefect,  from  which  an  appeal  may  be  carried  to  the  Council  of 
State.  Disputes  between  masters  and  workmen  are  decided  by  a  council  of  wise 
men  (pnid'/wm?iics),  the  members  of  which  are  nominally  elected  by  the  interested 
parties.  Courts  of  Accounts  have  jurisdiction  over  persons  engaged  in  the  col- 
lection or  expenditure  of  public  moneys. 

Military  courts,  though  they  generally  confine  themselves  to  offences  com- 
mitted by  soldiers,  are  all-powerful  whenever  a  state  of  siege  has  been  declared. 
Permanent  naval  courts  are  located  at  the  five  naval  head-quarters. 

There  exist,  moreover,  certain  disciplinary  councils,  whose  operation,  is  limited 
to  a  few  corporations,  such  as  those  of  barristers,  notaries,  or  advocates. 

The  convict  establishments  in  France  having  been  suppressed,  convicts  are 
now  sent  to  New  Caledonia,  or  to  Guiana  if  they  are  men  of  colour  or  Arabs. 
Each  arrondissement  has  its  house  of  detention  ;  but  criminals  condemned  to  more 
than  a  year's  imprisonment  are  sent  to  one  of  the  twenty- four  central  prisons. 
There  exist  also  about  sixty  reformatories,  maintained  partly  by  private  societies. 
Political  offenders  are  transported,  imprisoned  in  a  fortress,  or  banished  the 
country. 

Ecclesiastical  Avthorities. 

The  State  ofiicially  recognises  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  Protestants,  and  the  Jews,  and  contributes  largely  towards  the  payment 
of  the  ministers  of  these  religions,  who  are,  moreover,  exempted  from  military 
service. 

Catholic  France  is  governed  by  seventeen  archbishops  and  sixty-nine  suffragan 
bishops.      Cardinals,  archbishops,  and  bishops  are  appointed  by  the  Pope  and  the 


EDUCATION.— AI15IY  AND  NA\Tr.  877 

French  Government  coujoiutly,  tho  latter,  moreover,  reserving  itself  tlie  right  to 
repel  all  encroachments  upon  its  temporal  authority.  Vicars  General,  appointed 
in  the  same  manner  as  tho  prelates,  assist  these  latter  in  their  functions.  The 
tathetlral  chapters  arc  ui)pointed  hy  the  prelates,  whose  nominations  must  ho  suh- 
mitted  to  Government  lor  approval.  Tho  inferior  clergy  include  parish  priests 
(cures),  officiating  ministers  (dcsserraufs),  and  vicars. 

The  Lutherans  are  governed  by  a  general  consistory,  hanng  its  seat  at  Paris. 
The  Kefonned  Protestants,  or  Calvinists,  have  placed  themselves  under  about  a 
hundred  iudepeudeut  consistories,  but  occasionally  meet  in  synods.  The  Pro- 
testant clergy  are  presented  by  the  congregations  and  appointed  by  Government. 

The  Jews  are  governed  by  a  consistory  of  eight  lay  members,  presided  over  by 
a  Grand  Rabbi  appointed  for  life,  and  having  its  seat  at  Paris. 


EnuoATiox. 

A  Sti'ERiOR  CorxciL  OF  Edicatiox  assists  the  Minister  of  Public  Education  in 
his  functions.  France,  for  educational  i)uri)oses,  is  divided  into  sixteen  Academies, 
each  presided  over  by  a  rector. 

Each  commune  of  500  inhabitants  is  bound  to  establish  a  boys'  and  a  girls' 
school,  deficiencies  in  the  receipts  being  made  up  by  the  department  or  the  State. 
A  training  school  for  elementarj'  teachers  exists  in  nearly  every  department. 

Secondary  education  of  a  classical  or  industrial  nature  is  provided  by  communal 
colleges,  lyceums,  and  voluntary  schools,  many  under  the  direction  of  the  clergy. 
Pupils  at  lyceums  pass  examinations  as  bachelors  of  science  or  of  letters. 

Numerous  establishments  are  engaged  in  suppljang  a  superior  education.  A 
training  college  at  Paris  trains  masters  for  secondary  schools.  There  are  theo- 
logical colleges,  law  and  medical  schools,  science  schools,  a  pharmaceutic  college, 
and  numerous  preparatory  schools.  A  high  school  for  the  study  of  mathematics, 
natural  philosophy  and  chemistry,  natural  history  and  physiology,  historv  and 
philology,  has  been  established  at  Paris ;  and  numerous  institutions  there,  and 
elsewhere  throughout  France,  provide  facilities  for  studj-ing  science. 

Amongst  special  schools  depending  upon  Govenmient  are  those  of  oriental 
languages,  fine  arts,  music  (Conservatoire),  industrial  arts,  agriculture,  mining, 
veterinary  science,  forestiy,  engineering  (Polytechnique),  and  several  others. 
France  supports  an  art  school  at  Rome  and  an  archicological  college  at  Athens. 
The  leading  military  schools  are  those  of  St.  Cyr,  of  the  staff,  of  engineers  and 
artillery,  and  of  cavalry,  a  naval  college  at  Brest,  and  a  school  of  naval  architects. 

Army  and  Navy. 

The  army  was  reorganized  by  a  decree  dated  July  27th,  1872.  Liability  to  serve 
in  the  army  is  now  universal.  The  conscripts  remain  five  years  in  the  standing 
army,  four  years  in  the  reserve,  and  eleven  years  in  the  "territorial"  army.  But 
out  of  300,000  men  who  annually  complete  their  twentieth  year,  hardly  more  than 


378  FRANCE. 

one-half  are  actually  called  upon  to  render  military  service,  the  remainder  being 
either  pbysically  unfit,  or  exempted  as  being  emploj'ed  in  the  public  service, 
engaged  in  education,  &c.  Of  those  actually  embodied  very  few  remain  five  years 
with  the  colours.  Many  are  discharged  after  six  months'  drill,  others  after  a 
year's  service,  on  condition  of  their  being  able  to  read  and  write.  Young  men  of 
education  are  admitted  to  one  year's  voluntary  service,  and  if  they  acquit  them- 
selves creditably  they  are,  on  their  discharge,  appointed  officers  of  reserve.  Men 
of  the  standing  armj-  and  the  reserve  cannot  marry  without  leave. 

The  whole  of  the  army,  including  that  of  Algeria,  is  formed  into  nineteen 
territorial  army  corps.  It  includes  144  regiments  of  infantry  (3  battalions 
each),  30  battalions  of  Chasseurs;  4  regiments  of  Zouaves  (4  battalions  each),  3 
regiments  of  Algerian  Tirailleurs  (of  4  battalions  each)  ;  1  foreign  regiment  (4 
battalions),  3  battalions  of  African  light  infantry  ;  77  regiments  of  cavalry,  includ- 
ing 4  of  Chasseurs  d'Afrique  and  3  of  Spahis,  38  regiments  of  field  artillery  (247 
batteries),  20  battalions  of  Sappers,  2  regiments  of  Pontooneers,  57  companies  of 
army  train,  &c.  The  gendarmerie  (27,132  men)  forms  a  part  of  the  army,  as  do 
the  Sapeurs-pompiers  (firemen).     The  National  Guard  has  been  suppressed. 

The  effective  strength  of  the  army,  on  a  peace  footing  (187.9),  is  496,442  men, 
with  124,279  horses :  of  this  number  52,424  men  are  stationed  in  Algeria.  Of  the 
165,674  recruits  who  are  expected  to  enter  the  army  in  1879,  62,000  will  remain 
with  the  colours  for  six  months  only-  In  addition  to  these  recruits,  there  will  be 
6,810  one  year's  volunteers.  On  a  war  footing  the  army  consists  of  an  active 
army  of  1,150,000  men,  and  a  territorial  army  of  580,000  men. 

The  navy  is  powerful,  but  its  strength  is  comparatively  much  smaller  than 
what  it  was  before  the  last  war,  for  other  nations  have  increased  their  armaments  at 
a  mueh  more  rapid  rate  than  France  has  done.  The  seafaring  population  of  France 
is  liable  to  serve  from  the  twentieth  to  the  fiftieth  year  of  age.  The  number  of 
these  men  is  supposed  to  be  152,000,  but  in  case  of  war  110,000  at  most  would  be 
available.  The  number  actually  in  the  service  is  25,000,  besides  16,000  marines, 
and  33,000  workmen  and  non-combatants.  The  navy  consists  of  56  ironclads 
(185,847  h.  p.,  461  guns),  264  screw  steamers  (55,812  h.  p.,  1,547  guns),  62  paddle 
steamers  (8,665  h.  p.,  154  guns),  and  113  sailing  vessels  (672  guns).  Total,  492 
vessels  (250,324  h.  p.,  2,834  guns).  The  most  powerful  of  the  French  ironclads  is 
the  Redoubtahle,  launched  at  Lorient  in  1876.  Its  armour  has  a  thickness  of  9 
inches ;  its  armament  consists  of  two  38-ton  and  four  24-ton  guns,  and  its  engines 
are  of  6,000  horse-power.  The  great  naval  arsenals  are  at  Cherbourg,  Brest, 
Lorient,  Rochefort,  and  Toulon. 

Finance. 

The  Frtnch  jiay  more  taxes  than  any  other  people  in  the  world  ;  for  not  only  must 
the  expenses  of  a  complicated  administrative  machinery  be  paid  for,  but  interest 
must  be  paid  on  debts  resulting  from  wars.  Including  local  and  indirect  taxes, 
no  less  than  £125,000,000  are  raised  every  year.  But  the  French  are  rich  enough 
to  support  this  burden  without  much  sufiering.     Only  about  a  third  of  this  sum 


FINANCE. 


87 'J 


is  raised  by  direct  taxes,  the  remuiudor  being  derived  from  customs  dues,  excise 
duties,  and  other  imposts  hardly  felt  by  the  consumer.  Tubucco  alone,  the  manu- 
facture of  which  is  a  Government  monojiuly,  and  is  uHowimI  to  be  grown  only  in 
twenty  departments,  yields  nearly  £1'^, (100,000  a  year. 

The  annual  budget  is  prepared  by  the  ministers,  and,  before  being  discussed  in 
public,  is  examined  by  a  commission  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

Vis.  277. — Monaco. 


Government,  with  its  tobacco  factories,  ship-yards,  prisons  (for  the  prisoners 
are  required  to  work),  is  the  greatest  manui'ucturer  in  France.  It  is  likewise  the 
wealthiest  landed  proprietor,  for  no  less  than  2,401,000  acres  of  forest  belong  to  it, 
and  it  exercises  a  sort  of  supervision  over  4,703,000  acres  of  forest  land  belonging 
to  the  communes  and  public  institutions. 

The  I'ublic  Debt  of  France,  in  1875,  amounted  to  £937,584,280,  distributed 


380 


FEANCE. 


amongst  no  less  than  4,380,933  holders.  The  city  of  Paris  has  a  debt  of 
£93,600,000  ;  the  deiwrtments  and  other  local  bodies  of  £30,000,000 ;  and  the 
total  indebtedness  of  France,  national  and  local,  amounts  thus  to  £1,061,184,280. 
The  annual  revenue,  which  in  1830 — 48  did  not  exceed  £48,855,040,  rose  to 
£78,507,730  during  the  Second  Empire  (1852 — 69),  and  was  estimated  for  1877  at 
£106,885,620.  Of  this  large  sum  £41,630,680  was  raised  by  direct  taxes, 
£24,824,760  by  registration  duties  and  stamps,  £15,527,160  by  direct  taxes,  and 
£10,949,200  by  customs.  In  the  same  year  £48,057,133  were  paid  in  interest 
on  the  national  debt  and  in  annuities,  £21,426,530  were  expended  upon  the  army. 

Fig.  278. — Diagram  exhibiting  the  Comparative  Areas  of  France  and  of  her  Colonies. 


&calu  ..I'  i6.ooo-ooo 


and  £7,439,000  upon  the  navy  and  the  colonies, 
revenue  exceeded  £10,000,000.* 


The  cost  of  collecting  the 


Colonies. 

There  still  exists   within   French  territory  a  small   "  state,"   enjoying  a  feeble 
sort  of  independence,  viz.  the  rock- city  of  Monaco,  between  Nice  and  Men  tone. 

•  In  1878  the  local  taxation  yielded  £18,133,500.  This,  added  to  the  central  revenue,  gives  a  propor- 
tion per  head  of  the  popuhition  amounting  to  about  £3  10s.,  or  more  than  in  England.  Of  the  total 
revenue  of  the  communes,  £8,000,000  is  contoibuted  by  Paris,  where  every  inhabitant  pays  £4  annually 
in  local  taxes,  the  rest  of  France  paying  only  about  53.  per  head.     Lyons  has  a  revenue  of  £417,900. 


COLOKIES. 


881 


This  state,  with  ita  Court  aud  Diplomats,  however,  appears  to  exist  merely  in 
order  to  give  shelter  to  the  gumbliug-tables  no  longer  permitted  in  Qermuny. 
Andorra,  too,  maiutuius  a  gumbling-hell  on  that  slice  of  its  territory  which  lies  on 
the  French  slope  ol'  the  ryrenees. 

But  though  France  suffers  these  feeble  powers  to  retain  small  bits  of  land 
within  her  natural  frontiers,  territories  of  large  extent  have  been  acquired  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  This  colonial  empire  of  France  was  of  great  extent  in  the 
last  century,  when  Canada,  Louisiana,  and  vast  tracts  in  India  formed  a  part  of  it. 


Kiff.  'JTii. — TiiK  I.AN01-A0KS  or  Fhancb. 


aYfiknf 


But  the  fate  of  war  went  against  France,  and  these  colonies  were  lost.  Amongst 
the  present  colonies  of  France,  Algeria  is  the  most  important.  Including  the 
protected  states  of  Cambodia,  Tahiti,  &c.,  the  total  area  of  the  French  colonies  is 
299,517  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  6,533,954  souls.  The  colonies  cannot 
be  said  to  prosper,  and  they  add  but  little  to  the  strength  of  the  mother 
country. 

VOL.    11.  c  c 


882 


FEANCE. 


The  expansive  force  of  France  cannot,  indeed,  be  measured  by  the  extent  of  her 
colonies.  The  true  colonies  of  France  are  those  countries  where  French  ideas  are 
propagated,  French  books  are  read-,  and  the  French  language  is  spoken.  In 
France  itself  the  differences  of  dialect  disappear  by  degrees ;  and  the  time  is 
approaching  when  even  Basque,  Flemish,  and  Low  Breton  will  cease  to  be 
spoken  within  its  boundaries.  Passing  beyond  these  boundaries,  we  find  that 
French  is  the  language  of  one-half  of  Belgium  and  of  Eastern  Switzerland ;  of 
Haiti ;  of  portions  of  Canada,  New  Brunswick,  and  the  United  States.  French  is 
spoken,  moreover,  by  the  educated  classes  of  every  civilised  country,  more 
especially  in  the  south  of  Europe ;  and  whatever  conquests  may  be  made  by 
English  in  transoceanic  countries,  the  nations  of  the  old  world  are  not  likely  to 
abandon  French  as  the  most  ready  medium  for  exchanging  their  ideas. 


FKANCE  AND  COLONIES. 

Area   and   Population    of    France. 


Departmentg. 

Ain  .... 

Aisne    .     .     . 

Allier  .  .  . 
Alpes  (Basses-) 

AJpes  (Hautes-) 
Alpes-Maritimes 
Ardeche     .     . 
Ardennea  .     . 

Ariege .  .  . 

Aube    .  .  . 

Aude     .  .  . 

AvejTOn  .  . 

Bas  Rhin  .  . 
Bouches-du- "( 

Rhone  j 
Calvados  .  . 
Cantal  .  .  . 
Charente  .  . 
C!harente-      ) 

Inferieure  J 
Cher  .  .  . 
Corrfeze  .  . 
Corse  .  .  . 
Cote-d'Or .     . 

C6tes-du-Nord 
Creuse  .  .  . 
Dordogne  .  . 
Doubs  .     .     . 

Drome .     .     . 
Eure     .     .     . 
Eure-et-Loir 
FinistSre  .     . 

Gard    .     .     . 
Garonne  (Haute- 
Gera     .     .     . 
Gironde     .     . 


Area. 

Engl.  Sq. 
Miles. 

2,239 
2,839 
2,822 
2,68.5 

2,168 
1,482 
2,136 
2,020 

1,890 
2,317 
2,438 
3,376 

235 

1,971 

2,132 
2,217 
2,294 

2,635 

2,780 
2,265 
3,377 
3,383 

2,659 
2,150 
3,546 
2,018 

2,518 
2,300 
2,268 
2,595 

2,253 
2,429 
2,425 
3,761 


Population, 


Inha-   Arron- 
bitanta  disse-  Cantons. 


May,  1872.  Dec.  31, 1876.  to  a  Sq.  menta.      No. 


363,290 
552,439 
390,812 
139,332 

118,898 
199,037 
380,277 
320,217 

246,298 

265,687 
285,927 
402,474 

66,781 

554,911 

454,012 
231,867 
367,520 

465,653 

336,392 
302,746 
258,507 
374,510 

622,295 
274,663 
480,141 
291,251 

320,417 
377,874 
282,622 
642,963 

420,131 
479,362 
284,717 
705,149 


366,462 
560,427 
405,783 
136,166 

119,094 
203,604 
384,378 
326,782 

244,795 

255,217 
300,065 
413,826 

68,600 

656,379 

450,220 
231,086 
373,950 

465,628 

345,613 
311,525 
262,701 
377,663 

630,957 

278,423 
489,848 
306,094 

321,756 
373,629 
283,075 
666,106 

423,804 
477,730 
283,546 
735,242 


MUe. 
163 
198 
145 
50 

60 
138 
183 
163 

127 
111 
124 
122 

292 

278 

214 
104 
162 

179 

123 

138 

78 

111 

234 
132 
138 
153 

128 
162 
123 
256 

192 
199 
118 
194 


No. 
5 
6 
4 
5 

3 
3 
3 
5 


36 
37 
28 
30 

24 
25 
31 
31 


3  20 
5  26 

4  31 

5  42 


6 

27 

38 
23 
29 

40 

29 
29 
62 
36 


5  48 

4  25 

5  47 
4  27 


29 
36 
24 
43 

40 
39 
2 
4 


Com- 
munes. 
No. 

452 
837 
317 
251 


106 

108 

764 
264 
426 

479 

291 

287 
364 
717 


Capital. 

Bourg. 
Laon. 
Moulins. 
Digne. 


189  Gap. 

150  Nice. 

339  Privas. 

601  Mezieres. 

336  Foix. 

446  Troyes. 

436  Carcassonne. 

289  Rodez. 


Belfort. 

Blarseille. 

Caen. 

Aurillac. 

Angouleme. 

La  Rochelle. 

Bourges. 
Tulle. 
Ajaccio. 
Dijon. 


387  St.  Brieux. 

263  Gueret. 

682  Perigueux. 

637  Be8an(,'on. 

370  Valence. 

700  Evreux. 

426  CJhartres. 

285  Quimper. 

347  Nimes. 

684  Toulouse. 

465  Auch. 

651  Bordeaux. 


FRANCE  AND  COLONIES. 


888 


Vtfttmnt*. 

Am. 

Inba- 

Population.                bitanti 

May,  1872.  Dec.  81,  IS76.  ton  Sq 

AlileT 

Arron-                „ 
Uitte-Cantoiu.  *,,"■■ 
lui-nu.     No.     "HI"""- 
No.                     ^»- 

Capital. 

H^rault     .     .    . 
Illc-et-Vilaino    . 
Indre    .     .     .     . 
Indre-et-Loire    . 

2,393 
2,597 
2,624 
2,361 

429,878 
589,532 
277,693 
317,027 

445,063 
602,712 
281,248 
324,875 

185 
232 
108 
136 

4 
6 
4 
3 

36 
43 
23 

24 

335 
352 
245 

281 

MontpeUicr. 
lit-nnes. 
Cliateauroux. 
Touts. 

IsJre     .     .     .     . 
.lura      .     .     .     . 
T.Andes.     .     .     . 
Loir-et-Cher .     . 

3,201 
1,928 
3,599 
2,452 

575,784 
287,634 
300,528 
268,801 

681.099 
288.823 
303.508 
272,634 

181 
1.52 
117 
111 

4 
4 
3 
3 

46 
32 
28 
24 

665 
684 
331 
297 

Grenoble. 
l/oiis-le-Saumcr. 
AIont-de-Marsan. 
Ulois. 

Loire    .     .     .     . 
lx>ire  (Haute-)   . 
Loire-Infericure 
Loirct  .... 

1,838 
1,916 
2,654 
2,614 

650.611 
308,732 
602.706 
353,021 

690,613 
313,721 
612,972 
360,903 

321 
1C4 
231 
138 

3 
3 
5 
4 

30 
28 
46 
31 

328 
262 
215 
319 

St.  Etionne. 
I^  Puy. 

Nantes. 
Orleans. 

Lot 

Ix>t-et-Garonnc . 
J>07.ire .     .     .     . 
ilaine-et-Loire  . 

2,012 
2.067 
1,996 
2,749 

281,404 
319,289 
135,190 
518,471 

276.512 
316,920 
138,319 
817,258 

137 

153 

69 

189 

3 
4 
3 
5 

29 
35 
24 
34 

321 
319 
194 

380 

Cahors. 
Agin. 
SlonJe. 
Angers. 

Mamhe     .     .     . 
M.<ime  .     .     .     . 
Slame  (Haute-) . 
Jlayeune  .     .     . 

2,289 
3,159 
2,402 
1,996 

644,776 
386,157 
261,196 
350,637 

639,910 
407,780 
252,448 
351,933 

236 
129 
105 
176 

6 
5 
3 
3 

48 
32 
28 
27 

643 

665 
250 
274 

St.  L6. 
Chalons. 
Chaumont. 
Laval. 

Meurthe-et-      \ 
Moselle          ) 

2,025 

365,137 

404,609 

201 

4 

27 

696 

Kanoy. 

Sleuse  .     .     .     . 
Slorbihan  . 
Nievre .     .     .     . 
Kord    .     .     .     . 

2,405 
2,025 
2,632 
2,193 

284,725 

490,352 

339,917 

1,447,764 

294,0.59 

506,573 

346,822 

1,519,585 

122 
193 
132 
694 

4 

4 
4 
7 

28 
37 
25 
61 

687 
248 
313 
601 

Par-le-Duc. 

Vannes. 

Ncvers. 

Lille. 

Oise      .     .     .     . 
Ome    .     .     .     . 
Pas-de-Calais     . 
Puy-de-Dome     . 
Pyrenees  (Basses- 
P>Tcnee9 

'(Hautes-)  )      ' 
P>Tenees-       1 
Orientales }     * 

2,261 
2,354 
2,551 
3.070 
)     2,943 

1,749 
1,592 

396.804 
398,250 
761,158 
566,463 
426,700 

235,1.56 
191,856 

401,618 
392.526 
793,140 
570,207 
431,525 

238,037 
197,940 

177 

167 
311 
186 
147 

136 
124 

4 

4 
6 
5 
5 

3 
3 

35 
36 
44 
60 
40 

26 
17 

701 
611 
904 
456 
558 

480 
231 

Beauvais. 

Alencjon. 

Arras. 

Clermont-Ferrand. 

Pau. 

Tarbes. 
Perpignan. 

Rhone  .     .     .     . 
Saone  (Haute-)  . 
Saone-et-Loire  . 
Sarthe  .     .     .     . 

1.077 
2,062 
3,302 
2,396 

670,247 
303,088 
598,344 
446,603 

70.5,131 
304,052 
614,309 
446,239 

653 
147 
186 
186 

2 
3 
6 
4 

29 
28 
60 
33 

264 
583 
683 
386 

I-yon. 
Vesoul. 
Macon. 
Le  Afann. 

Savoie  .... 
Savoie  (Haute-). 
Seine     .     .     .     . 
Seine  Inf erieure 

2,224 

1,667 

184 

2,330 

267.958 

273,027 

2,220,060 

790,022 

268,361 

273,801 

2,410.849 

798,414 

121 

164 

13,102 

343 

4 
4 
3 
5 

29 
28 
'-8 
51 

227 
313 

72 
759 

Chambery. 
Annecy. 
Paris. 
Kouen. 

Seine-et-llame  . 
Seine-et-Oise      . 
Sivres  (Deux-)  . 
Somine 

2,215 
2,164 
2,317 
2,379 

341,490 
680,180 
331,243 
557,015 

347,323 
561,990 
336,655 
556,641 

157 
260 
145 
235 

6 
6 
4 

6 

29 
36 
31 
41 

629 
685 
356 
833 

JJelun. 
Versailles. 
Niort. 
Amiens. 

Tarn    .... 
Tam-et-Garonne 

Var 

Vaucluse  .     .     . 

2,217 
1,436 
2,349 
1,370 

3.52,718 
221,610 
293,757 
263,451 

359,232 
221.364 
295,763 
255,703 

162 
154 
121 

187 

4 
3 
5 
4 

35 
24 

28 
22 

317 
194 
145 
150 

Alby. 

Montauhan. 
Dniguipuan. 
Avignon. 

Vendee      .     .     . 
Vienne .... 
A'ienne  (Haute-) 

y.jsgts.    .   .   . 

Yonne  .... 

2,688 
2,691 
2,130 
2,266 
2,868 

401,446 
320,.i98 
322,447 
332.988 
363,608 

16,102,921 

411,781 
3.10,916 
336,061 
407,082 
359,070 

16^906,788 

100 
123 
157 
179 
126 

3  30 

5  31 

4  27 

6  29 
6        37 

362    2,863 

298 
300 
202 
631 
485 

36,056 

Roche-sur-Yon. 

Poitiers. 

Limoges. 

Epinal. 

Auxerre. 

Tot*l     .     .     ." 

204,091  ! 

384 

FEANCE. 

Area  and  Population  of  French 

Colonies. 

Area. 

Inhabitants 

Engl.  Sq. 

Population. 

to  a  Sq. 

MUes. 

Mile. 

Africa: — 

Algeria .... 

122,912 

2,867,626 

23 

Senegal 

62,000 

221,000 

3 

Gabon  .... 

100 

5,000 

50 

Reunion 

764 

183,163 

239 

Mayotte,  &c. 

257 

26,196 

98 

Asia  : — 

India     .... 

196 

271,460 

1,385 

Cochinchina  . 

21,707 

1,600,000 

74 

Cambodia  (protected)     . 

32,380 

890,000 

27 

America: — 

St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon 

81 

5,481 

68 

Guadeloupe   . 

720 

173,149 

240 

Martinique    . 

381 

160,831 

422 

French  Guiana 

46,848 

32,500 

0-7 

Polynesia  :— 

New  Caledonia 

6,78.") 

68,300 

9 

Loyalty  Islands     . 

830 

13,334 

16 

Marquesas     . 

478 

6,011 

13 

Clippertou     . 

2 

no  inh. 

Tahiti  (protected)  . 

438 

10,703 

25 

Tubuai,  Vavitu,  Oparo  (do.) 

56 

700 

13 

Tuamotu  Arch,  (do.) 

2,670 

8,000 

3 

Gambier  Islands  (do.)    . 
Total  Colonies 

12 

1,.500 

125 

299,517 

6,633,954 

22 

France   . 

204,091 

36,905,788 

181 

Grand  Total   . 

603,608 

43,439,742 

86 

FEANCE ; 

Its  Departments,  Natural  Regions,  and  Principal  Communes  in  1876. 

Each  Commune  consists  of  a  town  and  its  environs.     Its  population,  therefore,  is  greater  than  that  of 
the  town  bearing  the  same  name.     In  the  text  the  population  of  the  towns  is  given. 


Departments. 


CORSE      (COR- 
SICA). 


ArrondissementB. 


Ajaccio,  Bastia, 

Calvi,  Corte, 

Sartene. 


Natural  Regions. 


Banda    di    Dentro,    Banda    di 

Fuori. 


Communes  of  over  5,000  Inhabitants. 


Bastia  (17,572), Ajaccio(17,050). 


THE  PYRENEES,  THE  LANDES,  AND  THE  BASIN  OF  THE  GARONNE. 


PYRENEES- 
ORIENTALES. 

ARIEGE. 

HAUTE-GA- 
RONNE. 

PYRENEES 
(HAUTES-). 

PYRENEES 

(BASSES-). 


6ERS. 


TARN-ET-GA- 
RONNE. 

LOT-ET-GA- 
RONNE. 


Perpionan, 
Prades. 


Ceret, 


Foix,   Pamiers,    St. 

GiRONS. 

Toulouse,  Muret, 
St.  Gaud  ens, 
Villefranche. 

Tarbes,  ARQELiS, 
Baqn^kes. 

Pau,  Bayonne,  Mau- 
lEon,  Oloron, 
Orthez. 


AucH,  Condom, 

Lectoure,      Lo.m- 

BEZ,  MiRANDE. 

JIoxtauban,  Castel- 
Sarkasin,  Moissac. 

Aden,  Mahmande, 
Nerac,  Ville- 
necve-d'Agen. 


Capsir,  Val  de  Segre,  VaUespir, 
Aspres,  Valleys  of  the  Tet,  the 
Agly,  Salanque,  &c. 

Valley  of  the  Ariege,  Couse- 
rans,  &c. 

Lauraguais,  Couserana,  Com- 
minges,  Nebouzan,  Quatre- 
VaUees,Lomagne,Toulousain. 

Valleys  of  the  Aure  and  the 
Adour ;  Plateau  of  Lanne- 
mezan,  Nebouzan,  Astarac. 

Valley  of  the  Gaves  of  Beam, 
Soule,  Labourd,  Lower 
Navarre,  Landes,  Touyas. 


Comminges,     Astarac,     Arma- 
gnac. 

Plateau  of  Quercy,  VaUey  of 
the  Garonne,  Lomagne. 

Agenais,  Lomagne,  Armagnac. 


Perpignan  (28,353),  Rivesaltes 
(6,329). 

Pamiers  (8,967),  Foix  (6,362). 

Toulouse  (131,642),  St.  Gaudeus 
(5,955),  Revel  (5,613). 

Tarbes  (21,293),  Bagnferes 
(9,508),  Lourdes  (6,471). 

Pau  (28,908),  Bayonne  (27,416), 
Oloron  Sto.  Marie  (8,644), 
Orthez  (6,624),  Hasparren 
(6,566),  Biarritz  (5,507), 
Salies  (5,140). 

Auch  (13,785),  Condom  (7,873), 
Lectoure  (6,507). 


(26,952),     Moissac 
Castel-Sarrasin 


Montauban 

(9,137), 

(6,906). 
Agen       (19,503),       VUleneuve 

(14,448),  Marmande  (8,961), 

Tonneins       (8,199),       Nirac 

(7,586). 


DEPARTMEXTS,  NATURAL  REGIONS,  AND  PRINCIPAL  COMMUNES.      385 


THE  PYRENEES,  TUE  LAKDES.  AND  THE  BASIN  OF  THE  GARONNE— (OwriHiiorf). 


DepulBMBti. 


LANDES. 
GIRONDE. 


Antndianmanta. 


Mont-db-Mabsan, 
Dax,  St.  Sever. 

BoBDKAi'X,  Bazas, 
Blaye,  La  H£ulb, 
Lbspauhe,      Li- 

BUL'KXE. 


Natnnl  Bagiooi. 


Landce,  Buch,  MaranBin,  Cha- 
losse. 

London,  JI6doc,  Bordclnis,  Baza- 
dais,  Benangc,  Entre-Ueux- 
Mers,  Libounmu,  Blayais. 


Commune*  of  over  &,000  InhaUtaaU. 


Dax  (10,260),  Mont-do- Manuin 
(9,310). 

Bordeaux  (216,140),  Libourno 
(15,231),  Bigles  (6,202), 
Caud6ran  (6,3U6),  La  Toate 
(6,311),  Bazas  (6,073). 


THE  ALPS,  THE  RHOXE,  AND  THE  MEDITERR.VNEAN  COAST  REGIONS. 


AUDE. 
HERAULT. 


CARD. 


ARDECHE. 

BOUCHES-DU- 
RHONE. 


TAB. 


ALPES-MARL 
TIMES. 

VAUCLUSE. 


ALPES 

(HAUTES-). 
ALPES 

(BASSES). 

dr6me. 


ISERE. 


SAVOIE. 


SAVniE 
(UAl'TE-). 


Cariassos.ve,      Cas- 

TELNAIDAKV,        Ll- 

Morx,  Narbosse. 

MONTPBLLIER,         B£- 
ZIBB8,  LOD^YE,  St. 

Pons. 


NiMEs,     Alais,      Lk 
Vioan,  Vzis. 


PRrvAs,         Labgen- 

TltRE,  TOIRKO.N. 


Marseille, 
Arles. 


Aix, 


Dbaguiokan,      Bai- 

OXOLES,  TOCLON. 


Nice,    Grasse,    Pu- 
oet-Tuemers. 

Avignon,  Apt,  Cab- 

PBSTBA8,  OhANOE. 


Gap,  Bbiakcon, 

Embrl-x. 
Digne,      Barcelok- 

NETTE,  CaSTEL- 

lane,         Forcal- 

QUIBR,  .SiSTERON. 

Die,    Mont£limabt, 
Nyoss,  Valence. 

Grbxoblb,  La  Tour- 
Dv-Pis,   St.  Mah- 

CELLO',  ViENSE. 

Ciiaxb£bt,   Albebt- 

TILLE,       Moi'TIEUK, 
St.  jEAM-DE-MAt- 

rikknz. 
Aknecy,         Bovsi- 

VILLI,   St.   JVLIEM, 

Tuoson. 


Monbigno  Noire,  Corbiires, 
RazO'S,  Laiuaguais,  Valley  of 
the  Aude,  Lagoons  (Etangs). 

Cevennes,  Valleys  of  the  Lez, 
the  H6rault,  the  Orb,  and  the 
Aude,  Lagoons. 


Cevennes,  Valleys  of  the 
Gardons,  A'auuage,  Garrigucs, 
Marshes,  and  Dunes. 


Mountains  of  Vivarais,  Coiron, 
Valley  oi  the  Rhone. 

Camargue,  Crau,  Valley  of  the 
Durance,  Hill  Region,  Shore 
Region. 


Basin  of  the  Argens,  Mountains 
of  the  Moors,  Valley  of  the 
Gapeau,  Shore  Region. 

Valleys  of  the  Roya,  the  Vesu- 

bie,  the  Tinee,  and  the  Var, 

Shore  Region. 
Ventoux,       Leberon,       Palus, 

Valleys  of  the  RhGne  and  of 

the  Durance. 


Que}Tas,    Oisans,    Champsaux, 

Devoluy. 
Mountains  of  Upper  Provence, 

Valley  of  the  Durance. 


Devoluy,  Diois,  Forest  of  Saou, 
Tricastin,  Valley  of  the 
Rhone. 

Oisans,  Devoluy,  Lans,  Vercors, 
Grande-Chartreuse,  Grandcs- 
Rousses,  Sept-Laux,  Graisi- 
vaudan,  Bifevrc. 

Plain  of  Savoy,  Bauges,  Mau- 
rienne,  Tarentaise. 


Genevois,  Faucigny,  Chablaia. 


Carcassonne  (26,971),  Narbonne 
(19,968),  Castelnaudary 

(9,042),  Limoux  (6,661). 

Montpellier  (66,268),  Beziers 
(38,227),  Cette  (28,690), 
Lodeve  (10,628),  Lunel, 
(8,315),  Agdo  (8,261),  Pfeenaa 
(7,966),  Bcdarieux  (7,961) 
M^zo  (6,826),  Oermont- 
I'Herault  (6,964),  St.  Pons 
(5,809). 

Nimes  (63,001),  Alais  (20,893), 
Besseges  (10,668),  La  Grand'- 
Combe  (10,162).  Beaucaire 
(8,777),  St.  Gilles  (6,302), 
Uzds  (6,586),  Le  Vigan 
(5,389),  Anduze  (5,110). 

Annonay  (15,848),  Aubenas 
(7,781),  Privas  (7,763),  Tour- 
non  (6,083). 

Marseille  (318,868),  Aix 
(28,693),  Aries  (26,095), 
Tarascon  (10,409),  La  Ciotat 
(10,058),  Aubagne  (8,027), 
Salon  (7,021),  Martigues 
(6,963),  St.  Remy  (6,999). 

Toulon  (70,609),  Hyferes 
(12,289),  La  Se\Tie  (10,656), 
Draguipnan  (9,223),  Bri- 
gnoles  (5,840). 

Nice  (53,397),  Cannes  (14,022), 
Grasse  (13,087),  Menton 
(7,819),  Antibes  (6,762). 

Avignon  (38,008),  Carpentras 
(10,479),  Orange  (10,212), 
Cavaillon  (8,454),  L'Isle 
(6,608),  Apt  (6,687),  Pertuis 
(6,649),  BoUtoe  (6,478). 

Gap  (9,294). 

Digne  (7,222),Manosque(6,l36). 


Valence  (23,220),  Romans 
(12,923),  Mont^limart 

(11,946),  Crest  (6,600). 

Grenoble  (46,426),  Vienne 
(26,502),  Voiron  (11,064), 
Bourgoin  (6,021). 

Chamb^ry  (18,545). 


Annecy        (10,976), 
(6,501). 


Thonon 


886 


FEANCE. 


THE  JURA  AND  THE  BASIN  OF  THE  SOMME. 


Departments. 


AIN. 
JUEA. 

DOUBS. 


EHIN  (BAS-). 
SAONE 

(HAUTE-). 
COTE-D'OK. 

sa6ne-et- 

LOIRE. 


RHONE. 


Arrondissements. 


BouRG,  Belley,  G  ex, 
Nantua,  Trevoux. 

LONS  -  LE  -  SaUNIER, 

Dole,       Poligsv, 
St.  Claude. 


BESANfON,  Bai'me- 
le,s-Dames,  Mont- 
beliard,   pontar- 

LIER. 

Belfort. 
VesouLjGiuy,  Lure. 

Dijon,  Beaune,  CH.i- 

TiLLON-suii  -  Seine, 
Semur. 

M.icON,  AUTUN,  Ch-\- 
LON  -  SUR  -  SaoNE, 

Charolles,    Lou- 

HAN'8. 

Lyon,  Ville- 

FaANCHE. 


Natural  Eegions. 


Jura,  Bugey,  Dombes,  Bresse. 

Mountains  and  table-laud  of  the 
Jura,  Bresse,  Finage. 


Mountains  and  table-land  of  the 
Jura. 


Gap  of  Belfort. 

Vosgos,  FauciUes,  Mountains  of 

Lure,  Valley  of  the  Saone. 
Morvan,  Auxois,  Chatillonnais, 

Cote-d'Or,  Plain  of  the  Saoue. 

Morvan,  Autunnaia,  CharoUais, 
Brionnais,  Bresse. 


Mountains  of  Lyonnais  and 
Beaujolais,  Valleys  of  th( 
Saone  and  the  Rhone. 


Communes  of  over  5,000  Inhabitants. 


Bourg  (15,692). 

Dole  (12,924),  Lons-le-Saunier 
(11,8'Jl),  St.  Claude  (7,-550), 
Salins  (6,271),  Morez  (6,419), 
Arbois  ( 5,027  ),  Poligny 
(5,010). 

Besau<;on  (54,404),  Montbeliard 
(8,938),  Poularlier  (5,714). 


Belfort  (16,173). 

Vesoul    (9,206),    Gray    (7,401), 

Fougerolles  (5,459). 
Dijon  (47,939),  Beaune  (11,421), 

Auxonne  (6,532). 

Le  Creusot  (26,432),  Chalon- 
Bur-Saoiie  (20,895),  Macon 
(17,570),  Autun  (12,8891, 
Montcuau-les-Mines  (11,011), 
Tournus  (5,527). 

Lyon  (342,815),  Tarare  (14,383), 
Villefranche  (12,486),  Givors 
(11,910),  ViUeurbanne 

(9,033),  Caluire  -  ct  -  Cuire 
(8,702),  Amplepuis  (6,915), 
Coura  (6,157),  OuUins  (5,674), 
Venissieux  (5,224),  Ste.  Foy- 
lea-Lyon  (5,118). 


THE  CENTRAL  PLATEAU. 


lozere. 

LOIRE 

(HAUTE-). 
AVEYRON. 


TARN. 


LOT. 

CANTAL. 

PUY-DE- 
DOME. 


CORREZE. 
DORDOGNE. 


VIENNE 
(HAUTE-). 

CREUSE. 


ALLIER. 


Mende,         Flokac, 

Marvejols. 
Le    Puy,    Bkioude, 

yssinoeaux. 

RoUEZ,  ESPALION, 

MiLLAu,    St.    Af- 

FRIQUE,  VlLLE- 

FRANCHE. 

Alby',       Castres, 
Gaillac,  Lavaur. 


Cahors,     Figeac, 

GOURDON. 
AURILLAC,    MaURIAC, 

Murat,  St.  Flour. 
Clermont-Ferrand, 
Ambert,     Issoire, 
RioM,  Thiers. 

Tulle,  Briye,  Ussel. 
Perigueux,        Ber- 

GERAC,       NoNTRON, 

Rikekac,  Sarlat. 
Limoges,       Bellac, 

Roche  -  Chouart, 

St.  Yrieix. 
Guebet,     Aubusson, 

BoUROANEUF, 
BoUSSAC. 
MOULINS,       Gannat, 
La  Palisse,  Mont- 

lUfON, 


Plateau  of  Gevaudan. 

Plateau  of  Velay. 

Causses,  Segales,  Hills  of  Kou- 
ergue. 


Montague  Noire,  Hills  of  La- 
caune,  Sidobre,  Albigeoia. 


Causae  of  Lot,  Valleys  of  the 

Dordogne  and  the  Lot. 
Cezallier,  Cantal,  Placeze. 

Plateau  of  Auvergne,  Mountains 
of  Forez,  Valley  of  the  Li- 
magne. 

Plateau  of  Limousin. 
Perigord,   Nontronn.'iis,    Sarla- 

dais.  Valley  of  the  Dordogne, 

Double. 
Plateau  of  Limousin. 


Plateaux  of  Marohe  and  Li- 
mousin. 

Plateaux  of  Bourbonnaia,  Val- 
leys of  the  Loire  and  the 
Ailier. 


Mende  (7,300). 

Le   Puy  (19,250),   Y'ssingeaux 

(8,371). 

Millau  (15,695),  Eodez  (13,375), 
Villefranche  (10,124),  Aubin 
(9,864),  Decazeville  (9,547), 
St.  Afifrique  (7,622). 

Castres  (25,856),  Alby  (19,169), 
Mazamet  (14,168),  Gaillac 
(8,124), Lavaur(7,563).Graul- 
het  (6,940),  Cai-maux  (6,160), 
Rabastens  (5,161),  Pay  lam-ens 
(5,141). 

Cahors  (13,660),  Figeac  (7,333), 
Gourdon  (5,098). 

Aurillac  (11,211),  St.  Flour 
(5,381). 

Clermont  (41,772),  Thiers 
(16,343),  Riom  (10,801), 
Issoire  (6,250),  St.  Remy 
(5,572). 

Tulle  (15,342),  Brive  (11,920). 

Perigueux  (24,169),  Bergerac 
(13,120),  Sarlat  (6,554). 

Limoges  (59,011),  St.  Junien 
(8,221),  St.  Yrieix  (7,429),  St. 
Leonard  (5,989). 

Aubusson  (6,847),  Gueret 
(5,859). 

Montlu(;on  (23,416),  Moulins 
(21,774),  Commentry  (12,978), 
Vichy  (6,428),  Gannat  (5,568), 
Cusset  (6,308),  Montvicq 
(6,242). 


DEPABTMENTS,  NATUKAL  KEOIONS,  AN1>  PEINCIPAL  COMMUNES.      887 


THE  CENTRAL  PLATEAU.— (C«»/iiiii«0- 


Departments. 


LOIBE. 


ArtoodiMemanta. 


St.  Etienne,  Mont- 

BRISu^',  1{UA.NNE. 


Natural  Regioua. 


Hills  of  Foipz,   Valley  of  llii 
Loixo,  UcuujolaU. 


Commune*  of  over  B,000  InhuUUnti. 


8t.  Etipnno  (126,019),   Itounno 
(22,797),  Uivo  -  do  -  Gier 

(1.5,004),St.C'hiimond(U,420), 
Firminy  (11,972).  Chambun- 
Feugerolles  (8,314),  Rica- 
marie  (6,700),  Terronoire 
(6,378),  Montbrison  (6,363), 
St.  Julien-en-Jarret  (6,230), 
Chazelles-siir-Lyon  (6,915), 
Tssieuz  (0,194),  Panissi&rcs 
(6,017). 


CHAREXTE  AND  VENDEE. 


CHARENTE. 


CH.\RENTE- 
INFERIEURE. 


VIENNE. 


SEVRES 
(DEUX-). 

VENDEE. 


AxGOl'LtME,  BaRBE- 
ZIEIX,  CoG.VAC, 

CONFOLEMS,      BUF- 
FEC. 

La  Rochelle,    Jon- 

ZAT,  ^IaHENNES, 

RoCHEFOKT,         St. 

Jkan  -  n'A>'G£LY, 
Saintes. 

POITIEBS,  ChATEI- 

LBKAl'LT,  ClVRAY, 

LOCDU.V,  MONTJIO- 
RILLON. 

NlORT,  Bbesscire, 
Melle,      Parthe- 

NAY. 

La  Roche- srR- Von, 
Fo.NTEN  A  Y  -  le  - 
Comte,  Sables- 
d'Olonkes. 


Confolcnnais,  Terres-Chaudes, 
Pays-Bas,  Bois,  Champagne, 
Double. 

Double,  Champagne,  Socage, 
Murais. 


Plateau,  Valleys  of  the  Vienne 
and  the  Chareute. 


Socage,  Plain,  Miirsh. 
Socage,  Plain,  Marsh,  IslanJs. 


Angouleme    (30,513),    Cognao 
(14,900). 


Rochefort  (27,012),  La  Rochelle 

(19,583),  t>aint«8  (13,725),  St. 

Jean  -  d'Angely    (7,172),   St. 

Georges       (5,208),       Royas 

(5,165). 
Poitiers  (33,253),   Chatellerault 

(18,053),  MontmoriUon 

(5,105). 


Niort       (20,923), 
(5,091). 


Parthcnay 


Roche  -  BUT  -  Yon  (Napoleon) 
(9,755),  Sables  -  d'Olonne 
(9,347),  Fontenay-le-Comte 
(8,453),  Lu<;on  (6,247),  Noir- 
moutier  (5,787). 


THE  SASIN  OF  THE  LOIRE. 


NIEVBE. 


CHER. 


INDRE. 


LOIRET. 


LOIR-ET- 
CHER. 

EURE-ET- 
LOIR. 

INDRE-ET- 
LOIRE. 

MAINE- ET- 
LOIRE. 


SABTHE. 
MAYENNE. 


Neters,  Chateav- 
Chison,  Clamecy, 
Cos.se. 

BouROEs,  St.  Amand- 
Mont-Rond,   San- 

CERRB. 


Chateaubocx,  Le 
Blakc,  La  Ch.\tre, 
Ibsoudck. 

OblSans,       Oies, 

MoNTABOIS,  PlTHI- 
VIER8. 

Blois,    Bohorantin, 

Venuome. 
Chabtbes,  Chateai- 

DVK,    Dbeix,    No- 

OE>T-LE-RoTB0f. 

TofRs,  Chinon, 

Loches. 

ANCEB«,SAfOfe,  ChO- 
LET,  SaVHUR, 

SECRi. 

Le  Mans,  La  FlJche, 
Mameb«,  St.  Ca- 
lais. 

Laval,  Chateav- 
Gontier,       May  - 

ZNX 


Morvan,  Valleys  of  the  Yonne 
and  the  Loire. 


Plateau,  Sologne. 


CTiampagne,  Bois  -  Chaud, 

Brenne. 


Solopne,  Val,  Puisaye,  G&tinais, 
Forest  of  Orleans,  Beauce. 

Beauce,  Val,  Sologne. 

Beauce,  Dunois,  Drouais,  Thy- 
m^rais,  Perche. 

Oatine,  Varenne,  C!hampeigne, 

Plateau  of  St.  Sfaure,  Brenne. 

Anjou,  Valine,  Mauges,  Socage. 


Coevrons,  Lower  Maine,  Beli- 
nois,  Giitine. 

Cocvions,  Upper  Maine,  (Traon- 
Dais. 


Nevere  (22,704),  Cosne  (6,851), 
Fourchambault  (5,884), 

Clamecy  (5,432),  La  Charile 
(6,086). 

Bourges  (35,785),  Vierzon-Villa 
(8,995),  St.  Amand-Mont- 
Rond  (6,499),  Vierzon-Village 
(6,731),  Mehun-sur-Y6vro 
(6,326),  Dun-le-Roi  (5,001). 

Chateauroux  (19,442),  Igsoudun 
(13,703),  Le  Blanc  (6,122), 
Buzan(;ais  (6,109),  Argeutoa 
(6,582). 

Orleans  (52,157),  Montargig 
(9,176),  Gien  (7,555),  Briare 
(•5,152),  Pithiviers  (6,006). 

Blois  (20,515),  Vendome  (9,221), 
Romorantin  (7,826). 

Chartrcs  (20,468),  Dreux  (7,922), 
Nogent  -  le  -  Rotrou  (7,638), 
Chateaudun  (6,694). 

Tours  (48,325),  Chinon  (6,301), 
Loches  (5,085). 

Angers  (66,846),  Cholet(  14,288), 
baumur  (13,822),  Chalonnes- 
Bur-Loire  (5,530),  Trelaz^ 
(5,264). 

Le  Mans  (50,175),  La  Flicha 
(9,406),  Sabld  (5,947),  Mamers 
(6,342). 

Laval  (27,107),  Mayenno 
(10,098),  Chateau  -  Gouticr 
(7,218),  Erncc  (.5,330). 


388 


FRANCE. 
THE  BASIN  OF  THE  l,01RE—{Confi,med). 


Departments. 


LOIRE  -  INFE  • 
RIEURE. 


Arrondissements. 


Nantes,  Ancenis, 
Chat  EAUB  RIANT, 
Paimbceuf,  St. 
Nazaibe. 


Natural  Regions, 


Plateau  of  Brittany,  Valley  of 
the  Loire,  Brifere,  Guerande, 
Retz. 


Communes  of  over  5,000  Inhabitants. 


Nantes  (122,247),  St.  Nazaire 
(18,300),  Chantenay  (9,953), 
Eeze  (6,849),  Blain  (6,807), 
Guerande  (6,804),  Guemene- 
Penfao  (6,167),  Nort  (5,765), 
Vertou  (5,471),  Chateaubriant 
(5,228),  Vallet  (5,200),  An- 
cenis (5,177),  Plesse  (5,154). 


BRETAGNE  (BRITTANY). 


MORBIHAN. 


FINISTERE. 


COTES-DU- 
NORD. 


ILLE-ET- 
VILAINE. 


Vannes,      Lorient, 
Ploermel       Pon- 


Quimper,  Brest, 
Chateal'Lin,  Mor- 
laix,  Quimperle. 


St.   Brieuc,   Dinan, 

GUINGAMP,        LaN- 

NION,  LoUDEAC. 


Rennes,  Focoeres, 
MoNTFORT,  Redox, 
St.  Malo,  Vithe. 


Landes  of  Lanvaux,  A'^annetais, 
Coast  Region,  Islands. 


Comoiiaille,  Muntagne  Noire, 
Valley  of  the  Aulne,  Landes 
of  CarhaLx,  Hills  of  Arree, 
Leon. 


Monts  Menez,  Leon,  Tregorrois. 


Basin  of  the  Vilaine,  Marsh  of 
Dol,  Pays  Malouin. 


Lorient  (35,165),  Vannea 
(17,946),  Ploermeur  (10,600), 
Ponti\'y  (8,252),  Languidio 
(6,433),  Hennebont  (6,050), 
Sarzeau  (5,718),  Caudan 
(6,707),  Ploermel  (5,505). 

Brest  (66,828),  Morlaix(15,183), 
Quimper  (13,879),  Lambe- 
zellac  (12,379),  Doiiarnenez 
(8,637),  Landerneau  (8,195), 
Crozon  (7,763),  St.  Pol  de 
Leon  (7,005),  Quipavas 
(6,802),  Quimperle  (6,633), 
Plougastel-Daoulas  (6,506), 
St.  Pierre-Quilbignon  (6,301), 
Briec  (5,906),  Plougeumeau 
(5,951),' Pleyben  (5,229). 

St.  Brieuc  (16,355),  Dinan 
(8,180),  Guingamp  (7,895), 
Lannion  (6,294),  Loud^au 
(5,901),  Plevin  (5,664),  Plouha 
(5,229). 

Rennes  (57,177),  St.  Servan 
(12,281),  Fougeres  (11,873), 
St.  Malo  (10,295),  Vitrj- 
(9,870),  Le  Grand  Fougerae 
(6,370),  Cancale  (6,239),  Re- 
don  (6,446),  Combourg(5,6o8), 
Pleurtuit  (5,238). 


LOWER  NORMANDY  AND  COTENTIN. 


MANCHE. 

ORNE. 
CALVADOS. 


St.  Lo,  Avranches, 
Cherbourg,  Cou- 
tances,  mortadj, 
Valognes. 

AiENfON,  Aroentan, 

DOMFRONT,       MOE- 
TAGNE. 

Caen,   Bateux,  Fa- 

LAISE,  LiSIECX, 

Pont   -  L'EvtauE, 

ViRE. 


Avranchin,    Cotentin,    Hague, 
Marais  (Marsh). 


Percbe,    Merlerault,    Alen(;on- 
naia,  Marches. 

Bocage,    Campagne    of    Caen, 
Auge,  Lieuvin,  Ouche. 


Cherbourg  (37,186),  Granville 
(12,627),  St.  L6  (9,706), 
Avranches  (8,157),  Coutances 
(8,008),  Valognes  (5,831), 
Tourlaville  (5,757). 

AIen(;on  (16,615),  Flers  (11,155), 
La  Ferte-Mace  (9,769),  Ar- 
gentan  (5,788),  Laigle  (5,196). 

Caen  (41,181),  Lisieux  (18,396), 
Honfleur  (9,426),  Bayeux 
(8,614),  Falaise  (8,428), 
Conde-sur-Noireau  (7,350), 
Vire  (6,718),  Trouville(5,886). 


BASIN  OF  THE  SEINE. 


YONNE. 


AUBE. 


AUXERRE,     AVALLON, 

JoioNT,       Sens, 
tonnerre. 

Trotes,        Nogent- 
sur-Seine,  Arcis- 

SUR-AUBE,         BaR- 
SUR-AUBE,  BaR- 

sur-Seine. 


Avallonnais,    Auxerrois,    Pui- 
saye,  Gatinais,  Senonais. 

Champagne. 


Auxerre  (16,239),  Sena  (12,309), 
Joigny  (6,317),  Avallon 
(5,930),  Tonnerre  (5,536), 
VLUeneuve-sur-Yonne(6,084). 

Troyes  (41,376),  Romilly-sur- 
Seine  (6,190). 


DEPAETMENTS,  NATURAL  REGIONS.  AND  PRINCIPAL  COMMUNES.      889 
BASIN  OF  THE  SEINE-<0)«<i«i«rf). 


DepartiiMDts. 

MARNE 

(HAl'TE-). 
MAKNE. 


SEINE-ET- 
MAKNE. 


SEINE. 


AnondiaaemmtJL 


SEIKE-ET- 
OISE. 


AISNE. 


OISE. 


EURE. 


SEIXE-INFE- 
lUEUBE. 


Natsnl  Bcgiona. 


Conunime*  of  over  5,000  Inhabitant*. 


Chacmont,  Lanobbs,  Platoau  of  Lnngros,  Basaigny, 
Vasst.      ,  '     VuUago,  Porthois. 

Chalon8,  Eperxay,  Boiane,  Porthoin,  Arpnnno, 
Reims,  Ste.  Mkne-  Chiimpagno  Poiiilleusc,  Brio, 
HoiLD,   ViTKV-LB-,      Reinoig,  Tardenois. 

FRAXt«IS. 

Melvv,    Covlom-   Brie,  Gatinais. 

MIERS,      FONTAINB- 
BLEAl',  MeAI'X, 

Provi.ns. 


Paris,     St. 

SCEAUX. 


Dbnis,  Paris  Basin. 


Versailles,  Corbeil, 
Etampes,  Mantes, 
PONTOISE,  Kam- 
BOflLLET. 


Gatinais,     Hurepoix,     Beauce, 
Mantois,  French  Vexin. 


Laon,      Chateav-  Brie,  Valois,  Tardenais,  Laon- 


Thierby,  Soissons, 
St.  Quentik, 
Vebvins. 

BEArVAIS.CLERMONT, 
CoMPLkONB,  SeN- 
LIS. 


nais,  Vennandois,  Soissonnais, 
Thierache. 


Xoyonnais,     Beauvaisis,    Sau- 
terre,  Bray,  Vexin. 


Norman  Vexin,  Campagne  of 
Evreux  and  St.  Andr^,  Ouche, 
IJeuvin,  Roumoia. 


Little 


Etreix,  Les  Asde- 
LTs,  Bernat,  Loc- 
TIERS,  Post-Acde- 

MER. 

RoiEN,   Dieppe,    Le  Roumois,    Great    and 
Havre,  Neifcha-       Caux 
TEL,  Yvetot. 


St.  Dizier  (12,76-1),  Langreg 
(10,376),  Chaumont  (9,226). 

Reims  (81, .328),  ChiUnnc-gur- 
Marno  (20,236),  tpemay 
(15.506),  Vitn'-le-Franijois 
(7,616),  Ay  (6,0(i3). 

Moaux  (11,735)),  FontaincWeau 
(11,663),  Melun  (11,241), 
Proving  (7,693),  Montereau- 
fault-Vonno  (7,041),  Coulom- 
miirs  (.1,240). 

Paris  (1,988,806),  St.  Denis 
(34,908),  Levallois-Pfrrot 
(22,744),  Boulogne  (21,556), 
Neuilly  (20,781),  Vincennes 
(18,243),  Clichy  (17,364), 
Ivry  (15,247),  Aubervilliers 
(14,340),  Montreuil  (13,607), 
Pantin  (13,065),  Puteaux 
(12,181),  Courbevole(ll,934), 
St.  Ouen  (11,255),  Gentilly 
(10,378),  Issy  (9,484),  Charen- 
ton-Ie-Pont  (8,822),  Vanves 
(8,812),  St.  Maur  (8,433), 
Asniereg  (8,278),  Maisons- 
All'ort  (7,619),  Nogent-gur- 
Marne  (7,559),  St.  Mande 
(7,499),  Colombes  (6,640), 
Montrouge  (6,371),  Suresnes 
(6,149),  Choisy-le-Koi  (5,821), 
Arcueil  (5,299). 

Versailles  (49,847),  St.  Germain- 
eu-Laye  (17,199),  ArgenteuU 

(8,990),  Rueil(8, 807),  Etampes 
(7,840),  SJirres  (6,552),  Meu- 
don  (6,425),  Pontoise  (6,412), 
Corbeil  (6,392),  Mantes 
(5,649),  Essonnes  (5,334), 
Poissy  (5,063). 

St.  Quentin  (38,924),  Laon 
(12,132),  Soissons  (11,089), 
Chauny  (9,198),  Chateau- 
Thierry  (6,902),  Guise  (6,250), 
Bohain  (6,005). 

Beauvais  (16,600),  Compiegne 
( 1 3,393),Senli8  (6,545),  Noyon 
(6,439),  Clermont  (6,101), 
Creil      (5,737),      Montataire 

.  (5,105). 

E\Teux  (14,627),  Louviers 
(10,913),  Bernay  (7,644),  Ver- 
non (6,636),  Pont-Audemer 
(5,942),  Les  Andelys  (4,574). 

Rouen  (104,902),  Le  Havre 
(92,068),  Elbeuf  (22,213), 
Dieppe  (20,333),  Fecamp 
(12,684),  SotteWUe-lcs-Rouen 
(11,763),  Caudebee-l^s-Elbeuf 
(11,338),  Bolbec  (11,105), 
Yvetot  (8,444),  Petit-Qu6viUy 
(6,250),  Darn^tal  (5,618), 
Lillebonno  (6,396). 


NORTHERN  FRANCE. 


60MME. 


Amiens,   Abbeville, 
DoULLENH,   Mont- 

DIDIBH,  P^ROn.NE. 


Vermandois,  Santcrre,  Amie- 
noig,  Vimou,  Ponthieu,  Jlar- 
(juenterro. 


Amiens  (66,866),  Abbe\-ine 
(19,381),  Villcrs-Bretonncux 
(5,366). 


390 


FEANCE. 
NORTHERN  FRANCE— {Continued). 


Departments. 


PAS-DE- 
CALAIS. 


NOED. 


Arrondissements. 


Arras,  Bethune, 
Boulogne,  Munt- 
reuil-suu-Mer 
St.  Omer,  St.  Pol. 


Lille,  Avesnes, 

Cambrai,  Douai, 
Dunkerqde,  Haze- 
BRoucK,  Valen- 
ciennes. 


Natural  Eegions. 


Artois,  Ponthieu,  Boulonnais, 
Calaisis,  Pays-Bas  (Low- 
lands). 


French  Hainaut,  Cambresis, 
Pev^le,  Wallon  Flanders, 
Flemish  Flanders,  Waeter- 
inghes,  Moires,  Dunes. 


Comnmnes  of  over  5,000  Inhabitants. 


Boulogne  (40,076),  Arras 
(26,764),  St.  Pierre-les 
Calais  (25,853),  St.  Omer 
(21,855),  Calais  (12,573), 
Bethune  (9,315),  Lens (9,383), 
Carvin  (7,471),  LiUera (7,003), 
Henin-Lietard  (5,491),  Lievin 
(.5,463). 

LiUe  (162,775),  Rouhabc 
(83,661),  Tourcoing  (48,634), 
Diinkerque  (35,071),  Douai 
(26,999),  Valenciennes 

(26,083),  Cambrai  (22,079), 
Armenticres  (21,746),  Wat- 
trelos  (15,325),  Maubeuge 
(14,398),  Denain  (14.419), 
HaUuin  (13,771),  Bailleul 
(12,968),  Fourmiers  (11,888), 
Hazebrouck  (9,857),  La 
Cateau  (9,597),  Anzin  (9,009), 
Marcq  -  en  -  Barccul  (8,411), 
Gravelines  (7,833),  La  Made- 
line (7,461),  Estaires  (6,949), 
Hautmont  (6,973),  Merville 
(6,912),  Loos,  (6,706)  Co- 
mines  (6,409),  Solesmes 
(6,443),  Fresnes  (6,045),  Croix 
(5,741),  Vieux-Conde  (5,681), 
Aniches  (5,484),  Haubardin 
(5,379),  Bergues  (5,368), 
Somin  (5,110),  Seclin  (5,022), 
Quesnoy-sur-Deule  (5,014). 


THE  VOSGES.    BASINS  OF  THE  MEUSE  AND  THE  MOSELLE. 


MEUSB. 


ARDENNES. 


VOSGES. 


MEITRTHE-ET- 
MOSELLE. 


Bar-le-Dic,  Com- 
mercy,  Montmedy, 
Verdun. 

MEzifeRES,  Rethel, 
RocRoi,  Seuan, 
vouziers. 

Epinal,  Mirf.cocrt, 
Neuchateau,    Re- 

MIREMONT,  St.  Vve. 


Nancy,  Briey,  Lune- 
yille,  Toul. 


!Bar-le-Duc  (16,728),  Verdun- 
sur-Meuse  (15,781),  St. 
Mihiel  (5,178),  Commercy 
(5,151). 

Sedan      (16,593),       CharleviUe 

(13,759),  Rethel  (7,415),  Givet 

(5,575),      Mezierea      (5,319), 

,  Nouzon  (5,411). 

Vosges,  Faucilles,  Slope  towards  Epinal  ( 14,894),  St.  Die  (14,511), 

"■  '      "  Remiremont      (7,866),      Val 

d'Ajol     (7,173),     Gerardmer 

(6,543),  Ramber^TlIers  (5,281), 

Mirecourt  (5,266). 

Nancy  (66,303),  Lun^ville 
(16,041),  Pont-a-Mous8on 
(10,970),  Toul  (10,085),  Bac- 
carat (5,764). 


Barrois,    Verdunois,    Argonne, 
AV'oevre. 


Champagne,    Argonne,    Rethe- 
lois.  Plateau  of  Ardenne. 


the  Saone,  Slope  towards  the 
Moselle, 


Valleys  of   Lorraine,   Toulois, 
Woevre. 


LIBRASy 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS. 


3Wiii';2ii:iiiAnD. 


V'Hatd    S'Sotoautm.  S-Freyhtuy 


^'  Iii/-f;-hitf 


'"N^_:«' 


v-^i« 


C*^.i^ 


LONDON.  VII 


•ntfitt^if'        £, 


;   «c  CO   LIMITED 


SWITZERLAND.* 


CHAPTER  I. 

General  Aspects. — The  Alps.! 

HE  Helvetian  Republic,  or  Switzerland,  named  after  Schwitz,  one  of 
the  least  of  its  cantons,  occupies  a  small  area  in  comparison  with 
that  of  the  neighbouring  states.  Two  hundred  Switzerlands  woxJd 
scarcely  equal  Europe  in  area ;  and  in  huge  empires,  such  aa 
Russia  or  Brazil,  a  territory  so  small  in  extent  would  hardly  be 
deemed  deserving  of  notice,  and  on  some  maps  even  its  name  would  be  looked 
for  in  vain. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  its  smallness,  Switzerland,  owing  to  its  geographical 
position,  is  one  of  the  most  important  countries  of  Europe.  Taken  as  a  whole, 
and  in  spite  of  its  erratic  boimdaries,  the  result  of  wars  and  political  vicissitudes, 
it  occupies  the  very  centre  of  what  must  be  looked  upon  as  the  true  Europe. 
Within  it  rise  the  most  important,  though  not  the  highest,  ranges  of  the  Alps, 
hanng  a  large  portion  of  their  surface  covered  with  perpetual  snow  and  ice. 
Within  it  rise  some  of  the  most  considerable  rivers  of  Central  Europe.  Swiss 
lakes  and  glaciers  are  reservoirs  of  the  water  which  fertilises  many  of  the  sur- 
rounding plains ;  and  to  these  snow-clad  Helvetian  Alps  the  plains  of  Lombardy, 
the  vaUey  of  the  Rhone,  and  Southern  Germany  are  largely  indebted  for  their 
prosperity. 

In  a  former  age  these  bold  moimtains  were  much  dreaded,  and  travellers 
avoided  the  savage  gorges  and  difficult  roads  of  Switzerland,  preferring  to  make 
wide  detours  in  order  that  they  should  not  be  obliged  to  cross  the  Alps  where 
they  are  highest.  All  this  is  changed  now  ;  and  travellers  in  thousands  annually 
visit  Switzerland  to  admire  its  glaciers,  its  mountain  scarps  and  waterfalls,  and 

•  Berlepach,  "  Schweizer  Kundo;"  Studer,  "Geologie  der  Schweiz;"  Tschudi,  "Thier  leben  der 
Alpenwelt;"  Max  Wirth,  "  B<«chrt'ibuiig  und  Statistik  der  Schweiz;"  Egli,  "  Schweizer  Kunde;" 
Hepworth  Dixon,  "  The  Switzore." 

t  "Annuals  of  the  Swiss  Alpine  Clubs : "  "  Bulletin  Vaudois  des  Sciences  Nahirelles;"  G.  Studer, 
"  Teber  Eis  und  Schnce ; "  Oswald  Heer,  "  Le  blonde  Primitif  de  la  Suisse ;  "  Theobald,  "  Natur-Bildor 
aua  den  Khatischen  Alpcn ;  "  Jaccard,  "  ilatcriau.x  pour  I'Uistoire  Giologiquc  de  la  Suisse." 


392  SWITZBELAND. 

a  country  which  formerly  proved  so  deterrent  now  exercises  a  most  powerful 
attraction.  A  new  passion  has  arisen  amongst  men,  that  of  mountain  climbing, 
and  hence  the  multitudes  who  now  admire  Lake  Leman,  the  glacier  of  the  Rhone, 
the  falls  of  Handeck,  and  the  snows  of  the  Jungfrau,  virgin  no  longer.  Switzer- 
land has  become  the  common  meeting-place  of  all  those  whose  hearts  beat  with 
emotion  when  contemplating  the  superb  spectacles  there  offered  by  nature,  and 
something  seems  to  be  wanting  imtil  we  have  looked  upon  the  Alps  at  least  once 
in  our  lives.  The  very  name  of  Switzerland  evokes  in  our  mind  the  idea  of 
incomparable  landscapes  ;  and  many  districts  all  over  Europe  are  known  as 
"  Little  "  Switzerlands,  because  their  scenery  recalls  some  of  the  majesty  or  beauty 
of  that  wondrous  land. 

But  Switzerland  also  deserves  to  be  studied  on  account  of  its  history,  political 
institutions,  and  inhabitants.  The  geographical  position  of  that  country  has  pre- 
served it  from  many  vicissitudes  which  visited  its  neighbours,  Italy,  France,  and 
Germany.  In  their  mountain  recesses  the  inhabitants  were  not  only  better  able 
than  the  dwellers  in  the  plains  to  preserve  ancient  customs  and  traditions,  but, 
being  in  the  enjoyment  of  greater  political  liberty,  they  were  enabled  to  secure  a 
prominent  position  as  regards  material  wealth  and  education.  Statistics  prove  that 
Switzerland  occupies  a  foremost  place  amongst  civilised  nations,  and  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  geographer  to  search  out  the  causes  of  this  pre-eminence.* 

Great,  apparently,  is  the  disorder  which  reigns  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
mountain  masses,  spurs,  and  precipices  of  the  Helvetian  Alps.  But  though 
oscillations  of  the  soil,  avalanches,  torrents,  and  other  geological  agencies  have 
been  actively  at  work  for  centuries,  we  are  stLU  able  to  perceive  that  as  a  whole 
the  mountains  of  Switzerland  radiate  from  a  central  group. 

This  group,  the  key  of  the  entire  system,  is  the  St.  Gotthard ;  and  the  ranges 
of  Ticino,  the  mountain  masses  of  the  Simplon,  the  Bernese  Oberland,  the  Titlis, 
the  Todi,  and  the  Grisons  all  converge  upon  it.  As  recently  as  the  middle 
of  the  last  century  the  summits  of  the  St.  Gotthard  were  thought  to  be  the 
culminatino-  points,  not  only  of  Switzerland,  but  of  the  whole  of  Europe.  Colonel 
Michel  du  Cret,  in  1755,  estimated  their  height  at  18,000  feet ;  and  it  was  thought 
absolutely  necessary  that  mountains  from  which  descended  so  many  rivers  must 
be  of  corresponding  height.  Further  investigation  has  established  the  fact  that 
the  volume  of  a  river  is  altogether  independent  of  the  height  at  which  it  rises. 
Still  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  the  elevation  of  the  St.  Gotthard  was  much 
greater  formerly  than  it  is  now.  In  proof  of  this  geologists  refer  us  to  the 
actual  shape  of  the  mountain,  whose  granitic  core  and  outer  envelope  of  schists 
and  limestone  have  been  exposed  to  an  immense  amount  of  destruction,  causing 
its  summit  to  have  the  appearance  of  a  wrecked  dome  of  huge  proportions.  Even 
in  our  own  days  geological  agencies  are  busily  at  work  reducing  the  height  of 

»  Area  of  Switzerland,  15,992  square  miles,  of  which  26,830  square  miles  are  habitable.  Population 
(1877),  2,780,000  souls,  or  172  to  the  square  mile.  Average  height  of  the  entire  country  aboTe  the  sea- 
level,  4,260  feet. 


GENIIRAI.  ASPECTS— THE  AI-PS.  898 

the  mountain.  The  rounded,  water-worn  rocks  which  cover  its  slopes,  and 
numerous  small  depressions  filled  with  ice  or  water,  according  to  the  season,  are 
evidences  of  the  work  of  erosion.  The  torrents  which  rise  in  the  snows  of  this 
mountain  mass  have  carried  away  the  dt^bris  that  filled  up  the  ancient  lakes,  and 
the  lower  plains  have  been  covered  with  u  layer  of  alluvial  soil. 

In  our  own  days,  the  St.  Gotthard,  instead  of  being  the  culminating  point  of 
the  Central  Alps,  is  one  of  the  least  elevated  of  their  summits.  Its  peaks  barely 
reach  a  height  of  10,000  feet,  and  they  scarcely  pierce  the  snow-lino.  Even  if 
we  joined  to  the  group  of  the  St.  Gotthard  the  crescent-shaped  mountain  ram- 
part extending  for  a  distance  of  20  miles  between  the  Passes  of  Nufenen  and 
Lukmanier,  we  should  not  meet  with  mountain  giants  of  the  first  rank,  whilst 
the  glaciers  of  that  portion  of  the  Alps  are  altogether  inferior.*  Thanks  to  this 
depression  in  the  crest  of  the  Alps,  and  to  the  valleys  which  converge  towards 
it,  the  region  of  the  St.  Gotthard  affords  the  greatest  facilities  for  crossing  the 
mountains.  The  heads  of  the  great  valleys  which  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone 
have  excavated  for  themselves  meet  here,  as  do  the  transversal  valleys  of  the 
Reuss  and  the  Ticino.  The  high  valley  of  Andermatt,  an  ancient  lake  basin, 
now  alternately  covered  with  luxuriant  grass  or  with  a  winding-sheet  of  snow, 
thus  occupies  the  real  orographical  centre  of  aU  Switzerland ;  and  it  is  not  a 
mere  accident  if  the  four  cardinal  roads  of  the  Alps  converge  upon  it.  A  great 
town  would  have  grown  up  there  were  it  not  for  the  rigours  of  the  climate.  But 
towns,  and  even  villages,  can  prosper  only  in  more  southern  climes  at  such  a 
height,  and  hence  the  political  centre  around  which  the  cantons  of  Switzerland 
have  grouped  themselves  has  grown  up  at  the  mouth  of  the  gorge  of  the  St. 
Gotthard.  It  is  there  we  meet  with  the  famous  village  of  Altdorf,  the  capital  of 
the  proud  and  uncultured  people  of  Uri,  who  adopted  a  wild  bull  for  their 
symbol,  and  in  many  a  campaign  marched  at  the  head  of  the  Confederates. 

The  valleys  which  open  out  to  the  south  of  the  St.  Gotthard,  and  which  are 
traversed  by  tributaries  of  the  Po,  were  the  first  conquests  made  upon  foreign 
soil  by  the  people  of  Uri.  Politically  these  valleys  form  part  of  Switzerland,  and 
their  inhabitants  are  undoubtedly  contented  with  their  lot ;  but  Ticino  is,  never- 
theless, Italian  by  climate,  vegetation,  and  inhabitants,  no  less  than  the  Valteline 
and  the  other  valleys  on  the  Piemontese  and  Lombard  slopes  of  the  Alps.  The 
upper  valley  of  the  Ticino,  resembling  a  huge  fosse  excavated  at  the  foot  of  the 
St.  Gotthard,  forms  a  well-defined  geographical  boundary.  The  mountains  of 
Central  Switzerland  rise  abruptly  above  it,  whilst  in  the  north  they  slope  down 
more  gently.  One  portion  of  this  southern  slope,  however,  spreads  out  into  a 
wide  plateau  before  it  sinks  down  abruptly  towards  the  valley  of  the  Ticino. 
We  refer  to  the  beautiful  Val  Piora,  with  its  lakes  embosomed  amidst  a  carpet 
of  flowers  during  summer.  The  eastern  prolongation  of  this  plateau  abuts  upon 
the  pastures  of  the  Lukmanier,  where  the  central  crest  of  the  Alps  can  scarcely 

•  Average  height  ofsummiU  (according  to  Studer),  9,4  H  foet ;  culminating  jwak  of  the  St.  GottharJ 
(Pizzo  Rotondo),  10,463  feet;  Pass  of  St.  tJottluird,  0,937  feet;  Pass  of  Xuf«ncu,  8,003  feet'  Paaa  of 
Lukmanier,  6,290  feet. 


394 


SWITZERLAND. 


be  traced,  only  a  few  isolated  rocks  reraaining  as  geological  witnesses  of  a  mountain 
range  whicli  time  has  swept  away. 

The  group  of  the  Ticino  is  composed,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  crystalline  rocks 
also  met  in  the  St,  Gotthard.  It  is  more  elevated  than  the  latter,  the  Basodino 
rising  to  a  height  of  10,649  feet,  but  only  a  small  number  of  the  other  peaks 
exceed  8,200  feet.  Southern  in  aspect,  and  receiving  a  very  considerable  amount 
of  rain,  the  mountains  of  Ticino  are  worn  and  ravined  more  rapidly  than  any 
others  in  Switzerland.  Every  peak  there  resembles  a  huge  ruin,  its  sides  eaten 
into  by  the  erosive  action  of  water,  and  its  foot  encumbered  with  masses  of  fiillen 
rocks.     Traces  of  ancient  lakes  are  frequent,  but  the  pent-up  waters  have  long 


Fig.  280. — Val  Pioea  and  the  Liikmanier. 
Scale  1  :  100,000. 


1  :-IUe. 


ago  succeeded  in  sweeping  away  the  obstacles  which  confined  them.  Elsewhere 
the  sites  of  villages  buried  beneath  avalanches  of  rock  are  pointed  oiit,  and  there 
are  some  even  which  slid  down  the  mountain  slopes  together  with  the  soil  upon 
■which  they  were  standing.  The  "Cento  Valli,"  which  joins  that  of  the  Maggia 
a  short  distance  above  its  embouchure  into  the  Lago  Maggiore,  has  been  named 
thus  on  account  of  its  innumerable  ravines  and  heaps  of  debris  resulting  from  the 
combined  action  of  snow  and  rain.  The  torrents  on  the  Italian  side  of  the  Alps 
do  greater  mischief  than  those  on  the  north,  whose  current  is  far  more  gentle ; 
and,  when  in  flood,  they  carry  vast  masses  of  rock  down  with  them  from  the 
mountains.  But,  in  spite  of  this,  the  people  of  Ticino,  intent  merely  upon  a 
present  advantage,  go  on   devastating  the    forests  still    covering  their  mountain 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.— THE  ALPS. 


896 


slopes,  thus  removing  the  only  obstacle  to  the  mould  being  carried  away  by  the 
waters,  and  the  country  being  changed  into  a  wilderness.  The  life  of  the  moun- 
taineers is  by  no  means  an  enviable  one.  Up  on  the  mountains  he  bus  to 
contend  with  a  rigorous  climate  and  a  sterile  soil ;  down  in  the  valley  his  houses 
and  fields  are  exposed  to  perpetual  danger  from  floods. 

There  is,  however,  one  portion  of  Italian  Switzerland  which  is  more  favoured 
by  nature  than  the  valleys  debouching  ujwn  the  Ticino.  Wo  refer  to  the 
grotesquely  shaped  territory  which  advances  like  a  wedge  into  Italy,  and  is  known 
as  Sotto-Cenere,  from  the  mountain  range  which  shelters  it  from  cold  northerly 
winds.  This  district  is  one  of  the  most  curious  on  account  of  the  great  variety 
of  its  geological  formations,  for,  in  addition  to  granite,  gneiss,  red  and  black 
porphyrj',  verrucano,  and  dolomite,  we  there  meet  with  chalk,  oolitic  limestone, 
and  a  variety  of  tertiary  rocks.  The  slopes  beneath  the  mountain  pastures  are 
covered  with  oaks,  beeches,  walnut-trees,  and  cytisus.     Groves  of  chestnut- trees 

Fig.  281. — The  Slope  of  the  Valleys  Soith  and  North  of  the  St.  Qotthaud. 

According  to  Max  Wirth. 


*400 

fooo 
•eoo 

liOO 

400 
UCTR 


I  '  *  '  1  ' 


— ,- 

i..— i i. — i 


fei     _i.  _   :  _  I i i I j I. I. j J i. j X L'-J-l 

H^-H-rrJ-— f— f— i \ — t— 4-— j— -|— -: • — i— -■i~r-!-l--ifl 

„.— h— -•■?>s»,,J^^_ :..-g .'~":r;-4lii_„.i j | i i J % ^...0..;-?— its 


_^ -J--"-T-!- 


- :-|-il-^ 


&hanJ 


HoTizontal  Scale  I  :  1&5,0CI0.    Teitical  Scale  1 :  l,lS5,00a 


hide  the  villages  scattered  over  the  lower  spurs  and  foot-hills.  Lower  still,  the 
terraces  extending  up  the  hillsides  are  planted  with  vines  and  mulberry-trees. 
All  is  verdure  there,  except  a  few  steep  rocks  mirrored  in  the  waters  of  the 
Ceresio.  We  have  left  far  behind  us  the  mountains  of  the  north,  and  are,  in 
truth,  in  Italy. 

But  whilst  the  political  boundaries  of  Switzerland  extend  in  this  manner  fur 
into  Lombardy,  the  Italian  valley  of  the  Toce  takes  us  close  to  the  St.  Gotthard. 
There,  within  a  space  hardly  8  miles  across,  the  Toce,  the  Ticino,  and  the 
Rhone  take  their  rise  and  flow  towards  different  points  of  the  horizon.  This 
narrow  mountain  isthmus,  continued  in  the  Monte  Leone  and  the  other  summits 
of  the  Simplon,  connects  the  St.  Gotthard  with  the  stupendous  mountain  masses 
of  the  Monte  Rosa  and  Mont  Blanc.  The  ridges  which  connect  these  moim- 
tain  groups  have  evidently  undergone  a  vast  amount  of  degradation  in  a  former 
epoch  of  the  history  of  our  earth.  Originally  the  main  crest  extended  from  the 
St.  Gotthard  towards  the  south-west ;  and  an  ideal  line  drawn  in  that  direction 


SWITZEELAXD. 


AVD     THE 

Scale  1  :  230,000. 


actually  passes  througt  several  very  elevated  mountains,  including  those  of  the 
Mischabel-Horner,  the  highest  summits  situated  wholly  upon  Swiss  soil.  But 
this  ancient  mountain  crest,  being  formed  of  mica  slate,  limestone,  and  felspathic 
rocks,  not  capable  of  offering  a  continued  resistance  to  the  action  of  water,  was 
speedily  destroyed  by  the  mountain  torrents.  The  water-shed  recoiled  more  and 
more  to  the  south,  as  far  as  the  solid  crystalline  rocks  of  the  Slonte  Rosa ;  and 
the  imposing  masses  of  the  Mischabel,  which  formerly  rose  upon  the  main  crest, 
look  down  now  upon  lateral  valleys.  Thus  has  the  persistent  action  of  water,  con- 
tinued for  ages,  succeeded  in  displacing  the  crest  of  an  entire  mountain  system. 

Destructive  agencies  are  still  at  work 

Pig.  282. — The  Sources  op  the  Ehose,  the  Ticixo,  i  ^-l  i   •         •      ^  j 

_,  '  '     amongst  these  mountain  giants,  and  a 

traveller  passing  along  the  valley  of  the 
Rhone  can  scarcely  fail  to  observe  the 
heaps  of  debris  resulting  from  them. 
Now  and  then  the  river  is  hemmed  in 
by  accumulations  of  this  kind,  having 
the  appearance  of  veritable  mountains. 
On  ascending  them  we  find  ourselves 
face  to  face  with  gigantic  amphitheatres 
of  erosion,  carved  out  of  the  mountain 
sides,  and  growing  in  size  from  year  to 
year,  owing  to  the  continued  action  of 
snow  and  rain  combined  with  frost.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  amphi- 
theatres is  that  known  as  the  Illgraben. 
It  measures  nearly  2  miles  across,  and 
few  volcanic  craters  can  bear  compari- 
son with  it.  A  similar  amphitheatre 
occupies  the  southern  face  of  the  beau- 
tiful mountain  of  Pierre-a-Voie,  thus 
named  on  account  of  an  ancient  pil- 
grim's path  paved  with  flagstones 
which  leads  right  up  to  its  summit. 
If  we  would  form  a  just  idea  of  the 
extent  to  which  the  mountains  in 
that  part  of  Switzerland  have  been 
demolished,  we  cannot  do  better  than  contemplate  the  jagged  "  Dents  "  du  Midi 
and  of  Morales,  which  face  each  other  on  opposite  banks  of  the  Rhone.  The 
magnificent  portal  opening  between  these  mountains,  rising  to  a  height  of 
more  than  10,000  feet,  has  been  carved  out  of  the  solid  rock  by  atmospheric 
agencies  alone.  The  mountain  rampart  which  formerly  connected  these  two 
peaks,  joining  the  Bernese  Oberland  to  the  main  chain  of  the  Alps,  has  been 
swept  away.  The  Dent  du  Midi  is  crumbling  to  pieces  before  our  eyes.  Frequently 
after  heavy  rains  or  sudden  thaws,  or  in  consequence  of  earthquakes,  cataracts  of 


OENKRAL  ASPECTS.— THE  ALPS. 


897 


rocks  descend  its  Huuks  into  the  valleys,  and  sometimes  these  obstruct  the  course 
of  the  Rhone,  and  would  lead  to  disastrous  inundations  if  labourers  were  not  at 
once  hurried  to  the  spot  to  clear  away  the  obstruction,  and  to  open  a  way  to  tho 
pent-up  waters.     In   1855  showers  of  stones  fell   for  weeks  and  mouths,  and 


Fig.  283. — Ami'hitiibatub  ui'  tub  Illoeadbn. 
Bmla  1 :  90,000. 


■■': 

'^'^-      ■       -a 

r '^ 

_  1  MUt. 


artillerymen  were  placed  upon  a  conspicuous  promontory,  who  watched  tho 
mountain  and  fired  ofi"  a  gun  whenever  a  rock  detached  itself  from  its  summit, 
thus  giving  timely  warning  to  travellers  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley. 

The  valley  of  the  Rhone,  with  its  barren  soil  and  tracts  covered  with  pebbles 

VOL.    II.  I)    u 


S98 


SWITZERLAND. 


and  swamps,  would  hardly  lead  us  to  expect  that  so  much  beauty  shoidd  be  hidden 
in  the  valleys  of  the  main  chain  of  the  Alps,  which  cliffs,  hills  of  debris,  and  sudden 
turns  in  the  road  conceal  from  -view.  We  almost  wonder  how  the  inhabitants  of 
the  mountain  villages  are  able  to  reach  their  homes,  for  many  of  their  valleys  are 
so  completely  shut  in  that  the  wind  is  hardly  felt  there,  storms  are  almost 
unknown,  and  the  quantity  of  rain  is  far  less  than  in  the  wide  valley  of  the  Rhone. 
But   having  once  surmounted  the  obstacles   presented  by  the  mouths  of  these 


Fig.  284. — The  Matterhorn  (Mont  Cervin). 
Scale  1  :  150,000. 


'IflfTWi 


I  p*\  v^cvw.^- 


■  2  Miles. 


valleys,  where  the  rivulets  escape  through  narrow  gorges,  we  find  ourselves  in 
quite  another  world. 

Amongst  the  lateral  valleys  ascending  towards  the  main  range  of  the  Alps 
there  are  some  to  which  groves  of  trees,  small  lakes,  rivulets  meandering  amid 
a  carpet  of  flowers  and  a  covering  of  turf,  impart  a  character  of  privacy.  Others 
there  are,  of  greater  width,  where  the  eye  can  range  afar  over  barren  mountain 
summits,  fields  of  snow,  and  glaciers.  One  of  the  most  charming  of  the  latter, 
and,   indeed,    one  of  the   most  beautiful  in  the   world,  is  the  valley  traversed 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

yNIVERSlTY  of  ILLINOIS, 


GENEILUi  ASPECTS.— TUE  ALPS.  8<J'J 

by  the  Visp  of  Zeriuutt,  whore  the  beauty  of  the  Alps  is  most  fully  revealed 
to  VLB.  Beneath  us  spread  verdant  meadows  and  woods,  with  numerous 
cottages  scattered  along  the  foot  of  the  clifl's ;  above  us  rise  snowy  summits 
glittering  with  ice.  From  the  Giiruergrat  the  eye  ranges  from  the  Matter- 
horn  (Mont  Cervin)  to  Monte  Rosa.  At  our  feet  we  look  upon  a  sea  of  ice, 
from  which  rises  the  bold  pyramid  of  the  Matterhoru  right  in  front  of  us, 
its  bare  and  sombre  slopes,  with  u  speck  of  snow  here  and  there  in  a  few  cavities 
of  the  rocks,  contrasting  most  strikingly  with  the  glittering  white  snow-fields 
which  environ  them.  Less  elevated  than  Monte  Rosa,  but  more  imposing  from  its 
isolated  position,  the  Matterhoru  is  one  of  the  great  storm-breeders  of  the  Alps. 
The  winds,  refrigerated  in  their  passage  over  fields  of  ice  and  snow,  meet  there  the 
warm  aerial  currents  coming  from  the  plains  of  Italy.  The  clouds  at  times 
discharge  themselves  in  snow  ;  at  others  they  drift  round  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
tain like  smoke.  But  frequently,  too,  the  Matterhorn  reveals  itself  in  all  its 
glory,  standing  out  boldly  against  the  deep  blue  sky,  and  then  the  paths  which 
mountain  climbers  desirous  of  reaching  its  top  w  ill  have  to  follow  can  be  traced 
distinctly.  There  are  other  summits  in  the  vicinity  whose  precipices  and  glaciers 
exercise  a  powerful  attraction  upon  the  members  of  our  Alpine  clubs,  but,  in  spite 
of  the  daring  exhibited,  some  of  them  remain  yet  virgin  ground.* 

The  range  of  the  Bernese  Alps,  usually  designated  as  the  Bernese  Oberland, 
which  faces  the  summits  of  Monte  Rosa  from  beyond  the  depression  of  the  valley 
through  which  the  Rhone  takes  its  coui'se,  is  likewise  attached  to  the  mountain 
knot  of  the  St.  Gotthard,  or,  at  all  events,  is  only  separated  from  it  by  the  pass  of 
the  Grimsel  and  the  glacier  which  gives  birth  to  the  Rhone.  The  boldest  summits 
of  the  Oberland  rise  right  opposite  to  the  gap  formed  by  the  Simplon — that  is,  to 
the  north  of  where  the  southern  chain  is  least  elevated — whilst  the  summits  facing 
Monte  Rosa  are  of  inferior  height.  These  mountains  form  a  continuous  chain, 
the  most  regular  in  all  Switzerland.  Nor  are  they  much  inferior  in  height  to  the 
mountains  rising  along  the  Italian  frontier.  The  Finstcraarhorn,  the  Juugfrau, 
and  others  amongst  their  summits  are  famous  throughout  the  world;  whilst 
Meyringen,  Interlaken,  Lauterbrunnen,  and  Griudelwald  exercise  as  great  an 
attraction  upon  the  admirers  of  nature  as  does  the  valley  of  Zermatt.  Looked  at 
from  their  base,  or  from  the  vantage-ground  afforded  by  some  promontory,  these 
mountain  giants  leave  an  impression  upon  the  mind  which  fully  satisfies  our  sense 
of  the  beautiful.  The  bold  contours  of  the  mountain,  the  valleys  at  their  foot, 
the  fields  of  snow  and  ice  which  hang  upon  their  slopes,  and  the  cascades  to  which 
they  give  birth,  combine  themselves  into  a  picture  which,  once  beheld,  impresses 
itself  indelibly  upon  the  mind.  The  Jungfrau,  the  Wetterhoru  (Stormy  Peak), 
and  the  WcUhorn  can  never  again  bo  forgotten. 

The  glaciers  of  the  Bernese  Oberland  are  the  most  extensive  in  the  European 
Alps.     From  the  valley  of  the  Aar  wo  may  travel  for  a  distance  of  30  miles  to 

•  Dufuur  P.ak,  the  culminating  summit  of  Monto  Ro»a,  16,213  feot;  MiBchabclhom (wholly  on Swiiis 
soil),  14,937  feet;  Muttrrhorn  (Mont  Cervin),  14,701  fuet. 

1,    I.    O 


400 


SWITZEELAND. 


the  west,  as  flir  as  the  Lotschen  Pass,  without  once  leaving  the  ice  or  the  perennial 
snow.  Still  more  to  the  west,  as  far  as  the  Dent  de  Morcles,  not  a  moimtain  peak 
is  seen  without  a  glacier  descending  from  its  slopes  towards  the  pasture-grounds. 
The  largest  of  the  glaciers,  curiously  enough,  is  met  with  on  the  southern  slope  of 
these  mountain  masses,  facing  the  sun.  This  glacier,  the  largest  not  only  of  the 
Oberland,  but  of  the  whole  of  Europe,  is  that  of  the  Aletsch.  It  is  tributary  to  the 
Rhone,  and  covers  an  area  of  nearly  40  square  miles.  M.  Ch.  Grad  estimates  it 
to  contain  40  milliards  of  cubic  yards  of  ice,  which,  if  it  were  to  melt,  would 


Fig.  285. — Glaciers  of  the  Bernese  Oberland. 
Scale  1 :  160,000. 


TsTib' 


C  Ptrrua 


>.  Milea. 


sustain  the  average  volume  of  a  river  like  the  Seine  for  eighteen  months.  In 
comparison  with  this  formidable  glacier,  those  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Ober- 
land are  but  of  secondary  importance.  They  do  not  present  the  same  spectacle  of 
sublime  calm,  but  being  more  rugged,  and  descending  farther  down  their  steep 
valleys,  they  are  more  attractive  to  the  beholder.  They  almost  look  as  if  they 
flowed  down  from  the  mountain  summits.  Seen  from  below,  their  white  or  bluish 
tints  contrast  with  the  green  of  the  meadows  and  the  forests.  Sometimes  they 
almost  invade  fields  and  orchards,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Grindelwald  have  seen 
cherries  ripen  close  to  huge  detached  blocks  of  ice.     The  lower  glacier  of  Grindel- 


iJNiV£fiSlTKof(LUNOlS. 


1, I'll  I,,  , 


lll  II 


I  I        " 
I'    I , " 

I  I     I       II.     I'll 

Im'I,;ii,|'i  ' I, 

1 1'  ii . "  '  1 1 
ii'i'|ii ■ ' 

,i,i .  II 

1 1    h  I ,  I, 
,l'l,h     "''I' 

I  '  Il  ' 

'l    l|,,'i'.''l| 
I'll 

II  II    '  'I  ■' 
I  II    I|, 

.I'lll ," 

I  ill  I    l|  ''l| 


402 


SWITZERLAND. 


it.  At  one  glance  we  embrace  the  bold  profile  of  the  mountains,  fields  of  snow, 
glaciers,  pastures  and  forests,  smiling  valleys,  and  placid  blue  lakes,  either  reflecting 
the  cliffs  which  bound  them,  or  embedded  in  gardens  and  meadows.  Equally 
beautiful  are  the  landscapes  which  present  themselves  to  the  tourist  in  the  valley 
of  the  Aar,  whether  near  its  head,  where  the  torrent  forms  the  fine  waterfall  of  the 
Handeck  ;  lower  down  in  the  delightful  valley  of  Hasli,  with  its  gushing  cascades, 
where  the  sculptured  chalets  of  Meyringen  nestle  under  the  shelter  of  steep  rocks  ; 
or  lower  down  still,  in  the  plain  of  the  Boedeli,  upon  which  rises  Interlaken,  the 
leading  town  of  pleasure  of  entire  Europe. 

The  mountains  of  the  western  Oberland  consist  almost  entirely  of  oolitic  lime- 


Fig.  287. — The  Diablebets. 
Scale  1  :  100,000. 


y\.'!o/;ofia 


■  / 


■H" 


'4 


^^" 


■^■?rB 


'"f1 


Spxpou^c 


n\.r: 


te^x)-^' 


"iV^      Oldenhom        -      .  ,  .  •.■ 


..  f ' 


,.ii  ^■a;^^^ 


7  \l('  L,  OT  or. 


IMUe. 


stone  and  chalk,  capable  of  offering  but  sniill  resistance  to  the  combined  chemical 
and  mechanical  action  of  water,  and  are  fast  crumbling  to  pieces,  producing  in 
their  decay  some  of  the  most  magnificent  spectacles  to  be  witnessed  in  the  Alps. 
Two  of  the  jagged  grey  "teeth"  of  the  Diablerets,  a  group  rising  superbly  above 
the  green  pasture-lands,  detached  themselves  in  the  last  century,  and  tumbled  down 
into  the  valley  of  Deborence,  6,000  feet  beneath,  where  their  broken  fragments  now 
cover  an  area  of  several  square  miles.  Similar  catastrophes  have  evidently  occurred 
farther  north,  but  in  so  remote  a  time  that  no  tradition  respecting  them  survives 
amongst  the  inhabitants  of  the  countrj'.     The  huge  circular  valley  known  as  the 


GENERAL  ASPEOTS.— THE  XI.V&.  403 

Creui-du-Champ  may  be  likened  to  n  gigantic  punch-bowl,  not  unlike  in  its  shape 
to  the  famous  amphitheatre  of  Ga%arnie,  in  the  Pyrenees.  Like  the  latter,  it  forms 
a  natural  fortress  of  great  strength,  being  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  cliffs  rising 
in  terraces,  and  surmounted  by  extensive  glaciers,  from  which  descend  numerous 
cascades. 

In  the  north  and  west  the  Bernese  Alps  ramify  into  numerous  spurs  and  sub- 
sidiary chains,  which  gradually  sink  down  into  the  plain.  This  is  one  of  the  great 
pasturing  regions  of  Switzerland,  the  grass  and  herbage  on  these  calcareous  hills 
being  most  savoury.  It  is,  too,  a  region  of  flowers.  In  spring  the  slopes  of  the 
mountains  of  Montreux  are  covered  with  narcissi,  which  are  visible  from  a  distance 
of  15  miles.  An  inexperienced  traveller,  on  first  seeing  these  carpets  of  flowers 
from  afar,  might  be  inclined  to  mistake  them  for  particles  of  snow  forgotten  b)'  the 
sun.  Their  odour,  wafted  by  the  wind  to  a  considerable  distance,  is  no  less 
penetrating  than  that  of  the  orange  groves  on  the  coast  of  Sicily.* 

Once  more  returning  to  tlie  St.  Gottbard  as  to  the  natural  centre  of  the  Swiss 
Alps,  we  perceive  a  distinct  mass  of  mountains  to  the  north-east  of  those  of  the 
Oberland,  and  on  the  same  axis.  This  group  gives  birth  to  the  glacier  of  the 
Rhone.  Its  principal  summit  is  the  Dammastock,  rising  in  the  midst  of  glaciers, 
and  a  range  extends  from  it  in  a  northerly  direction.  In  these  ranges  rise  some  of 
the  most  glorious  summits  of  Switzerland,  such  as  the  Titlis,  with  its  vast  pasture- 
grounds,  and  the  Uri-Rothstock,  bounded  on  all  sides  by  steep  precipices.  These 
mountains  of  Unterwalden  and  Uri  are  formed  of  granite,  oolitic  limestone, 
chalk,  and  strata  of  eocene  age.  They  ramify  in  the  most  extraordinary  manner 
the  labyrinthine  Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons  (see  Fig.  324),  being  their  exact 
counterpart.  The  summits,  which  rise  to  the  north  of  the  lake,  appear  to  have 
formed  part  of  the  same  mountain  system  at  some  former  period.  The  principal 
summit  is  the  Rigi,  the  most  famous  and  most  frequented  Belvedere  in  the  world. 
This  mountain,  rising  in  solitary  grandeur  from  the  lakes  and  plains  lying  at  its 
foot,  and  afibrding  a  magnificent  prospect  of  the  snowy  summits  towards  the  east 
and  south,  forms,  in  truth,  an  admirable  natural  observatory,  and  tens  of  thousands  of 
travellers  are  attracted  to  it  annually.  Railways  not  only  convey  these  visitors  to 
its  summit,  but  also  to  many  favourite  points  of  view.  In  summer  the  top  of  this 
mountain  exhibits  more  animation  than  many  a  town,  and  the  telegraph  wires 
which  connect  the  numerous  hotels  with  the  dwellers  in  the  plain  are  incessantly 
at  work.t  The  Rigi  is  the  first  mountain  in  Europe  which  the  engineers  have 
rendered  accessible  by  means  of  a  railway,  but  it  is  no  longer  the  only  one. 
Sooner  or  later,  all  those  mountains  in  Switzerland  which  annually  attract  crowds 
of  tourists  will  be  treated  similarly,  and  Mount  Pilatus,  the  ancient  Fract-Mont, 

•  Altitudes  in  the  Bernese  Oborland  (in  feet):— Main  range:  Finstcraarhom,  14,028;  Junpfrau,  13,671; 
Monch,  13,439;  Schreckhoni,  13,386;  Diablercta,  10,667.  Outliere :  Faulhorn,  8,800;  Niesen,  7,760; 
Stoclchorn,  7,196. 

t  In  1876  there  were  thirteen  telegraph  offices  on  the  top  of  the  Rigi.  The  seaion  of  1878  is  supposed 
to  have  proved  disastrous  to  several  of  the  proprietors  of  hotels,  the  number  of  travellers  having  been  very 
SDUill,  owing  to  the  commercial  crisis  in  Germany. 


404  SWITZERLAND. 

whose  craggy  points  are  visible  to  the  south  of  Luzern,  is  sure  to  have  its  railway 
at  an  early  date.* 

The  Eigi  covers  an  area  of  about  15  square  miles,  and  is  formed  almost  solely 
of  nagelfluh  ;  that  is,  a  soft  conglomerate  enclosing  an  immense  number  of  pebbles, 
derived,  not  from  the  Alps,  but  from  the  Black  Forest,  and  carried  thither  and 
deposited  in  regular  layers  during  the  miocene  period.  The  Rossberg,  to  the 
north  of  the  Rigi,  belongs  to  the  same  formations.  It  has  become  widely  known 
through  a  landslip  which  occurred  in  1806,  when  52,000,000  cubic  yards  of  rock 
slid  down  the  mountain  side,  burying  the  village  of  Goldau,  with  its  smiling  fields, 
and  filling  up  a  portion  of  the  Lake  of  Lowerz.t 

The  mountain  mass  of  the  Todi,  to  the  east  of  the  valley  of  the  Reuss,  forms 
with  the  mountains  of  the  Rhone  that  region  of  Switzerland  which  exhibits  the 
most  extensive  traces  of  geological  disturbance.  The  contortion  and  inversion  of 
the  strata  are  more  considerable  there  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world  hitherto 
examined  by  geologists.  From  the  Gliirnisch  to  the  Hausstock,  a  distance  of 
10  miles,  the  beds  have  been  uplifted  and  bent  back  in  such  a  way  that  the  lower 
beds  rest  apparently  upon  those  which  were  originally  deposited  upon  them,  and 
the  lower  appears  to  be  the  higher  part  of  the  series.  Similar  features  may  be 
observed  also  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine  beyond  the  Glarnisch.  A  most  remark- 
able instance  is  afforded  by  the  Windgiille,  a  mountain  rising  above  the  valley 
of  Altorf.  Upon  its  summit  it  bears  a  cap  of  porphyry,  which  has  not  been 
erupted,  as  Studer  supposed,  but  has  been  uplifted  by  lateral  pressure,  together 
with  the  limestone  beds  upon  which  it  reposes.  The  mountains  to  the  north  of 
the  Todi  are  formed,  like  those  of  Unterwalden,  of  Jurassic  and  cretaceous  rocks. 
Tertiary  slates,  locally  known  as  fi/'ich,  are  also  met  with ;  and  these  must  have 
been  deposited  in  a  sea  of  considerable  depth,  for  they  abound  in  fossils  of  fish, 
but  are  altogether  devoid  of  fossil  molluscs  and  sea-urchins.  The  mountains 
belonging  to  this  formation  have  gentle  slopes,  and  their  valleys  are  of  exceeding 
fertility.  The  limestones,  on  the  other  hand,  frequently  form  vertical  cliffs. 
The  Glarnisch,  which  rises  in  terraces  above  the  town  of  Glarus,  stiU  belongs  to 
the  Alps,  for  glaciers  descend  from  its  upper  slopes.  They  are  the  northernmost 
of  Central  Switzerland.  Others,  still  farther  to  the  north,  are  met  with  in  the 
rano-e  which  extends  from  the  Todi  towards  the  north-east,  and  terminate  above 
Chur,  in  Mount  Calanda,  famous  on  account  of  its  crumpling  rocks.  That  moun- 
tain is  formed  of  fissured  dolomite,  resting  upon  beds  of  soft  rock,  incapable  of 
resisting  the  action  of  denudation.  The  waste  washed  down  from  the  mountain 
has  formed  huge  sloping  mounds  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs,  which  constitute  a 
characteristic  feature  of  the  landscape.  Landslips  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
One  of  these  partially  destroyed  the  village  of  Felsberg,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Calanda.     The  inhabitants  built  themselves  another  village  at  a  spot  not  menaced 

*  According  to  Gatschet  the  name  of  Pilatus  is  derived  from  the  old  German  word  hilhta  ;  that  ia, 
"  split  mountain."  Popular  legends  connect  it  with  Pontius  Pilate,  whose  spirit  is  said  to  haunt  a  small 
lake  near  the  summit. 

t  Altitudes  in  feet :— Dammastock,  11,937  ;  Ehoncstock,  11,822  ;  Galenstock,  11,805  ;  Titlis,  10,628  ; 
Uri-Bothstock,  9,610  ;  PUatus,  6,792  ;  Eigi,  6,906  ;  Rosaberg,  5,190. 


OEXEKAI.  ASPECTS.— THE  ALPS. 


405 


l)\-  falling  rocks,  but  finding  tlio  situation  too  much  exposed,  they  have  returned 
to  their  old  village,  preferring  to  run  the  risk  of  a  possible  disaster  rather  than 
submit  to  an  ever-present  inconvenience.* 

The  Calanda  has  been  the  goal  of  mountain  climbers  for  centuries  post.  The 
mountains  of  St.  Gull  and  Appenzell,  which  occupy  the  north-eastern  corner  of 
Switzerland,  enclosed  botwecu  the  Khine  and  the  Lake  of  Constance,  have  proved 
equally  attractive  to  admirers  of  nature  on  account  of  the  fine  prospects  which 
may  be  enjoyed  from  their  summits.  One  of  them,  the  Speer  ((),418  feet),  is 
formed  of  the  same  conglomerate  as  the  Ivigi.  Another,  the  famous  Scntis  (S,213 
feet),  is  justly  admired  for  its  fine  buttresses,  sweet  pastures,  piled-up  rock 
masses,  and  small  lakes  hidden  away  in  its  upper  valleys.  Farther  to  the  south, 
the  jagged  crest  of  the  Churfirsten  (7,554  feet),  as  seen  from  the  shore  of  the 


Fig.  288.— The  Intsrted  Strata  op  thb  WindoIllb. 
Acooidiog  to  A.  Hein. 


H'alitt  lladtraa 


•"»  tOTo" 

I  t  MMT  Jam 


LtM^  Jura 
I>olomU(Tt\aty 


mufniM 


"Wallen  Lake,  presents  a  truly  formidable  appearance.  So  precipitously  do  the 
rocks  rise  from  the  lake  that  a  site  for  only  a  single  village  could  be  found  at 
their  foot. 

The  chaotic  mountains  of  the  Grisona,  cut  up  as  they  are  by  innumerable 
gorges,  and  valleys,  almost  defy  classification.  Their  geological  structure  is  most 
complicated ;  their  crests  more  sinuous  than  elsewhere  in  Switzerland ;  and  the 
two  hundred  valleys  and  their  ramifications  form  a  veritable  labyrinth.  Yet 
these  mountains,  too,  are  joined  to  the  central  group  of  the  St.  Gotlhard,  and  that 
by  one  of  the  boldest  and  most  formidable  mountain  masses  of  Switzerland,  the 
granitic  pinnacles  of  which  form  the  culminating  points  between  the  valleys  of 


Altitudes  in  Engliih  feet :— Todi,  11,887 ;  Hausatock,  10,355 ;  Olamitch,  9,654 ;  Calanda,  9,210. 


406 


SWITZEELAND. 


the  Eeuss  and  of  the  Inn.  This  group  of  the  Adula,  which  alone  of  all  the 
mountains  of  the  Central  Alps  retains  its  ancient  name,  is  partly  buried  beneath 
glaciers  which  feed  the  Further  Rhine  (Hinter  Rhein).  Other  mountains  of 
great  height,  likewise  bearing  glaciers  upon  their  shoulders,  continue  the  principal 
crest  which  bounds  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Rhine  in  the  south. 

Beyond  we  enter  a  natural  region  of  the  Alps  which  lies  within  the  basin  of 
the  Danube.  The  deep  depression  through  which  the  Inn  flows  towards  the 
north-east,  and  which  is  separated  from  the  head- waters  of  the  Adda  by  no 
marked  natural  feature,  forms  one  of  the  most  curious  breaks  in  the  system  of 
the  Alps.     Bounded  on  either  side  by  irregularly  grouped  mountains,  some  of 


Fig.  289. — The  Group  op  the  Beknina. 
Scale  1  :  300,000. 


E  o<  Cr 


0.  ferron 


6  Miles. 


them  naked  rocks,  others  covered  with  perennial  snow  and  ice,  this  depression, 
for  a  distance  of  over  10  miles,  is  almost  horizontal.  The  waters  collect  there  in 
lakes,  and  it  needed  but  the  removal  of  a  few  yards  of  ground  to  divert  the  head- 
waters of  the  Inn  into  the  Italian  valley  of  Bregaglia.  This  "  gap  "  of  the  upper 
Engadin  is  remarkable,  too,  on  account  of  its  direction.  Unlike  most  other  passes, 
which  cross  the  main  crest  at  right  angles,  it  has  the  same  direction  as  the  axis 
of  the  Swiss  Alps,  and  coincides  with  the  limits  between  difierent  geological 
formations. 

One  of  the  grand  mountain  masses  of  Europe,  that  of  the  Bernina,  rises  in  the 
Engadin  immediately  to  the  east  of  the  head-waters  of  the  Inn.     This  group  of 


GENERAL  ASPECTS.— THE  ALPS. 


407 


mountains,  with  its  boldly  contoured  granitic  rocks,  and  its  glaciers  creeping  low 
down  into  tbo  valleys,  may  fairly  challenge  comparison  with  the  mountains  of  the 
Oberland  ;  and  neither  forests  nor  verdant  pastures,  sparkling  cascades  nor  placid 
lakes  are  wanting  to  produce  a  picture  of  great  beauty.  The  prospect  from  the 
culminating  points  of  the  Bernina  are  all  the  more  highly  spoken  of  as  only 
expert  climbers  are  able  to  enjoy  them.     Standing  upon  the  Roseg  or  the  Morte- 


Fig.    290.— ThB    CiLACIEKS   or   TSCHIERTA    AXB    MoKTBHATSfH. 

Accordinfr  to  7.i.u!ir.     SoOo  1  :  100,000. 


^.*wr --'*'--s 


MLiLA#^^3 


I  at  C- 


1  ililf. 


ratsch,  the  eye  embraces  at  a  glance  fields  of  enow  and  ice  extending  for  20 
miles  from  east  to  west,  and  we  are  able  to  trace  the  crystal  streams  to  which  the 
glaciers  give  birth.  But  the  view  afforded  by  the  isolated  summits  which  face 
the  glaciers  to  the  north  of  the  deep  valley  of  Pontresina  is  far  superior. 
Stationed  on  the  simimit  of  the  Piz  Languard  ("  Long  Regard  "),  we  see  spread  out 
before  us  not  only  the  entire  group  of  the  Bernina,  the  mountains  of  the  Grisons, 
of  the  Tyrol,  and  of  Northern  Switzerland,  but  far  beyond  the  St.  Gotthard  we 


408  SWITZERLAND. 

perceive  Monte  Rosa  and  the  hazy  outline  of  the  French  Alps,  A  panorama  of 
almost  equal  extent  may  be  enjoyed  from  the  Piz  Linard,  which  rises  to  the  north 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Inn,  and  on  the  confines  of  the  Austrian  Vorarlberg. 
This  mountain  belongs  to  the  group  of  the  Selvretta,  which  is  geologically 
interesting  on  account  of  the  great  variety  of  its  rocks,  which  embrace  nearly  aU 
formations,  from  gneiss  and  crystalline  slates  to  sedimentary  deposits  of  eocene  age. 
We  even  meet  there  with  springs  of  carbonic  acid  gas — near  Tarasp,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Inn — the  only  springs  of  that  kind  hitherto  discovered  in  such  a  locality, 
for  they  do  not  rise  from  a  bed  of  lava,  but  from  decomposed  schists,  and  commu- 
nicate probably  with  the  acidulous  springs  which  rise  lower  down  in  the  valley. 
The  bodies  of  numerous  small  animals  are  found  near  the  poisonous  springs. 
Earthquakes  frequently  occur  in  the  Engadin,  but  not  as  often  as  in  the  other  two 
earthquake  districts  of  Switzerland,  viz.  in  the  valley  of  the  Visp,  at  the  foot  of 
Monte  Rosa,  and  in  the  environs  of  Eglisau,  betweep.  SchafEhausen  and  the  mouth 
of  the  Aar.* 

The  Central  Alps  attain  their  greatest  height  and  most  considerable  width  in 
the  Grisons  and  in  the  neighbouring  Tyrol.  They  neither  form  a  mountain- 
chain  there  nor  a  number  of  detached  masses  lying  in  the  same  axis,  but  form  a 
veritable  plateau,  from  which  rise  separate  groups  and  numerous  ranges  ramifying 
in  the  most  puzzling  manner.  All  that  portion  of  Switzerland  which  lies  to  the 
east  of  the  Rhine  rises  from  a  platform  no  less  than  3,200  feet  in  height,  even  in 
the  valleys,  and  the  mountain  ranges  extend  thence  into  Germany  and  Italy. 
The  contrast  between  Eastern  and  "Western  Switzerland  is  indeed  most  striking, 
for  the  latter  does  not  lie  within  the  region  of  the  Alps  at  all,  and  is  bounded,  not 
by  an  entangled  mass  of  mountains  like  that  of  the  Grisons,  but  by  a  succession 
of  parallel  ridges  separated  from  each  other  by  longitudinal  valleys. 

*  Heights  of  the  mountains  in  the  Grisons: — Piz  Valrin  (Adula  group),  11,139  feet;   Bemina, 
13,294  feet;  Eoseg,  12,557 feet;  Morteratsch,  12,31"feet;  Laqguard,  10,717  feet ;  Piz  Linard,  11,210 feet. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  JURA.« 

TIE  parallel  ranges  of  the  Jura  form  but  a  secondary  mountain 
system  in  comparison  with  the  suow-clad  Alps.  Nevertheless 
they  arc  an  importmt  feature  in  the  general  geography  of  Europe, 
aud  by  their  influence  upon  the  climate,  the  flow  of  rivers,  and 
the  distribution  of  the  population,  they  have  played  a  prominent 
part  in  history. 

In  Switzerland  the  contrast  between  these  two  mountain  systems,  the  Alps  and 
the  Jura,  is  most  striking.  Standing  upon  the  plain  which  separates  them,  we 
look,  on  the  one  hand,  upon  the  serrated  chain  of  the  Bernese  Oberland,  upon 
verdant  slopes  extending  up  to  the  snow-fields  and  glaciers,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
great  distance,  are  able  to  distinguish  the  varied  hues  presented  by  barren  rocks, 
snow,  meadows,  and  forests.  The  foot-hills  present  the  greatest  variety  in  their 
slope  and  height ;  and  wide  cultivated  valleys,  penetrating  far  into  the  mountain 
recesses,  and  dotted  over  with  towns  and  villages,  still  further  enliven  the  picture. 
Turning  round  towards  the  Jura,  we  find  ourselves  face  to  face  with  a  steep  and 
uniform  slope.  Towns  and  villages  form  a  thin  white  streak  along  its  foot ;  fields 
and  vineyards  occupy  the  lower  slopes  ;  and  sombre  pine  woods  cover  all  above  up 
to  the  bluish  pasture-grounds  in  the  far-off  distance.  A  few  rocky  crets  here 
and  there  rise  above  the  long-stretched  backs  of  the  mountains,  but  they  do  not 
break  the  monotonous  appearance  of  the  chain.  Some  of  these  ranges,  seen  from 
a  distance,  appear  to  be  of  uniform  height  for  miles  ;  but  if  we  penetrate  through 
one  of  the  gorges  scooped  out  by  torrents,  and  scarcely  visible  from  the  plain,  wo 
are  surprised  to  find  ourselves  in  delightful  valleys. 

It  is  only  towards  Switzerland  that  the  Jura  presents  itself  as  an  apparently 
unbroken  rampart.  On  the  French  side  the  mountains  are  not  only  lower,  but 
they  are  idso  far  more  irregular  in  their  outline.  True  the  culminating  points  of 
the  chain  rise  to  the  south,  entirely  within  the  French  territory,  but  the  Swiss 
summits  are  little  inferior  to  them  in  height,  and  the  general  elevation  of  the 

*  Jacard,  '*  Deflcription  da  Junk  Kouchatvlou  et  Vaudois;"  A.  Veziao,  "Etudce  Oeologiqucs  but  lo 
Jura." 


410 


SWITZEELAND. 


mountains  is  more  considerable.  Between  Besancon  and  Neuchatel  the  parallel 
ridges  of  the  Jura  increase  in  height  as  we  proceed  from  west  to  east,  and  the 
highest  amongst  them  forms  a  rampart  bounding  the  plain  of  Switzerland.  But 
to  the  north  of  Solothurn  the  ridges  gradually  grow  lower,  until  their  height 
hardly  exceeds  2,000  feet.  To  the  east  of  the  Aar  the  Jura  is  represented  by  the 
small  ridge  of  the  Lagern,  whilst  beyond  the  Rhine,  near  Schaifhausen,  it  rises 
once  more  in  the  Randen  group,  and  then  gradually  merges  into  the  plateau  of 
the  Rauhe  Alp.* 

The  Swiss  Jura  presents  all  those  features  which  we  have  already  noticed  in 
connection  with  the  French  Jura — elongated  valleys  separated  by  parallel  ridges, 
"  combs,"  and  gorges  connecting  one  valley  with  the  other.     These  features  in 


Fig.  291.— The  Vailey  of  Traveks. 
Scale  1  :  170,000. 


,   -  \tAAo-»w3 


.  2  Miles 


combination  produce  picturesque  scenery  of  astonishing  variety.  All  the  depres- 
sions are  old  lake  basins,  which  were  still  covered  with  water  during  miocene 
ages.  The  valley  of  Travers,  now  drained  by  the  Reuse,  or  Areuse,  a  tributary 
of  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel,  is  an  instance  in  point.  It  receives  the  torrents  descend- 
ing the  terraced  slopes  of  the  "  comb,"  or  amphitheatre,  of  St.  Sulpice  at  its  upper 
end,  and  appears  to  terminate  at  the  foot  of  a  cliff  which  shuts  it  in  on  the  east. 
But  the  slow  erosive  action  of  the  water  has  overcome  this  obstacle.  The  river  is 
now  able  to  escape  through  a  narrow  gorge,  its  waters  rushing  headlong  far 
beneath  the  railway  suspended  upon  the  flank  of  the  mountains.  All  at  once  we 
perceive  on  our  right  a  vast  crater-shaped  amphitheatre,  known  as  the  Creux-du- 

*  Altitudes  of  the  Jura  (in  English  feet) :— Mont  Teudie,  5,512  ;  Mont  Dole,  5,606  ;  Chasseron,  5,286 ; 
Chasaeral,  6,280;  Weissenstein,  4,580;  Liigem,  2,827. 


TUE  JURA. 


411 


Tent,  or  "  Windy  Pit."  A  geological  exuiuiiiution  of  the  ground  shows  tlmt  this 
is  a  fullen-in  cavity,  or  comb,  such  as  are  l're<juently  met  with  in  all  limcBtono 
districts,  which  now  communicates  with  the  gorge  of  the  Reuse.  AVidely  different 
is  the  aspect  of  a  valley  to  the  north  of  that  of  Travers.  No  running  water 
enlivens  it  now,  its  bottom  being  occupied  by  a  swamp  and  bog.  Tlius,  in  ii 
district  of  circumscribed  area,  wo  uro  able  to  study  a  valley  still  vivified  by 
running  wafers,  a   "  dead  "  valley, 

a  falleu-in  comb,   and  the  tortuous  Fig.  292.— Tub  Clusb  of  Undervelieh. 

defile  of  tt  "  cluse."  scuio  i :  is.ooo. 

In  many  other  parts  of  the  Swiss 
Jura  the  parallel  mountain  ram- 
parts are  pierced  by  cluscs,  bounded 
either  by  steep  escarpments  or  by 
vast  amphitheatres,  and  which  per- 
mit the  waters  of  the  upper  valleys 
to  escape.  Gorges  of  this  kind  con- 
nect Biel  (Bienne)  with  the  valley 
of  St.  Imier,  the  valley  of  Court 
with  that  of  Undervclier,  and,  above 
all,  the  grand  cluse  of  the  Doubs, 
through  which  that  river  turns  back 
upon  itself,  and  finds  its  way  into  the 
Saono  and  the  Mediterranean,  in- 
stead of  maintaining  its  original 
direction  and  flowing  to  the  Rhine. 
There  are  even  some  cluses  in  an 
incomplete  state,  to  which  man  has 
put  the  finishing  hand.  One  of 
these  is  the  gorge  of  Pierre-Pertuis. 
Nature  had  nearly  accomplished  her 
work  there  when  the  Romans  over- 
came the  remaining  obstacles  by 
means  of  a  tunnel,  which  is  still  used 
by  travellers. 

Except  in  winter  or  early  spring 
the  Jura  does  not  present  us  with 
those  contrasts  between  snow  and 
verdure  which  form  so  attractive 
a  feature  of  the  Alps.     There  are, 

however,  magnificent  forests  of  fir-trees,  which  uro  said  to  have  given  the 
mountains  their  name,  the  meaning  of  which  is  supposed  to  bo  "  forbidden 
woods."  There  is  likewise  an  abundance  of  fine  pasturage,  reaching  down  to 
the  margins  of  the  small  lakes  which  occupy  some  of  the  valley  bottoms.  These 
lakes,  for   the  most  part  very  shallow,  are   in   many  instances  being   invaded 


Por<.lt 


iMile. 


412 


SWITZEELAND. 


by  bogs,  and  several  Lave  disappeared  entirely,  tbeir  water  having  been  sucked 
up,  as  it  were,  by  the  moss  and  other  thirsty  plants  which  grow  along  their 
banks. 

The  rain  which  falls  upon  the  Jura  not  only  fiUs  the  lakes  and  surface  torrents, 
but  a  considerable  portion  of  it  finds  its  way  through  creiix  (pits)  and  emposieux 
into  underground  channels  and  caverns,  and  reappears  again  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  subterranean  rivers  is  the  Orbe,  the 
most  important  tributary  of  the  Rhine,  having  its  sources  in  the  Jura.  The 
Orbe  rises  in  France,  in  the  small  Luke  of  Rousses  ;  lower  down  it  traverses  two 


Fig.  293. — Meanderings  op  the  Doubs  at  St.  Ursanne. 
Scale  1  :  50,000. 


^?  So' E.  of  Paris 


T^.o'E.nf  Cr. 


,  IMile. 


other  lakes  on  Swiss  territory,  those  of  Joux  and  Brenet ;  and  then,  at  the  base  of 
high  cliffs,  it  rushes  into  a  cavern,  only  to  appear  again  2  miles  farther  to  the 
north-east,  and  735  feet  below  the  point  where  it  disappeared.  Its  volume  then  is 
sufficient  to  turn  all  the  mills  of  the  manufacturing  village  of  Vallorbe. 

The  whole  of  the  surface  drainage  of  the  plateau  of  Fonts,  to  the  north  of  the 
Reuse,  is  swallowed  up  by  sinks,  and  reappears,  900  feet  below,  in  the  springs 
known  as  Noiraigue.  Elsewhere  springs  no  sooner  mount  to  the  surface  than  they 
disappear  again,  and  the  rivulets  to  which  they  give  rise  alternately  flow  on  the 
surface  and  through  underground  channels.      Of  this  kind  are  the  rivulets  which 


THE  JURA. 


413 


converge  upon  the  sink  known  as  Creux-Genat,  in  the  environs  of  Porrentruy. 
Many  of  these  subterranean  channels  feed  the  Lakes  of  Neuchutel  and  Bienne 
through  springs  rising  horn  the  bottom  of  these  hikes.  The  localities  where  these 
lacustrine  springs  make  tlioir  appearance  are  well  known   to  huntsmen  and  fisher- 


Fig.  294. — The  L.^ke  of  Jovx. 

Scilc  1  :  400,000. 


B.ot  P. 


m£^ 


^-m^L^ 


e  A4tnA^>v. 


i  Miles. 


men,  for  in  winter,  when  the  remainder  of  the  lake  is  covered  with  ice,  the  water 
immediately  above  them  continues  open.  Fish  and  wild  fowl  abound  there,  and 
hence  they  are  known  as  entner,  or  duck  pools.  If  the  level  of  the  lakes  were 
to  fall,  these  springs  would  give  rise  to  rivulets. 


vol,,  n. 


K    E 


CHAPTER  III. 
GLACIAL    PERIOD* 

HE  Jura,  which  affords  so  many  opportunities  for  studying  geo- 
logical and  hydrographical  problems,  furnishes  likewise  the  most 
decisive  proof  of  the  vast  extension  of  the  glaciers  in  a  former 
age.  When  exploring  these  mountains  scientific  men  obtained 
the  first  glimpse  of  an  age  in  which  a  great  portion  of  Europe 
was  covered  with  a  cap  of  ice. 

The  Jura  itself  had  its  valley  glaciers,  which  carried  down  blocks  of  rock  to  a 
lower  level ;  but  in  addition  to  these  rocks,  which  are  clearly  derived  from  the 
Jura  itself,  we  meet  with  others  on  its  eastern  slope  which  are  as  certainly  of  a 
different  origin.  Formerly  geologists  were  perplexed  when  asked  to  account  for 
the  presence  of  these  prodigious  masses  of  rock.  Were  they  ruins  of  mountains 
no  longer  in  existence  ?  or  had  they  been  carried  thither  from  the  Alps,  in  spite  of 
their  being  at  a  distance  of  120  miles  ?  We  now  know  that  the  latter  hypothesis 
was  the  correct  one.  These  enormous  erratic  blocks  have  really  been  carried 
down  the  Alps,  and  we  are  even  able,  in  manj'  instances,  to  point  out  the  locality 
whence  they  have  been  derived  and  the  route  which  they  followed.  This  mass 
of  granite,  we  are  able  to  say,  came  hither  from  the  Monte  Rosa ;  that  block  of 
mica  schist  tumbled  down  the  sides  of  the  St.  Gotthard.  Formerly  the  whole  of 
the  northern  slope  of  the  Alps  was  bounded  bj^  a  vast  sheet  of  ice,  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  five  glaciers,  which  filled  up  the  valleys  now  drained  by  the  Rhone, 
the  Aar,  the  Reuss,  the  Linth,  and  the  Rhine.  The  blocks  of  rock  which  tumbled 
down  from  the  mountain-tops  slowly  travelled  with  these  glaciers  down  the  valley. 
They  were  carried  over  the  plains  and  the  cavities  now  converted  into  lakes,  and 
would  have  been  carried  bej'ond  the  frontiers  of  Switzerland  had  not  the  trans- 
versal chain  of  the  Jura  interposed  a  barrier.  It  was  upon  its  slopes  they  dropped 
when  the  glaciers  melted  away,  and  there  we  find  them  still,  after  hitndreds  and 
perhaps  thousands  of  centuries.     Some  of  the  blocks  carried  by  the  Rhone  glaciers 

*  Oswald  Heer,  "  Le  Monde  rrimitif  de  la  Suisse ; "  Arnold  Guyot,  in  Bull,  de  la  Societe  dcs 
Sciences  Naturelles  de  Neuchutel ;  VioUet-le-Duc,  "  Le  Massif  du  Mont  Blanc ;  "  J.  Tyndall,  "  The  Glaciers 
of  the  Alps ; "  Studer,  "  Ueber  Schnee  und  Eis." 


GLACIAL  PEKTOD.  415 

have  been  deposited  upon  the  flanks  of  Mont  Chasseron,  at  a  height  of  4,G00  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  was  there,  right  opposite  to  Martigny  and  Villeneuve,  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Rhone  valley,  that  the  central  stream  of  the  Rnone  glacier  struck 
the  Jura ;  and  on  either  side  of  the  Chasseron,  whether  we  proceed  north  or  south, 
the  height  at  which  erratic  blocks  are  met  with  graduallj'  decreases.  Some  of 
these  blocks  have  a  volume  of  176,000  cubic  feet,  and  are  quarried  as  building 
stones. 

Erratic  blocks  of  this  kind  are  not  only  met  with  on  the  slope  of  the  Jura, 
upon  which  the  ancient  glaciers  impinged,  but  also  along  the  slopes  of  all  the 
Alpine  valleys  down  which  they  formerly  crept.  Blocks  of  enormous  size  may 
be  seen  in  the  valleys  of  the  Limmat,  the  Reuss,  and  the  Aar.  The  Luegiboden, 
near  Interlaken,  is  nothing  but  a  huge  erratic  block  of  granite,  having  still  a 
volume  of  460,000  cubic  feet,  although  much  of  it  has  been  carried  away  by 
quarrymen,  including  a  block  forwarded  to  America  to  serve  as  the  pedestal  of  a 
monument  to  "VTashington.  The  erratic  rock,  known  as  bloc  monstre,  on  the 
hill  of  ilontel,  near  Bex,  above  the  valley  of  the  Rhone,  has  a  volume  of  no  less 
than  530,000  cubic  feet.  Many  of  these  glacier-borne  rocks  have  been  deposited 
on  the  banks  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and  close  to  that  town  there  is  one  of  huge 
size  known  as  the  Pierre  a  Niton.  The  Romans  probably  consecrated  that  rock 
to  Xeptune,  and  in  our  own  days  it  has  been  converted  into  a  gauge  for  registering 
the  oscillations  of  the  lake.  But  what  is  the  volume  of  these  huge  blocks  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  the  pebbles,  the  sand,  and  the  mud  carried  down  the  hills  by 
these  ancient  glaciers,  and  further  distributed  by  the  floods  when  they  melted 
away  ?  Most  of  the  rocks  and  the  soil  removed  whilst  the  existing  valleys  were 
being  scooped  out  by  the  glaciers  have  been  deposited  upon  the  wide  plains  below 
them.  Sometimes  the  glaciers  melted  so  rapidly  as  to  carry  away  the  soil  in 
streams  ot  mud,  similar  in  all  respects  to  those  which  descend  from  some  of  the 
volcanoes  of  the  Andes  whenever  a  subterranean  lake  bursts  it«  bonds.  Pieces  of 
ice  were  in  every  instance  carried  along  with  the  mud,  and  the  cavities  which 
they  filled  have  been  discovered  in  the  hardened  conglomerate  into  which  age  has 
changed  the  mud.  These  rivers  of  mud  sometimes  filled  up  whole  vallcvs  to 
the  brim.  Below  Sembrancher,  in  the  valley  of  the  Dransc,  the  mud  rose  to  a 
height  of  1,400  feet,  as  proved  by  the  traces  of  it  still  existing  upon  the  sides  of 
the  valley.  But  this  enormous  liquid  mass  at  length  burst  the  rocky  barrier, 
stretching  across  the  valley  from  the  superb  pyramid  of  Catogne  to  the  mountain 
of  Vence,  and,  when  liberated,  it  inundated  tlic  lower  portion  of  the  valley. 

The  ancient  moraines  of  valley  glaciers,  though  in  reality  far  less  important 
witnesses  to  glacial  action  than  the  horizontal  strata  to  which  they  gave  birth, 
nevertheless  more  frequently  attract  attention  on  account  of  their  uneven  surface 
and  the  prominent  part  they  play  in  the  scenery  of  the  country.  The  valley  of  the 
Limmat  is  traversed  by  no  less  than  six  ancient  terminal  moraines,  one  of  which 
crosses  the  Lake  of  Zurich  opposite  Rappcrswyl,  and  has  been  made  use  of  in  the 
construction  of  a  bridge  5,250  feet  in  length.  Zurich  itself  is  built  upon  an 
ancient  moraine,  and  so  are  several  other  towns  at  the  lower  end  of  lakes,  and 

E   E   2 


416 


SWITZEELAND. 


even  some  in  the  plain,  including  a  portion  of  Bern,  the  capital  of  Switzerland. 
The  interesting  district  to  the  north-west  of  Luzern,  which  a  flood  would  convert 
into  parallel  islands,  and  where  are  the  Lakes  of  Sempach,  Boldegg,  and  Hallwyl, 
and  the  swampy  grounds  crossed  by  the  Eeuss,  exhibit  many  traces  of  an  inva- 


Fig.  295. — The  Catogse. 
Scale  1  :  80,000. 


'4.°    WE.o)P.-i.-is 


^fo::: 


Cifi.VE.  of  Gr 


IMile. 


sion  of  glacial  mud.  The  scenery  and  aspect  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
rugged  plain  which  separates  the  Alps  from  the  Jura  are  due  to  ancient  moraines. 
There  these  accumulations  of  stones  no  longer  present  the  chaotic  appearance  of 
former  days.  Their  surface  now  is  covered  with  soil,  and  they  nearly  all  are 
clothed  with  woods,  forming  a  most  charming  contrast  with  the  lakes  which  sepa- 


GLACIAL  PERIOD. 


417 


rate  them,  with  the  rivulets  windinp:  nlong  their  foot,  and  with  the  cultivated  fields 
surrounding  the  villages.  The  charniing  .scenery  at  the  lower  ends  of  the  Lakes 
of  Thun,  Ziirieb,  and  liienno  (Bid)  is  the  outcome  of  the  diversities  of  contour 
resulting  from  the  passage  of  ancient  glaciers. 

The  flora  of  this  region  of  moraines  proves  that  a  remarkable  change  took 
place  in  the  climate  when  the  ice  invaded  the  country.  The  ocean  still  covered 
the  plain  between  the  Alps  and  the  Jura  during  the  miocene  age.  The  sandstones 
and  pebbly  conglomerates  deposited  at  that  time  are  rich  in  species  of  plants  and 


Fig.  296. — The  .Vnciknt  Oi.AriEiis  of  Kasteiin  Rwittfrlavp. 


r 


I  E.  of  l'w» 


^}^  it  nit  r  If 


•••i/niiaty 


animals,  whose  presence  proves  to  us  that  the  mean  temperature  must  then  have 
varied  between  04"  and  08^  Fahr.  To  this  climate  of  Louisiana  or  Florida  suc- 
ceeded one  analogous  to  that  of  Greenland.  The  Alpine  plants,  which  are  the 
same  as  those  of  Lapland,  descended  from  the  mountain  summits  into  the  valleys, 
and  from  the  latter  into  the  plain,  and  they  are  found  now  throughout  Switzerland 
as  far  as  erratic  blocks  are  met  with,  their  limit  coinciding  in  a  most  remarkable 
manner  with  a  flora  of  arctic  aspect.  M.  Martins,  who  has  more  especially  studied 
the  vegetation  of  the  Arctic  regions  and  of  the  Alps,  tells  us  that  the  aspect  of 
the  valley  of  Fonts,  in  the  Jura  of  Neuchitel,  and  at  an  elevation  of  3,300  feet 


418 


SWITZERLAND. 


above  the  sea,  recalls  certain  portions  of  Lapland.     But  then  the  Alpine  flora  of 
that  valley  grows  upon  glacial  mud  carried  hither  from  the  Alps. 

These  vestiges  of  the  past — erratic  blocks,  glacial  mud,  and  Alpine  plants — 
have  enabled  geologists  to  draw  a  map  indicating  the  ancient  glaciers.  The  most 
important  among  them  was  that  of  the  Rhone.  It  filled  up  the  basin  of  the  Lake 
of  Geneva,  covered  the  plain  of  Switzerland  to  a  depth  of  more  than  3,000  feet, 
and  extended  north  as  far  as  what  is  now  known  as  the  Aargau,  where  it  was 
joined  by  the  glacier  of  the  Aar.  But  it  did  not  penetrate  the  Alps  of  Fribourg, 
which  had  their  own  system  of  glaciers.  The  erratic  blocks  deposited  within  this 
wide  area  have  mostly  been  traced  to  that  portion  of  the  Alpine  chain  which 
extends  from  the  St.  Bernard  to  the  Simplon.  The  glaciers  of  the  Reuss  and  of 
the  Linth  likewise  extended  to  the  barrier  of  the  Jura,  but  only  at  its  eastern 
extremity,  whilst  the  glacier  of  the  valley  of  the  Rhine  spread  itself  over  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  Southern  Germany.  Glaciers  of  vast  extent  likewise  crept 
down  the  Italian  slope  of  the  Alps,  filling  up,  wholly  or  in  part,  the  existing  lakes. 
The  Lake  of  Lugano,  like  that  of  Ziirich,  is  divided  into  two  portions  by  an  ancient 
terminal  moraine,  which  the  retiring  glacier  left  behind,  and  which  is  used  now 
as  a  road. 


^X^^^^fe^i 


CHAPTER  IV. 

RIVERS  AXD  I^VKES.' 


T^!=rp7r][N  comparison  with  the  glaciers  of  a  former  age,  the  geological 
reconstruction  of  which  has  led  the  way  to  other  discoveries  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  oiir  earth,  the  glaciers  of  the  present 
day  are  of  small  account.  They  hardly  cover  more  than  5  per 
cent,  of  the  total  area  of  the  country,  and  their  average  thickness  is 


certainly  small  compared  with  that  of  the  ancient  glaciers  which  made  Switzerland 
another  Greenland.  Still,  if  there  were  to  occur  a  sudden  cessation  of  rain,  and 
if  these  glaciers,  which  now  hang  like  huge  reservoirs  above  the  rest  of  Europe, 
were  to  be  melted  to  keep  up  the  present  volume  of  the  rivers  rising  in  Switzer- 
land, the  supply  would  suffice  only  for  five  years,  even  though  we  estimated  them 
to  have  an  average  thickness  of  300  feet.t 

But  it  is  well  known  that  the  difference  in  bulk  which  a  glacier  exhibits  in 
summer  and  winter  is  relatively  small,  and  that  rivers  and  lakes  are  in  the  main 
dependent  upon  rain  and  melting  snows  for  their  supply  of  water,  which  they 
obtain  either  indirectly  through  springs,  or  directly  through  avalanches  and  surface 
drainage.  The  most  important  river  of  Switzerland,  as  respects  the  area  of  its 
catchment  basin,  is  the  Ticino,  or  Tessin,  which  is  to  a  less  extent  fed  by  glaciers 
than  any  other  river  of  the  country.  Though  its  principal  vallej'  is  called 
Bedrette,  which  is  synonj'mous  with  "  glacier  valley,"  the  streams  of  ice  which 
descend  into  it  melt  away  before  the  mid-day  sun.  After  heavy  rains  the  volume 
of  the  Ticino,  measured  above  where  it  enters  the  Lago  Maggiore,  lias  reached 
150,000  and  even  200,000  cubic  feet  a  second  (the  average  throughout  the  year 
being  only  3,700  cubic  feet),  and  it  is  then  a  river  t\vice  as  powerful  as  the  Rhone 
at  the  forks  of  Arches.     The  Verzasca  is  likewise  a  largo  river.     After  leaving 

•  Riitimeyer,  "Thai-  u.  Sctbildung ; "  Studcr,  " Gesclucht*;  der  rhysischon  Gcographio  der  Sehwciz." 
t  A  Government  Conunission  (in  1871)  computed  the  ana  covered  by  glaciers  at  8091  square  miles, 

viz.  390-3  square  miles  in  the  basin  of  the  Rhone,  289G  square  miles  in  the  basin  of  the  Ithinc,  70'6  square 

miles  in  the  basin  of  the  Inn,  and  4S'G  square  miles  in  the  basin  of  the  Po. 

An  official  statement  published  in  1878  gives  lower  fifjures,  viz.  710  square  miles  for  the  whole  of 

Switzerland,  375  for  th«  canton  of  Wallis  (V'ulais),  138  for  the  canton  of  the  Urinous,  108  for  that  of  Bern, 

44  for  Uri,  &c. 


420 


SWITZEELAND. 


its  wild  gorge  it  spreads  over  a  bed  of  gravel,  which  it  pushes  far  into  the  lake,  in 
front  of  the  mouth  of  the  Ticino.  The  Maggia,  on  the  other  side  of  the  lake,  is 
ordinarily  a  river  like  the  Adour,  but  when  in  flood  it  may  well  bear  comparison 
with  the  mighty  Ehone.*  The  alluvium  brought  down  by  these  three  rivers  is 
rapidly  silting  up  the  upper  end  of  the  lake.  A  comparison  of  ancient  documents 
with  our  most  recent  maps  would  appear  to  show  that  this  silting  up,  aided,  no 
doubt,  by  the  devastation  of  the  forests  which  formerly  clad  the  mountain  slopes, 
is  proceeding  at  an  increasing  rate.  Seven  hundred  years  ago  the  village  of 
Gordola  was  the  principal  port  on  the  upper  part  of  the  lake ;  it  is  at  present  hardly 
a  mile  from  its  shore  ;  whilst  the  new  port  of  Magadino  has  to  be  shifted  every 
ten  years,  the  shore  of  the  lake  flying  it  almost  visibly.  The  port  of  Locarno, 
close  to  the  delta  formed  by  the  Maggia,  has  to  be  perpetually  dredged,  at  a 


Fig.  297. — The  Upper  Exd  of  the  Laoo  Maggiore. 
Scale  1  :  100,000. 


EofP 


0  /?S^-^^^L,„>^—ry 


.  1  Mile. 


considerable  expense,  for  the  sand  is  for  ever  invading  it.     If  we  assume  that 

the  matter  held  in  suspension  by  the  three  rivers,  the  Ticino,  the  Verzasca,  and 

the  Maggia,  and  annually  deposited  in  the  lake,  amounts  to  the  one-thousandth  part 

of  their  entire  volume,  the  Bay  of  Locarno,  in  spite  of  its  depth  of  160  feet,  will 

be  silted  up  in  the  course  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  years,  and  the  three  rivers, 

then  united  into  one,  will  be  able  to  invade  the  lower  portion  of  the  lake.     The 

alluvium  deposited  by  these  rivers  remains  injurious  to  health  as  long  as  it  has  not 

been  turned  over  by  the  hoe  or  the  plough.      In  summer  the  swampy  plain  of  the 

Lower  Ticino  exhales  deadly  miasmata,  and  the  inhabitants  of  several  villages  are 

at  that  time  obliged  to  fly  to  the  cabins  they  have  in  the  mountain  valleys. 

*  Average  rolume : — Ticino  (Tessiii),  3,700  cutic  feet ;  Verzasca,  353  cubic  feet ;  Maggia,  2,200  cubic 
feet. 


RIVERS  AND  LAKES. 


421 


Far  more  sixlubrious  are  the  shores  of  the  Cerisio,  or  Luke  of  Lugano,  a  double 
bafiin,  within  which  the  two  ancient  ghiciers  of  the  Ticino  and  the  Adda  formerly 
united  into  a  single  river.  AVhen  the  glaciers  retired  the  basin  of  the  Cerisio 
was  left  with  but  a  few  inconsiderable  affluents.  The  alluvium  brought  down  by 
them  from  the  mountains  is  only  of  trifling  quantity,  and  the  lake  shrinks  conse- 
quently very  slowly.     This  lake,  not  being  subjected  to  sudden  flood.s,  might  easily 


Fig.  298. — The  Lakeb  of  Luoako  avd  Como. 

f-ciUc  1  :  250,000. 


K.xl  I'. 


fi  Miles. 


E.»(Cr.     . 


be  transformed  into  a  huge  reservoir,  whence  the  neighbouring  fields  of  Lombardy 
might  be  irrigated.  Signor  Yilloresi,  an  Italian  engineer,  has  proposed  to  connect 
it  by  means  of  a  tunnel,  only  2  miles  in  length,  with  the  Lake  of  Como,  and  to 
convert  the  latter  into  a  basin  of  distribution,  whence  the  water  would  be  conveyed 
to  the  sterile  lands  of  the  Somma.  The  water  available  for  such  a  purpose  has 
been  estimated  at  between  560  and  1,120  cubic  feet,  according  to  the  season. 


422 


SWITZEELAND. 


If  the  Ticino  is  fed  only  in  a  small  measure  by  melting  ice,  such  is  not  the  case 
with  respect  to  the  Rhone,  which  has  more  extensive  glaciers  in  its  upper  valley 
than  any  other  river  of  Europe.  The  glaciers  occupy  nearly  one-half  the  total 
area  of  those  of  all  Switzerland,  and  the  ice  river  of  the  Aletsch,  as  well  as  the  ice 
streams  creeping  down  the  slopes  of  Monte  Rosa,  is  without  a  rival.  The  Rhone 
glacier,  properly  so  called,  is  not  only  of  considerable  extent,  but  it  is  also  much 
admired  for  its  natural  beauties,  more  especially  on  account  of  its  terminal  face, 
furrowed  by  huge  crevasses.     Formerly  it  was  bounded  only  by  naked  rocks  and 

Fig.  299. — The  Aletsch  Glacier. 
Scale  1 :  100,000. 


if.-f- 


8°|5'E.ofCr. 


lllils. 


turf,  but  M.  Gosset  has  planted  its  banks  with  Scandinavian  trees,  and  a  forest  may 
be  seen  in  close  proximity  to  the  ice.  From  this  frozen  river  issues  a  small  torrent, 
which  is  usually  regarded  as  the  head  of  the  Rhone.  The  mountaineers,  how- 
ever, do  not  look  upon  the  glacier  as  the  veritable  source  of  the  Rhone ;  they 
derive  that  river  from  a  small  tepid  spring  which  rises  at  the  foot  of  a  neighbour- 
ing rock.  In  addition  to  the  Rhone  glacier  there  are  two  hundred  and  sixty  others 
which  regulate  the  flow  of  the  river,  for  it  is  precisely  in  summer,  when  the  rain- 
fall is  least  and  the  evaporation  greatest,  that  the  ice  melts  most  rapidly.     Some- 


ElVERS  .VXD  UiKES.  423 

times,  however,  these  glaciers  fhemselvcs  give  rise  to  floods.  Some  of  tho  upper 
side  valleys  are  closed  in  by  iialurul  dams,  formed  of  moraines  and  fragments  of 
ice.  The  water  accumulated  behind  these  barriers,  when  it  bursts  them,  rushes 
down  the  valley,  carrying  fragments  of  stone,  houses,  and  trees  before  it,  and 
denuding  the  fields  of  their  arable  soil.  In  order  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of 
such  floods  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  pierce  these  dams,  so  that  the  water 
may  escape.  The  small  Lake  of  Moeril,  or  Merjelen,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Aletsch  glacier,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  lateral  moraine,  has  been  treated 
in  this  manner,  and  it  has  since  remained  permanently  at  the  same  level. 

The  Dransc,  which  joins  the  Rhone  where  it  abruptly  changes  its  direction 
before  entering  the  gorge  of  St.  Maurice,  was  blocked  up  by  the  glacier  of  Grctroz 
in  1818.  Its  upper  valley  was  converted  into  a  lake,  and,  when  the  pent-up  waters 
at  length  liberated  themselves,  they  produced  one  of  the  most  disastrous  floods 
known  in  connection  with  the  Rhone  valley.  Immediately  on  issuing  from  the 
rock-bound  gorge  referred  to,  tho  Rhone  enters  upon  an  alluvial  plain,  formerly 
covered  by  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  This  plain  has  an  area  of  34  square  miles; 
and  the  depth  of  the  alluvium  which  covers  it,  and  all  of  which  has  been  deposited 
there  by  the  Rhone,  is  unknown.  A  few  ancient  moraines  rise  above  it.  The 
village  of  Port-Valais,  which  formerly  stood  upon  the  banks  of  the  lake,  is  now  at 
a  distance  of  over  a  mile  away  from  it,  the  whole  of  the  intervening  land  having 
been  deposited  in  the  course  of  three  centuries.  It  is  also  asserted  that  the 
delta  of  the  Rhone  has  so  rapidly  grown  during  a  single  generation  that  the 
inhabitants  of  Yilleneuve  are  no  longer  able  to  see  Le  Bouveret,  which  faces  them 
on  the  southern  shore,  it  being  now  hidden  from  view  by  a  peninsula  covered  w^th 
poplars,  willows,  and  houses.  The  heavier  fragments  brought  down  by  the  river 
form  flats  and  sand-banks  close  to  its  mouth,  whilst  the  triturated  sand  is  carried 
a  considerable  distance  into  the  lake.  It  has  been  ascertained,  by  soundings,  that 
the  bottom  of  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  lake  is  slightly  convex  in  front  of  the 
mouths  of  the  river,  a  phenomenon  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  deposition  of 
alluvial  matter. 

Though  much  smaller  now  than  in  former  ages,  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  or  Leman, 
is  the  largest  lake  of  Western  Europe.  It  is  also  one  of  the  deepest,  its  bottom 
extending  down  almost  to  the  level  of  the  sea.*  To  drain  it  bj'  a  river  equal  in 
volume  to  the  Rh(5ne  would  require  no  less  than  ten  years,  supposing,  of  course, 
that  its  tributaries  ceased  to  flow.  Like  the  ocean,  it  has  its  storms,  its  waves,  its 
surge  ;  but  the  most  careful  observations  have  not  hitherto  established  the  existence 
of  tidal  currents.  The  seiches  are  a  phenomenon  of  quite  a  difiercnt  kind,  and 
are  produced  by  sudden  changes  in  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  which  result  in 
a  swelling  up  of  a  portion  of  the  lake,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  6  feet.  These 
seiches  occur  at  regular  intervals,  and  the  laws  which  govern  them  are  now 
thoroughly  imderstood.t 

*  Lake  of  Oenera: — Average  height  above  sea,  1,217  feet;  average  area,  223  square  miles;  greatest 
depth,  1,099  feet ;  average  depth,  492  feet ;  approximate  contcDt«,  86,193  million  tons  of  water, 
t  See  Forcl  in  Bull.  <U  la  Soc.  Vaud.  det  Scienca  Naturclkt. 


424 


SWITZERLAND. 


The  Lake  of  Geneva  belongs  both  to  the  Switzerland  of  the  Alps  and  that  of 
the  Jura.  Crescent-shaped,  it  consists  in  reality  of  two  separate  basins — that  in 
the  east  overlooked  by  the  buttresses  of  the  Alps,  that  in  the  -west  bounded  by  the 
gentler  slopes  of  the  Jura.  These  two  basins  indicate  by  their  direction  the  system 
of  mountains  to  which  they  belong.  The  eastern  sheet  of  water  stretches  north-west, 
like  all  other  Alpine  lakes,  whilst  the  parallel  banks  of  the  western  sheet  of  water 
stretch  towards  the  south-west;  that  is,  in  the  same  direction  as  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel 
and  the  other  lakes  of  the  Jura.  The  two  basins  differ  likewise  as  to  their  configura- 
tion. The  western  lake  is  shallow,  and  gradually  narrows  towards  the  debouchure  of' 
the  Rhone,  the  blue  waters  of  which  rush  from  the  lake  to  mingle  soon  after  with 


Fig.  300. — The  Lake  of  Geneva. 
Scale  1  :  660,000. 


9^ti^r}B^;'  %y(^^l 


y.\l'),.  tf^i 


'■■£i^&i&m 


.  10  Miles. 


the  turbid  ones  of  the  Arve.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  dam  has  hitherto  been 
built  across  the  Rhone  at  Geneva,  which  would  enable  us  not  only  to  regulate  its 
level,  but  also  to  supply  motive  power  to  the  numerous  factories  along  the  river, 
and  last,  not  least,  to  mitigate  the  floods  which  now  so  frequently  carry  havoc  into 
the  fertile  fields  of  France.  Careful  observations  made  at  Tiyons  during  forty 
floods  show  distinctly  that  if  such  a  dam  had  been  in  existence  at  the  outlet  of 
the  Lake  of  Geneva,  the  rise  of  the  flood  would  have  been  less  to  the  extent 
of  from  15  to  24  inches.  By  completely  stopping  the  discharge  of  the  lake  during 
a  week  its  level  would  rise  onlj'  to  the  extent  of  20  inches.  By  diverting  the 
Arve  into  the  lake  we  might  certainly  mitigate  the  floods  on  the  Lower  Rhone ; 
but  this  would  entail  a  very  considerable  expenditure,  whilst  it  would  prove  a 


RR'ERS  AND  LAKES.  425 

possible  nuisance  to  tlie  city  of  Geneva,  whose  port  might  become  silted  up  by  the 
vast  mass  of  alluvial  matter  broufjht  down  that  river.* 

Formerly  the  level  of  the  lake  was  much  higher,  and  ancient  lake  beaches, 
dating  back  to  the  termination  of  the  glacial  period,  may  still  be  traced  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  100  and  more  feet  above  its  present  level.  It  is  equally  certain  that 
during  the  pliocene  age,  wliich  preceded  the  two  glacial  periods,  the  Jura  Moun- 
tains extended  into  Savoy.  At  that  time  the  lake  was  shut  in,  on  the  west,  by 
a  huge  mountain  barrier,  and  its  waters  spread  far  north  to  the  height  of  land 
at  Entre-Roches,  which  separated  it  from  the  basin  of  Neuchatel.  On  that 
height  of  land,  the  elevation  of  which  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  ancient  lake 
beaches  discovered  above  the  Rhone  valley,  near  the  Fort  of  L'Eeluse,  we  find 
accumulations  of  pebbles,  partly  derived  from  the  Valais,  partly  from  the  Bernese 
Oberland.  "We  do  not  know  in  what  direction  the  lake  discharged  its  surplus 
waters  during  these  remote  ages.  Xo  trace  of  an  ancient  outlet  has  hitherto  been 
discovered. 

Amongst  the  lakes  lying  wholly  upon  Swiss  territory  that  of  Neuchatel  is  the 
largest.     Like  its  neighbour  of  Geneva,  it  was  far  more  extensive  in  a  former  age, 


Fig.  301. — Profile  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 

Petit  Lao 


Vntetuure 


BnrUantal  Scale  1 :  650,000  (same  as  Map).    Vertical  Scale  1 :  320,000. 

for  it  included  not  only  the  two  neighbouring  Lakes  of  Biel  (Bienne)  and  ilorat, 
but  the  whole  of  the  plains  to  the  south,  as  far  as  the  height  of  land  at  Entre- 
Roches,  and  the  swampy  plains  which  stretch  eastward  to  the  valley  of  the 
Aar.  Even  during  the  present  century  it  has  happened  sometimes,  when  the 
rainfall  was  exceptionally  heavy,  that  the  three  lakes  became  once  more  united 
into  one.t  The  damp  land  which  separates  the  three  lakes,  and  in  the  midst  of 
which  rise  a  few  wooded  hills — ancient  islands  or  promontories — is  known  as  the 
"See-land,"  or  "Lake-land,"  and  its  cultivation  has  only  been  rendered  possible 
by  a  carefully  devised  system  of  drainage.  The  banks  of  these  lakes  are  low, 
and  they  are  shallow.  Whilst  most  of  the  Swiss  lakes  occupy  deep  cavities,  with 
precipitous  sides  and  a  flat  bottom,  the  three  lakes  of  the  plain  are  in  manj-  parts 
fringed  by  "  white  bottoms  "  (bkincs  fotuh),  covered  only  by  a  few  feet  of  water, 
which,  however,  does  not  conceal  the  white-coloured  mud  beneath.  Reeds  grow  in 
many  places,  and  much  of  the  shore  is  alternately  a  swamp  or  covered  by  the  water 

•  Fall  of  the  Rhone  between  the  lake  and  the  month  of  the  Arve  (average},  10'63  feet ;  horse-power 
availalilc,  7,000 ;  actually  utilised,  400. 

^i  6q.m.  Max.  JW.  ^f^dr!^ 

t  Lake  of  Neuchatel                                 1,427  827  472  246  18,000 

Lake  of  Bid  (Bienne)  .                          1,424  16-2  2fi3  130  1,680 

LakeofMorat     .                                   1,427  10-4  167                  98  81 


42G 


SWITZEELAND. 


of  the  lake,  according  to  the  season.  As  to  the  bed  of  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel,  far 
from  being  a  uniform  level,  it  consists  of  a  succession  of  ridges,  running  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  neighbouring  chains  of  the  Jura,  and  extending  north-east  into 
the  Lake  of  Bienne,  where  one  of  them  rises  above  the  water,  forming  the  island  of 
St.  Pierre.      A  similar  ridge  occupies  the  basin  of  the  Lake  of  Morat. 

These  three  lakes  of  the  Jura  have  grown  much  smaller  during  the  historic 
period,  the  alluvium  carried  into  them  by  torrents  and  the  formation  of  bogs  along 
their  banks  tending  to  the  same  result.  Near  the  bridge  over  the  Thiele,  between 
the  Lakes  of  Neuchatel  and  Bienne,  and  about  14,000  feet  from  the  actual  shore  of 
the  latter,  piles  have  been  discovered,  which  were  evidently  placed  there  when  the 

Fig.  302. — The  Lakes  of  Neuchatel,  Bienne,  and  Mokat. 
Scale  1 :  626,000. 


C.  PerroD 


.  10  jnies. 


The  darker  shade  indicates  a  depth  of  over  328  feet. 


surrounding  country  was  still  under  water.  An  abbey,  built  in  1100  close  upon 
the  shore  of  the  lake,  is  now  at  a  distance  of  1,230  feet  from  it.  Quite  recently  a 
shrinking  of  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel  has  led  to  the  discovery  of  pile  dwellings,  and 
of  numerous  prehistoric  remains.  This  natural  shrinking  of  the  lakes  is  accele- 
rated by  the  "correction"  of  their  emissaries.  A  fall  of  10  feet  in  their  level 
would  result  in  the  recovery  of  a  considerable  tract  of  land  capable  of  being 
cultivated,  whilst  the  drainage  of  the  marshes  which  surround  them  would  much 
improve  the  salubrity  of  the  country.  The  bogs  near  the  Lake  of  Morat,  which 
formerly  were  frequently  inundated  by  the  Broye,  have  now  been  drained,  and  are 
being  cultivated  :  the  village  of  "Witzwyl  and  several  farmsteads  now  occupy  what 


i 


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Oh  THE 

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r«  • 


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428 


SWITZEELAND. 


deposits  it  in.  the  lake.  Lower  down,  the  Lake  of  Brienz  is  joined  by  the  Lutschine, 
which  is  fed  by  the  vast  glaciers  of  the  Oberland,  including  that  of  Grindelwald. 
Formerly  this  furious  mountain  torrent  frequently  devastated  the  country  around 
Interlaken ;  but  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  it  was  confined  within 
an  artificial  channel,  and  diverted  by  a  direct  course  into  the  lake.  Amongst  the 
rivers  which  join  the  Lake  of  Thun  the  Kander  is  the  most  important.  It  brings 
down  immense  quantities  of  pebbles  and  mud.  As  recently  as  the  beginning  of 
last  century  it  joined  the  Aar,  about  a  mile  below  the  town  of  Thun,  but  the  sudden 


Fig.  304. — The  Gkindelwald  Glacier. 
Scale  1 :  100,000. 


_  2  Miles. 


inundations  which  it  caused  were  ot  so  disastrous  a  nature  that  the  patricians  of 
Bern  caused  it  to  be  diverted  into  the  lake.  The  roof  of  the  tunnel  which  they 
constructed  for  that  purpose  has  since  fallen  in,  but  the  river  continues  to  flow  in 
the  desired  direction.  The  alluvium  deposited  by  it  covered  an  area  of  142  acres 
in  1870,  and,  as  the  depth  of  the  lake  there  cannot  have  been  less  than  200  feet, 
its  mass  may  be  estimated  at  42,000,000  cubic  yards. 

The  ancient  lakes  which  formerly  extended  along  the  foot  of  the  Jura,  below 
the  confluence  of  the  Aar  and  the  Thiele,  exist  no  longer.  The  alluvium  carried 
down  by  torrents,  the  growth  of  peat  mosses,  and  the  labour  of  man  have  converted 


BIVEBS  ANP  LAKES.  429 

them  into  pasturc-lmids.  All  the  small  lakes  of  Northern  Switzerland,  ns  those  of 
Scmpach,  Baldegg,  Ilallwj-l,  Grcillon,  and  Pfiitfikon,  ns  well  as  tlie  three  largo 
ones  of  Luzem,  Zug,  and  Zurich,  belong  to  the  hydrographical  domain  of  the  Alps, 
or  of  their  foot-hills.  The  junction  between  the  river  systems  of  the  Alps  and  the 
Jura  takes  place  at  the  triple  confluence  of  the  Aar,  the  Rouss,  and  the  Liniraat. 
At  a  fonner  geological  epoch  these  three  rivers  flowed  along  the  foot  of  the 
Jurassic  ridge  of  the  Liigern,  towards  the  Lake  of  Constanz ;  but  in  the  end 
the  united  force  of  these  rivers  broke  through  the  barrier  of  the  Jura.  Geo- 
graphically the  passage  which  they  opened  for  themselves  forms  the  Gate  of 
Switzerland  to  a  traveller  coming  from  the  direction  of  Germany. 

The  centre  one  of  the  rivers,  the  Heuss,  is  the  effluent  of  the  Lake  of  the 
Four  Cantons,  which  of  all  the  lakes  of  Switzerland  most  resembles  a  Norwegian 
fiord.  Between  Luzern  and  Brunncn,  or  between  Kiissnacht  and  Stad,  the  lake 
appears  to  consist  of  a  single  sheet  of  water,  but  in  reality  it  is  formed  of  several 
separate  basins,  some  joined  to  each  other  by  narrow  straits,  others  intersecting 
each  other  at  right  angles.  At  a  former  geological  epoch,  when  the  Lakes  of 
Zug,  Lowerz,  Sarnon,  and  Lungern  still  formed  part  of  the  system  of  the  Four 
Cantons,  the  labyrinth  of  these  water-ways  was  even  more  intricate.  Abrupt 
turnings,  bold  promontories,  wide  bays  bordered  by  villages,  glistening  villas  and 
sombre  forests,  cultivated  fields  and  distant  views  of  the  Alps,  are  productive  of 
the  most  picturesque  efiects,  and  many  there  are  in  whose  opinion  this  is  the 
most  beautiful  lake  in  all  Switzerland.  Historical  associations  increase  the 
interest  with  which  we  contemplate  its  beauties.  Formerly  the  lake  was  popu- 
larly considered  to  be  almost  unfathomable,  and  fishermen  seriously  talked  about 
abyssal  depths  of  5,000  feet.  They  believed  that  the  steep  precipices  which  bound 
it  continued  at  the  same  gradient  mitil  they  met  beneath  its  waters.  They  do 
extend  beneath  the  surface  of  the  lake,  but  only  as  far  as  its  flat  bottom,  which 
in  the  basin  of  Uri  lies  at  a  depth  of  Cl^  feet.  The  depth  of  the  large  basin  is 
853  feet,  that  of  the  Lake  of  Zug  644  feet.* 

The  lakes  drained  by  the  Limmat  have  a  geological  history  similar  to  that  of 
the  twin  Lakes  of  Brienz  and  Thun.  They,  too,  were  cut  in  two  by  alluvial 
masses  carried  down  by  the  glaciers.  The  Lake  of  "Wallenstadt,  or  Wallen,  most 
resembles  an  abyss.  Bounded  by  the  steep  walls  of  the  Churfirstcn,  this  narrow 
and  sombre  lake  resembles  a  gorge  which  has  been  invaded  by  a  river.  And  such 
has  actually  been  the  case.  The  Rhine,  which  now  flows  to  the  east  of  the 
mountain  masses  of  Appcnzell  and  enters  the  Lake  of  Constanz,  formerly  flowed 
through  the  narrow  mountain  defile  which  opens  to  the  south  of  the  Churfirstcn, 
and,  taking  the  direction  of  the  river  Linth,  the  Lake  of  Ziirich,  and  the  present 
bed  of  the  Limmat,  it  joined  the  Aar.  A  strip  of  alluvial  land,  about  43  miles 
in  length,  and  only  IG  feet  high  in  the  centre,  now  separates  the  Rhine  from 

•  Height  above  the  sea,  in  feet    . 
Average  area,  in  square  miles    . 
Depth,  greatest,  in  feet     .... 
Depth,  average,  in  feet  ■    . 
Contents,  in  million  tons  of  water 
VOL.    11.  F    K 


Lake  of  Luicm. 

Lake  of  Zug. 

1,431 

1,367 

437 

14-7 

853 

644 

490? 

390  P 

16,950 

4,560 

430 


SWITZEELAND. 


its  ancient  bed.  A  flood  of  unusual  height  might  some  day  enable  it  to  overcome 
this  obstacle,  as  very  nearly  happened  in  1817  ;  and,  if  once  it  resumed  its  ancient 
course,  it  might  not  again  return  to  its  present  bed.  The  people  of  Ziirich  fear 
such  an  event,  and  for  this  reason  they  offer  the  most  powerful  opposition  to  the 
construction  of  a  canal  which  is  to  join  the  Linth  to  the  Rhine,  and  the  railway 
engineers  were  prevented  from  carrying  their  line  through  a  cutting. 

Below  the  Lake  of  Wallenstadt  commences  the  valley  of  the  Linth,  formerly  a 
swamp,  converted  into  dry  land  by  the  detritus  washed  down  from  the  Alps  of 
Glarus.  The  torrent  which  performed  the  greater  portion  of  this  geological  work 
was  formerly  much  dreaded  on  account  of  its  sudden  floods,  which  laid  waste  the 
fields,  and  decimated  the  population  by  breeding  miasmatic  fevers.     The  famous 


rig.  305.— The  Swamps  op  the  Linth. 

Scale  1 :  220,000. 


.  2  Miles. 


Swiss  geologist,  Escher,  surnamed  of  the  Linth,  diverted  the  course  of  this  river 
into  the  Lake  of  Wallenstadt,  and  canalised  the  sluggish  Mag,  which  formerly 
meandered  amongst  swamps.  The  Limmat  (Linth- Mag),  which  drains  the  Lake  of 
Zurich,  is  joined  in  the  suburbs  of  that  town  by  the  Sihl,  a  river  which 
frequently  overflows  its  banks,  but  which  might  easily  be  diverted  into  the  lake. 

The  Aar,  haviag  been  reinforced  by  the  Eeuss  and  the  Limmat,  is  a  larger 
river  than  the  Rhine  *  at  the  confluence  of  the  two  rivers,  but  its  course  being 
more  sinuous,  and  its  valley  of  less  importance  than  that  of  the  smaller  river,  the 
name  of  the  latter  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  united  streams.     In  its  general 

*  Average  volume  of  the  Rhine  at  the  confluence  with  the  Aar,  15,010  cubic  feet  a  second ;  of  the  Aar, 
18,080  cubic  feet. 


RIVERS  AND  LAKES. 


431 


features  the  Rhine  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  Rhone.  Both  rivers  rise 
near  the  St.  Gotthard,  in  a  great  transversal  valley  of  the  Central  Alps ;  both 
purify  their  waters  in  a  large  lake;  and,  in  their  passage  through  the  same 
Jurassic  range  of  mountains,  fhey  both  form  cataracts  and  waterfalls,  though 
separated  by  that  time  by  an  interval  of  180  miles.  The  elbow  at  Basel  has  its 
analogue  in  the  elbow  at  Lyons.  Both  rivers  then  flow  straight  towards  the 
sea,  the  one  to  the  Mediterranean,  the  other  to  the  German  Ocean,  and  the  volume 
of  water  they  discharge  is  about  tlie  same. 

The  principal  head-stream  of  the  Rhine  is  not  the  Vorder-Rhein,  which  rises  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Andcrmatt,  but  the  Hinter-Rhein,  or  Further  Rhino,  which 
has  its  source  on  the  Adula.  It  is  not  "  born  amongst  reeds,"  but  rises  from  an 
icy  cave,  amidst  a  chaotic  mass  of  rocks,  rejoicing  in  the  epithet  of  "  Hell."     Lower 


Fig.  306. — Thb  Socrces  op  thb  Rhine. 
Bade  1 :  926.000. 


10  Miles. 


down  it  traverses  many  another  "hell,"  the  most  famous  amongst  which  is  the 
fearful  gorge  of  the  Via  Mala,  bounded  by  precipitous  rocks  rising  to  a  height  of 
1 ,500  feet.  Immediately  below  that  famous  cleft  in  the  mountains,  within  which 
the  river  is  confined  to  a  bed  hardly  30  feet  wide,  the  Rhine  is  joined  by  two 
mountain  torrents.  One  of  these  is  the  Una,  the  waters  of  which  are  sometimes 
black  as  ink,  owing  to  the  triturated  slate  they  hold  in  suspension  ;  the  other  is  the 
Albula,  or  "  white  river,"  which  is  a  more  formidable  stream  than  the  Rliine  itself. 
It  issues  from  the  gorge  of  Schyn,  or  Mai  Pass,  hardly  less  wild  than  that  of  the 
Via  Mala,  and  exceedingly  interesting  on  account  of  its  geological  formation. 
Formerly,  before  the  Albula  had  opened  itself  a  passage  through  this  gorge,  it 
flowed  north,  in  the  direction  of  Chur. 

The  Rhine,  now  an  imposing  river,  flows  past  the  piled-up  rock  masses  of  the 

F   F  2 


432  SWITZERLAND. 

Calanda,  and  is  joined  by  several  valleys,  amongst  which  that  of  the  Tamina  is  best 
kno^vn  on  account  of  its  overhanging  rocks,  at  whose  foot  rise  the  thermal  springs  of 
Pfaffers.  The  Rhine  then  flows  through  a  wide  alluvial  plain,  and  below  Sargans, 
where  its  old  bed  branches  off  to  the  left,  in  the  direction  of  the  Lake  of  "Wallen- 
stadt  (see  p.  429),  it  enters  the  ancient  lake  basin,  now  to  a  great  part  filled  up  by 
its  alluvium.  This  filled-up  basin  is  more  extensive  than  that  of  the  Rhone  above 
the  Lake  of  Geneva,  its  area  amounting  to  no  less  than  116  square  miles,  and  it  is 
continually  encroaching  upon  the  Lake  of  Constanz.  A  few  isolated  hills,  not  yet 
destroyed  by  errosive  action,  rise  in  the  midst  of  this  vast  alluvial  plain.  The 
river,  which  here  forms  the  boundary  between  Switzerland  and  Austria,  frequently 
overflows  Its  banks,  and  the  maintenance  of  embankments  *  and  the  drainage  of  the 
land  require  unremitting  attention,  in  spite  of  which  the  Rhine  has  repeatedly 
broken  through  the  barriers  which  confine  it,  and  excavated  itself  a  new  bed. 
In  many  parts  of  the  vaUey  the  average  level  of  the  river  is  from  6  feet  to  10  feet 
higher  than  the  adjoining  plain.  When  building  a  bridge  near  Buchs,  an  old 
stone  embankment  was  discovered  at  a  depth  of  16  feet  below  the  actual  level  of 
the  valley. 

The  Lake  of  Constanz  is  the  remnant  of  a  vast  sheet  of  water  which  formerly 
stretched  from  the  Swabian  Jura  to  the  mountains  of  the  Tyrol.  It  is  a  German 
lake  rather  than  a  Swiss  one,  and  its  German  name,  Bodensee,  is  derived  from  a 
small  village  at  its  north-western  extremity.  In  its  general  features  it  resembles 
the  Lake  of  Geneva,  but  it  is  smaller  and  more  shallow.  Its  waters  present  the 
phenomenon  of  seiches,  locally  known  as  Ruhssen.  Its  elevation  above  the  sea 
being  greater  than  that  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and  its  position  more  northerly  and 
less  sheltered  against  cold  easterly  winds,  ice  forms  along  its  banks  nearly  every 
winter,  and  five  times  in  the  course  of  the  last  four  centuries  the  lake  was  frozen 
over  entirely. 

The  Lake  of  Geneva  formerly  discharged  its  waters  Into  the  Rhine,  whilst  the 
Lake  of  Constanz  was  tributary  to  the  Danube.  Subsequently,  after  the  latter  lake 
had  become  a  member  of  the  basin  of  the  Rhine,  its  waters  discharged  themselves, 
towards  the  north-west,  through  the  arm  now  known  as  the  Lake  of  TJeberlingen. 
At  the  present  time  the  lake  overflows  through  a  canal  2J  miles  in  length 
iato  the  Untersee,  or  Lower  Lake,  which  may  almost  be  looked  upon  as  a  distinct 
lake,  as  it  lies  about  3  feet  below  the  Bodensee.  It  is  much  shallower.  For- 
merly its  waters  escaped  through  a  vaUey  now  occupied  by  the  rivers  Aach  and 
Biber,  but  they  now  Issue  from  the  south-western  corner  of  the  lake  at  Stein.  In 
its  passage  through  the  Jurassic  hUls  below  that  town  the  current  of  the  river  is 
strong.  At  Schaff  hausen  a  forsaken  bed  of  the  river,  now  known  as  the  Klettgau, 
branches  off  on  the  right.  A  short  distance  below  that  town,  close  to  the  old  castle 
of  Laufen,  the  Rhine  plimges  over  a  ledge  of  rock  and  forms  a  waterfall  66  feet  in 
height.  In  the  midst  of  the  foaming  waters  rise  two  jagged  rocks,  the  one 
pierced  by  a  natural  tunnel,  through  which  the  waters  rush  when  the  river  is  In 

*    Lake  of  Constanz  (or  Bodensee)  t-^Height  above  the  sea,  1,306  feet ;  area  (average),  208  square 
nnles ;  depth,  greatest,  906  feet ;  depth,  average,  490  feet ;  contents,  in  tons  of  water,  80,850  millions. 


RIVEKS  AKD  T.AKl'.S.  488 

flood,  and  both  covered  with  shrubs,  whose  leaves  are  over  moistened  by  tho  mist 
which  perpetually  hangs  over  tho  fulls  and  is  drifted  about  by  the  wind.  Tho  Falla 
of  Laufeu,  frequently  called  after  tho  neighbouring  town  of  Schufi'hausen,  are  the 
most  considerable  of  Europe,  no  less  than  330  tons  of  water,  on  an  average,  roaring 
over  them  every  second.  They  set  in  motion  the  wheels  of  numerous  factories. 
Above  its  junction  with  the  Aar  the  lUiiuo  is  joined  by  the  Thur,  an  impetuous 
river,  which  frequently  overflows  its  banks. 

Below  the  Aar  the  Rhino  has  still  to  surmount  several  obstacles  before  it 
reaches  tho  plain.  It  forms  a  few  small  rapids,  known  as  the  Kleine  Laufen.  They 
present  no  obstacle  to  vessels  descending  tho  river,  but  the  Great  Rapids,  or 
Grosse  Laufen,  near  Laufenberg,  interrupt  navigation.  The  Rhine  by  this  time 
has  traversed  the  whole  width  of  the  Jura.  It  flows  over  a  bed  of  granite  con- 
nected with  the  Black  Forest,  and  enters  a  natural  region  very  diflerent  from 
Switzerland.  Soon  after,  at  Basel,  the  river  turns  abruptly  towards  the  north,  and 
intersects  the  wide  plain  of  Alsatia  and  Baden,  bounded  on  the  one  side  by  the 
Vosges,  on  the  other  by  the  Black  Forest.  Two-thirds  of  the  surface  drainage  of 
Switzerland  pass  beneath  the  arches  of  the  bridge  of  Basel.  The  volume  of  the 
Rhine,  not  including  the  water  conveyed  into  it  by  tributaries  not  fed  from  Swiss 
sources,  is  double  that  of  all  the  other  rivers  of  Switzerland  (Rhone,  Ticino, 
Maggia,  and  Inn)  at  the  spots  where  they  leave  Swiss  territory.* 

•  Average  volume  of  the  rivers  of  Switzerland  at  the  Swiss  frontiers,  as  determined  by  a  Federal 
Commission  in  1871  (cubic  feet  per  second)  :—Khine,  28,854;  Rhone,  9,535;  Ticino  (Tessin),  J,708 ; 
Haggia,  2,190  ;  Verzasca,  353  ;  Inn,  1,765  ;  minor  rivers,  424  ;  total,  46,829. 

The  volume  of  the  Rhine  at  Basel,  including  the  water  conveyed  into  it  by  its  Grennan  tributaries,  is 
35,300  cubic  feet  a  second. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CLIMATE,  FAUNA,  AND  FLORA.* 


HE  variety  in  the  vertical  configuration,  of  the  country  materially 
affects  its  climate,  and  nearly  every  valley  and  every  mountain  side 
has  a  climate  of  its  own.  Speaking  in  a  general  way,  we  may  observe 
that  the  climate  in  the  Jura  and  on  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Alps  is  far  more  inclement  than  would  be  exiDected  from  the 
latitude,  whilst  the  towns  on  the  southern  slopes,  being  protected  against 
northerly  winds,  enjoy  a  milder  climate  than  other  places  equally  distant  from 
the  equator,  but  situated  on  an  open  plain.  Thus,  whilst  the  mean  annual 
temperature  at  Locarno,  on  the  bank  of  the  Lago  Maggiore,  amounts  to  55° 
Fahr.,  that  of  the  Swiss  plain,  between  the  Lakes  of  Geneva  and  Constanz, 
does  not  exceed  49°  Fahr.  In  fact,  every  place  in  Switzerland  has  its  distinct 
climate,  t  On  ascending  a  mountain  the  mean  annual  temperature  decreases 
1°  Fahr.  for  every  349  feet  we  ascend.  This  is  the  average,  the  extremes 
being  300  and  419  feet,  according  to  the  locality.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
on  the  passes  of  the  St.  Gotthard  and  Simplon  is  not  much  below  freezing  point ; 
that  on  the  St.  Bernard  is  considerably  less.  The  mean  temperature  of  the 
Monte  Rosa  and  of  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Oberland  has  been  estimated  at 
6"  Fahr.,  which  is  the  climate  of  Greenland  or  the  Arctic  regions.  The  average 
height  of  the  snow- line  is  9,180  feet,  but  in  exceptionally  warm  summers  the 

*  H.  C.  Lomtard,  "  Les  Climats  des  Montagnes ; "  Dufour,  "  Eecherches  sur  le  Fohn  du  23  Sept., 
1866,  en  Suisse ; "  Tschudi,  "  Des  TTuerleten  der  Alpenwelt." 

Meteokological  Table. 


Height. 

Mean  Temperature  (Degrees  Pahr.) 

Precipitation 

Lat.  N.                                          Feet. 

January.            July.               Year. 

Inches. 

Basel,  47°  34'  .         .         .         .            804 

31°                  66°                 48° 

25 

St.  Gallen,  47°  26' 

1,810 

29°                 65°                49° 

— 

Zurich,  47°  23' 

1,420 

29°                 66°                48° 

33 

Bern,  46°  57'   . 

1,910 

27°                63°                46° 

46 

Chur,  46°  50'  . 

2,000 

29°                66°                49° 

— 

Neuchatel,  46°  49' 

1,440 

33°                64°                47° 

— 

Lausanne,  46°  31' 

1,640 

30°                 64°                49° 

40 

Geneva,  46°  12' 

1,330 

31°  5'             64°                48° 

32 

St.  Gotthard,  46°  3 

V 

7,090 

18°                46°                30° 

— 

St.  Bernard,  45°  50 

8,170 

15°                43°                 28° 

61 

CLIMATE,  FAUNA,  AND  FLORA. 


486 


snows  completely  melt  away  on  summits  having  an  altitude  of  over  11,000 
feet ;  and  even  the  jagged  rocks  of  the  ilischabel,  which  rise  to  a  height  of  14,000 
feet,  may  then  occasionally  bo  seen  without  a  patch  of  snow. 

The  mountains  of  Switzerland  intercept  winds  and  clouds,  and  tho  amount 
of  precipitation  is  consequently  more  considerable  than  in  tho  neighbouring 
countries.  Dense  fogs  frequently  drift  over  tho  swampy  plains,  the  lakes,  or 
shut-in  valleys,  but,  as  a  rule,  tho  sky  is  rather  loss  clear  half-way  up  tho  moun- 
tains than  either  in  tho  lowlands  or  upon  tho  mountain  summits.  The  clouds 
are  generallv  intercepted  by  tho  mountains  at  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet,  and 
then  descend  in  rains.  Higher  up,  precipitation,  in  the  form  of  snow,  is  less 
abundant.     The  annual  rainfall  varies  in  the  plain  of  Switzerland  between  25 

Fig.  307. — Rain  Map  op  Switzerland. 


I«- 

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!«• 

,r 

.riotr. 

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jfcl                        ^                     £^^^ 

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t - 

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1 

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— -.^^^fcfc^fc^f^ 

^ 

Cf 

il  h  ,1  /(  tl  I  h 


tfc        '*-w 


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^ 


80— to  in. 


60-80  in. 


and  4G  inches.  This  is  far  more  than  falls  in  France,  but  very  much  less  than 
falls  on  the  upper  mountain  slopes.  On  the  Pass  of  St.  Bernard  the  annual 
amount  of  precipitation,  including  rain  and  snow,  exceeds  5  feet.  Agassiz 
saw  more  than  56  feet  of  snow  fall  upon  the  passes  in  a  single  winter.  On 
the  southern  slope  of  the  Alps,  in  the  valley  of  tho  Ticino,  the  rainfall  resulting 
from  the  contact  of  warm  winds  witli  the  cold  mountain  slopes  is  more  consider- 
able still,  and  sometimes  exceeds  9  feet  in  the  course  of  a  single  year. 

Proportionately  to  its  area,  Switzerland  receives  a  greater  quantity  of  rain  than 
any  other  country  in  Europe  ;  and  the  quantity  of  water  which  flows  down  its 
rivers  to  the  sea  is  very  considerable.  The  combined  volume  of  these  rivers, 
which  flow  to  the  north,  west,  and  south — into  Germany,  France,  and  Italy — is 
four  times  greater  than  that  of  the  rivers  of  France,  always  bearing  in  mind 


436  SWITZEELAND. 

the  difference  between  the  areas  of  the  two  countries.  In  addition  to  these 
rivers,  which  carry  fertility  to  distant  countries,  Switzerland  possesses  in  its  lakes 
and  glaciers  vast  reservoirs  of  water. 

North-easterly  and  south-westerly  winds  prevail,  as  in  France  and  Germany, 
and  the  conflict  between  the  polar  and  equatorial  currents  is  going  on  perpetually 
and  with  varying  success.  Mountains  and  valleys,  however,  by  intercepting 
or  turning  aside  the  atmospheric  currents,  produce  the  most  extraordinary 
irreo-ularities.  Sometimes  a  violent  wind  blows  on  a  pass,  whilst  in  the  vaUey 
below  the  air  is  calm,  or  moving  gently  in  an  inverse  direction.  It  is  by  no 
means  rare  for  a  northerly  wind  to  penetrate  some  valley  from  the  south,  or 
for  a  westerly  wind  to  do  so  from  the  east.  Moreover,  in  all  the  valleys  which 
are  bounded  by  high  mountains,  the  wind  must  either  blow  up  or  down.  In 
the  canton  of  Valais,  for  instance,  the  winds  either  blow  from  the  west  or  from 
the  east ;  whilst  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  between  Chur  and  the  Lake  of 
Constanz,  only  northerly  and  southerly  winds  are  known,  and  the  same  is  the  case 
in  the  valley  of  the  Ticino,  between  the  St.  Gotthard  and  the  Lago  Maggiore. 

The  general  law  in  accordance  with  which  the  winds  blow  down  the  hills 
durinc  the  night  and  in  the  morning,  and  up  the  hills  during  the  heat  of  the 
day,  has  been  observed  to  prevail  throughout  Switzerland,  and  more  especially 
on  the  lakes,  where  fishermen  are  obKged  to  pay  special  attention  to  this 
phenomenon.  Except  when  interfered  with  by  general  atmospheric  currents, 
a  breeze  begins  to  blow  every  afternoon  from  the  bottom  of  the  lake  towards  the 
mountains,  the  air  above  which  has  become  rarefied  through  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
After  sunset  the  mountains  cool  suddenly,  and  during  the  night  the  wind  blows 
down  the  lake.  Local  circumstances,  such  as  temperature  and  configuration  of 
the  mountains,  cause  the  hour  of  change  to  vary  for  each  lake  basin.  Thus  in 
the  canton  of  Ticino,  where  the  steep  slopes  are  exposed  to  the  full  heat  of  the 
sun,  the  breva,  or  uphill  breeze,  begins  to  blow  at  eleven  in  the  forenoon,  whilst 
the  contrary  current  sets  in  early  in  the  evening.  On  the  Lakes  of  Ziirich  and 
Constanz,  which  occupy  valleys  open  towards  the  west,  and  are  surrounded  by 
mountains  of  less  height,  and  less  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  the  breezes  set 
in  several  hours  later. 

The  fdhn,  known  to  the  Romans  as/avonins,  brings  about  the  most  sudden 
changes  of  temperature,  and  disturbs  more  than  any  other  wind  the  general 
equilibrium  of  the  atmosphere.  This  wind,  so  much  dreaded  and  yet  so  bene- 
ficent, has  been  a  subject  of  frequent  discussion  amongst  meteorologists.  Dove, 
Miihry,  and  others  look  upon  the  fcihn  as  a  tropical  counter- current  of  the 
trade  winds.  Others,  including  Escher  of  the  Linth  and  Desor,  believe  that  it 
originates  in  the  Sahara,  and  flows  in  towards  the  area  of  low  atmospheric 
pressure  in  "Western  Europe.  M.  L.  Dufour,  who  most  carefully  investigated  the 
fohn  of  the  23rd  of  September,  1866,  found  that  the  meteorological  conditions  of 
Algeria  coincided  on  that  day  in  the  most  striking  manner  with  those  of  Switzer- 
land, both  countries  having  been  visited  by  the  same  tempest.  The  fohn  usually 
blows  in  winter  or   in  early  spring,   and   difiers  much   according  to  season  or 


CLIMATE,  FAUNA,  AND  FLORA. 


487 


locality.  As  a  rule  it  is  hot,  dry,  and  enervating.  During  its  passage  over  the 
high  Alps  it  cools,  and  causes  heavy  rains  to  fall  upon  the  Monte  Rosa  and  other 
summits  of  Ticino  ;  but,  as  it  plunges  down  again  into  the  valleys,  it  regains  its 
heat  by  condensation,  and  blows  warm.  It  is  the  fiihn  which  melts  most  of  the 
snow  in  spring,  sometimes  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours  laying  bare  extensive 
mountain  slopes.  "  Without  the  fiihn,"  stiy  the  peasants  of  the  Orisons,  "  neither 
God  nor  the  golden  sun  would  prevail  over  the  snow."  But  this  wind,  so  beneficent 
on  many  occasions,  is  terrible  in  its  fury.  "Woo  to  the  vessel  that  ventures  upon 
a  lake  exposed  to  its  full  blast.  It  lashes  the  surface  of  the  water  into  mighty 
waves,  and  converts  the  lake  into  a  culdrou  of  seething  water. 

As  we  rise  from  one  climatic  zone  to  the  other,  all  that  has  life  in  it — plants, 

Fil?.    SP*. —  A    C.*"1N    "K    T!IK     Am'TNF    ('ivI',    with     f     VtVW    "!■    TUF    AlTFI*    AM>    CNv  M  TFMIOHV. 


animals,  and  human  beings — diminishes.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  population  of 
Switzerland  has  settled  down  in  the  plains,  in  the  hilly  regions,  and  in  the 
valleys  which  extend  into  the  Alps.  A  contour-line  drawn  at  a  definite  height 
along  the  mountain  slopes  would  mark,  in  many  parts,  the  upper  limit  of  human 
habitations.  There  is  only  one  town,  viz.  Chaux-de-Fonds,  in  the  Jura  of 
Neuchatel  which  has  been  built  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  3,200  feet,  and  that 
almost  in  despite  of  the  climate.  Many  villages  in  the  Alpine  valleys  have  an 
elevation  of  between  4,000  and  5,000  feet,  and  in  the  dreary  valley  of  Avers, 
which  is  tributary  to  the  Vorder-Ilhein,  where  the  year  is  made  up  of 
"nine  months  of  winter  and  three  of  cold,"  wo  meet  with  the  hamlet  of  Juf, 
inhabited  by  descendants  of  German  settlers.  Juf,  at  an  elevation  of  6,700  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  is  the  highest   village  in  Europe  permanently  inhabited. 


438  SWITZERLAND. 

The  hospice  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard,  at  a  still  higher  elevation  (8,108  feet),  is 
open  throughout  the  year  for  the  reception  of  travellers  crossing  the  pass.  A 
few  huts  have  been  built  even  beyond  the  limits  of  perennial  snow  as  places  of 
shelter  for  mountain  climbers.  The  most  elevated  amongst  these  is  the  one  on 
the  Matterhorn,  which  stands  at  a  height  of  12,790  feet. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  climate  exercises  a  most  potent  influence  upon  the 
inhabitants  of  the  upper  valleys.  The  movmtaineers,  as  a  rule,  are  stouter  and 
heavier-limbed  than  the  dwellers  in  the  plain.  Owing  to  the  light  air  they  breathe, 
they  are  less  subject  to  maladies ;  and  consumption,  which  carries  o£F  so  many 
victims  in  "Western  Europe,  is  hardly  known  amongst  them.  Experience  has 
clearly  established  this  fact,  and  thousands  of  consumptive  patients  now  pass  the 
winter  in  the  midst  of  snow  and  ice,  in  the  villages  of  the  valley  of  Davos  and  in 
the  Grisons,  which  have  an  elevation  of  5,080  feet.*  On  the  other  hand,  the 
deaths  from  lung  diseases  and  pleurisy  increase  with  the  altitude.  These  diseases 
are  contagious  amongst  the  mountaineers,  and  are  much  dreaded.  In  German 
Switzerland  they  are  known  as  A/peiisfic/i,  or  "  stroke  of  the  Alps."  Asthma, 
scrofula,  and  rheumatism  are  more  frequent  in  the  Alpine  valleys  than  in  the 
plains.  In  damp  places  deficient  in  sunshine,  and  more  especially  where  the 
water  runs  over  magnesian  rocks,  many  of  the  inhabitants  are  afflicted  with  wens 
or  suffer  from  cretinism.  Cleanliness,  however,  and  an  improved  diet,  cause  these 
diseases  to  diminish  from  year  to  year. 

Bodily  and  mental  afflictions  are  more  frequent  in  Switzerland  than  in  the 
neighbouring  countries,  and  only  the  number  of  blind  is  less.t  But  Switzerland 
possesses,  in  its  diversified  climate,  varying  with  the  elevation  above  the  sea,  the 
most  powerful  means  of  combating  these  maladies.  By  a  change  of  residence  we 
may  obtain  lighter  air,  more  warmth,  or  less  moisture.  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau 
clearly  perceived  these  advantages  when  he  expressed  his  surprise  that  "  bathing 
in  the  salubrious  and  beneficial  mountain  air  had  not  yet  become  one  of  the  great 
resources  of  medical  science  or  of  moral  education."  The  wish  of  the  great 
philosopher  has  been  amply  fulfilled,  and  thousands  of  our  townsfolk  now  annually 
visit  Switzerland  in  search  of  bodily,  if  not  of  moral  strength  ;  and  they  crowd  the 
great  hotels  on  the  mountains  and  in  the  valleys,  on  the  Rigi,  the  Seelisberg, 
the  Muverau,  the  Bellalp,  and  many  others,  where  a  prospect  may  be  enjoyed  of  the 
Monte  Rosa  or  of  the  snow-clad  peaks  of  the  Bernese  Oberland.  The  watering- 
places  of  the  country,  such  as  Schinznach,  Baden,  Pfaffers,  Leuk  (Loueche),  or 
St.  Moritz,  are  quite  as  much  indebted  to  the  pure  mountain  air  for  their  success 
as  to  the  character  of  their  water.  As  to  the  mountaineers  themselves,  they  are 
always  having  "  changes  of  air,"  though  by  no  means  for  the  sake  of  their  health. 

•  Deaths  from  consumption  amongst  a  thousand  inhabitants  : — All  Switzerland,  77  ;  Basel  (836  feet), 
106  ;  Geneva  (1,230  feet),  101 ;  Valais  (1,640  feet),  49  ;  Fribourg  (2,060  feet),  37 ;  Zug  (1,670  feet),  17. 
In  England  the  proportion  is  1 24  per  mille. 

t  Insane,  in  the  canton  of  Bern,  according  to  Dr.  Fetscherin  (1871),  1,292,  or  1  in  391 ;  idiots,  1,512, 
or  1  in  335  ;  idiots  in  Switzerland  (census  of  1870),  7,764,  or  1  in  344  ;  deaf  and  dumb,  6,544,  or  1  in  408 ; 
blind,  2,032,  or  1  in  1,313. 

In  France  the  number  of  deaf  and  dumb  is  only  one-fifth  of  the  above,  but  the  blind  are  slightly  more 
numerous. 


CLIMATE.  FAUNA,  AND  FLORA.  439 

They  ascend  the  mouutaius  to  mow  the  grass ;  retiu-u  to  the  lowlands  to  attend  to 
their  vineyards ;  and  grow  their  oats  and  potatoes  at  some  intermediate  point.  In 
the  Valais  we  meet  with  numerous  parish  communities  alternately  inhabiting 
three  distinct  villages,  according  to  the  season. 

It  would  not  by  any  means  be  easy  to  trace  the  upper  limits  of  various  zones 
of  vegetation,  for  local  conditions,  exposure  to  the  sun,  and  human  industry  or 
interference  bring  about  numerous  exceptions.  Even  at  Juf,  far  above  the  region 
of  forests,  the  perseverance  of  the  inhabitants  compels  the  soil  to  yield  a  few 
vegetables.  On  the  southern  slope  of  the  Alps,  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Valais 
(Wallis),  which  are  sheltered  against  northerly  winds,  the  vegetation  ascends  to  a 
greater  height  than  in  German  Switzerland.  The  vine,  for  instance,  flourishes  on 
the  slope  of  Monte  Rosa  up  to  a  height  of  2,950  feet,  whilst  in  the  canton  of  St. 
Gall  it  cannot  be  grown  beyond  1,700  feet.  In  Northern  Switzerland  cereals  can 
be  gro\\'n  up  to  3,600  feet,  whilst  rye  succeeds  up  to  5,900  feet  in  the  Grisons,  and 
up  to  6,500  feet  on  the  slopes  of  ilonte  Rosa.  Irrespectivelj^  of  exceptional  cases, 
we  mav  sav  that  cultivation  in  Switzerland  ceases  at  3,940  feet.  About  one- 
half  of  the  country  lies  thus  above  the  region  of  agriculture,  and  much  of  the  lower 
land  is  either  unfit  for  cultivation  or  covered  with  lakes  or  forests.  Fields,  pro- 
perly so  called,  only  occupy  the  seventh  part  of  it,  and  they  diminish  almost  every 
year,  as  meadows  prove  more  remunerative.  Next  to  Norway,  Switzerland,  of  all 
European  countries,  derives  least  support  from  its  agricultural  resources,  and 
nearly  half  the  bread  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  is  imported  from  abroad. 

The  great  wealth  of  the  country  consists  of  its  forests,  its  meadows,  and  its 
mountain  pastures ;  for  trees  cover  one-sixth  of  the  total  area,  and  pastures  nearly 
one-third.  In  the  Valais,  in  the  Grisons,  and  in  the  Ticino  we  find  many  barren 
slopes,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  mountains  of  Switzerland  are  distinguished  for  their 
verdure.  The  lower  slopes  are  covered  with  forests,  their  upper  ones  with  aro- 
matic herbs  and  grasses ;  and  their  freshness  and  beauty  impress  us  all  the  more  if 
we  call  up  in  our  mind  the  tottering  precipices  of  the  Alps  of  the  Dauphine,  the 
scorched  rocks  of  the  Apennines  clad  with  meagre  shrubs,  or  the  dreary  sierras 
of  Spain,  ashy-coloured  or  of  a  glaring  red.  The  oak  is  comparatively  rare  in 
Switzerland,  but  nearly  all  the  other  forest  trees  of  the  lowlands  of  Europe 
ornament  its  valleys  and  the  lower  spurs  of  the  Alps.  The  walnut-tree 
grows  to  an  enormous  size ;  beeches  and  chestnut-trees  cover  the  slopes  a 
little  higher  up ;  and  to  these  succeed  black  woods  of  firs  and  pines,  the  most  cha- 
racteristic trees  of  Switzerland.  Higher  still  we  meet  with  larches,  the  wood  of 
which  is  highly  valued,  until  at  last  the  creeping  pine  alone  is  capable  of  success- 
fully struggling  against  the  wind  and  the  cold.  Its  roots  are  longer  than  its 
branches,  and  these  latter  repose  flat  upon  the  ground  amongst  a  carpet  of  rhodo- 
dendrons, and  are  thus  protected  against  the  violence  of  the  storms.  Formerly 
the  forests  extended  higher  up  the  hillsides,  either  owing  to  the  refrigera- 
tion of  the  climate,  as  some  meteorologists  assert,  or,  what  is  more  probable, 
because  of  the  wanton  destruction  of  forests  by  man,  for  a  single  tree  soon  perishes 


440  SWITZEELAND. 

where  an  entire  forest  would  survive.  The  trunks  of  trees  discovered  in  peat 
mosses  prove  conclusively  that  the  slopes  of  Val  Piora  and  of  the  Lukmanier  were 
formerly  covered  with  forests  up  to  a  height  of  7,200  feet,  where  only  pastures  are 
found  now.      The  upper  limit  of  the  forests  has  retired  no  less  than  1,300  feet. 

As  we  ascend  the  mountains  the  minor  flora  likewise  changes  its  character. 
Down  in  the  valleys  carefully  manured  meadows  yield  abundant  crops  of  hay,  hut 
hio-her  up  our  grasses  disappear,  and  species  of  arctic  plants  take  their  place.  In 
spring  the  herds  of  cows  leave  the  stables  in  which  they  pass  the  long  winter, 
and,  headed  by  a  "  leader  "  crowned  with  flowers  and  furnished  with  melodious 
bells,  they  depart  for  the  Alps.  They  stay  for  some  time  on  the  lower  pastures, 
but  when  the  snow  melts  away  from  the  upper  slopes  they  mount  higher  and 
higher  in  search  of  the  aromatic  herbs  which  impart  so  delicious  a  flavour  to  the 
milk  they  give.  Every  patch  of  pasture  is  made  use  of ;  and  if  cattle  cannot  reach 
it,  sheep  or  goats  are  taken  thither,  the  herdsman  frequently  carrying  the  animals 
upon  his  back.  On  the  approach  of  winter  the  herds  once  more  return  to  the 
valleys,  and  the  Alps  are  given  up  to  solitude. 

Far  below  the  upper  limit  of  mosses  and  other  arctic  plants  animal  life  has 
ceased  to  exist  in  the  mountains  of  Switzerland.  Only  about  thirty  species  of 
insects  and  arachnidoe  venture  into  the  regions  of  persistent  snows,  which  extend 
from  9,100  feet  upwards.  Between  9,800  and  10,800  feet  we  meet  only  with  a 
few  spiders.  A  field  rat  (Arvicola  nivalis)  has  been  seen  at  an  elevation  of  13,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  determined  whether  this  little  animal, 
which  burrows  its  holes  beneath  ice  and  snow,  lives  permanently  at  such  a  height, 
or  only  visits  such  altitudes  occasionally  during  summer.  Not  only  quadrupeds 
and  other  land  animals  diminish  with  the  height,  but  also  fishes.  The  small  lakes 
above  6,900  feet,  which  are  frozen  during  a  great  part  of  the  year,  are  very  poor 
in  them. 

Many  plants  have  disappeared  during  the  historical  epoch,  more  especially 
species  peculiar  to  heaths,  swamps,  and  lakes,  and  the  huntsmen  have  exterminated 
several  beasts  which  formerly  inhabited  the  forests  and  the  mountain  sides.  The 
bison,  or  auroch,  and  the  beaver,  still  numerous  during  the  Middle  Ages,  exist  no 
longer.  No  deer  has  been  seen  in  Switzerland  for  more  than  a  century  ;  the  roe 
and  wild  boar  have  become  exceedingly  scarce,  if  they  have  not  disappeared  alto- 
gether ;  and  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  a  tortoise  was  seen  a  short  time  ago,  as 
asserted.  There  stiU  remain  a  few  wild  goats  and  wild  cats.  "Wolves  are  more 
numerous,  and  frequently  invade  the  sheepfolds.  The  last  bear  was  killed  in 
AppenzeU  in  1673  ;  and  as  those  in  the  Grisons,  in  Ticino,  and  in  the  Upper  Yalais 
are  sure  of  early  extermination,  the  city  of  Bern  will  have  to  send  to  Asia  or 
Africa  for  its  symbolical  animals.  The  chamois,  or  gemsbuck,  is  being  pursued  to 
extermination — eight  himdred  and  twenty  of  these  animals  were  killed  in  1876 — 
and  the  time  is  not  very  distant  when  the  Swiss  mountains  will  be  inhabited  only 
by  herds  of  domesticated  animals. 

Birds  of  prey^  and  more  especially  the  lammergeier,  or  bearded  vulture,  which 
sometimes  attacks  even  children,  are  diminishing  too,  but  there  is  no  reason  to 


CLIMATE,  FAUNA,  AND  FLORA. 


441 


suppose  that  even  a  single  species  has  been  exterminated.  The  species  of  birds  are 
three  times  more  numerous  than  the  species  of  all  otlicr  vertebrate  animals  together, 
but  three-fourths  of  these  are  merely  birds  of  passage  or  occasional  visitors,  which 
make  their  home  in  Switzerland  during  w^ter  or  summer.  Looking  to  the  geo- 
graphical position  of  Switzerland,  in  the  verj'  centre  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  to 
its  bold  mountain  ranges,  it  is  easily  understood  why  so  large  a  variety  of  birds  of 
passage  should  temporarily  stay  in  its  valleys.  These  birds,  when  crossing  from 
one  slope  of  the  Alps  to  the  other,  will  naturally  seek  out  the  lowest  depressions ; 
and  the  Pass  of  St.  Gotthard,  with  the  valley  of  the  Rcuss  leading  up  to  it  from  the 
north,  and  that  of  the  Ticino  from  the  south,  forms  one  of  the  great  high-roads 
most  frequented  by  those  winged  migrants.  The  high  valleys  at  Urseren  and 
Andermatt  afford  convenient  resting-places,  and  it  is  there  that  Swiss  ornitholo- 
gists have  captured  some  of  their  most  valued  specimens.  These  birds,  indeed, 
pointed  out  to  man,  long  before  Alpine  roads  were  thought  of,  the  easiest  passages 
across  the  mountains. 


CHAPTER  VI.* 
THE  PEOPLE. 


]  HE  plains  of  Switzerland  were  inhabited  centuries  before  the  time  to 
which  our  most  ancient  historical  documents  go  back.  Even 
the  ages  which  intervened  between  the  two  glacial  periods  saw 
man  encamped  in  the  valleys  of  the  Alps.  At  Yizzicone,  on  the 
Italian  slope,  the  beds  formed  by  moraines  belonging  to  these  two 
periods  are  separated  by  a  layer  of  lignite,  within  which  has  been  found  a  mat 
made  of  rush.  Branches  cut  off  from  firs  have  been  discovered  in  a  sedimentary 
deposit  dating  back  to  the  interglacial  period,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Lake 
of  Ziirich ;  and  Herr  Riittmeyer  feels  convinced  that  these  branches  were  to  be 
used  for  making  baskets  or  a  hedge,  and  prove  the  existence  of  man  at  that  remote 
age.  When  the  Romans  took  possession  of  the  country  several  epochs  of  civilisa- 
tion had  already  successively  passed  over  it  without  a  line  to  record  what  had 
happened,  and  it  is  only  in  our  own  days  that  evidence  of  these  past  ages  has  been 
discovered  in  caverns,  in  the  lakes,  and  in  the  peat  bogs.  The  first  remains  of 
human  beings,  together  with  their  primaeval  implements,  were  discovered  in 
caverns.  At  Veyrier,  near  Mont  Saleve,  Messrs.  Gosse  and  Thioly  discovered 
human  bones  and  implements  made  of  the  horns  of  reindeer,  which  afford  us  a 
glimpse  into  the  life  led  by  these  troglodytse.  Other  caverns  at  Thayngen,  near 
Schafi"hausen,  which  were  inhabited  during  the  reindeer  period,  have  yielded 
veritable  treasures,  including  a  bone  upon  which  an  artist  of  that  bygone  age  has 
rudely  engraved  the  figure  of  a  reindeer.  Of  the  mammals  which  then  inhabited 
Switzerland  there  now  remain  only  three,  viz.  the  stag,  the  wild  cat,  and  the  wolf. 
The  southern  slopes  of  the  Alps  appear  to  have  been  inhabited  by  men  of  a 
different  race,  perhaps  by  Etruscans,  and  of  these,  too,  prehistoric  remains  have  been 
discovered.  One  of  the  tributary  valleys  of  the  Maggia,  the  Val  Lavizzara,  or 
"potters'  valley,"  is  thus  named  on  accoimt  of  a  soft  stone,  which  was  formerly 
made  into  pots.     It  is  very  probable  that  this  name  refers  to  an  epoch  of  primitive 

*  Eiitimeyer,  "AtcIut.  fiir  Anthropologie,"  VIII. ;  "  Veranderungen  der  Thierwelt  der  Schweiz;" 
RazoumoTsky,  "  Histoire  Naturelle  du  Jura ;  "  F.  Keller,  "  Die  Keltischen  Pfahlbauten  in  der  Schweiz ;  " 
Troyon,  "Habitations  Lacustres;"  Oswald  Heer,  "Die  Pflanzen  der  Pfahlbauten ; "  A.  Heim,  "Fund 
aus  der  Kenthierzeit." 


THE  PEOPLE. 


448 


^ig.  309.— The  Lakb  op  Pfaffikon. 
Scale  1  :  GS,000. 


»•    !6XotP«pi 


civilisation,  when  man,  not  yet  acquainted  with  the  potter's  wheel  and  the  burning 
of  chiy,  made  his  vessels  of  stone. 

When  the  reindeer  had  disappeared,  the  glaciers  had  retired  up  the  valleys, 
and  the  mosses  of  Lapland  had  been  superseded  by  forests  and  grasses,  the  country 
was  inhabited  by  a  different  race,  known  to  us  as  the  Lake  dwellers.  Swiss 
fishermen  liad  long  been  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  there  existed  rows  of  piles 
in  the  shallow  bays  of  some  of  the  lakes,  but  they  had  no  notion  of  their  origin, 
and  the  archfpologists  of  the  neighbourhood  merely  looked  upon  them  as  the 
remains  of  Roman  embankments.  Razoumovsky,  towards  the  close  of  the  last 
century,  correctlj'  guessed  their  origin, 
but  his  explanation  passed  into  oblivion 
until  an  unexpected  discovery  enabled  the 
learned  to  arrive  at  the  truth.  During 
the  whiter  of  lSo3-0-l  the  level  of  the 
Lake  of  Ziirich  fell  much  more  than  is 
ordinarily  the  case.  The  inhabitants  of 
Obermcilen  availed  themselves  of  this  op- 
portunity, and,  by  throwing  up  embank- 
ments in  advance  of  the  old  coast,  they 
managed  to  secure  a  considerable  tract  of 
land.  On  this  land,  beneath  a  layer  of 
mud,  were  discovered  pieces  of  charcoal, 
stones  blackened  in  the  fire,  cut  bones, 
and  utensils  of  every  description,  which 
clearly  showed  that  a  village  had  an- 
ciently existed  there.  Herr  Ferdinand 
Keller  carefully  examined  these  remains, 
and  soon  after  made  known  the  result  of 
his  examination  in  a  work  on  "  Celtic  Pile 
Dwellings  in  the  Swiss  Lakes."  This 
was  the  starting-point  in  a  subject  of 
inquiry  which  has  largely  contributed 
towards  laying  the  foundations  of  the 
new  science  of  prehistoric  anthropology. 

It  was  no  difficult  task  to  reconstruct 
the  pile  dwellings  of  the.se  distant  ages. 

The  carbonised  beams  discovered  amongst  the  piles  clearly  belonged  to  a  platform 
constructed  a  few  feet  above  the  water.  Interlaced  branches  and  fragments  of 
clay  hardened  in  the  fire  formed  the  circular  walls  of  the  huts,  whose  conical 
roof  was  constructed  of  reeds,  straw,  or  bark.  The  stones  of  the  hearth  have 
fallen  beneath  the  place  which  they  formerly  occupied.  Vessels  of  clay,  heaps  of 
leaves  and  moss,  which  served  as  beds,  arms,  trophies  of  the  chase,  such  as  the 
antlers  of  stags  or  the  heads  of  bisons,  which  ornamented  the  walls — they  all  have 
been  discovered  embedded  in   the  mud.     In   the  peat  bogs  which  formerly  were 


jMiIra 


m^ 


Swamps. 


Islands  TTith  pile 
dwell  UigB. 


Woods. 


444 


S'^^TZEIlLAND. 


covered  by  the  Lake  of  Pfaffikon,  even  stuffs  made  of  flax  and  hemp,  and  pieces 
of  carbonised  wheaten  bread,  have  been  discovered.  By  the  side  of  the  piles  we 
are  still  able  to  identify  dug-out  trunks  of  trees  which  were  used  as  boats,  whilst 
rows  of  piles  indicate  the  position  of  a  bridge  which  connected  the  pile  village 
with  the  mainland.  In  a  few  instances  an  estimate  of  the  number  of  houses  and 
of  their  inhabitants  could  be  made.  Fp  to  the  present  time  no  less  than  two 
hundred  of  these  villages  have  been  discovered  in  the  Swiss  lakes,  some  of  them 
having  as  many  as  five  hundi-ed  houses.  The  population  of  these  villages,  which 
need  not,  however,  have  existed  simultaneously,  may  be  estimated  at  100,000  souls. 
This  much  is  certain,  that  these  lake  dwellers  of  Central  Europe  were  perpetually  at 


Fig.  310. — The  Pile  Dwellings  of  Simtzerland. 
Scale  1 :  2,200,000. 


60  Miles. 


war  with  each  other,  and  that,  like  the  Papuans  and  Dayaks  of  our  own  day,  they 
built  their  houses  in  the  midst  of  the  waters  in  order  to  be  secure  against  sudden 
attacks. 

The  only  lakes  of  Switzerland  in  which  no  remains  of  pile  dwellings  have 
hitherto  been  discovered  are  those  which  are  very  deep  throughout,  as  the  Lake 
of  Lugano,  or  which  are  in  the  cold  zone,  as  those  of  Thun  and  Brienz.  Lake 
dwellings,  some  on  piles,  others  placed  on  heaps  of  stone,  bordered  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  shore  of  the  Lakes  of  Neuchatel,  Biel  (Bienne),  and  Morat  (Murten). 
Nearly  one-half  of  all  those  known  to  exist  in  Switzerland  were  discovered  there. 
But  they  are  not  the  oldest,  it  appears,  for  it  is  principally  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lakes  of  Ziirich  and  Constanz  that  pile  dwellings  belonging  to  the  stone  age  are 


Till-:  I'KOl'I.K.  416 

met  with.  M.  Troyon  has  calcuhito<i,  from  flic  nilo  at  which  alluvial  mud  is  being 
deposited  between  the  old  pile  village  near  Chamblon  and  the  actual  southern 
extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Ncuchutel,  that  that  village  must  have  been  built  3,;5(H) 
years  ago.  The  climate  and  flora  of  Switzerland  were  at  that  time  pretty  much 
what  they  are  now,  except  that  water-chestnuts  and  water-lilies  grew  abundantly  in 
the  lake,  where  they  are  no  longer  met  with.  All  the  cultivated  plants  belonged 
to  species  which  still  exist  in  the  country,  but  they  were  less  productive.  Cereals 
and  vegetables  have  been  much  improved  since  that  time,  and  the  grains  of  the 
former  arc  now  larger  and  heavier.  The  animals  were  the  same  as  now,  ^v^th  the 
addition  of  the  aurochs  and  the  marsh  pig,  which  have  disappeared,  and  the  bison, 
the  elk,  and  the  beaver,  which  have  retired  to  other  parts  of  Europe.  Domestic 
fowls  had  not  yet  been  introduced  from  the  East.  Curiously  enough,  no  bones  of 
hares  have  been  discovered  near  the  pile  villages.  Perhaps  the  lake  dwellers 
looked  upon  this  animal  as  impure,  as  do  the  Laplanders  of  our  own  day,  and 
rejected  it  as  an  article  of  food.  The  cave  dwellers  of  Thayngen  had  no  such 
scruples,  for  the  bones  of  hares  abound  there. 

The  progress  from  the  stone  age  to  the  ages  of  bronze  and  iron  took  place 
either  gradually  through  the  influence  of  commerce,  or  it  was  brought  about 
abruptly  by  foreign  invaders.  Coarse  earthenware,  dating  back  to  the  time  of 
the  Romans,  proves  that  the  lake  dwellings  were  still  inhabited  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era.  Many  of  them  exist  virtually  to  the  present  day,  for  towns 
have  arisen  in  their  places.  Zurich  occupies  the  site  of  a  lake  village  dating  back 
to  the  stone  age,  whilst  during  the  age  of  bronze  there  existed  pile  dwelUngs  on 
the  site  now  occupied  by  Geneva. 

To  what  race  of  man  belonged  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  Swiss  lakes  ?  We 
do  not  know.  MM.  Riitimeyer,  Keller,  and  other  savants  competent  to  form  an 
opinion,  look  upon  the  dwellers  in  these  villages  as  the  ancestors  of  the  modern 
Swiss.  Others  believe  that  tliese  autochthons  were  Fins,  or  perhaps  Iberians. 
According  to  them  the  Celts  arrived  subsequently,  cither  during  the  bronze  age, 
or  during  that  of  iron,  and  they  exterminated  the  aboriginal  inhabitants.  These 
invaders,  the  Helvetians,  whose  name  (Elvii  or  Elvetii)  probably  means  herdsmen, 
conferred  the  name  of  Ilelvetia  upon  the  region  of  the  Central  Alps,  a  name  which 
survives  to  the  present  day.  The  Celtic  names  of  their  villages,  the  shape  of  their 
weapons,  the  crescents  which  they  wore  as  amulets,  and  their  custom  of  burning 
the  dead — all  this  proves  their  Gallic  origin.  The  cultivated  plants  and  the 
domesticated  animals,  of  which  remains  have  been  discovered  in  their  pile 
dwellings,  prove  conclusively  that  they  carried  on  commercial  intercourse  with 
Mediterranean  countries. 

The  Celtic  tribes — viz.  the  ITelvetlans  of  the  plains  and  the  Ilauracians  of  the 
Tura — occupied,  however,  only  "Western  Switzerland,  the  more  mountainous  regions 
in  the  east  being  held  by  men  of  a  difi"erent  race.  Many  names  of  villages  prove 
to  us  that  the  country  to  the  east  of  a  sinuous  line  drawn  from  the  St.  Gotthard 
and  the  Bernese  Alps  to  the  mountains  of  St.  Gall  and  Appenzell  was  occupied  by 

VOL.    II.  G    o 


446  SWITZERLAND. 

Rhsetians,  or  Rotes,  who  were  either  a  Celtic  tribe  or  the  ancestors  of  the 
Etruscans.  When  the  great  migration  of  peoples  took  place,  the  German 
invaders  proved  sufficiently  numerous  to  force  their  language  and  customs  upon 
the  Celts  who  had  preceded  them.  The  territories  invaded  by  Alemanni  and 
Franks  form  the  German  Switzerland  of  the  present  day,  whilst  that  portion  of 
ancient  Helvetia  which  is  now  known  as  French  Switzerland  was  conquered  by 
the  Burgundians,  who  soon  became  merged  in  the  Latinised  population  of  the 
country.  The  Aar  forms  approximately  a  natural  frontier  between  the  Alemanni 
and  the  Burgundians. 

M.  His,  who  has  examined  a  large  number  of  skulls  found  in  old  sepulchres, 
distinguishes  four  types,  viz.  those  of  Sitten  (Sion) ,  Hohberg,  Disentis,  and  Belair. 
These  types  still  exist  amongst  the  present  inhabitants  of  Switzerland.  The  skull 
of  Sitten  is  Celtic  :  it  is  long  and  wide,  with  a  rounded  top.  The  skull  of  Hohberg 
is  long  and  narrow,  and  resembles  the  skulls  discovered  in  Roman  tombs.  The 
skull  of  Belair  is  of  middling  length,  and  is  Burgundian  ;  the  square  skulls  of 
Disentis  are  Alemannic.  This  latter  type  pi-evails  throughout  Switzerland  as  well 
as  in  the  whole  of  Southern  Germany. 

No  notable  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  population  of  Switzerland  since 
the  great  migration,  except  that  there  has  been  an  expansion  in  the  direction  of  the 
mountain  valleys,  which  were  not  formerly  cultivated.  The  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Rhsetians,  who  formerly  inhabited  the  lower  plains,  appear  to  have  been 
gradually  driven  into  the  hills  by  conquering  Franks  and  Alemanni.  It  is  said 
that  the  valley  of  the  Reuss,  in  the  canton  of  Uri,  was  occupied  by  German 
settlers  only  in  the  eighth  century.  Several  of  the  plateaux  of  the  Jura  remained 
even  longer  in  a  state  of  nature,  for  the  serfs  belonging  to  the  monasteries  only 
settled  in  these  sombre  forests  towards  the  close  of  the  tenth  century.  Sub- 
sequentlj%  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  francs  habergeants,  for  the 
most  part  natives  of  Geneva,  settled  in  the  Jura,  and,  in  consideration  of  their 
bringing  the  land  under  cultivation,  the  seigneurs  exempted  them  from  the 
principal  taxes  as  well  as  from  corporal  punishment. 

According  to  mediaeval  legends,  another  ethnical  element  is  said  to  have  become 
merged  in  those  which  form  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  of  Switzerland.  In  many 
parts  of  the  Valais  there  are  buildings  said  to  have  been  erected  by  Saracens,  and 
it  is  asserted  that  these  invaders  have  left  visible  traces  of  their  presence  amongst 
the  inhabitants  of  some  of  the  more  remote  valleys.  This  much  is  certain,  that 
the  Mussulmans  made  frequent  incursions  into  Switzerland  during  the  tenth 
century,  say  between  936  and  960.  They  penetrated  as  far  as  St.  Gall  and  the 
Lake  of  Constanz  ;  they  occupied  the  Great  St.  Bernard  and  other  passes  leading 
from  Italy  into  Switzerland,  and  levied  blackmail  upon  travellers ;  they  even 
took  themselves  wives  in  the  coimtry,  and  some  amongst  them  no  doubt  settled 
there ;  but  their  numbers  were  certainly  not  large  enough  to  exercise  an 
appreciable  iniluence  upon  the  character  of  the  inhabitants.  The  supposed 
Arabic  names  of  some  of  the  mountains  of  the  Monte  Rosa  group — such  as 
Almagel,  Allalin,  Mischabel — are  more  easily  explained  from  Italian  patois. 


THE  PEOPLE. 


447 


Another  legend,  preserved  by  the  first  hisforluns  of  Switzerland,  and  put  into 
excellent  verse  in  Schiller's  William  Tell,  tells  us  how,  in  some  remote  ago, 
Frieslandors  from  the  Baltic  established  themselves  in  the  actual  canton  of  Schwitz, 
which  was  named  after  them.  These  northern  colonists  are  credited  with  having 
first  cultivated  the  Ilasli  valley,  but  no  historical  document  has  been  forthcoming 
in  support  of  this  legend,  and  the  German  dialects  spoken  in  Switzerland 
contain  no  trace  whatever  of  the  idiom  spoken  in  Friesland.  "Whether  there  ever 
existed  such  a  person  as  "William  Tell  or  not,  the  poetical  details  of  his  history  can 

Fig.  311. — The  Languaoes  of  Switzerland. 
SciUe  1  :  3,000,400. 


be  traced  to  the  North,  and  they  prove  that  the  Alemanni  of  Helvetia,  the  Fries- 
landers,  and  Scandinavians  possessed  a  common  stock  of  legends. 


The  German  dialects  spoken  in  Switzerland  resemble  those  in  use  in  the 
neighbouring  countries  of  Alsatia,  Baden,  and  Swabia.  They  are  brisker,  more 
precise,  and  clearer  than  the  literary  language  which  is  graduallj'  superseding  them. 
Many  differences  exist  between  the  various  dialects,  not  only  as  regards  pro- 
nunciation, but  also  with  respect  to  antiquated  expressions  still  in  use,  and  the 
admission  of  words  of  Latin,  French,  or  Italian  origin.  As  a  rule,  they  are  charac- 
terized by  rough  gutturals,  and  the  force  with  wliich  dentals  and  hissing  sounds 
are  pronounced. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  German  was  spoken  in  a  greater  part  of  "Western 
Switzerland  and  the  "Valais  than  now,  but  far  less  in  the  Central  Alps.     The  names 

GG  2 


448  SWITZERLAND. 

of  place3  prove  to  us  tliat  "  Romanche  "  or  "Ladin"  dialects  were  then  in  use, 
not  only  in  the  whole  of  the  Grisons,  but  also  on  the  Walcn  Lake  (/.('.  Welsh  Lake), 
in  the  mountains  of  Appenzell,  and  in  the  Austrian  provinces  of  the  Vorai-lberg 
and  the  Tyrol.  Gradually  encroached  upon  by  German,  these  dialects  of  Latin,  with 
which  are  mixed  a  few  old  RhaBtian  words,  and  which  have  had  a  printed  literature 
since  the  sixteenth  century,  survive  only  by  force  of  habit  or,  in  a  few  villages  of 
the  Grisons,  by  local  patriotism.  Nearlj^  all  the  inhabitants  now  speak  German  or 
Italian  in  addition  to  one  of  the  local  patois  used  in  the  two  upper  valleys  of  the 
Rhine  and  in  the  Engadine.  A  few  villages  purely  German  are  surrounded  by 
Romanche  territory.  They  were  founded  by  Frederick  Barbarossa  to  protect  the 
passes  of  the  Alps.  German,  moreover,  is  spoken  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Bernese  Alps,  in  the  eastern  Valais,  and  even  on  the  Italian  slope  of  the  Alps,  to 
the  south  of  the  Monte  Rosa  and  the  St.  Gotthard.  The  small  village  of  Bosco, 
in  Ticino,  is  German,  and  so  are  the  villages  in  the  Italian  valley  of  Pommat. 
Italian,  on  tlie  other  hand,  is  spoken  in  the  two  villages  of  Stalla  and  Marmels,  to 
the  north  of  the  Julier  Pass,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Rhino. 

The  limit  of  French  does  not  coincide,  like  that  of  Italian,  with  a  range  of 
mountains.  On  the  contrary,  French  has  almost  everywhere  crossed  the  Jura, 
which  one  might  suppose  would  form  its  natural  boundary.  In  the  canton  of 
Neuchatel  and  in  the  Bernese  Jura  the  dialect  of  Franche-Comte  is  spoken,  whilst 
farther  south  we  hear  a  Provencal  patois.  In  the  Valais  a  French  dialect,  very 
like  that  of  Auvergne,  is  spoken  as  far  as  the  transversal  range  which  bounds  the 
valley  of  Herens,  or  Erin,  on  the  east.  In  the  canton  of  Fribourg  French  extends 
beyond  the  river  Sarine  to  the  foot  of  the  Alps.  In  the  Bernese  Jura  it  is  spoken 
as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Lake  of  Bienne  (Biel),  excepting  only  in  a  narrow  slip 
extending  along  the  foot  of  the  Jura  to  the  north  of  Chavannes.  The  number  of 
French-speaking  Swiss  has  slightly  increased,  as  compared  with  those  talking 
German.* 

Fribourg,  which  was  founded  by  a  Count  of  Zahringen  on  French  soil,  was 
originally  a  German  town,  but  French  prevails  there  now,  German  being  only 
spoken  in  the  lower  town.  It  is  said  that  in  families  where  the  children  speak 
both  languages  perfectly,  French,  in  course  of  time,  supersedes  the  German,  no 
doubt  because  French  is  easier  and  clearer.  Nor  must  we  lose  sight  of  the  fact 
that  French  patois  are  only  spoken  in  the  villages,  whilst  the  inhabitants  of  the 
town  speak  literary  French  with  more  or  less  purity.  In  German  Switzerland, 
on  the  other  hand,  most  of  the  patois  have  a  literature  of  their  own,  and  are 
spoken  side  by  side  with  High  German  even  in  the  towns.  French  thus  enjoys 
the  advantages  which  result  from  greater  uniformity  and  cohesion,  which  enable 
it  to  resist  eifectually  the  centralizing  tendencies  emanating  from  Bern. 

*  Languages  spoken  in  Switzerland  : — 

German 

French  ... 

Italian 

Romanche    .... 


Families. 

1870. 

Per  Cent. 

1860. 
Per  Cent. 

384,-538 

69-16 

69-50 

133,575 

23-98 

23-37 

30,079 

5-69 

5-03  • 

8,779 

1-17 

1-69 

THE  PEOPLE. 


449 


Differences  of  race  und  language  have  influenced  but  sliglitly  tbo  religious 
tenets  held  by  the  people,  in  spite  of  what  cert^iin  authors  may  assert.  Feudal 
influences,  rivalries  between  towns,  conflicting  interests,  and  the  continual  wars 
between  the  cantons  are  quite  suflicicnt  to  account  for  the  religious  divisions 
which  grew  up  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  and  exist  to  the  present  day.  The 
French   cantons  of  Vaud  and   Xouchatel   are   almost   exclusively  inhabited   by 

Fig.  312.— CusTi'MEa  is  Uax. 


Protestants ;  Geneva  is  pretty  equally  divided  between  the  rival  confessions ; 
Fribourg  and  Valais  are  Catholic.  It  was  Geneva,  a  town  in  French  Switzerland, 
which  merited  during  many  years  tho  epithet  of  "  Protestant  Rome ; "  whilst 
another  French  town,  Fribourg,  sheltered  the  Jesuits,  and  still  remains,  with 
Luzem,  a  German  town,  the  stronghold  of  Roman  Catholicism.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  German  cantons  of  Burn,  Basel,  Zurich,  and  several  others  are  Protestant. 


450 


SWITZERLAND. 


Fiff.  313.— Costumes  in  Friboveo. 


St.  Gallen,  whicli  has  been  formed  out  of  a  large  number  of  miniature  states,  has  a 
mixed  population,  whilst  the  four  ancient  Forest  Cantons  are  wholly  Catholic. 


THE  PEOPLE.  iSi 

It  is  said  that  in  the  canton  of  Appenzell  there  exist  striking  physical  differences 
between  the  Protestant  iuhabitauts  of  Outer  Rhoden  and  the  Catholics  of  Inner 
Rhoden.  These  latter  are  less  tall  than  other  Germans  of  Switzerland  ;  they  are 
of  slighter  build,  have  brighter  eyes,  and  a  freer  gait.  As  to  the  Romanches  of 
the  Grisons,  their  villages  are  partly  Protestant,  partly  Catholic.  The  Italians  of 
Ticino  are  Catholics,  but  those  of  the  valley  of  Lregaglia  belong  to  the  Reformed 
Church.  Upon  the  whole,  the  Protestants  are  in  the  majority,  tliree-tifths  of  tho 
total  population,  and  the  three  most  important  cantons,  Bern,  Ziirich,  and  Vaud, 
being  of  that  confession.  Of  the  few  thousand  Jews  nearly  a  third  live  in  the 
canton  of  Aargau.* 

In  spite  of  difference  of  race,  language,  religion,  local  customs  and  institutions, 
the  Swiss  of  the  various  cantons  possess  many  features  in  common  which  distinguish 
them  from  other  natives  of  Europe.  As  compared  with  their  neighbours,  and  more 
especially  with  those  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Alps,  they  are  certainly  not 
distinguished  by  beauty  of  face  or  noble  bearing.  They  do  not  shine  by  brilliant 
qualities  or  seductive  manners,  but  they  are  powerful.  The  best-known  tj-pe  of  a 
Swiss  is  a  man  with  largely  sculptured  features,  broad  chest,  of  a  rather  heavy 
gait,  with  bright  eyes  and  strong  fists.  The  Swiss  is  slow,  but  tenacious.  Ho 
does  not  allow  sudden  fancies  to  turn  him  aside  from  anything  he  has  undertaken 
to  carry  out,  but  in  case  of  need  he  knows  perfectly  how  to  utilise  the  ideas  of 
others.  In  all  he  undertakes  he  looks  to  practical  results,  and  he  has  certainly 
succeeded  in  winning  for  himself  a  greater  amount  of  substantial  liberty  than  most 
other  Europeans.  Amongst  all  nations  the  Swiss  has  most  nearly  realised  the 
ideal  of  democratic  institutions. 

*  Religioiu  confeadoos  of  Switzerland  (1870): — Protestants,  1,566,347,  or  69   per  cent;    Roman 
Catholics,  1,084,369,  or  40-6  per  cent. ;  Dissenters,  11,435,  or  04  per  cent. ;  Jews,  6,996,  or  0-26  per  cent. 


CHAPTER  YII. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 


TIE  Swiss  are  largely  indebted  to  nature  for  their  political  institu- 
tions and  national  independence.  Mountains,  lakes,  and  tortuous 
valleys  have  done  as  much  as  stout  hearts  and  strong  arms  to  place 
them  iu  the  front  rank  of  free  nations.  During  the  Middle  Ages 
nearly  everj'  commimity  whose  territory  was  enclosed  by  swamps, 
forests,  or  mountains  managed  to  govern  itself,  but  nowhere  except  in  Switzerland 
did  these  natural  defences  prove  strong  enough  to  enable  the  population  to  maintain 
their  independence. 

Legendary  history  fixes  upon  the  central  region  of  the  Alps  as  the  birthplace 
of  the  Ilelvetian  Confederation.  Within  this  natural  fortress,  which  was  bounded 
on  three  sides  by  snow-clad  mountains,  at  that  time  not  crossed  by  roads,  and  pro- 
tected on  the  fourth  by  a  tempestuous  lake,  passed  all  those  events  which  are  related 
iu  the  legend  of  William  Tell.  There,  on  the  meadow  of  Rutli,  three  Switzers, 
the  fathers  of  the  fatherland,  swore  to  be  independent.  The  men  of  Uri,  Schwitz, 
and  Unterwalden  not  only  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  inhabiting  a  country  which 
could  be  easily  defended,  but  they  were  also  morally  fit  for  the  task  that  devolved 
upon  them.  The  sons  of  colonists  who  had  brought  those  wide  valleys  under 
cultivation,  they  were  animated  by  a  spirit  of  liberty,  and  possessed  that  audacity 
which  appears  te  animate  the  pioneers  of  aU  countries  who  are  the  builders  of 
their  own  fortunes,  and  issue  triumphantly  from  a  struggle  with  nature.  The 
name  of  Schwitz,  which  was  subsequently  adopted  for  the  whole  country,  signifies, 
according  to  Gatschet,  "  clearing  the  ground  by  fire,"  and  this  recalls  the  forcible 
manner  in  which  these  colonists  took  possession  of  the  land  which  subsequently 
they  held  against  all  comers. 

Victorious  in  "  three  or  four  small  battles  of  everlasting  memory,"  it  was  an 
easy  thing  for  these  Alpine  mountaineers  to  find  allies  amongst  the  towns  and 
nobles  who  held  the  hills  and  the  plains,  whUst  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Alps 
they  increased  their  territories  by  conquest.  The  Swiss  cantons  originally  con- 
stituted themselves  so  as  to  form  a  geographical  region,  defended  in  the  south  and 
*  AU  statements  of  population  refer  to  tlie  year  1870,  except  when  otherwise  expressed. 


TICIXO.  153 

east  by  the  Alps,  and  in  the  west  by  the  pamllel  ridges  of  the  Jura.  The  Rhine, 
in  the  north,  formed  a  boundary  which  it  was  easy  to  cross,  but  the  Black  Forest 
and  the  plateau  of  Swabia  restricted  intending  invaders  to  a  few  roads,  besides 
which  the  intestine  dissensions  of  Germany  proved  at  all  times  the  surest  safe- 
guard of  the  Swiss  cantons.  The  fact  that  the  Swiss  held  the  upper  courses  of 
rivers  descending  into  Italy,  Franco,  and  Germany  enabled  them  to  render 
services  to  their  neighbours,  if  so  inclined,  or  to  play  them  off  against  each 
other. 

The  mountains  have  insured  the  independence  of  Switzerland,  but  the  bulk  of 
the  population  nevertheless  lives  in  the  plain.  The  region  extending  from  the 
Lake  of  Geneva  to  the  Lake  of  Constanz,  and  from  the  foot  of  the  Alps  to  the  foot 
of  the  Jura,  forms  only  the  fourth  part  of  Switzerland,  as  far  as  area  is  concerned  ; 
but  nearly  its  whole  population,  wealth,  and  industry  are  concentrated  there.* 

The  principal  towns  rise  in  this  plain,  and  the  most  imiwrtant  highways  of 
commerce  intersect  it.  Differences  of  race  and  customs  disappear  more  rapidly 
there  than  in  the  Alpine  valleys,  but  still  they  exist.  Of  all  countries  of  Europe 
Switzerland  presents  the  greatest  diversity  in  the  aspect  of  its  towns,  every  one 
of  which  possesses  some  feature  of  originality,  and  differs  from  all  others. 

The  towns  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Alps,  with  their  campaniles  and 
coloured  houses,  are  quite  Italian  in  their  aspect.  Bcllinzona  (2,501  inhabitants),  on 
the  Ticino,  which  was  formerly  held  in  subjection  by  the  {jeople  of  Uri,  Schwitz,  and 
Unterwalden,  is  the  least  gay  amongst  the  three  alternate  capitals  of  the  canton  of 
Ticino.  Locarno  (2,667  inhabitants),  which  occupies  a  picturesque  position  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  Lago  Maggiorc  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Maggia  valley,  is  the  lowest 
town  of  Switzerland  (653  feet),  and  the  air  we  breathe  there  is  of  the  balmiest. 
Lugano  (6,024  inhabitants),  230  feet  higher,  but  more  favourably  situated  for  com- 
merce, is  in  the  midst  of  the  rich  fields  of  the  Sotto-Cenere,  and  has  become  the  most 
populous  town  of  the  canton.  It  is  one  of  those  towns  of  Europe  which  attract 
most  strangers,  and  they  meet  there  with  beautiful  scenery,  the  blue  waters  of  a 
lake,  luxuriant  vegetation,  and  picturesque  villages  perched  upon  the  hillsides.f 

Area  (exclusive  of  Lakes        T^      >  .^-  »,      •. 

andOlacierB).  PopuJahon  Density 

g     j£  (lb70).  {In.  toil  Sq.  Mile). 

•  Alps 8,885  809,531  90 

Pkin 4,082  1,400,856  345 

Jura 1,669  438,014  202 

t  Tieitio{in  German  and  French  Teuiii). — Area,  1,088  square  milts;  population  (1870),  119,620  (1876) 
121,768,  almost  without  exception  Roman  Catholics.  German  is  spoken  in  the  village  of  Boseo  ;  Itjiliau, 
more  or  less  pure,  throughout  the  rest  of  the  canton.  Ticino  includes  the  valleys  of  the  'l"ieiuo, 
Verzasca,  and  Maggia,  which  flow  into  the  Lago  Muggiore,  as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  fertile  basin  of  tho 
Lake  of  Lugano,  which  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  canton  hy  the  Pass  of  Monte  Cenere  (3,775  feet). 
The  principal  passes  leading  into  Northern  Switzerland  are  those  of  the  St.  Gotthard  and  tho  Lukniunier. 
At  the  foot  of  the  former  is  the  \'iUage  of  Airolo.  The  northern  portion  of  the  canton  is  ^Upiiie,  tho 
southern  Italian,  in  its  character.  Exports  ; — Cattle,  silk,  straw  mats,  eheeso,  timber,  chestnuts,  snails, 
and  pot-stono.  Thousands  of  tho  inhabitants  annually  leave  their  homes  and  make  a  living  as  chestnut- 
roastcn,  chocolate-makers,  masons,  or  bricklayers  in  Lombardy  and  elsewhere.  Most  of  the  Italian  iee 
and  coffee  shop-keepers  in  London  are  Ticiuesc.  The  principal  tuwns  are  Lugtino,  Locarno,  and 
Bellinzona. 


454  SWITZERLAND. 

In  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Ehone,  on  the  French  slope  of  Switzerland,  we  onlj- 
meet  with  small  villages.  Brieg  (Brigue,  1,076  inhabitants) ,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Simplon,  is  a  bustling  place,  and,  owing  to  its  many  old  towers  with  sparkling 
roofs,  has  something  Russian  in  its  aspect.  Viq^  (Viege,  723  inhabitants)  is  a 
favourite  resort  of  tourists  (see  p.  399).  Lcnk  (Loueche,  1,220  inhabitants)  is 
famous  on  account  of  its  saline  waters.  Sion  (Sitten,  4,895  inhabitants),  on  the 
Rhone,  the  capital  of  the  ancient  Seduni  and  the  principal  town  in  the  canton  of 
Valais,*  is  an  old  Gallo-Roman  city,  commanded  by  two  ruined  castles,  one  of 
them,  though  only  dating  back  to  the  Middle  Ages,  being  known  by  the  Roman 
name  of  Valeria.  Martigny  (Martinach,  1,490  inhabitants),  at  the  foot  of  the 
Great  St.  Bernard,  is  a  place  of  considerable  strategical  importance.  St.  Maurice 
(1,666  inhabitants),  known  up  to  the  thirteenth  century  as  Agaunum,  is  no  less 
so,  for  it  defends  the  gorge  through  which  the  Rhone  enters  the  alluvial  plain 
extending  to  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 

Not  far  from  St.  Maurice,  within  the  canton  of  Vaud,t  is  the  wealthy 
village  of  Bex  (3,804  inhabitants),  with  productive  salt  works,  and  one  of  the 
favourite  resorts  of  foreigners,  who  take  the  baths  or  breathe  the  invigorating 
forest  air.  Foreign  visitors  have  likewise  contributed  towards  the  prosperity 
of  towns  or  villages  like  Montreux,  Clarcns,  and  Vecei/  (7,887  inhabitants), 
which  stand  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  The  beauty  of  this 
lake,  within  whose  placid  waters  are  mirrored  the  surrounding  mountains,  and 
the  mild  climate,  have  naturally  attracted  many  foreigners  to  this  favoured 
corner  of  Switzerland,  and  towns  like  Vevey  are  quite  cosmopolitan  in  their 
character. 

Lausanne  (26,520  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  canton,  occupying  a  hill  about 
the  centre  of  the  lake,  commands  as  fine  a  prospect  as  the  towns  higher  up,  and, 
like  them,  it  annually  attracts  swarms  of  visitors.     But,  in  addition  to  this,  it  is  a 

•  Valuis  (in  German  Wal/U).—Axe&,  2,026  square  mUes ;  population  (1870),  96,887,  (1876)  100,490, 
nearly  all  Eoman  Catholics.  The  canton  includes  the  valley  of  the  Ehone,  from  its  source  down  to  the 
Lake  of  Geneva.  It  is  bounded  in  the  north  hy  the  Bernese  Alps,  in  the  south  by  Alpine  ranges,  culmi- 
nating in  the  Monto  Rosa.  The  Furka  Pass  leads  from  the  head  of  the  Ehone  into  the  valley  of  the 
Eeuss,  and  to  the  northern  foot  of  the  St.  Gotthard.  The  Grimsel  and  Gemmi  Passes,  the  latter  above 
Leiik,  and  certainly  one  of  the  finest  in  Switzerland,  connect  the  Valais  with  Northern  Switzerland,  and 
the  Nufenen,  SimplOn,  and  Great  St.  Bernard  with  Italy.  The  products  are  wine,  walnuts,  cherries,  cattle, 
sheep,  goats,  cheese,  iron,  argentiferous  lead,  sulphur,  anthracite,  anda  little  gold  in  the  sand  of  the  rivers. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants  speak  French,  one-third  German,  and  a  few  Eomanche.  The  Valais 
joined  the  Confederation  in  1597.  The  principal  tovras  are  Brieg,  Leak  (Loueche),  Sion,  Martigny,  and 
St.  Maurice. 

t  Vaud  (in  German  Waadt).—Aieii,  1,244  square  miles ;  population  (1870),  231,700,  (1876)  242,439.  In 
1870  there  were  211,686  Protestants,  17,592  Catholics,  and  610  Jews.  French  is  spoken  almost  through- 
out. The  canton  extends  along  the  northern  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva  as  far  as  the  Lake  of 
Neuchatel,  and  beyond  the  Jura  to  the  French  frontier.  The  greater  part  of  the  country  is  hiUy  and  of 
exceeding  fertility.  It  produces  com,  tobacco,  fruit,  chestnuts,  walnuts,  wine.  The  breeding  of  cattle 
and  dairy  farming  are  important.  The  mineral  kingdom  furnishes  coal  and  salt.  There  are  iron  works, 
where  ores  from  the  Bernese  Jura  are  smelted,  and  watchmaking  is  carried  on  in  the  Jura,  but  other 
branches  of  industry  are  hardly  known.  Much  has  been  done  for  popular  education  within  the  last  forty 
years.  Up  to  1803  Vaud  belonged  to  the  canton  of  Bern ;  since  then  it  has  been  an  independent  member 
of  the  Confederation.  The  principal  towns  are  Bex  and  Aigle,  in  the  Ehone  valley ;  Vevey,  Lausanne, 
Merges,  and  Nyon,  on  the  Lake  of  Geneva ;  and  Yverdun,  on  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel. 


GliNEVX. 


455 


busy  commercial  place,  upon  wliich  several  lines  of  railway  converge,  and  the  seat 
of  the  principal  Court  of  App.\il  of  the  Confederation.      It  grows  rapidly,  and  at 

Fig.  314. — The  £A^T(u.\   Kxtrehity  of  thk  Lake  or  Geneva. 
Scale  1  :  60,1<U0. 


^ 


3     [zn 


ttz-tia  OTor  666  foot 


The  abading  expreiw*  be  ileptli  of  the  lolie. 
___>_^^_  1  Mile. 


no  distant  time  will  form  one  town  with  its  port  of  Oiichy,  with  which  a  railway, 
having  a  very  steep  gradient,  connects  it. 


Genera  {Genire  in  French,  Genf  in  German,  67,357  inhabitants,  including  the 


456 


SWITZERLAND. 


suburbs)  occupies  an  excellent  geograpbical  position  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,*  where  the  Rhone  issues  from  it,  and  is  joined  by  the  Arve. 
Upon  it  converge  all  the  roads  which  connect  Central  Germany  with  Southern 


Fig.  315.— Geneva. 
Scale  1  :  35,000. 


E.of  Or. 


Km^ 


«-l3 


Half  a  Mile. 


France,  for  it  is  there  that  the  gap  between  the  Alps  and  the  Jura  permits  of  an 

*  Gwera  .■— Area,  108  square  miles;  population  (1870),  93,195,  (1876)99,352.  In  1870  there  were 
47,858  Catholics,  43,638  Protestants,  and  961  Jews.  The  canton  includes  the  town  and  the  surround- 
ing country.  The  soil  is  not  fertOe,  but  hy  perseverance  it  has  heen  converted  into  a  flourishing  garden. 
Nearly  one-half  of  the  cultivated  area  is  planted  with  vines. 


CiENKVA.  467 

easy  passage,  Geneva  is  the  natural  mediator  between  Lyons,  lower  down  on  llio 
Rhone,  and  Central  Europe.  It  is  almost  matter  for  siu'iiriso  that  this  city,  wliich 
has  so  frequently  been  chosen  for  international  meetings,  should  to  this  day 
remain  the  "  greatest  amongst  the  small  towns  "  of  Europe.  But  the  rigorous 
winters,  the  cold  northerly  winds,  or  bises,  the  fogs  which  frequently  hang  over 
the  country,  and  the  small  area  capable  of  cultivation,  sufficiently  account 
for  the  slow  growth  of  the  population.  At  present  only  a  single  line  of  rail- 
way passes  the  town,  namely,  that  which  connects  Lyons  with  Bern  and  Basel. 
No  branch  lines  have  yet  been  constructed  to  Annecy,  to  the  foot  of  Mont 
Blanc,  or  to  the  Jura,  and  for  the  present  there  is  little  prospect  of  their  being 
built. 

Geneva,  which  became  the  capital  of  a  cirifas  in  the  foui'th  century,  has 
occupied  for  ages  a  position  quite  exceptional.  Restricted  to  its  narrow  terri- 
torj'  and  overshadowed  b}'  a  mountain  ■wliieh  it  could  not  even  call  its  own, 
the  city  remained  for  a  long  time  a  republic  of  exiles.  Calvin  disciplined  its 
citizens  in  his  repellent  fiishion,  and  strangers  differing  from  them  met  with 
no  friendly  reception.  The  men  who  governed  it  were  for  the  most  part 
descendants  of  French  or  Italian  refugees,  whom  religious  difTerencos  had 
driven  from  their  homes,  and  they  souglit  above  all  things  to  keep  up  the 
energy  and  the  spirit  which  had  dictated  the  doings  of  their  forefathers. 
But  this  small  body  of  men,  so  remarkable  on  account  of  its  exclusiveness, 
was  equally  so  for  its  love  of  study  and  intellectual  vigour.  Geneva,  during 
the  last  three  centuries,  has  produced  more  men  of  eminence  in  science  and 
literature  than  any  other  town  of  equal  size.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Jean 
Jacques  Rousseau,  of  Horace  de  Saussure,  of  Necker,  Sismondi,  Topffer,  and 
Pradicr,  and  some  of  its  families  have  almost  become  scientific  dynasties.  Manj' 
amongst  the  famous  children  of  Geneva  may  perhaps  be  claimed  also  by  the 
Parisians,  amongst  whom  they  found  a  second  home ;  but,  for  all  that,  the  Swiss 
city  has  at  all  times  been  distinguished  for  its  patronage  of  education  and  science. 
Its  schools  are  among  the  best  of  the  country  ;  its  newly  founded  university 
occupies  an  honourable  position  ;  there  are  valuable  natural-history  collections  and 
many  learned  societies,  including  a  geographical  one.  The  "  city  of  Calvin," 
which  is  just  now  erecting  a  sumptuous  monument  in  honour  of  a  Duke  of 
Brunswick,  might  certainly  be  called  upon  to  place  an  expiatory  memorial 
upon  the  spot  where  Michael  Servetus,  the  illustrious  Spaniard,  was  burnt  at  the 
stake. 

Geneva  is  no  longer  the  "  Rome  of  Protestantism."  Its  old  walls  have  fallen  ; 
its  ramparts  have  been  converted  into  walks  or  sumptuous  streets  ;  new  roads, 
lined  by  countrj'  houses,  extend  in  all  directions,  and  join  the  former  villages  of 
Plainpalais  and  Carouge  to  the  city.  The  time  when  the  whole  of  the  alluvial 
peninsula  between  the  Arvc  and  the  Rhone  will  be  covered  with  houses  is  fast 
iipproaching.  The  "  old  Genevese  "  now  constitute  onl)'  a  minority  in  their  own 
town,  which  has  become  one  of  the  most  cosmopolitan  cities  of  Europe,  within 
which  reside  about  one-fourth  of  the  foreigners  who  remain  during  the  winter  in 


458  SWITZERLAND. 

Switzerland.*  Geneva,  though  its  population  is  now  double  what  it  was  some  j'ears 
ago,  has  unfortunately  lost  the  two  great  branches  of  industry  which  carried  its 
fame  into  all  parts  of  the  world,  viz.  the  manufacture  of  jewellery  and  watches. 
France  and  the  United  States,  which  formerly  obtained  these  articles  from  the 
workshoiJS  of  Geneva,  are  now  able  to  supply  their  own  wants  by  home  manufac- 
ture, and  many  of  the  Genevese  masters  have  been  ruined. t  The  Arve  and  the 
Rhone  are  capable  of  supplying  motive  power  to  an  almost  unlimited  number  of 
factories,  but  have  not  yet  been  utilised  (see  p.  424).  As  a  place  of  commerce 
and  money  market  Geneva  possesses  considerable  resources. 

Geneva  owes  its  importance  to  the  vicinity  of  France  ;  but,  as  long  as  Italy 
remained  the  centre  of  civilised  nations,  the  most  populous  town  of  Switzerland 
naturally  existed  in  a  different  part  of  the  countrj'.  Aventicum,  a  Celtic  town, 
having  as  patroness  a  deity  named  Aventia,  became  the  capital,  and  its  geogra- 
phical position  justifies  the  selection  made.  It  stood  on  the  shore  of  the  Lake  of 
Morat,  or  Murten,  which  was  more  extensive  then,  in  a  depression  of  the  undu- 
lating plain  which  separates  the  Alps  from  the  Jura.  It  was  nearer  to  the  Lake  of 
Geneva  than  to  the  northern  frontier  of  Helvetia,  and  the  Romans  were  able  to 
reach  it  from  Agaunum  (St.  Maurice,  in  the  Rhone  valley)  in  two  or  three  days' 
march.  At  it  they  established  the  central  custom-house  for  the  whole  of  the 
eastern  frontier  of  Gaul.  The  Alemanni  destroyed  the  town,  and  there  now  only 
remain  a  few  walls  covered  with  shrubs,  two  towers,  pavements,  statuettes,  mosaics, 
and  inscriptions.  The  surrounding  country,  which  was  amongst  the  best  culti- 
vated in  Helvetia,  became  one  of  the  most  barren,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  was 
known  as  Urhtlancl ;  that  is,  "fallow  land."  Since  then  a  new  town,  Avcnclies,  has 
been  built  upon  the  hills  overlooking  the  site  of  ancient  Aventicum,  and  numerous 
villages  have  sprung  up  in  the  environs.  To  the  north-east  of  it,  on  the  shores  of 
the  lake,  is  Morat  (Murten,  2,328  inhabitants),  still  enclosed  by  a  turreted  wall, 
and  famous  on  account  of  the  defeat  inflicted  upon  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy 
in  1476.  To  the  south-east  is  Frihourg  (Freiburg,  10,904  inhabitants),  the  capital 
of  the  canton  of  the  same  name,  and,  like  Murten,  near  the  linguistic  boundary. 
Its  Gothic  cathedral  and  gabled  towers  command  the  deep  valley  of  the  Sarine 
(Saane),  here  spanned  by  a  suspension  bridge  nearly  1,000  feet  in  length,  and 

•  Population  of  Geneva,  according  to  M.  P.  L.  Dunant :  — 

1843.  lOTO. 

Natives  of  the  canton 68  per  cent.  384  per  cent. 

„        other  Swiss  cantons       .         .         .         .         20      „  22-6       „ 

Foreigners 21      „  S90      „ 

Foreigners  residing  in  Geneva : — 

1880.  1870. 

French  and  Savoyards 11,579  14,251 

Germans 1,509  2,038 

Italians 600  763 

Others 500  1,127 

14,188  18,179 

1865.  1875. 

t  Master  jewellers  and  watchmakers  ....  225  205 

Workmen  employed  by  them 1,586  1,028 


NEUCHATEL. 


450 


passing  higli  above  the  river,  llic  liousi's,  and  fields.     Another  bridge  crosses  the 
neighbouring  gorge  of  the  Gotterin  at  a  height  of  318  feet.* 

From  Tverdiin  (5,889  inhabitants),  near  the  southorn  extremity  of  the  Lake  of 
Xeuchatel,  diverge  all  the  roads  which  lead  to  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  It  is  the 
modern  representative  of  the  Gallic  city  of  Ebrodunum,  and  fourteen  centuries 
ago  the  lake,  from  which  it  is  now  separated  by  a  swampy  plain,  still  washed  its 
walls.      The   castle  of  Granson,  three   miles   to   the   north,  defended   the   road 


Fig.  316. — MoRAT  (Mcbten)  am)  its  Laks. 
Bode  1  :  100,000. 


tofP 


(ofO 


1  Mile. 


which  passed  between  the  Jura  and  the  western  shore  of  the  lake,  and  near  it 
Charles  the  Bold  suflFered  a  terrible  defeat  in  1476. 


Neuchatcl.i  the  capital  of  a  canton,  occupies  a  commanding  position  near  the 

•  Fribourg  (Freiburg).— Area,  664  square  miles ;  population  (1870),  110,832,(1876)  113,952.  In  1870 
there  were  93,0.51  Catholics  and  16,819  Protestanta.  About  74  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  speak  French. 
The  canton  is  drained  by  the  Saane,  or  Sarine.  The  south-eastern  portion  is  mountainous,  but  none  of 
the  Bommits  reach  the  snow-line.  ITie  greater  portion  is  hilly,  with  rich  meadows  and  pasture-lands,  and 
Gruyire  cheeses  are  known  throughout  the  world.  The  cereals  grown  generally  cover  the  requirements 
of  the  population.  Amongst  the  products  are  timber,  wine,  fruit,  peat,  and  coal.  Straw-plaiting  is  carried 
on  extensively,  and  there  are  tan-yards,  saw-mills,  a  glass  factory,  and  a  beet-sugar  factor}-.  Watches 
are  manufactured  at  Murten.  In  educational  matters  the  canton  is  very  backward,  except  in  the  district 
of  Murten,  which  is  inhabited  by  German  Protestants.  The  principal  towns  are  Fribourg,  Murten,  and 
Bnlle. 

t  XeueliiUl  (Xcuenburg).— Area,  312  square  miles  ;  population  (1870),  97,284,  (1878)  99,729.  In  1870 
there  were  84,334  Protestants  and  11,345  Catholics.  Eighty-seven  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  speak  French. 
The  canton  lies  between  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Kcuchitel  and  the  French  frontier.  It  is  intcr- 
■ect«d  by  four  parallel  ridges  of  the  Jura,  covered  with  forests  or  poor  herbage.     Wine  is  grown  along 


460  SWITZERLAND. 

point  of  junction  of  the  roads  and  railways  which  skirt  the  shores  of  the  hike  and 
run  through  the  valley  of  Travers  into  France.  It  is  a  fine  town,  the  houses  in 
its  modern  quarter  being  for  the  most  part  built  of  a  light-coloured  limestone. 
The  wealthy  landowners  and  nobles  of  the  canton  form  a  sort  of  aristocracy,  but 
Neiichatel  is  justly  proud  of  its  schools,  its  museum,  and  its  library.  Chaux-dc-Fonds 
(19,930  inhabitants),  in  a  valley  of  the  Upper  Jura,  close  to  the  French  frontier, 
and  about  3,300  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  great  industrial  centre  of  the  canton, 
and  its  most  populous  town.  In  the  sterile  mountains,  where  the  soil  refused  to 
yield  subsistence  to  the  men  who  dwelt  iipon  it,  it  became  necessary  to  look  to 
industrial  occupations  as  a  means  of  subsistence.  The  first  watch  was  made  at 
Chaux-de-Fonds  in  1680,  and  since  then  that  branch  of  industry  has  grown 
immensely,  and  is  carried  on  also  at  Le  Lode  (10,334  inhabitants),  and  in  many 
villages  in  the  vicinity.  The  district  remains  to  the  present  day  the  chief  centre 
of  watchmaking  in  the  world,  and  although  the  number  of  workmen  has  recently 
decreased,  the  number  of  watches  turned  out  is  larger  than  ever.*  Ironically  the 
natives  compare  the  "  village  "  of  Chaux-de-Fonds  with  the  "city"  of  Neuchatel. 

A  portion  of  the  manufacturing  district  of  the  Jura  lies  within  the  canton  of 
Bern,  which  extends  from  the  highest  summits  of  the  Alps  to  the  frontiers  of 
France.t  The  capital  of  this  canton  and  of  the  entire  Confederation  (3,600  inha- 
bitants) occupies  an  advantageous  site  half-way  between  the  Rhone  and  the  Rhine, 
and  on  the  Aar,  which  affords  the  easiest  access  to  the   Oberland.     During  the 

the  foot  of  tho  Jura.  Clipose  forms  an  article  of  export,  l)ut  two-thirds  of  the  com  required  have  to  be 
imported.  The  manufacturing  industry  is  of  importance.  Cotton  stuffs,  lace,  and  watches  are  the 
chief  articles  produced.  The  principal  towns  are  Neuchatel,  Chaux-do-Fonds,  and  Le  Locle.  The 
principality  of  Neuchatel  originally  belonged  to  Burgundy.  Rudolf  of  Haljsburg  ceded  it  in  1288  to 
John  of  Chalons.  In  1707,  the  reigning  prince  having  died  without  heirs,  the  Estates  acknowledged  the 
claims  of  Frederick  of  Prussia,  and  Neuchatel  remained  a  Prussian  dependency  until  1857.  As  such  it 
became  a  member  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  in  1815. 

*  In  1870  there  were  4,505  watchmakers  at  Chaux-dc-Fonds;  in  1877  only  4,172.  About  1,450,000 
watches  are  annually  manufactured  in  the  Swiss  Jura,  their  estimated  value  being  £1,200,000,  or 
16s.  each. 

t  .B,-™.— Area,  2,660  square  miles;  population  (1870),  500,455,  (1876)  528,670.  In  1870  there  were  436,307 
Protestants,  66,015  Roman  Catholics,  and  1,400  Jews.  About  one-seventh  of  the  inhabitants  speak  French. 
Geographically  this  canton,  next  to  that  of  the  Grisons,  the  largest  of  Switzerland,  consists  of  several 
well-detined  regions.  The  Bernese  Oberland,  with  its  glaciers  and  lakes  (including  those  of  Brienz  and 
Thun),  has  been  fully  described  elsewhere.  Cattle-breeding  and  dairy -farming  are  the  principal  occupa- 
tions of  the  inhabitants.  The  valleys  of  Simmen  and  Saanen — the  one  tributary  to  the  Lake  of  Thun, 
the  other  to  the  river  Aar^are  famous  for  their  fine  breeds.  Wood-carving  employs  many  of  the  inha- 
bitants during  winter.  The  principal  towns  or  villages  of  the  Oberland  are  Thun,  Interlaken,  Brienz, 
Meiringen,  and  Saanen.  The  Mittelland,  or  hilly  region,  is  intersected  by  the  rivers  Aar  and  Emmen,  and 
is  for  the  most  part  a  fertile  region.  It  extends  north  into  the  Upper  Aargau,  the  most  productive 
district  of  the  canton.  The  Emmen  Thai  is  famous  for  its  cheese,  its  wooden  houses,  its  wrestlers,  and 
its  floods.  The  principal  towns  in  this  section  of  the  canton  are  Bern,  the  capital,  on  the  Aar  ;  Langnau 
and  Burgdorf,  on  the  Emmen ;  and  Wangen,  in  the  Upper  Aargau.  The  Seeland  (see  page  425)  is  drained  by 
the  rivers  Aar  and  Zihl.  the  latter  being  the  effluent  of  the  Lake  of  Biel,  or  Bienne.  Lastly,  there  is  the 
Bernese  Jura,  comparatively  sterile,  but  a  busy  seat  of  industry.  Its  leading  towns  are  Moutiers  and 
Porentruy.  The  canton  of  Bern  is  wealthy,  no  doubt,  but  in  no  other  part  of  Switzerland  are  the  contrasts 
between  rich  and  poor  so  marked.  Cattle-breeding,  dairy-farming,  and  in  the  plain  the  cultivation  of 
com  and  potatoes,  employ  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants.  About  150,000  tons  of  iron  are  produced  annually 
in  the  Jura,  and  the  manufacture  of  linens  and  other  textile  fabrics,  lace,  watches,  carved  woodenware, 
leather,  &c.,  is  of  some  importance.  The  national  costume  of  the  Bemese  is  amongst  the  most  picturesque 
to  be  met  with  in  Switzerland. 


BEBX. 


461 


wars  of  the  Middle  Ages  this  po&ition  entailed  great  strategical  advantages,  more 
especially  as  the  town  stands  upon  a  peninsula  bounded  on  thi-ee  sides  by  the  steep 
banks  of  the  river.  A  wall  built  across  the  neck  of  this  peninsula  thus  sufficed  to 
protect  the  inhabitants  in  case  of  attack.     Bern,  unfortunately,  is  not  favoured  bv 


Fig.  317.— Bern. 
Scale  1  :  (0,000. 


I  MUc. 


the  climate,  and  the  extremes  of  temperature  are  greater  hero  than  in  any  other 
town  of  Switzerland.*  It  is  much  exposed  to  the  winds,  and  the  death  rate  is  very 
high,  especially  in  the  poorer  quarters.     The  damp  tortuous  street  following  the 

•  Extremes  of  temperatoro  at  Bern,  972  and  —22°  Fahr.     DifTerence,  119-2°  Fahr.    Mean  unuual 
temperature,  •16'  Fahr. 

VOL.    II.  11    U 


402 


SWITZERLAND. 


windings  of  the  Aar  is  one  of  the  most  insalubrious  places  in  Europe,  and  maladies 
reign  there  permanently  as  in  a  hospital.  The  wretched  streets  of  this  quarter  con- 
trast painfully  with  the  palatial  buildings  which  rise  among  the  gardens  to  the  west 
of  the  city,  and  whence  may  be  enjoyed  the  fine  panorama  presented  by  the  mean- 
dering Aar  and  the  snow-clad  Alps  rising  in  the  distance  above  verdure-clad  hills.* 
Amongst  the  most  remarkable  buildings  of  the  town  are  the  Federal  Palace, 


Fig.  318.— View  of  Been. 


■f*^ 


erected  in  1852 — 57,  the  Gothic  Minster,  the  Hospital,  the  Post  Office,  and  the 
bold  Nydeck  Bridge  which  leads  to  the  famous  Bear  Pit.  Bern  is  the  seat  of  a 
university,  possesses  several  libraries  and  miiseums,  but  cannot  compare  with 
Ziirich  as  regards  scientific  associations.  Amongst  its  famous  children  more 
warriors  are  mot  with  than  men  of  learning  :  of  the  latter  A.  von  Haller  (died 
1777),  the  poet  and  physician,  is  perhaps  the  most  widely  known. 

*  Death  rate  of  Bern  (1855 — 67),  35-2  per  1,000  inhabitants;  in  the  upper  quarters  of  the  town,  12'6 
per  1,000;  in  the  Aarherger-Gasse,  748  per  1,000. 


BEEN. 


4C8 


Bern,  which  according  to  some  etymologists  is  i\  corruption  of  the  Celtic  name 
of  Verona,  whilst  others  derive  it  from  Barcii  ("bears"),  still  preserves  a  mediaival 
physioguomy  in  its  interior  (juarters.  The  pomp  uud  strength  of  feudal  Switzer- 
land are  called  up  before  our  mind  when  wo  look  at  the  solid  walls  of  the  houses, 
at  the  buttresses  which  support  them,  at  the  "rows"  similar  to  those  of  Chester, 
at  steep-peaked  roofs,  and  fountains  ornamented  with  quaintly  sculptured  figures. 
We  can  almost  fancy  these  streets  being  filled  with  men-at-arms  flushed  with 
victory  or  returning  from  the  pillage  of  a  village,  waving  their  banners  and  blow- 
ing their  horns.  Uern  has  u  few  factories  on  the  banks  of  the  Aar,  industrial 
suburbs  beyond  the  public  walks,  and  extensive  quarries  near  the  neighbouring 


Fig.  319. — Ikterlaken. 
Scale  1  :  70,noo. 


1  Mile. 


C   xm^£vw 


village  of  Ostermundingen,  but  the  great  industries  of  the  country,  the  manufacture 
of  cheese,  linens,  and  cloth,  and  straw-plaiting,  are  principally  carried  on  in  the 
wealthy  communes  of  the  Emmenthal,  at  Laiignau  (G,214  inhabitants),  Sumisicald, 
and  2?Mr(/f/o/;/"  (Rerthoud,  5,078  inhabitants),  each  of  which  towns  has  its  agencies 
throughout  Switzerland  and  in  many  foreign  countries.  In  tlie  old  castle  of 
Burgdorf  Pestalozzi  established  his  educational  institute  (1798 — 1804).  At  T/iiin 
(Thoune,  4,623  inhabitants),  whore  the  Aar  escapes  from  the  lower  lake  of  tho 
Obcrland,  there  are  likewise  a  few  factories,  but  that  town  is  important  ratlier 
because  so  many  travellers  annually  pass  through  it  on  their  road  to  Intcrlaken, 
within  easy  reach  of  the  delightful  scenery  of  the  Obcrland.  It  is  the  military 
capital  of  Switzerland,  the  seat  of  the  Military  College  of  the  Confederation,  and 

11  II  2 


464 


SWITZEELAND. 


of  an  arsenal.  It  is  a  quaint  city,  with  "  rows,"  overlooked  by  an  old  castle,  now 
converted  into  a  prison,  and  the  parish  church  built  ujDon  the  summit  of  u 
commanding  hill.  In  the  vicinity  of  Bern  and  in  the  Alpine  valleys  of  the 
canton  there  are  many  wealthy  and  populous  villages,  some  of  them  remarkable 
on  account  of  their  huge  wooden  houses  ornamented  with  sculptures. 

Interlaken,  on  the  alluvial  plain  of  the  Bodeli,  which  separates  the  Lakes  of 
Thun  and  Brienz,  is  one  of  the  favourite  haunts  of  tourists.  It  is  named  after  a 
convent  ("inter  lacus"),  suppressed  in  1481  in  consequence  of  the  immoral  life 
led  by  the  nuns,  and  now  occupied  as  a  school.  The  climate  is  mild,  and  the 
environs  abound  in  delightful  v.alks.  The  valley  of  the  Lauterbrunnen,  in  the 
south,  leads  up  to  the  famous  falls  of  the  Staubbach  and  Schmadribach.  The  icy 
summits  of  the  Jungfrau  tower  majestically  beyond  it.  The  glacier  of  Grindel- 
wald  is  within  easy  reach,  and  a  steamer  rapidly  conveys  the  traveller  to  Brienz, 


Fig.  320. — BiEL  (Bienne)  and  the  New  Bed  of  the  Aak. 
Scale  1  :  lon.onn. 


,E.i  of  Pari 


7"2o'E.ofCr. 


C  rerroi 


1  Jlue. 


with  its  pretty  boating  girls,  to  the  Giesshaeh,  and  the  charming  Hasli  valley,  whose 
chief  viUage,  Meiringen,  fell  a  victim  to  a  fearful  conflagration  in  February,  1879. 
Biel  (in  French  Bienne,  8,113  inhabitants),  favourably  situated  at  the  northern 
end  of  the  lake  named  after  it,  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  valley  of  Suze,  which 
leads  into  the  Jura,  and  close  to  the  Aar  navigation,  has  become  a  great  place  of 
commerce,  and  its  inhabitants  speak  of  it  as  a  Zukunftstadt ;  that  is,  a  town  having 
a  future  in  store  for  it.  Quite  the  reverse  might  be  said  of  Solothurn  (Soleure, 
7,054  inhabitants),*  lower  down  on  the  Aar,  which  reflects  its  turrets  and  crenel- 
lated walls,  and  almost  deserves  to  be  called  a  "  town  of  the  past ;  "  whilst  Olten 

•  Solothurn.— Area,  303  square  miles;  population  (1870),  7-l,713,  (1876)  77,803.  In  1870  there 
were  62,072  Catholics  and  12,448  Protestants.  German  is  spoken  thi-oughout.  The  canton  includes  a 
portion  of  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Aar,  which  abounds  in  orchards,  and  produces  com  for  exportation, 
whilst  the  Jura,  in  the  west,  is  sterile.  There  are  valuable  quarries  of  marble,  limestone  (at  Olten),  and 
millstones,  as  well  as  iron  mines.  Silk-wea^ong  is  carried  on  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Jura,  in  the 
BO-caUed  "  Black  Boys'  Land."     The  only  towns  of  note  are  Solothurn  and  Olten. 


^•J 


Li5RARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  of  ILLINOIS. 


BASEL. 


•IG5 


(2,998  inhubitauts),  still  lower  down  in  tlie  valloy,  has  bwome  an  iiiipirlaiit  railway 
centre,  and  increases  annually  in  connuorce  and  industry.  Hosiery,  glass,  and 
parquetry  are  manulacturcd,  and  there  arc  huge  railway  workshops  for  tbo  con- 
struction of  locomotives  and  rolling  stock.  The  railway  which  pierces  the  Jura  in 
tlie  tunnel  of  llauensfein,  and  runs  past  Liintiil  (.■1,87.'3  inhabitants)  to  Basel,  placca 
Olten  in  cunununication  with  the  railway  sj'stums  of  Frauce  and  Germany. 

Basel*  (44,834  inhabitants),  by  its  commerce,  history,  and  general  influence 
upon  the  economical  condition  of  Switzerland,  has  much  in  common  with  Geneva. 


Fig.  321.— Basel  (Bale). 
Roilo  1  :  50,000. 


>°t.l>  t-...  l.~ 


UuU  n  SUlc. 


Admirably  situated  upon  a  terrace  at  the  great  elbow  of  the  Rhine,  where  that 
river  enters  upon  the  plain  of  Alsatia,  it  occupies  commercially  the  same  position 
towards  Germany  and  Xorthern  Franco  as  that  held  by  Geneva  with  reference  to 
Southern  France.     Nay,  its  market  is  even  more  extensive,  and  two-thirds  of  the 

•  lintrl  tia  French  Siilr)  furms  two  oantons,  viz.  Basel  To«ii  (14  squnro  miles,  51,515  inhaliiUintj  in 
187C|and  Basil  Countrj-  (103  B<niare  miles,  55,548  inhatiitants).  The  capital  of  the  latter  is  I.i<  stal.  Tbo 
countrj-  is  hilly  and  fertile.  Agriitilture,  dairy-farmingr,  and  horticulture  are  carried  on  with  sueccas. 
The  silk  indu-itry  is  very  imixjrtant,  and  there  arc  also  cotton,  paper,  and  woollen  mills,  and  tobacco 
manufactories.  Basel  Countrj-,  tin-d  of  the  jinssurc  exercised  by  Uie  wealthy  town,  si'Vered  its  connec- 
tion with  it  in  1833,  and  now  forms  an  inilejK'ndent  canton.  It  was  tho  first  canton  to  adopt  a  purely 
democratic  coDstitutioii,  but  Basel  Town,  in  spitu  of  iU  jiatricians,  has  since  done  the  same. 


466 


SWITZERLAND. 


imports  of  Switzerland  pass  ttrough  its  custom-house.  Its  manufactures  of  silk, 
of  ribbons,  and  of  chemical  products  give  rise  to  a  very  important  trade  with 
foreign  countries.*  Rich  and  powerful  long  before  Geneva,  Basel,  like  its 
southern  rival,  became  a  place  of  refuge  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  and  one 
of  the  great  centres  of  scientific  research.  Erasmus  and  (Ecolampadius  taught  in 
its  schools,  and  Holbein  resided  there  for  many  years.  Euler,  Bernoulli,  and 
other  natives  of  the  town  rank  amongst  the  most  famous  men  of  Switzerland, 
and  some  of  its  old  families  rival  the  Genevese  "  dynasties  "  in  the  number  of 
men  of  merit  belonging  to  them.  Old  customs  have  been  more  strictly  pre- 
served at  Basel  than  at  Geneva.     Strangers  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  altering 


Fig.  322. — PouuENTiav. 
Scale  1  :  60,000. 


1  MUe. 


the  aspect  of  the  town  ;  and  the  natives,  who  are  strict  Protestants,  form  the  vast 
majority  of  its  inhabitants.  Amongst  the  numerous  missionary  institutions, 
that  of  Chrishona,  in  a  neighbouring  village,  is  the  most  considerable.  Basel  is 
reputed  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  money  marts  of  the  world, t  but  it  may 
also  boast  of  its  university,  its  scientific  collections,  its  picture  gallery,  -mih  many 
paintings  by  Hans  Holbein,  and  its  library,  rich  in  precious  manuscripts.  The 
Gothic  cathedral,  built  of  the  beautiful  red  sandstone  abounding  in  the  Yosges, 
rises  boldly  above  the  Rhine,  which  flows   beneath   it.     Near  it  is  the   famous 

•  The  silk  industry  employs  40,000  operatives  and  6,o00   power-looms,  and  the  value  of  the  silk 
manufactured  annually  is  estimated  at  £1,600,000. 

f  In  1875  82  families  paid  property  tax  on  a  capital  averaging  £80,000  each- 


AARGAU. 


4G7 


chamber  in  which  mot  the  Council  of  Basel,  and  which  is  scrupulously  preserved 
in  the  condition  it  was  in  in  the  fifteenth  century.  A  sloping  bridge  will  soon 
connect  Basel  Proper  with  Little  Basel,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Rhine. 

Basel  is  the  natural  market  of  the  Bernese  Jura,  the  principal  town  in  which 
is  Porreiifrni/  (Pruntrut,  5,341  inhabitants),  the  former  residence  of  the  Bishops  of 
Basel.  Near  it  is  the  village  of  Boiifol,  known  on  account  of  the  potterj'  manu- 
factured there. 

Ascending  the  Rhine,  we  pass  the  salt  works  of  Schweizerhall,  Augst,  Rhein- 


Fig.  323. — The  Conpluen'CE  of  the  Rhine,  the  Aau,  the  Kevss,  and  the  Limmat. 

Srale  1  :  .-iOO.OOO. 


6'lEofParM 


j-llOTt-nf  >:<-. 


b  Miles. 


felden,  and  Ryburg.  Augst  occupies  the  site  of  Augusta  Rauracorum,  a  town  founded 
by  Lucius  Munatius  Glaucus,  which  formerly  experienced  the  same  amount  of  com- 
mercial prosperity  as  that  enjoyed  in  our  own  days  by  Basel,  its  fortunate  successor. 
One-half  of  the  village  of  Augst  lies  within  the  canton  of  Aargau,  the  capital 
of  which  is  situated  in  the  valley  watered  by  the  Aar.*     Aargau   (5,449  inha- 

•  Aargau  (in  Vrejieh  Argov'u). — Area,  543  square  miles;  population (1870),  198,875,  (1876)  201,567.  In 
1870  there  were  107,703  Protestants,  89,1^0  Catholics,  and  1,541  Jews.  The  canton  includes  the  lower 
valley  of  the  Aar,  which  is  joined  within  its  boundaries  by  the  Reuss  and  the  Limmat,  and  extends  north 
to  the  Rhine.  It  is  for  the  most  part  hilly  and  fertile.  The  products  include  wine  and  salt  (300,000  cwts. ). 
There  are  cotton-mills  (265,000  spindles),  dye  and  print  works.  Straw-plaiting  occupies  about  30,000 
operatives  during  winter.  Much  has  been  done  for  education.  The  principal  towns  are  Aargau,  Zofingen, 
Baden,  and  Reinach. 


468 


SWITZEELAND. 


bitants)  is  not  a  large  town,  but  its  inhabitants  are  distinguished  for  their  culture, 
and  many  industries  requiring  skill,  intelligence,  and  even  a  scientific  training, 
such  as  the  manufacture  of  instruments,  are  carried  on.  Eighteen  centuries  ago, 
Vindonissa,  at  the  triple  confluence  of  the  Aar,  the  Limmat,  and  the  Reuss,  was 
the  great  strategical  centre  of  the  country.  It  was  upon  this  town  that  the  Roman 
roads  converged  which  crossed  the  Alps  from  Italy,  and  the  legions  stationed 
there  were  favourably  placed  for  supporting  those  which  held  the  frontiers  of  the 
Rhine  and  of  the  Danube.  But  its  very  importance  led  to  the  destruction  of  this 
stronghold.  Several  times  captured  towards  the  close  of  the  Empire,  there  now 
remain  but  a  few  insignificant  ruins,  and  only  its  name  survives  in  that  of  the 

Fig.  324.— The  Lake  of  the  Fovr  Cantons  (Vif.rwaldstattek  See). 
Scale  1  :  .SOO.OOa 


T 


Eof.P. 


5  Miles. 


village  of  Windisch.  The  wars  of  the  Middle  Ages  prevented  the  recon- 
struction of  this  ancient  city,  but  several  towns  have  sprung  up  in  its  vicinity, 
such  as  Bnigff,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Boetzberg  tunnel ;  SchinznarJi,  famous  on 
account  of  its  sulphurous  waters  ;  and  Baden,  the  hot  springs  of  which  were  highly 
appreciated  by  the  Romans.  It  is  certainly  curious  that  no  large  town  should 
have  arisen  in  so  favourable  a  locality.  On  a  hill  which  rises  to  the  south  are 
the  ruins  of  the  feudal  castle  of  Habsburg,  the  ancestral  home  of  the  imperial 
family  of  Austria. 

If  we  trace  the  Reuss  to  the  point  where  it  issues  from  the  Lake  of  the  Four 
Cantons,   we   reach   Luzern    (14,524   inhabitants),   the   political   and  commercial 


THK  FOREST  CANTONS  409 

metropolis  of  primitive  Switzerland,  and  the  capital  of  a  large  canton.*  Its  position, 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  lake  and  upon  its  effluent,  is  analogous  to  that  of  Geneva, 
Ziirich,  and  Constanz.  AnoUier  river,  the  Little  Emnie,  joins  the  Reuss  about  a 
mile  below  Luzern.  Turretcd  walls  surrounding  the  town,  an  old  lighthouse,  or 
fucenuj,  the  blue  and  swift  waters  of  the  Reuss,  the  lake,  and  the  view  of  the 
mountains  which  enclose  it,  render  Luzern  one  of  the  most  attractive  cities  of 
Switzerland.  The  number  of  strangers  who  pass  through  it  every  summer  is  very 
great.  Luzern,  the  most  Catholic  city,  was  the  capital  of  the  Swiss  "  Sonderbund," 
or  "  Separatist  League,"  which  fought  between  1845  and  1847  in  favour  of  the 
pretensions  of  the  Jesuits.  Its  most  remarkable  monument  is  a  lion  carved  out  of 
the  solid  rock,  from  a  design  bj'  Thorwaklscn,  and  recalls  the  time  when  the 
Switzers  sold  themselves  as  soldiers  to  the  sovereigns  of  Europe.  Though  favour- 
ably situated,  Luzern  has  little  commerce  or  industry,  but,  like  Ziirich,  it  expects 
great  things  from  the  completion  of  the  tunnel  through  the  St.  Gotthard. 

ScmjMuh,  the  village  rendered  famous  through  the  battle  fought  there  on  the 
9th  July,  1386,  lies  to  the  north-west  of  Luzern,  on  a  small  lake.  Kitssnacht  and 
Wdggis  are  villages  on  the  Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Rigi. 

In  the  three  other  Forest  Cantons  t  the  towns  are  few  in  number,  and  even  the 
capitals  are  hardly  more  than  villages.  Altorf,  or  Altdorf  (■2,7"24  inhabitants),  is 
still  the  simple  village  as  in  the  legendary  age  of  William  Tell ;   Stanz  (2,070 

•  LtizfTH  (in  French  Lu(tr»t).—kiea,  579  square  miles :  population  (1870),  132,338,  (1876)  133,316.  In 
1870  there  were  128,338  Catholics  and  3,823  Protestants.  The  canton  includes  three  distinct  regions,  viz. 
the  Gail,  in  the  north,  the  centre  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  Lake  of  Sempach  ;  the  country  adjoining  the 
Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons,  together  with  the  valley  of  the  Reuss :  and  the  mountain  valleys  drained  by  the 
Little  Emmc  and  its  tributaries.  The  most  important  of  these  valleys  is  known  as  Enllibuch.  Its 
inhabitants  depend  almost  wholly  upon  dairy-farming  for  their  subsistence,  and,  like  their  neighbours  in 
the  valley  of  the  Great  Enmio,  they  are  expert  wrestlers.  The  mount.iins  bounding  these  v.alleys  rise  to 
a  height  of  7, HO  feet,  and  are  covered  with  turf  and  aromatic  herbs.  There  are  no  glaciers  in  tho 
canton.  Agriculture  and  dairy-fanning  are  the  principal  occupations.  The  soil,  almost  throughout,  is 
fertile.    There  arc  extensive  forests. 

+  The  Forest  Cantons,  or  Vicrwaldstatte,  are  Luzern,  Schwyz,  TTri,  and  Unterwalden.  Luzern  has 
been  noticed  above. 

Schwyz  (Schwitz,  hence  Switzcr  and  Switzerland). — Area,  351  square  miles;  population  (1876),  4!*, 216, 
nearly  all  Catholics.  l"he  canton  extends  from  the  Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons  to  that  of  Ziirich,  and  may 
be  described  as  a  platform  2,700  feet  in  height,  above  which  rise  the  naked  rocks  of  the  Slythenand  other 
mountain  summits.  The  Rigi  lies  almost  wholly  within  the  limits  of  the  cantons,  a  plain  and  the  small  Lake 
of  Lowerz  separating  it  from  the  rest  of  the  canton.  The  valleys  are  fertile,  tho  most  important  amongst 
them  beiag  those  of  the  Sluota,  which  flows  into  the  Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons,  and  of  the  Sihl,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Lake  of  Ziirich.  Cattle-breeding  and  dairy-farming  are  the  principal  occupations.  Silk  and 
cotton  mills  have  been  established  by  Ziirich  manufacturers.  ITie  only  places  of  impoi-tancc  arc  Schwyz 
and  Gcrsau. 

rn'.— Area,  415  square  miles  ;  population  (1876),  16,900,  all  Catholics.  Tho  canton  extends  from  tho 
southern  bay  of  the  I>ake  of  the  Four  Cantons  up  to  the  St.  Gotthard  and  Furka  Passes,  and  thus  includes 
the  valley  of  the  Reuss,  known  at  its  head  as  Crseren  Tlial,  and  all  its  tributary  valleys,  with  the 
famous  Mayenthal.  Cattle-breeding  and  dairy-farming  support  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants.  Com  is 
grown  on  about  14,000  acres ;  forests  cover  about  42,  and  glaciers  44  square  miles.  Altdorf  and  Andermatt 
are  the  principal  villages.   'ITie  Great  St.  Gotthard  railway  will  traverse  this  canton  throughout  its  length. 

UiiUncalden  extends  from  the  southern  shore  of  tho  Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons,  and  includes  the  valleys 
of  the  Samer  Aa  and  of  the  Engelberg  Aa,  the  one  extending  up  to  the  Briinig  Pass,  the  other  to  tho 
foot  of  the  snow-clad Titlis.  Since  1100  Untenvalden  has  formed  two  cantons,  one  "nid"  ("below"),  the 
other  "  ob  dem  Wald  "  ("  above  the  forest "),  whose  combined  area  is  296  square  miles,  with  a  population 
(1876)  of  27,002  inhabitants,  nearly  all  of  whom  are  Roman  Catholics.  The  country  is  distinguished  for 
its  picturesque  scenery.  Its  meadows  and  pastures  are  luxuriant,  and  cheese  (20,000  cwts.  annually), 
fruit,  walnuts,  spirits,  and  cidor  arc  exported.     ITie  princiiml  villages  are  Stanz  aud  iNiruun. 


470  SWITZERLAND. 

inhabitants)  and  Sarnen  (3,720  inhabitants),  the  capitals  of  the  two  half-cantons  of 
TJnterwalden,  are  merely  villages.  Brunncn,  on  the  lake  and  the  Axenstrasse, 
is  one  of  the  most-frequented  places  on  the  St.  Gotthard  road,  with  large 
storehouses.  Gcrsau  (2,274  inhabitants),  formerly  the  capital  of  an  inde- 
pendent republic,  is  visited  now  by  a  few  foreign  valetudinarians  in  search  of  a 
sheltered  abode.  Schwyz  (6,154  inhabitants),  at  the  foot  of  the  Mythen,  is  a 
larger  place  than  either  of  the  above,  but  the  number  of  inhabitants  assigned  to 
it  in  the  census  includes  those  of  several  of  the  villages  in  the  vicinity.  It  lies 
close  to  the  Lake  of  Lowerz,  beyond  which  is  Goldmi,  built  on  the  debris  resulting 
from  the  great  landslip  which  took  place  in  1806,  and  buried  four  villages. 
Einsiedlen,  the  native  place  of  Paracelsus,  consists  of  a  few  detached  hamlets,  the 
most  considerable  amongst  which  has  for  its  centre  a  famous  old  abbey,  annually 
visited  by  150,000  pilgrims  and  tourists.  The  printing-office  there,  which  limits 
itself  to  the  production  of  religious  books,  is  one  of  the  largest  establishments  of 
that  kind  in  Europe.  The  great  boast  of  the  monks  at  the  abbey  is  to  have 
collected,  in  the  ninth  century,  the  most  ancient  copies  then  existing  of  the  monu- 
mental inscriptions  of  Eome  and  Pavia.  The  gorge  of  Morgarten,  to  the  south- 
west of  Einsiedlen,  recalls  the  decisive  victory  achieved  by  the  Confederated  Swiss 
in  1315  over  the  iron-clad  knights  of  Austria — a  victory  which  insijired  them 
with  confidence  in  themselves. 

Zug  (4,277  inhabitants),  on  a  lake  named  after  the  town,  is  the  capital  of  a 
small  canton  of  great  antiquity,  but  not  otherwise  remarkable.  Cham,  a  village 
on  the  same  lake,  has  a  paper-miU,  a  cotton-mill,  and  the  extensive  establishment 
of  the  Anglo-Swiss  Condensed  Milk  Company.* 

Zurich'^  (56,695  inhabitants),  the  principal  town  of  north-eastern  Switzerland, 

*  Zur/. — Area,  92  square  miles ;  population  (1876),  21,775,  nearly  all  Roman  Catholics.  The  canton 
includes  the  country  to  the  west,  north,  and  east  of  the  Lake  of  Zug,  together  with  the  valley  of  the  Lorze, 
the  effluent  of  the  Aegeri  Lake.  lis  surface  is  hilly  and  fertile.  Agriculture  and  dairy-farming  are  the 
principal  occupations,  hut  there  are  also  cotton-mills.  Zug  is  the  capital.  The  canton  joined  the  Con- 
federation in  1352. 

t  Zurich. —kiea.,  666  square  miles  ;  population  (1870),  284,786,  (1876)  294,994.  In  1870  there  were 
263,790  Protestants,  17,972  Catholics,  and  504  Jews.  The  canton  includes  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Lake  of  ZUrich,  together  with  the  land  on  hoth  sides  of  it,  and  extends  to  the  Rhine  in  the  north.  The 
principal  valleys  are  those  of  the  Limmat,  of  the  Glatt,  of  the  Toss,  and  of  the  Thur,  all  of  them  tributary 
to  the  Rhine.  In  addition  to  the  Lake  of  Ziirich  there  are  the  Greifensee  and  the  Lake  of  Phiiffikon,  hoth 
in  the  raUej'  of  the  Glatt.  The  Schnebelhorn  (4,248  feet),  on  the  frontier  of  St.  Gallen,  is  the  highest 
summit  within  the  boundaries  of  the  canton,  the  whole  northern  half  of  which  is  undulating,  with  fertile 
fields,  rich  meadow  lands,  and  wooded  hilln.  Agriculture  ia  carried  on  with  great  care,  and  the  use  of 
agricultural  machines  general.  The  land  is  much  subdivided.  About  12.5,000  acres  are  under  the 
plough;  116,000  acres  consist  of  meadows  ;  13,000  acres  are  planted  with  vines ;  and  128,000  acres  are 
covered  with  forests.  Market  gardening  is  carried  on  with  greater  success  than  elsewhere  in  Switzerland. 
The  breeding  of  cattle  and  dairj'-farming  are  of  great  importance.  The  mineral  kingdom  supplies  coal, 
peat,  gypsum,  marl,  and  building  stones.  Manufacturing  industries  flourish.  The  cotton  manufacture 
employed,  in  1871,  660,136  spindles,  6,265  power-looms,  and  9,536  operatives.  The  manufacture  of  silk 
gives  occupation  to  18,000  operatives,  most  of  whom  work  at  home.  About  £2,000,000  worth  of  .silk  stuff's 
are  exported  annually,  j-ielding  a  profit  of  no  less  than  £720,000.  The  woollen  and  linen  industries  were 
of  greater  importance  than  they  are  now.  The  machine  shops  and  foundries  (3,563  operatives)  are  the 
most  important  in  Switzerland.  There  are  likewise  potteries,  paper-mills,  chemical  works,  saw,  oil,  and 
gypsum  mills.  Straw-plaiting  is  principally  carried  on  in  the  Rafzerfeld.  Much  has  been  done  to  promote 
the  education  of  the  people,  perhaps  more  than  in  any  other  canton  of  Switzerland.  The  principal  towns 
are  Ziirich,  Winterthur,  Wadensweil,  Uster,  and  Horgen.  The  canton  joined  the  Confederation  in  1351, 
fifteen  years  after  its  Patrician  Government  had  been  overthrown  by  the  people. 


l*J»il 


f  •  • 


'♦  •  ] 


U5RASY 

<3F  THE 

UNIVERSIIY  of  ILLINOIS, 


OLABUS.  171 

at  the  foot  of  the  Uotlibcrg,  and  at  the  lower  end  of  its  lake,  where  the  rivers 
Limiuat  and  Sibl  effect  their  junction,  is  far  more  accessible  than  Luzern,  and 
commands  some  of  the  most  imiwrtant  natural  bi;^h-roads.  ITence  its  strategical 
iiuportauce.  It  was  at  Zurich,  on  the  Jird  N'ondcniiaire  of  the  year  VIII.,  that 
Massena  saved  Franco  by  annihilating  the  Russian  army  marching  upon  Basel. 
The  city  of  Zwingli  is  but  little  inferior  to  that  of  Calvin,  as  regards  the  number 
of  its  inhabitants,  but  it  is  far  superior  to  it  in  the  facilities  which  are  offered 
by  its  numerous  educational  institutions,  its  Polytechuicum,  its  university,  its 
museums  and  libraries.  Ziirich  makes  great  efforts  to  deserve  the  epithet  of 
"  Athens  of  Switzerland,"  which  its  citizens  have  bestowed  upon  it.  Scheuchzer, 
the  tirst  man  who  studied  the  physical  geogniphy  of  the  Alps  in  a  scientific  spirit, 
was  a  native  of  Zurich,  as  was  also  Lavater,  the  famous  physiognoiuist.  It  is  a 
manufacturing  town,  too,  with  silk  and  cotton  mills,  foundries,  and  machine  shops. 
Steam-engines  constructed  at  Zurich  have  been  exported  even  to  England  and  to 
America.  ^lore  than  half  the  corn  trade  of  Switzerland  is  conducted  by  Ziirich 
houses,  its  leather  fairs  are  well  attended,  and  the  visits  of  commercial  travellers 
are  more  frequent  than  in  any  other  town  of  Switzerland.  Zwingli  preached  in 
the  old  parish  church,  a  basilica  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  silk  and  cotton 
industry  enriches  also  many  of  the  neighbouring  towns  and  villages  as  far  as  the 
canton  of  Zug.  Wahl  (5, 0-55  inhabitants)  and  Usfer  (5,808  inhabitants),  to  the 
east  of  Ziirich,  on  the  river  Aa,  which  connects  the  Pftiffikon  with  the  Qreifen 
Lake,  are  busy  manufacturing  centres.  The  river  Aa,  which  supplies  motive 
power  to  the  numerous  mills  of  these  towns,  is  popularly  known  as  the  "  river 
of  millions."  Wintcrthur  (9,404  inhabitants),  next  to  Ziirich  the  most  important 
town  of  the  canton,  is  the  modern  representative  of  the  Roman  station  of  Vitodurum. 
It  is  ambitiously  termed  the  Liverpool  of  Switzerland,  because  it  imports  so 
much  cotton.  There  are,  however,  few  towns  of  equal  size  which  can  boast  of 
more  varied  industries,  or  of  a  larger  number  of  educational  and  other  public 
institutions.     Its  foundries  and  machine  shops  are  more  especially  noteworthy. 

Giants*  (in  French  Glaris,  5,516  inhabitants)  is  the  capital  of  a  canton  and  a 
busy  manufacturing  and  commercial  centre,  but  in  the  mountain  country  of  the 
Grisons,t  which  lies  beyond  it,  there  are  no  manufactures,  and  Chtir  (in  French 

•  Glarut.— Area,  267  square  miles ;  population  (1876),  36,129.  In  1870  there  were  28,238  Protcstanta 
and  6,8S8  Catholics.  The  canton  includes  the  valley  of  the  Llnth,  as  far  as  the  Walon  Lake,  and  is 
quite  Alpine  in  its  character,  glaciers  covering  6  per  cent,  of  its  surface.  Formerly  a  land  of  herdsmen, 
it  haa  become  a  manufacturing  country,  cotton  and  woollen  mills  and  hosiery  manufacture  emjiloying 
more  hands  now  than  dairy-farming  or  agriculture.  The  battles  of  Naeft-ls  (1352  and  1388)  resulted  in 
the  liberation  of  the  canton  from  the  yoke  of  Austria. 

t  Graubundcn  (Grisons).— .rVrea,  2,774  square  miles;  population  (1870),  91,782,  (1876)  92,906.  In  1870 
there  were  51,887  Protestants  and  39,843  Roman  Catholics.  The  canton  is  the  largest  in  Switzerland, 
but  very  thinly  inhabited.  It  includes  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Rhine ;  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Inn,  or 
Engadin,  separated  from  the  former  by  the  Albula  Alps  ;  and  the  valleys  of  Calanca  and  Misocco,  on  the 
southern  slope  of  the  Alps,  and  tributary  to  the  Ticino.  Only  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  area  is  cultivated 
(barley  is  grown  up  to  5,810  feet,  wheat  up  to  4,740  feet).  Wine  is  grown  around  Chur  and  on  the 
Italian  elopes.  Sericulture  and  the  breeding  of  snails  (for  exportation  to  Italy)  are  likewise  of  some 
importance.  The  mines  supply  lead,  copper,  silver,  and  iron,  and  there  are  quarries  of  marble,  alabaster, 
and  pot-stones.     Amongst  the  6fty  mineral  springs  are  Tarasp  and  St.  Jloritz. 

In  the  tenth  century  the  Grisons  were  annexed  to  the  Gorman  Empire,  and  numerous  eccleaiattical 


472  SWITZEELAND. 

Coire,  in  Italiau  Coira,  in  Romaic  Quoira,  7,552  inhabitants)  is  the  only  town 
deserving  the  name.  It  is,  above  all,  a  place  of  trafBc,  for  the  roaas  which  run 
over  the  Alpine  passes  of  the  Spliigen  and  the  Bernardino  into  Italy,  and  those 
which  cross  the  Julier,  Albula,  and  Fluela  Passes  into  the  Engadin,  diverge  from 
it.  The  cathedral  is  a  remarkable  building,  said  to  date  back  to  the  eighth 
century,  and  there  are  also  the  remains  of  a  Roman  tower  (]Mars  in  Oculis). 
Other  places  of  interest  are  Ilanz,  the  capital  of  the  Grey  League,  and  Discntis, 
with  one  of  the  oldest  abbeys  in  Christendom,  founded  in  the  seventh  century  by 
Sigisbert,  the  Scotch  apostle,  but  burnt,  together  with  its  invaluable  library,  in 
17C9,  by  the  French,  both  on  the  Rhine,  and  Samaden,  St.  Moritz,  and  Tarasp,  in 
the  Engadin.  The  latter  two  are  famous  watering-places.  Sf.  Morifz,  in  the 
Upper  Engadin,  609  feet  above  the  sea,  has  acidulous  and  ferruginous  springs, 
whilst  Tarasp  (4,912  feet),  in  the  Lower  Engadin,  and  its  neighbourhood,  abound 
in  springs  of  nearly  every  kind,  including  mofettas,  or  gas  springs.  At  both 
places  huge  hotels  have  been  constructed  for  the  accommodation  of  visitors.  The 
villages  in  the  Engadin  are  generally  wealthy,  many  of  the  inhabitants  having 
made  their  fortunes  abroad  as  pastrycooks  or  coffee-house  keepers. 

Descending  the  Rhine,  wo  pass  from  the  Grisons  into  the  canton  of  St.  Gallon.* 
On  our  left  we  perceive  Ragatz,  a  famous  bathing  town,  suj)plied  from  the  springs 
of  Pf  affers,  higher  up  in  the  Tamina  valley,  which  here  debouches  upon  the  plain 
of  the  Rhine.  The  only  Swiss  town  in  that  plain  is  Altstdttcn  (7,575  inha- 
bitants). But  long  before  we  reach  it  a  road  and  railway  branch  off  towards  the 
west  at  Sargans,  and,  passing  to  the  south  of  the  Walen  Lake,  conduct  to  the 
curious  old  city  of  Rapperswyl,  on  the  Lake  of  Ziirich,  here  crossed  by  a  wooden 
bridge.  St.  Galkn  (16,675  inhabitants),  the  venerable  capital  of  the  canton,  lies 
to  the  west,  beyond  the  Alps  of  Appenzell,  in  a  valley  tributary  to  the  Lake  of 
Constanz.  One  thousand  years  ago,  in  the  age  of  the  Carlovingians,  the  abbey  of 
St.  Gall  was  the   most  famous  school  of  learning  in   the  world.     A  monk  there 

and  secular  lords  ruined  the  wealth  of  the  country  by  their  continual  quarrels.  The  people  at  various 
times  rose  against  them,  and  destroyed  the  183  castles  which  they  had  built.  In  1393  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Lower  Rhine  valley,  of  the  Albula  valley,  and  of  the  Engadin,  formed  the  League  of  God's  House 
(Lia  Ca  De),  at  the  head  of  which  was  the  Church  of  Chur.  In  1424  the  inhabitants  dwelling  along  the 
two  head-streams  of  the  Rhine  and  on  the  Italian  slope  formed  the  Grey  League  (Lia  Grischa,  in  German 
Graubundeii,  in  French  Grisons),  thus  named  on  account  of  the  grey  dress  usually  worn.  In  1428 — 36  the 
small  villages  to  the  east  of  Chur,  in  the  Praetigau  (Landquart  valley"),  the  Schanfigger  valley  (Scana 
\-ieus),  and  the  Davos  valley  formed  the  League  of  the  Ten  Courts  (Lia  dellas  desch  dretturas).  In  1473 
these  three  leagues  combined  and  joined  the  Swiss  Confederation.  Of  the  inhabitants  30  per  cent,  speak 
German,  14  percent.  Italian,  and  56  per  cent.  Romaic  dialects.  These  latter,  however,  in  addition  to 
their  patois,  speak  in  most  instances  either  German  or  Italian. 

*  Sf.  Gallen  (St.  Gall).— Area,  780  square  miles;  population  (1876),  196,834.  In  1870  there  were 
116,060  Roman  Catholics  and  74,.573  Protestants.  The  canton  includes  the  valley  of  the  Rhine  down  to 
the  Lake  of  Constanz,  the  flourishing  old  county  of  Toggenburg,  drained  by  the  river  Thur,  to  the  north 
of  the  depression  through  which  the  Rhine  formerly  took  its  course,  and  which  extends  from  Sargans,  in 
the  east,  to  the  Lake  of  Zurich  in  the  west.  Within  it  lie  Lake  Walen  and  the  vale  known  as  Gaster.  The 
southernmost  portion  of  the  canton  is  exceedingly  rugged,  and  partly  covered  with  glaciei-s.  Dairy- 
farming  and  agriculture  are  of  importance ;  and  there  are  productive  coal  and  iron  mines,  slate  and  other 
quarries.  The  manufacturing  industry  is  mostly  confined  to  the  old  county  of  Toggenburg.  It  supplies 
cottons,  lace,  embroidery,  linen,  and  silk.  The  principal  towns  are  St.  Gallen,  Altstatten,  Wattwyl, 
Rorschach,  Wallenstadt,  and  Rapperswyl. 


TIIUROAU.  478 

compiletl  the  famous  chroulclo  wLii-li  recounts  the  achievements  of  Charlemagne ; 
and  Gerniau  becauK'  a  fixed  Lmguage  there  long  before  Luther  translated  the 
Bible.  This  famous  old  abbey  was  suppressed  in  18l»t>,  but  its  library,  with  its 
1,506  precious  codices  and  21,000  volumes,  has  been  carefully  preserved.  In 
addition  to  it  there  exists  a  town  library  of  28,000  volumes.  The  founder  of  the 
abbey,  St.  Gall,  an  Irishman,  lies  buried  in  the  abbey  church.  The  town, 
in  sjjite  of  its  great  elevation  above  the  sea  (:i,'.Hio  feet),  has  grown  into  a 
manufacturing  centre  since  the  thirteenth  century.  Formerly  the  linen  manu- 
facture predominated,  but  now  embroidered  muslins  form  the  staple  produce, 
and  the  vast  meadows  surrounding  the  town  and  its  suburbs  have  been 
converted  into  bleaching  grounds.  The  manufacturers  of  St.  Gall  are  a  pushing 
race,  and  maintain  agents  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  valley  of  Toggenburg, 
which  is  drained  by  the  Thur,  and  has  Watticyl  (5,494  inhabitants)  for  its  capital, 
lies  to  the  west  of  that  town,  and  forms  one  continuous  street  of  factories,  and 
one-eighth  of  all  the  cotton  stuifs  manufactured  in  Switzerland  are  produced  there. 
Uerismi  (9,727  inhabitants),  the  largest  town  of  the  canton  of  Appenzell,  belongs 
to  the  manufacturing  district  of  St.  Gall.  As  to  Appenzell  itself  (3,<J86  inha- 
bitants), it  is  remarkable  rather  on  accoimt  of  its  past  than  for  the  work  accom- 
plished in  its  workshops.  As  an  evidence  of  olden  times,  the  iron  eliain  and  collar 
of  the  pillory  still  remain  attached  to  the  walls  of  its  town-hall.* 

Thurgaut  is  to  far  less  an  extent  a  manufacturing  country  than  the  valleys  of 
St.  Gall,  Ziirich,  or  Lower  Appenzell.  Fratictifekl  (5,138  inhabitants)  and  its  other 
towns  and  villages  are  distinguished  rather  for  the  orchards  and  gardens  by  which 
they  are  surrounded.  liomaiis/iont  (3,141  inhabitants),  on  the  Lake  of  Constanz, 
and  the  neighbouring  port  of  Eorschach  (3,493  inhabitants),  in  the  canton  of 
St.  Galleu,  are  imported  grain  marts.  The  shipping  trade  between  the  Swiss  and 
Gei-man  shores  of  the  Bodensee  is  far  more  active  than  on  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 
On  the  latter  the  steamers  are  obliged  to  compete  with  railways  running  along  the 
northern  shore,  for  the  southern  is  bounded  for  the  most  part  by  steep  and  almost 
deserted  mountains.  On  the  Bodensee,  on  the  other  hand,  the  vessels  cross  the 
lake  transversely,  thus  connecting  the  terminal  stations  of  the  German  and  Swiss 
railways. 

The  Bodensee  (Lake  of  Constanz)  forms  with  the  Rhine  a  natural  frontier  on 

*  Appaiztll,  since  1597,  haa  boon  divided  into  the  Catholic  hulf-cantoa  of  Inner  Khoden  and  the  Pro- 
testant one  of  Outer  Rhodcn.  Tho  former  includes  the  upper  valley  of  the  Sittem,  with  Appenzell  for  its 
capital.  Tlie  inhabitants  depend  mainly  upon  dairy-fanning.  In  Outer  Rhodun  many  of  the  inhabitants 
iiro  engaged  in  muslin-weaving,  embroidery,  and  other  industries.  Tho  Appenzellcrs  are  noted  for  their 
gaiety  and  intelligence.  They  are  excellent  WTCstlers  and  marksmen.  They  were  formerly  tho  subjects 
of  the  Abbots  of  St.  Gall,  but,  being  cruelly  opi)ressed  by  them,  they  formed  themselves  into  lihodcn 
(Botten,  i.e.  bands),  and  recovered  their  independence. 

t  Thiirgau  (in  Frcn'.h  Thurgoiie). — Area,  382  sqiure miles  ;  population  (187C),  85,075.  In  1870  there 
were  69,231  Catholics  and  23, -454  Protestants.  Tho  canton  extends  along  the  Lake  of  Constanz  and  the 
Rhine  to  within  the  neighbourhood  of  .Schaffhausen.  Tho  Tliur  and  tho  Murg  are  the  princi])al  rivers. 
The  surface  is  undulating,  and  of  great  fertility.  The  Thurgau  is  the  granary  of  Switzerland,  and  its 
orchards  are  very  extensive.  Wine,  cider,  potato  brandy,  fruit,  corn,  fish,  and  cotton  stuffs  are  exported. 
Fraucnfcld  is  tho  capital. 


474  SWITZERLAND. 

the  north  of  Switzerland,  but  a  small  canton,  that  of  Schaffhausen,  lies  beyond  that 
river.  Its  capital  (10,303  inhabitants)  is  one  of  the  most  curious  cities  of  the 
Confederation,  for  by  the  side  of  old  towers  and  walls  rise  the  modern  factories. 
The  water  of  the  Rhine  has  been  conveyed  into  nearly  every  house,  where  it 
supplies  a  cheap  and  efficacious  motive  power.  The  Byzantine  minster,  built 
between  1104  and  1453,  possesses  a  bell  of  1486,  inscribed  "Vivos  voco,  mortuos 
plango,  fulgura  trango  !  "  The  Gothic  church  of  St.  John's  is  said  to  be  the 
largest  in  Switzerland.  The  neighbourhood  of  this  original  town  abounds  in 
delightful  sites.  No  doubt  grander  scenery  maj'  be  seen  in  other  parts  of 
Switzerland,  but  none  more  charming.* 

*  Schaffhausen, — Area,  114  square  miles,  population  (1876),  38,925.  In  1870  there  were  34,466  Pro- 
testants and  3,051  Catholics.  The  limestone  of  the  Randen,  a  miniature  of  the  Swahian  .Jura,  approaches 
close  to  the  Rhine.  Asjriculture  and  cattle-hreeding  are  the  principal  occiipations.  Corn,  potatoes,  wine, 
and  cattle  are  exported.  Cast-steel  files,  railway  carriages,  and  crucibles  are  manufactured.  The 
canton  joined  the  Confederation  in  1501. 


''W 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

AGRICTLTURE,  INDUSTRY,  AND  COMirERCE.* 


jLTIIOUGII  fur  less  than  one-half  of  the  area  is  capable  of  being 
cultivated,  and  much  of  the  remainder  lies  at  so  great  an  elevation 
above  the  sea  as  to  be  incapable  of  being  utilised  except  as  forests 
III-  pasture,  the  population  of  Switzerland  increases  annually  to 
the  extent  of  12,000  or  15,000  persons.  In  spite  of  its  extensive 
glaciers  and  snow-tields,  the  population  is  as  dense  in  Switzerland  as  it  is  in 
France. 

The  agricultural  produce  is  not  sufficient  for  the  support  of  the  inhabitants,  t 
About  one-third  of  the  corn  required  has  to  be  imported  from  Germany,  Hungary, 
and  the  Danubian  Principalities,  and  has  to  be  paid  for  out  of  the  profits  derived 
from  manufacturing  industries.  The  vine  is  cultivated  with  care,  and  the  sunny 
slopes  on  the  Lakes  of  Geneva  and  Neuchatel  and  of  the  Lower  Valais  form  one 
continuous  vineyard,  from  which  the  dreaded  phylloxera  has  hitherto  been  success- 
fully excluded.  But  the  wine  produced  does  not  meet  the  demand,  which  is  very 
large  in  some  of  the  cantons,  and  France  is  called  upon  to  make  up  the  deficiency. + 
Similar  deficiencies  take  place  in  all  other  kinds  of  agricultural  produce :  only 
fruit  is  grown  in  quantities  sufficient  for  home  consumption,  more  especially  in 
the  northern  cantons  of  Aargau,  Zurich,  Schaffhausen,  and  Thurgau. 

The  nature  of  their  country  precludes  the  Swiss  from  contending  with  neigh- 
bouring countries  as  to  ordinary  agricultural  productions,  but  their  unrivalled 
meadow  sand  pastures  largely  compensate  them  in  this  respect.      Formerly,  too, 

*   .\ccording  to  occupations  the  population  of  Switzerland  is  distributed  as  follows  : — 

Agriculture  and  cattle-breeding 4  4 -4  per  cent. 

Industry        ....  .         .         .         3-1-0       .. 

Commerce  ...  5-2 

Conveyance  and  trallic  .         .....  1'8      ,. 

Officials,  professional  men,  and  artists 3-9      .. 

Servants  (rendering  personal  services)  .  .  6"3 

Persons  of  indciicndent  means 39      „ 

t  Luzem,  Solothum,  Fribourg,  and  ScbufTbausen   export  corn  ;   Valais  and  Aurgau  grow  nearly 
sufficient  for  home  consumption.     All  other  cantons  are  compelled  to  import  largely. 

;  The  annual  production  of  wine  is  estimated  at  2.541,000  gallons.     It  is  most  considerable  in  Vuud, 
Valais,  Ziirich,  and  Thurgau. 


476 


SWITZERLAND. 


their  forests  yielded  a  supply  of  timber  and  fuel  amply  suflScient  for  home  con- 
sumption ;  *  but  since  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  forests  have  decreased 
considerably.  In  some  of  the  cantons,  and  more  especially  in  the  Valais  and 
Ticino,  the  trees  have  been  cut  down  without  the  least  thought  of  the  future,  and 
the  disastrous  consequences  of  such  wanton  destruction  have  not  failed  to  appear 
in  a  deterioration  of  the  climate  and  an  increase  in  the  destructive  action  of  mountain 
torrents.  The  Forest  Cantons  no  longer  deserve  that  name.  The  Kern-Wald, 
which  anciently  separated  the  two  portions  of  the  canton  of  Unterwalden,  has 
almost  disappeared.  Strict  laws  have  been  promulgated  for  the  protection  of 
national  and  communal  forests ;    but   much  of  the  forest  land  appears  to  have 

Fig.  325.— The  "  Se.nnhutten,"'  ok  Herdsmen's  Cabins,  of  the  Simmenthai. 

Scale  t:  H5,IX)0. 


fp^*   (4s%fYS«»*MlFji-  -    -J, 


..».  2  MileB. 


definitely  become  private  property,  in  spite  of  the  stipulation  that  it  should  be 
restored  to  the  communes  after  a  lapse  of  eight  or  nine  years,  and  is  not  afiected 
by  these  laws.  Thus,  year  after  year,  we  are  compelled  to  witness  a  diminution 
in  the  forests  of  Switzerland,  and  a  proportionate  increase  in  the  cost  of  timber  and 
fuel.      The  Swiss  now  import  large  quantities  of  timber  and  of  fuel,  in  spite  of  the 


*  Distribution  of  the  area  of  Switzerland  (1878) : — 

Area. 

Per 

Ai-ea. 

Per 

Acres. 

Cent. 

Acres. 

Cent. 

Aratleland.        .         .         1,500,180 

14-7 

Glaciers 

454,390 

4-4 

Vineyards     .         .                       75,370 

0-7 

Lakes  .... 

353,530 

3-5 

Meadows      .         .         .         1,600,000 

15-6 

Houses 

39,980 

0-3 

Pastures        .         .         .         2,242,000 

21-9 

Roads,  rivers,  waste  land 

2,067,110 

20-3 

Forests          .         .         .         1,906,290 

18-7 

Total,  unproductive 

2,915,010 

28-5 

Total,  productive         7,323,840 

71-5 

AGEICULTURE,  INDUSTRY.  AND  COMMERCE.  477 

fact  that  they  possess  almost  inexhaustible  stores  of  the  latter  in  their  vast  peat 
bogs  and  their  beds  of  lignite  and  anthracite. 

Fortunately  the  mountaineers  are  not  able  to  destroy  the  meadows  and  Alpine 
pastures,  which  constitute  the  principal  source  of  wealth  of  the  country.  They 
only  suffer  occasionally  from  floods,  which  cover  them  with  rubbish.  The  mountain 
pastures  arc  ohhvT  A//i)iiiifle — that  is,  commons  belonging  to  the  parishes  (ii'i-o  per 
cent.) — or  they  are  the  property  of  corporations  (!)  per  cent.)  or  of  private  owners. 

The  Alpine  pastures  are  divided  into  nearly  300,000  Stosse,  each  capable  of 
supporting  a  cow,  and  varying  in  size  from  1  to  10  acres,  according  to  their 
fertility.  They  are  valued  at  .£"3,200,000,  and  yield  animnlly  a  profit  of  over 
£400,000.  Every  citizen  is  entitled  to  pasture  a  certain  number  of  cows  or  other 
animals  upon  the  common  pastures.  The  village  usually  appoints  a  Scnn,  or 
herdsman,  and  sometimes  also  a  "  checsemaster,"  who  divides  the  cheese,  butter,  &c., 
amongst  the  persons  interested.  The  private  pastures  are  usually  farmed,  and  the 
manufacture  of  cheese  and  butter  is  frequently  carried  on  by  associations,  as  in 
the  French  Jura.  The  day  on  which  the  herds  leave  the  villages  for  the  mountain 
pastures  is  a  universal  holiday.  The  herds  gradually  proceed  from  Slaffel  to 
Sinjftl,  and  in  August,  or  earlier  if  the  weather  prove  unfavourable,  they  return 
as  slowly  to  the  villages.  The  Senn,  or  herdsman,  lives  in  a  hut  constructed  of 
rough  timber,  and  furnished  with  the  necessary  apparatus  for  making  cheese. 
Another  hut  serves  as  a  storehouse.  In  the  morning,  when  the  Senn  steps 
outside  his  hut,  he  blows  his  Alpine  horn,  made  of  the  bark  of  the  birch,  or 
yodels,  and  the  animals  intrusted  to  his  care  obey  the  accustomed  call  and 
collect  around  him  to  be  milked.  It  is  a  hard  life  the  Senn  leads  on  his  Alp, 
and  veiy  little  of  romance  is  attached  to  it. 

The  manufacture  of  cheese  and  butter  is  generally  carried  on  by  associations, 
as  in  the  French  Jura.  Swiss  cheese  is  highh-  esteemed  on  the  continent.  The 
best  sorts  are  made  at  Gruyere,  in  the  canton  of  Fribourg,  and  in  the  Emmcnthal.* 
The  making  of  butter  suffers  in  consequence  of  the  high  prices  paid  for  cheese, 
but  condensed  milk  forms  an  important  article  of  export.  The  cattle  of  Switzer- 
land, noted  for  their  strength  and  the  quantity  of  milk  they  yield,  belong  in  the 
main  to  two  races.  The  finest  representatives  of  the  brown  race  are  met  with 
in  Schwyz,  whilst  the  brindled  race  is  principally  seen  in  the  Alps  of  Bern  and 
Fribourg.  The  latter  is  said  to  resemble  the  cattle  of  Jutland  and  the  Baltic, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Burgundians.t     Swiss  sheep  and 

*  In  1875  398,000  cwU.  of  cheese,  valued  at  £1,400,000,  were  exported. 

1866.  1R76. 

t  Horses 100,324  100,935 

Asses  and  Mules *,475  3,145 

Milch  cows 653,205  692,460 

Other  catUc 440,086  443,470 

Sheep 447,001  367,550 

Goals 375,482  390,155 

Pigs 304,428  334.215 

Beehives —  177,825 

The  import  of  cattle  and  butter  regularly  exceeds  the  export. 
VOL.   n.  I  I 


478  SWITZERLAND. 

horses  generally  belong  to  inferior  breeds,  but  something  has  recently  been  done 
by  the  Federal  authorities  to  improve  the  former.  The  goats  are  actually  mis- 
chievous, for  they  destroy  the  forests. 

Silkworms  are  bred  in  Ticino,   and   snails,  for  exportation  to  Italy,  in  the 
Grisons. 

In  former  times,  when  only  a  small  area  had  been  brought  under  cultivation, 
the  forests  and  pasture-lands  did  not  suffice  for  the  maintenance  of  the  population 
of  the  countr}'-.  If  a  mountaineer  desired  to  acquire  wealth  he  was  compelled  to 
expatriate  himself  for  years,  and  to  go  in  search  of  it  to  the  towns  of  neighbouring 
countries.  Even  now  the  "  Fathers  "  of  many  wealthy  Alpine  parishes  take  every 
needful  precaution  in  order  that  the  population  intrusted  to  their  care  shall  not 
outgrow  the  resources  afforded  by  the  land.  Bound  to  support  those  of  its 
members  who  become  indigent,  they  do  not  readily  authorise  marriages ;  and  if  a 
family  should  grow  too  rapidly  they  jirovide  its  younger  members  with  a  viaticum, 
and  advise  them  to  go  in  search  of  fortune  in  the  wide  world.  In  former  times 
these  expatriated  sons  of  the  country,  provided  they  enjoyed  good  health,  found 
ready  employment  as  mercenaries.  More  than  twenty-one  centuries  ago,  we  are 
told  by  Polybius,  the  Celts  came  down  from  the  Alps  and  from  the  Upper  Rhone 
vallej'-,  and  sold  themselves  to  the  Romans,  in  order  that  they  might  fight  other 
Celts  living  in  the  plains  of  the  Po.  War  became  the  favourite  occupation  of  the 
mountaineers,  elated  by  their  great  victories  over  Austrians  and  Burgundians. 
Some  of  the  cantons  actually  made  money  by  trading  in  their  poorer  citizens. 
They  concluded  conventions  witli  France,  Austria,  the  Pope,  and  several  Italian 
states,  by  which  they  bound  themselves  to  furnish  regiments  of  soldiers,  either  for 
parade  or  for  actual  fighting.     For, 

"If  heroes  yon  ivould  have,  the  pay  must  he  high."  * 

As  recently  as  1855  one  of  the  Swiss  cantons  entered  into  a  so-called  "capitu- 
lation "  with  Rome  and  Naples.  But  neither  Luzern  nor  any  of  the  little  cantons 
would  dare  now  to  sell  the  flesh  of  their  sons.  The  young  men  whom  they 
expatriate  now  must  seek  to  make  a  living  by  some  other  means  than  soldiering. 

Nearly  every  mountain  \illage  cultivates  a  special  trade,  which  those  amongst 
the  young  men  who  emigrate  practise  in  the  towns  in  which  they  establish  them- 
selves. The  emigrants  from  one  village  are  all  of  them  chimney-sweeps ;  those 
from  another  glaziers  or  masons.  There  are  others  which  only  send  forth  knife- 
grmders,  cloth-dealers,  florists,  or  colliers.  The  men  from  the  valley  of  Blegno, 
in  the  canton  of  Ticino,  are  chestnut-roasters,  although  the  chestnut-tree  does  not 
grow  in  their  mountain  vallej^  The  Engadin  and  other  parts  of  the  Grisons 
supply  Europe  with  pastrycooks  ;  whilst  the  southern  valleys  of  Ticino  annually 
provide  Italy  with  builders,  designers,  and  painters.  These  emigrants  are,  as  a 
rule,  quite  as  careful  with  their  savings  as  the  parish  authorities  are  with  their 
parochial  treasure  chest.  They  spend  little,  pocket  halfpence  or  sovereigns  as 
may  chance,  and,  having  realised  a  competency,  they  return  to  their  native  valley, 

•  Le  Regiment  du  Baron  Madrnce. 


AGraCL'LTUUE.  iXDUtiTllY,  ANT)  COMXrERCE.  479 

where  they  build  themselves  a  house,  and  live  as  "  gentlemen  "  amidst  their  fellow- 
countrymen.  In  visiting  the  remote  Alpine  valley  u  stranger  feels  sometimes 
surprised  that  ho  should  bo  accosted  in  his  own  language.  One-fourth  of  the  natives 
of  Ticino  speak  French,  and  many  German  ;  hundreds  are  able  to  speak  a  few 
words  of  Spanish,  Arabic,  Greek,  or  Bulgarian.  On  returning  to  their  homes, 
manv  of  these  emigrants  keep  up  their  connection  with  the  countries  in  which 
they  realised  their  fortunes.  The  Swiss  of  Glarus,  St.  Gall,  and  Toggenburg 
have  established  agencies  in  all  the  principal  towns  of  Europe,  as  far  as  Scandi- 
navia and  Russia,  and  in  the  East.  China,  Brazil,  and  the  United  States  are 
amongst  the  best  customers  of  the  handicraftsmen  dwelling  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Alps  and  of  the  Jura.* 

Industry  is,  in  fact,  the  great  source  of  wealth,  which  enables  the  Swiss  to 
live  in  spite  of  the  small  agricultural  and  mineral  resources  of  the  country. 
Mining  is  carried  on  to  some  extent,  but  the  mineral  resources  of  the  country 
are  not  verv  great,  and  the  working  of  many  mines  has  been  discontinued,  owing 
to  the  cost  of  fuel.  Iron  ores  are  found  in  the  Jura,  in  St.  Gallen,  Solothurn,  and 
Valais.  About  632,000  cwts.  of  ore  are  raised  annually.  The  Alps  are  supposed  to 
be  rich  in  iron  ore,  but,  owing  to  the  want  of  fuel,  it  would  not  pay  to  work  them. 
There  are  copper,  zinc,  lead,  cobalt,  and  bismuth  mines,  but  their  produce  is  very 
scantj'.  Grold  in  small  quantities  is  found  in  the  sand  of  some  rivers,  and  silver 
in  the  argentiferous  lead  of  Yalais,  Bern,  and  the  Grisons.  The  salt  works  of 
Bex,  in  the  Yalais  and  to  the  west  of  Basel,  are  more  productive.  They  yield 
about  660,000  cwts.  annually,  in  spite  of  which  considerable  quantities  of  salt 
have  to  be  imported  from  abroad.  From  10,000  to  15,000  tons  of  asphalt  are 
obtained  annually  in  the  Val  de  Travers,  in  the  Jura.  Coal  is  found  in  the  Valais, 
in  Bern,  and  in  Fribourg ;  lignite  in  some  of  the  other  cantons  ;  but  the  quautitj' 
raised  (about  'JO, 000  tons  a  year)  is  insignificant.  Peat  is  found  in  most  of 
the  cantons.  Marble,  roofing  slates,  millstones,  and  building  stones  are  quarried 
extensively. 

Necessity,  which  compelled  so  many  to  emigrate,  induced  those  who  remained 
at  home  to  emploj'  the  long  winter  in  manufacturing  articles  in  wool  or  coarse 
linens,  which  they  sold  at  ridiculously  low  prices.  Such  was  the  modest  begin- 
ning of  Swiss  industry,  which  now  holds  so  respectable  a  place.  Though  obliged 
to  import  most  of  the  raw  produce,  Swiss  manufacturers  were  able  to  undersell 
their  foreign  competitors,  for  they  paid  lower  wages,  especially  in  the  mountain 
districts,  and  the  many  rivers  and  rivulets  furnished  them  gratuitously  with  a 
motive  power  for  their  machinery.  On  the  other  hand,  Switzerland  labours  under 
the  disadvantage  of  being  cut  o£E  from  the  sea,  which  places  it  at  the  mercy  of  its 
neighbours,  who  could  annihilate  its  commerce  by  the  erection  of  customs  barriers. 
Most  of  its  industries,  moreover,  have  no  connection  at  all  with  the  district  in 
which  they  are  carried  on,  such  as  exists  between  the  factories  of  many  foreign 
countries  and   the  coal  or  iron   mines   in    the  vicinity  of  which  they  grew  up. 

*  In  1870  the  numb«r  of  Swiss  residing  abroad  was  estimated  at  72,600.     Their  real  uuiiiber,  how- 
ever, is  sapposed  to  be  230,000. 

Tl2 


480 


SWITZERLAND. 


Watches,  for  instance,  can  be  manufactured  equally  well  in  other  countries,, 
and  Swiss  watches  actually  find  no  longer  a  market  in  France  or  the  United 
States.* 

But,  in  spite  of  this,  Geneva  and  the  Jura  are  the  most  important  centres  of 
watchmaking  in  the  world. t  This  branch  of  industry  is  carried  on  exclusively 
in  French  Switzerland.  The  Jura  supplies  principally  plain  watches ;  Geneva, 
watches  in  highly  ornamental  cases ;  and  Le  Loche,  pocket  chronometers.  To 
regulate  these  latter  an  observatory  has  been  established  at  Neuchatel.  The 
export  of  watches  to  the  United  States,  which  formerly  yielded  £520,000,  hardly 
reaches  now  £200,000 — a  most  serious  blow  to  so  important  a  branch  of  Swiss 
industry.     The  German  cantons  in  the  plains  and  hilly  district — Glarus,  Ziiricb, 


Fig.  326. — I.NDUSTEiAL  Map  of  Switzeiiland. 


Watches 


Cottons  and  Linens. 


Straw-plaiting 
and  Horsehair. 


St.    Gallen,    and   Appenzell — engage   in   cotton- spinning,   employing   2,000,000 
spindles  and  16,000  power-looms.     Silks  are  manufactured  in  Ziirich  and  Basel, 

•  Statistics  of  tho  leading  industries  of  Switzprland  (1875)  :— 

Textile  indiLstries  .         .         . 

Watclim.aking       .... 
Silks  and  ribbons 
Machine  shops     .... 
Total 

The  average  working  day  U  12  hours  24  minutes, 
t  Watchmaking  in  1875  : — 

Switzerland          ....  1,600,000  watches,  value  £3,520,000 

France 400,000         „            „        1,000,000 

England 200,000         „            „           640.000 

United  States      ....  200,000         „            „            600,000 


Opera 
Males. 
75,(100 

ives. 

Females. 
7-1,000 

Total  of 
their  Wages. 
£4,320,000 

Average  W.ages 
per  Day. 
Is.  lOd. 

67,000 

13,000 

2,520,000 

2s.    5d. 

33,000 

27,000 

2,016,000 

28.    3d. 

20.000 

— 

804,000 
£9.660.000 

2g.    7d. 

185,000 

115,000 

2s.    5d. 

AGRICULTURE,  INDU.STUY,  AKD  COJklMERCE. 


481 


which  are  formiduble  rivals  of  Lyons.  This  brunch  of  industry  is  very  old,  but  it 
only  attained  largei-  proportions  tlirough  the  ininiigratiou  of  Italian  and  French 
I'rotestauts  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  The  abolition  of  tho 
silk  duties  in  Knglaud  gave  on  immense  development  to  it,  whilst  tho  protective 
policy  of  the  United  States  threatens  it  with  destruction.  Silk  goods  valued  at 
£1,000,000  were  exportetl  to  America  in  187'2.  In  187(i  the  exports  had  fallen  to 
little  more  than  a  million  I  Tho  mechanical  embroidery  of  textile  fabrics,  chietly 
carried  on  in  St.  Gallon,  Appeuzcll  and  Thurguu,  has  likewise  grown  into  an 
important  branch  of  industry.'  The  manufacture  of  linen,  straw-plaiting,  the 
distillation  of  liqueurs,  and  wood-curving,  which  gives  so  much  pleasure  to  the 
visitors  of  the  Bernese  Uberland,  are  amongst  the  minor  industries.  Xor  must 
we  omit  to  notice  the  machine  builders  of  Ziiricli  and   Olten,  and  the  many 

Fig.  327. — An  Atalancbb  ok  tub  Ebemb  Fldh. 


handicraftsmen  who  devote  their  attention  to  the  production  of  a  groat  variety 
of  fancy  articles,  amongst  which  the  jewellery  of  Geneva  occupies  a  most  respectable 
place.     The  iron  works  only  produce  160,000  cwts.  of  pig-iron  a  year. 

M.  de  Laveleye  has  pointed  out  that  the  Swiss  workmen,  as  compared  with 
those  of  other  countries,  enjoy  a  great  advantage  by  sharing  largely  in  the 
property  in  the  land.  It  is  quite  true  that  at  Ziiricb,  Glarus,  and  elsewhere 
many  of  the  native  workmen  own  a  patch  of  meadow  land,  a  potato-field,  or 
a  couple  of  cows,  looked  after  by  the  wife  or  the  children.  But  in  Switzerland, 
as  in  all  manufacturing  countries,  the  workmen  are  for  the  most  part  solely 
dependent  upon  their  wages.      In  proof  of  this  we  may  cite  the  canton  of  Glarus, 

•  In  1876  there  were  10,237  embroidirinij;  machines,  and  including  the  workshops  they  were  valued  ut 
£1, 800,000.     About  25,000  ojieralives  were  tuiployud  in  that  branch  of  induatry. 


482 


SWITZERLAND. 


where  the  generjil  wealtli  has  more  than  quadrupled  since  1850,  but  where,  not- 
withstanding, only  one-third  of  the  population  consists  of  landowners,  whilst  half 
the  canton  is  the  property  of  no  more  than  thirty  individuals. 

Thanks  to  its  manufacturing  industry,  Switzerland  is  able  to  carry  on  a  veiy 
considerable  commerce.*  The  imports  from  France  include  woollen  stuffs  and  silks, 
wine,  flour,  jewellerj^,  and  hardware.  Italy  supplies  almost  exclusively  raw  silk. 
Germany  furnishes  corn,  flour,  and  all  kinds  of  manufactured  goods.  The  exports 
include  silks,  cotton  goods,  lace,  watches,  jewellery,  straw-plaiting,  cattle  and 
cheese,  wine,  liqueurs,  musical  boxes,  wood-carvings,  machinery,  asphalt,  &c. 
Free  trade  has  been  adopted  in  principle.     The   customs  duties  arc  principally 


Fig.  328. — The  Passes  oveu  the  Alps. 
Scale  1  :  2,400,000. 


10  Miles. 


levied  upon  luxuries  and  alcoholic  drinks,  and  the  transit  dues  were  abolished  in 
1867. 

J^ature  has  opposed  great  obstacles  to  the  development  of  commerce.  In  a 
country  of  mountains,  torrents,  avalanches,  and  landslips,  the  construction  of 
carriage  roads  entailed  a  considerable  amount  of  labour,  and  their  maintenance  is 
costlj'.  It  is  well  known  that  travellers  only  venture  timidly  info  certain  moun- 
tain gorges,  and  speak  with  a  subdued  voice  for  fear  that  the  vibration  of  the  air 
might  cause  an  avalanche  to  rush  down  the  mountain  slope  and  involve  them  in 
destruction.  In  spite  of  these  difficulties,  the  network  of  excellent  carriage  roads 
which  now  embraces  the  plain  and  the  hilly  regions  leaves  but  little  to  be  desired. 

*  In  1S74  the  imports  and  cxpoits  were  rouglily  estimated  at  £43,200,000,  or  £16  .58.  per  head. 

In  1876  the  imports  included  289,394  head  of  live  stock;  £107,613  worth  of  merchandise  taxed  ad 
valorem,  and  43,322,071  cwts.  of  other  goods. 

The  exports  included  105,782  head  of  live  stock;  £246,330  worth  of  wood  and  coal ;  and  4.453,979 
owls,  of  other  goods  (401,915  cwts.  of  cheese,  225,491  cwts.  of  colton  stuffs,  107,747  cwts.  of  cotton  yam 
and  twist,  24,216  cwts.  of  raw  silk,  58,341  cwts.  of  silk  stuffs  and  ribhons,  &c.). 


AGRICULTURE,  INDUSTRY,  AND  C(,»MM1:RCE. 


483 


More  tban  twenty  carriage  rouds  conuect  the  two  slopes  of  the  Jura.  Every 
one  of  the  lakes  is  skirted  by  roads,  some  of  them,  like  the  Axenstrasse, 
being  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock.  Excellent  roads  likewise  cross  the  principal 
passes  of  the  secondary  ranges  of  the  Alps,  and  some  amongst  these,  such  as  that 
of  the  Briinig,  which  connects  Interlakon  with  the  Lake  of  the  Four  Cantonp,  is 
frequented  annually  by  thousands  of  travellers.  As  to  the  Central  Alps,  many  of 
the  paths  which  lead  across  these  have  not  yet  been  made  practicable  for  carriages. 

Fig.  329. — The  Devil's  Uhidob  and  the  Koad  of  the  St.  Uottuauo. 


The  lamous  old  puss  which  tiie  Romuus  dedicated  to  Jupiter  Pa'uinus,  in  whose 
honour  they  erected  a  temple  upon  its  summits,  now  replaced  by  the  monastery  ot 
St.  Bernard,  is  practicable  only  for  mules.  The  Lukmanier,  which,  next  to  the 
Maloggia  in  the  Engadin,  Is  the  lowest  pass  over  the  Central  Alps,  still  waits  for 
its  carriage  road.  The  Septiiner  was  much  frequented  by  the  Romans,  and  the 
road  which  led  over  it  joined  that  over  the  Bernardino  on  the  northern  slope  at 
Curia  (Chnr),  on  the  southern  at  Clavenna  (Chiavenna),  but  merely  a  footpath 
leads  across  it  now.     On  the  other  hand,  passages  which  were  not  frequented  for- 


484 


SWITZEKLAND. 


merly  have  been  conquered  by  man.  The  most  important  road  which  in  our  days 
crosses  the  Alps,  that  of  the  St.  Gotthard,  penetrates  valleys  which  were  not 
known  to  the  Roman  legionaries.  Its  name  is  tirst  mentioned  in  1162.  Four 
other  international  high-roads  connect  the  two  slopes  of  the  Swiss  Alps.  Early 
in  the  century  not  a  single  international  carriage  road  crossed  the  Alps 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Brenner.  It  was  Napoleon  who  constructed 
not  only  the  roads  over  the  Mont  Cenis,  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  and  others  across 
the  Franco-Italian  Alps,  but  also  built  the  famous  road  over  the  Simp/on  (6,595 
feet),  which  was  completed  in  1806.  Several  great  high-roads  have  since  been 
constructed  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  communications  between  Switzerland 


Fig.  330. — The  Railways  oi-  Switzerland. 

Scale  1  :  1,280,000. 


U 


.  50  MUes. 


and  Italy.  The  road  of  the  St.  Gotthard  (6,936  feet)  connects  the  Lake  of  the 
Four  Cantons  with  the  Lago  Maggiore  and  Milan.  The  roads  over  the  Splugen 
(6,947  feet)  and  the  Bernardino  (6,770  feet)  join  the  valley  of  the  Hinter-Rhein, 
the  one  with  the  Lake  of  Como,  the  other  with  the  Lago  Maggiore.  The  Maloggia 
(6,100  feet)  connects  the  Upper  Engadin  with  the  Luke  of  Como,  the  Bernina 
(7,670  feet)  with  the  Val  Telina.  Amongst  the  passes  wholly  within 
Switzerland  that  of  the  Furka  (8,000  feet),  which  connects  the  valley  of  the  Rhone 
with  the  road  over  the  St.  Gotthard,  is  one  of  the  most  important  from  a  military 
point  of  view.  Four  carriage  roads  cross  the  Alps  which  separate  Chur  from 
the  Engadin,  \-iz.  those  of  the  Fluela  (7,888  feet),  the  Alhida  (7,584  feet),  Julier, 
and  Septimer  (7,347  feet).     The  most  elevated  bridle-path,  and  the  highest  pass 


•■  -  TH£ 

UNIVtftSlTy  of  ILLINOIS, 


r 


Oraiuie     ^ 


Git  curs 


Jl archie  r  /  inestorie 


SoaL 


LONDON  .  J  .  .'    \ 


■  . 

,-- 

■■  UKiuno 

1 

^ 

.•\}UV!. 

AOBICULTUUE,  INDUSTRY,  AXD  (dMMi;!:!!;. 


485 


in  ull  Europe,  leads  ovor  the  Muttcrjoch  (Ptmaijc  de  St.  Tlieodule,  10,020  feet). 
Accurdiug:  to  the  miiiibor  of  travellers  whieh  eross  them  annually  tliey  rank  in  the 
following  order : — .Siinplon,  Spliigeu,  beruardiuo,  and  La  Maloggia.* 

But  high-roads,  however  carefully  coustructed,  no  longer  sulHee  for  the  require- 
ments of  eonunerce  :  railways,  placing  the  country  into  connection  with  the  railway 
systems  of  other  countries,  have  become  indispensable.  Tlie  first  railway,  that 
from  Ziirieh  to  Haden,  was  opened  in  1847,  but  at  present  the  plain  of  Switzer- 
land has  more  railways  in  proportion  to  its  area  than  any  other  country  of 
Europe  ;  perhaps  too  many,  if  we  judge  them  by  the  profit  their  constructors  derive 
from  thcm.t  They  may  possibly  become  more  prolltable  after  they  have  been 
placed  in  direct  comniunicaliou  witli  the  Italian  railways,  and  this  great  work  has 
been  seriously  taken  in  hand.  Germany  and  Italy,  which  are  most  interested  in  the 
realisation  of  this  plan,  have  combined  with  Switzerland  to  construct  for  that 
purpose  a  tunnel  beneath  the  Tass  of  St.  Guttliard.     Amongst  all  the  great  works 

Fig.  331.— XuK  Tls.nel  op  the  St.  Ootthahh. 


P«vle  ].  175000 


_JMIU3 


Granitoid   (hieiaa.  Schistose  gnci«  and  mica  schist.     Oneiss,     Mica  schist    Mica 
gneiss.  schist,      and  gneiss,  schist. 

quartz. 


recently  accomplished,  this  piercing  of  the  St.  Gotthard  will  bo  one  of  the  greatest 
and  one  of  the  most  necessary.  Switzerland  would,  in  course  of  time,  become  a 
kind  of  blind  alley,  unless  a  road  were  opened  through  it  available  for  the  transit 
trade.  Goods  and  passengers  are  now  obliged  to  travel  by  way  of  France  or 
Austria,  but,  as  soon  as  the  tunnel  of  the  St.  Gotthard  shall  liave  been  opened  for 
traffic,  commerce  will  avail  itself  of  the  advantage  it  offers,  and  some  of  its  stations, 
high  up  in  the  mountains,  will  become  great  eiidrpots  of  European  importance. 
Results  such  as  these  cannot,  however,  bo  attained  without  exercising  a  potent 

•  III  1875  the  four  principal  Alpine  pusses  were  crossed  by  the  following  number  of  travellers: — 
St.  Gotthard,  6o,.500  :  Siinplon,  27,700  ;  Splugtu.  24,150  ;  Bernardino,  24,000. 

AltoiietbcT  the  Alpine  routes  weie  nutde  use  of  by  225,000  travellers  in  carriages,  und  by  ut  leu.st  as 
Diuny  pedestrians. 

t  In  1877  there  were  I,5C0  miles  of  Milway.  constructed  at  un  expense  of  £34,000,000.  In  1S7C  the 
revenue  deriveil  from  them  was  £2,1  3;i,G20,  or  £l,o02  a  mile. 

'i'hu  Post  Oniee  (1870)  forwarded  C5,03.i,290  letters,  20,389,833  parcels,  and  45,050,000  news|  apera. 

The  telegraph  lines  have  a  length  of  over  4,000  miles,  and  2,018,858  luess-iges  were,  sent  in  1876. 


486 


SWITZERLAND. 


Fi, 


332. — DiAGllAM     OF    THE     TuNXELS     OP     THE 
SiMPLON    AND    THE    St.  GoTTHAKD. 

Horizontal  Scale  1  :  4,000,000. 
Vertical  Scale  1 :  40,000. 


KoTile  l.eone 


influence  upon  political  geography.  The  high  chain  of  the  Alps,  which  hitherto 
formed  an  almost  impassable  barrier  between  nations,  will  exist  no  longer. 
Manners  and  customs  which  survive  only  in  remote  districts  will  be  swept  away. 
The  difficulties  presented  by  this  vast  enterprise  have  been  great ;  financial  mis- 
calculations have  led  to  embarrassment ;  but  the  work  is  nevertheless  progressing 
satisfactorily,  and  the  year  1880  will  no  doubt  see  its  accomplishment.  The  lines 
of  railwaj'  which  give  access  to  it  from  the  Forest  Cantons  and  Ticino  can  be 
opened  soon  after.* 

But  this  is  not  all.    If  German  Switzerland  ijierces  the  Alps  which  separate  it 
froni  Italy,  French  Switzerland  likewise  desires  to  obtain  a  direct  outlet  towards 

the  south,  and  its  interests  are  identical 
with  those  of  Northern  France.  In  fact,  a 
straight  line  drawn  from  Paris  to  Milan — 
that  is  to  say,  in  the  direction  of  Brindisi, 
Egj^t,  and  India — passes  through  the 
canton  of  the  Valais.  Engineers,  anxious 
to  find  the  most  favourable  locality  where 
they  might  pierce  the  Alps,  have  fixed 
\i])on  the  Simplon.  This  is  the  veritable 
gateway  into  Italy,  but  the  gate  requires 
ofDening.  As  compared  with  other  Alpine 
railways,  that  proposed  to  run  through 
the  tunnel  of  the  Simplon  will  possess  the 
inestimable  advantage  of  having  very 
gentle  gradients.  Its  construction  will 
be  less  costly,  and  its  traffic  can  be  carried 
with  far  greater  facility.  It  is,  therefore, 
much  to  be  desired  that  its  construction 
should  be  taken  in  hand  at  an  early 
date.t 

Another  gap,  the  Pass  of  Maloggia, 

at  the   other   extremity   of  Switzerland, 

at  the  head  of  the  Inn,  appears  to  offer 

many  advantages  for  the  construction  of  a 

railway  traversing    the   Alps    obliquely, 

and  connecting  the  valley  of  the  Danube 

with  the  Gulf  of  Genoa.     But  this  railway,  very  different  from  the  proposed  line 

over  the  Simplon,  would  for  a  considerable  distance  be  at  an  elevation  of  5,900 

feet  above  the  sea,  and  on  reaching  the  edge  of  the  pass,  very  appropriately  called 


•    to  30  3o  ^oSo  6070  80  gouoiuiioi3aiV«i^  tftoi;o  doigoioouofto  & 


*  The  total  lengtli  of  the  tunnel,  between  GiJsclienen  on  the  north  and  Airolo  on  the  south,  is  48,947 
feet,  or  9'3  miles. 

t  Comparison  of  Alpine  tunnels ; — 

Mt.  Cenis  St.  Gotthard 

(completed).  (constructing). 

Length  in  feet           ....         40,133  48,947 

Altitude     „                ....           4,100  3,785                   2,360 


Simplon 

(proposed). 

61,493 


AGKICULTUIUi,  INDUSTRY,  AND  COMMKBCE. 


487 


that  of  the  "  bad  quarters,  or  lodgings,"  it  would  be  necessary  to  construct  very 
costly  cmbankmeuts  in  order  to  reach  the  valley  of  Bregaglia,  lying  far  below. 


Although  years  may  pass  before  the  lines  through  the  St.  Gotthard  and  the 
Simplon  are  opened  for  traflBc,  the  number  of  travellers  is  ever  on  the  increase, 
and  Switzerland  has  almost  becojne  one  huge  hotel.  During  the  summer  season 
they  arrive  in  thousands,  and  all  the  languages  of  Europe  may  then  be  heard.* 
Many  of  these  visitors,  attracted  by  the  salubrity  of  the  climate  or  the  advan- 
tages of  living  in  a  free  country,  permanently  settle  there,  and  even  during 
winter  the   resident  foreign  jwpulation   is  very  considerable.!      Manufacturing 

Fig.  333.— Tub  Pass  of  SIalogou. 

Scale  I  :  95,000. 


1  MUe 


towns  like  Geneva,  Basel,  Ziirich,  or  St.  Gallen  attract  many  German  or  French 
workmen,  whilst  Italian  may  be  heard  wherever  railway  embankments  are  being 
thrown  up  or  houses  built. 

Tlie  natives  of  Switzerland  whom  a  traveller  encounters  whilst  passing  rapidly 
from  hotel  to  hotel  do  not  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  bulk  of  the  population.  Indeed, 
the  "exploitation  of  foreigners  "  is  not  the  least  profitable  industry  of  the  country.? 
Hotel-keepers,  carriers,  guides,  horn-blowers,  openers  of  gates,  guardians  of  water- 
falls, and  a  host  of  mendicants,  who  make  their  living  out  of  foreign  visitors,  never 

•  In  1869  InterUkea  waa  visited  by  175,000  strangers,  who  stayed  there  from  a  night  to  scvorul 
weeks. 

t  Number  of  forcisrners  domiciled  in  Switzerland  (1870),  160,900,  of  whom  63,117  were  Germans, 
62,228  French,  18.073  Italians,  2,297  English,  1..5y9  Russians,  1,404  .Xmericana. 

X  The  foreigners  who  annually  visit  the  Oberlund  arc  said  to  leave  £1,200,000  behind  them. 


488 


SWITZERLAND. 


hesitate  when  a  chance  of  making  something  out  of  him  presents  itself.  Every- 
thing is  sold,  down  to  a  glass  of  water,  or  even  a  gesture  indicating  the  route  a 
traveller  is  to  follow.  Fine  sites  are  taken  possession  of  and  enclosed  with 
barriers,  in  order  that  strangers  desirous  of  enjoying  the  prospect  can  be  made  to 
pay  for  it.  "Waterfalls  and  cascades  are  concealed  behind  hideous  palisades,  in 
order  that  the  travellers  not  willing  or  able  to  pay  may  be  shut  out  from  their 
enjoyment.  It  is  only  natural  that  this  avidity  should  disgust  foreign  visitors, 
but  in  a  world  where  the  love  of  lucre  is  being  perpetually  called  forth  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  form  an  opinion  of  the  true  moral  standard  of  the  persons  with  whom  we 
come  temporarily  into  contact. 

If  we  would  study  the  Swiss  as  he  is,  we  must  step  beyond  this  world  of  hotels, 

Fig.  334. — The  Moxch,  -with  the  Jvnofkau,  the  Silberhorn,  the  Schneehokn,  the  Altels,  and 

Blvmlisaii",   in   the  DISTANC'K. 


the  only  one  with  which  most  foreign  visitors  become  acquainted.  In  forming 
our  opinion  of  the  moral  character  of  the  people  we  must  be  guided  not  only  by 
our  own  personal  experience,  but  also  by  the  statistics  published  by  the  different 
cantons  and  by  public  societies.  Much  has  certainly  been  done  for  elementary 
education  ;  but  although  Switzerland  ranks  high  in  that  respect,  many  of  its 
cantons  lag  far  behind,  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  is  much  less  general  than 
in  Germany.  In  many  cantons  every  child  receives  an  elementary  education,  and 
some  of  the  adults  attend  superior  schools,  but  there  are  others  which  leave  much 
to  be  desired  in  that  respect.  The  school-house  is  the  finest  building  in  many 
villages,  and  in  some  of  the  towTis  veritable  palaces  have  been  constructed  to  serve 
the  purposes  of  education.  In  the  north-eastern  cantons,  where  the  vast  majority 
of  inhabitants  are  Protestant,  the  proportion  of  children  attending  school  to  the 


AGRICULTURE,  IXDUt^TKV.  AND  COMMKRCE.  Iht) 

whole  population  is  as  1  to  5,  while  iu  the  Imlf-riotcstant  cantons  it  is  as  1 
to  7,  and  in  the  TJoniun  Catholic  cantons  as  1  to  [).  Parents  urc  hy  law  com- 
pelled  to  send  their  children  to  school,  or  to  have  them  privately  taught,  from 
the  age  of  six  to  that  of  twelve  years  ;  and  neglect  may  be  punished  by  fine,  and 
in  some  cases  by  imprisonment.  The  law  has  not  hitherto  been  enforced  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  cantons,  but  it  is  rigidly  carried  out  in  those  whore  the  Protestants 
form  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants.  In  everj'  parish  there  are  clemenfary 
schools,  where  the  rudiments  of  education,  with  geography  and  history,  are  taught, 
and  the  number  of  secondary  schools  is  verj'  considerable.  Industrial  schools,  in 
which  girls  are  taught  needlework,  exist  in  connection  with  many  of  the  elementary 
schools.  Superior  schools  exist  in  fifteen  of  the  principal  towns.  Tiicre  arc 
colleges  at  Geneva  and  Lausanne,  and  universities  at  Basel  (founded  in  14(iO),  IJern, 
Ziirich,  and  Geneva.  These  latter  are  organized  on  the  German  system.  IS'o  less 
than  280  professors  and  teachers  are  attached  to  them,  and  they  are  attended  by 
1,200  pui)ils.  A  Polytechnic  school  was  established  at  Ziirich  in  18.j5,  and  is 
maintained  bj'  the  Federal  Government.  There  are  in  addition  five  agricultural 
schools,  sixteen  training  schools  for  elementary  teachers,  a  military  academy  at 
Tliun,  and  six  seminaries  for  the  education  of  Poman  Catholic  priests.*  Teaclicrs 
and  professors  are  in  many  instances  better  paid  than  in  the  neighbouring  coun- 
tries, and  they  enjoy  the  respect  of  their  fellow-citizcns.t 

The  number  of  public  libraries  is  large,  and  there  exist  numerous  societies  for 
the  promotion  of  art  and  science,  all  of  which  exercise  a  most  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  education  of  the  people.  Amongst  societies  embracing  the  whole  of 
Switzerland,  and  counting  their  members  by  thousands,  may  be  mentioned  the 
Art  Union,  the  Natural  History  Society,  the  Historical  and  Antiquarian  Societies, 
the  Unions  of  Choral  and  Gymnastic  Societies,  the  Unions  of  Swiss  Physicians  and 
Lawyers,  and  a  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Art  Indusfry.+ 

•  Educational  statistics  : — 6,500  clcmentarj'  schools  arc  attended  l)y  420,000  pupils.  They  nre  main- 
tained at  an  annual  expenditure  of  £268,000.  Education  is  most  widely  diffused  in  the  cantons  of  Basel 
Town,  Zurich,  and  Vaud,  where  only  4  out  of  everj-  1,000  inhabitants  are  illiterate.  In  the  cantons  of 
Unterwalden  (nid  dem  AVald^  Fribourg,  Valais,  .Schwyz,  and  Appenzell  (Outer  Rhodcn)  the  number  of 
illiterates  varies  Itetween  113  and  315  per  1,000. 

Out  of  every  1,000  recruits  no  less  than  9  are  unable  to  read! 

t  In  the  canton  of  Ziirich,  which  takes  the  lead  in  all  matters  relating  to  education,  the  elementary 
teachers  are  ]iaid  £92  to  £140  annually  in  the  town,  and  £48  as  a  minimum  in  the  country  districts,  in 
addition  to  which  the  country  schoolmasters  are  provided  with  lodgings. 

J  In  1876  there  existed  2.5  large  public  libraries  in  Switzerland,  with  920,500  volumes;  1,629  school 
and  people's  libraries,  with  087,950  volumes. 

There  existed  likewise  5,652  societies  or  clubs,  with  230,000  members. 

About  4 1 2  periodicals  are  being  published ;  266  in  German,  1 18  in  French,  16  in  Italian,  6  in  Romaic, 
.-ind  I  in  English- 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GOVERNMENT  AKD  ADMINISTRATION. 


WITZERLAND,  with  its  diverse  races  and  languages,  is  not  governed, 
like  most  other  states,  by  a  monarch  or  by  a  political  part)\ 
In  spite  of  the  centralizing  tendencies  which  have  been  at  work 
more  or  less  actively  since  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  each  canton  consists  in  reality  of  a  confederation  of  com- 
munes, or  parishes,  every  one  of  which  attends  to  its  local  affairs,  whilst  the 
Republic  itself  includes  a  number  of  cantons  enjoying  a  large  amount  of  autonomy. 
In  former  times  Switzerland  was  cut  up  into  several  hundred  independent  states, 
every  one  of  which  was  governed  on  different  jDrinciples,  and  which  hung  only 
loosely  together  in  case  of  emergency.  The  valley  formed  the  natural  unit  of 
these  states — the  Republican  cellule  of  the  entire  organism  as  it  were.  The  Grisons 
present  a  striking  instance  of  this  kind.  The  communes  there  are  sej^arated  by 
barriers  of  mountains,  rocks,  and  snow-fields,  and  were  thus  able  to  maintain  their 
independence.  They  combined  into  three  leagues  for  the  purpose  of  administering 
the  interests  they  had  in  common,  and  these  three  leagues  again  formed  them- 
selves into  a  federation  for  the  defence  of  the  country  against  foreign  aggression 
(see  p.  491). 

The  Swiss  Republic,  taken  as  a  whole,  did  not  at  that  time  realise  our  ideal  of 
what  such  a  bodj''  politic  should  have  been.  Feudal  practices,  and  military  expedi- 
tions undertaken  for  the  sake  of  conquest,  formed  a  strange  and  curious  contrast 
to  the  practice  of  local  liberty.  Serfdom  existed,  and  in  Solothurn  was  abolished 
only  in  1782.  The  inhabitants  of  the  plain  and  of  the  hills,  whom  nature  had  not 
protected  against  the  incursions  of  armed  bands,  became  the  "cattle"  of  feudal 
lords  and  princely  abbots.  The  laws  differed  throughout  the  country,  and  the 
privileges  accorded  to  members  of  the  Confederation  varied  according  to  the 
accidents  of  conquest  or  of  alliances.  Some  of  the  towns  enjoyed  the  title  of 
"allies,"  without  being  sovereign  ;  others  were  admitted  as  "protected  towns  ;  " 
others,  again,  were  treated  as  victims  of  conquest,  and  had  to  obey  the  behests  of 
individual  cantons,  or  of  the  Swiss  "people"  met  in  "  Tagsatzung,"  or  Parliament. 
It  required  the  terrible  shock  of  the  French  Revolution  to  change  this  state  of 


GO\'ERNMENT  AND  ADMINISinATIOX.  491 

affairs,  and  to  turn  Switzerland  into  paths  more  comformiible  witli  our  modern 
ideas  of  civilisation  and  civil  liberty.  Tho  curious  distribution  of  Protestants  and 
Catholics  in  Switzerland  clearly  proves  the  fyrauiiical  manner  in  which  each  of 
these  little  states  was  formerly  governed.  Keligion,  festivals,  and,  in  fact,  every- 
thing, was  enforced  by  laws  and  customs.  It  merolj'  depended  upon  the  issue  of  a 
battle  whether  the  inhabitants  of  a  certain  district  should  conform,  at  least  out- 
wardly, to  the  ceremonies  of  one  of  the  two  contending  confessions.  Hence  this 
strange  intermingling  of  Catholics  and  Protestants,  independently  of  diUerences 
of  language  or  of  natural  geographical  boundaries.  But  toleration  has  recently 
become  the  rule,  and  religious  strife  is  less  violent  than  it  used  to  be.  Still 
even  recently  a  new  relijjious  sect  has  been  establislied,  that  of  the  Old  Catholics, 
whose  principal  stronghold  is  in  the  cantons  of  Solothurn,  Bern,  and  Aargau.* 
They  constituted  themselves  a  separate  Church  in  June,  1876,  elected  a  bishop, 
and  now  number  80  congregations,  with  75,000  members.  The  cantonal 
authorities  at  the  same  time  took  measures  to  repi-ess  the  opposition  which 
some  of  the  Catholic  clergy  oft'ered  to  the  laws  of  the  state,  and  more  esiiecially 
to  the  election  of  priests  by  the  parishioners,  as  being  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the 
Church.  In  the  Jura  and  in  Geneva  military  force  was  employed  to  maintain  the 
authority  of  the  state,  and  quite  recently  the  priests  appear  to  have  submitted. 
Peace,  however,  has  not  been  restored,  and  the  suppression  of  monasteries  and 
convents  is  not  calculated  to  allay  the  discontent  of  the  clergy  and  of  a  con- 
siderable body  amongst  the  laity.  There  now  remain  32  monasteries  and  53 
convents  in  Switzerland,  the  former  with  438,  the  latter  with  2,132  inmates. 
Amongst  the  farmer  the  Benedictine  abbeys  of  Eiusiedlen,  Engelberg,  and 
Dlsentis,  and  the  monasteries  of  the  St.  Bernard  and  the  St.  Gotthard,  are  the 
most  famous. 

Some  of  the  smaller  cantons  (Glarus,  Uri,  Appcnzell,  and  Unterwalden) 
have  retained  their  old  popular  assemblies,  or  lamhgctneimhu,  at  which  all  citizens 
of  the  canton  deliberate  in  common.  The  latulsgemeinden  of  Schwyz  and  Zug  have 
been  abolished — the  former  in  1798,  the  latter  after  the  religious  war  waged 
against  the  Sonderbund.  The  meetings  in  the  two  Forest  Cantons  of  Uri  and  Unter- 
walden are  attended  by  a  considerable  amount  of  display,  and  are  very  curious 

•  The  Swim  Confederation  (Eidgcnossenschaft)  was  founded  in  1315  by  the  eantons  of  I'ri,  Sohwyz, 
and  Unterwalden;  Luzem  acceded  in  ISS'i,  and  thus  arose  the  federation  of  the  four  Forest  Cantons 
CWaldBtutte).  Zurich  joined  in  13.51,  Zug  and  Glarus  in  1352,  Bern  in  1353.  The  Federation  thin 
lusumed  the  title  of  "  Eidgenossenschaft  of  the  Eipht  Towns."  Tliis  union  imparted  strength  to  the  Con- 
federation, and  it  became  aggressive,  and  the  great  victories  at  Granson  and  Murten  (1470  and  U76) 
established  ita  fame.  By  the  treaty  of  Basel  (U99)  tho  independence  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  had 
iH-en  virtually  aeVnowledgcd,  although  it  remained  nominally  a  member  of  the  Empire  until  the  treaty  of 
Westphalia  (1648).  Solothurn  and  Fribourg  joined  tho  Federation  in  1481,  Basiel  and  SchalThausen  in 
1501,  and  Appenzell  in  1513.  The  thirteen  cantons  named  formed  the  Federation  up  to  tho  outbreak  of 
the  French  Kcvolution.  In  addition  to  them  there  were  "  associates,"  such  as  tho  Abbots  of  St.  Gall  and 
the  town  of  Biel,  who  sent  representatives  to  the  Parliament ;  confederates  or  allies,  including  the 
Orisons,  the  Valais,  Keuchitel,  Geneva,  and  a  portion  of  the  bishopric  of  Basel,  and  MuUiausen,  in  Alsjitia ; 
and  "subjects"  (the  Thurgau,  Vau  I,  and  other  territories).  French  armies  overthrew  the  old  Federa- 
tion, and  established  in  its  place  an  Helvetian  Republic  (1798),  which  a  few  years  afterwards  became 
virtually  a  dependency  of  France.  The  Valai.t  and  Geneva  became  French  department*.  The  Congress 
of  Vienna  (1813;  established  Switzerland  within  its  actual  limits  and  guaranteed  its  neutrality. 


492  SWITZERLAND. 

spectacles,  recalling  a  bj'gone  age.  In  reality,  however,  the  virtual  power  reposes 
in  the  hands  of  a  few  leading  families.  Far  more  influential  is  the  landsgcmeinde, 
which  meets  at  Trogen,  in  the  canton  of  Apjoenzell,  for  it  is  frequently  attended  by 
more  than  10,000  citizens.  The  assembly  of  Glarus,  however,  has  succeeded  most 
in  maintaining  its  ancient  prerogatives.  This  meeting,  in  accordance  with  ancient 
custom,  is  attended  also  bj^  the  children.  Seated  beneath  the  hustings,  thev  listen 
to  the  speeches  made  by  their  fathers,  and  are  thus  initiated  into  the  politics  of 
the  canton.  In  the  larger  cantons  a  body  chosen  by  universal  suffrage  exercises  all 
the  functions  of  the  landxgemeixden. 

Five  cantons  (Geneva,  Neuchatel,  Yalais,  and  Ticino)  retain  the  representative 
institutions  which  up  to  1863  were  in  force  in  the  majority  of  the  cantons.  A 
Common  Council — Grosser  Rath,  or  Grand  Conseil — is  elected  by  universal 
suffrage  every  two,  three,  or  four  years.  The  Executive  (Staatsrath,  or  Conseil 
d'Etat)  is  elected  by  the  Common  Council,  as  are  also  the  judges  of  the  superior 
court,  who  usually  servo  for  nine  years,  and  the  prefects,  or  Amtmiinner,  of  the 
districts.  The  Common  Council  is  a  legislative  body,  and  only  bills  affecting  the 
constitution  of  the  canton  must  be  submitted  to  a  popular  vote  before  the-  become 
law. 

All  other  cantons — and  they  are  the  majority — have  recently  given  themselves 
purely  democratic  constitutions.  In  all  of  these  the  Common  or  Cantonal  Cou"ncil 
is  elected  by  universal  suffrage,  and  in  some  of  them  also  the  executive,  the 
judges,  and  principal  officers.  Bills  and  estimates  are  prepared  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people,  but  they  have  no  final  force  until  the  body  of  citizens  has 
had  an  opportunity  to  express  an  opinion  with  respect  to  them.  This  "  Referen- 
dum "  is  either  obligatory  or  facultative.  In  the  former  case  all  bills  must  be 
submitted  to  a  popular  vote  ;  in  the  latter  they  are  submitted  only  on  the  requisi- 
tion of  a  certain  number  of  citizens,  or  in  the  case  of  money  bills,  if  the  sura  voted 
exceed  a  certain  amount.  In  addition  to  this,  a  certain  number  of  citizens 
may  compel  the  Council  to  take  into  consideration  any  bill  that  may  be 
deemed  of  public  interest.  Moreover,  in  some  of  the  cantons  the  Common 
Council  may  be  called  upon  to  retire  before  the  expiration  of  the  usual  term 
of  office.  Self-government  is  rigidly  carried  out  in  all  these  democratic  com- 
monwealths, most  of  the  officers  being  elected.  The  members  of  the  repre- 
sentative bodies  throughout  Switzerland,  as  well  as  most  of  the  magistrates, 
are  either  honorary  servants  of  their  fellow-citizens  or  receive  a  merely  nominal 
salary. 

The  local  laws  differ  in  many  particulars.  The  penalty  of  death  and 
corporal  punishment  have  been  abolished  throughout ;  the  gambling  hell  at  Saxon 
will  soon  be  closed  ;  but  vestiges  of  mediaeval  processes  still  remain.  Other  cantons 
have  proved  themselves  more  accessible  to  modern  ideas.  In  Ticino  the  principle 
that  criminals  should  be  punished  only  with  a  view  to  their  moral  regeneration  is 
universally  accepted,  and  the  punishment  is  frequently  remitted.  The  numerous 
ancient  laws  still  in  force  in  many  cantons  lead  to  an  immense  amount  of 
litigation ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  pressure  exercised  by  the  Federal 


GOVERXMEXT  AND  ADMIXISTRATION. 


493 


TTigli  Court  of  Justice  at  Lausanne  will  finallj*  lead  to  the  acceptation  of  a  code 
which  shall  have  force  throughout  the  Federation. 

The  greatest  difference  between  the  members  of  the  Federation  results  from 
their  inequality  in  area  and  population.  The  area  of  the  canton  of  the  Grisons 
is  nearly  two  hundred  times  more  extensive  than  that  of  the  half-canton  of 
Basel  Town,  whilst  the  canton  of  Bern  has  forty-six  times  more  inhabitants  than 
that  of  Unterwaldon  nid  dem  "NVald.  But,  in  spite  of  these  great  differences  of  area 
and  population,  the  nineteen  cantons  and  six  half-cantons  enjoj'  the  same  rights 
and  privileges  in  their  local  government,  the  only  disability  of  the  half-cantons 
being  this,  that  they  are  represented  in  the  State  Council  only  by  one  member 
instead  of  two.*  Of  all  the  Federal  republics  Switzerland  approaches  nearest  to 
our  ideal  of  a  Government  carried  on  by  the  people.  In  accordance  with  the 
constitution,  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  is  acknowledged,  and  the  powers  of  the 
State  are  wielded  by  functionaries  elected  by  them,  or  ajipointed  with  the  consent  of 


Zilrich  . 
JBom  (Bemc) 
tl.iizem  (Lucerne) 

trri     .      . 

tSchwyz  (Schwitz) 

tUntcrwalden   ol)  i 
dem  W'ald         J 
Untcrn-aldcn  nid  j 
dem  AV.ald        ( 
Glarus  (Claris) 
tZtig       . 
tFribourgfFrcibui^) 

tSolothum  (SoleuTp) 
Bastl  (Bale)  Towti 
„       Country 
SchaflFhausen 
Apponzell,  Outer  j 
Rhoden  * 

tAppcnzell,  Inner ) 
Rhoden  i 

JSt.Gallen(St.  Gall) 
JGianbunden(Gri-  \ 
sons)  ) 

tAargau  (A^go^ie) . 
{Thurgau  (Thur-  > 
govie)  / 

tTicino  (Tcssin) 

Vaud  (TVaadt) 
tValais  (Wallis)      . 

Ncuchatcl    "I 
(Xcucnburg)  J 
JGenfeve      (Genf, ) 
Genera)         / 

Total 


•  Total  Area. 
Sq.51. 
6.56-9 
2659-9 
679-5 
415-4 
350-8 

18.33 

11-2-2 


266-9 

92-3 

644-4 


Glaciers. 
tq.M. 

lU-4 

44-3 
0-5 

3-9 

1-4 
13-9 


0-04 

0-4 

2-9 
138-7 


131 
4-3 

375-2 


710-0 


luhnbitonts. 

Lakes.  Dec.  31,  1870  July  1, 1876  Inhnb.  to   rrcrailing 

Sq  M.  (Census).  (Estimated),  a  Sq.  M.   Nationality. 

29-2  284,786  294,994  443         German 

47-4  606,455  628,670  236        Germ.,  French 

25-2  132,3;!8  133,316  230        German 

7-8  16,107  16,900  41 

21-0  47,705  49,216  141 


4-4 

124 

2-7 
13-1 
451 

0-1 


0-04 
0-2 

29-6 

6-8 

3-3 

50-4 

25-6 

156-6 

6-7 

36-9 

11-6 

635-1 


14,415 

11,701 

35,151 

20,993 

110,832 

74,713 
47,760 
54,127 
37,721 

48,726 
11,909 

191,015 
91,782 

198,875 
93,300 

119,620 

2.31,700 

90,887 

97,284 

93,196 

2^69,095 


15,009 

11,993 

36,179 

21,775 

113,952 

77,803 
51,515 
65,548 
38,925 

48,879 

11,907 

196,834 
92,906 
201,567 
95,074 
121,768 
212,439 
100,490 

102,843 

99,352 

2,759,854 


82 

107 

134 
236 
177 

259 

3,680 

280 

344 

488 
195 

252 
34 
373 
250 
lU 
195 
50 

331 
920 
173 


French,  Germ. 
German 


(  Germ. .Romaic, 
(         It.ilian 
German 

German 

Italian 

French 
(  French,  Germ., 
(         Italian 

French 
French 


t  Catholic  cantons. 


VOL.    II. 


X  Mixed  Catholics  and  Frotestants. 
K    K 


494  SWirZEELAXr. 

their  representatives.  The  legislative  powers  are  vested  in  the  people  and  their 
representatives,  and  measures  of  paramount  importance  must  be  referred  to  the 
voters,  without  whose  approbation  they  cannot  pass  into  laws.  Every  citizen  may 
propose  a  law,  and  if  he  can  obtain  the  support  of  one- thirteenth  of  the  electors  of 
his  eaaton  he  mav  take  the  opinion  of  the  cantonal  authorities  upon  it.  In  this 
macnsr  the  whole  of  Switzerland  has  been  converted  into  a  huge  parliament,  of 
which  every  Swiss  citizen  is  a  member. 

The  central  authority,  up  to  l&i8,  was  exercised  by  the  Tagsatzung,  or  Diet, 
which  alternately  sat  at  Zurich,  Luzem,  and  Bern.  Each  canton  or  half-canton 
was  represented  bv  a  Delegate,  compelled  to  vote  in  accordance  with  the  instructions 
furnished  by  his  constituency.  The  large  and  wealthy  cantons  had  no  more  to 
sav  than  the  small  ones,  and  the  half-cantons  had  virtually  but  a  consultative 
vote,  for  by  a  legal  fiction  two  half-votes  were  not  considered  to  count  as  a  fuU 
vote,  and  a  bill  was  not  considered  to  have  been  carried  if  11 A  votes  had  been 
recorded  in  its  favour.  The  small  cantons  actually  governed  the  country.  These 
evils  were  put  a  stop  to  by  the  Constitution  adopted  on  the  12th  September,  1848, 
on  the  conclusion  of  the  Separatist  war,  which  converted  a  loose  federation  of 
sovereign  cantons  into  a  Federal  state. 

In  virtue  of  this  Federal  pact,  amended  in  a  spirit  of  centralization  in  1874, 
no  canton  is  permitted  to  form  political  alliances  with  other  cantons  or  with 
foreign  states.  All  sovereign  powf  rs  have  been  delegated  to  the  Xational  Assembly. 
It  alone  can  conclude  treaties  or  declare  war ;  the  military  forces,  towards  which 
each  canton  contributes  a  contingent,  only  obey  its  orders ;  it  coins  money  and 
superintends  weights  and  measures ;  it  carries  on  the  postal  and  telegraph  services, 
and  levies  the  customs  duties.  The  Federation  likewise  watches  over  the  rights 
and  pri^-ileges  of  the  citizens,  and  interferes  whenever  a  canton  attempts  to 
violate  the  law. 

Religious  liberty  is  guaranteed,  and  elementary  education  throughout 
Switzerland  is  to  be  compulsory,  secular,  and  gratuitous.  If  30,000  citizens  or 
ei»ht  cantons  require  it,  each  bill  carried  by  the  National  Assembly  must  be 
submitted  to  a  popular  vote.     This  is  called  a  Referendum. 

Bern  has  been  chosen  capital  of  the  country,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Jfational 
Assembly,  or  Bundes-Versammlung,  which  consists  of  two  chambers.  The  State 
Council  fStanderath)  is  composed  of  forty-four  members,  chosen  by  the  cantons 
and  half-cantons,  the  former  being  represented  by  two,  the  latter  by  one  member. 
The  National  Council  (Xationalrath)  consists  of  135  representatives  of  the  people, 
chosen  in  direct  election  at  the  rate  of  one  deputy  for  every  20,000  souls.  A 
general  election  of  representatives  takes  place  every  three  years.  Every  citizen 
of  the  Republic  who  has  attained  the  age  of  twentj-  years  is  entitled  to  a  vote  ;  and 
any  voter,  not  being  a  clergyman,  may  be  elected  a  deputy.  The  chief  executive 
authority  is  deputed  to  a  Bundesrath,  or  Federal  Council,  consisting  of  seven 
members,  elected  for  three  years  by  the  Federal  Assembly.  The  President  and  Vice- 
President  of  the  Federal  Coimcil  are  the  first  magistrates  of  the  Republic.     Both 


GOVERNMENT  A.\l>  AHMIXISTRATIOX.  495 

are  elected  liy  tbo  Federal  Assembly  for  the  term  of  one  year,  and  are  not 
re-eligible  till  after  the  expiration  of  another  year.  The  seven  members  of  the 
Federal  Council— each  of  whom  has  a  salary  of  X'480  per  annum,  while  the 
President  has  t'.j40 — act  as  ministers  or  chiefs  of  the  seven  administrative  depart- 
ments of  the  llepublie. 

The  eleven  members  of  the  Federal  Tribunal  are  elected  for  six  years  by  the 
Federal  Assembly.  It  decides  on  all  matters  in  dispute  between  the  cantons,  or 
between  cantons  and  the  central  Government,  and  acts  in  general  as  a  High  Court 
of  Appeal.  Its  seat  is  Lausiinne.  The  constitution  of  1874  abolished  corporal 
punishment  and  the  penalty  of  death,  and  transferred  all  legislation  on  commercial 
matters  and  copyright  to  the  National  Assembly. 

There  is  no  standing  army,  but  all  citizens  are  called  upon  to  render  military 
service  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  forty-four,  or  to  pay  an  exemption-tax 
should  they  be  physically  unfit.  The  BtiiHlcs-Auszitg  (field  force,  absurdly  called 
elile  in  the  French  cantons)  consists  of  all  men  up  to  thirty-two,  and  each  canton 
is  required  to  furnish  a  force  equal  to  at  least  3  per  cent,  of  its  population,  and  in 
addition  a  reserve  of  half  that  strength.  The  Landwchr  (militia)  includes  all 
men  who  have  passed  through  the  Auszug.  Most  of  the  expenses  connected  witli 
the  army  are  borne  by  the  Federation.* 

The  cantons  le\-y  the  recruits,  appoint  the  officers,  and  carry  on  tlie  adminis- 
tration of  their  contingents.  The  Federal  authorities  furnish  the  instructors, 
and  exercise  a  general  control.  All  legislation  on  militarj'  matters  emanates  from 
them. 

The  army,  though  not  a  standing  one,  nevertheless  weighs  hea%-ily  upon  the 
Federal  and  cantonal  budgets,  and  a  deficit  has  become  almost  chronic  since  the 
middle  of  the  present  century.  The  first  Federal  loan  was  contracted  in  1867, 
and  fresh  loans  will  have  to  be  contracted  in  future  every  year  unless  the  cantons 
are  called  upon  to  cover  the  deficiency  in  the  public  revenue.  This,  however 
would  be  a  dangerous  experiment,  for  most  of  the  cantons  raise  their  revenues  by 
direct  taxes,  and  would  resent  any  increase  of  the  heavy  burden  they  are  obliged 
to  bear  even  now.  The  Federal  revenue  is  derived  chiefly  from  customs,  for  the 
Post  and  Telegraph  Offices  yield  but  a  small  surplus.     A  portion  of  the  revenue  is 

•  Federal  army  (December,  1876) : — 
Acszio. 

Staff 

Infantry,  107  battalions 
Cavalry,  24  squadrons  and  12  troops 
Artillery,  CD  batteries  and  train  . 
Engineers.  8  battalions 
Hospital  Corps     .... 
Administrations  .... 
Permanent  Instructorb 


Each  man  undergoes  six  to  eight  weeks'  setting-up  drill,  and  as  long  as  he  remains  in  the  Auszug  he 
annually  attends  a  week's  or  a  fortnight's  training,  according  to  tbe  branch  of  the  army  to  wliich  he 
belongs. 


Lamiwehb. 

620 

Stuff    .... 

HO 

98,188 

107  battalions 

81,617 

2,046 

24  squadrons  and  12  troops 

2,279 

1.5,530 

23  batteries  and  train 

7,421 

2,2S5 

8  battalions 

1,484 

8S7 

— 

292 

604 

187 

— 

12{>.fi:Jo 

93,515 

496 


SWITZEELAND. 


paid  over  to  the  cantons.     These  latter  derive  their  chief  revenue  from  a  property 
tax  of  one  and  a  half  per  miUe.* 


*  Eevenue  and  expenditure  of  the  Confederation  : — 


1S74 
1875 
1876 
1878 


Revenue. 
£1,873,792 
1, .580,640 
1,659,496 
1,642,600 


Expenditure. 
£991,295 
1,570,640 
1,704,880 
1,684,920 


The  military  expenditure  amounted  to  £580,239  in  1876,  as  compared  with  £127,439  in  1872. 

The  public  dcht  of  the  Eepuhlic  amounts  to  £1,170,000.  As  a  set-off  against  the  debt  there  exists  a 
so-called  "  Federal  fortune,"  including  lauded  property  and  invested  capital.  It  is  valued  at  £1,271.33.', 
hut  only  yielded  £11,736  in  1876. 

The  cantonal  debts  probably  amount  to  £400,000. 

Taxation,  inclusive  of  what  is  levied  by  the  cantons,  is  sufficiently  onerous  to  excuse  a  great  amount 
of  grumhUng. 


INDEX. 


Aar,  427,  429,  430 
Aar,  Canal  of  the,  465 
Aargiiu,  466 
Abbc\-iUe,  334 
Abizc,  lU 
Adour,  4o 
AJiiln,  406 
AgJe,  118 
Agdc,  Capd",  110 
Agen,  67 
Agiiillon,  67 
A him,  200 
Aigueperso,  196 
Aigucs-Mortts,  103,  121 
Aiguillier,  182 
Aiguillon,  218 
Ain,  loO,  133 
Ain  DeiMirtment,  157,  3S6 
Airo,  68,  337 

Aisne  Department,  310,  389 
Aix,  127 
Aixe,  200 
Aix-les-liains,  145 
Ajol,  Valley  of,  353 
Alais,  120 
Albcres,  23 
Albert,  332 
Albertrille,  145 
Albi,  192 
Albigeois,  191 
Albula,  431 
Aldorney,  209 
AJpn(;on,  275 
Al.-sia,  162,  167 
Alet,  115 

Al.tsch  Glacier,  400,  422 
Allaasac,  198 
AUevard,  142 
AUier,  201,  223 
AUier  Department,  201,  38 
Alprs-5Iaritime8,  134 
Alpilli-8,  77 
Alps,  French,  78 
Alturf,  469 
AlUtatten,  472 
Amberieu,  157 
Ambert,  197 
AmbletcoBC,  336 
Amboise,  236 
Amiens,  332 
Amplepui*,  173 
Ancenis,  243 
VOL.    II. 


AndelvB,  315 

Andoiinatt,  393 

Androzieux,  204 

Andiize,  120 

Angers,  239 

Angouleme,  212,  213 

Anianc,  1 1 8 

Aniche,  339 

Anneey,  140 

Annocy,  Lake  of,  90 

Annonav,  124 

Antibes,"  134 

Autifer,  290 

Appcnzell,  473 

Aps,  123 

Apt,  139 

Aran,  31 

Arbois,  159 

Arbreale,  173 

Are,  77 

Arc,  Pont  d",  96 

Areachon,  42,  72 

Arcis-sur-Aubc,  291 

Arcueil,  307 

Ardk-he,  95 

Arddche  Department,  122,  385 

Ardennes,  349 

Ardennes  Department,  350,  390 

Ardres  337 

Argeles,  Glacier  of,  36 

Argens,  107,  130 

Argcntan,  276 

Argentat,  197 

Argentcuil,  SCO 

Argenton,  233 

ArgoWe,  467 

Ariegp,  55 

Arlanc,  197 

Aries,  63,  128 

Annagnac,  65 

Armentiires-sur-Lys,  340 

Armissan,  117 

Arques,  321 

Arras,  337 

AiTeau,  60 

Ar8-en-R6,  217 

Arve,  88,  90 

Asnieres,  307 

Aspc,  02 

Aspres,  53 

Attigny,  352 

Aubapie,  127 

L    I, 


Aubo,  281 

Aube  Department,  291,  388 

Aubcnas,  122 

Aubirvilliers,  307 

Aubin,  191 

Aubusson,  200 

Aiuli,  65 

Aude,  27,  28,  106,  115 

Aude  Department,  115,  38A 

Audineourt,  160 

Angst.  407 

Amnale,  321 

Aunic,  210 

Auray,  258 

Aure,  00 

Aun-.  Kiver,  273 

Aurillac,  194 

Auriol,  127 

Auterive,  58 

Authion,  224 

Autnn,  169 

Auvergne,  181 

Auxerre,  290 

Auxonne,  165 

Avallon,  290 

Aveuches,  458 

Aventicum,  458 

Avcsnes,  337 

AvcjTon,  06 

AvcjTon  Department,  190,  3S8 

A^Hgnon,  137 

Arize,  294 

A\Tanches,  275 

Ax,  55 

Axenstrassc,  470 

Ay,  294 

Azincourt,  334 

Baccarat,  354 

Baden,  4GS 

Bagneres-de-Bigorre,  60 

Bagneres-de-Luchon,  .'36,  67 

BagiioUes,  276 

Bagniils-8nr-C(^zc,  121 

Bailleul,  342 

Balanic,  119 

Bfile,  465 

Banduls,  131 

Baiai836  RoiiKs6,  134,  136,  IJT 

Bajiaume,  3:)7 

Barbttste,  67 

Barbczieux,  MH 


498 


INDEX. 


Barcelonnette,  140 

Bareges,  02 

Barfleiir,  274 

Bar-le-Duc,  350 

Bar-sur-Aube,  291 

Bar-sur-Seine,  291 

]5asel,  465 

Basques  in  the  Pj-renees,  37 

Basses-Alpes,  140,  386 

Basses-Pyrenees,  62,  384 

Bussin,  276 

Bastide,  La,  193 

Batz,  229,  231 

Baume-los-Dames,  161 

Baux,  129 

Bavai,  338 

Bayeux,  276 

Bayonne,  63 

Bazas,  09 

Beam,  45,  62 

Beaiicaire,  121,  122 

Beauce,  233 

Beaufort-en-Vallee,  239 

Beaugency,  234 

Beaujcu,  173 

Beaujolais,  173,  188 

Beaumont,  65 

Beaune,  167 

Beauregard,  235 

Beauvais,  314 

Bedarieux,  117 

Begles,  "2 

Belfort,  162 

Belpoeh,  115 

BeUac,  200 

BeUegarde,  53,  ISl 

Belle^-iUc,  173 

Belley,  157 

Bellinzona,  453 

Berck-sur-Mer,  331 

Bcrgerac,  199 

Bergues,  342 

Bern,  461 

Bern,  Canton,  460 

Bemay,  316 

Bemina,  406 

Berro,  112 

Berthoud,  463 

Besancjon,  161,  162 

Besseges,  120 

Bethune,  337 

Bex,  454 

Bezenet,  201 

Beziers,  117 

Biarritz,  64 

Biel,  463 

Bienne,  464 

Bicnne,  Lake  of,  426 

Bifevre,  Plateau  of,  94 

BQlom,  197 

Bize,  117 

Blamont,  354 

Blanc,  233 

Blanquefort,  73 

Blanzy,  170 

Blaye,  73 

Blois,  234 

Blumlisalp,  401 

Bocage,  276 

Bodensee,  473 

Boen,  205 

Bohain,  311 

BiUene,  139 

Bonaguil,  67 

Bonfol,  467 

Bonneval,  86 

Bonneville,  147 


Bordeaux,  69,  70 

Bom,  Pays  de,  41,  69 

Bort,  197 

Bosco  in  Ticino,  448 

Bosmoreau,  200 

Bouchcs-du-Rhone,  124,  385 

Bougival,  308 

Boulogne,  307,  335 

Boulogne  HiUs,  323 

Bourbon-Lancy,  170 

Bourbon-rArchambault,  204 

Bourbonno-les-Bains,  291 

Bom-bourg,  342 

Bourg,  73,  157 

Bourgancuf,  20O 

Bom-g-de-Peage,  142 

Bourg-d'Oisans,  143 

Bourges,  232 

Bourget,  Lake  of,  91,  92 

Boiirgoin,  144 

Bourg  St.  Andeol,  123 

Bourgueil,  237 

Bouscat,  Lc,  72 

Boussac,  2Ul 

Bouxnnes,  342 

Bouzigues,  119 

Brantonie,  199 

Brassac,  197 

Bray,  287 

Brehat,  202 

Bresse,  La,  353 

Bressuire,  220 

Brest,  200 

Brctagne,  246 

Breteuil,  316 

Brian(;on,  139 

Briare,  234 

Brides,  145 

Brie,  297 

Brie-en-Comte,  298 

Brieg,  454 

Brienne,  291 

Brienz,  464 

Brieuz,  Lake  of,  427 

Briev,  355 

Brignolles,  133 

Brigue,  451 

Brionne,  316 

Brioude,  190 

Brittany,  246 

Brive,  198 

Brugg,  468 

Brunnen,  470 

Bugue,  Lc,  199 

Burgdorf,  463 

Burgundy,  148 

Bussang,  353 
Bussy-le-Grand,  107 
Buzan(;ais,  233 

Cadillac,  69 

Caen,  277 

Cagots,  63 

Cahors,  193 

Calais,  336 

Calanda,  Mount,  404 

Calas,  189 

Caluirc,  172 

Calvados  Department,  276,  388 

Camargue,  101 

Cambrai,  Ii38 

Camembert,  276 

Campan,  60 

Cancale,  265 

Canigou,  25 

Cannes,  135,  138 

Cantal,  181,  194,  386 


Cap-Breton,  68 

Capvern,  62 

Carcanieres,  55 

Carcassonne,  116 

Carentan,  247 

Carhaix,  261 

Carignan,  351 

Carlat,  194 

CarUtte,  26,  28 

Carmaux,  191 

Caronte,  113 

Carpentras,  138 

Cassel,  342 

Cassis,  127 

Casteljaloux,  67 

Castelmoron,  07 

Castclnaudary,  115 

Castel-Sarrasin,  05 

Castets,  09 

Castillon,  73 

Castrcs,  193 

Catcau-Cambresis,  338 

Catogne,  410 

Caudorun,  72 

Caudi-y,  338 

Caxines,  116 

Caussade,  66 

Causse  of  Mejean,  175,  176 

Cauterots,  02 

Caux,  288 

Cavaillon,  138 

Cayeux,  334 

Cazaubon,  05 

Cazeres,  68 

Celts,  10 

Cenis,  Slont,  85 

Cento  Valli,  394 

Cerdagne,  La,  28 

Ceiet,  63 

Cerons,  09 

Cette,  118 

Cevennes,  174 

Chabeuil,  142 

Chablais,  146 

Chagny, 108 

Chaise-Dieu,  190 

Chalabre,  115 

Chalin,  162 

ChaUes,  145 

Chalonnes,  239 

Chalons-sur-Mame,  293 

Chalons-svir-Saone,  108 

Chains,  200 

Chamagne,  353 

Chambery,  145 

Chamboi^  201 

Chambon,  Le,  204 

Ch:imbord,  236 

Chamonix,  87,  147 

Champagne,  284 

Champagney,  164 

Champagnole,  159 

Champtoce,  239 

Channel  Islands,  206 

Channel  Tunnel,  328 

C'hantenav,  243 

ChantiUyi  313,  314 

Chantonnav,  221 

Charente,  206,  207,213 

Charonte  Department,  212,  387 

Charente- 1 nferieure,  214,  3i)7 

Charenton,  307 

Charite,  231 

CharleviUe,  351 

Charollais,  188 

CharoUes,  170 

Chartres,  235,  236 


INDEX. 


499 


Chartrcuso,  143 

Churtnusf,  Unindo,  82,  87 

Chuasirou,  Muut,  415 

Chati-aubriaut,  245 

Chatcuu-Chinon,  232 

0>ut«au-ilu-Loir,  241 

Chatiaudua,  234 

Oiatcau-CJontier,  242 

ChaU'auneuf,  234 

Chitoaunfuf-l£andon,  189 

Cliateaurenault,  237 

Chiteauroux,  233 

Chatcau-'lTiiirry,  311 

CbaU-Mon,  196 

ChaU'lIerault,  219 

Cliatillon,  167,  2o3 

Chatix>.  233 

Ojauffailli-s,  170 

Cliauinont-en-Ua«ign_v,  292 

Ckaunv,  312 

Chaussado,  La,  231 

Cham-igny,  219 

Chaux,  lo'o 

Cliaux-di-Fonds,  460 

Chavagruai',  194 

ChazflU-s-sur-Lyon,  -'05 

Chenoncoaux,  236 

Chtr  Department,  232,  387 

Chirbourjf.  273 

Chessy-Us-XIints,  173 

Chinon.  237 

Choisv-leltoi,  307 

Cholet,  239 

•  'homdrac,  124 

Chrishooa,  466 

Chur,  471 

Churfirsten,  405 

CinteiraUlle,  58 

Ciotat,  127 

Cirev,  354 

Ci\-rav,  218 

Clairsic,  07 

Cluirvaux,  159 

Oaniecv.  232 

Clermont,  195,  314,  350 

Clennont-l'Hcxault,  118 

Horv,  234 

Clksun,  243 

Cloves,  236 

Clunv,  169 

Clusis.  147 

Coire,  471 

Coiron,  122 

CoUioure,  53 

Combourg,  265 

Commentry,  201 

Comnienv,  ^J50 

Compi;-^e,  312,  314 

Concamc-au,  259 

Condc-8ur-Xoireau,  278 

Condon,  65 

Confolens,  212 

Conftanz,  Lake  of,  432 

Corbeil,  309 

Corl.ie,  332 

Corbiere--*,  29 

C<.rde^  192 

Comouaille,  250 

Correze  Department,  197,  386 

Cosne,  231 

Costabona,  53 

Cote-d'Dr,  104 

Cotcntin,  246,  270 

Cotos,  73 

C'6tcs-du-\ord    Department,    261, 

388 
CdUi  St.  Aadii,  143 


Coition  Alps.  78 

Couehes-lcs-Minea,  169 

Coulmiers,  234 

Coulonimiers,  298 

Couronne,  La,  214 

Coursan,  116 

Coutanees,  274 

Cninsae,  191 

Cr.ion,  242 

CVapponne's  Canal,  99 

Crjiu  of  Crapponne,  99 

t'reev,  334 

(.Vil,  314 

Crest,  142 

Creiise  De[>artmont,  200,  386 

Cn-usot,  Le,  109 

Croisie.  231,  245 

Crussol,  124 

Cuers,  132 

Cuire,  172 

Culoz,  91 

Cusset,  202 

Damctal,  318 

Dauphinc,  80 

Dax,  68 

Deeazeville,  191,  192 

Decizc,  231 

Denain,  338 

Dent  du  Midi,  396 

Deols,  233 

Devil's  Bridge,  483 

Di'voluv,  83 

Diablerets,  402 

Die,  14? 

Dieppe,  320 

Dieu-le-Fit,  142 

Digne,  140 

Diifoin,  170 

Dijun,  165 

Dinan,  203 

Disentis,  472 

Dives,  279 

Dol,  265 

DGle,  1.59 

Dol-er-Verchant,  15 

Domlies,  156 

Domfront,  276 

Donmie,  199 

Doniremv,  353 

Douzv,  231 

Dorat,  200 

Durdogni',  187 

Dordogne  Department,  198,  386 

Dure,  Mont,  183 

DoiLii,  339 

Douamenez,  2C0 

Doubs,  151,  154 

Duubs  at  St.  Ursannc,  4 1 2 

Doiibs  Department,  159,  380 

Doue-la-Fontaine,  239 

Doullens,  334 

Dourdan,  309 

Hover,  .^trait  of,  328 

Drae,  92.  94 

Draguignan,  133 

Dranse,  423 

Drf  ux,  J36 

Drnme,  94 

Drome  Department,  111 

Dunkirk,  343 

Dun-le-Koi,  232 

Durance,  97 

Eauzc,  65 
Kliene  Fluh,  481 
iCbreiiil,  202 


Keluse,  L",  90,  151 

Kinsii-dUn,  470 

Klbiuf,  317 

Klne,  53 

Kirilirun,  139 

Knj,iidin,  406,  472 

Kngliien,  309 

Entlebueh,  468 

Kntre-deux-Mere,  09 

K|>emay,  294 

KpiiiHo,  109 

isjiinal.  .•)62,  363 

Knlns  226 

I'.niir,  242 

Kspalion,  191 

Kspiuouze,  174,  176 

Ivssonnc,  309 

Kstngel,  66 

Ktuin,  350 

Etanipes,  309 

Ktuples,  334 

Ktretat,  318 

Ku,  321 

Kure  Department,  314,  3S9 

Eure-et-Loir,  236,  387 

Evaux,  201 

Evien,  147 

Evreux,  316 

Evron,  242 

EjTiioutiers,  200 

FasTies,  349 

Falaiso,  279 

FaueiiniV,  146 

Faueiiles,  345 

Faulhom,  401 

Fa  verges,  146 

Feeamp,  319 

Felletiu,  200 

Felsberg,  404 

Ffere-Champenoise,  294 

Fernev,  157 

Ferric-res,  298 

Ferti- Bernard,  241 

Ferte-.Macc,  La,  276 

Ferte  sous- Jouarrc,  298 

Feurs,  204 

Fi;,'iac,  193 

Finistire  Department,  258,  388 

Fimiiny,  204 

I-leniings  in  Prance,  329 

Fkrs,  276 

neuranee,  65 

Florae  189 

Fuhn,  436 

Foix,  55 

Fontainebleau,  297,  298 

FonUnav,  290 

Fontenay-le-Comt«,  220 

Fontenov-lc-Chiteau,  354 

FonteWelle,  129 

Fontcvrault.  239 

Forcalquier,  140 

Funst  Cantons,  469 

Fore/.,  188 

Forigny,  276 

Fougeres,  205 

FougiToUes,  164 

Fouillouse,  204 

Four  Cantons,  Ijiko  of,  429,  468 

Fourchambault,  231 

Fourmies,  337 

Fnintlu-Conitf',  14S 

Frjinqiii,  109 

Fniii.'ufeld,  473 


500 


INDEX. 


Freiburg,  458 

Froil,  123 

Frcjua,  133 

Frejus,  Pass  of,  85 

French  national  character,  20 

Fresnay-Ie-Vicomte,  241 

Fresnoy-le-Grand,  314 

Frevent,  334 

Fribourg,  458,  459 

Frontignan,  119 

Fronton,  58 

Frouard,  354 

Fumay,  351 

Funiei,  07 

Fuveau,  127 

GaiUac,  193 

GaiUon,  315 

Gallargues,  120 

Ganges,  118 

Gannat,  202 

Gap.  140 

Gard,  96,  98 

Gard,  Department  of,  119,  385 

Gardanne,  127 

Garde-Freinet,  132 

Gardon,  96 

Garonne,  48,  71 

Gatine,  206 

Gavacherie,  69 

Gavaches,  117 

Gavamie,  34 

Gave,  46,  02 

Gauls,  14,  16 

Gemmi  Pass,  454 

Geneva,  .J50 

Geneva,  Lake  of,  423,  455 

Genevre,  Jlont,  79 

Gentilly,  307 

Gerardmer.  347,  353 

Gergovia,  185 

Gers,  49,  50,  64 

Gersau,  470 

Gerson,  352 

Gevaudiin,  176 

Gex,  157 

Gien,  234 

Giessbach,  464 

Gignac,  118 

Ginoles,  115 

Giromagny,  163 

Gironde,  12,  50,  52,  71 

Gironde  Department,  69 

Gisors,  315 

Giyet,  352 

Givors,  173 

GJaciers  of  S^-itzerland,  414 

Glarnisch,  404 

Glarus,  471 

Godemar,  82 

Goldau,  470 

Gourdon,  193 

Goumay,  321 

Graisivaudiin,  94 

Graissessac.  117 

Gramat,  193 

Grand  Colombier,  91 

Grand'Combe,  120 

Grand  Croix,  204 

Grande  Brifere,  228 

Grand  Lieu,  227 

Gi-mson,  459 

Granville,  275 

Grasse,  136 

Graubiinden,  471 

Grau  du  Koi,  104 

Graulhet,  193 


Gravelines,  342 
Gray,  164 

Greeks  in  France,  18 
Grenade,  58 
Grenoble,  142,  144 
Greoulx,  141 
Grignan,  142 

Grindelwald,  400,  428,  464 
Gris-Nez,  Cape,  324 
Grisons,  471 
Grisons,  Alps  of,  405 
Gruissan,  116 
Guer.ande,  245 
Guerche,  232 
Guerot,  200 
(iueriguy,  231 
CJuemsey,  268 
Guines,  336 
Guingamp,  262 
Guise,  312 

Habsburg,  468 

llalluin,  341 

Ham.  332 

Ilandock,  402 

Hartleur,  319 

HasU,  402,  447 

Haspan-en,  63 

Hautcfort,  199 

Haute-Garonne,  57 

Ilaute-Saone,  163,  368 

Hautes-Alpes,  139,  385 

Hautes-PjTeuees,  59,  38'' 

Hautmont,  338 

Ha^Te,  286,  317 

Haj'e,  La,  238 

Hazebrouck,  342 

Helvetians,  445 

Hendaye,  64 

Henin-Lietard,  337 

Herault,  108,  HI,  117 

Herault  Department,  117,  385 

Hcricourt,  163 

Herisau,  473 

Hesdin,  334 

Heve,  Cap  de  la,  287 

Hirson,  312 

Hondschoote,  344 

Honfleur,  279 

Houdan,  309 

Hyeres,  76,  131,  132 

Iberians,  16 

Ilanz,  471 

Hie,  54 

lUe-et-VUaine    Department,     265, 

388 
Hlgraben,  396 
Imphv,  231 
Indre",  243 

Indre  Department,  232,  387 
Indre-etiLoire;  236,  387 
Indret,  243 
Interlaken,  463,  464 
Iseran,  Mont,  86 
Isere,  93 

Isfere  Department,  142,  385 
Isle  d'Albi,  L',  193 
Isle-Jourdain,  65 
Isle,  L',  138 
Issoire,  197 
Issoudun,  232 
Ivrv,  307 

Iviy-la-BataiUe,  316 
Iwuy,  338 

Jai'geau,  234 


Jersey,  266 

Jcumont,  338 

Joigny,  291 

Joinvilie-en-Vallage,  292 

Jonzac,  214 

Josselin,  258 

Joux,  157,  159 

Joux,  Lake  of,  413 

Juf,  437 

Jura,  149 

Jura  Department,  168   386 

Jura,  Swiss,  409 

KUsanacht,  469 

Labouheyre,  69 

Labrit,  68 

Lacaime,  193 

Ladins,  448 

La  Fere,  312 

LaFleche,  241 

Lago  Maggiore,  420 

La  Grave,  Glacier  of,  82 

La  Hougue,  274 

Laigle,  276 

Lalinde,  187,  199 

La  Manche  Department,  272,  38S 

Lamballe,  263 

Lambczellec,  261 

Landerneau,  261 

Landos,  39,  67 

Landrecies,  337 

Langeac,  190 

Languau,  463 

Langogne,  189 

Langon,  69 

Langres,  291,  292 

Languedoc,  20,  109 

Lannemezan,  62 

Lannion,  261 

La  Nouvelle,  116 

Lans-le-Bourg,  145 

Lanvaux,  247 

Laon,  310,  312 

La  Keole,  69 

Largentifere,  122 

La  Salle,  120 

La  Seyne,  131 

Lattes',  119 

Laufen,  433 

Lausanne,  454 

Lauterbrunnen,  464 

Laval,  242 

Lavaur,  193 
Lavaveix,  200 
Lavelanet,  55 
La  Voulte,  124 
Leberon,  83 
Lectoure,  65 
Le'is  Mourre,  83,  8S 
Le  Luc,  133 
Leman,  Lake,  423 
Lens,  337 
Le  Pouzin,  124 
Lescure,  193 
Lesneven,  261 
Lesparre,  73 
Leucate,  109 
Leuk,  454 
Le  Vigan,  119 
Levroux,  233 
Lez,  107 
Lezignan,  116 
Liboumo,  73 
Liestal,  465 
Ligny-en-Barrois,  35G 
Lille,  339,  340 


INUKX. 


6U1 


Lillobonne,  31 S 

laiimutt,  410,  4.'9 

Liiuugt'8,  '200 

Liiiiuuiiiii,  8ti 

Liiiioux,  115 

Liuth.  430 

LiuH  iiult,  74 

Ljdit-ux,  279 

Ijvruu,  142 

Lo<.*iu7io,  4o3 

Loi'huo,  237 

Loilo,  Le,  460 

LAH-uiiiriiikor,  US 

L.h1ovi-,  117 

Loin',  12,  222 

Loiru  l).i>iirlnu'ut,  204,  387 

Loin>,  Haute,  189,  3  ti 

Loire-Infiricun.  242,  S88 

Loir-et-ChLT,  234,  387 

L<jin-t  Uopartiatut,  233,  387 

I^muif^i',  U7 

LuiuIk-z,  Go 

Ix>ii^'iiiiT,  343 

I^mpvv,  365 

Lous-lc-SauniiT,  159 

Lorvttf,  204 

Lorjruiw,  133 

Uiriiut,  258 

Uiriol,  142 

Lorraine,  350 

LorrU,  234 

hut.  186 

Lot  Department,  193,  386 

Lot-t  t-Unroiuic,  07,  384 

Loudeuc,  261 

Loudun, 219 

Loiiei'ho,  454 

Louhans,  168 

Lourches,  338 

Lourdes,  62 

Louviere.  315 

L*>zere,  189 

Lozi-re  Department,  189,  386 

Lucerne,  408 

Luion,  220 

Lude,  Lc,  241 

Lu^no,  453 

Lupine,  Lake  of,  421 

Lukiimnier,  393 

Lun.l,  119 

IjUneville,  354 

iMTcy-ljCYy,  204 

Lure.  163 

Lusieiian,  219 

Lut.s.'hino,  428 

Luvnes,  237 

LuziH.li,  191 

Luzem,  468,  469 

Luxeuil,  164 

Lyons,  171 

Slacon,  168 
Slapj^,  420 
MaRuilone,  113 
5Iaine-et-Ixjire,  238,  387 
Slaisons-I^ffitle,  309 
JIaladetta,  31 
Malaucene,  139 
Mabu,  U,  117 
Malplaquet,  338 
Maim  r»,  241 
ManoiH)ue,  140 
Mans,  Ijc,  240 
^lautes-la-Jolio.  309 
Manns  218 
Marrhienni-n,  339 
Man<i-en-llaru.'ul,  340 


Marennes,  216 

Maritime  Al)>ii,  78 

Manualide,  67 

Slame,  284 

Mariie  De|>Hrtmcni„  292,  389 

Mame,  Haute,  291,  389 

Man|uiiu>,  336 

ManK'illan,  119 

MarseilleH,  124 

JIartel.  193 

MartiKHy,  454 

Jlartnx,  58 

Marvejols,  189 

Mas  d'A^iiais,  Lo,  67 

Maad'Azil,  30,  56 

Maiuiae,  194 

Slatterhom,  398 

Mauln'iige,  337 

Sliiulcon-Liehurre,  63 

Mauriae,  194 

Slaurienne,  85 

Maiirs,  194 

Mayenne  Department,  242,  387 

M^izamet,  193 

Meaux,  298 

Medje,  81 

Medoe,  73 

Slehun,  232 

Meilhan,  67 

Melle,  219 

llelun,  297 

Menat,  197 

Monde,  189 

Mentono,  134 

Jler,  234 

Merij^nao,  72 

Meltray,  237 

Alcung,  234 

Meurtho-ct-Mo3elle,  364,  390 

Meuse,  348,  3o0 

Meuse  D,-partmcnt,  350,  390 

llej-mac,  197 

Mevringen,  402,  463 

lleze,  119 

Mt'zcnc,  177 

llezi^res,  351 

Mczin,  67 

Midi,  Canal  du,  106 

Millau.  190 

Mille  Vaehes,  186 

Mimizan,  69 

5Iiner\e,  117 

Miraniont,  67 

Mirande,  65 

ilirecourt,  353 

Mirepoix,  55 

ilistliabel,  396 

Mistral,  114 

Moissac,  66 

Monaco,  134,  379,  380 

Moncnilieau,  07 

Monistrol,  190 

MontJiner,  02 

Slontargis,  234 

tlontataire,  314 

Montauban,  65 

Montliard,  167 

M.mtlK-liard,  160 

Mont  Ueuvray,  169 

Slont  Ilhine,  86 

Montlirison,  204,  205 

Montcoau-Itv-Minue,  169,  170 

Mont  f  "en-in,  398 

SIontchanin-lrH-Mincs,  170 

Mont  Dauphin,  139 

Mont-de-Manvin,  68 

Montdidier,  332 


Mont  Dore.  197 

Moiiteaux,  i:<8 

Moiiteliiiiar,  142 

Monti'nuu  fault- YouDC,  208 

Monte  Kosa,  398 

Mont**  \'i»o,  78 

Moiitferraud,  195 

Mont  fort,  266 

Montif^iac,  199 

iloutivilliim,  320 

Mont  I.ouiii,  54 

Moutlu^on,  201 

tloiitiiiedy,  350 

Moiitmelian,  145 

Klontminiil,  294 

Montniori'ncy,  310 

Montiiiorillon,  219 

Montoin*,  335 

Montjiellier,  119 

Mont  IVrdii,  32 

Slontpont,  199 

Montreal,  05 

Moutreuil,  307,  334 

Montrichard,  2.'i5 

Montrond,  205 

Moral,  458 

Morbihan,  248 

Morbihan  Dejuirtmcnt,  266,  388 

Morez,  158,  169 

Slorfpirten,  470 

Morlaas,  02 

Morlaix,  201,  262 

Mortaf^c,  276 

Mortain,  275 

Slort.au,  159 

Mortenitsch,  407 

Slorvan,  280 

Sloulins,  '..02 

Moutiers,  145 

Movennioulier,  353 

Murat,  194 

Jfur.  t,  58 

Murten,  458 

Mussidan,  199 

Nancy,  354 

Nantes,  242 

Nantua,  152,  157 

NapoUkin- Vendue,  221 

Narbonne,  116 

Navarreux,  63 

Nay,  62 

Nemours,  298 

Ncrac,  67 

Neris,  201 

Neste,  59,  60 

Nethou,  32 

Neuchatol,  321,  459 

Neueliatel,  Lake  of,  426 

Neufehateaii,  353 

Neuilly,  3U7 

Neuville,  171 

Neuvy  St.  iSiSpulcre,  233 

Nevers,  231 

Nice,  133,  134 

Nieascn,  401 

Ni6\Te  Department,  230,  387 

Ninics,  121 

Niort,  219 

Nivonne,  157 

Nogent-Ie-lfoi,  292 

Nogent-le-Kotrou,  236 

Nogent-sur-Manie,  30/ 

Nogentsur-Seinc,  291 

Noirmoutier,  209,  221 

Nolay.  167 

Nonlron,  199 


502 


INDEX. 


Nontroimais,  198 

Noi-d  DepMtment,  337,  389 

Xormandy,  Lo"svt2r,  270 

Normans.  IS 

Nouzon,  351 

Noyou,  314 

Nuits,  167 

Nyous,  lil 

Oberl.and,  399,  460 

Ois."ms,  SO 

Oi^e,  2S5 

Oise  Department,  314,  389 

Oleron,  217 

Oloron,  63 

Olten,  465 

Orange,  138 

Orb,  106 

Orbe,  412 

Orohies,  339 

Orgelet,  159 

Onians,  162 

Orne  Depaitment,  275,  3S8 

Orleans,  234 

Ornolac,  31 

Orthez,  62 

Oss;iu,  62 

Ossun,  61,  62 

Ostenniindingen,  463 

Ouessant,  251 

Oullins,  172 

Oze,  167 

Pagny,  354 

Paimboeuf,  229,  244 

Paimbol,  262 

Paladru,  Lake  of,  94 

Palais,  Le,  258 

Palisse,  La,  204 

Pamiers,  55  • 

Panissieres,  205 

Pantin,  307 

Parav-le-Honiel,  170 

P;u-is.  299 

Paris  Basin,  283 

Parthenar,  220 

Pas-de-Calais,  334,  390 

Patavas,  119 

Pau,  62 

Paiiillac,  73 

Pelvous,  Mont,  80 

Penne,  67 

Perche,  Col  de  la,  27 

Perigueux,  199 

Pemes,  138 

Pcronne,  332 
Peronne-sur-Somme,  331 
Perpignan,  54 
Perte  du  Rhone,  89 
Pertuis,  9S,  139 
Pertus,  25 
Petit-Qnevilly,  318 
Peypin,  127 
Pe\Tehorade,  68 
Pezenas,"118 
Pfaffers,  472 
Pfaffikon,  443 
Pierre  a  Xiton,  415 
Pierrefort.  194 
Pierre-Pertuis,  4 1 1 
Pilatus,  403 
Pile  dwellings,  445 
Pithiviers,  234 
Ploermel,  257 
Plombieres,  354 
Poissv,  309 
Poitiers,  219 


Poitou,  211 

PoUgnac,  190 

Poliynv,  159 

Pons,  214 

Pont-a-Mousson,  354 

Pontarlior,  159 

Pont  d'Audemer.  316 

Pont-de-Noblat,  200 

Pont-de-Roide,  160 

Pont-de-Vaux,  157 

Pontgibaud,  197 

Pontivv,  2oS 

Pont-l'Abbe,  260 

Pont-I'Eveque,  279 

Pontoise,  310 

Pont  St.  Esprit,  121 

Ponts,  412 

Ponts-de-Ce,  Les,  239 

Pon-entruv,  466,  467 

Portel,  Lc,  335 

Port-Louis,  2-58 

Port-Miou,  108 

l^rt  8te.  Marie,  67 

Port-Vendies,  53,  54 

Pougues,  231 

PouUlou,  68 

Pouilly-sur-Loire,  231 

Ponrrieres,  77,  132 

Prades,  54 

Pnits-de-Mollo,  53 

Proste,  53 

Privas,  123 

Provence,  75 

Provins,  298 

Pruntrut,  467 

Puteaux.  307 

Puy  de  Dome,  184 

Puy-de-D6me  Department,  195,  386 

Puy  de  Sancy,  1S3 

Puv-en-VeLais,  189 

Puy,  Le,  ISO 

Puy-l'Eveque.  194 

Puymaurens,  28,  29 

P\Tenees,  23 

Pwnees-Orientales,  53,  384 

QuejTas,  79 
Quiberon,  249 
Quitn-y,  338 
Quilliiin,  115 
Quimper,  259 
Quimperle,  259 

Rabastens,  193 

Ragatz,  472 

Ranibervillers,  353 

RambouiUet,  309 

Raon-l'Etape,  353 

Re,  209,  217 

Redon,  265 

Reims,  294,  296 

Remiremont,  353 

Remoulins,  121 

Rennes,  265 

Rennes-les-Bains,  115 

Rethel,  352 

Reuss,  429 

Revel,  59 

Rlia?tians,  446 

Rhine,  431 

Rhone.  12 

Rhone  Delta,  101 

Rhone  Dei)artment,  171 

Rhone  Glacier,  422 

Rhone,  River,  74,  89,  396 

Ria,  54 

Rib^rac,  199  I 


Ricamarie,  204 
Richelitu,  238 
Riez,  141 
Rigi,  403 
RiSls,  117 
Riom,  196 
Ri\e-de-Gier,  204 
Rives,  143 
Rivesaltos,  55 
Riviere,  50 
Roanne,  205 
Robi.ic,  120 
Rocamadour,  193 
Rocheohouart,  200 
Eochofort,  215 
Rochefoucauld,  214 
Rochello,  216,  217 
Roche-sur-Yon,  221 
Rocrov,  352 
Rodez'.  i90 
Rohan,  258 
Roland's  Breach,  S3 
Romanche,  94 
Romans,  142 
Romans  in  France,  18 
Romanshom,  473 
Roniilly,  291 
Romorautin,  235 
Roncevaux  Pass,  63 
Ronch;imps,  163 
Roquebruno,  134 
Roquefort,  175,  190 
Roquevaire,  127 
Rorschach,  473 
Rosieres,  332 
Ro&sberg,  404 
Roubaix,  340,  341 
Rouen.  316,  317 
Roussillon,  55 
Rovan,  216 
Rove,  332 
Rueil.  309 
Rumilly,  U6 
Rui    IS,"  178 

Sable,  241 

Sables-d'OIonne,  220,  221 

St.  AfFrique,  190 

St.  Aign.an,  235 

St.  Alban,  189 

St.  Amand,  231 

St.  Amand-les-Eaux,  339 

St.  Am.and-lTont-Rond,  232 

t^t.  Amans-Soult,  193 

St.  Ambroix,  120 

St.  Amour,  159 

St.  Antonin,  66 

St.  Aubin-du- Cormier,  265 

St.  Benoit,  234 

St.  Bernard,  Little,  85,  87 

St.  Bonnet-le-Chateau,  204 

St.  Irieuc,  262 

St.  Calais,  242 

St.  Chamond,  204 

St.  Chinian,  117 

St.  Claude,  158 

St.  Qoud,  308 

St.  CvT,  308 

St.  Denis,  307 

St.  Didier,  190 

St.  Die,  353 

St.  Dizier,  292 

St.  Eloy,  197 

St.  Etienne,  203,  204 

St.  Etienne-de-Rouviav,  317 

•St.  Eutrope,  214 


INDEX. 


5U3 


St.  Florentin.  291 

St.  Klonnt-lc-Vieil,  239 

St.  Flour,  I'.M 

St.  (iiilkn,  4TJ 

St.  liulniiiT,  20a 

St.  (iuudons,  68 

St.  IJinicz,  191 

St.  licuis,  172 

St.  lii-urjti's  d'Orqucs,  119 

St.  CJt'rmain-on-Liaye,  308 

St.  tierviiis,  14" 

St.  CiiUes,  1U3,  121 

St.  Cliroiis,  56 

St.  GoUiin,  312 

St.  GotthaiJ,  392 

St.  GottharJ  I'liss,  4S4 

St.  Gotthiini  Tunnel,  •185 

St.  Ui-Uer,  268 

St.  Hilairo-du-Harcouit,  275 

St.  Hippolyte-lo-Fort,  120 

St.  Joan-d'Angely,  21!> 

St.  Jcan-di-Losnc,  105 

St.  Jtan-de-Luz,  04 

St.  Jean  tlauricnne,  145 

St.  Jo!in-rii-d-do-Port,  03 

St  JuUen,  U7 

St.  JuIiin-on-Jarrct,  204 

St.  Juniin,  200 

St.  I^un-nt  do  la  Salanque,  55 

St.  U-onarJ,  200 

St.  Liintr,  57 

St.  I/i,  274 

St.  Louis,  28,  103 

St.  Lu^vn,  220 

St.  Maixont,  219 

St.  Malo,  26 «,  264 

St.  SlarcelUn,  143 

St.  Miirtin-Lantosque,  136 

St.  Maurice,  454 

St.  Sliiximin,  132 

St.  Michel,  Mont,  252 

St.  Michil-Rochefort,  312 

St.  Slihiol,  350 

St.  MoritA  472 

St.  Nazaire,  131,  244 

St.  Kicolas-du-Port,  354 

St  Oraer,  337 

St.  Ouen.  307 

St.  Ouen-l'Aumonc,  310 

St.  Paul-cn.Jarret,  204 

St.  Paulicn,  190 

St.  Perav,  124 

St.  PeUr's  Port,  269 

St  Point,  151 

St.  I'ol,  261,  334 

St.  Pons,  117 

St  Pounjain,  202 

St  Priest,  124 

St.  Quintin,  311,  313 

St.  liuintin,  202 

St.  Rambert,  204 

St.  Rambert-dc-Joux,  157 

St  Remy,  128 

St.  Sauveur,  62 

St.  Ravinjen,  215 

St  S.^nan,  263 

St.  S.>ver,  08 

St  Trfijx-z,  132 

St  Ursanne,  151 

St.  Vaa«t,  274 

St.  Valery-cn-Caux,  320 

St  Valen-Bur-Somme,  334 

St.  ValliJr,  142 

St  Vcran,  80 

St.  Yrieix,  199 

Ste.  Colombo,  116 

St«.  Foy,  172 


8««.  Fov-la-OroDdr,  73 

Sto.  Miiurv.,  239 

Sto.  Menehould,  297 

Saintetf,  215 

Saintes-Mnrio*,  129 

Sjilanque,  66 

Salat,  68 

Salen,  194 

Salie«,63 

Salin»,  150 

Sallancbos,  147 

Salobrvs,  65 

Salon,  128 

Sal«>8,  110 

Sancerro,  232 

Sancuin8,  232 

Sans^in,  05 

Saiine,  153 

Saonc-et-Loire,  167,  386 

Saou,  Forest  of,  83,  84 

Sarlat,  199 

Samen,  470 

Sarracolin,  60 

Sarthe  Depiulment,  239,  387 

Sarzeau,  258 

Sathonay,  167 

Saumur,  238 

Sauvo,  120 

Sauveterre,  63 

Saverdun,  55 

Savov,  84,  144,  385 

Sceaux,  307 

Schaffhausen,  473,  474 

Schaff bauson.  Falls  of,  432 

Rchinznach,  4C8 

Scblucht.  :i40 

Schwyz,  409,  470 

Sedan, 351 

Sees,  276 

Seiches,  423 

Seine,  12,  280 

Seine-et-Mamo    Department,   297, 

389 
Seine-et-Oiso  Department,  307,  389 
Seine-lnfirieure,  316,  389 
SeUes,  235 
Selvretta,  408 
Semnoz,  92 
Sempach,  469 
Semur,  167 
Scnlis,  314 
Scnones,  353 
Sens,  291 
Sentis,  405 
Serk,  268 
Settons,  281 
Seurre,  165 
Sevres,  308 

Sevres,  Deux,  219,  387 
Seyssel,  91,  167 
Suzanne,  294 
Sigean,  116 
Sillc-le-Guillaumc,  241 
Sillen-,  294 
Simmenthal,  476 
Sion,  454 
Sistcron,  140 
Sittcn,  454 
Soissons,  311 
Solcsmes,  338 
Soleurc,  464 
Sollies- Pont,  132 
Solopne,  225,  227 
Solothum,  464 
Somme,  322,  331 
Sommc  Department,  331,  389 
Sonuniiires,  120 


Bor^»•,  193 

Sort,^!!'*  of  VaucluM',  96 
S.itt.  villi-,  317 
S«lto-fi  Hire.  395,  453 
Soulac,  73 
Soutirniine,  201 
Souvig^nv,  208 
SUnz,  469 
Staubbach,  404 
Stoenwtrk,  342 
St<  iiav,  3.)0 
Sully,'  234 
Suinino,  1 1 9 
Suniiswald,  463 
Sn-itzerland,  391 

Taillebourg,  218 

Tain,  142 

Tarare,  173 

Tar.i.scon,  65,  129 

Tanisp,  408,  472 

Tarbes,  61 

Tarontaise,  145 

'I'arn  I)o])artnicnt,  191,  386 

'I'arn-ot-tiaroune,  65,  384 

Tavac,  198 

Tech,  63 

Terrasson,  199 

Tcrrenoire,  204 

Tertry,  332 

Tessin,  453 

Teste  de  Buch,  73 

Tet,  64 

Thau,  110 

TluTouanne,  337 

Thiers,  196 

Tliiriers,  199 

Thizv,  173 

Tlir.nes.  146 

Thor,  138 

ITiorins,  169 

Thoron,  146,  147 

Thouars,  220 

ITiun,  403 

Thun,  Luke  of,  427 

Thurgau,  473 

Ticino,  39f,  453 

Ticino,  Alps  of,  394 

Ticino,  River,  419 

Tinchebrai,  276 

Titlis,  402,  403 

Toce  Vallev,  395 

Todi,  404 

Toggenburg,  473 

Tonnaj'-Charente,  215 

Tonneins,  67 

Tonnerro,  291 

Toul,  354 

Toulon,  130 

Toulouse,  5S,  59 

Toulx  St.  Croix,  201 

Touques,  279 

Touraine,  222 

Tourcoing,  340,  342 

Tour-du-Pin,  144 

Toumon,  124 

Toumus,  168 

Tours,  236,  237 

TomTe,  207 

Tru  vera,  410 

Treguier,  201 

Treignae,  198 

Tnniblade,  L;i,  216 

Trt'port,  321 

Trelz,  127 

Tr6voux,  157 

Trouville,  279 


504 


INDEX. 


Troyee,  291 

Truffles  of  Perigord,  84 
Tschierva  Glacier,  407 
Tulle,  197 
TuUins,  143 
Turenne,  198 

Uchtland,  4.58 
Uetliberg,  471 
Undervelier,  411 
Untcrwalden,  469 
Uri,  469 
XJssel,  197 
Ijater,  471 
Uzerche,  198 
Uzes,  121 

Vaccarbs,  102 

Vaison,  138 

Valais,  454 

Valen(,'ay,  233 

Valence,  142,  143 

Valence  d'Agen,  66 

Valenciennes,  338,  339 

Valensoles,  HI 

Vallauris,  135 

Vallespir,  53 

Valloire,  94 

Valmy,  297 

Valognes,  274 

Val  Piora,  393,  394 

Valreas,  139 

Valserine,  91 

Vanves,  258,  807 

Var,  108 

Var  Department,  130,  385 

Varenne8,  350 

Vassy,  292 

Vatan,  233 

Vaucluse,  95, 136,  385 

Vaucouleurs,  350 

Vaud,  454 

Vauvert,  121 


Velay,  179 

Vendee,  206,  220,  387 

Vendume,  235 

Venissieux,  172 

Vcntoux,  83 

Vercors,  83 

Verdon,  78,  99,  100 

Verdon,  Le,  73 

Verdun,  3  0 

Vernet,  54 

Verneuil,  316 

Vernon,  315 

VersaiUes,  307 

Vervins,  312 

Verzasca,  419 

Vesoul,  164,  165 

Vevey,  454 

Vexin,  288 

Vezfere,  198 

Via  Mala,  431 

Vic  de  Sos,  55 

Vic-Fezensac,  65 

Vichy,  202 

Vic-sur-Cere,  194 

Vidaubon, 133 

Vidourle,  107 

Viege,  454 

Vienne,  144 

Vienne  Department,  218,  387 

Vienne,  Haute,  199,  380 

Vierwaldstatter  See,  429,  468 

Vicrzon,  232 

Villedieu-les-Poeles,  274 

Villefranche,  58,  134,  173,  191 

Villemur,  59 

Villeneuvo,  68 

Villencuve-sur-Lot,  67 

Villeneuve-sur-Yonnc,  291 

Villers-Brctonneux,  332 

Villers-Cotterets,  311 

Villeurbanne,  172 

Vimouticrs,  276 

Vinay,  143 


Vin(;a,  54 
Vincennes,  307 

Vindonissa,  468 

Vire,  276 

Visp,  399,  454 

Vitre,  265 

Vitry,  307 

Vitry-le-Francjois,  293 

Vivarais,  122,  177 

Viviers,  123 

Vizille,  142 

Voiron,  143 

Voh-ic,  185,  196 

Vosges,  345 

Vosges  Department,  352,  390 

Vouvray,  237 

Vouziers,  362 

Waat,  454 
Wiiggis,  469 
Wald,  471 
Waldcnses,  80,  81 
WaUen,  Lake,  429 
Wallis,  454 
Wattignies,  338 
Wattrelos,  312 
Wattwyl,  473 
Windg.dle,  404 
Winterthur,  ill 

Xertigny,  354 

Yonne,  281 

Yonne  Department,  290,  383 

Y'ssingeaux,  190 

Y'verdnn,  459 

Y'vetot,  318 

Zermatt,  399 
Zofingcr,  467 
Zug,  470 

Zug,  Lake  of,  429 
Ziirich,  470 


END   OF    VOL.    n. 


PRINIBU   nv  J.  6.    VIRTUE   AND   CO.,   LIMITED,  CITY   ROAD,    LO.NUON. 


LIFE    OF 

HER     MOST     GRACIOUS     MAJESTY 

THE    OUEEN. 

Bv    SARAH    TYTLliR. 

EDITED.    triTII  AX  IXTRODUCTJO.V.    BY 

LORD    RONALD    GOWER.    F.S.A., 

Al-TMOR  or   "  KBUINISt'RSCBS." 


npiIE  Publishers  have  in  preparation  an  illustrated  "  Life  of  Her.Most  Gracious  Majesty 
-^  the  Queen."  No  attempt  has  been  previously  made  to  write  such  a  biography  of  her 
Majesty.  It  is  true  that  the  reign  is  not  ended,  and  long  may  it  be  before  the  nation  has 
reason  to  mourn  its  close.  But  it  is  also  true  that  a  biography  written  in  the  lifetime  of  its 
object  has  certain  advantages  of  familiarity  with  the  sayings  and  doings  of  the  generation — 
with  the  verj'  atmosphere  around.  Hven  the  little  lifelike  anecdotes,  to  which  there  is  for 
the  most  part  a  foundation  of  truth,  belong  to  the  day.  It  is  more  than  sixty  years  since  the 
Queen  was  bom — an  older  generation  has  passed  away ;  the  men  and  women  who  started 
with  her  M.ijesty  on  the  journey  of  life  are  growing  old,  while  with  them  will  perish  much  of 
the  information  and  many  of  the  associations  that  link  the  past  with  the  present. 

The  design  has  been  kept  steadily  in  view,  in  writing  the  Queen's  life,  of  offering  a 
picture  of  the  Court  and  the  reign,  with  its  leading  features,  historical  and  social,  artistic 
and  literary. 

The  author  has  sought  to  give  the  reader  as  vivid  an  idea  as  possible — not  merely  of  the 
incidents  in  her  Majesty's  history  and  of  the  people  with  whom  she  has  been  associated,  but 
also  of  the  scenes  in  which  she  has  moved,  and  the  different  palace  homes  with  which  her 
life  will  always  be  connected. 

In  some  respects,  few  sovereigns  have  provided  such  valuable  and  trustworthy  materials 
for  a  biography.  Her  Majesty,  in  her  generous  confidence  in  all  that  is  worthiest  in  her 
people,  has  granted  to  them  a  gracious  boon  by  lifting,  so  far,  the  veil  that  hid  the  private 
life  of  a  great  Queen.  She  has  revealed — as  only  she  could  reveal — to  her  people  what  it 
was  good  for  them  and  the  world  to  learn  of  the  high  ends  to  which  that  life  has  been 
shaped,  though  in  the  revelation  a  single-hearted  purpose  was  fulfilled  of  paying  honour  to 
another  who  well  desersed  honour. 

In  the  Life  of  Queen  Victoria  the  intention  has  been  followed  out  of  showing,  in  a 
harmonious  whole,  her  childhood,  youth,  maidenhood,  and  prime,  and  of  so  using  the 
fragments  of  autobiography  in  the  portions  of  her  Majesty's  diary  which  occur  in  the  "  Life 
of  the  Prince  Consort,"  and  in  the  journals  of  her  life  in  the  Highlands,  and  her  yachting 
excursions,  as  to  present  a  continuous  narrative. 

In  addition,  there  are  many  side-lights  cast  on  the  Queen's  life  to  be  found  in  memoirs 
— whether  of  statesman,  bishop,  wife  of  diplomatist,  or  former  maid  of  honour— which  have 
appeared  lately,  and  the  author  has  freely  drawn  from  those  minor  sources  of  information. 

The  reign  of  Queen  Victoria  must  be  regarded  with  loyal  pride  and  satisfaction  while 
the  English  nation  lasts,  and  its  central  figure,  that  of  a  noble  and  gentle  lady— a  true 
queen,  and  a  true  woman,  in  her  joys  and  sorrows — will  never  cease  to  thrill  witli  admiration 
and  sympathy  ever)-  noble  and  gentle  heart. 


COXniTlOXS    OF    PUBLICATION. 
The  Work  will  be  published  in  Two  Volumes,  at  21s.  each.     Each  Volume  will  contain  Two 
hundred   and  Forty  pages  of  Letterpress  and   I-'ificcii  -Slcel  Ent;iavinyb.     It  will  be  printed  ou  Royal 
yuaito,  and  SOLD    TO     SUBSCRIBERS     ONLY. 


LONDON:    J.    S.    VIRTUE  &  CO.,   LlMiiEn,   294.   CUV    KO.M). 
16 


In  Six  Divisions,  cloth  gilt,  gilt  edges,  £i  -js.  dd.  each  ;  or  in  Three  handsome  Volume's, 

at £2  izs.  (jd.  each. 

THE   TURNER   GALLERY 

A   SERIES   OF 

ONE  HUNDRED  AND  TWENTY  ENGRAVINGS 

FROM  THE  -WORKS  OF  THE  LATE 

J.    M.   W.   TURNER,    R.A. 


THE   DESCRIPTIVE  TEXT   BY  W.    COSMO   MONKHOUSE. 


A  FTER  many  years  of  active  preparation,  this  important  work  is  now  completed,  and  fitly 
■'■  *■  perpetuates  the  menior}'  of  the  master  and  celebrates  his  fame.  If  it  be  true  that  few 
men  have  left  behind  them  so  many  works  that  bear  the  stamp  of  genius,  it  is  also  true  that 
few,  perhaps,  have  had  their  Art  so  superbly  issued  in  a  collective  form,  and  brought  within 
the  reach  of  the  general  public.  It  is  difficult  to  consider  the  labour  lavished  on  a  work  of 
this  kind ;  few  are  aware  of  the  time,  and,  consequently,  the  expense,  entailed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  one  steel  plate ;  and  when,  as  in  the  present  case,  the  plates  number  one  hundred 
and  twenty,  the  Publishers  feel  they  need  not  point  out  to  the  patrons  of  Art  the  value  of  a 
work  of  this  magnitude. 

The  one  hundred  and  twenty  steel  engravings  from  the  works  of  J.  M.  W.  Turner — not 
selected  haphazard,  but  arranged  so  as  to  afford  to  the  possessor  of  the  work  abundant 
means  of  observing  the  gradual  development  of  the  painter's  genius — -give  examples  of  his 
early,  middle,  and  final  styles. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  value  of  Turner's  pictures,  they  would  be  useless  as  teachers 
of  Art  were  it  not  that  the  aid  of  the  engraver  can  be  called  in  to  popularise  the  efforts  of 
the  painter.  The  Publishers  have  been  fortunate  in  securing  the  assistance  of  the  most 
celebrated  and  accomplished  engravers  of  Great  Britain,  some  of  whose  names  are  given  in 
the  following  list : — 


J.  B.  ALLEN. 
J.  C.  ARMYTAGE. 
E.  BRANDARD. 
S.  BRADSHAW. 
W.  CHAPMAN. 
J.  COUSEN. 


C.  COUSEN. 
E.  CHALLIS. 
W.  B.  COOKE. 
E.  GOODALL. 
C.  H.JEENS. 
W.  MILLER. 


R.  BRANDARD. 
W.   RICHARDSON. 
L.  STOCKS,  R.A. 
C.  W.  SHARPE. 
A.  WILLMORE. 
R.  WALLIS. 


ETC.    ETC. 

The  work  includes  historical  and  critical  remarks  on  each  picture,  compiled  from  the 
most  authentic  sources,  and  forms  a  most  instructive  guide  to  the  study  of  Turner's  unrivalled 
pictures. 

To  make  the  work  as  interesting  as  possible  the  Publishers  give  in  an  early  Division  a 
Portrait  of  Turner  from  a  picture  painted  by  himself. 


CONDITIONS     OF     PUBLICATION. 

:ilt, 


The  AVoik  15  printed  on  fine  Imperial  Quarto  paper,  and  is  complete  in  Six  Divisions,  clotl 
gilt  edges,  at  ^i  "s.  6d.  each  ;  or  in  Three  handsome  Volumes,  at  ;f  2  I2«;.  6d.  each. 

Each  Division  contains  Twenty  Steel  Engravings,  with  accompanying  letterpress  descriptive  of  each 
picture  ;  and  each  Volume  contains  Forty  Steel  Engravings,  and  accompanying  letterpress. 

LONDON:    J.    S.   VIRTUE   &   CO.,   Limited,   294,    CITY   ROAD. 


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